,,worship ,,of ,,the ,,dead1 ,,volume ,i 7,,of #c7999999 ,digital ,library ,production ,service ,note3 ,images of the original pages are available through the ,humanities ,text ,initiative1 a unit of the ,university of ,michigan's ,digital ,library ,production ,service4 ,see http3_/_/www4hti4umich4edu_/cgi_/t_/text _/text-idx8cgenpub2idno,,afl#jebb4jjja4j ja ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,and ,,the ,,worship ,,of ,,the ,,dead by ,j4 ,g4 ,,frazer1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d41 ,litt4,d4 ,fellow of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge ,professor of ,social ,anthropology in the ,university of ,liverpool4 ,,vol4 ,i ,the ,belief ,among the ,aborigines of ,australia1 the ,torres ,straits ,islands1 ,new ,guinea and ,melanesia ,the ,gifford ,lectures1 ,st4 ,andrews #aiaa-aiab ,mac,millan and ,co41 ,limited ,st4 ,martin's ,street1 ,london #aiac ,itaque unum illud erat insitum priscis illis1 quos cascos appellat ,ennius1 esse in morte sensum neque excessu vitae sic deleri hominem1 ut funditus interiret2 idque cum multis aliis rebus2 tum e pontificio jure et e caerimoniis sepulchrorum intellegi licet1 quas maxumis ingeniis praediti nec tanta cura coluissent nec violatas tam inexpiabili religione sanxissent1 nisi haereret in corum mentibus mortem non interitum esse omnia tollentem atque delentem1 sed quandam quasi migrationem commutationemque vitae4 ,cicero1 ,tuscul4 ,disput4 i4 #ab4 ,,to ,,my ,,old ,,friend ,,john ,,sutherland ,,black1 ,,ll4,d4 ,i ,,dedicate ,,affectionately ,a ,,work ,,which ,,owes ,,much ,,to ,,his ,,encouragement ,,preface ,the following lectures were delivered on ,lord ,gifford's ,foundation before the ,university of ,st4 ,andrews in the early winters of #aiaa and #aiab4 ,they are printed nearly as they were spoken1 except that a few passages1 omitted for the sake of brevity in the oral delivery1 have been here restored and a few more added4 ,further1 ,i have compressed the two introductory lectures into one1 striking out some passages which on reflection ,i judged to be irrelevant or superfluous4 ,the volume incorporates twelve lectures on ,the ,fear and ,worship of the ,dead which ,i delivered in the ,lent and ,easter terms of #aiaa at ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 and repeated1 with large additions1 in my course at ,st4 ,andrews4 ,the theme here broached is a vast one1 and ,i hope to pursue it hereafter by describing the belief in immortality and the worship of the dead1 as these have been found among the other principal races of the world both in ancient and modern times4 ,of all the many forms which natural religion has assumed none probably has exerted so deep and far-reaching an influence on human life as the belief in immortality and the worship of the dead2 hence an historical survey of this most momentous creed and of the practical consequences which have been deduced from it can hardly fail to be at once instructive and impressive1 whether we regard the record with complacency as a noble testimony to the aspiring genius of man1 who claims to outlive the sun and the stars1 or whether we view it with pity as a melancholy monument of fruitless labour and barren ingenuity expended in prying into that great mystery of which fools profess their knowledge and wise men confess their ignorance4 ,j4 ,g4 ,,frazer4 ,cambridge1 #ith ,february #aiac4 ,,contents ,dedication ,preface ,table of ,contents ,lecture ,i4--,introduction ,natural theology1 three modes of handling it1 the dogmatic1 the philosophical1 and the historical1 pp4 #a sq42 the historical method followed in these lectures1 #b sq42 questions of the truth and moral value of religious beliefs irrelevant in an historical enquiry1 #c sq42 need of studying the religion of primitive man and possibility of doing so by means of the comparative method1 #e sq42 urgent need of investigating the native religion of savages before it disappears1 #f sq42 a portion of savage religion the theme of these lectures1 #g sq42 the question of a supernatural revelation dismissed1 #h sq42 theology and religion1 their relations1 #i2 the term ,god defined1 #i sqq42 monotheism and polytheism1 #aa2 a natural knowledge of ,god1 if it exists1 only possible through experience1 #aa sq42 the nature of experience1 #ab sq42 two kinds of experience1 an inward and an outward1 #ac sq42 the conception of ,god reached historically through both kinds of experience1 #ad2 inward experience or inspiration1 #ad sq42 deification of living men1 #af sq42 outward experience as a source of the idea of ,god1 #ag2 the tendency to seek for causes1 #ag sq42 the meaning of cause1 #ah sq42 the savage explains natural processes by the hypothesis of spirits or gods1 #ai sq42 natural processes afterwards explained by hypothetical forces and atoms instead of by hypothetical spirits and gods1 #bj sq42 nature in general still commonly explained by the hypothesis of a deity1 #ba sq42 ,god an inferential or hypothetical cause1 #bb sq42 the deification of dead men1 #bc-be2 such a deification presupposes the immortality of the human soul or rather its survival for a longer or shorter time after death1 #be sq42 the conception of human immortality suggested both by inward experience1 such as dreams1 and by outward experience1 such as the resemblances of the living to the dead1 #bf-bi2 the lectures intended to collect evidence as to the belief in immortality among certain savage races1 #bi sq42 the method to be descriptive rather than comparative or philosophical1 #cj4 ,lecture ,,ii4--,the ,savage ,conception of ,death ,the subject of the lectures the belief in immortality and the worship of the dead among certain of the lower races1 p4 #ca2 question of the nature and origin of death1 #ca sq42 universal interest of the question1 #cb sq42 the belief in immortality general among mankind1 #cc2 belief of many savages that death is not natural and that they would never die if their lives were not cut prematurely short by sorcery1 #cc sq42 examples of this belief among the ,south ,american ,indians1 #cd sqq42 death sometimes attributed to sorcery and sometimes to demons1 practical consequence of this distinction1 #cg2 belief in sorcery as the cause of death among the ,indians of ,guiana1 #ch sq41 among the ,tinneh ,indians of ,north ,america1 #ci sq41 among the aborigines of ,australia1 #dj-dg1 among the natives of the ,torres ,straits ,islands and ,new ,guinea1 #dg1 among the ,melanesians1 #dh1 among the ,malagasy1 #dh sq41 and among ,african tribes1 #di-ea2 effect of such beliefs in thinning the population by causing multitudes to die for the imaginary crime of sorcery1 #ea-ec2 some savages attribute certain deaths to other causes than sorcery1 #ec2 corpse dissected to ascertain cause of death1 #ec sq42 the possibility of natural death admitted by the ,melanesians and the ,caffres of ,south ,africa1 #ed-ef2 the admission marks an intellectual advance1 #ef sq42 the recognition of ghosts or spirits1 apart from sorcery1 as a cause of disease and death also marks a step in moral and social progress1 #eg sq4 ,lecture ,,iii4--,myths of the ,origin of ,death ,belief of savages in man's natural immortality1 p4 #ei2 savage stories of the origin of death1 #ei sq42 four types of such stories3-- 7#a7 ,the ,story of the ,two ,messengers4--,zulu story of the chameleon and the lizard1 #fj sq42 ,akamba story of the chameleon and the thrush1 #fa sq42 ,togo story of the dog and the frog1 #fb sq42 ,ashantee story of the goat and the sheep1 #fc sq4 7#b7 ,the ,story of the ,waxing and ,waning ,moon4--,hottentot story of the moon1 the hare1 and death1 #fe2 ,masai story of the moon and death1 #fe sq42 ,nandi story of the moon1 the dog1 and death1 #ff2 ,fijian story of the moon1 the rat1 and death1 #fg2 ,caroline1 ,wotjobaluk1 and ,cham stories of the moon1 death1 and resurrection1 #fg2 death and resurrection after three days suggested by the reappearance of the new moon after three days1 #fg sq4 7#c7 ,the ,story of the ,serpent and his ,cast ,skin4--,new ,britain and ,annamite story of immortality1 the serpent1 and death1 #fi sq42 ,vuatom story of immortality1 the lizard1 the serpent1 and death1 #gj2 ,nias story of immortality1 the crab1 and death1 #gj2 ,arawak and ,tamanchier stories of immortality1 the serpent1 the lizard1 the beetle1 and death1 #gj sq42 ,melanesian story of the old woman and her cast skin1 #ga sq42 ,samoan story of the shellfish1 two torches1 and death1 #gb4 7#d7 ,the ,story of the ,banana4--,poso story of immortality1 the stone1 the banana1 and death1 #gb sq42 ,mentra story of immortality1 the banana1 and death1 #gc4 ,primitive philosophy in the stories of the origin of death1 #gc sq42 ,bahnar story of immortality1 the tree1 and death1 #gd2 rivalry for the boon of immortality between men and animals that cast their skins1 such as serpents and lizards1 #gd sq42 stories of the origin of death told by ,chingpaws1 ,australians1 ,fijians1 and ,admiralty ,islanders1 #ge-gg2 ,african and ,american stories of the fatal bundle or the fatal box1 #gg sq42 ,baganda story how death originated through the imprudence of a woman1 #gh-ha2 ,west ,african story of ,death and the spider1 #ha-hc2 ,melanesian story of ,death and the ,fool1 #hc sq4 ,thus according to savages death is not a natural necessity1 #hd2 similar view held by some modern biologists1 as ,a4 ,weismann and ,a4 ,r4 ,wallace1 #hd-hf4 ,lecture ,,iv4--,the ,belief in ,immortality among the ,aborigines of ,central ,australia ,in tracing the evolution of religious beliefs we must begin with those of the lowest savages1 p4 #hg2 the aborigines of ,australia the lowest savages about whom we possess accurate information1 #hh2 savagery a case of retarded development1 #hh sq42 causes which have retarded progress in ,australia1 #hi sq42 the natives of ,central ,australia on the whole more primitive than those of the coasts1 #ij sq42 little that can be called religion among them1 #ia sq42 their theory that the souls of the dead survive and are reborn in their descendants1 #ib sq42 places where the souls of the dead await rebirth1 and the mode in which they enter into women1 #ic sq42 local totem centres1 #id sq42 totemism defined1 #ie2 traditionary origin of the local totem centres 7oknanikilla7 where the souls of the dead assemble1 #if2 sacred birth-stones or birth-sticks 7churinga7 which the souls of ancestors are thought to have dropped at these places1 #if-ajb2 elements of a worship of the dead1 #ajb sq42 marvellous powers attributed to the remote ancestors of the alcheringa or dream times1 #ajc sq42 the ,wollunqua1 a mythical water-snake1 ancestor of a totemic clan of the ,warramunga tribe1 #ajd-ajf2 religious character of the belief in the ,wollunqua1 #ajf4 ,lecture ,v4--,the ,belief in ,immortality among the ,aborigines of ,central ,australia 7continued7 ,beliefs of the ,central ,australian aborigines concerning the reincarnation of the dead1 p4 #ajg2 possibility of the development of ancestor worship1 #ajg sq42 ceremonies performed by the ,warramunga in honour of the ,wollunqua1 the mythical ancestor of one of their totem clans1 #ajh sqq42 union of magic and religion in these ceremonies1 #aaa sq42 ground drawings of the ,wollunqua1 #aab sq42 importance of the ,wollunqua in the evolution of religion and art1 #aac sq42 how totemism might develop into polytheism through an intermediate stage of ancestor worship1 #aad sq42 all the conspicuous features of the country associated by the ,central ,australians with the spirits of their ancestors1 #aae-aah2 dramatic ceremonies performed by them to commemorate the deeds of their ancestors1 #aah sq42 examples of these ceremonies1 #aai-abb2 these ceremonies were probably in origin not merely commemorative or historical but magical1 being intended to procure a supply of food and other necessaries1 #abb sq42 magical virtue actually attributed to these dramatic ceremonies by the ,warramunga1 who think that by performing them they increase the food supply of the tribe1 #abc sq42 hence the great importance ascribed by these savages to the due performance of the ancestral dramas1 #abd2 general attitude of the ,central ,australian aborigines to their dead1 and the lines on which1 if left to themselves1 they might have developed a regular worship of the dead1 #abd-abf4 ,lecture ,,vi4--,the ,belief in ,immortality among the other ,aborigines of ,australia ,evidence for the belief in reincarnation among the natives of other parts of ,australia than the centre1 p4 #abg2 beliefs of the ,queensland aborigines concerning the nature of the soul and the state of the dead1 #abg-aca2 belief of the ,australian aborigines that their dead are sometimes reborn in white people1 #aca-acc2 belief of the natives of ,south-,eastern ,australia that their dead are not born again but go away to the sky or some distant country1 #acc sq42 beliefs and customs of the ,narrinyeri concerning the dead1 #acd sqq42 motives for the excessive grief which they display at the death of their relatives1 #ace sq42 their pretence of avenging the death of their friends on the guilty sorcerer1 #acf sq42 magical virtue ascribed to the hair of the dead1 #acg sq42 belief that the dead go to the sky1 #ach sq42 appearance of the dead to the living in dreams1 #aci2 savage faith in dreams1 #aci sq42 association of the stars with the souls of the dead1 #adj2 creed of the ,south-,eastern ,australians touching the dead1 #ada2 difference of this creed from that of the ,central ,australians1 #ada2 this difference probably due in the main to a general advance of culture brought about by more favourable natural conditions in ,south-,eastern ,australia1 #ada sq42 possible influence of ,european teaching on native beliefs1 #adb sq42 vagueness and inconsistency of native beliefs as to the state of the dead1 #adc2 custom a good test of belief1 #adc sq42 burial customs of the ,australian aborigines as evidence of their beliefs concerning the state of the dead1 #add2 their practice of supplying the dead with food1 water1 fire1 weapons1 and implements1 #add-adg2 motives for the destruction of the property of the dead1 #adg sq42 great economic loss entailed by developed systems of sacrificing to the dead1 #adi4 ,lecture ,,vii4--,the ,belief in ,immortality among the ,aborigines of ,australia 7concluded7 ,huts erected on graves for the use of the ghosts1 pp4 #aej-aeb2 the attentions paid by the ,australian aborigines to their dead probably spring from fear rather than affection1 #aeb2 precautions taken by the living against the dangerous ghosts of the dead1 #aeb sq42 cuttings and brandings of the flesh of the living in honour of the dead1 #aed-aeh2 the custom of allowing the blood of mourners to drip on the corpse or into the grave may be intended to strengthen the dead for a new birth1 #aeh-afb2 different ways of disposing of the dead according to the age1 rank1 manner of death1 etc41 of the deceased1 #afb sq42 some modes of burial are intended to prevent the return of the spirit1 others are designed to facilitate it1 #afc-afe2 final departure of the ghost supposed to coincide with the disappearance of the flesh from his bones1 #afe sq42 hence a custom has arisen in many tribes of giving the bones a second burial or otherwise disposing of them when the flesh is quite decayed1 #aff2 tree-burial followed by earth-burial in some ,australian tribes1 #aff-afh2 general conclusion as to the belief in immortality and the worship of the dead among the ,australian aborigines1 #afh sq4 ,lecture ,,viii4--,the ,belief in ,immortality among the ,natives of the ,torres ,straits ,islands ,racial affinities of the ,torres ,straits ,islanders1 pp4 #agj sq42 their material and social culture1 #aga sq42 no developed worship of the dead among them1 #agb sq42 their fear of ghosts1 #agc-age2 home of the dead a mythical island in the west1 #age sq42 elaborate funeral ceremonies of the ,torres ,straits ,islanders characterised by dramatic representations of the dead and by the preservation of their skulls1 which were consulted as oracles1 #agf4 ,funeral ceremonies of the ,western ,islanders1 #agg-ahj2 part played by the brothers-in-law of the deceased at these ceremonies1 #agg sq42 removal of the head and preparation of the skull for use in divination1 #agh sq42 great death-dance performed by masked men who personated the deceased1 #agi sq4 ,funeral ceremonies of the ,eastern ,islanders1 #ahj-ahh2 soul of the dead carried away by a masked actor1 #aha sq42 dramatic performance by disguised men representing ghosts1 #ahb sq42 blood and hair of relatives offered to the dead1 #ahc sq42 mummification of the corpse1 #ahd2 costume of mourners1 #ahd2 cuttings for the dead1 #ahd sq42 death-dance by men personating ghosts1 #ahe-ahh2 preservation of the mummy and afterwards of the head or a wax model of it to be used in divination1 #ahh4 ,images of the gods perhaps developed out of mummies of the dead1 and a sacred or even secular drama developed out of funeral dances1 #ahi4 ,lecture ,,ix4--,the ,belief in ,immortality ,among the ,natives ,of ,british ,new ,guinea ,the two races of ,new ,guinea1 the ,papuan and the ,melanesian1 pp4 #aij sq42 beliefs and customs of the ,motu concerning the dead1 #aib2 the ,koita and their beliefs as to the human soul and the state of the dead1 #aic-aie2 alleged communications with the dead by means of mediums1 #aie sq42 fear of the dead1 especially of a dead wife1 #aif sq42 beliefs of the ,mafulu concerning the dead1 #aih2 their burial customs1 #aih sq42 their use of the skulls and bones of the dead at a great festival1 #aii-bja2 worship of the dead among the natives of the ,aroma district1 #bja sq42 the ,hood ,peninsula1 #bjb sq42 beliefs and customs concerning the dead among the natives of the ,hood ,peninsula1 #bjc-bjf2 seclusion of widows and widowers1 #bjc sq42 the ghost-seer1 #bjd sq42 application of the juices of the dead to the persons of the living1 #bje2 precautions taken by manslayers against the ghosts of their victims1 #bje sq42 purification for homicide originally a mode of averting the angry ghost of the slain1 #bjf2 beliefs and customs concerning the dead among the ,massim of south-eastern ,new ,guinea1 #bjf-baj2 ,hiyoyoa1 the land of the dead1 #bjg2 purification of mourners by bathing and shaving1 #bjg sq42 foods forbidden to mourners1 #bjh sq42 fires on the grave1 #bji2 the land of the dead1 #bji sq42 names of the dead not mentioned1 #baj2 beliefs and customs concerning the dead among the ,papuans of ,kiwai1 #baa-bad2 ,adiri1 the land of the dead1 #baa-bac2 appearance of the dead to the living in dreams1 #bac sq42 offerings to the dead1 #bad2 dreams as a source of the belief in immortality1 #bad4 ,lecture ,x4--,the ,belief in ,immortality among the ,natives of ,german ,new ,guinea ,andrew ,lang1 pp4 #baf sq42 review of preceding lectures1 #bag sq4 ,the ,papuans of ,tumleo1 their material culture1 #bah-bbj2 their temples1 #bbj sq42 their bachelors' houses containing the skulls of the dead1 #bba2 spirits of the dead as the causes of sickness and disease1 #bbb sq42 burial and mourning customs1 #bbc sq42 fate of the human soul after death1 #bbd2 monuments to the dead1 #bbe2 disinterment of the bones1 #bbe2 propitiation of ghosts and spirits1 #bbf2 guardian-spirits in the temples1 #bbf sq4 ,the ,monumbo of ,potsdam ,harbour1 #bbg sq42 their beliefs concerning the spirits of the dead1 #bbh sq42 their fear of ghosts1 #bbi2 their treatment of manslayers1 #bbi sq4 ,the ,tamos of ,astrolabe ,bay1 #bcj2 their ideas as to the souls of the dead1 #bca sq42 their fear of ghosts1 #bcb sqq42 their ,secret ,society and rites of initiation1 #bcc2 their preservation of the jawbones of the dead1 #bcd sq42 their sham fights after a death1 #bce sq42 these fights perhaps intended to throw dust in the eyes of the ghost1 #bcf sq4 ,lecture ,,xi4--,the ,belief in ,immortality among the ,natives of ,german ,new ,guinea 7continued7 ,the ,papuans of ,cape ,king ,william1 pp4 #bch sq42 their ideas as to spirits and the souls of the dead1 #bci sq42 their belief in sorcery as a cause of death1 #bdj sq42 their funeral and mourning customs1 #bda sq42 the fate of the soul after death1 #bdb4 ,the ,yabim of ,finsch ,harbour1 their material and artistic culture1 #bdb sq42 their clubhouses for men1 #bdc2 their beliefs as to the state of the dead1 #bdd sq42 the ghostly ferry1 #bdd sq42 transmigration of human souls into animals1 #bde2 the return of the ghosts1 #bdf2 offerings to ghosts1 #bdf2 ghosts provided with fire1 #bdf sq42 ghosts help in the cultivation of land1 #bdg sq42 burial and mourning customs1 #bdh sq42 divination to discover the sorcerer who has caused a death1 #bdi sq42 bull-roarers1 #bej2 initiation of young men1 #bej sqq42 the rite of circumcision1 the novices supposed to be swallowed by a monster1 #bea sq42 the return of the novices1 #bec2 the essence of the initiatory rites seems to be a simulation of death and resurrection1 #bec sqq42 the new birth among the ,akikuyu of ,british ,east ,africa1 #bed4 ,lecture ,,xii4--,the ,belief in ,immortality among the ,natives of ,german ,new ,guinea 7continued7 ,the ,bukaua of ,huon ,gulf1 their means of subsistence and men's clubhouses1 pp4 #bef sq42 their ideas as to the souls of the dead1 #beg2 sickness and death caused by ghosts and sorcerers1 #beg sq42 fear of the ghosts of the slain1 #beh2 prayers to ancestral spirits on behalf of the crops1 #bei2 first-fruits offered to the spirits of the dead1 #bei2 burial and mourning customs1 #bei sq42 initiation of young men1 novices at circumcision supposed to be swallowed and afterwards disgorged by a monster1 #bfj sq4 ,the ,kai1 a ,papuan tribe of mountaineers inland from ,finsch ,harbour1 #bfb2 their country1 mode of agriculture1 and villages1 #bfb sq42 observations of a ,german missionary on their animism1 #bfc sq42 the essential rationality of the savage1 #bfd-bff2 the ,kai theory of the two sorts of human souls1 #bfg sq42 death commonly thought to be caused by sorcery1 #bfh sq42 danger incurred by the sorcerer1 #bfi2 many hurts and maladies attributed to the action of ghosts1 #bfi sq42 capturing lost souls1 #bgj sq42 ghosts extracted from the body of a sick man or scraped from his person1 #bga2 extravagant demonstrations of grief at the death of a sick man1 #bga-bgc2 hypocritical character of these demonstrations1 which are intended to deceive the ghost1 #bgc2 burial and mourning customs1 preservation of the lower jawbone and one of the lower arm bones1 #bgd2 mourning costume1 seclusion of widow or widower1 #bgd sq42 widows sometimes strangled to accompany their dead husbands1 #bge2 house or village deserted after a death1 #bge4 ,lecture ,,xiii4--,the ,belief in ,immortality among the ,natives of ,german ,new ,guinea 7continued7 ,the ,kai 7continued71 their offerings to the dead1 p4 #bgf2 divination by means of ghosts to detect the sorcerer who has caused a death1 #bgf-bgh2 avenging the death on the sorcerer and his people1 #bgh sq42 precautions against the ghosts of the slain1 #bgi sq42 attempts to deceive the ghosts of the murdered1 #bhj-bhb2 pretence of avenging the ghost of a murdered man1 #bhb2 fear of ghosts by night1 #bhb sq42 services rendered by the spirits of the dead to farmers and hunters1 #bhc-bhe2 the journey of the soul to the spirit land1 #bhe sq42 life of the dead in the other world1 #bhf sq42 ghosts die the second death and turn into animals1 #bhg2 ghosts of famous people invoked long after their death1 #bhg-bhi2 possible development of ghosts into gods1 #bhi sq42 lads at circumcision supposed to be swallowed and disgorged by a monster1 #bij sq4 ,the ,tami ,islanders of ,huon ,gulf1 #bia2 their theory of a double human soul1 a long one and a short one1 #bia sq42 departure of the short soul for ,lamboam1 the nether world of the dead1 #bib2 offerings to the dead1 #bib2 appeasing the ghost1 #bib sq42 funeral and mourning customs1 dances in honour of the dead1 offerings thrown into the fire1 #bic sq42 bones of the dead dug up and kept in the house for a time1 #bid sq4 ,lecture ,,xiv4--,the ,belief in ,immortality among the ,natives of ,german and ,dutch ,new ,guinea ,the ,tami ,islanders of ,huon ,gulf 7continued71 their doctrine of souls and gods1 pp4 #bif sq42 dances of masked men representing spirits1 #big2 worship of ancestral spirits and offerings to them1 #big sq42 life of the souls in ,lamboam1 the nether world1 #bii sq42 evocation of ghosts by the ghost-seer1 #cjj2 sickness caused by ghosts1 #cjj sq42 novices at circumcision supposed to be swallowed and disgorged by a monster1 #cja sq42 meaning of the bodily mutilations inflicted on young men at puberty obscure1 #cjb sq4 ,the natives of ,dutch ,new ,guinea1 #cjc-cbc2 the ,noofoors of ,geelvink ,bay1 their material culture and arts of life1 #cjc-cje2 their fear and worship of the dead1 #cje-cjg2 wooden images 7korwar7 of the dead kept in the houses and carried in canoes to be used as oracles1 #cjg sq42 the images consulted in sickness and taken with the people to war1 #cjh-caj2 offerings to the images1 #caj sq42 souls of those who have died away from home recalled to animate the images1 #caa2 skulls of the dead1 especially of firstborn children and of parents1 inserted in the images1 #cab sq42 bodies of young children hung on trees1 #cab sq42 mummies of dead relatives kept in the houses1 #cac2 seclusion of mourners and restrictions on their diet1 #cac sq42 tattooing in honour of the dead1 #cad2 teeth and hair of the dead worn by relatives1 #cad sq42 rebirth of parents in their children1 #cae4 ,the natives of islands off the west coast of ,new ,guinea1 their wooden images of dead ancestors and shrines for the residence of the ancestral spirits1 #cae sq42 their festivals in honour of the dead1 #caf2 souls of ancestors supposed to reside in the images and to protect the house and household1 #cag4 ,the natives of the ,macluer ,gulf1 their images and bowls in honour of the dead1 #cag sq4 ,the natives of the ,mimika district1 their burial and mourning customs1 their preservation of the skulls of the dead1 and their belief in ghosts1 #cah4 ,the natives of ,windessi1 their burial customs1 #cah sq42 divination after a death1 #cai2 mourning customs1 #cai sq42 festival of the dead1 #cbj sq42 wooden images of the dead1 #cba2 doctrine of souls and of their fate after death1 #cba sq42 medicine-men inspired by the souls of the dead1 #cbb sq42 ghosts of slain enemies driven away1 #cbc4 ,lecture ,,xv4--,the ,belief in ,immortality among the ,natives of ,southern ,melanesia 7,new ,caledonia7 ,the ,melanesians in general1 their material culture1 p4 #cbd2 ,southern ,melanesia1 the ,new ,caledonians1 and ,father ,lambert's account of them1 #cbe2 their ideas as to the spirit land and the way thither1 #cbe sq42 burial customs1 #cbf2 cuttings and brandings for the dead1 #cbf sq42 property of the dead destroyed1 #cbg2 seclusion of gravediggers and restrictions imposed on them1 #cbg2 sham fight in honour of the dead1 #cbg sq42 skulls of the dead preserved and worshipped on various occasions1 such as sickness1 fishing1 and famine1 #cbh-ccj2 caves used as charnel-houses and sanctuaries of the dead in the ,isle of ,pines1 #ccj-ccb2 prayers and sacrifices to the ancestral spirits1 #ccb sq42 prayer-posts1 #ccc sq42 sacred stones associated with the dead and used to cause dearth or plenty1 madness1 a good crop of bread-fruit or yams1 drought1 rain1 a good catch of fish1 and so on1 #ccd-cch2 the religion of the ,new ,caledonians mainly a worship of the dead tinctured with magic1 #cch4 ,evidence as to the natives of ,new ,caledonia collected by ,dr4 ,george ,turner1 #cci-cdb2 material culture of the ,new ,caledonians1 #cci2 their burial customs1 the skulls and nails of the dead preserved and used to fertilise the yam plantations1 #cci sq42 worship of ancestors and prayers to the dead1 #cdj2 festivals in honour of the dead1 #cdj sq42 making rain by means of the skeletons of the dead1 #cda2 execution of sorcerers1 #cda sq42 white men identified with the spirits of the dead1 #cdb4 ,lecture ,,xvi4--,the ,belief in ,immortality among the ,natives of ,central ,melanesia ,central ,melanesia divided into two archipelagoes1 the religion of the ,western ,islands 7,solomon ,islands7 characterised by a worship of the dead1 the religion of the ,eastern ,islands 7,new ,hebrides1 ,banks' ,islands1 ,torres ,islands1 ,santa ,cruz ,islands7 characterised by a worship of non-human spirits1 pp4 #cdc sq42 ,central ,melanesian theory of the soul1 #cdd sq42 the land of the dead either in certain islands or in a subterranean region called ,panoi1 #cde2 ghosts of power and ghosts of no account1 #cde sq42 supernatural power 7mana7 acquired through ghosts1 #cdf sq4 ,burial customs in the ,western ,islands 7,solomon ,islands71 #cdg sqq42 land-burial and sea-burial1 land-ghosts and sea-ghosts1 #cdg sq42 funeral feasts and burnt-offerings to the dead1 #cdh sq42 the land of the dead and the ghostly ferry1 #cej sq42 ghosts die the second death and turn into the nests of white ants1 #cej sq42 preservation of the skull and jawbone in order to ensure the protection of the ghost1 #cea sq42 human heads sought in order to add fresh spiritual power 7mana7 to the ghost of a dead chief1 #ceb4 ,beliefs and customs concerning the dead in the ,eastern ,islands 7,new ,hebrides1 ,banks' ,islands1 ,torres ,islands71 #ceb sqq42 ,panoi1 the subterranean abode of the dead1 #cec sq42 ghosts die the second death1 #ced2 different fates of the souls of the good and bad1 #ced sq42 descent of the living into the world of the dead1 #cee2 burial customs of the ,banks' ,islanders1 #cee sqq42 dead sometimes temporarily buried in the house1 #cee2 display of property beside the corpse and funeral oration1 #cee sq42 sham burial of eminent men1 #cef2 ghosts driven away from the village1 #cef-ceh2 deceiving the ghosts of women who have died in child-bed1 #ceh2 funeral feasts1 #ceh sq42 funeral customs in the ,new ,hebrides1 #cei sqq42 the aged buried alive1 #cei sq42 seclusion of mourners and restrictions on their diet1 #cfj2 sacrifice of pigs1 #cfj sq42 the journey of the ghost to the spirit land1 #cfa sq42 provisions made by the living for the welfare of the dead1 #cfb4 ,only ghosts of powerful men worshipped1 #cfb sq42 institution of the worship of a martial ghost1 #cfc sq42 offerings of food and drink to the dead1 #cfd sq42 sacrifice of pigs to ghosts in the ,solomon ,islands1 #cfe sq4 ,lecture ,,xvii4--,the ,belief in ,immortality among the ,natives of ,central ,melanesia 7concluded7 ,public sacrifices to ghosts in the ,solomon ,islands1 pp4 #cfg sq42 offering of first-fruits to ghosts1 #cfh sq42 private ghosts as distinguished from public ghosts1 #cfi sq42 fighting ghosts kept as spiritual auxiliaries1 #cgj2 ghosts employed to make the gardens grow1 #cgj sq42 human sacrifices to ghosts1 #cga sq42 vicarious and other sacrifices to ghosts at ,saa in ,malanta1 #cgb sq42 offerings of first-fruits to ghosts at ,saa1 #cgc sq42 vicarious sacrifices offered for the sick to ghosts in ,santa ,cruz1 #cgd2 the dead represented by stocks in the houses1 #cgd2 native account of sacrifices in ,santa ,cruz1 #cgd sq42 prayers to the dead1 #cgf sq42 sanctuaries of ghosts in the ,solomon ,islands1 #cgg-cgi2 ghosts lodged in animals1 birds1 and fish1 especially in sharks1 #cgi sq4 ,the belief in ghosts underlies the ,melanesian conception of magic1 #chj sq42 sickness commonly caused by ghosts and cured by ghost-seers1 #cha-chd2 contrast between ,melanesian and ,european systems of medicine1 #chd2 weather regulated by ghosts and spirits and by weather-doctors who have the ear of ghosts and spirits1 #chd-chf2 witchcraft or black magic wrought by means of ghosts1 #chf-chh2 prophets inspired by ghosts1 #chh sq42 divination operating through ghosts1 #chi sq42 taboos enforced by ghosts1 #cij sq42 general influence which a belief in the survival of the soul after death has exercised on ,melanesian life1 #cia sq4 ,lecture ,,xviii4--,the ,belief in ,immortality among the ,natives of ,northern and ,eastern ,melanesia ,the natives of ,northern ,melanesia or the ,bismarck ,archipelago 7,new ,britain1 ,new ,ireland1 etc471 their material culture1 commercial habits1 and want of regular government1 pp4 #cic-cie2 their theory of the soul1 #cie sq42 their fear of ghosts1 #cif2 offerings to the dead1 #cif sq42 burial customs1 #cig sq42 preservation of the skulls1 #cih2 customs and beliefs concerning the dead among the ,sulka of ,new ,britain1 #cih-djj1 among the ,moanus of the ,admiralty ,islands1 #djj sq4 and among the natives of the ,kaniet ,islands1 #dja sq42 natural deaths commonly attributed to sorcery1 #djb2 divination to discover the sorcerer who caused the death1 #djb2 death customs in the ,duke of ,york ,island1 cursing the sorcerer1 skulls preserved1 feasts and dances1 #djc2 prayers to the dead1 #djc sq42 the land of the dead and the fate of the departed souls1 hard lot of impecunious ghosts1 #djd-djf4 ,the natives of ,eastern ,melanesia 7,fiji71 their material culture and political constitution1 #djf-djh2 means of subsistence1 #djh2 moral character1 #djh sq42 scenery of the ,fijian islands1 #dji sq42 the ,fijian doctrine of souls1 #daj-dab2 souls of rascals caught in scarves1 #dab sq42 fear of sorcery and precautions against it1 #dac sq42 beneficial effect of the fear in enforcing habits of personal cleanliness1 #dad2 fear of ghosts and custom of driving them away1 #dad sq42 killing a ghost1 #dae sq42 outwitting grandfather's ghost1 #daf2 special relation of grandfather to grandchild1 #daf2 grandfather's soul reborn in his grandchild1 #dag sq4 ,lecture ,,xix4--,the ,belief in ,immortality among the ,natives of ,eastern ,melanesia 7,fiji7 7continued7 ,indifference of the ,fijians to death1 p4 #dai2 their custom of killing the sick and aged with the consent of the victims1 #dai-dbd2 their readiness to die partly an effect of their belief in immortality1 #dbb sq42 wives strangled or buried alive to accompany their husbands to the spirit land1 #dbd-dbf2 servants and dependants killed to attend their dead lords1 #dbf2 sacrifices of foreskins and fingers in honour of dead chiefs1 #dbf sq42 boys circumcised in order to save the lives of their fathers or fathers' brothers1 #dbg2 saturnalia attending such rites of circumcision1 #dbg sq42 the ,nanga1 or sacred enclosure of stones1 dedicated to the worship of ancestors1 #dbh sq42 first-fruits of the yams offered to the ancestors in the ,nanga1 #dbi2 initiation of young men in the ,nanga1 drama of death and resurrection1 sacrament of food and water1 #dbi-dcb2 the initiation followed by a period of sexual licence1 #dcc2 the initiatory rites apparently intended to introduce the novices to the ancestral spirits and endow them with the powers of the dead1 #dcd sq42 the rites seem to have been imported into ,fiji by immigrants from the west1 #dce sq42 the licence attending these rites perhaps a reversion to primitive communism for the purpose of propitiating the ancestral spirits1 #dcf sq42 description of the ,nanga or sacred enclosure of stones1 #dcg sq42 comparison with the cromlechs and other megalithic monuments of ,europe1 #dch4 ,lecture ,,xx4--,the ,belief in ,immortality among the ,natives of ,eastern ,melanesia 7,fiji7 7concluded7 ,worship of parents and other dead relations in ,fiji1 pp4 #dci sq42 ,fijian notion of divinity 7kalou71 #ddj2 two classes of gods1 namely1 divine gods and human gods or deified men1 #ddj sq42 temples 7bures7 #dda sq42 worship at the temples1 #ddc2 priests 7betes71 their oracular inspiration by the gods1 #ddc-ddf2 human sacrifices on various occasions1 such as building a house or launching a new canoe1 #ddf sq42 high estimation in which manslaughter was held by the ,fijians1 #ddg sq42 consecration of manslayers and restrictions laid on them1 probably from fear of the ghosts of their victims1 #ddh sq42 certain funeral customs based apparently on the fear of ghosts1 #dej sqq42 persons who have handled a corpse forbidden to touch food with their hands1 #dej sq42 seclusion of gravediggers1 #dea2 mutilations1 brandings1 and fasts in honour of the dead1 #dea sq42 the dead carried out of the house by a special opening to prevent the return of the ghost1 #deb-dfa2 the other world and the way thither1 #dfb sqq42 the ghostly ferry1 #dfb sq42 the ghost and the pandanus tree1 #dfc sq42 hard fate of the unmarried dead1 #dfd2 the ,killer of ,souls1 #dfd sq42 ghosts precipitated into a lake1 #dfe sq42 ,murimuria1 an inferior sort of heaven1 #dff2 the ,fijian ,elysium1 #dff sq42 transmigration and annihilation1 the few that are saved1 #dfg4 ,concluding observations1 #dfg-dga2 strength and universality of the belief in immortality among savages1 #dfh2 the state of war among savage and civilised peoples often a direct consequence of the belief in immortality1 #dfh sq42 economic loss involved in sacrifices to the dead1 #dfi2 how does the savage belief in immortality bear on the truth or falsehood of that belief in general8 #dfi2 the answer depends to some extent on the view we take of human nature1 #dfi-dga2 the conclusion left open1 #dga4 ,note4--,myth of the ,continuance of ,death ,index ,,lecture ,i ,,introduction ,sidenote3 ,natural theology1 and the three modes of handling it1 the dogmatic1 the philosophical1 and the historical4 ,the subject of these lectures is a branch of natural theology4 ,by natural theology ,i understand that reasoned knowledge of a ,god or gods which man may be supposed1 whether rightly or wrongly1 capable of attaining to by the exercise of his natural faculties alone4 ,thus defined1 the subject may be treated in at least three different ways1 namely1 dogmatically1 philosophically1 and historically4 ,we may simply state the dogmas of natural theology which appear to us to be true3 that is the dogmatic method4 ,or1 secondly1 we may examine the validity of the grounds on which these dogmas have been or may be maintained3 that is the philosophic method4 ,or1 thirdly1 we may content ourselves with describing the various views which have been held on the subject and tracing their origin and evolution in history3 that is the historical method4 ,the first of these three methods assumes the truth of natural theology1 the second discusses it1 and the third neither assumes nor discusses but simply ignores it3 the historian as such is not concerned with the truth or falsehood of the beliefs he describes1 his business is merely to record them and to track them as far as possible to their sources4 ,now that the subject of natural theology is ripe for a purely dogmatic treatment will hardly1 ,i think1 be maintained by any one1 to whatever school of thought he may belong2 accordingly that method of treatment need not occupy us further4 ,far otherwise is it with the philosophic method which undertakes to enquire into the truth or falsehood of the belief in a ,god3 no method could be more appropriate at a time like the present1 when the opinions of educated and thoughtful men on that profound topic are so unsettled1 diverse1 and conflicting4 ,a philosophical treatment of the subject might comprise a discussion of such questions as whether a natural knowledge of ,god is possible to man1 and1 if possible1 by what means and through what faculties it is attainable2 what are the grounds for believing in the existence of a ,god2 and1 if this belief is justified1 what may be supposed to be his essential nature and attributes1 and what his relations to the world in general and to man in particular4 ,now ,i desire to confess at once that an adequate discussion of these and kindred questions would far exceed both my capacity and my knowledge2 for he who would do justice to so arduous an enquiry should not only be endowed with a comprehensive and penetrating genius1 but should possess a wide and accurate acquaintance with the best accredited results of philosophic speculation and scientific research4 ,to such qualifications ,i can lay no claim1 and accordingly ,i must regard myself as unfitted for a purely philosophic treatment of natural theology4 ,to speak plainly1 the question of the existence of a ,god is too deep for me4 ,i dare neither affirm nor deny it4 ,i can only humbly confess my ignorance4 ,accordingly1 if ,lord ,gifford had required of his lecturers either a dogmatic or a philosophical treatment of natural theology1 ,i could not have undertaken to deliver the lectures4 ,sidenote3 ,the method followed in these lectures is the historical4 ,but in his deed of foundation1 as ,i understand it1 ,lord ,gifford left his lecturers free to follow the historical rather than the dogmatic or the philosophical method of treatment4 ,he says3 ,the lecturers shall be under no restraint whatever in their treatment of their theme3 for example1 they may freely discuss 7and it may be well to do so7 all questions about man's conceptions of ,god or the ,infinite1 their origin1 nature1 and truth4 ,in making this provision the founder appears to have allowed and indeed encouraged the lecturers not only to discuss1 if they chose to do so1 the philosophical basis of a belief in ,god1 but also to set forth the various conceptions of the divine nature which have been held by men in all ages and to trace them to their origin3 in short1 he permitted and encouraged the lecturers to compose a history of natural theology or of some part of it4 ,even when it is thus limited to its historical aspect the theme is too vast to be mastered completely by any one man3 the most that a single enquirer can do is to take a general but necessarily superficial survey of the whole and to devote himself especially to the investigation of some particular branch or aspect of the subject4 ,this ,i have done more or less for many years1 and accordingly ,i think that without being presumptuous ,i may attempt1 in compliance with ,lord ,gifford's wishes and directions1 to lay before my hearers a portion of the history of religion to which ,i have paid particular attention4 ,that the historical study of religious beliefs1 quite apart from the question of their truth or falsehood1 is both interesting and instructive will hardly be disputed by any intelligent and thoughtful enquirer4 ,whether they have been well or ill founded1 these beliefs have deeply influenced the conduct of human affairs2 they have furnished some of the most powerful1 persistent1 and far-reaching motives of action2 they have transformed nations and altered the face of the globe4 ,no one who would understand the general history of mankind can afford to ignore the annals of religion4 ,if he does so1 he will inevitably fall into the most serious misconceptions even in studying branches of human activity which might seem1 on a superficial view1 to be quite unaffected by religious considerations4 ,sidenote3 ,an historical enquiry into the evolution of religion prejudices neither the question of the ethical value of religious practice nor the question of the truth or falsehood of religious belief4 ,therefore to trace theological and in general religious ideas to their sources and to follow them through all the manifold influences which they have exerted on the destinies of our race must always be an object of prime importance to the historian1 whatever view he may take of their speculative truth or ethical value4 ,clearly we cannot estimate their ethical value until we have learned the modes in which they have actually determined human conduct for good or evil3 in other words1 we cannot judge of the morality of religious beliefs until we have ascertained their history3 the facts must be known before judgment can be passed on them3 the work of the historian must precede the work of the moralist4 ,even the question of the validity or truth of religious creeds cannot1 perhaps1 be wholly dissociated from the question of their origin4 ,if1 for example1 we discover that doctrines which we had accepted with implicit faith from tradition have their close analogies in the barbarous superstitions of ignorant savages1 we can hardly help suspecting that our own cherished doctrines may have originated in the similar superstitions of our rude forefathers2 and the suspicion inevitably shakes the confidence with which we had hitherto regarded these articles of our faith4 ,the doubt thus cast on our old creed is perhaps illogical1 since even if we should discover that the creed did originate in mere superstition1 in other words1 that the grounds on which it was first adopted were false and absurd1 this discovery would not really disprove the beliefs themselves1 for it is perfectly possible that a belief may be true1 though the reasons alleged in favour of it are false and absurd3 indeed we may affirm with great probability that a multitude of human beliefs1 true in themselves1 have been accepted and defended by millions of people on grounds which cannot bear exact investigation for a moment4 ,for example1 if the facts of savage life which it will be my duty to submit to you should have the effect of making the belief in immortality look exceedingly foolish1 those of my hearers who cherish the belief may console themselves by reflecting that1 as ,i have just pointed out1 a creed is not necessarily false because some of the reasons adduced in its favour are invalid1 because it has sometimes been supported by the despicable tricks of vulgar imposture1 and because the practices to which it has given rise have often been in the highest degree not only absurd but pernicious4 ,sidenote3 ,yet such an enquiry may shake the confidence with which traditional beliefs have been held4 ,thus an historical enquiry into the origin of religious creeds cannot1 strictly speaking1 invalidate1 still less refute1 the creeds themselves1 though it may1 and doubtless often does weaken the confidence with which they are held4 ,this weakening of religious faith as a consequence of a closer scrutiny of religious origins is unquestionably a matter of great importance to the community2 for society has been built and cemented to a great extent on a foundation of religion1 and it is impossible to loosen the cement and shake the foundation without endangering the superstructure4 ,the candid historian of religion will not dissemble the danger incidental to his enquiries1 but nevertheless it is his duty to prosecute them unflinchingly4 ,come what may1 he must ascertain the facts so far as it is possible to do so2 having done that1 he may leave to others the onerous and delicate task of adjusting the new knowledge to the practical needs of mankind4 ,the narrow way of truth may often look dark and threatening1 and the wayfarer may often be weary2 yet even at the darkest and the weariest he will go forward in the trust1 if not in the knowledge1 that the way will lead at last to light and to rest2 in plain words1 that there is no ultimate incompatibility between the good and the true4 ,sidenote3 ,to discover the origin of the idea of ,god we must study the beliefs of primitive man4 ,now if we are indeed to discover the origin of man's conception of ,god1 it is not sufficient to analyse the ideas which the educated and enlightened portion of mankind entertain on the subject at the present day2 for in great measure these ideas are traditional1 they have been handed down with little or no independent reflection or enquiry from generation to generation2 hence in order to detect them in their inception it becomes necessary to push our analysis far back into the past4 ,large materials for such an historical enquiry are provided for us in the literature of ancient nations which1 though often sadly mutilated and imperfect1 has survived to modern times and throws much precious light on the religious beliefs and practices of the peoples who created it4 ,but the ancients themselves inherited a great part of their religion from their prehistoric ancestors1 and accordingly it becomes desirable to investigate the religious notions of these remote forefathers of mankind1 since in them we may hope at last to arrive at the ultimate source1 the historical origin1 of the whole long development4 ,sidenote3 ,the beliefs of primitive man can only be understood through a comparative study of the various races in the lower stages of culture4 ,but how can this be done8 how can we investigate the ideas of peoples who1 ignorant of writing1 had no means of permanently recording their beliefs8 ,at first sight the thing seems impossible2 the thread of enquiry is broken off short2 it has landed us on the brink of a gulf which looks impassable4 ,but the case is not so hopeless as it appears4 ,true1 we cannot investigate the beliefs of prehistoric ages directly1 but the comparative method of research may furnish us with the means of studying them indirectly2 it may hold up to us a mirror in which1 if we do not see the originals1 we may perhaps contemplate their reflections4 ,for a comparative study of the various races of mankind demonstrates1 or at least renders it highly probable1 that humanity has everywhere started at an exceedingly low level of culture1 a level far beneath that of the lowest existing savages1 and that from this humble beginning all the various races of men have gradually progressed upward at different rates1 some faster and some slower1 till they have attained the particular stage which each of them occupies at the present time4 ,sidenote3 ,hence the need of studying the beliefs and customs of savages1 if we are to understand the evolution of culture in general4 ,if this conclusion is correct1 the various stages of savagery and barbarism on which many tribes and peoples now stand represent1 broadly speaking1 so many degrees of retarded social and intellectual development1 they correspond to similar stages which the ancestors of the civilised races may be supposed to have passed through at more or less remote periods of their history4 ,thus when we arrange all the known peoples of the world according to the degree of their savagery or civilisation in a graduated scale of culture1 we obtain not merely a comparative view of their relative positions in the scale1 but also in some measure an historical record of the genetic development of culture from a very early time down to the present day4 ,hence a study of the savage and barbarous races of mankind is of the greatest importance for a full understanding of the beliefs and practices1 whether religious1 social1 moral1 or political1 of the most civilised races1 including our own1 since it is practically certain that a large part of these beliefs and practices originated with our savage ancestors1 and has been inherited by us from them1 with more or less of modification1 through a long line of intermediate generations4 ,sidenote3 ,the need is all the more urgent because savages are rapidly disappearing or being transformed4 ,that is why the study of existing savages at the present day engrosses so much of the attention of civilised peoples4 ,we see that if we are to comprehend not only our past history but our present condition1 with all its many intricate and perplexing problems1 we must begin at the beginning by attempting to discover the mental state of our savage forefathers1 who bequeathed to us so much of the faiths1 the laws1 and the institutions which we still cherish2 and more and more men are coming to perceive that the only way open to us of doing this effectually is to study the mental state of savages who to this day occupy a state of culture analogous to that of our rude progenitors4 ,through contact with civilisation these savages are now rapidly disappearing1 or at least losing the old habits and ideas which render them a document of priceless historical value for us4 ,hence we have every motive for prosecuting the study of savagery with ardour and diligence before it is too late1 before the record is gone for ever4 ,we are like an heir whose title-deeds must be scrutinised before he can take possession of the inheritance1 but who finds the handwriting of the deeds so fading and evanescent that it threatens to disappear entirely before he can read the document to the end4 ,with what keen attention1 what eager haste1 would he not scan the fast-vanishing characters8 ,with the like attention and the like haste civilised men are now applying themselves to the investigation of the fast-vanishing savages4 ,sidenote3 ,savage religion is to be the subject of these lectures4 ,thus if we are to trace historically man's conception of ,god to its origin1 it is desirable1 or rather essential1 that we should begin by studying the most primitive ideas on the subject which are accessible to us1 and the most primitive ideas are unquestionably those of the lowest savages4 ,accordingly in these lectures ,i propose to deal with a particular side or aspect of savage religion4 ,i shall not trench on the sphere of the higher religions1 not only because my knowledge of them is for the most part very slight1 but also because ,i believe that a searching study of the higher and more complex religions should be postponed till we have acquired an accurate knowledge of the lower and simpler4 ,for a similar reason the study of inorganic chemistry naturally precedes the study of organic chemistry1 because inorganic compounds are much simpler and therefore more easily analysed and investigated than organic compounds4 ,so with the chemistry of the mind2 we should analyse the comparatively simple phenomena of savage thought into its constituent elements before we attempt to perform a similar operation on the vastly more complex phenomena of civilised beliefs4 ,sidenote3 ,but only a part of savage religion will be dealt with4 ,but while ,i shall confine myself rigidly to the field of savage religion1 ,i shall not attempt to present you with a complete survey even of that restricted area1 and that for more reasons than one4 ,in the first place the theme1 even with this great limitation1 is far too large to be adequately set forth in the time at my disposal2 the sketch--for it could be no more than a sketch--would be necessarily superficial and probably misleading4 ,in the second place1 even a sketch of primitive religion in general ought to presuppose in the sketcher a fairly complete knowledge of the whole subject1 so that all the parts may appear1 not indeed in detail1 but in their proper relative proportions4 ,now though ,i have given altogether a good deal of time to the study of primitive religion1 ,i am far from having studied it in all its branches1 and ,i could not trust myself to give an accurate general account of it even in outline2 were ,i to attempt such a thing ,i should almost certainly fall1 through sheer ignorance or inadvertence1 into the mistake of exaggerating some features1 unduly diminishing others1 and omitting certain essential features altogether4 ,hence it seems to me better not to commit myself to so ambitious an enterprise but to confine myself in my lectures1 as ,i have always done in my writings1 to a comparatively minute investigation of certain special aspects or forms of primitive religion rather than attempt to embrace in a general view the whole of that large subject4 ,such a relatively detailed study of a single compartment may be less attractive and more tedious than a bird's-eye view of a wider area2 but in the end it may perhaps prove a more solid contribution to knowledge4 ,sidenote3 ,introductory observations4 ,the question of a supernatural revelation excluded4 ,but before ,i come to details ,i wish to make a few general introductory remarks1 and in particular to define some of the terms which ,i shall have occasion to use in the lectures4 ,i have defined natural theology as that reasoned knowledge of a ,god or gods which man may be supposed1 whether rightly or wrongly1 capable of attaining to by the exercise of his natural faculties alone4 ,whether there ever has been or can be a special miraculous revelation of ,god to man through channels different from those through which all other human knowledge is derived1 is a question which does not concern us in these lectures2 indeed it is expressly excluded from their scope by the will of the founder1 who directed the lecturers to treat the subject as a strictly natural science1 without reference to or reliance upon any supposed special exceptional or so-called miraculous revelation4 ,accordingly1 in compliance with these directions1 ,i dismiss at the outset the question of a revelation1 and shall limit myself strictly to natural theology in the sense in which ,i have defined it4 ,sidenote3 ,theology and religion1 how related to each other4 ,i have called natural theology a reasoned knowledge of a ,god or gods to distinguish it from that simple and comparatively1 though ,i believe never absolutely1 unreasoning faith in ,god which suffices for the practice of religion4 ,for theology is at once more and less than religion3 if on the one hand it includes a more complete acquaintance with the grounds of religious belief than is essential to religion1 on the other hand it excludes the observance of those practical duties which are indispensable to any religion worthy of the name4 ,in short1 whereas theology is purely theoretical1 religion is both theoretical and practical1 though the theoretical part of it need not be so highly developed as in theology4 ,but while the subject of the lectures is1 strictly speaking1 natural theology rather than natural religion1 ,i think it would be not only difficult but undesirable to confine our attention to the purely theological or theoretical part of natural religion3 in all religions1 and not least in the undeveloped savage religions with which we shall deal1 theory and practice fuse with and interact on each other too closely to be forcibly disjoined and handled apart4 ,hence throughout the lectures ,i shall not scruple to refer constantly to religious practice as well as to religious theory1 without feeling that thereby ,i am transgressing the proper limits of my subject4 ,sidenote3 ,the term ,god defined4 ,as theology is not only by definition but by etymology a reasoned knowledge or theory of a ,god or gods1 it becomes desirable1 before we proceed further1 to define the sense in which ,i understand and shall employ the word ,god4 ,that sense is neither novel nor abstruse2 it is simply the sense which ,i believe the generality of mankind attach to the term4 ,by a ,god ,i understand a superhuman and supernatural being1 of a spiritual and personal nature1 who controls the world or some part of it on the whole for good1 and who is endowed with intellectual faculties1 moral feelings1 and active powers1 which we can only conceive on the analogy of human faculties1 feelings1 and activities1 though we are bound to suppose that in the divine nature they exist in higher degrees1 perhaps in infinitely higher degrees1 than the corresponding faculties1 feelings1 and activities of man4 ,in short1 by a ,god ,i mean a beneficent supernatural spirit1 the ruler of the world or of some part of it1 who resembles man in nature though he excels him in knowledge1 goodness1 and power4 ,this is1 ,i think1 the sense in which the ordinary man speaks of a ,god1 and ,i believe that he is right in so doing4 ,i am aware that it has been not unusual1 especially perhaps of late years1 to apply the name of ,god to very different conceptions1 to empty it of all implication of personality1 and to reduce it to signifying something very large and very vague1 such as the ,infinite or the ,absolute 7whatever these hard words may signify71 the great ,first ,cause1 the ,universal ,substance1 the stream of tendency by which all things seek to fulfil the law of their being1#a and so forth4 ,now without expressing any opinion as to the truth or falsehood of the views implied by such applications of the name of ,god1 ,i cannot but regard them all as illegitimate extensions of the term1 in short as an abuse of language1 and ,i venture to protest against it in the interest not only of verbal accuracy but of clear thinking1 because it is apt to conceal from ourselves and others a real and very important change of thought3 in particular it may lead many to imagine that the persons who use the name of ,god in one or other of these extended senses retain certain theological opinions which they may in fact have long abandoned4 ,thus the misuse of the name of ,god may resemble the stratagem in war of putting up dummies to make an enemy imagine that a fort is still held after it has been evacuated by the garrison4 ,i am far from alleging or insinuating that the illegitimate extension of the divine name is deliberately employed by theologians or others for the purpose of masking a change of front2 but that it may have that effect seems at least possible4 ,and as we cannot use words in wrong senses without running a serious risk of deceiving ourselves as well as others1 it appears better on all accounts to adhere strictly to the common meaning of the name of ,god as signifying a powerful supernatural and on the whole beneficent spirit1 akin in nature to man2 and if any of us have ceased to believe in such a being we should refrain from applying the old word to the new faith1 and should find some other and more appropriate term to express our meaning4 ,at all events1 speaking for myself1 ,i intend to use the name of ,god consistently in the familiar sense1 and ,i would beg my hearers to bear this steadily in mind4 ,sidenote3 ,monotheism and polytheism4 ,you will have observed that ,i have spoken of natural theology as a reasoned knowledge of a ,god or gods4 ,there is indeed nothing in the definition of ,god which ,i have adopted to imply that he is unique1 in other words1 that there is only one ,god rather than several or many gods4 ,it is true that modern ,european thinkers1 bred in a monotheistic religion1 commonly overlook polytheism as a crude theory unworthy the serious attention of philosophers2 in short1 the champions and the assailants of religion in ,europe alike for the most part tacitly assume that there is either one ,god or none4 ,yet some highly civilised nations of antiquity and of modern times1 such as the ancient ,egyptians1 ,greeks1 and ,romans1 and the modern ,chinese and ,hindoos1 have accepted the polytheistic explanation of the world1 and as no reasonable man will deny the philosophical subtlety of the ,greeks and the ,hindoos1 to say nothing of the rest1 a theory of the universe which has commended itself to them deserves perhaps more consideration than it has commonly received from ,western philosophers2 certainly it cannot be ignored in an historical enquiry into the origin of religion4 ,sidenote3 ,a natural knowledge of ,god can only be acquired by experience4 ,if there is such a thing as natural theology1 that is1 a knowledge of a ,god or gods acquired by our natural faculties alone without the aid of a special revelation1 it follows that it must be obtained by one or other of the methods by which all our natural knowledge is conveyed to us4 ,roughly speaking1 these methods are two in number1 namely1 intuition and experience4 ,now if we ask ourselves1 ,do we know ,god intuitively in the same sense in which we know intuitively our own sensations and the simplest truths of mathematics1 ,i think most men will acknowledge that they do not4 ,it is true that according to ,berkeley the world exists only as it is perceived1 and that our perceptions of it are produced by the immediate action of ,god on our minds1 so that everything we perceive might be described1 if not as an idea in the mind of the deity1 at least as a direct emanation from him4 ,on this theory we might in a sense be said to have an immediate knowledge of ,god4 ,but ,berkeley's theory has found little acceptance1 so far as ,i know1 even among philosophers2 and even if we regarded it as true1 we should still have to admit that the knowledge of ,god implied by it is inferential rather than intuitive in the strict sense of the word3 we infer ,god to be the cause of our perceptions rather than identify him with the perceptions themselves4 ,on the whole1 then1 ,i conclude that man1 or at all events the ordinary man1 has1 properly speaking1 no immediate or intuitive knowledge of ,god1 and that1 if he obtains1 without the aid of revelation1 any knowledge of him at all1 it can only be through the other natural channel of knowledge1 that is1 through experience4 ,sidenote3 ,the nature of experience4 ,in experience1 as distinct from intuition1 we reach our conclusions not directly through simple contemplation of the particular sensations1 emotions1 or ideas of which we are at the moment conscious1 but indirectly by calling up before the imagination and comparing with each other our memories of a variety of sensations1 emotions1 or ideas of which we have been conscious in the past1 and by selecting or abstracting from the mental images so compared the points in which they resemble each other4 ,the points of resemblance thus selected or abstracted from a number of particulars compose what we call an abstract or general idea1 and from a comparison of such abstract or general ideas with each other we arrive at general conclusions1 which define the relations of the ideas to each other4 ,experience in general consists in the whole body of conclusions thus deduced from a comparison of all the particular sensations1 emotions1 and ideas which make up the conscious life of the individual4 ,hence in order to constitute experience the mind has to perform a more or less complex series of operations1 which are commonly referred to certain mental faculties1 such as memory1 imagination1 and judgment4 ,this analysis of experience does not pretend to be philosophically complete or exact2 but perhaps it is sufficiently accurate for the purpose of these lectures1 the scope of which is not philosophical but historical4 ,sidenote3 ,two kinds of experience1 the experience of our own mind and the experience of an external world4 ,now experience in the widest sense of the word may be conveniently distinguished into two sorts1 the experience of our own mind and the experience of an external world4 ,the distinction is indeed1 like the others with which ,i am dealing at present1 rather practically useful than theoretically sound2 certainly it would not be granted by all philosophers1 for many of them have held that we neither have nor with our present faculties can possibly attain to any immediate knowledge or perception of an external world1 we merely infer its existence from our own sensations1 which are as strictly a part of our mind as the ideas and emotions of our waking life or the visions of sleep4 ,according to them1 the existence of matter or of an external world is1 so far as we are concerned1 merely an hypothesis devised to explain the order of our sensations2 it never has been perceived by any man1 woman1 or child who ever lived on earth2 we have and can have no immediate knowledge or perception of anything but the states and operations of our own mind4 ,on this theory what we call the world1 with all its supposed infinitudes of space and time1 its systems of suns and planets1 its seemingly endless forms of inorganic matter and organic life1 shrivels up1 on a close inspection1 into a fleeting1 a momentary figment of thought4 ,it is like one of those glass baubles1 iridescent with a thousand varied and delicate hues1 which a single touch suffices to shatter into dust4 ,the philosopher1 like the sorcerer1 has but to wave his magic wand1 ,and1 like the baseless fabric of this vision1 ,the cloud-capped towers1 the gorgeous palaces1 ,the solemn temples1 the great globe itself1 ,yea1 all which it inherit1 shall dissolve ,and1 like this insubstantial pageant faded1 ,leave not a rack behind4 ,we are such stuff ,as dreams are made on1 and our little life ,is rounded with a sleep4 ,sidenote3 ,the distinction rather popular and convenient than philosophically strict4 ,it would be beyond my province1 even if it were within my power1 to discuss these airy speculations1 and thereby to descend into the arena where for ages subtle dialecticians have battled with each other over the reality or unreality of an external world4 ,for my purpose it suffices to adopt the popular and convenient distinction of mind and matter and hence to divide experience into two sorts1 an inward experience of the acts and states of our own minds1 and an outward experience of the acts and states of that physical universe by which we seem to be surrounded4 ,sidenote3 ,the knowledge or conception of ,god has been attained both by inward and by outward experience4 ,now if a natural knowledge of ,god is only possible by means of experience1 in other words1 by a process of reasoning based on observation1 it will follow that such a knowledge may conceivably be acquired either by the way of inward or of outward experience2 in other words1 it may be attained either by reflecting on the processes of our own minds or by observing the processes of external nature4 ,in point of fact1 if we survey the history of thought1 mankind appears to have arrived at a knowledge1 or at all events at a conception1 of deity by both these roads4 ,let me say a few words as to the two roads which lead1 or seem to lead1 man to ,god4 ,sidenote3 ,the conception of ,god is attained by inward experience1 that is1 by the observation of certain remarkable thoughts and feelings which are attributed to the inspiration of a deity4 ,practical dangers of the theory of inspiration4 ,in the first place1 then1 men in many lands and many ages have experienced certain extraordinary emotions and entertained certain extraordinary ideas1 which1 unable to account for them by reference to the ordinary forms of experience1 they have set down to the direct action of a powerful spirit or deity working on their minds and even entering into and taking possession of their bodies2 and in this excited state--for violent excitement is characteristic of these manifestations--the patient believes himself to be possessed of supernatural knowledge and supernatural power4 ,this real or supposed mode of apprehending a divine spirit and entering into communion with it1 is commonly and appropriately called inspiration4 ,the phenomenon is familiar to us from the example of the ,hebrew nation1 who believed that their prophets were thus inspired by the deity1 and that their sacred books were regularly composed under the divine afflatus4 ,the belief is by no means singular1 indeed it appears to be world-wide2 for it would be hard to point to any race of men among whom instances of such inspiration have not been reported2 and the more ignorant and savage the race the more numerous1 to judge by the reports1 are the cases of inspiration4 ,volumes might be filled with examples1 but through the spread of information as to the lower races in recent years the topic has become so familiar that ,i need not stop to illustrate it by instances4 ,i will merely say that among savages the theory of inspiration or possession is commonly invoked to explain all abnormal mental states1 particularly insanity or conditions of mind bordering on it1 so that persons more or less crazed in their wits1 and particularly hysterical or epileptic patients1 are for that very reason thought to be peculiarly favoured by the spirits and are therefore consulted as oracles1 their wild and whirling words passing for the revelations of a higher power1 whether a god or a ghost1 who considerately screens his too dazzling light under a thick veil of dark sayings and mysterious ejaculations4#b ,i need hardly point out the very serious dangers which menace any society where such theories are commonly held and acted upon4 ,if the decisions of a whole community in matters of the gravest importance are left to turn on the wayward fancies1 the whims and vagaries of the insane or the semi-insane1 what are likely to be the consequences to the commonwealth8 ,what1 for example1 can be expected to result from a war entered upon at such dictation and waged under such auspices8 ,are cattle-breeding1 agriculture1 commerce1 all the arts of life on which a people depend for their subsistence1 likely to thrive when they are directed by the ravings of epilepsy or the drivellings of hysteria8 ,defeat in battle1 conquest by enemies1 death by famine and widespread disease1 these and a thousand other lesser evils threaten the blind people who commit themselves to such blind guides4 ,the history of savage and barbarous tribes1 could we follow it throughout1 might furnish us with a thousand warning instances of the fatal effects of carrying out this crude theory of inspiration to its logical conclusions2 and if we hear less than might be expected of such instances1 it is probably because the tribes who consistently acted up to their beliefs have thereby wiped themselves out of existence3 they have perished the victims of their folly and left no record behind4 ,i believe that historians have not yet reckoned sufficiently with the disastrous influence which this worship of insanity1--for it is often nothing less--has exercised on the fortunes of peoples and on the development or decay of their institutions4 ,sidenote3 ,the belief in inspiration leads to the worship of living men as gods4 ,outward experience as a source of the idea of ,god4 ,to a certain extent1 however1 the evil has provided its own remedy4 ,for men of strong heads and ambitious temper1 perceiving the exorbitant power which a belief in inspiration places in the hands of the feeble-minded1 have often feigned to be similarly afflicted1 and trading on their reputation for imbecility1 or rather inspiration1 have acquired an authority over their fellows which1 though they have often abused it for vulgar ends1 they have sometimes exerted for good1 as for example by giving sound advice in matters of public concern1 applying salutary remedies to the sick1 and detecting and punishing crime1 whereby they have helped to preserve the commonwealth1 to alleviate suffering1 and to cement that respect for law and order which is essential to the stability of society1 and without which any community must fall to pieces like a house of cards4 ,these great services have been rendered to the cause of civilisation and progress by the class of men who in primitive society are variously known as medicine-men1 magicians1 sorcerers1 diviners1 soothsayers1 and so forth4 ,sometimes the respect which they have gained by the exercise of their profession has won for them political as well as spiritual or ghostly authority2 in short1 from being simple medicine-men or sorcerers they have grown into chiefs and kings4 ,when such men1 seated on the throne of state1 retain their old reputation for being the vehicles of a divine spirit1 they may be worshipped in the character of gods as well as revered in the capacity of kings2 and thus exerting a two-fold sway over the minds of men they possess a most potent instrument for elevating or depressing the fortunes of their worshippers and subjects4 ,in this way the old savage notion of inspiration or possession gradually develops into the doctrine of the divinity of kings1 which after a long period of florescence dwindles away into the modest theory that kings reign by divine right1 a theory familiar to our ancestors not long ago1 and perhaps not wholly obsolete among us even now4 ,however1 inspired men need not always blossom out into divine kings2 they may1 and often do1 remain in the chrysalis state of simple deities revered by their simple worshippers1 their brows encircled indeed with a halo of divinity but not weighted with the more solid substance of a kingly crown4 ,thus certain extraordinary mental states1 which those who experience and those who witness them cannot account for in any other way1 are often explained by the supposed interposition of a spirit or deity4 ,this1 therefore1 is one of the two forms of experience by which men attain1 or imagine that they attain1 to a knowledge of ,god and a communion with him4 ,it is what ,i have called the road of inward experience4 ,let us now glance at the other form of experience which leads1 or seems to lead1 to the same goal4 ,it is what ,i have called the road of outward experience4 ,sidenote3 ,tendency of the mind to search for causes1 and the necessity for their discovery4 ,when we contemplate the seemingly infinite variety1 the endless succession1 of events that pass under our observation in what we call the external world1 we are led by an irresistible tendency to trace what we call a causal connexion between them4 ,the tendency to discover the causes of things appears indeed to be innate in the constitution of our minds and indispensable to our continued existence4 ,it is the link that arrests and colligates into convenient bundles the mass of particulars drifting pell-mell past on the stream of sensation2 it is the cement that binds into an edifice seemingly of adamant the loose sand of isolated perceptions4 ,deprived of the knowledge which this tendency procures for us we should be powerless to foresee the succession of phenomena and so to adapt ourselves to it4 ,we should be bewildered by the apparent disorder and confusion of everything1 we should toss on a sea without a rudder1 we should wander in an endless maze without a clue1 and finding no way out of it1 or1 in plain words1 unable to avoid a single one of the dangers which menace us at every turn1 we should inevitably perish4 ,accordingly the propensity to search for causes is characteristic of man in all ages and at all levels of culture1 though without doubt it is far more highly developed in civilised than in savage communities4 ,among savages it is more or less unconscious and instinctive2 among civilised men it is deliberately cultivated and rewarded at least by the applause of their fellows1 by the dignity1 if not by the more solid recompenses1 of learning4 ,indeed as civilisation progresses the enquiry into causes tends to absorb more and more of the highest intellectual energies of a people2 and an ever greater number of men1 renouncing the bustle1 the pleasures1 and the ambitions of an active life1 devote themselves exclusively to the pursuit of abstract truth2 they set themselves to discover the causes of things1 to trace the regularity and order that may be supposed to underlie the seemingly irregular1 confused1 and arbitrary sequence of phenomena4 ,unquestionably the progress of civilisation owes much to the sustained efforts of such men1 and if of late years and within our own memory the pace of progress has sensibly quickened1 we shall perhaps not err in supposing that some part at least of the acceleration may be accounted for by an increase in the number of lifelong students4 ,sidenote3 ,the idea of cause is simply that of invariable sequence suggested by the observation of many particular cases of sequence4 ,now when we analyse the conception of a cause to the bottom1 we find as the last residuum in our crucible nothing but what ,hume found there long ago1 and that is simply the idea of invariable sequence4 ,whenever we say that something is the cause of something else1 all that we really mean is that the latter is invariably preceded by the former1 so that whenever we find the second1 which we call the effect1 we may infer that the first1 which we call the cause1 has gone before it4 ,all such inferences from effects to causes are based on experience2 having observed a certain sequence of events a certain number of times1 we conclude that the events are so conjoined that the latter cannot occur without the previous occurrence of the former4 ,a single case of two events following each other could not of itself suggest that the one event is the cause of the other1 since there is no necessary link between them in the mind2 the sequence has to be repeated more or less frequently before we infer a causal connexion between the two2 and this inference rests simply on that association of ideas which is established in our mind by the reiterated observation of the things4 ,once the ideas are by dint of repetition firmly welded together1 the one by sheer force of habit calls up the other1 and we say that the two things which are represented by those ideas stand to each other in the relation of cause and effect4 ,the notion of causality is in short only one particular case of the association of ideas4 ,thus all reasoning as to causes implies previous observation3 we reason from the observed to the unobserved1 from the known to the unknown2 and the wider the range of our observation and knowledge1 the greater the probability that our reasoning will be correct4 ,sidenote3 ,the savage draws his ideas of natural causation from observation of himself4 ,hence he explains the phenomena of nature by supposing that they are produced by beings like himself4 ,these beings may be called spirits or gods of nature to distinguish them from living human gods4 ,all this is as true of the savage as of the civilised man4 ,he too argues1 and indeed can only argue on the basis of experience from the known to the unknown1 from the observed to the hypothetical4 ,but the range of his experience is comparatively narrow1 and accordingly his inferences from it often appear to civilised men1 with their wider knowledge1 to be palpably false and absurd4 ,this holds good most obviously in regard to his observation of external nature4 ,while he often knows a good deal about the natural objects1 whether animals1 plants1 or inanimate things1 on which he is immediately dependent for his subsistence1 the extent of country with which he is acquainted is commonly but small1 and he has little or no opportunity of correcting the conclusions which he bases on his observation of it by a comparison with other parts of the world4 ,but if he knows little of the outer world1 he is necessarily somewhat better acquainted with his own inner life1 with his sensations and ideas1 his emotions1 appetites1 and desires4 ,accordingly it is natural enough that when he seeks to discover the causes of events in the external world1 he should1 arguing from experience1 imagine that they are produced by the actions of invisible beings like himself1 who behind the veil of nature pull the strings that set the vast machinery in motion4 ,for example1 he knows by experience that he can make sparks fly by knocking two flints against each other2 what more natural1 therefore1 than that he should imagine the great sparks which we call lightning to be made in the same way by somebody up aloft1 and that when he finds chipped flints on the ground he should take them for thunder-stones dropped by the maker of thunder and lightning from the clouds8#c ,thus arguing from his limited experience primitive man creates a multitude of spirits or gods in his own likeness to explain the succession of phenomena in nature of whose true causes he is ignorant2 in short he personifies the phenomena as powerful anthropomorphic spirits1 and believing himself to be more or less dependent on their good will he woos their favour by prayer and sacrifice4 ,this personification of the various aspects of external nature is one of the most fruitful sources of polytheism4 ,the spirits and gods created by this train of thought may be called spirits and gods of nature to distinguish them from the human gods1 by which ,i mean the living men and women who are believed by their worshippers to be inspired or possessed by a divine spirit4 ,sidenote3 ,in time men reject polytheism as an explanation of natural processes and substitute certain abstract ideas of ethers1 atoms1 molecules1 and so on4 ,but as time goes on and men learn more about nature1 they commonly become dissatisfied with polytheism as an explanation of the world and gradually discard it4 ,from one department of nature after another the gods are reluctantly or contemptuously dismissed and their provinces committed to the care of certain abstract ideas of ethers1 atoms1 molecules1 and so forth1 which1 though just as imperceptible to human senses as their divine predecessors1 are judged by prevailing opinion to discharge their duties with greater regularity and despatch1 and are accordingly firmly installed on the vacant thrones amid the general applause of the more enlightened portion of mankind4 ,thus instead of being peopled with a noisy bustling crowd of full-blooded and picturesque deities1 clothed in the graceful form and animated with the warm passions of humanity1 the universe outside the narrow circle of our consciousness is now conceived as absolutely silent1 colourless1 and deserted4 ,the cheerful sounds which we hear1 the bright hues which we see1 have no existence1 we are told1 in the external world3 the voices of friends1 the harmonies of music1 the chime of falling waters1 the solemn roll of ocean1 the silver splendour of the moon1 the golden glories of sunset1 the verdure of summer woods1 and the hectic tints of autumn--all these subsist only in our own minds1 and if we imagine them to have any reality elsewhere1 we deceive ourselves4 ,in fact the whole external world as perceived by us is one great illusion3 if we gave the reins to fancy we might call it a mirage1 a piece of witchery1 conjured up by the spells of some unknown magician to bewilder poor ignorant humanity4 ,outside of ourselves there stretches away on every side an infinitude of space without sound1 without light1 without colour1 a solitude traversed only in every direction by an inconceivably complex web of silent and impersonal forces4 ,that1 if ,i understand it aright1 is the general conception of the world which modern science has substituted for polytheism4 ,sidenote3 ,but while they commonly discard the hypothesis of a deity as an explanation of all the particular processes of nature1 they retain it as an explanation of nature in general4 ,when philosophy and science by their combined efforts have ejected gods and goddesses from all the subordinate posts of nature1 it might perhaps be expected that they would have no further occasion for the services of a deity1 and that having relieved him of all his particular functions they would have arranged for the creation and general maintenance of the universe without him by handing over these important offices to an efficient staff of those ethers1 atoms1 corpuscles1 and so forth1 which had already proved themselves so punctual in the discharge of the minor duties entrusted to them4 ,nor1 indeed1 is this expectation altogether disappointed4 ,a number of atheistical philosophers have courageously come forward and assured us that the hypothesis of a deity as the creator and preserver of the universe is quite superfluous1 and that all things came into being or have existed from eternity without the help of any divine spirit1 and that they will continue to exist without it to the end1 if end indeed there is to be4 ,but on the whole these daring speculators appear to be in a minority4 ,the general opinion of educated people at the present day1 could we ascertain it1 would probably be found to incline to the conclusion that1 though every department of nature is now worked by impersonal material forces alone1 the universe as a whole was created and is still maintained by a great supernatural spirit whom we call ,god4 ,thus in ,europe and in the countries which have borrowed their civilisation1 their philosophy1 and their religion from it1 the central problem of natural theology has narrowed itself down to the question1 ,is there one ,god or none8 ,it is a profound question1 and ,i for one profess myself unable to answer it4 ,sidenote3 ,whether attained by inward or outward experience1 the idea of ,god is regularly that of a cause inferred1 not perceived4 ,if this brief sketch of the history of natural theology is correct1 man has by the exercise of his natural faculties alone1 without the help of revelation1 attained to a knowledge or at least to a conception of ,god in one of two ways1 either by meditating on the operations of his own mind1 or by observing the processes of external nature3 inward experience and outward experience have conducted him by different roads to the same goal4 ,by whichever of them the conception has been reached1 it is regularly employed to explain the causal connexion of things1 whether the things to be explained are the ideas and emotions of man himself or the changes in the physical world outside of him4 ,in short1 a ,god is always brought in to play the part of a cause2 it is the imperious need of tracing the causes of events which has driven man to discover or invent a deity4 ,now causes may be arranged in two classes according as they are perceived or unperceived by the senses4 ,for example1 when we see the impact of a billiard cue on a billiard ball followed immediately by the motion of the ball1 we say that the impact is the cause of the motion4 ,in this case we perceive the cause as well as the effect4 ,but1 when we see an apple fall from a tree to the ground1 we say that the cause of the fall is the force of gravitation exercised by the superior mass of the earth on the inferior mass of the apple4 ,in this case1 though we perceive the effect1 we do not perceive the cause1 we only infer it by a process of reasoning from experience4 ,causes of the latter sort may be called inferential or hypothetical causes to distinguish them from those which are perceived4 ,of the two classes of causes a deity belongs in general1 if not universally1 to the second1 that is1 to the inferential or hypothetical causes2 for as a rule at all events his existence is not perceived by our senses but inferred by our reason4 ,to say that he has never appeared in visible and tangible form to men would be to beg the question2 it would be to make an assertion which is incapable of proof and which is contradicted by a multitude of contrary affirmations recorded in the traditions or the sacred books of many races2 but without being rash we may perhaps say that such appearances1 if they ever took place1 belong to a past order of events and need hardly be reckoned with at the present time4 ,for all practical purposes1 therefore1 ,god is now a purely inferential or hypothetical cause2 he may be invoked to explain either our own thoughts and feelings1 our impulses and emotions1 or the manifold states and processes of external nature2 he may be viewed either as the inspirer of the one or the creator and preserver of the other2 and according as he is mainly regarded from the one point of view or the other1 the conception of the divine nature tends to beget one of two very different types of piety4 ,to the man who traces the finger of ,god in the workings of his own mind1 the deity appears to be far closer than he seems to the man who only infers the divine existence from the marvellous order1 harmony1 and beauty of the external world2 and we need not wonder that the faith of the former is of a more fervent temper and supplies him with more powerful incentives to a life of active devotion than the calm and rational faith of the latter4 ,we may conjecture that the piety of most great religious reformers has belonged to the former rather than to the latter type2 in other words1 that they have believed in ,god because they felt1 or imagined that they felt1 him stirring in their own hearts rather than because they discerned the handiwork of a divine artificer in the wonderful mechanism of nature4 ,sidenote3 ,besides the two sorts of gods already distinguished1 namely natural gods and living human gods1 there is a third sort which has played an important part in history1 namely1 the spirits of deified dead men4 ,euhemerism4 ,thus far ,i have distinguished two sorts of gods whom man discovers or creates for himself by the exercise of his unaided faculties1 to wit natural gods1 whom he infers from his observation of external nature1 and human gods or inspired men1 whom he recognises by virtue of certain extraordinary mental manifestations in himself or in others4 ,but there is another class of human gods which ,i have not yet mentioned and which has played a very important part in the evolution of theology4 ,i mean the deified spirits of dead men4 ,to judge by the accounts we possess not only of savage and barbarous tribes but of some highly civilised peoples1 the worship of the human dead has been one of the commonest and most influential forms of natural religion1 perhaps indeed the commonest and most influential of all4 ,obviously it rests on the supposition that the human personality in some form1 whether we call it a soul1 a spirit1 a ghost1 or what not1 can survive death and thereafter continue for a longer or shorter time to exercise great power for good or evil over the destinies of the living1 who are therefore compelled to propitiate the shades of the dead out of a regard for their own safety and well-being4 ,this belief in the survival of the human spirit after death is world-wide2 it is found among men in all stages of culture from the lowest to the highest2 we need not wonder therefore that the custom of propitiating the ghosts or souls of the departed should be world-wide also4 ,no doubt the degree of attention paid to ghosts is not the same in all cases2 it varies with the particular degree of power attributed to each of them2 the spirits of men who for any reason were much feared in their lifetime1 such as mighty warriors1 chiefs1 and kings1 are more revered and receive far more marks of homage than the spirits of common men2 and it is only when this reverence and homage are carried to a very high pitch that they can properly be described as a deification of the dead4 ,but that dead men have thus been raised to the rank of deities in many lands1 there is abundant evidence to prove4 ,and quite apart from the worship paid to those spirits which are admitted by their worshippers to have once animated the bodies of living men1 there is good reason to suspect that many gods1 who rank as purely mythical beings1 were once men of flesh and blood1 though their true history has passed out of memory or rather been transformed by legend into a myth1 which veils more or less completely the real character of the imaginary deity4 ,the theory that most or all gods originated after this fashion1 in other words1 that the worship of the gods is little or nothing but the worship of dead men1 is known as ,euhemerism from ,euhemerus1 the ancient ,greek writer who propounded it4 ,regarded as a universal explanation of the belief in gods it is certainly false2 regarded as a partial explanation of the belief it is unquestionably true2 and perhaps we may even go further and say1 that the more we penetrate into the inner history of natural religion1 the larger is seen to be the element of truth contained in ,euhemerism4 ,for the more closely we look at many deities of natural religion1 the more distinctly do we seem to perceive1 under the quaint or splendid pall which the mythical fancy has wrapt round their stately figures1 the familiar features of real men1 who once shared the common joys and the common sorrows of humanity1 who trod life's common road to the common end4 ,sidenote3 ,the deification of dead men presupposes the immortality of the human soul1 or rather its survival for a longer or shorter time after death4 ,when we ask how it comes about that dead men have so often been raised to the rank of divinities1 the first thing to be observed is that all such deifications must1 if our theory is correct1 be inferences drawn from experience of some sort2 they must be hypotheses devised to explain the unperceived causes of certain phenomena1 whether of the human mind or of external nature4 ,all of them imply1 as ,i have said1 a belief that the conscious human personality1 call it the soul1 the spirit1 or what you please1 can survive the body and continue to exist in a disembodied state with unabated or even greatly increased powers for good or evil4 ,this faith in the survival of personality after death may for the sake of brevity be called a faith in immortality1 though the term immortality is not strictly correct1 since it seems to imply eternal duration1 whereas the idea of eternity is hardly intelligible to many primitive peoples1 who nevertheless firmly believe in the continued existence1 for a longer or shorter time1 of the human spirit after the dissolution of the body4 ,now the faith in the immortality of the soul or1 to speak more correctly1 in the continued existence of conscious human personality after death1 is1 as ,i remarked before1 exceedingly common among men at all levels of intellectual evolution from the lowest upwards2 certainly it is not peculiar to adherents of the higher religions1 but is held as an unquestionable truth by at least the great majority of savage and barbarous peoples as to whose ideas we possess accurate information2 indeed it might be hard to point to any single tribe of men1 however savage1 of whom we could say with certainty that the faith is totally wanting among them4 ,sidenote3 ,the question of immortality is a fundamental problem of natural theology in the wider sense4 ,hence if we are to explain the deification of dead men1 we must first explain the widespread belief in immortality2 we must answer the question1 how does it happen that men in all countries and at all stages of ignorance or knowledge so commonly suppose that when they die their consciousness will still persist for an indefinite time after the decay of the body8 ,to answer that question is one of the fundamental problems of natural theology1 not indeed in the full sense of the word theology1 if we confine the term strictly to a reasoned knowledge of a ,god2 for the example of ,buddhism proves that a belief in the existence of the human soul after death is quite compatible with disbelief in a deity4 ,but if we may use1 as ,i think we may1 the phrase natural theology in an extended sense to cover theories which1 though they do not in themselves affirm the existence of a ,god1 nevertheless appear to be one of the deepest and most fruitful sources of the belief in his reality1 then we may legitimately say that the doctrine of human immortality does fall within the scope of natural theology4 ,what then is its origin8 ,how is it that men so commonly believe themselves to be immortal8 ,sidenote3 ,if