,,! ,,work+ ,,( ,,/eel ,,anneal+1 ,,heat ,,treat+ ,,& ,,h>d5+ ,,( ,,c>bon ,,& ,,alloy ,,/eel ,,by ,,fr$ ,h4 ,,colv9 ,memb] ,am]ican ,society ( ,me*anical ,eng9e]s & ,frankl9 ,in/itute2 ,editor ( ! ,am]ican ,ma*9i/1 ,au?or ( ,ma*9e ,%op ,ari?metic1 ,ma*9e ,%op ,calculations1 ,am]ican ,ma*9i/s' ,h& ,book4 ,,& ,k4 ,a4 ,,ju!1 ,m4,e4 ,*ief ,eng9e]1 ,am]ican ,metallurgical ,corp4 ,memb] ,am]ican ,society ,me*anical ,eng9e]s1 ,am]ican ,society ,te/+ ,mat]ials1 ,heat ,treatm5t ,association1 ,etc4 ,,second ,,edition ,,?ird ,,impression ,mc,g,r,a,w-,,hill ,,book ,,company1 ,inc4 ,,new ,,york3 #cgj ,,sev5? ,,av5ue ,,london3 #f #h ,,b\v]ie ,,/41 ,e4 ,c4 #d ,,preface ,,to ,,second ,,edition ,advantage has be5 tak5 ( a repr9t+ to revise1 ext5sively1 ! portions ( ! book relat+ to ! mod]n sci5ce ( metallography4 ,consid]able ( ! matt] relat+ to ! influ5ce ( *emical composition ^u ! prop]ties ( alloy /eels has be5 rewritt54 ,fur!rmore1 opportunity has be5 tak5 to include "s brief notes on me?ods ( physical te/+--:]eby ! metallurgi/ judges ( ! excell5ce ( 8 metal 9 advance ( its actual p]=mance 9 s]vice4 ,,new ,,york1 ,n4 ,y41 ,augu/1 #aibb4 ,,preface ,,to ,,fir/ ,,edition ,! ev] increas+ uses ( /eel 9 all indu/ries & ! necessity ( secur+ ! be/ results ) ! mat]ial us$1 make a k ( ! prop] work+ ( /eel m important ?an ev] be=e4 ,= x is n alone ! quality ( ! /eel itself or ! alloys us$ 9 its composition1 b ! prop] work+ or treatm5t ( ! /eel :i* det]m9es :e!r or n ! be/ possible use has be5 made ( x4 ,) ?is 9 m9d1 ! au?ors h drawn1 n only f _! own exp]i5ce b f ! be/ s\rces available1 in=mation z to ! mo/ approv$ me?ods ( work+ ! v>i\s k9ds ( /eel n[ 9 comm]cial use4 ,^! include l[ c>bon1 high c>bon & alloy /eels ( v>i\s k9ds1 & f a v>iety ( indu/ries4 ,! automotive field has done mu* to develop n only new alloys b effici5t me?ods ( work+ !m & has be5 drawn on lib]ally s z to %[ ! be/ practice4 ,! practice 9 gov]nm5t ars5als on /eels us$ 9 fire arms is also giv54 ,:ile n int5d$ z a treatise on /eel mak+ or metallurgy 9 any s5se1 x has seem$ be/ to include a little in=mation z to ! mak+ ( diff]5t /eels & to give consid]able g5]al in=mation :i* x is believ$ w be helpful to ^? :o desire to become famili> ) ! mo/ mod]n me?ods ( work+ /eel4 ,x is ) ! hope t ?is volume1 :i* has endeavor$ to give due cr$it to all s\rces ( in=mation1 may prove ( value to its read]s & ?r\gh !m to ! indu/ry at l>ge4 ,july1 #aiba4 ,,! ,,au?ors4 ,,cont5ts ,,preface ,,introduction ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,/eel ,,mak+ ,,ii4 ,,composition ,,& ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,/eels ,,iii4 ,,alloys ,,& ,,_! ,,effect ,,^u ,,/eel ,,iv4 ,,application ,,( ,,lib]ty ,,eng9e ,,mat]ials ,,to ,,! ,,automotive ,,indu/ry ,v4 ,,! ,,=g+ ,,( ,,/eel ,,vi4 ,,anneal+ ,,vii4 ,,case-,,h>d5+ ,,or ,,surface-,,c>buriz+ ,,viii4 ,,heat ,,treatm5t ,,( ,,/eel ,,ix4 ,,h>d5+ ,,c>bon ,,/eel ,,= ,,tools ,x4 ,,high ,,spe$ ,,/eel ,,xi4 ,,furnaces ,,xii4 ,,pyrometry ,,& ,,pyromet]s ,,app5dix ,,index ,,introduction ,,! ,,abc ,,( ,,iron ,,& ,,/eel ,9 spite ( all t has be5 writt5 ab\t iron & /eel !re are _m hazy notions 9 ! m9ds ( _m me*anics reg>d+ !m4 ,x is n always cle> z to j :at makes ! diff]5ce betwe5 iron & /eel4 ,we "k t high-c>bon /eel makes a bett] cutt+ tool ?an l[-c>bon /eel4 ,& yet c>bon alone does n make all ! diff]5ce because we "k t ca/ iron has m c>bon ?an tool /eel & yet x does n make a good cutt+ tool4 ,pig iron or ca/ iron has f #c to #e p] c5t c>bon1 :ile good tool /eel r>ely has m ?an #a-a_/d p] c5t ( c>bon1 yet "o is s(t & has a co>se gra91 :ile ! o!r has a f9e gra9 & c be h>d5$ by heat+ & dipp+ 9 wat]4 ,mo/ ( ! c>bon 9 ca/ iron is 9 a =m l graphite1 :i* is almo/ pure c>bon1 & is !re=e call$ graphitic c>bon4 ,! resemblance c be se5 by not+ h[ ca/-iron bor+s black5 ! h&s j z does graphite1 :ile /eel turn+s d n h ! same effect4 ,! diff]5ce is due to ! fact t ! c>bon 9 /eel is n 9 a graphitic =m z well z because x is pres5t 9 small] quantities4 ,9 mak+ /eel 9 ! old way ! ca/ iron 0 melt$ & ! c>bon & o!r impurities burn$ out ( x1 ! melt$ iron be+ /irr$ or puddl$1 mean:ile4 ,! result+ puddl$ iron1 also kn[n z wr\ght iron1 is v l[ 9 c>bon2 x is t\gh1 & on be+ brok5 appe>s to be made up ( a bundle ( long fib]s4 ,!n ! iron 0 heat$ to r$ness = sev]al days 9 mat]ial conta9+ c>bon 7*>coal7 until x absorb$ ! desir$ am\nt1 :i* made x /eel1 j z case-h>d5+ iron or /eel adds c>bon to ! out] surface ( ! metal4 ,! c>bon absorb$ by ! iron does n take on a graphitic =m1 h[ev]1 z 9 ! case ( ca/ iron1 b ent]s into a *emical comp\nd ) ! iron1 a h>d brittle sub/ance call$ cem5tite by metallurgi/s4 ,9 fact1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! h>d1 brittle cem5tite & ! s(t1 greasy graphite1 acc\nts = _m ( ! diff]5ces betwe5 /eel & gray ca/ iron4 ,wr\ght iron1 :i* has v little c>bon ( any sort 9 x1 is fairly s(t & t\gh4 ,! prop]ties ( wr\ght iron are ! prop]ties ( pure iron4 ,z m & m c>bon is introduc$ into ! iron1 x comb9es ) ! iron & di/ributes itself ?r\gh\t ! metal 9 extremely small cry/als ( cem5tite1 & ?is brittle1 h>d sub/ance l5ds m & m h>dness & /r5g? to ! /eel1 at ! exp5se ( ! orig9al t\ghness ( ! iron4 ,z m & m c>bon is conta9$ 9 ! alloy--= /eel is a true alloy--x beg9s to appe> z graphite1 & its prop]ties c\nt]act ! rema9+ brittle cem5tite4 ,ev5tually1 9 gray ca/ iron1 we h prop]ties :i* w\ld be expect$ ( wr\ght iron1 ^: t\gh metallic texture 0 %ot ?r\gh ) flakes ( slipp]y1 weak graphite4 ,b to return to ! me?ods ( mak+ /eel tools 9 use #ajj ye>s ago4 ,! iron b>s1 aft] heat+ 9 *>coal1 7 brok5 & ! c>bon cont5t judg$ by ! fracture4 ,^? :i* _h be5 9 ! hotte/ "p ( ! furnace w\ld h ! deepe/ case & highe/ c>bon4 ,s :5 ! /eel 0 grad$1 & sep>at$ into diff]5t piles1 a few b>s ( l k9d 7 brok5 into %ort l5g?s1 melt$ 9 fire-clay crucibles at an int5se :ite heat1 ca/ c>efully into iron molds1 & ! result+ +ot =g$ into b>s "u a crude trip hamm]4 ,?is melt+ practice is /ill 9 use = crucible /eel1 & w be describ$ fur!r on page #d4 ,,! ,,work+ ,,( ,,/eel ,,anneal+1 ,,heat ,,treat+ ,,& ,,h>d5+ ,,( ,,c>bon ,,& ,,alloy ,,/eel ,,*apt] ,i ,,/eel ,,mak+ ,!re are f\r processes n[ us$ = ! manufacture ( /eel4 ,^! are3 ,! ,bessem]1 ,op5 ,he>?1 ,crucible & ,electric ,furnace ,me?ods4 ,,bessem] ,,process ,! bessem] process consi/s ( *>g+ molt5 pig iron into a huge1 brick-l9$ pot call$ ! bessem] conv]t]1 & !n 9 bl[+ a curr5t ( air ?r\gh holes 9 ! bottom ( ! vessel into ! liquid metal4 ,! air bla/ burns ! :ite hot metal1 & ! temp]ature increases4 ,! action is exactly simil> to :at happ5s 9 a fire box "u =c$ draft4 ,& 9 bo? cases "s p>ts ( ! mat]ial burn easi] & m quickly ?an o!rs4 ,?us x is t "s ( ! impurities 9 ! pig iron--includ+ ! c>bon--burn fir/1 & if ! bla/ is %ut (f :5 !y are gone b little ( ! iron is de/roy$4 ,un=tunately sulphur1 "o ( ! mo/ dang]\s impurities1 is n expell$ 9 ! process4 ,a bessem] conv]t] is %[n 9 ,fig4 #a1 :ile ,fig4 #b %[s ! details ( its con/ruction4 ,?is %[s h[ ! air bla/ is =c$ 9 f "o side1 ?r\gh ! trunnion1 & up ?r\gh ! metal4 ,:]e ! /eel is f9i%$ ! conv]t] is tilt$1 or swung on its trunnions1 ! bla/ turn$ (f1 & ! /eel p\r$ out ( ! top4 ,,op5 ,,he>? ,,process ,! op5 he>? furnace consi/s ( a big brick room ) a l[ ar*$ ro(4 ,x is *>g$ ) pig iron & scrap ?r\gh doors 9 ! side walls4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,a typical ,bessem] conv]t]4 ,?r\gh op5+s at "o end ( ! furnace come hot air & gas1 :i* burn 9 ! furnace1 produc+ suffici5t heat to melt ! *>ge & ref9e x ( its impurities4 ,lime & o!r nonmetallic sub/ances are put 9 ! furnace4 ,^! melt1 =m+ a slag :i* floats on ! metal & aids mat]ially 9 ! ref9+ op]ations4 ,9 ! bessem] process air is =c$ ?r\gh ! metal4 ,9 ! op5-he>? furnace ! metal is protect$ f ! flam+ gases by a slag cov]+4 ,!re=e x is reasonable to suppose t ! f9al product w n conta9 s mu* gas4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,action ( ,bessem] conv]t]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,reg5]ative op5 he>? furnace4 ,a diagram ( a mod]n reg5]ative furnace is %[n 9 ,fig4 #c4 ,air & gas ent] ! he>? ?r\gh *amb]s loosely pack$ ) hot fire brick1 burn1 & exit to ! *imney ?r\gh ano!r pair ( *amb]s1 giv+ to !m "s ( ! heat :i* w\ld o!rwise wa/e4 ,! direction is rev]s$ ab\t e tw5ty m9utes by *ang+ ! position ( ! damp]s4 ,,crucible ,,/eel ,crucible /eel is /ill made by melt+ mat]ial 9 a clay or graphite crucible4 ,ea* crucible conta9s ab\t #dj lb4 ( be/ puddl$ iron1 #dj lb4 ( clean mill scrap--ends trimm$ f tool /eel b>s--& suffici5t ri* alloys & *>coal to make ! mixture con=m to ! desir$ *emical analysis4 ,! crucible is cov]$1 l[]$ into a melt+ hole 7,fig4 #d7 & entirely surr\nd$ by burn+ coke4 ,9 ab\t f\r h\rs ! metal is conv]t$ into a quiet :ite hot liquid4 ,sev]al crucibles are !n pull$ out ( ! hole1 & _! cont5ts c>efully p\r$ into a metal mold1 =m+ an +ot4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,typical crucible furnace4 ,if mod]n high-spe$ /eel is be+ made1 ! +ots are tak5 out ( ! molds :ile /ill r$ hot & plac$ 9 a furnace :i* keeps !m at ?is temp]ature = "s h\rs1 an op]ation kn[n z anneal+4 ,aft] sl[ cool+ any surface defects are gr\nd out4 ,+ots are !n reheat$ to =g+ temp]ature1 hamm]$ d[n into billets ( ab\t "o-qu>t] size1 & #aj to #bj p] c5t ( ! l5g? cut f ! top4 ,aft] reheat+ ! billets are hamm]$ or roll$ into b>s ( desir$ size4 ,f9i%$ b>s are pack$ ) a little *>coal into l>ge pipes1 ! ends seal$1 & anneal$ = two or ?ree days4 ,aft] c>eful inspection & te/+ ! /eel is ready = m>ket4 ,,! ,,electric ,,process ,! f\r? me?od ( manufactur+ /eel is by ! electric furnace4 ,^! furnaces are ( v>i\s sizes & designs2 _! size may be suffici5t = only #ajj lb4 ( metal--on ! o!r h& electric furnaces = mak+ armor-plate /eel w hold #dj tons ( /eel4 ,designs v>y widely accord+ to ! electrical pr9ciples us$4 ,a popul> furnace is ! #f-ton ,h]\lt furnace illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #e4 ,x is se5 to be a squat kettle1 made ( heavy %eet /eel1 ) a di%$ bottom & m\nt$ s x c be tilt$ =w>d slightly & completely dra9$4 ,?is kettle is l9$ ) special fire brick :i* w )/& mo/ int5se heat & resi/ ! cutt+ action ( hot metal & slag4 ,= a ro(1 a l[ dome ( fire brick is provid$4 ,! %ell & l9+ is pi]c$ 9 front = a p\r+ sp\t1 & on ei!r side by doors1 ?r\gh :i* ! raw mat]ial is *>g$4 ,two or ?ree c>bon electrodes--#ah-;94 cyl9d]s ( specially prep>$ coke or graphite--ext5d ?r\gh holes 9 ! ro(4 ,electrical connections are made to ! upp] ends1 & a v high curr5t s5t ?r\gh !m4 ,?is causes trem5d\s arcs to =m betwe5 ! l[] ends ( ! electrodes & ! metal bel[1 & ^! electric arcs are ! only s\rce ( heat 9 ?is /yle ( furnace4 ,electric furnaces c be us$ to d ! same "w z is done 9 crucible furnaces--t is to say1 m]ely melt a *>ge ( c>efully select$ pure raw mat]ials4 ,on ! o!r h& x c be us$ to produce v high-grade /eel f *eap & impure metal1 :5 x acts m l an op5-he>? furnace4 ,x c pu% ! ref9+ ev5 fur!r ?an ! latt] furnace does1 = two reasons3 fir/ ! ba? is n swept cont9u\sly by a flam+ mass ( gases2 second1 ! temp]ature c be run up high]1 enabl+ ! op]ator to make up slags :i* are difficult to melt b v useful to remove small traces ( impurities f ! metal4 ,electric furnaces are widely us$1 n only 9 ! iron indu/ry1 b 9 brass1 copp] & alum9um works4 ,x is a useful melt] ( cold metal = mak+ ca/+s4 ,x c be us$ to conv]t iron into /eel or vice v]sa4 ,its mo/ useful sph]e1 h[ev]1 is z a ref9] ( metal1 :]e9 x takes ei!r cold /eel or molt5 /eel f op5 he>? or bessem] furnaces1 & gives x ! f9i%+ t\*es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,slagg+ (f an electric furnace4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,p\r+ ! +ots4 ,z an illu/ration ( ! furnace reactions t take place ! foll[+ s*$ule is giv51 %[+ ! v>i\s /ages 9 ! mak+ ( a heat ( electric /eel4 ,! /eel to be made 0 a high-c>bon *rome /eel us$ = balls = ball be>+s3 #f-,,ton ,,h]\lt ,,furnace #aa3ej ,a4,m4--,mat]ial *>g$3 ,boil] plate #e1ihj lb4 ,/amp+s #e1iia lb4 ----------- #aa1iga lb4 ,lime/one #gjj lb4 #ab3bi ,p4,m4--,complet$ *>g+ 7curr5t swit*$ on74 #c3bj ,p4,m4--,*>ge melt$ d[n4 ,prelim9>y analysis "u black slag4 ,analysis3 ,c>bon ,silicon ,sulphur ,phosphorus ,manganese #j4jf #j4jad #j4jcb #j4jji #j4jh ,note ! practical elim9ation ( phosphorus4 #c3dj ,p4,m4--,! oxidiz+ 7black7 slag is n[ p\r$ & skimm$ (f z clean z possible to prev5t rephosphoriz+ & to p]mit ( add+ c>buriz+ mat]ials4 ,= ?is purpose c>bon is add$ 9 ! =m ( p[d]$ coke1 gr\nd electrodes or o!r =ms ( pure c>bon4 ,! deoxidiz+ slag is n[ =m$ by additions ( lime1 coke & fluorsp> 7& = "s analyses f]rosilicon74 ,! slag *anges f black to :ite z ! metallic oxides are r$uc$ by ^! deoxidiz+ additions & ! r$uc$ metals return to ! ba?4 ,a good f9i%+ slag is creamy :ite1 por\s & visc\s4 ,aft] ! slag becomes :ite1 "s "t is necess>y = ! absorption ( ! sulphur 9 ! ba? by ! slag4 ,! :ite slag dis9tegrates to a p[d] :5 expos$ to ! atmosph]e & has a pron\nc$ odor ( acetyl5e :5 wet4 ,fur!r additions ( rec>buriz+ mat]ial are add$ z ne$$ to meet ! analysis4 ,! fur!r reactions are %[n by ! foll[+3 #c3dj ,p4,m4--,rec>buriz+ mat]ial add$3 #acj lb4 gr\nd electrodes4 #be lb4 f]romanganese4 ,analysis3 ,c>bon ,silicon ,sulphur ,phosphorus ,manganese #j4gf #j4jaa #j4jcj #j4jjh #j4bf ,to =m :ite slag !re 0 add$3 #bbe lb4 lime4 #ge lb4 p[d]$ coke4 #ee lb4 fluorsp>4 #d3ej ,p4,m4-- ,analysis3 ,c>bon ,silicon ,sulphur ,phosphorus ,manganese #j4ge #j4jad #j4jab #j4jjh #j4bh ,note r$uction ( ! sulphur cont5t4 ,dur+ ! :ite-slag p]iod ! foll[+ alloy+ additions 7 made3 #ejj lb4 pig iron4 #hj lb4 f]rosilicon4 #i lb4 f]romanganese4 #adf lb4 #f p] c5t c>bon f]ro*rome4 ,! furnace 0 rotat$ =w>d to an incl9$ position & ! *>ge p\r$ into ! ladle1 f :i* 9 turn x 0 p\r$ into molds4 #e3dj ,p4,m4--,heat p\r$4 ,analysis3 ,c>bon ,silicon ,sulphur ,phosphorus ,manganese ,*romium #j4ig #j4be #j4jad #j4jac #j4cc #j4gj ,+ot weight p\r$ #id4j p] c5t ,scull #b4g p] c5t ,loss #c4c p] c5t ,total curr5t consumption = ! heat1 #d1gjj k,w4-hr4 or #gaj kw4-hr4 p] ton4 ,electric /eel1 9 fact1 all f9e /eel1 %\ld be ca/ 9 big-end-up molds ) refractory hot tops to prev5t any possibility ( pipage 9 ! body ( ! +ot4 ,9 ! fur!r process+ ( ! +ot1 :e!r 9 ! roll+ mill or =ge1 special precautions %\ld be tak5 9 ! heat+1 9 ! r$uction ( ! metal & 9 ! cool+4 ,no attempt is made to comp>e ! relative m]its ( op5 he>? & electric /eel2 results 9 s]vice1 day 9 & day out1 h1 h[ev]1 ?or\ghly e/abli%$ ! desirability ( electric /eel4 ,t5 ye>s ( exp]i5ce indicate t electric /eel is equal to crucible /eel & sup]ior to op5 he>?4 ,! r>e purity ( ! heat d]iv$ f ! electric are1 comb9$ ) def9ite control ( ! slag 9 a neutral atmosph]e1 expla9s 9 "p ! sup]iority ( electric /eel4 ,comm5t+ on ?is rec5tly ,dr4 ,h4 ,m4 ,h[e /at$ t 9 ! op5 he>? process y h su* atmosph]e & slag conditions z y c get1 & 9 ! electric y h su* atmosph]e & slag conditions z y desire4 ,ano!r type ( electric furnace is %[n 9 ,figs4 #g & #h4 ,?is is ! ,ludlum furnace1 ! illu/rations %[+ a #aj-ton size4 ,figure #g %[s x 9 normal1 or melt+ position1 :ile 9 ,fig4 #h x is tilt$ = p\r+4 ,9 melt+1 ! electrodes fir/ re/ on ! *>ge ( mat]ial 9 ! furnace4 ,aft] ! curr5t is turn$ on !y eat _! way ?r\gh1 ne>ly to ! bottom4 ,by ?is "t !re is a pool ( molt5 metal b5ea? ! electrode & ! *>ge is melt$ f ! bottom up s t ! ro( is n expos$ to ! high temp]ature radiat+ f ! op5 arc4 ,! electrodes 9 ?is furnace are ( graphite1 #i 94 9 diamet] & ! curr5t consum$ is ab\t #ejj kw4-hr4 p] ton4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,ludlum electric furnace4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 ,s4--,! furnace tilt$ = p\r+4 ,"o ( ! ?+s :i* sometimes confuse reg>d+ ! cont5ts ( /eel is ! fact t ! p]c5tage ( c>bon & ! o!r alloys are usually designat$ 9 diff]5t ways4 ,c>bon is usually designat$ by po9ts & ! o!r alloys by p]c5tages4 ,! po9t is "o t5-?\s&? :ile #a p] c5t is "o "o-hundr$? ( ! :ole4 ,9 o!r words1 "o hundr$ po9t c>bon is /eel conta9+ #a p] c5t c>bon4 ,tw5ty po9t c>bon1 su* z is us$ = c>boniz+ purposes is #j4bj p] c5t4 ,tool /eel v>ies f "o hundr$ to "o hundr$ & fifty po9ts c>bon1 or f #a4jj to #a4ej p] c5t4 ,nickel1 *romium1 etc41 are always giv5 9 p] c5t1 z a #c4e p] c5t nickel1 :i* means exactly :at x says--#c-a_/b p>ts 9 #ajj4 ,be>+ ?is diff]5ce 9 m9d all confusion w be avoid$4 ,,classifications ,,( ,,/eel ,among mak]s & sell]s1 c>bon tool-/eels are class$ by grade & temp]4 ,! ^w grade is qualifi$ by _m adjectives ( m or less cryptic mean+1 b 9 g5]al !y aim to d5ote ! process & c>e ) :i* ! /eel is made4 ,temp] ( a /eel ref]s to ! c>bon cont5t4 ,?is %\ld pref]ably be not$ by po9ts1 z j expla9$2 b un=tunately1 a #ec-po9t /eel 7conta9+ #j4ec p] c5t c>bon7 may locally be call$ some?+ l ,no4 #c temp]4 ,a widely us$ me?od ( classify+ /eels 0 orig9at$ by ! ,society ( ,automotive ,eng9e]s4 ,ea* specification is repres5t$ by a numb] ( #d digits1 ! fir/ figure indicat+ ! class1 ! second figure ! approximate p]c5tage ( pr$om9ant alloy+ elem5t1 & ! la/ two ! av]age c>bon cont5t 9 po9ts4 ,pla9 c>bon /eels are class #a1 nickel /eels are class #b1 nickel-*romium /eels are class #c1 *romium /eels are class #e1 *romium-vanadium /eels are class #f1 & silico-manganese /eels are class #i4 ,?us by ?is sy/em1 /eel #bcdj w\ld be a #c p] c5t nickel /eel ) #j4dj p] c5t c>bon2 or /eel #ajbe w\ld be a #j4be pla9 c>bon /eel4 ,/eel mak]s h no uni=m classification = ! v>i\s k9ds ( /eel or /eels us$ = diff]5t purposes4 ,! foll[+ li/ %[s ! names us$ by "s ( ! well-kn[n mak]s3 ,air-h>d5+ /eel ,*rome-vanadium /eel ,alloy /eel ,circul> saw plates ,automobile /eel ,coal aug] /eel ,awl /eel ,coal m9+ pick or cutt] /eel ,axe & hat*et /eel ,coal w$ge /eel ,b& knife /eel ,cone /eel ,b& saw /eel ,crucible ca/ /eel ,but*] saw /eel ,crucible ma*9]y /eel ,*isel /eel ,cutl]y /eel ,*rome-nickel /eel ,draw+ die /eel 7,wortle7 ,drill rod /eel ,pat5t1 bu% or hamm] /eel ,fac+ & weld+ /eel ,pick /eel ,=k /eel ,pivot /eel ,g9 saw /eel ,plane bit /eel ,granite w$ge /eel ,qu>ry /eel ,gun b>rel /eel ,razor /eel ,hack saw /eel ,roll turn+ /eel ,high-spe$ tool /eel ,saw /eel ,hot-roll$ %eet /eel ,scy! /eel ,la! sp9dle /eel ,%e> knife /eel ,lawn m[] knife /eel ,silico-manganese /eel ,ma*9e knife /eel ,sp9dle /eel ,magnet /eel ,spr+ /eel ,m9+ drill /eel ,tool hold] /eel ,nail die %apes ,vanadium tool /eel ,nickel-*rome /eel ,vanadium-*rome /eel ,pap] knife /eel ,wortle /eel ,pass+ to ! tonnage specifications1 ! foll[+ table f ,tiemann's excell5t pocket book on ,iron & ,/eel1 w give an approximate idea ( ! ord9>y designations n[ 9 use3 ,approximate ,grades c>bon range ,common uses ,extra s(t #j4jh-j4ah ,pipe1 *a9 & o!r weld+ purposes2 7dead s(t7 case-h>d5+ purposes2 rivets2 press+ & /amp+ purposes4 ,/ructural 7s(t7 #j4ae-j4be ,/ructural plates1 %apes & b>s = 7m$ium7 bridges1 build+s1 c>s1 locomotives2 boil] 7flange7 /eel2 drop =g+s2 bolts4 ,m$ium #j4bj-j4ce ,/ructural purposes 7%ips72 %aft+2 automobile p>ts2 drop =g+s4 ,m$ium h>d #j4ce-j4fj ,locomotive & simil> l>ge =g+s2 c> axles2 rails4 ,h>d #j4fj-j4he ,wr\ght /eel :eels = /eam & electric railway s]vice2 locomotive tires2 rails2 tools1 su* z sl$ges1 hamm]s1 pick po9ts1 cr[b>s1 etc4 ,spr+ #j4he-a4je ,automobile & o!r vehicle spr+s2 tools1 su* z hot & cold *isels1 rock drills & %e> blades4 ,spr+ #j4ij-a4ae ,railway spr+s2 g5]al ma*9e %op tools4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,composition ,,& ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,/eel ,x is a rem>kable fact t "o c look ?r\gh a doz5 text books on metallurgy & n f9d a def9ition ( ! ^w /eel4 ,"s ( !m describe ! prop]ties ( _m o!r irons & !n all[ y to guess t ev]y?+ else is /eel4 ,if x 0 difficult a hundr$ ye>s ago to give a good def9ition ( ! t]m :5 ! metal 0 made by only "o or two processes1 x is d\bly difficult n[1 s9ce ! introduction ( s _m new op]ations & furnaces4 ,we are 9 bett] %ape to "k :at /eel is ?an our =efa!rs4 ,!y w5t ?r\gh c]ta9 op]ations & !y got a s(t malleable1 weldable metal :i* w\ld n h>d52 ?is !y call$ iron4 ,c]ta9 o!r op]ations gave !m some?+ :i* look$ v mu* l iron1 b :i* w\ld h>d5 aft] qu5*+ f a r$ heat4 ,?is 0 /eel4 ,n kn[+ ! ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 ! two1 !y mu/ di/+ui% by ! process ( manufacture4 ,to-day we c make ei!r v>iety by sev]al me?ods1 & c conv]t ei!r into ! o!r at w1 back & =? z (t5 z we wi%2 s we are able to di/+ui% betwe5 ! two m logically4 ,we "k t iron is a *emical elem5t--! *emi/s write x ,fe = %ort1 aft] ! ,lat9 ^w f]rum1 mean+ iron--x is "o ( ^? sub/ances :i* _c be sep>at$ into any?+ else b itself4 ,x c be made to jo9 ) o!r elem5ts2 = in/ance1 x jo9s ) ! oxyg5 9 ! air & =ms scale or ru/1 sub/ances kn[n to ! *emi/ z iron oxide4 ,b ! same metal iron c be recov]$ f t ru/ by ab/ract+ ! oxyg52 hav+ recov]$ ! iron no?+ else c be extract$ b iron2 iron is elem5tal4 ,we c get relatively pure iron f v>i\s m9]als & artificial sub/ances1 & :5 we get x we always h a magnetic metal1 almo/ infusible1 ductile1 fairly /rong1 t\gh1 some?+ :i* c be h>d5$ slightly by hamm]+ b :i* _c be h>d5$ by qu5*+4 ,x has c]ta9 *emical prop]ties1 :i* ne$ n be describ$1 :i* all[ a skill$ *emi/ to di/+ui% x )\t difficulty & un]r+ly f ! o!r kn[n elem5ts--ne>ly #ajj ( !m4 ,c>bon is ano!r *emical elem5t1 writt5 ,c = %ort1 :i* is widely di/ribut$ ?r\gh nature4 ,c>bon also readily comb9es ) oxyg5 & o!r *emical elem5ts1 s t x is r>ely f\nd pure2 its mo/ famili> =m is soot1 al?\gh ! r>] graphite & mo/ r>e diamond are also =ms ( q pure c>bon4 ,x c also be readily sep>at$ f its multitude ( comp\nds 7vegetation1 coal1 lime/one1 petroleum7 by ! *emi/4 ,) ! rise ( k ( sci5tific *emi/ry1 x 0 quickly f\nd t ! ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 iron & /eel 0 t ! latt] 0 iron plus c>bon4 ,consequ5tly x is an alloy1 & ! def9ition :i* mod]n metallurgi/s accept is ?is3 ,/eel is an iron-c>bon alloy conta9+ less ?an ab\t #b p] c5t c>bon4 ,( c\rse !re are o!r elem5ts conta9$ 9 comm]cial /eel1 & ^! elem5ts are especially important 9 mod]n alloy /eels1 b c>bon is ! elem5t :i* *anges a s(t metal into "o :i* may be h>d5$1 & /r5g!n$ by qu5*+4 ,9 fact1 c>bon1 ( itself1 )\t heat treatm5t1 /r5g!ns iron at ! exp5se ( ductility 7z not$ by ! p]c5tage elongation an #h-;94 b> w /ret* be=e break+74 ,?is is %[n by ! foll[+ table3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,ela/ic ,ultimate,p]c5tage4 ,class by use4 ,class by ,p] c5t limit /r5g?elongation h>dness4 c>bon4 lb4 p] lb4 p] 9 #h in*es4 sq4 94 sq4 94 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,boil] rivet /eel,dead s(t #j4jh to #j4ae #be1jjj #ej1jjj #cj ,/ruc4 rivet /eel,s(t #j4ae to #j4bb #cj1jjj #ee1jjj #cj ,boil] plate /eel,s(t #j4jh to #j4aj #cj1jjj #fj1jjj #be ,/ructural /eel ,m$ium #j4ah to #j4cj #ce1jjj #fe1jjj #be ,ma*9]y /eel ,h>d #j4ce to #j4fj #dj1jjj #ge1jjj #bj ,rail /eel ,h>d #j4ce to #j4ee #dj1jjj #ge1jjj #ae ,spr+ /eel ,high c>bon#a4jj to #a4ej #fj1jjj #abe1jjj #aj ,tool /eel ,high c>bon#j4ij to #a4ej #hj1jjj #aej1jjj #e ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,j :y a s(t mat]ial l c>bon 7graphite71 :5 add$ to ano!r s(t mat]ial l iron1 %\ld make ! iron h>d]1 has be5 q a my/]y1 & "o :i* has caus$ a trem5d\s am\nt ( /udy4 ,! mutual int]actions ( ^! two elem5ts 9 v>i\s proportions & at v>i\s temp]atures w be discuss$ at great] l5g? lat]1 especially 9 ,*ap4 ,,viii1 p4 #aje4 ,b we may anticipate by say+ t "s ( ! iron unites ) all ! c>bon to =m a new sub/ance1 v h>d1 a c>bide :i* has be5 call$ cem5tite4 ,! comp\nd always conta9s iron & c>bon 9 ! proportions ( ?ree atoms ( iron to "o atom ( c>bon2 *emi/s note ?is fact 9 %or?& by ! symbol ,fe#c;,c 7a def9ite *emical comp\nd ( ?ree atoms ( iron to "o ( c>bon74 ,_m ( ! prop]ties ( /eel1 z !y v>y ) c>bon cont5t1 c be l9k$ up ) ! increas+ am\nt ( ?is h>d c>bide cem5tite1 di/ribut$ 9 v f9e p>ticles ?r\gh ! s(t] iron4 ,,sulphur is ano!r elem5t 7symbol ,s7 :i* is always f\nd 9 /eel 9 small quantities4 ,"s sulphur is conta9$ 9 ! ore f :i* ! iron is smelt$2 m sulphur is introduc$ by ! coke & fuel us$4 ,sulphur is v difficult to get rid ( 9 /eel mak+2 9 fact ! result+ metal usually conta9s a little m ?an ! raw mat]ials us$4 ,only ! electric furnace is able to produce ! necess>y heat & slags requir$ to elim9ate sulphur1 & z a matt] ( fact ! sulphur does n g until sev]al o!r impurities h be5 elim9at$4 ,consequ5tly1 an electric /eel ) extremely l[ sulphur 7#j4jb p] c5t7 is by t same tok5 a well-made metal4 ,sulphur is ( mo/ tr\ble to roll+ & =g+ op]ations :5 conduct$ at a r$ heat4 ,x makes /eel t5d] & brittle at t temp]ature--a condition kn[n to ! workm5 z r$-%ort4 ,x seems to h little or no effect ^u ! physical prop]ties ( cold /eel--at lea/ z reveal$ by ! ord9>y te/+ ma*9es--consequ5tly _m specifications d n set any limit on sulphur1 re/+ on ! idea t if sulphur is l[ en\gh n to cause tr\ble to ! manufactur] dur+ roll+1 x w n cause ! us] any tr\ble4 ,tool /eel & o!r f9e /eels %\ld be v l[ 9 sulphur1 pref]ably n high] ?an #j4jc p] c5t4 ,high] sulphur /eels 7#j4jf p] c5t1 & ev5 up to #j4aj p] c5t7 h giv5 v good s]vice = ma*9e p>ts1 b 9 g5]al a high sulphur /eel is a suspici\s /eel4 ,screw /ock is purposely made ) up to #j4ab p] c5t sulphur & a l am\nt ( phosphorus s x w cut freely4 ,manganese c\nt]acts ! detrim5tal effect ( sulphur :5 pres5t 9 ! /eel to an am\nt at lea/ five times ! sulphur cont5t4 ,,phosphorus is an elem5t 7symbol ,p7 :i* ent]s ! metal f ! ore4 ,x rema9s 9 ! /eel :5 made by ! s-call$ acid process1 b x c be easily elim9at$ d[n to #j4jf p] c5t 9 ! basic process4 ,9 fact ! discov]y ( ! basic process 0 necess>y be=e ! huge iron deposits ( ,belgium & ! ,franco-,g]man bord] c\ld be us$4 ,^! ores conta9 sev]al p] c5t phosphorus1 & made a v brittle /eel 7cold %ort7 until basic furnaces 7 us$4 ,basic furnaces all[ ! =mation ( a slag high 9 lime1 :i* takes practically all ! phosphorus out ( ! metal4 ,n only is ! result+ metal usable1 b ! slag makes a v excell5t f]tiliz]1 & is 9 good dem&4 ,,silicon is a v widespread elem5t 7symbol ,si71 be+ an ess5tial con/itu5t ( ne>ly all ! rocks ( ! e>?4 ,x is simil> to c>bon 9 _m ( its *emical prop]ties2 = in/ance x burns v readily 9 oxyg51 & consequ5tly native silicon is unkn[n--x is always f\nd 9 comb9ation ) "o or m o!r elem5ts4 ,:5 x bums1 ea* atom ( silicon unites ) two atoms ( oxyg5 to =m a comp\nd kn[n to *emi/s z silica 7,si,o#b71 & to ! small boy z s& & agate4 ,iron ore 7an oxide ( iron7 conta9s m or less s& & dirt mix$ 9 x :5 x is m9$1 & n only ! iron oxide b also "s ( ! silicon oxide is robb$ ( its oxyg5 by ! smelt+ process4 ,pig iron--! product ( ! bla/ furnace--!re=e conta9s f #a to #c p] c5t ( silicon1 & "s silicon rema9s 9 ! metal aft] x has be5 purifi$ & conv]t$ into /eel4 ,h[ev]1 silicon1 z not$ above1 burns v readily 9 oxyg51 & ?is prop]ty is ( good use 9 /eel mak+4 ,at ! end ( ! /eel-mak+ process ! metal conta9s m or less oxyg51 :i* mu/ be remov$4 ,?is is sometimes done 7especially 9 ! s-call$ acid process7 by add+ a small am\nt ( silicon to ! hot metal j be=e x leaves ! furnace1 & /irr+ x 94 ,x !reupon ab/racts oxyg5 f ! metal :]ev] x f9ds x1 *ang+ to silica 7,si,o#b7 :i* rises & floats on ! surface ( ! clean$ metal4 ,mo/ ( ! silicon rema9+ 9 ! metal is an excess ov] t :i* is requir$ to remove ! dang]\s oxyg51 & ! f9al analysis ( _m /eels %[ en\gh silicon 7f #j4bj to #j4dj7 to make sure t ?is /ep 9 ! manufacture has be5 prop]ly done4 ,,manganese is a metal mu* l iron4 ,its *emical symbol is ,mn4 ,x is some:at m active ?an iron 9 _m *emical *anges--notably x has :at is app>5tly a /rong] attraction = oxyg5 & sulphur ?an has iron4 ,!re=e ! metal is us$ 7especially 9 ! s-call$ basic process7 to free ! molt5 /eel ( oxyg51 act+ 9 a mann] simil> to silicon1 z expla9$ above4 ,! comp\nd ( manganese & oxyg5 is readily elim9at$ f ! metal4 ,suffici5t excess ( elem5tal manganese %\ld rema9 s t ! pur*as] may be sure t ! iron has be5 prop]ly deoxidiz$1 & to r5d] h>mless ! traces ( sulphur pres5t4 ,no damage is done by ! pres5ce ( a little manganese 9 /eel1 q ! rev]se4 ,consequ5tly x is common to f9d /eels conta9+ f #j4c to #a4e p] c5t4 ,,alloy+ ,,elem5ts4--,comm]cial /eels ( ev5 ! simple/ types are !re=e prim>ily alloys ( iron & c>bon4 ,impurities & _! rem$ies are always pres5t3 sulphur1 phosphorus1 silicon & manganese--to say no?+ ( oxyg51 nitrog5 & c>bon oxide gases1 ab\t :i* we "k v little4 ,x has be5 f\nd t o!r metals1 if add$ to well-made /eel1 produce def9ite improvem5ts 9 c]ta9 directions1 & ^! alloy /eels h f\nd mu* use 9 ! la/ t5 ye>s4 ,alloy /eels1 9 addition to ! above-m5tion$ elem5ts1 may commonly conta9 "o or m ( ! foll[+1 9 v>y+ am\nts3 ,nickel 7,ni71 ,*romium 7,cr71 ,vanadium 7,va71 ,tung/5 7,w71 ,molybd5um 7,mo74 ,^! /eels w be discuss$ at m l5g? 9 ,*apt]s ,,iii & ,,iv4 ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,/eel ,/eels are kn[n by c]ta9 te/s4 ,e>ly te/s 7 m or less crude1 & dep5d$ ^u ! ability ( ! workman to judge ! gra9 exhibit$ by a fre%ly brok5 piece ( /eel4 ,! cold-b5d te/ 0 also v useful--a small b> 0 b5t flat ^u itself1 & ! /ret*$ fib]s exam9$ = any sign ( break4 ,h>d] /iff /eels 7 support$ at ! ends & ! am\nt ( c5tral load !y w\ld support be=e fracture1 or ! am\nt ( p]man5t set !y w\ld acquire at a giv5 load not$4 ,files 7 also us$ to te/ ! h>dness ( v h>d /eel4 ,^! te/s are /ill us$ to a consid]able ext5t1 especially 9 works :]e ! progress ( an op]ation c be kept "u close wat* 9 ?is way1 ! product be+ p]iodically exam9$ by m precise me?ods4 ,! *ief furnace-man1 or melt]1 9 a /eel plant1 judges ! c\rse ( ! ref9+ process by ca/+ small te/ +ots f "t to "t1 break+ !m & exam9+ ! fracture4 ,cutl]y manufactur]s use ! b5d te/ to judge ! temp] ( blades4 ,file te/+ ( case-h>d5$ p>ts is v common4 ,h[ev] !re is ne$ ( /&>diz$ me?ods :i* dep5d less ^u ! individual skill ( ! op]ator1 & :i* w yield results comp>able to o!rs made by diff]5t m5 at diff]5t places & on diff]5t /eels4 ,h5ce has gr[n up ! art ( te/+ mat]ials4 ,,t5sile ,,prop]ties ,/r5g? ( a metal is usually express$ 9 ! numb] ( p\nds a #a-;94 b> w support j be=e break+1 a t]m call$ ! ultimate /r5g?4 ,x has be5 f\nd t ! %ape ( ! te/ b> & its me?od ( load+ has "s effect ^u ! results1 s x is n[ usual to turn a rod #e-a_/b 94 long d[n to #j4eje 94 9 diamet] = a c5tral l5g? ( #b-c_/h 941 end+ ! turn ) #a_/b-;94 fillets4 ,! area ( ! b> equals #j4b sq4 941 s ! load x be>s at rupture multipli$ by #e w repres5t ! ultimate /r5g? 9 p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,su* a te/ b> is /ret*$ ap>t 9 a ma*9e l t %[n 9 ,fig4 #i4 ,! upp] end ( ! b> is held 9 w$g$ jaws by ! top cross-head1 & ! l[] end grasp$ by ! movable head4 ,! latt] is mov$ up & d[n by ?ree long screws1 driv5 at ! same spe$1 :i* pass ?r\gh ?reads cut 9 ! corn]s ( ! cross-head4 ,:5 ! te/ piece is fix$ 9 position ! motor :i* drives ! ma*9e is giv5 a few turns1 :i* by prop] ge>+ pulls ! cross-head d[n ) a c]ta9 pull4 ,?is pull is transmitt$ to ! upp] cross-head by ! te/ b>1 & c be weigh$ on ! scale arm1 act+ ?r\gh a sy/em ( l9ks & lev]s4 ,?us ! load may be increas$ z rapidly z desirable1 always kept balanc$ by ! weigh+ me*anism1 & ! load at fracture may be read directly f ! scale beam4 ,?is same te/ piece may give o!r in=mation4 ,if light pun* m>ks are made1 #b 94 ap>t1 be=e ! te/ is begun1 ! brok5 ends may be clamp$ toge!r1 & ! di/ance betwe5 pun* m>ks measur$4 ,if x n[ measures #c 94 ! /ret* has be5 #a 94 9 #b1 or #ej p] c5t4 ,?is figure is kn[n z ! elongation at fracture1 or briefly1 ! elongation1 & is g5]ally tak5 to be a measure ( ductility4 ,:5 /eel %[s any elongation1 x also contracts 9 area at ! same "t4 ,(t5 ?is contraction is %>ply localiz$ at ! fracture2 ! piece is said to neck4 ,a figure = contraction 9 area is also ( mu* int]e/ z an indication ( t\ghness2 ! diamet] at fracture is measur$1 a correspond+ area tak5 out f a table ( circles1 subtract$ f ! orig9al area 7#j4bjj sq4 947 & ! diff]5ce divid$ by #j4b to get ! p]c5tage contraction4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,ols5 te/+ ma*9e4 ,q (t5 x is desir$ to discov] ! ela/ic limit ( ! /eel1 9 fact ?is is ( m use to ! design] ?an ! ultimate /r5g?4 ,! ela/ic limit is usually v close to ! load :]e ! metal takes on a p]man5t set4 ,t is to say1 if a delicate calip] 7ext5somet]1 s call$7 be fix$ to ! side ( ! te/ specim51 x w\ld %[ ! piece to be some:at long] "u load ?an :5 free4 ,fur!rmore1 if ! load _h n yet rea*$ ! yield po9t1 & 7 releas$ at any "t1 ! piece w\ld return to its orig9al l5g?4 ,h[ev]1 if ! load _h be5 excessive1 & !n reliev$1 ! ext5somet] w\ld no long] read exactly #b4j 941 b some?+ m4 ,s(t /eels give v quickly at ! yield po9t4 ,9 fact1 if ! te/+ ma*9e is runn+ sl[ly1 x takes "s "t = ! l[] head to cat* up ) ! /ret*+ /eel4 ,consequ5tly at ! yield po9t1 ! top head is sudd5ly b only tempor>ily reliev$ ( load1 & ! scale beam drops4 ,9 comm]cial practice1 ! yield po9t is !re=e det]m9$ by ! drop ( ! beam4 ,= m precise "w ! calip]s are read at int]vals ( #ejj or #a1jjj lb4 load1 & a curve plott$ f ^! results1 a curve :i* runs /raight up to ! ela/ic limit1 b !re b5ds (f4 ,a t5sile te/ !re=e gives f\r prop]ties ( great usefulness3 ,! yield po9t1 ! ultimate /r5g?1 ! elongation & ! contraction4 ,compression te/s are seldom made1 s9ce ! action ( metal 9 compression & 9 t5sion is closely alli$1 & ! design] is usually satisfi$ ) ! latt]4 ,,impact ,,te/s ,impact te/s are ( consid]able importance z an indication ( h[ a metal w p]=m "u %ock4 ,"s eng9e]s ?9k t ! t5sile te/1 :i* is "o made "u sl[ load+1 %\ld !re=e be supplem5t$ by ano!r %[+ :at w happ5 if ! load is appli$ almo/ in/antane\sly4 ,?is te/1 h[ev]1 has n be5 /&>diz$1 & dep5ds to a consid]able ext5t ^u ! type ( ma*9e1 b m especially ! size ( ! specim5 & ! way x is nick$4 ,! ma*9e is g5]ally a sw++ heavy p5dulum4 ,x falls a c]ta9 height1 /rikes ! sample at ! l[e/ po9t1 & sw+s on pa/4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! d[nw>d & upw>d sw+ is a measure ( ! en]gy x took to break ! te/ piece4 ,,fatigue ,,te/s ,x has be5 kn[n = fifty ye>s t a beam or rod w\ld fail at a relatively l[ /ress if only repeat$ (t5 en\gh4 ,x has be5 f\nd1 h[ev]1 t ea* mat]ial possesses a limit+ /ress1 or endurance limit1 )9 :i* x is safe1 no matt] h[ (t5 ! load+ occurs4 ,t limit+ /ress = all /eels s f> inve/igat$ causes fracture bel[ #aj million rev]sals4 ,9 o!r words1 a /eel :i* w n break be=e #aj1jjj1jjj rev]sals c confid5tly be expect$ to endure #ajj1jjj1jjj1 & d\btless into ! billions4 ,ab\t ! only way to te/ "o piece su* a l>ge numb] ( times is to fa%ion x into a beam1 load x1 & !n turn ! beam 9 its supports4 ,?us ! /ress 9 ! out] fib]s ( ! b> v>ies f a maximum /ret* ?r\gh z]o to a maximum compression1 & back aga94 ,a simple ma*9e ( ?is sort is %[n 9 ,fig4 #aj1 :]e ,b & ,e are be>+s1 ,a ! te/ piece1 turn$ slightly d[n 9 ! c5t]1 ,c & ,d ball be>+s support+ a load ,w4 ,k is a pulley = driv+ ! ma*9e & ,n is a c\nt]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,sket* ( rotat+ beam ma*9e = measur+ endurance ( metal4 ,,h>dness ,,te/+ ,! ^w h>dness is us$ to express v>i\s prop]ties ( metals1 & is measur$ 9 z _m diff]5t ways4 ,scrat* h>dness is us$ by ! geologi/1 :o has con/ruct$ ,moh's scale z foll[s3 ,talc has a h>dness ( #a ,rock ,salt has a h>dness ( #b ,calcite has a h>dness ( #c ,fluorite has a h>dness ( #d ,apatite has a h>dness ( #e ,feldsp> has a h>dness ( #f ,qu>tz has a h>dness ( #g ,topaz has a h>dness ( #h ,corundum has a h>dness ( #i ,diamond has a h>dness ( #aj ,a m9]al w scrat* all ^? above x 9 ! s]ies1 & w be scrat*$ by ^? bel[4 ,a weight$ diamond cone drawn sl[ly ov] a surface w leave a pa? ! wid? ( :i* 7measur$ by a microscope7 v>ies inv]sely z ! scrat* h>dness4 ,cutt+ h>dness is measur$ by a /&>diz$ drill+ ma*9e1 & has a limit$ application 9 ma*9e-%op practice4 ,reb\nd+ h>dness is commonly measur$ by ! ,%ore scl]oscope1 illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #aa4 ,a small /eel hamm]1 #a_/d 94 9 diamet]1 #c_/d 94 9 l5g?1 & weigh+ ab\t #a_/ab oz4 is dropp$ a di/ance ( #aj 94 ^u ! te/ piece4 ,! height ( reb\nd 9 arbitr>y units repres5ts ! h>dness num]al4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,%ore scl]oscope4 ,%\ld ! hamm] h a h>d flat surface & drop on /eel s h>d t no impression 7 made1 x w\ld reb\nd ab\t #ij p] c5t ( ! fall4 ,! po9t1 h[ev]1 consi/s ( a slightly sph]ical1 blunt diamond nose #j4jb 94 9 diamet]1 :i* w ind5t ! /eel to a c]ta9 ext5t4 ,! "w requir$ to make ! ind5tation is tak5 f ! en]gy ( ! fall+ body2 ! reb\nd w absorb ! balance1 & ! hamm] w n[ rise f ! same /eel a di/ance equal to ab\t #ge p] c5t ( ! fall4 ,a p]man5t impression is left ^u ! te/ piece because ! impact w develop a =ce ( sev]al hundr$ ?\s& p\nds p] squ>e in* "u ! t9y diamond-po9t$ hamm] head1 /ress+ ! te/ piece at ?is po9t ( contact mu* beyond its ultimate /r5g?4 ,! reb\nd is ?us dep5d5t ^u ! ind5tation h>dness1 = ! reason t ! less ! ind5tation1 ! m en]gy w reappe> 9 ! reb\nd2 also1 ! less ! ind5tation1 ! h>d] ! mat]ial4 ,consequ5tly1 ! h>d] ! mat]ial1 ! m ! reb\nd4 ,ind5tation h>dness is a measure ( a mat]ial's resi/ance to p5etration & de=mation4 ,! /&>d te/+ ma*9e is ! ,br9ell1 ,fig4 #ab4 ,a h>d5$ /eel ball1 #aj mm4 9 diamet]1 is =c$ into ! te/ piece ) a pressure ( #c1jjj kg4 7#c-a_/c tons74 ,! result+ ind5tation is !n measur$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,hydraulic te/+ ma*9e4 7,br9ell pr9ciple47 ,:ile "u load1 ! /eel ball 9 a ,br9ell ma*9e naturally flatt5s some:at4 ,! ind5tation left beh9d 9 ! te/ piece is a duplicate ( ! surface :i* made x1 & is usually reg>d$ z be+ ! segm5t ( a sph]e ( some:at l>g] radius ?an ! ball4 ,! radius ( curvature ( ?is sph]ical ind5tation w v>y slightly ) ! load & ! dep? ( ind5tation4 ,! ,br9ell h>dness num]al is ! quoti5t f\nd by divid+ ! te/ pressure 9 kilograms by ! sph]ical area ( ! ind5tation4 ,! d5om9ator1 z be=e1 w v>y accord+ to ! size ( ! sph]e1 ! h>dness ( ! sph]e & ! load4 ,^! items h be5 /&>diz$1 & ! foll[+ table has be5 con/ruct$ s t if ! diamet] ( ! id5tation produc$ by a load ( #c1jjj kg4 be measur$ ! h>dness num]al is f\nd directly4 ,,table ,,= ,,br9ell ,,ball ,,te/ ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,diamet] ( ,ball ,h>dness ,numb] ,diamet] ( ,ball ,h>dness ,numb] ,impression1 mm4 = a ,load ( ,impression1 mm4 = a ,load ( #c1jjj kg4 #c1jjj kg4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- #b4j #idf #d4e #agi #b4a #heg #d4f #agj #b4b #ghb #d #g #afc #b4c #gac #d4h #aef #b4d #feb #d4i #adi #b4e #fjj #e4j #adc #b4f #eee #e4a #acg #b4g #eab #e4b #aca #b4h #dgg #e4c #abf #b4i #ddd #e4d #aba #c4j #dah #e4e #aaf #c4a #chg #e4f #aab #c4b #cfd #e4g #ajg #c4c #cdj #e4h #ajc #c4d #cba #e4i #ii #c4e #cjb #f4j #ie #c4f #bhf #f4a #ib #c4g #bfi #f4b #hi #c4h #bee #f4c #hf #c4i #bda #f4d #hc #d4j #bbh #f4e #hj #d4a #bag #f4f #gg #d4b #bjg #f4g #gd #d4c #aif #f4h #ga4e #d4d #ahg #f4i #fi ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,alloys ,,& ,,_! ,,effect ,,^u ,,/eel ,9 view ( ! fact t alloy /eels are com+ into a great deal ( prom95ce1 x w\ld be well = ! us]s ( ^! /eels to fully appreciate ! effects ( ! alloys ^u ! v>i\s grades ( /eel4 ,we h endeavor$ to summ>ize ! effect ( ^! alloys s t ! us]s c appreciate _! effect1 )\t hav+ to /udy a metallurgical treatise & !n1 p]haps1 n get ! crux ( ! matt]4 ,,nickel ,nickel may be consid]$ z ! t\ghe/ among ! non-r>e alloys n[ us$ 9 /eel manufacture4 ,orig9ally nickel 0 add$ to give increas$ /r5g? & t\ghness ov] t obta9$ ) ! ord9>y roll$ /ructural /eel & little attempt 0 made to utilize its great possibilities s f> z heat treatm5t 0 conc]n$4 ,! difficulties exp]i5c$ h be5 a t5d5cy t[>ds lam9at$ /ructure dur+ manufacture & great liability to seam1 bo? aris+ f improp] melt+ practice4 ,:5 extra c>e is ex]cis$ 9 ! manufacture1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! melt+ & roll+1 _m ( ^! difficulties c be ov]come4 ,! electric /eel furnace1 ( mod]n con/ruction1 is a v important /ep =w>d 9 ! melt+ ( nickel /eel2 nei!r ! crucible process nor basic or acid op5-he>? furnaces give su* good results4 ,great c>e mu/ be ex]cis$ 9 reheat+ ! billet = roll+ s t ! /eel is correctly soak$4 ,! roll+ mu/ n be =c$2 too big r$uction p] pass %\ld n be indulg$ 91 z ?is sets up a t5d5cy t[>ds seams4 ,nickel /eel has rem>kably good me*anical qualities :5 suitably heat-treat$1 & x is preem95tly adapt$ = case-h>d5+4 ,x is n difficult to ma*9e l[-nickel /eel1 consequ5tly x is 9 great favor :]e easy ma*9+ prop]ties are ( importance4 ,nickel influ5ces ! /r5g? & ductility ( /eel by be+ dissolv$ directly 9 ! iron or f]rite2 9 ?is respect diff]+ f *romium1 tung/5 & vanadium4 ,! addition ( ea* #a p] c5t nickel up to #e p] c5t w cause an approximate increase ( f #d1jjj to #f1jjj lb4 p] squ>e in* 9 ! t5sile /r5g? & ela/ic limit ov] ! correspond+ /eel & )\t any decrease 9 ductility4 ,! /atic /r5g? ( nickel /eel is affect$ to "s degree by ! p]c5tage ( c>bon2 = in/ance1 /eel ) #j4be p] c5t c>bon & #c4e p] c5t nickel has a t5sile /r5g?1 9 its normal /ate1 equal to a /raight c>bon /eel ( #j4e p] c5t ) a proportionately great] ela/ic limit & reta9+ all ! advantages ( ! ductility ( ! l[] c>bon4 ,to br+ out ! full qualities ( nickel x mu/ be heat-treat$1 o!rwise !re is no object 9 us+ nickel z an alloy ) c>bon /eel z ! additional co/ is n ju/ifi$ by increas$ /r5g?4 ,nickel has a peculi> effect ^u ! critical ranges ( /eel1 ! critical range be+ l[]$ by ! p]c5tage ( nickel2 9 ?is respect x is simil> to manganese4 ,nickel c be alloy$ ) /eel 9 v>i\s p]c5tages1 ea* p]c5tage hav+ a v def9ite effect on ! micro/ructure4 ,= in/ance1 a /eel ) #j4b p] c5t c>bon & #b p] c5t nickel has a pe>litic /ructure b ! gra9 is mu* f9] ?an if ! /raight c>bon 7 us$4 ,) ! same c>bon cont5t & say #e p] c5t nickel1 ! /ructure w\ld /ill be pe>litic1 b mu* f9] & d5s]1 !re=e capable ( )/&+ %ock1 & hav+ great] dynamic /r5g?4 ,) ab\t #j4b p] c5t c>bon & #h p] c5t nickel1 ! /eel is ne>+ ! /age betwe5 pe>lite & m>t5site1 & ! /ructure is extremely f9e1 ! f]rite & pe>lite hav+ a v pron\nc$ t5d5cy to mimic a purely m>t5site /ructure4 ,/eel ) #j4b p] c5t c>bon & #ae p] c5t nickel is entirely m>t5site4 ,high] p]c5tages ( nickel *ange ! m>t5sitic /ructure to au/5ite1 ! /eel !n be+ non-magnetic4 ,! high] p]c5tages1 t is #cj to #ce p] c5t nickel1 are us$ = valve seats1 valve heads1 & valve /ems1 z ! alloy is a poor conductor ( heat & is p>ticul>ly free f any t5d5cy t[>ds corrosion or pitt+ f ! action ( wa/e gases ( ! int]nal-combu/ion eng9e4 ,nickel /eels hav+ #c-a_/b p] c5t nickel & #j4ae to #j4bj p] c5t c>bon are excell5t = case-h>d5+ purposes1 giv+ h>d surfaces & t\gh int]iors4 ,to obta9 ! full effect ( nickel z an alloy1 x is ess5tial t ! correct p]c5tage ( c>bon be us$4 ,high nickel & l[ c>bon w n be m effici5t ?an l[] nickel & high] c>bon1 b ! co/ w be mu* great]4 ,g5]ally speak+1 heat-treat$ nickel alloy /eels are ab\t two to ?ree times /rong] ?an ! same /eel anneal$4 ,?is po9t is v important z _m in/ances h be5 f\nd :]e nickel /eel is incorrectly us$1 be+ employ$ :5 9 ! anneal$ or normal /ate4 ,,*romium ,*romium :5 alloy$ ) /eel1 has ! *>act]i/ic function ( oppos+ ! dis9tegration & recon/ruction ( cem5tite4 ,?is is demon/rat$ by ! *anges 9 ! critical ranges ( ?is alloy /eel tak+ place sl[ly2 9 o!r words1 x has a t5d5cy to raise ! ,ac range 7decalesc5t po9ts7 & l[] ! ,ar range 7recalesc5t po9ts74 ,*romium /eels are !re=e capable ( great h>dness1 due to ! rapid cool+ be+ able to ret>d ! decomposition ( ! au/5ite4 ,! great h>dness ( *romium /eels is also due to ! =mation ( d\ble c>bides ( *romium & iron4 ,?is condition is n remov$ :5 ! /eel is slightly temp]$ or drawn4 ,?is additional h>dness is also obta9$ )\t caus+ undue brittl5ess su* z w\ld be obta9$ by any increase ( c>bon4 ,! degree ( h>dness ( ! l[]-*rome /eels is dep5d5t ^u ! c>bon cont5t1 z *romium alone w n h>d5 iron4 ,! t\ghness s noticeable 9 ?is /eel is ! result ( ! f95ess ( /ructure2 9 ?is in/ance1 ! action is simil> to t ( nickel1 & ! t5sile /r5g? & ela/ic limit is !re=e increas$ )\t any loss ( ductility4 ,we !n h ! desirable condition ( t\gh h>dness1 mak+ *rome /eels extremely valuable = all purposes requir+ great resi/ance to we>1 & 9 high]-*rome cont5ts resi/ance to corrosion4 ,all *romium-alloy /eels (f] great resi/ance to corrosion & erosion4 ,9 view ( ?is1 x is surpris+ t *romium /eels are n m l>gely us$ = /ructural /eel "w & = all purposes :]e ! /eel has to )/& ! corrod+ action ( air & liquids4 ,bridges1 %ips1 /eel build+1 etc41 w\ld (f] great] resi/ance to det]ioration ?r\gh ru/ if ! *romium-alloy /eels 7 employ$4 ,prolong$ heat+ & high temp]atures h a v bad effect ^u *romium /eels4 ,9 ?is respect !y diff] f nickel /eels1 :i* are n s affect$ by prolong$ heat+1 b *romium /eels w /& high] temp]atures ?an nickel /eels :5 ! p]iod is %ort4 ,*romium /eels1 due to _! admirable prop]ty ( increas$ h>dness1 )\t ! loss ( ductility1 make v excell5t *isels & impact tools ( all types1 al?\gh = die blocks !y d n give su* good results z c be obta9$ f o!r alloy comb9ations4 ,= ball be>+ /eels1 :]e int5se h>dness ) great t\ghness & ready recov]y f tempor>y deflection is requir$1 *romium z an alloy (f]s ! be/ solution4 ,two p] c5t *romium /eels2 due to _! v h>d t\gh surface1 are l>gely us$ = armor-pi]c+ projectiles1 cold rolls1 cru%]s1 draw+ dies1 etc4 ,! normal /ructure ( *romium /eels1 ) a v l[ c>bon cont5t is r\ghly pe>litic up to #g p] c5t1 & m>t5sitic f #h to #bj p] c5t2 !re=e1 ! greate/ application is 9 ! pe>litic zone or ! l[] p]c5tages4 ,,nickel-,,*romium ,a comb9ation ( ! *>act]i/ics ( nickel & ! *>act]i/ics ( *romium1 z describ$1 %\ld obvi\sly give a v excell5t /eel z ! nickel p>ticul>ly affects ! f]rite ( ! /eel & ! *romium ! c>bon4 ,f ?is comb9ation1 we are able to get a v /rong f]rite matrix & a v h>d t\gh cem5tite4 ,! /r5g? ( a /rictly pe>litic /eel ov] a pure iron is due to ! pe>litic be+ a lay] arrangem5t ( cem5tite runn+ p>allel to t ( a pure iron lay] 9 ea* individual gra94 ,! f]rite i4e41 ! iron is increas$ 9 /r5g? by ! resi/ance (f]$ by ! cem5tite :i* is ! simple iron-c>bon comb9ation kn[n to metallurgi/s z ,fe#c;,c4 ,! cem5tite1 al?