file which includes the original        
illustrations4       ,see #bjbbj-;h4htm 
or #bjbbj-;h4zip3                       
7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#b_/
j_/b_/b_/bjbbj_/bjbbj-;h_/#bjbbj-;h4htm7
       or                               
7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#b_/
j_/b_/b_/bjbbj_/bjbbj-;h4zip7      ,,the
 ,,mind ,,and ,,its ,,education  by     
,,george ,,herbert ,,betts1 ,ph4,d4     
,professor of ,psychology in ,cornell   
,college  ,revised and ,enlarged        
,edition        ,new ,york ,d4 ,appleton
 ,and ,company ,copyright1 #aijf1 #aiaf1
 by ,d4 ,appleton and ,company ,printed 
in the ,united ,states of ,america      
,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,revised ,,edition
   ,authors1 no doubt1 are always       
gratified when their works find         
favorable acceptance4 ,the writer of    
this text has been doubly gratified1    
however1 at the cordial reception and   
widespread use accorded to the present  
volume4 ,this feeling does not arise    
from any narrow personal pride or       

selfish interest1 but rather from the   
fact that the warm approval of the      
educational public has proved an        
important point2 namely1 that the       
fundamental truths of psychology1 when  
put simply and concretely1 can be made  
of interest and value to students of all
 ages from high school juniors up1 and  
to the general public as well4 ,more    
encouraging still1 it has been          
demonstrated that the teachings of      
psychology can become immediately       
helpful1 not only in study or teaching1 
but also in business or profession1 in  
the control and guidance of the personal
 life1 and in the problems met in the   
routine of the day's work or its play4  
,in effecting the present revision1 the 
salient features of the original edition
 have been kept4 ,the truths presented  
are the most fundamental and important  
in the field of psychology4 ,disputed   
theories and unsettled opinions are     
excluded4 ,the subject matter is made   
concrete and practical by the use of    

many illustrations and through          
application to real problems4 ,the style
 has been kept easy and familiar to     
facilitate the reading4 ,in short1 there
 has been1 while seeking to improve the 
volume1 a conscious purpose to omit none
 of the characteristics which secured   
acceptance for the former edition4  ,on 
the other hand1 certain changes and     
additions have been made which1 it is   
believed1 will add to the strength of   
the work4 ,first of all1 the later      
psychological studies and investigations
 have been drawn upon to insure that the
 matter shall at all points be abreast  
of the times in scientific accuracy4    
,because of the wide use of the text in 
the training of teachers1 a more        
specific educational application to     
schoolroom problems has been made in    
various chapters4 ,exercises for the    
guidance of observation work and        
personal introspection are freely used4 
,the chapter on ,sensation and          
,perception has been separated into two 

chapters1 and each subject given more   
extensive treatment4 ,a new chapter has 
been added on ,association4 ,the various
 chapters have been subdivided into     
numbered sections1 and cut-in paragraph 
topics have been used to facilitate the 
study and teaching of the text4 ,minor  
changes and additions occur throughout  
the volume1 thus adding some forty pages
 to the number in the original edition4 
,many of the modifications made in the  
revision are due to valuable suggestions
 and kindly criticisms received from    
many teachers of the text in various    
types of schools4 ,to all who have thus 
helped so generously by freely giving   
the author the fruits of their judgment 
and experience he gladly renders        
grateful thanks4  ,,cornell ,,college1  
,,iowa4       ,,contents   ,,chapter ,i 
,,the ,,mind1 ,,or ,,consciousness      
,,page  #a4 ,how the mind is to be      
known3 ,personal character of           
consciousness--,introspection the only  
means of discovering nature of          

consciousness--,how we                  
introspect--,studying mental states of  
others through expression--,learning to 
interpret expression4 #b4 ,the nature of
 consciousness3 ,inner nature of the    
mind not revealed by introspection      
--,consciousness as a process or        
stream--,consciousness likened to a     
field--,the piling up of consciousness  
is attention4 #c4 ,content of the mental
 stream3 ,why we need minds--,content of
 consciousness determined by            
function--,three fundamental phases of  
consciousness4 #d4 ,where consciousness 
resides3 ,consciousness works through   
the nervous system4 #e4 ,problems in    
observation and introspection 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 #a   ,,chapter ,,ii           
,,attention  #a4 ,nature of attention3  
,the nature of attention--,normal       
consciousness always in a state of      
attention4 #b4 ,the effects of          
attention3 ,attention makes its object  
clear and definite--,attention measures 
mental efficiency4 #c4 ,how we attend3  

,attention a relating activity--,the    
rhythms of attention4 #d4 ,points of    
failure in attention3 ,lack of          
concentration--,mental wandering4 #e4   
,types of attention3 ,the three types of
 attention--,interest and nonvoluntary  
attention--,the will and voluntary      
attention--,not really different kinds  
of attention--,making different kinds of
 attention reenforce each other--,the   
habit of attention 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 #ae   ,,chapter ,,iii  ,,the ,,brain   
,,and ,,nervous ,,system  #a4 ,the      
relations of mind and brain3            
,interaction of mind and brain--,the    
brain as the mind's machine4 #b4 ,the   
mind's dependence on the external world3
 ,the mind at birth--,the work of the   
senses4 #c4 ,structural elements of the 
nervous system3 ,the neurone--,neurone  
fibers--,neuroglia--,complexity of the  
brain--,gray and white matter4 #d4      
,gross structure of the nervous system3 
,divisions of the nervous system--,the  

central system--,the cerebellum--,the   
cerebrum--,the cortex--,the spinal cord4
 #e4 ,localization of function in the   
nervous system3 ,division of            
labor--,division of labor in the cortex4
 #f4 ,forms of sensory stimuli3 ,the    
end-organs and their response to        
stimuli--,dependence of the mind on the 
senses 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #cj    
,,chapter ,,iv  ,,mental ,,development  
,,and ,,motor ,,training  #a4 ,factors  
determining the efficiency of the       
nervous system3 ,development and        
nutrition--,undeveloped                 
cells--,development of nerve fibers4 #b4
 ,development of nervous system through 
use3 ,importance of stimulus and        
response--,effect of sensory            
stimuli--,necessity for motor           
activity--,development of the           
association centers--,the factors       
involved in a simple action4 #c4        
,education and the training of the      
nervous system3 ,education to supply    
opportunities for stimulus and          

response--,order of development in the  
nervous system4 #d4 ,importance of      
health and vigor of the nervous system3 
,the influence of fatigue--,the effects 
of worry--,the factors in good          
nutrition4 #e4 ,problems for            
introspection and observation 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ej     
,,chapter ,v  ,,habit  #a4 ,the nature  
of habit3 ,the physical basis of        
habit--,all living tissue               
plastic--,habit a modification of brain 
tissue--,we must form habits4 #b4 ,the  
place of habit in the economy of our    
lives3 ,habit increases skill and       
efficiency--,habit saves effort and     
fatigue--,habit economizes moral        
effort--,the habit of attention--,habit 
enables us to meet the                  
disagreeable--,habit the foundation of  
personality--,habit saves worry and     
rebellion4 #c4 ,the tyranny of habit3   
,even good habits need to be            
modified--,the tendency of ruts4 #d4    
,habit-forming a part of education3     

,youth the time for habit-forming--,the 
habit of achievement4 #e4 ,rules for    
habit-forming3 ,james's three maxims for
 habit-forming--,the preponderance of   
good habits over bad 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ff        
,,chapter ,,vi  ,,sensation  #a4 ,how we
 come to know the external world3       
,knowledge through the senses--,the     
unity of sensory experience--,the       
sensory processes to be explained--,the 
qualities of objects exist in the       
mind--,the three sets of factors4 #b4   
,the nature of sensation3 ,sensation    
gives us our world of qualities--,the   
attributes of sensation4 #c4 ,sensory   
qualities and their end-organs3         
,sight--,hearing--,taste--,smell--,vario
us sensations from the skin--,the       
kinaesthetic senses--,the organic       
senses4 #d4 ,problems in observation and
 retrospection 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #hd   ,,chapter ,,vii  
,,perception  #a4 ,the function of      
perception3 ,need of knowing the        

material world--,the problem which      
confronts the child4 #b4 ,the nature of 
perception3 ,how a percept is           
formed--,the percept involves all       
relations of the object--,the content of
 the percept--,the accuracy of percepts 
depends on experience--,not definitions1
 but first-hand contact4 #c4 ,the       
perception of space3 ,the perceiving of 
distance--,the perceiving of direction4 
#d4 ,the perception of time3 ,nature of 
the time sense--,no perception of empty 
time4 #e4 ,the training of perception3  
,perception needs to be trained--,school
 training in perception4 #f4 ,problems  
in observation and introspection 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 #ih   ,,chapter ,,viii       
,,mental ,,images ,,and ,,ideas  #a4    
,the part played by past experience3    
,present thinking depends on past       
experience--,the present interpreted by 
the past--,the future also depends on   
the past--,rank determined by ability to
 utilize past experience4 #b4 ,how past 

experience is conserved3 ,past          
experience conserved in both mental and 
physical terms--,the image and the      
idea--,all our past experience          
potentially at our command4 #c4         
,individual differences in imagery3     
,images to be viewed by                 
introspection--,the varied imagery      
suggested by one's dining table--,power 
of imagery varies in different          
people--,imagery types4 #d4 ,the        
function of images3 ,images supply      
material for imagination and            
memory--,imagery in the thought         
processes--,the use of imagery in       
literature--,points where images are of 
greatest service4 #e4 ,the cultivation  
of imagery3 ,images depend on sensory   
stimuli--,the influence of frequent     
recall--,the reconstruction of our      
images4 #f4 ,problems in introspection  
and observation  4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 #aaa   ,,chapter ,,ix              
,,imagination  #a4 ,the place of        
imagination in mental economy3          

,practical nature of                    
imagination--,imagination in the        
interpretation of history1 literature1  
and art--,imagination and               
science--,everyday uses of              
imagination--,the building of ideals and
 plans--,imagination and                
conduct--,imagination and thinking4 #b4 
,the material used by imagination3      
,images the stuff of imagination--,the  
two factors in imagination--,imagination
 limited by stock of images--,limited   
also by our constructive ability--,the  
need of a purpose4 #c4 ,types of        
imagination3 ,reproductive              
imagination--,creative imagination4 #d4 
,training the imagination3 ,gathering of
 material for imagination--,we must not 
fail to build--,we should carry our     
ideals into action4 #e4 ,problems for   
observation and introspection  4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 #abg   ,,chapter ,x              
,,association  #a4 ,the nature of       
association3 ,the neural basis of       
association--,association the basis of  

memory--,factors determining direction  
of recall--,association in              
thinking--,association and action4 #b4  
,the types of association3 ,fundamental 
law of association--,association by     
contiguity--,at the mercy of our        
associations--,association by similarity
 and contrast--,partial1 or selective1  
association--,the remedy4 #c4 ,training 
in association3 ,the pleasure-pain      
motive in association--,interest as a   
basis for association--,association and 
methods of learning4 #d4 ,problems in   
observation and introspection  4 4 #add 
,,chapter ,,xi  ,,memory  #a4 ,the      
nature of memory3 ,what is              
retained--,the physical basis of        
memory--,how we remember--,dependence of
 memory on brain quality4 #b4 ,the four 
factors involved in memory3             
,registration--,retention--,recall--,rec
ognition4 #c4 ,the stuff of memory3     
,images as the material of              
memory--,images vary as to type--,other 
memory material4 #d4 ,laws underlying   

memory3 ,the law of association--,the   
law of repetition--,the law of          
recency--,the law of vividness4 #e4     
,rules for using the memory3 ,wholes    
versus parts--,rate of                  
forgetting--,divided practice--,forcing 
the memory to act--,not a memory1 but   
memories4 #f4 ,what constitutes a good  
memory3 ,a good memory selects its      
material--,a good memory requires good  
thinking--,memory must be specialized4  
#g4 ,memory devices3 ,the effects of    
cramming--,remembering isolated         
facts--,mnemonic devices4 #h4 ,problems 
in observation and introspection  4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 #afj   ,,chapter ,,xii        
,,thinking  #a4 ,different types of     
thinking3 ,chance1 or idle              
thinking--,uncritical                   
belief--,assimilative                   
thinking--,deliberative thinking4 #b4   
,the function of thinking3 ,meaning     
depends on relations--,the function of  
thinking is to discover relations--,near
 and remote relations--,child and adult 

thinking4 #c4 ,the mechanism of         
thinking3 ,sensations and percepts as   
elements in thinking4 #d4 ,the concept3 
,the concepts serve to group and        
classify--,growth of a                  
concept--,definition of                 
concept--,language and the concept--,the
 necessity for growing concepts4 #e4    
,judgment3 ,nature of                   
judgment--,judgment used in percepts and
 concepts--,judgment leads to general   
truths--,the validity of judgments4 #f4 
,reasoning3 ,nature of reasoning--,how  
judgments function in                   
reasoning--,deduction and the           
syllogism--,induction--,the necessity   
for broad induction--,the interrelation 
of induction and deduction4 #g4         
,problems in observation and            
introspection  4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #agi     
,,chapter ,,xiii  ,,instinct  #a4 ,the  
nature of instinct3 ,the babe's         
dependence on instinct--,definition of  
instinct--,unmodified instinct is blind4

 #b4 ,law of the appearance and         
disappearance of instincts3 ,instincts  
appear in succession as required--,many 
instincts are transitory--,seemingly    
useless instincts--,instincts to be     
utilized when they appear--,instincts as
 starting points--,the more important   
human instincts4 #c4 ,the instinct of   
imitation3 ,nature of                   
imitation--,individuality in            
imitation--,conscious and unconscious   
imitation--,influence of                
environment--,the influence of          
personality4 #d4 ,the instinct of play3 
,the necessity for play--,play in       
development and education--,work and    
play are complements4 #e4 ,other useful 
instincts3                              
,curiosity--,manipulation--,the         
collecting instinct--,the dramatic      
instinct--,the impulse to form gangs and
 clubs4 #f4 ,fear3 ,fear heredity--,fear
 of the dark--,fear of being left alone4
 #g4 ,other undesirable instincts3      
,selfishness--,pugnacity1 or the        

fighting impulse4 #h4 ,problems in      
observation and introspection 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bja   ,,chapter ,,xiv  
,,feeling ,,and ,,its ,,functions  #a4  
,the nature of feeling3 ,the different  
feeling qualities--,feeling always      
present in mental content--,the seeming 
neutral feeling zone4 #b4 ,mood and     
disposition3 ,how mood is               
produced--,mood colors all our          
thinking--,mood influences our judgments
 and decisions--,mood influences        
effort--,disposition a resultant of     
moods--,temperament4 #c4 ,permanent     
feeling attitudes1 or sentiments3 ,how  
sentiments develop--,the effect of      
experience--,the influence of           
sentiment--,sentiments as motives4 #d4  
,problems in observation and            
introspection  4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 #bbf   ,,chapter ,,xv  ,,the         
,,emotions  #a4 ,the producing and      
expressing of emotion3 ,physiological   
explanation of emotion--,origin of      
characteristic emotional reactions--,the

 duration of an emotion--,emotions      
accompanying crises in experience4 #b4  
,the control of emotions3 ,dependence on
 expression--,relief through            
expression--,relief does not follow if  
image is held before the mind--,growing 
tendency toward emotional control--,the 
emotions and enjoyment--,how emotions   
develop--,the emotional factor in our   
environment--,literature and the        
cultivation of the emotions--,harm in   
emotional overexcitement4 #d4 ,emotions 
as motives3 ,how our emotions compel    
us--,emotional habits4 #e4 ,problems in 
observation and introspection  4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bci   ,,chapter     
,,xvi  ,,interest  #a4 ,the nature of   
interest3 ,interest a selective         
agent--,interest supplies a subjective  
scale of values--,interest              
dynamic--,habit antagonistic to         
interest4 #b4 ,direct and indirect      
interest3 ,interest in the end versus   
interest in the activity--,indirect     
interest as a motive--,indirect interest

 alone insufficient4 #c4 ,transitoriness
 of certain interests3 ,interests must  
be utilized when they appear--,the value
 of a strong interest4 #d4 ,selection   
among our interests3 ,the mistake of    
following too many interests--,interests
 may be too narrow--,specialization     
should not come too early--,a proper    
balance to be sought4 #e4 ,interest     
fundamental in education3 ,interest not 
antagonistic to effort--,interest and   
character4 #f4 ,order of development of 
our interests3 ,the interests of early  
childhood--,the interests of later      
childhood--,the interests of            
adolescence4 #g4 ,problems in           
observation and introspection  4 4 4 4 4
 4 #bed   ,,chapter ,,xvii  ,,the ,,will
  #a4 ,the nature of the will3 ,the     
content of the will--,the function of   
the will--,how the will exerts its      
compulsion4 #b4 ,the extent of voluntary
 control over our acts3 ,simple reflex  
acts--,instinctive acts--,automatic1 or 
spontaneous acts--,the cycle from       

volitional to automatic--,volitional    
action--,volition acts in the making of 
decisions--,types of decision--,the     
reasonable type--,accidental type3      
,external motives--,accidental type3    
,subjective motives--,decision under    
effort4 #c4 ,strong and weak wills3 ,not
 a will1 but wills--,objective tests a  
false measure of will power4 #d4        
,volitional types3 ,the impulsive       
type--,the obstructed will--,the normal 
will4 #e4 ,training the will3 ,will to  
be trained in common round of           
duties--,school work and will-training4 
#f4 ,freedom of the will1 or the extent 
of its control3 ,limitations of the     
will--,these limitations and conditions 
of freedom4 #g4 ,problems in observation
 and introspection4 4 #bga   ,,chapter  
,,xviii  ,,self-,,expression ,,and      
,,development  #a4 ,interrelation of    
impression and expression3 ,the many    
sources of impressions--,all impressions
 lead toward expression--,limitations of
 expression4 #b4 ,the place of          

expression in development3 ,intellectual
 value of expression--,moral value of   
expression--,religious value of         
expression--,social value of expression4
 #c4 ,educational use of expression3    
,easier to provide for the impression   
side of education--,the school to take  
up the handicrafts--,expression and     
character--,two lines of development4   
#d4 ,problems in introspection and      
observation 4 4 4 4 4 #bid  ,,index  4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #cjg       ,,the   
,,mind ,,and ,,its ,,education          
,,chapter ,i  ,,the ,,mind1 ,,or        
,,consciousness   ,we are to study the  
mind and its education2 but how8 ,it is 
easy to understand how we may           
investigate the great world of material 
things about us2 for we can see it1     
touch it1 weigh it1 or measure it4 ,but 
how are we to discover the nature of the
 mind1 or come to know the processes by 
which consciousness works8 ,for mind is 
intangible2 we cannot see it1 feel it1  

taste it1 or handle it4 ,mind belongs   
not to the realm of matter which is     
known to the senses1 but to the realm of
 spirit1 which the senses can never     
grasp4 ,and yet the mind can be known   
and studied as truly and as             
scientifically as can the world of      
matter4 ,let us first of all see how    
this can be done4   #a4 ,,how ,,mind    
,,is ,,to ,,be ,,known  ,,the ,,personal
 ,,character ,,of                       
,,consciousness4--,mind can be observed 
and known4 ,but each one can know       
directly only his own mind1 and not     
another's4 ,you and ,i may look into    
each other's face and there guess the   
meaning that lies back of the smile or  
frown or flash of the eye1 and so read  
something of the mind's activity4 ,but  
neither directly meets the other's mind4
 ,i may learn to recognize your         
features1 know your voice1 respond to   
the clasp of your hand2 but the mind1   
the consciousness1 which does your      
thinking and feels your joys and        

sorrows1 ,i can never know completely4  
,indeed ,i can never know your mind at  
all except through your bodily acts and 
expressions4 ,nor is there any way in   
which you can reveal your mind1 your    
spiritual self1 to me except through    
these means4  ,it follows therefore that
 only you can ever know you and only ,i 
can ever know ,i in any first-hand and  
immediate way4 ,between your            
consciousness and mine there exists a   
wide gap that cannot be bridged4 ,each  
of us lives apart4 ,we are like ships   
that pass and hail each other in passing
 but do not touch4 ,we may work         
together1 live together1 come to love or
 hate each other1 and yet our inmost    
selves forever stand alone4 ,they must  
live their own lives1 think their own   
thoughts1 and arrive at their own       
destiny4  ,,introspection ,,the ,,only  
,,means ,,of ,,discovering ,,nature ,,of
 ,,consciousness4--,what1 then1 is mind8
 ,what is the thing that we call        
consciousness8 ,no mere definition can  

ever make it clearer than it is at this 
moment to each of us4 ,the only way to  
know what mind is1 is to look in upon   
our own consciousness and observe what  
is transpiring there4 ,in the language  
of the psychologist1 we must introspect4
 ,for one can never come to understand  
the nature of mind and its laws of      
working by listening to lectures or     
reading text books alone4 ,there is no  
psychology in the text1 but only in your
 living1 flowing stream of thought and  
mine4 ,true1 the lecture and the book   
may tell us what to look for when we    
introspect1 and how to understand what  
we find4 ,but the statements and        
descriptions about our minds must be    
verified by our own observation and     
experience before they become vital     
truth to us4  ,,how ,,we                
,,introspect4--,introspection is        
something of an art2 it has to be       
learned4 ,some master it easily1 some   
with more difficulty1 and some1 it is to
 be feared1 never become skilled in its 

use4 ,in order to introspect one must   
catch himself unawares1 so to speak1 in 
the very act of thinking1 remembering1  
deciding1 loving1 hating1 and all the   
rest4 ,these fleeting phases of         
consciousness are ever on the wing2 they
 never pause in their restless flight   
and we must catch them as they go4 ,this
 is not so easy as it appears2 for the  
moment we turn to look in upon the mind1
 that moment consciousness changes4 ,the
 thing we meant to examine is gone1 and 
something else has taken its place4 ,all
 that is left us then is to view the    
mental object while it is still fresh in
 the memory1 or to catch it again when  
it returns4  ,,studying ,,mental        
,,states ,,of ,,others ,,through        
,,expression4--,although ,i can meet    
only my own mind face to face1 ,i am1   
nevertheless1 under the necessity of    
judging your mental states and knowing  
what is taking place in your            
consciousness4 ,for in order to work    
successfully with you1 in order to teach

 you1 understand you1 control you or    
obey you1 be your friend or enemy1 or   
associate with you in any other way1 ,i 
must know you4 ,but the real you that ,i
 must know is hidden behind the physical
 mask that we call the body4 ,i must1   
therefore1 be able to understand your   
states of consciousness as they are     
reflected in your bodily expressions4   
,your face1 form1 gesture1 speech1 the  
tone of voice1 laughter and tears1 the  
poise of attention1 the droop of grief1 
the tenseness of anger and start of     
fear1--all these tell the story of the  
mental state that lies behind the       
senses4 ,these various expressions are  
the pictures on the screen by which your
 mind reveals itself to others2 they are
 the language by which the inner self   
speaks to the world without4  ,,learning
 ,,to ,,interpret ,,expression4--,if ,i 
would understand the workings of your   
mind ,i must therefore learn to read the
 language of physical expression4 ,i    
must study human nature and learn to    

observe others4 ,i must apply the       
information found in the texts to an    
interpretation of those about me4 ,this 
study of others may be uncritical1 as in
 the mere intelligent observation of    
those ,i meet2 or it may be scientific1 
as when ,i conduct carefully planned    
psychological experiments4 ,but in      
either case it consists in judging the  
inner states of consciousness by their  
physical manifestations4  ,the three    
methods by which mind may be studied    
are1 then3 7#a7 text-book description   
and explanation2 7#b7 introspection of  
my own conscious processes2 and 7#c7    
observation of others1 either uncritical
 or scientific4   #b4 ,,the ,,nature    
,,of ,,consciousness  ,,inner ,,nature  
,,of ,,the ,,mind ,,not ,,revealed ,,by 
,,introspection4--,we are not to be too 
greatly discouraged if1 even by         
introspection1 we cannot discover       
exactly what the mind is4 ,no one knows 
what electricity is1 though nearly      
everyone uses it in one form or another4

 ,we study the dynamo1 the motor1 and   
the conductors through which electricity
 manifests itself4 ,we observe its      
effects in light1 heat1 and mechanical  
power1 and so learn the laws which      
govern its operations4 ,but we are      
almost as far from understanding its    
true nature as were the ancients who    
knew nothing of its uses4 ,the dynamo   
does not create the electricity1 but    
only furnishes the conditions which make
 it possible for electricity to manifest
 itself in doing the world's work4      
,likewise the brain or nervous system   
does not create the mind1 but it        
furnishes the machine through which the 
mind works4 ,we may study the nervous   
system and learn something of the       
conditions and limitations under which  
the mind operates1 but this is not      
studying the mind itself4 ,as in the    
case of electricity1 what we know about 
the mind we must learn through the      
activities in which it manifests        
itself--these we can know1 for they are 

in the experience of all4 ,it is1 then1 
only by studying these processes of     
consciousness that we come to know the  
laws which govern the mind and its      
development4 ,what it is that thinks and
 feels and wills in us is too hard a    
problem for us here--indeed1 has been   
too hard a problem for the philosophers 
through the ages4 ,but the thinking and 
feeling and willing we can watch as they
 occur1 and hence come to know4         
,,consciousness ,,as ,a ,,process ,,or  
,,stream4--,in looking in upon the mind 
we must expect to discover1 then1 not a 
thing1 but a process4 ,the thing forever
 eludes us1 but the process is always   
present4 ,consciousness is like a       
stream1 which1 so far as we are         
concerned with it in a psychological    
discussion1 has its rise at the cradle  
and its end at the grave4 ,it begins    
with the babe's first faint gropings    
after light in his new world as he      
enters it1 and ends with the man's last 
blind gropings after light in his old   

world as he leaves it4 ,the stream is   
very narrow at first1 only as wide as   
the few sensations which come to the    
babe when it sees the light or hears the
 sound2 it grows wider as the mind      
develops1 and is at last measured by the
 grand sum total of life's experience4  
,this mental stream is irresistible4 ,no
 power outside of us can stop it while  
life lasts4 ,we cannot stop it          
ourselves4 ,when we try to stop         
thinking1 the stream but changes its    
direction and flows on4 ,while we wake  
and while we sleep1 while we are        
unconscious under an anaesthetic1 even1 
some sort of mental process continues4  
,sometimes the stream flows slowly1 and 
our thoughts lag--we feel slow2 again   
the stream flows faster1 and we are     
lively and our thoughts come with a     
rush2 or a fever seizes us and delirium 
comes on2 then the stream runs wildly   
onward1 defying our control1 and a mad  
jargon of thoughts takes the place of   
our usual orderly array4 ,in different  

persons1 also1 the mental stream moves  
at different rates1 some minds being    
naturally slow-moving and some naturally
 quick in their operations4             
,consciousness resembles a stream also  
in other particulars4 ,a stream is an   
unbroken whole from its source to its   
mouth1 and an observer stationed at one 
point cannot see all of it at once4 ,he 
sees but the one little section which   
happens to be passing his station point 
at the time4 ,the current may look much 
the same from moment to moment1 but the 
component particles which constitute the
 stream are constantly changing4 ,so it 
is with our thought4 ,its stream is     
continuous from birth till death1 but we
 cannot see any considerable portion of 
it at one time4 ,when we turn about     
quickly and look in upon our minds1 we  
see but the little present moment4 ,that
 of a few seconds ago is gone and will  
never return4 ,the thought which        
occupied us a moment since can no more  
be recalled1 just as it was1 than can   

the particles composing a stream be     
re-collected and made to pass a given   
point in its course in precisely the    
same order and relation to one another  
as before4 ,this means1 then1 that we   
can never have precisely the same mental
 state twice2 that the thought of the   
moment cannot have the same associates  
that it had the first time2 that the    
thought of this moment will never be    
ours again2 that all we can know of our 
minds at any one time is the part of the
 process present in consciousness at    
that moment4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b  ,,the ,,wave  
,,in ,,the ,,stream ,,of                
,,consciousness4--,the surface of our   
mental stream is not level1 but is      
broken by a wave which stands above the 
rest2 which is but another way of saying
 that some one thing is always more     
prominent in our thought than the rest4 
,only when we are in a sleepy reverie1  
or not thinking about much of anything1 
does the stream approximate a level4 ,at

 all other times some one object        
occupies the highest point in our       
thought1 to the more or less complete   
exclusion of other things which we might
 think about4 ,a thousand and one       
objects are possible to our thought at  
any moment1 but all except one thing    
occupy a secondary place1 or are not    
present to our consciousness at all4    
,they exist on the margin1 or else are  
clear off the edge of consciousness1    
while the one thing occupies the center4
 ,we may be reading a fascinating book  
late at night in a cold room4 ,the charm
 of the writer1 the beauty of the       
heroine1 or the bravery of the hero so  
occupies the mind that the weary eyes   
and chattering teeth are unnoticed4     
,consciousness has piled up in a high   
wave on the points of interest in the   
book1 and the bodily sensations are for 
the moment on a much lower level4 ,but  
let the book grow dull for a moment1 and
 the make-up of the stream changes in a 
flash4 ,hero1 heroine1 or literary style

 no longer occupies the wave4 ,they     
forfeit their place1 the wave is taken  
by the bodily sensations1 and we are    
conscious of the smarting eyes and      
shivering body1 while these in turn give
 way to the next object which occupies  
the wave4 ,figs4 #a-c illustrate these  
changes4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c      
,,consciousness ,,likened ,,to ,a       
,,field4--,the consciousness of any     
moment has been less happily likened to 
a field1 in the center of which there is
 an elevation higher than the           
surrounding level4 ,this center is where
 consciousness is piled up on the object
 which is for the moment foremost in our
 thought4 ,the other objects of our     
consciousness are on the margin of the  
field for the time being1 but any of    
them may the next moment claim the      
center and drive the former object to   
the margin1 or it may drop entirely out 
of consciousness4 ,this moment a noble  
resolve may occupy the center of the    
field1 while a troublesome tooth begets 

sensations of discomfort which linger   
dimly on the outskirts of our           
consciousness2 but a shooting pain from 
the tooth or a random thought crossing  
the mind1 and lo6 the tooth holds sway1 
and the resolve dimly fades to the      
margin of our consciousness and is gone4
  ,,the ,,piling ,,up ,,of              
,,consciousness ,,is ,,attention4--,this
 figure is not so true as the one which 
likens our mind to a stream with its    
ever onward current answering to the    
flow of our thought2 but whichever      
figure we employ1 the truth remains the 
same4 ,our mental energy is always piled
 up higher at one point than at others4 
,either because our interest leads us1  
or because the will dictates1 the mind  
is withdrawn from the thousand and one  
things we might think about1 and        
directed to this one thing1 which for   
the time occupies chief place4 ,in other
 words1 we attend2 for this piling up of
 consciousness is nothing1 after all1   
but attention4   #c4 ,,content ,,of     

,,the ,,mental ,,stream  ,we have seen  
that our mental life may be likened to a
 stream flowing now faster1 now slower1 
ever shifting1 never ceasing4 ,we have  
yet to inquire what constitutes the     
material of the stream1 or what is the  
stuff that makes up the current of our  
thought--what is the content of         
consciousness8 ,the question cannot be  
fully answered at this point1 but a     
general notion can be gained which will 
be of service4  ,,why ,,we ,,need       
,,minds4--,let us first of all ask what 
mind is for1 why do animals1 including  
men1 have minds8 ,the biologist would   
say1 in order that they may adapt       
themselves to their environment4 ,each  
individual from mollusc to man needs the
 amount and type of mind that serves to 
fit its possessor into its particular   
world of activity4 ,too little mind     
leaves the animal helpless in the       
struggle for existence4 ,on the other   
hand a mind far above its possessor's   
station would prove useless if not a    

handicap2 a mollusc could not use the   
mind of a man4  ,,content ,,of          
,,consciousness ,,determined ,,by       
,,function4--,how much mind does man    
need8 ,what range and type of           
consciousness will best serve to adjust 
us to our world of opportunity and      
responsibility8 ,first of all we must   
know our world1 hence1 our mind must be 
capable of gathering knowledge4 ,second1
 we must be able to feel its values and 
respond to the great motives for action 
arising from the emotions4 ,third1 we   
must have the power to exert            
self-compulsion1 which is to say that we
 possess a will to control our acts4    
,these three sets of processes1 knowing1
 feeling1 and willing1 we shall1        
therefore1 expect to find making up the 
content of our mental stream4  ,let us  
proceed at once to test our conclusion  
by introspection4 ,if we are sitting at 
our study table puzzling over a         
difficult problem in geometry1 reasoning
 forms the wave in the stream of        

consciousness--the center of the field4 
,it is the chief thing in our thinking4 
,the fringe of our consciousness is made
 up of various sensations of the light  
from the lamp1 the contact of our       
clothing1 the sounds going on in the    
next room1 some bit of memory seeking   
recognition1 a tramp thought which comes
 along1 and a dozen other experiences   
not strong enough to occupy the center  
of the field4  ,but instead of the study
 table and the problem1 give us a bright
 fireside1 an easy-chair1 and nothing to
 do4 ,if we are aged1 memories--images  
from out the past--will probably come   
thronging in and occupy the field to    
such extent that the fire burns low and 
the room grows cold1 but still the forms
 from the past hold sway4 ,if we are    
young1 visions of the future may crowd  
everything else to the margin of the    
field1 while the castles in ,spain      
occupy the center4  ,our memories may   
also be accompanied by emotions--sorrow1
 love1 anger1 hate1 envy1 joy4 ,and1    

indeed1 these emotions may so completely
 occupy the field that the images       
themselves are for the time driven to   
the margin1 and the mind is occupied    
with its sorrow1 its love1 or its joy4  
,once more1 instead of the problem or   
the memories or the castles in ,spain1  
give us the necessity of making some    
decision1 great or small1 where         
contending motives are pulling us now in
 this direction1 now in that1 so that   
the question finally has to be settled  
by a supreme effort summed up in the    
words1 ,i will4 ,this is the struggle of
 the will which each one knows for      
himself2 for who has not had a raging   
battle of motives occupy the center of  
the field while all else1 even the sense
 of time1 place and existence1 gave way 
in the face of this conflict6 ,this     
struggle continues until the decision is
 made1 when suddenly all the stress and 
strain drop out and other objects may   
again have place in consciousness4      
,,the ,,three ,,fundamental ,,phases    

,,of ,,consciousness4--,thus we see that
 if we could cut the stream of          
consciousness across as we might cut a  
stream of water from bank to bank with a
 huge knife1 and then look at the       
cut-off section1 we should find very    
different constituents in the stream at 
different times4 ,we should at one time 
find the mind manifesting itself in     
perceiving1 remembering1 imagining1     
discriminating1 comparing1 judging1     
reasoning1 or the acts by which we gain 
our knowledge2 at another in fearing1   
loving1 hating1 sorrowing1 enjoying1 or 
the acts of feeling2 at still another in
 choosing1 or the act of the will4      
,these processes would make up the      
stream1 or1 in other words1 these are   
the acts which the mind performs in     
doing its work4 ,we should never find a 
time when the stream consists of but one
 of the processes1 or when all these    
modes of mental activity are not        
represented4 ,they will be found in     
varying proportions1 now more of        

knowing1 now of feeling1 and now of     
willing1 but some of each is always     
present in our consciousness4 ,the      
nature of these different elements in   
our mental stream1 their relation to    
each other1 and the manner in which they
 all work together in amazing perplexity
 yet in perfect harmony to produce the  
wonderful mind1 will constitute the     
subject-matter we shall consider        
together in the pages which follow4     
#d4 ,,where ,,consciousness ,,resides   
,i--the conscious self--dwell somewhere 
in this body1 but where8 ,when my finger
 tips touch the object ,i wish to       
examine1 ,i seem to be in them4 ,when   
the brain grows weary from overstudy1 ,i
 seem to be in it4 ,when the heart      
throbs1 the breath comes quick1 and the 
muscles grow tense from noble resolve or
 strong emotion1 ,i seem to be in them  
all4 ,when1 filled with the buoyant life
 of vigorous youth1 every fiber and     
nerve is a-tingle with health and       
enthusiasm1 ,i live in every part of my 

marvelous body4 ,small wonder that the  
ancients located the soul at one time in
 the heart1 at another in the pineal    
gland of the brain1 and at another made 
it coextensive with the body6           
,,consciousness ,,works ,,through ,,the 
,,nervous ,,system4--,later science has 
taught that the mind resides in and     
works through the nervous system1 which 
has its central office in the brain4    
,and the reason why ,i seem to be in    
every part of my body is because the    
nervous system extends to every part1   
carrying messages of sight or sound or  
touch to the brain1 and bearing in      
return orders for movements1 which set  
the feet a-dancing or the fingers       
a-tingling4 ,but more of this later4    
,this partnership between mind and body 
is very close4 ,just how it happens that
 spirit may inhabit matter we may not   
know4 ,but certain it is that they      
interact on each other4 ,what will      
hinder the growth of one will handicap  
the other1 and what favors the          

development of either will help both4   
,the methods of their cooeperation and  
the laws that govern their relationship 
will develop as our study goes on4   #e4
 ,,problems ,,in ,,observation ,,and    
,,introspection  ,one should always keep
 in mind that psychology is essentially 
a laboratory science1 and not a         
text-book subject4 ,the laboratory      
material is to be found in ourselves and
 in those about us4 ,while the text     
should be thoroughly mastered1 its      
statements should always be verified by 
reference to one's own experience1 and  
observation of others4 ,especially      
should prospective teachers constantly  
correlate the lessons of the book with  
the observation of children at work in  
the school4 ,the problems suggested for 
observation and introspection will1 if  
mastered1 do much to render practical   
and helpful the truths of psychology4   
#a4 ,think of your home as you last left
 it4 ,can you see vividly just how it   
looked1 the color of the paint on the   

outside1 with the familiar form of the  
roof and all2 can you recall the perfume
 in some old drawer1 the taste of a     
favorite dish1 the sound of a familiar  
voice in farewell8  #b4 ,what           
illustrations have you observed where   
the mental content of the moment seemed 
chiefly thinking 7knowledge process72   
chiefly emotion 7feeling process72      
chiefly choosing1 or self-compulsion    
7willing process78  #c4 ,when you say   
that you remember a circumstance that   
occurred yesterday1 how do you remember 
it8 ,that is1 do you see in your mind   
things just as they were1 and hear again
 sounds which occurred1 or feel again   
movements which you performed8 ,do you  
experience once more the emotions you   
then felt8  #d4 ,what forms of          
expression most commonly reveal thought2
 what reveal emotions8 7i4e41 can you   
tell what a child is thinking about by  
the expression on his face8 ,can you    
tell whether he is angry1 frightened1   
sorry1 by his face8 ,is speech as       

necessary in expressing feeling as in   
expressing thought87  #e4 ,try          
occasionally during the next twenty-four
 hours to turn quickly about mentally   
and see whether you can observe your    
thinking1 feeling1 or willing in the    
very act of taking place4  #f4 ,what    
becomes of our mind or consciousness    
while we are asleep8 ,how are we able to
 wake up at a certain hour previously   
determined8 ,can a person have          
absolutely nothing in his mind8  #g4    
,have you noticed any children          
especially adept in expression8 ,have   
you noticed any very backward8 ,if so1  
in what form of expression in each case8
  #h4 ,have you observed any instances  
of expression which you were at a loss  
to interpret 7remember that expression  
includes every form of physical action1 
voice1 speech1 face1 form1 hand1 etc478 
,,chapter ,,ii  ,,attention   ,how do   
you rank in mental ability1 and how     
effective are your mind's grasp and     
power8 ,the answer that must be given to

 these questions will depend not more on
 your native endowment than on your     
skill in using attention4   #a4 ,,nature
 ,,of ,,attention  ,it is by attention  
that we gather and mass our mental      
energy upon the critical and important  
points in our thinking4 ,in the last    
chapter we saw that consciousness is not
 distributed evenly over the whole      
field1 but piled up1 now on this object 
of thought1 now on that1 in obedience to
 interest or necessity4 ,the            
concentration of the mind's energy on   
one object of thought is attention4     
,,the ,,nature ,,of                     
,,attention4--,everyone knows what it is
 to attend4 ,the story so fascinating   
that we cannot leave it1 the critical   
points in a game1 the interesting sermon
 or lecture1 the sparkling              
conversation--all these compel our      
attention4 ,so completely is our mind's 
energy centered on them and withdrawn   
from other things that we are scarcely  
aware of what is going on about us4  ,we

 are also familiar with another kind of 
attention4 ,for we all have read the    
dull story1 watched the slow game1      
listened to the lecture or sermon that  
drags1 and taken part in conversation   
that was a bore4 ,we gave these things  
our attention1 but only with effort4    
,our mind's energy seemed to center on  
anything rather than the matter in hand4
 ,a thousand objects from outside       
enticed us away1 and it required the    
frequent mental jerk to bring us to the 
subject in hand4 ,and when brought back 
to our thought problem we felt the      
constant tug of mind to be free again4  
,,normal ,,consciousness ,,always ,,in  
,a ,,state ,,of ,,attention4--,but this 
very effort of the mind to free itself  
from one object of thought that it may  
busy itself with another is because     
attention is solicited by this other4   
,some object in our field of            
consciousness is always exerting an     
appeal for attention2 and to attend to  
one thing is always to attend away from 

a multitude of other things upon which  
the thought might rest4 ,we may         
therefore say that attention is         
constantly selecting in our stream of   
thought those aspects that are to       
receive emphasis and consideration4     
,from moment to moment it determines the
 points at which our mental energy shall
 be centered4   #b4 ,,the ,,effects ,,of
 ,,attention  ,,attention ,,makes ,,its 
,,object ,,clear ,,and                  
,,definite4--,whatever attention centers
 upon stands out sharp and clear in     
consciousness4 ,whether it be a bit of  
memory1 an air-castle1 a sensation from 
an aching tooth1 the reasoning on an    
algebraic formula1 a choice which we are
 making1 the setting of an              
emotion--whatever be the object to which
 we are attending1 that object is       
illumined and made to stand out from its
 fellows as the one prominent thing in  
the mind's eye while the attention rests
 on it4 ,it is like the one building    
which the searchlight picks out among a 

city full of buildings and lights up1   
while the remainder are left in the     
semilight or in darkness4  ,,attention  
,,measures ,,mental ,,efficiency4--,in a
 state of attention the mind may be     
likened to the rays of the sun which    
have been passed through a burning      
glass4 ,you may let all the rays which  
can pass through your window pane fall  
hour after hour upon the paper lying on 
your desk1 and no marked effects follow4
 ,but let the same amount of sunlight be
 passed through a lens and converged to 
a point the size of your pencil point1  
and the paper will at once burst into   
flame4 ,what the diffused rays could not
 do in hours or in ages is now          
accomplished in seconds4 ,likewise the  
mind1 allowed to scatter over many      
objects1 can accomplish but little4 ,we 
may sit and dream away an hour or a day 
over a page or a problem without        
securing results4 ,but let us call in   
our wits from their wool-gathering and  
buckle down to it with all our might1   

withdrawing our thoughts from everything
 else but this one thing1 and           
concentrating our mind on it4 ,more can 
now be accomplished in minutes than     
before in hours4 ,nay1 things which     
could not be accomplished at all before 
now become possible4  ,again1 the mind  
may be compared to a steam engine which 
is constructed to run at a certain      
pressure of steam1 say one hundred and  
fifty pounds to the square inch of      
boiler surface4 ,once ,i ran such an    
engine2 and well ,i remember a morning  
during my early apprenticeship when the 
foreman called for power to run some of 
the lighter machinery1 while my steam   
gauge registered but seventy-five       
pounds4 ,surely1 ,i thought1 if one     
hundred and fifty pounds will run all   
this machinery1 seventy-five pounds     
should run half of it1 so ,i opened the 
valve4 ,but the powerful engine could do
 but little more than turn its own      
wheels1 and refused to do the required  
work4 ,not until the pressure had risen 

above one hundred pounds could the      
engine perform half the work which it   
could at one hundred and fifty pounds4  
,and so with our mind4 ,if it is meant  
to do its best work under a certain     
degree of concentration1 it cannot in a 
given time do half the work with half   
the attention4 ,further1 there will be  
much which it cannot do at all unless   
working under full pressure4 ,we shall  
not be overstating the case if we say   
that as attention increases in          
arithmetical ratio1 mental efficiency   
increases in geometrical ratio4 ,it is  
in large measure a difference in the    
power of attention which makes one man a
 master in thought and achievement and  
another his humble follower4 ,one often 
hears it said that genius is but the    
power of sustained attention1 and this  
statement possesses a large element of  
truth4   #c4 ,,how ,,we ,,attend        
,someone has said that if our attention 
is properly trained we should be able to
 look at the point of a cambric needle  

for half an hour without winking4 ,but  
this is a false idea of attention4 ,the 
ability to look at the point of a       
cambric needle for half an hour might   
indicate a very laudable power of       
concentration2 but the process1 instead 
of enlightening us concerning the point 
of the needle1 would result in our      
passing into a hypnotic state4          
,voluntary attention to any one object  
can be sustained for but a brief time--a
 few seconds at best4 ,it is essential  
that the object change1 that we turn it 
over and over incessantly1 and consider 
its various aspects and relations4      
,sustained voluntary attention is thus a
 repetition of successive efforts to    
bring back the object to the mind4 ,then
 the subject grows and develops--it is  
living1 not dead4  ,,attention ,a       
,,relating ,,activity4--,when we are    
attending strongly to one object of     
thought it does not mean that           
consciousness sits staring vacantly at  
this one object1 but rather that it uses

 it as a central core of thought1 and   
thinks into relation with this object   
the things which belong with it4 ,in    
working out some mathematical solution  
the central core is the principle upon  
which the solution is based1 and        
concentration in this case consists in  
thinking the various conditions of the  
problem in relation to this underlying  
principle4 ,in the accompanying diagram 
7,fig4 #d7 let ,a be the central core of
 some object of thought1 say a patch of 
cloud in a picture1 and let a1 b1 c1 d1 
etc41 be the related facts1 or the      
shape1 size1 color1 etc41 of the cloud4 
,the arrows indicate the passing of our 
thought from cloud to related fact1 or  
from related fact to cloud1 and from    
related fact to related fact4 ,as long  
as these related facts lead back to the 
cloud each time1 that long we are       
attending to the cloud and thinking     
about it4 ,it is when our thought fails 
to go back that we wander in our        
attention4 ,then we leave a1 b1 c1 d1   

etc41 which are related to the cloud1   
and1 flying off to x1 y1 and z1 finally 
bring up heaven knows where4            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d  ,,the         
,,rhythms ,,of ,,attention4--,attention 
works in rhythms4 ,this is to say that  
it never maintains a constant level of  
concentration for any considerable      
length of time1 but regularly ebbs and  
flows4 ,the explanation of this rhythmic
 action would take us too far afield at 
this point4 ,when we remember1 however1 
that our entire organism works within a 
great system of rhythms--hunger1 thirst1
 sleep1 fatigue1 and many others--it is 
easy to see that the same law may apply 
to attention4 ,the rhythms of attention 
vary greatly1 the fluctuations often    
being only a few seconds apart for      
certain simple sensations1 and probably 
a much greater distance apart for the   
more complex process of thinking4 ,the  
seeming variation in the sound of a     
distant waterfall1 now loud and now     
faint1 is caused by the rhythm of       

attention and easily allows us to       
measure the rhythm for this particular  
sensation4   #d4 ,,points ,,of ,,failure
 ,,in ,,attention  ,,lack ,,of          
,,concentration4--,there are two chief  
types of inattention whose danger       
threatens every person4 ,first1 we may  
be thinking about the right things1 but 
not thinking hard enough4 ,we lack      
mental pressure4 ,outside thoughts which
 have no relation to the subject in hand
 may not trouble us much1 but we do not 
attack our problem with vim4 ,the       
current in our stream of consciousness  
is moving too slowly4 ,we do not gather 
up all our mental forces and mass them  
on the subject before us in a way that  
means victory4 ,our thoughts may be     
sufficiently focused1 but they fail to  
set fire4 ,it is like focusing the sun's
 rays while an eclipse is on4 ,they lack
 energy4 ,they will not kindle the paper
 after they have passed through the     
lens4 ,this kind of attention means     
mental dawdling4 ,it means inefficiency4

 ,for the individual it means defeat in 
life's battles2 for the nation it means 
mediocrity and stagnation4  ,a college  
professor said to his faithful but      
poorly prepared class1 ,judging from    
your worn and tired appearance1 young   
people1 you are putting in twice too    
many hours on study4 ,at this           
commendation the class brightened up    
visibly4 ,but1 he continued1 judging    
from your preparation1 you do not study 
quite half hard enough4  ,happy is the  
student who1 starting in on his lesson  
rested and fresh1 can study with such   
concentration that an hour of steady    
application will leave him mentally     
exhausted and limp4 ,that is one hour of
 triumph for him1 no matter what else he
 may have accomplished or failed to     
accomplish during the time4 ,he can     
afford an occasional pause for rest1 for
 difficulties will melt rapidly away    
before him4 ,he possesses one key to    
successful achievement4  ,,mental       
,,wandering4--,second1 we may have good 

mental power and be able to think hard  
and efficiently on any one point1 but   
lack the power to think in a straight   
line4 ,every stray thought that comes   
along is a will-o'-the-wisp to lead us  
away from the subject in hand and into  
lines of thought not relating to it4    
,who has not started in to think on some
 problem1 and1 after a few moments1 been
 surprised to find himself miles away   
from the topic upon which he started6   
,or who has not read down a page and1   
turning to the next1 found that he did  
not know a word on the preceding page1  
his thoughts having wandered away1 his  
eyes only going through the process of  
reading6 ,instead of sticking to the a1 
b1 c1 d1 etc41 of our topic and relating
 them all up to ,a1 thereby reaching a  
solution of the problem1 we often jump  
at once to x1 y1 z1 and find ourselves  
far afield with all possibility of a    
solution gone4 ,we may have brilliant   
thoughts about x1 y1 z1 but they are not
 related to anything in particular1 and 

so they pass from us and are gone--lost 
in oblivion because they are not        
attached to something permanent4  ,such 
a thinker is at the mercy of            
circumstances1 following blindly the    
leadings of trains of thought which are 
his master instead of his servant1 and  
which lead him anywhere or nowhere      
without let or hindrance from him4 ,his 
consciousness moves rapidly enough and  
with enough force1 but it is like a ship
 without a helm4 ,starting for the      
intellectual port ,a by way of a1 b1 c1 
d1 he is mentally shipwrecked at last on
 the rocks x1 y1 z1 and never reaches   
harbor4 ,fortunate is he who can shut   
out intruding thoughts and think in a   
straight line4 ,even with mediocre      
ability he may accomplish more by his   
thinking than the brilliant thinker who 
is constantly having his mental train   
wrecked by stray thoughts which slip in 
on his right of way4   #e4 ,,types ,,of 
,,attention  ,,the ,,three ,,types ,,of 
,,attention4--,attention may be secured 

in three ways3 7#a7 ,it is demanded by  
some sudden or intense sensory stimulus 
or insistent idea1 or 7#b7 it follows   
interest1 or 7#c7 it is compelled by the
 will4 ,if it comes in the first way1 as
 from a thunderclap or a flash of light1
 or from the persistent attempt of some 
unsought idea to secure entrance into   
the mind1 it is called involuntary      
attention4 ,this form of attention is of
 so little importance1 comparatively1 in
 our mental life that we shall not      
discuss it further4  ,if attention comes
 in the second way1 following interest1 
it is called nonvoluntary or spontaneous
 attention2 if in the third1 compelled  
by the will1 voluntary or active        
attention4 ,nonvoluntary attention has  
its motive in some object external to   
consciousness1 or else follows a more or
 less uncontrolled current of thought   
which interests us2 voluntary attention 
is controlled from within--we decide    
what we shall attend to instead of      
letting interesting objects of thought  

determine it for us4  ,,interest ,,and  
,,nonvoluntary ,,attention4--,in        
nonvoluntary attention the environment  
largely determines what we shall attend 
to4 ,all that we have to do with        
directing this kind of attention is in  
developing certain lines of interest1   
and then the interesting things attract 
attention4 ,the things we see and hear  
and touch and taste and smell1 the      
things we like1 the things we do and    
hope to do--these are the determining   
factors in our mental life so long as we
 are giving nonvoluntary attention4 ,our
 attention follows the beckoning of     
these things as the needle the magnet4  
,it is no effort to attend to them1 but 
rather the effort would be to keep from 
attending to them4 ,who does not        
remember reading a story1 perhaps a     
forbidden one1 so interesting that when 
mother called up the stairs for us to   
come down to attend to some duty1 we    
replied1 ,yes1 in a minute1 and then    
went on reading6 ,we simply could not   

stop at that place4 ,the minute         
lengthens into ten1 and another call    
startles us4 ,yes1 ,i'm coming2 we turn 
just one more leaf1 and are lost again4 
,at last comes a third call in tones so 
imperative that it cannot be longer     
ignored1 and we lay the book down1 but  
open to the place where we left off1 and
 where we hope soon to begin further to 
unravel the delightful mystery4 ,was it 
an effort to attend to the reading8 ,ah1
 no6 it took the combined force of our  
will and of mother's authority to drag  
the attention away4 ,this is            
nonvoluntary attention4  ,left to       
itself1 then1 attention simply obeys    
natural laws and follows the line of    
least resistance4 ,by far the larger    
portion of our attention is of this     
type4 ,thought often runs on hour after 
hour when we are not conscious of effort
 or struggle to compel us to cease      
thinking about this thing and begin     
thinking about that4 ,indeed1 it may be 
doubted whether this is not the case    

with some persons for days at a time1   
instead of hours4 ,the things that      
present themselves to the mind are the  
things which occupy it2 the character of
 the thought is determined by the       
character of our interests4 ,it is this 
fact which makes it vitally necessary   
that our interests shall be broad and   
pure if our thoughts are to be of this  
type4 ,it is not enough that we have the
 strength to drive from our minds a     
wrong or impure thought which seeks     
entrance4 ,to stand guard as a policeman
 over our thoughts to see that no       
unworthy one enters1 requires too much  
time and energy4 ,our interests must be 
of such a nature as to lead us away from
 the field of unworthy thoughts if we   
are to be free from their tyranny4      
,,the ,,will ,,and ,,voluntary          
,,attention4--,in voluntary attention   
there is a conflict either between the  
will and interest or between the will   
and the mental inertia or laziness1     
which has to be overcome before we can  

think with any degree of concentration4 
,interest says1 ,follow this line1 which
 is easy and attractive1 or which       
requires but little effort--follow the  
line of least resistance4 ,will says1   
,quit that line of dalliance and ease1  
and take this harder way which ,i       
direct--cease the line of least         
resistance and take the one of greatest 
resistance4 ,when day dreams and castles
 in ,spain attempt to lure you from your
 lessons1 refuse to follow2 shut out    
these vagabond thoughts and stick to    
your task4 ,when intellectual inertia   
deadens your thought and clogs your     
mental stream1 throw it off and court   
forceful effort4 ,if wrong or impure    
thoughts seek entrance to your mind1    
close and lock your mental doors to     
them4 ,if thoughts of desire try to     
drive out thoughts of duty1 be heroic   
and insist that thoughts of duty shall  
have right of way4 ,in short1 see that  
you are the master of your thinking1 and
 do not let it always be directed       

without your consent by influences      
outside of yourself4  ,it is just at    
this point that the strong will wins    
victory and the weak will breaks down4  
,between the ability to control one's   
thoughts and the inability to control   
them lies all the difference between    
right actions and wrong actions2 between
 withstanding temptation and yielding to
 it2 between an inefficient purposeless 
life and a life of purpose and endeavor2
 between success and failure4 ,for we   
act in accordance with those things     
which our thought rests upon4 ,suppose  
two lines of thought represented by ,a  
and ,b1 respectively1 lie before you2   
that ,a leads to a course of action     
difficult or unpleasant1 but necessary  
to success or duty1 and that ,b leads to
 a course of action easy or pleasant1   
but fatal to success or duty4 ,which    
course will you follow--the rugged path 
of duty or the easier one of pleasure8  
,the answer depends almost wholly1 if   
not entirely1 on your power of          

attention4 ,if your will is strong      
enough to pull your thoughts away from  
the fatal but attractive ,b and hold    
them resolutely on the less attractive  
,a1 then ,a will dictate your course of 
action1 and you will respond to the call
 for endeavor1 self-denial1 and duty2   
but if your thoughts break away from the
 domination of your will and allow the  
beckoning of your interests alone1 then 
,b will dictate your course of action1  
and you will follow the leading of ease 
and pleasure4 ,for our actions are      
finally and irrevocably dictated by the 
things we think about4  ,,not ,,really  
,,different ,,kinds ,,of                
,,attention4--,it is not to be          
understood1 however1 from what has been 
said1 that there are really different   
kinds of attention4 ,all attention      
denotes an active or dynamic phase of   
consciousness4 ,the difference is rather
 in the way we secure attention2 whether
 it is demanded by sudden stimulus1     
coaxed from us by interesting objects of

 thought without effort on our part1 or 
compelled by force of will to desert the
 more interesting and take the direction
 which we dictate4   #f4 ,,improving    
,,the ,,power ,,of ,,attention  ,while  
attention is no doubt partly a natural  
gift1 yet there is probably no power of 
the mind more susceptible to training   
than is attention4 ,and with attention1 
as with every other power of body and   
mind1 the secret of its development lies
 in its use4 ,stated briefly1 the only  
way to train attention is by attending4 
,no amount of theorizing or resolving   
can take the place of practice in the   
actual process of attending4  ,,making  
,,different ,,kinds ,,of ,,attention    
,,reenforce ,,each ,,other4--,a very    
close relationship and interdependence  
exists between nonvoluntary and         
voluntary attention4 ,it would be       
impossible to hold our attention by     
sheer force of will on objects which    
were forever devoid of interest2        
likewise the blind following of our     

interests and desires would finally lead
 to shipwreck in all our lives4 ,each   
kind of attention must support and      
reenforce the other4 ,the lessons1 the  
sermons1 the lectures1 and the books in 
which we are most interested1 and hence 
to which we attend nonvoluntarily and   
with the least effort and fatigue1 are  
the ones out of which1 other things     
being equal1 we get the most and        
remember the best and longest4 ,on the  
other hand1 there are sometimes lessons 
and lectures and books1 and many things 
besides1 which are not intensely        
interesting1 but which should be        
attended to nevertheless4 ,it is at this
 point that the will must step in and   
take command4 ,if it has not the        
strength to do this1 it is in so far a  
weak will1 and steps should be taken to 
develop it4 ,we are to keep the faculty 
of effort alive in us by a little       
gratuitous exercise every day4 ,we are  
to be systematically heroic in the      
little points of everyday life and      

experience4 ,we are not to shrink from  
tasks because they are difficult or     
unpleasant4 ,then1 when the test comes1 
we shall not find ourselves unnerved and
 untrained1 but shall be able to stand  
in the evil day4  ,,the ,,habit ,,of    
,,attention4--,finally1 one of the chief
 things in training the attention is to 
form the habit of attending4 ,this habit
 is to be formed only by attending      
whenever and wherever the proper thing  
to do is to attend1 whether in work1 in 
play1 in making fishing flies1 in       
preparing for an examination1 in        
courting a sweetheart1 in reading a     
book4 ,the lesson1 or the sermon1 or the
 lecture1 may not be very interesting2  
but if they are to be attended to at    
all1 our rule should be to attend to    
them completely and absolutely4 ,not by 
fits and starts1 now drifting away and  
now jerking ourselves back1 but all the 
time4 ,and1 furthermore1 the one who    
will deliberately do this will often    
find the dull and uninteresting task    

become more interesting2 but if it never
 becomes interesting1 he is at least    
forming a habit which will be invaluable
 to him through life4 ,on the other     
hand1 the one who fails to attend except
 when his interest is captured1 who     
never exerts effort to compel attention1
 is forming a habit which will be the   
bane of his thinking until his stream of
 thought shall end4   #g4 ,,problems    
,,in ,,observation ,,and ,,introspection
  #a4 ,which fatigues you more1 to give 
attention of the nonvoluntary type1 or  
the voluntary8 ,which can you maintain  
longer8 ,which is the more pleasant and 
agreeable to give8 ,under which can you 
accomplish more8 ,what bearing have     
these facts on teaching8  #b4 ,try to   
follow for one or two minutes the wave  
in your consciousness1 and then describe
 the course taken by your attention4    
#c4 ,have you observed one class alert  
in attention1 and another lifeless and  
inattentive8 ,can you explain the causes
 lying back of this difference8         