there is any natural knowledge of immortality1 it must be acquired either by intuition or experience2 it is apparently not given by intuition2 hence it must be acquired1 if at all1 by experience4 ,if there is any natural knowledge of human immortality1 it must be acquired either by intuition or by experience2 there is no other way4 ,now whether other men from a simple contemplation of their own nature1 quite apart from reasoning1 know or believe themselves intuitively to be immortal1 ,i cannot say2 but ,i can say with some confidence that for myself ,i have no such intuition whatever of my own immortality1 and that if ,i am left to the resources of my natural faculties alone1 ,i can as little affirm the certain or probable existence of my personality after death as ,i can affirm the certain or probable existence of a personal ,god4 ,and ,i am bold enough to suspect that if men could analyse their own ideas1 they would generally find themselves to be in a similar predicament as to both these profound topics4 ,hence ,i incline to lay it down as a probable proposition that men as a rule have no intuitive knowledge of their own immortality1 and that if there is any natural knowledge of such a thing it can only be acquired by a process of reasoning from experience4#d ,sidenote3 ,the idea of immortality seems to have been suggested to man both by his inward and his outward experience1 notably by dreams1 which are a case of inward experience4 ,what then is the kind of experience from which the theory of human immortality is deduced8 ,is it our experience of the operations of our own minds8 or is it our experience of external nature8 ,as a matter of historical fact--and you will remember that ,i am treating the question purely from the historical standpoint--men seem to have inferred the persistence of their personality after death both from the one kind of experience and from the other1 that is1 both from the phenomena of their inner life and from the phenomena of what we call the external world4 ,thus the savage1 with whose beliefs we are chiefly concerned in these lectures1 finds a very strong argument for immortality in the phenomena of dreams1 which are strictly a part of his inner life1 though in his ignorance he commonly fails to discriminate them from what we popularly call waking realities4 ,hence when the images of persons whom he knows to be dead appear to him in a dream1 he naturally infers that these persons still exist somewhere and somehow apart from their bodies1 of the decay or destruction of which he may have had ocular demonstration4 ,how could he see dead people1 he asks1 if they did not exist8 ,to argue that they have perished like their bodies is to contradict the plain evidence of his senses2 for to the savage still more than to the civilised man seeing is believing2 that he sees the dead only in dreams does not shake his belief1 since he thinks the appearances of dreams just as real as the appearances of his waking hours4 ,and once he has in this way gained a conviction that the dead survive and can help or harm him1 as they seem to do in dreams1 it is natural or necessary for him to extend the theory to the occurrences of daily life1 which1 as ,i have said1 he does not sharply distinguish from the visions of slumber4 ,he now explains many of these occurrences and many of the processes of nature by the direct interposition of the spirits of the departed2 he traces their invisible hand in many of the misfortunes and in some of the blessings which befall him2 for it is a common feature of the faith in ghosts1 at least among savages1 that they are usually spiteful and mischievous1 or at least testy and petulant1 more apt to injure than to benefit the survivors4 ,in that they resemble the personified spirits of nature1 which in the opinion of most savages appear to be generally tricky and malignant beings1 whose anger is dangerous and whose favour is courted with fear and trembling4 ,thus even without the additional assurance afforded by tales of apparitions and spectres1 primitive man may come in time to imagine the world around him to be more or less thickly peopled1 influenced1 and even dominated by a countless multitude of spirits1 among whom the shades of past generations of men and women hold a very prominent1 often apparently the leading place4 ,these spirits1 powerful to help or harm1 he seeks either simply to avert1 when he deems them purely mischievous1 or to appease and conciliate1 when he supposes them sufficiently good-natured to respond to his advances4 ,in some such way as this1 arguing from the real but1 as we think1 misinterpreted phenomena of dreams1 the savage may arrive at a doctrine of human immortality and from that at a worship of the dead4 ,sidenote3 ,it has also been suggested by the resemblance of the living to the dead1 which is a case of outward experience4 ,this explanation of the savage faith in immortality is neither novel nor original3 on the contrary it is perhaps the commonest and most familiar that has yet been propounded4 ,if it does not account for all the facts1 it probably accounts for many of them4 ,at the same time ,i do not doubt that many other inferences drawn from experiences of different kinds have confirmed1 even if they did not originally suggest1 man's confident belief in his own immortality4 ,to take a single example of outward experience1 the resemblances which children often bear to deceased kinsfolk appear to have prompted in the minds of many savages the notion that the souls of these dead kinsfolk have been born again in their descendants4#e ,from a few cases of resemblances so explained it would be easy to arrive at a general theory that all living persons are animated by the souls of the dead2 in other words1 that the human spirit survives death for an indefinite period1 if not for eternity1 during which it undergoes a series of rebirths or reincarnations4 ,however it has been arrived at1 this doctrine of the transmigration or reincarnation of the soul is found among many tribes of savages2 and from what we know on the subject we seem to be justified in conjecturing that at certain stages of mental and social evolution the belief in metempsychosis has been far commoner and has exercised a far deeper influence on the life and institutions of primitive man than the actual evidence before us at present allows us positively to affirm4 ,sidenote3 ,the aim of these lectures is to collect a number of facts illustrative of the belief in immortality and of the customs based on it among some of the lower races4 ,be that as it may--and ,i have no wish to dogmatise on so obscure a topic--it is certain that a belief in the survival of the human personality after death and the practice of a propitiation or worship of the dead have prevailed very widely among mankind and have played a very important part in the development of natural religion4 ,while many writers have duly recognised the high importance both of the belief and of the worship1 no one1 so far as ,i know1 has attempted systematically to collect and arrange the facts which illustrate the prevalence of this particular type of religion among the various races of mankind4 ,a large body of evidence lies to hand in the voluminous and rapidly increasing literature of ethnology2 but it is dispersed over an enormous number of printed books and papers1 to say nothing of the materials which still remain buried either in manuscript or in the minds of men who possess the requisite knowledge but have not yet committed it to writing4 ,to draw all those stores of information together and digest them into a single treatise would be a herculean labour1 from which even the most industrious researcher into the dusty annals of the human past might shrink dismayed4 ,certainly ,i shall make no attempt to perform such a feat within the narrow compass of these lectures4 ,but it seems to me that ,i may make a useful1 if a humble1 contribution to the history of religion by selecting a portion of the evidence and submitting it to my hearers4 ,for that purpose1 instead of accumulating a mass of facts from all the various races of mankind and then comparing them together1 ,i prefer to limit myself to a few races and to deal with each of them separately1 beginning with the lowest savages1 about whom we possess accurate information1 and gradually ascending to peoples who stand higher in the scale of culture4 ,in short the method of treatment which ,i shall adopt will be the descriptive rather than the comparative4 ,i shall not absolutely refrain from instituting comparisons between the customs and beliefs of different races1 but for the most part ,i shall content myself with describing the customs and beliefs of each race separately without reference to those of others4 ,each of the two methods1 the comparative and the descriptive1 has its peculiar advantages and disadvantages1 and in my published writings ,i have followed now the one method and now the other4 ,the comparative method is unquestionably the more attractive and stimulating1 but it cannot be adopted without a good deal of more or less conscious theorising1 since every comparison implicitly involves a theory4 ,if we desire to exclude theories and merely accumulate facts for the use of science1 the descriptive method is undoubtedly the better adapted for the arrangement of our materials3 it may not stimulate enquiry so powerfully1 but it lays a more solid foundation on which future enquirers may build4 ,it is as a collection of facts illustrative of the belief in immortality and of all the momentous consequences which have flowed from that belief1 that ,i desire the following lectures to be regarded4 ,they are intended to serve simply as a document of religious history2 they make no pretence to discuss philosophically the truth of the beliefs and the morality of the practices which will be passed under review4 ,if any inferences can indeed be drawn from the facts to the truth or falsehood of the beliefs and to the moral worth or worthlessness of the practices1 ,i prefer to leave it to others more competent than myself to draw them4 ,my sight is not keen enough1 my hand is not steady enough to load the scales and hold the balance in so difficult and delicate an enquiry4 ,footnote #a3 ,matthew ,arnold1 ,literature and ,dogma1 ch4 i41 p4 #ca 7,popular ,edition1 ,london1 #ahic74 ,footnote #b3 ,for a single instance see ,l4 ,sternberg1 ,die ,religion der ,giljaken1 ,archiv fuer ,religionswissenschaft1 viii4 7#aije7 pp4 #dfb sqq41 where the writer tells us that the ,gilyaks have boundless faith in the supernatural power of their shamans1 and that the shamans are nearly always persons who suffer from hysteria in one form or another4 ,footnote #c3 ,as to the widespread belief that flint weapons are thunderbolts see ,sir ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor1 ,researches into the ,early ,history of ,mankind1 ,third ,edition 7,london1 #ahgh71 pp4 #bbc-bbg2 ,chr4 ,blinkenberg1 ,the ,thunderweapon in ,religion and ,folklore 7,cambridge1 #aiaa72 ,w4 ,w4 ,skeat ,snakestones and ,thunderbolts1 ,folk-lore1 xxiii4 7#aiab7 pp4 #fj sqq42 and the references in ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #cgd4 ,footnote #d3 ,wordsworth1 who argues strongly1 almost passionately1 for the consciousness of a principle of ,immortality in the human soul1 admits that the sense of ,immortality1 if not a coexistent and twin birth with ,reason1 is among the earliest of her offspring4 ,see his ,essay upon ,epitaphs1 appended to ,the ,excursion 7,poetical ,works1 ,london1 #ahcb1 vol4 iv4 pp4 #ccf1 #cch74 ,this somewhat hesitating admission of the inferential nature of the belief in immortality carries all the more weight because it is made by so warm an advocate of human immortality4 ,footnote #e3 ,for instance1 the ,kagoro of ,northern ,nigeria believe that a spirit may transmigrate into the body of a descendant born afterwards1 male or female2 in fact1 this is common1 as is proved by the likeness of children to their parents or grand-parents1 and it is lucky1 for the ghost has returned1 and has no longer any power to frighten the relatives until the new body dies1 and it is free again 7,major ,a4 ,j4 ,n4 ,tremearne1 ,notes on some ,nigerian ,head-hunters1 ,journal of the ,r4 ,anthropological ,institute1 xlii4 7#aiab7 p4 #aei74 ,compare ,taboo and the ,perils of the ,soul1 pp4 #hh sq42 ,the ,dying ,god1 p4 #bhg 7p4 #bhh1 ,second ,impression74 ,,lecture ,,ii ,,the ,,savage ,,conception ,,of ,,death ,sidenote3 ,the subject of these lectures is the belief in immortality and the worship of the dead4 ,last day ,i explained the subject of which ,i propose to treat and the method which ,i intend to follow in these lectures4 ,i shall describe the belief in immortality1 or rather in the continued existence of the human soul after death1 as that belief is found among certain of the lower races1 and ,i shall give some account of the religion which has been based upon it4 ,that religion is in brief a propitiation or worship of the human dead1 who according to the degree of power ascribed to them by the living are supposed to vary in dignity from the humble rank of a mere common ghost up to the proud position of deity4 ,the elements of such a worship appear to exist among all races of men1 though in some they have been much more highly developed than in others4 ,sidenote3 ,preliminary account of savage beliefs concerning the nature and origin of death4 ,but before ,i address myself to the description of particular races1 ,i wish in this and the following lecture to give you some general account of the beliefs of savages concerning the nature and origin of death4 ,the problem of death has very naturally exercised the minds of men in all ages4 ,unlike so many problems which interest only a few solitary thinkers this one concerns us all alike1 since simpletons as well as sages must die1 and even the most heedless and feather-brained can hardly help sometimes asking themselves what comes after death4 ,the question is therefore thrust in a practical1 indeed importunate form on our attention2 and we need not wonder that in the long history of human speculation some of the highest intellects should have occupied themselves with it and sought to find an answer to the riddle4 ,some of their solutions of the problem1 though dressed out in all the beauty of exquisite language and poetic imagery1 singularly resemble the rude guesses of savages4 ,so little1 it would seem1 do the natural powers even of the greatest minds avail to pierce the thick veil that hides the end of life4 ,sidenote3 ,the problem of death is one of universal interest4 ,in saying that the problem is thrust home upon us all1 ,i do not mean to imply that all men are constantly or even often engaged in meditating on the nature and origin of death4 ,far from it4 ,few people trouble themselves about that or any other purely abstract question3 the common man would probably not give a straw for an answer to it4 ,what he wants to know1 what we all want to know1 is whether death is the end of all things for the individual1 whether our conscious personality perishes with the body or survives it for a time or for eternity4 ,that is the enigma propounded to every human being who has been born into the world3 that is the door at which so many enquirers have knocked in vain4 ,stated in this limited form the problem has indeed been of universal interest3 there is no race of men known to us which has not pondered the mystery and arrived at some conclusions to which it more or less confidently adheres4 ,not that all races have paid an equal attention to it4 ,on some it has weighed much more heavily than on others4 ,while some races1 like some individuals1 take death almost lightly1 and are too busy with the certainties of the present world to pay much heed to the uncertainties of a world to come1 the minds of others have dwelt on the prospect of a life beyond the grave till the thought of it has risen with them to a passion1 almost to an obsession1 and has begotten a contempt for the fleeting joys of this ephemeral existence by comparison with the hoped-for bliss of an eternal existence hereafter4 ,to the sceptic1 examining the evidence for immortality by the cold light of reason1 such peoples and such individuals may seem to sacrifice the substance for the shadow3 to adopt a homely comparison1 they are like the dog in the fable who dropped the real leg of mutton1 from his mouth in order to snap at its reflection in the water4 ,be that as it may1 where such beliefs and hopes are entertained in full force1 the whole activity of the mind and the whole energy of the body are apt to be devoted to a preparation for a blissful or at all events an untroubled eternity1 and life becomes1 in the language of ,plato1 a meditation or practising of death4 ,this excessive preoccupation with a problematic future has been a fruitful source of the most fatal aberrations both for nations and individuals4 ,in pursuit of these visionary aims the few short years of life have been frittered away3 wealth has been squandered3 blood has been poured out in torrents3 the natural affections have been stifled2 and the cheerful serenity of reason has been exchanged for the melancholy gloom of madness4 ,oh threats of ,hell and ,hopes of ,paradise6 ,one thing at least is certain--,this ,life flies2 ,one thing is certain and the rest is ,lies2 ,the ,flower that once has blown for ever dies4 ,sidenote3 ,the belief in immortality general among mankind4 ,the question whether our conscious personality survives after death has been answered by almost all races of men in the affirmative4 ,on this point sceptical or agnostic peoples are nearly1 if not wholly1 unknown4 ,accordingly if abstract truth could be determined1 like the gravest issues of national policy1 by a show of hands or a counting of heads1 the doctrine of human immortality1 or at least of a life after death1 would deserve to rank among the most firmly established of truths2 for were the question put to the vote of the whole of mankind1 there can be no doubt that the ayes would have it by an overwhelming majority4 ,the few dissenters would be overborne2 their voices would be drowned in the general roar4 ,for dissenters there have been even among savages4 ,the ,tongans1 for example1 thought that only the souls of noblemen are saved1 the rest perish with their bodies4#f ,however1 this aristocratic view has never been popular1 and is not likely to find favour in our democratic age4 ,sidenote3 ,belief of many savages that they would never die if their lives were not cut short by sorcery4 ,belief of the ,abipones4 ,but many savage races not only believe in a life after death2 they are even of opinion that they would never die at all if it were not for the maleficent arts of sorcerers who cut the vital thread prematurely short4 ,in other words1 they disbelieve in what we call a natural death2 they think that all men are naturally immortal in this life1 and that every death which takes place is in fact a violent death inflicted by the hand of a human enemy1 though in many cases the foe is invisible and works his fell purpose not by a sword or a spear but by magic4 ,thus the ,abipones1 a now extinct tribe of horse ,indians in ,paraguay1 used to allege that they would be immortal and that none of them would ever die if only the ,spaniards and the sorcerers could be banished from ,america2 for they were in the habit of attributing every death1 whatever its cause1 either to the baleful arts of sorcerers or to the firearms of the ,spaniards4 ,even if a man died riddled with wounds1 with his bones smashed1 or through the exhaustion of old age1 these ,indians would all deny that the wounds or old age was the cause of his death2 they firmly believed that the death was brought about by magic1 and they would make careful enquiries to discover the sorcerer who had cast the fatal spell on their comrade4 ,the relations of the deceased would move every stone to detect and punish the culprit2 and they imagined that they could do this by cutting out the heart and tongue of the dead man and throwing them to a dog to be devoured4 ,they thought that this in some way killed the wicked magician who had killed their friend4 ,for example1 it happened that in a squabble between two men about a horse a third man who tried to make peace between the disputants was mortally wounded by their spears and died in a few days4 ,to us it might seem obvious that the peacemaker was killed by the spear-wounds which he had received1 but none of the ,abipones would admit such a thing for a moment4 ,they stoutly affirmed that their comrade had been done to death by the magical arts of some person unknown1 and their suspicions fell on a certain old woman1 known to be a witch1 to whom the deceased had lately refused to give a water-melon1 and who out of spite had killed him by her spells1 though he appeared to the ,european eye to have died of a spear-wound4#g ,sidenote3 ,belief of the ,araucanians4 ,similarly the warlike ,araucanians of ,chili are said to disbelieve in natural death4 ,even if a man dies peaceably at the age of a hundred1 they still think that he has been bewitched by an enemy4 ,a diviner or medicine-man is consulted in order to discover the culprit4 ,some of these wizards enjoy a great reputation and the ,indians will send a hundred miles or more to get the opinion of an eminent member of the profession4 ,in such cases they submit to him some of the remains of the dead man1 for example1 his eyebrows1 his nails1 his tongue1 or the soles of his feet1 and from an examination of these relics the man of skill pronounces on the author of the death4 ,the person whom he accuses is hunted down and killed1 sometimes by fire1 amid the yells of an enraged crowd4#h ,sidenote3 ,belief of the ,bakairi4 ,when the eminent ,german anthropologist was questioning a ,bakairi ,indian of ,brazil as to the language of his tribe1 he gave the sentence1 ,every man must die to be translated into the ,bakairi language4 ,to his astonishment1 the ,indian remained long silent4 ,the same long pause always occurred when an abstract proposition1 with which he was unfamiliar1 was put before the ,indian for translation into his native tongue4 ,on the present occasion the enquirer learned that the ,indian has no idea of necessity in the abstract1 and in particular he has no conception at all of the necessity of death4 ,the cause of death1 in his opinion1 is invariably an ill turn done by somebody to the deceased4 ,if there were only good men in the world1 he thinks that there would be neither sickness nor death4 ,he knows nothing about a natural end of the vital process2 he believes that all sickness and disease are the effects of witchcraft4#i ,sidenote3 ,belief of the ,indians of ,guiana in sorcery as the cause of sickness and death4 ,speaking of the ,indians of ,guiana1 an ,english missionary1 who knew them well1 says that the worst feature in their character is their proneness to blood revenge1 by which a succession of retaliatory murders may be kept up for a long time4 ,it is closely connected with their system of sorcery1 which we shall presently consider4 ,a person dies1--and it is supposed that an enemy has secured the agency of an evil spirit to compass his death4 ,some sorcerer1 employed by the friends of the deceased for that purpose1 pretends by his incantations to discover the guilty individual or family1 or at any rate to indicate the quarter where they dwell4 ,a near relative of the deceased is then charged with the work of vengeance4 ,he becomes a kanaima1 or is supposed to be possessed by the destroying spirit so called1 and has to live apart1 according to strict rule1 and submit to many privations1 until the deed of blood be accomplished4 ,if the supposed offender cannot be slain1 some innocent member of his family--man1 woman1 or little child--must suffer instead4#aj ,the same writer tells us that these ,indians of ,guiana attribute sickness and death directly to the agency of certain evil spirits called yauhahu1 who delight in inflicting miseries upon mankind4 ,pain1 in the language of the ,arawaks 7one of the best-known tribes of ,guiana71 is called yauhahu simaira or the evil spirit's arrow4#aa ,it is these evil spirits whom wicked sorcerers employ to accomplish their fell purpose4 ,thus while the demon is the direct cause of sickness and death1 the sorcerer who uses him as his tool is the indirect cause4 ,the demon is thought to do his work by inserting some alien substance into the body of the sufferer1 and a medicine-man is employed to extract it by chanting an invocation to the maleficent spirit1 shaking his rattle1 and sucking the part of the patient's frame in which the cause of the malady is imagined to reside4 ,after many ceremonies he will produce from his mouth some strange substance1 such as a thorn or gravel-stone1 a fish-bone or bird's claw1 a snake's tooth1 or a piece of wire1 which some malicious yauhahu is supposed to have inserted in the affected part4 ,as soon as the patient fancies himself rid of this cause of his illness his recovery is generally rapid1 and the fame of the sorcerer greatly increased4 ,should death1 however1 ensue1 the blame is laid upon the evil spirit whose power and malignity have prevailed over the counteracting charms4 ,some rival sorcerer will at times come in for a share of the blame1 whom the sufferer has unhappily made his enemy1 and who is supposed to have employed the yauhahu in destroying him4 ,the sorcerers being supposed to have the power of causing1 as well as of curing diseases1 are much dreaded by the common people1 who never wilfully offend them4 ,so deeply rooted in the ,indian's bosom is this belief concerning the origin of diseases1 that they have little idea of sickness arising from other causes4 ,death may arise from a wound or a contusion1 or be brought on by want of food1 but in other cases it is the work of the yauhahu#ab or evil spirit4 ,sidenote3 ,some deaths attributed to sorcery and others to evil spirits3 practical consequence of this distinction4 ,in this account it is to be observed that while all natural deaths from sickness and disease are attributed to the direct action of evil spirits1 only some of them are attributed to the indirect action of sorcerers4 ,the practical consequences of this theoretical distinction are very important4 ,for whereas death by sorcery must1 in the opinion of savages1 be avenged by killing the supposed sorcerer1 death by the action of a demon cannot be so avenged2 for how are you to get at the demon8 ,hence1 while every death by sorcery involves1 theoretically at least1 another death by violence1 death by a demon involves no such practical consequence4 ,so far1 therefore1 the faith in sorcery is far more murderous than the faith in demons4 ,this practical distinction is clearly recognised by these ,indians of ,guiana2 for another writer1 who laboured among them as a missionary1 tells us that when a person dies a natural death1 the medicine-man is called upon to decide whether he perished through the agency of a demon or the agency of a sorcerer4 ,if he decides that the deceased died through the malice of an evil spirit1 the body is quietly buried1 and no more is thought of the matter4 ,but if the wizard declares that the cause of death was sorcery1 the corpse is closely inspected1 and if a blue mark is discovered1 it is pointed out as the spot where the invisible poisoned arrow1 discharged by the sorcerer1 entered the man4 ,the next thing is to detect the culprit4 ,for this purpose a pot containing a decoction of leaves is set to boil on a fire4 ,when it begins to boil over1 the side on which the scum first falls is the quarter in which the supposed murderer is to be sought4 ,a consultation is then held3 the guilt is laid on some individual1 and one of the nearest relations of the deceased is charged with the duty of finding and killing him4 ,if the imaginary culprit cannot be found1 any other member of his family may be slain in his stead4 ,it is not difficult to conceive1 adds the writer1 how1 under such circumstances1 no man's life is secure2 whilst these by no means unfrequent murders must greatly tend to diminish the number of the natives4#ac ,sidenote3 ,among the ,indians of ,guiana death is oftener attributed to sorcery than to demons4 ,however1 it would seem that among the ,indians of ,guiana sickness and death are oftener ascribed to the agency of sorcerers than to the agency of demons acting alone4 ,for another high authority on these ,indians1 ,sir ,everard ,f4 im ,thurn1 tells us that every death1 every illness1 is regarded not as the result of natural law1 but as the work of a kenaima or sorcerer4 ,often indeed1 he adds1 the survivors or the relatives of the invalid do not know to whom to attribute the deed1 which therefore perforce remains unpunished2 but often1 again1 there is real or fancied reason to fix on some one as the kenaima1 and then the nearest relative of the injured individual devotes himself to retaliate4 ,strange ceremonies are sometimes observed in order to discover the secret kenaima4 ,richard ,schomburgk describes a striking instance of this4 ,a ,macusi boy had died a natural death1 and his relatives endeavoured to discover the quarter to which the kenaima who was supposed to have slain him belonged4 ,raising a terrible and monotonous dirge1 they carried the body to an open piece of ground1 and there formed a circle round it1 while the father1 cutting from the corpse both the thumbs and little fingers1 both the great and the little toes1 and a piece of each heel1 threw these pieces into a new pot1 which had been filled with water4 ,a fire was kindled1 and on this the pot was placed4 ,when the water began to boil1 according to the side on which one of the pieces was first thrown out from the pot by the bubbling of the water1 in that direction would the kenaima be4 ,in thus looking round to see who did the deed1 the ,indian thinks it by no means necessary to fix on anyone who has been with or near the injured man4 ,the kenaima is supposed to have done the deed1 not necessarily in person1 but probably in spirit4#ad ,for these ,indians believe that each individual man has a body and a spirit within it1 and that sorcerers can despatch their spirits out of their bodies to harm people at a distance4 ,it is not always in an invisible form that these spirits of sorcerers are supposed to roam on their errands of mischief4 ,the wizard can put his spirit into the shape of an animal1 such as a jaguar1 a serpent1 a sting-ray1 a bird1 an insect1 or anything else he pleases4 ,hence when an ,indian is attacked by a wild beast1 he thinks that his real foe is not the animal1 but the sorcerer who has transformed himself into it4 ,curiously enough they look upon some small harmless birds in the same light4 ,one little bird1 in particular1 which flits across the savannahs with a peculiar shrill whistle at morning and evening1 is regarded by the ,indians with especial fear as a transformed sorcerer4 ,they think that for every one of these birds that they shoot they have an enemy the less1 and they burn its little body1 taking great care that not even a single feather escapes to be blown about by the wind4 ,on a windy day a dozen men and women have been seen chasing the floating feathers of these birds about the savannah in order utterly to extinguish the imaginary wizard4 ,even the foreign substance1 the stick1 bone1 or whatever it is1 which the good medicine-man pretends to suck from the body of the sufferer is often1 if not always1 regarded not simply as a natural body1 but as the materialised form of a hostile spirit4#ae ,sidenote3 ,belief of the ,tinneh ,indians in sorcery as the cause of death4 ,beliefs and practices of the same general character are reported to have formerly prevailed among the ,tinneh or ,dene ,indians of ,north-west ,america4 ,when any beloved or influential person died1 nobody1 we are told1 would think of attributing the death to natural causes2 it was assumed that the demise was an effect of sorcery1 and the only difficulty was to ascertain the culprit4 ,for that purpose the services of a shaman were employed4 ,rigged out in all his finery he would dance and sing1 then suddenly fall down and feign death or sleep4 ,on awaking from the apparent trance he would denounce the sorcerer who had killed the deceased by his magic art1 and the denunciation generally proved the death-warrant of the accused4#af ,sidenote3 ,belief of the ,australian aborigines in sorcery as the cause of death4 ,again1 similar beliefs and customs in regard to what we should call natural death appear to have prevailed universally amongst the aborigines of ,australia1 and to have contributed very materially to thin the population4 ,on this subject ,i will quote the words of an observer4 ,his remarks apply to the ,australian aborigines in general but to the tribes of ,victoria in particular4 ,he says3 ,the natives are much more numerous in some parts of ,australia than they are in others1 but nowhere is the country thickly peopled2 some dire disease occasionally breaks out among the natives1 and carries off large numbers4444 ,but there are two other causes which1 in my opinion1 principally account for their paucity of numbers4 ,the first is that infanticide is universally practised2 the second1 that a belief exists that no one can die a natural death4 ,thus1 if an individual of a certain tribe dies1 his relatives consider that his death has been caused by sorcery on the part of another tribe4 ,the deceased's sons1 or nearest relatives1 therefore start off on a bucceening or murdering expedition4 ,if the deceased is buried1 a fly or a beetle is put into the grave1 and the direction in which the insect wings its way when released is the one the avengers take4 ,if the body is burnt1 the whereabouts of the offending parties is indicated by the direction of the smoke4 ,the first unfortunates fallen in with are generally watched until they encamp for the night2 when they are buried in sleep1 the murderers steal quietly up until they are within a yard or two of their victims1 rush suddenly upon and butcher them4 ,on these occasions they always abstract the kidney-fat1 and also take off a piece of the skin of the thigh4 ,these are carried home as trophies1 as the ,american ,indians take the scalp4 ,the murderers anoint their bodies with the fat of their victims1 thinking that by that process the strength of the deceased enters into them4 ,sometimes it happens that the bucceening party come suddenly upon a man of a strange tribe in a tree hunting opossums2 he is immediately speared1 and left weltering in his blood at the foot of the tree4 ,the relatives of the murdered man at once proceed to retaliate2 and thus a constant and never-ending series of murders is always going on4444 ,i do not mean to assert that for every man that dies or is killed another is murdered2 for it often happens that the deceased has no sons or relatives who care about avenging his death4 ,at other times a bucceening party will return without having met with any one2 then1 again1 they are sometimes repelled by those they attack4#ag ,sidenote3 ,belief of the natives of ,western ,australia in sorcery as a cause of death4 ,beliefs of the tribes of ,victoria and ,south ,australia4 ,again1 speaking of the tribes of ,western ,australia1 ,sir ,george ,grey tells us that the natives do not allow that there is such a thing as a death from natural causes2 they believe1 that were it not for murderers or the malignity of sorcerers1 they might live for ever2 hence1 when a native dies from the effect of an accident1 or from some natural cause1 they use a variety of superstitious ceremonies1 to ascertain in what direction the sorcerer lives1 whose evil practices have brought about the death of their relative2 this point being satisfactorily settled by friendly sorcerers1 they then attach the crime to some individual1 and the funeral obsequies are scarcely concluded1 ere they start to revenge their supposed wrongs4#ah ,again1 speaking of the ,watch-an-die tribe of ,western ,australia1 another writer tells us that they possess the comfortable assurance that nearly all diseases1 and consequently deaths1 are caused by the enchantments of hostile tribes1 and that were it not for the malevolence of their enemies they would 7with a few exceptions7 live for ever4 ,consequently1 on the first approach of sickness their first endeavour is to ascertain whether the boollia magic of their own tribe is not sufficiently potent to counteract that of their foes4 ,should the patient recover1 they are1 of course1 proud of the superiority of their enchantment over that of their enemies3 but should the boollia magical influence within the sick man prove stronger than their own1 as there is no help for it1 he must die1 the utmost they can do in this case is to revenge his death4#ai ,but the same writer qualifies this general statement as follows3 ,it is not true1 he says1 that the ,new ,hollanders impute all natural deaths to the boollia magic of inimical tribes1 for in most cases of persons wasting visibly away before death1 they do not entertain the notion4 ,it is chiefly in cases of sudden death1 or when the body of the deceased is fat and in good condition1 that this belief prevails1 and it is only in such contingencies that it becomes an imperative duty to have revenge4#bj ,similarly1 speaking of the tribes of ,victoria in the early days of ,european settlement among them1 the experienced observer ,mr4 ,james ,dawson says that natural deaths are generally--but not always--attributed to the malevolence and the spells of an enemy belonging to another tribe4#ba ,again1 with regard to the ,encounter ,bay tribe of ,south ,australia we read that there are but few diseases which they regard as the consequences of natural causes2 in general they consider them the effects of enchantment1 and produced by sorcerers4#bb ,similarly of the ,port ,lincoln tribes in ,south ,australia it is recorded that in all cases of death that do not arise from old age1 wounds1 or other equally palpable causes1 the natives suspect that unfair means have been practised2 and even where the cause of death is sufficiently plain1 they sometimes will not content themselves with it1 but have recourse to an imaginary one1 as the following case will prove3--,a woman had been bitten by a black snake1 across the thumb1 in clearing out a well2 she began to swell directly1 and was a corpse in twenty-four hours2 yet1 another woman who had been present when the accident occurred1 stated that the deceased had named a certain native as having caused her death4 ,upon this statement1 which was in their opinion corroborated by the circumstance that the snake had drawn no blood from the deceased1 her husband and other friends had a fight with the accused party and his friends2 a reconciliation1 however1 took place afterwards1 and it was admitted on the part of the aggressors that they had been in error with regard to the guilty individual2 but nowise more satisfied as to the bite of the snake being the true cause of the woman's death1 another party was now suddenly discovered to be the real offender1 and accordingly war was made upon him and his partisans1 till at last the matter was dropped and forgotten4 ,from this case1 as well as from frequent occurrences of a similar nature1 it appears evident that thirst for revenge has quite as great a share in these foul accusations as superstition4#bc ,sidenote3 ,other testimonies as to the belief of the natives of ,south ,australia and ,victoria4 ,however1 other experienced observers of the ,australian aborigines admit no such limitations and exceptions to the native theory that death is an effect of sorcery4 ,thus in regard to the ,narrinyeri tribe of ,south ,australia the ,rev4 ,george ,taplin1 who knew them intimately for years1 says that no native regards death as natural1 but always as the result of sorcery4#bd ,again1 to quote ,mr4 ,r4 ,brough ,smyth1 who has collected much information on the tribes of ,victoria3 ,mr4 ,daniel ,bunce1 an intelligent observer1 and a gentleman well acquainted with the habits of the blacks1 says that no tribe that he has ever met with believes in the possibility of a man dying a natural death4 ,if a man is taken ill1 it is at once assumed that some member of a hostile tribe has stolen some of his hair4 ,this is quite enough to cause serious illness4 ,if the man continues sick and gets worse1 it is assumed that the hair has been burnt by his enemy4 ,such an act1 they say1 is sufficient to imperil his life4 ,if the man dies1 it is assumed that the thief has choked his victim and taken away his kidney-fat4 ,when the grave is being dug1 one or more of the older men--generally doctors or conjurors 7,buk-na-look7--stand by and attentively watch the laborers2 and if an insect is thrown out of the ground1 these old men observe the direction which it takes1 and having determined the line1 two of the young men1 relations of the deceased1 are despatched in the path indicated1 with instructions to kill the first native they meet1 who they are assured and believe is the person directly chargeable with the crime of causing the death of their relative4 ,mr4 ,john ,green says that the men of the ,yarra tribe firmly believe that no one ever dies a natural death4 ,a man or a woman dies because of the wicked arts practised by some member of a hostile tribe2 and they discover the direction in which to search for the slayer by the movements of a lizard which is seen immediately after the corpse is interred4#be ,again1 speaking of the aborigines of ,victoria1 another writer observes3 ,all deaths from natural causes are attributed to the machinations of enemies1 who are supposed to have sought for and burned the excrement of the intended victim1 which1 according to the general belief1 causes a gradual wasting away4 ,the relatives1 therefore1 watch the struggling feet of the dying person1 as they point in the direction whence the injury is thought to come1 and serve as a guide to the spot where it should be avenged4 ,this is the duty of the nearest male relative2 should he fail in its execution1 it will ever be to him a reproach1 although other relatives may have avenged the death4 ,if the deceased were a chief1 then the duty devolves upon the tribe4 ,chosen men are sent in the direction indicated1 who kill the first persons they meet1 whether men1 women1 or children2 and the more lives that are sacrificed1 the greater is the honour to the dead4#bf ,again1 in his account of the ,kurnai tribe of ,victoria the late ,dr4 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt remarks3 ,it is not difficult to see how1 among savages1 who have no knowledge of the real causes of diseases which are the common lot of humanity1 the very suspicion even of such a thing as death from disease should be unknown4 ,death by accident they can imagine2 death by violence they can imagine2 but ,i question if they can1 in their savage condition1 imagine death by mere disease4 ,rheumatism is believed to be produced by the machinations of some enemy4 ,seeing a ,tatungolung very lame1 ,i asked him what was the matter8 ,he said1 ',some fellow has put bottle in my foot4' ,i asked him to let me see it4 ,i found he was probably suffering from acute rheumatism4 ,he explained that some enemy must have found his foot track1 and have buried in it a piece of broken bottle4 ,the magic influence1 he believed1 caused it to enter his foot4444 ,phthisis1 pneumonia1 bowel complaints1 and insanity are supposed to be produced by an evil spirit--,brewin--'who is like the wind1' and who1 entering his victims1 can only be expelled by suitable incantations4444 ,thus the belief arises that death occurs only from accident1 open violence1 or secret magic2 and1 naturally1 that the latter can only be met by counter-charms4#bg ,sidenote3 ,belief of the aborigines of ,new ,south ,wales in sorcery as the cause of sickness and death4 ,the beliefs and practices of the aborigines of ,new ,south ,wales in respect of death were similar4 ,thus we are told by a well-informed writer that the natives do not believe in death from natural causes2 therefore all sickness is attributed to the agency of sorcery1 and counter charms are used to destroy its effect4444 ,as a man's death is never supposed to have occurred naturally1 except as the result of accident1 or from a wound in battle1 the first thing to be done when a death occurs is to endeavour to find out the person whose spells have brought about the calamity4 ,in the ,wathi-,wathi tribe the corpse is asked by each relative in succession to signify by some sign the person who has caused his death4 ,not receiving an answer1 they watch in which direction a bird flies1 after having passed over the deceased4 ,this is considered an indication that the sorcerer is to be found in that direction4 ,sometimes the nearest relative sleeps with his head on the corpse1 which causes him1 they think1 to dream of the murderer4 ,there is1 however1 a good deal of uncertainty about the proceedings1 which seldom result in more than a great display of wrath1 and of vowing of vengeance against some member of a neighbouring tribe4 ,unfortunately this is not always the case1 the man who is supposed to have exercised the death-spell being sometimes waylaid and murdered in a most cruel manner4#bh ,with regard to the great ,kamilaroi tribe of ,new ,south ,wales we read that in some parts of the country a belief prevails that death1 through disease1 is1 in many1 if not in all cases1 the result of an enemy's malice4 ,it is a common saying1 when illness or death comes1 that some one has thrown his belt 7boor7 at the victim4 ,there are various modes of fixing upon the murderer4 ,one is to let an insect fly from the body of the deceased and see towards whom it goes4 ,the person thus singled out is doomed4#bi ,sidenote3 ,belief of the aborigines of ,central ,australia in sorcery as the cause of death4 ,speaking of the tribes of ,central ,australia1 ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen observe that in the matter of morality their code differs radically from ours1 but it cannot be denied that their conduct is governed by it1 and that any known breaches are dealt with both surely and severely4 ,in very many cases there takes place what the white man1 not seeing beneath the surface1 not unnaturally describes as secret murder1 but1 in reality1 revolting though such slaughter may be to our minds at the present day1 it is simply exactly on a par with the treatment accorded to witches not so very long ago in ,european countries4 ,every case of such secret murder1 when one or more men stealthily stalk their prey with the object of killing him1 is in reality the exacting of a life for a life1 the accused person being indicated by the so-called medicine-man as one who has brought about the death of another man by magic1 and whose life must therefore be forfeited4 ,it need hardly be pointed out what a potent element this custom has been in keeping down the numbers of the tribe2 no such thing as natural death is realised by the native2 a man who dies has of necessity been killed by some other man1 or perhaps even by a woman1 and sooner or later that man or woman will be attacked4 ,in the normal condition of the tribe every death meant the killing of another individual4#cj ,sidenote3 ,belief of the natives of the ,torres ,straits ,islands and ,new ,guinea in sorcery as the cause of death4 ,passing from ,australia to other savage lands we learn that according to the belief of the ,torres ,straits ,islanders all sickness and death were due to sorcery4#ca ,the natives of ,mowat or ,mawatta in ,british ,new ,guinea do not believe in a natural death1 but attribute even the decease of an old man to the agency of some enemy known or unknown4#cb ,in the opinion of the tribes about ,hood ,peninsula in ,british ,new ,guinea no one dies a natural death4 ,every such death is caused by the evil magic either of a living sorcerer or of a dead relation4#cc ,of the ,roro-speaking tribes of ,british ,new ,guinea ,dr4 ,seligmann writes that except in the case of old folk1 death is not admitted to occur without some obvious cause such as a spear-thrust4 ,therefore when vigorous and active members of the community die1 it becomes necessary to explain their fate1 and such deaths are firmly believed to be produced by sorcery4 ,indeed1 as far as ,i have been able to ascertain1 the ,papuasian of this district regards the existence of sorcery1 not1 as has been alleged1 as a particularly terrifying and horrible affair1 but as a necessary and inevitable condition of existence in the world as he knows it4#cd ,amongst the ,yabim of ,german ,new ,guinea every case of death1 even though it should happen accidentally1 as by the fall of a tree or the bite of a shark1 is laid at the door of the sorcerers4 ,they are blamed even for the death of a child4 ,if it is said that a little child never hurt anybody and therefore cannot have an enemy1 the reply is that the intention was to injure the mother1 and that the malady had been transferred to the infant through its mother's milk4#ce ,sidenote3 ,belief of the ,melanesians in sorcery as the cause of sickness and death4 ,again1 in the island of ,malo1 one of the ,new ,hebrides1 a ,catholic missionary reports that according to a belief deeply implanted in the native mind every disease is the effect of witchcraft1 and that nobody dies a natural death but only as a consequence of violence1 poison1 or sorcery4#cf ,similarly in ,new ,georgia1 one of the ,solomon ,islands1 when a person is sick1 the natives think that he must be bewitched by a man or woman1 for in their opinion nobody can be sick or die unless he is bewitched2 what we call natural sickness and death are impossible4 ,in case of illness suspicion falls on some one who is supposed to have buried a charmed object with intent to injure the sufferer4#cg ,of the ,melanesians who inhabit the coast of the ,gazelle ,peninsula in ,new ,britain it is said that all deaths by sickness or disease are attributed by them to the witchcraft of a sorcerer1 and a diviner is called in to ascertain the culprit who by his evil magic has destroyed their friends4#ch ,amongst the ,melanesians few1 if any1 are believed to die from natural causes only2 if they are not killed in war1 they are supposed to die from the effects of witchcraft or magic4 ,whenever any one was sick1 his friends made anxious inquiries as to the person who had bewitched 7agara'd7 him4 ,some one would generally be found to admit that he had buried some portion of food or something belonging to the sick man1 which had caused his illness4 ,the friends would pay him to dig it up1 and after that the patient would generally get well4 ,if1 however1 he did not recover1 it was assumed that some other person had also agara'd him4#ci ,sidenote3 ,the belief of the ,malagasy in sorcery as a cause of death4 ,speaking of the ,malagasy a ,catholic missionary tells us that in ,madagascar nobody dies a natural death4 ,with the possible exception of centenarians everybody is supposed to die the victim of the sorcerer's diabolic art4 ,if a relation of yours dies1 the people comfort you by saying1 ,cursed be the sorcerer who caused his death6 ,if your horse falls down a precipice and breaks its back1 the accident has been caused by the malicious look of a sorcerer4 ,if your dog dies of hydrophobia or your horse of a carbuncle1 the cause is still the same4 ,if you catch a fever in a district where malaria abounds1 the malady is still ascribed to the art of the sorcerer1 who has insinuated some deadly substances into your body4#dj ,again1 speaking of the ,sakalava1 a tribe in ,madagascar1 an eminent ,french authority on the island observes3 ,they have such a faith in the power of talismans that they even ascribe to them the power of killing their enemies4 ,when they speak of poisoning1 they do not allude1 as many ,europeans wrongly suppose1 to death by vegetable or mineral poisons2 the reference is to charms or spells4 ,they often throw under the bed of an enemy an ahouli talisman1 praying it to kill him1 and they are persuaded that sooner or later their wish will be accomplished4 ,i have often been present at bloody vendettas which had no other origin but this4 ,the ,sakalava think that a great part of the population dies of poison in this way4 ,in their opinion1 only old people who have attained the extreme limits of human longevity die a natural death4#da ,sidenote3 ,belief of ,african tribes in sorcery as the cause of sickness and death4 ,in ,africa similar beliefs are widely spread and lead1 as elsewhere1 to fatal consequences4 ,thus the ,kagoro of ,northern ,nigeria refuse to believe in death from natural causes2 all illnesses and deaths1 in their opinion1 are brought about by black magic1 however old and decrepit the deceased may have been4 ,they explain sickness by saying that a man's soul wanders from his body in sleep and may then be caught1 detained1 and even beaten with a stick by some evil-wisher2 whenever that happens1 the man naturally falls ill4 ,sometimes an enemy will abstract the patient's liver by magic and carry it away to a cave in a sacred grove1 where he will devour it in company with other wicked sorcerers4 ,a witch-doctor is called in to detect the culprit1 and whomever he denounces is shut up in a room1 where a fire is kindled and pepper thrown into it2 and there he is kept in the fumes of the burning pepper till he confesses his guilt and returns the stolen liver1 upon which of course the sick man recovers4 ,but should the patient die1 the miscreant who did him to death by kidnapping his soul or his liver will be sold as a slave or choked4#db ,in like manner the ,bakerewe1 who inhabit the largest island in the ,victoria ,nyanza lake1 believe that all deaths and all ailments1 however trivial1 are the effect of witchcraft2 and the person1 generally an old woman1 whom the witch-doctor accuses of having cast the spell on the patient is tied up1 severely beaten1 or stabbed to death on the spot4#dc ,again1 we are told that the peoples of the ,congo do not believe in a natural death1 not even when it happens through drowning or any other accident4 ,whoever dies is the victim of witchcraft or of a spell4 ,his soul has been eaten4 ,he must be avenged by the punishment of the person who has committed the crime4 ,accordingly when a death has taken place1 the medicine-man is sent for to discover the criminal4 ,he pretends to be possessed by a spirit and in this state he names the wretch who has caused the death by sorcery4 ,the accused has to submit to the poison ordeal by drinking a decoction of the red bark of the ,erythrophloeum guiniense4 ,if he vomits up the poison1 he is innocent2 but if he fails to do so1 the infuriated crowd rushes on him and despatches him with knives and clubs4 ,the family of the supposed culprit has moreover to pay an indemnity to the family of the supposed victim4#dd ,death1 in the opinion of the natives1 is never due to a natural cause4 ,it is always the result either of a crime or of sorcery1 and is followed by the poison ordeal1 which has to be undergone by an innocent person whom the fetish-man accuses from selfish motives4#de ,sidenote3 ,effect of such beliefs in thinning the population by causing multitudes to die for the imaginary crime of sorcery4 ,evidence of the same sort could be multiplied for ,west ,africa1 where the fear of sorcery is rampant4#df ,but without going into further details1 ,i wish to point out the disastrous effects which here1 as elsewhere1 this theory of death has produced upon the population4 ,for when a death from natural causes takes place1 the author of the death being of course unknown1 suspicion often falls on a number of people1 all of whom are obliged to submit to the poison ordeal in order to prove their innocence1 with the result that some or possibly all of them perish4 ,a very experienced ,american missionary in ,west ,africa1 the ,rev4 ,r4 ,h4 ,nassau1 the friend of the late ,miss ,mary ,h4 ,kingsley1 tells us that for every person who dies a natural death at least one1 and often ten or more have been executed on an accusation of witchcraft4#dg ,andrew ,battel1 a native of ,essex1 who lived in ,angola for many years at the end of the sixteenth and beginning of the seventeenth century1 informs us that in this country none on any account dieth1 but they kill another for him3 for they believe they die not their own natural death1 but that some other has bewitched them to death4 ,and all those are brought in by the friends of the dead whom they suspect2 so that there many times come five hundred men and women to take the drink1 made of the foresaid root imbando4 ,they are brought all to the high-street or market-place1 and there the master of the imbando sits with his water1 and gives every one a cup of water by one measure2 and they are commanded to walk in a certain place till they make water1 and then they are free4 ,but he that cannot urine presently falls down1 and all the people1 great and small1 fall upon him with their knives1 and beat and cut him into pieces4 ,but ,i think the witch that gives the water is partial1 and gives to him whose death is desired the strongest water1 but no man of the bye-standers can perceive it4 ,this is done in the town of ,longo1 almost every week throughout the year4#dh ,a ,french official tells us that among the ,neyaux of the ,ivory ,coast similar beliefs and practices were visibly depopulating the country1 every single natural death causing the death of four or five persons by the poison ordeal1 which consisted in drinking the decoction of a red bark called by the natives boduru4 ,at the death of a chief fifteen men and women perished in this way4 ,the ,french ,government had great difficulty in suppressing the ordeal2 for the deluded natives firmly believed in the justice of the test and therefore submitted to it willingly in the full consciousness of their innocence4#di ,in the neighbourhood of ,calabar the poison ordeal1 which here consists in drinking a decoction of a certain bean1 the ,physostigma venenosum of botanists1 has had similar disastrous results1 as we learn from the testimony of a missionary1 the ,rev4 ,hugh ,goldie4 ,he tells us that the people have firm faith in the ordeal and therefore not only accept it readily but appeal to it1 convinced that it will demonstrate their innocence4 ,a small tribe named ,uwet in the hill-country of ,calabar almost swept itself off the face of the earth by its constant use of the ordeal4 ,on one occasion the whole population drank the poison to prove themselves pure1 as they said2 about half perished1 and the remnant1 says ,mr4 ,goldie1 still continuing their superstitious practice1 must soon become extinct#ej ,these words were written a good many years ago1 and it is probable that by this time these poor fanatics have actually succeeded in exterminating themselves4 ,so fatal may be the practical consequences of a purely speculative error2 for it is to be remembered that these disasters flow directly from a mistaken theory of death4 ,sidenote3 ,general conclusion as to the belief in sorcery as the great cause of death4 ,much more evidence of the same kind could be adduced1 but without pursuing the theme further ,i think we may lay it down as a general rule that at a certain stage of social and intellectual evolution men have believed themselves to be naturally immortal in this life and have regarded death by disease or even by accident or violence as an unnatural event which has been brought about by sorcery and which must be avenged by the death of the sorcerer4 ,if that has been so1 we seem bound to conclude that a belief in magic or sorcery has had a most potent influence in keeping down the numbers of savage tribes2 since as a rule every natural death has entailed at least one1 often several1 sometimes many deaths by violence4 ,this may help us to understand what an immense power for evil the world-wide faith in magic or sorcery has been among men4 ,sidenote3 ,but some savages have attributed death to other causes than sorcery4 ,but even savages come in time to perceive that deaths are sometimes brought about by other causes than sorcery4 ,we have seen that some of them admit extreme old age1 accidents1 and violence as causes of death which are independent of sorcery4 ,the admission of these exceptions to the general rule certainly marks a stage of intellectual progress4 ,i will give a few more instances of such admissions before concluding this part of my subject4 ,sidenote3 ,some savages dissect the corpse to ascertain whether death was due to natural causes or to sorcery4 ,in the first place1 certain savage tribes are reported to dissect the bodies of their dead in order to ascertain from an examination of the corpse whether the deceased died a natural death or perished by magic4 ,this is reported by ,mr4 ,e4 ,r4 ,smith concerning the ,araucanians of ,chili1 who according to other writers1 as we saw1#ea believe all deaths to be due to sorcery4 ,mr4 ,smith tells us that after death the services of the machi or medicine-man are again required1 especially if the deceased be a person of distinction4 ,the body is dissected and examined4 ,if the liver be found in a healthy state1 the death is attributed to natural causes2 but if the liver prove to be inflamed1 it is supposed to indicate the machinations of some evil-intentioned persons1 and it rests with the medicine-man to discover the conspirator4 ,this is accomplished by much the same means that were used to find out the nature of the disease4 ,the gall is extracted1 put in the magic drum1 and after various incantations taken out and placed over the fire1 in a pot carefully covered2 if1 after subjecting the gall to a certain amount of roasting1 a stone is found in the bottom of the pot1 it is declared to be the means by which death was produced4 ,these stones1 as well as the frogs1 spiders1 arrows1 or whatever else may be extracted from the sick man1 are called ,huecuvu--the ',evil ,one4' ,by aid of the ,huecuvu the machi medicine-man throws himself into a trance1 in which state he discovers and announces the person guilty of the death1 and describes the manner in which it was produced4#eb ,again1 speaking of the ,pahouins1 a tribe of the ,gaboon region in ,french ,congo1 a ,catholic missionary writes thus3 ,it is so rare among the ,pahouins that a death is considered natural6 ,scarcely has the deceased given up the ghost when the sorcerer appears on the scene4 ,with three cuts of the knife1 one transverse and two lateral1 he dissects the breast of the corpse and turns down the skin on the face4 ,then he grabbles in the breast1 examines the bowels attentively1 marks the last muscular contractions1 and thereupon pronounces whether the death was natural or not4 ,if he decides that the death was due to sorcery1 the suspected culprit has to submit to the poison ordeal in the usual manner to determine his guilt or innocence4#ec ,sidenote3 ,the possibility of natural death admitted by the ,melanesians4 ,another savage people who have come to admit the possibility of merely natural death are the ,melanesians of the ,new ,hebrides and other parts of ,central ,melanesia4 ,amongst them any sickness that is serious is believed to be brought about by ghosts or spirits2 common complaints such as fever and ague are taken as coming in the course of nature4 ,to say that savages are never ill without supposing a supernatural cause is not true of ,melanesians2 they make up their minds as the sickness comes whether it is natural or not1 and the more important the individual who is sick1 the more likely his sickness is to be ascribed to the anger of a ghost whom he has offended1 or to witchcraft4 ,no great man would like to be told that he was ill by natural weakness or decay4 ,the sickness is almost always believed to be caused by a ghost1 not by a spirit4444 ,generally it is to the ghosts of the dead that sickness is ascribed in the eastern islands as well as in the western2 recourse is had to them for aid in causing and removing sickness2 and ghosts are believed to inflict sickness not only because some offence1 such as a trespass1 has been committed against them1 or because one familiar with them has sought their aid with sacrifice and spells1 but because there is a certain malignity in the feeling of all ghosts towards the living1 who offend them by being alive4#ed ,from this account we learn1 first1 that the ,melanesians admit some deaths by common diseases1 such as fever and ague1 to be natural2 and1 second1 that they recognise ghosts and spirits as well as sorcerers and witches1 among the causes of death2 indeed they hold that ghosts are the commonest of all causes of sickness and death4 ,sidenote3 ,the possibility of natural death admitted by the ,caffres of ,south ,africa4 ,the same causes of death are recognised also by the ,caffres of ,south ,africa1 as we learn from ,mr4 ,dudley ,kidd1 who tells us that according to the beliefs of the natives1 to start with1 there is sickness which is supposed to be caused by the action of ancestral spirits or by fabulous monsters4 ,secondly1 there is sickness which is caused by the magical practices of some evil person who is using witchcraft in secret4 ,thirdly1 there is sickness which comes from neither of these causes1 and remains unexplained4 ,it is said to be 'only sickness1 and nothing more4' ,this third form of sickness is1 ,i think1 the commonest4 ,yet most writers wholly ignore it1 or deny its existence4 ,it may happen that an attack of indigestion is one day attributed to the action of witch or wizard2 another day the trouble is put down to the account of ancestral spirits2 on a third occasion the people may be at a loss to account for it1 and so may dismiss the problem by saying that it is merely sickness4 ,it is quite common to hear natives say that they are at a loss to account for some special case of illness4 ,at first they thought it was caused by an angry ancestral spirit2 but a great doctor has assured them that it is not the result of such a spirit4 ,they then suppose it to be due to the magical practices of some enemy2 but the doctor negatives that theory4 ,the people are1 therefore1 driven to the conclusion that the trouble has no ascertainable cause4 ,in some cases they do not even trouble to consult a diviner2 they speedily recognise the sickness as due to natural causes4 ,in such a case it needs no explanation4 ,if they think that some friend of theirs knows of a remedy1 they will try it on their own initiative1 or may even go off to a white man to ask for some of his medicine4 ,they would never dream of doing this if they thought they were being influenced by magic or by ancestral spirits4 ,the ,kafirs quite recognise that there are types of disease which are inherited1 and have not been caused by magic or by ancestral spirits4 ,they admit that some accidents are due to nothing but the patient's carelessness or stupidity4 ,if a native gets his leg run over by a waggon1 the people will often say that it is all his own fault through being clumsy4 ,in other cases1 with delightful inconsistency1 they may say that some one has been working magic to cause the accident4 ,in short1 it is impossible to make out a theory of sickness which will satisfy our ,european conception of consistency4#ee ,sidenote3 ,the admission that death may be due to natural causes1 marks an intellectual advance4 ,the recognition of ghosts or spirits as a cause of disease1 apart from sorcery1 also marks a step in intellectual1 moral1 and social progress4 ,from the foregoing accounts we see that the ,melanesians and the ,caffres1 two widely different and widely separated races1 agree in recognising at least three distinct causes of what we should call natural death4 ,these three causes are1 first1 sorcery or witchcraft2 second1 ghosts or spirits2 and third1 disease4#ef ,that the recognition of disease in itself as a cause of death1 quite apart from sorcery1 marks an intellectual advance1 will not be disputed4 ,it is not so clear1 though ,i believe it is equally true1 that the recognition of ghosts or spirits as a cause of disease1 quite apart from witchcraft1 marks a real step in intellectual1 moral1 and social progress4 ,in the first place1 it marks a step in intellectual and moral progress2 for it recognises that effects which before had been ascribed to human agency spring from superhuman causes2 and this recognition of powers in the universe superior to man is not only an intellectual gain but a moral discipline3 it teaches the important lesson of humility4 ,in the second place it marks a step in social progress because when the blame of a death is laid upon a ghost or a spirit instead of on a sorcerer1 the death has not to be avenged by killing a human being1 the supposed author of the calamity4 ,thus the recognition of ghosts or spirits as the sources of sickness and death has as its immediate effect the sparing of an immense number of lives of men and women1 who on the theory of death by sorcery would have perished by violence to expiate their imaginary crime4 ,that this is a great gain to society is obvious3 it adds immensely to the security of human life by removing one of the most fruitful causes of its destruction4 ,it must be admitted1 however1 that the gain is not always as great as might be expected2 the social advantages of a belief in ghosts and spirits are attended by many serious drawbacks4 ,for while ghosts or spirits are commonly1 though not always1 supposed to be beyond the reach of human vengeance1 they are generally thought to be well within the reach of human persuasion1 flattery1 and bribery2 in other words1 men think that they can appease and propitiate them by prayer and sacrifice2 and while prayer is always cheap1 sacrifice may be very dear1 since it can1 and often does1 involve the destruction of an immense deal of valuable property and of a vast number of human lives4 ,yet if we could reckon up the myriads who have been slain in sacrifice to ghosts and gods1 it seems probable that they would fall far short of the untold multitudes who have perished as sorcerers and witches4 ,for while human sacrifices in honour of deities or of the dead have been for the most part exceptional rather than regular1 only the great gods and the illustrious dead being deemed worthy of such costly offerings1 the slaughter of witches and wizards1 theoretically at least1 followed inevitably on every natural death among people who attributed all such deaths to sorcery4 ,hence if natural religion be defined roughly as a belief in superhuman spiritual beings and an attempt to propitiate them1 we may perhaps say that1 while natural religion has slain its thousands1 magic has slain its ten thousands4 ,but there are strong reasons for inferring that in the history of society an ,age of ,magic preceded an ,age of ,religion4 ,if that was so1 we may conclude that the advent of religion marked a great social as well as intellectual advance upon the preceding ,age of ,magic3 it inaugurated an era of what might be described as mercy by comparison with the relentless severity of its predecessor4 ,footnote #f3 ,w4 ,martin1 ,an ,account of the ,natives of the ,tonga ,islands1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahah71 ii4 #ii4 ,footnote #g3 ,m4 ,dobrizhoffer1 ,historia de ,abiponibus 7,vienna1 #aghd71 ii4 #ib sq41 #bdj sqq4 ,the author of this valuable work lived as a ,catholic missionary in the tribe for eighteen years4 ,footnote #h3 ,c4 ,gay1 ,fragment d'un ,voyage dans le ,chili et au ,cusco1 ,bulletin de la ,societe de ,geographie 7,paris71 ,deuxieme ,serie1 xix4 7#ahdc7 p4 #be2 ,h4 ,delaporte1 ,une visite chez les ,araucaniens1 ,bulletin de la ,societe de ,geographie 7,paris71 ,quatrieme ,serie1 x4 7#ahee7 p4 #cj4 ,footnote #i3 ,k4 von den ,steinen1 ,unter den ,naturvoelkern ,zentral-,brasiliens 7,berlin1 #ahid71 pp4 #cdd1 #cdh4 ,footnote #aj3 ,rev4 ,w4 ,h4 ,brett1 ,the ,indian ,tribes of ,guiana 7,london1 #ahfh71 p4 #ceg4 ,footnote #aa3 ,w4 ,h4 ,brett1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cfa sq4 ,footnote #ab3 ,rev4 ,w4 ,h4 ,brett1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cfd sq4 ,footnote #ac3 ,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,bernau1 ,missionary ,labours in ,british ,guiana 7,london1 #ahdg71 pp4 #ef sq41 #eh4 ,footnote #ad3 7,sir7 ,e4 ,f4 im ,thurn1 ,among the ,indians of ,guiana 7,london1 #ahhc71 pp4 #ccj sq4 ,for the case described see ,r4 ,schomburgk1 ,reisen in ,britisch-,guiana1 i4 7,leipsic1 #ahdg7 pp4 #cbd sq4 ,the boy died of dropsy4 ,perhaps the mode of divination adopted1 by boiling some portions of him in water1 had special reference to the nature of the disease4 ,footnote #ae3 7,sir7 ,e4 ,f4 im ,thurn1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ccb sq4 ,footnote #af3 ,father ,a4 ,g4 ,morice1 ,the ,canadian ,denes1 ,annual ,archaeological ,report1 #aije 7,toronto1 #aijf71 p4 #bjg4 ,footnote #ag3 ,albert ,a4 ,c4 ,le ,souef1 ,notes on the ,natives of ,australia1 in ,r4 ,brough ,smyth's ,aborigines of ,victoria 7,melbourne and ,london1 #ahgh71 ii4 #bhi sq4 ,footnote #ah3 7,sir7 ,george ,grey1 ,journals of two ,expeditions of ,discovery in ,northwest and ,western ,australia 7,london1 #ahda71 ii4 #bch4 ,footnote #ai3 ,a4 ,oldfield1 ,the ,aborigines of ,australia1 ,transactions of the ,ethnological ,society of ,london1 ,n4,s4 iii4 7#ahfe7 p4 #bcf4 ,footnote #bj3 ,a4 ,oldfield1 op4 cit4 p4 #bde4 ,footnote #ba3 ,j4 ,dawson1 ,australian ,aborigines 7,melbourne1 ,sydney and ,adelaide1 #ahha71 p4 #fc4 ,footnote #bb3 ,h4 ,e4 ,a4 ,meyer1 ,manners and ,customs of the ,aborigines of the ,encounter ,bay ,tribe1 ,native ,tribes of ,south ,australia 7,adelaide1 #ahgi71 p4 #aie4 ,footnote #bc3 ,c4 ,w4 ,schuermann1 ,the ,aboriginal ,tribes of ,port ,lincoln in ,south ,australia1 ,native ,tribes of ,south ,australia1 pp4 #bcg sq4 ,footnote #bd3 ,rev4 ,g4 ,taplin1 ,the ,narrinyeri1 ,native ,tribes of ,south ,australia 7,adelaide1 #ahgi71 p4 #be4 ,footnote #be3 ,r4 ,brough ,smyth1 ,the ,aborigines of ,victoria 7,melbourne and ,london1 #ahgh7 i4 #aaj4 ,footnote #bf3 ,w4 ,e4 ,stanbridge1 ,some ,particulars of the ,general ,characteristics1 ,astronomy1 and ,mythology of the ,tribes in the ,central ,part of ,victoria1 ,southern ,australia1 ,transactions of the ,ethnological ,society of ,london1 ,new ,series1 i4 7#ahfa7 p4 #bii4 ,footnote #bg3 ,lorimer ,fison and ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 ,kamilaroi and ,kurnai 7,melbourne1 ,sydney1 ,adelaide1 and ,brisbane1 #ahhj71 pp4 #bej sq4 ,footnote #bh3 ,a4 ,l4 ,p4 ,cameron1 ,notes on some ,tribes of ,new ,south ,wales1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute xiv4 7#ahhe7 pp4 #cfa1 #cfb sq4 ,footnote #bi3 ,rev4 ,w4 ,ridley1 ,kamilaroi1 ,second ,edition 7,sydney1 #ahge71 p4 #aei4 ,footnote #cj3 ,baldwin ,spencer and ,f4 ,j4 ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia 7,london1 #ahii71 pp4 #df-dh4 ,footnote #ca3 ,reports of the ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 v4 7,cambridge1 #aijd7 pp4 #bdh1 #cbc4 ,footnote #cb3 ,e4 ,beardmore1 ,the ,natives of ,mowat1 ,british ,new ,guinea1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xix4 7#ahij7 p4 #dfa4 ,footnote #cc3 ,r4 ,e4 ,guise1 ,on the ,tribes inhabiting the ,mouth of the ,wanigela ,river1 ,new ,guinea1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxviii4 7#ahii7 p4 #baf4 ,footnote #cd3 ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann1 ,the ,melanesians of ,british ,new ,guinea 7,cambridge1 #aiaj71 p4 #bgi4 ,footnote #ce3 ,k4 ,vetter1 ,komm herueber und hilf uns6 oder die ,arbeit der ,neuen-,dettelsauer ,mission1 iii4 7,barmen1 #ahih7 pp4 #aj sq42 id41 in ,nachrichten ueber ,kaiser-,wilhelms-,land und den ,bismarck-,archipel1 #ahig1 pp4 #id1 #ih4 ,compare ,b4 ,hagen1 ,unter den ,papuas 7,wiesbaden1 #ahii71 p4 #bef2 ,verhandlungen der ,berliner ,gesellschaft fuer ,anthropologie1 ,ethnologie1 und ,urgeschichte1 #aijj1 p4 7#dae74 ,footnote #cf3 ,father ,a4 ,deniau1 ,croyances religieuses et moeurs des indigenes de l',ile ,malo1 ,missions ,catholiques1 xxxiii4 7#aija7 pp4 #cae sq4 ,footnote #cg3 ,c4 ,ribbe1 ,zwei ,jahre unter den ,kannibalen der ,salomo-,inseln 7,dresden-,blasewitz1 #aijc71 p4 #bfh4 ,footnote #ch3 ,p4 ,a4 ,kleintitschen1 ,die ,kuestenbewohner der ,gazellehalbinsel 7,hiltrup bei ,muenster1 ,n4,d471 p4 #cdd4 ,as to beliefs of this sort among the ,sulka of ,new ,britain1 see ,p4 ,rascher1 ,die ,sulka1 ,archiv fuer ,anthropologie1 xxix4 7#aijd7 pp4 #bba sq42 ,r4 ,parkinson1 ,dreissig ,jahre in der ,suedsee 7,stuttgart1 #aijg71 pp4 #aii-bja4 ,footnote #ci3 ,g4 ,brown1 ,d4,d41 ,melanesians and ,polynesians 7,london1 #aiaj71 p4 #agf4 ,dr4 ,brown's account1 of the ,melanesians applies to the natives of ,new ,britain and more particularly of the neighbouring ,duke of ,york islands4 ,footnote #dj3 ,father ,abinal1 ,astrologie ,malgache1 ,missions ,catholiques1 xi4 7#ahgi7 p4 #ejf4 ,footnote #da3 ,a4 ,grandidier1 ,madagascar1 ,bulletin de la ,societe de ,geographie 7,paris71 ,sixieme ,serie1 iii4 7#ahgb7 pp4 #cii sq4 ,the talismans 7ahouli7 in question consist of the horns of oxen stuffed with a variety of odds and ends1 such as sand1 sticks1 nails1 and so forth4 ,footnote #db3 ,major ,a4 ,j4 ,n4 ,tremearne1 ,the ,tailed ,head-hunters of ,nigeria 7,london1 #aiab71 pp4 #aga sq42 id41 ,notes on the ,kagoro and other ,headhunters1 ,journal of the ,royal ,anthropological ,institute1 xlii4 7#aiab7 pp4 #afj1 #afa4 ,footnote #dc3 ,e4 ,hurel1 ,religion et vie domestique des ,bakerewe1 ,anthropos1 vi4 7#aiab7 pp4 #he-hg4 ,footnote #dd3 ,father ,campana1 ,congo ,mission ,catholique de ,landana1 ,missions ,catholiques1 xxvii4 7#ahie7 pp4 #ajb sq4 ,footnote #de3 ,th4 ,masui1 ,guide de la ,section de l',etat ,independant du ,congo a l',exposition de ,bruxelles--,tervueren en #ahgd 7,brussels1 #ahig71 p4 #hb4 ,footnote #df3 ,see for example ,o4 ,lenz1 ,skizzen aus ,westafrika 7,berlin1 #ahgh71 pp4 #ahd sq42 ,c4 ,cuny1 ,de ,libreville au ,cameroun1 ,bulletin de la ,societe de ,geographie 7,paris71 ,septieme ,serie1 xvii4 7#ahif7 p4 #cda2 ,ch4 ,wunenberger1 ,la mission et le royaume de ,humbe1 sur les bords du ,cunene1 ,missions ,catholiques1 xx4 7#ahhh7 p4 #bfb2 ,lieut4 ,herold1 ,bericht betreffend religioese ,anschauungen und ,gebraeuche der deutschen ,ewe-,neger1 ,mittheilungen aus den deutschen ,schutzgebieten1 v4 7#ahib7 p4 #aec2 ,dr4 ,r4 ,plehn1 ,beitraege zur ,voelkerkunde des ,togo-,gebietes1 ,mittheilungen des ,seminars fuer ,orientalische ,sprachen zu ,berlin1 ii4 ,dritte ,abtheilung 7#ahii71 p4 #ig2 ,r4 ,fisch1 ,die ,dagbamba1 ,baessler-,archiv1 iii4 7#aiab7 p4 #adh4 ,for evidence of similar beliefs and practices in other parts of ,africa1 see ,brard1 ,der ,victoria-,nyanza1 ,petermann's ,mittheilungen1 xliii4 7#ahig7 pp4 #gi sq42 ,father ,picarda1 ,autour du ,mandera1 ,missions ,catholiques1 xviii4 7#ahhf7 p4 #cdb4 ,footnote #dg3 ,rev4 ,r4 ,h4 ,nassau1 ,fetichism in ,west ,africa 7,london1 #aijd71 pp4 #bda sq4 ,footnote #dh3 ,strange ,adventures of ,andrew ,battel1 in ,john ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 xvi4 7,london1 #ahad7 p4 #ccd4 ,footnote #di3 ,gouvernement ,general de l',afrique ,occidentale ,francaise1 ,notices publiees par le ,gouvernement ,central a l'occasion de l',exposition ,coloniale de ,marseille1 ,la ,cote d',ivoire 7,corbeil1 #aijf71 pp4 #egj-egb4 ,footnote #ej3 ,hugh ,goldie1 ,calabar and its ,mission1 ,new ,edition 7,edinburgh and ,london1 #aija71 pp4 #cd sq41 #cg sq4 ,footnote #ea3 ,above1 p4 #ce4 ,footnote #eb3 ,e4 ,r4 ,smith1 ,the ,araucanians 7,london1 #ahee71 pp4 #bcf sq4 ,footnote #ec3 ,father ,trilles1 ,milles lieues dans l'inconnu2 a travers le pays ,fang1 de la cote aux rives du ,djah1 ,missions ,catholiques1 xxxv4 7#aijc7 pp4 #dff sq41 and as to the poison ordeal1 ib4 pp4 #dgb sq4 ,footnote #ed3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians 7,oxford1 #ahia71 p4 #aid4 ,footnote #ee3 ,dudley ,kidd1 ,the ,essential ,kafir 7,london1 #aijd71 pp4 #acc sq4 ,footnote #ef3 ,in like manner the ,baganda generally ascribed natural deaths either to sorcery or to the action of a ghost2 but when they could not account for a person's death in either of these ways they said that ,walumbe1 the ,god of ,death1 had taken him4 ,this last explanation approaches to an admission of natural death1 though it is still mythical in form4 ,the ,baganda usually attributed any illness of the king to ghosts1 because no man would dare to practise magic on him4 ,a much-dreaded ghost was that of a man's sister2 she was thought to vent her spite on his sons and daughters by visiting them with sickness4 ,when she proved implacable1 a medicine-man was employed to catch her ghost in a gourd or a pot and throw it away on waste land or drown it in a river4 ,see ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda 7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #ih1 #ajj1 #aja sq41 #bhf sq41 #cae sq4 ,,lecture ,,iii ,,myths ,,of ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,death ,sidenote3 ,belief of savages in man's natural immortality4 ,in my last lecture ,i shewed that many savages do not believe in what we call a natural death2 they imagine that all men are naturally immortal and would never die1 if their lives were not cut prematurely short by sorcery4 ,further1 ,i pointed out that this mistaken view of the nature of death has exercised a disastrous influence on the tribes who entertain it1 since1 attributing all natural deaths to sorcery1 they consider themselves bound to discover and kill the wicked sorcerers whom they regard as responsible for the death of their friends4 ,thus in primitive society as a rule every natural death entails at least one and often several deaths by violence2 since the supposed culprit being unknown suspicion may fall upon many persons1 all of whom may be killed either out of hand or as a consequence of failing to demonstrate their innocence by means of an ordeal4 ,sidenote3 ,savage stories of the origin of death4 ,yet even the savages who firmly believe in man's natural immortality are obliged sorrowfully to admit that1 as things are at the present day1 men do frequently die1 whatever explanation we may give of so unexpected and unnatural an occurrence4 ,accordingly they are hard put to it to reconcile their theory of immortality with the practice of mortality4 ,they have meditated on the subject and have given us the fruit of their meditation in a series of myths which profess to explain the origin of death4 ,for the most part these myths are very crude and childish2 yet they have a value of their own as examples of man's early attempts to fathom one of the great mysteries which encompass his frail and transient existence on earth2 and accordingly ,i have here collected1 in all their naked simplicity1 a few of these savage guesses at truth4 ,sidenote3 ,four types of such stories4 ,myths of the origin of death conform to several types1 among which we may distinguish1 first1 what ,i will call the type of the ,two ,messengers2 second1 the type of the ,waxing and ,waning ,moon2 third1 the type of the ,serpent and his ,cast ,skin2 and fourth1 the type of the ,banana-tree4 ,i will illustrate each type by examples1 and will afterwards cite some miscellaneous instances which do not fall under any of these heads4 ,sidenote3 ,i4 ,the tale of the ,two ,messengers4 ,zulu story of the chameleon and the lizard4 ,the same story among other ,bantu tribes4 ,first1 then1 we begin with the type of the ,two ,messengers4 ,stories of this pattern are widespread in ,africa1 especially among tribes belonging to the great ,bantu family1 which occupies roughly the southern half of the continent4 ,the best-known example of the tale is the one told by the ,zulus4 ,they say that in the beginning ,unkulunkulu1 that is1 the ,old ,old ,one1 sent the chameleon to men with a message saying1 ,go1 chameleon1 go and say1 ,let not men die4 ,the chameleon set out1 but it crawled very slowly1 and it loitered by the way to eat the purple berries of the ubukwebezane tree1 or according to others it climbed up a tree to bask in the sun1 filled its belly with flies1 and fell fast asleep4 ,meantime the ,old ,old ,one had thought better of it and sent a lizard posting after the chameleon with a very different message to men1 for he said to the animal1 ,lizard1 when you have arrived1 say1 ,let men die4 ,so the lizard went on his way1 passed the dawdling chameleon1 and arriving first among men delivered his message of death1 saying1 ,let men die4 ,then he turned on his heel and went back to the ,old ,old ,one who had sent him4 ,but after he was gone1 the chameleon at last arrived among men with his glad tidings of immortality1 and he shouted1 saying1 ,it is said1 ,let not men die6 ,but men answered1 ,o6 we have heard the word of the lizard2 it has told us the word1 ',it is said1 ,let men die4' ,we cannot hear your word4 ,through the word of the lizard1 men will die4 ,and died they have ever since from that day to this4 ,that is why some of the ,zulus hate the lizard1 saying1 ,why did he run first and say1 ',let people die8' ,so they beat and kill the lizard and say1 ,why did it speak8 ,but others hate the chameleon and hustle it1 saying1 ,that is the little thing which delayed to tell the people that they should not die4 ,if he had only brought his message in time we should not have died2 our ancestors also would have been still living2 there would have been no diseases here on the earth4 ,it all comes from the delay of the chameleon4#eg ,the same story is told in nearly the same form by other ,bantu tribes1 such as the ,bechuanas1#eh the ,basutos1#ei the ,baronga1#fj and the ,ngoni4#fa ,to this day the ,baronga and the ,ngoni owe the chameleon a grudge for having brought death into the world1 so when children find a chameleon they will induce it to open its mouth1 then throw a pinch of tobacco on its tongue1 and watch with delight the creature writhing and changing colour from orange to green1 from green to black in the agony of death2 for thus they avenge the wrong which the chameleon has done to mankind4#fb ,sidenote3 ,akamba story of the chameleon and the thrush4 ,a story of the same type1 but with some variations1 is told by the ,akamba1 a ,bantu tribe of ,british ,east ,africa2 but in their version the lizard has disappeared from the legend and has been replaced by the itoroko1 a small bird of the thrush tribe1 with a black head1 a bluish-black back1 and a buff-coloured breast4 ,the tale runs thus3--,once upon a time ,god sent out the chameleon1 the frog1 and the thrush to find people who died one day and came to life again the next4 ,so off they set1 the chameleon leading the way1 for in those days he was a very important personage4 ,presently they came to some people lying like dead1 so the chameleon went up to them and said1 ,niwe1 niwe1 niwe4 ,the thrush asked him testily what he was making that noise for1 to which the chameleon replied mildly1 ,i am only calling the people who go forward and then came back again1 and he explained that the dead people would come to life again4 ,but the thrush1 who was of a sceptical turn of mind1 derided the idea4 ,nevertheless1 the chameleon persisted in calling to the dead people1 and sure enough they opened their eyes and listened to him4 ,but here the thrush broke in and told them roughly that dead they were and dead they must remain4 ,with that away he flew1 and though the chameleon preached to the corpses1 telling them that he had come from ,god on purpose to bring them to life again1 and that they were not to believe the lies of that shallow sceptic the thrush1 they obstinately refused to pay any heed to him2 not one of those dead corpses would budge4 ,so the chameleon returned crestfallen to ,god and reported to him how1 when he preached the gospel of resurrection to the corpses1 the thrush had roared him down1 so that the corpses could not hear a word he said4 ,god thereupon cross-questioned the thrush1 who stated that the chameleon had so bungled his message that he1 the thrush1 felt it his imperative duty to interrupt him4 ,the simple deity believed the thrush1 and being very angry with the chameleon he degraded him from his high position and made him walk very slow1 lurching this way and that1 as he does down to this very day4 ,but the thrush he promoted to the office of wakening men from their slumber every morning1 which he still does punctually at #b ,a4,m4 before the note of any other bird is heard in the tropical forest4#fc ,sidenote3 ,togo story of the dog and the frog4 ,in this version1 though the frog is sent out by ,god with the other two messengers he plays no part in the story2 he is a mere dummy4 ,but in another version of the story1 which is told by the negroes of ,togoland in ,german ,west ,africa1 the frog takes the place of the lizard and the thrush as the messenger of death4 ,they say that once upon a time men sent a dog to ,god to say that when they died they would like to come to life again4 ,so off the dog trotted to deliver the message4 ,but on the way he felt hungry and turned into a house1 where a man was boiling magic herbs4 ,so the dog sat down and thought to himself1 ,he is cooking food4 ,meantime the frog had set off to tell ,god that when men died they would like not to come to life again4 ,nobody had asked him to give that message2 it was a piece of pure officiousness and impertinence on his part4 ,however1 away he tore4 ,the dog1 who still sat watching the hell-broth brewing1 saw him hurrying past the door1 but he thought to himself1 ,when ,i have had something to eat1 ,i will soon catch froggy up4 ,however1 froggy came in first and said to the deity1 ,when men die1 they would like not to come to life again4 ,after that1 up comes the dog1 and says he1 ,when men die1 they would like to come to life again4 ,god was naturally puzzled and said to the dog1 ,i really do not understand these two messages4 ,as ,i heard the frog's request first1 ,i will comply with it4 ,i will not do what you said4 ,that is the real reason why men die and do not come to life again4 ,if the frog had only minded his own business instead of meddling with other people's1 the dead would all have come to life again to this day4#fd ,in this version of the story not only are the persons of the two messengers different1 the dog and the frog having replaced the chameleon and the lizard of the ,bantu version1 but the messengers are sent from men to ,god instead of from ,god to men4 ,sidenote3 ,ashantee story of the goat and the sheep4 ,in another version told by the ,ashantees of ,west ,africa the persons of the messengers are again different1 but as in the ,bantu version they are sent from ,god to men4 ,the ,ashantees say that long ago men were happy1 for ,god dwelt among them and talked with them face to face4 ,for example1 if a child was roasting yams at the fire and wanted a relish to eat with the yams1 he had nothing to do but to throw a stick in the air and say1 ,god give me fish1 and ,god gave him fish at once4 ,however1 these happy days did not last for ever4 ,one unlucky day it happened that some women were pounding a mash with pestles in a mortar1 while ,god stood by looking on4 ,for some reason they were annoyed by the presence of the deity and told him to be off2 and as he did not take himself off fast enough to please them1 they beat him with their pestles4 ,in a great huff ,god retired altogether from the world and left it to the direction of the fetishes2 and still to this day people say1 ,ah1 if it had not been for that old woman1 how happy we should be6 ,however1 after he had withdrawn to heaven1 the long-suffering deity sent a kind message by a goat to men upon earth to say1 ,there is something which they call ,death4 ,he will kill some of you4 ,but even if you die1 you will not perish completely4 ,you will come to me in heaven4 ,so off the goat set with this cheering intelligence4 ,but before he came to the town he saw a tempting bush by the wayside and stopped to browse on it4 ,when ,god in heaven saw the goat thus loitering by the way1 he sent off a sheep with the same message to carry the glad tidings to men without delay4 ,but the sheep did not give the message aright4 ,far from it3 he said1 ,god sends you word that you will die and that will be an end of you4 ,afterwards the goat arrived on the scene and said1 ,god sends you word that you will die1 certainly1 but that will not be the end of you1 for you will go to him4 ,but men said to the goat1 ,no1 goat1 that is not what ,god said4 ,we believe that the message which the sheep brought us is the one which ,god sent to us4 ,that was the beginning of death among men4#fe ,however1 in another ,ashantee version of the tale the parts played by the sheep and the goat are reversed4 ,it is the sheep who brings the tidings of immortality from ,god to men1 but the goat overruns him and offers them death instead4 ,not knowing what death was1 men accepted the seeming boon with enthusiasm and have died ever since4#ff ,sidenote3 ,,ii4 ,the story of the ,waxing and ,waning ,moon4 ,hottentot story of the ,moon1 the hare1 and death4 ,so much for the tale of the ,two ,messengers4 ,in the last versions of it which ,i have quoted1 a feature to be noticed is the perversion of the message by one of the messengers1 who brings tidings of death instead of life eternal to men4 ,the same perversion of the message reappears in some examples of the next type of story which ,i shall illustrate1 namely the type of the ,waxing and ,waning ,moon4 ,thus the ,namaquas or ,hottentots say that once the ,moon charged the hare to go to men and say1 ,as ,i die and rise to life again1 so shall you die and rise to life again4 ,so the hare went to men1 but either out of forgetfulness or malice he reversed the message and said1 ,as ,i die and do not rise to life again1 so you shall also die and not rise to life again4 ,then he went back to the ,moon1 and she asked him what he had said4 ,he told her1 and when she heard how he had given the wrong message1 she was so angry that she threw a stick at him and split his lip1 which is the reason why the hare's lip is still split4 ,so the hare ran away and is still running to this day4 ,some people1 however1 say that before he fled he clawed the ,moon's face1 which still bears the marks of the scratching1 as anybody may see for himself on a clear moonlight night4 ,so the ,hottentots are still angry with the hare for bringing death into the world1 and they will not let initiated men partake of its flesh4#fg ,there are traces of a similar story among the ,bushmen4#fh ,in another ,hottentot version two messengers appear1 an insect and a hare2 the insect is charged by the ,moon with a message of immortality or rather of resurrection to men1 but the hare persuades the insect to let him bear the tidings1 which he perverts into a message of annihilation4#fi ,thus in this particular version the type of the ,two ,messengers coincides with the ,moon type4 ,sidenote3 ,masai story of the moon and death4 ,a story of the same type1 though different in details1 is told by the ,masai of ,east ,africa4 ,they say that in the early days a certain god named ,naiteru-kop told a man named ,le-eyo that if a child were to die he was to throw away the body and say1 ,man1 die1 and come back again2 moon1 die1 and remain away4 ,well1 soon afterwards a child died1 but it was not one of the man's own children1 so when he threw the body away he said1 ,man1 die1 and remain away2 moon1 die1 and return4 ,next one of his own children died1 and when he threw away the body he said1 ,man1 die1 and return2 moon1 die1 and remain away4 ,but the god said to him1 ,it is of no use now1 for you spoilt matters with the other child4 ,that is why down to this day when a man dies he returns no more1 but when the moon dies she always comes to life again4#gj ,sidenote3 ,nandi story of the moon1 the dog1 and death4 ,another story of the origin of death which belongs to this type is told by the ,nandi of ,british ,east ,africa4 ,they say that when the first people lived upon the earth a dog came to them one day and said3 ,all people will die like the moon1 but unlike the moon you will not return to life again unless you give me some milk to drink out of your gourd1 and beer to drink through your straw4 ,if you do this1 ,i will arrange for you to go to the river when you die and to come to life again on the third day4 ,but the people laughed at the dog1 and gave him some milk and beer to drink off a stool4 ,the dog was angry at not being served in the same vessels as a human being1 and though he put his pride in his pocket and drank the milk and the beer from the stool1 he went away in high dudgeon1 saying1 ,all people will die1 and the moon alone will return to life4 ,that is the reason why1 when people die1 they stay away1 whereas when the moon goes away she comes back again after three days' absence4#ga ,the ,wa-,sania of ,british ,east ,africa believe that in days gone by people never died1 till one unlucky day a lizard came and said to them1 ,all of you know that the moon dies and rises again1 but human beings will die and rise no more4 ,they say that from that day people began to die and have persisted in dying ever since4#gb ,sidenote3 ,fijian story of the moon1 the rat1 and death4 ,caroline ,islands story of the moon1 death1 and resurrection4 ,wotjobaluk story of the moon1 death1 and resurrection4 ,cham story of the moon1 death1 and resurrection4 ,with these ,african stories of the origin of death we may compare one told by the ,fijians on the other side of the world4 ,they say that once upon a time the ,moon contended that men should be like himself 7for the ,fijian moon seems to be a male72 that is1 he meant that just as he grows old1 disappears1 and comes in sight again1 so men grown old should vanish for a while and then return to life4 ,but the rat1 who is