\gh add+ to ! t5sile /r5g?1 is v brittle & ! /r5g? ( ! pe>lite is ! comb9ation ( ! f]rite & cem5tite4 ,9 ! ev5t ( ! cem5tite be+ /r5g!n$1 z 9 ! case ( /rictly *romium /eels1 an increas$ t5sile /r5g? is readily obta9$ )\t loss ( ductility & if ! f]rite is /r5g!n$ !n ! t5sile /r5g? & ductility ( ! metal is /ill fur!r improv$4 ,nickel-*romium alloy repres5ts "o ( ! be/ comb9ations available at ! pres5t "t4 ,! nickel int5sifies ! physical *>act]i/ics ( ! *romium & ! *romium has a simil> effect on ! nickel4 ,= case-h>d5+1 nickel-*romium /eels seem to give v excell5t results4 ,! c>bon is v rapidly tak5 up 9 ?is comb9ation1 & = t reason is r pref]able to ! /raight nickel /eel4 ,) ! mutually int5sify+ action ( *romium & nickel !re is a mo/ suitable ratio = ^! two alloys1 & x has be5 f\nd t r\ghly #b-a_/b p>ts ( nickel to ab\t #a "p ( *romium gives ! be/ results4 ,!re=e1 we h ! /&>d types ( #c4e p] c5t nickel ) #a4e p] c5t *romium to #a4e p] c5t nickel ) #j4f p] c5t *romium & ! v>i\s int]m$iate types4 ,?is ratio1 h[ev]1 does n give ! :ole /ory ( nickel-*romium comb9ations1 & _m surpris+ results h be5 obta9$ ) ^! alloys :5 o!r p]c5tage comb9ations h be5 employ$4 ,,vanadium ,vanadium has a v m>k$ effect ^u alloy /eels ri* 9 *romium1 c>bon1 or manganese4 ,vanadium itself1 :5 comb9$ ) /eel v l[ 9 c>bon1 is n s noticeably b5eficial z 9 ! same c>bon /eel high] 9 manganese1 b if a small quantity ( *romium is add$1 !n ! vanadium has a v m>k$ effect 9 increas+ ! impact /r5g? ( ! alloy4 ,x w\ld seem t vanadium has ! effect ( int5sify+ ! action ( *romium & manganese1 or t vanadium is int5sifi$ by ! action ( *romium or manganese4 ,vanadium has ! peculi> prop]ty ( readily ent]+ into solution ) f]rite4 ,if vanadium conta9$ is consid]able x also comb9es ) ! c>bon1 =m+ c>bides4 ,! ductility ( c>bon-vanadium /eels is !re=e increas$1 likewise ! ductility ( *rome-vanadium /eels4 ,! full effect ( vanadium is n felt unless ! temp]atures to :i* ! /eel is heat$ = h>d5+ are rais$ consid]ably4 ,x is !re=e necess>y t a c]ta9 am\nt ( soak+ takes place1 s z to get ! necess>y equalization4 ,?is is true ( all alloys :i* conta9 complex c>bides1 i4e41 comp\nds ( c>bon1 iron & "o or m elem5ts4 ,*rome-vanadium /eels also are highly favor$ = case h>d5+4 ,:5 us$ "u alt]nat+ /resses x appe>s to h sup]ior endurance4 ,x w\ld appe> t ! int5sification ( ! prop]ties due to *romium & manganese 9 ! alloy /eel acc\nts = ?is peculi> ph5om5on4 ,vanadium is also a v excell5t scav5g] = ei!r remov+ ! h>mful gases1 or caus+ !m to ent] into solution ) ! metal 9 su* a way z to l>gely obviate _! h>mful effects4 ,*rome-vanadium /eels h be5 claim$1 by _m /eel manufactur]s & us]s1 to be pref]able to nickel-*rome /eels4 ,:ile n wi%+ to pass judgm5t on ?is1 x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t ! *rome-vanadium /eel1 :i* is te/$1 is g5]ally comp>$ ) a v l[ nickel-*romium alloy /eel 7! price factor ent]+ into ! situation71 b equally good results c be obta9$ by nickel-*romium /eels ( suitable analysis4 ,:]e price is ! lead+ factor1 !re are _m cases :]e a /rong] /eel c be obta9$ f ! *rome & vanadium ?an ! nickel-*rome4 ,x w be safe to say t ea* ( ^! two sy/ems ( alloys h _! own p>ticul> fields & *rome-vanadium /eel %\ld n be reg>d$ z ! sole solution = all problems1 nei!r %\ld nickel-*romium4 ,,manganese ,manganese adds consid]ably to ! t5sile /r5g? ( /eel1 b ?is is dep5d5t on ! c>bon cont5t4 ,high c>bon mat]ially adds to ! brittl5ess1 :]eas l[-c>bon1 pe>litic-manganese /eels are v t\gh & ductile & are n at all brittle1 provid+ ! heat-treat+ is correct4 ,manganese /eel is v susceptible to high temp]atures & prolong$ heat+4 ,9 l[-c>bon pe>litic /eels1 manganese is m effective 9 increas+ ultimate /r5g? ?an is nickel2 t is to say1 a #j4de c>bon /eel ) #a4be p] c5t manganese is z /rong z a #j4de c>bon /eel ) #a4e p] c5t nickel4 ,! =m] /eel is mu* us$ = rifle b>rels1 & 9 ! heat-treat$ condition w give #hj1jjj to #ij1jjj lb4 p] squ>e in* ela/ic limit1 #aae1jjj to #abe1jjj lb4 p] squ>e in* t5sile /r5g?1 #bc p] c5t elongation1 & #ee p] c5t r$uction 9 area4 ,manganese :5 add$ to /eel has ! effect ( l[]+ ! critical range2 #a p] c5t manganese w l[] ! upp] critical po9t #fj;,f4 ,! action ( manganese is v simil> to t ( nickel 9 ?is respect1 only twice z p[]ful4 ,z an in/ance1 #a p] c5t nickel w\ld h ! effect ( l[]+ ! upp] critical range f #be to #cj;,f4 ,l[-c>bon pe>litic-manganese /eel1 heat-treat$1 w give dynamic /r5g? :i* _c be equal$ by l[-pric$ & necess>ily l[-cont5t nickel /eels4 ,9 _m in/ances1 x is pref]able to use high-grade manganese /eel1 r ?an l[-cont5t nickel /eel4 ,high-manganese /eels or au/5ite manganese /eels are us$ = a v>iety ( purposes :]e great resi/ance to abrasion is requir$1 ! p]c5tage ( manganese be+ f #aa to #ad p] c5t1 & c>bon #a to #a4e p] c5t4 ,?is /eel is practically valueless unless heat-treat$2 t is1 heat$ to ab\t yell[ r$ & qu5*$ 9 ice wat]4 ,! /ructure is !n au/5ite & ! air-cool$ /ructure ( ?is /eel is m>t5site4 ,!re=e ?is /eel has to be heat$ & v rapidly cool$ to obta9 ! ductile au/5ite /ructure4 ,manganese betwe5 #b & #g p] c5t is a v brittle mat]ial :5 ! c>bon is ab\t #a p] c5t or high] & is1 !re=e1 q valueless4 ,bel[ #b p] c5t manganese /eel l[ 9 c>bon is v ductile & t\gh /eel4 ,! high-cont5t manganese /eels are kn[n z ! ,hadfield manganese /eels1 hav+ be5 develop$ by ,sir ,rob]t ,hadfield4 ,small additions ( *rome up to #a p] c5t increase ! ela/ic limit ( l[-c>bon pe>litic-manganese /eels )\t affect+ ! /eel 9 its resi/ance to %ock1 b mat]ially decrease ! p]c5tage ( elongation4 ,vanadium add$ to l[-c>bon pe>litic manganese /eel has a v m>k$ effect1 increas+ greatly ! dynamic /r5g? & *ang+ slightly ! susceptibility ( ?is /eel to heat treatm5ts1 giv+ a great] m>g9 = ! h>d5+ temp]ature4 ,manganese /eel ) add$ vanadium is mo/ effici5t :5 heat-treat$4 ,,tung/5 ,tung/51 z an alloy 9 /eel1 has be5 kn[n & us$ = a long "t4 ,! celebrat$ & anci5t damascus /eel be+ a =m ( tung/5-alloy /eel4 ,tung/5 & its effects1 h[ev]1 did n become g5]ally realiz$ until ,rob]t ,mu%et exp]im5t$ & develop$ 8 fam\s mu%et /eel & ! _m improvem5t made s9ce t date g to prove h[ little ,mu%et himself und]/ood ! peculi> effects ( tung/5 z an alloy4 ,tung/5 acts on /eel 9 a simil> mann] to c>bon1 t is1 x increases its h>dness1 b is mu* less effective ?an c>bon 9 ?is respect4 ,if ! p]c5tage ( tung/5 & manganese is high1 ! /eel w be h>d aft] cool+ 9 ! air4 ,?is is impossible 9 a c>bon /eel4 ,x 0 ?is comb9ation t ,mu%et us$ 9 8 well-kn[n air-h>d5+ /eel4 ,! pr9cipal use ( tung/5 is 9 high-spe$ tool /eel1 b "h a high p]c5tage ( manganese is di/9ctly detrim5tal1 mak+ ! /eel liable to fire crack1 v brittle & weak 9 ! body1 less easily =g$ & anneal$4 ,manganese %\ld be kept l[ & a high p]c5tage ( *romium us$ in/ead4 ,tools ( tung/5-*romium /eels1 :5 h>d5$1 reta9 _! h>dness1 ev5 :5 heat$ to a d>k *]ry r$ by ! friction ( ! cutt+ or ! heat aris+ f ! *ips4 ,?is *>act]i/ic l$ to ! t]m r$-h>dness1 & x is ?is prop]ty t has made possible ! use ( v high cutt+ spe$s 9 tools made ( ! tung/5-*romium alloy1 t is1 high-spe$ /eel4 ,tung/5 /eels conta9+ up to #f p] c5t d n h ! prop]ty ( r$ h>dness any m ?an does c>bon tool /eel1 provid+ ! manganese or *romium is l[4 ,:5 *romium is alloy$ ) tung/51 a v def9ite r$-h>dness is notic$ ) a great increase ( cutt+ effici5cy4 ,! maximum r$-h>dness seems to be _h ) /eels conta9+ #ah p] c5t tung/51 #e4e p] c5t *romium & #j4gj p] c5t c>bon4 ,v little is kn[n ( ! actual function ( tung/51 al?\gh a va/ am\nt ( exp]im5tal "w has be5 done4 ,x is possible t :5 ! effect ( tung/5 ) iron-c>bon alloys is bett] kn[n1 a great] improvem5t c be expect$ f ^! /eels4 ,tung/5 has be5 tri$ & is /ill us$ by "s /eel manufactur]s = mak+ pun*es1 *isels1 & o!r impact tools4 ,x has also be5 us$ = spr+s1 & has giv5 v good results1 al?\gh o!r less exp5sive alloys give equally good results1 & are 9 "s in/ances1 bett]4 ,tung/5 is l>gely us$ 9 p]man5t magnets4 ,9 ?is1 its action is n well und]/ood4 ,9 fact1 ! reason :y /eel becomes a p]man5t magnet is n at all und]/ood4 ,!ories h be5 evolv$1 b all are op5 to s]i\s que/ion+4 ,! pr9cipal effect ( tung/51 z conc$$ by lead+ au?orities1 is t x di/9ctly ret>ds sep>ation ( ! iron-c>bon solution1 remov+ ! l[e/ recalesc5t po9t d[n to atmosph]ic temp]ature4 ,a peculi> prop]ty ( tung/5 /eels is t if a heat+ temp]ature ( #a1gej;,f4 is n exce$$1 ! cool+ curves indicate b "o critical po9t at ab\t #a1cej;,f4 ,b :5 ! heat+ temp]ature is rais$ above #a1hej;,f41 ?is critical po9t is ne>ly if n q suppress$1 :ile a l[] critical po9t appe>s & gr[s enorm\sly 9 int5sity at a temp]ature betwe5 #ffj & #gej;,f4 ,! *ange 9 ! critical ranges1 :i* is produc$ by heat+ tung/5 /eels to ov] #a1hej;,f41 is ! real cause ( ! r$-h>d prop]ties ( ^! alloys4 ,its real nature is n und]/ood1 & !re is no direct evid5ce to %[ :at actually happ5s at ^! high temp]atures4 ,x may readily be und]/ood t an alloy conta9+ f\r ess5tial elem5ts1 namely3 iron1 c>bon1 tung/5 & *romium1 is "o ^: /udy pres5ts problems ( extreme complexity4 ,x is possible t complex c>bides may be =m$1 z 9 *romium /eels1 & t comp\nds betwe5 iron & tung/5 exi/4 ,behavior ( ^! comb9ations on heat+ & cool+ mu/ be bett] kn[n be=e we are able to expla9 _m peculi>ities ( tung/5 /eels4 ,,molybd5um ,molybd5um /eels h be5 made comm]cially = tw5ty-five ye>s1 b !y h n be5 widely exploit$ until s9ce ! w>4 ,v l>ge res\rces ( molybd5um h be5 develop$ 9 ,am]ica1 & ! m9+ companies :o are equipp$ to produce ! metal are v active 9 adv]tis+ ! advantages ( molybd5um /eels4 ,x 0 e>ly f\nd t #a "p molybd5um 0 ! equival5t ( f #b to #b-a_/b p>ts ( tung/5 9 tool /eels1 & magnet /eels4 ,x fell into disrepute z an alloy = high-spe$ tool /eel1 h[ev]1 because x 0 f\nd t ! molybd5um 0 driv5 out ( ! surface ( ! tool dur+ =g+ & heat treat+4 ,)9 ! la/ few ye>s x has be5 f\nd t ! pres5ce ( less ?an #a p] c5t ( molybd5um greatly enhances c]ta9 prop]ties ( heat-treat$ c>bon & alloy /eels us$ = automobiles & high-grade ma*9]y4 ,9 g5]al1 molybd5um :5 add$ to an alloy /eel1 increases ! figure = r$uction ( area1 :i* is consid]$ a good measure ( t\ghness4 ,molybd5um /eels are also relatively ins5sible to v>iations 9 heat treatm5t2 t is to say1 a *romium-nickel-molybd5um /eel aft] qu5*+ 9 oil f #a1dej;,f4 may be drawn at any temp]ature betwe5 #ijj & #a1ajj;,f4 ) sub/antially ! same result 7/atic t5sile prop]ties & h>dness74 ,,silicon ,silicon prev5ts1 to a l>ge ext5t1 defects su* z gas bubbles or bl[ holes =m+ :ile /eel is solidify+4 ,9 fact1 /eel aft] x has be5 melt$ & be=e x has be5 ref9$1 is wild & gassy4 ,t is to say1 if x w\ld be ca/ into molds x w\ld fro? up1 & boil all ov] ! floor4 ,a judici\s am\nt ( silicon add$ to ! metal j be=e p\r+1 prev5ts ?is action--9 ! words ( ! /eel mak]1 silicon kills ! /eel4 ,if ab\t #a4ge p] c5t metallic silicon rema9s 9 a #j4fe c>bon /eel1 x makes excell5t spr+s4 ,,phosphorus ,phosphorus is "o ( ! impurities 9 /eel1 & x has be5 ! object ( /eel mak]s = ye>s to elim9ate x4 ,on *eap grades ( /eel1 n subject to any abnormal /ra9 or /ress1 #j4a p] c5t phosphorus is n objectionable4 ,high phosphorus makes /eel cold %ort1 i4e41 brittle :5 cold or mod]ately w>m4 ,,sulphur ,sulphur is ano!r impurity & high sulphur is ev5 a great] detrim5t to /eel ?an phosphorus4 ,high sulphur up to #j4ji p] c5t helps ma*9+ prop]ties1 b has a t5d5cy to make ! /eel hot %ort1 i4e41 subject to op5+ up cracks & seams at =g+ or roll+ heats4 ,sulphur %\ld nev] exce$ #j4jf p] c5t nor phosphorus #j4jh p] c5t4 ,/eel us$ = tool purposes %\ld h z l[ phosphorus & sulphur cont5ts z possible1 n ov] #j4jb p] c5t4 ,we c sum up ! v>i\s factors some?+ z foll[s = ready ref]5ce4 ,! +r$i5t ,its effect ,iron ,! basis ( /eel ,c>bon ,! det]m9ative ,sulphur ,a /r5g? sapp] ,phosphorus ,! weak l9k ,oxyg5 ,a /r5g? de/roy] ,manganese ,= /r5g? ,nickel ,= /r5g? & t\ghness ,tung/5 ,h>d5] & heat resi/] ,*romium ,= resi/+ %ocks ,vanadium ,purifi] & fatigue resi/] ,silicon ,impurity & h>d5] ,titanium ,removes nitrog5 & oxyg5 ,molybd5um ,h>d5] & heat resi/] ,alum9um ,kills or deoxidizes /eel ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,alloy ,,/eels ,! foll[+ table %[s ! p]c5tages ( c>bon1 manganese1 nickel1 *romium & vanadium 9 typical /eel alloys = eng9e]+ purposes4 ,x also gives ! ela/ic limit1 t5sile /r5g?1 elongation & r$uction ( area ( ! v>i\s alloys1 all be+ giv5 ! same heat treatm5t ) a draw+ temp]ature ( #a1ajj;,f4 7#fjj;,c474 ,! specim5s 7 "o in* r\nds ma*9$ aft] heat treatm5t4 ,tung/5 is n %[n 9 ! table because x is seldom us$ 9 eng9e]+ con/ruction /eels & !n usually 9 comb9ation ) *romium4 ,tung/5 is us$ pr9cipally = ! magnets ( magnetos1 to "s ext5t 9 ! manufacture ( hacksaws1 & = special tool /eels4 ,,table ,i4--,,prop]ties ,,( ,,alloy ,,/eels ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,manganese1_/ ,*romium1_/ ,ela/ic,t5sile ,elongation,r$uction ,c>bon1 p] _/,nickel1 p] _/,vanadium1limit1 ,/r5g?19 #b 941 ( area1 p] c5t p] c5t p] c5t lb4 p]lb4 p] p] c5t p] c5t c5t c5t sq4 94sq4 94 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #j4bg #j4ee #di1jjj #hj1jjj #cj #fe #j4bg #j4dg #j4bf #ff1jjj #ih1jjj #be #eb #j4cf #j4db #eh1jjj #ij1jjj #bg #fj #j4cd #j4hg #j4ac #hb1ejj #ajc1jjj #bb #eg #j4de #j4ej #fe1jjj #if1jjj #bb #eb #j4dc #j4fj #j4cb #if1jjj #abb1jjj #ba #eb #j4dg #j4ij #j4ae #ajb1jjj #abg1ejj #bc #eh #j4cj #j4fj #c4dj #ge1jjj #aje1jjj #be #fg #j4cc #j4fc #c4fj #j4be #aah1jjj #adb1jjj #ag #eg #j4cj #j4di #c4fj #a4gj #aai1jjj #adi1ejj #ba #fj #j4be #j4dg #c4dg #a4fj #j4ae #aci1jjj #agj1jjj #ah #ec #j4be #j4ej #b4jj #a4jj #ajb1jjj #abd1jjj #be #gj #j4ch #j4cj #b4jh #a4af #abj1jjj #acd1jjj #bj #eg #j4db #j4bb #b4ad #a4bg #j4bf #ade1jjj #afa1ejj #af #ec #j4cf #j4fa #a4df #j4fd #aag1fjj #acb1ejj #af #eh #j4cf #j4ej #a4cj #j4ge #j4af #adj1jjj #aeg1ejj #ag #ed #j4cj #j4ej #j4hj #ij1jjj #aje1jjj #bj #ej #j4bc #j4eh #j4hb #j4ag #ajf1jjj #abd1jjj #ba #ff #j4bf #j4dh #j4ib #j4bj #aab1jjj #acg1jjj #bj #fa #j4ce #j4fd #a4jc #j4bb #acb1ejj #adi1ejj #af #ed #j4ej #j4ib #a4jb #j4bj #agj1jjj #ahf1jjj #ae #de ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,,non-,,%r9k+1 ,,oil-,,h>d5+ ,,/eels ,c]ta9 /eels h a v l[ rate ( expansion & contraction 9 h>d5+ & are v desirable = te/ plugs1 gages1 pun*es & dies1 = mill+ cutt]s1 taps1 ream]s1 h>d /eel bu%+s & simil> "w4 ,x is recomm5d$ t = =g+ ^! /eels x be heat$ sl[ly & uni=mly to a bright r$1 b n 9 a direct flame or bla/4 ,h>d5 at a dull r$ heat1 ab\t #a1cjj;,f4 ,a clean coal or coke fire1 or a good muffle-gas furnace w give be/ results4 ,fi% oil is good = qu5*+ al?\gh 9 "s cases w>m wat] w give excell5t results4 ,! /eel %\ld be kept mov+ 9 ! ba? until p]fectly cold4 ,heat$ & cool$ 9 ?is way ! /eel is v t\gh1 takes a good cutt+ edge & has v little expansion or contraction :i* makes x desirable = long taps :]e ! accuracy ( lead is important4 ,! composition ( ^! /eels is z foll[s3 ,p] c5t ,manganese #a4dj to #a4fj ,c>bon #j4hj to #j4ij ,vanadium #j4bj to #j4be ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,effect ( copp] 9 /eel4 ,,effect ,,( ,a ,,small ,,am\nt ,,( ,,copp] ,,9 ,,m$ium-,,c>bon ,,/eel ,?is %[s ! result ( te/s by ,c4 ,r4 ,hayw>d & ,a4 ,b4 ,john/on on two types ( /eel3 "o conta9+ #j4cj p] c5t c>bon1 #j4jab p] c5t phosphorus1 & #j4hfj p] c5t copp]1 & ! o!r #j4cfe p] c5t c>bon1 #j4jec p] c5t phosphorus1 & #j4jcj p] c5t copp]4 ,! accompany+ *>t 9 ,fig4 #ac %[s t high-copp] /eel has decid$ sup]iority 9 t5sile /r5g?1 yield po9t & ultimate /r5g?1 :ile ! ductility is practically ! same4 ,h>dness te/s by bo? me?ods %[ high-copp] /eel to be h>d] ?an l[-copp]1 & ! ,*>py %ock te/s %[ high-copp] /eel also sup]ior to l[-copp]4 ,! te/s confirm ^? made by ,/ead1 %[+ t ! behavior ( copp] /eel resembles t ( nickel /eel4 ,! high-copp] /eels %[ f9] gra9 ?an ! l[-copp]4 ,! qu5*$ & drawn specim5s ( high-copp] /eel 7 f\nd to be slightly m m>t5sitic4 ,,high-,,*romium ,,or ,,ru/-,,pro( ,,/eel ,high-*romium1 or :at is call$ /a9less /eel conta9+ f #aa to #ad p] c5t *romium1 0 orig9ally develop$ = cutl]y purposes1 b has 9 ! pa/ few ye>s be5 us$ to a consid]able ext5t = exhau/ valves 9 airplane eng9es because ( its resi/ance to scal+ at high temp]atures4 ,p]c5tage ,c>bon #j4bj to #j4dj ,manganese1 n to exce$ #j4ej ,phosphorus1 n to exce$ #j4jce ,sulphur1 n to exce$ #j4jce ,*romium #aa4ej to #ad4jj ,silicon1 n to exce$ #j4cj ,! /eel %\ld be heat$ sl[ly & =g$ at a temp]ature above #a1gej;,f4 pref]ably betwe5 #a1hjj & #b1bjj;,f4 ,if =g$ at temp]atures betwe5 #a1fej & #a1gej;,f4 !re is consid]able dang] ( ruptur+ ! /eel because ( its h>dness at r$ heat4 ,ow+ to ! air-h>d5+ prop]ty ( ! /eel1 ! drop-=g+s %\ld be trimm$ :ile hot4 ,?9 =g+s %\ld be reheat$ to r$ness be=e trimm+1 z o!rwise !y are liable to crack4 ,! =g+s w be h>d if !y are all[$ to cool 9 air4 ,?is h>dness v>ies ov] a range ( f #bej to #ejj ,br9ell1 dep5d+ on ! orig9al =g+ temp]ature4 ,,anneal+ c be done by heat+ to temp]atures rang+ f #a1bij to #a1chj;,f4 & cool+ 9 air or qu5*+ 9 wat] or oil4 ,aft] ?is treatm5t ! =g+s w h a h>dness ( ab\t #bjj ,br9ell & a t5sile /r5g? ( #ajj1jjj to #aab1jjj lb4 p] squ>e in*4 ,if s(t] =g+s are desir$ !y c be heat$ to a temp]ature ( f #a1efj to #a1fej;,f4 & cool$ v sl[ly4 ,al?\gh s(t] ! =g+s w n ma*9e z smoo?ly z :5 anneal$ at ! l[] temp]ature4 ,,h>d5+4--,! =g+s c be h>d5$ by cool+ 9 /ill air or qu5*+ 9 oil or wat] f a temp]ature betwe5 #a1fej & #a1gej;,f4 ,! physical prop]ties d n v>y greatly :5 ! c>bon is )9 ! range ( composition giv51 or :5 ! /eel is h>d5$ & temp]$ 9 air1 oil1 or wat]4 ,:5 us$ = valves ! foll[+ specification ( physical prop]ties h be5 us$3 ,yield po9t1 p\nds p] squ>e in* #gj1jjj ,t5sile /r5g?1 p\nds p] squ>e in* #ij1jjj ,elongation 9 #b 941 p] c5t #ah ,r$uction ( area1 p] c5t #ej ,! usual heat treatm5t is to qu5* 9 oil f #a1fej;,f4 & temp] or draw at #a1ajj to #a1bjj;,f4 ,"o valve manufactur] /at$ t valves ( ?is /eel are h>d5$ by heat+ ! previ\sly anneal$ valves to #a1fej;,f4 & cool+ 9 /ill air4 ,?is treatm5t gives a scl]oscope h>dness ( ab\t #ej4 ,9 addition to use 9 valves ?is /eel %\ld prove v satisfactory = %aft+ = wat]-pumps & o!r automobile p>ts subject to objectionable corrosion4 ,,table #b4--;,,comp>ison ,,( ,,physical ,,prop]ties ,,= ,,high-,,*romium ,,/eels ,,( ,,diff]5t ,,c>bon ,,cont5t ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,c #j4bj ,c #j4bg ,c #j4ej ,mn #j4de ,mn #j4ej ,cr #ab4ef ,cr #ab4bd ,cr #ad4hd ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,qu5*$ 9 oil f degrees ,fahr5heit #a1fjj #a1fjj #a1fej ,temp]$ at degrees ,fahr5heit #a1afj #a1jhj #a1ajj ,yield po9t1 p\nds p] squ>e in* #gh1cjj #ge1jjj #ia1faf ,t5sile /r5g?1 p\nds p] squ>e in* #ajd1fjj #ajd1bej #abc1fdh ,elongation 9 #b 941 p] c5t #be4j #bc4e #ad4e ,r$uction ( area1 p] c5t #eb4e #ea4d #cc4e ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,,table #c4--;,,comp>ison ,,( ,,physical ,,prop]ties ,,betwe5 ,,air1 ,,oil ,,& ,,wat]-,,h>d5$ ,,/eel ,,hav+ ,,*emical ,,analysis ,,9 ,,p]c5tage ,,( ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,c>bon #j4bd ,manganese #j4cj ,phosphorus #j4jce ,sulphur #j4jce ,*romium #ab4he ,silicon #j4bj ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,h>d5$ ,ela/ic ,t5sile ,h>d5+ f1 ,temp]$ limit1 /r5g?1,elongation,r$uction m$ium degrees at1 degrees p] lb4 lb4 ,p] 9 #b 94 ( area1 ,fahr5heit,fahr5heit sq4 94 sq4 94 p] c5t p] c5t ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #icj #aeh1hae #aib1dae #ac4j #dj4e #a1ajj #ii1fhj #abj1jfe #ba4j #ei4b ,air #a1fej #a1cjj #gj1ghe #aja1bej #bf4j #fd4f #a1chj #ff1jhj #ih1cce #bh4j #fc4f #a1dgj #gj1ghe #if1iij #bg4j #fd4g ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #icj #afc1jgj #bjb1gbj #h4j #ah4b ,oil #a1fej #a1ajj #hh1bee #aaf1dhj #bj4j #ef4i #a1cjj #gg1iej #aje1eje #be4e #fc4h #a1chj #hh1bee #ih1ghe #bg4j #ff4c ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #icj #aeh1hae #bjb1jej #ab4j #cd4b ,wat] #a1fej #a1ajj #ij1bgj #abj1gce #bb4j #ei4h #a1cjj #ff1jhj #ajb1eij #be4h #fd4h #a1chj #fg1bjj #ig1hij #bg4j #fe4b ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,?is /eel c be drawn into wire1 roll$ into %eets & /rips & drawn into seamless tubes4 ,,corrosion4--,?is /eel l any o!r /eel :5 di/ort$ by cold work+ is m s5sitive to corrosion & w ru/4 ,r\gh cut surfaces w ru/4 ,surfaces f9i%$ ) a f9e cut are less liable to ru/4 ,gr\nd & poli%$ surfaces are practically immune to ru/4 ,:5 *romium cont5t is increas$ to #af to #ah p] c5t & silicon is add$1 f #b to #d p] c5t1 ?is /eel becomes ru/ pro( 9 its raw /ate1 z soon z ! outside surface is remov$4 ,x does n ne$ to be heat-treat$ 9 any way4 ,^! compositions are bo? pat5t$4 ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,,/&>d ,,/eels ,! foll[+ /eel specifications are consid]$ /&>d by ! ,society ( ,automotive ,eng9e]s & repres5ts automobile practice 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,^! tables give ! ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 numb]1 ! composition ( ! /eel & ! heat treatm5t4 ,^! are ref]r$ to by lett]--! heat treatm5ts be+ giv5 9 detail on pages #acd to #acg 9 ,*ap4 #h4 ,x %\ld be not$ t ! p]c5tage ( ! diff]5t +r$i5ts desir$ is ! mean1 or halfway betwe5 ! m9imum & maximum4 ,,table #d4--;,,c>bon ,,/eels ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,c>bon ,manganese ,specification7m9imum & 7m9imum & ,phosphorus ,sulphur ,heat no4 maximum7 maximum7 7maximum7 7maximum7 treatm5t ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- #a1jaj #j4je to #j4ae #j4cj to #j4fj #j4jde #j4je ,qu5* at #a1ejj #a1jbj #j4ae to #j4be #j4cj to #j4fj #j4jde #j4je ,a or ,b #a1jbe #j4bj to #j4cj #j4ej to #j4hj #j4jde #j4je ,h #a1jce #j4cj to #j4dj #j4ej to #j4hj #j4jde #j4je ,h1 ,d or ,e #a1jde #j4dj to #j4ej #j4ej to #j4hj #j4jde #j4je ,h1 ,d or ,e #a1jie #j4ij to #a4je #j4be to #j4ej #j4jdj #j4je ,f ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,,table #e4--,,screw ,,/ock ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,c>bon ,manganese ,phosphorus ,sulphur ,specification no4 7maximum7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- #a1aad #j4jh to #j4bj #j4cj to #j4hj #j4ab #j4jf to #j4ab ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,,table #f4--,,nickel ,,/eels ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------- ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,phosphorus ,specification 7maximum7 no4 ---- _/ ,c>bon ,manganese ,sulphur ,nickel ,heat 7m9imum &7m9imum & 7maximum77m9imum &treatm5t maximum7 maximum7 maximum7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- #b1cae #j4aj to #j4bjj4ej to #j4hj #j4jd #j4jde #c4be to #c4ge;,g1 ,h or ,k #b1cbj #j4ae to #j4bej4ej to #j4hj #j4jd #j4jde #c4be to #c4ge;,g1 ,h or ,k #b1ccj #j4be to #j4cej4ej to #j4hj #j4jd #j4jde #c4be to #c4ge ,h or ,k #b1cce #j4cj to #j4djj4ej to #j4hj #j4jd #j4jde #c4be to #c4ge ,h or ,k #b1cdj #j4ce to #j4dej4ej to #j4hj #j4jd #j4jde #c4be to #c4ge ,h or ,k #b1cde #j4dj to #j4ejj4ej to #j4hj #j4jd #j4jde #c4be to #c4ge ,h or ,k ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------- ,,table #g4--,,nickel-,,*romium ,,/eels ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,phosphorus ,sulphur ,specification 7maximum77maximum7 ,heat no4 ------ ------ ---- treatm5t ,c>bon ,manganese ,nickel ,*romium 7m9imum &7m9imum & 7m9imum &7m9imum & maximum7 maximum7 maximum7 maximum7 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #c1abjj4ae to #j4bej4ej to #j4hjj4jdj4jdea4jj to #a4ejj4de to #j4ge99;,g1,h or ,d #c1abej4bj to #j4cjj4ej to #j4hjj4jdj4jdea4jj to #a4ejj4de to #j4ge99;,h1,d or ,e #c1acjj4be to #j4cej4ej to #j4hjj4jdj4jdea4jj to #a4ejj4de to #j4ge99;,h1,d or ,e #c1acej4cj to #j4djj4ej to #j #hjj4jdj4jdea4jj to #a4ejj4de to #j #ge99;,h1,d or ,e #c1adjj4ce to #j4dej4ej to #j4hjj4jdj4jdea4jj to #a4ejj4de to #j4ge99;,h1,d or ,e #c1bbjj4ae to #j4bej4cj to #j4fjj4jdj4jdja4ej to #b4jjj4ij to #a4be ,g1,h or ,d #c1bcjj4be to #j4cej4cj to #j4fjj4jdj4jdja4ej to #b4jjj4ij to #a4be ,h or ,d #c1bdjj4ce to #j4dej4cj to #j4fjj4jdj4jdja4ej to #b4jjj4ij to #a4be ,h or ,d #c1bejj4de to #j4eej4cj to #j4fjj4jdj4jdja4ej to #b4jjj4ij to #a4be ,m or ,q ,x#c1caej4aj to #j4bjj4de to #j4gej4jdj4jdjb4ge to #c4bej4fj to #j4ie ,g ,x#c1ccej4cj to #j4djj4de to #j4gej4jdj4jdjb4ge to #c4bej4fj to #j4ie ,p or ,r ,x#c1cejj4de to #j4eej4de to #j4gej4jdj4jdjb4ge to #c4bej4fj to #j4ie ,p or ,r #c1cbjj4ae to #j4bej4cj to #j4fjj4jdj4jdjc4be to #c4gea4be to #a4ge ,l #c1ccjj4be to #j4cej4cj to #j4fjj4jdj4jdjc4be to #c4gea4be to #a4ge ,p or ,r #c1cdjj4ce to #j4dej4cj to #j4fjj4jdj4jdjc4be to #c4gea4be to #a4ge ,p or ,r ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- 99 ,ano!r grade ( ?is type ( /eel is available ) *romium cont5t ( #j4ae p] c5t to #de p] c5t4 ,x has some:at l[] physical prop]ties4 ,,table #h4--;,,*romium ,,/eels ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,specification no4 --- ,c>bon ,manganese ,*romium 7m9imum &7m9imum &,phosphorus,sulphur 7m9imum & ,heat maximum7 maximum7 7maximum7 7maximum7 maximum7 treatm5t ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- #e1abj #j4ae to #j4be 99 #j4jd #j4jde #j4fe to #j4he ,b #e1adj #j4ce to #j4de 99 #j4jd #j4jde #j4fe to #j4he ,h or ,d #e1afe #j4fj to #j4gj 99 #j4jd #j4jde #j4fe to #j4he ,h or ,d #e1aie #j4ij to #a4jej4bj to #j4de #j4jc #j4jc #j4ij to #a4aj,m1 ,p or ,r #ea1abj #a4aj to #a4cjj4bj to #j4de #j4jc #j4jc #j4ij to #a4aj,m1 ,p or ,r #e1bie #j4ij to #a4jej4bj to #j4de #j4jc #j4jc #a4aj to #a4cj,m1 ,p or ,r #eb1abj #a4aj to #a4cjj4bj to #j4de #j4jc #j4jc #a4aj to #a4cj,m1 ,p or ,r ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- --,two types ( /eel are available 9 ?is class1 "o ) manganese #j4be to #j4ej p] c5t 7#j4ce p] c5t desir$71 & silicon n ov] #j4bj p] c5t2 ! o!r ) manganese #j4fj to #j4hj p] c5t 7#j4gj p] c5t desir$71 & silicon #j4ae to #j4ej p] c5t4 ,,table #i4--;,,*romium-,,vanadium ,,/eels ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,phosphorus ,sulphur ,vanadium ,specification 7maximum77maximum7 7m9imum7 no4 ------ -- _/ - ,c>bon ,manganese ,*romium ,heat 7m9imum &7m9imum & 7m9imum & treatm5t maximum7 maximum7 maximum7 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #f1abj #j4ae to #j4bej4ej to #j4hj #j4jd #j4jd #j4hj to #a4aj #j4ae ,s #f1abe #j4bj to #j4cjj4ej to #j4hj #j4jd #j4jd #j4hj to #a4aj #j4ae ,s or ,t #f1acj #j4be to #j4cej4ej to #j4hj #j4jd #j4jd #j4hj to #a4aj #j4ae ,t or ,u #f1ace #j4cj to #j4djj4ej to #j4hj #j4jd #j4jd #j4hj to #a4aj #j4ae ,t or ,u #f1adj #j4ce to #j4dej4ej to #j4hj #j4jd #j4jd #j4hj to #a4aj #j4ae ,t or ,u #f1ade #j4dj to #j4ejj4ej to #j4hj #j4jd #j4jd #j4hj to #a4aj #j4ae ,u #f1aej #j4de to #j4eej4ej to #j4hj #j4jd #j4jd #j4hj to #a4aj #j4ae ,u #f1aie #j4ij to #a4jej4bj to #j4de #j4jc #j4jc #j4hj to #a4aj #j4ae ,u ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,,table #aj4--,,silico-,,manganese ,,/eels ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------- ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,specification no4 ----- ,c>bon ,manganese ,silicon 7m9imum &7m9imum &,phosphorus,sulphur 7m9imum & ,heat maximum7 maximum7 7maximum7 7maximum7 maximum7 treatm5t ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- #i1bej #j4de to #j4eej4fj to #j4hj #j4jde99 #j4jde #a4hj to #b4aj ,v #i1bfj #j4ee to #j4fej4ej to #j4gj #j4jde99 #j4jde #a4ej to #a4hj ,v ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------- 99 ,/eel made by ! acid process may conta9 maximum #j4je phosphorus4 ,,lib]ty ,,motor ,,connect+ ,,rods ,! requirem5ts = mat]ials = ! ,lib]ty motor connect+ rods are s sev]e t ! me?ods ( secur+ ! desir$ qualities w be ( value 9 o!r l9es4 ,! orig9al specifications call$ = *rome-nickel b ! losses due to ! difficulty ( h&l+ caus$ ! ,l9coln ,motor ,company to sugge/ ! sub/itution ( *rome-vanadium /eel1 & ?is 0 accept$ by ! ,signal ,corps4 ,! rods 7 accord+ly made f *romium-vanadium /eel1 conta9+ c>bon1 #j4cj to #j4dj p] c5t2 manganese1 #j4ej to #j4hj p] c5t2 phosphorus1 n ov] #j4jd p] c5t2 sulphur1 n ov] #j4jd p] c5t2 *romium1 #j4hj to #a4aj p] c5t2 vanadium1 n less ?an #j4ae p] c5t4 ,?is /eel is ord9>ily kn[n 9 ! trade z #j4ce c>bon /eel1 ,s4 ,a4 ,e41 specification #f1ace1 :i* provides a fir/-rate quality /eel = /ructural p>ts t are to be heat-treat$4 ,! fatigue resi/+ or endurance qualities ( ?is mat]ial are excell5t4 ,x has a t5sile /r5g? ( #aej1jjj lb4 m9imum p] squ>e in*2 ela/ic limit1 #aae1jjj lb4 m9imum p] squ>e in*2 elongation1 #e p] c5t m9imum 9 #b 942 & m9imum r$uction 9 area1 #be p] c5t4 ,! orig9al production sy/em z outl9$ = ! manufactur]s _h call$ = a heat treatm5t 9 ! r\gh-=g$ /ate = ! connect+ rods1 & !n semi-ma*9+ ! rod =g+s be=e giv+ !m ! f9al treatm5t4 ,! ,l9coln ,motor ,company insi/$ f ! fir/ t ! prop] me?od w\ld be a complete heat treatm5t ( ! =g+ 9 ! r\gh /ate1 & ma*9+ ! rod aft] ! heat treatm5t4 ,aft] a numb] ( trial lots1 ! ,signal ,corps acc$$ to ! reque/ & production 0 imm$iately increas$ & quality b5efit$ by ! *ange4 ,?is me?od 0 lat] includ$ 9 a revis$ specification issu$ to all produc]s4 ,! orig9al sy/em 0 "o t requir$ a great deal ( labor p] unit output4 ,! ,l9coln organization develop$ a me?od ( h&l+ connect+ rods :]eby five workm5 accompli%$ ! same result t w\ld h requir$ ab\t #cj or #cb by ! orig9al me?od4 ,ev5 aft] revis+ ! specification s z to all[ complete heat treatm5ts 9 ! r\gh-=g$ /ate1 ! ord9>y me?ods employ$ 9 heat-treat+ w\ld h requir$ #ab to #ae m54 ,) ! fixtures employ$1 five m5 c\ld h&le #a1cjj connect+ rods1 half ( :i* are pla9 & half1 =k$1 9 a work+ p]iod ( little ov] #g hr4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4--,rack = hold+ rods4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4--,slid+ rods into tank4 ,! increase 9 production 0 ga9$ by devis+ fixtures :i* enabl$ few] m5 to h&le a great] quantity ( p>ts ) less ef=t & 9 less "t4 ,9 heat-treat+ ! =g+s 7 laid on a rack or loop ,a1 ,fig4 #ad1 made ( #a-a_/d-;94 d\ble extra-heavy pipe1 b5t up ) p>allel sides ab\t #i 94 ap>t1 "o end be+ b5t /raight across & ! o!r end be+ b5t upw>d s z to af=d an easy grasp = ! hook4 ,fifte5 rods 7 laid on ea* loop1 !re be+ f\r loops ( rods *>g$ into a furnace ) a he>? area ( #cf by #ff 94 ,! rods 7 *>g$ at a temp]ature ( approximately #ijj;,f4 ,!y 7 heat$ = ref9+ ov] a p]iod ( #c hr4 to #a1fbe;,f41 soak$ #ae m91 at ?is degree ( heat & qu5*$ 9 soluble qu5*+ oil4 ,9 pull+ ! heat to qu5* ! rods1 ! furnace door 0 rais$ & ! op]ator pulls "o ( ! loops ,a1 ,fig4 #ae =w>d to ! %elf ( ! furnace1 support+ ! /raight end ( ! loop by means ( ! port] b> ,b4 ,!y swung ! loop ( rods ar\nd f ! furnace %elf & set ! /raight end ( ! loop on ! edge ( ! qu5*+ tank1 !n raise ! curv$ end ,c1 by means ( _! hook ,d s t all ! rods on ! loop slide into ! oil ba?4 ,be=e ! rods cool$ entirely1 ! baskets 9 ! qu5*+ tank 7 rais$ & ! oil all[$ to p>tly dra9 (f ! =g+s1 & !y 7 /ack$ on curv$-end loops or racks & *>g$ into ! furnace = ! second or h>d5+ heat4 ,! temp]ature ( ! furnace 0 rais$ 9 #a-a_/b hr4 to #a1eej;,f41 ! rods soak$ = #ae m94 at ?is degree ( heat & qu5*$ 9 ! same mann] z above4 ,!y 7 aga9 dra9$ :ile yet w>m1 plac$ on loops & *>g$ into ! furnace = ! ?ird or temp]+ heat4 ,! temp]ature ( ! furnace 0 br\ght to #a1ajj;,f4 9 #a hr41 & ! rods soak$ at ?is degree ( heat = #a hr4 ,!y 7 !n remov$ f ! furnace ! same z = qu5*+1 b 7 dump$ onto /eel plat=ms in/ead ( into ! qu5*+ oil1 & all[$ to cool on ^! /eel plat=ms d[n to ! room temp]ature4 ,,pickl+ ,,! ,,=g+s ,! =g+s 7 !n pickl$ 9 a hot solution ( ei!r nit] cake or sulphuric acid & wat] at a temp]ature ( #agj;,f41 & us+ a solution ( ab\t #be p] c5t4 ,! solution 0 ma9ta9$ at a con/ant po9t by tak+ hydromet] read+s two or ?ree times a day1 ma9ta9+ a read+ ( ab\t #a4age4 ,sixty =k$ or "o hundr$ s+le rods 7 plac$ 9 wood5 racks & imm]s$ 9 a lead-l9$ vat #cj by #cj by #e ft4 long4 ,! rack 0 l[]$ or lift$ by means ( an air hoi/ & ! rods 7 all[$ to /ay 9 solution f #a_/b to #a hr41 dep5d+ on ! am\nt ( scale4 ,! rods 7 !n swung & l[]$ 9 ! rack into runn+ hot wat] until all trace ( ! acid 0 remov$4 ,! rod 0 f9ally subject$ to ,br9ell te/4 ,?is %[s :e!r or n ! rod has be5 heat-treat$ to ! prop] h>dness4 ,if ! rods did n read betwe5 #bda & #bgg1 !y 7 re-treat$ until ! prop] h>dness is obta9$4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,application ,,( ,,lib]ty ,,eng9e ,,mat]ials ,,to ,,! ,,automotive ,,indu/ry#a ,footnote #a3 ,pap] pres5t$ at ! summ] meet+ ( ! ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 at ,ottawa ,bea* 9 ,june1 #aiai4 ,! success ( ! ,lib]ty eng9e program 0 an eng9e]+ a*ievem5t 9 :i* ! sci5ce ( metallurgy play$ an important "p4 ,! reasons = ! use ( c]ta9 mat]ials & c]ta9 treatm5ts = ea* "p are giv5 ) recomm5dations = _! application to ! problems ( automotive indu/ry4 ,! mo/ important items to be tak5 into consid]ation 9 ! selection ( mat]ial = p>ts ( ?is type are uni=mity & ma*9eability4 ,x has be5 demon/rat$ _m times t ! ord9>y grades ( bessem] screw /ock are unsatisfactory = aviation purposes1 due to ! pres5ce ( excessive am\nts ( unev5ly di/ribut$ phosphorus & sulphide segregations4 ,= ?is reason1 mat]ial f9i%$ by ! basic op5 he>? process 0 select$1 9 accordance ) ! foll[+ specifications3 ,c>bon1 #j4aej to #j4bej p] c5t2 manganese1 #j4ejj to #j4hjj p] c5t2 phosphorus1 #j4jde maximum p] c5t2 sulphur1 #j4jfj to #j4jij p] c5t4 ,?is mat]ial 9 ! cold-drawn condition w %[3 ,ela/ic limit1 #ej1jjj lb4 p] squ>e in*1 elongation 9 #b 941 #aj p] c5t1 r$uction ( area1 #ce p] c5t4 ,?is mat]ial gave z uni=m physical prop]ties z ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,no4 #ajbj /eel & at ! same "t 0 suffici5tly free cutt+ to produce a smoo? ?read & enable ! screw-ma*9e manufactur]s to produce1 to ! same ?read limits1 approximately #ge p] c5t z _m p>ts z f bessem] screw /ock4 ,!re are b sev5 c>bon-/eel c>boniz$ p>ts on ! ,lib]ty eng9e4 ,! mo/ important are ! cam%aft1 ! cam%aft rock] lev] roll] & ! tappet4 ,! mat]ial us$ = p>ts ( ?is type 0 ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,no4 #a1jbj /eel1 :i* is ( ! foll[+ *emical analysis3 ,c>bon #j4aej to #j4bej p] c5t2 manganese1 #j4cjj to #j4fjj p] c5t2 phosphorus1 #j4jde maximum p] c5t2 sulphur1 #j4jej maximum p] c5t4 ,! heat treatm5t consi/$ 9 c>boniz+ at a temp]ature ( f #a1fej to #a1gjj;,f4 = a suffici5t l5g? ( "t to secure ! prop] dep? ( case1 cool sl[ly or qu5*2 !n reheat to a temp]ature ( #a1chj to #a1dcj;,f4 to ref9e ! gra9 ( ! case1 & qu5* 9 wat]4 ,! only ?+ t %\ld limit ! rate ( cool+ f ! c>boniz+ heat is di/ortion4 ,cam%aft rock] lev] roll]s & tappets1 z well z ge> p9s1 7 qu5*$ directly f ! c>boniz+ heat 9 wat] & !n case-ref9$ & reh>d5$ by qu5*+ 9 wat] f a temp]ature ( f #a1chj to #a1dcj;,f4 ,! advantage ( direct qu5*+ f ! c>boniz+ heat is d\btless "o ( economy1 & 9 _m cases w save ! co/ ( a reheat+4 ,specifications = case h>d5+1 issu$ by ! ,society ( ,automotive ,eng9e]s1 h lately be5 revis$2 :]eas !y =m]ly call$ = a sl[ cool+1 !y n[ p]mit a qu5*+ f ! pot4 ,d\btless ?is is a /ep 9 advance4 ,w>page caus$ by qu5*+ c be r$uc$ to a m9imum by ?or\ghly anneal+ ! /ock be=e any ma*9e "w is done on x4 ,ano!r advantage obta9$ f rapid cool+ f ! c>boniz+ heat is ! reta9+ ( ! majority ( ! excess cem5tite 9 solution :i* produces a less brittle case & by s do+ r$uces ! liability ( gr9d+ *ecks & *ipp+ ( ! case 9 actual s]vice4 ,9 ! case ( ! cam%aft1 x is n possible to qu5* directly f ! c>boniz+ heat because ( di/ortion & !re=e excessive breakage dur+ /raight5+ op]ations4 ,all ,lib]ty cam%afts 7 cool$ sl[ly f c>boniz+ heat & h>d5$ by a s+le reheat+ to a temp]ature ( f #a1chj to #a1dcj;,f4 & qu5*+ 9 wat]4 ,consid]able tr\ble has always be5 exp]i5c$ 9 obta9+ uni=m h>dness on f9i%$ cam%afts4 ,?is is caus$ by insuffici5t wat] circulation 9 ! qu5*+ tank1 :i* all[s ! =mation ( /eam pockets to take place1 or by dec>bonization ( ! case dur+ heat+ by ! use ( an ov]oxidiz+ flame4 ,ano!r cause1 :i* is v (t5 ov]look$1 is due to ! case be+ gr\nd (f "o side ( cam m ?an ! o!r & is caus$ by ! r\gh+ ma/] cam be+ slightly diff]5t f ! f9i%+ ma/] cam4 ,great c>e %\ld be tak5 to see t ?is condition does n occur1 especially :5 ! dep? ( case is betwe5 #a_/cb & #c_/fd 94 ,,c>bon-,,/eel ,,=g+s ,l[-/ress$1 c>bon-/eel =g+s include su* p>ts z c>buret] control lev]s1 etc4 ,! important crit]ion = p>ts ( ?is type is ease ( fabrication & fre$om f ov]-heat$ & burn$ =g+s4 ,! mat]ial us$ = su* p>ts 0 ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,no4 #a1jcj /eel1 :i* is ( ! foll[+ *emical composition3 ,c>bon1 #j4bej to #j4cej p] c5t2 manganese1 #j4ejj to #j4hjj p] c5t2 phosphorus1 #j4jde maximum p] c5t2 sulphur1 #j4jej maximum p] c5t4 ,to obta9 good ma*9eability1 all =g+s produc$ f ?is /eel 7 heat$ to a temp]ature ( f #a1ege to #a1fbe;,f4 to ref9e ! gra9 ( ! /eel ?or\ghly & qu5*$ 9 wat] & !n temp]$ to obta9 prop] ma*9eability by heat+ to a temp]ature ( f #a1jjj to #a1ajj;,f4 & cool$ sl[ly or qu5*$4 ,=g+s subject$ to ?is heat treatm5t are free f h>d spots & w %[ a ,br9ell h>dness ( #agg to #bag1 :i* is prop] = all ord9>y ma*9+ op]ations4 ,great c>e %\ld be tak5 n to use /eel = p>ts ( ?is type conta9+ less ?an #j4be p] c5t c>bon1 because ! l[] ! c>bon ! great] ! liability ( h>d spots1 & ! m difficult x becomes to elim9ate !m4 ,! only satisfactory me?od s f> 9 comm]cial use = ! elim9ation ( h>d spots is to give =g+s a v sev]e qu5* f a high temp]ature foll[$ by a prop] temp]+ heat to secure good ma*9e ability z outl9$ above4 ,! important c>bon-/eel =g+s consi/$ ( ! cyl9d]s1 ! propell]-hubs1 ! propell]-hub flange1 etc4 ,! mat]ial us$ = p>ts ( ?is type 0 ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,no4 #a1jde /eel1 :i* is ( ! foll[+ *emical composition3 ,c>bon1 #j4djj to #j4ejj p] c5t2 manganese1 #j4ejj to #j4hjj p] c5t2 phosphorus1 #j4jde maximum p] c5t2 sulphur1 #j4jej maximum p] c5t4 ,all =g+s made f ?is mat]ial mu/ %[1 aft] heat treatm5t1 ! foll[+ m9imum physical prop]ties3 ,ela/ic limit1 #gj1jjj2 lb4 p] squ>e in*1 elongation 9 #b 941 #ah p] c5t1 r$uction ( area1 #de2 p] c5t1 ,br9ell h>dness1 #bag to #bee4 ,to obta9 ^! physical prop]ties1 ! =g+s 7 qu5*$ 9 wat] f a temp]ature ( #a1ejj to #a1eej;,f41 foll[$ by temp]+ to meet prop] ,br9ell requirem5ts by heat+ to a temp]ature ( #a1aej to #a1bjj;,f4 & cool$ sl[ly or qu5*$4 ,no tr\ble ( any k9d 0 ev] exp]i5c$ ) p>ts ( ?is type4 ,! pr9cipal c>bon-/eel press$ p>ts us$ on ! ,lib]ty eng9e 7 ! wat] jackets & ! exhau/ manifolds4 ,! mat]ial us$ = p>ts ( ?is type 0 ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,no4 #a1jaj /eel1 :i* is ( ! foll[+ *emical composition3 ,c>bon1 #j4je to #j4ae p] c5t2 manganese1 #j4cj to #j4fj p] c5t2 phosphorus1 #j4jde maximum p] c5t2 sulphur1 #j4jde maximum p] c5t4 ,no tr\ble 0 exp]i5c$ 9 ! production ( any p>ts f ?is mat]ial ) ! exception ( ! wat] jacket4 ,due to ! p>ticul> design ( ! ,lib]ty cyl9d] assembly1 _m failures occurr$ 9 ! e>ly days1 due to ! top ( ! jacket crack+ ) a brittle fracture4 ,x 0 f\nd t ^! failures 7 caus$ prim>ily f ! use ( jackets :i* %[$ small scrat*es or die m>ks at ?is jo9t & second>ily by improp] anneal+ ( ! jackets !mselves betwe5 ! diff]5t =m+ op]ations4 ,by a c>eful inspection = die m>ks & by giv+ ! jackets #a1djj;,f4 anneal+ be=e ! la/ =m+ op]ation1 x 0 possible to completely elim9ate ! tr\ble enc\nt]$4 ,,highly ,,/ress$ ,,p>ts ,! highly /ress$ p>ts on ! ,lib]ty eng9e consi/$ ( ! connect+-rod bolt1 ! ma9-be>+ bolt1 ! propell]-hub key1 etc4 ,! mat]ial us$ = p>ts ( ?is type 0 select$ at ! option ( ! manufactur] f /&>d ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 /eels1 ! composition ( :i* are giv5 9 ,table #aa4 ,,table #aa4--;,,composition ,,( ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,,/eels ,nos4 #b1ccj1 #c1ace ,,& #f1acj ,/eel ,no #b1ccj #c1ace #f1acj ,c>bon1 m9imum #j4bej #j4cjj #j4bej ,c>bon1 maximum #j4cej #j4djj #j4dej ,manganese1 m9imum #j4ejj #j4ejj #j4ejj ,manganese1 maximum #j4hjj #j4hjj #j4hjj ,phosphorus1 maximum #j4jde #j4jdj #j4jdj ,sulphur1 maximum #j4jde #j4jde #j4jde ,nickel1 m9imum #c4bej #a4jjj ,nickel1 maximum #c4gej #a4ejj ,*romium1 m9imum #j4dej #j4hjj ,*romium1 maximum #j4gej #a4ajj ,vanadium1 m9imum #j4aej ,all highly /ress$ p>ts on ! ,lib]ty eng9e mu/ %[1 aft] heat treatm5t1 ! foll[+ m9imum physical prop]ties3 ,ela/ic limit1 #ajj1jjj lb4 p] squ>e in*2 elongation 9 #b 941 #af p] c5t2 r$uction ( area1 #de p] c5t2 scl]oscope h>dness1 #dj to #ej4 ,! heat treatm5t employ$ to obta9 ^! physical prop]ties consi/$ 9 qu5*+ f a temp]ature ( #a1ebe to #a1ege;,f41 9 oil1 foll[$ by temp]+ at a temp]ature ( f #ibe to #ige;,f4 ,due to ! extremely f9e limits us$ on all ?read$ p>ts = ! ,lib]ty eng9e1 a l>ge p]c5tage ( rejection 0 due to w>page & scal+ ( p>ts4 ,to elim9ate ?is objection1 _m ( ! ,lib]ty eng9e build]s adopt$ ! use ( heat-treat$ & cold-drawn alloy /eel = _! highly /ress$ p>ts4 ,on all sizes up to & includ+ #c_/h 94 9 diamet]1 ! physical prop]ties 7 secur$ by m]ely normaliz+ ! hot-roll$ b>s by heat+ to a temp]ature ( f #a1ebe to #a1ege;,f41 & cool+ 9 air1 foll[$ by ! usual cold-draw+ r$uctions4 ,= p>ts requir+ /ock ov] #c_/h 94 9 diamet]1 ! physical prop]ties desir$ 7 obta9$ by qu5*+ & temp]+ ! hot-roll$ b>s be=e cold-draw+4 ,x is ! op9ion t ! use ( heat-treat$ & cold-drawn b>s is v good practice1 provid$ prop] inspection is made to gu>antee ! uni=mity ( heat treatm5t &1 !re=e1 ! uni=mity ( ! physical prop]ties ( ! f9i%$ p>ts4 ,! "q has be5 ask$ _m times by diff]5t manufactur]s1 z to :i* alloy /eel (f]s ! be/ ma*9eability :5 heat-treat$ to a giv5 ,br9ell h>dness4 ,! g5]al cons5sus ( op9ion among ! screw-ma*9e manufactur]s is t ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,no4 #f1acj /eel gives ! be/ ma*9eability & t ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,no4 #b1ccj /eel w\ld receive second *oice ( ! ?ree specifi$4 ,9 ! f9i%+ ( highly /ress$ p>ts = aviation eng9es1 extreme c>e mu/ be tak5 to see t all tool m>ks are elim9at$1 unless !y are p>allel to ! axis ( /ra91 & t prop] radii are ma9ta9$ at all *anges ( section4 ,?is is ( ! utmo/ importance to give prop] fatigue resi/ance to ! "p 9 "q4 ,,ge>s ,! mat]ial us$ = all ge>s on ! ,lib]ty eng9e 0 select$ at ! option ( ! manufactur] f ! foll[+ /&>d ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 /eels1 ! composition ( :i* are giv5 9 ,table #ab1 ,,table #ab4--;,,composition ,,( ,,/eels ,,nos4 ,x-#c1cdj ,,& #f1adj ,/eel ,no ,x-#c1cdj #f1adj ,c>bon1 m9imum #j4cej #j4cej ,c>bon1 maximum #j4dej #j4dej ,manganese1 m9imum #j4dej #j4ejj ,manganese1 maximum #j4gej #j4hjj ,phosphorus1 maximum #j4jdj #j4jdj ,sulphur1 maximum #j4jde #j4jde ,nickel1 m9imum #b4gej ,nickel1 maximum #c4bej ,*romium1 m9imum #j4gjj #j4hjj ,*romium1 maximum #j4iej #a4ajj ,vanadium1 m9imum #j4aej ,all ge>s 7 heat-treat$ to a scl]oscope h>dness ( f #ee to #ee4 ,! heat treatm5t us$ to secure ?is h>dness consi/$ 9 qu5*+ ! =g+s f a temp]ature ( #a1eej to #a1fjj;,f4 9 oil & anneal+ = good ma*9eability at a temp]ature ( f #a1cjj to #a1cej;,f4 ,=g+s treat$ 9 ?is mann] %[$ a ,br9ell h>dness ( f #agg to #bag4 ,,rate ,,( ,,cool+ ,at ! option ( ! manufactur]1 ! above treatm5t ( ge> =g+s c\ld be sub/itut$ by normaliz+ ! =g+s at a temp]ature ( f #a1eej to #a1fjj;,f4 ,! mo/ important crit]ion = prop] normaliz+1 consi/$ 9 all[+ ! =g+s to cool ?r\gh ! critical temp]ature ( ! /eel1 at a rate n to exce$ #ej;,f4 p] h\r4 ,= ! two /&>d /eels us$1 ?is consi/$ 9 cool+ f ! normaliz+ temp]ature d[n to a temp]ature ( #a1ajj;,f41 at ! rate indicat$4 ,=g+s normaliz$ 9 ?is mann] w %[ a ,br9ell h>dness ( f #agg to #bag4 ,! "q has be5 repeat$ly ask$ z to :i* treatm5t w produce ! high] quality f9i%$ "p4 ,9 answ] to ?is ,i w /ate t on simple =g+s ( comp>atively small section1 ! normaliz+ treatm5t w produce a f9i%$ "p :i* is ( equal quality to t ( ! qu5*$ & anneal$ =g+s4 ,h[ev]1 9 ! case ( complex =g+s1 or ^? ( l>ge section1 m uni=m physical prop]ties ( ! f9i%$ "p w be obta9$ by qu5*+ & anneal+ ! =g+s 9 ! place ( normaliz+4 ,! heat treatm5t ( ! f9i%$ ge>s consi/$ ( qu5*+ 9 oil f a temp]ature ( f #a1dbj to #a1ddj;,f4 = ! ,no4 ,x-#c1cdj /eel1 or f a temp]ature ( f #a1ejj to #a1edj;,f4 = ,no4 #f1adj /eel1 foll[$ by temp]+ 9 saltpet] or 9 an electric furnace at a temp]ature ( f #fej to #gjj;,f4 ,! "q has be5 ask$ by _m eng9e]s1 :y is ! comp>atively l[ scl]oscope h>dness specifi$ = ge>s8 ,! reason = ?is is t at be/ ! life ( an aviation eng9e is %ort1 z comp>$ ) t ( an automobile1 truck or tractor1 & t %ock resi/ance is ( vital importance4 ,a scl]escope h>dness ( f #ee to #fe w give suffici5t resi/ance to we> to prev5t replacem5ts dur+ ! life ( an aviation eng9e1 :ile at ! same "t ?is h>dness produces approximately #ej p] c5t great] %ock-resi/+ prop]ties to ! ge>4 ,9 ! case ( ! automobile1 truck or tractor1 resi/ance to we> is ! ma9 crit]ion & = t reason ! high] h>dness is specifi$4 ,great c>e %\ld be tak5 9 ! design ( an aviation eng9e ge> to elim9ate %>p corn]s at ! bottom ( tee? z well z 9 keyways4 ,any *ange ( section 9 any /ress$ "p ( an aviation eng9e mu/ h a radius ( at lea/ #a_/cb 94 to give prop] %ock & fatigue resi/ance4 ,?is fact has be5 demon/rat$ _m times dur+ ! ,lib]ty eng9e program4 ,,connect+ ,,rods ,! mat]ial us$ = all connect+ rods on ! ,lib]ty eng9e 0 select$ at ! option ( ! manufactur] f "o ( two /&>d ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 /eels1 ! composition ( :i* are giv5 9 ,table #ac4 ,,table #ac4--;,,composition ,,( ,,/eels ,,nos4 ,x-#c1cce ,,& #f1ace ,/eel ,no4 ,x-#c1cce #f1ace ,c>bon1 m9imum #j4cjj #j4cjj ,c>bon1 maximum #j4djj #j4djj ,manganese1 m9imum #j4dej #j4ejj ,manganese1 maximum #j4gej #j4hjj ,phosphorus1 maximum #j4jdj #j4jdj ,sulphur1 maximum #j4jde #j4jde ,nickel1 m9imum #b4gej ,nickel1 maximum #c4bej ,*romium1 m9imum #j4gjj #j4hjj ,*romium1 maximum #j4iej #a4ajj ,vanadium m9imum #j4aej ,all connect+ rods 7 heat-treat$ to %[ ! foll[+ m9imum physical prop]ties2 ,ela/ic limit1 #aje1jjj lb4 p] squ>e in*3 elongation 9 #b 941 #ag4e2 p] c5t1 r$uction ( area #ej4j2 p] c5t41 ,br9ell h>dness1 #bda to #bgg4 ,! heat treatm5t us$ to secure ^! physical prop]ties consi/$ 9 normaliz+ ! =g+s at a temp]ature ( f #a1eej to #a1fjj;,f41 foll[$ by cool+ 9 ! furnace or 9 air4 ,! =g+s 7 !n qu5*$ 9 oil f a temp]ature ( f #a1dbj to #a1ddj;,f4 = ! ,no4 ,x-#c1cce /eel1 or f a temp]ature ( f #a1ejj to #a1ebe;,f4 = ,no4 #f1ace /eel1 foll[$ by temp]+ at a temp]ature ( f #a1jge to #a1aej;,f4 ,at ! option ( ! manufactur]1 ! normaliz+ treatm5t c\ld be sub/itut$ by qu5*+ ! =g+s f a temp]ature ( f #a1eej to #a1fjj;,f41 9 oil1 & anneal+ = ! be/ ma*9eability at a temp]ature ( f #a1cjj to #a1cej;,f4 ,! d\ble qu5*1 h[ev]1 did n prove satisfactory on ,no4 ,x-#c1cce /eel1 due to ! fact t x 0 necess>y to remove =g+s f ! qu5*+ ba? :ile /ill at a temp]ature ( f #cjj to #ejj;,f4 to elim9ate any possibility ( crack+4 ,9 view ( ! fact t ?is practice is difficult to c>ry out 9 ! av]age heat-treat+ plant1 consid]able tr\ble 0 exp]i5c$4 ,! mo/ important crit]ion 9 ! production ( aviation eng9e connect+ rods is ! elim9ation ( burn$ or sev]ely ov]heat$ =g+s4 ,due to ! p>ticul> design ( ! =k$ rod1 consid]able tr\ble 0 exp]i5c$ 9 ?is respect because ( ! necessity ( reheat+ ! =g+s be=e !y are completely =g$4 ,z a means ( elim9ation ( burn$ =g+s1 te/ lugs 7 =g$ on ! *annel section z well z on ! top end ( =k4 ,aft] ! f9i% heat treatm5t1 ^! te/ lugs 7 nick$ & brok5 & ! fracture ( ! /eel c>efully exam9$4 ,?is precaution made x possible to elim9ate burn$ =g+s z ! te/ lugs 7 plac$ on sections :i* w\ld be mo/ likely to become burn$4 ,!re is a great diff]5ce ( op9ion among eng9e]s z to :at physical prop]ties an aviation eng9e connect+ rod %\ld h4 ,_m ( ! mo/ prom95t eng9e]s cont5d t a connect+ rod %\ld be z /iff z possible4 ,to produce rods 9 ?is mann] 9 any quantity1 x is necess>y = ! f9al heat treatm5t to be made on ! semi-ma*9$ rod4 ,?is practice w\ld make x necess>y = a l>g] p]c5tage ( ! semi-ma*9$ rods to be cold-/raight5$ aft] ! f9i% heat treatm5t4 ,! cold-/raight5+ op]ation on a "p hav+ important functions to p]=m z a connect+ rod is extremely dang]\s4 ,9 view ( ! fact t a connect+ rod functions z a /rut1 x is consid]$ t ?is "p %\ld be only /iff en\gh to prev5t any :ipp+ action dur+ ! runn+ ( ! eng9e4 ,! great] ! fatigue-resi/+ prop]ty t "o c put into ! rod aft] ?is /iffness is rea*$1 ! long] ! life ( ! rod w be4 ,?is is ! reason = ! ,br9ell limits m5tion$ be+ specifi$4 ,9 connection ) ! connect+ rod1 emphasis mu/ be laid on ! importance ( prop] radii at all *anges ( section4 ,! connect+ rods = ! fir/ few ,lib]ty eng9es 7 ma*9$ ) %>p corn]s at ! po9t :]e ! connect+-rod bolt-head fits on assembly4 ,on ! fir/ long endurance te/ ( a ,lib]ty eng9e equipp$ ) rods ( ?is type1 failure result$ f fatigue />t+ at ?is po9t4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t e rod on ! eng9e :i* did n completely fail at ?is po9t _h />t$ to crack4 ,! adoption ( a #a_/cb-;94 radius at ?is po9t completely elim9at$ fatigue failures on ,lib]ty rods4 ,,crank%aft ,! crank%aft 0 ! mo/ highly /ress$ "p ( ! entire ,lib]ty eng9e1 &1 !re=e1 e metallurgical precaution 0 tak5 to gu>antee ! quality ( ?is "p4 ,! mat]ial us$ = ! great] portion ( ! ,lib]ty crank%afts produc$ 0 nickel-*romium /eel ( ! foll[+ *emical composition3 ,c>bon1 #j4cej to #j4dej p] c5t2 manganese1 #j4cjj to #j4fjj p] c5t2 phosphorus1 #j4jdj maximum p] c5t2 sulphur1 #j4jde maximum p] c5t2 nickel1 #a4gej to #b4bej p] c5t2 *romium1 #j4gjj to #j4ijj p] c5t4 ,ea* crank%aft 0 heat-treat$ to %[ ! foll[+ m9imum physical prop]ties3 ,ela/ic limit1 #aaf1jjj lb4 p] squ>e in*2 elongation 9 #b 941 #af p] c5t1 r$uction ( area1 #ej p] c5t1 ,izod impact1 #cd ft4-lb42 ,br9ell h>dness1 #bff to #cba4 ,= e increase ( #d1jjj lb4 p] squ>e in* 9 ! ela/ic limit above #aaf1jjj lb4 p] squ>e in*1 ! m9imum ,izod impact requir$ 0 r$uc$ #a ft4-lb4 ,! heat treatm5t us$ to produce ^! physical prop]ties consi/$ 9 normaliz+ ! =g+s at a temp]ature ( f #a1eej to #a1fjj;,f41 foll[$ by qu5*+ 9 wat] at a temp]ature ( f #a1dge to #a1ebe;,f4 & temp]+ at a temp]ature ( f #a1jjj to #a1ajj;,f4 ,x is absolutely necess>y t ! crank%afts be remov$ f ! qu5*+ tank be=e be+ all[$ to cool bel[ a temp]ature ( #ejj;,f41 & imm$iately plac$ 9 ! temp]+ furnace to elim9ate ! possibility ( qu5*+ cracks4 ,a prolongation ( n less ?an ! diamet] ( ! =g+ be>+ 0 =g$ on "o end ( ea* crank%aft4 ,?is 0 remov$ f ! %aft aft] ! f9i% heat treatm5t1 & physical te/s 7 made on te/ specim5s :i* 7 cut f x at a po9t half way betwe5 ! c5t] & ! surface4 ,"o t5sile te/ & "o impact te/ 7 made on ea* crank%aft1 & ! results obta9$ 7 record$ aga9/ ! s]ial numb] ( ! %aft 9 "q4 ,?is s]ial numb] 0 c>ri$ ?r\gh all ma*9+ op]ations & /amp$ on ! *eek ( ! f9i%$ %aft4 ,9 addition to ! above t5sile & impact