,estimate the relative amount of work   
accomplished under the two conditions4  
#d4 ,what distractions have you observed
 in the schoolroom tending to break up  
attention8  #e4 ,have you seen pupils   
inattentive from lack of 7#a7 change1   
7#b7 pure air1 7#c7 enthusiasm on the   
part of the teacher1 7#d7 fatigue1 7#e7 
ill health8  #f4 ,have you noticed a    
difference in the habit of attention in 
different pupils8 ,have you noticed the 
same thing for whole schools or rooms8  
#g4 ,do you know of children too much   
given to daydreaming8 ,are you8  #h4    
,have you seen a teacher rap the desk   
for attention8 ,what type of attention  
was secured8 ,does it pay8  #i4 ,have   
you observed any instance in which      
pupils' lack of attention should be     
blamed on the teacher8 ,if so1 what was 
the fault8 ,the remedy8  #aj4 ,visit a  
school room or a recitation1 and then   
write an account of the types and       
degrees of attention you observed4 ,try 
to explain the factors responsible for  

any failures in attention1 and also     
those responsible for the good attention
 shown4     ,,chapter ,,iii  ,,the      
,,brain ,,and ,,nervous ,,system   ,a   
fine brain1 or a good mind4 ,these terms
 are often used interchangeably1 as if  
they stood for the same thing4 ,yet the 
brain is material substance--so many    
cells and fibers1 a pulpy protoplasmic  
mass weighing some three pounds and shut
 away from the outside world in a casket
 of bone4 ,the mind is a spiritual      
thing--the sum of the processes by which
 we think and feel and will1 mastering  
our world and accomplishing our destiny4
   #a4 ,,the ,,relations ,,of ,,mind    
,,and ,,brain  ,,interaction ,,of ,,mind
 ,,and ,,brain4--,how1 then1 come these 
two widely different facts1 mind and    
brain1 to be so related in our speech8  
,why are the terms so commonly          
interchanged8--,it is because mind and  
brain are so vitally related in their   
processes and so inseparably connected  
in their work4 ,no movement of our      

thought1 no bit of sensation1 no memory1
 no feeling1 no act of decision but is  
accompanied by its own particular       
activity in the cells of the brain4 ,it 
is this that the psychologist has in    
mind when he says1 no psychosis without 
its corresponding neurosis4  ,so far as 
our present existence is concerned1     
then1 no mind ever works except through 
some brain1 and a brain without a mind  
becomes but a mass of dead matter1 so   
much clay4 ,mind and brain are perfectly
 adapted to each other4 ,nor is this    
mere accident4 ,for through the ages of 
man's past history each has grown up and
 developed into its present state of    
efficiency by working in conjunction    
with the other4 ,each has helped form   
the other and determine its qualities4  
,not only is this true for the race in  
its evolution1 but for every individual 
as he passes from infancy to maturity4  
,,the ,,brain ,,as ,,the ,,mind',s      
,,machine4--,in the first chapter we saw
 that the brain does not create the     

mind1 but that the mind works through   
the brain4 ,no one can believe that the 
brain secretes mind as the liver        
secretes bile1 or that it grinds it out 
as a mill does flour4 ,indeed1 just what
 their exact relation is has not yet    
been settled4 ,yet it is easy to see    
that if the mind must use the brain as a
 machine and work through it1 then the  
mind must be subject to the limitations 
of its machine1 or1 in other words1 the 
mind cannot be better than the brain    
through which it operates4 ,a brain and 
nervous system that are poorly developed
 or insufficiently nourished mean low   
grade of efficiency in our mental       
processes1 just as a poorly constructed 
or wrongly adjusted motor means loss of 
power in applying the electric current  
to its work4 ,we will1 then1 look upon  
the mind and the brain as counterparts  
of each other1 each performing          
activities which correspond to          
activities in the other1 both           
inextricably bound together at least so 

far as this life is concerned1 and each 
getting its significance by its union   
with the other4 ,this view will lend    
interest to a brief study of the brain  
and nervous system4   #b4 ,,the         
,,mind',s ,,dependence ,,on ,,the       
,,external ,,world  ,but can we first   
see how in a general way the brain and  
nervous system are primarily related to 
our thinking8 ,let us go back to the    
beginning and consider the babe when it 
first opens its eyes on the scenes of   
its new existence4 ,what is in its mind8
 ,what does it think about8 ,nothing4   
,imagine1 if you can1 a person born     
blind and deaf1 and without the sense of
 touch1 taste1 or smell4 ,let such a    
person live on for a year1 for five     
years1 for a lifetime4 ,what would he   
know8 ,what ray of intelligence would   
enter his mind8 ,what would he think    
about8 ,all would be dark to his eyes1  
all silent to his ears1 all tasteless to
 his mouth1 all odorless to his         
nostrils1 all touchless to his skin4    

,his mind would be a blank4 ,he would   
have no mind4 ,he could not get started 
to think4 ,he could not get started to  
act4 ,he would belong to a lower scale  
of life than the tiny animal that floats
 with the waves and the tide in the     
ocean without power to direct its own   
course4 ,he would be but an inert mass  
of flesh without sense or intelligence4 
,,the ,,mind ,,at ,,birth4--,yet this is
 the condition of the babe at birth4 ,it
 is born practically blind and deaf1    
without definite sense of taste or      
smell4 ,born without anything to think  
about1 and no way to get anything to    
think about until the senses wake up and
 furnish some material from the outside 
world4 ,born with all the mechanism of  
muscle and nerve ready to perform the   
countless complex movements of arms and 
legs and body which characterize every  
child1 he could not successfully start  
these activities without a message from 
the senses to set them going4 ,at birth 
the child probably has only the senses  

of contact and temperature present with 
any degree of clearness2 taste soon     
follows2 vision of an imperfect sort in 
a few days2 hearing about the same time1
 and smell a little later4 ,the senses  
are waking up and beginning their       
acquaintance with the outside world4    
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,a ,,neurone
 ,,from ,a ,,human ,,spinal ,,cord4 ,the
 central portion represents the cell    
body4 ,n1 the nucleus2 ,p1 a pigmented  
or colored spot2 ,d1 a dendrite1 or     
relatively short fiber1--which branches 
freely2 ,a1 an axon or long fiber1 which
 branches but little4  ,,the ,,work ,,of
 ,,the ,,senses4--,and what a problem   
the senses have to solve6 ,on the one   
hand the great universe of sights and   
sounds1 of tastes and smells1 of        
contacts and temperatures1 and whatever 
else may belong to the material world in
 which we live2 and on the other hand   
the little shapeless mass of gray and   
white pulpy matter called the brain1    
incapable of sustaining its own shape1  

shut away in the darkness of a bony case
 with no possibility of contact with the
 outside world1 and possessing no means 
of communicating with it except through 
the senses4 ,and yet this universe of   
external things must be brought into    
communication with the seemingly        
insignificant but really wonderful      
brain1 else the mind could never be4    
,here we discover1 then1 the two great  
factors which first require our study if
 we would understand the growth of the  
mind--the material world without1 and   
the brain within4 ,for it is the action 
and interaction of these which lie at   
the bottom of the mind's development4   
,let us first look a little more closely
 at the brain and the accompanying      
nervous system4   #c4 ,,structural      
,,elements ,,of ,,the ,,nervous ,,system
  ,it will help in understanding both   
the structure and the working of the    
nervous system to keep in mind that it  
contains but one fundamental unit of    
structure4 ,this is the neurone4 ,just  

as the house is built up by adding brick
 upon brick1 so brain1 cord1 nerves and 
organs of sense are formed by the union 
of numberless neurones4  ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #f4--,neurones in different      
stages of development1 from a to e4 ,in 
a1 the elementary cell body alone is    
present2 in c1 a dendrite is shown      
projecting upward and an axon           
downward4--,after ,,donaldson4  ,,the   
,,neurone4--,what1 then1 is a neurone8  
,what is its structure1 its function1   
how does it act8 ,a neurone is a        
protoplasmic cell1 with its outgrowing  
fibers4 ,the cell part of the neurone is
 of a variety of shapes1 triangular1    
pyramidal1 cylindrical1 and irregular4  
,the cells vary in size from #a_/bej to 
#a_/cejj of an inch in diameter4 ,in    
general the function of the cell is     
thought to be to generate the nervous   
energy responsible for our              
consciousness--sensation1 memory1       
reasoning1 feeling and all the rest1 and
 for our movements4 ,the cell also      

provides for the nutrition of the       
fibers4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4          
#g4--,longitudinal 7a7 and ,transverse  
7b7 section of nerve fiber4 ,the heavy  
border represents the medullary1 or     
enveloping sheath1 which becomes thicker
 in the larger fibers4--,after          
,,donaldson4  ,,neurone ,,fibers4--,the 
neurone fibers are of two kinds1        
dendrites and axons4 ,the dendrites are 
comparatively large in diameter1 branch 
freely1 like the branches of a tree1 and
 extend but a relatively short distance 
from the parent cell4 ,axons are        
slender1 and branch but little1 and then
 approximately at right angles4 ,they   
reach a much greater distance from the  
cell body than the dendrites4 ,neurones 
vary greatly in length4 ,some of those  
found in the spinal cord and brain are  
not more than #a_/ab of an inch long1   
while others which reach from the       
extremities to the cord1 measure several
 feet4 ,both dendrites and axons are of 
diameter so small as to be invisible    

except under the microscope4            
,,neuroglia4--,out of this simple       
structural element1 the neurone1 the    
entire nervous system is built4 ,true1  
the neurones are held in place1 and     
perhaps insulated1 by a kind of soft    
cement called neuroglia4 ,but this seems
 to possess no strictly nervous         
function4 ,the number of the microscopic
 neurones required to make up the mass  
of the brain1 cord and peripheral       
nervous system is far beyond our mental 
grasp4 ,it is computed that the brain   
and cord contain some #c1jjj millions of
 them4  ,,complexity ,,of ,,the         
,,brain4--,something of the complexity  
of the brain structure can best be      
understood by an illustration4          
,professor ,stratton estimates that if  
we were to make a model of the human    
brain1 using for the neurone fibers     
wires so small as to be barely visible  
to the eye1 in order to find room for   
all the wires the model would need to be
 the size of a city block on the base   

and correspondingly high4 ,imagine a    
telephone system of this complexity     
operating from one switch-board6  ,,gray
 ,,and ,,white ,,matter4--,the gray     
matter of the brain and cord is made up 
of nerve cells and their dendrites1 and 
the terminations of axons1 which enter  
from the adjoining white matter4 ,a part
 of the mass of gray matter also        
consists of the neuroglia which         
surrounds the nerve cells and fibers1   
and a network of blood vessels4 ,the    
white matter of the central system      
consists chiefly of axons with their    
enveloping or medullary1 sheath and     
neuroglia4 ,the white matter contains no
 nerve cells or dendrites4 ,the         
difference in color of the gray and the 
white matter is caused chiefly by the   
fact that in the gray masses the        
medullary sheath1 which is white1 is    
lacking1 thus revealing the ashen gray  
of the nerve threads4 ,in the white     
masses the medullary sheath is present4 
#d4 ,,gross ,,structure ,,of ,,the      

,,nervous ,,system  ,,divisions ,,of    
,,the ,,nervous ,,system4--,the nervous 
system may be considered in two         
divisions3 7#a7 ,the central system1    
which consists of the brain and spinal  
cord1 and 7#b7 the peripheral system1   
which comprises the sensory and motor   
neurones connecting the periphery and   
the internal organs with the central    
system and the specialized end-organs of
 the senses4 ,the sympathetic system1   
which is found as a double chain of     
nerve connections joining the roots of  
sensory and motor nerves just outside   
the spinal column1 does not seem to be  
directly related to consciousness and so
 will not be discussed here4 ,a brief   
description of the nervous system will  
help us better to understand how its    
parts all work together in so wonderful 
a way to accomplish their great result4 
,,the ,,central ,,system4--,in the brain
 we easily distinguish three major      
divisions--the cerebrum1 the cerebellum 
and the medulla oblongata4 ,the medulla 

is but the enlarged upper part of the   
cord where it connects with the brain4  
,it is about an inch and a quarter long1
 and is composed of both medullated and 
unmedullated fibers--that is of both    
white and gray matter4 ,in the medulla1 
the unmedullated neurones which comprise
 the center of the cord are passing to  
the outside1 and the medullated to the  
inside1 thus taking the positions they  
occupy in the cerebrum4 ,here also the  
neurones are crossing1 or changing      
sides1 so that those which pass up the  
right side of the cord finally connect  
with the left side of the brain1 and    
vice versa4  ,,the ,,cerebellum4--,lying
 just back of the medulla and at the    
rear part of the base of the cerebrum is
 the cerebellum1 or little brain1       
approximately as large as the fist1 and 
composed of a complex arrangement of    
white and gray matter4 ,fibers from the 
spinal cord enter this mass1 and others 
emerge and pass on into the cerebrum1   
while its two halves also are connected 

with each other by means of cross       
fibers4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4          
#h4--,view of the under side of the     
brain4 ,b1 basis of the crura2 ,p1 pons2
 ,mo1 medulla oblongata2 ,ce1           
cerebellum2 ,sc1 spinal cord4  ,,the    
,,cerebrum4--,the cerebrum occupies all 
the upper part of the skull from the    
front to the rear4 ,it is divided       
symmetrically into two hemispheres1 the 
right and the left4 ,these hemispheres  
are connected with each other by a small
 bridge of fibers called the corpus     
callosum4 ,each hemisphere is furrowed  
and ridged with convolutions1 an        
arrangement which allows greater surface
 for the distribution of the gray       
cellular matter over it4 ,besides these 
irregularities of surface1 each         
hemisphere is marked also by two deep   
clefts or fissures--the fissure of      
,rolando1 extending from the middle     
upper part of the hemisphere downward   
and forward1 passing a little in front  
of the ear and stopping on a level with 

the upper part of it2 and the fissure of
 ,sylvius1 beginning at the base of the 
brain somewhat in front of the ear and  
extending upward and backward at an     
acute angle with the base of the        
hemisphere4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#i4--;,diagrammatic side view of brain1 
showing cerebellum 7,,cb7 and medulla   
oblongata 7,,mo74 ,f' ,f'' ,f''' are    
placed on the first1 second1 and third  
frontal convolutions1 respectively2     
,,af1 on the ascending frontal2 ,,ap1 on
 the ascending parietal2 ,m1 on the     
marginal2 ,a1 on the angular4 ,t' ,t''  
,t''' are placed on the first1 second1  
and third temporal convolutions4 ,r-,r  
marks the fissure of ,rolando2 ,s-,s1   
the fissure of ,sylvius2 ,,po1 the      
parieto-occipital fissure4  ,the surface
 of each hemisphere may be thought of as
 mapped out into four lobes3 ,the       
frontal lobe1 which includes the front  
part of the hemisphere and extends back 
to the fissure of ,rolando and down to  
the fissure of ,sylvius2 the parietal   

lobe1 which lies back of the fissure of 
,rolando and above that of ,sylvius and 
extends back to the occipital lobe2 the 
occipital lobe1 which includes the      
extreme rear portion of the hemisphere2 
and the temporal lobe1 which lies below 
the fissure of ,sylvius and extends back
 to the occipital lobe4  ,,the          
,,cortex4--,the gray matter of the      
hemispheres1 unlike that of the cord1   
lies on the surface4 ,this gray exterior
 portion of the cerebrum is called the  
cortex1 and varies from one-twelfth to  
one-eighth of an inch in thickness4 ,the
 cortex is the seat of all consciousness
 and of the control of voluntary        
movement4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4        
#aj4--;,different aspects of sections of
 the spinal cord and of the roots of the
 spinal nerves from the cervical region3
 #a1 different views of anterior median 
fissure2 #b1 posterior fissure2 #c1     
anterior lateral depression for anterior
 roots2 #d1 posterior lateral depression
 for posterior roots2 #e and #f1        

anterior and posterior roots1           
respectively2 #g1 complete spinal nerve1
 formed by the union of the anterior and
 posterior roots4  ,,the ,,spinal       
,,cord4--,the spinal cord proceeds from 
the base of the brain downward about    
eighteen inches through a canal provided
 for it in the vertebrae of the spinal  
column4 ,it is composed of white matter 
on the outside1 and gray matter within4 
,a deep fissure on the anterior side and
 another on the posterior cleave the    
cord nearly in twain1 resembling the    
brain in this particular4 ,the gray     
matter on the interior is in the form of
 two crescents connected by a narrow    
bar4  ,the peripheral nervous system    
consists of thirty-one pairs of nerves1 
with their end-organs1 branching off    
from the cord1 and twelve pairs that    
have their roots in the brain4 ,branches
 of these forty-three pairs of nerves   
reach to every part of the periphery of 
the body and to all the internal organs4
  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,the      

projection fibers of the brain4 ,i-,,ix1
 the first nine pairs of cranial nerves4
  ,it will help in understanding the    
peripheral system to remember that a    
nerve consists of a bundle of neurone   
fibers each wrapped in its medullary    
sheath and sheath of ,schwann4 ,around  
this bundle of neurones1 that is around 
the nerve1 is still another wrapping1   
silvery-white1 called the neurilemma4   
,the number of fibers going to make up a
 nerve varies from about #e1jjj to      
#ajj1jjj4 ,nerves can easily be         
identified in a piece of lean beef1 or  
even at the edge of a serious gash in   
one's own flesh6  ,bundles of sensory   
fibers constituting a sensory nerve root
 enter the spinal cord on the posterior 
side through holes in the vertebrae4    
,similar bundles of motor fibers in the 
form of a motor nerve root emerge from  
the cord at the same level4 ,soon after 
their emergence from the cord1 these two
 nerves are wrapped together in the same
 sheath and proceed in this way to the  

periphery of the body1 where the sensory
 nerve usually ends in a specialized    
end-organ fitted to respond to some     
certain stimulus from the outside world4
 ,the motor nerve ends in minute        
filaments in the muscular organ which it
 governs4 ,both sensory and motor nerves
 connect with fibers of like kind in the
 cord and these in turn with the cortex1
 thus giving every part of the periphery
 direct connection with the cortex4     
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,schematic  
diagram showing association fibers      
connecting cortical centers with each   
other4--,after ,,james and ,,starr4     
,the end-organs of the sensory nerves   
are nerve masses1 some of them1 as the  
taste buds of the tongue1 relatively    
simple2 and others1 as the eye or ear1  
very complex4 ,they are all alike in one
 particular2 namely1 that each is fitted
 for its own particular work and can do 
no other4 ,thus the eye is the end-organ
 of sight1 and is a wonderfully complex 
arrangement of nerve structure combined 

with refracting media1 and arranged to  
respond to the rapid ether waves of     
light4 ,the ear has for its essential   
part the specialized endings of the     
auditory nerve1 and is fitted to respond
 to the waves carried to it in the air1 
giving the sensation of sound4 ,the     
end-organs of touch1 found in greatest  
perfection in the finger tips1 are of   
several kinds1 all very complicated in  
structure4 ,and so on with each of the  
senses4 ,each particular sense has some 
form of end-organ specially adapted to  
respond to the kind of stimulus upon    
which its sensation depends1 and each is
 insensible to the stimuli of the       
others1 much as the receiver of a       
telephone will respond to the tones of  
our voice1 but not to the touch of our  
fingers as will the telegraph           
instrument1 and vice versa4 ,thus the   
eye is not affected by sounds1 nor touch
 by light4 ,yet by means of all the     
senses together we are able to come in  
contact with the material world in a    

variety of ways4   #e4 ,,localization   
,,of ,,function ,,in ,,the ,,nervous    
,,system  ,,division ,,of               
,,labor4--,division of labor is the law 
in the organic world as in the          
industrial4 ,animals of the lowest type1
 such as the amoeba1 do not have        
separate organs for respiration1        
digestion1 assimilation1 elimination1   
etc41 the one tissue performing all of  
these functions4 ,but in the higher     
forms each organ not only has its own   
specific work1 but even within the same 
organ each part has its own particular  
function assigned4 ,thus we have seen   
that the two parts of the neurone       
probably perform different functions1   
the cells generating energy and the     
fibers transmitting it4  ,it will not   
seem strange1 then1 that there is also a
 division of labor in the cellular      
matter itself in the nervous system4    
,for example1 the little masses of      
ganglia which are distributed at        
intervals along the nerves are probably 

for the purpose of reenforcing the nerve
 current1 much as the battery cells in  
the local telegraph office reenforce the
 current from the central office4 ,the  
cellular matter in the spinal cord and  
lower parts of the brain has a very     
important work to perform in receiving  
messages from the senses and responding 
to them in directing the simpler reflex 
acts and movements which we learn to    
execute without our consciousness being 
called upon1 thus leaving the mind free 
from these petty things to busy itself  
in higher ways4 ,the cellular matter of 
the cortex performs the highest         
functions of all1 for through its       
activity we have consciousness4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,side view  
of left hemisphere of human brain1      
showing the principal localized areas4  
,the gray matter of the cerebellum1 the 
medulla1 and the cord may receive       
impressions from the senses and respond 
to them with movements1 but their       
response is in all cases wholly         

automatic and unconscious4 ,a person    
whose hemispheres had been injured in   
such a way as to interfere with the     
activity of the cortex might still      
continue to perform most if not all of  
the habitual movements of his life1 but 
they would be mechanical and not        
intelligent4 ,he would lack all higher  
consciousness4 ,it is through the       
activity of this thin covering of       
cellular matter of the cerebrum1 the    
cortex1 that our minds operate2 here are
 received stimuli from the different    
senses1 and here sensations are         
experienced4 ,here all our movements    
which are consciously directed have     
their origin4 ,and here all our         
thinking1 feeling1 and willing are done4
  ,,division ,,of ,,labor ,,in ,,the    
,,cortex4--,nor does the division of    
labor in the nervous system end with    
this assignment of work4 ,the cortex    
itself probably works essentially as a  
unit1 yet it is through a shifting of   
tensions from one area to another that  

it acts1 now giving us a sensation1 now 
directing a movement1 and now thinking a
 thought or feeling an emotion4         
,localization of function is the rule   
here also4 ,certain areas of the cortex 
are devoted chiefly to sensations1      
others to motor impulses1 and others to 
higher thought activities1 yet in such a
 way that all work together in perfect  
harmony1 each reenforcing the other and 
making its work significant4 ,thus the  
front portion of the cortex seems to be 
devoted to the higher thought           
activities2 the region on both sides of 
the fissure of ,rolando1 to motor       
activities2 and the rear and lower parts
 to sensory activities2 and all are     
bound together and made to work together
 by the association fibers of the brain4
  ,in the case of the higher thought    
activities1 it is not probable that one 
section of the frontal lobes of the     
cortex is set apart for thinking1 one   
for feeling1 and one for willing1 etc41 
but rather that the whole frontal part  

of the cortex is concerned in each4 ,in 
the motor and sensory areas1 however1   
the case is different2 for here a still 
further division of labor occurs4 ,for  
example1 in the motor region one small  
area seems connected with movements of  
the head1 one with the arm1 one with the
 leg1 one with the face1 and another    
with the organs of speech2 likewise in  
the sensory region1 one area is devoted 
to vision1 one to hearing1 one to taste 
and smell1 and one to touch1 etc4 ,we   
must bear in mind1 however1 that these  
regions are not mapped out as accurately
 as are the boundaries of our           
states--that no part of the brain is    
restricted wholly to either sensory or  
motor nerves1 and that no part works by 
itself independently of the rest of the 
brain4 ,we name a tract from the        
predominance of nerves which end there1 
or from the chief functions which the   
area performs4 ,the motor localization  
seems to be the most perfect4 ,indeed1  
experimentation on the brains of monkeys

 has been successful in mapping out     
motor areas so accurately that such     
small centers as those connected with   
the bending of one particular leg or the
 flexing of a thumb have been located4  
,yet each area of the cortex is so      
connected with every other area by the  
millions of association fibers that the 
whole brain is capable of working       
together as a unit1 thus unifying and   
harmonizing our thoughts1 emotions1 and 
acts4   #f4 ,,forms ,,of ,,sensory      
,,stimuli  ,let us next inquire how this
 mechanism of the nervous system is     
acted upon in such a way as to give us  
sensations4 ,in order to understand     
this1 we must first know that all forms 
of matter are composed of minute atoms  
which are in constant motion1 and by    
imparting this motion to the air or the 
ether which surrounds them1 are         
constantly radiating energy in the form 
of minute waves throughout space4 ,these
 waves1 or radiations1 are incredibly   
rapid in some instances and rather slow 

in others4 ,in sending out its energy in
 the form of these waves1 the physical  
world is doing its part to permit us to 
form its acquaintance4 ,the end-organs  
of the sensory nerves must meet this    
advance half-way1 and be so constructed 
as to be affected by the different forms
 of energy which are constantly beating 
upon them4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#ad4--,the prism's analysis of a bundle 
of light rays4 ,on the right are shown  
the relation of vibration rates to      
temperature stimuli1 to light and to    
chemical stimuli4 ,the rates are given  
in billions per second4--,after         
,,witmer4  ,,the ,,end-,,organs ,,and   
,,their ,,response ,,to                 
,,stimuli4--,thus the radiations of     
ether from the sun1 our chief source of 
light1 are so rapid that billions of    
them enter the eye in a second of time1 
and the retina is of such a nature that 
its nerve cells are thrown into activity
 by these waves2 the impulse is carried 
over the optic nerve to the occipital   

lobe of the cortex1 and the sensation of
 sight is the result4 ,the different    
colors also1 from the red of the        
spectrum to the violet1 are the result  
of different vibration rates in the     
waves of ether which strike the retina2 
and in order to perceive color1 the     
retina must be able to respond to the   
particular vibration rate which         
represents each color4 ,likewise in the 
sense of touch the end-organs are fitted
 to respond to very rapid vibrations1   
and it is possible that the different   
qualities of touch are produced by      
different vibration rates in the atoms  
of the object we are touching4 ,when we 
reach the ear1 we have the organ which  
responds to the lowest vibration rate of
 all1 for we can detect a sound made by 
an object which is vibrating from twenty
 to thirty times a second4 ,the highest 
vibration rate which will affect the ear
 is some forty thousand per second4     
,thus it is seen that there are great   
gaps in the different rates to which our

 senses are fitted to respond--a sudden 
drop from billions in the case of the   
eye to millions in touch1 and to        
thousands or even tens in hearing4 ,this
 makes one wonder whether there are not 
many things in nature which man has     
never discovered simply because he has  
not the sense mechanism enabling him to 
become conscious of their existence4    
,there are undoubtedly more things in   
heaven and earth than are dreamt of in  
our philosophy4  ,,dependence ,,of ,,the
 ,,mind ,,on ,,the ,,senses4--,only as  
the senses bring in the material1 has   
the mind anything with which to build4  
,thus have the senses to act as         
messengers between the great outside    
world and the brain2 to be the servants 
who shall stand at the doorways of the  
body--the eyes1 the ears1 the finger    
tips--each ready to receive its         
particular kind of impulse from nature  
and send it along the right path to the 
part of the cortex where it belongs1 so 
that the mind can say1 ,a sight1 ,a     

sound1 or ,a touch4 ,thus does the mind 
come to know the universe of the senses4
 ,thus does it get the material out of  
which memory1 imagination1 and thought  
begin4 ,thus and only thus does the mind
 secure the crude material from which   
the finished superstructure is finally  
built4     ,,chapter ,,iv  ,,mental     
,,development ,,and ,,motor ,,training  
,education was long looked upon as      
affecting the mind only2 the body was   
either left out of account or neglected4
 ,later science has shown1 however1 that
 the mind cannot be trained except as   
the nervous system is trained and       
developed4 ,for not sensation and the   
simpler mental processes alone1 but     
memory1 imagination1 judgment1 reasoning
 and every other act of the mind are    
dependent on the nervous system finally 
for their efficiency4 ,the little child 
gets its first mental experiences in    
connection with certain movements or    
acts set up reflexly by the             
pre-organized nervous system4 ,from this

 time on movement and idea are so       
inextricably bound together that they   
cannot be separated4 ,the mind and the  
brain are so vitally related that it is 
impossible to educate one without       
performing a like office for the other2 
and it is likewise impossible to neglect
 the one without causing the other to   
suffer in its development4   #a4        
,,factors ,,determining ,,the           
,,efficiency ,,of ,,the ,,nervous       
,,system  ,,development ,,and           
,,nutrition4--,ignoring the native      
differences in nervous systems through  
the influence of heredity1 the          
efficiency of a nervous system is       
largely dependent on two factors3 7#a7  
,the development of the cells and fibers
 of which it is composed1 and 7#b7 its  
general tone of health and vigor4 ,the  
actual number of cells in the nervous   
system increases but little if at all   
after birth4 ,indeed1 it is doubtful    
whether ,edison's brain and nervous     
system has a greater number of cells in 

it than yours or mine4 ,the difference  
between the brain of a genius and that  
of an ordinary man is not in the number 
of cells which it contains1 but rather  
in the development of the cells and     
fibers which are present1 potentially1  
at least1 in every nervous system4 ,the 
histologist tells us that in the nervous
 system of every child there are tens of
 thousands of cells which are so        
immature and undeveloped that they are  
useless2 indeed1 this is the case to    
some degree in every adult person's     
nervous system as well4 ,thus each      
individual has inherent in his nervous  
system potentialities of which he has   
never taken advantage1 the utilizing of 
which may make him a genius and the     
neglecting of which will certainly leave
 him on the plane of mediocrity4 ,the   
first problem in education1 then1 is to 
take the unripe and inefficient nervous 
system and so develop it in connection  
with the growing mind that the          
possibilities which nature has stored in

 it shall become actualities4           
,,undeveloped ,,cells4--,professor      
,donaldson tells us on this point that3 
,at birth1 and for a long time after1   
many nervous systems contain cell       
elements which are more or less         
immature1 not forming a functional part 
of the tissue1 and yet under some       
conditions capable of further           
development4444 ,for the cells which are
 continually appearing in the developing
 cortex no other source is known than   
the nuclei or granules found there in   
its earliest stages4 ,these elements are
 metamorphosed neuroblasts--that is1    
elementary cells out of which the       
nervous matter is developed--which have 
shrunken to a volume less than that     
which they had at first1 and which      
remain small until1 in the subsequent   
process of enlargement necessary for    
their full development1 they expand into
 well-marked cells4 ,elements           
intermediate between these granules and 
the fully developed cells are always    

found1 even in mature brains1 and       
therefore it is inferred that the latter
 are derived from the former4 ,the      
appearances there also lead to the      
conclusion that many elements which     
might possibly develop in any given case
 are far beyond the number that actually
 does so4444 ,the possible number of    
cells latent and functional in the      
central system is early fixed4 ,at any  
age this number is accordingly          
represented by the granules as well as  
by the cells which have already         
undergone further development4 ,during  
growth the proportion of developed cells
 increases1 and sometimes1 owing to the 
failure to recognize potential nerve    
cells in the granules1 the impression is
 carried away that this increase implies
 the formation of new elements4 ,as has 
been shown1 such is not the case4#a     
,,development ,,of ,,nerve              
,,fibers4--,the nerve fibers1 no less   
than the cells1 must go through a       
process of development4 ,it has already 

been shown that the fibers are the      
result of a branching of cells4 ,at     
birth many of the cells have not yet    
thrown out branches1 and hence the      
fibers are lacking2 while many of those 
which are already grown out are not     
sufficiently developed to transmit      
impulses accurately4 ,thus it has been  
found that most children at birth are   
able to support the weight of the body  
for several seconds by clasping the     
fingers around a small rod1 but it takes
 about a year for the child to become   
able to stand4 ,it is evident that it   
requires more actual strength to cling  
to a rod than to stand2 hence the       
conclusion is that the difference is in 
the earlier development of the nerve    
centers which have to do with clasping  
than of those concerned in standing4    
,likewise the child's first attempts to 
feed himself or do any one of the       
thousand little things about which he is
 so awkward1 are partial failures not so
 much because he has not had practice as

 because his nervous machinery connected
 with those movements is not yet        
developed sufficiently to enable him to 
be accurate4 ,his brain is in a         
condition which ,flechsig calls unripe4 
,how1 then1 shall the undeveloped cells 
and system ripen8 ,how shall the        
undeveloped cells and fibers grow to    
full maturity and efficiency8   #b4     
,,development ,,of ,,nervous ,,system   
,,through ,,use  ,,importance ,,of      
,,stimulus ,,and ,,response4--,like all 
other tissues of the body1 the nerve    
cells and fibers are developed by       
judicious use4 ,the sensory and         
association centers require the constant
 stimulus of nerve currents running in  
from the various end-organs1 and the    
motor centers require the constant      
stimulus of currents running from them  
out to the muscles4 ,in other words1 the
 conditions upon which both motor and   
sensory development depend are3 7#a7 ,a 
rich environment of sights and sounds   
and tastes and smells1 and everything   

else which serves as proper stimulus to 
the sense organs1 and to every form of  
intellectual and social interest2 and   
7#b7 no less important1 an opportunity  
for the freest and most complete forms  
of response and motor activity4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,schematic  
transverse section of the human brain   
showing the projection of the motor     
fibers1 their crossing in the           
neighborhood of the medulla1 and their  
termination in the different areas of   
localized function in the cortex4 ,s1   
fissure of ,sylvius2 ,m1 the medulla2   
,,vii1 the roots of the facial nerves4  
,an illustration of the effects of the  
lack of sensory stimuli on the cortex is
 well shown in the case of ,laura       
,bridgman1 whose brain was studied by   
,professor ,donaldson after her death4  
,laura ,bridgman was born a normal      
child1 and developed as other children  
do up to the age of nearly three years4 
,at this time1 through an attack of     
scarlet fever1 she lost her hearing     

completely and also the sight of her    
left eye4 ,her right eye was so badly   
affected that she could see but little2 
and it1 too1 became entirely blind when 
she was eight4 ,she lived in this       
condition until she was sixty years old1
 when she died4 ,professor ,donaldson   
submitted the cortex of her brain to a  
most careful examination1 also comparing
 the corresponding areas on the two     
hemispheres with each other4 ,he found  
that as a whole the cortex was thinner  
than in the case of normal individuals4 
,he found also that the cortical area   
connected with the left eye--namely1 the
 right occipital region--was much       
thinner than that for the right eye1    
which had retained its sight longer than
 the other4 ,he says3 ,it is interesting
 to notice that those parts of the      
cortex which1 according to the current  
view1 were associated with the defective
 sense organs were also particularly    
thin4 ,the cause of this thinness was   
found to be due1 at least in part1 to   

the small size of the nerve cells there 
present4 ,not only were the large and   
medium-sized cells smaller1 but the     
impression made on the observer was that
 they were also less numerous than in   
the normal cortex4  ,,effect ,,of       
,,sensory ,,stimuli4--,no doubt if we   
could examine the brain of a person who 
has grown up in an environment rich in  
stimuli to the eye1 where nature1 earth1
 and sky have presented a changing      
panorama of color and form to attract   
the eye2 where all the sounds of nature1
 from the chirp of the insect to the    
roar of the waves and the murmur of the 
breeze1 and from the softest tones of   
the voice to the mightiest sweep of the 
great orchestra1 have challenged the    
ear2 where many and varied odors and    
perfumes have assailed the nostrils2    
where a great range of tastes have      
tempted the palate2 where many varieties
 of touch and temperature sensations    
have been experienced--no doubt if we   
could examine such a brain we should    

find the sensory areas of the cortex    
excelling in thickness because its cells
 were well developed and full sized from
 the currents which had been pouring    
into them from the outside world4 ,on   
the other hand1 if we could examine a   
cortex which had lacked any one of these
 stimuli1 we should find some area in it
 undeveloped because of this deficiency4
 ,its owner therefore possesses but the 
fraction of a brain1 and would in a     
corresponding degree find his mind      
incomplete4  ,,necessity ,,for ,,motor  
,,activity4--,likewise in the case of   
the motor areas4 ,pity the boy or girl  
who has been deprived of the opportunity
 to use every muscle to the fullest     
extent in the unrestricted plays and    
games of childhood4 ,for where such     
activities are not wide in their scope1 
there some areas of the cortex will     
remain undeveloped1 because unused1 and 
the person will be handicapped later in 
his life from lack of skill in the      
activities depending on these centers4  

,halleck says in this connection3 ,if we
 could examine the developing motor     
region with a microscope of sufficient  
magnifying power1 it is conceivable that
 we might learn wherein the modification
 due to exercise consists4 ,we might    
also1 under such conditions1 be able to 
say1 ',this is the motor region of a    
piano player2 the modifications here    
correspond precisely to those necessary 
for controlling such movements of the   
hand4' ,or1 ',this is the motor tract of
 a blacksmith2 this1 of an engraver2 and
 these must be the cells which govern   
the vocal organs of an orator4' ,whether
 or not the microscope will ever reveal 
such things to us1 there is no doubt    
that the conditions suggested exist1 and
 that back of every inefficient and     
awkward attempt at physical control lies
 a motor area with its cells undeveloped
 by use4 ,no wonder that our processes  
of learning physical adjustment and     
control are slow1 for they are a growth 
in the brain rather than a simple       

learning how4  ,the training of the     
nervous system consists finally1 then1  
in the development and cooerdination of 
the neurones of which it is composed4   
,we have seen that the sensory cells are
 to be developed by the sensory stimuli 
pouring in upon them1 and the motor     
cells by the motor impulses which they  
send out to the muscles4 ,the sensory   
and the motor fibers likewise1 being an 
outgrowth of their respective cells1    
find their development in carrying the  
impulses which result in sensation and  
movement4 ,thus it is seen that the     
neurone is1 in its development as in its
 work1 a unit4  ,,development ,,of ,,the
 ,,association ,,centers4--,to this     
simpler type of sensory and motor       
development which we have been          
considering1 we must add that which     
comes from the more complex mental      
processes1 such as memory1 thought1 and 
imagination4 ,for it is in connection   
with these that the association fibers  
are developed1 and the brain areas so   

connected that they can work together as
 a unit4 ,a simple illustration will    
enable us to see more clearly how the   
nervous mechanism acts to bring this    
about4  ,suppose that ,i am walking     
along a country road deeply engaged in  
meditation1 and that ,i come to a puddle
 of water in my pathway4 ,i may turn    
aside and avoid the obstruction without 
my attention being called to it1 and    
without interruption of my train of     
thought4 ,the act has been automatic4   
,in this case the nerve current has     
passed from the eye 7,s7 over an        
afferent fiber to a sensory center 7s7  
in the nervous system below the cortex2 
from there it has been forwarded to a   
motor center 7m7 in the same region1 and
 on out over a motor fiber to the proper
 muscles 7,m71 which are to execute the 
required act4 ,the act having been      
completed1 the sensory nerves connected 
with the muscles employed report the    
fact back that the work is done1 thus   
completing the circuit4 ,this event may 

be taken as an illustration of literally
 thousands of acts which we perform     
daily without the intervention of       
consciousness1 and hence without        
involving the hemispheres4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--;,diagram   
illustrating the paths of association4  
,if1 however1 instead of avoiding the   
puddle unconsciously1 ,i do so from     
consideration of the danger of wet feet 
and the disagreeableness of soiled shoes
 and the ridiculous appearance ,i shall 
make1 then the current cannot take the  
short circuit1 but must pass on up to   
the cortex4 ,here it awakens            
consciousness to take notice of the     
obstruction1 and calls forth the images 
which aid in directing the necessary    
movements4 ,this simple illustration may
 be greatly complicated1 substituting   
for it one of the more complex problems 
which are continually presenting        
themselves to us for solution1 or the   
associated trains of thought that are   
constantly occupying our minds4 ,but the

 truth of the illustration still holds4 
,whether in the simple or the complex   
act1 there is always a forward passing  
of the nerve current through the sensory
 and thought centers1 and on out through
 the motor centers to the organs which  
are to be concerned in the motor        
response4  ,,the ,,factors ,,involved   
,,in ,a ,,simple ,,action4--,thus it    
will be seen that in the simplest act   
which can be considered there are the   
following factors3 7#a7 ,the stimulus   
which acts on the end-organ2 7#b7 the   
ingoing current over an afferent nerve2 
7#c7 the sensory or interpreting cells2 
7#d7 the fibers connecting the sensory  
with a motor center2 7#e7 the motor     
cells2 7#f7 the efferent nerve to carry 
the direction for the movement outward  
to the muscle2 7#g7 the motor response2 
and1 finally1 7#h7 the report back that 
the act has been performed4 ,with this  
in mind it fairly bewilders one to think
 of the marvelous complexity of the work
 that is going on in our nervous        

mechanism every moment of our life1 even
 without considering the higher thought 
processes at all4 ,how1 with these      
added1 the resulting complexity all     
works out into beautiful harmony is     
indeed beyond comprehension4   #c4      
,,education ,,and ,,the ,,training ,,of 
,,the ,,nervous ,,system  ,fortunately1 
many of the best opportunities for      
sensory and motor training do not depend
 on schools or courses of study4 ,the   
world is full of stimuli to our senses  
and to our social natures2 and our      
common lives are made up of the         
responses we make to these stimuli1--the
 movements1 acts and deeds by which we  
fit ourselves into our world of         
environment4 ,undoubtedly the most rapid
 and vital progress we make in our      
development is accomplished in the years
 before we have reached the age to go to
 school4 ,yet it is the business of     
education to see that we do not lack any
 essential opportunity1 to make sure    
that necessary lines of stimuli or of   

motor training have not been omitted    
from our development4  ,,education ,,to 
,,supply ,,opportunities ,,for          
,,stimulus ,,and ,,response4--,the great
 problem of education is1 on the        
physical side1 it would seem1 then1 to  
provide for ourselves and those we seek 
to educate as rich an environment of    
sensory and social stimuli as possible2 
one whose impressions will be full of   
suggestions to response in motor        
activity and the higher thought         
processes2 and then to give opportunity 
for thought and for expression in acts  
and deeds in the largest possible number
 of lines4 ,and added to this must be   
frequent and clear sensory and motor    
recall1 a living over again of the      
sights and sounds and odors and the     
motor activities we have once           
experienced4 ,there must also be the    
opportunity for the forming of worthy   
plans and ideals4 ,for in this way the  
brain centers which were concerned in   
the original sensation or thought or    

movement are again brought into         
exercise1 and their development         
continued4 ,through recall and          
imagination we are able not only greatly
 to multiply the effects of the         
immediate sensory and motor stimuli     
which come to us1 but also to improve   
our power of thinking by getting a fund 
of material upon which the mind can     
draw4  ,,order ,,of ,,development ,,in  
,,the ,,nervous ,,system4--,nature has  
set the order in which the powers of the
 nervous system shall develop4 ,and we  
must follow this order if we would      
obtain the best results4 ,stated in     
technical terms1 the order is from      
fundamental to accessory4 ,this is to   
say that the nerve centers controlling  
the larger and more general movements of
 the body ripen first1 and those        
governing the finer motor adjustments   
later4 ,for example1 the larger body    
muscles of the child which are concerned
 with sitting up come under control     
earlier than those connected with       

walking4 ,the arm muscles develop       
control earlier than the finger muscles1
 and the head and neck muscles earlier  
than the eye muscles4 ,so also the more 
general and less highly specialized     
powers of the mind ripen sooner than the
 more highly specialized4 ,perception   
and observation precede powers of       
critical judgment and association4      
,memory and imagination ripen earlier   
than reasoning and the logical ability4 
,this all means that our educational    
system must be planned to follow the    
order of nature4 ,children of the       
primary grades should not be required to
 write with fine pencils or pens which  
demand delicate finger adjustments1     
since the brain centers for these finer 
cooerdinations are not yet developed4   
,young children should not be set at    
work necessitating difficult eye        
control1 such as stitching through      
perforated cardboard1 reading fine print
 and the like1 as their eyes are not yet
 ready for such tasks4 ,the more        

difficult analytical problems of        
arithmetic and relations of grammar     
should not be required of pupils at a   
time when the association areas of the  
brain are not yet ready for this type of
 thinking4 ,for such methods violate the
 law of nature1 and the child is sure to
 suffer the penalty4   #d4 ,,importance 
,,of ,,health ,,and ,,vigor ,,of ,,the  
,,nervous ,,system  ,parallel with      
opportunities for proper stimuli and    
response the nervous system must possess
 good tonicity1 or vigor4 ,this depends 
in large degree on general health and   
nutrition1 with freedom from            
overfatigue4 ,no favorableness of       
environment nor excellence of training  
can result in an efficient brain if the 
nerve energy has run low from depleted  
health1 want of proper nourishment1 or  
exhaustion4  ,,the ,,influence ,,of     
,,fatigue4--,histologists find that the 
nuclei of nerve cells are shrunk as much
 as fifty per cent by extreme fatigue4  
,reasonable fatigue followed by proper  

recuperation is not harmful1 but even   
necessary if the best development is to 
be attained2 but fatigue without proper 
nourishment and rest is fatal to all    
mental operations1 and indeed finally to
 the nervous system itself1 leaving it  
permanently in a condition of low tone1 
and incapable of rallying to strong     
effort4 ,for rapid and complete         
recuperation the cells must have not    
only the best of nourishment but        
opportunity for rest as well4  ,extreme 
and long-continued fatigue is hostile to
 the development and welfare of any     
nervous system1 and especially to that  
of children4 ,not only does overfatigue 
hinder growth1 but it also results in   
the formation of certain toxins1 or     
poisons1 in the organism1 which are     
particularly harmful to nervous tissue4 
,it is these fatigue toxins that account
 for many of the nervous and mental     
disorders which accompany breakdowns    
from overwork4 ,on the whole1 the evil  
effects from mental overstrain are more 

to be feared than from physical         
overstrain4  ,,the ,,effects ,,of       
,,worry4--,there is1 perhaps1 no greater
 foe to brain growth and efficiency than
 the nervous and worn-out condition     
which comes from loss of sleep or from  
worry4 ,experiments in the psychological
 laboratories have shown that nerve     
cells shrivel up and lose their vitality
 under loss of sleep4 ,let this go on   
for any considerable length of time1 and
 the loss is irreparable2 for the cells 
can never recuperate4 ,this is          
especially true in the case of children 
or young people4 ,many school boys and  
girls1 indeed many college students1 are
 making slow progress in their studies  
not because they are mentally slow or   
inefficient1 not even chiefly because   
they lose time that should be put on    
their lessons1 but because they are     
incapacitating their brains for good    
service through late hours and the      
consequent loss of sleep4 ,add to this  
condition that of worry1 which often    

accompanies it from the fact of failure 
in lessons1 and a naturally good and    
well-organized nervous system is sure to
 fail4 ,worry1 from whatever cause1     
should be avoided as one would avoid    
poison1 if we would bring ourselves to  
the highest degree of efficiency4 ,not  
only does worry temporarily unfit the   
mind for its best work1 but its evil    
results are permanent1 since the mind is
 left with a poorly developed or undone 
nervous system through which to work1   
even after the cause for worry has been 
removed and the worry itself has ceased4
  ,not only should each individual seek 
to control the causes of worry in his   
own life1 but the home and the school   
should force upon childhood as few      
causes for worry as may be4 ,children's 
worry over fears of the dark1 over      
sickness and death1 over prospective but
 delayed punishment1 over the thousand  
and one real or imaginary troubles of   
childhood1 should be eliminated so far  
as possible4 ,school examinations that  

prey on the peace of mind1 threats of   
failure of promotion1 all nagging and   
sarcasm1 and whatever else may cause    
continued pain or worry to sensitive    
minds should be barred from our         
schoolroom methods and practice4 ,the   
price we force the child to pay for     
results through their use is too great  
for them to be tolerated4 ,we must seek 
a better way4  ,,the ,,factors ,,in     
,,good ,,nutrition4--,for the best      
nutrition there is necessity first of   
all plenty of nourishing and healthful  
food4 ,science and experience have both 
disproved the supposition that students 
should be scantily fed4 ,o',shea claims 
that many brain workers are far short of
 their highest grade of efficiency      
because of starving their brains from   
poor diet4 ,and not only must the food  
be of the right quality1 but the body   
must be in good health4 ,little good to 
eat the best of food unless it is being 
properly digested and assimilated4 ,and 
little good if all the rest is as it    

should be1 and the right amount of      
oxidation does not go on in the brain so
 as to remove the worn-out cells and    
make place for new ones4 ,this warns us 
that pure air and a strong circulation  
are indispensable to the best working of
 our brains4 ,no doubt many students who
 find their work too hard for them might
 locate the trouble in their stomachs or
 their lungs or the food they eat1      
rather than in their minds4   #e4       
,,problems ,,for ,,introspection ,,and  
,,observation  #a4 ,estimate the mental 
progress made by the child during the   
first five years and compare with that  
made during the second five years of its
 life4 ,to do this make a list1 so far  
as you are able1 of the acquisitions of 
each period4 ,what do you conclude as to
 the importance of play and freedom in  
early education8 ,why not continue this 
method instead of sending the child to  
school8  #b4 ,which has the better      
opportunity for sensory training1 the   
city child or the country child8 ,for   

social training8 ,for motor development 
through play8 ,it is said by specialists
 that country children are not as good  
players as city children4 ,why should   
this be the case8  #c4 ,observe         
carefully some group of children for    
evidences of lack of sensory training   
7,interest in sensory objects1 skill in 
observation1 etc474 ,for lack of motor  
training 7,failure in motor control1    
awkwardness1 lack of skill in play1     
etc474 ,do you find that general mental 
ability seems to be correlated with     
sensory and motor ability1 or not8  #d4 
,what sensory training can be had from  
7#a7 geography1 7#b7 agriculture1 7#c7  
arithmetic1 7#d7 drawing8 ,what lines of
 motor training ought the school to     
afford1 7#a7 in general1 7#b7 for the   
hand1 7#c7 in the grace and poise of    
carriage or bearing1 7#d7 in any other  
line8 ,make observation tests of these  
points in one or more school rooms and  
report the results4  #e4 ,describe what 
you think must be the type of mental    

life of ,helen ,keller4 7,read ,the     
,world ,i ,live ,in1 by ,helen ,keller47
  #f4 ,study groups of children for     
signs of deficiency in brain power from 
lack of nutrition4 ,from fatigue4 ,from 
worry4 ,from lack of sleep4             
,,chapter ,v  ,,habit   ,habit is our   
best friend or worst enemy4 ,we are     
walking bundles of habits4 ,habit is the
 fly-wheel of society1 keeping men      
patient and docile in the hard or       
disagreeable lot which some must fill4  
,habit is a cable which we cannot break4
 ,so say the wise men4 ,let me know your
 habits of life and you have revealed   
your moral standards and conduct4 ,let  
me discover your intellectual habits1   
and ,i understand your type of mind and 
methods of thought4 ,in short1 our lives
 are largely a daily round of activities
 dictated by our habits in this line or 
that4 ,most of our movements and acts   
are habitual2 we think as we have formed
 the habit of thinking2 we decide as we 
are in the habit of deciding2 we sleep1 

or eat1 or speak as we have grown into  
the habit of doing these things2 we may 
even say our prayers or perform other   
religious exercises as matters of habit4
 ,but while habit is the veriest tyrant1
 yet its good offices far exceed the bad
 even in the most fruitless or depraved 
life4   #a4 ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,habit 
,many people when they speak or think of
 habit give the term a very narrow or   
limited meaning4 ,they have in mind only
 certain moral or personal tendencies   
usually spoken of as one's habits4 ,but 
in order to understand habit in any     
thorough and complete way we must1 as   
suggested by the preceding paragraph1   
broaden our concept to include every    
possible line of physical and mental    
activity4 ,habit may be defined as the  
tendency of the nervous system to repeat
 any act that has been performed once or
 many times4  ,,the ,,physical ,,basis  
,,of ,,habit4--,habit is to be explained
 from the standpoint of its physical    
basis4 ,habits are formed because the   

tissues of our brains are capable of    
being modified by use1 and of so        
retaining the effects of this           
modification that the same act is easier
 of performance each succeeding time4   
,this results in the old act being      
repeated instead of a new one being     
selected1 and hence the old act is      
perpetuated4  ,even dead and inert      
matter obeys the same principles in this
 regard as does living matter4 ,says ,m4
 ,leon ,dumont3 ,everyone knows how a   
garment1 having been worn a certain     
time1 clings to the shape of the body   
better than when it was new2 there has  
been a change in the tissue1 and this   
change is a new habit of cohesion2 a    
lock works better after having been used
 some time2 at the outset more force was
 required to overcome certain roughness 
in the mechanism4 ,the overcoming of    
this resistance is a phenomenon of      
habituation4 ,it costs less trouble to  
fold a paper when it has been folded    
already4 ,this saving of trouble is due 

to the essential nature of habit1 which 
brings it about that1 to reproduce the  
effect1 a less amount of the outward    
cause is required4 ,the sounds of a     
violin improve by use in the hands of an
 able artist1 because the fibers of the 
wood at last contract habits of         
vibration conformed to harmonic         
relations4 ,this is what gives such     
inestimable value to instruments that   
have belonged to great masters4 ,water1 
in flowing1 hollows out for itself a    
channel1 which grows broader and deeper2
 and1 after having ceased to flow1 it   
resumes when it flows again the path    
traced for itself before4 ,just so1 the 
impressions of outer objects fashion for
 themselves in the nervous system more  
and more appropriate paths1 and these   
vital phenomena recur under similar     
excitements from without1 when they have
 been interrupted for a certain time4#b 
,,all ,,living ,,tissue                 
,,plastic4--,what is true of inanimate  
matter is doubly true of living tissue4 

,the tissues of the human body can be   
molded into almost any form you choose  
if taken in time4 ,a child may be placed
 on his feet at too early an age1 and   
the bones of his legs form the habit of 
remaining bent4 ,the ,flathead ,indian  
binds a board on the skull of his child1
 and its head forms the habit of        
remaining flat on the top4 ,wrong bodily
 postures produce curvature of the      
spine1 and pernicious modes of dress    
deform the bones of the chest4 ,the     
muscles may be trained into the habit of
 keeping the shoulders straight or      
letting them droop2 those of the back1  
to keep the body well up on the hips1 or
 to let it sag2 those of locomotion1 to 
give us a light1 springy step1 or to    
allow a shuffling carriage2 those of    
speech1 to give us a clear-cut1 accurate
 articulation1 or a careless1 halting   
one2 and those of the face1 to give us a
 cheerful cast of countenance1 or a glum
 and morose expression4  ,,habit ,a     
,,modification ,,of ,,brain             

,,tissue4--,but the nervous tissue is   
the most sensitive and easily molded of 
all bodily tissues4 ,in fact1 it is     
probable that the real habit of our     
characteristic walk1 gesture1 or speech 
resides in the brain1 rather than in the
 muscles which it controls4 ,so delicate
 is the organization of the brain       
structure and so unstable its molecules1
 that even the perfume of the flower1   
which assails the nose of a child1 the  
song of a bird1 which strikes his ear1  
or the fleeting dream1 which lingers but
 for a second in his sleep1 has so      
modified his brain that it will never   
again be as if these things had not been
 experienced4 ,every sensory current    
which runs in from the outside world2   
every motor current which runs out to   
command a muscle2 every thought that we 
think1 has so modified the nerve        
structure through which it acts1 that a 
tendency remains for a like act to be   
repeated4 ,our brain and nervous system 
is daily being molded into fixed habits 

of acting by our thoughts and deeds1 and
 thus becomes the automatic register of 
all we do4  ,the old ,chinese fairy     
story hits upon a fundamental and vital 
truth4 ,these celestials tell their     
children that each child is accompanied 
by day and by night1 every moment of his
 life1 by an invisible fairy1 who is    
provided with a pencil and tablet4 ,it  
is the duty of this fairy to put down   
every deed of the child1 both good and  
evil1 in an indelible record which will 
one day rise as a witness against him4  
,so it is in very truth with our brains4
 ,the wrong act may have been performed 
in secret1 no living being may ever know
 that we performed it1 and a merciful   
,providence may forgive it2 but the     
inexorable monitor of our deeds was all 
the time beside us writing the record1  
and the history of that act is inscribed
 forever in the tissues of our brain4   
,it may be repented of bitterly in      
sackcloth and ashes and be discontinued1
 but its effects can never be quite     

effaced2 they will remain with us a     
handicap till our dying day1 and in some
 critical moment in a great emergency we
 shall be in danger of defeat from that 
long past and forgotten act4  ,,we      
,,must ,,form ,,habits4--,we must1 then1
 form habits4 ,it is not at all in our  
power to say whether we will form habits
 or not2 for1 once started1 they go on  
forming themselves by day and night1    
steadily and relentlessly4 ,habit is1   
therefore1 one of the great factors to  
be reckoned with in our lives1 and the  
question becomes not1 ,shall we form    
habits8 but ,what habits we shall form4 
,and we have the determining of this    
question largely in our own power1 for  
habits do not just happen1 nor do they  
come to us ready made4 ,we ourselves    
make them from day to day through the   
acts we perform1 and in so far as we    
have control over our acts1 in that far 
we can determine our habits4   #b4 ,,the
 ,,place ,,of ,,habit ,,in ,,the        
,,economy ,,of ,,our ,,lives  ,habit is 

one of nature's methods of economizing  
time and effort1 while at the same time 
securing greater skill and efficiency4  
,this is easily seen when it is         
remembered that habit tends towards     
automatic action2 that is1 towards      
action governed by the lower nerve      
centers and taking care of itself1 so to
 speak1 without the interference of     
consciousness4 ,everyone has observed   
how much easier in the performance and  
more skillful in its execution is the   
act1 be it playing a piano1 painting a  
picture1 or driving a nail1 when the    
movements involved have ceased to be    
consciously directed and become         
automatic4  ,,habit ,,increases ,,skill 
,,and ,,efficiency4--,practically all   
increase in skill1 whether physical or  
mental1 depends on our ability to form  
habits4 ,habit holds fast to the skill  
already attained while practice or      
intelligence makes ready for the next   
step in advance4 ,could we not form     
habits we should improve but little in  

our way of doing things1 no matter how  
many times we did them over4 ,we should 
now be obliged to go through the same   
bungling process of dressing ourselves  
as when we first learned it as children4
 ,our writing would proceed as awkwardly
 in the high school as the primary1 our 
eating as adults would be as messy and  
wide of the mark as when we were        
infants1 and we should miss in a        
thousand ways the motor skill that now  
seems so easy and natural4 ,all highly  
skilled occupations1 and those demanding
 great manual dexterity1 likewise depend
 on our habit-forming power for the     
accurate and automatic movements        
required4  ,so with mental skill4 ,a    
great portion of the fundamentals of our
 education must be made automatic--must 
become matters of habit4 ,we set out to 
learn the symbols of speech4 ,we hear   
words and see them on the printed page2 
associated with these words are         
meanings1 or ideas4 ,habit binds the    
word and the idea together1 so that to  

think of the one is to call up the      
other--and language is learned4 ,we must
 learn numbers1 so we practice the      
combinations1 and with #dx#f1 or #cx#h  
we associate #bd4 ,habit secures this   
association in our minds1 and lo6 we    
soon know our tables4 ,and so on        
throughout the whole range of our       
learning4 ,we learn certain symbols1 or 
facts1 or processes1 and habit takes    
hold and renders these automatic so that
 we can use them freely1 easily1 and    
with skill1 leaving our thought free for
 matters that cannot be made automatic4 
,one of our greatest dangers is that we 
shall not make sufficiently automatic1  
enough of the necessary foundation      
material of education4 ,failing in this1
 we shall at best be but blunderers     
intellectually1 handicapped because we  
failed to make proper use of habit in   
our development4  ,for1 as we have seen 
in an earlier chapter1 there is a limit 
to our mental energy and also to the    
number of objects to which we are able  

to attend4 ,it is only when attention   
has been freed from the many things that
 can always be thought or done in the   
same way1 that the mind can devote      
itself to the real problems that require
 judgment1 imagination or reasoning4    
,the writer whose spelling and          
punctuation do not take care of         
themselves will hardly make a success of
 writing4 ,the mathematician whose      
number combinations1 processes and      
formulae are not automatic in his mind  
can never hope to make progress in      
mathematical thinking4 ,the speaker who1
 while speaking1 has to think of his    
gestures1 his voice or his enunciation  
will never sway audiences by his logic  
or his eloquence4  ,,habit ,,saves      
,,effort ,,and ,,fatigue4--,we do most  
easily and with least fatigue that which
 we are accustomed to do4 ,it is the new
 act or the strange task that tires us4 
,the horse that is used to the farm     
wearies if put on the road1 while the   
roadster tires easily when hitched to   

the plow4 ,the experienced penman works 
all day at his desk without undue       
fatigue1 while the man more accustomed  
to the pick and the shovel than to the  
pen1 is exhausted by a half hour's      
writing at a letter4 ,those who follow a
 sedentary and inactive occupation do   
not tire by much sitting1 while children
 or others used to freedom and action   
may find it a wearisome task merely to  
remain still for an hour or two4  ,not  
only would the skill and speed demanded 
by modern industry be impossible without
 the aid of habit1 but without its help 
none could stand the fatigue and strain4
 ,the new workman placed at a high-speed
 machine is ready to fall from weariness
 at the end of his first day4 ,but      
little by little he learns to omit the  
unnecessary movements1 the necessary    
movements become easier and more        
automatic through habit1 and he finds   
the work easier4 ,we may conclude1 then1
 that not only do consciously directed  
movements show less skill than the same 

movements made automatic by habit1 but  
they also require more effort and       
produce greater fatigue4  ,,habit       
,,economizes ,,moral ,,effort4--,to have
 to decide each time the question comes 
up whether we will attend to this       
lecture or sermon or lesson2 whether we 
will persevere and go through this piece
 of disagreeable work which we have     
begun2 whether we will go to the trouble
 of being courteous and kind to this or 
that poor or unlovely or dirty          
fellow-mortal2 whether we will take this
 road because it looks easy1 or that one
 because we know it to be the one we    
ought to take2 whether we will be       
strictly fair and honest when we might  
just as well be the opposite2 whether we
 will resist the temptation which dares 
us2 whether we will do this duty1 hard  
though it is1 which confronts us--to    
have to decide each of these questions  
every time it presents itself is to put 
too large a proportion of our thought   
and energy on things which should take  

care of themselves4 ,for all these      
things should early become so nearly    
habitual that they can be settled with  
the very minimum of expenditure of      
energy when they arise4  ,,the ,,habit  
,,of ,,attention4--,it is a noble thing 
to be able to attend by sheer force of  
will when the interest lags1 or some    
more attractive thing appears1 but far  
better is it so to have formed the habit
 of attention that we naturally fall    
into that attitude when this is the     
desirable thing4 ,to understand what ,i 
mean1 you only have to look over a class
 or an audience and note the different  
ways which people have of finally       
settling down to listening4 ,some with  
an attitude which says1 ,now here ,i am1
 ready to listen to you if you will     
interest me1 otherwise not4 ,others with
 a manner which says1 ,i did not really 
come here expecting to listen1 and you  
will have a large task if you interest  
me2 ,i never listen unless ,i am        
compelled to1 and the responsibility    

rests on you4 ,others plainly say1 ,i   
really mean to listen1 but ,i have hard 
work to control my thoughts1 and if ,i  
wander ,i shall not blame you           
altogether2 it is just my way4 ,and     
still others say1 ,when ,i am expected  
to listen1 ,i always listen whether     
there is anything much to listen to or  
not4 ,i have formed that habit1 and so  
have no quarrel with myself about it4   
,you can depend on me to be attentive1  
for ,i cannot afford to weaken my habit 
of attention whether you do well or not4
 ,every speaker will clasp these last   
listeners to his heart and feed them on 
the choicest thoughts of his soul2 they 
are the ones to whom he speaks and to   
whom his address will appeal4  ,,habit  
,,enables ,,us ,,to ,,meet ,,the        
,,disagreeable4--,to be able to         
persevere in the face of difficulties   
and hardships and carry through the     
disagreeable thing in spite of the      
protests of our natures against the     
sacrifice which it requires1 is a       

creditable thing2 but it is more        
creditable to have so formed the habit  
of perseverance that the disagreeable   
duty shall be done without a struggle1  
or protest1 or question4 ,horace ,mann  
testifies of himself that whatever      
success he was able to attain was made  
possible through the early habit which  
he formed of never stopping to inquire  
whether he liked to do a thing which    
needed doing1 but of doing everything   
equally well and without question1 both 
the pleasant and the unpleasant4  ,the  
youth who can fight out a moral battle  
and win against the allurements of some 
attractive temptation is worthy the     
highest honor and praise2 but so long as
 he has to fight the same battle over   
and over again1 he is on dangerous      
ground morally4 ,for good morals must   
finally become habits1 so ingrained in  
us that the right decision comes largely
 without effort and without struggle4   
,otherwise the strain is too great1 and 
defeat will occasionally come2 and      