a ,fijian god1 would not hear of it4 ,no1 said he1 let men die like rats4 ,and he had the best of it in the dispute1 for men die like rats to this day4#gc ,in the ,caroline ,islands they say that long1 long ago death was unknown1 or rather it was a short sleep1 not a long1 long one1 as it is now4 ,men died on the last day of the waning moon and came to life again on the first appearance of the new moon1 just as if they had awakened from a refreshing slumber4 ,but an evil spirit somehow contrived that when men slept the sleep of death they should wake no more4#gd ,the ,wotjobaluk of south-eastern ,australia relate that1 when all animals were men and women1 some of them died and the moon used to say1 ,you up-again1 whereupon they came to life again4 ,but once on a time an old man said1 ,let them remain dead2 and since then nobody has ever come to life again except the moon1 which still continues to do so down to this very day4#ge ,the ,chams of ,annam and ,cambodia say that the goddess of good luck used to resuscitate people as fast as they died1 till the sky-god1 tired of her constant interference with the laws of nature1 transferred her to the moon1 where it is no longer in her power to bring the dead to life again4#gf ,sidenote3 ,cycle of death and resurrection after three days1 like the monthly disappearance and reappearance of the moon4 ,these stories which associate human immortality with the moon are products of a primitive philosophy which1 meditating on the visible changes1 of the lunar orb1 drew from the observation of its waning and waxing a dim notion that under a happier fate man might have been immortal like the moon1 or rather that like it he might have undergone an endless cycle of death and resurrection1 dying then rising again from the dead after three days4 ,the same curious notion of death and resurrection after three days is entertained by the ,unmatjera and ,kaitish1 two savage tribes of ,central ,australia4 ,they say that long ago their dead used to be buried either in trees or underground1 and that after three days they regularly rose from the dead4 ,the ,kaitish tell how this happy state of things came to an end4 ,it was all through a man of the ,curlew totem1 who finding some men of the ,little ,wallaby totem burying a ,little ,wallaby man1 fell into a passion and kicked the body into the sea4 ,of course after that the dead man could not come to life again1 and that is why nowadays nobody rises from the dead after three days1 as everybody used to do long ago4#gg ,although no mention is made of the moon in this ,australian story1 we may conjecture that these savages1 like the ,nandi of ,east ,africa1 fixed upon three days as the normal interval between death and resurrection simply because three days is the interval between the disappearance of the old and the reappearance of the new moon4 ,if that is so1 the aborigines of ,central ,australia may be added to the many races of mankind who have seen in the waning and waxing moon an emblem of human immortality4 ,nor does this association of ideas end with a mere tradition that in some former age men used to die with the old moon and come to life again with the new moon4 ,many savages1 on seeing the new moon for the first time in the month1 observe ceremonies which seem to be intended to renew and increase their life and strength with the renewal and the increase of the lunar light4 ,for example1 on the day when the new moon first appeared1 the ,indians of ,san ,juan ,capistrano in ,california used to call together all the young men and make them run about1 while the old men danced in a circle1 saying1 ,as the moon dieth and cometh to life again1 so we also having to die will again live4#gh ,again1 an old writer tells us that at the appearance of every new moon the negroes of the ,congo clapped their hands and cried out1 sometimes falling on their knees1 ,so may ,i renew my life as thou art renewed4#gi ,sidenote3 ,,iii4 ,story of the ,serpent and his ,cast ,skin4 ,new ,britain story of immortality1 the serpent1 and death4 ,annamite story of immortality1 the serpent1 and death4 ,vuatom story of immortality1 the lizard1 the serpent1 and death4 ,another type of stories told to explain the origin of death is the one which ,i have called the type of the ,serpent and his ,cast ,skin4 ,some savages seem to think that serpents and all other animals1 such as lizards1 which periodically shed their skins1 thereby renew their life and so never die4 ,hence they imagine that if man also could only cast his old skin and put on a new one1 he too would be immortal like a serpent4 ,thus the ,melanesians1 who inhabit the coast of the ,gazelle ,peninsula in ,new ,britain1 tell the following story of the origin of death4 ,they say that ,to ,kambinana1 the ,good ,spirit1 loved men and wished to make them immortal2 but he hated the serpents and wished to kill them4 ,so he called his brother ,to ,korvuvu and said to him1 ,go to men and take them the secret of immortality4 ,tell them to cast their skin every year4 ,so will they be protected from death1 for their life will be constantly renewed4 ,but tell the serpents that they must thenceforth die4 ,but ,to ,korvuvu acquitted himself badly of his task2 for he commanded men to die and betrayed to the serpents the secret of immortality4 ,since then all men have been mortal1 but the serpents cast their skins every year and are immortal4#hj ,in this story we meet again with the incident of the reversed message2 through a blunder or through the malice of the messenger the glad tidings of immortality are perverted into a melancholy message of death4 ,a similar tale1 with a similar incident1 is told in ,annam4 ,they say that ,ngoc hoang sent a messenger from heaven to men to say that when they had reached old age they should change their skins and live for ever1 but that when serpents grew old they must die4 ,the messenger came down to earth and said1 rightly enough1 ,when man is old1 he shall cast his skin2 but when serpents are old1 they shall die and be laid in coffins4 ,so far1 so good4 ,but unfortunately there happened to be a brood of serpents within hearing1 and when they heard the doom pronounced on their kind they fell into a fury and said to the messenger1 ,you must say it over again and just the contrary1 or we will bite you4 ,that frightened the messenger and he repeated his message1 changing the words thus3 ,when he is old1 the serpent shall cast his skin2 but when he is old1 man shall die and be laid in the coffin4 ,that is why all creatures are now subject to death1 except the serpent1 who1 when he is old1 casts his skin and lives for ever4#ha ,the natives of ,vuatom1 an island in the ,bismarck ,archipelago1 say that a certain ,to ,konokonomiange bade two lads fetch fire1 promising that if they did so they should never die1 but that if they refused their bodies would perish1 though their shades or souls would survive4 ,they would not hearken to him1 so he cursed them1 saying1 ,what6 ,you would all have lived6 ,now you shall die1 though your soul shall live4 ,but the iguana 7,goniocephalus7 and the lizard 7,varanus indicus7 and the snake 7,enygrus71 they shall live1 they shall cast their skin and they shall live for evermore4 ,when the lads heard that1 they wept1 for bitterly they rued their folly in not going to fetch the fire for ,to ,konokonomiange4#hb ,sidenote3 ,nias story of immortality1 the crab1 and death4 ,arawak and ,tamanachier stories of immortality1 the serpent1 the lizard1 the beetle1 and death4 ,other peoples tell somewhat different stories to explain how men missed the boon of immortality and serpents acquired it4 ,thus the natives of ,nias1 an island off the coast of ,sumatra1 say that1 when the earth was created1 a certain being was sent down by ,god from heaven to put the last touches to the work of creation4 ,he should have fasted for a month1 but unable to withstand the pangs of hunger he ate some bananas4 ,the choice of food was most unlucky1 for had he only eaten river-crabs instead of bananas men would have cast their skins like crabs and would never have died4#hc ,the ,arawaks of ,british ,guiana relate that once upon a time the ,creator came down to earth to see how his creature man was getting on4 ,but men were so wicked that they tried to kill him so he deprived them of eternal life and bestowed it on the animals which renew their skin1 such as serpents1 lizards1 and beetles4#hd ,a somewhat different version of the story is told by the ,tamanachiers1 an ,indian tribe of the ,orinoco4 ,they say that after residing among them for some time the ,creator took boat to cross to the other side of the great salt water from which he had come4 ,just as he was shoving off from the shore1 he called out to them in a changed voice1 ,you will change your skins1 by which he meant to say1 ,you will renew your youth like the serpents and the beetles4 ,but unfortunately an old woman1 hearing these words1 cried out ,oh6 in a tone of scepticism1 if not of sarcasm1 which so annoyed the ,creator that he changed his tune at once and said testily1 ,ye shall die4 ,that is why we are all mortal4#he ,sidenote3 ,melanesian story of the old woman who renewed her youth by casting her skin4 ,the natives of the ,banks' ,islands and the ,new ,hebrides believe that there was a time in the beginning of things when men never died but cast their skins like snakes and crabs and so renewed their youth4 ,but the unhappy change to mortality came about at last1 as it so often does in these stories1 through an old woman4 ,having grown old1 this dame went to a stream to change her skin1 and change it she did1 for she stripped off her wizened old hide1 cast it upon the waters1 and watched it floating down stream till it caught on a stick4 ,then she went home a buxom young woman4 ,but the child whom she had left at home did not know her and set up such a prodigious squalling that to quiet it the woman went straight back to the river1 fished out her cast-off old skin1 and put it on again4 ,from that day to this people have ceased to cast their skins and to live for ever4#hf ,the same legend of the origin of death has been recorded in the ,shortlands ,islands#hg and among the ,kai of ,german ,new ,guinea4#hh ,it is also told with some variations by the natives of the ,admiralty ,islands4 ,they say that once on a time there was an old woman and she was frail4 ,she had two sons1 and they went a-fishing1 and she herself went to bathe4 ,she stripped off her wrinkled old skin and came forth as young as she had been long ago4 ,her sons came home from the fishing1 and very much astonished were they to see her4 ,the one said1 ,it is our mother1 but the other said1 ,she may be your mother1 but she shall be my wife4 ,their mother heard them and said1 ,what were you two saying8 ,the two said1 ,nothing6 ,we only said that you are our mother4 ,you are liars1 said she1 ,i heard you both4 ,if ,i had had my way1 we should have grown to be old men and women1 and then we should have cast our skin and been young men and young women4 ,but you have had your way4 ,we shall grow old men and old women and then we shall die4 ,with that she fetched her old skin1 and put it on1 and became an old woman again4 ,as for us1 her descendants1 we grow up and we grow old4 ,and if it had not been for those two young men there would have been no end of our days1 we should have lived for ever and ever4#hi ,sidenote3 ,samoan story of the shellfish1 two torches1 and death4 ,the ,samoans tell how the gods held a council to decide what was to be done with men4 ,one of them said1 ,bring men and let them cast their skin2 and when they die1 let them be turned to shellfish or to a coco-nut leaf torch1 which when shaken in the wind blazes out again4 ,but another god called ,palsy 7,supa7 rose up and said1 ,bring men and let them be like the candle-nut torch1 which when it is once out cannot be blown up again4 ,let the shellfish change their skin1 but let men die4 ,while they were debating1 a heavy rain came on and broke up the meeting4 ,as the gods ran for shelter to their houses1 they cried1 ,let it be according to the counsel of ,palsy6 ,let it be according to the counsel of ,palsy6 ,so men died1 but shellfish cast their skins4#ij ,sidenote3 ,,iv4 ,the ,banana ,story4 ,poso story of immortality1 the stone1 the banana1 and death4 ,mentra story of immortality1 the banana1 and death4 ,the last type of tales of the origin of death which ,i shall notice is the one which ,i have called the ,banana type4 ,we have already seen that according to the natives of ,nias human mortality is all due to eating bananas instead of crabs4#ia ,a similar opinion is entertained by other people in that region of the world4 ,thus the natives of ,poso1 a district of ,central ,celebes1 say that in the beginning the sky was very near the earth1 and that the ,creator1 who lived in it1 used to let down his good gifts to men at the end of a rope4 ,one day he thus lowered a stone2 but our first father and mother would have none of it and they called out to their ,maker1 ,what have we to do with this stone8 ,give us something else4 ,the ,creator complied and hauled away at the rope2 the stone mounted up and up till it vanished from sight4 ,presently the rope was seen coming down from heaven again1 and this time there was a banana at the end of it instead of a stone4 ,our first parents ran at the banana and took it4 ,then there came a voice from heaven1 saying3 ,because ye have chosen the banana1 your life shall be like its life4 ,when the banana-tree has offspring1 the parent stem dies2 so shall ye die and your children shall step into your place4 ,had ye chosen the stone1 your life would have been like the life of the stone changeless and immortal4 ,the man and his wife mourned over their fatal choice1 but it was too late2 that is how through the eating of a banana death came into the world4#ib ,the ,mentras or ,mantras1 a shy tribe of savages in the jungles of the ,malay ,peninsula1 allege that in the early days of the world men did not die1 but only grew thin at the waning of the moon and then waxed fat again as she waxed to the full4 ,thus there was no check whatever on the population1 which increased to a truly alarming extent4 ,so a son of the first man brought this state of things to his father's notice and asked him what was to be done4 ,the first man said1 ,leave things as they are2 but his younger brother1 who took a more ,malthusian view of the situation1 said1 ,no1 let men die like the banana1 leaving their offspring behind4 ,the question was submitted to the ,lord of the ,underworld1 and he decided in favour of death4 ,ever since then men have ceased to renew their youth like the moon and have died like the banana4#ic ,sidenote3 ,primitive philosophy in the stories of the origin of death4 ,thus the three stories of the origin of death which ,i have called the ,moon type1 the ,serpent type1 and the ,banana type appear to be products of a primitive philosophy which sees a cheerful emblem of immortality in the waxing and waning moon and in the cast skins of serpents1 but a sad emblem of mortality in the banana-tree1 which perishes as soon as it has produced its fruit4 ,but1 as ,i have already said1 these types of stories do not exhaust the theories or fancies of primitive man on the question how death came into the world4 ,i will conclude this part of my subject with some myths which do not fall under any of the preceding heads4 ,sidenote3 ,bahnar story of immortality1 the tree1 and death4 ,rivalry for the boon of immortality between men and animals that cast their skins1 such as serpents and lizards4 ,the ,bahnars of eastern ,cochinchina say that in the beginning when people died they used to be buried at the foot of a tree called ,long ,blo1 and that after a time they always rose from the dead1 not as infants but as full-grown men and women4 ,so the earth was peopled very fast1 and all the inhabitants formed but one great town under the presidency of our first parents4 ,in time men multiplied to such an extent that a certain lizard could not take his walks abroad without somebody treading on his tail4 ,this vexed him1 and the wily creature gave an insidious hint to the gravediggers4 ,why bury the dead at the foot of the ,long ,blo tree8 said he2 bury them at the foot of ,long ,khung1 and they will not come to life again4 ,let them die outright and be done with it4 ,the hint was taken1 and from that day the dead have not come to life again4#id ,in this story there are several points to be noticed4 ,in the first place the tree ,long ,blo would seem to have been a tree of life1 since all the dead who were buried at its foot came to life again4 ,in the second place the lizard is here1 as in so many ,african tales1 the instrument of bringing death among men4 ,why was that so8 ,we may conjecture that the reason is that the lizard like the serpent casts its skin periodically1 from which primitive man might infer1 as he infers with regard to serpents1 that the creature renews its youth and lives for ever4 ,thus all the myths which relate how a lizard or a serpent became the maleficent agent of human mortality may perhaps be referred to an old idea of a certain jealousy and rivalry between men and all creatures which cast their skin1 notably serpents and lizards2 we may suppose that in all such cases a story was told of a contest between man and his animal rivals for the possession of immortality1 a contest in which1 whether by mistake or by guile1 the victory always remained with the animals1 who thus became immortal1 while mankind was doomed to mortality4 ,sidenote3 ,chingpaw story of the origin of death4 ,australian story of the tree1 the bat1 and death4 ,fijian story of the origin of death4 ,the ,chingpaws of ,upper ,burma say that death originated in a practical joke played by an old man who pretended to be dead in the ancient days when nobody really died4 ,but the ,lord of the ,sun1 who held the threads of all human lives in his hand1 detected the fraud and in anger cut short the thread of life of the practical joker4 ,since then everybody else has died2 the door for death to enter into the world was opened by the folly of that silly1 though humorous1 old man4#ie ,the natives about the ,murray ,river in ,australia used to relate how the first man and woman were forbidden to go near a tree in which a bat lived1 lest they should disturb the creature4 ,one day1 however1 the woman was gathering firewood and she went near the tree4 ,the bat flew away1 and after that death came into the world4#if ,some of the ,fijians accounted for human mortality as follows4 ,when the first man1 the father of the human race1 was being buried1 a god passed by the grave and asked what it meant1 for he had never seen a grave before4 ,on learning from the bystanders that they had just buried their father1 ,do not bury him1 said he1 dig the body up again4 ,no1 said they1 we cannot do that4 ,he has been dead four days and stinks4 ,not so1 pleaded the god2 dig him up1 and ,i promise you that he will live again4 ,heedless of the divine promise1 these primitive sextons persisted in leaving their dead father in the grave4 ,then said the god to these wicked men1 ,by disobeying me you have sealed your own fate4 ,had you dug up your ancestor1 you would have found him alive1 and you yourselves1 when you passed from this world1 should have been buried1 as bananas are1 for the space of four days1 after which you should have been dug up1 not rotten1 but ripe4 ,but now1 as a punishment for your disobedience1 you shall die and rot4 ,and still1 when they hear this sad tale told1 the ,fijians say1 ,o that those children had dug up that body6#ig ,sidenote3 ,admiralty ,islanders' stories of the origin of death4 ,the ,admiralty ,islanders tell various stories to explain why man is mortal4 ,one of them has already been related4 ,here is another4 ,a ,souh man went once to catch fish4 ,a devil tried to devour him1 but he fled into the forest and took refuge in a tree4 ,the tree kindly closed on him so that the devil could not see him4 ,when the devil was gone1 the tree opened up and the man clambered down to the ground4 ,then said the tree to him1 ,go to ,souh and bring me two white pigs4 ,he went and found two pigs1 one was white and one was black4 ,he took chalk and chalked the black pig so that it was white4 ,then he brought them to the tree1 but on the way the chalk fell off the black pig4 ,and when the tree saw the white pig and the black pig1 he chid the man and said1 ,you are thankless4 ,i was good to you4 ,an evil will overtake you2 you will die4 ,the devil will fall upon you1 and you will die4 ,so it has been with us as it was with the man of ,souh4 ,an evil overtakes us or a spirit falls upon us1 and we die4 ,if it had been as the tree said1 we should not have died4#ih ,another story told by the ,admiralty ,islanders to account for the melancholy truth of man's mortality runs thus4 ,kosi1 the chief of ,moakareng1 was in his house4 ,he was hungry4 ,he said to his two sons1 ,go and climb the breadfruit trees and bring the fruit1 that we may eat them together and not die4 ,but they would not4 ,so he went himself and climbed the breadfruit tree4 ,but the north-west wind blew a storm1 it blew and threw him down4 ,he fell and his body died1 but his ghost went home4 ,he went and sat in his house4 ,he tied up his hair and he painted his face with red ochre4 ,now his wife and his two sons had gone after him into the wood4 ,they went to fetch home the breadfruits4 ,they came and saw ,kosi1 and he was dead4 ,the three returned home1 and there they saw the ghost of ,kosi sitting in his house4 ,they said1 ,you there6 ,who's that dead at the foot of the breadfruit tree8 ,kosi1 he is dead at the foot of the breadfruit tree4 ,kosi1 he said1 ,here am ,i4 ,i did not fall4 ,perhaps somebody else fell down4 ,i did not4 ,here ,i am4 ,you're a liar1 said they4 ,i ain't1 said he4 ,come1 said they1 we'll go and see4 ,they went4 ,kosi1 he jumped into his body4 ,he died4 ,they buried him4 ,if his wife had behaved well1 we should not die4 ,our body would die1 but our ghost would go about always in the old home4#ii ,sidenote3 ,stories of the origin of death3 the fatal bundle or the fatal box4 ,the ,wemba of ,northern ,rhodesia relate how ,god in the beginning created a man and a woman and gave them two bundles2 in one of them was life and in the other death4 ,most unfortunately the man chose the little bundle of death4#ajj ,the ,cherokee ,indians of ,north ,america say that a number of beings were engaged in the work of creation4 ,the ,sun was made first4 ,now the creators intended that men should live for ever4 ,but when the ,sun passed over them in the sky1 he told the people that there was not room enough for them all and that they had better die4 ,at last the ,sun's own daughter1 who was with the people on earth1 was bitten by a snake and died4 ,then the ,sun repented him and said that men might live always2 and he bade them take a box and go fetch his daughter's spirit in the box and bring it to her body1 that she might live4 ,but he charged them straitly not to open the box until they arrived at the dead body4 ,however1 moved by curiosity1 they unhappily opened the box too soon2 away flew the spirit1 and all men have died ever since4#aja ,some of the ,north ,american ,indians informed the early ,jesuit missionaries that a certain man had received the gift of immortality in a small packet from a famous magician named ,messou1 who repaired the world after it had been seriously damaged by a great flood4 ,in bestowing on the man this valuable gift the magician strictly enjoined him on no account to open the packet4 ,the man obeyed1 and so long as the packet was unopened he remained immortal4 ,but his wife was both curious and incredulous2 she opened the packet to see what was in it1 the precious contents flew away1 and mankind has been subject to death ever since4#ajb ,sidenote3 ,baganda story how death came into the world through the forgetfulness and imprudence of a woman4 ,as these ,american ,indians tell how death came through the curiosity and incredulity of one woman1 the ,baganda of ,central ,africa relate how it came through the forgetfulness and imprudence of another4 ,according to the ,baganda the first man who came to earth in ,uganda was named ,kintu4 ,he brought with him one cow and lived on its milk1 for he had no other food4 ,but in time a woman named ,nambi1 a daughter of ,gulu1 the king of heaven1 came down to earth with her brother or sister1 and seeing ,kintu she fell in love with him and wished to have him for her husband4 ,but her proud father doubted whether ,kintu was worthy of his daughter's hand1 and accordingly he insisted on testing his future son-in-law before he would consent to the marriage4 ,so he carried off ,kintu's cow and put it among his own herds in heaven4 ,when ,kintu found that the cow was stolen1 he was in a great rage1 but hunger getting the better of anger1 he made shift to live by peeling the bark of trees and gathering herbs and leaves1 which he cooked and ate4 ,in time his future wife ,nambi happened to spy the stolen cow among her father's herds and she told ,kintu1 who came to heaven to seek and recover the lost animal4 ,his future father-in-law ,gulu1 ,lord of ,heaven1 obliged him to submit to many tests designed to prove his fitness for marriage with the daughter of so exalted a being as the ,lord of ,heaven4 ,all these tests ,kintu successfully passed through4 ,at last ,gulu was satisfied1 gave him his daughter ,nambi to wife1 and allowed him to return to earth with her4 ,sidenote3 ,the coming of ,death4 ,but ,nambi had a brother and his name was ,death 7,walumbe74 ,so before the ,lord of ,heaven sent her away with her husband he called them both to him and said1 ,you must hurry away before ,death comes1 or he will wish to go with you4 ,you must not let him do so1 for he would only cause you trouble and unhappiness4 ,to this his daughter agreed1 and she went to pack up her things4 ,she and her husband then took leave of the ,lord of ,heaven1 who gave them at parting a piece of advice4 ,be sure1 said he1 if you have forgotten anything1 not to come back for it2 because1 if you do1 ,death will wish to go with you1 and you must go without him4 ,so off they set1 the man and his wife1 taking with them his cow and its calves1 also a sheep1 a goat1 a fowl1 and a banana tree4 ,but on the way the woman remembered that she had forgotten the grain to feed the fowl1 so she said to her husband1 ,i must go back for the grain to feed the fowl1 or it will die4 ,her husband tried to dissuade her1 but in vain4 ,she said1 ,i will hurry back and get it without any one seeing me4 ,so back she went in an evil hour and said to her father the ,lord of ,heaven1 ,i have forgotten the grain for the fowl and ,i am come back to fetch it from the doorway where ,i put it4 ,her father said sadly1 ,did ,i not tell you that you were not to return if you had forgotten anything1 because your brother ,death would wish to go with you8 ,now he will accompany you4 ,the woman fled1 but ,death saw her and followed hard after her4 ,when she rejoined her husband1 he was angry1 for he saw ,death and said1 ,why have you brought your brother with you8 ,who can live with him8 ,sidenote3 ,the importunity of ,death4 ,when they reached the earth1 ,nambi planted her garden1 and the bananas sprang up quickly and formed a grove4 ,they lived happily for a time till one day ,death came and asked for one of their daughters1 that she might go away with him and be his cook4 ,but the father said1 ,if the ,lord of ,heaven comes and asks me for one of my children1 what am ,i to say8 ,shall ,i tell him that ,i have given her to you to be your cook8 ,death was silent and went away4 ,but he came back another day and asked again for a child to be his cook4 ,when the father again refused1 ,death said1 ,i will kill your children4 ,the father did not know what that meant1 so he asked ,death1 ,what is that you will do8 ,however1 in a short time one of the children fell ill and died1 and then another and another4 ,so the man went to the ,lord of ,heaven and complained that ,death was taking away his children one by one4 ,the ,lord of ,heaven said1 ,did ,i not tell you1 when you were going away1 to go at once with your wife and not to return if you had forgotten anything1 but you let your wife return to fetch the grain8 ,now you have ,death living with you4 ,if you had obeyed me1 you would have been free from him and not lost any of your children4 ,sidenote3 ,the hunt for ,death4 ,however1 the man pleaded with him1 and the ,lord ,heaven at last consented to send ,death's brother ,kaikuzi to help the woman and to prevent ,death from killing her children4 ,so down came ,kaikuzi to earth1 and when he met his brother ,death they greeted each other lovingly4 ,then ,kaikuzi told ,death that he had come to fetch him away from earth to heaven4 ,death was willing to go1 but he said1 ,let us take our sister too4 ,nay1 said his brother1 that cannot be1 for she is a wife and must stay with her husband4 ,the dispute waxed warm1 ,death insisting on carrying off his sister1 and his brother refusing to allow him to do so4 ,at last the brother angrily ordered ,death to do as he was bid1 and so saying he made as though he would seize him4 ,but ,death slipped from between his hands and fled into the earth4 ,for a long time after that there was enmity between the two brothers4 ,kaikuzi tried in every way to catch ,death1 but ,death always escaped4 ,at last ,kaikuzi told the people that he would have one final hunt for ,death1 and while the hunt was going on they must all stay in their houses2 not a man1 a woman1 a child1 nor even an animal was to be allowed to pass the threshold2 and if they saw ,death passing the window1 they were not to utter a cry of terror but to keep still4 ,well1 for some days his orders were obeyed4 ,not a living soul1 not an animal1 stirred abroad4 ,all without was solitude1 all within was silence4 ,encouraged by the universal stillness ,death emerged from his lair1 and his brother was just about to catch him1 when some children1 who had ventured out to herd their goats1 saw ,death and cried out4 ,death's good brother rushed to the spot and asked them why they had cried out4 ,they said1 ,because we saw ,death4 ,so his brother was angry because ,death had again made good his escape into the earth1 and he went to the first man and told him that he was weary of hunting ,death and wished to return home to heaven4 ,the first man thanked him kindly for all he had done1 and said1 ,i fear there is nothing more to be done4 ,we must only hope that ,death will not kill all the people4 ,it was a vain hope4 ,since then ,death has lived on earth and killed everybody who is born into the world2 and always1 after the deed of murder is done1 he escapes into the earth at ,tanda in ,singo4#ajc ,sidenote3 ,in the preceding story ,death is distinctly personified4 ,death personified in a ,west ,african story of the origin of death4 ,death and the spider and the spider's daughter4 ,if this curious tale of the origin of death reveals no very deep philosophy1 it is at least interesting for the distinctness with which ,death is conceived as a personal being1 the son of the ,lord of ,heaven1 the brother of the first man's wife4 ,in this personification of ,death the story differs from all the others which we have examined and marks an intellectual advance upon them2 since the power of picturing abstract ideas to the mind with all the sharpness of outline and vividness of colour which are implied by personification is a faculty above the reach of very low intelligences4 ,it is not surprising that the ,baganda should have attained to this power1 for they are probably the most highly cultured and intellectual of all the many ,bantu tribes of ,africa4 ,the same conception of ,death as a person occurs in a story of the origin of death which is told by the ,hos1 a negro tribe in ,togoland1 a district of ,west ,africa4 ,these ,hos belong to the ,ewe-speaking family of the true negroes1 who have reached a comparatively high level of barbarism in the notorious kingdom of ,dahomey4 ,the story which the ,hos tell as to the origin of death is as follows4 ,once upon a time there was a great famine in which even the hunters could find no flesh to eat4 ,then ,death went and made a road as broad as from here to ,sokode1 and there he set many snares4 ,every animal that tried to pass that way fell into a snare4 ,so ,death had much flesh to eat4 ,one day the ,spider came to ,death and said to him1 ,you have so much meat6 and she asked if she might have some to take home with her4 ,death gave her leave4 ,so the ,spider made a basket as long as from ,ho to ,akoviewe 7a distance of about five miles71 crammed it full of meat1 and dragged it home4 ,in return for this bounty the ,spider gave ,death her daughter ,yiyisa to wife4 ,so when ,death had her for his wife1 he gave her a hint4 ,he said1 ,don't walk on the broad road which ,i have made4 ,walk on the footpath which ,i have not made4 ,when you go to the water1 be sure to take none but the narrow way through the wood4 ,well1 some time afterwards it had rained a little2 the grass was wet1 and ,yiyisa wished to go to the watering-place4 ,when she tried to walk on the narrow path through the forest1 the tall damp grass wet her through and through1 so she thought to herself1 ,in future ,i will only go on the broad road4 ,but scarce had she set foot on the beautiful broad road when she fell into a snare and died on the spot4 ,when ,death came to the snare and saw his wife in it dead1 he cut her up into bits and toasted them on the fire4 ,one day the ,spider paid a visit to her son-in-law ,death1 and he set a good meal before her4 ,when she had eaten and drunk her fill and had got up to go home1 she asked ,death after her daughter4 ,if you take that meat from the fire1 said ,death1 you will see her4 ,so the ,spider took the flesh from the fire and there1 sure enough1 she found her dead daughter4 ,then she went home in great wrath and whetted her knife till it was so sharp that a fly lighting on the edge was cut in two4 ,with that knife she came back to attack ,death4 ,but ,death shot an arrow at her4 ,she dodged it1 and the arrow whizzed past her and set all the forest on fire4 ,then the ,spider flung her sharp knife at ,death1 but it missed him and only sliced off the tops of the palms and all the other trees of the wood4 ,seeing that her stroke had failed1 the ,spider fled away home and shut herself up in her house4 ,but ,death waited for her on the edge of the town to kill her as soon as she ventured out4 ,next morning some women came out of the town to draw water at the watering-place1 and as they went they talked with one another4 ,but ,death shot an arrow among them and killed several4 ,the rest ran away home and said1 ,so and so is dead4 ,then ,death came and looked at the bodies and said1 ,that is my game4 ,i need go no more into the wood to hunt4 ,that is how ,death came into the world4 ,if the ,spider had not done what she did1 nobody would ever have died4#ajd ,sidenote3 ,death personified in a ,melanesian story of the origin of death4 ,again1 the ,melanesians of the ,banks ,islands tell a story of the origin of ,death1 in which that grim power is personified4 ,they say that ,death 7,mate7 used to live underground in a shadowy realm called ,panoi1 while men on earth changed their skins like serpents and so renewing their youth lived for ever4 ,but a practical inconvenience of immortality was that property never changed hands2 newcomers had no chance1 everything was monopolised by the old1 old stagers4 ,to remedy this state of things and secure a more equitable distribution of property ,death was induced to emerge from the lower world and to appear on earth among men2 he came relying on an assurance that no harm would be done him4 ,well1 when they had him1 they laid him out on a board1 covered him with a pall as if he were a corpse1 and then proceeded with great gusto to divide his property and eat the funeral feast4 ,on the fifth day they blew the conch shell to drive away the ghost1 as usual1 and lifted the pall to see what had become of ,death4 ,but there was no ,death there2 he had absconded leaving only his skeleton behind4 ,they naturally feared that he had made off with an intention to return to his home underground1 which would have been a great calamity2 for if there were no ,death on earth1 how could men die and how could other people inherit their property8 ,the idea was intolerable2 so to cut off the retreat of the fugitive1 the ,fool was set to do sentinel duty at the parting of the ways1 where one road leads down to the underworld1 ,death's home1 and the other leads up to the upper world1 the abode of the living4 ,here accordingly the ,fool was stationed with strict orders to keep his eye on ,death if he should attempt to sneak past him and return to the nether world4 ,however1 the ,fool1 like a fool as he was1 sat watching the road to the upper world1 and ,death slipped behind him and so made good his retreat4 ,since then all men have followed ,death down that fatal path4#aje ,sidenote3 ,thus according to savages death is not a necessary part of the order of nature4 ,a similar view is held by some eminent modern biologists4 ,so much for savage stories of the origin of death4 ,they all imply a belief that death is not a necessary part of the order of nature1 but that it originated in a pure mistake or misdeed of some sort on somebody's part1 and that we should all have lived happy and immortal if it had not been for that disastrous blunder or crime4 ,thus the tales reflect the same frame of mind which ,i illustrated in the last lecture1 when ,i shewed that many savages still to this day believe all men to be naturally immortal and death to be nothing but an effect of sorcery4 ,in short1 whether we regard the savage's attitude to death at the present day or his ideas as to its origin in the remote past1 we must conclude that primitive man cannot reconcile himself to the notion of death as a natural and necessary event2 he persists in regarding it as an accidental and unnecessary disturbance of the proper order of nature4 ,to a certain extent1 perhaps1 in these crude speculations he has anticipated certain views of modern biology4 ,thus it has been maintained by ,professor ,august ,weissmann that death is not a natural necessity1 that many of the lowest species of living animals do in fact live for ever2 and that in the higher animals the custom of dying has been introduced in the course of evolution for the purpose of thinning the population and preventing the degeneration of the species1 which would otherwise follow through the gradual and necessary deterioration of the immortal individuals1 who1 though they could not die1 might yet sustain much bodily damage through hard knocks in the hurly-burly of eternal existence on earth4 ,sidenote3 ,weissmann's view that death is not a natural necessity but an adaptation acquired in the course of evolution for the advantage of the race4 ,on this subject ,i will quote some sentences from ,professor ,weissmann's essay on the duration of life4 ,he says1 ,the necessity of death has been hitherto explained as due to causes which are inherent in organic nature1 and not to the fact that it may be advantageous4 ,i do not however believe in the validity of this explanation2 ,i consider that death is not a primary necessity1 but that it has been secondarily acquired as an adaptation4 ,i believe that life is endowed with a fixed duration1 not because it is contrary to its nature to be unlimited1 but because the unlimited existence of individuals would be a luxury without any corresponding advantage4 ,the above-mentioned hypothesis upon the origin and necessity of death leads me to believe that the organism did not finally cease to renew the worn-out cell material because the nature of the cells did not permit them to multiply indefinitely1 but because the power of multiplying indefinitely was lost when it ceased to be of use4444 ,john ,hunter1 supported by his experiments on anabiosis1 hoped to prolong the life of man indefinitely by alternate freezing and thawing2 and the ,veronese ,colonel ,aless4 ,guaguino made his contemporaries believe that a race of men existed in ,russia1 of which the individuals died regularly every year on the #bgth of ,november1 and returned to life on the #bdth of the following ,april4 ,there cannot however be the least doubt1 that the higher organisms1 as they are now constructed1 contain within themselves the germs of death4 ,the question however arises as to how this has come to pass2 and ,i reply that death is to be looked upon as an occurrence which is advantageous to the species as a concession to the outer conditions of life1 and not as an absolute necessity1 essentially inherent in life itself4 ,death1 that is the end of life1 is by no means1 as is usually assumed1 an attribute of all organisms4 ,an immense number of low organisms do not die1 although they are easily destroyed1 being killed by heat1 poisons1 etc4 ,as long1 however1 as those conditions which are necessary for their life are fulfilled1 they continue to live1 and they thus carry the potentiality of unending life in themselves4 ,i am speaking not only of the ,amoebae and the low unicellular ,algae1 but also of far more highly organized unicellular animals1 such as the ,infusoria4#ajf ,sidenote3 ,similar view expressed by ,alfred ,russel ,wallace4 ,a similar suggestion that death is not a natural necessity but an innovation introduced for the good of the breed1 has been made by our eminent ,english biologist1 ,mr4 ,alfred ,russel ,wallace4 ,he says3 ,if individuals did not die they would soon multiply inordinately and would interfere with each other's healthy existence4 ,food would become scarce1 and hence the larger individuals would probably decompose or diminish in size4 ,the deficiency of nourishment would lead to parts of the organism not being renewed2 they would become fixed1 and liable to more or less slow decomposition as dead parts within a living body4 ,the smaller organisms would have a better chance of finding food1 the larger ones less chance4 ,that one which gave off several small portions to form each a new organism would have a better chance of leaving descendants like itself than one which divided equally or gave off a large part of itself4 ,hence it would happen that those which gave off very small portions would probably soon after cease to maintain their own existence while they would leave a numerous offspring4 ,this state of things would be in any case for the advantage of the race1 and would therefore1 by natural selection1 soon become established as the regular course of things1 and thus we have the origin of old age1 decay1 and death2 for it is evident that when one or more individuals have provided a sufficient number of successors they themselves1 as consumers of nourishment in a constantly increasing degree1 are an injury to their successors4 ,natural selection therefore weeds them out1 and in many cases favours such races as die almost immediately after they have left successors4 ,many moths and other insects are in this condition1 living only to propagate their kind and then immediately dying1 some not even taking any food in the perfect and reproductive state4#ajg ,sidenote3 ,savages and some men of science agree that death is not a natural necessity4 ,thus it appears that two of the most eminent biologists of our time agree with savages in thinking that death is by no means a natural necessity for all living beings4 ,they only differ from savages in this1 that whereas savages look upon death as the result of a deplorable accident1 our men of science regard it as a beneficent reform instituted by nature as a means of adjusting the numbers of living beings to the quantity of the food supply1 and so tending to the improvement and therefore on the whole to the happiness of the species4 ,footnote #eg3 ,h4 ,callaway1 ,the ,religious ,system of the ,amazulu1 ,part i4 pp4 #a1 #c sq41 ,part ii4 p4 #ach2 ,rev4 ,l4 ,grout1 ,zululand1 or ,life among the ,zulu-,kafirs 7,philadelphia1 ,n4,d471 pp4 #adh sq42 ,dudley ,kidd1 ,the ,essential ,kafir 7,london1 #aijd71 pp4 #gf sq4 ,compare ,a4 ,f4 ,gardiner1 ,narrative of a ,journey to the ,zoolu ,country 7,london1 #ahcf71 pp4 #agh sq41 ,t4 ,arbousset et ,f4 ,daumas1 ,relation d'un voyage d',exploration au ,nord-,est de la ,colonie du ,cap de ,bonne-,esperance 7,paris1 #ahdb71 p4 #dgb2 ,rev4 ,j4 ,shooter1 ,the ,kafirs of ,natal and the ,zulu ,country 7,london1 #aheg71 p4 #aei2 ,w4 ,h4 ,i4 ,bleek1 ,reynard the ,fox in ,south ,africa 7,london1 #ahfd71 p4 #gd2 ,d4 ,leslie1 ,among the ,zulus and ,amatongas1 ,second ,edition 7,edinburgh1 #ahge71 p4 #bji2 ,f4 ,speckmann1 ,die ,hermannsburger ,mission in ,afrika 7,hermannsburg1 #ahgf71 p4 #afd4 ,footnote #eh3 ,j4 ,chapman1 ,travels in the ,interior of ,south ,africa 7,london1 #ahfh71 i4 #dg4 ,footnote #ei3 ,e4 ,casalis1 ,the ,basutos 7,london1 #ahfa71 p4 #bdb2 ,e4 ,jacottet1 ,the ,treasury of ,ba-suto ,lore1 i4 7,morija1 ,basutoland1 #aijh71 pp4 #df sqq4 ,footnote #fj3 ,h4 ,a4 ,junod1 ,les ,ba-,ronga ,neuchatel 7#ahih71 pp4 #dja sq4 ,footnote #fa3 ,w4 ,a4 ,elmslie1 ,among the ,wild ,ngoni 7,edinburgh and ,london1 #ahii71 p4 #gj4 ,footnote #fb3 ,h4 ,a4 ,junod and ,w4 ,a4 ,elmslie1 ll4cc4 ,footnote #fc3 ,c4 ,w4 ,hobley1 ,ethnology of ,a-,kamba and other ,east ,african ,tribes 7,cambridge1 #aiaj71 pp4 #ajg-aji4 ,footnote #fd3 ,fr4 ,mueller1 ,die ,religionen ,togos in ,einzeldarstellungen1 ,anthropos1 ii4 7#aijg7 p4 #bjc4 ,in a version of the story reported from ,calabar a sheep appears as the messenger of mortality1 while a dog is the messenger of immortality or rather of resurrection4 ,see ,calabar ,stories1 ,journal of the ,african ,society1 ,no4 #ah 7,january #aijf71 p4 #aid4 ,footnote #fe3 ,e4 ,perregaux1 ,chez les ,achanti 7,neuchatel1 #aijf71 pp4 #aih sq4 ,footnote #ff3 ,e4 ,perregaux1 op4 cit4 p4 #aii4 ,footnote #fg3 ,sir ,j4 ,e4 ,alexander1 ,expedition of ,discovery into the ,interior of ,africa 7,london1 #ahch71 i4 #afi2 ,c4 ,j4 ,andersson1 ,lake ,ngami1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahef71 pp4 #cbh sq42 ,w4 ,h4 ,i4 ,bleek1 ,reynard the ,fox in ,south ,africa 7,london1 #ahfd71 pp4 #ga-gc2 ,th4 ,hahn1 ,tsuni-,goam1 the ,supreme ,being of the ,khoi-,khoi 7,london1 #ahha71 p4 #eb4 ,footnote #fh3 ,w4 ,h4 ,i4 ,bleek1 ,a ,brief ,account of ,bushman ,folk-lore 7,london1 #ahge71 pp4 #i sq4 ,footnote #fi3 ,w4 ,h4 ,i4 ,bleek1 ,reynard the ,fox in ,south ,africa1 pp4 #fi sq4 ,footnote #gj3 ,a4 ,c4 ,hollis1 ,the ,masai 7,oxford1 #aije71 pp4 #bga sq4 ,footnote #ga3 ,a4 ,c4 ,hollis1 ,the ,nandi 7,oxford1 #aiji71 p4 #ih4 ,footnote #gb3 ,captain ,w4 ,e4 ,h4 ,barrett1 ,notes on the ,customs and ,beliefs of the ,wa-,giriama1 etc41 ,british ,east ,africa1 ,journal of the ,r4 ,anthropological ,institute1 xli4 7#aiaa7 p4 #cg4 ,footnote #gc3 ,th4 ,williams1 ,fiji and the ,fijians1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahfj71 i4 #bje4 ,footnote #gd3 ,lettres ,edifiantes et ,curieuses1 ,nouvelle ,edition1 xv4 7,paris1 #agha7 pp4 #cje sq4 ,footnote #ge3 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 ,native ,tribes of ,south-,east ,australia 7,london1 #aijd71 pp4 #dbh sq4 ,footnote #gf3 ,antoine ,cabaton1 ,nouvelles ,recherches sur les ,chams 7,paris1 #aija71 pp4 #ah sq4 ,footnote #gg3 ,baldwin ,spencer and ,f4 ,j4 ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia 7,london1 #aijd71 pp4 #eac sq4 ,footnote #gh3 ,father ,g4 ,boscana1 ,chinigchinich1 in ,life in ,california1 by an ,american ,a4 ,robinson 7,new ,york1 #ahdf71 pp4 #bih sq4 ,footnote #gi3 ,merolla1 ,voyage to ,congo1 in ,j4 ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 xvi4 7,london1 #ahad7 p4 #bgc4 ,footnote #hj3 ,p4 ,a4 ,kleintitschen1 ,die ,kuestenbewohner der ,gazellehalbinsel 7,hiltrup bei ,muenster1 ,n4,d471 p4 #ccd4 ,footnote #ha3 ,a4 ,landes1 ,contes et ,legendes ,annamites1 ,cochinchine francaise1 ,excursions et ,reconnaissances1 ,no4 #be 7,saigon1 #ahhf71 pp4 #ajh sq4 ,footnote #hb3 ,otto ,meyer1 ,mythen und ,erzaehlungen von der ,insel ,vuatom 7,bismarck-,archipel1 ,suedsee71 ,anthropos1 v4 7#aiaj7 p4 #gbd4 ,footnote #hc3 ,h4 ,sundermann1 ,die ,insel ,nias und die ,mission daselbst1 ,allgemeine ,missions-,zeitschrift1 xi4 7#ahhd7 p4 #dea2 ,e4 ,modigliani1 ,un ,viaggio a ,nias 7,milan1 #ahij71 p4 #bie4 ,footnote #hd3 ,r4 ,schomburgk1 ,reisen in ,britisch-,guiana 7,leipsig1 #ahdg-ahdh71 ii4 #cai4 ,footnote #he3 ,r4 ,schomburgk1 op4 cit4 ii4 #cbj4 ,footnote #hf3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians 7,oxford1 #ahia71 p4 #bfe2 ,w4 ,gray1 ,some ,notes on the ,tannese1 ,internationales ,archiv fuer ,ethnographie1 vii4 7#ahid7 p4 #bcb4 ,footnote #hg3 ,c4 ,ribbe1 ,zwei ,jahre unter den ,kannibalen der ,salomo-,inseln 7,dresden-,blasowitz1 #aijc71 p4 #adh4 ,footnote #hh3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 ,aus dem ,leben der ,kaileute1 in ,r4 ,neuhauss's ,deutsch ,neu-,guinea 7,berlin1 #aiaa71 iii4 #afa sq4 ,footnote #hi3 ,josef ,meier1 ,mythen und ,sagen der ,admiralitaetsinsulaner1 ,anthropos1 iii4 7#aijh7 p4 #aic4 ,footnote #ij3 ,george ,brown1 ,d4,d41 ,melanesians and ,polynesians 7,london1 #aiaj71 p4 #cfe2 ,george ,turner1 ,,ll4,d41 ,samoa 7,london1 #ahhd71 pp4 #h sq4 ,footnote #ia3 ,see above1 p4 #gj4 ,footnote #ib3 ,a4 ,c4 ,kruijt1 ,de legenden der ,poso-,alfoeren aangaande de erste menschen1 ,mededeelingen van wege het ,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1 xxxviii4 7#ahid7 p4 #cdj4 ,footnote #ic3 ,d4 ,f4 ,a4 ,hervey1 ,the ,mentra ,traditions1 ,journal of the ,straits ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,no4 #aj 7,december #ahhb71 p4 #aij2 ,w4 ,w4 ,skeat and ,c4 ,o4 ,blagden1 ,pagan ,races of the ,malay ,peninsula 7,london1 #aijf71 ii4 #ccg sq4 ,footnote #id3 ,guerlach1 ,moeurs et ,superstitions des sauvages ,ba-hnars1 ,missions ,catholiques1 xix4 7#ahhg7 p4 #dgi4 ,footnote #ie3 7,sir7 ,j4 ,g4 ,scott and ,j4 ,p4 ,hardiman1 ,gazetteer of ,upper ,burma and the ,shan ,states1 ,part i4 vol4 i4 7,rangoon1 #aijj7 pp4 #djh sq4 ,footnote #if3 ,r4 ,brough ,smyth1 ,the ,aborigines of ,victoria 7,melbourne and ,london1 #ahgh71 i4 #dbh4 ,on this narrative the author remarks3 ,this story appears to bear too close a resemblance to the ,biblical account of the ,fall4 ,is it genuine or not8 ,mr4 ,bulmer admits that it may have been invented by the aborigines after they had heard something of ,scripture history4 ,footnote #ig3 ,th4 ,williams1 ,fiji and the ,fijians1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahfj71 i4 #bjd sq4 ,for another ,fijian story of the origin of death1 see above1 p4 #fg4 ,footnote #ih3 ,josef ,meier1 ,mythen und ,sagen der ,admiralitaetsinsulaner1 ,anthropos1 iii4 7#aijh7 p4 #aid4 ,footnote #ii3 ,josef ,meier1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aid sq4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,c4 ,gouldsbury and ,h4 ,sheane1 ,the ,great ,plateau of ,northern ,rhodesia 7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #hj sq4 ,a like tale is told by the ,balolo of the ,upper ,congo4 ,see ,folk-lore1 xii4 7#aija7 p4 #dfa2 and below1 p4 #dgb4 ,footnote #aja3 ,j4 ,mooney1 ,myths of the ,cherokee1 ,nineteenth ,annual ,report of the ,bureau of ,american ,ethnology1 ,part i4 7,washington1 #aijj7 p4 #dcf1 quoting the ,payne manuscript1 of date about #ahce4 ,compare id41 pp4 #beb-bed1 #dcf sq4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,relations des ,jesuites1 #afcd1 p4 #ac 7,canadian reprint1 ,quebec1 #aheh74 ,footnote #ajc3 ,sir ,harry ,johnston1 ,the ,uganda ,protectorate 7,london1 #aijd71 ii4 #gjj-gje 7the story was taken down by ,mr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,cunningham72 ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda 7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #dfj-dfd4 ,the story is briefly told by ,mr4 ,l4 ,decle1 ,three ,years in ,savage ,africa 7,london1 #ahih71 pp4 #dci sq4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,j4 ,spieth1 ,die ,ewe-,staemme 7,berlin1 #aijf71 pp4 #eij-eic4 ,footnote #aje3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians 7,oxford1 #ahia71 pp4 #bfe sq4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,a4 ,weissmann1 ,essays upon ,heredity and ,kindred ,biological ,problems1 vol4 i4 7,oxford1 #ahia7 pp4 #be sq4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,a4 ,r4 ,wallace1 quoted in ,a4 ,weissmann's ,essays upon ,heredity1 i4 7,oxford1 #ahia7 p4 #bd note4 ,,lecture ,,iv ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,aborigines ,,of ,,central ,,australia ,sidenote3 ,proposed survey of the belief in immortality and the worship of the dead1 as these are found among the various races of men1 beginning with the lowest savages4 ,in previous lectures we have considered the ideas which savages in general entertain of death and its origin4 ,to-day we begin our survey of the beliefs and practices of particular races in regard to the dead4 ,i propose to deal separately with some of the principal races of men and to shew in detail how the belief in human immortality and the worship of the dead1 to which that belief naturally gives rise1 have formed a more or less important element of their religion4 ,and in order to trace as far as possible the evolution of that worship in history ,i shall begin with the lowest savages about whom we possess accurate information1 and shall pass from them to higher races until1 if time permitted1 we might come to the civilised nations of antiquity and of modern times4 ,in this way1 by comparing the ideas and practices of peoples on different planes of culture we may be able approximately to reconstruct or represent to ourselves with a fair degree of probability the various stages through which this particular phase of religion may be supposed to have passed in the great civilised races before the dawn of history4 ,of course all such reconstructions must be more or less conjectural4 ,in the absence of historical documents that is inevitable2 but our reconstruction will be more or less probable according to the degree in which the corresponding stages of evolution are found to resemble or differ from each other in the various races of men4 ,if we find that tribes at approximately the same level of culture in different parts of the world have approximately the same religion1 we may fairly infer that religion is in a sense a function of culture1 and therefore that all races which have traversed the same stages of culture in the past have traversed also the same stages of religion2 in short that1 allowing for many minor variations1 which flow inevitably from varying circumstances such as climate1 soil1 racial temperament1 and so forth1 the course of religious development has on the whole been uniform among mankind4 ,this enquiry may be called the embryology of religion1 in as much as it seeks to do for the development of religion what embryology in the strict sense of the word attempts to do for the development of life4 ,and just as biology or the science of life naturally begins with the study of the lowest sorts of living beings1 the humble protozoa1 so we shall begin our enquiry with a study of the lowest savages of whom we possess a comparatively full and accurate record1 namely1 the aborigines of ,australia4 ,sidenote3 ,savagery a case not of degeneracy but of arrested or rather retarded development4 ,at the outset ,i would ask you to bear in mind that1 so far as evidence allows us to judge1 savagery in all its phases appears to be nothing but a case of arrested or rather retarded development4 ,the old view that savages have degenerated from a higher level of culture1 on which their forefathers once stood1 is destitute alike of evidence and of probability4 ,on the contrary1 the information which we possess as to the lower races1 meagre and fragmentary as it unfortunately is1 all seems to point to the conclusion that on the whole even the most savage tribes have reached their low level of culture from one still lower1 and that the upward movement1 though so slow as to be almost imperceptible1 has yet been real and steady up to the point where savagery has come into contact with civilisation4 ,the moment of such contact is a critical one for the savages4 ,if the intellectual1 moral1 and social interval which divides them from the civilised intruders exceeds a certain degree1 then it appears that sooner or later the savages must inevitably perish2 the shock of collision with a stronger race is too violent to be withstood1 the weaker goes to the wall and is shattered4 ,but if on the other hand the breach between the two conflicting races is not so wide as to be impassable1 there is a hope that the weaker may assimilate enough of the higher culture of the other to survive4 ,it was so1 for example1 with our barbarous forefathers in contact with the ancient civilisations of ,greece and ,rome2 and it may be so in future with some1 for example1 of the black races of the present day in contact with ,european civilisation4 ,time will shew4 ,but among the savages who cannot permanently survive the shock of collision with ,europe may certainly be numbered the aborigines of ,australia4 ,they are rapidly dwindling and wasting away1 and before very many years have passed it is probable that they will be extinct like the ,tasmanians1 who1 so far as we can judge from the miserably imperfect records of them which we possess1 appear to have been savages of an even lower type than the ,australians1 and therefore to have been still less able to survive in the struggle for existence with their vigorous ,european rivals4 ,sidenote3 ,physical causes which have retarded progress in ,australia4 ,the causes which have retarded progress in ,australia and kept the aboriginal population at the lowest level of savagery appear to be mainly two2 namely1 first1 the geographical isolation and comparatively small area of the continent1 and1 second1 the barren and indeed desert nature of a great part of its surface2 for the combined effect of these causes has been1 by excluding foreign competitors and seriously restricting the number of competitors at home1 to abate the rigour of competition and thereby to restrain the action of one of the most powerful influences which make for progress4 ,in other words1 elements of weakness have been allowed to linger on1 which under the sterner conditions of life entailed by fierce competition would long ago have been eliminated and have made way for elements better adapted to the environment4 ,what is true of the human inhabitants of ,australia in this respect is true also of its fauna and flora4 ,it has long been recognised that the animals and plants of ,australia represent on the whole more archaic types of life than the animals and plants of the larger continents2 and the reason why these antiquated creatures have survived there rather than elsewhere is mainly that1 the area of competition being so much restricted through the causes ,i have mentioned1 these comparatively weak forms of animal and vegetable life have not been killed off by stronger competitors4 ,that this is the real cause appears to be proved by the rapidity with which many animals and plants introduced into ,australia from ,europe tend to overrun the country and to oust the old native fauna and flora4#ajh ,sidenote3 ,in the centre of ,australia the natural conditions of life are most unfavourable2 hence the central aborigines have remained in a more primitive state than those of the coasts1 where food and water are more plentiful4 ,i have said that among the causes which have kept the aborigines of ,australia at a very low level of savagery must be reckoned the desert nature of a great part of the country4 ,now it is the interior of the continent which is the most arid1 waste1 and barren4 ,the coasts are comparatively fertile1 for they are watered by showers condensed from an atmosphere which is charged with moisture by the neighbouring sea2 and this condensation is greatly facilitated in the south-eastern and eastern parts of the continent by a high range of mountains which here skirts the coast for a long distance1 attracting the moisture from the ocean and precipitating it in the form of snow and rain4 ,thus the vegetation and hence the supply of food both animal and vegetable in these well-watered portions of the continent are varied and plentiful4 ,in striking contrast with the fertility and abundance of these favoured regions are the stony plains and bare rocky ranges of the interior1 where water is scarce1 vegetation scanty1 and animal life at certain seasons of the year can only with difficulty be maintained4 ,it would be no wonder if the natives of these arid sun-scorched wildernesses should have lagged behind even their savage brethren of the coasts in respect of material and social progress2 and in fact there are many indications that they have done so1 in other words1 that the aborigines of the more fertile districts near the sea have made a greater advance towards civilisation than the tribes of the desert interior4 ,this is the view of men who have studied the ,australian savages most deeply at first hand1 and1 so far as ,i can judge of the matter without any such first-hand acquaintance1 ,i entirely agree with their opinion4 ,i have given my reasons elsewhere and shall not repeat them here4 ,all that ,i wish to impress on you now is that in aboriginal ,australia a movement of social and intellectual progress1 slow but perceptible1 appears to have been setting from the coast inwards1 and that1 so far as such things can be referred to physical causes1 this particular movement in ,australia would seem to have been initiated by the sea acting through an abundant rainfall and a consequent abundant supply of food4#aji ,sidenote3 ,backward state of the ,central ,australian aborigines4 ,they have no idea of a moral supreme being4 ,accordingly1 in attempting to give you some account of the belief in immortality and the worship of the dead among the various races of mankind1 ,i propose to begin with the natives of ,central ,australia1 first1 because the ,australian aborigines are the most primitive savages about whom we have full and accurate information1 and1 second1 because among these primitive savages the inhabitants of the central deserts are on the whole the most primitive4 ,like their brethren in the rest of the continent they were in their native condition absolutely ignorant of metals and of agriculture2 they had no domestic animals except the dog1 and they subsisted wholly by the products of the chase and the natural fruits1 roots1 and seeds1 which the ground yielded without cultivation of any sort4 ,in regard to their intellectual outlook upon the world1 they were deeply imbued1 as ,i shewed in a former lecture1 with a belief in magic1 but it can hardly be said that they possessed any religion in the strict sense of the word1 by which ,i mean a propitiation of real or imaginary powers regarded as personal beings superior to man3 certainly the ,australian aborigines appear to have believed in no beings who deserve to be called gods4 ,on this subject ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen1 our best authorities on these tribes1 observe as follows3 ,the ,central ,australian natives--and this is true of the tribes extending from ,lake ,eyre in the south to the far north and eastwards across to the ,gulf of ,carpentaria--have no idea whatever of the existence of any supreme being who is pleased if they follow a certain line of what we call moral conduct and displeased if they do not do so4 ,they have not the vaguest idea of a personal individual other than an actual living member of the tribe who approves or disapproves of their conduct1 so far as anything like what we call morality is concerned4 ,any such idea as that of a future life of happiness or the reverse1 as a reward for meritorious or as a punishment for blameworthy conduct1 is quite foreign to them4444 ,we know of no tribe in which there is a belief of any kind in a supreme being who rewards or punishes the individual according to his moral behaviour1 using the word moral in the native sense4#aaj ,sidenote3 ,central ,australian theory that the souls of the dead survive and are afterwards reborn as infants4 ,but if the aborigines of ,central ,australia have no religion properly so called1 they entertain beliefs and they observe practices out of which under favourable circumstances a religion might have been developed1 if its evolution had not been arrested by the advent of ,europeans4 ,among these elements of natural religion one of the most important is the theory which these savages hold as to the existence and nature of the dead4 ,that theory is a very remarkable one4 ,with a single exception1 which ,i shall mention presently1 they unanimously believe that death is not the end of all things for the individual1 but that the human personality survives1 apparently with little change1 in the form of a spirit1 which may afterwards be reborn as a child into the world4 ,in fact they think that every living person without exception is the reincarnation of a dead person who lived on earth a longer or shorter time ago4 ,this belief is held universally by the tribes which occupy an immense area of ,australia from the centre northwards to the ,gulf of ,carpentaria4#aaa ,the single exception to which ,i have referred is furnished by the ,gnanji1 a fierce and wild-looking tribe who eat their dead enemies and perhaps also their dead friends4#aab ,these savages deny that women have spirits which live after death2 when a woman dies1 that1 they say1 is the end of her4 ,on the other hand1 the spirit of a dead man1 in their opinion1 survives and goes to and fro on the earth visiting the places where his forefathers camped in days of old and destined to be born again of a woman at some future time1 when the rains have fallen and bleached his bones4#aac ,but why these primitive philosophers should deny the privilege of immortality to women and reserve it exclusively for men1 is not manifest4 ,all other ,central ,australian tribes appear to admit the rights of women equally with the rights of men in a life beyond the grave4 ,sidenote3 ,central ,australian theory as to the state of the dead4 ,certain conspicuous features of the landscape supposed to be tenanted by the souls of the dead waiting to be born again4 ,with regard to the state of the souls of the dead in the intervals between their successive reincarnations1 the opinions of the ,central ,australian savages are clear and definite4 ,most civilised races who believe in the immortality of the soul have found themselves compelled to confess that1 however immortal the spirits of the departed may be1 they do not present themselves commonly to our eyes or ears1 nor meddle much with the affairs of the living2 hence the survivors have for the most part inferred that the dead do not hover invisible in our midst1 but that they dwell somewhere1 far away1 in the height of heaven1 or in the depth of earth1 or in ,islands of the ,blest beyond the sea where the sun goes down4 ,not so with the simple aborigines of ,australia4 ,they imagine that the spirits of the dead continue to haunt their native land and especially certain striking natural features of the landscape1 it may be a pool of water in a deep gorge of the barren hills1 or a solitary tree in the sun-baked plains1 or a great rock that affords a welcome shade in the sultry noon4 ,such spots are thought to be tenanted by the souls of the departed waiting to be born again4 ,there they lurk1 constantly on the look-out for passing women into whom they may enter1 and from whom in due time they may be born as infants4 ,it matters not whether the woman be married or unmarried1 a matron or a maid1 a blooming girl or a withered hag3 any woman may conceive directly by the entrance into her of one of these disembodied spirits2 but the natives have shrewdly observed that the spirits shew a decided preference for plump young women4 ,hence when such a damsel is passing near a plot of haunted ground1 if she does not wish to become a mother1 she will disguise herself as an aged crone and hobble past1 saying in a thin cracked voice1 ,don't come to me4 ,i am an old woman4 ,such spots are often stones1 which the natives call child-stones because the souls of the dead are there lying in wait for women in order to be born as children4 ,one such stone1 for example1 may be seen in the land of the ,arunta tribe near ,alice ,springs4 ,it projects to a height of three feet from the ground among the mulga scrub1 and there is a round hole in it through which the souls of dead plum-tree people are constantly peeping1 ready to pounce out on a likely damsel4 ,again1 in the territory of the ,warramunga tribe the ghosts of black-snake people are supposed to gather in the rocks round certain pools or in the gum-trees which border the generally dry bed of a water-course4 ,no ,warramunga woman would dare to strike one of these trees with an axe1 because she is firmly convinced that in doing so she would set free one of the lurking black-snake spirits1 who would immediately dart into her body4 ,they think that the spirits are no larger than grains of sand and that they make their way into women through the navel4 ,nor is it merely by direct contact with one of these repositories of souls1 nor yet by passing near it1 that women may be gotten with child against their wish4 ,the ,arunta believe that any malicious man may by magic cause a woman or even a child to become a mother3 he has only to go to one of the child-stones and rub it with his hands1 muttering the words1 ,plenty of young women4 ,you look and go quickly4#aad ,sidenote3 ,as a rule1 only the souls of persons of one particular totemic clan are thought to congregate in one place4 ,a remarkable feature in these gathering-places of the dead remains to be noticed4 ,the society at each of them is very select4 ,the ghosts are very clannish2 as a rule none but people of one particular totemic clan are supposed to for-gather at any one place4 ,for example1 we have just seen that in the ,arunta tribe the souls of dead people of the plum-tree totem congregate at a certain stone in the mulga scrub1 and that in the ,warramunga tribe the spirits of deceased persons who had black snakes for their totem haunt certain gum-trees4 ,the same thing applies to most of the other haunts of the dead in ,central ,australia4 ,whether the totem was a kangaroo or an emu1 a rat or a bat1 a hawk or a cockatoo1 a bee or a fly1 a yam or a grass seed1 the sun or the moon1 fire or water1 lightning or the wind1 it matters not what the totem was1 only the ghosts of people of one totemic clan meet for the most part in one place2 thus one rock will be tenanted by the spirits of kangaroo folk only1 and another by spirits of emu folk only2 one water-pool will be the home of dead rat people alone1 and another the haunt of none but dead bat people2 and so on with most of the other abodes of the souls4 ,however1 in the ,urabunna tribe the ghosts are not so exclusive2 some of them consent to share their abode with people of other totems4 ,for example1 a certain pool of water is haunted by the spirits of folk who in their lifetime had for their totems respectively the emu1 rain1 and a certain grub4 ,on the other hand a group of granite boulders is inhabited only by the souls of persons of the pigeon totem4#aae ,sidenote3 ,totemism defined4 ,perhaps for the sake of some of my hearers ,i should say a word as to the meaning of totems and totemism4 ,the subject is a large one and is still under discussion4 ,for our present purpose it is not necessary that ,i should enter into details2 ,i will therefore only say that a totem is commonly a class of natural objects1 usually a species of animals or plants1 with which a savage identifies himself in a curious way1 imagining that he himself and his kinsfolk are for all practical purposes kangaroos or emus1 rats or bats1 hawks or cockatoos1 yams or grass-seed1 and so on1 according to the particular class of natural objects which he claims as his totem4 ,the origin of this remarkable identification of men with animals1 plants1 or other things is still much debated2 my own view is that the key to the mystery is furnished by the ,australian beliefs as to birth and rebirth which ,i have just described to you2 but on that subject ,i will not now dwell4#aaf ,all that ,i ask you to remember is that in ,central ,australia there is no general gathering-place for the spirits of the departed2 the souls are sorted out more or less strictly according to their totems and dwell apart each in their own little preserve or preserves1 on which ghosts of other totems are supposed seldom or never to trespass4 ,thus the whole country-side is dotted at intervals with these spiritual parks or reservations1 which are respected by the natives as the abodes of their departed kinsfolk4 ,in size they vary from a few square yards to many square miles4#aag ,sidenote3 ,traditionary origin of the local totem centres 7oknanikilla7 where the souls of the dead are supposed to assemble4 ,the sacred sticks or stones 7churinga7 which the totemic ancestors carried about with them4 ,the way in which these spiritual preserves originated is supposed to be as follows4 ,in the earliest days of which the aborigines retain a tradition1 and to which they give the name of the alcheringa or dream times1 their remote ancestors roamed about the country in bands1 each band composed of people of the same totem4 ,thus one band would consist of frog people only1 another of witchetty grub people only1 another of ,hakea flower people only1 and so on4 ,now in regard to the nature of these remote totemic ancestors of the alcheringa or dream times1 the ideas of the natives are very hazy2 they do not in fact clearly distinguish their human from their totemic nature2 in speaking1 for example1 of a man of the kangaroo totem they seem unable to discriminate sharply between the man and the animal3 perhaps we may say that what is before their mind is a blurred image1 a sort of composite photograph1 of a man and a kangaroo in one3 the man is semi-bestial1 the kangaroo is semi-human4 ,and similarly with their ancestors of all other totems3 if the particular ancestors1 for example1 had the bean-tree for their totem1 then their descendants in thinking of them might1 like the blind man in the ,gospel1 see in their mind's eye men walking like trees and trees perambulating like men4 ,now each of these semi-human ancestors is thought to have carried about with him on his peregrinations one or more sacred sticks or stones of a peculiar pattern1 to which the ,arunta give the name of churinga3 they are for the most part oval or elongated and flattened stones or slabs of wood1 varying in length from a few inches to over five feet1 and inscribed with a variety of patterns which represent or have reference to the totems4 ,but the patterns are purely conventional1 consisting of circles1 curved lines1 spirals1 and dots with no attempt to represent natural objects pictorially4 ,each of these sacred stones or sticks was intimately associated with the spirit part of the man or woman who carried it2 for women as well as men had their churinga4 ,when these semi-human ancestors died1 they went into the ground1 leaving their sacred stones or sticks behind them on the spot1 and in every case some natural feature arose to mark the place1 it might be a tree1 a rock1 a pool of water1 or what not4 ,the memory of all such spots has been carefully preserved and handed down from generation to generation by the old men1 and it is to these spots that down to the present day the souls of all the dead regularly repair in order to await reincarnation4 ,the ,arunta call the places oknanikilla1 and we may call them local totem centres1 because they are the centres where the spirits of the departed assemble according to their totems4#aah ,sidenote3 ,every living person has also his or her sacred stick or stone 7churinga71 with which his or her spirit is closely bound up4 ,but it is not merely the remote forefathers of the ,central ,australian savages who are said to have been possessed of these sacred sticks or stones3 every man and woman who is born into the world has one of them1 with which his or her spirit is believed to be closely bound up4 ,this is intelligible when we remember that every living person is believed to be simply the reincarnation of an ancestor2 for that being so he naturally comes to life with all the attributes which belonged to him in his previous state of existence on earth4 ,the notion of the natives is that when a spirit child enters into a woman to be born1 he immediately drops his sacred stick or stone on the spot1 which is necessarily one of what we have called the local totem centres1 since in the opinion of the natives it is only at or near them that a woman can conceive a child4 ,hence when her child is born1 the woman tells her husband the place where she fancies that the infant entered into her1 and he goes with some old men to find the precious object1 the stick or stone dropped by the spirit of the infant when it entered into the mother4 ,if it cannot be found1 the men cut a wooden one from the nearest hard-wood tree1 and this becomes the sacred stick or churinga of the newborn child4 ,the exact spot1 whether a tree or a stone or what not1 in which the child's spirit is supposed to have tarried in the interval between its incarnations1 is called its nanja tree or stone or what not4 ,a definite relation is supposed to exist between each individual and his nanja tree or stone4 ,the tree or stone and any animal or bird that lights upon it is sacred to him and may not be molested4 ,a native has been known earnestly to intercede with a white man to spare a tree because it was his nanja or birth-tree1 and he feared that evil would befall him if it were cut down4#aai ,sidenote3 ,sanctity of the churinga4 ,thus in these ,central ,australian tribes every man1 woman1 and child has his or her sacred birth-stone or stick4 ,but though every woman1 like every man1 has her sacred birth-stone or stick1 she is never allowed to see it under pain of death or of being blinded with a fire-stick4 ,indeed none but old women are aware even of the existence of such things4 ,uninitiated men are likewise forbidden under the same severe penalties ever to look upon these most sacred objects4#abj ,the sanctity ascribed to the sticks and stones is intelligible when we remember that the spirits of all the people both living and dead are believed to be intimately associated with them4 ,each of them1 we are told1 is supposed to be so closely bound up with a person's spirit that it may be regarded as his or her representative1 and those of dead people are believed to be endowed with the attributes of their former owners and actually to impart them to any one who happens to carry them about with him4 ,hence these apparently insignificant sticks and stones are1 in the opinion of the natives1 most potent instruments for conveying to the living the virtues and powers of the dead4 ,for example1 in a fight the possession of one of these holy sticks or stones is thought to endow the possessor with courage and accuracy of aim and also to deprive his adversary of these qualities4 ,so firmly is this belief held1 that if two men were fighting and one of them knew that the other carried a sacred birth-stone or stick while he himself did not1 he would certainly lose heart and be beaten4 ,again1 when a man is sick1 he will sometimes have one of these sacred stones brought to him and will scrape a little dust off it1 mix the dust with water1 and drink it4 ,this is supposed to strengthen him4 ,clearly he imagines that with the scrapings of the stone he absorbs the strength and other qualities of the person to whom the stone belonged4#aba ,sidenote3 ,sacred store-houses 7ertnatulunga7 of the churinga4 ,all the birth-stones or sticks 7churinga7 belonging to any particular totemic group are kept together1 hidden away from the eyes of women and uninitiated men1 in a sacred store-house or ertnatulunga1 as the ,arunta and ,unmatjera call it4 ,this store-house is always situated in one of the local totem centres or oknanikilla1 which1 as we have seen1 vary in size from a few yards to many square miles4 ,in itself the sacred treasure-house is usually a small cave or crevice in some lonely spot among the rugged hills4 ,the entrance is carefully blocked up with stones arranged so artfully as to simulate nature and to awake no suspicion in the mind of passing strangers that behind these tumbled blocks lie concealed the most prized possessions of the tribe4 ,the immediate neighbourhood of any one of these sacred store-houses is a kind of haven of refuge for wild animals1 for once they have run thither1 they are safe2 no hunter would spear a kangaroo or opossum which cowered on the ground at one of these hallowed spots4 ,the very plants which grow there are sacred and may not be plucked or broken or interfered with in any way4 ,similarly1 an enemy who succeeds in taking refuge there1 is safe from his pursuer1 so long as he keeps within the sacred boundaries3 even the avenger of blood1 pursuing the murderer hot-foot1 would not dare to lift up his hand against him on the holy ground4 ,thus1 these places are sanctuaries in the strict sense of the word2 they are probably the most primitive examples of their class and contain the germ out of which cities of refuge for manslayers and others might be developed4 ,it is instructive1 therefore1 to observe that these rudimentary sanctuaries in the heart of the ,australian wilderness derive their sacredness mainly1 it would seem1 from their association with the spirits of the dead1 whose repose must not be disturbed by tumult1 violence1 and bloodshed4 ,even when the sacred birth-stones and sticks have been removed from the store-house in the secret recesses of the hills and have been brought into the camp for the performance of certain solemn ceremonies1 no fighting may take place1 no weapons may be brandished in their neighbourhood3 if men will quarrel and fight1 they must take their weapons and go elsewhere to do it4#abb ,and when the men go to one of the sacred store-houses to inspect the treasures which it contains1 they must each of them put his open hand solemnly over the mouth of the rocky crevice and then retire1 in order to give the spirits due notice of the approach of strangers2 for if they were disturbed suddenly1 they would be angry4#abc ,sidenote3 ,exhibition of the churinga to young men4 ,it is only after a young man has passed through the severe ceremonies of initiation1 which include most painful bodily mutilations1 that he is deemed worthy to be introduced to the tribal arcana1 the sacred sticks and stones1 which repose in their hallowed cave among the mountain solitudes4 ,even when he has passed through all the ordeals1 many years may elapse before he is admitted to a knowledge of these mysteries1 if he shews himself to be of a light and frivolous disposition4 ,when at last by the gravity of his demeanour he is judged to have proved himself indeed a man1 a day is fixed for revealing to him the great secret4 ,then the headman of his local group1 together with other grave and reverend seniors1 conducts him to the mouth of the cave3 the stones are rolled away from the entrance3 the spirits within are duly warned of the approach of visitors2 and then the sacred sticks and stones1 tied up in bundles1 are brought forth4 ,the bundles are undone1 the sticks and stones are taken out1 one by one1 reverently scrutinised1 and exhibited to the novice1 while the old men explain to him the meaning of the patterns incised on each and reveal to him the persons1 alive or dead1 to whom they belong4 ,all the time the other men keep chanting in a low voice the traditions of their remote ancestors in the far-off dream times4 ,at the close the novice is told the secret and sacred name which he is thenceforth to bear1 and is warned never to allow it to pass his lips in the hearing of anybody except members of his own totemic group4#abd ,sometimes this secret name is that of an ancestor of whom the man or woman is supposed to be a reincarnation3 for women as well as men have their secret and sacred names4#abe ,sidenote3 ,number of churinga in a store-house4 ,significance of the churinga4 ,use of the churinga in magic4 ,the number of sacred birth-stones and sticks kept in any one store-house naturally varies from group to group2 but whatever their number1 whether more or less1 in any one store-house they all normally belong to the same totem1 though a few belonging to other totems may be borrowed and deposited for a time with them4 ,for example1 a sacred store-house of the honey-ant totem was found to contain sixty-eight birth-sticks of that totem with a few of the lizard totem and two of the wild-cat totem4#abf ,any store-house will usually contain both sticks and stones1 but as a rule perhaps the sticks predominate in number4#abg ,time after time these tribal repositories are visited by the men and their contents taken out and examined4 ,on each examination the sacred sticks and stones are carefully rubbed over with dry and powdered red ochre or charcoal1 the sticks being rubbed with red ochre only1 but the stones either with red ochre or charcoal4#abh ,further1 it is customary on these occasions to press the sacred objects against the stomachs and thighs of all the men present2 this is supposed to untie their bowels1 which are thought to be tightened and knotted by the emotion which the men feel at the sight of these venerated sticks and stones4 ,indeed1 the emotion is sometimes very real3 men have been seen to weep on beholding these mystic objects for the first time after a considerable interval4#abi ,whenever the sacred store-house is visited and its contents examined1 the old men explain to the younger men the marks incised on the sticks and stones1 and recite the traditions associated with the dead men to whom they belonged2#acj so that these rude objects of wood and stone1 with the lines and dots scratched on them1 serve the savages as memorials of the past2 they are in fact rudimentary archives as well as1 we may almost say1 rudimentary idols2 for a stone or stick which represents a revered ancestor and is supposed to be endowed with some portion of his spirit1 is not far from being an idol4 ,no wonder1 therefore1 that they are guarded and treasured by a tribe as its most precious possession4 ,when a group of natives have been robbed of them by thoughtless white men and have found the sacred store-house empty1 they have tried to kill the traitor who betrayed the hallowed spot to the strangers1 and have remained in camp for a fortnight weeping and wailing for the loss and plastering themselves with pipeclay1 which is their token of mourning for the dead4#aca ,yet1 as a great mark of friendship1 they will sometimes lend these sacred sticks and stones to a neighbouring group2 for believing that the sticks and stones are associated with the spiritual parts of their former and present owners1 they naturally wish to have as many of them as possible and regard their possession as a treasure of great price1 a sort of reservoir of spiritual force1#acb which can be turned to account not only in battle by worsting the enemy1 but in various other ways1 such as by magically increasing the food supply4 ,for instance1 when a man of the grass-seed totem wishes to increase the supply of grass-seed in order that it may be eaten by people of other totems1 he goes to the sacred store-house1 clears the ground all around it1 takes out a few of the holy sticks and stones1 smears them with red ochre and decorates them with birds' down1 chanting a spell all the time4 ,then he rubs them together so that the down flies off in all directions2 this is supposed to carry with it the magical virtue of the sticks or stones and so to fertilise the grass-seed4#acc ,sidenote3 ,elements of a worship of the dead4 ,marvellous powers attributed by the ,central ,australians to their remote ancestors of the alcheringa or dream time4 ,on the whole1 when we survey these practices and beliefs of the ,central ,australian aborigines1 we may perhaps conclude that1 if they do not amount to a worship of the dead1 they at least contain the elements out of which such a worship might easily be developed4 ,at first sight1 no doubt1 their faith in the transmigration of souls seems and perhaps really is a serious impediment to a worship of the dead in the strict sense of the word4 ,for if they themselves are the dead come to life again1 it is difficult to see how they can worship the spirits of the dead without also worshipping each other1 since they are all by hypothesis simply these worshipful spirits reincarnated4 ,but though in theory every living man and woman is merely an ancestor or ancestress born again and therefore should be his or her equal1 in practice they appear to admit that their forefathers of the remote alcheringa or dream time were endowed with many marvellous powers which their modern reincarnations cannot lay claim to1 and that accordingly these ancestral spirits were more to be reverenced1 were in fact more worshipful1 than their living representatives4 ,on this subject ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen observe3 ,the ,central ,australian native is firmly convinced1 as will be seen from the accounts relating to their alcheringa ancestors1 that the latter were endowed with powers such as no living man now possesses4 ,they could travel underground or mount into the sky1 and could make creeks and water-courses1 mountain-ranges1 sand-hills1 and plains4 ,in very many cases the actual names of these natives are preserved in their traditions1 but1 so far as we have been able to discover1 there is no instance of any one of them being regarded in the light of a 'deity4' ,amongst the ,central ,australian natives there is never any idea of appealing for assistance to any one of these ,alcheringa ancestors in any way1 nor is there any attempt made in the direction of propitiation1 with one single exception in the case of the mythic creature called ,wollunqua1 amongst the ,warramunga tribe1 who1 it may be remarked1 is most distinctly regarded as a snake and not as a human being4#acd ,thus far ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen4 ,from their testimony it appears that with a single possible exception1 to which ,i will return immediately1 the ,central ,australian aborigines are not known to worship any of their dead ancestors2 they indeed believe their remote forefathers of the alcheringa age to have been endowed with marvellous powers which they themselves do not possess2 but they do not regard these ancestral spirits as deities1 nor do they pray and sacrifice to them for help and protection4 ,the single possible exception to this general rule known to ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen is the case of the mythical water-snake called ,wollunqua1 who is in a sense revered and propitiated by the ,warramunga tribe4 ,the case is interesting and instructive as indicative of an advance from magic towards religion in the strict sense of the word4 ,accordingly ,i propose to consider it somewhat fully4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,wollunqua1 a mythical water-snake1 one of the ,warramunga totems4 ,the ,wollunqua is one of the many totems of the ,warramunga tribe4 ,it is to be borne in mind that1 though every ,australian tribe has many totems which are most commonly animals or plants and more rarely other natural objects1 all the totems are not respected by all the members of the tribe2 each totem is respected only by a particular group of men and women in the tribe1 who believe themselves to be descended from the same totemic ancestor4 ,thus the whole tribe is broken up into many groups or bodies of men and women1 each group knit together by a belief in a common descent from the totem1 by a common respect for the totemic species1 whether it be a species of animals or plants1 or what not1 and finally by the possession of a common name derived from the totem4 ,thus1 for example1 we have a group of men and women who believe themselves descended from an ancestor who had the bandicoot for his totem2 they all respect bandicoots2 and they are all called bandicoot people4 ,similarly with all the other totemic groups within the tribe4 ,it is convenient to have a name for these totemic groups or tribal subdivisions1 and accordingly we may call them clans1 provided we remember that a totemic clan in this sense is not an independent political community such as the ,scottish ,highland clans used to be2 it is merely a subdivision of the tribe1 and the members of it do not usually keep to themselves but live more or less interfused with members of all the other totemic clans which together compose the tribe4 ,now amongst the ,warramunga the ,wollunqua or mythical water-snake is the totem of such a clan or tribal subdivision1 the members of which believe themselves to be descended from the creature and call themselves by its name4 ,so far1 therefore1 the ,wollunqua is merely a totem of the ordinary sort1 an object of respect for a particular section of the tribe4 ,like other totemic ancestors the ,wollunqua is supposed to have wandered about the country leaving supplies of spirit individuals at various points1 individuals who are constantly undergoing reincarnation4 ,but on the other hand the ,wollunqua differs from almost all other ,australian totems in this1 that whereas they are real objects1 such as animals1 plants1 water1 wind1 the sun and moon1 and so on1 the ,wollunqua is a purely mythical creature1 which exists only in the imagination of the natives2 for they believe it to be a water-snake so huge that if it were to stand up on its tail1 its head would reach far up into the sky4 ,it now lives in a large pool called ,thapauerlu1 hidden away in a lonely valley of the ,murchison ,range2 but the ,warramunga fear that it may at any moment sally out and do some damage4 ,they say that it actually killed a number of them on one of its excursions1 though happily they at last succeeded in beating it off4 ,so afraid are they of the creature1 that in speaking of it amongst themselves they will not use its proper name of ,wollunqua but call it instead urkulu nappaurinnia1 because1 as they told ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen1 if they were to name it too often by its real name they would lose control over the beast and it would rush forth and devour them4#ace ,thus the natives do not distinguish the ,wollunqua from the rest of their actually existing totems1 as we do3 they have never beheld him with their bodily eyes1 yet to them he is just as real as the kangaroos which they see hopping along the sands1 as the flies which buzz about their heads in the sunshine1 or as the cockatoos which flap screaming past in the thickets4 ,how real this belief in the mythical snake is with these savages1 was brought vividly home to ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen when they visited1 in company with some natives1 the deep and lonely pool among the rocky hills in which the awful being is supposed to reside4 ,before they approached the spot1 the natives had been talking and laughing freely1 but when they drew near the water their voices were hushed and their demeanour became solemn4 ,when all stood silent on the brink of the deep still pool1 enclosed by a sandy margin on one side and by a line of red rocks on the other1 two old men1 the leaders of the totemic group of the ,wollunqua1 went down to the edge of the water and1 with bowed heads1 addressed the ,wollunqua in whispers1 asking him to remain quiet and do them no harm1 for they were mates of his1 and had brought two great white men to see where he lived and to tell them all about him4 ,we could plainly see1 add ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen1 that it was all very real to them1 and that they implicitly believed that the ,wollunqua was indeed alive beneath the water1 watching them1 though they could not see him4#acf ,sidenote3 ,religious character of the belief in the ,wollunqua4 ,i need hardly point out what a near approach all this is to religion in the proper sense of the word4 ,here we have a firm belief in a purely imaginary being who is necessarily visible to the eye of faith alone1 since ,i think we may safely assume that a water-snake1 supposed to be many miles long and capable of reaching up to the sky1 has no real existence either on the earth or in the waters under the earth4 ,yet to these savages this invisible being is just as real as the actually existing animals and men whom they perceive with their bodily senses2 they not only pray to him but they propitiate him with a solemn ritual2 and no doubt they would spurn with scorn the feeble attempts of shallow sceptics to question the reality of his existence or the literal truth of the myths they tell about him4 ,certainly these savages are far on the road to religion1 if they have not already passed the ,rubicon which divides it from the common workaday world4 ,if an unhesitating faith in the unseen is part of religion1 the ,warramunga people of the ,wollunqua totem are unquestionably religious4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,on the zoological peculiarities of ,australia regarded as effects of its geographical isolation1 see ,alfred ,newton1 ,dictionary of ,birds 7,london1 #ahic-if71 pp4 #cag-cai4 ,he observes 7p4 #cah7 that the isolation of ,australia is probably the next oldest in the world to that of ,new ,zealand1 having possibly existed since the time when no mammals higher than marsupials had appeared on the face of the earth4 ,footnote #aji3 ,for details see ,totemism