available by ,cornell ,university       
,digital ,collections7        ,,the     
,,continental ,,monthly3  ,,devoted ,,to
  ,,literature ,,and ,,national         
,,policy3  ,,vol4 ,,vi4--,,august1      
#ahfd4--,no4 ,,ii4                      
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----------------------------            
,transcriber's note3 ,obvious printer   
errors have been corrected4 ,all  other 
inconsistencies are as in the original4 
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,,american ,,civilization4  ,,second    
,,paper4   ,as a nation we are fast     
losing that reverence for the powers    
that be which is enjoined by ,holy      
,writ1 and without which no form of     
government can be lasting1 no political 
system can take a firm hold upon the    
affections of the people4 ,the          
opposition press teems with vituperation
 and personal abuse of those whom the   
people themselves have chosen to control
 the public policy and administer the   

public affairs4 ,the incumbent of the   
,presidential chair1 so far from        
receiving that respect and deference to 
which his position entitles him1 becomes
 the victim of slander and vilification1
 from one portion of the country to     
another1 on the part of those who chance
 to differ with him in political        
sentiments4 ,even beardless boys1 taking
 their cue from those who1 being older1 
should know better1 are unsparing in the
 use of such terms as 'scoundrel1'      
'fool1' 'tyrant1' as applied to those   
whom the people have delighted to honor1
 either unconscious or utterly heedless 
of the disgust with which their language
 inspires the older and more thoughtful4
 ,and thus it has become a recognized   
fact that no man's reputation can       
withstand the trial of a four years'    
term of service in the ,presidential    
office4 ,while this is in a great       
measure the reaction from the king      
worship of the ,old ,world1 it is       
nevertheless a blot upon our            

civilization1 a departure from those    
lofty and noble sentiments which        
characterize every advanced stage of    
human intellect1 in which the supremacy 
and inviolability of the law is         
acknowledged1 and in which the ruler is 
reverenced as the representative and    
impersonation of the law4 ,and as1 in   
such a stage1 respect for the magistrate
 and the law mutually react upon each   
other1 so in the present state of       
affairs the tendency is1 in the course  
of time1 to reach from the ruler to the 
edict which he administers1 and thus to 
beget a disrespect and disregard of law 
itself1 paving the way to that violence 
and mob rule which1 in the present state
 of humanity1 must inevitably attend the
 establishment of the democratic        
principle4  ,the remedy is to be found  
in reform in the education of our youth1
 whereby the utmost respect for the law 
and for those by whom it is administered
 shall be inculcated as the groundwork  
of all patriotism and national progress1

 while at the same time cultivating a   
loftier appreciation of the blessings of
 social order and harmony1 and of       
well-regulated liberty of thought1      
speech1 and action1 and a purer standard
 of right4 ,yet even this will be of    
little avail except in connection with  
the abatement1 through the strong good  
sense of a thinking and upright people1 
of that national nuisance of bitter and 
unmerciful political partisanship of    
which we have spoken1 all of whose      
tendencies are to evil1 and so removing 
from the eyes of our youth a low1       
unworthy1 and degrading example1 which  
they are too prone to follow4 ,the child
 will tread1 to a great degree1 in the  
steps of the father1 and the whole      
course of his intellectual life be      
governed1 more or less1 by the          
principles and prejudices which he is   
accustomed every day to hear from the   
lips of a parent1 who is necessarily the
 teacher and1 in a great measure1 the   
moulder of his infant mind4 ,how        

careful1 then1 ought every parent to be 
of the principles which he inculcates   
and the examples which he sets in his   
conversation1 especially when that      
conversation is directed to a           
condemnation of the motives or the acts 
of the ruling powers6--lest the child be
 some time inclined to enlarge upon his 
views1 and carry his deductions farther 
than he himself ever dreamed1 till he   
shall finally be led into a contempt of 
the institutions as well as of the      
rulers of his native land1 through a    
father's teaching1 and so grow up an    
embryo traitor1 ready at the first      
signal to embark in any revolutionary   
scheme or wild enterprise of visionary  
reform1 such as have been and are still 
the disturbers of our national          
prosperity4 ,for an example of such a   
result in our day we have but to look at
 the youth of the ,southern ,states1    
whose fiery treason1 far exceeding that 
of their elders1 is nothing more than   
the outgrowth1 the legitimate extension 

and development of that bitter          
denunciation of rulers who chanced to be
 unpopular with their fathers1 of that  
unrestrained license of speech which    
left nothing untouched1 however sacred1 
however holy it might be1 which chanced 
to stand in the way of gross and sordid 
interest4 ,the ideas of the hot-blooded1
 fire-eating ,southern youth of to-day1 
the recklessness and the treason1 the   
denationalizing spirit of revolution and
 blood which so readily manifests itself
 in contempt of the old flag1 and the   
direst hatred of all that their fathers 
held sacred and laid down their lives to
 sustain--all this is but the idea1     
intensified and developed1 of the       
,southerner of a bygone generation2 it  
is but the natural deduction from his   
conversation and life1 pondered over by 
the child1 fixed deeply in his heart as 
the teaching of a revered tutor1 and    
carried out1 by a natural course of     
reasoning1 to its extreme in the        
parricidal rebellion of to-day4 ,and yet

 that idea was1 in its inception1       
apparently harmless enough1 being       
nothing more than that denunciation and 
vituperation of the political leaders   
and the ruling powers which chanced to  
be in the opposition1 whereby the child 
was in due course of time weaned from   
his country1 and taught to look lightly 
upon and speak lightly of that which of 
old time was only mentioned with love   
and reverent awe4  ,nor is this the only
 reform which is needed in the education
 of our youth4 ,the phrase 'completing  
one's education' is used to-day with    
utter looseness1 and applied to that    
period when the youth leaves the school 
or college for the busy walks of life4  
,how much of error is contained in such 
an application of the term he well knows
 who1 after some years of world life1   
can look back upon his college days and 
see what a mere smattering of knowledge 
he gained within the 'classic shades1'  
and how poorly educated he was1 in any  
and every sense of the word1 how ill    

fitted for the realities of work-day    
life1 when first he emerged in          
self-sufficient pride from the sacred   
walls1 and launched boldly out upon the 
world4 ,at the time when1 according to  
the popular acceptation of the term1 the
 education is completed1 it is in truth 
but just begun2 and he who1 upon the    
slender capital of college lore1 should 
set himself up for a finished man1 one  
competent to take upon himself the      
duties1 responsibilities1 and labors of 
active life1 would soon find to his     
sorrow that he was yet but a babe in    
wisdom1 and yet needed a long and severe
 discipline ere he could be considered  
one of the world's workers4 ,in the few 
years devoted1 in our country1 to the   
education of youth1 little more can be  
done than to teach them the value of    
knowledge and the proper method and     
system of its acquisition1 leaving to   
the exertions of the after years that   
education of the mind and development of
 the intellectual powers which          

constitute the finished man4 ,and this  
should be the object of all our schools1
 for females as well as for males1 to   
inculcate the truth that the true       
education begins where the schools leave
 off1 and depends entirely upon the     
scholar himself1 aided only by that     
groundwork of preparation1 that         
systematizing of effort1 imparted by the
 tutor in the tender years4 ,this end   
should be ever before the teacher's     
eyes1 and the whole course of study     
adjusted with a view thereto4 ,and the  
instruction imparted should be of such a
 character as most thoroughly to fit the
 student for future study1 giving him a 
firm foothold upon the most essential   
branches of knowledge1 from which he may
 advance steadily and securely when left
 to himself2 frequently warning him that
 this is but the beginning of great     
things1 and that the abstrusities of    
wisdom1 wherein is all its sthetic      
beauty and its holiness--all its moral  
good--lies far beyond1 where it can only

 be reached by the most patient1        
persevering1 and unremitting toil2 not  
forgetting1 at the same time1 to point  
out the glorious reward which awaits the
 seeker of truth4 ,the effect of such a 
system would soon be felt1 not only in  
our national life1 but in our very      
civilization4 ,for thus would be thrown 
out upon our society1 year after year1 a
 class of thinkers1 of earnest1 working1
 strong-minded men and women1 searchers 
after truth and disciples of the highest
 good1 instead of the crowd of          
half-fledged intellectual idlers who    
yearly emerge from our schools with the 
conceited idea that the course of study 
is finished1 the paths of investigation 
fully explored1 and that life is        
henceforth a holiday from study4 ,under 
such a giant impulse our society could  
not but advance with enormous strides in
 all that pertains to true civilization1
 since thinkers would then be the rule  
instead of the exception1 and talent    
almost universal1 which is now1 like    

angels' visits1 comparatively 'few and  
far between4' ,this is no ,utopian      
vision3 it is a reality within the scope
 of human exertion and the capacity of  
our people of to-day1 if men would but  
exert themselves to such an end1 and    
properly apply the energy and labor     
which is now too often excited upon     
unworthy and trifling objects4 ,the     
realm of knowledge is so boundless that 
a lifetime is little enough and short   
enough to give to mortals even a        
smattering of that sea of wisdom which  
swells around the universe1 and he alone
 can claim to be a seer who devotes the 
whole of a long existence to the        
investigation of truth2 and only when   
this fact is impressed upon the minds of
 youth can they be made to appreciate   
their true position in existence1 and   
made efficient workers in the great     
cause of humanity4  ,yet all education  
is vain1 all intellectual development is
 of little benefit1 all civilization    
hollow in its nature and ephemeral in   

its duration which lacks the moral      
element4 ,and by the word moral in this 
connection is intended to be understood 
not only what is usually conveyed in the
 term morality1 but also all religion4  
,it is a well-established fact1 more    
particularly exemplified in our own     
history1 that all political parties     
founded upon an ephemeral issue1        
inevitably disappear with the final     
adjustment of the questions upon which  
they are based1 having nothing left to  
rest upon1 so it is in the affairs of   
nations4 ,in the weakness of human      
nature and the fallibility of all human 
prescience1 no system or theory can be  
devised which shall endure through all  
time1 which shall not become effete1    
useless1 and even erroneous in the      
progress of human development1 and in   
the ever-shifting condition of human    
society4 ,hence any government and      
society founded upon a system of merely 
human devising1 must1 in the progress of
 events1 fall to pieces1 and give place 

to the results of a new and younger     
development4 ,the law of ,god1 as       
contained in ,divine revelation1 is     
alone unchangeable1 unmodifiable4 ,it is
 adapted to meet the requirements of all
 lands and all ages1 to answer all the  
necessities of which human nature is    
capable1 even to its extremest verge of 
development4 ,hence all political       
systems are durable only in proportion  
as they1 in their organization1 conform 
to the precepts of ,divine law4  ,we    
have used the term 'moral element' as   
necessarily comprehending all religion1 
for the reason that upon religion is    
necessarily based all true morality4    
,there is nothing in the physical1 and  
more especially in the intellectual     
world1 without a final cause2 and that  
so-called morality which exists entirely
 separate and distinct from religion1   
can be based upon nothing other than    
self-interest1 which1 under different   
conditions and circumstances1 would as  
unhesitatingly lead to evil4 ,the 'moral

 man' without religion could as easily  
be evil minded and dissolute in a       
community purely evil as he is upright  
and honorable in a civilized and        
enlightened community of to-day1 for the
 reason that his morality is nothing    
more than deference to a certain        
standard of honor--in other words1 to   
the tone of the society by which he is  
surrounded1 bringing with it all the    
benefits of high public estimation and a
 lofty position in society1 which tone  
it must follow1 be it good or bad3 it is
 founded and built up in self-interest4 
,yet this very tone of society1 and all 
these standards of honor and            
uprightness1 when traced to their       
origin1 are found to arise from the     
precepts of revelation4 ,we are all1    
physically and intellectually1 the      
creatures of circumstance4 ,experience  
moulds and develops the intellect4 ,our 
moral natures are not innate1 but solely
 and entirely the result of the         
influences by which we are surrounded4  

,there is in the soul no absolute       
standard of right2 if there were1       
uprightness would be the same the world 
over4 ,but the right of the heathen is a
 different thing from that of the       
,christian2 the right of the ,chinese or
 the ,japanese is a different thing from
 that of more enlightened nations2 the  
right of one ,christian community is    
different from that of another2 and this
 because right1 considered distinct from
 religion1 is relative1 and subject to  
all the modifications of different      
conditions of society4 ,the ',evil1 be  
thou my good' of ,milton's ,satan is a  
delicate recognition of this fact4 ,but 
absolute right is a thing unknown to    
human nature2 it can never be innate1   
but comes from without4 ,it can only be 
apprehended by the intellect as a thing 
of ,god1 a part of ,his nature1 given to
 us as a law1 a rule of action1 which we
 can accept or not1 taking upon         
ourselves the consequences of its       
rejection4 ,there can be no standard of 

absolute right other than the law of    
,god2 there can be no other invariable  
and eternal rule of human action4  ,and 
if this position be true of individuals1
 most assuredly is it true of nations1  
which are but individuals in the        
concrete1 subject to the same           
vicissitudes1 governed by the same laws1
 physical and moral1 and following the  
same path of development4 ,only that    
form of government which recognizes the 
,supreme ,being as the chief of rulers1 
and ,his law as the source and model of 
all human law1 can be sure of truth and 
justice on its side1 both in its        
dealings with other nations and in its  
regulation of its own internal affairs4 
,only such a form can work steadily for 
the advancement of its people1 both by  
leading them forward and by smoothing   
the rugged path to perfection1 and      
removing every obstacle which impedes   
the national progress4 ,however near the
 principles of our ,government may      
approach to those of the ,divine law1   

there is still room and urgent necessity
 for reform4 ,yet1 in the universal     
disfavor into which theocracies have    
fallen1 and in the intense desire which 
pervades our people to avoid the        
complicated evils of a union between    
church and state1 every attempt to unite
 religious principles with those of     
government is looked upon with positive 
alarm2 and justly so1 since the         
experience of past centuries proves that
 both thrive best in separate spheres1  
however near they may approach each     
other in the abstract1 and that when    
united1 the one is apt to prove a hamper
 on the other1 through the introduction 
of error and corruption2 while1         
separated1 they act as a mutual         
restraint1 each tending to control the  
abnormal development of the other4 ,for 
these reasons reform in this particular 
must move from the people to the        
government1 not from the government to  
the people4  ,and here we come to the   
root of the whole matter1 to the field  

where reform is most needed1 that is1 in
 the moral condition of our society4    
,while there are few nations in which   
there is such a diversity of religious  
views and multiplicity of religious     
sects1 there are few peoples which are  
so proverbially irreligious as our own4 
,yet our condition in this respect is   
rather a neutral one than otherwise1 for
 while we are without any positive      
immorality which should make us         
preminent above other nations for vice1 
there is1 nevertheless1 in our midst1   
little of that simple1 trusting1        
unquestioning faith1 which is the       
'substance of things hoped for and the  
evidence of things not seen'--little of 
that all-pervading and all-powerful     
reverence for sacred things1 that deep  
religious feeling which forms a portion 
of the very life of most of the nations 
of the ,old ,world4 ,this is nothing    
more than the reaction of the stern     
,puritan tenets of the colonial times4  
,it is the logical result of those dark 

and gloomy theories which aimed to make 
religion not only unpalatable but       
absolutely repelling to the young and   
the ardent1 causing them to fly to the  
opposite extreme of throwing aside      
religion to 'a more convenient season1' 
when the pleasures of life should have  
lost their charm1 and they themselves   
should be drawing near the close of     
their pilgrimage4 ,that theory which    
made a deadly sin of that which was at  
worst but a pardonable misdemeanor and  
perhaps wholly innocent in its nature1  
could not fail in time to react         
violently1 first through the process of 
disgust1 then through that of inquiry1  
and finally to the carrying of          
speculation to extremes1 and practically
 pronouncing harmless and innocent that 
which was really vice4 ,the popular     
mind1 rebounding from the ,puritan      
ideas1 did not pause to discriminate    
between the truth and error which were  
so intimately mingled in their system1  
but1 sweepingly denouncing all the      

theories whose most prominent           
characteristics were revolting1 involved
 in the denunciation and rejection much 
of pure and simple truth1 and ran       
rapidly along the path of revolution1   
heedless of every warning1 unchecked by 
the obstacles which ,truth threw in its 
way1 down to the present time of almost 
universal looseness4  ,another effect of
 this rebellion of the national mind    
against the ,puritan theories is seen in
 the almost yearly inauguration of some 
new sect in religion1 in a land which is
 already so crowded with diverse and    
antagonistic religious organizations    
that it might be termed the land of     
sects4 ,however right or wrong in a     
religious point of view1 the ,puritans  
committed the great social mistake of   
establishing a new church1 instead of   
working earnestly to reform the old in  
those respects in which it seemed to    
them to have fallen into error1 thereby 
destroying the unity of the ,christian  
world4 ,had the movement stopped here1  

less harm would have been done2 but it  
was not of the nature of things that it 
should be so4 ,the establishment of the 
principle that purity of worship and of 
belief was to be sought1 and diversity  
of religious opinion to be gratified in 
separation and the erection of new      
organizations1 rather than in the       
endeavor to purify the old and          
established form1 at once threw wide    
open the door of schism1 and with it1 in
 the end1 that of scepticism4 ,the      
movement once begun could neither be    
checked nor controlled by any human     
effort4 ,others claimed the right which 
they themselves had exercised1 and the  
result was soon seen in the separation  
of one after another denomination from  
the ,puritan ,church1 each1 in its turn1
 to be divided into a score of sects1   
according as circumstances should alter 
religious views4 ,were the principles of
 true religion in themselves            
progressive1 were the teachings1 of the 
gospel inadequate to or unfitting for   

all possible stages of human progress1  
or were they capable of development1 the
 world might then have been the gainer4 
,or1 again1 were reason infallible1 the 
separation of the churches would be an  
incalculable blessing1 by securing to   
all minds a free investigation upon     
religious subjects4 ,but infidelity     
desires no more powerful coadjutor than 
human reason in its freest exercise1    
because it is so liable to be led away  
by sophistry1 and its invariable        
tendency is to reject as myths and      
fables all things which it cannot       
comprehend or for which it cannot see a 
material cause4 ,perfect reason is the  
twin brother and strongest supporter of 
faith2 but reason as it exists in the   
present development of humanity is its  
most deadly antagonist4 ,the age of     
reason has fallen upon us1 and its      
result is seen in a practical scepticism
 pervading the whole of our society1    
which in its extent and its injurious   
effects put to the blush the wildest    

speculations of the most radical ,german
 metaphysicians4 ,every day we see      
around us men of no religious           
profession1 and little if any religious 
feeling1 calmly facing death without a  
tremor1 without a thought of the awful  
beyond4 ,and though the application of  
the term infidel to such a man would not
 fail to arouse his fiercest            
indignation1 his indifference to the    
events and the fate of the great        
hereafter can arise from nothing else   
than an utter disbelief in the teachings
 of ,holy ,writ1 in the truths of       
,christianity4 ,such men are but types  
of a class1 and that class a very large 
portion of our population4  ,the evils  
of religious divisions are plain to be  
seen1 even if they consisted in nothing 
more than the division and consequent   
weakening of ,christian effort4 ,the    
church of ,god1 torn by internal        
dissensions1 becomes almost powerless   
for the spread of the gospel1 the       
greater portion of its strength and     

energy being exhausted in bolstering up 
its different branches as against each  
other1 and in proselytizing within      
itself4 ,where1 if united1 a small      
portion of its wealth and energy would  
suffice to support in a nourishing      
condition the worship of a great people1
 leaving an immense surplus to be       
directed to the evangelization of the   
heathen world1 now1 in its divided      
state1 its power and immense material   
resources are squandered in the support 
of innumerable fragments1 each one of   
which costs as much in labor and in     
means as would suffice to sustain the   
religion of the whole country if united4
  ,worse than even this1 the incessant  
bickerings of the ,christian world tend 
to invalidate1 in the minds of the      
unbelievers1 not only among the heathen1
 but among ourselves1 the teachings of  
that ,word which is its professed guide4
 ,the ',see how these ,christians hate  
each other6' is to reflecting minds     
outside the church's pale1 an almost    

unconquerable argument against that     
religion which professes to be founded  
upon love4 ,hence arises a great portion
 of that practical infidelity of which  
we have spoken1 and which is the bane of
 our civilization4 ,no nation can be    
truly great or noble or progressive     
without religion1 and by as much as we  
are departing1 in our every-day life1   
from the pure teachings of the gospel1  
by so much are we tending to our        
inevitable downfall4 ,the people must   
have some high standard of moral        
excellence1 something to elevate and    
purify the tone of society1 to lead     
their aspirations upward away from the  
petty toils and cares and vexations1    
from the sordid desires and the animal  
propensities of life1 in order to       
prevent them from falling into that     
decay which is inevitably the result of 
corruption1 following hard upon a       
devotion to mere self-interest4 ,we are1
 in a great measure1 a nation of        
materialists1 too much devoted to the   

pursuit of selfish and so-called        
practical aims1 too little to the       
spiritual and the ethereal4 ,reform must
 come1 else the soul will become gross  
and grovelling1 and the nobler part of  
our natures1 the more delicate and      
refined sympathies of the heart1 the    
finer faculties of the intellect1 will  
rust away with disuse1 and the whole    
race become sensual1 and finally effete1
 however brilliant may be its individual
 exceptions4 ,from what direction the   
needed reform is to come it is not for  
us to say4 ,that ,almighty ,providence  
which overrules an erring world will    
doubtless provide a way for the         
regeneration of ,his people4 ,the first 
great step is to awaken the people to a 
sense of the necessity of such a change1
 and some more powerful means must be   
employed to the accomplishment of that  
end than have ever yet been applied to  
our civilization4 ,and the apostle who1 
in the hands of ,god1 shall be the means
 of arousing the slumbering faith of our

 people1 of awakening them to a full    
sense of the danger1 and of imparting   
new energy to the recuperative powers of
 the race1 will win for himself a       
loftier position in the world's         
appreciation than has yet been conceded 
to any mere mortal4  ,another great and 
manifest evil in our society1 and one   
closely connected with that of which we 
have just spoken1 is the inordinate love
 of wealth1 and the elevation of the    
money god to the highest seat in our    
temple of worship4 ,human nature craves 
distinction4 ,the divisions and castes  
in the society of the ,old ,world1 from 
the present day back to the remotest    
ages1 is not only an evidence1 but a    
practical exemplification of this fact4 
,the abolition of all these distinctions
 consequent upon the establishment of   
our republican government upon the      
ground of political equality1 swept away
 from our ancestors almost the only     
means of gratifying this innate         
propensity4 ,a hard-working1 practical1 

agricultural people1 with no literature1
 and little if any cultivation of the   
fine arts1 there was but one road to    
distinction open to the mass of the     
population1 and that lay through the    
avenues of wealth4 ,hence it was but    
natural that affluence should take the  
place of the hereditary honors of the   
olden times1 and that the people should 
bow to the only distinction1 however    
spurious it might be1 which elevated any
 portion of themselves above their      
fellows4 ,with all the evils connected  
with a hereditary aristocracy1 the      
distinction which attends upon a        
nobility is in a great measure an ideal 
one4 ,it is not either its wealth or    
power which constitutes its charm1 but a
 certain nameless something pertaining  
to the ideal1 which affects not only the
 tenants and retainers1 but even our    
republican selves4 ,it may well be      
questioned whether we have been the     
gainers by substituting for such        
distinctions a gross and material one1  

affecting the bodily senses alone--the  
animal part of our nature--and which    
contains little either to expand the    
mind or exalt the aspirations4 ,with us 
but comparatively few can become        
distinguished in the ranks of literature
 or of art1 or1 indeed1 in any of the   
higher or intellectual branches of human
 attainment2 hence for the great mass   
there is but one road to distinction1   
one object to claim every exertion--the 
pursuit of wealth4 ,and as a natural    
consequence1 we see every art1 every    
profession hinging upon this motive4    
,most of the evils connected with the   
administration of our public affairs1   
the fraud and corruption which are so   
prominent1 the quadrennial scramble for 
place1 with its consequent degrading of 
those positions which should be those of
 the highest honor1 may be traced to    
this one source4 ,more than this1 we    
find the so-called aristocracy of our   
great cities--a moneyed one             
purely--excluding from its ranks those  

who earn their livelihood in the pursuit
 of literature and art1 and who1 if true
 to their professions1 are entitled to  
the very highest rank in society4 ,there
 are of course exceptions1 but not more 
than sufficient to prove the rule4 ,a   
striking exemplification of the power of
 wealth among us is seen in these days  
of shoddy1 when those who have hitherto 
moved in the humblest circles suddenly  
take their positions among the 'upper   
ten thousand1' and are treated with a   
deference to which they have all their  
lives been strangers1 by virtue of a    
successful contract or a towering       
speculation4 ,the effect of such a state
 of things upon our civilization is easy
 to be seen4 ,a low motive is sure to   
bring down its followers to its own     
level4 ,a people without a lofty and    
ennobling object is sure to fall into   
decay4 ,the grasping spirit which       
everywhere pervades our society is fast 
lowering our people to the level of a   
race of mercenary jobbers4 ,truth1      

justice1 honor1 purity1 and even        
religion1 are in a great measure lost   
sight of in the general scramble for    
gold1 until the strictest integrity1 the
 most self-sacrificing honesty1 are     
beginning to be looked upon as marvels1 
and we have won for ourselves among the 
nations of the world the unenviable     
title of worshippers of the 'almighty   
dollar4' ,religion itself is twisted and
 distorted into every imaginable shape  
to bring it into harmony with our       
all-absorbing pursuit3 all our ideas of 
public policy and of social progress are
 made to depend upon and modified by    
this unworthy motive4 ,we mean not to   
include those individuals who1 with     
loftier motives and a true appreciation 
of man's spiritual capabilities1 are    
prominent among us1 battling earnestly  
in the cause of true progress2 we are   
speaking of the mass of our population4 
,those few are the goodly leaven who are
 yet to prove the regeneration of our   
race4 ,bad as is the state of affairs in

 this respect1 it will1 if left to      
itself1 become infinitely worse as each 
succeeding year rolls around1 for the   
spirit of greed is progressive in its   
nature1 growing fatter and fatter upon  
its success4  ,yet1 in another point of 
view1 this same strife for wealth is one
 great secret of ,american prosperity   
and progress4 ,it is the motive power to
 that energy which has peopled the      
wilderness1 erected as if by magic a    
mighty republic among the savage wilds1 
and1 above all1 spread ,american ideas1 
and with them the germ of human liberty1
 over the whole broad earth4 ,to this   
spirit of greed upon our shores the ,old
 ,world owes much of its advancement and
 most of those useful inventions which  
are fast revolutionizing humanity       
itself4 ,but we are not considering it  
in this light2 we are viewing it in its 
moral aspect1 that respect in which it  
most strongly affects true civilization1
 which must soon fall away and lapse    
into the condition of the ages long     

past1 if it be not sustained by an      
enduring moral and religious element4   
,the moral advancement must keep pace   
with the intellectual1 else the latter  
will some day reach that point where    
extremes meet1 and have its weary       
journey to commence again4  ,it is to be
 hoped that this evil is already on the 
wane4 ,it is to be hoped that the       
present stirring up of our society from 
its uttermost depths1 with its          
consequent exploding of worn-out        
theories1 which have hitherto held their
 places only through our national       
lethargy--with its sweeping away of     
old-time prejudices1 and mingling       
together of elements which have hitherto
 existed distinct and aloof from each   
other1 will result in bringing true     
merit to the surface1 in awakening our  
people to a loftier appreciation of the 
good and the true1 thereby establishing 
a higher moral standard among us2 that  
purer motives will henceforth actuate   
our society4 ,the fears which are       

entertained by some that the present war
 will prove a severe shock to our       
civilization1 are not sustained by the  
facts which are everywhere appearing    
around us4 ,the frequent demands upon   
the generosity and forbearance of a     
great people1 the constant calls for the
 exercise of the noblest qualities1 the 
most self-sacrificing devotion1 and that
 too in support of a great principle    
rather than of any present material     
interest1 the very necessity for an     
exalted civilization and intellectual   
development on the part of the masses1  
which shall enable them to see in that  
principle the groundwork of all their   
future well-being1 both as regards      
material prosperity and political       
position1 are constantly bringing before
 the people1 in a clearer light than    
ever before1 the blessings of honor and 
uprightness1 the necessity of national  
purity1 and developing a moral element  
in our midst1 whose good effects will   
far outbalance the ephemeral and        

spasmodic immorality and vice which a   
state of war usually engenders4 ,our    
people are becoming acquainted with     
those blessings of individual well-doing
 and those principles of philanthropy to
 which they have for so long been       
comparative strangers4 ,and it is this1 
together with the unveiling1 through the
 present convulsion1 of those errors1   
both in our political system and in our 
society1 which have so nearly proved our
 ruin1 which will make this war in very 
truth the greatest blessing that has    
ever befallen us4 ,and if this moral    
progress shall be such and so great as  
to throw down the golden calf from his  
throne and make the place of honor the  
reward of true merit alone1 then shall  
we have cause1 for the remotest         
generations1 to thank ,god for this     
seeming calamity which has fallen upon  
us4  ,and these same facts1 standing out
 as shining lights in the darkness1 tend
 to show that we are1 after all1 not    
quite so sordid as we seem2 that1 with  

all our worship of the money god1 there 
is yet1 away down in the great ,american
 heart1 a wealth of strong1 true1       
generous feeling1 ready at the first    
call of sorrow and of suffering to      
spring forth and scatter its golden     
blessings even beyond the seas4 ,it is  
not alone that1 years ago1 when we were 
at peace and at the height of           
prosperity1 many ships left our shores  
laden down with food1 the voluntary     
contributions of the ,american citizen  
to his starving brethren of the ,emerald
 ,isle2 though this of itself was enough
 to place our civilization on a level   
with that of the most polished nation of
 the ,old ,world4 ,but even now1 when we
 are struggling for our very existence1 
when every energy and every material    
resource is being exerted to stem the   
tide of internal dissensions and crush  
out the hydra of internal treason2 at a 
time when the mother country has gone to
 every length short of open war to aid  
and assist those who are striving for   

our downfall1 and her press is          
exhausting every epithet of vituperation
 and scurrilous abuse of us1 who are    
battling so earnestly in our own        
defence1 and who are entitled by every  
truth of human nature to her warmest    
sympathy--a press which1 adopting the   
phraseology of its ,secession friends   
and allies1 scruples not to place the   
civilization of the slaveholding ,states
 far in advance of that of the          
',northern mudsills'--even now1 when the
 cry of the starving operatives of the  
,english mills comes to us across the   
water1 forgetting for the time all the  
abuse and maltreatment we have received1
 all the enmity and bitter hostility    
which the traitorous perfidy of ,england
 has engendered1 more than one          
full-freighted vessel has left our ports
 bearing grain to those whom their own  
proud aristocracy is either powerless or
 too niggardly to sustain4 ,is this not 
evidence of a civilization considerably 
advanced beyond any which history has   

yet recorded8--a civilization based upon
 the golden rule of ,christianity1 and  
upon that still more precious command3  
',love those that hate you1 and do good 
to those that persecute you4' ,for it is
 in its moral aspect that every         
civilization must in the end be judged2 
and that society which develops such    
noble principles and feelings as these1 
which manifests itself in this higher   
region of spiritual excellence1 in the  
exercise of these finer feelings of the 
heart1 is certainly nearest to          
perfection1 in that it follows most     
closely the law of ,god1 the truths of  
divine revelation4 ,when instances such 
as these occur on the part of any of the
 older nations of the world1 it will do 
for them to boast of a civilization     
superior to ours2 but until their faith 
is shown by their works1 suffering      
humanity the world over will accord to  
us the palm4 ,nor will it answer to     
ascribe to us an unworthy motive in this
 matter--a desire to win credit in the  

eyes of the world4 ,an individual might1
 with some degree of plausibility1 fall 
under such an imputation1 but a great   
people does not move spontaneously and  
unitedly in one direction from such a   
motive1 since none but a pure and just  
principle can produce unity in the      
masses4 ,such an unworthy and degrading 
motive is the property of individuals1  
not of nations1 even if it were possible
 for such an idea to be conceived at one
 and the same time by a multitude of    
minds4 ,no6 it was the spontaneous      
expression of a deep and pervading      
principle of ,american society--of      
,american humanity--a free outpouring of
 the ,american heart2 and as such it    
will stand upon the page of history as  
the evidence of a civilization behind   
none of its age4  ,nor is this the only 
mark of the moral awakening of our      
people4 ,instances are every day        
appearing in our midst of this truest of
 charity1 not the least of which are the
 'wood processions' of the ,western     

cities and towns2 those long lines of   
wagons laden with fuel and provisions   
for the families of the absent soldiers1
 whose sole object and motive is the    
comfort of those whose protectors and   
supporters are sustaining the country's 
honor in the field2 evidences more      
striking than the founding of charitable
 institutions or benevolent societies1  
since the latter may1 and too often     
does1 arise from the most selfish and   
vainglorious motive1 while in the former
 the individual is lost in the many who 
press eagerly to bear their part in a   
noble work1 in this spontaneous         
outpouring of true and heartfelt        
benevolence4 ,from this same spirit     
arises the wonderful success which      
attends the efforts of sanitary         
commissions and soldiers' aid           
associations in alleviating the         
sufferings and softening the privations 
of our soldiers in the field4 ,with such
 evidences constantly appearing before  
our eyes of the deep and noble feelings 

of the ,american heart1 who can doubt   
that our civilization is a progressive  
one1 our enlightenment equal8 ,who can  
doubt the capacity of the ,american     
people for good1 or look with foreboding
 upon our future8  ,another important   
sign of the times1 as evincing our      
advancing civilization1 is the revival  
of art in our midst4 ,in the midst of   
all our bustle and toil and eager strife
 for gain1 there has ever been a        
something wanting to the completeness of
 our life1 a something to fill and      
satisfy that yearning of the soul for   
sthetic beauty1 which is at once an     
evidence of its progress and its        
capacity for diviner things4 ,too long  
have we been absorbed by the desires of 
our animal nature1 in whose pursuit     
there is little gratification to that   
finer portion of our inner selves which 
will not be silenced by anything short  
of the deepest degradation4 ,the        
people--the great people--need          
something--something higher1 more       

ennobling1 more tender--to fill the     
vacant spot in their hearts and homes1  
to preserve the balance between the     
animal and the spiritual part of their  
lives1 and to clothe their surroundings 
with a higher and holier significance   
than can arise from the events and      
associations of the work-day life4 ,in  
art the missing link is found1 and      
whether it be the simple ballad in the  
evening circle or the modest print that 
graces the humble cottage walls--and the
 humbler the habitation the deeper the  
manifestation1 because the more         
touching--it is but the expression of   
the people's appreciation of the needs1 
the capacities1 and the holier          
aspirations of the better part of       
humanity4 ,hence the revival of art has 
a deep significance2 it is something    
more than a forced1 an exotic1 and hence
 ephemeral growth2 it is the            
manifestation of the awakening of the   
people to the sthetic sentiment2 it is  
the actual result of the intellectual   

and moral needs of society2 it is in    
itself the striving of a great people   
for the beautiful and true4 ,and as such
 it has a broad and deep foundation in  
the godlike in human nature1 which shall
 insure not only its permanence but its 
progress as long as the good and the    
true have any influence whatever upon   
our society4 ,that we have had1 until a 
comparatively late period1 no art among 
us1 is the result not of a lack of      
capacity to comprehend the beautiful1   
but of the intense and all-absorbing    
passion for gain which has so nearly    
proved the bane of our society by       
shutting out the consideration of better
 things3 that art has so suddenly       
revived in our midst is a proof that1 so
 far from having our humanity1 our      
political position1 our very            
civilization itself swallowed up in the 
love of the almighty dollar1 as has been
 predicted of us by foreign wiseacres1  
we have been aroused to our danger and  
to a true appreciation of the better    

part of existence2 which is itself an   
evidence of the elasticity and the      
recuperative energy of our social       
system4  ,in literature our progress is 
not so flattering4 ,in its effects upon 
civilization a literature can only be   
judged by that portion of it which      
touches the popular heart1 which        
descends to the humblest fireside1 and  
is most eagerly sought after by the     
ploughboy and the operative4 ,all other1
 however brilliant it may be--and the   
more brilliant or profound the farther  
it is generally removed from the minds  
of the masses--is to them but as the    
stars of a winter night1 cold and       
distant1 radiating little warmth to the 
longing soul1 too far away to awaken    
more than a faintly reflected           
admiration4 ,he who said1 ',give me to  
write the songs of a people1 and ,i care
 not who makes their laws1' touched the 
tender spot in the great heart of       
humanity2 he was a sage in that truest  
of philosophy1 the study of human       

nature4 ,though we have our princes in  
every branch of literature1 who are the 
result of and an honor to our           
civilization1 yet for their own results 
in moulding the tastes1 the habits1 and 
the intellects of the common people1 in 
contributing to their advancement1 they 
fall far below the efforts of the       
veriest penny-a-liner4 ,it is a         
lamentable fact of our society that     
while the more solid literature scarcely
 pays1 the flashiest of so-called 'flash
 literature' brings down the golden     
shower4 ,the writer of the lowest       
possible order of literary productions  
is enriched1 and his name is familiar in
 the remotest corners of the land1 while
 our monarchs of literature are         
oftentimes poverty stricken and         
comparatively obscure2 and that because 
the latter is confined to a             
comparatively small audience and        
patronage1 while the former speaks to   
and for the masses2 and1 as a natural   
consequence1 the former controls the    

tastes of the greater portion of the    
reading community1 and that too for     
anything but good1 since he reaps his   
golden harvest by pandering to the      
basest of appetites1 the lowest of      
sensibilities and sympathies2 thus      
retarding rather than accelerating the  
intellectual advancement of the people1 
this being his material interest4  ,and 
how great is the responsibility of those
 who thus speak to the ear of the simple
 and the unlearned6 how terrible the    
retribution they are heaping up for     
themselves in the great hereafter1 for  
thus prostituting talent which might be 
made eminently useful in leading the    
minds of the common people to the       
highest and noblest of truths2 in making
 purer and better in every sense of the 
word6 ,the idea that the province of    
literature1 even of fiction1 is simply  
to amuse1 is exploded in the light of   
advancing civilization4 ,every writer   
has a higher mission1 and accordingly as
 he discharges the duty which his       

faculty lays upon him1 is he true or    
false to the true end of his existence1 
a success or a failure in the world of  
intellect and morality4 ,the mission of 
all literature is to make mankind both  
wiser and better1 and the writer who    
fails to appreciate and act upon this   
truth is worse than a useless cumberer  
of society2 he is a curse to his age1   
and1 however great his present fame1    
will most assuredly be forgotten with   
the passing away of his generation4 ,for
 does not all human effort resolve      
itself into this one thing8 ,is there   
any work which we call good or great1 or
 even important1 which is not intended  
in some way to benefit mankind8 ,else we
 were but butterflies1 and our works but
 mists4 ,in the past ages the world has 
not seen and appreciated this fact2 but 
the world of to-day does appreciate it1 
and will certainly set every worker upon
 his proper pedestal1 high or low1      
according as his efforts have conduced  
or not to the welfare of humanity4      

,present reform in this particular is   
not to be looked for2 it must be        
external rather than internal4 ,could   
the whole mass of light literature be at
 once and forever swept out of          
existence1 the people would soon acquire
 a love of solid reading as ardent as   
that which now pervades the lower       
stratum of our society for              
'yellow-covered' trash4 ,for the love of
 knowledge is innate1 and the people    
would necessarily seek for and find     
amusement in such reading as could not  
fail to instruct and educate1 to revive 
this love of knowledge1 and fan it into 
an ardent flame4 ,but this cannot be    
done4 ,the people will ever seek that   
reading which is most congenial to their
 present tastes and habits1 and there   
will ever be found a legion of those who
 are eager to supply this sort of mental
 pabulum--if it can be so called--for   
the sake of the golden equivalent4 ,for 
these reasons1 the literature of the    
common people must ever follow1 not     

lead1 their civilization2 it must       
continue to be the outward and visible  
sign of their progress1 instead of the  
inward and spiritual grace by which it  
is pervaded and sustained2 and reform   
must be inaugurated and consummated in  
those other influences which tend to    
mould the moral man1 and which must be  
so guided as to destroy all these low   
and grovelling tastes1 by lifting the   
man into a higher plane of being1 in    
which the animal shall be wholly        
subservient to the spiritual4 ,hence the
 province of the true philanthropist    
lies in those other paths which we have 
pointed out1 rather than in this1 since 
in them lies the prospect of success    
whose fruits will in this most clearly  
appear4  ,it is a significant fact that 
the foreign view points to but two blots
 upon our society1 and that foreign     
detractors harp continually upon these1 
and these alone1 as evidences of the    
backwardness of our civilization--the   
institution of slavery and the riots    

which occasionally disgrace our large   
cities4 ,for in the light of the facts  
and experience of to-day1 such a        
position is simply a yielding of the    
whole question4 ,when it is considered  
that the few riots with which we are    
afflicted--few in comparison with those 
which so often convulse ,european       
society--are almost invariably incited  
and sustained by our foreign population1
 and that portion of it1 too1 latest    
arrived upon our shores1 it will be seen
 with what injustice the evil is laid at
 the door of ,american society4 ,it is1 
in fact1 nothing else than the outbreak 
of the long-accumulated and             
long-suppressed discontent and misery of
 ,european lands1 which1 for the first  
time for centuries1 finds vent upon the 
shores of a land of political and social
 liberty--a reaction of the springs long
 held down by the iron hand of          
tyranny--a violent restoration of that  
natural elasticity which had so nearly  
been destroyed by ages of social        

degradation4 ,the mob law1 the frequent 
resort to the pistol and the bowie      
knife1 and the universal social         
recklessness of our own citizens of the 
,southern ,states1 is the effect of the 
institution of slavery1 and falls within
 the discussion of that question1 with  
the disappearance of which they must    
inevitably depart4  ,were ,african      
slavery a permanent feature in our      
midst1 the argument against our         
civilization would be unanswerable4 ,but
 it has maintained its ground in spite  
of1 rather than as the result of or in  
connection with the spirit of our       
institutions4 ,it has hitherto been     
suffered to exist as an acknowledged    
evil1 solely because the disastrous     
results attending its sudden abolition  
have been justly feared as greater than 
any which could at present arise from   
its continuance4 ,yet at no period has  
the ,american people ceased to look     
forward to some future time when it     
might safely be rooted out4 ,our faith  

has ever been strong1 and our confidence
 in the ultimate triumph of the right   
unshaken4 ,that time has come4 ,the     
present war1 from whose inauguration the
 question of slavery abolition was--on  
our part1 at least--entirely absent1 has
 given the opportunity which our people 
have not failed to seize4 ,to crush out 
the rebellion without meddling with the 
institutions of the ,south was at first 
the main spring of the war2 fiat        
justitia1 ruat coelum1 is now the voice 
of the whole people2 and the very fact  
that the nation has so earnestly taken  
hold of the work1 so sternly determined 
to sacrifice everything but its         
existence to the demolition of this     
bloody god1 is of itself an evidence of 
the purity of our civilization4 ,we have
 not been dead to the principles of     
truth and justice involved in this      
question2 we have been but biding our   
time1 plainly seeing and carefully      
noting the direful effects of slavery   
upon our social organization1 and       

'heaping up wrath against the day of    
wrath4' ,and now1 with the blessing of  
,god upon our efforts1 the present war  
will not cease until the death blow is  
given to the accursed institution with  
all its attendant evils4 ,we1 as a      
people1 are fully aroused and sternly   
determined henceforth to let nothing    
stand in the way of our social          
advancement1 however time-honored and   
cherished may have been the obstacle4   
,and when these evils have all been     
swept away1 as they assuredly will be1  
we shall stand forth among the nations  
in all the glory of a pure and          
enlightened civilization1 and challenge 
the world to produce a nobler record1 to
 point out a happier1 more prosperous1  
more truly progressive people4  ,with   
the close of the present war will arise 
another important question1 bearing not 
less strongly than that of slavery upon 
our ultimate civilization4 ,the         
slaveholding ,states are to be1 in a    
measure1 repeopled4 ,the tide of        

immigration which has so long and so    
steadily streamed toward the ,west will 
be for some time diverted to the fertile
 plantations of the ,south4 ,not only   
the soldiers of the ,north1 to whom the 
war has opened what has hitherto been to
 them almost a terra incognita1 will    
seek new homes within the sunny climes2 
but the flood of foreign immigration1   
which1 upon the vindication of our      
national integrity and power1 will      
quickly double itself in comparison with
 that of former years1 and sweep toward 
this new and inviting field2 and the    
distinctive feature of ,southern        
society--of so-called ',southern        
chivalry'--will soon be swallowed up in 
the torrent4 ,and what then shall we    
have to fill its place8 ,the crude ideas
 of foreign tyros in the school of      
freedom1 the conflicting religious1     
social1 and political theories of       
,european revolutionists1 the           
antagonistic policies of a hundred      
different nationalities4 ,all this1 in  

connection with the difficulties arising
 from the freeing of so large an        
,african population1 will prove a severe
 trial to our national civilization1 and
 call for the exercise of the           
profoundest wisdom1 the most careful    
discrimination1 and the most patient    
forbearance on the part of our rulers   
and statesmen4 ,and most assuredly the  
times will themselves produce the men   
most fitted for the care of such        
interests and the decision of such      
questions4 ,though there is need of the 
firm hand1 the utmost watchfulness1 and 
the strongest exertion on the part of   
every citizen as well as statesman1 it  
is not to be feared that the result will
 in the end be disastrous to our        
progress4 ,for the genius of the        
,american people was never yet at fault4
 ,we have handled similar questions     
before2 we are handling a more important
 one now1 and our capabilities and our  
power of development are such that we   
need not fear but that we shall be      

enabled to cope with the exigencies of  
the future4 ,that genius which has built
 up a powerful nation here in the       
wilderness1 which has developed to such 
a degree the resources of the laud and  
the capacities of the people1 which has 
conceived and executed in so short a    
time such a social and moral revolution1
 has in it too much of the godlike to   
suffer the work to fall through from any
 incapacity to deal with the legitimate 
consequences of its action4 ,the power  
to inaugurate and carry through the work
 necessarily implies the capacity to    
establish and render permanent its      
results1 to guide the ship when the     
storm is past4 ,it will find the ways   
and means2 the times themselves will    
develop new truths1 which will make the 
task less difficult than it seems to us 
of to-day4 ,such is the feeling of the  
people2 and this same noble faith and   
confidence in our own capacities1 this  
turning a deaf ear to all the           
possibilities of failure1 and looking   

with a never-failing trust1 a soul-felt 
faith1 to the triumph of our cause and  
of our civilization1 is our greatest    
strength1 while it is1 at the same time1
 a conclusive evidence that we are on   
the high road of true progress1 that our
 civilization is not a thing of         
yesterday1 to-day1 or to-morrow1 but of 
the eternal ages4     ,,aphorism4--,,no4
 ,x4   ',it is a frequent result of     
poverty to make men rich--a common curse
 of wealth to make them poor4' ,poverty1
 making us feel our dependence upon     
,god1 almost compels us to an           
acquaintance with ,him--this leads us to
 accept ,him as the one ,infinite       
,benefactor2 and so gives us wealth that
 can never fail3 but riches1 by         
encouraging our natural love of         
independence1 is too apt to keep us away
 from our ,heavenly ,father1 and thus   
plunge us into such poverty as admits of
 no actual relief4 ,in this view there  
is something to hope for in the present 
distresses of our country4 ,rarely have 

so many people felt that their          
dependence must be upon the mercy of    
,god2 and rarely1 if ever1 have so many1
 with such earnestness1 appealed to the 
,father of all on the occasion of a     
widespread calamity4 ,this must result  
in a closer union with the ,infinite    
,giver1 and thus in a great increase of 
true riches4     ,,the ,,english        
,,press4  ,v4   ,how had ,the ,times    
been getting on all these years8 ,slowly
 but surely4 ,at first1 as has been     
already stated1 feeling its way with    
difficulty amid a host of obstacles1    
long-established and successful rivals1 
,government prosecutions abroad1 and    
personal crotchets and peculiarities at 
home4 ,john ,walter1 its founder1       
retired from the management of the paper
 in #ahjc1 and died in #ahab1 having    
lived to see his literary offspring grow
 up into a strong young giant1 with     
thews and sinews growing fuller and     
firmer every day1 tossing his weighty   
arms in every direction1 but never      

aimlessly2 and with his vigorous feet   
firmly planted1 expanded chest1 and head
 boldly erect1 fearlessly standing      
forward in the very first rank of the   
champions of freedom4 ,mr4 ,walter's son
 ,john succeeded him in the management  
in #ahjc2 and1 under his abler and more 
enlightened administration1 the paper   
rapidly increased in importance4 ,he    
opened his columns to all comers1 and   
whenever any communication appeared to  
possess more than average ability he    
endeavored to engage the writer of it as
 a regular contributor4 ,he perfected   
the system of reporting1 and the reports
 in ,the ,times soon began to be fuller 
and more exact perhaps even than        
,perry's in ,the ,chronicle4 ,he        
especially turned his attention to the  
foreign department of his journal1 and  
no trouble or expense was spared in     
obtaining intelligence from abroad4     
,this had been one of the strong points 
with the elder ,walter1 and he had      
always striven to be the first to       

communicate important foreign news to   
the world--thus1 for instance1 ,the     
,times was the first newspaper which    
announced the execution of ,marie       
,antoinette4 ,this element was now      
greatly strengthened and developed1     
correspondents were engaged in all the  
chief cities of ,europe1 and1 as time   
progressed1 in other quarters of the    
world as well1 letters from whom        
appeared as regularly and as early as   
the post-office authorities would allow2
 and a regular system of expresses from 
the ,continent was organized4 ,but the  
,government1 who saw and felt the       
growing greatness of ,the ,times1 placed
 every possible hinderance in the       
way--it was not then the custom for the 
,premier to invite the editor to        
dinner--and the letters and foreign     
packages were delayed in every possible 
manner--the machinery of the custom     
house being even employed for that      
purpose--in order that the ,government  
organs might at least get the start4    

,but fair means and foul alike failed to
 win over the young journalistic athlete
 to the ministerial side1 and this      
illiberal and selfish policy was at     
length compelled to give in1 beaten at  
all points4 ,but there was one thing    
which was destined to give ,the ,times  
supremacy1 at which the younger ,walter 
began to work soon after the reins of   
power fell into his hands--and that was 
steam4 ,great strides had been made in  
the art of printing4 ,the first metal   
types ever cast in ,england were those  
of ,caxton1 in #agbj4 ,stereotype       
printing had been first suggested by    
,william ,ged1 of ,edinburgh1 in #agce1 
and was perfected and brought into      
general use by ,tillock1 in #aggi4 ,the 
printing machine had been originated by 
,nicholson1 in #agij1 and an improved   
form of it1 made of iron1 the invention 
of ,earl ,stanhope1 was in general use  
in #ahjf4 ,thomas ,martyn1 a compositor 
of ,the ,times1 invented some further   
modifications1 and was aided by the     

younger ,walter4 ,owing1 however1 to the
 violent opposition of his fellow       
workmen1 the experiments were carried on
 under the greatest secrecy2 but the    
elder ,walter could not be induced to   
countenance them1 and consequently      
nothing came of them4 ,in #ahad1 ,koenig
 and ,bauer1 two ,german printers1      
conceived the idea of printing by steam1
 and the younger ,walter1 now by his    
father's death permitted to do as he    
liked1 entered warmly into their        
project4 ,the greatest silence and      
mystery was observed1 but the employs of
 ,the ,times somehow or other obtained  
an inkling of what was going on1 and1   
foreseeing a reduction in their numbers1
 vowed the most terrible vengeance upon 
everybody connected with the newfangled 
invention4 ,spite of their threats1     
however1 the necessary machinery was    
quietly prepared and erected1 and one   
morning1 before day had broken1 ,mr4    
,walter called his printers together1   
and informed them that that day's issue 

was struck off by steam4 ,this          
ever-memorable day in the history of    
journalism was ,monday1 the #bhth of    
,november1 #ahad4 ,loud murmurs and     
threats were heard among the workmen1   
and burning down the whole affair was   
the least thing suggested2 but ,mr4     
,walter had taken precautions1 and1     
showing his work people that he was     
prepared to meet any outbreak on their  
part1 no violence was attempted4 ,since 
then ,the ,times has been regularly     
printed by steam4 ,various improvements 
in steam machinery have from time to    
time been patented1 and ,hoe's gigantic 
machines--the production of that country
 the most prolific of all the world in  
useful inventions1 ,america--seemed to  
show that the limit of the application  
of steam to printing had been reached4  
,but a machine still more wonderful--a  
machine that possessed all the skill of 
human intelligence and ten times the    
quickness of human fingers--a machine   
for composing by steam1 was shown at the

 ,international ,exhibition in ,london1 
in #ahfb4 ,printing by steam at once    
raised the circulation of ,the ,times   
enormously1 as was but natural1 from the
 facilities which it afforded of a rapid
 multiplication of copies2 and under the
 editorship of ,thomas ,barnes it soon  
reached the first place in journalism4  
,but ,walter himself was not idle1 and  
was always on the lookout for fresh and 
rising talent4 ,on one occasion1 being  
at a church in the neighborhood of his  
country seat in ,berkshire1 he was very 
much struck by the sermon which was     
preached by a new curate4 ,after the    
service he went into the vestry1 and had
 a long conversation with the preacher1 
the result of which was that he told him
 that a curacy was not a very enviable  
position1 and that he would do much     
better to go to ,london1 and write for  
,the ,times at a salary of #a1jjj a     
year4 ,it is needless to add that the   
offer was not declined4  ,in #ahag1 ,the
 ,literary ,gazette was brought out by  