defeat means weakness and at last       
disaster1 after the spirit has tired of 
the constant conflict4 ,and so on in a  
hundred lines4 ,good habits are more to 
be coveted than individual victories in 
special cases1 much as these are to be  
desired4 ,for good habits mean victories
 all along the line4  ,,habit ,,the     
,,foundation ,,of ,,personality4--,the  
biologist tells us that it is the       
constant and not the occasional in the  
environment that impresses itself on an 
organism4 ,so also it is the habitual in
 our lives that builds itself into our  
character and personality4 ,in a very   
real sense we are what we are in the    
habit of doing and thinking4  ,without  
habit1 personality could not exist2 for 
we could never do a thing twice alike1  
and hence would be a new person each    
succeeding moment4 ,the acts which give 
us our own peculiar individuality are   
our habitual acts--the little things    
that do themselves moment by moment     
without care or attention1 and are the  

truest and best expression of our real  
selves4 ,probably no one of us could be 
very sure which arm he puts into the    
sleeve1 or which foot he puts into the  
shoe1 first2 and yet each of us         
certainly formed the habit long ago of  
doing these things in a certain way4 ,we
 might not be able to describe just how 
we hold knife and fork and spoon1 and   
yet each has his own characteristic and 
habitual way of handling them4 ,we sit  
down and get up in some characteristic  
way1 and the very poise of our heads and
 attitudes of our bodies are the result 
of habit4 ,we get sleepy and wake up1   
become hungry and thirsty at certain    
hours1 through force of habit4 ,we form 
the habit of liking a certain chair1 or 
nook1 or corner1 or path1 or desk1 and  
then seek this to the exclusion of all  
others4 ,we habitually use a particular 
pitch of voice and type of enunciation  
in speaking1 and this becomes one of our
 characteristic marks2 or we form the   
habit of using barbarisms or solecisms  

of language in youth1 and these cling to
 us and become an inseparable part of us
 later in life4  ,on the mental side the
 case is no different4 ,our thinking is 
as characteristic as our physical acts4 
,we may form the habit of thinking      
things out logically1 or of jumping to  
conclusions2 of thinking critically and 
independently1 or of taking things      
unquestioningly on the authority of     
others4 ,we may form the habit of       
carefully reading good1 sensible books1 
or of skimming sentimental and trashy   
ones2 of choosing elevating1 ennobling  
companions1 or the opposite2 of being a 
good conversationalist and doing our    
part in a social group1 or of being a   
drag on the conversation1 and needing to
 be entertained4 ,we may form the habit 
of observing the things about us and    
enjoying the beautiful in our           
environment1 or of failing to observe or
 to enjoy4 ,we may form the habit of    
obeying the voice of conscience or of   
weakly yielding to temptation without a 

struggle2 of taking a reverent attitude 
of prayer in our devotions1 or of merely
 saying our prayers4  ,,habit ,,saves   
,,worry ,,and ,,rebellion4--,habit has  
been called the balance wheel of        
society4 ,this is because men readily   
become habituated to the hard1 the      
disagreeable1 or the inevitable1 and    
cease to battle against it4 ,a lot that 
at first seems unendurable after a time 
causes less revolt4 ,a sorrow that seems
 too poignant to be borne in the course 
of time loses some of its sharpness4    
,oppression or injustice that arouses   
the fiercest resentment and hate may    
finally come to be accepted with        
resignation4 ,habit helps us learn that 
what cannot be cured must be endured4   
#c4 ,,the ,,tyranny ,,of ,,habit  ,,even
 ,,good ,,habits ,,need ,,to ,,be       
,,modified4--,but even in good habits   
there is danger4 ,habit is the opposite 
of attention4 ,habit relieves attention 
of unnecessary strain4 ,every habitual  
act was at one time1 either in the      

history of the race or of the           
individual1 a voluntary act2 that is1 it
 was performed under active attention4  
,as the habit grew1 attention was       
gradually rendered unnecessary1 until   
finally it dropped entirely out4 ,and   
herein lies the danger4 ,habit once     
formed has no way of being modified     
unless in some way attention is called  
to it1 for a habit left to itself       
becomes more and more firmly fixed4 ,the
 rut grows deeper4 ,in very few1 if any1
 of our actions can we afford to have   
this the case4 ,our habits need to be   
progressive1 they need to grow1 to be   
modified1 to be improved4 ,otherwise    
they will become an incrusting shell1   
fixed and unyielding1 which will limit  
our growth4  ,it is necessary1 then1 to 
keep our habitual acts under some       
surveillance of attention1 to pass them 
in review for inspection every now and  
then1 that we may discover possible     
modifications which will make them more 
serviceable4 ,we need to be inventive1  

constantly to find out better ways of   
doing things4 ,habit takes care of our  
standing1 walking1 sitting2 but how many
 of us could not improve his poise and  
carriage if he would8 ,our speech has   
become largely automatic1 but no doubt  
all of us might remove faults of        
enunciation1 pronunciation or stress    
from our speaking4 ,so also we might    
better our habits of study and thinking1
 our methods of memorizing1 or our      
manner of attending4  ,,the ,,tendency  
,,of ,,ruts4--,but this will require    
something of heroism4 ,for to follow the
 well-beaten path of custom is easy and 
pleasant1 while to break out of the rut 
of habit and start a new line of action 
is difficult and disturbing4 ,most      
people prefer to keep doing things as   
they always have done them1 to continue 
reading and thinking and believing as   
they have long been in the habit of     
doing1 not so much because they feel    
that their way is best1 but because it  
is easier than to change4 ,hence the    

great mass of us settle down on the     
plane of mediocrity1 and become old     
fogy4 ,we learn to do things passably   
well1 cease to think about improving our
 ways of doing them1 and so fall into a 
rut4 ,only the few go on4 ,they make use
 of habit as the rest do1 but they also 
continue to attend at critical points of
 action1 and so make habit an ally in   
place of accepting it as a tyrant4   #d4
 ,,habit-,,forming ,a ,,part ,,of       
,,education  ,it follows from the       
importance of habit in our lives that no
 small part of education should be      
concerned with the development of       
serviceable habits4 ,says ,james1 ,could
 the young but realize how soon they    
will become mere walking bundles of     
habits1 they would give more heed to    
their conduct while in the plastic      
state4 ,we are spinning our own fates1  
good or evil1 and never to be undone4   
,every smallest stroke of virtue or of  
vice leaves its never-so-little scar4   
,any youth who is forming a large number

 of useful habits is receiving no mean  
education1 no matter if his knowledge of
 books may be limited2 on the other     
hand1 no one who is forming a large     
number of bad habits is being well      
educated1 no matter how brilliant his   
knowledge may be4  ,,youth ,,the ,,time 
,,for ,,habit-,,forming4--,childhood and
 youth is the great time for            
habit-forming4 ,then the brain is       
plastic and easily molded1 and it       
retains its impressions more indelibly2 
later it is hard to modify1 and the     
impressions made are less permanent4 ,it
 is hard to teach an old dog new tricks2
 nor would he remember them if you could
 teach them to him1 nor be able to      
perform them well even if he could      
remember them4 ,the young child will1   
within the first few weeks of its life1 
form habits of sleeping and feeding4 ,it
 may in a few days be led into the habit
 of sleeping in the dark1 or requiring a
 light2 of going to sleep lying quietly1
 or of insisting upon being rocked2 of  

getting hungry by the clock1 or of      
wanting its food at all times when it   
finds nothing else to do1 and so on4 ,it
 is wholly outside the power of the     
mother or the nurse to determine whether
 the child shall form habits1 but       
largely within their power to say what  
habits shall be formed1 since they      
control his acts4  ,as the child grows  
older1 the range of his habits          
increases2 and by the time he has       
reached his middle teens1 the greater   
number of his personal habits are       
formed4 ,it is very doubtful whether a  
boy who has not formed habits of        
punctuality before the age of fifteen   
will ever be entirely trustworthy in    
matters requiring precision in this     
line4 ,the girl who has not1 before this
 age1 formed habits of neatness and     
order will hardly make a tidy           
housekeeper later in her life4 ,those   
who in youth have no opportunity to     
habituate themselves to the usages of   
society may study books on etiquette and

 employ private instructors in the art  
of polite behavior all they please later
 in life1 but they will never cease to  
be awkward and ill at ease4 ,none are at
 a greater disadvantage than the        
suddenly-grown-rich who attempt late in 
life to surround themselves with        
articles of art and luxury1 though their
 habits were all formed amid barrenness 
and want during their earlier years4    
,,the ,,habit ,,of ,,achievement4--,what
 youth does not dream of being great1 or
 noble1 or a celebrated scholar6 ,and   
how few there are who finally achieve   
their ideals6 ,where does the cause of  
failure lie8 ,surely not in the lack of 
high ideals4 ,multitudes of young people
 have ,excelsior6 as their motto1 and   
yet never get started up the mountain   
slope1 let alone toiling on to its top4 
,they have put in hours dreaming of the 
glory farther up1 and have never begun  
to climb4 ,the difficulty comes in not  
realizing that the only way to become   
what we wish or dream that we may become

 is to form the habit of being that     
thing4 ,to form the habit of            
achievement1 of effort1 of              
self-sacrifice1 if need be4 ,to form the
 habit of deeds along with dreams2 to   
form the habit of doing4  ,who of us has
 not at this moment lying in wait for   
his convenience in the dim future a     
number of things which he means to do   
just as soon as this term of school is  
finished1 or this job of work is        
completed1 or when he is not so busy as 
now8 ,and how seldom does he ever get at
 these things at all6 ,darwin tells that
 in his youth he loved poetry1 art1 and 
music1 but was so busy with his         
scientific work that he could ill spare 
the time to indulge these tastes4 ,so he
 promised himself that he would devote  
his time to scientific work and make his
 mark in this4 ,then he would have time 
for the things that he loved1 and would 
cultivate his taste for the fine arts4  
,he made his mark in the field of       
science1 and then turned again to       

poetry1 to music1 to art4 ,but alas6    
they were all dead and dry bones to him1
 without life or interest4 ,he had      
passed the time when he could ever form 
the taste for them4 ,he had formed his  
habits in another direction1 and now it 
was forever too late to form new habits4
 ,his own conclusion is1 that if he had 
his life to live over again1 he would   
each week listen to some musical concert
 and visit some art gallery1 and that   
each day he would read some poetry1 and 
thereby keep alive and active the love  
for them4  ,so every school and home    
should be a species of habit-factory--a 
place where children develop habits of  
neatness1 punctuality1 obedience1       
politeness1 dependability and the other 
graces of character4   #e4 ,,rules ,,for
 ,,habit-,,forming  ,,james',s ,,three  
,,maxims ,,for ,,habit-,,forming4--,on  
the forming of new habits and the       
leaving off of old ones1 ,i know of no  
better statement than that of ,james1   
based on ,bain's chapter on ,moral      

,habits4 ,i quote this statement at some
 length3 ,in the acquisition of a new   
habit1 or the leaving off of an old one1
 we must take care to launch ourselves  
with as strong and decided an initiative
 as possible4 ,accumulate all the       
possible circumstances which shall      
reenforce right motives2 put yourself   
assiduously in conditions that encourage
 the new way2 make engagements          
incompatible with the old2 take a public
 pledge1 if the case allows2 in short1  
develop your resolution with every aid  
you know4 ,this will give your new      
beginning such a momentum that the      
temptation to break down will not occur 
as soon as it otherwise might2 and every
 day during which a breakdown is        
postponed adds to the chances of its not
 occurring at all4  ,the second maxim   
is3 ,never suffer an exception to occur 
until the new habit is securely rooted  
in your life4 ,each lapse is like       
letting fall a ball of string which one 
is carefully winding up2 a single slip  

undoes more than a great many turns will
 wind again4 ,continuity of training is 
the great means of making the nervous   
system act infallibly right4444 ,the    
need of securing success nerves one to  
future vigor4  ,a third maxim may be    
added to the preceding pair3 ,seize the 
very first possible opportunity to act  
on every resolution you make1 and on    
every emotional prompting you may       
experience in the direction of the      
habits you aspire to gain4 ,it is not in
 the moment of their forming1 but in the
 moment of their producing motor        
effects1 that resolves and aspirations  
communicate the new 'set' to the        
brain4#c  ,,the ,,preponderance ,,of    
,,good ,,habits ,,over ,,bad4--,and     
finally1 let no one be disturbed or     
afraid because in a little time you     
become a walking bundle of habits4 ,for 
in so far as your good actions          
predominate over your bad ones1 that    
much will your good habits outweigh your
 bad habits4 ,silently1 moment by       

moment1 efficiency is growing out of all
 worthy acts well done4 ,every bit of   
heroic self-sacrifice1 every battle     
fought and won1 every good deed         
performed1 is being irradicably credited
 to you in your nervous system1 and will
 finally add its mite toward achieving  
the success of your ambitions4   #f4    
,,problems ,,in ,,observation ,,and     
,,introspection  #a4 ,select some act   
which you have recently begun to perform
 and watch it grow more and more        
habitual4 ,notice carefully for a week  
and see whether you do not discover some
 habits which you did not know you had4 
,make a catalog of your bad habits2 of  
the most important of your good ones4   
#b4 ,set out to form some new habits    
which you desire to possess2 also to    
break some undesirable habit1 watching  
carefully what takes place in both      
cases1 and how long it requires4  #c4   
,try the following experiment and relate
 the results to the matter of automatic 
control brought about by habit3 ,draw a 

star on a sheet of cardboard4 ,place    
this on a table before you1 with a      
hand-mirror so arranged that you can see
 the star in the mirror4 ,now trace the 
outline of the star with a pencil1      
looking steadily in the mirror to guide 
your hand4 ,do not lift the pencil from 
the paper from the time you start until 
you finish4 ,have others try this       
experiment4  #d4 ,study some group of   
pupils for their habits 7#a7 of         
attention1 7#b7 of speech1 7#c7 of      
standing1 sitting1 and walking1 7#d7 of 
study4 ,report on your observations and 
suggest methods of curing bad habits    
observed4  #e4 ,make a list of          
mannerisms you have observed1 and       
suggest how they may be cured4  #f4     
,make a list of from ten to twenty      
habits which you think the school and   
its work should especially cultivate4   
,what ones of these are the schools you 
know least successful in cultivating8   
,where does the trouble lie8            
,,chapter ,,vi  ,,sensation   ,we can   

best understand the problems of         
sensation and perception if we first    
think of the existence of two great     
worlds--the world of physical nature    
without and the world of mind within4   
,on the one hand is our material        
environment1 the things we see and hear 
and touch and taste and handle2 and on  
the other hand our consciousness1 the   
means by which we come to know this     
outer world and adjust ourselves to it4 
,these two worlds seem in a sense to    
belong to and require each other4 ,for  
what would be the meaning or use of the 
physical world with no mind to know or  
use it2 and what would be the use of a  
mind with nothing to be known or thought
 about8   #a4 ,,how ,,we ,,come ,,to    
,,know ,,the ,,external ,,world  ,there 
is a marvel about our coming to know the
 external world which we shall never be 
able fully to understand4 ,we have come 
by this knowledge so gradually and      
unconsciously that it now appears to us 
as commonplace1 and we take for granted 

many things that it would puzzle us to  
explain4  ,,knowledge ,,through ,,the   
,,senses4--,for example1 we say1 ,of    
course ,i see yonder green tree3 it is  
about ten rods distant4 ,but why of     
course8 ,why should objects at a        
distance from us and with no evident    
connection between us and them be known 
to us at all merely by turning our eyes 
in their direction when there is light8 
,why not rather say with the blind son  
of ,professor ,puiseaux of ,paris1 who1 
when asked if he would like to be       
restored to sight1 answered3 ,if it were
 not for curiosity ,i would rather have 
long arms4 ,it seems to me that my hands
 would teach me better what is passing  
in the moon than your eyes or           
telescopes4  ,we listen and then say1   
,yes1 that is a certain bell ringing in 
the neighboring village1 as if this were
 the most simple thing in the world4    
,but why should one piece of metal      
striking against another a mile or two  
away make us aware that there is a bell 

there at all1 let alone that it is a    
certain bell whose tone we recognize8   
,or we pass our fingers over a piece of 
cloth and decide1 ,that is silk4 ,but   
why1 merely by placing our skin in      
contact with a bit of material1 should  
we be able to know its quality1 much    
less that it is cloth and that its      
threads were originally spun by an      
insect8 ,or we take a sip of liquid and 
say1 ,this milk is sour4 ,but why should
 we be able by taking the liquid into   
the mouth and bringing it into contact  
with the mucous membrane to tell that it
 is milk1 and that it possesses the     
quality which we call sour8 ,or1 once   
more1 we get a whiff of air through the 
open window in the springtime and say1  
,there is a lilac bush in bloom on the  
lawn4 ,yet why1 from inhaling air       
containing particles of lilac1 should we
 be able to know that there is anything 
outside1 much less that it is a flower  
and of a particular variety which we    
call lilac8 ,or1 finally1 we hold a     

heated flatiron up near the cheek and   
say1 ,this is too hot6 it will burn the 
cloth4 ,but why by holding this object a
 foot away from the face do we know that
 it is there1 let alone knowing its     
temperature8  ,,the ,,unity ,,of        
,,sensory ,,experience4--,further1 our  
senses come through experience to have  
the power of fusing1 or combining their 
knowledge1 so to speak1 by which each   
expresses its knowledge in terms of the 
others4 ,thus we take a glance out of   
the window and say that the day looks   
cold1 although we well know that we     
cannot see cold4 ,or we say that the    
melon sounds green1 or the bell sounds  
cracked1 although a crack or greenness  
cannot be heard4 ,or we say that the box
 feels empty1 although emptiness cannot 
be felt4 ,we have come to associate     
cold1 originally experienced with days  
which look like the one we now see1 with
 this particular appearance1 and so we  
say we see the cold2 sounds like the one
 coming from the bell we have come to   

associate with cracked bells1 and that  
coming from the melon with green melons1
 until we say unhesitatingly that the   
bell sounds cracked and the melon sounds
 green4 ,and so with the various senses4
 ,each gleans from the world its own    
particular bit of knowledge1 but all are
 finally in a partnership and what is   
each one's knowledge belongs to every   
other one in so far as the other can use
 it4  ,,the ,,sensory ,,processes ,,to  
,,be ,,explained4--,the explanation of  
the ultimate nature of knowledge1 and   
how we reach it through contact with our
 material environment1 we will leave to 
the philosophers4 ,and battles enough   
they have over the question1 and still  
others they will have before the matter 
is settled4 ,the easier and more        
important problem for us is to describe 
the processes by which the mind comes to
 know its environment1 and to see how it
 uses this knowledge in thinking4 ,this 
much we shall be able to do1 for it is  
often possible to describe a process and

 discover its laws even when we cannot  
fully explain its nature and origin4 ,we
 know the process of digestion and      
assimilation1 and the laws which govern 
them1 although we do not understand the 
ultimate nature and origin of life which
 makes these possible4  ,,the           
,,qualities ,,of ,,objects ,,exist ,,in 
,,the ,,mind4--,yet even in the         
relatively simple description which we  
have proposed many puzzles confront us1 
and one of them appears at the very     
outset4 ,this is that the qualities     
which we usually ascribe to objects     
really exist in our own minds and not in
 the objects at all4 ,take1 for         
instance1 the common qualities of light 
and color4 ,the physicist tells us that 
what we see as light is occasioned by an
 incredibly rapid beating of ether waves
 on the retina of the eye4 ,all space is
 filled with this ether2 and when it is 
light--that is1 when some object like   
the sun or other light-giving body is   
present--the ether is set in motion by  

the vibrating molecules of the body     
which is the source of light1 its waves 
strike the retina1 a current is produced
 and carried to the brain1 and we see   
light4 ,this means1 then1 that space1   
the medium in which we see objects1 is  
not filled with light 7the sensation71  
but with very rapid waves of ether1 and 
that the light which we see really      
occurs in our own minds as the mental   
response to the physical stimulus of    
ether waves4 ,likewise with color4      
,color is produced by ether waves of    
different lengths and degrees of        
rapidity4  ,thus ether waves at the rate
 of #dej billions a second give us the  
sensation of red2 of #dgb billions a    
second1 orange2 of #ebf billions a      
second1 yellow2 of #ehi billions a      
second1 green2 of #fdj billions a       
second1 blue2 of #gbb billions a second1
 indigo2 of #gij billions a second1     
violet4 ,what exists outside of us1     
then1 is these ether waves of different 
rates1 and not the colors 7as           

sensations7 themselves4 ,the beautiful  
yellow and crimson of a sunset1 the     
variegated colors of a landscape1 the   
delicate pink in the cheek of a child1  
the blush of a rose1 the shimmering     
green of the lake--these reside not in  
the objects themselves1 but in the      
consciousness of the one who sees them4 
,the objects possess but the quality of 
reflecting back to the eye ether waves  
of the particular rate corresponding to 
the color which we ascribe to them4     
,thus red objects1 and no others1       
reflect back ether waves of a rate of   
#dej billions a second3 white objects   
reflect all rates2 black objects reflect
 none4  ,the case is no different with  
regard to sound4 ,when we speak of a    
sound coming from a bell1 what we really
 mean is that the vibrations of the bell
 have set up waves in the air between it
 and our ear1 which have produced       
corresponding vibrations in the ear2    
that a nerve current was thereby        
produced2 and that a sound was heard4   

,but the sound 7i4e41 sensation7 is a   
mental thing1 and exists only in our own
 consciousness4 ,what passed between the
 sounding object and ourselves was waves
 in the intervening air1 ready to be    
translated through the machinery of     
nerves and brain into the beautiful     
tones and melodies and harmonies of the 
mind4 ,and so with all other sensations4
  ,,the ,,three ,,sets ,,of             
,,factors4--,what exists outside of us  
therefore is a stimulus1 some form of   
physical energy1 of a kind suitable to  
excite to activity a certain end-organ  
of taste1 or touch1 or smell1 or sight1 
or hearing2 what exists within us is the
 nervous machinery capable of converting
 this stimulus into a nerve current     
which shall produce an activity in the  
cortex of the brain2 what results is the
 mental object which we call a sensation
 of taste1 smell1 touch1 sight1 or      
hearing4   #b4 ,,the ,,nature ,,of      
,,sensation  ,,sensation ,,gives ,,us   
,,our ,,world ,,of ,,qualities4--,in    

actual experience sensations are never  
known apart from the objects to which   
they belong4 ,this is to say that when  
we see yellow or red it is always in    
connection with some surface1 or object2
 when we taste sour1 this quality       
belongs to some substance1 and so on    
with all the senses4 ,yet by sensation  
we mean only the simple qualities of    
objects known in consciousness as the   
result of appropriate stimuli applied to
 end-organs4 ,we shall later see how by 
perception these qualities fuse or      
combine to form objects1 but in the     
present chapter we shall be concerned   
with the qualities only4 ,sensations    
are1 then1 the simplest and most        
elementary knowledge we may get from the
 physical world1--the red1 the blue1 the
 bitter1 the cold1 the fragrant1 and    
whatever other qualities may belong to  
the external world4 ,we shall not for   
the present be concerned with the       
objects or sources from which the       
qualities may come4  ,to quote ,james on

 the meaning of sensation3 ,all we can  
say on this point is that what we mean  
by sensations are first things in the   
way of consciousness4 ,they are the     
immediate results upon consciousness of 
nerve currents as they enter the brain1 
and before they have awakened any       
suggestions or associations with past   
experience4 ,but it is obvious that such
 immediate sensations can be realized   
only in the earliest days of life4      
,,the ,,attributes ,,of                 
,,sensation4--,sensations differ from   
each other in at least four respects2   
namely1 quality1 intensity1 extensity1  
and duration4  ,it is a difference in   
quality that makes us say1 ,this paper  
is red1 and that1 blue2 this liquid is  
sweet1 and that1 sour4 ,differences in  
quality are therefore fundamental       
differences in kind4 ,besides the       
quality-differences that exist within   
the same general field1 as of taste or  
vision1 it is evident that there is a   
still more fundamental difference       

existing between the various fields4    
,one can1 for example1 compare red with 
blue or sweet with sour1 and tell which 
quality he prefers4 ,but let him try to 
compare red with sweet1 or blue with    
sour1 and the quality-difference is so  
profound that there seems to be no basis
 for comparison4  ,differences in       
intensity of sensation are familiar to  
every person who prefers two lumps of   
sugar rather than one lump in his       
coffee2 the sweet is of the same quality
 in either case1 but differs in         
intensity4 ,in every field of sensation1
 the intensity may proceed from the     
smallest amount to the greatest amount  
discernible4 ,in general1 the intensity 
of the sensation depends on the         
intensity of the stimulus1 though the   
condition of the sense-organ as regards 
fatigue or adaptation to the stimulus   
has its effect4 ,it is obvious that a   
stimulus may be too weak to produce any 
sensation2 as1 for example1 a few grains
 of sugar in a cup of coffee or a few   

drops of lemon in a quart of water could
 not be detected4 ,it is also true that 
the intensity of the stimulus may be so 
great that an increase in intensity     
produces no effect on the sensation2 as1
 for example1 the addition of sugar to a
 solution of saccharine would not       
noticeably increase its sweetness4 ,the 
lowest and highest intensity points of  
sensation are called the lower and upper
 limen1 or threshold1 respectively4  ,by
 extensity is meant the                 
space-differences of sensations4 ,the   
touch of the point of a toothpick on the
 skin has a different space quality from
 the touch of the flat end of a pencil4 
,low tones seem to have more volume than
 high tones4 ,some pains feel sharp and 
others dull and diffuse4 ,the warmth    
felt from spreading the palms of the    
hands out to the fire has a bigness not 
felt from heating one solitary finger4  
,the extensity of a sensation depends on
 the number of nerve endings stimulated4
  ,the duration of a sensation refers to

 the time it lasts4 ,this must not be   
confused with the duration of the       
stimulus1 which may be either longer or 
shorter than the duration of the        
sensation4 ,every sensation must exist  
for some space of time1 long or short1  
or it would have no part in             
consciousness4   #c4 ,,sensory          
,,qualities ,,and ,,their ,,end-,,organs
  ,all are familiar with the five senses
 of our elementary physiologies1 sight1 
hearing1 taste1 smell1 and touch4 ,a    
more complete study of sensation reveals
 nearly three times this number1        
however4 ,this is to say that the body  
is equipped with more than a dozen      
different kinds of end-organs1 each     
prepared to receive its own particular  
type of stimulus4 ,it must also be      
understood that some of the end-organs  
yield more than one sense4 ,the eye1 for
 example1 gives not only visual but     
muscular sensations2 the ear not only   
auditory1 but tactual2 the tongue not   
only gustatory1 but tactual and cold and

 warmth sensations4  ,,sight4--,vision  
is a distance sense2 we can see afar    
off4 ,the stimulus is chemical in its   
action2 this means that the ether waves1
 on striking the retina1 cause a        
chemical change which sets up the nerve 
current responsible for the sensation4  
,the eye1 whose general structure is    
sufficiently described in all standard  
physiologies1 consists of a visual      
apparatus designed to bring the images  
of objects to a clear focus on the      
retina at the fovea1 or area of clearest
 vision1 near the point of entrance of  
the optic nerve4  ,the sensation of     
sight coming from this retinal image    
unaided by other sensations gives us but
 two qualities1 light and color4 ,the   
eye can distinguish many different      
grades of light from purest white on    
through the various grays to densest    
black4 ,the range is greater still in   
color4 ,we speak of the seven colors of 
the spectrum1 violet1 indigo1 blue1     
green1 yellow1 orange1 and red4 ,but    

this is not a very serviceable          
classification1 since the average eye   
can distinguish about #ce1jjj color     
effects4 ,it is also somewhat           
bewildering to find that all these      
colors seem to be produced from the four
 fundamental hues1 red1 green1 yellow1  
and blue1 plus the various tints4 ,these
 four1 combined in varying proportions  
and with different degrees of light     
7i4e41 different shades of gray71 yield 
all the color effects known to the human
 eye4 ,herschel estimates that the      
workers on the mosaics at ,rome must    
have distinguished #cj1jjj different    
color tones4 ,the hue of a color refers 
to its fundamental quality1 as red or   
yellow2 the chroma1 to its saturation1  
or the strength of the color2 and the   
tint1 to the amount of brightness 7i4e41
 white7 it contains4                    
,,hearing4--,hearing is also a distance 
sense4 ,the action of its stimulus is   
mechanical1 which is to say that the    
vibrations produced in the air by the   

sounding body are finally transmitted by
 the mechanism of the middle ear to the 
inner ear4 ,here the impulse is conveyed
 through the liquid of the internal ear 
to the nerve endings as so many tiny    
blows1 which produce the nerve current  
carried to the brain by the auditory    
nerve4  ,the sensation of hearing1 like 
that of sight1 gives us two qualities3  
namely1 tones with their accompanying   
pitch and timbre1 and noises4 ,tones1 or
 musical sounds1 are produced by        
isochronous or equal-timed vibrations2  
thus ,c of the first octave is produced 
by #bef vibrations a second1 and if this
 tone is prolonged the vibration rate   
will continue uniformly the same4       
,noises1 on the other hand1 are produced
 by vibrations which have no uniformity 
of vibration rate4 ,the ear's           
sensibility to pitch extends over about 
seven octaves4 ,the seven-octave piano  
goes down to #bg-a_/b vibrations and    
reaches up to #c1ejj vibrations4 ,notes 
of nearly #ej1jjj vibrations can be     

heard by an average ear1 however1 though
 these are too painfully shrill to be   
musical4 ,taking into account this upper
 limit1 the range of the ear is about   
eleven octaves4 ,the ear1 having given  
us loudness of tones1 which depends on  
the amplitude of the vibrations1 pitch1 
which depends on the rapidity of the    
vibrations1 and timbre1 or quality1     
which depends on the complexity of the  
vibrations1 has no further qualities of 
sound to reveal4  ,,taste4--,the sense  
of taste is located chiefly in the      
tongue1 over the surface of which are   
scattered many minute taste-bulbs4      
,these can be seen as small red specks1 
most plentifully distributed along the  
edges and at the tip of the tongue4 ,the
 substance tasted must be in solution1  
and come in contact with the nerve      
endings4 ,the action of the stimulus is 
chemical4  ,the sense of taste          
recognizes the four qualities of sour1  
sweet1 salt1 and bitter4 ,many of the   
qualities which we improperly call      

tastes are in reality a complex of      
taste1 smell1 touch1 and temperature4   
,smell contributes so largely to the    
sense of taste that many articles of    
food become tasteless when we have a    
catarrh1 and many nauseating doses of   
medicine can be taken without discomfort
 if the nose is held4 ,probably none of 
us1 if we are careful to exclude all    
odors by plugging the nostrils with     
cotton1 can by taste distinguish between
 scraped apple1 potato1 turnip1 or beet1
 or can tell hot milk from tea or coffee
 of the same temperature4  ,,smell4--,in
 the upper part of the nasal cavity lies
 a small brownish patch of mucous       
membrane4 ,it is here that the olfactory
 nerve endings are located4 ,the        
substance smelled must be volatile1 that
 is1 must exist in gaseous form1 and    
come in direct contact with the nerve   
endings4 ,chemical action results in a  
nerve current4  ,the sensations of smell
 have not been classified so well as    
those of taste1 and we have no distinct 

names for them4 ,neither do we know how 
many olfactory qualities the sense of   
smell is capable of revealing4 ,the only
 definite classification of smell       
qualities is that based on their        
pleasantness or the opposite4 ,we also  
borrow a few terms and speak of sweet or
 fragrant odors and fresh or close      
smells4 ,there is some evidence when we 
observe animals1 or even primitive men1 
that the human race has been evolving   
greater sensibility to certain odors1   
while at the same time there has been a 
loss of keenness of what we call scent4 
,,various ,,sensations ,,from ,,the     
,,skin4--,the skin1 besides being a     
protective and excretory organ1 affords 
a lodging-place for the end-organs      
giving us our sense of pressure1 pain1  
cold1 warmth1 tickle1 and itch4         
,pressure seems to have for its         
end-organ the hair-bulbs of the skin2 on
 hairless regions small bulbs called the
 corpuscles of ,meissner serve this     
purpose4 ,pain is thought to be mediated

 by free nerve endings4 ,cold depends on
 end-organs called the bulbs of ,krause2
 and warmth on the ,ruffinian           
corpuscles4  ,cutaneous or skin         
sensation may arise from either         
mechanical stimulation1 such as         
pressure1 a blow1 or tickling1 from     
thermal stimulation from hot or cold    
objects1 from electrical stimulation1 or
 from the action of certain chemicals1  
such as acids and the like4 ,stimulated 
mechanically1 the skin gives us but two 
sensation qualities1 pressure and pain4 
,many of the qualities which we commonly
 ascribe to the skin sensations are     
really a complex of cutaneous and       
muscular sensations4 ,contact is light  
pressure4 ,hardness and softness depend 
on the intensity of the pressure4       
,roughness and smoothness arise from    
interrupted and continuous pressure1    
respectively1 and require movement over 
the rough or smooth surface4 ,touch     
depends on pressure accompanied by the  
muscular sensations involved in the     

movements connected with the act4 ,pain 
is clearly a different sensation from   
pressure2 but any of the cutaneous or   
muscular sensations may1 by excessive   
stimulation1 be made to pass over into  
pain4 ,all parts of the skin are        
sensitive to pressure and pain2 but     
certain parts1 like the finger tips1 and
 the tip of the tongue1 are more highly 
sensitive than others4 ,the skin varies 
also in its sensitivity to heat and     
cold4 ,if we take a hot or a very cold  
pencil point and pass it rather lightly 
and slowly over the skin1 it is easy to 
discover certain spots from which a     
sensation of warmth or of cold flashes  
out4 ,in this way it is possible to     
locate the end-organs of temperature    
very accurately4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 
#ag4--;,diagram showing distribution of 
hot and cold spots on the back of the   
hand4 ,c1 cold spots2 ,h1 hot spots4    
,,the ,,kinaesthetic ,,senses4--,the    
muscles1 tendons1 and joints also give  
rise to perfectly definite sensations1  

but they have not been named as have the
 sensations from most of the other      
end-organs4 ,weight is the most clearly 
marked of these sensations4 ,it is      
through the sensations connected with   
movements of muscles1 tendons1 and      
joints that we come to judge form1 size1
 and distance4  ,,the ,,organic         
,,senses4--,finally1 to the sensations  
mentioned so far must be added those    
which come from the internal organs of  
the body4 ,from the alimentary canal we 
get the sensations of hunger1 thirst1   
and nausea2 from the heart1 lungs1 and  
organs of sex come numerous well-defined
 but unnamed sensations which play an   
important part in making up the         
feeling-tone of our daily lives4  ,thus 
we see that the senses may be looked    
upon as the sentries of the body1       
standing at the outposts where nature   
and ourselves meet4 ,they discover the  
qualities of the various objects with   
which we come in contact and hand them  
over to the mind in the form of         

sensations4 ,and these sensations are   
the raw material out of which we begin  
to construct our material environment4  
,only as we are equipped with good      
organs of sense1 especially good eyes   
and ears1 therefore1 are we able to     
enter fully into the wonderful world    
about us and receive the stimuli        
necessary to our thought and action4    
#d4 ,,problems ,,in ,,observation ,,and 
,,introspection  #a4 ,observe a         
schoolroom of children at work with the 
aim of discovering any that show defects
 of vision or hearing4 ,what are the    
symptoms8 ,what is the effect of        
inability to hear or see well upon      
interest and attention8  #b4 ,talk with 
your teacher about testing the eyes and 
ears of the children of some school4    
,the simpler tests for vision and       
hearing are easily applied1 and the     
expense for material almost nothing4    
,what tests should be used8 ,does your  
school have the test card for vision8   
#c4 ,use a rotator or color tops for    

mixing discs of white and black to      
produce different shades of gray4 ,fix  
in mind the gray made of half white and 
half black2 three-fourths white and     
one-fourth black2 one-fourth-white and  
three-fourths black4  #d4 ,in the same  
way mix the two complementaries yellow  
and blue to produce a gray2 mix red and 
green in the same way4 ,try various     
combinations of the four fundamental    
colors1 and discover how different      
colors are produced4 ,seek for these    
same colors in nature--sky1 leaves1     
flowers1 etc4  #e4 ,take a large wire   
nail and push it through a cork so that 
it can be handled without touching the  
metal with the fingers4 ,now cool it in 
ice or very cold water1 then dry it and 
move the point slowly across the back of
 the hand4 ,do you feel occasional      
thrills of cold as the point passes over
 a bulb of ,krause8 ,heat the nail with 
a match flame or over a lamp1 and       
perform the same experiment4 ,do you    
feel the thrills of heat from the       

corpuscles of ,ruffini8  #f4 ,try       
stopping the nostrils with cotton and   
having someone give you scraped apple1  
potato1 onion1 etc41 and see whether1 by
 taste alone1 you can distinguish the   
difference4 ,why cannot sulphur be      
tasted8     ,,chapter ,,vii             
,,perception   ,no young child at first 
sees objects as we see them1 or hears   
sounds as we hear them4 ,this power1 the
 power of perception1 is a gradual      
development4 ,it grows day by day out of
 the learner's experience in his world  
of sights and sounds1 and whatever other
 fields his senses respond to4   #a4    
,,the ,,function ,,of ,,perception      
,,need ,,of ,,knowing ,,the ,,material  
,,world4--,it is the business of        
perception to give us knowledge of our  
world of material objects and their     
relations in space and time4 ,the       
material world which we enter through   
the gateways of the senses is more      
marvelous by far than any fairy world   
created by the fancy of story-tellers2  

for it contains the elements of all they
 have conceived and much more besides4  
,it is more marvelous than any structure
 planned and executed by the mind of    
man2 for all the wonders and beauties of
 the ,coliseum or of ,st4 ,peter's      
existed in nature before they were      
discovered by the architect and thrown  
together in those magnificent           
structures4 ,the material advancement of
 civilization has been but the discovery
 of the objects1 forces1 and laws of    
nature1 and their use in inventions     
serviceable to men4 ,and these forces   
and laws of nature were discovered only 
as they were made manifest through      
objects in the material world4  ,the    
problem lying before each individual who
 would enter fully into this rich world 
of environment1 then1 is to discover at 
first hand just as large a part of the  
material world about him as possible4   
,in the most humble environment of the  
most uneventful life is to be found the 
material for discoveries and inventions 

yet undreamed of4 ,lying in the shade of
 an apple tree under the open sky1      
,newton read from a falling apple the   
fundamental principles of the law of    
gravitation which has revolutionized    
science2 sitting at a humble tea table  
,watt watched the gurgling of the steam 
escaping from the kettle1 and evolved   
the steam engine therefrom2 with his    
simple kite1 ,franklin drew down the    
lightning from the clouds1 and started  
the science of electricity2 through     
studying a ball1 the ancient scholars   
conceived the earth to be a sphere1 and 
,columbus discovered ,america4  ,,the   
,,problem ,,which ,,confronts ,,the     
,,child4--,well it is that the child1   
starting his life's journey1 cannot see 
the magnitude of the task before him4   
,cast amid a world of objects of whose  
very existence he is ignorant1 and whose
 meaning and uses have to be learned by 
slow and often painful experience1 he   
proceeds step by step through the senses
 in his discovery of the objects about  

him4 ,yet1 considered again1 we         
ourselves are after all but a step in   
advance of the child4 ,though we are    
somewhat more familiar with the use of  
our senses than he1 and know a few more 
objects about us1 yet the knowledge of  
the wisest of us is at best pitifully   
meager compared with the richness of    
nature4 ,so impossible is it for us to  
know all our material environment1 that 
men have taken to becoming specialists4 
,one man will spend his life in the     
study of a certain variety of plants1   
while there are hundreds of thousands of
 varieties all about him2 another will  
study a particular kind of animal life1 
perhaps too minute to be seen with the  
naked eye1 while the world is teeming   
with animal forms which he has not time 
in his short day of life to stop to     
examine2 another will study the land    
forms and read the earth's history from 
the rocks and geological strata1 but    
here again nature's volume is so large  
that he has time to read but a small    

fraction of the whole4 ,another studies 
the human body and learns to read from  
its expressions the signs of health and 
sickness1 and to prescribe remedies for 
its ills2 but in this field also he has 
found it necessary to divide the work1  
and so we have specialists for almost   
every organ of the body4   #b4 ,,the    
,,nature ,,of ,,perception  ,,how ,a    
,,percept ,,is ,,formed4--,how1 then1 do
 we proceed to the discovery of this    
world of objects8 ,let us watch the     
child and learn the secret from him4    
,give the babe a ball1 and he applies   
every sense to it to discover its       
qualities4 ,he stares at it1 he takes it
 in his hands and turns it over and     
around1 he lifts it1 he strokes it1 he  
punches it and jabs it1 he puts it to   
his mouth and bites it1 he drops it1 he 
throws it and creeps after it4 ,he      
leaves no stone unturned to find out    
what that thing really is4 ,by means of 
the qualities which come to him through 
the avenues of sense1 he constructs the 

object4 ,and not only does he come to   
know the ball as a material object1 but 
he comes to know also its uses4 ,he is  
forming his own best definition of a    
ball in terms of the sensations which he
 gets from it and the uses to which he  
puts it1 and all this even before he can
 name it or is able to recognize its    
name when he hears it4 ,how much better 
his method than the one he will have to 
follow a little later when he goes to   
school and learns that ,a ball is a     
spherical body of any substance or size1
 used to play with1 as by throwing1     
kicking1 or knocking1 etc46  ,,the      
,,percept ,,involves ,,all ,,relations  
,,of ,,the ,,object4--,nor is the case  
in the least different with ourselves4  
,when we wish to learn about a new      
object or discover new facts about an   
old one1 we do precisely as the child   
does if we are wise4 ,we apply to it    
every sense to which it will afford a   
stimulus1 and finally arrive at the     
object through its various qualities4   

,and just in so far as we have failed to
 use in connection with it every sense  
to which it can minister1 just in that  
degree will we have an incomplete       
perception of it4 ,indeed1 just so far  
as we have failed finally to perceive it
 in terms of its functions or uses1 in  
that far also have we failed to know it 
completely4 ,tomatoes were for many     
years grown as ornamental garden plants 
before it was discovered that the       
tomatoes could minister to the taste as 
well as to the sight4 ,the clothing of  
civilized man gives the same sensation  
of texture and color to the savage that 
it does to its owner1 but he is so far  
from perceiving it in the same way that 
he packs it away and continues to go    
naked4 ,the ,orientals1 who disdain the 
use of chairs and prefer to sit         
cross-legged on the floor1 can never    
perceive a chair just as we do who use  
chairs daily1 and to whom chairs are so 
saturated with social suggestions and   
associations4  ,,the ,,content ,,of     

,,the ,,percept4--,the percept1 then1   
always contains a basis of sensation4   
,the eye1 the ear1 the skin or some     
other sense organ must turn in its      
supply of sensory material or there can 
be no percept4 ,but the percept contains
 more than just sensations4 ,consider1  
for example1 your percept of an         
automobile flashing past your windows4  
,you really see but very little of it1  
yet you perceive it as a very familiar  
vehicle4 ,all that your sense organs    
furnish is a more or less blurred patch 
of black of certain size and contour1   
one or more objects of somewhat         
different color whom you know to be     
passengers1 and various sounds of a     
whizzing1 chugging or roaring nature4   
,your former experience with automobiles
 enables you to associate with these    
meager sensory details the upholstered  
seats1 the whirling wheels1 the swaying 
movement and whatever else belongs to   
the full meaning of a motor car4  ,the  
percept that contained only sensory     

material1 and lacked all memory         
elements1 ideas and meanings1 would be  
no percept at all4 ,and this is the     
reason why a young child cannot see or  
hear like ourselves4 ,it lacks the      
associative material to give            
significance and meaning to the sensory 
elements supplied by the end-organs4    
,the dependence of the percept on       
material from past experience is also   
illustrated in the common statement that
 what one gets from an art exhibit or a 
concert depends on what he brings to it4
 ,he who brings no knowledge1 no memory1
 no images from other pictures or music 
will secure but relatively barren       
percepts1 consisting of little besides  
the mere sensory elements4 ,truly1 to   
him that hath shall be given in the     
realm of perception4  ,,the ,,accuracy  
,,of ,,percepts ,,depends ,,on          
,,experience4--,we must perceive objects
 through our motor response to them as  
well as in terms of sensations4 ,the boy
 who has his knowledge of a tennis      

racket from looking at one in a store   
window1 or indeed from handling one and 
looking it over in his room1 can never  
know a tennis racket as does the boy who
 plays with it on the court4 ,objects   
get their significance not alone from   
their qualities1 but even more from     
their use as related to our own         
activities4  ,like the child1 we must   
get our knowledge of objects1 if we are 
to get it well1 from the objects        
themselves at first hand1 and not second
 hand through descriptions of them by   
others4 ,the fact that there is so much 
of the material world about us that we  
can never hope to learn it all1 has made
 it necessary to put down in books many 
of the things which have been discovered
 concerning nature4 ,this necessity has1
 ,i fear1 led many away from nature     
itself to books--away from the living   
reality of things to the dead embalming 
cases of words1 in whose empty forms we 
see so little of the significance which 
resides in the things themselves4 ,we   

are in danger of being satisfied with   
the forms of knowledge without its      
substance--with definitions contained in
 words instead of in qualities and uses4
  ,,not ,,definitions1 ,,but            
,,first-,,hand ,,contact4--,in like     
manner we come to know distance1 form   
and size4 ,if we have never become      
acquainted with a mile by actually      
walking a mile1 running a mile1 riding a
 bicycle a mile1 driving a horse a mile1
 or traveling a mile on a train1 we     
might listen for a long time to someone 
tell how far a mile is1 or state the    
distance from ,chicago to ,denver1      
without knowing much about it in any way
 except word definitions4 ,in order to  
understand a mile1 we must come to know 
it in as many ways as possible through  
sense activities of our own4 ,although  
many children have learned that it is   
#be1jjj miles around the earth1 probably
 no one who has not encircled the globe 
has any reasonably accurate notion just 
how far this is4 ,for words cannot take 

the place of perceptions in giving us   
knowledge4 ,in the case of shorter      
distances1 the same rule holds4 ,the eye
 must be assisted by experience of the  
muscles and tendons and joints in       
actually covering distance1 and learn to
 associate these sensations with those  
of the eye before the eye alone can be  
able to say1 ,that tree is ten rods     
distant4 ,form and size are to be       
learned in the same way4 ,the hands must
 actually touch and handle the object1  
experiencing its hardness or smoothness1
 the way this curve and that angle      
feels1 the amount of muscular energy it 
takes to pass the hand over this surface
 and along that line1 the eye taking    
note all the while1 before the eye can  
tell at a glance that yonder object is a
 sphere and that this surface is two    
feet on the edge4   #c4 ,,the           
,,perception ,,of ,,space  ,many have   
been the philosophical controversies    
over the nature of space and our        
perception of it4 ,the psychologists    

have even quarreled concerning whether  
we possess an innate sense of space1 or 
whether it is a product of experience   
and training4 ,fortunately1 for our     
present purpose we shall not need to    
concern ourselves with either of these  
controversies4 ,for our discussion we   
may accept space for what common sense  
understands it to be4 ,as to our sense  
of space1 whatever of this we may       
possess at birth1 it certainly has to be
 developed by use and experience to     
become of practical value4 ,in the      
perception of space we must come to     
perceive distance1 direction1 size1 and 
form4 ,as a matter of fact1 however1    
size is but so much distance1 and form  
is but so much distance in this1 that1  
or the other direction4  ,,the          
,,perceiving ,,of                       
,,distance4--,unquestionably the eye    
comes to be our chief dependence in     
determining distance4 ,yet the muscle   
and joint senses give us our earliest   
knowledge of distance4 ,the babe reaches

 for the moon simply because the eye    
does not tell it that the moon is out of
 reach4 ,only as the child reaches for  
its playthings1 creeps or walks after   
them1 and in a thousand ways uses its   
muscles and joints in measuring         
distance1 does the perception of        
distance become dependable4  ,at the    
same time the eye is slowly developing  
its power of judging distance4 ,but not 
for several years does visual perception
 of distance become in any degree       
accurate4 ,the eye's perception of      
distance depends in part on the         
sensations arising from the muscles     
controlling the eye1 probably in part   
from the adjustment of the lens1 and in 
part from the retinal image4 ,if one    
tries to look at the tip of his nose he 
easily feels the muscle strain caused by
 the required angle of adjustment4 ,we  
come unconsciously to associate distance
 with the muscle sensations arising from
 the different angles of vision4 ,the   
part played by the retinal image in     

judging distance is easily understood in
 looking at two trees1 one thirty feet  
and the other three hundred feet        
distant4 ,we note that the nearer tree  
shows the detail of the bark and leaves1
 while the more distant one lacks this  
detail4 ,the nearer tree also reflects  
more light and color than the one       
farther away4 ,these minute differences1
 registered as they are on the retinal  
image1 come to stand for so much of     
distance4  ,the ear also learns to      
perceive distance through differences in
 the quality and the intensity of sound4
 ,auditory perception of distance is1   
however1 never very accurate4  ,,the    
,,perceiving ,,of ,,direction4--,the    
motor senses probably give us our first 
perception of direction1 as they do of  
distance4 ,the child has to reach this  
way or that way for his rattle2 turn the
 eyes or head so far in order to see an 
interesting object2 twist the body1     
crawl or walk to one side or the other  
to secure his bottle4 ,in these         

experiences he is gaining his first     
knowledge of direction4  ,along with    
these muscle-joint experiences1 the eye 
is also being trained4 ,the position of 
the image on the retina comes to stand  
for direction1 and the eye finally      
develops so remarkable a power of       
perceiving direction that a picture hung
 a half inch out of plumb is a source of
 annoyance4 ,the ear develops some skill
 in the perception of direction1 but is 
less dependable than the eye4   #d4     
,,the ,,perception ,,of ,,time  ,the    
philosophers and psychologists agree    
little better about our sense of time   
than they do about our sense of space4  
,of this much1 however1 we may be       
certain1 our perception of time is      
subject to development and training4    
,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,time              
,,sense4--,how we perceive time is not  
so well understood as our perception of 
space4 ,it is evident1 however1 that our
 idea of time is simpler than our idea  
of space--it has less of content1 less  

that we can describe4 ,probably the most
 fundamental part of our idea of time is
 progression1 or change1 without which  
it is difficult to think of time at all4
 ,the question then becomes1 how do we  
perceive change1 or succession8  ,if one
 looks in upon his thought stream he    
finds that the movement of consciousness
 is not uniformly continuous1 but that  
his thought moves in pulses1 or short   
rushes1 so to speak4 ,when we are       
seeking for some fact or conclusion1    
there is a moment of expectancy1 or     
poising1 and then the leap forward to   
the desired point1 or conclusion1 from  
which an immediate start is taken for   
the next objective point of our         
thinking4 ,it is probable that our sense
 of the few seconds of passing time that
 we call the immediate present consists 
of the recognition of the succession of 
these pulsations of consciousness1      
together with certain organic rhythms1  
such as heart beat and breathing4  ,,no 
,,perception ,,of ,,empty ,,time4--,our 

perception does not therefore act upon  
empty time4 ,time must be filled with a 
procession of events1 whether these be  
within our own consciousness or in the  
objective world without4 ,all longer    
periods of time1 such as hours1 days1 or
 years1 are measured by the events which
 they contain4 ,time filled with        
happenings that interest and attract us 
seems short while passing1 but longer   
when looked back upon4 ,on the other    
hand1 time relatively empty of          
interesting experience hangs heavy on   
our hands in passing1 but1 viewed in    
retrospect1 seems short4 ,a fortnight of
 travel passes more quickly than a      
fortnight of illness1 but yields many   
more events for the memory to review as 
the filling for time4  ,probably no one 
has any very accurate feeling of the    
length1 that is1 the actual duration of 
a year--or even of a month6 ,we         
therefore divide time into convenient   
units1 as weeks1 months1 years and      
centuries4 ,this allows us to think of  

time in mathematical terms where        
immediate perception fails in its grasp4
   #e4 ,,the ,,training ,,of            
,,perception  ,in the physical world as 
in the spiritual there are many people  
who1 having eyes1 see not and ears1 hear
 not4 ,for the ability to perceive      
accurately and richly in the world of   
physical objects depends not alone on   
good sense organs1 but also on interest 
and the habit of observation4 ,it is    
easy if we are indifferent or untrained 
to look at a beautiful landscape1 a     
picture or a cathedral without seeing   
it2 it is easy if we lack interest or   
skill to listen to an orchestra or the  
myriad sounds of nature without hearing 
them4  ,,perception ,,needs ,,to ,,be   
,,trained4--,training in perception does
 not depend entirely on the work of the 
school4 ,for the world about us exerts a
 constant appeal to our senses4 ,a      
thousand sights1 sounds1 contacts1      
tastes1 smells or other sensations1     
hourly throng in upon us1 and the appeal

 is irresistible4 ,we must in some      
degree attend4 ,we must observe4  ,yet  
it cannot be denied that most of us are 
relatively unskilled in perception2 we  
do not know how1 or take the trouble to 
observe4 ,for example1 a stranger was   
brought into the classroom and          
introduced by the instructor to a class 
of fifty college students in psychology4
 ,the class thought the stranger was to 
address them1 and looked at him with    
mild curiosity4 ,but1 after standing    
before them for a few moments1 he       
suddenly withdrew1 as had been arranged 
by the instructor4 ,the class were then 
asked to write such a description of the
 stranger as would enable a person who  
had never seen him to identify him4 ,but
 so poor had been the observation of the
 class that they ascribed to him clothes
 of four different colors1 eyes and hair
 each of three different colors1 a tie  
of many different hues1 height ranging  
from five feet and four inches to over  
six feet1 age from twenty-eight to      

forty-five years1 and many other details
 as wide of the mark4 ,nor is it        
probable that this particular class was 
below the average in the power of       
perception4  ,,school ,,training ,,in   
,,perception4--,the school can do much  
in training the perception4 ,but to     
accomplish this1 the child must         
constantly be brought into immediate    
contact with the physical world about   
him and taught to observe4 ,books must  
not be substituted for things4          
,definitions must not take the place of 
experiment or discovery4 ,geography and 
nature study should be taught largely   
out of doors1 and the lessons assigned  
should take the child into the open for 
observation and investigation4 ,all     
things that live and grow1 the sky and  
clouds1 the sunset colors1 the brown of 
upturned soil1 the smell of the clover  
field1 or the new mown hay1 the sounds  
of a summer night1 the distinguishing   
marks by which to identify each family  
of common birds or breed of             

cattle--these and a thousand other      
things that appeal to us from the       
simplest environment afford a rich      
opportunity for training the perception4
 ,and he who has learned to observe1 and
 who is alert to the appeal of nature1  
has no small part of his education      
already assured4   #f4 ,,problems ,,in  
,,observation ,,and ,,introspection  #a4
 ,test your power of observation by     
walking rapidly past a well-filled store
 window and then seeing how many of the 
objects you can name4  #b4 ,suppose a   
tailor1 a bootblack1 a physician1 and a 
detective are standing on the street    
corner as you pass by4 ,what will each  
one be most likely to observe about you8
 ,why8  #c4 ,observe carefully green    
trees at a distance of a few rods2 a    
quarter of a mile2 a mile2 several      
miles4 ,describe differences 7#a7 in    
color1 7#b7 in brightness1 or light1 and
 7#c7 in detail4  #d4 ,how many common  
birds can you identify8 ,how many kinds 
of trees8 ,of wild flowers8 ,of weeds8  

#e4 ,observe the work of an elementary  
school for the purpose of determining3  
a4 ,whether the instruction in          
geography1 nature study1 agriculture1   
etc41 calls for the use of the eyes1    
ears and fingers4  b4 ,whether          
definitions are used in place of        
first-hand information in any subjects4 
c4 ,whether the assignment of lessons to
 pupils includes work that would require
 the use of the senses1 especially out  
of doors4  d4 ,whether the work offered 
in arithmetic demands the use of the    
senses as well as the reason4  e4       
,whether the language lessons make use  
of the power of observation4            
,,chapter ,,viii  ,,mental ,,images     
,,and ,,ideas   ,as you sit thinking1 a 
company of you together1 your thoughts  
run in many diverse lines4 ,yet with all
 this diversity1 your minds possess this
 common characteristic3 ,though your    
thinking all takes place in what we call
 the present moment1 it goes on largely 
in terms of past experiences4   #a4     