te/s1 at lea/ two ,br9ell h>dness det]m9ations 7 made on ea* %aft4 ,all /raight5+ op]ations on ! ,lib]ty crank%aft :i* 7 p]=m$ bel[ a temp]ature ( #ejj;,f4 7 foll[$ by retemp]+ at a temp]ature ( approximately #bjj;,f4 bel[ ! orig9al temp]+ temp]ature4 ,ano!r illu/ration ( ! importance ( prop] radii at all *anges ( section is giv5 9 ! case ( ! ,lib]ty crank%aft4 ,! pres5ce ( tool m>ks or "u cuts mu/ be completely elim9at$ f an aviation eng9e crank%aft to secure prop] s]vice4 ,dur+ ! duration ( ! ,lib]ty program1 f\r crank%afts fail$ f fatigue1 failures />t+ f %>p corn]s at bottom ( propell]-hub keyway4 ,two ( ! %afts t fail$ %[$ torsional spirals runn+ m ?an completely ar\nd ! %aft4 ,z soon z ?is difficulty 0 remov$ no fur!r tr\ble 0 exp]i5c$4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important difficulties enc\nt]$ 9 connection ) ! production ( ,lib]ty crank%afts 0 hair-l9e seams4 ,! "q ( hair-l9e seams has be5 discuss$ to great] l5g? by eng9e]s & metallurgi/s dur+ ! w> ?an any o!r s+le "q4 ,hair-l9e seams are caus$ by small non-metallic inclusions 9 ! /eel4 ,!re is e reason to believe t ^! inclusions are 9 ! great] majority ( cases manganese sulphide4 ,!re is a great diff]5ce ( op9ion z to ! exact effect ( hair-l9e seams on ! s]vice ( an aviation eng9e crank%aft4 ,x is ! op9ion ( _m t hair-l9e seams d n 9 any way affect ! endurance ( a crank%aft 9 s]vice1 provid$ !y are p>allel to ! gra9 ( ! /eel & d n occur on a fillet4 ,( ! #bj1jjj ,lib]ty eng9es produc$1 fully #ej p] c5t ( ! crank%afts us$ conta9 hair-l9e seams b n at ! locations m5tion$4 ,!re has nev] be5 a failure ( a ,lib]ty crank%aft :i* c\ld 9 any way be trac$ to hair-l9e seams4 ,x 0 f\nd t hair-l9e seams occur g5]ally on high nickel-*romium /eels4 ,"o ( ! ma9 reasons :y ! comp>atively mild analysis nickel-*romium /eel 0 us$ 0 due to ! v few hair-l9e seams pres5t 9 x4 ,x 0 also det]m9$ t ! hair l9es w 9 g5]al be f\nd ne> ! surface ( ! =g+s4 ,= t reason1 z mu* f9i% z possible 0 all[$ = ma*9+4 ,a numb] ( te/s h be5 made on =g+ b>s to det]m9e ! dep?s at :i* hair-l9e seams are f\nd1 & _m cases came up 9 :i* hair-l9e seams 7 f\nd #c_/h 94 f ! surface ( ! b>4 ,?is means t 9 case a crank%aft does n %[ hair-l9e seams on ! gr\nd surface ?is is no indication t x is free f su* a defect4 ,"o important peculi>ity ( nickel-*romium /eel 0 br\ght out f ! results obta9$ on impact te/s4 ,?is peculi>ity is kn[n z blue brittl5ess4 ,j :at ! effect ( ?is is on ! s]vice ( a f9i%$ "p dep5ds entirely ^u ! design ( ! p>ticul> "p 9 "q4 ,!re h be5 no failures ( any nickel-*romium /eel p>ts 9 ! automotive indu/ry :i* c\ld 9 any way be trac$ to ?is ph5om5a4 ,:e!r or n nickel-*romium-/eel =g+s w %[ blue brittl5ess dep5ds entirely ^u ! temp]ature at :i* !y are temp]$ & _! rate ( cool+ f ?is temp]ature4 ,! dang] range = temp]+ nickel-*romium /eels is betwe5 a temp]ature ( f #djj to #a1ajj;,f4 ,f ! data s f> ga!r$ on ?is ph5om5a1 x is necess>y t ! nickel-*romium /eel to %[ blue brittl5ess be made by ! acid process4 ,!re has nev] come to my att5tion a s+le in/ance 9 :i* basic op5 he>? /eel has %[n ?is ph5om5a4 ,j :y ! acid op5 he>? /eel %\ld be s5sitive to blue brittl5ess is n kn[n4 ,all t is necess>y to elim9ate ! pres5ce ( blue brittl5ess is to qu5* all nickel-*romium-/eel =g+s 9 wat] f _! temp]+ temp]ature4 ,! la/ #bj1jjj ,lib]ty crank%afts t 7 made 7 qu5*$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,,pi/on ,,p9 ,! pi/on p9 on an aviation eng9e mu/ possess maximum resi/ance to we> & to fatigue4 ,= ?is reason1 ! pi/on p9 is consid]$1 f a metallurgical /&po9t1 ! mo/ important "p on ! eng9e to produce 9 quantities & /ill possess ! above *>act]i/ics4 ,! mat]ial us$ = ! ,lib]ty eng9e pi/on p9 0 ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,no4 #bcae /eel1 :i* is ( ! foll[+ *emical composition3 ,c>bon1 #j4ajj to #j4bjj p] c5t2 manganese1 #j4ejj to #j4hjj p] c5t2 phosphorus1 #j4jdj maximum p] c5t2 sulphur1 #j4jde maximum p] c5t2 nickel1 #c4bej to #c4gej p] c5t4 ,ea* f9i%$ pi/on p91 aft] heat treatm5t1 mu/ %[ a m9imum scl]oscope h>dness ( ! case ( #gj1 a scl]oscope h>dness ( ! core ( f #ce to #ee & a m9imum cru%+ /r5g? :5 support$ z a beam & ! load appli$ at ! c5t] ( #ce1jjj lb4 ,! heat treatm5t us$ to obta9 ! above physical prop]ties consi/$ 9 c>buriz+ at a temp]ature n to exce$ #a1fge;,f41 = a suffici5t l5g? ( "t to secure a case ( f #j4jb to #j4jd 94 deep4 ,! p9s are !n all[$ to cool sl[ly f ! c>boniz+ heat1 aft] :i* ! hole is f9i%-ma*9$ & ! p9 cut to l5g?4 ,! f9i% heat treatm5t ( ! pi/on p9 consi/$ 9 qu5*+ 9 oil f a temp]ature ( f #a1ebe to #a1ege;,f4 to ref9e ! gra9 ( core prop]ly & !n qu5*+ 9 oil at a temp]ature ( f #a1cdj to #a1chj;,f4 to ref9e & h>d5 ! gra9 ( ! case prop]ly1 z well z to secure prop] h>dness ( core4 ,aft] ?is qu5*+1 all pi/on p9s are temp]$ 9 oil at a temp]ature ( f #cge to #djj;,f4 ,a #ajj p] c5t inspection = scl]oscope h>dness ( ! case & ! core 0 made1 & no failures 7 ev] record$ :5 ! above mat]ial & heat treatm5t 0 us$4 ,,application ,,to ,,! ,,automotive ,,indu/ry ,! in=mation giv5 on ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! ,lib]ty eng9e applies ) equal =ce to ! correspond+ p>ts 9 ! con/ruction ( an automobile1 truck or tractor4 ,we recomm5d z fir/ *oice = c>bon-/eel screw-ma*9e p>ts mat]ial produc$ by ! basic op5 he>? process & hav+ ! foll[+ *emical composition2 ,c>bon1 #j4aej to #j4bej p] c5t2 manganese1 #j4ejj to #j4hjj p] c5t2 phosphorus1 #j4jde maximum p] c5t2 sulphur1 #j4jge to #j4aej p] c5t4 ,?is mat]ial is v uni=m & is ne>ly z free cutt+ z bessem] screw /ock4 ,x is suffici5tly uni=m to be us$ = unimportant c>buriz$ p>ts1 z well z = non-heat-treat$ screw-ma*9e p>ts4 ,a numb] ( ! l>ge automobile manufactur]s are n[ specify+ ?is mat]ial 9 pref]5ce to ! regul> bessem] grades4 ,z second *oice = c>bon-/eel screw-ma*9e p>ts we recomm5d ord9>y bessem] screw /ock1 pur*as$ 9 accordance ) ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 specification ,no4 #aaad4 ,! advantage ( us+ ,no4 #aaad /eel lies 9 ! fact t ! majority ( w>eh\ses c>ry /&>d sizes ( ?is mat]ial 9 /ock at all times4 ,! disadvantage ( us+ ?is mat]ial is due to its lack ( uni=mity4 ,! important crit]ion = transmission ge>s is resi/ance to we>4 ,to secure prop] resi/ance to we> a ,br9ell h>dness ( f #eab to #efj mu/ be obta9$4 ,! mat]ial select$ to obta9 ?is h>dness %\ld be "o :i* c be made mo/ ne>ly uni=m1 w und]go =g+ op]ations ! easie/1 w be ! h>de/ to ov]heat or burn1 w ma*9e be/ & w respond to a good comm]cial range ( heat treatm5t4 ,x is a well-kn[n fact t ! elem5t *romium1 :5 9 ! =m ( *romium c>bide 9 alloy /eel1 (f]s ! greate/ resi/ance to we> ( any comb9ation yet develop$4 ,x is also a well-kn[n fact t ! elem5t nickel 9 /eel gives excell5t %ock-resi/+ prop]ties z well z resi/ance to we> b n ne>ly z great a resi/ance to we> z *romium4 ,x has be5 /&>d practice = a numb] ( ye>s = _m manufactur]s to use a high nickel-*romium /eel = transmission ge>s4 ,a typical nickel-*romium ge> specification is z foll[s3 ,c>bon1 #j4dgj to #j4ebj p] c5t2 manganese1 #j4ejj to #j4hjj p] c5t2 phosphorus1 #j4jdj maximum p] c5t2 sulphur1 #j4jde maximum p] c5t2 *romium1 #j4gjj to #j4iej p] c5t4 ,!re is no "q b t a ge> made f mat]ial ( su* an analysis w give excell5t s]vice4 ,h[ev]1 x is possible to obta9 ! same quality ( s]vice & at ! same "t appreciably r$uce ! co/ ( ! f9i%$ "p4 ,! ge> /eel specifi$ is ( ! air-h>d5+ type4 ,x is extremely s5sitive to second>y pipe1 z well z seams1 & is extremely difficult to =ge & v easy to ov]heat4 ,! heat-treatm5t range is v wide1 b ! dang] f qu5*+ cracks is v great4 ,9 reg>d to ! ma*9eability1 ?is mat]ial is ! h>de/ to ma*9e ( any alloy /eel kn[n4 ,,composition ,,( ,,transmission-,,ge> ,,/eel ,if ! nickel cont5t ( ?is /eel is elim9at$1 & ! p]c5tage ( *romium rais$ slightly1 an ideal transmission-ge> mat]ial is obta9$4 ,?is w\ld1 !re=e1 be ( ! foll[+ composition3 ,c>bon1 #j4dgj to #j4ebj p] c5t2 manganese1 #j4ejj to #j4hjj p] c5t2 phosphorus1 #j4jdj maximum p] c5t2 sulphur1 #j4jde maximum p] c5t2 *romium1 #j4hjj to #a4ajj p] c5t4 ,! important crit]ion 9 connection ) ! use ( ?is mat]ial is t ! /eel be prop]ly deoxidiz$1 ei!r ?r\gh ! use ( f]rovanadium or its equival5t4 ,approximately #b1ejj sets ( transmission ge>s are be+ made daily f mat]ial ( ?is analysis & are giv+ entirely satisfactory results 9 s]vice4 ,! heat treatm5t ( ! above mat]ial = transmission ge>s is z foll[s3 ,normalize =g+s at a temp]ature ( f #a1e4ej to #a1fjj;,f4 ,cool f ?is temp]ature to a temp]ature ( #a1ajj;,f4 at ! rate ( #ej p] h\r4 ,cool f #a1ajj;,f41 ei!r 9 air or qu5* 9 wat]4 ,=g+s s treat$ w %[ a ,br9ell h>dness ( f #agg to #bag1 :i* is ! prop] range = ! be/ ma*9eability4 ,! heat treatm5t ( ! f9i%$ ge>s consi/s ( qu5*+ 9 oil f a temp]ature ( #a1ejj to #a1edj;,f41 foll[$ by temp]+ 9 oil at a temp]ature ( f #cge to #dbe;,f4 ,ge>s s treat$ w %[ a ,br9ell h>dness ( f #eab to #efj1 or a scl]oscope h>dness ( f #gb to #hj4 ,"o tractor build] has plac$ 9 s]vice #bj1jjj sets ( ge>s ( ?is type ( mat]ial & has nev] _h to replace a ge>4 ,tak+ into consid]ation ! fact t a tractor transmission is subject$ to ! wor/ possible s]vice conditions1 & t x is "u high /ress #ij p] c5t ( ! "t1 x seems inconceivable t any appreciable transmission tr\ble w\ld be exp]i5c$ :5 mat]ial ( ?is type is us$ on an automobile1 :]e ! full load is appli$ n ov] #a p] c5t ( ! "t1 or on trucks :]e ! full load is appli$ n ov] #ej p] c5t ( ! "t4 ,! ge> h>dness specifi$ is necess>y to r$uce to a m9imum ! pitt+ or surface fatigue ( ! tee?4 ,if ge>s hav+ a ,br9ell h>dness ( ov] #efj are us$1 dang] is enc\nt]$1 due to l[ %ock-resi/+ prop]ties4 ,if ! ,br9ell h>dness is "u #eab1 tr\ble is exp]i5c$ due to we> & surface fatigue ( ! tee?4 ,= r+ ge>s & p9ions mat]ial ( ! foll[+ *emical composition is recomm5d$3 ,c>bon1 #j4ajj to #j4bjj p] c5t2 manganese1 #j4cej to #j4fej p] c5t2 phosphorus1 #j4jdj maximum p] c5t2 sulphur1 #j4jde maximum p] c5t2 *romium1 #j4eej to #j4gej p] c5t2 nickel1 #j4djj to #j4fjj p] c5t4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 to see t ?is mat]ial is prop]ly deoxidiz$ ei!r by ! use ( f]rovanadium or its equival5t4 ,! advantage ( us+ a mat]ial ( ! above type lies 9 ! fact t x w produce a satisfactory f9i%$ "p ) a v simple treatm5t4 ,! heat treatm5t ( r+ ge>s & p9ions is z foll[s3 ,c>burize at a temp]ature ( f #a1fej to #a1gjj;,f4 = a suffici5t l5g? ( "t to secure a dep? ( case ( f #a_/cb to #c_/fd 941 & qu5* directly f c>buriz+ heat 9 oil4 ,reheat to a temp]ature ( f #a1dcj to #a1dfj;,f4 & qu5* 9 oil4 ,temp] 9 oil at a temp]ature ( f #cge to #dbe;,f4 ,! f9al qu5*+ op]ation on a r+ ge> %\ld be made on a fixture simil> to ! ,gleason press to r$uce di/ortion to a m9imum4 ,"o ( ! l>ge/ produc]s ( r+ ge>s & p9ions 9 ! automotive indu/ry has be5 us+ ?is mat]ial & treatm5t = ! la/ #b ye>s1 & is ( ! op9ion t he is n[ produc+ ! highe/ quality product ev] turn$ out by t plant4 ,on "s designs ( automobiles a l>ge am\nt ( tr\ble is exp]i5c$ ) ! driv+ p9ion4 ,if ! mat]ial & heat treatm5t specifi$ w n give satisfaction1 r ?an to *ange ! design x is possible to use ! foll[+ analysis mat]ial1 :i* w raise ! co/ ( ! f9i%$ "p b w give excell5t s]vice3 ,c>bon1 #j4ajj to #j4bjj p] c5t2 manganese1 #j4cej to #j4fej p] c5t2 phosphorus1 #j4jdj maximum p] c5t2 sulphur1 #j4jde maximum p] c5t2 nickel1 #d4gej to #e4bej p] c5t4 ,! heat treatm5t ( p9ions produc$ f ?is mat]ial consi/s 9 c>buriz+ at a temp]ature ( f #a1fjj to #a1fej;,f4 = a suffici5t l5g? ( "t to secure a dep? ( case f #a_/cb to #c_/fd 94 ,! p9ions are !n qu5*$ 9 oil f a temp]ature ( #a1ejj to #a1ebe;,f4 to ref9e ! gra9 ( ! core & qu5*$ 9 oil f a temp]ature ( f #a1cdj to #a1cfj;,f4 ,to ref9e & h>d5 ! case4 ,! use ( ?is mat]ial h[ev]1 is recomm5d$ only 9 an em]g5cy1 z high-nickel /eel is v susceptible to seams1 second>y pipe & lam9ations4 ,! ma9 crit]ion on re>-axle & p9ion %afts1 /e]+ knuckles & arms & p>ts ( ?is g5]al type is resi/ance to fatigue & torsion4 ,! mat]ial recomm5d$ = p>ts ( ?is "* is ei!r ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,no4 #face or ,no4 #cace /eel1 :i* h ! *emical composition giv5 9 ,tables #i & #g4 ,,heat ,,treatm5t ,,( ,,axles ,p>ts ( ?is g5]al type %\ld be heat-treat$ to %[ ! foll[+ m9imum physical prop]ties3 ,ela/ic limit1 #aae1jjj lb4 p] squ>e in*2 elongation 9 #b 941 #af p] c5t2 r$uction ( area1 #ej p] c5t2 ,br9ell h>dness1 #bgg to #cba4 ,! heat treatm5t us$ to secure ^! physical prop]ties consi/s 9 qu5*+ f a temp]ature ( f #a1ebj to #a1edj;,f4 9 wat] & temp]+ at a temp]ature ( f #ige to #a1jbe;,f4 ,:]e ! axle %aft is a =g+1 & 9 ! case ( /e]+ knuckles & arms1 ?is heat treatm5t %\ld be prec$$ by normaliz+ ! =g+s at a temp]ature ( f #a1eej to #a1fjj;,f4 ,x w be not$ t ^! physical prop]ties correspond to ^? work$ out = an ideal aviation eng9e crank%aft4 ,if p>ts ( ?is type are design$ ) prop] sections1 s t ?is range ( physical prop]ties c be us$1 ! "p 9 "q w give maximum s]vice4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important developm5ts dur+ ! ,lib]ty eng9e program 0 ! fact t x is n necess>y to use a high-analysis alloy /eel to secure a f9i%$ "p :i* w give prop] s]vice4 ,?is fact %\ld save ! automotive indu/ry millions ( doll>s on future production4 ,if ! prop] au?ority be giv5 ! metallurgical eng9e] to gov]n ! h&l+ ( ! /eel f ! "t x is pur*as$ until x is assembl$ into f9i%$ product1 mild-analysis /eels c be us$ & ! quality ( ! f9i%$ product gu>ante$4 ,x 0 only ?r\gh ! c>eful adh]5ce to ^! fundam5tal pr9ciples t x 0 possible to produce #bj1jjj ,lib]ty eng9es1 :i* are consid]$ to be ! mo/ highly /ress$ me*anism ev] produc$1 )\t ! failure ( a s+le eng9e f defective mat]ial or heat treatm5t4 ,,mak+ ,,/eel ,,balls ,/eel balls are made f rods or coils accord+ to size1 /ock less ?an #i_/af-;94 comes 9 coils4 ,/ock #e_/h-;94 & l>g] comes 9 rods4 ,ball /ock is designat$ 9 ?\s&?s s t #e_/h-;94 rods are kn[n z #j4fbe-;94 /ock4 ,/eel = mak+ balls ( av]age size is made up (3 ,c>bon #j4ie to #a4je p] c5t ,silicon #j4bj to #j4ce p] c5t ,manganese #j4cj to #j4de p] c5t ,*romium #j4ce to #j4de p] c5t ,sulphur & phosphorus n to exce$ #j4jbe p] c5t ,= ! l>g] sizes a typical analysis is3 ,c>bon #a4jb p] c5t ,silicon #j4ba p] c5t ,manganese #j4dj p] c5t ,*romium #j4fe p] c5t ,sulphur #j4jbf p] c5t ,phosphorus #j4jad p] c5t ,balls #e_/h 94 & bel[ are =m$ cold on upsett+ or head+ ma*9es1 ! /ock use is z foll[s3 ,,table #ad4--,,sizes ,,( ,,/ock ,,= ,,=m+ ,,balls ,,on ,,head] ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,diamet] ( ,diamet] ( ,diamet] ( ,diamet] ( ball1 in* /ock in* ball1 in* /ock1 in* ---------------------------------------- ------------ #a_/h #j4ajj #e_/af #j4bce #e_/cb #j4abj #c_/h #j4bge #c_/af #j4ade #g_/af #j4cbj #g_/cb #j4agj #a_/b #j4cfe #a_/d #j4aij #i_/af #j4cie #i_/cb #j4bbj #e_/h #j4ddj ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,= l>g] balls ! blanks are hot-=g$ f /raight b>s4 ,!y are usually =g$ 9 multiples ( f\r "u a spr+ hamm] & !n sep>at$ by a suitable pun*+ or %e>+ die 9 a press adjo9+ ! hamm]4 ,! dim5sions are3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,diamet] ( ball1 ,diamet] ( die1 ,diamet] ( /ock1 in* in* in* ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #c_/d #j4gge #j4fbe #g_/h #j4ije #j4gbi #a #a4jce #j4hbc ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,be=e h>d5+1 ! balls are anneal$ to relieve ! /resses ( =g+ & gr9d+1 ?is be+ done by pass+ !m ?r\gh a revolv+ retort made ( ni*rome or o!r heat-resi/+ sub/ance4 ,! anneal+ temp]ature is #a1cjj;,f4 ,! h>d5+ temp]ature is f #a1dbe to #a1dge;,f4 accord+ to size & composition ( /eel4 ,small balls1 #e_/af & "u1 are qu5*$ 9 oil1 ! l>g] sizes 9 wat]4 ,9 "s special cases br9e is us$4 ,qu5*+ small balls 9 wat] is too great a %ock z ! small volume is cool$ cle> ?r\gh almo/ in/antly4 ,! l>g] balls h metal en\gh to cool m sl[ly4 ,balls :i* are cool$ 9 ei!r wat] or br9e are boil$ 9 wat] = #b hr4 to relieve int]nal /resses1 aft] :i* ! balls are f9i%$ by dry-gr9d+ & oil-gr9d+4 ,! ball mak]s h an int]e/+ me?od ( te/+ /ock = seams :i* d n %[ 9 ! rod or wire4 ,! ,hoov] ,/eel ,ball ,company cut (f pieces ( rod or wire #g_/af 94 long & subject !m to an end pressure ( f #bj1jjj to #ej1jjj lb4 ,a pressure ( #bj1jjj lb4 compresses ! piece to #c_/af 94 & ! #ej1jjj lb4 pressure to #c_/cb 94 ,?is op5s any seam :i* may exi/ b a solid b> %[s no seam4 ,ano!r me?od :i* has prov$ v successful is to pass ! b> or rod to be te/$ ?r\gh a sol5oid electro-magnet4 ,) suitable in/rum5ts x is claim$ t ?is is an almo/ infallible te/ z ! in/rum5ts %[ at once :5 a seam or flaw is pres5t 9 ! b>4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,=g+ ,,( ,,/eel ,s mu* dep5ds ^u ! =g+ ( /eel t ?is op]ation mu/ be c>efully sup]vis$4 ,?is is especially true because ( ! t5d5cy to place unskill$ & ignorant m5 z furnace-t5d]s & hamm] m54 ,! ma9 po9ts to be sup]vis$ are ! sl[ & c>eful heat+ to ! prop] temp]ature2 =g+ mu/ be cont9u$ at a prop] rate to ! correct temp]ature4 ,! b> ( /ock f :i* a =g+ 0 made may h _h a fairly good /ructure1 b if ! details ( ! work+ are n c>efully wat*$1 a seamy1 split article ( no value may easily result4 ,,heat+4--,al?\gh x is possible to "w /eels cold1 to an ext5t dep5d+ ^u _! ductility1 & al?\gh su* op]ations are commonly p]=m$1 =g+ usually means work+ heat$ /eel4 ,heat+ is !re=e a vital "p ( ! process4 ,heat+ %\ld be done sl[ly 9 a soak+ heat4 ,a s(t lazy flame ) excess c>bon is necess>y to avoid burn+ ! corn]s ( ! b> or billet1 & heavily scal+ ! surface4 ,if ! temp]ature is n rais$ sl[ly1 ! out] "p ( ! metal may be at weld+ heat :ile ! inn] "p is sev]al hundr$ degrees cold] & comp>atively h>d & brittle4 ,! above ref]s to muffle furnaces4 ,if ! heat+ is done 9 a small blacksmi?'s =ge1 ! fire %\ld be kept clean1 & remade at int]vals ( ab\t two h\rs4 ,a%es & c9d]s %\ld be clean$ f ! c5t] d[n to ! tuy]e & oily wa/e & wood us$ to />t a new fire4 ,z ?is k9dles a lay] ( coke f ! old fire is put on top1 & ano!r lay] ( gre5 coal 7scre5$ & damp5$ blacksmi?s' coal7 z a cov]4 ,:5 ! gre5 coal on top has be5 cok$ ! fire is ready = use4 ,z ! fuel burns out 9 ! c5t]1 ! coke =m+ ar\nd ! edge is pu%$ inw>d1 & its place tak5 by m gre5 coal4 ,?us ! fire is made up ( ?ree p>ts2 ! c5t] :]e coke is burn+ & ! iron heat+2 a zone :]e coke is =m+1 & ! outside bank ( gre5 coal4 ,,/eel ,,work$ ,,9 ,,au/5itic ,,/ate4--,z a g5]al rule /eel %\ld be work$ :5 x is 9 ! au/5itic /ate4 7,see page #ajh47 ,x is !n s(t & ductile4 ,z ! /eel is heat$ above ! critical temp]ature ! size ( ! au/5ite cry/als t5ds to gr[ rapidly4 ,:5 =g+ />ts1 h[ev]1 ^! gra9s are brok5 up4 ,! gr[? is cont9ually de/roy$ by ! hamm]+1 :i* %\ld consequ5tly be cont9u$ d[n to ! upp] critical temp]ature :5 ! au/5ite cry/als break up into f]rite & cem5tite4 ,! size ( ! f9al gra9s w be mu* small] & h5ce a m uni=m /ructure w result if ! "m au/5ite 0 also f9e gra9$4 ,a f9al /eel w be compos$ ( pe>lite2 f]rite & pe>lite2 or cem5tite & pe>lite1 accord+ to ! c>bon cont5t4 ,! ultimate object is to secure a f9e1 uni=m gra9 ?r\gh\t ! piece & ?is c be secur$ by uni=m heat+ & by ?or\ghly roll+ x or work+ x at a temp]ature j d[n to its critical po9t4 ,if ?is is correctly done ! fracture w be f9e & silky4 ,/eel :i* has be5 ov]heat$ slightly & ! =g+ /opp$ at too high a temp]ature w %[ a granul> fracture4 ,a badly ov]heat$ or burn$ /eel w h iridesc5t colors on a fre% fracture1 x w be brittle bo? hot & cold1 & absolutely ru9$4 ,,/eel ,,c ,,be ,,work$ ,,cold4--,z not$ above1 /eel c be work$ cold1 z 9 ! case ( cold-roll$ /eel4 ,heat treatm5t ( cold-work$ /eel is a v delicate op]ation4 ,cold work+ h>d5s & /r5g!ns /eel4 ,x also introduces int]nal /resses4 ,heat-treatm5ts are design$ to elim9ate ! /resses )\t los+ ! h>dness & /r5g?4 ,?is is done by temp]+ at a l[ heat4 ,avoid ! blue range 7#cej to #gej;,c474 ,temp]+ = a consid]able "t j "u ! critical is liable to cause great brittl5ess4 ,anneal+ 7reheat+ ?r\gh ! critical7 de/roys ! effect ( cold "w4 ,,=g+ ,,high-,,spe$ ,,/eel4--,heat v sl[ly & c>efully to f #a1hjj to #b1jjj;,f4 & =ge ?or\ghly & uni=mly4 ,if ! =g+ op]ation is prolong$ d n cont9ue =g+ ! tool :5 ! /eel beg9s to /iff5 "u ! hamm]4 ,d n =ge bel[ #a1gjj;,f4 7a d>k lemon or orange color74 ,reheat frequ5tly r ?an prolong ! hamm]+ at ! l[ heats4 ,aft] f9i%+ ! =g+ all[ ! tool to cool z sl[ly z possible 9 lime or dry a%es2 avoid plac+ ! tool on ! damp gr\nd or 9 a draught ( air4 ,use a good clean fire = heat+4 ,d n all[ ! tool to soak at ! =g+ heat4 ,d n heat any m ( ! tool ?an is necess>y 9 ord] to =ge x to ! desir$ %ape4 ,,c>bon ,,tool ,,/eel4--,heat to a bright r$1 ab\t #a1ejj to #a1eej;,f4 ,d n hamm] /eel :5 x cools d[n to a d>k *]ry r$1 or j bel[ its h>d5+ po9t1 z ?is creates surface cracks4 ,,oil-,,h>d5+ ,,/eel4--,heat sl[ly & uni=mly to #a1dej;,f4 & =ge ?or\ghly4 ,d n "u any circum/ances attempt to h>d5 at ! =g+ heat4 ,aft] cool+ f =g+ reheat to ab\t #a1dej;,f4 & cool sl[ly s z to remove =g+ /ra9s4 ,,*rome-,,nickel ,,/eel4--,=g+ heat ( *rome-nickel /eel dep5ds v l>gely on ! p]c5tage ( ea* elem5t conta9$ 9 ! /eel4 ,/eel conta9+ f #a_/b to #a p] c5t *romium & f #a-a_/b to #c-a_/b p] c5t nickel1 ) a c>bon cont5t equal to ! *romium1 %\ld be heat$ v sl[ly & uni=mly to approximately #a1fjj ,f41 or salmon color4 ,aft] =g+1 reheat ! /eel to ab\t #a1dej & cool sl[ly s z to remove =g+ /ra9s4 ,d n attempt to h>d5 ! /eel be=e su* anneal+4 ,a great deal ( /eel is con/antly be+ spoil$ by c>elessness 9 ! =g+ op]ation4 ,! billets may be p]fectly s\nd1 b ev5 if ! /eel is heat$ to a good =g+ heat1 & is hamm]$ too lightly1 a poor =g+ results4 ,a prop] bl[ w cause ! edges & ends to bulge slightly outw>ds--! inn]-mo/ p>ts ( ! /eel seem to fl[ fa/] ?an ! surface4 ,light bl[s w "w ! surface out fa/]2 ! edges & ends w curve inw>ds4 ,?is condition 9 extreme cases leaves a seam 9 ! axis ( ! =g+4 ,/eel :i* is heat$ quickly & =g+ begun be=e uni=m heat has p5etrat$ to its c5t] w op5 up seams because ! cool] c5tral portion is n able to fl[ ) ! hot metal surr\nd+ x4 ,uni=m heat+ is absolutely necess>y = ! be/ results4 ,figure #af %[s a s\nd =g+4 ,! b>s 9 ,fig4 #ag 7 bur/ by improp] =g+1 :ile ! die1 ,fig4 #ah1 bur/ f a pip$ c5t]4 ,figure #ai %[s a piece =g$ ) a hamm] too light = ! size ( ! "w4 ,?is gives an appe>ance simil> to case-h>d5+1 ! ref9+ effect ( ! bl[s rea*+ b a %ort di/ance f ! surface4 ,:ile x is impossible to accurately rate ! capacity ( /eam hamm]s ) respect to ! size ( "w !y %\ld h&le1 on acc\nt ( ! greatly v>y+ conditions1 a few notes f ! exp]i5ce ( ! ,bem5t works ( ! ,niles-,bem5t-,pond ,company w be ( s]vice4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4--;,a s\nd =g+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--;,bur/ f improp] =g+4 ,= mak+ an occasional =g+ ( a giv5 size1 a small] hamm] may be us$ ?an if we are manufactur+ ?is same piece 9 l>ge quantities4 ,if we h a #f-;94 piece to =ge1 su* z a p9ion or a %ort %aft1 a hamm] ( ab\t #a1ajj-lb4 capacity w\ld answ] v nicely4 ,b %\ld ! g5]al "w be z l>ge z ?is1 x w\ld be v mu* bett] to use a #a1ejj-lb4 hamm]4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 we wi% to =ge #f-;94 axles economically1 x w\ld be necess>y to use a #g1jjj- or #h1jjj-lb4 hamm]4 ,! foll[+ table w be f\nd conv5i5t = ref]5ce = ! prop] size ( hamm] to be us$ on diff]5t classes ( g5]al blacksmi? "w1 al?\gh x w be und]/ood t x is necess>y to modify ^! to suit conditions1 z has already be5 indicat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,bur/ f a pip$ c5t]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,result ( us+ too light a hamm]4 ,diamet] ( /ock ,size ( hamm] #c-a_/b 94 #bej to #cej lb4 #d 94 #cej to #fjj lb4 #d-a_/b 94 #fjj to #hjj lb4 #e 94 #hjj to #a1jjj lb4 #f 94 #a1ajj to #a1ejj lb4 ,/eam hamm]s are always rat$ by ! weight ( ! ram1 & ! atta*$ p>ts1 :i* include ! pi/on & rod1 no?+ be+ add$ on acc\nt ( ! /eam pressure beh9d ! pi/on4 ,?is makes x a little difficult to comp>e !m ) pla9 drop or tilt+ hamm]s1 :i* are also rat$ 9 ! same way4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--;,good & bad +ots4 ,/eam hamm]s are usually op]at$ at pressures v>y+ f #ge to #ajj lb4 ( /eam p] squ>e in*1 & may also be op]at$ by compress$ air at ab\t ! same pressures4 ,x is *eap]1 h[ev]1 9 ! case ( compress$ air to use pressures f #fj to #hj lb4 in/ead ( go+ high]4 ,=g+s mu/1 h[ev]1 be made f s\nd billets if satisfactory results are to be secur$4 ,figure #bj %[s ?ree cross-sections ( :i* ,a is s\nd1 ,b is badly pip$ & ,c is wor?less4 ,,plant ,,= ,,=g+ ,,rifle ,,b>rels ,! =g+ ( rifle b>rels 9 l>ge quantities & heat-treat+ !m to meet ! specifications dem&$ by "s ( ! =eign gov]nm5ts l$ ,:eelock1 ,lovejoy ,company to e/abli% a complete plant = ?is purpose 9 connection ) _! w>eh\se 9 ,cambridge1 ,mass4 ,?is plant1 design$ & con/ruct$ by _! *ief eng9e]1 ,k4 ,a4 ,ju!1 _h _m int]e/+ features4 ,_m features ( ?is plant c be modifi$ = o!r classes ( "w4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig #ba4--;,cutt+ up b>rels4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,upsett+ ! ends4 ,! /ock1 :i* came 9 b>s ( mill l5g?1 0 cut (f s z to make a b>rel ) ! prop] all[ances = trimm+ 7,fig4 #ba74 ,!y !n pass to ! =g+ or upsett+ press 9 ! adjo9+ room4 ,?is press1 :i* is %[n 9 m detail 9 ,fig4 #bb1 h&l$ ! b>rels f all ! heat+ furnaces %[n4 ,! m5 *ang$ "w at frequ5t int]vals1 to avoid excessive fatigue4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,cont9u\s heat+ furnace4 ,!n ! b>rels 7 reheat$ 9 ! cont9u\s furnace1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #bc1 & /raight5$ be=e be+ te/$4 ,! b>rels 7 next te/$ = /raightness4 ,aft] ! heat-treat+1 ! ends are gr\nd1 a spot gr\nd on ! enl>g$ end & ea* b>rel te/$ on a ,br9ell ma*9e4 ,! pressure us$ is #c1jjj kg41 or #f1fad lb41 on a #aj-millimet] ball1 :i* is /&>d4 ,h>dness ( #bdj 0 desir$4 ,! heat-treat+ ( ! rifle blanks cov]$ f\r sep>ate op]ations3 7#a7 ,heat+ & soak+ ! /eel above ! critical temp]ature & qu5*+ 9 oil to h>d5 ! /eel ?r\gh to ! c5t]2 7#b7 reheat+ = draw+ ( temp] = ! purpose ( meet+ ! physical specifications2 7#c7 reheat+ to meet ! ma*9e ability te/ = production purposes2 & 7#d7 reheat+ to /raight5 ! blanks :ile hot4 ,a %ort explanation ( ! necessity = ! _m heats may be int]e/+4 ,= ! fir/ heat1 ! blanks 7 sl[ly br\ght to ! requir$ heat1 :i* is ab\t #aej;,f4 above ! critical temp]ature4 ,!y are !n soak$ at a high heat = ab\t #a hr4 be=e qu5*+4 ,! purpose ( ?is treatm5t is to elim9ate any roll+ or heat /resses t might be 9 ! b>s f mill op]ations2 also to insure a ?or\gh ev5 heat ?r\gh a cross-section ( ! /eel4 ,?is heat also causes blanks ) seams or slight flaws to op5 up 9 qu5*+1 mak+ detection ( defective blanks v easy4 ,! qu5*+ oil 0 kept at a con/ant temp]ature ( #ajj;,f41 to avoid subject+ ! /eel to %ocks1 !reby caus+ surface cracks4 ,! draw+ ( temp] 0 ! mo/ critical op]ation & 0 kept )9 a #aj fluctuation4 ,! degree ( heat necess>y dep5ds entirely on ! analysis ( ! /eel1 !re be+ a c]ta9 v>iation 9 ! diff]5t heats ( /eel z receiv$ f ! mill4 ,,ma*9eability ,reheat+ = ma*9e ability 0 done at #ajj less ?an ! draw+ temp]ature1 b ! "t ( soak+ is m ?an d\ble4 ,aft] bo? draw+ & reheat+1 ! blanks 7 buri$ 9 lime :]e !y rema91 out ( contact ) ! air1 until _! temp]ature _h dropp$ to t ( ! workroom4 ,= /raight5+1 ! b>rels 7 heat$ to f #ijj to #a1jjj;,f4 9 an automatic furnace #be ft4 long1 ?is op]ation tak+ ab\t #b hr4 ,! purpose ( hot /raight5+ 0 to prev5t any /resses be+ put into ! blanks1 s t aft] r\gh-turn+1 drill+ or rifl+ op]ations !y w\ld n h a t5d5cy to spr+ back to %ape z left by ! qu5*+ ba?4 ,a me?od t produces an ev5 bett] ma*9+ rifle blank1 :i* practically /ays /raight ?r\gh ! diff]5t ma*9+ op]ations1 0 to r\gh-turn ! blanks1 !n subject !m to a heat ( practically #a1jjjj = #d hr4 ,production ?r\gh\t ! diff]5t op]ations is mat]ially increas$1 ) practically no /raight5+ requir$ aft] drill+1 ream+1 f9i%-turn+ or rifl+ op]ations4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,,fig4 #be4 ,,figs4 #bd & #be4--,ro( sy/em ( cool+ qu5*+ oil4 ,?is me?od 0 te/$ out by "o ( ! l>ge/ manufactur]s & prov$ to be ! be/ way to elim9ate a v exp5sive f9i%$ gun-b>rel /raight5+ process4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--;,details ( ! cool]4 ,! heat-treat+ requir$ a l>ge am\nt ( cool+ oil1 & ! problem ( keep+ ?is at ! prop] temp]ature requir$ consid]able /udy4 ,! result 0 ! cool+ plant on ! ro(1 z %[n 9 ,figs4 #bd1 #be & #bf4 ,! fir/ two illu/rations %[ ! plant z x appe>$ complete4 ,figure #bf %[s h[ ! oil 0 h&l$ 9 :at is sometimes call$ ! ebulator sy/em4 ,! oil 0 pump$ up f ! cool+ tanks ?r\gh ! pipe ,a to ! tank ,b4 ,f "h x ran d[n onto ! break]s or sep>ators ,c1 :i* break ! oil up into f9e p>ticles t are caught by ! fans ,d4 ,! spray is bl[n up into ! cool+ t[] ,e1 :i* conta9s banks ( cool+ pipes1 z c be se51 z well z baffies ,f4 ,! spray collects on ! cool pipes & =ms drops1 :i* fall on ! curv$ plates ,g & run back to ! oil-/orage tank bel[ gr\nd4 ,! wat] = ?is cool+ 0 pump$ f #aj artesian wells at ! rate ( #fj gal4 p] m9ute & cool$ #ij gal4 ( oil p] m9ute1 l[]+ ! temp]ature f #acj or #adj to #ajj;,f4 ,! wat] z x came f ! wells av]ag$ ar\nd #eb;,f4 ,! motor 0 ( a #g-a_/b-;hp4 v>iable-spe$ type ) a range ( f #gjj to #a1bjj r4p4m41 :i* c\ld be v>i$ to suit ! am\nt ( oil to be cool$4 ,! plant h&l$ #cjj gal4 ( oil p] m9ute4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,anneal+ ,!re is no my/]y or secret ab\t ! prop] anneal+ ( diff]5t /eels1 b 9 ord] to secure ! be/ results x is absolutely necess>y = ! op]ator to "k ! k9d ( /eel :i* is to be anneal$4 ,! anneal+ ( /eel is prim>ily done = "o ( ?ree specific purposes3 ,to s(t5 = ma*9+ purposes2 to *ange ! physical prop]ties1 l>gely to increase ductility2 or to release /ra9s caus$ by roll+ or =g+4 ,prop] anneal+ means ! heat+ ( ! /eel sl[ly & uni=mly to ! "r temp]ature1 ! hold+ ( ! temp]ature = a giv5 p]iod & ! gradual cool+ to normal temp]ature4 ,! prop] temp]ature dep5ds on ! k9d ( /eel1 & ! sugge/ions ( ! mak] ( ! special /eel be+ us$ %\ld be c>efully foll[$4 ,= c>bon /eel ! temp]atures recomm5d$ = anneal+ v>y f #a1dej to #a1fjj;,f4 ,?is temp]ature ne$ n be long cont9u$4 ,! /eel %\ld be cool$ 9 hot s&1 lime or a%es4 ,if heat$ 9 ! op5 =ge ! /eel %\ld be buri$ 9 ! cool+ mat]ial z quickly z possible1 n all[+ x to rema9 9 ! op5 air any long] ?an absolutely necess>y4 ,be/ results1 h[ev]1 are secur$ :5 ! fire does n come 9 direct contact ) ! /eel4 ,good results are obta9$ by pack+ ! /eel 9 iron boxes or tubes1 mu* z = case-h>d5+ or c>boniz+1 us+ ! same mat]ials4 ,pieces d n require to be entirely surr\nd$ by c>bon = anneal+1 h[ev]4 ,d n remove f boxes until cold4 ,/eel to be anneal$ may be classifi$ into f\r diff]5t gr\ps1 ea* ( :i* mu/ be treat$ accord+ to ! elem5ts conta9$ 9 its p>ticul> analysis4 ,diff]5t me?ods are !re=e necess>y to br+ ab\t ! desir$ result4 ,! classifications are z foll[s3 ,high-spe$ /eel1 alloy /eel1 tool or crucible /eel1 & high-c>bon ma*9]y /eel4 ,,anneal+ ,,( ,,high-,,spe$ ,,/eel ,= anneal+ high-spe$ /eel1 "s mak]s recomm5d us+ gr\nd mica1 *>coal1 lime1 f9e dry a%es or lake s& z a pack+ 9 ! anneal+ boxes4 ,mixtures ( "o "p *>coal1 "o "p lime & ?ree p>ts ( s& are also sugge/$1 or two p>ts ( a%es may be sub/itut$ = ! "o "p ( lime4 ,to br+ ab\t ! s(te/ /ructure or ma*9e ability ( high-spe$ /eel1 x %\ld be pack$ 9 *>coal 9 boxes or pipes1 c>efully seal$ at all po9ts1 s t no gases w escape or air be admitt$4 ,x %\ld be heat$ sl[ly to n less ?an #a1dej;,f4 & ! /eel mu/ n be remov$ f its pack+ until x is cool4 ,sl[ heat+ means t ! high heat mu/ h p5etrat$ to ! v core ( ! /eel4 ,:5 ! /eel is heat$ cle> ?r\gh x has be5 9 ! furnace long en\gh4 ,if ! /eel c rema9 9 ! furnace & cool d[n ) x1 !re w be no dang] ( air bla/s or sudd5 or unev5 cool+4 ,if n1 remove ! box & cov] quickly ) dry a%es1 s& or lime until x becomes cold4 ,too high a heat or ma9ta9+ ! heat = too long a p]iod1 produces a h>%1 co>se gra9 & greatly increases ! liability to crack 9 h>d5+4 ,x also r$uces ! /r5g? & t\ghness ( ! /eel4 ,/eel :i* is to be us$ = mak+ tools ) tee?1 su* z taps1 ream]s & mill+ cutt]s1 %\ld n be anneal$ too mu*4 ,:5 ! /eel is too s(t x is m apt to te> 9 cutt+ & makes x m difficult to cut a smoo? ?read or o!r surface4 ,mod]ate anneal+ is f\nd be/ = tools ( ?is k9d4 ,,tool ,,or ,,crucible ,,/eel ,crucible /eel c be anneal$ ei!r 9 muffl$ furnace or by be+ pack$4 ,pack+ is by f> ! mo/ satisfactory me?od z x prev5ts scal+1 local h>d spots1 unev5 anneal+1 or viol5t *anges 9 %ape4 ,x %\ld be br\ght up sl[ly to j above its calesc5t or h>d5+ temp]ature4 ,! op]ator mu/ "k be=e sett+ 8 heats ! temp]ature at :i* ! diff]5t c>bon cont5t /eels are h>d5$4 ,! high] ! c>bon cont5ts ! l[] is ! h>d5+ heat1 b ?is %\ld 9 no case be less ?an #a1dej;,f4 ,,anneal+ ,,alloy ,,/eel ,! t]m alloy /eel1 f ! /eel mak]'s po9t ( view1 ref]s l>gely to nickel & *romium /eel or a comb9ation ( bo?4 ,^! /eels are manufactur$ v l>gely by ! op5-he>? process1 al?\gh *romium /eels are also a crucible product4 ,x is next to impossible to give prop] directions = ! prop] anneal+ ( alloy /eel unless ! composition is kn[n to ! op]ator4 ,nickel /eels may be anneal$ at l[] temp]atures ?an c>bon /eels1 dep5d+ ^u _! alloy cont5t4 ,= in/ance1 if a pe>litic c>bon /eel may be anneal$ at #a1dej;,c41 ! same analysis conta9+ #b-a_/b p] c5t nickel may be anneal$ at #a1cfj;,c4 & a #e p] c5t nickel /eel at #a1bgj4 ,9 ord] t high *romium /eels may be readily ma*9$1 !y mu/ be heat$ at or slightly above ! critical = a v long "t1 & cool$ ?r\gh ! critical at an extremely sl[ rate4 ,= a /eel conta9+ #j4i to #a4a p] c5t c>bon1 "u #j4ej p] c5t manganese1 & ab\t #a4j p] c5t *romium1 ,bull5s recomm5ds ! foll[+ anneal3 #a4 ,heat to #a1gjj or #a1gej;,f4 #b4 ,air cool to ab\t #hjj;,f4 #c4 ,soak at #a1dbe to #a1dej;,f4 #d4 ,cool sl[ly 9 furnace4 ,,high-,,c>bon ,,ma*9]y ,,/eel ,! c>bon cont5t ( ?is /eel is above #cj po9ts & is h>dly ev] above #fj po9ts or #j4fj p] c5t4 ,anneal+ su* /eel is g5]ally 9 quantity production & does n require ! c>e t ! o!r /eels ne$ because x is v l>gely a mu* *eap] product & a great deal ( mat]ial is g5]ally remov$ f ! outside surface4 ,! purpose = :i* ?is /eel is anneal$ is a decid+ factor z to :at heat to give x4 ,if x is = ma*9eability only1 ! /eel requires to be br\ght up sl[ly to j bel[ ! critical & !n sl[ly cool$ 9 ! furnace or a% pit4 ,x mu/ be ?or\ghly cov]$ s t !re w be no access ( cool air4 ,if ! anneal+ is to increase ductility to ! maximum ext5t x %\ld be sl[ly heat$ to slightly ov] ! upp] critical temp]ature & kept at ?is heat = a l5g? ( "t necess>y = a ?or\gh p5etration to ! core1 aft] :i* x c be cool$ to ab\t #a1bjj;,f41 !n reheat$ to ab\t #a1cfj;,f41 :5 x c be remov$ & put 9 an a% pit or cov]$ ) lime4 ,if ! anneal+ is j to relieve /ra9s1 sl[ heat+ is n necess>y1 b ! /eel mu/ be br\ght up to a temp]ature n mu* less ?an a =g+ or roll+ heat & gradually cool$4 ,cov]+ 9 ?is case is only necess>y 9 /eel ( a c>bon cont5t ( m ?an #dj po9ts4 ,,anneal+ ,,9 ,,bone ,/eel & ca/ iron may bo? be anneal$ 9 granulat$ bone4 ,pack ! "w ! same z = case-h>d5+ except t x is n necess>y to keep ! pieces away f ea* o!r4 ,pack ) bone t has be5 us$ until x is ne>ly :ite4 ,heat z hot z necess>y = ! /eel & let ! furnace cool d[n4 ,if ! boxes are remov$ f furnace :ile /ill w>m1 cov] boxes & all 9 w>m a%es or s&1 air slak$ lime or old1 burn$ bone to reta9 heat z long z possible4 ,d n remove "w f boxes until cold4 ,,anneal+ ,,( ,,rifle ,,compon5ts ,,at ,,spr+field ,,armory ,9 g5]al1 all =g+s ( ! compon5ts ( ! arms manufactur$ at ! ,armory & all =g+s = o!r ordnance e/abli%m5ts are pack$ 9 *>coal1 lime or suitable mat]ial & anneal$ be=e be+ transf]r$ f ! =ge %op4 ,except 9 special cases1 all anneal+ w be done 9 anneal+ pots ( appropriate size4 ,"o fire end ( a !rmo-c\ple is ins]t$ 9 ! c5t] ( ! anneal+ pot ne>e/ ! middle ( ! furnace & ano!r 9 ! furnace outside ( b ne> ! anneal+ pots4 ,! temp]atures us$ 9 anneal+ c>bon /eel compon5ts ( ! v>i\s classes us$ at ! ,armory v>y f #hjj;,c4 ,to #hhj;,c4 or #a1dge to #a1fae;,f4 ,! fuel is %ut (f f ! anneal+ furnace gradually z ! temp]ature ( ! pot approa*es ! prescrib$ anneal+ temp]ature s z to prev5t heat+ beyond t temp]ature4 ,! =g+s ( ! rifle b>rel & ! pi/ol b>rel are exceptions to ! above g5]al rule4 ,^! =g+s w be pack$ 9 lime & all[$ to cool sl[ly f ! residual heat aft] =g+4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,case-,,h>d5+ ,,or ,,surface-,,c>buriz+ ,c>buriz+1 commonly call$ case-h>d5+1 is ! art ( produc+ a high-c>bon surface1 or case1 ^u a l[ c>bon /eel article4 ,wr5*es1 locomotive l9k motions1 gun me*anisms1 balls & ball races1 automobile ge>s & _m o!r devices are !reby giv5 a high-c>bon case capable ( assum+ extreme h>dness1 :ile ! int]ior body ( metal1 ! core1 rema9s s(t & t\gh4 ,! simple/ me?od is to heat ! piece to be h>d5$ to a bright r$1 dip x 9 cyanide ( potassium 7or cov] x by spr9kl+ ! cyanide ov] x71 keep x hot until ! melt$ cyanide cov]s x ?or\ghly1 & qu5* 9 wat]4 ,c>bon & nitrog5 ent] ! out] sk9 ( ! /eel & h>d5 ?is sk9 b leave ! c5t] s(t4 ,! h>d surface or case v>ies 9 ?ickness accord+ to ! size ( ! piece1 ! mat]ials us$ & ! l5g? ( "t :i* ! piece rema9s at ! c>buriz+ temp]ature4 ,cyanide case-h>d5+ is us$ only :]e a light or ?9 sk9 is suffici5t4 ,x gives a ?ickness ( ab\t #j4jjb 94 ,9 "s cases ( cyanide c>buriz+1 ! piece is heat$ 9 cyanide to ! desir$ temp]ature & !n qu5*$4 ,= a ?ick] case ! /eel is pack$ 9 c>bon mat]ials ( v>i\s k9ds su* z burnt lea!r scraps1 *>coal1 granulat$ bone or "s ( ! _m c>boniz+ comp\nds4 ,ma*9$ or =g$ /eel p>ts are pack$ ) case-h>d5+ mat]ial 9 metal boxes & subject$ to a r$ heat4 ,"u su* conditions1 c>bon is absorb$ by ! /eel surfaces1 & a c>buriz$ case is produc$ capable ( respond+ to ord9>y h>d5+ & temp]+ op]ations1 ! core mean:ile reta9+ its orig9al s(tness & t\ghness4 ,su* case-h>d5$ p>ts are /rong]1 *eap]1 & m s]viceable ?an simil> p>ts made ( tool /eel4 ,! t\gh core resi/s breakage by %ock4 ,! h>d5$ case resi/s we> f friction4 ,! l[ co/ ( mat]ial1 ! ease ( manufacture1 & ! less5$ breakage 9 qu5*+ all s]ve to promote *eap production4 ,= successful c>buriz+1 ! foll[+ po9ts %\ld be c>efully obs]v$3 ,! utmo/ c>e %\ld be us$ 9 ! selection ( pots = c>buriz+2 !y %\ld be z free z possible f bo? scal+ & w>p+4 ,^! two requirem5ts elim9ate ! ca/ iron pot1 al?\gh _m are us$1 ?us leav+ u to select f malleable ca/+s1 wr\ght iron1 ca/ /eel1 & special alloys1 su* z ni*rome or sil*rome4 ,if fir/ co/ is n important1 x w prove *eap] 9 ! end to use pots ( "s special alloy4 ,illu/rations3 ,,figs4 #bg to #cj4--;,case-h>d5+ or c>buriz+ boxes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--;,a lid t is easily lut$4 ,! pots %\ld be /&>diz$ to suit ! product4 ,pots %\ld be made z small z possible 9 wid?1 & space ga9$ by increas+ ! height2 = x takes ab\t #a-a_/b hr4 to heat ! av]age small pot ( #d 94 9 wid?1 betwe5 #c & #d hr4 to heat to ! c5t] ( an #h-;94 box1 & #e to #f hr4 to heat to ! c5t] ( a #ab-;94 box2 & ! long] ! "t requir$ to heat to ! c5t]1 ! m unev5 ! c>buriz+4 ,! "w is pack$ 9 ! box surr\nd$ by mat]ials :i* w give up c>bon :5 heat$4 ,x mu/ be pack$ s t ea* piece is sep>ate f ! o!rs & does n t\* ! box1 ) a suffici5t am\nt ( c>buriz+ mat]ial surr\nd+ ea*4 ,figures #bg to #ca %[ ! k9d ( boxes us$ & ! way ! "w %\ld be pack$4 ,figure #ca %[s a lat] type ( box 9 :i* ! edges c be easily lut$4 ,figure #cj %[s te/ wires brok5 p]iodically to det]m9e ! dep? ( case4 ,figure #bh %[s ! m9imum cle>ance :i* %\ld be us$ 9 pack+ & ,fig4 #bi ! way 9 :i* ! out] pieces receive ! heat fir/ & likewise take up ! c>bon be=e ^? 9 ! c5t]4 ,?is is :y a sl[1 soak+ heat is necess>y 9 h&l+ l>ge quantities ( "w1 s z to all[ ! heat & c>bon to soak 9 equally4 ,:ile x has be5 claim$ t iron bel[ its critical temp]ature w absorb "s c>bon1 ,giolitti has %[n t ?is absorption is v sl[4 ,9 ord] to produce quick & int5se c>burization ! iron %\ld pref]ably be above its upp] critical temp]ature or #a1fjj;,f41--!re=e ! c>bon absorb$ imm$iately goes into au/5ite1 or solid solution4 ,x is also c]ta9 t ! high] ! temp]ature ! quick] w c>bon be absorb$1 & ! deep] x w p5etrate into ! /eel1 t is1 ! deep] ! case4 ,at ,%effield1 ,engl&1 :]e wr\ght iron is pack$ 9 *>coal & heat$ = days to conv]t x into bli/] /eel1 ! temp]atures are f #a1gej to #a1hcj;,f4 ,*>coal by itself c>burizes sl[ly1 consequ5tly comm]cial comp\nds also conta9 c]ta9 en]giz]s :i* give rapid p5etration at l[] temp]atures4 ,! mo/ important ?+ 9 c>buriz+ is ! human elem5t4 ,mo/ c>eful vigilance %\ld be kept :5 pack+ & unpack+1 & ! op]ator %\ld be in/ruct$ 9 ! necessity = clean comp\nd free f scale1 moi/ure1 fire clay1 s&1 floor sweep+s1 etc4 ,f j su* causes1 _m a good c>buriz] has be5 unju/ly condemn$4 ,x is ess5tial ) mo/ c>buriz]s to use ab\t #be to #ej p] c5t ( us$ mat]ial1 9 ord] to prev5t undue %r9k+ dur+ heat+2 !re=e ! necessity ( prop]ly scre5+ us$ mat]ial & c>efully inspect+ x = =eign sub/ances be=e x is us$ aga94 ,x is "r "h t ! greate/ c>elessness is g5]ally enc\nt]$4 ,don't pack ! "w to be c>buriz$ too closely2 leave at lea/ #a 94 f ! bottom1 #c_/d 94 f ! sides1 & #a 94 f ! top ( pots1 & = a #f-;hr4 run1 h ! pieces at lea/ #a_/b 94 ap>t4 ,?is gives ! heat a *ance to ?or\ghly p]meate ! pot1 & ! c>buriz+ mat]ial a *ance to %r9k )\t all[+ c>buriz$ pieces to t\* & cause s(t spots4 ,good case-h>d5+ pots & anneal+ tubes c be made f ! desir$ size ( wr\ght iron pipe4 ,! ends are capp$ or weld$1 & a slot is cut 9 ! side ( ! pot1 equal to "o qu>t] ( its circumf]5ce1 & ab\t #g_/h ( its l5g?4 ,ano!r piece ( ! same diamet] pipe cut l5g?wise into ?irds =ms a cov] = ?is pot4 ,we !n h a *eap1 sub/antial pot1 non-w>p+1 ) a m9imum t5d5cy to scale1 b ! pot is difficult to seal tightly4 ,?is idea is especially adaptable :5 long1 n>r[ pots are desir$4 ,:5 pots are pack$ & ! c>buriz] ?or\ghly tamp$ d[n1 ! cov]s ( ! pot are put on & seal$ ) fire clay :i* has a little salt mix$ into x4 ,! m p]fect ! seal ! m we c get out ( ! c>buriz]4 ,! rates ( p5etration dep5d on temp]ature & ! pres5ce ( prop] gas 9 ! requir$ volume4 ,any pressure we c cause w1 ( c\rse1 h a t5d5cy to increase ! rate ( p5etration4 ,if y h a wide furnace1 d n load x full at "o "t4 ,put "o-half y\r load 9 fir/1 9 ! c5t] ( ! furnace1 & heat until pots %[ a l[ r$1 ab\t #a1cbe to #a1cej;,f4 ,!n fill ! furnace by putt+ ! cold pots on ! outside or1 ! section ne>e/ ! s\rce ( heat4 ,?is w give ! "w 9 ! sl[e/ portion ( ! furnace a *ance to come to heat at ! same "t z ! pots t are ne>e/ ! s\rces ( heat4 ,to obta9 an ev5 heat+ ( ! pots & less5 _! t5d5cy to w>p & scale1 & to cause ! cont5ts ( ! furnace to heat up ev5ly1 we %\ld use a r$uc+ fire & fill ! heat+ *amb] ) flame4 ,?is c be accompli%$ by p>tially clos+ ! wa/e gas v5ts & r$uc+ slightly ! am\nt ( air us$ by ! burn]s4 ,a %ort flame w !n be notic$ issu+ f ! p>tially clos$ v5ts4 ,?us1 :ile ma9ta9+ ! temp]ature ( ! heat+ *amb]1 we w h a l[] temp]ature 9 ! combu/ion *amb]1 :i* w naturally increase its longevity4 ,sometimes x is advisable to cool ! "w 9 ! pots4 ,?is saves comp\nd1 & causes a m gradual diffusion ( ! c>bon betwe5 ! case & ! core1 & is v desirable condition1 inasmu* z abrupt cases are incl9$ to *ip out4 ,! mo/ satisfactory /eel to c>burize conta9s betwe5 #j4aj & #j4bj p] c5t c>bon1 less ?an #j4ce p] c5t manganese1 less ?an #j4jd p] c5t phosphorus & sulphur1 & l[ silicon4 ,b /eel ( ?is composition does n seem to satisfy our progressive eng9e]s1 & _m alloy /eels are n[ on ! m>ket1 ^!1 al?\gh m or less difficult to ma*9e1 give :5 c>buriz$ ! v>i\s qualities dem&$1 su* z a v h>d case1 v t\gh core1 or v h>d case & t\gh core4 ,h[ev]1 ! additional elem5ts also h a great effect bo? on ! rate ( p5etration dur+ ! c>buriz+ op]ation1 & on ! f9al treatm5t1 consequ5tly su* alloy /eels require v c>eful sup]vision dur+ ! entire heat treat+ op]ations4 ,,rate ,,( ,,absorption ,accord+ to ,guillet1 ! absorption ( c>bon is favor$ by ^? special elem5ts :i* exi/ z d\ble c>bides 9 /eel4 ,= example1 manganese exi/s z manganese c>bide 9 comb9ation ) ! iron c>bide4 ,! elem5ts t favor ! absorption ( c>bon are3 manganese1 tung/51 *romium & molybd5um ^? oppos+ x1 nickel1 silicon1 & alum9um4 ,guillet has work$ out ! effect ( ! diff]5t elem5ts on ! rate ( p5etration 9 comp>ison ) /eel t absorb$ c>bon at a giv5 temp]ature1 at an av]age rate ( #j4jce 94 p] h\r4 ,8 tables %[ t ! foll[+ elem5ts require an increas$ "t ( exposure to ! c>buriz+ mat]ial 9 ord] to obta9 ! same dep? ( p5etration z ) simple /eel3 ,:5 /eel conta9s ,increas$ "t ( exposure #b4j p] c5t nickel #bh p] c5t #g4j p] c5t nickel #cj p] c5t #a4j p] c5t titanium #ab p] c5t #b4j p] c5t titanium #bh p] c5t #j4e p] c5t silicon #ej p] c5t #a4j p] c5t silicon #hj p] c5t #b4j p] c5t silicon #abb p] c5t #e4j p] c5t silicon ,no p5etration #a4j p] c5t alum9um #abb p] c5t #b4j p] c5t alum9um #cej p] c5t ,! foll[+ elem5ts seem to assi/ ! rate ( p5etration ( c>bon1 & ! c>buriz+ "t may !re=e be r$uc$ z foll[s3 ,:5 /eel conta9s ,decreas$ "t ( exposure #j4e p] c5t manganese #ah p] c5t #a4j p] c5t manganese #be p] c5t #a4j p] c5t *romium #aj p] c5t #b4j p] c5t *romium #ah p] c5t #j4e p] c5t tung/5 #j #a4j p] c5t tung/5 #j #b4j p] c5t tung/5 #be p] c5t #a4j p] c5t molybd5um #j #b4j p] c5t molybd5um #ah p] c5t ,! temp]ature at :i* c>burization is accompli%$ is a v important factor4 ,h5ce ! necessity = a reliable pyromet]1 locat$ s z to give ! temp]ature j bel[ ! tops ( ! pots4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$1 h[ev]1 t ! pyromet] gives ! temp]ature ( only "o spot1 & is !re=e only an aid to ! op]ator1 :o mu/ use 8 eyes = successful results4 ,! c>bon cont5t ( ! case g5]ally is gov]n$ by ! temp]ature ( ! c>burization4 ,x g5]ally proves advisable to h ! case conta9 betwe5 #j4ij p] c5t & #a4aj c>bon2 m c>bon ?an ?is gives rise to excess free cem5tite or c>bide ( iron1 :i* is detrim5tal1 caus+ ! case to be brittle & apt to *ip4 ,t4 ,g4 ,selleck gives a v useful table ( temp]atures & ! relative c>bon cont5ts ( ! case ( /eels c>buriz$ betwe5 #d & #f hrs4 us+ a good *>coal c>buriz]4 ,?is data is z foll[s3 ,,table #ae4--;,,c>bon ,,cont5t ,,obta9$ ,,at ,,v>i\s ,,temp]atures ,at #a1ejj;,f41 ! surface c>bon cont5t w be #j4ij p] c5t ,at #a1fjj;,f41 ! surface c>bon cont5t w be #a4jj p] c5t ,at #a1fej;,f41 ! surface c>bon cont5t w be #a4aj p] c5t ,at #a1gjj;,f41 ! surface c>bon cont5t w be #a4be p] c5t ,at #a1gej;,f41 ! surface c>bon cont5t w be #a4dj p] c5t ,at #a1hjj;,f41 ! surface c>bon cont5t w be #a4ge p] c5t ,to ?is v valuable table1 x seems be/ to add ! foll[+ data1 :i* we h us$ = a numb] ( ye>s4 ,we d n "k ! "n ( its au?or1 b x has prov$ v valuable1 & seems to complete ! above in=mation4 ,! table is self-explanatory1 giv+ dep? ( p5etration ( ! c>bon ( ! case at diff]5t temp]atures = diff]5t l5g?s ( "t3 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,temp]ature ,p5etration ----------------------------- #a1eej #a1fej #a1hjj ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,p5etration aft] #a_/b hr4 #j4jjh #j4jab #j4jcj ,p5etration aft] #a hr4 #j4jah #j4jbf #j4jde ,p5etration aft] #b hr4 #j4jce #j4jdh #j4jfj ,p5etration aft] #c hr4 #j4jde #j4jee #j4jge ,p5etration aft] #d hr4 #j4jeb #j4jfa #j4jib ,p5etration aft] #f hr4 #j4jef #j4jge #j4aaj ,p5etration aft] #h hr4 #j4jfb #j4jhc #j4acj ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,f ! tables giv51 we may calculate ) a fair degree ( c]ta9ty ! am\nt ( c>bon 9 ! case1 & its p5etration4 ,^! figures v>y widely ) diff]5t c>buriz]s1 & z po9t$ out imm$iately above1 ) diff]5t alloy /eels4 ,,c>buriz+ ,,mat]ial ,! simple/ c>buriz+ sub/ance is *>coal4 ,x is also ! sl[e/1 b is (t5 us$ mix$ ) some?+ t w evolve l>ge volumes ( c>bon monoxide or hydroc>bon gas on be+ heat$4 ,a great v>iety ( mat]ials is us$1 a few ( !m be+ *>coal 7bo? wood & bone71 *>r$ lea!r1 cru%$ bone1 horn1 mixtures ( *>coal & b>ium c>bonate1 coke & heavy oils1 coke treat$ ) alkal9e c>bonates1 peat1 *>coal mix$ ) common salt1 saltpet]1 res91 fl\r1 potassium bi*romate1 vegetable fibre1 lime/one1 v>i\s se$ husks1 etc4 ,9 g5]al1 x is well to avoid complex mixtures4 ,h4 ,l4 ,hea?cote1 on analyz+ sev5te5 diff]5t c>buriz]s1 f\nd t !y conta9$ ! foll[+ +r$i5ts3 ,p] c5t ,moi/ure #b4fh to #bf4ag ,oil #j4ag to #bj4gf ,c>bon 7organic7 #f4gj to #ed4ai ,calcium phosphate #j4cb to #gd4ge ,calcium c>bonate #a4bj to #aa4eg ,b>ium c>bonate nil to #db4jj ,z9c oxide nil to #ad4ej ,silica nil to #h4ad ,sulphates 7,,s#c7 trace to #c4de ,sodium *loride nil to #g4hh ,sodium c>bonate nil to #dj4jj ,sulphides 7,s7 nil to #b4hj ,c>buriz+ mixtures1 ?