,william ,jordan1 as an organ of        
literature and the fine arts1 and1 until
 ,the ,athenum was established1 it was  
without a rival of any consequence4 ,but
 its circulation declined1 and1 after   
,jordan's death1 dwindled down to a very
 small number4 ,in #ahfb its name was   
changed to ,the ,parthenon1 or rather1  
to speak more correctly1 ,the ,parthenon
 arose as a new publication from the    
ashes of ,the ,literary ,gazette4 ,but  
change of name did not produce change of
 circumstances1 and1 before many numbers
 had appeared1 ,the ,parthenon was      
privately offered for sale at the low   
sum of #ajj1 but1 failing to meet with a
 purchaser1 it gave up the ghost early  
in #ahfc4 ,in #ahag1 ,lord ,sidmouth    
made a terrific onslaught upon the      
press4 ,he issued a circular to the     
different lord lieutenants of the       
counties1 to the effect that any justice
 of the peace might issue a warrant for 
the apprehension of any person charged  
with printing a libel4 ,one result of   

this circular and the vigorous          
prosecutions which ensued was that      
,william ,cobbett for a while gave up   
printing his ,political ,register1 and  
went away to ,america1 from whence he   
did not return for two years4 ,he stated
 his reasons for adopting this course in
 his paper1 as follows3       ',i do not
 retire from a combat with the          
attorney-general1 but from      a combat
 with a dungeon1 deprived of pen1 ink1  
and paper4 ,a combat      with the      
attorney-general is quite unequal       
enough2 that1 however1 ,i      would    
have encountered4 ,i know too well what 
a trial by special      jury is2 yet    
that or any sort of trial ,i would have 
stayed to face4      ,but against the   
absolute power of imprisonment1 without 
even a      hearing1 for time           
unlimited'--an act had been passed which
 gave the      secretary of state power 
to suspend the habeas corpus act--'in   
any jail in the kingdom1 without the use
 of pen1 ink1 and paper1      and       

without communication with any soul but 
the keepers--against      such a power  
it would have been worse than madness to
 attempt to      strive4'  ,but the     
,government met with a notable check in 
the case of ,william ,howe1 the         
bookseller4 ,howe was thrice tried for  
libel1 and1 despite the exertions of    
,lord ,ellenborough1 who descended from 
the judicial bench to the barrister's   
table1 was thrice acquitted4            
,persecution after this languished for a
 while1 but in #ahai were passed those  
stringent measures which are known as   
the ,six ,acts4 ,one of these gave the  
judges the power1 upon the conviction of
 any person a second time of the        
publication of a seditious libel1 to    
punish him with fine1 imprisonment1     
banishment1 or transportation4 ,but such
 monstrous enactments were not suffered 
to pass unchallenged1 and the result of 
several animated debates was that the   
obnoxious words banishment--a novelty in
 ,english jurisprudence--and            

transportation were withdrawn1 but the  
remaining provisions of the ,six ,acts  
were carried in all their rigor4 ,but   
amid much harm1 some good was doubtless 
effected1 for certain provisions were   
introduced into the act which declared  
certain inferior newspapers1 which had  
hitherto evaded the stamp act1 by       
calling themselves pamphlets and not    
newspapers1 because they only commented 
upon the news of the day1 to be         
henceforth liable to the stamp duties4  
,this really did good service to the    
better class of journals1 by sweeping   
away a swarm of newspapers which1 by the
 quibble above mentioned1 were enabled  
to undersell them4  ,john ,bull was     
started in #ahbj1 with the avowed object
 of espousing the ,king's side1 and     
covering the ,queen and her friends with
 obloquy4 ,theodore ,hook was the       
editor1 but very few persons were in the
 secret4 ,every man or woman who was    
conspicuous as a friend of the ,queen   
was duly gibbeted1 and any tittle-tattle

 gossip or scandal that could be        
ferreted out against them was boldly    
printed in the most unmistakable terms4 
,trial for libel failed to discover the 
real proprietors1 editor1 and writers1  
and the men who stood their trial as    
printer1 publisher1 proprietor1 etc41   
were manifestly mere shams1 men who     
would swear to anything and undergo any 
amount of imprisonment for the          
consideration of the smallest coin of   
the realm4 ,the scandalous details in   
,john ,bull attracted the public at     
once1 and by the time it reached its    
sixth number1 the circulation had risen 
to ten thousand1 while the first five   
numbers were reprinted over and over    
again1 and the first and second were    
actually stereotyped4 ,but it began to  
be whispered about that ,hook was the   
editor1 whereupon he printed and signed 
a letter denying the rumor in the most  
indignant terms4 ,this letter was       
supplemented by an editorial1 from which
 the following is an extract3           

',the conceit of some people is amusing1
 and it has not unfrequently      been  
remarked that conceit is in abundance   
where talent is most      scarce4 ,our  
readers will see that we have received a
 letter from      ,mr4 ,hook1 disowning 
and disavowing all connection with this 
paper4444 ,we are free to confess that  
two things surprise us in      this     
business4 ,the first1 that anything     
which we have thought      worthy of    
giving to the public should have been   
mistaken for ,mr4      ,hook's2 and     
secondly1 that such a person as ,mr4    
,hook should think      himself         
disgraced by a connection with ,john    
,bull4'  ,after the death of the ,queen1
 ,hook devoted himself to the demolition
 of the ,whigs and ,radicals4 ,joseph   
,hume was his especial target1 and was  
dished up week after week with a        
decidedly original ,latin garnish3 ',ex 
humili potens--,from a surgeon to a     
member of ,parliament2' ',humili modi   
loqui--,to talk ,scotch like ,hume2'    

',nequis humasse velit--,let no one call
 ,hume an ass1' etc41 etc4 ,john ,bull  
sustained a great many convictions for  
libel1 and its dummies were frequently  
imprisoned1 but they never betrayed     
,hook1 who retained the editorship until
 his death in #ahda4 ,somewhere about   
this time ,the ,britannia1 a            
,conservative journal1 of a few years'  
standing1 was incorporated with it4 ,it 
had meanwhile considerably moderated its
 tone1 and at the present day enjoys a  
fair circulation among steady-going     
people--chiefly country gentlemen1 old  
ladies1 and parsons--who obstinately    
cling to ,tory principles4  ,john ,bull 
was not the only newspaper which was    
prolific in libels1 and perhaps at no   
time were scandalous attacks upon public
 and private persons more common4 ,mr4  
,freemantle1 writing to the ,marquis of 
,buckingham1 in #ahbj1 says3       ',the
 press is completely open to treason1   
sedition1 blasphemy1 and      falsehood1
 with impunity4444 ,i do not know       

whether you see      ,cobbett's         
,independent ,whig1 and many other      
papers now circulating      most        
extensively1 and which are dangerous    
much beyond anything ,i      can        
describe4'  ,this is a sweeping censure1
 but1 allowing for a little personal    
irritation1 natural enough under the    
circumstances--he had been lampooned    
himself--is true of a great portion of  
the press4 ,the supply was regulated by 
the demand1 and the character of the    
wares purveyed depended upon the wants  
of the market4 ,editors found that      
scandal was eagerly devoured by their   
subscribers1 and they did not therefore 
hesitate or scruple to gratify the      
prevailing tastes of the day4 ,but the  
better class of papers were not able to 
keep clear of the law of libel1 even    
though they did not condescend to pander
 to the vitiated tastes of the          
multitude4 ,many of them had to sustain 
actions for merely reporting proceedings
 before the police magistrates and in   

the law courts1 and many a rascal       
solaced himself for the disagreeables   
attending a preliminary examination at  
the police court for a criminal offence1
 by a verdict in his behalf in a civil  
action against any newspaper that had   
been bold enough to print a report of   
the proceedings4 ,this kind of action   
originated from a ruling of ,lord       
,ellenborough1 that it was 'libellous to
 publish the preliminary examination    
before a magistrate previously to       
committing a man for trial or holding   
him to bail for any offence with which  
he is charged1 the tendency of such a   
publication being to prejudice the minds
 of the jurymen against the accused1 and
 to deprive him of a fair trial4' ,this 
monstrous and at the same time absurd   
doctrine remained in force for many     
years1 but is now happily no longer the 
law of the land4  ,the ,times had now   
reached the pinnacle of prosperity1 and 
its claims to be considered the foremost
 of journals were no longer disputed4   

,the circulation of ,the ,morning       
,chronicle had dwindled during the      
latter years of ,perry's life1 and after
 his death did not revive very much     
under ,black1 his successor4 ,brougham1 
,talfourd1 and ,alderson were among the 
writers in ,the ,times1 and ,captain    
,sterling1 whose vigorous1 slashing     
articles first gained for ,the ,times   
the title of the ',thunderer1' was      
regularly engaged upon the staff at a   
salary of #b1jjj a year and a small     
share in the profits4 ,but the          
,government still steadily set its face 
against it1 and in #ahba ,mr4 ,hume     
loudly inveighed against the ministry in
 the ,house of ,commons for not sending 
,government advertisements to ,the      
,times1 instead of to other journals1   
which did not enjoy a tithe of its      
circulation4 ,the arrangements of the   
post office were a great hinderance to  
the diffusion of newspapers1 since the  
charge for the carriage of a daily      
journal was #ab #ads41 and for a weekly 

#b #ds4 a year4 ,the number1 therefore1 
that was sent abroad by this channel1   
either to the ,continent or our own     
colonies1 was very small4 ,in #ahaj the 
whole number thus despatched was but    
three hundred and eighty-three1 and in  
#ahag it had fallen to two hundred and  
seventy-one1 owing to the increase in   
the charges demanded by the post-office 
authorities1 who were actually allowed  
to put the money in their own pockets2  
and in #ahba it was only two hundred and
 six4 ,the circulation through the      
kingdom of ,great ,britain itself was   
not entirely free1 inasmuch as every    
newspaper sent through the post office  
was charged for by weight1 at an        
exorbitant rate1 unless it was franked  
by a member of ,parliament4 ,this       
regulation continued in force until     
#ahbe1 when an act was passed which     
provided that newspapers should be sent 
through the post free1 on condition that
 they were open at both ends1 and had no
 other writing upon the cover than the  

necessary address4 ,at the same time the
 ridiculous acts which limited the size 
of newspapers were done away with1 and  
every printer was henceforth permitted  
to print his journal upon any sized     
sheet he pleased4 ,two important        
concessions were also made to the press 
at this date1 one in the ,house of      
,commons1 and the other in the ,house of
 ,lords4 ,in the former1 a portion of   
the strangers' gallery was set apart for
 the exclusive use of the reporters2 and
 in the latter1 reporters were permitted
 to be present for the first time4      
,previously to this1 if any one had been
 rash enough to attempt to take any     
notes1 an official would pounce upon    
him1 and1 with an air of offended       
dignity well befitting that august      
assembly1 strike the offending pencil   
from his grasp6  ,in #ahbe1 ,joseph     
,hume attempted to get the stamp duty   
reduced on newspapers to twopence1 and  
the advertisement duty to one shilling2 
and in #ahbg he tried to gain an        

exemption from the stamp act for        
political pamphlets2 but he was defeated
 on each occasion4 ,in #ahbg1 ,the      
,standard was started as a ,tory organ1 
under the auspices of a knot of able    
writers1 the chief of whom were ,dr4    
,giffard1 the editor1 ,alaric ,attila   
,watts1 and ,dr4 ,maginn4 ,it has always
 possessed a good connection among the  
,conservative party1 but has never been 
a very profitable concern4 ,after the   
abolition of the stamp duty its price   
was reduced to twopence1 and in #aheh to
 one penny1 and it was the first of the 
daily journals to offer a double sheet  
at that price4 ,in recent times the     
,letters of ',manhattan' have given an  
impulse to its circulation1 from their  
novelty of style--an impulse which was  
probably further aided by the ridiculous
 but widely believed assertion that     
those letters had never crossed the     
,atlantic1 but were penned beneath the  
shadow of ,st4 ,paul's4  ,the following 
statistics of newspapers in the chief   

countries of ,europe in #ahbg1 will     
probably prove interesting3 ,france1    
with a population of--in round          
numbers--thirty-two millions1 possessed 
#dij journals2 the ,germanic            
,confederation1 with a population of    
thirteen millions1 #cje2 ,prussia1 with 
a population of twelve millions1 #bhh2  
,bavaria1 with a population of four     
millions1 #dh2 the ,netherlands1 with a 
population of six millions1 #aej2       
,sweden and ,norway1 with a population  
of four millions1 #hb2 and ,denmark1    
with a population of two millions1 #hj4 
,great ,britain1 with a population of   
twenty-three millions1 far outstripped  
them all1 for she boasted #dhc          
newspapers2 but was yet compelled to    
yield the palm to her ,transatlantic    
kinsmen1 for the ,united ,states1 at the
 same date1 with a population of twelve 
millions1 circulated the unequalled     
number of #hjj4 ,in looking at these    
figures1 one cannot help being struck   
with the enormous disproportion between 

the journals of ,roman ,catholic and    
,protestant countries--a disproportion  
which is so significant that comment    
upon it is unnecessary4 ,but the        
difference is still more plainly shown  
if we take two capitals4 ,rome1 with a  
population of one hundred and fifty-four
 thousand1 possessed only #c newspapers1
 while ,copenhagen1 with a population of
 one hundred and nine thousand1 enjoyed 
the advantage of having #ec4 ,the       
,london papers were #ajj1 the ,english  
provincial papers #bbe1 the ,irish      
papers #he1 the ,scotch #fc1 and the    
,welsh #aj4 ,the number of stamps issued
 was more than twenty-seven millions1 of
 which ,london alone consumed more than 
fifteen millions2 the number of         
advertisements was seven hundred and    
seventy thousand1 of which ,london      
supplied nearly a half2 and the amount  
of advertisement duty was #ef1jjj1 of   
which ,london contributed #bb1jjj4  ,the
 year #ahbi is remarkable for the first 
appearance of ,the ,times with a double 

sheet1 consisting of eight pages1 or    
forty-eight columns4 ,this great step in
 advance must have quite answered the   
expectations of its spirited proprietor1
 for in #ahcj ,the ,times paid to       
,government for stamps and advertisement
 duty no less than #gj1jjj4 ,the day of 
perfect freedom was beginning to dawn   
upon the press1 although it took a      
quarter of a century to remove the last 
fetter1 the stamp1 and still longer1 if 
we take into consideration the paper    
duty1 which was removed in #ahfb4 ,first
 came the abolition of the most         
oppressive portion of ,lord             
,castlereagh's ,six ,acts1 next the     
advertisement duties1 and finally the   
stamp4 ,the high price of the stamp1    
fourpence1 kept the better journals at  
sevenpence1 but a numerous class of     
unstamped journals at twopence sprang up
 in defiance of the law1 and were       
allowed for a time to go on unchecked4  
,they had a large circulation1 one of   
them1 ,the ,london ,dispatch1 attaining 

to twenty-five thousand a week4 ,growing
 bolder with their impunity1 they       
indulged in the most abominable trash   
and the most frantic sedition and       
treason4 ,they were of course prosecuted
 and punished1 but they were never      
finally destroyed until the reduction of
 the stamp duty4 ,they did good         
indirectly1 for they formed one of the  
strongest arguments in favor of the     
abolition of that obnoxious impost4  ,in
 #ahcc a battle royal raged between     
,daniel ,o',connell and the press2 but1 
as might have been expected1 ,dan was no
 match for the hydra-headed antagonist  
he had been rash enough to provoke4 ,the
 quarrel originated in a complaint made 
by the ,liberator of a misrepresentation
 of a speech of his1 and he did this in 
so intemperate a manner that the        
reporters published a letter in ,the    
,times1 in which they expressed their   
determination never again to report a   
speech of ,o',connell's until he had    
apologized for the insults he had       

levelled at them4 ,o',connell vainly    
attempted to put the machinery of the   
,house of ,commons in motion against    
them1 but1 after repeated efforts1 was  
obliged to give in4 ,his attacks were   
principally levelled at ,the            
,times--which then counted among its    
contributors the brilliant names of     
,macaulay1 ,thackeray1 and              
,disraeli--for he and ,john ,walter were
 bitter foes4 ,but he evoked several    
powerful defenders of the press1 first  
and foremost among whom was ,sir ,robert
 ,peel4  ,in #ahcd the system of        
condensing the speeches in ,parliament1 
and placing the summary before the      
leading articles1 was first introduced  
into ,the ,times by ,horace ,twiss4 ,at 
this date there occurred a great schism 
between the proprietors and writers of  
,the ,sun1 some of whom seceded1 and    
brought out ,the ,true ,sun1 in         
opposition to that eccentric planet     
which always rises in the evening       
despite the general conviction of       

mankind that the sun is the luminary of 
the day4 ,douglas ,jerrold1 ,laman      
,blanchard1 and1 greatest of all1       
,charles ,dickens1 commenced their      
apprenticeship to literature in this    
journal1 which enjoyed1 however1 but a  
fleeting existence4 ,jerrold afterward  
started a paper of his own1 which       
failed1 and then became editor of       
,lloyd's ,weekly ,london ,newspaper1 a  
post which he retained until his death1 
and which has since been ably filled by 
his son ,blanchard ,jerrold4 ,laman     
,blanchard became the editor of ,the    
,courier1 but resigned it when it became
 a ,tory organ1 and was one of the      
original writers in and proprietors of  
,punch4 ,dickens transferred his        
services to ,the ,morning ,chronicle1 in
 the columns of which the ,sketches by  
,boz first appeared4 ,several acts of   
,parliament relating to newspapers were 
passed at this period4 ,in #ahcc the    
advertisement duty was reduced from     
three shillings and sixpence to one     

shilling and sixpence in ,england1 and  
one shilling in ,ireland4 ,in #ahcd an  
act was passed by which the newspapers  
of those foreign countries in which     
,english journals were admitted free of 
postage1 were allowed to enter ,great   
,britain on the same terms4 ,in #ahce a 
bill was passed to relieve the press    
from the action of common informers1 and
 placed them under the jurisdiction of  
the attorney-general alone2 and another1
 which forbade newspapers to publish    
lectures delivered at literary and      
scientific institutions1 without the    
permission of the lecturer4  ,the time  
was now fast approaching for the        
reduction of the stamp duty4 ,government
 was getting wearied of the war with the
 hydra-headed unstamped monster1 and at 
last adopted the only expedient likely  
to be successful in putting it down1    
which was to place the higher-class     
journals in a position to rival them4   
,from #ahca to #ahce there had been no  
less than seven hundred and twenty-eight

 prosecutions1 of which the year #ahce  
alone had produced two hundred and      
nineteen4 ,this fact1 joined to the     
influential agitation which was now     
being made for the repeal1 caused the   
,government to decide upon bringing in a
 measure of relief4 ,it took six months 
and an immense deal of speechifying to  
bring this measure to maturity2 but at  
last1 in #ahcf1 the stamp duty was      
reduced from fourpence to one penny1    
being one halfpenny less than it had    
been originally fixed at in #agfj4 ,the 
,tories were the great friends of this  
reduction1 and ,lord ,lyndhurst1 who had
 been instrumental in abolishing many of
 the most oppressive enactments with    
which the measure had been clogged1     
wished to do away with the duty         
altogether4 ,there was of course a loss 
to the revenue at first4 ,in the first  
half year of the new duty1 the number of
 stamps issued was #ba1cfb1adh1         
realizing #hh1ejb4 ,in the corresponding
 previous half year1 under the old      

scale1 the number of stamps had been    
#ad1hgd1feb1 and the amount paid1       
#aif1iji1 so that in six months the     
number of stamped newspapers had        
increased by about one half4  ,in #ahcg1
 ,the ,economist was started by ,john   
,wilson1 and attracted great attention  
by its statistical and                  
politico-economical articles1 ,wilson   
afterward became secretary of the       
treasury1 and1 having been sent to      
,india1 died there1 to add one more to  
the many illustrious victims that our   
,indian empire has exacted4 ,in #ahch a 
most amusing hoax was perpetrated upon  
,the ,morning ,post and ,morning        
,chronicle1 which announced the death of
 ,lord ,brougham1 and published a most  
elaborate biography of him4 ,but the    
next day there came a letter from ,lord 
,brougham1 declaring that he was still  
alive and hearty4 ,the joke1 however1   
did not end here--for people were ill   
natured enough to assert that he had    
been the author of the rumor himself1 in

 order to learn what the world would say
 about him2 and so widespread had this  
second rumor become1 that ,lord         
,brougham was compelled to write another
 letter contradicting it4  ,the next    
great event in the history of journalism
 is the commercial libel case1 ,boyle   
versus ,lawson1 the printer of ,the     
,times4 ,barnes had died1 and had been  
succeeded by ,john ,t4 ,delane1 a nephew
 of ,mr4 ,walter1 as editor1 who still  
continues to occupy that responsible    
post4 ,the matter originated thus3 ,in  
,may1 #ahda1 ,the ,times published a    
letter from the ,paris correspondent1   
containing the particulars of an        
organized system of forgery on a        
gigantic scale1 which had been agreed on
 by certain persons1 whose names were   
published in full4 ,the plan was to     
present simultaneously at the chief     
,continental cities letters of credit   
purporting to emanate from ,glynn  ,co41
 the ,london bankers4 ,the confederates 
had fixed the sum they meant to realize 

at one million1 and had actually secured
 more than #aj1jjj before the plot was  
discovered4 ,one of them was ,boyle1 a  
banker1 of good position1 at ,florence1 
and he brought an action for libel and  
defamation4 ,he pressed on the trial1   
but ,the ,times maintained its ground1  
and at an enormous expense despatched   
agents all over the ,continent to       
collect evidence4 ,the ,times           
triumphantly succeeded in proving the   
truth of what it--,the ,times is always 
spoken and written of as an             
individual--had printed2 but as the old 
law--the greater the truth the greater  
the libel--still existed1 the jury were 
compelled to find a verdict for the     
plaintiff1 which they did1 with one     
farthing damages1 and the judge clinched
 the matter by refusing the plaintiff   
his costs4 ,universal joy was expressed 
at the result of the trial1 and public  
meetings were called together in ,london
 and the chief ,continental cities for  
the purpose of making a subscription to 

defray the expenses of ,the ,times in   
defending the action4 ,the proprietors1 
however1 declined this1 but said that1  
at the same time1 they should feel much 
gratified if a sum of money were raised 
for some public object in commemoration 
of the event4 ,accordingly it was       
decided to found two scholarships in    
perpetuity for ,christ's ,hospital and  
the ,city of ,london ,school at the     
,universities of ,oxford and ,cambridge1
 to be called the ,times' ,scholarships1
 and the nomination to them to be placed
 in the hands of the proprietors of ,the
 ,times in perpetuity4 ,two marble      
tablets were also voted1 at the cost of 
a hundred and fifty guineas each1 with  
commemorative inscriptions1 one to be   
placed in ,the ,times office and the    
other in the ,royal ,exchange4 ,two     
somewhat similar tablets were also      
placed in ,christ's ,hospital and the   
,city of ,london ,school4 ,for these    
purposes the sum of #b1gjj was very     
quickly subscribed1 the lord mayor      

leading off with ten guineas4 ,if       
anything had been wanting to place ,the 
,times upon the pinnacle of preminence  
among journals1 this famous trial firmly
 established it there1 and ever since it
 has been looked up to as an oracle of  
the commercial world4 ,but ,the ,times  
was not contented to rest quietly on its
 oars4 ,it was ambitious1 and looked    
farther afield4 ,in #ahde1 its vigor1   
enterprise1 and disregard of expense    
were exemplified in a remarkable manner4
 ,the ,times had been in the habit of   
sending a special courier to            
,marseilles1 to bring its ,indian       
despatches1 and thus anticipate the     
regular course of the mail4 ,the ,french
 ,government threw every possible       
obstacle in the courier's way1 and ,the 
,times took ,lieutenant ,waghorn1 the   
originator of the ,overland ,route1 into
 its pay4 ,in ,october1 #ahde1 a special
 messenger met the mail on its arrival  
at ,suez on the #aith4 ,mounted on a    
dromedary1 he made his way1 without     

stopping1 to ,alexandria1 where ,waghorn
 awaited him with a steamer4 ,waghorn   
came vi ,trieste--special post horses   
and steamers and trains being ready for 
him at the various points of the        
route--and he reached ,london on the    
morning of the #cast1 in time for his   
despatches to appear in the morning's   
issue of the paper4 ,the result of this 
was that ,the ,times reached ,paris with
 the ,indian news from ,london before   
the regular mail had reached that city  
from ,marseilles4 ,the next noticeable  
enterprise of ,the ,times was the       
sending out commissioners to investigate
 the condition of the poor and laboring 
population of ,london in #ahdg1 an      
enterprise which was crowned with the   
moat satisfactory results4 ,the ,times  
has always been the firm friend of the  
poor1 and its columns are always open to
 the tale of distress4 ,no case is      
advocated until it has been thoroughly  
investigated2 but when once it has been 
mentioned in ,the ,times1 subscriptions 

pour in on all sides4 ,at the           
commencement of each year especially1   
,the ,times publishes gratuitously      
appeals from public charities1 and      
during last ,january the sums received  
through those appeals reached the large 
amount of #ab1jjj4 ,the last great      
exploit of ,the ,times was the sending  
forth a special correspondent with the  
,english army to the ,crimea1 a         
precedent which it has followed up since
 in ,china1 ,india1 ,italy1 ,america1   
and ,schleswig-,holstein4 ,but this was 
not the first occasion that reporters   
had accompanied our armies1 for ,canning
 despatched reporters with the troops   
sent to ,portugal in #ahbf4 ,the tactics
 of ,the ,times are very generally      
misunderstood and misrepresented4       
,whatever objections cavillers and      
opponents may urge1 and with truth      
too--for the course taken by ,the ,times
 is not to be praised on all            
occasions--it cannot be denied that ,the
 ,times is the first journal in the     

world1 a position which it has reached  
by its enterprise1 vigor1 and ability4  
,it has frequently proved its           
disinterestedness1 and during the great 
railway mania of #ahde1 while it was    
receiving no less a sum than #f1jjj     
weekly for advertisements1 constantly   
cautioned its readers against the       
prevailing madness1 and persistently    
predicted the crash that was certain to 
follow4 ,the ,times1 while it appears to
 lead1 in reality waits upon public     
opinion1 and hence the accusations of   
inconsistency and tergiversation so     
freely lavished upon it4 ,the ,times is 
the printed breath of public opinion4   
,it throws out a feeler1 perhaps1 though
 not quite at first1 accompanied by some
 decided expression of opinion1 and     
carefully watches the effect upon the   
public mind4 ,should that effect be     
different to what was expected1 ,the    
,times knows how to veer round with the 
popularis aura4 ,this is not always1    
however1 done so skilfully but that the 

act is apparent4 ,it is not the most    
dignified course that a journal which   
aspires to be--and which is--the leading
 journal of ,europe ought to pursue2 but
 ,the ,times knows human nature1 and    
knows1 too1 that were it to adopt any   
other course1 it would fall from its    
high estate1 and become a mere party    
organ4 ,moreover1 ,the ,times possesses 
an enormous prestige--deservedly won1 as
 this article has endeavored to         
show--and that1 in a conservative       
country like ,england1 is considerably  
more than half the battle4  ,in #ahdb   
appeared the first pictorial newspaper1 
,the ,illustrated ,london ,news4 ,it was
 started by ,herbert ,ingram1 who began 
life as a provincial newsboy1 and died1 
in the vigor of his age1 member of      
,parliament for his native town4 ,it was
 a success from the first1 so great that
 numerous competitors sprang up and     
endeavored to undersell it4 ,but these  
were all vastly inferior1 and one by one
 withered away1 the most persistent of  

them at last passing into the hands of  
,the ,illustrated ,london ,news1 which  
now enjoys a larger circulation than any
 other weekly newspaper1 amounting to   
about six millions a year6  ,there was a
 satirical paper at this time1 called   
,the ,age1 which1 being of a strongly   
libellous character1 was continually    
feeling the weight of the law4 ,it did  
not improve in character as it grew     
older1 and its editor1 ,tommy ,holt1 was
 proved upon a trial to have received   
bribes to suppress a slander that he had
 threatened should appear in his paper4 
,this same ,tommy ,holt was very        
successful in inventing 'sensation'     
headings for his columns1 and by no     
means either delicate or scrupulous in  
so doing4 ,there was another rascally   
paper of the same description1 called   
,the ,satirist1 which was at last       
finally crushed by the ,duke of         
,brunswick1 the result of several       
actions for libel4 ,among other new     
literary oddities at this time may be   

mentioned ,the ,fonetic ,nuz1 the organ 
of those enthusiastic reformers who were
 endeavoring to accomplish a revolution 
in our orthography4 ,it lasted1 however1
 but a very short time4  ,the year #ahej
 saw the initiation of the final        
campaign directed against the only      
remaining burdens of the press4 ,mr4    
,ewart and ,mr4 ,milner ,gibson brought 
forward a motion for the repeal of the  
advertisement duty1 but were defeated by
 two hundred and eight votes to         
thirty-nine4 ,but they were not cast    
down by their want of success1 but      
manfully returned to the charge4 ,in    
#ahea1 they procured the appointment of 
a committee to inquire into the         
question1 and in #aheb1 gathering       
strength1 like ,william of ,orange1 from
 each successive defeat1 they brought   
forward a triple set of resolutions1 one
 for the abolition of the advertisement 
duty1 another levelled at the stamp1 and
 the third for the repeal of the paper  
duties4 ,they carried the first1 but    

lost the others4 ,in #ahed1 ,mr4 ,gibson
 made a fresh motion concerning the laws
 affecting the press1 and received a    
promise that the subject should receive 
the early attention of the ,house2 and  
in #ahee1 ,sir ,g4,c4 ,lewis1 then      
chancellor of the exchequer1 who had    
hitherto opposed the repeal of the duty1
 brought in a bill for its abolition4   
,after a struggle in both ,houses the   
measure passed1 and received the royal  
assent on the #aeth of ,june4  ,in      
following up this final struggle1 we    
have passed over one important period1  
the railway mania in #ahde1 which gave  
birth to no less than twenty-nine       
newspapers1 entirely occupied with      
railway intelligence1 in ,london1       
besides many others in the provinces4   
,only two of these have survived1 for   
the other two railway newspapers which  
still exist were established before that
 memorable madness fell upon the nation4
 ,of these1 ,herapath's ,journal is the 
oldest and best1 and is the oracle of   

the ,stock ,exchange on railway matters4
 ,there are some slight symptoms of the 
madness returning in the present year1  
as far at least as the metropolis is    
concerned1 and one new railway journal  
has just been started in consequence4   
,there are many amusing anecdotes told  
of newspapers at this epoch1 of which we
 will quote one4 ,one of these railway  
organs had published and paid for1 from 
time to time1 lengthy and elaborate     
reports of the meetings of a certain    
company1 supplied by one of the staff of
 reporters4 ,at length the editor told  
the reporter that he thought it was high
 time for the company to give the paper 
an advertisement1 after all the         
favorable notices that bad been given to
 the undertaking in question4 ,the      
reporter acquiesced1 and promised to get
 the order for an advertisement1 but    
putting it off from time to time1 the   
editor was induced to make inquiries for
 himself2 whereupon he had the extreme  
satisfaction of learning that no such   

company had ever existed1 and that the  
elaborate reports of meetings1 speeches1
 etc41 had been entirely fabricated by  
his ingenious employ6 ,an endeavor was  
made last year to resuscitate one of    
these defunct daily journals1 ,the ,iron
 ,times1 and ,tommy ,holt was the       
editor4 ,it lingered for some weeks1 and
 then smashed utterly4 ,the editor      
called the contributors together1 and   
told them that there was nothing to pay 
them with--nothing in fact remained but 
the office furniture4 ',take that1 my   
boys1' said he1 'and divide it among    
you4' ,this was accordingly done1 and   
one man marched off with a table1       
another with a chair1 a third with a    
desk1 a fourth with an inkstand1 and so 
on6  ,when the stamp duty was abolished 
as a tax1 it remained optional with the 
publishers to have any number of their  
issue stamped they pleased for          
transmission through the poet4 ,the     
number of stamps thus issued in the     
first six months after the repeal was   

#ba1fdf1fhh1 whereas the number in the  
corresponding period of #ahed1 when the 
tax still existed1 was #ee1gcb1dii4 ,the
 number of stamps issued in the year    
#ahed to the principal newspapers was as
 follows3 ,times1 #ae1ige1gci2 ,morning 
,advertiser1 #b1cib1ghj2 ,daily ,news1  
#a1dhe1jii2 ,morning ,herald1           
#a1aeh1jjj2 ,morning ,chronicle1        
#hgc1ejj2 ,the ,globe1 #hej1jjj2 and    
,the ,morning ,post1 #hcb1ejj4 ,of the  
weeklies1 ,the ,illustrated ,london     
,news was then the second1 #e1fbg1hff2  
,the ,news of the ,world1 a ,liberal1   
unillustrated journal1 started in #ahdc1
 standing first1 with #e1fgc1ebe 7the   
price of this paper is now reduced to   
twopence1 and it is an admirably        
conducted journal72 ,lloyd's ,weekly    
,newspaper1 #e1egb1hig2 ,the ,weekly    
,times1 price one penny1 #c1ijb1afi2    
,reynolds's ,weekly ,newspaper1 also a  
penny journal1 which is best described  
by the epithet 'rabid1' #b1dif1bef2 ,the
 ,weekly ,dispatch1 price fivepence1 an 

advanced ,liberal journal1 which is     
emphatically the workingman's newspaper1
 and originally started in #ahja1       
#a1ihb1icc2 ,bell's ,life in ,london1   
#a1afa1jjj4 ,of the provincial          
newspapers1 ,the ,manchester ,guardian  
heads the list with #a1jff1ege1 followed
 by ,the ,liverpool ,mercury1 with      
#iab1jjj1 and ,the ,leeds ,mercury1 with
 #gce1jjj4 ,foremost among the ,scotch  
newspapers stands ,the ,north ,british  
,advertiser1 with #hjh1jjb2 and the     
,irish paper with the largest           
circulation was ,the ,telegraph1 with   
#iei1jjj4 ,of the ,london literary      
papers the chief was ,the ,examiner1    
with #bdh1efj4 ,with one or two         
exceptions1 the circulation of these    
journals may be considered to have      
increased enormously4 ,there are now    
published in ,great ,britain #a1cej     
different newspapers1 of which #bdj are 
,london papers1 #bj being dailies1 #ggf 
,english provincial papers1 #adc ,irish1
 #adj ,scotch1 #cg ,welsh1 and #ad are  

published in the ,british ,isles4 ,many 
of these enjoy but a limited            
circulation1 as naturally follows from  
the narrow limit they assign to         
themselves4 ,thus several trades have   
their special organs1 as for instance1  
the grocers1 the bakers1 and even the   
hairdressers among others4  ,before     
concluding this article it will be well 
to notice a few of the leading journals 
which have not been mentioned4 ,the     
,daily ,telegraph was originally started
 at twopence1 in #ahee1 by ,colonel     
,sleigh1 but he1 getting behindhand with
 his printers to the amount of #a1jjj1  
sold them the paper for another #a1jjj1 
and in their hands it has since         
remained4 ,the price was reduced to a   
penny1 and1 under the new management1   
its circulation rapidly increased4 ,the 
,standard dealt a heavy blow at it in   
#aheh1 by coming out suddenly one       
morning1 without any previous warning1  
as a double sheet4 ,this first number   
was given away in the streets1 in vast  

quantities1 thrown into omnibuses and   
cabs1 pitched into shops and public     
houses1 and so on4 ,the sale of ,the    
,telegraph so decreased that it was     
found necessary to enlarge it to the    
same size as ,the ,standard1 when its   
circulation rose again immediately4 ,it 
has now the largest circulation in the  
world1 more than #ajj1jjj daily1 a much 
larger ,london circulation than ,the    
,times1 though a smaller provincial and 
foreign sale2 and its clear profits are 
variously stated by persons who profess 
to be well informed1 at different sums1 
the least of which is #bj1jjj a year4   
,the chief causes of its success are its
 independent and uncompromising tone1   
the great pains it takes to gain early  
intelligence--it has frequently         
anticipated ,the ,times itself in       
foreign news--and the vigorous and able 
social articles of ,mr4 ,george         
,augustus ,sala4 ,the ,daily ,news was  
started as a ,liberal and ,reform       
journal in #ahdf4 ,an enormous sum of   

money was sunk in establishing it1 for  
it was not at first successful4 ,charles
 ,dickens was the first editor1 but     
politics were not much in the line of   
the genial and unrivalled novelist1 and 
he was soon succeeded by ,john ,forster 
and ,charles ,wentworth ,dilke1 whose   
connection with the ,south ,kensington  
,museum and the great ,exhibition has   
made him a knight1 a ,c4 ,b41 and a very
 important personage4 ,the ,daily ,news 
is now one of the ablest and most       
successful of ,london journals1 and has 
had and still enjoys the assistance of  
the best writers of the day in every    
department4 ,the line which this journal
 has always maintained toward ,america  
will forever earn it the admiration and 
gratitude of the ,united ,states4       
,another firm friend of the great       
republic is ,the ,morning ,star1 the    
organ of ,mr4 ,bright and the           
,manchester school1 started in #ahef4   
,in addition to its political claims1 it
 has a great hold upon the public as a  

family newspaper1 by the careful manner 
in which everything objectionable is    
excluded from its columns4 ,its twin    
sister1 born at the same time1 is called
 ,the ,evening ,star4 ,bell's ,life in  
,london1 a weekly journal1 was          
originally brought out in #ahbj1 and1   
although it has more than one successful
 rival to contend against1 it still     
maintains its preminence as the first   
,english sporting paper4 ,it is very    
carefully edited1 each department being 
placed under a separate editor1 and is  
the great oracle in all matters relating
 to sports and games4 ,the history of   
one of the ablest contributors to this  
journal1 who wrote some most charming   
articles on fly-fishing and other       
kindred topics1 under the signature of  
',ephemera'--though he was said never to
 have thrown a fly in his life--is a    
very sad one4 ,his name was ,fitzgerald1
 a man of good family and connections1  
married to a lady with #a1bjj a year1   
and living in a good house at the ,west 

,end4 ,but the alcoholic demon had got  
hold of him4 ,he would disappear for    
days together1 and then suddenly present
 himself at the office of the paper with
 nothing on but a shirt and trousers4   
,he would then sit down and write an    
article1 receive his pay1 go away and   
purchase decent clothes1 return home1   
and live quietly perhaps for a month1   
when he would--to use a prison          
phrase--break out again as before4 ,he  
was last seen1 in the streets of        
,london1 in a state of complete         
intoxication1 being carried upon a      
stretcher by two policemen to the police
 cell1 where he died the same night4    
,at the head of the ,sunday papers      
stands ,the ,observer1 founded in #agib4
 ,like ,the ,globe1 it is extremely well
 informed upon all political matters1   
for very good reasons4 ,it spares no    
expense in obtaining early news1 and is 
an especial favorite with the clubs4    
,the ,era is the great organ of the     
theatrical world1 but joins to that     

specialit the general attributes of an  
ordinary weekly journal4 ,it was        
established in #ahcg4 ,the ,field1 which
 calls itself the country gentleman's   
newspaper1 is all that it professes to  
be1 and a most admirable publication1   
treating of games1 sports1 natural      
history1 and rural matters generally4   
,it was started by ,mr4 ,benjamin       
,webster1 the accomplished actor        
manager1 in #ahec4 ,but to particularize
 the principal papers1 even in a short  
separate notice of a few lines1 would   
far transgress the limits at our        
disposal4 ,all the professions are well 
supplied with journals devoted to their 
interests1 and it is impossible here to 
dwell upon them or those which represent
 literature and the fine arts4 ,with    
regard to religious papers1 their name  
is legion1 and they would require a     
separate article to be fairly and       
honestly considered4 ,punch1 too1 and   
his rivals1 dead and living1 are in the 
same category1 and must1 however        

reluctantly1 be passed over4 ,two       
curiosities1 however1 of the press must 
be mentioned4 ,public ,opinion was      
started about two years and a half ago4 
,it consisted of weekly extracts from   
the leading articles of ,english and    
foreign journals1 and scraps of news1   
and other odds and ends4 ,it has        
succeeded mainly from its cost of       
production being so slight1 owing to its
 paste-and-scissors character1 and also 
because it freely opens its columns to  
correspondents de rebus omnibus1 who are
 willing to buy any number of copies for
 the pleasure of seeing themselves in   
print4 ,the ,literary ,times1 in        
addition to reviews of books1 professed 
to criticize the leading articles in the
 various papers1 but1 after an existence
 of some six months or so1 one ,saturday
 morning ,the ,literary ,times was non  
est inventus4  ,in concluding this      
series of articles1 which has run to a  
much greater length than he originally  
intended1 the writer is conscious of    

many shortcomings and omissions1 which  
he trusts will be pardoned and          
overlooked when his principal object is 
borne in mind4 ,that object has been to 
give a general outline of the history of
 the press1 and especially of its       
struggles against 'the powers which be2'
 and1 though tempted now and again--he  
fears too often for the patience of his 
readers--to wander away into            
particularities1 he has always          
endeavored to keep that object in view4 
,above all1 he hopes he has at least    
been successful in showing the truth of 
that sentiment which was first publicly 
expressed as a toast at a ,whig dinner1 
at the ,crown and ,anchor tavern1 in    
#agie3 ',the liberty of the press--it is
 like the air we breathe--if we have it 
not1 we die6'     ,,our ,,martyrs4      
,lightly the river runs between         
,hanging cliffs and meadows green4      
,blackly the prison1 looking down1      
,frowns at its shadow's answering frown4
    ,shut from life in his life's fresh 

morn1   ,crouches a soldier1 wounded and
 worn4    ,chained and starved in the   
dungeon grim1   ,day and night are alike
 to him2    ,save that the murmurous    
twilight air   ,stings his soul with a  
deeper despair4    ,day by day1 as the  
taunting breeze   ,wafts him the breath 
of orange trees1    ,he fancies in      
meadows far away   ,the level lines of  
odorous hay2    ,and sees the scythes of
 the mowers run   ,in and out of the    
steady sun4    ,night by night1 as the  
mounting moon   ,climbs from his eager  
gaze too soon1    ,the gleams that      
across the gratings fall1   ,broken and 
bright1 on the prison wall1    ,seem the
 tangles of ,northern rills1   ,like    
threads of silver winding the hills4    
,when1 sinking into the western skies1  
,the sun aslant on the window lies2     
,and motes that hovered dusty and dim1  
,golden-winged through the glory swim3  
,he drops his head on his fettered      
hands1   ,and thinks of the fruitful    
,northern lands4    ,between his        

fingers' wasted lines1   ,tear after    
tear into sunlight shines1    ,as1      
wandering in a dream1 he treads   ,the  
ripened honey of clover heads2    ,or   
watches the sea of yellow grain   ,break
 into waves on the windy plain2    ,or  
sees the orchard's grassy gloom         
,spotted with globes of rosy bloom4     
,through the shimmer of shadowy haze    
,redden the hills with their autumn     
blaze4    ,the oxen stand in the loaded 
teams2   ,the cider bubbles in amber    
streams2    ,and child-like laughter and
 girlish song   ,float with the reaper's
 shout along4    ,he stirs his hands1   
and the jealous chain   ,wakes him once 
more to his tyrant pain--    ,to        
festered wounds1 and to dungeon taint1  
,and hunger's agony1 fierce and faint4  
,the sunset vision fades and flits1     
,and alone in his dark'ning cell he     
sits3    ,alone with only the jailers   
grim1   ,hunger and ,pain1 that clutch  
at him2    ,and1 tight'ning his fetters1
 link by link1   ,drag him near to a    

ghastly brink2    ,where1 in the        
blackness that yawns beneath1   ,stalks 
the skeleton form of ,death4            
,starved1 and tortured1 and worn with   
strife2   ,robbed of the hopes of his   
fresh1 young life2--    ,shall one pang 
of his martyr pain   ,cry to a sleepless
 ,god in vain8     ,,none3  ,a ,,tale   
,,of ,,slave ,,life ,,in ,,rome4        
,,chapter ,x4  ,but though none's       
sanguinely conceived plan for ,cleotos's
 happiness had so cruelly failed1 it was
 not in her heart to yield to his       
passionate1 unreflecting demand1 and    
send him away from her1 even to a kinder
 home than he would have found at the   
house of the captain ,polidorus4 ,it    
would but increase his ill fortune1 by  
enforcing still greater isolation from  
every fount of human sympathy4 ,though  
the affection of the wily ,leta had been
 withdrawn from him1 her own secret     
friendship yet remained1 and could be a 
protection to him as long as he was at  
her side2 and in many ways she could yet

 extend her care and favor to him1 until
 such time as an outward-bound vessel   
might be found in which to restore him  
to his native country4  ,whether there  
was any instinct at the bottom of her   
heart1 telling her that in the          
possibility of trying events to come his
 friendship might be equally serviceable
 to her1 and that1 even in the mere     
distant companionship of a slave with   
his mistress1 she might feel a certain  
protecting influence1 she did not stop  
to ask4 ,neither did she inquire whether
 she wished to retain him for his own   
benefit alone1 and without thought of   
any happiness or comfort to be derived  
by her from his presence4 ,had she been 
accustomed closely to analyze her       
feelings1 she might have perceived1     
perhaps1 that1 in her growing isolation1
 it was no unpleasant thing to look upon
 the features and listen to the tones   
which carried her memory back to her    
early days of poverty1 when1 except for 
a short interval1 her life had been at  

its happiest4 ,but had she known and    
acknowledged all this1 it would not have
 startled her1 for she would have felt  
that1 in her heart1 there was not the   
slightest accompanying shade of         
disloyalty4 ,her nature was not one to  
admit of sudden transfers of allegiance4
 ,it was rather one in which a real love
 would last forever4 ,when the first    
romantic liking for ,cleotos had        
consumed itself1 from the ashes there   
had sprung no new passion for him1 but  
merely the flowers of earnest1          
true-hearted friendship4 ,and it was her
 misfortune1 perhaps1 that the real love
 for another which had succeeded would  
not in turn consume itself1 but would   
continue to flourish green and          
perennial1 though now seemingly fated to
 bask no longer in the sunshine of      
kindly words and actions1 but only to   
cower beneath the chill of harsh and    
wanton neglect4  ,cleotos therefore     
remained--at first passing weary days of
 bitter1 heartbreaking despondency4 ,his

 lost liberty he had borne without much 
complaint1 for it was merely the fortune
 of war1 and hundreds of his countrymen 
were sharing the same fate with him4    
,but to lose that love upon which he had
 believed all the happiness of his life 
depended1 was a blow to which1 for a    
time1 no philosophy could reconcile     
him--the more particularly as the manner
 in which that loss had been forced upon
 him seemed1 to his sensitive nature1 to
 be marked by peculiar severity4 ,to    
have had her torn from him in any       
ordinary way--to part with her in some  
quarrel in which either side might be   
partially right1 and thenceforth never  
to see her again--or to be obliged to   
yield her up to the superior claims of  
an open1 generous rivalry--any of these 
things would1 in itself1 have been      
sufficient affliction4 ,but it was far  
worse than all this to be obliged to    
meet her at every turn1 holding out her 
hand to him in pleasant greeting1 and   
uttering words of welcoming import2 and 

all with an unblushing appearance of    
friendly interest1 as though his        
relations with her had never been other 
than those of a fraternal character1 and
 as though1 upon being allowed her mere 
friendship1 there could be nothing of   
which he had a right to complain4  ,at  
first1 in the agony of his heart1 he had
 no strength to rise above the weight   
which crushed him1 and to obey the      
counsels of his pride so far as to play 
before her a part of equally assumed    
indifference4 ,to her smiling greetings 
he could return only looks of bitter    
despair or passionate entreaty--vainly  
hoping that he might thereby arouse her 
better nature1 and bring her in         
repentance back to him4 ,and at first   
sight it seemed not impossible that such
 a thing might take place2 for1 in the  
midst of all her change of conduct and  
wilful avoidance of allusion to the     
past1 she felt no dislike of him4 ,it   
was merely her love for him that she had
 suppressed1 and in its place there     

still remained a warm regard4 ,if he    
could have been content with her        
friendship alone1 she would have granted
 it all1 and would have rejoiced1 for   
the sake of olden times1 to use her     
influence with others in aid of his     
upward progress4 ,perhaps there were    
even times when1 as she looked upon his 
misery and thought of the days not so   
very far back1 in which he had been all 
in all to her1 her heart may have been  
melted into something of its former     
affection4 ,but if so1 it was only for a
 moment1 nor did she ever allow the     
weakness to be seen4 ,her path had been 
taken1 and nothing now could make her   
swerve from it4 ,before her enraptured  
fancy gleamed the state and rank        
belonging to a patrician's wife2 and as 
she wove her toils with all the         
resources of her cunning1 the prize     
seemed to approach her nearer and       
nearer4 ,now having advanced so far1 she
 must not allow a momentary weakness to 
imperil all4 ,and therefore unwaveringly

 she daily met her former lover with the
 open smile of friendly greeting1       
inviting confidence1 mingled with the   
same indescribable glance1 forbidding   
any renewal of love4  ,and so days      
passed by1 and ,cleotos1 arousing from  
his apathetic despair1 felt more        
strongly that1 if the lapse of love into
 mere friendship is a misfortune1 the   
offer of friendship as a substitute for 
promised love is a mockery and an       
insult3 his soul rebelled at being made 
a passive party to such a bargain2 and  
he began himself to play the retaliatory
 part which a wronged nature naturally  
suggests to itself4 ,like ,leta1 he     
learned to hold out the limpid hand in  
careless greeting1 or to mutter         
meaningless and cold compliments1 and1  
in any communication with her1 to assume
 all the appearances of indifferent     
acquaintanceship4 ,at first1 indeed1 it 
was with an aching heart struggling in  
his breast1 and an agony of wounded     
spirit tempting him to cast away all    

such studied pretences1 and to throw    
himself upon her mercy1 and meanly beg  
for even the slightest return of her    
former affection4 ,but gradually1 as he 
perceived how vain would be such        
self-abasement1 and how its display     
would rather tend to add contempt to her
 indifference1 his pride came to rescue 
him from such a course2 and he began    
more and more to tune the temper of his 
mind to his actions1 and to feel        
something of the same coldness which he 
outwardly displayed4  ,not but that for 
a while such a disposition was forced   
and unnatural2 and however steadily     
composed he felt1 and strongly fortified
 in his stubborn pride1 a look or a word
 from her would have brought him again a
 willing slave to her feet4 ,but that   
look or word was not given4 ,perhaps1 in
 her eager struggle after the glittering
 prize which she had held out before    
herself1 she disdained the love which   
had once delighted her2 perhaps1        
actuated by a purer and less selfish    

motive1 her friendship for ,cleotos     
forbade her1 in mere wanton pride1 to   
keep open the wound which she had made4 
,whatever the reason1 the withdrawal of 
the fascinations which had once         
attracted him1 gave his mind leisure and
 opportunity to reason with itself in   
more quietude and composure than could  
have been expected4 ,and1 as he more and
 more began to realize how closely she  
was wrapped up in her ambition1 to the  
exclusion of any gentler feeling1 and   
how1 under the stimulant of her         
infatuated hopes1 she was allowing      
herself each day to act with less       
guarded resolution1 there were times    
when he found himself asking whether she
 had indeed changed from what she had   
been1 or whether1 on the contrary1 she  
had not always1 at heart1 been the same 
as now1 and his conception1 of her true 
character been at fault4  ,but1 in      
proportion as the veil of error seemed  
lifted from his soul1 letting calm      
content once more shine in upon him1 so1

 on the other hand1 did a night of      
despair slowly settle upon none4 ,by no 
reasoning could she longer urge upon    
herself the belief that the neglect with
 which her lord treated her could be    
traced to any inoffensive cause4 ,claims
 of court--urgency of military          
duties--exactions of business might     
easily account for transitory slights1  
but not for long-sustained periods of   
indifference1 unbroken by a single word 
of kindness4 ,and as days passed by and 
this indifference continued1 until at   
times seeming ready to give place to    
openly expressed dislike1 and her ears  
became more and more accustomed to words
 of hasty petulance1 and ,sergius grew  
still deeper absorbed in the infatuation
 which possessed him1 and less careful  
to conceal its influences from her1 and 
the ,greek girl glided hither and       
thither1 ever less anxious1 as she      
believed her triumph more nearly        
assured1 to maintain the humble guise   
which she had at first assumed1 none    

felt that there had indeed come upon her
 a sorrow from which there could be no  
escape4 ,there were a hundred methods of
 relief from it which hourly occurred to
 her agitated mind1 but one after       
another was in turn laid aside1 as she  
felt that it would but aggravate the    
evil1 or as the opportunity to employ it
 was not given her4 ,to make open       
complaint of her wrongs and try to drive
 ,leta from the house--to humble herself
 before her1 and thereby strive to move 
her pity--to reproach ,sergius for his  
neglect1 and demand that1 since he no   
longer loved her1 he would send her back
 to her native place1 away from the     
hollow world of ,rome--to assume toward 
him1 by a strong effort of will1 a like 
indifference--to watch until she could  
find some season when his better nature 
appeared more impressible1 and then to  
throw herself before him1 as she had    
once before done1 and plead for a return
 of his love--these and like expedients 
fruitlessly passed in review before her4