,,the ,,part ,,played ,,by ,,past       
,,experience  ,,present ,,thinking      
,,depends ,,on ,,past                   
,,experience4--,images or ideas of      
things you have seen or heard or felt2  
of things you have thought of before and
 which now recur to you2 of things you  
remember1 such as names1 dates1 places1 
events2 of things that you do not       
remember as a part of your past at all1 
but that belong to it                   
nevertheless--these are the things which
 form a large part of your mental       
stream1 and which give content to your  
thinking4 ,you may think of a thing that
 is going on now1 or of one that is to  
occur in the future2 but1 after all1 you
 are dependent on your past experience  
for the material which you put into your
 thinking of the present moment4        
,indeed1 nothing can enter your present 
thinking which does not link itself to  
something in your past experience4 ,the 
savage ,indian in the primeval forest   
never thought about killing a deer with 

a rifle merely by pulling a trigger1 or 
of turning a battery of machine guns on 
his enemies to annihilate them--none of 
these things were related to his past   
experience2 hence he could not think in 
such terms4  ,,the ,,present            
,,interpreted ,,by ,,the ,,past4--,not  
only can we not think at all except in  
terms of our past experience1 but even  
if we could1 the present would be       
meaningless to us2 for the present is   
interpreted in the light of the past4   
,the sedate man of affairs who decries  
athletic sports1 and has never taken    
part in them1 cannot understand the wild
 enthusiasm which prevails between rival
 teams in a hotly contested event4 ,the 
fine work of art is to the one who has  
never experienced the appeal which comes
 through beauty1 only so much of canvas 
and variegated patches of color4 ,paul  
says that ,jesus was unto the ,greeks1  
foolishness4 ,he was foolishness to them
 because nothing in their experience    
with their own gods had been enough like

 the character of ,jesus to enable them 
to interpret ,him4  ,,the ,,future      
,,also ,,depends ,,on ,,the ,,past4--,to
 the mind incapable of using past       
experience1 the future also would be    
impossible2 for we can look forward into
 the future only by placing in its      
experiences the elements of which we    
have already known4 ,the savage who has 
never seen the shining yellow metal does
 not dream of a heaven whose streets are
 paved with gold1 but rather of a happy 
hunting ground4 ,if you will analyze    
your own dreams of the future you will  
see in them familiar pictures perhaps   
grouped together in new forms1 but      
coming1 in their elements1 from your    
past experience nevertheless4 ,all that 
would remain to a mind devoid of a past 
would be the little bridge of time which
 we call the present moment1 a series of
 unconnected nows4 ,thought would be    
impossible1 for the mind would have     
nothing to compare and relate4          
,personality would not exist2 for       

personality requires continuity of      
experience1 else we should be a new     
person each succeeding moment1 without  
memory and without plans4 ,such a mind  
would be no mind at all4  ,,rank        
,,determined ,,by ,,ability ,,to        
,,utilize ,,past ,,experience4--,so     
important is past experience in         
determining our present thinking and    
guiding our future actions1 that the    
place of an individual in the scale of  
creation is determined largely by the   
ability to profit by past experience4   
,the scientist tells us of many species 
of animals now extinct1 which lost their
 lives and suffered their race to die   
out because when1 long ago1 the climate 
began to change and grow much colder1   
they were unable to use the experience  
of suffering in the last cold season as 
an incentive to provide shelter1 or move
 to a warmer climate against the coming 
of the next and more rigorous one4 ,man 
was able to make the adjustment2 and1   
providing himself with clothing and     

shelter and food1 he survived1 while    
myriads of the lower forms perished4    
,the singed moth again and again dares  
the flame which tortures it1 and at last
 gives its life1 a sacrifice to its     
folly2 the burned child fears the fire1 
and does not the second time seek the   
experience4 ,so also can the efficiency 
of an individual or a nation1 as        
compared with other individuals or      
nations1 be determined4 ,the inefficient
 are those who repeat the same error or 
useless act over and over1 or else fail 
to repeat a chance useful act whose     
repetition might lead to success4 ,they 
are unable to learn their lesson and be 
guided by experience4 ,their past does  
not sufficiently minister to their      
present1 and through it direct their    
future4   #b4 ,,how ,,past ,,experience 
,,is ,,conserved  ,,past ,,experience   
,,conserved ,,in ,,both ,,mental ,,and  
,,physical ,,terms4--,if past experience
 plays so important a part in our       
welfare1 how1 then1 is it to be         

conserved so that we may secure its     
benefits8 ,here1 as elsewhere1 we find  
the mind and body working in perfect    
unison and harmony1 each doing its part 
to further the interests of both4 ,the  
results of our past experience may be   
read in both our mental and our physical
 nature4  ,on the physical side past    
experience is recorded in modified      
structure through the law of habit      
working on the tissues of the body1 and 
particularly on the delicate tissues of 
the brain and nervous system4 ,this is  
easily seen in its outward aspects4 ,the
 stooped shoulders and bent form of the 
workman tell a tale of physical toil and
 exposure2 the bloodless lips and pale  
face of the victim of the city sweat    
shop tell of foul air1 long hours1 and  
insufficient food2 the rosy cheek and   
bounding step of childhood speak of     
fresh air1 good food and happy play4    
,on the mental side past experience is  
conserved chiefly by means of images1   
ideas1 and concepts4 ,the nature and    

function of concepts will be discussed  
in a later chapter4 ,it will now be our 
purpose to examine the nature of images 
and ideas1 and to note the part they    
play in the mind's activities4  ,,the   
,,image ,,and ,,the ,,idea4--,to        
understand the nature of the image1 and 
then of the idea1 we may best go back to
 the percept4 ,you look at a watch which
 ,i hold before your eyes and secure a  
percept of it4 ,briefly1 this is what   
happens3 ,the light reflected from the  
yellow object1 on striking the retina1  
results in a nerve current which sets up
 a certain form of activity in the cells
 of the visual brain area1 and lo6 a    
percept of the watch flashes in your    
mind4  ,now ,i put the watch in my      
pocket1 so that the stimulus is no      
longer present to your eye4 ,then ,i ask
 you to think of my watch just as it    
appeared as you were looking at it2 or  
you may yourself choose to think of it  
without my suggesting it to you4 ,in    
either case the cellular activity in the

 visual area of the cortex is reproduced
 approximately as it occurred in        
connection with the percept1 and lo6 an 
image of the watch flashes in your mind4
 ,an image is thus an approximate copy  
of a former percept 7or several         
percepts74 ,it is aroused indirectly by 
means of a nerve current coming by way  
of some other brain center1 instead of  
directly by the stimulation of a sense  
organ1 as in the case of a percept4     
,if1 instead of seeking a more or less  
exact mental picture of my watch1 you   
only think of its general meaning and   
relations1 the fact that it is of gold1 
that it is for the purpose of keeping   
time1 that it was a present to me1 that 
,i wear it in my left pocket1 you then  
have an idea of the watch4 ,our idea of 
an object is1 therefore1 the general    
meaning of relations we ascribe to it4  
,it should be remembered1 however1 that 
the terms image and idea are employed   
rather loosely1 and that there is not   
yet general uniformity among writers in 

their use4  ,,all ,,our ,,past          
,,experience ,,potentially ,,at ,,our   
,,command4--,images may in a certain    
sense take the place of percepts1 and we
 can again experience sights1 sounds1   
tastes1 and smells which we have known  
before1 without having the stimuli      
actually present to the senses4 ,in this
 way all our past experience is         
potentially available to the present4   
,all the objects we have seen1 it is    
potentially possible again to see in the
 mind's eye without being obliged to    
have the objects before us2 all the     
sounds we have heard1 all the tastes and
 smells and temperatures we have        
experienced1 we may again have presented
 to our minds in the form of mental     
images without the various stimuli being
 present to the end-organs of the       
senses4  ,through images and ideas the  
total number of objects in our          
experience is infinitely multiplied2 for
 many of the things we have seen1 or    
heard1 or smelled1 or tasted1 we cannot 

again have present to the senses1 and   
without this power we would never get   
them again4 ,and besides this fact1 it  
would be inconvenient to have to go and 
secure afresh each sensation or percept 
every time we need to use it in our     
thought4 ,while habit1 then1 conserves  
our past experience on the physical     
side1 the image and the idea do the same
 thing on the mental side4   #c4        
,,individual ,,differences ,,in         
,,imagery  ,,images ,,to ,,be ,,viewed  
,,by ,,introspection4--,the remainder of
 the description of images will be      
easier to understand1 for each of you   
can know just what is meant in every    
case by appealing to your own mind4 ,i  
beg of you not to think that ,i am      
presenting something new and strange1 a 
curiosity connected with our thinking   
which has been discovered by scholars   
who have delved more deeply into the    
matter than we can hope to do4 ,every   
day--no1 more than that1 every hour and 
every moment--these images are flitting 

through our minds1 forming a large part 
of our stream of consciousness4 ,let us 
see whether we can turn our attention   
within and discover some of our images  
in their flight4 ,let us introspect4  ,i
 know of no better way to proceed than  
that adopted by ,francis ,galton years  
ago1 when he asked the ,english men of  
letters and science to think of their   
breakfast tables1 and then describe the 
images which appeared4 ,i am about to   
ask each one of you to do the same      
thing1 but ,i want to warn you          
beforehand that the images will not be  
so vivid as the sensory experiences     
themselves4 ,they will be much fainter  
and more vague1 and less clear and      
definite2 they will be fleeting1 and    
must be caught on the wing4 ,often the  
image may fade entirely out1 and the    
idea only be left4  ,,the ,,varied      
,,imagery ,,suggested ,,by ,,one',s     
,,dining ,,table4--,let each one now    
recall the dining table as you last left
 it1 and then answer questions          

concerning it like the following3  ,can 
,i see clearly in my mind's eye the     
whole table as it stood spread before   
me8 ,can ,i see all parts of it equally 
clearly8 ,do ,i get the snowy white and 
gloss of the linen8 ,the delicate       
coloring of the china1 so that ,i can   
see where the pink shades off into the  
white8 ,the graceful lines and curves of
 the dishes8 ,the sheen of the silver8  
,the brown of the toast8 ,the yellow of 
the cream8 ,the rich red and dark green 
of the bouquet of roses8 ,the sparkle of
 the glassware8  ,can ,i again hear the 
rattle of the dishes8 ,the clink of the 
spoon against the cup8 ,the moving up of
 the chairs8 ,the chatter of the voices1
 each with its own peculiar pitch and   
quality8 ,the twitter of a bird outside 
the window8 ,the tinkle of a distant    
bell8 ,the chirp of a neighborly        
cricket8  ,can ,i taste clearly the     
milk8 ,the coffee8 ,the eggs8 ,the      
bacon8 ,the rolls8 ,the butter8 ,the    
jelly8 ,the fruit8 ,can ,i get the      

appetizing odor of the coffee8 ,of the  
meat8 ,the oranges and bananas8 ,the    
perfume of the lilac bush outside the   
door8 ,the perfume from a handkerchief  
newly treated to a spray of heliotrope8 
,can ,i recall the touch of my fingers  
on the velvety peach8 ,on the smooth    
skin of an apple8 ,on the fretted       
glassware8 ,the feel of the fresh linen8
 ,the contact of leather-covered or     
cane-seated chair8 ,of the freshly      
donned garment8 ,can ,i get clearly the 
temperature of the hot coffee in the    
mouth8 ,of the hot dish on the hand8 ,of
 the ice water8 ,of the grateful        
coolness of the breeze wafted in through
 the open window8  ,can ,i feel again   
the strain of muscle and joint in       
passing the heavy dish8 ,can ,i feel the
 movement of the jaws in chewing the    
beefsteak8 ,of the throat and lips in   
talking8 ,of the chest and diaphragm in 
laughing8 ,of the muscles in sitting and
 rising8 ,in hand and arm in using knife
 and fork and spoon8 ,can ,i get again  

the sensation of pain which accompanied 
biting on a tender tooth8 ,from the     
shooting of a drop of acid from the rind
 of the orange into the eye8 ,the chance
 ache in the head8 ,the pleasant feeling
 connected with the exhilaration of a   
beautiful morning8 ,the feeling of      
perfect health8 ,the pleasure connected 
with partaking of a favorite food8      
,,power ,,of ,,imagery ,,varies ,,in    
,,different ,,people4--,it is more than 
probable that some of you cannot get    
perfectly clear images in all these     
lines1 certainly not with equal         
facility2 for the imagery from any one  
sense varies greatly from person to     
person4 ,a celebrated painter was able1 
after placing his subject in a chair and
 looking at him attentively for a few   
minutes1 to dismiss the subject and     
paint a perfect likeness of him from the
 visual image which recurred to the     
artist every time he turned his eyes to 
the chair where the sitter had been     
placed4 ,on the other hand1 a young     

lady1 a student in my psychology class1 
tells me that she is never able to      
recall the looks of her mother when she 
is absent1 even if the separation has   
been only for a few moments4 ,she can   
get an image of the form1 with the color
 and cut of the dress1 but never the    
features4 ,one person may be able to    
recall a large part of a concert through
 his auditory imagery1 and another      
almost none4  ,in general it may be said
 that the power1 or at least the use1 of
 imagery decreases with age4 ,the writer
 has made a somewhat extensive study of 
the imagery of certain high-school      
students1 college students1 and         
specialists in psychology averaging     
middle age4 ,almost without exception it
 was found that clear and vivid images  
played a smaller part in the thinking of
 the older group than of the younger4   
,more or less abstract ideas and        
concepts seemed to have taken the place 
of the concrete imagery of earlier      
years4  ,,imagery ,,types4--,although   

there is some difference in our ability 
to use imagery of different sensory     
types1 probably there is less variation 
here than has been supposed4 ,earlier   
pedagogical works spoke of the visual   
type of mind1 or the audile type1 or the
 motor type1 as if the possession of one
 kind of imagery necessarily rendered a 
person short in other types4 ,later     
studies have shown this view incorrect1 
however4 ,the person who has good images
 of one type is likely to excel in all  
types1 while one who is lacking in any  
one of the more important types will    
probably be found short in all4#d ,most 
of us probably make more use of visual  
and auditory than of other kinds of     
imagery1 while olfactory and gustatory  
images seem to play a minor role4   #d4 
,,the ,,function ,,of ,,images  ,binet  
says that the man who has not every type
 of imagery almost equally well         
developed is only the fraction of a man4
 ,while this no doubt puts the matter   
too strongly1 yet images do play an     

important part in our thinking4         
,,images ,,supply ,,material ,,for      
,,imagination ,,and ,,memory4--,imagery 
supplies the pictures from which        
imagination builds its structures4      
,given a rich supply of images from the 
various senses1 and imagination has the 
material necessary to construct times   
and events long since past1 or to fill  
the future with plans or experiences not
 yet reached4 ,lacking images1 however1 
imagination is handicapped1 and its     
meager products reveal in their         
barrenness and their lack of warmth and 
reality the poverty of material4  ,much 
of our memory also takes the form of    
images4 ,the face of a friend1 the sound
 of a voice1 or the touch of a hand may 
be recalled1 not as a mere fact1 but    
with almost the freshness and fidelity  
of a percept4 ,that much of our memory  
goes on in the form of ideas instead of 
images is true4 ,but memory is often    
both aided in its accuracy and rendered 
more vital and significant through the  

presence of abundant imagery4  ,,imagery
 ,,in ,,the ,,thought                   
,,processes4--,since logical thinking   
deals more with relations and meanings  
than with particular objects1 images    
naturally play a smaller part in        
reasoning than in memory and            
imagination4 ,yet they have their place 
here as well4 ,students of geometry or  
trigonometry often have difficulty in   
understanding a theorem until they      
succeed in visualizing the surface or   
solid involved4 ,thinking in the field  
of astronomy1 mechanics1 and many other 
sciences is assisted at certain points  
by the ability to form clear and        
accurate images4  ,,the ,,use ,,of      
,,imagery ,,in ,,literature4--,facility 
in the use of imagery undoubtedly adds  
much to our enjoyment and appreciation  
of certain forms of literature4 ,the    
great writers commonly use all types of 
images in their description and         
narration4 ,if we are not able to employ
 the images they used1 many of their    

most beautiful pictures are likely to be
 to us but so many words suggesting     
prosaic ideas4  ,shakespeare1 describing
 certain beautiful music1 appeals to the
 sense of smell to make himself         
understood3      444 it came o'er my ear
 like the sweet sound     ,that breathes
 upon a bank of violets1     ,stealing  
and giving odor6  ,lady ,macbeth cries3 
,here's the smell of the blood still3   
,all the perfumes of ,arabia will not   
sweeten this little hand4  ,milton has  
,eve say of her dream of the fatal      
apple3      444 ,the pleasant sav'ry    
smell     ,so quickened appetite1 that  
,i1 methought1     ,could not but taste4
  ,likewise with the sense of touch3    
444 ,i take thy hand1 this hand     ,as 
soft as dove's down1 and as white as it4
  ,imagine a person devoid of delicate  
tactile imagery1 with senseless finger  
tips and leaden footsteps1 undertaking  
to interpret these exquisite lines3     
,thus ,i set my printless feet     ,o'er
 the cowslip's velvet head1     ,that   

bends not as ,i tread4  ,shakespeare    
thus appeals to the muscular imagery3   
,at last1 a little shaking of mine arm  
,and thrice his head thus waving up and 
down1     ,he raised a sigh so piteous  
and profound     ,as it did seem to     
shatter all his bulk     ,and end his   
being4  ,many passages like the         
following appeal to the temperature     
images3      ,freeze1 freeze1 thou      
bitter sky1     ,thou dost not bite so  
nigh     ,as benefits forgot6  ,to one  
whose auditory imagery is meager1 the   
following lines will lose something of  
their beauty3      ,how sweet the       
moonlight sleeps upon this bank6        
,here we will sit and let the sounds of 
music     ,creep in our ears2 soft      
stillness and the night     ,become the 
touches of sweet harmony4  ,note how    
much clear images will add to           
,browning's words3      ,are there not  
two moments in the adventure of a       
diver--one when a     beggar he prepares
 to plunge1 and one1 when a prince he   

rises with     his pearl8  ,,points     
,,where ,,images ,,are ,,of ,,greatest  
,,service4--,beyond question1 many      
images come flooding into our minds     
which are irrelevant and of no service  
in our thinking4 ,no one has failed to  
note many such4 ,further1 we undoubtedly
 do much of our best thinking with few  
or no images present4 ,yet we need      
images4 ,where1 then1 are they most     
needed8 ,images are needed wherever the 
percepts which they represent would be  
of service4 ,whatever one could better  
understand or enjoy or appreciate by    
seeing it1 hearing it1 or perceiving it 
through some other sense1 he can better 
understand1 enjoy or appreciate through 
images than by means of ideas only4     
#e4 ,,the ,,cultivation ,,of ,,imagery  
,,images ,,depend ,,on ,,sensory        
,,stimuli4--,the power of imaging can be
 cultivated the same as any other       
ability4  ,in the first place1 we may   
put down as an absolute requisite such  
an environment of sensory stimuli as    

will tempt every sense to be awake and  
at its best1 that we may be led into a  
large acquaintance with the objects of  
our material environment4 ,no one's     
stock of sensory images is greater than 
the sum total of his sensory            
experiences4 ,no one ever has images of 
sights1 or sounds1 or tastes1 or smells 
which he has never experienced4         
,likewise1 he must have had the fullest 
and freest possible liberty in motor    
activities4 ,for not only is the motor  
act itself made possible through the    
office of imagery1 but the motor act    
clarifies and makes useful the images4  
,the boy who has actually made a table1 
or a desk1 or a box has ever afterward a
 different and a better image of one of 
these objects than before2 so also when 
he has owned and ridden a bicycle1 his  
image of this machine will have a       
different significance from that of the 
image founded upon the visual perception
 alone of the wheel he longingly looked 
at through the store window or in the   

other boy's dooryard4  ,,the ,,influence
 ,,of ,,frequent ,,recall4--,but sensory
 experiences and motor responses alone  
are not enough1 though they are the     
basis of good imagery4 ,there must be   
frequent recall4 ,the sunset may have   
been never so brilliant1 and the music  
never so entrancing2 but if they are    
never thought of and dwelt upon after   
they were first experienced1 little will
 remain of them after a very short time4
 ,it is by repeating them often in      
experience through imagery that they    
become fixed1 so that they stand ready  
to do our bidding when we need next to  
use them4  ,,the ,,reconstruction ,,of  
,,our ,,images4--,to richness of        
experience and frequency of the recall  
of our images we must add one more      
factor2 namely1 that of their           
reconstruction or working over4 ,few if 
any images are exact recalls of former  
percepts of objects4 ,indeed1 such would
 be neither possible nor desirable4 ,the
 images which we recall are recalled for

 a purpose1 or in view of some future   
activity1 and hence must be selective1  
or made up of the elements of several or
 many former related images4  ,thus the 
boy who wishes to construct a box       
without a pattern to follow recalls the 
images of numerous boxes he may have    
seen1 and from them all he has a new    
image made over from many former        
percepts and images1 and this new image 
serves him as a working model4 ,in this 
way he not only gets a copy which he can
 follow to make his box1 but he also    
secures a new product in the form of an 
image different from any he ever had    
before1 and is therefore by so much the 
richer4 ,it is this working over of our 
stock of old images into new and richer 
and more suggestive ones that           
constitutes the essence of constructive 
imagination4  ,the more types of imagery
 into which we can put our thought1 the 
more fully is it ours and the better our
 images4 ,the spelling lesson needs not 
only to be taken in through the eye1    

that we may retain a visual image of the
 words1 but also to be recited orally1  
so that the ear may furnish an auditory 
image1 and the organs of speech a motor 
image of the correct forms4 ,it needs   
also to be written1 and thus given into 
the keeping of the hand1 which finally  
needs most of all to know and retain it4
  ,the reading lesson should be taken in
 through both the eye and the ear1 and  
then expressed by means of voice and    
gesture in as full and complete a way as
 possible1 that it may be associated    
with motor images4 ,the geography lesson
 needs not only to be read1 but to be   
drawn1 or molded1 or constructed4 ,the  
history lesson should be made to appeal 
to every possible form of imagery4 ,the 
arithmetic lesson must be not only      
computed1 but measured1 weighed1 and    
pressed into actual service4  ,thus we  
might carry the illustration into every 
line of education and experience1 and   
the same truth holds4 ,what we desire to
 comprehend completely and retain well1 

we must apprehend through all available 
senses and conserve in every possible   
type of image and form of expression4   
#f4 ,,problems ,,in ,,introspection     
,,and ,,observation  #a4 ,observe a     
reading class and try to determine      
whether the pupils picture the scenes   
and events they read about4 ,how can you
 tell8  #b4 ,similarly observe a history
 class4 ,do the pupils realize the      
events as actually happening1 and the   
personages as real1 living people8  #c4 
,observe in a similar way a class in    
geography1 and draw conclusions4 ,a     
pupil in computing the cost of          
plastering a certain room based the     
figures on the room filled full of      
plaster4 ,how might visual imagery have 
saved the error8  #d4 ,imagine a        
three-inch cube4 ,paint it4 ,then saw it
 up into inch cubes1 leaving them all   
standing in the original form4 ,how many
 inch cubes have paint on three faces8  
,how many on two faces8 ,how many on one
 face8 ,how many have no paint on them8 

,answer all these questions by referring
 to your imagery alone4  #e4 ,try often 
to recall images in the various sensory 
lines2 determine in what classes of     
images you are least proficient and try 
to improve in these lines4  #f4 ,how is 
the singing teacher able1 after his     
class has sung through several scores1  
to tell that they are flatting8  #g4    
,study your imagery carefully for a few 
days to see whether you can discover    
your predominating type of imagery4     
,,chapter ,,ix  ,,imagination           
,everyone desires to have a good        
imagination1 yet not all would agree as 
to what constitutes a good imagination4 
,if ,i were to ask a group of you       
whether you have good imaginations1 many
 of you would probably at once fall to  
considering whether you are capable of  
taking wild flights into impossible     
realms of thought and evolving          
unrealities out of airy nothings4 ,you  
would compare yourself with great       
imaginative writers1 such as ,stevenson1

 ,poe1 ,de ,quincey1 and judge your     
power of imagination by your ability to 
produce such tales as made them famous4 
#a4 ,,the ,,place ,,of ,,imagination    
,,in ,,mental ,,economy  ,but such a    
measure for the imagination as that just
 stated is far too narrow4 ,a good      
imagination1 like a good memory1 is the 
one which serves its owner best4 ,if    
,de,quincey and ,poe and ,stevenson and 
,bulwer found the type which led them   
into such dizzy flights the best for    
their particular purpose1 well and good2
 but that is not saying that their type 
is the best for you1 or that you may not
 rank as high in some other field of    
imaginative power as they in theirs4    
,while you may lack in their particular 
type of imagination1 they may have been 
short in the type which will one day    
make you famous4 ,the artisan1 the      
architect1 the merchant1 the artist1 the
 farmer1 the teacher1 the professional  
man--all need imagination in their      
vocations not less than the writers need

 it in theirs1 but each needs a         
specialized kind adapted to the         
particular work which he has to do4     
,,practical ,,nature ,,of               
,,imagination4--,imagination is not a   
process of thought which must deal      
chiefly with unrealities and            
impossibilities1 and which has for its  
chief end our amusement when we have    
nothing better to do than to follow its 
wanderings4 ,it is1 rather1 a           
commonplace1 necessary process which    
illumines the way for our everyday      
thinking and acting--a process without  
which we think and act by haphazard     
chance or blind imitation4 ,it is the   
process by which the images from our    
past experiences are marshaled1 and made
 to serve our present4 ,imagination     
looks into the future and constructs our
 patterns and lays our plans4 ,it sets  
up our ideals and pictures us in the    
acts of achieving them4 ,it enables us  
to live our joys and our sorrows1 our   
victories and our defeats before we     

reach them4 ,it looks into the past and 
allows us to live with the kings and    
seers of old1 or it goes back to the    
beginning and we see things in the      
process of the making4 ,it comes into   
our present and plays a part in every   
act from the simplest to the most       
complex4 ,it is to the mental stream    
what the light is to the traveler who   
carries it as he passes through the     
darkness1 while it casts its beams in   
all directions around him1 lighting up  
what otherwise would be intolerable     
gloom4  ,,imagination ,,in ,,the        
,,interpretation ,,of ,,history1        
,,literature1 ,,and ,,art4--,let us see 
some of the most common uses of the     
imagination4 ,suppose ,i describe to you
 the battle of the ,marne4 ,unless you  
can take the images which my words      
suggest and build them into struggling1 
shouting1 bleeding soldiers2 into forts 
and entanglements and breastworks2 into 
roaring cannon and whistling bullet and 
screaming shell--unless you can take all

 these separate images and out of them  
get one great unified complex1 then my  
description will be to you only so many 
words largely without content1 and you  
will lack the power to comprehend the   
historical event in any complete way4   
,unless you can read the poem1 and out  
of the images suggested by the words    
reconstruct the picture which was in the
 mind of the author as he wrote ,the    
,village ,blacksmith or ,snowbound1 the 
significance will have dropped out1 and 
the throbbing scenes of life and action 
become only so many dead words1 like the
 shell of the chrysalis after the       
butterfly has left its shroud4 ,without 
the power of imagination1 the history of
 ,washington's winter at ,valley ,forge 
becomes a mere formal recital1 and you  
can never get a view of the snow-covered
 tents1 the wind-swept landscape1 the   
tracks in the snow marked by the        
telltale drops of blood1 or the form of 
the heartbroken commander as he kneels  
in the silent wood to pray for his army4

 ,without the power to construct this   
picture as you read1 you may commit the 
words1 and be able to recite them1 and  
to pass examination upon them1 but the  
living reality of it will forever escape
 you4  ,your power of imagination       
determines your ability to interpret    
literature of all kinds2 for the        
interpretation of literature is nothing1
 after all1 but the reconstruction on   
our part of the pictures with their     
meanings which were in the mind of the  
writer as he penned the words1 and the  
experiencing of the emotions which moved
 him as he wrote4 ,small use indeed to  
read the history of the centuries unless
 we can see in it living1 acting people1
 and real events occurring in actual    
environments4 ,small use to read the    
world's great books unless their        
characters are to us real men and       
women--our brothers and sisters1        
interpreted to us by the master minds of
 the ages4 ,anything less than this1 and
 we are no longer dealing with          

literature1 but with words--like musical
 sounds which deal with no theme1 or    
like picture frames in which no picture 
has been set4 ,nor is the case different
 in listening to a speaker4 ,his words  
are to you only so many sensations of   
sounds of such and such pitches and     
intensities and quality1 unless your    
mind keeps pace with his and continually
 builds the pictures which fill his     
thought as he speaks4 ,lacking          
imagination1 the sculptures of ,michael 
,angelo and the pictures of ,raphael are
 to you so many pieces of curiously     
shaped marble and ingeniously colored   
canvas4 ,what the sculptor and the      
painter have placed before you must     
suggest to you images and thoughts from 
your own experience1 to fill out and    
make alive the marble and the canvas1   
else to you they are dead4              
,,imagination ,,and ,,science4--,nor is 
imagination less necessary in other     
lines of study4 ,without this power of  
building living1 moving pictures out of 

images1 there is small use to study     
science beyond what is immediately      
present to our senses2 for some of the  
most fundamental laws of science rest   
upon conceptions which can be grasped   
only as we have the power of            
imagination4 ,the student who cannot get
 a picture of the molecules of matter1  
infinitely close to each other and yet  
never touching1 all in vibratory motion1
 yet each within its own orbit1 each a  
complete unit in itself1 yet capable of 
still further division into smaller     
particles1--the student who cannot see  
all this in a clear visual image can    
never at best have more than a most hazy
 notion of the theory of matter4 ,and   
this means1 finally1 that the           
explanations of light and heat and      
sound1 and much besides1 will be to him 
largely a jumble of words which linger  
in his memory1 perchance1 but which     
never vitally become a possession of his
 mind4  ,so with the world of the       
telescope4 ,you may have at your        

disposal all the magnificent lenses and 
the accurate machinery owned by modern  
observatories2 but if you have not      
within yourself the power to build what 
these reveal to you1 and what the books 
tell you1 into the solar system and     
still larger systems1 you can never     
study astronomy except in a blind and   
piecemeal sort of way1 and all the      
planets and satellites and suns will    
never for you form themselves into a    
system1 no matter what the books may say
 about it4  ,,everyday ,,uses ,,of      
,,imagination4--,but we may consider a  
still more practical phase of           
imagination1 or at least one which has  
more to do with the humdrum daily life  
of most of us4 ,suppose you go to your  
milliner and tell her how you want your 
spring hat shaped and trimmed4 ,and     
suppose you have never been able to see 
this hat in toto in your mind1 so as to 
get an idea of how it will look when    
completed1 but have only a general      
notion1 because you like red velvet1    

white plumes1 and a turned-up rim1 that 
this combination will look well         
together4 ,suppose you have never been  
able to see how you would look in this  
particular hat with your hair done in   
this or that way4 ,if you are in this   
helpless state shall you not have to    
depend finally on the taste of the      
milliner1 or accept the model1 and so   
fail to reveal any taste or             
individuality on your own part8  ,how   
many times have you been disappointed in
 some article of dress1 because when you
 planned it you were unable to see it   
all at once so as to get the full       
effect2 or else you could not see       
yourself in it1 and so be able to judge 
whether it suited you6 ,how many homes  
have in them draperies and rugs and wall
 paper and furniture which are in       
constant quarrel because someone could  
not see before they were assembled that 
they were never intended to keep        
company6 ,how many people who plan their
 own houses1 would build them just the  

same again after seeing them completed8 
,the man who can see a building complete
 before a brick has been laid or a      
timber put in place1 who can see it not 
only in its details one by one as he    
runs them over in his mind1 but can see 
the building in its entirety1 is the    
only one who is safe to plan the        
structure4 ,and this is the man who is  
drawing a large salary as an architect1 
for imaginations of this kind are in    
demand4 ,only the one who can see in his
 mind's eye1 before it is begun1 the    
thing he would create1 is capable to    
plan its construction4 ,and who will say
 that ability to work with images of    
these kinds is not of just as high a    
type as that which results in the       
construction of plots upon which stories
 are built6  ,,the ,,building ,,of      
,,ideals ,,and ,,plans4--,nor is the    
part of imagination less marked in the  
formation of our life's ideals and      
plans4 ,everyone who is not living      
blindly and aimlessly must have some    

ideal1 some pattern1 by which to square 
his life and guide his actions4 ,at some
 time in our life ,i am sure that each  
of us has selected the person who filled
 most nearly our notion of what we      
should like to become1 and measured     
ourselves by this pattern4 ,but there   
comes a time when we must idealize even 
the most perfect individual2 when we    
invest the character with attributes    
which we have selected from some other  
person1 and thus worship at a shrine    
which is partly real and partly ideal4  
,as time goes on1 we drop out more and  
more of the strictly individual element1
 adding correspondingly more of the     
ideal1 until our pattern is largely a   
construction of our own imagination1    
having in it the best we have been able 
to glean from the many characters we    
have known4 ,how large a part these     
ever-changing ideals play in our lives  
we shall never know1 but certainly the  
part is not an insignificant one4 ,and  
happy the youth who is able to look into

 the future and see himself             
approximating some worthy ideal4 ,he has
 caught a vision which will never allow 
him to lag or falter in the pursuit of  
the flying goal which points the        
direction of his efforts4  ,,imagination
 ,,and ,,conduct4--,another great field 
for imagination is with reference to    
conduct and our relations with others4  
,over and over again the thoughtless    
person has to say1 ,i am sorry2 ,i did  
not think4 ,the did not think simply    
means that he failed to realize through 
his imagination what would be the       
consequences of his rash or unkind      
words4 ,he would not be unkind1 but he  
did not imagine how the other would     
feel2 he did not put himself in the     
other's place4 ,likewise with reference 
to the effects of our conduct on        
ourselves4 ,what youth1 taking his first
 drink of liquor1 would continue if he  
could see a clear picture of himself in 
the gutter with bloated face and        
bloodshot eyes a decade hence8 ,or what 

boy1 slyly smoking one of his early     
cigarettes1 would proceed if he could   
see his haggard face and nerveless hand 
a few years farther along8 ,what        
spendthrift would throw away his money  
on vanities could he vividly see himself
 in penury and want in old age8 ,what   
prodigal anywhere who1 if he could take 
a good look at himself sin-stained and  
broken as he returns to his father's    
house after the years of debauchery in  
the far country would not hesitate long 
before he entered upon his downward     
career8  ,,imagination ,,and            
,,thinking4--,we have already considered
 the use of imagination in interpreting 
the thoughts1 feelings and handiwork of 
others4 ,let us now look a little more  
closely into the part it plays in our   
own thinking4 ,suppose that1 instead of 
reading a poem1 we are writing one2     
instead of listening to a description of
 a battle1 we are describing it2 instead
 of looking at the picture1 we are      
painting it4 ,then our object is to make

 others who may read our language1 or   
listen to our words1 or view our        
handiwork1 construct the mental images  
of the situation which furnished the    
material for our thought4  ,our words   
and other modes of expression are but   
the description of the flow of images in
 our minds1 and our problem is to make a
 similar stream flow through the mind of
 the listener2 but strange indeed would 
it be to make others see a situation    
which we ourselves cannot see2 strange  
if we could draw a picture without being
 able to follow its outlines as we draw4
 ,or suppose we are teaching science1   
and our object is to explain the        
composition of matter to someone1 and   
make him understand how light1 heat1    
etc41 depend on the theory of matter2   
strange if the listener should get a    
picture if we ourselves are unable to   
get it4 ,or1 once more1 suppose we are  
to describe some incident1 and our aim  
is to make its every detail stand out so
 clearly that no one can miss a single  

one4 ,is it not evident that we can     
never make any of these images more     
clear to those who listen to us or read 
our words than they are to ourselves8   
#b4 ,,the ,,material ,,used ,,by        
,,imagination  ,what is the material1   
the mental content1 out of which        
imagination builds its structures8      
,,images ,,the ,,stuff ,,of             
,,imagination4--,nothing can enter the  
imagination the elements of which have  
not been in our past experience and then
 been conserved in the form of images4  
,the ,indians never dreamed of a heaven 
whose streets are paved with gold1 and  
in whose center stands a great white    
throne4 ,their experience had given them
 no knowledge of these things2 and so1  
perforce1 they must build their heaven  
out of the images which they had at     
command1 namely1 those connected with   
the chase and the forest4 ,so their     
heaven was the happy hunting ground1    
inhabited by game and enemies over whom 
the blessed forever triumphed4 ,likewise

 the valiant soldiers whose deadly      
arrows and keen-edged swords and        
battle-axes won on the bloody field of  
,hastings1 did not picture a far-off day
 when the opposing lines should kill    
each other with mighty engines hurling  
death from behind parapets a dozen miles
 away4 ,firearms and the explosive      
powder were yet unknown1 hence there    
were no images out of which to build    
such a picture4  ,i do not mean that    
your imagination cannot construct an    
object which has never before been in   
your experience as a whole1 for the work
 of the imagination is to do precisely  
this thing4 ,it takes the various images
 at its disposal and builds them into   
wholes which may never have existed     
before1 and which may exist now only as 
a creation of the mind4 ,and yet we have
 put into this new product not a single 
element which was not familiar to us in 
the form of an image of one kind or     
another4 ,it is the form which is new2  
the material is old4 ,this is           

exemplified every time an inventor takes
 the two fundamental parts of a machine1
 the lever and the inclined plane1 and  
puts them together in relations new to  
each other and so evolves a machine     
whose complexity fairly bewilders us4   
,and with other lines of thinking1 as in
 mechanics1 inventive power consists in 
being able to see the old in new        
relations1 and so constantly build new  
constructions out of old material4 ,it  
is this power which gives us the daring 
and original thinker1 the ,newton whose 
falling apple suggested to him the      
planets falling toward the sun in their 
orbits2 the ,darwin who out of the thigh
 bone of an animal was able to construct
 in his imagination the whole animal and
 the environment in which it must have  
lived1 and so add another page to the   
earth's history4  ,,the ,,two ,,factors 
,,in ,,imagination4--,from the simple   
facts which we have just been           
considering1 the conclusion is plain    
that our power of imagination depends on

 two factors2 namely1 7#a7 the materials
 available in the form of usable images 
capable of recall1 and 7#b7 our         
constructive ability1 or the power to   
group these images into new wholes1 the 
process being guided by some purpose or 
end4 ,without this last provision1 the  
products of our imagination are         
daydreams with their castles in ,spain1 
which may be pleasing and proper enough 
on occasions1 but which as an habitual  
mode of thought are extremely dangerous4
  ,,imagination ,,limited ,,by ,,stock  
,,of ,,images4--,that the mind is       
limited in its imagination by its stock 
of images may be seen from a simple     
illustration3 ,suppose that you own a   
building made of brick1 but that you    
find the old one no longer adequate for 
your needs1 and so purpose to build a   
new one2 and suppose1 further1 that you 
have no material for your new building  
except that contained in the old        
structure4 ,it is evident that you will 
be limited in constructing your new     

building by the material which was in   
the old4 ,you may be able to build the  
new structure in any one of a multitude 
of different forms or styles of         
architecture1 so far as the material at 
hand will lend itself to that style of  
building1 and providing1 further1 that  
you are able to make the plans4 ,but you
 will always be limited finally by the  
character and amount of material        
obtainable from the old structure4 ,so  
with the mind4 ,the old building is your
 past experience1 and the separate      
bricks are the images out of which you  
must build your new structure through   
the imagination4 ,here1 as before1      
nothing can enter which was not already 
on hand4 ,nothing goes into the new     
structure so far as its constructive    
material is concerned except images1 and
 there is nowhere to get images but from
 the results of our past experience4    
,,limited ,,also ,,by ,,our             
,,constructive ,,ability4--,but not only
 is our imaginative output limited by   

the amount of material in the way of    
images which we have at our command1 but
 also and perhaps not less by our       
constructive ability4 ,many persons     
might own the old pile of bricks fully  
adequate for the new structure1 and then
 fail to get the new because they were  
unable to construct it4 ,so1 many who   
have had a rich and varied experience in
 many lines are yet unable to muster    
their images of these experiences in    
such a way that new products are        
obtainable from them4 ,these have the   
heavy1 draft-horse kind of intellect    
which goes plodding on1 very possibly   
doing good service in its own           
circumscribed range1 but destined after 
all to service in the narrow field with 
its low1 drooping horizon4 ,they are    
never able to take a dash at a          
two-minute clip among equally swift     
competitors1 or even swing at a good    
round pace along the pleasant highways  
of an experience lying beyond the       
confines of the narrow here and now4    

,these are the minds which cannot       
discover relations2 which cannot think4 
,minds of this type can never be        
architects of their own fate1 or even   
builders1 but must content themselves to
 be hod carriers4  ,,the ,,need ,,of ,a 
,,purpose4--,nor are we to forget that  
we cannot intelligently erect our       
building until we know the purpose for  
which it is to be used4 ,no matter how  
much building material we may have on   
hand1 nor how skillful an architect we  
may be1 unless our plans are guided by  
some definite aim1 we shall be likely to
 end with a structure that is fanciful  
and useless4 ,likewise with our thought 
structure4 ,unless our imagination is   
guided by some aim or purpose1 we are in
 danger of drifting into mere daydreams 
which not only are useless in furnishing
 ideals for the guidance of our lives1  
but often become positively harmful when
 grown into a habit4 ,the habit of      
daydreaming is hard to break1 and1      
continuing1 holds our thought in thrall 

and makes it unwilling to deal with the 
plain1 homely things of everyday life4  
,who has not had the experience of an   
hour or a day spent in a fairyland of   
dreams1 and awakened at the end to find 
himself rather dissatisfied with the    
prosaic round of duties which confronted
 him6 ,i do not mean to say that we     
should never dream2 but ,i know of no   
more pernicious mental habit than that  
of daydreaming carried to excess1 for it
 ends in our following every            
will-o'-the-wisp of fancy1 and places us
 at the mercy of every chance           
suggestion4   #c4 ,,types ,,of          
,,imagination  ,although imagination    
enters every field of human experience1 
and busies itself with every line of    
human interest1 yet all its activities  
can be classed under two different      
types4 ,these are 7#a7 reproductive1 and
 7#b7 creative imagination4             
,,reproductive                          
,,imagination4--,reproductive           
imagination is the type we use when we  

seek to reproduce in our minds the      
pictures described by others1 or        
pictures from our own past experience   
which lack the completeness and fidelity
 to make them true memory4  ,the        
narration or description of the story   
book1 the history or geography text2 the
 tale of adventure recounted by traveler
 or hunter2 the account of a new machine
 or other invention2 fairy tales and    
myths--these or any other matter that   
may be put into words capable of        
suggesting images to us are the field   
for reproductive imagination4 ,in this  
use of the imagination our business is  
to follow and not lead1 to copy and not 
create4  ,,creative ,,imagination4--,but
 we must have leaders1 originators--else
 we should but imitate each other and   
the world would be at a standstill4     
,indeed1 every person1 no matter how    
humble his station or how humdrum his   
life1 should be in some degree capable  
of initiative and originality4 ,such    
ability depends in no small measure on  

the power to use creative imagination4  
,creative imagination takes the images  
from our own past experience or those   
gleaned from the work of others and puts
 them together in new and original      
forms4 ,the inventor1 the writer1 the   
mechanic or the artist who possesses the
 spirit of creation is not satisfied    
with mere reproduction1 but seeks to    
modify1 to improve1 to originate4 ,true1
 many important inventions and          
discoveries have come by seeming        
accident1 by being stumbled upon4 ,yet  
it holds that the person who thus       
stumbles upon the discovery or invention
 is usually one whose creative          
imagination is actively at work seeking 
to create or discover in his field4 ,the
 world's progress as a whole does not   
come by accident1 but by creative       
planning4 ,creative imagination is      
always found at the van of progress1    
whether in the life of an individual or 
a nation4   #d4 ,,training ,,the        
,,imagination  ,imagination is highly   

susceptible of cultivation1 and its     
training should constitute one of the   
most important aims of education4 ,every
 school subject1 but especially such    
subjects as deal with description and   
narration--history1 literature1         
geography1 nature study and science--is 
rich in opportunities for the use of    
imagination4 ,skillful teaching will not
 only find in these subjects a means of 
training the imagination1 but will so   
employ imagination in their study as to 
make them living matter1 throbbing with 
life and action1 rather than so many    
dead words or uninteresting facts4      
,,gathering ,,of ,,material ,,for       
,,imagination4--,theoretically1 then1 it
 is not hard to see what we must do to  
cultivate our imagination4 ,in the first
 place1 we must take care to secure a   
large and usable stock of images from   
all fields of perception4 ,it is not    
enough to have visual images alone or   
chiefly1 for many a time shall we need  
to build structures involving all the   

other senses and the motor activities as
 well4 ,this means that we must have a  
first-hand contact with just as large an
 environment as possible--large in the  
world of ,nature with all her varied    
forms suited to appeal to every avenue  
of sense2 large in our contact with     
people in all phases of experience1     
laughing with those who laugh and       
weeping with those who weep2 large in   
contact with books1 the interpreters of 
the men and events of the past4 ,we must
 not only let all these kinds of        
environment drift in upon us as they may
 chance to do1 but we must deliberately 
seek to increase our stock of           
experience2 for1 after all1 experience  
lies at the bottom of imagination as of 
every other mental process4 ,and not    
only must we thus put ourselves in the  
way of acquiring new experience1 but we 
must by recall and reconstruction1 as we
 saw in an earlier discussion1 keep our 
imagery fresh and usable4 ,for whatever 
serves to improve our images1 at the    

same time is bettering the very         
foundation of imagination4  ,,we ,,must 
,,not ,,fail ,,to ,,build4--,in the     
second place1 we must not fail to build4
 ,for it is futile to gather a large    
supply of images if we let the material 
lie unused4 ,how many people there are  
who put in all their time gathering     
material for their structure1 and never 
take time to do the building6 ,they look
 and listen and read1 and are so fully  
occupied in absorbing the immediately   
present that they have no time to see   
the wider significance of the things    
with which they deal4 ,they are like the
 students who are too busy studying to  
have time to think4 ,they are so taken  
up with receiving that they never       
perform the higher act of combining4    
,they are the plodding fact gatherers1  
many of them doing good service1        
collecting material which the seer and  
the philosopher1 with their constructive
 power1 build together into the greater 
wholes which make our systems of        

thought4 ,they are the ones who fondly  
think that1 by reading books full of    
wild tales and impossible plots1 they   
are training their imagination4 ,for    
them1 sober history1 no matter how      
heroic or tragic in its quiet movements1
 is too tame4 ,they have not the        
patience to read solid and thoughtful   
literature1 and works of science and    
philosophy are a bore4 ,these are the   
persons who put in all their time in    
looking at and admiring other people's  
houses1 and never get time to do any    
building for themselves4  ,,we ,,should 
,,carry ,,our ,,ideals ,,into           
,,action4--,the best training for the   
imagination which ,i know anything about
 is that to be obtained by taking our   
own material and from it building our   
own structure4 ,it is true that it will 
help to look through other people's     
houses enough to discover their style of
 building3 we should read4 ,but just as 
it is not necessary for us to put in all
 the time we devote to looking at       

houses1 in inspecting doll houses and   
,chinese pagodas1 so it is not best for 
us to get all our notions of imaginative
 structures from the marvelous and the  
unreal2 we get good training for the    
imagination from reading ,hiawatha1 but 
so can we from reading the history of   
the primitive ,indian tribes4 ,the      
pictures in ,snowbound are full of      
suggestion for the imagination3 but so  
is the history of the ,puritans in ,new 
,england4 ,but even with the best of    
models before us1 it is not enough to   
follow others' building4 ,we must       
construct stories for ourselves1 must   
work out plots for our own stories2 we  
must have time to meditate and plan and 
build1 not idly in the daydream1 but    
purposefully1 and then make our images  
real by carrying them out in activity1  
if they are of such a character that    
this is possible2 we must build our     
ideals and work to them in the common   
course of our everyday life2 we must    
think for ourselves instead of forever  

following the thinking of others2 we    
must initiate as well as imitate4   #e4 
,,problems ,,for ,,observation ,,and    
,,introspection  #a4 ,explain the cause 
and the remedy in the case of such      
errors as the following3      ,children 
who defined mountain as land #a1jjj or  
more feet in height     said that the   
factory smokestack was higher than the  
mountain     because it went straight up
 and the mountain did not4              
,children often think of the horizon as 
fastened to the earth4      ,islands are
 thought of as floating on the water4   
#b4 ,how would you stimulate the        
imagination of a child who does not seem
 to picture or make real the            
descriptions in reading1 geography1     
etc48 ,is it possible that such         
inability may come from an insufficient 
basis in observation1 and hence in      
images8  #c4 ,classify the school       
subjects1 including domestic science and
 manual training1 as to their ability to
 train 7#a7 reproductive and 7#b7       

creative imagination4  #d4 ,do you ever 
skip the descriptive parts of a book and
 read the narrative8 ,as you read the   
description of a bit of natural scenery1
 does it rise before you8 ,as you study 
the description of a battle1 can you see
 the movements of the troops8  #e4 ,have
 you ever planned a house as you think  
you would like it8 ,can you see it from 
all sides8 ,can you see all the rooms in
 their various finishings and           
furnishings8  #f4 ,what plans and ideals
 have you formed1 and what ones are you 
at present following8 ,can you describe 
the process by which your plans or      
ideals change8 ,do you ever try to put  
yourself in the other person's place8   
#g4 ,take some fanciful unreality which 
your imagination has constructed and see
 whether you can select from it familiar
 elements from actual experiences4  #h4 
,what use do you make of imagination in 
the common round of duties in your daily
 life8 ,what are you doing to improve   
your imagination8     ,,chapter ,x      

,,association   ,whence came the thought
 that occupies you this moment1 and what
 determines the next that is to follow8 
,introspection reveals no more          
interesting fact concerning our minds   
than that our thoughts move in a        
connected and orderly array and not in a
 hit-and-miss fashion4 ,our mental      
states do not throng the stream of      
consciousness like so many pieces of    
wood following each other at random down
 a rushing current1 now this one ahead1 
now that4 ,on the contrary1 our thoughts
 come1 one after the other1 as they are 
beckoned or caused4 ,the thought now in 
the focal point of your consciousness   
appeared because it sprouted out of the 
one just preceding it2 and the present  
thought1 before it departs1 will        
determine its successor and lead it upon
 the scene4 ,this is to say that our    
thought stream possesses not only a     
continuity1 but also a unity2 it has    
coherence and system4 ,this coherence   
and system1 which operates in accordance

 with definite laws1 is brought about by
 what the psychologist calls            
association4   #a4 ,,the ,,nature ,,of  
,,association  ,we may define           
association1 then1 as the tendency among
 our thoughts to form such a system of  
bonds with each other that the objects  
of consciousness are vitally connected  
both 7#a7 as they exist at any given    
moment1 and 7#b7 as they occur in       
succession in the mental stream4  ,,the 
,,neural ,,basis ,,of                   
,,association4--,the association of     
thoughts--ideas1 images1 memory--or of a
 situation with its response1 rests     
primarily on a neural basis4            
,association is the result of habit     
working in neurone groups4 ,its         
fundamental law is stated by ,james as  
follows3 ,when two elementary           
brain-processes have been active        
together or in immediate succession1 one
 of them1 on recurring1 tends to        
propagate its excitement into the other4
 ,this is but a technical statement of  

the simple fact that nerve currents flow
 most easily over the neurone           
connections that they have already used4
  ,it is hard to teach an old dog new   
tricks1 because the old tricks employ   
familiar1 much-used neural paths1 while 
new tricks require the connecting up of 
groups of neurones not in the habit of  
working together2 and the flow of nerve 
energy is more easily accomplished in   
the neurones accustomed to working      
together4 ,one who learns to speak a    
foreign language late in life never     
attains the facility and ease that might
 have been reached at an earlier age4   
,this is because the neural paths for   
speech are already set for his          
mother-tongue1 and1 with the lessened   
plasticity of age1 the new paths are    
hard to establish4  ,the connections    
between the various brain areas1 or     
groups of neurones1 are1 as we have seen
 in an earlier chapter1 accomplished by 
means of association fibers4 ,this      
function requires millions of neurones1 

which unite every part of the cortex    
with every other part1 thus making it   
possible for a neural activity going on 
in any particular center to extend to   
any other center whatsoever4 ,in the    
relatively unripe brain of the child1   
the association fibers have not yet set 
up most of their connections4 ,the age  
at which memory begins is determined    
chiefly by the development of a         
sufficient number of association fibers 
to bring about recall4 ,the more complex
 reasoning1 which requires many         
different associative connections1 is   
impossible prior to the existence of    
adequate neural development4 ,it is this
 fact that makes it futile to attempt to
 teach young children the more          
complicated processes of arithmetic1    
grammar1 or other subjects4 ,they are   
not yet equipped with the requisite     
brain machinery to grasp the necessary  
associations4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4    
#ah4--;,diagrammatic scheme of          
association1 in which ,v stands for the 

visual1 ,a for the auditory1 ,g for the 
gustatory1 ,m for the motor1 and ,t for 
the thought and feeling centers of the  
cortex4  ,,association ,,the ,,basis    
,,of ,,memory4--,without the machinery  
and processes of association we could   
have no memory4 ,let us see in a simple 
illustration how association works in   
recall4 ,suppose you are passing an     
orchard and see a tree loaded with      
tempting apples4 ,you hesitate1 then    
climb the fence1 pick an apple and eat  
it1 hearing the owner's dog bark as you 
leave the place4 ,the accompanying      
diagram will illustrate roughly the     
centers of the cortex which were        
involved in the act1 and the association
 fibers which connect them4 7,see ,fig4 
#ah47 ,now let us see how you may       
afterward remember the circumstance     
through association4 ,let us suppose    
that a week later you are seated at your
 dining table1 and that you begin to eat
 an apple whose flavor reminds you of   
the one which you plucked from the tree4

 ,from this start how may the entire    
circumstance be recalled8 ,remember that
 the cortical centers connected with the
 sight of the apple tree1 with our      
thoughts about it1 with our movements in
 getting the apple1 and with hearing the
 dog bark1 were all active together with
 the taste center1 and hence tend to be 
thrown into activity again from its     
activity4 ,it is easy to see that we may
 7#a7 get a visual image of the apple   
tree and its fruit from a current over  
the gustatory-visual association fibers2
 7#b7 the thoughts1 emotions1 or        
deliberations which we had on the former
 occasion may again recur to us from a  
current over the gustatory-thought      
neurones2 7#c7 we may get an image of   
our movements in climbing the fence and 
picking the apple from a current over   
the gustatory-motor fibers2 or 7#d7 we  
may get an auditory image of the barking
 of the dog from a current over the     
gustatory-auditory fibers4 ,indeed1 we  
are sure to get some one or more of     

these unless the paths are blocked in   
some way1 or our attention leads off in 
some other direction4  ,,factors        
,,determining ,,direction ,,of          
,,recall4--,which of these we get first1
 which of the images the taste percept  
calls to take its place as it drops out 
of consciousness1 will depend1 other    
things being equal1 on which center was 
most keenly active in the original      
situation1 and is at the moment most    
permeable4 ,if1 at the time we were     
eating the stolen fruit1 our thoughts   
were keenly self-accusing for taking the
 apples without permission1 then the    
current will probably discharge through 
the path gustatory-thought1 and we shall
 recall these thoughts and their        
accompanying feelings4 ,but if it       
chances that the barking of the dog     
frightened us badly1 then more likely   
the discharge from the taste center will
 be along the path gustatory-auditory1  
and we shall get the auditory image of  
the dog's barking1 which in turn may    

call up a visual image of his savage    
appearance over the auditory-visual     
fibers4 ,it is clear1 however1 that1    
given any one of the elements of the    
entire situation back1 the rest are     
potentially possible to us1 and any one 
may serve as a cue to call up all the   
rest4 ,whether1 given the starting      
point1 we get them all1 depends solely  
on whether the paths are sufficiently   
open between them for the current to    
discharge between them1 granting that   
the first experience made sufficient    
impression to be retained4  ,since this 
simple illustration may be made         
infinitely complex by means of the      
millions of fibers which connect every  
center in the cortex with every other   
center1 and since1 in passing from one  
experience to another in the round of   
our daily activities1 these various     
areas are all involved in an endless    
chain of activities so intimately       
related that each one can finally lead  
to all the others1 we have here the     

machinery both of retention and of      
recall--the mechanism by which our past 
may be made to serve the present through
 being reproduced in the form of memory 
images or ideas4 ,through this machinery
 we are unable to escape our past1      
whether it be good or bad2 for both the 
good and the bad alike are brought back 
to us through its operations4  ,when the
 repetition of a series of acts has     
rendered habit secure1 the association  
is relatively certain4 ,if ,i recite to 
you ,a-,b-,c-,d1 your thought at once   
runs on to ,e1 ,f1 ,g4 ,if ,i repeat1   
,tell me not in mournful numbers1       
association leads you to follow with    
,life is but an empty dream4 ,your      
neurone groups are accustomed to act in 
this way1 so the sequence follows4      
,memorizing anything from the           
multiplication table to the most        
beautiful gems of poetic fervor         
consists1 therefore1 in the setting up  
of the right associative connections in 
the brain4  ,,association ,,in          

,,thinking4--,all thinking proceeds by  
the discovery or recognition of         
relations between the terms or objects  
of our thought4 ,the science of         
mathematics rests on the relations found
 to exist between numbers and           
quantities4 ,the principles and laws of 
natural science are based on the        
relations established among the         
different forms of matter and the energy
 that operates in this field4 ,so also  
in the realm of history1 art1 ethics1 or
 any other field of human experience4   
,each fact or event must be linked to   
other facts or events before it         
possesses significance4 ,association    
therefore lies at the foundation of all 
thinking1 whether that of the original  
thinker who is creating our sciences1   
planning and executing the events of    
history1 evolving a system of ethics1 or
 whether one is only learning these     
fields as they already exist by means of
 study4 ,other things being equal1 he is
 the best thinker who has his knowledge 

related part to part so that the whole  
forms a unified and usable system4      
,,association ,,and                     
,,action4--,association plays an equally
 important part in all our motor        
responses1 the acts by which we carry on
 our daily lives1 do our work and our   
play1 or whatever else may be necessary 
in meeting and adapting ourselves to our
 environment4 ,some sensations are often
 repeated1 and demand practically the   
same response each time4 ,in such cases 
the associations soon become fixed1 and 
the response certain and automatic4 ,for
 example1 we sit at the table1 and the  
response of eating follows1 with all its
 complex acts1 as a matter of course4   
,we lie down in bed1 and the response of
 sleep comes4 ,we take our place at the 
piano1 and our fingers produce the      
accustomed music4  ,it is of course     
obvious that the influence of           
association extends to moral action as  
well4 ,in general1 our conduct follows  
the trend of established associations4  

,we are likely to do in great moral     
crises about as we are in the habit of  
doing in small ones4   #b4 ,,the ,,types
 ,,of ,,association  ,,fundamental ,,law
 ,,of ,,association4--,stated on the    
physiological side1 the law of habit as 
set forth in the definition of          
association in the preceding section    
includes all the laws of association4   
,in different phrasing we may say3 7#a7 
,neurone groups accustomed to acting    
together have the tendency to work in   
unison4 7#b7 ,the more frequently such  
groups act together the stronger will be
 the tendency for one to throw the other
 into action4 ,also1 7#c7 the more      
intense the excitement or tension under 
which they act together the stronger    
will be the tendency for activity in one
 to bring about activity in the other4  
,the corresponding facts may be         
expressed in psychological terms as     
follows3 7#a7 ,facts accustomed to being
 associated together in the mind have a 
tendency to reappear together4 7#b7 ,the

 more frequently these facts appear     
together the stronger the tendency for  
the presence of one to insure the       
presence of the other4 7#c7 ,the greater
 the tension1 excitement or             
concentration when these facts appear in
 conjunction with each other1 the more  
certain the presence of one is to cause 
the presence of the other4  ,several    
different types of association have been
 differentiated by psychologists from   
,aristotle down4 ,it is to be kept in   
mind1 however1 that all association     
types go back to the elementary law of  
habit-connections among the neurones for
 their explanation4  ,,association ,,by 
,,contiguity4--,the recurrence in our   
minds of many of the elements from our  
past experience is due to the fact that 
at some time1 possibly at many times1   
the recurring facts were contiguous in  
consciousness with some other element or
 fact which happens now to be again     
present4 ,all have had the experience of
 meeting some person whom we had not    

seen for several months or years1 and   
having a whole series of supposedly     
forgotten incidents or events connected 
with our former associations flood into 
the mind4 ,things we did1 topics we     
discussed1 trips we took1 games we      
played1 now recur at the renewal of our 
acquaintance4 ,for these are the things 
that were contiguous in our             
consciousness with our sense of the     
personality and appearance of our       
friend4 ,and who has not in similar     
fashion had a whiff of perfume or the   
strains of a song recall to him his     
childhood days6 ,contiguity is again the
 explanation4  ,,at ,,the ,,mercy ,,of  
,,our ,,associations4--,through the law 
thus operating we are in a sense at the 
mercy of our associations1 which may be 
bad as well as good4 ,we may form       
certain lines of interest to guide our  
thought1 and attention may in some      
degree direct it1 but one's mental      
make-up is1 after all1 largely dependent
 on the character of his associations4  

,evil thoughts1 evil memories1 evil     
imaginations--these all come about      
through the association of unworthy or  
impure images along with the good in our
 stream of thought4 ,we may try to      
forget the base deed and banish it      
forever from our thinking1 but lo6 in an
 unguarded moment the nerve current     
shoots into the old path1 and the impure
 thought flashes into the mind1 unsought
 and unwelcomed4 ,every young man who   
thinks he must indulge in a little      
sowing of wild oats before he settles   
down to a correct life1 and so deals in 
unworthy thoughts and deeds1 is putting 
a mortgage on his future2 for he will   
find the inexorable machinery of his    
nervous system grinding the hated images
 of such things back into his mind as   
surely as the mill returns to the sack  
of the miller what he feeds into the    
hopper4 ,he may refuse to harbor these  
thoughts1 but he can no more hinder     
their seeking admission to his mind than
 he can prevent the tramp from knocking 

at his door4 ,he may drive such images  
from his mind the moment they are       
discovered1 and indeed is guilty if he  
does not2 but not taking offense at this
 rebuff1 the unwelcome thought again    
seeks admission4  ,the only protection  
against the return of the undesirable   
associations is to choose lines of      
thought as little related to them as    
possible4 ,but even then1 do the best we
 may1 an occasional connection will be  
set up1 we know not how1 and the        
unwelcome image stands staring us in the
 face1 as the corpse of ,eugene ,aram's 
victim confronted him at every turn1    
though he thought it safely buried4 ,a  
minister of my acquaintance tells me    
that in the holiest moments of his most 
exalted thought1 images rise in his mind
 which he loathes1 and from which he    
recoils in horror4 ,not only does he    
drive them away at once1 but he seeks to
 lock and bar the door against them by  
firmly resolving that he will never     
think of them again4 ,but alas6 that is 

beyond his control4 ,the tares have been
 sown among the wheat1 and will persist 
along with it until the end4 ,in his    
boyhood these images were given into the
 keeping of his brain cells1 and they   
are only being faithful to their trust4 
,,association ,,by ,,similarity ,,and   
,,contrast4--,all are familiar with the 
fact that like tends to suggest like4   
,one friend reminds us of another friend
 when he manifests similar traits of    
character1 shows the same tricks of     
manner1 or has the same peculiarities of
 speech or gesture4 ,the telling of a   
ghost or burglar story in a company will
 at once suggest a similar story to     
every person of the group1 and before we
 know it the conversation has settled   
down to ghosts or burglars4 ,one        
boastful boy is enough to start the gang
 to recounting their real or imaginary  
exploits4 ,good and beautiful thoughts  
tend to call up other good and beautiful
 thoughts1 while evil thoughts are      
likely to produce after their own kind2 

like produces like4  ,another form of   
relationship is1 however1 quite as      
common as similars in our thinking4 ,in 
certain directions we naturally think in
 opposites4 ,black suggests white1 good 
suggests bad1 fat suggests lean1 wealth 
suggests poverty1 happiness suggests    
sorrow1 and so on4  ,the tendency of our
 thought thus to group in similars and  
opposites is clear when we go back to   
the fundamental law of association4 ,the
 fact is that we more frequently        
assemble our thoughts in these ways than
 in haphazard relations4 ,we habitually 
group similars together1 or compare     
opposites in our thinking2 hence these  
are the terms between which associative 
bonds are formed4  ,,partial1 ,,or      
,,selective1 ,,association4--,the past  
is never wholly reinstated in present   
consciousness4 ,many elements1 because  
they had formed fewer associations1 or  
because they find some obstacle to      
recall1 are permanently dropped out and 
forgotten4 ,in other words1 association 

is always selective1 favoring now this  
item of experience1 now that1 above the 
rest4  ,it is well that this is so2 for 
to be unable to escape from the great   
mass of minutiae and unimportant detail 
in one's past would be intolerable1 and 
would so cumber the mind with useless   
rubbish as to destroy its usefulness4   
,we have surely all had some experience 
with the type of persons whose          
associations are so complete and        
impartial that all their conversation   
teems with unessential and irrelevant   
details4 ,they cannot recount the       
simplest incident in its essential      
points but1 slaves to literalness1 make 
themselves insufferable bores by        
entering upon every lane and by-path of 
circumstance that leads nowhere and     
matters not the least in their story4   
,dickens1 ,thackeray1 ,george ,eliot1   
,shakespeare1 and many other writers    
have seized upon such characters and    
made use of them for their comic effect4
 ,james1 in illustrating this mental    

type1 has quoted the following from     
,miss ,austen's ,emma3  ',but where     
could you hear it8' cried ,miss ,bates4 
',where could you possibly hear it1 ,mr4
 ,knightley8 ,for it is not five minutes
 since ,i received ,mrs4 ,cole's        
note--no1 it cannot be more than        
five--or at least ten--for ,i had got my
 bonnet and spencer on1 just ready to   
come out--,i was only gone down to speak
 to ,patty again about the pork--,jane  
was standing in the passage--were not   
you1 ,jane8--for my mother was so afraid
 that we had not any salting-pan large  
enough4 ,so ,i said ,i would go down and
 see1 and ,jane said3 ,shall ,i go down 
instead8 for ,i think you have a little 
cold1 and ,patty has been washing the   
kitchen4 ,oh1 my dear1 said ,i--well1   
and just then came the note4'  ,,the    
,,remedy4--,the remedy for such         
wearisome and fruitless methods of      
association is1 as a matter of theory1  
simple and easy4 ,it is to emphasize1   
intensify1 and dwell upon the           

significant and essential in our        
thinking4 ,the person who listens to a  
story1 who studies a lesson1 or who is a
 participant in any event must apply a  
sense of value1 recognizing and fixing  
the important and relegating the trivial
 and unimportant to their proper level4 
,not to train one's self to think in    
this discriminating way is much like    
learning to play a piano by striking    
each key with equal force6   #c4        
,,training ,,in ,,association  ,since   
association is at bottom nothing but    
habit at work in the mental processes1  
it follows that it1 like other forms of 
habit1 can be encouraged or suppressed  
by training4 ,certainly1 no part of     
one's education is of greater importance
 than the character of his associations4
 ,for upon these will largely depend not
 alone the content of his mental stream1
 the stuff of his thinking1 but also its
 organization1 or the use made of the   
thought material at hand4 ,in fact1 the 
whole science of education rests on the 

laws and principles involved in setting 
up right systems of associative         
connections in the individual4  ,,the   
,,pleasure-,,pain ,,motive ,,in         
,,association4--,a general law seems to 
obtain throughout the animal world that 
associative responses accompanied by    
pleasure tend to persist and grow       
stronger1 while those accompanied by    
pain tend to weaken and fall away4 ,the 
little child of two years may not       
understand the gravity of the offense in
 tearing the leaves out of books1 but if
 its hands are sharply spatted whenever 
they tear a book1 the association       
between the sight of books and tearing  
them will soon cease4 ,in fact1 all     
punishment should have for its object   
the use of pain in the breaking of      
associative bonds between certain       
situations and wrong responses to them4 
,on the other hand1 the dog that is     
being trained to perform his tricks is  
rewarded with a tidbit or a pat when the
 right response has been made4 ,in this 

way the bond for this particular act is 
strengthened through the use of         
pleasure4 ,all matter studied and       
learned under the stimulus of good      
feeling1 enthusiasm1 or a pleasurable   
sense of victory and achievement not    
only tends to set up more permanent and 
valuable associations than if learned   
under opposite conditions1 but it also  
exerts a stronger appeal to our interest
 and appreciation4  ,the influence of   
mental attitude on the matter we study  
raises a question as to the wisdom of   
assigning the committing of poetry1 or  
,bible verses1 or the reading of so many
 pages of a literary masterpiece as a   
punishment for some offense4 ,how many  
of us have carried away associations of 
dislike and bitterness toward some gem  
of verse or prose or ,scripture because 
of having our learning of it linked up  
with the thought of an imposed task set 
as penance for wrong-doing6 ,one person 
tells me that to this day she hates the 
sight of ,tennyson because this was the 

volume from which she was assigned many 
pages to commit in atonement for her    
youthful delinquencies4  ,,interest ,,as
 ,a ,,basis ,,for                       
,,association4--,associations           
established under the stimulus of strong
 interest are relatively broad and      
permanent1 while those formed with      
interest flagging are more narrow and of
 doubtful permanence4 ,this statement   
is1 of course1 but a particular         
application of the law of attention4    
,interest brings the whole self into    
action4 ,under its urging the mind is   
active and alert4 ,the new facts learned
 are completely registered1 and are     
assimilated to other facts to which they
 are related4 ,many associative         
connections are formed1 hence the new   
matter is more certain of recall1 and   
possesses more significance and meaning4
  ,,association ,,and ,,methods ,,of    
,,learning4--,the number and quality of 
our associations depends in no small    
degree on our methods of learning4 ,we  

may be satisfied merely to impress what 
we learn on our memory1 committing it   
uncritically as so many facts to be     
stored away as a part of our education4 
,we may go a step beyond this and grasp 
the simplest and most obvious meanings1 
but not seek for the deeper and more    
fundamental relations4 ,we may learn    
separate sections or divisions of a     
subject1 accepting each as a more or    
less complete unit1 without connecting  
these sections and divisions into a     
logical whole4  ,but all such methods   
are a mistake4 ,they do not provide for 
the associative bonds between the       
various facts or groups of facts in our 
knowledge1 without which our facts are  
in danger of becoming but so much lumber
 in the mind4 ,meanings1 relations1     
definitely recognized associations1     
should attach to all that we learn4     
,better far a smaller amount of usable  
knowledge than any quantity of          
unorganized and undigested information1 
even if the latter sometimes allows us  

to pass examinations and receive honor  
grades4 ,in short1 real mastery demands 
that we think1 that is relate and       
associate1 instead of merely absorbing  
as we learn4   #d4 ,,problems ,,in      
,,observation ,,and ,,introspection  #a4
 ,test the uncontrolled associations of 
a group of pupils by pronouncing to the 
class some word1 as blue1 and having the
 members write down #bj words in        
succession as rapidly as they can1      
taking in each instance the first word  
that occurs to them4 ,the difference in 
the scope1 or range1 of associations1   
can easily be studied by applying this  
test to1 say1 a fourth grade and an     
eighth grade and then comparing results4
  #b4 ,have you ever been puzzled by the
 appearance in your mind of some fact or
 incident not thought of before for     
years8 ,were you able to trace out the  
associative connection that caused the  
fact to appear8 ,why are we sometimes   
unable to recall1 when we need them1    
facts that we perfectly well know8  #c4 