\gh b\ght by weight1 are us$ by volume1 & ! weight p] cubic foot is a big factor 9 mak+ a selection4 ,a good mixture %\ld be por\s1 s t ! evolv$ gases1 :i* %\ld be g5]at$ at ! prop] temp]ature1 may move freely ar\nd ! /eel objects be+ c>buriz$2 %\ld be a good conductor ( heat2 %\ld possess m9imum %r9kage :5 us$2 & %\ld be capable ( be+ tamp$ d[n4 ,_m secret mixtures are sold1 falsely claim$ to be able to conv]t inf]ior metal into crucible tool /eel grade4 ,!y are g5]ally no?+ m ?an mixtures ( c>bonace\s & cyanog5 comp\nds possess+ ! well-kn[n c>buriz+ prop]ties ( ^? sub/ances4 ,,qu5*+ ,x is consid]$ good practice to qu5* alloy /eels f ! pot1 especially if ! case is ( any appreciable dep?4 ,! texture ( c>bon /eel w be weak5$ by ! prolong$ high heat ( c>buriz+1 s t if we ne$ a t\gh core1 we mu/ reheat x above its critical range1 :i* is ab\t #a1fjj;,f4 = s(t /eel1 b l[] = manganese & nickel /eels4 ,qu5*+ is done 9 ei!r wat]1 oil1 or air1 dep5d+ ^u ! results desir$4 ,! /eel is !n v c>efully reheat$ to ref9e ! case1 ! temp]ature v>y+ f #a1cej to #a1dej;,f41 dep5d+ on :e!r ! mat]ial is an alloy or a simple /eel1 & qu5*$ 9 ei!r wat] or oil4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--;,case-h>d5+ dep?s4 ,!re are _m possibilities yet to be develop$ ) ! c>buriz+ ( alloy /eels1 :i* c produce a v t\gh1 t5aci\s au/5itic case :i* becomes h>d on cool+ 9 air1 & /ill reta9s a s(t1 pe>litic core4 ,an au/5itic case is n necess>ily file h>d1 b has a v great resi/ance to abrasive we>4 ,! m c>bon a /eel has to beg9 ) ! m sl[ly w x absorb c>bon & ! l[] ! temp]ature requir$4 ,l[-c>bon /eel ( f #ae to #bj po9ts is g5]ally us$ & ! c>bon br\ght up to #hj or #he po9ts4 ,tool /eels may be c>boniz$ z high z #bej po9ts4 ,9 addition to ! c>buriz+ mat]ials giv51 a mixture ( #dj p] c5t ( b>ium c>bonate & #fj p] c5t *>coal gives mu* fa/] p5etration ?an *>coal1 bone or lea!r4 ,! p5etration ( ?is mixture on ord9>y l[-c>bon /eel is %[n 9 ,fig4 #cb1 ov] a range ( f #b to #ab hr4 ,,effect ,,( ,,diff]5t ,,c>buriz+ ,,mat]ial ,illu/rations3 ,,figs4 #cc to #cg4 ,ea* ( ^! diff]5t pack+ mat]ials has a diff]5t effect ^u ! "w 9 :i* x is heat$4 ,*>coal by itself w give a r light case4 ,mix$ ) raw bone x w c>burize m rapidly1 & /ill m s if mix$ ) burnt bone4 ,raw bone & burnt bone1 z may be inf]r$1 are bo? quick] c>boniz]s ?an *>coal1 b raw bone mu/ nev] be us$ :]e ! breakage ( h>d5$ edges is to be avoid$1 z x conta9s phosphorus & t5ds to make ! piece brittle4 ,*>r$ lea!r mix$ ) *>coal is a /ill fa/] mat]ial1 & horns & ho(s exce$ ev5 ?is 9 spe$2 b ^! two comp\nds are re/rict$ by _! co/ to use ) high-grade articles1 usually ( tool or high-c>bon /eel1 t are to be h>d5$ locally--t is1 pack-h>d5$4 ,cyanide ( potassium or prussiate ( pota% are also includ$ 9 ! li/ ( c>boniz+ mat]ials2 b outside ( c>buriz+ by dipp+ into melt$ ba?s ( ?is mat]ial1 _! use is l>gely conf9$ to local h>d5+ ( small surfaces1 su* z holes 9 dies & ! l4 ,dr4 ,f$]ico ,giolitti has prov5 t :5 c>boniz+ ) *>coal1 or *>coal plus b>ium c>bonate1 ! active ag5t :i* introduces c>bon into ! /eel is a gas1 c>bon monoxide 7,,co71 d]iv$ by combu/ion ( ! *>coal 9 ! air trapp$ 9 ! box1 or by decomposition ( ! c>bonate4 ,?is gas diffuses 9 & out ( ! hot /eel1 transport+ c>bon f ! *>coal to ! out] portions ( ! metal3 ,if en]giz]s l t>1 peat1 & vegetable fib] are us$1 !y produce hydroc>bon gases on be+ heat$--gases pr9cipally compos$ ( hydrog5 & c>bon4 ,^! gases are un/able 9 ! pres5ce ( hot iron3 x seems to decompose !m & sooty c>bon is deposit$ on ! surface ( ! metal4 ,?is diffuses into ! metal a little1 b x acts pr9cipally by be+ a ready s\rce ( c>bon1 highly active & wait+ to be c>ri$ into ! metal by ! c>bon monoxide--:i* z be=e1 is ! pr9cipal transf] ag5t4 ,animal refuse :5 us$ to spe$ up ! action ( clean *>coal acts some:at 9 ! same mann]1 b 9 addition ! gases giv5 (f by ! hot sub/ance conta9 nitrog5 comp\nds4 ,nitrog5 & cyanides 7comp\nds ( c>bon & nitrog57 h long be5 kn[n to give a v h>d ?9 case v rapidly4 ,x has be5 discov]$ only rec5tly t ?is is due to ! /eel absorb+ nitrog5 z well z c>bon1 & t nitrog5 h>d5s /eel & makes x brittle j l c>bon does4 ,9 fact x is v difficult to di/+ui% betwe5 ^! two h>d5+ ag5ts :5 exam9+ a c>buriz$ /eel "u ! microscope4 ,"o ( ! advantages ( h>d5+ by c>buriz+ is ! fact t y c arrange to leave "p ( ! "w s(t & ?us reta9 ! t\ghness & /r5g? ( ! orig9al mat]ial4 ,figures #cc to #cg %[ ways ( do+ ?is4 ,! inside ( ! cup 9 ,fig4 #cd is locally h>d5$1 z illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #cd1 sp5t or us$ bone be+ pack$ ar\nd ! surfaces t are to be left s(t1 :ile cyanide ( potassium is put ar\nd ^? :i* are desir$ h>d4 ,! ?reads ( ! nut 9 ,fig4 #ce are kept s(t by c>buriz+ ! nut :ile ^u a /ud4 ,! pr(ile gage1 ,fig4 #cf1 is made ( high-c>bon /eel & is h>d5$ on ! inside by pack+ ) *>r$ lea!r1 b kept s(t on ! outside by surr\nd+ x ) fireclay4 ,! rivet /ud %[n 9 ,fig4 #cg is c>buriz$ :ile ( its full diamet] & !n turn$ d[n to ! size ( ! rivet end1 ?us cutt+ away ! c>buriz$ surface4 ,aft] pack+ ! "w c>efully 9 ! boxes ! lids are seal$ or lut$ ) fireclay to keep out any gases f ! fire4 ,! size ( box %\ld be proportion$ to ! "w4 ,! box %\ld n be too l>ge especially = light "w t is run on a %ort heat4 ,if x c be j l>ge en\gh to all[ ! prop] am\nt ( mat]ial ar\nd x1 ! "w is apt to be m satisfactory 9 e way4 ,pieces ( ?is k9d are ( c\rse n qu5*$ & h>d5$ 9 ! c>buriz+ heat1 b are left 9 ! box to cool1 j z 9 box anneal+1 be+ reheat$ & qu5*$ z a second op]ation4 ,9 fact1 ?is is a good s*eme to use = ! majority ( c>buriz+ "w ( small & mod]ate size4 ,mat]ial is on ! m>ket ) :i* "o side ( ! /eel c be treat$2 or copp]-plat+ "o side ( x w answ] ! same purpose & prev5t t side becom+ c>buriz$4 ,,qu5*+ ,,! ,,"w ,9 "s op]ations case-h>d5$ "w is qu5*$ f ! box by dump+ ! :ole cont5ts into ! qu5*+ tank4 ,x is common practice to leave a sieve or wire basket to cat* ! "w1 all[+ ! c>buriz+ mat]ial to fall to ! bottom ( ! tank :]e x c be recov]$ lat] & us$ aga9 z a "p ( a new mixture4 ,= be/ results1 h[ev]1 ! /eel is all[$ to cool d[n sl[ly 9 ! box aft] :i* x is remov$ & h>d5$ by heat+ & qu5*+ ! same z c>bon /eel ( ! same grade4 ,x has absorb$ suffici5t c>bon s t1 9 ! out] portions at lea/1 x is a high-c>bon /eel4 ,,! ,,qu5*+ ,,tank ,! qu5*+ tank is an important feature ( app>atus 9 case-h>d5+--possibly m s ?an 9 ord9>y temp]+4 ,"o reason = ?is is because ( ! l>ge quantities ( pieces usually dump$ into ! tank at a "t4 ,"o _c take "t to sep>ate ! articles !mselves f ! case-h>d5+ mixture1 & ! :ole cont5t ( ! box is drop$ into ! ba? 9 %ort ord]1 z exposure to air ( ! heat$ "w is fatal to results4 ,unless x is split up1 x is likely to g to ! bottom z a solid mass1 9 :i* case v few ( ! pieces are prop]ly h>d5$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,comb9ation cool+ tank = case-h>d5+4 ,a comb9ation cool+ tank is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ch4 ,wat] inlet & outlet pipes are %[n & also a dra9 plug t enables ! tank to be empti$ :5 x is desir$ to clean out ! sp5t c>buriz+ mat]ial f ! bottom4 ,a wire-bottom$ tray1 fram$ ) angle iron1 is arrang$ to slide into ?is tank f ! top & re/s ^u angle irons screw$ to ! tank sides4 ,its function is to cat* ! pieces & prev5t !m f settl+ to ! tank bottom1 & x also makes x easy to remove a bat* ( "w4 ,a bottomless box ( %eet /eel is %[n at ,c4 ,?is fits into ! wire-bottom$ tray & has a numb] ( rods or wires runn+ across x1 _! purpose be+ to break up ! mass ( mat]ial z x comes f ! c>boniz+ box4 ,bel[ ! wire-bottom$ tray is a p]=at$ cross-pipe t is connect$ ) a compress$-air l9e4 ,?is is us$ :5 case-h>d5+ = colors4 ,! %op t has no air compressor may rig up a satisfactory equival5t 9 ! %ape ( a l[-pressure h&-op]at$ air pump & a receiv] tank1 = x is n necess>y to use high-pressure air = ?is purpose4 ,:5 colors are desir$ on case-h>d5$ "w1 ! treatm5t 9 qu5*+ is exactly ! same z t previ\sly describ$ except t air is pump$ ?r\gh ?is pipe & keeps ! wat] agitat$4 ,! addition ( a slight am\nt ( p[d]$ cyanide ( potassium to ! pack+ mat]ial us$ = c>buriz+ w produce /rong] colors1 & :]e ?is is ! sole object1 x is be/ to ma9ta9 ! box at a dull-r$ heat4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--,:y heat treatm5t ( case-h>d5$ "w is necess>y4 ,! old way ( case-h>d5+ 0 to dump ! cont5ts ( ! box at ! end ( ! c>buriz+ heat4 ,lat] /udy 9 ! /ructure ( /eel ?us treat$ has caus$ a *ange 9 ?is proc$ure1 ! use ( automobiles & alloy /eels probably ha/5+ ?is result4 ,! diagrams reproduc$ 9 ,fig4 #ci %[ :y ! heat treatm5t ( case-h>d5$ "w is necess>y4 ,/>t+ at ,a ) a close-gra9$ & t\gh /ock1 su* z ord9>y ma*9]y /eel conta9+ f #ae to #bj po9ts ( c>bon1 if su* "w is qu5*$ on a c>boniz+ heat ! result w be z %[n at ,b4 ,?is gives a core t is co>se-gra9$ & brittle & an out] case t is f9e-gra9$ & h>d1 b is likely to flake (f1 ow+ to ! great diff]5ce 9 /ructure betwe5 x & ! core4 ,reheat+ ?is "w beyond ! critical temp]ature ( ! core ref9es ?is core1 closes ! gra9 & makes x t\gh1 b leaves ! case v brittle2 9 fact1 m s ?an x 0 be=e4 ,,ref9+ ,,! ,,gra9 ,?is is rem$i$ by reheat+ ! piece to a temp]ature slightly above ! critical temp]ature ( ! case1 ?is temp]ature correspond+ ord9>ily to t ( /eel hav+ a c>bon cont5t ( #he po9ts1 ,:5 ?is is aga9 qu5*$1 ! temp]ature1 :i* has n be5 high en\gh to di/urb ! ref9$ core1 w h clos$ ! gra9 ( ! case & t\gh5$ x4 ,s1 in/ead ( b "o heat & "o qu5*+ = ?is class ( "w1 we h ?ree ( ea*1 al?\gh x is q possible & (t5 pr(itable to omit ! qu5*+ aft] c>buriz+ & all[ ! piece or pieces & ! case-c>buriz+ box to cool toge!r1 z 9 anneal+4 ,sometimes ano!r heat treatm5t is add$ to ! =ego+1 = ! purpose ( lett+ d[n ! h>dness ( ! case & giv+ x additional t\ghness by heat+ to a temp]ature betwe5 #cjj & #ejj4 ,usually ?is is done 9 an oil ba?4 ,aft] ?is ! piece is all[$ to cool4 ,x is possible to h>d5 ! surface ( tool /eel extremely h>d & yet leave its inn] core s(t & t\gh = /r5g?1 by a process simil> to case-h>d5+ & kn[n z pack-h>d5+4 ,x consi/s 9 us+ tool /eel ( c>bon cont5ts rang+ f #fj to #hj po9ts1 pack+ ?is 9 a box ) *>r$ lea!r mix$ ) wood *>coal & heat+ at a l[-r$ heat = #b or #c hr41 ?us rais+ ! c>bon cont5t ( ! ext]ior ( ! piece4 ,! article :5 qu5*$ 9 an oil ba? w h an extremely h>d ext]ior & t\gh core4 ,x is a good s*eme = tools t mu/ be h>d & yet /rong en\gh to /& abuse4 ,raw bone is nev] us$ z a pack+ = ?is class ( "w1 z x makes ! cutt+ edges brittle4 ,,case-,,h>d5+ ,,treatm5ts ,,= ,,v>i\s ,,/eels ,pla9 wat]1 salt wat] & l9se$ oil are ! ?ree mo/ common qu5*+ mat]ials = case-h>d5+4 ,wat] is us$ = ord9>y "w1 salt wat] = "w :i* mu/ be extremely h>d on ! surface1 & oil = "w 9 :i* t\ghness is ! ma9 consid]ation4 ,! high] ! c>bon ( ! case1 ! less sudd5 ne$ ! qu5*+ action take hold ( ! piece2 9 fact1 exp]i5ce 9 case-h>d5+ "w gives a great _m comb9ations ( qu5*+ ba?s ( ^! ?ree mat]ials1 dep5d+ on _! temp]atures4 ,?9 "w1 highly c>boniz$1 :i* w\ld fly to pieces "u ! slighte/ bl[ if qu5*$ 9 wat] or br9e1 is made /rong & t\gh by prop]ly qu5*+ 9 slightly heat$ oil4 ,x is impossible to give any rules = ! temp]ature ( ?is "w1 s mu* dep5d+ on ! size & design ( ! piece2 b x is n a difficult matt] to try ?ree or f\r pieces by diff]5t me?ods & det]m9e :at is ne$$ = be/ results4 ,! alloy /eels are all susceptible ( case-h>d5+ treatm5t2 9 fact1 ?is is "o ( ! mo/ important heat treatm5ts = su* /eels 9 ! automobile indu/ry4 ,nickel /eel c>burizes m sl[ly ?an common /eel1 ! nickel seem+ to h ! effect ( sl[+ d[n ! rate ( p5etration4 ,!re is no cl\d )\t its silv] l9+1 h[ev]1 & to (fset ?is ret>dation1 a s+le treatm5t is (t5 suffici5t = nickel /eel2 = ! core is n co>s5$ z mu* z l[-c>bon ma*9]y /eel & ?us ord9>y "w may be qu5*$ on ! c>buriz+ heat4 ,/eel conta9+ f #c to #c4e p] c5t ( nickel is c>buriz$ betwe5 #a1fej & #a1gej;,f4 ,nickel /eel conta9+ less ?an #be po9ts ( c>bon1 ) ?is same p]c5tage ( nickel1 may be slightly h>d5$ by cool+ 9 air in/ead ( qu5*+4 ,*rome-nickel /eel may be case-h>d5$ simil>ly to ! me?od j describ$ = nickel /eel1 b d\ble treatm5t gives bett] results & is us$ = high-grade "w4 ,! c>buriz+ temp]ature is ! same1 betwe5 #a1fej & #a1gej;,f41 ! second treatm5t consi/+ ( reheat+ to #a1djj & !n qu5*+ 9 boil+ salt wat]1 :i* gives a h>d surface & at ! same "t prev5ts di/ortion ( ! piece4 ,! core ( *rome-nickel case-h>d5$ /eel1 l t ( nickel /eel1 is n co>s5$ excessively by ! fir/ heat treatm5t1 & !re=e a s+le heat+ & qu5*+ w suffice4 ,,c>buriz+ ,,by ,,gas ,! process ( c>buriz+ by gas1 briefly m5tion$ on page #hh1 consi/s ( hav+ a sl[ly revolv+1 prop]ly heat$1 cyl9drical retort into :i* illum9at+ gas 7a mixture ( v>i\s hydroc>bons7 is cont9u\sly inject$ "u pressure4 ,! sp5t gases are v5t$ to insure ! greate/ spe$ 9 c>boniz+4 ,! "w is con/antly & uni=mly expos$ to a clean c>boniz+ atmosph]e in/ead ( p>tially sp5t c>bonace\s solids :i* may give (f v complex comp\nds ( phosphorus1 sulphur1 c>bon & nitrog54 ,orig9ally ?is process 0 ?\ght to require a gas g5]ator b x has be5 discov]$ t city gas works all "r4 ,! gas consi/s ( vapors d]iv$ f petroleum or bitum9\s coal4 ,sometimes ! gas supply is dilut$ by air1 to r$uce ! spe$ ( c>burization & increase ! dep?4 ,,prev5t+ ,,c>buriz+ ,,by ,,copp]-,,plat+ ,copp]-plat+ has be5 f\nd effective & mu/ h a ?ickness ( #j4jjje 94 ,less ?an ?is does n give a cont9u\s coat+4 ,! plat+ ba? us$ has a temp]ature ( #agj;,f4 ,a voltage ( #d4a is to be ma9ta9$ across ! t]m9als4 ,regions :i* are to be h>d5$ c be kept free f copp] by coat+ !m ) p>aff9 be=e !y ent] ! plat+ tank4 ,! op]ation is z foll[s3 ,op]ation ,no4 ,cont5ts ( ba? ,purpose #a ,gasol9e ,to remove grease #b ,sawdu/ ,to dry #c ,w>m potassium hydroxide solution ,to remove grease & dirt #d ,w>m wat] ,to wa% #e ,w>m sulphuric acid solution ,to acid clean #f ,w>m wat] ,to wa% #g ,cold wat] ,additional wa% #h ,cold potassium cyanide solution ,cleans] #i ,cold wat] ,to wa% #aj ,electric clean]1 w>m sodium ,cleans] to give good hydroxide case-iron anode plat+ surface #aa ,copp] plat+ ba? ( copp] ,plat+ ba? sulphate & potassium cyanide solution w>m ,!re are also o!r me?ods ( prev5t+ case-h>d5+1 "o be+ to pa9t ! surface ) a special comp\nd prep>$ = ?is purpose4 ,9 "s cases a coat+ ( pla/ic asbe/os is us$ :ile 9 o!rs ?9 %eet asbe/os is wir$ ar\nd ! "p to be kept s(t4 ,,prep>+ ,,p>ts ,,= ,,local ,,case-,,h>d5+ ,at ! works ( ! ,dayton ,eng9e]+ ,laboratories ,company1 ,dayton1 ,ohio1 !y h a l>ge quantity ( small %afts1 ,fig4 #dj1 t are to be case-h>d5$ at ,a :ile ! ends ,b & ,c are to be left s(t4 ,=m]ly1 ! "p ,a 0 bru%-coat$ ) melt$ p>aff9 b1 z !re 7 _m %afts1 ?is 0 t$i\s & great c>e 0 necess>y to avoid gett+ p>aff9 :]e x 0 n want$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,%aft to be coat$ ) p>aff94 ,to insure uni=m coat+ ! device %[n 9 ,fig4 #da 0 made4 ,melt$ p>aff9 is p\r$ 9 ! well ,a & kept liquid by sett+ ! device on a hot plate1 ! p>aff9 be+ kept high en\gh to t\* ! bottoms ( ! roll]s4 ,! %aft to be coat$ is laid betwe5 ! roll]s ) "o end aga9/ ! gage ,b1 :5 a turn or two ( ! crank ,c w cause x to be ev5ly coat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #da4--;,device = coat+ ! %aft4 ,,! ,,p5etration ,,( ,,c>bon ,c>buriz$ mild /eel is us$ to a great ext5t 9 ! manufacture ( automobile & o!r p>ts :i* are likely to be subject$ to r\gh usage4 ,! /r5g? & ability to )/& h>d knocks dep5d to a v consid]able degree on ! ?or\ghness ) :i* ! c>buriz+ process is conduct$4 ,_m automobile manufactur]s h at "o "t or ano!r pass$ ?r\gh a p]iod ( un=tunate breakages1 or h f\nd t = a c]ta9 p]iod ! p>ts turn$ out ( _! h>d5+ %ops 7 n suffici5tly h>d to enable ! rubb+ surfaces to /& up aga9/ ! pressure to :i* !y 7 subject$4 ,s _m factors gov]n ! success ( h>d5+ t (t5 ?is succession ( bad "w has be5 actually ov]come )\t ^? int]e/$ realiz+ :at 0 ! weak po9t 9 _! sy/em ( treatm5t4 ,z ! "q is "o t c create a bad reputation = ! product ( any firm x is well to /udy ! influ5tial factors m9utely4 ,,introduction ,,( ,,c>bon ,! matt] to :i* ^! notes are prim>ily direct$ is ! introduction ( c>bon into ! case ( ! article to be h>d5$4 ,9 ! fir/ place ! *ances ( success are increas$ by select+ z few br&s ( /eel z practicable to cov] ! requirem5ts ( ea* compon5t ( ! me*anism4 ,! h>d5] is !n able to become accu/om$ to ! *>act]i/ics ( t p>ticul> mat]ial1 & aft] det]m9+ ! mo/ suitable treatm5t = x no fur!r exp]im5t+ beyond ! usual *eck-te/ pieces is necess>y4 ,al?\gh a c]ta9 make ( mat]ial may v>y 9 composition f "t to "t ! products ( a manufactur] ( good /eel c be g5]ally reli$ ^u1 & x is bett] to deal directly ) him ?an ) o!rs4 ,9 mo/ cases ! case-h>d5+ /eels c be *os5 f ! foll[+3 7#a7 ,case-h>d5+ mild /eel ( #j4bj p] c5t c>bon2 7#b7 case-h>d5+ #c-a_/b p] c5t nickel /eel2 7#c7 case-h>d5+ nickel-*romium /eel2 7#d7 case-h>d5+ *romium vanadium4 ,aft] hav+ *os5 a suitable /eel x is be/ to h ! sample analyz$ by reliable *emi/s & also to h te/ pieces ma*9$ & pull$4 ,to prep>e samples = analysis place a %eet ( pap] on ! table ( a drill+ ma*9e1 & ) a #c_/h-;94 diamet] drill1 ma*9e a few holes ab\t #c_/h 94 deep 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! sample b>1 collect+ ab\t #c oz4 ( f9e drill+s free f du/4 ,?is c be plac$ 9 a bottle & dispat*$ to ! laboratory ) in/ructions to se>* = c>bon1 silicon1 manganese1 sulphur1 phosphorus & alloys4 ,! results ( ! diff]5t te/s %\ld be c>efully tabulat$1 & z !re w\ld mo/ probably be "s v>iation an av]age %\ld be made z a fair basis ( ea* elem5t pres5t1 & ! foll[+ tables may be us$ ) confid5ce :5 decid+ if ! mat]ial is reliable en\gh to be us$4 ,,table #af4--;,,case-,,h>d5+ ,,mild ,,/eel ,,( #j4bj ,,p] ,,c5t ,,c>bon ,c>bon #j4ae to #j4be p] c5t ,silicon ,n ov] #j4bj p] c5t ,manganese #j4cj to #j4fj p] c5t ,sulphur ,n ov] #j4jd p] c5t ,phosphorus ,n ov] #j4jd p] c5t ,a t5sion te/ %\ld regi/] at lea/ #fj1jjj lb4 p] squ>e in*4 ,,table #ag4--;,,case-,,h>d5+ #c-a_/b ,,p] ,,c5t ,,nickel ,,/eel ,c>bon #j4ab to #j4bj p] c5t ,manganese #j4fe p] c5t ,sulphur ,n ov] #j4jde p] c5t ,phosphorus ,n ov] #j4jd p] c5t ,nickel #c4be to #c4ge p] c5t ,,table #ah4--;,,case-,,h>d5+ ,,nickel ,,*romium ,,/eel ,c>bon #j4ae to #j4be p] c5t ,manganese #j4ej to #j4hj p] c5t ,sulphur ,n ov] #j4jde p] c5t ,phosphorus ,n ov] #j4jd p] c5t ,nickel #a to #a4e p] c5t ,*romium #j4de to #j4ge p] c5t ,,table #ai4--;,,case-,,h>d5+ ,,*romium ,,vanadium ,,/eel ,c>bon ,n ov] #j4be p] c5t ,manganese #j4ej to #j4he p] c5t ,sulphur ,n ov] #j4jd p] c5t ,phosphorus ,n ov] #j4jd p] c5t ,*romium #j4hj to #a4aj p] c5t ,vanadium ,n less ?an #j4ae p] c5t ,hav+ det]m9$ :at is requir$ we n[ proce$ to inquire into ! "q ( c>buriz+1 :i* is ( vital importance4 ,,us+ ,,illum9at+ ,,gas ,! *oice ( a c>buriz+ furnace dep5ds greatly on ! facilities available 9 ! locality :]e ! %op is situat$ & ! nature & quantity ( ! "w to be done4 ,! furnaces c be heat$ ) produc] gas 9 mo/ cases1 b :5 space is ( value illum9at+ gas f a sep>ate s\rce ( supply has "s comp5sations4 ,:5 ! latt] is us$ x is well to in/all a gov]nor if ! pressure is likely to fluctuate1 p>ticul>ly :]e ! %op is at a high altitude or at a long di/ance f ! gas supply4 ,_m furnaces are coal-fir$1 & al?\gh great] c>e is requir$ 9 ma9ta9+ a uni=m temp]ature good results h be5 obta9$4 ,! use ( electricity z a means ( rea*+ ! requisite temp]ature is receiv+ "s att5tion1 & no d\bt x w\ld make ! control ( temp]ature comp>atively simple4 ,h[ev]1 ! co/ :5 appli$ to l>ge quantities ( "w w1 = ! pres5t at lea/1 prev5t ?is me?od f becom+ popul>4 ,x is believ$ t ! results obta9able ) ! electric furnace w\ld surpass any o!rs2 b ! app>atus is exp5sive1 & unless h&l$ ) intellig5ce w\ld n la/ long4 ,! mo/ elem5t>y m$ium ( c>burization is pure c>bon1 b ! rate ( c>burization induc$ by ?is mat]ial is v l[1 & o!r compon5ts are necess>y to accel]ate ! process4 ,_m mixtures h be5 m>ket$1 ea* possess+ its individual m]its1 & z ! prices v>y consid]ably x is difficult to decide :i* is ! mo/ advantage\s4 ,absorption f actual contact ) solid c>bon is decid$ly sl[1 & x is necess>y to employ a comp\nd f :i* gases are lib]at$1 & ! /eel w absorb ! c>bon f ! gases mu* m readily4 ,bo? bone & lea!r *>coal give (f m c>buriz+ gases ?an wood *>coal1 & al?\gh ! high sulphur cont5t ( ! lea!r is objectionable z be+ injuri\s to ! /eel1 z also is ! high phosphorus cont5t ( ! bone *>coal1 !y are bo? pref]able to ! wood *>coal4 ,by mix+ bone *>coal ) b>ium c>bonate 9 ! proportions ( #fj p] c5t ( ! =m] to #dj p] c5t ( ! latt] a v reliable comp\nd is obta9$4 ,! temp]ature to :i* ?is comp\nd is subject$ causes ! lib]ation ( c>bon monoxide :5 9 contact ) hot *>coal4 ,_m m elaborate explanations may be giv5 ( ! actions & reactions tak+ place1 b ! above is a satisfactory guide to indicate t x is n ! actual comp\nd :i* causes c>burization1 b ! gases releas$ f ! comp\nd4 ,until ! temp]ature ( ! muffle rea*es ab\t #a1cjj;,f4 c>burization does n take place to any useful ext5t1 & consequ5tly x is advisable to avoid ! use ( any comp\nd f :i* ! c>buriz+ gases are lib]at$ mu* be=e t temp]ature is rea*$4 ,9 ! case ( /eel conta9+ nickel slightly high] temp]atures may be us$ & are really necess>y if ! same rate ( c>bon p5etration is to be obta9$1 z ! pres5ce ( nickel resi/s ! p5etration4 ,at high] temp]atures ! rate ( p5etration is high]1 b n exactly 9 proportion to ! temp]ature1 & ! rate is also influ5c$ by ! nature ( ! mat]ial & ! effici5cy ( ! comp\nd employ$4 ,! s-call$ saturation po9t ( mild /eel is rea*$ :5 ! case conta9s #j4ij p] c5t ( c>bon1 b ?is am\nt is frequ5tly exce$$4 ,%\ld x be requir$ to asc]ta9 ! am\nt ( c>bon 9 a sample at v>y+ dep?s bel[ ! sk9 ?is c be done by turn+ (f a small am\nt aft] c>buriz+ & analyz+ ! turn+s4 ,?is c be repeat$ sev]al times1 & x w probably be f\nd t ! proportion ( c>bon decreases z ! te/ piece is r$uc$ 9 diamet] unless dec>burization has tak5 place4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4--;,*>t %[+ p5etration ( c>bon4 ,! *>t1 ,fig4 #db1 is also a good guide4 ,9 ord] to use ! *>t x is necess>y to h>d5 ! sample we desire to te/ z we w\ld h>d5 a piece ( tool /eel1 & !n te/ by scl]oscope4 ,by locat+ on ! *>t ! po9t on ! horizontal axis :i* repres5ts ! h>dness ( ! sample ! curve enables "o to det]m9e ! approximate am\nt ( c>bon pres5t 9 ! case4 ,%\ld ! h>dness lack uni=mity ! s(t places c be id5tifi$ by et*+4 ,to accompli% ?is ! sample %\ld be poli%$ aft] qu5*+ & !n wa%$ ) a weak solution ( nitric acid 9 alcohol1 :]eupon ! h>d] po9ts w %[ up d>k] ?an ! s(t] areas4 ,! selection ( suitable boxes = c>buriz+ is wor?y ( a little consid]ation1 & !re c be no d\bt t 9 c]ta9 cases results are spoil$ & consid]able exp5se caus$ by us+ unsuitable conta9]s4 ,z f> z initial exp5se goes ca/-iron boxes are probably ! mo/ exp$i5t1 b al?\gh !y w )/& ! necess>y temp]atures !y are liable to split & crack1 & :5 !y get out ( %ape !re is mu* difficulty 9 /raight5+ !m4 ,! mo/ suitable mat]ial 9 mo/ cases is /eel boil] plate #c_/h or #a_/b 94 ?ick1 :i* c be made ) weld$ jo9ts & w la/ well4 ,! sizes ( ! boxes employ$ dep5d to a great ext5t on ! nature ( ! "w be+ done1 b c>e %\ld be ex]cis$ to avoid putt+ too mu* 9 "o box1 z small] ones p]mit ! heat to p5etrate m quickly1 & "o te/ piece is suffici5t to give a good indication ( :at has tak5 place4 ,if x %\ld be necess>y to use l>g] boxes x is advisable to put 9 ?ree or f\r te/ pieces 9 diff]5t positions to asc]ta9 if ! p5etration ( c>bon has be5 satisfactory 9 all p>ts ( ! box1 z x is q possible t ! temp]ature ( ! muffle is n ! same at all po9ts1 & a record %[n by "o te/ piece w\ld n !n be applicable to all ! p>ts conta9$ 9 ! box4 ,x has be5 f\nd t ! rate ( c>bon p5etration increases ) ! gas pressure ar\nd ! articles be+ c>buriz$1 & x is !re=e necess>y to be c>eful 9 seal+ up ! boxes aft] pack+4 ,:5 ! articles are plac$ )9 & ea* entirely surr\nd$ by comp\nd s t ! comp\nd rea*es to )9 #a 94 ( ! top ( ! box a lay] ( clay %\ld be run ar\nd ! inside ( ! box on top ( ! comp\nd4 ,! lid1 :i* %\ld be a good fit 9 ! box1 is !n to be press$ on top ( ?is1 & ano!r lay] ( clay run j bel[ ! rim ( ! box on top ( ! cov]4 ,a ,,satisfactory ,,lut+ ,,mixture ,a mixture ( fireclay & s& w be f\nd v satisfactory = clos+ up ! boxes1 & by obs]v+ ! appe>ance ( ! "w :5 tak5 out we c gage ! suitability ( ! me?ods employ$1 = unless ! boxes are c>efully seal$ ! "w is g5]ally cov]$ ) d>k scales1 :ile if prop]ly done ! articles w be ( a light gray4 ,by obs]v+ ! above recomm5dations reliable results c be obta9$1 & we c expect uni=m results aft] qu5*+4 ,,gas ,,consumption ,,= ,,c>buriz+ ,al?\gh ! advantages (f]$ by ! gas-fir$ furnace = c>buriz+ h be5 g5]ally recogniz$ 9 ! pa/ f po9ts ( view z close temp]ature regulation1 decreas$ att5dance1 & great] conv5i5ce1 v little in=mation has be5 publi%$ reg>d+ ! consumption ( gas = ?is process4 ,x has !re=e be5 a matt] ( great difficulty to obta9 au!ntic in=mation ^u ?is po9t1 ei!r f mak]s or us]s ( su* furnaces4 ,9 view ( ?is1 ! details ( actual consumption ( gas on a regul> cu/om]'s ord] job w be ( int]e/4 ,! ,rev]g5 furnace1 manufactur$ by ! ,davis ,furnace ,company1 ,luton1 ,b$=d1 ,engl&1 0 us$ on ?is job1 & is provid$ ) reg5]ators & fir$ ) illum9at+ gas at ord9>y pressure1 ! air be+ introduc$ to ! furnace at a slight pressure ( #c to #d 94 wat] gage4 ,! mat]ial 0 *>g$ into a cold furnace1 rais$ to #a1feb;,f41 & ma9ta9$ at t temp]ature = #h hr4 to give ! necess>y dep? ( case4 ,! "w consi/$ ( automobile ge>s pack$ 9 six boxes1 ! total weight be+ #gac lb4 ,! requir$ temp]ature ( #a1feb;,f4 0 obta9$ 9 #gj m94 f light+ up1 & a summ>y ( ! data is %[n 9 ! foll[+ table3 ,cubic ,foot ,total ,p] ,p\nd ,numb] ( ( ,load ,cubic ,foot ,gas to raise furnace & *>ge f cold to #a1feb;,f41 #gj m94 #a4bi #ibe ,gas to ma9ta9 #a1feb;,f4 = #a/ h\r #j4ch #bge ,gas to ma9ta9 #a1feb;,f4 = #bnd h\r #j4db #cjj ,gas to ma9ta9 #a1feb;,f4 = #crd h\r #j4ch #bge ,gas to ma9ta9 #a1feb;,f4 = #d? h\r #j4db #cjj ,gas to ma9ta9 #a1feb;,f4 = #e? h\r #j4di #cej ,gas to ma9ta9 #a1feb;,f4 = #f? h\r #j4di #cej ,gas to ma9ta9 #a1feb;,f4 = #g? h\r #j4de #cbe ,gas to ma9ta9 #a1feb;,f4 = #h? h\r #j4de #cbe ,! ov]all gas consumption = ?is run ( #i hr4 #aj m94 0 only #d4h cu4 ft4 p] p\nd ( load4 ,,! ,,c>e ,,( ,,c>buriz+ ,,comp\nds ,( all ! opportunities = practic+ economy 9 ! heat-treatm5t dep>tm5t1 !re is none t (f]s great] possibilities = pr(itable returns ?an ! sy/ematic clean+1 bl5d+ & rework+ ( artificial c>buriz]s1 or comp\nds4 ,! "q ( :e!r or n x is practical to take up ! "w dep5ds ^u ! nature ( ! output4 ,if ! sole product ( ! h>d5+ dep>tm5t consi/s ( a #a4aj c>bon case or h>d]1 requir+ a /rong highly en]giz$ mat]ial ( deep p5etrative p[] su* z t us$ 9 ! c>buriz+ ( ball races1 hub-be>+s & ! l1 x w\ld be be/ to dispose ( ! us$ mat]ial to "s conc]n ^: product requires a case ) f #j4gj to #j4ij c>bon1 b :]e !re is a l>ge v>iety ( "w ! comp\nd may be s h&l$ t !re w be practically no wa/e4 ,?is is accompli%$ ) "o ( ! mo/ widely kn[n artificial c>buriz]s by giv+ all ! comp\nd 9 ! plant ?ree di/9ct classifications3 ,new1 be+ direct f ! mak]2 half & half1 be+ "o "p ( new & "o "p fir/ run2 & #b to #a1 :i* consi/s ( two p>ts ( old & "o "p new4 ,,sep>at+ ,,! ,,"w ,,f ,,! ,,comp\nd ,dur+ ! pull+ ( ! heat1 ! pots are dump$ ^u a ca/-iron scre5 :i* =ms a table or apron = ! furnace4 ,directly b5ea? ?is table is locat$ "o ( ! /eel conveyor c>ts1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #dc1 :i* is provid$ ) two :eels at ! re> & a dolly clevis at ! front1 :i* all[s x to be haul$ away f b5ea? ! furnace apron :ile fill$ ) r$-hot comp\nd4 ,a /eel cov] is provid$ = ea* box1 & ! mat]ial is all[$ to cool )\t los+ mu* ( ! evolv$ gases :i* are /ill be+ ?r[n (f by ! comp\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,! cool+ c>ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--,ma*9e = bl5d+ ! mixture4 ,z ?is comp\nd comes f ! c>buriz+ pots x conta9s bits ( fireclay :i* repres5t a "p ( ! lut+ us$ = seal+1 & !re may be small p>ts ( "w or bits ( fus$ mat]ial 9 x z well4 ,aft] cool+1 ! comp\nd is v du/y & disagreeable to h&le1 &1 be=e x c be us$ aga91 mu/ be sift$1 clean$ & bl5d$4 ,"s "t ago ! writ] 0 confront$ ) ?is proposition = "o ( ! l>ge/ consum]s ( c>buriz+ comp\nd 9 ! _w1 & ! problem 0 h&l$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,! cool$ comp\nd 0 dump$ f ! cool+ c>s & spr9kl$ ) a l[-grade oil :i* s]v$ ! dual purposes ( settl+ ! du/ & add+ a c]ta9 p]c5tage ( valuable hydroc>bon to ! comp\nd4 ,9 ,fig4 #dd is %[n ! ma*9e t 0 design$ to d ! clean+ & bl5d+4 ,,bl5d+ ,,! ,,comp\nd ,ess5tially1 ?is consi/s ( ! /urdy1 p[]-driv5 sep>ator & fann+ mill :i* sep>ates ! =eign matt] f ! comp\nd & elevates x into a l>ge settl+ bas9 :i* is =m$ by ! top ( ! /eel h\s+ t incloses ! app>atus4 ,aft] rea*+ ! settl+ bas91 ! comp\nd falls by gravity into a p[]-driv5 rot>y mix+ tub :i* is directly b5ea? ! settl+ bas94 ,"h ! bl5d+ is done by mix+ ! prop] am\nt ( v>i\s grades ( mat]ial toge!r4 ,aft] bl5d+ ! comp\nd1 x is ready to be /or$ 9 label$ conta9]s & deliv]$ to ! pack+ room4 ,x w be se5 t by ?is simple sy/em !re is ! lea/ possible loss ( en]gy f ! comp\nd4 ,! sav+ comm5ces ! mom5t ! cool+ c>t is cov]$ & pres]ves ! valuable du/ :i* is sav$ by ! oil+ & ! settl+ bas9 ( ! bl5d+ ma*9e4 ,!n1 too1 !re is ! add$ conv5i5ce ( ! pack]s :o h a ?or\ghly clean$1 du/less1 & /&>diz$ product to "w )4 ,( c\rse1 ?is also t5ds to insure uni=mity 9 ! case-h>d5+ op]ation4 ,) ?is outfit1 "o man cleans & bl5ds z mu* comp\nd 9 "o h\r z he =m]ly did 9 t54 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,heat ,,treatm5t ,,( ,,/eel ,heat treatm5t consi/s 9 heat+ & cool+ metal at def9ite rates 9 ord] to *ange its physical condition4 ,_m objects may be atta9$ by correct heat treatm5t1 b no?+ mu* c be expect$ unless ! man :o directs ! op]ations kn[s :at is ! ess5tial diff]5ce 9 a piece ( /eel at room temp]ature & at a r$ heat1 o!r ?an ! obvi\s fact t x is hot4 ,! sci5ce ( metallography has be5 develop$ 9 ! pa/ #be ye>s1 & aid$ by precise me?ods ( measur+ temp]ature1 has done mu* to sy/ematize ! in=mation :i* we possess on metallic alloys1 & /eel 9 p>ticul>4 ,,critical ,,po9ts ,"o ( ! mo/ important means ( inve/igat+ ! prop]ties ( pure metals & _! alloys is by an exam9ation ( _! heat+ & cool+ curves4 ,su* curves are con/ruct$ by tak+ a small piece & obs]v+ & record+ ! temp]ature ( ! mass at uni=m int]vals ( "t dur+ a uni=m heat+ or cool+4 ,^! obs]vations1 :5 plott$ 9 ! =m ( a curve w %[ :e!r ! temp]ature ( ! mass rises or falls uni=mly4 ,! heat :i* a body absorbs s]ves ei!r to raise ! temp]ature ( ! mass or *ange its physical condition4 ,t portion ( ! heat :i* results 9 an increase 9 temp]ature ( ! body is call$ s5sible heat1 inasmu* z su* a ga9 9 heat is app>5t to ! physical s5ses ( ! obs]v]4 ,if heat 7 suppli$ to ! body at a uni=m rate1 ! temp]ature w\ld rise cont9u\sly1 & if ! temp]ature 7 plott$ aga9/ "t1 a smoo? ris+ curve w\ld result4 ,or1 if s5sible heat 7 ab/ract$ f ! body at a uni=m rate1 a "t-temp]ature curve w\ld aga9 be a smoo? fall+ curve4 ,su* a curve is call$ a cool+ curve4 ,h[ev]1 we f9d t :5 a body is melt+1 vaporiz+1 or o!rwise suff]+ an abrupt *ange 9 physical prop]ties1 a quantity ( heat is absorb$ :i* disappe>s )\t *ang+ ! temp]ature ( ! body4 ,?is heat absorb$ dur+ a *ange ( /ate is call$ lat5t heat1 because x is trans=m$ into ! "w necess>y to *ange ! configuration & disposition ( ! molecules 9 ! body2 b x is aga9 lib]at$ 9 equal am\nt :5 ! rev]se *ange takes place4 ,f ^! consid]ations x w\ld seem t %\ld ! cool+ curve be cont9u\s & smoo?1 foll[+ closely a regul> c\rse1 all ! heat ab/ract$ dur+ cool+ is furni%$ at ! exp5se ( a fall 9 temp]ature ( ! body2 t is to say1 x disappe>s z s5sible heat4 ,^! curves1 h[ev]1 frequ5tly %[ horizontal portions or arre/s :i* d5ote t at t temp]ature all ( ! heat con/antly radiat+ is be+ suppli$ by int]nal *anges 9 ! alloy itself2 t is1 x is be+ suppli$ by ! evolution ( a c]ta9 am\nt ( lat5t heat4 ,9 addition to ! l>ge am\nt ( heat lib]at$ :5 a metal solidifies1 !re are o!r *anges indicat$ by ! !rmal analysis ( _m alloys :i* occur aft] ! body has become entirely solidifi$4 ,^! s-call$ trans=mation po9ts or ranges may be caus$ by *emical reactions tak+ place )9 ! solid1 sub/ances be+ precipitat$ f a solid solution1 or a sudd5 *ange 9 "s physical prop]ty ( ! compon5ts1 su* z 9 magnetism1 h>dness1 or specific gravity4 ,x may be difficult to compreh5d t su* *anges c occur 9 a body aft] x has become entirely solidifi$1 ow+ to ! usual conception t ! p>ticles are !n rigidly fix$4 ,h[ev]1 ?is rigidity is only comp>ative4 ,! molecules 9 ! solid /ate h n ! l>ge mobility !y possess z a liquid1 b ev5 s1 !y are /ill mov+ 9 circumscrib$ orbits1 & h ! p[]1 "u prop] conditions1 to re>range _! position or int]nal configuration4 ,9 g5]al1 su* re>rangem5t is accompani$ by a sudd5 *ange 9 "s physical prop]ty & 9 ! total en]gy ( ! molecule1 :i* is evid5c$ by a spontane\s evolution or absorption ( lat5t heat4 ,cool+ curves ( ! pure/ iron %[ at lea/ two well-def9$ discont9uities at temp]atures m ?an #a1jjj;,f41 bel[ its freez+-po9t4 ,x seems t ! s(t1 magnetic metal s famili> z wr\ght iron1 & call$ alpha iron or f]rite by ! metallurgi/1 becomes un/able at ab\t #a1djj;,f4 & *anges into ! s-call$ beta modification1 becom+ sudd5ly h>d]1 & los+ its magnetism4 ,?is /ate 9 turn p]si/s no high] ?an #a1gjf;,c41 :5 a s(t]1 non-magnetic gamma iron is ! /able modification up to ! actual melt+-po9t ( ! metal4 ,^! v>i\s *anges occur 9 electrolytic iron1 & !re=e _c be attribut$ to any *emical reaction or solution2 !y are entirely due to ! exi/5ce ( allotropic modifications ( ! iron 9 its solid /ate4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #de4--;,inv]se ,rate ,cool+ ,curve ( #j4ch ,c ,/eel4 ,/eels1 or iron conta9+ a c]ta9 am\nt ( c>bon1 develop some:at diff]5t cool+ curves f ^? produc$ by pure iron4 ,figure #de %[s1 = in/ance1 "s data obs]v$ on a cool+ piece ( #j4ch p] c5t c>bon /eel1 & ! curve con/ruct$ !refrom4 ,x w be not$ t ! "t 0 not$ :5 ! ne$le on ! pyromet] pass$ ea* dial m>k+4 ,if ! metal 7 n *ang+ 9 its physical condition1 ! "t betwe5 ea* read+ w\ld be ne>ly con/ant2 9 fact = a "t x requir$ ab\t #ej sec4 to cool ea* unit4 ,:5 ! dial read ab\t #cb4e 7correspond+ 9 ?is in/rum5t to a temp]ature ( #gge;,c4 or #a1dbg;,f47 ! cool+ rate %ort5$ mat]ially1 #ee sec4 !n #fe1 !n #ajj1 !n #ajj2 %[+ t "s *ange inside ! metal 0 furni%+ "s ( ! /eadily radiat+ heat4 ,?is temp]ature is ! s-call$ upp] critical = ?is /eel4 ,fur!r d[n1 ! l[] critical is %[n by a l>ge heat evolution at #fie;,c4 or #a1bhc;,f4 ,j ! rev]se effects take place ^u heat+1 except t ! temp]atures %[n are some:at high]--!re seems to be a lag 9 ! reactions tak+ place 9 ! /eel4 ,?is is an important po9t to rememb]1 because if x 0 desir$ to anneal a piece ( #j4ch c>bon /eel1 x is necess>y to heat x up to & beyond #a1dgf ,f4 7#a1dbg;,f4 plus ?is lag1 :i* may be z mu* z #ej74 ,x may be said imm$iately t above ! upp] critical ! c>bon exi/s 9 ! iron z a solid solution1 call$ au/5ite by metallograph]s4 ,t is to say1 x is uni=mly di/ribut$ z atoms ?r\gh\t ! iron2 ! atoms ( c>bon are n pres5t 9 any fix$ comb9ation1 9 fact any am\nt ( c>bon f z]o to #a4g p] c5t c ent] into solid solution above ! upp] critical4 ,h[ev]1 ^u cool+ ?is /eel1 ! c>bon aga9 ent]s into comb9ation ) a def9ite proportion ( iron 7! c>bide cem5tite1 ,fe#c;,c71 & accumulates into small cry/als :i* c be se5 "u a good microscope4 ,=mation ( all ! cem5tite has be5 complet$ by ! "t ! temp]ature has fall5 to ! l[] critical1 & bel[ t temp]ature ! /eel exi/s z a complex sub/ance ( pure iron & ! iron c>bide4 ,x is important to note t ! critical po9ts or critical range ( a pla9 /eel v>ies ) its c>bon cont5t4 ,! foll[+ table gives "s av]age figures3 ,c>bon ,cont5t4 ,upp] ,critical4 ,l[] ,critical4 #j4jj #a1gjf;,f4 #a1ccj;,f4 #j4bj #a1fjj;,f4 #a1ccj;,f4 #j4dj #a1dhj;,f4 #a1ccj;,f4 #j4fj #a1djj;,f4 #a1ccj;,f4 #j4hj #a1cej;,f4 #a1ccj;,f4 #j4ij #a1ccj;,f4 #a1ccj;,f4 #a4jj #a1dgj;,f4 #a1ccj;,f4 #a4bj #a1fej;,f4 #a1ccj;,f4 #a4dj #a1hcj;,f4 #a1ccj;,f4 #a4fj #b1jjj;,f4 #a1ccj;,f4 ,x is imm$iately not$ t ! critical range n>r[s ) increas+ c>bon cont5t until all ! heat seems to be lib]at$ at "o temp]ature 9 a /eel ( #j4ij p] c5t c>bon4 ,beyond t composition ! critical range wid5s rapidly4 ,note also t ! l[] critical is con/ant 9 pla9 c>bon /eels conta9+ no alloy+ elem5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #df4--,microphotograph ( /eel us$ 9 ,s4 ,k4 ,f4 be>+s1 poli%$ & et*$ ) nitric acid & magnifi$ #a1jjj times4 ,made by ,h4 ,o4 ,walp4 ,?is /eel ( #j4ij c>bon cont5t is an important "o4 ,x is call$ eutectoid /eel4 ,"u ! microscope a prop]ly poli%$ & et*$ sample %[s ! /ructure to consi/ ( ?9 %eets ( two diff]5t sub/ances 7,fig4 #df74 ,"o ( ^! is pure iron1 & ! o!r is pure cem5tite4 ,?is /ructure ( ?9 %eets has receiv$ ! "n pe>lite1 because ( its pe>ly appe>ance "u sunlight4 ,pe>lite is a con/itu5t f\nd 9 all anneal$ c>bon /eels4 ,pure iron1 hav+ no c>bon1 naturally w\ld %[ no pe>lite :5 exam9$ "u a microscope2 only abutt+ granules ( iron are delicately trac$4 ,! metallographi/ calls ?is pure iron f]rite4 ,z soon z a little c>bon ent]s ! alloy & a s(t /eel is =m$1 small angul> areas ( pe>lite appe> at ! b\nd>ies ( ! f]rite cry/als 7,fig4 #dg74 ,) increas+ c>bon 9 ! /eel ! volume ( iron cry/als becomes less & less1 & ! relative am\nt ( pe>lite increases1 until arriv+ at #j4ij p] c5t c>bon1 ! l>ge f]rite cry/als h be5 suppress$ & ! /ructure is all pe>lite4 ,high] c>bon /eels %[ films ( cem5tite outl9+ gra9s ( pe>lite 7,fig4 #dh74 ,?is repres5ts ! /ructure ( anneal$1 sl[ly cool$ /eels4 ,x is possible to *ange ! relative sizes ( ! f]rite & cem5tite cry/als by heat treatm5t4 ,l>ge gra9s are associat$ ) brittl5ess4 ,consequ5tly "o mu/ avoid heat treatm5ts :i* produce co>se gra9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--,/ructure ( l[ c>bon /eel1 poli%$1 et*$ & view$ "u #ajj magnifications4 ,t9y :ite granules ( pure iron 7f]rite7 h small accumulations ( d>k-et*+ pe>lite int]sp]s$ betwe5 !m4 ,photograph by ,h4 ,s4 ,rawdon4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,sl[ly cool$ high-c>bon /eel1 poli%$1 et*$ & view$ at #ajj magnifications4 ,! d>k gra9s are pe>lite1 sep>at$ by :ite films ( iron c>bide 7cem5tite74 ,photograph by ,h4 ,s4 ,rawdon4 ,9 g5]al x may be said t ! previ\s cry/all9e /ructure ( a /eel is entirely oblit]at$ :5 x passes j ?r\gh ! critical range4 ,at t mom5t1 9 fact1 ! f]rite1 cem5tite or pe>lite :i* previ\sly exi/$ has lo/ its id5tity by ev]y?+ go+ into ! solid solution call$ au/5ite4 ,if suffici5t "t is giv51 ! *emical elem5ts compris+ a good /eel di/ribute !mselves uni=mly ?r\gh ! mass4 ,if ! /eel be !n cool$1 ! au/5ite breaks up into new cry/als ( f]rite1 cem5tite & pe>lite2 & 9 g5]al if ! temp]ature has n gone f> above ! critical1 & cool+ is n excessively sl[1 a v f9e texture w result4 ,?is is call$ ref9+ ! gra92 or 9 %op p>lance clos+ ! gra94 ,h[ev]1 if ! heat+ has gone above ! critical v f>1 ! au/5ite cry/als />t to gr[2 a v %ort "t at an extreme temp]ature w cause a l>ge gra9 gr[?4 ,subsequ5t cool+ gives a co>se texture1 or an arrangem5t ( f]rite1 cem5tite & pe>lite gra9s :i* is greatly co>s5$1 reflect+ ! condition ( ! au/5ite cry/als f :i* !y 7 born4 ,x maybe not$ 9 pass+ t ! co>se cry/als ( ca/ metal _c g5]ally be ref9$ by heat treatm5t unless "s =g+ or roll+ has be5 done 9 ! meantime4 ,heat treatm5t alone does n seem to be able to break up ! cry/als ( an +ot /ructure4 ,,h>d5+ ,/eel is h>d5$ by qu5*+ f above ! upp] critical4 ,app>5tly ! quick cool+ prev5ts ! normal *ange back to def9ite & sizeable cry/als ( f]rite & cem5tite4 ,h>dness is associat$ ) ?is suppress$ *ange4 ,if ! *ange is all[$ to cont9ue by a mod]ate reheat+1 l a temp]+1 ! h>dness decreases4 ,if a piece ( /eel c\ld be cool$ in/antly1 d\btless au/5ite c\ld be pres]v$ & exam9$4 ,9 ! ord9>y practice ( h>d5+ /eels1 ! qu5*+ is n s dra/ic1 & ! trans=mation ( au/5ite back to f]rite & cem5tite is m or less completely effect$1 giv+ rise to c]ta9 transitory =ms :i* are kn[n z m>t5site1 troo/ite1 sorbite1 & f9ally1 pe>lite4 ,au/5ite has be5 def9$ z a solid solution ( cem5tite 7,fe#c;,c7 9 gamma iron4 ,x is /able at v>i\s temp]atures dep5d5t ^u its c>bon cont5t1 :i* may be any am\nt up to ! saturat$ solution conta9+ #a4g p] c5t4 ,au/5ite is n ne>ly z h>d z m>t5site1 ow+ to its cont5t ( ! s(t gamma iron4 ,fig4 #di %[s au/5ite to possess ! typical appe>ance ( any pure1 cry/alliz$ sub/ance4 ,9 ! mo/ quickly qu5*$ high c>bon /eels1 au/5ite commonly =ms ! gr\nd mass :i* is int]sp]s$ ) m>t5site1 a l>ge field ( :i* is illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #ej4 ,m>t5site is usually consid]$ to be a solid solution ( cem5tite 9 beta iron4 ,x repres5ts an un/able condition 9 :i* ! metal is caught dur+ rapid cool+4 ,x is v h>d1 & is ! *ief con/itu5t ( h>d5$ high-c>bon /eels1 & ( m$ium-c>bon nickel-/eel & manganese-/eel4 ,troo/ite is ( d\btful composition1 b possibly is an un/able mixture ( untrans=m$ m>t5site ) sorbite4 ,x conta9s m or less untrans=m$ mat]ial1 z x is too h>d to be compos$ entirely ( ! s(t alpha modification1 & x c also be temp]$ m or less )\t *ang+ 9 appe>ance4 ,its normal appe>ance z r\nd$ gra9s is giv5 9 ,fig4 #ea2 l>g] pat*es %[ practically no relief 9 _! /ructure1 & a photograph m]ely %[s a d>k1 /ructureless area4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #di4--;,co>se-gra9$ m>t5site1 poli%$ & et*$ ) nitric acid & magnifi$ #ej times4 ,made by ,pr(4 ,*as4 ,y4 ,clayton4 ,sorbite is believ$ to be an e>ly /age 9 ! =mation ( pe>lite1 :5 ! iron & iron c>bide orig9ally con/itut+ ! solid solution 7au/5ite7 h _h an opportunity to sep>ate f ea* o!r1 & ! iron has entirely pass$ into ! alpha modification1 b ! p>ticles are yet too small to be di/+ui%able "u ! microscope4 ,x also1 possibly1 conta9s "s incompletely trans=m$ matt]4 ,sorbite is s(t] & t\gh] ?an troo/ite1 & is habitually associat$ ) pe>lite4 ,its compon5ts are t5d+ to coagulate into pe>lite1 & w d s 9 a fairly %ort "t at temp]atures ne> ! l[] critical1 :i* heat w furni% ! necess>y molecul> fre$om4 ,! normal appe>ance1 h[ev]1 is ! cl\dy mass %[n 9 ,fig4 #eb4 ,pe>lite is a def9ite conglom]ate ( f]rite & cem5tite conta9+ ab\t six p>ts ( ! =m] to "o ( ! latt]4 ,:5 pure1 x has a c>bon cont5t ( ab\t #j4ie p] c5t4 ,x repres5ts ! complete trans=mation ( ! eutectoid au/5ite accompli%$ by sl[-cool+ ( an iron-c>bon alloy ?r\gh ! trans=mation range4 7,see ,fig4 #df47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,qu5*$ high-c>bon /eel1 poli%$1 et*$ & view$ at #ajj magnifications4 ,?is /ructure is call$ m>t5site & is desir$ :5 maximum h>dness is ess5tial4 ,photograph by ,h4 ,s4 ,rawdon4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,m>t5site 7light ne$les7 pass+ into troosite 7d>k pat*es74 #acj ,x4 ,f a piece ( eutectoid /eel electrically weld$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--,sorbite 7d>k pat*es7 pass+ into pe>lite 7wavy /riations74 ,light ,areas are ,pat*es ( ,f]rite4 #bbj ,x4 ,f a piece ( hypo-eutectoid /eel electrically weld$4 ,^! obs]vations are compet5t to expla9 anneal+ & t\gh5+ practice4 ,a quickly qu5*$ c>bon /eel is mo/ly m>t5sitic :i*1 z not$1 is a solid solution ( beta iron & cem5tite1 h>d & brittle4 ,mod]ate reheat+ or anneal+ *anges ?is /ructure l>gely into troo/ite1 :i* is a p>tly trans=m$ m>t5site1 possess+ mu* ( ! h>dness ( m>t5site1 b ) a l>gely increas$ t\ghness & %ock resi/ance4 ,?is t\ghness is ! *ief *>act]i/ic ( ! next mat]ial 9 ! trans=mation s]ies1 sorbite1 :i* is m]ely m>t5site :olly trans=m$ into a mixture ( ultramicroscopic cry/als ( f]rite 7alpha iron7 & cem5tite 7,fe#c;,c74 ,temp]+ or draw+ %\ld be re/rict$ to mean mod]ate reheat+1 up to ab\t #cej ,c41 =m+ troo/itic /eel4 ,t\gh5+ repres5ts ! practice ( reheat+ h>d5$ c>bon /eels f #cej ,c4 up to j bel[ ! l[] critical1 & =ms sorbitic /eel2 :ile anneal+ ref]s to a heat+ = gra9 size at or above ! trans=mation ranges1 foll[$ by a sl[ cool+4 ,any ( ^! op]ations n only all[s ! trans=mations f au/5ite to pe>lite to proce$1 b also relieves int]nal /resses 9 ! /eel4 ,normaliz+ is a heat+ l anneal+1 foll[$ by a mod]ately rapid qu5*4 ,,judg+ ,,! ,,heat ,,( ,,/eel ,:ile ! use ( a pyromet] is ( c\rse ! only way to h accurate k z to ! heat be+ us$ 9 ei!r =g+ or h>d5+ /eels1 a color *>t w be ( consid]able assi/ance if c>efully /udi$4 ,^! h be5 prep>$ by sev]al ( ! /eel companies z a guide1 b x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! colors & temp]atures giv5 are only approximate1 & c be no?+ else4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--;,f9d+ h>d5+ heats ) a magnet4 ,! ,magnet ,te/4--,! critical po9t c also be det]m9$ by an ord9>y horse-%oe magnet4 ,t\* ! /eel ) a magnet dur+ ! heat+ & :5 x rea*es ! temp]ature at :i* /eel fails to attract ! magnet1 or 9 o!r words1 loses its magnetism1 ! critical po9t has be5 rea*$4 ,figures #ec & #ed %[ h[ ^! are us$ 9 practice4 ,! fir/ 7,fig4 #ec7 %[s ! use ( a p]man5t horse-%oe magnet & ! second 7,fig4 #ed7 an electro-magnet consi/+ ( an iron rod ) a coil or spool magnet at ! out] end4 ,9 ei!r case ! magnet %\ld n be all[$ to become heat$ b %\ld be appli$ quickly4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,us+ electro-magnet to det]m9e heat4 ,! "w is heat$ up sl[ly 9 ! furnace & ! magnet appli$ f "t to "t4 ,! /eel be+ heat$ w attract ! magnet until ! heat rea*es ! critical po9t4 ,! magnet is appli$ frequ5tly & :5 ! magnet is no long] attract$1 ! piece is at ! l[e/ temp]ature at :i* x c be h>d5$ prop]ly4 ,qu5*+ slightly above ?is po9t w give a tool ( satisfactory h>dness4 ,! me?od applies only to c>bon /eels & w n "w = mod]n high-spe$ /eels4 ,,heat ,,treatm5t ,,( ,,ge> ,,blanks ,?is section is bas$ on a pap] read be=e ! ,am]ican ,ge> ,manufactur]s' ,association at ,:ite ,sulphur ,spr+s1 ,w4 ,va41 ,apr4 #ah1 #aiah4 ,great advancem5t has be5 made 9 ! heat treat+ & h>d5+ ( ge>s4 ,9 ?is advancem5t ! *emical & metallurgical laboratory h play$ no small "p4 ,dur+ ?is "t1 h[ev]1 ! condition ( ! blanks z !y come to ! ma*9e %op to be ma*9$ has n receiv$ its %>e ( att5tion4 ,!re are two di/9ct types ( ge>s1 bo? types hav+ _! *ampions1 namely1 c>buriz$ & heat-treat$4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! two 9 ! matt] ( /eel composition is entirely 9 ! c>bon cont5t1 ! c>bon nev] runn+ high] ?an #be-po9t 9 ! c>buriz+ type1 :ile 9 ! heat-treat$ ge>s ! c>bon is seldom l[] ?an #ce-po9t4 ,! diff]5ce 9 ! f9al ge> is ! h>dness4 ,! c>buriz$ ge> is file h>d on ! surface1 ) a s(t1 t\gh & ductile core to )/& %ock1 :ile ! heat-treat$ ge> has a surface t c be t\*$ by a file ) a core ( ! same h>dness z ! out] surface4 ,,anneal+ ,,"w4--,) ! exception ( sev]al ( ! high] types ( alloy /eels1 :]e ! p]c5tages ( special elem5ts run q high1 :i* causes a slight air-h>d5+ action1 ! c>buriz+ /eels are s(t en\gh = ma*9+ :5 air cool$ f any temp]ature1 includ+ ! f9i%+ temp]ature at ! hamm]4 ,?is condition has l$ _m drop-=ge & manufactur+ conc]ns to consid] anneal+ z an unnecess>y op]ation & exp5se4 ,9 _m cases ! drop =g+ has only be5 heat$ to a l[ temp]ature1 (t5 j until ! piece %[$ color1 to relieve ! s-call$ hamm] /ra9s4 ,:ile ?is has be5 only a compromise x has be5 bett] ?an no reheat+ at all1 al?