 ,all in turn failed in promise of      
relief2 and at times it seemed as though
 the only course left to her was to lie 
down in her sorrow and die4  ,it was no 
uncommon thing then1 as now1 for the    
husband to neglect his wife4 ,all ,rome 
rang with the frequent story of marital 
wrong4 ,but those were days in which the
 matron did not generally accept her    
desertion with meekness4 ,brought up in 
a fevered1 unscrupulous society1 she had
 her own retaliatory resources2 and if  
no efforts were sufficient to bring back
 the wandering affection1 she could     
recompense herself elsewhere for its    
loss1 secure that her wrongs would be   
held as a justification1 and that her   
associates1 equally aggrieved and       
avenged1 would applaud her course4 ,but 
with none1 brought up in a provincial   
town1 under the shelter of her own      
native purity and innocence1 no such    
idea could find countenance4 ,even the  
thought which sometimes dimly presented 
itself1 that by some harmless coquetry  

she might perhaps excite her husband's  
jealousy1 and thereby chance to win back
 his love1 was one which she always     
stifled in its beginning as weak and    
unworthy4  ,but the recompenses of      
friendship were still left to her1 and  
it was surely doing no wrong to accept  
them4 ,therefore the more she realized  
that her source of real happiness was   
becoming estranged from her1 so much the
 more did she feel naturally drawn      
toward the society of ,cleotos4 ,to her1
 of course1 he was not a mere slave1 but
 rather a person of equal birth with    
herself1 who had been beaten down by the
 same fate which had elevated her4 ,and 
in conversation with him1 it was easy to
 carry her mind back to her early home1 
and for a little while forget her       
present misery4 ,and he1 in turn1 having
 been repulsed where he had placed his  
highest hopes of happiness1 and         
imbittered with the disappointment1 was 
not at all loth to transfer1 in all     
innocence1 his devotion to one who      

extended such kindly condescension      
toward him4 ,it therefore happened that 
the two were naturally drawn much       
together1 and1 for a time1 without      
attracting invidious notice4 ,those were
 days in which the association between  
master and slave was often of an        
intimate character4 ,to the lower class 
of slaves1 indeed1 there could be no    
familiar approach4 ,it was sufficient   
for them that at times they could look  
upon the faces of their owners from a   
distance4 ,but above these1 were        
converging circles1 each rising in rank 
and responsibility1 until there were    
those who stood at their owners' right  
hands1 more in the position of friends  
and confidants than of menials4 ,of     
these was ,cleotos1 whose winning face  
and graceful mien1 joined to his natural
 abilities and his valued               
accomplishments1 would have insured him 
a higher position than that of most     
captives1 even if he had not been       
assisted by the partiality of his       

mistress4  ,it was his duty to announce 
her guests1 to trim the lamps at which  
she read1 to read to her when she felt  
indisposed to do so for herself2 to     
indite her correspondence--and generally
 to superintend all those little        
elegancies and demands of social life   
which require grace or mental ability in
 their execution4 ,these offices        
naturally kept him near her during much 
of each day--and when none and he were  
alone1 and no task was before him       
requiring immediate completion1 it was  
but to be expected that a mingling of   
curiosity and friendly interest should  
lead her to question him upon his past  
life1 his home1 his associates1 even his
 thoughts4 ,and often it as naturally   
happened that1 while he spoke1 the music
 of his voice lulled her into           
forgetfulness of all but the past1 and  
she would find herself unconsciously    
relaxing from the somewhat frigid       
dignity which she felt called upon to   
assume1 until her features must have    

glowed with some expression of her      
former familiar kindness4 ,for she would
 be suddenly startled back into her     
forced propriety by a strange and       
troubled look of puzzled thought        
flitting across his face--a look which  
she could read and analyze better than  
he could2 for it told her that1 without 
any real suspicion of the truth1 he was 
wondering at the likeness of that       
beaming face which bent over him to     
something which he had seen elsewhere in
 the past4  ,there was one morning that 
he sat before her by a little table     
where he had been writing a letter at   
her dictation4 ,the letter was folded   
and sealed1 and then ensued one of those
 vacant intervals when each1 having no  
pressing task at hand1 remains for a few
 moments listlessly thinking what shall 
be done next4 ,at that instant ,leta    
passed through the room--bowing low as  
she moved before her mistress1 and      
throwing out toward ,cleotos from the   
corner of her dark eye one of those     

aggravating looks in which friendly     
interest in him and pleasure at his     
sight were mingled with a certain cruel 
warning against any renewal of past     
memories4 ,cleotos retorted with a      
similar careless greeting1 expressive of
 simple friendliness1 unconscious of any
 warmer emotion4 ,but he had not yet    
perfectly learned his part2 for1 as     
,leta passed out of the room1 the quiver
 of his lip showed how difficult had    
been the task of mastering his forced   
smile even for that moment4  ',poor     
boy6' said1 none1 as she witnessed the  
effort4 ',you have not yet learned not  
to love her4'  ',not yet1 indeed1 my    
mistress1' he responded4 ',but it seems 
as though ,i knew the task better than  
last week1 and would know it still      
better a week hence4 ,what can ,i say8  
,it is not to be thought that ,i should 
lapse in a moment into real             
indifference1 even though ,i may find   
out that she is unworthy of love4 ,there
 cannot but be an interval during which 

the heart will struggle against the     
judgment1 and lead to foolish longings  
after what has passed4'  ',true1        
indeed1' said none4  ',and still1 in my 
heart1 ,i sometimes almost think that ,i
 have never loved her1' he continued in 
a reflective1 dreamy tone2 'that ,i have
 been under a spell--have been made the 
slave of certain outward fascinations1  
which have fettered my judgment4 ,can it
 be that one will think he loves and yet
 does not8'  ',it is indeed hard to     
answer1 ,i suppose4'  ',it must be hard2
 for wherein1 after all1 is the         
difference between being and thinking to
 be8 ,but yet it seems as though there  
were times1 even long past and before   
this captivity1 when1 being in our own  
land1 and with nothing to disturb us or 
make us doubtful of the future1 ,i      
looked upon her with a strange kind of  
fear--wondering whether1 though ,i loved
 her with so strong a passion1 it might 
not rather be the passion of an         
unlasting1 unsatisfying slavery of      

thought1 than of a calm1 lifelong       
trustfulness4 ,and now it seems to me   
that if ,i ever had this feeling--for ,i
 cannot certainly tell whether ,i ever  
had or only now imagine it--it seems to 
me as though it were an inner instinct  
warning me against evil2 for day by day 
,i see more clearly that there has been 
some veil over my soul1 hiding it from a
 clear perception of what was suitable  
for it4'  ',and you begin to dislike    
her8' inquired none4  ',not so1' he     
said4 ',nor do ,i know whether ,i ought 
to do so1 if ,i could4 ,i believe now   
that she does not1 and perhaps never has
 loved me1 but ,i must forgive her for  
all that4 ,she may have tried to do so1 
and for a time have thought that she    
did1 and the true blame may all the     
while have rested with me alone4 ,with  
her strong1 unbending temperament1      
fearless of correction1 and jealous of  
all control1 how1 indeed1 could she long
 cling to one of such a tranquil and    
yielding nature as myself8 ,that she    

loved me not1 proves not that she could 
love no one2 and though she now seems so
 coldly heartless and so rashly heedless
 of her fame1 yet who knows what she    
might have been if fettered by the love 
of a spirit more imperious than her own8
 ,who can tell how the great good that  
is within her might then have conquered 
the evil1 and her soul have spurned its 
present headstrong course1 and          
gloriously aroused itself to its sole   
great duty of love and innocent         
trustfulness8'  ',these1 indeed1 are    
very far from being words of dislike1'  
said none2 'and they only prove that you
 still love her1 or you would not so    
readily excuse her4'  ',neither have ,i 
denied that ,i love her yet1' he said4  
',but it is not with as blind an        
affection as before4 ,her touch1 her    
words1 her smile--if given with real    
love--would still please me as of old2  
and yet ,i should feel that there was   
something gone from me forever4 ,even if
 we were restored to our own isle1 with 

no enemy near or rival to interrupt us1 
,i could not but henceforth feel that   
destiny had not meant her for me1 so    
much would her stronger nature be ill   
assorted with my own4 ,and sometimes--' 
',well8'  ',sometimes--now that this    
thraldom of my spirit is passing        
off--there comes back to me the memory  
of another face1 a gentle1 loving       
face--which1 if it were possible ever to
 see it again1 ,i have too long         
forgotten1 but which1 if ,i may not see 
it more1 ,i should1 for my own sake1    
have forgotten long ago4 ,but all this1 
honored mistress1 can be of no interest 
to you1 and therefore it were foolish to
 mention it4'  ',nay1 speak to me of    
it1' murmured none2 and1 struggle as she
 would1 the telltale blood began to flow
 up into her face4 ',is there any woman 
who does not care to listen to a love   
story8' she added1 as though in excuse  
for her curiosity4  ',it is but a common
 love tale1' he said1 'and the more so  
that nothing came of it4 ,a few stolen  

interviews--a few promises              
exchanged--and then a parting forever4  
,that is all4'  ',but where and when was
 this8'  ',six years ago1 at ,ostia4    
,for1 though a ,greek1 ,i have been in  
this land before now4 ,i was a sailor   
then1 and in that port ,i met her4 ,met 
her and loved her1 and promised to      
return again4 ,and for a while ,i meant 
to do so2 but on our passage back our   
ship was wrecked4 ,i could not at once  
find place upon another1 and so took    
employment on the shore--none the less1 
however1 intending some day to come back
 and claim her4 ,what shall ,i say8 ,it 
is the old story4 ,the sea is wide1 and 
,i could interchange no tidings with    
her4 ,ill success followed me1 and ,i   
could not return to ,ostia4 ,then1      
little by little1 as the months drifted 
past1 and ,i believed her lost to me1   
her image began to fade from my memory4 
,and then ,i saw ,leta2 and under the   
spell of that new charm1 it seemed to me
 as though the other one had lost all   

grasp upon my mind4 ,not altogether1    
though1 for even at the height of my    
later love1 ,i have always borne about  
me the last keepsake that she had given 
me4'  ',let me see it1 what it is like1'
 said none1 faintly2 and in obedience to
 her command1 and perhaps wondering a   
little that she should take such        
interest in so simple a story1 ,cleotos 
drew from beneath his tunic a thread    
with a coin dangling at the end4  ,the  
tears struggled into none's eyes as she 
gazed upon the token4 ,it was a poor    
little silver coin of the time of the   
first ,csars--one of the few curiosities
 of her father's family--and which she  
had given to her lover as the most      
precious thing belonging to her4 ,she   
remembered that when1 in that last      
stroll by the shore1 she had hung it    
about his neck with her own hands1 and  
had made him promise always to keep it1 
she had received from him a similar     
token--a bright silver piece of         
,vespasian1 and had placed it near her  

heart1 while murmuring similar vows4 ,he
 had kept his word1 and she had not kept
 hers4 ,for the moment1 she felt even   
guilty of bad faith1 forgetting that    
when she afterward gave her more mature 
affection to ,sergius1 it was only her  
duty to lay aside all that even         
whispered of past promises4  ',i could  
not bear to part with it1' he said2 'for
 it still spoke to me of her friendship1
 if not of her love4 ,and a             
superstitions thought came into my mind 
that ,i might some day see her again1   
and that1 though we should not meet as  
lovers1 yet she might1 perhaps1 be      
pleased to learn that ,i had not        
entirely forgotten her4 ,would she not1 
noble lady1 do you think8'  ',she       
does--that is1 it surely should so move 
her1' said none4  ',so have ,i still    
worn it1' he continued4 ',and somehow   
each day brings back the recollection of
 her more faithfully to me4 ,whether it 
is because this other absorbing love is 
passing from my heart1 and leaving to me

 greater freedom of thought--or whether 
it is that ,ostia is now so near to me  
that ,i daily hear of it and see its    
costumes in the streets1 and thus my    
recollection of the place is kindled    
anew--or whether it is--'  ',is what8'  
said none1 encouragingly4  ',i know not 
how to dare say it1' he stammered4 ',it 
is a presumption1 indeed1 but ,i mean it
 not for such4 ,i would say that there  
is something in your face1 most noble   
mistress--a look--a flash of thought--a 
glance of the eye--a something ,i know  
not what1 which reminds me of her whom  
,i knew so many years ago4 ,so that     
sometimes1 were it not for the          
difference of dress and all else around 
you1 so much at variance with what had  
been her state1 ,i could almost forget  
the lapse of years1 and imagine         
that--,pardon1 most noble lady6 ,i meant
 not to offend6'  ,for she had arisen2  
and now1 drawn to her full height1 was  
looking down upon him with all the      
coldness of patrician dignity that she  

could summon to her aid4 ,he1 too1      
arose1 and stood trembling opposite her4
 ,for a moment they remained gazing upon
 each other2 he aghast at the apparent  
consequences of his remark1 reproaching 
himself for having so inconsiderately   
raised her anger by daring to compare1  
even in feature1 a lowly country girl   
with her1 and despairingly asking       
himself what he should do to restore    
himself to her favor--she more and more 
wrapping herself in a disguise of       
outward pride and haughty bearing1 lest 
by some chance his unsuspecting eyes    
might detect the truth1 and yet inwardly
 bleeding at the heart to think that she
 could not reveal herself to him and    
promise him her friendship1 in full     
confidence that his love for her would  
not return and bring new distress upon  
them4 ,then suddenly1 while each stood  
wondering what course to take1 a light  
step was heard in the outer hall1 and   
the poet ,emilius entered4   ,,chapter  
,,xi4  ,at the interruption1 none       

hastily reseated herself2 while         
,cleotos1 in obedience to a quick and   
significant motion of her finger1       
remained in the room1 and1 resuming his 
position at the table1 prepared to      
continue his writing4 ,the poet ,emilius
 could not1 of course1 fail to notice   
this somewhat confused alteration of    
posture1 but no suspicion of having     
intruded upon an embarrassing scene     
crossed his mind4 ,he merely saw a      
proudly erect mistress and a cowering   
slave2 and it was no unusual thing to   
interrupt a ,roman lady in the act of   
giving even corporeal correction to her 
attendant1 nor did the stranger's       
entrance always cause the punishment to 
cease4  ',has the caitiff been          
insolent8' he exclaimed1 in gallant     
tone1 as he approached and seated       
himself before her4 ',has he dared to   
look too rebelliously upon so charming a
 mistress8 ,if so1 permit that ,i may   
chastise him for you4 ,it is not fit    
that such fair hands should be obliged  

to wield the rod4'  ',nay1 it is        
nothing1' she said4 ',nothing1 indeed1  
needing much reproof2 and it is all past
 now4 ,and wherefore have we lately seen
 so little of you8'  ',commands of      
court--the claims of ,parnassus--all    
these1 fair lady1 have withheld me from 
heretofore giving to beauty its proper  
meed of admiration and worship4 ,to     
speak more plainly1 ,i have undertaken1 
by order of our emperor1 the not        
ungrateful task of weaving a few        
poetical sentiments to be recited at the
 opening of our new amphitheatre4 ,and  
in order that the results of my labor   
might not lessen my already acquired    
fame1 ,i judged it most prudent to      
seclude myself for the past few days    
from the gayeties of the world1 and give
 myself up to study and meditation4     
,though1 after all1 ,i could not deny1  
if closely questioned1 that my seclusion
 was but little productive of results2  
for1 upon being tempted out one evening1
 sorely against my judgment1 to a feast 

at the house of the comedian ,bassus1   
the true poetic inspiration overtook me 
at the end of my third goblet1 and1     
calling for parchment1 ,i there         
accomplished1 in one short hour1 the    
greater portion of my task4'  ',then1 ,i
 presume that your ode1 unlike your     
other works1 will be of a cheerful and  
lively character1 more especially as it 
is written for such a festive occasion4'
  ',scarcely1 perhaps1 what the world   
would call altogether lively1 though    
here and there a thread of playful      
thought may gleam upon the more sober   
texture of the basis4 ,i have rather    
judged it proper that1 for the due      
celebration of an event of such wondrous
 magnificence1 ,i should give utterance 
to deeper and more lasting sentiments1  
so as to fit the minds of the spectators
 for a higher comprehension of its true 
significance4 ,but1 if you wish1 ,i will
 read aloud a few of my thoughts2 and be
 assured that so far no eye has seen the
 scroll1 not even the august eye of the 

emperor ,titus himself4'  none inclined 
her head in assent1 and he drew from the
 breast of his tunic a small roll of    
parchment1 carefully wrapped in a       
covering of embroidered silk4  ',i      
commence1 of course1 by an address to   
the emperor1 whom ,i call the most      
illustrious of all the ,csars1 and liken
 unto ,jove4 ,i then congratulate the   
spectators not only upon living in his  
time1 but also upon being there to bask 
in the effulgence of his majesty2 his   
countenance being the sight most to be  
desired1 and the games and combats being
 merely accessory thereto4 ,after which1
 ,i speak to the gladiators and         
captives2 and prove to them how grateful
 they should be to the gods for allowing
 them the privilege of dying in such an 
august presence4'  ',is it such a       
privilege1 do you think8' inquired none4
  ',perhaps not a privilege1 but        
certainly no great hardship4 ,the       
trained gladiators surely cannot        
complain1 for they have voluntarily     

assumed the risks2 and as for the       
captives1 the most of them will some day
 die a violent death of some kind or    
another1 and1 therefore1 why not now1   
attended by the decent observances of   
the games and the applause of all the   
,roman people8 ,but to proceed4 ,from   
thence ,i speak of death--its pleasures 
and its recompenses2 showing that1 if   
there be a future life1 the gods have   
done wisely to withhold its exact nature
 from us1 and that1 whatever            
uncertainties may exist in other        
respects1 nothing can be more true than 
that those who now die in the arena     
will1 in another world1 find their      
highest felicity in the privilege of    
looking up from a distance at the loved 
emperor in whose honor they perished1   
and beholding him enjoying1 through     
adoption1 the society of the inhabitants
 of ,olympus4 ,i then--but it is useless
 to detail all the argument4 ,i will    
read the poem itself2 or rather1 if you 
so permit1 ,i will let this scribe of   

yours read it for me4 ,perhaps1 upon    
hearing it from another's mouth1 ,i may 
be led to make still further            
corrections4'  ,handing the manuscript  
with all care to ,cleotos1 the poet     
leaned back with eyes closed in         
delicious revery1 now and then arousing 
himself to correct some defective       
emphasis or unsatisfactory intonation1  
the tolerance of which1 he imagined1    
would mar the proper effect of the      
production1 or1 with persistent desire  
for praise1 momentarily calling closer  
attention to such passages as appeared  
to him deserving of especial            
commendation--and generally omitting no 
opportunity of exacting that entire     
admiration to which he believed his     
genius entitled him4 ,apart from a      
somewhat extravagant display of         
high-strained metaphor1 the poem had    
merit1 being bold in scope1 sonorous and
 well rounded in tone1 and here and     
there gracefully decked with original   
and pleasing thoughts4 ,throughout the  

whole1 however1 the singular propensity 
of the author for indulgence in morbid  
and gloomy reflection found its usual   
development1 while every line was laden 
with lofty maxims of moral philosophy1  
mingled with urgent incentives to the   
adoption of a virtuous career2--all1 in 
themselves1 both unexceptionable and    
praiseworthy1 but1 nevertheless1 having 
a strange sound in the ears of those who
 recognized them as the utterances of   
one whose conversation was always       
flippant and puerile1 and whose daily   
life1 in the enormity and uninterrupted 
persistency of its profligacy1 rendered 
him the acknowledged leader of all that 
was most disreputable and contaminating 
in ,roman society4  ,at length1 the     
reading having been fully completed1 and
 the listener's powers of flattery      
exhausted1 the author carefully         
rewrapped his poem in its silken cover  
and carried it away1 to read it1 in     
turn1 to other noble ladies1 with the   
same transparent pretence of giving     

exclusive hearing of it to each4 ,for a 
few moments none remained in thoughtful 
silence1 with her head bowed upon her   
hand2 recalling the scattered fragments 
of the sonorous verses1 and wondering   
why it was that1 when each line had     
seemed so perfect in itself1 and every  
thought so pure and noble in its purport
 and conception1 the whole should have  
left upon her mind such an undefinable  
impress of dissatisfaction4  ,cleotos1  
with unobtrusive scrutiny1 seemed to    
read her thoughts1 for1 at the first    
intimation of her perplexity1 he said3  
',it is because the author of those     
verses has not sincerely felt the full  
meaning of what he has there written4   
,for1 with whatsoever display of        
ingenious and artistic skill fair       
sounding maxims of morality may be      
expressed1 yet1 if they come not from   
the heart1 their utterance must seem    
hollow and unreal4 ,i do not know this  
author--how or where he lives4 ,it may  
be that in his daily life he is         

outwardly all that could be desired4    
,but ,i know this--that he has written  
about virtue and death1 not because he  
loves the one and fears not the other1  
but simply because1 by a display of     
well-toned periods1 he may more surely  
hope to gain the applause of the arena  
and the smiles of the court4'  ',but why
 should not these sentiments1 though    
called into being by personal ambition  
alone1 give equal pleasure as if        
springing directly from the heart8 ,are 
they not1 after all1 as true8'  ',nay1  
honored mistress1 neither are they true4
 ,this is again where they fail to      
please2 for in your soul there is an    
instinct1 though you may not know of it1
 which forbids that such cold and       
unsatisfactory reasoning should bring   
you comfort4 ,he speaks of death3 is it 
cheering to be told that1 though the    
gods have appointed death to every      
person1 they have given it1 not as a    
veiled mercy1 but rather as a dreadful  
fate--that there is no certainty about  

our future condition1 but that1 if we   
are destined to live again1 it may be   
with the same evils encompassing us     
which bind us now--and that the slave   
may then still be a slave1 destined     
forever to look up to and worship the   
high and mighty ones who trampled on him
 here8'  ',that is1 in truth1 no        
comfort1' said none4 ,and she bowed her 
head upon her hands1 and sadly thought  
how worthless to her would be the gift  
of eternal life1 if her present sorrows 
were to follow her4 ',but what can we   
do8 ,if it were possible to discover and
 believe in some other fate1 telling us 
that death1 instead of being a dreaded  
pang1 is a boon and relief to the sick  
and weary and oppressed--'  ',there is a
 book1' said ,cleotos--and for a moment 
he hesitated1 as though fearful of      
proceeding--'there is a book which ,i   
have read1 and which tells us all this4 
,it says that death is not merely a     
fate1 but is a source of blessing2 since
 it leads to a world where the          

sufferings of this life shall be        
recompensed with abundant joy1 not to   
the rich merely1 but more especially to 
the poor and lowly4'  ',where is that   
book8' cried none1 with sudden energy1  
as the wondrous depth and power of the  
sentiment flashed upon her4 ',where can 
,i see and read it8 ,he who can talk    
like that1 must surely have said still  
more8'  ',i have not that book1'        
answered ,cleotos4 ',i have only this   
little copy of a small portion of it2'  
and he hesitatingly drew from beneath   
his tunic a single small leaf of        
discolored parchment1 closely filled    
with ,greek characters4 ',but being at  
,corinth1 a year ago1 ,i was permitted  
to see the book itself1 and to hear     
portions of it read4 ,it was written to 
a ,christian church there1 by one ,paul1
 a leader of that sect4'  ,at the word  
',christian' the first impulse of none  
was to shrink back1 not knowing but that
 even the presence of one who had ever  
come into contact with any of that      

despised sect might be injurious to her4
 ,for at once she began to recall many  
of the tales which she had heard to its 
discredit--its members hiding as        
outcasts in the caves and dens of the   
earth--their repeated insults to the    
gods--their proud and unaccountable     
worship of a malefactor--their sacrifice
 of infants--and other exaggerations and
 calumnies1 begotten in malice or       
ignorance1 and thence widely spread1    
making it not hard to believe that the  
only fate fit for those to whom they    
related was a life of persecution and a 
cruel death in the arena4  ,but only for
 a moment did this instinctive horror   
control her4 ,the single doctrine which 
she had just heard advanced already     
began to bear its fruits4 ,it seemed1   
indeed1 not unlikely that one who could 
write such truths1 and those1 his       
disciples1 who could so gratefully      
treasure them up1 might not1 after all1 
be wantonly wicked1 but1 at the worst1  
might be merely victims of mistaken     

zeal4 ,and then1 in turn1 she thought of
 much that had been related to her in   
their favor4 ,during her life at ,rome1 
indeed1 she had heard no mention of the 
,christian sect1 unless accompanied with
 sneers or contempt4 ,but she remembered
 how that in ,ostia1 while she was yet a
 very young girl1 she had heard it      
sometimes whispered that the ,christians
 were kind and loving to all the world1 
and free from many sins in which other  
men openly exulted1 and that1 through   
their great love for their founder1 they
 organized charities which had never    
before been even thought of--and how    
that once1 when she had been very sick1 
a strange woman had nursed her into     
health and refused all payment for it1  
alleging that her religion bade her give
 herself up to such tasks--and how that 
she had once seen pass by1 one who was  
pointed out to her as a holy man among  
the sect--whose name indeed she could   
not remember1 but whose mild and serene 
expression yet lived in her             

recollection4 ,it was hardly possible   
that one whose face was so radiant with 
universal love and benevolence as to    
impress itself thus lastingly upon the  
heart of a young child could have been  
very wicked4 ,nor did it seem likely    
that ,cleotos1 whose greatest weakness  
was that his life had been almost too   
innocent and trusting1 could speak well 
of a sect which worthily ought to be    
persecuted4 ,and then again she thought 
upon that little book to the sect at    
,corinth1 and she bade ,cleotos to read 
a verse or two4 ,he did so4 ,at another 
time she might have listened as she had 
listened to the moral maxims of the poet
 ,emilius--judging well of it1 perhaps1 
for the beauty of its words1 but1 beyond
 that1 regarding it simply as some new  
and more original expression of         
long-accepted philosophy4 ,but now1 in  
her trouble1 she felt that there was    
something in it beyond all known        
philosophy--a new development of faith1 
appealing to the heart1 and speaking    

comfort to all who were in misery4 ,it  
surely could not be that such words were
 the emanations of an evil influence4   
',art thou--answer me1 ,cleotos--art    
thou one of the sect of ,christians8'   
she inquired4  ',how can ,i tell8' he   
responded4 ',i have so often asked that 
question of my heart1 and yet have not  
been able to understand what it has said
 to me4 ,there are times when ,i think  
that ,i must pray only to the gods of   
,olympus1 and that all ,i have heard or 
read about other gods must be untrue4   
,and again1 when ,i read this little    
parchment of mine1 and remember other   
like things that have been told to me1  
and see how they all speak of death as a
 relief to the sorrowing1 and of another
 life in which the down trodden and the 
captive shall be recompensed for what   
they have suffered here1 and know that  
,i am one of those who need such        
recompense--then ,i think that perhaps  
the only true ,god is the ,god of the   
,christians4 ,but ,i can learn so little

 about it all1 that ,i cannot1 from my  
own judgment1 determine which must be   
right4'  ',perhaps1' thoughtfully       
responded none1 'it may be that if you  
tell me all you know about it1 ,i may be
 able to assist your conclusions4 ,who  
knows what light ,i myself need1 or how 
much of good we may borrow from this new
 religion8 ,it cannot be wrong to       
examine for one's self1 and the gods    
will not be angry if we gain good       
doctrine even from wrong sources1 so    
long as it may make us better4          
,to-morrow1 therefore1 let us begin4'   
,upon the morrow1 therefore1 and for    
many succeeding days1 the mistress and  
the slave spent stolen moments in       
groping after the truth of that faith   
which makes the high and the low equal4 
,it was a blind search1 for neither of  
them had any definite comprehension of  
the history and doctrine upon which the 
new religion had been founded4 ,cleotos 
had enjoyed the best opportunities of   
acquainting himself with it1 having     

naturally1 in his wanderings about the  
,east1 and in his contact with the poor 
and enslaved of many lands1 heard much  
respecting the ,christian churches and  
their belief2 but having had no         
instructor1 a great portion of what he  
had thus received came to him in but    
distorted and puzzling array4 ,and none 
could not comprehend how1 when the gods 
ruled ,rome1 and ,rome had scattered the
 ,jews1 one whom the ,jews had had the  
power to slay could be greater than all4
 ,but between them1 for their study1 lay
 the leaf of parchment1 closely covered 
with writing1 beside which the proudest 
and choicest philosophy of ,rome seemed 
mockery2 and though they could not      
understand its full meaning1 they knew  
that it spoke such good words that1 at  
the least1 though it may have come from 
erring men1 it was no less worthy to    
have come from a ,god4 ,whatever the    
real nature of the faith itself1 here   
was certainly a proof that among its    
attributes were mercy and peace and     

brotherly love toward all4  ,what might 
have been the consequences if none had  
been free to pursue the investigation as
 far as she wished--to send for other   
books to aid her--to consult more       
learned teachers1 who1 though perhaps   
hiding in secret shelter1 were yet      
attainable with proper search1 cannot be
 known4 ,it is not improbable that1 in  
the end1 one more might have been added 
to the list of those few ,roman women of
 high degree who even then gave up all  
their rank and state in order to share  
the persecutions of the ,nazarenes4 ,but
 it was otherwise ordered4 ,already     
indications1 each slight in itself1 but 
altogether of important bearing1 began  
to present themselves before her1       
warning her that jealous eyes were      
watching her1 and that1 if she would    
avoid the consequences of               
misconstruction1 she must bring her     
feeble investigations to a close4       
,until now1 ,leta1 in her struggle to   
alienate the husband from the wife1 had 

been actuated simply by the exigencies  
of her ambitious policy4 ,bearing in her
 heart no especial hatred toward her    
mistress1 she would willingly have      
spared her1 had not the circumstances of
 the case seemed to require the ruin of 
the one preliminary to the exaltation of
 the other4 ,but now1 other incentives  
to her efforts were added4 ,first in her
 mind came jealousy of ,cleotos2 for    
though she had cast him off1 and bade   
him stifle the yearnings of his heart1  
and1 by the cool exercise of intellect  
and craft alone1 seek a better fortune  
for himself1 it was hardly natural that 
she should feel pleased to have him so  
soon appear to take her at her word4    
,she would have better liked to see him 
display more prolonged sorrow for her   
loss4 ,then came jealousy of none1 who  
had apparently been able to console him 
so early4 ,and mingled with all this1   
there began to press upon her a         
startling thought--one which she at     
first contemned as unlikely and         

absurd--but which1 though continually   
driven away1 so obstinately returned and
 commended itself to her attention with 
newer plausibility1 that at last she    
began to give bitter and anxious heed to
 it4 ,what if this constant             
communication between none and ,cleotos 
were to result in a mutual love8 ,it was
 no uncommon thing in those days for the
 high-born lady to cast her eyes upon   
the slave4 ,how mortifying to herself1  
then1 if1 while she had been exerting   
all her powers of fascination1 taxing   
the utmost resources of her intellect1  
and making of her whole existence one   
labored study for the purpose of gaining
 an undue influence over the lord1      
,cleotos1 without art or disguise or    
apparent effort1 or any advantage other 
than that afforded by his               
simple-hearted1 trusting nature1 should 
have quietly won from the other side of 
the house a victory of almost equal     
importance8 ,and further than this--what
 if the lord were to perish in some     

brawl or by the hired assassin of a     
rival house2 and none1 released from her
 thraldom1 and despising conventional   
scruples--as again was not uncommon     
among the ,roman ladies of that         
day--were to exalt her favorite with    
legal honors1 and thus make herself1    
,leta1 his slave8 ,this1 to be sure1 was
 an improbable chance2 but a mind as    
active as her own did not disdain to    
foresee and provide against all         
contingencies4  ,then1 in addition to   
everything else1 she became absorbed in 
the one overwhelming and bitter         
reflection1 that after all her sacrifice
 and labor1 the anticipated success     
might be escaping her4 ,it is true that1
 thanks to her efforts1 the distance    
between ,sergius and none had widened1  
until it seemed that there could never  
be a perfect reunion2 but all this1 if  
the state of partial neglect which had  
existed in the beginning could be relied
 upon as an indication1 was a           
consequence which might easily1 in time1

 have come of itself4 ,it is true that  
,sergius had yielded himself a willing  
victim to the unlawful fascinations     
thrown around him2 but yet ,leta could  
not avoid seeing that he regarded her   
not with the deep1 earnest love which   
she had hoped to inspire1 but rather    
with the trifling carelessness of one   
giving himself up to the plaything of   
the hour4 ,not having1 from the very    
first1 been chary of the sidelong glance
 and the winning smile1 and whatever    
grace of style or manner could tempt him
 to pursuit1 as an illusive appearance  
of success seemed to beckon her onward1 
her heart at times grew desperate with  
the apprehension that all had been in   
vain4 ,for ,sergius1 content that the   
wife whom he neglected did not disturb  
his repose with idle complaints1 had no 
thought of inflicting any deeper injury 
upon her1 being well satisfied to have  
her remain and confer honor upon him by 
the grace with which she maintained the 
dignity of his house4 ,and though well  

pleased to sun himself in ,leta's smile1
 there never came to him the thought    
that the slave could be worthy of any   
exaltation1 or that her highest ambition
 could prompt her to desire more than a 
continuance of the companionship with   
which he honored her4 ,all this ,leta   
began to dimly see2 and there were times
 when1 strive to hide it from her heart 
as she would1 it seemed as though he    
might be even growing weary of her4     
,thus tormented with doubt and jealousy 
and the constantly increasing suspicion 
of baffled ambition1 how was she to act8
 ,to accept her situation as a decree of
 fate1 to fawn upon the mistress like a 
patient slave1 and1 if the lord were to 
tire of her in the end and give himself 
up to other captivations1 to submit     
unmurmuringly to the unavoidable        
necessity8 ,all this some might consent 
to do2 but surely not one like herself1 
gifted with indomitable will1 and stung 
to desperation with the sense of great  
and irreparable sacrifices4 ,to her     

there could be but one course4 ,she must
 abandon her slow and cautious policy1  
and seek the earliest opportunity to    
urge the matter to its crisis4 ,if1 by  
sparing no watchfulness or ingenuity1 or
 by the exercise of bold and vigorous   
manoeuvring1 she could produce a quarrel
 and final separation between ,sergius  
and his wife1 it might not be impossible
 for her to impress upon him how much   
she was necessary to his happiness1 and 
thereby elevate herself into the vacant 
place4 ,and if unsuccessful1 at the     
least she would be but sharing a ruin   
which would fall like an avalanche upon 
all alike4     ,,the ,,first ,,christian
 ,,emperor4   ,the last great imperial  
persecution of the ,christians under    
,diocletian and ,galerius1 which was    
aimed at the entire uprooting of the new
 religion1 ended with the edict of      
toleration of #caa and the tragical ruin
 of the persecutors4 ,galerius died soon
 after of a disgusting and terrible     
disease 7morbus pedicularis71 described 

with great minuteness by ,eusebius and  
,lactantius4 ',his body1' says ,gibbon1 
'swelled by an intemperate course of    
life to an unwieldy corpulence1 was     
covered with ulcers and devoured by     
innumerable swarms of those insects     
which have given their name to a most   
loathsome disease4' ,diocletian had     
withdrawn from the throne in #cje1 and  
in #cac put an end to his imbittered    
life by suicide4 ,in his retirement he  
found more pleasure in raising cabbage  
than he had found in ruling the empire2 
a confession we may readily believe4    
7,president ,lincoln1 of the ,united    
,states1 during the dark days of the    
civil war1 in ,december1 #ahfb1 declared
 that he would gladly exchange his      
position with any common soldier in the 
tented field47 ,maximin1 who kept up the
 persecution in the ,east1 even after   
the toleration edict1 as long as he     
could1 died likewise a violent death by 
poison1 in #cac4 ,in this tragical end  
of their last three imperial persecutors

 the ,christians saw a palpable judgment
 of ,god4 ,the edict of toleration was  
an involuntary and irresistible         
concession of the incurable impotence of
 heathenism and the indestructible power
 of ,christianity4 ,it left but a step  
to the downfall of the one and the      
supremacy of the other in the empire of 
the ,csars4  ,this great epoch is marked
 by the reign of ,constantine ,i4 ,he   
understood the signs of the time1 and   
acted accordingly4 ,he was the man for  
the times1 as the times were prepared   
for him by that ,providence which       
controls both and fits them for each    
other4 ,he placed himself at the head of
 true progress1 while his nephew1       
,julian the ,apostate1 opposed it1 and  
was left behind4 ,he was the chief      
instrument for raising the church from  
the low estate of oppression and        
persecution to well-deserved honor and  
power4 ,for this service a thankful     
posterity has given him the surname of  
the ,great1 to which he was entitled1   

though not by his moral character1 yet  
doubtless by his military and           
administrative ability1 his judicious   
policy1 his appreciation and protection 
of ,christianity1 and the far-reaching  
consequences of his reign4 ,his         
greatness was not indeed of the first1  
but of the second order1 and is to be   
measured more by what he did than by    
what he was4 ,to the ,greek ,church1    
which honors him even as a canonized    
saint1 he has the same significance as  
,charlemagne to the ,latin4             
,constantine1 the first ,christian      
,csar1 the founder of ,constantinople   
and the ,byzantine empire1 and one of   
the most gifted1 energetic1 and         
successful of the ,roman emperors1 was  
the first representative of the imposing
 idea of a ,christian theocracy1 or of  
that system of policy which assumes all 
subjects to be ,christians1 connects    
civil and religious rights1 and regards 
church and state as the two arms of one 
and the same divine government on earth4

 ,this was more fully developed by his  
successors1 it animated the whole       
,middle ,age1 and is yet working under  
various forms in these latest times2    
though it has never been fully realized1
 whether in the ,byzantine1 the ,german1
 or the ,russian empire1 the ,roman     
church-state1 the ,calvinistic republic 
of ,geneva1 or the early ,puritanic     
colonies of ,new ,england4 ,at the same 
time1 however1 ,constantine stands also 
as the type of an undiscriminating and  
harmful conjunction of ,christianity    
with politics1 of the holy symbol of    
peace with the horrors of war1 of the   
spiritual interests of the kingdom of   
heaven with the earthly interests of the
 state4  ,in judging of this remarkable 
man and his reign1 we must by all means 
keep to the great historical principle1 
that all representative characters act  
consciously or unconsciously as the free
 and responsible organs of the spirit of
 their age1 which moulds them first     
before they can mould it in turn1 and   

that the spirit of the age itself1      
whether good or bad or mixed1 is but an 
instrument in the hands of ,divine      
,providence1 which rules and overrules  
all the actions and motives of men4     
,through a history of three centuries   
,christianity had already overcome the  
world1 and thus rendered such an outward
 revolution1 as has attached itself to  
the name of this prince1 both possible  
and unavoidable4 ,it were extremely     
superficial to refer so thorough and    
momentous a change to the personal      
motives of an individual1 be they       
motives of policy1 of piety1 or of      
superstition4 ,but unquestionably every 
age produces and shapes its own organs1 
as its own purposes require4 ,so in the 
case of ,constantine4 ,he was           
distinguished by that genuine political 
wisdom1 which1 putting itself at the    
head of the age1 clearly saw that       
idolatry had outlived itself in the     
,roman empire1 and that ,christianity   
alone could breathe new vigor into it   

and furnish its moral support4          
,especially on the point of the external
 catholic unity1 his monarchical        
politics accorded with the hierarchical 
episcopacy of the church4 ,hence from   
the year #cac he placed himself in close
 connection with the bishops1 made peace
 and harmony his first object in the    
,donatist and ,arian controversies1 and 
gave the predicate 'catholic' to the    
church in all official documents4 ,and  
as his predecessors were supreme        
pontiffs of the heathen religion of the 
empire1 so he desired to be looked upon 
as a sort of bishop1 as universal bishop
 of the eternal affairs of the church4  
,all this by no means from mere         
self-interest1 but for the good of the  
empire1 which1 now shaken to its        
foundations and threatened by barbarians
 on every side1 could only by some new  
bond of unity be consolidated and upheld
 until at least the seeds of            
,christianity and civilization should be
 planted among the barbarians           

themselves1 the representatives of the  
future4 ,his personal policy thus       
coincided with the interests of the     
state4 ,christianity appeared to him1 as
 it proved in fact1 the only efficient  
power for a political reformation of the
 empire1 from which the ancient spirit  
of ,rome was fast departing1 while      
internal civil and religious dissensions
 and the outward pressure of the        
barbarians threatened a gradual         
dissolution of society4  ,but with the  
political he united also a religious    
motive1 not clear and deep1 indeed1 yet 
honest1 and strongly infused with the   
superstitious disposition to judge of a 
religion by its outward success1 and to 
ascribe a magical virtue to signs and   
ceremonies4 ,his whole family was swayed
 by religious sentiment1 which          
manifested itself in very different     
forms1 in the devout pilgrimages of his 
,helena1 the fanatical ,arianism of     
,constantia and ,constantius1 and the   
fanatical paganism of ,julian4          

,constantine adopted ,christianity first
 as a superstition1 and put it by the   
side of his heathen superstition1 till  
finally in his conviction the ,christian
 vanquished the pagan1 though without   
itself developing into a pure and       
enlightened faith4  ,at first           
,constantine1 like his father1 in the   
spirit of the ,neo-,platonic syncretism 
of dying heathendom1 reverenced all the 
gods as mysterious powers2 especially   
,apollo1 the god of the sun1 to whom in 
the year #cjh he presented munificent   
gifts4 ,nay1 so late as the year #cba he
 enjoined regular consultation of the   
soothsayers in public misfortunes1      
according to ancient heathen usage2 even
 later1 he placed his new residence1    
,byzantium1 under the protection of the 
,god of the ,martyrs and the heathen    
goddess of ,fortune2 and down to the end
 of his life he retained the title and  
the dignity of a ,pontifex ,maximus1 or 
high priest of the heathen hierarchy4   
,his coins bore on the one side the     

letters of the name of ,christ1 on the  
other the figure of the sun-god1 and the
 inscription ,sol invictus4 ,of course  
these inconsistencies may be referred   
also to policy and accommodation to the 
toleration edict of #cac4 ,nor is it    
difficult to adduce parallels of persons
 who in passing from ,judaism to        
,christianity1 or from ,romanism to     
,protestantism1 have honestly so wavered
 between their old and their new        
position1 that they might be claimed by 
both4 ,with his every victory over his  
pagan rivals1 ,galerius1 ,maxentius1 and
 ,licinius1 his personal leaning to     
,christianity and his confidence in the 
magic power of the sign of the cross    
increased2 yet he did not formally      
renounce heathenism1 and did not receive
 baptism until1 in #ccg1 he was laid    
upon the bed of death4  ,he had an      
imposing and winning person1 and was    
compared by flatterers with ,apollo4 ,he
 was tall1 broad shouldered1 handsome1  
and of a remarkably vigorous and healthy

 constitution1 but given to excessive   
vanity in his dress and outward         
demeanor1 always wearing an oriental    
diadem1 a helmet studded with jewels1   
and a purple mantle of silk richly      
embroidered with pearls and flowers     
worked in gold4 ,his mind was not highly
 cultivated1 but naturally clear1       
strong1 and shrewd1 and seldom thrown   
off its guard4 ,he is said to have      
combined a cynical contempt of mankind  
with an inordinate love of praise4 ,he  
possessed a good knowledge of human     
nature and administrative energy and    
tact4  ,his moral character was not     
without noble traits1 among which a     
chastity rare for the time1 and a       
liberality and beneficence bordering on 
wastefulness were prominent4 ,many of   
his laws and regulations breathed the   
spirit of ,christian justice and        
humanity1 promoted the elevation of the 
female sex1 improved the condition of   
slaves and of unfortunates1 and gave    
free play to the efficiency of the      

church throughout the whole empire4     
,altogether he was one of the best1 the 
most fortunate1 and the most influential
 of the ,roman emperors1 ,christian and 
pagan4  ,yet he had great faults4 ,he   
was far from being so pure and so       
venerable as ,eusebius1 blinded by his  
favor to the church1 depicts him1 in his
 bombastic and almost dishonestly       
eulogistic biography1 with the evident  
intention of setting him up as a model  
for all future ,christian princes4 ,it  
must1 with all regret1 be conceded1 that
 his progress in the knowledge of       
,christianity was not a progress in the 
practice of its virtues4 ,his love of   
display and his prodigality1 his        
suspiciousness and his despotism1       
increased with his power4  ,the very    
brightest period of his reign is stained
 with gross crimes1 which even the      
spirit of the age and the policy of an  
absolute monarch cannot excuse4 ,after  
having reached1 upon the bloody path of 
war1 the goal of his ambition1 the sole 

possession of the empire1 yea1 in the   
very year in which he summoned the great
 council of ,nica1 he ordered the       
execution of his conquered rival and    
brother-in-law1 ,licinius1 in breach of 
a solemn promise of mercy 7#cbd74 ,not  
satisfied with this1 he caused soon     
afterward1 from political suspicion1 the
 death of the young ,licinius1 his      
nephew1 a boy of hardly eleven years4   
,but the worst of all is the murder of  
his eldest son1 ,crispus1 in #cbf1 who  
had incurred suspicion of political     
conspiracy1 and of adulterous and       
incestuous purposes toward his          
stepmother ,fausta1 but is generally    
regarded as innocent4 ,this domestic and
 political tragedy emerged from a vortex
 of mutual suspicion and rivalry1 and   
calls to mind the conduct of ,philip    
,,ii4 toward ,don ,carlos1 of ,peter the
 ,great toward his son ,alexis1 and of  
,soliman the ,great toward his son      
,mustapha4 ,later authors assert1 though
 gratuitously1 that the emperor1 like   

,david1 bitterly repented of this sin4  
,he has been frequently charged besides1
 though it would seem altogether        
unjustly1 with the death of his second  
wife ,fausta 7#cbf871 who1 after twenty 
years of happy wedlock1 is said to have 
been convicted of slandering her stepson
 ,crispus1 and of adultery with a slave 
or one of the imperial guards1 and then 
to have been suffocated in the vapor of 
an overheated bath4 ,but the accounts of
 the cause and manner of her death are  
so late and discordant as to make       
,constantine's part in it at least very 
doubtful4  ,at all events ,christianity 
did not produce in ,constantine a       
thorough moral transformation4 ,he was  
concerned more to advance the outward   
social position of the ,christian       
religion1 than to further its inward    
mission4 ,he was praised and censured in
 turn by the ,christians and pagans1 the
 orthodox and the ,arians1 as they      
successively experienced his favor or   
dislike4 ,he bears some resemblance to  

,peter the ,great1 both in his public   
acts and his private character1 by      
combining great virtues and merits with 
monstrous crimes1 and he probably died  
with the same consolation as ,peter1    
whose last words were3 ',i trust that in
 respect of the good ,i have striven to 
do my people 7the church71 ,god will    
pardon my sins4' ,it is quite           
characteristic of his piety that he     
turned the sacred nails of the          
,saviour's cross1 which ,helena brought 
from ,jerusalem1 the one into the bit of
 his war horse1 the other into an       
ornament of his helmet4 ,not a decided1 
pure1 and consistent character1 he      
stands on the line of transition between
 two ages and two religions2 and his    
life bears plain marks of both4 ,when at
 last on his deathbed he submitted to   
baptism1 with the remark1 ',now let us  
cast away all duplicity1' he honestly   
admitted the conflict of two            
antagonistic principles which swayed his
 private character and public life4     

,from these general remarks we turn to  
the leading features of ,constantine's  
life and reign1 so far as they bear upon
 the history of the church4 ,we shall   
consider in order his youth and         
training1 the vision of the cross1 the  
edict of toleration1 his legislation in 
favor of ,christianity1 his baptism and 
death4  ,constantine1 son of the        
co-emperor ,constantius ,chlorus1 who   
reigned over ,gaul1 ,spain1 and ,britain
 till his death in #cjf1 was born       
probably in the year #bgb1 either in    
,britain or at ,naissus 7now called     
,nissa71 a town of ,dardania1 in        
,illyricum4 ,his mother was ,helena1    
daughter of an innkeeper1 the first wife
 of ,constantius1 afterward divorced1   
when ,constantius1 for political        
reasons1 married a daughter of          
,maximian4 ,she is described by         
,christian writers as a discreet and    
devout woman1 and has been honored with 
a place in the catalogue of saints4 ,her
 name is identified with the discovery  

of the cross and the pious superstitions
 of the holy places4 ,she lived to a    
very advanced age1 and died in the year 
#cbf or #cbg1 in or near the city of    
,rome4 ,rising by her beauty and good   
fortune from obscurity to the splendor  
of the court1 then meeting the fate of  
,josephine1 but restored to imperial    
dignity by her son1 and ending as a     
saint of the ,catholic church3 ,helena  
would form an interesting subject for a 
historical novel illustrating the       
leading events of the ,nicene age and   
the triumph of ,christianity in the     
,roman empire4  ,constantine first      
distinguished himself in the service of 
,diocletian in the ,egyptian and        
,persian wars2 went afterward to ,gaul  
and ,britain1 and in the ,prtorium at   
,york was proclaimed emperor by his     
dying father and by the ,roman troops4  
,his father before him held a favorable 
opinion of the ,christians as peaceable 
and honorable citizens1 and protected   
them in the ,west during the ,diocletian

 persecution in the ,east4 ,this        
respectful1 tolerant regard descended to
 ,constantine1 and the good effects of  
it1 compared with the evil results of   
the opposite course of his antagonist   
,galerius1 could but encourage him to   
pursue it4 ,he reasoned1 as ,eusebius   
reports from his own mouth1 in the      
following manner3 ',my father revered   
the ,christian ,god1 and uniformly      
prospered1 while the emperors who       
worshipped the heathen gods1 died a     
miserable death2 therefore1 that ,i may 
enjoy a happy life and reign1 ,i will   
imitate the example of my father and    
join myself to the cause of the         
,christians1 who are growing daily1     
while the heathen are diminishing4'     
,this low utilitarian consideration     
weighed heavily in the mind of an       
ambitious captain1 who looked forward to
 the highest seat of power within the   
gift of his age4 ,whether his mother1   
whom he always revered1 and who made a  
pilgrimage to ,jerusalem in her         

eightieth year 7,a4 ,d4 #cbe71 planted  
the germ of the ,christian faith in her 
son1 as ,theodoret supposes1 or herself 
became a ,christian through his         
influence1 as ,eusebius asserts1 must   
remain undecided4 ,according to the     
heathen ,zosimus1 whose statement is    
unquestionably false and malicious1 an  
,egyptian1 who came out of ,spain       
7probably the bishop ,hosius of         
,cordova1 a native of ,egypt1 is        
intended71 persuaded him1 after the     
murder of ,crispus 7which did not occur 
before #cbf71 that by converting to     
,christianity he might obtain           
forgiveness of his sins4  ,the first    
public evidence of a positive leaning   
toward the ,christian religion he gave  
in his contest with the pagan           
,maxentius1 who had usurped the         
government of ,italy and ,africa1 and is
 universally represented as a cruel1    
dissolute tyrant1 hated by heathens and 
,christians alike4 ,called by the ,roman
 people to their aid1 ,constantine      

marched from ,gaul across the ,alps with
 an army of ninety-eight thousand       
soldiers of every nationality1 and      
defeated ,maxentius in three battles2   
the last in ,october1 #cab1 at the      
,milvian bridge1 near ,rome1 where      
,maxentius found a disgraceful death in 
the waters of the ,tiber4  ,here belongs
 the familiar story of the miraculous   
cross4 ,the precise day and place cannot
 be fixed1 but the event must have      
occurred shortly before the final       
victory over ,maxentius in the          
neighborhood of ,rome4 ,as this vision  
is one of the most noted miracles in    
church history1 and has a representative
 significance1 it deserves a closer     
examination4 ,it marks for us on the one
 hand the victory of ,christianity over 
paganism in the ,roman empire1 and on   
the other the ominous admixture of      
foreign1 political1 and military        
interests with it4 ,we need not be      
surprised that in the ,nicene age so    
great a revolution and transition should

 have been clothed with a supernatural  
character4  ,the occurrence is variously
 described1 and is not without serious  
difficulties4 ,lactantius1 the earliest 
witness1 some three years after the     
battle1 speaks only of a dream by night1
 in which the emperor was directed 7it  
is not stated by whom1 whether by       
,christ1 or by an angel7 to stamp on the
 shields of his soldiers 'the heavenly  
sign of ,god1' that is1 the cross with  
the name of ,christ1 and thus to go     
forth against his enemy4 ,eusebius1 on  
the contrary1 gives a more minute       
account1 on the authority of a          
subsequent private communication of the 
aged ,constantine himself under         
oath--not1 however1 till the year #cch1 
a year after the death of the emperor1  
his only witness1 and twenty-six years  
after the event4 ,on his march from     
,gaul to ,italy 7the spot and date are  
not specified71 the emperor1 while      
earnestly praying to the true ,god for  
light and help at this critical time1   

saw1 together with his army1 in clear   
daylight toward evening1 a shining cross
 in the heavens above the sun1 with the 
inscription3 ',by this conquer2' and in 
the following night ,christ himself     
appeared to him while he slept1 and     
directed him to have a standard prepared
 in the form of this sign of the cross1 
and with that to proceed against        
,maxentius and all other enemies4 ,this 
account of ,eusebius1 or rather of      
,constantine himself1 adds to the night 
dream of ,lactantius the preceding      
vision of the day1 and the direction    
concerning the standard1 while          
,lactantius speaks of the inscription of
 the initial letters of ,christ's name  
on the shields of the soldiers4         
,according to ,rufinus1 a later         
historian1 who elsewhere depends        
entirely on ,eusebius1 and can therefore
 not be regarded as a proper witness in 
the case1 the sign of the cross appeared
 to ,constantine in a dream 7which      
agrees with the account of ,lactantius71

 and upon his awaking in terror1 an     
angel 7not ,christ7 exclaimed to him3   
',hoc vince4' ,lactantius1 ,eusebius1   
and ,rufinus are the only ,christian    
writers of the fourth century1 who      
mention the apparition4 ,but we have    
besides one or two heathen testimonies1 
which1 though vague and obscure1 still  
serve to strengthen the evidence in     
favor of some actual occurrence4 ,the   
contemporaneous orator ,nazarius1 in a  
panegyric upon the emperor1 pronounced  
,march #a1 #cba1 apparently at ,rome1   
speaks of an army of divine warriors and
 a divine assistance which ,constantine 
received in the engagement with         
,maxentius2 but he converts it to the   
service of heathenism by recurring to   
old prodigies1 such as the appearance of
 ,castor and ,pollux4  ,this famous     
tradition may be explained either as a  
real miracle implying a personal        
appearance of ,christ1 or as a pious    
fraud1 or as a natural phenomenon in the
 clouds and an optical illusion1 or     

finally as a prophetic dream4  ,the     
propriety of a miracle1 parallel to the 
signs in heaven which preceded the      
destruction of ,jerusalem1 might be     
justified by the significance of the    
victory as marking a great epoch in     
history1 namely1 the downfall of        
paganism and the establishment of       
,christianity in the empire4 ,but even  
if we waive the purely critical         
objections to the ,eusebian narrative1  
the assumed connection1 in this case1 of
 the gentle ,prince of peace with the   
god of battle1 and the subserviency of  
the sacred symbol of redemption to      
military ambition1 is repugnant to the  
genius of the gospel and to sound       
,christian feeling1 unless we stretch   
the theory of divine accommodation to   
the spirit of the age and the passions  
and interests of individuals beyond the 
ordinary limits4 ,we should suppose1    
moreover1 that ,christ1 if he had really
 appeared to ,constantine either in     
person 7according to ,eusebius7 or      

through angels 7as ,rufinus and ,sozomen
 modify it71 would have exhorted him to 
repent and be baptized rather than to   
construct a military ensign for a bloody
 battle4 ,in no case can we ascribe to  
this occurrence1 with ,eusebius1        
,theodoret1 and older writers1 the      
character of a sudden and genuine       
conversion1 as to ,paul's vision of     
,christ on the way to ,damascus2 for1 on
 the one hand1 ,constantine was never   
hostile to ,christianity1 but most      
probably friendly to it from his early  
youth1 according to the example of his  
father1 and1 on the other1 he put off   
his baptism quite five and twenty years1
 almost to the hour of his death4  ,the 
opposite hypothesis of a mere military  
stratagem or intentional fraud is still 
more objectionable1 and would compel us 
either to impute to the first ,christian
 emperor1 at a venerable age1 the double
 crime of falsehood and perjury1 or1 if 
,eusebius invented the story1 to deny to
 the 'father of church history' all     

claim to credibility and common         
respectability4 ,besides1 it should be  
remembered that the older testimony of  
,lactantius1 or whoever was the author  
of the work on the ,deaths of           
,persecutors1 is quite independent of   
that of ,eusebius1 and derives          
additional force from the vague heathen 
rumors of the time4 ,finally the ,hoc   
vince1 which has passed into proverbial 
significance as a most appropriate motto
 of the invincible religion of the      
cross1 is too good to be traced to sheer
 falsehood4 ,some actual fact1          
therefore1 must be supposed to underlie 
the tradition1 and the question only is 
this1 whether it was an external1 viable
 phenomenon or an internal experience4  
,the hypothesis of a natural formation  
of the clouds1 which ,constantine by an 
optical illusion mistook for a          
supernatural sign of the cross1 besides 
smacking of the exploded rationalistic  
explanation of the ,new ,testament      
miracles1 and deriving an important     

event from a mere accident1 leaves the  
figure of ,christ and the ,greek or     
,latin inscription1 ',by this sign thou 
shalt conquer6' altogether unexplained4 
,we are shut up1 therefore1 to the      
theory of a dream or vision1 and an     
experience within the mind of           
,constantine4 ,this is supported by the 
oldest testimony of ,lactantius1 as well
 as by the report of ,rufinus and       
,sozomen1 and we do not hesitate to     
regard the ,eusebian cross in the skies 
as originally a part of the dream1 which
 only subsequently assumed the character
 of an outward objective apparition1    
either in the imagination of            
,constantine or by a mistake of the     
memory of the historian1 but in either  
case without intentional fraud4 ,that   
the vision was traced to supernatural   
origin1 especially after the happy      
success1 is quite natural and in perfect
 keeping with the prevailing ideas of   
the age4 ,tertullian and other          
ante-,nicene and ,nicene fathers        

attributed many conversions to nocturnal
 dreams and visions4 ,constantine and   
his friends referred the most important 
facts of his life1 as the knowledge of  
the approach of hostile armies1 the     
discovery of the holy sepulchre1 the    
founding of ,constantinople1 to divine  
revelation through visions and dreams4  
,nor are we disposed in the least to    
deny the connection of the vision of the
 cross with the agency of ,divine       
,providence1 which controlled this      
remarkable turning point of history4 ,we
 may go farther and admit a special     
providence1 or what the old divines call
 a providentia specialissima2 but this  
does not necessarily imply a violation  
of the order of nature or an actual     
miracle in the shape of an objective    
personal appearance of the ,saviour4 ,we
 may refer to a somewhat similar1 though
 far less important1 vision in the life 
of the pious ,english ,colonel ,james   
,gardiner4 ,the ,bible itself sanctions 
the general theory of providential or   

prophetic dreams and nocturnal visions  
through which divine revelations and    
admonitions are communicated to men4    
,the facts1 therefore1 may have been    
these3 ,before the battle1 ,constantine1
 leaning already toward ,christianity as
 probably the beat and most hopeful of  
the various religions1 seriously sought 
in prayer1 as he related to ,eusebius1  
the assistance of the ,god of the       
,christians1 while his heathen          
antagonist1 ,maxentius1 according to    
,zosimus1 was consulting the sibylline  
books and offering sacrifice to the     
idols4 ,filled with mingled fears and   
hopes about the issue of the conflict1  
he fell asleep1 and saw in a dream the  
sign of the cross of ,christ with a     
significant inscription and promise of  
victory4 ,being already familiar with   
the general use of this sign among the  
numerous ,christians of the empire1 many
 of whom no doubt were in his own army1 
he constructed the labarum1,a afterward 
so called1 that is1 the sacred standard 

of the ,christian cross with the ,greek 
monogram of ,christ1,b which he had also
 put upon the shields of the soldiers4  
,to this cross-standard1 which now took 
the place of the ,roman eagles1 he      
attributed the decisive victory over the
 heathen ,maxentius4  ,accordingly1     
after his triumphal entrance into ,rome1
 he had his statue erected upon the     
forum with the labarum in his right     
hand1 and the inscription beneath3 ',by 
this saving sign1 the true token of     
bravery1 ,i have delivered your city    
from the yoke of the tyrant4' ,three    
years afterward the senate erected to   
him a triumphal arch of marble1 which to
 this day1 within sight of the sublime  
ruins of the pagan ,colosseum1 indicates
 at once the decay of ancient art and   
the downfall of heathenism2 as the      
neighboring arch of ,titus commemorates 
the downfall of ,judaism and the        
destruction of the temple4 ,the         
inscription on this arch of             
,constantine1 however1 ascribes his     

victory over the hated tyrant1 not only 
to his master mind1 but indefinitely    
also to the impulse of ,deity2 by which 
a ,christian would naturally understand 
the true ,god1 while a heathen1 like the
 orator ,nazarius1 in his eulogy on     
,constantine1 might take it for the     
celestial guardian power of the urbs    
terna4  ,at all events the victory of   
,constantine over ,maxentius was a      
military and political victory of       
,christianity over heathenism2 the      
intellectual and moral victory having   
been already accomplished by the        
literature and life of the church in the
 preceding period4 ,the emblem of       
ignominy and oppression,c became        
thenceforward the badge of honor and    
dominion1 and was invested in the       
emperor's view1 according to the spirit 
of the church of his day1 with a magic  
virtue4 ,it now took the place of the   
eagle and other field badges1 under     
which the heathen ,romans had conquered 
the world4 ,it was stamped on the       

imperial coin1 and on the standards1    
helmets1 and shields of the soldiers4   
,above all military representations of  
the cross the original imperial labarum 
shone in the richest decorations of gold
 and gems2 was intrusted to the truest  
and bravest fifty of the body guard2    
filled the ,christians with the spirit  
of victory1 and spread fear and terror  
among their enemies2 until1 under the   
weak successors of ,theodosius ,,ii41 it
 fell out of use1 and was lodged as a   
venerable relic in the imperial palace  
at ,constantinople4  ,before this       
victory at ,rome 7which occurred        
,october #bg1 #cab71 either in the      
spring or summer of #cab1 ,constantine1 
in conjunction with his ,eastern        
colleague1 ,licinius1 had published an  
edict of religious toleration1 now not  
extant1 but probably a step beyond the  
edict of the still anti-,christian      
,galerius in #caa1 which was likewise   
subscribed by ,constantine and ,licinius
 as co-regents4 ,soon after1 in         

