,an ,ethical ,problem ,by the ,same ,author ,,rambles ,,in ,,japan ,,without ,a ,,guide4 ,london1 #ahib ,,illegitimacy1 and ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,seasons ,,upon ,,conduct4 ,london and ,new ,york1 #ahic ,,vivisection ,,in ,,america4 ,new ,york1 #ahie ,,the ,,vivisection ,,question4 ,new ,york1 #aija ,,the ,,morality ,,of ,,london4 ,london1 #aijh ,,the ,,vivisection ,,controversy4 ,london1 #aijh ,,american ,,meat4 ,london and ,new ,york1 #aiaj ,,an ,,ethical ,,problem ,,or ,,sidelights ,,upon ,,scientific ,,experimentation ,,on ,,man ,,and ,,animals ,,by ,,albert ,,leffingwell1 ,m4,d4 ,,late ,,president ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,humane ,,association ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,vivisection ,,question1 ,,etc4 ,,second ,,edition1 ,,revised ,,london ,g4 ,,bell ,,and ,,sons1 ,,ltd4 ,,new ,,york ,c4,p4 ,,farrel1 #aag ,,east #bast ,,street #aiaf ,,preface ,the position taken by the writer of this volume should be clearly understood4 ,it is not the view known as antivivisection1 so far as this means the condemnation without exception of all phases of biological investigation4 ,there are methods of research which involve no animal suffering1 and which are of scientific utility4 ,within certain careful limitations1 these would seem justifiable4 ,for nearly forty years1 the writer has occupied the position which half a century ago was generally held by a majority of the medical profession in ,england1 and possibly in ,america1 a position maintained in recent years by such men as ,sir ,benjamin ,ward ,richardson of ,england1 by ,professor ,william ,james and ,dr4 ,henry ,j4 ,bigelow of ,harvard ,university4 ,with the present ideals of the modern physiological laboratory1 so far as they favour the practice of vivisection in secrecy and without legal regulation1 the writer has no sympathy whatsoever4 ,an ethical problem exists4 ,it concerns not the prevention of all experimentation upon animals1 but rather the abolition of its cruelty1 its secrecy1 its abuse4 ,written at various times during a period extending over several years1 a critic will undoubtedly discover instances of repetition and re-statement4 ,now and then1 it has seemed advisable to include matter from earlier writings1 long out of print2 and new light has been thrown upon some phases of a perplexing problem4 ,will it tend to induce conviction of the need for reform8 ,assuredly1 this is not to be expected where there is disagreement regarding certain basic principles4 ,first of all1 there must be some common ground4 ,no agreement regarding vivisection can be anticipated or desired with any man who holds that some vague and uncertain addition to the sum total of knowledge would justify experiments made upon dying children in a hospital1 without regard to their personal benefit1 or sanction the infliction of any degree of agony upon animals in a laboratory4 ,a liking for the use of italics as a means of directing attention to certain statements is confessed4 ,but wherever such italicized phrases appear in quotations1 the reader should ascribe the emphasis to the writer1 and not to the original authority4 ,the inculcation of scepticism regarding much that is put forth in justification of unlimited research is admitted4 ,it seems to the writer that anyone who has become interested in the question would more wisely approach it with a tendency toward doubt than toward implicit belief2 to doubt1 however1 that leads one directly to investigation4 ,we need to remember1 however1 that inaccuracy by no means connotes inveracity4 ,there is here no imputation against the honesty of any writer1 even when carelessness1 exaggeration and inaccuracy are not only alleged1 but demonstrated to exist4 ,a4 ,l4 ,aurora1 ,n4,y41 #aiad --------- ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,edition ,another edition of this work being called for1 the opportunity for one or two emendations is afforded4 ,in the first chapter of the present work1 reference is made to the antivivisection societies of ,england1 and1 relying upon evidence given before the ,royal ,commission in #aijf1 one of them is mentioned as the principal organization4 ,the relative standing or strength of the different societies at the present time would appear not to be determined or easily determinable1 and1 of course1 what was fact in #aijf may not be at all true ten years later4 ,the matter would seem to be of little importance as compared with the greater questions pertaining to reform2 but in the interest of accuracy the author would now prefer to make no pronouncement concerning the relative rank of the ,english societies1 leaving decision as to precedence to those who give them financial support4 ,though the first edition of the present work was quite large1 yet no challenge of the accuracy of any of its statements concerning experimentation upon human beings or animals has yet appeared4 ,to hope for absolute accuracy in a work of this character may be impossible2 yet that ideal has been constantly before the writer4 ,should any errors of the kind be discovered to exist in the present edition1 their indication is sincerely desired4 ,in the chapter ,unfair ,methods of ,controversy some illustrative cases were given without mention1 now and then1 of the persons criticized4 ,it seemed to the writer that in certain instances it should be quite sufficient to point out and to condemn inaccuracies and errors without bringing upon the record every individual name4 ,no misunderstanding could possibly exist1 since the references were ample in every case4 ,but since this reticence1 in at least one instance1 has been criticized by an unfriendly reviewer1 it is perhaps better to state that the repeated allusions to ,lord ,lister's journeyings to ,france1 and the article in ,harper's ,monthly for ,april1 #aiji1 were from the pen of the author of ,animal ,experimentation--a work which is reviewed in the ,appendix to the present edition4 ,to his advanced age--now far beyond the allotted span--we may ascribe the inaccuracies which1 at an earlier period of his career1 would doubtless have been recognized4 ,a4 ,l4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,,introduction - - - - - xi ,i4 ,,what ,,is ,,vivisection8 - - - - #a ,,ii4 ,,on ,,certain ,,mistakes ,,of ,,scientists - - #ab ,,iii4 ,,an ,,eighteenth-,,century ,,vivisector - - - #bb ,,iv4 ,,magendie ,,and ,,his ,,contemporaries - - - #bi ,v4 ,a ,,vivisector',s ,,remorse - - - - #dg ,,vi4 ,,is ,,torture ,,justified ,,by ,,utility8 - - #eg ,,vii4 ,,the ,,commencement ,,of ,,agitation - - - #ff ,,viii4 ,,attainment ,,of ,,regulation ,,in ,,england - - #hh ,,ix4 ,a ,,great ,,protestant - - - - #aac ,x4 ,,the ,,vivisection ,,report ,,of #aiab - - - #abg ,,xi4 ,,the ,,anaesthetic ,,delusion - - - #adi ,,xii4 ,,the ,,vivisection ,,of ,,to-,,day - - - #afb ,,xiii4 ,,what ,,is ,,vivisection ,,reform8 - - - #aif ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,reform ,,societies - - - #baf ,,xv4 ,,unfair ,,methods ,,of ,,controversy - - - #bbh ,,xvi4 ,,research ,,without ,,vivisection - - - #bed ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,future ,,of ,,vivisection - - - #bgf ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,final ,,phase3 ,,experimentation ,,on ,,man - #bhi ,,xix4 ,,conclusion - - - - - #cbf ,,appendixes - - - - #ccc-cfd;,c ,,index - - - - #cfe-cfi ,,press ,,notices - - - - #cga-cgd ,,introduction ,it is now somewhat over a third of a century since my attention was specially directed to the abuses of animal experimentation4 ,in ,january1 #ahhj1 a paragraph appeared in a morning paper of ,new ,york referring to the late ,henry ,bergh4 ,with his approval a ,bill had come before the legislature of the ,state of ,new ,york providing for the abolition of all experiments upon living animals--whether in medical colleges or elsewhere--on the ground that they were without benefit to anybody1 and demoralizing alike to the teacher and student4 ,as ,i dropped the paper1 it occurred to me that the chances of success would have been far greater if less had been asked4 ,that certain vivisections were atrocious was undoubtedly true2 but1 on the other hand1 there were some experiments that were absolutely painless4 ,would it not be wiser to make some distinctions8 ,the attempt was made4 ,an article on the subject was at once begun1 and in ,july of the same year it was published in ,scribner's ,magazine1 the predecessor of the ,century4 ,so far as known1 it was the first argument that ever found expression in the pages of any ,american periodical favouring not the entire abolition of vivisection1 but the reform of its abuse4 ,my knowledge of vivisection had its beginning in personal experience4 ,nearly forty years ago1 while teaching the elements of physiology at the ,polytechnic ,institute of ,brooklyn1 it occurred to me to illustrate the statements of textbooks by a repetition of such simple experiments as had come before my own eyes4 ,most of my demonstrations were illustrative of commonplace physiological phenomena3 chloroform was freely used to secure unconsciousness of the animal1 and with the exception of one or two demonstrations1 the avoidance of pain or distress was almost certainly accomplished4 ,but what especially impressed me at the time was the extraordinary interest which these experiments seemed to excite4 ,students from advanced classes in the institute were often spectators and voluntary assistants4 ,of the utility of such demonstrations as a means of fixing facts in memory1 ,i could not have the slightest doubt4 ,nor as regards the rightfulness of vivisection as a method either of study or demonstration1 was there at that period any question in my mind4 ,whatever ,science desired1 it seemed to me only proper that ,science should have4 ,the fact that certain demonstrations or experiments upon living animals had already been condemned as unjustifiable cruelty by the leading men in the medical profession1 and by some of the principal medical journals of ,england1 was then as utterly unknown to me as the same facts are to-day unknown to the average graduate of every medical school in the ,united ,states4 ,it was not long until after this early experience1 and following acquaintance with the practice in ,europe as well as at home1 that doubts arose regarding the justice of ,,causing ,,pain ,,to ,,illustrate ,,facts ,,already ,,known4 ,these doubts became convictions1 and were stated in my first contribution to the literature of the subject1 the paper in ,scribner's4 ,it is not the position of what is called antivivisection1 for that implies condemnation of every phase of animal experimentation4 ,in the third of a century that has elapsed since this protest was made1 the practice of vivisection has taken vast strides3 it appears in new shapes and unanticipated environment4 ,but the old abuses have not disappeared1 and some of them1 more urgently than ever before1 demand the attention of thinking men and women4 ,of personal contributions to the literature of the subject1 during the past third of a century1 nearly everything has been more or less polemical1 called forth by either exaggeration of utility1 inaccuracy of assertion1 or misstatement of fact4 ,now it has been protest against the brilliant correspondent of a ,new ,york newspaper1 who telegraphed from ,london an account of a visit to a well-known physiological laboratory1 where he found animals all fat1 cheerful1 and jolly1 yet quite unaffected by the removal of a spinal cord--as sensible a statement as if he had referred to their jolly condition after removal of their heads4 ,now it has been the manifesto of professors in a medical school declaring that in the institution to which they belonged no painful experiments had been performed--an assertion abundantly contradicted by their own publications4 ,now it is a ,surgeon-,general of the ,army1 defending one of the most cruel of vivisections in which he was not in any way concerned1 by an exposition of ignorance regarding the elements of physiology2 and1 again1 it has been a ,president of a medical association1 making a speech1 wherein hardly a sentence was not stamped with inaccuracy and ignorance4 ,to some natures controversy is exhilarating2 to myself it is beyond expression distasteful4 ,yet1 when confronted by false affirmations1 what is one's duty8 ,to say nothing8 ,to permit the untruth to march triumphantly on its way8 ,or1 in the interest of ,science herself1 should not one attempt the exposure of inaccuracy1 and the demonstration of the truth8 ,approaching the end of a long pilgrimage1 it has seemed to me worth while to make a final survey of the great question of our time4 ,how was the cruelty of vivisection once regarded by the leading members of the medical profession8 ,shall we say to-day that the utility of torment1 in the vivisection of animals1 constitutes perfect justification and defence8 ,how far did ,civilization once go in the approval of torture because of its imagined deterrent effects8 ,what has been accomplished by the agitation concerning vivisection which has persisted for the last forty years8 ,has the battlefield been well selected8 ,have demands of reformers been wisely formulated8 ,is public opinion to-day inclined to be any more favourable to the legal abolition of all scientific experimentation upon animals than it was a third of a century ago8 ,what has been the result of vivisection in ,america1 unrestricted and unrestrained8 ,has it accomplished anything for the human race that might not have been accomplished under conditions whereby cruelty should be impossible except as a crime8 ,has the death-rate been reduced by new discoveries made in ,american laboratories8 ,is it possible that utility is persistently exaggerated by those who are not unwilling to use exaggeration as a means of defence8 ,and of the ,future1 what are the probabilities for which we may hope8 ,what is being done in our century in the way of submitting animals to unlimited torture8 ,to throw somewhat of light on these questions is the object of this volume4 ,i wish it had been in my power to write a more extended and complete exposition of the problem1 but limitations of strength1 due to advancing age1 have made that hope impracticable4 ,but as one man drops the torch1 another hand will grasp it2 and where now is darkness and secrecy1 there will one day be knowledge and light4 ,,an ,,ethical ,,problem ,,chapter ,i ,,what ,,is ,,vivisection8 ,upon no ethical problem of our generation is the public sentiment of to-day more uncertain and confused than in its attitude toward vivisection4 ,why this uncertainty exists it is not very difficult to discern4 ,in the first place1 no definition of the word itself has been suggested and adopted sufficiently concise and yet so comprehensive as to include every phase of animal experimentation4 ,it is a secret practice4 ,formerly more or less public1 it is now carried on in closed laboratories1 with every possible precaution against the disclosure of anything liable to criticism4 ,quite apart from any questions of usefulness1 it is a pursuit involving problems of the utmost fascination for the investigating mind--questions pertaining to ,life and ,death--the deepest mysteries which can engage the intellect of mankind4 ,we find it made especially attractive to young men at that period of life when their encouraged and cultivated enthusiasm for experimentation is not liable to be adequately controlled by any deep consideration for the material upon which they work4 ,sometimes animal experimentation is painless1 and sometimes it involves suffering which may vary in degree from distress which is slight to torments which a great surgeon has compared to burning alive1 the utmost degree of prolonged and excruciating agony4 ,by some1 its utility to humanity is constantly asserted1 and by others as earnestly and emphatically and categorically denied4 ,confronted by contradictory assertions of antagonists and defenders1 how is the average man to make up his mind8 ,both opinions1 he reasons1 cannot possibly be true1 and he generally ranges himself under the banner of the ,laboratory or of its enemies1 according to his degree of confidence in their assertions1 or his preference for the ideals which they represent4 ,now1 the object of all controversy should be to enable us to see facts as they are--to get at the truth4 ,that difference of opinion will exist may be inevitable2 for opinions largely depend upon our ideals1 and these of no two individuals are precisely the same4 ,but so far as facts are concerned1 we should be able to make some approach to agreement1 and especially as regards the ethical supremacy of certain ideals4 ,but first of all we need to define ,vivisection4 ,what is it8 ,originally implying merely the cutting of a living animal in way of experiment1 it has come by general consent to include all scientific investigations upon animals whatsoever1 even when such researches or demonstrations involve no cutting operation of any kind4 ,it has been authoritatively defined as experiments upon animals calculated to cause pain4 ,but this would seem to exclude all experimentation of a kind which is not calculated to cause pain2 experiments regarding which all the calculation is to avoid pain2 as1 for example1 an experiment made to determine the exact quantity of chloroform necessary to produce death without return of consciousness4 ,the ,british ,royal ,commission of #ahge defined it as the practice of subjecting live animals to experiments for scientific purposes1 avoiding any reference to the infliction of pain2 yet1 so far as pertains to the justification of vivisection1 the whole controversy may turn on that4 ,any complete definition should at least contain reference to those investigations to which little or no objection would be raised1 were they not part of the system4 ,it should not omit reference1 also1 to those refinements of pain-infliction for inadequate purposes--also a part of a system1 and which1 to very distinguished leaders in the medical profession1 have seemed to be inexcusable and wrong4 ,suppose1 then1 we attempt a definition that shall be inclusive of all phases of the practice4 ,vivisection is the exploitation of living animals for experiments concerning the phenomena of life4 ,such experiments are made1 ,,first1 for the demonstration1 before students1 of facts already known and established2 or1 ,,second1 as a method of investigation of some theory or problem1 which may be with or without relation to the treatment of human ailments4 ,such experiments may range from procedures which are practically painless1 to those involving distress1 exhaustion1 starvation1 baking1 burning1 suffocation1 poisoning1 inoculation with disease1 every kind of mutilation1 and long-protracted agony and death4 ,a definition of this kind will cover #ii per cent4 of all experiments4 ,the extreme pro-vivisectionist may protest that the definition brings into prominence the more painful operations2 yet for the majority of us the only ground for challenging the practice at all is the pain1 amounting to torment in some cases1 which vivisection may involve4 ,they are rare1 some one says4 ,but how do we know8 ,the doors of the laboratory are closed4 ,of practices secretly carried on1 what can we know8 ,that every form of imaginable torment has at some time been practised in the name of ,science1 we may learn from the reports of experimenters themselves1 and from the writings of men who have denounced them4 ,it was ,dr4 ,henry ,j4 ,bigelow1 of ,harvard ,university1 the most eminent surgeon of his day1 who declared that vivisection sometimes meant the infliction of the severest conceivable pain1 of indefinite duration1 and that it was a torture of helpless animals1 more terrible1 by reason of its refinement1 than burning at the stake4 ,is the above definition of vivisection stronger than is implied by this assertion of ,dr4 ,bigelow8 ,we need constantly to remember that vivisection is by no means a simple act4 ,it may indicate investigations that require no cutting operation of any kind1 and the infliction of no pain2 or1 on the other hand1 it may denote operations that involve complicated and severe mutilations1 and torments as prolonged and exquisite as human imagination can conceive4 ,experiments may be made1 in course of researches1 of very great interest and importance to medical science2 and1 on the contrary1 they may be performed merely to demonstrate phenomena about which there is no doubt1 or to impress on the memory of a student some well-known fact4 ,they may be performed by men like ,sir ,charles ,bell1 who hesitated to confirm one of the greatest physiological discoveries of the last century1 merely because it would imply a repetition of painful experiments2 and they may be done by men like ,magendie1 who declared of his mutilated and tormented victims1 that it was ,,droll to see them skip and jump about4 ,it is because of all these differences that the majority of men have an indefinite conception of what they approve or condemn4 ,the advocate of unrestricted vivisection sometimes tells us that experimentation implies no more pain than the prick of a pin1 and that its results are of great utility to the human race2 the antivivisectionist1 on the other hand1 may insist that such experimentation means inconceivable torment without the slightest conceivable benefit to mankind4 ,both are right in the occasional significance of the word4 ,both are wrong if one meaning is to answer for all varieties of experimentation upon living things4 ,some years ago the attempt was made to obtain the view of animal experimentation held by certain classes of intelligent men and women4 ,one view of the practice is that which regards it merely as a method of scientific research1 with which morality has no more to do than it would have in determining in what direction a telescope should be pointed by an astronomer1 or what rocks a geologist should not venture to touch4 ,a statement embodying the views of those who favour unrestricted vivisection included affirmations like these3 ,vivisection1 or experimentation upon living creatures1 must be looked at simply as a method of studying the phenomena of life4 ,with it1 morality has nothing to do4 ,it should be subject neither to criticism1 supervision1 nor restrictions of any kind4 ,it may be used to any extent desired by any experimenter--no matter what degree of extreme or prolonged pain it may involve--for demonstration before students of the statements contained in their textbooks1 as an aid to memory14444or for any conceivable purpose of investigation into vital phenomena4444 ,while we claim many discoveries of value14444yet even these we regard as of secondary importance to the freedom of unlimited research4 ,this is the meaning of free and unrestricted vivisection4 ,its plainness of speech did not deter very distinguished physiologists and others from signing it as the expression of their views4 ,one can hardly doubt that it represents the view of the physiological laboratory at the present day4 ,sixty years ago this view of vivisection would have found but few adherents in ,england or ,america2 to-day it is probably the tacit opinion of a majority of the medical profession in either land4 ,one may question whether any similar change of sentiment in a direction contrary to reform has ever appeared since ,civilization began4 ,we shall endeavor to show1 hereafter1 to what that change is due4 ,absolutely opposed to this sentiment are the principles of what is known as antivivisection4 ,according to this view1 all vivisection is an immoral infringement upon the rights of animals4 ,the cruelties that accompany research will always accompany it1 until all scientific experimentation upon animals is made a criminal offence4 ,from a statement of opinion giving expression to this view1 the following sentences are taken3 ,all experimentation upon living animals we consider unnecessary1 unjustifiable1 and morally wrong4444 ,even if utility could be proved1 man has no right to attempt to benefit himself at the cost of injury1 pain1 or disease to the lower animals4 ,the injury which the practice of vivisection causes to the moral sense of the individual and to humanity far outweighs any possible benefit that could be derived from it4 ,dr4 ,henry ,j4 ,bigelow1 ,professor in the ,medical ,school of ,harvard ,university1 declared that vivisection deadens the humanity of the students4' ,nothing which thus lowers morality can be a necessity to progress4444 ,painless or painful1 useless or useful1 however severe or however slight1 vivisection is a practice so linked with cruelty and so pernicious in tendency1 ,,that ,,any ,,reform ,,is ,,impossible1 and it should be absolutely prohibited by law for any purpose4 ,this is antivivisection4 ,it is a view of the practice which has seemed reasonable to large numbers of earnest men and women whose lives in various directions have been devoted to the prevention of all kinds of cruelty1 and to the promotion of the best interests of the race4 ,when this view is maintained by men and women who oppose the killing of animals for purposes of food or raiment or adornment1 or their exploitation in any way which demands extinction of life1 it is entirely consistent with high ideals4 ,it is against this view that the arguments of those who contend for vivisection1 without restriction or restraint1 are always directed4 ,but even among antivivisectionists there are1 naturally1 differences of opinion4 ,for instance1 the ,national ,antivivisection ,society1 the principal organization of ,england1 desires to see vivisection totally abolished by law2 but1 meanwhile1 it will strive for and accept any measures that have for their object the amelioration of the condition of vivisected animals4 ,on the other hand1 the ,british ,union for the ,total ,abolition of ,vivisection will accept nothing less than the legal condemnation of every phase of such experiments4 ,vivisection1 the secretary of this society writes1 is a system1 and not a number of isolated acts to be considered separately4 ,owing to its intricate and interdependent character and the international competition involved1 ,,use ,,cannot ,,be ,,separated ,,from ,,abuse4 ,in other words1 every conceivable phase of scientific experimentation upon living creatures1 even if absolutely painless1 should be made a legal offence4 ,but we are not driven to accept one or the other of these definitions of animal experimentation4 ,a third view of vivisection exists1 which differs widely from either of these opposing ideals4 ,instead of taking the position of the antivivisectionist that ,,all scientific investigations involving the use of animals1 should be legally prohibited1 it maintains that distinctions may1 and should1 be drawn1 and that only the abuses of vivisection should be condemned by law4 ,it asks society neither to approve of everything1 nor to condemn everything1 but to draw a line between experiments that1 by reason of utility and painlessness1 are entirely permissible1 and others which ought assuredly to be condemned4 ,it makes no protest against experimentation involving the death of an animal where it is certain that consciousness of pain has been abolished by anaesthetics2 but it condemns absolutely the exhibition of agony as an easy method of teaching well-known facts4 ,the utility of certain experiments it does not question2 but even increase of knowledge may sometimes be purchased at too high a price4 ,from a statement of this position regarding vivisection1 drawn some years since1 the following sentences may be of interest3 ,vivisection is a practice of such variety and complexity1 that1 like warfare between nations1 one can neither condemn it nor approve it1 unless some careful distinctions be first laid down4444 ,within certain limitations1 we regard vivisection to be so justified by utility as to be legitimate1 expedient1 and right4 ,beyond these boundaries1 it is cruel1 monstrous1 and wrong4444 ,we believe1 therefore1 that the common interests of humanity and science demand that vivisection1 like the study of human anatomy in the dissecting-room1 should be brought under the direct supervision and control of the ,state4 ,the practice1 whether in public or in private1 should be restricted by law to certain definite objects1 and surrounded by every possible safeguard against license or abuse4 ,this is a statement of what is meant by vivisection reform4 ,every unprejudiced mind can see at once that it is not the same as antivivisection4 ,is it the enemy of science8 ,the leading name affixed to this declaration of principles was that of the late ,herbert ,spencer1 the chief apostle of modern science4 ,is it against the interests of education8 ,it was signed by eleven presidents of ,american universities and colleges1 and by a large number of men closely connected with institutions of learning4 ,is it antagonistic to medical science and art8 ,the statement received the endorsement of twice as many physicians and surgeons as were favourable to experimentation upon animals without any restriction or restraint2 and among these physicians favourable to reform were men of national reputation4 ,no one should expect that men whose sole profession is experimentation of this character would approve of any limitations to their activity in any direction2 but they constitute only a small fraction of human society4 ,outside their ranks we may be confident that there are very few1 at all acquainted with the subject1 who will not concede that in the past many things have been done in this exploitation of animal life which are greatly to be deplored4 ,is there1 then1 no method of prevention8 ,are we simply to fold our hands and trust that the humaner instincts of the present-day vivisector1 working in the seclusion of his private laboratory1 will keep him free from all that we regret in the vivisection of the past8 ,or must we1 on the other hand1 ask for the total condemnation of every experiment1 because some are cruel and atrocious8 ,this is the platform of the ,restrictionist4 ,it cannot--except by perversion of truth--be regarded as antivivisection1 for there is not a single society in ,england or ,america1 devoted to the interests of that cause1 which would acknowledge these views as in any way representative of its ideals2 but it is the expression of sentiments which formerly were almost universally held by the medical profession of ,england4 ,yet the advocates of unrestricted vivisection have never been willing to consider this position1 and1 in controversy1 invariable fall back upon arguments applicable only to the views of those who would abolish vivisection altogether4 ,there is yet another position to be taken2 it is the attitude of unconcern4 ,from vast numbers nothing better can be expected4 ,the man who is utterly indifferent to the unnecessary agony accompanying the slaughter of animals for food1 or to the cruelties of sport1 or the woman whose vanity demands sacrifices of animals at the cost of incalculable suffering1 will take little or no interest in the question of vivisections2 nor is complicity with other phases of torment and cruelty alone responsible for the indifference which so generally exists4 ,in every age1 from the twilight of earliest savagery down to the present time1 the vast majority of human beings have been inclined1 not to doubt1 but to believe1 and especially to believe those who claimed superior knowledge in matters of ,life and ,death4 ,this tendency to unquestioning faith has been the support of every phase of injustice1 of cruelty1 and of wrong4 ,it has led to innumerable men and women of education and refinement to remit all questions of animal experimentation to the vivisector and his friends1 precisely as they would have done had they lived three centuries ago1 and had it been theirs to decide on the morality of burning a witch4 ,on the other hand1 the alliance between the laboratory and the medical profession1 their mutual endeavour to stifle criticism and to induce approval of all vivisection whatever1 has given rise to a new spirit of inquiry4 ,a moral question is never absolutely decided until it is decided aright4 ,if the problem of vivisection is ever settled1 it will be due1 not to the influence of those who advocate unquestioning faith in the humaneness of the average experimenter1 who decline inquiry1 and who rest satisfied with their ignorance1 but rather to those who1 having investigated the question for themselves1 have given all their influence for some measure of reform4 ,in questions of humanity1 even the unwisdom of enthusiasm that tends toward reform is far better than indifference and unconcern4 ,the ignorance of history1 shown often by the advocates of unlimited vivisection1 is a singular phenomenon4 ,the beginnings of this controversy are not without interest4 ,let us glance at them4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,on ,,certain ,,mistakes ,,of ,,scientists ,every reflecting student of history is struck by the divergence of opinions manifest among educated men in regard to the great problems of life4 ,why is it that so few of us are able to state the facts and arguments which favour conclusions to which we are utterly opposed8 ,take1 for instance1 the great question of religious belief4 ,can one refer to any ,protestant writer of our time who has placed before his readers the arguments which inclined men like ,newman or ,manning to the ,catholic faith8 ,has any ,catholic writer of our time been able to present fairly the arguments which seem so overwhelmingly convincing to ,protestant thinkers8 ,in either case1 is there not something of distortion or exaggeration8 ,certainly it cannot be due to intentional and perverse obliquity of mental vision4 ,as a rule reasonable men endeavour to be just and fair4 ,now and then1 in the heat of controversy1 a tendency to overstatement or exaggeration may be evident1 especially where great issues appear to be involved2 but the purpose can be reconciled with honesty4 ,is it not more than probable that the principal reason for divergent views on the part of honest opponents is ,,ignorance ,,of ,,facts8 ,take1 for example1 the opinion held to-day by the great majority of young physicians concerning animal experimentation4 ,as a rule they regard all criticism of vivisection with infinite contempt4 ,during their medical studies they were continually imbued with the idea that the opposition to laboratory freedom of experimentation was an agitation of comparatively recent date1 and confined to a small class of unthinking sentimentalists4 ,of that strong protest against cruel experiments which made itself heard more during more than a century1 and of the atrocities which led to that protest1 the average physician of to-day knows nothing whatever4 ,plunged into the practice of a profession which may absorb every moment of time1 he has perhaps neither leisure to investigate nor disposition to doubt whatever he has been told4 ,now1 if the average student of medicine is thus ignorant of history1 is it not because those who have taught him were equally devoid of knowledge of the facts8 ,of the history of the vivisection controversy previous to #ahge1 some of the most distinguished men in the medical profession have proved themselves profoundly ignorant4 ,illustrations of this lack of information might be almost indefinitely adduced1 but ,i propose to bring forward only a few instances typical of their kind4 ,on ,june #aj1 #ahif1 ,dr4 ,henry ,p4 ,bowditch1 then professor of physiology in ,harvard ,medical ,school1 delivered an address on vivisection before the ,massachusetts ,medical ,society4 ,the character of his audience1 and the profession of the speaker1 might be presumed to give assurance of absolute accuracy concerning any question of historic fact4 ,a quarter century before1 ,dr4 ,bowditch had studied physiology in ,german laboratories ,returning to ,america in #ahga1 he had been given the opportunity of reorganizing the teaching of physiology at ,harvard ,medical ,school1 so as to bring it into conformity with ,continental methods4 ,it is quite probable that to him1 more than to any other person1 is due the introduction of ,continental methods of physiological instruction in the medical colleges of the ,united ,states4 ,according to ,dr4 ,bowditch1 the criticism of vivisection in ,england began in #ahfd4 ,to his audience of physicians he made the following statement3 ,the first serious attack upon biological research in ,england seems to have been made in an essay entitled ,vivisection3 is it ,necessary or ,justifiable8' published in ,london in #ahfd1 by ,george ,fleming1 a ,british veterinary surgeon4 ,this essay is an important one1 for although characterized at the time by a reviewer in the ,london ,athenaeum as ignorant1 fallacious1 and altogether unworthy of acceptance1' its blood-curdling stories1 applied to all sorts of institutions1 have formed a large part of the stock-in-trade of subsequent vivisection writers4 ,the sneering reference to blood-curdling stories is of itself extremely significant4 ,it indicates unmistakably the utter contempt which nearly every physiologist feels for the sentiment of humaneness which underlies protest against experimental cruelty4 ,the speaker omitted to tell his audience that this essay of ,dr4 ,fleming received the first prize offered by the ,royal ,society for the ,prevention of ,cruelty to ,animals1 and that the ,committee which decided the merits of the essay included some of the most eminent scientific men of ,england1 among them ,sir ,richard ,owen and ,professor ,carpenter--the latter one of the most distinguished of ,english physiologists of his time4 ,he forgot to add that if the examples of atrocious vivisection given in this essay were horrible--as they were--yet every instance was substantiated by reference to the original authorities1 and that their accurate quotation could not be impugned4 ,especially curious is the fact that ,professor ,bowditch placed the beginning of criticism at #ahfd4 ,of the arraignment of cruel vivisections by ,english physicians and ,english medical journals before that time1 ,dr4 ,bowditch apparently never heard1 and all the infamous atrocities which they condemned he dismissed with a sneer as blood-curdling stories4 ,yet1 in his day1 the speaker was one of the leading physiologists of the ,united ,states4 ,we cannot believe that the suppression of material facts was intentional2 it was due rather to complete ignorance of the history of that protest against physiological cruelty which ,england witnessed during the first part of the nineteenth century1 and of which some account shall follow4 ,take another instance4 ,in the ,international ,journal of ,ethics for ,april1 #aijd1 there appeared an article in defence of animal experimentation by ,professor ,charles ,s4 ,myers of the ,university of ,cambridge1 ,england4 ,of any abuses of the practice1 ,dr4 ,myers gave his readers no reason for believing that he had ever heard2 and as an indication1 perhaps1 of an animal's eagerness to be vivisected1 he tells us that again and again dogs have been observed to wag the tail and lick the hands of the operator even immediately before the beginning of the operation4 ,commenting upon the singular conclusion which this fact seemed to suggest to ,dr4 ,myers1 the present writer quoted a sentence or two from an editorial which once appeared in the columns of the ,london ,lancet4#a ,it would apparently seem that ,dr4 ,myers brought the quotation to the attention of someone in the editorial office of the ,lancet1 on whose judgment he thought he might safely rely2 for1 in a reply1 he refers to it as a quotation attributed to the editor of the ,lancet1 which1 ,,after ,,special ,,inquiry1 ,i ,,have ,,reason ,,for ,,doubting4 ,concerning a reference to some of ,dr4 ,sydney ,ringer's experiments upon patients in a ,london hospital1 he is even more confident that they could never have occurred1 and indignantly rejoins1 ,i unhesitatingly declare ,,such ,,abominable ,,accusations ,,to ,,be ,,false4 #a ,see p4 #gc for this ,lancet editorial4 ,now1 all this indignant scepticism was rather creditable to the writer's heart4 ,that an ,english medical journal like the ,lancet should denounce vivisection cruelties1 or that a reputable ,london physician should experiment on his patients with various poisons1 seemed to ,dr4 ,myers beyond the bounds of belief4 ,but it is always a serious thing positively to deny any historical reference simply because of personal ignorance of its truth4 ,it was quite easy to refer the sceptic not only to the editorial which he thought he ,,had ,,reason ,,for ,,doubting1 but also to the experiments on human beings concerning which his indignation rose so high4 ,to be ignorant of ,dr4 ,ringer's experiments on his patients is to be ignorant of the history of modern medicine4 ,the ,medical ,times 7,london7 in its issue of ,november #aj1 #ahhc1 thus editorially commented upon certain of these experiments3 444,in publishing1 and1 indeed1 in instituting their reckless experiments on the effect of nitrite of sodium on the human subject1 ,professor ,ringer and ,dr4 ,murrill have made a deplorably false move4444 ,it is impossible to read the paper in last week's ,lancet without distress4 ,of the ,,eighteen adults to whom ,drs ,ringer and ,murrill administered the drug in #aj-;grain doses1 all but one averred that they would expect to drop down dead if they ever took another dose4444 ,whatever credit may be given to ,drs4 ,ringer and ,murrill for scientific enthusiasm1 it is impossible to acquit them of grave indiscretion4 ,there will be a howl throughout the country ,,if ,,it ,,comes ,,out ,,that ,,the ,,officers ,,of ,a ,,public ,,charity ,,are ,,in ,,the ,,habit ,,of ,,trying ,,such ,,useless ,,and ,,cruel ,,experiments ,,on ,,the ,,patients ,,committed ,,to ,,their ,,care4#a #a ,in all quotations1 here and elsewhere throughout this volume1 the italics have been supplied4 ,what but ignorance of the history of medicine during the last fifty years could lead any one to deny the occurrence of experiments1 the proofs of which rest on statements in medical journals1 and in the published works of the experimenters themselves8 ,one of the most singular statements concerning vivisection that ever appeared in print was given out not many years ago by one of the professors of physiology in ,harvard ,medical ,school4#b ,the accuracy of this manifesto--which purported to be a plain statement of the whole truth--received the endorsement of five of the leading teachers of science in the same institution1 men whose scientific reputation would naturally give great weight to their affirmations regarding any question of fact4 ,so impressed was the editor of the ,boston ,transcript with the apparent weight of this testimony1 that he declared in its columns that the character and standing of the men whose names are given as responsible for this explanation to the ,boston public1 ,,forbid ,,any ,,questioning ,,of ,,its ,,statement ,,of ,,facts4 ,what is the value of authority in matters of science1 if assertions so fortified by illustrious names are to be received with doubt8 #b ,see ,the ,vivisection ,question1 pp4 #aad-acc and #bec4 ,the inaccuracy which characterized this statement of the whole truth was demonstrated at the time it appeared2 but to one paragraph attention may be recalled4 ,the manifesto touches the question of past cruelties in animal experimentation1 not merely without the slightest criticism or condemnation1 but1 on the contrary1 with what would seem to be a definite denial that anything reprehensible had ever occurred4 ,it contemptuously referred to evidence of abuses1 as these reiterated charges of cruelty1 ,,these ,,long ,,lists ,,of ,,atrocities ,,that ,,never ,,existed4 ,what other meaning could the average reader obtain than the suggestion that the cruelties of ,spallanzani1 of ,magendie1 of ,mantegazza1 of ,brown-,se'quard1 of ,brachet1 and a host of others1 existed only in the imagination1 ,,and ,,had ,,no ,,basis ,,of ,,fact8 ,for this astounding suggestion1 what explanation is possible8 ,that there was a deliberate purpose to mislead the public by an affirmation that cruel and unjustifiable experiments were a myth1 the creation of imagination1 is an hypothesis we must reject4 ,but there must have been a stupendous ignorance concerning the past history of animal experimentation4 ,simply because of their utter lack of knowledge regarding history1 distinguished scientists became responsible for suggesting to the public that the story of the past cruelty of vivisection was a myth1 and unworthy of belief4 ,while illustrations of this singular ignorance of the past might be almost indefinitely multiplied1 another example must for the present suffice4 ,it is afforded by the evidence given before the ,royal ,commission of ,vivisection in #aijf1 by ,sir ,william ,osler1 ,m4,d41 ,fellow of the ,royal ,society1 and ,regius ,professor of ,medicine at the ,university of ,oxford4 ,in the course of his examination1 the following dialogue occurred3#a ,are you familiar with the writings of ,dr4 ,leffingwell8 ,yes4 ,i think he points out that it was through the strong attacks that appeared in the ,lancet and the ,british ,medical ,journal that the ,vivisection ,act was passed8 ,,that ,,is ,,news ,,to ,,me4 ,you do not know that8 ,,no4 #a ,minutes of ,evidence1 ,questions #af1ghj-af1ghb4 ,perhaps the question asked may have implied somewhat more of influence on the part of the medical journals named than actually belonged to them2 but these periodicals certainly initiated that exposure and condemnation of cruelty in vivisection--which in ,england led to an agitation for reform4 ,sir ,william ,osler's replies1 however1 suggest something more than mere word-fencing2 he was evidently surprised to hear it intimated that medical journals like these could ever have been found attacking vivisection in any way4 ,of the strong attacks which appeared in these organs of medical opinion less than forty years before1 he had apparently never heard4 ,now1 when men like these1 leaders in the formation of public opinion on medical matters1 are thus ignorant of history1 ought one really to wonder at the lack of knowledge on the same subject betrayed by the new generation of physicians in active practice to-day--men not only of lesser influence1 but of more restricted opportunities for gaining information8 ,ninety-nine out of every hundred of the physicians engaged in medical instruction in ,england and ,america probably would have replied to the questions asked ,sir ,william ,osler to the same effect--,it is news to me4 ,sitting at their feet1 how can pupils be expected to do otherwise than to absorb both their prejudices and their learning8 ,how can any medical student distinguish between them8 ,we are all inclined to give implicit faith to men whose abilities in any direction we admire and reverence4 ,it is only with the advance of years and the test of experience that men come to learn the distrust of authority1 the wisdom of doubt1 and the value of personal inquiry concerning every great problem of life4 ,suppose1 then1 that we look into this question4 ,was ,professor ,bowditch correct in assigning the beginnings of criticism concerning vivisection to ,dr4 ,fleming's essay published in #ahfd8 ,or was its origin long before8 ,were the professors of the ,medical ,school accurate of statement when they practically denied that cruelty in vivisection was a historic fact1 and endorsed a reference to authenticated instances as long lists of atrocities ,,that ,,never ,,occurred8 ,is it a fact--although ,dr4 ,myers of ,cambridge and ,sir ,william ,osler of ,oxford apparently never heard of it--that it was the ,,medical journals of ,england whose indignant condemnation of vivisection cruelties led up to its attempted regulation by law8 ,the public assumes that authorities like these are not likely to err concerning methods of medical instruction or research4 ,in the mind of the average man1 every prepossession is in their favour2 he cannot easily bring himself to believe that if cruelty ever existed1 ,,they should be so completely ignorant of it4 ,it may1 indeed1 be questioned whether in the literature of controversy on the subject there has been a single defender of unrestricted freedom in vivisection1 who has intelligently referred to the horrible experiments of past vivisectors except either to sneer or to condone4 ,even ,mr4 ,stephen ,paget1 in his recent work1 ,experiments upon ,animals1 never once condemned the cruelty that but a generation ago excited indignation throughout the medical profession of ,great ,britain4 ,the truth of this matter is not to be attained by unquestioning acceptance of authority1 but by a study of the history of the past4 ,it would be impossible1 except in a volume1 to write a complete history of that protest against the unjustifiable cruelties of animal experimentation1 which gradually led to a demand for their legal suppression4 ,all that may here be attempted is a demonstration that the sentiment is not of recent origin2 that more than a century ago the cruelties1 which to-day are so carefully ignored1 were unquestioned as facts1 and that to medical journals of ,england is principally due that weighty condemnation of cruel vivisection1 which probably more than any other influence was the foundation of the agitation for vivisection reform4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,an ,,eighteenth-,,century ,,vivisector ,english literature during the eighteenth century presents no more distinguished name than that of ,dr4 ,samuel ,johnson1 the lexicographer and essayist4 ,his learning was immense2 his judgments and criticisms were everywhere regarded with respect2 and1 above other great men of his time1 he was fortunate in having as friend and companion one who produced the best biography that the world has ever known4 ,dr4 ,johnson's views of vivisection and vivisectors appeared as a contribution to the ,idler1 on ,august #e1 #agfa1 more than a hundred years before the date given by ,professor ,bowditch as that of ,,the ,,first ,,serious ,,attack ,,upon ,,biological ,,research ,,in ,,england4 ,it may1 nevertheless1 be doubted whether any attack more serious or protest more weighty was ever made than was written by the most eminent literary man of his time1 a century and a half ago4 ,among the inferior professors of medical knowledge is a race of wretches whose lives are only varied by varieties of cruelty2 whose favourite amusement is to nail dogs to tables and open them alive2 to try how long life may be continued in various degrees of mutilation1 or with the excision or laceration of vital parts2 to examine whether burning irons are felt more acutely by the bone or tendon2 and whether the more lasting agonies are produced by poison forced into the mouth or injected into the veins4 ,it is not without reluctance that ,i offend the sensibility of the tender mind with images like these4 ,if such cruelties were not practised1 it were to be desired that they should not be conceived2 but since they are published every day with ostentation1 let me be allowed once to mention them1 since ,i mention them with abhorrence4444 ,the anatomical novice tears out the living bowels of an animal1 and styles himself a physician'2 prepares himself by familiar cruelty for that profession which he is to exercise upon the tender and helpless1 upon feeble bodies and broken minds1 and by which he has opportunities to extend his arts and tortures1 and continue those experiments upon ,infancy and ,age which he has hitherto tried upon cats and dogs4 ,what is alleged in defence of these hateful practices1 everyone knows2 but the truth is that by knives and fire knowledge is not always sought1 and is very seldom attained4 ,i know not that by living dissections any discovery has been made by which a single malady is more easily cured4 ,and if the knowledge of physiology has been somewhat increased1 he surely buys knowledge dear who learns the use of the lacteals at the expense of his own humanity4 ,,it ,,is ,,time ,,that ,a ,,universal ,,resentment ,,against ,,these ,,horrid ,,operations ,,should ,,arise1 which tend to harden the heart1 and make the physician more dreadful than the gout or the stone4 ,a more vigorous denunciation of the cruelty of vivisection never appeared than these words of the first scholar of the ,english- speaking world4 ,of course the plea will be put forth that in ,dr4 ,johnson's time the use of anaesthetics was unknown4 ,are we1 then1 to conclude that the present-day defenders of absolute freedom in animal research would join him in condemning the perpetrators of ,,all ,,experiments ,,causing ,,distress ,,in ,,which ,,anaesthetics ,,cannot ,,be ,,employed8 ,for the merit of ,dr4 ,johnson's plea lies in this1 ,,that ,,he ,,makes ,,ethical ,,considerations ,,of ,,higher ,,importance ,,than ,,the ,,discovery ,,of ,,physiological ,,facts4 ,if the knowledge of physiology has been somewhat increased1 he surely buys knowledge dear who learns the use of the lacteals at the expense of his own humanity4 ,is there a physiological defenders of vivisection-freedom living to-day who would accept ,dr4 ,johnson's conclusion1 that one should forbear research which is possible only by the infliction of animal torment8 ,how unfair it is1 therefore1 to suggest that the force of ,dr4 ,johnson's argument is invalidated because anaesthetics were unknown--when the disagreement is infinitely deeper6 ,to what physiologists of his time did ,dr4 ,johnson allude8 ,apparently his denunciation was sweeping2 he referred to a race of wretches rather than to any particular individual1 and to experiments then carried on and published every day with ostentation4 ,who were the men thus stigmatized8 ,we do not know4 ,the record of their useless tormenting has sunk into the oblivion that hides their names2 there are but one or two whose identity may perhaps be guessed4 ,it is possible that one of them was ,john ,hunter2 yet ,hunter did not go up to ,london until #agfd1 and ,dr4 ,johnson's condemnation had appeared three years earlier4 ,still1 this does not preclude the possibility that ,dr4 ,johnson had ,hunter in his mind4 ,in some ways ,john ,hunter was a remarkable man4 ,he made an anatomical collection1 which is still in existence and which bears his name4 ,at ,earl's ,court1 then a suburb of ,london1 he established a sort of zoological ,inferno1 that reminds one of the ,island of ,dr4 ,moreau4 ,one of his biographers1 ,ottley1 tells us that ,hunger ,,took ,,supreme ,,delight in his physiological experiments2 and inasmuch as he suggested in a letter to a friend the performance of the most agonizing experiments as likely to amuse him1 the statement was undoubtedly true4 ,a man's occupation generally has an influence upon his character1 and ,hunter's biographer rather hesitatingly admits that he was not always very nice in his choice of associates1 and that among his companions were certain abominable wretches known as resurrection men1 who robbed graveyards for the benefit of students of anatomy4 ,under all circumstances1 we can hardly be surprised that his married life was anything but serene4 ,in the infliction of pain he seems to have been without any idea of pity4 ,to a friend who asked for his experience in a certain matter1 he wrote3 ,i thank you for your experiment on the hedgehog2 but ,,why ,,do ,,you ,,ask ,,me ,a ,,question1 by the way of solving it8 ,i think your solution is just1 but why--,,why ,,not ,,try ,,the ,,experiment8 ,repeat all the experiments upon a hedgehog as soon as you receive this1 and they will give you the solution4 ,,try ,,the ,,heat4 ,,cut ,,off ,a ,,leg444and let me know the result of the whole4 ,ever yours1 ,,john ,,hunter4 ,even his own word1 or the result of his own observations1 he did not wish to have accepted1 when1 merely at the cost of another tortured animal1 his friend could find the answer for himself4 ,is not this the physiological ideal of to-day8 ,again he writes to his scientific friend3 ,if you could make some experiments on the increased heat of inflammation1 ,i should be obliged to you4444 ,i opened the thorax of a dog between two ribs1 and introduced the thermometer4 ,then ,i put some lint into the wound to keep it from healing by the first intention1 ,,that ,,the ,,thorax ,,might ,,inflame2 but before ,i had time to try it again1 my dog died on the fourth day4 ,a deep wound might be made into the thick of a dog's thigh1 then put in the thermometer and some extraneous matter4444 ,,if ,,these ,,experiments ,,will ,,amuse ,,you1 ,i should be glad they were made2 but take care you do not break your thermometer in the dog's chest4#a #a ,barron's ,life of ,jenner1 i4 #dd4 ,,if ,,these ,,experiments ,,will ,,amuse ,,you--what a suggestive confirmation of ,dr4 ,johnson's charge that the torture of vivisection was then regarded as an amusement6 ,a century after1 an ,italian physiologist1 ,mantegazza1 devoted a year to the infliction of extreme torment upon animals1 and confessed that his tortures were inflicted1 not with hesitation or repugnance1 but ,,con ,,multo ,,amore1 with extreme delight4#b #b ,fisiolgia del ,dolore di ,paulo ,mantegazza1 pp4 #aja-ajg4 ,hunter does not seem to have regarded his own experiments other than as an intellectual pastime4 ,mr4 ,stephen ,paget1 in his work on ,animal ,experimentation1 refers to one great experiment444that puts him ,hunter on a line with ,harvey--an experiment upon a deer in ,richmond ,park4 ,there is no reason for doubting that such an experiment may have been made2 but the curious thing is1 that it rests only on verbal tradition1 for in his surgical lectures treating of aneurism ,hunter has not a word to say of the experiment which now1 we are told1 links his name with that of ,harvey1 who made known the circulation of the blood4 ,his biographer1 ,ottley1 referring to his surgical operation for aneurism1 tell us that he was led to propose the improved method1 in consequence of the frequent failure of the operation by the old mode4 ,no reference whatever is made to the legendary experiment on the stag in ,richmond ,park4#a #a ,ottley's ,life of ,hunter1 p4 #ig4 ,of other experiments by ,hunter we know more4 ,sometimes his observations were of a character that illustrates his environment4 ,in his ,observations ,hunter tells us that at one time1 on going to bed at night1 he observed bugs1 marching down the curtains and head of the bed2 of those killed1 ,,none had blood in them4 ,in the morning ,i have observed them marching back1 and all such were found ,,full ,,of ,,blood6#b ,a wonderful discovery for a philosopher to record1 leaving unmentioned the one experiment and observation by which his fame is to be linked with that of ,harvey6 #b ,letter to ,ottley1 ,life1 p4 #hi4 ,hunter had erroneous views on various matters of science4 ,he believed that there was no such thing as a primary colour1 every colour being a mixture of two1 making a third4 ,he tells us that he once formed a theory that if a human being were completely frozen1 life might be prolonged a thousand years1 he might learn what had happened during his frozen condition4#c ,his biographer1 ,ottley1 alludes to this theory of ,hunter's as a project which1 if realized1 he expected would make his fortune4#d ,with this not altogether admirable object in view1 his experiments upon freezing animals were doubtless made4 ,a dormouse1 confined in a cold mixture1 he tells us1 showed signs of great uneasiness2 sometimes it would curl itself into round form to preserve its extremities and confine the heat1 and finding that ineffectual1 would then endeavor to escape4 ,its feet were at last frozen1 but ,hunter could not freeze the entire animal because of the protection afforded by the hair4 ,how should the scientist overcome this difficulty8 ,he pondered over the problem2 then made a dormouse completely wet over1 and placed it in the freezing-mixture4 ,the wretched animal made repeated attempts to escape1 but without avail1 and finally became quote stiff4 ,alas1 for the grand fortune6 ,hunter tells us that on being thawed1 it was found quite dead6#a #c ,lectures1 i4 #bhd4 #d ,ottley's ,life of ,hunter1 p4 #eg4 #a ,hunter's ,works1 vol4 iv41 p4 #acc4 ,the influence of ,hunter upon ,english biology was undoubtedly very great4 ,in a mean and sordid society1 he was an enthusiast for the acquisition of knowledge1 and while his passion for physiology induced--as it so often does--an indifference regarding the infliction of pain1 his pitiless vivisections were not more cruel than experiments made in this twentieth century1 and some of them by men of national reputation4 ,he was the type of the class of experimenters whom ,dr4 ,johnson had in his mind1 men whose long practice in the infliction of torment creates an indifference to the ordinary emotions of humanity1 so that even in the causation of agony they find something to amuse1 and in the performance of the most painful vivisection an occasion for supreme delight4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,magendie ,,and ,,his ,,contemporaries ,it may be doubted whether any physiologist has ever lived whose cruelty to animals exceeded that which1 for a long period1 was exercised by ,franc1ois ,magendie4 ,born at ,bordeaux1 ,france1 in #aghc1 just before the beginning of the ,french ,revolution1 he studied medicine1 receiving his medical degree in the year #ahjh4 ,entering with some zest upon the study of physiology1 he published several pamphlets regarding his investigations1 and rapidly earned that notoriety--which for some natures is the equivalent of fame--for the peculiar and refined torments which1 in public demonstrations1 he took frequent occasion to inflict4 ,in #ahba he was elected a member of the ,institute2 in #ahca he had become a professor in the ,college de ,france1 a position he held for the remainder of his life4 ,he died in #ahee4 ,one of the earliest exposures of ,magendie's infamous vivisections was made in the ,british ,parliament4 ,on ,february #bd1 #ahbe1 ,mr4 ,richard ,martin of ,galway1 an ,irish ,member of the ,house of ,commons1 moved to bring in a ,bill for the repression of bear-baiting and other forms of cruelty to animals4 ,his name is worth remembering1 for to this ,richard ,martin belongs the honour of being one of the first men in any land who attempted to secure some repression of cruelty to animals through the condemnation of the law4 ,during his speech on this occasion ,mr4 ,martin said3 ,it was not merely bear-baiting and sports of a similar character that he wished to abolish2 there were other practices1 equally cruel1 with which he thought the legislature ought to interfere4 ,there was a ,frenchman by the name of ,magendie1 whom he considered a disgrace to ,society4 ,in the course of the last year this man1 at one of his anatomical theatres1 exhibited a series of experiments so atrocious as almost to shock belief4 ,this ,m4 ,magendie got a lady's greyhound4 ,first of all he nailed its front1 and then its hind1 paws with the bluntest spikes that he could find1 giving as reason that the poor beast1 in its agony1 might tear away from the spikes if they were at all sharp or cutting4 ,he then doubled up its long ears1 and nailed them down with similar spikes4 7,cries of ,shame6'7 ,he then made a gash down the middle of the face1 and proceeded to dissect all the nerves on one side of it4444 ,after he had finished these operations1 this surgical butcher then turned to the spectators1 and said3 ,i have now finished my operations on one side of this dog's head1 and ,i shall reserve the other side till to-morrow4 ,if the servant takes care of him for the night1 ,i am of the opinion that ,i shall be able to continue my operations upon him to-morrow with as much satisfaction to us all as ,i have done to-day2 but if not1 ,,although ,,he ,,may ,,have ,,lost ,,the ,,vivacity ,,he ,,has ,,shown ,,to-,,day1 ,i shall have the opportunity of cutting him up alive1 and showing you the motion of the heart4' ,mr4 ,martin added that he held in his hands the written declarations of ,mr4 ,abernethy1 of ,sir ,everard ,home 7and of other distinguished medical men71 all uniting in condemnation of such excessive and protracted cruelty as had been practised by this ,frenchman4#a #a ,hansard's ,parliamentary ,reports1 ,february #bd1 #ahbe4 ,within the past forty years has the cruelty of ,magendie been condemned by any ,english or ,american physiologist8 ,i have never seen it4 ,the objection is sometimes raised that evidence like this of ,magendie's cruelty is only hearsay4 ,is not this generally the case where inhumanity is concerned8 ,when ,wilberforce described the atrocities of the ,african slave trade1 or ,shaftesbury the conditions pertaining to children in coal-mines and cotton mills1 their statements were equally questioned2 yet1 when reform had been accomplished1 nobody doubted that1 although they had not personally witnessed the cruelties1 they had reported only the facts4 ,now1 one peculiarity of ,magendie's vivisections ,,was ,,their ,,publicity4 ,there was no attempt at concealment1 such as governs the practice in ,england and ,america to-day4 ,magendie's experiments were publicly made1 seemingly with a desire to parade his contempt for any sentiment of compassion towards animals4 ,the evidence of ,magendie's cruelty is supported by an overwhelming amount of evidence1 and to ,mr4 ,martin's account of his vivisections1 none of ,magendie's ,english friends or apologists ever ventured to reply in the public journals of the day4 ,an ,english physician1 ,dr4 ,john ,anthony1 a pupil of ,sir ,charles ,bell and a strong advocate of vivisection1 has given us a little account of his personal experience in #ahch1 while a student of medicine in ,paris4 ,the ,english members of his class1 he says1 were indignant at the ,,cruelties which we saw manifested ,,in ,,the ,,demonstration ,,of ,,experiments ,,on ,,living ,,creatures4444 ,what ,i saw in ,paris pointed to this3 that very frequently men who are in the habit of making these experiments are very careless of what becomes of the animal when it has served its purpose2 444 the animal is thrown 7aside7 to creep into a corner and die4444 ,i have carefully avoided seeing experiments in vivisection after the awful dose which ,i had of it in ,paris1 in #ahch4 ,,the ,,men ,,there ,,seemed ,,to ,,care ,,no ,,more ,,for ,,the ,,pain ,,of ,,the ,,creature ,,being ,,operated ,,upon ,,than ,,if ,,it ,,were ,,so ,,much ,,inorganic ,,matter4#a #a ,vivisection ,report1 #ahgf1 ,questions #b1cdg1 #b1ddg1 #b1ehb4 ,another witness of ,magendie's cruelty was ,dr4 ,william ,sharpey1 ,,ll4,d41 ,fellow of the ,royal ,society1 and for more than thirty years the professor of physiology in ,university ,college1 ,london4 ,it is a curious fact that the ,handbook of the ,physiological ,laboratory1 which1 when published in #ahga1 increased the agitation against vivisection1 was dedicated to ,professor ,sharpey4 ,before the ,royal ,commission on ,vivisection1 in #ahgf1 he gave the following account of his personal experience3 ,when ,i was a very young man1 studying in ,paris1 ,i went to the first of a series of lectures which ,magendie gave upon experimental physiology2 and ,i was so utterly repelled by what ,i witnessed that ,i never went again4 ,in the first place1 they were painful 7in those days there were no anaesthetics71 and sometimes they were severe2 and then ,,they ,,were ,,without ,,sufficient ,,object4 ,for example1 ,magendie made incisions into the skin of rabbits and other creatures ,,to ,,show ,,that ,,the ,,skin ,,is ,,sensitive6 ,surely all the world knows the skin is sensitive2 no experiment is wanted to prove that4 ,several experiments he made were of a similar character1 ,,and ,,he ,,put ,,the ,,animals ,,to ,,death1 ,,finally1 ,,in ,a ,,very ,,painful ,,way4444 ,some of his experiments excited a strong feeling of abhorrence1 not in the public merely1 but among physiologists4 ,there was his--,i was going to say famous' experiment2 it might rather have been called ,,infamous' experiment upon vomiting 4444 ,besides its atrocity1 it was really purposeless4#b #b ,evidence before ,royal ,commission1 #ahge1 ,questions #ddd1 #dgd4 ,of ,magendie's cruelty we have thus the evidence of the best-known ,english physiologist of his day4 ,even by his own countrymen ,magendie's pitilessness was denounced4 ,dr4 ,latour1 the founder and editor of the leading medical journal of ,france--,l',union ,me'dicale-- has given us an incident which occurred in his presence1 translations of which appeared in the editorial columns of the ,london ,lancet and the ,british ,medical ,journal1 ,august #bb1 #ahfc4 ,i recall to mind a poor dog1 the roots of whose vertebral nerves ,magendie desired to lay bare to demonstrate ,bell's theory1 which he claimed as his own4 ,the dog1 already mutilated and bleeding1 twice escaped from under the implacable knife1 and threw his forepaws around ,magendie's neck1 licking1 as if to soften his murderer and ask for mercy6 ,vivisectors may laugh1 but ,i confess ,i was unable to endure that heartrending spectacle4#a #a ,the ,london ,lancet1 ,august #bb1 #ahfc4 ,the proof of ,magendie's ferocious cruelty to his victims seems overwhelming4 ,in ,france1 says ,dr4 ,george ,wilson1 some of the most eminent physiologists have gained an unenviable notoriety as ,,pitiless ,,torturers1 444 experimenters who would not take the trouble to put out of pain the wretched dogs on which they experimented1 even after they had served their purpose1 but left them to perish of lingering torture 4444 ,it is pleasing to contrast the merciless horrors enacted by ,magendie--with the reluctance manifested by ,sir ,charles ,bell4#b ,dr4 ,elliotson1 in his work on ,human ,physiology1 states that ,magendie cut living animals here and there1 with no definite object ,,but ,,to ,,see ,,what ,,would ,,happen4#c ,in a sermon on cruelty to animals1 preached at ,edinburgh1 ,march #e1 #ahbf1 by the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,chalmers1 the speaker especially alludes to ,,the ,,atrocities ,,of ,a ,,magendie1 then recently made known in ,england4 ,the ,president of the ,royal ,college of ,surgeons1 ,sir ,james ,paget1 once testified that ,magendie disgusted people very much ,,by ,,showing ,,contempt ,,for ,,the ,,pain ,,of ,,animals4#a ,the great scientist1 ,charles ,darwin1 in a letter to the ,london ,times1 made reference to ,magendie as a physiologist ,,notorious1 half a century ago1 ,,for ,,his ,,cruel ,,experiments4 ,it is not to be denied that inhumanity may be found in persons of very high position as physiologists4 ,,we ,,have ,,seen ,,that ,,it ,,was ,,so ,,in ,,magendie4 ,this is the language of the final report of the ,commission1 to which was affixed the name of ,professor ,thomas ,henry ,huxley1 the most brilliant scientific writer of the last century4 #b ,wilson's ,life of ,reid1 p4 #afe4 #c ,human ,physiology1 p4 #dbh4 #a ,evidence before ,royal ,commission1 #ahge1 ,question #cga4 ,magendie left us a singularly truthful estimate of his own character and of his scientific accomplishments when he declared himself to be simply a street scavenger 7un chiffonier7 of science4 ,with my hook in my hand and my basket on my back1 ,i ramble about the streets of science and gather up whatever ,i can find4 ,the comparison was singular1 but it was apt2 he was1 indeed1 the ragpicker of physiology4 ,with a scavenger's sense of honour he endeavored to rob ,sir ,charles ,bell of the credit for his discovery concerning the functions of the spinal nerves1 by a prodigality of torment1 from which the nobler nature of the ,english scientist instinctively recoiled4 ,when there came to him an opportunity of experimenting on man1 he embraced it with avidity1 and again and again1 while operating for cataract1 plunged his needle to the bottom of the patient's eye1 that he might learn the effect of mechanical irritation of the delicate organ of sight4#a ,some rags and tatters of physiology he bought--at the price of immeasurable torment--and held them up for the admiration of his contemporaries2 but in the great conflict with disease and death it may be questioned whether he added a single fact that has increased the potency of medical art1 the length of human life1 or the sum of human happiness4 #a ,magendie naturally had no hesitancy in telling of these experiments made upon his patients at the clinique of my hospital4 ,see his ,elementary ,treatise on ,physiology 7translated by ,dr4 ,john ,revere74 ,new ,york1 #ahdd1 p4 #fd4 ,such was ,franc1ois ,magendie1 physiologist and torturer1 judged by scientific men and physiologists of a higher race1 to whom compassion was not unknown4 ,for undisguised contempt of pity1 for delight in cruelty1 for the infliction of refined and ingenious torment1 he may have been equally by some who followed and imitated him1 but certainly he was never surpassed4 ,another distinguished ,french chiffonier in the slum-districts of scientific exploration was ,dr4 ,l4 ,j4 ,brachet1 a contemporary of ,magendie4 ,in his day he was a man of extended reputation as a vivisector of animals4 ,his principal work is entitled3 ,recherches ,expe'rimentales de ,systeme ,nerveux444par ,j4 ,l4 ,brachet1 ,membre de l',acade'mie ,royale de ,me'decine and member of similar academies at ,berlin1 ,copenhagen1 and elsewhere2 member of various medical societies of ,paris1 ,lyons1 ,bordeaux1 and ,marseilles--the title-page of his book records his fame4 ,it will be of interest to study the character of the experimentation1 recorded by himself1 upon which rests his eminence as a scientific man4 ,his first great discovery unfortunately has not yet been accorded scientific acceptance4 ,it is little1 he says1 to have proven the existence of sensibility in animals2 ,i have proven that sensation pertains not merely to animals1 but that it also is the property of vegetables--in a word1 ,,of ,,everything ,,that ,,lives4 ,everywhere it acts in the same manner1 through the nerves4 ,the entire vegetable kingdom possesses the sense of feeling 7tous les vegetaux possedent la faculte de sentier74#a #a ,recherches1 etc41 p4 #ac4 ,had ,brachet confined himself solely to experiments on the sensibility of plants1 we should have little to criticize4 ,unfortunately1 however1 his scientific tastes led him in another direction4 ,he belonged to a class of men who cannot permit the most apparent fact to be taken for granted1 when1 at the cost of torment1 it may be demonstrated--men like ,magendie1 who insisted on proving to his students that an animal could really feel pain by stabbing it with his knife before commencing his experiment4 ,brachet's problem was a simple one4 ,we all know1 for instance1 that an animal--a dog--may feel an intense dislike to some particular person4 ,why8 ,because of impressions conveyed to the brain of the animal by the senses of sight and hearing4 ,outside an asylum for idiots1 it is probable that no one ever questioned the fact4 ,brachet1 however1 would not permit his readers to accept any statement merely upon the general experience of mankind1 when it might be proven scientifically1 and he has described in his book the experiments by which he claims to have demonstrated his theory4 ,,experiment #afb4--;,i inspired a dog with the strongest possible hatred for me by teasing it and inflicting upon it some pain every time ,i saw it4 ,when this feeling had reached its height1 so that the animal became furious whenever it saw or heard me1 ,i put out its eyes je lui fis crever les yeux4 ,i could then appear before it without its manifesting any aversion4 ,i spoke1 and immediately its barkings and furious movements permitted no doubt of the rage which animated it4 ,i then destroyed the drum of the ears1 and disorganized as much as ,i could of the inner ear4 ,when the intense inflammation thus excited had rendered it almost deaf1 ,i filled its ears with wax1 and it could hear me no longer4 ,then ,i could stand by its side1 speak to it in a loud voice1 and even caress it1 without awakening its anger2 indeed1 it appeared sensible of my caresses6 ,there is no need to describe another experiment of the same kind1 made upon another dog1 since the results were the same4 ,by this great experiment1 what valuable knowledge was conveyed8 ,simply that a dog1 deprived of sight and hearing1 will not manifest antipathy to a man it can neither see nor hear6 ,a true vivisector is never at a loss to invent excuse or occasion for an experiment4 ,dr4 ,brachet had made it clear that a dog will not manifest antipathy toward an enemy whose presence it cannot perceive2 but suppose such a mutilated creature1 in its darkness and silence1 were subjected to some sharp and continuous physical pain1 what then would happen8 ,he proceeded to ascertain3 ,,experiment #afc4--;,i began the experiment on another dog by putting out its eyes par crever les yeux1 and breaking up the internal ears4 ,ten days later1 ,,the ,,suffering ,,of ,,the ,,animal ,,having ,,apparently ,,ceased1 after assuring myself that it could no longer see nor hear1 ,i made a sore in the middle of its back4 ,,every ,,moment ,i ,,irritated ,,this ,,would ,,by ,,picking ,,it ,,with ,a ,,needle a chaque instant j'irritai sa plaie en la piquant avec un aiguillon4 ,at first the dog did nothing but yelp and try to escape1 but the impossibility of this ,,forced ,,him ,,unceasingly ,,to ,,receive ,,excruciating ,,pain2 and finally the dog passed into a state of frenzy so violent1 that at last it could be induced by touching any part of its body4444 ,the dog had no reason of hatred against any individual2 444 both sight and hearing had been destroyed2 and many persons the animal had never seen1 provoked its rage by irritating the wound4 ,of such an abominable experiment1 however scientific it may appear1 it is difficult to speak with restraint4 ,to the average man or woman it will probably seem that nothing more fiendish or cruel can be found anywhere in the dark records of animal experimentation4 ,dr4 ,brachet was no obscure or unexperienced vivisector4 ,at one time he was the professor of physiology in a medical school2 he was a member of many learned societies at home and abroad4 ,but think of an educated man procuring a little dog and deliberately putting out its eyes2 then breaking up the internal ear1 so that for many days the animal must have endured excruciating anguish from the inflammation thus induced2 next1 when the pain had somewhat subsided1 creating a sore on the back by removal of the skin2 and then1 after comfortably seating himself in his physiological laboratory by the side of his victim1 scientifically picking1 and piercing1 and pricking the wound1 without respite-- constantly1 without ceasing--until the blinded and deafened and tortured creature is driven into frenzy by torments which it felt continually1 which it could not comprehend1 and from which1 by no exertion1 it was able to defend itself6 ,think of the scientist asking many other learned men to join him from time to time in the experiment1 and to take part in picking at the wound1 in tormenting the mutilated and blinded victim1 and in driving it again and again to the madness of despair6 ,does anyone say that such an experiment could not be made to-day8 ,in one of the largest laboratories of ,america1 and within ten years1 an experiment equally cruel1 equally useless1 has been performed4 ,the modern defender of unrestricted vivisection distinctly insists that no legal impediment should hinder the performance of any investigation desired by any experimenter4 ,it was the editor of the ,british ,medical ,journal who once declared that whoever has not seen an animal under experiment ,,cannot ,,form ,,an ,,idea ,,of ,,the ,,habitual ,,practices ,,of ,,the ,,vivisectors4#a ,this accords with the statement of ,dr4 ,henry ,j4 ,bigelow1 for forty years connected with ,harvard ,medical ,school1 that1 aside from motives1 painful vivisection differed mainly from other phases of cruelty in being practised by an educated class1 who1 having once become callous to its objectionable features1 find the pursuit an interesting occupation1 under the name of ,science4 #a ,british ,medical ,journal1 ,september #ai1 #ahfc 7leading editorial7 ,and this was the case of ,brachet4 ,,he ,,had ,,become ,,callous4 ,he found torment an interesting occupation1 under the name of ,science4 ,may there not be others in our day to whom the same criticism is only too applicable8 ,one of the ,english critics of the abuses of vivisection a century ago was ,dr4 ,john ,abernethy of ,london1 a ,lecturer on ,physiology at the ,royal ,college of ,surgeons1 the founder of the medical school attached to ,st4 ,bartholomew's ,hospital1 and the most distinguished surgeon in ,great ,britain during the first quarter of the nineteenth century4 ,abernethy was by no means an antivivisectionist2 he insisted upon the utility of certain demonstrations1 but he was profoundly opposed to those cruelties of research which1 in our day1 by the modern school of physiologists1 are either forgotten or condoned4 curiously enough1 one of his strongest utterances against such cruelty was made in one of his lectures on physiology4 ,therein he said3 ,there is one point ,i feel it a duty to advert to4 ,mr4 ,hunter1 whom ,i should not have believed to have been very scrupulous about inflicting suffering upon animals1 nevertheless censures ,spallanzani for the unmeaning repetition of similar experiments4 ,having resolved publicly to express my own opinions with regard to the subject1 ,i choose the present opportunity1 ,,because ,i ,,believe ,,spallanzani ,,to ,,have ,,been ,,one ,,of ,,those ,,who ,,have ,,tortured ,,and ,,destroyed ,,animals ,,in ,,vain4 ,i do not perceive that in the two principal subjects which he has sought to elucidate he has added any important fact to our stock of knowledge2 and1 besides1 some of his experiments are of a nature that a good man would blush to think of1 and a wise man would have been ashamed to publish4#a #a ,physiological ,lectures1 ,london1 #ahag1 p4 #afd4 ,this is a unique expression4 ,one may be absolutely certain that no professor of physiology during the past forty years has thus openly condemned in a physiology lecture any of his contemporaries for the cruelty of their experiments4 ,in his ,life of ,abernethy1 his biographer1 ,dr4 ,macilwain1 refers to experiments upon living animals1 ,,which ,,are ,,so ,,revolting ,,from ,,their ,,cruelty1 that the mind recoils from the contemplation of them4 ,this1 too1 is a noteworthy utterance1 coming from one who was a distinguished ,london surgeon and a ,fellow of the ,royal ,society4 ,in a subsequent work entitled ,remarks on ,vivisection1 published some seventeen years before the date ascribed by ,professor ,bowditch as that marking the beginning of criticism1 he refers again to the views of ,abernethy3 ,as for experiments on living animals involving suffering1 ,mr4 ,abernethy disapproved of them1 and seldom alluded to them but in terms of distrust1 derision1 or disgust4 ,that the criticism of experimental cruelty did not begin in #ahfd1 as imagined by ,professor ,bowditch1 the quotations here given sufficiently demonstrate4 ,beyond this demonstration1 does the history of these savage tormentors have any lesson for us to-day8 ,they belonged to another century4 ,should they not be forgiven1 and their experiments condoned8 ,why not confine attention solely to the laboratory of to-day8 ,why blame ,brachet and ,magendie and ,spallanzani1 to whom anaesthesia was unknown8 ,there is a false suggestion in this protest1 which1 in one form or another1 we hear often to-day4 ,it is the gratuitous assumption put forth in defence1 that if anaesthetics had only been known to physiologists before #ahdf1 they would invariably have been used4 ,any such suggestion is manifestly false4 ,if these experiments of ,brachet and of others to be mentioned were to be made at all1 it was necessary that the animal should be conscious of the agony it experienced4 ,in the most complete laboratory for vivisection of the present time--in the ,rockefeller ,institute1 for example--no scientist could drive a dog ,,into ,a ,,frenzy while it lies absolutely unconscious under the influence of chloroform6 ,we may say this of the experiments of ,magendie on the nervous system1 for aside from the preliminary cutting operation1 such experiments demanded the consciousness of the victim4 ,that which humanity has a right to censure in these physiologists is the spirit of absolute indifference to animal suffering1 the willingness to subject a living creature to agony without adequate reason for the infliction of pain4 ,the discovery of chloroform or ether made no change in human nature4 ,some of the worst of vivisections have been made1 not merely since anaesthetics were discovered1 but within the present century4 ,over twenty-five years after the properties of ether had been discovered1 the most prominent vivisector in ,england told the ,royal ,commission that1 except for teaching purposes1 ,i never use anaesthetics where it is not necessary for convenience1 and that an experimenter ,,had ,,no ,,time1 ,,so ,,to ,,speak1 ,,for ,,thinking ,,what ,,the ,,animal ,,will ,,feel ,,or ,,suffer4#a #a ,evidence before ,royal ,commission1 #ahge1 ,questions #c1ech1 #cedj4 ,unrestricted vivisection is the same to-day as a century ago4 ,in many cases its operations involve little or no pain2 in many cases there seems to be the same absolute indifference to the agony inflicted that was manifested by the vivisectors of a hundred years since4 ,where the law does not interfere1 ,,everything ,,is ,,possible4 ,whether there is cruelty or consideration depends on the spirit of the vivisector4 ,it was no ignorant layman1 but the president of the ,american ,academy of ,medicine1 who1 in his annual address1 declared that there were ,american vivisectors who seem1 seeking useless knowledge1 to be blind to the writhing