\gh x has n prop]ly ref9$ ! gra91 :i* is necess>y = good ma*9+ conditions4 ,anneal+ is heat+ to a temp]ature slightly above ! highe/ critical po9t & cool+ sl[ly ei!r 9 ! air or 9 ! furnace4 ,anneal+ is done to accompli% two purposes3 7#a7 to relieve me*anical /ra9s & 7#b7 to s(t5 & produce a maximum ref9em5t ( gra94 ,,process ,,( ,,c>buriz+4--,c>buriz+ imp>ts a %ell ( high-c>bon cont5t to a l[-c>bon /eel4 ,?is produces :at might be t]m$ a dual /eel1 all[+ = an out] %ell :i* :5 h>d5$ w\ld )/& we>1 & a s(t ductile core to produce ductility & )/& %ock4 ,! op]ation is c>ri$ out by pack+ ! "w to be c>buriz$ 9 boxes ) a mat]ial ri* 9 c>bon & ma9ta9+ ! box s *>g$ at a temp]ature 9 excess ( ! highe/ critical po9t = a l5g? ( "t to produce ! desir$ dep? ( c>buriz$ zone4 ,g5]ally ma9ta9+ ! temp]ature at #a1fej to #a1gjj ,f4 = #g hr4 w produce a c>buriz$ zone #a_/cb 94 deep4 ,heat+ to a temp]ature slightly above ! highe/ critical po9t & cool+ sudd5ly 9 "s qu5*+ m$ium1 su* z wat] or oil h>d5s ! /eel4 ,?is treatm5t produces a maximum ref9em5t ) ! maximum /r5g?4 ,draw+ to a temp]ature bel[ ! highe/ critical po9t 7! temp]ature be+ gov]n$ by ! results requir$7 relieves ! h>d5+ /ra9s set up by qu5*+1 z well z ! r$uc+ ( ! h>dness & brittl5ess ( h>d5$ /eel4 ,,effects ,,( ,,prop] ,,anneal+4--,prop] anneal+ ( l[-c>bon /eels causes a complete solution or comb9ation to take place betwe5 ! f]rite & pe>lite1 produc+ a homog5e\s mass ( small gra9s ( ea*1 ! gra9s ( ! pe>lite be+ surr\nd$ by gra9s ( f]rite4 ,a /eel ( ?is ref9em5t w ma*9e to good advantage1 due to ! fact t ! cutt+ tool w at all times be 9 contact ) metal ( uni=m composition4 ,:ile ! alt]nate b&s ( f]rite & pe>lite are microscopically siz$1 x has be5 f\nd t ) a ,gleason or ,fell[s ge>-cutt+ ma*9e t r\gh cutt+ c be trac$ to poorly anneal$ /eels1 hav+ ei!r a pron\nc$ b&$ /ructure or a co>se granul> /ructure4 ,,temp]ature ,,= ,,anneal+4--,!oretically1 anneal+ %\ld be accompli%$ at a temp]ature at j slightly above ! critical po9t4 ,h[ev]1 9 practice ! temp]ature is rais$ to a high] po9t 9 ord] to all[ = ! solution ( ! c>bon & iron to be produc$ m rapidly1 z ! "t requir$ to produce complete solution is r$uc$ z ! temp]ature increases pa/ ! critical po9t4 ,= anneal+ ! simpl] types ( l[-c>bon /eels ! foll[+ temp]atures h be5 f\nd to produce uni=m ma*9+ conditions on acc\nt ( produc+ uni=m f9e-gra9 pe>lite /ructure3 #j4ae to #j4be p] c5t c>bon1 /raight c>bon /eel4--,heat to #a1fej;,f4 ,hold at ?is temp]ature until ! "w is uni=mly heat$2 pull f ! furnace & cool 9 air4 #j4ae to #j4be p] c5t c>bon1 #a-a_/b p] c5t nickel1 #a_/b p] c5t *romium /eel4--,heat to #a1fjj;,f4 ,hold at ?is temp]ature until ! "w is uni=mly heat$2 pull f ! furnace & cool 9 air4 #j4ae to #j4be p] c5t c>bon1 #c-a_/b p] c5t nickel /eel4--,heat to #a1ege;,f4 ,hold at ?is temp]ature until ! "w is uni=mly heat$2 pull f ! furnace & cool 9 air4 ,,c>e ,,9 ,,anneal+4--,n only w b5efits 9 ma*9+ be f\nd by c>eful anneal+ ( =g+s b ! subsequ5t tr\bles 9 ! h>d5+ plant w be greatly r$uc$4 ,! advantages 9 ! h>d5+ />t ) ! c>buriz+ op]ation1 z a /eel ( uni=m & f9e gra9 size w c>burize m uni=mly1 produc+ a m ev5 h>dness & less *ances = s(t spots4 ,! holes 9 ! ge>s w also close 9 m uni=mly1 n caus+ "s ge>s to require excessive gr9d+ & o!rs ) j en\gh /ock4 ,also all /ra9s w h be5 remov$ f ! =g+1 elim9at+ to a great ext5t di/ortion & ! noisy ge>s :i* are ! result4 ,) ! /eels us$1 = ! heat-treat$ ge>s1 always ( a high] c>bon cont5t1 treatm5t aft] =g+ is necess>y = ma*9+1 z x w\ld be impossible to get ! requir$ production f untreat$ =g+s1 especially 9 ! alloy /eels4 ,! treatm5t is m delicate1 due to ! high] p]c5tage ( c>bon & ! natural increase 9 cem5tite toge!r ) complex c>bides :i* are pres5t 9 "s ( ! high] types ( alloys4 ,:]e poor ma*9+ conditions 9 heat-treat$ /eels are pres5t !y are g5]ally due to incomplete solution ( cem5tite r ?an b&s ( free f]rite1 z 9 ! case ( case-h>d5+ /eels4 ,?is segregation ( c>bon1 z x is sometimes ref]r$ to1 causes h>d spots :i*1 9 ! =m+ ( ! too?1 cause ! cutt] to ride ov] ! h>d metal1 produc+ high spots on ! face ( ! too?1 :i* are z detrim5tal to satisfactory ge> cutt+ z ! drops or l[ spots produc$ on ! face ( ! tee? :5 ! pe>lite is co>se-gra9$ or 9 a b&$ condition4 ,9 ! simpl] c>buriz$ /eels x is n necess>y to te/ ! =g+s = h>dness aft] anneal+1 b ) ! high p]c5tages ( alloys 9 ! c>buriz+ /eels & ! heat-treat$ /eels a h>dness te/ is ess5tial4 ,to obta9 ! be/ results 9 ma*9+1 ! micro/ructure ( ! metal %\ld be det]m9$ & a h>dness range set t cov]s ! v>iations 9 /ructure t produce good ma*9+ results4 ,by c>eful control ( ! heat-treat+ op]ation & ) ! aid ( ! ,br9ell h>dness te/] & ! microscope x is possible to cont9ually give =g+s t w ma*9e uni=mly & be s(t en\gh to give desir$ production4 ,! foll[+ gives a few ( ! h>dness num]als on /eel us$ 9 ge> manufacture t produce good ma*9+ qualities3 #j4bj p] c5t c>bon1 #c p] c5t nickel1 #a-a_/d2 p] c5t *romium--,br9ell #aef to #agj4 #j4ej p] c5t c>bon1 #c p] c5t nickel1 #a p] c5t *romium--,br9ell #agi to #ahg4 #j4ej p] c5t c>bon *rome-vanadium--,br9ell #agj to #agi4 ,,! ,,influ5ce ,,( ,,size ,! size ( ! piece influ5ces ! physical prop]ties obta9$ 9 /eel by heat treatm5t4 ,?is has be5 work$ out by ,e4 ,j4 ,janitzky1 metallurgical eng9e] ( ! ,ill9ois ,/eel ,company1 z foll[s3 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--;,effect ( size on heat+4 ,) an increase 9 ! mass ( /eel !re is a correspond+ decrease 9 bo? ! m9imum surface h>dness & dep? h>dness1 :5 qu5*$ f ! same temp]ature1 "u id5tical conditions ( ! qu5*+ m$ium4 ,9 o!r words1 ! physical prop]ties obta9$ are a function ( ! surface ( ! metal qu5*$ = a giv5 mass ( /eel4 ,keep+ ?is prim>y assumption 9 m9d1 x is possible to pr$ict :at physical prop]ties may be develop$ 9 heat treat+ by calculat+ ! surface p] unit mass = diff]5t %apes & sizes4 ,x may be po9t$ out t ! figures & *>t t foll[ are n results ( actual te/s1 b are d]iv$ by calculation4 ,!y indicate ! ma!matical relation1 :i*1 bas$ on ! fact t ! physical prop]ties ( /eel are det]m9$ n alone by ! rate :i* heat is lo/ p] unit ( surface1 b by ! rate :i* heat is lo/ p] unit ( weight 9 relation to ! surface expos$ = t unit4 ,! unit ( weight has = ! diff]5t %ap$ bodies & _! sizes a c]ta9 surface :i* det]m9es _! physical prop]ties4 ,= example1 ! surface correspond+ to #a lb4 ( /eel has be5 comput$ = sph]es1 r\nds & flats4 ,= ! sph]e ) a unit weight ( #a lb4 ! portion is a cone ) ! apex at ! c5t] ( ! sph]e & ! base ! curv$ surface ( ! sph]e 7surface expos$ to qu5*+74 ,= r\nds1 a unit weight ( #a lb4 may be tak5 z a disk or cyl9d]1 ! base & top surfaces naturally d n ent] into calculation4 ,= a flat1 a prismatic or cyl9drical volume may be tak5 to repres5t ! unit weight4 ,! surfaces t are consid]$ 9 ?is in/ance are ! top & base ( ! section1 z ^! surfaces are ! ones expos$ to cool+4 ,! results ( ! calculations are z foll[s3 ,,table #bj4--,,sph]e ,diamet] ,surface p] ( sph]e p\nd ( /eel ,x ,y #h 94 #b4fdh sq4 94 #f 94 #c4eca sq4 94 #d 94 #e4bid sq4 94 #c 94 #g4jfb sq4 94 #b 94 #aj4fa sq4 94 ,,xy #ba4ahe4 ,,table #ba4--,,r\nd ,diamet] ,surface p] ( r\nd p\nd ( /eel ,x ,y #h4j 94 #a4gfe sq4 94 #f4j 94 #b4ced sq4 94 #e4j 94 #b4hbi sq4 94 #d4j 94 #c4eca sq4 94 #c4j 94 #d4gjh sq4 94 #b4j 94 #g4jfb sq4 94 #a4j 94 #ad4abe sq4 94 #j4e 94 #bh4be sq4 94 #j4be 94 #ef4e sq4 94 ,,xy #ad4abd4 ,,table #bb4--;,,flat ,?ickness ,surface p] ( flat p\nd ( /eel ,x ,y #h4j 94 #j4hhbh sq4 94 #f4j 94 #a4agg sq4 94 #e4j 94 #a4dab sq4 94 #d4j 94 #a4gfe sq4 94 #c4j 94 #b4cde sq4 94 #b4j 94 #c4eca sq4 94 #a4j 94 #g4jfb sq4 94 #j4e 94 #ad4abd sq4 94 #j4be 94 #bh4bdh sq4 94 ,,xy #g4jfb4 ,hav+ once det]m9$ ! physical qualities ( a c]ta9 specim51 & f\nd its position on ! curve we h ! means to pr$ict ! decrease ( physical qualities on l>g] specim5s :i* receive ! same heat treatm5t4 ,:5 ! surfaces ( ! unit weight z outl9$ 9 ! =ego+ tables are plott$ z ord9ates & ! correspond+ diamet]s z absciss1 ! result+ curve is a hyp]bola & foll[s ! law ,,xy ,c4 ,9 mak+ ^! calculations ! radii or "o-half ( ! ?ickness ne$ only to be tak5 into consid]ation z ! heat is conduct$ f ! c5t] ( ! body to ! surface1 foll[+ ! %orte/ pa?4 ,! equations = ! diff]5t %apes are z foll[s3 ,= flats ,,xy #g4jfb ,= r\nds ,,xy #ad4abd ,= sph]es ,,xy #ba4ahe ,x w be not$ t ! con/ants increase 9 a ratio ( #a1 #b1 & #c1 & ! ?ree bodies 9 "q w increase 9 h>dness on be+ qu5*$ 9 ! same ratio1 x be+ und]/ood t ! diamet] ( ! sph]e & r\nd & ?ickness ( ! flat are equal4 ,relative to %ape1 x is int]e/+ to note t r\nds1 squ>es1 octagons & o!r ?ree axial bodies1 ) two ( _! axes equal1 h ! same surface = ! unit weight4 ,= example3 ,size ,l5g? ,surface ,weight ,surface = #a lb4 #b 94 ,sq4 #ab 94 #if4j sq4 94 #ac4fj lb4 #g4jf sq4 94 #b 94 ,r\nd #ab 94 #ge4d sq4 94 #aj4fh lb4 #g4jf sq4 94 ,al?\gh ?is discussion is at pres5t bas$ ^u ma!matical analysis1 x is hop$ t x w op5 up a new field ( inve/igation 9 :i* b little "w has be5 done1 & may assi/ 9 settl+ ! z yet unsolv$ "q ( ! effect ( size & %ape 9 ! heat treatm5t ( /eel4 ,,heat-,,treat+ ,,equipm5t ,,& ,,me?ods ,,= ,,mass ,,production ,! heat-treat+ dep>tm5t ( ! ,br[n-,lipe-,*ap9 ,company1 ,syracuse1 ,n4 ,y41 runs day & night1 & besides h&l+ all ! h>d5+ ( tools1 p>ts ( jigs1 fixtures1 special ma*9es & appliances1 c>burizes & heat-treats e mon? betwe5 #aej1jjj & #bjj1jjj ge>s1 p9ions1 crosses & o!r compon5ts ent]+ into ! con/ruction ( diff]5tials = automobiles4 ,! treatm5t ( ! /eel really beg9s 9 ! mill1 :]e ! /eel is made to con=m to a specific =mula4 ,on ! arrival ( ! r\gh =g+s at ! ,br[n-,lipe-,*ap9 factory1 ! fir/ ( a long s]ies ( inspections beg9s4 ,,anneal+ ,,me?od4--,=g+s :i* are too h>d to ma*9e are put 9 pots ) a little *>coal to cause a r$uc+ atmosph]e & to prev5t scale4 ,! cov]s are !n lut$ on & ! pots plac$ 9 ! furnace4 ,c>bon /eel f #ae to #be po9ts is anneal$ at #a1fjj;,f4 ,nickel /eel ( ! same c>bon & conta9+ 9 addition #c-a_/b p] c5t nickel is anneal$ at #a1dej;,f4 ,:5 ! pots are heat$ ?r\gh1 !y are roll$ to ! y>d & all[$ to cool4 ,?is me?od ( anneal+ gives ! be/ h>dness = quick ma*9+4 ,! requirem5ts 9 ! ma*9e op]ations are v rigid &1 9 spite ( great c>e & probably ! f9e/ equipm5t ( special ma*9es 9 ! _w1 a small p]c5tage ( ! product fails to pass inspection dur+ or at ! completion ( ! ma*9e op]ations4 ,^! pieces1 h[ev]1 are n a loss1 = !y play an important "p 9 ! h>d5+ process1 indicat+ z !y d ! exact dep? ( p5etration ( ! c>buriz+ mat]ial & ! condition ( bo? case & core4 ,,heat-,,treat+ ,,dep>tm5t4--,! heat-treat+ dep>tm5t occupies an ,l-%ap$ build+4 ,! design is v practical1 ) ! furnace & ! floor on ! same level s t !re is no lift+ ( heavy pots4 ,fuel oil is us$ 9 all ! furnaces & gives highly satisfactory results4 ,! consumption ( fuel oil is ab\t #b gal4 p] h\r p] furnace4 ,! "w is pack$ 9 ! pots 9 a room at ! entrance to ! heat-treatm5t build+4 ,be=e pack+1 ea* ge> is /amp$ ) a numb] :i* is a key to ! records ( ! analysis & complete heat treatm5t ( t p>ticul> ge>4 ,%\ld a "q at any "t arise reg>d+ ! treatm5t ( a c]ta9 ge>1 all ! necess>y in=mation is available if ! numb] on ! ge> is legible4 ,= in/ance1 date ( treatm5t1 furnace1 c>buriz+ mat]ial1 position ( ! pot 9 ! furnace1 position ( ge> 9 pot1 temp]ature ( furnace & duration ( treatm5t are all tabulat$ & fil$ = ref]5ce4 ,aft] m>k+1 all holes & p>ts :i* are to rema9 unc>buriz$ are plugg$ or lut$ ) a mixture ( kaol9 & ,mellville gravel clay1 & ! ge> is pack$ 9 ! c>buriz+ mat]ial4 ,bohnite1 a comm]cial c>buriz+ comp\nd is us$ exclusively at ?is plant4 ,?is does excell5t "w & is economical4 ,broadly speak+1 ! economy ( a c>buriz+ comp\nd dep5ds on its lightness4 ,! space n occupi$ by "w mu/ be fill$ ) comp\nd2 !re=e7 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 a comp\nd weigh+ #be lb4 w\ld be wor? m ?an twice z mu* z "o weigh+ #fj lb4 p] cubic foot4 ,x has be5 claim$ t c]ta9 comp\nds c be us$ ov] & ov] aga91 b ?is is only true 9 a limit$ way1 if good "w is requir$4 ,!re is1 ( c\rse1 "s c>bon 9 ! comp\nd aft] ! fir/ use1 b = fir/-class "w1 new comp\nd mu/ be us$ ea* "t4 ,,! ,,pack+ ,,dep>tm5t4--,9 ,fig4 #ef is %[n ! pack+ pots :]e ! "w is pack$4 ,^! are ( malleable ca/ iron1 ) an int]nal v]tical flange ar\nd ! hole ,a4 ,?is fits 9 a bell on ! end ( ! ca/-iron pipe ,b1 :i* is lut$ 9 position ) fireclay be=e ! pack+ beg9s4 ,at ,c is %[n a pot ready = pack+4 ,! cr[n ge>s av]age #aj to #ab 94 9 diamet] & weigh ab\t #aa lb4 ea*4 ,:5 plac$ 9 ! pots1 !y surr\nd ! c5tral tube1 :i* all[s ! heat to circulate4 ,ea* pot conta9s five ge>s4 ,two complete scrap ge>s are 9 ea* furnace 7i4e41 ge>s :i* fail to pass ma*9+ inspection71 & at ! top ( front pot are two or m %ort segm5ts ( scrap ge>1 us$ z te/ pieces to gage dep? ( case4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--,pack+ dep>tm5t & special pots4 ,aft] fill+ to ! top ) comp\nd1 ! lid ,d is lut$ on4 ,t5 pots are !n plac$ 9 a furnace4 ,x w be not$ t ! pots to ! "r are numb]$ #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 indicat+ ! position !y are to occupy 9 ! furnace4 ,! ca/-iron ball %[n at ,e is small en\gh to drop ?r\gh ! pipe ,b1 b w n pass ?r\gh ! hole ,a 9 ! bottom ( ! pot4 ,x is us$ z a valve to plug ! bottom ( ! pot to prev5t ! c>buriz+ comp\nd f dropp+ ?r\gh :5 remov+ ! c>buriz$ ge>s to ! qu5*+ ba?4 ,)\t detract+ f ! high quality ( ! "w1 ! metallurgi/ 9 ?is plant has succe$$ 9 cutt+ out "o entire op]ation & r$uc+ ! "t 9 ! h>d5+ room by ab\t #bd hr4 ,=m]ly1 ! "w 0 c>buriz$ at ab\t #a1gjj;,f4 = #i hr4 ,! pots 7 !n run out into ! y>d & all[$ to cool sl[ly4 ,:5 cool1 ! "w 0 tak5 out ( ! pots1 reheat$ & qu5*$ at #a1fjj;,f4 to ref9e ! core4 ,x 0 aga9 reheat$ to #a1dbe;,f4 & qu5*$ to ref9e ! case4 ,f9ally1 x 0 drawn to ! prop] temp]4 ,,%ort ,,me?od ,,( ,,treatm5t4--,9 ! new me?od1 ! pack$ pots are run into ! case-h>d5+ furnaces1 :i* are heat$ to #a1fjj;,f4 ,on ! ins]tion ( ! cold pots1 ! temp]ature naturally falls4 ,! am\nt ( ?is fall is dep5d5t ^u a numb] ( v>iables1 b x av]ages ne>ly #ejj;,f4 z %[n 9 ! pyromet] *>t1 ,fig4 #fa4 ,! "w & furnace mu/ be br\ght to #a1fjj;,f4 ,)9 #b-a_/b hr42 o!rwise1 a long] "t w be necess>y to obta9 ! desir$ dep? ( case4 ,on ?is "w1 ! dep? ( case requir$ is designat$ 9 ?\s&?s1 & on cr[n ge>s1 ! dep? 9 #j4jbh 94 ,hav+ br\ght ! "w to a temp]ature ( #a1fjj;,f4 ! dep? ( case m5tion$ c be obta9$ 9 ab\t #e-a_/b hr4 by ma9ta9+ ?is temp]ature4 ,z /at$ be=e1 at ! top ( ea* pot are sev]al te/ pieces consi/+ ( a :ole scrap ge> & sev]al sections4 ,aft] ! pots h be5 heat$ at #a1fjj;,f4 = ab\t #e-a_/d hr41 !y are remov$1 & a scrap-section te/-piece is qu5*$ direct f ! pot 9 m9]al oil at n m ?an #ajj;,f4 ,! end ( a too? ( ?is is !n gr\nd & et*$ to asc]ta9 ! dep? ( case4 ,z ^! te/ pieces are ( exactly ! same cross-section z ! ge>s !mselves1 ! c>buriz+ action is simil>4 ,:5 ! dep? ( case has be5 f\nd f ! et*$ te/ pieces to be satisfactory1 ! pots are remov$4 ,! iron ball !n is dropp$ into ! tube to seal ! hole 9 ! bottom ( ! pot2 ! cov] & ! tube are remov$1 & ! ge>s qu5*$ direct f ! pot 9 m9]al oil1 :i* is kept at a temp]ature n high] ?an #ajj;,f4 ,,! ,,effect4--,! heat+ at #a1fjj;,f4 gives ! fir/ heat treatm5t :i* ref9es ! core1 :i* "u ! =m] high heat 7#a1gjj;,f47 0 r5d]$ co>sely cry/all9e4 ,all ! ge>s1 includ+ ! scrap ge>s1 are qu5*$ direct f ! pot 9 ?is mann]4 ,! ge>s !n g to ! reheat+ furnaces1 situat$ 9 front ( a batt]y ( ,gleason qu5*+ ma*9es4 ,^! furnaces accommodate f #ab to #af cr[n ge>s4 ,! c>bon-/eel ge>s are heat$ 9 a r$uc+ atmosph]e to ab\t #a1dbe;,f4 7dep5d+ on ! c>bon cont5t7 plac$ 9 ! dies 9 ! ,gleason qu5*+ ma*9e1 & qu5*$ betwe5 dies 9 m9]al oil at less ?an #ajj;,f4 ,! te/ ge> receives exactly ! same treatm5t z ! o!rs & is !n brok51 giv+ a record ( ! condition ( bo? case & core4 ,,aff9ity ,,( ,,nickel ,,/eel ,,= ,,c>bon4--,! c>bon- & nickel-/eel ge>s are c>buriz$ sep>ately ow+ to ! diff]5ce 9 "t necess>y = _! c>burization4 ,practically all pr9t$ in=mation on ! subject is to ! effect t nickel /eel takes long] to c>burize ?an pla9 c>bon /eel4 ,?is is directly oppos$ to ! conditions f\nd at ?is plant4 ,= ! same dep? ( case1 o!r conditions be+ equal1 a nickel-/eel ge> w\ld require f #bj to #cj m94 less ?an a l[ c>bon-/eel ge>4 ,f ! qu5*+ ma*9es1 ! ge>s g to ! s&-bla/+ ma*9es1 situat$ 9 ! w+ ( ! heat-treat+ build+1 :]e !y are clean$4 ,f "h !y are tak5 to ! te/+ dep>tm5t4 ,! te/s are simple & at ! same "t mo/ ?or\gh4 ,,te/+ ,,& ,,inspection ,,( ,,heat ,,treatm5t4--,! h>d p>ts ( ! ge> mu/ be s h>d t a new mill file does n bite 9 ! lea/4 ,hav+ pass$ ?is file te/ at sev]al po9ts1 ! ge>s g to ! c5t]-pun* te/4 ,! inspector is equipp$ ) a wood5 tr\gh secur$ to ! top ( ! b5* to support ! ge>1 a numb] ( c5t] pun*es 7made ( #c_/d-;94 hex-/eel hav+ po9ts %>p5$ to an angle ( #abj deg47 & a hamm] weigh+ ab\t #d oz4 ,) ^! simple tools1 supplem5t$ by 8 skill1 ! inspector c feel ! dep? & quality ( ! case & ! condition ( ! core4 ,! ge>s are ea* te/$ 9 ?is way at sev]al po9ts on ! tee? & else:]e1 ! scrap ge> be+ also subject$ to ! te/4 ,f9ally1 ! scrap ge> is securely clamp$ 9 ! /raight5+ press %[n 9 ,fig4 #eg4 ,) a #c-a_/b-lb4 hamm] & a suitable holl[-end$ drift manipulat$ by "o ( ,s&['s und]/udies1 tee? are brok5 out ( ! scrap ge> at v>i\s po9ts4 ,^! give a record confirm+ ! c5t]-pun* te/s1 :i*1 if ! angle ( ! c5t] pun* is kept at #abj deg4 & ! weight ( ! hamm] & bl[ are uni=m1 is v accurate4 ,aft] pass+ ! c5t]-pun* te/ ! ends ( ! tee? are pe5$ lightly ) a hamm]4 ,if !y are too h>d1 small p>ticles fly (f4 ,su* ge>s are drawn 9 oil at a temp]ature ( f #cjj to #cej;,f41 dep5d+ on _! h>dness4 ,"s build]s pref] to h ! extreme out] ends ( ! tee? drawn some:at l[] ?an ! re/4 ,?is draw+ is done on gas-heat$ r$-hot plates1 z %[n at ,a 9 ,fig4 #eh4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,press = hold+ te/ ge>s = break+4 ,nickel /eel1 9 addition to all ! te/s giv5 to c>bon /eel1 is subject$ to a ,br9ell te/4 ,= ea* /eel1 ! temp]ature & ! p]iod ( treatm5t are specific4 ,= "s unkn[n reason1 app>5tly l mat]ial ) l treatm5t w1 9 isolat$ cases1 n produce l results4 ,x !n rema9s = ! treatm5t to be repeat$ or modifi$1 b ! results obta9$ dur+ inspection =m a valuable aid to ! metallurgi/ 9 det]m9+ fur!r treatm5t4 ,,temp]ature ,,record+ ,,& ,,regulation4--,ea* furnace is equipp$ ) pyromet]s1 b ! read+ & record+ ( all temp]atures are 9 ! h&s ( "o man1 :o occupies a room ) an op5+ into ! end ( ! h>d5+ dep>tm5t4 ,! op5+ is ab\t #ae ft4 above ! floor level4 ,on ea* side ( x1 easily legible f all ( ! furnaces1 is a bo>d ) ! numb]s ( ! v>i\s furnaces1 z %[n 9 ,figs4 #ei & #fj4 ,opposite ea* furnace numb] is a s]ies ( hooks :]eon are hung metal numb]s repres5t+ ! pyromet] read+s ( ! temp]ature 9 t p>ticul> furnace4 ,)9 ! room1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #fj1 ! indicat+ in/rum5t is to ! "r1 & to ! left is a swit*bo>d to connect x ) ! !rmo-c\ples 9 ! v>i\s furnaces4 ,! bo>ds %[n to ! "r & ! left sw+ into ! room1 :i* enables ! att5dant easily to *ange ! numb]s to con=m to ! pyromet] read+s4 ,read+s ( ! temp]atures ( ! c>buriz+ furnaces are tak5 & tabulat$ e t5 m9utes4 ,^!1 numb]$ #a to #aj1 are %[n on ! bo>d to ! "r 9 ,fig4 #ei4 ,! c>d %[n 9 ,fig4 #fa gives su* a record4 ,^! records are fil$ away = possible future ref]5ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--;,gas heat$ draw+ plate = too? ends4 ,! temp]atures ( ! reheat+ furnaces1 numb]$ f #a to #bf & %[n on ! bo>d to ! left 9 ,fig4 #ei1 are tak5 e #e m94 ,ea* furnace has a l>ge metal sign on :i* is m>k$ ! temp]ature at :i* ! furnace regulator is requir$ to keep 8 heat4 ,z soon z any v>iation f ?is is po/$ on ! bo>d outside ! pyromet] room1 ! att5dant sees x & adju/s ! burn]s to comp5sate4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--,pyromet] record+ room4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--;,inside ( ,pyromet] swit* room4 ,,dies ,,= ,,gleason ,,temp]+ ,,ma*9es4--,9 ,fig4 #fb is %[n a set ( dies = ! ,gleason temp]+ ma*9e4 ,^! accurately made dies fit & hold ! ge> true dur+ qu5*+1 ?us prev5t+ di/ortion4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--;,c>buriz+ furnace record4 ,ref]r+ to ,fig4 #fb1 ! die ,a has a surface ,b :i* fits ! face ( ! tee? ( ! ge> ,c4 ,?is surface is p]=at$ by a l>ge numb] ( holes :i* p]mit ! qu5*+ oil to circulate freely4 ,! die ,a is set 9 ! upp] end ( ! plung] ,a ( ! temp]+ ma*9e1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #fc1 a few in*es above ! surface ( ! qu5*+ oil 9 ! tank ,n4 ,inside ! die ,a are ! c5t]+ jaws ,d1 ,fig4 #fb1 :i* are an easy fit = ! bore ( ! ge> ,c4 ,! inn] surface ( ! c5t]+ jaws is 9 ! %ape ( a female cone4 ,! upp] die is %[n at ,e4 ,9 ! c5t] 7sep>ate f x1 b a snug slid+ fit 9 x7 is ! exp&] ,g1 :i*1 dur+ qu5*+1 ent]s ! tap] 9 ! c5t]+ jaws ,d1 exp&+ !m aga9/ ! bore ( ! ge> ,c4 ,! faces ,f ( ! upp] die ,e fit two angles at ! back ( ! ge> & are groov$ = ! passage ( ! qu5*+ oil4 ,! upp] die ,e is secur$ to ! die c>ri] ,b1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #i1 & inside ! die is ! exp&] ,g1 :i* is back$ up by compression spr+s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--;,dies = ,gleason ge>-h>d5+ ma*9e4 ,,h>d5+ ,,op]ation4--,h>d5+ a ge> is accompli%$ z foll[s3 ,! ge> is tak5 f ! furnace by ! furnaceman & plac$ 9 ! l[] die1 surr\nd+ ! c5t]+ jaws1 z %[n at ,h 9 ,fig4 #fb & ,c 9 ,fig4 #fc4 ,air is !n turn$ into ! cyl9d] ,d1 & ! pi/on rod ,e1 ! die c>ri] ,b1 ! top die ,f & ! exp&] ,g desc5d4 ,! pilot ,h ent]s a hole 9 ! c5t] ( ! l[] die1 & ! exp&] ,g ent]s ! c5t]+ jaws ,i1 caus+ !m to exp& & c5t] ! ge> ,c 9 ! l[] die4 ,on fur!r advance ( ! pi/on rod ,e1 ! exp&] ,g is =c$ upw>d aga9/ ! pressure ( ! spr+s ,j & ! upp] die ,f comes 9 contact ) ! upp] surface ( ! ge>4 ,fur!r d[nw>d movem5t ( ! dies1 :i* n[ clamp ! "w securely1 ov]comes ! resi/ance ( ! pressure weight ,k 7:i* normally keeps up ! plung] ,a71 & ! ge> is subm]g$ 9 ! oil4 ,! qu5*+ oil is circulat$ ?r\gh a cool+ sy/em outside ! build+ & ent]s ! temp]+ ma*9e ?r\gh ! inlet pipe ,l4 ,:5 ! ma*9e is 9 ! position %[n1 ! oil passes out ?r\gh ! ports ,m 9 ! l[] plung] to ! out] res]voir ,n1 pass+ to ! cool+ sy/em by way ( ! ov]fl[ ,o4 ,:5 ! l[] plung] ,a is =c$ d[nw>d1 ! ports ,m are automatically clos$ & ! cool qu5*+ oil f ! inlet pipe ,l1 hav+ no o!r means ( escape1 passes ?r\gh ! holes 9 ! l[] die & ! grooves 9 ! upp]1 circulat+ 9 contact ) ! surfaces ( ! ge> & passes to ! ov]fl[4 ,:5 ! air pressure is releas$1 ! c\nt]weights return ! p>ts to ! positions %[n 9 ,fig4 #fc1 & ! op]ator removes ! ge>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--;,gleason temp]+ ma*9e4 ,! ge> comes out uni=mly h>d all ov] & ( ! same degree ( h>dness z :5 temp]$ 9 an op5 tank4 ,! output ( ! ma*9e dep5ds on ! am\nt ( metal to be cool$1 b w av]age f #h to #af p] h\r4 ,ea* ma*9e is s]v$ by "o man1 two furnaces be+ requir$ to heat ! "w4 ,a slight excess ( oil is us$ 9 ! fir+ ( ! furnaces to give a r$uc+ atmosph]e & to avoid scale4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--;,h>d5+ & %r9k+ sleeves4 ,,c>buriz+ ,,l[-,,c>bon ,,sleeves4--,l[-c>bon sleeves are c>buriz$ & pu%$ on malleable-iron diff]5tial-case hubs4 ,=m]ly1 ^! sleeves 7 giv5 two treatm5ts aft] c>burization 9 ord] to ref9e ! case & ! core1 & !n s5t to ! gr9d+ dep>tm5t1 :]e !y 7 gr\nd to a pu% fit = ! hubs4 ,aft] ?is !y 7 pu%$ on ! hubs4 ,by ! me?od n[ employ$1 ! fir/ treatm5t ref9es ! core1 & on ! second treatm5t1 ! sleeves are pu%$ on ! hub & at ! same "t h>d5$4 ,?is me?od cuts out ! int]nal gr9d+ "t1 press+ on hubs1 & haulage f "o dep>tm5t to ano!r4 ,also1 less "w is lo/ ?r\gh splitt+ ( ! sleeves4 ,! ma*9e = pu%+ ! sleeves on is %[n 9 ,fig4 #fd4 ,at ,a is ! /em on :i* ! hot sleeve ,b is to be pu%$4 ,! c>buriz$ sleeves are heat$ 9 an automatic furnace1 :i* takes !m cold at ! back & fe$s !m ?r\gh to ! front1 by :i* "t !y are at ! correct temp]ature4 ,! loose m&rel ,c is provid$ ) a spigot on ! l[] end1 :i* fits ! hole 9 ! diff]5tial-case hub4 ,! upp] end is tap]$ z %[n & acts z a pilot = ! ram ,d4 ,! action ( pu%+ on & qu5*+ is simil> to ! action ( ! ,gleason temp]+ ma*9e1 ) ! exception t wat] in/ead ( oil is us$ z a qu5*+ m$ium4 ,! spe$ ( op]ation dep5ds on a numb] ( v>iables1 b f #cej to #ejj c be heat$ & press$ on 9 #aa hr4 ,,cyanide ,,ba? ,,= ,,tool ,,/eels4--,all high-c>bon tool /eels are heat$ 9 a cyanide ba?4 ,) ?is ba?1 ! heat c be controll$ )9 #c deg4 ,! /eel is ev5ly heat$ )\t exposure to ! air1 result+ 9 "w :i* is n w>p$ & on :i* !re is no scale4 ,! cyanide ba? is1 ( c\rse1 n available = high-spe$ /eel because ( ! v high temp]atures necess>y4 ,,drop ,,=g+ ,,dies ,! k9d ( /eel us$ 9 ! die ( c\rse influ5ces ! heat treatm5t x is to receive1 b ?is also dep5ds on ! k9d ( "w ! die is to p]=m4 ,if ! die is = a =g+ :i* is ma*9$ all ov] & does n h to be especially close to size1 :]e a v>iation ( #a_/af 94 is n consid]$ excessive1 a l[ grade /eel w be p]fectly satisfactory4 ,9 cases ( f9e "w1 h[ev]1 :]e ! v>iation _c be ov] #j4jje to #j4ja 94 we mu/ use a f9e /eel & prev5t its go+ out ( %ape 9 ! heat+ & qu5*+4 ,a high quality crucible /eel is sugge/$ ) ab\t ! foll[+ analysis3 ,c>bon #j4ge p] c5t1 manganese #j4be p] c5t1 silicon #j4ae p] c5t1 sulphur #j4jae p] c5t1 & phosphorus #j4jae p] c5t4 ,su* a /eel w h a decalesc5t po9t 9 ! neighborhood ( #a1cee;,f4 & = ! size us$1 probably 9 a die ( approximately #h 941 x w h>d5 ar\nd #a1dej;,f4 ,to secure be/ results c>e mu/ be tak5 at e /ep4 ,! block %\ld be heat$ sl[ly to ab\t #a1djj;,f41 ! furnace clos$ tight & all[$ to cool sl[ly 9 ! furnace itself4 ,x %\ld n soak at ! high temp]ature4 ,aft] ma*9+1 & be=e x is put 9 ! furnace = h>d5+1 x %\ld be sl[ly preheat$ to #hjj or #ijj;,f4 ,?is c be done 9 sev]al ways1 "s putt+ ! die block 9 front ( ! op5 door ( a h>d5+ furnace & keep+ ! furnace at ab\t #a1jjj;,f4 ,! ma9 ?+ is to heat ! die block v sl[ly & ev5ly4 ,! h>d5+ heat %\ld be v sl[1 #g hr4 be+ none too long = su* a block1 br++ ! die up gradually to ! qu5*+ temp]ature ( #a1dej4 ,?is %\ld be held = #a_/b hr4 or ev5 a little m1 :5 ! die c be tak5 out & qu5*$4 ,!re %\ld be no guess "w ab\t ! heat+1 a good pyromet] be+ ! only safe way ( kn[+ ! correct temp]ature4 ,! qu5*+ tank %\ld be ( good size & h a spray or /ream ( wat] com+ up ne> ! surface4 ,dip ! die block ab\t #c 94 deep & let ! /ream ( wat] get at ! face s z to play on ! =ms4 ,by leav+ ! re/ ( ! die out ( ! wat]1 mov+ ! die up & d[n a trifle to prev5t a crack at ! l9e ( imm]sion1 ! back ( ! block is left t\gh :ile ! face is v h>d4 ,to ov]come ! t5d5cy to w>p ! face x is a good plan to p\r a little wat] on ! back ( ! die z ?is t5ds to ev5 up ! cool+4 ,! dep? to :i* ! die is dipp$ c be easily regulat$ by plac+ b>s across ! tank at ! prop] dep?4 ,aft] ! scl]oscope %[s ! die to be prop]ly h>d5$1 :i* means f #ih to #aja1 ! temp] %\ld be drawn z soon z conv5i5t4 ,a lead pot 9 :i* ! back ( ! die c be susp5d$ s z to heat ! back side1 makes a good me?od4 ,or ! die block c be plac$ back to ! op5 door ( a furnace4 ,on a die ( ?is size x may take sev]al h\rs to draw x to ! desir$ temp]4 ,?is c be te/$ :ile w>m by ! scl]oscope me?od1 be>+ 9 m9d t ! read+ w n be ! same z :5 cold4 ,if ! te/ %[s f #gf to #gh :ile w>m1 ! h>dness :5 cold w be ab\t #hc1 :i* is ab\t "r = ?is "w4 ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,,heat ,,treatm5ts ,! ,society ( ,automotive ,eng9e]s h adopt$ c]ta9 heat treatm5ts to suit diff]5t /eels & v>y+ conditions4 ,^! h already be5 ref]r$ to on pages #ci to #da 9 connection ) ! diff]5t /eels us$ 9 automobile practice4 ,^! treatm5ts are designat$ by lett] & correspond ) ! designations 9 ! table4 ,,heat ,,treatm5ts ,heat ,treatm5t ,a ,aft] =g+ or ma*9+3 #a4 ,c>bonize at a temp]ature betwe5 #a1fjj;,f4 & #a1gej;,f4 7#a1fej-a1gjj;,f4 desir$47 #b4 ,cool sl[ly or qu5*4 #c4 ,reheat to #a1dej-a1ejj;,f4 & qu5*4 ,heat ,treatm5t ,b ,aft] =g+ or ma*9+3 #a4 ,c>bonize betwe5 #a1fjj;,f4 & #a1gej;,f4 7#a1fej-a1gjj;,f4 ,desir$47 #b4 ,cool sl[ly 9 ! c>boniz+ mixture4 #c4 ,reheat to #a1eej-a1fbe;,f4 #d4 ,qu5*4 #e4 ,reheat to #a1djj-a1dej;,f4 #f4 ,qu5*4 #g4 ,draw 9 hot oil at #cjj to #dej;,f41 dep5d+ ^u ! degree ( h>dness desir$4 ,heat ,treatm5t ,d ,aft] =g+ or ma*9+3 #a4 ,heat to #a1ejj-a1fjj;,f4 #b4 ,qu5*4 #c4 ,reheat to #a1dej-a1ejj;,f4 #d4 ,qu5*4 #e4 ,reheat to #fjj-a1bjj;,f4 & cool sl[ly4 ,heat ,treatm5t ,e ,aft] =g+ or ma*9+3 #a4 ,heat to #a1ejj-a1eej;,f4 #b4 ,cool sl[ly4 #c4 ,reheat to #a1dej-a1ejj;,f4 #d4 ,qu5*4 #e4 ,reheat to #fjj-a1bjj;,f4 & cool sl[ly4 ,heat ,treatm5t ,f ,aft] %ap+ or coil+3 #a4 ,heat to #a1dbe-a1dge;,f4 #b4 ,qu5* 9 oil4 #c4 ,reheat to #djj-ijj;,f41 9 accordance ) temp] desir$ & cool sl[ly4 ,heat ,treatm5t ,g ,aft] =g+ or ma*9+3 #a4 ,c>bonize at a temp]ature betwe5 #a1fjj;,f4 & #a1gej;,f4 7#a1fej-a1gjj;,f4 desir$74 #b4 ,cool sl[ly 9 ! c>boniz+ mixture4 #c4 ,reheat to #a1ejj-a1eej;,f4 #d4 ,qu5*4 #e4 ,reheat to #a1cjj-a1djj;,f4 #f4 ,qu5*4 #g4 ,reheat to #bej-ejj;,f4 79 accordance ) ! necessities ( ! case7 & cool sl[ly4 ,heat ,treatm5t ,h ,aft] =g+ or ma*9+3 #a4 ,heat to #a1ejj-a1fjj;,f4 #b4 ,qu5*4 #c4 ,reheat to #fjj-a1bjj;,f4 & cool sl[ly4 ,heat ,treatm5t ,k ,aft] =g+ or ma*9+3 #a4 ,heat to #a1ejj-a1eej;,f4 #b4 ,qu5*4 #c4 ,reheat to #a1cjj-a1djj;,f4 #d4 ,qu5*4 #e4 ,reheat to #fjj-a1bjj;,f4 & cool sl[ly4 ,heat ,treatm5t ,l ,aft] =g+ or ma*9+3 #a4 ,c>bonize betwe5 #a1fjj;,f4 & #a1gej;,f4 7#a1fej-a1gjj;,f4 desir$74 #b4 ,cool sl[ly 9 ! c>boniz+ mixture4 #c4 ,reheat to #a1djj-a1ejj;,f4 #d4 ,qu5*4 #e4 ,reheat to #a1cjj-a1djj;,f4 #f4 ,qu5*4 #g4 ,reheat to #bej-ejj;,f4 & cool sl[ly4 ,heat ,treatm5t ,m ,aft] =g+ or ma*9+3 #a4 ,heat to #a1dej-a1ejj;,f4 #b4 ,qu5*4 #c4 ,reheat to #ejj-a4bej;,f4 & cool sl[ly4 ,heat ,treatm5t ,p ,aft] =g+ or ma*9+3 #a4 ,heat to #a1dej-a1ejj;,f4 #b4 ,qu5*4 #c4 ,reheat to #a1cge-a1dej;,f4 sl[ly4 #d4 ,qu5*4 #e4 ,reheat to #ejj-a1bej;,f4 & cool sl[ly4 ,heat ,treatm5t ,q ,aft] =g+3 #a4 ,heat to #a1dge-a1ebe;,f4 7,hold at ?is temp]ature "o-half h\r1 to insure ?or\gh heat+47 #b4 ,cool sl[ly4 #c4 ,ma*9e4 #d4 ,reheat to #a1cge-a1dbe;,f4 #e4 ,qu5*4 #f4 ,reheat to #bej-eej;,f4 & cool sl[ly4 ,heat ,treatm5t ,r ,aft] =g+3 #a4 ,heat to #a1ejj-a1eej;,f4 #b4 ,qu5* 9 oil4 #c4 ,reheat to #a1bjj-a1cjj;,f4 7,hold at ?is temp]ature ?ree h\rs47 #d4 ,cool sl[ly4 #e4 ,ma*9e4 #f4 ,reheat to #a1cej-a1dej;,f4 #g4 ,qu5* 9 oil4 #h4 ,reheat to #bej-ejj;,f4 & cool sl[ly4 ,heat ,treatm5t ,s ,aft] =g+ or ma*9+3 #a4 ,c>bonize at a temp]ature betwe5 #a1fjj & #a1gej;,f4 7#a1fej-a1gjj;,f4 ,desir$47 #b4 ,cool sl[ly 9 ! c>boniz+ mixture4 #c4 ,reheat to #a1fej-a1gej;,f4 #d4 ,qu5*4 #e4 ,reheat to #a1dge-a1eej;,f4 #f4 ,qu5*4 #g4 ,reheat to #bej-eej;,f4 & cool sl[ly4 ,heat ,treatm5t ,t ,aft] =g+ or ma*9+3 #a4 ,heat to #a1fej-a1gej;,f4 #b4 ,qu5*4 #c4 ,reheat to #ejj-a1cjj;,f4 & cool sl[ly4 ,heat ,treatm5t ,u ,aft] =g+3 #a4 ,heat to #a1ebe-a1fjj;,f4 7,hold = ab\t "o-half h\r47 #b4 ,cool sl[ly4 #c4 ,ma*9e4 #d4 ,reheat to #a1fej-a1gjj;,f4 #e4 ,qu5*4 #f4 ,reheat to #cej-eej;,f4 & cool sl[ly4 ,heat ,treatm5t ,v ,aft] =g+ or ma*9+3 #a4 ,heat to #a1fej-a1gej;,f4 #b4 ,qu5*4 #c4 ,reheat to #djj-a1bjj;,f4 & cool sl[ly4 ,,re/or+ ,,ov]heat$ ,,/eel ,! effect ( heat treatm5t on ov]heat$ /eel is %[n graphically 9 ,fig4 #fe to ! s]ies ( illu/rations on pages #acg to #add4 ,?is 0 prep>$ by ,?os4 ,fir? ,sons1 ,ltd41 ,%effield1 ,engl&4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--;,*>t ( *anges due to heat+ & cool+4 ,! c5t] piece ,fig4 #fe repres5ts a block ( /eel weigh+ ab\t #be lb4 ,! c5tral hole accommodat$ a !rmo-c\ple :i* 0 atta*$ to an autographic record]4 ,! curve is a copy ( ! temp]ature record dur+ heat+ & cool+4 ,into ! holes 9 ! side ( ! block small pegs ( ov]heat$ mild /eel 7 ins]t$4 ,"o peg 0 )drawn & qu5*$ at ea* ( ! temp]atures indicat$ by ! numb]$ arr[s1 & aft] suitable prep>ation ^! pegs 7 photograph$ 9 ord] to %[ ! *anges 9 /ructure tak+ place dur+ heat+ & cool+ op]ations4 ,! illu/rations "h reproduc$ are select$ f ^? photographs ) ! object ( pres5t+ pictorially ! *anges involv$ 9 ! ref9+ ( ov]heat$ /eel or /eel ca/+s4 ,figures #ff to #gi ) _! captions %[ mu* t is ( value to /eel us]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--,! /ructure ( ov]heat$ mild /eel f :i* all ! pegs 7 made 7magnifi$ #be diamet]s74 ,! pegs )drawn at #gbj;,c41 or e>li]1 _h ?is /ructure & 7 q s(t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--,peg )drawn at #gej;,c4 7magnifi$ #be diamet]s74 ,! /ructure is app>5tly unalt]$1 b ! peg 0 h>d &1 unlike ! e>li] ones1 w\ld n b5d d\ble4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--;,a portion ( #ff magnifi$ #bjj diamet]s to %[ t ! d>k 7pe>lite7 areas are lam9at$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--;,a portion ( #fg magnifi$ #bjj diamet]s1 %[+ t pe>lite areas are no long] lam9at$ & provid+ reason = obs]v$ h>dness4 ,illu/ration ,,fig4 #gj4--,peg )drawn at #ghj;,c4 7magnifi$ #be diamet]s71 %[+ int]-diffusion ( trans=m$ pe>lite & f]rite areas4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--,peg )drawn at #hjj;,c4 7magnifi$ #be diamet]s71 %[+ int]-diffusion s f> advanc$ t ! orig9al outl9e ( ! cry/als is n[ only fa9tly sugge/$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--,peg )drawn at #hej;,c4 7magnifi$ #ajj diamet]s7 aft] int]-diffusion 0 complet$4 ,note ! regul> outl9es & ! small size ( ! cry/als z comp>$ ) #fg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--,to facilitate comp>ison #fg 0 enl>g$ to ! same magnification z #fb1 & ! "o sup]impos$ on ! o!r4 ,! s+le l>ge cry/al occupi$ z mu* space z #h1jjj ( ! small] ones4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--,! peg )drawn on cool+ at #hjj;,c4 7magnifi$ #ajj diamet]s7 %[s ! fir/ reappe>ance ( free f]rite4 ,all pegs )drawn at high] temp]atures 7 l ,fig4 #gb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--,peg )drawn aft] cool+ to #gfj;,c4 ,! increas$ am\nt ( free f]rite arranges itself ab\t ! cry/als z envelopes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gf4-,peg )drawn aft] cool+ to #gdj;,c4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--,peg )drawn aft] cool+ to #fgj;,c4 7magnifi$ #hjj diamet]s74 ,j at ?is mom5t ! lam9ation ( pe>lite1 :i* n[ occupi$ its orig9al area1 0 tak+ place4 ,9 "s p>ts ! lam9ation 0 p]fect1 9 o!r p>ts ! iron & iron-c>bide 7 /ill dissolv$ 9 ea* o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--;,any peg )drawn aft] #fgj;,c4 on cool+ 7magnifi$ #ajj diamet]s74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--,/ructure ( ov]heat$ /eel be=e 7left7 & aft] ref9+ 7"r74 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,h>d5+ ,,c>bon ,,/eel ,,= ,,tools ,= ye>s ! toolmak] _h full sway 9 reg>d to make ( /eel want$ = %op tools1 he g5]ally made 8 own designs1 h>d5$1 temp]$1 gr\nd & usually set up ! ma*9e :]e x 0 to be us$ & te/$ x4 ,mo/ ( u rememb] ! toolmak] dur+ ! sew+ ma*9e p]iod :5 int]*angeable tools 7 beg9n+ to f9d _! way2 r cauti\sly at fir/4 ,! bicycle era 0 ! real beg9n+ ( tool mak+ f a manufactur+ /&po9t1 :5 int]*angeable tools = rapid production 7 call$ = & toolmak]s 7 9 great dem&4 ,ev5 !n1 jigs1 & fixtures 7 ( ! toolmak]'s own design1 :o practically built e "p ( x f />t to f9i%4 ,! old way1 h[ev]1 _h to be *ang$4 ,in/ead ( ! toolmak] />t+ 8 "w f cutt+ (f ! /ock 9 ! old hack saw1 a place = cutt+ (f /ock 0 provid$4 ,if1 = in/ance1 a =m+ tool 0 want$1 ! toolmak] 0 giv5 ! ma/] tool to make :ile an appr5tice r\gh$ out ! cutt]4 ,! toolmak]1 h[ev]1 res]v$ ! h>d5+ process = himself4 ,t 0 "o ( ! p>ticul> op]ations t ! old toolmak] refus$ to give up4 ,x seem$ prepo/]\s to ?9k = a m9ute t any "o else c\ld possibly d t p>ticul> job )\t spoil+ ! tools1 or at lea/ w>p x out ( %ape 7mo/ ( u did n gr9d holes 9 cutt]s #ae to #bj ye>s ago72 or a hundr$ or m ?+s might happ5 unless ! toolmak] did 8 own h>d5+ & temp]+4 ,t s _m rem>kably good tools 7 made at t "t is /ill a wond] to _m1 :5 we consid] t ! l>ge %op _h f #cj to #dj diff]5t m51 all us+ _! own secret comp\nds1 heat+ to suit eyesight1 no matt] if ! day 0 bright or d>k1 & !n temp]+ to color4 ,b ! day ( ! old toolmak] has *ang$4 ,n[ a tool is design$ by a tool design]1 ,o4,k4'd1 & !n a pr9t goes to ! =eman ( ! tool dep>tm5t1 :o specifies ! size & gets ! /eel f ! cutt+-(f dep>tm5t4 ,aft] f9i%+ ! ma*9e "w x goes to ! h>d5+ room1 & ?is is ! problem we %all n[ take up 9 detail4 ,,! ,,mod]n ,,h>d5+ ,,room4--,a h>d5+ room ( today means a v diff]5t place f ! dirty1 d>k smi?%op 9 ! corn] ) ! op5 coal =ge4 ,!re1 :5 we want$ to be some:at p>ticul>1 we sometimes %ovel$ ! coal c9d]s to "o side & pil$ a great pile ( *>coal on ! =ge4 ,we n[ h a complete equipm5t2 a gas- or oil-heat+ furnace1 good runn+ wat]1 sev]al sizes ( lead pots1 & an oil tank l>ge en\gh to hold a b>rel ( oil4 ,by runn+ wat]1 we mean a l>ge tank ) ov]fl[ pipes giv+ a con/ant supply4 ,! ord9>y h>d5+ room equipm5t %\ld consi/ (3 ,gas or oil muffle furnace = h>d5+4 ,gas or oil =ge furnace4 ,a good size gas or oil furnace = anneal+ & case-h>d5+4 ,a gas or oil furnace to hold lead pots4 ,oil temp]+ tank1 gas- or oil-heat$4 ,pressure bl[]4 ,l>ge oil tank to hold at lea/ a b>rel ( oil4 ,big wat] tank ) scre5 trays connect$ ) l>ge pipe f bottom ) ov]fl[4 ,/raight5+ press4 ,! furnace %\ld be connect$ ) pyromet]s & temp]+ tank ) a !rmomet]4 ,beside all ?is y ne$ a good man4 ,x does n make mu* diff]5ce h[ completely ! h>d5+ dep>tm5t is fitt$ up1 if y expect good "w1 a small p]c5tage ( loss & to be able to tackle any?+ t comes along1 y mu/ h a good man1 "o :o und]/&s ! diff]5ce betwe5 l[- & high-c>bon /eel1 :o kn[s :5 p>ticul> c>e mu/ be ex]cis$ on p>ticul> "w4 ,9 o!r words1 a man :o kn[s h[ 8 "w %\ld be done1 & has ! intellig5ce to foll[ directions on treatm5ts ( /eel on :i* he has _h no exp]i5ce4 ,jewel]s' tools1 especially = silv]smi?'s "w1 probably h to /& ! greate/ puni%m5t ( any all-/eel tools & to make a spoon die s h>d t x w n s9k "u a bl[ f an #a1hjj-lb4 hamm] ) a #d-;ft4 drop1 & /ill n crack1 dem&s c>eful treatm5t4 ,to h>d5 su* dies1 fir/ cov] ! impression on ! die ) pa/e made f bone du/ or lampblack & oil4 ,place face d[n 9 an iron box p>tly fill$ ) cru%$ *>coal1 leav+ back ( die uncov]$ s t ! heat c be se5 at all times4 ,heat sl[ly 9 furnace to a good *]ry r$4 ,! heat dep5ds on ! quality & ! analysis ( /eel & ! recomm5d$ actions ( ! /eel mak] %\ld be c>efully foll[$4 ,:5 )drawn f ! fire ! die %\ld be qu5*$ z %[n 9 ,fig4 #hj ) ! face ( die d[n & ! back a %ort di/ance out ( ! wat]4 ,:5 ! back is black1 imm]se all ov]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--,qu5*+ a die1 face d[n4 ,if su* a tank is n at h&1 x w\ld pay to rig "o up at once1 al?\gh a b>rel ( br9e may be us$1 or ! back ( ! die may be fir/ imm]s$ to a dep? ( ab\t #a_/b 94 ,:5 ! piece is imm]s$1 hold die on an angle z 9 ,fig4 #ha4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--;,hold die at angle to qu5*4 ,?is is = ! purpose ( expell+ all /eam bubbles z !y =m 9 contact ) hot /eel4 ,we are aw>e ( ! fact t a great _m toolmak]s 9 jewelry %ops /ill cl+ to ! ov]head ba?1 z 9 ,fig4 #hb1 b m brok5 pieces & m dies ) s(t spots are due to ?is me?od ?an to all ! o!rs comb9$1 z ! wat] /rikes "o spot 9 =ce1 contract+ ! surface s mu* fa/] ?an ! re/ ( ! die t ! results are ! same z if an unev5 heat+ _h be5 giv5 ! /eel4 ,,take ,,"t ,,= ,,h>d5+4--,unev5 heat+ & poor qu5*+ has caus$ loss ( _m v valuable dies1 & x c]ta9ly seems t :5 a firm sp5ds f #ge to #dej 9 cutt+ a die t a few h\rs c\ld be sp>$ = prop] h>d5+4 ,b ! usual feel+ is t a tool mu/ be hurri$ z soon z ! h>d5] gets x1 & if a bur/ die is ! result f ei!r unev5 or ov]heat$ /eel & qu5*+ same )\t judgm5t1 ! /eel gets ! blame4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--;,an obsolete me?od4 ,give ! /eel a *ance to heat prop]ly1 mix a little common s5se ) y\r #cj ye>s exp]i5ce on ! o!r fell[s /eel4 ,rememb] t high-c>bon /eel h>d5s at a l[] heat ?an l[-c>bon /eel1 & qu5* :5 at ! "r heat 9 ! two above ways1 & #ii p] c5t ( ! tr\ble w vani%4 ,:5 a die flies to pieces 9 qu5*+1 don't ru% to ! sup]9t5d5t ) a poor-/eel /ory1 b f9d out fir/ :y x broke s t ! salesman :o sold x w n be able to h>d5 piece aft] piece f ! same b> satisfactorily4 ,if y f9d a cold %ort1 commonly call$ a pipe1 y c lay ! blame on ! /eelmak]4 ,if x is a case ( ov]heat+ & qu5*+ :5 too hot1 y w f9d a co>se gra9 ) _m bright spots l cry/als to ! h>d5+ dep?4 ,if unev5 heat+ is ! cause1 y w f9d a wid] m>g9 ( h>d5+ dep? on "o side ?an on ! o!r1 or f9d ! co>se gra9 f ov]-heat+ on "o side :ile on ! o!r y w f9d a close gra91 :i* may be j "r4 ,if y f9d any o!r faults ?an a pipe1 or are n able to h>d5 deep en\gh1 !n take ! blame l a man & s5d = in=mation4 ,! diff]5t /eel salesm5 are good fell[s & mo/ ( !m "k a ?+ or two ab\t _! own bus9ess4 ,= mu* "w a cool+ ba? at f #ej to #ge;,f4 is v good bo? = small hobs1 dies1 cutt] plates or plung]s4 ,"s "w w h>d5 be/ 9 a b>rel ( br9e1 b 9 runn+ cold wat]1 spl5did results w be obta9$4 ,cutt] plates %\ld always be dipp$ corn] fir/ & if any h /ripp] holes1 !y %\ld fir/ be plugg$ ) asbe/os or fire clay cem5t4 ,9 g5]al x may be said t ! be/ h>d5+ temp]ature = c>bon /eel is ! l[e/ temp]ature at :i* x w h>d5 prop]ly4 ,,c>bon ,,9 ,,tool ,,/eel ,c>bon tool /eel1 or tool /eel z x is commonly call$1 usually conta9s f #hj to #abe po9ts 7or f #j4hj to #a4be p] c5t7 ( c>bon1 & none ( ! alloys :i* g to make up ! high spe$ /eels4 ,?is 0 =m]ly kn[n also z crucible or ca/ /eel1 or crucible ca/ /eel1 f ! way 9 :i* x 0 made4 ,?is 0 be=e ! days ( /eel ca/+s4 ,! adv5t ( ^! caus$ s mu* confusion t ! t]m 0 soon dropp$4 ,:5 we say tool /eel1 we ne>ly always ref] to c>bon-tool /eel1 high-spe$ /eel be+ usually designat$ by t "n4 ,= _m purposes c>bon-/eel cutt]s are /ill f\nd be/1 al?\gh :]e a l>ge am\nt ( mat]ial is to be remov$ at a rapid rate1 x has giv5 way to high-spe$ /eels4 ,,c>bon ,,/eels ,,= ,,diff]5t ,,tools ,all us]s ( tool /eels %\ld c>efully /udy ! diff]5t qualities ( ! /eels !y h&le4 ,diff]5t uses requires diff]5t k9ds ( /eel = be/ results1 & = ! purpose ( designat+ diff]5t /eels "s mak]s h adopt$ ! two t]ms temp]1 & quality1 to di/+ui% betwe5 !m4 ,9 ?is case temp] ref]s to ! am\nt ( c>bon :i* is comb9$ ) ! iron to make ! metal into a /eel4 ,! quality means ! abs5ce ( phosphor\s1 sulphur & o!r impurities1 ^! dep5d+ on ! ores & ! me?ods ( treatm5t4 ,/eel mak]s h v>i\s ways ( designat+ c>bon /eels = diff]5t purposes4 ,"s ( ^! sy/ems involve ! use ( numb]s1 t ( ! ,latrobe ,/eel ,company be+ giv5 h]e)4 ,x w be not$ t ! numb]s are bas$ on #bj po9ts ( c>bon p] unit4 ,! names giv5 ! diff]5t temp]s are also ( int]e/4 ,o!r mak]s use diff]5t numb]s4 ,! temp] li/ foll[s3 ,,latrobe ,,temp] ,,li/ ,,( ,,c>bon ,,tool ,,/eels ,no4 #c temp] #j4fj to #j4fi p] c5t c>bon ,no4 #c-a_/b temp] #j4gj to #j4gi p] c5t c>bon ,no4 #d temp] #j4hj to #j4hi p] c5t c>bon ,no4 #d-a_/b temp] #j4ij to #j4ii pet c5t c>bon ,no4 #e temp] #a4jj to #a4ji p] c5t c>bon ,no4 #e-a_/b temp] #a4aj to #a4ai p] c5t c>bon ,no4 #f temp] #a4bj to #a4bi p] c5t c>bon ,no4 #f-a_/b temp] #a4cj to #a4ci p] c5t c>bon ,no4 #g temp] #a4dj to #a4di p] c5t c>bon ,,uses ,,( ,,! ,,v>i\s ,,temp]s ,,( ,,c>bon ,,tool ,,/eel ,,die ,,temp]4--,no4 #c3 ,all k9ds ( dies = deep /amp+1 press+ & drop =g+s4 ,m9+ drills to h>d5 only4 ,easily weldable4 ,,smi?s' ,,tool ,,temp]4--,no4 #c-a_/b3 ,l>ge pun*es1 m9t+ & rivet dies1 nailmak]s' tools1 hamm]s1 hot & cold sets1 snaps & boil]mak]s' tools1 v>i\s smi?s' tools1 l>ge %e> blades1 d\ble-h&$ *isels1 caulk+ tools1 head+ dies1 masons' tools & tools = g5]al weld+ purposes4 ,,%e> ,,blade ,,temp]4--,no4 #d3 ,pun*es1 l>ge taps1 screw+ dies1 %e> blades1 table cutl]y1 circul> & long saws1 head+ dies4 ,weldable4 ,,g5]al ,,purpose ,,temp]4--,no4 #d-a_/b3 ,taps1 small pun*es1 screw+ dies1 sawwebs1 ne$les1 etc41 & = all g5]al purposes4 ,weldable4 ,,axe ,,temp]4--,no4 #e3 ,axes1 *isels1 small taps1 m9]s' drills & jump]s to h>d5 & temp]1 plane irons4 ,weldable ) c>e4 ,,cutl]y ,,temp]4--,no4 #e-a_/b3 ,l>ge mill+ cutt]s1 ream]s1 pocket cutl]y1 wood tools1 %ort saws1 granite drills1 pap] & tobacco knives4 ,weldable ) v great c>e4 ,,tool ,,temp]4--,no4 #f3 ,turn+1 plan+1 slott+1 & %ap+ tools1 twi/ drills1 mill picks1 scy!s1 circul> cutt]s1 engrav]s' tools1 surgical cutl]y1 circul> saws = cutt+ metals1 bevel & o!r sections = turret la!s4 ,n weldable4 ,,h>d ,,tool ,,temp]4--,no4 #f-a_/b3 ,small twi/ drills1 razors1 small & intricate engrav]s' tools1 surgical in/rum5ts1 knives4 ,n weldable4 ,,razor ,,temp]4--,no4 #g3 ,razors1 b>rel bor+ bits1 special la! tools = turn+ *ill$ rolls4 ,n weldable4 ,,/eel ,,= ,,*isels ,,& ,,pun*es ,! highe/ grades ( c>bon or temp]+ /eels are to be recomm5d$ = tools :i* h to )/& %ocks1 su* z = cold *isels or pun*es4 ,^! /eels are1 h[ev]1 p>ticul>ly useful :]e x is necess>y to cut temp]$ or heat-treat$ /eel :i* is m ?an ord9>ily h>d1 = cutt+ *ill$ iron1 etc4 ,!y are useful = bor+1 = rifle-b>rel drill+1 = f9e f9i%+ cuts1 = draw+ dies = brass & copp]1 = blank+ dies = h>d mat]ials1 = =m$ cutt]s on automatic screw ma*9es & = roll-turn+ tools4 ,/eel ( ?is k9d1 be+ v d5se 9 /ructure1 %\ld be giv5 m "t 9 heat+ = =g+ & = h>d5+1 ?an c>bon /eels ( a l[] grade4 ,= =g+ x %\ld be heat$ sl[ly & uni=mly to a bright r$ & only light bl[s us$ z ! heat dies out4 ,d n hamm] at all at a black heat4 ,reheat sl[ly to a d>k r$ = h>d5+ & qu5* 9 w>m wat]4 ,gr9d on a wet gr9d/one4 ,:]e tools h to )/& %ocks & vibration1 z 9 pneumatic hamm] "w1 9 sev]e pun*+ duty1 hot or cold upsett+ or simil> "w1 tool /eels conta9+ vanadium or *rome-vanadium give excell5t results4 ,^! are made p>ticul>ly = "w ( ?is k9d4 ,,*isels-,,%apes ,,& ,,heat ,,treatm5t#a ,footnote #a3 ,ab/ract ( pap] by ,,h5ry ,,f[l]1 *ief me*anical eng9e] ( ! ,midl& ,ry41 ,engl&1 be=e ! ,in/itution ( ,me*anical ,eng9e]s4 ,9 ! *ief me*anical eng9e]'s dep>tm5t ( ! ,midl& ,ry41 aft] consid]able exp]im5t+1 x 0 decid$ to ord] *isel /eel to ! foll[+ specifications3 c>bon1 #j4ge to #j4he p] c5t1 ! o!r con/itu5ts be+ normal4 ,?is gives a complete analysis z foll[s3 c>bon1 #j4ge to #j4he2 manganese1 #j4cj2 silicon1 #j4aj2 sulphur1 #j4jbe2 phosphorus1 #j4jbe4 ,! analysis ( a *isel :i* _h giv5 excell5t s]vice 0 z foll[s3 c>bon1 #j4ge2 manganese1 #j4ch2 silicon1 #j4af2 sulphur1 #j4jbh2 phosphorus1 #j4jbf4 ,! heat treatm5t is unkn[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--;,=ms ( *isels /&>diz$ = ! locomotive %ops ( ! ,midl& ,ry41 ,engl&4 ,at ! same "t t *isel /eel 0 /&>diz$1 ! =m ( ! *isels !mselves 0 revis$1 & a /&>d *>t ( ^! z us$ 9 ! locomotive %ops 0 drawn up4 ,figure #hc %[s ! mo/ important =ms1 :i* are made to /ock ord]s 9 ! smi?y & =w>d$ to ! heat-treatm5t room :]e ! h>d5+ & temp]+ is c>ri$ out on bat*es ( fifty4 ,a /&>d sy/em ( treatm5t is employ$1 :i* to a v l>ge ext5t does away ) ! p]sonal elem5t4 ,s9ce ! *emical composition is m or less con/ant1 ! *ief v>iant is ! section :i* causes ! temp]atures to be v>i$ slightly4 ,! *isels are c>efully heat$ 9 a gas-fir$ furnace to a temp]ature ( f #gcj to #gdj;,c4 7#a1cdj to #a1cfd;,f47 accord+ to section4 ,9 practice1 ! fir/ *isel1 is heat$ to #gcj;,c42 & ! second to #gce;,c4 7#a1cee;,f472 & a #a 94 half r\nd *isel to #gdj;,c41 because ( _! v>y+ increas+ ?ickness ( section at ! po9ts4 ,^u atta9+ ?is /eady temp]ature1 ! *isels are qu5*$ to a dep? ( #c_/h to #a_/b 94 f ! po9t 9 wat]1 & !n ! :ole *isel is imm]s$ & cool$ (f 9 a tank conta9+ l9se$ oil4 ,! oil-tank is cool$ by be+ imm]s$ 9 a cold-wat] tank ?r\gh :i* wat] is con/antly circulat$4 ,aft] ?is treatm5t1 ! *isels h a dead h>d po9t & a t\gh or sorbitic %aft4 ,!y are !n temp]$ or ! po9t let d[n4 ,?is is done by imm]s+ !m 9 ano!r oil-ba? :i* has be5 rais$ to ab\t #bae;,c4 7#dai;,f74 ,! fir/ result is1 ( c\rse1 to drop ! temp]ature ( ! oil1 :i* is gradually rais$ to its initial po9t4 ,on approa*+ ?is temp]ature ! *isels are tak5 out ab\t e #b;,c4 rise & te/$ ) a file1 & at a po9t betwe5 #bae & #bbj;,c4 7#dbh;,f471 :5 x is f\nd t ! desir$ temp] has be5 rea*$1 ! *isels are remov$1 clean$ 9 sawdu/1 & all[$ to cool 9 an iron tray4 ,no comp>ative te/s ( ^! *isels ) ^? b\ght & treat$ by ! old rule-(-?umb me?ods h be5 made1 z no exact me?od ( c>ry+ out su* te/s me*anically1 o!r ?an try+ ! h>dness by ! ,br9ell or scl]oscope me?od1 are kn[n2 any ord9>y te/ dep5ds s l>gely ^u ! dext]ity ( ! op]ator4 ,! univ]sal op9ion ( =em5 & ^? us+ ! *isels z to ! advantages ( ! ones receiv+ ! /&>d treatm5t describ$ is t a sub/antial improvem5t has be5 made4 ,! *isels 7 n normaliz$4 ,te/s ( *isels normaliz$ at ab\t #ijj;,c4 7#a1feb;,f47 %[$ t !y possess$ no advantage4 ,tools or pieces :i* h holes or deep depressions %\ld be fill$ be=e heat+ unless x is necess>y to h ! holes h>d on ! inside4 ,9 t case ! fill+ w\ld keep ! wat] away f ! surface & no h>d5+ w\ld take place4 ,:]e fill+ is to be done1 v>i\s mat]ials are us$ by diff]5t h>d5]s4 ,fireclay & common putty seem to be favor$ by _m4 ,e me*anic :o has _h any?