,january1 #cac1 the two emperors issued 
from ,milan a new edict 7the third7 on  
religion1 still extant both in ,latin   
and ,greek1 in which1 in the spirit of  
religious eclecticism1 they granted full
 freedom to all existing forms of       
worship1 with special reference to the  
,christian4 ,this religion the edict not
 only recognized in its existing limits1
 but also--what neither the first nor   
perhaps the second edict had            
done--allowed every heathen subject to  
adopt it with impunity4 ,at the same    
time the church buildings and property  
confiscated in the ,diocletian          
persecution were ordered to be restored1
 and private property-owners to be      
indemnified from the imperial treasury4 
,in this notable edict1 however1 we     
should look in vain for the modern      
,protestant and ,anglo-,american theory 
of religious liberty as one of the      
universal and inalienable rights of man4
 ,sundry voices1 it is true1 in the     
,christian church itself1 at that time  

and even before1 declared firmly against
 all compulsion in religion4 ,but the   
spirit of the ,roman empire was too     
absolutistic to abandon the prerogative 
of a supervision of public worship4 ,the
 ,constantinian toleration was a        
temporary measure of state policy1      
which1 as indeed the edict expressly    
states the motive1 promised the greatest
 security to the public peace and the   
protection of all divine and heavenly   
powers1 for emperor and empire4 ,it was1
 as the result teaches1 but the         
necessary transition step to a new order
 of things4 ,it opened the door to the  
elevation of ,christianity1 and         
specifically of ,catholic hierarchical  
,christianity1 with its exclusiveness   
toward heretical and schismatic sects1  
to be the religion of the state4 ,for1  
once put on an equal footing with       
heathenism1 it must soon1 in spite of   
numerical minority1 bear away the       
victory from a religion which had       
already inwardly outlived itself4  ,from

 this time ,constantine decidedly       
favored the church1 though without      
persecuting or forbidding the pagan     
religions4 ,he always mentions the      
,christian church with reverence in his 
imperial edicts1 and uniformly applies  
to it1 as we have already observed1 the 
predicate of catholic4 ,for only as a   
catholic1 thoroughly organized1 firmly  
compacted1 and conservative institution 
did it meet his rigid monarchical       
interest1 and afford the splendid state 
and court dress he wished for his       
empire4 ,so early as the year #cac we   
find the bishop ,hosius of ,cordova     
among his counsellors1 and heathen      
writers ascribe to the bishop even a    
magical influence over the emperor4     
,lactantius1 also1 and ,eusebius of     
,csarea belonged to his confidential    
circle4 ,he exempted the ,christian     
clergy from military and municipal duty 
7,march1 #cac72 abolished various       
customs and ordinances offensive to the 
,christians 7#cae72 facilitated the     

emancipation of ,christian slaves       
7before #caf72 legalized bequests to    
catholic churches 7#cba72 enjoined the  
civil observance of ,sunday1 though not 
as dies ,domini1 but as dies ,solis1 in 
conformity to his worship of ,apollo1   
and in company with an ordinance for the
 regular consulting of the haruspex     
7#cba72 contributed liberally to the    
building of churches and the support of 
the clergy2 erased the heathen symbols  
of ,jupiter and ,apollo1 ,mars and      
,hercules from the imperial coins       
7#cbc72 and gave his sons a ,christian  
education4 ,this mighty example was     
followed1 as might be expected1 by a    
general transition of those subjects who
 were more influenced in their conduct  
by outward circumstances than by inward 
conviction and principle4 ,the story1   
that in one year 7#cbd7 twelve thousand 
men1 with women and children in         
proportion1 were baptized in ,rome1 and 
that the emperor had promised to each   
convert a white garment and twenty      

pieces of gold1 is at least in          
accordance with the spirit of that      
reign1 though the fact itself1 in all   
probability1 is greatly exaggerated4    
,constantine came out with still greater
 decision1 when1 by his victory over his
 ,eastern colleague and brother-in-law1 
,licinius1 he became sole head of the   
whole ,roman empire4 ,to strengthen his 
position1 ,licinius had gradually placed
 himself at the head of the heathen     
party1 still very numerous1 and had     
vexed the ,christians first with wanton 
ridicule1 then with exclusion from civil
 and military office1 with banishment1  
and in some instances perhaps even with 
bloody persecution4 ,this gave the      
political strife for the monarchy       
between himself and ,constantine the    
character also of a war of religions2   
and the defeat of ,licinius in the      
battle of ,adrianople1 in ,july1 #cba1  
and at ,chalcedon1 in ,september1 was a 
new triumph of the standard of the cross
 over the sacrifices of the gods2 save  

that ,constantine dishonored himself and
 his cause by the execution of ,licinius
 and his son4  ,the emperor now issued a
 general exhortation to his subjects to 
embrace the ,christian religion1 still  
leaving them1 however1 to their own free
 conviction4 ,in the year #cbe1 as      
patron of the church1 he summoned the   
council of ,nice1 and himself attended  
it2 banished the ,arians1 though he     
afterward recalled them2 and1 in his    
monarchical spirit of uniformity1 showed
 great zeal for the settlement of all   
theological disputes1 while he was blind
 to their deep significance4 ,he first  
introduced the practice of subscription 
to the articles of a written creed and  
of the infliction of civil punishments  
for non-conformity4 ,in the years       
#cbe-cbi1 in connection with his mother1
 ,helena1 he erected magnificent        
churches on the sacred spots in         
,jerusalem4  ,as heathenism had still   
the preponderance in ,rome1 where it was
 hallowed by its great traditions1      

,constantine1 by divine command as he   
supposed1 in the year #ccj1 transferred 
the seat of his government to           
,byzantium1 and thus fixed the policy1  
already initiated by ,domitian1 or      
orientalizing and dividing the empire4  
,in the selection of the unrivalled     
locality he showed more taste and genius
 than the founders of ,madrid1 ,vienna1 
,berlin1 ,st4 ,petersburg1 or           
,washington4 ,with incredible rapidity1 
and by all the means within reach of an 
absolute monarch1 he turned this nobly  
situated town1 connecting two seas and  
two continents1 into a splendid         
residence and a new ,christian ,rome1   
'for which now1' as ,gregory of         
,nazianzen expresses it1 'sea and land  
emulate each other1 to load it with     
their treasures1 and crown it queen of  
cities4' ,here1 instead of idol temples 
and altars1 churches and crucifixes     
rose2 though among them the statues of  
patron deities from all over ,greece1   
mutilated by all sorts of tasteless     

adaptations1 were also gathered in the  
new metropolis4 ,the main hall in the   
palace was adorned with representations 
of the crucifixion and other ,biblical  
scenes4 ,the gladiatorial shows1 so     
popular in ,rome1 were forbidden here1  
though theatres1 amphitheatres1 and     
hippodromes kept their place4 ,it could 
nowhere be mistaken1 that the new       
imperial residence was1 as to all       
outward appearance1 a ,christian city4  
,the smoke of heathen sacrifices never  
rose from the seven hills of ,new ,rome1
 except during the short reign of       
,julian the ,apostate4 ,it became the   
residence of a bishop1 who not only     
claimed the authority of the apostolic  
see of neighboring ,ephesus1 but soon   
outshone the patriarchate of            
,alexandria1 and rivalled for centuries 
the papal power in ancient ,rome4  ,the 
emperor diligently attended divine      
worship1 and is portrayed upon medals in
 the posture of prayer4 ,he kept the    
,easter vigils with great devotion4 ,he 

would stand during the longest sermons  
of his bishops1 who always surrounded   
him1 and unfortunately flattered him    
only too much4 ,and he even himself     
composed and delivered discourses to his
 court1 in the ,latin language1 from    
which they were translated into ,greek  
by interpreters appointed for the       
purpose4 ,general invitations were      
issued1 and the citizens flocked in     
great crowds to the palace to hear the  
imperial preacher1 who would in vain try
 to prevent their loud applause by      
pointing to heaven as the source of his 
wisdom4 ,he dwelt mainly on the truth of
 ,christianity1 the folly of idolatry1  
the unity and providence of ,god1 the   
coming of ,christ1 and the judgment4 ,at
 times he would severely rebuke the     
avarice and rapacity of his courtiers1  
who would loudly applaud him with their 
mouths and belie his exhortations by    
their works4 ,one of these productions  
is still extant1 in which he recommends 
,christianity in a characteristic       

strain1 and in proof of its divine      
origin cites especially the fulfilment  
of prophecy1 including the sibylline    
books and the ,fourth ,eclogue of       
,virgil1 with the contrast between his  
own happy and brilliant reign and the   
tragical fate of his persecuting        
predecessors and colleagues4            
,nevertheless he continued in his later 
years true1 upon the whole1 to the      
toleration principles of the edict of   
#cac1 protected the pagan priests and   
temples in their privileges1 and wisely 
abstained from all violent measures     
against heathenism1 in the persuasion   
that it would in time die out4 ,he      
retained many heathens at court and in  
public office1 although he loved to     
promote ,christians to honorable        
positions4 ,in several cases1 however1  
he prohibited idolatry1 where it        
sanctioned scandalous immorality1 as in 
the obscene worship of ,venus in        
,phenicia2 or in places which were      
especially sacred to the ,christians1 as

 the sepulchre of ,christ and the grove 
of ,mamre2 and he caused a number of    
deserted temples and images to be       
destroyed or turned into ,christian     
churches4 ,eusebius relates several such
 instances with evident approbation1 and
 praises also his later edicts against  
various heretics and schismatics1 but   
without mentioning the ,arians4 ,in his 
later years he seems1 indeed1 to have   
issued a general prohibition of         
idolatrous sacrifice2 ,eusebius speaks  
of it1 and his sons in #cda refer to an 
edict to that effect2 but the repetition
 of it by his successors proves that1 if
 issued1 it was not carried into general
 execution under his reign4  ,with this 
shrewd1 cautious1 and moderate policy of
 ,constantine1 which contrasts well with
 the violent fanaticism of his sons1    
accords the postponement of his own     
baptism to his last sickness4 ,for this 
he had the further motives of a         
superstitious desire1 which he himself  
expresses1 to be baptized in the        

,jordan1 whose waters had been          
sanctified by the ,saviour's baptism1   
and no doubt also a fear that he might  
by relapse forfeit the sacramental      
remission of sins4 ,he wished to secure 
all the benefit of baptism as a complete
 expiation of past sins1 with as little 
risk as possible1 and thus to make the  
best of both worlds4 ,deathbed baptisms 
then were to half ,christians of that   
age what deathbed conversions and       
deathbed communions are now4 ,but he    
presumed to preach the gospel1 he called
 himself the bishop of bishops1 he      
convened the first general council1 and 
made ,christianity the religion of the  
empire1 long before his baptism6        
,strange as this inconsistency appears  
to us1 what shall we think of the court 
bishops who1 from false prudence1       
relaxed in his favor the otherwise      
strict discipline of the church1 and    
admitted him1 at least tacitly1 to the  
enjoyment of nearly all the privileges  
of believers1 before he had taken upon  

himself even a single obligation of a   
catechumen8  ,when1 after a life of     
almost uninterrupted health1 he felt the
 approach of death1 he was received into
 the number of catechumens by laying on 
of hands1 and then formally admitted by 
baptism into the full communion of the  
church in the year #ccg1 the sixty-fifth
 year of his age1 by the ,arian 7or     
properly ,semi-,arian7 bishop ,eusebius 
of ,nicomedia1 whom he had shortly      
before recalled from exile together with
 ,arius6 ,his dying testimony then was1 
as to form1 in favor of heretical rather
 than orthodox ,christianity1 but merely
 from accident1 not from intention4 ,he 
meant the ,christian as against the     
heathen religion1 and whatever of       
,arianism may have polluted his baptism1
 was for the ,greek ,church fully       
neutralized by the orthodox             
canonization4 ,after the solemn         
ceremony1 he promised to live           
thenceforth worthily of a disciple of   
,jesus2 refused to wear again the       

imperial mantle of cunningly woven silk1
 richly ornamented with gold2 retained  
the white baptismal robe2 and died a few
 days after1 on ,pentecost1 ,may #cb1   
#ccg1 trusting in the mercy of ,god1 and
 leaving a long1 a fortunate1 and a     
brilliant reign1 such as none but       
,augustus1 of all his predecessors1 had 
enjoyed4 ',so passed away the first     
,christian emperor1 the first defender  
of the faith1 the first imperial patron 
of the papal see1 and of the whole      
,eastern ,church1 the first founder of  
the holy places1 pagan and ,christian1  
orthodox and heretical1 liberal and     
fanatical1 not to be imitated or        
admired1 but much to be remembered1 and 
deeply to be studied4'  ,his remains    
were removed in a golden coffin by a    
procession of distinguished civilians   
and the whole army1 from ,nicomedia to  
,constantinople1 and deposited1 with the
 highest ,christian honors1 in the      
,church of the ,apostles1 while the     
,roman senate1 after its ancient custom1

 proudly ignoring the great religious   
revolution of the age1 enrolled him     
among the gods of the heathen ,olympus4 
,soon after his death1 ,eusebius set him
 above the greatest princes of all      
times2 from the fifth century he began  
to be recognized in the ,east as a      
saint2 and the ,greek and ,russian      
,church to this day celebrates his      
memory under the extravagant title of   
,isapostolos1 the ',equal of the        
,apostles4' ,the ,latin ,church1 on the 
contrary1 with truer tact1 has never    
placed him among the saints1 but has    
been content with naming him 'the       
,great1' in just and grateful           
remembrance of his services to the cause
 of ,christianity and civilization4     
,constantine marks the beginning of the 
downfall of ancient and classical       
paganism4 ,still it dragged out a sickly
 old age for about two hundred years    
longer1 until at last it died of        
incurable consumption1 without the hope 
of a resurrection4  ,the final          

dissolution of heathenism in the        
,eastern empire may be dated from the   
middle of the fifth century4 ,in the    
year #dce1 ,theodosius ,,ii4 commanded  
the temples to be destroyed or turned   
into churches4 ,there still appear some 
heathens in civil office and at court so
 late as the beginning of the reign of  
,justinian ,i4 7#ebg-efg74 ,but this    
despotic emperor prohibited heathenism  
as a form of worship in the empire on   
pain of death1 and in #ebi abolished the
 last intellectual seminary of it1 the  
philosophical school of ,athens1 which  
had stood nine hundred years4 ,at that  
time just seven philosophers were       
teaching in that school1 the shades of  
the ancient seven sages of ,greece--a   
striking play of history1 like the name 
of the last ,west-,roman emperor1       
,romulus ,augustus1 or1 in contemptuous 
diminutive1 ,augustulus1 combining the  
names of the founder of the city and the
 founder of the empire4  ,in the ,west1 
heathenism maintained itself until near 

the middle of the sixth century1 and    
even later1 partly as a private         
religious conviction among many         
cultivated and aristocratic families in 
,rome1 partly even in the full form of  
worship in the remote provinces and on  
the mountains of ,sicily1 ,sardinia1 and
 ,corsica1 and partly in heathen customs
 and popular usages1 like the           
gladiatorial shows still extant in ,rome
 in #djd1 and the wanton ,lupercalia1 a 
sort of heathen carnival1 the feast of  
,lupercus1 the god of herds1 still      
celebrated with all its excesses in     
,february1 #die4 ,but1 in general1 it   
may be said that the ,grco-,roman       
heathenism1 as a system of worship1 was 
buried under the ruins of the ,western  
empire1 which sank under the storms of  
the great migration4 ,it is remarkable  
that the northern barbarians labored    
with the same zeal in the destruction of
 idolatry as in the destruction of the  
empire1 and really promoted the victory 
of the ,christian religion4 ,the ,gothic

 king ,alaric1 on entering ,rome1       
expressly ordered that the churches of  
the apostles ,peter and ,paul should be 
spared1 as inviolable sanctuaries2 and  
he showed a humanity1 which ,augustin   
justly attributes to the influence of   
,christianity 7even perverted ,arian    
,christianity7 on these barbarous       
people4 ,the ,christian name1 he says1  
which the heathens blaspheme1 has       
effected not the destruction1 but the   
salvation of the city4 ,odoacer1 who put
 an end to the ,western ,roman empire in
 #dgf1 was incited to his expedition    
into ,italy by ,st4 ,severin1 and1      
though himself an ,arian1 showed great  
regard to the catholic bishops4 ,the    
same is true of his conqueror and       
successor1 ,theodoric the ,ostrogoth1   
who was recognized by the ,east-,roman  
emperor ,anastasius as king of ,italy   
7,a4,d4 #ejj71 and was likewise an      
,arian4 ,thus between the barbarians and
 the ,romans1 as between the ,romans and
 the ,greeks1 and in a measure also the 

,jews1 the conquered gave laws to the   
conquerors4 ,christianity triumphed over
 both4  ,this is the end of ,grco-,roman
 heathenism1 with its power1 wisdom1 and
 beauty4 ,it fell a victim to a slow but
 steady process of incurable            
consumption4 ,its downfall is a sublime 
tragedy which1 with all our abhorrence  
of idolatry1 we cannot witness without a
 certain sadness4 ,at the first         
appearance of ,christianity it comprised
 all the wisdom1 literature1 art1 and   
political power of the civilized world1 
and led all into the field against the  
weaponless religion of the crucified    
,nazarene4 ,after a conflict of four or 
five centuries it lay prostrate in the  
dust without hope of resurrection4 ,with
 the outward protection of the state1 it
 lost all power1 and had not even the   
courage of martyrdom2 while the         
,christian church showed countless hosts
 of confessors and blood-witnesses1 and 
,judaism lives to-day in spite of all   
persecution4 ,the expectation that      

,christianity would fall about the year 
#cih1 after an existence of three       
hundred and sixty-five years1 turned out
 in the fulfilment to relate to         
heathenism itself4  ,the last glimmer of
 life in the old religion was its       
pitiable prayer for toleration and its  
lamentation over the ruin of the empire4
 ,its best elements took refuge in the  
church1 and became converted1 or at     
least took ,christian names4 ,now the   
gods were dethroned1 oracles and        
prodigies ceased1 sibylline books were  
burned1 temples were destroyed1 or      
transformed into churches1 or still     
stand as memorials of the victory of    
,christianity4  ,but although ancient   
,greece and ,rome have fallen forever1  
the spirit of ,grco-,roman paganism is  
not extinct4 ,it still lives in the     
natural heart of man1 which at this day 
as much as ever needs regeneration by   
the spirit of ,god4 ,it lives also in   
many idolatrous and superstitious usages
 of the ,greek and ,roman ,churches1    

against which the pure spirit of        
,christianity has instinctively         
protested from the beginning1 and will  
protest1 till all remains of gross and  
refined idolatry shall be outwardly as  
well as inwardly overcome1 and baptized 
and sanctified not only with water1 but 
also with the spirit and fire of the    
gospel4  ,finally1 the better genius of 
ancient ,greece and ,rome still lives in
 the immortal productions of their      
poets1 philosophers1 historians1 and    
orators--yet no longer an enemy1 but a  
friend and servant of ,christ4 ,what is 
truly great and noble and beautiful can 
never perish4 ,the classic literature   
had prepared the way for the gospel1 in 
the sphere of natural culture1 and was  
to be turned thenceforth into a weapon  
for its defence4 ,it passed1 like the   
,old ,testament1 as a rightful          
inheritance1 into the possession of the 
,christian church1 which saved those    
precious works of genius through the    
ravages of the migration of nations and 

the darkness of the ,middle ,ages1 and  
used them as material in the rearing of 
the temple of modern civilization4 ,the 
word of the great apostle of the        
,gentiles was here fulfilled3 ',all     
things are yours4' ,the ancient         
classics1 delivered from the dmoniacal  
possession of idolatry1 have come into  
the service of the only true and living 
,god1 once 'unknown' to them1 but now   
everywhere revealed1 and are thus       
enabled to fulfil their true mission as 
the preparatory tutors of youth for     
,christian learning and culture4 ,this  
is the noblest1 the most worthy1 and    
most complete victory of ,christianity1 
transforming the enemy into friend and  
ally4  ,,footnotes3  ,a ,greek3 ,labron1
 also ,greek3 labouron2 derived1 not    
from labor1 nor from ,greek3 laphuron1  
i4e41 prda1 nor from ,greek3 labein1 but
 probably from a barbarian root1        
otherwise unknown1 and introduced into  
the ,roman terminology1 even before     
,constantine1 by the ,celtic or         

,germanic recruits4 ,comp4 ,du ,cange1  
,glossar41 and ,suicer1 ,thesaur4 s4h4v4
 ,the labarum1 as described by          
,eusebius1 who saw it himself 7,vita    
,const4 i4 #cj71 consisted of a long    
spear overlaid with gold1 and a cross   
piece of wood1 from which hung a square 
flag of purple cloth1 embroidered and   
covered with precious stones4 ,on the   
top of the shaft was a crown composed of
 gold and precious stones1 and          
containing the monogram of ,christ 7see 
next note71 and just under this crown   
was a likeness of the emperor and his   
sons in gold4 ,the emperor told         
,eusebius 7,i4 ii4 c4 #g7 some          
incredible things about this labarum1   
e4g4 that none of its bearers was ever  
hurt by the darts of the enemy4  ,b ,x  
and ,p1 the first two letters of the    
name of ,christ1 so written upon one    
another as to make the form of the      
cross3 ,illustration 7i4e4              
,christos--,alpha and ,omega1 the       
beginning and the end71 and similar     

forms1 of which ,mnter 7,sinnbilder der 
,alten ,christen1 p4 #cf sqq47 has      
collected from ancient coins1 vessels1  
and tombstones more than twenty4 ,the   
monogram1 as well as the sign of the    
cross1 was in use among the ,christians 
long before ,constantine1 probably as   
early as the ,antonines and ,hadrian4   
,yea1 the standards and trophies of     
victory generally had the appearance of 
a cross1 as ,minucius ,felix1           
,tertullian1 ,justin1 and other         
apologists of the second century told   
the heathens4 ,according to ,killen     
7,ancient ,church1 p4 #cag1 note71 who  
quotes ,aringhus 7,roma ,subterranea1   
,,ii4 p4 #efg7 as his authority1 the    
famous monogram 7of course in a         
different sense7 is found even before   
,christ on coins of the ,ptolemies4 ,the
 only thing new1 therefore1 was the     
union of this symbol in its ,christian  
sense and application with the ,roman   
military standard4  ,c ,cicero says1 pro
 ,raberio1 c4 #e3 ',nomen ipsum crucis  

absit non modo a corpore civium         
,romanorum1 sed etiam a cogitatione1    
oculis1 auribus4' ,with other ancient   
heathens1 however1 the ,egyptians1 the  
,buddhists1 and even the aborigines of  
,mexico1 the cross seems to have been in
 use as a religious symbol4 ,socrates   
relates 7,h4,e4 v4 #ag7 that at the     
destruction of the temple of ,serapis1  
among the hieroglyphic inscriptions1    
forms of crosses were found which pagans
 and ,christians alike referred to their
 respective religions4 ,some of the     
heathen converts1 conversant with       
hieroglyphic characters1 interpreted the
 form of the cross to mean the ,life to 
come4 ,according to ,prescott 7,conquest
 of ,mexico1 iii4 #cch-cdj7 the         
,spaniards found the cross among the    
objects of worship in the idol temples  
of ,anahnac4     ,,causes ,,of ,,the    
,,minnesota ,,massacre4   ,if great     
public phenomena do not come by chance1 
then there were causes for the          
,minnesota massacres1 by the ,sioux1 in 

#ahfb-'c1 quite apart from the          
aboriginal cruelty and ferocity of the  
,indian nature4 ,we all know that the   
carnal ,indian man is a bad enough      
fellow at the best1 and capable of      
dreadful crimes and misdemeanors1 if    
only to gratify his whim or the caprice 
of the moment4 ,and when he is bent upon
 satiating his revenge for some real or 
imaginary wrong1 ,i would back him in   
the horrible ingenuity of his devices   
for torture1 in the unrelenting malice  
of his vengeance1 against any--the most 
fierce and diabolical--of all the       
potentates in the kingdoms of eternal   
and immutable evil6  ,but the white man 
has always had the advantage of the red 
man4 ,he was his superior in knowledge1 
power1 and intellect2 and came1 for the 
most part1 of that lordly race1 the     
issue of whose loins already occupy all 
the chief countries within the zones of 
civilization4 ,he knew1 therefore1 when 
he first began to deal with the ,indian1
 what manner of man he was1 what his    

enlightenment was1 and how far it       
reached out into the darkness where all 
is night6 ,he knew that this wild1      
savage1 untamable redskin could not be  
approached1 reconciled1 traded with1 or 
stolen1 from1 by adopting1 in his case1 
the usages and courtesies of civil life1
 as we understand them1 but that his own
 peculiar laws1 customs1 and manners    
must be studied and conformed to1 if any
 headway were to be made in his regard  
and confidence4  ,at no time1 from the  
beginning to the present day and hour1  
has any white man been so fuddled in his
 wits as to suppose that the ,indian    
could either act or talk like a         
clergyman of any recognized ,christian  
denomination4 ,it was too much1         
therefore1 to expect from him that he   
should exhibit any of the fine charities
 and warm affections which distinguish  
the ,christian character4 ,he was a     
redskin1 implacable in his hate1 not    
altogether trustworthy even in his      
friendships1 and jealous of his         

reputation and the traditions of his    
race4 ,nor was he without manhood       
either4 ,a brave1 bloody1 mocking and   
defiant manhood6 capable of the         
endurances of the martyr1 exhibiting    
sometimes the sublimest self-sacrifice  
and courage4  ,whether out of these wild
 and savage materials there lay         
anywhere1 at any time1 the human or     
divine power to mould a civilized       
community1 does not appear upon the     
record4 ,it is certain1 however1 that   
after all the far-too-late attempts to  
transfigure these savages into the      
likeness of a down-,east ,yankee1 or1   
better still1 into the similitude of a  
,western farmer1 no permanent good      
results are likely to ensue4  ,the red  
man and the white are separated indeed  
by the prodigious distances             
7ethnologically speaking7 not only of   
race and language1 but of noble         
tradition and glorious history4 ,they   
could never amalgamate in blood1 or in  
the so-called natural sympathies of man4

 ,they seem to be born enemies6 as their
 feelings and their instincts apparently
 reach them when they come into contact 
with each other4 ,they cannot exist side
 by side4 ,a mightier than they holds   
the destinies of both in ,his hands4 ,he
 has tried the redskins4 ,he has given  
them a good chance upon the earth1 and  
they have failed to do anything but kill
 buffalo and breed like rats--often     
burrowing like rats--refusing to dig and
 plant the teeming1 beneficent earth    
which had been committed to their       
charge2 and preferring1 generally1 the  
life of a vagabond loafer to that of a  
thrifty1 careful husbandman4  ,i do not 
blame them4 ,they are as ,god made them1
 and man left them2 for1 ,i suppose1    
their forebears--somewhere afar off in  
,asia1 perhaps1 in the dim1 immemorial  
ages--had all passed through the various
 phases of the civilization of their    
time1 and that they did not grow out of 
the tail of any gorilla4 ,it is not for 
profane man to inquire what possible    

reason there could be for the           
perpetuation--let alone the creation--of
 such a useless1 bootless race4 ,there  
they are1 occupiers of the soil for     
unknown centuries--before the white man 
ever saw their faces--many thousands of 
them still squatting there1 cleaving1   
like bereaved ,autochthons1 to the bosom
 of the dear old mother who had whelped 
and so long nurtured them2 and trying to
 make themselves believe that they are  
still masters of the continent4  ,what  
they were made for at all1 ,i do not    
pretend to divine4 ,the ,divine ,maker  
of all knows best1 and what ,he does is 
its own justification--satisfying the   
wellnigh insatiable cry of the universe 
for universal justice4 ,they are the    
saurians of humanity2 and it is         
remarkable that the idea of 'progressive
 development'--if ,i may be pardoned for
 making use of a term in modern         
philosophy about which there has been so
 much assumption and canting--it is     
remarkable that this idea1 which the    

name of saurian suggests1 should run    
through all nature1 and be embodied in  
her finest forms and intelligences4     
,there is a considerable distance       
between the saurian and good ,master    
,adam1 the gardener of ,eden2 but it    
seems to me1 after all1 that this       
brutal1 foul1 obscene monster of the    
prime1 was only ,adam in the making4 ,he
 came after him1 a long way1 at all     
events2 and if geology had been         
fashionable in his time1 and he a       
savant1 he might have chalked out for   
himself a very fine pedigree4  ,for this
 strange1 eccentric ,nature1 who meant  
man from the beginning1 and failed to   
realize her ideal because of those      
horrible nightmare dreams of which these
 saurians1 mastodons1 mammoths were the 
visible representatives1 did1           
nevertheless1 make1 in every succeeding 
world 7for every crust of this planet is
 the crust of a dead world71 higher and 
higher organizations--until1 at last1   
she gave to man his inscrutable birth6  

,that was1 no doubt1 a great triumph of 
power and genius6 ,man is a noble       
animal1 the finest of all living        
fellows6 et cetera6 et cetera6 ,but what
 sort of a fellow was he when he came1  
in his spindles and shacklebones1 from  
the womb of the ,all-mother8 ,was he a  
,caucasian1 or a ,mongolian1 a ,negro1 a
 ,malay1 or a ,bosjesman8--this last    
being an effigy of man so abominable    
that no race that ,i have heard of will 
include him even as a lodger in the     
parish settlements6  ,mark6 what a      
sameness1 and yet what an infinite      
variety1 there is in all the operations 
and purposes of ,nature6 ,she does not  
grow us men out of our mothers1 but     
babes--helpless1 pitiably1 tearfully    
helpless babes6--ignorant2 who must grow
 into the perfect stature and the mature
 mind of men4 ,is not this babe also a  
saurian in its little way8 ,does a wider
 gap separate the saurian from the man1 
than that which separates the tiny babe 
from some ,bacon or ,raleigh8 ,the law  

of nature is progress4 ,it is often1    
nay1 always1 a very slow thing--but how 
sure6 how inevitable6 how beneficent in 
its results6 ,she never makes worse     
after bad--and those weird opium        
monsters of the foreworlds were         
unspeakably bad6--but always she makes  
of bad better2 and of better she has    
made her best1 at present4 ,in the light
 of this law1 were any one mad enough to
 grope1 he might come to the conclusion 
that the first man 7or race of men7 was 
anything but a grandee in mind1 person1 
or estate2 and that our seemingly       
puzzled but at last most wonder-working 
mother1 ycleped ,nature1 made some very 
ugly attempts at man before she reached 
the climax of her imagination and her   
power as it obtains in the man          
,caucasian6  ,i regard all the colored  
races--and with no malice or evil of any
 sort in my heart toward them--as first 
experiments in the gamut of human       
creation4 ,neither ethnology nor any    
other ology will pull out of my         

consciousness--let alone my active      
intellect--the belief that these were   
the oldest1 the primordial races1 or the
 descendants of such1 and that the white
 ,caucasian man1 with his noble brain   
and heart1 his matchless person1 was an 
afterthought1 the brightest since her   
birth-thought of the earth's creation4  
,look into the face of any upgrown      
modern ,indian6 ,it is an old face1 as  
if the accumulated wrinkles of1 not     
'forty1' but a hundred 'centuries' had  
ploughed their marks there4 ,they seem  
to belong to the dawn of time2 while our
 ,caucasian man is ever young and       
beautiful1 the born master of all       
things4  ,we must deal with races       
according to their faculty1 and credit  
them according to their faculty4 ,if we 
fail1 we fail in wisdom--and in         
prudence1 which is a valuable attribute 
of wisdom4 ,expect not grapes from      
thistles6 ,expect no virtue--unless it  
relates to his own selfishness or his   
own tribe--from an ,indian1 or from very

 many other men6  ,it must not be       
forgotten1 however1 that ,indians are   
people who1 to say the least of them1   
are fashioned in the likeness of men4   
,here1 as elsewhere1 ,nature sticks to  
her old plan1 and will not budge an     
inch4 ,in the chart of the ,indian's    
nature are mapped out the same feelings1
 instincts1 passions1 the same organs   
and dimensions as belong to the highest 
race1 or the highest race of the mixed  
races4 ,she will have no nonsense about 
her red children1 nor about her black4  
,there they are1 as she 7for purposes of
 her own1 not particularly clear7       
intended them to be--men1 alive1        
oh6--not descendants of ,monboddo's ape1
 nor of ,du ,chaillu's gorilla1 but men 
proper and absolute6 with their duties1 
responsibilities1 and destinies4        
,seeing1 therefore1 that the ,indian    
7our ,american ,indian1 with whom we    
have now to do7 has all the             
faculties--however defaced and blurred  
by long centuries of bloody crimes1     

which they regard not as crimes1 but as 
virtues--seeing that these red1         
thriftless1 bloody-minded ,indians have 
all the human faculties                 
intact--although1 it may be1 not so     
bright as those of some of our own      
people who call themselves              
,americans--is it not possible that by  
fair and manly dealing with them1 by a  
just trade1 and conscientious regard for
 the sanctity of treaty rights and      
obligations--that you1 whom it may more 
particularly concern1 might so win their
 good will as to make them friends      
instead of enemies8 ,the devil that lies
 at the bottom of all savage natures is 
easily roused1 not at all so easily laid
 again1 and as easily kept in his own   
place4 ,indians are not incapable of    
friendship1 nor of good faith1 although 
the best require a great deal of looking
 after--and close looking1 too6 ,but    
what ,i want to urge is this3 that if   
you always appeal to the worst passions 
of the redskin1 rob him of his rights   

and property1 cheat him by false        
promises1 deceive him at all hands1 and 
then mock him when he knocks at your    
door for credit or charity1 that he and 
his may live1 you cannot much wonder if1
 obeying his traditions1 his religion1  
and the dictates of his savage          
nature--now maddened into fury and      
reckless of consequences--he indulges in
 the frightful havoc1 the relentless    
murders and burnings1 which have so     
lately marked his trail in ,minnesota4  
,let no one suppose for a moment1 from  
what ,i have now said1 that ,i design to
 offer any apology1 any excuse for the  
nameless and unpunishable crimes which  
these miscreants have perpetrated4 ,i   
have no pity and no compassion for them1
 and surely no word either which ,i     
desire should be construed1 in this     
respect1 to their favor4 ,i go with the 
old ,scotch judge--a rigid ,antinomian6 
who1 having tried and convicted a       
,calvinist as rigid as himself1 asked   
him what he had to say why the sentence 

of the law should not be pronounced     
against him4  ',my lord1' said the      
prisoner1 'it's a bad job2 but ,i was   
predestined to do it6'  ,whereupon his  
lordship replied3 ',ay6 ay6 my cannie   
laddie6 an' ,i was predestined to hang  
ye for't4'  ,so while ,i set forth the  
necessary1 evil nature of the ,indian1  
and the consequent necessity of his     
bloody deeds1 ,i also insist upon the   
necessity of hanging him for it4  ,i    
plead not for the ,indian of ,minnesota1
 after these most shocking1 most        
appalling butcheries4 ,i love my own    
race2 and not a man1 woman1 or child1   
who was sacrificed by these monsters1   
but their wounds were my wounds1 and    
their agonies tore my heart to the very 
core4 ,henceforth ,i shall never see an 
,indian but ,i shall feel the 'goose    
flesh' of loathing and horror steal over
 my ,adam's buff6 ,but you1 my beloved  
friends of ,minnesota6 you who have     
suffered so much in your families and   
homes during the massacre1 are you sure 

that you did all you could do as        
citizens and rulers in this land to see 
even-handed justice dealt out between   
the corrupt ,government agencies and    
storekeepers1 and the helpless ,indians8
 ,had these last no just and reasonable 
ground of complaint8 complaint of the   
,general ,government1 complaint of the  
delays in their payment1 complaint of   
the swindling of the storekeepers and   
traders8  ,they had sold their lands1   
and gone away to their reservations4    
,but the money for their lands--promised
 so faithfully at such a time--where was
 that money8 ,non est6 ,the ,indians    
depended on it1 trusted to the certainty
 of its coming as the saint trusts in   
the promises4 ,they came for it--often1 
in their history1 in the depth of       
winter1 for hundred of miles1 through an
 inhospitable forest2 their wives1      
children1 and braves starving--many of  
them left behind in the wilderness to   
die2 their only weapon made of coarse   
nails1 lashed with wire1 and this they  

called a gun barrel1 and with this they 
killed what game was killed by the way4 
,this did not happen in ,minnesota1 it  
is true2 but events as horrible and     
sickening as this did happen1 and       
brought with them consequences more     
horrible still1 which will never be     
forgotten while the ,state exists or the
 language lasts4 ,scenes were enacted at
 that ',lower ,agency' which were       
disgraceful to human nature1 and the    
victims were invariably the redskins4   
,once when ,red ,iron came there1 at the
 summons1 or rather after the repeated  
summons of ,governor ,ramsay1 it turned 
out that nearly four hundred thousand   
dollars of the cash payment due to the  
,sioux1 under the treaties of #ahea-'b1 
were paid to the traders on old         
indebtedness6 ,how much of this enormous
 sum was really due to the traders it is
 bootless now to inquire2 although it is
 pretty certain1 from what we know of   
similar transactions1 that not a        
twentieth part of it was due to them4   

,mr4 ,isaac ,v4 ,d4 ,heard1 who has     
written a ',history of the ,sioux ,war  
and ,massacres of #ahfb and #ahfc1' who 
is an old resident of ,minnesota of     
twelve years' standing1 acted with      
,general ,sibley in his expedition      
against the savages in #ahfb1 and was   
recorder of the military commission     
which tried some four hundred of the    
participants in the outbreak--has not   
been deterred by the just hatred which  
the ,minnesota people nurture against   
the ,indians1 and which they will keep  
hot until their rifles have exterminated
 the whole brood of them1 from saying a 
brave word respecting the iniquities    
perpetrated by rascal peddlers and      
official prigs against the ,indians     
which were the immediate causes of the  
massacre and the subsequent wars4  ,the 
,indian was subjected to all sorts of   
frauds1 little and big--the smaller     
thieves thinking that they also must    
live1 no matter at whose expense1       
although ,i demur to the proposition4   

,why should they stop at stealing a     
thousand or two1 more or less1 while    
that four hundred thousand swindle      
leered at them so wickedly over the left
 shoulder1 mocking at all law and       
justice1 and scot free from all         
punishment8 ,these 'traders' could      
charge what sums they liked against the 
,indian1 and get them too2 for there was
 no one to defeat or check their        
rapacity4 ,mr4 ,heard tells us that no  
less a sum than fifty-five thousand     
dollars was claimed by one ,hugh ,tyler1
 as due to him by the ,indians1 when the
 great swindle just alluded to was      
committed2 and that he was paid out of  
the accruing funds4 ,this man was a     
stranger in the country1 an adventurer1 
who went out into the wilderness 'for to
 seek his fortune2' and it is curious to
 read the items of which his little     
bill1 fifty-five thousand1 is composed4 
,here they are3 ,for getting the        
treaties through the ,senate2 for       
'necessary disbursements' in securing   

the assent of the chiefs4 ,very curious 
and instructive items they are1 to all  
who consider them4 ,to say nothing of   
the corruption of the ,senate which the 
first item signifies1 if it has any     
meaning at all1 there is the guilty     
record of the 'necessary disbursements1'
 or1 in other words1 bribes1 paid to    
chiefs for betraying their country and  
their race4 ,this was a part of the     
regular machinery of the ,agencies4 ,all
 their plans were cut and dried1 and    
they had men to carry them out4 ,they   
could not stir a peg without the assent 
of the chiefs2 and when they found a man
 too noble to be a traitor1 they got the
 ,governor to break him as a chief1 and 
invest a more pliable1 accommodating    
redskin with his rank and title4        
,through the influence of bad men1 and  
by the forging of lying documents1 which
 the ,indians could not read1 and which 
were never interpreted to them except to
 cheat them as to their contents and    
meaning1 they have always managed to get

 their treaties signed2 after which the 
newly made chiefs could not so much as  
take the liberty to beg a pipe of       
tobacco of them4  ,as a sample of their 
infamous dealings1 we take the following
 excerpt from ,mr4 ,heard's book1 page  
#da3       ',in #aheg1 a trader1        
pretending that he was getting them to  
sign a      power of attorney to get    
back the money which had gone to the    
traders under the treaty of #ahea and   
#aheb1 obtained their      signatures to
 vouchers1 by which he swindled them out
 of #ab1jjj4      ,shortly after1 this  
trader secured the payment of #d1ejj for
 goods      which he claimed 7falsely1  
it is said7 to have been stolen4 ,about 
the same time a man in ,sioux ,city was 
allowed a claim of #e1jjj for           
horses1 which he also alleged to have   
been stolen4       ',in #aheh1 the      
chiefs were taken to ,washington1 and   
agreed to      treaties for the cession 
of all their reservations north of the  
,minnesota1 for which1 as ratified by   

the ,senate1 they were to have          
#aff1jjj2 but of this amount they never 
received a penny until four      years  
afterward1 when #ae1jjj1 in goods1 were 
sent to the ,lower      ,sioux1 and     
these were deducted out of what was due 
them under      former treaties4 ,the   
,indians1 discovering the fraud1 refused
 to      receive them for several weeks1
 and only consented to take them        
after the ,government had agreed to     
rectify the matter4 ,most of the        
large amount due under these treaties1  
went into the pockets of      traders1  
,government officials1 and swindlers    
generally4       ',the ,indians were    
grievously disappointed with their      
bargains1 and      from that time the   
control of affairs passed from the      
chiefs--who1      it was believed1 had  
been bribed--to the young men4 ,they had
 now      nearly disposed of all their  
lands1 and received scarcely anything   
for them4 ,they were six thousand two   
hundred in number1 and their            

annuities1 when paid in full1 were      
hardly fifteen dollars apiece4          
',their sufferings1' continues ,mr4     
,heard1 'were often severe1             
especially during the winter and spring 
previous to the massacres4'  ,their     
crops failed them2 a heavy fall of snow1
 late in the season1 came to increase   
their miseries1 and delayed the spring  
hunts4 ,the ,sissetons1 of ,lac         
,traverse1 had to eat their horses and  
dogs--and at least fifteen hundred of   
the old men1 women1 and children had to 
be supported by the ,government at an   
extra expense2 and this was so          
inadequately done that some died of     
starvation4  ,the history of these      
iniquities is no new thing in ,indian   
affairs4 ,it is1 from first to last1 a  
record of the most shameless lying and  
fraud4 ,the ,agency seems to have been  
established there as a sort of ,jonathan
 ,wild's shop1 for the purpose of       
carrying on the trade of thieving4 ,what
 did these storekeepers--who credited   

the ,indians for tobacco and rum1 for   
bread and beef1 for clothing1 and such  
other luxuries as they had come to      
regard as necessaries--care for the     
winter prospects of the wretched        
,indians1 after they had lined their    
pockets with that four hundred thousand 
dollars8 ,not a dime6 ,and when         
subsequently it was found that only half
 the regular ,government payment would  
be handed over to the ,indians during   
the next year1 these storekeepers--on   
the ',wild' plan--not only refused to   
give them credit for articles           
indispensable to life in the wilderness1
 but insulted them to boot2 and this so 
exasperated the proud1 revengeful nature
 of the ,indian1 that he remembered it  
afterward in many a bloody murder which 
he committed1 and the innocent suffered 
for the guilty6  ,mr4 ,heard acquits the
 ,agency1 and all connected with it1 of 
being in any way the causes of this     
outbreak4 ,but his own statements of    
their dealing with the ,indians hardly  

bear him out in his judgment4 ,i do not 
mean to say that the people of the      
,lower ,agency were a whit worse in such
 dealings than those of the ,upper1 or  
any other similar ,agency4 ,it is an    
understood thing1 and mercilessly       
practised1 that the ,indian shall be    
fleeced whenever the white man has a    
chance to fleece him4 ,it is the law and
 the gospel of these ,agencies2 and we  
must not allow ourselves to be          
hoodwinked in this matter by the        
mistaken humanity of ,mr4 ,heard4  ,and 
yet1 if we think of it1 there could not 
have been devised a more evil scheme1   
either against the natives or the       
settlers1 than these wellnigh           
irresponsible ,agencies4 ,from all parts
 of the ,union1 from every country of   
the ,old ,world1 emigrants had come to  
settle in the beautiful ,minnesota      
,state2 they had built themselves good1 
substantial houses1 ploughed1 fenced1   
and planted their rich and prosperous   
farms1 conquered the savage wilderness  

into blooming cornfields1 orchards1 and 
gardens--and here was their true ,el    
,dorado6 where they hoped to live in    
peace1 plenty1 and security4 ,they were 
not afraid of the savages1 but their    
wont was to make friends of them1 and to
 be their friends1 entertaining them at 
their homes when they visited the       
settlements1 and doing all they         
could--with some exceptions--to         
perpetuate among them a good feeling and
 an intelligent understanding4  ,to a   
certain extent1 and in some cases1 they 
succeeded in this straight-forward      
diplomacy4 ,but the predisposition of   
the reds to enmity with the whites was  
still there1 slumbering only1 not       
eradicated2 nor could all the kindness  
and generosity of the whole ,caucasian  
heart1 heaped upon them in the most     
lavish profusion1 ever root it out4     
,nature put it there--,i wish she       
hadn't--for reasons of her own1 just as 
she put murder into the cruel heart and 
brain of the tiger in the jungle4       

,there was this 'original sin1'         
therefore1 to contend against always1   
without reference to any tangible causes
 or provocations4 ,all knew this4 ,all  
knew1 from the youngest to the oldest1  
that the true policy of the whites was  
to conciliate the ,indians4 ,they knew  
his inextinguishable memory of wrongs1  
his dreadful vengeance1 his power1 and  
his constant opportunity to do          
irreparable mischief4 ,and1 as ,i said1 
the settlers were1 for the most part1   
anxious to smoke the pipe of peace and  
friendship with him4  ,but what was the 
good of all this8 ,what1 think you1 did 
it avail in the councils of the savages1
 when they sat over their fires         
discussing their wrongs and prospects8  
,what the good-hearted settlers did in  
the way of reconciliation and good will 
was undone a thousandfold at the        
,agency4 ,it is true that the ,agency   
had become necessary to the subsistence 
of the ,indian1 and that this fact made 
him bear much which1 under other        

circumstances1 he would instantly have  
resented and punished4 ,but they well   
knew how they were robbed2 and when did 
a wrong of that1 or any sort1 pass      
muster upon the ,indian's roll of       
vengeance8 ,every fraud against an      
,indian1 every lie told him1 every      
broken promise1 every worthless article 
sold to him at the ,agency1 was more    
than a set-off to any act of kindness   
shown to him by the settlers4 ,add to   
these local crimes1 the great error of  
the ,government in unduly withholding   
the ,indian payment for their lands--and
 you have the ,indian's casus belli1 the
 grounds1 or some of them1 on which he  
justified himself to his own bloody and 
remorseless conscience1 for his inhuman 
deeds6 ,for the ,indian beeps a         
conscience1 such as it is2 but of a     
truth1 better no conscience than an     
,indian's conscience6 ,it is like an    
appeal to hell1 one's appeal to this6   
all the accursed passions imprisoned    
there coming up from their limbos1 their

 eyes glaring with the malice of        
ineradicable hate1 and bloodshot with   
murder1 to support the conscience1 and  
strengthen its resolution for an        
unspeakable vengeance4  ,but1 after all1
 this poor devil is really to be pitied 
for his ignorance and brutality1 and as 
really to be killed without mercy4 ,he  
is in the way of civilization1 and must 
go to the wall4 ,i find that ,nature    
herself is utterly pitiless2 that she   
cares neither for white nor red1 nor for
 any other color or person1 but1 like a 
horrible1 crashing car of ,juggernaut1  
she rolls steadily forward1 astride the 
inevitable machinery1 crushing all who  
oppose her4  ,but this digression is no 
apology1 in the matter of its argument1 
for the ,indian ,agents1 who must have  
been aware1 long before the outbreak    
took place1 that their frauds were fast 
culminating in the ,indian mind1 and    
that every fresh wrong they did to them 
was only bringing nearer by a step the  
indiscriminate massacre of the settlers4

  ,there were other causes1 however1    
besides these1 to enrage and madden     
them1 which must not be lost sight of4  
,our ,government had prohibited their   
sanguinary wars upon the ,chippewas1 and
 they regarded this as an act of wanton 
tyranny4 ,they were bred in the faith   
that war is the true condition of an    
,indian man1 and that peace was made for
 women and children4 ,war was the only  
outlet for their power1 the only field  
in which they could distinguish         
themselves and win immortal renown4 ,all
 the great kingdoms of knowledge and    
literature were shut against them as    
with walls of brass4 ,they could not    
read or write1 and their leisure was    
passed in idle gossip1 or in            
deliberations on infernal schemes       
against the white man to revenge        
themselves for their wrongs4  ,it was   
not a wise thing to do1 ,i think2       
although1 no doubt1 it was humane       
enough1 as we understand humanity4 ,did 
not the 'dragons of the prime tear other

 in their slime1' and so thin out the   
horrible race1 until ,nature herself put
 the final claws of annihilation upon   
them8 ,why1 in mercy1 then1 do we try to
 prevent the inevitable8 ,war is a great
 clearer of the atmosphere2 and one of  
our poets1 ,coleridge1 ,i believe1 says 
that ',carnage is ,god's daughter'6 a   
bold figure of rhetoric1 not without its
 apparently sufficient apologies4 ,why  
not let the ,sioux and ,chippewas1 or   
any other of the wild1 irreclaimable    
brood1 fight their bloodiest1 and do    
their prettiest to help ,nature1 who    
seems bent on the extermination of all  
inferior races8 ,they have got to die1  
any way6--that is a great               
consolation6--and if the philanthropists
 at ,washington had only left them to   
themselves1 they would have died by     
mutual slaughter--great numbers of      
them--long ago1 and saved said          
philanthropists from the crime of       
killing them1 which they are now doing1 
by inches6--a far more cruel way of     

dying4  ,i was much pleased1 when last  
summer they were upbraided for doing a  
little war against the ,chips1 in spite 
of ,washington1 with the sarcastic reply
 of a chief1 who said3 ',our ,great     
,father1 we know1 has always told us it 
was wrong to make war2 yet now he       
himself is making war1 and killing a    
great many4 ,will you explain this to   
us8 ,we do not understand it6' ,this was
 a hit1 a palpable hit1 let who will    
reconcile it4  ,mr4 ,heard gives us the 
following brief statement of the manner 
in which treaties are made with the     
,indians2 and ,i earnestly call the     
attention of the ,government and all    
just citizens to its statements4 ,he    
says3       ',the traders1 knowing for  
years before1 that the whites will      
purchase lands1 sell the ,indians goods 
on credit1 expecting to      realize    
their pay from the consideration to be  
paid by the      ,government4 ,they thus
 become interested instruments to obtain
 the      consent of the ,indians to the

 treaty4 ,and by reason of their        
familiarity with the language1 and the  
associations of half-breed              
relatives1 are possessed of great       
facilities to accomplish their          
object4 ,the persons deputed by the     
,government to effect a treaty      are 
compelled to procure their cooperation1 
and this they do by      providing that 
their debts shall be paid4 ,the traders 
obtain the      concurrence of the      
,indians by refusing to give them       
further credit1      and by representing
 to them that they will receive an      
immense      amount of money if they    
sell their lands1 and thenceforth will  
live      at ease1 with plenty to eat1  
and plenty to wear1 and plenty of       
powder and lead1 and of whatever else   
they may request4 ,after the      treaty
 is agreed to1 the amount of ready money
 is absorbed by the      exorbitant     
demands of the traders1 and the expenses
 of the      removal of the ,indians to 
their reservations6       ',after that  

the trader no longer looks to the       
,indian for his pay2      he gets it    
from their annuities4 ,he1 therefore1   
does not use the      same means to     
conciliate their good will that he did  
when he was      dependent upon their   
honesty4 ,claims for depredations upon  
white      settlers are also deducted   
out of their moneys before they leave   
,washington1 on insufficient testimony2 
and these are always1 when      based on
 fact1 double the actual loss2 for the  
,indian ,department      is notoriously 
corrupt1 and the hand manipulating the  
machinery      must be crossed with     
gold6 ,the 'expenses' of obtaining a    
claim      enter into the amount        
demanded and allowed4 ,the demand is not
 only      generally unjust1 but1       
instead of its being deducted from the  
moneys of the wrong doer1 it is taken   
from the annuities of all6      ,this   
course punishes the innocent and rewards
 the guilty1 because      the property  
taken by the depredator is of more value

 than the      slight percentage he     
loses4       ',many of the stipulations 
as to establishing schools and          
furnishing      them with farming       
utensils1 are never carried out4        
,building and      supply contracts are 
entered into without investigation at   
outrageous prices1 and goods belonging  
to the ,indians are put into      the   
traders' stores1 and sold to their      
owners1 and the moneys      realized    
shared by the trader and the ,agent6'   
,bishop ,whipple1 of ,minnesota1 in his 
appeal for the red man1 confirms this   
statement beyond doubt or question3     
',there is not a man in ,america1' he   
says1'who ever gave an hour's      calm 
reflection to this subject1 who does not
 know that our ,indian      system is an
 organized system of robbery1 and has   
been for years a      disgrace to the   
nation4 ,it has left savage men without 
,governmental      control2 it has      
looked on unconcerned at every crime    
against the      laws of ,god and man2  

it has fostered savage life by wasting  
thousands of dollars in the purchase of 
paint1 beads1 scalping      knives1 and 
tomahawks2 it has fostered a system of  
trade which      robbed the thrifty and 
virtuous to pay the debts of the        
indolent      and vicious2 it has       
squandered the funds for civilization   
and      schools2 it has connived at    
theft2 it has winked at murder2 and at  
last1 after dragging the savage down to 
a brutishness unknown to      his       
fathers1 it has brought a harvest of    
blood to our door6'  ,the ,bishop       
continues3       ',it was under this    
,indian system that the fierce1 warlike 
,sioux      were fitted and trained to  
be the actors in this bloody drama1 and 
the same causes are to-day1 slowly but  
surely1 preparing the way      for a    
,chippewa war4 ,there is not1 to-day1 an
 old citizen of      ,minnesota who will
 not shrug his shoulders as he speaks of
 the      dishonesty which accompanied  
the purchase of the lands of the        