and ,exogamy1 i4 #cad sqq4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,baldwin ,spencer and ,f4 ,j4 ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia 7,london1 #aijd71 p4 #dia4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 p4 xi4 ,footnote #aab3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 op4 cit4 p4 #ede4 ,footnote #aac3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 op4 cit4 p4 #edf4 ,footnote #aad3 ,baldwin ,spencer and ,f4 ,j4 ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia 7,london1 #ahii71 pp4 #aai-abg1 #cce-cch1 #eeb2 id41 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #ade-aec1 #afb1 #bga1 #ccj sq41 #ddh-dea1 #eab-eae4 ,compare ,totemism and ,exogamy1 i4 #ahh sqq4 ,footnote #aae3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 p4 #adg4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,see ,totemism and ,exogamy1 i4 #aee sqq41 iv4 #dj sqq4 ,footnote #aag3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #abc1 #abf4 ,footnote #aah3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #aai-abg1 #abh sqq41 #eac2 id41 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #ade sqq41 #beg sqq4 ,footnote #aai3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #acb-ace2 id41 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #beh1 #bfh sqq4 ,footnote #abj3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #abh1 #acd4 ,footnote #aba3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #acd sq4 ,footnote #abb3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #acc1 #ace2 id41 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 p4 #bfi4 ,footnote #abc3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 p4 #bfg4 ,footnote #abd3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #aci sq4 ,footnote #abe3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 p4 #bgc4 ,footnote #abf3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 p4 #ada4 ,footnote #abg3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 op4 cit4 p4 #adj ,footnote #abh3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes1 pp4 #add1 #ade4 ,footnote #abi3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes1 pp4 #afd1 sq42 id41 ,northern ,tribes1 pp4 #bfa1 #bfd4 ,footnote #acj3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes1 p4 #ade4 ,footnote #aca3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes1 p4 #acf4 ,footnote #acb3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes1 pp4 #aeh sq4 ,footnote #acc3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes1 pp4 #bga sq4 ,footnote #acd3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #dij sq4 ,footnote #ace3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #bbf sq4 ,another mythical being in which the ,warramunga believe is the pau-wa1 a fabulous animal1 half human and somewhat resembling a dog4 ,see ,spencer and ,gillen1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aie1 #aig1 #bja1 #baj sq4 ,but the creature seems not to be a totem1 for it is not included in the list of totems given by ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen 7op4 cit4 pp4 #gfh-ggc74 ,footnote #acf3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #beb sq4 ,,lecture ,v ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,aborigines ,,of ,,central ,,australia 7continued7 ,sidenote3 ,beliefs of the ,central ,australian aborigines concerning the reincarnation of the dead4 ,the mythical water-snake ,wollunqua4 ,in the last lecture we began our survey of the belief in immortality and the practices to which it has given rise among the aboriginal tribes of ,central ,australia4 ,i shewed that these primitive savages hold a very remarkable theory of birth and death4 ,they believe that the souls of the dead do not perish but are reborn in human form after a longer or shorter interval4 ,during that interval the spirits of the departed are supposed to congregate in certain parts of the country1 generally distinguished by some conspicuous natural feature1 which accordingly the natives account sacred1 believing them to be haunted by the souls of the dead4 ,from time to time one of these disembodied spirits enters into a passing woman and is born as an infant into the world4 ,thus according to the ,central ,australian theory every living person without exception is the reincarnation of a dead man1 woman1 or child4 ,at first sight the theory seems to exclude the possibility of any worship of the dead1 since it appears to put the living on a footing of perfect equality with the dead by identifying the one with the other4 ,but ,i pointed out that as a matter of fact these savages do admit1 whether logically or not1 the superiority of their remote ancestors to themselves3 they acknowledge that these old forefathers of theirs did possess many marvellous powers to which they themselves can lay no claim4 ,in this acknowledgment1 accordingly1 we may detect an opening or possibility for the development of a real worship of ancestors4 ,indeed1 as ,i said at the close of last lecture1 something closely approaching to ancestor worship has actually grown up in regard to the mythical ancestor of the ,wollunqua clan in the ,warramunga tribe4 ,the ,wollunqua is a purely fabulous water-snake1 of gigantic dimensions1 which is supposed to haunt the waters of a certain lonely pool called ,thapauerlu1 in the ,murchison ,range of mountains4 ,unlike the ancestors of the other totemic clans1 this mythical serpent is never reborn in human form2 he always lives in his solitary pool among the barren hills2 but the natives think that he has it in his power to come forth and do them an injury1 and accordingly they pray to him to remain quiet and not to harm them4 ,indeed so afraid of him are they that speaking of the creature among themselves they avoid using his proper name of ,wollunqua and call him by a different name1 lest hearing himself called by his true name he should rush forth and devour them4 ,more than that they even endeavour to propitiate him by the performance of certain rites1 which1 however childish and absurd they may seem to us1 are very solemn affairs for these simple folk4 ,the rites were witnessed by ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen1 whose description ,i will summarise4 ,it offers an interesting and instructive example of a ritual observed by primitive savages1 who are clearly standing on1 if they have not already crossed1 the threshold of religion4 ,sidenote3 ,wanderings of the ,wollunqua4 ,dramatic ceremonies in honour of the ,wollunqua4 ,like all other totemic ancestors the ,wollunqua is said to have arisen at a particular spot1 to have wandered about the country1 and finally to have gone down into the ground4 ,starting from the deep rocky pool in the ,murchison ,range he travelled at first underground1 coming up1 however1 at various points where he performed ceremonies and left many spirit children1 who issued from his body and remained behind1 forming local totemic centres when he had passed on4 ,it is these spirit children who have formed the ,wollunqua clan ever since1 undergoing an endless series of reincarnations4 ,now the ceremonies which the clan perform in honour of their mythical ancestor the ,wollunqua all refer to his wanderings about the country4 ,thus there is a particular water-hole called ,pitingari where the great old water-snake is said to have emerged from the ground and looked about him4 ,here1 accordingly1 two men performed a ceremony4 ,each of them was decorated with a broad band of red down1 which curved round both the front and the back of the performer and stood sharply out from the mass of white down with which all the rest of the upper part of his body was covered4 ,these broad red bands represented the ,wollunqua4 ,each man also wore a tall1 conical helmet adorned with a curved band of red down1 which1 no doubt1 likewise symbolised the mythical serpent4 ,when the two actors in the little drama had been attired in this quaint costume of red and white down1 they retired behind a bush1 which served for the side scenes of a theatre4 ,then1 when the orchestra1 composed of adult men1 struck up the music on the ceremonial ground by chanting and beating boomerangs and sticks together1 the performers ran in1 stopping every now and then to shake themselves in imitation of the snake4 ,finally1 they sat down close together with their heads bowed down on a few green branches of gum-trees4 ,a man then stepped up to them1 knocked off their head-dresses1 and the simple ceremony came to an end4#acg ,sidenote3 ,ceremony in honour of the ,wollunqua4 ,the next ceremony was performed on the following day at another place called ,antipataringa1 where the mythical snake is said to have halted in his wanderings4 ,the same two men acted as before1 but this time one of them carried on his head a curious curved bundle shaped like an enormous boomerang4 ,it was made of grass-stalks bound together with human hair-string and decorated with white down4 ,this sacred object represented the ,wollunqua himself4#ach ,from this spot the snake was believed to have travelled on to another place called ,tjunguniari1 where he popped up his head among the sand-hills1 the greater part of his body remaining underground4 ,indeed1 of such an enormous length was the serpent1 that though his head had now travelled very many miles his tail still remained at the starting-point and had not yet begun to take part in the procession4 ,here accordingly the third ceremony1 perhaps we may say the third act in the drama1 was performed on the third day4 ,in it one of the actors personated the snake himself1 while the other stood for a sand-hill4#aci ,sidenote3 ,further ceremony in honour of the ,wollunqua3 the white mound with the red wavy band to represent the mythical snake4 ,after an interval of three days a fourth ceremony was performed of an entirely different kind4 ,a keel-shaped mound was made of wet sand1 about fifteen feet long by two feet high4 ,the smooth surface of the mound was covered with a mass of little dots of white down1 except for a long wavy band of red down which ran all along both sides of the mound4 ,this wavy red band represented the ,wollunqua1 his head being indicated by a small round swelling at one end and his tail by a short prolongation at the other4 ,the mound itself represented a sand-hill beside which the snake is said to have stood up and looked about4 ,the preparation of this elaborate emblem of the ,wollunqua occupied the greater part of the day1 and it was late in the afternoon before it was completed4 ,when darkness fell1 fires were lighted on the ceremonial ground1 and as the night grew late more fires were kindled1 and all of the men sat round the mound singing songs which referred to the mythical water-snake4 ,this went on for hours4 ,at last1 about three o'clock in the morning1 a ring of fires was lit all round the ceremonial ground1 in the light of which the white trunks of the gum-trees and the surrounding scrub stood out weird and ghastly against the blackness of darkness beyond4 ,amid the wildest excitement the men of the ,wollunqua totem now ranged themselves in single file on their knees beside the mound which bore the red image of their great mythical forefather1 and with their hands on their thighs surged round and round it1 every man bending in unison first to one side and then to the other1 each successive movement being accompanied by a loud and simultaneous shout1 or rather yell1 while the other men1 who were not of the ,wollunqua totem1 stood by1 clanging their boomerangs excitedly1 and one old man1 who acted as a sort of choregus1 walked backwards at the end of the kneeling procession of ,wollunqua men1 swaying his body about and lifting high his knees at every step4 ,in this way1 with shouts and clangour1 the men of the totem surged twice round the mound on their knees4 ,after that1 as the fires died down1 the men rose from their knees1 and for another hour every one sat round the mound singing incessantly4 ,the last act in the drama was played at four o'clock in the morning at the moment when the first faint streaks of dawn glimmered in the east4 ,at sight of them every man jumped to his feet1 the smouldering fires were rekindled1 and in their blaze the long white mound stood out in strong relief4 ,the men of the totem1 armed with spears1 boomerangs1 and clubs1 ranged themselves round it1 and encouraged by the men of the other totems attacked it fiercely with their weapons1 until in a few minutes they had hacked it to pieces1 and nothing was left of it but a rough heap of sandy earth4 ,the fires again died down and for a short time silence reigned4 ,then1 just as the sun rose above the eastern horizon1 the painful ceremony of subincision was performed on three youths1 who had recently passed through the earlier stages of initiation4#adj ,sidenote3 ,the rite aims both at pleasing and at coercing the mythical snake4 ,this remarkable rite is supposed1 we are informed1 in some way to be associated with the idea of persuading1 or almost forcing1 the ,wollunqua to remain quietly in his home under the water-hole at ,thapauerlu1 and to do no harm to any of the natives4 ,they say that when he sees the mound with his representation drawn upon it he is gratified1 and wriggles about underneath with pleasure4 ,the savage attack upon the mound is associated with the idea of driving him down1 and1 taken altogether1 the ceremony indicates their belief that1 at one and the same time1 they can both please and coerce the mythic beast4 ,it is necessary to do things to please him1 or else he might grow sulky and come out and do them harm1 but at the same time they occasionally use force to make him do what they want4#ada ,in fact the ritual of the mound with its red image of the snake combines the principles of religion and magic4 ,so far as the rite is intended to please and propitiate the mythical beast1 it is religious2 so far as it is intended to constrain him1 it is magical4 ,the two principles are contradictory and the attempt to combine them is illogical2 but the savage is heedless1 or rather totally unaware1 of the contradiction and illogicality3 all that concerns him is to accomplish his ends3 he has neither the wish nor the ability to analyse his motives4 ,in this respect he is in substantial agreement with the vast majority of mankind4 ,how many of us scrutinise the reasons of our conduct with the view of detecting and eliminating any latent inconsistencies in them8 ,and how many1 or rather how few of us1 on such a scrutiny would be so fortunate as to discover that there were no such inconsistencies to detect8 ,the logical pedant who imagines that men cannot possibly act on inconsistent and even contradictory motives only betrays his ignorance of life4 ,it is not therefore for us to cast stones at the ,warramunga men of the ,wollunqua totem for attempting to propitiate and constrain their mythical serpent at the same time4 ,such contradictions meet us again and again in the history of religion3 it is interesting but by no means surprising to find them in one of its rudimentary stages4 ,sidenote3 ,thunder the voice of the ,wollunqua4 ,on the evening of the day which succeeded the construction of the emblematic mound the old men who had made the emblem said they had heard the ,wollunqua talking1 and that he was pleased with what had been done and was sending them rain4 ,what they took for the voice of the ,wollunqua was thunder rumbling in the distance4 ,no rain fell1 but a few days later thunder was again heard rolling afar off and a heavy bank of clouds lay low on the western horizon4 ,the old men now said that the ,wollunqua was growling because the remains of the mound had been left uncovered2 so they hastily cut down branches and covered up the ruins4 ,after that the ,wollunqua ceased to growl3 there was no more thunder4#adb ,sidenote3 ,ground drawings of the ,wollunqua4 ,on the four following days ceremonies of an entirely different kind from all the preceding were performed in honour of the ,wollunqua4 ,a space of sandy ground was smoothed down1 sprinkled with water1 and rubbed so as to form a compact surface4 ,the smooth surface was then overlaid with a coat of red or yellow ochre1 and on this coloured background a number of designs were traced1 one after the other1 by a series of white dots1 which together made up a pattern of curved lines and concentric circles4 ,these patterns represented the ,wollunqua and some of his traditionary adventures4 ,the snake himself was portrayed by a broad wavy band1 but all the other designs were purely conventional2 for example1 trees1 ant-hills1 and wells were alike indicated by circles4 ,altogether there were eight such drawings on the earth1 some of them very elaborate and entailing1 each of them1 not less than six or seven hours' labour3 one of them was ten feet long4 ,each drawing was rubbed out before the next one was drawn4 ,moreover1 the drawings were accompanied by little dramas acted by decorated men4 ,in one of these dramas no fewer than eight actors took part1 some of whom wore head-dresses adorned with a long wavy band to represent the ,wollunqua4 ,the last drawing of all was supposed to portray the mythical snake as he plunged into the earth and returned to his home in the rocky pool called ,thapauerlu among the ,murchison ,ranges4#adc ,sidenote3 ,religious importance of the ,wollunqua4 ,i have dwelt at some length on these ceremonies of the ,wollunqua totem1 because they furnish a remarkable and perhaps unique instance in ,australia of a totemic ancestor in the act of developing into something like a god4 ,in the ,warramunga tribe there are other snake totems besides the ,wollunqua2 for example1 there is the black snake totem and the deaf adder totem4 ,but this purely mythical water-snake1 the ,wollunqua1 is the most important of them all and is regarded as the great father of all the snakes4 ,it is not easy1 say ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen1 to express in words what is in reality rather a vague feeling amongst the natives1 but after carefully watching the different series of ceremonies we were impressed with the feeling that the ,wollunqua represented to the native mind the idea of a dominant totem4#add ,thus he is at once a fabulous animal and the mythical ancestor of a human clan1 but his animal nature apparently predominates over his semi-human nature1 as shewn by the drawings and effigies of him1 all of which are in serpent form4 ,the prayers offered to him at the pool which he is supposed to haunt1 and the attempt to please him by drawing his likeness can only be regarded as propitiatory rites and therefore as rudimentary forms of worship4 ,and the idea that thunder is his voice1 and that the rain is a gift sent by him in return for the homage paid to him by the people1 appears to prove that in course of time1 if left to himself1 he might easily have been elevated to the sky and have ranked as a celestial deity1 who dwells aloft and sends down or withholds the refreshing showers at his good pleasure4 ,thus the ,wollunqua1 a rude creation of the savage ,australian imagination1 possesses a high interest for the historian of religion1 since he combines elements of ancestor worship and totem worship with a germ of heaven worship2 while on the purely material side his representation1 both in plastic form by a curved bundle of grass-stalks and in graphic form by broad wavy bands of red down1 may be said in a sense to stand at the starting-point of that long development of religious art1 which in so many countries and so many ages has attempted to represent to the bodily eye the mysteries of the unseen and invisible1 and which1 whatever we may think of the success or failure of that attempt1 has given to the world some of the noblest works of sculpture and painting4 ,sidenote3 ,possible religious evolution of totemism4 ,i have already pointed out the difficulty of seeing how a belief in the reincarnation of the dead1 such as prevails universally among the aborigines of ,central ,australia1 could ever be reconciled with or develop into a worship of the dead2 for by identifying the living with the dead1 the theory of reincarnation seems to abolish that distinction between the worshipper and the worshipped which is essential to the existence of worship4 ,but1 as ,i also indicated1 what seems a loophole or mode of escape from the dilemma may be furnished by the belief of these savages1 that though they themselves are nothing but their ancestors come to life again1 nevertheless in their earliest incarnations of the alcheringa or dream times their ancestors possessed miraculous powers which they have admittedly lost in their later reincarnations2 for this suggests an incipient discrimination or line of cleavage between the living and the dead2 it hints that perhaps after all the first ancestors1 with their marvellous endowments1 may have been entirely different persons from their feebler descendants1 and if this vague hint could only grow into a firm conviction of the essential difference between the two1 then the course would be clear for the development of ancestor worship3 the dead forefathers1 viewed as beings perfectly distinct from and far superior to the living1 might easily come to receive from the latter the homage of prayer and sacrifice1 might be besought by their descendants to protect them in danger and to succour them in all the manifold ills of life1 or at least to abstain from injuring them4 ,now1 this important step in religious evolution appears to have been actually taken by the ,wollunqua1 the mythical water-snake1 who is the totem of one of the ,warramunga clans4 ,unlike all the other totems he is supposed to exist only in his invisible and animal form and never to be reincarnated in a man4#ade ,hence1 withdrawn as he is from the real world of sense1 the imagination is free to play about him and to invest him more and more with those supernatural attributes which men ascribe to their deities4 ,and what has actually happened to this particular totemic ancestor might under favourable circumstances happen to many others4 ,each of them might be gradually detached from the line of his descendants1 might cease to be reincarnated in them1 and might gradually attain to the lonely pre-eminence of godhead4 ,thus a system of pure totemism1 such as prevails among the aborigines of ,central ,australia1 might develop through a phase of ancestor worship into a pantheon of the ordinary type4 ,sidenote3 ,conspicuous features of the landscape associated with ancestral spirits4 ,although none of the other totemic ancestors of the ,central ,australian aborigines appears to have advanced so far on the road to religion as the ,wollunqua1 yet they all contain in germ the elements out of which a religion might have been developed4 ,it is difficult for us civilised men to conceive the extent to which the thoughts and lives of these savages are dominated by the memories and traditions of the dead4 ,every conspicuous feature in the landscape is not only associated with the legendary doings of some ancestors but is commonly said to have arisen as a direct result of their actions4 ,the mountains1 the plains1 the rivers1 the seas1 the islands of ancient ,greece itself were not more thickly haunted by the phantoms of a fairy mythology than are the barren sun-scorched steppes and stony hills of the ,australian wilderness2 but great indeed is the gulf which divides the beautiful creations of ,greek fancy from the crude imaginings of the ,australian savage1 whose legendary tales are for the most part a mere tissue of trivial absurdities unrelieved by a single touch of beauty or poetry4 ,sidenote3 ,a journey through the ,warramunga country4 ,to illustrate at once the nature and the abundance of these legends ,i will quote a passage in which ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen describe a journey they took in company with some ,warramunga natives over part of their country3--,for the first two days our way lay across miserable plain country covered with poor scrub1 with here and there low ranges rising4 ,every prominent feature of any kind was associated with some tradition of their past4 ,a range some five miles away from ,tennant ,creek arose to mark the path traversed by the great ancestor of the ,pittongu 7bat7 totem4 ,several miles further on a solitary upstanding column of rock represented an opossum man who rested here1 looked about the country1 and left spirit children behind him2 a low range of remarkably white quartzite hills indicated a large number of white ant eggs thrown here in the wingara#adf by the ,munga-munga women as they passed across the country4 ,a solitary flat-topped hill arose to mark the spot where the ,wongana 7crow7 ancestor paused for some time to pierce his nose2 and on the second night we camped by the side of a waterhole where the same crow lived for some time in the wingara1 and where now there are plenty of crow spirit children4 ,all the time1 as we travelled along1 the old men were talking amongst themselves about the natural features associated in tradition with these and other totemic ancestors of the tribe1 and pointing them out to us4 ,on the third day we travelled1 at first for some hours1 by the side of a river-bed1--perfectly dry of course1--and passed the spot where two hawks first made fire by rubbing sticks together1 two fine gum-trees on the banks now representing the place where they stood up4 ,a few miles further on we came to a water-hole by the side of which the moon-man met a bandicoot woman1 and while the two were talking together the fire made by the hawks crept upon them and burnt the woman1 who was1 however1 restored to life again by the moon-man1 with whom she then went up into the sky4 ,late in the afternoon we skirted the eastern base of the ,murchison ,range1 the rugged quartzite hills in this part being associated partly with the crow ancestor and partly with the bat4 ,following up a valley leading into the hills we camped1 just after sunset1 by the side of a rather picturesque water-pool amongst the ranges4 ,a short distance before reaching this the natives pointed out a curious red cliff1 standing out amongst the low hills which were elsewhere covered with thin scrub4 ,this1 which is called ,tjiti1 represents the spot where an old woman spent a long time digging for yams1 the latter being indicated by great heaps of stones lying all around4 ,on the opposite side of the valley a column of stone marks the spot where the woman went into the earth4 ,the water-hole by which we were camped was called ,wiarminni4 ,it was in reality a deep pool in the bed of a creek coming down from the hills4 ,behind it the rocks rose abruptly1 and amongst them there was1 or rather would have been if a stream had been flowing1 a succession of cascades and rocky water-holes4 ,two of the latter1 just above ,wiarminni1 are connected with a fish totem1 and represent the spot where two fish men arose in the alcheringa1 fought one another1 left spirit children behind1 and finally went down into the ground4 ,we were now1 so to speak1 in the very midst of mungai i4e4 of places associated with the totems1 for the old totemic ancestors of the tribe1 who showed a most commendable fondness for arising and walking about in the few picturesque spots which their country contained1 had apparently selected these rocky gorges as their central home4 ,all around us the water-holes1 gorges1 and rocky crags were peopled with spirit individuals left behind by one or other of the following totemic ancestors3--,wollunqua1 ,pittongu 7bat71 ,wongana 7crow71 wild dog1 emu1 bandicoot1 and fish1 whose lines of travel in the alcheringa formed a regular network over the whole countryside4#adg ,sidenote3 ,dramatic ceremonies to commemorate the doings of ancestors4 ,similar evidence could be multiplied1 but this may suffice to teach us how to the minds of these ,central ,australian savages the whole country is haunted1 in the literal sense1 not merely by the memories of their dead1 but by the spirits which they left behind them and which are constantly undergoing reincarnation4 ,and not only are the minds of the aborigines preoccupied by the thought of their ancestors1 who are recalled to them by all the familiar features of the landscape1 but they spend a considerable part of their time in dramatically representing the legendary doings of their rude forefathers of the remote past4 ,it is astonishing1 we are told1 how large a part of a native's life is occupied with the performance of these dramatic ceremonies4 ,the older he grows1 the greater is the share he takes in them1 until at last they actually absorb the greater part of his thoughts4 ,the rites which seem so trivial to us are most serious matters to him4 ,they are all connected with the great ancestors of the tribe1 and he is firmly convinced that when he dies his spirit will rejoin theirs and live in communion with them until the time comes for him to be born again into the world4 ,with such solemnity does he look on the celebration of these commemorative services1 as we may call them1 that none but initiated men are allowed to witness them2 women and children are strictly excluded from the spectacle4 ,these sacred dramas are often1 though by no means always1 associated with the rites of initiation which young men have to pass through before they are admitted to full membership of the tribe and to participation in its deepest mysteries4 ,the rites of initiation are not all undergone by a youth at the same time2 they succeed each other at longer or shorter intervals of time1 and at each of them he is privileged to witness some of the solemn ceremonies in which the traditions of the tribal ancestors are dramatically set forth before him1 until1 when he has passed through the last of the rites and ordeals1 he is free to behold and to take part in the whole series of mystery plays or professedly historical dramas4 ,sometimes the performance of these dramas extends over two or three months1 during which one or more of them are acted daily4#adh ,for the most part1 they are very short and simple1 each of them generally lasting only a few minutes1 though the costumes of the actors are often elaborate and may have taken hours to prepare4 ,i will describe a few of them as samples4 ,sidenote3 ,ceremony of the ,hakea flower totem4 ,we will begin with a ceremony of the ,hakea flower totem in the ,arunta tribe1 as to which it may be premised that a decoction of the ,hakea flower is a favourite drink of the natives4 ,the little drama was acted by two men1 each of whom was decorated on his bare body by broad bands of pearly grey edged with white down1 which passed round his waist and over his shoulders1 contrasting well with the chocolate colour of his skin4 ,on his head each of them wore a kind of helmet made of twigs1 and from their ears hung tips of the tails of rabbit-bandicoots4 ,the two sat on the ground facing each other with a shield between them4 ,one of them held in his hand some twigs representing the ,hakea flower in bloom2 these he pretended to steep in water so as to brew the favourite beverage of the natives1 and the man sitting opposite him made believe to suck it up with a little mop4 ,meantime the other men ran round and round them shouting wha6 wha6 ,this was the substance of the play1 which ended as usual by several men placing their hands on the shoulders of the performers as a signal to them to stop4#adi ,sidenote3 ,ceremony of a fish totem4 ,again1 to take another ,arunta ceremony of a fish totem called interpitna4 ,the fish is the bony bream 7,chatoessus horni71 which abounds in the water-holes of the country4 ,the play was performed by a single actor1 an old man1 whose face was covered with a mass of white down contrasting strongly with a large bunch of black eagle-hawk feathers which he wore on his head4 ,his body was decorated with bands of charcoal edged with white down4 ,squatting on the ground he moved his body and extended his arms from his sides1 opening and closing them as he leaned forwards1 so as to imitate a fish swelling itself out and opening and closing its gills4 ,then1 holding twigs in his hands1 he moved along mimicking the action of a man who drives fish before him with a branch in a pool1 just as the natives do to catch the fish4 ,meantime an orchestra of four men squatted beside him singing and beating time with a stick on the ground4#aej ,sidenote3 ,ceremony of a plum-tree totem4 ,again1 another ,arunta ceremony of the plum-tree totem was performed by four actors1 who simply pretended to knock down and eat imaginary plums from an imaginary plum-tree4#aea ,an interesting point in this very simple drama is that in it the men of the plum-tree totem are represented eating freely of their totem1 which is quite contrary to the practice of the present day1 but taken along with many similar ceremonies it goes far to prove that in the ancient days1 to which all these dramatic ceremonies refer1 it was the regular practice for men and women of a totem to eat their totemic animals or plants4 ,as another example of a drama in which the performers are represented eating their totem we may take a ceremony of the ant totem in the ,warramunga tribe4 ,the legendary personages who figure in it are two women of the ant totem1 ancestresses of the ant clan1 who are said to have devoted all their time to catching and eating ants1 except when they were engaged in the performance of ceremonies4 ,the two men who personated these women in the drama 7for no woman is allowed to witness1 much less to act in1 these sacred dramas7 had the whole of the upper parts of their bodies1 including their faces and the cylindrical helmets which they wore on their heads1 covered with a dense mass of little specks of red down4 ,these specks stood for the ants1 alive or dead1 and also for the stones and trees on the spots where the two women encamped4 ,in the drama the two actors thus arrayed walked about the ground as if they were searching for ants to eat4 ,each of them carried a wooden trough and stooping down from time to time he turned over the ground and picked up small stones which he placed in the trough till it was full4 ,the stones represented the masses of ants which the women gathered for food4 ,after carrying on this pantomime for a time the two actors pretended to discover each other with surprise and to embrace with joy1 much to the amusement of the spectators4#aeb ,sidenote3 ,in these ceremonies the action is appropriate to the totem4 ,ceremony of the witchetty grub totem4 ,in all these ceremonies you will observe that the action of the drama is strictly appropriate to the totem4 ,in the drama of the ,hakea flower totem the actors pretend to make and drink the beverage brewed from ,hakea flowers2 in the ceremony of the fish totem the actor feigns to be a fish and also to catch fish2 in the ceremony of the plum-tree totem the actors pretend to knock down and eat plums2 and in the ceremony of the ant totem the actors make believe to gather ants for food4 ,similarly1 to take a few more examples1 in a ceremony of the witchetty grub totem of the ,arunta tribe the body of the actor was decorated with lines of white and red down1 and he had a shield adorned with a number of concentric circles of down4 ,the smaller circles represented the bush on which the grub lives first of all1 and the larger circles represented the bush on which the adult insect lays its eggs4 ,when all was ready1 the performer seated himself on the ground and imitated the grub1 alternately doubling himself up and rising on his knees1 while he extended his arms and made them quiver in imitation of the insect's wings2 and every now and then he would bend over the shield and sway to and fro1 and up and down1 in imitation of the insect hovering over the bushes on which it lays its eggs4#aec ,in another ceremony of the witchetty grub totem1 which followed immediately the one ,i have just described1 the actor had two shields beside him4 ,the smaller of the shields was ornamented with zigzag lines of white pipe-clay which were supposed to indicate the tracks of the grub2 the larger shield was covered with larger and smaller series of concentric circles1 the larger representing the seeds of a bush on which the insect feeds1 while the smaller stood for the eggs of the adult insect4 ,as before1 the actor wriggled and flapped his arms in imitation of the fluttering of the insect when it first leaves its chrysalis case in the ground and attempts to fly4 ,in acting thus he was supposed to represent a celebrated ancestor of the witchetty grub totem4#aed ,sidenote3 ,ceremony of the emu totem4 ,the last example of such ceremonies which ,i shall cite is one of the emu totem in the ,arunta tribe4 ,the body of the actor was decorated with perpendicular lines of white down reaching from his shoulders to his knees2 and on his head he supported a towering head-piece tipped with a bunch of emu feathers in imitation of the neck and head of an emu4 ,thus arrayed he stalked backwards and forwards in the aimless fashion of the bird4#aee ,sidenote3 ,these dramatic ceremonies were probably at first magical rites intended to supply the people with food and other necessaries4 ,what are we to think of the intention of these little dramas which the ,central ,australian aborigines regard as sacred and to the performance of which they devote so much time and labour8 ,at first sight they are simply commemorative services1 designed to represent the ancestors as they lived and moved in the far-past times1 to recall their adventures1 of which legend has preserved the memory1 and to set them dramatically before the eyes of their living descendants4 ,so far1 therefore1 the dramas might be described as purely historical in intention1 if not in reality4 ,but there are reasons for thinking that in all cases a deeper meaning underlies1 or formerly underlay1 the performance of all these apparently simple historical plays2 in fact1 we may suspect that originally they were all magical ceremonies observed for the practical purpose of supplying the people with food1 water1 sunshine1 and everything else of which they stand in need4 ,this conclusion is suggested first of all by the practice of the ,arunta and other ,central ,australian tribes1 who observe very similar ceremonies with the avowed intention of thereby multiplying the totemic animals and plants in order that they may be eaten by the tribe1 though not by the particular clan which has these animals or plants for its totem4 ,it is true that the ,arunta distinguish these magical ceremonies for the multiplication of the totems from what we may call the more purely commemorative or historical performances1 and they have a special name for the former1 namely intichiuma1 which they do not bestow on the latter4 ,yet these intichiuma or magical ceremonies resemble the commemorative ceremonies so closely that it is difficult to suppose they can always have been wholly distinct4 ,for example1 in the magical ceremonies for the multiplication of witchetty grubs the performers pretend to be the insects emerging from their chrysalis cases1#aef just as the actors do in the similar commemorative ceremony which ,i have described2 and again in a magical ceremony for the multiplication of emus the performers wear head-dresses to represent the long neck and small head of the bird1 and they mimic its gait1#aeg exactly as the actors do in the commemorative ceremony4 ,it seems reasonable1 therefore1 to conjecture that the ceremonies which now are1 or seem to be1 purely commemorative or historical were originally magical in intention1 being observed for the practical purpose of multiplying edible animals and plants or supplying other wants of the tribe4 ,sidenote3 ,among the ,warramunga these dramatic ceremonies are avowedly performed as magical rites4 ,now this conjecture is strongly confirmed by the actual usage of the ,warramunga tribe1 amongst whom the commemorative or historical dramas are avowedly performed as magical rites3 in other words1 the ,warramunga attribute a magical virtue to the simple performance of such dramas3 they think that by merely acting the parts of their totemic ancestors they thereby magically multiply the edible animals or plants which these ancestors had for their totems4 ,hence in this tribe the magical ceremonies and the dramatic performances practically coincide3 with them1 as ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen say1 the intichiuma or magical ceremonies 7called by the ,warramunga thalamminta7 for the most part simply consist in the performance of a complete series representing the alcheringa history of the totemic ancestor4 ,in this tribe each totemic group has usually one great ancestor1 who arose in some special spot and walked across the country1 making various natural features as he did so1--creeks1 plains1 ranges1 and water-holes1--and leaving behind him spirit individuals who have since been reincarnated4 ,the intichiuma or magical ceremony of the totem really consists in tracking these ancestors' paths1 and repeating1 one after the other1 ceremonies commemorative of what are called the mungai spots1 the equivalent of the oknanikilla amongst the ,arunta--that is1 the places where he left the spirit children behind4#aeh ,apparently the ,warramunga imagine that by imitating a totemic ancestor at the very place where he left spirit children of the same totem behind him1 they thereby enable these spirit children to be born again and so increase the food supply1 whenever their totem is an edible animal or plant2 for we must always remember that in the mind of these savages the idea of a man or woman is inextricably confused with the idea of his or her totem2 they seem unable to distinguish between the two1 and therefore they believe that in multiplying human beings at their local totemic centres 7mungai or oknanikilla7 they simultaneously multiply their totems2 and as the totems are commonly edible animals and plants1 it follows that in the opinion of the ,warramunga the general effect of performing these ancestral plays is to increase the supply of food of the tribe4 ,no wonder1 therefore1 that the dramas are sacred1 and that the natives attribute the most serious significance to their performance3 the neglect to perform them might1 in their judgment1 bring famine and ruin on the whole tribe4 ,as ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen1 speaking of these ceremonies1 justly observe3 ,their proper performance is a matter of very great importance in the eyes of the natives1 because1 not only do they serve to keep alive and hand down from generation to generation the traditions of the tribe1 but they are1 at least amongst the ,warramunga1 intimately associated with the most important object of maintaining the food supply1 as every totemic group is held responsible for the maintenance of the material object the name of which it bears4#aei ,sidenote3 ,general view of the attitude of the ,central ,australian natives towards their dead4 ,to sum up the attitude of the ,central ,australian natives towards their dead4 ,they believe that their dead are constantly undergoing reincarnation by being born again of women into the world1 in fact that every living man1 woman1 and child is nothing but a dead person come to life again1 that so it has been from the beginning and that so it will be to the end4 ,of a special world of the departed1 remote and different from the material world in which they live and from the familiar scenes to which they have been accustomed from infancy1 they have no conception2 still less1 if that is possible1 have they any idea of a division of the world of the dead into a realm of bliss and a realm of woe1 where the spirits of the good live ineffably happy and the spirits of the bad live unspeakably miserable4 ,to their simple minds the spirits of the dead dwell all about them in the rocky gorges1 the barren plains1 the wooded dells1 the rustling trees1 the still waters of their native land1 haunting in death the very spots where they last entered into their mothers' wombs to be born1 and where in future they will again enter into the wombs of other women to be born again as other children into the world4 ,and so1 they think1 it will go on for ever and ever4 ,such a creed seems at first sight1 as ,i have pointed out1 irreconcilable with a worship of the dead in the proper sense of the word2 and so perhaps it would be1 if these savages were strictly consistent and logical in their theories4 ,but they are not4 ,they admit that their remote ancestors1 in other words1 that they themselves in former incarnations1 possessed certain marvellous powers to which in the present degenerate days they can lay no claim2 and in this significant admission we may detect a rift1 a real distinction of kind1 between the living and the dead1 which in time might widen out into an impassable gulf4 ,in other words1 we may suppose that the ,central ,australians1 if left to themselves1 might come to hold that the dead return no more to the land of the living1 and that1 acknowledging as they do the vast superiority of their remote ancestors to themselves1 they might end by worshipping them1 at first simply as powerful ancestral spirits1 and afterwards as supernatural deities1 whose original connexion with humanity had been totally forgotten4 ,in point of fact we saw that among the ,warramunga the mythical water-snake ,wollunqua1 who is regarded as an ancestor of a totemic clan1 has made some progress towards deification2 for while he is still regarded as the forefather of the clan which bears his name1 it is no longer supposed that he is born again of women into the world1 but that he lives eternal and invisible under the water of a haunted pool1 and that he has it in his power both to help and to harm his people1 who pray to him and perform ceremonies in his honour4 ,this awful being1 whose voice is heard in the peal of thunder and whose dreadful name may not be pronounced in common life1 is not far from godhead2 at least he is apparently the nearest approach to it which the imagination of these rude savages has been able to conceive4 ,lastly1 as ,i have pointed out1 the reverence which the ,central ,australians entertain for their dead ancestors is closely bound up with their totemism2 they fail to distinguish clearly or at all between men and their totems1 and accordingly the ceremonies which they perform to commemorate the dead are at the same time magical rites designed to ensure an abundant supply of food and of all the other necessaries and conveniences which savage life requires or admits of2 indeed1 we may with some probability conjecture that the magical intention of these ceremonies is the primary and original one1 and that the commemorative intention is secondary and derivative4 ,if that could be proved to be so 7which is hardly to be expected71 we should be obliged to conclude that in this as in so many enquiries into the remote human past we detect evidence of an ,age of ,magic preceding anything that deserves to be dignified with the name of religion4 ,that ends what ,i have to say at present as to the belief in immortality and the worship of the dead among the ,central ,australian aborigines4 ,in my next lecture ,i propose to pursue the enquiry among the other tribes of ,australia4 ,footnote #acg3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #bbh sq4 ,footnote #ach3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #bbi sq4 ,footnote #aci3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bcj sq4 ,footnote #adj3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #bca-bch4 ,footnote #ada3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 op4 cit4 p4 #bch4 ,footnote #adb3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bch sq4 ,footnote #adc3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #bci-bdg4 ,footnote #add3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 op4 cit4 p4 #bdh4 ,footnote #ade3 ,on the other hand there is a great difference between the ,wollunqua and any other totem1 inasmuch as the particular animal is purely mythical1 and except for the one great progenitor of the totemic group1 is not supposed to exist at the present day 7,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 p4 #bdh74 ,footnote #adf3 ,the wingara is the equivalent of the ,arunta alcheringa1 that is1 the earliest legendary or mythical times of which the natives profess to have knowledge4 ,footnote #adg3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #bdi sq4 ,footnote #adh3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #cc sq41 #agg sq4 ,footnote #adi3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #big sq4 ,footnote #aej3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #caf sq4 ,footnote #aea3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 op4 cit4 p4 #cbj4 ,footnote #aeb3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #aii-bjd4 ,footnote #aec3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #agi sq4 ,footnote #aed3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #agi sq4 ,footnote #aee3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #ceh sq41 and p4 #cdc1 fig #gc4 ,footnote #aef3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 p4 #agf4 ,footnote #aeg3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ahb sq4 ,footnote #aeh3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 p4 #big4 ,footnote #aei3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 p4 #aig4 ,,lecture ,,vi ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,other ,,aborigines ,,of ,,australia ,sidenote3 ,customs and beliefs concerning the dead in the other tribes of ,australia4 ,in the last lecture ,i concluded my account of the beliefs and practices of the ,central ,australian aborigines in regard to the dead4 ,to-day ,i propose to consider the customs and beliefs concerning the dead which prevail among the native tribes in other parts of ,australia4 ,but at the outset ,i must warn you that our information as to these other tribes is far less full and precise than that which we possess as to the tribes of the centre1 which have had the great advantage of being observed and described by two highly qualified scientific observers1 ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen4 ,our knowledge of all other ,australian tribes is comparatively fragmentary1 and accordingly it is impossible to give even an approximately complete view of their notions concerning the state of the human spirit after death1 and of the rites which they observe for the purpose of disarming or propitiating the souls of the departed4 ,we must therefore content ourselves with more or less partial glimpses of this side of native religion4 ,sidenote3 ,belief in the reincarnation of the dead among the natives of ,queensland4 ,the ngai spirits4 ,the first question we naturally ask is whether the belief in the reincarnation of the dead1 which prevails universally among the ,central tribes1 reappears among tribes in other parts of the continent4 ,it certainly does so1 and although the evidence on this subject is very imperfect it suffices to raise presumption that a similar belief in the rebirth or reincarnation of the dead was formerly universal among the ,australian aborigines4 ,unquestionably the belief is entertained by some of the natives of ,queensland1 who have been described for us by ,mr4 ,w4 ,e4 ,roth4 ,thus1 for example1 the aborigines on the ,pennefather ,river think that every person's spirit undergoes a series of reincarnations1 and that in the interval between two reincarnations the spirit resides in one or other of the haunts of ,anjea1 a mythical being who causes conception in women by putting mud babies into their bodies4 ,such spots1 haunted by the fabulous being ,anjea and by the souls of the dead awaiting rebirth1 may be a tree1 a rock1 or a pool of water2 they clearly correspond to the local totem centres 7oknanikilla among the ,arunta1 mungai among the ,warramunga7 of the ,central ,australian tribes which ,i described in former lectures4 ,the natives of the ,pennefather ,river observe a ceremony at the birth of a child in order to ascertain the exact spot where its spirit tarried in the interval since its last incarnation2 and when they have discovered it they speak of the child as obtained from a tree1 a rock1 or a pool of water1 according to the place from which its spirit is supposed to have passed into its mother4#afj ,readers of the classics can hardly fail to be reminded of the ,homeric phrase to be born of an oak or a rock1#afa which seems to point to a similar belief in the possibility of human souls awaiting reincarnation in the boughs of an oak-tree or in the cleft of a rock4 ,in the opinion of the ,pennefather natives all disembodied human spirits or choi1 as they call them1 are mischief-makers and evildoers1 for they make people sick or crazy2 but the medicine-men can sometimes control them for good or evil4 ,they wander about in the bush1 but there are certain hollow trees or clumps of trees with wide-spreading branches1 which they most love to haunt1 and they can be heard in the rustling of the leaves or the crackling of the boughs at night4 ,anjea himself1 who puts babies into women1 is never seen1 but you may hear him laughing in the depths of the forest1 among the rocks1 in the lagoons1 and along the mangrove swamps2 and when you hear his laugh you may be sure that he has got a baby4#afb ,if a native happens to hurt himself near a tree1 he imagines that the spirit of some dead person is lurking among the branches1 and he will never cut that tree down lest a worse thing should befall him at the hands of the vengeful ghost4#afc ,a curious feature in the beliefs of these ,pennefather natives is that apart from the spirit called choi1 which lives in a disembodied state between two incarnations1 every person is supposed to have a spirit of a different sort called ngai1 which has its seat in the heart2 they feel it beating within their breast2 it talks to them in sleep and so is the cause of dreams4 ,at death a man's ngai spirit does not go away into the bush to await reincarnation like his choi spirit2 on the contrary1 it passes at once into his children1 boys and girls alike2 for before their father's death children are supposed not to possess a ngai spirit2 if a child dies before its father1 they think that it never had a ngai spirit at all4 ,and the ngai spirit may leave a man in his lifetime as well as at death2 for example1 when a person faints1 the natives think that he does so because his ngai spirit has departed from him1 and they will stamp on the ground to make it return4 ,on the other hand the choi spirit is supposed never to quit a man during life2 it is thought to be in some undefined way related to the shadow1 whereas the ngai spirit1 as we saw1 manifests itself in the beating of the heart4 ,when a woman dies1 her ngai spirit goes not into her children but into her sisters1 one after the other2 and when all the sisters are dead1 the woman's ngai spirit goes away among the mangroves and perishes altogether4#afd ,thus these savages explain the phenomena of birth and death1 of conscious and unconscious life1 by a theory of a double human spirit1 one associated with the heart and the other with the shadow4 ,the psychology is rudimentary1 still it is interesting as an attempt to solve problems which still puzzle civilised man4 ,sidenote3 ,beliefs of the natives of ,cape ,bedford in ,queensland4 ,other ,queensland aborigines associate the vital principle not with the heart but with the breath4 ,for example1 at ,cape ,bedford the natives call it wau-wu and think that it never leaves the body sleeping or waking till death1 when it haunts its place of burial for a time and may communicate with the living4 ,thus1 like the ghost of ,hamlet's father1 it will often appear to a near kinsman or intimate friend1 tell him the pitiful tale how he was done to death by an enemy1 and urge him to revenge4 ,again1 the soul of a man's dead father or friend may bear him company on a journey and1 like the beryl-stone in ,rossetti's poem ,rose ,mary1 warn him of an ambuscade lurking for him in a spot where the man himself sees nothing4 ,but the spirits of the dead do not always come with such friendly intent2 they may drive the living distracted2 a peculiar form of mental excitement and bewilderment is attributed to their action4 ,further1 these aborigines at ,cape ,bedford1 in ,queensland1 believe that all spirits of nature are in fact souls of the dead4 ,such spirits usually leave their haunts in the forests and caves at night4 ,stout-hearted old men can see and converse with them and receive from them warnings of danger2 but women and children fear these spirits and never see them4 ,but some spirits of the dead1 when they have ceased to haunt their places of burial1 go away eastward and are reincarnated in white people2 hence these savages often look for a resemblance to some deceased tribesman among ,europeans1 and frequently wonder why it is that the white man1 on whom their fancy has pitched1 remembers nothing about his former life as a black man among blacks4#afe ,sidenote3 ,beliefs of the natives of the ,tully ,river in ,queensland4 ,the natives of the ,tully ,river in ,queensland associate the principle of life both with the breath and with the shadow4 ,it departs from the body temporarily in sleep and fainting-fits and permanently in death1 after which it may be heard at night tapping on the top of huts or creaking in the branches of trees4 ,it is everlasting1 so far as these savages have any idea of eternity1 and further it is intangible2 hence in its disembodied state it needs no food1 and none is set out for it4 ,the disposition of these disembodied spirits of the dead is good or bad1 according to their disposition in life4 ,yet when a man is alone by himself1 the spirit even of one of his own dead kinsfolk will sometimes come and do him a mischief4 ,on the other hand it can do nothing to several people together2 there is safety in numbers4 ,they may all see and hear the ghost1 but he will not attack them4 ,hence these savages have been taught from childhood to beware of going alone3 solitary people are liable at any moment to be assailed by the spirits of the dead4 ,the only means they know of warding off these ghostly assailants is by lighting good fires4#aff ,sidenote3 ,belief of the ,australian aborigines that their dead are reborn in white people4 ,i have mentioned the belief of the ,cape ,bedford natives that the spirits of their dead are sometimes reincarnated in white people4 ,a similar notion is reported from other and widely separated parts of ,australia1 and wherever it exists may be taken as evidence of a general belief as to the rebirth or reincarnation of the dead1 even where such a belief is not expressly recorded4 ,this superstition has sometimes proved of service to white people who have been cast among the blacks1 for it has ensured them a hospitable and even affectionate welcome1 where otherwise they might have encountered suspicion and hostility1 if not open violence4 ,thus1 for example1 the convict ,buckley1 who escaped from the penal settlement on ,port ,phillip ,bay in #ahjc1 was found by some of the ,wudthaurung tribe carrying a piece of a broken spear1 which he had abstracted from the grave of one of their people4 ,so they took him to be the dead man risen from the grave2 he received the name of the deceased1 was adopted by his relations1 and lived with the tribe for thirty-two years without ever conversing with a white man2 when at last he met one1 he had forgotten the ,english language4#afg ,again1 a ,mr4 ,naseby1 who lived in the ,kamilaroi country for fifty years1 happened to have the marks of cupping on his back1 and the natives could not be persuaded that he was not one of themselves come to life again with the family scars on his body1#afh for the ,australian aborigines commonly raise scars on the bodies of young men at initiation4 ,the late ,sir ,george ,grey was identified by an old ,australian woman as her dead son come to life again4 ,it may be worth while to quote his account of this unlooked-for meeting with his long-lost mother2 for it will impress on you1 better than any words of mine could do1 the firmness of the faith which these savages repose in the resurrection of the body1 or at all events in the reincarnation of the soul4 ,grey writes as follows3-- ,sidenote3 ,experience of ,sir ,george ,grey4 ,after we had tethered the horses1 and made ourselves tolerably comfortable1 we heard loud voices from the hills above us3 the effect was fine1--for they really almost appeared to float in the air2 and as the wild cries of the women1 who knew not our exact position1 came by upon the wind1 ,i thought it was well worth a little trouble to hear these savage sounds under such circumstances4 ,our guides shouted in return1 and gradually the approaching cries came nearer and nearer4 ,i was1 however1 wholly unprepared for the scene that was about to take place4 ,a sort of procession came up1 headed by two women1 down whose cheeks tears were streaming4 ,the eldest of these came up to me1 and looking for a moment at me1 said1--',gwa1 gwa1 bundo1 bal1'--',yes1 yes1 in truth it is him'2 and then throwing her arms round me1 cried bitterly1 her head resting on my breast2 and although ,i was totally ignorant of what their meaning was1 from mere motives of compassion1 ,i offered no resistance to her caresses1 however disagreeable they might be1 for she was old1 ugly1 and filthily dirty2 the other younger one knelt at my feet1 also crying4 ,at last the old lady1 emboldened by my submission1 deliberately kissed me on each cheek1 just in the manner a ,frenchwoman would have done2 she then cried a little more1 and at length relieving me1 assured me that ,i was the ghost of her son1 who had some time before been killed by a spear-wound in his breast4 ,the younger female was my sister2 but she1 whether from motives of delicacy1 or from any imagined backwardness on my part1 did not think proper to kiss me4 ,my new mother expressed almost as much delight at my return to my family1 as my real mother would have done1 had ,i been unexpectedly restored to her4 ,as soon as she left me1 my brothers1 and father 7the old man who had previously been so frightened71 came up and embraced me after their manner1--that is1 they threw their arms round my waist1 placed their right knee against my right knee1 and their breast against my breast1 holding me in this way for several minutes4 ,during the time that the ceremony lasted1 ,i1 according to the native custom1 preserved a grave and mournful expression of countenance4 ,this belief1 that white people are the souls of departed blacks1 is by no means an uncommon superstition amongst them2 they themselves never having an idea of quitting their own land1 cannot imagine others doing it2--and thus1 when they see white people suddenly appear in their country1 and settling themselves down in particular spots1 they imagine that they must have formed an attachment for this land in some other state of existence2 and hence conclude the settlers were at one period black men and their own relations4 ,likenesses1 whether real or imagined1 complete the delusion2 and from the manner of the old woman ,i have just alluded to1 from her many tears1 and from her warm caresses1 ,i feel firmly convinced that she really believed ,i was her son1 whose first thought1 upon his return to earth1 had been to re-visit his old mother1 and bring her a present4#afi ,sidenote3 ,in ,south-eastern ,australia the natives believed that the souls of the dead were not reborn but went up to the sky4 ,on the whole then we may conclude that a belief in the reincarnation of the dead has not been confined to the tribes of ,central ,australia1 but has been held by the tribes in many1 perhaps at one time in all1 other parts of the continent4 ,yet1 if we may judge from the imperfect records which we possess1 this faith in the return of the dead to life in human form would seem to have given way and been replaced to some extent by a different creed among many tribes of ,south-eastern ,australia4 ,in this part of the continent it appears to have been often held by the natives that after death the soul is not born again among men1 but goes away for ever to some distant country either in the sky or beyond the sea1 where all the spirits of the dead congregate4 ,thus ,lieutenant-,colonel ,collins1 who was ,governor of ,new ,south ,wales in the early days of the colony1 at the end of the eighteenth century1 reports that when the natives were often questioned as to what became of them after their decease1 some answered that they went either on or beyond the great water2 but by far the greater number signified1 that they went to the clouds4#agj ,again1 the ,narrinyeri tribe of ,south ,australia believed that all the dead went up to the sky and that some of them at least became stars4 ,we possess an excellent description of the beliefs and customs of this tribe from the pen of a missionary1 the ,rev4 ,george ,taplin1 who lived among them for many years4 ,his account of their theory of the state of the dead is instructive4 ,it runs thus3-- ,sidenote3 ,beliefs of the ,narrinyeri concerning the dead4 ,the ,narrinyeri point out several stars1 and say that they are deceased warriors who have gone to heaven 7,wyirrewarre74 ,there are ,wyungare1 and ,nepalle1 and the ,manchingga1 and several others4 ,every native expects to go to ,wyirrewarre after death4 ,they also believe that the dead descend from thence1 and walk the earth2 and that they are able to injure those whom they dislike4 ,consequently1 men who have been notorious in life for a domineering and revengeful disposition are very much dreaded after death4 ,for instance1 there is ,karungpe1 who comes in the dead of night1 when the camp fire has burned low1 and like a rushing wind scatters the dying embers1 and then takes advantage of the darkness to rob some sleeper of life2 and it is considered dangerous to whistle in the dark1 for ,karungpe is especially attracted by a whistle4 ,there is another restless spirit--the deceased father of a boy whom ,i well know--who is said to rove about armed with a rope1 with which he catches people4 ,all the ,narrinyeri1 old and young1 are dreadfully afraid of seeing ghosts1 and none of them will venture into the scrub after dark1 lest he should encounter the spirits which are supposed to roam there4 ,i have heard some admirable specimens of ghost stories from them4 ,in one case ,i remember the ghost was represented to have set fire to a wurley hut1 and ascended to heaven in the flame4 ,the ,narrinyeri regard the disapprobation of the spirits of the dead as a thing to be dreaded2 and if a serious quarrel takes place between near relatives1 some of the friends are sure to interpose with entreaties to the contentious parties to be reconciled1 lest the spirits of the dead should be offended at unseemly disputes between those who ought to be at peace4 ,the name of the dead must not be mentioned until his body has decayed1 lest a want of sorrow should seem to be indicated by the common and flippant use of his name4 ,a native would have the deceased believe that he cannot hear or speak his name without weeping4#aga ,sidenote3 ,narrinyeri fear of the dead4 ,mourning customs4 ,from this account it would appear that the ,narrinyeri have no belief in the reincarnation of the dead2 they suppose that the souls of the departed live up aloft in the sky1 from which they descend at night in the form of ghosts to haunt and trouble the living4 ,on the whole the attitude of the ,narrinyeri towards their dead kinsfolk seems to be dominated by fear2 of affection there is apparently little or no trace4 ,it is true that like most ,australian tribes they indulge in extravagant demonstrations of grief at the death of their kinsfolk4 ,a great lamentation and wailing is made by all the relations and friends of the deceased4 ,they cut off their hair close to the head and besmudge themselves with oil and pounded charcoal4 ,the women besmear themselves with the most disgusting filth4 ,all beat and cut themselves and make a violent show of sorrow2 and all the time that the corpse1 rubbed over with grease and red ochre1 is being dried over a slow fire in the hut1 the women take it by turns to weep and wail before it1 so that the lamentation never ceases for days4 ,yet ,mr4 ,taplin was persuaded that fear has more to do with most of these exhibitions than grief2 and he tells us that for one minute a woman will appear in the deepest agony of grief and tears2 a few minutes after1 the conventional amount of weeping having been accomplished1 they will laugh and talk with the merriest4#agb ,the principal motive1 in fact1 for all this excessive display of sorrow would seem to be a fear lest the jealous ghost should think himself slighted and should avenge the slight on the cold-hearted relatives who do not mourn sufficiently for the irreparable loss they have sustained by his death4 ,we may conjecture that the same train of thought explains the ancient and widespread custom of hiring professional mourners to wail over the dead2 the tears and lamentations of his kinsfolk are not enough to soothe the wounded feelings of the departed1 they must be reinforced by noisier expressions of regret4 ,sidenote3 ,deaths attributed by the ,narrinyeri to sorcery4 ,but there is another powerful motive for all these violent demonstrations of grief1 into the secret of which we are let by ,mr4 ,taplin4 ,he says that all the relatives are careful to be present and not to be wanting in the proper signs of sorrow1 lest they should be suspected of complicity in causing the death4#agc ,in fact the ,narrinyeri1 like many other savages1 attribute all1 or most1 natural deaths to sorcery4 ,when a person dies1 they think that he or she has been killed by the evil magic of some ill-wisher1 and one of the first things to be done is to discover the culprit in order that his life may be taken in revenge4 ,for this purpose the ,narrinyeri resort to a form of divination4 ,on the first night after the death the nearest relation of the deceased sleeps with his head on the corpse1 hoping thus to dream of the sorcerer who has done the mischief4 ,next day the corpse is placed on a sort of bier supported on men's shoulders4 ,the friends of the deceased gather round and call out the names of suspected persons to see whether the corpse will give any sign4 ,at last the next of kin calls out the name of the person of whom he has dreamed1 and if at the sound the corpse makes a movement towards him1 which the bearers say they cannot resist1 it is regarded as a clear token that the man so named is the malefactor4 ,it only remains for the kinsfolk of the dead to hunt down the culprit and kill him4#agd ,thus not only the relations but everybody in the neighbourhood has the strongest motive for assuming at least an appearance of sorrow at a death1 lest the suspicion of having caused it by sorcery should fall upon him4 ,sidenote3 ,pretence made by the ,narrinyeri of avenging the death of their friends on the guilty sorcerer4 ,it deserves to be noted1 that while the ,narrinyeri nominally acknowledged the duty of killing the sorcerer who in their opinion had caused the death of their friend1 they by no means always discharged the duty1 but sometimes contented themselves with little more than a pretence of revenge4 ,mr4 ,taplin's account of the proceedings observed on such an occasion is instructive4 ,it runs thus3 ,the spirit of the dead is not considered to have been appeased until his relatives have avenged his death4 ,they will kill the sorcerer who has caused it if they can catch him2 but generally they cannot catch him1 and often do not wish it4 ,most probably he belongs to some other tribe of the ,narrinyeri4 ,messengers pass between the tribes relative to the affair1 and the friends of the accused person at last formally curse the dead man and all his dead relatives4 ,this constitutes a casus belli4 ,arrangements are forthwith made for a pitched battle1 and the two tribes meet in company with their respective allies4 ,the tribe to which the dead man belongs weep and make a great lamentation for him1 and the opposing tribe sets some fellows to dance about and play antics in derision of their enemies4 ,then the whole tribe will set up a great laugh by way of further provocation4 ,if there is any other cause of animosity between the tribes besides the matter of avenging the dead there will now be a pretty severe fight with spears4 ,if1 however1 the tribes have nothing but the dead man to fight about1 they will probably throw a few spears1 indulge in considerable abuse of each other1 perhaps one or two will get slightly wounded1 and then some of the old men will declare that enough has been done4 ,the dead man is considered to have been appeased by the efforts of his friends to avenge his death by fighting1 and the two tribes are friendly again4 ,in such a case the fight is a mere ceremony4#age ,thus among the ,narrinyeri the duty of blood revenge was often supposed to be sufficiently discharged by a sham fight performed apparently for the satisfaction of the ghost1 who was supposed to be looking on and to be gratified by the sight of his friends hurling spears at the author of his death4 ,merciful pretences of the same sort have been practised by other savages in order to satisfy the vengeful ghost without the effusion of blood4 ,examples of them will come before us later on4#agf ,sidenote3 ,magical virtue ascribed to the hair of the dead4 ,however1 the attitude of the ,narrinyeri towards their dead was not purely one of fear and aversion4 ,they imagined that they could derive certain benefits from their departed kinsfolk1 and the channel through which these benefits flowed was furnished by their hair4 ,they cut off the hair of the dead and spun it into a cord1 and this cord was commonly worn by the men as a head-band4 ,they said that thereby they smelled the dead1 and that the smell made their eyes large and their sight keen1 so that in a fight they could see the spears coming and could parry or avoid them4#agg ,similar magical virtues are ascribed to the hair of the dead by the ,arunta4 ,among them the hair of a dead man is cut off and made into a magic girdle1 which is a valued possession and is only worn when a man is going out to engage in a tribal fight or to stalk a foe for the purpose of destroying him by witchcraft4 ,the girdle is supposed to be endowed with magic power and to impart to its possessor all the warlike qualities of the dead man from whose hair it was made2 in particular1 it is thought to ensure accuracy of aim in the wearer1 while at the same time it destroys that of his adversary4#agh ,hence the girdle is worn by the man who takes the lead in avenging the death of the deceased on his supposed murderer2 the mere sight of it1 they think1 so terrifies the victim that his legs tremble under him1 he becomes incapable of fighting1 and is easily speared4#agi ,sidenote3 ,belief that the souls of the dead go up to the sky4 ,among the tribes of ,south-eastern ,australia the ,narrinyeri were not alone in holding the curious belief that the souls of the dead go up into the sky to live there for ever1 but that their ghosts come down again from time to time1 roam about their old haunts on earth1 and communicate with the living4 ,this1 for example1 was the belief of the ,dieri1 the ,buandik1 the ,kurnai1 and the ,kulin tribes4#ahj ,the ,buandik thought that everything in skyland was better than on earth2 a fat kangaroo1 for example1 was compared to a kangaroo of heaven1 where1 of course1 the animals might be expected to abound4#aha ,the ,kulin imagined that the spirits of the dead ascended to heaven by the bright rays of the setting sun4#ahb ,the ,wailwun natives in ,new ,south ,wales used to bury their dead in hollow trees1 and when they dropped the body into its place1 the bearers and the bystanders joined in a loud whirring sound1 like the rush of the wind4 ,they said that this represented the upward flight of the soul to the sky4#ahc ,sidenote3 ,appearance of the dead to the living1 especially in dreams4 ,with regard to the ghosts on earth1 some tribes of ,south-eastern ,australia believe that they can be seen by the living1 can partake of food1 and can warm themselves at a fire4 ,it is especially the graves1 where their mouldering bodies are deposited1 that these restless spirits are supposed to haunt2 it is there that they shew themselves either to people generally or to such as have the second sight4#ahd ,but it is most commonly in dreams that they appear to the living and hold communication with them4 ,often these communications are believed to be helpful4 ,thus the tribes of the ,wotjobaluk nation thought that the ghosts of their dead relations could visit them in sleep to protect them4 ,a ,mukjarawaint man told ,dr4 ,howitt that his father came to him in a dream and warned him to beware or he would be killed4 ,this1 the man believed1 was the saving of his life2 for he afterwards came to the place which he had seen in his dream2 whereupon1 instead of going on1 he turned back1 so that his enemies1 who might have been waiting for him there1 did not catch him4#ahe ,another man informed ,dr4 ,howitt that his dead uncle appeared to him in sleep and taught him charms against sickness and other evils2 and the ,chepara tribe similarly believed that male ancestors visited sleepers and imparted to them charms to avert evil magic4#ahf ,sidenote3 ,savage faith in the truth of dreams4 ,association of the stars with the souls of the dead4 ,such notions follow naturally from the savage theory of dreams4 ,almost all savages appear to believe firmly in the truth of dreams2 they fail to draw the distinction1 which to us seems obvious1 between the imaginary creations of the mind in sleep and the waking realities of the physical world4 ,whatever they dream of must1 they think1 be actually existing2 for have they not seen it with their own eyes8 ,to argue that the visions of sleep have no real existence is1 therefore1 in their opinion1 to argue against the plain evidence of their senses2 and they naturally treat such exaggerated scepticism with incredulity and contempt4 ,hence when they dream of their dead friends and relations they necessarily conclude that these persons are still alive somewhere and somehow1 though they do not commonly appear by daylight to people in their waking hours4 ,unquestionably this savage faith in the reality of dreams has been one of the principal sources of the widespread1 almost universal1 belief in the survival of the human soul after death4 ,it explains why ghosts are supposed to appear rather by night than by day1 since it is chiefly by night that men sleep and dream dreams4 ,perhaps it may also partly account for the association of the stars with the souls of the dead4 ,for if the dead appear to the living mainly in the hours of darkness1 it seems not unnatural to imagine that the bright points of light which then bespangle the canopy of heaven are either the souls of the departed or fires kindled by them in their home aloft4 ,for example1 the ,central ,australian aborigines commonly suppose the stars to be the camp-fires of natives who live on the banks of the great river which we civilised men1 by a survival of primitive mythology1 call the ,milky ,way4 ,however1 these rude savages1 we are told1 as a general rule appear to pay very little attention to the stars in detail1 probably because they enter very little into anything which is connected with their daily life1 and more especially with their food supply4#ahg ,the same observation which ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen here make as to the natives of ,central ,australia might be applied to most savages who have remained in the purely hunting stage of social development4 ,such men are not much addicted to star-gazing1 since the stars have little or nothing to tell them that they wish to know4 ,it is not till people have betaken themselves to sowing and reaping crops that they begin to scan the heavens more carefully in order to determine the season of sowing by observation of the great celestial time-keepers1 the rising and setting of certain constellations1 above all1 apparently1 of the ,pleiades4#ahh ,in short1 the rise of agriculture favours the rise of astronomy4 ,sidenote3 ,creed of the ,south-eastern ,australians touching the dead4 ,but to return to the ideas of the ,australian aborigines concerning the dead1 we may say of the natives of the south-eastern part of the continent1 in the words of ,dr4 ,howitt1 that there is a universal belief in the existence of the human spirit after death1 as a ghost1 which is able to communicate with the living when they sleep4 ,it finds its way to the sky-country1 where it lives in a land like the earth1 only more fertile1 better watered1 and plentifully supplied with game4#ahi ,this belief is very different from that of the ,central ,australian natives1 who think that the souls of the dead tarry on earth in their old familiar haunts until the time comes for them to be born again into the world4 ,of the two different creeds that of the south-eastern tribes may be regarded as the more advanced1 since it admits that the dead do not return to life1 and that their disembodied spirits do not haunt perpetually a multitude of spiritual parks or reservations dotted over the face of the country4 ,sidenote3 ,the creed seems to form part of a general advance of culture in this part of the continent4 ,but how are we to account for this marked difference of belief between the natives of the ,centre and the natives of the ,south-east8 ,perhaps the most probable explanation is that the creed of the south-eastern tribes in this respect is part of a general advance of culture brought about by the more favourable natural conditions under which they live as compared with the forlorn state of the rude inhabitants of the ,central deserts4 ,that advance of culture manifests itself in a variety of ways4 ,on the material side it is seen in more substantial and permanent dwellings and in warmer and better clothing4 ,on the social side it is seen in an incipient tendency to the rise of a regular chieftainship1 a thing which is quite unknown among the democratic or rather oligarchic savages of the ,centre1 who are mainly governed by the old men in council4#aij ,but the rise of chieftainship is a great step in political progress2 since a monarchical government of some sort appears to be essential to the emergence of mankind from savagery4 ,on the whole1 then1 the beliefs of the ,south-eastern ,australian aborigines seem to mark a step on the upward road towards civilisation4 ,sidenote3 ,possible influence of ,european teaching on native beliefs4 ,at the same time we must not forget that these beliefs may have been influenced by the lessons which they have learned from white settlers with whom in this part of ,australia they have been so long in contact4 ,the possibility of such a transfusion of the new wine of ,europe into the old bottles of ,australia did not escape the experienced ,mr4 ,james ,dawson1 an early settler in ,victoria1 who has given us a valuable account of the natives of that region in the old days when they were still comparatively little contaminated by intercourse with the whites4 ,he describes as follows the views which prevailed as to the dead among the tribes of ,western ,victoria3--,after the disposal of the body of a good person1 its shade walks about for three days2 and although it appears to people1 it holds no communication with them4 ,should it be seen and named by anyone during these three days1 it instantly disappears4 ,at the expiry of three days it goes off to a beautiful country above the clouds1 abounding with kangaroo and other game1 where life will be enjoyed for ever4 ,friends will meet and recognize each other there2 but there will be no marrying1 as the bodies have been left on earth4 ,children under four or five years have no souls and no future life4 ,the shades of the wicked wander miserably about the earth for one year after death1 frightening people1 and then descend to ,ummekulleen1 never to return4 ,after giving us this account of the native creed ,mr4 ,dawson adds very justly3 ,some of the ideas described above may possibly have originated with the white man1 and been transmitted from ,sydney by one tribe to another4#aia ,the probability of white influence on this particular doctrine of religion is increased by the frank confession which these same natives made of the religious deterioration 7as they regarded it7 which they had suffered in another direction through the teaching of the missionaries4 ,on this subject1 to quote again from ,mr4 ,dawson1 the savages are of opinion that the good spirit1 ,pirnmeheeal1 is a gigantic man1 living above the clouds2 and as he is of a kindly disposition1 and harms no one1 he is seldom mentioned1 but always with respect4 ,his voice1 the thunder1 is listened to with pleasure1 as it does good to man and beast1 by bringing rain1 and making grass and roots grow for their benefit4 ,but the aborigines say that the missionaries and government protectors have given them a dread of ,pirnmeheeal2 and they are sorry that the young people1 and many of the old1 are now afraid of a being who never did any harm to their forefathers4#aib ,sidenote3 ,vagueness and inconsistency of native beliefs as to the state of the dead4 ,custom or ritual as the interpreter of belief4 ,however1 it is very difficult to ascertain the exact beliefs of savages as to the dead4 ,the thought of the savage is apt to be vague and inconsistent2 he neither represents his ideas clearly to his own mind nor can he express them lucidly to others1 even if he wishes to do so4 ,and his thought is not only vague and inconsistent2 it is fluid and unstable1 liable to shift and change under alien influence4 ,for these and other reasons1 such as the distrust of strangers and the difficulty of language1 which often interposes a formidable barrier between savage man and the civilised enquirer1 the domain of primitive beliefs is beset by so many snares and pitfalls that we might almost despair of arriving at the truth1 were it not that we possess a clue to guide us on the dark and slippery way4 ,that clue is action4 ,while it is generally very difficult to ascertain what any man thinks1 it is comparatively easy to ascertain what he does2 and what a man does1 not what he says1 is the surest touchstone to his real belief4 ,hence when we attempt to study the religion of backward races1 the ritual which they practise is generally a safer indication of their actual creed than the loudest profession of faith4 ,in regard to the state of the human soul after death the beliefs of the ,australian aborigines are clearly reflected in many of the customs which they observe at the death and burial of their friends and enemies1 and it is accordingly with an account of some of these customs that ,i propose to conclude this part of my subject4 ,sidenote3 ,burial customs of the ,australian aborigines as evidence of their beliefs concerning the state of the soul after death4 ,food placed on the grave for the use of the ghost and fires kindled to warm him4 ,now some of the burial customs observed by the ,australian savages reveal in the clearest manner their belief that the human soul survives the death of the body1 that in its disembodied state it retains consciousness and feeling1 and can do a mischief to the living2 in short1 they shew that in the opinion of these people the departed live in the form of dangerous ghosts4 ,thus1 for example1 when the deceased is a person of importance1 the ,dieri place food for many days on the grave1 and in winter they kindle a fire in order that the ghost may warm himself at it4 ,if the food remains untouched on the grave1 they think that the dead is not hungry4#aic ,the ,blanch-water section of that tribe fear the spirits of the dead and accordingly take steps to prevent their resurrection4 ,for that purpose they tie the toes of the corpse together and the thumbs behind the back1 which must obviously make it difficult for the dead man to arise in his might and pursue them4 ,moreover1 for a month after the death they sweep a clear space round the grave at dusk every evening1 and inspect it every morning4 ,if they find any tracks on it1 they assume that they have been made by the restless ghost in his nocturnal peregrinations1 and accordingly they dig up his mouldering remains and bury them in some other place1 where they hope he will sleep sounder4#aid ,the ,kukata tribe think that the ghost may be thirsty1 so they obligingly leave a drinking vessel on the grave1 that he may slake his thirst4 ,also they deposit spears and other weapons on the spot1 together with a digging-stick1 which is specially intended to ward off evil spirits who may be on the prowl4#aie ,the ghosts of the natives on the ,maranoa river were also thirsty souls1 so vessels full of water were sometimes suspended for their use over the grave4#aif ,a custom of lighting a fire on the grave to warm the poor shivering ghost seems to have been not uncommon among the aboriginal ,australians4 ,the ,western ,victorians1 for example1 kept up large fires all night for this purpose4#aig ,in the ,wiimbaio tribe two fires were kept burning for a whole month on the grave1 one to the right and the other to the left1 in order that the ghost might come out and warm himself at them in the chill night air4 ,if they found tracks near the grave1 they inferred1 like the ,dieri1 that the perturbed spirit had quitted his narrow bed to pace to and fro in the long hours of darkness2 but if no footprints were visible they thought that he slept in peace4#aih ,in some parts of ,western ,australia the natives maintained fires on the grave for more than a month for the convenience of the ghost2 and they clearly expected him to come to life again1 for they detached the nails from the thumb and forefinger of the corpse and deposited them in a small hole beside the grave1 in order that they might know their friend at his resurrection4#aii ,the length of time during which fires were maintained or kindled daily on the grave is said to have varied1 according to the estimation in which the man was held1 from a few days to three or four years4#bjj ,we have seen that the ,dieri laid food on the grave for the hungry ghost to partake of1 and the same custom was observed by the ,gournditch-mara tribe4#bja ,however1 some intelligent old aborigines of ,western ,victoria derided the custom as white fellow's gammon4#bjb ,sidenote3 ,property of the dead buried with them4 ,further1 in some tribes of ,south-eastern ,australia it was customary to deposit the scanty property of the deceased1 usually consisting of a few rude weapons or implements1 on the grave or to bury it with him4 ,thus the natives of ,western ,victoria buried all a dead man's ornaments1 weapons1 and property with him in the grave1 only reserving his stone axes1 which were too valuable to be thus sacrificed3 these were inherited by the next of kin4#bjc ,the ,wurunjerri also interred the personal property of the dead with him2 if the deceased was a man1 his spear-thrower was stuck in the ground at the head of the grave2 if the deceased was a woman1 the same thing was done with her digging-stick4 ,that these implements were intended for the use of the ghost and not merely as headstones to mark the situation of the tomb and the sex of the departed1 is clear from a significant exception to the custom4 ,when the departed brother was a man of violent temper1 who had been quarrelsome and a brawler in his life1 no weapons were buried with him1 obviously lest in a fit of ill-temper he should sally from the grave and assault people with them4#bjd ,similarly the ,turrbal tribe1 who deposited their dead in the forks of trees1 used to leave a spear and club near the corpse that the spirit of the dead might have weapons wherewith to kill game for his sustenance in the future state4 ,a yam-stick was placed in the ground at a woman's grave1 so that she might go away at night and seek for roots4#bje ,the ,wolgal tribe were very particular about burying everything that belonged to a dead man with him2 spears and nets1 though valuable articles of property1 were thus sacrificed2 even a canoe has been known to be cut up in order that the pieces of it might be deposited in the grave4 ,in fact everything belonging to a dead man was put out of sight4#bjf ,similarly in the ,geawe-gal tribe all the implements and inanimate property of a warrior were interred with him4#bjg ,in the ,gringai country not only was all a man's property buried with him1 but every native present at the burial contributed something1 and these contributions were piled together at the head of the corpse before the grave was filled in4#bjh ,among the tribes of ,southern ,victoria1 when the grave has been dug and lined with fresh leaves and twigs so as to make a soft bed1 the dead man's property is brought in two bags1 and the sorcerer shakes out the contents4 ,they consist of such small articles as pieces of hard stone suitable for cutting or paring skins1 bones for boring holes1 twine made of opossum wool1 and so forth4 ,these are placed in the grave1 and the bags and rugs of the deceased are torn up and thrown in likewise4 ,then the sorcerer asks whether the dead man had any other property1 and if he had1 it is brought forward and laid beside the torn fragments of the bags and rugs4 ,everything that a man owned in life must be laid beside him in death4#bji ,again1 among the tribes of the ,lower ,murray1 ,lachlan1 and ,darling rivers in ,new ,south ,wales1 all a dead man's property1 including his weapons and nets1 was buried with his body in the grave4#baj ,further1 we are told that among the natives of ,western ,australia the weapons and personal property of the deceased are placed on the grave1 so that when he rises from the dead they may be ready to his hand4#baa ,in the ,boulia district of ,queensland the things which belonged to a dead man1 such as his boomerangs and spears1 are either buried with him1 destroyed by fire1 or sometimes1 though rarely1 distributed among his tribal brothers1 but never among his children4#bab ,sidenote3 ,intention of destroying the property of the dead4 ,the property of the dead not destroyed in ,central ,australia4 ,thus among certain tribes of ,australia1 especially in the south-eastern part of the continent1 it appears that the custom of burying or destroying a dead man's property has been very common4 ,that the intention of the custom in some cases is to supply the supposed needs of the ghost1 seems to be fairly certain2 but we may doubt whether this explanation would apply to the practice of burning or otherwise destroying the things which had belonged to the deceased4 ,more probably such destruction springs from an overpowering dread of the ghost and a wish to sever all connexion with him1 so that he may have no excuse for returning and haunting the survivors1 as he might do if his property were either kept by them or deposited in the grave4 ,whatever the motive for the burial or destruction of a dead man's property may be1 the custom appears not to prevail among the tribes of ,central ,australia4 ,in the eastern ,arunta tribe1 indeed1 it is said that sometimes a little wooden vessel used in camp for holding small objects may be buried with the man1 but this is the only instance which ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen could hear of in which any article of ordinary use is buried in the grave4 ,far from wasting property in that way1 these economical savages preserve even a man's personal ornaments1 such as his necklaces1 armlets1 and the fur string which he wore round his head2 indeed1 as we have seen1 they go so far as to cut off the hair from the head of the deceased and to keep it for magical uses4#bac ,in the ,warramunga tribe all the belongings of a dead man go to the tribal brothers of his mother4#bad ,sidenote3 ,property of the dead hung up on trees1 then washed and distributed4 ,economic loss entailed by sacrifices to the dead4 ,the difference in this respect between the practice of the ,central tribes and that of the tribes nearer the sea1 especially in ,victoria and ,new ,south ,wales1 is very notable4 ,a custom intermediate between the two is observed by some tribes of the ,darling ,river1 who hang up the weapons1 nets1 and other property of the deceased on trees for about two months1 then wash them1 and distribute them among the relations4#bae ,the reason for hanging the things up and washing them is no doubt to rid them of the infection of death in order that they may be used with safety by the survivors4 ,such a custom points clearly to a growing fear of the dead2 and that fear or reverence comes out still more clearly in the practice of either burying the property of the dead with them or destroying it altogether1 which is observed by the aborigines of ,victoria and other parts of ,australia who live under more favourable conditions of life than the inhabitants of the ,central deserts4 ,this confirms the conclusion which we have reached on other grounds1 that among the aboriginal population of ,australia favourable natural conditions in respect of climate1 food1 and water have exercised a most important influence in stimulating social progress in many directions1 and not least in the direction of religion4 ,at the same time1 while we recognise that the incipient tendency to a worship of the dead which may be detected in these regions marks a step forward in religious development1 we must acknowledge that the practice of burying or destroying the property of the dead1 which is one of the ways in which the tendency manifests itself1 is1 regarded from the side of economic