agony and deaf to the cry of pain of their victims1 ,,and ,,who ,,have ,,been ,,guilty ,,of ,,the ,,most ,,damnable ,,cruelties1 without the denunciation of the public and the profession that their wickedness deserves4#a ,and that vivisector of to-day1 who suggests that if anaesthetics had been known to ,magendie or ,brachet1 they would invariably have been used1 is either ignorant or insincere4 ,surely he must know that the very nature of their experiments precluded the use of ether1 and that in their time1 as to-day1 if the experiment were to be tried at all1 it was necessary that the pain be felt4 #a ,address before ,american ,academy of ,medicine at ,washington1 ,d4,c41 ,may #d1 #ahia1 by ,theophilus ,parvin1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 professor in ,jefferson ,medical ,college of ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,there are other reasons why we should not permit the past to be forgotten4 ,we are confronted by the challenge of the laboratory4 ,behind the locked and barred doors of the vivisection chamber1 to which no man can gain admission unless known to be friendly to its practices1 the vivisector of to-day challenges society to prove the existence of cruelty or abuse4 ,the vivisector demands absolute freedom of action1 he demands the most complete privacy1 he demands total independence of all legal supervision--and then challenges the production of proof that any criticism is justified6 ,within the sacred precincts of the laboratory a ,brachet1 a ,magendie1 a ,claude ,be'rnard may be experimenting to-day with a profusion of victims1 protected by their seclusion from every possibility of complaint4 ,for in what respect does the spirit that animates research to-day differ from that manifested by experimenters of the past8 ,in all the literature of advocacy for unrestricted vivisection can one point out a word of criticism of ,magendie or ,brachet or ,be'rnard1 or anything but expressions of exculpation1 of admiration1 and of praise8 ,an ,english writer on animal experimentation1 ,mr4 ,stephen ,paget1 had occasion1 in a recent work1 to refer to the experimentation of both ,magendie and ,sir ,charles ,bell4 ,does he criticize or condemn ,magendie's cruelty8 ,no4 ,he tells us1 incidentally1 that ,bell always had a great dislike to the school of ,magendie1 adding1 with indifference1 ,,let ,,all ,,that ,,pass4 ,these words aptly express the sentiment and the wish4 ,gladly1 indeed1 would the physiological laboratory hide the past from the memory of mankind2 ,i do not believe in acceding to that desire4 ,when the leading physiologist of his day1 addressing an audience of physicians1 refers to an early criticism of physiological cruelty as a collection of blood-curdling stories1 there is desire not to investigate1 but to ridicule and discredit historic facts4 ,when men of science put forth what they claim to be1 a plain statement of the whole truth1 without one word of reference to the abuses of the past1 they practically throw dust in the air to hide the truth from the public eye4 ,that it may have been done ignorantly and without any wish to deceive is not sufficient to earn exculpation1 for in either case the evil is accomplished4 ,of one ,english physiologist of that period1 ,sir ,charles ,bell1 it is impossible to speak except in terms of admiration and esteem4 ,born in #aggd1 his long and useful life terminated in #ahdb1 four years before the discovery of anaesthesia4 ,no one can read his correspondence with his brother1 published many years after his death1 without recognizing the innate beauty and nobility of his character4 ,when news of the ,battle of ,waterloo reached ,england1 he--the leading surgeon of his day--started for the battlefield4 ,the story of his experience is one of the most graphic pictures of the effects of war to be found in modern literature4 ,it was ,sir ,charles ,bell who made to physiology the greatest contribution which had come to it since the discovery by ,harvey of the circulation of the blood1 and yet this discovery was made by reasoning upon the facts of anatomy rather than by experimenting upon animals4 ,an ,english physiologist1 ,sir ,michael ,foster1 admits this3 ,to ,charles ,bell is due the merit of having made the fundamental discovery of the distinction between motor and sensory fibres4 ,led to this view by reflecting on the distribution of the nerves1 he experimentally verified his conclusions4444 ,in his lectures on the nervous system ,bell himself states that his discoveries1 so far from being the result of vivisections1 were1 on the contrary1 deductions from anatomy2 and ,i have had recourse to experiments1 not to form my own opinions1 but to impress them upon others4 ,that which determines the judgment of the world upon human actions is the spirit that animates them4 ,sir ,charles ,bell was not an antivivisectionist4 ,when experiments on animals seemed to him absolutely indispensable1 he had recourse to them1 but always with repugnance1 and with desire to avoid giving of pain4 ,in his lectures on the nervous system he speaks thus of some of his work3 ,after delaying long on account of the unpleasant nature of the operation1 ,i opened the spinal canal4444 ,i was deterred from repeating the experiment by the protracted cruelty of the dissection4 ,i reflected that the experiment would be satisfactory if done on an animal recently knocked down and insensible4 ,and on another occasion1 writing to his brother1 he says3 ,i should be writing a third paper on the nerves2 but ,i cannot proceed without making some experiments1 which are so unpleasant to make that ,i defer them4 ,you may think me silly1 but ,i cannot perfectly convince myself that ,i am authorized in ,nature or ,religion to do these cruelties 4444 ,and yet what are my experiments in comparison with those which are daily done1 and are done daily for nothing8 ,such extreme sensibility1 such sympathetic hesitancy to inflict great suffering in an attempt to discover some fact1 would be ridiculed at the present day in every laboratory in ,europe or ,america4 ,it is typical1 however1 of a sentiment that once prevailed4 ,are we any better because it has so largely disappeared8 ,for great cruelty was there ever great remorse8 ,the cases are not many2 before the self-condemnation of a dying man and the final scene1 friendship may feel it best to draw the veil4 ,yet one case of this poignant regret is worthy consideration1 and shall have relation4 ,,chapter ,v ,a ,,vivisector',s ,,remorse ,about the middle of the last century there died in ,scotland in the prime of life a physiologist1 now almost forgotten1 whose fate excited at the time an unusual degree of compassionate interest4 ,born in #ahji1 ,john ,reid received his medical degree when but twenty-one years of age4 ,a part of the two years following he spent in ,paris1 where ,magendie was at the height of his notoriety for the ruthless cruelty of his vivisections4 ,what attracted the young man we do not know1 but ,reid seems to have become greatly interested in physiological problems4 ,returning to ,scotland1 he pursued his investigations with all the zeal of youth1 and apparently with little or no regard for the animal suffering he caused4 ,for instance1 of experiments which he made to prove a certain theory1 he tells us3 ,i have exposed the trunk of the par vagum in the neck of at least thirty animals1 and in all of these the pinching1 cutting1 and even stretching of the nerve ,,were ,,attended ,,by ,,indications ,,of ,,severe ,,suffering4 ,it was frequently difficult to separate the nerve from the artery ,,on ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,violent ,,struggles ,,of ,,the ,,animal4#a #a ,physiological ,researches1 by ,john ,reid1 p4 #ib4 7,in all quotations the italics are the compiler's47 ,regarding the pain inflicted by him in certain other vivisections1 ,reid is equally frank in his admissions3 ,in repeated experiments upon the laryngeal nerves1 we found in all animals operated upon 7except two dogs1 which appeared ,,considerably ,,exhausted ,,by ,,great ,,previous ,,suffering7 ample ground for dissenting from the statements of ,dr4 ,alcock4444 ,with the exceptions mentioned1 ,,very ,,severe ,,indications ,,of ,,suffering 444 ,,attended ,,the ,,pinching ,,and ,,cutting ,,of ,,the ,,nerve4#a #a ,physiological ,researches1 p4 #gc4 ,some physiological observers have remarked that among the more highly organized species of animals the creature struggles against the ligatures previous to a second operation more than it did at its first experience4 ,it is evident that in such cases1 in animals as well as among human beings1 the memory of agony endured creates a mental condition of terror and fear4 ,but what effect would the emotion of terror have upon the heart's action if certain nerves were first severed8 ,brachet relates an experiment wherein he tortured a dog in every conceivable way1 yet the heart's action was not notably quickened if such nerves were first divided4 ,reid determined1 therefore1 to experiment for himself upon this emotion of ,,terror induced by memory of previous pain1 and six dogs were selected for his purpose4 ,the nerves were first cut in the middle of the neck1 and a portion of each removed4 ,he then tells us the results3 ,after the operation1 the pulsations of the heart were reckoned when the animal was lying or standing on the ground1 and ,,after ,,it ,,had ,,been ,,caressed ,,for ,,some ,,time ,,to ,,calm ,,its ,,fears4 ,it was then lifted up on the table1 on which it had been tied1 and operated upon2 and after having been spoken to ,,harshly1 the pulsations were again reckoned4 ,in every case ,reid noted that the heart's action increased from #bj to #dj beats per minute on lifting the animal to the vivisection table1 whereon it had previously suffered torment4 ,he adds3 ,in those experiments it was particularly observed that the animals made no struggles in carrying them to and from the table1 and consequently the increased excitation of the heart ,,must ,,have ,,arisen ,,from ,,the ,,mental ,,emotion ,,of ,,terror4 ,in a seventh dog this was conjoined with violent struggles4 ,the pulsations1 eight hours after the operation1 were #acj2 ,,when ,,placed ,,on ,,the ,,table ,,and ,,made ,,to ,,struggle1 the pulsations were about #bbj2 when he had been ,,subjected ,,to ,,pain1 and struggled more violently1 they became so frequent that they could not be accurately reckoned4 ,these experiments444prove that after the section of the vagi the pulsations of the heart may not only be quickened by muscular exertion1 but also by ,,mental ,,emotions4#a #a ,reid1 ,physiological ,researches1 pp4 #afh-aga4 ,objection is often made to the citation of vivisections which occurred before the discovery of ether or chloroform4 ,but in these experiments of ,reid--as in those of ,brachet--the use of anaesthetics1 even had they been known to him1 would have been a hindrance4 ,,how ,,can ,,anyone ,,experiment ,,on ,,the ,,mental ,,emotions ,,of ,,an ,,animal ,,while ,,it ,,is ,,profoundly ,,insensible ,,to ,,all ,,external ,,influences8 ,the idea is an absurdity4 ,the biography of ,reid thus refers to this very point3 ,allusion has been made to the infliction of suffering on living animals4444 ,this suffering was not merely incidental to dissections1 but in many of the experiments recorded ,,was ,,deliberately ,,inflicted4 ,in many of the experiments1 ,,even ,,if ,,anaesthetics ,,had ,,been ,,known at the period of his observations1 ,,they ,,could ,,not ,,have ,,been ,,employed4444 ,it was essential to the settlement of the question that the animal should be left ,,to ,,exhibit ,,all ,,the ,,pain ,,it ,,felt1 ,,and ,,should ,,be ,,expressly ,,subjected ,,to ,,torture4#b #b ,life of ,john ,reid1 by ,geo4 ,wilson1 ,m4,d41 #aheb1 p4 #aec4 ,and precisely the same apology is put forward to-day4 ,more than once1 by high scientific authority1 the public has been comfortably assured that nowadays anaesthetics are always employed1 in severely painful experiments1 ,,except in those instances in which ,,the ,,anaesthetic ,,would ,,interfere ,,with ,,the ,,object ,,of ,,the ,,experiment4 ,truly it is a broad exception4 ,for all we know1 it is the laboratory's excuse1 even for the present-day repetition of the experiments of ,magendie1 ,brachet1 and ,reid4 ,the anaesthetic would interfere4 ,but what was the value of all this experimentation upon mind and body1 this mental emotion of terror in a dog1 and this calming of its fear by caresses1 followed by the torment of the operation8 ,there was no value so far as the treatment of human ailments is concerned4 ,reid's experiments led to no change whatever in medical practice4 ,reading of certain experiments1 one is constantly reminded of the old peasant's reply to his grandchild1 who had found a skull on what once was a battlefield4 ,holding it in his hand1 the old man told the story of the ,battle of ,blenheim1 and the awful suffering it had caused3 ,but what good came of it at last8' ,said little ,peterkin2 ,why1 that ,i cannot tell1' quoth he1 ,,but ,,twas ,a ,,famous ,,victory6' ,at the early age of thirty-eight the physiologist seemed to see before him the bright prospect of a long and happy life4 ,he possessed unusual physical strength1 robust health1 and a resolute and courageous spirit4 ,his home was happy4 ,no one considered him a cruel man2 indeed1 we are told1 he was rather fond of animals4 ,in his own house he always had pet dogs and cats about him1 and he was as ready as ,sir ,walter ,scott to rise from any occupation to humour their whims4 ,in his profession he had made somewhat of a reputation1 yet higher honours and wider renown and increased financial prosperity seemed almost certain to await him in the not distant future4 ,but one day1 in ,november1 #ahdg1 he noted in himself the symptom of a disease that gave cause for alarm4 ,the pain at first was doubtless insignificant1 but the symptom occasioned anxiety because it would not disappear4 ,some of his friends were the best surgeons of ,scotland1 and he asked their advice4 ,they were careful not to add to his discouragement1 and they suggested the old1 old formula--rest and a change of scene4 ,a year passed4 ,the disease made constant progress1 and there came a time when of its malignant character there could be no possible doubt4 ,finally1 the vivisector recognized that it was not merely death which confronted him1 but death by the most mysterious and agonizing of human ailments4 ,in ,june1 #ahdh1 he wrote to a friend3 ,i have a strong conviction that my earthly career will soon come to a close1 and that ,i shall never lecture again4 ,and then1 gradually1 to the ever-increasing agony of the body1 came the anguish of ,,remorse4 ,he remembered the trembling little creatures which again and again he had lifted to their bed of torment1 and made to struggle1 that he might observe how the heart-beats of a mutilated animal were quickened from the emotion of terror2 and now1 in the gloom of horrible imaginings1 ,,terror held ,,him with a grasp that would never loosen or lessen while his consciousness remained4 ,he remembered the the evidence of severe suffering he had so often evoked by the pinching and cutting and stretching of nerves2 the creatures he had first caressed to calm their fears--and then vivisected2 the eyes that so often had appealed for respite from agony--and appealed in vain2 and now1 ,,natura ,,maligna1 to whom pity is unknown1 was slowly torturing him to death4 ,he pointed to the seat of his suffering as being ,,the ,,same ,,nerves on which he had made so many experiments1 and added3 ,,this ,,is ,a ,,judgment ,,upon ,,me ,,for ,,the ,,suffering ,i ,,have ,,inflicted ,,on ,,animals'#a #a ,life of ,john ,reid1 by ,dr4 ,g4 ,wilson1 p4 #bgc4 ,more than once during the last months of his life he recurred to the same subject4 ,his biographer says3 ,he could not divest his mind of the feeling that there was a special ,providence in the way in which he had been afflicted4 ,he had devoted peculiar attention to the functions of certain nerves1 and had inflicted suffering on many dumb creatures that he might discover the office of those nerves2 and ,,he ,,could ,,not ,,but ,,regard ,,the ,,cancer ,,which ,,preyed ,,upon ,,them--,,in ,,his ,,own ,,body--,,as ,a ,,significant ,,message ,,from ,,god4#b #b ,ibid41 p4 #bej4 ,again and again he repeated the conviction to which his mind continually reverted in the midst of his torment4 ,to him conscience brought no message of ,divine approbation1 but only a sentence of condemnation upon his past pursuits4 ,nor was ,reid alone in this feeling of apprehension and questioning4 ,we are told by his medical friend and biographer that many of his brother physicians were startled by learning that ,dr4 ,reid is doomed to die by a disease ,,which ,,repeats ,,upon ,,his ,,own ,,body ,,not ,,in ,,one1 ,,but ,,in ,,many ,,ways1 the pains which he had imposed upon the lower animals4#a #a ,reid's ,life1 p4 #beb4 ,undoubtedly1 friends of the tormented vivisector attempted to comfort him with the assurance--so often repeated in our day--that his experiments on living animals had been carried on for the benefit of sick and suffering humanity4 ,but ,reid was too honest a man to permit himself to be thus deluded while under the very shadow of death4 ,for him the time had come when the specious apologies for the infliction of torture--so current in our day--could be of no avail in lessening the poignant feeling of ,remorse4 ,in the dying hour men speak the truth about their actions4 ,it was so with ,reid4 ,he confessed to having thought much of ,scientific ,,fame in his labours1 and ,,it ,,would ,,be ,,untrue ,,to ,,say ,,that ,,the ,,alleviation ,,of ,,human ,,suffering was the motive always before him when he inflicted pain on the lower animals4#b #b ,ibid41 p4 #fe4 ,an operation seemed to hold out hope of relief from his terrible agony4 ,it was deemed best to perform it--as ,reid had experimented-- without anaesthetics1 that the sufferer1 with every sensation and faculty alive1 might literally become an operator upon himself4 ,in the course of a second operation1 ,dr4 ,wilson tells us3 ,,the ,,same ,,nerves and bloodvessels which had been the subject of ,dr4 ,reid's most important inquiries ,,were ,,laid ,,bare ,,in ,,himself1 ,,by ,,the ,,surgeon',s ,,knife4 ,but all remedial measures were in vain4 ,the two years of apprehension1 suspense1 recognition1 despair1 of slowly increasing physical torment and the agony of remorse1 came at last to an end4 ,in ,july1 #ahdi1 he found the long-wished-for peace4 ,seventy years ago the religious sentiment of ,scotland easily favoured that doctrine of ,divine displeasure which seemed probable to ,reid and his friends4 ,in our day1 however1 we are less certain of being able to interpret the judgments of ,god2 and if we regard it as a remarkable coincidence1 it is as far as we may safely go4 ,coincidences of some kind are a universal experience4 ,that notorious vivisector1 ,dr4 ,brown-,se'quard1 devoted many years of his life to experiments on the seat of all that is concentrated and exquisite in agony--the spinal cord4 ,it was a curious coincidence certainly1 that in his last days the vivisector was affected by a disease of the spinal cord1 which at one time compelled him to go on all-fours like a beast4 ,even the remorse of ,reid finds a parallel1 for toward the end of his life1 ,haller1 one of the greatest physiologists that ever lived1 is said to have expressed in letters deep regret for the suffering he had inflicted upon living animals4 ,we cannot doubt1 however1 that the experience of excruciating agony affecting the very nerves upon which he had so often experimented must have brought to the dying man a deeper realization of the pain he had caused than he could otherwise have known4 ,a noted surgeon1 whose finger was the seat of a felon1 asked his hospital assistant to lance it1 at the same time cautioning him to be particularly careful to cause as little pain as possible4 ,why1 ,i've often heard you tell patients coming to the hospital not to mind the lancing--that the pain to be felt was really nothing at all1 replied the assistant4 ,ah1 yes1 rejoined the surgical sufferer1 but then1 remember1 ,i was ,,at ,,the ,,other ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,knife6 ,in watching the phenomena elicited by experiments upon animals1 there have been vivisectors who forget what was felt at the other end of the knife1 and so became utterly oblivious to the suffering they caused4 ,a leading physiologist of ,england once declared that he ,,had ,,no ,,regard ,,at ,,all for the pain of an animal vivisected1 and that he had no time1 so to speak1 for thinking what the animal would feel or suffer2 that he never used anaesthetics1 except for convenience' sake4 ,can such a man realize the meaning of the word ,,pain8 ,without sharp personal experience1 can anyone1 adequately comprehend what it signifies8 ,remorse may be evidence1 not so much of exceptional delinquency as of exceptional sensitiveness to ethical considerations4 ,by the baser and more degraded souls it is rarely experienced4 ,the greatest criminals usually meet their doom1 untouched by any feeling of remorse4 ,perhaps it does not greatly matter how this infinite regret is occasioned4 ,sometimes-- 444 pain in man ,has the high purpose of the flail and fan4 ,it separates and purifies4 ,to one whose great suffering from disease is long continued1 there must come a clearer vision of the infinite littleness of all transitory ambitions4 ,such supreme regret as that which came to ,reid has great value4 ,the poor soul once so longed for fame--which means only a little wider recognition to-day1 and a little more enduring remembrance by posterity than that which is gained by the generality of mankind4 ,of that horde of torturers1 avid also for fame1 whose causation of unreckonable anguish brings into their ignoble natures no thought of pity1 no emotion of regret1 everyone comes at last to rest in that deep forgetfulness which he deserves4 ,here1 however1 is the story of one whose penitence gives reason for longer remembrance1 who greatly erred and greatly suffered1 whose contrition atoned1 whose example admonishes--,,john ,,reid1 physiologist4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,is ,,torture ,,justified ,,by ,,utility8 ,at every point in the discussion of vivisection we are confronted by the plea of utility4 ,if1 to some extent1 we may admit the reasonableness of the argument1 yet such admission must be with certain definite reservations4 ,the infliction of extreme pain either upon human beings or on animals for objects other than their own benefit--how far is it to be justified if some useful end is thereby achieved8 ,the subject is worth of study4 ,the utility of judicial torture as a method of securing the confession of criminals does not seem to have been questioned for hundreds of years4 ,the ,romans often put all their slaves to torture as soon as any crime occurred1 of which some of their servants could have been aware4 ,that sometimes the innocent suffered beyond endurance and falsely confessed seemed to our forefathers no reason whatever for changing an ancient custom1 so often productive of useful ends4 ,mysterious crimes1 which under our modern methods of investigation escape detection1 were frequently brought to light in earlier times simply by the threat of torment and the sight of the executioner4 ,there can be no question that in innumerable cases the torture of accused criminals whose guilt was almost certain1 yet not absolutely proven1 served to further the ends of ,justice4 ,if modern civilization condemns the torture of suspected lawbreakers1 it is upon other grounds than that ,justice finds it useless in every case4 ,the public punishment of great offences against the state--punishment accompanied with ignominy and extreme torment--seemed to our ancestors equally justified by utility4 ,if an old woman were convicted of witchcraft--and nobody questioned the actuality of the offence two hundred and fifty years ago--her punishment by burning at the stake certainly might be expected to deter others from entering into compacts with the ,evil ,one4 ,if heresy and unbelief lead not only the sceptic himself1 but all who follow his teaching1 into eternal darkness1 there seemed to our forefathers no surer method of checking the first tendencies toward intellectual revolt1 and saving innumerable souls1 than by delivering the heretic to the flames1 and accompanying his execution by everything calculated to excite popular derision and execration4 ,the public punishment of treason1 and particularly of attempted or achieved assassination of the sovereign or head of the ,state1 was made as excruciating and terrible as possible1 in order ,,that ,,the ,,example ,,might ,,deter4 ,we speak somewhat vaguely to-day of such tortures and their atrociously horrible accompaniments4 ,it may be worth while to see just what they were4 two or three centuries ago civilized nations considered that ,,if ,,torment ,,was ,,useful ,,it ,,was ,,justifiable4 ,there are three cases which stand out in history with especial distinctness1 the details of which are little known1 and ,i propose to cite them simply as evidence of the extent to which judicial torment was carried1 but a little while ago1 among some of the most enlightened and progressive nations of modern times4 ,if ever the assassination of a ,prince deserved the severest punishment1 it was the murder in ,july1 #aehd1 of ,william the ,silent1 the leader of the ,protestants of ,holland in their struggle for independence from ,spanish dominion4 ,the sentence pronounced upon the murderer1 ,balthazar ,gerard1 a mere hired assassin1 was carried out within ten days after commission of the crime4 ,a contemporary writer1 apparently an eyewitness of his execution1 speaks of ,gerard as one whose death was not of a sufficient sharpness for such a caitiff1 and yet too sore for any ,christian4 ,his description of the murderer' execution is as follows3 ,the order of the torment was four days4 ,he had the first day the strappado openly1 in the market2 the second day1 whipped and salted1 and his right hand cut off2 the third day1 his breasts cut out1 and salt thrown in1 and then his left hand cut off4 ,the last day of his torment1 which was the #ajth of ,july1 he was bound to two stakes1 standing upright1 in such order that he could not shrink down nor stir any way4 ,thus standing1 naked1 there was a great fire placed some small distance from him wherein heated pincers of iron1 with which pincers two men did pinch and pull his flesh in small pieces from his bones throughout most parts of his body4 ,then was he unbound from the stakes and laid upon the earth1 and again fastened to four posts2 then they ripped him up1 at which time he had life and ,,perfect ,,memory4#a #a ,harl4 ,misc41 vol4 iii41 p4 #bjj4 ,printed at ,middleborough1 ,anno #aehd4 ,the above account is taken from a rare publication1 in the ,british ,museum ,library4 ,motley's account of ,gerard's torment includes elements of horror not mentioned by this writer4 ,thus did ,holland1 a leading civilized nation1 attempt to deter assassins from assaulting her rulers4 ,three centuries ago in ,may1 #afaj1 ,henry ,,iv41 ,king of ,france1 was struck down by the dagger of ,francis ,ravilliac2 and ,france1 the leading civilized nation of ,europe1 determined that the punishment of the crime should be so horrible that it might be expected for ever to deter others from imitating his offence4 ,standing in a tumbril1 naked in his shirt1 with the knife wherewith he had stabbed the ,king chained to his right hand1 ,ravilliac was carried to the doors of the ,church of ,notre ,dame1 where he was made to descend1 and to do penance for his crime4 ,after this was he carried to the ,greve1 where was builded a very substantial scaffold of strong timber1 whereupon he was to be tormented to death4 ,by the executioners1 he was bound to an engine of wood and iron1 made like to a ,st4 ,andrew's ,cross2 and then the hand1 with the knife chained to it1 wherewith he slew the king1 and half the arm1 was put into an artificial furnace1 then flaming with fire and brimstone444yet nothing at all would he confess1 but yelled out with such horrible cries1 even as it had been a ,divill or some tormented soul in hell444and though he deserved ten times more1 yet humane nature might inforce us to pity his distress4 ,after this with tongs and iron pincers made extreme hot in the same furnace1 the executioners pinched and seared his breasts1 his arms1 and thighs and other fleshy parts of his body1 cutting out collops of flesh and burned them before his face2 afterward into the same wounds thus made1 they poured scalding oil1 rosen1 pitch and brimstone444yet he would reveal nothing but that he did it of himself444because the ,king tolerated two religions in his kingdom444but cried out with most horrible roars1 even like the dying man tormented in the brazen bull of ,philaris4 ,finally1 his body was torn to pieces by four strong horses1 the remains gathered and burnt1 and the ashes scattered to the winds4 ,god in ,his justice1 piously observes the narrator1 will1 ,i hope1 in like manner reward all such as desperately attempt to lift their hands against the ,lord's ,anointed4#a #a ,harl4 ,misc41 vol4 vi41 p4 #fjg4 ,the ,terrible and deserved death of ,francis ,ravilliac1 showing the manner of his strange torments at his execution1 the #beth of ,may last past1 for the murther of the late ,french ,king1 ,henry ,,iv4 ,almost a century and a half passed before the ,place de ,greve1 in ,paris1 again witnessed the torment of a fanatic for an attack upon the sacred person of a ,king4 ,on ,january #e1 #ageg1 ,louis ,,xv4 was slightly wounded by a young ,frenchman1 ,robert ,franc1ois ,damiens4 ,the injury was not severe1 and the ,king's recovery was soon complete4 ,such an attack1 however1 was a capital offence1 and it was determined that the criminal should not only lose his life1 but that he should be made to undergo every possible addition of torment and agony4 ,on the morning of ,march #bh1 #ageg1 ,damiens was subjected to torture1 in order to induce him to reveal the names of any accomplices4 ,in the extremity of his agony he appeared at one time to lose consciousness2 but the surgeon and the physician--qui font toujours pre'sent a la torture--declared him still conscious1 and the torment continued1 accompanied by terrible cries4 ,when he had been for two hours and a quarter in the hands of the tormentors1 the physician and surgeon gave it as their opinion that to continue might lead to an accident1 and the doomed wretch was taken to his dungeon1 in order to recuperate4 ,toward three o'clock of the afternoon the same day1 ,damiens was notified that everything was in readiness for his execution4 ,clothed in but a single garment1 he was made to mount a tumbril1 and was carried to the doors of the ,cathedral of ,notre ,dame4 ,descending from the cart1 holding a lighted candle in his hands1 he knelt and made l'amende honorable1 after the form prescribed41 ,it is but a short distance from the ,church of ,notre ,dame to the ,place de ,greve4 ,here a vast crowd had gathered in order to witness the extremest agony of a dying man4 ,members of the ,french aristocracy were present2 ladies of quality paid vast sums for the occupancy of windows overlooking the square1 and played cards to pass the time until the spectacle of torment should begin4 ,a scaffold about #i feet square received the executioners and their victim4 ,the tortures were of the same character as those inflicted in the same place upon the assassin of ,henry ,,iv4 ,there was the burning of the right hand1 the mutilation of the body and limbs1 the pouring of melted lead and other substances into bleeding wounds4 ,terrible cries1 heard at a great distance1 were induced2 there were shrieks for pity2 there were prayers to ,god for strength to endure3 ,mon ,dieu1 la force6 la force6 ,seigneur mon ,dieu1 ayez pitie de moi6 ,seigneur mon ,dieu1 donnez-moi la patience6 ,prayers for patience1 for strength to suffer and endure--these his only petitions in the supreme agony4 ,at last came the final act of the tragedy4 ,four young and vigorous horses were attached1 each to a seared and lacerated limb1 and the attempt was made to rend asunder the still living body4 ,the horrible spectacle lasted for more than an hour4 ,finally the surgeon and the physician in attendance gave it as their opinion that complete dismemberment could not be effected except afer a partial severance of the limbs4 ,the operation was performed1 the horses were again attached1 and the fearful spectacle came to an end4 ,damiens apparently preserved consciousness even after both legs and an arm had been torn from his body4 ,the remains were gathered and burnt on the place of torment1 and the noble lords and ladies who had gloated over the scene returned to their homes4 ,it is not at all improbable that among those who witnessed the torments of ,damiens in #ageg for an assault upon a ,king's sacred person there were some who lived to see ,louis ,,xvi4 mount the scaffold in #agic4a #a ,see ,pieces ,originales des ,process fait a ,robert ,franc1ois ,damiens1 ,paris1 #ageg1 vol4 iii41 pp4 #cgi-dji2 and ,perkin's ,france under ,louis ,,xv41 vol4 ii41 p4 #hg4 ,i have quoted at length three cases of judicial torture1 occurring among ,christian nations1 which were then in the front rank of modern civilization4 ,in ,turkey and in ,egypt1 in ,india and in ,china1 among the savage ,sioux and ,iroquois of ,north ,america1 the tragedies of prolonged torment were more frequent1 but not more horrible4 ,but in what way do such records of torture concern the abuses of vivisection8 ,for two reasons they are suggestive4 ,not infrequently it is intimated that reports of cruelty by physiologists cannot be true3 they are merely blood-curdling stories2 their horror makes the charge beyond the possibility of belief4 ,a physiologist cannot have been so cruel1 and yet have seemed so gentle1 so benevolent1 so mild4 ,here are presented the records of torment inflicted upon human beings2 torments approved by the highest legal authorities2 torments to the supervision of which even medical science1 in one case at least1 lent its representatives to assist the torturers1 and if the facts were not so well attested1 they1 too1 would pass belief4 ,but we know they are not fictions2 they were actualities4 ,to push them out of recollection into forgetfulness is to unlearn one of the chief lessons that ,history can teach us--the lesson of warning4 ,the atrocities of biological experimentation can no more be dismissed with a shrug of incredulity than one can sneer at the agonies of ,gerard or ,damiens because they1 too1 suggest a heartlessness in the men of that time which our finer civilization can hardly conceive4 ,but the chief lesson of this black chapter of history concerns the great question of utility4 ,that these atrocious torments were inspired simply and solely by an intense passion for revenge is an immeasurably dishonouring imputation4 ,for the statesmen not only1 but the religious leaders of that period1 believed--and justly believed--in the usefulness of public torture2 they believed that the fear of an ignominious and horrible death amid the jeering cries of the surrounding populace would tend to hinder others from repeating the offence4 ,the utility of ,terror as a deterrent they knew--as ,france knew it in '#ic1 as the ,spanish ,inquisition knew it for nearly three centuries1 as every nation knew it in times of popular insurrection or foreign wars4 ,what ,civilization came at last to recognize was that ,,utility ,,of ,,torture1 ,,no ,,matter ,,how ,,great1 ,,could ,,not ,,justify ,,its ,,use4 ,this principle in its application to the punishment of human beings has been universally recognized by every civilized nation in the world4 ,it only remains for the future ,civilization to recognize it so far as concerns beings inferior to ourselves4 ,the repetition by students in a laboratory of an experiment upon the nervous system of a dog1 simply to demonstrate well-known facts1 tends1 perhaps1 to fix them in memory2 but that degree of utility does not justify the torture4 ,the time will come1 said ,dr4 ,bigelow of ,harvard ,medical ,school1 when the world will look back to modern vivisection in the name of ,science as it now does to burning at the stake in the name of ,religion4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,commencement ,,of ,,agitation ,the student of history1 attempting to trace the agitation for reform of vivisection1 is early confronted by a curious fact4 ,it is the ignorance which generally prevails concerning the part borne by the medical profession in exciting public attention to the cruelties of experimentation4 ,the present generation of scientific teachers1 of medical students and physicians1 are as a rule profoundly ignorant of the beginning of the controversy1 and would be as surprised as ,professor ,osler of ,oxford ,university seems to have been surprised1 to hear that medical journals first made known to the world the abuses of vivisection4 ,remembering how vigorously the physiological laboratory of to-day resists and resents either investigation or criticism1 one is forced to confess that rarely1 if ever1 in the history of the world has a transformation of ideals been more completely attained4 ,if the followers of ,wilberforce and ,clarkson1 to whom the world is indebted for the great impulse against negro slavery1 were to-day organized for the exploitation of the negroes on the ,congo1 or the ,indians on the ,amazon1 or for carrying on the slave-trade secretly1 without restriction or supervision1 the condition of affairs could hardly be more singular than the dominance obtained by the physiological laboratory upon the medical conscience of to-day4 ,the facts constitute a remarkable chapter of human experience2 and though once before they have been stated by the present writer1 it is evident1 by the evidence given before the ,royal ,commission1 that a vast amount of ignorance yet remains to be dispelled4 ,up to a period considerably beyond the middle of the last century1 the sentiment of the medical profession in ,england was practically unanimous in condemning the methods of vivisection which prevailed on the ,continent of ,europe4 ,in #ahee the science of bacteriology was unknown4 ,it is possible that not more than half a dozen ,english physiologists at that time were making experiments on living animals4 ,it was not even regarded as an essential in the teaching of medical schools4 ,in #ahge some of the most distinguished surgeons and physicians of ,great ,britain testified before the ,royal ,commission that as medical students they had never witnessed an experiment on a living animal4 ,that the agitation against the cruelties of vivisectors which made itself evident during the last half of the previous century had no origin in ignorance is easily demonstrated4 ,it was the medical journals of ,england which first made known to the world the atrocities perpetrated in the name of ,science in ,continental laboratories4 ,in our own day1 when some of the leading teachers in medical schools have only scorn for those who denounce cruelty in the laboratory1 it is worth while to study the sentiments of an earlier generation1 when sympathy for animal suffering was not a subject for mockery4 ,the ,medical ,times and ,gazette of ,london was one of the earlier of medical journals to denounce the cruelties perpetrated by vivisection abroad4 ,in its issue of ,september #d1 #aheh1 the editor says3 ,in this country we are glad to think that experiments on animals are never performed nowadays except upon some reasonable excuse for the pain thus wilfully inflicted4 ,we are inclined to believe that the question will some day be asked1 whether any excuse can make them justifiable8 ,one cannot read without shuddering details like the following4 ,it would appear from these that the practice of such brutality is the everyday lesson taught in the veterinary schools of ,france4 ,a small cow1 very thin1 and which had undergone numerous operations-- that is to say1 ,,which ,,had ,,suffered ,,during ,,the ,,day ,,the ,,most ,,extreme ,,torture--was placed upon the table1 and killed by insufflation of air into the jugular vein4#a ,this fact is related by ,m4 ,sanson1 of the veterinary school of ,toulouse1 merely incidentally1 when describing an experiment of his own upon the blood4 ,the wretched animal was actually cut to pieces by the students6 444 ,m4 ,sanson adds 7merely wanting to prove that the nervous system of the animals upon which he operated was properly stirred up73 ,those who have seen these wretched animals on their bed of suffering--lit de douleur--know the degree of torture to which they are subjected2 torture1 in fact1 under which they for the most part succumb6' #a ,in all extracts italics are the compiler's4 ,a little later the same medical journal again touched the subject of vivisection in its editorial columns4 ,in its issue of ,october #bj1 #ahfj1 the editor is even more emphatic in denunciation3 ,two years ago we called attention to the brutality practised at the veterinary schools in ,france1 and gave a specimen of the kind of torture there inflicted upon animals4 ,,we ,,are ,,very ,,glad ,,to ,,see ,,that ,,the ,,public ,,are ,,now ,,occupied ,,with ,,the ,,subject1 and we are sure that the ,profession at large will fully agree with us ,,in ,,condemning ,,experiments ,,which ,,are ,,made ,,simply ,,to ,,demonstrate ,,physiological ,,or ,,other ,,facts ,,which ,,have ,,been ,,received ,,as ,,settled ,,points ,,and ,,are ,,beyond ,,controversy4 ,we consider the question involved as one of extreme interest to the ,profession1 and we shall gladly throw open our columns to any of our brethren who may wish to assist in framing some code by which we may decide under what circumstances experiments upon living animals may be made with propriety4 ,the words italicized in the foregoing quotation are of special significance to-day4 ,the editor is very glad to note the interest taken in the subject by the general public--a sentiment quite foreign to that of the present time4 ,one notes1 too1 the gratifying assurance that the medical profession of ,england at that period would fully agree in condemning experiments1 which nowadays are made not only in medical schools but to some extent in every college of any standing in the ,united ,states4 ,and this condemnation on the part of the medical profession was voiced four years before the date assigned by ,professor ,bowditch as that of the first serious attack upon biological research in ,england4 ,a few months later the same medical periodical outlined the principles which it believed should govern the practice of animal experimentation4 ,in the issue of this journal for ,march #b1 #ahfa1 the editor makes the following pronouncement3 ,,vivisection4--,we have been requested to pronounce a condemnation of vivisection4444 ,we believe that if anyone competent to the task desires to solve any question affecting human life or health1 or to acquire such a knowledge of function as shall hereafter be available for the preservation of human life or health1 by the mutilation of a living animal1 he is justified in so doing4 ,but we do not hesitate to condemn the practice of operating on living animals for the mere purpose of acquiring coolness and dexterity1 and ,,we ,,think ,,that ,,the ,,repetition ,,of ,,experiments ,,before ,,students1 ,,merely ,,in ,,order ,,to ,,exhibit ,,them ,,as ,,experiments1 ,,showing ,,what ,,is ,,already ,,known1 ,,is ,,equally ,,to ,,be ,,condemned4 ,again1 on ,august #af1 #ahfb1 the ,medical ,times and ,gazette gives an expression of its views on the subject4 ,it condemns the cruelty of ,magendie1 concerning which one will seek vainly to-day in medical periodicals for any similar expression of reprobation4 ,referring to the subject1 the editor says3 ,no person whose moral nature is raised above that of the savage would defend the practices which lately disgraced the veterinary schools of ,france1 or in past years the theatre of ,magendie4#a ,professor ,sharpey1 in his address to the ,british ,medical ,association1 has accurately drawn the required limits1 fully obtained and confirmed1 ,,its ,,repetition ,,is ,,indefensible2 and as the art of operating may be learned equally on the dead as on the living body1 operations on the latter for the purpose of surgical instruction are reprehensible and unnecessary4' #a ,the lecture-room in which vivisections were publicly performed4 ,to the ,london ,lancet the cause of humaneness to animals is also indebted1 for its repeated condemnation of the cruelties of vivisection4 ,as the exponent and representative of ,british surgery1 its words undoubtedly carried great weight among medical practitioners4 ,in its issue of ,august #aa1 #ahfj1 after pointing out the utility of certain physiological inquiries1 the ,lancet's editor thus defines what it regards as reprehensible cruelty3 ,on the other hand1 when at any moment the practice overpasses the rigorous bounds of utility1 when its object is no longer the pursuit of new solutions of scientific problems1 or the examination of hypotheses requiring a test2 when vivisection is elevated into an art1 and this art becomes a matter of public demonstration--then it is degraded by the absence of a beneficent end1 and becomes a cruelty4 ,the ,,the ,,exhibitions ,,of ,,experiments ,,which ,,aim ,,only ,,at ,a ,,repetition ,,of ,,inquiries ,,already ,,satisfactorily ,,concluded1 and the ,,demonstration ,,of ,,functions ,,already ,,understood1 appear to us to rank among the excesses which must be deplored1 if not repressed4 ,the displays in these amphitheatres are of the most painful kind1 and it is to be deeply regretted that curiosity should silence feeling1 and draw spectators to mortal suffering4444 ,the ,commission 7of the ,societies for ,prevention of ,cruelty7 asks for nothing which the most zealous devotees of science cannot--and ought not--to grant4 ,it demands only the cessation of experiments which are ,,purely ,,repetitive ,,demonstrations ,,of ,,known ,,facts4 ,this is a remarkable utterance4 ,it is quite probable that it voiced an almost unanimous opinion among ,english physicians and surgeons of half a century ago4 ,how far have we strayed since then6 ,the ,lancet of to-day would doubtless earnestly oppose any legal prohibition of experiments which it once ranked among the excesses which must be deplored1 ,,if ,,not ,,repressed4 ,two or three months afterward the ,lancet again expressed its condemnation of experiments made for the demonstration of known facts4 ,in its issue of ,october #bj1 #ahfj1 the ,lancet editor says3 ,the moment that it vivisection overpasses the bounds of necessity2 when it ceases to aim at the solution of problems in which humanity is interested1 and becomes a new means of public demonstration1 having no benevolent end--then it is degraded to the level of ,a ,,purposeless ,,cruelty4 ,the repetitive demonstration of known facts1 by public or private vivisections1 is an abuse that we deplore1 and have more than once condemned4 ,on ,january #ab1 #ahfa1 the ,lancet opens its columns to a correspondent1 who invites attention of its readers to the views of ,professor ,owen1 afterward ,sir ,richard ,owen1 and the most distinguished anatomist of his time3 ,professor ,owen1 one of the first physiological authorities of the present day1 observes3 ,that no teacher of physiology is justified in repeating any vivisectional experiment1 merely to show its known results to his class or to others4 ,,it ,,is ,,the ,,practice ,,of ,,vivisection1 in place of physiological induction1 pursued for the same end1 ,,against ,,which ,,humanity1 ,,christianity1 ,,and ,,civilization ,,should ,,alike ,,protest4' ,it is probable that no stronger denunciation of the cruelty of vivisection ever appeared than that contained in the leading editorial of the ,london ,lancet of ,august #bb1 #ahfc4 ,the writer was certainly not an opponent of all experiments upon animals2 he admits that if pressed for a categoric answer whether such a practice as vivisection were permissible under proper restrictions for the purpose of advancing science and lessening human suffering1 the answer would be in the affirmative4 ,but the practice is evidently spreading4 ,it is asserted that experiments upon animals are a common mode of lecture illustration1 and that such investigations have spread from the hand of the retired and sober man of matured science into those of everyday lecturers and their pupils4 ,against such extension of vivisection the editor of the ,lancet enters an emphatic protest3 ,if we were pressed simply for a categoric answer to the question whether such a practice as vivisection were permissible under proper restrictions and for the purpose of advancing science and lessening human suffering1 we need hardly say that the answer would be in the affirmative4 ,it is asserted1 however1 that the practice of vivisection and such investigations as are implied by this term1 have spread from the hands of the retired and sober man of matured science into those of everyday lecturers and their pupils1' and that such experiments are a common mode of lecture illustration4444' ,we will state our belief that there is too much of it everywhere1 and that there are daily occurring practices in the schools of ,france which cry aloud in the name both of honour and humanity for their immediate cessation4 ,about two years ago1 our ,royal ,society for ,prevention of ,cruelty to ,animals became possessed of the knowledge that it was still the practice in the schools of ,anatomy and ,physiology in ,france for lecturers and demonstrators to tie down cats1 dogs1 rabbits1 etc41 before the class2 to perform upon them operations of great pain1 and to pursue investigations accompanied by the most terrible torture4 ,,this1 ,,too1 ,,for ,,the ,,purpose ,,only ,,of ,,demonstrating ,,certain ,,facts ,,which ,,had ,,been ,,for ,,long ,,unhesitatingly ,,admitted1 and for giving a sort of meretricious air to a popular series of lectures4 ,it learned1 moreover1 that at the veterinary schools of ,lyons and ,alfort1 live horses were periodically given up to a group of students for anatomical and surgical purposes1 often exercised with 444 extra refinements of cruelty4444 ,it appeared that at ,paris the whole neighborhood adjoining the medical school--including patients in a maternity hospital--were constantly disturbed1 when the course of physiology was proceeding at the school1 by the howling and barking of the dogs1 both night and day4 ,the dogs were silenced4 ,the fact was1 the poor animals were now subjected to the painful operation of dividing the laryngeal nerves as preliminary to the performance of other mutilations6 ,and what were these dogs for8 ,simply for the vain repetition of clap-trap experiments1 by way of illustrations of lectures for first-year students6 ,these facts becoming known1 the general public has at length interfered1 and1 we think1 with very great propriety4 ,,the ,,entire ,,picture ,,of ,,vivisectional ,,illustration ,,of ,,ordinary ,,lectures ,,is ,,to ,,us ,,personally ,,repulsive ,,in ,,the ,,extreme4 ,look1 for example1 at the animal before us1 stolen 7to begin with7 from his master2 the poor creature hungry1 tied up for days and nights1 pining for his home1 is at length brought into the theatre4 ,as his crouching and feeble form is strapped upon the table1 ,,he ,,licks ,,the ,,very ,,hand ,,that ,,ties ,,him6 ,he struggles1 but in vain1 and uselessly expresses his fear and suffering until a muzzle is buckled on his jaws to stifle every sound4 ,the scalpel penetrates his quivering flesh4 ,one effort only is now natural until his powers are exhausted--a vain1 instinctive resistance to the cruel form that stands over him1 the impersonation of ,magendie and his class4 ,i recall to mind1' says ,dr4 ,latour1 a poor dog1 the roots of whose vertebral nerves ,magendie desired to lay bare to demonstrate ,bell's theory1 which he claimed for his own4 ,the dog1 already mutilated and bleeding1 twice escaped from under the implacable knife1 and threw his front paws around ,magendie's neck1 licking1 as if to soften his murderer1 and ask for mercy6 ,vivisectors may laugh1 but ,i confess ,i was unable to endure that heartrending spectacle4' ,but the whole thing is too horrible to dwell upon4 ,heaven forbid that any description of students in this country should be witness to such deeds as these6 ,we repudiate the whole of this class of procedure4 ,science will refuse to recognize it as its offspring1 and humanity shudders as it gazes on its face4 ,in all the literature of what is known as antivivisection is it possible to find a more emphatic condemnation of scientific cruelty than this8 ,the decadence of humane sentiment in the laboratory can hardly be more strikingly illustrated than by a comparison of this editorial utterance of the ,lancet with some of the present-day expressions of opinion in medical journals4 ,when a quotation from this editorial was brought to the attention of a professor in ,cambridge ,university not long since1 it seemed to him so incredible that he made a special inquiry1 and then felt safe in publishing a doubt of its authenticity4 ,if1 as one may perhaps imagine without undue violence to probability1 this special inquiry was made in the editorial rooms of the journal in question1 the incredulity which even there found expression only illustrates the gulf that lies between the present and the past4 ,it is a marvel1 indeed1 that the human sentiment of that earlier period1 before the dominance of ,continental ideals became an accomplished fact in ,america and ,england1 can be so utterly forgotten by the medical journals and medical teachers of the present time4 ,a week later the ,lancet again discusses the subject always1 it should be remembered1 as the advocate of vivisection1 provided the practice be carried on under humane restrictions4 ,a few sentences of the editorial of ,august #bi are specially significant3 444 ,as a general rule1 neither our ,british students nor teachers are wont to carry on experiments upon living animals even in a private way4 ,the utmost that can be said is that perhaps some two or three-- at the most six--scientific men in ,london are known to be pursuing certain lines of investigation which require them occasionally during the year to employ living animals4444 ,whilst the schools of medicine in this country are as a rule not liable to the charge of vivisectional abuses as regards the higher animals1 we cannot altogether acquit them from a rather reckless expenditure of the lives and feelings of cold-blooded creatures4444 ,the reckless way in which we have sometimes seen this poor creature the frog cut1 thrown and kicked about1 has been sometimes sickening4444 ,we cannot help feeling there is both ,a ,,bad ,,moral ,,discipline ,,for ,,the ,,man1 as well as an amount of probable pain to the creature1 in such a practice4 ,how strange such criticism as this appears to-day6 ,can one imagine a medical journal in ,america or ,england expressing in our time any sympathy for the suffering of frogs in a physiological laboratory8 ,can one fancy on the part of its editor a suggestion of bad moral discipline which the ruthless vivisection of animals of the highest organization or grade of intelligence might induce8 ,to-day such criticism is unthinkable4 ,yet the capacity of animal suffering has not diminished4 ,the number of victims is vastly larger4 ,what change has occurred which makes it impossible to conceive on the part of a medical journal of the present time the expression of such a sentiment of pity for one of the lower forms of animal life8 ,the ,lancet was not alone in such condemnations4 ,no periodical of that day1 devoted entirely to the problems of medicine1 occupied a position of influence equal to that of the ,british ,medical ,journal4 ,one of its earlier editorial utterances concerning vivisection appeared in its issue of ,may #aa1 #ahfa1 three years before the date given by ,dr4 ,bowditch as that of the first serious attack4 ,the ,emperor of the ,french has received a deputation from the ,royal ,society for the ,prevention of ,cruelty to ,animals4 ,we sincerely trust that this interview may be the means of putting an end to the unjustifiable brutalities too often inflicted on the lower animals under the guise of scientific experimentation4 ,,it ,,has ,,never ,,appeared ,,clear ,,to ,,us ,,that ,,we ,,are ,,justified ,,in ,,destroying ,,animals ,,for ,,mere ,,experimental ,,research ,,under ,,any ,,circumstances2 but now that we possess the means of removing sensation during experiments1 the man who puts an animal to torture ought1 in our opinion1 to be prosecuted4 ,referring to the experiment upon a cow mentioned in ,dr4 ,brown-,se'quard's ,journal of ,physiology1 and already described1 the editor adds3 ,we are not disposed1 in a question of this kind1 in which some of the highest considerations are concerned1 to allow our opinion to be swayed by the opinions or the proceedings of even the greatest surgeons and the greatest physiologists4 ,that such authorities performed vivisection is a fact2 but it does not satisfy us that the proceeding is justifiable4 ,under any circumstances1 this much1 we think1 is evident enough3 that ,,if ,,vivisections ,,be ,,permissible1 ,,they ,,can ,,only ,,be ,,so ,,under ,,certain ,,limited ,,and ,,defined ,,conditions4 ,we need hardly add that these conditions have not yet been laid down4 ,altogether1 the subject is one well worthy of serious discussion1 and gladly would we see the interests of medical science in the matter properly reconciled with the dictates of the moral sense4 ,nothing could be more clearly stated4 ,one reads almost with a feeling of amazement the sentences we have italicized in the foregoing quotation4 ,here1 in the editorial columns of the principal medical journal in the world1 is expressed doubt of the justification of any destruction of animals whatever1 for mere experimental research4 ,what magnificent independence of the opinions and experimentation of even the greatest surgeons and the greatest physiologists is here displayed6 ,five months later the ,british ,medical ,journal in its editorial columns again refers to the peculiarly atrocious vivisection which it had once before denounced2 it is evident that the journal intends that such actions shall not be forgotten4 ,in the issue of ,october #ai1 #ahfa1 it says3 ,the brutalities which have been so long inflicted upon horses1 etc41 in the veterinary schools of ,france under the name of ,science are perfectly horrible4 ,some idea of what has been daily going on in those schools during many past years may be obtained from such a statement as the following1 taken from a paper by ,m4 ,sanson1 in the ,journal of ,physiology edited by ,dr4 ,c4 ,e4 ,brown-,se'quard4 ,m4 ,sanson is speaking incidentally of the condition of animals upon whose blood he was himself experimenting3 ,a small cow1' he writes1 very thin1 and which had undergone numerous operations--that is to saw1 ,,which ,,had ,,suffered ,,during ,,the ,,day ,,the ,,most ,,extreme ,,torture--was placed upon the table1' etc4 ,m4 ,sanson adds 444,those who have seen these wretched animals on their bed of suffering--lit de douleur--know the degree of torture to which they are subjected2 torture1 in fact1 under which they for the most part succumb6' ,,the ,,poor ,,brutes ,,are ,,actually ,,sliced ,,and ,,chopped1 ,,piecemeal1 ,,to ,,death1 in order that the e'leves 7students7 may become skilful operators6 ,almost a year passes1 and on ,september #f1 #ahfb1 we again find the editor of the ,british ,medical ,journal discussing the ethics of animal experimentation4 ,he admits that there is useless vivisection and unnecessary infliction of pain4 ,significant1 indeed1 it will seem to the physician of to-day to find one of the leading exponents of medical opinion condemning as unjustifiable demonstrations of well-known facts1 which are now considered as essential to medical education4 ,after stating that some restrictions should be imposed1 the editor adds3 ,we will venture to suggest that these restrictions should be well and clearly defined2 that some high authority like ,dr4 ,sharpey himself should lay down certain rules on the subject1 and for the purpose of preventing1 if possible1 any needless suffering from being inflicted experimentally on the lower animals4 ,all of us must be well aware that many needless experiments are actually performed1 and until some clearly defined rules on this head are laid down1 we venture to think such needless suffering will still continue to be inflicted on animals4 ,if1 for example1 it were publicly stated by authorities in the profession that experiments of this nature1 made for the mere purpose of demonstrating admitted physiological facts1 are unjustifiable1 a great step would be gained1 and a great ground of complaint cut from under the feet of the enthusiastic antivivisection societies4 ,the very fact of an authoritative sanction to the legitimate performance of such experiments4444 ,the denunciations of cruel vivisection by the ,british ,medical ,journal extend over a considerable period4 ,occasionally the ,journal quotes the opinions of some of its medical contemporaries in ,paris1 admitting the need for reform4 ,for instance1 in its issue of ,may #b1 #ahfc1 in its editorial columns1 the ,journal presents us with a quotation from ,l',union ,me'dicale of ,paris1 suggesting distinctions that should be made in the selection of vivisection material3 ,vivisection is often useful and sometimes necessary1 and therefore not to be absolutely proscribed2 but ,i would gladly petition the ,senate to forbid its performance on every animal which is useful to1 and a friend of1 man4 ,the mutilations and tortures inflicted upon dogs are horrible4 ,the ,king of ,dahomey is less barbarous than these merciless vivisectors4 ,,he cuts his victims' throats1 but without torturing them2 while ,,they tear and cut to pieces these wretched dogs in their most sensitive parts4 ,let them operate on rats1 foxes1 sharks1 vipers1 and reptiles4 ,but no2 our vivisectors object to the teeth1 the claws1 the beaks of these repulsive animals2 they must have gentle animals2 and so1 like cowards1 they seize upon the dog--that caressing animal1 which licks the hand1 armed with the scalpel6 ,think of a such quotation in the columns of the ,british ,medical ,journal--a periodical which to-day rarely ventures to criticize any phase of animal experimentation4 ,the following summer1 on ,august #bb1 #ahfc1 the ,journal find space in its editorial pages for yet other quotations from ,french medical periodicals concerning the enormous abuses of vivisection4 ,we are very glad to find that the ,french medical journals are entering protests against the cruel abuse which is made of vivisection in ,france4 ,l',abeille ,me'dicale says3 ,i am quite of you opinion as to the enormous abuses practised at the present day in the matter of vivisection4444 ,in the laboratories of the ,college of ,france1 in the ,e'cole de ,me'decine1 eminent professors1 placed at the head of instruction1 are forced to the painful sacrifice of destroying animals in order to widen the field of science4 ,in doing so they act legitimately1 and suffering humanity demands it of them4 ,those experiments are performed in the silence of private study1 and the results obtained are then explained to the pupils1 or treated of in publications4444 ,but to repeat the experiments before the public1 to descend from the professional chair in order to practise the part of a butcher or of an executioner1 is painful to the feelings and disgusting to the sentiments of the student4444 ,such public exhibitions are ignoble1 and of a kind which pervert the generous sentiments of youth4 ,an end should be put to them4 ,ought we to allow the e'lite of our ,french youths to feed their eyes with the sight of the flowing blood of living animals1 and to have their ears stunned with their groans1 at this time when society is calling for the doing away of public executions8 ,let no one tell us that vivisections are necessary for a knowledge of physiology4444 ,if the present ways1 habits1 and customs are continued1 the future physician will become marked by his cold and implacable insensibility4 ,let there be no mistake about it3 ,,the ,,man ,,who ,,habituates ,,himself ,,to ,,the ,,shedding ,,of ,,blood1 ,,and ,,who ,,is ,,insensible ,,to ,,the ,,sufferings ,,of ,,animals1 ,,is ,,led ,,on ,,into ,,the ,,path ,,of ,,baseness4' ,so writes ,l',abeille ,me'dicale4 ,but here ,l',union ,me'dicale takes up and comments on the tale3 ,this is all excellently said2 but we must correct a few errors4 ,magendie1 alas6 performed experiments in public1 and sadly too often at the ,college de ,france4 ,i remember once1 among other instances1 the case of a poor dog1 the roots of whose spinal nerves he was about to expose4 ,twice did the dog1 all bloody and mutilated1 escape from his implacable knife1 and twice did ,i see him put his forepaws around ,magendie's neck and lick his face6 ,i confess--laugh1 ,messieurs les ,vivisecteurs1 if you please--that ,i could not bear the sight4444 ,it is true that ,dr4 ,p4 ,h4 ,be'rard1 ,professor of ,physiology1 never performed a single vivisection in his lectures1 which were brilliant1 elegant1 and animated4 but ,be'rard was an example of a singular psychological phenomenon4 ,toward the close of his life1 so painful to him was the sight of blood and the exhibition of pain1 that he gave up the practice of surgery1 and would never allow his students to witness a vivisection4 ,but ,be'rard was attacked by cerebral haemorrhage1 and the whole tone of his character was thereby afterward changed4 ,the benevolent man became aggressive2 the tolerant man1 irritable4444 ,he became an experimenter1 and passed whole days in practising vivisections1 ,,taking ,,pleasure ,,in ,,the ,,cries1 ,,the ,,blood1 ,,and ,,the ,,tortures ,,of ,,the ,,poor ,,animals4' ,the following week the ,journal again refers to the subject1 the ,,atrocities ,,of ,,vivisection4 ,it is a noteworthy phrase1 proceeding from a medical journal1 and should not be forgotten4 ,concerning the truth of the charges1 the absolute heartlessness exhibited1 there can be no possible doubt1 for the evidence is cumulative4 ,has the phrase atrocities of vivisection appeared in the editorial columns of any medical journal during the past twenty years1 unless in the way of ridicule or contempt8 ,it may be doubted4 ,the atrocities of vivisection continue to occupy the attention of the ,paris papers4 ,the ,opinion ,nationale says3 ,the poor brutes' cries of pain sadden the wards of the clinic1 rendering the sojourn there insupportable both to patients and nurses4 ,only imagine that1 when a dog has not been killed at one sitting1 and that enough life remains in him to experiment upon him in the following one1 they put him back in the kennel1 all throbbing and palpitating6 ,there the unhappy creatures1 already torn by the scalpel1 howl until the next day1 in tones rendered hoarse and faint by another operation intended to deprive them of voice4' ,again1 only three weeks later1 in its issue of ,september #ai1 #ahfc1 the ,british ,medical ,journal presents in an editorial an account of the debate on ,vivisection in the ,french ,academy of ,medicine4 ,it is of interest1 not only as an indication of ,english opinion at that day1 but also as evidence of what was being done by vivisectors over fifteen years after the discovery of chloroform4 ,our readers are aware that the ,french ,minister of ,commerce submitted to the ,academy of ,medicine documents supplied to him by a ,london society4444 ,a committee of the ,academy examined these questions and issued a report1 but they did not answer the simple questions put to it4 ,a discussion on the report has naturally taken place in the ,academy itself1 and has given rise to some very interesting remarks4 ,m4 ,dubois 444 refused to draw up the report because he differed somewhat in opinion on the subject of vivisections from many of his associates4 ,he therefore reserved the liberty of speaking his mind freely on the subject before the ,academy4 ,his conclusions are well worthy serious attention4 ,they seem to us to contain all that can be rightly said in favour of vivisection1 and to put the matter on its true and proper footing4 ,the greatest praise is due to ,m4 ,dubois for having had the courage to express his opinion so boldly and openly4444 ,in the first part of his speech1 ,m4 ,dubois demolished the work of the report1 showing that it did not answer the questions of the ,government1 and left things exactly in their previous state4 ,he then proceeded to give his opinion as to what reforms should be made in the practice of vivisection4 ,the greatest physiologists1 he remarked1 such as ,harvey1 ,asselli1 ,haller1 were parsimonious and discreet in their use of vivisection4 ,to-day we have before our eyes a very different spectacle4 ,under pretence of experimentally demonstrating physiology1 the professor no longer ascends the rostrum2 he places himself before a vivisecting-table1 has live animals brought to him1 and experiments4 ,the habitual spectators at the ,school of ,medicine1 the ,college of ,france1 and the ,faculty of ,sciences1 know how experiments are made on the living flesh1 how muscles are divided and cut1 the nerves wrenched or dilacerated1 the bones broken or methodically opened with gouge1 mallet1 saw1 and pincers4 ,among other tortures there is that horrible one of the opening of the vertebral canal or of the spinal column to lay bare membranes and the substance of the marrow2 ,,it ,,is ,,the ,,sublime ,,of ,,horror4 ,one needs to have witnessed that sight thoroughly to comprehend the real sense of the word vivisection4' ,whoever has not seen an animal under experiment ,,cannot ,,form ,,an ,,idea ,,of ,,the ,,habitual ,,practices ,,of ,,the ,,vivisectors4 ,m4 ,dubois drew an eloquent picture of these practices1 become usual in the physiological amphitheatres in the midst of blood and of howls of pain1 and he showed that under the dominant influence of the vivisectors1 physiological instruction has gone out of its natural road4 ,himself an eminent pathologist1 he treated without ceremony the unjustifiable pretensions of those innovators1 who1 regardless at once of the principles of physiology and those of pathology1 try to transport clinical surgery to the table of vivisection4 ,m4 ,dubois1 indeed1 was so pungent in his censures that some of the ,academicians left the hall without awaiting the end of his discourse4 ,the veterinary part of his audience heard him to the end1 and1 it is to be hoped1 profited by the picture he drew of the sight that met his eyes on his first visit to ,alfort4 ,m4 ,renault1 the director of the establishment1 took ,m4 ,dubois into a vast hall1 where five or six horses were thrown down1 each one surrounded by a group of pupils1 either operating or waiting their turn to do so4 ,each group was of eight students1 and matters were so arranged that each student could perform eight operations1 so well graduated that1 although the sixty- four operations lasted ten hours1 a horse could endure them all before being put to death4 ,although unwilling to hurt the feelings of his host1 ,m4 ,dubois could not help letting slip the word ,,atrocity4' ,atrocities1 if you please1' replied ,m4 ,renault1 but they are necessary4' ,what6' exclaimed ,m4 ,dubois2 ,,sixty-,,four ,,operations1 ,,and ,,ten ,,hours ,,of ,,suffering8' ,m4 ,renault explained to him that this was a question of finance2 that if more money were allowed1 the horses might be kept only three or four hours under the knife4 ,m4 ,dubois stated that it was true fewer operations are now performed1 and that horses are kept less time under the hands of experimenting students4 ,but1 he declared1 he should never forget the sight he witnessed at ,alfort4 ,some of the horses were just begun upon2 others were already horribly mutilated2 they did not cry out1 but gave utterance to hollow moans4 ,m4 ,dubois1 supported by the authority of many veterinary surgeons1 demands that these practices should be discontinued4 ,dr4 ,parchappe1 who spoke afterward1 agreed with ,m4 ,dubois4 ,he said3 444 ,experiments on animals are in no way indispensable to completely efficacious instruction in physiology4' ,it could hardly be expected by anyone but the most sanguine of mortals that the ,french ,academy of ,medicine would agree to censure or condemn certain of its own members at the instance of ,english humanitarians1 even though supported by men of their own nationality4 ,when the matter came to a vote1 the opponents of change passed a resolution declaring that complaints had no basis1 and that the question of performing experiments or surgical operations in the veterinary schools ,,should ,,be ,,left ,,to ,,the ,,discretion ,,of ,,men1 ,,of ,,science4 ,this is precisely the position taken to-day both in ,england and ,america by those who contend that the practice should not be restricted by law4 ,the ,journal1 however1 adds3 ,everyone who has followed this debate must be aware that the resolution is 444 entirely opposed to the facts elicited in the discussion4 ,almost every speaker1 except the veterinaries1 put in a protest more or less strong against the practice of surgical operations in veterinary schools1 and again and again was the word ,,atrocious applied to them4 ,we learn1 moreover1 that this mode of instruction was adopted in #agfa1 so that for more than a century these atrocious operations have been practiced on animals in ,french veterinary schools4 ,yet the ,academy decides that complaints on this score are without foundation1 and that men of science in this matter ,,need ,,no ,,interference6 ,we may be sure that1 however much the ,academicians may snub the affair1 the discussion cannot fail to have beneficial results4 ,two or three weeks later1 on ,october #aj1 the ,journal again touches the subject of physiological demonstrations1 and denounces them--when conducted as in ,paris--as a scandal to humanity4 ,the ,journal says3 ,m4 ,dubois has published a discourse 444 on the subject of vivisection in answer to objections made to the amendments proposed by him4 ,it is a brilliant summary of the whole subject1 and utterly condemnative of the amendments carried by the ,academy4 ,m4 ,dubois showed to demonstration that 444 physiological demonstrations on living animals in the public ,medical schools ,,are ,,utterly ,,unjustifiable1 ,,and ,a ,,scandal ,,to ,,humanity4 ,,in ,,all ,,this ,,we ,,most ,,thoroughly ,,agree ,,with ,,him4 ,he said3 ,if we are to carry out the wishes of certain savants1 we shall make everyone of our professional chairs a scene of blood4444 ,let us tell the ,minister that vivisections are necessary for the advancement of science1 and that to suppress them would be to arrest the progress of physiology2 but let us also say that ,,they ,,are ,,unnecessary ,,in ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,this ,,science1 ,,and ,,that ,,recourse ,,ought ,,not ,,to ,,be ,,had ,,to ,,them1 ,,either ,,in ,,public ,,or ,,private ,,lecture4' ,under what restrictions would the ,british ,medical ,journal of that day permit animal experimentation8 ,in two editorial utterances the ,journal briefly defines its position4 ,in the issue of ,january #af1 #ahfd1 we have the following expression of its views3 ,the conditions under which--and under which alone--vivisections may be justifiably performed seem to us to be clear and easily stated4444 ,we would say1 then1 in the first place1 that those experiments on living animals1 and those alone1 are justifiable which are performed for the purpose of elucidating obscure or unknown questions in physiology or pathology2 that whenever any physiological or pathological fact has been distinctly and satisfactorily cleared up and settled1 all further repetition of the experiments which were originally performed for its demonstration are unjustifiable2 that they are needless torture inflicted on animals1 being1 in fact1 performed not for the purpose of eliciting unknown facts1 ,,but ,,to ,,satisfy ,,man',s ,,curiousity4444 ,and in the second place1 we would say that only those persons are justified in experimenting upon living animals who are capable experimentalists4444 ,all experiments made by inexperienced and incapable observers are unjustifiable1 and for an obvious reason4 ,the pain in such case1 suffered by the animal1 is suffered in vain4444 ,pain so inflicted is manifest ,,cruelty4 ,if we compare this statement with any recent expression of the ,journal's views1 we shall see how far this organ of medical opinion has strayed in fifty years from the conservatism of ,sir ,charles ,bell toward the unrestricted freedom demanded by the apologists of ,magendie and ,brachet4 ,six months later1 another pronouncement appears in its editorial columns4 ,in the issue of ,june #aa1 #ahfd1 we read3 ,far be it from us to patronize or palliate the infamous practices1 the unjustifiable practices1 committed in ,french veterinary schools1 and in many ,french ,medical schools1 in the matter of vivisection4 ,we repudiate as brutal and cruel all surgical operations performed on living animals4 ,,we ,,repudiate ,,the ,,repetition ,,of ,,all ,,experiments ,,on ,,animals ,,for ,,the ,,demonstration ,,of ,,any ,,already ,,well-,,determined ,,physiological ,,question4 ,we hold that no man except a skilled anatomist and a well-informed physiologist has a right to perform experiments on animals4 ,it is unnecessary to state that these excerpts from the editorial columns of medical journals are not quoted by way of criticism4 ,on the contrary1 they seem in the highest degree creditable to the medical periodicals in which they appeared4 ,they voiced a condemnation of scientific cruelty which then found a universal response4 ,in the awakening of public apprehension regarding the growing abuses incident to vivisection1 their influence cannot be too highly esteemed4 ,there can be no question that these exposures of physiological methods1 these repeated and emphatic denunciations of cruelty1 proceeding from the leading medical journals of ,england1 contributed more than anything else to arouse the general public to the acknowledged existence of abuse1 and to the necessity of some legislation regarding the vivisection of animals4 ,,and ,,yet ,,no ,,advocate ,,of ,,unrestricted ,,vivisection ,,in ,,our ,,day ,,ever ,,refers ,,to ,,them4 ,sir ,william ,osler tells the ,royal ,commission that it is news to him4 ,professor ,bowditch1 the leading physiologist of ,harvard ,medical ,school1 refers with contempt to blood-curdling stories in the pamphlet of ,dr4 ,fleming as the first serious attack upon vivisection--without the slightest reference to all this earlier criticism1 this exposure of infamous cruelty by the leading journals of the medical profession6 ,but the worst and most regrettable result of such ignorance on the part of those who teach is its effect upon those who1 as students1 follow their guidance1 accept their prejudices1 and1 unconscious of their ignorance1 give to their statements implicit trust4 ,we shall perhaps be told that although the facts are as stated1 yet these medical condemnations of cruelty are the outgrown opinions of the ,past4 ,are the foundations of morals so unstable8 ,can lapse of years transmute cruelty into benevolence and righteousness8 ,are we now to be asked to approve the conduct of ,magendie and of ,mantegazza and ,be'rnard1 and send to the lumber room of past opinions the expressions of horror and repulsion which their acts once excited throughout the ,english-speaking world8 ,the science of the modern school of physiologists gives that implication3 ,,let ,,all ,,that ,,pass1 is their cry to-day4 ,with this we cannot for a moment agree4 ,rather let us believe that in the whirl and conflict of opinions that marks the social evolution of ,humanity1 there are some principles which are stable and some landmarks that cannot be altered4 ,cruelty is a vice that should never be condoned4 ,what was regarded as infamous in the laboratory of fifty years ago should be considered equally infamous to-day4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,attainment ,,of ,,legal ,,regulation ,the awakening of a nation to the existence of a great evil is only accomplished after years of persistent agitation4 ,we have seen that some of the strongest denunciations of cruelty in biological experimentation were due to that large element in the medical profession which refused to condone cruelty under the guise of utility4 ,gradually public opinion began to be thoroughly aroused4 ,in the year #ahfd the ,royal ,society for the ,prevention of ,cruelty to ,animals offered a prize for the best essay on these questions3 ,is vivisection necessary or justifiable for purposes of giving dexterity to the operator 7as in veterinary schools78 ,is it necessary or justifiable for the general purposes of science1 and1 if so1 under what limitations8 ,the committee which decided the merits of the essays submitted included some of the most distinguished scientists of ,england1 among them ,professor ,owen 7better known as ,sir ,richard ,owen71 and ,professor ,carpenter1 physiologists of eminence and experience4 ,the first prize was accorded to ,dr4 ,george ,fleming1 the leading veterinary authority in ,great ,britain for many years1 and a second prize was given to ,dr4 ,w4 ,o4 ,markham1 ,f4,r4,c4,p41 one of the physicians to ,st4 ,mary's ,hospital of ,london1 and formerly lecturer on ,physiology at ,st4 ,mary's ,hospital ,medical ,school4 ,dr4 ,fleming's essay was undoubtedly of great utility in calling attention to the abuses pertaining to ,continental physiological teaching4 ,that which makes his essay of chief value is not so much the presentation of arguments1 as the long array of unquestionable facts for which the authorities are given4 ,there is hardly a physiological writer of distinction from whose works he did not quote to illustrate the excesses he condemns4 ,it is ,dr4 ,markham's essay1 however1 which for us1 at the present moment1 has principal significance4 ,it is the argument of a professional physiologist1 defending the right of scientific research within limits which then seemed just and right to the entire medical profession of the ,united ,kingdom4 ,every physiologist or physician upon that committee which examined the essays is said to have marked with approval this presentation of their views2 and ,professor ,owen-- probably then the most distinguished man of science in ,great ,britain-- appended a note significant of his especial agreement4 ,and yet ,dr4 ,markham's essay is never quoted at present by any advocate of free vivisection2 even ,professor ,bowditch in that address to which reference has been made left unmentioned the work of his professional brother1 one of the earliest defenders of animal experimentation4 ,the reader of ,dr4 ,markham's essay will not find it difficult to comprehend the cause of this significant silence4 ,although the essay was in no way sympathetic with antivivisection1 it represented the ,anglo-,saxon ideal1 in marked distinction from the doctrines which then prevailed in the laboratories of ,continental ,europe1 and which since have become dominant throughout the ,united ,states4 ,defending the practice of vivisection as a scientific method1 ,dr4 ,markham freely admitted the prevalence of abuses to which it was liable when carried on without regulation or restraint4 ,under proper limitations it was at present necessary that some vivisection should be allowed2 but with the advance of knowledge1 he believed that this necessity would decrease1 and the practice of animal experimentation gradually tend to disappear4 ,some quotations from this essay will be of interest4 ,the proper and only object of all justifiable experiments on animals is to determine unknown facts in physiology1 pathology1 and therapeutics1 whereby medical science may be directly or indirectly advanced4 ,when1 therefore1 any fact of this kind has been once determined and positively acquired to science1 all repetition of experiments for its further demonstration are unnecessary1 and therefore unjustifiable4 ,all experiments1 therefore1 performed before students1 in classes or otherwise1 for the purpose of demonstrating known facts in physiology or therapeutics1 are unjustifiable4 ,and they are especially unjustifiable because they are performed before those who1 being mere students1 are incapable of fully comprehending their value and meaning4 ,,they ,,are ,,needless ,,and ,,cruel3 needless1 because they demonstrate what is already acquired to science2 and especially cruel1 because if admitted as a recognized part of students' instruction1 ,,their ,,constant ,,and ,,continued ,,repetition1 ,,through ,,all ,,time1 ,,would ,,be ,,required4 ,i need hardly say that courses of experimental physiology are nowhere given in this country1 and that these remarks apply only to those schools i ,france and elsewhere where demonstrations of this kind are delivered4#a #a ,experiments and ,surgical ,operations on ,living ,animals3 ,one of ,two ,prize ,essays4 ,london3 ,robert ,hardwick1 #ahff4 ,,especially ,,cruel6 ,little could ,dr4 ,markham have imagined that this especial cruelty which he thus so emphatically denounced in #ahfd would spread from the ,continent of ,europe and become1 within the short space of a single generation1 the accepted method of physiological instruction in every leading college or university in the ,united ,states6 ,dr4 ,markham evidently fancied that with the larger acquirement of facts the vivisection method would gradually become obsolete4 ,he says3 ,a consideration of the conditions here proposed as requisite for the rightful performance of experiments