,sioux4 ,it left in savage minds a deep 
sense of injustice4 ,then1      followed
 ten years of savage life1 unchecked by 
law1 uninfluenced      by good example4 
,they were taught by white men that     
lying was no      disgrace1 adultery no 
sin1 and theft no crime4 ,their hunting 
grounds were gone2 the onward march of  
civilization crowded them on      every 
side4 ,their only possible hope of being
 saved from starvation      was the     
fidelity with which a great nation      
fulfilled its plighted      faith1 which
 before ,god and man it had pledged to  
its heathen      wards4 ,the people     
here1 on the border1 and the rulers at  
,washington1 know how that faith has    
been broken4       ',the constant       
irritations of such a system would1 in  
time1 have      secured an ,indian      
massacre4 ,it was hastened and          
precipitated by the      sale of nearly 
eight hundred thousand acres of land1   
for which      they never received one  
farthing2 for it was all absorbed in    

claims6 ,then came the story 7and it was
 true7 that half of their      annuity  
money had also been taken for claims4   
,they waited two      months1 mad1      
exasperated1 hungry--the ,agent utterly 
powerless to      undo the wrong        
committed at ,washington--and they      
resolved on savage      vengeance4 ,for 
every dollar of which they have been    
defrauded we      shall pay ten dollars 
in the cost of the war4 ,it has been so 
for      fifty years2 it will be so     
again4 ,god's retributive justice always
      has compelled a people to reap    
exactly what they have permitted to     
be sown6'  ,these extracts from the     
,bishop's ,plea confirm what ,i have    
stated in the preceding paragraphs2 and 
the last sentence--which ,i have marked 
in italics--is well worth the while of  
every reader to ponder well4  ,mr4      
,heard dates the commencement of the    
massacre to the breaking of a stray nest
 of hen's eggs on the prairie1 and what 
came of the transaction2 but the date   

lies farther back than that1 so far as  
the resolution to seize the first       
favorable opportunity for slaughtering  
the whites is concerned--and belongs to 
the era of the great crimes of our      
,government against them1 as shown in   
the forcible seizure of their lands     
without their receiving any payment1    
even 'a farthing' for them2 the         
hucksters1 under the connivance of the  
,government agents1 getting the whole of
 it1 and1 in the instance alluded to a  
while ago1 keeping back from them1 as   
payment for old debts1 about three      
hundred boxes of the money upon which   
they had depended to keep themselves    
alive during the winter and the         
following year4  ,such enormous crimes  
were sure to reap a bloody harvest4 ,the
 ,indian is no fool1 although he can't  
do addition and subtraction4 ,he knows  
when he is about fairly dealt with1 and 
he knows when he is mightily plucked4   
,in this case of the 'old debt payment' 
he knew that he was robbed wholesale1   

and through the mouth of ,red ,iron he  
proclaimed the fact to ,governor        
,ramsey1 in council assembled4 ,alluding
 to this robbery1 he said3  ',we don't  
think we owe them so much4 ,we want to  
pay all our debts4 ,we want our ,great  
,father to send three good men here1 to 
tell us how much we do owe2 and whatever
 they say1 we will pay2 and 7pointing to
 the ,indians7 that's what all these    
braves say2 our chiefs and all our      
people say this6'  ,at which all the    
,indians present responded3  ',ho6 ho6' 
,this ,red ,iron was the principal chief
 of the ,sissetons1 and his indignation 
at the wrongs done to his race made him 
so 'boisterous' that ,governor ,ramsey  
was imprudent enough to break him of his
 chieftainship4 ,the scene and its      
results were by no means creditable to  
the ,governor4 ,this latter personage   
had summoned ,red ,iron to meet him at a
 council1 held ,december1 #aheb1 and he 
did not turn up as expected4 ,so1 ,i    
suppose1 he was sent for1 and brought in

 by the soldiers4 ,he is described by   
one who was present1 as about forty     
years old1 tall and athletic2 six feet  
high in his moccasons1 with a large1    
well-developed head1 aquiline nose1     
thin1 compressed lips1 and physiognomy  
beaming with intelligence and           
resolution4 ,he was clad in the half    
military1 half ,indian costume of the   
,dacotah chiefs1 as he sat in the       
council room2 and no one greeted or     
noticed him4 ,a very poor piece of      
revenge6 ,in a few minutes the          
,governor1 turning to the chief in the  
midst of a breathless silence1 by the   
aid of an interpreter1 opened council4  
,the ,governor asked the chief what     
excuse he had for not coming to the     
council when he sent for him4           
,whereupon ,red ,iron rose to his feet1 
'with native grace and dignity1' says   
,mr4 ,heard1 his blanket falling from   
his shoulders1 and1 purposely dropping  
the pipe of peace1 he stood erect before
 the ,governor1 with his arms folded and

 his right hand pressed upon the sheath 
of his scalping knife4 ,with the utmost 
coolness and self-possession1 a defiant 
smile playing upon his thin lips1 and   
his eyes sternly fixed upon his         
excellency1 the ,indian1 with a firm    
voice1 replied3  ',i started to come1   
but your braves drove me back4'         
,,governor4 ',what excuse have you for  
not coming the second time when ,i sent 
for you8'  ,,red ,,iron4 ',no other     
excuse than ,i have given you4'         
,,governor4 ',at the treaty1 ,i thought 
you a good man2 but since1 you have     
acted badly1 and ,i am disposed to break
 you4 ,i do break you4'  ,red ,iron     
looked at the ,governor for a moment    
with a look of withering contempt and   
scorn1 and then burst out in a voice    
full of derisive mockery4  ,,red ,,iron4
 ',you break me6 ,my people made me a   
chief4 ,my people love me4 ,i will still
 be their chief4 ,i have done nothing   
wrong4'  ,,governor4 ',red ,iron1 why   
did you get your braves together1 and   

march around here for the purpose of    
intimidating other chiefs1 and prevent  
their coming to council8'  ,,red ,,iron4
 ',i did not get my braves together2    
they got themselves together1 to prevent
 boys going to council to be made chiefs
 to sign papers1 and to prevent single  
chiefs going to council at night1 to be 
bribed to sign papers for money we have 
never got4' ,and then the inexorable    
fellow continued1 without any regard to 
his excellency's nerves or conscience3  
',we have heard how the ,m',dewakantons 
were served at ,mendota2 that by secret 
councils you got their names on paper1  
and took away their money4 ,we don't    
want to be served so4 ,my braves wanted 
to come to council in the daytime1 when 
the sun shines2 and we want no councils 
in the dark4 ,we want all our people to 
go to council together1 so that we can  
all know what is done4'  ,the ,governor 
is nothing abashed at these damaging    
charges1 but returns once more to the   
assault4  ,,governor4 ',why did you     

attempt to come to council with your    
braves1 when ,i had forbidden your      
braves coming to council8'  ,to which   
,red ,iron1 with the same masterful1    
defiant smile upon his 'thin lips1'     
answers3  ,,red ,,iron4 ',you invited   
the chiefs only1 and would not let the  
braves come too4 ,this is not the way we
 have been treated before2 this is not  
according to our customs2 for among     
,dacotahs1 chiefs and braves go to      
council together4 ,when you first sent  
for us there were two or three chiefs   
here1 and we waited1 and we wanted to   
wait till the rest would come1 that we  
might all be in council together1 and   
know what was done1 and so that we might
 all understand the papers1 and know    
what we were signing4 ,when we signed   
the treaty1 the traders threw a blanket 
over our faces1 and darkened our eyes2  
and made us sign papers which we did not
 understand1 and which were not         
explained or read to us4 ,we want our   
,great ,father at ,washington to know   

what has been done4'  ,this last        
speech--whose words hit like            
bullets--made the ,governor wince1 and  
he replied1 with more sharpness than    
wit3  ,,governor4 ',your ,great ,father 
has sent me to represent him2 and what  
,i say1 he says4 ,he wants you to pay   
your old debts1 in accordance with the  
papers you signed when the treaty was   
made' 'which we did not understand2     
which were never read nor explained to  
us2 which we were forced to sign1' as   
,red ,iron had just told the ,governor64
 ',you must leave that money in my hands
 to pay those debts4 ,if you refuse to  
do that1 ,i will take the money back4'  
,the ,governor was getting deeper and   
deeper into the pit which he had dug for
 the ,indian4 ,this last speech was most
 unhappy and impolitic for the side he  
was advocating4 ,it put dreadful weapons
 into the hands of ,red ,iron1 which the
 crafty 'old man eloquent' did not fail 
to use against his antagonist4  ,he     
makes this manly answer1 not at all     

abashed in the presence of the chief    
magistrate3  ,,red ,,iron4 ',you can    
take back your money6 ,we sold our land 
to you1 and you promised to pay us4 ,if 
you don't give us the money1 ,i will be 
glad1 and all our people will be glad2  
for we will have our land back if you   
don't give us the money4 ,that paper was
 not interpreted or explained to us4 ,we
 are told it gives about three hundred  
boxes 7#cjj1jjj7 of our money to some of
 the traders6 ,we don't think we owe    
them so much4 ,we want to pay all our   
debts4 ,we want our ,great ,father to   
send three good men here to tell us how 
much we do owe1 and whatever they say1  
we will pay2 and 7pointing to the       
,indians7 that's what all these braves  
say4 ,our chiefs and all our people say 
this4'  ,and the ,indians responded with
 the usual ',ho6 ho6' of acquiescence4  
,but the ,governor don't see it4 ,a poor
 devil of an ,indian1 according to his  
,christian conviction1 ought to be      
content to pay unaudited1 untaxed bills1

 wherein the margin is broad enough for 
any scoundrel to do his robberies by    
tens of thousands4 ,so his excellency   
told ,red ,iron3  ,,governor4 ',that    
can't be done6' ,nay1 more confounding  
and appalling still1 he added3 ',you owe
 more than your money will pay1 and ,i  
am ready now to pay your annuity1 and no
 more2 and when you are ready to receive
 it1 the ,agent will pay it4'  ,red     
,iron replies in a speech full of       
pathos3  ,,red ,,iron4 ',we will receive
 our annuity1 but we will sign no papers
 for anything else4' ,you've swindled us
 enough1 lied to us deep enough already1
 and we have no belief in your words or 
agreements4 ',the snow is on the ground1
 and we have been waiting a long time to
 get our money4 ,we are poor2 you have  
plenty4 ,your fires are warm2 your      
tepees 7wigwams1 tents7 keep out the    
cold4 ,we have nothing to eat4 ,we have 
been waiting a long time for our moneys4
 ,our hunting season is past4 ,a great  
many of our people are sick for being   

hungry4 ,we must die because you won't  
pay us4 ,we may die6 but if we do' hold 
on1 reader6 no curses on the white men  
are coming next1 as one might naturally 
expect1 either from ,christian or       
heathen orator1 under the               
circumstances6--'but if we do1' he      
continues1 'we will leave our bones on  
the ground1 that our ,great ,father may 
see where his ,dacotah children died6'  
,he has seen many such shambles1 ,o thou
 eloquent ,indian6 eloquent to ears of  
flint and hearts of granite6 and ,i     
never heard that the ',great ,father'   
ever shed a single tear over them4 ,he  
goes on3 ',we are very poor4 ,we have   
sold our hunting grounds1 and with them 
the graves of our fathers4 ,we have sold
 our own graves4' ,out of all those     
hundreds of thousands of acres1 not six 
feet of earth1 which they could call    
their own1 left for any one of them6    
',we have no place to bury our dead1 and
 you will not pay us the money for our  
lands4'  ,i give this interview1 and    

what transpired there1 as a sample of   
the treatment which the ,indians were in
 the habit of receiving at the hands    
both of the ,general ,government and the
 ,state authorities4 ,not the wisest    
kind of treatment1 one would think1 this
 which ,red ,iron received1 taking all  
the circumstances into account4 ,the    
reader will be surprised1 however1 that 
,governor ,ramsey1 not content with     
'breaking' the chief1 as he called      
it--the greatest dishonor which he could
 inflict upon an ,indian of rank--sent  
him1 when the council broke up1 to the  
guard house1 under an escort of         
soldiers6 ,this impolitic official ought
 to have remembered that the fire was   
even then ready for the kindling1 which 
finally burst out in such fearful       
devastation over his devoted ,state2    
that it was enough to have cheated the  
,indians1 without thus inflaming their  
already excited passions1 by heaping so 
great an indignity upon the person of   
their chief4 ,but he was regardless of  

everything except the display of his own
 power and authority4 ,no doubt he      
thought he was acting for the best1 and 
that the dirty redskins needed to be    
held with a high hand4 ,but it was bad  
thinking and doing1 nevertheless2 a most
 shortsighted and foolish policy1 which 
came wellnigh1 as it was1 to an ,indian 
outbreak4  ,the braves of ,red ,iron    
retired under the leadership of ,lean   
,bear1 a crafty fellow1 eloquent in his 
way1 and now irreconcilably mad against 
the whites2 and when he had led them    
about a quarter of a mile from the      
council house1 they set up a            
simultaneous yell1 the gathering signal 
of the ,dacotah4 ,ere the echoes died   
away1 ,indians were hurrying from their 
tepees toward them1 prepared for battle4
 ,they proceeded to an eminence near the
 camp1 where mouldered the bones of many
 warriors4 ,it was the memorable battle 
ground where their ancestors had fought1
 in a ,waterloo conflict1 the warlike   
,sacs and ,foxes1 thereby preserving    

their lands and nationality4  ,a more   
favorable occasion1 a more fitting      
locality for the display of eloquence   
which should kindle the blood of the    
,indian into raging fire1 and persuade  
him to any the most monstrous and       
inhuman deeds1 could not have been      
chosen even by ,indian sagacity4 ,an old
 battle ground1 where the ,sioux had    
been victorious over their enemies2 the 
whitened bones of the ghastly skeletons 
of their ancestors who fought the       
battle1 bleaching on the turf1 or       
calling to them from their graves below 
to take ,god's vengeance in their own   
hands2 the memory of the old and new    
wrongs inflicted upon them by the       
whites2 the infuriating insult just     
offered to their favorite chief--all    
conspired with the orator's cunning to  
give edge to his eloquence and obedience
 to his commands4  ,governor ,ramsey has
 a good deal to thank ,god for1 that1   
stimulated by ,lean ,bear's rhetoric1   
the ,sioux did not that night attack the

 whites1 and make an indiscriminate     
slaughter of the population1 as they    
would have done1 if it had not been for 
the friendly ,indians and half breeds4  
,perhaps he thought he was strong       
enough1 for the hour1 to defeat them in 
any attempt at an outbreak4 ,but it is  
not strength so much as strategy which  
is needed in ,indian warfare4 ,to whip  
the ,indians1 we must become ,indians in
 our plan and conduct of battle4 ,the   
civilization and mathematics of war1 as 
practised by cultivated people1 are     
useless in the wilderness1 and all our  
proud and boasted tactics are mere      
foolish toying and trifling--a waste of 
time1 strength1 and opportunity4 ,no one
 doubts that if our troops could meet   
the ,indians in open field1 they would  
slaughter them like rats2 but they know 
better than to be caught on the open    
field1 except they are pretty sure of an
 advantage4 ,they steal upon you like   
thieves1 shod with moccasons which have 
no sound2 they think it equally brave to

 shoot a man from behind a tree as to   
sabre him in a hand-to-hand encounter4  
,it is dreadful to contemplate what an  
incarnate fiend we have roused in this  
cheated1 wronged1 and despised ,indian4 
,i tremble to think of it4 ,i tremble   
when ,i remember also what ,bishop      
,whipple says in the ',plea1' from which
 ,i have already quoted2 they are words 
which ought to be thundered continually 
into the ears of the ',great ,father1'  
until he compels a total revolution in  
our ,indian affairs--words which all    
settlers in those regions should keep   
forever present in their minds2 and1    
with the ,minnesota massacres still     
fresh in their memory1 they should be   
taught by them never for a moment to    
trust an ,indian1 and never knowingly to
 give him just cause for complaint2 to  
go always armed2 to organize1 in towns1 
districts1 and counties1 the yeomen of  
the soil1 who must be ready at any      
moment1 by night or day1 to meet the    
treacherous1 ubiquitous enemy4 ,these   

last will be found of more value than   
the 'thundering' suggestion contained in
 the first of these precautionary       
propositions4 ,for it is upon themselves
 that they must chiefly rely for        
defence1 these hapless settlers6 and    
upon no ,government1 and no soldiers4   
,think of it1 our ',great ,father' at   
,washington6 and you1 his unruly        
children1 you ,senators and             
,congressmen6 ,one of your most loyal   
citizens in the ,state of ,minnesota1 a 
,christian bishop1 well acquainted with 
all the facts1 the dodges1 lies1 frauds1
 and all the ins and outs of your       
,indian administration1 declares1 with  
the fullest solemnity which his office  
and functions can give to words1 and    
with the voice1 not of prophecy1 but of 
logical deduction1 that the same causes 
which brought about the ,sioux massacre1
 ',,are ,,to-,,day1 ,,slowly ,,but      
,,surely1 ,,preparing ,,the ,,way ,,for 
,a ,,chippewa ,,war6' ,what a ,chippewa 
war means1 those who did not know in    

#ahfa1 found out through the ,sioux in  
#ahfb and #ahfc1 to their perpetual     
sorrow4 ,like the ,bourbons1 however1   
our ,government either cannot or will   
not learn lessons from experience4 ,if  
they were compelled to bear the         
penalties of their neglect and wanton   
maladministration of affairs in the     
,indian districts1 the loss would be    
small and the retribution just4 ,but    
they sit at ease1 far away from the     
scene of carnage1 and 'get' nothing but 
the 'news1' which they read as they     
would any other record of human passion 
and depravity4 ,it is the innocent      
settlers who pay the penalty for the    
guilt and transgressions of their       
rulers4  ,it is time somebody1 or some  
vast numbers1 banded as one man1 began  
to think upon this threatening question1
 and to act upon it4 ,it concerns the   
faith and honor of this great republic  
before all the world1 that the wrongs   
alluded to should be speedily righted4  
,we are not1 in reality1 what our       

,indian legislation would almost seem to
 accuse and convict us of1 a nation of  
man-catchers1 baiting our trap with fine
 farms1 and free government1 and happy  
homes1 and abundant prosperity of all   
sorts1 that so we may inveigle the      
simple minded1 and then hand them over  
to the tender mercies of the ,indians6  
,god forbid that such crimes should be  
ours6 ,but there is a coloring of truth 
about the whole programme4 ,we invite   
settlers to populate our vast and       
wellnigh boundless wilderness1 promising
 them protection from enemies abroad and
 a happy peace at home2 and in the same 
breath we cheat the savages1 and stir   
them up to hatred and violence against  
every white man1 woman1 and child in the
 country4 ,this is like preaching       
security and peace while your lighted   
match is applied to the powder barrel4  
,it is a logic which confutes itself1   
and needs no sillygism to prove its     
lying4  ,why should we not bravely and  
manfully1 with all the wisdom we        

possess1 confront and reform the evils  
and iniquities of this system8 ,it is a 
part and parcel of the work committed to
 our charge1 that we shall wisely deal  
with this people1 until ,god1 by ,his   
own mysterious means and agencies1      
removes them finally from the continent 
and the planet4 ,there is no room for   
the red man where the white man comes4  
,he must give way4 ,it is destiny1 and  
there is no help for it4 ,he knows this 
as well as we do2 and he gnaws the grim 
fact with the teeth of the hopeless     
damned4 ,but why imbitter him needlessly
 against us1 against the ,government1   
against the people among whom he        
resides1 and over whose dear lives and  
properties he holds suspended the       
scalping knife and the flaming pine     
brand8 ,we are unworthy of the sovereign
 possessions reserved for us from before
 the foundations of the world--making   
the title deeds1 therefore1 unusually   
sound and wellnigh unquestionable--if we
 cannot deal like rational men with the 

hordes of savages1 whose lands we have  
robbed them of1 whom we have reduced to 
mere pensioners upon our caprice--not   
bounty--and so satisfy them and their   
claims that the business of human life  
may be carried on safely in their       
vicinity and actual presence4 ',who art 
thou that saith 'there is a lion in the 
way'8 ,rise1 sluggard1 and slay the     
lion6 ,the road has to be travelled4'   
,we are certainly not afraid of any     
lion1 whether he be red or black2 and1  
until lately1 both these monstrous red  
and black animals lay in the direct path
 of the nation1 on which it must travel 
or perish4 ,we have pretty well mauled  
and knuckled the black animal1 and      
wellnigh settled with his keepers1 one  
and all6 but this red lion is of a      
different sort1 and requires altogether 
another kind of treatment4 ,we shall yet
 save the bruised and bleeding black to 
the service of civilization and         
humanity4 ,he never was half a bad      
fellow at the bottom of his leonine     

bowels1 and he already takes to white   
civility and customs1 like an educated1 
intelligent1 and trusty dog of the 'poor
 dog ,tray' sort6 ,and ,i1 for one1 have
 more than a sneaking affection for his 
old black mug1 and a world of hope in   
his future behavior1 if we don't spoil  
him for the field and for watch and     
guard at home1 by our infernal          
'culture1' as the thing is called4  ,is 
this red lion a more terrible devil to  
combat1 or harder to trick into         
civility1 or more impervious to the     
injunctions of the ,ten ,commandments8  
,i suppose it will be said that he is2  
that the black fellow bolted the whole  
code at a gobble1 and wagged his tail1  
as if the feat must surely please his   
new masters2 that he had long had the   
benefit of civilized cooking1 and knew a
 gentleman by his toggery2 that1        
moreover1 he was of a teachable1 plastic
 nature1 and was meant to lie down in   
due time upon the hearth rug before the 
fire1 in any gentleman's sitting room in

 the land4 ,it may be true4 ,i believe  
all this myself1 and a good deal more1  
about him2 and ,i take renewed hope also
 for this great republic--which is the  
hope of the world6--that it has thus1 at
 last1 tamed him1 and fitted him for    
exhibition upon a nobler theatre than   
that of ,barnum4  ,but the red lion1 you
 say1 is untamable--cannot be dealt with
 successfully by the wit of white men2  
and that it is best1 therefore1 to rob  
him of the golden apples which he       
guards1 and which are his only food1 and
 so starve him out4 ,but you can't deal 
that way with the ,indian lion1 my      
friend1 without feeling the taste of his
 claws4 ,you have tried it long enough4 
,bishop ,whipple says1 'for fifty       
years'6 ,and ,i ask you how much nearer 
are you to the taming of him now1 than  
you were those 'fifty years' ago8 ,echo 
answers3 ',that's an impudent question6'
 and ,i reply1 so be it6 but you can't  
shuffle it off in that way4 ,i have     
tried my hand at suggesting how imminent

 dangers1 calamities1 and horrors may   
even yet be averted from the ,western   
settlements2 and if those who urge that 
justice shall be done to them1 equal to 
that which we here render1 or try or    
pretend to render to each other--if     
those who urge this are not listened to 
now1 their plea will be remembered when 
it is all too late1 and thousands of    
innocent people are again murdered1 and 
their homes laid waste and desolate4  ,i
 again say1 let no one think by these   
statements that ,i am making a special  
pleading for the ,indians1 or that ,i   
sanction their butcheries4 ,god knows   
how far all this is from my thought or  
feeling6 ,i am a white man right through
 all the inmost fibres of my being3 too 
white1 ,i often fear2 for ,i find my    
love of race1 and pride of blood and    
ancestry1 often encroach too far upon   
the proper regions of my humanity1 and  
threaten to blear my eyesight to the    
fair claims of the inferior races4  ,but
 ,i have to do with a thoughtful1       

reflective1 and1 at the bottom1 just and
 humane people2 and knowing this1 ,i    
felt safe1 or nearly so1 against all    
misconstruction1 in this my attempt to  
show that the late ,indian massacres    
were not instigated merely and solely by
 the passion of the ,indian for blood1  
but that they had deeper1 broader1 more 
tangible causes than this1 some of which
 ,i have briefly hinted at4 ,woe to them
 by whom these butcheries came6 ,woe    
also to them who1 knowing what must     
inevitably result from their foul       
dealings1 continued to deal foully with 
the ,indian--until the doomsday came6   
,i have not put in a single tithe of the
 evidence which ,i might adduce to prove
 my case4 ,it is of no use appealing to 
the higher powers for redress4 ',i am   
sick at heart1' says the good ,bishop   
,whipple2 ',i fear the words of one of  
our statesmen to me were true3 ',bishop1
 every word you say of this ,indian     
system is true2 the nation knows it4 ,it
 is useless2 you will not be heard4     

,your faith is only like that of the man
 that stood on the bank of the river1   
waiting for the water to run by1 that he
 might cross over dryshod6'' ,and then  
he continues1 with solemn emphasis and  
pity3 ',all ,i have to say is this1 that
 if a nation1 trembling on the brink of 
anarchy and ruin1 is so dead that it    
will not hear a plea to redress wrongs  
which the whole people admit call for   
reform1 ,god in mercy pity us and our   
children6'     ,,buried ,,alive4  ,a    
,dirge4                      ,there may 
be thought1   ,though nothing sure1 yet 
much unhappily4    ,a document in       
madness1 thoughts and remembrance       
fitted4      ,deep1 deep in the tender  
heart      ,make a grave for the joys of
 the ,past6    ,let never a tear fall   
hot on their bier1      ,but hurry them 
in as fast  ,as we bury the ,beautiful  
out of our sight1  ,ere corruption and  
horror have saddened our light4         
,deep1 deep in the sinking heart        
,make a grave for the dreams of the     

,past6    ,let the shrill cries of pain 
still assail thee in vain1      ,though 
they follow so wild and so fast3        
,through the fibres and sinews1 and hot1
 bloody dew  ,let the sharp strokes fall
 piercing1 unceasing1 and true4         
,call1 call on the feverish brain       
,to bring aid to the gasping heart6     
,to sustain its quick throbs1 to        
suppress its fierce sobs1      ,as it   
must with its idols part3  ,while the   
ruthless spade in the grave it has made 
,hurries forever the beautiful ,dead6   
,call1 call on the tortured soul        
,to stand close by the sinking heart1   
,while the nervous mesh of the writhing 
flesh1      ,shuddering and shivering in
 every part1  ,its strange anguish      
renews as the hot1 bloody dews  ,follow 
the track of the rude spade through4    
,call1 call on the gifted brain      ,to
 send on in the funeral train  ,her fair
 children enwrought from the tissue of  
thought--      ,though their wailing    
will all be in vain--    ,yet shrouded  

in robes of funereal woe    ,let them   
move on to monotones1 solemn and slow6  
,rouse1 rouse the immortal soul         
,with its hopes and its visions so      
bright1    ,to send them in the train   
with the thoughts of the brain1         
,though their vesture seemed woven of   
light1  ,to sigh1 wail1 and weep o'er   
the pulse-rhythmed sleep        ,of the 
,dead in their living urn6       ,heave1
 heave the weird sculptured stone2      
,press it deep on the throbbing grave6  
,with a wildering moan leave the ,buried
 alone        ,in their tomb in the     
quivering heart3  ,while it pours its   
wild blood in a hot lava flood  ,round  
its beautiful sepulchred ,dead4         
,but my ,god1 they are not at rest6     
,can they neither live nor die8    ,see1
 they writhe in their throbbing grave6  
,while the nervous mesh of the quivering
 flesh  ,its strange anguish renews as  
the hot1 bloody dews      ,follow the   
track of my ,beautiful back        ,as  
they rush into life again1              

,bringing nought but a sense of pain6   
,we may bury deep the ,past--           
,vain is all our bitter task6  ,it is   
throbbing1 living still1 for beyond all 
power to kill1  ,it can never find a    
rest in a woman's stormful breast1  ,it 
can never1 never sleep rocked by anguish
 wild and deep1  ,it can never quiet lie
 with shrill sobs for lullaby2  ,and    
since woman cannot part from the idols  
of her heart1  ,and as severed life is  
,hell for the souls that love too well1 
,better far the tender form whose lorn  
life is only storm1          ,with the  
coffined dead should seek          ,to  
lie down in a dreamless sleep--         
,and find rest in the dust with the     
worm4   ,dig a quiet1 lowly grave       
,in the earth where willows wave6       
,round the burning anguish deep wrap the
 cooling winding sheet1  ,shroud the    
children of the brain1 and the soul's   
high-visioned train3      ,ah1 o'er the 
snowy sleep let no pitying mortal weep1 
,for the weary seek repose with the     

worm6               ,creeping pines and 
mosses grow              ,o'er the      
fragile form below6    ,violets1        
bright-eyed pansies wave o'er the lowly1
 harmless grave2        ,let the        
butterfly and bee all the summer flutter
 free1  ,o'er the flowers grown from a  
heart which no wrongs could ever part1  
,nor torture e'er remove from the       
creatures of its love2  ,with the wild  
and feverish brain1 and thought's bright
 but blighted train1  ,with strong      
heart1 but anguished soul1 and pain's   
weird and heavy dole--        ,let the  
weary1 tired form1 whose lost life was  
only storm1                     ,in the 
shroud's pure snow                      
,find release from woe1          ,nor   
hope1 nor joy1 nor love it e'er again   
would know6     ,,negro ,,troops4       
,there was a time not long since when   
the serious consideration of a question 
like this would have met with little    
favor4 ,we remember seeing1 in this city
 of ,new ,york1 one genial ,october day1

 not very many years ago1 a small       
company of negro soldiers4 ,they were   
marching in ,canal street1 not in       
,broadway1 and seemed to fear           
molestation even there4 ,the writer was 
a schoolboy then1 cadet in a military   
school 7one of the first established of 
those excellent institutions71 and had1 
of course1 a particular interest in all 
military matters4 ,so he stopped to look
 upon these black soldiers--marching    
with all the more pride 7as it seemed to
 him7 because they marched under the    
floating folds of the stars and stripes4
 ,his boy's heart was stirred by the    
spectacle1 and full of a big emotion2   
but the fashion of the times overpowered
 the generous impulse1 and he treated   
the negro soldiers with contempt4  ,this
 was in the palmy days of the old rgime4
 ,the stifling of that generous impulse 
was one of the glories of the old rgime4
 ,not a decade of years went by1 and the
 writer stood again in the streets of   
,new ,york city1 and saw another sight  

of negro soldiers4 ,it was1 indeed1 and 
in all respects1 another sight4 ,this   
time the black men marched in ,broadway2
 this time they feared no molestation4  
,it was a balmy day in spring1 and      
,god's sunshine glistened gladly from   
the bright bayonets of ,united ,states  
black soldiers4 ,what a spectacle it    
was6 ,there marched the retributive     
justice of the nation--'carrying the    
flag and keeping step to the music of   
the ,union4' ,that march was a march of 
triumph1 and its sublime watchword was3 
',,liberty ,,and ,,union1 ,,now ,,and   
,,forever1 ,,one ,,and ,,inseparable6'  
,what a marvellous change in public     
opinion6 ,now1 negro companies are      
treated with respect1 negro regiments   
are honored2 because we honor the       
defenders of our national ensign1 which 
is the representative and symbol of our 
national life4 ,the men who joined so   
gallantly in the assault on ,port       
,hudson2 who fell so nobly at           
,milliken's ,bend1 in repelling the     

attack of men whose blackness was not1  
like theirs1 of the outside skin1 but of
 a blacker1 deeper dye1 the blackness of
 treason in their inner hearts2 the men 
whose blood drenched the sands of       
,morris ,island1 and made ,south        
,carolina more a sacred soil than it had
 ever been before1 because it was blood 
poured out in defence of the nation's   
honor1 and to wash out the stain of     
,carolina's dishonor2 these men cannot  
be contemned now4 ,they have shown      
themselves noble men4 ,they have made   
for themselves a place in ,american     
history1 along with their fathers at    
,new ,orleans1 and their grandfathers   
under ,washington4 ,and the rebel       
epitaph of the brave ,colonel ,shaw1 who
 led them unflinchingly against the iron
 hail of ,wagner1 is no reproach1 but a 
badge of honor3 ',we have buried him    
under his niggers4'  ,since that        
memorable assault1 another ,state has   
witnessed the patriotic gallantry of    
these despised 'niggers2' and in the    

first ,virginia campaign of             
,lieutenant-,general ,grant1 negroes    
have borne an honorable part4 ,there is 
a division of them attached to the old  
ninth corps1 under ,burnside1 in the    
present organization of the ,army of the
 ,potomac4 ,while that noble army was   
fighting the battles of the ,wilderness1
 this division was holding the fords of 
the ,rapid ,ann4 ,when ,grant swung his 
base away from the river1 after the     
disaster to his right wing1 and moved   
upon ,lee's flank1 the ninth corps1 with
 its negro division1 held an honorable  
post in the marching column2 and at     
,spottsylvania ,court ,house the        
correspondents tell us how1 with the war
 cry of ,fort ,pillow in their mouths1  
these 'niggers' rushed valiantly to the 
assault1 and elicited the highest praise
 for their steadiness and courage4 ,not 
less honorable is the record of the     
negro troops attached to the coperating 
,army of the ,peninsula4 ,the three     
extracts from official despatches1 which

 follow1 show what the record is4  ,may 
#eth1 ,general ,butler telegraphs to    
,secretary ,stanton3 ',we have seized   
,wilson's ,wharf ,landing4 ,a brigade of
 ,wild's colored troops are there4 ,at  
,powhatan ,landing two regiments of the 
same brigade have landed4'  ,may #ith1  
,general ,butler telegraphs from        
,bermuda ,landing3 ',our operations may 
be summed up in a few words4 ,with      
seventeen hundred cavalry we have       
advanced up the ,peninsula1 forced the  
,chickahominy1 and have safely brought  
them to our present position4 ,these are
 colored cavalry1 and are now holding   
position as our advance toward          
,richmond4'  ,may #beth1 the ,war       
,department announced1 in a bulletin1   
that ',general ,butler1 in a despatch   
dated at headquarters in the field1 at  
seven o'clock this morning1 reports that
 ,major-,general ,fitzhugh ,lee1 lately 
promoted1 made1 with cavalry1 infantry1 
and artillery1 an attack upon my post at
 ,wilson's ,wharf1 north side of ,james 

,river1 below ,fort ,powhatan1          
garrisoned by two regiments1 all negro  
troops1 ,brigadier-,general ,wild       
commanding1 and was handsomely repulsed4
 ,before the attack1 ,lee sent a flag1  
stating that he had force enough to take
 the place1 demanding its surrender1 and
 in that case the garrison should be    
turned over to the authorities at       
,richmond as prisoners of war7672 but if
 this proposition was rejected1 he would
 not be answerable for the consequences 
when he took the place4 ,general ,wild  
replied3 ',we will try that4'           
,reinforcements were at once sent1 but  
the fight was over before their         
arrival4'  ,it has been not unfrequently
 said that negroes were cowards and     
would not fight4 ,the best answer that  
can be made to that charge is the       
official order1 hereto annexed1 of      
,general ',baldy' ,smith4 ,it will be   
remembered that ,grant had just         
accomplished the transfer of his army   
from the swamps of the ,chickahominy to 

the south side of the ,james ,river1 and
 had immediately thereupon attacked the 
earthworks in front of ,petersburg4 ,the
 time was ,june--a month later than the 
official despatches from ,butler already
 quoted3       ',to the ,eighteenth     
,army ,corps3       ',the ,general      
commanding desires to express to his    
command his      appreciation of the    
soldierly qualities which have been     
displayed      during the campaign of   
the last seventeen days4 ,within that   
time      they have been constantly     
called upon to undergo all the hardships
      of the soldier's life1 and be     
exposed to all of its dangers4          
',marches under a hot sun have ended in 
severe battles1 and1 after      the     
battle1 watchful nights in the trenches 
gallantly taken from      the enemy4    
',but the crowning point of the honor   
they are entitled to has been      won  
since the morning of the #aeth instant1 
when a series of      earthworks on most
 commanding positions and of formidable 

strength      have been carried1 with   
all the guns and materials of war of the
      enemy1 including prisoners and    
colors4 ,the works have all been        
held1 and the trophies remain in our    
hands4       ',this victory is all the  
more important to us as the troops never
      have been regularly organized in  
camps where time has been given         
them to learn the discipline necessary  
to a well-organized corps      d'arme1  
but they had been hastily concentrated  
and suddenly      summoned to take part 
in the trying campaign of our country's 
being4 ,such honor as they have won will
 remain imperishable4       ',to the    
colored troops comprising the division  
of ,general ,hinks1      the ,general   
commanding would call the attention of  
his command4      ,with the veterans of 
the ,eighteenth ,corps they have stormed
 the      works of the enemy and carried
 them1 taking guns and prisoners1 and   
in the whole affair they have displayed 
all the qualities of good      soldiers4

       ',by command of          ',w4 ,f4
 ,,smith1 ,major-,general4       ',,wm4 
,,russell1 ,,jr41          ',assistant  
,adjt4-,general4       ',official3      
,,solon ,a4 ,,carter1          ',captain
 and ,a4 ,a4 ,a4-,g4'   ,it may be added
 that ',baldy' ,smith has never been    
known as being particularly partial to  
the use of negro troops4 ,he is reported
 to have said1 after the assault on     
,petersburg1 that the war was virtually 
ended1 because the negroes had now shown
 that they could fight1 and so it was   
only a question of time4  ,the man is   
not to be envied who can contemptuously 
disregard this record4 ,and while we    
give unstinted honor to the heroes whose
 valor has made the ,army of the        
,potomac immortal in history1 and made  
its campaign of the ,wilderness and     
,spottsylvania a campaign of glory1 let 
us not forget that negro troops in that 
army1 and in other armies in the same   
campaign1 have borne their part         
faithfully1 and deserve well of the     

republic4 ,nor let us forget the damning
 atrocities at ,fort ,pillow1 where     
black men in ,united ,states uniform    
were massacred in cold blood1 because   
they were willing rather to die freemen 
with their white comrades of the ,united
 ,states army1 than live slaves to rebel
 masters3,d thus vindicating their claim
 to freedom1 and reflecting upon our    
country's flag the especial honor which 
such determined bravery has ever been   
awarded among men--reminding us of the  
,three ,hundred at ,thermopyl1 and the  
,old ,guard at ,waterloo1 disdaining to 
surrender4  ,so strange are the events  
of history6 ,so mysterious is the plan  
of ,providence1 choosing now1 as in the 
days of the apostle ,paul1 'base things 
of the world1 and things which are      
despised1 yea1 and things which are not1
 to bring to nought things that are6'   
,what a stinging example of time's      
revenges1 to be sure1 that negroes      
should have a part in bringing to nought
 the rebellion of negro-holders6 that   

they should be found fighting for the   
very ,government whose power had aided  
to keep them in bondage to these        
negro-holders6 ,in face of such facts1  
will any one impiously declare that     
fate1 or blind chance1 rules the affairs
 of men6  ,we might well pause at this  
point to consider the philosophy of     
revolutions4 ,it would be an interesting
 study to investigate the efficient or  
radical causes of these singular        
phenomena of ,god's providence--these   
crises in history1 when 'the fountains  
of the great deep are broken up1' and   
the experience of centuries is crowded  
into the limits of a single year1 and we
 see the old landmarks all swept away   
before the overwhelming tides of a new  
era4 ,then it is that precedents avail  
us nothing1 and we are driven to lay    
hold of those principles of justice and 
right which are alone eternal4 ,for in  
the storm and wreck of revolution those 
principles are our sure beacon lights1  
shining on1 like the stars1 forever4    

,thus philosophizing1 the question would
 be3 ,have revolutions a fixed law8 ,is 
there a recurring sequence in the mighty
 'logic of events1' that will enable us 
to define a formula for the revolutions 
of systems in society8 ,so science has  
demonstrated a law for the revolutions  
and changes of systems of worlds in     
infinite space4 ,or1 are the revolutions
 of history1 like the volcanic          
disturbances of our planet earth1 in a  
sort1 abnormal8 ,they seem to come1 like
 the deus ex machina of the ,roman poet1
 to cut the ,gordian knots that perplex 
statesmen and bewilder nations4 ,the    
affairs of men get so tangled up        
sometimes1 that to prevent anarchy and  
chaos1 ,god sends revolutions1 which    
sweep away the effete institutions and  
old1 worn-out systems1 to replace them  
with new and living systems4 ,and thus  
there is a perpetual genesis1 or new    
creation1 of the world4 ,let any one    
read ,carlyle's vivid description of the
 badness of the eighteenth century1 'bad

 in that bad way as never century before
 was1 till the ,french ,revolution came 
and put an end to it1' and he will      
understand something of this question of
 revolutions4 ,it suggests the old      
scholastic dispute of the free agency of
 man1 and looks as though1 granting that
 freedom1 it were1 after all1 too great 
a gift for us4 ,for history seems to    
teach1 as its one grand lesson1         
confirming1 as always1 the revelation in
 ,christ1 that men cannot take care of  
themselves2 and that ,god leaves them to
 their own ways long enough to satisfy  
them that human agency is inadequate to 
solve the question of reform1 and then1 
when the times are ripe1 ,he takes the  
reins into ,his own hand1 and starts    
society anew4 ,it is the patient process
 of education by centuries1 or by       
ages--only to be made perfect in the    
millennial age4 ,so it is that the world
 moves4 ,it moves by the free agency of 
man1 kept in its balance by the guiding 
hand of ,god4   ,i4 ,,the ,,vexed       

,,question ,,of ,,the ,,negro4  ,thus it
 is that the second ,american revolution
 is settling for us the vexed question  
of the negro4 ,what should be done with 
him1 or for him1 or to him1 had been the
 disturbing element in our political    
system ever since the ,african slave    
trade expired by limitation of the      
,constitution in #ahjh4 ,the devices of 
human ingenuity 7inspired1 as we        
fervently believe1 by the purest        
patriotism7 to stave off the inevitable 
final settlement of this account1       
innumerable as they were1 and only      
limited by the predestined decree of    
,supreme ,benevolence 7which is ,supreme
 ,justice71 were1 at last1 exhausted4   
,the statesmanship of '#ej had been     
outgrown4 ,the giants of those days had 
gone1 one by one1 to their reward ere   
yet the first breaths of the revolution 
that has opened the decade of '#fj4     
,nought remained to their lesser        
associates1 who still survived1 but to  
bow reverently before the storm1 'as    

seeing in it ,him who is invisible4'    
,such recognition1 indeed1 is the       
measure of men's patriotism to-day4 ,the
 man who so perverts his mind and reason
 as to shut out the evidence of the     
stars and his own consciousness 7the    
,german metaphysician's proof of        
,deity71 and deny that ,god is1 is      
simply a fool2 and every reflecting mind
 is ready to sanction and adopt the     
,psalmist's word3 ',the fool hath said  
in his heart1 ,there is no ,god4'       
,equally a fool is he who shuts his eyes
 to the overwhelming facts of the last  
two years1 refusing to be taught by the 
,providence behind them4 ,such and so   
vast is the revolution by which ,god has
 intervened in our history4 ,such is the
 ,providence that still guides and      
guards the nation ordained by ,him to   
be4 ,such is the revolution that has    
swept away the slave system1 and opened 
for us a new path1 and given us a new   
power of progress4  ,now1 these views   
need not make one a negro-enthusiast4   

,because the system of slavery has been 
swept away1 it is not necessary to      
assert1 as some do1 the negro's equality
 with the white man in those things     
wherein he is plainly not his equal4    
,yet there is an equality that cannot be
 denied4 ,the negro is certainly a man1 
and not a brute animal2 although so     
demoralized and corrupt had grown to be 
the tone of society that we have        
actually heard the opinion avowed1 in   
all seriousness1 that the negro had no  
soul4 ,shylock1 in ',the ,merchant of   
,venice1' pleads for himself and his    
,jewish brethren1 in one of the most    
pathetic passages of even ,shakspeare's 
genius1 as though the ,hebrew race were 
considered less than men4 ,and such1    
indeed1 was nearly the case in          
,shylock's time4 ,on the other hand1 the
 ,moor of ,venice disdains to plead as  
to his superiors4 ,his conscious        
equality in presence of the 'grave and  
reverend signiors1' gives to his        
renowned address a consummate dignity1  

unknown elsewhere in literature4 ,he    
felt1 indeed1 that his victories under  
the flag of the republic entitled him   
not only to equality1 but especial      
honor4 ,is it not singular that in this 
nineteenth century there should be found
 men who gladly accord to the ,jew1 the 
descendant of ,shem1 that of which they 
refuse even the possibility to the dark 
descendant of ,ham8 ,surely the republic
 of ,venice was not so far behind our   
boasted civilization4 ,our civilization 
still clings to the idea of privilege4  
,the privilege of caste is only         
exchanged for the privilege of color4   
,nor need we commit ourselves to the    
doctrine of some1 who would appear to   
think that the negro is to be the       
dominant race of the future2 if not in  
himself1 yet in virtue of his           
supplementing the composite             
,anglo-,saxon race1 and thus giving to  
it a completeness it is assumed not to  
have at present4 ,such we understand to 
be the doctrine of what styles itself   

,miscegenation4 ,it would be pertinent1 
and1 perhaps1 conclusive1 to cite on    
this point the ,latin maxim1 ,de        
gustibus non disputandum4  ,there are   
those who admire a certain new style of 
music1 of which the melody is chiefly   
hidden from the appreciation of common  
folk1 and which has received the title1 
',music of the ,future2' looking forward
 to a time when1 perhaps1 men's senses  
will be preternaturally quickened to    
comprehend its discordant harmonies4 ,it
 is something akin to that vagary of    
religious sentiment1 which1 whatever may
 be its merits1 whatever its            
satisfaction for a spiritually          
illuminated chosen few1 is1             
nevertheless1 beyond the present ken and
 comprehension and spiritual compass of 
most mortals1 and may be called the     
,religion of the ,future4 ,the fatal    
defect of all these theories is that    
they serve no purpose of utility4       
,considered as creations of ideal       
beauty1 they may charm the fancy and    

quicken the imagination1 and even exalt 
the mental habitudes1 of a few devotees4
 ,or1 allowing that they are a sort of  
morning twilight vision1 they may1 we   
cannot dogmatically deny1 hereafter     
develop into a splendid fulness1 in the 
perfect day4 ,all this may be4 ,but they
 do not meet the practical needs of our 
working life1 the wants of weary men and
 weary women4  ,so1 what we want for the
 negro is not a metaphysical theory of  
his perfect equality with the white man4
 ,nor1 on the other hand1 are we at     
liberty to say that he is1 by virtue of 
any physical conformation and structure1
 something inferior to the white man4   
,neither of these positions can be      
sustained4 ,the one plainly contradicts 
our observation and experience2 the     
other needs the proof of science that   
inferiority is determined by physical   
structure4 ,we must face the fact of the
 negro's present degraded condition2 and
 we must accept the equal fact of his   
being a man1 with a soul as precious1 in

 the sight of ,god1 as the soul of his  
white brother4 ,for the day when the    
sublime exordium of the ,declaration of 
,independence could be stigmatized as a 
'glittering generality1' is gone by4    
,the basis of our ,american system of   
government1 it is no longer doubted1 is 
the equality of all men before the law1 
as the basis of our ,christian faith is 
the equality of all men before ,god4    
,accepting1 then1 the two undeniable    
facts above named1 the question is1     
,what shall we do now with the negro8   
,,ii4 ,,the ,,negro ,,slave ,,as ,a     
,,soldier4  ,without attempting to      
discuss this interesting question in all
 its various aspects1 we may briefly    
advert to some of the problems in the   
discussion which would seem to be fairly
 solved in the employment of the negro  
as a ,united ,states soldier4  ,thus    
much is certainly true of the ,american 
negro1 and herein he is doubtless       
superior to the white man2 namely1 that 
he is docile1 patient1 buoyant of       

spirit1 full of affection1 and endowed  
with a marvellous apprehension of things
 spiritual4 ,his patience is shown by   
his long bondage1 borne without serious 
murmuring2 awaiting the day of          
deliverance1 confident that the year of 
jubilee was to come4 ,this point is     
lucidly elaborated in a late article1 of
 great interest1 in ,the ,edinburgh     
,review1 said to have been written by a 
negro escaped from slavery4 ,the negro's
 docility appears in his aptitude to    
catch quickly the tone of his master's  
mind1 and guide himself by it2 in the   
readiness with which he yields to       
superior authority--which may or may not
 be due to his spirit-crushing bondage1 
but which certainly has in it little of 
the stupidity we should expect to find  
if such were the case4 ,the buoyancy of 
his spirit overflows in the perpetual   
music of his laugh and song amid the    
hard fortunes of his race4 ,the fulness 
of his capacity of affection is attested
 by his remarkable devotion to master or

 mistress1 surviving strong amid all    
vicissitudes1 and rising above the      
iniquitous injustice that holds him in  
bonds into that exalted triumph of the  
apostle's doctrine3 ',be not overcome of
 evil1 but overcome evil with good4' ,as
 for his readiness to apprehend         
spiritual things1 the experience of     
every person who has lived at the ,south
 furnishes abundant proof4 ,who that has
 stood on the banks of a ,southern      
river1 when a negro was baptized1 and   
heard the loud chorus of joy of his     
brethren and sisters when the sign of   
the ,church was put upon him1 and seen  
the sympathy of eye and hand that       
welcomed him to the blessed company1 has
 not felt that for this poor1 despised  
race there are riches laid up in that   
kingdom 'where neither moth nor rust    
doth corrupt1 and where thieves do not  
break through nor steal'8 ,who that has 
stood in a ,southern forest on some     
,sunday afternoon1 in the early         
,southern spring1 when the woods are    

resonant with the songs of birds1 and   
heard a negro congregation of believers 
in their meeting-house near by1 joining 
with all the fervor of their tropical   
temperament in this glad hymn of nature1
 in the immortal verse of ,wesley and   
,whitfield1 has not felt that to the    
negro the vision of the ,new ,jerusalem 
is more of a reality than has yet been  
granted to his worldly favored white    
brother and master8 ,ah1 no one who has 
witnessed such scenes all the years of  
his childhood and youth1 can deny that  
among the disciples of ,christ are to be
 reckoned especially the negro race2 who
 bear ,his blessed cross in our day1    
amid the jeers of a sceptical world1    
just as in ,his own day upon earth the  
negro ,simon of ,cyrene bore to the     
,mount of ,calvary the cross on which   
the ,saviour died4  ,what these things  
prove is just this3 the negro's capacity
 for freedom2 his capacity to know what 
is the 'perfect law of liberty1' keeping
 irresponsible license in check2 his    

absolute freedom from the               
bloodthirstiness that seems to horrify  
so many unthinking persons1 who affect  
to fear the consequences of putting a   
musket in a negro's hand4 ,the          
incontestable points above enumerated   
show the groundlessness of such an      
alleged fear4 ,it needs only to consider
 them candidly to be disabused on that  
score4 ,no one who has seen and knows   
the tenderness of the negro toward the  
children of his master1 and his         
never-failing respect toward his        
mistress1 dares say he fears the negro's
 savageness4 ,no one who knows the      
negro's religious sensibility and his   
unshaken faith in ,christ1 dares say he 
fears4 ,no4 ,only those fear who know   
nothing at all about the negro4 ,they   
fear whose creed is given them by men   
thirsting for the negro's blood1 that it
 may be coined into ungodly gold4  ,thus
 much will suffice for objections to    
negro troops1 on the ground of their    
incapacity4 ,it is seen that the negro  

is capable to comprehend the limitations
 of liberty2 that his nature is not     
essentially savage1 or1 if so1 has been 
softened and tempered into a gentle     
docility under the benign influences of 
civilized society2 that1 above all1 his 
,christian education has elevated him to
 a dignity that despises mean revenge4  
,if further proof is necessary1 the     
regiments of negro slaves recruited in  
,louisiana and the ,carolinas1 acquiring
 a discipline that has stood them in    
good stead at ,olustee 7day of gloom7   
and elsewhere on their native soil1 may 
be cited in evidence of their capacity4 
,but what about our rights in the       
matter8 ,for we are considering now the 
case of the slaves1 not the free negro8 
,the proper and sufficient answer to    
that question is1 ,what about the rights
 of slave-holders8 ,what rights of      
theirs are we bound to respect now8     
,they have taken the law into their own 
hands1 and if they cannot enforce it1 is
 it any part of our business to aid     

them8 ,certainly and undoubtedly not4   
,it is part of the penalty of treason2  
part of the price they are paying for   
their ignoble thrust at the nation's    
life2 and a very light penalty1 and     
cheap price it is1 that they lose their 
right to hold slaves4 ,such rights as   
they possessed they held under the      
,constitution4 ,we have been willing1   
for the sake of peace 7bearing in mind  
the apostle's injunction1 ',if it be    
possible1 as much as lieth in you1 live 
peaceably with all men'71 to protect1   
under the sacred covenant of the nation1
 what they called their rights to       
property2 albeit not willing ourselves  
to touch the 'accursed thing4' ,the     
history of the country is a witness to  
our good faith4 ,but plainly the        
injunction of the apostle becomes       
impossible of obedience when men        
transform themselves into fiends1 and   
hang up in their railway cars1 as       
trophies1 the ghastly skulls of such of 
us as have been slain in defence of the 

national covenant4,e ,by their own acts 
the slave-holders have cancelled our    
obligations as to such permissive rights
 under the ,constitution4 ,we shall not 
probably hasten to incur any more such  
obligations4 ,they say that slavery is  
the strength of their society4          
,doubtless it is4 ,then1 ,samson-like1  
they have pulled down upon themselves   
the pillars of their whole fabric1 and  
they cannot complain if they and all    
their rights1 immunities1 and titles are
 buried in the ruins4 ,in other words1  
they have appealed from the             
,constitution1 or the law civil1 to the 
sword1 or the law military2 and they    
must abide the result of that appeal4   
,such is a brief statement of the       
question of negro troops1 as affecting  
the slaves of the ,south and their      
traitor masters4   ,,iii4 ,,the ,,free  
,,negro ,,as ,a ,,soldier4  ,there is   
another phase of the question1 less     
difficult of solution than the          
preceding1 perhaps1 but by no means less

 important4 ,it is the case of the free 
negro1 and especially the free negro of 
the ,north4 ,here again we need not stop
 to discuss abstract questions of       
equality1 nor declare our adherence to  
the philosophy of ,miscegenation4 ,we   
need not stop to consider the nature1 or
 justice1 of the prejudice which        
prevails against the negro at the       
,north4 ,it is undeniable that there is 
such a prejudice4 ,accepting the        
undoubted fact1 we see that it shuts    
nearly every avenue of honest industry  
against the man with a black skin1      
restricting him to the most menial      
offices2 and that it is fostered in many
 ways by the conventions and usages of  
our society1 so as practically to put   
him in a worse condition than his bonded
 brother at the ,south--always except as
 to his ,god-given right to his liberty 
and labor4 ,experience has shown that   
even this is not always fully assured to
 the negro2 and the ,july riots of ,new 
,york indicate the uncertain tenure of  

his liberty and life1 even under the    
protection of equal laws4 ,what then8   
,shall we remand him to the servitude of
 the ,south8 ,shall we enact for him a  
sort of ,napoleonic law of general      
safety1 to deprive him of the poor      
liberty he has--however profitless the  
boon may seem to us to be8 ,certainly   
not4 ,every instinct of humanity rises  
up against so monstrous a suggestion4   
,yet something very like it has a place 
in the legislation of some ,states in   
the ,american ,union4  ,then what a     
,providential solution of the question  
is offered in the employment of the     
negro as a soldier6 ,there cannot surely
 be any well-founded objection to it4   
,such opposition as the plan has        
encountered seems to spring from the    
same unreasoning prejudice that keeps   
the black man out of all decent         
industries in our free ,north4 ,it is   
that very prejudice which this plan will
 overcome4 ,for the first thing to be   
done is to raise the negro from his     

degradation2 and to do this we must     
obviously begin with teaching him a     
proper self-respect4 ,this will bear its
 fruit in making him respected by       
others4 ,no one will say that it is well
 to foster a feeling which outlaws any  
single class in the community from the  
respect of all4 ,this would be to       
glorify the slave system of the ,south1 
and lay a basis for possible            
revolutions4 ,thus the employment of the
 negro as a soldier1 while it must      
inspire the bondman of the ,south with a
 truer sense of his worth and capacity1 
and thus tend to weaken the foundation  
of the whole rebel fabric1 will also    
correct the unquestioned evil of a      
growing class of outlaws in the midst of
 our society4 ,and if we clothe the     
negro in the uniform of a soldier of the
 ,united ,states1 the respect of the    
nation for its brave defenders will     
teach him self-respect2 at the same time
 that it will teach the nation to put a 
new value upon its idea of loyalty4     