,you have observed that it is possible  
to be able to spell certain words when  
they occur in a spelling lesson1 but to 
miss them when employing them in        
composition4 ,it is possible to learn a 
conjugation or a declension in tabular  
form1 and then not be able to use the   
correct forms of words in speech or     
writing4 ,relate these facts to the laws
 of association1 and recommend a method 
of instruction that will remove the     
discrepancy4  #d4 ,to test the quickness
 of association in a class of children1 
copy the following words clearly in a   
vertical column on a chart2 have your   
class all ready at a given signal2 then 
display the chart before them for sixty 
seconds1 asking them to write down on   
paper the exact opposite of as many     
words as possible in one minute4 ,be    
sure that all know just what they are   
expected to do4       ,bad1 inside1     
slow1 short1 little1 soft1 black1 dark1 
sad1 true1      dislike1 poor1 well1    
sorry1 thick1 full1 peace1 few1 below1  

enemy4       ,count the number of       
correct opposites got by each pupil4    
#e4 ,can you think of garrulous persons 
among your acquaintance the explanation 
of whose tiresomeness is that their     
association is of the complete instead  
of the selective type8 ,watch for such  
illustrations in conversation and in    
literature 7e4g41 ,juliet's nurse74  #f4
 ,observe children in the schoolroom for
 good and poor training in association4 
,have you ever had anything that you    
otherwise presumably would enjoy        
rendered distasteful because of         
unpleasant associations8 ,pass your own 
methods of learning in review1 and also 
inquire into the methods used by        
children in study1 to determine whether 
they are resulting in the best possible 
use of association4     ,,chapter ,,xi  
,,memory   ,every hour of our lives we  
call upon memory to supply us with some 
fact or detail from out our past4 ,let  
memory wholly fail us1 and we find      
ourselves helpless and out of joint in a

 world we fail to understand4 ,a poor   
memory handicaps one in the pursuit of  
education1 hampers him in business or   
professional success1 and puts him at a 
disadvantage in every relation of life4 
,on the other hand1 a good memory is an 
asset on which the owner realizes anew  
each succeeding day4   #a4 ,,the        
,,nature ,,of ,,memory  ,now that you   
come to think of it1 you can recall     
perfectly well that ,columbus discovered
 ,america in #adib2 that your house is  
painted white2 that it rained a week ago
 today4 ,but where were these once-known
 facts1 now remembered so easily1 while 
they were out of your mind8 ,where did  
they stay while you were not thinking of
 them8 ,the common answer is1 ,stored   
away in my memory4 ,yet no one believes 
that the memory is a warehouse of facts 
which we pack away there when we for a  
time have no use for them1 as we store  
away our old furniture4  ,,what ,,is    
,,retained4--,the truth is that the     
simple question ,i asked you is by no   

means an easy one1 and ,i will answer it
 myself by asking you an easier one3 ,as
 we sit with the sunlight streaming into
 our room1 where is the darkness which  
filled it last night8 ,and where will   
all this light be at midnight tonight8  
,answer these questions1 and the ones ,i
 asked about your remembered facts will 
be answered4 ,while it is true that1    
regardless of the conditions in our     
little room1 darkness still exists      
wherever there is no light1 and light   
still exists wherever there is no       
darkness1 yet for this particular room  
there is no darkness when the sun shines
 in1 and there is no light when the room
 is filled with darkness4 ,so in the    
case of a remembered fact4 ,although the
 fact that ,columbus discovered ,america
 some four hundred years ago1 that your 
house is of a white color1 that it      
rained a week ago today1 exists as a    
fact regardless of whether your minds   
think of these things at all1 yet the   
truth remains as before3 for the        

particular mind which remembers these   
things1 the facts did not exist while   
they were out of the mind4  ,it is not  
the remembered fact which is retained1  
,,but ,,the ,,power ,,to ,,reproduce    
,,the ,,fact ,,when ,,we ,,require ,,it4
  ,,the ,,physical ,,basis ,,of         
,,memory4--,the power to reproduce a    
once-known fact depends ultimately on   
the brain4 ,this is not hard to         
understand if we go back a little and   
consider that brain activity was        
concerned in every perception we have   
ever had1 and in every fact we have ever
 known4 ,indeed1 it was through a       
certain neural activity of the cortex   
that you were able originally to know   
that ,columbus discovered ,america1 that
 your house is white1 and that it rained
 on a day in the past4 ,without this    
cortical activity1 these facts would    
have existed just as truly1 but you     
would never have known them4 ,without   
this neural activity in the brain there 
is no consciousness1 and to it we must  

look for the recurrence in consciousness
 of remembered facts1 as well as for    
those which appear for the first time4  
,,how ,,we ,,remember4--,now1 if we are 
to have a once-known fact repeated in   
consciousness1 or in other words        
remembered1 what we must do on the      
physiological side is to provide for a  
repetition of the neural activity which 
was at first responsible for the fact's 
appearing in consciousness4 ,the mental 
accompaniment of the repeated activity  
is the memory4 ,thus1 as memory is the  
approximate repetition of               
once-experienced mental states or facts1
 together with the recognition of their 
belonging to our past1 so it is         
accomplished by an approximate          
repetition of the once-performed neural 
process in the cortex which originally  
accompanied these states or facts4  ,the
 part played by the brain in memory     
makes it easy to understand why we find 
it so impossible to memorize or to      
recall when the brain is fatigued from  

long hours of work or lack of sleep4 ,it
 also explains the derangement in memory
 that often comes from an injury to the 
brain1 or from the toxins of alcohol1   
drugs or disease4  ,,dependence ,,of    
,,memory ,,on ,,brain                   
,,quality4--,differences in memory      
ability1 while depending in part on the 
training memory receives1 rest          
ultimately on the memory-quality of the 
brain4 ,james tells us that four        
distinct types of brains may be         
distinguished1 and he describes them as 
follows3  ,brains that are3      7#a7   
,like marble to receive and like marble 
to retain4     7#b7 ,like wax to receive
 and like wax to retain4     7#c7 ,like 
marble to receive and like wax to       
retain4     7#d7 ,like wax to receive   
and like marble to retain4  ,the first  
type gives us those who memorize slowly 
and with much heroic effort1 but who    
keep well what they have committed4 ,the
 second type represents the ones who    
learn in a flash1 who can cram up a     

lesson in a few minutes1 but who forget 
as easily and as quickly as they learn4 
,the third type characterizes the       
unfortunates who must labor hard and    
long for what they memorize1 only to see
 it quickly slipping from their grasp4  
,the fourth type is a rare boon to its  
possessor1 enabling him easily to stock 
his memory with valuable material1 which
 is readily available to him upon       
demand4  ,the particular type of brain  
we possess is given us through heredity1
 and we can do little or nothing to     
change the type4 ,whatever our type of  
brain1 however1 we can do much to       
improve our memory by obeying the laws  
upon which all good memory depends4     
#b4 ,,the ,,four ,,factors ,,involved   
,,in ,,memory  ,nothing is more obvious 
than that memory cannot return to us    
what has never been given into its      
keeping1 what has not been retained1 or 
what for any reason cannot be recalled4 
,further1 if the facts given back by    
memory are not recognized as belonging  

to our past1 memory would be incomplete4
 ,memory1 therefore1 involves the       
following four factors3 7#a7            
registration1 7#b7 retention1 7#c7      
recall1 7#d7 recognition4               
,,registration4--,by registration we    
mean the learning or committing of the  
matter to be remembered4 ,on the brain  
side this involves producing in the     
appropriate neurones the activities     
which1 when repeated again later1 cause 
the fact to be recalled4 ,it is this    
process that constitutes what we call   
impressing the facts upon the brain4    
,nothing is more fatal to good memory   
than partial or faulty registration4 ,a 
thing but half learned is sure to be    
forgotten4 ,we often stop in the mastery
 of a lesson just short of the full     
impression needed for permanent         
retention and sure recall4 ,we sometimes
 say to our teachers1 ,i cannot         
remember1 when1 as a matter of fact1 we 
have never learned the thing we seek to 
recall4  ,,retention4--,retention1 as we

 have already seen1 resides primarily in
 the brain4 ,it is accomplished through 
the law of habit working in the neurones
 of the cortex4 ,here1 as elsewhere1    
habit makes an activity once performed  
more easy of performance each succeeding
 time4 ,through this law a neural       
activity once performed tends to be     
repeated2 or1 in other words1 a fact    
once known in consciousness tends to be 
remembered4 ,that so large a part of our
 past is lost in oblivion1 and out of   
the reach of our memory1 is probably    
much more largely due to a failure to   
recall than to retain4 ,we say that we  
have forgotten a fact or a name which we
 cannot recall1 try as hard as we may2  
yet surely all have had the experience  
of a long-striven-for fact suddenly     
appearing in our memory when we had     
given it up and no longer had use for   
it4 ,it was retained all the time1 else 
it never could have come back at all4   
,an aged man of my acquaintance lay on  
his deathbed4 ,in his childhood he had  

first learned to speak ,german2 but1    
moving with his family when he was eight
 or nine years of age to an             
,english-speaking community1 he had lost
 his ability to speak ,german1 and had  
been unable for a third of a century to 
carry on a conversation in his mother   
tongue4 ,yet during the last days of his
 sickness he lost almost wholly the     
power to use the ,english language1 and 
spoke fluently in ,german4 ,during all  
these years his brain paths had retained
 the power to reproduce the forgotten   
words1 even though for so long a time   
the words could not be recalled4 ,james 
quotes a still more striking case of an 
aged woman who was seized with a fever  
and1 during her delirious ravings1 was  
heard talking in ,latin1 ,hebrew and    
,greek4 ,she herself could neither read 
nor write1 and the priests said she was 
possessed of a devil4 ,but a physician  
unraveled the mystery4 ,when the girl   
was nine years of age1 a pastor1 who was
 a noted scholar1 had taken her into his

 home as a servant1 and she had remained
 there until his death4 ,during this    
time she had daily heard him read aloud 
from his books in these languages4 ,her 
brain had indelibly retained the record 
made upon it1 although for years she    
could not have recalled a sentence1 if1 
indeed1 she had ever been able to do so4
  ,,recall4--,recall depends entirely on
 association4 ,there is no way to arrive
 at a certain fact or name that is      
eluding us except by means of some other
 facts1 names1 or what-not so related to
 the missing term as to be able to bring
 it into the fold4 ,memory arrives at   
any desired fact only over a bridge of  
associations4 ,it therefore follows that
 the more associations set up between   
the fact to be remembered and related   
facts already in the mind1 the more     
certain the recall4 ,historical dates   
and events should when learned be       
associated with important central dates 
and events to which they naturally      
attach4 ,geographical names1 places or  

other information should be connected   
with related material already in the    
mind4 ,scientific knowledge should form 
a coherent and related whole4 ,in short1
 everything that is given over to the   
memory for its keeping should be linked 
as closely as possible to material of   
the same sort4 ,this is all to say that 
we should not expect our memory to      
retain and reproduce isolated1 unrelated
 facts1 but should give it the advantage
 of as many logical and well grounded   
associations as possible4               
,,recognition4--,a fact reproduced by   
memory but not recognized as belonging  
to our past experience would impress us 
as a new fact4 ,this would mean that    
memory would fail to link the present to
 the past4 ,often we are puzzled to know
 whether we have before met a certain   
person1 or on a former occasion told a  
certain story1 or previously experienced
 a certain present state of mind which  
seems half familiar4 ,such baffling     
mental states are usually but instances 

of partial and incomplete recognition4  
,recognition no longer applies to much  
of our knowledge2 for example1 we say we
 remember that four times six is        
twenty-four1 but probably none of us can
 recall when and where we learned this  
fact--we cannot recognize it as         
belonging to our past experience4 ,so   
with ten thousand other things1 which we
 know rather than remember in the strict
 sense4   #c4 ,,the ,,stuff ,,of        
,,memory  ,what are the forms in which  
memory presents the past to us8 ,what   
are the elements with which it deals8   
,what is the stuff of which it consists8
  ,,images ,,as ,,the ,,material ,,of   
,,memory4--,in the light of our         
discussion upon mental imagery1 and with
 the aid of a little introspection1 the 
answer is easy4 ,i ask you to remember  
your home1 and at once a visual image of
 the familiar house1 with its well-known
 rooms and their characteristic         
furnishings1 comes to your mind4 ,i ask 
you to remember the last concert you    

attended1 or the chorus of birds you    
heard recently in the woods2 and there  
comes a flood of images1 partly visual1 
but largely auditory1 from the melodies 
you heard4 ,or ,i ask you to remember   
the feast of which you partook          
yesterday1 and gustatory and olfactory  
images are prominent among the others   
which appear4 ,and so ,i might keep on  
until ,i had covered the whole range of 
your memory2 and1 whether ,i ask you for
 the simple trivial experiences of your 
past1 for the tragic or crucial         
experiences1 or for the most abstruse   
and abstract facts which you know and   
can recall1 the case is the same3 much  
of what memory presents to you comes in 
the form of images or of ideas of your  
past4  ,,images ,,vary ,,as ,,to        
,,type4--,we do not all remember what we
 call the same fact in like images or   
ideas4 ,when you remembered that        
,columbus discovered ,america in #adib1 
some of you had an image of ,columbus   
the mariner standing on the deck of his 

ship1 as the old picture shows him2 and 
accompanying this image was an idea of  
long agoness4 ,others1 in recalling the 
same fact1 had an image of the coast on 
which he landed1 and perchance felt the 
rocking of the boat and heard it        
scraping on the sand as it neared the   
shore4 ,and still others saw on the     
printed page the words stating that     
,columbus discovered ,america in #adib4 
,and so in an infinite variety of images
 or ideas we may remember what we call  
the same fact1 though of course the fact
 is not really the same fact to any two 
of us1 nor to any one of us when it     
comes to us on different occasions in   
different images4  ,,other ,,memory     
,,material4--,but sensory images are not
 the only material with which memory has
 to deal4 ,we may also recall the bare  
fact that it rained a week ago today    
without having images of the rain4 ,we  
may recall that ,columbus discovered    
,america in #adib without visual or     
other images of the event4 ,as a matter 

of fact we do constantly recall many    
facts of abstract nature1 such as       
mathematical or scientific formulae with
 no imagery other than that of the words
 or symbols1 if indeed these be present4
 ,memory may therefore use as its stuff 
not only images1 but also a wide range  
of facts1 ideas and meanings of all     
sorts4   #d4 ,,laws ,,underlying        
,,memory  ,the development of a good    
memory depends in no small degree on the
 closeness with which we follow certain 
well-demonstrated laws4  ,,the ,,law    
,,of ,,association4--,the law of        
association1 as we have already seen1 is
 fundamental4 ,upon it the whole        
structure of memory depends4 ,stating   
this law in neural terms we may say3    
,brain areas which are active together  
at the same time tend to establish      
associative paths1 so that when one of  
them is again active the other is also  
brought into activity4 ,expressing the  
same truth in mental terms3 ,if two     
facts or experiences occur together in  

consciousness1 and one of them is later 
recalled1 it tends to cause the other to
 appear also4  ,,the ,,law ,,of         
,,repetition4--,the law of repetition is
 but a restatement of the law of habit1 
and may be formulated as follows3 ,the  
more frequently a certain cortical      
activity occurs1 the more easily is its 
repetition brought about4 ,stating this 
law in mental terms we may say3 ,the    
more often a fact is recalled in        
consciousness the easier and more       
certain the recall becomes4 ,it is upon 
the law of repetition that reviews and  
drills to fix things in the memory are  
based4  ,,the ,,law ,,of ,,recency4--,we
 may state the law of recency in        
physiological terms as follows3 ,the    
more recently brain centers have been   
employed in a certain activity1 the more
 easily are they thrown into the same   
activity4 ,this1 on the mental side1    
means3 ,the more recently any facts have
 been present in consciousness the more 
easily are they recalled4 ,it is in     

obedience to this law that we want to   
rehearse a difficult lesson just before 
the recitation hour1 or cram immediately
 before an examination4 ,the working of 
this law also explains the tendency of  
all memories to fade out as the years   
pass by4  ,,the ,,law ,,of              
,,vividness4--,the law of vividness is  
of primary importance in memorizing4 ,on
 the physical side it may be expressed  
as follows3 ,the higher the tension or  
the more intense the activity of neural 
centers the more easily the activity is 
repeated4 ,the counterpart of this law  
in mental terms is3 ,the higher the     
degree of attention or concentration    
when the fact is registered the more    
certain it is of recall4 ,better far one
 impression of a high degree of         
vividness than several repetitions with 
the attention wandering or the brain too
 fatigued to respond4 ,not drill alone1 
but drill with concentration1 is        
necessary to sure memory1--in proof of  
which witness the futile results on the 

part of the small boy who studies his   
spelling lesson over fifteen times1 the 
while he is at the same time counting   
his marbles4   #e4 ,,rules ,,for ,,using
 ,,the ,,memory  ,much careful and      
fruitful experimentation in the field of
 memory has taken place in recent years4
 ,the scientists are now able to give us
 certain simple rules which we can      
employ in using our memories1 even if we
 lack the time or opportunity to follow 
all their technical discussions4        
,,wholes ,,versus ,,parts4--,probably   
most people in setting to work to commit
 to memory a poem1 oration1 or other    
such material1 have a tendency to learn 
it first by stanzas or sections and then
 put the parts together to form the     
whole4 ,many tests1 however1 have shown 
this to be a less effective method than 
to go over the whole poem or oration    
time after time1 finally giving special 
attention to any particularly difficult 
places4 ,the only exception to this rule
 would seem to be in the case of very   

long productions1 which may be broken up
 into sections of reasonable length4    
,the method of committing by wholes     
instead of parts not only economizes    
time and effort in the learning1 but    
also gives a better sense of unity and  
meaning to the matter memorized4  ,,rate
 ,,of ,,forgetting4--,the rate of       
forgetting is found to be very much more
 rapid immediately following the        
learning than after a longer time has   
elapsed4 ,this is to say that of what   
one is going to forget of matter        
committed to memory approximately       
one-half will fall away within the first
 twenty-four hours and three-fourths    
within the first three days4 ,since it  
is always economy to fix afresh matter  
that is fading out before it has been   
wholly forgotten1 it will manifestly pay
 to review important memory material    
within the first day or two after it has
 once been memorized4  ,,divided        
,,practice4--,if to commit a certain    
piece of material we must go over it1   

say1 ten different times1 the results   
are found to be much better when the    
entire number of repetitions are not had
 in immediate succession1 but with      
reasonable intervals between4 ,this is  
due1 no doubt1 to the well-known fact   
that associations tend to take form and 
grow more secure even after we have     
ceased to think specifically of the     
matter in hand4 ,the intervals allow    
time for the associations to form their 
connections4 ,it is in this sense that  
,james says we learn to swim during the 
winter and to skate during the summer4  
,,forcing ,,the ,,memory ,,to           
,,act4--,in committing matter by reading
 it1 the memory should be forced into   
activity just as fast as it is able to  
carry part of the material4 ,if1 after  
reading a poem over once1 parts of it   
can be repeated without reference to the
 text1 the memory should be compelled to
 reproduce these parts4 ,so with all    
other material4 ,re-reading should be   
applied only at such points as the      

memory has not yet grasped4  ,,not ,a   
,,memory1 ,,but ,,memories4--,professor 
,james has emphasized the fact1 which   
has often been demonstrated by          
experimental tests1 that we do not      
possess a memory1 but a collection of   
memories4 ,our memory may be very good  
in one line and poor in another4 ,nor   
can we train our memory in the sense of 
practicing it in one line and having the
 improvement extend equally to other    
lines4 ,committing poetry may have      
little or no effect in strengthening the
 memory for historical or scientific    
data4 ,in general1 the memory must be   
trained in the specific lines in which  
it is to excel4 ,general training will  
not serve except as it may lead to      
better modes of learning what is to be  
memorized4   #f4 ,,what ,,constitutes ,a
 ,,good ,,memory  ,let us next inquire  
what are the qualities which enter into 
what we call a good memory4 ,the        
merchant or politician will say1        
,ability to remember well people's faces

 and names2 the teacher of history1 ,the
 ability to recall readily dates and    
events2 the teacher of mathematics1 ,the
 power to recall mathematical formulae2 
the hotel waiter1 ,the ability to keep  
in mind half-a-dozen orders at a time2  
the manager of a corporation1 ,the      
ability to recall all the necessary     
details connected with the running of   
the concern4 ,while these answers are   
very divergent1 yet they may all be true
 for the particular person testifying2  
for out of them all there emerges this  
common truth1 that the best memory is   
the one which best serves its possessor4
 ,that is1 one's memory not only must be
 ready and exact1 but must produce the  
right kind of material2 it must bring to
 us what we need in our thinking4 ,a    
very easy corollary at once grows out of
 this fact2 namely1 that in order to    
have the memory return to us the right  
kind of matter1 we must store it with   
the right kind of images and ideas1 for 
the memory cannot give back to us       

anything which we have not first given  
into its keeping4  ,a ,,good ,,memory   
,,selects ,,its ,,material4--,the best  
memory is not necessarily the one which 
impartially repeats the largest number  
of facts of past experience4 ,everyone  
has many experiences which he never     
needs to have reproduced in memory2     
useful enough they may have been at the 
time1 but wholly useless and irrelevant 
later4 ,they have served their purpose1 
and should henceforth slumber in        
oblivion4 ,they would be but so much    
rubbish and lumber if they could be     
recalled4 ,everyone has surely met that 
particular type of bore whose memory is 
so faithful to details that no incident 
in the story he tells1 no matter however
 trivial1 is ever omitted in the        
recounting4 ,his associations work in   
such a tireless round of minute         
succession1 without ever being able to  
take a jump or a short cut1 that he is  
powerless to separate the wheat from the
 chaff2 so he dumps the whole           

indiscriminate mass into our            
long-suffering ears4  ,dr4 ,carpenter   
tells of a member of ,parliament who    
could repeat long legal documents and   
acts of ,parliament after one reading4  
,when he was congratulated on his       
remarkable gift1 he replied that1       
instead of being an advantage to him1 it
 was often a source of great            
inconvenience1 because when he wished to
 recollect anything in a document he had
 read1 he could do it only by repeating 
the whole from the beginning up to the  
point which he wished to recall4        
,maudsley says that the kind of memory  
which enables a person to read a        
photographic copy of former impressions 
with his mind's eye is not1 indeed1     
commonly associated with high           
intellectual power1 and gives as a      
reason that such a mind is hindered by  
the very wealth of material furnished by
 the memory from discerning the         
relations between separate facts upon   
which judgment and reasoning depend4 ,it

 is likewise a common source of surprise
 among teachers that many of the pupils 
who could outstrip their classmates in  
learning and memory do not turn out to  
be able men4 ,but this1 says ,whately1  
is as reasonable as to wonder that a    
cistern if filled should not be a       
perpetual fountain4 ,it is possible for 
one to be so lost in a tangle of trees  
that he cannot see the woods4  ,a ,,good
 ,,memory ,,requires ,,good             
,,thinking4--,it is not1 then1 mere     
re-presentation of facts that           
constitutes a good memory4 ,the pupil   
who can reproduce a history lesson by   
the page has not necessarily as good a  
memory as the one who remembers fewer   
facts1 but sees the relations between   
those remembered1 and hence is able to  
choose what he will remember4 ,memory   
must be discriminative4 ,it must fasten 
on that which is important and keep that
 for us4 ,therefore we can agree that   
the art of remembering is the art of    
thinking4 ,discrimination must select   

the important out of our mental stream1 
and these images must be associated with
 as many others as possible which are   
already well fixed in memory1 and hence 
are sure of recall when needed4 ,in this
 way the old will always serve as a cue 
to call up the new4  ,,memory ,,must    
,,be ,,specialized4--,and not only must 
memory1 if it is to be a good memory1   
omit the generally worthless1 or        
trivial1 or irrelevant1 and supply the  
generally useful1 significant1 and      
relevant1 but it must in some degree be 
a specialized memory4 ,it must minister 
to the particular needs and requirements
 of its owner4 ,small consolation to you
 if you are a ,latin teacher1 and are   
able to call up the binomial theorem or 
the date of the fall of ,constantinople 
when you are in dire need of a          
conjugation or a declension which eludes
 you4 ,it is much better for the        
merchant and politician to have a good  
memory for names and faces than to be   
able to repeat the succession of        

,english monarchs from ,alfred the      
,great to ,edward ,,vii and not be able 
to tell ,john ,smith from ,tom ,brown4  
,it is much more desirable for the      
lawyer to be able to remember the       
necessary details of his case than to be
 able to recall all the various athletic
 records of the year2 and so on4  ,in   
order to be a good memory for us1 our   
memory must be faithful in dealing with 
the material which constitutes the needs
 of our vocations4 ,our memory may1 and 
should1 bring to us many things outside 
of our immediate vocations1 else our    
lives will be narrow2 but its chief     
concern and most accurate work must be  
along the path of our everyday          
requirements at its hands4 ,and this    
works out well in connection with the   
physiological laws which were stated a  
little while since1 providing that our  
vocations are along the line of our     
interests4 ,for the things with which we
 work daily1 and in which we are        
interested1 will be often thought of    

together1 and hence will become well    
associated4 ,they will be frequently    
recalled1 and hence more easily         
remembered2 they will be vividly        
experienced as the inevitable result of 
interest1 and this goes far to insure   
recall4   #g4 ,,memory ,,devices  ,many 
devices have been invented for training 
or using the memory1 and not a few      
worthless systems have been imposed by  
conscienceless fakers upon uninformed   
people4 ,all memorizing finally must go 
back to the fundamental laws of brain   
activity and the rules growing out of   
these laws4 ,there is no royal road to a
 good memory4  ,,the ,,effects ,,of     
,,cramming4--,not a few students depend 
on cramming for much of their learning4 
,if this method of study would yield as 
valuable permanent results1 it would be 
by far the most sensible and economical 
method to use2 for under the stress of  
necessity we often are able to          
accomplish results much faster than when
 no pressure is resting upon us4 ,the   

difficulty is1 however1 that the results
 are not permanent2 the facts learned do
 not have time to seek out and link     
themselves to well-established          
associates2 learned in an hour1 their   
retention is as ephemeral as the        
application which gave them to us4      
,facts which are needed but temporarily 
and which cannot become a part of our   
body of permanent knowledge may         
profitably be learned by cramming4 ,the 
lawyer needs many details for the case  
he is trying1 which not only are        
valueless to him as soon as the case is 
decided1 but would positively be in his 
way4 ,he may profitably cram such facts4
 ,but those facts which are to become a 
permanent part of his mental equipment1 
such as the fundamental principles of   
law1 he cannot cram4 ,these he must have
 in a logical chain which will not leave
 their recall dependent upon a chance   
cue4 ,crammed facts may serve us during 
a recitation or an examination1 but they
 never really become a part of us4      

,nothing can take the place of the      
logical placing of facts if they are to 
be remembered with facility1 and be     
usable in thinking when recalled4       
,,remembering ,,isolated ,,facts4--,but 
after all this is taken into            
consideration there still remain a large
 number of facts which refuse to fit    
into any connected or logical system4   
,or1 if they do belong with some system1
 their connection is not very close1 and
 we have more need for the few          
individual facts than for the system as 
a whole4 ,hence we must have some means 
of remembering such facts other than by 
connecting them with their logical      
associations4 ,such facts as may be     
typified by the multiplication table1   
certain dates1 events1 names1 numbers1  
errands1 and engagements of various     
kinds--all these need to be remembered  
accurately and quickly when the occasion
 for them arises4 ,we must be able to   
recall them with facility1 so that the  
occasion will not have passed by before 

we can secure them and we have failed to
 do our part because of the lapse4      
,with facts of this type the means of   
securing a good memory are the same as  
in the case of logical memory1 except   
that we must of necessity forego the    
linking to naturally related associates4
 ,we can1 however1 take advantage of the
 three laws which have been given4 ,if  
these methods are used faithfully1 then 
we have done what we can in the way of  
insuring the recall of facts of this    
type1 unless we associate them with some
 artificial cue1 such as tying a thread 
around our finger to remember an errand1
 or learning the multiplication table by
 singing it4 ,we are not to be too ready
 to excuse ourselves1 however1 if we    
have forgotten to mail the letter or    
deliver the message2 for our attention  
may have been very lax when we recorded 
the direction in the first place1 and we
 may never have taken the trouble to    
think of the matter between the time it 
was given into our keeping and the time 

we were to perform the errand4          
,,mnemonic ,,devices4--,many ingenious  
devices have been invented to assist the
 memory4 ,no doubt each one of you has  
some way of your own of remembering     
certain things committed to you1 or some
 much-needed fact which has a tendency  
to elude you4 ,you may not tie the      
traditional string around your finger or
 place your watch in the wrong pocket2  
but if not1 you have invented some      
method which suits your convenience     
better4 ,while many books have been     
written1 and many lectures given        
exploiting mnemonic systems1 they are1  
however1 all founded upon the same      
general principle3 namely1 that of      
association of ideas in the mind4 ,they 
all make use of the same basis for      
memory that any of us use every time we 
remember anything1 from the commonest   
event which occurred last hour to the   
most abstruse bit of philosophy which we
 may have in our minds4 ,they all tie   
the fact to be remembered to some other 

fact which is sure of recall1 and then  
trust the old fact to bring the new     
along with it when it again comes into  
the mind4  ,artificial devices may be   
permissible in remembering the class of 
facts which have no logical associates  
in which we can relate them2 but even   
then ,i cannot help feeling that if we  
should use the same care and ingenuity  
in carefully recording the seemingly    
unrelated facts that we do in working   
out the device and making the           
association in it1 we should discover   
hidden relations for most of the facts  
we wish to remember1 and we should be   
able to insure their recall as certainly
 and in a better way than through the   
device4 ,then1 also1 we should not be in
 danger of handing over to the device   
various facts for which we should       
discover relations1 thus placing them in
 the logical body of our usable         
knowledge where they belong4   #h4      
,,problems ,,in ,,observation ,,and     
,,introspection  #a4 ,carefully consider

 your own powers of memory and see      
whether you can decide which of the four
 types of brain you have4 ,apply similar
 tests to your classmates or a group of 
school children whom you have a chance  
to observe4 ,be sure to take into       
account the effects of past training or 
habits of memory4  #b4 ,watch in your   
own memorizing and also that of school  
children for failures in recall caused  
by lack of proper associations4 ,why is 
it particularly hard to commit what one 
does not understand8  #c4 ,observe a    
class in a recitation or an examination 
and seek to discover whether any defects
 of memory revealed are to be explained 
by lack of 7#a7 repetition1 7#b7        
recency1 7#c7 vividness in learning4    
#d4 ,make a study of your own class and 
also of a group of children in school to
 discover their methods of memorizing4  
,have in mind the rules for memorizing  
given in section #e of this chapter4    
#e4 ,observe by introspection your      
method of recall of historical events   

you have studied1 and note whether      
images form an important part of your   
memory material2 or does your recall    
consist chiefly of bare facts8 ,in how  
far does this depend on your method of  
learning the facts in the first place8  
#f4 ,carefully consider your experience 
from cramming your lessons4 ,does the   
material learned in this way stay with  
you8 ,do you understand it and find     
yourself able to use it as well as stuff
 learned during a longer interval and   
with more time for associations to form8
     ,,chapter ,,xii  ,,thinking   ,no  
word is more constantly on our lips than
 the word think4 ,a hundred times a day 
we tell what we think about this thing  
or that4 ,any exceptional power of      
thought classes us among the efficient  
of our generation4 ,it is in their      
ability to think that men stand         
preeminently above the animals4   #a4   
,,different ,,types ,,of ,,thinking     
,the term think1 or thinking1 is        
employed in so many different senses    

that it will be well first of all to    
come to an understanding as to its      
various uses4 ,four different types of  
thinking which we shall note are3#e 7#a7
 chance1 or idle1 thinking2 7#b7        
thinking in the form of uncritical      
belief2 7#c7 assimilative thinking2 and 
7#d7 deliberative thinking4  ,,chance   
,,or ,,idle ,,thinking4--,our thinking  
is of the chance or idle kind when we   
think to no conscious end4 ,no          
particular problem is up for solution1  
and the stream of thought drifts along  
in idleness4 ,in such thinking1         
immediate interest1 some idle fancy1 the
 impulse of the moment1 or the          
suggestions from our environment        
determine the train of associations and 
give direction to our thought4 ,in a    
sense1 we surrender our mental bark to  
the winds of circumstance to drive it   
whithersoever they will without let or  
hindrance from us4 ,since no results are
 sought from our thinking1 none are     
obtained4 ,the best of us spend more    

time in these idle trains of thought    
than we would like to admit1 while      
inferior and untrained minds seldom rise
 above this barren thought level4 ,not  
infrequently even when we are studying a
 lesson which demands our best thought  
power we find that an idle chain of     
associations has supplanted the more    
rigid type of thinking and appropriated 
the field4  ,,uncritical ,,belief4--,we 
often say that we think a certain thing 
is true or false when we have1 as a     
matter of fact1 done little or no       
thinking about it4 ,we only believe1 or 
uncritically accept1 the common point of
 view as to the truth or untruth of the 
matter concerned4 ,the ancients believed
 that the earth was flat1 and the       
savages that eclipses were caused by    
animals eating up the moon4 ,not a few  
people today believe that potatoes and  
other vegetables should be planted at a 
certain phase of the moon1 that sickness
 is a visitation of ,providence1 and    
that various charms are potent to bring 

good fortune or ward off disaster4      
,probably not one in a thousand of those
 who accept such beliefs could give1 or 
have ever tried to give1 any rational   
reason for their point of view4  ,but we
 must not be too harsh toward such crude
 illustrations of uncritical thinking4  
,it is entirely possible that not all of
 us who pride ourselves on our trained  
powers of thought could give good       
reasons discovered by our own thinking  
why we think our political party1 our   
church1 or our social organization is   
better than some other one4 ,how few of 
us1 after all1 really discover our      
creed1 join a church1 or choose a       
political party6 ,we adopt the points of
 view of our nation or our group much as
 we adopt their customs and dress--not  
because we are convinced by thinking    
that they are best1 but because they are
 less trouble4  ,,assimilative          
,,thinking4--,it is this type of        
thinking that occupies us when we seek  
to appropriate new facts or ideas and   

understand them2 that is1 relate them to
 knowledge already on hand4 ,we think   
after this fashion in much of our study 
in schools and textbooks4 ,the problem  
for our thought is not so much one of   
invention or discovery as of grasp and  
assimilation4 ,our thinking is to       
apprehend meanings and relations1 and so
 unify and give coherence to our        
knowledge4  ,in the absence of this type
 of thinking one may commit to memory   
many facts that he does not understand1 
gather much information that contains   
little meaning to him1 and even achieve 
very creditable scholastic grades that  
stand for a small amount of education or
 development4 ,for all information1 to  
become vital and usable1 must be thought
 into relation to our present active1   
functioning body of knowledge2 therefore
 assimilative thinking is fundamental to
 true mastery and learning4             
,,deliberative                          
,,thinking4--,deliberative thinking     
constitutes the highest type of thought 

process4 ,in order to do deliberative   
thinking there is necessary1 first of   
all1 what ,dewey calls a split-road     
situation4 ,a traveler going along a    
well-beaten highway1 says ,dr4 ,dewey1  
does not deliberate2 he simply keeps on 
going4 ,but let the highway split into  
two roads at a fork1 only one of which  
leads to the desired destination1 and   
now a problem confronts him2 he must    
take one road or the other1 but which8  
,the intelligent traveler will at once  
go to seeking for evidence as to which  
road he should choose4 ,he will balance 
this fact against that fact1 and this   
probability against that probability1 in
 an effort to arrive at a solution of   
his problem4  ,before we can engage in  
deliberative thinking we must be        
confronted by some problem1 some such   
split-road situation in our mental      
stream--we must have something to think 
about4 ,it is this fact that makes one  
writer say that the great purpose of    
one's education is not to solve all his 

problems for him4 ,it is rather to help 
him 7#a7 to discover problems1 or       
split-road situations1 7#b7 to assist   
him in gathering the facts necessary for
 their solution1 and 7#c7 to train him  
in the weighing of his facts or         
evidence1 that is1 in deliberative      
thinking4 ,only as we learn to recognize
 the true problems that confront us in  
our own lives and in society about us   
can we become thinkers in the best      
sense4 ,our own plans and projects1 the 
questions of right and wrong that are   
constantly arising1 the social1         
political and religious problems        
awaiting solution1 all afford the       
opportunity and the necessity for       
deliberative thinking4 ,and unhappy is  
the pupil whose school work does not set
 the problems and employ the methods    
which will insure training in this as   
well as in the assimilative type of     
thinking4 ,every school subject1 besides
 supplying certain information to be    
learned1 should present its problems    

requiring true deliberative thinking    
within the range of development and     
ability of the pupil1 and no            
subject--literature1 history1 science1  
language--is without many such problems4
   #b4 ,,the ,,function ,,of ,,thinking 
,all true thinking is for the purpose of
 discovering relations between the      
things we think about4 ,imagine a world 
in which nothing is related to anything 
else2 in which every object perceived1  
remembered1 or imagined1 stands         
absolutely by itself1 independent and   
self-sufficient6 ,what a chaos it would 
be6 ,we might perceive1 remember1 and   
imagine all the various objects we      
please1 but without the power to think  
them together1 they would all be totally
 unrelated1 and hence have no meaning4  
,,meaning ,,depends ,,on                
,,relations4--,to have a rational       
meaning for us1 things must always be   
defined in terms of other things1 or in 
terms of their uses4 ,fuel is that which
 feeds fire4 ,food is what is eaten for 

nourishment4 ,a locomotive is a machine 
for drawing a train4 ,books are to read1
 pianos to play1 balls to throw1 schools
 to instruct1 friends to enjoy1 and so  
on through the whole list of objects    
which we know or can define4 ,everything
 depends for its meaning on its relation
 to other things2 and the more of these 
relations we can discover1 the more     
fully do we see the meaning4 ,thus balls
 may have other uses than to throw1     
schools other functions than to         
instruct1 and friends mean much more to 
us than mere enjoyment4 ,and just in the
 degree in which we have realized these 
different relations1 have we defined the
 object1 or1 in other words1 have we    
seen its meaning4  ,,the ,,function ,,of
 ,,thinking ,,is ,,to ,,discover        
,,relations4--,now it is by thinking    
that these relations are discovered4    
,this is the function of thinking4      
,thinking takes the various separate    
items of our experience and discovers to
 us the relations existing among them1  

and builds them together into a unified1
 related1 and usable body of knowledge1 
threading each little bit on the string 
of relationship which runs through the  
whole4 ,it was1 no doubt1 this thought  
which ,tennyson had in mind when he     
wrote3      ,flower in the crannied     
wall1     ,i pluck you out of the       
crannies1     ,i hold you here1 root and
 all1 in my hand1     ,little           
flower--but if ,i could understand      
,what you are1 root and all1 and all in 
all1     ,i should know what ,god and   
man is4  ,starting in with even so      
simple a thing as a little flower1 if he
 could discover all the relations which 
every part bears to every other part and
 to all other things besides1 he would  
finally reach the meaning of ,god and   
man4 ,for each separate thing1 be it    
large or small1 forms a link in an      
unbroken chain of relationships which   
binds the universe into an ordered      
whole4  ,,near ,,and ,,remote           
,,relations4--,the relations discovered 

through our thinking may be very close  
and simple ones1 as when a child sees   
the relation between his bottle and his 
dinner2 or they may be very remote ones1
 as when ,newton saw the relation       
between the falling of an apple and the 
motion of the planets in their orbits4  
,but whether simple or remote1 the      
seeing of the relationships is in both  
cases alike thinking2 for thinking is   
nothing1 in its last analysis1 but the  
discovering of the relationships which  
exist between the various objects in our
 mental stream4  ,thinking passes       
through all grades of complexity1 from  
the first faint dawnings in the mind of 
the babe when it sees the relation      
between the mother and its feeding1 on  
to the mighty grasp of the sage who is  
able to think ,god's thoughts after     
,him4 ,but it all comes to the same end 
finally--the bringing to light of new   
meanings through the discovery of new   
relations4 ,and whatever does this is   
thinking4  ,,child ,,and ,,adult        

,,thinking4--,what constitutes the      
difference in the thinking of the child 
and that of the sage8 ,let us see       
whether we can discover this difference4
 ,in the first place the relations seen 
by the child are immediate relations3   
they exist between simple percepts or   
images2 the remote and the general are  
beyond his reach4 ,he has not had       
sufficient experience to enable him to  
discover remote relations4 ,he cannot   
think things which are absent from him1 
or which he has never known4 ,the child 
could by no possibility have seen in the
 falling apple what ,newton saw2 for the
 child knew nothing of the planets in   
their orbits1 and hence could not see   
relations in which these formed one of  
the terms4 ,the sage1 on the other hand1
 is not limited to his immediate        
percepts or their images4 ,he can see   
remote relations4 ,he can go beyond     
individuals1 and think in classes4 ,the 
falling apple is not a mere falling     
apple to him1 but one of a class of     

falling bodies4 ,besides a rich         
experience full of valuable facts1 the  
trained thinker has acquired also the   
habit of looking out for relations2 he  
has learned that this is the method par 
excellence of increasing his store of   
knowledge and of rendering effective the
 knowledge he has4 ,he has learned how  
to think4  ,the chief business of the   
child is the collection of the materials
 of thought1 seeing only the more       
necessary and obvious relations as he   
proceeds2 his chief business when older 
grown is to seek out the network of     
relations which unites this mass of     
material1 and through this process to   
systematize and give new meanings to the
 whole4   #c4 ,,the ,,mechanism ,,of    
,,thinking  ,it is evident from the     
foregoing discussion that we may include
 under the term thinking all sorts of   
mental processes by which relations are 
apprehended between different objects of
 thought4 ,thus young children think as 
soon as they begin to understand        

something of the meaning of the objects 
of their environment4 ,even animals     
think by means of simple and direct     
associations4 ,thinking may therefore go
 on in terms of the simplest and most   
immediate1 or the most complex and      
distant relationships4  ,,sensations    
,,and ,,percepts ,,as ,,elements ,,in   
,,thinking4--,relations seen between    
sensations would mean something1 but not
 much2 relations seen between objects   
immediately present to the senses would 
mean much more2 but our thinking must go
 far beyond the present1 and likewise   
far beyond individual objects4 ,it must 
be able to annihilate both time and     
space1 and to deal with millions of     
individuals together in one group or    
class4 ,only in this way can our        
thinking go beyond that of the lower    
animals2 for a wise rat1 even1 may come 
to see the relation between a trap and  
danger1 or a horse the relation between 
pulling with his teeth at the piece of  
string on the gate latch1 and securing  

his liberty4  ,but it takes the         
farther-reaching mind of man to invent  
the trap and the latch4 ,perception     
alone does not go far enough4 ,it is    
limited to immediately present objects  
and their most obvious relations4 ,the  
perceptual image is likewise subject to 
similar limitations4 ,while it enables  
us to dispense with the immediate       
presence of the object1 yet it deals    
with separate individuals2 and the world
 is too full of individual objects for  
us to deal with them separately4 ,it is 
in conception1 judgment1 and reasoning  
that true thinking takes place4 ,our    
next purpose will therefore be to study 
these somewhat more closely1 and see how
 they combine in our thinking4   #d4    
,,the ,,concept  ,fortunately for our   
thinking1 the great external world1 with
 its millions upon millions of          
individual objects1 is so ordered that  
these objects can be grouped into       
comparatively few great classes2 and for
 many purposes we can deal with the     

class as a whole instead of with the    
separate individuals of the class4 ,thus
 there are an infinite number of        
individual objects in the world which   
are composed of matter4 ,yet all these  
myriads of individuals may be classed   
under the two great heads of inanimate  
and animate4 ,taking one of these again3
 all animate forms may be classed as    
either plants or animals4 ,and these    
classes may again be subdivided         
indefinitely4 ,animals include mammals1 
birds1 reptiles1 insects1 mollusks1 and 
many other classes besides1 each class  
of which may be still further separated 
into its orders1 families1 genera1      
species1 and individuals4 ,this         
arrangement economizes our thinking by  
allowing us to think in large terms4    
,,the ,,concepts ,,serve ,,to ,,group   
,,and ,,classify4--,but the somewhat    
complicated form of classification just 
described did not come to man           
ready-made4 ,someone had to see the     
relationship existing among the myriads 

of animals of a certain class1 and group
 these together under the general term  
mammals4 ,likewise with birds1 reptiles1
 insects1 and all the rest4 ,in order to
 accomplish this1 many individuals of   
each class had to be observed1 the      
qualities common to all members of the  
class discriminated from those not      
common1 and the common qualities        
retained as the measure by which to test
 the admission of other individuals into
 this class4 ,the process of            
classification is made possible by what 
the psychologist calls the concept4 ,the
 concept enables us to think birds as   
well as bluebirds1 robins1 and wrens2 it
 enables us to think men as well as     
,tom1 ,dick1 and ,harry4 ,in other      
words1 the concept lies at the bottom of
 all thinking which rises above the     
seeing of the simplest relations between
 immediately present objects4  ,,growth 
,,of ,a ,,concept4--,we can perhaps best
 understand the nature of the concept if
 we watch its growth in the thinking of 

a child4 ,let us see how the child forms
 the concept dog1 under which he is able
 finally to class the several hundred or
 the several thousand different dogs    
with which his thinking requires him to 
deal4 ,the child's first acquaintance   
with a dog is1 let us suppose1 with a   
pet poodle1 white in color1 and named   
,gyp4 ,at this stage in the child's     
experience1 dog and ,gyp are entirely   
synonymous1 including ,gyp's color1     
size1 and all other qualities which the 
child has discovered4 ,but now let him  
see another pet poodle which is like    
,gyp except that it is black in color4  
,here comes the first cleavage between  
,gyp and dog as synonyms3 dog no longer 
means white1 but may mean black4 ,next  
let the child see a brown spaniel4 ,not 
only will white and black now no longer 
answer to dog1 but the roly-poly poodle 
form also has been lost2 for the spaniel
 is more slender4 ,let the child go on  
from this until he has seen many        
different dogs of all varieties3        

poodles1 bulldogs1 setters1 shepherds1  
cockers1 and a host of others4 ,what has
 happened to his dog1 which at the      
beginning meant the one particular      
little individual with which he played8 
,dog is no longer white or black or     
brown or gray3 color is not an essential
 quality1 so it has dropped out2 size is
 no longer essential except within very 
broad limits2 shagginess or smoothness  
of coat is a very inconstant quality1 so
 this is dropped2 form varies so much   
from the fat pug to the slender hound   
that it is discarded1 except within     
broad limits2 good nature1 playfulness1 
friendliness1 and a dozen other         
qualities are likewise found not to     
belong in common to all dogs1 and so    
have had to go2 and all that is left to 
his dog is four-footedness1 and a       
certain general form1 and a few other   
dog qualities of habit of life and      
disposition4 ,as the term dog has been  
gaining in extent1 that is1 as more     
individuals have been observed and      

classed under it1 it has correspondingly
 been losing in content1 or it has been 
losing in the specific qualities which  
belong to it4 ,yet it must not be       
thought that the process is altogether  
one of elimination2 for new qualities   
which are present in all the individuals
 of a class1 but at first overlooked1   
are continually being discovered as     
experience grows1 and built into the    
developing concept4  ,,definition ,,of  
,,concept4--,a concept1 then1 is our    
general idea or notion of a class of    
individual objects4 ,its function is to 
enable us to classify our knowledge1 and
 thus deal with classes or universals in
 our thinking4 ,often the basis of a    
concept consists of an image1 as when   
you get a hazy visual image of a mass of
 people when ,i suggest mankind to you4 
,yet the core1 or the vital1 functioning
 part of a concept is its meaning4      
,whether this meaning attaches to an    
image or a word or stands relatively or 
completely independent of either1 does  

not so much matter2 but our meanings    
must be right1 else all our thinking is 
wrong4  ,,language ,,and ,,the          
,,concept4--,we think in words4 ,none   
has failed to watch the flow of his     
thought as it is carried along by words 
like so many little boats moving along  
the mental stream1 each with its freight
 of meaning4 ,and no one has escaped the
 temporary balking of his thought by    
failure to find a suitable word to      
convey the intended meaning4 ,what the  
grammarian calls the common nouns of our
 language are the words by which we name
 our concepts and are able to speak of  
them to others4 ,we define a common noun
 as the name of a class1 and we define a
 concept as the meaning or idea we have 
of a class4 ,it is easy to see that when
 we have named these class ideas we have
 our list of common nouns4 ,the study of
 the language of a people may therefore 
reveal much of their type of thought4   
,,the ,,necessity ,,for ,,growing       
,,concepts4--,the development of our    

concepts constitutes a large part of our
 education4 ,for it is evident that1    
since thinking rests so fundamentally on
 concepts1 progress in our mental life  
must depend on a constant growth in the 
number and character of our concepts4   
,not only must we keep on adding new    
concepts1 but the old must not remain   
static4 ,when our concepts stop growing1
 our minds have ceased to grow--we no   
longer learn4 ,this arrest of           
development is often seen in persons who
 have settled into a life of narrow     
routine1 where the demands are few and  
of a simple nature4 ,unless they rise   
above their routine1 they early become  
old fogies4 ,their concepts petrify from
 lack of use and the constant           
reconstruction which growth             
necessitates4  ,on the other hand1 the  
person who has upon him the constant    
demand to meet new situations or do     
better in old ones will keep on         
enriching his old concepts and forming  
new ones1 or else1 unable to do this1 he

 will fail in his position4 ,and the    
person who keeps on steadily enriching  
his concepts has discovered the secret  
of perpetual youth so far as his mental 
life is concerned4 ,for him there is no 
old age2 his thought will be always     
fresh1 his experience always            
accumulating1 and his knowledge growing 
more valuable and usable4   #e4         
,,judgment  ,but in the building up of  
percepts and concepts1 as well as in    
making use of them after they are       
formed1 another process of thinking     
enters2 namely1 the process of judging4 
,,nature ,,of ,,judgment4--,judging     
enters more or less into all our        
thinking1 from the simplest to the most 
complex4 ,the babe lies staring at his  
bottle1 and finally it dawns on his     
sluggish mind that this is the object   
from which he gets his dinner4 ,he has  
performed a judgment4 ,that is1 he has  
alternately directed his attention to   
the object before him and to his image  
of former nursing1 discovered the       

relation existing between the two1 and  
affirmed to himself1 ,this is what gives
 me my dinner4 ,bottle and              
what-gives-me-my-dinner are essentially 
identical to the child4 ,judgment is1   
then1 the affirmation of the essential  
identity of meaning of two objects of   
thought4 ,even if the proposition in    
which we state our judgment has in it a 
negative1 the definition will still     
hold1 for the mental process is the same
 in either case4 ,it is as much a       
judgment if we say1 ,the day is         
not-cold1 as if we say1 ,the day is     
cold4  ,,judgment ,,used ,,in ,,percepts
 ,,and ,,concepts4--,how judgment enters
 into the forming of our percepts may be
 seen from the illustration just given4 
,the act by which the child perceived   
his bottle had in it a large element of 
judging4 ,he had to compare two objects 
of thought--the one from past experience
 in the form of images1 and the other   
from the present object1 in the form of 
sensations from the bottle--and then    

affirm their essential identity4 ,of    
course it is not meant that what ,i have
 described consciously takes place in   
the mind of the child2 but some such    
process lies at the bottom of every     
perception1 whether of the child or     
anyone else4  ,likewise it may be seen  
that the forming of concepts depends on 
judgment4 ,every time that we meet a new
 object which has to be assigned its    
place in our classification1 judgment is
 required4 ,suppose the child1 with his 
immature concept dog1 sees for the first
 time a greyhound4 ,he must compare this
 new specimen with his concept dog1 and 
decide that this is or is not a dog4 ,if
 he discovers the identity of meaning in
 the essentials of the two objects of   
thought1 his judgment will be           
affirmative1 and his concept will be    
modified in whatever extent greyhound   
will affect it4  ,,judgment ,,leads ,,to
 ,,general ,,truths4--,but judgment goes
 much farther than to assist in building
 percepts and concepts4 ,it takes our   

concepts after they are formed and      
discovers and affirms relations between 
them1 thus enabling us finally to relate
 classes as well as individuals4 ,it    
carries our thinking over into the realm
 of the universal1 where we are not     
hampered by particulars4 ,let us see how
 this is done4 ,suppose we have the     
concept man and the concept animal1 and 
that we think of these two concepts in  
their relation to each other4 ,the mind 
analyzes each into its elements1        
compares them1 and finds the essential  
identity of meaning in a sufficient     
number to warrant the judgment1 man is  
an animal4 ,this judgment has given a   
new bit of knowledge1 in that it has    
discovered to us a new relation between 
two great classes1 and hence given both1
 in so far1 a new meaning and a wider   
definition4 ,and as this new relation   
does not pertain to any particular man  
or any particular animal1 but includes  
all individuals in each class1 it has   
carried us over into universals1 so that

 we have a general truth and will not   
have to test each individual man        
henceforth to see whether he fits into  
this relation4  ,judgments also1 as we  
will see later1 constitute the material 
for our reasoning4 ,hence upon their    
validity will depend the validity of our
 reasoning4  ,,the ,,validity ,,of      
,,judgments4--,now1 since every judgment
 is made up of an affirmation of        
relation existing between two terms1 it 
is evident that the validity of the     
judgment will depend on the thoroughness
 of our knowledge of the terms compared4
 ,if we know but few of the attributes  
of either term of the judgment1 the     
judgment is clearly unsafe4 ,imperfect  
concepts lie at the basis of many of our
 wrong judgments4 ,a young man          
complained because his friend had been  
expelled from college for alleged       
misbehavior4 ,he said1 ,mr4 ,a---- was  
the best boy in the institution4 ,it is 
very evident that someone had made a    
mistake in judgment4 ,surely no college 

would want to expel the best boy in the 
institution4 ,either my complainant or  
the authorities of the college had      
failed to understand one of the terms in
 the judgment4 ,either ,mr4 ,a---- or   
the best boy in the institution had been
 wrongly interpreted by someone4        
,likewise1 one person will say1 ,jones  
is a good man1 while another will say1  
,jones is a rascal4 ,such a discrepancy 
in judgment must come from a lack of    
acquaintance with ,jones or a lack of   
knowledge of what constitutes a good man
 or a rascal4  ,no doubt most of us are 
prone to make judgments with too little 
knowledge of the terms we are comparing1
 and it is usually those who have the   
least reason for confidence in their    
judgments who are the most certain that 
they cannot be mistaken4 ,the remedy for
 faulty judgments is1 of course1 in     
making ourselves more certain of the    
terms involved1 and this in turn sends  
us back for a review of our concepts or 
the experience upon which the terms     

depend4 ,it is evident that no two      
persons can have just the same concepts1
 for all have not had the same          
experience out of which their concepts  
came4 ,the concepts may be named the    
same1 and may be nearly enough alike so 
that we can usually understand each     
other2 but1 after all1 ,i have mine and 
you have yours1 and if we could each see
 the other's in their true light1 no    
doubt we should save many               
misunderstandings and quarrels4   #f4   
,,reasoning  ,all the mental processes  
which we have so far described find     
their culmination and highest utility in
 reasoning4 ,not that reasoning comes   
last in the list of mental activities1  
and cannot take place until all the     
others have been completed1 for         
reasoning is in some degree present     
almost from the dawn of consciousness4  
,the difference between the reasoning of
 the child and that of the adult is     
largely one of degree--of reach4        
,reasoning goes farther than any of the 

other processes of cognition1 for it    
takes the relations expressed in        
judgments and out of these relations    
evolves still other and more ultimate   
relations4  ,,nature ,,of               
,,reasoning4--,it is hard to define     
reasoning so as to describe the precise 
process which occurs2 for it is so      
intermingled with perception1           
conception1 and judgment1 that one can  
hardly separate them even for purposes  
of analysis1 much less to separate them 
functionally4 ,we may1 however1 define  
reasoning provisionally as thinking by  
means of a series of judgments with the 
purpose of arriving at some definite end
 or conclusion4 ,what does this mean8   
,professor ,angell has stated the matter
 so clearly that ,i will quote his      
illustration of the case3  ,suppose that
 we are about to make a long journey    
which necessitates the choice from among
 a number of possible routes4 ,this is a
 case of the genuinely problematic kind4
 ,it requires reflection1 a weighing of 

the pros and cons1 and giving of the    
final decision in favor of one or other 
of several alternatives4 ,in such a case
 the procedure of most of us is after   
this order4 ,we think of one route as   
being picturesque and wholly novel1 but 
also as being expensive4 ,we think of   
another as less interesting1 but also as
 less expensive4 ,a third is1 we        
discover1 the most expedient1 but also  
the most costly of the three4 ,we find  
ourselves confronted1 then1 with the    
necessity of choosing with regard to the
 relative merits of cheapness1 beauty1  
and speed4 ,we proceed to consider these
 points in the light of all our         
interests1 and the decision more or less
 makes itself4 ,we find1 for instance1  
that we must1 under the circumstances1  
select the cheapest route4  ,,how       
,,judgments ,,function ,,in             
,,reasoning4--,such a line of thinking  
is very common to everyone1 and one that
 we carry out in one form or another a  
thousand times every day we live4 ,when 

we come to look closely at the steps    
involved in arriving at a conclusion1 we
 detect a series of judgments--often not
 very logically arranged1 to be sure1   
but yet so related that the result is   
safely reached in the end4 ,we compare  
our concept of1 say1 the first route and
 our concept of picturesqueness1 decide 
they agree1 and affirm the judgment1    
,this route is picturesque4 ,likewise we
 arrive at the judgment1 ,this route is 
also expensive1 it is interesting1 etc4 
,then we take the other routes and form 
our judgments concerning them4 ,these   
judgments are all related to each other 
in some way1 some of them being more    
intimately related than others4 ,which  
judgments remain as the significant     
ones1 the ones which are used to solve  
the problem finally1 depends on which   
concepts are the most vital for us with 
reference to the ultimate end in view4  
,if time is the chief element1 then the 
form of our reasoning would be something
 like this3 ,two of the routes require  

more than three days3 hence ,i must take
 the third route4 ,if economy is the    
important end1 the solution would be as 
follows3 ,two routes cost more than     
#a1jjj2 ,i cannot afford to pay more    
than #hjj2 ,i therefore must patronize  
the third route4  ,in both cases it is  
evident that the conclusion is reached  
through a comparison of two or more     
judgments4 ,this is the essential       
difference between judgment and         
reasoning4 ,whereas judgment discovers  
relations between concepts1 reasoning   
discovers relations between judgments1  
and from this evolves a new judgment    
which is the conclusion sought4 ,the    
example given well illustrates the      
ordinary method by which we reason to   
conclusions4  ,,deduction ,,and ,,the   
,,syllogism4--,logic may take the       
conclusion1 with the two judgments on   
which it is based1 and form the three   
into what is called a syllogism1 of     
which the following is a classical type3
      ,all men are mortal2     ,socrates

 is a man1     ,therefore     ,socrates 
is mortal4  ,the first judgment is in   
the form of a proposition which is      
called the major premise1 because it is 
general in its nature1 including all    
men4 ,the second is the minor premise1  
since it deals with a particular man4   
,the third is the conclusion1 in which a
 new relation is discovered between     
,socrates and mortality4  ,this form of 
reasoning is deductive1 that is1 it     
proceeds from the general to the        
particular4 ,much of our reasoning is an
 abbreviated form of the syllogism1 and 
will readily expand into it4 ,for       
instance1 we say1 ,it will rain tonight1
 for there is lightning in the west4    
,expanded into the syllogism form it    
would be1 ,lightning in the west is a   
sure sign of rain2 there is lightning in
 the west this evening2 therefore1 it   
will rain tonight4 ,while we do not     
commonly think in complete syllogisms1  
it is often convenient to cast our      
reasoning in this form to test its      

validity4 ,for example1 a fallacy lurks 
in the generalization1 ,lightning in the
 west is a sure sign of rain4 ,hence the
 conclusion is of doubtful validity4    
,,induction4--,deduction is a valuable  
form of reasoning1 but a moment's       
reflection will show that something must
 precede the syllogism in our reasoning4
 ,the major premise must be accounted   
for4 ,how are we able to say that all   
men are mortal1 and that lightning in   
the west is a sure sign of rain8 ,how   
was this general truth arrived at8      
,there is only one way1 namely1 through 
the observation of a large number of    
particular instances1 or through        
induction4  ,induction is the method of 
proceeding from the particular to the   
general4 ,many men are observed1 and it 
is found that all who have been observed
 have died under a certain age4 ,it is  
true that not all men have been observed
 to die1 since many are now living1 and 
many more will no doubt come and live in
 the world whom we cannot observe1 since

 mortality will have overtaken us before
 their advent4 ,to this it may be       
answered that the men now living have   
not yet lived up to the limit of their  
time1 and1 besides1 they have within    
them the causes working whose inevitable
 effect has always been and always will 
be death2 likewise with the men yet     
unborn1 they will possess the same      
organism as we1 whose very nature       
necessitates mortality4 ,in the case of 
the premonitions of rain1 the           
generalization is not so safe1 for there
 have been exceptions4 ,lightning in the
 west at night is not always followed by
 rain1 nor can we find inherent causes  
as in the other case which necessitates 
rain as an effect4  ,,the ,,necessity   
,,for ,,broad ,,induction4--,thus it is 
seen that our generalizations1 or major 
premises1 are of all degrees of         
validity4 ,in the case of some1 as the  
mortality of man1 millions of cases have
 been observed and no exceptions found1 
but on the contrary1 causes discovered  

whose operation renders the result      
inevitable4 ,in others1 as1 for         
instance1 in the generalization once    
made1 ,all cloven-footed animals chew   
their cud1 not only had the examination 
of individual cases not been carried so 
far as in the former case when the      
generalization was made1 but there were 
found no inherent causes residing in    
cloven-footed animals which make it     
necessary for them to chew their cud4   
,that is1 cloven feet and cud-chewing do
 not of necessity go together1 and the  
case of the pig disproves the           
generalization4  ,in practically no     
instance1 however1 is it possible for us
 to examine every case upon which a     
generalization is based2 after examining
 a sufficient number of cases1 and      
particularly if there are supporting    
causes1 we are warranted in making the  
inductive leap1 or in proceeding at once
 to state our generalization as a       
working hypothesis4 ,of course it is    
easy to see that if we have a wrong     

generalization1 if our major premise is 
invalid1 all that follows in our chain  
of reasoning will be worthless4 ,this   
fact should render us careful in making 
generalizations on too narrow a basis of
 induction4 ,we may have observed that  
certain red-haired people of our        
acquaintance are quick-tempered1 but we 
are not justified from this in making   
the general statement that all          
red-haired people are quick-tempered4   
,not only have we not examined a        
sufficient number of cases to warrant   
such a conclusion1 but we have found in 
the red hair not even a cause of quick  
temper1 but only an occasional          
concomitant4  ,,the ,,interrelation ,,of
 ,,induction ,,and                      
,,deduction4--,induction and deduction  
must go hand in hand in building up our 
world of knowledge4 ,induction gives us 
the particular facts out of which our   
system of knowledge is built1 furnishes 
us with the data out of which general   
truths are formed2 deduction allows us  

to start with the generalization        
furnished us by induction1 and from this
 vantage ground to organize and         
systematize our knowledge and1 through  
the discovery of its relations1 to unify
 it and make it usable4 ,deduction      
starts with a general truth and asks the
 question1 ,what new relations are made 
necessary among particular facts by this
 truth8 ,induction starts with          
particulars1 and asks the question1 ,to 
what general truth do these separate    
facts lead8 ,each method of reasoning   
needs the other4 ,deduction must have   
induction to furnish the facts for its  
premises2 induction must have deduction 
to organize these separate facts into a 
unified body of knowledge4 ,he only sees
 well who sees the whole in the parts1  
and the parts in the whole4   #g4       
,,problems ,,in ,,observation ,,and     
,,introspection  #a4 ,watch your own    
thinking for examples of each of the    
four types described4 ,observe a class  
of children in a recitation or at study 

and try to decide which type is being   
employed by each child4 ,what proportion
 of the time supposedly given to study  
is given over to chance or idle         
thinking8 ,to assimilative thinking8 ,to
 deliberative thinking8  #b4 ,observe   
children at work in school with the     
purpose of determining whether they are 
being taught to think1 or only to       
memorize certain facts4 ,do you find    
that definitions whose meaning is not   
clear are often required of children8   
,which should come first1 the definition
 or the meaning and application of it8  
#c4 ,it is of course evident from the   
relation of induction and deduction that
 the child's natural mode of learning a 
subject is by induction4 ,observe the   
teaching of children to determine       
whether inductive methods are commonly  
used4 ,outline an inductive lesson in   
arithmetic1 physiology1 geography1      
civics1 etc4  #d4 ,what concepts have   
you now which you are aware are very    
meager8 ,what is your concept of        

mountain8 ,how many have you seen8 ,have
 you any concepts which you are working 
very hard to enrich8  #e4 ,recall some  
judgment which you have made and which  
proved to be false1 and see whether you 
can now discover what was wrong with it4
 ,do you find the trouble to be an      
inadequate concept8 ,what constitutes   
good judgment8 poor judgment8 ,did you  
ever make a mistake in an example in1   
say1 percentage1 by saying ,this is the 
base1 when it proved not to be8 ,what   
was the cause of the error8  #f4 ,can   
you recall any instance in which you    
made too hasty a generalization when you
 had observed but few cases upon which  
to base your premise8 ,what of your     
reasoning which followed8  #g4 ,see     
whether you can show that validity of   
reasoning rests ultimately on correct   
perceptions4 ,what are you doing at     
present to increase your power of       
thinking8  #h4 ,how ought this chapter  
to help one in making a better teacher8 
,a better student8     ,,chapter ,,xiii 