on living animals shows that experiments of this kind must ever be very limited1 because those persons who are fitted for the due performance of them are of necessity few in number2 and that in proportion as new facts are added by them to our knowledge1 ,,the ,,experiments ,,must ,,diminish ,,in ,,number4444 ,thus1 then1 we have seen that in the case of experiments legitimately performed on living animals1 444 such experiments must always1 from their nature1 be comparatively few2 that they must gradually diminish with the advance of scientific knowledge1 so that ,a ,,time ,,may ,,come ,,when ,,experiments ,,on ,,living ,,animals ,,will ,,cease ,,to ,,be ,,justifiable4 444 ,very different1 on the other hand1 is the character and objects of physiological demonstrations performed in ,french ,schools of ,medicine4444 ,these most painful practices are unjustifiable because they are unnecessary4444 ,they afford no instruction to the student which may not be equally well obtained in another way4 ,the pain1 moreover1 attendant on such proceedings is unlimited and unceasing4 ,if they are to be accepted as a necessary part of the systemic instruction of the student1 then must every veterinary student practice these experimental surgical operations1 ,,and ,,every ,,medical ,,student ,,be ,,made ,a ,,witness ,,of ,,physiological ,,demonstrations ,,on ,,living ,,animals4 ,in all veterinary schools1 under such conditions1 an incalculable amount of pain inflicted on animals becomes a part of the regular instruction of students4 ,at such a conclusion ,humanity revolts4 ,experiments performed on living animals for the demonstration of facts already positively acquired to science are unjustifiable1 and especially unjustifiable are such experiments when made a part of a systemic course of instruction given to students4 ,here1 then1 we have a view of vivisection presented less than forty years since by a professional teacher of physiology in a ,london medical school4 ,that the author was mistaken in his outlook1 that the practice of vivisection instead of diminishing has a thousand times increased1 and that operations then regarded as especially cruel have become the prevalent methods of instruction1 are matters evident to all4 ,peculiarly significant is the fact that a creed1 once almost universally held1 may be so thoroughly obliterated by its antagonists within so brief a time4 ,one may safely assert that not a single recent graduate from any ,medical ,college in ,america1 not a single student of physiology in any institution of learning in our land to-day1 has ever been told that the practice of animal experimentation was once thus regarded by a large majority of the ,english-speaking members of the medical profession4 ,so completely has the ,continental view of the moral irresponsibility of science established itself in ,american colleges that the former preponderance of other ideals has passed from the memory of the present generation of scientific men4 ,the subject of vivisection does not again appear to have engaged the attention of the ,english medical ,press for several years4 ,the abuses and cruelties on the ,continent1 against which it had so vigorously protested1 continued as before4 ,in a brief editorial1 the ,london ,lancet1 on ,april #c1 #ahfi1 again referred to the subject3 ,,vivisection4--,the subject of vivisection has been again brought on the tapis1 owing to some remarks made by ,professor 7,claude7 ,be'rnard 444 at the ,college de ,france4444 ,he admits on one occasion having operated on an ape1 but never repeated the experiment1 ,,the ,,cries ,,and ,,gestures ,,of ,,the ,,animal ,,too ,,closely ,,resembling ,,those ,,of ,a ,,man4 ,as the ,pall ,mall ,gazette remarks1 ,m4 7,claude7 ,be'rnard expatiates on the subject with a complacency which reminds us of ,peter the ,great1 who1 wishing1 while at ,stockholm1 to see the ,,wheel in action1 quietly offered one of his suite as the patient to be broken on it4444 ,we consider that vivisection constitutes a legitimate mode of inquiry when it is adopted to obtain a satisfactory solution of a question that has been fairly discussed1 and can be solved by no other means4444 ,we hold that for mere purposes of curiosity1 ,,or ,,to ,,exhibit ,,to ,a ,,class what may be rendered equally--if not more--intelligible by diagrams or may be ascertained by anatomical investigation or induction1 ,,vivisection ,,is ,,wholly ,,indefensible1 and ,,is ,,alike ,,alien ,,to ,,the ,,feelings ,,and ,,humanity ,,of ,,the ,,christian1 ,,the ,,gentleman1 ,,and ,,the ,,physician4 ,it is very probable that much of the criticism of foreign vivisection1 which at this period appeared in the medical journals of ,england1 was inspired by the abhorrence felt regarding the cruelty of certain ,french physiologists4 ,we now know that the worst and most cruel of them all was ,claude ,be'rnard1 ,professor of ,experimental ,physiology at the ,college de ,france1 and the fit successor of ,magendie4 ,just as pirates and freebooters have added to geographical discoveries1 so science admits that regarding the functions of certain organs he added to accumulated facts4 ,but the peculiar infamy of ,be'rnard was the indifference displayed toward animal suffering long after the discovery of chloroform and ether1 and his practical contempt for any sentiment of compassion for vivisected animals4 ,of this savagery one will look in vain for criticism or condemnation in the writings of the opponents of vivisection reform at the present day4 ,two physicians1 however1 have told us what they witnessed in the laboratory of ,be'rnard4 ,on ,february #b1 #ahge1 there appeared in the ,morning ,post a letter from a ,london physician1 describing his personal experience in the laboratory of this physiologist4 ,,sir1 ,if the ,society for the ,prevention of ,cruelty to ,animals intends to give effect to the memorial presented to it on ,monday1 and do its utmost to put down the monstrous abuses which have sprung up of late years in the practice of vivisection1 it will probably find that the greatest obstacle to success lies ,,in ,,the ,,secrecy ,,with ,,which ,,such ,,experiments ,,are ,,conducted1 ,,and ,,it ,,is ,,to ,,the ,,destruction ,,of ,,that ,,secrecy that its best efforts should be directed4 ,so long as the present privacy be maintained1 it will be found impossible to convict1 for want of evidence4 ,no student can be expected to come forward as a witness when he knows that he would be hooted from among his fellows for doing so1 and any rising medical man would only achieve professional ruin by following a similar course4 ,the result is that1 although hundreds of such abuses are being constantly perpetrated among us1 the public knows no more about them than what the distant echo reflected from some handbook of the laboratory affords4 ,i venture to record a little of my own experience in the matter1 part of which was gained as an assistant in the laboratory of one of the greatest living experimental physiologists4 ,in that laboratory we sacrificed daily from one to three dogs1 besides rabbits and other animals1 and after four months' experience ,i am of opinion that not one of those experiments on animals was justified or necessary4 ,the idea of the good of ,humanity was simply out of the question1 and would have been laughed at2 ,,the ,,great ,,aim ,,being ,,to ,,keep ,,up ,,with1 ,,or ,,get ,,ahead ,,of1 ,,one',s ,,contemporaries ,,in ,,science1 even at the price of incalculable amount of torture needlessly and iniquitously inflicted on the poor animals4 ,during three campaigns ,i have witnessed many harsh sights1 but ,i think the saddest sight ,i ever witnessed was when the dogs were brought up from the cellar to the laboratory for sacrifice4 ,instead of appearing pleased with the change from darkness to light1 they seemed seized with horror as soon as they smelt the air of the place1 divining1 apparently1 their approaching fate4 ,they would make friendly advances to each of three or four persons present1 and as far as eyes1 ears1 and tail could make a mute appeal for mercy eloquent1 they tried it in vain4 ,even when roughly grasped and thrown on the torture-trough1 a low complaining whine at such treatment would be all the protest made1 and they would continue to lick the hand which bound them1 till their mouths were fixed in the gag1 and they could only flap their tails in the trough as the last means of exciting compassion4 ,often when convulsed by the pain of their torture this would be renewed1 and they would be soothed instantly on receiving a few gentle pats4 ,it was all the aid and comfort ,i could give them1 and ,i gave it often4 ,they seemed to take it as an earnest of fellow-feeling that would cause their torture to come to an end--an end only brought by death4 ,were the feelings of experimental physiologists not blunted1 they could not long continue the practice of vivisection4 ,they are always ready to repudiate any implied want of tender feeling1 but ,i must say that they seldom show much pity2 on the contrary1 in practice they frequently show the reverse4 ,hundreds of times ,i have seen1 when an animal writhed with pain and thereby deranged the tissues during a delicate dissection1 instead of being soothed1 it would receive a slap and an angry order to be quiet and behave itself4 ,at other times1 when an animal had endured great pain for hours without struggling or giving more than an occasional whine1 instead of letting the poor mangled wretch loose to crawl about the place in reserve for another day's torture1 it would receive pity so far that it would be said to have behaved well enough to merit death1 and as a reward would be killed at once by breaking up the medulla with a needle1 or pithing1' as this operation is called4 ,i have often heard the professor say1 when one side of an animal had been so mangled and the tissues so obscured by clotted blood that it was difficult to find the part searched for1 ,why don't you begin on the other side8' or ,,why ,,don',t ,,you ,,take ,,another ,,dog8 ,,what ,,is ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,being ,,so ,,economical8' ,one of the most revolting features in the laboratory was the custom of giving an animal1 on which the professor had completed his experiment1 and which had still some life left1 to the assistants to practise the finding of arteries1 nerves1 etc41 in the living animal1 or for performing what are called fundamental experiments' upon it--in other words1 repeating those which are recommended in the laboratory handbooks4 ,i am inclined to look upon anaesthetics as the greatest curse to vivisectible animals4 ,they alter too much the normal conditions of life to give accurate results1 and they are therefore little depended upon4 ,,they1 ,,indeed1 ,,prove ,,far ,,more ,,efficacious ,,in ,,lulling ,,public ,,feeling ,,towards ,,the ,,vivisectors ,,than ,,pain ,,in ,,the ,,vivisected4 ,connected with this there is a horrible proceeding that the public probably knows little about4 ,an animal is sometimes kept quiet by the administration of a poison called curare1' which paralyzes voluntary motion while it heightens sensation1 the animal being kept alive by means of artificial respiration4 ,i hope that we shall soon have a ,government inquiry into the subject1 in which experimental physiologists shall be only witnesses1 not judges4 ,,let ,,all ,,private ,,vivisection ,,be ,,made ,,criminal1 ,,and ,,all ,,experiments ,,be ,,placed ,,under ,,government ,,inspection1 and we may have the same clearing away of abuses that the ,anatomy ,act caused in similar circumstances4 ,i am1 sir1 your obedient servant1 ,george ,hoggan1 ,m4,b4 and ,c4,m4 #ac1 ,granville ,place1 ,portman ,square1 ,w4 ,one of the oldest members of the medical profession in ,massachusetts has also written of his experience in ,be'rnard's laboratory1 and his account of the cruelty there practised entirely accords with that of the ,english physician3 ,when ,i was studying medicine in ,paris1 it was the custom of a distinguished physiologist to illustrate his lectures by operations on dogs4 ,some of his dissections were not very painful1 but others were attended with excruciating1 long-continued agony2 and when the piteous cries of these poor brutes would interrupt his remarks1 with a look of suppressed indignation he would artistically slit their windpipes1 and thus prevent their howling6 ,curiousity prompted me to inquire of the janitor whether1 after this period of torment1 these creatures were mercifully put out of misery2 and ,i ascertained that such animals as did not succumb to the immediate effects of their mutilations were consigned to a cellar1 to be kept1 unattended and unfed1 until wanted for the following lectures1 which occurred on alternate days4 ,i never noticed the slightest demonstration of sympathy on their behalf1 except on the part of a few ,american students4 ,these dogs were subjected to needless torture1 for the mere purpose of illustrating well-known facts1 capable of being taught satisfactorily by drawings1 charts1 and models2 and hence this cruelty1 being unattended by any possible benefit to either students or mankind1 was illegitimate and unjustifiable4 ,but when it is considered that these same experiments might have been conducted under the influence of an anaesthetic1 so as to minimize1 if not remove1 this needless suffering1 this cold-blooded1 heartless torture can only be characterized as contemptible and monstrous4 ,from detailed accounts communicated to me by eye-witnesses of the incidents related1 ,i entertain no doubt that barbarous cruelty was practised at that time in all the ,parisian laboratories1 though it is probable that1 for novel and horrible experiments1 none could rival the infernal ingenuity in this business of that master-demon1 ,claude ,be'rnard4#a #a ,extracts from letter to ,boston ,medical and ,surgical ,journal1 ,april1 #ahie4 ,such is the memory which ,be'rnard has left for posterity4 ,it was by useless cruelty that he impressed4 ,and no ,american physiologist1 sounding the praises of free and unrestricted vivisection1 has ever yet ventured to criticize or to condemn either the man or his work4 ,let us go back a little4 ,by the year #ahga1 the agitation had gone so far as to be deemed worthy of consideration by the leading scientific body in ,great ,britain4 ,at the meeting of the ,british ,association in ,liverpool of that year1 a committee was appointed to consider the subject of animal experimentation1 and the result of their deliberations appears in the annual report4 ,regarding the practice1 they suggest four recommendations or rules3 #a4 ,no experiment which can be done under the influence of an anaesthetic ought to be done without it4 #b4 ,no painful experiment is justifiable for the mere purpose of illustrating a law or fact already determined2 in other words1 experimentation without the employment of anaesthetics is not a fitting exhibition for teaching purposes4 ,a third rule suggested that painful experiments should only be made in laboratories under proper regulation2 and a fourth rule condemned veterinary operations for the purpose of obtaining manual dexterity4 ,it was evidently an attempt to allay agitation--there were no means of enforcing the recommendations concerning practices which the law did not touch4 ,one of the signers was ,dr4 ,burdon ,sanderson1 a ,lecturer on ,physiology4 ,early the following year he began the delivery of a course of lectures in the physiological laboratory of ,university ,college in ,london1 illustrated by vivisections4 ,during one of these discourses1 the lecturer made the following statement of his views3 ,with respect to what are called vivisections1' ,i assure you that ,i have as great a horror of them as any members of the ,society for the ,prevention of ,cruelty to ,animals4 ,the rules in respect to them are these3 ,first1 no experiment that can be done under the influence of an anaesthetic ought to be done without it4 ,secondly1 no ,,painful experiment is justifiable for the mere purpose of illustrating a law or fact already demonstrated4 ,thirdly1 whenever for the investigation of new truth1 it is necessary to make a painful experiment1 every effort should be made to insure success1 in order that the suffering inflicted may not be wasted4 ,for the question of cruelty depends not on the amount of suffering1 but on its relation to the good to be attained by it4#a #a ,medical ,times and ,gazette1 ,february #be1 #ahga4 ,the lecturer contended that no experiment should be performed by an unskilled person with insufficient instruments1 and argued1 therefore1 in favour of the establishment of ,physiological ,laboratories1 equipped with all modern devices and instruments for vivisection4 ,some of his demonstrations were doubtless unproductive of pain1 but in view of the fact that in other experiments no anaesthetic was employed1 it may be questioned whether his second rule was always very strictly observed4 ,in one lecture he referred to his demonstration as the first time that we have applied electrical stimulus to a nerve1 and explains that when the experiment is made on an animal paralyzed with curare1 the effect is more complicated when a sensory nerve is irritated1 since then the arteries all over the body contract1 because the brain is in action4#a ,no plainer confession of the existence of sensibility could be made1 yet for obvious reasons the lecturer carefully avoids admitting the presence of pain4 ,during the following year there appeared articles describing the teaching of practical physiology in the ,london schools4 ,at ,king's ,college in ,london1 for example1 demonstrations were made by the lecturer1 but experiments on animals are never given to the ordinary student to do2 ,professor ,rutherford's experience on this point is that such attempts result only in total failure4#b ,on the other hand1 at ,university ,college1 the ,continental method of teaching was to be found4 ,student perform experiments on animals4 ,frogs1 curarized or chloroformed1 are given them1 and the experiment which has been fully explained and demonstrated by the professor1 is performed by them as far as practicable4#c ,here1 then1 we find introduced into ,england 7and perhaps there existing in secret for some time before71 that vivisection of animals in illustration of well-known facts1 which1 but a few years earlier1 every leading medical journal of ,great ,britain had so emphatically reprobated and denounced4 #a ,medical ,times and ,gazette1 ,june #ag1 #ahga4 #b ,ibid41 ,july #bj1 #ahgb4 #c ,medical ,times and ,gazette1 ,july #bg1 #ahgb4 ,the ,continental school of ,english physiologists seemed confident of victory4 ,but the leading exponents of ,english ideals in medicine were not inclined to surrender at once2 now and then we find them vigorously maintaining their ground1 and disposed to contrast the science gained in the laboratory with that gathered by experience and fortified by reflection4 ,some extracts from a leading editorial in the ,medical ,times and ,gazette are extremely suggestive of the conflict of opinions3 ,the relation of physiology to practical medicine is a subject which has been brought prominently into notice by the address of ,dr4 ,burdon ,sanderson 444 at the recent meeting of the ,british ,association4 ,that address may be considered as the first authoritative and public announcement made in this country that ,,it ,,is ,,the ,,aim ,,and ,,intention ,,of ,,the ,,physiological ,,school ,,of ,,thought and work to separate themselves more and more from the school of practical medicine2 no longer to consider themselves auxiliary to it except as other sciences--for instance1 chemistry and botany--may be considered auxiliary to it1 but to win a place in the public estimation for their science as one which shall be cultivated ,,for ,,its ,,own ,,sake444 ,the teaching of experience is more reliable than physiological theories and opinions4444 ,the history of the advance of the cure of disease is in the history of empiricism1 in the best sense of that much-abused word4 ,the history of retrogression in the art of curing disease is that of the so-called ,physiological ,schools of ,medicine444 ,physiological theory1 based on experiments on dogs1 wishes us to believe that mercury does not excite a flow of bile2 but here the common sense of the ,profession1 educated by experience1 has refused to be led by physiological theory4444 ,modern physiological science has taught us little more than the necessity of pure air1 water1 and food1 good clothing and shelter1 moderation in eating and drinking1 and regulation of the passions--things1 in fact1 which are as old as the ,pentateuch4 ,we may safely assert that all the experiments made on luckless animals since the time of ,magendie to the present1 in ,france1 ,america1 ,germany1 and ,england1 have not prolonged one tithe of human life1 or diminished one tithe of the human suffering that have been prolonged and diminished by the discovery and use of ,jesuits' bark and cod-liver oil4#a #a ,medical ,times and ,gazette 7,editorial71 ,september #g1 #ahgb4 ,early the next year 7#ahgc7 was published the ,handbook of the ,physiological ,laboratory1 compiled by leading men of the physiological party1 among whom were ,professors ,sanderson1 ,foster1 and ,klein4 ,describing the method of performing various experiments upon animals1 it included a particular account of some of the most excruciatingly painful of the vivisections practised abroad4 ,so atrocious was one of the experiments thus described in this handbook for students that ,professor ,michael ,foster1 who wrote the description1 afterward confessed that he had never seen or performed the experiment himself1 partly from horror of the pain4 ,reviewing the work1 a medical journal justly declared that the publication of this book marks an era in the history of physiology in ,england4444 ,it shows ,,the ,,predominant ,,influence ,,which ,,germany ,,now ,,exercises ,,in ,,this ,,department ,,of ,,science4#a ,a professor of physiology1 ,dr4 ,gamgee1 about the same time1 refers to the physiological laboratories of ,edinburgh1 ,cambridge1 and ,london1 and the part they sustained in what ,i may call the ,revival of the study of experimental physiology in ,england4#b #a ,medical ,times and ,gazette1 ,london1 ,march #bi1 #ahgc4 #b ,ibid41 ,october #ah1 #ahgc4 ,emboldened by continuing success1 the advocates of ,continental vivisection in ,england determined to advance yet another step4 ,the annual meeting of the ,british ,medical ,association for #ahgd was to be held that year in ,august in the city of ,norwich4 ,a ,french vivisector1 ,dr4 ,magnan1 was invited to be present1 and to perform in the presence of ,english medical men certain experiments upon dogs4 ,on this occasion1 however1 the public demonstration of ,french methods of vivisection did not pass without protest2 there was a scene2 some of the physicians present--among them ,dr4 ,tufnell1 the ,president of the ,royal ,college of ,surgeons of ,ireland1 and ,dr4 ,haughton of the medical school in ,dublin1 denounced the experiments at the time they were made as unjustifiably cruel4 ,public attention was beginning to be aroused2 it was decided to test the question1 whether such exhibitions were protected by ,english law1 and a prosecution was instituted against some who had assisted in performing the experiments4 ,dr4 ,tufnell appeared to testify in regard to the cruelty of the exhibition1 and ,sir ,william ,fergusson1 surgeon to the ,queen1 who had only just retired from the presidency of the ,british ,medical ,association1 not only stigmatized one of the experiments as an act of cruelty1 but declared that such experiments would not be of the smallest possible benefit4#a ,the magistrates decided that while the case was a very proper one to prosecute1 yet the gentlemen named as defendants were not sufficiently proven to have taken part in the experiment4 ,the decision was not unjust2 the real offender was safe in his native land4 #a ,british ,medical ,journal1 ,december #ab1 #ahgd4 ,it is not my purpose to trace the course of the ,english agitation against vivisection1 except as it may be seen in the medical literature of the time2 but one cannot refer to this period without mention of the name of ,frances ,power ,cobbe4 ,in #ahfc1 while in ,italy1 she had protested1 and not in vain1 against the cruelties of ,professor ,schiff in ,florence4 ,taking up the question again in #ahgd1 she devoted the remainder of her life to the advancement of her ideals of reform4 ,it was to her zeal that in #ahge was founded the ,society for the ,protection of ,animals liable to ,vivisection4 ,at this period1 then1 three phases of opinion opposed one another2 first1 the antivivisectionists1 who desired the total suppression by law of all animal experimentation2 second1 the physiological enthusiasts1 few in number1 but favourable to the introduction of the ,continental irresponsibility1 and eager to free vivisection from every semblance of restraint2 and1 thirdly1 the great body of ,englishmen and of the medical profession1 whose views we have seen reflected in medical journals of the day4 ,the popular attack upon all animal experimentation became so pressing that for a time the entire medical profession seemed to unite in its defence2 and editorial space once filled with denunciation of vivisection in ,france was now given over to criticism of the antivivisectionists of ,england4 ,yet1 even at this period1 there appeared no repudiation of those humane principles1 so long professed by ,english medical men4 ,one leading journal1 the ,medical ,times and ,gazette1 thus suggests that very oversight of vivisection which we are told is impossible3 ,just as the law demands that a teacher of anatomy should take out a licence1 and be responsible for the bodies entrusted to him1 so a teacher of physiology might be required to take out some such licence as regards the teaching of practical physiology4 ,we have never been of those who advocate the wholesale performance of experiments by students1 especially on the higher animals1 if they are of such a kind as to require any degree of skill for their performance4 ,when the medical public seemed bitten with what was called practical physiology1' many were ready to advocate the performance of all kinds of experiments on living animals by uninstructed students4 ,against this notion we were first to protest1 as being at once cruel and worse than useless2 for an experiment performed by bungling fingers is no experiment at all1 but wanton cruelty4 ,after explaining his position in favour of scientific research1 the editor refers to a recent discussion on vivisection in ,london3 ,dr4 ,walker declared that his desire was not to stop scientific research1 but the abuses which were connected with it4 ,in the first place1 he would not allow vivisection to be practised by incompetent students4 ,this was nothing but wanton and unrighteous cruelty4 ,,therefore ,,he ,,would ,,oblige ,,each ,,vivisector ,,to ,,obtain ,,legal ,,permission ,,from ,,competent ,,authority4 ,another abuse related to operations performed merely to demonstrate physiological phenomena already verified and established4 ,again1 the number of animals vivisected was shamefully high4 ,persons unacquainted with physiological laboratories could form no idea of the lavish way in which animals were made to suffer days and weeks of anguish and acute pain4 ,if the people knew of these sufferings1 they would insist that the number of animals annually vivisected should be limited1 and that no animal rearing its young should be experimented upon4 ,nor should it be allowable to operate on an animal more than once4444 ,lastly1 every licensed vivisector should be obliged to send in an annual return1 showing the number of vivisections performed1 and the scientific results attained1 which would prevent repeated operations with the same object4 ,nothing in any of these proposals1 urged ,dr4 ,walker1 would interfere with the progress of science2 they would simply stop the abuses which existed4#a #a ,medical ,times and ,gazette 7,editorial71 ,june #bg1 #ahgd4 ,in ,january1 #ahge1 we find the ,london ,lancet also suggesting legal supervision and restriction3 ,we are utterly opposed to all repetition of experiments for the purpose of demonstrating established doctrines4444 ,we believe an attempt might be made to institute something in the way of regulation and supervision4 ,,it ,,would ,,not ,,be ,,difficult1 ,,for ,,example1 ,,to ,,impose ,,such ,,restrictions ,,on ,,the ,,practice ,,of ,,these ,,experiments as would effectually guard against their being undertaken by any but skilled persons1 for adequate scientific objects4#b #b ,the ,london ,lancet 7,editorial71 ,january #b1 #ahge4 ,a month later the ,lancet devotes its leading editorial to a discussion of the ethics of vivisection4 ,after criticizing the position taken by the antivivisectionists1 the writer says3 ,on the other side1 the discussion has been conducted as if it concerned physiologists alone1 who were to be a law unto themselves1 and each to do what might seem right in his own eyes2 that the matter was one into which outsiders had no right whatever to intrude2 in fact1 that ,,whatever ,,is1 ,,is ,,right1' and so unquestionably right as to stand in no need of investigation or restriction4 ,we have1 from the first1 striven to take a middle course1 not because it was safe1 but because it seemed to us the sound and true one4 ,without disguising the difficulties1 we have nevertheless expressed our conviction that the subject was one about which it was impossible not to feel a sense of responsibility1 and a desire to ascertain whether the line between necessary and unnecessary could be defined2 and whether any attempt could be made to institute something in the way of regulation1 supervision1 or restriction1 so as to secure that1 while the ends of science were not defeated1 the broad principles of ,humanity and duty to the lower animals were observed4 ,animals have their rights every bit as much as man has his4444 ,admitting the probable necessity of some repetition of experiments in research1 the writer continues3 ,it is for the purposes of instruction1 however1 that it becomes questionable whether and to what extent experiments of this kind should be performed4 ,a chemical lecturer teaches well1 in proportion to the clearness with which he can demonstrate the correctness of his statements by experiment1 and there is no doubt it is the same with a ,lecturer on ,physiology4 ,some persons seem to regard the advance of knowledge as the whole duty of man1 and they would perhaps consider experimentation as justifiable in the one case as in the other4 ,we cannot so regard it1 for the simple and sufficient reason 7as it seems to us7 that the element of ,life and ,sensibility being present in the one case and not in the other1 carries a responsibility with it4 ,we contend that in any case where certain phenomena are known to follow a given experiment1 when the fact has been established by the separate and independent observation of many different persons1 a lecturer is not justified in resorting to it ,,for ,,the ,,purpose ,,of ,,mere ,,demonstration ,,where ,,its ,,performance ,,involves ,,suffering ,,to ,,the ,,animal4#a #a ,the ,london ,lancet1 ,february #f1 #ahge4 ,it is an instructive and interesting fact that one of the first steps toward the legal regulation of vivisection in ,england was taken by scientific men4 ,the ,lancet of ,may #h1 #ahge1 contains the following paragraph3 ,some eminent naturalists and physiologists1 including ,mr4 ,charles ,darwin1 ,professor ,huxley1 ,dr4 ,sharpey1 and others1 have been in communication with ,members of both ,houses of ,parliament to arrange terms of a ,bill which would prevent any unnecessary cruelty or abuse in experiments made on living animals for purposes of scientific discovery4 ,it is understood that these negotiations have been successful1 and that the ,bill is likely to be taken charge of by ,lord ,cardwell in the ,house of ,lords1 and by ,dr4 ,lyon ,playfair in the ,house of ,commons4 ,a week later1 the ,lancet gives an outline of the proposed ,act3 ,the ,bill introduced by ,dr4 ,lyon ,playfair1 ,mr4 ,spencer ,walpole1 and ,mr4 ,evelyn ,ashley1 ,to ,prevent ,abuse and ,cruelty in ,experiments on ,animals1 made for the ,purpose of ,scientific ,discovery1' has been printed4 ,it proposes to enact that painful experiments on living animals for scientific purposes shall be permissible on the following conditions3 ,that the animal shall first have been made insensible by the administration of anaesthetics or otherwise1 during the whole course of such experiment2 and that if the nature of the experiment be such as to seriously injure the animal1 so as to cause it after-suffering1 the animal shall be killed immediately on the termination of the experiment4 ,experiments without the use of anaesthetics are also to be permissible provided the following conditions are complied with3 ,that the experiment is made for the purpose of new scientific discovery and for no other purpose2 and that insensibility cannot be produced without necessarily frustrating the object of the experiment2 and that the animal should not be subject to any pain which is not necessary for the purpose of the experiment2 and that the experiment be brought to an end as soon as practicable2 and that if the nature of the experiment be such as to seriously injure the animal so as to cause it after-suffering1 the animal shall be killed immediately on the termination of the experiment4 ,that a register of all experiments made without the use of anaesthetics shall be duly kept1 and be returned in such form and at such times as one of ,her ,majesty's principal ,secretaries of ,state may direct4 ,the ,secretary of ,state is to be empowered to grant licences to persons provided with certificates signed by at least one of the following persons3 the ,president of the ,royal ,society1 the ,president of the ,royal ,college of ,surgeons or of the ,college of ,physicians in ,london1 ,edinburgh1 or ,dublin2 and also by a recognized ,professor of ,physiology1 ,medicine1 or ,anatomy4'#a #a ,lancet1 ,may #ae1 #ahge4 ,the ,bill1 though introduced in ,parliament1 was not pressed4 ,another and more stringent measure for the regulation of vivisection had been introduced a few days earlier through the efforts of ,miss ,frances ,power ,cobbe and the ,earl of ,shaftesbury4 ,in the conflict of opposing statements and opinions1 the ,government wisely concluded that more light on the subject was necessary1 and a ,royal ,commission was appointed to investigate and report4 ,but if the ,continental party was to conquer in ,england1 its members undoubtedly felt that it must be through audacity quite as much by silence and secrecy4 ,at the annual meeting of the ,british ,medical ,association1 therefore1 ,professor ,william ,rutherford delivered an address1 wherein for the second time an ,english physiologist openly advocated the vivisection of animals as a method of teaching well- known facts4 ,commenting upon this address1 the editor of the ,lancet remarks3 ,we confess that we think ,dr4 ,rutherford presses his principle too far when he argues that1 teaching by demonstration being the most successful method1 we are thereby always warranted in having recourse to it4 ,physiology and chemistry are both experimental sciences4 ,the chemical lecturer can have no hesitation in employing any number of experiments1 or repeating them indefinitely to illustrate every step he takes2 but we may fairly assume that the physiologist would be restrained by the thought that the materials with which he has to deal are not so much inert1 lifeless matter1 but sentient1 living things4 ,we hold1 therefore1 that it would be both unnecessary and cruel to demonstrate every physiological truth by experiment1 or to repeat indefinitely the same experiment1 simply because by such demonstrations the lecturer could make his teaching more definite1 precise1 and valuable4#a #a ,the ,london ,lancet1 7,editorial7 ,august #ba1 #ahge4 ,again1 somewhat later the same journal brings into prominence one of the greatest difficulties attending all discussion of vivisection--the lack of agreement upon the meaning of words3 ,it is extremely difficult to get at the exact meaning of the terms used4 ,the physiologist would be ready to declare his utter abhorrence of all cruelty1' ,,but ,,then ,,he ,,would ,,have ,,his ,,own ,,definition ,,of ,,the ,,word4 ,we hope ,sir ,william ,thompson was not justified in stating that revolting cruelties are sometimes practised in this country1 in the name of vivisection1 although we may concur with him in reprehending the performance of experiments on animals in illustration of truths already ascertained4444 ,when the ,cardinal 7,manning7 laid it down as the expression of a great moral obligation that we had no right to inflict ,,needless pain1 he begged the whole question4 ,by all means lay down and enforce any restriction that will prevent the infliction of ,,needless pain4#a #a ,the ,london ,lancet 7,editorial71 ,march #be1 #ahgf4 ,we see how valueless1 therefore1 is the assertion so frequently made in this country that no ,,needless pain is ever inflicted4 ,the physiologist has his own interpretation of the word4 ,the testimony given before the ,royal ,commission was of utmost value4 ,leading members of the medical profession1 such as ,sir ,thomas ,watson1 physician to the ,queen1 and ,sir ,william ,fergusson1 surgeon to the ,queen1 gave evidence against the unrestricted practice of animal experimentation4 ,physiologists after the ,continental school stated their side of the controversy1 usually with significant caution2 but one of them1 ,dr4 ,emanuel ,klein1 with an honest frankness of confession that astounded his friends1 made himself for ever famous in the history of the vivisection controversy4 ,it is hardly accurate to say that no cruelty was uncovered by the ,royal ,commission4 ,everything depends on the meaning of words1 but the evidence of one of the most noted of ,english physiologists as to his own personal practices in vivisection was quite sufficient to justify the legislation that ensued4 ,how seriously this evidence was regarded at the time is clearly shown in an extract from a confidential letter of ,professor ,huxley to ,mr4 ,darwin1 dated ,october #cj1 #ahge3 ,this ,commission is playing the deuce with me4 ,i have felt it my duty to act as counsel for ,science1 and was well satisfied with the way things are going4 ,but on ,thursday1 when ,i was absent1 --- was examined2 and if what ,i hear is a correct account of the evidence he gave1 ,i might as well throw up my brief4 ,i am told he openly professed the most entire indifference to animal suffering1 and he only gave anaesthetics to keep the animals quiet6 ,i declare to you1 ,i did not believe the man lived who was such an unmitigated1 cynical brute as to profess and act upon such principles1 and ,i would willingly agree to any law that would send him to the treadmill4 ,the impression his evidence made on ,cardwell and ,foster is profound1 and ,i am powerless 7even if ,i desire1 which ,i have not7 to combat it4#a #a ,huxley's ,life and ,letters1 vol i41 p4 #dgc4 ,this characterization seems by no means fair1 and probably it would have been so regarded by the writer in calmer moments4 ,is indignation chiefly directed to the indifference to animal suffering1 or to the ,,open ,,profession of the feeling8 ,for men1 perfectly familiar with ,continental indifference1 to condemn with holy horror a young physiologist because he openly professes the generally prevalent sentiment of his class1 is very suggestive4 ,the result of the ,commission's report was the introduction by the ,government of a ,bill placing animal experimentation in ,greta ,britain under legal supervision and control4 ,as first drawn up1 it appears to have been regarded by the medical profession as unduly stringent and unfair4 ,protests were made1 amendments of certain of its provisions were requested1 concessions were granted1 and at the close of the ,parliamentary session1 ,august #ae1 #ahgf1 the practice of vivisection1 like the study of human anatomy by dissection1 came under the supervision of ,english law4 ,it is curious to observe how those who had vehemently opposed the ,act were able to approve it when once the law was in operation1 and criticism could no longer serve any purpose of delay4 ,the ,british ,medical ,journal of ,august #ai1 #ahgf1 announcing to its readers the passage of the ,bill1 says3 ,taking the measure altogether1 we think the profession may be congratulated on its having passed4444 ,so far1 the ,act facilitates the prosecution of science by competent persons1 while it protects animals from the cruelty which might be inflicted by ignorant and unskilful hands4 ,,the ,,act ,,is ,a ,,great ,,step ,,in ,,advance ,,toward ,,promoting ,,kindness ,,to ,,animals ,,generally4444 ,the ,medical ,times and ,gazette also regained its equanimity1 and an editorial referring to the ,act admits that the profession may regard it without much dissatisfaction4#a ,there are even advantages to be discerned3 ,it gives scientific inquirers the protection of the law2 it protects animals from cruelties which might be inflicted by unscientific and unskilled persons1 and it satisfies to a great extent a demand made by a hypersensitive 444 portion of the public4 #a ,december #cj1 #ahgf4 ,nor did further experience with the working of the ,act appear greatly to disturb this favourable impression4 ,for instance1 after the law had been in operation nearly three years1 the ,london ,lancet in its issue of ,july #ai1 #ahgi1 editorially remarked3 ,there is no reason to regret the ,act of #ahgf which limits vivisection1 except on the ground that it places the interests of science at the arbitration of a lay authority4444 ,,meanwhile1 ,,the ,,act ,,works ,,well1 ,,and ,,fulfills ,,its ,,purpose4 ,there can be no doubt1 however1 that the law has always been regarded with marked disfavour by the extreme vivisectionists of ,great ,britain4 ,they had planned1 as we can see1 to introduce in the ,united ,kingdom the freedom of vivisection which obtained on the ,continent4 ,they had failed1 and instead of liberty to imitate ,be'rnard1 ,magendie1 and ,brown-,se'quard1 they saw between them and the absolute power they had craved and dreamed of obtaining1 the majesty of ,english law4 ,among ,american representatives of the same school--the strenuous opponents of all legal supervision--it has been the fashion on every possible occasion to cast discredit upon this ,act4 ,for obvious reasons they have sought to represent it to the ,american public as having proven a serious detriment to medical science and an obstruction to medical advancement4 ,the idea is absurd4 ,english physicians and surgeons are as well educated and equipped in every respect as are the graduates of ,american schools4 ,the complete refutation of all such misstatements regarding the effect of the ,english law will be found elsewhere4 ,the ,act is far from being an ideal law--it is capable of amendment in many respects--but it is an evidence of the acceptance by the ,english people of the principle of ,state regulation1 and of their wish that between the will of the vivisector and the irresponsible and unlimited torment of the victim1 there hall be some power capable1 if it so desires1 of making effective intervention4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,great ,,protestant ,,against ,,vivisection ,,cruelty ,among the critics of unlimited vivisection one ,american name of the present century stands pre-eminently above all others1 not only for emphasis of denunciation1 for vigour of condemnation1 for clear distinctions between right and wrong1 but also for the distinguished position which the writer held4 ,forty years ago in the medical profession of the ,united ,states no name stood higher than that of ,dr4 ,henry ,j4 ,bigelow1 the professor of surgery in ,harvard ,university4 ,to estimate the value of his criticism it is necessary to outline his career4 ,he was born in ,boston1 ,march #aa1 #ahah1 his father being ,dr4 ,jacob ,bigelow1 one of the leading physicians of his day4 ,after completing his medical education in ,america1 young ,bigelow went abroad1 and spent nearly three years studying in the great hospitals of ,paris4 ,it was at a period when the cruel vivisections of ,magendie and his contemporaries had become the scandal of civilization1 and there can be no doubt that ,dr4 ,bigelow witnessed every phase of vivisection that his sensibilities permitted him to observe4 ,returning to ,boston in #ahdd1 the young surgeon rapidly attained a prominent position4 ,in ,january1 #ahdf1 before he had completed his twenty-eighth year1 he was appointed visiting surgeon of the ,massachusetts ,general ,hospital4 ,here on ,november #g1 #ahdf1 there occurred one of the greatest historic events--the first surgical operation in which insensibility to pain was secured by the inhalation of ether4 ,dr4 ,bigelow's enthusiasm for the new discovery was very great1 and it has been said that to him the world was indebted for the introduction of anaesthesia in surgery at the exact time in which it occurred4 ,dr4 ,bigelow was surgeon to the ,massachusetts ,general ,hospital from #ahdf to #ahhf--;a period of forty years4 ,he was professor of surgery in ,harvard ,university from #ahdi to #ahhb1 or a third of a century4 ,when he resigned the latter position1 ,president ,eliot in his annual report referred to him as a discoverer and inventor of world-wide reputation1 a brilliant surgical operator1 a natural leader of men4 ,the faculty of ,harvard ,medical ,school also spoke of him as one who had done so much to render this school conspicuous and to make ,american surgery illustrious throughout the world4 ,this is high praise4 ,let it be remembered in reading his opinions concerning vivisection4 ,an abhorrence of pain was a marked trait in ,dr4 ,bigelow's character4 ,even to the infliction of necessary suffering he had an extreme dislike4 ,his gentleness to animals was akin to his tenderness for children4 ,he had a great respect for their intelligence1 their affection1 their confidence in mankind4 ,toward the close of life he had among his pets a number of the little animals most closely related to human beings1 and therefore the most-prized material of the vivisector4 ,but such was ,dr4 ,bigelow's sympathy with his little friends that he disliked to take visitors into their presence1 and when he did1 always cautioned them to assume a smiling face4 ,he was unwilling to give his pets even the mental suffering of anxiety or fear4 ,he died ,october #cj1 #ahij1 at the ripe age of seventy-two4 ,it was ,dr4 ,oliver ,wendell ,holmes1 himself illustrious in science and in literature1 who referred to the name of ,dr4 ,henry ,j4 ,bigelow as one of the brightest in the annals of ,american surgery1 not to claim for it ,a ,,still ,,higher ,,place ,,in ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,healing ,,art4 ,such a tribute was well deserved4 ,his was the most eminent name in the annals of ,american surgery4 ,it was from this man1 occupying such a position in the medical profession1 that we have one of the strongest protests1 one of the clearest1 most discriminating1 and emphatic criticisms of unregulated and unrestricted vivisection that the world has known4 ,it is particularly valuable1 because ,dr4 ,bigelow was never an antivivisectionist1 if by that term we mean one who is opposed to all experiments upon animals4 ,but there are things done in the name of ,science which he utterly repudiated and condemned as cruelty1 and against which he made a protest that should never be forgotten until the evil shall be condemned by the universal judgment of mankind4 ,it is probable that ,dr4 ,bigelow's first protest against the abuses of vivisection was in course of an address delivered before the ,massachusetts ,medical ,society in #ahga4 ,it is not difficult1 perhaps1 to detect the reason for its utterance4 ,dr4 ,h4 ,p4 ,bowditch1 for very many years afterward the professor of physiology in ,harvard ,medical ,school1 graduated in #ahfh from that institution1 and went abroad to study physiology in ,europe4 ,there he remained about three years1 and on his return in #ahga he was given the opportunity of introducing laboratory methods and all the newer processes of experimentation into ,harvard ,medical ,school4 ,now1 the address from which the following extracts are taken was delivered on ,may #g1 #ahga4 ,perhaps the inference is not an unreasonable one that ,dr4 ,bigelow was here protesting1 and protesting in vain1 against the introduction in ,america of those methods of vivisection which he always regarded with abhorrence and detestation4 ,in this address he says3 ,the teacher of the art of healing has no more right to employ the time of the ignorant student disproportionately in the pleasant and seductive paths of laboratory experimentation--because some of these may one day lead to pathology or therapeutics--than a guardian has to invest the money of his ward in stocks or securities of equally uncertain prospective value to him4 ,how few facts of immediate considerable value to our race have of late years been extorted from the dreadful sufferings of dumb animals1 the cold-blooded cruelties now more and more practised under the authority of science6 ,the horrors of vivisection have supplanted the solemnity1 the thrilling fascination of the old unetherized operation upon the human sufferer4 ,their recorded phenomena1 stored away by the physiological inquisitor on dusty shelves1 are mostly of as little present value to man as the knowledge of a new comet or of a tungstate of zirconium1 perhaps to be confuted the next year1 perhaps to remain a fixed truth of immediate value1-- 444 ,,contemptibly ,,small ,,compared ,,with ,,the ,,price ,,paid ,,for ,,it ,,in ,,agony ,,and ,,torture4 ,for every inch cut by one of these experimenters in the quivering tissues of the helpless dog or rabbit or guinea-pig1 let him insert a lancet one-eighth of an inch into his own skin1 and for every inch more he cuts let him advance the lancet another one-eight of an inch2 and whenever he seizes1 with ragged forceps1 a nerve or spinal marrow1 the seat of all that is concentrated and exquisite in agony1 or literally tears out nerves by their roots1 let him cut only one-eight of an inch farther--and he may have some faint suggestion of the atrocity he is perpetrating when the guinea-pig shrieks1 the poor dog yells1 the noble horse groans and strains--the heartless vivisector perhaps resenting the struggle which annoys him4 ,my heart sickens as ,i recall the spectacle at ,alfort in former times1 of a wretched horse--one of many hundreds1 broken with age and disease resulting from life-long and honest devotion to man's service--bound upon the floor1 his skin scored with a knife like a gridiron1 his eyes and ears cut out1 his arteries laid bare1 his nerves exposed and pinched and severed1 his hoofs pared to the quick1 and every conceivable and fiendish torture inflicted upon him1 while he groaned and gasped1 his life carefully preserved under this continued and hellish torment from early morning until afternoon1 for the purpose1 as was avowed1 of familiarizing the pupil with the frenzied motions of the animal4 ,this was surgical vivisection on a little larger scale1 ,,and ,,transcended ,,but ,,little ,,the ,,scenes ,,in ,a ,,physiological ,,laboratory4 ,i have heard it said that somebody must do it4 ,i say it is needless4 ,,nobody ,,should ,,do ,,it4 ,,watch ,,the ,,students ,,at ,a ,,vivisection2 ,,it ,,is ,,the ,,blood ,,and ,,suffering1 not the science1 that rivet their breathless attention4 ,if hospital service makes young students less tender of suffering1 vivisection deadens their humanity1 and begets indifference to it4 ,let us pause for a moment4 ,these are words of great import4 ,they are as true to-day as when first uttered4 ,who was the speaker8 ,the most eminent surgeon in ,america in his day4 ,he was professor of surgery in ,harvard ,university1 and the leading member of its faculty4 ,he was the surgeon of the ,massachusetts ,general ,hospital4 ,he had seen the first surgical operation under complete anaesthesia that the world had known4 ,learned societies in ,paris1 in ,london1 in other countries of ,europe1 were proud to number him among their members4 ,he had reached the age of assured eminence1 where all fear of opposing influences that might disastrously affect the medical career of a younger man1 had no weight4 ,surely1 if any living man can speak with authority1 he speaks now4 ,and before whom does he speak8 ,he is not addressing a general audience4 ,it is a meeting of the ,massachusetts ,medical ,society1 an association of the physicians and surgeons of that ,commonwealth4 ,some of them had also seen vivisection as practised in ,paris and ,leipsic4 ,here was a man at the head of their profession protesting against the introduction of the vivisection laboratory system in his own country4 ,he insists over and over again that we cannot tell the degree of agony inflicted by experiments upon the nervous system1 nor measure its intensity3 ,who can say whether a guinea-pig1 the pinching of whose carefully sensitized neck throws him into convulsions1 attains this blessed momentary respite of insensibility by an unexplained special machinery of the nervous currents1 ,,or ,a ,,sensibility ,,too ,,exquisitely ,,acute ,,for ,,animal ,,endurance8 ,better that ,i or my friend should die than protract existence through accumulated years of torture upon animals whose exquisite suffering we cannot fail to infer1 even though they may have neither voice nor feature to express it4 ,it is not the fact of suffering1 but the useless waste of suffering that chiefly repels him3 ,if a skilfully constructed hypothesis could be elaborated up to the point of experimental test by the most accomplished and successful philosopher1 and if then a single experiment1 though cruel1 would forever settle it1 we might reluctantly admit that it was justified4 ,but the instincts of our common humanity indignantly remonstrate against the testing of clumsy or unimportant hypotheses by prodigal experimentation1 or ,,making ,,the ,,torture ,,of ,,animals ,,an ,,exhibition ,,to ,,enlarge ,a ,,medical ,,school1 or for the entertainment of students--not one in fifty of whom can turn it to any profitable account4 ,the limit of such physiological experiment1 in its utmost latitude1 should be to establish truth in the hands of a skilful experimenter1 and not to demonstrate it to ignorant classes and encourage them to repeat it4 ,one cannot but remark the clear distinction of views which these words indicate4 ,no antivivisectionist would accept the suggestion of a single experiment4 ,dr4 ,bigelow is speaking as a restrictionist against the free and unlimited vivisection which he rightly foresaw was about to be introduced into this country1 and which has become the practice of the present day4 ,he realizes that if once the laboratory system gains a foothold in his own college1 the system will spread throughout ,america3 ,the reaction which follows every excess will in time bear indignantly upon this4 ,until then it is dreadful to think how many poor animals will be subjected to excruciating agony as one medical college after another becomes penetrated with the idea that vivisection is a part of modern teaching1 and that1 to hold way with other institutions1 they1 too1 must have their vivisector1 their mutilated dogs1 their guinea- pigs1 their rabbits1 their chamber of torture and of horrors1 to advertise as a laboratory4 ,nor this the only expression of ,dr4 ,bigelow's opinions4 ,in his work on ,surgical ,anaesthesia1 he left on record an even stronger condemnation of the abuses of vivisection and the cruelties which pertain to it4 ,as he quotes from ,stanley's ,in ,darkest ,africa1 which was published in #ahij1 it is evident that it represents his mature and settled judgment1 down to the very close of his long and distinguished career4 ,in this work he says3 ,there can be no question that the discussion of vivisection arouses antagonistic human instincts4 ,it is no common subject which enlists such earnest and opposite opinions4 ,that there is something wrong about it is evident from the way in which the reputation of inflicting its torture is disclaimed4 ,that for some reason it is a fascinating pursuit is equally evident from the bitter contest made for the right to practise it4 ,there is little in the literature of what is called the horrors of vivisection' which is not well grounded on truth4 ,for a description of the pain inflicted1 ,i refer to that literature1 only reiterating that what it recounts is largely and simply fact1 selected1 it may be1 but rarely exaggerated4 ,vivisection is not an innocent study4 ,we may usefully popularize chemistry and electricity1 their teaching and their experimentation1 even if only as one way of cultivating human powers4 ,but not so with painful vivisection4 ,we may not move as freely in this direction1 for there are distinct reasons against it4 ,it can be indiscriminately pursued only by torturing animals2 and the word torture' is here intentionally used to convey the idea of very severe pain--sometimes the severest conceivable pain1 of indefinite duration1 often terminating1 fortunately for the animal1 with its life1 but as often only after hours or days of refined infliction1 continuously or at intervals4 ,it is here that ,dr4 ,bigelow differs radically from the advocates of free vivisection4 ,to them there appears no reason why the science of physiology should not move as freely in experimentation as the sciences pertaining to any other subject4 ,the closed laboratory evinces the desire and intention to move freely1 without criticism or restraint4 ,no physician in ,america of ,dr4 ,bigelow's eminence has ever stated so distinctly the fact of torment in vivisection1 and the reasons for its condemnation3 ,a man about to be burned under a railroad car begs somebody to kill him2 the ,hindoo suttee has been abolished for its inhumanity2 and yet it is a statement to be taken literally that a brief death by burning would be considered a happy release by a human being undergoing the experience of some of the animals who slowly die in a laboratory4 ,scientific vivisection has all the engrossing fascination of other physical sciences1 ,,but ,,the ,,transcendent ,,torture ,,sometimes ,,inflicted ,,has ,,no ,,parallel ,,in ,,any ,,of ,,them4 ,as to its extent1 we read that in course of ten years seventeen thousand dogs were dissected alive in one laboratory4 ,why1 then1 does not a universal protest arise against such infamous cruelty8 ,on this point ,dr4 ,bigelow is very frank4 ,it is because of the confidence which the general public places in the average scientist4 ,is he deserving of that implicit faith8 ,dr4 ,bigelow does not think so4 ,he says3 ,the difficulty is that the community1 for want of time or opportunity themselves to investigate the subject1 ,,are ,,willing ,,to ,,rely ,,upon ,,the ,,discretion ,,of ,,scientific ,,men4 ,this is an error4444 ,a recent distinguished writer1 a good judge of men1 makes the following observation3 ,who can say why the votaries of science1 though eminently kind in their social relations1 are so angular of character8 ,in my analysis of the scientific nature1 ,i am constrained to associate with it 7as compared with that of men who are more ,christians than scientists7 ,a ,,certain ,,hardness1 ,,or ,,rather ,,indelicacy ,,of ,,feeling4 ,they strike me as being 444 coolly indifferent to the warmer human feelings4'#a #a ,sir ,henry ,m4 ,stanley1 ,in ,darkest ,africa4 ,it should not for a moment be supposed that cultivation of the intellect leads a man to shrink from inflicting pain4 ,many educated men are no more humane--are1 in fact1 far less so--than many comparatively uneducated people4444 ,the more eminent the vivisectionist1 the more indifferent he usually is to inflicting pain2 however cultivated his intellect1 he is sometimes absolutely indifferent to it4444 ,but in order to oppose vivisection to best advantage1 and especially lest he should place himself in a false position1 the anti- vivisectionist should bear clearly in mind that what he opposes is ,,painful vivisection only4 ,for there have been wholly painless experiments upon living animals which have led to useful results4 ,some of the greatest discoveries in medical science were made with no pain whatever4444 ,and yet they have been often and sophistically cited by the vivisector as plausible arguments for inflicting both excessive and useless pain4 ,the fact that a few able men have made discoveries by certain painless experiments upon animals is used to justify the demonstration of torture to medical students 7to whom it is as profitless as any medical information can be71 and its practice by them4 ,the discovery of anaesthesia has been time and again quoted in favour of vivisection4 ,,this ,,is ,,simply ,,preposterous4 ,in making that discovery1 the experiments from the beginning were painless1 and were therefore wholly unobjectionable--as ,i happen to know1 having seen the first of them4 ,the same is true of ,jenner's vaccination1 which was a wholly painless discovery4 ,little pain was involved in all that was needed to discover the circulation of the blood1 which was inferred from the valvular construction of the veins1 and then easily substantiated4444 ,the greatest prizes in the lottery of physiological and pathological discovery have involved little or no pain4 ,but the usual and staple work of a so-called laboratory of vivisection1 physiology or pathology1' for the education and practice of medical students in the unrestricted cutting of living animals1 and for the indiscriminate and endless repetition of experiments already tried1 where a live dog can be bought and its living nerves dissected1 444 all this is a very different affair4 ,a distinguished vivisector once remarked3 ,to us1 pain is nothing4' ,when it is remembered that this pain may be1 and sometimes intentionally is1 of the most excruciating nature possible for human science to invent1 and that in a large majority of instances it is to little or no purpose1 the remark of this vivisector covers the objectionable ground4 ,in view of the foregoing quotations1 it would appear almost impossible for ,dr4 ,bigelow's position to be misrepresented or misunderstood4 ,he cannot be regarded as an antivivisectionist1 for he repeatedly states that to painless experiments upon animals no objection exists4 ,but of the reality of the torment1 and of the blunted sensibility of the professional tormenter1 he seems to have no doubt4 ,how may reform be promoted8 ,by legal supervision and regulation4 ,a few further extracts from ,dr4 ,bigelow's writings will bring these points into prominence3 ,there can be no question that the practice of vivisection ,,hardens ,,the ,,sensibility ,,of ,,the ,,operator1 and begets indifference to the infliction of pain1 as well as great carelessness in judging of its severity4 ,indeed1 vivisection will always be the better for vigilant supervision1 and for whatever outside pressure can be brought to bear against it4 ,such pressure will never be too great1 nor will it retard progress a hair's-breadth in the hands of that very limited class who are likely materially to advance knowledge by its practice4 ,the ground for public supervision is that vivisection1 immeasurably beyond any other pursuit1 involves the infliction of torture to little or no purpose4 ,motive apart1 painful vivisection differs from that usual cruelty of which the law takes absolute cognizance mainly in being practised by an educated class1 who having once become callous to its objectionable features1 find its pursuit an interesting occupation under the name of science4 ,in short1 though vivisection1 like slavery1 may embrace within its practice what is unobjectionable1 what is useful1 what is humane1 and even what is commendable1 it may also cover what is nothing less than hideous4 ,i use this word in no sensational sense1 and appeal to those who are familiar with some of the work in laboratories and out of them to endorse it as appropriate in this connection4444 ,but burning was useless1 while vivisection is profitable4' ,here we reach the kernel of the argument of the pain-inflicting vivisector4 ,the reply is that by far the larger part of vivisection is as useless as was an auto da fe'4 ,it does not lead to discovery4 ,the character of the minds of most of those who usually practise it makes this hardly a possibility4 ,real discoverers are of a different texture of mind1 which you cannot create by schools2 nor can you retard their progress by restrictions1 put on all you may4 ,but restrictions will and should cut off ,,the ,,horde ,,of ,,dull ,,torturers ,,who ,,follow ,,in ,,the ,,wake ,,of ,,the ,,discoverer1 actuated by a dozen different motives1 from a desire for research down to the wish to gratify a teacher or to comply with a school requisition4 ,how carefully and how clearly the writer has phrased his distinctions between what in vivisection is right and wrong6 ,in all the literature of advocacy for free and unrestricted vivisection can we find anything resembling it8 ,certainly1 ,i know no writer favourable to unlimited experimentation who has been equally fair4 ,one surgical vivisectionist is fond of dividing the class interested in discussion of vivisection as ,friends of ,research1 and ,foes of ,research1 ascribing to the first all the virtues of good sense1 and to the latter all the folly that belongs to ignorance4 ,in which class1 we may well wonder1 would he place the first ,american surgeon of his time because he objected only to cruelty and abuse8 ,to ,dr4 ,bigelow the legal supervision of the laboratory seemed the one practical method by which cruelty might be somewhat restrained1 because in this way he believed the public would obtain some knowledge of the practice which is now withheld4 ,he says3 ,in order that painful vivisection may be as nearly as possible suppressed1 not only by public opinion1 but by law1 ,,it ,,is ,,essential ,,that ,,public ,,opinion ,,should ,,be ,,frequently ,,informed ,,of ,,what ,,it ,,is ,,and ,,may ,,be4 ,here lies the work of the antivivisectionist4 ,further1 every laboratory ought to be open to some supervising legal authority competent to determine that it is conducted from roof to cellar on the humanest principles1 in default of which it should be1 as slavery has been1 uncompromisingly prohibited wherever law can accomplish this result4 ,is the cruelty of unrestricted and unregulated vivisection a reality or a myth8 ,of his own views on this question we can have no doubt4 ,he says3 ,a ,,torture ,,of ,,helpless ,,animals--,,more ,,terrible ,,by ,,reason ,,of ,,its ,,refinement ,,and ,,the ,,effort ,,to ,,prolong ,,it ,,than ,,burning ,,at ,,the ,,stake1 ,,which ,,is ,,brief--,,is ,,now ,,being ,,carried ,,on ,,in ,,all ,,civilized ,,nations1 ,,not ,,in ,,the ,,name ,,of ,,religion1 ,,but ,,of ,,science4 ------------------- ,the law should interfere4 ,there can be no doubt that in this relation there exists a case of cruelty to animals far transcending in its refinement and in its horror anything that has been known in the history of ,nations4 ,there will come a time when the world will look back to modern vivisection in the name of ,science1 as they do now to burning at the stake in the name of ,religion4 ,concerning vivisection1 then1 the views of one of the most eminent surgeons that ,america has produced may be summed up as follows3 ,,first4 ,he is not favourable to antivivisection1 but to restriction4 ,there is no objection to vivisection except the physical pain4 ,,second4 ,the cruelties which pertain to certain vivisections and vivisectors are not myth1 but realities4 ,for a description of these cruelties1 ,dr4 ,bigelow expressly refers to the literature of protest4 ,,third4 ,in defence of vivisection or of unrestricted experimentation1 he says that ,,untruthful ,,claims ,,of ,,utility have been made4 ,,fourth4 ,the reasons for inflicting prolonged torment upon animals are wholly inadequate for its justification4 ,,fifth4 ,vivisection has a hardening tendency upon its practitioners4 ,the more eminent the vivisector1 the more indifferent he may become to the infliction of torment4 ,,sixth4 ,there is ample reason for the interference of the law4 ,every laboratory should be legally supervised4 ,public opinion should be frequently informed concerning vivisection1 its objects1 and its methods4 ,i have presented these opinions at length because they represent exactly the position which ,i have personally maintained for over thirty years4 ,and if the time shall come1 foreseen by him1 when the world will look back to modern vivisection in the name of ,science1 as we now do to burning at the stake in the name of ,religion1 then1 surely1 it will be remembered that the first strong voice in ,america raised1 not in condemnation of all experimentation upon animals1 but solely in protest against its cruelty and secrecy1 and in appeal for its reform1 was that of the leading ,american surgeon of his time1 ,professor ,henry ,j4 ,bigelow of ,harvard ,university4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,report ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,commission ,,on ,,vivisection ,in the year #aijf1 a ,royal ,commission was appointed by ,king ,edward to investigate the practice of animal experimentation4 ,thirty years had passed since the appearance of the earlier inquiry1 upon which was based the ,english law regulating the practice of such experiments4 ,on the one hand1 it had been denounced as affording most inadequate protection to animals liable to such exploitation2 on the other hand1 in the ,united ,states it had been condemned as a hindrance to scientific progress1 and a warning against any similar legislation4 ,a new ,commission was therefore appointed to inquire into the practice1 to take evidence1 and to report what changes1 if any1 in the existing statute might seem advisable4 ,the composition of the new ,commission leaned heavily toward the laboratory4 ,it included no opponent to all vivisection4 ,on the other hand1 three of the ,commissioners at one time or another had held a licence to vivisect1 and one of them seems to have held this permission for some fourteen years4 ,the ,commission also included among its members the permanent ,under-,secretary to the ,government--an official whose acts had again and again been arraigned1 and were soon to be challenged once more4 ,the unusual spectacle was therefore to be presented of men sitting in judgment upon themselves4 ,one of the ,commissioners--,dr4 ,george ,wilson1 well known for his work regarding the public health--had at various times questioned the conclusions of certain experimenters1 but he was not opposed to all research upon animal life4 ,from a ,commission so constituted1 we might have expected as the final result of their labours a report favourable to the interests of the laboratory1 to marked modifications of the existing law by a lessened stringency of inspection1 to relaxation of restrictions1 and to an endorsement of every claim of utility which the experimenters should put forth4 ,such an outcome of the deliberations of the ,royal ,commission must have seemed to ,american vivisectors almost a certainty4 ,during the past twenty years1 repeated attempts have been made in ,new ,york1 in ,massachusetts1 in ,pennsylvania1 and in the city of ,washington1 to obtain some legislation regulating the practice of animal experimentation to the extent which obtains in ,england4 ,at hearings before various legislative and ,senate ,committees1 all such attempts have been vigorously combated by representatives and defenders of the physiological laboratories1 and their strongest argument has always been the exceedingly detrimental effect of the ,english ,act of #ahgf both upon medical education and upon the progress of medical science4 ,professor ,bowditch once said3 ,the amount of mischief which may be produced by the ,english law depends very much on the good judgment of the ,home ,secretary4444 ,in general1 it may be said that the system of licensing and ,government inspection is ,,under ,,the ,,most ,,favourable ,,conditions a source of serious annoyance to investigation4 ,we shall have reason hereafter to see the inaccuracy of this statement1 so far as may be evinced by the opinions of ,english physiologists and teachers4 ,upon the secrecy now maintained in ,english laboratories1 a vivid light is thrown by the evidence given before the ,commission4 ,quite as strong as in ,america have been the precautions taken in ,england to prevent any knowledge of the methods of vivisection from coming before the general public except through the assertions of the experimenters themselves4 ,in ,america1 where we have no legal limitations to experimentation1 such secrecy occasions no surprise2 but that in ,england the laboratory had secured so complete a degree of security from criticism by concealment of that which we are told needs no concealment gives reason for questionings4 ,one of the ,government inspectors--a ,dr4 ,thane--insists that although a physiological laboratory is open to the visits of medical students at any time1 it would hardly be possible to permit a similar privilege to physicians not in sympathy with experimentation4 ,i see no way of doing it1 he declares4 ,he does not seem to be certain that one of the ,royal ,commissioners before whom he was giving evidence could be admitted4 ,dr4 ,george ,wilson asks him the question in regard to seeing the various operations which are open to medical students4 ,i can go and see them8 ,i suppose ,i would have no difficulty8 ,dr4 ,thane's reply was by no means assuring4 ,i do not see how it could be done1 he replied4 ,he could not see how one of the most distinguished physicians of ,england could secure the legal right of admission to a physiological laboratory6 ,some of the evidence given regarding this point seems a little suggestive of a willingness to mislead a thoughtless questioner4 ,was there any wish to give an impression that the secrecy of the laboratory did not exist8 ,one of the ,government inspectors--,sir ,james ,russell--informed the ,commissioners that ,,he never had any difficulty in getting into laboratories4 ,i simply walk into them1 and have always found the doors open1 as if that proved that there was nothing to be concealed4 ,the professor of physiology at ,university ,college was particularly examined on this point4 ,would there be any difficulty in a doctor who was very strongly opposed on all grounds to experiments on animals presenting his card and being present8 ,none whatsoever1 was the ,professor's answer to his questioner1 the ,chairman of the ,commission4 ,i want to see1 added ,lord ,selby1 what sort of check there is upon the neglect of the statute2 444 whether any medical man who disagreed with the ,act and disagreed with vivisection altogether would be able to attend8 ,in these advanced lectures there is no means by which we can prevent him from attending1 was the instant reply4 ,in point of fact1 are ,,any steps taken with a view of preventing it8 ,none whatever1 was the reply4 ,there is ,,nothing to prevent it8 persisted ,lord ,selby2 and the reply of the professor was reiterated3 ,there is nothing to prevent the attendance of any medical man at these advanced lectures4 ,the distinguished jurist undoubtedly believed that by these repeated interrogations he had reached a complete denial of the secrecy of experimentation so far as the witness was concerned4 ,on the day following1 the same professor of physiology continued his evidence1 and another member of the ,commission--,a4 ,j4 ,ram1 ,esq4--one of our counsel learned in the law1 took part in the examination4 ,one hears a good deal in lay papers and so forth about experiments conducted with closed doors4 ,,is ,,there ,,anything ,,of ,,that ,,sort ,,at ,,all8 ,the very form of his inquiry would seem to indicate his disbelief in the practice of secret vivisection4 ,his question1 however1 admitted of two different replies4 ,the physiologist might assert the necessary seclusion of physiological experimentation1 or he might construe the question in a literal sense as pertaining merely to the locking of his inner door4 ,he preferred the latter course4 ,i have ever come across a laboratory where there were any closed doors4 ,in my laboratory any student wanting to speak to me walks straight in4 ,the door of my laboratory1 where ,i do the chief part of my work1 ,,is ,,always ,,open ,,to ,,the ,,passage4 ,this is very clever4 ,the two leading lawyers of the ,commission have sought to get at the truth concerning the secrecy of vivisection1 and apparently are quite satisfied4 ,but some hours later another member of the ,commission1 a plain ,member of ,parliament1 without skill of fence or experience in the examination of witnesses1 asks a question or two4 ,you have told us1 said ,mr4 ,tomkinson1 that any medical man1 on presenting his card1 can obtain admission at once to a laboratory8 ,here was an inquiry that could be answered but in one way4 ,no1 replied the physiologist2 to the advanced physiological lectures which are given in the ,university of ,london4 ,,not ,,to ,,witness ,,any ,,operation8 ,no2 only to witness the demonstrations that are given in those lectures4 ,but might not the public be more satisfied if a layman--a ,member of ,parliament1 for example--had the right of entry on presenting his card8 ,do you mean to the advanced lectures or to the laboratory8 ,i mean to an operation ,,in ,,the ,,laboratory3 say a ,member of ,parliament or anyone whose position is assured8 ,i should be only too pleased to see any ,member of ,parliament or any layman who had any doubt about it if he presented his card1 but ,i ,,should ,,have ,,to ,,be ,,satisfied ,,of ,,his ,,bona ,,fides4 ,it is a pity that no one thought to ask the physiologist how he expected a ,member of ,parliament to prove his good faith before he could enter precincts open to every student of the ,university4 ,sir ,william ,church came to his assistance by suggesting that the professor would admit anyone vouched for by a person whom you know1 or whose position you know2 but the curt monosyllabic reply was not indicative of a welcome1 and it was quite different from the conditions which had just been laid down4 ,the doors of the laboratory are open1 but only to those in whose silence and discretion the vivisector may trust4 ,a considerable amount of testimony was devoted to the alleged painfulness of vivisection4 ,it is the great problem4 ,if the absence of sensation were a certainty in all operations of the kind1 there would be no reasonable objection to them1 no matter to what extent they might be carried4 ,the physiologists of the present day occupy a somewhat different attitude from those of half a century ago1 or of yet later periods4 ,thirty years ago1 one of the leading experimenters in ,england declared that he had no regard at all for the pain inflicted upon a vivisected animal2 that he never used anaesthetics except when necessary for personal convenience2 and that he had no time1 so to speak1 for thinking what the animal will suffer4 ,we find no such profession of indifference in the testimony of modern physiologists4 ,what seems to take its place is1 in many cases1 a denial of the existence of pain in the experimentation of the present day4 ,does anything here turn upon a definition of words8 ,a professor at ,king's ,college1 ,london1 giving his testimony1 affirmed that no student in ,england has ,,ever ,,seen ,,pain in an animal experiment--a statement which in one sense everyone can accept1 for who can say that he ever ,,saw a pain anywhere8 ,professor ,starling1 of the ,university ,college in ,london1 declared that during his seventeen years of experimentation on no occasion ,,have ,i ,,ever ,,seen ,,pain inflicted in any experiment on dog1 cat1 or rabbit in a physiological laboratory in this country4 ,the experimenter is undoubtedly correct4 ,neither he nor anyone else in or out of a laboratory has ever ,,seen ,,pain4 ,some of ,dr4 ,starling's testimony on the subject of pain is very curious4 ,pain1 he tells the ,commissioners1 would spoil the experiment1 and ,a ,,physiological ,,experiment ,,which ,,is ,,painful ,,is ,,thereby ,a ,,bad ,,experiment4 ,he is asked whether there are any operations performed under circumstances in which the animal is necessarily and intentionally sensitive to some pain8 ,without any apparent hesitation he replied3 ,,no1 ,,never4 ,surely this is a remarkable assertion4 ,he is not speaking1 so far as one can see1 of his own laboratory1 but of all the laboratories of the world4 ,if1 since the discovery of anaesthesia over sixty years ago1 there has been painful physiological experimentation in ,england1 in ,america1 or on the ,continent of ,europe1 ,,it ,,has ,,been ,,bad ,,experimentation4 ,,the ,,pain ,,inflicted ,,has ,,spoiled ,,their ,,work4 ,one may not be inclined to dispute this opinion1 and yet be quite certain that some very eminent vivisectors in ,europe and ,america would question its accuracy so far as their own work is concerned4 ,it is interesting to compare these assertions with the testimony given by another physiologist--,dr4 ,pembrey1 the lecturer on physiology at ,guy's ,hospital in ,london4 ,he tells the ,commission that a common- sense view should be taken of the question1 and then makes a definite admission that by no means bears out the contention of the physiologist of ,university ,college4 ,i ,,admit1 said ,dr4 ,pembrey1 ,,that ,i ,,have ,,done ,,painful ,,experiments1 and ,i am not ashamed of admitting it4 ,he goes yet further1 declaring that if you caused an animal to suffer extreme agony1 the pain itself might be so severe as to render the creature unconscious4 ,it is probable that the physiologist could not have foreseen the results of his candid admissions4 ,when the ,commission made their final report1 they expressed unanimously the opinion that to grant a licence to any person holding such views as those formerly expressed by ,dr4 ,klein and as those entertained by ,dr4 ,pembrey is calculated to create serious misgiving in the mind of the public4 ,closely allied to this question is the problem of anaesthesia4 ,fifty years ago ether and chloroform were administered to animals very much as they were given to human beings undergoing operations in surgery4 ,an animal returning to consciousness gave abundant evidence of its sensibility to suffering by its struggles and cries4 ,the experimenter might try to believe that the pain was slight1 but he never disputed its existence4 ,to-day1 all this is changed4 ,as much or as little of the anaesthetic may be given as the vivisector desires1 and yet he may declare that ,,anaesthetics ,,were ,,used1 no matter how slight the degree of sensibility thus induced4 ,it is a known fact that a dog is very susceptible to the action of chloroform1 so that during its administration death frequently occurs4 ,sir ,thornley ,stoker1 the ,president of the ,royal ,academy of ,medicine in ,ireland1 and for many years a teacher of science1 testified before the ,commission that a dog's heart is very weak and irregular1 and susceptible to the poisonous influence of chloroform4 ,over and over again he expresses the doubts that arise concerning the administration of chloroform4 ,i fear that1 particularly in the case of dogs1 ,,anaesthesia ,,is ,,not ,,always ,,pushed ,,to ,a ,,sufficient ,,extent1 as these animals often die from the effects of the anaesthetic if given to a full extent4444 ,i am never sure1 if ,i give a dog chloroform1 that ,i will not kill it4444 ,,the ,,anaesthesia ,,cannot ,,be ,,complete if the dog lives as long as is necessary for some of these experiments4 ,even for one hour he believes it would be generally impossible to keep a dog alive under full anaesthesia4 ,on the other hand1 ,dr4 ,starling declared that there is no difficulty in keeping an animal alive as long as you like1 and ,sir ,victor ,horsley affirmed that one could keep a dog under chloroform ,,for ,a ,,week1 if you only take the trouble4#a #a ,see ,minutes of ,evidence1 ,november #ac1 #aijg1 ,q4 #ae1fdi4 ,the discrepancy here would seem insurmountable4 ,may it not be more in appearance than in reality8 ,one man tells me that arsenic is a poison1 very liable to cause death4 ,another affirms that he has taken it for days in succession1 and has experienced no unpleasant results4 ,both statements can be true1 for they need not refer to the same amount4 ,in the modern laboratory there is little danger that the animals will succumb to the effects of anaesthetic4 ,assuredly we may question the completeness of that insensibility which ,sir ,victor ,horsley apparently declares may be maintained for a week4 ,the use of the substance known as ,,curare1 either alone or in connection with anaesthetics or narcotics1 was naturally a subject of passing inquiry4 ,so slight is the knowledge afforded by certain physiologists that it would almost seem that they were united in a conspiracy of silence regarding it2 in neither of the last two editions of the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica is there more than a casual reference to the poison1 and no reference to its origin4 ,what is it8 asked one of the ,commissioners4 ,is it an herb8 ,a brief account of the poison1 in view of an ignorance so widespread1 is not out of place4 ,curare is the arrow-poison of certain tribes of ,south ,american ,indians4 ,it was first brought to the knowledge of ,europeans by ,sir ,walter ,raleigh on his return from a voyage to ,guiana in #aeie1 over three centuries ago4 ,its actual composition1 even at the present time1 is unknown2 it is probable that different tribes of savages have their special methods of preparing