,the epitaph commemorative of the       
,spartan valor that has made ,thermopyl 
a name forever1 serves to show the      
conclusion of our whole discussion3     
',go1 stranger1 and at ,lacedmon tell1  
,that here1 obedient to her laws1 we    
fell4'  ,for the man who is loyal to his
 flag will not quarrel with the color of
 a comrade in arms who has shed blood1  
red like his own1 in defending that flag
 from dishonor2 just as the man who is  
loyal to the altar feels a fellowship   
for every one1 however humble1 who bears
 the name of their common ,master1 and  
is made in the image of their common    
,father4  ,,footnotes3  ,d ,late        
,southern newspapers speak of the       
obstinacy of the garrison at ,fort      
,pillow1 and assert that ,forrest would 
have stopped the massacre at any time   
after the capture1 if our soldiers had  
manifested any disposition to yield4  ,e
 ,the writer's father saw these skulls  
hanging in the cars on a railway in     
,georgia1 after first ,bull ,run1 and   

saw them handed through the cars amid   
the jeers of passengers4     ,,colors   
,,and ,,their ,,meaning4   ,in order to 
a due understanding of the signification
 of colors1 it is necessary we should   
commence at the foundation4 ,accordingly
 ,i shall begin by saying that colors   
are primary1 secondary1 and tertiary4   
,primary colors are three3 red1 yellow1 
and blue4  ,,red is the color of        
greatest heat4  ,,yellow is the color of
 greatest light4  ,,blue is the color of
 chemical change4  ,in accordance with  
this philosophical truth1 we should     
naturally expect to find a preponderance
 of blue rays from the sun in the spring
 time1 and so it is4  ,these rays       
preponderate at the time of ploughing1  
sowing1 and germination4  ,in the summer
 time1 after the plant has started from 
the ground1 and requires vigorous leaves
 to bring it to perfection ere the cold 
winter rolls around once more1 we have  
the yellow rays4 ',light1 more light1'  
is then the cry of nature1 and as not   

even length of days affords this element
 in sufficient completeness1 the sun    
darts his brightest beams in 'the leafy 
month of ,june4'  ,later still in the   
year1 after germination is past and     
growth perfected1 comes the necessity of
 heat rays to ripen fruit1 vegetables1  
and grain1 and nature's behests are     
obeyed in the then preponderance of the 
red rays4 ,much of this effect may be   
due to the media through which the sun's
 rays pass4 ,a sensitized photographic  
paper is not colored as much at an      
altitude of three miles in half an hour 
as is a similar paper upon the earth's  
surface in one moment4 ,at any season of
 the year1 gardeners can either         
stimulate or retard germination as they 
place a blue or yellow glass over the   
nursling4 ,that the growth of plants is 
not due alone to the rays of the sun we 
can1 without experiment1 convince       
ourselves1 as even ordinary observers   
are well aware that upon some days      
plants shoot up so rapidly as to grow   

almost visibly under their eyes1 and in 
other conditions of the atmosphere      
seemingly remain dormant for days4  ,the
 germinating influence1 let it be due   
either to peculiar rays alone1 or to    
atmospheric state1 does not contain much
 coloring matter4 ,the first spring     
flowers are of a pale color2 as summer  
advances we have brighter hues1 but not 
until the approach of fall do we see    
,flora in all her gorgeousness of       
coloring4 ,the paleness of mountain and 
arctic flowers1 and the brilliancy of   
those of the tropics1 point to the same 
cause which gives the temperate zones   
their brightest flowers when heat rays  
preponderate4  ,as depth of color seems 
connected with the red or heat rays2 so 
perfume belongs rightfully to the summer
 blossoms2 when light is the strongest1 
then we have our pinks1 and roses1 and  
lilies4  ,there are also in the spectrum
 four secondary colors3 orange1 green1  
indigo1 and violet4 ,the secondary      
colors are alternate with the primary in

 the spectrum1 and are formed by a      
mixture of the two primary nearest      
them--as orange1 formed by a union of   
red and yellow2 green1 by a mixture of  
yellow and blue2 indigo and violet1 of  
blue and red4 ,thus3  ,red1  ,orange1   
,yellow1  ,green1  ,blue1  ,indigo1     
,violet4  ,tertiary colors are many more
 than both primary and secondary4 ,they 
are hues not found in the spectrum4     
,they are nature's stepchildren rather  
than children1 and many of them might   
not inappropriately be called children  
of art2 yet although most of them are of
 inventions that man has sought out1    
they are at best but shades1 and must   
all look back to the spectrum as their  
common parent4  ,each of the primary    
colors forms a simple contrast to the   
other two2 thus blue is contrasted by   
yellow and by red1 either of which forms
 a simple contrast to it2 but as it is a
 law of color that compound contrasts   
are more effective than simple in the   
proportion of two to one1 it follows    

that a mixture of either two of the     
primitive colors is the most powerful   
contrast possible with the other4  ,red 
and yellow form orange1 the greatest and
 the most harmonious contrast to blue2  
red and blue form violet or purple1 so  
much admired in contrast with yellow in 
the pansy2 yellow and blue form green1  
the contrast to red1 and the color      
needed to restore the tone of the optic 
nerve when strained or fatigued by undue
 attention to red4 ,this is the most    
common and admirable contrast in the    
vegetable kingdom2 the brilliant red    
blossom or fruit1 with green leaves1 as 
instance the fiery tulip1 the crimson   
rose1 the scarlet verbena1 the burning  
dahlia1 the cherry and apple trees1 the 
tomato or loveapple of my childhood1 and
 the scarlet maple and sumach of our    
,american ,october4  ,there are two     
distinct harmonies of color3 the harmony
 of contrast1 and the harmony of        
shading4 ,the former is the harmony of  
striking diversities found in nature1   

and the other a mellowing of colors1 or 
blending of similar hues1 attributable  
to art4  ,from this little synopsis of  
the effects and uses of the prismatic   
colors1 we shall be enabled the better  
to understand both the ancient and      
modern popular ideas as to colors as    
representatives and correspondences4    
,colors have a mental1 moral1 and       
physical significance--a good and a bad 
import4 ,the one to which ,i shall first
 direct your attention is that which    
most readily strikes the eye4   ,,red4  
,which ,thoreau called the 'color of    
colors1' in the ,hebrew signified to    
have dominion1 and in early art was     
symbolical or emblematic of ,divine     
love1 creative power1 etc4 ,the word    
,adam1 we have been taught1 signifies   
red man2 it does mean 'the blood1'      
which1 of course1 originated 'to be     
red1' as a secondary signification4     
,lanci1 the great interpreter of ,sacred
 ,philology at the ,vatican1 deems ',the
 ,blusher1' to be the true meaning of   

the word ,adam4 ,god created man1 male  
and female created ,he them1 and called 
their name ,adam4 ,a blush1 so becoming 
on the countenance of feminine beauty1  
is generally deemed a sign of weakness  
when visible upon a man's face4 ,but if 
the above interpretation be correct1 a  
blush is a man's birthright1 which no   
sense of false shame should prevent him 
from modestly claiming4 ,red1 as        
signifying perfection1 dominion1        
fruition1 was appropriately the name of 
our first parents1 whether we regard the
 account of the creation to be literally
 understood1 as the old theologians     
believe1 or spiritually and typically1  
as the modern ones insist4  ,red is the 
color of what is intense1 be it love or 
hatred1 kindness or cruelty4 ,it denotes
 the fulness of strong emotions2 alike  
the glowing of conscious love or the    
blazing of fierce anger1 the fiery ardor
 of daring and valor1 or the fierce     
cruelty of hatred and revenge4 ,of our  
own star-spangled banner1 we sing3      

',the red is the blood of the brave4'   
,the red garments of cardinals1 and     
especially their red hats1 are supposed 
to betoken their readiness to spill     
their blood for ,jesus ,christ4  ,red is
 the color of undeveloped ideas4 ,it is 
the hue which most quickly attracts the 
attention of children and savages4 ,all 
barbarous nations admire red2 many      
savages paint their faces vermilion     
before entering battle1 to which they   
look forward as the means of attaining  
enviable position in their tribe2 for   
with barbarians physical prowess is the 
only superiority4  ,some animals are    
excited to madness by the sight of this 
color4 ,the bull and the turkey take it 
as a signal of defiance1 which they rush
 to meet4 ',come1 if you dare1' they    
read it1 and impetuously hasten to the  
onset4  ,when the bloody ,jeffreys was  
in his bloodiest humor1 he wore into    
court a red cap1 which was the sure     
death warrant of those about to be      
tried4  ,the death garment of ,charlotte

 ,corday was a red chemise--fit emblem  
of the ungovernable instincts1 the wild 
rioting in blood of that reign of       
terror4  ,christ was crucified in a     
scarlet robe1 and in that color of love 
and perfection1 perfected his offering  
of love for mankind4   ,,yellow4        
,anciently symbolized the sun1 the      
goodness of ,god1 marriage1 faith1 and  
fruitfulness4 ,old paintings of ,st4    
,peter represent him in a yellow mantle4
 ,the ,venuses were clothed in          
saffron-colored tunics2 ,roman brides of
 an early day wore a veil of an orange  
tinge1 called the flameum1 a flame--a   
flame which1 kindled at ,hymen's torch1 
it is to be hoped was ever burning1     
never consuming4 ,as every good has its 
antipodal evil1 so every color has its  
bad sense1 which is contrary or opposite
 to its first or good signification4    
,in a bad sense1 yellow means           
inconstancy1 and the sthetic ,greeks1   
fully carrying out this meaning1        
compelled their public courtesans to    

distinguish themselves by mantles of    
saffron color4 ,the radical sense of    
saffron is to fail1 to be hollow1 to be 
exhausted4 ,in tracing customs1 it is   
easy to see the bias unknowingly        
received from natural significations1   
significations which take their rise in 
the spiritual world4 ,the ,san ,benito  
or auto-da-fe dress of the ,spanish     
,inquisition was yellow1 blazoned with a
 flaming cross2 and1 as a mark of       
contempt for the race1 the ,jews of     
,catholic ,spain were condemned to wear 
a yellow cap4 ,distinguishing colors in 
dress have ever been one of the most    
common methods of expressing distinction
 of class and differences of faith1     
until thence has arisen the imperative  
adage3 ',show your colors2' and he who  
refuses to do so is despised as a       
hypocrite or changeling4  ,yellow1 as a 
color1 finds but few admirers among     
modern enlightened nations2 it is       
recognized as the color of shams2 but in
 ,china1 that country of contrarities1  

where printing1 fish breeding1 gas      
burning1 and artesian wells have been   
known and stationary for centuries1     
where almond-shaped eyes1 club feet1 and
 long cues are types of beauty1 where   
old men laughingly fly kites1 and little
 boys look gravely on1 where white is   
mourning1 and everything is different   
from elsewhere--there yellow is the most
 admired of colors1 restricted to the   
use of royalty alone under penalty of   
death4  ,yellow is the most searching of
 colors1 as indeed it should be from its
 correspondence with light4 ,it is      
gaudy1 and does not inspire respect1 for
 it brings into view every imperfection4
 ,every defect in form or manner is     
rendered conspicuous by it1 and we      
involuntarily scan the whole person of  
the unfortunate and tasteless wearer of 
it4   ,,blue4  ,in early art1           
represented truth1 honor1 and fidelity1 
and even at this day we associate blue  
and truthfulness4 ,christ and the       
,virgin were formerly painted with blue 

mantles1 and blue is especially         
recognized as the ,virgin's color4 ,we  
can never turn our eyes upward without  
seeing truth's emblematical color4 ,how 
appropriate that the heavens should be  
blue6 ,of truthfulness and faithfulness 
it should be our constant reminder4     
,primary blue enters as a compound into 
three other colors of the spectrum3     
green1 indigo1 and violet4 ,as a primary
 color1 it is much more rarely seen in  
nature than either red or yellow4 ,we   
have few blue birds1 few blue flowers1  
few blue fruits4 ,as one of a compound1 
it is oftener found than red4 ,the      
grass1 the leaves1 everywhere proclaim  
the marriage of good1 as yellow         
anciently represented1 and truth1 as    
blue symbolized4 ,there is a deep       
significance in the change that has come
 over mankind's view of the meaning of  
the first of these colors4 ,with the    
loss of faith1 the tearing apart of     
truth and goodness1 has come a change of
 correspondence4 ,men have everywhere   

turned away from the light1 though still
 professing to strive for truth4  ,each 
color possesses a character of its own1 
which proclaims to the close observer   
the peculiar qualities of that to which 
it belongs4 ,the horticulturist reads   
the peculiarities of the fruit as       
readily by its color as the phrenologist
 reads his by his 'bumps4' ,the red one1
 he will tell you1 is sour1 the white   
one sweet1 the pale one flat1 and the   
green one alkaline2 that one is a good  
table apple1 this one a superior cider  
apple2 and if you further ask the       
characteristics of a good cider apple1  
he will tell you again it is known by   
its color1 not only of the skin1 but    
also of the pulp1 and that it can be    
foretold whether cider will be weak1    
thin1 and colorless1 or possess         
strength1 or richness1 or color4  ,the  
botanist1 too1 regards color as         
indicative of quality1 the yellow flower
 having a bitter taste and a fixed1     
unfading hue1 the black1 a poisonous1   

destructive property1 etc41 etc4        
,truth1 of which we have seen blue was  
the correspondent1 is never superficial1
 and1 although apparent truths lie upon 
the surface1 yet a common adage locates 
truth at the bottom of a well4 ,seamen  
acknowledge deep indigo blue of water to
 be indicative of profound depth4 ,of   
the three or primitive colors1 the red  
or heat color1 which has been termed    
light felt1 the yellow or light color1  
which has been called heat seen1 and the
 blue1 a color of chemical change1 which
 is the color of growth1 these          
correspond in an unknown degree to the  
love1 wisdom1 and truth of the ,supreme 
,one2 heat to love1 for love is heat2   
light to wisdom1 for wisdom is light2   
and germination and growth to truth1 for
 by truth souls grow into wisdom and    
love4 ,the more we explore the arcana of
 nature the more we will be enabled to  
discover the correspondence of the      
natural with the spiritual world4       
,,white4  ,is the emblem of light1 every

 white ray of light containing all the  
prismatic colors2 and as it symbolizes  
innocence and purity1 it is the color   
must appropriate for clothing infants1  
brides1 and the dead4 ,we think of the  
angels as clothed in white4 ,at the     
transfiguration of our ,lord and        
,master1 his raiment became shining1    
exceeding white as snow1 as no fuller on
 earth can white them2 and in one of the
 ,evangelists his raiment is described  
as at that time as white as the light1  
and so our highest comparison of        
whiteness is 'as white as the light4'   
,,black4  ,formed by a combination in   
equal proportions of the three primitive
 colors in equal intensity1 is the color
 of despair4 ,as mourning1 it is only   
suitable for those who despair of the   
future of their friends2 but it is      
preminently unsuitable to be worn for   
those who die in ,christian faith with a
 ,christian hope4 ,despite its gloomy   
hue1 it has almost become a sacred color
 among ,christian nations1 being worn as

 the dress of the priest in his         
ministerial office1 and doubly hallowed 
from its association with the dead4     
,black1 as an ornamental color1 should  
be below all others1 for artistic       
effect4 ,an artistic dressmaker places  
the dark or black plaids or stripes     
beneath the others4 ,this natural       
correspondence is almost universally    
recognized among enlightened nations in 
clothing for the feet4 ,they not only   
look smaller and more tasteful in black 
shoes than in colored1 but economy also 
sanctions them as more useful4 ,the     
universal tendency of the nineteenth    
century is to utilitarianism2 the one   
question asked is3 ,what is the use8 and
 in use is beauty ever found4           
,ethnological investigation shows that  
black or dark-colored races have        
invariably preceded settlement by the   
whites4 ,this is in accordance with the 
law of color above laid down1 viz41     
that1 artistically1 black is below the  
other colors 7and now1 in order that ,i 

may not be misunderstood1 ,i explicitly 
say that because1 artistically1 black is
 the lowest color1 it by no means       
follows that ,i deem black or olive or  
yellow races subjects for slavery1 or   
unworthy of social and political        
rights74 ,in accordance with the above  
axiom1 savage and half-civilized races  
are found to be at the present day black
 haired and black eyed4 ,i will also    
venture the assertion that nine tenths  
of all the people in the world have     
black hair4  ,the ,hindoo legend of the 
eighth incarnation of ,vishnu under the 
name of ,crishna1 makes him then of a   
bluish-black color1 which the name      
,crishna signifies4 ,his supposititious 
father1 ,wanda1 said3       ',when ,i   
named him ,crishna1 on account of his   
color1 the priest told      me he must  
be the god who had taken different      
bodies1 red1 white1      yellow1 and    
black1 in his various incarnations1 and 
now he had      assumed a black color   
again1 since in black all colors are    

absorbed4'  ,although among ,caucasian  
nations1 and especially in cosmopolitan 
,america1 we do not adduce intellectual 
superiority from the shades or degrees  
of whiteness1 yet it is said of the     
,moors that the more the color          
approaches the black1 the handsomer and 
of more decisive character are the men4 
,it is a physiological fact brought to  
light partially through the census1 that
 black-eyed races and black-eyed people 
are more subject to blindness than      
others4 ,it has also been shown that    
black-eyed men are not as good marksmen 
as blue-eyed or light-eyed men4  ,not   
only are different races of men subject 
to different diseases1 but statistics   
prove that among ,caucasian nations1    
complexion and disease are in some way  
connected1 as for instance1 consumption 
is more rife among dark-haired and      
dark-eyed people than others1 and more  
rapid with those dark-haired and        
dark-eyed people who have very fair     
complexion4 ,as the difference between  

golden and black hair lies in that there
 is in the one case an excess of sulphur
 and oxygen with a deficiency of carbon1
 and in the other an excess of carbon   
and a deficiency of sulphur and oxygen1 
it can easily be seen why such          
deficiency or excess1 if arising from   
idiosyncrasy of the system1 should      
predispose to dissimilar diseases4 ,but 
here a wide field yet lies open for     
experimental and physiological research4
   ,,green4  ,there is scarcely a color 
but has been or is held sacred by some  
nation or religion4 ,with ,mahommedans  
green is the sacred hue4 ,the prophet   
originally wore a turban of that dye1   
and the sultan shows due preference for 
that color4  ,the tomb of ,david1 which 
is in possession of the ,mahommedans1   
and which was at great hazard visited by
 a lady within the past few years1 is   
covered by a green satin tapestry1 and  
over it hangs a satin canopy of red1    
blue1 yellow1 and green stripes1 the    
three primitive and the sacred1 compound

 color4  ,green also seems to have been 
the sacred color in ancient ,peru1      
virgins of the sun wearing robes of that
 hue4 ,the ancient ,mexican priests     
also1 in the performance of their       
functions1 wore crowns of green and     
yellow feathers1 and at their ears hung 
green jewels4 ,precious stones of a     
green color were held in higher         
estimation by the ,aztecs than any      
other4 ,when the ,spaniards were first  
admitted to an audience with ,montezuma1
 he wore no other ornament on his head  
than a panache of plumes of royal green4
  ,green comes in the class of secondary
 colors1 being a compound of yellow and 
blue1 and signifies pale1 new1 fresh1   
growing1 flourishing 7like a green bay  
tree72 and also unripe1 when applied to 
either fruits or men1 which1 as far as  
the human is concerned1 is a term of    
reproach4 ,a person without experience1 
either in position1 behavior1 or use of 
anything1 is termed green1 and laughed  
at4 ,they are fresh1 new1 and1 instead  

of the admiring exclamation1 ,how green 
it is6 as applied to a plant1 is the    
reproachful one1 ,how green he is6  ,at 
different seasons of the year1 different
 colors are appropriate in dress4 ,light
 green is the color of freshness1 youth1
 and spring1 and more suitable to be    
worn in the spring of the year and by   
young persons1 than later in the season 
or by mature women4 ,dark green1 like   
crimson and orange1 is a warmer1 more   
intensified color1 with less of         
liveliness and freshness4   ,,purple4   
,is the type of monarchical             
enlightenment4 ,with ,caucasian nations 
it has been the symbolic color of       
royalty1 until 'invest with the purple1'
 in the course of ages1 comes to mean   
kingdom1 government1 power1 to rule4    
,purple is formed by the union of blue  
and red1 truth and valor4 ,happy the    
people who are truly governed by truth  
and valor6 ,the ,tyrian purple was      
famous in ,homer's days1 and our dreams 
of ,tyre and its splendor are all       

colored by this most gorgeous of dyes1  
the manufacture of which from a species 
of shell fish gave this ancient city a  
celebrity which all its other arts      
combined could not equal4 ,this was one 
of the symbolic colors with which the   
high priest's robe was wrought in       
figures of pomegranates upon its skirt2 
and when ,solomon sent to ,hiram1 king  
of ,tyre1 for a cunning workman to      
assist in building the temple1 he did   
not fail to require he should be skilled
 in purple4 ,during the time of the     
,roman emperors1 the ,tyrian purple was 
valued so highly that a pound of cloth  
twice dipped was sold for about one     
hundred and fifty dollars4 ,even a      
purple border about a robe was a mark of
 dignity4   ,,violet4  ,is a color that 
has often been worn by martyrs2 formed  
of a union of red and blue1 it signifies
 love and truth1 and their passion and  
suffering4 ,it is the court mourning    
color all over ,europe1 with the        
exception of ,england4 ,it is the       

softest of the prismatic colors1 and its
 very name carries us in thought to the 
modest sweet flower which is ,flora's   
emblem of humility4         99       99 
99       99       99  ,of one of the    
colors of the spectrum ,i have failed to
 speak1 because there was so little to  
say4 ,orange is a bright1 warm color1   
not quite as intense as red1 still one  
which the eye does not readily seek4    
,its suitableness in dress is confined  
mainly to children4 ,upon them our eye  
naturally seeks for bright1 warm colors1
 and rests with a kind of pleasure upon 
rich hues4 ,there is nothing upon which 
the public taste requires more education
 than upon the arrangement and          
modification of colors4 ,gardeners need 
it in setting their plants and putting  
in their seeds2 florists1 in the        
arrangement of their bouquets2          
furnishers1 in the decoration of        
apartments2 and especially the fashion  
leaders1 who decide what colors or      
shades must or must not be worn         

together4 ,sometimes hues are conjoined 
by them1 that1 no matter how loudly     
proclaimed au fait1 the height of style1
 or  la mode1 are never artistic1 and no
 dicta can make them so4 ,a fashion     
framer should needs be a natural        
philosopher1 and hold the rudiments of  
all science in her grasp4 ,botany1      
mineralogy1 conchology should walk as   
handmaidens to philosophy2 optics should
 steer the rudder of color's bark when  
launched upon the sea of taste4  ,if1   
when dressed1 the aim is to present a   
light and graceful toilet1 light and    
delicate shades of color must be worn2  
no crimson1 dark green1 purple1 or      
indigo1 but rose1 light green1 azure1 or
 lavender1 with a due admixture of      
white1 must be the hues chosen4 ,white  
serves as an admirable break1 and       
prevents the appearance of violent      
transition4 ,it is none the less        
requisite in bouquets1 where no two     
shades of the same color should be      
allowed without either white or green as

 a separator4 ,very handsome            
self-colored bouquets can be arranged by
 giving a finish of the complementary   
shade4 ,one of the most beautiful ,i    
ever remember to have seen was scarlet  
verbenas with a base of rose-geranium   
leaves1 the whole set in a small antique
 green-and-gold vase4  ,although the    
mature fall of the year clothes itself  
in gay colors1 it is deemed an evidence 
of immaturity for women in the fall time
 of life to sport crimson and scarlet   
and orange4 ,sober grays 7which mean    
old1 mature71 quiet brown1 and even     
sombre blacks1 are rather what are      
looked for4 ,to dress young when people 
are old1 deceives no one4 ,there is a   
beauty of age as well as a beauty of    
youth4 ,those who live to be old have   
had their share of the former3 why      
should they seek to deprive themselves  
of the latter8 ,aside from the          
appropriateness of color as to age1     
there are yet others as to size and     
complexion4 ,light-haired men should    

always wear very dark cravats1 in order 
to give tone and expression to the face4
 ,large women should wear warm colors1  
if they wish to create a pleasant       
impression4 ,they cannot attain grace by
 any aid of color1 while they will lose 
the dignity they might naturally claim  
if they confined themselves to warm1    
grave shades4  ,an unartistic           
arrangement of light or drapery in an   
apartment will totally destroy the      
harmony of the most carefully prepared  
toilet4 ,rooms can be toned warm or     
cold1 but1 unless some especial object  
is sought1 neutral tints should         
predominate1 and violent contrasts      
should be avoided4  ,who has failed to  
notice the fantastic tricks played at   
times upon some body of worshippers1    
where light to the church is admitted   
through stained glass windows8 ,a       
lambent red flame lighting up the hair  
of a man's head1 while at the same      
moment his beard is blue and luminous4  
,over the shoulders of another1 the     

purple mantle of royalty seems about    
falling1 investing him for a moment with
 regal splendors1 while perhaps the     
cadaverous hue of his next neighbor's   
face well fits him to be some imagined  
victim of his new majesty's anger4      
,color ranks as one of the earliest     
arts4 ,no nation is so low but it makes 
some attempt at decorative color1 and we
 may be well assured it was one of the  
earliest1 if not the earliest method    
employed in transmitting intelligence4  
,when this country was first discovered1
 the ,peruvians were making use of small
 knotted cords of various colors1 termed
 quippu1 as mediums of records and      
messages4 ,our own ,north ,american     
savages employed wampum1 made from      
various colored shells1 for a similar   
purpose4 ,color played its part in      
ancient ,egyptian hieroglyphics4 ,it    
speaks to the eye sooner than form4 ,a  
black flag hoisted upon the battle field
 proclaims louder than words the        
demoniac cruelty that reigns1 while a   

white signifies that submission has been
 decided upon4 ,joseph's coat of many   
colors proclaimed the father's          
favoritism to his brothers1 and worked a
 mighty change in the history of the    
race to which he belonged4 ,this very   
instance1 if we possessed no other1     
would prove to us the high estimation in
 which color was held1 and its symbolic 
meaning1 in the most ancient times4     
,the ermine is an animal of such        
spotless purity it will tolerate no     
stain on its fur1 and by this symbolic  
name we designate the judge1 who should 
be stainless1 unbiassed1 and            
incorruptible4  ,the highest art of the 
florist is put forth to procure change  
of color4 ,self tulips are valueless    
beside sports1 and to induce this       
breaking various methods are put in     
requisition1 as there is no sporting of 
colors from natural causes among        
flowers4 ,a green rose1 a blue verbena1 
are hailed as triumphs1 and secure the  
propagator an enviable name either as an

 amateur or professional florist4       
,perhaps the most curious thing         
connected with color is that some stars 
give colored light2 and in one instance1
 in a northern constellation1 a double  
star gives forth blue rays from one and 
red from the other4 ,how our fancy might
 be permitted to soar away beyond the   
stars themselves in wondering fancies as
 to the meaning of this--truth and love 
united in a star1 not as a compound     
color1 but each retaining its own hue of
 blue and red6 ,what a happy abode of   
truthful1 loving spirits we can imagine 
this the dwelling place6 ,and may there 
not here be a symbol of such a union8   
,the art of color is yet in its infancy1
 and although ,tyrian purple was        
magnificent and famous1 and the highly  
prized ,turkey red unfading1 yet modern 
chemical discovery has opened a wide    
variety of hues unknown to the ancients4
  ,colors obtained from vegetable       
substances have been the most numerous1 
those from the animal kingdom the most  

brilliant1 and from the mineral the     
greatest variety from the same          
substance4 ,a buff1 a blue1 and a black1
 and again a red1 a blue1 a purple1 and 
a violet1 are produced from the same    
metal4  ,the recent discovery of aniline
 colors1 to be extracted from coal      
refuse1 has given art new1 beautiful1   
and durable shades of red1 blue1 purple1
 and violet4 ,we know but by description
 what the lauded ,tyrian purple was1 for
 monopoly caused the art to be lost2 but
 for softness1 richness1 and beauty of  
purple we have none to approach that    
extracted from this refuse4 ,nature     
means nothing to be lost1 and waste     
arises from ignorance4 ,she is a royal  
mistress when royally represented4  ,to 
the mineral kingdom we are indebted for 
most of the mordants which fix the hues 
derived from other sources4 ,that in    
union is strength is taught by the most 
common art4  ,much is yet to be learned 
in regard to color4 ,men have understood
 its correspondence sufficiently to     

associate red and cruelty as its lowest 
expression1 so that the men of the      
bloody ,french ,revolution received an  
undying name from the red cap of the    
,carmagnole costume--and yellow with    
shame1 for a ruff of this color on the  
neck of a woman hanged drove this       
fashion out of ,england--and white with 
purity1 as the ermine of the judge      
shows2 although1 thousands of years ago1
 the men of ,tartary and ,thibet prized 
the wool of the ,crimean sheep stained  
of a peculiar gray by its feeding upon  
the centarina myriocephala1 and although
 modern gardeners deepen the hues of    
plants by feeding them judiciously1 yet 
few attach the requisite importance to  
color as history4 ,writers for the most 
part pass silently by this great aid to 
a correct understanding of past events4 
,color in costume is no less essential  
to a true description or representation 
than form2 in some instances it is more 
so4  ,the color of the silken sails of  
,cleopatra's vessel1 as she sailed down 

the ,cydnus1 proclaimed her royalty as  
no other could have done4  ,a fairy     
could not be depicted without her green 
robe1 or young ,aurora unless tinted    
with the hues of morn4  ,here lies the  
great fault of all sun pictures4 ,the   
distinctive hues of complexion1 hair1   
and eyes are not preserved4 ,the flaxen1
 the auburn1 the brown hair alike take  
black4 ,light eyes and dark are         
undistinguishable2 the clearest         
complexion becomes muddy and full of    
lines if the color of the dress is such 
as to throw the shade upon it4  ,a      
mixture of colors in dress in which     
either two of the primitives            
predominate1 is a token of barbarism1   
even if occurring among so-called       
enlightened people4  ,color is an       
exponent of the degree of civilization4 
,,red finds its fitness among savage    
races1 and with undeveloped natures4    
,,yellow indicates transition from      
barbarism to civilization4  ,,green1    
advanced civilization4  ,,purple1       

monarchical enlightenment1 which is will
 individualized in but one4             
,modification and harmony are only with 
people free to follow taste and select  
for themselves4 ,among the most         
enlightened nations these five states   
are all found4 ,the highest type1 shown 
by culture1 discovery1 art1 literature1 
science1 equity1 and government1 exists 
with but a few4 ,the mass are civilized1
 and continue 'the mass4' ,it is the    
natural tendency of enlightenment to    
individualize4 ,in proportion to genius1
 culture1 and perseverance1 is one set  
apart1 becomes a leader of the masses1  
and should be a teacher of the harmony  
and correspondence of color1 both by    
precept and example4  ,strong contrasts 
are admissible in what is designed to   
illustrate particular things1 and       
especially if to be viewed from a       
distance4 ,to me no sight is ever more  
beautiful than the ,american flag1 red1 
white1 and blue1 as the breeze opens    
every fold and waves it abroad for the  

gaze of men2 the blue signifying a      
league and covenant against oppression1 
to be maintained in truth1 by valor and 
purity2 the very color proclaiming to   
despots and tyrannized man that in one  
land on the broad face of the earth     
liberty of conscience prevails1 and     
freedom of speech exists4 ,we shall not 
want to change it when this war is over4
 ,it is the symbol of an idea which has 
never yet found its full utterance4     
,when ,liberty and ,union become one and
 indivisible1 it will be the harmonious 
exponent of those grand ideas rooted1   
budded1 blossomed1 and bearing fruit    
forevermore4     ,,battle ,,of ,,the    
,,wilderness4     ,oh1 how our pulses   
leaped and thrilled1 when1 at the dead  
of night1   ,we saw our legions         
mustering1 and marching forth to fight6 
,line after line comes surging on with  
martial pomp and pride1   ,and all the  
pageantries that gild the battle's      
crimson tide4   ,a forest of bright     
bayonets1 like stars at midnight1 gleam2

   ,a hundred glittering standards flash
 above the silver stream4   ,we plunged 
into the ,wilderness1 and morning's     
early dawn   ,disclosed our gallant army
 in line of battle drawn4   ,an early   
zephyr fresh and sweet breathed through 
the forest shade2   ,a thousand happy   
warblers1 too1 a pleasant music made2   
,and modest blossoms bathed in dew the  
morning light revealed3   ,oh1 who could
 deem those pleasant shades a savage foe
 concealed8   ,with lagging pace the    
morning hours dragged heavily away1     
,and yet we wait the coming strife1 in  
battle's stern array4   ,a solemn       
stillness reigns around--but hark6 a    
savage yell1   ,as if ten thousand angry
 fiends had burst the gates of hell1    
,now thrills upon our startled ears4 ,by
 heaven6 the traitors come6   ,we see   
their gleaming banners1 we hear the     
throbbing drum4   ,in solid ranks1 their
 countless hordes from the dense woods  
emerge1   ,and roll upon our serried    
lines like ocean's angry surge4   ,our  

ranks are silent--on each face the light
 of battle glows3   ',ready6' ,at once  
our polished tubes are levelled on our  
foes4   ,now leaps a livid lightning    
up--from rank to rank it flies--   ,a   
fearful diapason rends the arches of the
 skies4   ,the wooded hills seem reeling
 before that fierce recoil2   ,with fire
 and smoke the valleys like ,etna's     
craters boil3   ,from red volcanoes     
bursting1 hissing1 hurtling in the sky1 
,a thousand death-winged messengers like
 fiery meteors fly3   ,within that      
seething vortex their shattered cohorts 
reel4   ',fix bayonets6' ,at once our   
lines bristle with burnished steel4     
',charge6' ,and our gallant regiments   
burst through the feu d'enfer4   ,before
 their furious onset the rebel hosts    
give way2   ,and1 surging backward1 hide
 again within the forest's shade1       
,whose mazes dark and intricate our     
charging columns stayed4    ,now sinks  
the fiery orb of day1 half hidden from  
our sight   ,amid the sulphurous clouds 

of war dyed red in lurid light2   ,and  
soon the smoking ,wilderness with gloom 
and darkness fills2   ,the dense1 damp  
foliage on the sod a bloody dew distils4
   ,sleepless we rest upon our arms4    
,dim lights flit through the shade3     
,we hear the groans of dying men1 the   
rattle of the spade4   ,and when the    
morning dawns at last1 resounding from  
afar   ,we hear the crash of musketry1  
the rising din of war4   ,o comrades1   
comrades1 rally round1 close up your    
ranks again2   ,weep not our brethren   
fallen upon the crimson plain2   ,for   
unborn ages shall their tombs with      
freshest laurels twine2   ,their names  
in characters of light on history's page
 shall shine3   ,we all must die2 but   
few may win a deathless prize of life-- 
,close up your ranks--again the foe     
renews the bloody strife4   ,two days we
 struggled fiercely against our stubborn
 foes--   ,two days from out the        
,wilderness the din of conflict rose4   
,but when the third aurora bathed the   

eastern sky in gold1   ,and to our      
soldiers' anxious gaze the field of     
death unrolled1   ,lo6 all was silent in
 our front4 ,the rebel hosts had fled1  
,abandoning in hasty flight their       
wounded and their dead4    ,come1       
friends of freedom1 gather round1 loud  
shouts of triumph give3   ,the field of 
blood is won at last--let the republic  
live6   ,our country1 ,o our country1   
our hearts throb wild and high2   ,your 
cause has triumphed4 ,god be praised6   
,freedom shall never die4   ,our eagle  
proudly soars to-day1 his talons bathed 
in gore1   ,for treason's hydra head is 
crushed--its reign of terror o'er4      
,wake1 wake your shouts of triumph all  
through our mighty land1   ,from        
,california's golden hills to proud     
,potomac's strand4   ,atlantic's waves  
exulting ,pacific's billows call1   ,and
 great ,niagara's cataracts in louder   
thunders fall4   ,we've stayed the      
tempest black as night that on our      
country lowers1   ,and backward dashed  

its waves of blood4 ,the victory is     
ours6    ,a light shines from the       
,wilderness--far up time's pathway      
streams--   ,through death1 and blood1  
and agony1 on ,calvary's cross it       
gleams2   ,it lights with radiance      
divine ,mount ,vernon's humble tomb1    
,and sparkles on ,harmodius' sword      
bright flashing through the gloom4      
,ho6 slaves of yesterday1 arise1 now    
will your chains be riven4   ,ho6       
tyrants1 tremble1 for behold a day of   
vengeance given4   ,gaze on our banners 
stained with blood--think of your       
brethren slain2   ,say1 has not freedom1
 crushed to earth1 sprung forth to life 
again8   ,freedom1 high freedom1 friend 
of man1 sheath not thy crimson steel2   
,still let thy cannon thunder loud1     
still let thy trumpet peal2   ,stay not 
the justice of thy wrath1 stay not thy  
vengeful hand1   ,till slavery and      
treason have been blotted from our land4
     ,,tardy ,,truths4   ,under the     
heading of ',tardy ,truths' ,the ,new   

,nation1 of ,may #gth1 republished a    
compendium of matter some time back     
given to the world by ,m4 ,emile de     
,girardin1 in his paper ,la ,presse1 and
 in pamphlet form4 ,this matter purports
 to have been written by a so-called    
ex-commandant in the late ,polish       
insurrection1 a certain ,m4 ,fouquet1 of
 ,marseilles4  ,poland has no reason to 
fear truth4 ,on the contrary1 the       
difficulty has been to find means to set
 it forth1 avenues to the public        
intelligence and sense of justice1      
whereby those might be reached who      
forget the ,latin saying3 ,audi et      
alteram partem4 ,the ,poles are willing 
to hear reproaches1 if such as may be   
profited by1 or if the self-constituted 
judges be conscientious and             
unprejudiced4  ,but1 may we not ask why 
it is that many of these so-called      
truths1 professedly founded upon        
personal acquaintance with ,polish      
localities1 men1 and institutions1      
spring from sources in many respects    

similar to that of the recent           
publication in ,la ,presse1 from        
individuals who never were in ,poland   
beyond a few hours spent in ,warsaw--who
 have seen nothing of the country1      
except as passing in a passenger car    
from ,kracow to ,mohilew1 a distance of 
about seven hundred miles1 traversed in 
about twenty-four hours--who never      
understood one word of ,polish1 of      
,rossian1 or of any of the cognate      
tongues--who have never conversed freely
 with the inhabitants--who may have been
 entertained during a few hours by      
,government employs or by cautious and  
distrustful patriots--who were in a     
hurry to see ,st4 ,petersburg and its   
elephant1 and who learned ,polish       
history in the ,kremlin1 in the saloons 
of some former prince from the ,altay or
 the ,caucasus1 or1 at best1 in the work
 of ,m4 ,koydanoff8  ,la ,presse1 in    
,paris1 undertook the charge of saying  
things which her franker sisters1 ,le   
,nord and ,la ,nation1 the avowed organs

 of ,rossian czarism1 did not venture to
 propound4 ,m4 de ,girardin1 whose paper
 has1 since a certain period1 taken a   
liberalistic1 even socialistic1         
infection1 is a living example of sundry
 anomalous eccentricities1 such as      
,alcibiades1 ,gracchus1 ,mirabeau1 etc41
 who speak most liberally1 and act in a 
contrary manner4 ,he seems to have been 
adopted by ,rossian diplomatists1 and   
those sanguine of ,rossian destiny1 as a
 most convenient defender of czarish    
ambition--the more so that they found in
 him a revealer of things never thought 
of by the czar2 as for instance1        
liberality and even democracy in ,great 
,rossia1 on the plains of ,okka and     
,petschora4  ,we might compare ,m4      
,fouquet's account of ,poland with      
,neumann's account of ,kosciusko1 or    
,freneau's of ,washington1 but will     
content ourselves with referring the    
reader to better ,european sources of   
knowledge1 as the ,breslau ,zeitung1    
,ost ,deutsche ,zeitung1 ,czas1 ,wiek1  

,la ,pologne1 etc4  ,indeed1 it would   
not be worth our while to pay any       
attention to ,m4 ,fouquet's allegations1
 had not the ,paris letter of ,april    
#dth appeared in the above-mentioned    
paper1 and were it not likely to mislead
 many ignorant of the facts4  ,the      
writer tells us that he has 'experienced
 a great temptation to tell what he has 
seen1' and to 'expose the result of     
experience acquired at his own cost1    
with all attendant risk and danger4'    
,probably we do not understand the fear 
of the author of ',tardy ,truths1' and  
wish to give no extended explanation to 
his conclusion3 ',a rare opportunity    
occurs at present1 and he profits by    
it4' ,we have been taught that we must  
always have courage to speak the truth4 
,surely no great amount of that noble   
quality is required to make accusations 
in a paper far from the scene of action1
 and pronounce a verdict where there can
 be no adequate defence1 no judges1 only
 the advantage of the fashion of the    

day1 and the craving for problematical  
benefits and friendship1 to which we    
must apply ,moore's comparison3         
',like ,dead ,sea fruits1 that tempt the
 eye1     ,but turn to ashes on the     
lips4'  ,let us never be deceived3 a    
free nation in the embrace of absolutism
 must1 sooner or later1 fall a prey to  
the cajoler's hypocrisy and greed4  ,the
 correspondent reports that the ,polish 
,committee in ,paris declined to give   
him information or furnish means1 and   
even said that they did not wish        
volunteers4 ,all this may readily be    
explained by the consideration that a   
man who thereafter proved to be so      
bitter an enemy was not sufficiently    
diplomatic to deceive even the obtuse   
perceptions of so undeserving a body as 
the author describes said committee4 ,on
 the other hand1 it would have been more
 prudent for the writer to have said    
less on this topic1 as such hesitation  
in accepting his services might induce  
the reader to think that the ,poles were

 not so anxious for external aid as he  
seemed to fancy4 ,we also know that not 
only at present in ,poland1 but in      
former ages1 and in our own days1 in the
 happiest of countries1 there can be no 
revolution1 no war1 which will not      
attract a host of men covetous of rank  
or fortune4 ,lately1 in ,poland1 by     
certain judicious arrangements1 this    
calamity has been prevented1 to the     
great dissatisfaction of many4  ,no one 
can doubt or deny that the interest of  
various ,governments1 and the sense of  
justice among nations1 gave the ,poles a
 right to expect foreign aid4 ,the      
assurances of certain politicians and   
statesmen even gave reasonable          
expectation of such a result4 ,such aid 
would of course neither be rejected nor 
treated with indifference4 ,but the     
assertion that the ,poles relied solely 
on such aid is 7in the face of the      
manifesto of ,january #bb;d and ,july   
#cast1 #ahfc7 either a proof of ill     
will1 or of entire ignorance of the     

resources upon which ,poland was bound  
to rely1 and which could not be         
intrusted to the discretion of every    
volunteer or pretended well-wisher to   
the ,polish nation4  ,continuing his    
imputations1 the accuser says he only   
learned afterward why seven thousand    
,parisian workmen1 registered at ,m4    
d',harcourt's committee1 'were not sent 
forth4' ,the probable purport of this   
reproach is3 ',they were not sent for   
fear of the introduction of liberal     
elements--and the proletariat--into     
,poland4' ,as to the latter1 we may at  
once confidently answer that1 were      
,poland free to-day1 the condition of   
the laboring class in ,western ,europe  
need not be dreaded for a hundred years 
to come4 ,as to the liberal element1    
does the author indeed think that       
,poland has had no ,liberalists similar 
to ,voltaire1 ,la ,mennais1 ,victor     
,hugo1 ,l4 ,blanc1 ,mazzini1 or         
,hertzen8 ,does he fancy that ,modzewski
 7in the sixteenth century71 ,skarga 7a 

,catholic preacher in the seventeenth71 
,morsztyn1 ,jezierski1 ,andrew          
,zamoyski1 ,hugo ,kollontay1 ,loyko 7in 
the eighteenth71 ,staszye1 ,lelewel1    
,mochnacki1 ,ostrowski1 ,czynski1       
,mieroslawski1 and a host of others1    
contented with the private good they    
did1 and forced to shun the jealous     
watchfulness of suspicious rulers--does 
he1 we say1 fancy that all these needed 
to be inspired by the liberality of     
,parisian workmen1 or even that all the 
aforesaid workmen would apply themselves
 to the dissemination of liberal        
opinions8 ,it is indeed a great         
disadvantage to ,polish ,liberalists1   
philosophers1 and poets1 that they speak
 and write in a tongue unknown to the   
noble philanthropists of the ,west4 ,a  
greater amount of knowledge would have  
saved hasty tourists1 veracious         
lecturers1 and all-knowing diplomatists 
many errors in statement and conception1
 and much aversion toward a noble       
people1 who1 if vanquished1 will not be 

crushed1 and will always reserve the    
right of protest4  ,at all events1 this 
last conclusion of our correspondent    
leads us to suspect that he may         
perchance never have been in            
,poland--perhaps never even in          
,paris--since this non-sending forth of 
seven thousand ,parisians was better    
understood by every gamin du faubourg   
than apparently by the sincere narrator 
of ',tardy ,truths4'  ,the writer says  
further1 that he expected to find in    
,kracow 'activity and infinite means4'  
,now1 the author and the confidence of  
the ,poles must have been quite         
strangers to one another1 or his        
imagination must have misled him farther
 than was becoming in a man of knowledge
 and reflection4 ,he does not mention   
the date of his journey1 but we know    
about the period referred to4 ,it is    
true that at that time ,kracow had not  
yet been declared in a state of siege by
 ,m4 ,pouilly de ,mensdorf1 but1 as a   
personal friend of the ,czar1 he had    

then held ,galicia and ,kracow during   
the past year under a more uncertain    
condition than even the declaration of a
 state of siege would have produced4    
,twenty thousand chosen officers and    
soldiers1 with discretionary and greatly
 enlarged powers1 and almost as many    
policemen and spies1 with early fed and 
increasing covetousness for rewards1    
promotions1 and orders1 kept constant   
watch over the ancient capital of       
,poland1 the last remnant of ,polish    
nationality which had been engulfed in  
the ,european peace of #ahdf4  ,we may  
then safely assert that our author has  
given us sketches from his whims and    
fancies1 rather than the mature results 
of his judgment1 and that he has also   
neglected to direct his researches into 
the history of the past4 ,it is         
doubtless true that he was not desired  
as a volunteer1 and that he found danger
 only1 and not fortune1 which1 indeed1  
we think his own sagacity might have    
taught him from the first4  ,we would be

 forced to doubt that any one understood
 the policy of the ,polish ,committee in
 ,warsaw who should apply the epithet   
'mercenary' to the ,polish soldiers4 ,we
 would not ask our author how much he   
gave per diem to those under his own    
command3 we have no wish to rival the   
wit of a ,russian proclamation which    
appeared last winter in ,warsaw1 in     
which the ,poles in general1 including  
those who fought at ,orsza1 ,wielikie   
,luki1 ,kirchholm1 ,chocim1 ,smolensk1  
,vienna1 ,zurich1 ,hohenlinden1         
,samocierros1 ,pultusk1 ,grochow1       
,iganie1 ,zyzyny1 ,opatow1 etc41 etc41  
were stigmatized as poltroons and       
cowards6  ,it is certainly true that the
 battles of late have not represented a 
file of twenty thousand men1 but to call
 them on that account frontier          
demonstrations1 is to add subtle calumny
 to ungenerous irony2 it is a deviation 
even from the very 'tardy truths4' ,it  
is an assertion not made in an impartial
 spirit1 but calculated in favor of1 and

 determinately stated with the intention
 of sustaining those who are exerting   
themselves to prove that ,minsk1        
,grodno1 ,mohilew1 ,wolhynia1 ,podole1  
,plock1 ,augustow1 ,lithuania1          
,samogitia1 ,liefland1 etc41 were       
ancient dependencies of ,russia1 before 
she had herself an existence either in  
name or fact6 ,if the originator of the 
term frontier demonstrations would take 
the trouble to study the map1 he would  
not be able to cherish the delusion that
 his intelligent readers could believe  
that battles fought near ,kowno1        
,oszmiana1 ,upita1 ,poniewiez1 ,lida1   
,ihumen1 ,dubno1 ,pinsk1 ,mscislaw1     
etc41 were really frontier              
demonstrations6  ,this declaration of   
the letter from ,paris to ,america would
 not be of much service to ,the ,journal
 of ,st4 ,petersburg or ,the ,invalid1  
of ,moscow1 or increase their           
exhilaration over the extermination of  
the ,polish race1 the destruction of    
,polish principles4 ,there is nothing   

more natural than that a rebuke to the  
,sicle1 ,opinion ,nationale1 ,patrie1   
and perhaps even others1 should follow  
such statements--their views undoubtedly
 stand in complete opposition to those  
held by ,m4 de ,girardin1 and advocated 
in ,la ,presse4  ,the assertion that the
 ,polish ,national ,government had no   
object in view but to excite and await  
the intervention of ,france2 that       
,galicia was the principal focus of the 
rebellion1 and that the unknown         
,government had no actual existence1 is1
 on the one hand1 an unskilful attempt  
to justify the ,governments of ,russia  
and ,austria1 and1 on the other1 by the 
ignoring of all the reports of the      
,polish ,national ,government--all its  
obvious facts1 its printed documents1   
its acts everywhere known and seen1 its 
seizures of papers and documents--and to
 portray it as a fraud1 a myth1 a dream 
of the imagination1 a wild hallucination
 of a disordered brain1 it suggests to  
us the thought that the tardy and       

present truths here given us of ,poland 
may perhaps have the same origin as that
 famous description in one of the ,st4  
,petersburg papers1 of 'the at last     
truly discovered leader of the ,polish  
insurrection1' which was but a          
portraiture of a certain1 not mentioned 
but easily guessed1 personage in ,paris4
  ,we have no reply to make to this     
reproach 7we can only wonder that under 
the circumstances they should ever have 
been made7 that the ,polish volunteers  
were badly armed and illy               
managed--possibly they might have been  
better even in a partisan war4 ,but as  
to the want of skill in the officers1   
including such as ,skarzynski1 ,bosak1  
,padlewski1 we wonder that the writer or
 his friend ,f4 could not succeed in    
making their talents known and valued1  
and become at least leaders among the   
blind4 ,of course he had to contend with
 cross-eyed jealousy4 ,yet if1 as a     
foreigner1 and a learned one too1 he    
was1 as he himself informs us1          

intimately admitted into various        
chateaux1 it seems almost impossible he 
should have had no opportunity to become
 major1 colonel1 or even general1 since 
it is well known1 and every foreigner   
will bear witness to the fact1 that in  
these chateaux there has always been too
 much attention and too great preference
 shown to foreigners--a preference1     
however1 in which the lower classes do  
not participate4  ,as to the easy       
chateau life led in ,galicia1 as in     
,russia1 we have a remark to offer4 ,in 
a country exposed during five or six    
centuries to incessant struggle against 
,asiatic craving for ,european          
allurements1 or1 to speak more          
definitely1 after ninety-four ,mongolian
 incursions1 in which twenty millions of
 ,polish people were carried off1 and   
thousands of towns1 bourgs1 and villages
 were destroyed2 after numberless wars1 
plunders1 and devastations by ,jazygs1  
,turks1 ,muscovites1 ,crusaders1        
,wallachians1 ,transylvanians1 ,swedes1 