,,instinct   ,nothing is more wonderful 
than nature's method of endowing each   
individual at the beginning with all the
 impulses1 tendencies and capacities    
that are to control and determine the   
outcome of the life4 ,the acorn has the 
perfect oak tree in its heart2 the      
complete butterfly exists in the grub2  
and man at his highest powers is present
 in the babe at birth4 ,education adds  
nothing to what heredity supplies1 but  
only develops what is present from the  
first4  ,we are a part of a great       
unbroken procession of life1 which began
 at the beginning and will go on till   
the end4 ,each generation receives1     
through heredity1 the products of the   
long experience through which the race  
has passed4 ,the generation receiving   
the gift today lives its own brief life1
 makes its own little contribution to   
the sum total and then passes on as     
millions have done before4 ,through     
heredity1 the achievements1 the         
passions1 the fears1 and the tragedies  

of generations long since moldered to   
dust stir our blood and tone our nerves 
for the conflict of today4   #a4 ,,the  
,,nature ,,of ,,instinct  ,every child  
born into the world has resting upon him
 an unseen hand reaching out from the   
past1 pushing him out to meet his       
environment1 and guiding him in the     
start upon his journey4 ,this impelling 
and guiding power from the past we call 
instinct4 ,in the words of ,mosso3      
,instinct is the voice of past          
generations reverberating like a distant
 echo in the cells of the nervous       
system4 ,we feel the breath1 the advice1
 the experience of all men1 from those  
who lived on acorns and struggled like  
wild beasts1 dying naked in the forests1
 down to the virtue and toil of our     
father1 the fear and love of our mother4
  ,,the ,,babe',s ,,dependence ,,on     
,,instinct4--,the child is born ignorant
 and helpless4 ,it has no memory1 no    
reason1 no imagination4 ,it has never   
performed a conscious act1 and does not 

know how to begin4 ,it must get started1
 but how8 ,it has no experience to      
direct it1 and is unable to understand  
or imitate others of its kind4 ,it is at
 this point that instinct comes to the  
rescue4 ,the race has not given the     
child a mind ready made--that must      
develop2 but it has given him a         
ready-made nervous system1 ready to     
respond with the proper movements when  
it receives the touch of its environment
 through the senses4  ,and this nervous 
system has been so trained during a     
limitless past that its responses are   
the ones which are necessary for the    
welfare of its owner4 ,it can do a      
hundred things without having to wait to
 learn them4 ,burdette says of the      
new-born child1 ,nobody told him what to
 do4 ,nobody taught him4 ,he knew4      
,placed suddenly on the guest list of   
this old caravansary1 he knew his way at
 once to two places in it--his bedroom  
and the dining-room4 ,a thousand        
generations of babies had done the same 

thing in the same way1 and each had made
 it a little easier for this particular 
baby to do his part without learning    
how4  ,,definition ,,of                 
,,instinct4--,instincts are the tendency
 to act in certain definite ways1       
without previous education and without a
 conscious end in view4 ,they are a     
tendency to act2 for some movement1 or  
motor adjustment1 is the response to an 
instinct4 ,they do not require previous 
education1 for none is possible with    
many instinctive acts3 the duck does not
 have to be taught to swim or the baby  
to suck4 ,they have no conscious end in 
view1 though the result may be highly   
desirable4  ,says ,james3 ,the cat runs 
after the mouse1 runs or shows fight    
before the dog1 avoids falling from     
walls and trees1 shuns fire and water1  
etc41 not because he has any notion     
either of life or death1 or of self1 or 
of preservation4 ,he has probably       
attained to no one of these conceptions 
in such a way as to react definitely    

upon it4 ,he acts in each case          
separately1 and simply because he cannot
 help it2 being so framed that when that
 particular running thing called a mouse
 appears in his field of vision he must 
pursue2 that when that particular       
barking and obstreperous thing called a 
dog appears he must retire1 if at a     
distance1 and scratch if close by2 that 
he must withdraw his feet from water and
 his face from flame1 etc4 ,his nervous 
system is to a great extent a           
pre-organized bundle of such reactions4 
,they are as fatal as sneezing1 and     
exactly correlated to their special     
excitants as it to its own4#f  ,you ask1
 ,why does the lark rise on the flash of
 a sunbeam from his meadow to the       
morning sky1 leaving a trail of melody  
to mark his flight8 ,why does the beaver
 build his dam1 and the oriole hang her 
nest8 ,why are myriads of animal forms  
on the earth today doing what they were 
countless generations ago8 ,why does the
 lover seek the maid1 and the mother    

cherish her young8 ,because the voice of
 the past speaks to the present1 and the
 present has no choice but to obey4     
,,instincts ,,are ,,racial              
,,habits4--,instincts are the habits of 
the race which it bequeaths to the      
individual2 the individual takes these  
for his start1 and then modifies them   
through education1 and thus adapts      
himself to his environment4 ,through his
 instincts1 the individual is enabled to
 short-cut racial experience1 and begin 
at once on life activities which the    
race has been ages in acquiring4        
,instinct preserves to us what the race 
has achieved in experience1 and so      
starts us out where the race left off4  
,,unmodified ,,instinct ,,is            
,,blind4--,many of the lower animal     
forms act on instinct blindly1 unable to
 use past experience to guide their     
acts1 incapable of education4 ,some of  
them carry out seemingly marvelous      
activities1 yet their acts are as       
automatic as those of a machine and as  

devoid of foresight4 ,a species of mud  
wasp carefully selects clay of just the 
right consistency1 finds a somewhat     
sheltered nook under the eaves1 and     
builds its nest1 leaving one open door4 
,then it seeks a certain kind of spider1
 and having stung it so as to benumb    
without killing1 carries it into the    
new-made nest1 lays its eggs on the body
 of the spider so that the young wasps  
may have food immediately upon hatching 
out1 then goes out and plasters the door
 over carefully to exclude all          
intruders4 ,wonderful intelligence8 ,not
 intelligence at all4 ,its acts were    
dictated not by plans for the future1   
but by pressure from the past4 ,let the 
supply of clay fail1 or the race of     
spiders become extinct1 and the wasp is 
helpless and its species will perish4   
,likewise the race of bees and ants have
 done wonderful things1 but individual  
bees and ants are very stupid and       
helpless when confronted by any novel   
conditions to which their race has not  

been accustomed4  ,man starts in as     
blindly as the lower animals2 but1      
thanks to his higher mental powers1 this
 blindness soon gives way to foresight1 
and he is able to formulate purposeful  
ends and adapt his activities to their  
accomplishment4 ,possessing a larger    
number of instincts than the lower      
animals have1 man finds possible a      
greater number of responses to a more   
complex environment than do they4 ,this 
advantage1 coupled with his ability to  
reconstruct his experience in such a way
 that he secures constantly increasing  
control over his environment1 easily    
makes man the superior of all the       
animals1 and enables him to exploit them
 for his own further advancement4   #b4 
,,law ,,of ,,the ,,appearance ,,and     
,,disappearance ,,of ,,instincts  ,no   
child is born with all its instincts    
ripe and ready for action4 ,yet each    
individual contains within his own inner
 nature the law which determines the    
order and time of their development4    

,,instincts ,,appear ,,in ,,succession  
,,as ,,required4--,it is not well that  
we should be started on too many        
different lines of activity at once1    
hence our instincts do not all appear at
 the same time4 ,only as fast as we need
 additional activities do they ripen4   
,our very earliest activities are       
concerned chiefly with feeding1 hence we
 first have the instincts which prompt  
us to take our food and to cry for it   
when we are hungry4 ,also we find useful
 such abbreviated instincts1 called     
reflexes1 as sneezing1 snuffling1       
gagging1 vomiting1 starting1 etc42 hence
 we have the instincts enabling us to do
 these things4 ,soon comes the time for 
teething1 and1 to help the matter along1
 the instinct of biting enters1 and the 
rubber ring is in demand4 ,the time     
approaches when we are to feed          
ourselves1 so the instinct arises to    
carry everything to the mouth4 ,now we  
have grown strong and must assume an    
erect attitude1 hence the instinct to   

sit up and then to stand4 ,locomotion   
comes next1 and with it the instinct to 
creep and walk4 ,also a language must be
 learned1 and we must take part in the  
busy life about us and do as other      
people do2 so the instinct to imitate   
arises that we may learn things quickly 
and easily4  ,we need a spur to keep us 
up to our best effort1 so the instinct  
of emulation emerges4 ,we must defend   
ourselves1 so the instinct of pugnacity 
is born4 ,we need to be cautious1 hence 
the instinct of fear4 ,we need to be    
investigative1 hence the instinct of    
curiosity4 ,much self-directed activity 
is necessary for our development1 hence 
the play instinct4 ,it is best that we  
should come to know and serve others1 so
 the instincts of sociability and       
sympathy arise4 ,we need to select a    
mate and care for offspring1 hence the  
instinct of love for the other sex1 and 
the parental instinct4 ,this is far from
 a complete list of our instincts1 and  
,i have not tried to follow the order of

 their development1 but ,i have given   
enough to show the origin of many of our
 life's most important activities4      
,,many ,,instincts ,,are                
,,transitory4--,not only do instincts   
ripen by degrees1 entering our          
experience one by one as they are       
needed1 but they drop out when their    
work is done4 ,some1 like the instinct  
of self-preservation1 are needed our    
lifetime through1 hence they remain to  
the end4 ,others1 like the play         
instinct1 serve their purpose and       
disappear or are modified into new forms
 in a few years1 or a few months4 ,the  
life of the instinct is always as       
transitory as is the necessity for the  
activity to which it gives rise4 ,no    
instinct remains wholly unaltered in    
man1 for it is constantly being made    
over in the light of each new           
experience4 ,the instinct of            
self-preservation is modified by        
knowledge and experience1 so that the   
defense of the man against threatened   

danger would be very different from that
 of the child2 yet the instinct to      
protect oneself in some way remains4 ,on
 the other hand1 the instinct to romp   
and play is less permanent4 ,it may last
 into adult life1 but few middle-aged or
 old people care to race about as do    
children4 ,their activities are occupied
 in other lines1 and they require less  
physical exertion4  ,contrast with these
 two examples such instincts as sucking1
 creeping1 and crying1 which are much   
more fleeting than the play instinct1   
even4 ,with dentition comes another mode
 of eating1 and sucking is no more      
serviceable4 ,walking is a better mode  
of locomotion than creeping1 so the     
instinct to creep soon dies4 ,speech is 
found a better way than crying to       
attract attention to distress1 so this  
instinct drops out4 ,many of our        
instincts not only would fail to be     
serviceable in our later lives1 but     
would be positively in the way4 ,each   
serves its day1 and then passes over    

into so modified a form as not to be    
recognized1 or else drops out of sight  
altogether4  ,,seemingly ,,useless      
,,instincts4--,indeed it is difficult to
 see that some instincts serve a useful 
purpose at any time4 ,the pugnacity and 
greediness of childhood1 its foolish    
fears1 the bashfulness of youth--these  
seem to be either useless or detrimental
 to development4 ,in order to understand
 the workings of instinct1 however1 we  
must remember that it looks in two      
directions2 into the future for its     
application1 and into the past for its  
explanation4 ,we should not be surprised
 if the experiences of a long past have 
left behind some tendencies which are   
not very useful under the vastly        
different conditions of today4  ,nor    
should we be too sure that an activity  
whose precise function in relation to   
development we cannot discover has no   
use at all4 ,each instinct must be      
considered not alone in the light of    
what it means to its possessor today1   

but of what it means to all his future  
development4 ,the tail of a polliwog    
seems a very useless appendage so far as
 the adult frog is concerned1 yet if the
 polliwog's tail is cut off a perfect   
frog never develops4  ,,instincts ,,to  
,,be ,,utilized ,,when ,,they           
,,appear4--,a man may set the stream to 
turning his mill wheels today or wait   
for twenty years--the power is there    
ready for him when he wants it4         
,instincts must be utilized when they   
present themselves1 else they           
disappear--never1 in most cases1 to     
return4 ,birds kept caged past the      
flying time never learn to fly well4    
,the hunter must train his setter when  
the time is ripe1 or the dog can never  
be depended upon4 ,ducks kept away from 
the water until full grown have almost  
as little inclination for it as         
chickens4  ,the child whom the pressure 
of circumstances or unwise authority of 
parents keeps from mingling with        
playmates and participating in their    

plays and games when the social instinct
 is strong upon him1 will in later life 
find himself a hopeless recluse to whom 
social duties are a bore4 ,the boy who  
does not hunt and fish and race and     
climb at the proper time for these      
things1 will find his taste for them    
fade away1 and he will become wedded to 
a sedentary life4 ,the youth and maiden 
must be permitted to dress up when the  
impulse comes to them1 or they are      
likely ever after to be careless in     
their attire4  ,,instincts ,,as         
,,starting ,,points4--,most of our      
habits have their rise in instincts1 and
 all desirable instincts should be      
seized upon and transformed into habits 
before they fade away4 ,says ,james in  
his remarkable chapter on ,instinct3 ,in
 all pedagogy the great thing is to     
strike while the iron is hot1 and to    
seize the wave of the pupils' interest  
in each successive subject before its   
ebb has come1 so that knowledge may be  
got and a habit of skill acquired--a    

headway of interest1 in short1 secured1 
on which afterwards the individual may  
float4 ,there is a happy moment for     
fixing skill in drawing1 for making boys
 collectors in natural history1 and     
presently dissectors and botanists2 then
 for initiating them into the harmonies 
of mechanics and the wonders of physical
 and chemical law4 ,later1 introspective
 psychology and the metaphysical and    
religious mysteries take their turn2    
and1 last of all1 the drama of human    
affairs and worldly wisdom in the widest
 sense of the term4 ,in each of us a    
saturation point is soon reached in all 
these things2 the impetus of our purely 
intellectual zeal expires1 and unless   
the topic is associated with some urgent
 personal need that keeps our wits      
constantly whetted about it1 we settle  
into an equilibrium1 and live on what we
 learned when our interest was fresh and
 instinctive1 without adding to the     
store4      ,there is a tide in the     
affairs of men     ,which1 taken at the 

flood1 leads on to fortune2             
,omitted1 all the voyage of their life  
,is bound in shallows and in miseries4  
,,the ,,more ,,important ,,human        
,,instincts4--,it will be impossible in 
this brief statement to give a complete 
catalogue of the human instincts1 much  
less to discuss each in detail4 ,we must
 content ourselves therefore with naming
 the more important instincts1 and      
finally discussing a few of them3       
,sucking1 biting1 chewing1 clasping     
objects with the fingers1 carrying to   
the mouth1 crying1 smiling1 sitting up1 
standing1 locomotion1 vocalization1     
imitation1 emulation1 pugnacity1        
resentment1 anger1 sympathy1 hunting and
 fighting1 fear1 acquisitiveness1 play1 
curiosity1 sociability1 modesty1        
secretiveness1 shame1 love1 and jealousy
 may be said to head the list of our    
instincts4 ,it will be impossible in our
 brief space to discuss all of this     
list4 ,only a few of the more important 
will be noticed4   #c4 ,,the ,,instinct 

,,of ,,imitation  ,no individual enters 
the world with a large enough stock of  
instincts to start him doing all the    
things necessary for his welfare4       
,instinct prompts him to eat when he is 
hungry1 but does not tell him to use a  
knife and fork and spoon2 it prompts him
 to use vocal speech1 but does not say  
whether he shall use ,english1 ,french1 
or ,german2 it prompts him to be social 
in his nature1 but does not specify that
 he shall say please and thank you1 and 
take off his hat to ladies4 ,the race   
did not find the specific modes in which
 these and many other things are to be  
done of sufficient importance to        
crystallize them in instincts1 hence the
 individual must learn them as he needs 
them4 ,the simplest way of accomplishing
 this is for each generation to copy the
 ways of doing things which are followed
 by the older generation among whom they
 are born4 ,this is done largely through
 imitation4  ,,nature ,,of              
,,imitation4--,imitation is the instinct

 to respond to a suggestion from another
 by repeating his act4 ,the instinct of 
imitation is active in the year-old     
child1 it requires another year or two  
to reach its height1 then it gradually  
grows less marked1 but continues in some
 degree throughout life4 ,the young     
child is practically helpless in the    
matter of imitation4 ,instinct demands  
that he shall imitate1 and he has no    
choice but to obey4 ,his environment    
furnishes the models which he must      
imitate1 whether they are good or bad4  
,before he is old enough for intelligent
 choice1 he has imitated a multitude of 
acts about him2 and habit has seized    
upon these acts and is weaving them into
 conduct and character4 ,older grown we 
may choose what we will imitate1 but in 
our earlier years we are at the mercy of
 the models which are placed before us4 
,if our mother tongue is the first we   
hear spoken1 that will be our language2 
but if we first hear ,chinese1 we will  
learn that with almost equal facility4  

,if whatever speech we hear is well     
spoken1 correct1 and beautiful1 so will 
our language be2 if it is vulgar1 or    
incorrect1 or slangy1 our speech will be
 of this kind4 ,if the first manners    
which serve us as models are coarse and 
boorish1 ours will resemble them2 if    
they are cultivated and refined1 ours   
will be like them4 ,if our models of    
conduct and morals are questionable1 our
 conduct and morals will be of like     
type4 ,our manner of walking1 of        
dressing1 of thinking1 of saying our    
prayers1 even1 originates in imitation4 
,by imitation we adopt ready-made our   
social standards1 our political faith1  
and our religious creeds4 ,our views of 
life and the values we set on its       
attainments are largely a matter of     
imitation4  ,,individuality ,,in        
,,imitation4--,yet1 given the same      
model1 no two of us will imitate        
precisely alike4 ,your acts will be     
yours1 and mine will be mine4 ,this is  
because no two of us have just the same 

heredity1 and hence cannot have         
precisely similar instincts4 ,there     
reside in our different personalities   
different powers of invention and       
originality1 and these determine by how 
much the product of imitation will vary 
from the model4 ,some remain imitators  
all their lives1 while others use       
imitation as a means to the invention of
 better types than the original models4 
,the person who is an imitator only1    
lacks individuality and initiative2 the 
nation which is an imitator only is     
stagnant and unprogressive4 ,while      
imitation must be blind in both cases at
 first1 it should be increasingly       
intelligent as the individual or the    
nation progresses4  ,,conscious ,,and   
,,unconscious ,,imitation4--,the        
much-quoted dictum that all             
consciousness is motor has a direct     
application to imitation4 ,it only means
 that we have a tendency to act on      
whatever idea occupies the mind4 ,think 
of yawning or clearing the throat1 and  

the tendency is strong to do these      
things4 ,we naturally respond to smile  
with smile and to frown with frown4 ,and
 even the impressions coming to us from 
our material environment have their     
influence on our acts4 ,our response to 
these ideas may be a conscious one1 as  
when a boy purposely stutters in order  
to mimic an unfortunate companion2 or it
 may be unconscious1 as when the boy    
unknowingly falls into the habit of     
stammering from hearing this kind of    
speech4 ,the child may consciously seek 
to keep himself neat and clean so as to 
harmonize with a pleasant and well-kept 
home1 or he may unconsciously become    
slovenly and cross-tempered from living 
in an ill-kept home where constant      
bickering is the rule4  ,often we       
deliberately imitate what seems to us   
desirable in other people1 but probably 
far the greater proportion of the       
suggestions to which we respond are     
received and acted upon unconsciously4  
,in conscious imitation we can select   

what models we shall imitate1 and       
therefore protect ourselves in so far as
 our judgment of good and bad models is 
valid4 ,in unconscious imitation1       
however1 we are constantly responding to
 a stream of suggestions pouring in upon
 us hour after hour and day after day1  
with no protection but the leadings of  
our interests as they direct our        
attention now to this phase of our      
environment1 and now to that4           
,,influence ,,of ,,environment4--,no    
small part of the influences which mold 
our lives comes from our material       
environment4 ,good clothes1 artistic    
homes1 beautiful pictures and           
decoration1 attractive parks and lawns1 
well-kept streets1 well-bound books--all
 these have a direct moral and educative
 value2 on the other hand1 squalor1     
disorder1 and ugliness are an incentive 
to ignorance and crime4  ,hawthorne     
tells in ,the ,great ,stone ,face of the
 boy ,ernest1 listening to the tradition
 of a coming ,wise ,man who one day is  

to rule over the ,valley4 ,the story    
sinks deep into the boy's heart1 and he 
thinks and dreams of the great and good 
man2 and as he thinks and dreams1 he    
spends his boyhood days gazing across   
the valley at a distant mountain side   
whose rocks and cliffs nature had formed
 into the outlines of a human face      
remarkable for the nobleness and        
benignity of its expression4 ,he comes  
to love this ,face and looks upon it as 
the prototype of the coming ,wise ,man1 
until lo6 as he dwells upon it and      
dreams about it1 the beautiful character
 which its expression typifies grows    
into his own life1 and he himself       
becomes the long-looked-for ,wise ,man4 
,,the ,,influence ,,of                  
,,personality4--,more powerful than the 
influence of material environment1      
however1 is that of other personalities 
upon us--the touch of life upon life4 ,a
 living personality contains a power    
which grips hold of us1 electrifies us1 
inspires us1 and compels us to new      

endeavor1 or else degrades and debases  
us4 ,none has failed to feel at some    
time this life-touch1 and to bless or   
curse the day when its influence came   
upon him4 ,either consciously or        
unconsciously such a personality becomes
 our ideal and model2 we idolize it1    
idealize it1 and imitate it1 until it   
becomes a part of us4 ,not only do we   
find these great personalities living in
 the flesh1 but we find them also in    
books1 from whose pages they speak to   
us1 and to whose influence we respond4  
,and not in the great personalities     
alone does the power to influence       
reside4 ,from every life which touches  
ours1 a stream of influence great or    
small is entering our life and helping  
to mold it4 ,nor are we to forget that  
this influence is reciprocal1 and that  
we are reacting upon others up to the   
measure of the powers that are in us4   
#d4 ,,the ,,instinct ,,of ,,play  ,small
 use to be a child unless one can play4 
,says ,karl ,groos3 ,perhaps the very   

existence of youth is due in part to the
 necessity for play2 the animal does not
 play because he is young1 but he is    
young because he must play4 ,play is a  
constant factor in all grades of animal 
life4 ,the swarming insects1 the playful
 kitten1 the frisking lambs1 the racing 
colt1 the darting swallows1 the         
maddening aggregation of                
blackbirds--these are but illustrations 
of the common impulse of all the animal 
world to play4 ,wherever freedom and    
happiness reside1 there play is found2  
wherever play is lacking1 there the     
curse has fallen and sadness and        
oppression reign4 ,play is the natural  
role in the paradise of youth2 it is    
childhood's chief occupation4 ,to toil  
without play1 places man on a level with
 the beasts of burden4  ,,the           
,,necessity ,,for ,,play4--,but why is  
play so necessary8 ,why is this impulse 
so deep-rooted in our natures8 ,why not 
compel our young to expend their        
boundless energy on productive labor8   

,why all this waste8 ,why have our child
 labor laws8 ,why not shut recesses from
 our schools1 and so save time for work8
 ,is it true that all work and no play  
makes ,jack a dull boy8 ,too true4 ,for 
proof we need but gaze at the dull and  
lifeless faces of the prematurely old   
children as they pour out of the        
factories where child labor is employed4
 ,we need but follow the children1 who  
have had a playless childhood1 into a   
narrow and barren manhood4 ,we need but 
to trace back the history of the dull   
and brutish men of today1 and find that 
they were the playless children of      
yesterday4 ,play is as necessary to the 
child as food1 as vital as sunshine1 as 
indispensable as air4  ,the keynote of  
play is freedom1 freedom of physical    
activity1 and mental initiative4 ,in    
play the child makes his own plans1 his 
imagination has free rein1 originality  
is in demand1 and constructive ability  
is placed under tribute4 ,here are      
developed a thousand tendencies which   

would never find expression in the      
narrow treadmill of labor alone4 ,the   
child needs to learn to work2 but along 
with his work must be the opportunity   
for free and unrestricted activity1     
which can come only through play4 ,the  
boy needs a chance to be a barbarian1 a 
hero1 an ,indian4 ,he needs to ride his 
broomstick on a dangerous raid1 and to  
charge with lath sword the redoubts of a
 stubborn enemy4 ,he needs to be a      
leader as well as a follower4 ,in short1
 without in the least being aware of it1
 he needs to develop himself through his
 own activity--he needs freedom to play4
 ,if the child be a girl1 there is no   
difference except in the character of   
the activities employed4  ,,play ,,in   
,,development ,,and ,,education4--,and  
it is precisely out of these play       
activities that the later and more      
serious activities of life emerge4 ,play
 is the gateway by which we best enter  
the various fields of the world's work1 
whether our particular sphere be that of

 pupil or teacher in the schoolroom1 of 
man in the busy marts of trade or in the
 professions1 or of farmer or mechanic4 
,play brings the whole self into the    
activity2 it trains to habits of        
independence and individual initiative1 
to strenuous and sustained effort1 to   
endurance of hardship and fatigue1 to   
social participation and the acceptance 
of victory and defeat4 ,and these are   
the qualities needed by the man of      
success in his vocation4  ,these facts  
make the play instinct one of the most  
important in education4 ,froebel was the
 first to recognize the importance of   
play1 and the kindergarten was an       
attempt to utilize its activities in the
 school4 ,the introduction of this new  
factor into education has been attended1
 as might be expected1 by many mistakes4
 ,some have thought to recast the entire
 process of education into the form of  
games and plays1 and thus to lead the   
child to possess the ,promised ,land    
through aimlessly chasing butterflies in

 the pleasant fields of knowledge4 ,it  
is needless to say that they have not   
succeeded4 ,others have mistaken the    
shadow for the substance1 and introduced
 games and plays into the schoolroom    
which lack the very first element of    
play2 namely1 freedom of initiative and 
action on the part of the child4        
,educational theorists and teachers have
 invented games and occupations and     
taught them to the children1 who go     
through with them much as they would    
with any other task1 enjoying the       
activity but missing the development    
which would come through a larger       
measure of self-direction4  ,,work ,,and
 ,,play ,,are ,,complements4--,work     
cannot take the place of play1 neither  
can play be substituted for work4 ,nor  
are the two antagonistic1 but each is   
the complement of the other2 for the    
activities of work grow immediately out 
of those of play1 and each lends zest to
 the other4 ,those who have never       
learned to work and those who have never

 learned to play are equally lacking in 
their development4 ,further1 it is not  
the name or character of an activity    
which determines whether it is play for 
the participant1 but his attitude toward
 the activity4 ,if the activity is      
performed for its own sake and not for  
some ulterior end1 if it grows out of   
the interest of the child and involves  
the free and independent use of his     
powers of body and mind1 if it is his1  
and not someone's else--then the        
activity possesses the chief            
characteristics of play4 ,lacking these1
 it cannot be play1 whatever else it may
 be4  ,play1 like other instincts1      
besides serving the present1 looks in   
two directions1 into the past and into  
the future4 ,from the past come the     
shadowy interests which1 taking form    
from the touch of our environment1      
determine the character of the play     
activities4 ,from the future come the   
premonitions of the activities that are 
to be4 ,the boy adjusting himself to the

 requirements of the game1 seeking      
control over his companions or giving in
 to them1 is practicing in miniature the
 larger game which he will play in      
business or profession a little later4  
,the girl in her playhouse1 surrounded  
by a nondescript family of dolls and    
pets1 is unconsciously looking forward  
to a more perfect life when the         
responsibilities shall be a little more 
real4 ,so let us not grudge our children
 the play day of youth4   #e4 ,,other   
,,useful ,,instincts  ,many other       
instincts ripen during the stage of     
youth and play their part in the        
development of the individual4          
,,curiosity4--,it is inherent in every  
normal person to want to investigate and
 know4 ,the child looks out with wonder 
and fascination on a world he does not  
understand1 and at once begins to ask   
questions and try experiments4 ,every   
new object is approached in a spirit of 
inquiry4 ,interest is omnivorous1       
feeding upon every phase of environment4

 ,nothing is too simple or too complex  
to demand attention and exploration1 so 
that it vitally touches the child's     
activities and experience4  ,the        
momentum given the individual by        
curiosity toward learning and mastering 
his world is incalculable4 ,imagine the 
impossible task of teaching children    
what they had no desire or inclination  
to know6 ,think of trying to lead them  
to investigate matters concerning which 
they felt only a supreme indifference6  
,indeed one of the greatest problems of 
education is to keep curiosity alive and
 fresh so that its compelling influence 
may promote effort and action4 ,one of  
the greatest secrets of eternal youth is
 also found in retaining the spontaneous
 curiosity of youth after the youthful  
years are past4  ,,manipulation4--,this 
is the rather unsatisfactory name for   
the universal tendency to handle1 do or 
make something4 ,the young child builds 
with its blocks1 constructs fences and  
pens and caves and houses1 and a score  

of other objects4 ,the older child1     
supplied with implements and tools1     
enters upon more ambitious projects and 
revels in the joy of creation as he     
makes boats and boxes1 soldiers and     
swords1 kites1 play-houses and what-not4
 ,even as adults we are moved by a      
desire to express ourselves through     
making or creating that which will      
represent our ingenuity and skill4 ,the 
tendency of children to destroy is not  
from wantonness1 but rather from a      
desire to manipulate4  ,education has   
but recently begun to make serious use  
of this important impulse4 ,the success 
of all laboratory methods of teaching1  
and of such subjects as manual training 
and domestic science1 is abundant proof 
of the adage that we learn by doing4 ,we
 would rather construct or manipulate an
 object than merely learn its verbal    
description4 ,our deepest impulses lead 
to creation rather than simple mental   
appropriation of facts and descriptions4
  ,,the ,,collecting ,,instinct4--,the  

words my and mine enter the child's     
vocabulary at a very early age4 ,the    
sense of property ownership and the     
impulse to make collections of various  
kinds go hand in hand4 ,probably there  
are few of us who have not at one time  
or another made collections of          
autographs1 postage stamps1 coins1 bugs1
 or some other thing of as little       
intrinsic value4 ,and most of us1 if we 
have left youth behind1 are busy even   
now in seeking to collect fortunes1     
works of art1 rare volumes or other     
objects on which we have set our hearts4
  ,the collecting instinct and the      
impulse to ownership can be made        
important agents in the school4 ,the    
child who1 in nature study1 geography or
 agriculture1 is making a collection of 
the leaves1 plants1 soils1 fruits1 or   
insects used in the lessons has an      
incentive to observation and            
investigation impossible from book      
instruction alone4 ,one who1 in manual  
training or domestic science1 is allowed

 to own the article made will give more 
effort and skill to its construction    
than if the work be done as a mere      
school task4  ,,the ,,dramatic          
,,instinct4--,every person is1 at one   
stage of his development1 something of  
an actor4 ,all children like to dress up
 and impersonate someone else--in proof 
of which1 witness the many play scenes  
in which the character of nurse1 doctor1
 pirate1 teacher1 merchant or explorer  
is taken by children who1 under the     
stimulus of their spontaneous imagery   
and as yet untrammeled by               
self-consciousness1 freely enter into   
the character they portray4 ,the        
dramatic impulse never wholly dies out4 
,when we no longer aspire to do the     
acting ourselves we have others do it   
for us in the theaters or the movies4   
,education finds in the dramatic        
instinct a valuable aid4 ,progressive   
teachers are using it freely1 especially
 in the teaching of literature and      
history4 ,its application to these      

fields may be greatly increased1 and    
also extended more generally to include 
religion1 morals1 and art4  ,,the       
,,impulse ,,to ,,form ,,gangs ,,and     
,,clubs4--,few boys and girls grow up   
without belonging at some time to a     
secret gang1 club or society4 ,usually  
this impulse grows out of two different 
instincts1 the social and the           
adventurous4 ,it is fundamental in our  
natures to wish to be with our kind--not
 only our human kind1 but those of the  
same age1 interests and ambitions4 ,the 
love of secrecy and adventure is also   
deep seated in us4 ,so we are clannish2 
and we love to do the unusual1 to break 
away from the commonplace and routine of
 our lives4 ,there is often a thrill of 
satisfaction--even if it be later       
followed by remorse--in doing the       
forbidden or the unconventional4  ,the  
problem here as in the case of many     
other instincts is one of guidance      
rather than of repression4 ,out of the  
gang impulse we may develop our athletic

 teams1 our debating and dramatic clubs1
 our tramping clubs1 and a score of     
other recreational1 benevolent1 or      
social organizations4 ,not repression1  
but proper expression should be our     
ideal4   #f4 ,,fear  ,probably in no    
instinct more than in that of fear can  
we find the reflections of all the past 
ages of life in the world with its      
manifold changes1 its dangers1 its      
tragedies1 its sufferings1 and its      
deaths4  ,,fear ,,heredity4--,the fears 
of childhood are remembered at every    
step1 and so are the fears through which
 the race has passed4 ,says             
,chamberlain3 ,every ugly thing told to 
the child1 every shock1 every fright    
given him1 will remain like splinters in
 the flesh1 to torture him all his life 
long4 ,the bravest old soldier1 the most
 daring young reprobate1 is incapable of
 forgetting them all--the masks1 the    
bogies1 ogres1 hobgoblins1 witches1 and 
wizards1 the things that bite and       
scratch1 that nip and tear1 that pinch  

and crunch1 the thousand and one        
imaginary monsters of the mother1 the   
nurse1 or the servant1 have had their   
effect2 and hundreds of generations have
 worked to denaturalize the brains of   
children4 ,perhaps no animal1 not even  
those most susceptible to fright1 has   
behind it the fear heredity of the      
child4  ,president ,hall calls attention
 to the fact that night is now the      
safest time of the twenty-four hours2   
serpents are no longer our most deadly  
enemies2 strangers are not to be feared2
 neither are big eyes or teeth2 there is
 no adequate reason why the wind1 or    
thunder1 or lightning should make       
children frantic as they do4 ,but the   
past of man forever seems to linger in  
his present2 and the child1 in being    
afraid of these things1 is only summing 
up the fear experiences of the race and 
suffering all too many of them in his   
short childhood4  ,,fear ,,of ,,the     
,,dark4--,most children are afraid in   
the dark4 ,who does not remember the    

terror of a dark room through which he  
had to pass1 or1 worse still1 in which  
he had to go to bed alone1 and there lie
 in cold perspiration induced by a      
mortal agony of fright6 ,the unused     
doors which would not lock1 and through 
which he expected to see the goblin come
 forth to get him6 ,the dark shadows    
back under the bed where he was afraid  
to look for the hidden monster which he 
was sure was hiding there and yet dare  
not face6 ,the lonely lane through which
 the cows were to be driven late at     
night1 while every fence corner bristled
 with shapeless monsters lying in wait  
for boys6  ,and that hated dark closet  
where he was shut up until he could     
learn to be good6 ,and the useless      
trapdoor in the ceiling4 ,how often have
 we lain in the dim light at night and  
seen the lid lift just a peep for ogre  
eyes to peer out1 and1 when the terror  
was growing beyond endurance1 close     
down1 only to lift once and again1 until
 from sheer weariness and exhaustion we 

fell into a troubled sleep and dreamed  
of the hideous monster which inhabited  
the unused garret6 ,tell me that the old
 trapdoor never bent its hinges in      
response to either man or monster for   
twenty years8 ,i know it is true1 and   
yet ,i am not convinced4 ,my childish   
fears have left a stronger impression   
than proof of mere facts can ever       
overrule4  ,,fear ,,of ,,being ,,left   
,,alone4--,and the fear of being left   
alone4 ,how big and dreadful the house  
seemed with the folks all gone6 ,how we 
suddenly made close friends with the dog
 or the cat1 even1 in order that this   
bit of life might be near us6 ,or1      
failing in this1 we have gone out to the
 barn among the chickens and the pigs   
and the cows1 and deserted the empty    
house with its torture of loneliness4   
,what was there so terrible in being    
alone8 ,i do not know4 ,i know only that
 to many children it is a torture more  
exquisite than the adult organism is    
fitted to experience4  ,but why multiply

 the recollections8 ,they bring a tremor
 to the strongest of us today4 ,who of  
us would choose to live through those   
childish fears again8 ,dream fears1     
fears of animals1 fears of furry things1
 fears of ghosts and of death1 dread of 
fatal diseases1 fears of fire and of    
water1 of strange persons1 of storms1   
fears of things unknown and even        
unimagined1 but all the more fearful6   
,would you all like to relive your      
childhood for its pleasures if you had  
to take along with them its sufferings8 
,would the race choose to live its      
evolution over again8 ,i do not know4   
,but1 for my own part1 ,i should very   
much hesitate to turn the hands of time 
backward in either case4 ,would that the
 adults at life's noonday1 in           
remembering the childish fears of life's
 morning1 might feel a sympathy for the 
children of today1 who are not yet      
escaped from the bonds of the fear      
instinct4 ,would that all might seek to 
quiet every foolish childish fear1      

instead of laughing at it or enhancing  
it6   #g4 ,,other ,,undesirable         
,,instincts  ,we are all provided by    
nature with some instincts which1 while 
they may serve a good purpose in our    
development1 need to be suppressed or at
 least modified when they have done     
their work4  ,,selfishness4--,all       
children1 and perhaps all adults1 are   
selfish4 ,the little child will         
appropriate all the candy1 and give none
 to his playmate4 ,he will grow angry   
and fight rather than allow brother or  
sister to use a favorite plaything4 ,he 
will demand the mother's attention and  
care even when told that she is tired or
 ill1 and not able to minister to him4  
,but all of this is true to nature and1 
though it needs to be changed to        
generosity and unselfishness1 is1 after 
all1 a vital factor in our natures4 ,for
 it is better in the long run that each 
one should look out for himself1 rather 
than to be so careless of his own       
interests and needs as to require help  

from others4 ,the problem in education  
is so to balance selfishness and greed  
with unselfishness and generosity that  
each serves as a check and a balance to 
the other4 ,not elimination but         
equilibrium is to be our watchword4     
,,pugnacity1 ,,or ,,the ,,fighting      
,,impulse4--,almost every normal child  
is a natural fighter1 just as every     
adult should possess the spirit of      
conquest4 ,the long history of conflict 
through which our race has come has left
 its mark in our love of combat4 ,the   
pugnacity of children1 especially of    
boys1 is not so much to be deprecated   
and suppressed as guided into right     
lines and rendered subject to right     
ideals4 ,the boy who picks a quarrel has
 been done a kindness when given a      
drubbing that will check this tendency4 
,on the other hand1 one who risks battle
 in defense of a weaker comrade does no 
ignoble thing4 ,children need very early
 to be taught the baseness of fighting  
for the sake of conflict1 and the glory 

of going down to defeat fighting in a   
righteous cause4 ,the world could well  
stand more of this spirit among adults6 
99       99       99       99       99  
,let us then hear the conclusion of the 
whole matter4 ,the undesirable instincts
 do not need encouragement4 ,it is      
better to let them fade away from       
disuse1 or in some cases even by        
attaching punishment to their           
expression4 ,they are echoes from a     
distant past1 and not serviceable in    
this better present4 ,the desirable     
instincts we are to seize upon and      
utilize as starting points for the      
development of useful interests1 good   
habits1 and the higher emotional life4  
,we should take them as they come1 for  
their appearance is a sure sign that the
 organism is ready for and needs the    
activity they foreshadow2 and1          
furthermore1 if they are not used when  
they present themselves1 they disappear1
 never to return4   #h4 ,,problems ,,in 
,,observation ,,and ,,introspection  #a4

 ,what instincts have you noticed       
developing in children8 ,what ones have 
you observed to fade away8 ,can you fix 
the age in both cases8 ,apply these     
questions to your own development as you
 remember it or can get it by tradition 
from your elders4  #b4 ,what use of     
imitation may be made in teaching 7#a7  
literature1 7#b7 composition1 7#c7      
music1 7#d7 good manners1 7#e7 morals8  
#c4 ,should children be taught to play8 
,make a list of the games you think all 
children should know and be able to     
play4 ,it has been said that it is as   
important for a people to be able to use
 their leisure time wisely as to use    
their work time profitably4 ,why should 
this be true8  #d4 ,observe the         
instruction of children to discover the 
extent to which use is made of the      
constructive instinct4 ,the collecting  
instinct4 ,the dramatic instinct4       
,describe a plan by which each of these 
instincts can be successfully used in   
some branch of study4  #e4 ,what        

examples can you recount from your own  
experience of conscious imitation8 of   
unconscious imitation8 of the influence 
of environment8 ,what is the application
 of the preceding question to the       
esthetic quality of our school          
buildings8  #f4 ,have you ever observed 
that children under a dozen years of age
 usually cannot be depended upon for    
team work in their games8 ,how do you   
explain this fact8     ,,chapter ,,xiv  
,,feeling ,,and ,,its ,,functions   ,in 
the psychical world as well as the      
physical we must meet and overcome      
inertia4 ,our lives must be compelled by
 motive forces strong enough to overcome
 this natural inertia1 and enable us    
besides to make headway against many    
obstacles4 ,the motive power that drives
 us consists chiefly of our feelings and
 emotions4 ,knowledge1 cognition1       
supplies the rudder that guides our     
ship1 but feeling and emotion supply the
 power4  ,to convince one's head is1    
therefore1 not enough2 his feelings must

 be stirred if you would be sure of     
moving him to action4 ,often have we    
known that a certain line of action was 
right1 but failed to follow it because  
feeling led in a different direction4   
,when decision has been hanging in the  
balance we have piled on one side       
obligation1 duty1 sense of right1 and a 
dozen other reasons for action1 only to 
have them all outweighed by the one     
single3 ,it is disagreeable4 ,judgment1 
reason1 and experience may unite to tell
 us that a contemplated course is       
unwise1 and imagination may reveal to us
 its disastrous consequences1 and yet   
its pleasures so appeal to us that we   
yield4 ,our feelings often prove a      
stronger motive than knowledge and will 
combined2 they are a factor constantly  
to be reckoned with among our motives4  
#a4 ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,feeling  ,it  
will be our purpose in the next few     
chapters to study the affective content 
of consciousness--the feelings and      
emotions4 ,the present chapter will be  

devoted to the feelings and the one that
 follows to the emotions4  ,,the        
,,different ,,feeling ,,qualities4--,at 
least six 7some writers say even more7  
distinct and qualitatively different    
feeling states are easily distinguished4
 ,these are3 pleasure1 pain2 desire1    
repugnance2 interest1 apathy4 ,pleasure 
and pain1 and desire and repugnance1 are
 directly opposite or antagonistic      
feelings4 ,interest and apathy are not  
opposites in a similar way1 since apathy
 is but the absence of interest1 and not
 its antagonist4 ,in place of the terms 
pleasure and pain1 the pleasant and the 
unpleasant1 or the agreeable and the    
disagreeable1 are often used4 ,aversion 
is frequently employed as a synonym for 
repugnance4  ,it is somewhat hard to    
believe on first thought that feeling   
comprises but the classes given4 ,for   
have we not often felt the pain from a  
toothache1 from not being able to take a
 long-planned trip1 from the loss of a  
dear friend8 ,surely these are very     

different classes of feelings6 ,likewise
 we have been happy from the very joy of
 living1 from being praised for some    
well-doing1 or from the presence of     
friend or lover4 ,and here again we seem
 to have widely different classes of    
feelings4  ,we must remember1 however1  
that feeling is always based on         
something known4 ,it never appears alone
 in consciousness as mere pleasures or  
pains4 ,the mind must have something    
about which to feel4 ,the what must     
precede the how4 ,what we commonly call 
a feeling is a complex state of         
consciousness in which feeling          
predominates1 but which has1            
nevertheless1 a basis of sensation1 or  
memory1 or some other cognitive process4
 ,and what so greatly varies in the     
different cases of the illustrations    
just given is precisely this knowledge  
element1 and not the feeling element4 ,a
 feeling of unpleasantness is a feeling 
of unpleasantness whether it comes from 
an aching tooth or from the loss of a   

friend4 ,it may differ in degree1 and   
the entire mental states of which the   
feeling is a part may differ vastly1 but
 the simple feeling itself is of the    
same quality4  ,,feeling ,,always       
,,present ,,in ,,mental ,,content4--,no 
phase of our mental life is without the 
feeling element4 ,we look at the rainbow
 with its beautiful and harmonious      
blending of colors1 and a feeling of    
pleasure accompanies the sensation2 then
 we turn and gaze at the glaring sun1   
and a disagreeable feeling is the       
result4 ,a strong feeling of            
pleasantness accompanies the experience 
of the voluptuous warmth of a cozy bed  
on a cold morning1 but the plunge       
between the icy sheets on the preceding 
evening was accompanied by the opposite 
feeling4 ,the touch of a hand may       
occasion a thrill of ecstatic pleasure1 
or it may be accompanied by a feeling   
equally disagreeable4 ,and so on through
 the whole range of sensation2 we not   
only know the various objects about us  

through sensation and perception1 but we
 also feel while we know4 ,cognition1 or
 the knowing processes1 gives us our    
whats2 and feeling1 or the affective    
processes1 gives us our hows4 ,what is  
yonder object8 ,a bouquet4 ,how does it 
affect you8 ,pleasurably4  ,if1 instead 
of the simpler sensory processes which  
we have just considered1 we take the    
more complex processes1 such as memory1 
imagination1 and thinking1 the case is  
no different4 ,who has not reveled in   
the pleasure accompanying the memories  
of past joys8 ,on the other hand1 who is
 free from all unpleasant memories--from
 regrets1 from pangs of remorse8 ,who   
has not dreamed away an hour in pleasant
 anticipation of some desired object1 or
 spent a miserable hour in dreading some
 calamity which imagination pictured to 
him8 ,feeling also accompanies our      
thought processes4 ,everyone has        
experienced the feeling of the pleasure 
of intellectual victory over some       
difficult problem which had baffled the 

reason1 or over some doubtful case in   
which our judgment proved correct4 ,and 
likewise none has escaped the feeling of
 unpleasantness which accompanies       
intellectual defeat4 ,whatever the      
contents of our mental stream1 we find  
in them1 everywhere present1 a certain  
color of passing estimate1 an immediate 
sense that they are worth something to  
us at any given moment1 or that they    
then have an interest to us4  ,,the     
,,seeming ,,neutral ,,feeling           
,,zone4--,it is probable that there is  
so little feeling connected with many of
 the humdrum and habitual experiences of
 our everyday lives1 that we are but    
slightly1 if at all1 aware of a feeling 
state in connection with them4 ,yet a   
state of consciousness with absolutely  
no feeling side to it is as unthinkable 
as the obverse side of a coin without   
the reverse4 ,some sort of feeling tone 
or mood is always present4 ,the width of
 the affective neutral zone--that is1 of
 a feeling state so little marked as not

 to be discriminated as either pleasure 
or pain1 desire or aversion--varies with
 different persons1 and with the same   
person at different times4 ,it is       
conditioned largely by the amount of    
attention given in the direction of     
feeling1 and also on the fineness of the
 power of feeling discrimination4 ,it is
 safe to say that the zero range is     
usually so small as to be negligible4   
#b4 ,,mood ,,and ,,disposition  ,the sum
 total of all the feeling accompanying  
the various sensory and thought         
processes at any given time results in  
what we may call our feeling tone1 or   
mood4  ,,how ,,mood ,,is                
,,produced4--,during most of our waking 
hours1 and1 indeed1 during our sleeping 
hours as well1 a multitude of sensory   
currents are pouring into the cortical  
centers4 ,at the present moment we can  
hear the rumble of a wagon1 the chirp of
 a cricket1 the chatter of distant      
voices1 and a hundred other sounds      
besides4 ,at the same time the eye is   

appealed to by an infinite variety of   
stimuli in light1 color1 and objects2   
the skin responds to many contacts and  
temperatures2 and every other type of   
end-organ of the body is acting as a    
sender to telegraph a message in to the 
brain4 ,add to these the powerful       
currents which are constantly being sent
 to the cortex from the visceral        
organs--those of respiration1 of        
circulation1 of digestion and           
assimilation4 ,and then finally add the 
central processes which accompany the   
flight of images through our minds--our 
meditations1 memories1 and imaginations1
 our cogitations and volitions4  ,thus  
we see what a complex our feelings must 
be1 and how impossible to have any      
moment in which some feeling is not     
present as a part of our mental stream4 
,it is this complex1 now made up chiefly
 on the basis of the sensory currents   
coming in from the end-organs or the    
visceral organs1 and now on the basis of
 those in the cortex connected with our 

thought life1 which constitutes the     
entire feeling tone1 or mood4  ,,mood   
,,colors ,,all ,,our ,,thinking4--,mood 
depends on the character of the         
aggregate of nerve currents entering the
 cortex1 and changes as the character of
 the current varies4 ,if the currents   
run on much the same from hour to hour1 
then our mood is correspondingly        
constant2 if the currents are variable1 
our mood also will be variable4 ,not    
only is mood dependent on our sensations
 and thoughts for its quality1 but it in
 turn colors our entire mental life4 ,it
 serves as a background or setting whose
 hue is reflected over all our thinking4
 ,let the mood be somber and dark1 and  
all the world looks gloomy2 on the other
 hand1 let the mood be bright and       
cheerful1 and the world puts on a smile4
  ,it is told of one of the early       
circuit riders among the ,new ,england  
ministry1 that he made the following    
entries in his diary1 thus well         
illustrating the point3 ,wed4 ,eve4     

,arrived at the home of ,bro4 ,brown    
late this evening1 hungry and tired     
after a long day in the saddle4 ,had a  
bountiful supper of cold pork and beans1
 warm bread1 bacon and eggs1 coffee1 and
 rich pastry4 ,i go to rest feeling that
 my witness is clear2 the future is     
bright2 ,i feel called to a great and   
glorious work in this place4 ,bro4      
,brown's family are godly people4 ,the  
next entry was as follows3 ,thur4 ,morn4
 ,awakened late this morning after a    
troubled night4 ,i am very much         
depressed in soul2 the way looks dark2  
far from feeling called to work among   
this people1 ,i am beginning to doubt   
the safety of my own soul4 ,i am afraid 
the desires of ,bro4 ,brown and his     
family are set too much on carnal       
things4 ,a dyspeptic is usually a       
pessimist1 and an optimist always keeps 
a bright mood4  ,,mood ,,influences     
,,our ,,judgments ,,and                 
,,decisions4--,the prattle of children  
may be grateful music to our ears when  

we are in one mood1 and excruciatingly  
discordant noise when we are in another4
 ,what appeals to us as a good practical
 joke one day1 may seem a piece of      
unwarranted impertinence on another4 ,a 
proposition which looks entirely        
plausible under the sanguine mood       
induced by a persuasive orator1 may     
appear wholly untenable a few hours     
later4 ,decisions which seemed warranted
 when we were in an angry mood1 often   
appear unwise or unjust when we have    
become more calm4 ,motives which easily 
impel us to action when the world looks 
bright1 fail to move us when the mood is
 somber4 ,the feelings of impending     
peril and calamity which are an         
inevitable accompaniment of the blues1  
are speedily dissipated when the sun    
breaks through the clouds and we are    
ourselves again4  ,,mood ,,influences   
,,effort4--,a bright and hopeful mood   
quickens every power and enhances every 
effort1 while a hopeless mood limits    
power and cripples effort4 ,the football

 team which goes into the game          
discouraged never plays to the limit4   
,the student who attacks his lesson     
under the conviction of defeat can      
hardly hope to succeed1 while the one   
who enters upon his work confident of   
his power to master it has the battle   
already half won4 ,the world's best work
 is done not by those who live in the   
shadow of discouragement and doubt1 but 
by those in whose breast hope springs   
eternal4 ,the optimist is a benefactor  
of the race if for no other reason than 
the sheer contagion of his hopeful      
spirit2 the pessimist contributes       
neither to the world's welfare nor its  
happiness4 ,youth's proverbial          
enthusiasm and dauntless energy rest    
upon the supreme hopefulness which      
characterizes the mood of the young4    
,for these reasons1 if for no other1 the
 mood of the schoolroom should be one of
 happiness and good cheer4              
,,disposition ,a ,,resultant ,,of       
,,moods4--,the sum total of our moods   

gives us our disposition4 ,whether these
 are pleasant or unpleasant1 cheerful or
 gloomy1 will depend on the             
predominating character of the moods    
which enter into them4 ,as well expect  
to gather grapes of thorns or figs of   
thistles1 as to secure a desirable      
disposition out of undesirable moods4 ,a
 sunny disposition never comes from     
gloomy moods1 nor a hopeful one out of  
the blues4 ,and it is our disposition1  
more than the power of our reason1      
which1 after all1 determines our        
desirability as friends and companions4 
,the person of surly disposition can    
hardly make a desirable companion1 no   
matter what his intellectual qualities  
may be4 ,we may live very happily with  
one who cannot follow the reasoning of a
 ,newton1 but it is hard to live with a 
person chronically subject to black     
moods4 ,nor can we put the              
responsibility for our disposition off  
on our ancestors4 ,it is not an         
inheritance1 but a growth4 ,slowly1 day 

by day1 and mood by mood1 we build up   
our disposition until finally it comes  
to characterize us4                     
,,temperament4--,some are1 however1 more
 predisposed to certain types of mood   
than are others4 ,the organization of   
our nervous system which we get through 
heredity undoubtedly has much to do with
 the feeling tone into which we most    
easily fall4 ,we call this              
predisposition temperament4 ,on the     
effects of temperament1 our ancestors   
must divide the responsibility with us4 
,i say divide the responsibility1 for   
even if we find ourselves predisposed   
toward a certain undesirable type of    
moods1 there is no reason why we should 
give up to them4 ,even in spite of      
hereditary predispositions1 we can still
 largely determine for ourselves what   
our moods are to be4  ,if we have a     
tendency toward cheerful1 quiet1 and    
optimistic moods1 the psychologist names
 our temperament the sanguine2 if we are
 tense1 easily excited and irritable1   

with a tendency toward sullen or angry  
moods1 the choleric2 if we are given to 
frequent fits of the blues1 if we       
usually look on the dark side of things 
and have a tendency toward moods of     
discouragement and the dumps1 the       
melancholic2 if hard to rouse1 and given
 to indolent and indifferent moods1 the 
phlegmatic4 ,whatever be our            
temperament1 it is one of the most      
important factors in our character4     
#c4 ,,permanent ,,feeling ,,attitudes1  
,,or ,,sentiments  ,besides the more or 
less transitory feeling states which we 
have called moods1 there exists also a  
class of feeling attitudes1 which       
contain more of the complex intellectual
 element1 are withal of rather a higher 
nature1 and much more permanent than our
 moods4 ,we may call these our          
sentiments1 or attitudes4 ,our          
sentiments comprise the somewhat        
constant level of feeling combined with 
cognition1 which we name sympathy1      
friendship1 love1 patriotism1 religious 

faith1 selfishness1 pride1 vanity1 etc4 
,like our dispositions1 our sentiments  
are a growth of months and years4       
,unlike our dispositions1 however1 our  
sentiments are relatively independent of
 the physiological undertone1 and depend
 more largely upon long-continued       
experience and intellectual elements as 
a basis4 ,a sluggish liver might throw  
us into an irritable mood and1 if the   
condition were long continued1 might    
result in a surly disposition2 but it   
would hardly permanently destroy one's  
patriotism and make him turn traitor to 
his country4 ,one's feeling attitude on 
such matters is too deep seated to be   
modified by changing whims4  ,,how      
,,sentiments ,,develop4--,sentiments    
have their beginning in concrete        
experiences in which feeling is a       
predominant element1 and grow through   
the multiplication of these experiences 
much as the concept is developed through
 many percepts4 ,there is a residual    
element left behind each separate       

experience in both cases4 ,in the case  
of the concept the residual element is  
intellectual1 and in the case of the    
sentiment it is a complex in which the  
feeling element is predominant4  ,how   
this comes about is easily seen by means
 of an illustration or two4 ,the mother 
feeds her child when he is hungry1 and  
an agreeable feeling is produced2 she   
puts him into the bath and snuggles him 
in her arms1 and the experiences are    
pleasant4 ,the child comes to look upon 
the mother as one whose especial        
function is to make things pleasant for 
him1 so he comes to be happy in her     
presence1 and long for her in her       
absence4 ,he finally grows to love his  
mother not alone for the countless times
 she has given him pleasure1 but for    
what she herself is4 ,the feelings      
connected at first wholly with pleasant 
experiences coming through the          
ministrations of the mother1            
strengthened no doubt by instinctive    
tendencies toward affection1 and later  

enhanced by a fuller realization of what
 a mother's care and sacrifice mean1    
grow at last into a deep1 forceful1     
abiding sentiment of love for the       
mother4  ,,the ,,effect ,,of            
,,experience4--,likewise with the       
sentiment of patriotism4 ,in so far as  
our patriotism is a true patriotism and 
not a noisy clamor1 it had its rise in  
feelings of gratitude and love when we  
contemplated the deeds of heroism and   
sacrifice for the flag1 and the         
blessings which come to us from our     
relations as citizens to our country4   
,if we have had concrete cases brought  
to our experience1 as1 for example1 our 
property saved from destruction at the  
hands of a mob or our lives saved from a
 hostile foreign foe1 the patriotic     
sentiment will be all the stronger4  ,so
 we may carry the illustration into all 
the sentiments4 ,our religious          
sentiments of adoration1 love1 and faith
 have their origin in our belief in the 
care1 love1 and support from a higher   