it4 ,some travellers claim that it consists only of a decoction of poisonous plants2 others believe that with such substances are mixed the fangs of snakes1 and certain species of poisonous ants1 the whole compound being boiled down to the consistency of tar4 ,the action of the poison thus made is exceedingly rapid4 ,numerous experiments by different observers have demonstrated that it swiftly destroys the functions of the motor nerves of the body1 leaving the sensory nerves unaffected to any extent4 ,claude ,be'rnard1 who made many experiments with curare1 came to the same conclusion2 it abolishes the power of motion1 but has no effect upon the nerves of sensation4 ,an ,american physiologist1 ,dr4 ,isaac ,ott1 tells us that it is able to render animals immovable by a paralysis of motor nerves 1,,leaving ,,sensory ,,nerves ,,intact4 ,be'rnard asserts as a result of numerous experiments that in an animal poisoned with curare1 its intelligence1 sensibility and will-power are not affected1 but they lose the power of moving2 and that death1 apparently so calm1 is accompanied by sufferings the most atrocious that the human imagination can conceive4 ,although it may seem to be a corpse without movement1 and with every appearance of death1 sensibility and intelligence exist 444 it hears and comprehends whatever goes on1 and feels whatever painful impressions we may inflict4 ,it is only within late years1 and since the employment of curare has been denounced1 that anyone has suggested any doubt of these physiological conclusions4 ,it has been found by physiologists that if the throat of a dog be severed and the windpipe exposed and artificial respiration kept up1 all the functions of life may be greatly prolonged2 and if curare be used1 the creature does not die1 although it feels4 ,supposing that morphia or chloroform be administered at the same time--is the animal1 notwithstanding1 conscious of pain8 ,professor ,starling admitted in his evidence that if the anaesthetic passed off1 the curarized animal would be unable to move or to show any sign of suffering2 there would be no possibility of a dog whining or moaning2 it could not1 under curare1 he frankly admits4 ,dr4 ,thane1 one of the ,government inspectors of laboratories1 gave interesting evidence on this point1 in reply to questions of one of the ,commissioners4 ,what is the object of giving curare when you are going to give an anaesthetic8 ,the object of giving curare is to stop all reflex movements4444 ,it would stop all struggling1 would it not8 ,,it ,,would ,,stop ,,all ,,struggling4 ,that is to say1 it would put an end to the usual signs of the animal not being properly under anaesthesia8 ,that is so4 ,and in that case the experimenter has to depend solely1 not upon the attendant1 but upon the accuracy of his apparatus8 ,he cannot tell from looking at the animal1 which is perfectly still1 whether it is suffering or not8 ,if his apparatus breaks down1 the animal will die of suffocation2 it will not get air4 ,yes1 it may die2 but so long as it is alive1 ,,he could not say1 ,,you could not say1 ,i could not say--if ,i were present--that the animal was properly under anaesthesia1 ,,if ,,there ,,were ,,no ,,signs ,,by ,,which ,,you ,,can ,,tell8 ,we could say the animal is respiring air which is charged with anaesthetic in sufficient quantity to keep it anaesthetized before we gave it curare4 ,that is all you could say8 ,that is all we could say4#a #a ,evidence taken ,november #ba1 #aijf4 ,and this pious opinion ,dr4 ,thane reiterates to other questioners4 ,it fails to satisfy except where faith is strong4 ,the curious thing to me1 said ,dr4 ,george ,wilson1 is that you or anyone else can say positively that an animal which cannot1 by moving1 give any indication that it is not completely anaesthetized during all this time that it is under a terribly severe operation does not suffer4444 ,i cannot understand such a positive statement4 ,and after ,dr4 ,starling had admitted the impossibility of a dog1 under curare1 making any cry1 ,dr4 ,wilson rejoins3 ,,then ,,how ,,can ,,you ,,tell ,,that ,,it ,,suffers ,,no ,,pain8 ,you may hope and believe1 but how can you tell that during a prolonged and terrible experiment1 the animal suffers no pain8 ,the only reply that the experimenter could give was a reiteration of faith in the working of the apparatus4 ,and here1 for the present1 the problem must be left4 ,its only answer is a guess4 ,yet it should be capable of a definite solution4 ,every year1 in our great cities1 it becomes necessary to put homeless dogs out of existence in some merciful way4 ,it should be possible1 by use of chloroform1 to determine which theory is true4 ,if1 under proper circumstances1 a dozen animals were made absolutely unconscious by the use of chloroform1 as insensible as human being are made before a capital operation1 so that the corneal reflex is abolished1 could this degree of unconsciousness be maintained as long as any experimenter desired8 ,would it even be possible as a rule to keep them alive a week1 yet completely anaesthetized8 ,or1 on the contrary1 would such animals be peculiarly liable to sudden death from the effects of the chloroform8 ,one cannot doubt the possibility of laboratory anaesthesia being maintained indefinitely2 but how is it with complex and full surgical anaesthesia8 ,until such appeal to science shall have been made in the presence of those who doubt1 and are able to judge1 the question cannot be regarded as settled4 ,there are those who will believe that the older investigators were right2 that the perfect insensibility to pain is not invariably attained in these cases2 and that both in ,english and ,american laboratories the most hideous torments are sometimes inflicted upon man's most faithful servant and friend4 ,even ,dr4 ,thane1 the ,government inspector1 admitted that in making reports the inspector never could determine which experiments were painless and which were painful4 ,the evidence given by experimenters was frequently very curious1 and sometimes suggestive4 ,professor ,starling1 for example1 testified that dogs exhibited no fright or fear at entering a vivisection chamber2 there are no signs that they have ,,any ,,idea ,,of ,,what ,,they ,,are ,,going ,,to ,,suffer1 said the physiologist2 that is a great consolation in dealing with animals1 as compared with dealing with a man4#a ,,going ,,to ,,suffer is a somewhat significant admission4 ,he is asked whether the experimentation of to-day is more or less humanely conducted than it was before the ,act of #ahgf2 and instead of replying he tells the ,commissioners that there was very little work carried out before the ,act2 ,,there ,,were ,,only ,,one ,,or ,,two ,,physiologists4 ,upon such ignorance of history comment is hardly necessary4 ,we have heard much concerning a wonderful discovery of a ,dr4 ,crile1 the giving of morphia before a surgical operation1 in order to quiet the apprehensions of the patients and so to prevent the occurrence of shock4 ,yet as long ago as #aijf1 ,dr4 ,thane1 a member of the ,royal ,college of ,surgeons1 testified1 upon the authority of a distinguished scientist1 that such use of morphia before administration of anaesthetics is often done in surgical operations4 ,the attention of ,sir ,victor ,horsley was called to the experiments of a ,dr4 ,watson in ,america4 ,had he heard of them8 #a ,minutes of ,evidence1 ,q4 #c1hhe4 ,yes1 ,i know of those experiments1 was the reply4 ,were they1 in your opinion1 valuable experiments8 ,i cannot1 at the moment1 call to mind whether they revealed any new conditions4 ,i should have to look them up again4 ,were they justifiable1 in your opinion8 ,,certainly1 was ,sir ,victor ,horsley's terse reply4 ,yet1 when the account of these experiments was first published1 the ,british ,medical ,journal1 in its editorial columns1 thus commented upon them3 ,the present pamphlet calls for our strongest reprobation as a record of the most wanton and stupidest cruelty we have ever seen chronicled under the guise of scientific experiments4444 ,apart from the utterly useless nature of the observations1 so far as regards human pathology1 there is a callous indifference shown in the description of the suffering of the poor brutes which is positively revolting4444 ,,we ,,trust ,,that ,,no ,,one1 ,,in ,,the ,,profession ,,or ,,out ,,of ,,it1 will be tempted by the fancy that these or such-like experiments are scientific or justifiable4 ,it will be seen that concerning ,watson's most cruel vivisections ,sir ,victor ,horsley was not in agreement with the ,british ,medical ,journal1 the official organ of the ,association of which1 before the ,commission1 he appeared as the representative6 ,the final report of the ,royal ,commission occupies a volume4 ,the long period over which the inquiry extended1 the generally apparent desire to permit every phase of opinion to have a hearing1 all tended toward views which1 if not unanimous1 at any rate indicated a desire to be fair4 ,taken as a whole1 the evidence and the final decisions of the ,commission constitute an important contribution to the literature of animal experimentation which has appeared during the present century4 ,the conclusions of the ,commission are almost1 yet not quite1 unanimous4 ,all of the eight members signed the final report1 three of them1 however1 making their assent subject to a qualifying memorandum that in certain respects indicated a considerable divergence of opinion4 ,the following are the conclusions of the ,commission1 the words in italics and parentheses being the qualifying additions of one of their number1 ,dr4 ,george ,wilson4 ,altogether1 apart from the moral and ethical questions involved in the employment of experiments on living animals for scientific purposes1 we are1 after full consideration1 inclined to think-- #a4 ,that certain results1 claimed from time to time have been proved by experiments upon living animals1 and alleged to have been beneficial in preventing and curing disease1 have1 upon further investigation1 been found to be fallacious or useless4 7,,indeed1 ,,the ,,fallacies ,,and ,,failures ,,are1 ,,in ,,my ,,opinion1 ,,far ,,more ,,conspicuous ,,than ,,successful ,,results47 #b4 ,that notwithstanding such failures1 valuable knowledge has been acquired in regard to physiological processes and the causation of disease1 and that 7,,some7 methods for the prevention1 cure1 and treatment of certain diseases 7,,other ,,than ,,bacterial71 have resulted from experimental investigations upon living animals4 #c4 ,that1 as far as we can judge1 it is highly improbable that1 without experiments made upon animals1 mankind would by now have been in possession of such knowledge4 #d4 ,that in so far as disease has been successfully prevented1 or its mortality reduced1 suffering has been diminished in man and the lower animals4 #e4 ,that there is ground for believing that similar methods of investigation1 if pursued in the future1 will be attended with similar results4 7,,failures ,,plentiful ,,enough ,,still1 ,,but ,,successful ,,results ,,fewer ,,and ,,fewer ,,as ,,the ,,field ,,of ,,legitimate ,,research ,,must ,,become ,,gradually ,,more ,,and ,,more ,,restricted47 ,other conclusions appear to be as follows3 ,we strongly hold that limits should be placed to animal suffering in the search for physiological or pathological knowledge4 ,how far interference with experimentation should extend appears to have been a matter of divergent views4 ,five of the ,commissioners took the following position3 ,an ,inspector should have the power to order the painless destruction of any animal which1 having been the subject of any experiment1 shows signs of obvious suffering or considerable pain1 even though the object of the experiment may not have been obtained2 and ,that in all cases in which1 in the opinion of the experimenter1 the animal is suffering severe pain which is likely to endure1 it shall be his duty to cause painless death1 even though the object of the experiment has not been attained4 ,three of the ,commissioners--,sir ,william ,j4 ,collins1 ,m4,d41 ,dr4 ,george ,wilson1 and ,colonel ,lockwood--do not agree with this clause4 ,they cannot approve of a rule which leaves to the discretion of the vivisector the right of keeping alive for an indefinite period1 a suffering creature4 ,they recommend that all observations1 likely to cause pain and suffering shall be conducted under adequate anaesthetics1 skilfully and humanely administered1 or if the nature of the investigation render this impracticable1 then1 that on the supervention of real or obvious suffering the animal shall be forthwith painlessly killed4 ,the ,commission recommended that1 in certain cases1 immediate or special records or reports of results should be furnished by the experimenter4 ,the three members just named agree with this1 but would have such reports the rule1 and not the exception4 ,with this view ,i am personally in emphatic accord4 ,every experiment should have its complete record1 available for publication if so desired4 ,that part of the final report which in certain respects is more valuable than all the rest1 is the reservation memorandum of ,dr4 ,george ,wilson1 one of the ,commissioners4 ,he is not an anti- vivisectionist1 for he agrees with the unanimous conclusion of his associates that experiments upon animals1 adequately safeguarded by laws faithfully administered1 are morally justifiable4 ,regarding the practice as now carried on1 he maintains the only scientific position1 that which more inclines to doubt than to credulity4 ,the assurances of witnesses1 that in certain experimental operations no pain was inflicted1 ,dr4 ,wilson accepts as opinions to which the greatest weight should be attached1 and not as statements of absolute fact1 so far as specific instances are concerned4 ,that insensibility to pain is invariably maintained is by no means sure2 however confident the operator may be that he has abolished all pain1 ,,vivisectional ,,anaesthesia1 ,,with ,,all ,,its ,,varieties ,,of ,,agents ,,and ,,methods ,,of ,,induction1 ,,can ,,never ,,be ,,divested ,,of ,,an ,,element ,,of ,,uncertainty4 ,what are we to say of the results1 either to science or the art of healing1 which modern vivisection has contributed8 ,it is regarding this point that ,dr4 ,wilson has brought together a mass of evidence of unquestionable value1 in a field of inquiry peculiarly his own4 ,for more than thirty years he had been a writer upon topics pertaining to the ,public ,health4 ,one by one1 in his memorandum1 ,dr4 ,wilson has examined the claims of vivisection regarding the chief forms of disease which have occupied the attention of experimenters--cancer1 which still maintains its advance in fatality2 tuberculosis1 which began to decline in ,england more than forty years ago1 before it was associated with experimentation2 hydrophobia1 diphtheria1 tetanus1 typhoid fever1 snake-poison1 sleeping-sickness1 and certain animal ailments of an infectious character4 ,what is his conclusion regarding all the claims of vastly increased potency of modern medicine over these powers of darkness and death8 ,that experiments have been utterly valueless8 ,no2 some useful knowledge has been acquired1 in certain directions4 ,but ,i still contend1 and have endeavored to prove1 that the useful results which have been claimed1 or may still be claimed1 ,,have ,,been ,,enormously ,,over-,,estimated4 ,and the final conclusion of this keen observer and lifelong student of medicine is this3 ,that experiments on animals1 no matter with what prospective gain to humanity1 are repellant to the ethical sense2 and that those who persistently advocate them as beneficial to human or animal life ,,must ,,justify ,,their ,,claims ,,by ,,results4444 ,even admitting that experiments on animals have contributed to the relief of human suffering1 such measure of relief is infinitesimal compared with the pain which has been inflicted to secure it4 ,what changes to the existing law of ,england regarding animal experimentation1 or in the administration of the ,act1 did this ,commission recommend8 ,,first4 ,,an ,,increase ,,in ,,the ,,number ,,of ,,inspectors4 ,the inspectors should be sufficiently numerous and should have at their command ample time to afford to the public reasonable assurance that the law is faithfully administered4 ,,second4 ,,restrictions ,,in ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,curare4 ,we are all agreed1 that if its use is to be permitted at all1 an inspector1 or some person nominated by the ,secretary of ,state1 should be present from the commencement of the experiment1 who should satisfy himself that the animal is throughout the whole experiment and ,,until ,,its ,,death ,,in ,a ,,state ,,of ,,complete ,,anaesthesia4 ,this is a most remarkable recommendation4 ,can it imply anything else than distrust of the experimenter8 ,,third4 ,,stricter ,,provisions ,,regarding ,,the ,,practice ,,of ,,pithing4 ,the operation must be complete2 performed only under an adequate anaesthetic2 and by a licensed person when made on a warm-blooded animal4 ,,fourth4 ,,additional ,,restrictions ,,regulating ,,the ,,painless ,,destruction ,,of ,,animals which show signs of suffering after the experiment4 ,to this recommendation and its suggested amendment by three of the ,commissioners1 reference has already been made4 ,,fifth4 ,a ,,change ,,in ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,selecting and in the constitution of the ,advisory body to the ,secretary of ,state4 ,,sixth4 ,,special ,,records ,,by ,,experimenters ,,in ,,certain ,,cases4 ,on this point we have seen that three of the ,commissioners went yet farther1 and believed that in ,,all cases of painful experiment--and1 possibly1 in all cases whatsoever1 such reports should be made4 ,it is now upwards of thirty-five years since the ,act regulating the practice of vivisection in ,england came into effect4 ,during all that period1 in the ,united ,states1 the law has never ceased to be an object of misrepresentation and attack4 ,before ,legislatures and ,senate ,committees1 on the platform and in the press1 by men of good reputation but associated with laboratory interests1 the ,english law has been denounced as a hindrance to scientific progress and a warning against similar legislation in the ,united ,states4 ,and yet nothing can be more evident that all these attacks were based upon ignorance and misstatement4 ,we find a ,royal ,commission in ,england1 composed almost entirely of scientific men1 everyone of them favourable to animal experimentation1 devoting years to an inquiry concerning not vivisection only1 but the working of the law by which it is regulated4 ,and the conclusions reached are in every respect opposed to the statements made by the laboratory interests here4 ,,they ,,fully ,,endorse ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,state ,,regulation1 ,,which ,,everywhere ,,in ,,america ,,is ,,so ,,strenuously ,,opposed4 ,but this is not all4 ,every recommendation made for modification of the ,act is in the direction of animal protection1 and toward an increased stringency of the regulations relating to animal experimentation4 ,in not a single instance was there recommendation that the regulations should be less stringent2 not an instance in which it was suggested that privileges of the vivisector should be enlarged4 ,that this should be the result of an inquiry in this twentieth century1 extending over five years1 is remarkable indeed4 ,perhaps there is no reason for surprise that all these conclusions of the ,royal ,commission were never made known to the ,american public by the periodicals of the day4 ,is it possible for anyone to believe that such conclusions would ever have been attained if the denunciations of ,state regulation of vivisection1 proceeding from the ,american laboratory1 had been grounded in truth8 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,great ,,anaesthetic ,,delusion ,a popular delusion is often the basis of a great abuse4 ,if at one time witches were burnt by countless thousands1 it was at a period when implicit faith in the reality of diabolic conspiracy was undisturbed by sceptical questionings4 ,human slavery existed for centuries1 not only because it was profitable1 but because it came to be regarded as the only conceivable permanent relation between the negro and the white man4 ,the ,spanish ,inquisition existed for ages1 because the pious ,spaniard could not believe that the good men who upheld1 encouraged1 and promoted its activity could be liable to error1 or actuated by other than the loftiest principles4 ,men find themselves deluded not merely because of their faith in the integrity of their fellow-men1 but because they have also extended that faith to the accuracy of their opinions4 ,there can be no doubt of the fact that public apathy regarding the abuses of vivisection as now carried on without limitations or restrictions is grounded upon the great anaesthetic delusion4 ,this misinterpretation of facts1 this misunderstanding of scientific statements1 constitutes the most singular delusion of the present time4 ,what is anaesthesia8 ,it has been defined as a state of insensibility to external impressions1 sometimes introduced by disease1 but more generally in modern surgery by the inhalation of the vapours of ether or chloroform4 ,the discovery of the properties of these drugs constitutes a very interesting chapter in the story of scientific achievement2 but in this connection the chief point of interest lies in the fact that the most wonderful of all advances in medicine was made without resort to the vivisection of animals4 ,sir ,benjamin ,ward ,richardson1 an ,english scientist who had much to do with its various methods1 tells us that the instauration of general anaesthesia came from experiments on man alone2 there is no suspicion of any experiment on a lower animal in connection with it2 and ,professor ,bigelow1 of ,harvard ,medical ,school1 as we have seen1 makes the same statement4 ,the extent to which insensibility may be carried depends entirely on the amount of the vapour inhaled4 ,suppose the quantity to be very small4 ,then the result will be a diminished sensibility1 without entire loss of consciousness4 ,let the quantity inhaled be considerably increase1 and we may produce a profound stupor with muscular relaxation1 the eyes are fixed1 and the eyelids do not respond when the eyeball is touched4 ,there is now deep anaesthesia1 and complete unconsciousness to the surgeon's knife4 ,the borderline between life and death is not distant2 and if still more of the anaesthetic is administered1 we may reach a condition from which there is no awakening4 ,the skill of the anaesthetist is not unlike that of a pilot1 who needs to know just how far the ship may be steered in a difficult channel without running upon the rocks4 ,for a slight operation1 a very little of the drug will often suffice4 ,in some hospitals abroad--and perhaps in ,america--it is the custom not to give anaesthetics to charity patients when the pain is not greater than the extraction of a tooth4 ,between a light anaesthesia and the deep insensibility required for some capital operation1 ,,there ,,is ,,every ,,conceivable ,,degree4 ,we see the same thing in ordinary sleep4 ,the deep unconsciousness of a thoroughly exhausted man is vastly different from the light slumber of an anxious mother1 who is aroused by a word or touch4 ,yet both conditions are what we call sleep4 ,now1 one of the popular delusions regarding what is called anaesthesia arises from ignorance of its innumerable degrees4 ,we are told1 for instance1 anaesthetics were used in certain vivisections4 ,that assertion alone1 in a majority of cases1 will quiet any criticism4 ,if anaesthetics were used1 then the average reader assumes that of course there was no pain4 ,the experimenter may know better4 ,but if ignorance persists in misinterpreting statements of fact1 it is possible that he may think he is not obliged to make the truth plain1 to his positive disadvantage4 ,if such method of reasoning ever obtains1 it may explain very much4 ,and yet it would seem that only very ignorant people could be so blinded by authority as not to perceive where the fallacy lies4 ,a slight amount of ether or chloroform may mean to a vivisected animal no protection whatever from extreme pain4 ,the fact has long been known4 ,many years ago ,dr4 ,george ,hoggan declared that complete and conscientious anaesthesia is seldom even attempted1 the animal getting at most a slight whiff of chloroform by way of satisfying the conscience of the operator1 ,,or ,,of ,,enabling ,,him ,,to ,,make ,,statements ,,of ,a ,,humane ,,character4 ,in other words1 it enables him to say1 ,anaesthetics are always used4 ,shall we always be blind to the insignificance of that phrase8 ,that chloroform or ether will suppress the consciousness of pain during a surgical operation1 every reader is aware4 ,but when we speak of certain vivisections1 we are on different ground4 ,the pains to be inflicted are sometimes far more excruciating than any surgical operation4 ,in the stimulation of sensory nerves1 and in various operations upon these nerves1 there may be excited agonies so great that they break through the limited unconsciousness induced by chloroform4 ,one of the most experienced vivisectors in ,america has given his testimony on this point4 ,speaking of his experiments upon some of the most exquisitely sensitive nerves1 ,dr4 ,flint says3 ,,when we have used anaesthetics--not the significance of the phrase--,,we ,,could ,,never ,,push ,,the ,,effects ,,sufficiently ,,to ,,abolish ,,the ,,sensibility ,,of ,,the ,,root ,,of ,,the ,,nerve4 ,if an animal1 brought so fully under the influence of ether that the conjunctiva had become absolutely insensible 7the degree of insensibility required by the surgeon71 the instant the instrument touched the root of the nerve in the cranium1 ,,there ,,were ,,evidences ,,of ,,acute ,,pain4#a ,of other experiments upon the same nerves he tells us that in using anaesthetics1 we have never been able to bring an animal under their influence ,,so ,,completely ,,as ,,to ,,abolish ,,the ,,sensibility4444 ,in cats that appear to be thoroughly etherized1 as soon as the instrument touches the nerve1 there is more or less struggling4#b #a ,flint's ,physiology1 vol4 iv41 p4 #ig4 #b ,flint's ,physiology1 vol4 iv41 p4 #aic4 ,this statement needs to be remembered4 ,the agony may be so keen1 so exquisite1 so far beyond the pain of a surgical operation1 that it makes itself felt4 ,pain1 then1 conquers the anaesthetic1 exactly as the anaesthetic usually conquers the pain4 ,what1 then1 is the value of the phrase1 ,,anaesthetics ,,were ,,used8 ,dr4 ,hoggan has told us4 ,it has no value whatever4 ,sir ,thornley ,stoker1 ,president of the ,royal ,academy of ,medicine in ,ireland1 and an inspector of laboratories under the ,act1 was questioned about the pain endured by an animal in course of a prolonged vivisection1 and he frankly admitted that a vivisector could do no more than give an opinion4 ,he could have no ,,certainty as to the entire absence1 the continuous absence1 of pain4#b ,dr4 ,thane1 a professor at ,university ,medical ,college1 ,london1 and a ,government inspector1 being asked whether one might not be able to distinguish between painful and painless experiments1 replied that the inspector never could distinguish exactly which experiments were painless and which were painful1 ,,and ,,the ,,experimenters ,,and ,,observers ,,themselves cannot distinguish ,,in ,a ,,very ,,large ,,number ,,of ,,cases4#c #b ,evidence before ,royal ,commission1 ,question #a1jfd4 #c ,ibid41 ,question #a1cce4 ,these are the opinions of experts4 ,this attitude of uncertainty is the only ground possible for a scientific man who aims at stating the whole truth4 ,when a professional vivisector gives us assurance that no pain was felt during the severest operations1 he is only putting forth an opinion4 ,he is but mortal4 ,we are not obliged to assume his infallibility in a region where experts are in doubt1 and where there may be a desire for concealment4 ,during the last decade of the nineteenth century1 a work was published describing in detail experiments upon surgical shock--so termed to distinguish it from a similar condition arising from overwhelming emotions4 ,these experiments were almost exclusively made upon dogs1 man's faithful friend and companion2 and their number was so great and their character so horrible that their publication at first excited general criticism and condemnation4 ,at one the suggestion was put forth that the experiments were painless1 because anaesthetics were employed4 ,the vivisector had said3 ,in all cases the animals were anaesthetized1 usually by the use of ether1 occasionally by chloroform1 either alone or with ether4 ,in a few cases ,,curare ,,and ,,morphine ,,were ,,used4 ,in a number of succeeding volumes1 the same assertion has been put forth2 and as understood by the average reader1 it has tended to dispel doubts regarding the character of the experiments4 ,it seems worth while to examine the account of these investigations a little closely4 ,the question for us is not whether anaesthetics were employed1 but to what extent we may find ourselves assured regarding their efficiency in abolishing sensibility in every case4 ,the experiments in question were of a peculiar kind4 ,they differ in certain respects from anything to be found in the records of ,american vivisection4 ,the number of dogs sacrificed--#adh--was far greater than seems necessary to establish any working hypothesis4 ,it would appear that the methods of vivisection selected were generally designed for the purpose of making the strongest possible impression1 and1 if consciousness was present1 the sharpest pangs that human ingenuity could invent were repeatedly inflicted4 ,the most sensitive parts of the body were crushed in various ways4 ,the lungs were stabbed1 or shot through2 the intestines were lifted from the body1 and burned or placed in boiling water2 the nerves were exposed and scraped2 loops of intestines were manipulated or crushed2 the ear was penetrated2 the jaws were opened as far as the maximal normal separation1 and then by extraordinary force separated still more2 the paws were crushed1 and sometimes burnt by the application of a ,bunsen's flame2 the stomach was dilated by pumping air and water into it till the stomach burst2 one animal was subjected to all kinds of operations for a period of three hours more1 including the cutting out of kidneys and double hip-joint amputations2 another suffered the opening of the abdomen1 the crushing of the kidneys1 severe manipulation of the eye1 severe manipulation of the tongue1 puncture1 crushing1 etc41 and lastly1 a stimulation of the sciatic nerve2 in one case1 the paw was placed in boiling water for a considerable time2 in another1 boiling water was poured into the abdominal cavity2 in yet another1 flame was applied over the heart4 ,i am not quoting all this from memory2 the work describing all these experiments lies open before me as ,i write4 ,no ,iroquois savage1 no ,spanish inquisitor1 no professional tormentor of any age ever devised more exquisite torments1 more excruciating agonies1 more lengthened tortures than these #adh vivisections imply--,,unless1 ,,throughout ,,the ,,entire ,,experiment ,,the ,,complete ,,insensibility ,,of ,,the ,,victims ,,was ,,secured ,,by ,,recognized ,,anaesthetics1 ,,beyond ,,the ,,possibility ,,of ,,doubt4 ,such assurance as this it is now impossible for anyone to give with scientific certainty4 ,the absolute insensibility of each and every animal thus vivisected cannot be demonstrated4 ,on the contrary1 there are reasons which compel belief that1 in many instances1 these vivisections implied the most horrible and prolonged torments that the practice of animal experimentation has ever been permitted to evoke4 ,what are some of these reasons8 ,,first4 ,in the work describing these experiments1 the author has nowhere asserted that ,,each ,,animal ,,subjected ,,to ,,experiment ,,was ,,from ,,the ,,beginning ,,to ,,the ,,end ,,so ,,deeply ,,and ,,profoundly ,,under ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,ether ,,or ,,chloroform ,,as ,,to ,,be ,,totally ,,unconscious ,,of ,,pain4 ,now1 the omission of this statement is peculiarly significant4 ,if it had been possible1 we may be quite sure that such a statement would have been made4 ,suppose1 for example1 that in place of vague generalities the experimenter had said3 ,before the commencement of each experiment1 the animal was deeply anaesthetized by the inhalation of chloroform or ether1 or both2 and the insensibility thus induced before the experiment began was maintained until the death of the animal4 ,curare was never used4 ,in no instance and at no time during any experiment was the anaesthesia otherwise than profound2 the corneal reflex was never to be obtained1 nor was any other sign of sensibility to pain ever to be noted4 ,a statement like this would have been definite4 ,but with due regard for truth1 it could not have been made4 ,instead of an explicit statement1 we have merely the assertion--so easily misunderstood-- that in all cases the animals were anaesthetized4 ,and this statement may mean nothing whatever1 so far as concerns the painlessness of these vivisections4 ,,second4 ,,great ,,care ,,was ,,apparently ,,taken ,,in ,,some ,,cases ,,to ,,prevent ,,deep ,,anaesthesia4 ,it is a well-known fact that dogs are peculiarly susceptible to chloroform1 and very likely to die while under its influence4 ,the president of the ,royal ,academy of ,medicine in ,ireland1 a teacher of science for many years1 ,sir ,thornley ,stoker1 stated in his testimony that a dog's heart is very weak and irregular4 ,i fear that in the case of dogs1 anaesthesia is not always pushed to a sufficient extent1 as these animals often die from the effects of the anaesthetic if given to a full extent4444 ,,the ,,anaesthesia ,,cannot ,,be ,,complete1 if the dog lives as long as is necessary for some of these experiments4#a #a ,testimony before ,royal ,commission1 ,questions #gfa1 #hcf4 ,now1 one of these experiments lasted over three hours1 and many of them over an hour4 ,how many of the #adh animals died because the anaesthesia was ,,too ,,deep8 ,on this point the admissions of the experimenter seem especially significant4 ,,over-,,anaesthesia rendered the animals subject to early collapse1 and decidedly less capable of enduring a protracted experiment4 ,during certain experiments1 ,,considerable ,,care was necessary to prevent excessive inhalation of the anaesthetic by the animal4 ,and yet all that could happen to the unfortunate victim would be a painless death2 to prevent that would require1 doubtless1 considerable care4 ,if the animals were allowed ,,partially ,,to ,,recover ,,from ,,the ,,effect ,,of ,,the ,,anaesthetic1 care was necessary in reducing them again to surgical anaesthesia1 as an excess of the anaesthetic was liable to be inhaled4#a ,this admission is evidence complete1 that the insensibility was not always maintained from beginning to end2 the creatures were in some cases--how many we can never know-- ,,allowed ,,partially ,,to ,,recover4 ,in the detailed accounts of these vivisections1 we find more than one proof of the sensibility of the animals4 ,take the following3 ,,experiment #abf4 ,the animal did not take the anaesthetic well1 and part of the experiment was made under ,,incomplete ,,anaesthesia4 ,there was noted1 also1 contraction of the abdominal muscles1 on account of ,,incomplete ,,anaesthesia4 ,,experiment #acc4 ,bunsen's flame to the right paw4444 ,in the control experiments1 as well as this1 ,,the ,,dog ,,was ,,not ,,under ,,full ,,anaesthesia 444 ,,the ,,animal ,,struggled ,,on ,,application ,,of ,,the ,,flame4 ,,experiment #e4 ,,under ,,incomplete ,,anaesthesia1 crushing of foot caused a very sharp rise1 followed by an equally sharp decline of pressure4 ,,this ,,was ,,repeated ,,several ,,times4 ,under full anaesthesia crushing of paws caused rise again4 ,,experiment #d4 ,first1 crushing of paw4444 ,second1 crushed foot extensively1 ,,just ,,before ,,corneal ,,reflex ,,was ,,abolished4 ,to the average reader the last few words convey no definite meaning1 but their significance is plain4 ,until the corneal reflex is abolished1 the surgeon does not begin to operate1 for sensibility remains4 ,it is needless to quote further2 even a single instance of incomplete anaesthesia1 admitted by the vivisector himself1 suffices to overturn the claim that the insensibility was complete in every case4 ,words1 says ,bishop ,butler1 mean what they do mean1 and not other things2 and no amount of literary juggling can prove that whether the insensibility is complete or incomplete1 the pain is precisely the same4 ,,third4 ,,curare ,,and ,,morphia1 ,,neither ,,of ,,which ,,is ,,an ,,anaesthetic1 ,,were ,,sometimes ,,used ,,in ,,these ,,experiments1 ,,apparently ,,to ,,prevent ,,the ,,animals ,,undergoing ,,vivisection ,,from ,,making ,,any ,,movements ,,which ,,might ,,disturb ,,the ,,instruments ,,employed4 ,the use of ,,curare rests upon the admission of the vivisector himself4 ,after mentioning the employment of chloroform and ether1 as before quoted1 he adds3 ,in a few cases1 ,,curare and ,,morphia were used4 ,now1 these drugs are not anaesthetics1 and curare especially is only used when it is desired to keep the vivisected creature incapable of any movement--no matter what degree of torment it may be suffering4 ,in his textbook on physiology1 ,professor ,holmgren calls curare the most cruel of poisons1 because an animal under its influence it changes instantly into a living corpse which hears and sees1 and knows everything1 but is unable to move a single muscle2 and under its influence no creature can give the faintest indication of its hopeless condition4 ,dr4 ,starling1 the professor of physiology at ,university ,college1 ,london1 states that when an animal has had an anaesthetic administered and also a dose of ,,curare1 if the anaesthetic passed off1 the animal would be unable to move1 or to show any sign of suffering4 ,nor is morphia an anaesthetic4 ,so far from suppressing sensibility completely1 says ,claude ,be'rnard in his lectures1 morphine sometimes seems to exaggerate it4 ,an animal under its influence ,,feels ,,the ,,pain1 ,,but ,,has ,,lost ,,the ,,idea ,,of ,,defending ,,himself4 ,we should have been very glad if the author had stated in his book the precise experiments in which curare and morphia were employed4 ,we are told that the number was few4 ,but in comparison with the total number--#adf--;how many may that phrase signify8 ,were there twenty8 ,possibly4 ,it would seem that in every case after the preliminary administration of anaesthetics--the dog's throat was cut1 so that artificial respiration could be easily maintained2 tracheotomy was performed1 to use the scientific phraseology4 ,this is done when curare is given1 for then not the slightest movement of the tortured animal can disturb the delicate instruments which are attached to it4 ,we may therefore assume that every case wherein only curare and morphia were used--how many there were we do not know--implied torment for the wretched victims4 ,human beings are not submitted on the surgeons' table to operations of this character1 prolonged for hours4 ,if1 in the interest of ,science1 some experimenter would place himself in like condition to that of the animals upon which he worked2 if1 under anaesthesia--complete or incomplete--he would permit a hand to be crushed1 a nerve trunk stimulated1 his feet placed in boiling water for a considerable time1 and a ,bunsen's flame applied for two minutes to some part of his body--we might possibly learn whether the acutest pains inflicted could be absolutely suppressed4 ,perhaps he would survive to tell us2 but the animal cannot speak4 ,no assurances suffice to clear our doubts2 assurances prove nothing4 ,it may be1 to use the words of a great surgeon1 that in this relation1 there exists a case of cruelty to animals far transcending in its refinement and in its horror1 anything that has been known in the history of nations4 ,such are some of the reasons which induce doubt of the theory that all of the experiments of these vivisectors were conducted upon animals wholly insensible to painful impressions4 ,to become the victim of the anaesthetic delusion regarding them is to justify2 and to justify is to share responsibility4 ,but this is not all4 ,there would seem to be other evidence of the most convincing character1 that some of the animals thus subjected for hours to the stimulation of nerves and to the most frightful mutilations were not at all times in such state of unconsciousness as to prevent the occurrence of one most significant indication of pain4 ,it is proof to which the attention of the public1 so far as known1 has never yet been directed2 and ,i propose to illustrate somewhat at length what has been done in the name of free and unlimited vivisection1 not only during the closing years of the past century1 but down almost to the present time4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,vivisection ,,of ,,to-,,day ,if the reform of vivisection may only be hoped for1 when the secrecy concerning it shall have been dispelled1 the beginning of the present century is not propitious of any changes4 ,against all intrusion upon its rites1 the physiological laboratory in ,england and ,america maintains as successful an opposition as ever characterized the ,eleusinian mysteries of the pagan world4 ,no laboratory--so far as known--dares to invite inspection at any hour1 even from men of the highest personal character1 and leave them free to reveal or to publicly criticize whatever in the experiments upon animals there conducted seems worthy of caution or reproof4 ,silence and concealment1 so far as the outer world is concerned--these are yet the strange ideals of modern vivisection4 ,within the realm of scientific literature1 however1 this reticence is not maintained4 ,experiments may be there described in terms so abstruse and technical1 that1 while clear enough to the professional reader1 they convey little or no meaning to the man in the street4 ,there would seem to be a growing tendency to state certain facts in carefully shrouded phraseology1 in complete confidence that the full meaning will not be discerned4 ,within the past few years1 therefore1 a large number of vivisections have been described in full-- vivisections which half a century ago would have aroused the horror and execration of the ,english-speaking world--without exciting any very general condemnation beyond the circle of those who ask for reform4 ,experimentation of this kind1 exhibiting the practice as it is carried on to-day1 seems worth of a somewhat careful examination4 ,it will not be necessary to go beyond the work of a single vivisector who has made his name a household word wherever experiments upon animals are discussed in ,england or ,america4 ,the principal point toward which inquiry must be directed is the question of pain4 ,one reason why they have been partly condoned by the public is not difficult to discover4 ,in language which seemed to have no element of ambiguity1 the experimenter apparently affirmed the entire absence of sensation on the part of the dogs which he and his assistants subjected to operations of various kinds and of an extreme character4 ,it is true that1 as a general rule1 this affirmation was not as explicit as might perhaps be desired4 ,he was writing for professional men only1 not for the general public1 and it is quite unlikely that any physiologist or medical reader could have been at any time misled in the slightest degree4 ,if the language used was capable of more than one interpretation1 if possibilities of insensibility were exaggerated into definite assertions1 nothing of the kind was apparent to the general reader4 ,glancing at the statement that the animals were completely anaesthetized1 his doubts were abolished4 ,indescribably disgusting and hideous as were some of the vivisections1 if they were absolutely painless1 their performance was a matter of taste4 ,can we criticize the humaneness of one who1 at the butcher's bench1 mutilates the body from which life has gone8 ,complete and perfect anaesthesia1 maintained till death1 is practically only premature death4 ,deprived of sensibility--a deprivation that is never to cease--a living creature is beyond the infliction of cruelty4 ,but is it certain that all these various experiments1 made upon nearly five hundred dogs were without pain8 ,reasons for doubt concerning some of them have been given4 ,let us now look into the question so far as concerns vivisection in its relation to the pressure of the blood4 ,a little over two centuries ago the ,rev4 ,stephen ,hales1 the rector of an obscure country parish in ,england1 became interested in problems pertaining to the circulation of sap in plants1 and blood in the higher animals4 ,by various experiments he discovered that the blood of a living animal is subject to a definite pressure1 and with some approach to accuracy he succeeded in measuring it4 ,the subject seems to have attracted but little attention for over a century after the discovery of ,hales2 it was then again investigated by physiologists1 and certain conclusions definitely reached4 ,without going into the subject at length1 it suffices to state that this blood-pressure constantly varies slightly1 being somewhat influenced by every disturbing condition1 and probably by every physiological act4 ,any injury tending to lower the tone of the general system1 or to induce the condition of shock1 tends to cause the blood-pressure to fall4 ,on the other hand1 if the animal is sensible to pain1 the stimulation of sensory nerves1 or any sharp or sudden pang1 ,,tend ,,to ,,cause ,a ,,rise ,,in ,,the ,,pressure ,,of ,,the ,,blood1 unless the creature has become exhausted by the experimentation to which it has been subjected4 ,upon this point the attention of the reader should be specially directed4 ,what authorities support this conclusion8 ,only a few need be named1 for there would appear to be no difference of opinion among physiologists regarding the fact4 ,sir ,thomas ,lauder ,brunton1 one of the leading medical writers in ,england1 in a contribution to the latest edition of the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica1 tells us3 ,,irritation ,,of ,,sensory ,,nerves tends to cause contraction of the bloodvessels1 ,,and ,,to ,,raise ,,the ,,blood-,,pressure4#a #a ,enc4 ,brit41 ,art4 ,therapeutics1 p4 #hjj4 ,dr4 ,isaac ,ott1 an ,american physiologist of distinction1 states in a description of certain vivisections made by him3 ,,it ,,is ,a ,,well-,,known ,,fact ,,that ,,irritation ,,of ,a ,,sensory ,,nerve causes an excitation of the vasomotor centre1 ,,which ,,is ,,indexed ,,by ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,pressure4444 ,as indirect irritation ,,always ,,produces ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,pressure1 the sensory nerves and the conductors of their impressions up to the 7spinal7 cord are not paralyzed4#b #b ,ott1 ,on ,physiological ,action of ,thebain1 pp4 #aa-ab4 ,dr4 ,leonard ,hill1 in an article contributed to ,schafer's ,textbook of ,physiology upon the circulation of the blood1 says3 ,arterial pressure is affected reflexly ,,by ,,stimulation ,,of ,,any ,,sensory ,,nerve ,,in ,,the ,,body4444 ,the usual result of stimulating a sensory nerve is ,a ,,reflex ,,rise ,,of ,,arterial ,,pressure4#c #c ,schafer's ,textbook of ,physiology1 vol4 ii41 pp4 #aff-afg4 ,the writer goes on to explain that when the tone of the system in weakened after prolonged experiment ,,or ,,during ,,the ,,administration ,,of ,,chloroform ,,and ,,chloral1 then a fall of pressure may occur4 ,this phenomenon was known to physiologists many years ago4 ,for instance1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,c4 ,dalton1 professor of physiology at the ,college of ,physicians and ,surgeons1 in his well-known textbook on physiology1 says that the most frequent instance of reflex constriction of arteries is that which follows irritation of the central extremity of a sensitive nerve4 ,this effect has been observed by many experimenters1 and is regarded as nearly invariable4 ,galvanization of the central extremity of the sciatic nerve causes general constriction of the bloodvessels throughout other parts of the body1 ,,indicated ,,by ,,increased ,,arterial ,,pressure4 ,a similar result is produced by the irritation of 444 other sensitive nerves1 or nerve roots4#a #a ,dalton's ,physiology1 pp4 #ejg-ejh4 ,and1 referring to another experimenter1 ,dr4 ,crile1 puts the case clearly3 ,,pain ,,increases 7,,blood7-,,pressure4 ,in four cases of trauma 7injury71 a rise of #bj to #dj was noted upon pressure upon a nerve4 ,even in a healthy person1 pinching the integument was noted increase the pressure4#b #b ,crile ,on ,blood-,pressure1 p4 #cda4 ,it would seem unnecessary to accumulate evidence regarding a physiological phenomenon so long and so firmly established4 ,we may therefore take it for granted that in a living animal or in a human being1 as a general rule1 the irritation of a sensory nerve will cause a rise of blood-pressure4 ,let us now suppose that an animal destined to be vivisected lies before us1 stretched on the vivisection dog-board1 so securely fastened that voluntary movement is almost impossible4 ,an incision has been made in the neck1 and in the principal artery has been inserted a part of a delicate instrument designed to indicate the fluctuations of the blood-pressure of the animal4 ,the sciatic nerve has been laid bare2 the animal is supposed to be under the influence of an anaaesthetic continuously administered1 and if our imagination is vivid and our faith implicit1 we may believe that no suffering will be felt4 ,,but ,,how ,,may ,,we ,,be ,,certain8 ,this question came up more than once before the ,royal ,commission on ,vivisection4 ,how can one tell that an animal may not be insufficiently anaesthetized ,,if ,,it ,,can ,,make ,,no ,,sign1 ,,when ,,all ,,the ,,acts ,,by ,,which ,,it ,,might ,,evince ,,its ,,suffering ,,are ,,carefully ,,restrained8 ,the animal which lies before us cannot move2 every physical movement is as far as possible totally suppressed4 ,it cannot use its voice1 for the trachea is cut and otherwise used4 ,,are ,,there ,,no ,,means ,,whereby ,,we ,,can ,,tell ,,whether ,,the ,,animal ,,is ,,suffering what one of the ,royal ,commission called a nightmare of suffering8 ,the answer to this question has been given by some of the leading physiologists of ,england4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,m4 ,langley1 professor of physiology in the ,university of ,cambridge1 a ,fellow of the ,royal ,society1 gave explicit testimony on this point4 ,his examiner was desirous of knowing upon what he would depend1 other than upon the dose of the anaesthetic and watchfulness1 if in the animal he could see nothing that would satisfy him4 ,there is the state of the blood-pressure1 which would indicate to some extent the reflexes on the vascular system1 ,professor ,langley replied4 ,,would ,,pain ,,cause ,,an ,,increase ,,of ,,blood-,,pressure8 ,,it ,,would ,,cause ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,blood-,,pressure1 replied the physiologist4 ,of course1 he insisted upon the sufficiency of the anaesthesia1 but he had made the most important admission which his evidence affords4 ,,if ,,pain ,,were ,,felt1 ,,it ,,would ,,cause ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,blood-,,pressure4 ,dr4 ,w4 ,e4 ,dixon of ,king's ,college1 ,london1 representing one of the sections of the ,royal ,society of ,medicine1 gave evidence before the ,royal ,commission on various matters pertaining to anaesthesia4 ,dogs1 he asserted1 very easily die of chloroform2 but if one goes sufficiently slowly they never die4 7#ah1fgg7a #a ,figures in parentheses refer to the questions or replies in the printed evidence4 ,supposing you were giving chloroform with ,,curare1 then it might be said you were not giving enough chloroform4 ,,but ,,you ,,can ,,see ,,whether ,,you ,,are ,,giving ,,enough ,,by ,,looking ,,at ,,the ,,blood-,,pressure4 7#ah1fij7 ,professor ,dixon tells us that one of the gauges used for determining whether anaesthesia is present or not ,,is ,,the ,,blood-,,pressure4 ,the blood-pressure goes ,,down ,,because ,,the ,,chloroform ,,is ,,given4 ,the heart beats more feebly2 therefore the blood-pressure goes down4 7#ah1gdb7 ,another expert physiologist1 whose testimony on this point is enlightening1 was ,dr4 ,eh4 ,h4 ,starling1 professor of physiology at ,university ,college1 ,london4 ,are there any means1 other than the cries or struggles of the animal1 by which you can tell whether the anaesthetic is passing off8 ,,yes1 ,,you ,,can ,,tell ,,it ,,by ,,the ,,blood-,,pressure1 ,dr4 ,starling replied4 ,when one is working without curare1 one notices ,,that ,,the ,,pressure ,,goes ,,up1 and then1 if one does not attend to it1 after that comes a little movement1 ,,and ,,you ,,give ,,more ,,anaesthetic4 7#d1jed7 ,we need not follow ,professor ,starling in his repeated assurances of complete anaesthesia in his vivisections2 all this is merely an expression of faith in the accurate and perfect working of his instruments1 a faith which some of the ,commissioners did not share4 ,what interests us is the statement that ,,if ,,the ,,anaesthesia ,,is ,,imperfect1 ,,the ,,blood-,,pressure ,,will ,,reveal ,,it4 ,the pressure goes up2 there is some slight motion on the part of the animal2 ,,it ,,feels1 and that returning sensibility to painful impressions is indicated by an increase in the pressure of the blood4#a #a ,sir ,victor ,horsley admitted that changes in the blood-pressure afford an indication whether anaesthesia is perfect or not 7,ques4 #af1jeg74 ,but how is the measurement of the blood-pressure to be ascertained8 ,one of the instruments in use is thus described3 ,the pressure exerted upon the blood in the arterial system may be measured by attaching the carotid artery of a living animal to a reservoir of mercury1 provided with an upright open tube or pressure- gauge4444 ,under pressure of the blood1 the mercury rises in this tube1 and the height of the mercurial column becomes an indication of the pressure to which the blood itself is subjected within the artery4 ,the arterial pressure is found to be equal to the average of a column of mercury #aej millimetres1 or #f inches1 in height4 ,instruments for ascertaining the blood-pressure in human beings record it merely for a moment or two4 ,in experimenting upon a living animal1 an incision is made in the neck1 the principal artery exposed and severed1 and connected with the recording instrument4 ,pain is a word which as a rule the modern physiologist prefers to exclude from his vocabulary4 ,we know absolutely nothing about pain except that which we ourselves have suffered1 says a leading experimenter4 ,we are unable neither to see1 hear1 smell1 taste1 or feel the pain of another being1 and although the cries or struggles of an animal which is being vivisected may suggest that it is experiencing intense agony1 the physiologist insists that in reality we know nothing about it1 and we can only infer that it is experiencing something which our reason suggests that we should feel in its place4 ,of course we might say the same thing regarding agony undergone by another human being4 ,what the physiologist does is note the phenomena following the stimulation of nerves1 and to register it by appropriate instruments4 ,to stimulate a nerve is to excite its activity in some way4 ,when the dentist touches with his instrument the exposed nerve of a tooth1 there is immediate stimulation1 as many of us have had reason to assert1 even if the dentist can know nothing of our sensations1 and can only infer them by remembering his own4 ,one may stimulate the nerve of a vivisected animal by mechanical means1 by pinching or scraping it when exposed2 and although the movements of the animal may indicate an exquisite sensibility1 yet other methods are more effective for the purposes of the experimenter4 ,electricity1 ,professor ,austin ,flint tells us1 is the best means we have of artificially exciting the nerves4 ,using electricity1 we can regulate with exquisite nicety the degree of stimulation4 ,,we ,,can ,,excite ,,the ,,nerves ,,long ,,after ,,they ,,have ,,ceased ,,to ,,respond ,,to ,,mechanical ,,irritation4 ,a ,french vivisector1 ,m4 de ,sine'ty1 removed the breasts of a female guinea-pig1 nursing its young1 and laid bare the mammary nerve1 and he tells us that the animal exhibits signs of acute pain1 ,,especially ,,when ,,the ,,nerve ,,is ,,stimulated ,,by ,,an ,,electric ,,current4#a #a ,gazette ,me'dicale de ,paris1 #ahgi1 p4 #eic4 ,in #aijc there was published in ,america an account of a large number of vivisections involving blood-pressure which a well-known experimenter had made1 either personally or by his assistants4 ,the number of dogs thus sacrificed was no less than #bdc2 the experiments to which they were subjected amounted to #bea4 ,ether alone was used in #ajg experiments1 or about #dc per cent4 of the whole number2 ether and morphia were employed in #hj experiments1 or #cb per cent4 of the total4 ,chloroform combined with ether was used but ,,once4 ,in no less than #ae per cent4 of the experiments no anaesthetic whatever is named1 and ,,curare was employed in nearly #aj per cent4 of the investigations4 ,why was curare used8 ,we have seen that the professor of physiology in ,upsaal ,university regards it as the most cruel of poisons4 ,an animal under its influence1 ,professor ,holmgren tells us1 changes instantly into a living corpse1 ,,which ,,hears ,,and ,,sees ,,and ,,knows ,,everything1 but is unable to move a single muscle1 and under its influence no creature can give the faintest indication of its hopeless condition4 ,the ,french vivisector1 ,claude ,be'rnard1 tells us frankly that death under the influence of this poison is accompanied by sufferings the most atrocious that the imagination of man can conceive4 ,precisely the reason why this poison was employed in the investigations before us we have no means of knowing by anything the vivisector has stated in his report4 ,he tells us1 indeed1 that the animals were all reduced to full surgical anaesthesia before the experiments began1 a nd were killed before recovery from the same4 ,we see no reason for doubting why this may not have been true4 ,it is quite probably that as a rule the preliminary cutting operations necessary were made while the animal was deeply insensible4 ,but was this deep insensibility maintained for hours8 ,was it so absolute that doubt is impossible8 ,since it is certain that the irritation produces a rise in blood- pressure1 was this phenomenon never witnessed during the terrible operations to which these dogs were subjected for hours at a time8 ,if1 as ,professor ,langley of the ,university of ,cambridge explained1 pain ,,would ,,cause ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,blood-,,pressure1 was this sign of agony ever evoked when the bare nerve was subjected to stimulation1 or the paws slowly scorched one after another8 ,let us see4 ,we observe that as a rule each vivisection consisted of two procedures1 aside from the preliminary operation4 ,in the first place1 the normal pressure of the blood was reduced by various methods1 calculated to depress the vital powers of the animal1 and to induce a condition of collapse1 and this was followed by such stimulation of nerves as would tend to cause the blood-pressure to rise in an animal not perfectly anaesthetized4 ,the means taken to depress the vital powers were as varied as the ingenuity of the vivisectors could devise4 ,sometimes it was accomplished by skinning the animal alive1 a par of the body at a time1 and then roughly sponging the denuded surface4 ,sometimes it was secured by crushing the dog's paws1 first one and then the other4 ,now and then the dog's feet were burnt1 or the intestines exposed and roughly manipulated2 the tail was crushed1 the limbs amputated1 the stomach cut out4 ,then came the stimulation of the exposed nerve1 carried on and repeated sometimes until ,nature refused longer to respond1 and death came to the creature's relief4 ,no torments more exquisite were ever perpetrated unless absence of feeling was completely secured4 ,was it so secured8 ,let the experimenter's own report give us the facts1 remembering that if there was pain1 ,,the ,,blood-,,pressure ,,would ,,rise4 ,,experiment #db4 ,the material used was a little dog1 weighing only #aa pounds4 ,how it was reduced to shock--whether by skinning or crushing--we are not informed2 all we know is that it was reduced to shock4 ,the sciatic nerve was exposed1 the artery in the neck laid bare1 and the instrument for measuring the blood-pressure carefully adjusted4 ,ether1 we are told1 was used4 ,was all sensibility thereby wholly suppressed8 ,let us see what is revealed by the changes of the blood-pressure4#a #a ,in all experiments cited in this chapter the italics are not in the original descriptions4 #aj4cj a4m4 ,sciatic nerve stimulated4 ,,slow ,,rise ,,in ,,blood-,,pressure4 #aj4ce a4m4 ,sciatic nerve stimulated4 ,,rise ,,of ,,blood-,,pressure4 #aj4ea a4m4 ,sciatic nerve stimulated4 ,,rise ,,of ,,blood-,,pressure4 #aa4cj a4m4 ,sciatic nerve stimulated4 ,,rise ,,of ,,blood-,,pressure #ac ,,millimetres4 #aa4ei a4m4 ,sciatic nerve stimulated4 ,,rise ,,of ,,blood-,,pressure #e ,,millimetres4 ,noon has come4 ,it is the hour when experimenters need their accustomed refreshment1 and we note a long interval during which there were no observations4 ,the victim lies stretched upon the rack4 ,after nearly two hours the pastime began again1 or1 we may say1 the young scientists resumed their arduous labours4 #a4ee p4m4 ,sciatic nerve stimulated4 ,,abrupt ,,rise ,,of ,,blood-,,pressure #ag millimetres4 #c4c p4m4 ,sciatic nerve stimulated4 ,,rise ,,of #ad ,,millimetres4 #d4dd p4m4 ,sciatic nerve stimulated4 ,,rise ,,of #b ,,millimetres4 ,the little animal is growing weaker4 ,for more than six hours it has been on the rack4 ,the play upon its nervous system is about over4 ,at five o'clock the dog died4 ,the full details of this experiment do not here concern us1 and are not given4 ,whether useful or not is another matter ,pain1 said ,professor ,langley1 ,,would ,,cause ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,blood-,,pressure4 ,did not the blood-pressure rise when this creature's nerve was stimulated8 ,,experiment #aad4 ,in this experiment four dogs were simultaneously vivisected4 ,some of them lasted but a short time2 but one--a young dog--was in splendid condition1 and subserved the object of the vivisection for many hours4 ,the usual incisions were made in the trachea and carotid artery1 and the femoral vein and sciatic nerve was exposed4 ,at #aj4ei a4m4 the blood-pressure was found to be #abe milli- metres2 at #aj4db it had been reduced to #ii millimetres--by what means we are not informed4 ,further details are as follows3 #aa4db a4m4 ,blood pressure #ii millimetres4 #aa4de a4m4 ,stimulated sciatic nerve4 ,,pressure ,,rose ,,to #aae ,,millimetres4 #ab midday4 ,blood-pressure #ie4 ,sciatic nerve stimulated3 ,,blood-,,pressure #aae4 #ab4ai p4m4 ,blood-pressure #ib4 #a4bc p4m4 ,blood-pressure #ajh2 sciatic nerve stimulated4 #a4bf p4m4 ,blood-pressure #aaj2 three minutes later4 ,between #a4bi p4m4 and #b4ai p4m4 there is no record of any observations4 ,perhaps we may venture the hypothesis that during this period of nearly an hour's duration1 the young experimenters went out to luncheon4 ,the dog1 while stretched upon the rack1 could have had no other refreshment than cessation from the stimulation of its nerves4 ,but after about an hour's intermission the young vivisectors would seem again to have begun their observations concerning the effect produced by stimulating the sciatic nerve4 ,what was that effect8 ,it appears to have been very uniform4 #b4bh p4m4 ,sciatic nerve stimulated4 ,,abrupt ,,rise ,,and ,,fall ,,in ,,blood-,,pressure4 #c4cb p4m4 ,sciatic nerve stimulated4 ,,rise ,,and ,,fall ,,in ,,blood-,,pressure4 #d4af p4m4 ,sciatic nerve stimulated4 ,,blood-,,pressure ,,rose ,,to #abj1 ,,falling ,,to #aje4 #d4cd p4m4 ,sciatic nerve stimulated4 ,,abrupt ,,rise ,,and ,,fall ,,of ,,blood-,,pressure4 #d4ec p4m4 ,sciatic nerve stimulated4 ,,the ,,usual ,,rise ,,and ,,fall ,,followed4 ,do we find in the last observation an indication of a growing distaste for such work8 ,one cannot tell4 ,between #e4di p4m4 and #f4cf p4m4 there are no observations recorded4 ,perhaps this period of forty-seven minutes--three-quarters of an hour--were devoted by the young vivisectors to the conviviality of their evening repast4 ,then the usual observations were renewed4 ,but at #g4aj p4m41 while again stimulating the sciatic nerve1 suddenly the dog's heart stopped4 ,at #g4ab p4m4 the dog died4 ,during a period from eleven o'clock in the forenoon until after seven o'clock in the evening--,,eight ,,hours ,,and ,,thirteen ,,minutes--the little animal had been stretched upon the rack4 ,its splendid condition had enabled it to survive the tortures to which its three less vigorous companions in martyrdom had long before succumbed1 and had made it possible for many hours to play upon exquisite sensibility4 ,,pain1 said ,professor ,langley to the ,royal ,commissioners1 3,,would ,,cause ,a ,,rise ,,in ,,blood-,,pressure4 ,,was ,,there ,,not ,,repeatedly ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,blood-,,pressure ,,in ,,this ,,experiment8 ,we call attention to no other details4 ,let us study these vivisections further4 ,when animals were subjected to injuries calculated to make the strongest impression uppon their sensibility1 was not the response ,a ,,rise ,,in ,,blood-,,pressure8 ,,experiment #ch4 ,a small female spaniel1 weighing about #ac pounds4 ,ether is said to have been used for anaesthesia4 #ab4ed p4m4 ,blood-pressure #ih millimetres4 #a4aa p4m4 ,,hind-,,foot ,,burned4 ,,the ,,blood-,,pressure ,,rose ,,rapidly ,,to #aah ,,millimetres4 ,a slow fall followed4 #a4db p4m4 ,,the ,,foot ,,was ,,burned4 ,a ,,sharp ,,rise ,,in ,,blood-,,pressure ,,followed4 ,the dog died of heart failure1 after an experience of nearly five hours in the hands of the vivisectors4 ,,experiment #gc4 ,a dog1 weighing about #ae pounds4 ,morphia and ether said to have been used4 ,did they prevent sensation under such stimulation as follows3 ,,application ,,of ,,the ,,bunsen ,,flame ,,to ,,the ,,foot ,,for ,,four ,,seconds ,,was ,,followed ,,by ,a ,,decided ,,rise ,,in ,,the ,,blood-,,pressure4444 ,the blood- pressure was maintained higher ,,by ,,repeated ,,burnings4 ,these are the final words of the report of this experiment4 ,we do not know when the dog died1 nor to how many burnings he was subjected4 ,the use of fire as a method of ,,stimulation of nerves seems to have been very attractive4 ,for example3 ,,experiment #gd4 ,dog4 ,,gradual ,,burning ,,of ,,the ,,left ,,hind-,,foot ,,produced ,a ,,very ,,marked ,,rise 7of blood-pressure74 ,,the ,,rise ,,was ,,maintained ,,by ,,slowly ,,scorching ,,the ,,paws4 ,,after ,,the ,,effect ,,began ,,to ,,wear ,,out ,,in ,,one ,,paw1 ,,another ,,was ,,stimulated ,,in ,a ,,similar ,,manner1 ,,so ,,that ,,the ,,blood- ,,pressure ,,was ,,maintained ,,for ,,twenty ,,minutes4 ,of what possible value was such an experiment8 ,does any one believe that in a human being blood-pressure will ever be maintained by slowly scorching the hands and feet of the patient8 ,,experiment #ge4 ,small dog1 weighing about #ac pounds4 ,morphia and ether said to have been used4 ,during this experiment the intestines were exposed and manipulated1 and the foot and tail ,,crushed4 ,,the ,,left ,,hind-,,foot ,,was ,,burned2 ,a ,,rise ,,in ,,the ,,blood-,,pressure ,,followed4 ,,experiment #if4 ,dog4 ,,no ,,anaesthetic ,,mentioned4 ,artificial respiration4 ,,burning ,,hind-,,paw ,,produced ,a ,,rise ,,in ,,blood-,,pressure4 ,after administration of ,,curare1 there was another ,,burning ,,of ,,the ,,paw1 the blood-pressure did not respond1 and shortly after1 the dog died4 ,,experiment #ie4 ,dog1 in good condition4 ,,no ,,anaesthetic ,,mentioned4 ,integument removed from three-fourths of the body4 ,,burning ,,of ,,the ,,hind-,,paw4 ,,abrupt ,,rise 7of blood-pressure71 #ee ,,millimetres1 then an equal fall4 ,the denuded surfaces were roughly sponged for a considerable time4 ,then ,,curare was given1 and artificial respiration followed4 ,,experiment #df4 ,mongrel2 good condition4 ,an excessive amount of ether given at beginning2 artificial respiration became necessary4 ,extensive operations were made1 such as crushing the paws1 breaking the legs1 and manipulating the nerve trunks4 ,these were followed by ,a ,,rise ,,in ,,blood-,,pressure4 ,,experiment #ajd4 ,,no ,,anaesthetic ,,named4 ,dog4 #aa4bf a4m4 ,animal reduced to surgical shock by skinning and mechanically irritating the raw surface4 #aa4cf a4m4 ,,curare given4 #aa4eh a4m4 ,electrical stimulation of sciatic 7nerve74 ,,rise ,,of ,,blood-,,pressure4 #ab4dh p4m4 ,sciatic nerve stimulated4 ,,rise ,,of ,,blood-,,pressure4 #a4ab p4m4 ,electrical stimulation of sciatic nerve cause ,a ,,rise 444 ,,in ,,blood ,,pressure4 #b4dj p4m4 ,animal died4 ,when ,dr4 ,francis ,gotch1 ,f4,r4,s41 the professor of physiology in the ,university of ,oxford1 was examined before the late ,royal ,commission on ,vivisection1 he testified that under curare an animal could not even blink an eye1 so complete is the immobility produced by this drug4 ,yet to the eye of the experimenter would there not be something to tell him whether or not the animal was feeling pain8 ,i should say so1 replied the physiologist--in the alternations of blood-pressure4 ,,it ,,is ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,blood-,,pressure1 is it not8 inquired one of the ,commissioners4 ,,yes1 was the physiologist's curt reply4 ,but it would be diminished if the animal was absolutely anaesthetized8 ,,yes1 was the reply of ,dr4 ,gotch4 ,is a change in blood-pressure the only mode by which you can objectively determine whether the animal is conscious1 or suffering pain1 if under the influence of curare8 somewhat later1 he physiologist was asked4 ,i suggest that ,,that ,,is ,,one ,,obvious ,,way4 ,let us turn again to the experiment just quoted4 ,no anaesthetic is mentioned4 ,curare was administered1 the sole effect of which is to render the living animal as motionless as a corpse4 ,three times the greta nerve was electrically stimulated1 and each time there was that ,,rise ,,of ,,blood-,,pressure which we are told upon the highest authority was the ,,one ,,obvious ,,way of determining the presence of pain4 ,keeping in mind this testimony of the professors of physiology at the ,universities of ,oxford1 of ,cambridge1 and of ,london1 that if pain were present during a vivisection ,,it ,,would ,,cause ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,the ,,blood- ,,pressure1 let us now examine a little more carefully some of the experiments referred to in the volume reviewed in the previous chapter4 ,we have had assurances of their painlessness4 ,but to the scientific man assurances are of little value as compared with the testimony of the instrument4 ,were any of these experiments associated with a ,,rise ,,in ,,blood-,,pressure8 ,it is unnecessary to study them in their relation to other phenomena4 ,in the early stimulations of a nerve trunk1 a rise in blood-pressure was always produced2 but after a number of repetitions the time came when no effect was produced1 or the pressure fell2 the point of exhaustion had been reached4 ,but let us note what the instrument recorded4 ,the italics are ours4 ,,experiment #e4 ,under incomplete anaesthesia1 ,,crushing ,,of ,,foot ,,caused ,a ,,very ,,sharp ,,rise1 followed by an equally sharp decline of pressure4 ,this was repeated several times4 7,the author also tells us that under full anaesthesia1 crushing of the paws caused a rise4 ,one may question the completeness of the insensibility47 ,,experiment #h4 ,fox terrier1 two years old2 ether4444 ,,crushing ,,of ,,the ,,paw ,,was ,,attended ,,by ,,immediate ,,rise44444 ,crushing of the fore-leg ,,was ,,attended ,,by ,a ,,rise4444 ,crushing of the foot1 ,,attended ,,by ,a ,,rise4 ,cutting skin of thigh and leg was ,,attended ,,by ,a ,,rise4 ,,experiment #i4 ,,crushing ,,of ,,the ,,paw ,,was ,,followed ,,by ,a ,,rise1 and continual cutting and crushing of the paw ,,by ,a ,,still ,,further ,,rise ,,of ,,pressure4 ,,experiment #ag4 ,several loops of intestines were withdrawn and placed ,,in ,,boiling ,,water1 ,,attended ,,by ,a ,,rapid ,,rise of the blood-pressure1 followed soon by a fall4 ,,experiment #bh4 ,hip-joint amputation made on both sides caused a rise in pressure4 ,,grasping ,,sciatic ,,nerve ,,with ,,forceps and ,,making ,,traction 7pulling upon the nerve7 ,,caused ,a ,,rise4 ,,experiment #cf4 ,small white dog4444 ,,hot ,,water introduced into abdominal cavity ,,produced ,a ,,rise4 ,,experiment #ei4 ,spaniel1 female2 weight only #ac pounds4 ,it has been nursing its puppies1 and is very cross4 ,duration of experiment1 one and a half hours4 ,manipulation of ovaries caused slight ,,rise ,,of ,,blood-,,pressure4 ,,expreiment #gf4 ,dog4 ,among other procedures1 the vivisectors ,,applied ,a ,,large ,,gas-,,flame to the posterior extremities in the region of the knee2 a slight rise4 ,repeated the application for a longer time2 slight rise4444 ,,application ,,of ,a ,,bunsen ,,flame ,,to ,,the ,,nose1 ,,producing ,a ,,slight ,,rise ,,in ,,blood-,,pressure4 ,,experiment #hb4 ,a small female dog2 weight oly #i pounds4 ,time of experiment1 one hour and fifty-five minutes4 ,one-third of a grain of ,,curare and one-twelfth of a grain of morphia were injected into the jugular vein4 ,after various manipulations1 there was ,,application ,,of ,,bunsen',s ,,flame ,,to ,,the ,,right ,,hind-,,foot1 causing ,,an ,,appreciable ,,rise ,,in ,,the ,,blood-,,pressure4 ,,experiment #hg4 ,dog4 ,time of experiment1 two hours and forty-five minutes4 ,injected ,,curare and morphine into the jugular vein2 artificial respiration maintained4444 ,the sciatic nerve was exposed and stimulated by a faradic current4 ,a ,,sharp ,,increase ,,in ,,blood-,,pressure during the period of stimulation was noted4#a #a ,concerning the rise of blood-pressure as the sign of an animal's sensibility to painful impressions1 when under the influence of ,,curare1 see testimony of ,professor ,gotch of ,oxford ,university1 quoted on a preceding page4 ,,experiment #id4 ,electrical stimulation of sciatic nerve produced ,,marked ,,increase ,,in ,,blood-,,pressure4444 ,application of ,bunsen's flame to the foot2 ,,rise ,,in ,,blood-,,pressure4444 ,,repeated ,,application ,,of ,,bunsen',s ,,flame ,,for ,a ,,period ,,of ,,two ,,minutes ,,produced ,,decided ,,rise ,,in ,,blood- ,,pressure4 ,,experiment #ie4 ,application of ,bunsen's flame to the paw produced but slight rise4444 ,bunsen's flame applied to the foot1 ,,causing ,,rise ,,in ,,both ,,pressures4444 ,application of ,,bunsen',s ,,flame ,,now ,,produced ,a ,,sharp ,,rise ,,in ,,the ,,pressures4 ,then the blood-pressure fell1 and though the vivisector applied flame to the intestines1 it produced no effect so far as the blood-pressure was concerned4 ,,experiment #ig4 ,application of ,a ,,bunsen',s ,,flame ,,produced ,,the ,,characteristic ,,increase ,,in ,,blood-,,pressure4444 ,stimulation of the sciatic nerve by the faradic current produced an ,,increase ,,in ,,blood- ,,pressure4444 ,repetition of the stimulus produced ,a ,,further ,,rise ,,in ,,blood-,,pressure4444 ,,experiment #aaj4 ,application of ,bunsen's flame ,,produced ,a ,,sharp ,,rise4444 ,,experiment #aac4 ,bunsen's flame applied to the posterior and anterior extremities ,,produced ,a ,,marked ,,rise ,,in ,,pressure4444 ,,bunsen',s ,,flame ,,over ,,region ,,of ,,the ,,heart ,,produced ,a ,,gradual ,,rise4 ,,experiment #aca4 ,bunsen's flame to the right hind-foot was followed by ,a ,,rather ,,marked ,,rise ,,in ,,central ,,blood-,,pressure4 ,,experiment #acb4 ,,bunsen',s ,,flame ,,to ,,the ,,nose ,,caused ,a ,,general ,,rise ,,in ,,blood-,,pressure4 ,in the year #aijj the same vivisector published an account of certain experiments on the respiratory system1 #ajb in all4 ,we have the usual assurances of anaesthesia1 which1 of course1 can only be regarded as the operator's opinion4 ,fire is an element of some of these experiments4 ,we are told that a large blow-flame burner used for glass-blowing supplied a flame that could be adjusted to a very great range of intensity4 ,of this statemnet one can have no doubt upon reading some of the experiments described4 ,upon a healthy little poodle1 weighing only ten pounds1 with a blood-pressure of #abj millimetres1 the following experiment was made3 ,the mouth was held wide open1 and ,,the ,,blow-,,flame ,,directed ,,into ,,the ,,pharynx ,,and ,,respiratory ,,tract4 ,the immediate effect upon the blood- pressure was ,a ,,temporary ,,rise4 ,again the flame was applied2 ,,the ,,blood-,,pressure ,,rose ,,to #bjd ,,millimetres1 ,,continuing ,,at ,,this ,,high ,,rate ,,for ,,some ,,time4 ,probably this little creature was the pet of some child4 ,from whose door1 one day1 did it wander1 to be snatched up by some thief1 sold to a laboratory1 and sent to a death like this8 ,in another experiment a ,newfoundland dog ,,continuously ,,breathed ,,the ,,flame ,,for ,,twelve ,,minutes4 ,in a similar experiment that followed1 the results were practically identical4 ,in this case ,,the ,,flame ,,was ,,so ,,intense ,,as ,,to ,,melt ,,the ,,adipose ,,tissue ,,around ,,the ,,trachea4 ,the animal was broiled alive4 ,during the first year of the twentieth century the same writer presented the public an account of an ,experimental and ,clinical ,research into ,certain ,problems1 a work containing a considerable number of experiments of a nature similar to those before published4 ,we are again told that in all cases the animals were anaesthetized1 usually by ether1 occasionally by chloroform1 alone or combined with other substances1 although1 in a few cases1 ,,curare and morphine were used--neither of which is an anaesthetic4 ,a curious statement seems to imply a confession that all these experiments were not absolutely painless1 for the writer says3 ,every precaution was taken to inflict ,,as ,,little ,,pain ,,or ,,distress ,,as ,,possible4 ,is not this an admission that in some experiments there was pain8 ,how senseless is such statement6 ,when ,ridley and ,latimer were burnt alive at ,oxford1 the executioner might have protested with equal assurance that every precaution was taken to burn the condemned with as little pain and distress as possible4 ,between the experiments recorded in this volume and those which have been reviewed1 there is no very great difference4 ,there is a rise of blood-pressure after any mutilation or stimulation calculated to cause pain1 except in the few cases where a sufficiency of the anaesthetic appears to have been given2 to these attention will be called4 ,a new procedure seems to have been the use of the injection of a hot salt solution into the blood4 ,some of the results of experiments were as follows3 ,,experiment #ab4 ,burning right hind-foot caused a slight ,,rise ,,in ,,blood- ,,pressure4 ,ten minims 7drops7 of chloroform on inhaler produced a ,,decided ,,fall in blood-pressure4 ,,experiment #ef4 ,dog4 ,hind-foot burned1 ,,followed ,,by ,a ,,rise ,,in ,,blood- ,,pressure4444 ,burning the nose caused ,a ,,very ,,marked ,,rise in blood-pressure4 ,the animal1 after the injection of cocaine1 ,,was ,,not ,,under ,,full ,,ether ,,anaesthesia1 ,,cunjunctival ,,reflex ,,being ,,present4 ,,experiment #bg4 ,dog4 ,ether anaesthesia4 ,hind-foot was burned1 producing ,a ,,sharp ,,rise in the blood-pressure4 ,right paw again burned1 and ,,arterial ,,pressure ,,rose4444 ,animal subjected to ,,further ,,burning1 which was followed by ,,additional ,,slight ,,rise ,,in ,,pressure4 ,a considerable number of experiments involved the adding of hot salt solution to the blood4 ,,experiment #cd4 ,dog1 in good condition4 ,saline solution in jugular vein4444 ,in this and in preceding experiments with the hot saline1 the animal1 ,,though ,,under ,,surgical ,,anaesthesia1 ,,struggled4 ,that shows the worth of the surgical anaesthesia4 ,when ,professor ,starling was asked how he might know that the anaesthesia was passing off1 he told the ,royal ,commission that it was by noting the ,,slight ,,movemnet of the the animal1 ,,in ,,conjunction ,,with ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,blood- ,,pressure4#a ,scalding water in the blood seems to have given both of these signs3 #a ,evidence before ,royal ,commission1 ,question #d1jed4 ,,experiment #aa4 ,at #c4ce saline at #fd degrees ,c4 7this is #adg degrees ,f474 ,,the ,,dog ,,struggled ,,somewhat4 ,the blood-pressure ,,rose ,,markedly4 #c4de4 ,saline in jugular vein4 ,slight fall1 then a quite ,,abrupt ,,rise in blood-pressure4444 ,,the ,,dog ,,again ,,struggled ,,vigorously4 #c4dh4 ,saline at #fj degrees ,c4 7#adj degrees ,f474 ,slight ,,rise in blood-pressure4 ,,dog ,,struggled ,,somewhat4 #c4ed4 ,saline at #fj degrees ,c4 ,an immediate ,,rise in blood-pressure4 #d4ab4 ,one-half drachm of chloroform on inhaler4 #d4ac4 ,,marked ,,fall in blood-pressure4 #d4ac4 ,,chloroform ,,taken ,,away4 ,,blood-,,pressure ,,immediately ,,arose to previous level4 ,,experiment #cb4 ,a few drops of chloroform were given instead of ether1 the ,,blood-,,pressure ,,falling immediately4444 ,after a few minutes1 several drops of chloroform were again administered1 a marked ,,fall 7of blood-pressure7 following4 ,one-half drachm of chloroform given1 ,,producing ,a ,,gradual ,,fall ,,in ,,blood-,,pressure4 ,on removing the chloroform1 the blood-pressure recovered4 ,at #e4cj1 saline stopped4 ,eye reflex not gone4 ,at #e4cf ,,the ,,anaesthesia ,,removed4 ,,slight ,,rise in blood-pressure4 ,,reflexes ,,not ,,abolished4 ,does all this seem obscure to the reader8 ,at all events1 he can see that the effect of even a few drops of chloroform is a fall of the blood-pressure1 and that when the anaesthesia is removed there comes the rise which is so constantly associated with sensibility4 ,some of the experiments related to the effect of cocaine in blocking sensation4 ,these effects have long been known2 the necessity of all this burning of flesh is not apparent4 ,in another experiment1 a large dog was reduced to surgicla anaesthesia1 and both sciatic nerves exposed4 ,in one nerve cocaine was inject1 in the other salt solution4 ,the cocaine paw was subjected to burning by a ,bunsen flame1 ,,until ,,the ,,paw ,,was ,,charred4 ,there was no effect on the blood-pressure4 ,but on applying the ,bunsen flame to the other paw1 ,,there ,,was ,a ,,deliberate ,,drawing ,,up ,,of ,,the ,,leg1 ,,as ,,if ,,to ,,remove ,,the ,,paw ,,from ,,the ,,flame4 ,the writer tells us elsewhere that under general anaesthesia--no matter how deep--if the paw of an animal is subjected to the flame of a ,bunsen's burner1 after the lapse of a short time1 the leg is drawn up 444 in a deliberate but rather forceful manner1 removing the foot from the flame4 ,when cocain is injected into a nerve trunk1 we are told that an effectual physiologic block is produced4 ,the difference is manifest4 ,yet the vivisector would have us believe that in all cases of his anaesthesia the dog is unconscious4 ,may it not be rather that there are phases of agony so great that the anaesthesia of the laboratory does not suppress them8 ,is this a matter of uncertainty8 ,then why not permit the vivisected dog to have the benefit of the doubt8 ,here is a most significant experiment3 ,,experiment #ag4 444 ,the animal was allowed to come out of the influence of the general anaesthesic sufficient 7sic7 to make a slight struggle4444 ,,the ,,feet ,,were ,,burned just previous to the application of cocaine1 and 444 ,,blood-,,pressure ,,was ,,increased4 ,more cocaine was then applied2 ,,the ,,animal ,,became ,,totally ,,anaesthetized1 ,,the ,,corneal ,,reflexes ,,were ,,abolished1 and on applying a ,bunsen flame to the paws1 ,,no ,,effect ,,was ,,produced4 ,here we have an instance of a dog allowed to come out of the influence of the anaesthetic and to struggle2 the feet burned2 and finally1 such a degree of total anaesthetization as to prevent the usual phenomena4 ,but why are we told that the animal became ,,totally ,,anaesthetized1 and that the corneal reflexes were abolished8 ,is it a confession that in other experiments such a state of deep insensibility was not invariably produced8 ,what is the necessity for all this burning8 ,the smell of scorched and charred living flesh may have hung as heavily in the laboratory of the hospital as before the altars of ,baal2 it could hardly have been an attractive savour4 ,here are other instances3 ,,experiment #fb4 ,dog1 in good condition2 fox-terrier4 ,as a control1 ,,the ,,right ,,hind-,,foot ,,was ,,burned ,,before ,,the ,,conjunctival ,,reflex ,,was ,,abolished4 ,there was ,,rise ,,in ,,blood-,,pressure4 ,here1 then1 was sensation2 the eye responded to the touch4 ,,experiment #gb4 ,dog2 weight #ab pounds4 7,spinal7 cord exposed4 #e4e4 ,burning foot was followed ,,by ,,rise ,,in ,,blood-,,pressure4 #e4aj4 ,,burning ,,foot4 ,a ,,rise ,,in ,,blood-,,pressure ,,followed4 ,cocaine was then injected1 and burning of paws produced no effect4 ,there was a difference in the phenomena produced4 ,in the year #aiji the same vivisector published stll another volume recording experiments upon haemorrhage and the transfusion of blood4 ,to many of these experiments we should take no exception on the ground of inutility or excessive production of pain4 ,others1 however1 are to be criticized1 particularly when studied in connection with the claim put forth of complete absence of animal sensation4 ,in his introduction the experimenter seems to assert in