progress1 a decided step backward4 ,it marks1 in fact1 the beginning of a melancholy aberration of the human mind1 which has led mankind to sacrifice the real interests of the living to the imaginary interests of the dead4 ,with the general advance of society and the accompanying accumulation of property these sacrifices have at certain stages of evolution become heavier and heavier1 as the demands of the ghosts became more and more exacting4 ,the economic waste which the belief in the immortality of the soul has entailed on the world is incalculable4 ,when we contemplate that waste in its small beginnings among the rude savages of ,australia it appears insignificant enough2 the world is not much the poorer for the loss of a parcel of boomerangs1 spears1 fur string1 and skin rugs4 ,but when we pass from the custom in this its feeble source and follow it as it swells in volume through the nations of the world till it attains the dimensions of a mighty river of wasted labour1 squandered treasure1 and spilt blood1 we cannot but wonder at the strange mixture of good and evil in the affairs of mankind1 seeing in what we justly call progress so much hardly earned gain side by side with so much gratuitous loss1 such immense additions to the substantial value of life to be set off against such enormous sacrifices to the shadow of a shade4 ,footnote #afj3 ,w4 ,e4 ,roth1 ,north ,queensland ,ethnography1 ,bulletin ,no4 #e1 ,superstition1 ,magic1 and ,medicine 7,brisbane1 #aijc71 pp4 #ah1 #bc1 ,secs4 #fh1 #hc4 ,footnote #afa3 ,homer1 ,odyssey1 xix4 #afc4 ,footnote #afb3 ,w4 ,e4 ,roth1 ll4 cc4 ,footnote #afc3 ,w4 ,e4 ,roth1 ,north ,queensland ,ethnography1 ,bulletin ,no4 #e 7,brisbane1 #aijc71 p4 #bi4 ,sec4 #aaf4 ,footnote #afd3 ,w4 ,e4 ,roth4 op4 cit4 p4 #ah1 ,sec4 #fh4 ,footnote #afe3 ,w4 ,e4 ,roth1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ag1 #bi1 ,secs4 #fe1 #aaf4 ,footnote #aff3 ,w4 ,e4 ,roth1 op4 cit4 p4 #ag1 ,sec4 #fe4 ,footnote #afg3 ,j4 ,dawson1 ,australian ,aborigines 7,melbourne1 ,sydney1 and ,adelaide1 #ahha71 pp4 #aaj sq42 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 ,native ,tribes of ,south-,east ,australia 7,london1 #aijd71 p4 #ddb4 ,footnote #afh3 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 op4 cit4 p4 #dde4 ,footnote #afi3 7,sir7 ,george ,grey1 ,journals of ,two ,expeditions of ,discovery in ,north-,west and ,western ,australia 7,london1 #ahda71 i4 #cja-cjc4 ,footnote #agj3 ,lieutenant-,colonel ,david ,collins1 ,an ,account of the ,english ,colony in ,new ,south ,wales1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahjd71 p4 #ced4 ,footnote #aga3 ,rev4 ,g4 ,taplin1 ,the ,narrinyeri1 in ,native ,tribes of ,south ,australia 7,adelaide1 #ahgi71 pp4 #ah sq4 ,footnote #agb3 ,rev4 ,g4 ,taplin1 ,the ,narrinyeri1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bj sq4 ,footnote #agc3 ,rev4 ,g4 ,taplin1 op4 cit4 p4 #bj4 ,footnote #agd3 ,rev4 ,g4 ,taplin1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ai sq41 #ba4 ,footnote #age3 ,rev4 ,g4 ,taplin1 op4 cit4 p4 #ba4 ,footnote #agf3 ,see below1 pp4 #bce sqq41 #cbg sq4 ,footnote #agg3 ,rev4 ,g4 ,taplin1 op4 cit4 p4 #ba4 ,footnote #agh3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #ech sq4 ,footnote #agi3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #edd sq4 ,footnote #ahj3 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 ,native ,tribes of ,south-,east ,australia1 pp4 #dcd1 #dcf1 #dcg1 #dch4 ,compare ,e4 ,j4 ,eyre1 ,journals of ,expeditions of ,discovery into ,central ,australia 7,london1 #ahde71 ii4 #ceg4 ,footnote #aha3 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 op4 cit4 p4 #dcd4 ,footnote #ahb3 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 op4 cit4 p4 #dch4 ,footnote #ahc3 ,rev4 ,w4 ,ridley1 ,kamilaroi 7,sydney1 #ahge71 p4 #afj4 ,footnote #ahd3 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 ,native ,tribes of ,south-,east ,australia1 pp4 #dcd1 #dch1 #dci2 ,j4 ,dawson1 ,australian ,aborigines1 p4 #ej4 ,footnote #ahe3 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 op4 cit4 p4 #dce4 ,footnote #ahf3 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 op4 cit4 p4 #dcg4 ,footnote #ahg3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 p4 #fbh4 ,footnote #ahh3 ,as to the place occupied by the ,pleiades in primitive calendars1 see ,spirits of the ,corn and of the ,wild1 i4 #cji-cai4 ,footnote #ahi3 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 ,native ,tribes of ,south-,east ,australia1 pp4 #dci sq4 ,footnote #aij3 ,see ,totemism and ,exogamy1 i4 #cad sqq4 ,footnote #aia3 ,j4 ,dawson1 ,australian ,aborigines1 p4 #ea4 ,a man of the ,ta-ta-thi tribe in ,new ,south ,wales informed ,mr4 ,a4 ,l4 ,p4 ,cameron that the natives believed in a pit of fire where bad men were roasted after death4 ,this reported belief1 resting apparently on the testimony of a single informant1 may without doubt be ascribed to the influence of ,christian teaching4 ,see ,a4 ,l4 ,p4 ,cameron1 ,notes on some ,tribes of ,new ,south ,wales1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xiv4 7#ahhe7 pp4 #cfd sq4 ,footnote #aib3 ,j4 ,dawson1 ,australian ,aborigines1 p4 #di4 ,footnote #aic3 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 ,native ,tribes of ,south-,east ,australia1 p4 #ddh4 ,footnote #aid3 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 op4 cit44 p4 #ddi4 ,compare ,e4 ,m4 ,curr1 ,the ,australian ,race1 i4 #hg3 ,the object sought in tying up the remains of the dead is to prevent the deceased from escaping from the tomb and frightening or injuring the survivors4 ,footnote #aie3 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 op4 cit4 p4 #dea4 ,footnote #aif3 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 op4 cit4 p4 #dfg4 ,footnote #aig3 ,j4 ,dawson1 ,australian ,aborigines1 p4 #ej4 ,footnote #aih3 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 ,native ,tribes of ,south-,east ,australia1 p4 #deb4 ,footnote #aii3 ,r4 ,salvado1 ,memoires historiques sur l' ,australie 7,paris1 #ahed71 p4 #bfa2 ,missions ,catholiques1 x4 7#ahgh7 p4 #bdg4 ,for more evidence as to the lighting of fires for this purpose see ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dee1 #dgj4 ,footnote #bjj3 ,a4 ,oldfield1 ,the ,aborigines of ,australia1 ,transactions of the ,ethnological ,society of ,london1 ,new ,series1 iii4 7#ahfe7 p4 #bde4 ,footnote #bja3 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 op4 cit4 p4 #dee4 ,footnote #bjb3 ,j4 ,dawson1 ,australian ,aborigines1 pp4 #ej sq4 ,footnote #bjc3 ,j4 ,dawson1 op4 cit4 p4 #fc4 ,footnote #bjd3 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 ,native ,tribes of ,south-,east ,australia1 p4 #deh4 ,footnote #bje3 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 op4 cit4 p4 #dgj4 ,footnote #bjf3 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dfa sq4 ,footnote #bjg3 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 op4 cit4 p4 #dfd4 ,footnote #bjh3 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 op4 cit4 p4 #dfd4 ,footnote #bji3 ,r4 ,brough ,smyth1 ,the ,aborigines of ,victoria1 i4 #ajd4 ,footnote #baj3 ,p4 ,beveridge1 ,of the ,aborigines ,inhabiting the ,great ,lacustrine and ,riverine ,depression of the ,lower ,murray1 ,lower ,murrumbidgee1 ,lower ,lachlan1 and ,lower ,darling1 ,journal and ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society of ,new ,south ,wales1 xvii4 7#ahhc7 p4 #bi4 ,footnote #baa3 ,a4 ,oldfield1 ,the ,aborigines of ,australia1 ,transactions of the ,ethnological ,society of ,london1 ,new ,series1 iii4 7#ahfe7 p4 #bde4 ,footnote #bab3 ,w4 ,e4 ,roth1 ,ethnological ,studies among the ,north-,west-,central ,queensland ,aborigines 7,brisbane and ,london1 #ahig71 p4 #afd4 ,footnote #bac3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #dff1 #dig sq41 #ech sq4 ,see above1 p4 #ach4 ,footnote #bad3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 p4 #ebd4 ,footnote #bae3 ,f4 ,bonney1 ,on some ,customs of the ,aborigines of the ,river ,darling1 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xiii4 7#ahhd7 p4 #ace4 ,,lecture ,,vii ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,aborigines ,,of ,,australia 7concluded7 ,sidenote3 ,attention to the comfort of the dead4 ,huts erected on graves for the use of the ghosts4 ,in the last lecture ,i shewed that in the maritime regions of ,australia1 where the conditions of life are more favourable than in the ,central deserts1 we may detect the germs of a worship of the dead in certain attentions which the living pay to the spirits of the departed1 for example by kindling fires on the grave for the ghost to warm himself at1 by leaving food and water for him to eat and drink1 and by depositing his weapons and other property in the tomb for his use in the life after death4 ,another mark of respect shewn to the dead is the custom of erecting a hut on the grave for the accommodation of the ghost4 ,thus among the tribes of ,south ,australia we are told that upon the mounds1 or tumuli1 over the graves1 huts of bark1 or boughs1 are generally erected to shelter the dead from the rain2 they are also frequently wound round with netting4#baf ,again1 in ,western ,australia a small hut of rushes1 grass1 and so forth is said to have been set up by the natives over the grave4#bag ,among the tribes of the ,lower ,murray1 ,lower ,lachlan1 and ,lower ,darling rivers1 when a person died who had been highly esteemed in life1 a neat hut was erected over his grave so as to cover it entirely4 ,the hut was of oval shape1 about five feet high1 and roofed with thatch1 which was firmly tied to the framework by cord many hundreds of yards in length4 ,sometimes the whole hut was enveloped in a net4 ,at the eastern end of the hut a small opening was left just large enough to allow a full-grown man to creep in1 and the floor was covered with grass1 which was renewed from time to time as it became withered4 ,each of these graves was enclosed by a fence of brushwood forming a diamond-shaped enclosure1 within which the tomb stood exactly in the middle4 ,all the grass within the fence was neatly shaved off and the ground swept quite clean4 ,sepulchres of this sort were kept up for two or three years1 after which they were allowed to fall into disrepair1 and when a few more years had gone by the very sites of them were forgotten4#bah ,the intention of erecting huts on graves is not mentioned in these cases1 but on analogy we may conjecture that they are intended for the convenience and comfort of the ghost4 ,this is confirmed by an account given of a native burial on the ,vasse ,river in ,western ,australia4 ,we are told that when the grave had been filled in1 the natives piled logs on it to a considerable height and then constructed a hut upon the logs1 after which one of the male relations went into the hut and said1 ,i sit in his house4#bai ,thus it would seem that the hut on the grave is regarded as the house of the dead man4 ,if only these sepulchral huts were kept up permanently1 they might develop into something like temples1 in which the spirits of the departed might be invoked and propitiated with prayer and sacrifice4 ,it is thus that the great round huts1 in which the remains of dead kings of ,uganda are deposited1 have grown into sanctuaries or shrines1 where the spirits of the deceased monarchs are consulted as oracles through the medium of priests4#bbj ,but in ,australia this development is prevented by the simple forgetfulness of the savages4 ,a few years suffice with them to wipe out the memory of the deceased and with it his chance of developing into an ancestral deity4 ,like most savages1 the ,australian aborigines seem to fear only the ghosts of the recently departed2 one writer tells us that they have no fear of the ghost of a man who has been dead say forty years4#bba ,sidenote3 ,fear of the dead and precautions taken by the living against them4 ,the burial customs of the ,australian aborigines which ,i have described betray not only a belief in the existence of the ghost1 but also a certain regard for his comfort and convenience4 ,however1 we may suspect that in most1 if not in all1 cases the predominant motive of these attentions is fear rather than affection4 ,the survivors imagine that any want of respect for the dead1 any neglect of his personal comforts in the grave1 would excite his resentment and draw down on them his vengeance4 ,that these savages are really actuated by fear of the dead is expressly affirmed of some tribes4 ,thus we are told that the ,yuin were always afraid that the dead man might come out of the grave and follow them4#bbb ,after burying a body the ,ngarigo were wont to cross a river in order to prevent the ghost from pursuing them2#bbc obviously they shared the common opinion that ghosts for some reason are unable to cross water4 ,the ,wakelbura took other measures to throw the poor ghost off the scent4 ,they marked all the trees in a circle round the place where the dead man was buried2 so that when he emerged from the grave and set off in pursuit of his retiring relations1 he would follow the marks on the trees in a circle and always come back to the point from which he had started4 ,and to make assurance doubly sure they put coals in the dead man's ears1 which1 by bunging up these apertures1 were supposed to keep his ghost in the body till his friends had got a good start away from him4 ,as a further precaution they lit fires and put bushes in the forks of trees1 with the idea that the ghost would roost in the bushes and warm himself at the fires1 while they were hastening away4#bbd ,here1 therefore1 we see that the real motive for kindling fires for the use of the dead is fear1 not affection4 ,in this respect the burial customs of the tribes at the ,herbert ,river are still more significant4 ,these savages buried with the dead man his weapons1 his ornaments1 and indeed everything he had used in life2 moreover1 they built a hut on the grave1 put a drinking-vessel in the hut1 and cleared a path from it down to the water for the use of the ghost2 and often they placed food and water on the grave4 ,so far1 these measures might be interpreted as marks of pure and disinterested affection for the soul of the departed4 ,but such an interpretation is totally excluded by the ferocious treatment which these savages meted out to the corpse4 ,to frighten the spirit1 lest he should haunt the camp1 the father or brother of the deceased1 or the husband1 if it was a woman1 took a club and mauled the body with such violence that he often smashed the bones2 further1 he generally broke both its legs in order to prevent it from wandering of nights2 and as if that were not enough1 he bored holes in the stomach1 the shoulders1 and the lungs1 and filled the holes with stones1 so that even if the poor ghost should succeed by a desperate effort in dragging his mangled body out of the grave1 he would be so weighed down by this ballast of stones that he could not get very far4 ,however1 after roaming up and down in this pitiable condition for a time in their old haunts1 the spirits were supposed at last to go up aloft to the ,milky ,way4#bbe ,the ,kwearriburra tribe1 on the ,lynd ,river1 in ,queensland1 also took forcible measures to prevent the resurrection of the dead4 ,whenever a person died1 they cut off his or her head1 roasted it in a fire on the grave1 and when it was thoroughly charred they smashed it in bits and left the fragments among the hot coals4 ,they calculated that when the ghost rose from the grave with the view of following the tribe1 he would miss his head and go groping blindly about for it till he scorched himself in the embers of the fire and was glad to shrink back into his narrow bed4#bbf ,thus even among those ,australian tribes which have progressed furthest in the direction of religion1 such approaches as they have made towards a worship of the dead appear to be determined far more by fear than by affection and reverence4 ,and we are told that it is the nearest relations and the most influential men whose ghosts are most dreaded4#bbg ,sidenote3 ,cuttings and brandings of the flesh of the living in honour of the dead4 ,there is another custom observed by the ,australian aborigines in mourning which deserves to be mentioned4 ,we all know that the ,israelites were forbidden to make cuttings in their flesh for the dead4#bbh ,the custom was probably practised by the heathen ,canaanites1 as it has been by savages in various parts of the world4 ,nowhere1 perhaps1 has the practice prevailed more generally or been carried out with greater severity than in aboriginal ,australia4 ,for example1 with regard to the tribes in the central part of ,victoria we are told that the parents of the deceased lacerate themselves fearfully1 especially if it be an only son whose loss they deplore4 ,the father beats and cuts his head with a tomahawk until he utters bitter groans4 ,the mother sits by the fire and burns her breasts and abdomen with a small fire-stick till she wails with pain2 then she replaces the stick in the fire1 to use again when the pain is less severe4 ,this continues for hours daily1 until the time of lamentation is completed2 sometimes the burns thus inflicted are so severe as to cause death4#bbi ,it is especially the women1 and above all the widows1 who torture themselves in this way4 ,speaking of the tribes of ,victoria1 a writer tells us that on the death of her husband a widow1 becoming frantic1 seizes fire-sticks and burns her breasts1 arms1 legs1 and thighs4 ,rushing from one place to another1 and intent only on injuring herself1 and seeming to delight in the self-inflicted torture1 it would be rash and vain to interrupt her4 ,she would fiercely turn on her nearest relative or friend and burn him with her brands4 ,when exhausted1 and when she can scarcely walk1 she yet endeavours to kick the embers of the fire1 and to throw them about4 ,sitting down1 she takes the ashes in her hands1 rubs them into her wounds1 and then scratches her face 7the only part not touched by the fire-sticks7 until the blood mingles with the ashes which partly hide her cruel wounds4#bcj ,among the ,kurnai of ,south-eastern ,victoria the relations of the dead would cut and gash themselves with sharp stones and tomahawks until their heads and bodies streamed with blood4#bca ,in the ,mukjarawaint tribe1 when a man died1 his kinsfolk wept over him and slashed themselves with tomahawks and other sharp instruments for about a week4#bcb ,in the tribes of the ,lower ,murray and ,lower ,darling rivers mourners scored their backs and arms1 sometimes even their faces1 with red-hot brands1 which raised hideous ulcers2 afterwards they flung themselves prone on the grave1 tore out their hair by handfuls1 rubbed earth over their heads and bodies in great profusion1 and ripped up their green ulcers till the mingled blood and grime presented a ghastly spectacle4 ,these self-inflicted sores remained long unhealed4#bcc ,among the ,kamilaroi1 a large tribe of eastern ,new ,south ,wales1 the mourners1 and especially the women1 used to cut their heads with tomahawks and allow the blood to dry on them4#bcd ,speaking of a native burial on the ,murray ,river1 a writer says that around the bier were many women1 relations of the deceased1 wailing and lamenting bitterly1 and lacerating their thighs1 backs1 and breasts1 with shells or flint1 until the blood flowed copiously from the gashes4#bce ,in the ,boulia district of ,queensland women in mourning score their thighs1 both inside and outside1 with sharp stones or bits of glass1 so as to make a series of parallel cuts2 in neighbouring districts of ,queensland the men make much deeper cross-shaped cuts on their thighs4#bcf ,in the ,arunta tribe of ,central ,australia a man is bound to cut himself on the shoulder in mourning for his father-in-law2 if he does not do so1 his wife may be given away to another man in order to appease the wrath of the ghost at his undutiful son-in-law4 ,arunta men regularly bear on their shoulders the raised scars which shew that they have done their duty by their dead fathers-in-law4#bcg ,the female relations of a dead man in the ,arunta tribe also cut and hack themselves in token of sorrow1 working themselves up into a sort of frenzy as they do so2 yet in all their apparent excitement they take care never to wound a vital part1 but vent their fury on their scalps1 their shoulders1 and their legs4#bch ,sidenote3 ,cuttings for the dead among the ,warramunga4 ,in the ,warramunga tribe of ,central ,australia ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen witnessed the mourning for a dead man4 ,even before the sufferer had breathed his last the lamentations and self-inflicted wounds began4 ,when it was known that the end was near1 all the native men ran at full speed to the spot1 and ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen followed them to see what was to be seen4 ,what they saw1 or part of what they saw1 was this4 ,some of the women1 who had gathered from all directions1 were lying prostrate on the body of the dying man1 while others were standing or kneeling around1 digging the sharp ends of yam-sticks into the crown of their heads1 from which the blood streamed down over their faces1 while all the time they kept up a loud continuous wail4 ,many of the men1 rushing up to the scene of action1 flung themselves also higgledy-piggledy on the sufferer1 the women rising and making way for them1 till nothing was to be seen but a struggling mass of naked bodies all mixed up together4 ,presently up came a man yelling and brandishing a stone knife4 ,on reaching the spot he suddenly gashed both his thighs with the knife1 cutting right across the muscles1 so that1 unable to stand1 he dropped down on the top of the struggling bodies1 till his mother1 wife1 and sisters dragged him out of the scrimmage1 and immediately applied their mouths to his gaping wounds1 while he lay exhausted and helpless on the ground4 ,gradually the struggling mass of dusky bodies untwined itself1 disclosing the unfortunate sick man1 who was the object1 or rather the victim1 of this well-meant demonstration of affection and sorrow4 ,if he had been ill before1 he was much worse when his friends left him3 indeed it was plain that he had not long to live4 ,still the weeping and wailing went on2 the sun set1 darkness fell on the camp1 and later in the evening the man died4 ,then the wailing rose louder than before1 and men and women1 apparently frantic with grief1 rushed about cutting themselves with knives and sharp-pointed sticks1 while the women battered each other's heads with clubs1 no one attempting to ward off either cuts or blows4 ,an hour later a funeral procession set out by torchlight through the darkness1 carrying the body to a wood about a mile off1 where it was laid on a platform of boughs in a low gum-tree4 ,when day broke next morning1 not a sign of human habitation was to be seen in the camp where the man had died4 ,all the people had removed their rude huts to some distance1 leaving the place of death solitary2 for nobody wished to meet the ghost of the deceased1 who would certainly be hovering about1 along with the spirit of the living man who had caused his death by evil magic1 and who might be expected to come to the spot in the outward form of an animal to gloat over the scene of his crime4 ,but in the new camp the ground was strewed with men lying prostrate1 their thighs gashed with the wounds which they had inflicted on themselves with their own hands4 ,they had done their duty by the dead and would bear to the end of their life the deep scars on their thighs as badges of honour4 ,on one man ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen counted the dints of no less than twenty-three wounds which he had inflicted on himself at various times4 ,meantime the women had resumed the duty of lamentation4 ,forty or fifty of them sat down in groups of five or six1 weeping and wailing frantically with their arms round each other1 while the actual and tribal wives1 mothers1 wives' mothers1 daughters1 sisters1 mothers' mothers1 sisters' husbands' mothers1 and grand-daughters1 according to custom1 once more cut their scalps open with yam-sticks1 and the widows afterwards in addition seared the scalp wounds with red-hot fire-sticks4 ,sidenote3 ,cuttings for the dead strictly regulated by custom4 ,in these mourning customs1 wild and extravagant as the expression of sorrow appears to be1 everything is regulated by certain definite rules2 and a woman who did not thus maul herself when she ought to do so would be severely punished1 or even killed1 by her brother4 ,similarly with the men1 it is only those who stand in certain relationships to the deceased who must cut and hack themselves in his honour1 and these relationships are determined by the particular exogamous class to which the dead man happened to belong4 ,of such classes there are eight in the ,warramunga tribe4 ,on the occasion described by ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen it was a man of the ,tjunguri class who died2 and the men who gashed their thighs stood to him in one or other of the following relationships3 grandfather on the mother's side1 mother's brother1 brother of the dead man's wife1 and her mother's brother4#bci ,sidenote3 ,the cuttings and brandings which mourners inflict on themselves may be intended to convince the ghost of the sincerity of their sorrow4 ,we naturally ask1 ,what motive have these savages for inflicting all this voluntary and1 as it seems to us1 wholly superfluous suffering on themselves8 ,it can hardly be that these wounds and burns are merely a natural and unfeigned expression of grief4 ,we have seen that by experienced observers such extravagant demonstrations of sorrow are set down rather to fear than to affection4 ,similarly ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen suggest that at least one motive is a fear entertained by the native lest1 if he does not make a sufficient display of grief1 the ghost of the dead man will be offended and do him a mischief4#bdj ,in the ,kaitish tribe of ,central ,australia it is believed that if a woman does not keep her body covered with ashes from the camp fire during the whole time of mourning1 the spirit of her deceased husband1 who constantly follows her about1 will kill her and strip all the flesh from her bones4#bda ,again1 in the ,arunta tribe mourners smear themselves with white pipeclay1 and the motive for this custom is said to be to render themselves more conspicuous1 so that the ghost may see and be satisfied that he is being properly mourned for4#bdb ,thus the fear of the ghost1 who1 at least among the ,australian aborigines1 is commonly of a jealous temper and stands very firmly on his supposed rights1 may suffice to explain the practice of self-mutilation at mourning4 ,sidenote3 ,custom of allowing the blood of mourners to drip on the corpse or into the grave4 ,but it is possible that another motive underlies the drawing of blood on these occasions4 ,for it is to be observed that the blood of the mourners is often allowed to drop directly either on the dead body or into the grave4 ,thus1 for example1 among the tribes on the ,river ,darling several men used to stand by the open grave and cut each other's heads with a boomerang2 then they held their bleeding heads over the grave so that the blood dripped on the corpse lying in it4 ,if the deceased was highly esteemed1 the bleeding was repeated after some earth had been thrown on the body4#bdc ,among the ,arunta it is customary for the women kinsfolk of the dead to cut their own and each other's heads so severely with clubs and digging-sticks that blood streams from them on the grave4#bdd ,again1 at a burial on the ,vasse ,river1 in ,western ,australia1 a writer describes how1 when the grave was dug1 the natives placed the corpse beside it1 then gashed their thighs1 and at the flowing of the blood they all said1 ',i have brought blood1' and they stamped the foot forcibly on the ground1 sprinkling the blood around them2 then wiping the wounds with a wisp of leaves1 they threw it1 bloody as it was1 on the dead man4#bde ,with these ,australian practices we may compare a custom observed by the civilised ,greeks of antiquity4 ,every year the ,peloponnesian lads lashed themselves on the grave of ,pelops at ,olympia1 till the blood ran down their backs as a libation in honour of the dead man4#bdf ,sidenote3 ,the blood intended to strengthen the dead4 ,now what is the intention of thus applying the blood of the living to the dead or pouring it into the grave8 ,so far as the ancient ,greeks are concerned the answer is not doubtful4 ,we know from ,homer that the ghosts of the dead were supposed to drink the blood that was offered to them and to be strengthened by the draught4#bdg ,similarly with the ,australian savages1 their object can hardly be any other than that of strengthening the spirit of the dead2 for these aborigines are in the habit of giving human blood to the sick and the aged to drink for the purpose of restoring them to health and strength2#bdh hence it would be natural for them to imagine that they could refresh and fortify the feeble ghost in like manner4 ,perhaps the blood was intended specially to strengthen the spirits of the dead for the new birth or reincarnation1 to which so many of these savages look forward4 ,sidenote3 ,custom of burying people in the place where they were born4 ,the custom perhaps intended to facilitate the rebirth of the soul4 ,the same motive may possibly explain the custom observed by some ,australian tribes of burying people1 as far as possible1 at the place where they were born4 ,thus in regard to the tribes of ,western ,victoria we are informed that dying persons1 especially those dying from old age1 generally express an earnest desire to be taken to their birthplace1 that they may die and be buried there4 ,if possible1 these wishes are always complied with by the relatives and friends4 ,parents will point out the spot where they were born1 so that when they become old and infirm1 their children may know where they wish their bodies to be disposed of4#bdi ,again1 some tribes in the north and north-east of ,victoria are said to be more than ordinarily scrupulous in interring the dead4 ,if practicable1 they will bury the corpse near the spot where1 as a child1 it first drew breath4 ,a mother will carry a dead infant for weeks1 in the hope of being able to bury it near the place where it was born2 and a dead man will be conveyed a long distance1 in order that the last rites may be performed in a manner satisfactory to the tribe4#bej ,another writer1 speaking of the ,australian aborigines in general1 says3 ,by what ,i could learn1 it is considered proper by many tribes that a black should be buried at or near the spot where he or she was born1 and for this reason1 when a black becomes seriously ill1 the invalid is carried a long distance to these certain spots to die1 as in this case4 ,they apparently object to place a body in strange ground4 ,the same writer mentions the case of a blackfellow1 who began digging a grave close beside the kitchen door of a ,mr4 ,campbell4 ,when ,mr4 ,campbell remonstrated with him1 the native replied that he had no choice1 for the dead man had been born on that very spot4 ,with much difficulty ,mr4 ,campbell persuaded him to bury his deceased friend a little further off from the kitchen door4#bea ,a practice of this sort would be intelligible on the theory of the ,central ,australians1 who imagine that the spirits of all the dead return to the very spots where they entered into their mothers' wombs1 and that they wait there until another opportunity presents itself to them of being born again into the world4 ,for if people really believe1 as do many ,australian tribes1 that when they die they will afterwards come to life again as infants1 it is perfectly natural that they should take steps to ensure and facilitate the new birth4 ,the ,unmatjera and ,kaitish tribes of ,central ,australia do this in the case of dead children4 ,these savages draw a sharp distinction between young children and very old men and women4 ,when very old people die1 their bodies are at once buried in the ground1 but the bodies of children are placed in wooden troughs and deposited on platforms of boughs in the branches of trees1 and the motive for treating a dead child thus is1 we are informed1 the hope that before very long its spirit may come back again and enter into the body of a woman--in all probability that of its former mother4#beb ,the reason for drawing this distinction between the young and the old by disposing of their bodies in different fashions1 is explained with great probability by ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen as follows3 ,in the ,unmatjera and ,kaitish tribes1 while every old man has certain privileges denied to the younger men1 yet if he be decidedly infirm and unable to take his part in the performance of ceremonies which are often closely concerned--or so at least the natives believe them to be--with the general welfare of the tribe1 then the feeling undoubtedly is that there is no need to pay any very special respect to his remains4 ,this feeling is probably vaguely associated with the idea that1 as his body is infirm1 so to a corresponding extent will his spirit part be1 and therefore they have no special need to consider or propitiate this1 as it can do them no harm4 ,on the other hand they are decidedly afraid of hurting the feelings of any strong man who might be capable of doing them some mischief unless he saw that he was properly mourned for4 ,acting under much the same feeling they pay respect to the bodies of dead children and young women1 in the hope that the spirit will soon return and undergo reincarnation4 ,it is also worth noticing that they do not bury in trees any young man who has violated tribal law by taking as wife a woman who is forbidden to him2 such an individual is always buried directly in the ground4#bec ,apparently these law-abiding savages are not anxious that members of the criminal classes should be born again and should have the opportunity of troubling society once more4 ,sidenote3 ,different modes of disposing of the dead adopted in the same tribe4 ,i would call your attention particularly to the different modes of burial thus accorded by these two tribes to different classes of persons4 ,it is too commonly assumed that each tribe has one uniform way of disposing of all its dead1 say either by burning or by burying1 and on that assumption certain general theories have been built as to the different views taken of the state of the dead by different tribes4 ,but in point of fact the assumption is incorrect4 ,not infrequently the same tribe disposes of different classes of dead people in quite different ways2 for instance1 it will bury some and burn others4 ,thus amongst the ,angoni of ,british ,central ,africa the corpses of chiefs are burned with all their household belongings1 but the bodies of commoners are buried with all their belongings in caves4#bed ,in various castes or tribes of ,india it is the custom to burn the bodies of married people but to bury the bodies of the unmarried4#bee ,with some peoples of ,india the distinction is made1 not between the married and the unmarried1 but between adults and children1 especially children under two years old2 in such cases the invariable practice appears to be to burn the old and bury the young4 ,thus among the ,malayalis of ,malabar the bodies of men and women are burned1 but the bodies of children under two years are buried1 and so are the bodies of all persons who have died of cholera or small-pox4#bef ,the same distinctions are observed by the ,nayars1 ,kadupattans1 and other castes or tribes of ,cochin4#beg ,the old rule laid down in the ancient ,hindoo law-book ,the ,grihya-,sutras was that children who died under the age of two should be buried1 not burnt4#beh ,the ,bhotias of the ,himalayas bury all children who have not yet obtained their permanent teeth1 but they burn all other people4#bei ,among the ,komars the young are buried1 and the old cremated4#bfj ,the ,coorgs bury the bodies of women and of boys under sixteen years of age1 but they burn the bodies of men4#bfa ,the ,chukchansi ,indians of ,california are said to have burned only those who died a violent death or were bitten by snakes1 but to have buried all others4#bfb ,the ,minnetaree ,indians disposed of their dead differently according to their moral character4 ,bad and quarrelsome men they buried in the earth that the ,master of ,life might not see them2 but the bodies of good men they laid on scaffolds1 that the ,master of ,life might behold them4#bfc ,the ,kolosh or ,tlingit ,indians of ,alaska burn their ordinary dead on a pyre1 but deposit the bodies of shamans in large coffins1 which are supported on four posts4#bfd ,the ancient ,mexicans thought that all persons who died of infectious diseases were killed by the rain-god ,tlaloc2 so they painted their bodies blue1 which was the rain-god's colour1 and buried instead of burning them4#bfe ,sidenote3 ,special modes of burial adopted to prevent or facilitate the return of the spirit4 ,these examples may suffice to illustrate the different ways in which the same people may dispose of their dead according to the age1 sex1 social rank1 or moral character of the deceased1 or the manner of his death4 ,in some cases the special mode of burial adopted seems clearly intended to guard against the return of the dead1 whether in the form of ghosts or of children born again into the world4 ,such1 for instance1 was obviously the intention of the old ,english custom of burying a suicide at a cross-road with a stake driven through his body4 ,and if some burial customs are plainly intended to pin down the dead in the earth1 or at least to disable him from revisiting the survivors1 so others appear to be planned with the opposite intention of facilitating the departure of the spirit from the grave1 in order that he may repair to a more commodious lodging or be born again into the tribe4 ,for example1 the ,arunta of ,central ,australia always bury their dead in the earth and raise a low mound over the grave2 but they leave a depression in the mound on the side which faces towards the spot where the spirit of the deceased is supposed to have dwelt in the intervals between his successive reincarnations2 and we are expressly told that the purpose of leaving this depression is to allow the spirit to go out and in easily2 for until the final ceremony of mourning has been performed at the grave1 the ghost is believed to spend his time partly in watching over his near relations and partly in the company of its arumburinga or spiritual double1 who lives at the old nanja spot1 that is1 at the place where the disembodied soul tarries waiting to be born again4#bff ,thus the ,arunta imagine that for some time after death the spirit of the deceased is in a sort of intermediate state1 partly hovering about the abode of the living1 partly visiting his own proper spiritual home1 to which on the completion of the mourning ceremonies he will retire to await the new birth4 ,the final mourning ceremony1 which marks the close of this intermediate state1 takes place some twelve or eighteen months after the death4 ,it consists mainly in nothing more or less than a ghost hunt2 men armed with shields and spear-throwers assemble and with loud shouts beat the air1 driving the invisible ghost before them from the spot where he died1 while the women join in the shouts and buffet the air with the palms of their hands to chase away the dead man from the old camp which he loves to haunt4 ,in this way the beaters gradually advance towards the grave till they have penned the ghost into it1 when they immediately dance on the top of it1 beating the air downwards as if to drive the spirit down1 and stamping on the ground as if to trample him into the earth4 ,after that1 the women gather round the grave and cut each other's heads with clubs till the blood streams down on it4 ,this brings the period of mourning to an end2 and if the deceased was a man1 his widow is now free to marry again4 ,in token that the days of her sorrow are over1 she wears at this final ceremony the gay feathers of the ring-neck parrot in her hair4 ,the spirit of her dead husband1 lying in the grave1 is believed to know the sign and to bid her a last farewell4 ,even after he has thus been hunted into the grave and trampled down in it1 his spirit may still watch over his friends1 guard them from harm1 and visit them in dreams4#bfg ,sidenote3 ,departure of the ghost supposed to coincide with the disappearance of the flesh from his bones4 ,we may naturally ask1 ,why should the spirit of the dead be supposed at first to dwell more or less intermittently near the spot where he died1 and afterwards to take up his abode permanently at his nanja spot till the time comes for him to be born again8 ,a good many years ago ,i conjectured#bfh that this idea of a change in the abode of the ghost may be suggested by a corresponding change which takes place1 or is supposed to take place1 about the same time in the state of the body2 in fact1 that so long as the flesh adheres to the bones1 so long the soul of the dead man may be thought to be detained in the neighbourhood of the body1 but that when the flesh has quite decayed1 the soul is completely liberated from its old tabernacle and is free to repair to its true spiritual home4 ,in confirmation of this conjecture ,i pointed to the following facts4 ,some of the ,indians of ,guiana bring food and drink to their dead so long as the flesh remains on the bones2 but when it has mouldered away1 they conclude that the man himself has departed4#bfi ,the ,matacos ,indians of the ,gran ,chaco in ,argentina believe that the soul of a dead man does not pass down into the nether world until his body is decomposed or burnt4 ,further1 the ,alfoors of ,central ,celebes suppose that the spirits of the departed cannot enter the spirit-land until all the flesh has been removed from their bones2 for until that has been done1 the gods 7lamoa7 in the other world could not bear the stench of the corpse4 ,accordingly at a great festival the bodies of all who have died within a certain time are dug up and the decaying flesh scraped from the bones4 ,comparing these ideas1 ,i suggested that they may explain the widespread custom of a second burial1 that is1 the practice of disinterring the dead after a certain time and disposing of their bones otherwise4 ,sidenote3 ,second burial of the bones among the tribes of ,central ,australia4 ,final burial ceremony among the ,warramunga4 ,now so far as the tribes of ,central ,australia are concerned1 my conjecture has been confirmed by the subsequent researches of ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen in that region4 ,for they have found that the tribes to the north of the ,arunta regularly give their dead a second burial1 that a change in the state of the ghosts is believed to coincide with the second burial1 and apparently also1 though this is not so definitely stated1 that the time for the second burial is determined by the disappearance of the flesh from the bones4 ,amongst the tribes which practise a second burial the custom is first to deposit the dead on platforms among the branches of trees1 till the flesh has quite mouldered away1 and then to bury the bones in the earth3 in short1 they practise tree-burial first and earth-burial afterwards4#bgj ,for example1 in the ,unmatjera and ,kaitish tribes1 when a man dies1 his body is carried by his relations to a tree distant a mile or two from the camp4 ,there it is laid on a platform by itself for some months4 ,when the flesh has disappeared from the bones1 a kinsman of the deceased1 in strictness a younger brother 7itia71 climbs up into the tree1 dislocates the bones1 places them in a wooden vessel1 and hands them down to a female relative4 ,then the bones are laid in the grave with the head facing in the direction in which his mother's brother is supposed to have camped in days of old4 ,after the bones have been thus interred1 the spirit of the dead man is believed to go away and to remain in his old alcheringa home until such time as he once more undergoes reincarnation4#bga ,but in these tribes1 as we saw1 very old men and women receive only one burial1 being at once laid in an earthy grave and never set up on a platform in a tree2 and we have seen reason to think that this difference in the treatment of the aged springs from the indifference or contempt in which their ghosts are held by comparison with the ghosts of the young and vigorous4 ,in the ,warramunga tribe1 who regularly deposit their dead in trees first and in the earth afterwards1 so long as the corpse remains in the tree and the flesh has not completely disappeared from the bones1 the mother of the deceased and the women who stand to him or her in the relation of tribal motherhood are obliged from time to time to go to the tree1 and sitting under the platform to allow its putrid juices to drip down on their bodies1 into which they rub them as a token of sorrow4 ,this1 no doubt1 is intended to please the jealous ghost2 for we are told that he is believed to haunt the tree and even to visit the camp1 in order1 if he was a man1 to see for himself that his widows are mourning properly4 ,the time during which the mouldering remains are left in the tree is at least a year and may be more4#bgb ,the final ceremony which brings the period of mourning to an end is curious and entirely different from the one observed by the ,arunta on the same occasion4 ,when the bones have been taken down from the tree1 an arm-bone is put carefully apart from the rest4 ,then the skull is smashed1 and the fragments together with all the rest of the bones except the arm-bone1 are buried in a hollow ant-hill near the tree4 ,afterwards the arm-bone is wrapt up in paper-bark and wound round with fur-string1 so as to make a torpedo-shaped parcel1 which is kept by a tribal mother of the deceased in her rude hovel of branches1 till1 after the lapse of some days or weeks1 the time comes for the last ceremony of all4 ,on that day a design emblematic of the totem of the deceased is drawn on the ground1 and beside it a shallow trench is dug about a foot deep and fifteen feet long4 ,over this trench a number of men1 elaborately decorated with down of various colours1 stand straddle-legged1 while a line of women1 decorated with red and yellow ochre1 crawl along the trench under the long bridge made by the straddling legs of the men4 ,the last woman carries the arm-bone of the dead in its parcel1 and as soon as she emerges from the trench1 the bone is snatched from her by a kinsman of the deceased1 who carries it to a man standing ready with an uplifted axe beside the totemic drawing4 ,on receiving the bone1 the man at once smashes it1 hastily buries it in a small pit beside the totemic emblem of the departed1 and closes the opening with a large flat stone1 signifying thereby that the season of mourning is over and that the dead man or woman has been gathered to his or her totem4 ,the totemic design1 beside which the arm-bone is buried1 represents the spot at which the totemic ancestor of the deceased finally went down into the earth4 ,when once the arm-bone has thus been broken and laid in its last resting-place1 the soul of the dead person1 which they describe as being of about the size of a grain of sand1 is supposed to go back to the place where it camped long ago in a previous incarnation1 there to remain with the souls of other men and women of the same totem until the time comes for it to be born again4#bgc ,sidenote3 ,general conclusion as to the belief in immortality and the worship of the dead among the ,australian aborigines4 ,this must conclude what ,i have to say as to the belief in immortality and the worship of the dead among the aborigines of ,australia4 ,the evidence ,i have adduced is sufficient to prove that these savages firmly believe both in the existence of the human soul after death and in the power which it can exert for good or evil over the survivors4 ,on the whole the dominant motive in their treatment of the dead appears to be fear rather than affection4 ,yet the attention which many tribes pay to the comfort of the departed by providing them with huts1 food1 water1 fire1 clothing1 implements and weapons1 may not be dictated by purely selfish motives2 in any case they are clearly intended to please and propitiate the ghosts1 and therefore contain the germs of a regular worship of the dead4 ,footnote #baf3 ,e4 ,j4 ,eyre1 ,journals of ,expeditions of ,discovery into ,central ,australia 7,london1 #ahde71 ii4 #cdi4 ,footnote #bag3 ,a4 ,oldfield1 ,the ,aborigines of ,victoria1 ,transactions of the ,ethnological ,society of ,london1 ,n4,s4 iii4 7#ahfe7 p4 #bde4 ,footnote #bah3 ,p4 ,beveridge1 in ,journal and ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society of ,new ,south ,wales1 xvii4 7#ahhc7 pp4 #bi sq4 ,compare ,r4 ,brough ,smyth1 ,aborigines of ,victoria1 i4 #ajj note4 ,footnote #bai3 7,sir7 ,g4 ,grey1 ,journals of ,two ,expeditions of ,discovery1 ii4 #ccb sq4 ,footnote #bbj3 ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda 7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #aji sqq4 ,footnote #bba3 ,e4 ,m4 ,curr1 ,the ,australian ,race 7,melbourne and ,london1 #ahhf-ahhg71 i4 #hg4 ,footnote #bbb3 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 ,native ,tribes of ,south-,east ,australia1 p4 #dfc4 ,footnote #bbc3 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 op4 cit4 p4 #dfa4 ,footnote #bbd3 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 op4 cit4 p4 #dgc4 ,footnote #bbe3 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 op4 cit4 p4 #dgd4 ,footnote #bbf3 ,f4 ,c4 ,urquhart1 ,legends of the ,australian ,aborigines1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xiv4 7#ahhe7 p4 #hh4 ,footnote #bbg3 ,e4 ,m4 ,curr1 ,the ,australian ,race1 i4 #hg4 ,footnote #bbh3 ,leviticus xix4 #bh2 ,deuteronomy xiv4 #a4 ,footnote #bbi3 ,w4 ,stanbridge1 ,tribes in the ,central ,part of ,victoria1 ,transactions of the ,ethnological ,society of ,london1 ,n4,s4 i4 7#ahfa7 p4 #bih4 ,footnote #bcj3 ,r4 ,brough ,smyth1 ,aborigines of ,victoria1 i4 #aje4 ,footnote #bca3 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 ,native ,tribes of ,south-,east ,australia1 p4 #dei4 ,footnote #bcb3 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 op4 cit4 p4 #dec4 ,footnote #bcc3 ,p4 ,beveridge1 in ,journal and ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society of ,new ,south ,wales1 xvii4 7#ahhc7 pp4 #bh1 #bi4 ,footnote #bcd3 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 op4 cit4 p4 #dff4 ,footnote #bce3 ,e4 ,j4 ,eyre1 ,journals of ,expeditions of ,discovery into ,central ,australia 7,london1 #ahde71 ii4 #cdg4 ,footnote #bcf3 ,w4 ,e4 ,roth1 ,studies among the ,north-,west-,central ,queensland ,aborigines 7,brisbane and ,london1 #ahig71 p4 #afd2 compare p4 #afe4 ,footnote #bcg3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 p4 #ejj4 ,footnote #bch3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 op4 cit4 p4 #eaj4 ,footnote #bci3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #eaf-eeb4 ,footnote #bdj3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes1 p4 #eaj4 ,footnote #bda3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes1 p4 #ejg4 ,footnote #bdb3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes1 p4 #eaa4 ,footnote #bdc3 ,f4 ,bonney1 ,on some ,customs of the ,aborigines of the ,river ,darling1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xiii4 7#ahhd7 pp4 #acd sq4 ,footnote #bdd3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #ejg1 #eji sq4 ,footnote #bde3 7,sir7 ,g4 ,grey1 ,journals of ,two ,expeditions of ,discovery1 ii4 #ccb1 quoting ,mr4 ,bussel4 ,footnote #bdf3 ,scholiast on ,pindar1 ,olymp4 i4 #adf4 ,footnote #bdg3 ,homer1 ,odyssey1 xi4 #bc sqq4 ,footnote #bdh3 ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 i4 #ia sq4 ,footnote #bdi3 ,j4 ,dawson1 ,australian ,aborigines1 p4 #fb4 ,footnote #bej3 ,r4 ,brough ,smyth1 ,aborigines of ,victoria1 i4 #ajh4 ,footnote #bea3 ,j4 ,f4 ,mann1 ,notes on the ,aborigines of ,australia1 ,proceedings of the ,geographical ,society of ,australasia1 i4 7,sydney1 #ahhe7 p4 #dh4 ,footnote #beb3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 p4 #ejf4 ,footnote #bec3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes1 p4 #eab4 ,footnote #bed3 ,r4 ,sutherland ,rattray1 ,some ,folk-lore ,stories and ,songs in ,chinyanja 7,london1 #aijg71 pp4 #ii-aja1 #ahb4 ,footnote #bee3 ,f4 ,fawcett1 ,the ,kondayamkottai ,maravars1 a ,dravidian ,tribe of ,tinnevelly1 ,southern ,india1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxiii4 7#aijc7 p4 #fd2 ,captain ,wolsley ,haig1 ,notes on the ,rangari ,caste in ,barar1 ,journal of the ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal1 lxx4 ,part iii4 7#aija7 p4 #h2 ,e4 ,thurston1 ,castes and ,tribes of ,southern ,india 7,madras1 #aiji71 iv4 #bbf 7as to the ,lambadis71 vi4 #bdd 7as to the ,raniyavas72 compare id41 ,ethnographic ,notes in ,southern ,india 7,madras1 #aijf71 p4 #aee4 ,footnote #bef3 ,e4 ,thurston1 ,ethnographic ,notes in ,southern ,india1 p4 #bjg4 ,footnote #beg3 ,l4 ,k4 ,anantha ,krishna ,iyer1 ,the ,cochin ,tribes and ,castes 7,madras1 #aiji-aiab71 ii4 #ia1 #aab1 #aeg1 #cfj1 #cgh4 ,footnote #beh3 ,the ,grihya ,sutras1 translated by ,h4 ,oldenberg1 ,part i4 p4 #cee 7,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 xxix474 ,compare ,w4 ,crooke1 ,popular ,religion and ,folk-lore of ,northern ,india 7,westminster1 #ahif71 i4 #bde4 ,footnote #bei3 ,ch4 ,a4 ,sherring1 ,western ,tibet and the ,british ,borderland 7,london1 #aijf71 pp4 #abc sq4 ,footnote #bfj3 ,p4 ,n4 ,bose1 ,chhattisgar1 ,journal of the ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal1 lix41 ,part i4 7#ahia7 p4 #bij4 ,footnote #bfa3 ,e4 ,thurston1 ,ethnographic ,notes in ,southern ,india1 p4 #bje4 ,footnote #bfb3 ,s4 ,powers1 ,tribes of ,california 7,washington1 #ahgg71 p4 #chc4 ,footnote #bfc3 ,maximilian ,prinz zu ,wied1 ,reise in das ,innere ,nord-,america 7,coblenz1 #ahci-ahda71 ii4 #bce4 ,footnote #bfd3 ,t4 de ,pauly1 ,description ,ethnographique des ,peuples de la ,russie1 ,peuples de l',amerique ,russe 7,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahfb71 p4 #ac4 ,footnote #bfe3 ,e4 ,seler1 ,altmexikanische ,studien1 ii4 7,berlin1 #ahii7 p4 #db 7,veroeffentlichungen aus dem ,koeniglichen ,museum fuer ,voelkerkunde1 vi4 #b_/d74 ,footnote #bff3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 p4 #dig2 id41 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 p4 #ejf4 ,footnote #bfg3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #ejc-ejh4 ,the name of the final mourning ceremony among the ,arunta is urpmilchima4 ,footnote #bfh3 ,the ,golden ,bough1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #aijj71 i4 #dcd sq4 ,footnote #bfi3 ,a4 ,biet1 ,voyage de la ,france ,equinoxiale en l',isle de ,cayenne 7,paris1 #affd71 p4 #cib4 ,footnote #bgj3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #eje sqq4 ,footnote #bga3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #ejf-ejh4 ,footnote #bgb3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 p4 #ecj4 ,footnote #bgc3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #ecj-edc4 ,,lecture ,,viii ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,natives ,,of ,,the ,,torres ,,straits ,,islands ,sidenote3 ,the ,islanders of ,torres ,straits4 ,the ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres ,straits4 ,in the last lecture ,i concluded my account of the belief in immortality and worship of the dead1 or rather of the elements out of which such a worship might have grown1 among the aborigines of ,australia4 ,to-day we pass to the consideration of a different people1 the islanders of ,torres ,straits4 ,as you may know1 ,torres ,straits are the broad channel which divides ,australia on the south from the great island of ,new ,guinea on the north4 ,the small islands which are scattered over the strait fall roughly into two groups1 a ,western and an ,eastern1 of which the eastern is at once the more isolated and the more fertile4 ,in appearance1 character1 and customs the inhabitants of all these islands belong to the ,papuan family1 which inhabits the western half of ,new ,guinea1 but in respect of language there is a marked difference between the natives of the two groups2 for while the speech of the ,western ,islanders is akin to that of the ,australians1 the speech of the ,eastern ,islanders is akin to that of the ,papuans of ,new ,guinea4 ,the conclusion to be drawn from these facts appears to be that the ,western ,islands of ,torres ,straits were formerly inhabited by aborigines of the ,australian family1 and that at a later time they were occupied by immigrants from ,new ,guinea1 who adopted the language of the aboriginal inhabitants1 but gradually extinguished the aboriginal type and character either by peaceful absorption or by conquest and extermination4#bgd ,hence the ,western ,islanders of ,torres ,straits form a transition both geographically and ethnographically between the aborigines of ,australia on the one side and the aborigines of ,new ,guinea on the other side4 ,accordingly in our survey of the belief in immortality among the lower races we may appropriately consider the ,islanders of ,torres ,straits immediately after the aborigines of ,australia and before we pass onward to other and more distant races4 ,these ,islanders have a special claim on the attention of a ,cambridge lecturer1 since almost all the exact knowledge we possess of them we owe to the exertions of ,cambridge anthropologists and especially to ,dr4 ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 who on his first visit to the islands in #ahhh perceived the urgent importance of procuring an accurate record of the old beliefs and customs of the natives before it was too late1 and who never rested till that record was obtained1 as it happily has been1 first by his own unaided researches in the islands1 and afterwards by the united researches of a band of competent enquirers4 ,in the history of anthropology the ,cambridge ,expedition to ,torres ,straits in #ahih will always hold an honourable place1 to the credit of the ,university which promoted it and especially to that of the zealous and devoted investigator who planned1 organised1 and carried it to a successful conclusion4 ,practically all that ,i shall have to tell you as to the beliefs and practices of the ,torres ,straits ,islanders is derived from the accurate and laborious researches of ,dr4 ,haddon and his colleagues4 ,sidenote3 ,social culture of the ,torres ,straits ,islanders4 ,while the natives of ,torres ,straits are1 or were at the time of their discovery1 in the condition which we call savagery1 they stand on a far higher level of social and intellectual culture than the rude aborigines of ,australia4 ,to indicate roughly the degree of advance we need only say that1 whereas the ,australians are nomadic hunters and fishers1 entirely ignorant of agriculture1 and destitute to a great extent not only of houses but even of clothes1 the natives of ,torres ,straits live in settled villages and diligently till the soil1 raising a variety of crops1 such as yams1 sweet potatoes1 bananas1 sugar-cane1 and tobacco4#bge ,of the two groups of islands the eastern is the more fertile and the inhabitants are more addicted to agriculture than are the natives of the western islands1 who1 as a consequence of the greater barrenness of the soil1 have to eke out their subsistence to a considerable extent by fishing4#bgf ,and there is other evidence to shew that the ,eastern ,islanders have attained to a somewhat higher stage of social evolution than their ,western brethren2#bgg the more favourable natural conditions under which they live may possibly have contributed to raise the general level of culture4 ,one of the most marked distinctions in this respect between the inhabitants of the two groups is that1 whereas a regular system of totemism with its characteristic features prevails among the ,western ,islanders1 no such system nor even any very clear evidence of its former existence is to be found among the ,eastern ,islanders1 whether it be that they never had it or1 what is more likely1 that they once had but have lost it4#bgh ,sidenote3 ,belief of the ,torres ,straits ,islanders in the existence of the human spirit after death4 ,on the other hand1 so far as regards our immediate subject1 the belief in immortality and the worship of the dead1 a general resemblance may be traced between the creed and customs of the ,eastern and ,western tribes4 ,both of them1 like the ,australian aborigines1 firmly believe in the existence of the human spirit after death1 but unlike the ,australians they seem to have no idea that the souls of the departed are ever born again into the world2 the doctrine of reincarnation1 so widespread among the natives of ,australia1 appears to have no place in the creed of their near neighbours the ,torres ,straits ,islanders1 whose dead1 like our own1 though they may haunt the living for a time1 are thought to depart at last to a distant spirit-land and to return no more4 ,at the same time neither in the one group nor in the other is there any clear evidence of what may be called a worship of the dead in the strict sense of the word1 unless we except the cults of certain more or less mythical heroes4 ,on this point the testimony of ,dr4 ,haddon is definite as to the ,western ,islanders4 ,he says3 ,in no case have ,i obtained in the ,western ,islands an indication of anything approaching a worship of deceased persons ancestral or otherwise1 with the exception of the heroes shortly to be mentioned2 neither is there any suggestion that their own ancestors have been in any way apotheosized4#bgi ,sidenote3 ,fear of the ghosts of the recently departed4 ,but if these savages have not1 with the possible exception of the cult of certain heroes1 any regular worship of the dead1 they certainly have the germ out of which such a worship might be developed1 and that is a firm belief in ghosts and in the mischief which they may do to the living4 ,the word for a ghost is mari in the ,west and mar in the ,east3 it means also a shadow or reflection1#bhj which seems to shew that these savages1 like many others1 have derived their notion of the human soul from the observation of shadows and reflections cast by the body on the earth or on water4 ,further1 the ,western ,islanders appear to distinguish the ghosts of the recently departed 7mari7 from the spirits of those who have been longer dead1 which they call markai2#bha and if we accept this distinction we may assert1 according to ,dr4 ,haddon1 that the ,torres ,straits ,islanders feared the ghosts but believed in the general friendly disposition of the spirits of the departed4#bhb ,similarly we saw that the ,australian aborigines regard with fear the ghosts of those who have just died1 while they are either indifferent to the spirits of those who have died many years ago or even look upon them as beings of higher powers than their descendants1 whom they can benefit in various ways4 ,this sharp distinction between the spirits of the dead1 according to the date at which they died1 is widespread1 perhaps universal among mankind4 ,however truly the dead were loved in their lifetime1 however bitterly they were mourned at their death1 no sooner have they passed beyond our ken than the thought of their ghosts seems to inspire the generality of mankind with an instinctive fear and horror1 as if the character of even the best friends and nearest relations underwent a radical change for the worse as soon as they had shuffled off the mortal coil4 ,but among savages this belief in the moral deterioration of ghosts is certainly much more marked than among civilised races4 ,ghosts are dreaded both by the ,western and the ,eastern tribes of ,torres ,straits4 ,thus in ,mabuiag1 one of the ,western ,islands1 the corpse was carried out of camp feet foremost1 else it was thought that the ghost would return and trouble the survivors4 ,further1 when the body had been laid upon a stage or platform on clear level ground away from the dwelling1 the remains of any food and water of which the deceased might have been partaking in his last moments were carried out and placed beside the corpse lest the ghost should come back to fetch them for himself1 to the annoyance and terror of his relations4 ,this is the reason actually alleged by the natives for what otherwise might have been interpreted as a delicate mark of affection and thoughtful care for the comfort of the departed4 ,if next morning the food was found scattered1 the people said that the ghost was angry and had thrown it about4#bhc ,further1 on the day of the death the mourners went into the gardens1 slashed at the taro1 knocked down coco-nuts1 pulled up sweet potatoes1 and destroyed bananas4 ,we are told that the food was destroyed for the sake of the dead man1 it was 'like good-bye4'#bhd ,we may suspect that the real motive for the destruction was the same as that for laying food and water beside the corpse1 namely1 a wish to give the ghost no excuse for returning to haunt and pester his surviving relatives4 ,how could he have the heart to return to the desolated garden which in his lifetime it had been his pride and joy to cultivate8 ,sidenote3 ,fear of the ghosts of the recently departed among the ,murray ,islanders4 ,in ,murray ,island1 also1 which belongs to the ,eastern group1 the ghost of a recently deceased person is much dreaded2 it is supposed to haunt the neighbourhood for two or three months1 and the elaborate funeral ceremonies which these savages perform appear to be based on this belief and to be intended1 in fact1 to dismiss the ghost from the land of the living1 where he is a very unwelcome visitor1 to his proper place in the land of the dead4#bhe ,the ,murray ,islanders1 says ,dr4 ,haddon1 perform as many as possible of the necessary ceremonies in order that the ghost of the deceased might not feel slighted1 for otherwise it was sure to bring trouble on the relatives by causing strong winds to destroy their gardens and break down their houses4#bhf ,these islanders still believe that a ghost may feel resentment when his children are neglected or wronged1 or when his lands or goods are appropriated by persons who have no claim to them4 ,and this fear of the wrath of the ghost1 ,dr4 ,haddon tells us1 no doubt in past times acted as a wholesome deterrent on evil-doers and helped to keep the people from crime1 though now-a-days they look rather to the law than to ghosts for the protection of their rights and the avenging of their wrongs4#bhg ,yet here1 as in so many places1 it would seem that superstition has proved a useful crutch on which morality can lean until it is strong enough to walk alone4 ,in the absence of the police the guardianship of law and morality may be provisionally entrusted to ghosts1 who1 if they are too fickle and uncertain in their temper to make ideal constables1 are at least better than nothing4 ,with this exception it does not appear that the moral code of the ,torres ,straits ,islanders derived any support or sanction from their religion4 ,no appeal was made by them to totems1 ancestors1 or heroes2 no punishment was looked for from these quarters for any infringement of the rules and restraints which hold society together4#bhh ,sidenote3 ,the island home of the dead4 ,the land of the dead to which the ghosts finally depart is1 in the opinion of the ,torres ,straits ,islanders1 a mythical island in the far west or rather north-west4 ,the ,western ,islanders name it ,kibu2 the ,eastern ,islanders call it ,boigu4 ,the name ,kibu means sundown4 ,it is natural enough that islanders should place the home of the dead in some far island of the sea to which no canoe of living men has ever sailed1 and it is equally natural that the fabulous island should lie to westward where the sun goes down2 for it seems to be a common thought that the souls of the dead are attracted by the great luminary1 like moths by a candle1 and follow him when he sinks in radiant glory into the sea4 ,to take a single example1 in the ,maram district of ,assam it is forbidden to build houses facing westward1 because that is the direction in which the spirits of the dead go to their long home4#bhi ,but the ,torres ,straits ,islanders have a special reason1 as ,dr4 ,haddon has well pointed out1 for thinking that the home of the dead is away in the north-west2 and the reason is that in these latitudes the trade wind blows steady and strong from the south-east for seven or eight months of the year2 so that for the most part the spirits have only to let themselves go and the wind will sweep them away on its pinions to their place of rest4 ,how could the poor fluttering things beat up to windward in the teeth of the blast8#bij ,sidenote3 ,elaborate funeral ceremonies observed by the ,torres ,straits ,islanders4 ,the funeral ceremonies observed by the ,torres ,straits ,islanders were numerous and elaborate1 and they present some features of special interest4 ,they succeeded each other at intervals1 sometimes of months1 and amongst the ,eastern ,islanders in particular there were so many of them that1 were it not that the bodies of the very young and the very old were treated less ceremoniously1 the living would have been perpetually occupied in celebrating the obsequies of the dead4#bia ,the obsequies differed somewhat from each other in the ,east and the ,west1 but they had two characteristics in common3 first1 the skulls of the dead were commonly preserved apart from the bodies and were consulted as oracles2 and1 second1 the ghosts of the recently deceased were represented in dramatic ceremonies by masked men1 who mimicked the gait and gestures of the departed and were thought by the women and children to be the very ghosts themselves4 ,but in details there were a good many variations between the practice of the ,eastern and the ,western ,islanders4 ,we will begin with the customs of the ,western ,islanders4 ,sidenote3 ,funeral ceremonies observed by the ,western ,islanders4 ,removal and preservation of the skull4 ,skulls used in divination4 ,when a death had taken place1 the corpse was carried out of the house and set on a staging supported by four forked posts and covered by a roof of mats4 ,the office of attending to the body devolved properly on the brothers-in-law 7imi7 of the deceased1 who1 while they were engaged in the duties of the office1 bore the special title of mariget or ghost-hand4 ,it deserves to be noticed that these men were always of a different totem from the deceased2 for if the dead person was a man1 the mariget were his wife's brothers and therefore had the same totem as the dead man's wife1 which1 on account of the law of exogamy1 always differed from the totem of her husband4 ,and if the dead person was a woman1 the mariget were her husband's brothers and therefore had his totem1 which necessarily differed from hers4 ,when they had discharged the preliminary duties to the corpse1 the brothers-in-law went and informed the relations and friends4 ,this they did not in words but by a prescribed pantomime4 ,for example1 if the deceased had had the crocodile for his totem1 they imitated the ungainly gait of crocodiles waddling and resting1 if the deceased had the snake for his totem1 they in like manner mimicked the crawling of a snake4 ,the relations then painted their bodies with white coral mud1 cut their hair1 plastered mud over their heads1 and cut off their ear ornaments or severed the distended lobe of the ear as a sign of mourning4 ,then1 armed with bows and arrows1 they came out to the stage where the corpse was lying and let fly arrows at the men who were in attendance on it1 that is1 at the brothers-in-law of the deceased1 who warded off the shafts as best they could4#bib ,the meaning of this sham attack on the men who were discharging the last offices of respect to the dead comes out clearly in another ceremony which was performed some time afterwards1 as we shall see presently4 ,for five or six days the corpse remained on the platform or bier watched by the brothers-in-law1 who had to prevent certain large lizards from devouring it and to frighten away any prowling ghosts that might be lured to the spot by the stench4 ,after the lapse of several days the relations returned to the body1 mourned1 and beat the roof of the bier1 while they raised a shout to drive off any part of the dead man's spirit that might be lingering about his mouldering remains4 ,the reason for doing so was1 that the time had now arrived for cutting off the head of the corpse1 and they thought that the head would not come off easily if the man's spirit were still in the body2 he might reasonably be expected to hold on tight to it and not to resign1 without a struggle1 so valuable a part of his person4 ,when the poor ghost had thus been chased away with shouts and blows1 the principal brother-in-law came forward and performed the amputation by sawing off the head4 ,having done so1 he usually placed it in a nest of termites or white ants in order that the insects might pick it clean2 but sometimes for the same purpose he deposited it in a creek4 ,when it was thoroughly clean1 the grinning white skull was painted red all over and placed in a decorated basket4 ,then followed the ceremony of formally handing over this relic of the dead to the relations4 ,the brothers-in-law1 who had been in attendance on the body1 painted themselves black all over1 covered their heads with leaves1 and walked in solemn procession1 headed by the chief brother-in-law1 who carried the skull in the basket4 ,meantime the male relatives were awaiting them1 seated on a large mat in the ceremonial ground1 while the women grouped themselves in the background4 ,as the procession of men approached bearing the skull1 the mourners shot arrows over their heads as a sign of anger at them for having decapitated their relation4 ,but this was a mere pretence1 probably intended to soothe and flatter the angry ghost3 the arrows flew over the men without hurting them4#bic ,similarly in ancient ,egypt the man who cut open a corpse for embalmment had no sooner done his office than he fled precipitately1 pursued by the relations with stones and curses1 because he had wounded and mangled the body of their kinsman4#bid ,sometimes the skull was made up to resemble the head of a living man3 an artificial nose of wood and beeswax supplied the place of a nose of flesh2 pearl-shells were inserted in the empty eye-balls2 and any teeth that might be missing were represented by pieces of wood1 while the lower jaw was lashed firmly to the cranium4#bie ,whether thus decorated or not1 the skulls of the dead were preserved and used in divination4 ,whenever a skull was to be thus consulted1 it was first cleaned1 repainted1 and either anointed with certain plants or placed upon them4 ,then the enquirer enjoined the skull to speak the truth1 and placing it on his pillow at night went to sleep4 ,the dream which he dreamed that night was the answer of the skull1 which spoke with a clappering noise like that of teeth chattering together4 ,when people went on voyages1 they used to take a divining skull with them in the stern of the canoe4#bif ,sidenote3 ,great death-dance of the ,western ,islanders4 ,the dead personated by masked actors4 ,the great funeral ceremony1 or rather death-dance1 of the ,western ,islanders took place in the island of ,pulu4 ,when the time came for it1 a few men would meet and make the necessary preparations4 ,the ceremony was always performed on the sacred or ceremonial ground 7kwod71 and the first thing to do was to enclose this ground1 for the sake of privacy1 with a screen of mats hung on a framework of wood and bamboos4 ,when the screen had been erected1 the drums which were to be used by the orchestra were placed in position beside it4 ,then the relations were summoned to attend the performance4 ,the ceremony might be performed for a number of recently deceased people at once1 and it varied in importance and elaboration according to the importance and the number of the deceased whose obsequies were being celebrated4 ,the chief differences were in the number of the performers and the greater or less display of scenic apparatus4 ,the head-dresses or leafy masks worn by the actors in the sacred drama were made secretly in the bush2 no woman or uninitiated man might witness the operation4 ,when all was ready1 and the people were assembled1 the men being stationed in front and the women and children in the background1 the disguised actors appeared on the scene and played the part of the dead1 each one of them mimicking the gait and actions of the particular man or woman whom he personated2 for all the parts were played by men1 no woman might act in these ceremonies4 ,the order in which the various ghosts were to appear on the scene was arranged beforehand2 so that when the actors came forward from behind the screen1 the spectators knew which of the dead they were supposed to have before them4 ,the performers usually danced in pairs1 and vanished behind the screen when their dance was finished4 ,thus one pair would follow another till the play was over4 ,besides the actors who played the serious and solemn part of the dead1 there was usually a clown who skipped about and cut capers1 tumbling down and getting up again1 to make the spectators laugh and so to relieve the strain on their emotions1 which were deeply stirred by this dance of death4 ,the beat of the drums proclaimed that the sacred drama was at an end4 ,then followed a great feast1 at which special portions of food were assigned by the relatives of the deceased to the actors who had personated them4#big ,sidenote3 ,intention of the ceremonies4 ,as to the intention of these curious dramatic performances we have no very definite information4 ,dr4 ,haddon says3 ,the idea evidently was to convey to the mourners the assurance that the ghost was alive and that in the person of the dancer he visited his friends2 the assurance of his life after death comforted the bereaved ones4#bih ,sidenote3 ,funeral ceremonies observed by the ,eastern ,islanders4 ,the soul of the dead carried away by a masked actor4 ,in the ,eastern ,islands of ,torres ,straits the funeral ceremonies seem to have been even more numerous and elaborate4 ,the body was at first laid on the ground on a mat outside the house1 if the weather were fine4 ,there friends wept and wailed over it1 the nearest relations1 such as the wife and mother1 sitting at the head of the corpse4 ,about an hour after the sun had set1 the drummers and singers arrived4 ,all night the drums beat and the people sang1 but just as the dawn was breaking the wild music died away into silence4 ,the wants of the living were now attended to3 the assembled people breakfasted on green coco-nuts2 and then1 about an hour after sunrise1 they withdrew from the body and took up a position a little further off to witness the next act of the drama of death4 ,the drums now struck up again in quicker time to herald the approach of an actor1 who could be heard1 but not seen1 shaking his rattle in the adjoining forest4 ,faster and faster beat the drums1 louder and louder rose the singing1 till the spectators were wound up to a pitch of excitement bordering on frenzy4 ,then at last a strange figure burst from the forest and came skipping and posturing towards the corpse4 ,it was ,terer1 a spirit or mythical being who had come to fetch the soul of the departed and to bear it far away to its place of rest in the island beyond the sea4 ,on his head he wore a wreath of leaves3 a mask made of the mid-ribs of coco-nut leaves or of croton leaves hid his face3 a long feather of the white tern nodded on his brow2 and a mantle of green coco-nut leaves concealed his body from the shoulders to the knees4 ,his arms were painted red3 round his neck he wore a crescent of pearl-shell3 in his left hand he carried a bow and arrows1 and in his mouth a piece of wood1 to which were affixed two rings of green coco-nut leaf4 ,thus attired he skipt forwards1 rattling a bunch of nuts in his right hand1 bending his head now to one side and now to another1 swaying his body backwards and forwards1 but always keeping time to the measured beat of the drums4 ,at last1 after a series of rapid jumps from one foot to the other1 he ended his dance1 and turning round fled away westward along the beach4 ,he had taken the soul of the dead and was carrying it away to the spirit-land4 ,the excitement of the women now rose to the highest pitch4 ,they screamed and jumped from the ground raising their arms in air high above their heads4 ,shrieking and wailing all pursued the retreating figure along the beach1 the mother or widow of the dead man casting herself again and again prostrate on the sand and throwing it in handfuls over her head4 ,among the pursuers was another masked man1 who represented ,aukem1 the mother of ,terer4 ,she1 or rather he1 was dressed in dried banana leaves3 long tufts of grass hung from her head over her face and shoulders2 and in her mouth she carried a lighted bundle of dry coco-nut fibre1 which emitted clouds of smoke4 ,with an unsteady rickety gait the beldame hobbled after her rapidly retreating son1 who turned round from time to time1 skipping and posturing derisively as if to taunt her1 and then hurrying away again westward4 ,thus the two quaint figures retreated further and further1 he in front and she behind1 till they were lost to view4 ,but still the drums continued to beat and the singers to chant their wild song1 when nothing was to be seen but the deserted beach with the sky and the drifting clouds above and the white waves breaking on the strand4 ,meantime the two actors in the sacred drama made their way westward till their progress was arrested by the sea4 ,they plunged into it and swimming westward unloosed their leafy envelopes and let them float away to the spirit-land in the far island beyond the rolling waters4 ,but the men themselves swam back to the beach1 resumed the dress of ordinary mortals1 and quietly mingled with the assembly of mourners4#bii ,sidenote3 ,personation of ghosts by masked men4 ,such was the first act of the drama4 ,the second followed immediately about ten o'clock in the morning4 ,the actors in it were twenty or thirty men disguised as ghosts or spirits of the dead 7zera markai74 ,their bodies were blackened from the neck to the ankles1 but the lower part of their faces and their feet were dyed bright red1 and a red triangle was painted on the front of their bodies4 ,they wore head-dresses of grass with long projecting ribs of coco-nut leaves1 and a long tail of grass behind reaching down to the level of the knees4 ,in their hands they held long ribs of coco-nut leaf4 ,they were preceded by a curious figure called pager1 a man covered from head to foot with dry grass and dead banana leaves1 who sidled along with an unsteady rolling gait in a zigzag course1 keeping his head bowed1 his red-painted hands clasped in front of his face1 and his elbows sticking out from both sides of his body4 ,in spite of his erratic course and curious mode of progression he drew away from the troop of ghosts behind him and came on towards the spectators1 jerking his head from side to side1 his hands shaking1 and wailing as he went4 ,behind him marched the ghosts1 with their hands crossed behind their backs and their faces looking out to sea4 ,when they drew near to the orchestra1 who were singing and drumming away1 they halted and formed in two lines facing the spectators4 ,they now all assumed the familiar attitude of a fencer on guard1 one foot and arm advanced1 the other foot and arm drawn back1 and lunged to right and left as if they were stabbing something with the long ribs of the coco-nut leaves which they held in their hands4 ,this manoeuvre they repeated several times1 the orchestra playing all the time4 ,then they retreated into the forest1 but only to march out again1 form in line1 stand on guard1 and lunge again and again at the invisible foe4 ,this appears to have been the whole of the second act of the drama4 ,no explanation of it is given4 ,we can only conjecture that the band of men1 who seem from their name 7zera markai7 to have represented the ghosts or spirits of the dead1 came to inform the living that the departed brother or sister had joined the majority1 and that any attempt to rescue him or her would be vain4 ,that perhaps was the meaning of the solemn pantomime of the lines of actors standing on guard and lunging again and again towards the spectators4 ,but ,i must acknowledge that this is a mere conjecture of my own4#cjj ,sidenote3 ,blood and hair offered to the dead4 ,be that as it may1 when this act of the drama was over1 the mourners took up the body and with weeping and wailing laid it on a wooden framework resting on four posts at a little distance from the house of the deceased4 ,youths who had lately been initiated1 and girls who had attained to puberty1 now had the lobes of their ears cut4 ,the blood streamed down over their faces and bodies and was allowed to drip on the feet of the corpse as a mark of pity or sorrow4#cja ,the other relatives cut their hair and left the shorn locks in a heap under the body4 ,blood and hair were probably regarded as offerings made to the departed kinsman or kinswoman4 ,we saw that the ,australian aborigines in like manner cut themselves and allow the blood to drip on the corpse2 and they also offer their hair to the dead1 cutting off parts of their beards1 singeing them1 and throwing them on the corpse4#cjb ,having placed the body on the stage and deposited their offerings of hair under it1 the relatives took some large yams1 cut them in pieces1 and laid the pieces beside the body in order to serve as food for the ghost1 who was supposed to eat it at night4#cjc ,this notion seems inconsistent with the belief that the soul of the departed had already been carried off to ,boigu1 the island of the dead2 but consistency in such matters is as little to be looked for among savages as among ourselves4 ,sidenote3 ,mummification of the corpse4 ,when the body had remained a few days on the stage in the open air1 steps were taken to convert it into a mummy4 ,for this purpose it was laid in a small canoe manned by some young people of the same sex as the deceased4 ,they paddled it across the lagoon to the reef and there rubbed off the skin1 extracted the bowels from the abdomen and the brain from the skull1 and having sewed up the hole in the abdomen and thrown the bowels into the sea1 they brought the remains back to land and lashed them to the wooden framework with string1 while they fixed a small stick to the lower jaw to keep it from drooping4 ,the framework with its ghastly burden was fastened vertically to two posts behind the house1 where it was concealed from public view by a screen of coco-nut leaves4 ,holes were pricked with an arrow between the fingers and toes to allow the juices of decomposition to escape1 and a fire was kindled and kept burning under the stage to dry up the body4#cjd ,sidenote3 ,garb of mourners4 ,cuttings for the dead4 ,about ten days after the death a feast of bananas1 yams1 and germinating coco-nuts was partaken of by the relations and friends1 and portions were distributed to the assembled company1 who carried them home in baskets4 ,it was on this occasion that kinsfolk and friends assumed the garb of mourners4 ,their faces and bodies were smeared with a mixture of greyish earth and water3 the ashes of a wood fire were strewn on their heads2 and fringes of sago leaves were fastened on their arms and legs4 ,a widow wore besides a special petticoat made of the inner bark of the fig-tree2 the ends of it were passed between her legs and tucked up before and behind4 ,she had to leave her hair unshorn during the whole period of her widowhood2 and in time it grew into a huge mop of a light yellow colour in consequence of the ashes with which it was smeared4 ,this coating of ashes1 as well as the grey paint on her face and body1 she was expected to renew from time to time4#cje ,it was also on the occasion of this feast1 on or about the tenth day after death1 that young kinsfolk of the deceased had certain patterns cut in their flesh by a sharp shell4 ,the persons so operated on were young adults of both sexes nearly related to the dead man or woman4 ,women generally operated on women and men on men4 ,the patients were held down during the operation1 which was painful1 and they sometimes fainted under it4 ,the patterns were first drawn on the skin in red paint and then cut in with the shell4 ,they varied a good deal in shape4 ,some consisted of arrangements of lines and scrolls2 a favourite one1 which was only carved on women1 represented a centipede4 ,the blood which flowed from the wounds was allowed to drip on the corpse1 thus forming a sacrifice or tribute to the dead4#cjf ,sidenote3 ,the ,dance of ,death4 ,the nocturnal dance4 ,when the body had remained some time1 perhaps four or six months1 on the scaffold1 and the process of mummification was far advanced1 a dance of death was held to celebrate the final departure of the spirit for its long home4 ,several men1 seldom exceeding four in number1 were chosen to act the part of ghosts1 including the ghost of him or her in whose honour the performance was specially held4 ,further1 about a dozen men were selected to form a sort of chorus2 their business was to act as intermediaries between the living and the dead1 summoning up the shades1 serving as their messengers1 and informing the people of their presence4 ,the costume of the ghosts was simple1 consisting of nothing but a head-dress and shoulder-band of leaves4 ,the chorus1 if we may call them so1 wore girdles of leaves round their waists and wreaths of leaves on their heads4 ,when darkness had fallen1 the first act of the drama was played4 ,the chorus stood in line opposite the mummy4 ,beyond them stood or sat the drummers1 and beyond them again the audience was crowded on the beach1 the women standing furthest from the mummy and nearest to the sea4 ,the drummers now struck up1 chanting at the same time to the beat of the drums4 ,this was the overture4 ,then a shrill whistle in the forest announced the approach of a ghost4 ,the subdued excitement among the spectators1 especially among the women1 was intense4 ,meantime the chorus1 holding each other's hands1 advanced sidelong towards the mummy with strange gestures1 the hollow thud of their feet as they stamped on the ground being supposed to be the tread of the ghosts4 ,thus they advanced to the red-painted mummy with its grinning mouth4 ,behind it by this time stood one of the ghosts1 and between him and the chorus a dialogue ensued4 ,whose ghost is there8 called out the chorus2 and a strident voice answered from the darkness1 ,the ghost of so and so is here4 ,at that the chorus retreated in the same order as they had advanced1 and again the hollow thud of their feet sounded in the ears of the excited spectators as the tramp of the dead4 ,on reaching the drummers in their retreat the chorus called out some words of uncertain meaning1 which have been interpreted1 ,spirit of so-and-so1 away at sea1 loved little4 ,at all events1 the name of a dead person was pronounced1 and at the sound the women1 thrilled with excitement1 leaped from the ground1 holding their hands aloft2 then hurled themselves prone on the sand1 throwing it over their heads and wailing4 ,the drums now beat faster and a wild weird chant rose into the air1 then died away and all was silent1 except perhaps for the lapping of the waves on the sand or the muffled thunder of the surf afar off on the barrier reef4 ,thus one ghost after another was summoned from the dusty dead and vanished again into the darkness4 ,when all had come and gone1 the leader of the chorus1 who kept himself invisible behind the screen save for a moment when he was seen by the chorus to glide behind the mummy on its stage1 blew a whistle and informed the spectators in a weird voice that all the ghosts that had been summoned that night would appear before them in broad day light on the morrow4 ,with that the audience dispersed4 ,but the men who had played the parts of the ghosts came forward and sat down with the chorus and the drummers on mats beside the body4 ,there they remained singing to the beat of the drums till the first faint streaks of dawn glimmered in the east4 ,sidenote3 ,the noonday dance4 ,the ghosts represented by masked actors4 ,next morning the men assembled beside the body to inspect the actors who were to personate the ghosts1 in order to make sure that they had learned their parts well and could mimick to the life the figure and gait of the particular dead persons whom they represented4 ,by the time that these preparations were complete1 the morning had worn on to noon4 ,the audience was already assembled on the beach and on the long stretch of sand left by the ebbing tide2 for the hour of the drama was always fixed at low water so as to allow ample space for the spectators to stand at a distance from the players1 lest they should detect the features of the living under the masks of the dead4 ,all being ready1 the drummers marched in and took up their position just above the beach1 facing the audience4 ,the overture having been concluded1 the first ghost was seen to glide from the forest and come dancing towards the beach4 ,if he represented a woman1 his costume was more elaborate than it had been under the shades of evening the night before4 ,his whole body was painted red4 ,a petticoat of leaves encircled his waist3 a mask of leaves1 surmounted by tufts of cassowary and pigeon feathers1 concealed his head2 and in his hands he carried brooms of coco-nut palm leaf4 ,if he personated a man1 he held a bow in one hand and an arrow in the other1 and his costume was the usual dress of a dancer1 with the addition of a head-dress of leaves and feathers and a diamond-shaped ornament of bamboo1 which he held in his teeth and which entirely concealed his features4 ,he approached dancing and mimicking the gestures of the person whom he represented4 ,at the sight the women wailed1 and the widow would cry out1 ,that's my husband1 the mother would cry out1 ,that's my son4 ,then suddenly the drummers would call out1 ,ah6 ,ah6 ,ai6 ,ai6 at which the women would fall to the ground1 while the dancer retreated into the forest4 ,in this way one ghost after the other would make his appearance1 play his part1 and vanish4 ,occasionally two of them would appear and dance together4 ,the women and children1 we are told1 really believed that the actors were the ghosts of their dead kinsfolk4 ,when the first dancer had thus danced before the people1 he advanced with the drummers towards the framework on which the mummy was stretched1 and there he repeated his dance before it4 ,but the people were not allowed to witness this mystery2 they remained wailing on the beach1 for this was the moment at which the ghost of the dead man or woman was supposed to be departing for ever to the land of shades4#cjg ,sidenote3 ,preservation of the mummy4 ,some days afterwards the mummy was affixed to a new framework of bamboo and carried into the hut4 ,in former times the huts were of a beehive shape1 and the framework which supported the mummy was fastened to the central post on which the roof rested4 ,the body thus stood erect within the house4 ,its dried skin had been painted red4 ,the empty orbits of the eyes had been filled with pieces of pearl-shell of the nautilus to imitate eyes1 two round spots of black beeswax standing for the pupils4 ,the ears were decorated with shreds of the sago-palm or with grey seeds4 ,a frontlet of pearl-shell nautilus adorned the head1 and a crescent of pearl-shell the breast4 ,in the darkness of the old-fashioned huts the body looked like a living person4 ,in course of time it became almost completely mummified and as light as if it were made of paper4 ,swinging to and fro with every breath of wind1 it turned its gleaming eyes at each movement of the head4 ,the hut was now surrounded by posts and ropes to prevent the ghost from making his way into it and taking possession of his old body4 ,ghosts were supposed to appear only at night1 and it was imagined that in the dark they would stumble against the posts and entangle themselves in the ropes1 till in despair they desisted from the attempt to penetrate into the hut4 ,in time the mummy mouldered away and fell to pieces4 ,if the deceased was a male1 the head was removed and a wax model of it made and given to the brother1 whether blood or tribal brother1 of the dead man4 ,the head thus prepared or modelled in wax1 with eyes of pearl-shell1 was used in divination4 ,the decaying remains of the body were taken to the beach and placed on a platform supported by four posts4 ,that was their last resting-place4#cjh ,sidenote3 ,general summary4 ,dramas of the dead4 ,to sum up the foregoing evidence1 we may say that if the beliefs and practices of the ,torres ,straits ,islanders which ,i have described do not amount to a worship of the dead1 they contain the elements out of which such a worship might easily have been developed4 ,the preservation of the bodies of the dead1 or at least their skulls1 in the houses1 and the consultation of them as oracles1 prove that the spirits of the dead are supposed to possess knowledge which may be of great use to the living2 and the custom suggests that in other countries the images of the gods may perhaps have been evolved out of the mummies of the dead4 ,further1 the dramatic representation of the ghosts in a series of striking and impressive performances indicates how a sacred and in