,being typified to us as children by the
 care1 love1 and support of our parents4
 ,pride arises from the appreciation or 
over-appreciation of oneself1 his       
attainments1 or his belongings4         
,selfishness has its genesis in the many
 instances in which pleasure results    
from ministering to self4 ,in all these 
cases it is seen that our sentiments    
develop out of our experiences3 they are
 the permanent but ever-growing results 
which we have to show for experiences   
which are somewhat long continued1 and  
in which a certain feeling quality is a 
strong accompaniment of the cognitive   
part of the experience4  ,,the          
,,influence ,,of ,,sentiment4--,our     
sentiments1 like our dispositions1 are  
not only a natural growth from the      
experiences upon which they are fed1 but
 they in turn have large influence in   
determining the direction of our further
 development4 ,our sentiments furnish   
the soil which is either favorable or   
hostile to the growth of new            

experiences4 ,one in whom the sentiment 
of true patriotism is deep-rooted will  
find it much harder to respond to a     
suggestion to betray his country's honor
 on battlefield1 in legislative hall1 or
 in private life1 than one lacking in   
this sentiment4 ,the boy who has a      
strong sentiment of love for his mother 
will find this a restraining influence  
in the face of temptation to commit     
deeds which would wound her feelings4 ,a
 deep and abiding faith in ,god is fatal
 to the growth of pessimism1 distrust1  
and a self-centered life4 ,one's        
sentiments are a safe gauge of his      
character4 ,let us know a man's attitude
 or sentiments on religion1 morality1   
friendship1 honesty1 and the other great
 questions of life1 and little remains  
to be known4 ,if he is right on these1  
he may well be trusted in other things2 
if he is wrong on these1 there is little
 to build upon4  ,literature has drawn  
its best inspiration and choicest themes
 from the field of our sentiments4 ,the 

sentiment of friendship has given us our
 ,david and ,jonathan1 our ,damon and   
,pythias1 and our ,tennyson and ,hallam4
 ,the sentiment of love has inspired    
countless masterpieces2 without its aid 
most of our fiction would lose its plot1
 and most of our poetry its charm4      
,religious sentiment inspired ,milton to
 write the world's greatest epic1       
,paradise ,lost4 ,the sentiment of      
patriotism has furnished an             
inexhaustible theme for the writer and  
the orator4 ,likewise if we go into the 
field of music and art1 we find that the
 best efforts of the masters are        
clustered around some human sentiment   
which has appealed to them1 and which   
they have immortalized by expressing it 
on canvas or in marble1 that it may     
appeal to others and cause the sentiment
 to grow in us4  ,,sentiments ,,as      
,,motives4--,the sentiments furnish the 
deepest1 the most constant1 and the most
 powerful motives which control our     
lives4 ,such sentiments as patriotism1  

liberty1 and religion have called a     
thousand armies to struggle and die on  
ten thousand battlefields1 and have     
given martyrs courage to suffer in the  
fires of persecution4 ,sentiments of    
friendship and love have prompted       
countless deeds of self-sacrifice and   
loving devotion4 ,sentiments of envy1   
pride1 and jealousy have changed the    
boundary lines of nations1 and have     
prompted the committing of ten thousand 
unnamable crimes4 ,slowly day by day    
from the cradle to the grave we are     
weaving into our lives the threads of   
sentiment1 which at last become so many 
cables to bind us to good or evil4   #d4
 ,,problems ,,in ,,observation ,,and    
,,introspection  #a4 ,are you subject to
 the blues1 or other forms of depressed 
feeling8 ,are your moods very           
changeable1 or rather constant8 ,what   
kind of a disposition do you think you  
have8 ,how did you come by it2 that is1 
in how far is it due to hereditary      
temperament1 and in how far to your     

daily moods8  #b4 ,can you recall an    
instance in which some undesirable mood 
was caused by your physical condition8  
,by some disturbing mental condition8   
,what is your characteristic mood in the
 morning after sleeping in an           
ill-ventilated room8 ,after sitting for 
half a day in an ill-ventilated         
schoolroom8 ,after eating indigestible  
food before going to bed8  #c4 ,observe 
a number of children or your classmates 
closely and see whether you can         
determine the characteristic mood of    
each4 ,observe several different schools
 and see whether you can note a         
characteristic mood for each room4 ,try 
to determine the causes producing the   
differences noted4 7,physical conditions
 in the room1 personality of the        
teacher1 methods of governing1 teaching1
 etc47  #d4 ,when can you do your best  
work1 when you are happy1 or unhappy8   
,cheerful1 or blue8 ,confident and      
hopeful1 or discouraged8 ,in a spirit of
 harmony and cooeperation with your     

teacher1 or antagonistic8 ,now relate   
your conclusions to the type of         
atmosphere that should prevail in the   
schoolroom or the home4 ,formulate a    
statement as to why the spirit of the   
school is all-important4 7,effect on    
effort1 growth1 disposition1 sentiments1
 character1 etc47  #e4 ,can you measure 
more or less accurately the extent to   
which your feelings serve as motives in 
your life8 ,are feelings alone a safe   
guide to action8 ,make a list of the    
important sentiments that should be     
cultivated in youth4 ,now show how the  
work of the school may be used to       
strengthen worthy sentiments4           
,,chapter ,,xv  ,,the ,,emotions        
,feeling and emotion are not to be      
looked upon as two different kinds of   
mental processes4 ,in fact1 emotion is  
but a feeling state of a high degree of 
intensity and complexity4 ,emotion      
transcends the simpler feeling states   
whenever the exciting cause is          
sufficient to throw us out of our       

regular routine of affective experience4
 ,the distinction between emotion and   
feeling is a purely arbitrary one1 since
 the difference is only one of          
complexity and degree1 and many feelings
 may rise to the intensity of emotions4 
,a feeling of sadness on hearing of a   
number of fatalities in a railway       
accident may suddenly become an emotion 
of grief if we learn that a member of   
our family is among those killed4 ,a    
feeling of gladness may develop into an 
emotion of joy1 or a feeling of         
resentment be kindled into an emotion of
 rage4   #a4 ,,the ,,producing ,,and    
,,expressing ,,of ,,emotion  ,nowhere   
more than in connection with our        
emotions are the close inter-relations  
of mind and body seen4 ,all are familiar
 with the fact that the emotion of anger
 tends to find expression in the blow1  
love in the caress1 fear in flight1 and 
so on4 ,but just how our organism acts  
in producing an emotion is less         
generally understood4 ,professor ,james 

and ,professor ,lange have shown us that
 emotion not only tends to produce some 
characteristic form of response1 but    
that the emotion is itself caused by    
certain deep-seated physiological       
reactions4 ,let us seek to understand   
this statement a little more fully4     
,,physiological ,,explanation ,,of      
,,emotion4--,we must remember first of  
all that all changes in mental states   
are accompanied by corresponding        
physiological changes4 ,hard1           
concentrated thinking quickens the heart
 beat2 keen attention is accompanied by 
muscular tension2 certain sights or     
sounds increase the rate of breathing2  
offensive odors produce nausea1 and so  
on4 ,so complete and perfect is the     
response of our physical organism to    
mental changes that one psychologist    
declares it possible1 had we            
sufficiently delicate apparatus1 to     
measure the reactions caused throughout 
the body of a sleeping child by the     
shadow from a passing cloud falling upon

 the closed eyelids4  ,the order of the 
entire event resulting in an emotion is 
as follows3 7#a7 ,something is known2   
some object enters consciousness coming 
either from immediate perception or     
through memory or imagination4 ,this    
fact1 or thing known1 must be of such   
nature that it will1 7#b7 set up        
deep-seated and characteristic organic  
response2 7#c7 the feeling accompanying 
and caused by these physiological       
reactions constitutes the emotion4 ,for 
example1 we may be passing along the    
street in a perfectly calm and equable  
state of mind1 when we come upon a      
teamster who is brutally beating an     
exhausted horse because it is unable to 
draw an overloaded wagon up a slippery  
incline4 ,the facts grasped as we take  
in the situation constitute the first   
element in an emotional response        
developing in our consciousness4 ,but   
instantly our muscles begin to grow     
tense1 the heart beat and breath        
quicken1 the face takes on a different  

expression1 the hands clench--the entire
 organism is reacting to the disturbing 
situation2 the second factor in the     
rising emotion1 the physiological       
response1 thus appears4 ,along with our 
apprehension of the cruelty and the     
organic disturbances which result we    
feel waves of indignation and anger     
surging through us4 ,this is the third  
factor in the emotional event1 or the   
emotion itself4 ,in some such way as    
this are all of our emotions aroused4   
,,origin ,,of ,,characteristic          
,,emotional ,,reactions4--,why do       
certain facts or objects of             
consciousness always cause certain      
characteristic organic responses8  ,in  
order to solve this problem we shall    
have first to go beyond the individual  
and appeal to the history of the race4  
,what the race has found serviceable1   
the individual repeats4 ,but even then  
it is hard to see why the particular    
type of physical response such as       
shrinking1 pallor1 and trembling1 which 

naturally follow stimuli threatening    
harm1 should be the best4 ,it is easy to
 see1 however1 that the feeling which   
prompts to flight or serves to deter    
from harm's way might be useful4 ,it is 
plain that there is an advantage in the 
tense muscle1 the set teeth1 the held   
breath1 and the quickened pulse which   
accompany the emotion of anger1 and also
 in the feeling of anger itself1 which  
prompts to the conflict4 ,but even if we
 are not able in every case to determine
 at this day why all the instinctive    
responses and their correlate of feeling
 were the best for the life of the race1
 we may be sure that such was the case2 
for ,nature is inexorable in her        
dictates that only that shall persist   
which has proved serviceable in the     
largest number of cases4  ,an           
interesting question arises at this     
point as to why we feel emotion         
accompanying some of our motor          
responses1 and not others4 ,perceptions 
are crowding in upon us hour after hour2

 memory1 thought1 and imagination are in
 constant play2 and a continuous motor  
discharge results each moment in        
physical expressions great or small4    
,yet1 in spite of these facts1 feeling  
which is strong enough to rise to an    
emotion is only an occasional thing4 ,if
 emotion accompanies any form of        
physical expression1 why not all8 ,let  
us see whether we can discover any      
reason4 ,one day ,i saw a boy leading a 
dog along the street4 ,all at once the  
dog slipped the string over its head and
 ran away4 ,the boy stood looking after 
the dog for a moment1 and then burst    
into a fit of rage4 ,what all had       
happened8 ,the moment before the dog    
broke away everything was running       
smoothly in the experience of the boy4  
,there was no obstruction to his thought
 or his plans4 ,then in an instant the  
situation changes4 ,the smooth flow of  
experience is checked and baffled4 ,the 
discharge of nerve currents which meant 
thought1 plans1 action1 is blocked4 ,a  

crisis has arisen which requires        
readjustment4 ,the nerve currents must  
flow in new directions1 giving new      
thought1 new plans1 new activities--the 
dog must be recaptured4 ,it is in       
connection with this damming up of nerve
 currents from following their wonted   
channels that the emotion emerges4 ,or1 
putting it into mental terms1 the       
emotion occurs when the ordinary current
 of our thought is violently            
disturbed--when we meet with some crisis
 which necessitates a readjustment of   
our thought relations and plans1 either 
temporarily or permanently4  ,,the      
,,duration ,,of ,,an ,,emotion4--,if the
 required readjustment is but temporary1
 then the emotion is short-lived1 while 
if the readjustment is necessarily of   
longer duration1 the emotion also will  
live longer4 ,the fear which follows the
 thunder is relatively brief2 for the   
shock is gone in a moment1 and our      
thought is but temporarily disturbed4   
,if the impending danger is one that    

persists1 however1 as of some secret    
assassin threatening our life1 the fear 
also will persist4 ,the grief of a child
 over the loss of someone dear to him is
 comparatively short1 because the       
current of the child's life has not been
 so closely bound up in a complexity of 
experiences with the lost object as in  
the case of an older person1 and hence  
the readjustment is easier4 ,the grief  
of an adult over the loss of a very dear
 friend lasts long1 for the object      
grieved over has so become a part of the
 bereaved one's experience that the loss
 requires a very complete readjustment  
of the whole life4 ,in either case1     
however1 as this readjustment is        
accomplished the emotion gradually fades
 away4  ,,emotions ,,accompanying       
,,crises ,,in ,,experience4--,if our    
description of the feelings has been    
correct1 it will be seen that the       
simpler and milder feelings are for the 
common run of our everyday experience2  
they are the common valuers of our      

thought and acts from hour to hour4 ,the
 emotions1 or more intense feeling      
states1 are1 however1 the occasional    
high tide of feeling which occurs in    
crises or emergencies4 ,we are angry on 
some particular provocation1 we fear    
some extraordinary factor in our        
environment1 we are joyful over some    
unusual good fortune4   #b4 ,,the       
,,control ,,of ,,emotions  ,,dependence 
,,on ,,expression4--,since all emotions 
rest upon some form of physical or      
physiological expression primarily1 and 
upon some thought back of this          
secondarily1 it follows that the first  
step in controlling an emotion is to    
secure the removal of the state of      
consciousness which serves as its basis4
 ,this may be done1 for instance1 with a
 child1 either by banishing the         
terrifying dog from his presence1 or by 
convincing him that the dog is harmless4
 ,the motor response will then cease1   
and the emotion pass away4 ,if the      
thought is persistent1 however1 through 

the continuance of its stimulus1 then   
what remains is to seek to control the  
physical expression1 and in that way    
suppress the emotion4 ,if1 instead of   
the knit brow1 the tense muscles1 the   
quickened heart beat1 and all the deeper
 organic changes which go along with    
these1 we can keep a smile on the face1 
the muscles relaxed1 the heart beat     
steady1 and a normal condition in all   
the other organs1 we shall have no cause
 to fear an explosion of anger4 ,if we  
are afraid of mice and feel an almost   
irresistible tendency to mount a chair  
every time we see a mouse1 we can do    
wonders in suppressing the fear by      
resolutely refusing to give expression  
to these tendencies4 ,inhibition of the 
expression inevitably means the death of
 the emotion4  ,this fact has its bad   
side as well as its good in the feeling 
life1 for it means that good emotions as
 well as bad will fade out if we fail to
 allow them expression4 ,we are all     
perfectly familiar with the fact in our 

own experience that an interest which   
does not find means of expression soon  
passes away4 ,sympathy unexpressed ere  
long passes over into indifference4     
,even love cannot live without          
expression4 ,religious emotion which    
does not go out in deeds of service     
cannot persist4 ,the natural end and aim
 of our emotions is to serve as motives 
to activity2 and missing this           
opportunity1 they have not only failed  
in their office1 but will themselves die
 of inaction4  ,,relief ,,through       
,,expression4--,emotional states not    
only have their rise in organic         
reactions1 but they also tend to result 
in acts4 ,when we are angry1 or in love1
 or in fear1 we have the impulse to do  
something about it4 ,and1 while it is   
true that emotion may be inhibited by   
suppressing the physical expressions on 
which it is founded1 so may a state of  
emotional tension be relieved by some   
forms of expression4 ,none have failed  
to experience the relief which comes to 

the overcharged nervous system from a   
good cry4 ,there is no sorrow so bitter 
as a dry sorrow1 when one cannot weep4  
,a state of anger or annoyance is       
relieved by an explosion of some kind1  
whether in a blow or its equivalent in  
speech4 ,we often feel better when we   
have told a man what we think of him4   
,at first glance this all seems opposed 
to what we have been laying down as the 
explanation of emotion4 ,yet it is not  
so if we look well into the case4 ,we   
have already seen that emotion occurs   
when there is a blocking of the usual   
pathways of discharge for the nerve     
currents1 which must then seek new      
outlets1 and thus result in the setting 
up of new motor responses4 ,in the case 
of grief1 for example1 there is a       
disturbance in the whole organism2 the  
heart beat is deranged1 the blood       
pressure diminished1 and the nerve tone 
lowered4 ,what is needed is for the     
currents which are finding an outlet in 
directions resulting in these particular

 responses to find a pathway of         
discharge which will not produce such   
deep-seated results4 ,this may be found 
in crying4 ,the energy thus expended is 
diverted from producing internal        
disturbances4 ,likewise1 the explosion  
in anger may serve to restore the       
equilibrium of disturbed nerve currents4
  ,,relief ,,does ,,not ,,follow ,,if   
,,image ,,is ,,held ,,before ,,the      
,,mind4--,all this is true1 however1    
only when the expression does not serve 
to keep the idea before the mind which  
was originally responsible for the      
emotion4 ,a person may work himself into
 a passion of anger by beginning to talk
 about an insult and1 as he grows       
increasingly violent1 bringing the      
situation more and more sharply into his
 consciousness4 ,the effect of          
terrifying images is easily to be       
observed in the case of one's starting  
to run when he is afraid after night4   
,there is probably no doubt that the    
running would relieve his fear providing

 he could do it and not picture the     
threatening something as pursuing him4  
,but1 with his imagination conjuring up 
dire images of frightful catastrophes at
 every step1 all control is lost and    
fresh waves of terror surge over the    
shrinking soul4  ,,growing ,,tendency   
,,toward ,,emotional ,,control4--,among 
civilized peoples there is a constantly 
growing tendency toward emotional       
control4 ,primitive races express grief1
 joy1 fear1 or anger much more freely   
than do civilized races4 ,this does not 
mean that primitive man feels more      
deeply than civilized man2 for1 as we   
have already seen1 the crying1 laughing1
 or blustering is but a small part of   
the whole physical expression1 and one's
 entire organism may be stirred to its  
depths without any of these outward     
manifestations4 ,man has found it       
advisable as he has advanced in         
civilization not to reveal all he feels 
to those around him4 ,the face1 which is
 the most expressive part of the body1  

has come to be under such perfect       
control that it is hard to read through 
it the emotional state1 although the    
face of civilized man is capable of     
expressing far more than is that of the 
savage4 ,the same difference is         
observable between the child and the    
adult4 ,the child reveals each passing  
shade of emotion through his expression1
 while the adult may feel much that he  
does not show4   #c4 ,,cultivation ,,of 
,,the ,,emotions  ,there is no other    
mental factor which has more to do with 
the enjoyment we get out of life than   
our feelings and emotions4  ,,the       
,,emotions ,,and ,,enjoyment4--,few of  
us would care to live at all1 if all    
feeling were eliminated from human      
experience4 ,true1 feeling often makes  
us suffer2 but in so far as life's joys 
triumph over its woes1 do our feelings  
minister to our enjoyment4 ,without     
sympathy1 love1 and appreciation1 life  
would be barren indeed4 ,moreover1 it is
 only through our own emotional         

experience that we are able to interpret
 the feeling side of the lives about us4
 ,failing in this1 we miss one of the   
most significant phases of social       
experience1 and are left with our own   
sympathies undeveloped and our life by  
so much impoverished4  ,the             
interpretation of the subtler emotions  
of those about us is in no small degree 
an art4 ,the human face and form present
 a constantly changing panorama of the  
soul's feeling states to those who can  
read their signs4 ,the ability to read  
the finer feelings1 which reveal        
themselves in expression too delicate to
 be read by the eye of the gross or     
unsympathetic observer1 lies at the     
basis of all fine interpretation of     
personality4 ,feelings are often too    
deep for outward expression1 and we are 
slow to reveal our deepest selves to    
those who cannot appreciate and         
understand them4  ,,how ,,emotions      
,,develop4--,emotions are to be         
cultivated as the intellect or the      

muscles are to be cultivated2 namely1   
through proper exercise4 ,our thought is
 to dwell on those things to which      
proper emotions attach1 and to shun     
lines which would suggest emotions of an
 undesirable type4 ,emotions which are  
to be developed must1 as has already    
been said1 find expression2 we must act 
in response to their leadings1 else they
 become but idle vaporings4 ,if love    
prompts us to say a kind word to a      
suffering fellow mortal1 the word must  
be spoken or the feeling itself fades   
away4 ,on the other hand1 the emotions  
which we wish to suppress are to be     
refused expression4 ,the unkind and     
cutting word is to be left unsaid when  
we are angry1 and the fear of things    
which are harmless left unexpressed and 
thereby doomed to die4  ,,the           
,,emotional ,,factor ,,in ,,our         
,,environment4--,much material for the  
cultivation of our emotions lies in the 
everyday life all about us if we can but
 interpret it4 ,few indeed of those whom

 we meet daily but are hungering for    
appreciation and sympathy4 ,lovable     
traits exist in every character1 and    
will reveal themselves to the one who   
looks for them4 ,miscarriages of justice
 abound on all sides1 and demand our    
indignation and wrath and the effort to 
right the wrong4 ,evil always exists to 
be hated and suppressed1 and dangers to 
be feared and avoided4 ,human life and  
the movement of human affairs constantly
 appeal to the feeling side of our      
nature if we understand at all what life
 and action mean4  ,a certain blindness 
exists in many people1 however1 which   
makes our own little joys1 or sorrows1  
or fears the most remarkable ones in the
 world1 and keeps us from realizing that
 others may feel as deeply as we4 ,of   
course this self-centered attitude of   
mind is fatal to any true cultivation of
 the emotions4 ,it leads to an emotional
 life which lacks not only breadth and  
depth1 but also perspective4            
,,literature ,,and ,,the ,,cultivation  

,,of ,,the ,,emotions4--,in order to    
increase our facility in the            
interpretation of the emotions through  
teaching us what to look for in life and
 experience1 we may go to literature4   
,here we find life interpreted for us in
 the ideal by masters of interpretation2
 and1 looking through their eyes1 we see
 new depths and breadths of feeling     
which we had never before discovered4   
,indeed1 literature deals far more in   
the aggregate with the feeling side than
 with any other aspect of human life4   
,and it is just this which makes        
literature a universal language1 for the
 language of our emotions is more easily
 interpreted than that of our reason4   
,the smile1 the cry1 the laugh1 the     
frown1 the caress1 are understood all   
around the world among all peoples4     
,they are universal4  ,there is always  
this danger to be avoided1 however4 ,we 
may become so taken up with the         
overwrought descriptions of the emotions
 as found in literature or on the stage 

that the common humdrum of everyday life
 around us seems flat and stale4 ,the   
interpretation of the writer or the     
actor is far beyond what we are able to 
make for ourselves1 so we take their    
interpretation rather than trouble      
ourselves to look in our own environment
 for the material which might appeal to 
our emotions4 ,it is not rare to find   
those who easily weep over the woes of  
an imaginary person in a book or on the 
stage unable to feel sympathy for the   
real suffering which exists all around  
them4 ,the story is told of a lady at   
the theater who wept over the suffering 
of the hero in the play2 and at the     
moment she was shedding the unnecessary 
tears1 her own coachman1 whom she had   
compelled to wait for her in the street1
 was frozen to death4 ,our seemingly    
prosaic environment is full of          
suggestions to the emotional life1 and  
books and plays should only help to     
develop in us the power rightly to      
respond to these suggestions4  ,,harm   

,,in ,,emotional                        
,,overexcitement4--,danger may exist    
also in still another line2 namely1 that
 of emotional overexcitement4 ,there is 
a great nervous strain in high emotional
 tension4 ,nothing is more exhausting   
than a severe fit of anger2 it leaves   
its victim weak and limp4 ,a severe case
 of fright often incapacitates one for  
mental or physical labor for hours1 or  
it may even result in permanent injury4 
,the whole nervous tone is distinctly   
lowered by sorrow1 and even excessive   
joy may be harmful4  ,in our actual1    
everyday life1 there is little danger   
from emotional overexcitement unless it 
be in the case of fear in children1 as  
was shown in the discussion on          
instincts1 and in that of grief over the
 loss of objects that are dear to us4   
,most of our childish fears we could    
just as well avoid if our elders were   
wiser in the matter of guarding us      
against those that are unnecessary4 ,the
 griefs we cannot hope to escape1       

although we can do much to control them4
 ,long-continued emotional excitement1  
unless it is followed by corresponding  
activity1 gives us those who weep over  
the wrongs of humanity1 but never do    
anything to right them2 who are sorry to
 the point of death over human          
suffering1 but cannot be induced to lend
 their aid to its alleviation4 ,we could
 very well spare a thousand of those in 
the world who merely feel1 for one who  
acts1 ,james tells us4  ,we should      
watch1 then1 that our good feelings do  
not simply evaporate as feelings1 but   
that they find some place to apply      
themselves to accomplish good2 that we  
do not1 like ,hamlet1 rave over wrongs  
which need to be righted1 but never     
bring ourselves to the point where we   
take a hand in their righting4 ,if our  
emotional life is to be rich and deep in
 its feeling and effective in its       
results on our acts and character1 it   
must find its outlet in deeds4   #d4    
,,emotions ,,as ,,motives  ,emotion is  

always dynamic1 and our feelings        
constitute our strongest motives to     
action and achievement4  ,,how ,,our    
,,emotions ,,compel ,,us4--,love has    
often done in the reformation of a      
fallen life what strength of will was   
not able to accomplish2 it has caused   
dynasties to fall1 and has changed the  
map of nations4 ,hatred is a motive     
hardly less strong4 ,fear will make     
savage beasts out of men who fall under 
its sway1 causing them to trample       
helpless women and children under feet1 
whom in their saner moments they would  
protect with their lives4 ,anger puts   
out all the light of reason1 and prompts
 peaceful and well-meaning men to commit
 murderous acts4  ,thus feeling1 from   
the faintest and simplest feeling of    
interest1 the various ranges of         
pleasures and pain1 the sentiments which
 underlie all our lives1 and so on to   
the mighty emotions which grip our lives
 with an overpowering strength1         
constitutes a large part of the motive  

power which is constantly urging us on  
to do and dare4 ,hence it is important  
from this standpoint1 also1 that we     
should have the right type of feelings  
and emotions well developed1 and the    
undesirable ones eliminated4            
,,emotional ,,habits4--,emotion and     
feeling are partly matters of habit4    
,that is1 we can form emotional as well 
as other habits1 and they are as hard to
 break4 ,anger allowed to run           
uncontrolled leads into habits of angry 
outbursts1 while the one who habitually 
controls his temper finds it submitting 
to the habit of remaining within bounds4
 ,one may cultivate the habit of showing
 his fear on all occasions1 or of       
discouraging its expression4 ,he may    
form the habit of jealousy or of        
confidence4 ,it is possible even to form
 the habit of falling in love1 or of so 
suppressing the tender emotions that    
love finds little opportunity for       
expression4  ,and here1 as elsewhere1   
habits are formed through performing the

 acts upon which the habit rests4 ,if   
there are emotional habits we are       
desirous of forming1 what we have to do 
is to indulge the emotional expression  
of the type we desire1 and the habit    
will follow4 ,if we wish to form the    
habit of living in a chronic state of   
the blues1 then all we have to do is to 
be blue and act blue sufficiently1 and  
this form of emotional expression will  
become a part of us4 ,if we desire to   
form the habit of living in a happy1    
cheerful state1 we can accomplish this  
by encouraging the corresponding        
expression4   #e4 ,,problems ,,in       
,,observation ,,and ,,introspection  #a4
 ,what are the characteristic bodily    
expressions by which you can recognize a
 state of anger8 ,fear8 ,jealousy8      
,hatred8 ,love8 ,grief8 ,do you know    
persons who are inclined to be too      
expressive emotionally8 ,who show too   
little emotional expression8 ,how would 
you classify yourself in this respect8  
#b4 ,are you naturally responsive to the

 emotional tone of others2 that is1 are 
you sympathetic8 ,are you easily        
affected by reading emotional books8 ,by
 emotional plays or other appeals8 ,what
 is the danger from overexciting the    
emotions without giving them a proper   
outlet in some practical activity8  #c4 
,have you observed a tendency among     
adults not to take seriously the        
emotions of a child2 for example1 to    
look upon childish grief as trivial1 or 
fear as something to be laughed at8 ,is 
the child's emotional life as real as   
that of the adult8 7,see ,ch4 ,,ix1     
,betts1 ,fathers and ,mothers47  #d4    
,have you known children to repress     
their emotions for fear of being laughed
 at8 ,have you known parents or others  
to remark about childish love affairs to
 the children themselves in a light or  
joking way8 ,ought this ever to be done8
  #e4 ,note certain children who give   
way to fits of anger2 what is the       
remedy8 ,note other children who cry    
readily2 what would you suggest as a    

cure8 7,why should ridicule not be      
used87  #f4 ,have you observed any      
teacher using the lesson in literature  
or history to cultivate the finer       
emotions8 ,what emotions have you seen  
appealed to by a lesson in nature study8
 ,what emotions have you observed on the
 playground that needed restraint8 ,do  
you think that on the whole the         
emotional life of the child receives    
enough consideration in the school8 ,in 
the home8     ,,chapter ,,xvi           
,,interest   ,the feeling that we call  
interest is so important a motive in our
 lives and so colors our acts and gives 
direction to our endeavors that we will 
do well to devote a chapter to its      
discussion4   #a4 ,,the ,,nature ,,of   
,,interest  ,we saw in an earlier       
chapter that personal habits have their 
rise in race habits or instincts4 ,let  
us now see how interest helps the       
individual to select from his           
instinctive acts those which are useful 
to build into personal habits4 ,instinct

 impartially starts the child in the    
performance of many different           
activities1 but does not dictate what   
particular acts shall be retained to    
serve as the basis for habits4 ,interest
 comes in at this point and says1 ,this 
act is of more value than that act2     
continue this act and drop that4        
,instinct prompts the babe to countless 
movements of body and limb4 ,interest   
picks out those that are most vitally   
connected with the welfare of the       
organism1 and the child comes to prefer 
these rather than the others4 ,thus it  
is that out of the random movements of  
arms and legs and head and body we      
finally develop the cooerdinated        
activities which are infinitely more    
useful than the random ones were4 ,and  
these activities1 originating in        
instincts1 and selected by interest1 are
 soon crystallized into habits4         
,,interest ,a ,,selective ,,agent4--,the
 same truth holds for mental activities 
as for physical4 ,a thousand channels   

lie open for your stream of thought at  
this moment1 but your interest has      
beckoned it into the one particular     
channel which1 for the time1 at least1  
appears to be of the greatest subjective
 value2 and it is now following that    
channel unless your will has compelled  
it to leave that for another4 ,your     
thinking as naturally follows your      
interest as the needle does the magnet1 
hence your thought activities are       
conditioned largely by your interests4  
,this is equivalent to saying that your 
mental habits rest back finally upon    
your interests4  ,everyone knows what it
 is to be interested2 but interest1 like
 other elementary states of             
consciousness1 cannot be rigidly        
defined4 7#a7 ,subjectively considered1 
interest may be looked upon as a feeling
 attitude which assigns our activities  
their place in a subjective scale of    
values1 and hence selects among them4   
7#b7 ,objectively considered1 an        
interest is the object which calls forth

 the feeling4 7#c7 ,functionally        
considered1 interest is the dynamic     
phase of consciousness4  ,,interest     
,,supplies ,a ,,subjective ,,scale ,,of 
,,values4--,if you are interested in    
driving a horse rather than in riding a 
bicycle1 it is because the former has a 
greater subjective value to you than the
 latter4 ,if you are interested in      
reading these words instead of thinking 
about the next social function or the   
last picnic party1 it is because at this
 moment the thought suggested appeals to
 you as of more value than the other    
lines of thought4 ,from this it follows 
that your standards of values are       
revealed in the character of your       
interests4 ,the young man who is        
interested in the race track1 in gaming1
 and in low resorts confesses by the    
fact that these things occupy a high    
place among the things which appeal to  
him as subjectively valuable4 ,the      
mother whose interests are chiefly in   
clubs and other social organizations    

places these higher in her scale of     
values than her home4 ,the reader who   
can become interested only in light1    
trashy literature must admit that matter
 of this type ranks higher in his       
subjective scale of values than the     
works of the masters4 ,teachers and     
students whose strongest interest is in 
grade marks value these more highly than
 true attainment4 ,for1 whatever may be 
our claims or assertions1 interest is   
finally an infallible barometer of the  
values we assign to our activities4  ,in
 the case of some of our feelings it is 
not always possible to ascribe an       
objective side to them4 ,a feeling of   
ennui1 of impending evil1 or of bounding
 vivacity1 may be produced by an        
unanalyzable complex of causes4 ,but    
interest1 while it is related primarily 
to the activities of the self1 is       
carried over from the activity to the   
object which occasions the activity4    
,that is1 interest has both an objective
 and a subjective side4 ,on the         

subjective side a certain activity      
connected with self-expression is worth 
so much2 on the objective side a certain
 object is worth so much as related to  
this self-expression4 ,thus we say1 ,i  
have an interest in books or in         
business2 my daily activities1 my       
self-expression1 are governed with      
reference to these objects4 ,they are my
 interests4  ,,interest                 
,,dynamic4--,many of our milder feelings
 terminate within ourselves1 never      
attaining sufficient force as motives to
 impel us to action4 ,not so with       
interest4 ,its very nature is dynamic4  
,whatever it seizes upon becomes ipso   
facto an object for some activity1 for  
some form of expression of the self4    
,are we interested in a new book1 we    
must read it2 in a new invention1 we    
must see it1 handle it1 test it2 in some
 vocation or avocation1 we must pursue  
it4 ,interest is impulsive4 ,it gives   
its possessor no opportunity for        
lethargic rest and quiet1 but constantly

 urges him to action4 ,grown ardent1    
interest becomes enthusiasm1 without    
which1 says ,emerson1 nothing great was 
ever accomplished4 ,are we an ,edison1  
with a strong interest centered in      
mechanical invention1 it will drive us  
day and night in a ceaseless activity   
which scarcely gives us time for food   
and sleep4 ,are we a ,lincoln1 with an  
undying interest in the ,union1 this    
motive will make possible superhuman    
efforts for the accomplishment of our   
end4 ,are we man or woman anywhere1 in  
any walk of life1 so we are dominated by
 mighty interests grown into enthusiasm 
for some object1 we shall find great    
purposes growing within us1 and our life
 will be one of activity and            
achievement4 ,on the contrary1 a life   
which has developed no great interest   
lacks motive power4 ,of necessity such a
 life must be devoid of purpose and     
hence barren of results1 counting little
 while it is being lived1 and little    
missed by the world when it is gone4    

,,habit ,,antagonistic ,,to             
,,interest4--,while1 as we have seen1   
interest is necessary to the formation  
of habits1 yet habits once formed are   
antagonistic to interest4 ,that is1 acts
 which are so habitually performed that 
they do themselves are accompanied by a 
minimum of interest4 ,they come to be   
done without attentive consciousness1   
hence interest cannot attach to their   
performance4 ,many of the activities    
which make up the daily round of our    
lives are of this kind4 ,as long as     
habit is being modified in some degree1 
as long as we are improving in our ways 
of doing things1 interest will still    
cling to the process2 but let us once   
settle into an unmodified rut1 and      
interest quickly fades away4 ,we then   
have the conditions present which make  
of us either a machine or a drudge4     
#b4 ,,direct ,,and ,,indirect ,,interest
  ,we may have an interest either 7#a7  
in the doing of an act1 or 7#b7 in the  
end sought through the doing4 ,in the   

first instance we call the interest     
immediate or direct2 in the second      
instance1 mediate or indirect4          
,,interest ,,in ,,the ,,end ,,versus    
,,interest ,,in ,,the ,,activity4--,if  
we do not find an interest in the doing 
of our work1 or if it has become        
positively disagreeable so that we      
loathe its performance1 then there must 
be some ultimate end for which the task 
is being performed1 and in which there  
is a strong interest1 else the whole    
process will be the veriest drudgery4   
,if the end is sufficiently interesting 
it may serve to throw a halo of interest
 over the whole process connected with  
it4 ,the following instance illustrates 
this fact3  ,a twelve-year-old boy was  
told by his father that if he would make
 the body of an automobile at his bench 
in the manual training school1 the      
father would purchase the running gear  
for it and give the machine to the boy4 
,in order to secure the coveted prize1  
the boy had to master the arithmetic    

necessary for making the calculations1  
and the drawing necessary for making the
 plans to scale before the teacher in   
manual training would allow him to take 
up the work of construction4 ,the boy   
had always lacked interest in both      
arithmetic and drawing1 and consequently
 was dull in them4 ,under the new       
incentive1 however1 he took hold of them
 with such avidity that he soon         
surpassed all the remainder of the      
class1 and was able to make his         
calculations and drawings within a term4
 ,he secured his automobile a few months
 later1 and still retained his interest 
in arithmetic and drawing4  ,,indirect  
,,interest ,,as ,a ,,motive4--,interest 
of the indirect type1 which does not    
attach to the process1 but comes from   
some more or less distant end1 most of  
us find much less potent than interest  
which is immediate4 ,this is especially 
true unless the end be one of intense   
desire and not too distant4 ,the        
assurance to a boy that he must get his 

lessons well because he will need to be 
an educated man ten years hence when he 
goes into business for himself does not 
compensate for the lack of interest in  
the lessons of today4  ,yet it is       
necessary in the economy of life that   
both children and adults should learn to
 work under the incitement of indirect  
interests4 ,much of the work we do is   
for an end which is more desirable than 
the work itself4 ,it will always be     
necessary to sacrifice present pleasure 
for future good4 ,ability to work       
cheerfully for a somewhat distant end   
saves much of our work from becoming    
drudgery4 ,if interest is removed from  
both the process and the end1 no        
inducement is left to work except       
compulsion2 and this1 if continued1     
results in the lowest type of effort4   
,it puts a man on a level with the beast
 of burden1 which constantly shirks its 
work4  ,,indirect ,,interest ,,alone    
,,insufficient4--,interest coming from  
an end instead of inhering in the       

process may finally lead to an interest 
in the work itself2 but if it does not1 
the worker is in danger of being left a 
drudge at last4 ,to be more than a slave
 to his work one must ultimately find   
the work worth doing for its own sake4  
,the man who performs his work solely   
because he has a wife and babies at home
 will never be an artist in his trade or
 profession2 the student who masters a  
subject only because he must know it for
 an examination is not developing the   
traits of a scholar4 ,the question of   
interest in the process makes the       
difference between the one who works    
because he loves to work and the one who
 toils because he must--it makes the    
difference between the artist and the   
drudge4 ,the drudge does only what he   
must when he works1 the artist all he   
can4 ,the drudge longs for the end of   
labor1 the artist for it to begin4 ,the 
drudge studies how he may escape his    
labor1 the artist how he may better his 
and ennoble it4  ,to labor when there is

 joy in the work is elevating1 to labor 
under the lash of compulsion is         
degrading4 ,it matters not so much what 
a man's occupation as how it is         
performed4 ,a coachman driving his team 
down the crowded street better than     
anyone else could do it1 and glorying in
 that fact1 may be a true artist in his 
occupation1 and be ennobled through his 
work4 ,a statesman molding the affairs  
of a nation as no one else could do it1 
or a scholar leading the thought of his 
generation is subject to the same law2  
in order to give the best grade of      
service of which he is capable1 man must
 find a joy in the performance of the   
work as well as in the end sought       
through its performance4 ,no matter how 
high the position or how refined the    
work1 the worker becomes a slave to his 
labor unless interest in its performance
 saves him4   #c4 ,,transitoriness ,,of 
,,certain ,,interests  ,since our       
interests are always connected with our 
activities it follows that many         

interests will have their birth1 grow to
 full strength1 and then fade away as   
the corresponding instincts which are   
responsible for the activities pass     
through these same stages4 ,this only   
means that interest in play develops at 
the time when the play activities are   
seeking expression2 that interest in the
 opposite sex becomes strong when       
instinctive tendencies are directing the
 attention to the choice of a mate2 and 
that interest in abstract studies comes 
when the development of the brain       
enables us to carry on logical trains of
 thought4 ,all of us can recall many    
interests which were once strong1 and   
are now weak or else have altogether    
passed away4 ,hide-and-seek1            
,pussy-wants-a-corner1 excursions to the
 little fishing pond1 securing the      
colored chromo at school1 the care of   
pets1 reading blood-and-thunder stories 
or sentimental ones--interest in these  
things belongs to our past1 or has left 
but a faint shadow4 ,other interests    

have come1 and these in turn will also  
disappear and other new ones yet appear 
as long as we keep on acquiring new     
experience4  ,,interests ,,must ,,be    
,,utilized ,,when ,,they                
,,appear4--,this means that we must take
 advantage of interests when they appear
 if we wish to utilize and develop them4
 ,how many people there are who at one  
time felt an interest impelling them to 
cultivate their taste for music1 art1 or
 literature and said they would do this 
at some convenient season1 and finally  
found themselves without a taste for    
these things6 ,how many of us have felt 
an interest in some benevolent work1 but
 at last discovered that our inclination
 had died before we found time to help  
the cause6 ,how many of us1 young as we 
are1 do not at this moment lament the   
passing of some interest from our lives1
 or are now watching the dying of some  
interest which we had fondly supposed   
was as stable as ,gibraltar8 ,the       
drawings of every interest which appeals

 to us is a voice crying1 ,now is the   
appointed time6 ,what impulse urges us  
today to become or to do1 we must begin 
at once to be or perform1 if we would   
attain to the coveted end4  ,,the       
,,value ,,of ,a ,,strong                
,,interest4--,nor are we to look upon   
these transitory interests as useless4  
,they come to us not only as a race     
heritage1 but they impel us to          
activities which are immediately useful1
 or else prepare us for the later       
battles of life4 ,but even aside from   
this important fact it is worth         
everything just to be interested4 ,for  
it is only through the impulsion of     
interest that we first learn to put     
forth effort in any true sense of the   
word1 and interest furnishes the final  
foundation upon which volition rests4   
,without interest the greatest powers   
may slumber in us unawakened1 and       
abilities capable of the highest        
attainment rest satisfied with          
commonplace mediocrity4 ,no one will    

ever know how many ,gladstones and      
,leibnitzes the world has lost simply   
because their interests were never      
appealed to in such a way as to start   
them on the road to achievement4 ,it    
matters less what the interest be1 so it
 be not bad1 than that there shall be   
some great interest to compel endeavor1 
test the strength of endurance1 and lead
 to habits of achievement4   #d4        
,,selection ,,among ,,our ,,interests   
,i said early in the discussion that    
interest is selective among our         
activities1 picking out those which     
appear to be of the most value to us4   
,in the same manner there must be a     
selection among our interests           
themselves4  ,,the ,,mistake ,,of       
,,following ,,too ,,many                
,,interests4--,it is possible for us to 
become interested in so many lines of   
activity that we do none of them well4  
,this leads to a life so full of hurry  
and stress that we forget life in our   
busy living4 ,says ,james with respect  

to the necessity of making a choice     
among our interests3  ,with most objects
 of desire1 physical nature restricts   
our choice to but one of many           
represented goods1 and even so it is    
here4 ,i am often confronted by the     
necessity of standing by one of my      
empirical selves and relinquishing the  
rest4 ,not that ,i would not1 if ,i     
could1 be both handsome and fat1 and    
well dressed1 and a great athlete1 and  
make a million a year2 be a wit1 a bon  
vivant1 and a lady-killer1 as well as a 
philosopher2 a philanthropist1          
statesman1 warrior1 and ,african        
explorer1 as well as a 'tone poet' and  
saint4 ,but the thing is simply         
impossible4 ,the millionaire's work     
would run counter to the saint's2 the   
bon vivant and the philosopher and the  
lady-killer could not well keep house in
 the same tenement of clay4 ,such       
different characters may conceivably at 
the outset of life be alike possible to 
man4 ,but to make any one of them       

actual1 the rest must more or less be   
suppressed4 ,the seeker of his truest1  
strongest1 deepest self must review the 
list carefully1 and pick out the one on 
which to stake his salvation4           
,,interests ,,may ,,be ,,too            
,,narrow4--,on the other hand1 it is    
just as possible for our interests to be
 too narrow as too broad4 ,the one who  
has cultivated no interests outside of  
his daily round of humdrum activities   
does not get enough out of life4 ,it is 
possible to become so engrossed with    
making a living that we forget to       
live--to become so habituated to some   
narrow treadmill of labor with the      
limited field of thought suggested by   
its environment1 that we miss the       
richest experiences of life4 ,many there
 are who live a barren1 trivial1 and    
self-centered life because they fail to 
see the significant and the beautiful   
which lie just beyond where their       
interests reach6 ,many there are so     
taken up with their own petty troubles  

that they have no heart or sympathy for 
fellow humanity6 ,many there are so     
absorbed with their own little          
achievements that they fail to catch    
step with the progress of the age6      
,,specialization ,,should ,,not ,,come  
,,too ,,early4--,it is not well to      
specialize too early in our interests4  
,we miss too many rich fields which lie 
ready for the harvesting1 and whose     
gleaning would enrich our lives4 ,the   
student who is so buried in books that  
he has no time for athletic recreations 
or social diversions is making a mistake
 equally with the one who is so         
enthusiastic an athlete and social      
devotee that he neglects his studies4   
,likewise1 the youth who is so taken up 
with the study of one particular line   
that he applies himself to this at the  
expense of all other lines is inviting a
 distorted growth4 ,youth is the time   
for pushing the sky line back on all    
sides2 it is the time for cultivating   
diverse and varied lines of interests if

 we would grow into a rich experience in
 our later lives4 ,the physical must be 
developed1 but not at the expense of the
 mental1 and vice versa4 ,the social    
must not be neglected1 but it must not  
be indulged to such an extent that other
 interests suffer4 ,interest in         
amusements and recreations should be    
cultivated1 but these should never run  
counter to the moral and religious4     
,specialization is necessary1 but       
specialization in our interests should  
rest upon a broad field of fundamental  
interests1 in order that the selection  
of the special line may be an           
intelligent one1 and that our specialty 
shall not prove a rut in which we become
 so deeply buried that we are lost to   
the best in life4  ,a ,,proper ,,balance
 ,,to ,,be ,,sought4--,it behooves us1  
then1 to find a proper balance in       
cultivating our interests1 making them  
neither too broad nor too narrow4 ,we   
should deliberately seek to discover    
those which are strong enough to point  

the way to a life vocation1 but this    
should not be done until we have had an 
opportunity to become acquainted with   
various lines of interests4 ,otherwise  
our decision in this important matter   
may be based merely on a whim4  ,we     
should also decide what interests we    
should cultivate for our own personal   
development and happiness1 and for the  
service we are to render in a sphere    
outside our immediate vocation4 ,we     
should consider avocations as well as   
vocations4 ,whatever interests are      
selected should be carried to           
efficiency4 ,better a reasonable number 
of carefully selected interests well    
developed and resulting in efficiency   
than a multitude of interests which lead
 us into so many fields that we can at  
best get but a smattering of each1 and  
that by neglecting the things which     
should mean the most to us4 ,our        
interests should lead us to live what   
,wagner calls a simple life1 but not a  
narrow one4   #e4 ,,interest            

,,fundamental ,,in ,,education  ,some   
educators have feared that in finding   
our occupations interesting1 we shall   
lose all power of effort and            
self-direction2 that the will1 not being
 called sufficiently into requisition1  
must suffer from non-use2 that we shall 
come to do the interesting and agreeable
 things well enough1 but fail before the
 disagreeable4  ,,interest ,,not        
,,antagonistic ,,to ,,effort4--,the best
 development of the will does not come  
through our being forced to do acts in  
which there is absolutely no interest4  
,work done under compulsion never       
secures the full self in its            
performance4 ,it is done mechanically   
and usually under such a spirit of      
rebellion on the part of the doer1 that 
the advantage of such training may well 
be doubted4 ,nor are we safe in assuming
 that tasks done without interest as the
 motive are always performed under the  
direction of the will4 ,it is far more  
likely that they are done under some    

external compulsion1 and that the will  
has1 after all1 but very little to do   
with it4 ,a boy may get an uninteresting
 lesson at school without much pressure 
from his will1 providing he is          
sufficiently afraid of the master4 ,in  
order that the will may receive training
 through compelling the performance of  
certain acts1 it must have a reasonably 
free field1 with external pressure      
removed4 ,the compelling force must come
 from within1 and not from without4  ,on
 the other hand1 there is not the least 
danger that we shall ever find a place  
in life where all the disagreeable is   
removed1 and all phases of our work made
 smooth and interesting4 ,the necessity 
will always be rising to call upon      
effort to take up the fight and hold us 
to duty where interest has failed4 ,and 
it is just here that there must be no   
failure1 else we shall be mere creatures
 of circumstance1 drifting with every   
eddy in the tide of our life1 and never 
able to breast the current4 ,interest is

 not to supplant the necessity for stern
 and strenuous endeavor but rather to   
call forth the largest measure of       
endeavor of which the self is capable4  
,it is to put at work a larger amount of
 power than can be secured in any other 
way2 in place of supplanting the will1  
it is to give it its point of departure 
and render its service all the more     
effective4  ,,interest ,,and            
,,character4--,finally1 we are not to   
forget that bad interests have the same 
propulsive power as good ones1 and will 
lead to acts just as surely4 ,and these 
acts will just as readily be formed into
 habits4 ,it is worth noticing that back
 of the act lies an interest2 in the act
 lies the seed of a habit2 ahead of the 
act lies behavior1 which grows into     
conduct1 this into character1 and       
character into destiny4 ,bad interests  
should be shunned and discouraged4 ,but 
even that is not enough4 ,good interests
 must be installed in the place of the  
bad ones from which we wish to escape1  

for it is through substitution rather   
than suppression that we are able to    
break from the bad and adhere to the    
good4  ,our interests are an evolution4 
,out of the simple interests of the     
child grow the more complex interests of
 the man4 ,lacking the opportunity to   
develop the interests of childhood1 the 
man will come somewhat short of the full
 interests of manhood4 ,the great thing1
 then1 in educating a child is to       
discover the fundamental interests which
 come to him from the race and1 using   
these as a starting point1 direct them  
into constantly broadening and more     
serviceable ones4 ,out of the early     
interest in play is to come the later   
interest in work2 out of the early      
interest in collecting treasure boxes   
full of worthless trinkets and old      
scraps comes the later interest in      
earning and retaining ownership of      
property2 out of the interest in chums  
and playmates come the larger social    
interests2 out of interest in nature    

comes the interest of the naturalist4   
,and so one by one we may examine the   
interests which bear the largest fruit  
in our adult life1 and we find that they
 all have their roots in some early     
interest of childhood1 which was        
encouraged and given a chance to grow4  
#f4 ,,order ,,of ,,development ,,of     
,,our ,,interests  ,the order in which  
our interests develop thus becomes an   
important question in our education4    
,nor is the order an arbitrary one1 as  
might appear on first thought2 for      
interest follows the invariable law of  
attaching to the activity for which the 
organism is at that time ready1 and     
which it then needs in its further      
growth4 ,that we are sometimes          
interested in harmful things does not   
disprove this assertion4 ,the interest  
in its fundamental aspect is good1 and  
but needs more healthful environment or 
more wise direction4 ,while space       
forbids a full discussion of the genetic
 phase of interest here1 yet we may     

profit by a brief statement of the      
fundamental interests of certain        
well-marked periods in our development4 
,,the ,,interests ,,of ,,early          
,,childhood4--,the interests of early   
childhood are chiefly connected with    
ministering to the wants of the organism
 as expressed in the appetites1 and in  
securing control of the larger muscles4 
,activity is the preeminent             
thing--racing and romping are worth     
doing for their own sake alone4         
,imitation is strong1 curiosity is      
rising1 and imagination is building a   
new world4 ,speech is a joy1 language is
 learned with ease1 and rhyme and rhythm
 become second nature4 ,the interests of
 this stage are still very direct and   
immediate4 ,a distant end does not      
attract4 ,the thing must be worth doing 
for the sake of the doing4 ,since the   
young child's life is so full of action1
 and since it is out of acts that habits
 grow1 it is doubly desirous during this
 period that environment1 models1 and   

teaching should all direct his interests
 and activities into lines that will    
lead to permanent values4  ,,the        
,,interests ,,of ,,later                
,,childhood4--,in the period from second
 dentition to puberty there is a great  
widening in the scope of interests1 as  
well as a noticeable change in their    
character4 ,activity is still the       
keynote2 but the child is no longer     
interested merely in the doing1 but is  
now able to look forward to the end     
sought4 ,interests which are somewhat   
indirect now appeal to him1 and the how 
of things attracts his attention4 ,he is
 beginning to reach outside of his own  
little circle1 and is ready for         
handicraft1 reading1 history1 and       
science4 ,spelling1 writing1 and        
arithmetic interest him partly from the 
activities involved1 but more as a means
 to an end4  ,interest in complex games 
and plays increases1 but the child is   
not yet ready for games which require   
team work4 ,he has not come to the point

 where he is willing to sacrifice       
himself for the good of all4 ,interest  
in moral questions is beginning1 and    
right and wrong are no longer things    
which may or may not be done without    
rebuke or punishment4 ,the great problem
 at this stage is to direct the interest
 into ways of adapting the means to ends
 and into willingness to work under     
voluntary attention for the             
accomplishment of the desired end4      
,,the ,,interests ,,of                  
,,adolescence4--,finally1 with the      
advent of puberty1 comes the last stage 
in the development of interests before  
adult life4 ,this period is not marked  
by the birth of new interests so much as
 by a deepening and broadening of those 
already begun4 ,the end sought becomes  
an increasingly larger factor1 whether  
in play or in work4 ,mere activity      
itself no longer satisfies4 ,the youth  
can now play team games2 for his social 
interests are taking shape1 and he can  
subordinate himself for the good of the 

group4 ,interest in the opposite sex    
takes on a new phase1 and social form   
and mode of dress receive attention4 ,a 
new consciousness of self emerges1 and  
the youth becomes introspective4        
,questions of the ultimate meaning of   
things press for solution1 and what and 
who am ,i1 demands an answer4  ,at this 
age we pass from a regime of obedience  
to one of self-control1 from an ethics  
of authority to one of individualism4   
,all the interests are now taking on a  
more definite and stable form1 and are  
looking seriously toward life vocations4
 ,this is a time of big plans and       
strenuous activity4 ,it is a crucial    
period in our life1 fraught with        
pitfalls and dangers1 with privileges   
and opportunities4 ,at this strategic   
point in our life's voyage we may anchor
 ourselves with right interests to a    
safe manhood and a successful career2 or
 we may1 with wrong interests1 bind     
ourselves to a broken life of           
discouragement and defeat4   #g4        