the most distinct and emphatic way the complete unconsciousness of each victim4 ,he says3 ,no experiment was performed in which the particular animal used was not reduced to complete insensibility by means of ether1 or some other equally efficient anaesthetic4 ,if the statement is made that the anaesthetic was stopped during an experiment1 it does not mean that the animal could suffer pain1 but that death was threatened from too much anaesthetic1 more being given as soon as signs of revival were shown4 ,in every experiment in which necessary mutilation was performed1 the animal was killed before coming out of the anaesthetic2 therefore absolutely no suffering was undergone4 ,very few recovery experiments were performed1 no more than were necessary to prove a given fact4 ,what is the scientific value of this assurance--that absolutely no suffering was undergone8 ,it can have no value1 except as an opinion on the part of one extremely interested in the maintenance of a particular view4 ,so far from being a series of painless experiments1 we do not hesitate to suggest that ,,if ,,rise ,,of ,,blood-,,pressure ,,be ,a ,,sign ,,of ,,pain1 then1 in all probability many of them involed torments as exquisite as it is possible to imagine4 ,take1 for example1 the folloowing vivisections3 ,,experiment #aj4 ,the subject was a dog1 said to be in a good condition4 ,from time to time blood was abstracted from the body4 #d4bf4 ,,on ,,burning ,a ,,paw ,,under ,,light ,,anaesthesia1 ,,there ,,was ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,pressure ,,of #af ,,millimetres4 #aj4af4 ,on burning a paw1 there was ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,pressure4 #aa4ac4 ,on burning a paw1 there was ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,pressure of #ac millimetres4 #a4db4 ,on burning a paw1 there was ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,pressure of #ac millimetres4 ,,experiment #cc4 ,,on ,,burning ,a ,,paw ,,under ,,light ,,anaesthesia1 ,,there ,,was ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,pressure ,,of #ai ,,millimetres4 ,what is ,,light anaesthesia8 ,it is a condition which a few drops of chloroform will produce2 a state in which the loss of consciousness is so slight that any pain may be as keenly felt as if no stupefying agent had been given4 ,what are we to think of a statemnet that in a condition of such light slumber the keenest of pains--,,the ,,burning ,,of ,,living ,,flesh--,,involved ,,no ,,suffering8 ,how can one speak with authority on a matter like this against the evidence of the one obvious sign of sensibility8 ,when the paws of the miserable animal were burned1 was there not the rise of blood-pressure which indicated suffering8 ,pain would cause a rise of blood-pressure1 said the professor of physiology of the ,university of ,cambridge4 ,should we find the significant rise of the blood-pressure in other experiments where fire was used for the stimulation of the nerves8 ,let us see4 ,,experiment #b4 ,on burning a paw1 there was a ,,rise ,,of ,,pressure ,,of #aj millimetres4 ,stimulation of sciatic nerve resulted in ,a ,,rise of systolic pressure4 ,,experiment #d4 #aa4de4 ,on burning a paw1 there was ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,pressure4 #a4bg4 ,sciatic nerve stimulated2 ,,rise ,,of ,,blood-,,pressure4 ,,experiment #f4 ,burned a paw4 ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,pressure of #d millimetres resulted4 ,,experiment #ab4 ,on burning a paw1 there was a ,,rise ,,of ,,pressure of #af millimetres4 ,,experiment #ad4 ,on burning a paw1 ,a ,,rise ,,of #ab ,,millimetres1 followed by a temporary fall1 and then a rise to a higher level4 ,on burning a paw1 there was ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,blood-,,pressure ,,of #b ,,millimetres4 ,,experiment #ae4 #aa4ab4 ,on burning a paw1 there was ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,pressure ,,of #h ,,millimetres4 #aa4cf4 ,on burning a paw1 there was ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,pressure ,,of #ab ,,millimetres4 ,,experiment #af4 ,dog4 ,condition good4 #aa4bb4 ,on burning a paw1 there was ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,pressure ,,of #bb ,,millimetres4 #aa4cc4 ,on burning a paw1 there was ,a ,,rise ,,of #bi ,,millimetres4 #aa4dd4 ,contrl4 ,on burning a paw1 there was ,a ,,rise ,,of #bd ,,millimetres4 #ab4bf4 ,on burning a paw1 there was ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,pressure ,,of #h ,,millimetres4 #ab4ce4 ,on burning a paw1 there was ,a ,,steady ,,rise ,,of ,,pressure4 ,,experiment #bb4 ,dog4 ,on burning a paw1 there was ,a ,,rise ,,in ,,pressure ,,of #cf ,,millimetres4 ,,experiment #bd4 ,on burning a paw1 there was ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,blood-,,pressure ,,of #ab ,,millimetres4 #ab4ai4 ,on burning a paw1 there was ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,pressure ,,of #ah ,,millimetres4 ,,experiment #bi4 #b4ac4 ,blood-pressure #dc4 ,on burning a paw it rose #ab millimetres4 #b4cj4 ,on burning a paw1 ,,there ,,was ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,blood- ,,pressure4 #c4f4 ,on burning a paw1 ,,there ,,was ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,blood- ,,pressure4 ,,experiment #ca4 #c4ce4 ,on burning a paw1 ,,there ,,was ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,pressure4 #d4ad4 ,on burning a paw1 ,,there ,,was ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,pressure4 ,the foregoing experiments are not quoted in full2 in many of them1 at intervals1 the animals were bled2 and these observations of the effects of burning a paw were incidental to others4 ,,but ,,why ,,all ,,this ,,burning ,,and ,,stimulation ,,to ,,prove ,a ,,phenomenon ,,so ,,uniform8 ,one exceptional experiment must not be overlooked4 ,on one occasion two dogs were vivisected at the same time4 ,at the outset a paw of each dog was burned1 causing ,a ,,rise of blood-pressure in each case4 ,a little later the sciatic nerve was stimulated3 #aa4be4 ,on stimulating the sciatic nerves of each dog1 ,dog ,a showed a rising and falling pressure1 and ,dog ,b 7,,more ,,ether ,,was ,,given ,,just ,,then7 showed an initial ,,fall1 and a rise1 with a sudden second ,,fall and a rise4 #aa4cb4 ,,both ,,dogs ,,were ,,deeply ,,anaesthetized4 ,dog ,a3 ,stimulation ,,produced ,,no ,,effect4 ,dog ,b3 ,on stimulating the sciatic nerve1 there was ,a ,,fall ,,of 7,,blood7-,,pressure1 ,,with ,,slow ,,recovery4 ,here we have recorded by the experimenter himself the difference in the effect of stimulation of nerves in an animal deeply anaesthetized and the results produced when the anaesthesia was light4 ,it has seemed necessary to examine at some length these peculiar experiments4 ,the volumes describing them are not easily to be seen2 some appear to be out of print2 even ,sir ,victor ,horsley2 in whose laboratory in ,london some of the experiments were performed1 confessed that he did not know about the vivisections made in the ,united ,states--whether or not they differed from those performed in ,england4 ,in the vast number of these vivisections1 so far beyond anything previously reported in our country by a single experimenters2 in the ingenuity and variety of the mutilations to which the victims were subjected--mutilations and stimulations calculated to cause the extremest agony1 unless the anaesthesia was perfect2 in the seeming affirmation of absolute insensibility of the wretched animals1 although contradicted by the only sign of suffering that in some cases could possibly be seen2 in the apparent uselessness of experiments1 repeated again and again simply to elicit precisely the same phenomena2 above all1 in the absence from criticism which some of these investigations have managed to secure--all this constitutes a claim for especial consideration4 ,there can be little doubt that they merely illustrate what goes on to-day1 in many a laboratory in the ,united ,states1 in secret--as these were made in secret--and untouched by the criticism of the outer world4 ,of the absolute uselessness of the vast majority of these experiments much might be said1 but it is aside from this inquiry4 ,the question of utility is not here raised4 ,the one matter of inquiry is the existence of pain4 ,if a vast number of the experiments recorded may have involved the keenest agony of the victims1 how are we to explain the repeated assertions that sensation was absolutely removed8 ,among antivivisectionists there are those who belive that any human being who could thus subject animals to torment would not find it impossible to deny the fact4 ,such explanation implies an inveracity which it is not necessary to impute4 ,mankind is still liable to error2 the false deductions of honest men have more than once led to mistaken affirmations of facts2 and the most illustrious scientist that ever lived can hardly claim infallibility in matters of opinion4 ,a distinguished philosopher and vivisector of three hundred years ago1 ,rene ,descartes1 put forth the theory that animals1 being without souls1 cannot suffer pain1 and that their cries under vivisection were simply as the whirring of wheels in an intricate piece of machinery4 ,we can easily imagine a modern follower of ,descartes declaring1 as the philosopher would have done1 that ,,no ,,suffering ,,was ,,felt4 ,a professor of physiology in ,harvard ,medical ,school1 in course of an address before a ,state medical society1 laid down the theory that it is ,,entirely ,,impossible to draw conclusions with regard to the sensations of animals by an effort to imagine what our own would be under similar circumstances2 and when a vivisector has reached the stage where he can hold that belief1 he may define pain as something pertaining only to human beings1 and feel himself justified in declaring that ,,vivisection ,,of ,,animals ,,never ,,causes ,,pain1 according to his definition of the word4 ,it is well for the world that with this theory the vast majority of thinking men and women have no sympathy whatever4 ,the organized efforts for the protection of animals from cruelty have no meaning if animals are without capacity for that anguish which cruelty implies4 ,we believe1 on the contrary1 that many1 if not all1 of the higher species of animals1 especially those nearest to man in structure and intelligence1 receive1 when subjected to the torment of fire or steel1 precisely the same sensations that1 under a like infliction1 a human being would suffer4 ,at any rate1 if doubt be possible1 should they not have the benefit of it8 ,if one were asked whether he surely could demonstrate the emotions of any animal made incapable of movement1 fixed immovably as in a vice1 and subjected to the stimulation of fire1 he might confess that inference and not proof was all he could offer4 ,but if one goes farther1 and inquires whether in any of the experiments recorded in this chapter there was evoked any sign of sensibility which delicate instruments could detect and record1 then1 assuredly1 we are on safe ground4 ,with startling uniformity we find recorded by the experimenters themselves the fluctuations of blood-pressure following the stimulation of exposed nerves1 the crushing of pawes1 the burning of the feet1 the scalding with boiling water1 and other mutilations4 ,what is their significance8 ,if1 as ,sir ,lauder ,brunton tells us1 the irritation of sensory nerves tends to cause contraction of blood- vessels ,,and ,,to ,,raise ,,the ,,blood-,,pressure2 if1 as ,straus affirms1 ,,pain ,,increases ,,blood-,,pressure1 so that in a healthy person the pressure is increased even by pinching of the skin2 if1 as the physiologist ,dalton declares1 the irritation of any of the sensitive nerves induces a constriction of bloodvessels indicated by icreased arterial pressure2 if the professor of physiology at ,university ,college1 ,london1 being asked if there were any means1 other than the cries or struggles of an animal1 by which one could tell if the anaesthesia of an animal was passing off1 answered with scientific accuracy when he replied1 ,y,aou can tell by the blood-pressure1 adding that when sensibility was returning ,,the ,,pressure ,,goes ,,up2 if it be true1 as ,professor ,dixon1 of ,king's ,college1 ,london1 told the ,royal ,commissioners1 you can see whether you are giving enough 7of the anaesthetic7 ,,by ,,looking ,,at ,,the ,,blood-,,pressure2 if the professor of physiology at ,oxford was correct in stating that ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,blood-,,pressure would tell an experimenter whether or not an animal undergoing vivisection was feeling pain1 even though curare had rendered it so helpless that it could not even wink an eye1 and that this rise of blood-pressure was the ,,one ,,obvious ,,way of determining such sensibility2 if we may depend upon the evidence of the professor of physiology at the ,university of ,cambridge1 that ,,pain ,,would ,,cause ,a ,,rise ,,of ,,blood-,,pressure2 if the agreement of all these scientific authorities concerning the rise of blood-pressure as an indication of pain or returning sensibility can be accepted as scientific truth--then may we not be sure that all of the living animals whose vivisection we have here reviewed1 in whose bodies1 by fire and steel and every phase of mutilation1 there was so constantly elicited this ,,rise ,,of ,,blood-,,pressure1 cannot be said to have attained a painless death8 ,a man about to be burned under a railway car begs somebody to kill him1 yet iti s a statemnet to be taken literally1 that a brief death by burning would be considered a happy release by a human being undergoing the experiences of some of the animals that slowly die in a laboratory4 ,so wrote ,dr4 ,bigelow of ,harvard ,university1 the most eminent surgeon that ,new ,england has yet produced2 and were he living to-day1 it is not improbable that he would point to some of the experiments here reviewed as examples of the vivisections he intended to condemn4 ,it may be that although the present generation be indifferent1 posterity will not condone1 and that one day it will hold up some of the experiments of the twentieth century as involving the most prolonged1 the most useless1 the most terrible1 the most cruel torments1 that the annals of animal vivisection have ever supplied4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,what ,,is ,,vivisection ,,reform8 ,every reflecting man must recognize that the settlement of the vivisection question is a problem that must find its solution at some period in future rather than to-day4 ,but the duty of the hour remains the same4 ,admitting the existence of the wrong1 what can we do to promote reform8 ,what should we ask with the hope that popular judgment will gradually come to approve8 ,how may we be faithful to that ideal of justice toward our inferior brethren1 which underlies all humanitarian effort1 and lack nothing in fidelity to ,science to whose achievements we reverently look for the amelioration of the human race8 ,there are those who would oppose the slightest use of animals for any scientific purpose whatever4 ,there are others who would grant to the vivisector the secrecy and silence1 the complete irresponsibility and unbounded freedom which he demands as his right4 ,there are those to whom a middle course seems the only one leading to ultimate reform4 ,what is the most reasonable attitude toward the laboratory and its claims possible to an honest and clear-minded investigator who is anxious to protect all living creatures from cruel acts1 and equally concerned in the conservation of every legitimate privilege which ,science can claim8 ,such a man stands1 let us say1 before some great biological laboratory1 richly endowed1 slendidly equipped1 and in the present enjoyment of freedom that is without bounds1 and in a secrecy that to-day is as complete as can be imagined4 ,what can he learn with certainty of what goes on within8 ,if he hears claims of superlative gains by the experiments there carried on1 how is he to weigh and decide their value8 ,if there is cruelty behind those barred doors1 how is he to prevent its constant recurrence8 ,what1 in short1 should be the reasonable attitude of every intelligent man or woman anxious to know the truth and to promote reform of abuse8 ,for many years ,i have insisted upon the necessity for a certain degree of scepticism regarding every claim put forth by the laboratory1 unsupported by convincing proofs4 ,we may judge the future by the past4 ,has there not been evinced a disposition to exaggerate achievement1 to deny secrecy1 to mislead regarding the infliction of pain8 ,no intelligent person1 it seems to me1 can study the vidence carefully1 year after year1 without reaching this attitude of distrust and doubt in a great number of instances4 ,this by no means indicates that every claim of utility is false4 ,a great many statements are accurate4 ,some claims will be partly true1 but magnified by the enthusiasm of youth far beyond what devotion to a strict veracity would require4 ,and some claims may be doubted altogether4 ,it may be doubted whether any reliabce whatever can be placed upon the assertions or protesting denials of any profession vivisector now drawing a large income from the vivisection of animals1 whose interests would possibly be affeted by failure to produce startling results1 or by removal of the secrecy that now enshrouds the laboratory4 ,the defenders of absolute licence have not told us the truth on every occasion it has been sought from them1 and it must be gained from other sources and by other means4 ,it would seem1 therefore1 that the first step toward reform must be the creation of a public sentiment1 eager1 not so much to pass condemnation as to know the facts4 ,that the laboratory1 of its own accord and initiative1 will ever open its doors and give to the world a complete knowledge of what goes on within its sacred precincts1 is more than we can expect4 ,the doors will open only when public opinion so demands4 ,the laboratory is perfectly aware of this4 ,with ever yenergy that such consciousness gives1 it will fight to keep everything that it now hides from the light of day4 ,take1 for example1 the question of vivisection in our institutions of learning4 ,to what extent is experimentation carried on therein merely to demonstrate what every student knows in advance8 ,it would appear that certain lines of experiment are now permitted in such institutions which hardly more than a generation ago were condemned as cruel by the medical profession of ,great ,britain4 ,we ought to inquire why it is that experiments which scarcely thirty years ago were thus condemned1 are less abhorrent to-day4 ,the removal of secrecy is the first and most important step toward any true reform4 ,it is the fashion of certain apologists for vivisection without control to represent their opponents as guided by sentiment alone4 ,perhaps it would be well to quote the opinions of one whose work for science should absolve him from that imputation4 ,one of the most illustrious philosphers which ,america has produced was ,dr4 ,william ,james1 professor of psychology in ,harvard ,university4 ,in that institution1 thirty-five years ago1 he was assistant-professor of physiology1 and knew exactly what was done4 ,harvard made him a professor of philosophy1 and then of psychology2 ,princeton and ,oxford and ,harvard conferred upon him their highest honours4 ,he lectured both at the ,university of ,oxford and the ,university of ,edinburgh4 ,he wa s a member of various scienfitic societies in ,france1 in ,germany1 in ,denmark1 and ,england4 ,if any man was entitled by experience and study to speak with some authority concerning vivisection1 it was ,william ,james of ,harvard ,university4 ,he knew to what extent the practice of vivisection was carried on4 ,calling upon me one day in ,cambridge1 we compared views1 and although he told me of certain experiments he proposed to make the next day1 he was emphatic in his denunciation of the atrocities which over and over again were repeated in physiological laboratories throughout the land4 ,the men who raised their voices against all reform were--he said--neither candid1 nor honest1 nor sincere4 ,somewhat later1 with some knowledge of his views1 he was asked to hold an honorary relation to the ,vivisection ,reform ,society4 ,his reply was so characteristic of the man that it is here given3 ,dear ,sir1 ,i am made of too unorganized stuff to be a ,vice-,president of the ,vivisection ,reform ,society1 and1 moreover1 ,i make it a principle not to let my name appear anywhere where ,i am not doing practical work4 ,but ,i am glad to send you1 in answer to your request1 a statement of my views1 which you are at liberty to publish if you see fit4 ,much of the talk against vivisection is1 in my opinion1 as idiotic as the talk in defence of it is uncandid2 but your ,society 7if ,i rightly understand its policy7 aims not at abolishing vivisection1 but at regulating it ethically4 ,,against ,,any ,,regulation ,,whatever ,i understand the various medical and scientific defenders of vivisection to protest4 ,their invariable contention1 implied or expressed1 is that it is no one's business what happens to an animal so long as the individual who is handling it can plead that to increase ,science is his aim4 ,this contention seems to me to flatly contradict the best conscience of our time4 ,the rights of the helpless--even though they be brutes-- must be protected by those who have superior power4 ,the individual vivisector must be held responsible to some authority which he fears4 ,the medical and scientific men1 who time and time again have raised their voices in opposition to all legal projects of regulation1 ,,know ,,as ,,well ,,as ,,anyone ,,else does the unspeakable possibilities of callousness1 wantonness1 and meanness of human nature1 and their unanimity is the best example ,i know of the power of club opinion to quell independence of mind4 ,no well-organized sect or corporation of men can ever be trusted to be truthful or moral when under fire from the outside4 ,in this case1 ,,the ,,watchword ,,is ,,to ,,deny ,,every ,,alleged ,,fact ,,stoutly2 to concede no point of principle1 and to stand firmly on the right of the individual experimenter4 ,his being scientific' must1 in the eye of the law1 be a sufficient guarantee that he can do no wrong4 ,it may be questioned whether more serious charges against the laboratory have ever been made than are contained in these statements by an expert in vivisection4 ,the man of the world wonders at the unanimity of scienitfic writers of the day in opposing every step tending to reform4 ,professor ,james tells us it is due to the power of club opinion to quell independence of mind4 ,that the professional vivisectors as a body ,,cannot ,,be ,,trusted ,,to ,,be ,,truthful ,,when ,,attacked1 that they combine to deny every alleged fact stoutly1 these are the admissions of an expert experimenter1 whose record as a man of science is surely equal if not superior to that of any vivisector in ,america4 ,professor ,james believed that some abuses had been rectified4 ,he says3 ,that less wrong is done now than formerly is1 ,i hope1 true4 ,there is probably a somewhat heightened sense of responsibility4 ,there are1 perhaps1 fewer lecture-room repetitions of ancient vivisections1 supposed to help out the professors' dulness with their brilliancy1 and to demonstrate' what not six of the students are near enough to see1 and what all had better take1 as in the end they have to1 upon trust4 ,the waste of animal life is very likely lessened1 the thought for animal pain less shamefaced in the laboratories than it was4 ,these benefits we certainly owe to the antivivisection agitation1 which 1in the absence of producing actualy ,state regulation1 has gradually induced some sense of public accountability in physiologists1 and made them regulate their several individual selves4 ,but how infinitely more wisely and economically would these results have come if the physiologists as a body had met public opinion half- way long ago1 agreed that the situation was a genuinely ethical one1 and that their corporate responsibility was involved1 and had given up the preposterous claim that every scientist has an unlimited right to vivisect1 for the amount or mode of which no man1 not even a colleague1 can call him to account4#a ,the fear of ,state rules and inspectors on the part of the investigators is1 ,i think1 well founded2 they would probably mean either stupid interference or become a sham4 ,but the public demand for regulation rests on a perfectly sound ethical principle1 the denial of which by the scientists speaks ill for either their moral sense or their political ability4 ,so long as the physiologists disclaim corporate responsibility1 formulate no code of vivisectional ethics for laboratories to post up and enforce1 appoint no censors1 pass no votes of condemnation or exclusion1 propose of themselves no law1 so long must the antivivisectionist agitation1 with all its expensiveness1 idiocy1 bad temper1 untruth1 and vexatiousness1 continue1 as the only possible means of bringing home to the careless or callous individual experimenter the fact that the sufferings of ,,his animals are somebody else's business as well as his own1 and that there is a ,god in ,israel' to whom he owes account4 ,,william ,,james4 ,cambridge1 ,mass41 ,may #e 7#aiji74 #a ,unnecessary and offensive in the highest degree would it be1 444 by legislation of any kind1 to attempt to dictate or control how1 and by whom1 and for what purposes1 and under what conditions and upon what animals in the laboratories1 444 experiments should be made4 ,the decision in these matters ,,should ,,be ,,left ,,wholly ,,to ,,those ,,in ,,charge ,,of ,,these ,,institutions4--,from a memorial of ,dr4 ,simon ,flexner1 ,dr4 ,w4 ,t4 ,councilman1 ,dr4 ,h4 ,c4 ,ernst1 and other members of the ,association of ,american ,physicians against ,senate ,bill regulating vivisection in the ,district of ,columbia1 ,may #d1 #ahif4 ,this is a very strong indictment4 ,if he misunderstood the antivivisectionists1 we must remember that ,henry ,clay in #ahea could see nothing good in ,william ,lloyd ,garrison and the ,abolition party4 ,but ,james knew precisely what the vivisection of animals meant1 for he had taught physiology1 and had been engaged in experimentation for more than a quarter of a century4 ,when he speaks of the power of club opinion to quell independence of mind1 he explains a situation which otherwise might remain obscure4 ,when he asserts that certain groups cannot be trusted to be truthful or moral1 we have the explanation of a philosopher who was not given to over-statement4 ,do we not find in this letter an outline of what ,professor ,james would suggest as steps toward vivisection reform8 ,in perfunctory inspection of laboratories or supervision by ,state inspectors1 he has no confidence2 such inspection would probably degenerate into a sham4 ,a well-known experimentor once said to the rwiter3 ,your inspectors of laboratories must be either well-educated and competent men1 or else officials of the grade of the average policemen4 ,if the belong to the first class1 do you think they will become detectives and spies8 ,if1 on the other hand1 they earn the salary of the average policeman1 will they be intelligent enough to discover abuses1 and invariably of such rectitude that a ten-dollar bill will not induce official blindness8 ,it would seem that this objection to ,state inspection cannot be lightly considered4 ,for the prevention of cruelty it may be right to permit certain persons always to have the right to enter any laboratory whatever without previous notice2 the fact that they may come at any time constitutes the safeguard to a limited degree4 ,but such men must be persons unpaid by the ,state1 of intelligence sufficient to comprehend all peculiarities of experimentation1 and of a probity that no bribe can disturb4 ,it would be far better to allow things to go on as they are than to have cruelty protected by public confidence in a legal supervision that did not sufficiently supervise and restrian4 ,it appears to me1 as ,i have said elsewhere1 that first of all public opinion should be aroused1 not so much to condemn all experimentation upon animals1 as to know with certainty the facts about it4 ,of the vivisection of animals in ,england and ,america carried on in secret1 the general public1 even of the more intelligent class1 has no more accurate inforumation than two centuries ago it had of the methods of the ,spanish ,inquisition in the dungeons of ,madrid or ,seville4 ,how did it happen that an institution so execrated and so universally condemned to-day1 managed for centuries almost unchallenged1 to exist8 ,precisely as the closed laboratory manges to exist among us1 becauseof the secrecy in which it was surrounded1 and the general confidence which it claimed as its due4 ,reform canot make headway so long as the dungeon is dark and the laboratory is locked4 ,the strongest line of defence is the maintenance of ignorance1 even though we have the curious anomaly1 existing nowhere else1 of ,science covering herself with darkness and hiding behind ignorance4 ,it was one of the ablest advocates for vivisection that ,america has produced1 who1 in an address before the ,american ,academy of ,medicine1 condemned the secrecy of the physiological laboratory as a grave and profound mistake1 adding that if there be necessary secrecy1 there is wrong4 ,no more significant condemntation of present-day methods has ever been uttered4 ,an eminent ,london physician1 ,dr4 ,greville ,macdonald1 wrote not long ago in favour of that publicity of vivisection1 or rather of that knowledge of its methods which should precede any attempt at legislation4 ,the question of interference is one that the ,state must decide1 though the dangers and advantages of vivisection can only be arrayed in intelligible order by one who understands the subject4 ,but the public1 ,,having ,,heard ,,the ,,evidence1 must decide whether or no the ,state shall more willingly sanction cruelty in the secret laboratory than in the highway4444 ,i most reluctantly admit1 it is almost impossible to get evidence upon such points1 and for the reason ,,that ,,the ,,things ,,which ,,we ,,fear ,,are ,,practised ,,in ,,secret ,,places4 ,nevertheless1 it is just because of this secrecy that the public have a right to make trouble4 ,but for ,john ,howard's crusade against the horrors of the prisons1 the public had never known the truth1 their infamies had never been remedied2 and the public have now as much right to question the physiologist's repudiations as they had then to doubt the denials of the gaolers4 ,the evidence is sufficient to justify1 in my own mind1 a large measure of sympathy with the antivivisectionists1 though ,i am not of them4 ,what lines of procedure in the direction of reform would ,dr4 ,macdonald advocate8 ,he admits that to prohibit vivisection altogether would be to invite its performance in such secrecy as no system of espionage could unearth4 ,legislation can seldom do more than compromise1 because it cannot essay the impossible4 ,he admits that no ,act of ,parliament can eradicate the spirit that makes cruelty possible4 ,but there are some things that may be done1 and upon four points ,dr4 ,macdonald believes legislation is desireable4 ,the first is that vivisection ought to be prohibited for the purposes of teaching1 because it is often misleading and always demoralizing4 ,the second is that the inspection of the physiological laboratories should be carried out more systematically and always unexpectedly1 and that the inspectors should largely be increased in number4 ,thirdly1 ,i would prohibit all dissections1 with or without anaesthetics1 upon live horses and dogs4 ,fourthly1 ,i would make the administration of curare for purposes of experiments a criminal act4 ,one method of obtaining information concering the practice in ,america is through a ,legislative commission4 ,guided intelligently1 such a ,commission should be able to present in its final report a large accumulation of important facts4 ,it is evident1 however1 that if such disclosures are likely to tell against present methods of research1 the appointment of any such ,commission will be strenuously opposed by everyone connected with the laboratories4 ,the strange thing is that precisely this opposition has been evinced in the ,state of ,new ,york1 as elsewhere shown4 ,the powers that control prefer the present darkness1 and for the time being have been able to secure it4 ,but this very opposition is so significant that no effort should be relaxed to bring every phase of the practice of vivisection into the light of day4 ,that altogether too much reliance may be placed upon ,government inspection of laboratories seems unquestionable4 ,if one could be sure that it would always be conducted by intelligent and educated men1 with due appreciation of scientific aims1 yet in thorough sympathy with humane motives and objects1 it would undoubtedly be of use4 ,but no such reliance can be ours4 ,the experience of ,england should convey a lesson in this respect4 ,suppose1 therefore1 that in place of demanding the ,state inspection of laboratories1 or any present interference with the conduct of the vivisector1 we endeavor first of all to learn the facts through the experimenters themselves4 ,of course they will not volunteer any information that may seem to tell against the practice2 we must expect the laboratory to put forward ever obstacle that might hinder the facts from becoming public if there is anything wrong to hide4 ,but unless the claim be soberly put forth--and ,i am not sure that this may not be the case--that the vivisector has a right to work in complete secrecy1 and to hide his methods from the world1 he cannot complain at being the reporter of his own activities4 ,assuming then1 that our object be solely the acquisition of knowledge without interference until necessity be shown1 what can be done by legislation in ,america to attain the end desired8 #a4 ,,the ,,registration ,,of ,,laboratories4--,every place where experiments upon animals are to be legally made should be licensed by the ,state4 ,it has been suggested that such regulation should recognize the occasional necessity for experiments upon animals relating to the transmission of diseases at other places than laboratories1 as1 for example1 on farms4 ,a liberal recognition of all genuine exceptions might easily be made2 the only object of such regulation is to insure that all experimentation whatever comes upon the record4 ,so long as this is accomplished1 every exceptional case of such investigation outside a laboratory may easily be permitted without injury to the principle involved4 #b4 ,,registration ,,of ,,experimenters4--,every man who desires to perform experiments upon animals should be required to obtain a licence from the ,state granting such privilege for a definite time4 ,this could work no injury to science in ,america1 for in ,england it has been a rule in force for many years4 ,when one remembers that a physician or surgeon1 even though possessed of the greatest skill1 cannot practise unless licensed by the ,state1 it is difficult to see why a practice so liable to abuse and crulety should be without this simple recognition of the experimenter's ability1 humaneness1 and skill4 #c4 ,,reports ,,of ,,experiments4--,we are sometimes told that if there is any secrecy in vivisection1 it is only that which scientific men everywhere demand for scientific work4 ,the dissecting-room has its enforced privacy2 the chemist must have his period of uninterrupted attention1 and to the observatory of the astronomer it is not easy to obtain admittance at any and all times4 ,suppose ,society to grant the privacy for a time1 asking in return from every registered laboratory and from every experimenter1 the completest reports of all experiments upon animals4 ,what objection can be raised if there is nothing to conceal8 ,the ,savings ,bank1 the ,insurance ,company1 even the ,national ,treasury1 are all required to give at regular intervals information concerning the disposition of funds4 ,let us place the creatures liable to vivisection and taken into a laboratory on a plane of equal importance with bags of silver coin taken into a banking-house4 ,from greta financial institutions we require detailed information and reports attested by oath concerning the disposition made of money taken into its treasury4 ,no cashier would dream of objecting to such reports2 they are the tribute which conscious integrity unhesitataingly pays to secure public confidence and trust4 ,now1 in the interests of science--which means always truth demonstrated1 not truth concealed--and in the interests of humanity as well1 let us ask for ever material fact pertaining to the creatures entering a laboratory for vivisection1 whether it be the dog1 stolen1 to begin with 7to use the phrase of the ,london ,lancet71 or animals more legitimately acquired1 so long as their lives are to be exploited in the professed interests of mankind4 ,in every registered laboratory1 therefore1 the law should require that a register be kept concerning every animal of the higher species brought upon the premises for purposes of experimentation4 ,the species of every such animal1 its sex1 colour1 condition1 and apparent age2 from whom it was acquired and the price paid for it2 and to whom for experimentation it was finally delivered--all these facts should be a part of the permanent record of every laboratory4 ,it ought not to be difficult to devise a register1 which at the outset would probably meet the suggested requirements4#a #a ,see ,appendix1 pp4 #cdj-cdc4 ,one advantage of such a register as this would be the assistance it would render in all attempts to trace animals which are stolen or lost1 and which find their way to the laboratory4 ,every animal which may possibly have been a pet should be kept for redemption for two to three weeks1 and no animal should be purchased unless the purchaser is able to have a record of the address of the seller4 ,anyone can distinguish between a homeless vagabond of the street and an animal which must have been well treated in a good home1 and ,i believe that experimentation upon a pet animal under any conditions should be forbidden by law4 ,the gain arising from such registration is obvious4 ,it would mark the entrance within the laboratory of every creature intended for experimentation of any kind4 ,it makes possible to an extent the tracing of pet animals1 lost or stolen1 which now find themselves devoted to vivisection4 ,the inspection of such a register should be permitted to any person whatever endeavouring to trace a lost or stolen pet4 ,a summary should be regularly furnished for publication1 attested by oath1 precisely as the cashier of a national bank periodically attests the accuracy of his reports4 ,such a report is but a promulgation of facts which ought to be within the reach of the public4 ,by no stretch of the imagination can one honestly declare that such knowledge will constitute an impediment to justifiable research4 ,yet no one acquainted with this subject can doubt that every resource of the laboratory will be brought forward to resist to the uttermost even the giving of so little information as this4 ,but we must go beyond this4 ,to trace animals to the door of the laboratory1 and there to drop them1 leaves the curtain unlifted2 they enter the darkness1 and that darkness must be dispelled4 ,it must be the privilege of the public to know as completely as possible ,,exactly ,,what ,,is ,,done ,,after ,,they ,,pass ,,the ,,door4 ,how is this to be accomplished8 ,how may we know what is done to the animals thus traced to the door of every laboratory without being charged with impeding the legitimate researches of science8 ,for reasons stated1 inspection will not accomplish it4 ,as carried out in ,england1 it certainly has accomplished but little for the protection of animals4 ,the published reports of experiments made in that country under one or another certificate1 are practically of no value whatever except to show the constant increase of such experiments every year4 ,the plummet must sink to deeper depths4 ,if ,society is to grant to the physiological laboratory that isolation and freedom from interference which it craves1 ,,then ,,society ,,has ,,the ,,right ,,to ,,ask ,,in ,,return ,,the ,,completest ,,disclosure ,,that ,,can ,,be ,,given ,,of ,,methods ,,and ,,results4 ,it has the right4 ,unfortunately it cannot persuade or compel4 ,that is the province of ,legislation4 ,vivisection1 we must always remember1 is an exceedingly complex practice4 ,it is a means of demonstrating well-known facts2 it is also a method of original research4 ,how many animals in any given laboratory are used in each of these phases of experimentation8 ,no one can tell us4 ,if the laboratory keeps no account1 it is unlikely that the information could be given by anybody else4 ,a strong impression exists that original research for any object of conceivable utility to mankind is vastly more infrequent than vivisection for the repetition--painful or otherwise--of facts perfectly well known4 ,we need to have the question settled with an accuracy upon which as much reliance may be placed as upon the oath of the cashier of a bank4 ,every laboratory1 said ,dr4 ,george ,m4 ,guld1 in an address before the ,american ,academy of ,medicine1 should publish an annual statement setting forth plainly the number and kind of experiments1 the objects aimed at1 and1 most definitely1 the methods of conducting them4 ,this wise suggestion1 however1 bore no fruit4 ,no such annual statemnet has ever been issued by any ,american laboratory1 so far as ,i am aware4 ,even if thus issued it would not go far enough4 ,such reports should be attested under oath by each individual experimenter1 exactly as the officers of a bank are required by law to make reports regarding its financial standing4 ,every experimenter should therefore be required to state what he has done during the three preceding months2 to give the number of animals of each species which have been delivered to him1 the object of each experiment1 and the cases in which curare was employed4 ,especially should a careful distinction be drawn between original investigations made in private and experiments made before students or by students themselves1 solely for the illustration of well-known facts4 ,an outline of a report that would cover these facts will be found in the appendix4 ,and yet this is hardly enough4 ,it is not sufficient to have the results of individual experience2 we should have a summary of all experimental work made upon the higher animals in each laboratory given us by the responsible head of that institution4 ,an outline of a report that would give us the information desired is not difficult to devise4#a #a ,see ,appendix4 ,there is little doubt but that violent objection will be made to any such reports4 ,but in the opinion of very many persons the truth about a vivisection laboratory is quite as desirable as the truth about a country bank4 ,verification in either case implies the same4 ,it would mean that the statement was not made carelessly1 but with a due appreciation of the solemnity of an oath4 ,any gross misstatement on the part of a bank cashier would almost certainly subject him to a rigid examination1 and to the penalty of dismissal4 ,it should be the same with a laboratory4 ,if gross missatements should be made with apparent design to hide something that should have been made known1 it seems to me that those who thus offend should have their licences suspended or revoked4 ,we cannot forget that ,society is here dealing with a peculiar institution1 where secrecy is regarded as a virtue4 ,if one could imagine a bank or an insurance company1 where every official or employee1 from the president down to the scrub-woman1 was seeking in every way to keep its affairs hidden from the general public1 we should in one respect have the counterpart of the physiological laboratory of to-day4 ,on the other hand1 when the law asks for the truth1 whether it be of a bank or a laboratory1 under penalties for concealment that cannot be easily disregarded1 we may be very certain that in the vast majorty of instances compliance will be accorded to its demands4 ,instances of attempted concealment will1 of course1 occur2 the cashier who has speculated with the funds of the bank will endeavour to conceal his crime1 and the vivisector who has carried his private experiments or his demonstrations before students to cruel and unwarrantable lengths will seek by all possible means to prevent revelation of his transgression4 ,in both cases there will be occasional success4 ,but as regards vivisection1 it cannot be questioned that whenever in future the law makes a demand for such reports as are here outlined1 a vast amount of information1 now carefully concealed from the possibility of public judgment1 will become known4 ,we shall obtain it1 too1 withut crossing the threshold of a single laboratory1 without hindering in any way whatever the least important investigation of a single scientific inquirer4 ,ought we not to go beyond this and require reports to state the facts regarding anaesthetics8 ,eventually such information should undoubtedly be required4 ,so far as the immediate present is concerned1 it would seem perhaps the wiser course not to complicate the inquiry in this way4 ,there are vivisectors who would declare that anaesthetics are always used when ether or chloroform has been given in quantity and in time absolutely insufficient to secure for the vivisected animal immunity from pain4 ,sometimes we shall ask how many animals and of what species are subjected to mutilations and observations that last for days and weeks1 and how many1 if any1 have had nerves torn out by the roots1 as one ,american physiologist connected with a medical school tells us he has repeatedly done4 ,into the thousand and one phases of experimentation ,society must one day make inquiry4 ,but may it not be best to wait till some knowledge of the leading facts are secured8 ,a report regarding anaesthesia might be utterly useless1 except to keep hidden the very facts we wish to know4 ,what some of these facts are may be indicated hereafter1 but it would seem best not to include them in any present demand4 ,what may we conceive will be the attitude of the laboratory interests toward any attempt to secure information concerning the practice1 not by ,state inspection1 but by and through reports made by themselves8 ,if the popular conceoption of physiological investigation were true1 should we not be sure of the hearty approval of all physiologists regarding any measure so calculated to remove misunderstanding and distrust8 ,here would be the wished-for opportunity to demonstrate the vast importance of the problems pursued1 and the wonderful results attained compared with the small cost of animal life1 the humane and ever-present solicitude of the experimenter1 the immunity from suffering4 ,here1 too1 we should have that organized1 systematic1 and absolute frankness in regard to the practice of vivisection1 for which one of its greatest ,american defenders once appealed4 ,but1 on the other hand1 suppose that the laboratory in ,england and ,america dare not permit the whole truth to be known8 ,suppose that it would not willingly permit the general public to know even the number of animals which are now sacrificed in the demonstration of well-known facts8 ,then assuredly the laboratory interests will unite to prevent any legislation that could tend to destroy the secrecy that now exists1 or to bring the facts of vivisection to the light of day4 ,which hypothesis is the true one1 some day will reveal4 ,we shall then discover whether the laboratory will yield to a demand for publicity1 or whether1 contending for continued secrecy1 faithless to ,science1 it will resist every attempt to make known the whole truth1 and cling to the ideals and traditions of the ,spanish ,inquisition of three hundred years ago4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,reform ,,societies ,it is necessary to make a distinction between societies aiming to destroy animal experimentation1 root and branch1 and those which hope only to prevent abuses and cruelties4 ,antivivisection societies have been organized in different ,states4 ,of their activities it is not necessary here to speak4 ,but another kind of organization has made its appearance1 societies aiming solely at the prevention of abuse and the restriction of the practice within limits compatible with humane ideals4 ,the first society in ,america organized for the express purpose of prevention of cruelty in animal experimentation appears to have been the ,american ,antivivisection ,society1 founded at ,philadelphia in #ahhc4 ,the object of the society1 as defined by its first charter1 was the restriction of the practice of vivisection within proper limits1 and the prevention of the injudicious and needless infliction of suffering upon animals under the pretence of medical or scientific research4 ,to ,mrs4 ,caroline ,earle ,white of ,philadelphia1 more than to any other1 was due the credit of bringing this first society of protest into being over thirty years ago4 ,it was believed by the founders of this society that the medical profession--so many members of which had recognized the reality of the abuses and the necessity of reform--would join in some common endeavor to restrict and to regulate the practice4 ,but attempts in direction of any legislation met with decided opposition from the principal laboratories in the ,state1 and although a few physicians of eminence lent their influence to the promotion of reform1 the great body of medical practitioners stood aloof4 ,and gradually the founders of the society came to believe that their position was wrong2 that the policy of concession and compromise ought to be abandoned1 and that instead of asking that any experimentation be legalized1 the society should demand the total abolition of all experiments upon living animals4 ,at a meeting held in #ahhg a resolution was brought forward favouring the change of the name of the society and the aim which hitherto they had had in view4 ,opposition merely to experiments of a painful character was not sufficient2 from that time forward every phase of experimentation was equally to be condemned4 ,the resolution was carried4 ,and now for more than a quarter of a century the society has striven to influence public sentiment in favour of its ideal1 the total suppression of all scientific experiment upon living animals1 whether painful or otherwise4 ,it is needless to say that they have done this in the face of innumerable obstacles1 and doubtless with a recognition of the impossiblity of present success4 ,three times they have introduced into the ,legislature of the ,state of ,pennsylvania a ,bill for some restriction of animal experimentation1 and always without avail4 ,other antivivisection societies in different parts of the country1 adopting the same ideal1 were organized shortly afterward4 ,so far as legislation is concerned1 their efforts have met with uniform failure4 ,they have succeeded1 however1 in keeping the subject before the world in making known the abuses of the practice and voicing a condemnation of its cruelties wherever discerned4 ,i have elsewhere expressed the opinion that1 even if their ideals are beyond present possibility of attainment1 the constant1 persistent1 and unwearied protest of these societies against the cruelties and abuses of vivisection have helped1 more than anything else1 to keep the question a living issue4 ,in #ahif was organized the first society having for its object solely the repression of abuse1 the ,american ,society for the ,regulation of ,vivisection4 ,its object was distinctly stated in its title1 and its work was confined almost entirely to the publication of literature4 ,in #aijc the ,vivisection ,reform ,society1 organized to advance the same moderate views1 was incorporated under ,united ,states laws1 and the earlier society became merged therein4 ,the president was ,dr4 ,david ,h4 ,cochran of ,brooklyn1 a distinguished educator1 and the secretary1 upon whose shoulders fell nearly all the work of the organization1 was ,sydney ,richmond ,taber1 ,esq41 a member of the legal profession4 ,among its supporters were ,cardinal ,gibbons1 ,professor ,goldwin ,smith1 ,senator ,gallinger1 ,professor ,john ,bascom1 ex-,president of the ,university of ,wisconsin1 ,professor ,william ,james of ,harvard ,university1 and men of standing and influence in the medical and legal professions4 ,for several years its work was carried on with efficiency and enthusiasm1 chiefly by the propaganda of the press4 ,it has always seemed to me that the name of the society was especially felicitous1 for it expressed tersely the object of the organization1 not the abolition of all scientific utilization of animal life1 but the repression and elimination of abuse4 ,a year or two later there was incorporated at ,washington the ,national ,society for the ,humane ,regulation of ,vivisection1 the objects of which were identical with those of the earlier societies4 ,for many reasons it did not appear expedient to keep in activity two societies with precisel the same objects1 and into the new organization the ,vivisection ,reform ,society was finally merged4 ,another ,american society which has done particularly good work is the ,vivisection ,investigation ,league of ,new ,york4 ,the object of this association is fairly expressed by its name2 it seeks to investigate the practice1 so far as inquiry is practicable1 and to make known from the writings of experimenters themselves exactly what is done in the name of scientific research4 ,in this direction the ,league has already done work of exceptional value and interest4 ,an organization which more than any other has distinguished itself for persistent1 unwearied1 and vigorous attempts to secure reform by legal enactment is the ,society for the ,prevention of ,abuse in ,animal ,experimentation1 organized in ,brooklyn1 ,new ,york1 in #aijg4a ,from the first it repudiated the suggestion that it was opposed to scientific experimentation upon animals under all circumstances2 it has never denied that some benefits have accrued through animal experimentation1 even though such benefits have been exaggerated1 but it has bent all its energies toward securing such legislation in the ,state of ,new ,york as should limit the practice to competent men1 place it under such legal control1 render its abuse a misdemeanour1 and all unnecessary and wanton cruelty a legal offence4 ,bills were therefore introduced for the appointment of a ,commission of inquiry regarding the extent and nature of the practice at each annual session of the ,legislature4 ,some of these ,bills were reported out of the ,committee1 and one reached debate in the ,senate4 ,but investigation of the practice was precisely what the supporters of the modern laboratory do not seem to desire4 ,they were strong enough to influence the ,legislature against such inquiry1 and their attempts to open the laboratory have so far failed4 ,will it be possible for ever to maintain this secrecy8 ,that is the question for the future4 #a ,to the discriminating and energetic work of ,frederic ,p4 ,bellamy1 ,esq41 the counsel of the society1 and of ,mrs4 ,william ,vanamee1 the secretary1 the success of this society is particularly indebted4 ,in the public journals1 on many occasions1 they have definitely and comprehensively outlined the aims of the organization1 and in this respect there has been no excuse whatever for any misunderstanding or misstatement4 ,in its early efforts to secure investigation an attempt was made by this society to secure the co-operation of members of the medical profession1 and in union with a large number of persons belonging to various professions over seven hundred physicians in the ,state of ,new ,york signed a petition in #aijg-jh in favour of a measure that would have tended to elicit the facts4 ,as soon as the ,medical ,society of the ,state of ,new ,york became aware of this endorsement1 it sent out to each of these physicians a request that he would withdraw his name4 ,what ,dr4 ,william ,james called the power of club influence to quell independence of mind could hardly have been more significantly exercised1 yet less than forty signers were willing to accede to such demand4 ,upon the files of the society are now the signatures of over six hundred physicians in the ,state who have favoured legislation restricting the practice of vivisection to competent men1 and providing against cruelty and abuse4 ,in the fall of #aiaa the ,society circulated a petition throughout the ,state4 ,it asked the ,legislature of the ,state of ,new ,york to provide-- an immediate and impartial investigation by a non-partisan commission into the practice of animal experimentation as conducted in this ,state4 ,in view of the inherent possibility of cruelty in the practice1 and the obvious inadequacy of the existing laws to prevent such cruelty1 we deem the existing status of vivisection in this ,state to be a menace to the community1 which calls for legislative investigation4 ,to this petition more than twelve thousand signatures were obtained4 ,again the influence of the laboratory was effective in preventing the ,legislature from granting the investigation desired4 ,some of the most scholarly editorials which have appeared in the newspaper press in favour of inquiry have been those of ,hon4 ,st4 ,clair ,mc,kelway1 the ,chancellor of the ,board of ,regents of the ,state of ,new ,york and editor of the ,brooklyn ,eagle1 the leading evening newspaper in the ,united ,states4 ,referring to one of the ,bills introduced by the ,society for the ,prevention of ,abuse in ,animal ,experimentation1 ,dr4 ,mc,kelway said3 ,the ,bill ought to be passed4 ,it would secure an unpaid representative ,commission to investigate animal vivisection1 protecting it from abuses1 and allowing it to be properly pursued within safeguards of necessity and mercy4444 ,the regulation of vivisection is not the abolition of it1 but the civilization of it4 ,such of the medical profession as are a ,trade ,union on a large scale1 as afraid of one another as they are deaf to the voices of humanity and to public opinion1 should be forced by the ,state to courses that should long ago have been volunteered by themselves4 ,the beginning of the end of licensed cruelty has come4 ,the struggle may still take time1 but the time will be well spent and the result is as certain as the triumph of every other benign movement for the ,kingdom of ,god in the hearts of men and in the laws of the ,state4 ,of another bill introduced by this society1 ,chancellor ,mc,kelway wrote3 ,the ,society for the ,prevention of ,abuse in ,animal ,experimentation necessarily has an awkwardly long name2 necessarily1 to state just what the ,society is1 and to show just what it is not4 ,it is not to prevent animal experimentation1 but only to prevent the abuse of it4 ,it is not an antivivisection body1 ut it is a body to control the work of vivisection within the confines of actual necessity1 and to bring the work under accountability to law as affected by a relation to reason1 to humanity1 and to the mercy which is mightiest in the mighty1 and which becomes a ,state more than its sovereignty1 and a monarch more than his crown4 ,the ,legislature again has before it a ,bill to bring animal experimentation1 or the infliction of pain on animals1 in the interest of the treatment of human beings1 within law and under responsibility to law4 ,not for the first time is this ,bill brought4 ,it will be brought again and again until the ,bill becomes law4 ,the instinct of mercy and justice backs this measure and annually augments its supporters4 ,that instinct will not become extinct until ,god abdicates or creation reverts to chaos4 ,the movement is on the gaining hand4 ,doubt of its eventual and nearing success is unthinkable1 for in its favour are all the forces that maintain and advance justice and mercy in the hearts of men and in the action of ,states4 ,state-regulated vivisection should be differentiated from antivivisection or from no vivisection1 just as civilized and necessary war should be from the impossible abolition of all war4 ,between reulation and prohibition is a difference4 ,between responsibility and wantonness is a difference4 ,yet regulated vivisection has been confounded with antivivisection by the union of zany cranks and trade-unionized men of medicine1 who have not refrained from the coercion of patients1 from the deception of the public1 from the inoculation of legislators with mendacity1 capsuled in sophistry1 and from the direct or indirect corruption or intimidation of not a few public journals4 ,the discovery of the ways and means and men is bringing the evil to an end4 ,that discovery coincides with the arousal of the public conscience against political corruption1 party corruption1 and interparty as well as intraparty bribery and tyranny4 ,there is accord between all the forces for betterment4 ,barbarism and cruelty toward the brute creation are as certainly doomed as polygamy and human slavery were4 ,the needs of surgery will be preserved from wanton slaughter in the name of surgery1 in times past1 and now wrought by men called doctors and by cub-boys called students4 ,the statesmen in politics are realizing this4 ,the demagogues and opportunists in ,legislatures are1 too4 ,so are the men of mercy1 conscience1 and vision in medicine itself4 ,the impact of banded pretension in trade-unionized medical schools and societies is resented and resisted by teachers and practitioners1 who are becoming ashamed not to be free1 and who are abetting those who would free them4 ,there is a good time coming around the whole circle of uplift4 ,the time will not be long coming2 but when it shall come1 its duration will have no end1 and its progress will be perpetual4#a #a ,editorial1 ,brooklyn ,eagle1 ,april #d1 #aiaj4 ,it is an interesting fact that the ,american ,society for the ,prevention of ,cruelty to ,animals1 founded by ,henry ,bergh1 the first organization of its kind in ,america1 joined in the demand for further investigation4 ,under the heading1 ,the ,facts ,demanded1 the editor of its periodical makes known its position regarding vivisection3 ,the above caption defines the attitude of the ,society to-day toward the practice of animal experimentation4' ,in the common phrase1 we want to know1' and we are not to be deterred from what we believe to be a duty by being told from sources more or less reputable that it is none of our business4 ,for many years this ,society has been the chief representative in this country and in this city of that large class among our people who feel and cherish an interest in and a sense of humanity for what are called the dumb animals4' ,one great life--that of the founder1 ,henry ,bergh--was spent in this service1 and prematurely sacrificed in his devotion to these interests4 ,with faults and failures to reach his ideal1 with stumbles and falls1 freely admitted1 but with a persistent purpose to attain it in the end1 this ,society has never faltered in its effort to follow the path where he had blazed the way4 ,it has never been seriously accused of acting from fear or favour or from other than altruistic motives1 and by so doing it has gained and kept the confidence and respect of a great part of what is best in our community4 ,it is far too late in the day for any newspaper or anay group of citizens1 no matter how influential in the one case or highly respected in the other1 to say to this ,society3 ,you shall not do the work for which you were chartered1 and which for forty-five years you have performed in this community4' ,now1 what is that work in the present instance8 ,expressed in its simplest terms1 it is a demand that the practice of animal experimentation shall be investigated by the ,state to determine what is actually being done1 and that thereafter legislation shall be had that shall place it under such supervision and restriction as shall insure differentiation between scientific investigation performed for wise and adequate ends and purposes on the one hand1 and on the other acts of a painful and brutal character performed from unworthy motives1 with no adequate benefit possible as a resultant1 and which clearly come within the classification of cruelty4 ,we submit that this is an eminently fair proposal1 and one that should not be opposed by any friend of scientific work1 and least of all by the physicians of this city4 ,yet what do we find8 ,the attitude of that profession is clearly shown by the letter of ,mr4 ,bergh1 which we reproduce in our columns1 and which will unquestionably receive credence from its frankness and from the eminent name attached to it1 now borne by a worthy and devoted descendant of our first president4 ,the attitude of the medical profession on this subject is this3 ,we know what we are about4' ,we practice vivisection for wise purposes4' ,we surround it with as humane conditions as the object sought will permit4' ,we have made great and beneficial discoveries by its means4' ,we assert that we con trol it within the above limits4' ,but we will not state what we do1 or how4' ,we will not permit our assertions to be verified if we can help it4' ,we will oppose any movement in the ,press or the ,legislature looking to this end4' ,and we will encourage the ,press to defeat such an effort1 not only by ridicule and irony but by a definite misrepresentation of the motives and views of the ,society that seeks to know4' ,we do not at this moment question the truth of the assertions as to the practice and control which we have put 7accurately1 we think7 into the mouths of the medical profession2 but it is startlingly evident that these assertions can only apply ,,to ,,that ,,part ,,of ,,animal ,,experimentation ,,which ,,they ,,practice ,,or ,,control4 ,what of the other part8 ,will those who champion unrestricted1 uninvestigated1 unsuperintended vivisection assert that they will guarantee to the people of this city that no act of cruelty or wantonness is or ever shall be committed here by a medical practitioner under the guise of scientific investigation8 ,will they guarantee that such acts are not1 and never shall be1 committed in this ,state8 ,will they guarantee the humanity and the practice of the thousands of medical students who annually graduate from the colleges8 ,will they enter into bonds to the community for the acts of those who1 from time to time1 they expel1 for cause from the medical societies8 ,will they place their own great reputations and highly esteemed characters behind1 and as vouchers for1 many a practitioner with whom they would not meet in consultation1 and whom they would not allow to practice or malpractice in the house of a friend or a patient8 ,we think not--we ,,know they would not1 for such endorsements and guarantees would be impossible of fulfilment4 ,and if they will not and cannot1 they wshould cease to stand between the society that seeks to know' and the evils it seeks to expose and eliminate4 ,gentlemen of the medical profession1 understand once for all that this ,society does not seek to abolish vivisection4 ,it recognizes the good1 the great good1 that has and that may come to the human race from its careful1 humane1 and scientific use4 ,but it aims to abolish its ,,abuses1 and in that aim it is entitled to your advice and co-operation4 ,enough has been given to indicate the purpose of the present movement for vivisection reform4 ,it is not the same as antivivisection1 and although it has been persistently misrepresented as such by the advocates of unrestricted freedom in the physiological laboratory1 perhaps we have no reason to expect from that quarter any other course4 ,yet in expressing appreciation both of purpose and accomplishment1 it may perhaps be well to suggest a single caution4 ,the time is probably coming when those who have most persistently opposed all appeals for more light concerning vivisection will announce willingness to accede to the public demnad1 provided the vivisector may himself appoint the investigators1 and define the limitations of the inquiry4 ,it needs but little discernment to foresee that an inquiry so conducted may be no better than a farce1 and conduce to no real change in the present obscurity4 ,to be of any value the commission of inquiry regarding vivisection must be so intelligent regarding all phases of the practice that it shall know how to penetrate to hidden recesses1 where things not desired to be revealed shall be concealed2 capable1 too1 of distinguishing between the work of the expert scientist and that of the ignorant and careless student1 untouched1 it may be1 by any sense of pity or compassion for the creature in its power4 ,the greatest cruelties may yet be found1 not in the laboratory of the investigator1 but in that of the demonstrator of well-known facts4 ,perhaps no investigation of the practice of vivisection can be expected until public opinion shall have been educated to demand it1 and then1 in point of thoroughness1 let us trust it may leave nothing to be desired4 ,meantime the work of agitation for reform must continue2 no matter how slight the accomplishment1 surely something is done4 ,all work1 said ,carlyle1 is as seed sown2 it growns and spreads1 ,,and ,,sows ,,itself ,,anew1 and so in endless palingenesia lives and works4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,unfair ,,methods ,,of ,,controversy ,one phase of the vivisection controversy is of singular significance4 ,it is the peculiar tendency to unfairness which the advocates of unrestricted experimentation seem to display in every discussion regarding the practice4 ,in all controversy there is something to be said on both sides of the question1 yet it would seem to be impossible for anyone writing in advocacy of unlimited and unrestricted vivisection to state fairly the views to which he is opposed4 ,statements1 the inaccuracy of which may easily be ascertained1 are again and again repeated1 until it would almost seem that upon reiteration of error and untruth a certain degree of dependence has been placed for the creation of prejudice against reform4 ,to demonstrate the truth of such a charge would require a volume4 ,let it here suffice to mention a few instances of what may at least be termed an unfairness in controversy4 ,partly1 of course1 it is the result of ignorance1 and of imperfect acquaintance with the past history of vivisection2 partly it is due to that enthusiasm of youth which sometimes prefers a seeming victory to any close fidelity to truth4 ,other instances cannot be thus explained4 ,some of them are worth consideration as problems for which no solution is easily to be found4 ,in ,january1 #aiac1 a ,bill was introduced into the ,new ,york ,legislature providing for an inquiry into the practice of animal experimentation4 ,there was no suggestion of any restriction of vivisection2 it was simply an attempt to get at the real facts concerning the practice as now carried on4 ,if it be assumed that no objectionable practices exist1 it would seem difficult to oppose such inquiry upon any reasonable grounds4 ,it might possibly have been expected that the ,laboratory would welcome the opportunity to demonstrate to the general public that nothing deserving censure could be found to exist4 ,for reasons not difficult to understand1 the proposal to investigate the laboratory and its methods has been resisted quite as strongly as if it had been an attempt to prohibit experiments altogether4 ,to justify rejection of inquiry would not appear to be an easy task4 ,to create a sentiment of approval of the policy of secrecy it doubtless seemed necessary to make an appeal to the general public by editorial utterances1 in journals supposed to be impartial and of high standing in other directions4 ,in a ,new ,york daily paper which claims to be conducted with special regard for respectability and avoidance of unseemly sensationalism1 there appeared1 therefore1 an editorial opposing all inquiry on the part of the legislature into the methods of animal experimentation4 ,it is worth while to see how matters of history were placed before its readers by one of the most reputable of ,new ,york journals3 444 ,an outcry was raised against the ,english doctors in the early seventies1 and it was decided to investigate their laboratories4 ,a ,royal ,commission was appointed in #ahge by ,queen ,victoria4 ,the ,commission took elaborate testimony1 and found no material abuse2 but owing to the inflamed state of the public mind1 and the attitude of many members of the medical profession1 who at that early date did not appreciate the importance of the experimental method1 a restrictive law was recommended1 which resulted in the calamitous measure of #ahgf4 ,far from allaying the ,british agitation1 as was expected1 the investigation only served to stimulate it4444 ,a demand was made in #aijf for a second full investigation of laboratory methods4 ,again a ,royal ,commission was created1 which took testimony for a year and half4 ,its report1 submitted in ,march last year1 overwhelmingly disproved the charges that the medical experiments upon animals are immoral and unjustifiable4444 ,,the ,,doctors ,,of ,,england ,,have ,,for ,a ,,generation ,,had ,,to ,,flee ,,to ,,the ,,continent to prosecture their necessary labours4 ,is the experience of ,great ,britain to be repeated in the ,united ,states at the hands of persons who have become deluded into insensibiity to human suffering8#a #a ,editorial in ,new ,york ,times1 ,january #bh1 #aiac4 ,now1 this editorial utterance is not exceptionally misleading4 ,in scores of newspapers throughout the ,united ,states just as ignorant and as prejudiced statements find editorial expression every year4 ,it aims to justify the closing of the laboratory to all investigations whatever1 and it attempts to do this by misstatements regarding historical facts4 ,it tells us of an outcry raised against the ,english doctors in the early seventies1 forgetting to mention the attacks made by the ,british ,medical ,journal1 the ,lancet1 and other medical periodicals1 against the terrible cruelties of the practice long before the early seventies4 ,the ,royal ,commission of #ahge1 we are told1 found no material abuse4 ,what is meant by the qualifying adjective material8 ,let us see how the inquiry impressed an impartial observer1 the ,lord ,chief ,justice of ,england4 ,is1 then1 the present law reasonable8 ,it is the result of a most careful inquiry1 conducted by eminent men in #ahge1 men certainly neither weak sentimentalists nor ignorant and prejudiced humanitarians1 men among whom are to be found ,mr4 ,huxley and ,mr4 ,erichsen1 ,mr4 ,hutton1 and ,sir ,john ,karslake4 ,there men unanimously recommended legislation1 and legislation1 in some important respects1 more stringent than ,parliament thought fit to pass4 ,they recommend it on a body of evidence at once interesting and terrible4 ,interesting1 indeed1 it is from the frank apathy to the suffering of animals1 however awful1 avowed by some of the witnesses2 for the noble humanity of some few2 for the curious ingenuity with which others avoided the direct and verbal approval of horrbile cruelties which yet they refused to condemn4444 ,terrbile the evidence is for the details of torture1 of mutilation1 of life slowly destroyed in torment1 or skilfully prolonged for the infliction of the same or diversified agonies1 for days1 for months1 in some cases for more than a year4#a #a ,fortnightly ,review1 ,february1 #ahhb4 ,this was the view of the ,lord ,chief ,justice of ,england of that day2 and yet the unknown scribe1 writing in a ,new ,york newspaper1 without adducing a particle of evidence1 would have his readers to believe that the ,commission of #ahge ,,found ,,no ,,material ,,abuse4 ,equally unfair and inaccurate is the editorial reference to the report of the ,royal ,commission of #aijf4 ,the conclusions set forth in this report cannot possibly be stated in a single sentence without leaving essential matters unstated4 ,the six principal recommendations of the ,royal ,commission were all in the direction of reform1 ,,and ,,of ,,reform ,,that ,,implied ,,the ,,existence ,,of ,,abuses that requierd change4 ,the subject has been treated in a previous chapter1 and need not occupy attention again4 ,but the worst misstatement in this editorial intended to incite prejudice against any inquiry in the ,state of ,new ,york was that which referred to the effect of the ,english law governing the regulation of vivisection4 ,it is now nearly forty years since this law came into force4 ,the editor speaks of it as the calamitous measure of #ahgf2 and after declaring that the doctors of ,england have for a generation had to flee to the ,continent to prosecute their necessary labours1 asks his readers whether the experience of ,great ,britain is to be repeeated in the ,united ,states8 ,if this assertion were true1 then assuredly the law would have been regarded with detestation and abhorrence by the medical profession of ,england1 and by the teachers of medical science throughout the land4 ,now1 it so happens that the impression given is wholly false4 ,it did not originate with the editorial writer2 for many years the assumed evil results of the ,english law have been held up for our warning by those who desire a free hand in vivisection in ,america4 ,but is it true that the law of #ahgf is regarded in ,england as a calamitous measure1 which ,parliament should hasten to repeal8 ,on the contrary1 so far from being thus regarded1 a large majority of the representatives of medical science in ,england are in favour of the law4 ,of course1 every authority can suggest modifications for its betterment1 but the principle which underlies the measure1 of inspection of laboratories and the restriction of vivisection1 they do not condemn4 ,that it is a perfect measure1 the leaders of the medical profession do not assert1 but they evidently consider it as better than no law at all4 ,it certainly is not considered1 as the ,american editor calls it1 the calamitous measure of #ahgf4 ,the proofs of this attitude of the ,english medical profession may be found in the evidence given before the ,royal ,commission on ,vivisection1 the final report of which appeared in #aiab4 ,the misapprehension concerning the working of the ,english law is so widespread in ,america and is so sedulously cultivated by those who oppose any reform1 that it seems worth while to show just how the law is regarded in the land to which it applies4 ,sir ,douglas ,powell1 ,president of the ,royal ,college of ,physicians1 the physician to the ,king1 and ,senior ,physician to ,guy's ,hospital1 was asked whether the laws at present governing vivisection have been in any way noxious to ,science8 ,no1 ,i do not think so1 was his reply4 ,i think1 as administered at the present time1 they have not interfered with the advance of ,science4 ,sir ,henry ,morris1 ,president of the ,royal ,college of ,surgeons1 being asked substantially the same question1 replied3 ,i think the present ,act of #ahgf1 under which vivisectional experiments are done1 ,,was ,,amply ,,protective ,,against ,,cruelty1 ,,and ,,sufficiently ,,free ,,and ,,liberal ,,for ,,the ,,due ,,prosecution ,,of ,,proper ,,scientific ,,and ,,physiological ,,inquiry4 ,considering their source1 are not these remarkable testimonies concerning what is the fashion in ,america to designate as the calamitous measure of #ahgf8 ,what is the opinion of the law held by men engaged in teaching in the medical schols of ,england8 ,do they demand its repeal8 ,dr4 ,pembrey1 the ,lecturer on ,physiology at ,guy's ,hospital1 ,london1 does not like many of the restrictions2 yet1 being asked if he advocated the abolition of the ,vivisection ,act1 replied3 ,no1 ,i would not do that4444 ,i think only people interested and people who are competent should be allowed to make vivisection experiments4 ,the professor of physiology in the ,university of ,cambridge1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,n4 ,langley1 told the ,commissioners3 ,i ,,would ,,much ,,rather ,,have ,,the ,,act ,,than ,,no ,,act4 ,i think it would not be fair to the animals to allow anyone to experiment upon them without control4 ,dr4 ,francis ,gotch1 professor of physiology in the ,university of ,oxford1 being asked whether the law had restricted scientific research in experiments upon warm-blooded animals1 answered3 ,no1 ,i do not think it restricts it4 ,i ,,think ,,it ,,has ,,operated ,,well4 ,dr4 ,lorrain ,smith1 professor of pathology in the ,univesity of ,manchester1 when asked if he had any objection to the present restrictions placed by law upon operations on living animals1 answered1 ,no4 ,dr4 ,e4 ,h4 ,starling1 a ,fellow of the ,royal ,society1 and professor of physiology at ,university ,college1 ,london1 declared that at the present time1 the physiological school in ,england occupied a very high place in the world1 not inferior to that of any other nation--surely a strange fact for a country suffering from what the ,american editor calls the calamitous measure of #ahgf6 ,everywhere we find substantially the same testimony4 ,sir ,james ,russell1 being asked whether the law had operated in way of preventing legitimate research1 replied in the negative1 giving it as his opinion that the ,act has worked with substantial smoothness4 ,sir ,victor ,horsley1 widely known as an experimenter and as a surgeon1 criticized many of the details of the law1 yet when asked whether or not he was opposed to the ,act altogether1 answered3 ,oh1 no4 ,i look upon the ,act as necessary in view of public opinion4444 ,to the purpose of the ,act1 that experiments should only be done in registered places and only by persons who hold a licence from the ,home ,secretary1 there can be no objection whatever2 at least1 ,i cannot see any4 ,sir ,john ,rose ,bradford1 professor of medicine at ,university ,college ,hospital in ,london1 being asked if it might not be better if the ,act were abolished altogether1 replied3 ,no2 ,i think experiments on animals should be regulated by an ,act4 ,whether there were any alterations that might be valuable1 was a subject to which he had given no thought during recent yeaars4 ,dr4 ,dixon1 a professor in ,king's ,college1 declared that in his opinion ,,the ,,medical ,,profession ,,would ,,be ,,strongly ,,against ,,the ,,act ,,being ,,repealed ,,now4 ,dr4 ,thane1 one of the ,government inspectors1 admits that science has not suffered materially by any restrictions1 and has no recommendations to make4 ,and ,dr4 ,martin1 a director of the ,lister ,institute1 being asked if ,english scientific men are less advanced than their brethren on the ,continent in consequence of the regulation of vivisection1 answered very promptly1 ,no4 ,it is impossible here to quote the evidence in full2 to do that would require a volume4 ,no one of these experts claimed that the law was perfect2 each representative of ,english science was doubtless able to indicate some detail capable of improvement and pertaining to the better working of the law4 ,but when it came to repealing the law altogether1 not one of the distinguished men here quoted was in favour of it4 ,the principle of ,state regulation1 against the adoption of which in ,america every art of prevarication has been employed1 that principle is fully accepted by the ,english medical profession to-day4 ,was it fair for the editor of a leading journal to misstate so obvious a fact8 ,can one imagine that the leading representatives of medical science in ,england1 the leading teachers and professors in medical colleges and schools1 would have given the evidence just quoted if for thirty years the doctors of ,england had been flying to the ,continent to escape the stringency of the law of #ahgf8 ,should we not have found some witness before the ,royal ,commission of #aijf making allusion to this flight of the doctors of ,england8 ,it is quite possible that when the law went into operation1 over thirty-five years ago1 its working was less satisfactory than it is to-day4 ,was it fair to make these early criticisms annul the evidence given by a large body of representative men before this ,commission of the twentieth century in favour of the regulation of vivisection by law8 ,of course such an editorial tended to strengthen prejudice against legal regulation in ,america4 ,it did its work4 ,but can success so achieved ever be worth of admiration8#a #a ,the reader may ask why correction of so inaccurate a statement concerning the ,english law was not sent to the journal in question4 ,this was done4 ,a synopsis of all the medical opinions here given and taken from the evidence given before the ,royal ,commission was sent to the editor of the periodical4 ,so fafr as seen1 it did not appear4 ,an editorial in a morning paper would hardly seem worth noticing4 ,upon the opinions of its readers it makes its impress1 and is quickly forgotten4 ,but the same untrue assertions will be made again more than once in order to create prejudice against any legal regulation of vivisection in ,america4 ,it has seemed worth while1 therefore1 to set forth the evidence of the absolute untruth of such statements1 regarding the ,english law4#a #a ,in demonstrating that the ,english law for the regulation of vivisection is not there regarded with the disapprobation alleged by certain writers in this country1 ,i must not be taken as claiming that the law from a humane standpoint is satisfactory4 ,until amended as advised by ,dr4 ,wilson1 a member of the ,royal ,commission1 it cannot adequately protect animals liable to experimentation from hte possibility of abuse4 ,the extent to which an untruth concerning