+ to d ) ! h>d5+ ( tools kn[s h[ necess>y x is to take a cut f ! surface ( ! b> t is to be h>d5$4 ,! reason is t 9 ! process ( mak+ ! /eel its out] surface has become dec>boniz$4 ,?is *ange makes x l[-c>bon /eel1 :i* w ( c\rse n h>d54 ,x is necess>y to remove f #a_/af to #a_/d 94 ( diamet] on b>s rang+ f #a_/b to #d 94 ,?is same dec>bonization occurs if ! /eel is plac$ 9 ! =ge 9 su* a way t unburn$ oxyg5 f ! bla/ c get at x4 ,! c>bon is oxidiz$1 or burn$ out1 conv]t+ ! outside ( ! /eel into l[-c>bon /eel4 ,! way to avoid ?is is to use a deep fire4 ,lack ( ?is precaution is ! cause ( mu* spoil$ "w1 n only because ( dec>bonization ( ! out] surface ( ! metal1 b because ! cold bla/ /rik+ ! hot /eel acts l boil+ hot wat] p\r$ into an ice-cold glass tumbl]4 ,! contraction sets up /resses t result 9 cracks :5 ! piece is qu5*$4 ,,prev5t+ ,,dec>bonization ,,( ,,tool ,,/eel ,x is especially important to prev5t dec>bonization 9 su* tools z taps & =m cutt]s1 :i* mu/ keep _! %ape aft] h>d5+ & :i* _c be gr\nd away on ! pr(ile4 ,= ?is reason x is well to put taps1 ream]s & ! l into pieces ( pipe 9 heat+ !m4 ,! pipe ne$ be clos$ on "o end only1 z ! air w n circulate readily unless !re is an op5+ at bo? ends4 ,ev5 if us$ 9 connection ) a blacksmi?'s =ge ! lead ba? has an advantage = heat+ tools ( complicat$ %apes1 s9ce x is easi] to heat !m uni=mly & !y are subm]g$ & away f ! air4 ,! lead mu/ be /irr$ frequ5tly or ! heat is n uni=m 9 all p>ts ( ! lead ba?4 ,cov]+ ! lead ) p[d]$ *>coal w l>gely prev5t oxidization & wa/e ( lead4 ,su* a ba? is good = temp]atures betwe5 #fbj & #a1aej;,f4 ,at high] temp]atures !re is mu* wa/e ( lead4 ,,anneal+ ,,to ,,relieve ,,int]nal ,,/resses ,"w qu5*$ f a high temp]ature & n aft]w>d temp]$ w1 if complex 9 %ape1 conta9 _m int]nal /resses :i* may lat] cause x to break4 ,!y may be eas$ (f by slight heat+ )\t mat]ially less5+ ! h>dness ( ! piece4 ,"o way to d ?is is to hold ! piece ov] a fire & te/ x ) a moi/5$ f+]4 ,ano!r way is to dip ! piece 9 boil+ wat] aft] x has fir/ be5 qu5*$ 9 a cold ba?4 ,su* /eps are n necess>y ) articles :i* w aft]w>d be temp]$ & 9 :i* ! /ra9s are ?us r$uc$4 ,9 anneal+ /eels ! op]ation is simil> to h>d5+1 z f> z heat+ is conc]n$4 ,! critical temp]atures are ! prop] ones = anneal+ z well z h>d5+4 ,f ?is po9t on !re is a diff]5ce1 = anneal+ consi/s 9 cool+ z sl[ly z possible4 ,! sl[] ! cool+ ! s(t] w be ! /eel4 ,anneal+ may be done 9 ! op5 air1 9 furnaces1 9 hot a%es or lime1 9 p[d]$ *>coal1 9 burnt bone1 9 *>r$ lea!r & 9 wat]4 ,op5-air anneal+ w d z a crude measure 9 cases :]e x is desir$ to take ! int]nal /resses out ( a piece4 ,c>e mu/ be tak5 9 us+ ?is me?od t ! piece is n expos$ to drafts or plac$ on "s cold sub/ance t w *ill x4 ,furnace anneal+ is mu* bett] & consi/s 9 heat+ ! piece 9 a furnace to ! critical temp]ature & !n all[+ ! "w & ! furnace to cool toge!r4 ,:5 lime or a%es are us$ z mat]ials to keep air away f ! /eel & reta9 ! heat1 !y %\ld be fir/ heat$ to make sure t !y are dry4 ,p[d]$ *>coal is us$ = high-grade anneal+1 ! piece be+ pack$ 9 ?is sub/ance 9 an iron box & bo? ! "w & ! box rais$ to ! critical temp]ature & !n all[$ to cool sl[ly4 ,ma*9]y /eel may be anneal$ 9 sp5t gr\nd-bone t has be5 us$ 9 caseh>d5+2 b tool /eel mu/ nev] be anneal$ 9 ?is way1 z x w be injur$ by ! phosphorus conta9$ 9 ! bone4 ,*>r$ lea!r is ! be/ anneal+ mat]ial = high-c>bon /eel1 because x prev5ts dec>boniz+ tak+ place4 ,,d\ble ,,anneal+ ,wat] anneal+ consi/s 9 heat+ ! piece1 all[+ x to cool 9 air until x loses its r$ heat & becomes black & !n imm$iately qu5*+ x 9 wat]4 ,?is plan works well = v l[-c>bon /eel2 b = high-c>bon /eel :at is kn[n z ! d\ble anneal+ treatm5t mu/ be giv51 provid$ results are want$ quickly4 ,! process consi/s 9 heat+ ! /eel quickly to #bjj or m above ! upp] critical1 cool+ 9 air d[n ?r\gh ! recalesc5ce po9t1 !n reheat+ x to j above ! critical po9t & aga9 cool+ sl[ly ?r\gh ! recalesc5ce1 !n qu5*+ 9 oil4 ,?is process reta9s 9 ! /eel a f9e-gra9$ /ructure comb9$ ) s(tness4 ,,qu5*+ ,,tool ,,/eel ,to secure prop] h>dness1 ! cool+ ( qu5*+ ( /eel is z important z its heat+4 ,qu5*+ ba?s v>y 9 nature1 !re be+ a l>ge numb] ( ways to cool a piece ( /eel 9 contra/ to ! comp>atively few ways ( heat+ x4 ,pla9 wat]1 br9e & oil are ! ?ree mo/ common qu5*+ mat]ials4 ,( ^! ?ree ! br9e w give ! mo/ h>dness1 & pla9 wat] & oil come next4 ,! cold] t any ( ^! ba?s is :5 ! piece is put into x ! h>d] w be ! /eel2 b ?is does n mean t x is a good plan to dip ! heat$ /eel into a tank ( ice wat]1 = ! %ock w\ld be s great t ! b> w\ld probably fly to pieces4 ,9 fact1 ! qu5*+ ba? mu/ be sometimes heat$ a bit to take (f ! edge ( ! %ock4 ,br9e solutions w "w uni=mly1 or give ! same degree ( h>dness1 until !y rea* a temp]ature ( #aej;,f4 above :i* _! grip relaxes & ! metals qu5*$ 9 !m become s(t]4 ,pla9 wat] holds its grip up to a temp]ature ( approximately #ajj;,f42 b oil ba?s1 :i* are us$ to secure a sl[] rate ( cool+1 may be us$ up to #ejj or m4 ,a compromise is sometimes effect$ by us+ a ba? consi/+ ( an in* or two ( oil float+ on ! surface ( wat]4 ,z ! hot /eel passes ?r\gh ! oil1 ! %ock is n z sev]e z if x 7 to be ?ru/ directly into ! wat]2 & 9 addition1 oil adh]es to ! tool & keeps ! wat] f direct contact ) ! metal4 ,! old idea t m]cury w h>d5 /eel m ?an any o!r qu5*+ mat]ial has be5 explod$4 ,a ba? consi/+ ( melt$ cyanide ( potassium is useful = heat+ f9e engrav$ dies & o!r articles t are requir$ to come out free f scale4 ,"o mu/ always be c>eful to provide a hood or exhau/ sy/em to get rid ( ! deadly fumes com+ f ! cyanide pot4 ,! "o ma9 ?+ to rememb] 9 h>d5+ tool /eel is to qu5* on a ris+ heat4 ,?is does n mean a rapid heat+ z a sl[ increase 9 temp]ature is mu* bett] 9 e way4 ,,! ,,!ory ,,( ,,temp]+4--,/eel t has be5 h>d5$ is g5]ally h>d] & m brittle ?an is necess>y1 & 9 ord] to br+ x to ! condition t meets our requirem5ts a treatm5t call$ temp]+ is us$4 ,?is increases ! t\ghness ( ! /eel1 i4e41 decrease ! brittl5ess at ! exp5se ( a slight decrease 9 h>dness4 ,!re are sev]al !ories to expla9 ?is reaction1 b g5]ally x is only necess>y to rememb] t 9 h>d5+ we qu5* /eel f ! au/5ite phase1 &1 due to ?is rapid cool+1 ! normal *ange f au/5ite to ! eutectoid composition does n h "t to take place1 & z a consequ5ce ! /eel exi/s 9 a p>tially trans=m$1 un/able & v h>d condition at atmosph]ic temp]atures4 ,b ow+ to ! int]nal rigidity :i* exi/s 9 cold metal ! /eel is unable to *ange into its m /able phase until atoms c re>range !mselves by ! application ( heat4 ,! high] ! heat1 ! great] ! trans=mation into ! s(t] phases4 ,z ! trans=mation takes place1 a c]ta9 am\nt ( heat ( reaction1 :i* "u sl[ cool+ w\ld h be5 releas$ 9 ! critical range1 is n[ releas$ & helps to cause a fur!r slight reaction4 ,if a piece ( /eel is heat$ to a c]ta9 temp]ature & held !re1 ! temp]+ color1 in/ead ( rema9+ un*ang$ at ?is temp]ature1 w advance 9 ! temp]+-color scale z x w\ld ) increas+ temp]ature4 ,?is means t ! temp]+ colors d n absolutely correspond to ! temp]atures ( /eels1 b ! v>iations are s slight t we c use !m 9 actual practice4 7,see ,table #bc1 page #aeh47 ,,temp]atures ,,to ,,use4--,z soon z ! temp]ature ( ! /eel rea*es #ajj;,c4 7#bab;,f47 ! trans=mation beg9s1 increas+ 9 int5sity z ! temp]ature is rais$1 until f9ally :5 ! l[] critical range is rea*$1 ! /eel has be5 all *ang$ into ! ord9>y con/itu5ts ( unh>d5$ /eels4 ,if a piece ( poli%$ /eel is heat$ 9 an ord9>y furnace1 a ?9 film ( oxides w =m on its surface4 ,! colors ( ?is film *ange ) temp]ature1 & s1 9 temp]+1 !y are g5]ally us$ z an indication ( ! temp]ature ( ! /eel4 ,! /eel %\ld h at lea/ "o poli%$ face s t ?is film ( oxides may be se54 ,an alt]native me?od to ! det]m9ation ( temp] by color is to temp] by heat+ 9 an oil or salt ba?4 ,oil ba?s c be us$ up to temp]atures ( #ejj;,f42 above ?is1 fus$-salt ba?s are requir$4 ,! article to be temp]$ is put into ! ba?1 br\ght up to & held at ! requir$ temp]ature = a c]ta9 l5g? ( "t1 & !n cool$1 ei!r rapidly or sl[ly4 ,?is takes long] ?an ! color me?od1 b ) l[ temp]atures ! results are m satisfactory1 because ! temp]ature ( ! ba? c be controll$ ) a pyromet]4 ,! temp]+ temp]atures giv5 9 ! foll[+ table are tak5 f a h&book issu$ by ! ,midvale ,/eel ,company4 ,,table #bc4--,,temp]+ ,,temp]atures ,,= ,,/eels ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ,temp]ature ,temp]ature = #a hr4 = #h m94 --------------- ,color --------------- ,uses ,deg4 ,f4,deg4 ,c4 ,deg4 ,f4,deg4 ,c4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- #cgj #ahh ,fa9t yell[ #dfj #bch ,scrap]s1 brass-turn+ tools1 ream]s1 taps1 mill+ cutt]s1 saw tee?4 #cij #aii ,light /raw #eaj #bfe ,twi/ drills1 la! tools1 plan] tools1 f9i%+ tools #daj #baj ,d>k /raw #efj #bic ,/one tools1 hamm] faces1 *isels = h>d "w1 bor+ cutt]s4 #dcj #bba ,br[n #faj #cba ,treph9+ tools1 /amps4 #dej #bcb ,purple #fdj #ccg ,cold *isels = ord9>y "w1 c>p5t]s' tools1 picks1 cold pun*es1 %e> blades1 slic+ tools1 slott] tools4 #dij #bed ,d>k blue #ffj #cdc ,hot *isels1 tools = hot "w1 spr+s4 #eaj #bfe ,light blue #gaj #cgf ,spr+s1 screw driv]s4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ,x w be not$ t two sets ( temp]atures are %[n1 "o be+ specifi$ = a "t int]val ( #h m94 & ! o!r = #a hr4 ,= ! f9e/ "w ! long] "t is pref]able1 :ile = ord9>y r\gh "w #h m94 is suffici5t1 aft] ! /eel has rea*$ ! specifi$ temp]ature4 ,! rate ( cool+ aft] temp]+ seems to be immat]ial1 & ! piece c be cool$ at any rate1 provid+ t 9 l>ge pieces x is suffici5tly sl[ to prev5t /ra9s4 ,,kn[+ ,,:at ,,takes ,,place4--,h[ are we to "k if we h giv5 a piece ( /eel ! v be/ possible treatm5t8 ,! be/ me?od is by microscopic exam9ation ( poli%$ & et*$ sections1 b ?is requires a c]ta9 exp5se = laboratory equipm5t & upkeep1 :i* may prev5t an ord9>y comm]cial plant f attempt+ su* a ref9em5t4 ,x is highly recomm5d$ t any firm t has any l>ge am\nt ( heat treatm5t to d1 in/all su* an equipm5t1 :i* c be pur*as$ = f #bej to #ejj4 ,its intellig5t use w save its co/ 9 a v %ort "t4 ,! o!r me?od is by exam9ation ( fractures ( small te/ b>s4 ,/eel heat$ to its correct temp]atures w %[ ! f9e/ possible gra91 :]eas und]heat$ /eel has n _h its gra9 /ructure ref9$ suffici5tly1 & s w n be at its be/4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ov]heat$ /eel w h a co>s] /ructure1 dep5d+ on ! ext5t ( ov]heat+4 ,to det]m9e ! prop] qu5*+ temp]ature ( any p>ticul> grade ( /eel x is only necess>y to heat pieces to v>i\s temp]atures n m ?an #bj;,c4 7#cf;,f47 ap>t1 qu5* 9 wat]1 break !m1 & exam9e ! fractures4 ,! temp]ature produc+ ! f9e/ gra9 %\ld be us$ = anneal+ & h>d5+4 ,simil>ly1 to det]m9e temp]+ temp]atures1 sev]al pieces %\ld be h>d5$1 !n temp]$ to v>i\s degrees1 & cool$ 9 air4 ,samples1 say six1 reheat$ to temp]atures v>y+ by #ajj f #cjj to #hjj;,c4 w %[ a consid]able range ( prop]ties1 & ! draw+ temp]ature ( ! piece giv+ ! desir$ results c be us$4 ,= draw+ temp]s up to #ejj;,f4 oil ba?s ( fre% cotton se$ oil c be safely & satisfactorily us$4 ,= high] temp]ature a ba? ( "s k9d ( fus$ salt is recomm5d$4 ,,h9ts ,,= ,,tool ,,/eel ,,us]s ,d n hesitate to ask = in=mation f ! mak] z to ! be/ /eel to use = a giv5 purpose1 m5tion+ 9 z mu* detail z possible ! use = :i* x is int5d$4 ,d n heat ! /eel to a high] degree ?an t fix$ 9 ! description ( ea* class4 ,nev] heat ! /eel to m ?an a *]ry r$ )\t =g+ x or giv+ x a def9ite heat treatm5t4 ,heat+ /eel at ev5 mod]ate temp]ature is liable to co>s5 ! gra9 :i* c only be re/or$ by =g+ or by heat treat+4 ,let ! =g+ beg9 z soon z ! /eel is hot en\gh & nev] let tool /eel soak 9 ! fire4 ,cont9ue ! hamm]+ vigor\sly & con/antly1 us+ light] bl[s z x cools (f1 & /opp+ :5 ! heat becomes a v dull r$ or a fa9t br[n4 ,%\ld weld+ be necess>y c>e %\ld be tak5 n to ov]heat 9 ord] to make an easy weld4 ,keep x bel[ ! sp>kl+ po9t z ?is indicates t ! /eel is burnt4 ,beg9 to =ge z soon z ! welds are put toge!r1 tak+ c>e to use g5tle /rokes at fir/ increas+ !m z ! high] heat falls1 b n ov]do+ ! hamm]+ :5 ! /eel cools4 ,! hamm]+ %\ld be ext5d$ beyond ! weld+ po9t & %\ld cont9ue until ! dull r$ or br[n heat is rea*$4 ,,prev5t+ ,,cracks ,,9 ,,h>d5+ ,! blacksmi? 9 ! small %op1 :]e equipm5t is usually v limit$1 (t5 consi/+ ( a =ge1 a small op5 h>d-coal furnace1 a b>rel ( wat] & a c ( oil mu/ h skill & exp]i5ce4 ,) ?is equipm5t ! smi? is expect$ to1 & usually c1 produce good results if prop] c>e is tak54 ,9 h>d5+ c>bon tool /eel 9 wat]1 too mu* _c be said 9 favor ( sl[1 c>eful heat+1 nor aga9/ ov]heat+ if cracks are to be avoid$4 ,x is n wise to take ! "w f ! h>d5+ ba? & leave x expos$ to ! air if !re is any heat left 9 x1 because x is m liable to crack ?an if left 9 ! ba? until cold4 ,9 heat+1 pl5ty ( "t is tak5 = ! "w to heat ev5ly cle> ?r\gh1 ?us avoid+ /ra9s caus$ by quick & improp] heat+1 ,9 qu5*+ 9 wat]1 contraction is mu* m rapid ?an 0 ! expansion :ile heat+1 & /ra9s beg9 ! mom5t ! "w t\*es ! wat]4 ,if ! piece has any consid]able size & is tak5 f ! ba? be=e x is cold & all[$ to come to ! air1 expansion />ts aga9 f ! inside s rapidly t ! *ill$ h>d5$ surface cracks be=e ! /ra9s c be reliev$4 ,_m are mo/ successful ) ! h>d5+ ba? ab\t blood w>m4 ,:5 ! "w t is be+ h>d5$ is ne>ly cold1 x is tak5 f ! wat] & in/antly put into a c ( oil1 :]e x is all[$ to f9i% cool+4 ,! heat 9 ! body ( ! tool w come to ! surface m sl[ly1 ?us reliev+ ! /ra9 & ov]com+ mu* ( ! dang] ( crack+4 ,"s cont5d t ! temp] %\ld be drawn z soon z possible aft] h>d5+3 b t if ?is _c be done = "s h\rs1 ! "w %\ld be left 9 ! oil until ! temp]+ c be done4 ,x is claim$ t =m+ dies & pun*-press dies t are difficult to h>d5 w seldom crack if treat$ 9 ?is way4 ,small tools or pieces t are v tr\blesome because ( peculi> %ape %\ld be made ( /eel :i* has be5 ?or\ghly anneal$4 ,x is (t5 well to mill or turn (f ! out] sk9 ( ! b>1 to remove metal :i* has be5 cold-work$4 ,!n heat sl[ly j ?r\gh ! critical range & cool 9 ! furnace1 9 ord] to produce a v f9e gra94 ,tools ma*9$ f su* /ock1 & h>d5$ ) ! utmo/ c>e1 w h ! be/ *ance to survive )\t w>p+1 gr[? or crack+4 ,,%r9k+ ,,& ,,enl>g+ ,,"w ,/eel c be %runk or enl>g$ by prop] heat+ & cool+4 ,p9s = =c$ fits c be enl>g$ sev]al ?\s&?s ( an in* by rapid heat+ to a dull r$ & qu5*+ 9 wat]4 ,! !ory is t ! metal is exp&$ 9 heat+ & t ! sudd5 cool+ sets ! out] portion be=e ! core c contract4 ,9 dipp+ ! piece is n held "u wat] till cold b is dipp$1 held a mom5t & remov$4 ,!n dipp$ aga9 & aga9 until cold4 ,r+s & draw+ dies are also %runk 9 a simil> way4 ,! r+s are sl[ly heat$ to a *]ry r$1 slipp$ on a rod & roll$ 9 a %all[ pan ( wat] :i* cools only ! out] edge4 ,?is holds ! outside :ile ! inn] heat$ portion is =c$ inw>d1 r$uc+ ! hole4 ,?is op]ation c be repeat$ a numb] ( times ) consid]able success4 ,,temp]+ ,,r\nd ,,dies ,a numb] ( circul> dies ( c>bon tool /eel = use 9 tool hold]s ( turret la!s 7 requir$4 ,no prop] temp]+ ov5 0 available1 s ! foll[+ me?od 0 adopt$ & prov$ q successful4 ,aft] ! dies _h be5 h>d5$ dead h>d 9 wat]1 !y 7 clean$ up bright4 ,a pair ( ord9>y smi?s' tongs 0 made ) jaws ( heavy mat]ial & to fit nicely all ar\nd ! outside ( ! die1 leav+ a #c_/cb-;94 space :5 ! jaws 7 clos$ ar\nd ! die4 ,! dies be+ all ready1 ! tongs 7 heat$ r$ hot1 & ! dies 7 pick$ up & held by ! tongs4 ,?is temp]$ !m f ! outside 91 left ! tee? ! temp] requir$ & ! outside slightly s(t]4 ,! dies held up ! "w successfully & 7 bett] ?an :5 temp]$ 9 ! same ba?4 ,,! ,,effect ,,( ,,temp]+ ,,on ,,wat]-,,qu5*$ ,,gages ,! foll[+ in=mation has be5 suppli$ by ,automatic & ,electric ,furnaces1 ,ltd41 #f1 ,que5/reet1 ,london1 ,s4 ,w43 ,two gages ( #c_/d 94 diamet]1 #ab ?reads p] in*1 7 heat$ 9 a ,wild-,b>field furnace1 us+ ! pyroscopic detector1 & 7 qu5*$ 9 cold wat]4 ,!y 7 subsequ5tly temp]$ 9 a salt ba? at v>i\s increas+ temp]atures1 ! effective diamet] ( ea* ?read & ! scl]oscope h>dness be+ measur$ at ea* /age4 ,! figures are 9 #aj1jjj?s ( an in*1 & indicate ! *ange or - ) ref]5ce to ! orig9al effective diamet] ( ! gages4 ,! results = ! two gages h be5 av]ag$4 ,,table #bd4--;,,*anges ,,due ,,to ,,qu5*+ ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,aft] ,temp]+ temp]ature1 degrees ,c5tigrade ,?read qu5*+----------------------------------- ------ #bbj #bfj #cjj #cdj #chj #dbj ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #a #be #ai #ag #ae #ac #aa #aa #b #ah #ab #aa #i #f #e #e #c #ab #f #e #c #j #j #j #d #aj #d #d #b 444 #j - #a #e #i #d #d #b #j #j #j #f #i #d #c #b #j #j #j #g #aj #e #e #c #b #a #b #h #h #d #c #b #j #j #a #i #i #d #c #b #a #a #a #aj #i #e #e #c #b #b #b #aa #g #d #d #b #a #a #a #ab #i #e #e #e #d #d #c ,scl]oscope #hj #gj #gj #fb #ef #ec #eb ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,_h ^! gages be5 =m$ ) a pla9 cyl9drical end project+ 9 front ( ! screw1 ! fir/ two ?reads w\ld h be5 prev5t$ f increas+ m ?an ! re/4 ,! gages w\ld !n h be5 fairly easily correct$ by lapp+ aft] temp]+ at #bbj;,c4 ,practically no lapp+ w\ld be requir$ if !y 7 temp]$ at #cdj;,c4 ,!re seems to be no advantage 9 go+ to a high] temp]ature ?an ?is4 ,! same degree ( h>dness c\ld h be5 obta9$ ) consid]ably less di/ortion by qu5*+ directly 9 fus$ salt4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t :5 ! swell+ aft] wat] qu5*+ does n exce$ #j4jjab 941 practically ! :ole ( x may be recov]$ by temp]+ at a suffici5tly high temp]ature1 b :5 ! swell+ exce$s ?is am\nt ! /eel assumes a p]man5tly /ra9$ condition1 & at ! mo/ only #j4jjad 94 c be recov]$ by temp]+4 ,,temp]+ ,,colors ,,on ,,c>bon ,,/eels ,op9ions diff] z to ! temp]ature :i* is indicat$ by ! v>i\s colors1 or oxides1 :i* appe> on /eel 9 temp]+4 ,! figures %[n are f five diff]5t s\rces & :ile ! v>iations are n great1 x is saf] to take ! av]age temp]ature %[n 9 ! la/ column4 ,,table #be4--;,,colors1 ,,temp]atures1 ,,degrees ,,fahr5heit ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,av]age ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,fa9t yell[ #dcj #dcj #dcj #dcj #dcj #dcj ,light /raw #dge #dfj #dej 444 #dej #deh ,d>k /raw #ejj #ejj #dgj #dej #dgj #dgh ,purple 7r$di%7 #ebe #ecj #ebj #ecj #eaj #ebc ,purple 7blui%7 444 #eee #eej #eej #eej #eea ,blue #ege #ehe #efj #ehj #efj #egb ,gray blue 444 #fjj 444 #fjj #faj #fjc ,gre5i% blue 444 #fbe 444 444 #fcj #fbg ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,,table #bf4--;,,ano!r ,,color ,,table ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,degrees ,fahr5heit ,high temp]atures judg$ by color ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #dcj ,v pale yell[ #dfj ,/raw-yell[ #dhj ,d>k yell[ #ejj ,br[n-yell[ ,visible 9 full daylight #ebj ,br[n-purple #edj ,full purple #efj ,full blue #fjj ,v d>k blue _/ #geb ,r$ heat1 visible 9 ! d>k #hhe ,r$ heat1 visible 9 ! twilight #ige ,r$ heat1 visible 9 ! daylight #a1bib ,d>k r$ #a1feb ,*]ry-r$ #a1hcb ,bright *]ry-r$ #b1jab ,orange-r$ #b1aib ,orange-yell[ #b1cgb ,yell[-:ite #b1eeb ,:ite weld+ heat #b1gcb ,brilliant :ite #b1iab ,dazzl+ :ite 7blui%-:ite7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,^! diff]5ces might easily be due to ! diff]5ce 9 ! light at ! "t ! colors 7 obs]v$4 ,x mu/ also be rememb]$ t ev5 a ?9 coat+ ( oil w make q a diff]5ce & cause confusion4 ,x is ^! possible s\rces ( error1 c\pl$ ) ! ev] pres5t *ance ( human error1 t makes x advisable to draw ! temp] ( tools 9 an oil ba? heat$ to ! prop] temp]ature z %[n by an accurate high-temp]ature !rmomet]4 ,ano!r table1 by ,gilb]t & ,b>k]1 runs to mu* high] temp]atures4 ,beyond #b1bjj1 h[ev]1 ! eye is v unc]ta94 ,,table #bf4--;,,colors ,,= ,,temp]+ ,,tools ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,approximate color & ,k9d ( tool temp]ature ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,yell[ ,?read *as]s1 holl[ mills 7solid type7 twi/ drills #dcj to #dej;,f4 c5t]+ tools1 =m+ tools1 cut-(f tools1 pr(ile cutt]s1 mill+ cutt]s1 ream]s1 dies1 etc4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,/raw-yell[ ,?read roll+ dies1 c\nt]bores1 c\nt]s9ks4 ,%e> #dfj;,f4 blades1 bor+ tools1 engrav+ tools1 etc4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,br[n-yell[ ,taps1 ,?read dies1 cutt]s1 ream]s1 etc4 #ejj;,f4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,light purple ,taps1 dies1 rock drills1 knives1 pun*es1 gages1 etc4 #ecj;,f4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,d>k purple ,circul> saws = metal1 aug]s1 d5tal & surgical #eej;,f4 in/rum5ts1 cold *isels1 axes4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,pale blue ,bone saws1 *isels1 ne$les1 cutt]s1 etc4 #ehj;,f4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,blue ,hack saws1 wood saws1 spr+s1 etc4 #fjj;,f4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,,*apt] ,x ,,high-,,spe$ ,,/eel ,= c5turies ! secret art ( mak+ tool /eel 0 h&$ d[n f fa!r to son4 ,! manufacture ( tool /eel is /ill an art :i*1 by ! aid ( sci5ce1 has lo/ mu* ( its secrecy2 yet tool /eel is today made by practical m5 skill$ z melt]s1 hamm]-m51 & roll]s1 ea* kn[+ 8 art4 ,^! practical m5 will+ly accept guidance f ! *emi/ & metallurgi/s4 ,a k ( conditions exi/+ today 9 ! manufacture ( high-spe$ /eel is ess5tial to /eel treat]s4 ,x is well = ! manufactur] to h /eel treat]s und]/& "s ( 8 tr\bles & difficulties1 s t !y w bett] compreh5d ! necessity ( c]ta9 trade cu/oms & practices1 &1 realiz+ ! manufactur]'s desire to coop]ate ) !m1 w reciprocate4 ,! manufactur] ( high-spe$ /eel kn[s & appreciates ! tr\bles & difficulties t may sometimes arise 9 ! heat-treat+ ( 8 product4 ,8 aim is to make a uni=m /eel t w be/ meet ! requirem5ts ( ! av]age ma*9e %op on g5]al "w1 & at ! same "t all[ ! wide/ v>iation 9 heat treatm5t to give desir$ results4 ,high spe$ /eel is "o ( ! mo/ complex alloys kn[n4 ,a repres5tative /eel conta9s approximately #bd p] c5t ( alloy+ metals1 namely1 tung/51 *romium1 vanadium1 silicon1 manganese1 & 9 addition !re is (t5 f\nd cobalt1 molybd5um1 uranium1 nickel1 t91 copp] & ars5ic4 ,,/&>d ,,analysis ,! selection ( a /&>d analysis by ! manufactur] is ! result ( a s]ies ( compromises betwe5 v>i\s prop]ties imp>t$ to ! /eel by ! addition ( diff]5t elem5ts & !re is a wide range ( *emical analyses ( v>i\s br&s4 ,! /eel1 to be )9 ! range ( g5]ally accept$ analysis1 %\ld conta9 ov] #af p] c5t & "u #bj p] c5t tung/52 if ( l[] tung/5 cont5t x %\ld c>ry proportionately m *romium & vanadium4 ,! comb9$ action ( tung/5 & *romium 9 /eel gives to x ! rem>kable prop]ty ( ma9ta9+ its cutt+ edge at relatively high temp]ature4 ,?is prop]ty is commonly spok5 ( z r$-h>dness4 ,! p]c5tages ( tung/5 & *romium pres5t %\ld be> a def9ite relation%ip to ea* o!r4 ,*romium imp>ts to /eel a h>d5+ prop]ty simil> to t giv5 by c>bon1 al?\gh to a less degree4 ,! h>dness imp>t$ to /eel by *romium is accompani$ by brittl5ess4 ,! *romium cont5t %\ld be betwe5 #c4e & #e p] c5t4 ,vanadium 0 fir/ introduc$ 9 high-spe$ /eel z a scav5g]1 !reby produc+ a m homog5e\s product1 ( great] d5sity & physical /r5g?4 ,x soon became evid5t t vanadium us$ 9 l>g] quantities ?an necess>y z a scav5g] imp>t$ to ! /eel a mu* great] cutt+ effici5cy4 ,rec5tly1 no less an au?ority ?an ,pr(4 ,j4 ,o4 ,arnold1 ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,%effield1 ,engl&1 /at$ t high-spe$ /eels conta9+ vanadium h a mean effici5cy ( #ajh4i1 z aga9/ a mean effici5cy ( #fa4i obta9$ f ^? )\t vanadium cont5t4 ,a wide range ( vanadium cont5t 9 /eel1 f #j4e to #a4e p] c5t1 is p]missible4 ,an ideal analysis = high-spe$ /eel conta9+ #ah p] c5t tung/5 is a *romium cont5t ( approximately #c4he p] c5t2 vanadium1 #j4he to #a4aj p] c5t1 & c>bon1 betwe5 #j4fb & #j4gg p] c5t4 ,,detrim5tal ,,elem5ts4--,sulphur & phosphorus are two elem5ts kn[n to be detrim5tal to all /eels4 ,sulphur causes r$-%ortness & phosphorus causes cold-%ortness4 ,! detrim5tal effects ( ^! two elem5ts c\nt]act ea* o!r to "s ext5t b ! cont5t %\ld be n ov] #j4jb sulphur & #j4jbe phosphorus4 ,! s]i\s detrim5tal effect ( small quantities ( sulphur & phosphorus is due to _! n be+ uni=mly di/ribut$1 ow+ to _! t5d5cy to segregate4 ,! manganese & silicon cont5ts are relatively unimportant 9 ! p]c5tages usually f\nd 9 high-spe$ /eel4 ,! detrim5tal effects ( t91 copp] & ars5ic are n g5]ally realiz$ by ! trade4 ,small quantities ( ^! impurities are exce$+ly h>mful4 ,^! elem5ts are v seldom det]m9$ 9 cu/om]s' *emical laboratories & x is some:at difficult = public *emi/s to analyze = !m4 ,9 ju/ice to ! manufactur]1 att5tion %\ld be call$ to ! v>iations 9 *emical analyses among ! be/ ( laboratories4 ,g5]ally speak+1 a /eel works' laboratory w obta9 results m ne>ly true & accurate ?an is possible ) a cu/om]'s laboratory1 or by a public *emi/4 ,?is c reasonably be expect$1 = ! /eel works' *emi/ is a speciali/1 analyz+ ! same mat]ial = ! same elem5ts day 9 & day out4 ,! importance ( ! *emical laboratory to a tool-/eel plant _c be ov]-e/imat$4 ,e heat ( /eel is analyz$ = ea* elem5t1 & *eck analyses obta9$2 also1 e sub/ance us$ 9 ! mix is analyz$ = all impurities4 ,! importance ( us+ pure base mat]ials is kn[n to all manufactur]s despite *emical evid5ce t c]ta9 detrim5tal elem5ts are remov$ 9 ! process ( manufacture4 ,! manufacture ( high-spe$ /eel repres5ts ! highe/ art 9 ! mak+ ( /eel by tool-/eel practice4 ,"s may say1 on acc\nt ( our increas$ k ( *emi/ry & metallurgy1 t ! mak+ ( su* /eel has ceas$ to be an art1 b has become a sci5ce4 ,x is1 9 fact an art2 aid$ by sci5ce4 ,! human elem5t 9 its manufacture is a decid$ factor1 z w be br\ght 9 ! foll[+ rem>ks3 ,! heat treatm5t ( /eel 9 its broad aspect may be said to comm5ce ) ! melt+ furnace & end ) ! h>d5+ & temp]+ ( ! f9i%$ product4 ,high-spe$ /eel is melt$ by two g5]al types ( furnace1 kn[n z crucible & electric4 ,/eel treat]s1 h[ev]1 are m vitally int]e/$ 9 ! *anges t take place 9 ! /eel dur+ ! v>i\s processes ( manufacture r ?an a detail$ description ( ^? processes1 :i* are m or less famili> to all4 ,9 ord] t good high-spe$ /eel may be furni%$ 9 f9i%$ b>s1 x mu/ be ( correct *emical analysis1 prop]ly melt$ & ca/ into solid +ots1 free f bl[-holes & surface defects4 ,sudd5 *anges ( temp]ature are to be gu>d$ aga9/ at e /age ( its manufacture & subsequ5t treatm5t4 ,! +ots are relatively weak1 & ! t5d5cy to crack due to cool+ /ra9s is great4 ,= ?is reason ! hot +ots are n all[$ to cool quickly1 b are plac$ 9 furnaces :i* are ( ab\t ! same temp]ature & are all[$ to cool gradually be=e be+ plac$ 9 /ock4 ,good /eel c be made only f good +ots4 ,/eel treat]s %\ld be m vitally int]e/$ 9 ! important *anges :i* take place 9 high-spe$ /eel dur+ ! hamm]+ op]ations ?an t ( any o!r work+ ! /eel receives 9 ! c\rse ( its manufacture4 ,,quality ,,& ,,/ructure ,! quality ( high-spe$ /eel is dep5d5t to a v great ext5t ^u its /ructure4 ,! mak+ ( ! /ructure beg9s "u ! hamm]1 & ! b5eficial effects produc$ 9 ?is /age p]si/ ?r\gh ! subsequ5t op]ations1 provid$ !y are prop]ly c>ri$ out4 ,! massive c>bides & tung/ides pres5t 9 ! +ot are brok5 d[n & uni=mly di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! billet4 ,to accompli% ?is ! r$uction 9 area mu/ be suffici5t & ! hamm] bl[s %\ld be heavy1 s z to c>ry ! compression into ! c5t] ( ! billet2 o!rwise1 undesirable *>act]i/ics su* z co>se /ructure & c>bide envelopes w exi/ & cause ! /eel treat] mu* tr\ble4 ,surface defects invisible 9 ! +ot may be op5$ up "u ! hamm]+ op]ation1 9 :i* ev5t !y are *ipp$ f ! hot billet4 ,+ots are fir/ hamm]$ into billets4 ,^! billets are c>efully inspect$ & all surface defects gr\nd or *ipp$4 ,! hamm]$ billets are aga9 sl[ly heat$ & receive a second hamm]+1 kn[n z cogg+4 ,! billet result+ !refrom is kn[n z a cogg$ billet & is ( ! prop] size = ! roll+ mill or = ! f9i%+ hamm]4 ,al?\gh x is n consid]$ good mill practice1 "s manufactur]s :o h a l>ge roll+ mill p]=m ! v important cogg+ op]ation 9 ! roll+ mill in/ead ( "u ! hamm]4 ,cogg+ 9 a roll+ mill does n break up & di/ribute ! c>bides & tung/ides z effici5tly z cogg+ "u ! hamm]2 ano!r objection to cogg+ 9 ! roll+ mill is t !re is no opportunity to *ip surface defects develop$ z !y c be "u ! tra9$ eye ( a hamm]-man1 !reby elim9at+ su* defects 9 ! f9i%$ billet4 ,! roll+ ( high-spe$ /eel is an art kn[n to v few4 ,! v>i\s factors gov]n+ ! prop] roll+ are s num]\s t x is necess>y = ea* individual roll+ mill to "w out a practice t gives ! be/ results ^u ! p>ticul> analysis ( /eel x makes4 ,important elem5ts ent]+ into ! roll+ are ! heat+ & f9i%+ temp]atures1 draft1 & spe$ ( ! mill4 ,9 all ( ^! ! elem5t ( "t mu/ be consid]$4 ,high-spe$ /eel %\ld be deliv]$ f ! roll+ mill to ! anneal+ dep>tm5t free f scale1 = scale promotes ! =mation ( a dec>boniz$ surface4 ,9 prep>ation ( b>s = anneal+1 !y are pack$ 9 tubes ) a mixture ( *>coal1 lime1 & o!r mat]ial4 ,! tubes are seal$ & plac$ 9 ! anneal+ furnace & ! temp]ature is gradually rais$ to ab\t #a1fej;,f41 & held !re = a suffici5t l5g? ( "t1 dep5d+ ^u ! size ( ! b>s4 ,aft] v sl[ cool+ ! b>s are remov$ f ! tubes4 ,!y %\ld !n %[ a ,br9nell numb] ( betwe5 #bce & #bge4 ,! inspection dep>tm5t ranks ) ! *emical & metallurgical dep>tm5ts 9 safegu>d+ ! quality ( ! product4 ,x inspects all f9i%$ mat]ial f ! /&po9t ( surface defects1 h>dness1 size & fracture4 ,x rejects su* /eel z is judg$ n to meet ! manufactur]'s /&>d4 ,! inspection & metallurgical dep>tm5ts "w h& 9 h&1 & if any dep>tm5t is n function+ prop]ly x w soon become evid5t to ! inspectors1 enabl+ ! managem5t to rem$y ! tr\ble4 ,! successful manufacture ( high-spe$ /eel c only be obta9$ by ^? companies :o h become speciali/s4 ,! art & skill necess>y 9 ! successful work+ ( su* /eel c be atta9$ only by a man ( natural ability 9 8 *os5 trade1 & tra9$ "u ! sup]vision ( exp]ts4 ,to become an exp]t op]ator 9 any dep>tm5t ( its manufacture1 x is necess>y t ! op]ator "w almo/ exclusively 9 ! production ( su* /eel4 ,z to ! heat treatm5t1 x is cu/om>y = ! manufactur] to recomm5d to ! us] a proc$ure t w give to 8 /eel a high degree ( cutt+ effici5cy4 ,! recomm5dations ( ! manufactur] %\ld be cons]vative1 embrac+ fairly wide limits1 z ! t5d5cy ( ! us] is to adh]e v closely to ! manufactur]'s recomm5dations4 ,unless "o ( ! manufactur]'s exp]t s]vice m5 has made a detail$ /udy ( ! cu/om]'s problem1 ! manufactur] is n ju/ifi$ 9 lay+ d[n set rules1 = if ! cu/om] does a little exp]im5t+ he c probably modify ! practice s z to produce results t are p>ticul>ly well adapt$ to 8 l9e ( "w4 ,! purpose ( heat-treat+ is to produce a tool t w cut s z to give maximum productive effici5cy4 ,?is cutt+ effici5cy dep5ds ^u ! !rmal /ability ( ! complex h>d5ites exi/+ 9 ! h>d5$ & temp]$ /eel4 ,! writ] f9ds x extremely difficult to convey ! mean+ ( ! ^w h>d5ite to ^? t d n h a cle> conception ( ! t]m4 ,! complex h>d5ites 9 high-spe$ /eel may be describ$ z t =m ( solid solution :i* gives to x its cutt+ effici5cy4 ,! complex h>d5ites are produc$ by heat+ ! /eel to a v high temp]ature1 ne> ! melt+ po9t1 :i* ?r[s into solution c>bides & tung/ides1 provid$ !y h be5 prop]ly brok5 up 9 ! hamm]+ process & uni=mly di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! /eel4 ,by qu5*+ ! /eel at correct temp]ature ?is solid solution is reta9$ at atmosph]ic temp]ature4 ,x is n ! int5tion to make any def9ite recomm5dations z to heat-treat+ ( high-spe$ /eel by ! us]s4 ,x is recogniz$ t su* /eel c be heat-treat$ to give satisfactory results by diff]5t me?ods4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 believ$ t ! ,am]ican practice ( h>d5+ & temp]+ is becom+ m uni=m4 ,?is is due l>gely to ! ex*ange ( op9ions 9 meet+s & else:]e4 ,! tr5d ( ,am]ican practice = h>d5+ is t[>d ! foll[+3 ,fir/1 sl[ly & c>efully preheat ! tool to a temp]ature ( approximately #a1ejj;,f41 tak+ c>e to prev5t ! =mation ( excessive scale4 ,second1 transf] to a furnace1 ! temp]ature ( :i* is approximately #b1bej to #b1djj;,f41 & all[ to rema9 9 ! furnace until ! tool is heat$ uni=mly to ! above temp]ature4 ,?ird1 cool rapidly 9 oil1 dry air bla/1 or lead ba?4 ,f\r?1 draw back to a temp]ature to meet ! physical requirem5ts ( ! tool1 & all[ to cool 9 air4 ,x 0 n v long ago t ! desirability ( draw+ h>d5$ high-spe$ /eel to a temp]ature ( #a1ajj 0 po9t$ out1 & x is inde$ enc\rag+ to le>n t comp>atively few treat]s h fail$ to make use ( ?is fact4 ,_m treat]s at fir/ cont5d$ t ! /eel w\ld be s(t aft] draw+ to ?is temp]ature & x is only rec5tly1 s9ce num]\s actual te/s h demon/rat$ its value1 t ! old prejudice has be5 elim9at$4 ,high-spe$ /eel %\ld be deliv]$ only 9 ! anneal$ condition because anneal+ relieves ! int]nal /ra9s inevitable 9 ! manufacture & puts x 9 va/ly improv$ physical condition4 ,! manufactur]'s inspection aft] anneal+ also discloses defects n visible 9 ! unanneal$ /ate4 ,! only true te/ = a br& ( high-spe$ /eel is ! s]vice t x gives by cont9u$ p]=mance mon? 9 & mon? out "u actual %op conditions4 ,! av]age buy] is n ju/ifi$ 9 conduct+ a te/1 b c well cont9ue to pur*ase 8 requirem5ts f a reputable manufactur] ( a br& t is nationally kn[n4 ,! manufactur] is always will+ to coop]ate ) ! trade 9 ! conduct+ ( a te/ & is mu* int]e/$ 9 ! in=mation receiv$ f a well conduct$ te/4 ,a te/1 to be valuable1 %\ld be conduct$ 9 a mann] z ne>ly approa*+ actual work+ conditions 9 ! plant 9 :i* ! te/ is made z is practical4 ,9 conduct+ a te/ a few reputable br&s %\ld be all[$ to ent]4 ,all tools ent]$ %\ld be ( exactly ! same size & %ape4 ,!re is mu* diff]5ce ( op9ion z to ! be/ practical me?od ( conduct+ a te/1 & ! decision z to h[ ! te/ %\ld be conduct$ %\ld be left to ! cu/om]1 :o %\ld coop]ate ) ! manufactur]s 9 devis+ a te/ :i* w\ld give ! be/ basis = conclusions z to h[ ! p>ticul> br&s w\ld p]=m "u actual %op conditions4 ,! value ( ! file te/ dep5ds ^u ! quality ( ! file & ! intellig5ce & exp]i5ce ( ! p]son us+ x4 ,! file te/ is n reliable1 b 9 ! h&s ( an exp]i5c$ op]ator1 gives "s valuable in=mation4 ,almo/ e /eel treat] kn[s ( num]\s in/ances :]e a la! tool :i* c\ld be t\*$ ) a file has %[n wond]ful results z to cutt+ effici5cy4 ,mod]n tool-/eel practice has *ang$ f t ( ! pa/1 n by ! use ( labor-sav+ ma*9]y1 b by ! use ( sci5tific devices :i* aid & guide ! skill$ craftsman 9 produc+ a /eel ( high] quality & great] uni=mity4 ,x is ^u ! intellig5ce1 exp]i5ce1 & skill ( ! individual t quality ( tool /eel dep5ds4 ,,h>d5+ ,,high-,,spe$ ,,/eels ,we w n[ take up ! matt] ( h>d5+ high-spe$ /eels4 ,! mo/ ord9>y tools us$ are = la!s & plan]s4 ,! =g+ %\ld be done at c>bon-/eel heat4 ,r\gh-gr9d :ile /ill hot & preheat to ab\t c>bon-/eel h>d5+ heat1 !n heat quickly 9 high-spe$ furnace to :ite heat1 & qu5* 9 oil4 ,if a v h>d sub/ance is to be cut1 ! po9t ( tool may be qu5*$ 9 k]os5e or wat] & :5 ne>ly black1 f9i% cool+ 9 oil4 ,temp]+ mu/ be done to suit ! mat]ial to be cut4 ,= cutt+ ca/ iron1 brass ca/+s1 or h>d /eel1 temp]+ %\ld be done m]ely to take /ra9s out ( /eel4 ,on ord9>y ma*9]y /eel or nickel /eel ! temp] c be drawn to a d>k blue or up to #ijj;,f4 ,if ! tool is ( a special =m or "*1 ! risk ( melt+ or scal+ ! po9t _c be tak54 ,9 ^! cases ! tool %\ld be pack$1 b if !re is no pack+ equipm5t1 a tool c be heat$ to z high heat z is safe )\t risk to cutt+ edges1 & cyanide or prussiate ( pota% c be spr9kl$ ov] ! face & !n qu5*$ 9 oil4 ,"s v adv]se criticism may be he>d on ?is po9t1 b exp]i5ce has prov$ t su* tools w /& up v nicely & be p]fectly free f scales or pipes4 ,:]e pack+ _c be done1 mill+ cutt]s1 & tools to be h>d5$ all ov]1 c be plac$ 9 muffl$ furnace1 br\ght to #b1bbj & qu5*$ 9 oil4 ,all su* tools1 h[ev]1 mu/ be preheat$ sl[ly to #a1djj to #a1ejj !n plac$ 9 a high-spe$ furnace & br\ght up quickly4 ,d n soak high-spe$ /eel at high heats4 ,qu5* 9 oil4 ,we mu/ be> 9 m9d t ! heat+ furnace is likely to exp& tools1 !re=e provision mu/ be made to leave extra /ock to take c>e ( su* expansion4 ,tools ) %anks su* z c\nt] bores1 taps1 ream]s1 drills1 etc41 %\ld be heat$ no fur!r ?an !y are want$ h>d1 & qu5* 9 oil4 ,if a =ge is n at h& & heat+ mu/ be done1 use a muffle furnace & cov] small %anks ) a pa/e f fire clay or gr\nd asbe/os4 ,holl[ mills1 spr+ ?read+ dies1 & l>ge cutt+ tools ) small %anks %\ld h ! holes ?or\ghly pack$ or cov]$ ) asbe/os cem5t z f> z !y are want$ s(t4 ,,cutt+-,,(f ,,/eel ,,f ,,b> ,to cut a piece f an anneal$ b>1 cut (f ) a hack saw1 mill+ cutt] or circul> saw4 ,cut cle> ?r\gh ! b>2 d n nick or break4 ,to cut a piece f an unanneal$ b>1 cut "r (f ) an abrasive saw2 d n nick or break4 ,if ( l>ge cross-section1 cut (f hot ) a *isel by fir/ sl[ly & uni=mly heat+ ! b>1 at ! po9t to be cut1 to a good lemon heat1 #a1hjj to #a1hej;,f4 & cut "r (f :ile hot2 d n nick or break4 ,all[ ! tool l5g? & b> to cool be=e reheat+ = =g+4 ,,la! ,,& ,,plan] ,,tools ,,=g+4--,g5tly w>m ! /eel to remove any *ill1 is p>ticul>ly desirable 9 ! w9t]1 !n heat sl[ly & c>efully to a scal+ heat1 t is a lemon heat 7#a1hjj to #b1jjj;,f471 & =ge uni=mly4 ,reheat ! tool = fur!r =g+ directly ! /eel beg9s to /iff5 "u ! hamm]4 ,"u no circum/ances =ge ! /eel :5 ! temp]ature falls bel[ a d>k lemon to an orange color ab\t #a1gjj;,f4 ,reheat z (t5 z is necess>y to f9i% =g+ ! tool to %ape4 ,all[ ! tool to cool aft] =g+ by bury+ ! tool 9 dry a%es or lime4 ,d n place on ! damp gr\nd or 9 a draught ( air4 ,! heat+ = =g+ %\ld be done pref]ably 9 a pipe or muffle furnace b if ?is is n conv5i5t use a good clean fire ) pl5ty ( fuel betwe5 ! bla/ pipe & ! tool4 ,nev] all[ ! tool to soak aft] ! desir$ =g+ heat has be5 rea*$4 ,d n heat ! tool fur!r back ?an is necess>y to %ape ! tool1 b give ! tool suffici5t heat4 ,see t ! back ( ! tool is flatly dress$ to provide prop] support "u ! nose ( ! tool4 ,,h>d5+ ,,high-,,spe$ ,,/eel4--,sl[ly reheat ! cutt+ edge ( ! tool to a *]ry r$1 #a1djj;,f41 !n =ce ! bla/ s z to raise ! temp]ature quickly to a full :ite heat1 #b1bjj to #b1bej;,f41 t is1 until ! tool />ts to sweat at ! cutt+ face4 ,cool ! po9t ( ! tool 9 a dry air bla/ or pref]ably 9 oil1 fur!r cool 9 oil keep+ ! tool mov+ until ! tool has become black hot4 ,to remove h>d5+ /ra9s reheat ! tool to f #ejj to #a1ajj;,f4 ,cool 9 oil or atmosph]e4 ,?is second heat treatm5t adds to ! t\ghness ( ! tool & !re=e to its life4 ,,gr9d+ ,,tools4--,gr9d tools to remove all scale4 ,use a quick-cutt+1 dry1 abrasive :eel4 ,if us+ a wet :eel1 be sure to use pl5ty ( wat]4 ,d n "u any circum/ances =ce ! tool aga9/ ! :eel s z to draw ! color1 z ?is is likely to set up *ecks on ! surface ( ! tool to its detrim5t4 ,,= ,,mill+ ,,cutt]s ,,& ,,=m$ ,,tools ,,=g+4--,=ge z be=e4--,,anneal+4--,place ! /eel 9 a pipe1 box or muffle4 ,arrange ! /eel s z to all[ at lea/ #a 94 ( pack+1 consi/+ ( dry p[d] a%es1 p[d]$ *>coal1 mica1 etc41 betwe5 ! pieces & ! walls ( ! box or pipe4 ,if us+ a pipe close ! ends4 ,heat sl[ly & uni=mly to a *]ry r$1 #a1cge to #a1dej;,f4 accord+ to size4 ,hold ! /eel at ?is temp]ature until ! heat has ?or\ghly saturat$ ?r\gh ! metal1 !n all[ ! muffle box & tools to cool v sl[ly 9 a dy+ furnace or remove ! muffle ) its *>ge & bury 9 hot a%es or lime4 ,! sl[] ! cool+ ! s(t] ! /eel4 ,! heat+ requires f #b to #aj hr4 dep5d+ ^u ! size ( ! piece4 ,,h>d5+ ,,& ,,temp]+4--,x is pref]able to use two furnaces :5 h>d5+ mill+ cutt]s & special %ape tools4 ,"o furnace %\ld be ma9ta9$ at a uni=m temp]ature f #a1cge to #a1dej;,f4 :ile ! o!r %\ld be ma9ta9$ at ab\t #b1bej;,f4 ,keep ! tool to be h>d5$ 9 ! l[ temp]ature furnace until ! tool has atta9$ ! full heat ( ?is furnace4 ,a %ort "t %\ld be all[$ s z to be assur$ t ! c5t] ( ! tool is z hot z ! outside4 ,!n quickly remove ! tool f ?is preheat+ furnace to ! full heat furnace4 ,keep ! tool 9 ?is furnace only z long z is necess>y = ! tool to atta9 ! full temp]ature ( ?is furnace4 ,!n quickly remove & qu5* 9 oil or 9 a dry air bla/4 ,remove be=e ! tool is entirely cold & draw ! temp] 9 an oil ba? by rais+ ! temp]ature ( ! oil to f #ejj to #gej;,f4 & all[ ?is tool to rema91 at ?is temp]ature1 9 ! ba? = at lea/ #cj m941 insur+ uni=mity ( temp]2 !n cool 9 ! ba?1 atmosph]e or oil4 ,if high] draw+ temp]atures are desir$ ?an ^? possible ) oil1 a salt ba? c be us$4 ,a v excell5t ba? is made by mix+ two p>ts by weight ( crude potassium nitrate & ?ree p>ts crude sodium nitrate4 ,^! w melt at ab\t #dej;,f4 & c be us$ up to #a1jjj;,f4 ,be=e heat+ ! /eel 9 ! salt ba?1 sl[ly preheat1 pref]ably 9 oil4 ,reheat+ ! h>d5$ high-spe$ /eel to #a1jjj;,f4 w mat]ially increase ! life ( la! tools1 b mill+ & =m cutt]s1 taps1 dies1 etc41 %\ld n be reheat$ high] ?an #ejj to #fej;,f41 unless extreme h>dness is requir$1 :5 #a1ajj to #a1jjj;,f41 w give ! h>de/ edge4 ,,in/ructions ,,= ,,work+ ,,high-,,spe$ ,,/eel ,ow+ to ! wide v>iations 9 ! composition ( high-spe$ /eels by v>i\s mak]s1 x is always advisable to foll[ ! directions ( ea* :5 us+ 8 br& ( /eel4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( specific directions ! foll[+ g5]al sugge/ions f sev]al mak]s w be f\nd helpful4 ,! ,ludlum ,/eel ,company recomm5d ! foll[+3 ,,cutt+-,,(f4--,to cut a piece f an anneal$ b>1 cut (f ) a hack saw1 mill+ cutt] or circul> saw4 ,cut cle> ?r\gh ! b>2 d n nick or break4 ,to cut a piece f an unanneal$ b>1 cut "r (f ) an abrasive saw2 d n nick or break4 ,if ( l>ge cross-section1 cut (f hot ) a *isel by fir/ sl[ly & uni=mly heat+ ! b>1 at ! po9t to be cut1 to a good lemon heat1 #a1hjj-a1hej;,f4 & cut "r (f :ile hot2 d n nick or break4 ,all[ ! tool l5g? & b> to cool be=e reheat+ = =g+4 ,,la! ,,& ,,plan] ,,tools ,,to ,,=ge4--,g5tly w>m ! /eel to remove any *ill is p>ticul>ly desirable 9 ! w9t]4 ,!n heat sl[ly & c>efully to a scal+ heat1 t is a lemon heat 7#a1hjj-b1jjj;,f471 & =ge uni=mly4 ,reheat ! tool = fur!r =g+ directly ! /eel beg9s to /iff5 "u ! hamm]4 ,"u no circum/ances =ge ! /eel :5 ! temp]ature falls bel[ a d>k lemon to an orange color3 ab\t #a1gjj;,f4 ,reheat z (t5 z is necess>y to f9i% =g+ ! tool to %ape4 ,all[ ! tool to cool aft] =g+ by bury+ ! tool 9 dry a%es or lime4 ,d n place on ! damp gr\nd or 9 a draught ( air4 ,! heat+ = =g+ %\ld be done pref]ably 9 a pipe or muffle furnace1 b if ?is is n conv5i5t use a good clean fire ) pl5ty ( fuel betwe5 ! bla/ pipe & ! tool4 ,nev] all[ ! tool to soak aft] ! desir$ =g+ heat has be5 rea*$4 ,d n heat ! tool fur!r back ?an is necess>y to %ape ! tool1 b give ! tool suffici5t heat4 ,see t ! back ( ! tool is flatly dress$ to provide prop] support "u ! nose ( ! tool4 ,,h>d5+4--,sl[ly reheat ! cutt+ edge ( ! tool to a *]ry r$1 #a1djj;,f41 !n =ce ! bla/ s z to raise ! temp]ature quickly to a full :ite heat1 #b1bjj-b1bej;,f41 t is1 until ! tool />ts to sweat at ! cutt+ face4 ,cool ! po9t ( ! tool 9 a dry air bla/ or pref]ably 9 oil2 fur!r cool 9 oil1 keep+ ! tool mov+ until ! tool has become black hot4 ,to remove h>d5+ /ra9s reheat ! tool to f #ejj to #a1ajj;,f4 ,cool 9 oil or atmosph]e4 ,?is second heat treatm5t adds to ! t\ghness ( ! tool & !re=e to its life4 ,,gr9d+4--,gr9d tools to remove all scale4 ,use a quick cutt+1 dry1 abrasive :eel4 ,if us+ a wet :eel1 be sure to use pl5ty ( wat]4 ,d n "u any circum/ances =ce ! tool aga9/ ! :eel s z to draw ! color1 z ?is is likely to set up *ecks on ! surface ( ! tool to its detrim5t4 ,! ,fir?-,/]l+ ,/eel ,company say3 ,,in/ead ,,( ,,pr9t+ ,,any ,,rules ,,on ,,! ,,h>d5+ ,,& ,,temp]+ ,,( ,,fir?-,,/]l+ ,,/eels ,,we ,,wi% ,,to ,,say ,,to ,,our ,,cu/om]s3 ,,tru/ ,,! ,,/eel ,,to ,,! ,,skill ,,& ,,! ,,judgem5t ,,( ,,y\r ,,toolsmi? ,,& ,,tool ,,temp]]4 ,! /eel work]s ( today "k by p]sonal exp]i5ce & by inh]itance all ! /&>d rules & !ories on =g+1 h>d5+ & temp]+ ( all f9e tool /eels4 ,!y "k ! importance ( sl[1 uni=m heat+1 & ! dang] ( ov]heat+ "s /eels1 & und]heat+ o!rs4 ,! temp]+ ( tools & dies is a sci5ce taught by heat1 muscle & bra9s4 ,! tool temp]] is ! man to hold responsible = results4 ,! temp]+ ( tools has be5 8 life "w4 ,he may f9d sugge/ions on ! foll[+ pages int]e/+1 b we are always ready to tru/ ! treatm5t ( our /eels to ! exp]i5c$ man at ! fire4 ,,heat ,,treatm5t ,,( ,,la!1 ,,plan] ,,& ,,simil> ,,tools ,,fire4--,= ^! tools a good fire is "o made ( h>d f\ndry coke1 brok5 9 small pieces1 9 an ord9>y blacksmi? =ge ) a few bricks laid ov] ! top to =m a holl[ fire4 ,! bricks %\ld be ?or\ghly heat$ be=e tools are heat$4 ,h>d coal may be us$ v successfully 9 place ( h>d coke & w give a high] heat4 ,x is v easy to give ,blue ,*ip ! prop] heat if c>e is us$ 9 mak+ up ! fire4 ,,=g+4--,heat sl[ly & uni=mly to a good =g+ heat4 ,d n hamm] ! /eel aft] x cools bel[ a bright r$4 ,avoid z mu* z possible heat+ ! body ( ! tool1 s z to reta9 ! natural t\ghness 9 ! neck ( ! tool4 ,,h>d5+4--,heat ! po9t ( ! tool to an extreme :ite heat 7ab\t #b1bjj;,f47 until ! flux runs4 ,?is heat %\ld be ! highe/ possible %ort ( melt+ ! po9t4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 to conf9e ! heat z ne> to ! po9t z possible s z to leave ! anneal+ & consequ5t t\ghness 9 ! neck ( ! tool & :]e ! tool is held 9 ! tool po/4 ,,cool 9 an air bla/1 ! op5 air or 9 oil1 dep5d+ ^u ! tools or ! "w !y are to d4 ,= r\gh+ tools temp] ne$ n be drawn except = "w :]e ! edge t5ds to crumble on acc\nt ( be+ too h>d4 ,= f9i%+ tools draw ! temp] to suit ! purpose = :i* !y are to be us$4 ,,gr9d ?or\ghly on dry :eel 7or wet :eel if c>e is us$ to prev5t *eck+74 ,,heat ,,treatm5t ,,( ,,mill+ ,,cutt]s1 ,,drills1 ,,ream]s1 ,,etc4 ,,! ,,fire4--,gas & electric furnaces design$ = high heats are n[ made = treat+ high-spe$ /eels4 ,we recomm5d !m = treat+ all k9ds ( ,blue ,*ip tools & p>ticul>ly ! above class4 ,aft] tools rea* a yell[ heat 9 ! =ge fire !y mu/ n be all[$ to t\* ! fuel or come 9 contact ) ! bla/ or surr\nd+ air4 ,,heat+4--,tools ( ?is k9d %\ld be heat$ to a mell[ :ite heat1 or z hot z possible )\t injur+ ! cutt+ edges 7#b1jjj to #b1bjj;,f474 ,= mo/ "w ! high] ! heat ! bett] ! tool4 ,:]e furnaces are us$1 we recomm5d preheat+ ! tools to a r$ heat 9 "o furnace be=e putt+ !m 9 a :ite hot furnace4 ,,cool+4--,we recomm5d qu5*+ all ( ! above tools 9 oil :5 tak5 f ! fire4 ,we h f\nd fi% oil1 cottonse$ oil1 ,h\ghton's ,no4 #b soluble oil & l9se$ oil satisfactory4 ,! high heat is ! important ?