,,problems ,,in ,,observation ,,and     
,,introspection  #a4 ,try making a list 
of your most important interests in     
order of their strength4 ,suppose you   
had made such a list five years ago1    
where would it have differed from the   
present list8 ,are you ever obliged to  
perform any activities in which you have
 little or no interest1 either directly 
or indirectly8 ,can you name any        
activities in which you once had a      
strong interest but which you now       
perform chiefly from force of habit and 
without much interest8  #b4 ,have you   
any interests of which you are not      
proud8 ,on the other hand1 do you lack  
certain interests which you feel that   
you should possess8 ,what interests are 
you now trying especially to cultivate8 
,to suppress8 ,have you as broad a field
 of interests as you can well take care 
of8 ,have you so many interests that you
 are slighting the development of some  
of the more important ones8  #c4        
,observe several recitations for        

differences in the amount of interest   
shown4 ,account for these differences4  
,have you ever observed an enthusiastic 
teacher with an uninterested class8 ,a  
dull1 listless teacher with an          
interested class8  #d4 ,a father offers 
his son a dollar for every grade on his 
term report which is above ninety2 what 
type of interest relative to studies    
does this appeal to8 ,what do you think 
of the advisability of giving prizes in 
connection with school work8  #e4 ,most 
children in the elementary school are   
not interested in technical grammar2 why
 not8 ,histories made up chiefly of     
dates and lists of kings or presidents  
are not interesting2 what is the remedy8
 ,would you call any teaching of        
literature1 history1 geography1 or      
science successful which fails to       
develop an interest in the subject8  #f4
 ,after careful observation1 make a     
statement of the differences in the     
typical play interests of boys and      
girls2 of children of the third grade   

and the eighth grade4     ,,chapter     
,,xvii  ,,the ,,will   ,the fundamental 
fact in all ranges of life from the     
lowest to the highest is activity1      
doing4 ,every individual1 either animal 
or man1 is constantly meeting situations
 which demand response4 ,in the lower   
forms of life1 this response is very    
simple1 while in the higher forms1 and  
especially in man1 it is very complex4  
,the bird sees a nook favorable for a   
nest1 and at once appropriates it2 a man
 sees a house that strikes his fancy1   
and works and plans and saves for months
 to secure money with which to buy it4  
,it is evident that the larger the      
possible number of responses1 and the   
greater their diversity and complexity1 
the more difficult it will be to select 
and compel the right response to any    
given situation4 ,man therefore needs   
some special power of control over his  
acts--he requires a will4   #a4 ,,the   
,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,will  ,there has  
been much discussion and not a little   

controversy as to the true nature of the
 will4 ,just what is the will1 and what 
is the content of our mental stream when
 we are in the act of willing8 ,is there
 at such times a new and distinctly     
different content which we do not find  
in our processes of knowledge or        
emotion--such as perception1 memory1    
judgment1 interest1 desire8 ,or do we   
find1 when we are engaged in an act of  
the will1 that the mental stream        
contains only the familiar old elements 
of attention1 perception1 judgment1     
desire1 purpose1 etc41 all organized or 
set for the purpose of accomplishing or 
preventing some act8  ,,the ,,content   
,,of ,,the ,,will4--,we shall not       
attempt here to settle the controversy  
suggested by the foregoing questions1   
nor1 for immediately practical purposes1
 do we need to settle it4 ,it is perhaps
 safe to say1 however1 that whenever we 
are willing the mental content consists 
of elements of cognition and feeling    
plus a distinct sense of effort1 with   

which everyone is familiar4 ,whether    
this sense of effort is a new and       
different element1 or only a complex of 
old and familiar mental processes1 we   
need not now decide4  ,,the ,,function  
,,of ,,the ,,will4--,concerning the     
function of the will there can be no    
haziness or doubt4 ,volition concerns   
itself wholly with acts1 responses4 ,the
 will always has to do with causing or  
inhibiting some action1 either physical 
or mental4 ,we need to go to the        
dentist1 tell some friend we were in the
 wrong1 hold our mind to a difficult or 
uninteresting task1 or do some other    
disagreeable thing from which we shirk4 
,it is at such points that we must call 
upon the will4  ,again1 we must restrain
 our tongue from speaking the unkind    
word1 keep from crying out when the     
dentist drills the tooth1 check some    
unworthy line of thought4 ,we must here 
also appeal to the will4 ,we may        
conclude then that the will is needed   
whenever the physical or mental activity

 must be controlled with effort4 ,some  
writers have called the work of the will
 in compelling action its positive      
function1 and in inhibiting action its  
negative function4  ,,how ,,the ,,will  
,,exerts ,,its ,,compulsion4--,how does 
the will bring its compulsion to bear8  
,it is not a kind of mental policeman   
who can take us by the collar1 so to    
speak1 and say do this1 or do not do    
that4 ,the secret of the will's power of
 control lies in attention4 ,it is the  
line of action that we hold the mind    
upon with an attitude of intending to   
perform it that we finally follow4 ,it  
is the thing we keep thinking about that
 we finally do4  ,on the other hand1 let
 us resolutely hold the mind away from  
some attractive but unsuitable line of  
action1 directing our thoughts to an    
opposite course1 or to some wholly      
different subject1 and we have          
effectually blocked the wrong response4 
,to control our acts is therefore to    
control our thoughts1 and strength of   

will can be measured by our ability to  
direct our attention4   #b4 ,,the       
,,extent ,,of ,,voluntary ,,control     
,,over ,,our ,,acts  ,a relatively small
 proportion of our acts1 or responses1  
are controlled by volition4 ,nature1 in 
her wise economy1 has provided a simpler
 and easier method than to have all our 
actions performed or checked with       
conscious effort4  ,,classes ,,of ,,acts
 ,,or ,,response4--,movements or acts1  
like other phenomena1 do not just       
happen4 ,they never occur without a     
cause back of them4 ,whether they are   
performed with a conscious end in view  
or without it1 the fact remains the     
same--something must lie back of the act
 to account for its performance4 ,during
 the last hour1 each of us has performed
 many simple movements and more or less 
complex acts4 ,these acts have varied   
greatly in character4 ,of many we were  
wholly unconscious4 ,others were        
consciously performed1 but without      
feeling of effort on our part4 ,still   

others were accomplished only with      
effort1 and after a struggle to decide  
which of two lines of action we should  
take4 ,some of our acts were reflex1    
some were chiefly instinctive1 and some 
were volitional4  ,,simple ,,reflex     
,,acts4--,first1 there are going on     
within every living organism countless  
movements of which he is in large part  
unconscious1 which he does nothing to   
initiate1 and which he is largely       
powerless to prevent4 ,some of them are 
wholly1 and others almost1 out of the   
reach and power of his will4 ,such are  
the movements of the heart and vascular 
system1 the action of the lungs in      
breathing1 the movements of the         
digestive tract1 the work of the various
 glands in their process of secretion4  
,the entire organism is a mass of living
 matter1 and just because it is living  
no part of it is at rest4  ,movements of
 this type require no external stimulus 
and no direction1 they are reflex2 they 
take care of themselves1 as long as the 

body is in health1 without let or       
hindrance1 continuing whether we sleep  
or wake1 even if we are in hypnotic or  
anaesthetic coma4 ,with movements of    
reflex type we shall have no more       
concern1 since they are almost wholly   
physiological1 and come scarcely at all 
within the range of the consciousness4  
,,instinctive ,,acts4--,next there are a
 large number of such acts as closing   
the eyes when they are threatened1      
starting back from danger1 crying out   
from pain or alarm1 frowning and        
striking when angry4 ,these may roughly 
be classed as instinctive1 and have     
already been discussed under that head4 
,they differ from the former class in   
that they require some stimulus to set  
the act off4 ,we are fully conscious of 
their performance1 although they are    
performed without a conscious end in    
view4 ,winking the eyes serves an       
important purpose1 but that is not why  
we wink2 starting back from danger is a 
wise thing to do1 but we do not stop to 

consider this before performing the act4
  ,and so it is with a multitude of     
reflex and instinctive acts4 ,they are  
performed immediately upon receiving an 
appropriate stimulus1 because we possess
 an organism calculated to act in a     
definite way in response to certain     
stimuli4 ,there is no need for1 and     
indeed no place for1 anything to come in
 between the stimulus and the act4 ,the 
stimulus pulls the trigger of the       
ready-set nervous system1 and the act   
follows at once4 ,acts of these reflex  
and instinctive types do not come       
properly within the range of volition1  
hence we will not consider them further4
  ,,automatic ,,or ,,spontaneous        
,,acts4--,growing out of these reflex   
and instinctive acts is a broad field of
 action which may be called automatic or
 spontaneous4 ,the distinguishing       
feature of this type of action is that  
all such acts1 though performed now     
largely without conscious purpose or    
intent1 were at one time purposed acts1 

performed with effort2 this is to say   
that they were volitional4 ,such acts as
 writing1 or fingering the keyboard of a
 piano1 were once consciously purposed1 
volitional acts selected from many      
random or reflex movements4  ,the       
effects of experience and habit are     
such1 however1 that soon the mere       
presence of pencil and paper1 or the    
sight of the keyboard1 is enough to set 
one scribbling or playing4 ,stated      
differently1 certain objects and        
situations come to suggest certain      
characteristic acts or responses so     
strongly that the action follows        
immediately on the heels of the percept 
of the object1 or the idea of the act4  
,james calls such action ideo-motor4    
,many illustrations of this type of acts
 will occur to each of us3 ,a door      
starts to blow shut1 and we spring up   
and avert the slam4 ,the memory of a    
neglected engagement comes to us1 and we
 have started to our feet on the        
instant4 ,a dish of nuts stands before  

us1 and we find ourselves nibbling      
without intending to do so4  ,,the      
,,cycle ,,from ,,volitional ,,to        
,,automatic4--,it is of course evident  
that no such acts1 though they were at  
one time in our experience volitional1  
now require effort or definite intention
 for their performance4 ,the law        
covering this point may be stated as    
follows3 ,all volitional acts1 when     
repeated1 tend1 through the effects of  
habit1 to become automatic1 and thus    
relieve the will from the necessity of  
directing them4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#ai4--,star for mirror drawing4 ,the    
mirror breaks up the automatic control  
previously developed1 and requires one  
to start out much as the child does at  
the beginning4 ,see text for directions4
  ,to illustrate this law try the       
following experiment3 ,draw on a piece  
of cardboard a star1 like figure #ai1   
making each line segment two inches4    
,seat yourself at a table with the star 
before you1 placing a mirror back of the

 star so that it can be seen in the     
mirror4 ,have someone hold a screen a   
few inches above the table so as to hide
 the star from your direct view1 but so 
that you can see it in the mirror4 ,now 
reach your hand under the screen and    
trace with a pencil around the star from
 left to right1 not taking your pencil  
off the paper until you get clear       
around4 ,keep track of how long it takes
 to go around and also note the         
irregular wanderings of your pencil4    
,try this experiment five times over1   
noting the decrease in time and effort  
required1 and the increase in efficiency
 as the movements tend to become        
automatic4  ,,volitional                
,,action4--,while it is obvious that the
 various types of action already        
described include a very large          
proportion of all our acts1 yet they do 
not include all4 ,for there are some    
acts that are neither reflex nor        
instinctive nor automatic1 but that have
 to be performed under the stress of    

compulsion and effort4 ,we constantly   
meet situations where the necessity for 
action or restraint runs counter to our 
inclinations4 ,we daily are confronted  
by the necessity of making decisions in 
which the mind must be compelled by     
effort to take this direction or that   
direction4 ,conflicting motives or      
tendencies create frequent necessity for
 coercion4 ,it is often necessary to    
drive our bark counter to the current of
 our desires or our habits1 or to enter 
into conflict with a temptation4        
,,volition ,,acts ,,in ,,the ,,making   
,,of ,,decisions4--,everyone knows for  
himself the state of inward unrest which
 we call indecision4 ,a thought enters  
the mind which would of itself prompt an
 act2 but before the act can occur1 a   
contrary idea appears and the act is    
checked2 another thought comes favoring 
the act1 and is in turn counterbalanced 
by an opposing one4 ,the impelling and  
inhibiting ideas we call motives or     
reasons for and against the proposed    

act4 ,while we are balancing the motives
 against each other1 we are said to     
deliberate4 ,this process of            
deliberation must go on1 if we continue 
to think about the matter at all1 until 
one set of ideas has triumphed over the 
other and secured the attention4 ,when  
this has occurred1 we have decided1 and 
the deliberation is at an end4 ,we have 
exercised the highest function of the   
will and made a choice4  ,sometimes the 
battle of motives is short1 the decision
 being reached as soon as there is time 
to summon all the reasons on both sides 
of the question4 ,at other times the    
conflict may go on at intervals for days
 or weeks1 neither set of motives being 
strong enough to vanquish the other and 
dictate the decision4 ,when the motives 
are somewhat evenly balanced we wisely  
pause in making a decision1 because when
 one line of action is taken1 the other 
cannot be1 and we hesitate to lose      
either opportunity4 ,a state of         
indecision is usually highly unpleasant1

 and no doubt more than one decision has
 been hastened in our lives simply that 
we might be done with the unpleasantness
 attendant on the consideration of two  
contrary and insistent sets of motives4 
,it is of the highest importance when   
making a decision of any consequence    
that we should be fair in considering   
all the reasons on both sides of the    
question1 allowing each its just weight4
 ,nor is this as easy as it might       
appear2 for1 as we saw in our study of  
the emotions1 our feeling attitude      
toward any object that occupies the mind
 is largely responsible for the         
subjective value we place upon it4 ,it  
is easy to be so prejudiced toward or   
against a line of action that the       
motives bearing upon it cannot get fair 
consideration4 ,to be able to eliminate 
this personal factor to such an extent  
that the evidence before us on a        
question may be considered on its merits
 is a rare accomplishment4  ,,types ,,of
 ,,decision4--,a decision may be reached

 in a variety of ways1 the most         
important ones of which may now briefly 
be described after the general plan     
suggested by ,professor ,james3  ,,the  
,,reasonable ,,type4--,one of the       
simplest types of decision is that in   
which the preponderance of motives is   
clearly seen to be on one side or the   
other1 and the only rational thing to do
 is to decide in accordance with the    
weight of evidence4 ,decisions of this  
type are called reasonable4 ,if we      
discover ten reasons why we should      
pursue a certain course of action1 and  
only one or two reasons of equal weight 
why we should not1 then the decision    
ought not to be hard to make4 ,the      
points to watch in this case are 7a7    
that we have really discovered all the  
important reasons on both sides of the  
case1 and 7b7 that our feelings of      
personal interest or prejudice have not 
given some of the motives an undue      
weight in our scale of values4          
,,accidental ,,type3 ,,external         

,,motives4--,it is to be doubted whether
 as many of our decisions are made under
 immediate stress of volition as we     
think4 ,we may be hesitating between two
 sets of motives1 unable to decide      
between them1 when a third factor enters
 which is not really related to the     
question at all1 but which finally      
dictates the decision nevertheless4 ,for
 example1 we are considering the        
question whether we shall go on an      
excursion or stay at home and complete a
 piece of work4 ,the benefits coming    
from the recreation1 and the pleasures  
of the trip1 are pitted against the     
expense which must be incurred and the  
desirability of having the work done on 
time4 ,at this point1 while as yet we   
have been unable to decide1 a friend    
comes along1 and we seek to evade the   
responsibility of making our own        
decision by appealing to him1 ,you tell 
me what to do6 ,how few of us have never
 said in effect if not in words1 ,i will
 do this or that if you will6 ,how few  

have never taken advantage of a rainy   
day to stay from church or shirk an     
undesirable engagement6 ,how few have   
not allowed important questions to be   
decided by some trivial or accidental   
factor not really related to the choice 
in the least6  ,this form of decision is
 accidental decision4 ,it does not rest 
on motives which are vitally related to 
the case1 but rather on the accident of 
external circumstances4 ,the person who 
habitually makes his decisions in this  
way lacks power of will4 ,he does not   
hold himself to the question until he   
has gathered the evidence before him1   
and then himself direct his attention to
 the best line of action and so secure  
its performance4 ,he drifts with the    
tide1 he goes with the crowd1 he shirks 
responsibility4  ,,accidental ,,type3   
,,subjective ,,motives4--,a second type 
of accidental decision may occur when we
 are hesitating between two lines of    
action which are seemingly about equally
 desirable1 and no preponderating motive

 enters the field2 when no external     
factor appears1 and no advising friend  
comes to the rescue4 ,then1 with the    
necessity for deciding thrust upon us1  
we tire of the worry and strain of      
deliberation and say to ourselves1 ,this
 thing must be settled one way or the   
other pretty soon2 ,i am tired of the   
whole matter4 ,when we have reached this
 point we are likely to shut our eyes to
 the evidence in the case1 and decide   
largely upon the whim or mood of the    
moment4 ,very likely we regret our      
decision the next instant1 but without  
any more cause for the regret than we   
had for the decision4  ,it is evident   
that such a decision as this does not   
rest on valid motives but rather on the 
accident of subjective conditions4      
,habitual decisions of this type are an 
evidence of a mental laziness or a      
mental incompetence which renders the   
individual incapable of marshaling the  
facts bearing on a case4 ,he cannot hold
 them before his mind and weigh them    

against each other until one side       
outweighs the other and dictates the    
decision4 ,of course the remedy for this
 weakness of decision lies in not       
allowing oneself to be pushed into a    
decision simply to escape the           
unpleasantness of a state of indecision1
 or the necessity of searching for      
further evidence which will make the    
decision easier4  ,on the other hand1 it
 is possible to form a habit of         
indecision1 of undue hesitancy in coming
 to conclusions when the evidence is all
 before us4 ,this gives us the mental   
dawdler1 the person who will spend      
several minutes in an agony of          
indecision over whether to carry an     
umbrella on this particular trip2       
whether to wear black shoes or tan shoes
 today2 whether to go calling or to stay
 at home and write letters this         
afternoon4 ,such a person is usually in 
a stew over some inconsequential matter1
 and consumes so much time and energy in
 fussing over trivial things that he is 

incapable of handling larger ones4 ,if  
we are certain that we have all the     
facts in a given case before us1 and    
have given each its due weight so far as
 our judgment will enable us to do1 then
 there is nothing to be gained by       
delaying the decision4 ,nor is there any
 occasion to change the decision after  
it has once been made unless new        
evidence is discovered bearing on the   
case4  ,,decision ,,under               
,,effort4--,the highest type of decision
 is that in which effort is the         
determining factor4 ,the pressure of    
external circumstances and inward       
impulse is not enough to overcome a calm
 and determined ,i will4 ,two possible  
lines of action may lie open before us4 
,every current of our being leads toward
 the one2 in addition1 inclination1     
friends1 honors1 all beckon in the same 
direction4 ,from the other course our   
very nature shrinks2 duty alone bids us 
take this line1 and promises no rewards 
except the approval of conscience4 ,here

 is the crucial point in human          
experience2 the supreme test of the     
individual2 the last measure of man's   
independence and power4 ,winning at this
 point man has exercised his highest    
prerogative--that of independent choice2
 failing here1 he reverts toward the    
lower forms and is a creature of        
circumstance1 no longer the master of   
his own destiny1 but blown about by the 
winds of chance4 ,and it behooves us to 
win in this battle4 ,we may lose in a   
contest or a game and yet not fail1     
because we have done our best2 if we    
fail in the conflict of motives we have 
planted a seed of weakness from which we
 shall at last harvest defeat4  ,jean   
,valjean1 the galley slave of almost a  
score of years1 escapes and lives an    
honest life4 ,he wins the respect and   
admiration of friends2 he is elected    
mayor of his town1 and honors are heaped
 on him4 ,at the height of his          
prosperity he reads one day that a man  
has been arrested in another town for   

the escaped convict1 ,jean ,valjean1 and
 is about to be sent to the galleys4    
,now comes the supreme test in ,jean    
,valjean's life4 ,shall he remain the   
honored1 respected citizen and let an   
innocent man suffer in his stead1 or    
shall he proclaim himself the           
long-sought criminal and again have the 
collar riveted on his neck and take his 
place at the oars8 ,he spends one awful 
night of conflict in which contending   
motives make a battle ground of his     
soul4 ,but in the morning he has won4   
,he has saved his manhood4 ,his         
conscience yet lives--and he goes and   
gives himself up to the officers4 ,nor  
could he do otherwise and still remain a
 man4   #c4 ,,strong ,,and ,,weak       
,,wills  ,many persons will admit that  
their memory or imagination or power of 
perception is not good1 but few will    
confess to a weak will4 ,strength of    
will is everywhere lauded as a mark of  
worth and character4 ,how can we tell   
whether our will is strong or weak8     

,,not ,a ,,will1 ,,but ,,wills4--,first 
of all we need to remember that1 just as
 we do not have a memory1 but a system  
of memories1 so we do not possess a     
will1 but many different wills4 ,by this
 ,i mean that the will must be called   
upon and tested at every point of       
contact in experience before we have    
fully measured its strength4 ,our will  
may have served us reasonably well so   
far1 but we may not yet have met any    
great number of hard tests because our  
experience and temptations have been    
limited4  ,nor must we forget to take   
into account both the negative and the  
positive functions of the will4 ,many   
there are who think of the will chiefly 
in its negative use1 as a kind of a     
check or barrier to save us from doing  
certain things4 ,that this is an        
important function cannot be denied4    
,but the positive is the higher         
function4 ,there are many men and women 
who are able to resist evil1 but able to
 do little good4 ,they are good enough1 

but not good for much4 ,they lack the   
power of effort and self-compulsion to  
hold them up to the high standards and  
stern endeavor necessary to save them   
from inferiority or mediocrity4 ,it is  
almost certain that for most who read   
these words the greatest test of their  
will power will be in the positive      
instead of the negative direction4      
,,objective ,,tests ,a ,,false ,,measure
 ,,of ,,will ,,power4--,the actual      
amount of volition exercised in making a
 decision cannot be measured by         
objective results4 ,the fact that you   
follow the pathway of duty1 while ,i    
falter and finally drift into the byways
 of pleasure1 is not certain evidence   
that you have put forth the greater     
power of will4 ,in the first place1 the 
allurements which led me astray may have
 had no charms for you4 ,furthermore1   
you may have so formed the habit of     
pursuing the pathway of duty when the   
two paths opened before you1 that your  
well-trained feet unerringly led you    

into the narrow way without a struggle4 
,of course you are on safer ground than 
,i1 and on ground that we should all    
seek to attain4 ,but1 nevertheless1 ,i1 
although ,i fell when ,i should have    
stood1 may have been fighting a battle  
and manifesting a power of resistance of
 which you1 under similar temptation1   
would have been incapable4 ,the only    
point from which a conflict of motives  
can be safely judged is that of the soul
 which is engaged in the struggle4   #d4
 ,,volitional ,,types  ,several fairly  
well-marked volitional types may be     
discovered4 ,it is1 of course1 to be    
understood that these types all grade by
 insensible degrees into each other1 and
 that extreme types are the exception   
rather than the rule4  ,,the ,,impulsive
 ,,type4--,the impulsive type of will   
goes along with a nervous organism of   
the hair-trigger kind4 ,the brain is in 
a state of highly unstable equilibrium1 
and a relatively slight current serves  
to set off the motor centers4 ,action   

follows before there is time for a      
counteracting current to intervene4     
,putting it in mental terms1 we act on  
an idea which presents itself before an 
opposing one has opportunity to enter   
the mind4 ,hence the action is largely  
or wholly ideo-motor and but slightly or
 not at all deliberate4 ,it is this type
 of will which results in the hasty word
 or deed1 or the rash act committed on  
the impulse of the moment and repented  
of at leisure2 which compels the        
frequent1 ,i didn't think1 or ,i would  
not have done it6 ,the impulsive person 
may undoubtedly have credited up to him 
many kind words and noble deeds4 ,in    
addition1 he usually carries with him an
 air of spontaneity and                 
whole-heartedness which goes far to     
atone for his faults4 ,the fact remains1
 however1 that he is too little the     
master of his acts1 that he is guided   
too largely by external circumstances or
 inward caprice4 ,he lacks balance4     
,impulsive action is not to be confused 

with quick decision and rapid action4   
,many of the world's greatest and safest
 leaders have been noted for quickness  
of decision and for rapidity of action  
in carrying out their decisions4 ,it    
must be remembered1 however1 that these 
men were making decisions in fields well
 known to them4 ,they were specialists  
in this line of deliberation4 ,the      
motives for and against certain lines of
 action had often been dwelt upon4 ,all 
possible contingencies had been imaged  
many times over1 and a valuation placed 
upon the different decisions4 ,the      
various concepts had long been          
associated with certain definite lines  
of action4 ,deliberation under such     
conditions can be carried on with       
lightning rapidity1 each motive being   
checked off as worth so much the instant
 it presents itself1 and action can     
follow immediately when attention       
settles on the proper motive to govern  
the decision4 ,this is not impulse1 but 
abbreviated deliberation4 ,these facts  

suggest to us that we should think much 
and carefully over matters in which we  
are required to make quick decisions4   
,of course the remedy for the           
over-impulsive type is to cultivate     
deliberative action4 ,when the impulse  
comes to act without consideration1     
pause to give the other side of the     
question an opportunity to be heard4    
,check the motor response to ideas that 
suggest action until you have reviewed  
the field to see whether there are      
contrary reasons to be taken into       
account4 ,form the habit of waiting for 
all evidence before deciding4 ,think    
twice before you act4  ,,the            
,,obstructed ,,will4--,the opposite of  
the impulsive type of will is the       
obstructed or balky will4 ,in this type 
there is too much inhibition1 or else   
not enough impulsion4 ,images which     
should result in action are checkmated  
by opposing images1 or do not possess   
vitality enough as motives to overcome  
the dead weight of inertia which clogs  

mental action4 ,the person knows well   
enough what he should do1 but he cannot 
get started4 ,he cannot get the consent 
of his will4 ,it may be the student     
whose mind is tormented by thoughts of  
coming failure in recitation or         
examination1 but who yet cannot force   
himself to the exertion necessary safely
 to meet the ordeal4 ,it may be the     
dissolute man who tortures himself in   
his sober moments with remorse and the  
thought that he was intended for better 
things1 but who1 waking from his        
meditations1 goes on in the same old    
way4 ,it may be the child undergoing    
punishment1 who is to be released from  
bondage as soon as he will promise to be
 good1 but who cannot bring himself to  
say the necessary words4 ,it not only   
may be1 but is1 man or woman anywhere   
who has ideals which are known to be    
worthy and noble1 but which fail to take
 hold4 ,it is anyone who is following a 
course of action which he knows is      
beneath him4  ,no one can doubt that the

 moral tragedies1 the failures and the  
shipwrecks in life come far more from   
the breaking of the bonds which should  
bind right ideals to action than from a 
failure to perceive the truth4 ,men     
differ far more in their deeds than in  
their standards of action4  ,the remedy 
for this diseased type of will is much  
easier to prescribe than to apply4 ,it  
is simply to refuse to attend to the    
contrary thoughts which are blocking    
action1 and to cultivate and encourage  
those which lead to action of the right 
kind4 ,it is seeking to vitalize our    
good impulses and render them effective 
by acting on them whenever opportunity  
offers4 ,nothing can be accomplished by 
moodily dwelling on the disgrace of     
harboring the obstructing ideas4 ,thus  
brooding over them only encourages them4
 ,what we need is to get entirely away  
from the line of thought in which we    
have met our obstruction1 and approach  
the matter from a different direction4  
,the child who is in a fit of sulks does

 not so much need a lecture on the      
disagreeable habit he is forming as to  
have his thoughts led into lines not    
connected with the grievance which is   
causing him the trouble4 ,the stubborn  
child does not need to have his will    
broken1 but rather to have it           
strengthened4 ,he may be compelled to do
 what he does not want to do2 but if    
this is accomplished through physical   
force instead of by leading to thoughts 
connected with the performance of the   
act1 it may be doubted whether the will 
has in any degree been strengthened4    
,indeed it may rather be depended upon  
that the will has been weakened2 for an 
opportunity for self-control1 through   
which alone the will develops1 has been 
lost4 ,the ultimate remedy for rebellion
 often lies in greater freedom at the   
proper time4 ,this does not mean that   
the child should not obey rightful      
authority promptly and explicitly1 but  
that just as little external authority  
as possible should intervene to take    

from the child the opportunity for      
self-compulsion4  ,,the ,,normal        
,,will4--,the golden mean between these 
two abnormal types of will may be called
 the normal or balanced will4 ,here     
there is a proper ratio between         
impulsion and inhibition4 ,ideas are not
 acted upon the instant they enter the  
mind without giving time for a survey of
 the field of motives1 neither is action
 sicklied o'er with the pale cast of    
thought to such an extent that it       
becomes impossible4 ,the evidence is all
 considered and each motive fully       
weighed4 ,but this once done1 decision  
follows4 ,no dilatory and obstructive   
tactics are allowed4 ,the fleeting      
impulse is not enough to persuade to    
action1 neither is action unduly delayed
 after the decision is made4   #e4      
,,training ,,the ,,will  ,the will is to
 be trained as we train the other powers
 of the mind--through the exercise of   
its normal function4 ,the function of   
the will is to direct or control in the 

actual affairs of life4 ,many           
well-meaning persons speak of training  
the will as if we could separate it from
 the interests and purposes of our daily
 living1 and in some way put it through 
its paces merely for the sake of adding 
to its general strength4 ,this view is  
all wrong4 ,there is1 as we have seen1  
no such thing as general power of will4 
,will is always required in specific    
acts and emergencies1 and it is         
precisely upon such matters that it must
 be exercised if it is to be cultivated4
  ,,will ,,to ,,be ,,trained ,,in       
,,common ,,round ,,of ,,duties4--,what  
is needed in developing the will is a   
deep moral interest in whatever we set  
out to do1 and a high purpose to do it  
up to the limit of our powers4 ,without 
this1 any artificial exercises1 no      
matter how carefully they are devised or
 how heroically they are carried out1   
cannot but fail to fit us for the real  
tests of life2 with it1 artificial      
exercises are superfluous4 ,it matters  

not so much what our vocation as how it 
is performed4 ,the most commonplace     
human experience is rich in             
opportunities for the highest form of   
expression possible to the will--that of
 directing us into right lines of       
action1 and of holding us to our best in
 the accomplishment of some dominant    
purpose4  ,there is no one set form of  
exercise which alone will serve to train
 the will4 ,the student pushing steadily
 toward his goal in spite of poverty and
 grinding labor2 the teacher who1 though
 unappreciated and poorly paid1 yet     
performs every duty with conscientious  
thoroughness2 the man who stands firm in
 the face of temptation2 the person whom
 heredity or circumstance has           
handicapped1 but who1 nevertheless1     
courageously fights his battle2 the     
countless men and women everywhere whose
 names are not known to fame1 but who   
stand in the hard places1 bearing the   
heat and the toil with brave1           
unflinching hearts--these are the ones  

who are developing a moral fiber and    
strength of will which will stand in the
 day of stress4 ,better a thousand times
 such training as this in the thick of  
life's real conflicts than any          
volitional calisthenics or priggish     
self-denials entered into solely for the
 training of the will6  ,,school ,,work 
,,and ,,will ,,training4--,the work of  
the school offers as good an opportunity
 for training powers of will as of      
memory or reasoning4 ,on the side of    
inhibition there is always the necessity
 for self-restraint and control so that 
the rights of others may not be         
infringed upon4 ,temptations to         
unfairness or insincerity in lessons and
 examinations are always to be met4 ,the
 social relations of the school         
necessitate the development of personal 
poise and independence4  ,on the        
positive side the opportunities for the 
exercise of will power are always at    
hand in the school4 ,every lesson gives 
the pupil a chance to measure his       

strength and determination against the  
resistance of the task4 ,high standards 
are to be built up1 ideals maintained1  
habits rendered secure4  ,the great     
problem for the teacher in this         
connection is so to organize both       
control and instruction that the largest
 possible opportunity is given to pupils
 for the exercise of their own powers of
 will in all school relations4   #f4    
,,freedom ,,of ,,the ,,will1 ,,or ,,the 
,,extent ,,of ,,its ,,control  ,we have 
seen in this discussion that will is a  
mode of control--control of our thoughts
 and1 through our thoughts1 of our      
actions4 ,will may be looked upon1 then1
 as the culmination of the mental life1 
the highest form of directive agent     
within us4 ,beginning with the direction
 of the simplest movements1 it goes on  
until it governs the current of our life
 in the pursuit of some distant ideal4  
,,limitations ,,of ,,the ,,will4--,just 
how far the will can go in its control1 
just how far man is a free moral agent1 

has long been one of the mooted         
questions among the philosophers4 ,but  
some few facts are clear4 ,if the will  
can exercise full control over all our  
acts1 it by this very fact determines   
our character2 and character spells     
destiny4 ,there is not the least doubt1 
however1 that the will in thus directing
 us in the achievement of a destiny     
works under two limitations3 ,first1    
every individual enters upon life with a
 large stock of inherited tendencies1   
which go far to shape his interests and 
aspirations4 ,and these are important   
factors in the work of volition4        
,second1 we all have our setting in the 
midst of a great material and social    
environment1 which is largely beyond our
 power to modify1 and whose influences  
are constantly playing upon us and      
molding us according to their type4     
,,these ,,limitations ,,the ,,conditions
 ,,of ,,freedom4--,yet there is nothing 
in this thought to discourage us4 ,for  
these very limitations have in them our 

hope of a larger freedom4 ,man's        
heredity1 coming to him through ages of 
conflict with the forces of nature1 with
 his brother man1 and with himself1 has 
deeply instilled in him the spirit of   
independence and self-control4 ,it has  
trained him to deliberate1 to choose1 to
 achieve4 ,it has developed in him the  
power to will4 ,likewise man's          
environment1 in which he must live and  
work1 furnishes the problems which his  
life work is to solve1 and out of whose 
solution will receives its only true    
development4  ,it is through the action 
and interaction of these two factors1   
then1 that man is to work out his       
destiny4 ,what he is1 coupled with what 
he may do1 leads him to what he may     
become4 ,every man possesses in some    
degree a spark of divinity1 a sovereign 
individuality1 a power of independent   
initiative4 ,this is all he needs to    
make him free--free to do his best in   
whatever walk of life he finds himself4 
,if he will but do this1 the doing of it

 will lead him into a constantly growing
 freedom1 and he can voice the cry of   
every earnest heart3      ,build thee   
more stately mansions1 ,o my soul6      
,as the swift seasons roll6     ,leave  
thy low-vaulted past6     ,let each new 
temple1 nobler than the last1     ,shut 
thee from heaven with a dome more vast1 
,till thou at length art free1          
,leaving thine outgrown shell by life's 
unresting sea6   #g4 ,,problems ,,in    
,,observation ,,and ,,introspection  #a4
 ,give illustrations from your own      
experience of the various types of      
action mentioned in this discussion4    
,from your own experience of the last   
hour1 what examples of impulsive action 
can you give8 ,would it have been better
 in some cases had you stopped to       
deliberate8  #b4 ,are you easily        
influenced by prejudice or personal     
preference in making decisions8 ,what   
recent decisions have been thus         
affected8 ,can you classify the various 
ones of your decisions which you can    

recall under the four types mentioned in
 the text8 ,under which class does the  
largest number fall8 ,have you a        
tendency to drift with the crowd8 ,are  
you independent in deciding upon and    
following out a line of action8 ,what is
 the value of advice8 ,ought advice to  
do more than to assist in getting all   
the evidence on a case before the one   
who is to decide8  #c4 ,can you judge   
yourself well enough to tell to which   
volitional type you belong8 ,are you    
over-impulsive8 ,are you stubborn8 ,what
 is the difference between stubbornness 
and firmness8 ,suppose you ask your     
instructor1 or a friend1 to assist you  
in classifying yourself as to volitional
 type4 ,are you troubled with           
indecision2 that is1 do you have hard   
work to decide in trivial matters even  
after you know all the facts in the     
case8 ,what is the cause of these states
 of indecision8 ,the remedy8  #d4 ,have 
you a strong power of will8 ,can you    
control your attention8 ,do you submit  

easily to temptation8 ,can you hold     
yourself up to a high degree of effort8 
,can you persevere8 ,have you ever      
failed in the attainment of some        
cherished ideal because you could not   
bring yourself to pay the price in the  
sacrifice or effort necessary8  #e4     
,consider the class work and            
examinations of schools that you know4  
,does the system of management and      
control throw responsibility on the     
pupils in a way to develop their powers 
of will8  #f4 ,what motives or          
incentives can be used to encourage     
pupils to use self-compulsion to        
maintain high standards of excellence in
 their studies and conduct8 ,does it pay
 to be heroic in one's self-control8    
,,chapter ,,xviii  ,,self-,,expression  
,,and ,,development   ,we have already  
seen that the mind and the body are     
associated in a copartnership in which  
each is an indispensable and active     
member4 ,we have seen that the body gets
 its dignity and worth from its relation

 with the mind1 and that the mind is    
dependent on the body for the crude     
material of its thought1 and also for   
the carrying out of its mandates in     
securing adaptation to our environment4 
,we have seen as a corollary of these   
facts that the efficiency of both mind  
and body is conditioned by the manner in
 which each carries out its share of the
 mutual activities4 ,let us see         
something more of this interrelation4   
#a4 ,,inter-,,relation ,,of ,,impression
 ,,and ,,expression  ,no impression     
without corresponding expression has    
become a maxim in both physiology and   
psychology4 ,inner life implies         
self-expression in external activities4 
,the stream of impressions pouring in   
upon us hourly from our environment must
 have means of expression if development
 is to follow4 ,we cannot be passive    
recipients1 but must be active          
participants in the educational process4
 ,we must not only be able to know and  
feel1 but to do4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 

#bj  ,,the ,,many ,,sources ,,of        
,,impressions4--,the nature of the      
impressions which come to us and how    
they all lead on toward ultimate        
expression is shown in the accompanying 
diagram 7,fig4 #bj74 ,our material      
environment is thrusting impressions    
upon us every moment of our life2 also1 
the material objects with which we deal 
have become so saturated with social    
values that each comes to us with a     
double significance1 and what an object 
means often stands for more than what it
 is4 ,from the lives of people with whom
 we daily mingle2 from the wider circle 
whose lives do not immediately touch    
ours1 but who are interpreted to us by  
the press1 by history and literature2   
from the social institutions into which 
have gone the lives of millions1 and of 
which our lives form a part1 there come 
to us constantly a flood of impressions 
whose influence cannot be measured4 ,so 
likewise with religious impressions4    
,god is all about us and within us4 ,he 

speaks to us from every nook and corner 
of nature1 and communes with us through 
the still small voice from within1 if we
 will but listen4 ,the ,bible1 religious
 instruction1 and the lives of good     
people are other sources of religious   
impressions constantly tending to mold  
our lives4 ,the beautiful in nature1    
art1 and human conduct constantly       
appeals to us in aessthetic impressions4
  ,,all ,,impressions ,,lead ,,toward   
,,expression4--,each of these groups of 
impressions may be subdivided and       
extended into an almost indefinite      
number and variety1 the different groups
 meeting and overlapping1 it is true1   
yet each preserving reasonably distinct 
characteristics4 ,a common              
characteristic of them all1 as shown in 
the diagram1 is that they all point     
toward expression4 ,the varieties of    
light1 color1 form1 and distance which  
we get through vision are not merely    
that we may know these phenomena of     
nature1 but that1 knowing them1 we may  

use the knowledge in making proper      
responses to our environment4 ,our power
 to know human sympathy and love through
 our social impressions are not merely  
that we may feel these emotions1 but    
that1 feeling them1 we may act in       
response to them4  ,it is impossible to 
classify logically in any simple scheme 
all the possible forms of expression4   
,the diagram will serve1 however1 to    
call attention to some of the chief     
modes of bodily expression1 and also to 
the results of the bodily expressions in
 the arts and vocations4 ,here again the
 process of subdivision and extension   
can be carried out indefinitely4 ,the   
laugh can be made to tell many different
 stories4 ,crying may express bitter    
sorrow or uncontrollable joy4 ,vocal    
speech may be carried on in a thousand  
tongues4 ,dramatic action may be made to
 portray the whole range of human       
feelings4 ,plays and games are wide     
enough in their scope to satisfy the    
demands of all ages and every people4   

,the handicrafts cover so wide a range  
that the material progress of           
civilization can be classed under them1 
and indeed without their development the
 arts and vocations would be impossible4
 ,architecture1 sculpture1 painting1    
music1 and literature have a thousand   
possibilities both in technique and     
content4 ,likewise the modes of society1
 conduct1 and religion are unlimited in 
their forms of expression4              
,,limitations ,,of ,,expression4--,while
 it is more blessed to give than to     
receive1 it is somewhat harder in the   
doing2 for more of the self is1 after   
all1 involved in expression than in     
impression4 ,expression needs to be     
cultivated as an art2 for who can       
express all he thinks1 or feels1 or     
conceives8 ,who can do his innermost    
self justice when he attempts to express
 it in language1 in music1 or in marble8
 ,the painter answers when praised for  
his work1 ,if you could but see the     
picture ,i intended to paint6 ,the pupil

 says1 ,i know1 but ,i cannot tell4 ,the
 friend says1 ,i wish ,i could tell you 
how sorry ,i am4 ,the actor complains1  
,if ,i could only portray the passion as
 ,i feel it1 ,i could bring all the     
world to my feet6 ,the body1 being of   
grosser structure than the mind1 must   
always lag somewhat behind in expressing
 the mind's states2 yet1 so perfect is  
the harmony between the two1 that with a
 body well trained to respond to the    
mind's needs1 comparatively little of   
the spiritual need be lost in its       
expression through the material4   #b4  
,,the ,,place ,,of ,,expression ,,in    
,,development  ,nor are we to think that
 cultivation of expression results in   
better power of expression alone1 or    
that lack of cultivation results only in
 decreased power of expression4         
,,intellectual ,,value ,,of             
,,expression4--,there is a distinct     
mental value in expression4 ,an idea    
always assumes new clearness and wider  
relations when it is expressed4 ,michael

 ,angelo1 making his plans for the great
 cathedral1 found his first concept of  
the structure expanding and growing more
 beautiful as he developed his plans4   
,the sculptor1 beginning to model the   
statue after the image which he has in  
his mind1 finds the image growing and   
becoming more expressive and beautiful  
as the clay is molded and formed4 ,the  
writer finds the scope and worth of his 
book growing as he proceeds with the    
writing4 ,the student1 beginning        
doubtfully on his construction in       
geometry1 finds the truth growing       
clearer as he proceeds4 ,the child with 
a dim and hazy notion of the meaning of 
the story in history or literature      
discovers that the meaning grows clear  
as he himself works out its expression  
in speech1 in the handicrafts1 or in    
dramatic representation4  ,so we may    
apply the test to any realm of thought  
whatever1 and the law holds good3 ,it is
 not in its apprehension1 but in its    
expression1 that a truth finally becomes

 assimilated to our body of usable      
knowledge4 ,and this means that in all  
training of the body through its motor  
expression we are to remember that the  
mind must be behind the act2 that the   
intellect must guide the hand2 that the 
object is not to make skillful fingers  
alone1 but to develop clear and         
intelligent thought as well4  ,,moral   
,,value ,,of ,,expression4--,expression 
also has a distinct moral value4 ,there 
are many more people of good intentions 
than of moral character in the world4   
,the rugged proverb tells us that the   
road to hell is paved with good         
intentions4 ,and how easy it is to form 
good resolutions4 ,who of us has not1   
after some moral struggle1 said1 ,i will
 break the bonds of this habit3 ,i will 
enter upon that heroic line of action6  
and then1 satisfied for the time with   
having made the resolution1 continued in
 the old path1 until we were surprised  
later to find that we had never got     
beyond the resolution4  ,it is not in   

the moment of the resolve but in the    
moment when the resolve is carried out  
in action that the moral value inheres4 
,to take a stand on a question of right 
and wrong means more than to show one's 
allegiance to the right--it clears one's
 own moral vision and gives him command 
of himself4 ,expression is1 finally1 the
 only true test for our morality4       
,lacking moral expression1 we may stand 
in the class of those who are merely    
good1 but we can never enter the class  
of those who are good for something4    
,one cannot but wonder what would happen
 if all the people in the world who are 
morally right should give expression to 
their moral sentiments1 not in words    
alone1 but in deeds4 ,surely the        
millennium would speedily come1 not only
 among the nations1 but in the lives of 
men4  ,,religious ,,value ,,of          
,,expression4--,true religious          
experience demands expression4 ,the     
older conception of a religious life was
 to escape from the world and live a    

life of communion and contemplation in  
some secluded spot1 ignoring the world  
thirsting without4 ,later religious     
teaching1 however1 recognized the fact  
that religion cannot consist in drinking
 in blessings alone1 no matter how      
ecstatic the feeling which may accompany
 the process2 that it is not the        
receiving1 but this along with the      
giving that enriches the life4 ,to give 
the cup of cold water1 to visit the     
widow and the fatherless1 to comfort and
 help the needy and forlorn--this is not
 only scriptural but it is              
psychological4 ,only as religious       
feeling goes out into religious         
expression1 can we have a normal        
religious experience4  ,,social ,,value 
,,of ,,expression4--,the criterion of an
 education once was1 how much does he   
know8 ,the world did not expect an      
educated man to do anything2 he was to  
be put on a pedestal and admired from a 
distance4 ,but this criterion is now    
obsolete4 ,society cares little how much

 we know if it does not enable us to do4
 ,people no longer admire mere          
knowledge1 but insist that the man of   
education shall put his shoulder to the 
wheel and lend a hand wherever help is  
needed4 ,education is no longer to set  
men apart from their fellows1 but to    
make them more efficient comrades and   
helpers in the world's work4 ,not the   
man who knows chemistry and botany1 but 
he who can use this knowledge to make   
two blades of grass grow where but one  
grew before1 is the true benefactor of  
his race4 ,in short1 the world demands  
services returned for opportunities     
afforded2 it expects social expression  
to result from education4  ,and this is 
also best for the individual1 for only  
through social service can we attain to 
a full realization of the social values 
in our environment4 ,only thus can we   
enter fully into the social heritage of 
the ages which we receive from books and
 institutions2 only thus can we come    
into the truest and best relations with 

humanity in a common brotherhood2 only  
thus can we live the broader and more   
significant life1 and come to realize   
the largest possible social self4   #c4 
,,educational ,,use ,,of ,,expression   
,the educational significance of the    
truths illustrated in the diagram and   
the discussion has been somewhat slow in
 taking hold in our schools4 ,this has  
been due not alone to the slowness of   
the educational world to grasp a new    
idea1 but also to the practical         
difficulties connected with adapting the
 school exercises as well to the        
expression side of education as to the  
impression4 ,from the fall of ,athens on
 down to the time of ,froebel the       
schools were constituted on the theory  
that pupils were to receive education2  
that they were to drink in knowledge1   
that their minds were to be stored with 
facts4 ,children were to be seen and not
 heard4 ,education was largely a process
 of gorging the memory with information4
  ,,easier ,,to ,,provide ,,for ,,the   

,,impression ,,side ,,of                
,,education4--,now it is evident that it
 is far easier to provide for the       
passive side of education than for the  
active side4 ,all that is needed in the 
former case is to have teachers and     
books reasonably full of information1   
and pupils sufficiently docile to       
receive it4 ,but in the latter case1 the
 equipment must be more extensive4 ,if  
the child is to be allowed to carry out 
his impressions into action1 if he is   
actually to do something himself1 then  
he must be supplied with adequate       
equipment4  ,so far as the home life was
 concerned1 the child of several        
generations ago was at a decided        
advantage over the child of today on the
 expression side of his education4 ,the 
homes of that day were beehives of      
industry1 in which a dozen handicrafts  
were taught and practiced4 ,the         
buildings1 the farm implements1 and most
 of the furniture of the home were made 
from the native timber4 ,the material   

for the clothing of the family was      
produced on the farm1 made into cloth1  
and finally into garments in the home4  
,nearly all the supplies for the table  
came likewise from the farm4 ,these     
industries demanded the combined efforts
 of the family1 and each child did his  
or her part4  ,but that day is past4    
,one-half of our people live in cities  
and towns1 and even in the village and  
on the farm the handicrafts of the home 
have been relegated to the factory1 and 
everything comes into the home ready for
 use4 ,the telephone1 the mail carrier1 
and the deliveryman do all the errands  
even1 and the child in the home is      
deprived of responsibility and of nearly
 all opportunity for manual expression4 
,this is no one's fault1 for it is just 
one phase of a great industrial         
readjustment in society4 ,yet the fact  
remains that the home has lost an       
important element in education1 which   
the school must supply if we are not to 
be the losers educationally by the      

change4  ,,the ,,school ,,to ,,take ,,up
 ,,the ,,handicrafts4--,and modern      
educational method is insisting         
precisely on this point4 ,a few years   
ago the boy caught whittling in school  
was a fit subject for a flogging2 the   
boy is today given bench and tools1 and 
is instructed in their use4 ,then the   
child was punished for drawing pictures2
 now we are using drawing as one of the 
best modes of expression4 ,then         
instruction in singing was intrusted to 
an occasional evening class1 which only 
the older children could attend1 and    
which was taught by some itinerant      
singing master2 today we make music one 
of our most valuable school exercises4  
,then all play time was so much time    
wasted2 now we recognize play as a      
necessary and valuable mode of          
expression and development4 ,then       
dramatic representation was confined to 
the occasional exhibition or evening    
entertainment2 now it has become a      
recognized part of our school work4     

,then it was a crime for pupils to      
communicate with each other in school2  
now a part of the school work is planned
 so that pupils work in groups1 and thus
 receive social training4 ,then our     
schoolrooms were destitute of every     
vestige of beauty2 today many of them   
are artistic and beautiful4  ,this      
statement of the case is rather         
over-optimistic if applied to our whole 
school system1 however4 ,for there are  
still many schools in which all forms of
 handicraft are unknown1 and in which   
the only training in artistic expression
 is that which comes from caricaturing  
the teacher4 ,singing is still an       
unknown art to many teachers4 ,the play 
instinct is yet looked upon with        
suspicion and distrust in some quarters4
 ,a large number of our schoolrooms are 
as barren and ugly today as ever1 and   
contain an atmosphere as stifling to all
 forms of natural expression4 ,we can   
only comfort ourselves with ,holmes's   
maxim1 that it matters not so much where

 we stand as in what direction we are   
moving4 ,and we certainly are moving    
toward a larger development and greater 
efficiency in expression on the part of 
those who pass through our schools4     
,,expression ,,and                      
,,character4--,finally1 all that has    
been said in this discussion has direct 
reference to what we call               
character--that mysterious something    
which we so often hear eulogized and so 
seldom analyzed4 ,character has two     
distinct phases1 which may be called the
 subjective phase and the social phase2 
or1 stating it differently1 character is
 both what we are and what we do4 ,the  
first of these has to do with the nature
 of the real1 innermost self2 and the   
last1 with the modes in which this self 
finds expression4 ,and it is fair to say
 that those about us are concerned with 
what we are chiefly from its relation to
 what we do4  ,character is not a thing1
 but a process2 it is the succession of 
our thoughts and acts from hour to hour4

 ,it is not something which we can hoard
 and protect and polish unto a more     
perfect day1 but it is the everyday self
 in the process of living4 ,and the only
 way in which it can be made or marred  
is through the nature of this stream of 
thoughts and acts which constitute the  
day's life--is through being or doing   
well or ill4  ,,two ,,lines ,,of        
,,development4--,the cultivation of     
character must1 then1 ignore neither of 
these two lines4 ,to neglect the first  
is to forget that it is out of the      
abundance of the heart that the mouth   
speaks2 that a corrupt tree cannot bring
 forth good fruit2 that the act is the  
true index of the soul4 ,to omit the    
second is to leave the character half   
formed1 the will weak1 and the life     
inefficient and barren of results4 ,the 
mind must be supplied with noble ideas  
and high ideals1 with right emotions and
 worthy ambitions4 ,on the other hand1  
the proper connection must be           
established between these mental states 

and appropriate acts4 ,and the acts must
 finally grow into habits1 so that we   
naturally and inevitably translate our  
ideas and ideals1 our emotions and      
ambitions into deeds4 ,our character    
must be strong not in thought and       
feeling alone1 but also in the power to 
return to the world its finished product
 in the form of service4   #d4          
,,problems ,,in ,,introspection ,,and   
,,observation  #a4 ,do you find that you
 understand better some difficult point 
or problem after you have succeeded in  
stating it8 ,do you remember better what
 you have expressed8  #b4 ,in which     
particular ones of your studies do you  
think you could have done better if you 
had been given more opportunity for     
expression8 ,explain the psychology of  
the maxim1 we learn to do by doing4  #c4
 ,observe various schools at work for   
the purpose of determining whether      
opportunities for expression in the     
recitations are adequate4 ,have you ever
 seen a class when listless from        

listening liven up when they were given 
something to do themselves8  #d4 ,make a
 study of the types of laughter you     
hear4 ,why is some laughter much more   
pleasant than other laughter8 ,what did 
a noted sculptor mean when he said that 
a smile at the eyes cannot be depended  
upon as can one at the mouth8  #e4 ,what
 examples have you observed in          
children's plays showing their love for 
dramatic representation8 ,what          
handicrafts are the most suitable for   
children of primary grades8 for the     
grammar school8 for the high school8    
#f4 ,do you number those among your     
acquaintance who seem bright enough1 so 
far as learning is concerned1 but who   
cannot get anything accomplished8 ,is   
the trouble on the expression side of   
their character8 ,what are you doing    
about your own powers of expression8    
,are you seeking to cultivate expression
 in new lines8 ,is there danger in      
attempting too many lines8    ,,index   
,action1 automatic1 #bge   classes of1  

#bgc   factors involved in1 #ei         
reflex1 #bgd   volitional1 #bgf         
,activity1 necessity for motor1 #ef     
,adolescence1 interests of1 #bfi        
,association1 and action1 #adi   chapter
 on1 #add   development of centers1 #eg 
laws of1 #aej   and methods of learning1
 #aeg   and memory1 #adf   nature of1   
#add   neural basis of1 #ade   partial  
or selective1 #aec   pleasure-pain      
motive in1 #aee   and thinking1 #adi    
training in1 #aee   types of1 #aej      
,attention1 chapter on1 #ae   effects   
of1 #af   and efficiency1 #ag   points  
of failure in1 #bj   habit of1 #bg1 #gc 
improvement of1 #bf   method of1 #ah    
,attention1 nature of1 #ae   rhythms of1
 #bj   types of1 #bb   ,belief1 in      
thinking1 #ahj  ,brain1 chapter on1 #cj 
and nervous system1 #cj   quality and   
memory1 #afb   relations of mind and1   
#cj   ,cerebellum1 the1 #cg  ,cerebrum1 
the1 #cg  ,concept1 the1 #ahg           
definition of1 #ahi   function of1 #ahg 
growth of1 #ahh   and language1 #ahi    

,consciousness1 content of1 #aj   known 
by introspection1 #b   the mind or1 #a  
nature of1 #d   personal character of1  
#a   as a stream1 #e   where it resides1
 #ab  ,cord1 the spinal1 #dj  ,cortex1  
the1 #ci   division of labor in1 #de    
,decision1 under effort1 #bha   types   
of1 #bgi  ,decision and will1 #bgg      
,deduction1 #aif  ,development1 of      
association centers1 #eg   chapter on1  
#ej   and instinct1 #bji   mental and   
motor training1 #ej   of nervous system1
 #fj   through play1 #bae  ,direction1  
perception of1 #aje  ,disposition1 and  
mood1 #bcb1 #bcj   and temperament1 #bcc
   ,education1 as habit forming1 #gh    
,emotion1 chapter on1 #bci   control of1
 #bdc1 #bdf   cultivation of1 #bdg   and
 feeling1 #bci   ,james-,lange theory   
of1 #bci   as a motive1 #bea            
physiological explanation of1 #bdj      
,end-,organ7s7 of hearing1 #ib          
kinaesthetic1 #if   and sensory         
qualities1 #ia   of skin1 #id   of      
smell1 #id   of taste1 #ic   of vision1 

#ia  ,environment1 influence of1 #bac   
,expression1 and character1 #cjc        
educational use of1 #cja  ,expression1  
and impression1 #bif   learning to      
interpret1 #d   limitations of1 #big    
self-1 and development1 #bid1 #bih      
,fatigue1 and habit1 #gb   and nervous  
system1 #fb  ,fear1 instinct of1 #bba   
types of1 #bbb  ,feeling1 chapter on1   
#bbf   effects of1 #bcj   and mood1 #bcj
   nature of1 #bbg   qualities1 #bbg    
,forgetting1 rate of1 #agj   ,habit1 of 
attention1 #bg1 #gc   chapter on1 #ff   
effects of1 #gj   emotional1 #beg       
forming as education1 #gh   and life    
economy1 #gj   nature of1 #ff   and     
personality1 #ge   physical basis of1   
#fg   rules for forming1 #ha   tyranny  
of1 #gg  ,handicrafts1 and education1   
#cjb  ,hearing1 #ib   ,idea1 and image1 
#aaa1 #aad  ,image7ry71 ability in1 #aah
   chapter on1 #aaa   classes of1 #aag  
,image7ry71 cultivation of1 #abc   and  
past experience1 #aaa   functions of1   
#abj   and ideas1 #aaa1 #aad   and      

imagination1 #acd   types of1 #aai      
,imagination1 chapter on1 #abg   and    
conduct1 #acc   cultivation of1 #acf1   
#adj   function of1 #abg   the stuff of1
 #acd   and thinking1 #acd   types of1  
#ach  ,imitation1 conscious and         
unconscious1 #bab   individuality in1   
#baa   the instinct of1 #baj   in       
learning1 #baa  ,induction1 #aig        
,instinct7s71 chapter on1 #bja          
definition of1 #bjb   of fear1 #bba   of
 imitation1 #baj   laws of1 #bje        
nature of1 #bja   of play1 #bad   as    
starting points in development1 #bji    
transitory nature of1 #bjf   various    
undesirable1 #bbb   various useful1 #bah
  ,interest7s71 chapter on1 #bed        
direct and indirect1 #beh   and         
education1 #bfe   and habit1 #beg       
nature of1 #bed  ,interest7s7 and       
nonvoluntary attention1 #bc   order of  
development of1 #bfg   selection among1 
#bfb   transitoriness of certain1 #bfj  
,introspection1 #b   and imagery1 #aaf  
method of1 #c   ,james1 quoted1 #ha     

theory of emotion1 #bci  ,judgment1     
functions of1 #aib   nature of1 #aia    
in percepts and concepts1 #aia   and    
reasoning1 #aie   validity of1 #aic     
,knowledge1 raw material of1 #if        
through senses1 #hd   ,language1 and the
 concept1 #ahi  ,laws1 of association1  
#aej   of instinct1 #bje   of memory1   
#afh  ,learning1 and association1 #aeg  
,localization of function in cortex1 #dc
   ,meaning1 dependence on relations1   
#aic  ,memorizing1 rules for1 #afi      
,memory1 and association1 #adf   and    
brain quality1 #afb   chapter on1 #afj  
devices1 #age   factors involved in1    
#afc   what constitutes good1 #aga      
laws of1 #afh   material of1 #aff       
nature of1 #afj   physical basis of1    
#afa  ,mind1 or consciousness1 at birth1
 #cb   and brain1 #cj   chapter on1 #a  
dependence on senses1 #dh   and external
 world1 #cb  ,mood1 and disposition1    
#bcj1 #bcb   influence of1 #bca   how   
produced1 #bcj  ,motive1 emotion as a1  
#beg   ,neuroglia1 #ce  ,neurone1 the1  

#cd  ,nerve cells1 and nutrition1 #ej   
undeveloped1 #eg  ,nerve fibers1 #eg    
,nervous system1 and association1 #ade  
and consciousness1 #ab   division of    
labor in1 #dc   factors determining     
efficiency of1 #ej   and fatigue1 #fb   
gross structure of1 #cf  ,nervous       
system1 and nutrition1 #fd   order of   
development1 #fj   structural elements  
in1 #cd   and worry1 #fb   ,objects1    
defined through perception1 #aja        
physical qualities of1 #hg1 #hi         
,percept1 content of1 #aja   functions  
of1 #ajc  ,perception1 chapter on1 #ih  
of direction1 #aje   function of1 #ih   
nature of1 #ajj   of space1 #ajd   of   
time1 #ajf   training of1 #ajh          
,personality1 and habit1 #ge   influence
 of1 #bac  ,play1 and education1 #bae   
instinct of1 #bad   and work1 #bag      
,qualities1 sensory1 auditory1 #ib      
cutaneous1 #id   kinaesthetic1 #if      
objects known through1 #he   olfactory1 
#id   organic1 #if   taste1 #ic         
visual1 #ia   ,reason1 and judgment1    

#aic   nature of1 #aic   and the        
syllogism1 #aif  ,registration1 and     
attention1 #afc   and memory1 #afc      
recall1 #afe   recognition1 #aff        
,rhythm1 of attention1 #bj   ,self      
expression and development1 #bid        
,sensation1 attributes of1 #hi   chapter
 on1 #hd   cutaneous1 #id   factors     
conditioning1 #hh   kinaesthetic1 #if   
nature of1 #hi   organic1 #if           
qualities of1 #he   qualities of        
auditory1 #ib   qualities of olfactory1 
#id   qualities of taste1 #ic           
qualities of visual1 #ia  ,senses1      
dependence of mind on1 #dh   knowledge  
through1 #hd   work of1 #cc             
,sentiments1 development of1 #bce       
influence of1 #bcf   nature of1 #bcd    
,smell1 #id  ,space1 perception of1 #ajd
  ,stimuli1 education and1 #fj   effects
 of sensory1 #ee   end-organs and1 #dg  
sensory1 #df  ,stimuli1 and response1   
#ec  ,syllogism1 the #aif   ,taste1 #ic 
,temperament1 #bcc  ,thinking1 and      
association1 #adi   chapter on1 #agi    

child and adult1 #ahd   elements in1    
#ahf   good and memory1 #aga   types of1
 #agi  ,time1 perception of1 #ajf       
,validity1 of judgment1 #aic  ,vision1  
#ia  ,volition1 see will1 #bga   and    
decision1 #bgg  ,volitional types1 #bhd 
,will1 and attention1 #bd   chapter on1 
#bga   content of1 #bgb   freedom of1   
#bij   function of1 #bgb   measure of   
power1 #bhd   nature of1 #bga   strong  
and weak1 #bhc   training of1 #bhh      
types of1 #bhe  ,work1 and play1 #bag   
,worry1 effects of1 #fb   ,youth1 and   
habit-forming1 #gi         99     99    
99     99     99     99    ,a ,,valuable
 ,,book ,,for ,,teachers  ,,principles  
,,of ,,educational ,,practice  ,by      
,,paul ,,klapper1 ,ph4,d41 ,department  
of ,education1 ,college of the ,city of 
,new ,york4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #a4ge4  ,this 
book studies the basic principles       
underlying sound and progressive        
pedagogy4 ,in its scope and organization
 it aims to give 7#a7 a comprehensive   
and systematic analysis of the          

principles of education1 7#b7 the modern
 trend and interpretation of educational
 thought1 7#c7 a transition from pure   
psychology to methods of teaching and   
discipline1 and 7#d7 practical          
applications of educational theory to   
the problems that confront the teacher  
in the course of daily routine4 ,every  
practical pedagogical solution that is  
offered has actually stood the test of  
classroom demonstration4  ,the book     
opens with a study of the function of   
education and a contrast of the modern  
social conception with those aims which 
have been guiding ideals in previous    
educational systems4 ,part ,,ii deals   
with the physiological aspects of       
education4 ,part ,,iii is taken up with 
the problem of socializing the child    
through the curriculum and the school   
discipline4 ,the last part of the book1 
,part ,,iv1 ,the ,mental ,aspect of     
,education1 is developed under the      
following sections3 ,section ,a4 ,the   
,instinctive ,aspect of ,mind4 ,mind and

 its development through                
self-expression4 ,self-activity4        
,instincts4 ,section ,b4 ,intellectual  
,aspect of ,mind4 ,the functions of     
,intellect1 ,perception1 ,apperception1 
,memory1 ,imagination1 ,thought         
,activities4 ,the ,doctrine of ,formal  
,discipline and its influence upon      
educational endeavor4 ,section ,c4      
,emotional ,aspect of ,mind4 ,section   
,d4 ,volitional ,aspect of ,mind4 ,study
 of will1 kinds of volitional action1   
habit vs4 deliberative consciousness4   
,the ,education of the ,will4 ,education
 and ,social ,responsibility1 the       
problems of ethical instruction1 and the
 social functions of the ,school4  ,in  
order to increase the usefulness of the 
book to teachers of education there is  
added a classified bibliography for     
systematic1 intensive reference reading 
and a list of suggested problems        
suitable for advanced work4  ,d4        
,,appleton ,,and ,,company ,,new        
,,york--,,chicago        99     99      

99     99     99     99   ,,appletons'  
,,new ,,teachers' ,,books  ,a           
,,student',s ,,text-,,book ,,in ,,the   
,,history ,,of ,,education  ,by ,stephen
 ,pierce ,duggan1 ,ph4 ,d4  ,head of the
 ,department of ,education1 ,college of 
the ,city of ,new ,york  #abmo41 ,cloth1
 #a4cj net  ,professor ,duggan has      
produced the text-book in the history of
 education which has been such a need in
 our pedagogical work4 ,growing out of  
his work as a teacher and lecturer1 this
 book combines the practical pedagogy of
 a teacher with the scholarship of an   
undisputed authority on education and   
its study4 ,there is no book in this    
field containing such a fund of useful  
material arranged along such a skillful 
outline4 ,an experience of years is here
 condensed and solidified into a        
splendid unit4  ,a ,student's           
,text-,book in the ,history of          
,education presents an authentic account
 of every educational system which has  
influenced our present-day scheme of    

pedagogy from the times of the ,hebrews 
to the ,age of the ,montessori method4  
,no time is wasted on detailed          
considerations of other systems4        
,professor ,duggan's book aids the      
teacher by giving him a better          
understanding of present-day problems in
 education2 by explaining how ,western  
,civilization developed the educational 
ideals1 content1 organization1 and      
practices which characterize it today2  
and by developing the manner in which   
each people has worked out the solution 
of the great problem of reconciling     
individual liberty with social          
stability4  ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and        
,,company ,new ,york--,chicago        99
     99     99     99     99     99     
,,appletons' ,,new ,,teachers' ,,books  
,,education ,,for ,,social ,,efficiency 
,by ,irving ,king1 ,ph4 ,d4 ,professor  
of ,education1 ,the ,state ,university  
of ,iowa1 ,iowa ,city1 ,iowa4  #abmo41  
,cloth1 #a4ej net  ,written not so much 
for the educational specialist as for   

the practical needs of busy teachers1   
,education ,for ,social ,efficiency     
presents through the medium of          
illustration1 a social view of education
 which is very prominent4 ,it shows     
concretely various ways in which parents
 as well as teachers may contribute     
something towards the realization of the
 ideal of social efficiency as the goal 
of our educational enterprise4  ,the    
idea that the school1 especially the    
country school1 should provide more than
 instruction in lessons for the scholars
 is ,professor ,king's main point4      
,excellent chapters are included on ,the
 ,school as a ,social ,center1 ,the     
,school and ,social ,progress1 and the  
,social ,aim of ,education4 ,in         
discussing the rural schools            
particularly1 the author writes on ,the 
,rural ,school and the ,rural           
,community1 ,adapting the ,country      
,school to ,country ,needs1 and an      
especially valuable chapter on ,the     
,consolidated ,school and ,socially     

,efficient ,education for the ,country4 
,the response with which ,professor     
,king's ,education for ,social          
,efficiency has met throughout the      
country is evidenced by the fact that   
the ,states of ,iowa1 ,missouri1        
,tennessee1 ,south ,dakota1 and         
,virginia have adopted it for reading   
circle use4 ,it has also been adopted by
 the ,national ,bureau of ,education for
 use in its ,rural ,teachers' ,reading  
,circles4  ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and         
,,company ,new ,york--,chicago          
99     99     99     99     99     99   
,,footnotes3  ,footnote #a3 ,donaldson1 
,the ,growth of the ,brain1 pp4 #gd1    
#bch4  ,footnote #b3 ,quoted by ,james1 
,psychology1 ,briefer ,course1 p4 #ace4 
,footnote #c3 ,psychology1 vol4 i1 pp4  
#abc1 #abd2 also1 ,briefer ,course1     
p4 #ade4  ,footnote #d3 ,see ,betts1    
,the ,distribution and ,functions of    
,mental             ,imagery4  ,footnote
 #e3 ,cf4 ,dewey1 ,how ,we ,think1 p4 #b
 ff4  ,footnote #f3 ,psychology1 p4     

#cia4