vivisection may be worked to create prejudice against reform is afforded by a curious legend concerning the late ,lord ,lister1 one of the most eminent men of the last century4 ,so far as ,i have been able to discover1 the first appearance of the story was in an address delivered before the ,women's ,medical ,college1 and reprinted in the ,popular ,science ,monthly of ,may1 #ahhe1 nearly thirty years ago4 ,it thus appears3 ,lister himself1 no tyro1 but the great master1 is still searching for further improvements4 ,but when1 lately1 he desired to make some experiments on animals1 still further to perfect our practice1 so many obstructions were thrown in his way in ,england that ,,he ,,was ,,driven ,,to ,,toulouse to pursue his humane researches4 ,he was driven to ,toulouse4 ,the phrase is worth remembering4 ,fifteen years later the author of this statement appeared before the ,senate ,committee at ,washington1 ,d4,c41 to oppose a ,bill regulating the practice of animal experimentation in the ,district of ,columbia4 ,in course of his address1 delivered ,february #ba1 #aijj1 he again repeated the story3 ,when ,lord ,lister1 whose name is the most illustrious in the history of surgery1 wanted to carry out some further experiments in ,great ,britain1 where1 as ,dr4 ,leffingwell has expressed it1 the very moderate restriction of the law applies'--experiments for the direct benefit of humanity--,,he ,,was ,,obliged ,,to ,,go ,,to ,,france ,,to ,,carry ,,on ,,his ,,experiments for the benefit of the human race ,,because ,,he ,,could ,,not ,,do ,,it ,,in ,,england6 ,can one imagine any argument against the legal regulation of vivisection more weighty than this assertion1 that the most illustrious man in ,english medicine was obliged to go to ,france because he could not make his researches on ,english soil8 ,could doubt of the story exist when it was related by the ,president of the ,american ,medical ,association before a committee of the ,united ,states ,senate8 ,this story alone may have indused the rejection of the proposed legislation4 ,the legend again found expression nearly three years later1 in a letter written by the same person to ,senator ,gallinger1 and telegraphed to the newspaper press throughout the country4 ,in the ,philadelphia ,medical ,journal of ,december #ac1 #aijb1 it appeared as follows3 ,if the laws which you and your friends advocate were in force1 the conditions for scientific investigation in this country would be quite as deplorable as those in ,england4 ,for example1 when ,lord ,lister1 who has revolutionized modern surgery1 largely as a result of such experiments1 wished to discover possibly some still better way of operating by further experiments1 ,,he ,,was ,,obliged ,,to ,,go ,,to ,,toulouse ,,to ,,carry ,,them ,,out1 as the vexatious restrictions of the law in ,england practically made it impossible for him to continue there these eminently humane experiments4 ,nearly a quarter of a century after the first appearance of this story1 we meet it again4 ,in an article entitled ,recent ,surgical ,progress1 appearing in ,harper's ,monthly for ,april1 #aiji1 we are told the same tale3 ,to complete his beneficent work1 ,,lord ,,lister ,,was ,,compelled ,,to ,,go ,,to ,,france1 ,,by ,,reason ,,of ,,the ,,stringency ,,of ,,the ,,english ,,antivivisection ,,laws4 ,the law of #ahgf has now multiplied into laws which obstruct and hinder even the researches of a ,lister4 ,and yet two years before1 in his testimony before the ,royal ,commission1 the ,president of the ,royal ,college of ,surgeons in ,england--,sir ,henry ,morris--had stated3 ,i think the present ,act of #ahge1 under which vivisectional experiments are done1 was amply protective against cruelty to animals ,,and ,,sufficiently ,,free ,,and ,,liberal ,,for ,,the ,,due ,,prosecution ,,of ,,proper ,,scientific ,,and ,,physiological ,,inquiry4#a ,but of the readers of ,harper's ,monthly probably not one in ten thousand had ever seen this evidence in the ,vivisection ,report4 #a ,minutes of ,evidence1 ,question #g1hje4 ,it will be seen that no two of these accounts are precisely the same4 ,they agree1 however1 in stating that one of the most distinguished of ,english scientists was compelled to leave ,england in order to do his work2 he was driven to ,toulouse4 ,it seemed to me worth while to investigate the truth of this story2 and accordingly ,i wrote to ,lord ,lister1 asking him1 among other things1 if it was true that he had been obliged to go to ,france to carry out experiments looking to the improvement of surgical methods1 because the restrictions of the ,english law had made it impossible for him to carry out his investigations in ,england8 ,the reply to my inquiry was clear and definite4 ,the italics are mine4 #ab1 ,park ,crescent1 ,portland ,place1 ,december #bc1 #aiaj4 ,,my ,,dear ,,sir1 ,it is not strictly true that ,i was compelled to go out of the country to perform the experiments in question4 ,i ,,could1 ,,no ,,doubt1 ,,have ,,obtained ,a ,,licence ,,to ,,do ,,them ,,here4 ,but they had to be on large animals2 and the ,veterinary ,college1 in which1 ,i dare say1 ,i might have had opportunity given me for the investigations1 is a long way from my residence1 and it would have been inconvenient to have worked there4 ,thus1 my going to ,toulouse was a matter of convenience rather than of necessity4 ,the circumstance was of course of no interest to anyone but myself1 ,,and ,i ,,have ,,given ,,no ,,account ,,of ,,it ,,for ,,publication4444 ,i have answered your question frankly1 but ,i must beg you to understand that it is not intended for publication4 ,believe me1 ,sincerely yours1 ,,lister4 ,from every man's correspondence ,death at last removes the seal2 and ,lister's true story surely may now confront the distorted fiction which in ,america for many years has been given so wide a publicity4 ,the facts are indeed different from the legend which for more than a quarter of a century has been repeated as a convincing argument against reform4 ,of the malign influence of such a tale upon public opinion in preventing legislation in ,america1 we can form no adequate estimate4 ,for any intentional deception we may1 of course1 absolve the distinguished professional man who has made himself responsible as transmitter of the myth2 no man with any conception of honour would state as facts what he knew to be false4 ,but from the charge of carelessness1 of gross inaccuracy1 is one as readily to be freed8 ,for a quarter of a century the statement has been in circulation--that when ,lister desired to make most important researches1 so many obstructions were thrown in his way in ,england1 that ,,he ,,was ,,driven ,,to ,,toulouse to pursue his humane researches2 and now ,lister's letter shows us that he could1 no doubt1 have obtained a licence to do them here--showing that he did not even ask permission to experiment4 ,in #aijj the public was informed that ,lister was obliged to go to ,france to carry on his experiments2 the readers of ,harper's are told that ,lord ,lister was ,,compelled ,,to ,,go ,,to ,,france by reason of the stringency of the ,english antivivisection laws2 and now ,lister writes that going to ,france was a matter of convenience1 and not of necessity2 that at the ,veterinary ,college ,i dare say ,i might have had the opportunity given me for the investigation--showing that the opportunity had never been sought6 ,yet the influence of the untruth will continue for many a year4 ,of ,lister's extreme antipathy to the antivivisectionists and to th erestriction of animal experimentation there can be no doubt4 ,that he misapprehended the effect of the law of #ahgf we know2 he imagined that even the observation of the circulation of the blood in a frog's foot under the microscope by an unauthorized investigator would render the student liable to a criminal prosecution4 ,we can be very sure that if this were true1 the ,act of #ahgf would never have escaped the condemnation of the scientific men whose opinions have been quoted from evidence given before the ,royal ,commission1 men who found in this ,act no impediment to any reasonable investigation4 ,but when the reports of personal experience were brought to ,lister's notice1 he was willing to correct their gross exaggerations2 yet--to avoid controversy1 perhaps--he desired that the facts should not be published1 and during his lifetime1 compliance was given to his wish4 ,the phase of untruthfulness in the defence of unrestricted experimentation deserves far more attention than can here be accorded4 ,one is loth to regard as possible any intent to deceive2 the inaccuracy and exaggeration are undoubtedly due chiefly to ignorance on the part of men who ought to be well-informed1 because the world looks to them for statements of fact concerning the benefits claimed to be due to experimentation4 ,take1 for instance1 an assertion made in testimony given before the ,royal ,commission by ,sir ,victor ,horsley1 a ,fellow of the ,royal ,society1 and the representative of the ,british ,medical ,association4 ,referring to pyaemia1 or blood- poisoning1 he was not content to affirm the disappearance of these formidable maladies from the hospital to which he was attached1 but went on to declare their disappearance altogeher4 ,anybody1 said ,sir ,vitor ,horsley1 who would now be asked to write an article on pyaemia or blood-poisoning in a dictionary of surgery1 ,,could ,,not ,,do ,,it2 ,,the ,,diseases ,,are ,,gone6#a #a ,evidence before ,royal ,commission1 ,question #ae1ffi4 ,this statement is a most remarkable one4 ,the witness was once widely known as a ruthless experimenter upon living animals1 and he was now defending the practice by an enumeration of its gains4 ,apparently1 no member of the ,commission questioned his evidence2 the representative of the ,british ,medical ,association solemnly affirmed that as a result of vivisection certain diseases had so completely disappeared that present observation or description was impossible1 and the ,royal ,commission accepted his word4 ,the statement that these septic diseases had disappeared crossed the ,atlantic1 and nearly six years afterward1 in the columns of a ,new ,york journal1 it again appeared4#b ,yet the statement was untrue4 ,it is indeed difficult to believe that any educated medical man in ,england or ,america could have read it without recognition of its untruth4 ,let us glance at the evidence4 #b ,new ,york ,times1 ,july #bh1 #aiab4 ,if it were true that the septic diseases which relate to blood- poisoning had really been so completely abolished that description of them were now impossible--as ,sir ,victor ,horsley declared--it is evident that as causes of any part of ,english mortality they would cease to appear4 ,the report of the ,registrar-,general of ,england and ,wales tells a very different story4 ,sir ,victor ,horsley gave this testimony in ,november1 #aijg4 ,during the five years preceding1 and ending ,december #ca1 #aijg1 ,,no ,,less ,,than #b1icc ,,persons ,,died ,,from ,,blood- ,,poisoning 7,,pyaemia ,,and ,,septicaemia7 ,,in ,,england ,,and ,,wales4 ,during the year #aijg1 the year that testimony was given1 the tribute of #fjd lives was exacted by these diseases which had ,,gone6 ,even during the year following 7#aijh71 the recorded deaths due to blood-poisoning in ,england and ,wales were #efj2 and yet the disease had been solemnly declared to be non-existent by the leading defender of ,english vivisection6 ,nor is this all4 ,in proportion to the total population the death-rate from blood-poisoning ,,was ,,higher ,,during ,,the ,,year ,,that ,,sir ,,victor ,,horsley ,,gave ,,this ,,astounding ,,testimony ,,than ,,it ,,was ,,even ,,forty ,,years ,,before4 ,in #ahfh1 in ,england and ,wales1 to a million persons living1 the death-rate from septic diseases1 or blood-poisoning1 was fifteen2 the year following it was sixteen4 ,in #ahgj it rose to eighteen1 falling1 however1 to sixteen for the next two years4 ,nearly forty years go by1 and we find a leading ,english vivisector assuring a ,royal ,commission that blood-poisoning had so completely disappeared that a medical writer could not describe it2 and the ,registrat-,general charging this extinct disease with a death-rate of nineteen in #aijf and eighteen in #aijg1 ,a ,,higher ,,rate ,,of ,,mortality ,,than ,a ,,generation ,,before6#a #a ,for these statistics see reports of the ,registrar-,general of ,england and ,wales1 #edth ,report1 ,table #af1 and #gcrd ,report1 ,table #bb4 ,these are officially stated facts4 ,at the cost of half a crown ,sir ,victor ,horsley might have learned that the diseases he so glibly declared had gone were still responsible for a part of ,english mortality1 and a greater proportion even than during thirty-five to forty years before4 ,it is this gross ignorance on the part of those who would teach us1 this willingness in the defence of all phases of vivisection1 to make assertions which are without foundation in fact1 that justly tends to create distrust of every such statement1 unsupported by proof4 ,we are not questioning the value of asepsis1 which is only a learned phrase to express absolute surgical cleanliness4 ,the time may come when these septic forms of disease will entirely disappear4 ,that day1 however1 has not yet arrived4 ,why declare that it is already here8 ,why proclaim that diseases had ,,gone which still existed1 or that an enemy had been utterly exterminated which still was responsible for hundreds of deaths8 ,nor are ,english medical writers alone guilty of blunders and exaggerations concerning the effect of experiments on animals4 ,in the number of ,harper's ,monthly for ,april1 #aiji1 to which we have referred1 an ,american writer blunders quite as badly as his ,english confrere4 ,he tells us that the friends of experimental research have almost completely abolished the dangers of maternity1 reducing its death-rate ,,from ,,ten ,,or ,,more ,,mothers ,,out ,,of ,,every ,,hundred1 to less than one in every hundred4 ,a more ignorant statement was never put forth by an intelligent writer4 ,where are statistics to be found going to prove that among any people1 in any land1 at a ny time1 #aj ,,per ,,cent4 of all mothers giving birth to offspring perished from the accidents or diseases incident to child-birth8 ,no such statistics can be produce1 for the simple reason they do not exist4 ,in the ,united ,states we have no official statistics of mortality covering the entire country or reported from year to year4 ,england1 however1 has recorded the mortality of its people for over half a century4 ,what support does it afford to the assertion that at any time one in every ten mothers1 bringing children into the world1 perished either from accident or disease8 ,during a period of sixty-two years1 from #ahea down to th epresent time1 there was not a single year in which mortality of ,englishwomen from septic diseases connected with child-birth ,,ever ,,reached ,,even ,,one ,,in ,a ,,hundred4 ,but this is the figure for all ,england4 ,then take the forty-four counties into which ,england is divided1 and from the downs of ,devon to the slums of ,lancashire1 one cannot find a county in all ,england in which the mortality of mothers from diseases pertaining to child-birth has reached even a quarter of the ratio stated by this medical writer4 ,from all causes together ,,not ,,four ,,deaths ,,in ,a ,,thousand ,,births and miscarriages happened in ,england and ,wales during the first year1 seventy-five years ago1 that official statistics were gathered2 it was a death-rate of five in one thousand the following year4#a ,we are not questioning the value of surgical cleanliness2 we dispute only the justice of exaggerated and misleading statements concerning any fact capable of scientific demonstration4 ,there can be no doubt that less than half a century ago1 in the maternity wards of certain hospitals and in the experience of certain men1 there was a death-rate from such ailments far above the average experience of the country2 but it was solely due to the ignorance1 the criminal blindness and obstinacy of certain men in the medical profession4 ,but a little over seventy years ago1 when ,dr4 ,oliver ,wendell ,holmes pointed out that this saddest place of mortality was due to want of care on the part of medical men1 it was two professors in two of the largest medical schools of ,america who opposed him2 it was ,professor ,charles ,meigs1 of ,jefferson ,medical ,college in ,philadelphia1 who laughed to scorn his warnings1 and held up to the ridicule of the medical profession the theories that are now accepted as facts4 ,with such men as teachers of medical science1 what wonder that for women about to become mothers certain hospitals of that day were little better than slaughter-houses1 to enter which was to leave hope behind8#b ,but the experience of such hospitals is not the basis upon which ,science rests conclusions when they may be ascertained by reference to the statistics of a nation4 ,the murder-rate of ,philadelphia is not to be determined by that of one of its slum districts4 ,if1 a century ago1 a slave-owner of ,jamaica owning ten negroes1 whipped one of them so severely that he died1 should we be justified in declaring that in the ,west ,indies the murder-rate of slaves was #aj per cent41 or ten in a hundred8 ,its absurdity is manifest4 ,when1 therefore1 a reputable writer for a magazine largely read by wives and mothers puts forth the statement that by reason of some experiments the death-rate of diseases incident to maternity has been reduced from ten or more mothers out of every hundred1 leaving it to be inferred that such rate of mortality was once general1 what are we to infer concerning his ideals of scientific accuracy8 #a ,medical ,essays of ,dr4 ,o4 ,w4 ,holmes1 ,boston1 #ahii1 p4 #aef4 #b ,polk told us that when he graduated in medicine1 delivery in a lying-in hospital was far more dangerous than an engagement in the bloodiest battle1 for during his internship at ,bellevue1 he saw ,,forty- ,,five ,,women ,,die ,,out ,,of ,,the ,,sixty ,,who ,,had ,,been ,,delivered ,,during ,a ,,single ,,month4--,williams2 ,jour4 ,am4 ,med4 ,association1 ,june #f1 #aiad4 ,equally mistaken is the implication conveyed by the passage quoted that some vast reduction of mortality has been accomplished in regard to this special form of disease4 ,this belief is doubtless entertained by a majority of medical practitioners1 accustomed to accept statements of leaders without investigation or questioning4 ,but it is not true4 ,we need to remember1 as ,dr4 ,oliver ,wendell ,holmes tells us1 how kindly ,nature deals with the parturient female1 when she is not immersed in the virulent atmosphere of an impure lying-in hospital4 ,to demonstrate the exact facts1 ,i have tabulated all the deaths in ,england and ,wales from diseases incident to child-birth1 as compared with the number of children born1 for sixty years from #ahea down to #aiaj4 ,it will probably surprise many a medical practitioner to know that so far from having vastly diminished1 the death-rate from diseases of this character in ,england and ,wales ,,was ,,actually ,,less ,,half ,a ,,century ,,ago ,,than ,,it ,,was ,,during ,,the ,,ten ,,years ,,ending #aiaj4 ,but the facts are beyond question2 they not only rest upon the official reports of the ,registrar-,general1 but they show a uniformity year after year which it is impossible to regard as due to chance4 ,in ,england and ,wales1 during twenty years 7#ahea-ahgj7 the total number of births reported by the ,registrar-,general was #ac1iga1gdf4 ,the total deaths from puerperal fever during the same period were #ba1ice--;a mortality-rate per #ajj1jjj births of #aeg4 ,this was the period between forty and sixty years ago4 ,during the ten years between #aija and #aiaj1 the births in ,england and ,wales numbered #i1bjh1bji2 and the deaths from puerperal sepsis were #af1cda1 a mortality-rate per #ajj1jjj births of #age--;,,greater ,,than ,,that ,,of ,,half ,a ,,century ,,ago6 ,the mortality- rate may now be going downward2 it was in #aiaj but #adb per #ajj1jjj births1 but in #ahfj the corresponding death-rate was #adj1 and in #ahfa it was #acj--;considerably less than at the present day4#a #a ,these figures have been compiled from the annual reports of the ,registrar-,general of ,births1 ,deaths1 and ,marriages in ,england and ,wales4 ,each ,annual ,report furnishes the number of births and the number of deaths from puerperal sepsis4 ,nor is it true that recognition of the origin of this terrible disease was due to experiments upon animals4 ,it was ,dr4 ,oliver ,wendell ,holmes1 in ,america1 who indicated1 in #ahdc1 the distasteful truth that the medical attendant was chiefly responsible for the deaths from this disease2 and the great lights of the profession in ,philadelphia made him and his theory the butt of their ridicule and scorn4 ,it was ,semmelweis1 a young assistant in the ,lying-in ,hospital of ,vienna1 who in #ahdg pointed out the same truth1 drawn1 not from any experiments1 but from rational observation in the hospital wards2 and his discovery was received with contempt1 he was hated and despised in his lifetime1 and he died1 as an ,american author has phrased it1 with no other reward than the scorn of his contemporaries4 ,it was not by laboratory experiments upon living animals that the methods by which this terrible disease is transmitted became known to ,science2 it was common sense in the sick-chamber that discerned its clue4 ,the decreased and decreasing mortality of tuberculosis is not infrequently claimed as a triumph of vivisection2 in the article in ,harper's ,magazine to which reference has been made1 it is intimated that experimentation has reduced the mortality of tuberculosis from #cj to #ej per cent41 by treatment springing from the discovery of ,koch4 ,do facts support this assertion8 ,on the contrary1 the decline in the mortality due to this dread destroyer of the human race ,,began ,,more ,,than ,a ,,quarter ,,of ,a ,,century ,,before ,,koch ,,announced ,,that ,,discovery ,,of ,a ,,germ which was the cause of the disease4 ,in his report for #aijg1 the ,registrar-,general of ,england and ,wales tells us that throughout the last forty years there has been a steady decline in the fatality of tuberculous diseases2 and he illustrates the figures by a diagram1 showing1 for both men and women1 the steady fall in the death-rate from this disease from a period long before its bacillus was recognized4 ,here are the exact figures for ,england and ,wales3 ,,england ,,and ,,wales3 ,,average ,,annual ,,death-,,rate ,,from ,,phthisis ,,per ,,million ,,persons ,,living1 ,,in ,,groups ,,of ,,years4 ,for five years1 #ahej-ahed 44 44 44 #b1haa #ahee-aheia44 44 44 #b1fdg #ahfa-ahfe 44 44 44 #b1ebh #ahff-ahgj 44 44 44 #b1ddi #ahga-ahge 44 44 44 #b1bai #ahgf-ahhj 44 44 44 #b1jdb #ahha-ahhe 44 44 44 #a1hcj #ahhf-ahij 44 44 44 #a1fce #ahia-ahie 44 44 44 #a1dfb #ahif-aijj 44 44 44 #a1cbb #aija-aije 44 44 44 #a1bah #aijf-aiaj 44 44 44 #a1ajf ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #a ,for statistics relating to period1 #ahej-ahei1 see ,registrar- ,general's #cdth ,report1 p4 #bdi4 ,for years1 #ahfa-ahhj1 see #dhth ,report1 ,table #bg4 ,for later period1 see #gcrd ,report1 p4 #ba4 ,this table is very significant4 ,the death-rate of consumption in ,england for the year #ahec was #b1ihd per #a1jjj1jjj population4 ,from that year1 down to the five-year period1 #ahha-ahhe1 there was a steady decline in the mortality of this disease1 amounting to a fraction less than #ci per cent4 ,on ,march #bd1 #ahhb1 ,koch announced his discovery4 ,the fall of the death-rate from #ahha-ahhe to #aijf-aiaj1 was almost precisely the same--a fraction over #ci per cent4 ,,now ,,what ,,were ,,the ,,causes ,,which ,,induced ,,the ,,constantly ,,decreasing ,,mortality ,,from ,,consumption ,,during ,,that ,,earlier ,,period1 ,,when ,,the ,,name ,,of ,,koch ,,was ,,unknown8 ,is it conceivable that they suddenly became inoperative thirty years ago8 ,is it not more than probable that the chief reason why the great white plague has steadily and almost uniformly decreased during sixty years1 not only in ,england1 but probably in all civilized lands has been the increased recognition of the value of sanitary laws and of personal hygiene8 ,no one questions the importance of the discovery of ,koch2 it has given ,science the knowledge that a definite enemy exists1 whose insidious invasion she strives to prevent1 and whose ultimate conquest may one day be accomplished--more by prevention than by cure4 ,but when a medical writer ascribes the decrease in mortality of this disease to the discovery of ,koch in #ahhb1 and makes no reference to the steady fall in the death-rate which went on for a quarter of a century before that discovery was known1 what is to be said of his fidelity to scientific truth8 ,is this the ideal of fairness which the laboratory of to-day inculcates and defends8 ,why does it seem worth while to dwell upon these exaggerations and untruths8 ,was it necessary to go through the mortality records of a nation for more than half a century merely to prove the falsity of a single laboratory claim8 ,i think so4 ,these are not ordinary blunders or trivial mistakes4 ,they are affirmations made in opposition to the slightest step toward reform of great abuses1 by honoured and distinguished writers2 by men who are regarded as absolutely reliable in all statements of fact4 ,their assertions of the vast benefits conferred upon the human race by experiments upon living animals are made in the journals of the day1 in popular magazines--in periodicals which refuse opportunity of rejoinder1 and which therefore lend their influence to securing the permanency of untruth4 ,there are problems of science concerning which such affirmations would be of comparatively little consequence2 if they concerned1 for example the weight of an atom or the distance of a star1 the controversy would excite but a languid interest1 and the correction of inaccuracy might safely be left to time4 ,but here1 on the contrary1 we touch some of the most vital problems of life and death1 problems that concern every one2 and in defence of practices1 the cruelty of which has been challenged as abhorrent to the conscience of mankind1 we have distorted and exaggerated claims of utility2 we have assertions that have no basis in fact2 we have covert appeals to woman's fears in her greatest emergency1 and to that sentiment1 the noblest almost that man himself can entertain--his solicitude for the mother of his children in her hour of peril4 ,to the malign influence of untrue suggestion no bounds can be placed2 in the creation of a public sentiment1 its influence extends in ever-widening circles4 ,it is against this unfairness and exaggeration that those who take moderate ground in this question of animal experimentation have the duty of protest and complaint4 ,we do not ascribe the unfairness to intentional mendacity4 ,such motive may be discarded without hesitancy1 so far as concerns any reputable writer4 ,but surely there has been a carelessness regarding the truth which even the plea of ignorance ought not wholly to condone4 ,and the lesson8 ,it is the reasonableness of doubt4 ,every statement put forth by the ,laboratory interests in defence of the present system of unrestricted and secret vivisection should be regarded with scepticism unless accompanied by absolute proofs4 ,in an experience of more than a third of a century1 ,i have never read a defence of vivisection without limitations1 which did not contain some exaggerated claim1 some misstatement of fact4 ,to doubt is not to dishonour2 it is the highest tribute we may pay to ,science2 for without doubt1 there is no inquiry1 and without inquiry1 no knowledge4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,research ,,without ,,vivisection ,no phase of modern science so closely touches the welfare of humanity as the studies which concern the prevention of disease4 ,up to a very recent period1 well within the lifetime of many now living1 practically the entire energy of the medical profession was given up to the treatment of human ailments1 with an almost complete disregard of problems of prevention or studies of origin4 ,to-day1 in great measure1 all this has been changed1 and the importance of preventing disease has come well to the front4 ,it is permissible to doubt whether the cure of any of the principal infectious diseases is likely to be so thoroughly accomplished as to eliminate it as a cause of mortality1 and we may regard with greater promise attempts to discover the mysterious causes of our diseases1 and the best methods by which their spread may be prevented4 ,it is certainly a great gain that during the last hundred years mankind has learned that deliverance must come through human activity1 and has ceased to regard typhoid or consumption as a dispensation of ,providence4 ,for the conquest of some of the principal maladies affecting the human race at the present time ,i have long questioned whether the laboratory for experimentation upon animals offers the opportunity for the surest results4 ,the average man has his attention fixed upon mysterious researches which are being carried on in this or that ,institute2 rumours of impending discoveries and almost certain cures are published far and wide2 and gradually one gets the impression that notwithstanding abundant disappointments1 it is only by yet more vivisection that the mystery will be solved4 ,is this a valid conclusion8 ,in many cases1 might not scientific research have a better chance to discover the secret of origin were it directed into other channels8 ,i propose to suggest one method of scientific research with which vivisection is in no way concerned--an investigation into the cause of one of the most terrible and most threatening of human maladies--cancer1 or malignant disease4 ,the subject is a vast one4 ,within the limits of a few pages it cannot be treated with any approach to the completeness which its importance demands4 ,the utmost that can now be attempted is the suggestion of certain lines of research independent of animal experimentation1 which1 if carried out with completeness1 might lead to results of incalculable benefit to humankind4 ,outside the medical profession there are few who have the faintest realization of the facts pertaining to malignant disease4 ,one reason for such ignorance is the lack of any organized system1 in the ,united ,states1 for recording the annual mortality4 ,except among barbarous or semi-civilized people1 no such condition exists4 ,when1 during the autumn of #aiab1 ,dr4 ,bashford1 the ,director of the ,imperial ,cancer ,research ,fund of ,england1 was invited to lecture in ,new ,york1 he confessed that he had tried in vain to obtain ,american statistics concerning cancer which might be compared to those of other nations2 they simply did not exist4 ,there are a few states and a few cities for which mortality records exist1 but in some of the principle states of ,america there is no official record showing even the total number of deaths from murder1 from accident1 or disease4 ,once in ten years the ,federal ,government resents us the mortality report of the census year1 but even here the information is not available until a considerable period after it is collated4 ,there is1 however1 one nation whose official registers for many years have recorded the mortality from each cause of disease1 for either sex1 and for each ten-year period of life4 ,these records have no equal elsewhere1 and are only approached by the mortality records of the ,empire of ,japan4 ,the figures concerning cancer upon which we may chiefly depend are those which pertain to the ,english people4 ,there can be no doubts but that the mortality from cancer in ,america exhibits the same phenomena1 though the rate may be higher4 ,the first thing to impress the student is the immensity of the tribute of mortality exacted by this disease1 from those in the maturity of life1 and in large measure at the period of greatest usefulness4 ,during thirty years1 from #ahha to #aiaj inclusive1 there perished in ,england and ,wales from cancer no less than #gjc1bci lives4 ,figures like these1 for the average intelligence1 are practically incomprehensible2 for this thirty-year tribute to malignant disease in a signle country represents more human being than all estimated to have perished on the battlefields of ,europe for two hundred years4 ,and if we were able to add the mortality from this one disease on the ,continent of ,europe1 it might represent a total of several millions4 ,another significant circumstance is the uniformity of the tribute exacted by cancer1 year after year4 ,we can see that best by taking the actual number of deaths from this cause1 in a single country1 and observing with what slow1 implacable1 and ever-increasing steps the great destroyer advances4 ,,deaths ,,from ,,cancer ,,in ,,england ,,and ,,wales ---------------------------------------- ------- ,year4 ,males ,females ---------------------------------------- --- #aije 44 44 44 #ab1dgj #ag1gfa #aijf 44 44 44 #ac1beg #ah1daa #aijg 44 44 44 #ac1aii #ah1edf #aijh 44 44 44 #ac1ija #ah1haf #aiji 44 44 44 #ad1bfc #ai1gij #aiaj 44 44 44 #ad1hdc #ai1gfd #aiaa 44 44 44 #ae1ehi #bj1cac #aiab 44 44 44 #af1ahh #ba1ace ---------------------------------------- ------- ,the terrible thing about these figures is their uniformity from year to year4 ,with as great a degree of certainty as the farmer foretells the produce of his fields and the results of his seed-sowing1 so the statistician can calculate the tribute that cancer will exact from the human race in future years4 ,how many persons in ,england and ,wales will die from some from of cancer during the year #aiag8 ,unless some great catastrophe shall vastly lessen the total population1 the number of victims destined to perish from malignant disease during that one year will hardly be less than #ch1ejj1 and in all probability will be more4 ,and we have no reason to doubt that in the ,united ,states the mortality from cancer would be found equally uniform were it possible to know the facts4 ,nor does uniformity pertain to numbers of either sex only4 ,each period of life has to furnish its special toll4 ,if we look at the mortality among men or women for a period of years1 we shall see this phenomenon very clearly4 ,in the following table we see the deaths of men from cancer1 in ,england1 at each ten-year age-period4 ,,deaths ,,from ,,cancer ,,at ,,different ,,age-,,periods 7,,england73 ,,age-,,periods ,,of ,,males ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,year,under#be-ce4ce-de4de-ee4ee-fe4fe- ge4 ,above ,total4 #be4 #ge4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ #aijf #bej #cbb #ibg #b1ded #d1jhg #c1fea #a1eff #ac1beg #aijg #cje #bgg #iba #b1cib #d1jda #c1fge #a1ehh #ac1aii #aijh #bgd #cag #ibe #b1eid #d1adg #c1ieg #a1fhg #ac1ija #aiji #bfb #bif #iba #b1eha #d1cai #d1agd #a1gaj #ad1bfc #aiaj #bhc #ccg #a1jja #b1ggh #d1cgg #d1cae #a1geb #ad1hdc #aiaa #cji #cag #igh #b1ija #d1fbg #d1fjb #a1hee #ae1ehi ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,precisely the same phenomenon is to be found in the cancer-mortality of women4 ,each ten-year period of life exacts its own proportion1 with an increasing death-rate out of proportion to the increase of population4 ,another fact1 attainable only by the study of ,english statistics1 is the singular regularity with which malignant disease selects different parts of the body year after year4 ,if proclivity to this mysterious ailment were a matter of chance1 or dependent upon the irregular action of certain forces1 we should certainly fail to find such uniformity1 or such approach to uniformity1 as exists4 ,one year1 for instance1 there would be1 let us say1 a preponderance of attacks upon the skin2 another year the digestive organs would be the principal sufferers2 a third year the joints and muscles would be chiefly involved4 ,the actual experience proves that we are subject here to forces of incalculable stress1 which nevertheless press steadily and uniformly upon humanity1 where the habits and environment are the same4 ,in the year #aija1 for example1 of the total number of fatal cases among men1 the seat of the disease was the stomach in a little over #ba per cent4 of the total number of cases4 ,in #aiaj the proportion was also #ba per cent4 ,during the ten years #aija-aiaj1 of the total mortality1 the stomach was the organ involved in but a fraction over #ba ,,per ,,cent4 ,,of ,,the ,,total ,,cases4 ,is cancer increasing8 ,this is a question of vast importance to the human race4 ,that in proportion to total population more die from the disease to-day than twenty or thrity years ago1 is a fact about which there can be no doubt4 ,dr4 ,stevenson1 in the ,report of the ,registrar- ,general for the year #aiaj1 tells us that in all countries from which returns have been received the mortality has shown a general tendency to increase in recent years4 ,speaking on the ,menace of ,cancer1 the statistician of the ,prudential ,insurance ,company of ,america affirmed that the cancer death-rate in the ,united ,states is increasing at the rate of #b4e per cent4 per annum1 and a corresponding increase is taking place practically throughout the civilized world4 ,the cancer- rate among men in the ,united ,states has increased1 according to the same authority1 #bi per cent4 during the last decade4 ,the steady increase of cancer year after year is strikingly shown by a curve diagram1 based upon the ,english mortality for several years4 ,a significant illustration of the steady increase in the mortality from cancer is shown by its fatality among women in ,england between the ages of forty-five and sixty-five4 ,in the year #ahge1 of all deaths of women at this period of life1 one in ten 7in round numbers7 was due to some form of malignant disease4 ,in #ahij the tribute exacted by the disease had become one in eight4 ,ten years later--in #aijj--of all women dying in ,england during this period of middle life1 the toll of cancer was one in seven2 and in #aiaj the corresponding proportion was one in five6 ,at this rate of increase it will not be many years before a full third of all the deaths of women at this time of life will be due to malignant disease4 ,there can be little doubt that the same phenomenon would be found to pertain to ,american experience1 were it possible to disentangle the facts from the obscurity in which they are now permitted to lie4 ,it is a curious fact that in ,england until the year #aijj--;and1 so far as we know1 for thousands of years--the death-rate from consumption among women was considerably higher than that of malignant disease2 that in #aijc1 for the first time1 the cancer-mortality of women exceeded that of phthisis2 and that in #aiaj it had so far surpassed it that they are not likely ever again to be equal1 unless we shall discover the cause of the more fatal plague4 ,the theory has been put forth by certain writers that the increased death-rate from cancer is due1 not to any increased frequency of the dissease1 but rather to improved methods of detection4 ,it is quite certain that fifty years ago1 for instance1 surgeons were less able and less willing to pronounce judgment regarding obscure cases of internal tumours4 ,but if the better diagnosis of to-day accounts for some part of this increase since #ahfj1 it does not seem probable that it can explain the rising death-rate of the last ten or fifteen years4 ,the medical practitioner of #aijj was certainly as well qualified to pronounce upon the character of the disease as the surgeon or physician of to-day4 ,nevertheless1 the cancer death-rate of ,england in #aiaj had increased #af per cent4 above that of ten years before1 and during the fifteen years #ahie-aijj it had increased fully #bh per cent4 ,certainly in these last few years there has been no such increased ability to detect the disease as would account for all this4 ,yet another fact suggests doubt of this optimistic hypothesis4 ,if the increased cancer death-rate were due merely to the increased ability of the physician or surgeon to recognize the ailment1 we should certainly find that the increase of cancer would be seen only in those parts of the system1 such as internal organs1 where some degree of doubt might perhaps be entertained2 while1 on the other hand1 there would be little or no increase discernible in the mortality of cancers affecting parts of the body where its nature could not be mistaken by any intelligent physician or surgeon4 ,now1 for a number of years1 perhaps with this hypothesis in view1 the ,registrar-,general in ,england has tabulated all deaths from cancer of either sex1 not only by different age-periods1 but also by the part of the body affected by the fatal disease4 ,a study of the facts thus made known is extremely suggestive4 ,it is true that a marked increase in the death-rate has occurred in cancer affecting internal organs1 as we should naturally suppose2 but it is also true that malignant disease affecting parts of the body where little or no doubt of the character of the ailment could be entertained by the physician1 exhibit in some instances as marked an increase in the death-rate as in some other cases1 where doubt of malignancy might be justifiable4 ,for example1 cancer of the tongue among men showed a death-rate of #cb per million population in #ahig2 it went up to #dg per million in #aiaj-- an increase of nearly #ej per cent4 ,cancer of the female breast showed a death-rate of about #adb per million population in #ahig2 it had arisen to a rate of #aij per million only thirteen years later2 and here1 assuredly1 the nature of the disease in fatal cases cannot be mistaken4#a ,cancer of the stomach in its final stages does not present insuperable difficulties in way of diagnosis1 but the death-rate increased for men about #dj per cent4 in fifteen years2 and although some of this increase may be due to more careful discrimination between cases of malignant disease affecting the liver1 yet this explanation cannot account for the increase when both organs are considered together4 ,the subject is worthy of careful and extended investigation1 but even a cursory examination of the facts now available indicate a real increase in the death-rate from cancer in ,england1 and probably in every other civilized country in the world4 #a ,during fourteen years 444 the mortality from mammary cancer has increased by about #bi per cent41 ,,notwithstanding ,,lives ,,saved ,,by ,,improved ,,methods ,,of ,,operation4--,registrar-,general's ,report for #aiaj1 p4 #fi4 ,but all these phenomena are of secondary importance compared with the great problem of medical science--the yet undiscovered cause of malignant disease4 ,during recent years the study of cancer has been conducted with scientific enthusiasm in many laboratories4 ,vast sums of money have been given1 in the hope that these studies may one day lead to the discovery of a cure4 ,one whom ,i knew in his youth became the heir of great wealth2 lived to see one whom he loved perish from the disease2 was struck down himself1 and dying1 left a fortune for the purpose of promoting research concerning cancer4 ,and yet to-day the problem1 as attacked in the various laboratories of ,europe and ,america1 is apparently as far from solution as it was forty years ago4 ,sir ,henry ,butlin1 ex-,president of the ,royal ,college of ,surgeons1 ,england1 is said to have operated on as many cases of cancer as any surgeon of his day4 ,yet1 speaking in ,october1 #aiaa1 he said3 ,i have been associated with the ,imperial ,cancer ,research and in touch with its staff from the foundation of the ,research1 and have been a member of the publication committee of all its scientific reports4 ,,it ,,has ,,done ,,nothing ,,on ,,the ,,lines ,,in ,,which ,,observation ,,has ,,been ,,so ,,useful4 ,it has not unfolded the life-history of a single variety of cancer1 so that we can base our operations on the information4 ,it has not even discovered whether spontaneous cancer of a particular part of the body in the rat or mouse runs a similar course to spontaneous cancer of the same part of the body in the human subject4 ,these problems are not suited for experimental investigation2 they are determined by observation4#a #a ,lancet1 ,london1 ,october #g1 #aiaa4 ,no serum1 no drug1 no curative agency of any kind1 has thus far been discovered upon which the slightest dependence may be placed4 ,the only measure of relieve which medical science can now suggest is early and complete extirpation4 ,of what proportion of cases even this insures immunity we cannot tell4 ,without decrying what has been done in the laboratory1 may it not be that we have gone in that direction as far as there is any hope for success1 and that all effort should now be directed ,,to ,,the ,,discovery ,,of ,,the ,,cause ,,of ,,malignant ,,disease ,,in ,,human ,,beings8 ,that great secret still eludes us1 but until we can penetrate that mystery1 it is difficult to perceive how we may hope to prevent the increasing prevalence of the great destroyer 4 ,yet there is one method of investigation which 7speaking from a study of cancer statistics for more than twenty-five years7 seems to me to offer1 more than all others1 a reasonable hope of ultimate success4 ,it is independent of all sacrifice of animal life4 ,it involves1 however1 an expenditure far greater than is possible for any private investigator1 and probably only by the co-operation of the ,government can it be undertaken with any chance of success4 ,yet1 if ,society can once be aroused to a recognition of the need for the completest possible investigation concerning malignant disease1 and particularly the reasons for its differing prevalence among people of different nationalities1 habits1 and general environment1 that inquiry will take place1 even though it cost the price of a battleship4 ,the subject is so vast and involved that it cannot be discussed with any approach to completeness in a single essay4 ,suppose1 however1 that we glance at the theory which regards cancer as due to a microbe which in some mysterious ways gains admission into the human body1 lying for a time dormant1 but liable under appropriate stimulation to be awakened into malignant activity4 ,we know at the outset that if any such germ of disease exists1 it has thus far escaped visual recognition4 ,no human eye can be said with certainty to have seen it1 even when aided by the most powerful microscope2 but this may be due to the fact that1 like the germ of certain other diseases1 it is so minute that it lies beyond the range of human vision4 ,there are1 however1 certain facts pertaining to the disease which have significance4 ,we have already seen that in a given country there is a kind of uniformity in the number of those dying from the disease from year to year2 but another phenomenon relates to the unequal pressure in difference countries of the causes of the disease4 #a4 ,,the ,,death-,,rate ,,from ,,cancer ,,appears ,,greatly ,,to ,,vary ,,according ,,to ,,race ,,and ,,environment4 ,,cancer ,,death-,,rate ,,in ,,different ,,countries ,,per #ajj1jjj ,,population ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,five-,year ,periods4 ,switzerland4 ,england4 ,italy4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #ahhf-ahij 44 44 #aad #fc #dc #ahia-ahie 44 44 #abb #ga #dd #ahif-aijj 44 44 #abg #hj #ea #aija-aije 44 44 #abh #hg #ee ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,here is the record of a period of twenty years4 ,these differences of proclivity to cancer are exceedingly curious4 ,can the reader perceive why they exist8 ,the rate in ,england is quite #ej per cent4 higher than that of ,italy4 ,if we explain this by the hypothesis of greater skill in detecting the disease1 what are we to say of the cancer-rate in ,switzerland1 which is #ej per cent4 higher than that of ,england8 ,but here is another curious fact4 ,the ,united ,states census of #aijj permits a contrast of the mortality of cancer according to the birthplaces of mothers of those attacked4 ,here1 for instance1 is the death-rate from cancer and tumour of persons of different nationality1 calculated in three sections of the country--the rural districts of the registration area1 the cities of the same section1 and the cities outside the registration area4 ,,death-,,rates ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,from ,,cancer ,,and ,,tumour ,,per #ajj1jjj ,,white ,,population1 ,,according ,,to ,,the ,,birthplace ,,of ,,the ,,mothers ,,of ,,patients ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,registration ,area4 ,other ,,countries4 ---------------------- ,cities4 ,rural ,cities4 ,districts4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,italy 44 44 44 #bj #bd #ci ,russia and ,poland 44 #bf #cj #bf ,england and ,wales 44 #gi #gg #hj ,ireland 44 44 #ij #hb #hf ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,how are these facts to be explained8 ,what is there about the habits1 the environment1 the dietetic peculiarities of the ,italians in ,america1 which tends to confer upon them a greater immunity from cancer than is possessed by those whose maternal ancestry goes to ,england or ,ireland8 ,assuredly this immunity is not due to chance4 ,it is governed by some law1 even though that law be unrecognized to-day4 ,if the low cancer mortality of ,italy made itself manifest only in that country1 we might suspect it indicated a lack of skilled diagnosis2 but here we find it just as prominent in three different section of the ,united ,states4 ,not only that1 but the difference is seen in comparison of parts affected by cancer4 ,for persons whose mothers were born in ,ireland the death-rate in cancer of the stomach per million population was #ahd2 the corresponding rate for ,italians was #ef4 ,does the poverty of the people have anything to do with proclivity to cancer8 ,in one way this is a probability4 ,if we could compare the general prosperity of men and women whose parents were born in the ,united ,states with the entire population of which the parents were born in other countries1 it seems to me that we should find the second class1 taken as a whole1 to be financially less prosperous than the first4 ,now1 in #aijj1 the census reveals that in the ,united ,states the class to suffer chiefly from malignant diseasewas that which included ,,the ,,foreign-,,born ,,population1 alike in cities1 in rural districts1 within or without the registration area4 ,this is certainly a fact of tremendous import4 ,in ,america the population is a blend of every ,european nationality4 ,why1 taken as a whole1 should the native ,american suffer from one mysterious disease less than some of those who have come more recently to the ,united ,states8 ,in another work ,i have ventured to suggest that if we are to discover the cause of cancer1 we must study the habits and customs of those still living who have become the victims of some form of this mysterious disease4 ,a theory held by some is that cancer is due to the consumption of meat4 ,if one means that the flesh of perfectly healthy animals is liable to cause cancer1 the hypothesis is one for which it seems to me that the evidence is far from being sufficient to justify belief4 ,but if1 on the other hand1 it is suggested that malignant disease may be due to germs derived from animals which were suffering from som form of cancer when they were killed for the food of human beings1 then much that is otherwise obscure becomes plain4 ,we should expect in such cases to find cancer more prevalent among the poor than among the rich1 and especially prevalent among those who1 from carelessness1 or ignorance1 or seeming necessity1 consume the cheaper kinds of meat4 ,and since1 both in their native land and in ,america1 the ,italian population consumes less meat than peoples of other nationalities1 we should expect them to be less liable to be infected by the germs of malignant disease4 ,a few years ago a medical writer who has given much attention to this disease published some of his investigations into the cancer death-rate of ,chicago4 ,taking the figures for a single year1 he discovered that the cancer death-rate among the ,irish and ,german residents of ,chicago is the highest in the world1 being nearly #cjj per cent4 higher than in their native countries4#a ,of each #aj1jjj population of each nationality living at the age of forty years and over1 he found that the deaths from cancer among the ,germans was #gf1 among the ,irish #gj1 among the ,scandinavians #eb1 and among the natives of ,italy #bd4 ,it was found that1 while the staple diet of ,italians in ,chicago was macaroni and spaghetti1 the people of other nationalities among whom the cancer-rate was exceedingly high1 consume large quantities of canned and preserved meats and sausages1 ,,often ,,eaten ,,uncooked4 ,he discovered that a large part of the fresh meat prepared at the establishment of a certain slaughtering establishment in ,chicago was derived from animals which had been condemned on the ante- mortem inspection1 but the flesh of which was perimitted ,,to ,,be ,,sold ,,as ,,pure ,,food ,,after ,,the ,,diseased ,,parts ,,had ,,been ,,removed4 ,sold thus at a cheaper price1 such meat was chiefly consumed by the poorer classes of the foreign population4 ,and while ,dr4 ,adams does not adopt the hypothesis of the cancer-germ1 he does not think there can be the slightest question but that the increase in cancer among the foreign- born over the prevalence of that disease in their native countries is due to the increased consumption of animal foods1 ,,particularly ,,those ,,derived ,,from ,,diseased ,,animals4 #a ,see article by ,dr4 ,g4 ,cooke ,adams in ,chicago ,clinic of ,august1 #aijg1 pp4 #bdh-bea4 ,a statement like this is calculated to induce serious reflections4 ,the average reader finds it difficult to believe that1 according to the present interpretation of the law1 the flesh of animals found to be suffering from cancer at the time of their slaughter would be permitted to pass into the world's food-supply4 ,we are int the presence of a great mystery4 ,we do not know how the gret plague originates4 ,but no reflecting man or woman can be insensible to the significance of possibilities when he learns that cancer affects animals which are killed for food2 that in the majority of cases the disease affects some part of the digestive tract2 that it chiefly prevails among the very poorest classes of the population1 excepting only those like ,italians1 who use but little meat2 and that1 according to the official regulations of the ,united ,states ,government in force to-day1 ,,the ,,flesh ,,derived ,,from ,,cancerous ,,animals ,,need ,,not ,,always ,,be ,,destroyed ,,as ,,unfit ,,for ,,human ,,consumption4 ,the cancerous tumour1 the affected parts1 must indeed be cut away1 and carefully condemned4 ,the disposition of the remainder of the meat is left to the decision of the inspector6 ,the regulation so far as it applies to meat of this kind1 is as follows3 ,,any ,,organ ,,or ,,part of a carcass1 which is badly bruised1 or which is affected by tumours1 ,,malignant or benign1 444 shall be condemned2 but when the lesions are so extensive as to affect the whole carcass1 the whole carcass shall be condemned4#a #a ,regulations governing ,meat ,inspection1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,regulation ,no4 #ac1 section #bc4 ,see also ,appendix ,,viii41 p4 #cfb4 ,the meaning of this regulation would seem to be perfectly clear4 ,there is no demand by the ,government that the entire carcass of an animal affected by malignant disease shall be utterly destroyed for food purposes1 unless the disease has involved the entire body1--a condition as rarely found among domesetic animals1 as among human beings4 ,otherwise than this1 what is there in the official regulations of the bureau governing meat inspection to prevent such use of the flesh of diseased animals as the inspector may authorize8 ,it seems to me that if science is ever to discover the cause of malignant disease1 there should be a careful study of all the conditions under which the disease now manifests itself4 ,the mortality from cancer in the state of ,new ,york1 in #aiab1 amounted to #h1bcd2 in ,england1 the number of those who perished from the disease in #aiaa was nearly #cf1jjj4 ,by what figure must we multiply this mortality in order to ascertain the number of persons living who have been affected1 or who now are suffering from cancer8 ,nobody knows4 ,what has been the success of surgery in securing immunity from a recurrence of the disease8 ,so far as the entire country is concerned1 we are entirely ignorant4 ,is it true that among the class of people in such cities as ,chicago1 where cancerous animals are used for food1 cancer is especially prevalent year after year8 ,if true1 it should be fully known4 ,such facts must be ascertained1 if ever we are to penetrate the secret of the dissease4 ,even the number of victims of each sex is not given in the mortality reports of the state of ,new ,york at the present day4 ,let us suppose that the time comes1 when with a realization of peril pertaining to ignorance1 public sentiment shall urge the attainment of knowledge concerning cancer as it now affects the general population4 ,in what way is information of this character to be secured8 ,assuredly not by any of the ordinary census methods1 implying publicity4 ,the only practicable enumeration would be one conducted privately1 by members of the medical profession4 ,nor can it be done parsimoniously4 ,in the state of ,new ,york1 there may be1 to-day1 #ej1jjj cases of malignant disease4 ,to have every case1 completely reported1 might cost the state half a million dollars4 ,perhaps even the patient should be compensated4 ,certainly some method could be adopted whereby the reports should be absolutely confidential1 the patient being known only by a number4 ,but all this is of minor consequence4 ,when the necessity of the inquiry is everywhere recognized1 the details pertaining to accomplishment will be easily arranged4 ,assuming the willingness of patients and friends to assist in making a ,state-wide inquiry concerning the prevalence of malignant disease1 let us see in what directions the investigation will be conducted4 ,,first4 ,after securing the name1 age1 and place of birth of each individual sufferer1 and the particulars which would suggest themselves to every physician or surgeon1 inquiry should be made concerning the parents2 the names1 nationality1 religious faith1 place and date and cause of death4 ,especially should inquiry be made whether there have been other cases of cancer in the family1 and their termination or present state4 ,,second4 ,what is the location of the suspected ailment8 ,when were the first symptoms manifested8 ,to what cause1 if any1 were they ascribed8 ,has any surgical operation been performed1 and if so1 what are the details of time and place8 ,has recurrence followed operation8 ,for what period was there freedom from symptoms8 ,whatis the social position of the patient8 ,does he belong to that class which is enabled always to select the best food1 the most sanitary dwellings1 and all the conveniences of well-ordered and comfortable existence2 or1 on the other hand1 to the extremely poor class1 which disregards cleanliness1 indulges to excess in the use of stimulants1 and consumes the poorest and cheapest kinds of meat8 ,i deem it of great importance that the completest possible information be secured concerning the usual diet of every sufferer from this disease4 ,is he a vegetarian8 ,are viands invariably well-cooked1 or eaten sometimes rare or raw8 ,is there a liking for the canned products of the packing-house1 or for sausage that comes from the same source8#a ,what is the water-supply8 ,within the knowledge of the patient or friends1 has there been any other case of malignant disease in the same house8 ,is residence near any fresh-water lake or stream8 #a ,the relation between diseased meat and human ailments is treated at length in my work on ,american ,meat1 ,new ,york1 #aiji4 ,these are suggestions only4 ,they constitute merely an outline of the information that is necessary1 concerning the living sufferers1 in whom the disease has made its appearance4 ,doubtless the average reader will discern no reason for all these inquiiries4 ,yet each one has some pertinency to the possible discovery of the great secret4 ,does inquiry concerning family history seem useless8 ,it should have a decided bearing on any theory of heredity4 ,does the occurrence of near-by cases have no significance8 ,we are not yet in a position to state this as a fact4 ,does inquiry concerning religion seem especially impertinent8 ,what if some future investigation should prove that cancer everywhere1 is more prevalent among the ,christians than the ,jews8 ,does the social condition of the sufferer seem to have no relation to cause8 ,what if we discover1 that everywhere1--and not among the foreign population of ,chicago only1--cancer finds an undue proportion of its victims among the poorest and most poverty-stricken element of every nationality8 ,does suggestion of inquiry concerning diet induce a smile8 ,it should not1 as long as meat derived from cancerous animals is permitted by ,government authority1 to pass inspection1 and to be distributed throughout the world4 ,and no inquiry concerning cancer can be deemed complete which has not fully investigated the extent to which this atrocious practice has been carried on for the past quarter of a century4 ,but this ,state-wide inquiry is only a part of the work4 ,every year1 for a period of at least ten years1 the record must be revised1 the result of surgical operations recorded1 the deaths enumerated1 the new cases added4 ,the expense of each annual revision would be far less than that of the original inquiry2 but the inquiry will be costly1 and should be costly1 if it is to be accurate and complete4 ,here1 indeed1 would be the opportunity for the co-operation of organizations devoted to cancer research1 and particularly of that new foundation1 the income of which for a single year is far more than the original investigation would cost4 ,and when the inquiry is completed2 when all attainable information concerning the occurrence of malignant disease shall have been secured not for a single year1 but for a period of successive years1 not for one community1 but for an entire state1 and for each of its constitutuent parts1 what then8 ,then ,i believe a knowledge of the cause of cancer will soon be attained4 ,when we know the cause1 then there will be hope for prevention1 which is far better than cure4 ,all the various experiments upon mice1 for example1 whatever they may teach concerning the disease in the lower animals1 have not enlightened us concerning the cause of the malady in mankind4 ,the greatest and most promising fields for scientific research1 now almost untrodden1 awaits the explorers of the future4 ,in a world where now there is comparative unconcern1 there may soon be fearful apprehensions of the increasing prevalence of an almost irremediable disease4 ,within the coming century1 the investigation ,i have here outlined1 will sometime be made2 and1 as a result1 the cause of cancer may be as well known to medical science1 as the causes of typhoid fever or malaria1--mysteries that seemed insoluble less than a century ago4 ,and ,i venture with assurance to predict1 that some time within the next fifty years1 the ,governments of ,england and of the ,united ,states1 alarmed1 it may be1 by a continually increasing mortality from cancer1 will condemn under severest penalties1 the sale for human food of meat deriveed from animals affected by malignant disease1--no matter how great may be the pecuniary loss to every slaughtering establishment and packing-house in either land4 ,the public awakening to danger that must precede legislation cannot yet be discerned2 and before the national apprehension is aroused and apathy ceases1 probably more than a million lives will be sacrificed to cancer1 in ,england and ,america alone4 ------------------------------ ,note4--,the deaths ascribed to cancer or malignant disease in ,england and ,wales during #aiab1 numbered #cg1cbc4 ,the mortality of males was #iac per million living1 as compared with #hia in #aiaa1 and that of females1 #a1aag1 as compared with #a1jih4 ,,in ,,the ,,case ,,of ,,each ,,sex1 ,,these ,,rates ,,are ,,the ,,highest ,,on ,,record4--,from #geth ,report of ,registrar-,general1 #aiad1 p4 lxxxiii4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,the ,,future ,,of ,,vivisection#a #a ,address delivered at ,washington1 ,d4,c41 before the ,international ,humane ,congress1 ,december #aj1 #aiac4 ,attempts to forecast the future development of ,humanity in any direction have always possessed for some minds a peculiar fascination4 ,plato and ,bacon had their visions of a ,state superior to that in which they lived2 ,burton foresaw improvements in the administration of justice1 and the condition of the poorer classes1 which waited for two centuries for some measure of realization2 even ,defoe had his list of projects1 some of which1 laughed at in their day1 are the realities of our time4 ,no great reform in any direction was ever effected which had not been the unrealized vision of a dreamer4 ,and such dreams are the romance of history4 ,for any one to have imagined two centuries ago1 that the ,african slave-trade and negro slavery would some day be condemned by every civilized nation1 not because they were pecuniarily unprofitable1 but because they contravened the conscience of ,society and its sense of righteousness1 requierd a faith in the ultimate triumph of justice over greed1 that not one man in ten thousand possessed4 ,for ,calvin or ,torquemada to have imagined the coming of a time when the burning of an unbeliever would not be regarded as pleasing to the ,deity1 demanded a sublimer vision than either of them possessed4 ,custom and universal acceptance would sometimes seem to create impregnable barriers against change4 ,but with the slow lapse of years1 the venerated custom is attacked by doubt2 the superstition is undermined1 and the great evil gradually passes from the sight4 ,no great wrong is so securely entrenched1 as to be absolutely safe from the ultimate condemnation of mankind4 ,what is to be the future of vivisection1 as conducted in ,america to- day8 ,is it to continue1 without other limitations against cruelty than those which are self-imposed1 without legal restriction or restraint1 so long as civilization endures1 ever widening its scope1 ever increasing the hecatombs of its victims1 until uncounted milions shall have been sacrificed8 ,is protest against excess to grow weaker1 until the ideal of humaneness in the laboratory shall become a scoff and a byword8 ,is approval of any research in the name of ,science to become stronger until it shall cover the vivisection of human beings as well as the exploitation of animals8 ,or are we to expect1 as the result of agitation1 the legal suppression of all scientific research requiring animal life1 within the limits of the next half-century8 ,it is easier to ask questions than to answer them4 ,yet1 as one who for over thirty years1 has taken some part in the agitation for reform1 you may be willing to permit a forecast of probabilities1 vague1 it may be1 as the vision of a sailor peering through the darkness that environs the ship1--but the best he can do4 ,no estimate of the future of vivisection in ,america can be of value which does not recognize the power of the laboratory at the present day4 ,half a century ago1 the vivisection of animals was rarely practised2 to-day1 in the older states1 there are few institutions of higher learning which do not possess ample facilities for animal experimentation4 ,millionaires1 many times over1 have been induced to devote some part of their great wealth to the foundation and support of institutions for exsperimentation upon living things4 ,farms have been established where animals destined to sacrifice1 are born and bred4 ,it may safely be estimated that in ,america1 to-day1 there are not less than five hundred times as many experiments every year1 as took place half a century ago4 ,one must recognize1 too1 the change which has taken place in the attitude of a majority of the medical profession towards this reform4 ,during the past thirty years1 thousands of young men have entered the profession1 who have been carefully educated to regard all criticism of animal experimentation as due to a sentimentalism worthy only of contempt4 ,i greatly doubt whether even one per cent4 of the physicians in ,america1 under fifty years of age1 have ever heard that half a century ago1 the feeling of the medical profession1 in the ,english-speaking world was almost unanimous in disapproval and condemnation of methods and of experiments which now pass without notice1 and uncondemned4 ,when men1 educated to come into the closest of relations with their fellow-beings1 are thus prejudiced and uninformed1 should we wonder that their views are so widely accepted8 ,the wonder to me is rather that so large a minority are not to be convinced that everything in a laboratory must be right4 ,another element of the forces that to-day are marshalled against reform1 is the ,press4 ,political journals1 which even twenty-five years ago endeavoured to hold an attitude of impartiality1 now present editorials almost every week in ridicule of any legal regulation of vivisection1 or of any opposition to laboratory freedom4 ,the intimate knowledge of medical matters sometimes exhibited by the writers1 would seem to indicate a closer relation between the physiological laboratory of to-day1 and the editorial sanctum1 than existed forty years ago4 ,there are journals1 so closely related1 apparently1 to laboratory interests1 that they do not permit correction of editorial misstatements or mistake to appear in their columns1 even when such blunders are pointed out4 ,the old impartial attitude of the ,press seems--except here and there--to have completely disappeared4 ,any forecast of the future must take into account this vast and ever- increasing influence4 ,yet another impediment to the legal repression of any cruelty pertaining to animal experimentation is one which we all deplore1 even though no remedy appears in sight4 ,it is not the opposition of enemies1 but division among friends that constitutes1 in my opinion1 the greatest present obstacle to any reform4 ,it is as though against some strong fortress1 different armies were engaging in an attack1 each with its separate purpose1 its own plan of campaign1 its own ultimate aim1 and now and then crossing and recrossing in each other's way1 to the infinite delight of the enemy4 ,some of us make the demand that ,,all such inquiry on the part of ,science shall be made a crime2 and some of us take the position of the ,english-speaking medical profession of forty years ago1 that ,,abuses ,,and ,,cruelty ,,alone should be the object of attack4 ,if opposition from the first1 had been solely directed against ,,abuses of vivisection1 could any reform have been achieved8 ,it is not certain4 ,when ,mr4 ,rockefeller opened his purse on the vivisection table1 he added immeasurably to the strength of the forces that resist reform4 ,and yet it is difficult to over-estimate the loss to any cause of such men as ,sir ,benjamin ,ward ,richardson1 as ,professor ,william ,james and ,professor ,henry ,j4 ,bigelow of ,harvard ,university1 or of ,dr4 ,theophilus ,parvin of ,jefferson ,medical ,college1--to refer only to the dead4 ,their criticisms of cruelty were outspoken1 but they could not join in universal condemnation of all such inquiry into the phenomena of life4 ,might it not have been better--even at the cost of a lessened demand--to have kept on the side of reform that large element in the medical profession which willingly condemned abuse1 but declined to denounce the simplest demonstration1 or the most painless investigation8 ,of course such an inquiry will receive different replies4 ,it is ever the easier task to make condemnation absolute4 ,the thing has been done2 the past is beyond recall4 ,but in looking at the future1 we cannot but recognize the changed attitude of a majority of the medical profession from that of half a century ago4 ,the strongest position of the modern physiological laboratory1 is its ,,secrecy4 ,it occupies in the popular mind almost precisely the place which was held for centuries by the ,inquisition in ,spain4 ,there were men who doubtless objected1 then1 to the secrecy of the dungeon4 ,trust us absolutely1 cried the inquisitor4 ,ours is the responsibility of preventing errors that lead to eternal death4 ,can you not leave it to us to decide what shall be done in the torture- chamber1 being assured that ,,no ,,more ,,pain ,,will ,,be ,,inflicted ,,than ,,is ,,absolutely ,,necessary ,,for ,,the ,,end ,,in ,,view8 ,trust us absolutely1 demands the vivisector of to-day4 ,can you dare to question the purity of our motives1 the unselfishness of our aims1 the mild and humane methods of our experimentation8 ,why should any one wish to disturb the silence and secrecy in which we carry on our work8 ,cannot the public leave it solely to us to determine what pain may be inflicted upon animals1 being certain that no more suffering will be caused than we deem to be necessary for success8 ,the parallelism is complete4 ,it is a call for implicit confidence4 ,and that confidence has been given by a too credulous public4 ,three hundred years ago1 when the victims were marched in long procession from dungeon to burning-place1 they were accompanied by an approving mob1 eager to inflict every indignity and to applaud every pang4 ,the men about the burning-place were not intentionally cruel4 ,they had simply given the control of their judgment to the inquisitor4 ,is it so very different1 to-day1 in the matter of vivisection8 ,why should we hesitate to recognize that at the present time1 a large section of the general public have made the same act of surrender1 justifying whatever the laboratory demands1 and defending whatever it defends8 ,it seems to me probable1 therefore1 that for many years to come1 the laboratory for vivisection1 ,,if ,,only ,,it ,,can ,,maintain ,,its ,,secrecy1 will continue as serenely indifferent to criticsm1 as completely master of the confidence of modern society1 as supreme in power and position as was the ,spanish ,inquisition of three centuries ago4 ,new laboratories will be founded upon ill-gotten wealth2 new inquisitors1 with salaries greater than those of ,washington or ,lincoln will take the places of those that retire2 new theories1 now unimagined1 will demand their tribute of victims to help prove or disprove some useless hypothesis2 even new methods of torment may be invented1 and new excuses for their necessity put forth4 ,nor is this all4 ,if the laboratory of the present day shall continue to maintain its hold upon the intelligence of modern society2 if it can keep unimpaired that confidence in its benevolent purpose1 that belief in accomplishment1 that faith in utility which now so largely obtains2 and if1 moreover1 it can secure for the charity hospital that absolute power and secrecy which it has gained for itself in animal experimentation1 then1 within the lifetime of men now living1 human beings will take their place as material for investigation of human ailments4 ,upon the living bodies of ,amerian soldiers1 upon lunatics in asylums and babes in institutions and patients in charity hospitals1 experiments of this character have already taken place4 ,is utility to ,science to be considered the standard by which human actions are to be judged8 ,then1 even within the present century1 experimentation upon human beings may be openly acknowledged as a defensible method of investigation4 ,now all this is not a cry of despair1 a confession of defeat4 ,it is meant only to be rational recognition of existing conditions1 and especially of the forces that now prevent reform4 ,perhaps if the armies were united1 a different forecast could be made2 but that union is beyond hope4 ,the enthusiasm that would expect to eliminate a great evil on other terms1 and within the space of time occupied by a single generation does not seem to me to be justified by the records of history4 ,of the ultimate triumph of the reform of vivisection1 there can be no more question than of the result of the agitation against human slavery1 against the torment of criminals1 against the burning of the heretic or the witch4 ,in what way may we anticipate its coming8 ,we may be certain that a period will yet arrive1 when among the more intelligent classes of society1 doubts concerning the practical utility of all that is done in the name of ,science will take the place of present-day credulity4 ,it is too soon to expect a general spirit of inquiry to arise2 the closed laboratory has not been so long in existence but that a request for more time to demonstrate possibility of accomplishment may seem not unreasonable4 ,but some time in the future1 long after we have all passed away1 the intellectual world may be moved by the spirit of doubt and unrest2 it will ask from the laboratory a statement of account2 it will demand that the books be balanced2 and that against the cost of agony and death1 there be made known whatever gains in way of discoveries of clearly demonstrated value to humanity1 can be proven to exist4 ,like the servant in the parable1 the modern laboratory has been given its ten talents4 ,it enjoys a secrecy which is profound1 all that wealth can procure1 and unrestricted opportunity for ever phase of research4 ,there is no limitation to the torments which it may inflict1 without impediment or fear of public criticism1 if present secrecy can be maintained4 ,the conscience of modern society--so far as vivisection is concerned1--would seem to have journeyed into a far country4 ,but some day it may return to its own1 and ask for an accounting of its trust4 ,and fifty years hence1 if pressed for the proof of great achievement1 of grand discoveries1 what evidence will then be produced by the vivisection laboratory8 ,how much of wealth will have been devoted to fruitless explorations in desert regions8 ,what vast fortunes will have been paid out to professional explorers1 whose work will have been in vain8 ,what proofs will the laboratory then be able to adduce of priceless discoveries made within its walls1 proofs resting not upon the heated enthusiasm of the experimenter1 but demonstrated by statistical evidence of a decreased mortaility from the scourges of disease8 ,,that is the test of utility1 which may one day be applied not merely to ,mr4 ,rockefeller's creation1 but to every laboratory in ,england and ,america4 ,then1 perhaps1 it may not suffice to set forth discoveries1 as useless to mankind1 as would be the demosntration of gold and silver in the moon4 ,before the tribunal of an intelligent public opinion1--not of our day1 but of some distant epoch1 the justification of secret vivisection will assuredly be demanded4 ,will it be given8 ,against the vast cost in money1 cost in depravation of the instinct of compassion1 cost in the lessened sensitiveness of young men and young women to the infliction of torment1 cost in the seeming necessity of defending and justifying cruelty1 cost in the temptation to exaggerate facts1 cost in the countless hecatombs of victims1 non-existent to-day1 yet doomed to perish in pain of which no record and no use can be found1--against all this1 what profit will be adduced8 ,something8 ,undoubtedly4 ,,but ,,sufficient ,,to ,,balance ,,the ,,cost8 ,when that accounting is made1 will the enlightened conscience of humanity then grant condonation1 because of great achievement1 of all that will have been done in the name of research1 and of demonstration of well-known facts8 ,i cannot imagine it4 ,what can we venture to forecast regarding the future of medical school vivisections1 made for the one purpose of fixing facts in memory8 ,no one qualified by any experience in teaching can doubt the value of certain demonstrations4 ,so far as they are performed upon animals made absolutely unconscious to any senstation of pain1 it is difficult to suggest a condemnation that does not equally apply to the killing of animals for food or raiment4 ,but the medical school laboratory seems to shrink from the public scrutiny4 ,if there were no need for secrecy1 is it likely that every attempt to penetrate the seclusion of the laboratory would be so strenuously opposed8 ,,of ,,what ,,is ,,the ,,laboratory ,,afraid8 ,if the present methods of demonstration or teaching of physiology are such as would meet general approval so far as their painlessness is concerned1 why fear to make them known8 ,on the other hand1 if animals are subjected to prolonged and extreme torment for the illustration of well-known and accepted facts2 if students not only witness1 but are sometimes required to perform for themselves experiments as agonizing and as useless as any that ever disgraced the torture-chambers of ,magendie1 we can well understand why immunity from criticism can only be secured by concealment and secrecy4 ,opposition to publicity or to investigation by the ,government is quite conceivable1 if there be something which must be hidden out of sight4 ,in the long-run1 the policy of concealment must fail1 and the whole truth be known4 ,then1 indeed1 we may hope for the beginning of reform4 ,that fifty or a hundred years hence1 all utilization of animals1 whether for food or raiment or scientific ends will have absolutely ceased in ,england and ,america ,i am not able to believe4 ,but ,i am very sure that before this century closes1 the subjection of animals to pain for the demonstration of well-known facts will have come to an end2 that agonizing experiments will have ceased2 that every laboratory wherein animals are ever used for experimental purposes will be open to inspection from cellar to garret1 as ,professor ,bigelow of ,harvard ,medical ,school said they should be2 and that except as a shield for crime1 the secrecy which now enshrouds the practice will for ever have disappeared4 ,we are living to-day in a period of unrest and change1 such as the world has never known before4 ,a new social consciousness has awakened throughout the civilized world1 a feeling that for those who are to come after us1 life should be happier and better than it is4 ,humanity is advancing toward its ideals by leaps and bounds1 where once it slowly crept4 ,every social problem1 from the prevention of cruelty1 the suppression of vice1 the rescue of the submerged1 to the abolition of poverty itself1 is to-day more in the thought of humanity than ever before in the history of the world4 ,we are but just beginning to learn our duties to human beings of other races2 may we not be assured that the more sensitive conscience of the future will define with authority1 our duties to the humbler sharers of this mysterious gift of life8 ,already1 ,science has told us1 that far in the past1 we had the same origin2 and surely1 when some higher ideal than utility to ourselves1 shall dominate human conduct1 there will be a new conception of ,,justice toward every sentient being4 ,it may mean extinction of species2 but it will notmean their torment4 ,you and ,i cannot hope for life long enough to see the realization of that dream4 ,and yet1 sometimes ,i have wondered whether it be so far distant as ,i have feared4 ,but a little while ago1 who of us could have imagined that in our day1 the ,government of the ,united ,states would listen to the cries of little birds1 starving on their nests in the swamps of ,florida1 and prohibit the importation of the egret plumes8 ,how much of hopefulness for the final triumph of th eprinciples of humaneness lies in the passage of such a law6 ,i fancy that one day1 all noxious animals1 and especially those which prery upon other creatures1 will largely1 if not entirely1 disappear4 ,it is calculated that ever grown lion in ,south ,africa kills for food1 every year1 between #bjj and #cjj harmless animals1 and each one of which is as much entitled as the lion to the happiness of existence4 ,in great museums to-day1 we see the remains of creatures1 like the sabre-toothed tiger1 that lived probably1 over a million years ago4 ,in a century or two1 hence1 the skeletons of the panther1 the tiger1 the leopard and the lion1 will be found in the same halls of science1 with those of other extinct species1 that could exist only at the expense of others' lives4 ,some day the question of vivisection will be merged in the larger problem1 the adjustment of man's relations to animals on the basis of ,,justice4 ,we who are assembled here to-day1 certainly are not forgetful of other cruelties than those which pertain to animal experimentation4 ,in the awful torment endured for days by animals caught in steel traps in order that their death may contribute to the adornment of women and the luxury of men2 in the killing of seals1 accompanied by the starvation of their young2 in the great variety of blood-sports2 in the slaughter of animals1 destined for human food1 in all these1 as well as in the cruelties that have pertained to physiological inquiries1 we see exemplified man's present indifference to the highest ethical ideals4 ,we do not oppose one phase of cruelty2 ,,we ,,oppose ,,them ,,all4 ,and we may be assured1 that when the day dawns in which humanity shall seek to govern conduct by the ideal of universal justice1 then in some more blessed age than ours1 the evils of vivisection not only1 but all phases of cruelty and injustice will for ever cease4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,the ,,final ,,phase3 ,,experimentation ,,on ,,man ,there is one phase of scientific research which cannot be passed in silence4 ,it is experimentation upon human beings4 ,that no experiments on