time a secular drama may elsewhere have grown out of a purely religious celebration concerned with the souls of the departed4 ,in this connexion we are reminded of ,professor ,ridgeway's theory that ancient ,greek tragedy originated in commemorative songs and dances performed at the tomb for the purpose of pleasing and propitiating the ghost of the mighty dead4#cji ,yet the mortuary dramas of the ,torres ,straits ,islanders can hardly be adduced to support that theory by analogy so long as we are ignorant of the precise significance which the natives themselves attached to these remarkable performances4 ,there is no clear evidence that the dramas were acted for the amusement and gratification of the ghost rather than for the edification of the spectators4 ,one important act certainly represented1 and might well be intended to facilitate1 the final departure of the spirit of the deceased to the land of souls4 ,but the means taken to effect that departure might be adopted in the interests of the living quite as much as out of a tender regard for the welfare of the dead1 since the ghost of the recently departed is commonly regarded with fear and aversion1 and his surviving relations resort to many expedients for the purpose of ridding themselves of his unwelcome presence4 ,footnote #bgd3 ,s4 ,h4 ,ray1 in ,reports of the ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 iii4 7,cambridge1 #aijg7 pp4 #eji-eaa2 ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 ,the ,religion of the ,torres ,straits ,islanders1 ,anthropological ,essays presented to ,e4 ,b4 ,tyler 7,oxford1 #aijg71 p4 #age4 ,footnote #bge3 ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 iv4 #ib sqq41 #add sqq41 v4 #cdf1 vi4 #bjg sqq4 ,footnote #bgf3 ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 in ,anthropological ,essays presented to ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor1 p4 #ahf4 ,footnote #bgg3 ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 vi4 #bed sq4 ,footnote #bgh3 ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 vi4 #bed sqq4 ,footnote #bgi3 ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 in ,anthropological ,essays presented to ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor1 p4 #aha4 ,footnote #bhj3 ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 v4 #cee sq41 vi4 #bea2 ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 in ,anthropological ,essays presented to ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor1 p4 #agi4 ,footnote #bha3 ,for authorities see the references in the preceding note4 ,footnote #bhb3 ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 vi4 #bec4 ,footnote #bhc3 ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 v4 #bdh1 #bdi4 ,footnote #bhd3 ,id41 p4 #bej4 ,footnote #bhe3 ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 vi4 #bec2 ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 in ,anthropological ,essays presented to ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor1 p4 #ahj4 ,footnote #bhf3 ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 l4c4 ,footnote #bhg3 ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ahb sq42 ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 vi4 #abg4 ,footnote #bhh3 ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 op4 cit4 p4 #ahc4 ,footnote #bhi3 ,t4 ,c4 ,hodson1 ,the ,naga ,tribes of ,manipur 7,london1 #aiaa71 p4 #dc4 ,footnote #bij3 ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 v4 #cee sq41 vi4 #beb4 ,in the former passage ,dr4 ,haddon seems to identify ,boigu with the island of that name off the south coast of ,new ,guinea2 in the latter he prefers to regard it as mythical4 ,footnote #bia3 ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 vi4 #abg4 ,footnote #bib3 ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 v4 #bdh sq4 ,footnote #bic3 ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 v4 #bej sq4 ,footnote #bid3 ,diodorus ,siculus1 i4 #ia4 ,footnote #bie3 ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 v4 #beh4 ,footnote #bif3 ,id41 p4 #cfb4 ,footnote #big3 ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 v4 #beb-bef4 ,footnote #bih3 ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 v4 #bef4 ,footnote #bii3 ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 vi4 #abi-acc4 ,footnote #cjj3 ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 vi4 #acc sq4 ,footnote #cja3 ,id41 pp4 #ace1 #aed4 ,footnote #cjb3 7,sir7 ,george ,grey1 ,journals of ,two ,expeditions of ,discovery in ,north-,west and ,western ,australia 7,london1 #ahda71 ii4 #cce4 ,footnote #cjc3 ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 vi4 #ace4 ,footnote #cjd3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #acf4 ,footnote #cje3 ,op4 cit4 pp4 #ach1 #aec1 #aeg sq4 ,footnote #cjf3 ,op4 cit4 pp4 #aed sq4 ,footnote #cjg3 ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 vi4 #aci-ada4 ,footnote #cjh3 ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 vi4 #adh sq4 ,as to divination with skulls or waxen models1 see id41 pp4 #bff sqq4 ,footnote #cji3 ,w4 ,ridgeway1 ,the ,origin of ,tragedy1 with special reference to the ,greek ,tragedians 7,cambridge1 #aiaj71 pp4 #bf sqq4 ,,lecture ,,ix ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,natives ,,of ,,british ,,new ,,guinea ,sidenote3 ,the two races of ,new ,guinea1 the ,papuan and the ,melanesian4 ,in my last lecture ,i dealt with the islanders of ,torres ,straits1 and shewed that these savages firmly believe in the existence of the human soul after death1 and that if their beliefs and customs in this respect do not always amount to an actual worship of the departed1 they contain at least the elements out of which such a worship might easily be developed4 ,to-day we pass from the small islands of ,torres ,straits to the vast neighbouring island1 almost continent1 of ,new ,guinea1 the greater part of which is inhabited by a race related by physical type and language to the ,torres ,straits ,islanders1 and exhibiting approximately the same level of social and intellectual culture4 ,new ,guinea1 roughly speaking1 appears to be occupied by two different races1 to which the names of ,papuan and ,melanesian are now given2 and it is to the ,papuan race1 not to the ,melanesian1 that the ,torres ,straits ,islanders are akin4 ,the ,papuans1 a tall1 dark-skinned1 frizzly-haired race1 inhabit apparently the greater part of ,new ,guinea1 including the whole of the western and central portions of the island4 ,the ,melanesians1 a smaller1 lighter-coloured1 frizzly-haired race1 inhabit the long eastern peninsula1 including the southern coast from about ,cape ,possession eastward1#caj and tribes speaking a ,melanesian language are also settled about ,finsch ,harbour and ,huon ,gulf in ,german ,new ,guinea4#caa ,these ,melanesians are most probably immigrants who have settled in ,new ,guinea from the north and east1 where the great chain of islands known as ,melanesia stretches in an immense semicircle from ,new ,ireland on the north to ,new ,caledonia on the south-east4 ,the natives of this chain of islands or series of archipelagoes are the true ,melanesians2 their kinsmen in ,new ,guinea have undergone admixture with the ,papuan aborigines1 and accordingly should rather be called ,papuo-,melanesians than ,melanesians simply4 ,their country appears to be wholly comprised within the limits of ,british and ,german ,new ,guinea2 so far as ,i am aware1 the vast area of ,dutch ,new ,guinea is inhabited solely by tribes of the ,papuan race4 ,in respect of material culture both races stand approximately on the same level3 they live in settled villages1 they practise agriculture1 they engage in commerce1 and they have a fairly developed barbaric art4 ,thus they have made some progress in the direction of civilisation2 certainly they have far outstripped the wandering savages of ,australia1 who subsist entirely on the products of the chase and on the natural fruits of the earth4 ,sidenote3 ,scantiness of our information as to the natives of ,new ,guinea4 ,but although the natives of ,new ,guinea have now been under the rule of ,european powers1 ,britain1 ,germany1 and ,holland1 for many years1 we unfortunately possess little detailed information as to their mental and social condition4 ,it is true that the members of the ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres ,straits visited some parts of the southern coasts of ,british ,new ,guinea1 and several years later1 in #aijd1 ,dr4 ,seligmann was able to devote somewhat more time to the investigation of the same region and has given us the results of his enquiries in a valuable book4 ,but the time at his disposal did not suffice for a thorough investigation of this large region2 and accordingly his information1 eked out though it is by that of ,protestant and ,catholic missionaries1 still leaves us in the dark as to much which we should wish to know4 ,among the natives of ,british ,new ,guinea our information is especially defective in regard to the ,papuans1 who occupy the greater part of the possession1 including the whole of the western region2 for ,dr4 ,seligmann's book1 which is the most detailed and systematic work yet published on the ethnology of ,british ,new ,guinea1 deals almost exclusively with the ,melanesian portion of the population4 ,accordingly ,i shall begin what ,i have to say on this subject with the ,melanesian or rather ,papuo-,melanesian tribes of south-eastern ,new ,guinea4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,motu1 their beliefs and customs concerning the dead4 ,amongst these people the best known are the ,motu1 a tribe of fishermen and potters1 who live in and about ,port ,moresby in the ,central ,district of ,british ,new ,guinea4 ,their language conforms to the ,melanesian type4 ,they are immigrants1 but the country from which they came is unknown4#cab ,in their opinion the spirits of the dead dwell in a happy land where parted friends meet again and never suffer hunger4 ,they fish1 hunt1 and plant1 and are just like living men1 except that they have no noses4 ,when they first arrive in the mansions of the blest1 they are laid out to dry on a sort of gridiron over a slow fire in order to purge away the grossness of the body and make them ethereal and light1 as spirits should be4 ,yet1 oddly enough1 though they have no noses they cannot enter the realms of bliss unless their noses were pierced in their lifetime4 ,for these savages bore holes in their noses and insert ornaments1 or what they regard as such1 in the holes4 ,the operation is performed on children about the age of six years2 and if children die before it has been performed on them1 the parents will bore a hole in the nose of the corpse in order that the spirit of the child may go to the happy land4 ,for if they omitted to do so1 the poor ghost would have to herd with other whole-nosed ghosts in a bad place called ,tageani1 where there is little food to eat and no betelnuts to chew4 ,the spirits of the dead are very powerful and visit bad people with their displeasure4 ,famine and scarcity of fish and game are attributed to the anger of the spirits4 ,but they hearken to prayer and appear to their friends in dreams1 sometimes condescending to give them directions for their guidance in time of trouble4#cac ,sidenote3 ,the ,koita or ,koitapu4 ,side by side with the ,motu live the ,koita or ,koitapu1 who appear to be the aboriginal inhabitants of the country and to belong to the ,papuan stock4 ,their villages lie scattered for a distance of about forty miles along the coast1 from a point about seven miles south-east of ,port ,moresby to a point on ,redscar ,bay to the north-west of that settlement4 ,they live on friendly terms with the ,motu and have intermarried with them for generations4 ,the villages of the two tribes are usually built near to or even in direct continuity with each other4 ,but while the ,motu are mainly fishers and potters1 the ,koita are mainly tillers of the soil1 though they have learned some arts or adopted some customs from their neighbours4 ,they say to the ,motu1 ,yours is the sea1 the canoes1 the nets2 ours the land and the wallaby4 ,give us fish for our flesh1 and pottery for our yams and bananas4 ,the ,motu look down upon the ,koita1 but fear their power of sorcery1 and apply to them for help in sickness and for the weather they happen to require2 for they imagine that the ,koita rule the elements and can make rain or sunshine1 wind or calm by their magic4 ,thus1 as in so many cases1 the members of the immigrant race confess their inability to understand and manage the gods or spirits of the land1 and have recourse in time of need to the magic of the aboriginal inhabitants4 ,while the ,koita belong to the ,papuan stock and speak a ,papuan language1 most of the men understand the ,motu tongue1 which is one of the ,melanesian family4 ,altogether these two tribes1 the ,koita and the ,motu1 may be regarded as typical representatives of the mixed race to which the name of ,papuo-,melanesian is now given4#cad ,sidenote3 ,beliefs of the ,koita concerning the human soul4 ,the ,koita believe that the human spirit or ghost1 which they call sua1 leaves the body at death and goes away to live with other ghosts on a mountain called ,idu4 ,but they think that the spirit can quit the body and return to it during life2 it goes away1 for example1 in dreams1 and if a sleeper should unfortunately waken before his soul has had time to return1 he will probably fall sick4 ,sneezing is a sign that the soul has returned to the body1 and if a man does not sneeze for many weeks together1 his friends look on it as a grave symptom2 his soul1 they imagine1 must be a very long way off4#cae ,moreover1 a man's soul may be enticed from his body and detained by a demon or tabu1 as the ,koita call it4 ,thus1 when a man who has been out in the forest returns home and shakes with fever1 it is assumed that he has fallen down and been robbed of his soul by a demon4 ,in order to recover that priceless possession1 the sufferer and his friends repair to the exact spot in the forest where the supposed robbery was perpetrated4 ,they take with them a long bamboo with some valuable ornaments tied to it1 and two men support it horizontally over a pot which is filled with grass4 ,a light is put to the grass1 and as it crackles and blazes a number of men standing round the pot strike it with stones till it breaks1 whereat they all groan4 ,then the company returns to the village1 and the sick man lies down in his house with the bamboo and its ornaments hung over him4 ,this is supposed to be all that is needed to effect a perfect cure2 for the demon has kindly accepted the soul of the ornaments and released the soul of the sufferer1 who ought to recover accordingly4#caf ,sidenote3 ,beliefs of the ,koita concerning the state of the dead4 ,alleged communications with the dead by means of mediums4 ,however1 at death the soul goes away for good and all2 at least there appears to be no idea that it will ever return to life in the form of an infant1 as the souls of the ,central ,australian aborigines are supposed to do4 ,all ,koita ghosts live together on ,mount ,idu1 and their life is very like the one they led here on earth4 ,there is no distinction between the good and the bad1 the righteous and the wicked1 the strong and the weak1 the young and the old2 they all fare alike in the spirit-land1 with one exception4 ,like the ,motu1 the ,koita are in the habit of boring holes in their noses and inserting ornaments in the holes2 and they think that if any person were so unfortunate as to be buried with his nose whole and entire1 his ghost would have to go about in the other world with a creature like a slow-worm depending from his nostrils on either side4 ,hence1 when anybody dies before the operation of nose-boring has been performed on him or her1 the friends take care to bore a hole in the nose of the corpse in order that the ghost may not appear disfigured among his fellows in dead man's land4 ,there the ghosts dwell in houses1 cultivate gardens1 marry wives1 and amuse themselves just as they did here on earth4 ,they live a long time1 but not for ever2 for they grow weaker and weaker and at last die the second death1 never to revive again1 not even as ghosts4 ,the exact length of time they live in the spirit-land has not been accurately ascertained2 but there seems to be a notion that they survive only so long as their names and their memories survive among the living4 ,when these are utterly forgotten1 the poor ghosts cease to exist4 ,if that is so1 it is obvious that the dead depend for their continued existence upon the recollection of the living2 their names are in a sense their souls1 so that oblivion of the name involves extinction of the soul4#cag ,but though the spirits of the dead go away to live for a time on ,mount ,idu1 they often return to their native villages and haunt the place of their death4 ,on these visits they shew little benevolence or lovingkindness to their descendants4 ,they punish any neglect in the performance of the funeral rites and any infringement of tribal customs1 and the punishment takes the form of sickness or of bad luck in hunting or fishing4 ,this dread of the ghost commonly leads the ,koita to desert a house after a death and to let it fall into decay2 but sometimes the widow1 or in rare cases a brother or sister1 will continue to inhabit the house of the deceased4 ,children who play near dwellings which have been deserted on account of death may fall sick2 and if people who are not members of the family partake of food which has been hung up in such houses1 they also may sicken4 ,it is in dreams that the ghosts usually appear to the survivors2 but occasionally they may be seen or at least felt by people in the waking state4 ,some years ago four ,motuan girls persuaded many natives of ,port ,moresby that they could evoke the spirit of a youth named ,tamasi1 who had died three years before4 ,the mother and other sorrowing relatives of the deceased paid a high price to the principal medium1 a young woman named ,mea1 for an interview with the ghost4 ,the meeting took place in a house by night4 ,the relations and friends squatted on the ground in expectation2 and sure enough the ghost presented himself in the darkness and went round shaking hands most affably with the assembled company4 ,however1 a sceptic who happened to assist at this spiritual sitting1 had the temerity to hold on tight to the proffered hand of the ghost1 while another infidel assisted him to obtain a sight as well as a touch of the vanished hand by striking a light4 ,it then turned out that the supposed apparition was no spirit but the medium ,mea herself4 ,she was brought before a magistrate1 who sentenced her to a short term of imprisonment and relieved her of the property which she had amassed by the exercise of her spiritual talents4#cah ,it is hardly for us1 or at least for some of us1 to cast stones at the efforts of ignorant savages to communicate by means of such intermediaries with their departed friends4 ,similar attempts have been made in our own country within our lifetime1 and ,i believe that they are still being made1 in perfect good faith1 by educated ladies and gentlemen1 who like their black brethren and sisters in the faith are sometimes made the dupes of designing knaves4 ,if ,new ,guinea has its ,meas1 ,europe has its ,eusapias4 ,human credulity and vulgar imposture are much the same all the world over4 ,sidenote3 ,fear of the dead4 ,the fear of the dead is strongly marked in some funeral customs which are observed by the ,roro-speaking tribes who occupy a territory at the mouth of the ,st4 ,joseph river in ,british ,new ,guinea4#cai ,when a death takes place1 the female relations of the deceased lacerate their skulls1 faces1 breasts1 bellies1 arms1 and legs with sharp shells1 till they stream with blood and fall down exhausted4 ,moreover1 a fire is kindled on the grave and kept up almost continually for months for the purpose1 we are told1 of warming the ghost4#cbj ,these attentions might be interpreted as marks of affection rather than of fear2 but in other customs of these people the dread of the ghost is unmistakable4 ,for when the corpse has been placed in the grave a near kinsman strokes it twice with a branch from head to foot in order to drive away the dead man's spirit2 and in ,yule ,island1 when the ghost has thus been brushed away from the body1 he is pursued by two men brandishing sticks and torches from the village to the edge of the forest1 where with a last curse they hurl the sticks and torches after him4#cba ,sidenote3 ,ghost of dead wife feared by widower4 ,among these people the visits of ghosts1 though frequent1 are far from welcome1 for all ghosts are supposed to be mischievous and to take no delight but in injuring the living4 ,hence1 for example1 a widower in mourning goes about everywhere armed with an axe to defend himself against the spirit of his dead wife1 who might play him many an ill turn if she caught him defenceless and off his guard4 ,and he is subject to many curious restrictions and has to lead the life of an outcast from society1 apparently because people fear to come into contact with a man whose steps are dogged by so dangerous a spirit4#cbb ,this account of the terrors of ghosts we owe to a ,catholic missionary4 ,but according to the information collected by ,dr4 ,seligmann among these people the dread inspired by the souls of the dead is not so absolute4 ,he tells us1 indeed1 that ghosts are thought to make people ill by stealing their souls2 that the natives fear to go alone outside the village in the dark lest they should encounter a spectre2 and that if too many quarrels occur among the women1 the spirits of the dead may manifest their displeasure by visiting hunters and fishers with bad luck1 so that it may be necessary to conjure their souls out of the village4 ,on the other hand1 it is said that if the ghosts abandoned a village altogether1 the luck of the villagers would be gone1 and if such a thing is supposed to have happened1 measures are taken to bring back the spirits of the departed to the old home4#cbc ,sidenote3 ,beliefs of the ,mafulu concerning the dead4 ,inland from the ,roro-speaking tribes1 among the mountains at the head of the ,st4 ,joseph ,river1 there is a tribe known to their neighbours as the ,mafulu1 though they call themselves ,mambule4 ,they speak a ,papuan language1 but their physical characteristics are believed to indicate a strain of ,negrito blood4#cbd ,the ,mafulu hold that at death the human spirit leaves the body and becomes a malevolent ghost4 ,accordingly they drive it away with shouts4 ,it is supposed to go away to the tops of the mountains there to become1 according to its age1 either a shimmering light on the ground or a large sort of fungus1 which is found only on the mountains4 ,hence natives who come across such a shimmering light or such a fungus are careful not to tread on it2 much less would they eat the fungus4 ,however1 in spite of their transformation into these things1 the ghosts come down from the mountains and prowl about the villages and gardens seeking what they may devour1 and as their intentions are always evil their visits are dreaded by the people1 who fill up the crevices and openings1 except the doors1 of their houses at night in order to prevent the incursions of these unquiet spirits4 ,when a mission station was founded in their country1 the ,mafulu were amazed that the missionaries should sleep alone in rooms with open doors and windows1 through which the ghosts might enter4#cbe ,sidenote3 ,burial customs of the ,mafulu4 ,common people among the ,mafulu are buried in shallow graves in the village1 and pigs are killed at the funeral for the purpose of appeasing the ghost4 ,mourners wear necklaces of string and smear their faces1 sometimes also their bodies1 with black1 which they renew from time to time4 ,instead of wearing a necklace1 a widow1 widower1 or other near relative may abstain during the period of mourning from eating a favourite food of the deceased4 ,a woman who has lost a child1 especially a first-born or dearly loved child1 will often amputate the first joint of one of her fingers with an adze2 and she may repeat the amputation if she suffers another bereavement4 ,a woman has been seen with three of her fingers mutilated in this fashion4#cbf ,the corpses of chiefs1 their wives1 and other members of their families are not buried in graves but laid in rude coffins1 which are then deposited either on rough platforms in the village or in the fork of a species of fig-tree4 ,this sort of tree1 called by the natives gabi1 is specially used for such burials2 one of them has been seen supporting no less than six coffins1 one above the other4 ,the ,mafulu never cut down these trees1 and in seeking a new site for a village they will often choose a place where one of them is growing4 ,so long as the corpse of a chief is rotting and stinking on the platform or the tree1 the village is deserted by the inhabitants2 only two men1 relatives of the deceased1 remain behind exposed to the stench of the decaying body and the blood of the pigs which were slaughtered at the funeral feast4 ,when decomposition is complete1 the people return to the village4 ,should the coffin fall to the ground through the decay of the platform or the tree on which it rests1 the people throw away all the bones except the skull and the larger bones of the arms and legs2 these they bury in a shallow grave under the platform1 or put in a box on a burial tree1 or hang up in the chief's house4#cbg ,sidenote3 ,use made of the skulls and bones at a great festival4 ,the skulls and leg and arm bones of chiefs1 their wives1 and other members of their families1 which have thus been preserved1 play a prominent part in the great feasts which the inhabitants of a ,mafulu village celebrate at intervals of perhaps fifteen or twenty years4 ,great preparations are made for such a celebration4 ,a series of tall posts1 one for each household1 is erected in the open space which intervenes between the two rows of the village houses4 ,yams and taro are fastened to the upper parts of the posts2 and below them are hung in circles the skulls and arm and leg bones of dead chiefs1 their wives1 and kinsfolk1 which have been preserved in the manner described4 ,any skulls and bones that remain over when all the posts have been thus decorated are placed on a platform1 which has either served for the ordinary exposure of a chief's corpse or has been specially erected for the purpose of the festival4 ,at a given moment of the ceremony the chief of the clan cuts down the props which support the platform1 so that the skulls and bones roll on the ground4 ,these are picked up and afterwards distributed1 along with some of the skulls and bones from the posts1 by the chief of the clan to the more important of the invited guests1 who wear them as ornaments on their arms in a great dance4 ,none but certain of the male guests take part in the dance2 the villagers themselves merely look on4 ,all the dancers are arrayed in full dancing costume1 including heavy head-dresses of feathers1 and they carry drums and spears1 sometimes also clubs or adzes4 ,the dance lasts the whole night4 ,when it is over1 the skulls and bones are hung up again on the tall posts4 ,afterwards the fruits and vegetables which have been collected in large quantities are divided among the guests4 ,on a subsequent morning a large number of pigs are killed1 and certain of the hosts take some of the human bones from the posts and dip them in the blood which flows from the mouths of the slaughtered pigs4 ,with these blood-stained bones they next touch the skulls and all the other bones on the posts1 which include all the skulls and arm and leg bones of all the chiefs and members of their families and other prominent persons who have been buried in the village or in any other village of the community since the last great feast was held4 ,these relics of mortality may afterwards be kept in the chief's house1 or hung on a tree1 or simply thrown away in the forest2 but in no case are they ever again used for purposes of ceremony4 ,the slaughtered pigs are cut up and the portions distributed among the guests1 who carry them away for consumption in their own villages4#cbh ,sidenote3 ,trace of ancestor worship among the ,mafulu4 ,this preservation of the skulls and bones of chiefs and other notables for years1 and the dipping of them in the blood of pigs at a great festival1 must apparently be designed to propitiate or influence in some way the ghosts of the persons to whom the skulls and bones belonged in their lifetime4 ,but ,mr4 ,r4 ,w4 ,williamson1 to whom we are indebted for the description of this interesting ceremony1 was not able to detect any other clear indications of ancestor worship among the people4#cbi ,sidenote3 ,worship of the dead among the natives of the ,aroma district4 ,however1 a real worship of the dead1 or something approaching to it1 is reported to exist among some of the natives of the ,aroma district in ,british ,new ,guinea4 ,each family is said to have a sacred place1 whither they carry offerings for the spirits of dead ancestors1 whom they terribly fear4 ,sickness in the family1 death1 famine1 scarcity of fish1 and so forth1 are all set down to the anger of these dreadful beings1 who must accordingly be propitiated4 ,on certain occasions the help of the spirits is especially invoked and their favour wooed by means of offerings4 ,thus1 when a house is being built and the central post has been erected1 sacrifices of wallaby1 fish1 and bananas are presented to the souls of the dead1 and a prayer is put up that they will be pleased to keep the house always full of food and to prevent it from falling down in stormy weather4 ,again1 when the natives begin to plant their gardens1 they first take a bunch of bananas and sugar-cane and standing in the middle of the garden call over the names of dead members of the family1 adding1 ,there is your food1 your bananas and sugar-cane2 let our food grow well1 and let it be plentiful4 ,if it does not grow well and plentifully1 you all will be full of shame1 and so shall we4 ,again1 before the people set out on a trading expedition1 they present food to the spirits at the central post of the house and pray them to go before the traders and prepare the people1 so that the trade may be good4 ,once more1 when there is sickness in the family1 a pig is killed and its carcase carried to the sacred place1 where the spirits are asked to accept it4 ,sins1 also1 are confessed1 such as that people have gathered bananas or coco-nuts without offering any of them to their dead ancestors4 ,in presenting the pig they say1 ,there is a pig2 accept it1 and remove the sickness4 ,but if prayers and sacrifices are vain1 and the patient dies1 then1 while the relatives all stand round the open grave1 the chief's sister or cousin calls out in a loud voice3 ,you have been angry with us for the bananas or the coco-nuts which we have gathered1 and in your anger you have taken away this child4 ,now let it suffice1 and bury your anger4 ,so saying they lower the body into the grave and shovel in the earth on the top of it4 ,the spirits of the departed1 on quitting their bodies1 paddle in canoes across the lagoon and go away to the mountains1 where they live in perfect bliss1 with no work to do and no trouble to vex them1 chewing betel1 dancing all night and resting all day4#ccj ,sidenote3 ,the ,hood ,peninsula4 ,the town of ,kalo4 ,between the ,aroma ,district in the south-east and ,port ,moresby on the north-west is situated the ,hood ,peninsula in the ,central ,district of ,british ,new ,guinea4 ,it is inhabited by the ,bulaa1 ,babaka1 ,kamali1 and ,kalo tribes1 which all speak dialects of one language4#cca ,the village or town of ,kalo1 built at the base of the peninsula1 close to the mouth of the ,vanigela or ,kemp ,welch ,river1 is said to be the wealthiest village in ,british ,new ,guinea4 ,it includes some magnificent native houses1 all built over the water on piles1 some of which are thirty feet high4 ,the sight of these great houses perched on such lofty and massive props is very impressive4 ,in front of each house is a series of large platforms like gigantic steps4 ,some of the posts and under-surfaces of the houses are carved with figures of crocodiles and so forth4 ,the labour of cutting the huge planks for the flooring of the houses and the platforms must be immense1 and must have been still greater in the old days1 when the natives had only stone tools to work with4 ,many of the planks are cut out of the slab-like buttresses of tall forest trees which grow inland4 ,so hard is the wood that the boards are handed down as heirlooms from father to son1 and the piles on which the houses are built last for generations4 ,the inhabitants of ,kalo possess gardens1 where the rich alluvial soil produces a superabundance of coco-nuts1 bananas1 yams1 sweet potatoes1 and taro4 ,areca palms also flourish and produce the betel nuts1 which are in great demand for chewing with quick-lime and so constitute a source of wealth4 ,commanding the mouth of the ,vanigela ,river1 the people of ,kalo absorb the trade with the interior2 and their material prosperity is said to have rendered them conceited and troublesome4#ccb ,sidenote3 ,beliefs and customs concerning the dead among the natives of the ,hood ,peninsula4 ,seclusion of the widow or widower4 ,the tribes inhabiting the ,hood ,peninsula are reported to have no belief in any good spirit but an unlimited faith in bad spirits1 amongst whom they include the souls of their dead ancestors4 ,at death the ghosts join their forefathers in a subterranean region1 where they have splendid gardens1 houses1 and so forth4 ,yet not content with their life in the underworld1 they are always on the watch to deal out sickness and death to their surviving friends and relations1 who may have the misfortune to incur their displeasure4 ,so the natives are most careful to do nothing that might offend these touchy and dangerous spirits4 ,like many other savages1 they do not believe that anybody dies a natural death2 they think that all the deaths which we should call natural are brought about either by an ancestral ghost 7palagu7 or by a sorcerer or witch 7wara74 ,even when a man dies of snake-bite1 they detect in the discoloration of the body the wounds inflicted upon him by the fell art of the magician4#ccc ,on the approach of death the house of the sick man is filled by anxious relatives and friends1 who sit around watching for the end4 ,when it comes1 there is a tremendous outburst of grief4 ,the men beat their faces with their clenched fists2 the women tear their cheeks with their nails till the blood streams down4 ,they usually bury their dead in graves1 which among the inland tribes are commonly dug near the houses of the deceased4 ,the maritime tribes1 who live in houses built on piles over the water1 sometimes inter the corpse in the forest4 ,but at other times they place it in a canoe1 which they anchor off the village4 ,then1 when the body has dried up1 they lay it on a platform in a tree4 ,finally1 they collect and clean the bones1 tie them in a bundle1 and place them on the roof of the house4 ,when the corpse is buried1 a temporary hut is erected over the grave1 and in it the widow or widower lives in seclusion for two or three months4 ,during her seclusion the widow employs herself in fashioning her widow's weeds1 which consist of a long grass petticoat reaching to the ankles4 ,she wears a large head-dress made of shells2 her head is shaved1 and her body blackened4 ,further1 she wears round her neck the waistband of her deceased husband with his lower jaw-bone attached to it4 ,the costume of a widower is somewhat similar1 though he does not wear a long grass petticoat4 ,instead of it he has a graceful fringe1 which hangs from his waist half way to the knees4 ,on his head he wears an elaborate head-dress made of shells1 and on his arms he has armlets of the same material4 ,his hair is cut off and his whole skin blackened4 ,round his neck is a string1 from which depends his dead wife's petticoat4 ,it is sewn up into small bulk and hangs under his right arm4 ,while the widow or widower is living in seclusion on the grave1 he or she is supplied with food by relations4 ,at sundown on the day of the burial1 a curious ceremony is performed4 ,an old woman or man1 supposed to be gifted with second-sight1 is sent for4 ,seating herself at the foot of the grave she peers into the deepening shadows under the coco-nut palms4 ,at first she remains perfectly still1 while the relations of the deceased watch her with painful anxiety4 ,soon her look becomes more piercing1 and lowering her head1 while she still gazes into the depth of the forest1 she says in low and solemn tones1 ,i see coming hither ,so-and-,so's grandfather 7mentioning the name of the dead person74 ,he says he is glad to welcome his grandson to his abode4 ,i see now his father and his own little son also1 who died in infancy4 ,gradually1 she grows more and more excited1 waving her arms and swaying her body from side to side4 ,now they come1 she cries1 ,i can see all our forefathers in a fast-gathering crowd4 ,they are coming closer and yet closer4 ,make room1 make room for the spirits of our departed ancestors4 ,by this time she has worked herself up into a frenzy4 ,she throws herself on the ground1 beating her head with her clenched fists4 ,foam flies from her lips1 her eyes become fixed1 and she rolls over insensible4 ,but the fit lasts only a short time4 ,she soon comes to herself2 the vision is past1 and the visionary is restored to common life4#ccd ,sidenote3 ,application of the juices of the dead to the persons of the living4 ,some of the inland tribes of this district have a peculiar way of disposing of their dead4 ,a double platform about ten feet high is erected near the village4 ,on the upper platform the corpse is placed1 and immediately below it the widow or widower sleeps on the lower platform1 allowing juices of the decaying body to stream down on her or him4 ,this application of the decomposing juices of a corpse to the persons of the living is not uncommon among savages2 it appears to be a form of communion with the dead1 the survivors thus in a manner identifying themselves with their departed kinsfolk by absorbing a portion of their bodily substance4 ,among the tribes in question a widower marks his affection for his dead wife by never washing himself during the period of mourning2 he would not rid himself of those products of decomposition which link him1 however sadly1 with her whom he has lost4 ,every day1 too1 reeking with these relics of mortality1 he solemnly stalks through the village4#cce ,sidenote3 ,precautions taken by man-slayers against the ghosts of their victims4 ,but there is a distinction between ghosts4 ,if all of them are feared1 some are more dreadful than others1 and amongst the latter may naturally be reckoned the ghosts of slain enemies4 ,accordingly the slayer has to observe special precautions to guard against the angry and vengeful spirit of his victim4 ,amongst these people1 we are told1 a man who has taken life is held to be impure until he has undergone certain ceremonies4 ,as soon as possible after the deed is done1 he cleanses himself and his weapon4 ,then he repairs to his village and seats himself on the logs of sacrificial staging4 ,no one approaches him or takes any notice whatever of him4 ,meantime a house is made ready1 in which he must live by himself for several days1 waited on only by two or three small boys4 ,he may eat nothing but toasted bananas1 and only the central parts of them2 the ends are thrown away4 ,on the third day a small feast is prepared for him by his friends1 who also provide him with some new waistbands4 ,next day1 arrayed in all his finery and wearing the badges which mark him as a homicide1 he sallies forth fully armed and parades the village4 ,next day a hunt takes place1 and from the game captured a kangaroo is selected4 ,it is cut open1 and with its spleen and liver the back of the homicide is rubbed4 ,then he walks solemnly down to the nearest water and standing straddle-legs in it washes himself4 ,all young untried warriors then swim between his legs1 which is supposed to impart his courage and strength to them4 ,next day at early dawn he dashes out of his house fully armed and calls aloud the name of his victim4 ,having satisfied himself that he has thoroughly scared the ghost of the dead man1 he returns to his house4 ,further1 floors are beaten and fires kindled for the sake of driving away the ghost1 lest he should still be lingering in the neighbourhood4 ,a day later the purification of the homicide is complete and he is free to enter his wife's house1 which he might not do before4#ccf ,this account of the purification of a homicide suggests that the purificatory rites1 which have been observed in similar cases by many peoples1 including the ancient ,greeks1 are primarily intended to free the slayer from the dangerous ghost of his victim1 which haunts him and seeks to take his life4 ,such rites in fact appear designed1 not to restore the homicide to a state of moral innocence1 but merely to guard him against a physical danger2 they are protective1 not reformatory1 in character2 they are exorcisms1 not purifications in the sense which we attach to the word4 ,this interpretation of the ceremonies observed by manslayers among many peoples might be supported by a large array of evidence2 but to go into the matter fully would lead me into a long digression4 ,i have collected some of the evidence elsewhere4#ccg ,sidenote3 ,beliefs and customs concerning the dead among the ,massim of south-eastern ,new ,guinea4 ,hiyoyoa1 the land of the dead4 ,mourners bathe and shave their heads4 ,food deposited in the grave4 ,dietary restrictions imposed on mourners4 ,we now pass to that branch of the ,papuo-,melanesian race which occupies the extreme south-eastern part of ,british ,new ,guinea1 and to which ,dr4 ,seligmann gives the name of ,massim4 ,these people have been observed more especially at three places1 namely ,bartle ,bay1 ,wagawaga1 and ,tubetube1 a small island of the ,engineer group lying off the south-eastern extremity of ,new ,guinea4 ,among them the old custom was to bury the dead on the outskirts of the hamlet and sometimes within a few yards of the houses1 and apparently the remains were afterwards as a rule left undisturbed2 there was no general practice of exhuming the bones and depositing them elsewhere4#cch ,at ,wagawaga the name for the spirit or soul of a dead person is arugo1 which also signifies a man's shadow or reflection in a glass or in water2 and though animals and trees are not supposed to have spirits1 their reflections bear the same name arugo4#cci ,the souls of the dead are believed to depart to the land of ,hiyoyoa1 which is under the sea1 near ,maivara1 at the head of ,milne ,bay4 ,the land of the dead1 as usual1 resembles in all respects the land of the living1 except that it is day there when it is night at ,wagawaga1 and the dead speak of the upper world in the language of ,milne ,bay instead of in that of ,wagawaga4 ,a certain being called ,tumudurere receives the ghosts on their arrival and directs them where to make their gardens4 ,the souls of living men and women can journey to the land of the dead and return to earth2 indeed this happens not unfrequently4 ,there is a man at ,wagawaga who has often gone thither and come back2 whenever he wishes to make the journey1 he has nothing to do but to smear himself with a magical stuff and to fall asleep1 after which he soon wakes up in ,hiyoyoa4 ,at first the ghosts whom he met in the other world did not invite him to partake of their food1 because they knew that if he did so he could not return to the land of the living2 but apparently practice has rendered him immune to the usually fatal effects of the food of the dead4#cdj ,though ,hiyoyoa1 at the head of ,milne ,bay1 lies to the west of ,wagawaga1 the dead are buried in a squatting posture with their faces turned to the east1 in order that their souls may depart to the other world4#cda ,immediately after the funeral the relations who have taken part in the burial go down to the sea and bathe1 and so do the widow and children of the deceased because they supported the dying husband and father in his extremity4 ,after bathing in the sea the widow and children shave their heads4#cdb ,both the bathing and the shaving are doubtless forms of ceremonial purification2 in other words1 they are designed to rid the survivors of the taint of death1 or perhaps more definitely to remove the ghost from their persons1 to which he may be supposed to cling like a burr4 ,at ,bartle ,bay the dead are buried on their sides with their heads pointing in the direction from which the totem clan of the deceased is said to have come originally2 and various kinds of food1 of which the dead man had partaken in his last illness1 are deposited1 along with some paltry personal ornaments1 in the grave4 ,apparently the food is intended to serve as provision for the ghost on his journey to the other world4 ,curiously enough1 the widow is forbidden to eat of the same kinds of food of which her husband ate during his last illness1 and the prohibition is strictly observed until after the last of the funeral feasts4#cdc ,the motive of the prohibition is not obvious2 perhaps it may be a fear of attracting the ghost back to earth through the savoury food which he loved in the body4 ,at ,wagawaga1 after the relatives who took part in the burial have bathed in the sea1 they cut down several of the coco-nut trees which belonged to the deceased1 leaving both nuts and trees to rot on the ground4 ,during the first two or three weeks after the funeral these same relatives may not eat boiled food1 but only roast2 they may not drink water1 but only the milk of young coco-nuts made hot1 and although they may eat yams they must abstain from bananas and sugar-cane4#cdd ,a man may not eat coco-nuts grown in his dead father's hamlet1 nor pigs and areca-nuts from it during the whole remainder of his life4#cde ,the reasons for these dietary restrictions are not mentioned1 but no doubt the abstinences are based on a fear of the ghost1 or at all events on a dread of the contagion of death1 to which all who had a share in the burial are especially exposed4 ,sidenote3 ,funeral customs at ,tubetube4 ,the fire on the grave4 ,the happy land4 ,at ,tubetube1 in like manner1 immediately after a funeral a brother of the deceased cuts down two or three of the dead man's coco-nut trees4 ,there1 also1 the children of the deceased may not eat any coco-nuts from their father's trees nor even from any trees grown in his hamlet2 nay1 they may not partake of any garden produce grown in the vicinity of the hamlet2 and similarly they must abstain from the pork of all pigs fattened in their dead father's village4 ,but these prohibitions do not apply to the brothers1 sisters1 and other relatives of the departed4 ,the relations who have assisted at the burial remain at the grave for five or six days1 being fed by the brothers or other near kinsfolk of the deceased4 ,they may not quit the spot even at night1 and if it rains they huddle into a shelter built over the grave4 ,during their vigil at the tomb they may not drink water1 but are allowed a little heated coco-nut milk2 they are supposed to eat only a little yam and other vegetable food4#cdf ,on the day when the body is buried a fire is kindled at the grave and kept burning night and day until the feast of the dead has been held4 ,the reason for having the fire is that the spirit may be able to get warm when it rises from the grave4 ,the natives regard the spirit as being very cold1 even as the body is when the life has departed from it1 and without this external warmth provided by the fire it would be unable to undertake the journey to its final home4 ,the feast for the dead is celebrated when the flesh has decayed1 and in some places the skull is taken from the grave1 washed and placed in the house1 being buried again when the feast is over4 ,at ,tubetube this custom of taking the skull from the grave is not regularly followed1 in some instances it is1 but the feast is always held1 and on the night of the day on which the feast takes place1 the fire1 which has been in some cases kept burning for over a month1 is allowed to burn out1 as the spirit1 being now safe and happy in the spirit-land1 has no further need of it4#cdg ,in this spirit-land eternal youth prevails1 there are no old men nor old women1 but all are in the full vigour of the prime of life1 or are attaining thereto1 and having reached that stage never grow older4 ,old men and old women1 who die as such on ,tubetube1 renew their youth in this happy place1 where there are no more sickness1 no evil spirits1 and no death4 ,marriage1 and giving in marriage1 continue2 if a man dies1 his widow1 though she may have married again1 is at her death re-united to her first husband in the spirit-land1 and the second husband when he arrives has to take one of the women already there who may be without a mate1 unless he marries again before his death1 in which case he would have to wait until his wife joins him4 ,children are born1 and on arriving at maturity do not grow older4 ,houses are built1 canoes are made but they are never launched1 and gardens are planted and yield abundantly4 ,the spirits of their animals1 dogs1 pigs1 etc41 which have died on ,tubetube1 precede and follow them to the spirit-land4 ,fighting and stealing are unknown1 and all are united in a common brotherhood4#cdh ,sidenote3 ,the names of the dead not mentioned4 ,in the south-eastern part of ,new ,guinea the fear of the dead is further manifested by the common custom of avoiding the mention of their names4 ,if their names were those of common objects1 the words are dropped from the language of the district so long as the memory of the departed persists1 and new names are substituted for them4 ,for example1 when a man named ,binama1 which means the hornbill1 died at ,wagawaga1 the name of the bird was changed to ambadina1 which means the plasterer4#cdi ,in this way many words are either permanently lost or revived with modified or new meanings4 ,hence the fear of the dead is here1 as in many other places1 a fertile source of change in language4 ,another indication of the terror inspired by ghosts is the custom of abandoning or destroying the house in which a death has taken place2 and this custom used to be observed in certain cases at ,tubetube and ,wagawaga4#cej ,sidenote3 ,beliefs and customs concerning the dead in the island of ,kiwai4 ,thus far ,i have dealt mainly with the beliefs and practices of the ,papuo-,melanesians in the eastern part of ,british ,new ,guinea4 ,with regard to the pure ,papuan population in the western part of the possession our information is much scantier4 ,however1 we learn that in ,kiwai1 a large island at the mouth of the ,fly ,river1 the dead are buried in the villages and the ghosts are supposed to live in the ground near their decaying bodies1 but to emerge from time to time into the upper air and look about them1 only1 however1 to return to their abode beneath the sod4 ,nothing is buried with the corpse2 but a small platform is made over the grave1 or sticks are planted in the ground along its sides1 and on these are placed sago1 yams1 bananas1 coco-nuts1 and cooked crabs and fish1 all for the spirit of the dead to eat4 ,a fire is also kindled beside the grave and kept up by the friends for nine days in order that the poor ghost may not shiver with cold at night4 ,these practices prove not merely a belief in the survival of the soul after death but a desire to make it comfortable4 ,further1 when the deceased is a man1 his bow and arrows are stuck at the head of the grave2 when the deceased is a woman1 her petticoat is hung upon a stick4 ,no doubt the weapons and the garment are intended for the use of the ghost1 when he or she revisits the upper air4 ,on the ninth day after the burial a feast is prepared1 the drum is beaten1 the conch shell blown1 and the chief mourner declares that no more fires need be lighted and no more food placed on the grave4#cea ,sidenote3 ,adiri1 the land of the dead1 and ,sido1 the first man who went thither4 ,the fear of ghosts4 ,according to the natives of ,kiwai the land of the dead is called ,adiri or ,woibu4 ,the first man to go thither and to open up a road for others to follow him1 was ,sido1 a popular hero about whom the people tell many tales4 ,but whereas in his lifetime ,sido was an admired and beneficent being1 in his ghostly character he became a mischievous elf who played pranks on such as he fell in with4 ,his adventures after death furnish the theme of many stories4 ,however1 it is much to his credit that1 finding the land of the dead a barren region without vegetation of any sort1 he1 by an act of generation1 converted it into a garden1 where bananas1 yams1 taro1 coco-nuts and other fruits and vegetables grew and ripened in a single night4 ,having thus fertilised the lower region1 he announced to ,adiri1 the lord of the subterranean realm1 that he was the precursor of many more men and women who would descend thereafter into the spirit world4 ,his prediction has been amply fulfilled2 for ever since then everybody has gone by the same road to the same place4#ceb ,however1 when a person dies1 his or her spirit may linger for a few days in the neighbourhood of its old home before setting out for the far country4 ,during that time the spirit may occasionally be seen by ordinary people1 and accordingly the natives are careful not to go out in the dark for fear of coming bolt on the ghost2 and they sometimes adopt other precautions against the prowling spectre1 who might otherwise haunt them and carry them off with him to deadland4 ,some classes of ghosts are particularly dreaded on account of their malignity2 such1 for example1 are the spirits of women who have died in childbed1 and of people who have hanged themselves or been devoured by crocodiles4 ,such ghosts loiter for a long time about the places where they died1 and they are very dangerous1 because they are for ever luring other people to die the same death which they died themselves4 ,yet another troop of evil ghosts are the souls of those who were beheaded in battle2 for they kill and devour people1 and at night you may see the blood shining like fire as it gushes from the gaping gashes in their throats4#cec ,sidenote3 ,the path of the ghosts to ,adiri4 ,adiri1 the land of the dead4 ,the road to ,adiri or deadland is fairly well known1 and the people can point to many landmarks on it4 ,for example1 in the island of ,paho there is a tree called dani1 under which the departing spirits sit down and weep4 ,when they have cried their fill and rubbed their poor tear-bedraggled faces with mud1 they make little pellets of clay and throw them at the tree1 and anybody can see for himself the pellets sticking to the branches4 ,it is true that the pellets resemble the nests of insects1 but this resemblance is only fortuitous4 ,near the tree is a rocking stone1 which the ghosts set in motion1 and the sound that they make in so doing is like the muffled roll of a drum4 ,and while the stone rocks to and fro with a hollow murmur1 the ghosts dance1 the men on one side of the stone and the women on the other4 ,again at ,mabudavane1 where the ,mawata people have gardens1 you may sometimes hear1 in the stillness of night1 the same weird murmur1 which indicates the presence of a ghost4 ,then everybody keeps quiet1 the children are hushed to silence1 and all listen intently4 ,the murmur continues for a time and then ends abruptly in a splash1 which tells the listeners that the ghost has leaped over the muddy creek4 ,further on1 the spirits come to ,boigu1 where they swim in the waterhole and often appear to people in their real shape4 ,but after ,boigu the track of the ghosts is lost1 or at least has not been clearly ascertained4 ,the spirit world lies somewhere away in the far west1 but the living are not quite sure of the way to it1 and they are somewhat vague in their accounts of it4 ,there is no difference between the fate of the good and the fate of the bad in the far country2 the dead meet the friends who died before them2 and people who come from the same village probably live together in the same rooms of the long house of the ghosts4 ,however1 some native sceptics even doubt whether there is such a place as ,adiri at all1 and whether death may not be the end of consciousness to the individual4#ced ,sidenote3 ,appearance of the dead to the living in dreams4 ,the dead often appear to the living in dreams1 warning them of danger or furnishing them with useful information with regard to the cultivation of their gardens1 the practice of witchcraft1 and so on4 ,in order to obtain advice from his dead parents a man will sometimes dig up their skulls from the grave and sleep beside them2 and to make sure of receiving their prompt attention he will not infrequently provide himself with a cudgel1 with which he threatens to smash their skulls if they do not answer his questions4 ,some persons possess a special faculty of communicating with the departing spirit of a person who has just died4 ,should they desire to question it they will lurk beside the road which ghosts are known to take2 and in order not to be betrayed by their smell1 which is very perceptible to a ghost1 they will chew the leaf or bark of a certain tree and spit the juice over their bodies4 ,then the ghost cannot detect them1 or rather he takes them to be ghosts like himself1 and accordingly he may in confidence impart to them most valuable information1 such for example as full particulars with regard to the real cause of his death4 ,this priceless intelligence the ghost-seer hastens to communicate to his fellow tribesmen4#cee ,sidenote3 ,offerings to the dead4 ,when a man has just died and been buried1 his surviving relatives lay some of his weapons and ornaments1 together with presents of food1 upon his grave1 no doubt for the use of the ghost2 but some of these things they afterwards remove and bring back to the village1 probably considering1 with justice1 that they will be more useful to the living than to the dead4 ,but offerings to the dead may be presented to them at other places than their tombs4 ,the great power1 says ,dr4 ,landtman1 which the dead represent to the living has given rise to a sort of simple offering to them1 almost the only kind of offering met with among the ,kiwai ,papuans4 ,the natives occasionally lay down presents of food at places to which spirits come1 and utter some request for assistance which the spirits are supposed to hear4#cef ,in such offerings and prayers we may detect the elements of a regular worship of the dead4 ,sidenote3 ,dreams as a source of the belief in immortality4 ,with regard to the source of these beliefs among the ,kiwai people ,dr4 ,landtman observes that undoubtedly dreams have largely contributed in supplying the natives with ideas about ,adiri and life after death4 ,a great number of dreams collected by me among the ,kiwai people tell of wanderings to ,adiri or of meetings with spirits of dead men1 and as dreams are believed to describe the real things which the soul sees while roaming about outside the body1 we understand that they must greatly influence the imagination of the people4#ceg ,that concludes what ,i have to say as to the belief in immortality and the worship of the dead among the natives of ,british ,new ,guinea4 ,in the following lectures ,i shall deal with the same rudimentary aspect of religion as it is reported to exist among the aborigines of the vast regions of ,german and ,dutch ,new ,guinea4 ,footnote #caj3 ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann1 ,the ,melanesians of ,british ,new ,guinea 7,cambridge1 #aiaj71 pp4 #a sq4 ,footnote #caa3 ,see below1 pp4 #bdb1 #bef1 #bfa sq41 #bia4 ,footnote #cab3 ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 ,headhunters1 ,black1 ,white1 and ,brown 7,london1 #aija71 pp4 #bdi sq4 ,as to the ,motu and their ,melanesian or ,polynesian affinities1 see ,rev4 ,w4 ,y4 ,turner1 ,the ,ethnology of the ,motu1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 vii4 7#ahgh7 pp4 #dgj sqq4 ,footnote #cac3 ,rev4 ,j4 ,chalmers1 ,pioneering in ,new ,guinea 7,london1 #ahhg71 pp4 #afh-agj4 ,compare ,rev4 ,w4 ,y4 ,turner1 ,the ,ethnology of the ,motu1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 vii4 7#ahgh7 pp4 #dhd sqq42 ,rev4 ,w4 ,g4 ,lawes1 ,ethnological ,notes on the ,motu1 ,koitapu and ,koiari ,tribes of ,new ,guinea1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 viii4 7#ahgi7 pp4 #cgj sq4 ,footnote #cad3 ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 ,headhunters1 ,black1 ,white1 and ,brown1 pp4 #bdi sq42 ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann1 ,the ,melanesians of ,british ,new ,guinea1 pp4 #af1 #da4 ,as to the ,koita 7or ,koitapu7 and the ,motu1 see further the ,rev4 ,w4 ,y4 ,turner1 ,the ,ethnology of the ,motu1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 vii4 7#ahgh7 pp4 #dgj sqq42 ,rev4 ,w4 ,g4 ,lawes1 ,ethnological ,notes on the ,motu1 ,koitapu and ,koiari ,tribes of ,new ,guinea1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 viii4 7#ahgi7 pp4 #cfi sq4 ,footnote #cae3 ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ahi-aia4 ,footnote #caf3 ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ahe sq4 ,footnote #cag3 ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann1 op4 cit4 p4 #aib4 ,footnote #cah3 ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aij-aib4 ,as to the desertion of the house after death1 see id41 pp4 #hi sq4 ,footnote #cai3 ,the territory of the ,roro-speaking tribes extends from ,kevori1 east of ,waimatuma 7,cape ,possession71 to ,hiziu in the neighbourhood of ,galley ,reach4 ,inland of these tribes lies a region called by them ,mekeo1 which is inhabited by two closely related tribes1 the ,biofa and ,vee4 ,off the coast lies ,yule ,island1 which is commonly called ,roro4 ,see ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann1 op4 cit4 p4 #aie4 ,footnote #cbj3 ,v4 ,jouet1 ,la ,societe des ,missionaires du ,sacre ,coeur dans les ,vicariats ,apostoliques de la ,melanesie et de la ,micronesie 7,issoudun1 #ahhg71 p4 #cj2 ,father ,guis1 ,les ,canaques3 ,mort-deuil1 ,missions ,catholiques1 xxxiv4 7#aijb7 pp4 #ahf1 #bjj4 ,footnote #cba3 ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bgd sq4 ,footnote #cbb3 ,father ,guis1 ,les ,canaques3 ,mort-deuil1 ,missions ,catholiques1 xxxiv4 7#aijb7 pp4 #bjh sq4 ,see ,psyche's ,task1 pp4 #ge sq4 ,footnote #cbc3 ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann1 op4 cit4 p4 #caj4 ,footnote #cbd3 ,r4 ,w4 ,williamson1 ,the ,mafulu ,mountain ,people of ,british ,new ,guinea 7,london1 #aiab71 pp4 #b sq41 #big sqq4 ,footnote #cbe3 ,r4 ,w4 ,williamson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bdc sq41 #bdf1 #bff-bfi4 ,footnote #cbf3 ,r4 ,w4 ,williamson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bde-bej4 ,footnote #cbg3 ,r4 ,w4 ,williamson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bef-beh1 #bfa-bfc4 ,footnote #cbh3 ,r4 ,w4 ,williamson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #abe-aeb4 ,footnote #cbi3 ,r4 ,w4 ,williamson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bgj sq4 ,footnote #ccj3 ,j4 ,chalmers and ,w4 ,wyatt ,gill1 ,work and ,adventure in ,new ,guinea 7,london1 #ahhe71 pp4 #hd-hf4 ,footnote #cca3 ,r4 ,e4 ,guise1 ,on the ,tribes inhabiting the ,mouth of the ,wanigela ,river1 ,new ,guinea1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxviii4 7#ahii7 p4 #bje4 ,footnote #ccb3 ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 ,headhunters1 ,black1 ,white1 and ,brown1 p4 #bac4 ,footnote #ccc3 ,r4 ,e4 ,guise1 op4 cit4 pp4 #baf sq4 ,footnote #ccd3 ,r4 ,e4 ,guise1 op4 cit4 pp4 #baj sq4 ,footnote #cce3 ,r4 ,e4 ,guise1 op4 cit4 p4 #baa4 ,footnote #ccf3 ,r4 ,e4 ,guise1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bac sq4 ,footnote #ccg3 ,psyche's ,task1 pp4 #eb sqq42 ,taboo and the ,perils of the ,soul1 pp4 #afg sqq4 ,footnote #cch3 ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann1 ,the ,melanesians of ,british ,new ,guinea1 p4 #fjg4 ,footnote #cci3 ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann1 op4 cit4 p4 #fee4 ,footnote #cdj3 ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fee sq4 ,footnote #cda3 ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann1 op4 cit4 p4 #faj4 ,footnote #cdb3 ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann1 op4 cit4 p4 #faa4 ,footnote #cdc3 ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann1 op4 cit4 pp4 #faf sq4 ,footnote #cdd3 ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann4 op4 cit4 p4 #faa4 ,footnote #cde3 ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fah sq4 ,footnote #cdf3 ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fac sq4 ,footnote #cdg3 ,the ,rev4 ,j4 ,t4 ,field of ,tubetube 7,slade ,island71 quoted by ,george ,brown1 ,d4,d41 ,melanesians and ,polynesians 7,london1 #aiaj71 pp4 #ddb sq4 ,footnote #cdh3 ,rev4 ,j4 ,t4 ,field1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ddc sq4 ,footnote #cdi3 ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fbi-fca4 ,dr4 ,seligmann seems to think that the custom is at present dictated by courtesy and a reluctance to grieve the relatives of the deceased2 but the original motive can hardly have been any other than a fear of the ghost4 ,footnote #cej3 ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fca sq4 ,footnote #cea3 ,rev4 ,j4 ,chalmers1 ,notes on the ,natives of ,kiwai ,island1 ,fly ,river1 ,british ,new ,guinea1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxiii4 7#aijc7 pp4 #aai1 #abj4 ,footnote #ceb3 ,g4 ,landtman1 ,wanderings of the ,dead in the ,folk-lore of the ,kiwai-speaking ,papuans1 ,festskrift tillaegnad ,edvard ,westermarck 7,helsingfors1 #aiab71 pp4 #ei-ff4 ,footnote #cec3 ,g4 ,landtman1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fg sq4 ,footnote #ced3 ,g4 ,landtman1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fh-ga4 ,footnote #cee3 ,g4 ,landtman1 op4 cit4 pp4 #gg sq4 ,footnote #cef3 ,g4 ,landtman1 op4 cit4 pp4 #gh sq4 ,footnote #ceg3 ,g4 ,landtman1 op4 cit4 p4 #ga4 ,,lecture ,x ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,natives ,,of ,,german ,,new ,,guinea ,sidenote3 ,andrew ,lang4 ,i feel that ,i cannot begin my second course of lectures without referring to the loss which the study of primitive religion has lately sustained by the death of one of my predecessors in this chair1 one who was a familiar and an honoured figure in this place1 ,mr4 ,andrew ,lang4 ,whatever may be the judgment of posterity on his theories--and all our theories on these subjects are as yet more or less tentative and provisional--there can be no question but that by the charm of his writings1 the wide range of his knowledge1 the freshness and vigour of his mind1 and the contagious enthusiasm which he brought to bear on whatever he touched1 he was a great power in promoting the study of primitive man not in this country only1 but wherever the ,english language is spoken1 and that he won for himself a permanent place in the history of the science to which he devoted so much of his remarkable gifts and abilities4 ,as he spent a part of every winter in ,st4 ,andrews1 ,i had thought that in the course on which ,i enter to-day ,i might perhaps be honoured by his presence at some of my lectures4 ,but it was not to be4 ,yet a fancy strikes me to which ,i will venture to give utterance4 ,you may condemn1 but ,i am sure you will not smile at it4 ,it has been said of ,macaulay that if his spirit ever revisited the earth1 it might be expected to haunt the flagged walk beside the chapel in the great court of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 the walk which in his lifetime he loved to pace book in hand4 ,and if ,andrew ,lang's spirit could be seen flitting pensively anywhere1 would it not be just here1 in the college of the scarlet gown1 in the little city worn and grey1 looking out on the cold ,north ,sea1 the city which he knew and loved so well8 ,be that as it may1 his memory will always be associated with ,st4 ,andrews2 and if the students who shall in future go forth from this ancient university to carry ,st4 ,andrew's ,cross1 if ,i may say so1 on their banner in the eternal warfare with falsehood and error1--if they cannot imitate ,andrew ,lang in the versatility of his genius1 in the variety of his accomplishments1 in the manifold graces of his literary art1 it is to be hoped that they will strive to imitate him in qualities which are more within the reach of us all1 in his passionate devotion to knowledge1 in his ardent and unflagging pursuit of truth4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sidenote3 ,review of preceding lectures4 ,in my last course of lectures ,i explained that ,i proposed to treat of the belief in immortality from a purely historical point of view4 ,my intention is not to discuss the truth of the belief or to criticise the grounds on which it has been maintained4 ,to do so would be to trench on the province of the theologian and the philosopher4 ,i limit myself to the far humbler task of describing1 first1 the belief as it has been held by some savage races1 and1 second1 some of the practical consequences which these primitive peoples have deduced from it for the conduct of life1 whether these consequences take the shape of religious rites or moral precepts4 ,now in such a survey of savage creed and practice it is convenient to begin with the lowest races of men about whom we have accurate information and to pass from them gradually to higher and higher races1 because we thus start with the simplest forms of religion and advance by regular gradations to more complex forms1 and we may hope in this way to render the course of religious evolution more intelligible than if we were to start from the most highly developed religions and to work our way down from them to the most embryonic4 ,in pursuance of this plan ,i commenced my survey with the aborigines of ,australia1 because among the races of man about whom we are well informed these savages are commonly and1 ,i believe1 justly supposed to stand at the foot of the human scale4 ,having given you some account of their beliefs and practices concerning the dead ,i attempted to do the same for the islanders of ,torres ,straits and next for the natives of ,british ,new ,guinea4 ,there ,i broke off1 and to-day ,i shall resume the thread of my discourse at the broken end by describing the beliefs and practices concerning the dead1 as these beliefs are entertained and these practices observed by the natives of ,german ,new ,guinea4 ,sidenote3 ,german ,new ,guinea4 ,as you are aware1 the ,german territory of ,new ,guinea skirts the ,british territory on the north throughout its entire length and comprises roughly a quarter of the whole island1 the ,british and ,german possessions making up together the eastern half of ,new ,guinea1 while the western half belongs to ,holland4 ,sidenote3 ,information as to the natives of ,german ,new ,guinea4 ,our information as to the natives of ,german ,new ,guinea is very fragmentary1 and is confined almost entirely to the tribes of the coast4 ,as to the inhabitants of the interior we know as yet very little4 ,however1 ,german missionaries and others have described more or less fully the customs and beliefs of the natives at various points of this long coast1 and ,i shall extract from their descriptions some notices of that particular aspect of the native religion with which in these lectures we are specially concerned4 ,the points on the coast as to which a certain amount of ethnographical information is forthcoming are1 to take them in the order from west to east1 ,berlin ,harbour1 ,potsdam ,harbour1 ,astrolabe ,bay1 the ,maclay ,coast1 ,cape ,king ,william1 ,finsch ,harbour1 and the ,tami ,islands in ,huon ,gulf4 ,i propose to say something as to the natives at each of these points1 beginning with ,berlin ,harbour1 the most westerly of them4 ,sidenote3 ,the island of ,tumleo4 ,berlin ,harbour is formed by a group of four small islands1 which here lie off the coast4 ,one of the islands bears the name of ,tumleo or ,tamara1 and we possess an excellent account of the natives of this island from the pen of a ,catholic missionary1 ,father ,mathias ,josef ,erdweg1#ceh which ,i shall draw upon in what follows4 ,we have also a paper by a ,german ethnologist1 the late ,mr4 ,r4 ,parkinson1 on the same subject1#cei but his information is in part derived from ,father ,erdweg and he appears to have erred by applying too generally the statements which ,father ,erdweg strictly limited to the inhabitants of ,tumleo4#cfj ,sidenote3 ,the natives of ,tumleo1 their material and artistic culture4 ,the island of ,tumleo lies in #adb deg4 #be of ,east ,longitude and #c deg4 #ae of ,south ,latitude1 and is distant about sixty sea-miles from the westernmost point of ,german ,new ,guinea4 ,it is a coral island1 surrounded by a barrier reef and rising for the most part only a few feet above the sea4#cfa ,in stature the natives fall below the average ,european height2 but they are well fed and strongly built4 ,their colour varies from black to light brown4 ,their hair is very frizzly4 ,women and children wear it cut short2 men wear it done up into wigs4 ,they number less than three hundred1 divided into four villages4 ,the population seems to have declined through wars1 disease1 and infanticide4#cfb ,like the ,papuans generally1 they live in settled villages and engage in fishing1 agriculture1 and commerce4 ,the houses are solidly built of wood and are raised above the ground upon piles1 which consist of a hard and durable timber1 sometimes iron-wood4#cfc ,the staple food of the people is sago1 which they obtain from the sago-palm4 ,these stately palms1 with their fan-like foliage1 are rare on the coral island of ,tumleo1 but grow abundantly in the swampy lowlands of the neighbouring mainland4 ,accordingly in the months of ,may and ,june1 when the sea is calm1 the natives cross over to the mainland in their canoes and obtain a supply of sago in exchange for the products of their island4 ,the sago is eaten in the form both of porridge and of bread4#cfd ,other vegetable foods are furnished by sweet potatoes1 taro1 yams1 bananas1 sugar-cane1 and coco-nuts1 all of which the natives cultivate4#cfe ,fishing is a principal industry of the people2 it is plied by both sexes and by old and young1 with nets1 spears1 and bows and arrows4#cff ,pottery is another flourishing industry4 ,as among many other savages1 it is practised only by women1 but the men take the pots to market2 for these islanders do a good business in pots with the neighbouring tribes4#cfg ,they build large outrigger canoes1 which sail well before the wind1 but can hardly beat up against it1 being heavy to row4 ,in these canoes the natives of ,tumleo make long voyages along the coast2 but as the craft are not very seaworthy they never stand out to sea1 if they can help it1 but hug the shore in order to run for safety to the beach in stormy weather4#cfh ,in regard to art the natives display some taste and skill in wood-carving4 ,for example1 the projecting house-beams are sometimes carved in the shape of crocodiles1 birds1 and grotesque human figures2 and their canoes1 paddles1 head-rests1 drums1 drum-sticks1 and vessels are also decorated with carving4 ,birds1 fish1 crocodiles1 foliage1 and scroll-work are the usual patterns4#cfi ,sidenote3 ,the temples 7paraks7 of ,tumleo4 ,a remarkable feature in the villages of ,tumleo and the neighbouring islands and mainland consists of the paraks or temples1 the high gables of which may be seen rising above the bushes in all the villages of this part of the coast4 ,no such buildings exist elsewhere in this region4 ,they are set apart for the worship of certain guardian spirits1 and on them the native lavishes all the resources of his elementary arts of sculpture and painting4 ,they are built of wood in two storeys and raised on piles besides4 ,the approach to one of them is always by one or two ladders provided on both sides with hand-rails or banisters4 ,these banisters are elaborately decorated with carving1 which is always of the same pattern4 ,one banister is invariably carved in the shape of a crocodile holding a grotesque human figure in its jaws1 while on the other hand the animal's tail is grasped by one or more human figures4 ,the other banister regularly exhibits a row of human or rather ape-like effigies seated one behind the other1 each of them resting his arms on the shoulders of the figure in front4 ,often there are seven such figures in a row4 ,the natives are so shy in speaking of these temples that it is difficult to ascertain the meaning of the curious carvings by which they are adorned4 ,mr4 ,parkinson supposed that they represent spirits1 not apes4 ,he tells us that there are no apes in ,new ,guinea4 ,the interior of the temple 7parak7 is generally empty4 ,the only things to be seen in its two rooms1 the upper and lower1 are bamboo flutes and drums made out of the hollow trunks of trees4 ,on these instruments men concealed in the temple discourse music in order to signify the presence of the spirit4#cgj ,sidenote3 ,the bachelors' houses 7alols7 of ,tumleo4 ,different from these paraks or temples are the alols1 which are bachelors' houses and council-houses in one4 ,like the temples1 they are raised above the ground and approached by a ladder1 but unlike the temples they have only one storey4 ,in them the unmarried men live and the married men meet to take counsel and to speak of things which may not be mentioned before women4 ,on a small stand or table in each of these alols or men's clubhouses are kept the skulls of dead men4 ,and as the temple 7parak7 is devoted to the worship of spirits1 so the men's clubhouse 7alol7 is the place where the dead ancestors are worshipped4 ,women and children may not enter it1 but it is not regarded with such superstitious fear as the temple4 ,the dead are buried in their houses or beside them4 ,afterwards the bones are dug up and the skulls of grown men are deposited1 along with one of the leg bones1 on the stand or table in the men's clubhouse 7alol74 ,the skulls of youths1 women1 and children are kept in the houses where they died4 ,when the table in the clubhouse is quite full of grinning trophies of mortality1 the old skulls are removed to make room for the new ones and are thrown away in a sort of charnel-house1 where the other bones are deposited after they have been dug up from the graves4 ,such a charnel-house is called a tjoll paru4 ,there is one such place for the bones of grown men and another for the bones of women and children4 ,some bones1 however1 are kept and used as ornaments or as means to work magic with4 ,for the dead are often invoked1 for example1 to lay the wind or for other useful purposes2 and at such invocations the bones play a part4#cga ,sidenote3 ,spirits of the dead thought to be the causes of sickness and disease4 ,but while the spirits of the dead are thus invited to help their living relations and friends1 they are also feared as the causes of sickness and disease4 ,any serious ailment is usually attributed to magic or witchcraft1 and the treatment which is resorted to aims rather at breaking the spell which has been cast on the sick man than at curing his malady by the application of physical remedies4 ,in short the remedy is exorcism rather than physic4 ,now the enchantment under which the patient is supposed to be labouring is often1 though not always1 ascribed to the malignant arts of the spirits of the dead1 or the mos1 as the natives of ,tumleo call them4 ,in such a case the ghosts are thought to be clinging to the body of the sufferer1 and the object of the medical treatment is to detach them from him and send them far away4 ,with this kindly intention some men will go into the forest and collect a number of herbs1 including a kind of peppermint4 ,these are tied into one or more bundles according to the number of the patients and then taken to the men's clubhouse 7alol71 where they are heated over a fire4 ,then the patient is brought1 and two men strike him lightly with the packet of herbs on his body and legs1 while they utter an incantation1 inviting the ancestral spirits who are plaguing him to leave his body and go away1 in order that he may be made whole4 ,one such incantation1 freely translated1 runs thus3 ,spirit of the great-grandfather1 of the father1 come out6 ,we give thee coco-nuts1 sago-porridge1 fish4 ,go away 7from the sick man74 ,let him be well4 ,do no harm here and there4 ,tell the people of ,leming 7,o spirit7 to give us tobacco4 ,when the waves are still1 we push off from the land1 sailing northward 7to ,tumleo74 ,it is the time of the north-west wind 7when the surf is heavy74 ,may the billows calm down in the south1 ,o in the south1 on the coast of ,leming1 that we may sail to the south1 to ,leming6 ,out there may the sea be calm1 that we may push off from the land for home6 ,in this incantation a prayer to the spirit of the dead to relax his hold on the sufferer appears to be curiously combined with a prayer or spell to calm the sea when the people sail across to the coast of ,leming to fetch a cargo of tobacco4 ,when the incantation has been recited and the patient stroked with the bundle of herbs1 one of his ears and both his arm-pits are moistened with a blood-red spittle produced by the chewing of betel-nut1 pepper1 and lime4 ,then they take hold of his fingers and make each of them crack1 one after the other1 while they recite some of the words of the preceding incantation4 ,next three men take each of them a branch of the volju tree1 bend it into a bow1 and stroke the sick man from head to foot1 while they recite another incantation1 in which they command the spirit to let the sick man alone and to go away into the water or the mud4 ,often when a man is seriously ill he will remove from his own house to the house of a relation or friend1 hoping that the spirit who has been tormenting him will not be able to discover him at his new address4#cgb ,sidenote3 ,burial and mourning customs in ,tumleo4 ,if despite of all these precautions the patient should die1 he or she is placed in a wooden coffin and buried with little delay in a grave1 which is dug either in the house or close beside it4 ,the body is smeared all over with clay and decked with many rings or ornaments1 most of which1 however1 are removed in a spirit of economy before the lid of the coffin is shut down4 ,sometimes arrows1 sometimes a rudder1 sometimes the bones of dead relations are buried with the corpse in the grave4 ,when the grave is dug outside of the house1 a small hut is erected over it1 and a fire is kept burning on it for a time4 ,in the house of mourning the wife1 sister1 or other female relative of the deceased must remain strictly secluded for a period which varies from a few weeks to three months4 ,in token of mourning the widow's body is smeared with clay1 and from time to time she is heard to chant a dirge in a whining1 melancholy tone4 ,this seclusion lasts so long as the ghost is supposed to be still on his way to the other world4 ,when he has reached his destination1 the fire is suffered to die down on the grave1 and his widow or other female relative is free to quit the house and resume her ordinary occupations4 ,through her long seclusion in the shade her swarthy complexion assumes a lighter tint1 but it soon deepens again when she is exposed once more to the strong tropical sunshine4#cgc ,sidenote3 ,beliefs of the ,tumleo people as to the fate of the human soul after death4 ,the people of ,tumleo firmly believe in the existence of the human soul after death1 though their notions of the disembodied soul or mos1 as they call it1 are vague4 ,they think that on its departure from the body the soul goes to a place deep under ground1 where there is a great water4 ,over that water every soul must pass on a ladder to reach the abode of bliss4 ,the ladder is in the keeping of a spirit called ,su asin tjakin or the ,great ,evil1 who takes toll of the ghosts before he lets them use his ladder4 ,hence an ear-ring and a bracelet are deposited with every corpse in the grave in order that the dead man may have wherewithal to pay the toll to the spirit at the great water4 ,when the ghost arrives at the place of passage and begs for the use of the ladder1 the spirit asks him1 ,shall ,i get my bracelet if ,i let you pass8 ,if he receives it and happens to be in a good humour1 he will let the ghost scramble across the ladder to the further shore4 ,but woe to the stingy ghost1 who should try to sneak across the ladder without paying toll4 ,the ghostly tollkeeper detects the fraud in an instant and roars out1 ,so you would cheat me of my dues8 ,you shall pay for that4 ,so saying he tips the ladder up1 and down falls the ghost plump into the deep water and is drowned4 ,but the honest ghost1 who has paid his way like a man and arrived on the further shore1 is met by two other ghosts who ferry him in a canoe across to ,sisano1 which is a place on the mainland a good many miles to the north of ,tumleo4 ,a great river flows there and in the river are three cities of the dead1 in one of which the newly arrived ghost takes up his abode4 ,then it is that the fire on his grave is allowed to go out and his widow may mingle with her fellows again4 ,however1 the ghosts are not strictly confined to the spirit-land4 ,they can come back to earth and roam about working good or evil for the living and especially for their friends and relations4#cgd ,sidenote3 ,monuments to the dead in ,tumleo4 ,disinterment of the bones4 ,it is perhaps this belief not only in the existence but in the return of the spirits of the dead which induces the survivors to erect monuments or memorials to them4 ,in ,tumleo these monuments consist for the most part of young trees1 which are cut down1 stripped of their leaves1 and set up in the ground beside the house of the deceased4 ,the branches of such a memorial tree are hung with fruits1 coco-nuts1 loin-cloths1 pots1 and personal ornaments1 all of which we may suppose are intended for the comfort and convenience of the ghost when he returns from deadland to pay his friends a visit4#cge ,but the remains of the dead are not allowed to rest quietly in the grave for ever4 ,after two or three years they are dug up with much ceremony at the point of noon1 when the sun is high overhead4 ,the skull of the deceased1 if he was a man1 is then deposited1 as we saw1 with one of the thigh bones in the men's clubhouse1 while of the remaining bones some are kept by the relations and the others thrown away in a charnel-house4 ,among the relics which the relations preserve are the lower arm bones1 the shoulder-blades1 the ribs1 and the vertebra4 ,the vertebra is often fastened to a bracelet2 a couple of ribs are converted into a necklace2 and the shoulder-blades are used to decorate baskets4 ,the lower arm bones are generally strung on a cord1 which is worn on solemn occasions round the neck so that the bones hang down behind4 ,they are especially worn thus in war1 and they are made use of also when their owner desires to obtain a favourable wind for a voyage4 ,no doubt1 though this is not expressly affirmed1 the spirit of the departed is supposed to remain attached in some fashion to his bones and so to help the possessor of these relics in time of need4 ,when the bones have been dug up and disposed of with all due ceremony1 several men who were friends or relations of the deceased must keep watch and ward for some days in the men's clubhouse1 where his grinning skull now stands amid similar trophies of mortality on a table or shelf4 ,they may not quit the building except in case of necessity1 and they must always speak in a whisper for fear of disturbing the ghost1 who is very naturally lurking in the neighbourhood of his skull4 ,however1 in spite of these restrictions the watchers enjoy themselves2 for baskets of sago and fish are provided abundantly for their consumption1 and if their tongues are idle their jaws are very busy4#cgf ,sidenote3 ,propitiation of the souls of the dead and other spirits4 ,the people think that if they stand on a good footing with the souls of the departed and with other spirits1 these powerful beings will bring them good luck in trade and on their voyages4 ,now the time when trade is lively and the calm sea is dotted with canoes plying from island to island or from island to mainland1 is the season when the gentle south-east monsoon is blowing4 ,on the other hand1 when the waves run high under the blast of the strong north-west monsoon1 the sea is almost deserted and the people stay at home2#cgg the season is to these tropical islanders what winter is to the inhabitants of northern latitudes4 ,accordingly it is when the wind is shifting round from the stormy north-west to the balmy south-east that the natives set themselves particularly to win the favour of ghosts and spirits1 and this they do by repairing the temples and clubhouses in which the spirits and ghosts are believed to dwell1 and by cleaning and tidying up the open spaces around them4 ,these repairs are the occasion of a festival accompanied by dances and games4 ,early in the morning of the festive day the shrill notes of the flutes and the hollow rub-a-dub of the drums are heard to proceed from the interior of the temple1 proclaiming the arrival of the guardian spirit and his desire to partake of fish and sago4 ,so the men assemble and the feast is held in the evening4 ,festivals are also held both in the temples and in the men's clubhouses on the occasion of a successful hunt or fishing4 ,out of gratitude for the help vouchsafed them by the ancestral spirits1 the hunters or fishers bring the larger game or fish to the temples or clubhouses and eat them there2 and then hang up some parts of the animals or fish1 such as the skeletons1 the jawbones of pigs1 or the shells of turtles1 in the clubhouses as a further mark of homage to the spirits of the dead4#cgh ,sidenote3 ,guardian spirits 7tapum7 in ,tumleo4 ,so far as appears1 the spirits who dwell in the temples are not supposed to be ancestors4 ,father ,erdweg describes them as guardian spirits or goddesses1 for they are all of the female sex4 ,every village has several of them2 indeed in the village of ,sapi almost every family has its own guardian spirit4 ,the name for these guardian spirits is tapum1 which seems to be clearly connected with the now familiar word tapu or taboo1 in the sense of sacred1 which is universally understood in the islands of the ,pacific4 ,on the whole the tapum are kindly and beneficent spirits1 who bring good luck to such as honour them4 ,a hunter or a fisherman ascribes his success in the chase or in fishing to the protection of his guardian spirit2 and when he is away from home trading for sago and other necessaries of life1 it is his guardian spirit who gives him favour in the eyes of the foreigners with whom he is dealing4 ,curiously enough1 though these guardian spirits are all female1 they have no liking for women and children4 ,indeed1 no woman or child may set foot in a temple1 or even loiter in the open space in front of it4 ,and at the chief festivals1 when the temples are being repaired1 all the women and children must quit the village till the evening shadows have fallen and the banquet of their husbands1 fathers1 and brothers at the temple is over4#cgi ,on the whole1 then1 we conclude that a belief in the continued existence of the spirits of the dead1 and in their power to help or harm their descendants1 plays a considerable part in the life of the ,papuans of ,tumleo4 ,whether the guardian spirits or goddesses1 who are worshipped in the temples1 were originally conceived as ancestral spirits or not1 must be left an open question for the present4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,monumbo of ,potsdam ,harbour4 ,passing eastward from ,tumleo along the northern coast of ,german ,new ,guinea we come to ,monumbo or ,potsdam ,harbour1 situated about the #adeth degree of ,east ,longitude4 ,the ,monumbo are a ,papuan tribe numbering about four hundred souls1 who inhabit twelve small villages close to the seashore4 ,their territory is a narrow but fertile strip of country1 well watered and covered with luxuriant vegetation1 lying between the sea and a range of hills4 ,the bay is sheltered by an island from the open sea1 and the natives can paddle their canoes on its calm water in almost any weather4 ,the villages1 embowered on the landward side in groves of trees of many useful sorts and screened in front by rows of stately coco-nut palms1 are composed of large houses solidly built of timber and are kept very clean and tidy4 ,the ,monumbo are a strongly-built people1 of the average ,european height1 with what is described as a remarkably ,semitic type of features4 ,the men wear their hair plaited about a long tube1 decorated with shells and dogs' teeth1 which sticks out stiffly from the head4 ,the women wear their hair in a sort of mop1 composed of countless plaits1 which hang down in tangle4 ,in disposition the ,monumbo are cheerful and contented1 proud of themselves and their country2 they think they are the cleverest and most fortunate people on earth1 and look down with pity and contempt on ,europeans4 ,according to them the business of the foreign settlers in their country is folly1 and the teaching of the missionaries is nonsense4 ,they subsist by agriculture1 hunting1 and fishing4 ,their well-kept plantations occupy the level ground and in some places extend up the hill-sides4 ,among the plants which they cultivate are taro1 yams1 sweet potatoes1 bananas1 various kinds of vegetables1 and sugar-cane4 ,among their fruit-trees are the sago-palm1 the coco-nut palm1 and the bread-fruit tree4 ,they make use both of earthenware and of wooden vessels4 ,their dances1 especially their masked dances1 which are celebrated at intervals of four or five years1 have excited the warm admiration of the despised ,european4#chj ,sidenote3 ,beliefs of the ,monumbo concerning the spirits of the dead4 ,dread of ghosts4 ,with regard to their religion and morality ,i will quote the evidence of a ,catholic missionary who has laboured among them4 ,the ,monumbo are acquainted with no ,supreme ,being1 no moral good or evil1 no rewards1 no place of punishment or joy after death1 no permanent immortality4444 ,when people die1 their souls go to the land of spirits1 a place where they dwell without work or suffering1 but which they can also quit4 ,betel-chewing1 smoking1 dancing1 sleeping1 all the occupations that they loved on earth1 are continued without interruption in the other world4 ,they converse with men in dreams1 but play them many a shabby trick1 take possession of them and even1 it may be1 kill them4 ,yet they also help men in all manner of ways in war and the chase4 ,men invoke them1 pray to them1 make statues in their memory1 which are called dva 7plural dvaka71 and bring them offerings of food1 in order to obtain their assistance4 ,but if the spirits of the dead do not help1 they are rated in the plainest language4 ,death makes no great separation4 ,the living converse with the dead very much as they converse with each other4 ,time alone brings with it a gradual oblivion of the departed4 ,falling stars and lightning are nothing but the souls of the dead1 who stick dry banana leaves in their girdles1 set them on fire1 and then fly through the air4 ,at last when the souls are old they die1 but are not annihilated1 for they are changed into animals and plants4 ,such animals are1 for example1 the white ants and a rare kind of wild pig1 which is said not to allow itself to be killed4 ,such a tree1 for example1 is the barimbar4 ,that1 apparently1 is the whole religion of the ,monumbo4 ,yet they are ghost-seers of the most arrant sort4 ,an anxious superstitious fear pursues them at every step4 ,superstitious views are the motives that determine almost everything that they do or leave undone4#cha ,their dread of ghosts is displayed in their custom of doing no work in the plantations for three days after a death1 lest the ghost1 touched to the quick by their heartless indifference1 should send wild boars to ravage the plantations4 ,and when a man has slain an enemy in war1 he has to remain a long time secluded in the men's clubhouse1 touching nobody1 not even his wife and children1 while the villagers celebrate his victory with song and dance4 ,he is believed to be in a state of ceremonial impurity 7bolobolo7 such that1 if he were to touch his wife and children1 they would be covered with sores4 ,at the end of his seclusion he is purified by washings and other purgations and is clean once more4#chb ,the reason of this uncleanness of a victorious warrior is not mentioned1 but analogy makes it nearly certain that it is a dread of the vengeful ghost of the man whom he has slain4 ,a similar fear probably underlies the rule that a widower must abstain from certain foods1 such as fish and sauces1 and from bathing for a certain time after the death of his wife4#chc ,sidenote3 ,the ,tamos of ,astrolabe ,bay4 ,mistake of attempting to combine descriptive with comparative anthropology4 ,leaving ,potsdam ,harbour and the ,monumbo1 and moving still eastward along the coast of ,german ,new ,guinea1 we come to a large indentation known as ,astrolabe ,bay4 ,the natives of this part of the coast call themselves ,tamos4 ,the largest village on the bay bears the name of ,bogadyim and in #ahid numbered about three hundred