+ 9 h>d5+ ,blue ,*ip tools4 ,if a :ite hot tool is all[$ to cool 9 ! op5 air x w be h>d1 b ! air scales ! tool4 ,,draw+ ,,! ,,temp]4--,tools ( ?is class %\ld be drawn consid]ably m ?an wat]-h>d5+ /eel = ! same purpose4 ,,heat ,,treatm5t ,,( ,,pun*es ,,& ,,dies1 ,,%e>s1 ,,taps1 ,,etc4 ,,heat+4--,! degree to :i* tools ( ! above classes %\ld be heat$ dep5ds ^u ! %ape1 size & use = :i* !y are int5d$4 ,g5]ally1 !y %\ld n be heat$ to q z high a heat z la! tools or mill+ cutt]s4 ,!y %\ld h a high heat1 b n en\gh to make ! flux run on ! /eel 7by pyromet] #a1ijj to #b1ajj;,f474 ,,cool+4--,dep5d+ on ! tools1 "s %\ld be dipp$ 9 oil all ov]1 "s only "p way1 & o!rs all[$ to cool d[n 9 ! air naturally1 or "u air bla/4 ,9 cool+1 ! t\ghness is reta9$ by all[+ "s p>ts to cool sl[ly & qu5*+ p>ts t %\ld be h>d4 ,,draw+ ,,! ,,temp]4--,z 9 cool+1 "s p>ts ( ^! tools w require m draw+ ?an o!rs1 b1 on ! :ole1 !y mu/ be drawn m ?an wat] h>d5+ tools = ! same purpose or to ab\t #ejj;,f4 all ov]1 s t a good file w j t\* ! cutt+ or work+ p>ts4 ,,b>ium ,,*loride ,,process4--,?is is a process develop$ = treat+ c]ta9 classes ( tools1 su* z taps1 =m+ tools1 etc4 ,x is be+ successfully us$ 9 _m l>ge plants4 ,briefly ! treatm5t is z foll[s3 ,9 ?is treatm5t ! tools are fir/ preheat$ to a r$ heat1 b small tools may be imm]s$ )\t preheat+4 ,! b>ium *loride ba? is kept at a temp]ature ( f #b1jjj to #b1ajj;,f41 & tools are held 9 x long en\gh to rea* ! same temp]ature4 ,!y are !n dipp$ 9 oil4 ,! b>ium *loride :i* adh]es to ! tools is bru%$ (f1 leav+ ! tools z dean z be=e heat+4 ,a ,,*romium-,,cobalt ,,/eel ,! ,latrobe ,/eel ,company make a high-spe$ /eel )\t tung/51 its r$-h>dness prop]ties dep5d+ on *romium & cobalt in/ead ( tung/54 ,x is kn[n z ,p4 ,r4 ,k-#cc /eel4 ,x does n require ! high temp]ature ( ! tung/5 /eels1 h>d5+ at #a1hcj to #a1hej;,f4 in/ead ( #b1bjj or ev5 high]1 z ) ! tung/54 ,?is /eel is =g$ at #a1ijj to #b1jjj;,f4 & mu/ n be work$ at a l[] temp]ature ?an #a1fjj;,f4 ,x requires soak+ 9 ! fire m ?an ! tung/5 /eels4 ,x c be normaliz$ by heat+ sl[ly & ?or\ghly to #a1dge;,f41 hold+ ?is = f #aj to #bj m94 accord+ to ! size ( ! piece & cool+ 9 ! op5 air1 protect$ f drafts4 ,a peculi>ity ( ?is /eel is t x becomes non-magnetic at or above #a1ifj;,f4 & ! magnetic quality is n re/or$ by cool+4 ,normaliz+ z above1 h[ev]1 re/ores ! magnetic qualities4 ,?is enables ! us] to detect any tools :i* h be5 ov]heat$1 ) a horse%oe magnet4 ,x is sometimes advantage\s to dip tools1 be=e heat+ = h>d5+1 9 ord9>y fuel or qu5*+ oil4 ,! oil leaves a ?9 film ( c>bon :i* t5ds to prev5t dec>bonization1 giv+ a v h>d surface4 ,= o!r makes ( high-spe$ /eel us$ 9 la! & plan] tools ! mak]s recomm5d t ! tools be cut f ! b> ) a hack saw or else heat$ & cut ) a *isel4 ,! heat+ %\ld be v sl[ until ! /eel rea*es a r$ aft] :i* x c be heat$ m rapidly & %\ld only be =g$ at a high heat4 ,x c be =g$ at v high heats b c>e %\ld be tak5 n to =ge at a l[ heat4 ,! heat+ %\ld be uni=m & p5etrate cle> to ! c5t] ( ! b> be=e =g+ is begun4 ,reheat z (t5 z necess>y to =ge at ! prop] heat4 ,aft] =g+ cool 9 lime be=e attempt+ to h>d54 ,d n attempt to h>d5 ) ! =g+ heat z 0 sometimes done ) ! c>bon tools4 ,= h>d5+ =g$ tools1 heat sl[ly up to a bright r$ & !n rapidly until ! po9t ( ! tool is almo/ at a melt+ heat4 ,cool 9 a bla/ ( cold1 dry air4 ,= l>ge sizes ( /eel1 cool 9 l9se$ oil or 9 fi% oil z is mo/ conv5i5t4 ,if ! tools are to be us$ = f9i%+ cuts heat to a bright yell[ & qu5* 9 oil4 ,gr9d = use on a s& :eel or gr9d/one 9 pref]5ce to an em]y or an artificial abrasive :eel4 ,= h>d5+ mill+ & simil> cutt]s1 preheat to a bright r$1 place ! cutt] on a r\nd b> ( suitable size1 & revolve x quickly ov] a v hot fire4 ,heat z high z possible )\t melt+ ! po9ts ( ! tee? & cool 9 a cold bla/ ( dry air or 9 fi% oil4 ,light fragile cutt]s1 twi/ drills1 taps & =m$ cutt]s may be heat$ almo/ :ite & !n dipp$ 9 fi% oil = h>d5+4 ,:]e possible x is bett] to give an ev5 high] heat & cool 9 ! bla/ ( cold1 dry air z previ\sly recomm5d$4 ,,sugge/ions ,,= ,,h&l+ ,,high-,,spe$ ,,/eels ,! foll[+ sugge/ions = h&l+ high-spe$ /eels are giv5 by a mak] ^: /eel is probably typical ( a numb] ( diff]5t makes1 s t !y w be f\nd useful 9 o!r cases z well4 ,^! include h9ts z to =g+ z well z h>d5+1 toge!r ) a li/ ( dont's :i* are (t5 v useful4 ,?is applies to =g+1 h>d5+ ( la!1 slott+1 plan+ & all simil> tools4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--;,all-/eel1 #e_/h 94 squ>e1 #a_/b ,x #a 941 & l>g] is usually mild f9i%$1 & c be cut 9 a hack saw4 ,if cut (f hot1 be sure to heat ! butt end sl[ly & ?or\ghly 9 a clean fire4 ,rapid & insuffici5t heat+ inv>iably cracks ! /eel4 ,if y want to /amp ! end ) ! "n ( ! /eel1 x is necess>y t ?is is done at a good high orange color heat1 z x is o!rwise apt to split ! /eel4 7,take y\r "t1 d n hurry47 ,,h>d5+ ,,high-,,spe$ ,,/eel ,9 =g+ use coke = fuel 9 ! =ge4 ,heat /eel sl[ly & ?or\ghly to a lemon heat4 ,d n =ge at a l[] heat4 ,d n let ! /eel cool bel[ a bright *]ry r$ :ile =g+4 ,aft] ! tool is dress$1 reheat to =g+ heat to remove ! =g+ /ra91 & lay on ! floor until cold4 ,!n h ! tool r\gh gr\nd on a dry em]y :eel4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #he4--;,be sure to h a full yell[ heat at ! dott$ l9e4 ,rememb] ?is is a bor+ mill tool & w /& out 9 ! tool-po/1 & if y d n h a high ?or\gh lemon heat1 y\r tool w snap (f at ! dott$ l9e4 7,n9ety-five p] c5t ( all tools :i* break1 h be5 =g$ at too l[ a heat or at a heat n ?or\gh to ! c5t]47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--,keep y\r high lemon =g+ heat up4 ,if y =ge "u a /eam hamm]1 take light bl[s4 ,d n jam y\r tool into %ape4 ,put frequ5tly back into ! fire4 ,nev] let ! high lemon color g d[n & beyond ! dott$ l9e4 ,= built-up & b5t tools special c>e %\ld be tak5 t ! =g+ heat does n g bel[ a bright *]ry4 ,= tools #c_/d by #a-a_/b or l>g] :]e !re is a big /ra9 9 =g+1 su* z b5d+ at angles ( ab\t #de deg4 & build+ ! tools up1 !y %\ld be heat$ to at lea/ #a1gjj;,f4 ,sl[ly & )\t mu* bla/4 ,= a #c_/d by #a-a_/b tool x %\ld take ab\t #aj m94 ) ! correct bla/ 9 a coke fire4 ,l>g] tools 9 proportion4 ,!y c !n be b5t readily1 b no attempt %\ld be made to =ge ! /eel fur!r )\t reheat+ to ma9ta9 ! bright *]ry r$4 ,?is is ess5tial1 z o!rwise ! tools crack 9 h>d5+ or :ile 9 use4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--;,be sure t ! tool is absolutely /raight at ! bottom1 s z to lie flat 9 ! tool-po/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--,?is is ! f9i%$ =g$ tool1 & let ?is gr[ cold by itself1 ! sl[] ! bett]4 ,x is well to cool ! tool sl[ly 9 hot a%es1 to remove all =g+ /ra94 ,y c n[ gr9d ! tool dry on a %>p em]y :eel4 ,! m y n[ f9i% ! tool 9 gr9d+1 ! less !re is to come (f aft] h>d5+4 ,9 h>d5+ place ! tool 9 a coke fire 7holl[ fire if possible7 ) a sl[ bla/ & heat gradually up to a :ite weld+ heat on ! nose ( ! tool4 ,!n dip ! :ite hot "p only into ?9 oil or hold 9 a /rong cold air bla/4 ,:5 h>d5+ 9 oil d n hold ! tool 9 "o place b keep x mov+ s t x cools z quickly z possible4 ,x is n necess>y to draw ! temp] aft] h>d5+ ^! tools4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--,?is tool is gr\nd1 ready = h>d5+4 ,nev] h>d5 f ! =g+ heat4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--;,heat ! nose ( ! tool only up to dott$ l9e1 v sl[ly & ?or\ghly to an absolutely :ite weld+ heat1 s t x %[s a trifle fus$ ar\nd ! edges1 & be v sure t ?is fus+ has gone ?or\ghly ?r\gh ! nose1 o!rwise ! fus+ effect w be tak5 (f aft] ! second gr9d+4 ,note ! diff]5ce ( ! nose betwe5 ?is & ,fig4 #hf4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--,%[s unnecess>y roa/+ & dross+4 ,su* h>d5+ requires a great am\nt ( gr9d+ & is n good4 ,aft] h>d5+ gr9d c>efully on a wet em]y :eel1 & be sure t ! :eel is %>p ) a pl5tiful supply ( wat]4 ,d n =ce ! gr9d+1 o!rwise ! cold wat] /rik+ ! /eel heat$ up by friction1 w crack ! nose4 ,be sure t ! gr9d+ :eel is %>p4 ,9 gr9d+ all tools %\ld be gr\nd z lightly z possible on a s(t wet s&/one or on a wet em]y :eel1 & c>e %\ld be tak5 n to create any surface cracks1 :i* are inv>iably ! result ( gr9d+ too =cibly4 ,! =ego+ illu/rations1 ,figs4 #hd to #ia1 ) _! captions1 w be f\nd helpful4 ,special po9ts ( caution to be obs]v$ :5 h>d5+ high-spe$ /eel4 ,,don',t use a gre5 coal fire2 use coke1 or build a holl[ fire4 ,,don',t h ! b$ ( ! fire free f coal4 ,,don',t hurry ! heat+ = =g+4 ,! heat+ has to be done v sl[ly & ! =g+ heat has to be kept v high 7a full lemon color7 heat & ! tool has to be cont9ually br\ght back into ! fire to keep ! high heat up4 ,:5 cu/om]s compla9 ab\t seams & cracks1 9 #i cases out ( #aj1 ?is has be5 caus$ by too l[ a =g+ heat1 & :5 ! blacksmi? compla9s ab\t tools crack+1 x is necess>y to read ?is p>agraph to him4 ,,don',t try to jam ! tool into %ape "u a /eam hamm] ) "o or two bl[s2 take easy bl[s & keep ! heat high4 ,,don',t h ! tool curv$ at ! bottom2 x mu/ lie p]fectly flat 9 ! tool po/4 ,,don',t h>d5 f y\r =g+ heat2 let ! tool gr[ cold or fairly cold4 ,aft] =g+ y c r\gh gr9d ! tool dry1 b n too =cibly4 ,,don',t1 = h>d5+1 get m ?an ! nose :ite hot4 ,,don',t get ! :ite heat on ! surface only4 ,,don',t hurry y\r heat+ = h>d5+2 let ! heat soak ?or\ghly ?r\gh ! nose ( ! tool4 ,,don',t melt ! nose ( ! tool4 ,,don',t1 z a rule1 dip ! nose into wat]2 ?is %\ld be done only = extremely h>d mat]ial4 ,x is dang]\s to put ! nose into wat] = fe> ( crack+ & :5 y d put ! nose into wat] put j #a_/b 94 only ( ! extreme :ite hot "p into ! wat] & don't keep x too long 9 ! wat]2 j a few seconds1 & !n h>d5 9 oil4 ,we d n recomm5d wat] h>d5+4 ,,don',t gr9d too =cibly4 ,,don',t gr9d dry aft] h>d5+4 ,,don',t discolor ! /eel 9 gr9d+4 ,,don',t give too mu* cle>ance on tools = cutt+ ca/ iron4 ,,don',t />t on ca/ iron ) a razor edge on ! tool4 ,take an oil /one & wipe ?ree or f\r times ov] ! razor edge4 ,,don',t use tool hold] /eel f b>s )\t h>d5+ ! nose ( ea* individual tool bit4 ,,air-,,h>d5+ ,,/eels4--,^! /eels are recomm5d$ = bor+1 turn+ & plan+ :]e ! co/ ( high-spe$ seems excessive4 ,!y are also recomm5d$ = h>d wood knives1 = r\gh+ & f9i%+ bronze & brass1 & = hot bolt =g+ dies4 ,?is /eel _c be cut or pun*$ cold b c be %ap$ & gr\nd on abrasive :eels ( v>i\s k9ds4 ,x %\ld be heat$ sl[ly & ev5ly = =g+ & kept z ev5ly heat$ at a bright r$ z possible4 ,x %\ld n be =g$ aft] x cools to a d>k r$4 ,aft] ! tool is made1 heat x aga9 to a bright r$ & lay x d[n to cool 9 a dry place or x c be cool$ 9 a cold1 dry air bla/4 ,wat] mu/ be kept away f x :ile x is hot4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,furnaces ,!re are s _m /&>d furnaces n[ on ! m>ket t x is n necess>y to g into details ( _! design & con/ruction & only a few w be illu/rat$4 ,oil1 gas & coal or coke are mo/ common b !re is a /eady gr[? ( ! use ( electric furnaces4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--,/&>d lead pot furnace4 ,,typical ,,oil-,,fir$ ,,furnaces4--,sev]al types ( /&>d oil-fir$ furnaces are %[n h]e)4 ,figure #ib is a lead pot furnace1 ,fig4 #ic is a v]tical furnace ) a c5t] column4 ,?is column r$uces ! cubical cont5ts to be heat$ & also supports ! cov]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--;,furnace ) c5t] column4 ,a small tool furnace is %[n 9 ,fig4 #id1 :i* gives ! con/ruction & heat circulation4 ,a l>g] furnace = high-spe$ /eel is giv5 9 ,fig4 #ie4 ,! /eel is support$ above ! heat1 ! l[] flame pass+ b5ea? ! support4 ,= h>d5+ broa*es & long ream]s & taps1 ! furnace %[n 9 ,fig4 #if is us$4 ,twelve jets are us$1 ^! com+ 9 radially to produce a :irl+ motion4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #id4--;,furnace = cutt+ tools4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--;,high-spe$ /eel furnace4 ,oil & gas furnaces may be divid$ into ?ree types3 ! op5 heat+ *amb] 9 :i* combu/ion takes place 9 ! *amb] & directly ov] ! /ock2 ! semimuffle heat+ *amb] 9 :i* combu/ion takes place b5ea? ! floor ( ! *amb] f :i* ! hot gases pass into ! *amb] ?r\gh suitable op5+s2 & ! muffle heat+ *amb] 9 :i* ! heat entirely surr\nds ! *amb] b does n ent] x4 ,! op5 furnace is us$ = =g+1 tool dress+ & weld+4 ,! muffle furnace is us$ = h>d5+ dies1 taps1 cutt]s & simil> tools ( ei!r c>bon or high-spe$ /eel4 ,! muffle furnace is = spr+ h>d5+1 enamel+1 assay+ & "w :]e ! gases ( combu/ion may h an injuri\s effect on ! mat]ial4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #if4--;,furnace = h>d5+ broa*es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--;,=g+ & weld+ furnace4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--,semi-muffle furnace4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--,muffle furnace4 ,furnaces ( ^! types ( oil-burn+ furnaces are %[n 9 ,figs4 #ig1 #ih1 & #ii2 ^! be+ made by ! ,gilb]t ,b>k] ,manufactur+ ,company4 ,! fir/ has an air curta9 =m$ by jets f ! l>ge pipe j bel[ ! op5+1 to protect ! op]ator f heat4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4--;,gas fir$ furnace4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aja4--;,c> door type ( anneal+ furnace4 ,oil furnaces are also made = bo? high- & l[-pressure air1 ea* hav+ its advocates4 ,! same p also make gas-fir$ furnaces4 ,sev]al types ( furnaces = v>i\s purposes are illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #ajj & #aja4 ,! fir/ is a gas-fir$ h>d5+ furnace ( ! surface-combu/ion type4 ,a l>ge gas-fir$ anneal+ furnace ( ! ,maxon sy/em is %[n 9 ,fig4 #aja4 ,?is is l>ge en\gh = a flat c> to be run into z c be se54 ,x %[s ! arrangem5t ( ! burn]s1 ! track = ! c> & ! way 9 :i* x fits into ! furnace4 ,^! are f ! designs ( ! ,indu/rial ,furnace ,corporation4 ,be=e decid+ ^u ! use ( gas or oil1 all sides ( ! problem %\ld be consid]$4 ,gas is p]haps ! ne>e/ ideal b is z a rule m exp5sive4 ,! tables compil$ by ! ,gilb]t ,b>k] ,manufactur+ ,company & %[n h]e)1 may help 9 decid+ ! "q4 ,,table #bg4--,,%[+ ,,comp>ison ,,( ,,oil ,,fuel ,,) ,,v>i\s ,,gase\s ,,fuels ,heat units p] ?\s& cubic feet ,natural gas #a1jjj1jjj ,air gas 7gas ma*9e7 #bj cp #hae1ejj ,public illum9at+ gas1 av]age #fej1jjj ,wat] gas 7f bitum9\s coal7 #cgg1jjj ,wat] & produc] gas1 mix$ #age1jjj ,produc] gas #aej1jjj ,s9ce a gallon ( fuel oil 7#g lb47 conta9s #acc1jjj heat units1 ! foll[+ comp>isons may evid5tly be made4 ,at #e cts4 a gallon1 ! equival5t heat units 9 oil w\ld equal3 ,p] ?\s& cubic feet ,natural gas at #j4cge ,air gas1 #bj cp at #j4cjg ,public illum9at+ gas1 av]age at #j4bdd ,wat] gas 7f bitum9\s coal7 at #j4adb ,wat] & produc] gas1 mix$ at #j4jfe ,produc] gas at #j4jeg ,comp>+ oil & coal is n always simple z x dep5ds on ! "w to be done & ! con/ruction ( ! furnaces4 ,! v>iation rises f #ge to #bjj gal4 ( oil to a ton ( coal4 ,= =g+ & simil> "w x is probably safe to consid] #ajj gal4 ( oil z equival5t to a ton ( coal4 ,!n !re is ! sav+ ( labor 9 h&l+ bo? coal & a%es1 ! wait+ = fires to come up1 ! bank+ ( fires & ! dirt & nuisance g5]ally4 ,! cont9u\s op]ation possible ) oil adds to ! output4 ,:5 comp>+ oil & gas x is g5]ally consid]$ t #d-a_/b gal4 ( fuel oil w give heat equival5t to #a1jjj cu4 ft4 ( coal gas4 ,! pressure ( oil & air us$ v>ies ) ! sy/em in/all$4 ,! l[-pressure sy/em ma9ta9s a pressure ( ab\t #h oz4 on ! oil & draws 9 free air = combu/ion4 ,o!rs use a pressure ( sev]al p\nds1 :ile gas burn]s use an av]age ( p]haps #a-a_/b lb4 ( air to give be/ results4 ,! weights & volumes ( solid fuels are3 ,an?racite coal1 #ee to #fe lb4 p] cubic foot or #cd to #da cubic feet p] ton2 bitum9\s coal1 #ej to #ee lb4 p] cubic foot or #da to #de cubic feet p] ton2 coke1 #bh lb4 p] cubic foot or #hj cubic feet p] ton--! ton be+ calculat$ z #b1bdj lb4 9 ea* case4 ,a novel c>buriz+ furnace t is be+ us$ by a numb] ( p1 is built aft] ! plan ( a fireless cook]4 ,! walls ( ! furnace are extra heavy1 & ! ports & flues are s arrang$ t :5 ! load 9 ! furnace & ! furnace is ?or\ghly heat$1 ! burn]s are %ut (f & all op5+s are tightly seal$4 ,! c>burization !n goes on = sev]al h\rs be=e ! furnace is cool$ bel[ ! effective c>buriz+ range1 secur+ an ideal diffusion ( c>bon betwe5 ! case & ! core ( ! /eel be+ c>buriz$4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly adaptable :]e simple /eel is us$4 ,,protective ,,scre5s ,,= ,,furnaces ,workm5 ne$lessly expos$ to ! flames1 heat & gl>e f furnaces :]e high temp]atures are ma9ta9$ suff] 9 heal? z well z 9 bodily discom=t4 ,?is %[s sev]al types ( %ields design$ = ! maximum protection ( ! furnace work]4 ,bad conditions are n necess>y2 9 almo/ e case means ( relief c be f\nd by "o e>ne/ly seek+ !m4 ,! l>g] =ge %ops h adopt$ flame %ields = ! majority ( _! furnaces4 ,ye>s ago ! indu/rial furnaces 7p>ticul>ly ( ! oil-burn+ v>iety7 7 )\t %ields1 b ! lat] models are all %ield-equipp$4 ,^! %ields are adapt$ to all ( ! m mod]n1 heat-treat+ furnaces1 z well z to ^? furnaces 9 use = work+ =ges2 & att5tion %\ld be paid to _! use on ! =m] type s9ce ! heat-treat+ furnaces are con/antly becom+ m num]\s z manufactur]s f9d ne$ ( !m 9 ! _m phases ( munitions mak+ or simil> "w4 ,! heat t ! work] ab\t ^! furnaces mu/ face may be divid$ 9 g5]al into two classes3 !re is fir/ t heat due to ! flame & hot gases t ! bla/ 9 ! furnaces =ces out onto a man's body & face4 ,9 ! majority ( furnaces ?is is by f> ! mo/ discom=t+1 & c>e mu/ be tak5 to f5d x & turn x beh9d a suitable %ield4 ,! second class is ! radiant heat1 dis*>g$ z light f ! gl[+ int]ior ( ! furnace4 ,?is is ! less] ( ! two evils s f> z g5]al =g+ furnaces are conc]n$1 b x becomes ! pr$om9at+ feature 9 furnaces ( l>ge door area su* z 9 ! usual case-h>d5+ furnaces4 ,"h ! am\nt ( heat dis*>g$ is (t5 almo/ unbe>able ev5 = a mom5t4 ,?is heat c be tak5 c>e ( by int]pos+ suitable1 opaque %ields t w tempor>ily absorb x )\t be+ de/roy$ by x1 or becom+ inc&esc5t4 ,%\ld su* %ields be s con/ruct$ z to close (f all ( ! heat1 x might be impossible to "w ar\nd ! furnace = ! removal ( its cont5ts1 b !y c be made movable1 & 9 su* a mann] z to %ield ! major portion ( ! work]'s body4 ,fir/ tak+ up ! "q ( flame %ields1 ! illu/ration1 ,fig4 #ajb1 is a typical in/allation t %[s ! ma9 features = application to a =g+ ma*9e or drop-hamm]1 oil-burn+ furnace1 or = an ar*$-ov]1 coal furnace :]e ! flame bl[s out ! front4 ,?is %ield consi/s ( a frame cov]$ ) %eet metal & held by brackets ab\t #f 94 9 front ( ! furnace4 ,x w be not$ t slott$ holes make ?is frame adju/able = height1 & x %\ld be l[]$ z f> z possible :5 9 use1 s t ! "w may j pass "u x & into ! furnace op5+s4 ,imm$iately bel[ ! furnace op5+s1 & close to ! furnace frame w be not$ a bla/ pipe c>ry+ air f ! =ge-%op fan4 ,?is has a r[ ( small holes drill$ 9 its upp] side = ! entire l5g?1 & ^! direct a curta9 ( cold air v]tically across ! furnace op5+s1 =c+ all ( ! flame1 or a great] portion ( x1 to rise beh9d ! %ield4 ,s9ce ! %ield ext5ds above ! furnace top !re is no escape = ?is flame until x has pass$ high en\gh to be ( no fur!r discom=t to ! workman4 ,9 ?is case fan-bla/ air is us$ = cool+1 & ?is is *eap] & m satisfactory because a great volume may be us$4 ,h[ev]1 :]e high-pressure air is us$ = atomiz+ ! oil at ! burn]1 & no?+ else is available1 ?is may be employ$--?\gh naturally a comp>atively small pipe w be ne$$1 9 :i* m9ute holes are drill$1 else ! volume ( air us$ w be too great = ! compressor economically to supply4 ,/eam may also be employ$ = l s]vice4 ,illu/ration3 ,,figs4 #ajb to #ajh4--,protective devices = furnace fronts4 ,! late/ %ields ( ?is type are all made d\ble1 z illu/rat$1 ) an inn] %eet ( metal an in* or two inside ( ! front4 ,9 ! illu/ration1 ,a1 ,fig4 #ajb1 ?is inn] %eet is small]1 b "s are n[ built ! same size z ! front & bolt$ to x ) pipe spac]s betwe54 ,! advantage ( ! d\ble %eet is t ! inn] "o be>s ! brunt ( ! flame1 &1 if ne$s be1 burns up be=e ! out]2 :ile1 if due to a heavy fire x %\ld be heat$ r$ at any po9t1 ! out] %eet w /ill be mu* cool] & act z an additional %ield to ! furnace man4 ,,heavy ,,=g+ ,,practice4--,9 heavy =g+ practice :]e ! metal is be+ work$ at a weld+ heat1 ! am\nt ( flame t w issue f an op5-front furnace is s great t a pla91 %eet-/eel front w nei!r af=d suffici5t protection nor /& up 9 s]vice4 ,= su* a place a wat]-cool$ front is (t5 us$4 ,! g5]al type ( ?is front is illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #ajc1 & appe>s to h f\nd consid]able favor1 = numb]s ( its k9d are scatt]$ ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry4 ,9 ?is case ! %ield is plac$ at a slight angle f ! v]tical1 & along ! top edge is a wat] pipe ) a r[ ( small holes ?r\gh :i* sprays ( wat] are ?r[n aga9/ x4 ,?is wat] runs d[n 9 a ?9 %eet ov] ! %ield1 cool+ x1 & is collect$ 9 a tr\gh connect$ ) a run-(f pipe at ! bottom4 ,! l[] bla/-pipe arrangem5t is simil> to ! "o fir/ describ$4 ,!re are sev]al s]i\s objections to ?is =m ( %ield t %\ld lead to its replacem5t by a bett] type2 ! fir/ is t ) a v hot fire1 portions 9 ! c5t] may become s rapidly heat$ t ! /eam g5]at$ w "p ! %eet ( wat] & cause x to fl[ f t po9t 9 an inv]t$ ,v1 & t section w !n quickly become r$ hot4 ,ano!r feature is t aft] ! wat] & fire are %ut d[n = ! night ! heat ( ! furnace c be great en\gh to cause s]i\s w>p+ ( ! surface ( ! %ield s t ! wat] w no long] cov] x 9 a ?91 uni=m %eet4 ,aft] rigg+ up a big furnace ) a %ield ( ?is type sev]al ye>s ago1 its mo/ s]i\s object 0 f\nd 9 ! increase ( ! wat] bill ( ! plant4 ,?is 0 already ( l>ge proportions1 b x _h sudd5ly jump$ to ! ext5t ( sev]al hundr$ doll>s4 ,inve/igation soon disclos$ ! fact t ?is wat] %ield 0 "o ( ! ma9 causes ( ! add$ co/ ( wat]4 ,a little e/imat+ ( ! am\nt ( wat] t c fl[ ?r\gh a #a_/b-;94 pipe "u #cj-lb4 pressure1 9 ! c\rse ( a day1 w %[ t ?is am\nt at #aj cts4 p] #a1jjj gal41 c c\nt up r rapidly4 ,figure #ajc is a section ?r\gh a portion ( ! furnace front & %ield %[+ all ( ! pr9cipal p>ts4 ,?is %ield consi/s ess5tially ( a v ?9 tank1 ab\t #b-a_/b 94 betwe5 walls1 & fill$ ) wat]4 ,l o!r %ields x is fitt$ ) an adju/m5t1 t x may be rais$ & l[]$ z ! "w dem&s4 ,! tank hav+ an op5 top1 ! wat] z x absorbs heat f ! flame w simply boil away 9 /eam2 & only a small am\nt w h to be add$ to make up = t :i* has evaporat$4 ,! wat]-fe$ pipe %[n at ,f ends a %ort di/ance above ! top ( ! tank s t j h[ mu* wat] is runn+ 9 may readily be se54 ,an ov]fl[ pipe is provid$ at ,o :i* aids 9 ma9ta9+ ! wat] at ! prop] height1 z a suffici5t quantity c always be p]mitt$ to run 91 to avoid any possibility ( ! %ield ev] boil+ dry2 at ! same "t ! small excess c run (f )\t dang] ( an ov]fl[4 ,! %ield illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #ajd has be5 9 con/ant use = ov] two ye>s1 giv+ great] satisfaction ?an any o!r ( :i* ! writ] has kn[n4 ,x might also be not$ t ?is %ield 0 made ) rivet$ jo9ts1 ! %op n hav+ a gas-weld+ outfit4 ,to flange ov] ! edges & !n weld !m ) an acetyl5e tor* w\ld be a f> m economical proc$ure1 & w\ld also insure a tight & p]man5t jo9t4 ,! wat]-cool$ front %[n 9 ,fig4 #aje is an absurd ef=t to accompli% ! design ( a furnace t w provide cool work+ conditions4 ,?is front 0 on a bolt-heat+ furnace us+ h>d coal = fuel2 & x may be se5 t x takes ! place ( all ( ! brickwork t %\ld be on t side4 ,_h ?is be5 no?+ m ?an a v n>r[ wat]-cool$ frame1 ) brickwork bel[ & support+ bricks above1 put 9 l ! tuy]es 9 a f\ndry cupola1 ! case w\ld h be5 some:at diff]5t1 = !n x w\ld h absorb$ a small] proportion ( ! heat4 ,a blacksmi? :o kn[s h[ a piece ( cold iron laid 9 a small weld+ furnace mom5t>ily l[]s ! temp]ature1 w appreciate ! enorm\s am\nt ( extra heat t mu/ be ma9ta9$ 9 ! c5tral portion ( ?is furnace to make up = ! con/ant *ill+ effect ( ! cold wall4 ,moreov]1 s9ce !re w\ld h be5 s]i\s tr\ble _h /eam g5]at$ 9 ?is front1 a /eady /ream ( wat] _h to be run ?r\gh x con/antly to insure aga9/ an approa* to ! boil+ po9t4 ,?is is illu/rat$ because ( its absurdity1 & z a w>n+ ( some?+ to avoid4 ,wat]-cool$1 tuy]e op5+s1 z m5tion$ above1 :i* support brick side-walls ( ! furnace1 h prov$ successful = coal furnaces us$ = =g+ ma*9e & drop-hamm] heat+1 s9ce !y p]mit a great am\nt ( "w to be h&l$ ?r\gh _! op5+s )\t we>+ away z w\ld a brick ar*4 ,great c>e %\ld be ex]cis$ prop]ly to design !m s t a m9imum am\nt ( ! cold tuy]e w be 9 contact ) ! int]ior ( ! furnace1 & all int]ior portions possible %\ld be cov]$ by ! bricks4 ,h[ev]1 a discussion ( ^! po9ts w h>dly come 9 ! flame-%ield class1 al?\gh !y c be made to d a great deal t[>d reliev+ ! excessive heat to be borne by ! furnace work]4 ,,flange ,,%ields ,,= ,,furnaces4--,su* portable flame %ields z ! "o illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #ajf may prove s]viceable be=e furnaces requir$ = plate "w1 :]e ! doors are (t5 only op5$ = a mom5t at a "t4 ,?is %ield c be plac$ f> en\gh 9 front ( ! furnace1 t x w be possible to "w "u x or ar\nd x1 9 remov+ bulky "w f ! furnace1 & yet x w af=d ! furnace t5d] "s relief f ! excessive gl>e t w come out ! wide-op5$ door4 ,to h ?is %ield ( light weight s t x may be readily pu%$ aside :5 n want$1 ! frame may be made up ( pipe & fitt+s1 & a piece ( ?9 %eet /eel fa/5$ 9 ! panel by r+s ab\t ! frame4 ,ab\t ! mo/ disagreeable task 9 a heat-treat+ %op is ! removal ( ! pots f ! case-h>d5+ furnaces2 ^! mu/ be h&l$ at a bright r$ heat 9 ord] t _! cont5ts may be dump$ into ! qu5*+ tank ) a m9imum-"t contact ) ! air1 & be=e !y h cool$ suffici5tly to require reheat+4 ,fac+ ! heat be=e ! l>ge op5 doors ( ! majority ( ^! furnaces1 9 a man-kill+ task ev5 :5 ! wea!r is mod]ately cool4 ,! boxes soon become m or less di/ort$1 & !n ev5 ! be/ ( lift+ devices w n remove a hot pot )\t sev]al m9utes labor 9 front ( ! doors4 ,9 ,fig4 #ajg is %[n a me?od ( arrang+ a %ield on "o type ( *>g+ & remov+ truck4 ,?is %ield _c af=d m ?an a p>tial protection to ! body ( ! furnace t5d]1 because he mu/ be able to see ar\nd x1 & 9 "s cases ev5 pu% x p>tly ?r\gh ! door ( ! furnace1 b ev5 small z x is x may /ill af=d "s welcome protection4 ,! great advantage 9 ?is case ( hav+ ! %ield on ! truck in/ead ( /ation>y 9 front ( ! furnace1 is t x /ill af=ds protection z long z ! hot pot is be+ h&l$ ?r\gh ! %op on its way to ! qu5*+ tank4 ,x might be int]e/+ to _m engag$ 9 ! heat-treat+ or case h>d5+ ( /eel p>ts1 to make a special note ( ! design ( ! truck t is illu/rat$ 9 connection ) ! %ield2 ! g5]al =m is %[n al?\gh ! actual details = ! con/ruction ( su* a truck are lack+2 ^! be+ simple1 may be readily work$ out by anyone wi%+ to build "o4 ,?is is consid]$ to be "o ( ! quicke/ & easie/ op]at$ devices = ! removal ( ?is class ( "w f ! furnace4 ,to be sure x may only be us$ :]e ! floor ( ! furnace has be5 built level ) ! floor ( ! room1 b _m ( ! mod]n furnaces ( ?is class are s design$4 ,! pack-h>d5+ pots are ca/ ) legs1 f two to ?ree in*es high1 to p]mit ! circulation ( ! hot gases1 & s heat m quickly4 ,betwe5 ^! legs & "u ! body ( ! pot1 ! two =w>d prongs ( ! truck are pu%$1 tilt+ ! out] h&le to make ^! prongs z l[ z possible4 ,! h&le is !n l[]$ &1 z x has a good lev]age1 ! pot is easily rais$ f ! floor1 & ! truck & its load roll$ out4 ,,heat+ ,,( ,,manganese ,,/eel4--,ano!r =m ( heat-treat+ furnace is t :i* is us$ = ! heat+ ( manganese & o!r alloy /eels1 :i* aft] hav+ be5 br\ght to ! prop] heat are drawn f ! furnace into an imm$iate qu5*+ tank4 ,) manganese /eel 9 p>ticul>1 ! p>ts are s fragile & easily damag$ :ile hot t x is frequ5t practice to h a slop+ plat=m imm$iately 9 front ( ! furnace door d[n :i* ! ca/+s may slide into a tank bel[ ! floor level4 ,su* a furnace ) a qu5*+ tank 9 front ( its door is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,^! tanks are cov]$ ) plates :ile *>g+ ! furnace & ! cold ca/+s are plac$ 9 a mod]ately cool furnace4 ,s9ce "s ( ^! /eels mu/ n be *>g$ into a furnace :]e ! heat is extreme b %\ld be br\ght up to _! f9al heat gradually1 !re is little discom=t dur+ ! *>g+ process4 ,:5 qu5*+1 h[ev]1 f a temp]ature ( #a1hjj to #a1ijj1 x is extremely unpleasant 9 front ( ! doors4 ,! sw++ %ield is "h adapt$ to give protection = ?is "w4 ,z w be not$ x is hung a suffici5t di/ance 9 front ( ! doors1 t x may n int]f]e ) ! ca/+s z !y come f ! furnace1 & slide d[n into ! tank4 ,to facilitate ! "w1 & avoid ! necessity ( work+ ) ! b>s outside ! edges ( ! %ield1 ! slot-l hole is cut 9 ! c5t] ( ! %ield1 & ?r\gh ?is ! b>s or rakes = dragg+ out ! ca/+s are easily ins]t$ & manipulat$4 ,! advantage ( su* a sw++ %ield is t x may be readily mov$ f side to side1 or =w>d & back z occasion requires4 ,,furnace ,,data ,9 ord] to give def9ite in=mation conc]n+ furnaces1 fuels etc41 ! foll[+ data is quot$ f a pap] by ,se? ,a4 ,m\lton & ,w4 ,h4 ,lyman be=e ! ,/eel ,heat ,treat]s ,society 9 ,septemb]1 #aibj4 ,?is consid]s a factory produc+ #cj1jjj lb4 ( automobile ge>s p] #bd hr4 ,! transmission ge>s w be ( high-c>bon /eel & ! diff]5tial ( l[-c>bon /eel1 c>buriz$4 ,! heat-treat+ equipm5t requir$ is3 #a4 ,anneal+ furnaces #a1djj to #a1fjj;,f4 #b4 ,c>buriz+ furnaces #a1gjj to #a1hjj;,f4 #c4 ,h>d5+ furnaces #a1dej to #a1eej;,f4 #d4 ,draw+ furnaces #cej to #iej;,f4 ,all ( ! =g+ blanks are anneal$ be=e ma*9+1 ab\t ?ree-qu>t]s ( ! ma*9$ ge>s & p>ts are c>buriz$1 all ! c>buriz$ ge>s are giv5 a d\ble treatm5t = core & case1 all ge>s & p>ts are h>d5$ & all p>ts are drawn4 ,! possible s\rces ( heat supply & _! values are z foll[s3-- #a4 ,oil #adj1jjj ,b4t4u4 p] gallon #b4 ,natural gas #a1ajj ,b4t4u4 p] cubic foot #c4 ,city gas #fej ,b4t4u4 p] cubic foot #d4 ,wat] gas #cjj ,b4t4u4 p] cubic foot #e4 ,produc] gas #agj ,b4t4u4 p] cubic foot #f4 ,coal #ab1jjj ,b4t4u4 p] p\nd #g4 ,electric curr5t #c1dab ,b4t4u4 p] kil[att-h\r ,= ! heat treatm5t specifi$ only comp>atively l[ temp]atures are requir$4 ,no difficulty w be exp]i5c$ 9 atta9+ ! desir$ maximum temp]ature ( #a1hjj;,f4 ) any ( ! heat+ m$ium above enum]at$2 b x %\ld be not$ t ! produc] gas ) a ,b4t4u4 cont5t ( #agj p] cubic foot & ! electric curr5t w\ld require specially design$ furnaces to obta9 high] temp]atures ?an #ahjj;,f4 ,,table #bh4--;,,comp>attve ,,op]at+ ,,co/s ,assum+ ,co/ ( oil- & gas-fir$ furnaces in/all$ z #ajj4jj p] squ>e foot ( he>? ,co/ ( coal-fir$ furnace in/all$ z #aej4jj p] squ>e foot ( he>? ,co/ ( electric furnace #ajj kw4 capacity in/all$ z #ij4jj p] kil[att ,co/ ( electric furnace #aej kw4 capacity in/all$ z #gj4jj p] kil[att ,output #c1jjj lb4 *>ge1 #h hr4 heat c>buriz+1 #b hr4 heat+ only4 ,annual s]vice #g1bjj hr4 ,fix$ *>ges includ+ int]e/1 depreciation1 taxes1 insurance & ma9t5ance #ae p] c5t4 ,extra op]at+ labor = coal-fir$ furnace #fj cts4 p] h\r1 "o man f\r furnaces4 ,,co/ ,,( ,,v>i\s ,,types ,,( ,,furnaces ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,class fuel ,fuel p] ,unit fuel,in/allation,effici5cy ,fix$ ,co/ p] *>ge co/ co/ p] c5t *>ges *>ge ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #a #b #c #d #e #f #g ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,c>buriz+ ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #a,oil #eb4j gal4 #j4ae gal4 #b1djj4jj #ab4f 4#dj #h4bj #b,natural gas #d4d ,m #j4ej ,m #b1djj4jj #ah4h #j4dj #b4fj #c;,city gas #h4c ,m #j4hj ,m #b1djj4jj #ag4j #j4dj #g4jd #d,wat] gas #ah4g ,m #j4dj #b1djj4jj #af4d #j4dj #g4hh #e,produc] gas #cg4c ,m #j4aj ,m #b1djj4jj #ad4e #j4dj #d4ac #f;,coal #had4j lb4 #f4jj ton #c1fjj4jj #i4d #j4fj #c4ih #g;,electricity #ejj4j kw-hr4 #j4jae kw4 #i1jjj4jj #ec4j #a4ej #i4jj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,heat+ ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #a,oil #cj4h gal4 #j4ae gal4 #b1djj4jj #ba4d #j4aj #d4gb #b,natural gas #b4fa ,m #j4ej ,m #b1djj4jj #cb4j #j4aj #a4dj #c;,city gas #d4i ,m #j4hj ,m #b1djj4jj #bh4h #j4aj #d4jb #d,wat] gas #aa4a ,m #j4dj ,m #b1djj4jj #bg4f #j4aj #d4ed #e,produc] gas #bb4a ,m #j4aj ,m #b1djj4jj #bd4f #j4aj #b4ca #f;,coal #cdh4j lb4 #f4jj ton #c1fjj4jj #bb4j #j4ae #a4ch #g;,electricity #cbi4j kw-hr4 #j4jae kw4 #aj1ejj4jj #ha4ge #j4dd #e4ch ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,?is %[s b two ( ! op]ations & = a s+le furnace4 ,! total co/s = all op]ations on ! #cj1jjj lb4 ( ge>s p] #bd hr4 is %[n 9 ,table #bi4 ,,table #bi4--;,,comp>ative ,,annual ,,production ,,co/s ,,= #cj1jjj ,,p\nds ,,output ,,9 #bd ,,h\rs ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,no4 ,equipm5t ,in/allation co/ ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #a #b #c ,i ,oil #agi1jjj4jj ,,ii ,oil & electric #bac1jjj4jj ,,iii ,natural gas #aag1jjj4jj ,,iv 7,a7 ,natural gas conta9+ furnaces #abj1jjj4jj ,v ,natural gas & electric #aha1jjj4jj ,,vi ,city gas #abb1jjj4jj ,,vii ,city gas & electric #ahb1jjj4jj ,,viii ,wat] gas #bad1jjj4jj ,,ix ,wat] gas & electric #bch1jjj4jj ,x ,produc] gas #bdf1jjj4jj ,,xi ,produc] gas & electric #bee1jjj4jj ,,xii ,coal & electric #aid1jjj4jj ,,xiii ,electric #beg1jjj4jj ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,annual op]at+ exp5ses ,co/ ,no4 ---------------------------------------- ,total p] lb4 ,fix$ ,heat ,labor metal1 *>ges c5ts ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #a #d #e #f #g #h ,i #bf1hej4jj #aef1jjj4jj #aje1jjj4jj #bhg1hej4jj #c4ai ,,ii #ca1iej4jj #adb1ggj4jj #ig1jjj4jj #bga1gbj4jj #c4jb ,,iii #ag1eej4jj #dd1bej4jj #ig1jjj4jj #aeh1hjj4jj #a4gh ,,iv #ah1jjj4jj #da1jjj4jj #id1jjj4jj #aec1jjj4jj #a4gj ,v #bg1aej4jj #gc1hbj4jj #ij1jjj4jj #aij1igj4jj #b4ac ,,vi #ah1cjj4jj #abc1bjj4jj #id1jjj4jj #bce1ejj4jj #b4fb ,,vii #bg1cjj4jj #abh1hbj4jj #ij1jjj4jj #bdf1jbj4jj #b4gd ,,viii #ah1fjj4jj #ajd1jjj4jj #id1jjj4jj #baf1fjj4jj #b4da ,,ix #bg1dej4jj #aag1dbj4jj #ij1jjj4jj #bcd1hgj4jj #b4fb ,x #ah1ijj4jj #fi1cjj4jj #ij1jjj4jj #agh1bjj4jj #a4ih ,,xi #bg1gej4jj #ib1ebj4jj #ij1jjj4jj #baj1bgj4jj #b4cd ,,xii #bi1ajj4jj #hg1bbj4jj #ij1jjj4jj #bjf1cbj4jj #b4cj ,,xiii #ch1eej4jj #ace1jjj4jj #hd1jjj4jj #beg1eej4jj #b4hf ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,,note4--,produc] plant fix$ *>ges are includ$ 9 ! co/ ( gas & are *>g$ z heat 9 column #e1 s !y are omitt$ f column #d4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,pyrometry ,,& ,,pyromet]s ,a k ( ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( pyrometry1 or ! measurem5t ( temp]atures1 is q necess>y = "o engag$ 9 ! heat treatm5t ( /eel4 ,x is only by c>eful measurem5t & control ( ! heat+ ( /eel t ! full b5efit ( a heat-treat+ op]ation is secur$4 ,be=e ! adv5t ( ! !rmo-c\ple1 me?ods ( temp]ature measurem5t 7 v crude4 ,! blacksmi? dep5d$ on 8 eyes to tell him :5 ! prop] temp]ature 0 rea*$1 & ( c\rse ! color appe>$ diff]5t on light or d>k days4 ,*]ry to "o man 0 orange to ano!r1 & x 0 !re=e almo/ impossible to =mulate any treatm5t :i* c\ld be appli$ by sev]al m5 to secure ! same results4 ,"o ( ! e>ly me?ods ( measur+ temp]atures 0 ! iron ball me?od4 ,9 ?is me?od1 an iron ball1 to :i* a wire 0 atta*$1 0 plac$ 9 ! furnace & :5 x _h rea*$ ! temp]ature ( ! furnace1 x 0 quickly remov$ by means ( ! wire1 & susp5d$ 9 a c conta9+ a kn[n quantity ( wat]2 ! volume ( wat] be+ su* t ! heat w\ld n cause x to boil4 ,! rise 9 temp]ature ( ! wat] 0 measur$ by a !rmomet]1 &1 kn[+ ! heat capacity ( ! iron ball & t ( ! wat]1 ! temp]ature ( ! ball1 & !re=e ! furnace1 c\ld be calculat$4 ,usually a set ( tables 0 prep>$ to simplify ! calculations4 ,! iron ball1 h[ev]1 scal$1 & *ang$ 9 weight ) repeat$ use1 mak+ ! det]m9ations less & less accurate4 ,a copp] ball 0 (t5 us$ to decrease ?is *ange1 b ev5 t 0 subject to error4 ,?is me?od is /ill sometimes us$1 b = uni=m results1 a plat9um ball1 :i* w n scale or *ange 9 weight1 is necess>y1 & ! co/ ( ?is ball1 toge!r ) ! sl[ness ( ! me?od1 h r5d]$ ! practice obsolete1 especially 9 view ( mod]n developm5ts 9 accurate pyrometry4 ,,pyromet]s ,armor plate mak]s sometimes use ! copp] ball or ,siem5s' wat] pyromet] because !y c place a numb] ( ! balls or weights on ! plate 9 locations :]e x is difficult to use o!r pyromet]s4 ,"o ( ^! pyromet]s is %[n 9 section 9 ,fig4 #aji4 ,,siem5s' ,,wat] ,,pyromet]4--,x consi/s ( a cyl9drical copp] vessel provid$ ) a h&le & conta9+ a second small] copp] vessel ) d\ble walls4 ,an air space a sep>ates ! two vessels1 & a lay] ( felt ! two walls ( ! inn] "o1 9 ord] to ret>d ! ex*ange ( temp]ature ) ! surr\nd+s4 ,! capacity ( ! inn] vessel is a little m ?an "o p9t4 ,a m]cury !rmomet] b is fix$ close to ! wall ( ! inn] vessel1 its l[] "p be+ protect$ by a p]=at$ brass tube1 :il/ ! upp] projects above ! vessel & is divid$ z usual on ! /em into degrees1 ,fahr5heit or ,c5tigrade1 z desir$4 ,at ! side ( ! !rmomet] !re is a small brass scale c1 :i* slides up & d[n1 & on :i* ! high temp]atures are m>k$ 9 ! same degrees z ^? 9 :i* ! m]cury !rmomet] is divid$2 on a level ) ! z]o division ( ! brass scale a small po9t] is fix$1 :i* trav]ses ! scale ( ! !rmomet]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aji4--,siem5s' copp]-ball pyromet]4 ,%ort cyl9d]s d1 ( ei!r copp]1 iron or plat9um1 are suppli$ ) ! pyromet]1 :i* are s adju/$ t _! heat capacity at ord9>y temp]ature is equal to "o-fiftie? ( t ( ! copp] vessel fill$ ) "o p9t ( wat]4 ,z1 h[ev]1 ! specific heat ( metals increases ) ! temp]ature1 all[ance is made on ! brass slid+ scales1 :i* are divid$ accord+ to ! metal us$ = ! pyromet] cyl9d] d4 ,x w !re=e be und]/ood t a diff]5t slid+ scale is requir$ = ! p>ticul> k9d ( metal ( :i* a cyl9d] is compos$4 ,9 ord] to obta9 accurate measurem5ts1 ea* slid+ scale mu/ be us$ only 9 conjunction ) its own !rmomet]1 & 9 case ! latt] breaks a new scale mu/ be made & graduat$ = ! new !rmomet]4 ,! wat] pyromet] is us$ z foll[s3 ,exactly "o p9t 7#j4efh lit]7 ( clean wat]1 p]fectly di/ill$ or ra9 wat]1 is p\r$ into ! copp] vessel1 & ! pyromet] is left = a few m9utes to all[ ! !rmomet] to atta9 ! temp]ature ( ! wat]4 ,! brass scale c is !n set ) its po9t] opposite ! temp]ature ( ! wat] z %[n by ! !rmomet]4 ,mean:ile "o ( ! metal cyl9d]s has be5 expos$ to ! high temp]ature :i* is to be measur$1 & aft] all[+ suffici5t "t = x to acquire t temp]ature1 x is rapidly remov$ & dropp$ into ! pyromet] vessel )\t spla%+ any ( ! wat] out4 ,! temp]ature ( ! wat] w rise until1 aft] a little :ile1 ! m]cury ( ! !rmomet] has become /ation>y4 ,:5 ?is is obs]v$ ! degrees ( ! !rmomet] are read (f1 z well z ^? on ! brass scale c opposite ! top ( ! m]cury4 ,! sum ( ^! two values toge!r gives ! temp]ature ( ! flue1 furnace or o!r heat$ space 9 :i* ! metal cyl9d] _h be5 plac$4 ,) cyl9d]s ( copp] & iron1 temp]atures up to #a1hjj;,f4 7#a1jjj;,c47 c be measur$1 b ) plat9um cyl9d]s ! limit is #b1gjj;,f4 7#a1ejj;,c474 ,= ord9>y furnace "w ei!r copp] or wr\ght-iron cyl9d]s may be us$4 ,iron cyl9d]s possess a high] melt+ po9t & h less t5d5cy to scale ?an ^? ( copp]1 b ! latt] are mu* less affect$ by ! corrosive action ( ! furnace gases2 plat9um is1 ( c\rse1 n subject to any ( ^! disadvantages4 ,! weight to :i* ! diff]5t metal cyl9d]s are adju/$ is z foll[s3 ,copp] #acg4j grams ,wr\ght-iron #aab4j grams ,plat9um #djb4f grams ,9 c\rse ( "t ! cyl9d]s lose weight by scal+2 b tables are provid$ giv+ multipli]s = ! dim9i%$ weights1 by :i* ! read+ on ! brass scale %\ld be multipli$4 ,,! ,,!rmo-,,c\ple ,) ! application ( ! !rmo-c\ple1 ! measurem5t ( temp]atures1 betwe51 say1 #gjj & #b1ejj;,f41 0 made m simple & precise4 ,! !ory ( ! !rmo-c\ple is simple2 x is t if two b>s1 rods1 or wires ( diff]5t metals are jo9$ toge!r at _! ends1 :5 heat$ s t "o junction is hott] ?an ! o!r1 an electromotive =ce is set up ?r\gh ! metals1 :i* w increase ) ! increase ( ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! two junctions4 ,?is electromotive =ce1 or voltage1 may be measur$1 &1 f a *>t previ\sly prep>$1 ! temp]ature det]m9$4 ,9 mo/ pyromet]s1 ( c\rse1 ! temp]atures are inscrib$ directly on ! voltmet]1 b ! fact rema9s t x is ! voltage ( a small electric curr5t1 & n heat1 t is actually measur$4 ,!re are two common types ( !rmo-c\ples1 ! fir/ mak+ use ( common1 inexp5sive metals1 su* z iron wire & ni*rome wire4 ,?is is ! s-call$ base metal c\ple4 ,! o!r is compos$ ( exp5sive metals su* z plat9um wire1 & a wire ( an alloy ( plat9um ) #aj p] c5t ( rhodium or iridium4 ,?is is call$ ! r>e metal c\ple1 & because its compon5t metals are less affect$ by heat1 x la/s long]1 & v>ies less ?an ! base metal c\ple4 ,! cold junction ( a !rmo-c\ple may be connect$ by means ( copp] wires to ! voltmet]1 al?\gh 9 "s in/allations ( base metal c\ples1 ! wires =m+ ! c\ple are !mselves ext5d$ to ! voltmet]1 mak+ copp] connections unnecess>y4 ,f ! =ego+1 x may be se5 t accurately to measure ! temp]ature ( ! hot end ( a !rmo-c\ple1 we mu/ "k ! temp]ature ( ! cold end1 z x is ! diff]5ce 9 ! temp]atures t det]m9es ! voltmet] read+s4 ,?is is absolutely ess5tial = precision1 & its importance _c be ov]-emphasiz$4 ,:5 pyromet]s are us$ 9 daily op]ation1 !y %\ld be *eck$ or calibrat$ two or ?ree times a mon?1 or ev5 e week4 ,:]e !re are _m 9 use1 x is good practice to h a ma/] pyromet] ( a r>e metal c\ple1 :i* is us$ only = *eck+ up ! o!rs4 ,! ma/] pyromet]1 aft] calibrat+ aga9/ ! melt+ po9ts ( v>i\s sub/ances1 w h a calibration *>t :i* %\ld be us$ 9 ! *eck+ op]ation4 ,x is cu/om>y n[ to s5d a r>e metal c\ple to ! ,bureau ( ,/&>ds at ,wa%+ton1 :]e x is v c>efully calibrat$ = a nom9al *>ge1 & return$ ) ! voltmet] read+s ( a s]ies ( temp]atures cov]+ practically ! :ole range ( ! c\ple4 ,?is c\ple is !n us$ only = *eck+ ^? 9 daily use4 ,pyromet] c\ples are m or less exp5sive1 & %\ld be c>$ f> :5 9 use4 ,! wires ( ! c\ple %\ld be insulat$ f ea* o!r by fireclay leads or tubes1 & x is well to encase !m 9 a fireclay1 porcela91 or qu>tz tube to keep out ! furnace gases1 :i* 9 "t de/roy ! hot junction4 ,?is tube ( fireclay1 or porcela91 etc41 %\ld be protect$ aga9/ breakage by an iron or ni*rome tube1 plugg$ or weld$ at ! hot end4 ,^! simple precautions w prolong ! life ( a c\ple & ma9ta9 its precision long]4 ,sometimes errone\s temp]atures are record$ because ! cold end ( ! c\ple is too ne> ! furnace & gets hot4 ,?is always causes a temp]ature read+ l[] ?an ! actual1 & %\ld be gu>d$ aga9/4 ,x is well to keep ! cold end cool ) wat]1 a wet clo?1 or by plac+ x :]e coal air w circulate ar\nd x4 ,be/ ( all1 is to h ! cold junction 9 a box1 toge!r ) a !rmomet]1 s t its temp]ature may def9itely be kn[n4 ,if ?is temp]ature %\ld rise #bj;,f4 on a hot day1 a correction ( #bj;,f4 %\ld be add$ to ! pyromet] read+1 & s on4 ,9 ! mo/ up-to-date in/allations1 ?is cold junction comp5sation is tak5 c>e ( automatically1 a fact :i* indicates its importance4 ,optical pyromet]s are (t5 us$ :]e x is impracticable to use ! !rmo-c\ple1 ei!r because ! temp]ature is s high t x w\ld de/roy ! c\ple1 or ! heat to be measur$ is inaccessible to ! c\ple ( ord9>y l5g?4 ,! temp]atures ( slag or metal 9 furnaces or runn+ ?r\gh tap-holes or tr\ghs are (t5 measur$ ) optical pyromet]s4 ,9 "o type ( optical pyromet]1 ! obs]v] focuses x on ! metal or slag & moves an adju/able dial or gage s z to get an exact comp>ison betwe5 ! color ( ! heat measur$ ) ! calor ( a lamp or scre5 9 ! pyromet] itself4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 requires practice1 & judgm5t1 & br+s 9 ! p]sonal equation4 ,) c>e1 h[ev]1 v reliable temp]ature measurem5ts may be made4 ,! temp]atures ( rails1 z !y leave ! f9i%+ pass ( a roll+ mill1 are measur$ 9 ?is way4 ,ano!r type ( optical pyromet] is focus$ on ! body1 ! temp]ature ( :i* is to be measur$4 ,! rays conv]ge 9 ! telescope on metal cells1 heat+ !m1 & !reby g5]at+ a small electric curr5t1 ! voltage ( :i* is read an a calibrat$ voltmet] simil> to t us$ ) ! !rmo-c\ple4 ,! be/ precision is obta9$ :5 an optical pyromet] is us$ ea* "t "u simil> conditions ( light & ! same obs]v]4 ,:]e x is impracticable to use ei!r !rmo-c\ples or optical pyromet]s1 s5t9els may be us$4 ,!re are small cones or cyl9d]s made ( salts or o!r sub/ances ( kn[n melt+ po9ts & cov]+ a wide range ( temp]atures4 ,if six ( ^! s5t9els1 melt+ respectively at #a1cjj1 #a1cej1 #a1djj1 #a1dej1 #a1ejj1 & #a1eej;,f41 7 plac$ 9 a r[ 9 a furnace1 toge!r ) a piece ( /eel to be treat$1 & ! :ole heat$ up uni=mly1 ! s5t9els w\ld melt "o by "o & ! obs]v]1 by wat*+ !m ?r\gh an op5+ 9 ! furnace1 c\ld tell :5 8 furnace is at say #a1ejj or betwe5 #a1ejj & #a1eej1 & regulate ! heat accord+ly4 ,a v accurate type ( pyromet]1 b "o n s commonly us$ z ^? previ\sly describ$1 is ! resi/ance pyromet]4 ,9 ?is type1 ! temp]ature is det]m9$ by measur+ ! resi/ance to an electric curr5t ( a wire :i* is at ! heat to be measur$4 ,?is wire is usually ( plat9um1 w\nd ar\nd a qu>tz tube1 ! :ole be+ plac$ 9 ! furnace4 ,:5 ! wire is at ! temp]ature ( ! furnace1 x is connect$ by wires ) a ,:eat/one ,bridge1 a delicate device = measur+ electrical resi/ance1 & an electric curr5t is pass$ ?r\gh ! wire4 ,?is curr5t is balanc$ by swit*+ 9 resi/ances 9 ! ,:eat/one ,bridge1 until a delicate electrical device %[s t no curr5t is fl[+4 ,! resi/ance ( ! plat9um wire at ! heat to be measur$ is ?us det]m9$ on ! ,bridge1 & ! temp]ature read (f on a calibration *>t1 :i* %[s ! resi/ance at v>i\s temp]atures4 ,^! are ! common me?ods us$ to-day = measur+ temp]atures1 b :atev] me?od is us$1 ! obs]v] %\ld be> 9 m9d t ! greate/ precision is obta9$1 & h5ce ! highe/ effici5cy1 by keep+ ! app>atus 9 good work+ ord]1 mak+ sure t conditions are ! same ea* "t1 & calibrat+ or *eck+ aga9/ a /&>d at regul> int]vals4 ,,! ,,pyromet] ,,& ,,its ,,use ,9 ! heat treatm5t ( /eel1 x has become absolutely necess>y t a measur+ in/rum5t be us$ :i* w give ! op]ator an exact read+ ( heat 9 furnace4 ,!re are a numb] ( in/rum5ts & devices manufactur$ = ?is purpose b any in/rum5t t w n give a direct read+ )\t any guess "w %\ld h no place 9 ! heat-treat+ dep>tm5t4 ,a pyromet] in/allation is v simple & any ( ! lead+ mak]s w furni% diagrams = ! correct wir+ & give detail$ in=mation z to ! prop] c>e (1 & h[ be/ to use _! p>ticul> in/rum5t4 ,!re are c]ta9 g5]al pr9ciples1 h[ev]1 t mu/ be obs]v$ by ! op]ators & x _c be too /rongly impress$ ^u !m t ! human factor involv$ is always ! decid+ factor 9 ! heat treatm5t ( /eel4 ,a pyromet] is m]ely an aid 9 ! p]=mance ( do+ good "w1 & :5 c>efully obs]v$ w help 9 giv+ a uni=mity ( product & act z a *eck on c>eless op]ators4 ,! op]ator mu/ be> 9 m9d t al?\gh ! read+ on ! pyromet] scale gives a measure ( ! temp]ature :]e ! junction ( ! two metals is locat$1 x w n give ! temp]ature at ! c5t] ( "w 9 ! furnace1 unless by previ\s te/s1 ! heat = p5etrat+ a c]ta9 bulk ( mat]ial has be5 decid$ on1 & ! "t necess>y = su* p5etration is kn[n4 ,ea* analysis ( pla9 c>bon or alloy /eel is a problem 9 itself4 ,its critical temp]atures w be locat$ at slightly diff]5t heats ?an = a /eel :i* has a diff]5t proportion ( alloy+ elem5ts4 ,fur!rmore1 x takes "t = metal to acquire ! heat ( ! furnace4 ,ev5 ! out] surface lags beh9d ! temp]ature ( ! furnace some:at1 & ! c5t] ( ! piece ( /eel lags /ill fur!r4 ,x is app>5t1 !re=e1 t temp]ature1 al?\gh important1 does n tell ! :ole /ory 9 heat treatm5t4 ,"t is also a factor4 ,"t at temp]ature is also ( great importance because x takes "t1 aft] ! temp]ature has be5 rea*$1 = ! v>i\s int]nal *anges to take place4 ,h5ce ! necessity = soak+1 :5 anneal+ or normaliz+4 ,!re=e1 a clock is z necess>y to ! prop] pyromet] equipm5t z ! pyromet] itself4 ,= ! purpose ( g5]al "w :]e a wide range ( /eels or a v>iable treatm5t is call$ =1 x becomes necess>y to h ! pyromet] calibrat$ con/antly1 & :5 no ma/] in/rum5t is kept = ?is purpose ! foll[+ me?od c be us$ to give ! desir$ results3 ,,calibration ,,( ,,pyromet] ,,) ,,common ,,salt ,an easy & conv5i5t me?od = /&>dization & "o :i* does n necessitate ! use ( an exp5sive laboratory equipm5t is t bas$ ^u det]m9+ ! melt+ po9t ( common table salt 7sodium *loride74 ,:ile !oretically salt t is *emically pure %\ld be us$ 7& ?is is nei!r exp5sive nor difficult to procure71 comm]cial accuracy may be obta9$ by us+ common table salt su* z is sold by e groc]4 ,! salt is melt$ 9 a clean crucible ( fireclay1 iron or nickel1 ei!r 9 a furnace or ov] a =ge-fire1 & !n fur!r heat$ until a temp]ature ( ab\t #a1fjj to #a1fej;,f4 is atta9$4 ,x is ess5tial t ?is crucible be clean because a slight admixture ( a =eign sub/ance might noticeably *ange ! melt+ po9t4 ,! !rmo-c\ple to be calibrat$ is !n remov$ f its protect+ tube & its hot end is imm]s$ 9 ! salt ba?4 ,:5 ?is end has rea*$ ! temp]ature ( ! ba?1 ! crucible is remov$ f ! s\rce ( heat & all[$ to cool1 & cool+ read+s are !n tak5 e #aj sec4 on ! milli-voltmet] or pyromet]4 ,a curve is !n plott$ by us+ "t & temp]ature z cord9ates1 & ! temp]ature ( ! freez+ po9t ( salt1 z indicat$ by ?is p>ticul> !rmoc\ple1 is not$1 i4e41 at ! po9t :]e ! temp]ature ( ! ba? rema9s tempor>ily con/ant :ile ! salt is freez+4 ,! l5g? ( "t dur+ :i* ! temp]ature is /ation>y dep5ds on ! size ( ! ba? & ! rate ( cool+1 & is n a factor 9 ! calibration4 ,! melt+ po9t ( salt is #a1dgb;,f41 & ! ne$$ correction = ! in/rum5t "u obs]vation c be readily appli$4 ,x %\ld n be und]/ood f ! above1 h[ev]1 t ! salt-ba? calibration _c be made )\t plott+ a curve2 9 actual practice at lea/ a hundr$ te/s are made )\t plott+ any curve to "o 9 :i* x is done4 ,! obs]v]1 if awake1 may reasonably be expect$ to h suffici5t appreciation ( ! lapse ( "t def9itely to obs]ve ! temp]ature at :i* ! fall+ po9t] ( ! in/rum5t halts4 ,! gradual dropp+ ( ! po9t] be=e freez+1 unless !re is a l>ge mass ( salt1 takes place rapidly en\gh = "o to be sure t ! temp]ature is con/antly fall+1 & ! long p]iod ( re/ dur+ freez+ is q def9ite4 ,! proc$ure ( detect+ ! solidification po9t ( ! salt by ! hesitation ( ! po9t] )\t plott+ any curve is sugge/$ because ( its simplicity4 ,,complete ,,calibration ,,( ,,pyromet]s4--,= ! complete calibration ( a !rmo-c\ple ( unkn[n electromotive =ce1 ! new c\ple may be *eck$ aga9/ a /&>d in/rum5t1 plac+ ! two b>e c\ples side by side 9 a suitable tube & tak+ frequ5t read+s ov] ! range ( temp]atures desir$4 ,if only "o in/rum5t1 su* z a millivoltmet]1 is available1 & !re is no /&>d c\ple at h&1 ! new c\ple may be calibrat$ ov] a wide range ( temp]atures by ! use ( ! foll[+ /&>ds3 ,wat]1 boil+ po9t #bab;,f4 ,t91 "u *>coal1 freez+ po9t #dej;,f4 ,lead1 "u *>coal1 freez+ po9t #fba;,f4 ,z9c1 "u *>coal1 freez+ po9t #ghf;,f4 ,sulphur1 boil+ po9t #hcb;,f4 ,alum9um1 "u *>coal1 freez+ po9t #a1baf;,f4 ,sodium *loride 7salt71 freez+ po9t #a1dgd;,f4 ,potassium sulphate1 freez+ po9t #a1ieh;,f4 ,a good practice is to make "o pyromet] a /&>d2 calibrate x frequ5tly by ! melt+-po9t-(-salt me?od1 & ea* morn+ *eck up e pyromet] 9 ! works ) ! /&>d1 mak+ ! necess>y corrections to be us$ = ! day's "w4 ,by pursu+ ?is c\rse sy/ematically1 ! improv$ quality ( ! product w mu* m ?an comp5sate = ! extra "w4 ,! purity ( ! sub/ance affects its freez+ or melt+ po9t4 ,! melt+ po9t ( common salt is giv5 9 "o widely us$ h&book at #a1dba;,f41 al?