animals are absolutely satisfactory unless confirmed upon man himself1 a well-known vivisector has asserted2 and no one acquainted with the trend of events1 could doubt the coming of a time when opportunity for such confirmation would be given1 and when a more precious and a less costly material than domestic animals would be used for investigations of this kind4 ,writing many years ago1 a distinguished jurist declared that to whomsoever in the cause of ,science1 the agony of a dying rabbit is of no consequence1 it is likely that the old or worthless man will soon be a thing which in the cause of learning1 may well be sacrificed4 ,it is necessary at the outset1 however1 to draw a careful distinction between those phases of experimentation upon man which seem to be legitimate and right1 and those other pases of inquiry which are clearly immoral4 ,it is1 of course1 to be expected that certain experimenters upon human being will endeavour to confound both phases of inquiry in the public estimation2 and yet there is no difficulty in drawing clear distinctions between them4 ,let us see what differences may be perceived between the experimentation upon human beings which is laudable and right1 and the other phase of inquiry which ,society should condemn4 ,i4 ,any intelligently devised experiment upon an adult human being1 conscientiously performed by a responsible physician or surgeon solely for the personal benefit of the individual upon whom it is made1 and1 if practicable1 with his consent1 would seem to be legitimate and right4 ,in the practice of medicine1 there must always be a first time when a new method of medical treatment is tested1 a new operation performed1 a new remedy employed4 ,whether the procedure pertain to medicine or surgery1 so long as the amelioration of the patient is the one purpose kept in view1 ,,it ,,is ,,legitimate ,,treatment4 ,the motive determines the morality of the act4 ,,ii4 ,now human vivisection is something quite different4 ,it has been defined as the practice of subjecting to experimentation human beings--men1 women1 or children1 usually inmates of public institutions--by methods liable to involve pain1 distress1 injury to health1 or even danger to life1 without any full1 intelligent1 personal consent1 ,,for ,,no ,,object ,,relating ,,to ,,their ,,individual ,,benefit1 ,,but ,,for ,,the ,,prosecution ,,of ,,some ,,scientific ,,inquiry4 ,the distinction is a perfectly clear one4 ,under the term human vivisection only those experiments are included which have some of these characteristics3 #a4 ,,the ,,object ,,is ,,scientific ,,investigation1 ,,and ,,not ,,the ,,personal ,,welfare ,,or ,,amelioration ,,of ,,the ,,individual ,,upon ,,whom ,,the ,,experiment ,,is ,,made4 #b4 ,the experiment is liable to cause some degree of pain1 discomfort1 distress1 or injury to the health1 or danger to the life of the person upon whom it is performed4 ,the defence often made that no real injury resulted from the experiment1 cannot palliate the offence against personal rights4 #c4 ,the experiment is performed without the intelligent1 and full consent of the individual experimented upon4 ,such legal consent of course is impossible to obtain from children1 from the feeble-minded1 or from lunatics in public institutions4 ,it is the purpose of this chapter to demonstratte that such experiments upon human beings have been performed4 ,naturally1 it will be impossible to quote the cases in full4 ,enough1 however1 will be given to prove that the charge of human experimentation is not the exaggeration of ignorance or sentimentality2 that such methods of research have been practised upon the sick1 the friendless1 the poor in public institutions1 without their knowledge or intelligent consent2 that they are in vogue even in our own time2 and that hospitals and institutions1 founded in many cases1 for charitable purposes1 have lent their influence and aid in furnishing either victims or experimenters4 ,commenting upon certain human vivisections in ,germany1 the ,british ,medical ,journal declared in its editorial columns3 ,gross abuses in any profession should not be hushed up1 but should rather bemade public as freely as possible1 so as to rouse public opinion against them and thus render their repetition or spread impossible4 ,and therefore we have reason to thank the newspaper ,vorwarts for dragging into light the experiments made by ,dr4 ,strubell on patients4444 ,the whole medical profession must reprobate cruelties such as these perpetrated in the name of ,science4#a #a ,british ,medical ,journal1 ,july #g1 #aijj1 p4 #fj4 ,it is this sentiment which justifies present publicity4 ,the cases to which attention will be directed are not many2 but they suffice to illustrate the practice1 and to enable the reader to decide whether such experiments should meet approval or condemnation4 ,i4 ,the ,case of ,mary ,rafferty ,an instance of human vivisection which ended by the death of the victim1 occurred some years ago in the ,good ,samaritan ,hospital in ,cincinnati4 ,it would be difficult to suggest a name for a hospital more suggestive of kindly consideration for the sick and unfortunate3 and to this charitable institution1 there came one day a poor ,irish servant girl by the name of ,mary ,rafferty4 ,she was not strong1 either mentally or physically4 ,some years before1 when a child1 she had fallen into an open fire1 and in some way had severely burned her scalp4 ,in the scar tissue an eroding ulcer-- possibly of the nature of cancer1--had appeared2 and it had progressed so far that the covering of the brain substance had been laid bare4 ,no cure could be expected2 but with care and attention she might possibly have lived for several months4 ,we are told that she made no complain of headache or dizziness2 that she seemed cheerful in manner1 and that she smiled easily and frequently1--doubtless with the confidence of a child who without apprehension of evil1 feels it is among friends4 ,the accident1 however1 had made her good material2 she offered opportunity for experimentation of a kind hitherto made only upon animals4 ,it is obvious1 says the vivisector1 that it is exceedingly desirable to ascertain how far the results of experiments on the brain of animals may be employed to elucidate the functions of the human brain4#a #a ,this case1 under the significant title1 ,experimental ,investigations into the ,functions off the ,human ,brain1 is related at length in the ,american ,journal of the ,medical ,sciences1 vol4 #ic 7,n4,s41 #fg74 ,at the outset the experiments seem to have been somewhat cautiously made4 ,nobody knew exactly what would be the result4 ,the experimenter began by inserting into ,mary ,rafferty's brain1 thus exposed by disease1 needle electrodes of various lengths1 and connecting them with a battery4 ,as a result1 her arm was thrown out1 the fingers extended1 but in the brain substance no pain was felt4 ,presently1 as the experimenter grew bolder1 other phenomena appeared4 ,the vivisector shall tell the story in his own words3 ,the needle was now withdrawn from the left lobe1 and passed in the same way into the 7brain7 substance of the right4 444 ,when the needle entered the brain substance1 ,,she ,,complained ,,of ,,acute ,,pain ,,in ,,the ,,neck4 ,,in ,,order ,,to ,,develop ,,more ,,decided ,,reactions1 the strength of the current was increased by drawing out the wooden cylinder one inch4 ,when communication was made with the needles1 ,,her ,,countenance ,,exhibited ,,great ,,distress1 and she began to cry4 ,very soon1 the left hand was extended as if in the act of taking hold of some object in front of her2 the arm presently was agitated with clonic spasms2 her eyes became fixed with pupils widely dilated2 lips were blue1 and ,,she ,,frothed ,,at ,,the ,,mouth2 ,,her ,,breathing ,,became ,,stertorous2 ,,she ,,lost ,,consciousness ,,and ,,was ,,violently ,,convulsed4 ,the convulsion lasted five minutes1 and was succeeded by coma4 ,she returned to consciousness in twenty minutes from the beginning of the attack4 ,the experiment was a success4 ,upon the body of the poor servant girl1 the distinguished vivisector had produced the violent epileptiform convulsion which ,fritsch and ,hitzig and ,ferrier had induced in animals1 by the same method of experimentation4 ,there are those who feel that further vivisecting should have then ceased1 and that ,mary ,rafferty should have been allowed to die in peace4 ,such views1 however1 were not permitted by the experimenter to interfere with his zeal for scientific research4 ,other observations were made1 and the needles were again passed into the brain1 evoking almost the same phenomena4 ,the final experiments were thus described by the vivisector3#a ,two days subsequent to observation ,no4 #d1 ,mary was brought into the electrical room with the intention to subject the posterior lobes 7of the brain7 to galvanic excitation4 ,the proposed experiment was abandoned4 ,,she ,,was ,,pale ,,and ,,depressed2 ,,her ,,lips ,,were ,,blue1 ,,and ,,she ,,had ,,evident ,,difficulty ,,in ,,locomotion4 ,she complained greatly of numbness4444 ,on further examination1 there was found to be decided ,,paresis and rigidity of the muscles of the right side4444 ,she became very pale2 her eyes closed2 and she was about to pass into unconsciousness1 when we placed her in the recumbent posture1 and ,dr4 ,s4 gave her1 at my request1 chloroform by inhalation4 ,the day after observation ,no4 #e1 ,,mary ,,was ,,decidedly ,,worse4 ,she remained in bed1 was stupid and incoherent4 ,in the evening she had a convulsive seizure4444 ,,after ,,this1 ,,she ,,lapsed ,,into ,,profound ,,unconsciousness1 ,,and ,,was ,,found ,,to ,,be ,,completely ,,paralyzed ,,on ,,the ,,right ,,side4444 ,the pupils were dilated and motionless4 #a ,italics not in original4 ,when did death come to her release8 ,we do not know2 the omission is significant2 it may have been within a few moments4 ,the next sentence in the report is headed by the ominous word1 ,,autopsy4 ,the brain was taken out1 and the track of the needles traced therein4 ,one needle had penetrated an inch and a half4 ,there was evidence of ,,intense ,,vascular ,,congestion4 ,in cases like this1 the investigation of a coroner apparently is not required4 ,the experimenter himself was the physician to the hospital4 ,he tells us of course that ,mary's death was due to an extension of the disease1 for the relief of which she had been led to the ,good ,samaritan ,hospital4 ,of the real cause of death1 there was apparently but little doubt among scientific men4 ,an ,english vivisector1 ,dr4 ,david ,ferrier1 whose experiments upon monkeys had perhaps first suggested their repitition on a living human brain1 questioned somewhath the propriety of the ,american experiments4 ,in a letter to the ,london ,medical ,record1 he referred to the depth of penetration of the needles2 the occurrence of epileptiform convulsions ,,from ,,the ,,general ,,diffusion ,,of ,,the ,,irritation ,,when ,,the ,,currents ,,were ,,intensified1 and declared that the ,,epileptic ,,convulsions ,,and ,,ultimate ,,paralysis are clearly accounted for by the inflammatory changes thus induced4 ,that the experiments had been to some extent injurious to his victim1 the vivisector himself1 in a letter to the ,british ,medical ,journal1 very cautiously admitted4#a ,he regretted1 he said1 that the new facts which he had hoped would further the progress of ,science were obtained at the expense of ,,some injury to the patient4 ,she was1 however1 ,,hopelessly ,,diseased1--as if that fact tended to justify her martyrdom6 ,,the ,,patient ,,consented ,,to ,,have ,,the ,,experiments ,,made4 ,is not this excuse the very height of hypocrisy8 ,twice1 he had stated in his report of the case1 that the young woman was ,,rather ,,feeble- ,,minded2 he suggests that this poor1 ignorant1 feeble-minded servant- girl was mentally capable of giving an intelligent consent to repeated experiments upon her brain1 the possible result of which even ,,he could not foresee6 #a ,british ,medical ,journal1 ,may #cj1 #ahgd1 p4 #gbg4 ,who made these experiments8 ,it was ,dr4 ,roberts ,bartholow1 at that time the physician of the ,good ,samaritan ,hospital in ,cincinnati4 ,his biographer says that he gained no credit for his candour in reporting the whole affair1--a hint1 the significance of which for future experimenters1 it is not very difficult ot perceive4 ,yet his treatment of ,mary ,rafferty was no bar to his professional advancement4 ,not long after his victim was in her grave1 one of the oldest medical schools in the country1--,jefferson ,medical ,college of ,philadelphia--offered him a professor's chair2 and for several years he was ,dean of the medical faculty of that institution4 ,it might seem impossible that any physician of the present day would care to come forward in defence of this experiment4 ,yet forty years after the deed was perpetrated1 such justification was apparently attempted in an ,american journal1 and republished in a pamphlet issued by the ,american ,medical ,association4#a ,it would seem at the outset that only by suppression of the worst facts relating to the case1 could any defence be essayed4 ,,was ,,there ,,any ,,such ,,suppression ,,of ,,material ,,facts8 ,let us see4 #a ,the ,charge of ,human ,vivisection1 by ,richard ,m4 ,pearce1 ,m4,d41 ,journal of the ,american ,medical ,association1 ,february #bh1 #aiad4 ,did any injury to ,mary ,rafferty result from these experiments upon her brain8 ,bartholow himself admits some injury2 he says that to repeat the experiments would be in the highest degree criminal4 ,the modern apologist1 however will have it otherwise4 ,at the beginning of the experiment1 she smiled as if amused2 and this1 he tells us1 whows that she did not object1 that the pain was not severe1 ,,and ,,that ,,no ,,harm ,,was ,,done ,,her4 ,is this a fair summary of the symptoms elicited during these experiments upon the brain8 ,why did the apologist mention only the smile1 and neglect altogether to mention the other symptoms reported by ,dr4 ,bartholow8 ,why does he pass in silence her complain of ,,acute ,,pain ,,in ,,the ,,neck1 the ,,great ,,distress ,,exhibited1 ,,the ,,arm ,,agitated ,,with ,,clonic ,,spasms1 ,,the ,,fixed ,,eyes1 ,,the ,,widely ,,dilated ,,pupils1 ,,the ,,blue ,,lips1 ,,the ,,frothing ,,at ,,the ,,mouth1 ,,the ,,stertorous ,,breathing1 ,,the ,,violent ,,convulsion lasting for five minutes and the succeeding unconsciousness lasting for twenty minutes8 ,why does the apologist leave unmentioned the symptoms following the subsequent experiments1--the pallor and depression1 the blue lips1 the difficulty in locomotion1 the decided paresis and rigidity of muscles1 the profound unconsciousness1 ,,the ,,final ,,paralysis8 ,do omissions like these suggest an ardent desire to present the whole truth of the matter for the information of the public8 ,the defender of the experiments tells us3 ,it is not an uncommon procedure in neurologic surgery1 to stimulate after operation1 in conscious patients1 certain areas of the brain4 ,this procedure is a familiar one to all neurologists1 and it is ,,therefore ,,difficult to understand why so much has been made of these early observations in ,cincinnati4#a #a ,italics not in original4 ,aside from the astounding confession contained in this admission of familiar procedure1 it is difficult to understand what is meant by this paragraph4 ,is it a suggestion that these experiments upon ,mary ,rafferty were observations following a remedial surgical operation8 ,it is surely impossible that this can be the meaning2 for in the original account of the ,investigations into the function of the human brain1 there is not a line in support of such hypothesis4 ,the reader may make his own interpretation of a paragraph which seems exceedingly obscure4 ,no apology for these experiments could be complete1 which did not refer to the alleged consent4 ,it is thus presented3 ,if the patient under these circumstances consented to the observations described1 it would appear to be a matter between herself and the physician making the observations4 ,this is the view of the matter which the apologist invites us to accept4 ,on the one side1 stands a poor1 ignorant1 feeble-minded ,irish servant girl1 full of faith and implicit trust in the benevolence of those about her2 on the other a learned scientist1 eager1 as he says1 to ascertain how far the results of experiments on the brains of animals may be employed to elucidate the functions of the human brain2 and her consent to procedures the purpose and dangers of which she knows nothing1--to experiments involving her life1 are suggested as a justification of whatever was done1 and as a matter with which ,society need have no concern6 ,upon such methods of vindication every intelligent reader may form his own judgment4 ,he will doubtless reach the conclusion that such vital omission of essential facts1--no matter whether accidental or intentional1--absolutely nullifies the value of the entire apology4 ,let us hope that the next defender of these experiments1 writing not only for the instruction of the medical profession but also for the general public1 will proceed along somewhat different lines2 that every symptom which ,bartholow mentions1 he will mention also2 that if he speaks of the ,,consent of the victim1 he will frankly tell us that it was consent of one whom the experimenter himself called rather feeble-minded2 and that if he thinks other palliating circumstances exist1 he will at least graciously furnish us with references to the evidence presented by the experimenter1 upon which he grounds his belief4 ,,ii4 ,experiments with ,poison4 ,of all experiments upon patients in hospitals1 probably one of the boldest was ,dr4 ,sydney ,ringer1 physician to the ,university ,college ,hospital in ,london4 ,his position in this institution gave him a peculiarly favourable opportunity for the utilization of the human material under his care4 ,the experiments upon his patients were frankly reported by himself1 and were published in his well-known work on ,therapeutics4#a ,for the most part these experiments were made with poisonous drugs4 ,are we justified in classing them as human vivisections8 ,if in any case1 the drug can be shown to have been administered for the welfare of the patient1 it was legitimate medical treatment1 to which criticism does not apply4 ,were the drugs so administered8 ,the experimenter shall describe his work in his own language4 #a ,handbook of ,therapeutics1 by ,sydney ,ringer1 ,m4,d4 ,eighth edition1 ,william ,wood and ,co41 ,new ,york4 ,poisoning with ,salicine ,in conjunction with ,mr4 ,bury1 ,i have made some investigations concerning the action of salicine on the human body1 ,,using ,,healthy ,,children ,,for ,,our ,,experiments1 to whom we gave doses sufficient to produce toxic 7poisonous7 symptoms4 ,we tested the effects of salicine in three sets of experiments ,,on ,,three ,,healthy ,,lads4 ,to the first two1 we gave large doses1 and produced decided symptoms4444 ,under toxic 7poisonous7 but not dangerous doses1 the headache is often very severe1 so that the patient buries his head in the pillow4 ,there may be very marked muscular weakness and tremour4444 ,another set of experiments was made on a boy ten years old1 who had been brought to the hospital to be treated for belladonna poisoning4 ,our observations1 said ,dr4 ,rigner1 were not commnced ,,till ,,some ,,days ,,afer ,,his ,,complete ,,recovery4 ,among effects of the experiment was a severe headache1--so severe that the lad shut his eyes and buried his head in his arm444became dull and stupid1 lying with his eyes closed4444 ,other experiments were made upon a boy only nine years old1 almost well from an attack of pneumonia1 the temperature having become normal over a week before4 ,dr4 ,ringer's experiment went so far as to give him apparently considerable apprehension4 ,he speaks of the flushed face1 the trembling hand1 and lips1 the laboured breathing1 the spasmodic movements of limbs4 ,these symptoms were at their height at midday1 and were so marked1 and the pulse and respirations so quick1 that we must confess we felt a little relief when the toxic 7poisonous7 symptoms which became ,,far ,,more ,,marked ,,than ,,we ,,expected1 abated2 not that at any time the boy was dangerously ill2 but as the symptoms progressed1 after discontinuing the medicine1 ,,we ,,did ,,not ,,know ,,how ,,long ,,and ,,to ,,what ,,degree ,,they ,,might ,,increase4 767 ,what shall be said of experiments like these1 made upon children who had almost or quite recovered from ailments for which medical advice was sought8 ,poisoning with ,ethyl-,atropium4 ,this drug has no recognized medical use4 ,in order to make experiments with it upon patients under his care1 ,dr4 ,ringer was obliged to have it specially manufactured4 ,he refers to our experiments upon man1 and states that the poisonous substance produces decided but transient paralysis1 ,,the ,,patient ,,being ,,unable ,,to ,,stand ,,or ,,walk1 and the head dropping rather toward the shoulder or chest1 and the upper eyelids drooping4#a #a ,ringer's ,therapeutics1 p4 #ecd4 ,experiments with ,tartar-,emetic1 or ,antimony4 ,of this poison1 an ,american authority tells us that the fraction of a grain may be followed by a fatal result4 ,dr4 ,ringer states1 nevertheless1 that1 ,,to ,a ,,strong ,,young ,,man1 ,i gave tartar-emetic in the #a_/b-;grain doses every ten minutes for nearly seven hours1 ,,inducing ,,great ,,nausea ,,and ,,vomiting with profuse perspiration4#b #b ,ibid41 p4 #bgc ,twenty-one grains of antimony administered to a strong young man1 though a fatal result may be inducted by a fraction of a single grain6 ,poisoning with ,alcohol4 ,with this substance1 ,dr4 ,ringer tells us he made a great many observations every quarter of an hour for several hours ,,on ,,persons ,,of ,,all ,,ages4444 ,after poisonous doses1 the depression 7of temperature7 in one instance reached nearly three degrees4 ,does this sinister confession mean that even infants were the objects of his scientific zeal8 ,it is certain that some children were subjected to this experiment1 for he says3 ,in a boy aged ten1 who had never in his life before taken alcohol in any form1 ,i found through ,a ,,large ,,number ,,of ,,observations1 a constant and decided reduction of temperature4 ,is there any parent who would be willing to have his ten-year-old boy subjected to an experiment like this8 ,poisoning with ,nitrate of ,sodium4 ,to eighteen adults1 fourteen men and four women1 we ordered #aj grains of pure nitrate of sodium in an ounce of water1 and of these1 seventeen declared they were unable to take it4444 ,one man1 a burly strong fellow1 suffering from a little rheumatism only1 said that after taking the first dose1 he felt giddy as if he would go off insensible4' ,his lips1 face1 and hands turned blue1 and he had to lie down an hour and a half before he dared moved4 ,his heart fluttered1 and he suffered from throbbing pains in the head4 ,he was urged to try another dose1 but declined on the ground ,,that ,,he ,,had ,a ,,wife ,,and ,,family4444#a #a ,the ,london ,lancet1 ,november #c1 #ahhc1 p4 #gfg ,when this account of hospital experimentation first appeared in the ,lancet1 another medical journal made the following comment3 ,in publishing1 and indeed1 in instituting these reckless experiments on the effect of nitrate of sodium on the human subject1 ,professor ,ringer and ,dr4 ,murrill have made a deplorably false move1 which the ever watchful opponenets of vivisection will not be slow to profit by4444 ,it is impossible to read the paper in last week's ,lancet without distress4 ,of eighteen adults to whom ,drs4 ,ringer and ,murrill administered the drug in #aj-;grain doses--all but one avowed they would expect to drop down dead if they ever took another dose4 ,one woman fell to the ground1 and lay with throbbing head and nausea for three hours2 another said it turned her lips quite black1 and upset her so that she was afraid that she would never get over it4444 ,one girl vomited for two hours and thought she was dying4 ,all these observations are recorded with an innocent naivete as though the idea that anyone could possibly take exception to them were far from the writers' minds4 ,but whatever credit may be given to ,drs4 ,ringer and ,murrill for scientific enthusiasm1 it is impossible to acquit them of grave indiscretion4 ,,there ,,will ,,be ,a ,,howl ,,throughout ,,the ,,country ,,if ,,it ,,comes ,,out that officers of a public charity are in the habit of trying ,,such ,,useless ,,and ,,cruel ,,experiments on the patients committed to their care4444#a #a ,medical ,times and ,gazette1 ,november #aj1 #ahhc4 ,,cruel ,,and ,,useless ,,experiments ,,on ,,patients--that was the judgment of a medical journal of the day4 ,any stronger condemnation now is hardly necessary4 ,what is the judgment of the reader upon investigations of this character8 ,here we have a physician making use of the bodies of his patients for the testing of poisonous drugs1 apparently without the slightest regard for the poor and ignorant fellow-beings who had confidently placed themselves under his care4 ,can such experimentation as this be termed anything but human vivisection8 ,once we admit that patients in hospitals have no rights superior to scientific demands1 and there is hardly a limit to which such experimentation may not be carried on the poor1 the ignorant1 the feeble-minded and the defenceless4 ,,iii4 ,experiments involving the ,eye ,recent experiments with tuberculin1 made upon the eyes of children and other patients in public institutions1 seem in many cases to have been carried to an extent not easily justified by ordinary ethical ideals4 ,it is impossible to quote all the cases of this phase of human experimentation2 but enough can be given to afford any reader the opportunity of judging the morality of the practice4 ,the experiments in question had one or more of the following characteristics1 distinguishing them from ordinary medical treatment3 #a4 ,they were made indiscriminately upon large numbers of children or adults1 who were under treatment for various ailments4 #b4 ,they appear to have been purely experimental in character1 and without purpose of individual benefit4 #c4 ,they seem to have involved in some cases considerable discomfort or pain and the risk of irreparable injury to the sight4 #d4 ,dying children apparently were not exempt from experimentation4 ,a recent medical writer1 defding the experiments1 points out that the tuberculin test could not convey the infection4 ,the test1 he says1 depends on the principle that if a fluid in which tubercle bacilli have grown1 and which therefore contains the chemical products of their growth is injected into an animal or person suffering from tuberculosis1 a transient increase of temperature occurs1 and constitutes the chief sign of a positive reaction4444 ,later it was found that if the diluted tuberculin was placed on the surface of the eye1 there followed in tuberculous persons1 a reddening or congestion of the eye1 which might go on to the stage of mild conjunctivitis4#a #a ,journal of the ,american ,medical ,association1 ,february #bh1 #aiad4 ,is this a fair summary of the dangers of the eye-test8 ,let us see what the experimenters tell us4 ,in the ,archives of ,internal ,medicine for ,december #ae1 #aijh1 two experimenters describe their work4 ,when a drop of turberculin solution is instilled into the eye of certain cases1 there occurs1 they say1 an infetion which varies in intensity in different individuals1 usually attended by lachrimation and moderate fibrinous or fibro-purulent exudation ,,which ,,may ,,go ,,on ,,to ,,profuse ,,suppuration4 ,this profuse suppuration is something rather more severe than the symptoms described by the apologist just quoted4 ,the experimenters say3 ,practically1 all our patients were under eight years of age1 and all but twenty-sex of them were inmates of ,st4 ,vincent's ,home1 an institution with a population of about four hundred1 ,,composed ,,of ,,foundlings1 ,,orphans1 ,,and ,,destitute ,,children4 ,the cases in the ,home were tested in routine by wards1 ,,irrespective ,,of ,,the ,,conditions ,,from ,,which ,,they ,,were ,,suffering1 and in the great majority of instances without any knowledge of their physical condition prior to1 or at the time that the tests were applied4 ,we purposely deferred the physical examination of these children until after the tests had been applied4 ,would any medical practitioner1 called to the house of a wealthy man to examine his ailing child1 purposely defer its physical examination until after this eye-test had been applied8 ,many of the children were suffering from various ailments at the time this test was made4 ,some had rickets1 some typhoid fever1 some whooping-cough1 pleurisy1 pneumonia or heart disease4 ,some of them were already near their end2 in one case we are told that the tests were applied within eight days of death2 upon another emaciated infant1 the test was applied three days before death4 ,infancy earned no immunity from experimentation1 for the eye-test was said to have been applied to seventeen infants1 ranging in age from four weeks to five months4 ,in this group of cases1 one infant was tested within the last twenty-four hours of its pitiful and painful existence4 ,what were the possible consequences of these tests upon the sight of the orphans and foundlings of ,st4 ,vincent's ,home8 ,the experimenters frankly confess that at the outset they did not know4 ,before beginning application of the conjunctival test1 ,,we ,,had ,,no ,,knowledge ,,of ,,any ,,serious ,,results ,,from ,,its ,,use4444 ,it has the great disadvantage of producing a decidedly uncomfortable lesion1 and it is not infrequently followed by serious inflammations of the eye1 which not only produce great physical discomfort and require weeks of active tratment1 ,,but ,,which ,,may ,,permanently ,,affect ,,the ,,vision1 ,,and ,,even ,,lead ,,to ,,its ,,complete ,,destruction4444 ,w ehave had a number of verbal reports of eye complications1 some of them relating to very serious conditions2 and we are sure they are much commoner than the references we have communicated would indicate4444 ,in fact we are strongly of the opinion that any diagnostic procedure which will so frequently result in serious lesions of the eye has no justification in medicine4444 ,the conclusions concernng the occasionally disastrous consequences of this eye-test were shortly confirmed by other experimenters4 ,during the following year1 two ,massachusetts physicians reported a study made in the out-patient clinic of the ,carney ,hospital and the ,massachusetts ,chartiable ,eye and ,ear ,infirmary1 and they add3 ,we are most indebted to the staff of the latter institution for allowing us to make use of their material4444 ,we have discarded the conjunctival test1 ,,as ,,being ,,occasionally ,,productive ,,of ,,disastrous ,,results4 ,in ,may1 #aiji1 two ,baltimore physicians reported their trials with two forms of the tuberculin tests1 the result of over a year of experience with patients coming to the ,phipps ,dispensary of the ,johns ,hopkins ,hospital4 ,a year later they make an additional report4 ,in ,may1 #aiji1 we reported the results of the conjunctival and cutaneous test in #ejj patients4 ,the present report deals with #a1jjj additional patients to whom these tests were administered1 and who formed ,,the ,,unselected ,,material ,,of ,,an ,,ambulant ,,clinic1 the ,phipps ,dispensary of the ,johns ,hopkins ,hospital4 ,they1 too1 suggest the necessity for caution in making this experiment4 ,if a drop of the tuberculin1 first in one eye and then in the other1 produced no reaction1 we refrained from further instillations1 fearing the possible intensity of a reaction consequent upon a second instillation of tuberculin into an eye4 ,our fear is based on evidence1 gathered accidentally1 that a second instillation may give a positive and even a severe reaction in a case in which a similar test gave a negative result4 ,in ,january1 #aiji1 one of the professors connected with the ,college of ,physicians and ,surgeons1 ,new ,york1 published a ,report upon one thousand ,tuberculin tests in young children4 ,he says3 ,the observations included in the following report were all made at the ,babies' ,hospital upon ward patients4 ,very few of the children were over three years of age1 the majority being under two years4444 ,in the early part of the year1 unless some positive contra-indication existed1 some test1 more frequently the eye-test1 was used as a routine measure in order to determine whether and under what circumstances reactions were obtained in ,,healthy ,,children1 or in those at least ,,presumably ,,non-,,tubercular4#a #a ,archives of ,pediatrics1 ,january1 #aiji4 ,this is perfectly plain4 ,healthy children1 or children presumably without any symptoms of tuberculosis1 were experimented upon in order to see whether a positive reaction could be obtained4 ,of #eee cases of infants subjected to this test1 who were presumably not tubercular1 only two gave a positive reaction1 although there were seven cases in which the reaction was doubtful4 ,we are told by this writer that care was taken not to use tuberculin in an eye which was the seat of any form of disease1 tuberculous or otherwise1 and to this precaution1 he ascribes his freedom from unpleasant results4 ,he insists that on account of the kind of observation necessary1 and the possible dangers connected with the eye-test1 it is not wise to employ it indiscriminately1 as among the out-patients of a hospital4 ,undoubtedly this is true2 and he repeats the advice3 the ophthalmic test ,,cannot ,,well ,,be ,,used ,,in ,,ambulatory ,,patients4 ,yet we have just seen that the test ,,was thus used in the large number of cases who formed the unselected material of an ambulant clinic from another well-known hospital dispensary4 ,the final judgment of the experimenter does not appear to be entirely favourable to the test involving the eye1 though he insists that with proper precautions it is safe4 ,taken apart from the physical signs and general symptoms1 the tests may mislead4 ,some failures and some unexplained reactions occurred with all the tests4 ,even though safe1 yet an intense or prolonged reaction sometimes occurs which is not pleasant to see2 besides1 in pathological conditions of the eye1 ,,disastrous ,,results ,,may ,,follow4 ,,the ,,eye ,,is ,,too ,,delicate ,,and ,,important ,,an ,,organ ,,to ,,be ,,used ,,as ,a ,,test ,,when ,,any ,,other ,,will ,,answer ,,quite ,,as ,,well4 ,with this sensible conclusion it is quite impossible to disagree4 ,another question is of importance4 ,for these experiments upon the eye1 ,,were ,,dying ,,children ,,ever ,,used ,,as ,,material8 ,apparently1 there can be no doubt of the fact4 ,the experimenter distinctly states that ,,dying ,,children1 or those who were extremely sick did not as a rule1 react to any of the tests4 ,the assertion is repeated3 ,in no case were positive reactions obtained in ,,dying ,,children4 ,in one of the tables1 there is also a reference to dying children4 ,we are told that the hands of the children were confined during the first twelve hours1 to prevent any rubbing of the eye4 ,can it be that dying children were thus treated8 ,we are not told to the contrary4 ,yet it would seem that impending death might well have conferred immunity1 not merely from such restraint but from the entire experiment4 ,the thought of a dying child with fettered hands1 is not a picture upon which the imagination would willingly dwell4 ,upon these experiments involving the eye1 what judgment is a plain man entitled to make8 ,in the first place1 he should draw a clear distinction between the experiments made upon tuberculous patients1 and those made upon healthy children4 ,among the large number of experiments1 it is possible that some were made upon carefully selected cases for the personal benefit of the individuals concerned4 ,regarding these1 opinions may differ as to expediency2 but they belong to the rightful province of medical tratment1--wise or otherwise4 ,but if these tests were applied without discrimination1 without previous inquiry into their condition2 if they were made only upon the eyes of the orphans and foundlings1 and the poor in hospital and dispensary1 and not upon the children of the wealthier classes2 if in large numbers1 men1 women and children were made the unselected material for tests wherein their individual welfare was not sought1 in experiments which not only produced great physical discomfort but were liable also to permanently affect the vision1 and even lead to its entire destruction1 it would seem impossible to regard them with admiration or approval4 ,would any of us care to have his own dying child1 separated from its mother1 and with hands confined1 made the material for any such experiment8 ,should we care to have anyone dear to us1 subjected to the risks which seem to have been so freely imposed upon the unfortunate1 the ignorant1 the poor8 ,that is the test by which ultimately these experiments will be judged4 ,,iv4 ,the ,rockefeller ,institute1 and ,experimentation on ,human ,beings ,in public esteem1 the ,rockefeller ,institute undoubtedly occupies an exceptionally hight position4 ,it would seem to be generally believed1 that by reason of experiments made within its walls upon the lower animals1 discoveries of the utmost value to the human race are bing added to the resources of medical science4 ,possibly1 a careful analysis of its work might disprove this belief1 but that is aside from present inquiry4 ,a more important question confronts us1--the extent to which under the authority of this ,institution1 human beings as well as animals have been used as material from researches altogether unconnected with their personal benefit4 ,if such experiments have in truth been made under the authority of the ,rockefeller ,institute1 it would seem to be of the utmost importance that the exact truth be made known4 ,it is not always easy to state medical facts in popular language1 but the attempt shall be made4 --------------- ,when ,columbus returned from his discovery of a new world1 it is now generally believed that he brought to ,europe the germ of one of the most terrible diseases which have ever afflicted the human race4 ,the extent of its malignancy has only been known within the past century4 ,the unborn infant may be touched by it with the possibility of great suffering1 and the probability of an early death4 ,there is not an organ of the human body which may not become the seat of its ravages4 ,the majority of other infectious diseases leave their victim after a time2 this makes its home within the body and may manifest its malignity after almost a lifetime of quiescence4 ,in its contribution to the sum total of suffering which disease has occasioned the human race1 it is probably that with one exception1 syphilis stnds above every other human ailment4 ,on ,march #c1 #aije1 a young ,german biologist by the name of ,schaudinn discovered under the microscope what is now generally believed to be the germ of this terrible disease4 ,it is a minute1 spiral-shaped organism1 with six or eight curves1 and capable of movement in space4 ,its place in the scheme of existence is not wholly certain1 but the probability seems that it is a protozoan1 belonging to the lowest form of animal life4 ,its very simplicity makes it appalling2 we do not understand how anything so innocent in appearance1 can occasion such terrible ravages4 ,in the course of the evolution of life how came it into being8 ,we can only surmise4 ,but once having gained a foothold in the body of a human being1 the minute organism begins to multiply3 and penetrating to any part of the body1 it induces the ravages of a destroyer espite all the opposing defences which ,nature may raise against it4 ,the discoverer first called it the ,spirochaete pallidum1 but later invented a new name--,treponema pallidum--by which it is at present generally known4 ,it is almost ceratin that in this minute organism1 invisible to the naked eye1 we have the causative agent of one of the great destroyers of the human race4 ,a ,japanese physician1 connected with various phases of research work in the ,rockefeller ,institute 7,dr4 ,hideyo ,noguchi71 believed it would be possible to device a method for detecting the existence of these germs of syphilis in certain latent and obscure cases1 where the disease was merely suspected4 ,he had no though of inventing a cure for the disease2 it was a method of detection only4 ,by ingenious procedures which it is unnecessary here to describe1 ,dr4 ,noguchi succeeded in cultivating these germs ,,outside ,,the ,,human ,,body2 and after grinding them in a sterile mortar1 and subjecting them to heat with other manipulations1 he found himself finally in possession of an extract or emulsion to which he gave the name of luetin4 ,it contains the germs of syphilis2 but they are intended to be ,,dead ,,germs4 ,the experimenter himself says3 ,i have proposed the name ,,luetin for an emulsion or extract of pure culture of ,treponema pallidum1 which is designed to be employed for obtaining in suitable cases1 a specific cutaneous reaction that may become a valuable diagnostic sign in certain stages or forms of syphilitic infection4 ,now1 if a drop of this luetin be introduced beneath the skin of a child who has inherited the disease1 or of a person who has suffered from its obscurer symptoms1 there may be produced a reaction4 ,this may take the form of a large1 indurated1 reddish papule which in a pew days become of a dark1 bluish-red colour2 or the inflammation may be of a severer type1 resulting in a pustule4 ,a positive result is more frequently obtained when the disease is of long standing1 or comparatively inactive4 ,but may not this reaction occur in every case1 whether or not the individual has ever been affected by the diseas8 ,anyone can see that if this reaction manifests itself in ,,all cases1 the luetin test has no value whatever4 ,and it was in the prosecution of this phase of research that certain experiments upon human beings were made1 which have been criticized4 ,dr4 ,noguchi and other physicians injected this luetin emulsion containing the dead germs of syphilis1 not only into persons presumed once to have been affected by the loathsome disease1 but also into the bodies of #adf other persons1 ,,including ,,children1 ,,entirely ,,free ,,from ,,the ,,disease4 ,it would seem that he was advised by an ,american physician to make his experiments on human beings rather than upon animals4 ,he tells us3 444,in #aiaj-aa1 ,i commenced my experimental work on rabbits4444 ,while ,i was still working with the animals1 ,,professor ,,welch ,,suggested ,,that ,i ,,made ,,the ,,test ,,on ,,human ,,subjects4 ,through his encouragement1 ,i commenced the work at once at different dispensaries and hospitals1 with the co-operation of the physicians in charge4 ,whatever criticism may attach to these experiments1 it ought not to fall upon the ,japanese investigator1 encouraged and supported as he was1 by both ,christian and ,jewish physicians4 ,in appreciation of the assistance afforded him at various charitable institutions1 ,dr4 ,noguchi says3 ,through the courtesy and collaboration of-- ,dr4 ,martin ,cohen 44 ,harlem ,hospital1 ,randall's ,island ,asylum1 and ,new ,york ,ophthalmic and ,aural ,institute2 ,dr4 ,henderson 44 ,state ,hospital1 ,ward's ,island1 ,n4,y42 ,dr4 ,lapowski 44 ,good ,samaritan ,dispensary2 ,dr4 ,mc,donald 44 ,king's ,county ,hospital2 ,dr4 ,orleman-,robinson ,north-,western ,clinic1 ,new ,york ,polyclinic2 ,dr4 ,pollitzer 44 ,german ,hospital2 ,dr4 ,rosenoff 44 ,king's ,park ,state ,hospital2 ,dr4 ,satenstein 44 ,city ,hospital1 ,blackwell's ,island1 ,n4,y42 ,dr4 ,schmitter 44 ,capt41 ,u4,s4 ,army1 ,fort ,slocum2 ,dr4 ,schradieck 44 ,king's ,county ,hospital2 ,dr4 ,charles ,schwartz ,california2 ,dr4 ,smith 44 44 ,long ,island ,state ,hospital2 ,dr4 ,strong 44 44 ,manhattan ,eye1 ,ear and ,throat ,hospital2 ,dr4 ,swinburn 44 ,good ,samaritan ,dispensary2 ,dr4 ,windfield 44 ,king's ,county ,hospital2 ,dr4 ,wiseman 44 ,king's ,park ,state ,hospital2 ,and the ,hospital of the ,rockefeller ,institute for ,medical ,research1 ,i was enabled to apply the skin reaction to a number of human cases444 ,the total number of cases was #djj4a #a ,journal of ,experimental ,medicine1 vol4xvi4 ,in the original1 the names of the hospitals are somewhat obscured by being placed in brackets1 and the paragraph made continuous2 they are here printed in capitals1 to afford the reader a better opportunity of giving these charitable institutions whatever credit is due them4 ,four hundred patients in hospitals and dispensaries including the hospital attached to the ,rockefeller ,institute for ,medical ,research1 were used as material for determining the value of a test for latent syphilis4 ,of these1 #adf were healthy individuals1 used as controls4 ,dr4 ,noguchi states that these controls include #adf normal individuals1 chiefly children between the ages of two and eighteen years2 and #ajj individuals suffering from various diseasess of a non-syphilitic nature4444 ,in none was a positive luetin reaction obtained4 ,other experimenters upon human beings have made reports of their investigations in the same direction4 ,a physician of ,st4 ,louis in a medical journal1 tells us of forty-four cases in which the ,noguchi luetin was applied1 and he expresses his obligation to eight physicians of that city 7naming them71 for the privilege of using ,,their ,,cases ,,for ,,the ,,work4#a ,whether these ,,cases were the private patients of the accomodating physicians1 we are not informed4 ,this experimenter had not completed his investigations and announced his intention of trying it out thoroughly in a certain ,st4 ,louis hospital1 which he names4 #a ,new ,york ,medical ,record1 ,may #be1 #aiab4 ,the same experiments appear to have been made in other institutions4 ,in the ,bulletin of the ,johns ,hopkins ,hospital for ,august1 #aiab1 there appears an account of this luetin test1 made upon patients suffering from such ailments as rheumatic fever1 typhoid fever and consumption4 ,we see that the practice has extended to some of the leading hospitals of the ,united ,states4 ,the defence of all hospital experimentation upon children and adults1 other than procedures for their own benefit1 is usually grounded upon 7#a7 the absence of any severe injury1 and 7#b7 the value of the results obtained4 ,the defenders of the ,noguchi experiments insist that the disease was not transmitted2 that there was no severe pain or permanent injury2 and that the inoclation with dead germs of syphilis could not have caused an infection with the dread disease4 ,this is probably true2 although the excuse of painlessness cannot be fairly put forward regarding the tuberculin experiments upon the eye4 ,but should we overlook the fact that these tests1 at first were purely experimental in character8 ,no absolute assurance of results could have been declared in advance2 if certainty existed beforehand1 what would be the use of experimenting upon so many human beings8 ,are experiments upon man only reprehensible when injury follows8 ,do we apply this rule to the engineer of a passenger-train1 who again and again runs by a danger-signal1 and yet escapes a tragedy8 ,the utility of experimentation is urged4 ,only by experiments upon human beings1 it is said1 could the value of either the tuberculin test or the ,noguchi emulsion be definitely determined4 ,but surely every thinking man must realize that utility cannot exculpate1 or justify the use of any method which is otherwise wrong in itself4 ,a murder is not regarded as pardonable1 because thereby the interests of religion are advanced4 ,dr4 ,noguchi for instance1 admits that although it is almost certain that the germs which ,schaudinn discovered and which he has isolated and grown outside the human body1 are the cause of specific disease1 yet scientific certainty can only be acquired by producing the ailment from the artificially cultivated germs4 ,he says3 ,while there are few1 to-day1 who would deny that the ,treponema pallidum is the causitive agent of syphilis1 ,,yet ,,the ,,final ,,proof ,,can ,,only ,,be ,,brought ,,forth ,,through ,,the ,,reproduction ,,of ,,syphilitic ,,lesions ,,by ,,means ,,of ,,pure ,,cultures ,,of ,,the ,,micro-,,organism4#a #a ,studies of the ,rockefeller ,institute1 vol4 xiv41 p4 #ajj4 ,a scientific experiment upon a human being of greater interest than this it is hardly possible to imagine4 ,with germs invisible to the naked eye1 grown in a flask1 will some future experimenter be able to produce in a human being all the terrible symptoms of this worst scourge of the human race8 ,that the experiment will be tried1 there can be no doubt2 experiments involving the inoculation of the same horrible disease1 have been made both in ,america and in ,europe4 ,but does anyone think that the utility of this suggested experiment of ,dr4 ,noguchi would justify its being made upon an unsuspicious patient in a charity hospital8 ,would it be likely to meet general approbation1 even in our day1 if it were performed upon an infant in a ,babies' ,hospital8 ,and yet why should it be criticized1 if utility to science is a sufficient excuse8 ,it is a significant fact1 that every writer who attempts to defend or to excuse the experiments here described and others of the same type1 always evades the principal reason for their condemnation4 ,the condemnation of what may be called human vivisection rests chiefly upon its incurable injustice4 ,,all ,,such ,,experiments ,,violate ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,most ,,sacred ,,of ,,human ,,rights4 ,every man1 not a criminal1 has the inherent right to the inviolability of his own body1 except for his own personal benefit4 ,apply this to the experiments herein described4 ,,they ,,imply ,a ,,suppresion ,,of ,,the ,,truth4 ,is it probably that any mother1 bringing to a hospital her ailing child1 would leave it there without apprehension if she were distinctly informed that when it had partly recovered1 it would be used for experimentation relating to a test for syphilis8 ,,they ,,imply ,a ,,phase ,,of ,,deception1 so far as a formal consent is ever obtained without a full and complete statemnet of possible dangers4 ,can we imagine ,mary ,rafferty to have consented to ,bartholow's experiments upon her brain1 if1 in full possession of her intellectual faculties1 she had known--as he knew1--what risks they involved8 ,it is the performance of experiments upon dying children1 upon infants for no urpose of individual benefit1 upon men and women all unconscious of the character of the investigation2 the imposition upon the ignorant and confiding of unknown risks2 the utilization for experimentation under cover of treatment for their ailments1 of the poor1 the feeble- minded1 the unfortunate1 without their full1 intelligent and adequate consent1 that makes the practice abhorrent to every conception of morality1 and every ideal of honour4 ,how such experiments are coming to be regarded1 we may see in a recent article from the pen of ,dr4 ,francis ,h4 ,rowley1 president of the ,massachusetts ,society for the ,prevention of ,cruelty to ,animals3 ,the use of children in hospitals1 or anywhere else1 as material for experimentation is not to be tolerated for a moment1 in our judgment1 by any right-minded man or woman4 ,whatever is conscientiously done for the benefit of the child itself1 to save it from disease or to lessen its suffering1 though it may cause it temporarily more or less pain1 is nothing against which objection should be made4 ,but to use the child1 even when no permanent harm may result to it1 as a subject upon which to try out certain theories1 or to test the efficacy of certain drugs1 so long as this is not absolutely for the good of the individual child treated rather than for children in general1 is abhorrent to the most of us4 ,to cause a helpless baby one hour's distress1 to say nothing of suffering1 for the sake even of other children1 when that baby has been brought to the hospital by its parents or guardians solely for what may be done for its benefit1 we hold to be a breach of trust on the part of hospital authorities and physicians that hasn't the slightest defence either in morals or in law4 ,we write these words not because we believe that any physician is so far fallen below the lowest levels of our common humanity as to inject into a defenceless child the active germs of a loathsome or possibly fatal disease1 but because our moral sense is outraged at any treatment of the child such as we should refuse to permit were the child our own4 ,we believe he universal assertial of parents would be that1 if having taken their child to a hospital for tratment1 they learned that it had beenused for experimentation1 though no lasting harm could come to it from the experiment1 someone would pay the penalty for the unwarranted deed1 if money or influence or1 these failing1 muscle1 could reach far enough to find the offender4 ,does such condemnation of experimentation upon the hospital patient or children tend to block scientific advance8 ,not at all4 ,a recent writer tells us that once it is evident that man himself must be the experimental animal1 the scientist volunteer is always ready4 ,if this be so1 why should not the human material be acquired always in a way to which the charge of unjust procedure would never be applicable8 ,if assurance could have been given that the luetin test implied no risk of any kind1 might not the ,rockefeller ,institute have secured any number of volunteers by the offer of a gratuity of twenty or thirty dollars as a compensation for any discomfort that might be endured8 ,of the thousands of medical students in the ,state of ,new ,york1 are there not hundreds who would have offered with eagerness to submit to a test devoid of peril1 in the interests of scientific research8 ,and even if an experiment implied danger1 might there not be sufficient compensation for all risks8 ,every year firemen lose their lives in the flames1 and policemen are murdered4 ,the compensation they receive induces them to incur risks that might not otherwise be assumed4 ,a great theologian is said to have affirmed that a man1 perishing from starvation1 had the moral right to take a loaf of bread that did not belong to him1 if only thus he could preserve his life4 ,is ,science ever in such straits of necessity that in a single instance it is obliged to take from any man his supreme right of inviolability1 and to make its experiments within the wards of the hospital1 upon the eyes of the dying1 upon the bodies of the ignorant and the poor8 ,there is yet another method by which perhaps we may test the morality of the practice4 ,a great philosopher of another century seeking to find some criterion of man's duty toward his fellow-men1 based obligation upon a universal law4 ,act1 said ,kant1 as if the motive of thy conduct were to become by thy will a universal law4 ,suppose we apply this maxim of ,kant to the use of human beings for research purposes4 ,an experimenter in a hospital makes dying children his material4 ,is he willing that the maxim of his act should be universal1 and apply to experiments upon his own child1 when it lies at the point of death8 ,he plunges needle-electrodes into the brain of a simple-minded and perhaps friendless servant-girl4 ,can we imagine him willing that the motive of his deed should govern and justify experiments of the same kind made upon his mother or his wife8 ,following ,ringer1 he tests the actions of poisons upon patients in some hospital under his control4 ,would he be willing that the law be universal1 and that the action of such drugs should first be tested upon himself8 ,he suggests the use of healthy children as controls in tests with the dead germs of a horrible disease4 ,is there anyone connected with the ,rockefeller ,institute1 for example1 who would be willing that such act should establish a universal precedent1 and that his own children should be taken1 and without his knowledge1 made the material for such research8 ,admitting that some experiments upon human being may be ethically permissible1 and that other phases of such investigations are morally wrong1 how are we to distinguish between them8 ,may it not be possible to indicate principles which would be generally accepted1 according to which the line may be drawn8 ,let us make the attempt4 ,i4 ,justifiable ,experimentation upon ,man #a4 ,all experiments made by intelligent and conscientious physicians or surgeons upon their patients for some definite purpose pertaining to the personal benefit of the patient himself1 and when practicable1 in case of risk1 with his or her consent4 7,this rule is intended to include every possible experiment made by a medical practitioner for the benefit of the patient1 with a distinct ameliorative purpose in view47 #b4 ,all experiments made with an intelligent purpose by a scientific man or medical practitioner upon himself4 #c4 ,all experiments made with their consent upon physicians1 surgeons1 pathologists1 medical students or other scientific men1 who1 aware of the nature of the investigation and of possible results1 voluntarily offer themselves as material4 #d4 ,all experiments made upon men or women of ordinary intelligence who1 having been fully informed of the nature of the investigation and of whatever distressing or dangerous consequences are obviously liable to result1 acknowledge the receipt of satisfactory compensation for all risks1 and give in writing their full and free consent4 #e4 ,all psychological experiments or tests which involve neither fear1 fright1 nor mental distress of any kind4 ,,ii4 ,unjustifiable ,experimentation upon ,human ,beings4 ,experiments upon human beings which would seem to be immoral1 because obviously a violation of human rights1 are as follows3 #a4 ,,all ,,experiments1 ,,tests ,,or ,,observations1 ,,liable ,,to ,,involve ,,any ,,degree ,,of ,,pain1 ,,discomfort1 ,,or ,,distress1 ,,made ,,upon ,,dying ,,children1 ,,or ,,children ,,apparently ,,near ,,death1 ,,for ,,any ,,purpose ,,other ,,than ,,their ,,present ,,personal ,,relief4 #b4 ,the use of new-born babes as material for research2 the use as material for research of any other defenceless children1 in orphanages1 asylums1 or in their own homes1 for any purpose whatever other than the direct personal benefit of the child upon whom the experiment is made4 ,especially objectionable would seem to be experiments of this character made in connection with the study of syphilis1 whether or not any obvious injury is the result4 #c4 ,all experiments liable to cause discomfort or distress1 made without purpose of definite individual benefit upon the insane1 the feeble-minded1 the aged and infirm or upon other unfortunate human beings1 who1 for any reason1 are incapable of giving an intelligent consent or of adequately comprehending what is done to them4 #d4 ,all experiments of any kin1 upon other adults1 whether patients or inmates of public institutions or otherwise1 if made without direct ameliorative purpose and the intelligent personal consent of the person who is the ,,material for the research4 #e4 ,the experimental exploitation without their free consent1 of men1 temporarily under command or control of an authority which they have been led to suppose they are not at liberty legally to disobey4 ,let us repeat4 ,,there ,,is ,,no ,,objection ,,to ,,experiments ,,upon ,,human ,,beings1 ,,when ,,there ,,is ,,no ,,invasion ,,of ,,human ,,rights4 ,the medical student1 who1 out of zeal for ,science1 offers his body for any experimental test2 the patient in the hosptial1 who with adeuqate compensation for what he is asked to undergo1 grants consent to some investigation which may help others1 though not himself2 the poor man who is satisfactorily compensated for all risks1 and therefore willing to aid research1--such varieties of human experimentation do not necessarily offend the moral sense4 ,it is the incurable injustice of experimentation upon infancy that can offer no protest but a cry2 of experimentation upon the dying child1 of experimentation upon the poor1 the ignorant1 the feeble-minded1 the defenceless1--it is experimentation like this which surely deserves the condemnation of mankind4 ,what is the remedy for human vivisection8 ,it lies in such legislation as shall protect those who1 because of infancy1 or by reason of ignorance cannot effectively protect themselves4 ,by penalties so heavy that they cannot be safely ignored1 the ,state must forbid the iniquitous exploitation of man by man4 ,no such law need interfere in the slightest degree with the rights of the true physician to aid his fellow-beings2 nor can we doubt that the medical profession will finally favour a reform that will indicate the broad line of demarcation separating the unquestioned privilege from the unjustifiable abuse4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,conclusion ,in the preceding pages1 the attempt has been made to throw light here and there1 upon a great and perplexing problem4 ,it has been seen that concerning the past history of experimentation upon living beings1 much ignorance still exists2 that too implicit and unquestioning trust in the statements of those favourable to unlimited experimentation has1 unfortunately1 not always conduced to the attainment of truth2 that misstatements tinged with inaccuracy have too frequently found acceptance2 and that growing out of the unrestricted use of animals in scientific inquiry1 the extension of the method1 by the use of human material1 in certain hospitals has become an accepted procedure4 ,it is1 indeed1 an ethical problem1 that confronts society1 to-day4 ,it would be no less a problem1 if every claim of utility made in behalf of human and animal experimentation were proven beyond the possibility of a doubt4 ,even then1 the ethical question would persist4 ,the ultimate decision regarding it remains the personal duty of every man4 ,attention has been called1 in the preceding pages1 to many statements1 which a close examination would seem to prove to be misleading and inaccurate4 ,but every discerning reader should recognize that inaccuracy or untruth does not imply the moral obliquity that pertains to intentional falsehood4 ,an experimenter1 for example1 makes an assertion regarding the absolute painlessness of his vivisections4 ,such statement may be demonstrated1 let us say1 to be exceedingly doubtful1 if not quite untrue4 ,that is as far as legitimate criticism can easily go4 ,it is quite impossible to demonstrate a conscious intent to deceive4 ,to interpret motives1 to impute falsehood is to go beyond facts into regions where facts are not to be found1 except in exceedingly exceptional cases4 ,one of thet ,royal ,commissioners expressed this position very clearly4 ,while ,i feel bound1 wrote ,dr4 ,george ,wilson1 to accept the assurances of all the expert witnesses who appeared before us1 as assurances of their honest conviction that vivisectional or cutting experiments can be1 and are carried out without the infliction of pain from the moment the first wound is made1 444 ,i can only accept them ,,as ,,opinions1 to which the greatest weight should be attached1 ,,and ,,not ,,as ,,statements ,,of ,,absolute ,,fact so far as specific instances are concerned4 ,this is exactly the attitude for any critic of vivisection to take4 ,a distinguished physician1 testifying before the ,commissioners1 declared that it was entirely possible to keep a dog in a state of anaesthesia for a week1 if necessary4 ,experimentation in this direction1 in all probability would prove the assertion to be untrue1 but although such demonstration would be proof of inaccuracy and carelessness1 it could not justify1 in any way1 the charge of dishonourable motives4 ,in no instance1 therefore1 in the illustrations of inaccuracy given in the preceding pages1 is there any imputation of perverse and intentional inveracity4 ,i have made sufficiently clear1 ,i hope1 my disagreement with the views of the extreme antivivisection party concerning all phases of biological experimentation4 ,the weakest point in the antivivisection position has always seemed to me the condemnation of every kind of experimentation on animals1 however painless4 ,yet how is it possible to expect public agreement with this position in every case8 ,a few weeks ago1 it was announced in the public press1 that in one of the departments of ,columbia ,university in ,new ,york1 a series of experiments were being made to determine1 if possible1 the comparative food value of two articles in general use4 ,if1 for instance1 a certain number of mice were fed from day to day upon pure butter1 and an equal number upon the artificial product known as oleo-margarine1 would there be any perceptible difference in growth and general condition1 and1 if so1 in favour of which group8 ,this is an experiment upon animals2 but it is one against which it would be difficult to bring forward any objection which the general public would very eagerly endorse4 ,distinctions must be made1 between that which is cruel and that which is humane4 ,,against ,,perfectly ,,painless ,,experiment1 said ,sir ,benjamin ,ward ,richardson1 carried out for purely experimental and great objects by men who themselves regret the necessity or expediency1 and who only act under a strict sense of duty1 no reasonable mind can raise an objection4 ,on the other hand1 let me reiterate acknowledgment of the vast indebtedness which the cause of humaneness owes to the opponents of all vivisection4 ,always and everywhere1 the extremist helps in the progress of reform4 ,but for a few hated and despised abolitionists1 negro slavery might still be a recognized ,american institution2 it was not ,henry ,clay or ,daniel ,webster who did most to hasten its downfall4 ,that antivivisectionists have made mistakes1 perhaps their most ardent advocate would be willing to concede4 ,on the other hand1 how great has been their service6 ,but for extremists such as ,frances ,power ,cobb of ,england and ,elizabeth ,stuart ,phelps-,ward of ,america and a host of others whose hearts were aflame with indignation at cruelty and at the seeming duplicity which denied its existence1 the whole question would have sunk into the abeyance in which in ,france or ,germany1 it to-day exists4 ,they kept it alive4 ,and what have not the antivivisectionists suffered by detraction1 by ridicule1 by misrepresentation and personal abuse6 ,the most eloquent woman to whom ,i have ever listened1 ,english only by adoption1 faced without flinching some of the most skilled vivisectors and controversialists of ,great ,britain1 who endeavoured in vain to weaken the force of her testimony2 and the examination of ,miss ,lind-ap-,hageby by certain of the vivisecting members of the ,royal ,commission seems to me a more brilliant instance of the presentation of ideals under adverse circumstances than is afforded by any similar examination of man or woman in modern times4 ,personal disagreement with universal condemnation of all vital experimentation has been sufficiently stated2 but one view of the antivivisectionists applies equally to the prohibition of painful experiments4 ,i believe1 said ,miss ,lind1 that the abolution of vivisection will be accompanied by great changes and great developments in the whole science of medicine2 that new methods of healing will come in1 and higher methods1 as we know that the coarser medication and the coarser drugging are going out of fashion4#a ,the same view was expressed by ,dr4 ,kenealy1 another witness1 regarding the prohibition of all animal experimentation4 ,i think it would give the finest possible impulse to medical science2 that we are surrounded by all these problems of disease and degeneration and suffering in human kind2 and that if we were to devote our attention to man1 and to all the valuable human material surrounding us1 instead of wasting valuable time and talent on dogs and guinea-pigs1 we should make rapid and immense advance in the relief of human suffering4#b ,somewhat the same sentiment has been expressed by others not opposed to animal experimentation4 ,it may be admitted1 said ,sir ,benjamin ,ward ,richardson1 whose scientific zeal1 no one can question1 that whether painful experimentation be useful or useless1 it has had one indifferent effect2 it has diverted the minds of men too strongly from methods of research that not only lie open to the curious mind1 but which lie temptingly open4 ,and speaking of medical treatment for disease1 he says3 ,treatment at this time is a perfect ,babel4444 ,two men scarcely ever write the same prescription for the same disease or the same symptom4 ,i have watched the art of prescribing for fifty years1 and ,i am quite sure that divergence of treatment is at this moment far greater than it ever was in the course of that long period4 ,the multiplication of remedies1 begotten of experiment1 is the chief reason of so much disagreement444 444 ,the modern student has before him a new duty4 ,the experiment of experiment that lies before him therapeutically1 is to learn what diseases will recover by mere attention to external conditions without any medicines1 and what will not4#c #a ,evidence before ,royal ,commission1 ,q4 #g1fbg #b ,ibid41 ,q4 #f1ggf #c ,biological ,experimentation1 by ,sir ,benjamin ,ward ,richardson1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,pp4 #gc1 #aji4 ,the unpleasant accompaniment of all criticism is misunderstanding4 ,a protest1 a remonstrance of any kind can gain a hearing only after it has been repeated again and again1 and even then it is quite as liable as otherwise to be wholly misconstrued4 ,it has been with very great regret that for many years1 ,i have found myself in disagreement with so large a number of medical writers1 who have left behind them the conservatism of earlier opinions in the ,english-speaking world1 to follow the newer lights of ,continental freedom and irresponsibility4 ,the regret is the more poignant1 because1 speaking from the vantage of seventy years1 ,i believe that the highest realization of human hopes for the welfare of our race1 must come through medical science4 ,it is1 however1 to preventive medicine that the world must learn to look1 not to the conquest of disease by new drugs or new serums4 ,there are ailments1 which every year in ,england and ,america are responsible for thousands of preventable deaths4 ,that fifty years hence1 these scourges of humanity will be curable by the administration of any remedy1 to be hereafter discovered by experimentation on animals1--in the ,rockefeller ,institute1 for instance1--,i have not the slightest faith4 ,it is not through the torment of living creatures1 not through the limitless sacrifice of laboratory victims1 not through the utilization of babes as material for research1 that medical science will yet achieve for humanity its greatest boon1--the prevention of disease4 ,i venture with confidence1 to make that forecast of the future1 leaving recognition of its truth to those who shall come after us1 when all now living shall have passed away4 ,,appendixes ,,second ,,edition -------- ,,appendix ,i ,,animal ,,experimentation ,,and ,,medical ,,progress--,a ,,review ,by a curious coincidence1 two books relating to vivisection were published in ,america at almost the same time4 ,one1 under the above title1 was a collection of essays and contributions to various periodicals from the pen of ,dr4 ,william ,w4 ,keen1 which have appeared during the past thirty years4 ,the other was the first edition of the present work4 ,the volume to which the reader's attention is called is chiefly an exposition of the author's views on the scientific value of biological experimentation4 ,with some of his conclusions1 there will be little or no dispute among members of the medical profession4 ,but in defending the moethods of physiological experiment1 has he been scrupulously accurate and uniformly fair8 ,is there to be discerned any tendency to exaggeration1 to over-statement or to suppression of vital facts8 ,eager as he is to charge inaccuracy upon others1 has he been always accurate himself8 ,has any authority cited been garbled1 so that quotation conveys an impression inconsistent with the general tenor of a writer's views8 ,what cruelties of past experimentation has this author emphatically condemned8 ,what experimenters upon human kind has he held up to the reprobation of the public8 ,in the entire volume1 can one find a single instance wherein a cruel experiment has been censured1 or a cruel experimenter been condemned by name8 ,except in a volume1 it would be impossible to indicate all points to which attention should be given2 it must suffice here1 to direct attention only to a few4 ,i4 ,a personal criticism of the writer by ,dr4 ,keen makes necessary a record of the facts4 ,referring to a certain experiment of a ,german vivisector1 ,goltz1 ,dr4 ,keen says3 ,in #aija ,professor ,bowditch called ,dr4 ,leffingwell's attention to the fact that no such operation was ever done4 ,in ,dr4 ,leffingwell's collected essays1 entitled ,the ,vivisection ,question1 on p4 #afi of the second revised edition 7#aijg71 there is1 in a footnote a correction admitting that no such operation was ever done7671 but on p4 #fg of the same edition1 ,a ,,description ,,of ,,this ,,same ,,operation still remains uncorrected1 six years after ,bowditch's letter had been received and the misstatement acknowledged4#a #a ,keen's ,animal ,experimentation1 p4 #bga4 ,truth and untruth are sadly intermingled in this paragraph4 ,let us attempt to disentangle them4 ,on ,march #g1 #aija1 while the collection of essays1 known as ,the ,vivisection ,question was in the printer's hands and on the eve of publication1 a note was received from ,professor ,bowditch of ,harvard ,medical ,school1 courteously asking the authority for one particular procedure in the long account of the ,goltz experiment--the ablation of the breast4 ,in reply to ,professor ,bowditch1 the name of ,dr4 ,edward ,berdoe of ,london was given as the authority upon which the author of ,the ,vivisection ,question had confidently relied4 ,a letter was at once sent to ,dr4 ,berdoe--a well-known ,english physician--telling him that one procedure mentioned in the description of the ,goltz experiment had been questioned1 and asking him for an immediate and careful study of the case4 ,dr4 ,berdoe's investigation made it evident that a mistake had been made by the translator upon whose accuracy he had relied2 and in the next edition of ,the ,vivisection ,question at p4 #afi--7the only page to which ,dr4 ,bowditch had invited attention7-- an acknowledgment was inserted4 ,that it had even the briefest reference elsewhere1 was not recalled by the author of the book1 for he had not seen it for years4 ,nor was this all4 ,to the ,london ,zoophilist and to the ,journal of ,zoophily in this country1 a communication was at once sent4 ,in the latter periodical1 the following letter appeared in its issue for ,july1 #aija3 ,to the ,editor of the ,journal of ,zoophily ,,madam1--,a ,german vivisector1 ,dr4 ,goltz of ,strasburg1 reporting certain experiments he had made upon a dog1 declared that it was marvellous and astonishing to find maternal instinct manifested after various severe mutilations4 ,one of these operations was reported to have been excision of the breasts1 so that it could no longer nurse its young1 and to this phase of the experiment ,i have referred in some of my writings4 ,recently1 ,dr4 ,bowditch of ,harvard ,university has called my attention to this particular mutlation1 questioning its occurrence2 and on referring the matter ot ,dr4 ,berdoe of ,london1 who was my authority1 he finds1 after a most painstaking and careful examination at the ,college of ,surgeons1 that a mistake in comprehending a phrase was actually made by the translator1 upon whose accuracy and acquaintance with the ,german language dependence seemed secure4 ,all the details of this ,goltz experiment are too horrible to quote2 this is not a case where a single experiment has been magnified into a great cruelty2 the truth itself is bad enough4#a ,it is a fact1 however1 that one particular mutilation ascribed to ,goltz--the ablation of the breasts--did not in this instance occur4 ,it has always seemed to me of the utmost importance that in all criticism of vivisection our facts should be absolutely reliable1 and that whenever inaccuracies occur1 they should be corrected4 ,all that we want is the truth1 without concealment of abuse on the one hand1 or misstatement on the other4 ,in this case1 ,i am especially glad to make correction4 ,for many years ,i have been acquainted with the writings of ,dr4 ,berdoe1 and ,i have never found therein the slightest overstatement or exaggeration of any kind4 ,in the twenty-one years ,i have written in advocacy of some measure of reform in regard to vivisection1 this1 too1 ,,is ,,the ,,first ,,instance ,,in ,,which ,,an ,,inaccuracy ,,of ,,any ,,statement ,,of ,,mine ,,regarding ,,any ,,experiment ,,has ,,been ,,pointed ,,out4 ,,albert ,,leffingwell4 ,,brooklyn1 ,may #ca1 #aija4 #a ,no advocate of unrestricted experimentation1 so far as known1 has ever dared to print the full details of this ,goltz experiment4 ,in the only essay to which ,professor ,bowditch has called attention1 the statement had been corrected2 the fact that an allusion of five or six words in an earlier essay gave an erroneous suggestion1 was quite overlooked4 ,but ,dr4 ,keen will have it that there was a ,,revised edition1 and that in this ,a ,,description ,,of ,,this ,,same ,,operation was given4 ,there are here two misstatements4 ,there is not the slightest reason for calling it a revised edition4 ,was there a description given8 ,let us quote the entire passage1 written nearly a quarter of a century ago1 in order to see what ,dr4 ,keen ventured to call a description of this same operation4 ,we are almost at the beginning of the twentieth century4 ,civilization is about to enter a new era1 with new problems to solve1 new dangers to confront1 new hopes to realize4 ,it is useless to deny the increasing ascendancy of that spirit1 which in regard to the problems of the ,universe1 affirms nothing1 denies nothing1 but continues its search for solution2 it is equally useless to shut our eyes to the influence of this spirit upon those beliefs which for many ages have anchored human conduct to ethical ideals4 ,regret would be futile2 and here1 perhaps is no occasion for regret4 ,to the new spirit1 which perhaps is to dominate the future1 this longing for truth1 not for what she gives us in the profit that the ledgers reckon1 but for what she is herself--this high ambition to solve the mysteries that perplex and elude us1 the world may yet owe discoveries that shall revolutionize existence1 and make the coming era infinitely more glorious in beneficent achievement than the one whose final record ,history is so soon to end4 ,but all real progress in civilization depends upon man's ethical ideals4444 ,what shape and tendency are these hopes and ambitions to assume in coming years8 ,what are the ideals held up before ,american students in ,american colleges8 ,what are the names whose mention is to fire youth with enthusiasm1 with longing for like achievement and similar success8 ,is it ,richet1 bending over palpitating entrails1 surrounded by groaning creatures1' not1 as he tells us1 with any thought of benefit to mankind1 but simply to seek out a new fact1 to verify a disputed point8' ,is it ,mantegazza1 watching day by day1 con multo amore e patience moltissima1'--with much patience and pleasure-- the agonies of his crucified animals8 ,is it ,brown-,sequard1 ending a long life devoted to the torment of living things with the investion of a nostrum that earned him nothing but contempt8 ,is it ,goltz of ,strasburg1 noting with wonder that mother love and yearning solicitude could be shown even by a dying animal1 whose breasts he had cut off1 and whose spinal cord he had severed8 ,is it ,magendie1 operating for cataract and plunging the needle to the bottom of the patient's eye1 that by experiment upon a human being he might see the effect of irritating the retina8 444 ,surely1 in these names1 and such as these1 there can be no uplift or inspiration to young men toward that unselfish service and earnest work which alone shall help toward the amelioration of the world4 ,in this passage1 there is an allusion of ,,just ,,six ,,words to one phase of experimentation which was subsequently found to be inaccurate1 and corrected1 as ,dr4 ,keen has shown4 ,but was it in accord with truth to refer to this passing reference as ,a ,,description of the same operation8 ,no reader of ,dr4 ,keen's pages would be likely to investigate the statement4 ,was it fair to permit his readers to understand that a ,,description ,,existed1 ,,where ,,there ,,was ,,none8 ,there is yet another point to be noted4 ,referring to the experiments of ,goltz1 the impression seems to be given that not only was ablation of the breast mistakenly ascribed to the ,strasburg vivisector1 but that such a vivisection was imaginary3 ,,no ,,such ,,operation ,,was ,,ever ,,done4 ,this is also untrue4 ,experiments of the kind have been done by other vivisectors1 and they are recorded in their own reports4 ,for example1 de ,sinety of ,paris tells us in his ,manuel ,pratique de ,gynecologie 7,paris1 #ahgi1 p4 #ggh71 that upon female guinea-pigs1 he had practised l'ablation de ces glands pendant la lactation4#a ,another ,french vivisector1 ,dr4 ,paul ,bert1 states that he had not only performed l'ablation des mamelles chez une femelle de cochon d',inde1 but that he had succeeded in performing the operation on a female goat4 ,the poor creature recovered from the vivisection1 and later1 gave birth to a kid1 which was placed with the mother4 ,what would happen to a new-born animal placed at the side of a mother whose breasts had been cut off8 ,le petit1 animal1 voulant teter1 et trouvant pas de mamelles1 a donne de violent coups de tete dans le re'gion mammaire4444#b #a ,in a reference to de ,sinety's vivisections at page #aga1 in the present volume1 there is a slight mistake4 ,although de ,sinety1 as shown above1 had practised the ablation of the mammary glands during lactation1 it would seem that mutilation rather than complete ablation preceded his experiments on the innervation of the mammary nerve4 ,the sentence should read cut into the breasts1 and not removed the breasts4 ,he tells us that he made a considerable number of experiments of the kind upon female guinea-pigs4 ,in one of them1 for example1 he laid bare the nerve and isolated it with a thread1--le nerf mammaire d'un cote est mis a nu1 et isole1 and that when the electric current was used1 extreme pain1--un douleur tres vivre was excited1 notwithstanding which the excitation was continued for ten minutes4 7,gazette ,me'd4 de ,paris1 for #ahgi1 p4 #eic74 #b ,comptes ,rendus de la ,soc4 de ,biologie1 ,paris1 #ahhc1 p4 #ggh4 ,there is no need of completing the description4 ,it was an experiment absolutely useless and without justification4 ,we may confess that we read of such useless cruelties of experiment only with infinite disgust4 ,no matter how careful a writer may be1 it is very rare that he escapes1 from unfriendly readers1 the imputation of inaccuracy4 ,against writers of history--men like ,froude1 ,macaulay1 or ,carlyle--the same charge has been made4 ,but a critic whose microscopic eye discerns inaccuracy in others should be very careful to make no similar errors himself4 ,the mistake upon which he has dwelt1 was due to reliance upon the translation of another man4 ,it may be of interest to point out that in his own writings ,dr4 ,keen has made a precisely similar mistake2 and that although it was pointed out and its untruth confessed many years ago1 yet the false imputation appears again in the pages of his book1 without correction or intimation of its utter untruth1 on the page where it firs tis given to the reader of to-day4 ,in a pamphlet published during the closing years of the last century by the ,american ,humane ,association1 there appeared a strong condemnation of experiments made by a ,dr4 ,sanarelli1 apparently upon hospital patients1 temporarily under his care4 ,in an ,italian periodical1 the young scientist described his researches with remarkable frankness4 ,he tells of the various symptoms of yellow fever1 which by his serum he had caused his victims to suffer--the congestions1 the haemorrhage1 the delirium1 the fatty degeneration1 the collapse2 and all these1 he adds1 ,i have seen unrolled before my eyes1 ,,thanks ,,to ,,the ,,potent ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,yellow-,,fever ,,poison ,,made ,,in ,,my ,,laboratory4 ,so terrible a confession of human vivisection1 it was eemed best by some ,english translator to suppress2 and in various medical journals1 both in ,england and ,america1 the sentence here italicized did not appear4 ,finding it quoted only by the pamphlet that condemned human vivisection1 ,dr4 ,keen1 without consulting the original1 made the dishonouring imputation that perhaps it had been ,,deliberately ,,added by some one of his opponents1 and this1 too1 notwithstanding he had referred to the original authority where the words were to be found4 ,unfortunately1 he explained at a later period1 ,i am not an ,italian scholar1 and have never even seen ,sanarelli's original article2 he had placed dependence for his statement upon a friend4#a ,who could have been this friend who pretended that he had read the article of ,sanarelli in the original1 and deceived him into making a charge of forgery1 for the truth of which there was not a particle of foundation8 ,but the thing of which his readers have a right to complain is not that his friend deceived him1 for that may happen to anyone4 ,it is this3 that the imputation of forgery1 the untruth of which was admitted long ago1 still remains in the essay where it first appeared1 and without there being the slightest disclaimer of the false insinuation4 ,let the reader turn to p4 #abe of the work under review4 ,there is the suggestion that ,sanarelli's allusion to the poisons fabricated in his laboratory may have been ,,deliberately ,,added--an imputation of forgery4 ,,where ,,on ,,this ,,page1 ,,in ,,the ,,text ,,or ,,by ,,footnote1 ,,has ,,the ,,author ,,withdrawn ,,that ,,insinuation8 ,,it ,,cannot ,,be ,,found4 #a ,animal ,experimentation1 pp4 #adc-add4 ,,ii4 ,one of the most serious offences against literacy accuracy which this writer has apparently committed appears in the garbling of the opinions of ,dr4 ,henry ,j4 ,bigelow of ,harvard ,university1 on the subject of vivisection4 ,the case is of especial interest not only because the facts are so clear1 but because they bring into relief certain methods of controversy1 which by some seem to be regarded as entirely justifiable4 ,a sketch of the life of ,dr4 ,bigelow1 with extended quotations from his writings1 will be found in the ninth chapter of the work now in the reader's hands4 ,the opinions there expressed regarding vivisection are by no means extreme4 ,no past writer on this subject has left behind him more abundant evidence of his position in this controversy4 ,it was not animal experimentation that he condemned1 but the cruelty that sometimes accompanies it1 and to which1 if vivisection be unregulated by law1 it is so often liable4 ,how may the views of such a writer be attacked after he is in his grave8 ,a physiological casuist would suggest1 for instance1 that although for forty years connected with a medical school1 ,dr4 ,bigelow really knew little or nothing about vivisection except what he had chanced to see in ,france1 although his writings abound with allusions indicative of familiarity with laboratory scenes4 ,it might be asserted1 indeed1 that in his later life1 the great advocate of reform had changed his views2 and as a fair exposition of the new attitude1 a brief warning against confounding a painful with a painless experiment would be quoted1 after eliminating from the paragraph anything that referred to cruelty or abuse4 ,is not this exactly what the author of ,animal ,experimentation has done in his attempt to discredit the weight of ,dr4 ,bigelow's protests8 ,he tells his readers that the opponents of research quote the ,harvard professor's earliest utterances based on the suffering he saw at ,alfort1 but that they carefully omit this expression of his later opinions3 ,the dissection of an animal in a state of insensibility is no more to be criticized than is the abrupt killing of it1 to which no one objects4 ,the confounding of a painful vivisection and an experiment which does not cause pain--either because the experiment itself is painless1 like those pertaining to the action of most drugs1 or because it is a trivial one and gives little suffering--has done great damage to the cause of humanity and has placed the opponent of vivisection at a great disadvantage4444 ,a painless experiment on an animal is unobjectionable4 ,this is all true enough4 ,but can anyone call this paragraph a fair statement of ,dr4 ,bigelow's later views on animal experimentation8 ,it is merely a wise caution4 ,compare this brief quotation with the ninth chaper of the book in the reader's hands4 ,will anyone1 after reading that chapter1 maintain that ,,the ,,three ,,sentences ,,just ,,cited ,,afford ,a ,,fair ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,dead ,,surgeon',s ,,latest ,,views8 ,the reader will note that in the passage just quoted from ,bigelow1 something appears to have been omitted before the final sentence4 ,on turning to ,dr4 ,bigelow's work1 we find this sentence was eliminated from the foregoing quotation4 ,,if ,,all ,,experiments ,,in ,,physiology ,,were ,,as ,,painless ,,as ,,those ,,in ,,chemistry1 ,,there ,,would ,,be ,,but ,,one ,,side ,,to ,,the ,,question4#a #a ,anaesthesia1 by ,henry ,j4 ,bigelow1 ,m4,d41 p4 #cgb4 ,precisely6 ,then immediately following the words quoted by the author of ,animal ,experimentation1 the reader will discover another most significant passage which was suppressed by the author of ,animal ,experimentation3 ,the extreme vivisector claims the liberty to inflict at his discretion1 ,,protracted ,,and ,,excruciating ,,pain upon any number of dogs1 horses1 rabbits1 guinea-pigs and other animals4 ,the interest or honest enthusiasm he may happen to feel in some subject of physiology1 however important1 justifies in his mind ,,the ,,exhibition ,,of ,,this ,,excessive ,,pain ,,to ,,classes1 ,,and ,,its ,,repetition ,,by ,,medical ,,students1 ,,practically ,,at ,,their ,,option4 ,,this ,,is ,,an ,,abuse4 ,inasmuch as the reform of any abuse needs remedial measures1 such measures have been inaugurated by permanently organized societies1 which1 even though they may not have been always and wholly right and temperate in their action1 ,,have ,,erred ,,in ,,the ,,right ,,direction4 ,what was the reason for these suppressions8 ,why this garbling of ,bigelow's later views8 ,do we find it impossible to comprehend why his comparison of physiological experiments with the painless procedures of chemistry should have been cut from the contecxt1 or why the references to ,,protracted ,,and ,,excruciating ,,pain and the exhibition of excessive pain to classes should have been omitted8 ,how could a writer1 sincerely desirous of presenting his readers with a fair expression of ,dr4 ,bigelow's opinions1 have cut out every reference to the abuses of vivisection8 ,how could he have omitted to quote such passages as the following1 which appear in essays written during the last year of his life3 ,in short1 although vivisection1 like slavery1 may embrace within its practice what is unobjectionable1 what is useful1 what is humane1 and even what is commendable1 it may also cover1 like slavery1 what is nothing less than hideous4 ,i use this word in no sensational sense1 and appeal to those who are familiar with some of the work1 in laboratories and out of them1 to endorse it as appropriate in this connection4 7#cfh7a ,there is no objection to vivisection except the physical pain it inflicts4 7#cfh7 ,no society1 however extreme in its views or action1 can legitimately object to painless experimentation1 provided it is really painless4 ,,but ,,anaesthesia ,,should ,,be ,,real1 ,,and ,,not ,,merely ,,nominal ,,or ,,formal4 7#cgd7 ,vivisection will always be the better for vigilant supervision4 7#cfh7 ,there is little in the literature of what is called the horrors of vivisection1 which is not well grounded on truth4 ,for a description of the pain inflicted1 ,i refer to that literature4 7#cfc7 ,the necessity for brevity of quotation1 no one can dispute4 ,but the ethics of controversy are clear4 ,one or two detached sentences should never be given as a fair representation of an opponent's views1 if the general tenor of his writings would convey a contrary impression4 ,thus to suppress and eliminate1 what is it but to garble8 ,in any young writer1 would not such offences against veracity invite the severest condemnation8 #a ,henry ,j4 ,bigelow1 ,m4,d41 ,anaesthesia4 ,figures following quotations indicate the pages4 ,italics not in original4 ,,iii4 ,another illustration of the unreliability of the volume under review may be found in its references to the ,report of the ,royal ,commission on ,vivisection4 ,we are told1 in the first place--and the untrue statement is thrice repeated with slightly different phraseology--that on the ,commission1 the antivivisectionists were represented1 and joined in this unanimous report4#b ,it would be difficult to make an affirmation more notoriously untrue4 ,in #aijf1 when the ,commission was first named1 it was a matter of common knowledge that ,,no ,,antivivisectionist ,,was ,,represented ,,thereon4 ,this shoudl be evident to anyong1 one reading the following paragraph of the ,commission's report3 ,after full consideration1 we are led to the conclusion that experiments upon animals1 ,,adequately ,,safeguarded ,,by ,,law ,,faithfully ,,administered1 ,,are ,,morally ,,justifiable ,,and ,,should ,,not ,,be ,,prohibited ,,by ,,legislation4#a #b ,keen1 ,animal ,experimentation1 p4 #bid4 ,for repetitions of the erroneous statement1 see pp4 xviii and #bda4 #a ,report of ,commission1 p4 #eg1 par4 #ig4 ,how could ,dr4 ,keen have dreamed for a moment that any antivivisectionist would have signed such a recantation8 ,possibly the words here italicized explain why this paragraph was not quoted by the author of ,animal ,experimentation4 ,it referred to the conditions of permissible experimentation which1 as yet1 do not exist in any ,american state4 ,of this important report1 but a single brief paragraph of two sentences appears to have attracted the attention of ,dr4 ,keen4 ,it impresses him so strongly that he parades it no less than three times in various parts of his book3 ,we desire to state that the harrowing descriptions and illustrations of operations inflicted on animals which are freely circulated by post1 advertisement1 or otherwise1 are ,,in ,,many ,,cases calculated to mislead the public1 so far as they suggest that the animals in question were not under an anaesthetic4 ,to represent that animals subjected to experiments ,,in ,,this ,,country are ,,wantonly ,,tortured would1 in our opinion1 be absolutely false4 7,italics not in original47 ,this clear statement1 adds the author of ,animal ,experimentation to one of his three quotations1 should end this calumny 7p4 #bda47 ,to what ,,calumny can he allude8 ,the ,commissioners are referring only to experimentation in ,england1 where unauthorized painful experimentation is contrary to law--certainly not to ,america1 where no ,government supervision of any kind is to be found4 ,even in ,england1 the words ,,in ,,many ,,cases limit the application of condemnation4 ,would the author have its readers believe that painful or unjustifiable experiments are never performed8 ,,on ,,the ,,very ,,page ,,of ,,the ,,report ,,to ,,which ,,he ,,refers ,,us1 in a paragraph immediately following that just quoted1 there is reference to a ,london physiologist of distinction1 who had testified that he had performed ,,painful experiments upon animals both in ,germany and in this country4 ,the ,commission unanimously condemned his position as untenable1 and in our opinion1 ,,absolutely ,,reprehensible4 ,would the author of ,animal ,experimentation regard this protest against certain experiments made by the men named in that paragraph1 as a calumny8 ,the unfairness of giving out to the world merely two sentences as representative of the conclusions of an important ,commission will become evident to anyone who reads other of the unanimous conclusions of this report4 ,take the following3 ,,we ,,strongly ,,hold ,,that ,,limits ,,should ,,be ,,placed ,,to ,,animal ,,suffering in the search for physiological or pathological knowledge1 though some have contended that such considerations should be wholly subordinated to the claims of scientific research1 or the pursuit of some material good for man4#a ,does this conclusion bear out the contention that animal suffering in the laboratory is a ,,myth8 ,or take the recommendations of the ,commission concerning ,,curare1 a drug which is used in every laboratory1 but which1 curiously enough1 finds no mention in the index of ,dr4 ,keen's book4 ,the ,report says3 ,some of us are of the opinion that the use of ,,curare should be altogether prohibited2 but we are all agreed that if its use is to be permitted at all1 an ,inspector or some person nominated by the ,secretary of ,state should be present from the commencement of the experiment1 who should satisfy himself that the animal is1 ,,throughout ,,the ,,whole ,,experiment ,,and ,,until ,,its ,,death1 ,,in ,a ,,state ,,of ,,complete ,,anaesthesia4#b ,why was this recommendation made1 if the use of ,,curare is never associated with painful experimentation8 ,or read yet further3 ,we are of the opinion that ,,additional ,,safeguards ,,against ,,pain ,,might ,,be ,,provided1 without interfering with legitimate research4 ,these recommendations are incorporated in the final report of the ,commissioners1 not one of whom was an ,antivivisectionist4 ,why were they not quoted by ,dr4 ,keen4 #a ,report1 p4 #eg1 par4 #if4 #b ,ibid41 p4 #fa1 par4 #aad4 ,the ,report of the ,royal ,commission on ,vivisection1 together with the evidence produced before it1 constitutes the most important document relating to the subject which has appeared in a quarter of a century4 ,it is greatly to be regretted that the author of ,animal ,experimentation should have given his readers no idea whatsoever of this report1 except a warning of two sentences1 that could have been meant for ,england alone4 ,by omission of all its other conclusions1 especially those relating to painful experiments1 has the author been fair to his readers8 ,do such significant omissions illustrate an impartial reliability that commands our admiration8 ,does it denote an accuracy that should inspire our trust8 ,,iv4 ,what judgment does the author pass upon scientific experimentation upon human beings8 ,in his volume on animal vivisection1 he has reprinted various articles on the subject written by himself during a controversy which raged quite fiercely at the beginning of the present century2 of course in his book we find nothing of the points made against his arguments by his various opponents of that day4 ,the subject is an important one1 and some day will have a volume devoted to its discussion4 ,in the eighteenth chapter of the present work1 a careful distinction is drawn between those phases of experimentation upon man which seem to be entirely proper1 and those other phases which ought to be condemned3 ,it is of course to be expected1 that certain experimenters upon human beings will endeavour to confound both phases of inquiry in the public estimation2 yet there is no difficulty in drawing clear distinctions between them4 ,i4 ,any intelligently devised experiment upon an adult human being1 conscientiously performed by a responsible physician or surgeon solely for the personal benefit of the individual upon whom it is made1 and1 if practicable1 with his consent1 would seem to be legitimate and right4444 ,so long as the amelioration of the patient is the one purpose kept in view1 it is legitimate treatment4 ,,ii4 ,human vivisection is something different4 ,it has been defined as the practice of submitting to experimentation human beings1 usually inmates of public institutions1 by methods liable to involve pain1 distress1 injury to health or even danger to life1 without any full1 intelligent personal consent1 for no object relating to their individual benefit1 but for the prosecution of some scientific inquiry4444 ,,the ,,object ,,is ,,scientific ,,investigation1 ,,and ,,not ,,the ,,personal ,,welfare ,,or ,,amelioration ,,of ,,the ,,individual ,,upon ,,whom ,,the ,,experiment ,,is ,,made4#a #a ,pp4 #bhi-bij4 ,all distinctions of this kind the author of ,animal ,experimentation apparently sweeps aside4 ,a writer suggested that upon natives of ,india who1 when bitten by poisonous serpents1 almost invariably die1 there would be no objection to trying every variety of antidote that can be discovered4 ,this humane suggestion the author of ,animal ,experimentation holds up as ,,flat-,,footed ,,advocacy ,,of ,,human ,,vivisection6 ,the absurdity of such pronouncement must be evident to everyone of common sense4 ,we should think very little of any surgeon confronted with the case of a native suffering from a snake-bit1 who1 finding ordinary remedies of no avail1 refused to try ,,every ,,variety ,,of ,,antidote ,,that ,,can ,,be ,,discovered4 ,this is not the human vivisection to which objection is made2 for such experimentation is for the personal benefit of the man himself4 ,take1 for illustration1 the experiments made by the author of ,animal ,experimentation and other investigators some years since1 upon soldiers in an ,army hospital4 ,the author of the pamphlet which first brought these experiments on soldiers before the public1 states distinctly that just so far as the experiments were made upon suffering men ,,in ,,the ,,hope ,,of ,,giving ,,relief ,,from ,,pain1 and at the same time contributing to medical knowledge1 ,,there ,,can ,,be ,,nothing ,,to ,,criticize ,,in ,,any ,,way4#b ,surely the experimenters should ask no clearer exculpation from all blame1 so far as relates to permissible experimentation on man4 ,the critic1 however1 suggested that in some cases1 the enthusiastic experimenters went beyond this1 and quotes from the original article the following descriptions of their work3 ,we finally entered upon ,a ,,deliberate ,,course ,,of ,,experiments with the intention of ascertaining in what respect 444 the two drugs in question were antagonistic4444 ,the experiments which we shall now relate were most of them made upon soldiers1 who were suffering from painful neuralgic diseases1 or from some cause of entailing pain4 ,in some cases1 however1 ,,convalescent ,,men ,,were ,,the ,,subjects ,,of ,,our ,,observations1 but in no instance were they allowed to know what agents we used4444 ,,some ,,were ,,men ,,in ,,very ,,fair ,,health1 suspected of malingering4 ,the patient was kept recumbent some time before and during the observation4 #b ,taber1 ,illustrations of ,human ,vivisection1 ,chicago1 #aijf1 pp4 #ac-ad4 ,it is unnecessary to give the full description of these experiments4 ,we are informed of series of experiments1 of two other sets of experiments1 of the effect on the eye or the effect of the two drugs upon the cerebral functions2 the material was abundant4 ,the reviewer of this experimentation says3 ,how these experiments will be palliated and excused it is easy to foretell4 ,we shall undoubtedly be told that all this happened some years ago2 that the ,american soldiers1 thus used as material suffered no permanent injury from the experiments to which they were subjected2 that the investigators were purely disinterested2 that the scientific questions involved were of great interest and that results might possibly have been obtained which would have proved of great service to medical science4 ,but even if we grant all this1 and accord to these gentlemen the purest of personal motives1 can we say that in such defence they touch the chief point at issue in this matter of human vivisection8 ,here were a number of human beings who1 for a brief period1 on account of misfortune1 were temporarily in their power4 ,,what ,,moral ,,right had these medical gentlemen thus to experiment upon the eye1 the pulse1 the brain of a single soldier of the ,republic8 444 ,even granting the utility1 who confers upon anyone the moral right to test poisons on his fellow-men8 ,in his recent work1 the author of ,animal ,experimentation refers to these investigations of earlier years1 and insists that most of the patients thus operated on were sorely in need of relief4 ,what1 he asks1 would his critics have had them do8 ,sit idly by1 and let these poor fellows suffer torments1 because if we tried various drugs we were experimenting' on human beings8 ,is not this a little disingenuous1 in view of the very careful distinctions made by his critic concerning the experiments performed for the relief of suffering men8 ,assuredly1 there was no objection to these2 it was regarding the deliberate course of experiments1 the series of experiments made upon ,,men ,,in ,,very ,,fair ,,health that criticism was suggested4 ,were all these experiments upon soldiers in the ,army hospital made for the relief of their pains8 ,if so1 they undoubtedly deserve our warmest approval4 ,were any of a purely scientific character1 having no regard to the necessities of the individual upon whom they were made8 ,if so1 we may leave the question of condemnation or approval to the reader's judgment4 ,v4 ,what is the attitude of the author toward cruelty in animal experimentation1 or to the secrecy of the laboratory8 ,so far as one can see1 there is no admission anywhere that vivisection ever transcends the limits of what is entirely permissible4 ,except as regards human beings1 the word cruelty is not found in the index of his work4 ,at one place he tells his readers that whenever an operation would be painful1 an anaesthetic is ,,always given2#a on another page1 we read that in modern researches1 ether or other anaesthetics are ,,almost always given4#b two statements that are slightly incompatible4 ,we are informed that certain ,american societies have passed resolutions favorable to the ,,unrestricted performance of vivisections by proper persons2#c but the writer neglects to inform his readers that unrestricted and unregulated experimentation of the kind is not only contrary to the law in ,england1 but that it is condemned there by the leaders of the medical profession4 ,we find it apparently implied--but without positive statement--that there is little or no secrecy in animal experimentation1 and that anyone may find admittance to a laboratory at any time4#d ,so far as ,england is concerned1 this is untrue2 and we do not believe that in ,america a stranger would be welcomed at any physiological laboratory when experimentation by students was going on1 although of course there are times when there would be no trouble in obtaining admittance4 ,it would apparently seem that in the opinion of ,dr4 ,keen1 animal experimentation is always practised without cruelty or abuse4 #a ,animal ,experimentation1 p4 #bcb4 #b ,ibid41 p4 #bde4 #c ,ibid41 p4 xviii4 #d ,ibid41 pp4 viii-ix4 ,a considerable part of the volume under review is devoted to the history of medical progress4 ,were it not for the unfortunate tendency everywhere to magnify or exaggerate1 this part of the book would have had distinct value4 ,of the advances made by modern surgery1 for example1 there can be no doubt2 it is probable also1 that without to some researches upon living animals1 the results would not have been attained4 ,this by no means justifies everything that has been done4 ,the members of the ,royal ,commission--all of them favourable to vivisection--state the case with scientific restrain4 ,after giving the question full consideration they decide3 #a4 ,that certain results1 claimed from time to time to have been proved by experiments upon living animals and alleged to have been beneficial in preventing or curing disease1 ,,have1 ,,on ,,further ,,investigation ,,and ,,experience1 ,,been ,,found ,,to ,,be ,,fallacious ,,or ,,useless4 #b4 ,that notwithstanding such failures1 valuable knowledge ,,has ,,been ,,acquired in regard to physiological processes and the causation of disease1 and that useful methods for the prevention1 cure and treatment of certain diseases have resulted from experimental investigations upon living animals4 #c4 ,that1 as far as we can judge1 it is highly improbable that without experiments made upon animals1 mankind would1 at the present time1 have been in possession of such knowledge4#a #a ,final ,report of ,royal ,commision1 p4 #dg4 ,it is open1 of course1 to an antivivisectionist to deny the right of science to profit by the exploitation of animals1 but this is not the position of a large number who seek only to prevent the cruelty which has often accompanied it4 ,the greatest defect of the volume1 aside from the points to which allusion has been made1 is the exaggerated advocacy that characterizes the work throughout4 ,one can hardly find a dozen pages in which a careful reader would not discover some inaccuracy or over-statement4 ,if the author had only been content to demonstrate utility within the limits that scientific accuracy prescribes2 if everywhere he had been ready to concede--what thirty years ago he so frankly admitted--that vivisection was a ,,many-,,sided ,,question2#a if he had admitted anywhere that in the past excesses have taken place1 and that the practice has sometimes been carried to unjustifiable extremes which should be condemned2 if he had contented himself with pointing out the mistakes of the critics of animal experimentation1 without impugning their character1 or sneering at their efforts to lessen the infliction of pain2 if everywhere he had made fair distinctions between the anti- vivisectionists who oppose and condemn all exploitation of animal life1 and restrictionists like ,dr4 ,bigelow1 ,dr4 ,wilson1 ,dr4 ,william ,james1 and a host of others who share their views2 if1 in short1 the constant aim of the author had seemed to be1 not to secure a polemical success1 but reliability as an authority that time would confirm--it is certain that his book would have attained some degree of deserved and lasting repute4 ,for such a result1 no reasonable expectation can now be entertained4 ,the unreliability of the volume as an authority will become more and more evident as time goes on1 and in the judgment of the world it will gradually find its rightful place4 #a ,see first page of ,animal ,experimentation4 ,in bringing to a close this inadequate review of the book something yet remains to be said4 ,it should be unnecessary to repeat that in pointing out literary defects and mistakes1 we do not touch the honour of the writer in any way4 ,how can one measure the weight of a life- long prejudice1 or determine its influence upon conduct or opinion8 ,tout comprende est tout pardonner4 ,within a few weeks1 the author of ,animal ,experimentation1 if living1 will enter upon his eightieth year4 ,the errors of judgment1 the inaccuracies of statement1 the tendency to exaggerate utility--these and all other literary defects of the volume before us must be recognized and deplored1 but they should be ascribed only to causes which do not affect the honour of the man4 ,we may be confident that after he has passed away1 the world will quickly forget the too zealous defender of unrestricted vivisection1 and remember1 finally1 only the wise teacher1 the skilled surgeon1 the trusted friend4 ,,appendix ,,ii ,in the acquirement of knowledge concerning vivisection1 and for the prevention of abuses1 it is essential that in every institution where experiments are performed a register of all animals received be carefully and accurately kept4 ,each one should have a serial number1 under which all particulars should be entered4 ,the book used for this purpose should have printed in the first column of each double page the required details concerning which a record is to be kept2 the blanks should be written in ink by someone responsible for its accuracy4 ,some such form as the following outline might perhaps be used for such register3 ,,register ,,of ,,all ,,mammalian ,,animals ,,received ,,for ,,experimentation ,,in ,,the ,,carnegie ,,laboratory ,,during ,,the ,,year #aibj4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,serial number 44 44 44 #hja #hjb #hjc ,date 44 44 44 44 ,feb4 #a1 #aibj ,feb4 #a1 #aibj;,feb #b1 #aibj ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,species 44 44 44 44 ,dog ,dog --- ,variety 44 44 44 44 ,mongrel ,spaniel --- ,apparent age 44 44 44 ,two years ,very old --- ,sex 44 44 44 44 44 ,male ,female --- ,colour 44 44 44 44 ,yellow ,white --- ,condition 44 44 44 ,good ,poor --- ,from whom received 44 44 ,bradson ,burns --- ,address 44 44 44 44 #de1 ,canal ,st4 #bb1 ,mill ,st4 --- ,amount paid him 44 44 #ge cents #ej cents --- ,how acquired by him 44 ,found ,founds --- ,kept by us for redemption #ae days #ae days --- ,delivered to 44 44 44 ,dr4 ,sharp ,dr4 ,ball --- ,redeemed or died 44 44 --- --- --- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,from such a register as the foregoing1 it would not be difficult to compile a report at the end of each quarter-year1 somewhat after the following form3 ,,report ,,of ,,animals 7,,mammals7 ,,received ,,for ,,experimentation ,,at ,,the ,,carnegie ,,institute1 ,,during ,,quarter ,,ending ,,march #ca1 #aibj4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,other ,dogs4 ,cats4,monkeys4,mammals4 ,total4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,on hand1 ,january #a 44 #bj #d #b #ad #dj ,acquired 44 44 #ia #adb #aa #acb #cgf ----------------------------------- ,total 44 44 #aaa #adf #ac #adf #daf ,redeemed by owners 44 #aa #j #j #j #aa ,died before use 44 #b #j #a #j #c ,used for experiment 44 #hd #gf #aj #ih #bfh ,on hand at date 44 #ad #gj #b #dh #acd ----------------------------------- ,total #aaa #adf #ac #adf #daf ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- 7,signed7 ,a4 ,b41 ,,registrar ,,of ,,laboratory4 ,,state ,,of ,,new ,,york4 ,,city ,,of ,,new ,,york4 ,,ss4 ,on this #cast day of ,march1 #aibj1 before me1 the subscriber1 personally came ,a4 ,b41 known to me1 and he1 being duly sworn1 declared that the foregoing report signed by him is a full1 true1 and complete statement of all the animals of the species named therein1 which were either on hand on the first day of the quarter1 or which have been received at the ,laboratory of the ,carnegie ,institute for experimental purposes1 and the disposition thereof1 for the quarter-year ending ,march #ca1 #aibj4 4444444444444444444 ,,notary ,,public4 ,it is necessary not only to know what animals are received at any laboratory2 we must be able to follow them to the end4 ,each individual instructor1 professor or assistant-professor1 or other person who performs experiments of any kind should be required to state what he has done4 ,the following is an outline of a report which might be made to the ,director in charge of the laboratory4 -------------------- ,a ,,report ,,of ,,all ,,mammalian ,,animals ,,used ,,for ,,experimentation1 ,,either ,,by ,,myself ,,or ,,under ,,my ,,personal ,,supervision ,,in 44444444444 ,,laboratory1 ,,during ,,quarter ,,ending ,,march #ca1 #aibj4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,mon- ,guinea- ,other ,dogs4 ,cats4 keys4 ,pigs4 ,animals4 ,total4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,i4 ,number of animals used solely for original research ,,ii4 ,number of animals used for demonstra- tion before students1 of physiological facts ,,iii4 ,number of animals experimented upon by students 44 44 ---------------------------------------- ,total 44 44 ---------------------------------------- ,,iv4,number of above ani- mals1 in experimen- tation upon which ,,curare was used ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- 7,signed7 444444444444444444444444 ,,assistant ,,in ,,physiology4 ,,state ,,of ,,new ,,york4 ,,city ,,of ,,new ,,york4 ,,ss4 ,on this #cast day of ,march1 #aibj1 before me1 the subscriber1 personally came ,a4 ,b41 known to me1 and he1 being duly sworn1 declared that the foregoing report was signed by him1 and that it is a true1 full and complete statement of all mammalian animals used by him or under his personal supervision for experimental purposes in the 44444444444 ,laboratory during the quarter ending ,march #ca1 #aibj4 4444444444444444444444 ,,notary ,,public4 ,suggested form of report1 to be made quarterly by the responsible head of each ,institution wherein animal experimentation is authorized4 -------------------- ,a ,,report ,,of ,,the ,,disposition ,,of ,,animals 7,,mammals7 ,,used ,,for ,,experimental ,,purposes ,,in ,,all ,,laboratories ,,of ,,carnegie ,,institute ,,during ,,quarter ,,ending ,,march #ca1 #aibj4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,mon- ,other ,animals4 ,dogs4 ,cats4keys4,animals4 ,total4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,i4 ,number used for original research only1 by3 ,dr4 ,x4 44 44 44 ,dr4 ,y4 44 44 44 ,,ii4 ,number used for demonstra- tions before students1 by3 ,dr4 ,a4 44 44 44 ,dr4 ,b4 44 44 44 ,,iii4 ,number used by students for observation of physiolog- ical phenomena1 etc4 44 -------------------------------- ,total 44 44 44 -------------------------------- ,number of above animals to which curare was given1 in course of experimentation 44 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- 7,signed7 444444444444444444444 ,,director ,,of ,,laboratory4 ,,state ,,of ,,new ,,york4 ,,city ,,of ,,new ,,york4 ,,ss4 ,on this #ast day of ,april1 #aibj1 before me1 the subscriber1 personally came ,c4 ,d41 known to me1 who1 being duly sworn1 declared that the foregoing report signed by him1 is a full1 true and complete statement of the disposition of all animals experimented upon in the laboratories of the ,carnegie ,institute1 during the quarter-year ending ,march #ca1 #aibj1 to the best of his knowledge and belief4 444444444444444444444 ,,notary ,,public4 ,,appendix ,,iii ,it is exceedingly probably that no young physician or medical student could testify to cruelties witnessed in any physiological laboratory1 if they involved his instructors or fellow-students1 without injuring and perhaps ruining altogether his professional career4 ,only in later years1 when success and independence have been attained1 can he venture to speak freely of what he has seen4 ,some men have thus spoken4 ,the testimony of two is here given3 ,rev4 ,frederic ,rowland ,marvin1 ,m4,d41 ,albany1 ,n4,y43 ,though now a ,minister of the ,gospel1 ,i was educated to the profession of medicine1 and was graduated from the ,college of ,physicians and ,surgeons 7,medical ,department of ,columbia ,college7 ,new ,york1 in #ahgj4 ,in the class-room ,i ,,saw ,,vivisections ,,so ,,unqualifiedly ,,cruel ,,that ,,even ,,now ,,they ,,remain ,,in ,,my ,,memory ,,as ,a ,,nightmare4 7,from letter to ,the ,american ,humane ,association47 ,all medical students in ,america know that similar outrages are perpetrated in our medical colleges every winter4 ,i have witnessed vivisections ,,so ,,cruel ,,and ,,unnecessary ,,that ,i ,,am ,,ashamed ,,to ,,remember ,,that ,,they ,,were ,,under ,,the ,,patronage ,,of ,,my ,,alma ,,mater4 7,from sermon preached at ,portland1 ,oregon47 ,dr4 ,henry ,m4 ,field1 ,professor ,emerituss of ,therapeutics1 ,dartmouth ,medical ,school1 ,dartmouth ,college1 writes3 ,i well remember my experience as a student of medicine at the ,college of ,physicians and ,surgeons1 ,new ,york4444 ,i well remember the poor dogs1 brought out from their dungeon1 perhaps famished and tortured with thirst1 should the experiment require such condition2 their appealing eyes and trembling limbs1 ,i shall never forget4444 ,indeed1 ,,some ,,form ,,of ,,torture ,,and ,,atrocity ,,was ,,expected ,,at ,,every ,,lecture1 ,,and ,,sure ,,to ,,be ,,applauded4444 ,the student who found entertainment in the unnecessary torture of animals1 learned something besides physiology2 his humane nature was perverted4444 7,from letter to the ,vivisection ,reform ,society1 dated ,april #bh1 #aije47 ,,appendix ,,iv ,a ,,letter ,,of ,,dr4 ,,john ,,bascom1 ,,late ,,president ,,of ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,wisconsin4 ,to the ,editor of the ,springfield ,republican4 ,,sir1--,in the complexity of our many social problems1 it does not quite do to extemporize an opinion4 ,in a recent issue the ,republican came very near falling into this fault4 ,taking as its text a striking example of locating a clot of blood in the brain1 and referring the knowledge by which this was done to vivisection1 it spoke lightly of the limitation which many have sought to put upon this practise4 ,it is noot the assertion of the opponents of vivisection1 that itis always useless1 but that it has been carried much beyond the demands of any desirable and humane purpose4 ,even the example given is not so striking if we remember that it has long been known that each half of the body is governed not by the adjacent1 but by the opposite1 lobe of the brain4 ,considering the uncertainty1 and the costly nature1 of the knowledge gained by vivisection1 and the great abuse the practice has suffered1 its opponents demand that animals should not be subjected to this suffering except in view of some definite and important question to be answered2 that the pain involved in such an investigation should be reduced to its lowest possible terms2 that experiments once satisfactorily made should not be indefinitely repeated2 and that vivisection should not be left in the hands of every tyro acquiring the rudiments of knowledge4 ,these claims are almost as much a demand of accuracy in knowledge as of humanity in temper4 ,the pain involved in vivisection often creates such an abnormal state as to weaken or invalidate the conclusions drawn in connection with it4 ,the careless student may easily confirm1 as he thinks by observation1 opinions not well grounded4 ,vivisection has been objected to not theoretically or sentimentally simply1 but on account of the monstrous abuses that have been associated with it4 ,in ,europe men of distinguishing ability have seemed to revel in this form of inquiry and to have prosecuted it without the slightest reference to the cruel and revolting features associated with it4 ,they have made of it a school of ,nero in which brutality became a passion of the mind4 ,one of the most deadly sins of men has been cruelty1 cruelty to animals1 to children1 to women1 to men4 ,the basest of these forms is in some respects cruelty to animals1 since animals are so thoroughly committed into our hands4 ,it is not easy to devise a more hardening process than careless vivisection2 and the claim that it is done in the name of knowledge is1 unless it is profoundly and deeply true1 an aggravation of the offence4 ,inhumanity is the worst possible temper for the medical profession to entertain1 and the worst possible suspicion to attach to them4 ,if the physicians cannot approach all suffering with an intense desire to relieve it1 he is not true to his calling4 ,it is with more or less fear that the defenceless human subject is committed to them lest they should make of him an experiment4 ,,john ,,bascom4 ,williamstown1 ,december #ae1 #aijb4 ,,appendix ,v ,among ,american physicians1 probably the most distinguished medical writer of to-day is ,dr4 ,george ,m4 ,gould1 author of several medical works1 and formerly editor of various medical journals4 ,his opposition to antivivisection ideals has always been pronounced2 but it has not prevented recognition of the abuses of the unlimited practice of animal experimentation4 ,some extracts from an address delivered by ,dr4 ,gould before the ,american ,academy of ,medicine are here presented4 ,the reader should understand that they are extracts only1 and that they represent but one aspect of the speaker's views4 ,perhaps they are the more valuable in that they are the utterances of the most pronounced ,american critic of antivivisection of the present time4 ,,the ,,limitations ,,and ,,errors ,,of ,,the ,,vivisectionists ,the first that strikes one is an exaggeration of the importance and extent of the vivisection method4 ,as valuable an aid as it is1 it is not the only1 and perhaps it is not the chief1 method of ascertaining medical truth4 ,it has without doubt often been used when other methods would have been productive of more certain results4 ,this has arisen from what a large and broad culture of the human mind perceives to flow from a recent and rather silly hypertrophy of the scientific method1 and a limitation of that method to altogether too material or physical aspects of the problem4444 ,almost every point over which the controversy has raged most fiercely has been in relation to one or all of the three or four questions3 #a4 ,what is a vivisection experiment8 #b4 ,by whom should it be performed8 #c4 ,for what purpose should it be performed8 #d4 ,by what methods should it be carried out8 ,in reference to all of these questions1 scientific men should unite and establish a common set of principles or answers4 ,in my judgment their failure to do so at all1 and besides this1 their frequent exaggeration of logical limits and just calims1 has been one of the unfortunate causes of useless and wasteful wrangling44444 7#b7 ,i believe scientific men have made a grave mistake in opposing the limitations of vivisection 7not mortisection7 experimentation to those fitted by education and position to properly choose and properly execute such experimentations4 ,no harm can come1 and ,i believe much good would come1 from our perfect readiness to accede to1 nay1 to advocate1 the antivivisectionist desire to limit all experimentations to chartered institutions or to such private investigators as might be selected by a properly chosen authority4444 ,at present the greatest harm is done true science by men who conduct experiments without preliminary knowledge to choose1 without judgement to carry out1 withoutout true scientific training or method1 and only in the interest of vanity4 ,it takes a deal of true science and patience to neutralize with good and to wash out of the memory the sickening1 goading sense of shame that follows the knowledge that in the name of science a man could1 from a height of #be feet1 drops #abe dogs upon the nates 7the spine forming a perpendicular line to this point7 and for from forty-one to one hundred days observe the results until slow death ended the animals' misery4 ,while we have such things to answer for1 our withers are surely not unwrung1 and in the interests of science1 if not from other motives1 we have a right to decide who shall be privileged to do them4 ,i have adduced this single ,american experiment1 but purposely refrain from even mentioning the horrors of ,european laboratories4 ,this is not because ,i would avoid putting blame where it belongs1 but because such things are peculiarly prone to arouse violent language and passion1 clouding the intellect and making almost impossible a desirable judicial attitude of mind4 ,the ,teutonic race is to be congratulated that it is guilty of at least but few examples of the atrocities that have stained the history of ,latin vivisection1 and before which1 as before the records of ,roman conquest and slavery1 or of the ,holy ,inquisition1 one shudders at the possibilities of mental action in beings that bore the human form and feature4444 ,to jeer at and deride sentimentality while pretending to be working for the good of humanity is hypocritic and flagrant self- contradiction4 ,this attitude of mind on the part of a few men does more to arouse the indignation of opponents than any cruelty itself4 ,scientific men should root out of their ranks such poor representatives4 ,they are enemies in the scientific household4 ,dr4 ,klein1 a physiologist1 before the ,royal ,commission1 testified that he had no regard at all for the sufferings of the animals he used1 and never used anaesthetics1 except for didactic purposes1 unless necessary for his own convenience1 and that he had no time for thinking what the animal would feel or suffer4 ,it may be denied1 but ,i am certain a few ,american experimenters feel the same way1 and act in accordance with their feelings4 ,but they are not by any means the majority1 and they must not only be silenced1 but their useless and unscientific work should be stopped4 ,they are a disgrace both to science humanity4444 ,and this brings me to what ,i can but conceive as a grave and profound mistake on the part of the experimentalists--their secrecy4 ,a truly scientific man is necessarily a humane man1 and there will be nothing to conceal from the public gaze of anything that goes on in his laboratory4 ,it is a mistake to think our work cannot bear the criticism of such enlightened public sentiment as exists here and now2 if there is necessary secrecy1 there is wrong4 ,people generally are not such poor judges as all that4444 ,i would go even further4 ,every laboratory should publish an annual statement setting forth plainly the number and kind of experiments1 the objects aimed at1 and most definitely the methods of conducting them4 ,at present the public somewhat ludicrously but sincerely enough grossly exaggerates the amount and the character of this work1 and by our foolish secrecy we feed the flame of their passionate error4 ,as organized1 systematic1 and absolute frankness1 besides self-benefit1 would at once1 as it were1 take the wind out of our opponents' saiils4 ,do not let us have reform forced upon us from without in this contention1 but by going more than half-way to meet them1 by the sincerest publicity1 show that as wel as scientists and lovers of men we are also lovers of animals4 ,faith1 hope1 and love--these three4 ,to faith in knowledge1 to hope of lessening human evil1 we add love--love of men1 and of the beautiful living mechanisms of animal bodies placed in our care4 ,as it appears to me1 this most unfortunate controversy1 filled with bitterness1 misrepresentation1 and exaggeration1 is utterly unnecessary4 ,both of the sharp-divided1 hate-filled parties are at heat1 if they but knew it1 agreed upon essentials and furiously warring over non-essentials and errors4 ,i frankly confess that one side is about as much at fault as the other1 and that the whole wretched business is a sad commentary upon the poverty of common charity and good sense4444 ,,appendix ,,vi ,,the ,,regulation ,,of ,,experimentation ,,on ,,human ,,beings ,a ,bill for the regulation of the practice of experimentation upon human beings in the ,district of ,columbia and elsewhere has been drawn1 and will shortly be introduced in the ,senate of the ,united ,states4 ,an outline of the proposed ,bill is here given1 but in some respects it may be enlarged or modified before its final introduction4 ,it is believed that a law may be framed which shall prohibit only those acts which are contrary to justice1 and which should be forbidden by common consent4 --------------------------- ,a ,bill for the ,regulation of ,scientific ,experimentation upon ,human ,beings in the ,district of ,columbia and in the ,territories and ,dependencies of the ,united ,states4 ,be it enacted by the ,senate and ,house of ,representatives of the ,united ,states of ,america in ,congress assembled3 ,,section #a4 ,that hereafter no person shall make upon any human being any scientific1 medical or surgical experiment or operation1 ,,except ,,for ,,the ,,benefit ,,of ,,the ,,person ,,experimented ,,upon1 unless the intelligent1 personal consent of such latter person shall previously have been obtained4 ,every such consent1 to be valid1 must be in writing and must be preceded by a full and correct written statement setting forth to the person whose consent is sought whatever painful1 injurious or dangerous consequences are obviously liable to result from the proposed experimentation1 and such statement shall be signed both by the experimenter and the person to be experimented upon4 ,,section #b4 ,that experiments or operation of this nature shall be undertaken only by one of the responsible head-physicians or surgeons of some hospital or public instiution or by his special written authorization2 provided only that nothing herein contained shall apply to scientific investigations incapable of causing injury1 made by direction of authorities in charge of any institution of learning1 upon students1 with their consent1 for the purpose of testing acuteness of mental action1 or for the purpose of investigating other mental or physical phenomena4 ,,section #c4 ,that no scientific1 medical or surgical experiment of any kind1 liable to cause pain or distress or injury to health or danger to life1 shall be permissible under any circumstances upon any new-born babe1 or upon any infirm or aged or feeble-minded person1 or upon anyone whose mental faculties are impaired1 either temporarily or permanently1 or upon any woman during pregnancy or within a year after her confinement1 or upon any child under fifteen years of age1 unless it be undertaken for the sole benefit of the person to be experimented upon2 and the consent of any such person to any such experiment or operation shall not constitute such legal consent as is required by this act1 but shall be null and void4 ,,section #d4 ,that the responsible head of any hospital or public institution1 in which any experiment or operation of any kinds mentioned in ,section #a of this ,act shall have been made1 shall on or before the first day of ,february in each year make a written report1 attested by oath1 to the ,commissioners of the ,district of ,columbia of all such experiments and operations that shall have been made in such hospital or public institution during the calendar year next preceding1 which report shall contain copies of the statements and of the consents required by said ,section #a1 together with detailed accounts of such experiments and operations and the results thereof2 and such reports shall be printed annually4 ,,section #e4 ,that any person who authorizes1 performs or assists in performing an experiment or operation in violation of any provision of this ,act shall be liable1 upon conviction1 to a fine not exceeding one thousand dollars 7#a1jjj7 and shall thereafter be incapable of legally engaging in the practice of medicine in the ,district of ,columbia or in any territory under the jurisdiction of the ,united ,states1 and of holding any official position of any kind under the ,government of the ,united ,states ,,section #f4 ,that all sections of this ,act shall be applicable to the ,district of ,columbia and to all other territory under the jurisdiction or military control of the ,united ,states4 ,,appendix ,,vii ,,scientific ,,opinions ,a few years ago1 ,sir ,benjamin ,ward ,richardson1 ,m4,d41 a ,fellow of the ,royal ,society and a distinguished sanitarian1 was asked to express his opinion regarding experiments upon animals4 ,he was a member of the medical profession2 for some years he had been a lecturer on physiology in a medical school2 he had been a practical experimenter1 and his discoveries of new agents and methods for the prouction of anaesthesia had given him a high place in the scientific world4 ,his reply to a series of questions was embodied in a volume entitled3 ,biological ,experimentation2 its ,function and ,limits4 ,certain extracts from this work1--in some cases slightly abbreviated1--are here given4 ,they are of special value1 as the views of an eminent physician1 a scientific discoverer1 and a practical physiologist4 --------------------- ,if in creation there was no pain1 if no pain could be extorted except by a physiologist1 a physiologist inflicting pain1 even for the cure of disease would be an accepted criminal by the general voice of mankind4 ,but ,nature is a laboratory of pain on the most gigantic scale2 she stands at nothing in the way of infliction1 spares nothing that is sentient4 ,she inflicts pain for her own purposes1 and she keeps it going4444 ,if man inflicted such painful diseases as ,nature inflicts1 he would be a monster4 ,man rebels against these inflictions4 ,shall he add to pain by his rebellion8 --------------------- ,in ,science1 there is no one method that can be considered indispensable4 ,attributes are indispensable2 observation1 industry1 accuracy are indispensable2 methods are not4 ,methods may be convenient1 they may be useful1 they may be expedient1 but nothing more4 ,celsus tells us that ,erasistratus and the school he founded laid open the bodies of criminals in order to study by direct observation1 the action of the intestinal organs during existence4 ,the act at that date of civilization probably shocked no one2 it was no doubt in accord with the spirit of the time4 ,in a day not very remote from our own1 a criminal sentenced to death for some trivial crime1 was given over to ,william ,cheselden1 surgeon to ,george the ,first1 for experiment4 ,the criminal was deaf and the experiment intended was that of making a puncture through the drum of the ear1 in order to discover if an opening through the drum would enable the deaf to hear4 ,at the last moment1 ,cheselden1 a man of fine feeling1 and brilliant as an operating surgeon1 declined the experiment1 on which the criminal1 whose life had been conditionally spared1 was set free4 ,for his generosity of mind1 for shrinking from an experiment on another human being1 ,cheselden lost caste at ,court1 and was considered pitiable by those who lived on courtly favours4 ,the argument is taking now the same direction against experiments by man conducted on the lower animals for the purposes of discovery2 and when from the history of the past we gather what has been achieved by such experiments1 there is but one answer--namely3 that such experiments1 although they may achieve what was expected of them1 were not indispensable4 ,they may have expedited discovery2 they may have led to discovery2 but they were not indispensable4 --------------------- ,in the discovery of anaesthesia1 general and local1 painful experiment on animals has played no indispensable part whatever4 ,the lower animals have been permitted to share1 more than equally with man1 in the blessing of anaesthetic discovery1 for by it1 many of them have been saved the agonies of painful death1 but they have 7not7 been subjected to painful experiment in the course of discovery4444 ,the instauration of general anaesthesia came from experiments made on man alone4 ,there is no suspicion of any experiment on a lower animal in connection with it4444 ,on the contrary1 there is a most notable fact in relation to experiments under chloroform made on lower animals1 which suggests that if they had ever been relied on1--chloroform would never have been introduced into practice4 ,flourens1 the eminent ,french physiologist1 tried the effect of chloroform on inferior animals1 and in consequence of its powerful and fatal influence on them1 put it aside as an anaesthetic4 --------------------- ,there are methods of producing local insensibility to pain which have been tried1 and which deserve notice4 ,in #ahfb1 ,i made an attempt to carry out local anaesthesia by exhaustion of blood from a part4 ,i noticed that when three round cupping-glasses were applied to the body very close to each other1 the clear triangular space left free within the rim of the mouths of the glasses was rendered white1 brawny-like and insensible1 when the suction of the glasses was complete4 ,this was obviously due to the local abstraction of blood from the part2 and ,i thought1 consequently1 that if ,i could exhaust the blood from the extremity of a limb1 the exhausted part might be operated upon without pain4444 ,i tried the process on myself1 and finding it succeed1 the operation of removing the nail of the greta toe1 was tried on a patient1 quite painlessly1 the patient looking on and feeling nothing4 ,but the proceeding was too long and cumbersome to admit of introduction into practice generally1 though it indicated an important principle which may in some future day be utilized4 ,in this research1 no experiment on a lower animal was resorted to2 ,i was myself the victim in all preliminary experiments4 --------------------- ,the most numerous and extensive efforts for local anaesthesia have been those in which extreme cold has been employed to produce the benumbing effect4 ,the earliest applications of cold originated between two and three hundred years ago in the fencing schools of ,naples4 ,a ,neapolitan professor of training placed crushed ice in a flash of thin glass1 and then applied the chilled glass to the skin1 and held it there until the skin was frozen1 in order that the cautery could be employed1 or other small operations performed without the infliction of pain4 ,the proceeding must have been most successful1 and why it became lost is one of the mysteries of scientific research4 ,it did remain lost until our own time4444 ,i invented for the same purpose the ether spray process1 in which a benumbing cold was produced by projecting a volatile liquid like ether or amylene1 or a stream of compressed gas 444 on the part to be anaesthetized4 ,these methods have been so widely adopted that ,i need not enter into any description of them4 ,i have merely to say that they were made without any aid of experiments of a painful kind on the lower animals4444 ,the earliest experiment with ether spray was made on my own arm4 --------------------- ,it is fortunate for me that ,i have been an eye-witness of the progress made in this department from its practical instauration4 ,i recall the days when operations were performed without the aid either of general or local methods for abolishing pain4 ,i have myself introduced new methods of anaesthesia1 generally and locally2 ,i have brought to trial a large number of new anaesthetics4 ,by the invention of the lethal chamber ,i have had the delightful privilege of removing the taste and pain of death from probably a million of those friends of man1 the faithful dogs4 ,i write this not boastfully but truthfully4444 ,painful experiments have played no indispensible part in the discovery of anaesthesia4 --------------------- ,it is a curious fact that every method of research which is most enduring1 most intellectual and most free from moral evil is farthest away from any and every thing that shocks the conscience or raises a doubt as to necessity1 in sensitive minds4 ,if mathematics had to be cultivated through experiments on living animals1 it would never have succeeded in unfolding the magnificent mysteries of the universe4 ,the same applies to the work of the science of chemistry1 of botany1 and of physics generally4 ,in my opinion1 every man who studies natural things by experiments on living subjects of any species1 feels the truth of what ,i am saying4 ,i know in my own case1 that my mind during such experiments has always been in a different state according to the line of experiment4 ,when the experiment has been conducted on dead or inanimate matter1 the return obtained from the labour demanded has always been not only satisfacdtory1 but pleasant to the mind4 ,on the contrary1 when the experiment has been conducted on living or animate matter1 the labour1 whether affirmative or negative in its results has never1 at any point of it been pleasant4 ,the results may1 and often have excited curiousity2 they may have been important1 and they may have opened the way to new inquiry1 but they have never been free of anxiety nor of a sense that whatever came from them1 ,,there ,,was ,,something ,,that ,,was ,,not ,,right4 ,i do not believe ,i am more sentimental than any of my colleagues2 yet ,i never proceeded to any experiment on a living animal1 though to the best of my ability doing everything possible to save all pain1 without feeling--what ,i think is the proper expression1--,,compunction4 --------------------- ,in the hands of the teacher1 it 7vivisection7 may be rankly abused2 of scientific pursuits1 it is the one most liable to error2 it suggests no end to itself1 but seems to grow by what it feeds on1 becoming by repetition and contest more and more extended and multiplied2 it is of all pursuits the most disliked by the educated community2 it brings its best and most self-sacrificing professors into scorn2 and for all such reasons1 even if it be occasionally useful1 is calculated to lead to what would be esignated intellectual and moral evil4 ,at the same time1 let it be understood that ,i do not include in the criticisms experiments which being devoid of pain1 may cause the death even for the service of man4 ,above all1 ,i could not for a moment object to experiment by a truly competent man for the purpose of inquiry into some great theory that has been leisurely formed1 and can be proved or disproved by no other means1 as for example1 whether an important surgical operation can or cannot be performed for the saving of human suffering or human life4 --------------------- ,there are some simple and painless experiments which may be demonstrated to any set of pupils1 although living animals are the subjects of them4 ,the demonstration of the circulation through the web of the frog2 the demonstration of the different natural temperatures of the bodies of animals1 including man2 the influence of various anaesthetic vapours2 the collection of the breath of various animals for the purpose of analysis1--these are all free from objection4444 ,in a word1 all experiments which are painless and harmless1 are1 as ,i assume the most humane would admit1 free from any charge of error4 ,but when we come to consider the application of experiment of a severe kind as a means of education of pupils who are making a study of physiological problems1 there is a reason for hesitation4 ,in my student days1 such an experiment was never dreamed of4 ,the professor of physiology would relate the facts derived from experiment1 on which some important theories were founded2 he would1 for instance1 explain what experiments were made by ,harvey in order to describe the circulation of the blood1 but he would not attempt to repeat those experiments in the lecture-room4 ,he would describe1 in his remarks on the functions of the nervous system1 the researches of ,sir ,charles ,bell1 444 but he would never think of repeating ,bell's experiment of division of the nerves in the column1 alleging forcibly ,bell's own objection to its repetition4 ,it was the same on every point4 ,he would relate the theory2 relate the pros and cons2 relate possibly his own independent inquiries1 or what he had seen experimentally performed by other independent investigators2 but with that explanation1 he would be content4 --------------------- ,when ,i was teaching physiology as ,i did teach it in a medical school for many years1 ,i abstained for a long period from the direct experimental method4 ,i found no difficulty1 and my classes worked satisfactorily4 ,the students had the credit of becoming good physiologists1 and ,i am sure there was nothing shirked4 ,in the latter part of my time1 ,i followed occasionally the plan of making a few experiments in the way of demonstration2 and although these were rendered painless1 the innovation was not the success that was expected4444 ,intellectually1 ,i do not think my classes were assisted1 in the main1 by the experimental demonstration4 ,i am sure it limited my sphere of usefulness1 by leading me1 in the limited time at my command1 to omit some parts of physiology of a simpler1 less controversial1 and more useful kind4 ,i am bound to say that1 morally1 ,i do not recall the effect as producing all that could be wished4444 ,i gave up experiments in my classes1 not from any sentiment1 but ,,because ,i ,,got ,,on ,,better ,,without ,,them4 ,i did not omit the facts derived from experiment1 ,i did not omit the report of my own experimental endeavours2 but ,i omitted repeating1 for the mere sake of demonstrating1 what seemed to have been proved4444 ,were ,i again to deliver a course of physiological lectures to qualified hearers1 ,i should make the experimental demonstrations on living animals as few and far between as was compatible with duty4 ,they would be exceptional of exceptional1 and painless from beginning to end4 --------------------- ,i recommend1 as the best method of obtaining the great aims of medicine1--sanitation and the prevention of disease1--first1 to make medicine the grand master and teacher of universal cleanliness1 and to make everyone of the community a disciple and follower of the same law4 ,the minister of medical art should be prepared to devote his life to this simple duty4 ,he needs no higher calling1 no nobler vocation1 and a world that knew its own interests should sustain him in the task4 ,at present1 the rage is for experimentation1 although it seems least wanted1 for which rage ,,the ,,selfish ,,and ,,ignorant ,,world ,,is ,,most ,,to ,,be ,,blamed4 ,the world now1 as in the days of ,naaman the leper1 wants to be healed and protected by elaborate processes1 when th esimplest and surest remedy is in its own hands4 ,from a long experience as a teacher of physiology and of public health1 ,i am convinced that a school or university of preventive medicine would fill an important want4 ,it would tend to make every man and woman a sanitarian1 and would help to bring the principles of health into every home4 ,it would be of direct and practical utility2 it would instil an exalted comprehension of natural laws1 of the advantages of following those laws1 and of the danger and folly of setting them at ignorant defiance4444 ,the end would be the accomplishment of the great aim1 the development of the health of the people2 the art of preventive medicine without inflicting pain on any living thing4 ,,appendix ,,viii ,since the preceding pages were in type1 the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture has adopted new regulations governing the inspection of meat4 ,the rules ordered to be applicable to meat derived from animals affected by cancer or malignant disease1 are as follows 7italics not in original73 ,regulation ,,ii4 ,disposal of ,diseased ,carcasses1 etc4 ,,section #g4--;,,any ,,individual ,,organ ,,or ,,part ,,of ,a ,,carcass ,,affected ,,with ,,carcinoma ,,or ,,sarcoma shall be condemned4 ,in case the carcinoma or sarcoma involves any internal organ ,,to ,a ,,marked ,,extent1 or affects the muscles1 skeleton1 or body lymph glands even primarily1 the carcass shall be condemned4 ,in case of metastasis to any other organ or part of a carcass1 or if metastasis has not occurred1 but there are present secondary changes in the muscles 444 the carcass shall be condemned4 ,,section #i4--;,all slight1 well-limited abrasions on the tongue and inner surface of the lips and mouth1 when without lymph-gland involvement1 ,,shall ,,be ,,carefully ,,excised1 leaving only sound1 normal tissue ,,which ,,may ,,be ,,passed4 ,,any ,,organ ,,or ,,part of a carcass which 444 is affected by a ,,tumour1 an abscess1 or a suppurating sore shall be condemned2 and when the lesions are of such character or extent as to affect the whole carcass1 the whole carcass shall be condemned4 ,it will be seen that the criticism suggested 7pp4 #bfi-bgj7 concerning the regulations in force for many years past is not annulled or obviated by the new rules4 ,that which formerly was vague is now more clearly and distinctly set forth4 ,the new regulation most carefully condemns for food purposes ,,any ,,individual ,,organ ,,or ,,part of a carcass affected with carcinoma or sarcoma 7cancer71 and such condemnation applies to the carcass1 if the malignant disease has involved other parts to a marked extent4 ,the fact that an animal is suffering from cancer does not of itself compel its rejection for human food4 ,the entire rule would seem to have been drawn so as to permit meat affected by cancer to pass inspection as sound1 healthful1 wholesome1 and fit for human food1 provided the inspector in charge can declare that in his judgment the malignant disease had not affected the meat to a marked extent4 ,in view of the mystery that still surrounds the causation of cancer1 this regulation of the ,department of ,agriculture should be entirely changed4 ,its basis is regard for financial considerations rather than the public welfare4 ,no part or portion of any animal found to be affected by malignant disease should ever be permitted to be sold for human food4 ,the regulation should read3 ,section #g4--;,any animal or carcass of any animal found upon inspection to be affected1 however slightly1 with malignant disease 7carcinoma or sarcoma7 shall be wholly condemned as unfit for human food4 ,,appendix ,,ix ,england and ,wales3 ,deaths of ,females from ,cancer at ,different ,age-,periods1 and the ,ratio to ,population1 during ,twelve ,years of this ,century4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,year4,under #ce4ce-dd4de-fd4fe and,total4,rate per ,million over4 ,population ---------------------------------------- -------------- #aija #fie #a1haa #h1bfc #e1hbgaf1eif #ihe #aijb #gja #a1hgb #h1bbi #e1igbaf1ggd #ihf #aijc #gjb #a1hif #h1dij #f1bjbag1bij #a1jjf #aijd #gjc #a1icd #h1eaa #f1ddhag1eif #a1jaj #aije #gai #a1ijd #h1fhc #f1ddeag1gea #a1jaa #aijf #gdj #a1iba #h1ide #f1hjeah1daa #a1jch #aijg #gca #a1ief #h1hda #g1jahah1edf #a1jce #aijh #feh #a1idc #i1jbf #g1ahiah1haf #a1jcf #aiji #gja #a1ieb #i1dff #g1fgaai1gij #a1jhb #aiaj #ghj #b1jcj #i1cgf #g1eghai1gfd #a1jgj #aiaa #gcj #b1jhj #i1dhe #h1jahbj1cac #a1jhh #aiab #fie #b1jji #i1ibf #h1ejeba1ace #a1aag ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,the foregoing table strikingly illustrates the increasing prevalence of cancer in ,england during the present century4 ,among women it will be seen that the rate of mortality has increased from #ihe to #a1aag per million living within almost a single decade4 ,the slow and yet regular recurrence year after year of a slightly increased mortality from cancer at each period of life after the thirty-fifth year is peculiarly ominous4 ,the connection between increase of cancer and the permitted utilization for food purposes of animals suffering from cancerous ailments is a problem that awaits solution4 ,,appendix ,x ,in the spring of #aiae1 the ,society for the ,prevention of ,abuse in ,animal ,experimentation decided to ascertain whether certain of the principal facts connected with vivisection would be freely given if courteously asked4 ,accordingly1 to the directors of laboratories in over a hundred institutions of higher learning in ,america1 the following letter was sent by ,mr4 ,f4 ,p4 ,bellamy1 the counsel for the ,society3 ,brooklyn1 ,n4,y4 ,,dear ,,sir1--,one of the criticisms urged against the practice of animal experimentation in ,america at the present time is the laack of any reliable information concerning its extent4 ,believing that the remedy of this defect lies within the power of the laboratories1 ,i venture to ask whether you would be willing to fill out the accompanying blank form1 returning it to me as soon as practicable8 ,if so1 ,i should be glad if you would state whether the figures are based upon a register giving exact numbers or whether they are simply the best estimate you are able to give4 ,if impossible to supply the details asked1 can you not give the total number of each species of animals8 ,i may add that this ,society is not opposed to vivisection when the practice is properly safeguarded against any cruelty4 ,i enclose an addressed and stamped envelope for your reply2 and thanking you for whatever information you can afford1 ,i am1 ,yours faithfully1 ,,frederick ,p4 ,,bellamy4 ,a few details concerning the result of this experimental inquiry may be of interest4 ,the ,department of ,physiology of the ,university of ,minnesota reported that the material used for the demonstration of physiological and pathological phenomena before students consisted of #hh dogs1 #gd cats1 and #dbj other animals1 making a total of #ehb for the year #aiad4 ,the ,department of ,pathology and ,bacteriology of the ,medico-,chirurgical ,college of ,philadelphia reported using about #abd rabbits and guinea- pigs1 chiefly for research purposes4 ,no report1 however1 was received from the ,department of ,physiology4 ,the ,north-,western ,university ,medical ,school of ,chicago sent a courteous reply1 stating that it would be hardly possible to make any report as to the number of animals used in experimental work in our laboratories4 ,research work was carried on in at least four laboratories of the ,medical ,school1 and in the work dogs1 rabbits1 and guinea-pigs particularly are used4444 ,as the work of research varies materially from time to time in the several laboratories1 we have no way of making even an approximate estimate which would be of value of the number of animals used4 ,probably this is the case with most other large laboratories in this country4 ,the ,eclectic ,medical ,university reported the use of but six small animals in its research work4 ,the director says3 ,our laboratories lead the world in cancer research1 yet we have never used an animal for this purpose4 ,we are the second laboratory in the world in research of pellagra1 and have used only four animals4444 ,we have achieved the above results because we believe in clinical and not in experimental research4 ,from some thirteen institutions1 chiefly belonging to the ,south or ,west1 vague or imperfect reports were received4 ,some of them disclaimed the use of living animals in teacher1 or the use of animals higher in the scale than turtles or frogs4 ,two institutions refused to give any information whatever4 ,an official connected with ,rush ,medical ,college of ,chicago wrote3 ,the statement that your society is not opposed to vivisection may deceive the uninitiated4 ,either vivisection is a good thing and hence should not be interfered with1 or it is a nefarious business and should be stopped4444 ,you and your society are either honestly misinformed1 suffer from delusions1 or are lying bigots4 ,in my opinion1 mainly the latter4 ,you are my enemy1 and the enemy of every man of intelligence interested in the well fare 7sic7 of mankind and animals4 ,i will give no information to wilfull 7sic7 falsifiers1 the insane1 or those too lazy or stupid to inform themselves of facts4 ,some further study of a primary spelling-book might be recommended to this representative of an institution of learning4 ,the institutions making no reply of any kind numbered eighty-eight1 or about #hc per cent4 of those addressed4 ,the inquiry resulted in confirming previous impressions4 ,it was not believed that information concerning the number of animals used would be generally given4 ,the experiment of courteous inquiry1 however1 was deemed worthy of a trial4 ,the result would seem to demonstrate that even the simplest facts concerning the practice of animal experimentation in the ,united ,states cannot be obtained except through inquiry instituted by the authority of the ,state4 ,,an ,,ethical ,,problem ,,or ,,sidelights ,,upon ,,scientific ,,experimentation ,,upon ,,man ,,and ,,animals --------------- ,,press ,,notices ,dr4 ,leffingwell has probably done more than any other one man for the education of the public to a right attitude on the vivisection question4--,dallas ,news4 ,the author has studied this question for forty years4 ,he shows by the material gathered in this volume and the interesting conclusions reached1 the careful consideration of long years of study4--,detroit ,news ,tribune4 ,the author's moderation in discussing this burning question will appeal to a much wider circle of scientific readers than a policy that demands complete annihilation of all animal experimentation4--,the ,open ,door1 ,new ,york4 ,the volume deals with vivisection1 and the author holds that it is to preventive medicine that the world must learn to look1 not to the conquest of disease by new drugs or new serums4444 ,he enters deeply into the question1 and shows the result of long and careful research work4--,norwich ,bulletin ,in an elaborate discussion of the vexed question of vivisection1 ,dr4 ,leffingwell tries to take a mediating position4 ,he is strong in showing that there has been a vast amount of needless and useless suffering to animals caused by vivisection4444 ,some of his quotations are amazing in showing the indifference and even cold-blooded cruelty of some surgeons4--,new ,york ,watchman4 ,one of the most thorough books on vivisection yet published is by ,dr4 ,albert ,leffingwell1 entitled ,an ,ethical ,problem4' ,it is not the book of an extremist or a crank4 ,dr4 ,leffingwell admits the necessity of vivisection in certain circumstances and for certain purposes4 ,his endeavour is not so much to get rid of vivisection as to prove that the problem connected with it is an ethical one2 that the practice should be regulated and guided by public authority4 ,his book is thorough1 ingenious1 and1 for the most part1 very temperate in expression4--,the ,new ,york ,evening ,mail4 ,readers of ,dr4 ,leffingwell's earlier books will expect to find this one written in the same quiet tone1 with the same care and accuracy1 and they will not be disappointed4 ,the book begins with a history of vivisection in which the reader's chief suprise will be in finding that medical opinion a generation ago was much more humane than now4 ,the humane protests of the last generation seem incredible to-day1 when the profession almost to a man stands for the secvret and unlimited exploitation of animals4--,s4 ,n4 ,cleghorn1 in ,journal of ,zoophily4 ,this book is devoted to a study and discussion of medical experimentation upon both man and animals4 ,the writer is forced in his literary style1 and has long commanded special attention on this particular subject4 ,in a skilful and scholarly manner he treats of the historical development of the agitation in favour of restricted and regulated experimentation4 ,the book should be read by every person interested in the discussion1 whether in favour of restriction or not4444 ,all who desire to be placed in touch with the latest word in regard to this important humanitarian question should secure a copy of ,dr4 ,leffingwell's scholarly book4--,national ,humane ,review4 ,dr4 ,leffingwell analyzes the results of vivisection in ,america in a masterly way4 ,many methods of experimentation he finds not only extremely cruel1 but valueless4 ,for instance1 the raising of the blood-pressure of a dog by scorching its paws1 one after the other1 so that the blood-pressure might be maintained for twenty minutes4 ,of what possible value was such an experiment8' he asks4 ,does anyone believe than in a human being1 blood-pressure will ever be maintained by slowly scorching the hands and feet of the patient8' 444 ,the matter is clearly presented1 and is interesting to the layman as well as to the student of physiology4--,hartford ,post4 ,the ethical problem of which ,dr4 ,leffingwell writes in his interesting and instructive book1 is that which arises from the prevailing practice of experimentation for scientific purposes upon animals and human beings4444 ,the book discusses what vivisection is1 and what have been the mistakes and abuses done in its name1 as well as the present unhappy conditions which surround the practice4 ,the author demonstrates that much of all this vivisection work is not only unnecessary1 but absolutely valueless to science4 ,the book is to be commended to all who would know something of what vivisection is1 what it does1 and what is being done and should still be done to prevent its present useless cruelty4--,the ,christian ,register4 ,perhaps no other man in ,america has so good a right to speak on vivisection1 from the standpoint of an expert1 as ,dr4 ,leffingwell4 ,to our mind1 he has here gathered in a forceful way the last sane word to be said on this sensitive question4 ,in these nineteen chapters he has discussed almost every phase of the problem4 ,dr4 ,leffingwell has occupied a difficult position1 standing as he does midway between the contending parties4444 ,he discovers the law of cruelty1 and applies it mercilessly4 ,he also discovers the law of sacrifice1 and would apply it humanely4 ,in short1 this book may well be taken as an encyclopaedia on vivisection1 looked at from the standpoint of the moralist and the physician4 ,there are illminating appendices giving technical information1 and the chapters are characterized by vigorous ,england1 and a lively sense of a physician's obligations4 --,chicago ,unity ,if nothing else in the book were to be remembered1 it would be valuable that all earnest people should consider the careful analysis of the various positions which have been taken in regard to this position1 and the critical definition with which ,dr4 ,leffingwell has striven to replace the varied and unsatisfactory definitions which have been given for the term vivisection4' 444 ,the stand taken by ,dr4 ,leffingwell represents the best-founded position of those interested in protecting animals from needless pain4 ,he contends that vivisection should be restricted rather than abolished4 ,there should be no effort made to prevent those experiments which involve no suffering for animals1 and all animal experimentation should be brought under the direct supervision and control of the ,state4 ,the practice1 whether in public or private1 should be restricted by law to certain definite objects1 and surrounded by every possible safeguard against license and abuse4' ,that this is not an aim impossible of attainment has been attested by so famous a scientist as ,herbert ,spencer1 and by a large number of prominent ,american and ,english physicians and scientists4--,boston ,transcript4 ,it is greatly to be regretted that the general public is not more intelligent on the subject of vivisection4 ,it is charged that to-day1 in ,american physiological laboratories and in medical schools as well1 helpless animals are subjected to torture4444 ,the testimony to this seems irrefutable2 and one is more disposed to give it credence when he knows of the atrocities that have been perpetrated in other countries1 and learns that the practice of vivisection is unregulated here4444 ,it is fortunate that there is available such a book as that just issued by ,dr4 ,albert ,leffingwell1 a veteran advocate of legal regulation1 not prohibition1 of vivisection4 ,persons who would be conversant with a question that ought to receive much more general consideration than it does should read ,an ,ethical ,problem4' ,one of the most shocking facts with respect to unlimited vivisection--and that is the kind we have in this country--is that man's two most intelligent dumb friends1 the dog and the horse1 have been subjected to countless hours of inexpressible agony1 and often not for the sake of investigation1 but simply that students might become proficient in operating on living flesh1 or witness the cruel demonstration of physiological facts already well establish4444 ,the material presented in the book quoted makes the reader feel that in some respects scientific men have retrograded till they stand about on a level with the ,iroquois ,indian of two centuries ago4 --,rochester ,democrat and ,chronicle4 ,the volume is exceedingly precise and well written1 fortifying itself with abundant particulars4 ,it touches the hideous cruelties and devilish atrocities which are done upon various animals1 and behind well-closed doors4 ,one reads it with intense pain and a disgust which combines nausea with indignation toward the ruthless experimenters who1 disclaiming the hindering use of anaesthetics1 exhibit all the phenomena of nervous torment4 ,monsters of research would sneer aside all critics of such infernal physiological' laboratories4444 ,the book is a protest against the careful and subterranean silence and concealment which seem to conspire to resist all legal inspection4 ,to evade or baulk investigation while causing pain in order to exploit it1 to jeer at the humane shudder of the layman1 to utilize feeble-minded paupers and friendless young children1 to sophisticate a too credulous public with an austere formula as to the sacred secrecy of the laboratory--all this is an attempted ,,hypnosis of critics who really want to be fair1 but who as citizens insists upon the right to know what is doing4 ,the title of the book--,an ,ethical ,problem'--is indeed justified by its array of evidence and argument4 ,particularly is it shown that on this question ,america is still in the dark ages4 ,reform demands a frank exactitude as to the practices which1 if ,dr4 ,leffingwell is substantially accurate1 are a disgrace to humanity4 ,state control cannot always be avoided by ridiculing the sentimentality' of those who insist upon strict regulation4 ,painless vivisection for investigation may have its legitimate place2 but to illustrate what is already well ascertained by exhibiting animals in agony is both superfluous and debasing1 repellant to every mind not seared by a morbid curiousity4--,hamilton ,college ,record ,an ,ethical ,problem1' by ,albert ,leffingwell1 ,m4,d41 is by far the most judicial and unimpassioned contribution to the study of the question that it has been our privilege to read4 ,dr4 ,leffingwell has long been known both in this country and ,europe1 as a writer upon this theme4 ,no one1 so far as we know1 has brought to it at once so calm and balanced a judgment as he1 or a more exact knowledge of the whole field in which biological investigation plays so large a part4 ,this latest publication from his pen is the result of years of study1 of unremitting toil in the great libraries of this country and abroad where every facility was at hand to obtain data and to verify facts4 ,it is a book written without bitterness 444 which seeks to carry conviction1 not by the force of unverified quotations1 or the repetitions of utterances often made in the heat of controversy1 but by arguments based upon demonstrable fact1 and supported by authorities to which you are referred1 chapter and verse4444 ,the time must come when physiologists as a body--as ,professor ,james declares they should have done long ere this--will meet public opinion half-way1 and admitting that the situation is a genuinely ethical one 444 give up the preposterous claim that every scientist has an unlimited right to vivisect1 for the amount or mode of which no man1 not even a colleague1 can call him to account4' ,when that time comes1 and we believe it is not far distant1 some legal regulation of animal experimentation will be had4 ,for this end1 the book we have reviewed has been written2 and when at last such regulation is attained1 none will have a larger share in the gratitude of all who will rejoice in it1 than the author whose notable book we have been considering4 --,dr4 ,f4 ,h4 ,rowley1 in ,our ,dumb ,animals4 --------------------- ,dr4 ,leffingwell's ,ethical ,problem' is vivisection1 ,,to ,,which ,,he ,,is ,,implacably ,,opposed1 and which he describes as antivivisectionists generally do4--,the ,syracuse ,post-,standard4 ,probably the best-considered treatise on the subject now in print4 ,the author does not take the position that experimentation upon animals is always wrong4 ,he maintains1 however1 in the most convincing way1 that such experiments should be permitted only by genuine scientists4444 ,anyone interested in this vital question will find much that is stimulating1 suggestive1 and convincing in ,dr4 ,leffingwell's book4--,universalist ,leader4