inhabitants4#chd ,our principal authority on the natives is a ,german ethnologist1 ,dr4 ,b4 ,hagen1 who spent about eighteen months at ,stefansort on ,astrolabe ,bay4 ,unfortunately he has mixed up his personal observations of these particular people not merely with second-hand accounts of natives of other parts of ,new ,guinea but with discussions of general theories of the origin and migrations of races and of the development of social institutions2 so that it is not altogether easy to disentangle the facts for which he is a first-hand witness1 from those which he reports at second1 third1 or fourth hand4 ,scarcely anything1 ,i may observe in passing1 more impairs the value and impedes the usefulness of personal observations of savage races than this deplorable habit of attempting to combine the work of description with the work of comparison and generalisation4 ,the two kinds of work are entirely distinct in their nature1 and require very different mental qualities for their proper performance2 the one should never be confused with the other4 ,the task of descriptive anthropology is to record observations1 without any admixture of theory2 the task of comparative anthropology is to compare the observations made in all parts of the world1 and from the comparison to deduce theories1 more or less provisional1 of the origin and growth of beliefs and institutions1 always subject to modification and correction by facts which may afterwards be brought to light4 ,there is no harm1 indeed there is great positive advantage1 in the descriptive anthropologist making himself acquainted with the theories of the comparative anthropologist1 for by so doing his attention will probably be called to many facts which he might otherwise have overlooked and which1 when recorded1 may either confirm or refute the theories in question4 ,but if he knows these theories1 he should keep his knowledge strictly in the background and never interlard his descriptions of facts with digressions into an alien province4 ,in this way descriptive anthropology and comparative anthropology will best work hand in hand for the furtherance of their common aim1 the understanding of the nature and development of man4 ,sidenote3 ,the religion of the ,tamos4 ,beliefs of the ,tamos as to the souls of the dead4 ,like the ,papuans in general1 the ,tamos of ,astrolabe ,bay are a settled agricultural people1 who dwell in fixed villages1 subsist mainly by the produce of the ground which they cultivate1 and engage in a commerce of barter with their neighbours4#che ,their material culture thus does not differ essentially from that of the other ,papuans1 and ,i need not give particulars of it4 ,with regard to their religious views ,dr4 ,hagen tells us candidly that he has great hesitation in expressing an opinion4 ,nothing1 he says very justly1 is more difficult for a ,european than to form an approximately correct conception of the religious views of a savage people1 and the difficulty is infinitely increased when the enquirer has little or no knowledge of their language4 ,dr4 ,hagen had1 indeed1 an excellent interpreter and intelligent assistant in the person of a missionary1 ,mr4 ,hoffmann2 but ,mr4 ,hoffmann himself admitted that he had no clear ideas as to the religious views of the ,tamos2 however1 in his opinion they are entirely destitute of the conception of ,god and of a ,creator4 ,yet among the ,tamos of ,bogadyim1 ,dr4 ,hagen tells us1 a belief in the existence of the soul after death is proved by their assertion that after death the soul 7gunung7 goes to buka kure1 which seems to mean the village of ghosts4 ,this abode of the dead appears to be situated somewhere in the earth1 and the ,tamos speak of it with a shudder4 ,they tell of a man in the village of ,bogadyim who died and went away to the village of the ghosts4 ,but as he drew near to the village1 he met the ghost of his dead brother who had come forth with bow and arrows and spear to hunt a wild boar4 ,this boar-hunting ghost was very angry at meeting his brother1 who had just died1 and drove him back to the land of the living4 ,from this narrative it would seem that in the other world the ghosts are thought to pursue the same occupations which they followed in life4 ,the natives are in great fear of ghosts 7buka74 ,travelling alone with them in the forest at nightfall you may mark their timidity and hear them cry anxiously1 ,come1 let us be going6 ,the ghost is roaming about4 ,the ghosts of those who have perished in battle do not go to the ,village of ,ghosts 7buka kure72 they repair to another place called bopa kure4 ,but this abode of the slain does not seem to be a happy land or ,valhalla2 the natives are even more afraid of it than of the ,village of ,ghosts 7buka kure74 ,they will hardly venture at night to pass a spot where any one has been slain4 ,sometimes fires are kindled by night on such spots2 and the sight of the flames flickering in the distance inspires all the beholders with horror1 and nothing in the world would induce them to approach such a fire4 ,the souls of men who have been killed1 but whose death has not been avenged1 are supposed to haunt the village4 ,for some time after death the ghost is believed to linger in the neighbourhood of his deserted body4 ,when ,mr4 ,hoffmann went with some ,tamos to another village to bring back the body of a fellow missionary1 who had died there1 and darkness had fallen on them in the forest1 his native companions started with fear every moment1 imagining that they saw the missionary's ghost popping out from behind a tree4#chf ,sidenote3 ,treatment of the corpse4 ,secret ,society called ,asa4 ,when death has taken place1 the corpse is first exposed on a scaffold in front of the house1 where it is decked with ornaments and surrounded with flowers4 ,if the deceased was rich1 a dog is hung on each side of the scaffold1 and the souls of the animals are believed to accompany the ghost to the spirit-land4 ,taros1 yams1 and coco-nuts are also suspended from the scaffold1 no doubt for the refreshment of the ghost4 ,then the melancholy notes of a horn are heard in the distance1 at the sound of which all the women rush away4 ,soon the horn-blower appears1 paints the corpse white and red1 crowns it with great red hibiscus roses1 then blows his horn1 and vanishes4#chg ,he is a member of a secret society1 called ,asa1 which has its lodge standing alone in the forest4 ,only men belong to the society2 women and children are excluded from it and look upon it with fear and awe4 ,if any one raises a cry1 ,asa is coming1 or the sound of the musical instruments of the society is heard in the distance1 all the women and children scamper away4 ,the natives are very unwilling to let any stranger enter one of the lodges of the society4 ,the interior of such a building is usually somewhat bare1 but it contains the wooden masks which are worn in the ceremonial dances of the society1 and the horns and flutes on which the members discourse their awe-inspiring music4 ,in construction it scarcely differs from the ordinary huts of the village2 if anything it is worse built and more primitive4 ,the secrets of the society are well kept2 at least very little seems to have been divulged to ,europeans4 ,the most important of its ceremonies is that of the initiation of the young men1 who on this occasion are circumcised before they are recognised as full-grown men and members of the secret society4 ,at such times the men encamp and feast for weeks or even months together on the open space in front of the society's lodge1 and masked dances are danced to the accompaniment of the instrumental music4 ,these initiatory ceremonies are held at intervals of about ten or fifteen years1 when there are a considerable number of young men to be initiated together4#chh ,although we are still in the dark as to the real meaning of this and indeed of almost all similar secret societies among savages1 the solemn part played by a member of the society at the funeral rites seems very significant4 ,why should he come mysteriously to the melancholy music of the horn1 paint the corpse red and white1 crown it with red roses1 and then vanish again to music as he had come8 ,it is scarcely rash to suppose that this ceremony has some reference to the state of the dead man's soul1 and we may conjecture that just as the fruits hung on the scaffold are doubtless intended for the consumption of the ghost1 and the souls of the dogs are expressly said to accompany him to the spirit-land1 so the painting of the corpse and the crown of red roses may be designed in some way to speed the parting spirit on the way to its long home4 ,in the absence of exact information as to the beliefs of these savages touching the state of the dead we can only guess at the meaning which they attach to these symbols4 ,perhaps they think that only ghosts who are painted red and white and who wear wreaths of red roses on their heads are admitted to the ,village of the ,ghosts1 and that such as knock at the gate with no paint on their bodies and no wreath of roses on their brows are refused admittance and must turn sorrowfully away1 to haunt their undutiful friends on earth who had omitted to pay the last marks of respect and honour to the dead4 ,sidenote3 ,burial customs of the ,tamos4 ,removal of the lower jawbone4 ,when the corpse has lain in all its glory1 with its ornaments1 its paint and its flowers1 for a short time on the scaffold1 it is removed and buried4 ,the exposure never lasts more than a day4 ,if the man died in the morning1 he is buried at night4 ,the grave is dug in the house itself4 ,it is only about three feet deep and four feet long4 ,if the corpse is too long for the grave1 as usually happens1 the legs are remorselessly doubled up and trampled in4 ,it is the relations on the mother's side who dig the grave and lower the body1 shrouded in mats or leaves1 into its narrow bed4 ,before doing so they take care to strip it of its ornaments1 its rings1 necklaces1 boar's teeth1 and so forth1 which no doubt are regarded as too valuable to be sacrificed4 ,yet a regard for the comfort of the dead is shewn by the custom of covering the open grave with wood and then heaping the mould on the top1 in order1 we are told1 that the earth may not press heavy on him who sleeps below4 ,sit tibi terra levis6 ,after some months the grave is opened and the lower jaw removed from the corpse and preserved4 ,this removal of the jaw is the occasion of solemnities and ceremonial washings1 in which the whole male population of the village takes part4 ,but as to the meaning of these ceremonies1 and as to what is done with the jawbone1 we have no exact information4#chi ,according to the ,russian traveller1 ,baron ,n4 von ,miklucho-,maclay1 who has also given us an account of the ,papuans of ,astrolabe ,bay1#cij though not apparently of the villages described by ,dr4 ,hagen1 the whole skull is dug up and separated from the corpse after the lapse of about a year1 but only the lower jawbone is carefully kept by the nearest kinsman as a memorial of the deceased4 ,baron ,miklucho-,maclay had great difficulty in inducing a native to part with one of these memorials of a dead relation4#cia ,in any case the preservation of this portion of the deceased may be supposed to have for its object the maintenance of friendly relations between the living and the dead4 ,similarly in ,uganda the jawbone is the only part of the body of a deceased king which1 along with his navel-string1 is carefully preserved in his temple-tomb and consulted oracularly4#cib ,we may conjecture that the reason for preserving this part of the human frame rather than any other is that the jawbone is an organ of speech1 and that therefore it appears to the primitive mind well fitted to maintain intercourse with the dead man's spirit and to obtain oracular communications from him4 ,sidenote3 ,sham fight as a funeral ceremony at ,astrolabe ,bay4 ,the ,russian traveller1 ,baron ,miklucho-,maclay1 has described a curious funeral ceremony which is observed by some of the ,papuans of ,astrolabe ,bay4 ,i will give the first part of his description in his own words1 which ,i translate from the ,german4 ,he says3 ,the death of a man is announced to the neighbouring villages by a definite series of beats on the drum4 ,on the same day or the next morning the whole male population assembles in the vicinity of the village of the deceased4 ,all the men are in full warlike array4 ,to the beat of drum the guests march into the village1 where a crowd of men1 also armed for war1 await the new-comers beside the dead man's hut4 ,after a short parley the men divide into two opposite camps1 and thereupon a sham fight takes place4 ,however1 the combatants go to work very gingerly and make no use of their spears4 ,but dozens of arrows are continually discharged1 and not a few are wounded in the sham fight1 though not seriously4 ,the nearest relations and friends of the deceased appear especially excited and behave as if they were frantic4 ,when all are hot and tired and all arrows have been shot away1 the pretended enemies seat themselves in a circle and in what follows most of them act as simple spectators4 ,thereupon the nearest relations bring out the corpse and deposit it in a crouching position1 with the knees drawn up to the chin1 on some mats and leaves of the sago-palm1 which had previously been spread out in the middle of the open space4 ,beside the corpse are laid his things1 some presents from neighbours1 and some freshly cooked food4 ,while the men sit round in a circle1 the women1 even the nearest relatives of the deceased1 may only look on from a distance4 ,when all is ready1 some men step out from the circle to help the nearest of kin in the next proceedings1 which consist in tying the corpse up tightly into a bundle by means of rattans and creepers4 ,then the bundle is attached to a stout stick and carried back into the house4 ,there the corpse in its bundle is fastened under the roof by means of the stick1 and the dead man's property1 together with the presents of the neighbours and the food1 are left beside it4 ,after that the house is abandoned1 and the guests return to their own villages4 ,a few days later1 when decomposition is far advanced1 the corpse is taken down and buried in a grave in the house1 which continues to be inhabited by the family4 ,after the lapse of about a year1 the body is dug up1 the skull separated from it1 and the lower jawbone preserved by the nearest relation1 as ,i have already mentioned4#cic ,sidenote3 ,the sham fight perhaps intended to deceive the ghost4 ,what is the meaning of this curious sham fight which among these people seems to be regularly enacted after a death8 ,the writer who reports the custom offers no explanation of it4 ,i would conjecture with all due caution that it may possibly be intended as a satisfaction to the ghost in order to make him suppose that his death has been properly avenged4 ,in a former lecture ,i shewed that natural deaths are regularly imagined by many savages to be brought about by the magical practices of enemies1 and that accordingly the relations of the deceased take vengeance on some innocent person whom for one reason or another they regard as the culprit4 ,it is possible that these ,papuans of ,astrolabe ,bay1 instead of actually putting the supposed sorcerer to death1 have advanced so far as to abandon that cruel and unjust practice and content themselves with throwing dust in the eyes of the ghost by a sham instead of a real fight4 ,but that is only a conjecture of my own1 which ,i merely suggest for what it is worth4 ,altogether1 looking over the scanty notices of the beliefs and practices of these ,papuans of ,astrolabe ,bay concerning the departed1 we may say in general that while the fear of ghosts is conspicuous enough among them1 there is but little evidence of anything that deserves to be called a regular worship of the dead4 ,footnote #ceh3 ,p4 ,mathias ,josef ,erdweg1 ,die ,bewohner der ,insel ,tumleo1 ,berlin-hafen1 ,deutsch-,neu-,guinea1 ,mittheilungen der ,anthropologischen ,gesellschaft in ,wien1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 pp4 #bgd-caj1 #cag-cii4 ,footnote #cei3 ,r4 ,parkinson1 ,die ,berlinhafen ,section1 ein ,beitrag zur ,ethnographie der ,neu-,guinea-,kueste1 ,internationales ,archiv fuer ,ethnographie1 xiii4 7#aijj7 pp4 #ah-ed4 ,footnote #cfj3 ,see the note of ,father ,p4 ,w4 ,schmidt on ,father ,erdweg's paper1 op4 cit4 p4 #bgd4 ,footnote #cfa3 ,erdweg1 op4 cit4 p4 #bgd4 ,footnote #cfb3 ,erdweg1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bgg sq4 ,the frizzly character of the hair is mentioned by ,mr4 ,r4 ,parkinson1 op4 cit4 ,footnote #cfc3 ,erdweg1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cee sqq4 ,footnote #cfd3 ,erdweg1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cdb-cdf4 ,footnote #cfe3 ,erdweg1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cce sqq4 ,footnote #cff3 ,erdweg1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ccj sqq4 ,footnote #cfg3 ,erdweg1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cej sqq4 ,footnote #cfh3 ,erdweg1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cfc sqq4 ,footnote #cfi3 ,erdweg1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cgd4 ,footnote #cgj3 ,r4 ,parkinson1 ,die ,berlinhafen ,section1 ein ,beitrag zur ,ethnographie der ,neu-,guinea-,kueste1 ,internationales ,archiv fuer ,ethnographie1 xiii4 7#aijj7 pp4 #cc-ce4 ,father ,erdweg speaks of the parak as a spirit-temple or spirit-house in which the deities of the ,tumleo dwell 7op4 cit4 p4 #cgg73 he tells us that as a rule each village has only one parak4 ,as to the spirits which dwell in these temples1 see below1 pp4 #bbf sq4 ,footnote #cga3 ,r4 ,parkinson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ce1 #db sq42 ,erdweg1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bib sq41 #cjf4 ,footnote #cgb3 ,erdweg1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bhd-bhg4 ,footnote #cgc3 ,erdweg1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bhh-bia4 ,footnote #cgd3 ,erdweg1 op4 cit4 pp4 #big sq4 ,footnote #cge3 ,erdweg1 op4 cit4 p4 #bia4 ,footnote #cgf3 ,erdweg1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bia-bic4 ,footnote #cgg3 ,erdweg1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bih1 #cga4 ,footnote #cgh3 ,erdweg1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bie sqq41 #bii sq41 #ccd sq4 ,footnote #cgi3 ,erdweg1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bie-big4 ,footnote #chj3 ,p4 ,franz ,vormann1 ,dorf und ,hausanlage beiden ,monumbo1 ,deutsch-,neuguinea1 ,anthropos1 iv4 7#aiji7 pp4 #ffj sqq42 id41 ,zur ,psychologie1 ,religion1 ,soziologie und ,geschichte der ,monumbo-,papua1 ,deutsch-,neuguinea1 ,anthropos1 v4 7#aiaj7 pp4 #djg-dji4 ,footnote #cha3 ,p4 ,franz ,vormann1 in ,anthropos1 v4 7#aiaj7 pp4 #dji sq4 ,footnote #chb3 ,p4 ,franz ,vormann1 in ,anthropos1 v4 7#aiaj7 pp4 #daj1 #daa4 ,footnote #chc3 ,p4 ,franz ,vormann1 ibid41 p4 #dab4 ,footnote #chd3 ,b4 ,hagen1 ,unter den ,papua's 7,wiesbaden1 #ahii71 pp4 #adc1 #bba4 ,footnote #che3 ,for the evidence see ,b4 ,hagen1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aic sqq4 ,as to barter he tells us 7p4 #baf7 that all articles in use at ,bogadyim are imported1 nothing is made on the spot4 ,footnote #chf3 ,b4 ,hagen1 ,unter den ,papua's 7,wiesbaden1 #ahii71 pp4 #bfd-bff4 ,footnote #chg3 ,b4 ,hagen1 op4 cit4 pp4 #beh sq4 ,footnote #chh3 ,b4 ,hagen1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bgj sq4 ,as to the period and details of the circumcision ceremonies see id41 pp4 #bcd-bch4 ,footnote #chi3 ,b4 ,hagen1 op4 cit4 p4 #bfj4 ,footnote #cij3 ,n4 von ,miklucho-,maclay1 ,ethnologische ,bemerkungen ueber die ,papuas der ,maclay-,kueste in ,neu-,guinea1 ,natuurkundig ,tijdschrift voor ,nederlandsch ,indie1 xxxv4 7#ahge7 pp4 #ff-ic2 id41 xxxvi4 7#ahgf7 pp4 #bid-ccc4 ,footnote #cia3 ,n4 von ,miklucho-,maclay1 op4 cit4 xxxvi4 7#ahgf7 p4 #cjb4 ,footnote #cib3 ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda 7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #aji sqq42 ,totemism and ,exogamy1 ii4 #dgj4 ,footnote #cic3 ,n4 von ,miklucho-,maclay1 op4 cit4 xxxvi4 7#ahgf7 pp4 #cjj-cjb4 ,,lecture ,,xi ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,natives ,,of ,,german ,,new ,,guinea 7continued7 ,sidenote3 ,the ,papuans of ,cape ,king ,william4 ,in my last lecture ,i gave you some account of the beliefs and practices concerning the dead which have been recorded among the ,papuans of ,german ,new ,guinea4 ,to-day ,i resume the subject and shall first speak of the natives on the coast about ,cape ,king ,william1 at the foot of ,mount ,cromwell4 ,we possess an account of their religion and customs from the pen of a ,german missionary1 ,mr4 ,stolz1 who has lived three years among them and studied their language4#cid ,his description applies to the inhabitants of two villages only1 namely ,lamatkebolo and ,quambu1 or ,sialum and ,kwamkwam1 as they are generally called on the maps1 who together number about five hundred souls4 ,they belong to the ,papuan stock and subsist chiefly by the cultivation of yams1 which they plant in ,april or ,may and reap in ,january or ,february4 ,but they also cultivate sweet potatoes and make some use of bananas and coco-nuts4 ,they clear the land for cultivation by burning down the grass and afterwards turning up the earth with digging-sticks1 a labour which is performed chiefly by the men4 ,the land is not common property2 each family tills its own fields1 though sometimes one family will aid another in the laborious task of breaking up the soil4 ,moreover they trade with the natives of the interior1 who1 inhabiting a more fertile and better-watered country1 are able to export a portion of their superfluities1 especially taro1 sweet potatoes1 betel-nuts1 and tobacco1 to the less favoured dwellers on the sea-coast1 receiving mostly dried fish in return4 ,curiously enough the traffic is chiefly in the hands of old women4#cie ,sidenote3 ,propitiation of ghosts and spirits4 ,the spirit ,mate4 ,spirits called ,nai4 ,with regard to the religion of these people ,mr4 ,stolz tells us that they know nothing of a deity who should receive the homage of his worshippers2 they recognise only spirits and the souls of the dead4 ,to these last they bring offerings1 not because they feel any need to do them reverence1 but simply out of fear and a desire to win their favour4 ,the offerings are presented at burials and when they begin to cultivate the fields4 ,their purpose is to persuade the souls of the dead to ward off all the evil influences that might thwart the growth of the yams1 their staple food4 ,the ghosts are also expected to guard the fields against the incursions of wild pigs and the ravages of locusts4 ,at a burial the aim of the sacrifice is to induce the soul of the departed brother or sister to keep far away from the village and to do no harm to the people4 ,sacrifices are even offered to the souls of animals1 such as dogs and pigs1 to prevent them from coming back and working mischief4 ,however1 the ghosts of these creatures are not very exacting2 a few pieces of sugar-cane1 a coco-nut shell1 or a taro shoot suffice to content their simple tastes and to keep them quiet4 ,amongst the spirits to whom the people pay a sort of worship there is one named ,mate1 who seems to be closely akin to ,balum1 a spirit about whom we shall hear more among the ,yabim further to the east4 ,however1 not very much is known about ,mate2 his worship1 if it can be called so1 flourishes chiefly among the inland tribes1 of whom the coast people stand so much in awe that they dare not speak freely on the subject of this mysterious being4 ,some of them indeed are bold enough to whisper that there is no such being as ,mate at all1 and that the whole thing is a cheat devised by sly rogues for the purpose of appropriating a larger share of roast pork at their religious feasts1 from which women are excluded4 ,whatever may be thought of these sceptical views1 it appears to be certain that the name of ,mate is also bestowed on a number of spirits who disport themselves by day in open grassy places1 while they retire by night to the deep shades of the forest2 and the majority of these spirits are thought to be the souls of ancestors or of the recently departed4 ,again1 there is another class of spirits called ,nai1 who unlike all other spirits are on friendly terms with men4 ,these are the souls of dead villagers1 who died far away from home4 ,they warn people of danger and very obligingly notify them of the coming of trading steamers4 ,when a man dies in a foreign land1 his soul appears as a ,nai to his sorrowing relatives and announces his sad fate to them4 ,he does so always at night4 ,when the men are gathered round the fire on the open square of the village1 the ghost climbs the platform which usually serves for public meetings and banquets1 and from this coin of vantage1 plunged in the deep shadow1 he lifts up his voice and delivers his message of warning1 news1 or prediction1 as the case may be4#cif ,sidenote3 ,the creator ,nemunemu4 ,sickness and death often regarded as the effects of sorcery4 ,however1 ghosts of the dead are not the only spiritual beings with whom these people are acquainted4 ,they know of a much higher being1 of the name of ,nemunemu1 endowed with superhuman power1 who made the heaven and the earth with the assistance of two brothers2 the elder brother constructed the mainland of ,new ,guinea1 while the younger fashioned the islands and the sea4 ,when the natives first saw a steamer on the horizon they thought it was ,nemunemu's ship1 and the smoke at the funnel they took to be the tobacco-smoke which he puffed to beguile the tedium of the voyage4#cig ,they are also great believers in magic and witchcraft1 and cases of sickness and death1 which are not attributed to the malignity of ghosts and spirits1 are almost invariably set down to the machinations of sorcerers4 ,only the deaths of decrepit old folks are regarded as natural4 ,when a man has died1 and his death is believed to have been caused by magic1 the people resort to divination in order to discover the wicked magician who has perpetrated the crime4 ,for this purpose they place the corpse on a bier1 cover it with a mat1 and set it on the shoulders of four men1 while a fifth man taps lightly with an arrow on the mat and enquires of the departed whether such and such a village has bewitched him to death4 ,if the bier remains still1 it means ,no2 but if it rocks backward and forward1 it means ,yes1 and the avengers of blood must seek their victim1 the guilty sorcerer1 in that village4 ,the answer is believed to be given by the dead man's ghost1 who stirs his body at the moment when his murderer's village is named4 ,it is useless for the inhabitants of that village to disclaim all knowledge of the sickness and death of the deceased4 ,the people repose implicit faith in this form of divination4 ,his soul itself told us1 they say1 and surely he ought to know4 ,another form of divination which they employ for the same purpose is to put the question to the ghost1 while two men hold a bow which belonged to him and to which some personal articles of his are attached4 ,the answer is again yes or no according as the bow moves or is still4#cih ,sidenote3 ,funeral and mourning customs4 ,when the author of the death has been discovered in one way or another1 the corpse is decked with all the ornaments that can be collected from the relatives and prepared for burial4 ,a shallow grave is dug under the house and lined with mats4 ,then the body is lowered into the grave3 one of the sextons strikes up a lament1 and the shrill voices of the women in the house join in the melancholy strain4 ,when he lies in his narrow bed1 the ornaments are removed from his person1 but some of his tools1 weapons1 and other belongings are buried with him1 no doubt for his use in the life hereafter4 ,the funeral celebration1 in which the whole village commonly takes part1 lasts several days and consists in the bringing of offerings to the dead and the abstinence from all labour in the fields4 ,yams are brought from the field of the departed and cooked4 ,a small pot filled with yams and a vessel of water are placed on the grave2 the rest of the provisions is consumed by the mourners4 ,the next of kin1 especially the widow or widower1 remain for about a week at the grave1 watching day and night1 lest the body should be dug up and devoured by a certain foul fiend with huge wings and long claws1 who battens on corpses4 ,the mourning costume of men consists in smearing the face with black and wearing a cord round the neck and a netted cap on the head4 ,instead of such a cap a woman in mourning wraps herself in a large net and a great apron of grass4 ,while the other ensigns of woe are soon discarded or disappear1 the cord about the neck is worn for a longer time1 generally till next harvest4 ,the sacrifice of a pig brings the period of mourning to an end and after it the cord may be laid aside4 ,if any one were so hard-hearted as not to wear that badge of sorrow1 the people believe that the angry ghost would come back and fetch him away4 ,he would die4#cii ,thus among these savages the mourning costume is regarded as a protection against the dangerous ghost of the departed2 it soothes his wounded feelings and prevents him from making raids on the living4 ,sidenote3 ,fate of the souls of the dead4 ,as to the place to which the souls of the dead repair and the fate that awaits them there1 very vague and contradictory ideas prevail among the natives of this district4 ,some say that the ghosts go eastward to ,bukaua on ,huon ,gulf and there lead a shadowy life very like their life on earth4 ,others think that the spirits hover near the village where they lived in the flesh4 ,others again are of opinion that they transmigrate into animals and prolong their life in one or other of the bodies of the lower creatures4#djj ,sidenote3 ,the ,yabim and ,bukaua tribes4 ,leaving ,cape ,king ,william we pass eastward along the coast of ,german ,new ,guinea and come to ,finsch ,harbour4 ,from a point some miles to the north of ,finsch ,harbour as far as ,samoa ,harbour on ,huon ,gulf the coast is inhabited by two kindred tribes1 the ,yabim and the ,bukaua1 who speak a ,melanesian language4 ,i shall deal first with the ,yabim tribe1 whose customs and beliefs have been described for us with a fair degree of fulness by two ,german missionaries1 ,mr4 ,konrad ,vetter and ,mr4 ,heinrich ,zahn4#dja ,the following account is based chiefly on the writings of ,mr4 ,vetter1 whose mission station is at the village of ,simbang4 ,sidenote3 ,material and artistic culture of the ,yabim4 ,like the other natives of ,new ,guinea the ,yabim build permanent houses1 live in settled villages1 and till the ground4 ,every year they make a fresh clearing in the forest by cutting down the trees1 burning the fallen timber1 and planting taro1 bananas1 sugar-cane1 and tobacco in the open glade4 ,when the crops have been reaped1 the place is abandoned1 and is soon overgrown again by the rank tropical vegetation1 while the natives move on to another patch1 which they clear and cultivate in like manner4 ,this rude mode of tillage is commonly practised by many savages1 especially within the tropics4 ,cultivation of this sort is migratory1 and in some places1 though apparently not in ,new ,guinea1 the people shift their habitations with their fields as they move on from one part of the forest to another4 ,among the ,yabim the labour of clearing a patch for cultivation is performed by all the men of a village in common1 but when the great trees have fallen with a crash to the ground1 and the trunks1 branches1 foliage and underwood have been burnt1 with a roar of flames and a crackling like a rolling fire of musketry1 each family appropriates a portion of the clearing for its own use and marks off its boundaries with sticks4 ,but they also subsist in part by fishing1 and for this purpose they build outrigger canoes4 ,they display considerable skill and taste in wood-carving1 and are fond of ornamenting their houses1 canoes1 paddles1 tools1 spears1 and drums with figures of crocodiles1 fish1 and other patterns4#djb ,sidenote3 ,men's clubhouses 7lum74 ,the villages are divided into wards1 and every ward contains its clubhouse for men1 called a lum1 in which young men and lads are obliged to pass the night4 ,it consists of a bedroom above and a parlour with fireplaces below4 ,in the parlour the grown men pass their leisure hours during the day1 and here the councils are held4 ,the wives cook the food at home and bring it for their husbands to the clubhouse4 ,the bull-roarers which are used at the initiatory ceremonies are kept in the principal clubhouse of the village4 ,such a clubhouse serves as an asylum2 men fleeing from the avenger of blood who escape into it are safe4 ,it is said that the spirit 7balum7 has swallowed or concealed them4 ,but if they steal out of it and attempt to make their way to another village1 they carry their life in their hand4#djc ,among the ,yabim1 according to ,mr4 ,zahn1 religion in the proper sense does not exist1 but on the other hand the whole people is dominated by the fear of witchcraft and of the spirits of the dead4#djd ,the following is the account which ,mr4 ,vetter gives of the beliefs and customs of these people concerning the departed4 ,sidenote3 ,beliefs of the ,yabim concerning the state of the dead4 ,the ghostly ferry4 ,they do not believe that death is the end of all things for the individual2 they think that his soul survives and becomes a spirit or ghost1 which they call a balum4 ,the life of human spirits in the other world is a shadowy continuation of the life on earth1 and as such it has little attraction for the mind of the ,papuan4 ,of heaven and hell1 a place of reward and a place of punishment for the souls of the good and bad respectively1 he has no idea4 ,however1 his world of the dead is to some extent divided into compartments4 ,in one of them reside the ghosts of people who have been slain1 in another the ghosts of people who have been hanged1 and in a third the ghosts of people who have been devoured by a shark or a crocodile4 ,how many more compartments there may be for the accommodation of the souls1 we are not told4 ,the place is in one of the islands of ,siasi4 ,no living man has ever set foot in the island1 for smoke and mist hang over it perpetually2 but from out the mist you may hear the sound of the barking of dogs1 the grunting of swine1 and the crowing of cocks1 which seems to shew that in the opinion of these people animals have immortal souls as well as men4 ,the natives of the ,siasi islands say that the newly arrived ghosts may often be seen strolling on the beach2 sometimes the people can even recognise the familiar features of friends with whom they did business in the flesh4 ,the mode in which the spirits of the dead arrive at their destination from the mainland is naturally by a ferry3 indeed1 the prow of the ghostly ferry-boat may be seen to this day in the village of ,bogiseng4 ,the way in which it came to be found there was this4 ,a man of the village lay dying1 and on his deathbed he promised to give his friends a sign of his continued existence after death by appearing as a ghost in their midst4 ,only he stipulated that in order to enable him to do so they would place a stone club in the hand of his corpse4 ,this was done4 ,he died1 the club was placed in his cold hand1 and his sorrowing but hopeful relations awaited results4 ,they had not very long to wait4 ,for no sooner had the ghost1 armed with the stone club1 stepped down to the sea-shore than he called imperiously for the ferry-boat4 ,it soon hove in sight1 with the ghostly ferryman in it paddling to the beach to receive the passenger4 ,but when the prow grated on the pebbles1 the artful ghost1 instead of stepping into it as he should have done1 lunged out at it with the stone club so forcibly that he broke the prow clean off4 ,in a rage the ferryman roared out to him1 ,i won't put you across6 ,you and your people shall be kangaroos4 ,the ghost had gained his point4 ,he turned back from the ferry and brought to his friends as a trophy the prow of the ghostly canoe1 which is treasured in the village to this day4 ,i should add that the prow in question bears a suspicious resemblance to a powder-horn which has been floating about for some time in the water2 but no doubt this resemblance is purely fortuitous and without any deep significance4 ,sidenote3 ,transmigration of human souls into animals4 ,from this veracious narrative we gather that sometimes the souls of the dead1 instead of going away to the spirit-land1 transmigrate into the bodies of animals4 ,the case of the kangaroos is not singular4 ,in the village of ,simbang ,mr4 ,vetter knows two families1 of whom the ghosts pass at death into the carcases of crocodiles and a species of fabulous pigs respectively4 ,hence members of the one family are careful not to injure crocodiles1 lest the souls of their dead should chance to be lodged in the reptiles2 and the members of the other family would be equally careful not to hurt the fabulous pigs if ever they fell in with them4 ,however1 the crocodile people1 not to be behind their neighbours1 assert that after death their spirits can also roam about the wood as ghosts and go to the spirit-land4 ,in explanation they say that every human being has two souls2 one of them is his reflection on the water1 the other is his shadow on the land4 ,no doubt it is the water-soul which goes to the island of ,siasi1 while the land-soul is free to occupy the body of a crocodile1 a kangaroo1 or some other animal4#dje ,sidenote3 ,return of the ghosts4 ,but even when the ghosts have departed to their island home1 they are by no means strictly confined to it4 ,they can return1 especially at night1 to roam about the woods and the villages1 and the living are very much afraid of them1 for the ghosts delight in doing mischief4 ,it is especially in the first few days after a death that the ghost is an object of terror1 for he is then still loitering about the village4 ,during these days everybody is afraid to go alone into the forest for fear of meeting him1 and if a dog or a pig strays in the wood and is lost1 the people make sure that the ghost has made off with the animal1 and the aggrieved owners roundly abuse the sorrowing family1 telling them that their old father or mother1 as the case may be1 is no better than a thief4 ,they are also very unwilling to mention the names of dead persons1 imagining that were the ghost to hear his name pronounced he might fancy he was being called for and might accordingly suspend his habitual occupation of munching sour fruits in the forest to come and trouble the living4 ,sidenote3 ,offerings to ghosts4 ,hence in order to keep the short-tempered ghost in good humour by satisfying his wants1 lest he should think himself neglected and wreak his vexation on the survivors1 the people go a-fishing after a death1 or they kill a pig or a dog2 sometimes also they cut down a fruit-tree4 ,but it is only the souls of the animals which are destined for the consumption of the ghost2 their bodies are roasted and eaten by the living4 ,on a grave you may sometimes see a small basket suspended from a stick2 but if you look into it you will find nothing but a little soot and some fish scales1 which is all that remains of the fried fish4 ,sidenote3 ,ghosts provided with fire4 ,the ,yabim also imagine that the ghost has need of fire to guide him to the door of the man who has done him to death by sorcery4 ,accordingly they provide the spirit with this necessary as follows4 ,on the evening of the day on which the body has been buried1 they kindle a fire on a potsherd and heap dry leaves on it4 ,as they do so they mention the names of all the sorcerers they can think of1 and he at whose name the smouldering leaves burst into a bright flame is the one who has done the deed4 ,having thus ascertained the true cause of death1 beyond reach of cavil1 they proceed to light up the ghost to the door of his murderer4 ,for this purpose a procession is formed4 ,a man1 holding the smouldering fire in the potsherd with one hand and a bundle of straw with the other1 leads the way4 ,he is followed by another who draws droning notes from a water-bottle of the deceased1 which he finally smashes4 ,after these two march a number of young fellows who make a plumping sound by smacking their thighs with the hollow of their hands4 ,this solemn procession wends its way to a path in the neighbouring forest4 ,by this time the shades of night have fallen4 ,the firebearer now sets the fire on the ground and calls on the ghost to come and take it4 ,they firmly believe that he does so and that having got it he hies away to cast the glowing embers down at the door of the man who has done him to death4 ,they even fancy they see the flickering light carried by the invisible hand retreating through the shadows into the depth of the forest2 and in order to follow it with their eyes they will sometimes climb tall trees or launch a canoe and put out to sea1 gazing intently at the glimmering ray till it vanishes from their sight in the darkness4 ,perhaps the gleam of fire-flies1 which abound in these tropical forests1 or the flashing of a meteor1 as it silently drops from the starry heaven into the sea1 may serve to feed this superstitious fancy4#djf ,sidenote3 ,ghosts thought to help in the cultivation of the land4 ,but the spirits of the dead are supposed to be able to help as well as harm the living4 ,good crops and a successful hunt are attributed to their influence4 ,it is especially the spirits of the ancient owners of the land who are credited with the power of promoting the growth of the crops4 ,hence when a clearing has been made in the forest and planted with taro1 and the plants are shewing a good head of leaves1 preparations are made to feast the ghosts of the people to whom the land belonged in days gone by4 ,for this purpose a sago-palm is cut down1 sago-porridge made1 and a wild boar killed4 ,then the men arrayed in all their finery march out in solemn procession by day to the taro field2 and the leader invites the spirits in a loud voice to come to the village and partake of the sago-porridge and pork that have been made ready for them4 ,but the invisible guests content themselves as usual with snuffing up the fragrant smell of the roast pork and the steam of the porridge2 the substance of these dainties is consumed by the living4 ,yet the help which the ghosts give in the cultivation of the land would seem to be conceived as a purely negative one2 the offerings are made to them for the purpose of inducing them to keep away and not injure the growing crops4 ,it is also believed that the ghosts of the dead make communications to the living in dreams or by whistling1 and even that they can bring things to their friends and relations4 ,but on the whole1 ,mr4 ,vetter tells us1 the dominant attitude of the living to the dead is one of fear2 the power of the ghosts is oftener exerted for evil than for good4#djg ,the ghost of a murdered man in particular is dreaded1 because he is believed to haunt his murderer and to do him a mischief4 ,hence they drive away such a dangerous ghost with shouts and the beating of drums2 and by way of facilitating his departure they launch a model of a canoe1 laden with taro and tobacco1 in order to transport him with all comfort to the land of souls4#djh ,sidenote3 ,burial and mourning customs among the ,yabim4 ,among the ,yabim the dead are usually buried in shallow graves close to the houses where they died4 ,some trifles are laid with the body in the grave1 in order that the dead man or woman may have the use of them in the other world4 ,but any valuables that may be deposited with the corpse are afterwards dug up and appropriated by the survivors4 ,if the deceased was the householder himself or his wife1 the house is almost always deserted1 however solidly it may be built4 ,the reason for thus abandoning so valuable a piece of property is not mentioned2 but we may assume that the motive is a fear of the ghost1 who is supposed to haunt his old home4 ,a temporary hut is built on the grave1 and in it the family of the deceased take up their abode for six weeks or more2 here they cook1 eat1 and sleep4 ,a widower sits in a secluded corner by himself1 invisible to all and unwashed2 during the period of full mourning he may not shew himself in the village4 ,when he does come forth again1 he wears a mourning hat made of bark in the shape of a cylinder without crown or brim2 a widow wears a great ugly net1 which wraps her up almost completely from the head to the knees4 ,sometimes in memory of the deceased they wear a lock of his hair or a bracelet4 ,other relations wear cords round their necks in sign of mourning4 ,the period of mourning varies greatly2 it may last for months or even years4 ,sometimes the bodies of beloved children or persons who have been much respected are not buried but tied up in bundles and set up in a house until the flesh has quite mouldered away2 then the skull and the bones of the arms and legs are anointed1 painted red1 and preserved for a time4 ,mr4 ,vetter records the case of a chief whose corpse was thus preserved in the assembly-house of the village1 after it had been dried over a fire4 ,when it had been reduced to a mummy1 the skull and the arm-bones and leg-bones were detached1 oiled1 and reddened1 and then kept for some years in the house of the chief's eldest son1 till finally they were deposited in the grave of a kinsman4 ,in some of the inland villages of this part of ,new ,guinea the widow is sometimes throttled by her relations at the death of her husband1 in order that she may accompany him to the other world4#dji ,sidenote3 ,deaths attributed by the ,yabim to sorcery4 ,the ,yabim believe that except in the case of very old people every death is caused by sorcery2 hence when anybody has departed this life1 his relations make haste to discover the wicked sorcerer who has killed their kinsman4 ,for that purpose they have recourse to various forms of divination4 ,one of them has been already described1 but they have others4 ,for example1 they put a powder like sulphur in a piece of bamboo tube and kindle a fire under it4 ,then an old man takes a bull-roarer and taps with it on the bamboo tube1 naming all the sorcerers in the neighbouring villages4 ,he at the mention of whose name the fire catches the powder and blazes up is the guilty man4 ,another way of detecting the culprit is to attach the feather of a bird of paradise to a staff and give the staff to two men to hold upright between the palms of their right hands4 ,then somebody names the sorcerers1 and he at whose name the staff turns round and the feather points downwards is the one who caused the death4 ,when the avengers of blood1 wrought up to a high pitch of fury1 fall in with the family of the imaginary criminal1 they may put the whole of them to death lest the sons should afterwards avenge their father's murder by the black art4 ,sometimes a dangerous and dreaded sorcerer will be put out of the way with the connivance of the chief of his own village2 and after a few days the murderers will boldly shew themselves in the village where the crime was perpetrated and will reassure the rest of the people1 saying1 ,be still4 ,the wicked man has been taken off4 ,no harm will befall you4#daj ,sidenote3 ,bull-roarers 7balum74 ,initiation of young men4 ,it is very significant that the word balum1 which means a ghost1 is applied by the ,yabim to the instrument now generally known among anthropologists as a bull-roarer4 ,it is a small fish-shaped piece of wood which1 being tied to a string and whirled rapidly round1 produces a humming or booming sound like the roaring of a bull or the muttering of distant thunder4 ,instruments of this sort are employed by savages in many parts of the world at their mysteries2 the weird sound which the implement makes when swung is supposed by the ignorant and uninitiated to be the voice of a spirit and serves to impress them with a sense of awe and mystery4 ,so it is with the ,papuans about ,finsch ,harbour1 with whom we are at present concerned4 ,at least one such bull-roarer is kept in the lum or bachelors' clubhouse of every village1 and the women and uninitiated boys are forbidden to see it under pain of death4 ,the instrument plays a great part in the initiation of young men1 which takes place at intervals of several years1 when there are a number of youths ready to be initiated1 and enough pigs can be procured to furnish forth the feasts which form an indispensable part of the ceremony4 ,the principal initiatory rite consists of circumcision1 which is performed on all youths before they are admitted to the rank of full-grown men4 ,the age of the candidates varies considerably1 from four years up to twenty4 ,many are married before they are initiated4 ,the operation is performed in the forest1 and the procession of the youths to the place appointed is attended by a number of men swinging bull-roarers4 ,as the procession sets out1 the women look on from a distance1 weeping and howling1 for they are taught to believe that the lads1 their sons and brothers1 are about to be swallowed up by a monster called a balum or ghost1 who will only release them from his belly on condition of receiving a sufficient number of roast pigs4 ,how1 then1 can the poor women be sure that they will ever see their dear ones again8 ,so amid the noise of weeping and wailing the procession passes into the forest1 and the booming sound of the bull-roarers dies away in the distance4 ,sidenote3 ,the rite of circumcision2 the lads supposed to be swallowed by a monster 7balum74 ,the sacred flutes4 ,the place where the operation is performed on the lads is a long hut1 about a hundred feet in length1 which diminishes in height towards the rear4 ,this represents the belly of the monster which is to swallow up the candidates4 ,to keep up the delusion a pair of great eyes are painted over the entrance1 and above them the projecting roots of a betel-palm represent the monster's hair1 while the trunk of the tree passes for his backbone4 ,as the awe-struck lads approach this imposing creature1 he is heard from time to time to utter a growl4 ,the growl is in fact no other than the humming note of bull-roarers swung by men1 who are concealed within the edifice4 ,when the procession has come to a halt in front of the artificial monster1 a loud defiant blast blown on shell-trumpets summons him to stand forth4 ,the reply follows in the shape of another muffled roar of the bull-roarers from within the building4 ,at the sound the men say that ,balum is coming up1 and they raise a shrill song like a scream and sacrifice pigs to the monster in order to induce him to spare the lives of the candidates4 ,when the operation has been performed on the lads1 they must remain in strict seclusion for three or four months1 avoiding all contact with women and even the sight of them4 ,they live in the long hut1 which represents the monster's belly1 and their food is brought them by elder men4 ,their leisure time is spent in weaving baskets and playing on certain sacred flutes1 which are never used except at such seasons4 ,the instruments are of two patterns4 ,one is called the male and the other the female1 and they are supposed to be married to each other4 ,no woman may see these mysterious flutes2 if she did she would die4 ,even if she hears their shrill note in the distance1 she will hasten to hide herself in a thicket4 ,when the initiatory ceremonies are over1 the flutes are carefully kept in the men's clubhouse of the village till the next time they are wanted for a similar occasion4 ,on the other hand1 if the women are obliged to go near the place where the lads are living in seclusion1 they beat on certain bamboo drums in order to warn them to keep out of the way4 ,sometimes1 though perhaps rarely1 one of the lads dies under the operation2 in that case the men explain his disappearance to the women by saying that the monster has a pig's stomach as well as a human stomach1 and that unfortunately the deceased young man slipped by mistake into the wrong stomach and so perished miserably4 ,but as a rule the candidates pass into the right stomach and after a sufficient period has been allowed for digestion1 they come forth safe and sound1 the monster having kindly consented to let them go free in consideration of the roast pigs which have been offered to him by the men4 ,indeed he is not very exacting1 for he contents himself with devouring the souls of the pigs1 while he leaves their bodies to be consumed by his worshippers4 ,this is a kindly and considerate way of dealing with sacrifice1 which our ,new ,guinea ghost or monster shares with many deities of much higher social pretensions4 ,however1 lest he should prove refractory and perhaps run away with the poor young men in his inside1 or possibly make a dart at any women or children who might be passing1 the men take the precaution of tying him down tight with ropes4 ,when the time of seclusion is up1 one of the last acts in the long series of ceremonies is to cast off the ropes and let the monster go free4 ,he avails himself of his liberty to return to his subterranean abode1 and the young men are brought back to the village with much solemnity4 ,sidenote3 ,the return of the novices to the village4 ,an eye-witness has described the ceremony4 ,the lads1 now ranking as full-grown men1 were first bathed in the sea and then elaborately decorated with paint and so forth4 ,in marching back to the village they had to keep their eyes tightly shut1 and each of them was led by a man who acted as a kind of god-father4 ,as the procession moved on1 an old bald-headed man touched each boy solemnly on the chin and brow with a bull-roarer4 ,in the village preparations for a banquet had meanwhile been made1 and the women and girls were waiting in festal attire4 ,the women were much moved at the return of the lads2 they sobbed and tears of joy ran down their cheeks4 ,arrived in the village the newly-initiated lads were drawn up in a row and fresh palm leaves were spread in front of them4 ,here they stood with closed eyes1 motionless as statues4 ,then a man passed behind them1 touching each of them in the hams with the handle of an axe and saying1 ,o circumcised one1 sit down4 ,but still the lads remained standing1 stiff and motionless4 ,not till another man had knocked repeatedly on the ground with the stalk of a palm-leaf1 crying1 ,o circumcised ones1 open your eyes6 did the youths1 one after another1 open their eyes as if awaking from a profound stupor4 ,then they sat down on the mats and partook of the food brought them by the men4 ,young and old now ate in the open air4 ,next morning the circumcised lads were bathed in the sea and painted red instead of white4 ,after that they might talk to women4 ,this was the end of the ceremony4#daa ,sidenote3 ,the essence of the initiatory rites seems to be a simulation of death and resurrection2 the novice is supposed to be killed and to come to life or be born again4 ,the new birth among the ,akikuyu of ,british ,east ,africa4 ,the meaning of these curious ceremonies observed on the return of the lads to the village is not explained by the writer who describes them2 but the analogy of similar ceremonies observed at initiation by many other races allows us to divine it with a fair degree of probability4 ,as ,i have already observed in a former lecture1 the ceremony of initiation at puberty is very often regarded as a process of death and resurrection2 the candidate is supposed to die or to be killed and to come to life again or be born again2 and the pretence of a new birth is not uncommonly kept up by the novices feigning to have forgotten all the most common actions of life and having accordingly to learn them all over again like newborn babes4 ,we may conjecture that this is why the young circumcised ,papuans1 with whom we are at present concerned1 march back to their village with closed eyes2 this is why1 when bidden to sit down1 they remain standing stiffly1 as if they understood neither the command nor the action2 and this1 too1 we may surmise1 is why their mothers and sisters receive them with a burst of emotion1 as if their dead had come back to them from the grave4 ,this interpretation of the ceremony is confirmed by a curious rite which is observed by the ,akikuyu of ,british ,east ,africa4 ,amongst them every boy or girl at or about the age of ten years has solemnly to pretend to be born again1 not in a moral or religious1 but in a physical sense4 ,the mother of the child1 or1 if she is dead1 some other woman1 goes through an actual pantomime of bringing forth the boy or girl4 ,i will spare you the details of the pantomime1 which is very graphic1 and will merely mention that the bouncing infant squalls like a newborn babe4 ,now this ceremony of the new birth was formerly enacted among the ,akikuyu at the rite of circumcision1 though the two ceremonies are now kept distinct4#dab ,hence it is not very rash to conjecture that the ceremony performed by the young ,papuans of ,finsch ,harbour on their return to the village after undergoing circumcision is merely a way of keeping up the pretence of being born again and of being therefore as ignorant and helpless as babes4 ,sidenote3 ,the mock death of the novices as a preliminary to the mock birth4 ,but if the end of the initiation is a mock resurrection1 or rather new birth1 as it certainly seems to be1 we may infer with some confidence that the first part of it1 namely the act of circumcision1 is a mock death4 ,this is borne out by the explicit statement of a very good authority1 ,mr4 ,vetter1 that the circumcision is designated as a process of being swallowed by the spirit1 out of whose stomach 7represented by a long hut7 the release must take place by means of a sacrifice of pigs4#dac ,and it is further confirmed by the observation that both the spirit which is supposed to operate on the lads1 and the bull-roarer1 which apparently represents his voice1 are known by the name of balum1 which means the ghost or spirit of a dead person4 ,similarly1 among the ,tugeri or ,kaya-,kaya1 a large ,papuan tribe on the south coast of ,dutch ,new ,guinea1 the name of the bull-roarer1 which they call sosom1 is given to a mythical giant1 who is supposed to appear every year with the south-east monsoon4 ,when he comes1 a festival is held in his honour and bull-roarers are swung4 ,boys are presented to the giant1 and he kills them1 but brings them to life again4#dad ,thus the initiatory rite of circumcision1 to which all lads have to submit among the ,yabim1 seems to be closely bound up with their conception of death and with their belief in a life after death2 since the whole ceremony apparently consists in a simulation of dying and coming to life again4 ,that is why ,i have touched upon these initiatory rites1 which at first sight might appear to have no connexion with our immediate subject1 the belief in immortality and the worship of the dead4 ,sidenote3 ,general summary as to the ,yabim4 ,on the whole we may say that the ,yabim have a very firm and practical belief in a life after death1 and that while their attitude to the spirits of the departed is generally one of fear1 they nevertheless look to these spirits also for information and help on various occasions4 ,thus their beliefs and practices contain at least in germ the elements of a worship of the dead4 ,footnote #cid3 ,stolz1 ,die ,umgebung von ,kap ,koenig ,wilhelm1 in ,r4 ,neuhauss's ,deutsch ,new-,guinea 7,berlin1 #aiaa71 iii4 #bdc-bhf4 ,footnote #cie3 ,stolz1 op4 cit4 pp4 #beb-bed4 ,footnote #cif3 ,stolz1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bde-bdg4 ,footnote #cig3 ,stolz1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bdg sq4 ,footnote #cih3 ,stolz1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bdh-bej4 ,footnote #cii3 ,stolz1 op4 cit4 p4 #beh4 ,footnote #djj3 ,stolz1 op4 cit4 p4 #bei4 ,footnote #dja3 ,k4 ,vetter1 in ,komm herueber und hilf uns6 oder die ,arbeit der ,neuen-,dettelsauer ,mission1 ,nos4 #a-d 7,barmen1 #ahih72 id41 in ,nachrichten ueber ,kaiser ,wilhelms-,land1 #ahig1 pp4 #hf-ajb2 id41 in ,mitteilungen der ,geographischen ,gesellschaft zu ,jena1 xi4 7,jena1 #ahib7 pp4 #ajb-ajf2 id41 in ,mitteilungen der ,geographischen ,gesellschaft zu ,jena1 xii4 7,jena1 #ahic7 pp4 #ie-ig2 ,h4 ,zahn1 ,die ,jabim1 in ,r4 ,neuhauss's ,deutsch ,neu-,guinea1 iii 7,berlin1 #aiaa7 pp4 #bhg-cid4 ,footnote #djb3 ,k4 ,vetter1 ,komm herueber und hilf uns6 ii4 7,barmen1 #ahih7 pp4 #f-ab4 ,footnote #djc3 ,k4 ,vetter1 op4 cit4 ii4 #h2 ,h4 ,zahn1 ,die ,jabim1 in ,r4 ,neuhauss's ,deutsch ,neu-,guinea1 iii4 #bia1 #cjh1 #caa4 ,footnote #djd3 ,h4 ,zahn1 op4 cit4 iii4 #bia4 ,footnote #dje3 ,k4 ,vetter1 ,komm herueber und hilf uns6 iii4 #ba sq4 ,according to ,mr4 ,h4 ,zahn 7op4 cit4 p4 #cbd7 every village has its own entrance into the spirit-land4 ,footnote #djf3 ,k4 ,vetter1 ,komm herueber und hilf uns6 iii4 #ai-bd2 id41 in ,mitteilungen der ,geographischen ,gesellschaft zu ,jena1 xii4 7#ahic7 pp4 #if sq4 ,footnote #djg3 ,k4 ,vetter1 ,komm herueber und hilf uns6 ii4 #g1 iii4 #bd2 id41 in ,nachrichten ueber ,kaiser ,wilhelms-,land und den ,bismarck-,archipel1 #ahig1 p4 #id4 ,footnote #djh3 ,k4 ,vetter1 in ,nachrichten ueber ,kaiser ,wilhelms-,land1 #ahig1 p4 #id4 ,footnote #dji3 ,k4 ,vetter1 in ,nachrichten ueber ,kaiser ,wilhelms-,land1 #ahig1 pp4 #id sq42 id41 ,komm herueber und hilf uns6 iii4 #ae-ai4 ,compare ,h4 ,zahn1 ,die ,jabim1 in ,r4 ,neuhauss's ,deutsch ,neu-,guinea1 iii4 #cbj sq4 ,footnote #daj3 ,h4 ,zahn1 ,die ,jabim1 in ,r4 ,neuhauss's ,deutsch ,neu-,guinea1 iii4 #cah-cbj4 ,footnote #daa3 ,k4 ,vetter1 in ,nachrichten ueber ,kaiser ,wilhelms-,land und den ,bismarck-,archipel1 #ahig1 pp4 #ib sq42 id41 in ,mitteilungen der ,geographischen ,gesellschaft zu ,jena1 xi4 7#ahib7 p4 #aje2 id41 ,komm herueber und hilf uns6 ii4 7#ahih7 p4 #ah2 id41 cited by ,m4 ,krieger1 ,neu-,guinea1 pp4 #afg-agj2 ,o4 ,schellong1 ,das ,barlum 7sic7-fest der ,gegend ,finsch-hafens 7,kaiserwilhelmsland71 ein ,beitrag zur ,kenntniss der ,beschneidung der ,melanesier1 ,internationales ,archiv fuer ,ethnographie1 ii4 7#ahhi7 pp4 #ade-afb2 ,h4 ,zahn1 ,die ,jabim1 in ,r4 ,neuhauss's ,deutsch ,neu-,guinea1 iii4 #bif-bih4 ,footnote #dab3 ,w4 ,s4 ,routledge and ,k4 ,routledge1 ,with a ,prehistoric ,people1 the ,akikuyu of ,british ,east ,africa 7,london1 #aiaj71 pp4 #aea sq4 ,compare ,totemism and ,exogamy1 iv4 #bbh2 ,c4 ,w4 ,hobley1 ,kikuyu ,customs and ,beliefs1 ,journal of the ,royal ,anthropological ,institute1 xl4 7#aiaj7 pp4 #ddj sq4 ,footnote #dac3 ,k4 ,vetter1 in ,nachrichten ueber ,kaiser ,wilhelmsland und den ,bismarck-,archipel1 #ahig1 p4 #ic4 ,footnote #dad3 ,r4 ,poech1 ,vierter ,bericht ueber meine ,reise nach ,neu-,guinea1 ,sitzungsberichte der mathematisch-naturwissenschaftlichen ,klasse der ,kaiserlichen ,akademie der ,wissenschaften 7,vienna71 cxv4 7#aijf7 ,abteilung #a1 pp4 #ija1 #ijb4 ,,lecture ,,xii ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,natives ,,of ,,german ,,new ,,guinea 7continued7 ,sidenote3 ,the ,bukaua of ,german ,new ,guinea4 ,in the last lecture ,i described the beliefs and practices concerning the dead as they are to be found among the ,yabim of ,german ,new ,guinea4 ,to-day we begin with the ,bukaua1 a kindred and neighbouring tribe1 which occupies the coast lands of the northern portion of ,huon ,gulf from ,schollenbruch ,point to ,samoa ,harbour4 ,the language which the ,bukaua speak belongs1 like the language of the ,yabim1 to the ,melanesian1 not to the ,papuan family4 ,their customs and beliefs have been reported by a ,german missionary1 ,mr4 ,stefan ,lehner1 whose account ,i follow4#dae ,in many respects they closely resemble those of their neighbours the ,yabim4 ,sidenote3 ,means of subsistence of the ,bukaua4 ,men's clubhouses4 ,the ,bukaua are an agricultural people who subsist mainly on the crops of taro which they raise4 ,but they also cultivate many kinds of bananas and vegetables1 together with sugar-cane1 sago1 and tobacco4 ,from time to time they cut down and burn the forest in order to obtain fresh fields for cultivation4 ,the land is not held in common4 ,each family has its own fields and patches of forest1 and would resent the intrusion of others on their hereditary domain4 ,hunting and fishing supply them with animal food to eke out the vegetable nourishment which they draw from their fields and plantations4#daf ,every village contains one or more of the men's clubhouses which are a common feature in the social life of the tribes on this coast4 ,in these clubhouses the young men are obliged to sleep1 and on the platforms in front of them the older men hold their councils4 ,such a clubhouse is called a lum4#dag ,sidenote3 ,beliefs of the ,bukaua concerning the souls of the dead4 ,sickness and disease attributed to ghostly agency4 ,the ,bukaua have a firm belief in the existence of the human soul after death4 ,they think that a man's soul can even quit his body temporarily in his lifetime during sleep or a swoon1 and that in its disembodied state it can appear to people at a distance2 but such apparitions are regarded as omens of approaching death1 when the soul will depart for good and all4 ,the soul of a dead man is called a balum4 ,the spirits of the departed are believed to be generally mischievous and spiteful to the living1 but they can be appeased by sacrifice1 and other measures can be taken to avert their dangerous influence4#dah ,they are very touchy1 and if they imagine that they are not honoured enough by their kinsfolk1 and that the offerings made to them are insufficient1 they will avenge the slight by visiting their disrespectful and stingy relatives with sickness and disease4 ,among the maladies which the natives ascribe to the anger of ghosts are epilepsy1 fainting fits1 and wasting decline4#dai ,when a man suffers from a sore which he believes to have been inflicted on him by a ghost1 he will take a stone from the fence of the grave and heat it in the fire1 saying3 ,father1 see1 thou hast gone1 ,i am left1 ,i must till the land in thy stead and care for my brothers and sisters4 ,do me good again4 ,then he dips the hot stone in a puddle on the grave1 and holds his sore in the steam which rises from it4 ,his pain is eased thereby and he explains the alleviation which he feels by saying1 ,the spirit of the dead man has eaten up the wound4#dbj ,sidenote3 ,sickness and death often ascribed by the ,bukaua to sorcery4 ,but like most savages the ,bukaua attribute many illnesses and many deaths not to the wrath of ghosts but to the malignant arts of sorcerers2 and in such cases they usually endeavour by means of divination to ascertain the culprit and to avenge the death of their friend by taking the life of his imaginary murderer4#dba ,if they fail to exact vengeance1 the ghost is believed to be very angry1 and they must be on their guard against him4 ,he may meet them anywhere1 but is especially apt to dog the footsteps of the sorcerer who killed him4 ,hence when on the occasion of a great feast the sorcerer comes to the village of his victim1 the surviving relatives of the dead man are at particular pains to protect themselves and their property against the insidious attacks of the prowling ghost4 ,for this purpose they bury a creeper with white blossoms in the path leading to the village2 the ghost is thought to be filled with fear at the sight of it and to turn back1 leaving his kinsfolk1 their dogs1 and pigs in peace4#dbb ,sidenote3 ,fear of the ghosts of the slain4 ,another class of ghosts who are much dreaded are the spirits of slain foes4 ,they are believed to pursue their slayers to the village and to blind them so that sooner or later they fall an easy prey to their enemies4 ,hence when a party of warriors has returned home from a successful attack on a village1 in which they have butchered all on whom they could lay their hands1 they kindle a great fire1 dance wildly about it1 and hurl burning brands in the direction of the battlefield in order to keep the ghosts of their slaughtered foes at bay4 ,phosphorescent lights seen under the houses throw the inmates into great alarm1 for they are thought to be the souls of the slain4 ,sometimes the vanquished in battle resort to a curious ruse for the purpose of avenging themselves on the victors by means of a ghost4 ,they take the sleeping-mat of one of the slain1 roll it up in a bundle along with his loin-cloth1 apron1 netted bag1 or head-rest1 and give the bundle to two cripples to carry4 ,then they steal quietly to the landing-place of their foes1 peering warily about lest they should be observed4 ,the bundle represents the dead man1 and the cripples who carry it reel to and fro1 and finally sink to the ground with their burden4 ,in this way the ghost of the victim1 whose things are carried in the bundle1 is supposed to make their enemies weak and tottery4 ,strong young men are not given the bundle to carry1 lest the ghost should spoil their manly figures2 whereas if he should wound or maim a couple of poor cripples1 no great harm is done4#dbc ,sidenote3 ,ghosts of ancestors appealed to for help1 especially in the cultivation of the ground4 ,first-fruits offered to the spirits of the dead4 ,however1 the ,bukaua also look on the ghosts of their ancestors in a more amiable light as beings who1 if properly appealed to1 can and will help them in the affairs of life1 especially by procuring for them good crops4 ,hence when they are planting their fields1 which are formed in clearings of the forest1 they take particular care to insert shoots of all their crops in the ground near the tree stumps which remain standing1 because the souls of their dead grandfathers and great-grandfathers are believed to be sitting on the stumps watching their descendants at their work4 ,accordingly in the act of planting they call out the names of these forefathers and pray them to guard the field in order that their living children may have food and not suffer from hunger4 ,and at harvest1 when the first-fruits of the taro1 bananas1 sugar-cane1 and so forth have been brought back from the fields1 a portion of them is offered in a bowl to the spirits of the forefathers in the house of the landowner1 and the spirits are addressed in prayer as follows3 ,o ye who have guarded our field as we prayed you to do1 there is something for you2 now and henceforth behold us with favour4 ,while the family are feasting on the rest of the first-fruits1 the householder will surreptitiously stir the offerings in the bowl with his finger1 and will then shew the bowl to the others as a proof that the souls of the dead have really partaken of the good things provided for them4#dbd ,a hunter will also pray to his dead father to drive the wild pigs into his net4#dbe ,sidenote3 ,burial and mourning customs of the ,bukaua4 ,the ,bukaua bury their dead in shallow graves1 which are sometimes dug under the houses but more usually in front of or beside them4 ,along with the corpses are deposited bags of taro1 nuts1 drinking-vessels1 and other articles of daily use4 ,only the stone axes are too valuable to be thus sacrificed4 ,over the grave is erected a rude hut in which the widower1 if the deceased was a married woman1 remains for a time in seclusion4 ,a widow on the death of her husband remains in the house4 ,widow and widower may not shew themselves in public until they have prepared their mourning costume4 ,the widower wears a black hat made of bark1 cords round his neck1 wicker work on his arms and feet1 and a torn old bracelet of his wife in a bag on his breast4 ,a widow is completely swathed in nets1 one over the other1 and she carries about with her the loincloth of her deceased husband4 ,the souls of the dead dwell in a subterranean region called lamboam1 and their life there seems to resemble life here on earth2 but the ideas of the people on the subject are very vague4#dbf ,sidenote3 ,initiation of young men among the ,bukaua4 ,lads at circumcision supposed to be swallowed by a monster4 ,the customs and beliefs of the ,bukaua in regard to the initiation of young men are practically identical with those of their neighbours the ,yabim4 ,indeed the initiatory ceremonies are performed by the tribes jointly1 now in the territory of the ,bukaua1 now in the territory of the ,yabim1 or in the land of the ,kai1 a tribe of mountaineers1 or again in the neighbouring ,tami islands4 ,the intervals between the ceremonies vary from ten to eighteen years4#dbg ,the central feature of the initiatory rites is the circumcision of the novices4 ,it is given out that the lads are swallowed by a ferocious monster called a balum1 who1 however1 is induced by the sacrifice of many pigs to vomit them up again4 ,in spewing them out of his maw he bites or scratches them1 and the wound so inflicted is circumcision4 ,this explanation of the rite is fobbed off on the women1 who more or less believe it and weep accordingly when their sons are led away to be committed to the monster's jaws4 ,and when the time for the ceremony is approaching1 the fond mothers busy themselves with rearing and fattening young pigs1 so that they may be able with them to redeem their loved ones from the belly of the ravenous beast2 for he must have a pig for every boy4 ,when a lad bleeds to death from the effect of the operation1 he is secretly buried1 and his sorrowful mother is told that the monster swallowed him and refused to bring him up again4 ,what really happens is that the youths are shut up for several months in a house specially built for the purpose in the village4 ,during their seclusion they are under the charge of guardians1 usually two young men1 and must observe strictly a rule of fasting and chastity4 ,when they are judged to be ready to undergo the rite1 they are led forth and circumcised in front of the house amid a prodigious uproar made by the swinging of bull-roarers4 ,the noise is supposed to be the voice of the monster who swallows and vomits up the novice at circumcision4 ,the bull-roarer as well as the monster bears the name of balum1 and the building in which the novices are lodged before and after the operation is called the monster's house 7balumslum74 ,after they have been circumcised the lads remain in the house for several months till their wounds are healed2 then1 painted and bedizened with all the ornaments that can be collected1 they are brought back and restored to their joyful mothers4 ,women must vacate the village for a long time while the initiatory ceremonies are being performed4#dbh ,sidenote3 ,novices at circumcision supposed to be killed and then restored to a new and higher life4 ,the meaning of the whole rite1 as ,i pointed out in dealing with the similar initiatory rite of the ,yabim1 appears to be that the novices are killed and then restored to a new and better life2 for after their initiation they rank no longer as boys but as full-grown men1 entitled to all the privileges of manhood and citizenship1 if we can speak of such a thing as citizenship among the savages of ,new ,guinea4 ,this interpretation of the rite is supported by the notable fact that the ,bukaua1 like the ,yabim1 give the name of balum to the souls of the dead as well as to the mythical monster and to the bull-roarer2 this shews how intimately the three things are associated in their minds4 ,indeed not only is the bull-roarer in general associated with the souls of the dead by a community of name1 but among the ,bukaua each particular bull-roarer bears in addition the name of a particular dead man and varies in dignity and importance with the dignity and importance of the deceased person whom it represents4 ,the most venerated of all are curiously carved and have been handed down for generations2 they bear the names of famous warriors or magicians of old and are supposed to reproduce the personal peculiarities of the celebrated originals in their shape and tones4 ,and there are smaller bull-roarers which emit shriller notes and are thought to represent the shrill-voiced wives of the ancient heroes4#dbi ,sidenote3 ,the ,kai tribe of ,saddle ,mountain in ,german ,new ,guinea4 ,the land of the ,kai4 ,their mode of cultivation4 ,their villages4 ,the ,bukaua and the ,yabim1 the two tribes with which ,i have been dealing in this and the last lecture1 inhabit1 as ,i have said1 the coast about ,finsch ,harbour and speak a ,melanesian language4 ,we now pass from them to the consideration of another people1 belonging to a different stock and speaking a different language1 who inhabit the rugged and densely wooded mountains inland from ,finsch ,harbour4 ,their neighbours on the coast call these mountaineers by the name of ,kai1 a word which signifies forest or inland in opposition to the seashore2 and this name of the tribe we may adopt1 following the example of a ,german missionary1 ,mr4 ,ch4 ,keysser1 who has laboured among them for more than eleven years and has given us an excellent description of their customs and beliefs4 ,his account applies particularly to the natives of what is called ,saddle ,mountain1 the part of the range which advances nearest to the coast and rises to the height of about three thousand feet4 ,it is a rough1 broken country1 cleft by many ravines and covered with forest1 bush1 or bamboo thickets2 though here and there at rare intervals some brown patches mark the clearings which the sparse inhabitants have made for the purpose of cultivation4 ,water is plentiful4 ,springs gush forth everywhere in the glens and valleys1 and rushing streams of crystal-clear water pour down the mountain sides1 and in the clefts of the hills are lonely tarns1 the undisturbed haunts of wild ducks and other water fowl4 ,during the wet season1 which extends from ,june to ,august1 the rain descends in sheets and the mountains are sometimes covered for weeks together with so thick a mist that all prospect is cut off at the distance of a hundred yards4 ,the natives are then loth to leave their huts and will spend the day crouching over a fire4 ,they are a shorter and sturdier race than the tribes on the coast2 the expression of their face is less frank and agreeable1 and their persons are very much dirtier4 ,they belong to the aboriginal ,papuan stock1 whereas the ,yabim and ,bukaua on the coast are probably immigrants from beyond the sea1 who have driven the indigenous population back into the mountains4#dcj ,their staple foods are taro and yams1 which they grow in their fields4 ,a field is cultivated for only one year at a time2 it is then allowed to lie fallow and is soon overgrown with rank underwood4 ,six or eight years may elapse before it is again cleared and brought under cultivation4 ,game and fish abound in the woods and waters1 and the ,kai make free use of these natural resources4 ,they keep pigs and dogs1 and eat the flesh of both4 ,pork is indeed a favourite viand1 figuring largely in the banquets which are held at the circumcision festivals4#dca ,the people live in small villages1 each village comprising from two to six houses4 ,the houses are raised on piles and the walls are usually constructed of pandanus leaves1 though many natives now make them of boards4 ,after eighteen months or two years the houses are so rotten and tumble-down that the village is deserted and a new one built on another site4 ,assembly-houses are erected only for the circumcision ceremonies1 and the bull-roarers used on these occasions are kept in them4 ,husband and wife live together1 often two couples in one hut2 but each family has its own side of the house and its own fireplace4 ,in times of insecurity the ,kai used to build their huts for safety among the spreading boughs of great trees4 ,a whole village1 consisting of three or four huts1 might thus be quartered on a single tree4 ,of late years1 with the peace and protection for life introduced by ,german rule1 these tree-houses have gone out of fashion4#dcb ,sidenote3 ,observations of a ,german missionary on the animistic beliefs of the ,kai4 ,after describing the manners and customs of the ,kai people at some length1 the ,german missionary1 who knows them intimately1 proceeds to give us a very valuable account of their old native religion or superstition4 ,he prefaces his account with some observations1 the fruit of long experience1 which deserve to be laid to heart by all who attempt to penetrate into the inner life1 the thoughts1 the feelings1 the motives of savages4 ,as his remarks are very germane to the subject of these lectures1 ,i will translate them4 ,he says3 ,in the preceding chapters ,i have sketched the daily life of the ,kai people4 ,but ,i have not attempted to set forth the reasons for their conduct1 which is often very peculiar and unintelligible4 ,the explanation of that conduct lies in the animistic view which the ,papuan takes of the world4 ,it must be most emphatically affirmed that nobody can judge the native aright who has not gained an insight into what we may call his religious opinions4 ,the native must be described as very religious1 although his ideas do not coincide with ours4 ,his feelings1 thoughts1 and will are most intimately connected with his belief in souls4 ,with that belief he is born1 he has sucked it in with his mother's milk1 and from the standpoint of that belief he regards the things and occurrences that meet him in life2 by that belief he regulates his behaviour4 ,an objective way of looking at events is unknown to him2 everything is brought by him into relation to his belief1 and by it he seeks to explain everything that to him seems strange and rare4#dcc ,the labyrinth of animistic customs at first sight presents an appearance of wild confusion to him who seeks to penetrate into them and reduce them to order2 but on closer inspection he will soon recognise certain guiding lines4 ,these guiding lines are the laws of animism1 which have passed into the flesh and blood of the ,papuan and influence his thought and speech1 his acts and his omissions1 his love and hate1 in short his whole life and death4 ,when once we have discovered these laws1 the whole of the superstitious nonsense falls into an orderly system which compels us to regard it with a certain respect that increases in proportion to the contempt in which we had previously held the people4 ,we need not wonder1 moreover1 that the laws of animism partially correspond to general laws of nature4#dcd ,sidenote3 ,the essential rationality of the savage4 ,thus according to ,mr4 ,keysser1 who has no theory to maintain and merely gives us in this passage the result of long personal observation1 the ,kai savages are thinking1 reasoning men1 whose conduct1 however strange and at first sight unintelligible it may appear to us1 is really based on a definite religious or if you please superstitious view of the world4 ,it is true that their theory as well as their practice differs widely from ours2 but it would be false and unjust to deny that they have a theory and that on the whole their practice squares with it4 ,similar testimony is borne to other savage races by men who have lived long among them and observed them closely2#dce and on the strength of such testimony ,i think we may lay it down as a well-established truth that savages in general1 so far as they are known to us1 have certain more or less definite theories1 whether we call them religious or philosophical1 by which they regulate their conduct1 and judged by which their acts1 however absurd they may seem to the civilised man1 are really both rational and intelligible4 ,hence it is1 in my opinion1 a profound mistake hastily to conclude that because the behaviour of the savage does not agree with our notions of what is reasonable1 natural1 and proper1 it must therefore necessarily be illogical1 the result of blind impulse rather than of deliberate thought and calculation4 ,no doubt the savage like the civilised man does often act purely on impulse2 his passions overmaster his reason1 and sweep it away before them4 ,he is probably indeed much more impulsive1 much more liable to be whirled about by gusts of emotion than we are2 yet it would be unfair to judge his life as a whole by these occasional outbursts rather than by its general tenour1 which to those who know him from long observation reveals a groundwork of logic and reason resembling our own in its operations1 though differing from ours in the premises from which it sets out4 ,i think it desirable to emphasise the rational basis of savage life because it has been the fashion of late years with some writers to question or rather deny it4 ,according to them1 if ,i understand them aright1 the savage acts first and invents his reasons1 generally very absurd reasons1 for so doing afterwards4 ,significantly enough1 the writers who argue in favour of the essential irrationality of savage conduct have none of them1 ,i believe1 any personal acquaintance with savages4 ,their conclusions are based not on observation but on purely theoretical deductions1 a most precarious foundation on which to erect a science of man or indeed of anything4 ,as such1 they cannot be weighed in the balance against the positive testimony of many witnesses who have lived for years with the savage and affirm emphatically the logical basis which underlies and explains his seeming vagaries4 ,at all events ,i for one have no hesitation in accepting the evidence of such men to matters of fact with which they are acquainted1 and ,i unhesitatingly reject all theories which directly contradict that evidence4 ,if there ever has been any race of men who invariably acted first and thought afterwards1 ,i can only say that in the course of my reading and observation ,i have never met with any trace of them1 and ,i am apt to suppose that1 if they ever existed anywhere but in the imagination of bookish dreamers1 their career must have been an exceedingly short one1 since in the struggle for existence they would surely succumb to adversaries who tempered and directed the blind fury of combat with at least a modicum of reason and sense4 ,the myth of the illogical or prelogical savage may safely be relegated to that museum of learned absurdities and abortions which speculative anthropology is constantly enriching with fresh specimens of misapplied ingenuity and wasted industry4 ,but enough of these fantasies4 ,let us return to facts4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,kai theory of the soul4 ,the life of the ,kai people1 according to ,mr4 ,keysser1 is dominated by their conception of the soul4 ,that conception differs greatly from and is very much more extensive than ours4 ,the ,kai regards his reflection and his shadow as his soul or parts of it2 hence you should not tread on a man's shadow for fear of injuring his soul4 ,the soul likewise dwells in his heart1 for he feels it beating4 ,hence if you give a native a friendly poke in the ribs1 he protests1 saying1 ,don't poke me so2 you might drive my soul out of my body1 and then ,i should die4 ,the soul moreover resides in the eye1 where you may see it twinkling2 when it departs1 the eye grows dim and vacant4 ,moreover1 the soul is in the foot as much as in the head2 it lurks even in the spittle and the other bodily excretions4 ,the soul in fact pervades the body just as warmth does2 everything that a man touches he infects1 so to say1 with his soul2 that mysterious entity exists in the very sound of his voice4 ,the sorcerer catches a man's soul by his magic1 shuts it up tight1 and destroys it4 ,then the man dies4 ,he dies because the sorcerer has killed his soul4 ,yet the ,kai believes1 whether consistently or not1 that the soul of the dead man continues to live4 ,he talks to it1 he makes offerings to it1 he seeks to win its favour in order that he may have luck in the chase2 he fears its ill-will and anger2 he gives it food to eat1 liquor to drink1 tobacco to smoke1 and betel to chew4 ,what could a reasonable ghost ask for more8#dcf ,sidenote3 ,two kinds of human souls4 ,thus1 according to ,mr4 ,keysser1 whose exposition ,i am simply reproducing1 the ,kai believes not in one nor yet in many souls belonging to each individual2 he implicitly assumes that there are two different kinds of souls4 ,one of these is the soul which survives the body at death2 in all respects it resembles the man himself as he lived on earth1 except that it has no body4 ,it is not indeed absolutely incorporeal1 but it is greatly shrunken and attenuated by death4 ,that is why the souls of the dead are so angry with the living2 they repine at their own degraded condition2 they envy the full-blooded life which the living enjoy and which the dead have lost4 ,the second kind of soul is distinguished by ,mr4 ,keysser from the former as a spiritual essence or soul-stuff1 which pervades the body as sap pervades the tree1 and which diffuses itself like corporeal warmth over everything with which the body is brought into contact4#dcg ,in these lectures we are concerned chiefly with the former kind of soul1 which is believed to survive the death of the body1 and which answers much more nearly than the second to the popular ,european conception of the soul4 ,accordingly in what follows we shall confine our attention mainly to it4 ,sidenote3 ,death thought by the ,kai to be commonly caused by sorcery4 ,like many other savages1 the ,kai do not believe in the possibility of a natural death2 they think that everybody dies through the maleficent arts of sorcerers or ghosts4 ,even in the case of old people1 we are told1 they assume the cause of death to be sorcery1 and to sorcery all misfortunes are ascribed4 ,if a man falls on the path and wounds himself to death1 as often happens1 on the jagged stump of a bamboo1 the natives conclude that he was bewitched4 ,the way in which the sorcerer brought about the catastrophe was this4 ,he obtained some object which was infected with the soul-stuff or spiritual essence of his victim2 he stuck a pile in the ground1 he spread the soul-stuff on the pile2 then he pretended to wound himself on the pile and to groan with pain4 ,anybody can see for himself that by a natural and necessary concatenation of causes this compelled the poor fellow to stumble over that jagged bamboo stump and to perish miserably4 ,again1 take the case of a hunter in the forest who is charged and ripped up by a wild boar4 ,on a superficial view of the circumstances it might perhaps occur to you that the cause of death was the boar4 ,but you would assuredly be mistaken4 ,the real cause of death was again a sorcerer1 who pounded up the soul-stuff of his victim with a boar's tooth4 ,again1 suppose that a man is bitten by a serpent and dies4 ,a shallow rationalist might say that the man died of the bite2 but the ,kai knows better4 ,he is aware that what really killed him was the sorcerer who took a pinch of his victim's soul and bunged it up tight in a tube along with the sting of a snake4 ,similarly1 if a woman dies in childbed1 or if a man hangs himself1 the cause of death is still a sorcerer operating with the appropriate means and gestures4 ,thus to make a man hang himself all that the sorcerer has to do is to get a scrap of his victim's soul--and the smallest scrap is quite enough for his purpose1 it may be a mere shred or speck of soul adhering to a hair of the man's head1 to a drop of his sweat1 or to a crumb of his food1--,i say that the sorcerer need only obtain a tiny little bit of his victim's soul1 clap it in a tube1 set the tube dangling at the end of a string1 and go through a pantomime of gurgling1 goggling and so forth1 like a man in the last stage of strangulation1 and his victim is thereby physically compelled to put his neck in the noose and hang himself in good earnest4#dch ,sidenote3 ,danger incurred by the sorcerer4 ,where these views of sorcery prevail1 it is no wonder that the sorcerer is an unpopular character4 ,he naturally therefore shrinks from publicity and hides his somewhat lurid light under a bushel4 ,not to put too fine a point on it1 he carries his life in his hand and may be knocked on the head at any moment without the tedious formality of a trial4 ,once his professional reputation is established1 all the deaths in the neighbourhood may be set down at his door4 ,if he gets wind of a plot to assassinate him1 he may stave off his doom for a while by soothing the angry passions of his enemies with presents1 but sooner or later his fate is sealed4#dci ,sidenote3 ,many hurts and maladies attributed by the ,kai to the action of ghosts4 ,in other cases the sickness is traced to witchcraft4 ,capturing a lost soul4 ,however1 the ,kai savage is far from attributing all deaths without distinction to sorcerers4#ddj ,in many hurts and maladies he detects the cold clammy hand of a ghost4 ,if a man1 for example1 wounds himself in the forest1 perhaps in the pursuit of a wild beast1 he may imagine that he has been speared or clubbed by a malignant ghost4 ,and when a person falls ill1 the first thing to do is naturally to ascertain the cause of the illness in order that it may be treated properly4 ,in all such enquiries1 ,mr4 ,keysser tells us1 suspicion first falls on the ghosts2 they are looked upon as even worse than the sorcerers4#dda ,so when a doctor is called in to see a patient1 the only question with him is whether the sickness is caused by a sorcerer or a ghost4 ,to decide this nice point he takes a boiled taro over which he has pronounced a charm4 ,this he bites1 and if he finds a small stone in the fruit1 he decides that ghosts are the cause of the malady2 but if on the other hand he detects a minute roll of leaves1 he knows that the sufferer is bewitched4 ,in the latter case the obvious remedy is to discover the sorcerer and to induce him1 for an adequate consideration1 to give up the magic tube in which he has bottled up a portion of the sick man's soul4 ,if1 however1 the magician turns a deaf ear alike to the voice of pity and the allurement of gain1 the resources of the physician are not yet exhausted4 ,he now produces his whip or scourge for souls4 ,this valuable instrument consists1 like a common whip1 of a handle with a lash attached to it1 but what gives it the peculiar qualities which distinguish it from all other whips is a small packet tied to the end of the lash4 ,the packet contains a certain herb1 and the sick man and his friends must all touch it in order to impregnate it with the volatile essence of their souls4 ,armed with this potent implement the doctor goes by night into the depth of the forest2 for the darkness of night and the solitude of the woods are necessary for the success of the delicate operation which this good physician of souls has now to perform4 ,finding himself alone he whistles for the lost soul of the sufferer1 and if only the sorcerer by his infernal craft has not yet brought it to death's door1 the soul appears at the sound of the whistle2 for it is strongly attracted by the soul-stuff of its friends in the packet4 ,but the doctor has still to catch it1 a feat which is not so easily accomplished as might be supposed4 ,it is now that the whip of souls comes into play4 ,suddenly the doctor heaves up his arm and lashes out at the truant soul with all his might4 ,if only he hits it1 the business is done1 the soul is captured1 the doctor carries it back to the house in triumph1 and restores it to the body of the poor sick man1 who necessarily recovers4#ddb ,sidenote3 ,extracting ghosts from a sick man4 ,but suppose that the result of the diagnosis is different1 and that on mature consideration the doctor should decide that a ghost and not a sorcerer is at the bottom of the mischief4 ,the question then naturally arises whether the sick man has not of late been straying on haunted ground and infected himself with the very dangerous soul-stuff or spiritual essence of the dead4 ,if he remembers to have done so1 some leaves are fetched from the place in the forest where the mishap occurred1 and with them the whole body of the sufferer or the wound1 as the case may be1 is stroked or brushed down4 ,the healing virtue of this procedure is obvious4 ,the ghosts who are vexing the patient are attracted by the familiar smell of the leaves which come from their old home2 and yielding in a moment of weakness to the soft emotions excited by the perfume they creep out of the body of the sick man and into the leaves4 ,quick as thought the doctor now whisks the leaves away with the ghosts in them2 he belabours them with a cudgel1 he hangs them up in the smoke1 or he throws them into the fire4 ,such powerful disinfectants have their natural results2 if the ghosts are not absolutely destroyed they are at least disarmed1 and the sick is made whole4 ,sidenote3 ,scraping ghosts from the patient's body4 ,another equally effective cure for sickness caused by ghosts is this4 ,you take a stout stick1 cleave it down the middle so that the two ends remain entire1 and give it to two men to hold4 ,then the sick man pokes his head through the cleft2 after that you rub him with the stick from the crown of his head to the soles of his feet4 ,in this way you obviously scrape off the bloodsucking ghosts who are clinging like flies or mosquitoes to his person1 and having thus transferred them to the cleft stick you throw it away or otherwise destroy it4 ,the cure is now complete1 and if the patient does not recover1 he cannot reasonably blame the doctor1 who has done all that humanly speaking could be done to bring back the bloom of health to the poor sick man4#ddc ,sidenote3 ,extravagant demonstrations of grief at the death of a sick man4 ,if1 however1 the sick man obstinately persists in dying1 there is a great uproar in the village4 ,for the fear of his ghost has now fallen like a thunderclap on all the people4 ,his disembodied spirit is believed