,brandenburgians1 etc41 etc42 after a   
hundred years of the so-called paternal 
spoliation of ,russia1 ,prussia1 and    
,austria--there could have been no      
opportunity1 even under ,graff ,pouilly 
de ,mensdorf1 to build comfortable      
chateaux on the mouldering ruins1 or for
 the accumulation of means for an easy  
life under the oppressions of an        
,austrian tariff1 which exacted that    
goods manufactured in ,lemberg should be
 sent for inspection to the ,vienna     
custom house before being exposed to    
sale4 ,there are1 however1 a few very   
splendid chateaux1 like oases in the    
,desert of ,sahara2 they can be counted 
readily on one's fingers2 among them few
 patriots2 no conspirator1 much less an 
insurgent or crippled invalid1 ever     
called to ask hospitality4  ,the calumny
 so often repeated1 so urgently insisted
 upon1 that the aim of the ,polish      
insurrection was inconsistent1 foolish1 
and wicked1 might not perhaps astonish  
the reader more than the report of the  

want of zeal and faith in the           
convictions of the ,poles1 a fact first 
revealed to the world in ',tardy        
,truths4' ,this warning with regard to  
the true character of the struggle on   
the shores of the ,vistula might prove  
of service in aiding the discrimination 
of the ,american people1 and be useful  
in confusing the judgment of the liberal
 men and newspapers1 which1 whether in  
,germany1 ,belgium1 ,france1 or         
,england1 are not too much inclined to  
favor the cause of ,polish independence2
 nay1 it would spare ,france the useless
 demonstration in the ,chambers1 made in
 consequence of the speech of ,november 
#eth4 ,the late efforts of the ,poles   
are also shown to have been inspired and
 incited by1 and carried on for the     
benefit of1 the ,catholic clergy1       
stimulated by fanaticism against the    
liberal1 civilizing1 enlightened1       
,rosso-,greek ,church1 a view which     
might and has proved very useful to     
modern lecturers and letter writers4    

,the warning therein given might also   
serve to degrade the ,polish revolution 
to the level of some of the             
slave-holders' rebellion4 ,let us       
reflect but for one single moment on the
 parallel attempted to be drawn1        
particularly in the ,new ,york papers1  
after the unfortunate ,mexican imbroglio
 and subsequent visit of the ,russian   
fleet1 between things so utterly unlike4
 ,the ,poles fought for everything most 
dear to the heart of man1 for every     
right which he can justly claim1 for    
independence1 national existence1 the   
right to use his own language1 for the  
integrity of his country2--the ,states  
of the ,south had all these in full     
possession1 nay1 even the right to pass 
the law binding the ,north4 ,these      
things might be shown to be essentially 
dissimilar in every respect1 but this   
short statement is deemed sufficient to 
show the futility of the comparison4    
,let us now proceed to say a few words  
with regard to the plausible arguments  

so generally set forth for the          
glorification of the ,czar1 in respect  
to the emancipation of the ,polish      
serfs4 ,the ,czar gave in #ahfd what had
 already been given by the ,poles       
themselves in #ahfc2 less the soil1     
which indeed never belonged to him1 but 
for which he exacts payment4 ,besides1  
he has confiscated1 without regulations 
or laws1 the income from forests1 rents1
 fields1 and fisheries1 belonging to old
 men1 women1 and children1 whose only   
crime was that they had been born       
,poles1 or whom it pleased the hungry   
throng of unscrupulous1 greedy1 and     
fanatical officials1 unbounded in their 
zeal as in their power1 to denounce1    
accuse1 or dislike4 ,we could fully     
prove the fact that the greater part of 
the peasants are now forced by bayonets 
to work for the exacted pay1 and most of
 them venture to doubt entirely the     
propriety of the pretended ,russian     
gift4 ,this one circumstance makes this 
gift in the greater part of ,poland and 

even1 of ,russia more burdensome than   
the old state of regulated labor2 for   
how is a peasant to procure money in    
provinces distant from markets1 rivers1 
and towns8 ,under what conditions would 
it be possible to obtain it8 ,and even  
in cases where the peasant may be able  
to make a sale1 the value received for  
eight bushels of potatoes will not be   
sufficient to buy him a common axe4 ,how
 many calves1 cows1 sheep1 horses1 and  
hogs are brought back from market from  
the impossibility of finding purchasers1
 even at the lowest prices8 ,now1 by the
 decree of ,january #bb;d1 the ,polish  
,national ,government gave freedom1 and 
land relieved from all claims1 thus     
executing what was in accordance with   
the spirit and wishes of the ,poles1    
without losing sight of the difficulties
 to be encountered4 ,it was their       
imperative duty to satisfy and adjust   
the exigencies of the national political
 economy4 ,fortunately1 it was found    
possible to harmonize the requirements  

of the country with the personal        
interests of the proprietors4 ,the      
amount of land held by them was in      
general so large1 that even after       
endowing the peasant with the allotted  
portion1 considerable would still remain
 in their hands4 ,diminished in extent  
and value during the transitional phase1
 the remaining land would necessarily   
rise rapidly in value1 because the      
emancipated peasant would now have the  
right to own and buy land4 ,the         
calculation might be sustained that it  
would quintuple in value in the course  
of fifty years4 ,small farms from their 
possessions would soon be in the market1
 farms within the range of small purses 
and limited means1 and the proprietors  
did not fail to see the advantage which 
would accrue to them in the almost      
unlimited increase of purchasers which  
would soon be found among the           
enfranchised laborers4 ,the peasants    
gained freedom1 land1 and many          
advantages1 nor were the proprietors    

ruined in their advancement4 ,hence the 
,national ,government effected what the 
,rossian never intended to do or ever   
will achieve3 gain and loss were        
equalized in the national duty of       
sustaining the country in its           
progressive course1 stimulating all to  
labor simultaneously to support its     
public burdens1 to aid in the general   
advancement4 ,the real freedom thus     
gained1 in accordance with the          
far-sighted policy of the ,polish       
,national ,government1 opened wide the  
door to liberty1 trade1 commerce1 and   
exchange2 a policy which czarism1 even  
in its most liberal mood1 can never     
admit1 because it would condemn itself1 
and give the death blow to its own      
existence4 ,there is another specialty  
peculiar to the ,rossian ,government1   
never forgotten by those who live under 
its rule1 viz43 the late emancipation   
was begun about three years ago by an   
ukase of no very decided purport1 which 
was followed by many others of like     

uncertain character1 according with the 
varying views of those by whom they were
 dictated1 by the partisans of          
emancipation or by those standing in    
opposition to it4 ,these ukases are     
ranged in their appropriate numerical   
titles1 and there are at least five     
hundred thousand of them--whether       
imperial or senatorial1 all legally     
binding4 ,what memory could stand such a
 burden1 or what might legal cavil not  
find therein8  ,it is an easy thing to  
'speak for ,buncombe1' as we say in     
,america2 it is an easy thing to        
proclaim measures when we take no       
thought of how they may be carried out2 
it is easy to excite the enthusiasm of  
the popular lecturer1 always in search  
of novelty with which to feed his       
hearers2 it may be pleasant to furnish  
venom to wounded self-esteem or         
disappointed and petty ambition--but it 
will be found an exceedingly difficult  
task to reconcile absolutism with       
freedom1 czarism with liberalism1 the   

division of men into appointed castes   
and classes with the existence of       
liberty and political equality4 ,we are 
assured1 not only by the writer of the  
letter in question1 but by the sages of 
,new ,york1 that the ,polish peasants   
were not willing to fight for ,poland1  
that they called their countrymen now in
 arms against ,rossia 'dogs of nobles1' 
and 'that it was really their duty to   
rise against and denounce their former  
masters to ,rossia and ,austria6'  ,if  
these assertions are true1 who then     
filled the ranks of the ,polish         
insurgents8 ,who furnished food to those
 who lived for months in the depths of  
forests1 the haunts of mountain gorges8 
,how was it possible that without the   
connivance of the peasants the          
insurgents should pass to and fro1 or   
lie hidden in woods and fields8 ,it was 
stated authoritatively that the         
insurgents1 were composed principally of
 ,hungarian refugees1 about ten         
,frenchmen1 a few strangers from other  

nations1 but of the number of the lesser
 nobility1 men1 in short1 in search of  
shelter and fortune4 ,a strange fortune1
 a marvellous shelter indeed to reward  
the greed of the ambitious--exile1      
death1 and torture6 ,were the testimony 
of such witnesses to be relied upon1 we 
might well exclaim3 ',truth is indeed   
stranger than fiction4' ,yet how is it  
that we find among the seven hundred    
patriots who were hung so many ,poles1  
less than a half of whom were           
,catholics1 many of whom were ,jews1    
,protestants1 and even ,rosso-,greeks of
 various classes8 ,among the forty      
thousand known deported1 torn ruthlessly
 away from their native homes for       
centuries1 we find nearly five thousand 
,israelites1 ten thousand peasants      
7known71 and from four to six thousand  
of ,greek and other creeds4 ,the two    
villages near ,lida1 two in the         
government of ,grodno1 the hundreds of  
villages and thousands of huts near     
,dwina1 ,rzezyca1 ,mohilew1 ,witebsk1   

burned1 razed to the ground by an       
excited and hired rabble of ,muscovite  
,muziks1 who had sought and found       
hospitality in ,poland for hundreds of  
years--certainly all these villages and 
huts were not inhabited even by the     
'lesser nobility4' ,and it is also      
certain that the dwellers were not so   
cruelly punished for denouncing the     
'dogs of nobles'--an expression1 if we  
are not mistaken1 taken from the        
vocabulary of the corporal or subaltern 
officials1 and which has never reached  
the fourteenth class--from which the    
,rossian begins to reckon humanity4     
,the allegation of the existence of     
unrooted feudalism in ,poland1 because  
such a system was known to the whole of 
,middle ,europe1 must be accounted for  
by the evident ignorance of ,polish     
history2 and we assure both teachers and
 readers1 notwithstanding the evident   
wish to find it in ,poland1 that it was 
unknown to her1 nor could it subsist in 
the presence of ,polish institutions1   

habits1 customs1 and geography4  ,we can
 scarcely suppose it possible that our  
author means to insinuate that thousands
 of noble families bought and           
transported arms for the purpose of     
speculation4 ,notwithstanding the       
evidence he had of one such bad business
 transaction for the purpose of         
sustaining and upholding the            
insurrection1 his frequent intimations  
of the incorrigible and unruly character
 of the few ,poles left1 would almost   
authorize us in believing that such was 
the intention of the writer when        
speaking of the aforesaid arms4  ,oh1 in
 the name of common sense1 for the sake 
of the men whose country has been torn  
from them1 who may not speak their      
mothers' tongue in the land of their    
fathers1 who are forbidden to worship in
 accordance with the dictates of their  
conscience1 whose sacred homes are      
desecrated by the presence of privileged
 spies1 who cannot sit down in peace in 
the holy quiet of evening1 because they 

know that the morrow may see them       
dragged off to unknown and inaccessible 
dungeons1 or summoned before brutal     
judges without defenders1 where they    
will find accusers1 but will be allowed 
to cite no witnesses2 subjected to      
witness the horrible anxiety endured    
every spring and fall by ,polish fathers
 and mothers lest the sons of their love
 should be unexpectedly seized in the   
night and hurried off over the          
,caucasus1 the ,ural1 or to the mouth of
 the ,amour1 to serve in the army of the
 oppressor for life1 or longer than home
 memories in such young bosoms could be 
expected to last1 with no prospect of   
reward save such as may be reckoned in  
the number of palkis and pletnis 7whips 
and lashes72 sons1 whether rich or poor1
 to be exposed to cavil1 cunning1 and   
vindictiveness1 to the practices of     
gambling judges and a profligate        
soldiery1 to a venal police1 to         
fraudulent employs1 themselves badly    
paid for service1 but whose extortions  

and abuses always meet with approval1 a 
single complaint against whom would     
expose the complainant to be sent       
through that hopeless gate always open  
on the route to ,siberia2--oh1 for the  
sake of common humanity1 say not that   
men placed in such situations have1 in  
spite of their glorious history1 no     
rights1 no claims on human sympathy1 no 
cause to sacrifice life even when it has
 become a haunting horror6  ,believe not
 that such complaints are inventions3   
the facts are known to everybody who    
will look upon them4 ,they are no       
slanderous stories1 but occurrences     
renewed with every morning1 taking place
 under all circumstances and with every 
transaction patent to the world4 ,they  
were appreciated and described in       
,prussia1 and even in ,austria verified1
 not long before the last campaign4     
,under such circumstances1 what must be 
thought of the discoveries and          
conclusions of writers who assert that  
'the ,polish nation is a mere chimera'8 

,as no individual1 mighty as he may be1 
can by a blasphemous word suppress the  
existence of the ,eternal ,father1 so   
neither passion nor love1 favor nor     
animosity1 interest nor purpose of the  
most talented or ambitious1 can erase at
 pleasure a nationality which has a     
history of over a thousand years of     
existence1 a nationality proved by the  
last hundred years of incessant struggle
 for independence with three giants4    
,this nation has marked its boundaries  
with graveyards toward the ,dniester1   
,dnieper1 ,niemen1 and ,dwina1 where    
rest the beaten hordes of ,batu or      
,nogays4 ,can the record be erased of   
the power that broke the sword of the   
,osmanlis1 and was it a chimera that    
preserved ,western ,europe from such    
sights as ,polowce and ,pietschiniegs1  
etc48 ,you may perhaps to-day designate 
as a chimera the ,vienna saved in #afhc1
 that very ,vienna which in #ahae first 
conceived the idea of sowing the seeds  
of distrust between ,galicians and      

,lodomerians--an idea soon after        
adopted1 perfected1 and publicly        
propagated by ,rossians1 who applied the
 practice to ,lithuanians1 ,volhynians1 
,podolans1 ,polans1 ,radymicians1       
etc4--an idea now held in the fierce    
grasp of ,muraview1 ,anienkow1 and      
probably at no very distant period to be
 recalled to the mind of the originator4
  ,the gentleman's knowledge of         
,russians 7the true name is ,rossians1  
the other being assumed to effect a     
certain purpose in ,western ,europe71   
,prussians1 and ,austrians1 to the      
exclusion of ,poles1 proves only that   
his geographic and ethnographic         
researches in ,poland went no farther   
than those of the 'reliable gentleman'  
who described the ,bunker ,hill monument
 under ,president ,lafayette4  ,in      
addition to the above1 let us consult   
simply the sound of the names of places1
 and we can form some idea of the extent
 of races and nationalities4 ,nowgorod1 
,kaluga1 ,pskow--are ,rossian2 ,telsze1 

,szawle1 ,rosienie--,lithuanian2        
,winszpilis1 ,gielgawa1                 
,libosie--,courland2 ,lublin1           
,ostrolenka1 ,plock--,polish2           
,wlodrimirz1 ,zytomirz1                 
,berdyczev--,volhynian4 ,in ,austria1   
are the inhabitants of ,venice1 ,prague1
 and ,buda1 ,austrian8 ,the name of     
,prussia is an old one of ,slavonians   
living at the mouth of the ,vistula1 and
 has no etymology in the ,teutonic      
language4 ,those of ,galicia and        
,lodomeria are unskilfully disfigured   
from ,halitsh 7,halicz7 and ,wlodzimir4 
,the name of ,prussia was assumed by    
,frederic ,,ii41 margrave of            
,brandenburg1 when he took the title of 
king1 at the same time giving solemn    
oaths never to pretend to the           
sovereignty of ,dantzick 7,gdansk71     
,thorn 7,torun71 etc4  ,the present     
empire of ,alexander is not of ,russia1 
but of ,rossia1 and the name of ,russia 
is imposed on ,polans near ,kiow1 on    
,radymicians near ,nowogrodek1 on       

,drewlans south of the river ,pripec1   
etc42 and we must remember that         
,catharine ,,ii41 in #agfd1 had solemnly
 declared by her ambassadors1           
,kayserling and ,repnin1 that she had no
 right to ,russias or ,ruthenias in     
,poland3 ',declaramus suam ,imperatoriam
 ,majestatem ,dominam nostram           
clementissimam ex usu tituli totius     
,rossi1 nec sibi1 nec successoribus suis
 neque ,imperio suo jus ullum in        
ditiones et terr qu sub nomine ,russi a 
,regno ,poloni magnoque ducatu ,lithuani
 possiduntur1' etc4  ,the prediction of 
the restablishment of serfdom as a      
result aimed at in the present ,polish  
struggle1 is not only rash but          
preposterous1 and has no foundation     
except in a fixed purpose to direct all 
sympathy toward ,rossia4  ,the true     
bondage that tied man in ,poland to the 
soil1 began with the introduction of    
police1 passports1 censors or skaski1   
recruiting1 conscription1 and taxation1 
introduced by ,prussia1 ,austria1 and   

,rossia1 as so-called improvements4     
,poland had more free peasants1 called  
,ziemianin1 ,kmiec1 ,kozak1 than there  
were in ,france during the rgime of the 
,gabeles or ,leibeigenschaft in         
,germany4 ,that they entirely           
disappeared after the fall of ,poland   
was surely not her fault4 ,the peasants 
on the estates attached to the clergy of
 all denominations1 to public schools1  
to the crown1 and to the nation1 were in
 a much better condition1 materially and
 morally1 than are at present those in  
some parts of ,hainault and ,thuringen4 
,individual abuses by an unconscientious
 lord were to be seen as well in        
,connaught as near ,debretschyn1 near   
the ,saone as on the ,necker4           
,times--contemporary with independent   
,poland1 and hence not very far         
back--beheld these sins against humanity
 committed on a larger scale1 and in    
lands in otherwise happier conditions4  
,the phrase bonded labor is known under 
the best institutions4 ,but this excuses

 no one4 ,poland1 without any compulsive
 cause1 in #agfd and #agfh1 took these  
questions into consideration2 in #agia1 
was even more explicit2 and in #agib1   
,kosciuszko distinctly settled the      
condition of the ,polish peasant1 and   
that without opposition from the ,polish
 nobility--a measure immediately        
overruled and suppressed by ,prussia and
 ,rossia1 both accusing ,poland of being
 a dangerous nest of ,jacobinism4 ,in   
#ahjg1 in the grand duchy of ,warsaw1   
after it was retaken from ,prussia1 the 
condition of the peasantry was far more 
clear and protected than even now       
promised by the ,czar ,alexander ,,ii41 
and was probably better preserved than  
it can be under the crowd of employs and
 magistrates1 nominally elected by the  
peasants1 but in fact imported from     
,saratow1 ,kazan1 ,penza1 etc41 for the 
purpose of teaching liberty and         
,siberian civilization in ,warsaw and   
,wilna4  ,common sense and the ordinary 
rules of logic force upon us the        

conviction that writings of the above   
stamp are gotten up to produce certain  
effects4 ,can any be found simple enough
 to believe that a whole people would be
 aroused1 armed1 and taught to what end 
and how to use the given arms1 as was   
done by the manifesto of the ,polish    
,national ,government1 ,january #bb;d1  
#ahfc1 only to be deceived and in the   
end deprived of that for which they had 
fought8 ,by what right can bad faith be 
imputed to land owners whom experience1 
a sense of justice1 and even interest1  
had already impelled to get rid of a    
useless and burdensome relation8 ,these 
land owners1 even under the ,rossian    
,government 7in #ahah71 had solemnly    
begged the uncle of the present czar1   
,alexander ,i41 to allow them to be     
freed from the onerous responsibilities 
caused by serfdom under ,rossian        
surveillance and severity4  ,the letter 
from ,paris further states1 on what     
authority we know not1 that the         
condition of the peasant or serf in     

,poland was dreadful until the          
seventeenth century4 ,this is going very
 far back1 and probably at that period1 
if facts could be found to sustain the  
writer's allegation1 the condition of   
bondmen--vilains regardants--boors1     
,lebeigenschaft1 manans1 etc41 was not  
better elsewhere4 ,but here again we    
must differ in opinion1 and beg leave to
 state1 not only to the author of the   
letter1 but to all other                
self-constituted authorities1 whose     
knowledge of ,poland is derived from    
,the ,london ,times1 ,chambers's        
,magazine1 ,m4 ,hilperding1 ,kattow1 or 
,m4 ,morny1 etc41 that1 with all due    
respect to their social positions1 we   
must deny them the title of             
well-informed historians and profound   
judges of ,poland and the ,slavonic     
races4 ,up to the seventeenth century1  
the peasantry 7,kmiec1 ,ziemiamin7 had  
its representatives in the diet1 and    
could find entrance into the ranks of   
the nobility1 which had no divisions    

into classes or titular distinctions4   
,said nobility had the right to serve   
their country during war1 and a peasant 
providing himself with a horse and      
suitable arms1 was not excluded from    
that class4 ,they could also take orders
 among the clergy1 and hence rise to    
high dignities in the church4 ,public   
schools in ,poland were never shut to   
the peasants1 nor were any distinctions 
therein authorized in favor of one or   
other class of pupils4 ,in schools then 
they enjoyed all privileges in common1  
and these were great--a separate        
jurisdiction1 and the facilities of     
reaching higher ranks4 ,kromer1         
,janicki1 ,poniatowski1 great names in  
,polish history1 can show no other      
origin than one nearer to the ,ziemianin
 than to any other class4  ,if the      
current of fashion did not warp all     
judgments in favor of ,rossia1 the      
writers of ',tardy ,truths' from ,paris 
and elsewhere would have reflected a    
little longer1 and would soon have      

discovered that the ignorance and       
poverty of the ,polish peasantry were   
not due solely to the ,poles themselves4
 ,polish schools were formerly all      
completely free1 and each school even   
had funds for the poor1 called purses1  
foundations1 etc4 ,rossia1 in the last  
fifty years1 charged as high as #fbe for
 inscription alone in the higher        
classes1 and about #be for elementary   
beginners4 ,how could a poor family rise
 in prosperity if this school was often 
the first cause of losing the favorite  
son2 if they did send the child to      
school they might lose him as a recruit 
for the army or navy1 as designated by  
the whim of the treacherous teacher and 
recruiting officer2 and this did not    
exempt from public burdens1 as they were
 still obliged to pay taxes for him     
during ten years1 and contribute to all 
public services1 as stations 7stoyki71  
wagons and teams 7rozgony71 repairing   
and making public and private roads1    
extra post service1 besides innumerable 

services imposed for his own personal   
benefit by a spravnik1 straptschy1      
zasiedatel1 sotnik1 etc4 ,add to this   
the thwarting of intercourse and        
commerce by every imaginable means under
 the system of the famous ,m4 ,kankrin4 
,could the peasant or the master become 
wealthy when a measure called a ton1    
weighing about eight hundred and forty  
pounds1 of wheat brought the enormous   
sum of #d4be8 a load of hay1 drawn by   
one horse1 seventy-five cents when well 
paid1 and nothing when wanted by ulans  
or hussars garrisoned in the            
neighborhood8 ,a hen1 with a dozen and a
 half well-grown chickens1 hardly       
brought enough to pay the value of the  
commonest apron4  ,such things as these 
were never known in ancient ,poland1 now
 so unanimously accused and condemned by
 fashionable philanthropy4 ,even eighty 
years ago such abuses would have been   
vainly looked for4 ,we remember1 in our 
younger days1 when conversing with an   
old sowietnik 7counsellor71 to have     

heard him relate his bewildered         
astonishment at the comfort and         
well-being in ,poland when sent under an
 escort of ,cossacks to introduce       
,rossian improvements4 ',what has become
 of them8' we asked innocently4 ',ha6'  
was his nave reply2 ',st4 ,petersburg   
has since then grown into a splendid    
city6'  ,let us call the attention of   
,russo-maniacs to the fact that eighty  
years ago1 soon after the second        
partition of ,poland1 flax in ,riga     
brought eight hundred and seventy       
florins1 while in #ahde it hardly       
brought two hundred and forty florins2  
and the famous wheat of ,sandomir sold1 
at the first-named period1 at sixty1    
while in #ahef it brought barely        
thirty-five4 ,yet money now is cheaper  
than before #ahjj4  ,did the ,polish    
nobleman1 selfish and wicked as now     
seems the fashion to describe him1 force
 the peasant of ,samogitia to servile   
work1 when the latter had an opportunity
 of drawing a good profit from the      

results of his labor in the neighboring 
marts of ,memel1 ,liban1 ,riga1 ,mittau1
 ,venden1 etc48 ,no1 must we answer to  
our readers4 ,there might have been seen
 a boor's wife dressed in sky blue lined
 with fox fur1 and drawn to church in a 
comfortable kolaska1 by two excellent1  
plump1 ,samogitian ponies2 and neither  
did the father of the family exhaust his
 strength in night watches or day labor1
 as he had twenty teams to dispose of1  
and could offer to an unexpected visitor
 a broiled chicken with milk sauce1 and 
a couple of bottles of brown stout from 
,barclay1 ,perkins  ,co41 of ,london4   
,such prosperity1 although then         
declining1 was still to be found in     
#ahcj4 ,why does it not exist to-day8   
,let this question be answered by       
civilizers and democrats from ,tambow1  
,saratow1 or ,penza1 and their jealous  
apologists4  ,our writer seems to think 
he has made a wonderful discovery when  
he exultingly exclaims3 ',how surprised 
these pretended liberals would be to see

 that their efforts only tend toward    
reconstituting a monarchical ,poland    
7was ,poland really monarchical8--we may
 doubt7 under the protection of a feudal
 and ,catholic ,church6' ,such charges  
were also made in the eighteenth        
century1 and were suggested by similar  
motives4 ,i do not feel called upon to  
defend the ,catholics of ,poland4 ,i    
would simply retort upon the authors of 
such suggestions1 by referring to       
certain distinguished rabbis1 as        
,heilprin1 ,meintzel1 ,jastrow1 etc42 to
 ,protestants1 as ,konarski1            
,potworowski1 ,kasaius1 ,krolikowski1   
,czynski1 and hosts of others2 and also 
to ,mohammedans1 as ,baranowski1 ,mucha1
 ,bielak1 etc4 ,i cannot condemn a man  
because he is a ,catholic1 because ,i   
have everywhere1 and in every religious 
community1 found both patriots and      
traitors to their country1 to their     
origin1 to principle1 and to their      
religion4 ,but this ,i must say1 that of
 whatever denomination or sect be the   

minister or priest1 he has a right to be
 a faithful son to his fatherland and   
race4 ,it happened that in ,poland the  
,catholic priest stood opposed to the   
,rossian pope4 ,if the latter can be a  
,rossian patriot1 why should a like     
sentiment render guilty a ,polish       
priest8 ,this animosity in certain      
circles proceeds from a partiality to   
the ,rosso-,greek ,church1 which1 some  
years ago1 during the visit of the      
emperor ,nicholas to ,england1 certain  
ignorant or du4 ,by way of parenthesis1 
we may add that the ,rosso-,greek       
,church separated long ago from the     
,eastern ,greek ,church1 preserving1    
however1 all its outward forms4 ,peter  
,i4 abolished the patriarchate1         
introduced his own classes and reforms1 
and made himself head of the church4 ,he
 gave the name of synod to a permanent  
council1 nominated1 appointed1          
dismissed1 controlled1 rewarded1 and    
punished by himself1 according to his   
own judgment1 passion1 or will4 ,the    

,grco-,rossian ,church is kept under the
 same discipline as the army1 and an    
offending pope is sent1 with the rank of
 private1 to some remote regiment4  ,the
 author of the letter from ,paris       
somewhat contradictorily asserts that   
the women1 being superior in ,poland1   
govern the men1 but are themselves      
governed entirely by the priests4 ,this 
scarcely tallies with strict logic2 but1
 for the sake of truth and of a just    
respect for our mothers1 who taught us  
to love our country and freedom1 who    
gave us strength in exile1 and faith    
through persecution1 and who instructed 
us how to think1 and inspired us with   
those noble sentiments1 seemingly denied
 to the mothers of the 'fashionable     
civilization' 7of ,st4 ,petersburg71    
among whom there is not one lady        
writer--we will thank this writer for   
the refutation offered by him to an     
impudent slander1 emanating from a      
contributor to ,chambers' ,magazine1 of 
,january last4 ,we repeat that we thank 

him for his just tribute to ,polish     
women1 however inimical he may be to the
 ,polish cause1 and however much he may 
depreciate our sex4 ,yet it seems       
strange that1 while accusing ,polish    
women of being entirely under the       
control of the priests1 and hence to    
have been chiefly instrumental in       
fomenting the last insurrection1 the    
author did not notice1 or is purposely  
silent regarding1 a fact which1 as he   
appears to have been longer in a        
,galician chateau than elsewhere1 must  
have fallen under his notice1 namely1   
that in ,galicia1 the ,polish priest was
 the most decided opponent to any       
insurrection4 ,how1 then1 could the     
active ,polish women-patriots be        
instruments of the action condemned by  
the apologists of the absolute          
government of ,rossia8  ,the admonition 
to ,france1 on the ground that1 after   
the revolution of #aghi1 she is         
committing a contradictory error by     
showing sympathy toward a revolution    

gotten up by priests1 is but a          
consequence of the first judgment1 and  
we may leave to ,france and her sense of
 her own interests to do what she may   
think right and profitable4 ,we will    
simply mention that1 for ,french glory1 
and for this error1 as the author calls 
it1 two hundred thousand ,poles were    
slain in ,egypt1 ,italy1 ,san ,domingo1 
,spain1 ,germany1 ,holland1 and on the  
plains of ,mozajsk1 ,kraslaw1 ,boryssow1
 ,eylau1 ,friedland1 etc4 ,the monument 
seen from the balcony of the ,tuileries 
has the names upon it1 which we scarcely
 can suppose to have been inscribed for 
the sole purpose of filling space4  ,the
 friends of ,poland believe that they   
serve the cause of progress by aiding in
 the restablishment of the ,polish      
nation4 ,we presume there are plenty of 
men in ,france who know that during the 
last thirty years ,rossia has spread her
 dominion in ,asia over twice the area  
of ,germany and ,france together1 that  
she is only eighty miles from ,peking1  

and as far from ,india as ,vienna is    
from the ,black ,sea4 ,moreover1        
,asiatic people1 always dreaming of     
plunder in ,europe1 once armed with     
,european ,mini rifles and rifled       
cannon1 may repeat anew the incursions  
of ,attila1 ,tamerlane1 ,battu1 etc4    
,the end to be gained and the booty will
 create the temptation1 and offer       
superior inducements4  ,the effort to   
palliate ,rossian cruelty1 skilful as it
 is1 by the alleged necessities of war1 
by denials1 or by asserting it to be    
mere revenge for similar atrocities     
committed by ,poles1 must be appreciated
 according to the sources whence it     
emanates4 ,what the letter writer or    
similar twelve-hour visitors saw in     
,poland1 particularly in ,kracow1 of    
people sharpening knives or preparing   
deadly poisons1 need here be merely     
referred to by saying that in times of  
general confusion we have no means to   
foresee or to control personal revenge1 
and also that we will not here cite the 

reports of ,polish papers or accounts of
 ,germans4 ,we will take our data from  
the ,moscow ,invalid1 the czar's        
,universal ,journal at ,warsaw1 and the 
,journal de ,petersbourg4 ,from these we
 find it stated that the number of men  
hanged in three hundred and sixty-five  
days of insurrection was eight hundred  
and fifty1 besides many others whose    
names were not given because it was     
simpler and more profitable to ignore   
their origin1 class1 and religion4      
,from ,kiow alone ,anienkow sent away   
fourteen thousand men1 chiefly of ,greek
 or other non-,roman-,catholic religion1
 over whom the ,catholic priest had     
neither control or influence4 ,from     
,warsaw1 every ,saturday during         
fifty-two weeks1 an average of four     
hundred men1 women1 and children were   
deported1 all separated from their      
natural guides and protectors4 ,from    
,liefland1 north of the ,dwina1 were    
sent off1 in one month1 thirty-five     
hundred of the better educated and      

comfortable class of people4 ,a         
,government paper rejoices that ,polish 
and ,catholic principles1 growing there 
during five centuries1 were in a fair   
way of extinction1 since1 as it itself  
admits1 forty-five thousand men had been
 transferred to the governments of      
,samara1 ,orenburg1 ,kazan1 and similar 
localities4 ,to burn the villages of    
,ibanie1 ,szarki1 ,hrodki1 ,smoloy1     
,zabolocie1 etc41 to destroy the        
furniture1 horses1 cattle1 and all other
 property1 to send the inhabitants on   
foot1 only allowing for the aged and    
young children a few small wagons1 far  
away into a cold1 strange1 savage       
country1 without tools1 means1 etc4--was
 all this done merely as a military     
necessity1 and was it excusable1 or1 at 
most1 merely blamable8  ,now1 certain   
correspondents and lecturers1 with other
 gentlemen1 deny the use of the lash or 
whip on the backs of women and ladies1  
because the ,american people cannot     
countenance such barbarism4 ,to say the 

least of such a denial--it is           
gratuitous4 ,austria daily publishes    
similar judgments as the result of      
police court trials4 ,in ,rossia1 they  
are not published1 because the          
administration of lash1 whip1 and       
scourge is left to the paternal         
discretion of every sergeant1           
lieutenant1 police commissary1 and      
district constable1 and is enjoyed by   
them to their hearts' content4 ,it is   
the method employed for ages by ,rossia1
 and considered as an indispensable     
appendage to patriarchal czarism and its
 lieutenants4 ,we cannot wonder at such 
denials1 for their authors have         
ordinarily been brought up under a      
better state of things1 and never       
learned in their youth the possibility  
of resort to such practices3 the less   
also can we wonder when we know that    
they met only similar denials in the    
higher ,rossian society1 and when we    
consider that such denials came from a  
source one is naturally inclined to     

respect1 when the man denying seems     
respectable4 ,how can we fancy a lie    
told by a gentleman in golden uniform1  
or a lady in a lace dress8 ,but if the  
defenders of the civilization of ,rossia
 and of the noble manners of its        
aristocracy knew all the cruel judgments
 of ,rossian masters1 the lewdness1     
recklessness1 indecency1 and shallowness
 often concealed beneath their          
artificial good breeding and apparent   
courtesy1 they would learn that laces   
may cover coarse tissues1 and gold hide 
corroded brass4 ,the gaudy dress and    
uniform serve but to permit more daring 
deeds2 the more they glitter1 the more  
impunity they confer4 ,under every      
,government1 and more especially under a
 despotism1 subaltern officers may be   
sure of impunity to abuse1 provided it  
is done under the guise of zeal and     
devotion4  ,during the past year we have
 heard and read in lectures1 newspapers1
 correspondences1 etc41 many flattering 
statements of the beauty of the ,rossian

 ,government1 and the czar's            
liberality--and as many accusations and 
imputations detrimental to the ,polish  
cause4 ,why the same views were not held
 and advocated during the ,crimean war  
we will not ask1 but merely hint at4    
,these statements come from organs whose
 purpose is readily divined4 ,if we turn
 to the paper that has opened its       
columns to the ,paris letter1 we find   
close at hand the advertisement and     
recommendation of a programme for our   
own great country1 and the pointing out 
of a new ,garibaldi for the ,american   
,union4 ,now1 neither said platform nor 
,garibaldi would be consistent with the 
condemnation1 irony1 and ridicule flung 
upon the champions for one thousand     
years of the growing progress1          
prosperity1 and ,christianity of        
,western ,europe4  ,we of this          
generation are grown fixedly into our   
ancient habits of thought1 and now can  
make no change2 but our successors1     
perchance1 may possibly be reduced to   

undersign the manifesto of ,rossian     
,liberalism1 published about a year ago 
in ,moscow1 and1 in return for false    
promises and deceptions1 consent to make
 common cause against ,germany and the  
whole of ,western ,europe4 ,what        
,american liberties would gain by such  
an eventuality1 is not for us1 nor for  
to-day1 to say4     ,,aphorisms4--,,no4 
,,xi4   ',a man who has no wants has    
attained great freedom1 and firmness1   
and even dignity4'--,,burke4  ',mad     
wants and mean endeavors1' as ,carlyle  
expresses it1 'are among the signal     
characteristics and great follies of our
 nature4'  ,but how can we attain to the
 freedom1 firmness1 and dignity of      
having no wants8 ,answer3 ,by learning  
what our real necessities are1 and      
limiting our sense of want by such      
knowledge4 ,otherwise there is little   
hope for us2 for1 as soon as we admit   
imaginary and factitious needs1 we      
become the slaves of mere fancy1 the    
sport of mere human opinion1 and devoid 

of all true dignity4  ,how sublime1 as  
compared with the ordinary condition of 
men1 is the possibility suggested by    
,burke6 ,freedom1 instead of such       
slavery as the love of pleasure         
occasions1 or such as ambition entails  
upon men6 ,firmness1 such as he has who 
does not feel compelled to ask how his  
conduct may affect the supply of his    
wants from day to day6 ,dignity1 such as
 we see in every man who studies the    
great interests of his being1 regardless
 of any harm that may thereby accrue to 
his earthly estate6 ,so free1 and firm1 
and dignified may each be that will4    
,but no such good is possible for men   
who allow their sense of want to be     
ruled by the common opinions of men4 ,if
 the good at which we aim can be secured
 only by the possession of this world's 
favors1 as they are dispensed by the    
wealthy or the powerful1 or the         
suffrages of the multitude 7votes for   
office1 and the like71 then each one    
becomes the servant of his fellow men--a

 servant just as really as if he were   
hired to perform any menial office4 ,the
 party politician1 for example1 is just 
as fully bound by the will of others as 
a coachman or foot servant4 ,for him    
neither freedom1 firmness1 or dignity is
 possible4 ,he can do only as others bid
 him3 he can resist no solicitations to 
evil on the part of those whom he would 
make his constituents3 he has no dignity
 above that of a tool1 in the hands1 it 
may be1 of a very unworthy master4  ,so 
in all cases where we allow ourselves to
 be dependent in such form and measure  
that in order to compass our own ends we
 must look to the will and behests of   
others4     ,,an ,,army3 ,,its          
,,organization ,,and ,,movements4       
,,third ,,paper4   ,cavalry6 ,at this   
word whose mind does not involuntarily  
recall pictures of mailed knights       
rushing upon each other with levelled   
lances1 and of the charging squadrons of
 ,austerlitz1 of ,jena1 of ,marengo1 of 
the ,peninsula1 and of ,waterloo8 ,whose

 blood is not stirred with a throng of  
memories connected with the noble       
achievements of the war horse and his   
rider8 ,who does not imagine a panorama 
of all that is gay and glorious in      
warfare--prancing coursers1 gilded      
trappings1 burnished sabres1 waving     
pennons1 and glittering helmets--rank   
after rank of gallant riders--anon the  
blast of bugles1 the drawing of sabres1 
the mighty rushing of a thousand steeds1
 the clash of steel1 the shout1 the     
victory8 ,the chief romance of war      
attaches itself to the deeds            
accomplished by the assistance of the   
power and endurance of man's noblest    
servant4 ,every one has read so much    
poetry about valiant youths1 mounted on 
fiery yet docile steeds1 doing deeds of 
miraculous prowess in the ranks of their
 enemies--our literature is so full of  
tapestried representations of knightly  
retinues and charging squadrons--the    
towering form of ,murat is so           
conspicuous in the narratives of the    

,napoleonic wars--and history has so    
often repeated the deeds of those       
horsemen who performed such illustrious 
feats in the combats of half a century  
ago1 that we associate with the cavalry 
only ideas of splendor and glory1 of    
wild freedom and dashing gallantry4 ,but
 the cavalry service is far different   
from such vague and fanciful            
imaginations4 ,instead of ease1 there is
 constant labor2 instead of freedom1    
there is a difficult system of          
discipline and tactics2 and instead of  
frequent opportunities for glorious     
charges1 there is a constant routine of 
toilsome duty in scouting and picketing1
 with rarely an opportunity for         
assisting prominently in the decision of
 a great battle1 or of winning renown in
 overthrowing the ranks of an enemy by  
the impetuous rush of a mass of horses  
against serried bayonets4  ,in many     
respects cavalry is the most difficult  
branch of military service to maintain  
and to operate4 ,it is exceedingly      

costly1 on account of the great loss of 
horses by the carelessness of the men1  
by overwork1 by disease1 and by the     
fatalities of battle4 ,the report of    
,general ,halleck1 for the year #ahfc1  
stated that from ,may to ,october there 
were from ten thousand to fourteen      
thousand cavalry in the ,army of the    
,potomac1 while the number of horses    
furnished them for the same period was  
thirty-five thousand2 adding to these   
the horses taken by capture and used for
 mounting men1 the number would be      
sufficient to give each man a horse     
every two months4 ,there were two       
hundred and twenty-three regiments of   
cavalry in the service1 which1 at the   
same rate1 would require four hundred   
and thirty-five thousand horses4 ,this  
is an immense expenditure of animals1   
and is attributable in part to the      
peculiarities of the volunteer          
service--such as the lack of care and   
knowledge on the part of the officers1  
and the disposition of the men to break 

down their horses by improper riding1   
and sometimes out of mere wantonness1   
for the purpose of getting rid of       
animals they do not like1 for the chance
 of obtaining better4 ,a measure has    
recently been adopted to remedy these   
evils1 by putting into the infantry     
cavalry officers and men who show       
themselves incompetent to take proper   
care of their animals1 and who neglect  
other essentials of cavalry service4    
,the provision and transportation of    
forage for cavalry horses also          
constitute items of great cost4  ,to    
attain proficiency and effectiveness1   
cavalry soldiers require much longer    
instruction than those of any other arm4
 ,they must become expert swordsmen1 and
 acquire such skill in equitation that  
horse and rider shall resemble the      
mythical centaurs of the ancients--shall
 be only one individual in will4 ,the   
horses should be as thoroughly trained  
as the riders4 ,in ,european armies this
 is accomplished in training schools4   

,the ,governments keep constantly on    
hand large supplies of animals1 partly  
purchased and partly produced in public 
stables1 and capable instructors are    
continually employed in fitting both men
 and horses for their duties4  ,to      
insure the provision of proper horses   
and to recuperate those which are sent  
from the army disabled or sick1 an      
immense cavalry depot has been          
established at ,giesboro'1 near         
,washington4 ,thousands of horses are   
kept there ready for service1 and as    
fast as men in the army are dismounted  
by the loss of their animals1 they are  
sent to this depot4 ,it is one of the   
most useful and best-arranged affairs   
connected with our service1 and has     
greatly assisted in diminishing the     
expense attending the provision of      
animals1 and in increasing the          
efficiency of our cavalry4  ,we have had
 all the difficulties to contend with   
resulting from inexperienced riders and 
untrained horses4 ,no one who has not   

beheld the scene1 can imagine the       
awkward appearance of a troop of        
recruits mounted on horses unaccustomed 
to the saddle4 ,the sight is one of the 
most laughable that can be witnessed4   
,we have seen the attempt made to put   
such a troop into a gallop across a     
field4 ,fifty horses and fifty men      
instantly became actuated by a hundred  
different wills1 and dispersed in all   
directions--some of the riders hanging  
on to the pommels1 with their feet out  
of the stirrups1 others tugging away at 
the bridles1 and not a few sprawling on 
the ground4 ,after a few months' drills1
 however1 a different scene is          
presented1 and an old troop horse       
becomes so habituated to his exercises  
that not only will he perform all the   
evolutions without guidance1 but will   
even refuse to leave the ranks1 though  
under the most vigorous incitements of  
whip and spur4 ,an officer friend was   
once acting as cavalier to a party of   
ladies on horseback at a review1 when1  

unfortunately1 the troop in which his   
horse belonged happening to pass by1 the
 animal bolted from the group of ladies1
 and took his accustomed place in the   
ranks1 nor could all the efforts of his 
rider disengage him4 ,finally1 our      
friend was obliged to dismount1 and1    
holding the horse by the bit1 back him  
out of the troop to his station with the
 party of ladies--a feat performed amid 
much provoking laughter4  ,cavalry can  
operate in masses only when             
circumstances are favorable--the country
 open1 and the ground free from         
obstructions4 ,yet it is in masses alone
 that it can be effective1 and it can   
triumph against infantry only by a      
shock--from the precipitation of its    
weight upon the lines1 crushing them by 
the onset4 ,before the time of ,frederic
 the ,great1 the ,prussian horsemen     
resembled those to be seen at a militia 
review--they were a sort of picture     
soldiers1 incapable of a vigorous       
charge4 ,he revolutionized the service  

by teaching that cavalry must achieve   
success by a rapid onset1 not stopping  
to fire themselves1 and not regarding   
the fire of their opponents4 ,by        
practising these lessons1 they were able
 to overthrow the ,austrian infantry4   
,but if the force of a charge is        
dissipated by obstructions on the       
ground1 or is broken by the fire of the 
assailed1 the effectiveness of cavalry1 
as a participant in the manoeuvres of a 
battle field1 is entirely destroyed4    
,the question of the future of cavalry  
is at present one of great interest     
among military investigators2 for       
notwithstanding its brilliant           
achievements during our civil war1 the  
fact is apparent that its sphere has    
been entirely changed1 its old system   
has become obsolete1 and former         
possibilities no longer lie within its  
scope4 ,since ,waterloo there had not   
been1 until our war commenced1 any      
opportunity to test the action of       
cavalry2 for its operations in the      

,crimea and in ,italy were              
insignificant4 ,the art of warfare had1 
meanwhile1 in many respects1 become     
revolutionized by the introduction of   
rifled arms4 ,military men waited1      
therefore1 with interest1 the experience
 of the war in this country1 to judge   
from it as to the part cavalry was to   
perform in future warfare4 ,that        
experience has shown that the day in    
which cavalry can successfully charge   
squares of infantry has passed4 ,when   
the smooth-bore muskets alone were used 
by infantry1 cavalry could be formed in 
masses for charging at a distance of    
five hundred yards2 now the formations  
must be made at the distance of nearly a
 mile1 and that intervening space must  
be passed at speed under the constant   
fire of cannon and rifles2 when the     
squares are reached1 the horses are     
frightened and blown1 the ranks have    
been disordered by the impossibility of 
preserving a correct front during such a
 length of time at rapid speed1 and by  

the loss of men2 the charge breaks      
weakly on the wall of bayonets1 and     
retires baffled4 ,infantry1 before it   
learns its own strength and the         
difficulty of forcing a horse against a 
bayonet--or rather to trample down a    
man--has an absurd and unfounded fear of
 cavalry4 ,this feeling was in part the 
cause of the panic among our troops at  
,bull ,run--so much had been said about 
the ,black ,horse troop of the rebels4  
,the ,waterloo achievements of the      
,french were then thought possible of   
repetition4 ,now adays it is hardly     
probable that the veteran infantry of   
either army would take the trouble to   
form squares to resist cavalry1 but     
would expect to rout it by firing in    
line4 ,neither party in our war has been
 able to make its mounted forces        
effective in a general battle4 ,nothing 
has occurred to parallel1 upon the      
battle field1 those exploits of the     
cavalry--,french1 ,prussian1 and        
,english--in the great wars of the last 

century1 extending to ,waterloo4  ,the  
enthusiastic admirers of cavalry still  
maintain that it is possible to repeat  
those exploits1 even in face of the     
improved firearms now in use4 ,all that 
is necessary1 they say1 is to have the  
cavalry sufficiently drilled4 ,the      
ground to be crossed under a positively 
dangerous fire is only five hundred or  
six hundred yards1 and once taught to   
continue the charge through the bullets 
for this distance1 and then to throw    
themselves on the bayonets1 horsemen    
will now1 as heretofore1 break the lines
 of infantry4 ,all very true1 if cavalry
 to fulfil the conditions named can be  
obtained2 but in them lies the          
difficulty4 ,occasional instances of    
splendid charges will undoubtedly occur 
in future warfare2 but it seems to be an
 established fact that the day for the  
glory of cavalry has passed4 ,once the  
mailed knight1 mounted on his mailed    
charger1 could overthrow by scores the  
poor1 pusillanimous pikemen and crossbow

 men who composed the infantry2 he was  
invulnerable in his iron armor1 and     
could ride them down like reeds4 ,but   
gunpowder and the bayonet have changed  
this2 and now the most confident and    
domineering cavalryman will put spurs to
 his horse and fly at a gallop1 if he   
sees the muzzle of an infantryman's     
rifle1 with its glittering bayonet1     
pointed at him from the thicket4        
,another revolution effected in the     
mounted service by the improvements in  
arms and the consequent changes of      
tactics1 is the diminution of heavy and 
the increase of light cavalry--that is1 
the transfer of the former into the     
latter4 ,these two denominations really 
include all kinds of cavalry1 although  
the non-military reader may have been   
puzzled by the numerous subordinate     
denominations to be found in the        
accounts of ,european warfare--such as  
dragoons1 cuirassiers1 hussars1 lancers1
 chasseurs1 hulans1 etc4  ,heavy cavalry
 is composed of the heavier men and     

horses1 and is usually divided into     
dragoons and cuirassiers4 ,it is        
designed to act in masses1 and to break 
the lines of an enemy by the weight of  
its charge4 ,usually1 also1 it has had  
some defensive armor1 and is a direct   
descendant from the knights of the      
,middle ,ages4 ,but the cuirasses1 which
 were sufficient to resist the balls    
from smooth-bore muskets1 are easily    
penetrated by rifles4 ,consequently the 
occupation of this kind of cavalry is   
gone1 and it is likely to disappear     
gradually from the service4 ,in this    
country we have never had anything      
except light cavalry--the only kind     
adapted for use in our ,indian warfare4 
,this kind of cavalry is intended to    
accomplish results by the celerity of   
its movements1 and all its equipments   
should therefore be as light as         
possible4 ,the chief difficulty is to   
prevent the cavalry soldier from        
overloading his horse1 as he has a      
propensity not only to carry a large    

wardrobe and a full supply of kitchen   
utensils1 but also to 'convey1' in the  
language of ,pistol1 or1 in army        
language1 'gobble up1' or1 in plain     
,english1 steal anything that is capable
 of being fastened to his saddle4  ,it  
is evident that the efficiency of a     
cavalry soldier depends as much upon his
 horse as upon himself2 and it is       
requisite1 therefore1 that the weight   
upon the horse should be as light as    
possible4 ,the limit has been fixed at  
about two hundred pounds for light1 and 
two hundred and fifty for heavy cavalry2
 but both of these are too much4 ,a     
cavalry soldier ought not to weigh over 
one hundred and fifty to one hundred and
 sixty pounds1 and his accoutrements not
 over thirty pounds additional2 but in  
practice1 scarcely any horse--except    
where the rider is a very light         
weight--carries less than two hundred   
and twenty or two hundred and thirty    
pounds4 ,one great cause of the evils   
incident to our cavalry service is the  

excessive weight imposed on the horses4 
,the ,french take particular pains in   
this respect2 while in ,england the     
cavalry is almost entirely 'heavy1' and1
 though well drilled1 is clumsy4 ,john  
,bull1 with his roast beef and plum     
pudding1 makes a poor specimen of a     
light cavalryman4 ,english officers are 
now endeavoring to revolutionize their  
mounted service1 so as to diminish its  
weight and increase its celerity4  ,the 
arms of cavalry have been various1 but  
it is now well settled that its true    
weapon is the sabre1 as its true form of
 operation is the charge4 ,a great deal 
of ingenuity has been expended in       
devising the best form of sabre4        
,different countries have different     
patterns1 but the one adopted in our    
army is very highly considered4 ,it is  
pointed1 so as to be used in thrusting2 
sharp on one edge for cutting2 curved1  
so as to inflict a deeper wound2 and the
 weight arranged1 by a mathematical     
rule1 so that the centres of percussion 

and of gravity are placed where the     
weapon may be most easily handled4 ,the 
lance is a weapon very appropriate to   
light mounted troops1 and is still used 
by some of the ,cossacks and ,arab      
horsemen4 ,but to wield it effectively  
requires protracted training4 ,for a    
long time in ,europe it was the chief   
weapon for horsemen2 with the knights it
 was held in exclusive honor1 and       
continued in use for a considerable     
period after firearms had destroyed the 
prestige of the gentlemen of the golden 
spurs4 ,prince ,maurice1 of ,orange1    
when he raised mounted regiments to     
defend the ,netherlands against the     
,spanish1 rejected it1 and since his    
time it has become obsolete except in   
some regiments especially drilled to it4
 ,such a regiment was raised in         
,philadelphia at the commencement of our
 war1 but after eighteen months'        
experience the lances were abandoned4   
,besides the sabre1 cavalry-men are     
armed with pistols or carbines--the men 

having the latter being employed        
particularly in skirmishing1 sometimes  
on foot4  ,the proportion of mounted    
troops in an army varies according to   
the nature of the country which is the  
theatre of military operations4 ,in a   
level country it should be about one    
fourth or one fifth1 while in one that  
is mountainous1 it should not be greater
 than a tenth4 ,as a general rule1      
improvements in firearms have produced a
 decrease in the proportion of cavalry  
and lessened its importance4 ,when      
artillery was introduced1 the cavaliers1
 who composed the ,middle ,age armies   
exclusively1 commenced to disappear2    
knighthood passed out of existence1     
being superseded by mercenary bands4    
,infantry gradually assumed importance1 
which has constantly increased1 until it
 has now attained the vast predominance4
 ,this has not only caused a general    
diminution of the proportion of cavalry1
 but has entailed on the ,governments of
 ,europe the necessity of keeping their 

cavalry service always at its maximum1  
so that the mounted troops may be       
perfect in their drill2 whereas infantry
 troops can acquire comparative         
proficiency in a few months4  ,we will  
give a brief description of the         
different classes of cavalry1 and close 
our subject by some remarks on the      
operation of this arm of service in our 
civil war4  ,the regiments raised by    
,prince ,maurice1 of ,orange1 above     
referred to1 were the first known as    
cuirassiers1 on account of the cuirasses
 which they wore for defence4 ,all      
defensive armor is now being laid aside4
  ,dragoons originally were a class of  
soldiers who operated both on foot and  
mounted4 ,they are supposed to take     
their name from a kind of firearm called
 a 'dragon4' ,in modern practice        
dragoons are almost entirely used as    
cavalry1 and rarely have recourse to any
 extended service on foot4 ,the         
denomination 'dragoons' has recently    
been abolished from our service4        