\gh *emically pure sodium *loride melts at #a1dgd;,f4 z %[n above4 ,a suffici5t quantity = an ext5d$ p]iod %\ld be secur$4 ,te/ ! melt+ po9t ) a pyromet] ( kn[n accuracy4 ,kn[+ ?is temp]ature x w be easy to calibrate o!r pyromet]s4 ,,plac+ ,,( ,,pyromet]s4--,:5 in/all+ a pyromet]1 c>e %\ld be tak5 t x rea*es directly to ! po9t desir$ to be measur$1 t ! cold junction is kept cold1 & t ! wires lead+ to ! record+ in/rum5t are kept 9 good %ape4 ,! l5g? ( ^! lead wires h an effect2 ! long] !y are1 ! l[] ! app>5t temp]ature4 ,:5 pyromet]s plac$ 9 a numb] ( furnaces are connect$ up 9 s]ies1 & a multiple swit* is us$ = control1 x becomes app>5t t pyromet]s c\ld n be int]*ang$ betwe5 furnaces ne> & f> f ! in/rum5t )\t affect+ ! uni=mity ( product f ea* furnace4 ,calibration c be/ be done )\t di/urb+ ! work+ pyromet]1 by ins]t+ ! ma/] in/rum5t into ea* furnace sep>ately1 place x alongside ! hot junction ( ! work+ pyromet]1 & comp>e ! read+ giv5 on ! indicator connect$ ) ! multiple swit*4 ,protection tubes %\ld be replac$ :5 crack$1 z x is important t no =eign sub/ance is all[$ to freeze 9 ! tube1 s t ! enclos$ junction becomes a "p ( a solid mass jo9$ 9 electrical contact ) ! outside protect+ tube4 ,wires ov] ! furnaces mu/ be c>efully inspect$ f "t to "t1 z no true read+ c be _h on an in/rum5t1 if insulation is burn$ (f & %ort circuits result4 ,if ! /&>d calibrat+ in/rum5t us$ conta9s a dry batt]y1 x %\ld be exam9$ f "t to "t to be sure x is 9 good condition4 ,,! ,,le$s ,,& ,,nor?rup ,,pot5tiomet] ,,sy/em ,! pot5tiomet] pyromet] sy/em is bo? flexible & sub/antial 9 t x is n affect$ by ! j> & vibration ( ! factory or ! =ge %op4 ,l>ge or small c\ples1 long or %ort leads c be us$ )\t adju/m5t4 ,! record+ in/rum5t may be plac$ :]e x is mo/ conv5i5t1 )\t reg>d to ! di/ance f ! furnace4 ,,its ,,fundam5tal ,,pr9ciple4--,! pot5tiomet] is ! electrical equival5t ( ! *emical balance1 or balance arm scales4 ,measurem5ts are made ) balance scales by v>y+ kn[n weights until !y equal ! unkn[n weight4 ,:5 ! two are equal ! scales /& at z]o1 t is1 9 ! position :i* !y occupy :5 !re is no weight on ei!r pan2 ! scales are !n said to be balanc$4 ,measurem5ts are made ) ! pot5tiomet] by v>y+ a kn[n electromotive =ce until x equals ! unkn[n2 :5 ! two are equal ! index ( ! pot5tiomet]1 ! galvanomet] ne$le1 /&s motionless z x is alt]nately connect$ & disconnect$4 ,! v>iable kn[n weights are units sep>ate f ! scales1 b ! pot5tiomet] provides its own v>iable kn[n electromotive =ce4 ,! pot5tiomet] provides1 fir/1 a means ( secur+ a kn[n v>iable electromotive =ce &1 second1 suitable electrical connections = br++ t electromotive =ce to a po9t :]e x may be balanc$ aga9/ ! unkn[n electromotive =ce ( ! c\ple4 ,! two are connect$ ) opposite pol>ity1 or s t ! two e4m4f4s oppose "o ano!r4 ,s long z "o is /rong] ?an ! o!r a curr5t w fl[ ?r\gh ! c\ple2 :5 ! two are equal no curr5t w fl[4 ,figure #ajg %[s ! wir+ ( ! pot5tiomet] 9 its simple/ =m4 ,! !rmo-c\ple is at ,h1 ) its pol>ity z %[n by ! symbols & -4 ,x is connect$ ) ! ma9 circuit ( ! pot5tiomet] at ! fix$ po9t ,d & ! po9t ,g4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4--,simple pot5tiomet]4 ,a curr5t f ! dry cell ,ba is con/antly fl[+ ?r\gh ! ma91 or s-call$ pot5tiomet] circuit1 ,,abcdgef4 ,! section ,,dge ( ?is circuit is a slide wire1 uni=m 9 resi/ance ?r\gh\t its l5g?4 ,! scale is fix$ on ?is slide wire4 ,! curr5t f ! cell ,ba z x fl[s ?r\gh ,,dge1 und]goes a fall 9 pot5tial1 sett+ up a diff]5ce 9 voltage1 t is1 an electromotive =ce1 betwe5 ,d & ,e4 ,!re w also be electromotive =ce betwe5 ,d & all o!r po9ts on ! slide wire4 ,! pol>ity ( ?is is 9 opposition to ! pol>ity ( ! !rmo-c\ple :i* connects into ! pot5tiomet] at ,d & at ,g4 ,by mov+ ,g along ! slide wire a po9t is f\nd :]e ! voltage betwe5 ,d & ,g 9 ! slide wire is j equal to ! voltage betwe5 ,d & ,g g5]at$ by ! !rmo-c\ple4 ,a galvanomet] 9 ! !rmo-c\ple circuit indicates :5 ! balance po9t is rea*$1 s9ce at ?is po9t ! galvanomet] ne$le w /& motionless :5 its circuit is op5$ & clos$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4--,/&>d cell pot5tiomet]4 ,! voltage 9 ! slide wire w v>y ) ! curr5t fl[+ ?r\gh x f ! cell ,ba & a means ( /&>diz+ ?is is provid$4 ,,sc1 ,fig4 #aaa1 is a cadmium cell ^: voltage is con/ant4 ,x is connect$ at two po9ts ,c & ,d to ! pot5tiomet] circuit :5ev] ! pot5tiomet] curr5t is to be /&>diz$4 ,at ?is "t ! galvanomet] is ?r[n 9 s]ies ) ,,sc4 ,! v>iable rheo/at ,r is !n adju/$ until ! curr5t fl[+ is su* t z x fl[s ?r\gh ! /&>d resi/ance ,,cd1 ! fall 9 pot5tial betwe5 ,c & ,d is j equal to ! voltage ( ! /&>d cell ,,sc4 ,at ?is "t ! galvanomet] w indicate a balance 9 ! same way z :5 x 0 us$ ) a !rmo-c\ple4 ,by ?is op]ation ! curr5t 9 ! slide wire ,,dge has be5 /&>diz$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aab4--;,h& adju/$ cold-end comp5sator4 ,,developm5t ,,( ,,! ,,wir+ ,,s*eme ,,( ,,! ,,cold-,,end ,,comp5sator4--,! net voltage g5]at$ by a !rmo-c\ple dep5ds ^u ! temp]ature ( ! hot end & ! temp]ature ( ! cold end4 ,!re=e1 any me?od adopt$ = read+ temp]ature by means ( !rmo-c\ples mu/ 9 "s way provide a means ( correct+ = ! temp]ature ( ! cold end4 ,! pot5tiomet] may h ei!r ( two v simple devices = ?is purpose4 ,9 "o =m ! op]ator is requir$ to set a small index to a po9t on a scale correspond+ to ! kn[n cold junction temp]ature4 ,9 ! o!r =m an ev5 m simple automatic comp5sator is employ$4 ,! pr9ciple ( ea* is describ$ 9 ! succe$+ p>agraphs1 9 :i* ! assumption is made t ! read] already und]/&s ! pot5tiomet] pr9ciple z describ$ above4 ,z previ\sly expla9$ ! voltage ( ! !rmo-c\ple is measur$ by balanc+ x aga9/ ! voltage drop ,,dg 9 ! pot5tiomet]4 ,z %[n 9 ,fig4 #aaa1 ! magnitude ( ! balanc+ voltage is controll$ by ! position ( ,g4 ,make ,d movable z %[n 9 ,fig4 #aab & ! magnitude ( ! voltage ,,dg may be v>i$ ei!r f ! po9t ,d or ! po9t ,g4 ,?is gives a means ( comp5sat+ = cold end *anges by sett+ ! slid] ,d4 ,z ! cold end temp]ature rises ! net voltage g5]at$ by ! c\ple decreases1 assum+ ! hot end temp]ature to be con/ant4 ,to balance ?is decreas$ voltage ! slid] ,d is mov$ along its scale to a new po9t ne>] ,g4 ,9 o!r words1 ! slid] ,d is mov$ along its scale until x corresponds to ! kn[n temp]ature ( ! cold end & !n ! pot5tiomet] is balanc$ by mov+ ! slid] ,g4 ,! read+s ( ,g w !n be direct4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aac4--;,ano!r type ( comp5sator4 ,! same results w be obta9$ if a slide wire ^u :i* ,d be>s is 9 p>allel ) ! slide wire ( ,g1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #aac4 ,,automatic ,,comp5sator4--,x %\ld be not$ t ! effect ( mov+ ! contact ,d1 ,fig4 #aac1 is to v>y ! ratio ( ! resi/ances on ! two sides ( ! po9t ,d 9 ! second>y slide wire4 ,9 ! record+ pyromet]s1 an automatic comp5sator is employ$4 ,?is automatic comp5sator v>ies ! ratio on ! two sides ( ! po9t ,d 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,! po9t ,d1 ,fig4 #aad1 is me*anically fix$2 on "o side ( ,d is ! con/ant resi/ance coil ,m1 on ! o!r ! nickel coil ,n4 ,n is plac$ at or ne> ! cold end ( ! !rmo-c\ple 7or c\ples74 ,nickel has a high temp]ature coeffici5t & ! electrical proportions ( ,m & ,n are su* t ! resi/ance *ange ( ,n1 z x v>ies ) ! temp]ature ( ! cold end1 has ! same effect ^u ! balanc+ voltage betwe5 ,d & ,g t ! movem5t ( ! po9t ,d1 ,fig4 #aad1 has 9 ! h&-op]at$ comp5sator4 ,in/rum5ts embody+ ^! pr9ciples are %[n 9 ,figs4 #aae to #aag4 ,! captions mak+ _! uses cle>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aad4--;,automatic cold-end comp5sator4 ,,plac+ ,,! ,,!rmo-,,c\ples ,! foll[+ illu/rations f ! ,taylor ,in/rum5t ,company %[ diff]5t applications ( ! !rmo-c\ples to furnaces ( v>i\s k9ds4 ,figure #aah %[s an oil-fir$ furnace ) a simple v]tical in/allation4 ,figure #aai %[s a me?od ( imb$d+ ! !rmo-c\ple 9 ! floor ( a furnace s z to require no space 9 ! heat+ *amb]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aae4--,pot5tiomet] ready = use4 ,v>i\s me?ods ( apply+ a pyromet] to common heat-treatm5t furnaces are %[n 9 ,figs4 #abj to #abb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4--;,eight-po9t record+ pyromet]-,c>p5t] ,/eel ,co4 ,,le$s ,,& ,,nor?rup ,,optical ,,pyromet] ,! pr9ciples ( ?is v popul> me?od ( measur+ temp]ature are sket*$ 9 ,fig4 #abc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aag4--,multiple-po9t !rmoc\ple record]--,be?lehem ,/eel ,co4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aah4--,tycos pyromet] 9 oil-fir$ furnace4 ,! in/rum5t is light & portable1 & c be sight$ z easily z an op]a glass4 ,! telescope1 :i* is held 9 ! h&1 weighs only #be oz42 & ! case conta9+ ! batt]y1 rheo/at & milliammet]1 :i* is slung f ! %\ld]1 only #aj lb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aai4--,!rmoc\ple 9 floor ( furnace4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abj4--,pyromet] 9 gas furnace4 ,a l>ge surface to sight at is n requir$4 ,s long z ! image =m$ by ! objective is broad] ?an ! lamp filam5t1 ! temp]ature c be measur$ accurately4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aba4--,tycos multiple indicat+ pyromet] & record]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abb4--,pyromet] 9 galvaniz+ tank4 ,di/ance does n matt]1 z ! brightness ( ! image =m$ by ! l5s is practically con/ant1 reg>dless ( ! di/ance ( ! in/rum5t f ! hot object4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abc4--,le$s ,nor?rup optical pyromet]4 ,! manipulation is simple & rapid1 consi/+ m]ely 9 ! turn+ ( a knurl$ knob4 ,! sett+ is made ) great precision1 due to ! rapid *ange 9 light int5sity ) *ange 9 temp]ature & to ! s5sitiv5ess ( ! eye to diff]5ces ( light int5sity4 ,9 ! region ( temp]atures us$ = h>d5+ /eel1 = example1 diff]5t obs]v]s us+ ! in/rum5t w agree )9 #c;,c4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abd4--,too l[4 ,,fig4 #abe4--,too high4 ,,fig4 #abf4--;,correct4 ,only brightness1 n color1 ( light is mat*$1 z light ( only "o color rea*es ! eye4 ,color bl9dness1 !re=e1 is no h9drance to ! use ( ?is me?od4 ,! use ( ! in/rum5t is %[n 9 ,fig4 #abg4 ,,optical ,,sy/em ,,& ,,electrical ,,circuit ,,( ,,! ,,le$s ,,nor?rup ,,optical ,,pyromet]4--,= extremely high temp]ature1 ! optical pyromet] is l>gely us$4 ,?is is a comp>ative me?od4 ,by means ( ! rheo/at ! curr5t ?r\gh ! lamp is adju/$ until ! brightness ( ! filam5t is j equal to ! brightness ( ! image produc$ by ! l5s ,l1 ,fig4 #abc1 :]eupon ! filam5t bl5ds ) or becomes indi/+ui%able 9 ! backgr\nd =m$ by ! image ( ! hot object4 ,?is adju/m5t c be made ) great accuracy & c]ta9ty1 z ! effect ( radiation ^u ! eye v>ies "s tw5ty times fa/] ?an does ! temp]ature at #a1fjj;,f41 & "s f\rte5 times fa/] at #c1djj;,f4 ,:5 a balance has be5 obta9$1 ! obs]v] notes ! read+ ( ! milliammet]4 ,! temp]ature correspond+ to ! curr5t is !n read f a calibration curve suppli$ ) ! in/rum5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abg4--,us+ ! optical pyromet]4 ,z ! int5sity ( ! light emitt$ at ! high] temp]atures becomes dazzl+1 x is f\nd desirable to introduce a piece ( r$ glass 9 ! eye piece at ,r4 ,?is also elim9ates any "q ( mat*+ colors1 or ( ! obs]v]'s ability to di/+ui% colors4 ,x is fur!r ( value 9 deal+ ) bodies :i* d n radiate light ( ! same composition z t emitt$ by a black body1 s9ce nev]!less ! int5sity ( radiation ( any "o color f su* bodies increases progressively 9 a def9ite mann] z ! temp]ature rises4 ,! int5sity ( ?is "o color c !re=e be us$ z a measure ( temp]ature = ! body 9 "q4 ,figures #abd to #abf %[ ! way x is read4 ,,correction ,,= ,,cold-,,junction ,,errors ,! voltage g5]at$ by a !rmo-c\ple ( an electric pyromet] is dep5d5t on ! diff]5ce 9 temp]ature betwe5 its hot junction1 inside ! furnace1 & ! cold junction1 or opposite end ( ! !rmo-c\ple to :i* ! copp] wires are connect$4 ,if ! temp]ature or ?is cold junction rises & falls1 ! indications ( ! in/rum5t w v>y1 al?\gh ! hot junction 9 ! furnace may be at a con/ant temp]ature4 ,a cold-junction temp]ature ( #ge;,f41 or #be;,c41 is usually adopt$ 9 comm]cial pyromet]s1 & ! po9t] on ! pyromet] %\ld /& at ?is po9t on ! scale :5 ! hot junction is n heat$4 ,if ! cold-junction temp]ature rises ab\t #ge;,f41 :]e base metal !rmo-c\ples are us$1 ! pyromet] w read approximately #a l[ = e #a rise 9 temp]ature above #ge;,f4 ,= example1 if ! in/rum5t is adju/$ = a cold-junction temp]ature ( #ge1 & ! actual cold-junction temp]ature is #ij;,f41 ! pyromet] w read #ae l[4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! cold-junction temp]ature falls bel[ #ge;,f41 ! pyromet] w read high in/ead ( l[1 approximately #a = e #a drop 9 temp]ature bel[ #ge;,f4 ,) plat9um !rmo-c\ples1 ! error is approximately #a_/b = #a *ange 9 temp]ature4 ,,correction ,,by ,,z]o ,,adju/m5t4--,_m pyromet]s are suppli$ ) a z]o adju/]1 by means ( :i* ! po9t] c be set to any actual cold-junction temp]ature4 ,if ! cold junction ( ! !rmo-c\ple is 9 a temp]ature ( #ajj;,f41 ! po9t] c be set to ?is po9t on ! scale1 & ! read+s ( ! in/rum5t w be correct4 ,,comp5sat+ ,,leads4--,by ! use ( comp5sat+ leads1 =m$ ( ! same mat]ial z ! !rmo-c\ple1 ! cold junction c be remov$ f ! head ( ! !rmo-c\ple to a po9t #aj1 #bj or #ej ft4 di/ant f ! furnace1 :]e ! temp]ature is reasonably con/ant4 ,:]e great] accuracy is desir$1 a common me?od is to drive a #b-;94 pipe1 ) a po9t$ clos$ end1 "s #aj to #bj ft4 into ! gr\nd1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #abh4 ,! comp5sat+ leads are jo9$ to ! copp] leads1 & ! junction =c$ d[n to ! bottom ( ! pipe4 ,! cold junction is n[ 9 ! gr\nd1 b5ea? ! build+1 at a dep? at :i* ! temp]ature is v con/ant1 ab\t #gj;,f41 ?r\gh\t ! ye>4 ,?is me?od w usually control ! cold-junction temp]ature )9 #e;,f4 ,:]e ! greate/ accuracy is desir$ a comp5sat+ box w ov]come cold-junction errors entirely4 ,x consi/s ( a case enclos+ a lamp & !rmo/at1 :i* c be adju/$ to ma9ta9 any desir$ temp]ature1 f #ej to #aej;,f4 ,! comp5sat+ leads ent] ! box & copp] leads run f ! comp5sat+ box to ! in/rum5t1 s t ! cold junction is )9 ! box4 ,figure #abi %[s a ,br[n comp5sat+ box4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abh4--;,correct+ cold-junction error4 ,if x is desir$ to ma9ta9 ! cold junction at #ajj3 ! !rmo/at is set at ?is po9t1 & ! lamp1 be+ wir$ to ! #aaj- or #bbj-volt light+ circuit1 w light & heat ! box until #ajj is rea*$1 :5 ! !rmo/at w op5 ! circuit & ! light is ext+ui%$4 ,! box w n[ cool d[n to #ih1 :5 ! circuit is aga9 clos$1 ! lamp lights1 ! box heats up1 & ! op]ation is repeat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abi4--;,comp5sat+ box4 ,,br[n ,,automatic ,,signal+ ,,pyromet] ,9 l>ge heat-treat+ plants x has be5 cu/om>y to ma9ta9 an op]ator at a c5tral pyromet]1 & by color$ electric lights at ! furnaces1 signal :e!r ! temp]atures are correct or n4 ,x is common practice to locate ?ree lights above ea* furnace-r$1 :ite & gre54 ,! r$ light burns :5 ! temp]ature is too l[1 ! :ite light :5 ! temp]ature is )9 c]ta9 limits--= example1 #bj;,f4 ( ! correct temp]ature--& ! gre5 light :5 ! temp]ature is too high4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acj4--;,br[n automatic signal+ pyromet]4 ,in/rum5ts to op]ate ! lights automatically h be5 devis$ & "o made by ,br[n is %[n 9 ,fig4 #acj4 ,! same =m ( in/rum5t is us$ = ?is purpose to automatically control furnace temp]atures1 & ! po9t] is depress$ at int]vals ( e #aj sec4 on contacts correspond+ to ! r$1 :ite & gre5 lights4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aca4--;,automatic temp]ature control4 ,,an ,,automatic ,,temp]ature ,,control ,,pyromet] ,automatic temp]ature control in/rum5ts are simil> to ! ,br[n indicat+ high resi/ance pyromet] ) ! exception t ! po9t] is depress$ at int]vals ( e #aj sec4 ^u contact-mak+ devices4 ,no curr5t passes ?r\gh ! po9t] :i* simply depresses ! upp] contact device tipp$ ) plat9um1 :i* 9 turn comes 9 contact ) ! l[] contact device1 plat9um-tipp$1 & ! circuit is complet$ ?r\gh ^! two contacts4 ,! curr5t is v small1 ab\t #a_/aj amp41 z x is only necess>y to op]ate ! relay :i* 9 turn op]ates ! swit* or valve4 ,a small motor is us$ to depress ! po9t] at regul> int]vals4 ,! contact-mak+ device is adju/able ?r\gh\t ! scale range ( ! in/rum5t1 & an index po9t] indicates ! po9t on ! in/rum5t at :i* ! temp]ature is be+ controll$4 ,! space betwe5 ! two contacts on ! high & l[ side1 sep>at$ by insulat+ mat]ial1 is equival5t to #a p] c5t ( ! scale range4 ,a control ( temp]ature is !re=e possible )9 #a p] c5t ( ! total scale range4 ,figure #aca %[s ?is atta*$ to a small furnace4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acb4--,portable !rmoc\ple te/+ molt5 brass4 ,,pyromet]s ,,= ,,molt5 ,,metal ,pyromet]s = molt5 metal are connect$ to portable !rmoc\ples z 9 ,fig4 #acb4 ,usually ! pyromet] is portable1 z %[n 9 ?is case1 :i* is a ,br[n4 ,o!r me?ods ( m\nt+ = ?is k9d ( "w arc %[n 9 ,figs4 #acc & #acd4 ,! b5t m\nt+s are design$ = molt5 metal1 su* z brass or copp] & are suppli$ ) ei!r clay1 graphite or c>borundum tubes4 ,fifte5 feet ( connect+ wire is usually suppli$4 ,! angle m\nt+s1 ,fig4 #acd1 are recomm5d$ = ba?s su* z lead or cyanide4 ,! horizontal arm is usually ab\t #ad 94 long1 & ! :ole m\nt+ is easily tak5 ap>t mak+ replacem5ts v easy4 ,details ( ! !rmo-c\ple %[n 9 ,fig4 #acb are giv5 9 ,fig4 #ace4 ,?is is a /raight rod ) a protector = ! h& ( ! op]ator4 ,! lag 9 su* c\ples is less ?an "o m9ute4 ,^! are ,engleh>d m\nt+s4 ,,protectors ,,= ,,!rmo-,,c\ples ,!rmo-c\ples mu/ be protect$ f ! dang] ( me*anical injury4 ,= ?is purpose tubes ( v>i\s refractory mat]ials are made to act z protectors4 ,^! 9 turn are usually protect$ by outside metal tubes4 ,pure wr\ght iron is l>gely us$ = ?is purpose z x scales & oxidizes v sl[ly4 ,^! tubes are usually made f #b to #d 94 %ort] ?an ! inn] tubes4 ,9 lead ba?s ! iron tubes (t5 h "o end weld$ clos$ & are us$ 9 connection ) an angle =m ( m\nt+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acc4--;,b5t h&le !rmoc\ple ) protector4 ,:]e x is necess>y = protect+ tubes to project a consid]able di/ance into ! furnace a tube made ( ni*rome is frequ5tly us$4 ,?is is a comp>atively new alloy :i* /&s high temp]atures )\t b5d+4 ,x is m co/ly ?an iron b also mu* m durable4 ,:5 us$ 9 portable "w & = high temp]atures1 pure nickel tubes are sometimes us$4 ,!re is also a special metal tube made = use 9 cyanide4 ,?is metal )/&s ! int5se p5etrat+ *>act]i/ics ( cyanide4 ,x la/s f six to t5 mon?s z aga9/ a few days = ! iron tube4 ,! inn] tubes ( refractory mat]ials1 also v>y accord+ to ! purposes = :i* !y are to be us$4 ,!y are z foll[s3 ,,m>qu>dt ,,mass ,,tubes = temp]atures up to #c1jjj;,f41 b !y w n /& sudd5 *anges 9 temp]ature1 su* z 9 contact ) int]mitt5t flames1 )\t an extra out] cov]+ ( *amotte1 fireclay or c>borundum4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acd4--,o!r /yles ( b5t m\nt+4 ,,fus$ ,,silica ,,tubes = cont9u\s temp]atures up to #a1hjj;,f4 & int]mitt5tly up to #b1djj;,f4 ,! expansion at v>i\s temp]atures is v small1 :i* makes !m ( value = portable "w4 ,!y also resi/ mo/ acids4 ,,*amotte ,,tubes are useful up to #b1hjj;,f4 & are me*anically /rong4 ,!y h a small expansion & resi/ temp]ature *anges well1 :i* makes !m good z outside protectors = m fragile tubes4 ,!y _c be us$ 9 molt5 metals1 or ba?s ( any k9d nor 9 gases ( an alkal9e nature4 ,!y are us$ ma9ly to protect a ,m>qu>dt mass or silica tube4 ,,c>borundum ,,tubes are also us$ z outside protection to o!r tubes4 ,!y /& sudd5 *anges ( temp]ature well & resi/ all gases except *lor9e1 above #a1gej;,f4 ,especially useful 9 protect+ o!r tubes aga9/ molt5 alum9um1 brass1 copp] & simil> metals4 ,,clay ,,tubes are sometimes us$ 9 l>ge anneal+ furnaces :]e !y are cem5t$ into place1 =m+ a sort ( well = ! ins]tion ( ! !rmo-c\ple4 ,!y are also us$ ) portable !rmo-c\ples = obta9+ ! temp]atures ( molt5 iron & /eel 9 ladles4 ,us$ 9 ?is way !y are naturally %ort-liv$1 b seem ! be/ = ?is purpose4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ace4--,/raight !rmoc\ple & gu>d4 ,,corundite ,,tubes are us$ z an out] protection = bo? ! ,m>qu>dt mass & ! silica tubes = kilns & = glass furnaces4 ,graphite tubes are also us$ 9 "s cases = out] protections4 ,,caloriz$ ,,tubes are wr\ght-iron pipe treat$ ) alum9um vapor :i* (t5 d\bles or ev5 triples ! life ( ! tube at high temp]ature4 ,^! tubes come 9 diff]5t sizes & l5g?s dep5d+ on ! uses = :i* !y are int5d$4 ,heavy protect+ out] tubes may be only #a 94 9 inside diamet] & z mu* z #c 94 outside diamet]1 :ile ! inn] tubes1 su* z ! ,m>qu>dt mass & silica tubes are usually ab\t #c_/d 94 outside & #c_/h 94 inside diamet]4 ,! l5g? v>ies f #ab to #dh 94 9 mo/ cases4 ,special t]m9al heads are provid$1 ) brass b9d+ po/s = electrical connections1 & ) provisions = wat] cool+ :5 necess>y4 ,,app5dix ,,table #cb4--,temp]ature ,conv]sion ,tables4 ,,table #cc4--;,comp>ison ,betwe5 ,degrees ,c5tigrade & ,degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,,table #cd4--,weight ( ,r\nd1 ,octagon & ,squ>e ,c>bon ,tool ,/eel p] ,foot4 ,,table #ce4--,weight ( ,r\nd ,c>bon ,tool ,/eel #ab ,94 9 ,diamet] & ,l>g]1 p] ,foot4 ,,table #cf4--;,decimal ,equival5ts ( a foot4 ,,temp]ature ,,conv]sion ,,tables ,by ,,alb]t ,,sauveur ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- -#dei4d to #j #j to #ajj #ajj to #ajjj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,c4 ,f4 ,c4 ,f4 ,c4 ,f4 ,c4 ,f4 ,c4 ,f4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ -#bgc -#dei4d -#ag4h #j #cb #aj4j #ej #abb4j #ch #ajj #babbfj #ejj #icb -#bfh -#dej -#ag4b #a #cc4haj4f #ea #abc4h #dc #aaj #bcjbff #eaj #iej -#bfb -#ddj -#af4g #b #ce4faa4a #eb #abe4f #di #abj #bdhbga #ebj #ifh -#beg -#dcj -#af4a #c #cg4daa4g #ec #abg4d #ed #acj #bffbgg #ecj #ihf -#bea -#dbj -#ae4f #d #ci4bab4b #ed #abi4b #fj #adj #bhdbhb #edj #ajjd -#bdf -#daj -#ae4j #e #da4jab4h #ee #aca4j #ff #aej #cjbbhh #eej #ajbb -#bdj -#djj -#ad4d #f #db4hac4c #ef #acb4h #ga #afj #cbjbic #efj #ajdj -#bcd -#cij -#ac4i #g #dd4fac4i #eg #acd4f #gg #agj #ccfbii #egj #ajeh -#bbi -#chj -#ac4c #h #df4dad4d #eh #acf4d #hb #ahj #cehcjd #ehj #ajgf -#bbc -#cgj -#ab4h #i #dh4bae4j #ei #ach4b #hh #aij #cgdcaj #eij #ajid -#bah -#cfj -#ab4b #aj #ej4jae4f #fj #adj4j #ic #bjj #cibcaf #fjj #aaab -#bab -#cej -#aa4g #aa #ea4haf4a #fa #ada4h #ii #baj #dajcba #faj #aacj -#bjg -#cdj -#aa4a #ab #ec4faf4g #fb #adc4fajj #bab #daccbg #fbj #aadh -#bja -#ccj -#aj4f #ac #ee4dag4b #fc #ade4dajd #bbj #dbhccb #fcj #aaff -#aif -#cbj -#aj4j #ad #eg4bag4h #fd #adg4baaj #bcj #ddfcch #fdj #aahd -#aij -#caj -#i4dd #ae #ei4jah4c #fe #adi4jaaf #bdj #dfdcdc #fej #abjb -#ahd -#cjj -#h4hi #af #fa4hah4i #ff #aej4haba #bej #dhbcdi #ffj #abbj -#agi -#bij -#h4cc #ag #fc4fai4d #fg #aeb4fabg #bfj #ejjced #fgj #abch -#agc -#bhj -#g4gh #ah #fe4dbj4j #fh #aed4dacb #bgj #eahcfj #fhj #abef -#afi -#bgc -#dei4d -#g4bb #ai #fg4bbj4f #fi #aef4bach #bhj #ecfcff #fij #abgd -#afh -#bgj -#ded -#f4fg #bj #fh4jba4a #gj #aeh4jadc #bij #eedcga #gjj #abib -#afb -#bfj -#dcf -#f4aa #ba #fi4hba4g #ga #aei4hadi #cjj #egbcgg #gaj #acaj -#aeg -#bej -#dah -#e4ef #bb #ga4fbb4b #gb #afa4faed #caj #eijchb #gbj #acbh -#aea -#bdj -#djj -#e4jj #bc #gc4dbb4h #gc #afc4dafj #cbj #fjhchh #gcj #acdf -#adf -#bcj -#chb -#d4dd #bd #ge4bbc4c #gd #afe4baff #ccj #fbfcic #gdj #acfd -#adj -#bbj -#cfd -#c4hi #be #gg4jbc4i #ge #afg4jaga #cdj #fddcii #gej #achb -#acd -#baj -#cdf -#c4cc #bf #gh4hbd4d #gf #afh4hagg #cej #ffbdjd #gfj #adjj -#abi -#bjj -#cbh -#b4gh #bg #hj4fbe4j #gg #agj4fahb #cfj #fhjdaj #ggj #adah -#abc -#aij -#caj -#b4bb #bh #hb4dbe4f #gh #agb4dahh #cgj #fihdaf #ghj #adcf -#aah -#ahj -#bib -#a4fg #bi #hd4bbf4a #gi #agd4baic #chj #gafdba #gij #aded -#aab -#agj -#bgd -#a4aa #cj #hf4jbf4g #hj #agf4jaii #cij #gcddbg #hjj #adgb -#ajg -#afj -#bef -#j4ef #ca #hg4hbg4b #ha #agg4hbjd #djj #gebdcb #haj #adij -#aja -#aej -#bch #j #cb #hi4fbg4h #hb #agi4fbaj #daj #ggjdch #hbj #aejh -#ie4f -#adj -#bbj #j4ef #cc #ia4dbh4c #hc #aha4dbaf #dbj #ghhddc #hcj #aebf -#ij4j -#acj -#bjb #a4aa #cd #ic4bbh4i #hd #ahc4bbba #dcj #hjfddi #hdj #aedd -#hd4d -#abj -#ahd #a4fg #ce #ie4jbi4d #he #ahe4jbbg #ddj #hbdded #hej #aefb -#gh4i -#aaj -#aff #b4bb #cf #if4hcj4j #hf #ahf4hbcb #dej #hdbdfj #hfj #aehj -#gc4c -#ajj -#adh #b4gh #cg #ih4fcj4f #hg #ahh4fbch #dfj #hfjdff #hgj #aeih -#fg4h -#ij -#acj #c4cc #ch #ajj4dca4a #hh #aij4dbdc #dgj #hghdga #hhj #afaf -#fb4b -#hj -#aab #c4hi #ci #ajb4bca4g #hi #aib4bbdi #dhj #hifdgg #hij #afcd -#ef4g -#gj -#id #d4dd #dj #ajd4jcb4b #ij #aid4jbed #dij #iaddhb #ijj #afeb -#ea4a -#fj -#gf #e4jj #da #aje4hcb4h #ia #aie4h #dhh #iaj #afgj -#de4f -#ej -#eh #e4ef #db #ajg4fcc4c #ib #aig4f #dic #ibj #afhh -#dj4j -#dj -#dj #f4aa #dc #aji4dcc4i #ic #aii4d #dii #icj #agjf -#cd4d -#cj -#bb #f4fg #dd #aaa4bcd4d #id #bja4b #ejd #idj #agbd -#bh4i -#bj #d #g4bb #de #aac4jce4j #ie #bjc4j #eaj #iej #agdb -#bc4c -#aj #ad #g4gh #df #aad4hce4f #if #bjd4h #eaf #ifj #agfj -#ag4h #j #cb #h4cc #dg #aaf4fcf4a #ig #bjf4f #eba #igj #aggh #h4hi #dh #aah4dcf4g #ih #bjh4d #ebg #ihj #agif #i4dd #di #abj4bcg4b #ii #baj4b #ecb #iij #ahad #cg4h #ajj #bab4j #ech #ajjj #ahcb ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #ajjj to #bjjj #bjjj to #cjjj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,c4 ,f4 ,c4 ,f4 ,c4 ,f4 ,c4 ,f4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #ech #ajjj #ahcb #haf #aejj #bgcb #ajic #bjjj #cfcb #acga #bejj #decd #edc #ajaj #ahej #hba #aeaj #bgej #ajii #bjaj #cfej #acgg #beaj #deeb #edi #ajbj #ahfh #hbg #aebj #bgfh #aajd #bjbj #cffh #achb #bebj #defj #eed #ajcj #ahhf #hcb #aecj #bghf #aaaj #bjcj #cfhf #achh #becj #dehh #efj #ajdj #aijd #hch #aedj #bhjd #aaaf #bjdj #cgjd #acic #bedj #dfjf #eff #ajej #aibb #hdc #aeej #bhbb #aaba #bjej #cgbb #acii #beej #dfbb #ega #ajfj #aidj #hdi #aefj #bhdj #aabg #bjfj #cgdj #adjd #befj #dfdj #egg #ajgj #aieh #hed #aegj #bheh #aacb #bjgj #cgeh #adaj #begj #dfeh #ehb #ajhj #aigf #hfj #aehj #bhgf #aach #bjhj #cggf #adaf #behj #dfgf #ehh #ajij #aiid #hff #aeij #bhid #aadc #bjij #cgid #adba #beij #dfid #eic #aajj #bjab #hga #afjj #biab #aadi #bajj #chab #adbg #bfjj #dgab #eii #aaaj #bjcj #hgg #afaj #bicj #aaed #baaj #chcj #adcb #bfaj #dgcj #fjd #aabj #bjdh #hhb #afbj #bidh #aafj #babj #chdh #adch #bfbj #dgdh #faj #aacj #bjff #hhh #afcj #biff #aaff #bacj #chff #addc #bfcj #dgff #faf #aadj #bjhd #hic #afdj #bihd #aaga #badj #chhd #addi #bfdj #dghd #fba #aaej #bajb #hii #afej #cjjb #aggg #baej #cijb #aded #bfej #dhjb #fbg #aafj #babj #ijd #affj #cjbj #aahb #bafj #cibj #adfj #bffj #dhbj #fcb #aagj #bach #iaj #afgj #cjch #aahh #bagj #cich #adff #bfgj #dhch #fch #aahj #baef #iaf #afhj #cjef #aaic #bahj #cief #adga #bfhj #dhed #fdc #aaij #bagd #iba #afij #cjgd #aaii #baij #cigd #adgg #bfij #dhgf #fdi #abjj #baib #ibg #agjj #cjib #abjd #bbjj #ciib #adhb #bgjj #dhib #fed #abaj #bbaj #icb #agaj #caaj #abaj #bbaj #djaj #adhh #bgaj #diaj #ffj #abbj #bbbh #ich #agbj #cabh #abaf #bbbj #djbh #adic #bgbj #dibh #fff #abcj #bbdf #idc #agcj #cadf #abba #bbcj #djdf #adii #bgcj #didf #fga #abdj #bbfd #idi #agdj #cafd #abbg #bbdj #djfd #aejd #bgdj #difd #fgg #abej #bbhb #ied #agej #cahb #abcb #bbej #djhb #aeaj #bgej #dihb #fhb #abfj #bcjj #ifj #agfj #cbjj #abch #bbfj #dajj #aeaf #bgfj #ejjj #fhh #abgj #bcah #iff #aggj #cbah #abdc #bbgj #daah #aeba #bggj #ejah #fic #abhj #bccf #iga #aghj #cbcf #abdi #bbhj #dacf #aebg #bghj #ejcf #fii #abij #bced #igg #agij #cbed #abed #bbij #daed #aecb #bgij #ejed #gjd #acjj #bcgb #ihb #ahjj #cbgb #abfj #bcjj #dagb #aech #bhjj #ejgb #gaj #acaj #bcij #ihh #ahaj #cbij #abff #bcaj #daij #aedc #bhaj #ejij #gaf #acbj #bdjh #iic #ahbj #ccjh #abga #bcbj #dbjh #aedi #bhbj #eajh #gba #accj #bdbf #iii #ahcj #ccbf #abgg #bccj #dbbf #aeed #bhcj #eabf #gbg #acdj #bddd #ajjd #ahdj #ccdd #abhb #bcdj #dbdd #aefj #bhdj #eadd #gcb #acej #bdfb #ajaj #ahej #ccfb #abhh #bcej #dbfb #aeff #bhej #eafb #gch #acfj #bdhj #ajaf #ahfj #cchj #abic #bcfj #dbhj #aega #bhfj #eahj #gdc #acgj #bdih #ajba #ahgj #ccih #abii #bcgj #dbih #aegg #bhgj #eaih #gdi #achj #beaf #ajbg #ahhj #cdaf #acjd #bchj #dcaf #aehb #bhhj #ebaf #ged #acij #becd #ajcb #ahij #cdcd #acaj #bcij #dccd #aehh #bhij #ebcd #gfj #adjj #beeb #ajch #aijj #cdeb #acaf #bdjj #dceb #aeic #bijj #ebeb #gff #adaj #begj #ajdc #aiaj #cdgj #acba #bdaj #dcgj #aeii #biaj #ebgj #gga #adbj #behh #ajdi #aibj #cdhh #acbg #bdbj #dchh #afjd #bibj #ebhh #ggg #adcj #bfjf #ajed #aicj #cejf #accb #bdcj #ddjf #afaj #bicj #ecjf #ghb #addj #bfbd #ajfj #aidj #cebd #acch #bddj #ddbd #afaf #bidj #ecbd #ghh #adej #bfdb #ajff #aiej #cedb #acdc #bdej #dddb #afba #biej #ecdb #gic #adfj #bffj #ajga #aifj #cefj #acdi #bdfj #ddfj #afbg #bifj #ecfj #gii #adgj #bfgh #ajgg #aigj #cegh #aced #bdgj #ddgh #afcb #bigj #ecgh #hjd #adhj #bfif #ajhb #aihj #ceif #acfj #bdhj #ddif #afch #bihj #ecif #haj #adij #bgad #ajhh #aiij #cfad #acff #bdij #dead #afdc #biij #edad #ajic #bjjj #cfcb #afdi #cjjj #edcb ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,note4--,! numb]s 9 bold face type ref] to ! temp]ature ei!r 9 degrees ,c5tigrade or ,fahr5heit :i* x is desir$ to conv]t into ! o!r scale4 ,if conv]t+ f ,fahr5heit degrees to ,c5tigrade degrees ! equival5t temp]ature w be f\nd 9 ! left column1 :ile if conv]t+ f degrees ,c5tigrade to degrees ,fahr5heit1 ! answ] w be f\nd 9 ! column on ! "r4 ,^! tables are a revision ( ^? by ,sauveur ,boyl/on1 metallurgical eng9e]s1 ,cambridge1 ,mass4 ,copyright1 #aibj4 ,,int]polation ,,factors ,c4 ,f4 ,c4 ,f4 #j4ef #a #a4h #c4cc #f #aj4h #a4aa #b #c4f #c4hi #g #ab4f #a4fg #c #e4d #d4dd #h #ad4d #b4bb #d #g4b #e4jj #i #af4b #b4gh #e #i4j #e4ef #aj #ah4j ,^? us+ pyromet]s w f9d ?is & ! prec$+ conv]sion table ( great conv5i5ce3 ,,table #cc4--;,,comp>ison ,,betwe5 ,,degrees ,,c5tigrade ,,& ,,degrees ,,fahr5heit ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,degrees ,degrees ,degrees ,degrees ,degrees ,degrees ,degrees ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,f4 ,c4 ,f4 ,c4 ,f4 ,c4 ,f4 ,c4 ,f4 ,c4 ,f4 ,c4 ,f4 ,c4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- -#dj-dj4j #c-af4a #df #g4g #hi #ca4facb #ee4eage #gi4d #bge #ace4j -#ci-ci4d #d-ae4e #dg #h4c #ij #cb4bacc #ef4aagf #hj4j #cjj #adh4h -#ch-ch4h #e-ae4j #dh #h4h #ia #cb4gacd #ef4fagg #hj4e #cbe #afb4g -#cg-ch4c #f-ad4d #di #i4c #ib #cc4cace #eg4bagh #ha4a #cej #agf4f -#cf-cg4g #g-ac4h #ej #aj4j #ic #cc4iacf #eg4gagi #ha4f #cge #aij4e -#ce-cg4b #h-ac4c #ea #aj4e #id #cd4dacg #eh4cahj #hb4b #djj #bjd4d -#cd-cf4f #i-ab4g #eb #aa4a #ie #ce4jach #eh4haha #hb4g #dbe #bah4c -#cc-cf4a #aj-ab4b #ec #aa4f #if #ce4eaci #ei4dahb #hc4c #dej #bcb4b -#cb-ce4e #aa-aa4f #ed #ab4b #ig #cf4aadj #fj4jahc #hc4h #dge #bdf4a -#ca-ce4j #ab-aa4a #ee #ab4g #ih #cf4fada #fj4eahd #hd4d #ejj #bfj4j -#cj-cd4d #ac-aj4e #ef #ac4c #ii #cg4badb #fa4aahe #he4j #ebe #bgc4h -#bi-cc4i #ad-aj4j #eg #ac4hajj #cg4gadc #fa4fahf #he4e #eej #bhg4g -#bh-cc4c #ae -#i4c #eh #ad4daja #ch4cadd #fb4bahg #hf4a #ege #cja4f -#bg-cb4g #af -#h4h #ei #ae4jajb #ch4hade #fb4gahh #hf4f #fjj #cae4e -#bf-cb4b #ag -#h4c #fj #ae4eajc #ci4dadf #fc4cahi #hg4b #fbe #cbi4d -#be-ca4f #ah -#g4g #fa #af4aajd #dj4jadg #fc4haij #hg4g #fej #cdc4c -#bd-ca4a #ai -#g4b #fb #af4faje #dj4eadh #fd4daia #hh4c #fge #ceg4b -#bc-cj4e #bj -#f4f #fc #ag4bajf #da4aadi #fe4jaib #hh4h #gjj #cga4a -#bb-cj4j #ba -#f4a #fd #ag4gajg #da4faej #fe4eaic #hi4d #gbe #che4j -#ba-bi4d #bb -#e4e #fe #ah4cajh #db4baea #ff4aaid #ij4j #gej #cih4h -#bj-bh4h #bc -#e4j #ff #ah4haji #db4gaeb #ff4faie #ij4e #gge #dab4g -#ai-bh4c #bd -#d4d #fg #ai4daaj #dc4caec #fg4baif #ia4a #hjj #dbf4f -#ah-bg4g #be -#c4h #fh #bj4jaaa #dc4haed #fg4gaig #ia4f #hbe #ddj4e -#ag-bg4b #bf -#c4c #fi #bj4eaab #dd4daee #fh4caih #ib4b #hej #ded4d -#af-bf4f #bg -#b4g #gj #ba4aaac #de4jaef #fh4haii #ib4g #hge #dfh4c -#ae-bf4a #bh -#b4b #ga #ba4faad #de4eaeg #fi4dbjj #ic4c #ijj #dhb4b -#ad-be4e #bi -#a4f #gb #bb4baae #df4aaeh #gj4jbja #ic4h #ibe #dif4a -#ac-be4j #cj -#a4a #gc #bb4gaaf #df4faei #gj4ebjb #id4d #iej #eaj4j -#ab-bd4d #ca -#j4e #gd #bc4caag #dg4bafj #ga4abjc #ie4j #ige #ebc4h -#aa-bc4h #cb -#j4j #ge #bc4haah #dg4gafa #ga4fbjd #ie4ea1jjj #ecg4g -#aj-bc4c #cc #j4e #gf #bd4daai #dh4cafb #gb4bbje #if4aa1ajj #eic4c -#i-bb4g #cd #a4a #gg #be4jabj #dh4hafc #gb4gbjf #if4fa1bjj #fdh4h -#h-bb4b #ce #a4f #gh #be4eaba #di4dafd #gc4cbjg #ig4ba1cjj #gjd4d -#g-ba4f #cf #b4b #gi #bf4aabb #ej4jafe #gc4hbjh #ig4ga1djj #gfj4j -#f-ba4a #cg #b4g #hj #bf4fabc #ej4eaff #gd4dbji #ih4ca1ejj #hae4e -#e-bj4e #ch #c4c #ha #bg4babd #ea4aafg #ge4jbaj #ih4ha1fjj #hga4a -#d-bj4j #ci #c4h #hb #bg4gabe #ea4fafh #ge4ebaa #ii4da1gjj #ibf4f -#c-ai4d #dj #d4d #hc #bh4cabf #eb4bafi #gf4ababajj4ja1hjj #ihb4b -#b-ah4h #da #e4j #hd #bh4habg #eb4gagj #gf4fbacajj4ea1ijja1jcg4g -#a-ah4c #db #e4e #he #bi4dabh #ec4caga #gg4bbadaja4ab1jjja1jic4c #j-ag4g #dc #f4a #hf #cj4jabi #ec4hagb #gg4gbaeaja4fb1ajja1adh4h #a-ag4b #dd #f4f #hg #cj4eacj #ed4dagc #gh4cbbeajg4bb1bjja1bjd4d #b-af4f #de #g4b #hh #ca4aaca #ee4jagd #gh4hbejaba4ab1cjja1bfj4j ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- #i x degrees ,c4 ,degrees ,fahr5heit -------------- #cb #e #e x 7degrees ,f4 - #cb7 ,degrees ,c5tigrade --------------------- #i ,?ree o!r useful tables are also giv5 on ! foll[+ pages4 ,,table #cd4--,,weight ,,( ,,r\nd1 ,,octagon ,,& ,,squ>e ,,c>bon ,,tool ,,/eel ,,p] ,,foot ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,size ,size 9 ,r\nd ,octagon ,squ>e 9 ,r\nd ,octagon ,squ>e in*es in*es ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #a_/af #j4jaj #j4jaa #j4jac #b-a_/b #af4gi #ag4ga #ba4cg #a_/h #j4jdb #j4jdd #j4jec #b-e_/h #ah4ea #ai4eb #bc4ef #c_/af #j4jid #j4jii #j4abj #b-c_/d #bj4ca #ba4db #be4hf #a_/d #j4afh #j4agg #j4bad #b-g_/h #bb4bj #bc4da #bh4bg #e_/af #j4bfb #j4bgg #j4ccd #c #bd4ag #be4ej #cj4gh #c_/h #j4cgh #j4cih #j4dha #c-a_/h #bf4bc #bg4ff #cc4dj #g_/af #j4ead #j4edb #j4fee #c-a_/d #bh4cg #bi4ib #cf4ab #a_/b #j4fga #j4gjh #j4hee #c-c_/h #cj4ei #cb4bg #ch4ie #i_/af #j4hej #j4hif #a4jhb #c-a_/b #cb4ij #cd4gj #da4hi #e_/h #a4jdi #a4ajg #a4ccf #c-e_/h #ce4bi #cg4bc #dd4id #aa_/af #a4bgj #a4cci #a4faf #c-c_/d #cg4gg #ci4hd #dh4ji #c_/d #a4eaa #a4eid #a4ibd #c-g_/h #dj4cc #db4ed #ea4ce #ac_/af #a4ggc #a4hgj #b4beh #d #db4ig #de4cd #ed4gb #g_/h #b4jef #b4afi #b4fah #d-a_/d #dh4ea #ea4ag #fa4gg #ae_/af #b4cfa #b4dij #c4jjf #d-a_/b #ed4ci #eg4cg #fi4be #a #b4fhf #b4hcc #c4dbj #d-c_/d #fj4fj #fc4ib #gg4af #a-a_/h #c4cii #c4ehe #d4cbh #e #fg4ae #gj4hc #he4ej #a-a_/d #d4aig #d4dbg #e4cdd #e-a_/d #gd4jc #gh4jh #id4bf #a-c_/h #e4jgh #e4cef #f4fdf #e-a_/b #ha4be #he4gj #ajc4de #a-a_/b #f4jdd #f4cgd #g4fie #e-c_/d #hh4hj #ic4fg #aac4jg #a-e_/h #g4jic #g4dha #i4jca #f #if4fi #aja4ii #abc4ab #a-c_/d #h4bbf #h4fgd #aj4dgd #g #aca4fa #ach4hb #afg4eh #a-g_/h #i4ddc #i4ifj #ab4jbc #h #aga4ij #aha4cb #bah4hh #b #aj4gdd #aa4ccb #ac4fhj #i #bag4eg #bbi4dh #bgg4jb #b-a_/h #ab4abi #ab4gic #ae4ddc #aj #bfh4fj #bhc4ca #cdb4jj #b-a_/d #ac4eih #ad4cdc #ag4cad #aa #cbe4ja #cdb4hj #dac4hb #b-c_/h #ae4aea #ae4iha #ai4bia #ab #chf4gi #djg4ig #dib4dh ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,high-spe$ /eel1 be+ m d5se ?an c>bon /eel1 weighs f #aj to #aa p] c5t m ?an c>bon /eel4 ,?is %\ld be add$ to figures giv5 9 ! table4 ,,table #ce4--,,weight ,,( ,,r\nd1 ,,c>bon ,,tool ,,/eel #ab ,,94 ,,9 ,,diamet] ,,& ,,l>g]1 ,,p] ,,foot ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,diamet]1 ,weight ,diamet]1 ,weight ,diamet]1 ,weight in*es p] foot in*es p] foot in*es p] foot ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #ab #chf4gij #ae-g_/h #fgg4ebg #ai-c_/d #a1jdi4jaj #ab-a_/h #cie4eah #af #fhg4fjj #ai-g_/h #a1jfa4gje #ab-a_/d #djd4bdf #af-a_/h #fii4jag #bj #a1jgd4djj #ab-c_/h #dab4igd #af-a_/d #gaj4dce #bj-a_/h #a1jhh4ejb #ab-a_/b #dba4gjb #af-c_/h #gba4heb #bj-a_/d #a1ajb4fje #ab-e_/h #dcj4dcj #af-a_/b #gcc4bgj #bj-c_/h #a1aaf4gjg #ab-c_/d #dci4aeh #af-e_/h #gdd4fhg #bj-a_/b #a1acj4haj #ab-g_/h #ddg4hhf #af-c_/d #gef4aje #bj-e_/h #a1add4iab #ac #def4fae #af-g_/h #gfg4ebb #bj-c_/d #a1aei4jae #ac-a_/h #dfe4cdc #ag #ggh4idj #bj-g_/h #a1agc4aah #ac-a_/d #dgd4jga #ag-a_/h #gij4ceh #ba #a1ahg4bbj #ac-c_/h #dhb4gii #ag-a_/d #hja4ggg #ba-a_/h #a1bja4cbb #ac-a_/b #dia4ebg #ag-c_/h #hac4aie #ba-a_/d #a1bae4dbe #ac-e_/h #ejj4bee #ag-a_/b #hbd4fad #ba-c_/h #a1bbi4ebg #ac-c_/d #ejh4ihc #ag-e_/h #hcf4jcj #ba-a_/b #a1bdc4fcj #ac-g_/h #eag4gaa #ag-c_/d #hdg4ddg #ba-e_/h #a1beg4gcb #ad #ebf4ddj #ag-g_/h #heh4hfc #ba-c_/d #a1bga4hce #ad-a_/h #ecf4eab #ah #hgj4bhj #ba-g_/h #a1bhe4icg #ad-a_/d #edf4ehe #ah-a_/h #hhc4aje #bb #a1cjj4jdj #ad-c_/h #eef4feg #ah-a_/d #hie4ibj #bb-a_/h #a1cae4dhe #ad-a_/b #eff4gcj #ah-c_/h #ijh4gdj #bb-a_/d #a1ccj4icj #ad-e_/h #egf4hjb #ah-a_/b #iba4efj #bb-c_/h #a1cdf4cge #ad-c_/d #ehf4hge #ah-e_/h #icd4chj #bb-a_/b #a1cfa4hbj #ad-g_/h #eif4idg #ah-c_/d #idg4bjj #bb-e_/h #a1cgg4bfe #ae #fjg4jbj #ah-g_/h #ifj4jbj #bb-c_/d #a1cib4gaj #ae-a_/h #fag4jib #ai #igb4hdj #bb-g_/h #a1djh4aee #ae-a_/d #fbg4afe #ai-a_/h #ihe4jce #bc #a1dbc4fjj #ae-c_/h #fcg4bcg #ai-a_/d #iih4bcj #bc-a_/h #a1ded4dij #ae-a_/b #fdg4caj #ai-c_/h #a1jaj4ibe #bc-a_/d #a1dhe4chj #ae-e_/h #feg4chb #ai-a_/b #a1jbc4fbj #bc-c_/h #a1eaf4bgj #ae-c_/d #ffg4dee #ai-e_/h #a1jcf4cae #bd #a1edg4afj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,to f9d ! weight ( discs made ( c>bon /eel1 9 diamet]s up to & includ+ #ab 941 )\t any all[ance = f9i%+ multiply ! p] foot weight ( r\nd b> /eel1 %[n h]e) by ! decimal equival5t ( a foot giv5 9 ! foll[+ table3 ,,table #cf4--;,,decimal ,,equival5ts ,,( ,a ,,foot ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,94 #j #a_/h #a_/d #c_/h #a_/b #e_/h #c_/d #g_/h ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #j #j4jjj #j4jaj #j4jba #j4jca #j4jdb #j4jeb #j4jfc #j4jgc #a #j4jhc #j4jid #j4ajd #j4aae #j4abe #j4ace #j4adf #j4aef #b #j4afg #j4agg #j4ahh #j4aih #j4bjh #j4bai #j4bbi #j4bdj #c #j4bej #j4bfj #j4bgj #j4bha #j4bib #j4cjb #j4cac #j4cbc #d #j4ccc #j4cdd #j4ced #j4cfd #j4cge #j4che #j4cif #j4djf #e #j4daf #j4dbg #j4dcg #j4ddh #j4deh #j4dfi #j4dgi #j4dhj #f #j4ejj #j4eaj #j4ebj #j4eca #j4edb #j4eeb #j4efc #j4egc #g #j4ehc #j4eid #j4fjd #j4fae #j4fbe #j4fce #j4fdf #j4fef #h #j4fff #j4fgg #j4fhg #j4fih #j4gjh #j4gai #j4gbi #j4gdj #i #j4gej #j4gfj #j4ggj #j4gha #j4gib #j4hjb #j4hac #j4hbc #aj #j4hcc #j4hdd #j4hed #j4hfe #j4hge #j4hhe #j4hif #j4ijf #aa #j4iaf #j4ibg #j4icg #j4idh #j4iec #j4ifi #j4igi #j4iij ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,,example4--,if ! weight ( a c>bon /eel disc #g 94 diamet]1 #a-e_/h 94 ?ick is desir$1 turn to page #bcc1 :]e ! p] foot weight ( #g 94 r\nd is giv5 z #aca4f lb4 ,multiply ?is by ! decimal equival5t ( #a-e_/h 941 or #j4ace1 z %[n 9 ! above table1 & ! product w be ! net weight ( ! disc4 #aca4fa lb4 ! weight ( #a ft4 ( #g 94 r\nd4 #j4ace ! p] foot decimal equival5t ( #a-e_/h 93 ------------ #fehje #cidhc #acafa ------------ #ag4gfgce lb4 weight ( disc #g 94 diam4 #a-e_/h 94 ?ick )\t any all[ance = f9i%+4 ,,au?orites ,,quot$ ,a ,,addis1 ,w ,h4 ,,am]ican ,,ma*9i/s' ,,h&book ,,am]ican ,,/eel ,,tre>]s' ,,society ,,am]ican ,,ge> ,,mfrs4 ,,asso4 ,,automatic ,,& ,,electric ,,furnaces ,,ltd4 ,,arnold1 ,,pr(4 ,j4 ,o4 ,b ,,burleigh1 ,r4 ,w4 ,,bord51 ,b4 ,,bok]1 ,,h]man ,co4 ,,br[n ,,in/rum5t ,co4 ,,br[n-,,lipe-,,*apl9 ,co4 ,c ,,campbell1 ,h4 ,h4 ,,c>h>t1 ,h4 ,a4 ,,clayton1 ,c4 ,y4 ,,curtis ,,airplane ,co4 ,e ,,engleh>d1 ,,*>les ,,ensaw1 ,,h[>d ,f ,,fir?-,,/]l+ ,,/eel ,co4 ,,fir?1 ,,?omas ,,sons ,,f[l]1 ,,h5ry ,g ,,gilb]t ,,b>k] ,h ,,haywahd1 ,c4 ,r4 ,,h[e1 ,,dr4 ,h4 ,m4 ,,hoov] ,,/eel ,,ball ,,co4 ,,hea?cote1 ,h4 ,l4 ,,h>ris1 ,,mat!w ,,hunt]1 ,j4 ,v4 ,j ,,janitzky1 ,e4 ,j4 ,,john/on1 ,a4 ,b4 ,,ju!1 ,k4 ,a4 ,l ,,latrobe ,,/eel ,,co4 ,,ludlum ,,/eel ,,co4 ,,le$s ,,nor?rup ,,co4 ,,lyman1 ,w4 ,h4 ,m ,,mansfield1 ,c4 ,a4 ,,midvale ,,/eel ,co4 ,mc,k,e,n,n,a1 ,,roy ,c4 ,,m\lton1 ,,se? ,a4 ,n ,,niles1 ,,bem5t1 ,,pond ,p ,,p>k]1 ,s4 ,w4 ,,poole1 ,c4 ,r4 ,r ,,rawdon1 ,h4 ,s4 ,s ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 7,,society ,,automotive ,,eng9e]s7 ,,sauveur1 ,,alb]t ,,spr+field ,,armory ,,sellack1 ,t4 ,g4 ,,smi?1 ,a4 ,j4 ,,%irley1 ,,alfr$ ,j4 ,t ,,taylor ,,in/rum5t ,co4 ,,?um1 ,e4 ,e4 ,,tiemann1 ,h4 ,p4 ,u ,u4 ,s4 ,,ball ,,be>+ ,co4 ,,unit$ ,,/eel ,co4 ,,und]wood1 ,,*>les ,n4 ,v ,,van ,,de ,,v5t]1 ,,john ,h4 ,w ,,walp1 ,h4 ,o4 ,,wood1 ,,h>old ,f4 ,,:eelock1 ,,lovejoy ,co4 ,,index ,a ,,abc ( iron & /eel ,absorption ( c>bon1 rate ( ,air h>d5+ /eels ,analysis ( high spe$ /eel ,allotropic modifications ,alloy /eel1 anneal+ prop]ties ( ,alloys & _! effect 9 high spe$ /eel 9 /eel1 value ( ^u /eel ,alpha iron ,anneal+ c>e 9 furnace high-*romium /eel high spe$ tools 9 bone me?ods prop] rifle compon5ts ru/-pro( /eel /eels temp]ature ,arre/s ,au/5tite ,automotive indu/ry1 application ( ,lib]ty eng9e mat]ials to temp]ature control ,axles1 heat treatm5t ( ,b ,balls1 mak+ /eel ,b>ium *loride process ,ba?s = temp]+ ,bessem] conv]t] ,beta iron ,bl5d+ comp\nds ,bli/] /eel ,blue brittl5ess ,bone1 anneal+ 9 ,boxes = case h>d5+ or c>buriz+ ,break+ te/ ge>s ,br9ell h>dness ,broa* h>d5+ furnace ,br[n automatic pyromet] ,burn+ ,c ,caloriz$ tubes ,c>bon cont5t at v>i\s temp]atures cont5t ( case h>d5$ "w 9 ca/ iron1 ix 9 tool /eel introduction ( p5etration ( /eel /eel =g+s1 ,lib]ty eng9e /eel tools /eels1 ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 /eels1 temp] colors /r5g!ns iron tool /eel1 =g+ ,c>boniz+1 see ,c>buriz+ ,c>borundum tubes ,c>burization1 prev5t+ ,c>buriz+ by gas boxes comp\nds gas consumption by local mat]ial nickel /eel or case h>d5+ pots = ,c>buriz+1 process ( %ort me?od sleeves ) *>coal ,see ,case h>d5+ ,c> door type ( furnace ,case1 dep? ( ,case h>d5+ boxes ca/ iron local or surface c>buriz+ treatm5ts = v>i\s /eels see ,c>buriz+ ,ca/ iron1 c>bon 9 case h>d5+ ,cem5tite ,c5t] column furnace ,c5tigrade table ,*amotte tubes ,*>t ( c>bon p5etration heat treatm5t %ape ,*rome /eel ,*rome-nickel /eel /eel1 =g+ ,*rome-vanadium /eel ,*romium /eels1 ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,*romium-cobalt /eel ,*romium-vanadium /eel1 ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,classification ( /eel ,clay tubes ,cold end comp5sator junction errors %ortness work$ /eel ,color 9 temp]+ ,colors on c>bon /eels ,comb9ation tank ,comp>ison ( fuels ,comp5sat+ leads ,comp5sator = cold ends automatic ,composition ( /eel ,comp\nd1 bl5d+ sep>at+ f "w ,comp\nds = c>buriz+ ,connect+ rods1 ,lib]ty motor ,cont9u\s heat+ furnace ,conv]t]1 ,bessem] ,cool+ curves ,cool+ qu5*+ oil1 ro( sy/em rate (1 = ge>-=g+s ,copp]1 effect (1 9 m$ium c>bon /eel ,copp]-plat+ to prev5t c>buriz+ ,corrosion ( high-*romium /eel ( ru/-pro( /eel ,corundite tubes ,co/ ( op]at+ furnaces ,cracks 9 h>d5+1 prev5t+ ,crank%aft1 ,lib]ty motor ,critical po9t ,crucible or tool /eel ,cutt+ (f high spe$ /eel ,cyanide ba? = tool /eel ,d ,dec>boniz+ ( out] surface prev5t+ ,dep? ( case ,detrim5tal elem5ts 9 /eel ,dies1 drop =g+ qu5*+ s(t spots 9 temp]+ r\nd ,draw+ ends ( ge> tee? ,drop =g+ dies ,ductility ,e ,effect ( alloys ( diff]5t c>buriz+ mat]ial ( size ( piece ( copp] 9 m$ium c>bon /eel ,ela/ic limit ,electric process ( /eel mak+ ,electrode ,elem5ts1 *emical ,elongation ,endurance limit ,en]giz]1 #ha ,enl>g+ /eel ,equipm5t = heat treat+ ,eutectoid ,f ,fahr5heit temp]ature table ,fatigue te/ ,f]rite ,file te/ ,flame %ields ,flange %ields = furnaces ,=g+ furnace high spe$ tools improp] ( /eel practice1 heavy rifle b>rels ,=g+s1 c>bon /eel ,lib]ty eng9e ,=m$ tools1 high spe$ ,fractures1 exam9+ by ,furnace1 cont9u\s heat+ crucible data electric ,h]\lt op5 he>? records ,furnaces anneal+ broa* h>d5+ c> door type c5t] column co/ ( op]at+ data on =g+1 heavy fuels = gas fir$ high spe$ /eel lead pot manganese /eel muffle oil fir$ op]at+ co/s scre5s = tool ,furnaces1 wat] cool$ fronts ,fuels1 comp>ison ( = furnaces ,g ,gages1 *anges due to qu5*+ temp]+ ,gamma iron ,gas1 c>buriz+ by consumption = c>buriz+ fir$ furnace illum9at+1 = c>buriz+ ,ge> blanks1 heat treatm5t ( =g+s1 rate ( cool+ = ,lib]ty eng9e h>d5+ ma*9e /eel1 transmission tee?1 draw+ ends ( ,ge>s1 ,lib]ty eng9e ,gleason temp]+ ma*9e ,grade ( /eel ,gra91 ref9+ size ,graphitic c>bon ,gr9d+ high spe$ /eel ,h ,hair l9es 9 =g+s ,h>d5+ c>bon /eel = tools cracks1 prev5t+ dies ge>s high spe$ /eel high spe$ tools ( high-*romium /eel ( ru/-pro( /eel room1 mod]n ,h>dness te/s ,heat+1 effect ( size = =g+ ,heat1 judg+ by color treat+ dep>tm5ts equipm5t =g+s inspection ( ,lib]ty motor ,heat treat+1 ( axles ( *isels ( ge>s ( high spe$ /eel ( /eel ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,heat treatm5t ,h]\lt furnace ,high-*romium /eel anneal+ ( corrosion ( h>d5+ ( ,highly /ress$ p>ts ( ,lib]ty eng9e ,high spe$ /eel1 analysis ( anneal+ cutt+ (f =g+ furnace h>d5+ heat treatm5t ( in/ructions = manufacture pack h>d5+ /ructure ( ,h9ts = /eel us]s ,i ,illum9at+ gas = c>buriz+ ,impact te/ ,improp] =g+ ,influ5ce ( size on heat+ ,inspection ( heat treatm5t ,int]nal /resses1 reliev+ ,introduction ( c>bon ,j ,jewel]s' tools ,judg+ heat ( /eel by color ,l ,lat5t heat ,la! & plan] tools tools1 high spe$ ,latrobe temp] li/ ,lead ba? pot furnace ,le$s ,nor?rup pot5tiomet] optical pyromet] ,lib]ty eng9e1 highly /ress$ p>ts ( ,lib]ty eng9e mat]ials1 application to automotive indu/ry motor connect+ rods motor1 crank%aft motor pi/on p9 ,local case h>d5+ ,lut+ mixture ,m ,ma*9eability ( /eel ,ma*9]y /eel1 anneal+ ,magnet te/ ,mak+ /eel 9 electric furnace ,manganese /eel furnace ,manufacture ( high spe$ /eel ,m>qu>dt mass tubes ,m>t5site ,m$ium c>bon /eel1 effect ( copp] on ,metallography ,microphotographs ,microscopic exam9ation ,mill+ cutt]s1 high spe$ ,mixture = lut+ ,mod]n h>d5+ room ,molt5 metal pyromet]s ,molybd5um ,muffle furnace ,n ,nickel ,nickel-*romium /eel /eels1 ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,nickel1 influ5ce (1 on /eel /eel aff9ity = c>bon /eels1 ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,non-homog5e\s melt+ ,non-%r9k+ /eels ,normaliz+ ,o ,oil ba? = temp]+ cool+ on ro( fir$ furnace h>d5+ /eel1 =g+ /eels temp]ature ( qu5*+ ,op5 he>? furnace ,op]at+ co/s ( furnaces ,out] surface dec>boniz] ,ov]-heat$ /eel1 re/or+ ,ov]heat+ dies ,p ,pack-h>d5+ high spe$ /eel ,pack+ "w = c>buriz+ ,pa/e = h>d5+ dies ,pe>lite ,p5etration ( c>bon c>bon1 *>t ( 9 case h>d5+ ,phosphorus ,pickl+ ,lib]ty motor =g+s ,pig iron ,pi/on p91 ,lib]ty motor ,plac+ pyromet]s ,plan] tools1 high spe$ ,po9ts ( c>bon 9 /eel ,pot5tiomet]1 ,le$s ,nor?rup ,pots = c>buriz+ ,press = te/+ ge>s ,prev5t+ c>burization cracks 9 h>d5+ ,prop]ties ( alloy /eels ( alloy /eels1 table ( /eel ,protective scre5s = furnaces ,puddl$ iron ,pun*es & *isels1 /eels = ,pyromet]s calibration copp] ball indicat+ inspection iron ball molt5 metal optical plac+ record+ ,siem5s te/+ wat] ,q ,quality & /ructure ( high spe$ /eel ( /eel ,qu5*+1 aft] c>buriz+ dies 9 tank obsolete me?od oil1 temp]ature ( tank tool /eel ,r ,rate ( absorption ( c>bon ,record+ temp]atures ,r$ %ortness ,ref9+ ! gra9 ,reg5]ative op5 he>? furnace ,re/or+ ov]heat$ /eel ,rifle b>rels1 =g+ compon5ts1 anneal+ ,ro( sy/em ( cool+ oil ,ru/-pro( /eel anneal+ ( corrosion ( h>d5+ ( ,s ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 c>bon /eels *romium /eels *romium-vanadium heat treatm5ts nickel-*romium /eels nickel /eels screw /ock silico-manganese /eel /&>d /eels ,salt ba? = temp]+ ,scl]oscope te/ ,scrat* h>dness ,scre5s = furnaces ,screw /ock1 ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,s5sible heat ,s5t9els1 melt+ ( ,sep>at+ "w f comp\nd ,%ields = furnace doors ,%ore ,scl]oscope ,%ort me?od ( c>buriz+ ,%r9k+ /eel ,silica tubes ,silico-manganese /eels1 ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,silicon ,silv]smi?s' tools ,size ( piece1 effect ( ,slags ,sleeves1 c>buriz+ h>d5+ & %r9k+ %r9k+ ,solid solution ,sorbite ,specim5s1 te/ ,/&>d ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 /eels ,/eel1 balls1 /ock = bolts1 mak+ composition ( deoxidation = *isels & pun*es =g+ ( give x a *ance heat treatm5t ( high spe$ mak+ ,bessem] process crucible process electric furnace process op5 he>? tools1 c>bon1 9 us]s' h9ts ,/ructure ( high spe$ /eel ,sulphur ,t ,tables1 air1 oil & wat] h>d5$ /eel alloy /eels1 prop]ties ( c>bon cont5t c>bon /eels case h>d5+ *anges due to qu5*+ *romium /eels *romium-vanadium /eels colors & temp]ature composition ( /eels co/ ( furnaces effect ( size fuels1 comp>ison ( high-*romium /eel nickel-*romium /eels nickel /eels op]at+ co/ ( furnaces production co/ ( furnaces ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 /eels screw /ock silico-manganese /eels /ock = balls temp]ature conv]sion temp]+ temp]atures weight ( /eel ,tank = qu5*+ dies ,taylor in/rum5ts ,temp]1 colors ( li/1 ,latrobe ( /eel ,temp]ature record]s tables ,temp]atures = temp]+ ,temp]+ colors on c>bon /eels gages high spe$ tools ma*9e1 ,gleason r\nd dies temp]atures !ory ( ,temp]s ( c>bon /eel ,t5sile te/ ,te/+ heat treatm5t ,te/s ( /eel ,te/ specim5s ,!ory ( temp]+ ,!rmoc\ple base metal cold end plac+ protectors r>e metal ,"t = h>d5+ ,tool furnace1 small ,tool or crucible /eel1 anneal+ ,tool /eel1 cyanide ba? = qu5*+ ,tools1 c>bon 9 diff]5t c>bon /eel ( high spe$ /eel sulphur 9 temp]s ( v>i\s trans=mation po9ts ,transmission ge> /eel ,treatm5ts = v>i\s /eels ,troosite ,tubes1 caloriz$ c>borundum ,*amotte clay ,m>qu>dt mass silica ,tung/5 /eel ,u ,ultimate /r5g? ,us]s ( /eel1 h9ts = ,v ,vanadium /eel ,w ,wat] anneal+ cool$ furnace fronts ,weight ( /eel b>s ,work+ in/ructions = high spe$ /eel ,wr\ght iron1 ix ,y ,yield ,po9t