,carabineers were at first some ,basque 
and ,gascon horsemen in the ,french     
service1 whose peculiarly distinguishing
 characteristic was a skilful use in the
 saddle of a short firearm4  ,hussars   
originated in ,hungary1 taking their    
denomination from the word husz1 which  
signifies twenty1 and ar1 pay--every    
twentieth man being required by the     
state to enter into service4 ,from their
 origin they were distinguished for the 
celerity of their movements and their   
devotion to fine costumes4  ,the hulans 
were a species of ,polish light cavalry1
 bearing lances1 and taking their name  
from their commander--a nobleman named  
,huland4  ,chasseurs are ,french        
regiments1 designed chiefly to act as   
scouts and skirmishers4 ,the chasseurs  
d',afrique are cavalry which have been  
trained in ,algeria1 and have become    
exceedingly expert through conflicts    
with the ,arabs4 ,the spahis are ,arab  
cavalry1 in the ,french service1 and are
 such admirable riders that they will   

charge over all kinds of ground1 and    
dash upon a foe who judges himself      
secure amid rocks or trees or ditches4  
,at the commencement of the war the     
rebel cavalry was superior to that      
furnished by the ,north4 ,for this there
 were many reasons4 ,southern plantation
 life had accustomed the aristocratic   
youth to the saddle1 and great attention
 was bestowed on the training of horses4
 ,at the ,north the number of skilled   
riders was comparatively few4           
,gradually1 however1 ,northern energy1  
endurance1 and patient discipline began 
to tell1 and the time soon arrived when 
the ,southern cavalry were invariably   
driven1 especially in sabre charges1 to 
which ,southerners have great aversion4 
,at present1 on account of the scarcity 
of horses1 the difficulty of supplying  
forage1 and the loss of so many gay     
youths of the chivalry1 the ,southern1  
cavalry has dwindled into such a        
condition as to be no longer formidable4
  ,the service of the cavalry in both   

armies during the war has been          
exclusively as light cavalry--scouting1 
picketing1 raiding1 etc4 ,its combats   
have been with forces of its own arm4   
,no commander has yet succeeded in      
assisting to determine the issue of a   
pitched battle by the charges of his    
mounted troops4 ,our cavalry have       
rendered1 however1 brilliant and        
invaluable services in protecting the   
rear and flanks of the armies1 and by   
their magnificent raiding expeditions   
into the enemy's country1 destroying his
 supplies1 injuring his communications1 
diverting his forces1 and liberating his
 slaves4 ,no sufficient accounts of such
 expeditions and of the numerous cavalry
 conflicts have been published2 yet they
 are very desirable4 ,they would furnish
 most interesting narratives1 and be a  
valuable contribution not only to the   
history of the times1 but to the history
 of warfare2 for the operations of the  
cavalry in this war constitute a new era
 in the history of this branch of       

military service4 ,unless care is       
exercised to procure such narratives1   
our posterity will never know anything  
of many battle fields where fought and  
fell brave troopers from every ,northern
 ,state4  ,the chief duties of officers 
belonging to the corps of engineers1    
when connected with an army acting in   
the field1 are the supervision of routes
 of communication1 the laying of        
bridges1 the selection of positions for 
fortifications1 and the indication of   
the proper character of works to be     
constructed4 ,should a siege occur1 a   
new and very important class of duties  
devolves on them1 relating to the       
trenches1 saps1 batteries1 etc4  ,not   
only is there in ,virginia a lack of    
good roads1 but the numerous streams    
have few or no bridges4 ,in many cases  
where bridges have existed1 one or the  
other of the contending armies has      
destroyed them to impede the march of   
its opponents4 ,streams which have an   
average depth of three or four feet are1

 however1 generally without bridges1    
except where crossed by some turnpike1  
the common country roads mostly leading 
to fords4 ,the famous ,bull ,run is an  
example4 ,there were but two or three   
bridges over this stream in the space of
 country penetrated by the roads        
generally pursued by our army in        
advancing or retreating1 and these have 
been several times destroyed and        
rebuilt4 ,the stream varies from two to 
six feet in depth--the fords being at   
places of favorable depth1 and where the
 bottom is gravelly and the banks       
sloping4 ,often such streams as this1   
and indeed smaller ones1 become         
immensely swelled in volume by storms1  
so that a comparatively insignificant   
rivulet might greatly delay the march of
 an army1 if means for quickly crossing 
should not be provided4 ,the general    
depth of a ford which a large force1    
with its appurtenances1 can safely      
cross1 is about three feet1 and even    
then the bottom should be good and the  

current gentle4 ,with a greater depth of
 water1 the men are likely to wet their 
cartridge boxes1 or be swept off their  
feet4 ,there is a small stream about    
three miles from ,alexandria1 crossing  
the ,little ,river turnpike1 which has  
never been bridged1 and which was once  
so suddenly swollen by rain that all the
 artillery and wagons of a corps were   
obliged to wait about twelve hours for  
its subsidence4 ,the mules of some      
wagons driven into it were swept away4  
,fords1 unless of the best bottom1 are  
rendered impassable after a small       
portion of the wagons and artillery of  
an army have crossed them--the gravel   
being cut through into the underlying   
clay1 and the banks converted into      
sloughs by the dripping of water from   
the animals and wheels4  ,a very amusing
 scene was presented at the crossing of 
,hazel ,river 7a branch of the          
,rappahannock7 last fall1 when the ,army
 of the ,potomac first marched to       
,culpepper4 ,the stream was at least    

three feet deep1 and at various places  
four--the current very rapid--the bottom
 filled with large stones1 and the banks
 steep1 except where a narrow road had  
been cut for the wagons4 ,the men       
adopted various expedients for crossing4
 ,some went in boldly all accoutred2    
some took off shoes and stockings1 and  
carefully rolled up their trousers2     
others 7and they were the wisest7       
divested themselves of all their lower  
clothing4 ,the long column struggled as 
best it could through the water1 and    
occasionally1 amid vociferous shouts1   
those who had been careful to roll up   
their trousers would step into a hole up
 to the middle2 others1 who had taken   
still more precautions1 would stumble   
over a stone and pitch headlong into the
 roaring waters1 dropping their guns1   
and splashing vainly about with their   
heavy knapsacks1 in the endeavor to     
regain a footing1 until some of their   
comrades righted them2 and others1 after
 getting over safely1 would slip back   

from the sandy bank1 and take an        
involuntary immersion4 ,some clung to   
the rear of the wagons1 but in the      
middle of the stream the mules would    
become fractious1 or the wagon would get
 jammed against a stone1 and the        
unfortunate passengers were compelled to
 drop off and wade ashore1 greeted by   
roars of derisive laughter4 ,on such    
occasions soldiers give full play to    
their humor4 ,they accept the hardships 
with good nature1 and make the best of  
any ridiculous incident that may happen4
 ,at the time referred to1 many         
conscripts had just joined the ranks1   
and cries resounded everywhere among the
 old soldiers3 ',hello1 conscripts1 how 
do you like this8' ',what d'ye think of 
sogering now8' ',this is nothing4       
,you'll have to go in up to yer neck    
next time4'  ,generally1 when the       
exigencies of the march will permit1    
bridges are made over such streams1     
either by the engineers of the army1 or 
detachments from the various corps which

 are passing upon the roads4 ,they are  
simple 'corduroy bridges1' and can be   
laid very expeditiously4 ,two or three  
piers of stones and logs are placed in  
the stream1 string pieces are stretched 
upon them1 and cross pieces of small    
round logs laid down for the flooring4  
,the most extensive bridges of this kind
 used by the ,army of the ,potomac were 
those over the ,chickahominy in the     
,peninsular campaign4 ',sumner's        
bridge1' by which reinforcements crossed
 at the battle of ,fair ,oaks1 was laid 
in this manner4 ,of course such bridges 
are liable to be carried away and to be 
easily destroyed4 ,some of the bridges  
over the ,chickahominy were laid much   
more thoroughly4 ',cribs' of logs were  
piled in cob-house fashion1 pinned      
together1 and sunk vertically in the    
stream4 ,then string pieces and the     
flooring were laid1 the whole covered   
with brush and dirt4 ,men worked at     
these bridges up to the waist in water  
for many days in succession4  ,military 

art has devised many expedients for     
bridging streams1 and use is made of any
 facilities that may be at hand for     
constructing the means of passage2 but  
the only organized bridge trains which  
move with the army are those which carry
 the pontoons4 ,of these there are      
various kinds1 made of wood1 of         
corrugated iron1 and of india rubber    
stretched over frames4 ,but the wooden  
pontoon boats are most in use4 ,they can
 be placed in a river and the flooring  
laid upon them with great rapidity4     
,several very fine bridges have been    
thus constructed--among them may be     
mentioned the one at the mouth of the   
,chickahominy1 across which ,general    
,mc,clellan's army marched in retreating
 from ,harrison's ,landing4 ,it was     
about a mile long1 and was constructed  
in a few hours4  ,to cross a river under
 the fire of an enemy is one of the most
 difficult operations in warfare4 ,yet  
it has been frequently accomplished by  
our armies4 ,the crossing of the        

,rappahannock by ,general ,burnside's   
army1 previous to the great battle of   
,fredericksburg1 in ,december1 #ahfb1 is
 one of the most remarkable instances of
 the kind during the war4 ,the rebel    
rifle pits lined the southern bank1 and 
the fire from them prevented our        
engineers from approaching--the river   
being only about seventy-five yards     
wide4 ,for a long time our artillery    
failed to drive the rebels away4 ,about 
noon of the day on which the crossing   
was made1 ,general ,burnside ordered a  
concentration of fire on                
,fredericksburg1 in the houses of which 
place the rebels had concealed their    
forces4 ,a hundred guns1 hurling shot   
and shell into every building and street
 of the city1 soon riddled it2 but the  
obstinate foes hid themselves in the    
cellars till the storm was over1 and    
then emerged defiantly4 ,they were only 
dislodged by sending over a battalion in
 boats to attack them in flank1 when    
they retreated1 and the bridges were    

laid4  ,it is impossible to explain in  
articles of this character the mysteries
 of intrenchment and fortification1 so  
that they will be comprehensible4 ,a few
 notes1 however1 on some of the         
principal terms constantly employed1 may
 be found useful and interesting4       
,rifle pits--as the term is now         
generally used--are small embankments1  
made by throwing up dirt from an        
excavation inside4 ,they can be erected 
quickly1 for it will be seen that those 
behind them have the advantage1 not only
 of the height of the embankment1 but   
also of the depth of the ditch4 ,thus an
 excavation of two feet would give a    
protection of four feet4 ,this is the   
ordinary rifle pit1 but when time       
permits it receives many improvements4  
,breastworks are any erections of logs1 
dirt1 etc41 raised breast high1 to      
shelter the men behind them4  ,an abatis
 consists of obstructions placed in     
front of a work to form obstacles to a  
storming party4 ,the most convenient    

method of forming it is to cut down     
trees and allow them to lie             
helterskelter4 ,when there is time1 the 
trees are laid with the butts toward the
 work1 and the branches outward--the    
small limbs being removed1 and the ends 
of the remainder sharpened4             
,illustration  ,a redan is a letter ,v1 
with the point toward the enemy1 and is 
used generally to cover the heads of    
bridges1 etc4  ,illustration  ,a lunette
 is the redan with flanking wings4      
,illustration  ,a redoubt is an enclosed
 parallelogram4  ,illustration  ,these  
works are very imperfect1 because they  
have exposed points4 ,the angles are not
 protected by the fire from the sides4  
,to remedy this difficulty1 the next    
most usual work is the star fort1 made  
in the form of a regular or irregular   
star4 ,it will be perceived that the    
fire from the sides covers the angles4  
,the next and still more improved form  
of work is the bastioned fort1 which    
consists of projecting bastions at the  

corners1 the fire from which enfilades  
the ditches4  ,the following is a       
diagram of a vertical section of the    
parapet and ditch used in all fully     
constructed field works3  ,illustration3
       ,a ,b is the slope of the        
banquette4       ,b ,c head of the      
banquette1 or place where the men stand 
to deliver      their fire4       ,c ,d 
the interior slope of the parapet4      
,d ,e superior slope of the same4       
,f ,g the berme1 or place left to       
prevent the parapet from washing        
down into the ditch4       ,g ,h the    
scarp or interior wall of the ditch4    
,h ,i the bottom of the ditch4       ,i 
,k the counterscarp4       ,l ,m ,n the 
glacis1 which1 except the abatis near   
the ditch1 is left      free and open1  
so as to expose the assailants to the   
fire from the      parapet4       ,the  
proportions and angles of all the lines 
given are fixed      according to       
mathematical rules4  ,the operations of 
a siege present many incidents of great 

interest2 but we can do nothing more in 
this article than illustrate the methods
 in which the approaches are made to the
 works the capture of which is designed4
 ,when reconnoissances have established 
the conclusion that the works of an     
enemy cannot be carried by assault1 the 
lines of the investing army are advanced
 as near to them as is compatible with  
safety2 advantage is then taken of the  
opportunities afforded by the ground to 
cover working parties1 which are thrown 
forward to the place fixed for the first
 parallel2 sometimes these parties can  
commence their work only at night4 ,the 
parallel is only a deep trench with the 
dirt thrown toward the enemy2 and after 
the excavation has progressed1 the      
trench is occupied by parties of troops 
to resist any sorties of the enemy1 and 
to prevent attempts against the         
batteries established behind the        
parallel4  ,the first parallel being    
completed1 zigzag excavations are made  
toward the front to cover the passage of

 men who proceed to dig the second      
parallel4 ,meanwhile the batteries have 
commenced to play1 and riflemen have    
been advanced in trenches at convenient 
places1 whose fire annoys the gunners of
 the enemy4 ,the second parallel being  
made1 the batteries are moved up to it1 
and the third parallel is proceeded with
 in a manner similar to that used for   
the second4   ,we give below a rough    
diagram of these operations3            
,illustration3  ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e is the   
work of the enemy to be besieged4 ,the  
working parties advance by the zigzag   
paths ,m ,n and ,o to the position      
chosen for the first parallel1 ,k ,l4   
,at the proper time they proceed by the 
zigzag paths to the second parallel1 ,h 
,i1 and then to the third1 ,f ,g4 ,when 
this is reached1 the enemy's work can   
generally be carried by storm1 unless   
already evacuated1 for ceteris paribus  
the advantages generally lie with the   
besieging party4 ,the zigzags are called
 boyaux1 and they are dug in the form   

represented1 so that the bank of earth  
thrown up may be always in front of     
them4 ,were they in straight lines this 
could not be4  ,the above refers        
exclusively to the siege of a field     
work4 ,the principles for besieging a   
walled fort or a fortified town are the 
same1 but the operations are much more  
complicated4     ,,literary ,,notices4  
,popular ,edition4 ,,results ,,of       
,,emancipation4 ,by ,,augustin          
,,cochin1 ,ex-,maire and ,municipal     
,councillor of ,paris4 ,work            
crowned by the ,institute of ,france    
7,acadmie ,franaise74 ,translated       
by ,,mary ,l4 ,,booth1 ,translator of   
,count de ,gasparin's work      on      
,america1 etc4 ,fourth thousand4        
,boston3 ,walker1 ,wise  ,co41 #bde     
,washington street4 #ahfd4  ,a          
remarkable book1 indicative of a new era
 in the discussion of social1 religious1
 political1 and economical questions4   
,prejudice1 misstatement1 and fanaticism
 are apparently so opposed to the clear1

 candid mind of the author1 that he has 
needed no effort to avoid them1 and in  
their stead give us simple truth1 broad 
views of men and things1 and the highest
 conceptions of duty and charity1       
together with the nicest consideration  
of the rights and material interests1   
even the local prejudices and           
misconceptions1 of our fellow mortals4  
,he shows clearly that a moral wrong can
 never long tend to material advantage1 
and that the laws of society cannot be  
made ultimately to triumph over the laws
 of nature2 neither1 in general1 can a  
wrong be righted without some suffering 
by way of expiation4  ,although filled  
with statistical details1 the work      
cannot fail to be intensely interesting 
to the general reader4 ,lofty1 hopeful1 
rational1 and yet progressive in its    
tone1 it is calculated to do great good1
 not only through the useful information
 and instructive generalizations it     
makes known1 but also as a model of     
right feeling1 and consequent good      

breeding1 in its peculiar sphere4  ,the 
chapters upon the sugar question are    
wonderfully lucid and convincing4 ,their
 bearing upon mooted points of political
 economy recommend them to the study of 
all interested in that intricate        
subject4 ,the distressing relations     
necessarily existing between slavery and
 religious instruction are also plainly 
set forth1 and the general conclusion of
 the book 7that 'emancipation' is not   
only possible1 but most expedient1 and  
that1 with certain care upon the part of
 the ,government and of slave owners1 an
 immediate and simultaneous liberation  
is likely to breed fewer disturbances   
and less evil than gradual              
disenthralment7 seems to be rapidly     
gaining ground in the convictions of our
 own countrymen4 ,the conscience1 and   
prophetic dreams of priests1 women1 and 
poets1 have long given assurance of such
 results1 but the world1 of course1     
required definite experience and        
practical essays before instituting any 

extensive course of action in that      
direction4       ',a council held in the
 city of ,london in #aajb1 under the    
presidency      of ,st4 ,anselm1        
interdicted trade in slaves4 ,this was  
eight hundred      years before the same
 object was debated in the same city    
before      ,parliament4 ,in #aghj1     
,thomas ,clarkson proposed to abolish   
the slave      trade4 ,in #aghg1        
,wilberforce renewed the proposition4   
,seven times      presented from #agic  
to #agii1 the bill seven times failed4  
,successively laid over1 it triumphed at
 length in #ahjf and #ahjg4      ,all   
the ,christian nations followed this    
memorable example4 ,at the              
,congress of ,vienna1 all the ,powers   
pledged themselves to unite      their  
efforts to obtain the entire and final  
abolition of a      traffic so odious   
and so loudly reproved by the laws of   
religion      and nature4 ,the slave    
trade was abolished in #ahjh by the     
,american      ,united ,states2 in      

#ahaa1 by ,denmark1 ,portugal1 and      
,chili2 in #ahac1      by ,sweden2 in   
#ahad and #ahae1 by ,holland2 in #ahae1 
by ,france2 in      #ahbb1 by ,spain4   
,in this same year1 #ahbb1 ,wilberforce 
attacked      slavery after the slave   
trade1 and won over public opinion by   
appeals and repeated meetings1 while his
 friend ,mr4 ,buxton proposed           
emancipation in ,parliament4 ,the       
,emancipation ,bill was presented in    
#ahcc4 ,on the #ast of ,august1 #ahcd1  
slavery ceased to sully the soil      of
 the ,english colonies4 ,in #ahdf1      
,sweden1 in #ahdg1 ,denmark1            
,uruguay1 ,wallachia1 and ,tunis1 obeyed
 the same impulse1 which      ,france   
followed in #ahdh1 ,portugal in #ahef1  
and which ,holland      promised to     
imitate in #ahfj4 ,an earnest movement  
agitated ,brazil4'  ,in ,poland1 the    
serfdom of the peasants was never       
sanctioned by law1 but existed in later 
times by reason of exception and abuse4 
,stanislas ,leszczynski1 ,king of       

,poland1 in #agbj raised his voice in   
favor of the peasant population2 the    
same principles were in #agfh defended1 
sword in hand1 by the ,confederation of 
,bar1 discussed in the diets of #aggf1  
#aghj1 #aghh1 and finally adopted by the
 famous ,constituent ,assembly of #agia4
 ,thadeus ,kosciuszko 7,may #gth1       
#agid71 then ,dictator of ,poland1      
issued a document giving entire personal
 liberty to all serfs2 and on the #bb;d 
of ,january1 #ahfc1 the members of the  
',national ,polish ,government' decreed 
that the peasants were not only free1   
but were entitled to a certain portion  
of land1 of which they should be the    
sole proprietors4 ,in #ahfa1 ,russia    
emancipated all serfs within her        
borders4 ,in the ,united ,states1 the   
stern 'logic of events' seems to be     
rapidly bringing about similar results1 
although indeed 'slavery' and 'serfdom' 
should never be mentioned together1     
being so essentially different2 the one 
the possession of the man1 the other    

merely the ownership of his labor or of 
a portion of its results4  ,we cannot   
better conclude than by giving the      
following extract from the ,introduction
 of ,m4 ,cochin1 who1 by the way1 is a  
man of good family and ample fortune1 an
 eminent publicist1 and a ,catholic of  
the school of ,lacordaire1              
,montalembert1 ,monseigneur d',orleans1 
and the ,prince de ,broglie3       ',it 
was once exclaimed1 ,perish the         
colonies1 rather than a      principle6 
,the principle has not perished1 the    
colonies have not      perished4        
',it is not correct that interests      
should yield to principles2      between
 legitimate interests and true          
principles1 harmony is      infallible2 
this is truth4 ,those who look only to  
interests are      sooner or later      
deceived in their calculations2 those   
who1      exclusively occupied with     
principles1 are generous without being  
practical1 cease to be generous1 for    
they lead the cause which they          

serve to certain destruction4 ,it is the
 will of ,god that realities      should
 mingle with ideas1 and that material   
obstacles should compel      the        
purchase of progress by toil4'  ,the    
publishers tell us that1 a large demand 
for this work having arisen1 they have  
issued this 'popular edition1' wherein  
the figures in the original are given as
 nearly as possible in the ,american    
currencies1 measures1 etc4              
,,stumbling ,,blocks4 ,by ,,gail        
,,hamilton1 ,author of      ',country   
,living and ,country ,thinking1' ',gala 
,days1' etc4 ,boston3      ,ticknor     
,fields1 ,for sale by ,d4 ,appleton     
,co41 ,new ,york4  ,gail ,hamilton's    
religious position gives her vast       
advantages4 ,she is thoroughly orthodox1
 ,calvinistic1 and ,congregational1 and 
being neither ,unitarian nor ,catholic1 
will not be regarded as one of the      
',suspect' by the great community of the
 so-called evangelical ,christians4 ,but
 she is a bold1 independent thinker1 and

 spurns the trammels of bigotry and     
prescription4 ,no party spirit blinds   
her clear vision1 no sectarian prejudice
 vitiates her statements of the creeds  
of others1 or induces her to veil the   
faults and follies of those worshipping 
in the same church with herself4        
,ministers are by no means immaculate   
saints in her eyes4 ,seating herself in 
the pews1 she preaches better sermons to
 them than they are in the habit of     
giving to their people2 taking          
possession of their pulpits1 she shows  
them what might and ought to be done    
from that throne of power4 ,petty       
vanities1 subjective experiences        
recorded in morbid journals1 religious  
frames of mind frequently dwelt upon    
until the tortured self-watcher is      
driven into insanity1 fall under her    
scathing rebuke4  ,this volume deals    
chiefly with the shortcomings of the    
orthodox religious world4 ,its faults of
 temper1 its repulsive manners1 its     
custom of making home unlovely1 its     

distaste of innocent amusement1 its     
habits of censure1 its self-sufficiency 
and pharisaical character1 are touched  
with a caustic but healing power4 ,only 
the hand of a friend could have done    
this thing4 ,no point of doctrine is    
questioned1 no principle of faith       
invaded1 no charity wounded4 ,she probes
 in love--her object is cure4 ,this book
 is fresh and vigorous1 worth thousands 
of lifeless sermons and unprofitable    
religious journals4 ,no prejudice or    
falsehood is spared1 though it may have 
taken refuge in the very sanctuary4 ,her
 every shaft is well directed1 every    
arrow powerfully sent1 every shot       
strikes the bull's eye in its centre4   
,her words are hailstones rattling fell 
and fast1 but melt into and soften the  
heart on which they fall4 ,delusions    
disappear1 cant and want of courtesy    
become odious1 shams grow shameful1     
while all lovely things bloom lovelier  
in the light of truth emanating from    
this large brain1 and poured through    

this living heart4 ,we bask in its      
sunshine1 growing strong and happy as we
 read4 ,christian fervor and charity1   
love for ,redeemer and redeemed1 for    
saint and sinner1 cheer us through all  
these well-deserved denunciations4 ,her 
style is clear and rapid1 her matter of 
daily and urgent import1 her            
characterizations of classes and types  
of men worthy of ,la ,bruyre himself1   
her satire melts into humor1 her humor  
into pathos4 ,she has been attacked by  
some of the religious papers1 and has   
herein taken a true ,christian and      
magnanimous revenge4 ,o ,gail6 the      
clergy should open wide their hearts to 
take you in1 their gifted child1 the    
iconoclast within the temple1 the       
faithful disciple of ,christ1 the lover 
of purity and truth6  ,we quote the     
following brave words from this         
remarkable book3       ',we sometimes   
see religious newspapers charging each  
other with      acts which should       
exclude the perpetrators from the       

fraternity of      honest men2 for1     
through the medium of religious         
newspapers1 one      church1 or one     
fraction of a church1 or one            
ecclesiastical body1 or      one member 
of it1 accuses another of an act1 or a  
course of action1      which1 in sober  
truth1 amounts to nothing more or less  
than      obvious1 persistent deception1
 dishonesty and trickery4444 ,can       
such be correct transcripts of facts8   
,is it true that a church1 or      any  
body corporate1 whose very existence as 
such is professedly to      cultivate   
and disseminate the principles of sound 
morality and true      religion1 does   
fall so far short of the faith delivered
 to the      saints--does so far forget 
its origin1 and pervert its aims1 as to 
violate common law and common honesty1  
and persist in its      violation1      
deliberately1 against repeated          
remonstrances1 by sheer      force8 ,yet
 we see no convulsion in the community4 
,nothing intimates      that a great    

grief is fallen upon ,israel4 ,everybody
 eats1 drinks1      and sleeps as usual4
 ,the pulpits still stand1 and the law  
and the      gospel are appealed to from
 that vantage ground4 ,the sacramental  
cup is still raised to devout lips4 ,the
 gray heads of the culprits      still  
go in and out among the people with no  
diminishing of      honor--no odium is  
attached to their persons2 no stigmas to
 their      names4 ,what a state of     
things does this argue6 ,a whole church 
plunges into darkness1 and the          
',majestic heaven        ,shines not the
 less for that one vanished star4'      
',can we wonder that the world will not 
let itself be converted8 ,to      what  
should it be converted1 if it were      
willing8 ,would it be an      advance   
for a community that sends its thieves  
to prison when it      catches them to  
merge itself in a community that is     
content to      print a few columns of  
expos on the subject8 ,if the stream    
where      you wish to drink is muddy1  

you will scarcely find clear waters by  
descending4 ,you want to go up1 not     
down2 up on the high lands where        
threads of crystal cleave the gray old  
rocks1 and gather purity      from      
earth's deep bosom and the sky's clear  
blue4       ',if it is not so1 if the   
acts only appear dishonest because we   
are      looking at one side1 why do we 
not say so1 or why do we say            
anything about it8 ,every man is to be  
held innocent till he is      proved    
guilty4 ,if there is any standpoint from
 which we can view      our opponent's  
position and find it not dishonest1 we  
ought to      mention it4 ,we have no   
right to look at him from a standpoint1 
and hold him up to view as a criminal1  
and ignore another1 from      which he  
may be seen as simply mistaken1 or      
deceived1 or blameless4      ,still less
 have we a right to take innocent facts 
and construct      upon them a guilty   
hypothesis to suit our foregone         
conclusion4 ,a      right to do it8 ,it 

is sin4 ,it is more than murder4 ,it may
 rob      a man of what is more precious
 to him than his life4 ,it attempts to  
take away from a man what1 taken1 would 
leave him stripped of his      manhood1 
and a man's manhood is worth more to him
 and his friends      than his bone and 
muscle4'  ,ah1 ,gail1 thy keen aim has  
indeed struck the pupil of the bull's   
eye6 ,if false statements of varying    
dogmas were held 'as criminal as they   
undoubtedly are1' if they were never    
viewed from 'foregone conclusions1'     
sects would perish in the death of      
misconceptions1 and warring ,christians 
would rush into each other's arms with  
the joy-cry1 ',brothers6' ,through the  
misstatements of centuries1 the good    
,protestant minister regards the        
,catholic priest1 ready as he may be to 
die for the faith of his fathers1 as a  
wilful liar1 a conscious deceiver1      
selling the souls of his flock for a    
,judas bribe2 while the equally good    
priest1 in his turn1 looks upon the     

conscientious minister as a despiser of 
authority1 an enemy of the ,church of   
,christ1 refusing to hear what he       
believes to be its undoubted teachings1 
a blind man1 leading the blind into the 
pit of perdition4 ,the men may be both  
right from the standpoint of their      
'foregone conclusions1' both wrong from 
the standpoint of fact4 ,and so it goes 
on1 through all the lesser sectarian    
divisions4 ,everywhere misstatement1    
misconception1 and smouldering hatred4  
,the first step to reconciliation among 
the antagonistic members of ,christ's   
torn body1 would be to put into         
instantaneous practice the wise1 sound1 
and just maxims of ,gail ,hamilton4 ,let
 us begin it1 lovers of truth and       
justice6       ,,the ,,maine ,,woods4   
,by ,,henry ,d4 ,,thoreau1 ,author of   
',a ,week on the ,concord and ,merrimack
 ,rivers1' ',walden1'                   
',excursions1' etc4 ,boston3 ,ticknor   
,fields4 ,for sale by ,d4      ,appleton
  ,co41 ,new ,york4  ,the first of the  

papers contained in this book was       
published in ',the ,union ,magazine2'   
the second1 ',chesuncook1' came out in  
the ',atlantic ,monthly1' in #aheh2 the 
last is now for the first time printed4 
,the contents of the volume are as      
follows3 ,ktaadn1 ,chesuncook1 ,the     
,allegash and ,east ,branch2 in the     
,appendix we have ,trees1 ,flowers1 and 
,shrubs1 ,list of ,plants1 ,list of     
,birds1 ,quadrupeds1 ,outfit for an     
,excursion1 and a ,list of ,indian      
,words4 ,henry ,d4 ,thoreau was an      
enthusiastic lover of nature1 but no    
blind adorer of her loveliness4 ,he knew
 her in all her moods1 was familiar with
 all her caprices4 ,he was a man of     
strong brain1 and of accurate knowledge 
in such fields as it pleased him to     
study4 ,the woods have never before had 
such an accurate biographer1 such a true
 painter4 ,he saw them with the eye of  
the poet as well as that of the         
naturalist4 ,scholarship and imagination
 roam with him in the primeval forests4 

,after the most accurate and detailed   
description of a moose which had been   
killed by his ,indian guide1 this       
anti-sentimentalist1 but true forest    
lover says3 ',here1 just at the head of 
the murmuring rapids1 ,joe now proceeded
 to skin the moose with a pocket knife1 
while ,i looked on2 and a tragical      
business it was--to see that still warm 
and palpitating body pierced with a     
knife1 to see the warm milk stream from 
the rent udder1 and the ghastly naked   
red carcass appearing from within its   
seemly robe1 which was made to hide it4'
 ,there is no joy of the hunter here6   
,the words are as 'tragical' and tender 
as were those of the melancholy ,jaques4
 ,that 'warm milk and rent udder' seems 
to make the stately creature half human4
 ,he proceeds3       ',but on more      
accounts than one1 ,i had had enough of 
moose hunting4      ,i had not come to  
the woods for this purpose1 nor had ,i  
foreseen      it1 though ,i had been    
willing to learn how the ,indian        

manoeuvred2      but one moose killed   
was as good1 if not as bad1 as a dozen4 
,the      afternoon's tragedy and my    
share in it1 as it affected the         
innocence1 destroyed the pleasure of my 
adventure4 ,this hunting      of the    
moose merely for the satisfaction of    
killing him--not even      for the sake 
of his hide--without making any         
extraordinary exertion      or running  
any risk yourself1 is too much like     
going out by night      to some woodside
 pasture and shooting your neighbor's   
horses4 ,these      are ,god's own      
horses1 poor timid creatures1 that will 
run fast      enough as soon as they    
smell you1 though they are nine feet    
high      7often eleven1 with the       
antlers74444 ,you strip off its hide1   
because that is the common trophy1 and  
moreover you have heard it      may be  
sold for mocassons--cut a steak from its
 body1 and leave the      huge carcass  
'to smell to heaven' for you4 ,it is no 
better1 at      least1 than to assist at

 a slaughter house4 ,this afternoon's   
experience suggested to me how base or  
coarse are the motives which            
commonly carry men into the wilderness4 
,the explorers and lumberers            
generally are hirelings1 paid so much a 
day for their labor1 and as      such   
they have no more love for wild nature  
than wood sawyers have      for forests4
 ,other white men and ,indians who come 
here are for the      most part hunters1
 whose object is to slay as many moose  
and other      wild animals as possible4
 ,but pray1 could not one spend some    
weeks      or years in the solitude of  
this vast wilderness with other         
employments than these--employments     
perfectly sweet1 innocent1 and          
ennobling8 ,for one that comes with a   
pencil to sketch or sing1 a             
thousand come with an axe or rifle4     
,what a coarse and imperfect use        
,indians and hunters make of nature6 ,no
 wonder that their race is so      soon 
exterminated4 ,i already1 and for weeks 

afterward1 felt my      nature the      
coarser for this part of my woodland    
experience1 and was      reminded that  
our life should be lived as tenderly and
 daintily as      one would pluck a     
flower4'  ,again3       ',as ,i sat     
before the fire on my fir-twig seat1    
without walls above      or around me1  
,i remembered how far on every hand that
 wilderness      stretched1 before you  
came to cleared or cultivated fields1   
and      wondered if any bear or moose  
was watching the light of my fire2      
for nature looked sternly upon me on    
account of the murder of the      moose4
       ',strange that so few ever come  
to the woods to see how the pine        
lives and grows and spires1 lifting its 
ever-green arms to the      light--to   
see its perfect success2 but most are   
content to behold      it in the shape  
of many broad boards brought to market1 
and deem      that its true success4    
,but the pine is no more lumber than man
      is1 and to be made into boards and

 houses is no more its true and         
highest use1 than the truest use of a   
man is to be cut down and      made into
 manure4 ,there is a higher law         
affecting our relation to      pines as 
well as to men4 ,a pine cut down1 a dead
 pine1 is no more a      pine than a    
dead human carcass is a man4 ,can he who
 has discovered      only some of the   
values of whalebone and whale oil be    
said to have      discovered the true   
use of the whale8 ,can he who slays the 
elephant      for his ivory be said to  
have 'seen the elephant'8 ,these are    
petty      and accidental uses2 just as 
if a stronger race were to kill us in   
order to make buttons and flageolets of 
our bones2 for everything      may serve
 a lower as well as a higher use4 ,every
 creature is better      alive than     
dead1 men and moose and pine trees1 and 
he who      understands it aright will  
rather preserve its life than destroy   
it4       ',is it the lumberman1 then1  
who is the friend and lover of the      

pine1 stands nearest to it1 and         
understands its nature best8 ,is it     
the tanner who has barked it1 or he who 
has boxed it for      turpentine1 whom  
posterity will fable to have changed    
into a pine      at last8 ,no6 no6 it is
 the poet2 he it is who makes the truest
 use      of the pine--who does not     
fondle it with an axe1 nor tickle it    
with      a saw1 nor stroke it with a   
plane--who knows whether its heart is   
false without cutting into it--who has  
not bought the stumpage of      the town
 on which its stands4 ,all the pines    
shudder and heave a      sigh when that 
man steps on the forest floor4 ,no1 it  
is the poet1      who loves them as his 
own shadow in the air1 and lets them    
stand4 ,i      have been into the lumber
 yard1 the carpenter's shop1 the        
tannery1      the lamp-black factory1   
and the turpentine clearing2 but when at
      length ,i saw the tops of the     
pines waving and reflecting the light   
at a distance over all the rest of the  

forest1 ,i realized that the      former
 were not the highest use of the pine4  
,it is not their bones      or hide or  
tallow that ,i love most4 ,it is the    
living spirit of the      tree1 not its 
spirit of turpentine1 with which ,i     
sympathize1 and      which heals my     
cuts4 ,it is as immortal as ,i am1 and1 
perchance1 may      go to as high a     
heaven1 there to tower above me still4' 
,reader1 was not this man a nature      
lover1 a nature limner1 worthy to take  
his place among our ,giffords1          
,whittredges1 ,mc,entees1 ,bierstadts1  
and ,beards8 ,truly original1 natural1  
and ,american1 who among our descriptive
 writers can surpass ,h4 ,d4 ,thoreau8  
,,primary ,,lessons ,,for ,,deaf        
,,mutes4 ,by ,j4 ,a4 ,,jacobs1      ,a4 
,m41 ,principal of the ,kentucky        
,institution for the ,education of      
,deaf ,mutes4 ,new ,york3 ,john ,f4     
,trow1 ,printer  ,publisher1 #ej ,greene
      street1 between ,broome  ,grand4  
#ahfd4  ,an excellent little work1      

intended to impart some of the          
rudimentary branches of learning to that
 interesting class of our fellow beings 
who can neither speak nor hear4 ,every  
effort made for their instruction should
 be cordially welcomed1 for sad indeed  
is their position1 and very difficult   
the discovery of means to reach and     
develop their often very bright         
intelligence4 ,these lessons can be used
 by parents1 guardians1 or elder        
brothers and sisters1 before the        
deaf-mute child is old enough to send to
 a regular institution4 ,they are       
divided into two parts1 bound in        
separate little volumes1 and filled with
 cuts illustrating the text--or rather1 
the text1 as is proper in such a work1  
illustrates the cuts1 which occupy the  
larger portion of the book4 ,teachers   
cannot but find these aids of           
incalculable value4       ,,the         
,,relations ,,of ,,the ,,industry ,,of  
,,canada ,,with ,,the ,,mother ,,country
      ,,and ,,the ,,united ,,states4    

,being a ,speech by ,,isaac             
,,buchanan1 ,esq41 ,m4 ,p41 as delivered
 at the late ,demonstration      to the 
,parliamentary ,opposition at ,toronto2 
together with a series      of ,articles
 in defence of the ,national ,sentiments
 contained      therein1 which          
originally appeared in the columns of   
the ,hamilton      ,spectator1 from the 
pen of ,mr4 ,buchanan2 to which is added
 a      ,speech delivered by him at the 
,dinner given to the ,pioneers of       
,upper ,canada1 at ,london1 ,canada     
,west1 #ajth ,december1 #ahfc4 ,now     
first published in complete and         
collected form1 with copious ,notes     
and ,annotations1 besides an extended   
,introductory ,explanation1 and      an 
,appendix containing various valuable   
,documents4 ,edited by      ,,henry ,j4 
,,morgan1 ,corresponding ,member of the 
,new ,york      ,historical ,society1   
and ,author of ',sketches of ,celebrated
      ,canadians4' ,montreal3 ,printed  
by ,john ,lovell1 ,st4 ,nicholas4 #ahfd4

  ,we recommend this book to such of our
 readers as may be interested in        
political economy1 not as sound in      
theory1 but as containing a vast array  
of facts and giving considerable        
information with regard to the internal 
affairs of our neighbor ,canada4 ,the   
,reciprocity ,treaty comes in for its   
share of consideration4 ,mr4 ,buchanan  
is a ,protectionist1 and uses the       
arguments of his party with considerable
 ability4 ,the question of annexation is
 also incidentally touched upon4 ,we do 
not know that we can give our readers a 
better idea of the contents and policy  
of this book than by placing the        
dedication before them4       ',to the  
leaders of the forthcoming ,party of    
,order1 ,i dedicate these      pages1   
because ,i feel that the province is at 
the winning or the      losing1 and that
 we shall hereafter have to hail you as 
the honored      instruments of our     
,political and ,industrial salvation4   
',in ,mr4 ,buchanan's ,letter to the    

,editor of the ,globe1 assuring him     
publicly that ,mr4 ,buchanan and all his
 friends1 as in the ,past1 so      in   
the ,future1 would be found opponents to
 the death of ,annexation1      and not 
its friends1 as that journal basely     
insinuated1 he states      that he is of
 no party1 though reluctantly compelled 
to be in      opposition to the present 
ministry in consequence of their acts1  
,executive as well as ,legislative2 but 
that he is of a class far      more     
numerous than the 'thick and thin'      
adherents of either of the      present 
soi-disant parties4 ,those alluded to by
 ,mr4 ,buchanan will      form a new    
party--the ,party of ,order1 which will 
probably be called      the             
',constitutional ,party'--its platform  
being broad enough to hold      all who 
value and respect the time-honored      
,constitution1 whether      they be     
original ,reformers or ,conservatives in
 name4 ,the new ,party      of ,order   
will comprise these elements3           

',first4 ,conservative ,liberals1 or old
 ,reformers1 who have been      taught  
by experience1 and are willing now to   
adopt the word      ',conservative1' at 
least in its adjective sense4           
',secondly4 ,liberal ,conservatives1 or 
old ,tories1 or their      descendants1 
who have also been taught by experience1
 and are      willing to adopt the word 
',liberal1' at least in its adjective   
sense4       ',thirdly4 ,conservatives1 
and ,conservative ,liberals1 who have   
unwittingly been mingled up with the    
incendiary party1 composed of           
',clear ,grits' and ',rouges4'          
',and that in your discussions on the   
great question of the      ,reciprocity 
,law1 now about to agitate both ,canada 
and the ,united      ,states1 these     
pages may be of some service1 is the    
fond hope of      your obedient servant1
                                        
',,the ,,editor4'       ,,family        
,,pride4 ,by the ,author of ',pique4'   
,philadelphia3 ,t4      ,b4 ,peterson   

,brothers1 #cjf ,chestnut street4       
,family ,pride is a novel of still      
greater interest than ',pique4' ,the    
plot is well conceived1 the characters  
skilfully developed1 and the attention  
is fascinated even to the end4 ,the     
moral is unexceptionable1 the style     
fresh and pure4 ,we must however enter  
an earnest protest against the manifest 
injustice of the closing sentence1 where
 the talented author has gone out of his
 way to find a blot for his book1 the   
only stain upon his fair pages4 ,it     
reads thus3 ',after a variety of        
vicissitudes1 she had embraced the      
,romish faith3 that religion which      
relieves from all personal              
responsibility in spiritual matters2 and
 which teaches that earthly penance and 
ascetic observances will open the gates 
of heaven to the vilest of criminals4'  
,we have studied ,westminster1          
,episcopal1 and ,catholic catechisms1   
the teachings in all three of which are 
that faith in ,christ and sorrow for and

 renunciation of sin alone can open the 
gates of heaven4 ,we regard it as the   
duty of a conscientious reviewer to     
point out an erroneous statement        
wherever it occurs1 whether in regard to
 the faith of ,protestants1 ,catholics1 
,hebrews1 ,mohammedans1 ,fire           
,worshippers1 or any other classes of   
men whatsoever4 ,misstatement has caused
 an immense deal of bloodshed and       
bitterness among ,christians4 ,the walls
 of ,zion must be built of the stones of
 truth4       ,,the ,,tanner ,,boy1     
,,and ,,how ,,he ,,became               
,,lieutenant-,,general4 ,by      ,,major
 ,,penniman4 ',the boy is father to the 
man4' ,fifth      thousand4 ,boston3    
,roberts ,brothers1 publishers1 #adc    
,washington      street4 #ahfd4  ,a     
lively account of the boyhood and       
subsequent career of one likely to be   
famous in ,american history4 ,the       
nation's eyes are at this moment turned 
hopefully upon the result of ,gen4      
,grant's campaign in ,virginia1 and all 

will be glad to learn that his previous 
life offers so fair and pleasant a      
record4 ,one observation1 however1 we   
feel called upon to make to the         
entertaining ,major3 the youth of       
,america should be taught to love1 to   
live for1 and1 if need be1 to die for   
their country2 but they should also be  
taught to shun narrow exclusiveness and 
boastful vanity4 ,a government of a     
whole people should in this respect set 
a noble example to all other nations4   
,the ',tanner ,boy' has already reached 
its 'fifth thousand1' and will no doubt 
be eagerly read by all the patriotic    
boys and girls in the land4       ,,wax 
,,flowers4 ,j4 ,e4 ,tilton  ,co41       
,boston4 #ahfd4  ,this little book      
contains somewhat over a hundred pages1 
and is gotten up in the attractive style
 for which the publications of this firm
 have become noted4 ,a prefatory chapter
 sets forth the object of the work1 and 
the claims of the art4 ,the first part  
treats of ,wax ,fruit1 giving the       

methods of making moulds and casting    
therefrom1 of preparing the wax1 of     
coloring the fruit and giving it the    
proper outward texture4 ,the second part
 describes all the articles and         
materials required for making even the  
most elaborate of ,,wax ,,flowers2 gives
 the way of preparing the wax1 including
 its formation into sheets of any       
required thickness1 with all the minuti 
relating to coloring1 c4 ,the text is   
clearly and simply written1 and by the  
aid of ample illustrations everything is
 made plain to the learner4  ,it is     
wonderful how exquisitely flowers may be
 imitated--making one wish a device for 
the secreting of the appropriate        
perfumes4    ,the wax once gathered by  
bees through many a bower1   ,glows     
again in the form of a beautiful flower4
  ,the artist in wax enjoys the best of 
opportunities for learning ,botany1 both
 analytically and synthetically4 ,a     
series of models in wax would make the  
ocular study of botany possible         

throughout the year4 ,the taste for wax 
flowers is becoming widely extended1 and
 high prices are brought by the finest  
specimens of the art4 ,humanity should  
heartily welcome an employment which    
enables many to escape the suicide of   
the needle6       ,,denise4 ,by the     
,author of ',mademoiselle ,mori4' ,in   
two vols4      ,new ,york3 ,james ,g4   
,gregory1 #edj ,broadway4  ,there is a  
strange charm about this book4 ,the     
story is common enough1 the characters  
have nothing original in their          
conception1 and yet we are fascinated by
 the detailed truth of the portraiture  
from the first page to the last4 ,the   
scenes are laid in ,farnoux1 a town in  
the old ,provenal districts4 ,the       
ancient views and manners are still     
retained1 and interest us by the force  
of contrast with our own4 ,mademoiselle 
,le ,marchand1 an odd old maid1 with a  
genius for painting1 is really the      
character of the book4 ,denise1 the     
heroine1 is quietly and faithfully      

drawn4 ,various picturesque phases of   
the ,catholic faith are artistically    
managed1 while the faith itself is not  
treated with much courtesy4 ,as a       
general thing we do not like theological
 novels written from foregone           
conclusions4 ,we can imagine however    
that such a subject might be made       
intensely interesting4 ,if a master mind
 of perfect impartiality would give us  
the effect produced upon two minds of   
equal mental power1 of equal moral      
worth1 by ,protestantism or             
,catholicity--such a study would both   
interest and instruct4 ,all religious   
nicknames should be avoided1 as         
offensive both to charity and refined   
taste4 ,episcopalians do not like to be 
called ,anglicans2 ,friends1 ,quakers2  
,baptists1 ,hardshells2 ,unitarians1    
,pantheists2 nor ,catholics1 ,romanists4
 ,let us use courtesy to all men1 that  
so we may have more weight when we      
attack erroneous principles4  ,by all   
means read ,denise2 its studies of the  

heart are close and accurate4           
,,editor',s ,,table4   ,,the ,,campaign4
  ,furnished by a ,friend of the ,editor
 of ,,the ,,continental4  ,three routes 
of operation are open to an army        
designing to proceed against ,richmond3 
first1 along the ,orange and ,alexandria
 ,railroad to ,charlottesville2 second1 
along the railroad from ,fredericksburg 
to ,hanover ,court ,house2 and third1 by
 the way of ,fortress ,monroe4 ,the     
first has the disadvantage of presenting
 a long line of communication1          
constantly exposed to inroads from      
guerillas1 and for the purposes of      
warfare may be considered as utterly    
impracticable4 ,it would not1 in fact1  
be worth considering1 had not some      
critics of ,gen4 ,grant's movements     
absurdly insisted that he ought to have 
adopted this route4 ,the second route is
 far more advantageous1 and had ,gen4   
,grant's purposes been confined simply  
to putting his army before the rebel    
capital1 and lying there to seize such  

opportunities as the developments of the
 campaign should afford1 it might have  
been expedient to maintain by this route
 communications with the ,potomac4 ,but 
the intentions of our                   
,lieutenant-,general were of a much more
 comprehensive character4 ,while1       
therefore1 following this route in his  
march1 because it gave the most direct  
and shortest line to ,richmond1 he did  
not use the railroad as a means of      
communication4 ,his aim was fixed on an 
ulterior object4 ,he designed to put his
 army in such a position that it should 
be constantly assailing ,richmond by its
 presence1 although not a gun should be 
fired4 ,he1 therefore1 tried the        
strength of the rebel works1 in passing1
 and finding that time would be spent   
uselessly in attempting to overthrow    
them either upon the north or the east1 
he proceeded to the new position south  
of the ,james1 and adopted the third    
route mentioned for his communication   
with the ,north1 having previously used 

it1 also1 for the transportation to the 
ultimate scene of conflict of a part of 
his forces under ,gen4 ,butler4  ,among 
military men1 there have been1 since the
 commencement of the war1 many advocates
 for an attack on ,richmond from the    
position at ,petersburg4 ,it has many   
advantages4 ,the facilities for         
transporting supplies are easy1 it      
isolates the capital of the ,southern   
government from its southern and eastern
 connections1 it interferes largely with
 the internal trade of the confederacy1 
it confines the rebel army in a narrow  
space1 and it necessitates constant     
efforts on the part of the confederate  
commanders to expel the ,northern       
forces1 thus constraining them to leave 
their works and become assailants4 ,in  
fine1 the position affords more         
opportunities for strategically         
investing ,richmond than any other which
 is accessible to our armies4  ,a clear 
perception of these advantages          
determined ,gen4 ,grant to adopt the    

position at ,petersburg4 ,he was aware  
that ,richmond could not be directly    
invested except with a very large army4 
,he desired to accomplish the results   
which such an investment would give4 ,he
 sought to cut off the city from its    
principal channels of communication--to 
deprive it of its main resources4 ,have 
these purposes been effected8 ,at the   
time we write it is announced that the  
army occupies the railroad leading to   
,weldon1 thus breaking the communication
 with ,north ,carolina2 that our cavalry
 has destroyed a portion of the road    
leading to ,lynchburg2 that the forces  
operating under ,gen4 ,hunter have also 
destroyed portions of the ,virginia     
,central and the road between           
,gordonsville and ,lynchburg2 they have 
also damaged the ,james ,river ,canal4  
,the only railroad communication now    
existing between ,richmond and the      
,south is that by way of ,danville4     
,before this reaches our readers we     
trust that the effects of these efforts 

to isolate the capital of the           
confederacy will become evident2 that   
the rebel army will be forced to leave  
its intrenchments and meet our brave    
soldiers in the field1 and that the     
conflict may have resulted in victory   
for the cause of the country and of     
freedom4  ,the various steps of the     
process by which the army gained the    
position at ,petersburg are already well
 known4 ,from the time the camps at     
,culpepper ,court ,house were broken up1
 until the lines were established south 
of the ,james river1 the series of      
movements consisted in masterly marches 
by the left1 compelling the enemy       
constantly to fall back from his        
intrenched positions to points farther  
in his rear4 ,such movements were not1  
however made until after trials of the  
enemy in the front1 some of which       
resulted in splendid partial successes4 
,they were1 however1 not conclusive4    
,the flank movements of our army belong 
to that class which are considered among

 the most difficult in warfare1         
requiring great skill in commanders to  
arrange their details1 and endurance and
 discipline in the troops to effect     
them4 ,it is no easy matter to change   
position in the face of a wary and      
vigorous enemy1 ready to fall upon any  
exposed point in the long array of a    
marching column4 ,yet1 several times1   
the manoeuvre has been skilfully and    
successfully performed1 and each time   
the rebels have learned it too late to  
profit by the chances offered for a     
surprise4  ,hundreds of miles distant   
from the principal point of attraction  
in ,virginia1 the other great army of   
the ,union1 under ,gen4 ,sherman1 has   
also been performing similar            
feats--turning by well-directed marches1
 one after another1 the intrenched      
positions of the enemy in the           
mountainous district of ,georgia4       
,atlanta1 the object of its toils1 is a 
great centre of railroad communication1 
and when our armies obtain possession of

 it1 the confederacy will experience    
another severing stroke1 almost as      
severe as that which cleft it in twain  
by the capture of ,vicksburg and the    
reopening of the ,mississippi4 ,by such 
strokes the pretentious imposture of a  
,southern nation must be broken into    
fragments1 even should the armies       
supporting it remain for a time         
organized and defiant2 for1 under the   
appliances of modern civilization and   
commerce1 the possession of a railroad  
or internal depot of trade is almost    
equivalent to the destruction of an     
army4  ,the campaigns of #ahfc produced 
great results1 as well geographically as
 in the capture of men and munitions    
from the rebels4 ,at the commencement of
 the year they held the ,mississippi1   
they threatened ,kentucky and the       
borders of the ,ohio1 they were able to 
draw supplies from ,tennessee1          
,arkansas1 and ,texas4 ,they were1      
moreover1 arrogantly defiant toward the 
,north1 and boasted of their ability to 

march to its great commercial centres4  
,at the close of the year they were     
driven to the confines of ,georgia1 they
 were separated from the                
trans-,mississippi region1 their        
boasting had been brought to humility at
 ,gettysburg4 ,the objects to be        
accomplished in the great campaign of   
#ahfd are to drive in upon each other   
the two armies which resist our progress
 in ,virginia and ,georgia1 and to      
compress the rebellion into the         
,southern ,atlantic ,states4 ,this done1
 the existence of secession is          
practically at an end1 though it may    
brag as loudly as ever and keep on foot 
its armies4 ,for without ,virginia1 and 
without the connections of ,atlanta1 the
 existence of an independent government 
in the ,south is impossible3 sufficient 
country would not remain to support so  
magnificent an affair4 ,the loss of     
,virginia in fact would be the fatal    
blow to the rebellion2 for1 however     
,south ,carolina may exalt herself1 and 

however the other ,states of the ,south 
may aspire1 yet it is ,virginia which   
gives tone and respectability to the    
,southern confederacy4 ,it is for this1 
far more than because it is the rebel   
capital1 that the capture of ,richmond  
is desirable4  ,but should it           
happen--which fortunately is not a      
reasonable surmise--that the objects of 
this year's campaign should not be      
attained1 we consider that the ,southern
 confederacy exists only in pretence4   
,should its ports be to-day opened1     
should our armies fall back to their    
primary bases of operation1 should      
,european ,powers formally declare that 
a slave republic exists1 yet the new    
nation would be practically a nonentity4
 ,does any one suppose that the ,united 
,states would yield ,kentucky1          
,tennessee1 ,missouri1 ,arkansas1 ,new  
,orleans1 and the ,mississippi2 that the
 freemen of ,western ,virginia would be 
forsaken2 that ,fortress ,monroe and    
,port ,royal would be abandoned8 ,how   

long would a nation so surrounded1 so   
intersected1 exist1 or how could it     
achieve any prosperity1 character1 and  
stability8 ,constant war1 in the effort 
to expand and perfect its borders1 would
 be its necessity2 but such a necessity 
would be its destruction4 ,there is no  
possibility of compromise or arrangement
 in the contest in which we are engaged1
 except with the parallel of the        
,potomac and the ,ohio as the dividing  
border2 but such an arrangement is      
impossible2 entire reconquest becomes   
the imperative2 it may be delayed1 our  
present hopes may be disappointed1 but  
the march of our armies thus far has    
trodden out the life from the ,southern 
attempt at independence1 and any future 
existence it may have will be merely    
muscular paroxysms--not the steady1     
regular1 automatic movements of freedom 
and spontaneity4  ,any notice of the    
operations of our armies would be       
incomplete without tributes to the      
ability of commanders and the valor of  

our soldiers4 ,in no previous period of 
the war have these been more strikingly 
exemplified4 ,the capacity of man to    
endure and his ability to exert himself 
continuously without exhausting his     
energy1 are very wonderful4 ,the reader 
of military history is constantly struck
 with this1 in perusing accounts of     
sieges and marches and battles4 ,war is 
always accompanied with a host of       
terrors--exposures to heat1 cold1 and   
tempests1 marches through swamps and    
snows1 suffering by hunger and thirst   
and fatigue1 lying with bleeding wounds 
for days and nights between the lines of
 friends and foes1 toil1 danger1        
privation1 pain1 in every form4 ,but    
among the memorable campaigns in the    
history of war1 none is more marked for 
its incessant activity and the cheerful 
alacrity with which every hardship was  
endured1 than that in which our army    
marched from the ,rapidan to the ,james4
 ,from ,georgia1 too1 we have similar   
accounts of difficulties met only to be 

surmounted4 ,heaven bless our gallant   
soldiers everywhere6 ,a nation's hopes  
and prayers are with them4 ,may they    
know the soldier's dearest              
delight--victory6