to be hovering in the air1 seeing everything that is done1 hearing every word that is spoken1 and woe to the unlucky wight who does not display a proper degree of sorrow for the irreparable loss that has just befallen the community4 ,accordingly shrieks of despair begin to resound1 and crocodile tears to flow in cataracts4 ,the whole population assemble and give themselves up to the most frantic demonstrations of grief4 ,cries are raised on all sides1 ,why must he die8 ,wherefore did they bewitch him8 ,those wicked1 wicked men6 ,i'll do for them6 ,i'll hew them in pieces6 ,i'll destroy their crops6 ,i'll fell all their palm-trees6 ,i'll stick all their pigs6 ,o brother1 why did you leave me8 ,o friend1 how can ,i live without you8 ,to make good these threats one man will be seen prancing wildly about and stabbing with a spear at the invisible sorcerers2 another catches up a cudgel and at one blow shivers a water-pot of the deceased into atoms1 or rushes out like one demented and lays a palm-tree level with the ground4 ,some fling themselves prostrate beside the corpse and sob as if their very hearts would break4 ,they take the dead man by the hand1 they stroke him1 they straighten out the poor feet which are already growing cold4 ,they coo to him softly1 they lift up the languid head1 and then lay it gently down4 ,then in a frenzy of grief one of them will leap to his feet1 shriek1 bellow1 stamp on the floor1 grapple with the roof beams1 shake the walls1 as if he would pull the house down1 and finally hurl himself on the ground and roll over and over howling as if his distress was more than he could endure4 ,another looks wildly about him4 ,he sees a knife4 ,he grasps it4 ,his teeth are set1 his mind is made up4 ,why need he die8 he cries1 he1 my friend1 with whom ,i had all things in common1 with whom ,i ate out of the same dish8 ,then there is a quick movement of the knife1 and down he falls4 ,but he is not dead4 ,he has only slit the flap of one of his ears1 and the trickling blood bedabbles his body4 ,meantime with the hoarse cries of the men are mingled the weeping and wailing1 the shrill screams and lamentations of the women2 while above all the din and uproar rises the booming sound of the shell trumpets blown to carry the tidings of death to all the villages in the neighbourhood4 ,but gradually the wild tumult dies away into silence4 ,grief or the simulation of it has exhausted itself3 the people grow calm2 they sit down1 they smoke or chew betel1 while some engage in the last offices of attention to the dead4#ddd ,sidenote3 ,hypocritical character of these demonstrations1 which are intended to deceive the ghost4 ,a civilised observer who witnessed such a scene of boisterous lamentation1 but did not know the natives well1 might naturally set down all these frantic outbursts to genuine sorrow1 and might enlarge accordingly on the affectionate nature of savages1 who are thus cut to the heart by the death of any one of their acquaintance4 ,but the missionary who knows them better assures us that most of these expressions of mourning and despair are a mere blind to deceive and soothe the dreaded ghost of the deceased into a comfortable persuasion that he is fondly loved and sadly missed by his surviving relatives and friends4 ,this view of the essential hypocrisy of the lamentations is strongly confirmed by the threats which sick people will sometimes utter to their attendants4 ,if you don't take better care of me1 a man will sometimes say1 and if you don't do everything you possibly can to preserve my valuable life1 my ghost will serve you out4 ,that is why friends and relations are so punctilious in paying visits of respect and condolence to the sick4 ,sometimes the last request which a dying man addresses to his kinsfolk is that they will kill this or that sorcerer who has killed him2 and he enforces the injunction by threats of the terrible things he will do to them in his disembodied state if they fail to avenge his death on his imaginary murderer4 ,as all the relatives of a dead man stand in fear of his ghost1 the body may not be buried until all of them have had an opportunity of paying their respects to it4 ,if1 as sometimes happens1 a corpse is interred before a relative can arrive from a distance1 he will on arrival break out into reproaches and upbraidings against the grave-diggers for exposing him to the wrath of the departed spirit4#dde ,sidenote3 ,burial and mourning customs of the ,kai4 ,preservation of the lower jawbone4 ,when all the relations and friends have assembled and testified their sorrow1 the body is buried on the second or third day after death4 ,the grave is usually dug under the house and is so shallow that even when it has been closed the stench is often very perceptible4 ,the ornaments which were placed on the body when it was laid out are removed before it is lowered into the grave1 and the dead takes his last rest wrapt in a simple leaf-mat4 ,often a dying man expresses a wish not to be buried4 ,in that case his corpse1 tightly bandaged1 is deposited in a corner of the house1 and the products of decomposition are allowed to drain through a tube into the ground4 ,when they have ceased to run1 the bundle is opened and the bones taken out and buried1 except the lower jawbone1 which is preserved1 sometimes along with one of the lower arm bones4 ,the lower jawbone reminds the possessor of the duty of blood revenge which he owes to the deceased1 and which the dying man may have inculcated on him with his last breath4 ,the lower arm bone brings luck in the chase1 especially if the departed relative was a mighty hunter4 ,however1 if the hunters have a long run of bad luck1 they conclude that the ghost has departed to the under world and accordingly bury the lower arm bone and the lower jawbone with the rest of the skeleton4 ,the length of the period of mourning is similarly determined by the good or bad fortune of the huntsmen4 ,if the ghost provides them with game in abundance for a long time after his death1 the days of mourning are proportionately extended2 but when the game grows scarce or fails altogether1 the mourning comes to an end and the memory of the deceased soon fades away4#ddf ,the savage is a thoroughly practical man and is not such a fool as to waste his sorrow over a ghost who gives him nothing in return4 ,nothing for nothing is his principle4 ,his relations to the dead stand on a strictly commercial basis4 ,sidenote3 ,mourning costume4 ,widows strangled to accompany their dead husbands4 ,the mourning costume consists of strings round the neck1 bracelets of reed on the arms1 and a cylindrical hat of bark on the head4 ,a widow is swathed in nets4 ,the intention of the costume is to signify to the ghost the sympathy which the mourner feels for him in his disembodied state4 ,if the man in his lifetime was wont to crouch shivering over the fire1 a little fire will be kept up for a time at the foot of the grave in order to warm his homeless spirit4#ddg ,the widow or widower has to discharge the disagreeable duty of living day and night for several weeks in a hovel built directly over the grave4 ,not unfrequently the lot of a widow is much harder4 ,at her own request she is sometimes strangled and buried with her husband in the grave1 in order that her soul may accompany his on the journey to the other world4 ,the other relations have no interest in encouraging the woman to sacrifice herself1 rather the contrary2 but if she insists they fear to balk her1 lest they should offend the ghost of her husband1 who would punish them in many ways for keeping his wife from him4 ,but even such voluntary sacrifices1 if we may believe ,mr4 ,ch4 ,keysser1 are dictated rather by a selfish calculation than by an impulse of disinterested affection4 ,he mentions the case of a man named ,jabu1 both of whose wives chose thus to attend their husband in death4 ,the deceased was an industrious man1 a skilful hunter and farmer1 who provided his wives with abundance of food4 ,as such men are believed to work hard also in the other world1 tilling fields and killing game just as here1 the widows thought they could not do better than follow him as fast as possible to the spirit land1 since they had no prospect of getting such another husband here on earth4 ,how firmly convinced1 adds the missionary admiringly1 must these people be of the reality of another world when they sacrifice their earthly existence1 not for the sake of a better life hereafter1 but merely in order to be no worse off there than they have been on earth4 ,and he adds that this consideration explains why no man ever chooses to be strangled at the death of his wife4 ,the labour market in the better land is apparently not recruited from the ranks of women4#ddh ,sidenote3 ,house or village deserted after a death4 ,the house in which anybody has died is deserted1 because the ghost of the dead is believed to haunt it and make it unsafe at night4 ,if the deceased was a chief or a man of importance1 the whole village is abandoned and a new one built on another site4#ddi ,footnote #dae3 ,stefan ,lehner1 ,bukaua1 in ,r4 ,neuhauss's ,deutsch ,neu-,guinea1 iii4 7,berlin1 #aiaa7 pp4 #cie-dhe4 ,footnote #daf3 ,s4 ,lehner1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cii1 #dcc sq41 #dcg sqq4 ,footnote #dag3 ,s4 ,lehner1 op4 cit4 p4 #cii4 ,footnote #dah3 ,s4 ,lehner1 op4 cit4 p4 #dad4 ,footnote #dai3 ,s4 ,lehner1 op4 cit4 p4 #dff1 #dfh4 ,footnote #dbj3 ,s4 ,lehner1 op4 cit4 p4 #dfi4 ,footnote #dba3 ,s4 ,lehner1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dfb sqq41 #dff1 #dfg1 #dga sqq4 ,footnote #dbb3 ,s4 ,lehner1 op4 cit4 p4 #dfb4 ,footnote #dbc3 ,s4 ,lehner1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ddd sq4 ,footnote #dbd3 ,s4 ,lehner1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dcd sqq42 compare id41 pp4 #dgh sq4 ,footnote #dbe3 ,s4 ,lehner1 op4 cit4 p4 #dfb4 ,footnote #dbf3 ,s4 ,lehner1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dcj1 #dgj1 #dgb sq41 #dgd sq4 ,footnote #dbg3 ,s4 ,lehner1 op4 cit4 p4 #djc4 ,footnote #dbh3 ,s4 ,lehner1 op4 cit4 pp4 #djb-daj4 ,footnote #dbi3 ,s4 ,lehner1 op4 cit4 pp4 #daj-dad4 ,footnote #dcj3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 ,aus dem ,leben der ,kaileute1 in ,r4 ,neuhauss's ,deutsch ,neu-,guinea1 iii4 #c-f4 ,footnote #dca3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ab sq41 #ag-bj4 ,footnote #dcb3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 pp4 #i-ab4 ,footnote #dcc3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 p4 #aaa4 ,footnote #dcd3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 p4 #aac4 ,footnote #dce3 ,compare ,ch4 ,hose and ,w4 ,mc,dougall1 ,the ,pagan ,tribes of ,borneo 7,london1 #aiab71 ii4 #bba sq43 ,it has often been attempted to exhibit the mental life of savage peoples as profoundly different from our own2 to assert that they act from motives1 and reach conclusions by means of mental processes1 so utterly different from our own motives and processes that we cannot hope to interpret or understand their behaviour unless we can first1 by some impossible or at least by some hitherto undiscovered method1 learn the nature of these mysterious motives and processes4 ,these attempts have recently been renewed in influential quarters4 ,if these views were applied to the savage peoples of the interior of ,borneo1 we should characterise them as fanciful delusions natural to the anthropologist who has spent all the days of his life in a stiff collar and a black coat upon the well-paved ways of civilised society4 ,we have no hesitation in saying that1 the more intimately one becomes acquainted with these pagan tribes1 the more fully one realises the close similarity of their mental processes to one's own4 ,their primary impulses and emotions seem to be in all respects like our own4 ,it is true that they are very unlike the typical civilised man of some of the older philosophers1 whose every action proceeded from a nice and logical calculation of the algebraic sum of pleasures and pains to be derived from alternative lines of conduct2 but we ourselves are equally unlike that purely mythical personage4 ,the ,kayan or the ,iban often acts impulsively in ways which by no means conduce to further his best interests or deeper purposes2 but so do we also4 ,he often reaches conclusions by processes that cannot be logically justified2 but so do we also4 ,he often holds1 and upon successive occasions acts upon1 beliefs that are logically inconsistent with one another2 but so do we also4 ,for further testimonies to the reasoning powers of savages1 which it would be superfluous to affirm if it were not at present a fashion with some theorists to deny1 see ,taboo and the ,perils of the ,soul1 pp4 #dbj sqq4 ,and on the tendency of the human mind in general1 not of the savage mind in particular1 calmly to acquiesce in inconsistent and even contradictory conclusions1 ,i may refer to a note in ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 ,second ,edition1 p4 #d4 ,but indeed to observe such contradictions in practice the philosopher need not quit his own study4 ,footnote #dcf3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aaa sq4 ,footnote #dcg3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 p4 #aab4 ,footnote #dch3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 p4 #adj4 ,as to the magical tubes in which the sorcerer seals up some part of his victim's soul1 see id41 p4 #ace4 ,footnote #dci3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 pp4 #adj sq4 ,footnote #ddj3 ,mr4 ,keysser indeed affirms that in the mind of the ,kai sorcery is regarded as the cause of all deaths 7op4 cit4 p4 #ajb71 and again that all men without exception die in consequence of the baneful acts of these sorcerers and their accomplices 7p4 #acd72 and again that even in the case of old people they assume sorcery to be the cause of death2 to sorcery1 too1 all misfortunes whatever are ascribed 7p4 #adj74 ,but that these statements are exaggerations seems to follow from ,mr4 ,keysser's own account of the wounds1 sicknesses1 and deaths which these savages attribute to ghosts and not to sorcerers4 ,footnote #dda3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 p4 #ada4 ,footnote #ddb3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 pp4 #acc sq4 ,footnote #ddc3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ada sq4 ,footnote #ddd3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 pp4 #hj sq41 #adb4 ,footnote #dde3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 p4 #adb4 ,footnote #ddf3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 pp4 #hb1 #hc4 ,footnote #ddg3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 pp4 #hb1 #adb sq4 ,footnote #ddh3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 pp4 #hc sq41 #adc4 ,footnote #ddi3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 p4 #hc4 ,,lecture ,,xiii ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,natives ,,of ,,german ,,new ,,guinea 7continued7 ,sidenote3 ,offerings to appease ghosts4 ,in the last lecture ,i gave you some account of the fear and awe which the ,kai of ,german ,new ,guinea entertain for the spirits of the dead4 ,believing that the ghost is endowed with all the qualities and faculties which distinguished the man in his lifetime1 they naturally dread most the ghosts of warlike1 cruel1 violent1 and passionate men1 and take the greatest pains to soothe their anger and win their favour4 ,for that purpose they give the departed spirit all sorts of things to take with him to the far country4 ,and in order that he may have the use of them it is necessary to smash or otherwise spoil them4 ,thus the spear that is given him must be broken1 the pot must be shivered1 the bag must be torn1 the palm-tree must be cut down4 ,fruits are offered to the ghost by dashing them in pieces or hanging a bunch of them over the grave4 ,objects of value1 such as boars' tusks or dogs' teeth1 are made over to him by being laid on the corpse2 but the economical savage removes these precious things from the body at burial4 ,all such offerings and sacrifices1 we are told1 are made simply out of fear of the ghost4 ,it is no pleasure to a man to cut down a valuable palm-tree1 which might have helped to nourish himself and his family for years2 he does it only lest a worse thing should befall him at the hands of the departed spirit4#dej ,sidenote3 ,mode of discovering the sorcerer who caused a death4 ,but the greatest service that the ,kai can render to a dead man is to take vengeance on the sorcerer who caused his death by witchcraft4 ,the first thing is to discover the villain1 and in the search for him the ghost obligingly assists his surviving kinsfolk4 ,sometimes1 however1 it is necessary to resort to a stratagem in order to secure his help4 ,thus1 for example1 one day while the ghost1 blinded by the strong sunlight1 is cowering in a dark corner or reposing at full length in the grave1 his relatives will set up a low scaffold in a field1 cover it with leaves1 and pile up over it a mass of the field fruits which belonged to the dead man1 so that the whole erection may appear to the eye of the unsuspecting ghost a heap of taro1 yams1 and so forth1 and nothing more4 ,but before the sun goes down1 two or three men steal out from the house1 and ensconce themselves under the scaffold1 where they are completely concealed by the piled-up fruits4 ,when darkness has fallen1 out comes the ghost and prowling about espies the heap of yams and taro4 ,at sight of the devastation wrought in his field he flies into a passion1 and curses and swears in the feeble wheezy whisper in which ghosts always speak4 ,in the course of his fluent imprecations he expresses a wish that the miscreants who have wasted his substance may suffer so and so at the hands of the sorcerer4 ,that is just what the men in hiding have been waiting for4 ,no sooner do they hear the name of the sorcerer than they jump up with a great shout2 the startled ghost takes to his heels2 and all the people in the village come pouring out of the houses4 ,very glad they are to know that the murderer has been found out1 and sooner or later they will have his blood4#dea ,sidenote3 ,another way of detecting the sorcerer4 ,another mode of eliciting the requisite information from the ghost is this4 ,in order to allow him to communicate freely with his mouldering body1 his relations insert a tube through the earth of the grave down to the corpse2 then they sprinkle powdered lime on the grave4 ,at night the ghost comes along1 picks up the powdered lime1 and makes off in a bee line for the village where the sorcerer who bewitched him resides4 ,on the way he drops some of the powder here and there1 so that next morning1 on the principle of the paper-chase1 his relatives can trace his footsteps to the very door of his murderer4 ,in many districts the people tie a packet of lime to the knee of a corpse so that his ghost may have it to hand when he wants it4#deb ,sidenote3 ,cross-questioning the ghost by means of fire4 ,but the favourite way of cross-questioning the ghost on subject of his decease is by means of fire4 ,a few men go out before nightfall from the village and sit down in a row1 one behind the other1 on the path4 ,the man in front has a leaf-mat drawn like a hood over his head and back in order that the ghost may not touch him from behind unawares4 ,in his hand he holds a glowing coal and some tinder1 and as he puts the one to the other he calls to the ghost1 ,come1 take1 take1 take2 come1 take1 take1 take1 and so on4 ,meantime his mates behind him are reckoning up the names of all the men near and far who are suspected of sorcery1 and a portion of the village youth have clambered up trees and are on the look-out for the ghost4 ,if they do not see his body they certainly see his eye twinkling in the gloom1 though the uninstructed ,european might easily mistake it for a glow-worm4 ,no sooner do they catch sight of it than they bawl out1 ,come hither1 fetch the fire1 and burn him who burnt thee4 ,if the tinder blazes up at the name of a sorcerer1 it is flung towards the village where the man in question dwells4 ,and if at the same time a glow-worm is seen to move in the same direction1 the people entertain no doubt that the ghost has appeared and fetched the soul of the fire4#dec ,sidenote3 ,necessity of destroying the sorcerer who caused a death4 ,in whichever way the author of the death may be detected1 the avengers of blood set out for the village of the miscreant and seek to take his life4 ,almost all the wars between villages or tribes spring from such expeditions4 ,the sorcerer or sorcerers must be extirpated1 nay all their kith and kin must be destroyed root and branch1 if the people are to live in peace and quiet4 ,the ghost of the dead calls1 nay clamours for vengeance1 and if he does not get it1 he will wreak his spite on his negligent relations4 ,not only will he give them no luck in the chase1 but he will drive the wild swine into the fields to trample down and root up the crops1 and he will do them every mischief in his power4 ,if rain does not fall1 so that the freshly planted root crops wither2 or if sickness is rife1 the people recognise in the calamity the wrath of the ghost1 who can only be appeased by the slaughter of the wicked magician or of somebody else4 ,hence the avengers of blood often do not set out until a fresh death1 an outbreak of sickness1 failure in the chase1 or some other misfortune reminds the living of the duty they owe to the dead4 ,the ,kai is not by nature warlike1 and he might never go to war if it were not that he dreads the vengeance of ghosts more than the wrath of men4#ded ,sidenote3 ,slayers dread the ghosts of the slain4 ,if the expedition has been successful1 if the enemy's village has been surprised and stormed1 the men and old women butchered1 and the young women taken prisoners1 the warriors beat a hasty retreat with their booty in order to be safe at home1 or at least in the shelter of a friendly village1 before nightfall4 ,their reason for haste is the fear of being overtaken in the darkness by the ghosts of their slaughtered foes1 who1 powerless by day1 are very dangerous and terrible by night4 ,restlessly through the hours of darkness these unquiet spirits follow like sleuth-hounds in the tracks of their retreating enemies1 eager to come up with them and by contact with the bloodstained weapons of their slayers to recover the spiritual substance which they have lost4 ,not till they have done so can they find rest and peace4 ,that is why the victors are careful not at first to bring back their weapons into the village but to hide them somewhere in the bushes at a safe distance4 ,there they leave them for some days until the baffled ghosts may be supposed to have given up the chase and returned1 sad and angry1 to their mangled bodies in the charred ruins of their old home4 ,the first night after the return of the warriors is always the most anxious time2 all the villagers are then on the alert for fear of the ghosts2 but if the night passes quietly1 their terror gradually subsides and gives place to the dread of their surviving enemies4#dee ,sidenote3 ,seclusion of man-slayers from fear of their victims' ghosts4 ,as the victors in a raid are supposed to have more or less of the soul-stuff or spiritual essence of their slain foes adhering to their persons1 none of their friends will venture to touch them for some time after their return to the village4 ,everybody avoids them and goes carefully out of their way4 ,if during this time any of the villagers suffers from a pain in his stomach1 he thinks that he must have inadvertently sat down where one of the warriors had sat before him4 ,if somebody endures the pangs of toothache1 he makes sure that he must have eaten a fruit which had been touched by one of the slayers4 ,all the refuse of the meals of these gallant men must be most carefully put away lest a pig should devour it2 for if it did do so1 the animal would certainly die1 which would be a serious loss to the owner4 ,hence when the warriors have satisfied their hunger1 any food that remains over is burnt or buried4 ,the fighting men themselves are not very seriously incommoded1 or at all events endangered1 by the ghosts of their victims2 for they have taken the precaution to disinfect themselves by the sap of a certain creeper1 which1 if it does not render them absolutely immune to ghostly influence1 at least fortifies their constitution to a very considerable extent4#def ,sidenote3 ,feigned indignation of a man who has connived at the murder of a relative4 ,sometimes1 instead of sending forth a band of warriors to ravage1 burn1 and slaughter the whole male population of the village in which the wicked sorcerer resides1 the people of one village will come to a secret understanding with the people of the sorcerer's village to have the miscreant quietly put out of the way4 ,a hint is given to the scoundrel's next of kin1 it may be his brother1 son1 or nephew1 that if he will only wink at the slaughter of his obnoxious relative1 he will receive a handsome compensation from the slayers4 ,should he privately accept the offer1 he is most careful to conceal his connivance at the deed of blood1 lest he should draw down on his head the wrath of his murdered kinsman's ghost4 ,so1 when the deed is done and the murder is out1 he works himself up into a state of virtuous sorrow and indignation1 covers his head with the leaves of a certain plant1 and chanting a dirge in tones of heart-rending grief1 marches straight to the village of the murderers4 ,there1 on the public square1 surrounded by an attentive audience1 he opens the floodgates of his eloquence and pours forth the torrent of an aching heart4 ,you have slain my kinsman1 says he1 you are wicked men6 ,how could you kill so good a man1 who conferred so many benefits on me in his lifetime8 ,i knew nothing of the plot4 ,had ,i had an inkling of it1 ,i would have foiled it4 ,how can ,i now avenge his death8 ,i have no property with which to hire men of war to go and punish his murderers4 ,yet in spite of everything my murdered kinsman will not believe in my innocence6 ,he will be angry with me1 he will pay me out1 he will do me all the harm he can4 ,therefore do you declare openly whether ,i had any share whatever in his death1 and come and strew lime on my head in order that he may convince himself of my innocence4 ,this appeal of injured innocence meets with a ready response4 ,the people dust the leaves on his head with powdered lime2 and so1 decorated with the white badge of spotless virtue1 and enriched with a boar's tusk or other valuable object as the price of his compliance1 he returns to his village with a conscience at peace with all the world1 reflecting with satisfaction on the profitable transaction he has just concluded1 and laughing in his sleeve at the poor deluded ghost of his murdered relative4#deg ,sidenote3 ,comedy acted to deceive the ghost of a murdered kinsman4 ,sometimes the worthy soul who thus for a valuable consideration consents to waive all his personal feelings1 will even carry his self-abnegation so far as to be present and look on at the murder of his kinsman4 ,but true to his principles he will see to it that the thing is done decently and humanely4 ,when the struggle is nearly over and the man is down1 writhing on the ground with the murderers busy about him1 his loving kinsman will not suffer them to take an unfair advantage of their superior numbers to cut him up alive with their knives1 to chop him with their axes1 or to smash him with their clubs4 ,he will only allow them to stab him with their spears1 repeating of course the stabs again and again till the victim ceases to writhe and quiver1 and lies there dead as a stone4 ,then begins the real time of peril for the virtuous kinsman who has been a spectator and director of the scene2 for the ghost of the murdered man has now deserted its mangled body1 and1 still blinded with blood and smarting with pain1 might easily and even excusably misunderstand the situation4 ,it is essential1 therefore1 in order to prevent a painful misapprehension1 that the kinsman should at once and emphatically disclaim any part or parcel in the murder4 ,this he accordingly does in language which leaves no room for doubt or ambiguity4 ,he falls into a passion3 he rails at the murderers3 he proclaims his horror at their deed4 ,all the way home he refuses to be comforted4 ,he upbraids the assassins1 he utters the most frightful threats against them2 he rushes at them to snatch their weapons from them and dash them in pieces4 ,but they easily wrench the weapons from his unresisting hands4 ,for the whole thing is only a piece of acting4 ,his sole intention is that the ghost may see and hear it all1 and being convinced of the innocence of his dear kinsman may not punish him with bad crops1 wounds1 sickness1 and other misfortunes4 ,even when he has reached the village1 he keeps up the comedy for a time1 raging1 fretting and fuming at the irreparable loss he has sustained by the death of his lamented relative4#deh ,sidenote3 ,pretence of avenging the ghost of a murdered sorcerer4 ,similarly when a chief has among his subjects a particular sorcerer whom he fears but with whom he is professedly on terms of friendship1 he will sometimes engage a man to murder him4 ,no sooner1 however1 is the murder perpetrated than the chief who bespoke it hastens in seeming indignation with a band of followers to the murderer's village4 ,the assassin1 of course1 has got a hint of what is coming1 and he and his friends take care not to be at home when the chief arrives on his mission of vengeance4 ,balked by the absence of their victim the avengers of blood breathe out fire and slaughter1 but content themselves in fact with smashing an old pot or two1 knocking down a deserted hut1 and perhaps felling a banana-tree or a betel-palm4 ,having thus given the ghost of the murdered man an unequivocal proof of the sincerity of their friendship1 they return quietly home4#dei ,sidenote3 ,the ,kai afraid of ghosts4 ,the habits of ,kai ghosts are to some extent just the contrary of those of living men4 ,they sleep by day and go about their business by night1 when they frighten people and play them all kinds of tricks4 ,usually they appear in the form of animals4 ,as light has the effect of blinding or at least dazzling them1 they avoid everything bright1 and hence it is easy to scare them away by means of fire4 ,that is why no native will go even a short way in the dark without a bamboo torch4 ,if it is absolutely necessary to go out by night1 which he is very loth to do1 he will hum and haw loudly before quitting the house so as to give notice to any lurking ghost that he is coming with a light1 which allows the ghost to scuttle out of his way in good time4 ,the people of a village live in terror above all so long as a corpse remains unburied in it2 after nightfall nobody would then venture out of sight of the houses4 ,when a troop of people go by night to a neighbouring village with flaring torches in their hands1 nobody is willing to walk last on the path2 they all huddle together for safety in the middle1 till one man braver than the rest consents to act as rearguard4 ,the rustling of a bush in the evening twilight startles them with the dread of some ghastly apparition2 the sight of a pig in the gloaming is converted by their fears into the vision of a horrible spectre4 ,if a man stumbles1 it is because a ghost has pushed him1 and he fancies he perceives the frightful thing in a tree-stump or any chance object4 ,no wonder a ,kai man fears ghosts1 since he believes that the mere touch of one of them may be fatal4 ,people who fall down in fits or in faints are supposed to have been touched by ghosts2 and on coming to themselves they will tell their friends with the most solemn assurance how they felt the death-cold hand of the ghost on their body1 and how a shudder ran through their whole frame at contact with the uncanny being4#dfj ,sidenote3 ,services rendered to the living by ghosts of the dead4 ,but it would be a mistake to imagine that the ghosts of the dead are a source of danger1 annoyance1 and discomfort1 and nothing more4 ,that is not so4 ,they may and do render the ,kai the most material services in everyday life1 particularly by promoting the supply of food both vegetable and animal4 ,i have said that these practical savages stand towards their departed kinsfolk on a strictly commercial footing2 and ,i will now illustrate the benefits which the ,kai hope to receive from the ghosts in return for all the respect and attention lavished on them4 ,in the first place1 then1 so long as a ghost remains in the neighbourhood of the village1 it is expected of him that he shall make the crops thrive and neither tread them down himself nor allow wild pigs to do so4 ,the expectation is reasonable1 yet the conduct of the ghost does not always answer to it4 ,occasionally1 whether out of sheer perverseness or simple absence of mind1 he will sit down in a field2 and wherever he does so1 he makes a hollow where the fruits will not grow4 ,indeed any fruit that he even touches with his foot in passing1 shrivels up4 ,where these things have happened1 the people offer boiled taro and a few crabs to the ghosts to induce them to keep clear of the crops and to repose their weary limbs elsewhere than in the tilled fields4#dfa ,sidenote3 ,ghosts help ,kai hunters to kill game4 ,but the most important service which the dead render to the living is the good luck which they vouchsafe to hunters4 ,hence in order to assure himself of the favour of the dead the hunter hangs his nets on a grave before he uses them4 ,if a man was a good and successful hunter in his lifetime1 his ghost will naturally be more than usually able to assist his brethren in the craft after his death4 ,for that reason when such a man has just died1 the people1 to adopt a familiar proverb1 hasten to make hay while the sun shines by hunting very frequently1 in the confident expectation of receiving ghostly help from the deceased hunter4 ,in the evening1 when they return from the chase1 they lay a small portion of their bag near his grave1 scatter a powder which possesses the special virtue of attracting ghosts1 and call out1 ,so-and-so1 come and eat2 here ,i set down food for you1 it is a part of all we have4 ,if after such an offering and invocation the night wind rustles the tops of the trees or shakes the thatch of leaves on the roofs1 they know that the ghost is in the village4 ,the twinkle of a glow-worm near his grave is the glitter of his eye4 ,in the morning1 too1 before they sally forth to the woods1 one of the next of kin to the dead huntsman will go betimes to his grave1 stamp on it to waken the sleeper below1 and call out1 ,so-and-so1 come6 we are now about to go out hunting4 ,help us to a good bag6 ,if they have luck1 they praise the deceased as a good spirit and in the evening supply his wants again with food1 tobacco1 and betel4 ,the sacrifice1 as usually happens in such cases1 does not call for any great exercise of self-denial2 since the spirit consumes only the spiritual essence of the good things1 while he leaves their material substance to be enjoyed by the living4#dfb ,sidenote3 ,ill-treatment of a ghost who fails to help hunters4 ,however1 it sometimes happens that the ghost disappoints them1 and that the hunters return in the evening hungry and empty-handed4 ,this may even be repeated day after day1 and still the people will not lose hope4 ,they think that the ghost is perhaps busy working in his field1 or that he has gone on a visit and will soon come home4 ,to give him time to do his business or see his friends at leisure1 they will remain in the village for several days4 ,then1 when they imagine that he must surely have returned1 they go out into the woods and try their luck again4 ,but should there still be no ghost and no game1 they begin to be seriously alarmed4 ,they think that some evil must have befallen him4 ,but if time goes on and still he gives no sign and the game continues scarce and shy1 their feelings towards the ghost undergo a radical alteration4 ,passion getting the better of prudence1 they will even reproach him with ingratitude1 taunt him with his uselessness1 and leave him to starve4 ,should he after that still remain deaf to their railing and regardless of the short commons to which they have reduced him1 they will discharge a volley of abuse at his grave and trouble themselves about him no more4 ,however1 if1 not content with refusing his valuable assistance in the chase1 the ghost should actually blight the crops or send wild boars into the fields to trample them down1 the patience of the long-suffering people is quite exhausted3 the vials of their wrath overflow2 and snatching up their cudgels in a fury they belabour his grave till his bones ache1 or even drive him with blows and curses altogether from the village4#dfc ,sidenote3 ,the journey of ghosts to the spirit land4 ,such an outcast ghost1 if he does not seek his revenge by prowling in the neighbourhood and preying on society at large1 will naturally bethink himself of repairing to his long home in the under world4 ,for sooner or later the spirits of the dead congregate there4 ,it is especially when the flesh has quite mouldered away from his bones that the ghost packs up his little traps and sets out for the better land4 ,the entrance to the abode of bliss is a cave to the west of ,saddle ,mountain4 ,here in the gully there is a projecting tree-stump on which the ghosts perch waiting for a favourable moment to jump into the mouth of the cavern4 ,when a slight earthquake is felt1 a ,kai man will often say1 ,a ghost has just leaped from the tree into the cave2 that is why the earth is shaking4 ,down below the ghosts are received by ,tulmeng1 lord of the nether world4 ,often he appears in a canoe to ferry them over to the further shore4 ,blood or wax8 is the laconic question which he puts to the ghost on the bank4 ,he means to say1 ,were you killed or were you done to death by magic8 ,for it is with wax that the sorcerer stops up the fatal little tubes in which he encloses the souls of his enemies4 ,and the reason why the lord of the dead puts the question to the newcomer is that the ghosts of the slain and the ghosts of the bewitched dwell in separate places4 ,right in front of the land of souls rises a high steep wall1 which cannot be climbed even by ghosts4 ,the spirits have accordingly to make their way through it and thereupon find themselves in their new abode4 ,according to some ,kai1 before the ghosts are admitted to ghost land they must swing to and fro on a rope and then drop into water1 where they are washed clean of bloodstains and all impurity2 after which they ascend1 spick and span1 the last slope to the village of ghosts4 ,sidenote3 ,life of ghosts in the other world4 ,tulmeng has the reputation of being a very stern ruler in his weird realm1 but the ,kai really know very little about him4 ,he beats refractory souls1 and it is essential that every ghost should have his ears and nose bored4 ,the operation is very painful1 and to escape it most people take the precaution of having their ears and noses bored in their lifetime4 ,life in the other world goes on just like life in this one4 ,houses are built exactly like houses on earth1 and there as here pigs swarm in the streets4 ,fields are tilled and crops are got in2 ghostly men marry ghostly women1 who give birth to ghostly children4 ,the same old round of love and hate1 of quarrelling and fighting1 of battle1 murder and sudden death goes on in the shadowy realm below ground just as in the more solid world above ground4 ,sorcerers are there also1 and they breed just as bad blood among the dead as among the living4 ,all things indeed are the same except for their shadowy unsubstantial texture4#dfd ,sidenote3 ,ghosts die and turn into animals4 ,but the ghosts do not live for ever in the nether world4 ,they die the second death and turn into animals1 generally into cuscuses4 ,in the shape of animals they haunt the wildest1 deepest1 darkest glens of the rugged mountains4 ,no one but the owner has the right to set foot on such haunted ground4 ,he may even kill the ghostly animals4 ,any one else who dared to disturb them in their haunts would do so at the peril of his life4 ,but even the owner of the land who has killed one of the ghostly creatures is bound to appease the spirit of the dead beast4 ,he may not cut up the carcase at once1 but must leave it for a time1 perhaps for a whole night1 after laying on it presents which are intended to mollify and soothe the injured spirit4 ,in placing the gifts on the body he says1 ,take the gifts and leave us that which was a game animal1 that we may eat it4 ,when the animal's ghost has appropriated the spiritual essence of the offerings1 the hunter and his family may eat the carcase4 ,should one of these ghostly creatures die or be killed1 its spirit turns either into an insect or into an ant-hill4 ,children who would destroy such an ant-hill or throw little darts at it1 are warned by their elders not to indulge in such sacrilegious sport4 ,when the insect also dies1 the series of spiritual transformations is at an end4#dfe ,sidenote3 ,ghosts of persons eminent for good or evil in their lives are remembered and appealed to for help long after their deaths4 ,prayers to ghosts for rain1 a good crop of yams1 and so forth4 ,the ghosts whose help is invoked by hunters and farmers are commonly the spirits of persons who have lately died1 since such spirits linger for a time in the neighbourhood1 or rather in the memory of the people4 ,but besides these spirits of the recent dead there are certain older ghosts who may be regarded as permanent patrons of hunting and other departments of life and nature1 because their fame has survived long after the men or women themselves were gathered to their fathers4 ,for example1 men who were bold and resolute in battle during their life will be invoked long after their death1 whenever a stout heart is needed for some feat of daring4 ,and men who were notorious thieves and villains in the flesh will be invited1 long after their bodies have mouldered in the grave1 to lend their help when a deed of villainy is to be done4 ,the names of men or women who were eminent for good or evil in their lives survive indefinitely in the memory of the tribe4 ,thus before a battle many a ,kai warrior will throw something over the enemy's village and as he does so he will softly call on two ghosts1 ,we and ,gunang1 ye two heroes1 come and guard me and keep the foes from me1 that they may not be able to hurt me6 ,but stand by me that ,i may be able to riddle them with spears6 ,again1 when a magician wishes to cause an earthquake1 he will take a handful of ashes1 wrap them in certain leaves1 and pronounce the following spell over the packet3 ,thou man ,saiong1 throw about everything that exists2 houses1 villages1 paths1 fields1 bushes and tall forest trees1 yams1 and taro1 throw them all hither and thither2 break and smash everything1 but leave me in peace6 ,while he utters this incantation or prayer1 the sorcerer's body itself twitches and quivers more and more violently1 till the hut creaks and cracks and his strength is exhausted4 ,then he throws the packet of ashes out of the hut1 and after that the earthquake is sure to follow sooner or later4 ,so when they want rain1 the ,kai call upon two ghostly men named ,balong and ,batu1 or ,dinding and ,bojang1 to drive away a certain woman named ,yondimi1 so that the rain which she is holding up may fall upon the earth4 ,the prayer for rain addressed to the ghosts is combined with a magical spell pronounced over a stone4 ,and when rain has fallen in abundance and the ,kai wish to make it cease1 they strew hot ashes on the stone or lay it in a wood fire4 ,on the principle of homoeopathic magic the heat of the ashes or of the fire is supposed to dry up the rain4 ,thus in these ceremonies for the production or cessation of rain we see that religion1 represented by the invocation of the ghosts1 goes hand in hand with magic1 represented by the hocus-pocus with the stone4 ,again1 certain celebrated ghosts are invoked to promote the growth of taro and yams4 ,thus to ensure a good crop of taro1 the suppliant will hold a bud of taro in his hand and pray1 ,o ,mrs4 ,zewanong1 may my taro leaves unfold till they are as broad as the petticoat which covers thy loins6 ,when they are planting yams1 they pray to two women named ,tendung and ,molewa that they would cause the yams to put forth as long suckers as the strings which the women twist to make into carrying-nets4 ,before they dig up the yams1 they take a branch and drive with it the evil spirits or ghosts from the house in which the yams are to be stored4 ,having effected this clearance they stick the branch in the roof of the house and appoint a certain ghostly man named ,ehang to act as warden4 ,again1 fowlers invoke a married pair of ghosts called ,manze and ,tamingoka to frighten the birds from the trees and drive them on the limed twigs4 ,or they pray to a ghostly woman named ,lane1 saying1 ,in all places of the neighbourhood shake the betel-nuts from the palms1 that they may fall down to me on this fruit-tree and knock the berries from the boughs6 ,but by the betel-nuts the fowler in veiled language means the birds1 which are to come in flocks to the fruit-tree and be caught fast by the lime on the branches4 ,again1 when a fisherman wishes to catch eels1 he prays to two ghosts called ,yambi and ,ngigwali1 saying3 ,come1 ye two men1 and go down into the holes of the pool2 smite the eels in them1 and draw them out on the bank1 that ,i may kill them6 ,once more1 when a child suffers from enlarged spleen1 which shews as a swelling on its body1 the parent will pray to a ghost named ,aidolo for help in these words3 ,come and help this child6 ,it is big with a ball of sickness4 ,cut it up and squeeze and squash it1 that the blood and pus may drain away and my child may be made whole6 ,to give point to the prayer the petitioner simultaneously pretends to cut a cross on the swelling with a knife4#dff ,sidenote3 ,possible development of departmental gods out of ghosts4 ,from this it appears that men and women who impressed their contemporaries by their talents1 their virtues1 or their vices in their lifetime1 are sometimes remembered long after their death and continue to be invoked by their descendants for help in the particular department in which they had formerly rendered themselves eminent either for good or for evil4 ,such powerful and admired or dreaded ghosts might easily grow in time into gods and goddesses1 who are worshipped as presiding over the various departments of nature and of human life4 ,there is good reason to think that among many tribes and nations of the world the history of a god1 if it could be recovered1 would be found to be the history of a spirit who served his apprenticeship as a ghost before he was promoted to the rank of deity4 ,sidenote3 ,kai lads at circumcision supposed to be swallowed by a monster4 ,bull-roarers4 ,before quitting the ,kai tribe ,i will mention that they1 like the other tribes on this coast1 practise circumcision and appear to associate the custom more or less vaguely with the spirits of the dead4 ,like their neighbours1 they impress women with the belief that at circumcision the lads are swallowed by a monster1 who can only be induced to disgorge them by the bribe of much food and especially of pigs1 which are accordingly bred and kept nominally for this purpose1 but really to furnish a banquet for the men alone4 ,the ceremony is performed at irregular intervals of several years4 ,a long hut1 entered through a high door at one end and tapering away at the other1 is built in a lonely part of the forest4 ,it represents the monster which is to swallow the novices in its capacious jaws4 ,the process of deglutition is represented as follows4 ,in front of the entrance to the hut a scaffold is erected and a man mounts it4 ,the novices are then led up one by one and passed under the scaffold4 ,as each comes up1 the man overhead makes a gesture of swallowing1 while at the same time he takes a great gulp of water from a coco-nut flask4 ,the trembling novice is now supposed to be in the maw of the monster2 but a pig is offered for his redemption1 the man on the scaffold1 as representative of the beast1 accepts the offering1 a gurgling sound is heard1 and the water which he had just gulped descends in a jet on the novice1 who now goes free4 ,the actual circumcision follows immediately on this impressive pantomime4 ,the monster who swallows the lads is named ,ngosa1 which means ,grandfather2 and the same name is given to the bull-roarers which are swung at the festival4 ,the ,kai bull-roarer is a lance-shaped piece of palm-wood1 more or less elaborately carved1 which being swung at the end of a string emits the usual droning1 booming sound4 ,when they are not in use1 the instruments are kept1 carefully wrapt up1 in the men's house1 which no woman may enter4 ,only the old men have the right to undo these precious bundles and take out the sacred bull-roarers4 ,women1 too1 are strictly excluded from the neighbourhood of the circumcision ground2 any who intrude on it are put to death4 ,the mythical monster who is supposed to haunt the ground is said to be very dangerous to the female sex4 ,when the novices go forth to be swallowed by him in the forest1 the women who remain in the village weep and wail2 and they rejoice greatly when the lads come back safe and sound4#dfg ,sidenote3 ,the ,tami ,islanders of ,huon ,gulf4 ,the last tribe of ,german ,new ,guinea to which ,i shall invite your attention are the ,tami4 ,most of them live not on the mainland but in a group of islands in ,huon ,gulf1 to the south-east of ,yabim4 ,they are of a purer ,melanesian stock than most of the tribes on the neighbouring coast of ,new ,guinea4 ,the ,german missionary ,mr4 ,g4 ,bamler1 who lived amongst them for ten years and knows the people and their language intimately1 thinks that they may even contain a strong infusion of ,polynesian blood4#dfh ,they are a seafaring folk1 who extend their voyages all along the coast for the purpose of trade1 bartering mats1 pearls1 fish1 coco-nuts1 and other tree-fruits which grow on their islands for taro1 bananas1 sugar-cane1 and sago1 which grow on the mainland4#dfi ,sidenote3 ,the long soul and the short soul4 ,in the opinion of these people every man has two souls1 a long one and a short one4 ,the long soul is identified with the shadow4 ,it is only loosely attached to its owner1 wandering away from his body in sleep and returning to it when he wakes with a start4 ,the seat of the long soul is in the stomach4 ,when the man dies1 the long soul quits his body and appears to his relations at a distance1 who thus obtain the first intimation of his decease4 ,having conveyed the sad intelligence to them1 the long soul departs by way of ,maligep1 on the west coast of ,new ,britain1 to a village on the north coast1 the inhabitants of which recognise the ,tami ghosts as they flit past4#dgj ,sidenote3 ,departure of the short soul to ,lamboam1 the nether world4 ,the short soul1 on the other hand1 never leaves the body in life but only after death4 ,even then it tarries for a time in the neighbourhood of the body before it takes its departure for ,lamboam1 which is the abode of the dead in the nether world4 ,the ,tami bury their dead in shallow graves under or near the houses4 ,they collect in a coco-nut shell the maggots which swarm from the decaying corpse2 and when the insects cease to swarm1 they know that the short soul has gone away to its long home4 ,it is the short soul which receives and carries away with it the offerings that are made to the deceased4 ,these offerings serve a double purpose2 they form the nucleus of the dead man's property in the far country1 and they ensure him a friendly reception on his arrival4 ,for example1 the soul shivers with cold1 when it first reaches the subterranean realm1 and the other ghosts1 the old stagers1 obligingly heat stones to warm it up4#dga ,sidenote3 ,dilemma of the ,tami4 ,however1 the restless spirit returns from time to time to haunt and terrify the sorcerer1 who was the cause of its death4 ,but its threats are idle2 it can really do him very little harm4 ,yet it keeps its ghostly eye on its surviving relatives to see that they do not stand on a friendly footing with the wicked sorcerer4 ,strictly speaking the ,tami ought to avenge his death1 but as a matter of fact they do not4 ,the truth of it is that the ,tami do a very good business with the people on the mainland1 among whom the sorcerer is usually to be found2 and the amicable relations which are essential to the maintenance of commerce would unquestionably suffer if a merchant were to indulge his resentment so far as to take his customer's head instead of his sago and bananas4 ,these considerations reduce the ,tami to a painful dilemma4 ,if they gratify the ghost they lose a customer2 if they keep the customer they must bitterly offend the ghost1 who will punish them for their disrespect to his memory4 ,in this delicate position the ,tami endeavour to make the best of both worlds4 ,on the one hand1 by loudly professing their wrath and indignation against the guilty sorcerer they endeavour to appease the ghost2 and on the other hand1 by leaving the villain unmolested they do nothing to alienate their customers4#dgb ,sidenote3 ,funeral and mourning customs of the ,tami4 ,but if they do not gratify the desire for vengeance of the blood-thirsty ghost1 they are at great pains to testify their respect for him in all other ways4 ,the whole village takes part in the mourning and lamentation for a death4 ,the women dance death dances1 the men lend a hand in the preparations for the burial4 ,all festivities are stopped3 the drums are silent4 ,as the people believe that when anybody has died1 the ghosts of his dead kinsfolk gather in the village and are joined by other ghosts1 they are careful not to leave the mourners alone1 exposed to the too pressing attentions of the spectral visitors2 they keep the bereaved family company1 especially at night2 indeed1 if the weather be fine1 the whole population of the village will encamp round the temporary hut which is built on the grave4 ,this watch at the grave lasts about eight days4 ,the watchers are supported and comforted in the discharge of their pious duty by a liberal allowance of food and drink4 ,nor are the wants of the ghost himself forgotten4 ,many families offer him taro broth at this time4 ,the period of mourning lasts two or three years4 ,during the first year the observances prescribed by custom are strictly followed1 and the nearest relations must avoid publicity4 ,after a year they are allowed more freedom2 for example1 the widow may lay aside the heavy net1 which is her costume in full mourning1 and may replace it by a lighter one2 moreover1 she may quit the house4 ,at the end of the long period of mourning1 dances are danced in honour of the deceased4 ,they begin in the evening and last all night till daybreak4 ,the mourners on these occasions smear their heads1 necks1 and breasts with black earth4 ,a great quantity of food1 particularly of pigs and taro broth1 has been made ready2 for the whole village1 and perhaps a neighbouring village also1 has been invited to share in the festivity1 which may last eight or ten days1 if the provisions suffice4 ,the dances begin with a gravity and solemnity appropriate to a memorial of the dead2 but towards the close the performers indulge in a lighter vein and act comic pieces1 which so tickle the fancy of the spectators1 that many of them roll on the ground with laughter4 ,finally1 the temporary hut erected on the grave is taken down and the materials burned4 ,as the other ghosts of the village are believed to be present in attendance on the one who is the guest of honour1 all the villagers bring offerings and throw them into the fire4 ,however1 persons who are not related to the ghosts may snatch the offerings from the flames and convert them to their own use4 ,precious objects1 such as boars' tusks and dogs' teeth1 are not committed to the fire but merely swung over it in a bag1 while the name of the person who offers the valuables in this economical fashion is proclaimed aloud for the satisfaction of the ghost4 ,with these dances1 pantomimes1 and offerings the living have discharged the last duties of respect and affection to the dead4 ,yet for a while his ghost is thought to linger as a domestic or household spirit2 but the time comes when he is wholly forgotten4#dgc ,sidenote3 ,bones of the dead dug up and kept in the house for a time4 ,many families1 however1 not content with the observance of these ordinary ceremonies1 dig up the bodies of their dead when the flesh has mouldered away1 redden the bones with ochre1 and keep them bundled up in the house for two or three years1 when these relics of mortality are finally committed to the earth4 ,the intention of thus preserving the bones for years in the house is not mentioned1 but no doubt it is to maintain a closer intimacy with the departed spirit than seems possible if his skeleton is left to rot in the grave4 ,when he is at last laid in the ground1 the tomb is enclosed by a strong wooden fence and planted with ornamental shrubs4 ,yet in the course of years1 as the memory of the deceased fades away1 his grave is neglected1 the fence decays1 the shrubs run wild2 another generation1 which knew him not1 will build a house on the spot1 and if in digging the foundations they turn up his bleached and mouldering bones1 it is nothing to them3 why should they trouble themselves about the spirit of a man or woman whose very name is forgotten8#dgd ,footnote #dej3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 pp4 #adb sq4 ,footnote #dea3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 p4 #adc4 ,footnote #deb3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 l4c4 ,footnote #dec3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 pp4 #adc sq4 ,footnote #ded3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fb sq4 ,footnote #dee3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 pp4 #fd sqq41 #adg sq4 ,footnote #def3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 p4 #acb4 ,footnote #deg3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 p4 #adh4 ,footnote #deh3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 pp4 #adh sq4 ,footnote #dei3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 p4 #adi4 ,footnote #dfj3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 p4 #adg4 ,footnote #dfa3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 p4 #ade4 ,footnote #dfb3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 p4 #ade4 ,footnote #dfc3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ade sq4 ,footnote #dfd3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 pp4 #adi sq4 ,footnote #dfe3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aab1 #aej sq4 ,footnote #dff3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aea-aed4 ,in this passage the ghosts are spoken of simply as spirits 7,geister72 but the context proves that the spirits in question are those of the dead4 ,footnote #dfg3 ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cd-dj4 ,footnote #dfh3 ,g4 ,bamler1 ,tami1 in ,r4 ,neuhauss's ,deutsch ,neu-,guinea1 iii4 7,berlin1 #aiaa7 p4 #dhi2 compare ib4 p4 vii4 ,footnote #dfi3 ,h4 ,zahn1 ,die ,jabim1 in ,r4 ,neuhauss's ,deutsch ,neu-,guinea1 iii4 #cae sq4 ,footnote #dgj3 ,g4 ,bamler1 op4 cit4 p4 #eah4 ,footnote #dga3 ,g4 ,bamler1 l4c4 ,footnote #dgb3 ,g4 ,bamler1 op4 cit4 pp4 #eah sq4 ,footnote #dgc3 ,g4 ,bamler1 op4 cit4 pp4 #eai-ebb4 ,footnote #dgd3 ,g4 ,bamler1 op4 cit4 p4 #eah4 ,,lecture ,,xiv ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,natives ,,of ,,german ,,and ,,dutch ,,new ,,guinea ,sidenote3 ,the ,tami doctrine of souls and gods4 ,the ,tago spirits1 represented by masked men4 ,at the close of the last lecture ,i dealt with the ,tami1 a people of ,melanesian stock who inhabit a group of islands off the mainland of ,new ,guinea4 ,i explained their theory of the human soul4 ,according to them1 every man has two distinct souls1 a long one and a short one1 both of which survive his death1 but depart in different directions1 one of them repairing to the lower world1 and the other being last sighted off the coast of ,new ,britain4 ,but the knowledge which these savages possess of the spiritual world is not limited to the souls of men2 they are acquainted with several deities 7buwun71 who live in the otherwise uninhabited island of ,djan4 ,they are beings of an amorous disposition1 and though their real shape is that of a fish's body with a human head1 they can take on the form of men in order to seduce women4 ,they also cause epidemics and earthquakes2 yet the people shew them no respect1 for they believe them to be dull-witted as well as lecherous4 ,at most1 if a fearful epidemic is raging1 they will offer the gods a lean little pig or a mangy cur2 and should an earthquake last longer than usual they will rap on the ground1 saying1 ,hullo1 you down there6 easy a little6 ,we men are still here4 ,they also profess acquaintance with a god named ,anuto1 who created the heaven and the earth together with the first man and woman4 ,he is a good being2 nobody need be afraid of him4 ,at festivals and meat markets the ,tami offer him the first portion in a little basket1 which a lad carries away into the wood and leaves there4 ,as usual1 the deity consumes only the soul of the offering2 the bearer eats the material substance4#dge ,the ,tami further believe in certain spirits called ,tago which are very old1 having been created at the same time as the village4 ,every family or clan possesses its own familiar spirits of this class4 ,they are represented by men who disguise their bodies in dense masses of sago leaves and their faces in grotesque masks with long hooked noses4 ,in this costume the maskers jig it as well as the heavy unwieldy disguise allows them to do4 ,but the dance consists in little more than running round and round in a circle1 with an occasional hop2 the orchestra stands in the middle1 singing and thumping drums4 ,sometimes two or three of the masked men will make a round of the village1 pelting the men with pebbles or hard fruits1 while the women and children scurry out of their way4 ,when they are not in use the masks are hidden away in a hut in the forest1 which women and children may not approach4 ,their secret is sternly kept3 any betrayal of it is punished with death4 ,the season for the exhibition of these masked dances recurs only once in ten or twelve years1 but it extends over a year or thereabout4 ,during the whole of the dancing-season1 curiously enough1 coco-nuts are strictly tabooed2 no person may eat them1 so that the unused nuts accumulate in thousands4 ,as coco-nuts ordinarily form a daily article of diet with the ,tami1 their prohibition for a year is felt by the people as a privation4 ,the meaning of the prohibition and also of the masquerades remains obscure4#dgf ,sidenote3 ,the superhuman beings with whom the ,tami are chiefly concerned are the souls of the dead4 ,offerings to the dead4 ,but while the ,tami believe in gods and spirits of various sorts1 the superhuman beings with whom they chiefly concern themselves are the souls of the dead4 ,on this subject ,mr4 ,bamler writes3 ,all the spirits whom we have thus far described are of little importance in the life and thought of the ,tami2 they are remembered only on special occasions4 ,the spirits who fill the thoughts and attract the attention of the ,tami are the kani1 that is1 the souls of the departed4 ,the ,tami therefore practise the worship of ancestors4 ,yet the memory of ancestors does not reach far back2 people occupy themselves only with the souls of those relatives whom they have personally known4 ,hence the worship seldom extends beyond the grandfather1 even when a knowledge of more remote progenitors survives4 ,an offering to the ancestors takes the form of a little dish of boiled taro1 a cigar1 betel-nuts1 and the like2 but the spirits partake only of the image or soul of the things offered1 while the material substance falls to the share of mankind4 ,there is no fixed rule as to the manner or time of the offering4 ,it is left to the caprice or childlike affection of the individual to decide how he will make it4 ,with most natives it is a simple matter of business1 the throwing of a sprat to catch a salmon2 the man brings his offering only when he needs the help of the spirits4 ,there is very little ceremony about it4 ,the offerer will say1 for example1 ',there1 ,i lay a cigar for you2 smoke it and hereafter drive fish towards me'2 or1 ',accompany me on the journey1 and see to it that ,i do good business4' ,the place where the food is presented is the shelf for pots and dishes under the roof4 ,thus they imagine that the spirits exert a tolerably far-reaching influence over all created things1 and it is their notion that the spirits take possession of the objects4 ,in like manner the spirits can injure a man by thwarting his plans1 for example1 by frightening away the fish1 blighting the fruits of the fields1 and so forth4 ,if the native is forced to conclude that the spirits are against him1 he has no hesitation about deceiving them in the grossest manner4 ,should the requisite sacrifices be inconvenient to him1 he flatly refuses them1 or gives the shabbiest things he can find4 ,in all this the native displays the same craft and cunning which he is apt to practise in his dealings with the whites4 ,he fears the power which the spirit has over him1 yet he tries whether he cannot outwit the spirit like an arrant block-head4#dgg ,sidenote3 ,crude motives for sacrifice4 ,this account of the crude but quite intelligible motives which lead these savages to sacrifice to the spirits of their dead may be commended to the attention of writers on the history of religion who read into primitive sacrifice certain subtle and complex ideas which it never entered into the mind of primitive man to conceive and which1 even if they were explained to him1 he would in all probability be totally unable to understand4 ,sidenote3 ,lamboam1 the land of the dead4 ,according to the ,tami1 the souls of the dead live in the nether world4 ,the spirit-land is called ,lamboam2 the entrance to it is by a cleft in a rock4 ,the natives of the mainland also call ,hades by the name of ,lamboam2 but whereas according to them every village has its own little ,lamboam1 the ,tami hold that there is only one big ,lamboam for everybody1 though it is subdivided into many mansions1 of which every village has one to itself4 ,in ,lamboam everything is fairer and more perfect than on earth4 ,the fruits are so plentiful that the blessed spirits can1 if they choose1 give themselves up to the delights of idleness2 the villages are full of ornamental plants4 ,yet on the other hand we are informed that life beneath the ground is very like life above it3 people work and marry1 they squabble and wrangle1 they fall sick and even die1 just as people do on earth4 ,souls which die the second death in ,lamboam are changed into vermin1 such as ants and worms2 however1 others say that they turn into wood-spirits1 who do men a mischief in the fields4 ,it is not so easy as is commonly supposed to effect an entrance into the spirit-land4 ,you must pass a river1 and even when you have crossed it you will be very likely to suffer from the practical jokes which the merry old ghosts play on a raw newcomer4 ,a very favourite trick of theirs is to send him up a pandanus tree to look for fruit4 ,if he is simple enough to comply1 they catch him by the legs as he is swarming up the trunk and drag him down1 so that his whole body is fearfully scratched1 if not quite ripped up1 by the rough bark4 ,that is why people put valuable things with the dead in the grave1 in order that their ghosts on arrival in ,lamboam may have the wherewithal to purchase the good graces of the facetious old stagers4#dgh ,sidenote3 ,return of the ghosts to earth1 sometimes in the form of serpents4 ,however1 even when the ghosts have succeeded in effecting a lodgment in ,lamboam1 they are not strictly confined to it4 ,they can break bounds at any moment and return to the upper air4 ,this they do particularly when any of their surviving relations is at the point of death4 ,ghosts of deceased kinsfolk and of others gather round the parting soul and attend it to the far country4 ,yet sometimes1 apparently1 the soul sets out alone1 for the anxious relatives will call out to it1 ,miss not the way4 ,but ghosts visit their surviving friends at other times than at the moment of death4 ,for example1 some families possess the power of calling up spirits in the form of serpents from the vasty deep4 ,the spirits whom they evoke are usually those of persons who have died quite lately2 for such ghosts cannot return to earth except in the guise of serpents4 ,in this novel shape they naturally feel shy and hide under a mat4 ,they come out only in the dusk of the evening or the darkness of night and sit on the shelf for pots and dishes under the roof4 ,they have lost the faculty of speech and can express themselves only in whistles4 ,these whistles the seer1 who is generally a woman1 understands perfectly and interprets to his or her less gifted fellows4 ,in this way a considerable body of information1 more or less accurate in detail1 is collected as to life in the other world4 ,more than that1 it is even possible for men1 and especially for women1 to go down alive into the nether world and prosecute their enquiries at first hand among the ghosts4 ,women who possess this remarkable faculty transmit it to their daughters1 so that the profession is hereditary4 ,when anybody wishes to ascertain how it fares with one of his dead kinsfolk in ,lamboam1 he has nothing to do but to engage the services of one of these professional mediums1 giving her something which belonged to his departed friend4 ,the medium rubs her forehead with ginger1 muttering an incantation1 lies down on the dead man's property1 and falls asleep4 ,her soul then goes down in a dream to deadland and elicits from the ghosts the required information1 which on waking from sleep she imparts to the anxious enquirer4#dgi ,sidenote3 ,sickness caused by a spirit4 ,sickness accompanied by fainting fits is ascribed to the action of a spirit1 it may be the ghost of a near relation1 who has carried off the long soul of the sufferer4 ,the truant soul is recalled by a blast blown on a triton-shell1 in which some chewed ginger or massoi bark has been inserted4 ,the booming sound attracts the attention of the vagrant spirit1 while the smell of the bark or of the ginger drives away the ghost4#dhj ,sidenote3 ,tami lads supposed to be swallowed by a monster at circumcision2 the monster and the bull-roarer are both called kani4 ,the name which the ,tami give to the spirits of the dead is kani2 but like other tribes in this part of ,new ,guinea they apply the same term to the bull-roarer and also to the mythical monster who is supposed to swallow the lads at circumcision4 ,the identity of the name for the three things seems to prove that in the mind of the ,tami the initiatory rites1 of which circumcision is the principal feature1 are closely associated with their conception of the state of the human soul after death1 though what the precise nature of the association may be still remains obscure4 ,like their neighbours on the mainland of ,new ,guinea1 the ,tami give out that the novices at initiation are swallowed by a monster or dragon1 who only consents to disgorge his prey in consideration of a tribute of pigs1 the rate of the tribute being one novice one pig4 ,in the act of disgorging the lad the dragon bites him1 and the bite is visible to all in the cut called circumcision4 ,the voice of the monster is heard in the hum of the bull-roarers1 which are swung at the ceremony in such numbers and with such force that in still weather the booming sound may be heard across the sea for many miles4 ,to impress women and children with an idea of the superhuman strength of the dragon deep grooves are cut in the trunks of trees and afterwards exhibited to the uninitiated as the marks made by the monster in tugging at the ropes which bound him to the trees4 ,however1 the whole thing is an open secret to the married women1 though they keep their knowledge to themselves1 fearing to incur the penalty of death which is denounced upon all who betray the mystery4 ,sidenote3 ,the rite of circumcision4 ,seclusion and return of the newly circumcised lads4 ,the initiatory rites are now celebrated only at intervals of many years4 ,when the time is come for the ceremony1 women are banished from the village and special quarters prepared for them elsewhere2 for they are strictly forbidden to set foot in the village while the monster or spirit who swallows the lads has his abode in it4 ,a special hut is then built for the accommodation of the novices during the many months which they spend in seclusion before and after the operation of circumcision4 ,the hut represents the monster2 it consists of a framework of thin poles covered with palm-leaf mats and tapering down at one end4 ,looked at from a distance it resembles a whale4 ,the backbone is composed of a betel-nut palm1 which has been grubbed up with its roots4 ,the root with its fibres represents the monster's head and hair1 and under it are painted a pair of eyes and a great mouth in red1 white1 and black4 ,the passage of the novices into the monster's belly is represented by causing them to defile past a row of men who hold bull-roarers aloft over the heads of the candidates4 ,before this march past takes place1 each of the candidates is struck by the chief with a bull-roarer on his chin and brow4 ,the operation of circumcising the lads is afterwards performed behind a screen set up near the monster-shaped house4 ,it is followed by a great feast on swine's flesh4 ,after their wounds are healed the circumcised lads have still to remain in seclusion for three or four months4 ,finally1 they are brought back to the village with great pomp4 ,for this solemn ceremony their faces1 necks1 and breasts are whitened with a thick layer of chalk1 while red stripes1 painted round their mouths and eyes and prolonged to the ears1 add to the grotesqueness of their appearance4 ,their eyes are closed with a plaster of chalk1 and thus curiously arrayed and blindfolded they are led back to the village square1 where leave is formally given them to open their eyes4 ,at the entrance to the village they are received by the women1 who weep for joy and strew boiled field-fruits on the way4 ,next morning the newly initiated lads wash off the crust of chalk1 and have their hair1 faces1 necks1 and breasts painted bright red4 ,this ends their time of seclusion1 which has lasted five or six months2 they now rank as full-grown men4#dha ,sidenote3 ,simulation of death and resurrection4 ,in these initiatory rites1 as in the similar rites of the neighbouring tribes on the mainland of ,new ,guinea1 we may perhaps detect a simulation of death and of resurrection to a new and higher life4 ,but why circumcision should form the central feature of such a drama is a question to which as yet no certain or even very probable answer can be given4 ,the bodily mutilations of various sorts1 which in many savage tribes mark the transition from boyhood to manhood1 remain one of the obscurest features in the life of uncultured races4 ,that they are in most cases connected with the great change which takes place in the sexes at puberty seems fairly certain2 but we are far from understanding the ideas which primitive man has formed on this mysterious subject4 ,sidenote3 ,the natives of ,dutch ,new ,guinea4 ,that ends what ,i have to say as to the notions of death and a life hereafter which are entertained by the natives of ,german ,new ,guinea4 ,we now turn to the natives of ,dutch ,new ,guinea1 who occupy roughly speaking the western half of the great island4 ,our information as to their customs and beliefs on this subject is much scantier1 and accordingly my account of them will be much briefer4 ,sidenote3 ,geelvink ,bay and ,doreh ,bay4 ,the ,noofoor or ,noomfor people4 ,their material culture and arts of life4 ,towards the western end of the ,dutch possession there is on the northern coast a deep and wide indentation known as ,geelvink ,bay1 which in its north-west corner includes a very much smaller indentation known as ,doreh ,bay4 ,scattered about in the waters of the great ,geelvink ,bay are many islands of various sizes1 such as ,biak or ,wiak1 ,jappen or ,jobi1 ,run or ,ron1 ,noomfor1 and many more4 ,it is in regard to the natives who inhabit the coasts or islands of ,geelvink ,bay that our information is perhaps least imperfect1 and it is accordingly with them that ,i shall begin4 ,in physical appearance1 expression of the face1 mode of wearing the hair1 and still more in manners and customs these natives of the coast and islands differ from the natives of the mountains in the interior4 ,the name given to them by ,dutch and ,german writers is ,noofoor or ,noomfor4 ,their original home is believed to be the island of ,biak or ,wiak1 which lies at the northern entrance of the bay1 and from which they are supposed to have spread southwards and south-westwards to the other islands and to the mainland of ,new ,guinea4#dhb ,they are a handsomely built race4 ,their colour is usually dark brown1 but in some individuals it shades off to light-brown1 while in others it deepens into black-brown4 ,the forehead is high and narrow2 the eye is dark brown or black with a lively expression2 the nose broad and flat1 the lips thick and projecting4 ,the cheekbones are not very high4 ,the facial angle agrees with that of ,europeans4 ,the hair is abundant and frizzly4 ,the people live in settled villages and subsist by agriculture1 hunting1 and fishing4 ,their large communal houses are raised above the ground on piles2 on the coast they are built over the water4 ,each house has a long gallery1 one in front and one behind1 and a long passage running down the middle of the dwelling1 with the rooms arranged on either side of it4 ,each room has its own fireplace and is occupied by a single family4 ,one such communal house may contain from ten to twenty families with a hundred or more men1 women1 and children1 besides dogs1 fowls1 parrots1 and other creatures4 ,when the house is built over the water1 it is commonly connected with the shore by a bridge2 but in some places no such bridge exists1 and at high water the inmates can only communicate with the shore by means of their canoes4 ,the staple food of the people is sago1 which they extract from the sago-palm2 but they also make use of bread-fruit1 together with millet1 rice1 and maize1 whenever they can obtain these cereals4 ,their flesh diet includes wild pigs1 birds1 fish1 and trepang4 ,while some of them subsist mainly by fishing and commerce1 others devote themselves almost exclusively to the cultivation of their gardens1 which they lay out in clearings of the dense tropical forest1 employing chiefly axes and chopping-knives as their instruments of tillage4 ,of ploughs they1 like most savages1 seem to know nothing4 ,the rice and other plants which they raise in these gardens are produced by the dry method of cultivation4 ,in hunting birds they employ chiefly bows and arrows1 but sometimes also snares4 ,the arrows with which they shoot the birds of paradise are blunted so as not to injure the splendid plumage of the birds4 ,turtle-shells1 feathers of the birds of paradise1 and trepang are among the principal articles which they barter with traders for cotton-goods1 knives1 swords1 axes1 beads and so forth4 ,they display some skill and taste in wood-carving4 ,the art of working in iron has been introduced among them from abroad and is now extensively practised by the men4 ,they make large dug-out canoes with outriggers1 which seem to be very seaworthy1 for they accomplish long voyages even in stormy weather4 ,the making of pottery1 basket-work1 and weaving1 together with pounding rice and cooking food1 are the special business of women4 ,the men wear waistbands or loin-cloths made of bark1 which is beaten till it becomes as supple as leather4 ,the women wear petticoats or strips of blue cotton round their loins1 and as ornaments they have rings of silver1 copper1 or shell on their arms and legs4#dhc ,thus the people have attained to a fair degree of barbaric culture4 ,sidenote3 ,fear of ghosts4 ,ideas of the spirit-world4 ,now it is significant that among these comparatively advanced savages the fear of ghosts and the reverence entertained for them have developed into something which might almost be called a systematic worship of the dead4 ,as to their fear of ghosts ,i will quote the evidence of a ,dutch missionary1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,l4 van ,hasselt1 who lived for many years among them and is the author of a grammar and dictionary of their language4 ,he says3 ,that a great fear of ghosts prevails among the ,papuans is intelligible4 ,even by day they are reluctant to pass a grave1 but nothing would induce them to do so by night4 ,for the dead are then roaming about in their search for gambier and tobacco1 and they may also sail out to sea in a canoe4 ,some of the departed1 above all the so-called ,mambrie or heroes1 inspire them with especial fear4 ,in such cases for some days after the burial you may hear about sunset a simultaneous and horrible din in all the houses of all the villages1 a yelling1 screaming1 beating and throwing of sticks2 happily the uproar does not last long3 its intention is to compel the ghost to take himself off3 they have given him all that befits him1 namely1 a grave1 a funeral banquet1 and funeral ornaments2 and now they beseech him not to thrust himself on their observation any more1 not to breathe any sickness upon the survivors1 and not to kill them or 'fetch' them1 as the ,papuans put it4 ,their ideas of the spirit-world are very vague4 ,their usual answer to such questions is1 ',we know not4' ,if you press them1 they will commonly say that the spirit realm is under the earth or under the bottom of the sea4 ,everything there is as it is in the upper world1 only the vegetation down below is more luxuriant1 and all plants grow faster4 ,their fear of death and their helpless wailing over the dead indicate that the misty kingdom of the shades offers but little that is consolatory to the ,papuan at his departure from this world4#dhd ,sidenote3 ,fear of ghosts in general and of the ghosts of the slain in particular4 ,again1 speaking of the natives of ,doreh1 a ,dutch official observes that superstition and magic play a principal part in the life of the ,papuan4 ,occasions for such absurdities he discovers at every step4 ,thus he cherishes a great fear of the ghosts of slain persons1 for which reason their bodies remain unburied on the spot where they were murdered4 ,when a murder has taken place in the village1 the inhabitants assemble for several evenings in succession and raise a fearful outcry in order to chase away the soul1 in case it should be minded to return to the village4 ,they set up miniature wooden houses here and there on trees in the forest for the ghosts of persons who die of disease or through accidents1 believing that the souls take up their abode in them4#dhe ,the same writer remarks that these savages have no priests1 but that they have magicians 7kokinsor71 who practise exorcisms1 work magic1 and heal the sick1 for which they receive a small payment in articles of barter or food4#dhf ,speaking of the ,papuans of ,dutch ,new ,guinea in general another writer informs us that they honour the memory of the dead in every way1 because they ascribe to the spirits of the departed a great influence on the life of the survivors4444 ,whereas in life all good and evil comes from the soul1 after death1 on the other hand1 the spirit works for the most part only evil4 ,it loves especially to haunt by night the neighbourhood of its old dwelling and the grave2 so the people particularly avoid the neighbourhood of graves at night1 and when darkness has fallen they will not go out except with a burning brand4444 ,according to the belief of the ,papuans the ghosts cause sickness1 bad harvests1 war1 and in general every misfortune4 ,from fear of such evils and in order to keep them in good humour1 the people make provision for the spirits of the departed after death4 ,also they sacrifice to them before every important undertaking and never fail to ask their advice4#dhg ,sidenote3 ,papuan ideas as to the state of the dead4 ,a ,dutch writer1 who has given us a comparatively full account of the natives of ,geelvink ,bay1 describes as follows their views in regard to the state of the dead3 ,according to the ,papuans the soul1 which they imagine to have its seat in the blood1 continues to exist at the bottom of the sea1 and every one who dies goes thither4 ,they imagine the state of things there to be much the same as that in which they lived on earth4 ,hence at his burial the dead man is given an equipment suitable to his rank and position in life4 ,he is provided with a bow and arrow1 armlets and body-ornaments1 pots and pans1 everything that may stand him in good stead in the life hereafter4 ,this provision must not be neglected1 for it is a prevalent opinion that the dead continue always to maintain relations with the world and with the living1 that they possess superhuman power1 exercise great influence over the affairs of life on earth1 and are able to protect in danger1 to stand by in war1 to guard against shipwreck at sea1 and to grant success in fishing and hunting4 ,for such weighty reasons the ,papuans do all in their power to win the favour of their dead4 ,on undertaking a journey they are said never to forget to hang amulets about themselves in the belief that their dead will then surely help them2 hence1 too1 when they are at sea in rough weather1 they call upon the souls of the departed1 asking them for better weather or a favourable breeze1 in case the wind happens to be contrary4#dhh ,sidenote3 ,wooden images of the dead 7korwar74 ,in order to communicate with these powerful spirits and to obtain their advice and help in time of need1 the ,papuans of ,geelvink ,bay make wooden images of their dead1 which they keep in their houses and consult from time to time4 ,every family has at least one such ancestral image1 which forms the medium whereby the soul of the deceased communicates with his or her surviving relatives4 ,these images or ,penates1 as we may call them1 are carved of wood1 about a foot high1 and represent the deceased person in a standing1 sitting1 or crouching attitude1 but commonly with the hands folded in front4 ,the head is disproportionately large1 the nose long and projecting1 the mouth wide and well furnished with teeth2 the eyes are formed of large green or blue beads with black dots to indicate the pupils4 ,sometimes the male figures carry a shield in the left hand and brandish a sword in the right2 while the female figures are represented grasping with both hands a serpent which stands on its coiled tail4 ,rags of many colours adorn these figures1 and the hair of the deceased1 whom they represent1 is placed between their legs4 ,such an ancestral image is called a korwar or karwar4 ,the natives identify these effigies with the deceased persons whom they portray1 and accordingly they will speak of one as their father or mother or other relation4 ,tobacco and food are offered to the images1 and the natives greet them reverentially by bowing to the earth before them with the two hands joined and raised to the forehead4 ,sidenote3 ,such images carried on voyages and consulted as oracles4 ,the images consulted in sickness4 ,such images are kept in the houses and carried in canoes on voyages1 in order that they may be at hand to help and advise their kinsfolk and worshippers4 ,they are consulted on many occasions1 for example1 when the people are going on a journey1 or about to fish for turtles or trepang1 or when a member of the family is sick1 and his relations wish to know whether he will recover4 ,at these consultations the enquirer may either take the image in his hands or crouch before it on the ground1 on which he places his offerings of tobacco1 cotton1 beads1 and so forth4 ,the spirit of the dead is thought to be in the image and to pass from it into the enquirer1 who thus becomes inspired by the soul of the deceased and acquires his superhuman knowledge4 ,as a sign of his inspiration the medium shivers and shakes4 ,according to some accounts1 however1 this shivering and shaking of the medium is an evil omen2 whereas if he remains tranquil1 the omen is good4 ,it is especially in cases of sickness that the images are consulted4 ,the mode of consultation has been described as follows by a ,dutch writer3 ,when any one is sick and wishes to know the means of cure1 or when any one desires to avert misfortune or to discover something unknown1 then in presence of the whole family one of the members is stupefied by the fumes of incense or by other means of producing a state of trance4 ,the image of the deceased person whose advice is sought is then placed on the lap or shoulder of the medium in order to cause the soul to pass out of the image into his body4 ,at the moment when that happens1 he begins to shiver2 and1 encouraged by the bystanders1 the soul speaks through the mouth of the medium and names the means of cure or of averting the calamity4 ,when he comes to himself1 the medium knows nothing of what he has been saying4 ,this they call kor karwar1 that is1 'invoking the soul2' and they say karwar iwos1 'the soul speaks4' ,the writer adds3 ,it is sometimes reported that the souls go to the underworld1 but that is not true4 ,the ,papuans think that after death the soul abides by the corpse and is buried with it in the grave2 hence before an image is made1 if it is necessary to consult the soul1 the enquirer must betake himself to the grave in order to do so4 ,but when the image is made1 the soul enters into it and is supposed to remain in it so long as satisfactory answers are obtained from it in consultation4 ,but should the answers prove disappointing1 the people think that the soul has deserted the image1 on which they throw the image away as useless4 ,where the soul has gone1 nobody knows1 and they do not trouble their heads about it1 since it has lost its power4#dhi ,the person who acts as medium in consulting the spirit may be either the house-father himself or a magician 7konoor74#dij ,sidenote3 ,example of the consultation of an ancestral image4 ,as an example of these consultations we may take the case of a man who was suffering from a painful sore on his finger and wished to ascertain the cause of the trouble4 ,so he set one of the ancestral images before him and questioned it closely4 ,at first the image made no reply2 but at last the man remembered that he had neglected his duty to his dead brother by failing to marry his widow1 as1 according to native custom1 he should have done4 ,now the natives believe that the dead can punish them for any breach of customary law2 so it occurred to our enquirer that the ghost of his dead brother might have afflicted him with the sore on his finger for not marrying his widow4 ,accordingly he put the question to the image1 and in doing so the compunction of a guilty conscience caused him to tremble4 ,this trembling he took for an answer of the image in the affirmative1 wherefore he went off and took the widow to wife and provided for her maintenance4#dia ,sidenote3 ,ancestral images consulted as to the cause of death4 ,offerings to the images4 ,again1 the ancestral images are often consulted to ascertain the cause of a death2 and if the image attributes the death to the evil magic of a member of another tribe1 an expedition will be sent to avenge the wrong by slaying the supposed culprit4 ,for the souls of the dead take it very ill and wreak their spite on the survivors1 if their death is not avenged on their enemies4 ,not uncommonly the consultation of the images merely furnishes a pretext for satisfying a grudge against an individual or a tribe4#dib ,the mere presence of these images appears to be supposed to benefit the sick2 a woman who was seriously ill has been seen to lie with four or five ancestral figures fastened at the head of her bed4 ,on enquiry she explained that they did not all belong to her1 but that some of them had been kindly lent to her by relations and friends4#dic ,again1 the images are taken by the natives with them to war1 because they hope thereby to secure the help of the spirits whom the images represent4 ,also they make offerings from time to time to the effigies and hold feasts in their honour4#did ,they observe1 indeed1 that the food which they present to these household idols remains unconsumed1 but they explain this by saying that the spirits are content to snuff up the savour of the viands1 and to leave their gross material substance alone4#die ,sidenote3 ,images of persons who have died away from home4 ,in general1 images are only made of persons who have died at home4 ,but in the island of ,ron or ,run they are also made of persons who have died away from home or have fallen in battle4 ,in such cases the difficulty is to compel the soul to quit its mortal remains far away and come to animate the image4 ,however1 the natives of ,ron have found means to overcome this difficulty4 ,they first carve the wooden image of the dead person and then call his soul back to the village by setting a great tree on fire1 while the family assemble round it and one of them1 holding the image in his hand1 acts the part of a medium1 shivering and shaking and falling into a trance after the approved fashion of mediums in many lands4 ,after this ceremony the image is supposed to be animated by the soul of the deceased1 and it is kept in the house with as much confidence as any other4#dif ,sidenote3 ,sometimes the head of the image is composed of the skull of the deceased4 ,sometimes the head of the image consists of the skull of the deceased1 which has been detached from the skeleton and inserted in a hole at the top of the effigy4 ,in such cases the body of the image is of wood and the head of bone4 ,it is especially men who have distinguished themselves by their bravery or have earned a name for themselves in other ways who are thus represented4 ,apparently the notion is that as a personal relic of the departed the skull is better fitted to retain his soul than a mere head of wood4 ,but in the island of ,ron or ,run1 and perhaps elsewhere1 skull-topped images of this sort are made for all firstborn children1 whether male or female1 young or old1 at least for all who die from the age of twelve years and upward4 ,these images have a special name1 bemar boo1 which means head of a corpse4 ,they are kept in the room of the parents who have lost the child4#dig ,sidenote3 ,mode of preparing such skull-headed images4 ,the mode in which such images are prepared is as follows4 ,the body of the firstborn child1 who dies at the age of years or upwards1 is laid in a small canoe1 which is deposited in a hut erected behind the dwelling-house4 ,here the mother is obliged to keep watch night and day beside the corpse and to maintain a blazing fire till the head drops off the body1 which it generally does about twenty days after the death4 ,then the trunk is wrapped in leaves and buried1 but the head is brought into the house and carefully preserved4 ,above the spot where it is deposited a small opening is made in the roof1 through which a stick is thrust bearing some rags or flags to indicate that the remains of a dead body are in the house4 ,when1 after the lapse of three or four months1 the nose and ears of the head have dropped off1 and the eyes have mouldered away1 the relations and friends assemble in the house of mourning4 ,in the middle of the assembly the father of the child crouches on his hams with downcast look in an attitude of grief1 while one of the persons present begins to carve a new nose and a new pair of ears for the skull out of a piece of wood4 ,the kind of wood varies according as the deceased was a male or a female4 ,all the time that the artist is at work1 the rest of the company chant a melancholy dirge4 ,when the nose and ears are finished and have been attached to the skull1 and small round fruits have been inserted in the hollow sockets of the eyes to represent the missing orbs1 a banquet follows in honour of the deceased1 who is now represented by his decorated skull set up on a block of wood on the table4 ,thus he receives his share of the food and of the cigars1 and is raised to the rank of a domestic idol or korwar4 ,henceforth the skull is carefully kept in a corner of the chamber to be consulted as an oracle in time of need4 ,the bodies of fathers and mothers are treated in the same way as those of firstborn children4 ,on the other hand the bodies of children who die under the age of two years are never buried4 ,the remains are packed in baskets of rushes covered with lids and tightly corded1 and the baskets are then hung on the branches of tall trees1 where no more notice is taken of them4 ,four or five such baskets containing the mouldering bodies of infants may sometimes be seen hanging on a single tree4#dih ,the reason for thus disposing of the remains of young children is said to be as follows4 ,a thick mist hangs at evening over the top of the dense tropical forest1 and in the mist dwell two spirits called ,narwur and ,imgier1 one male and the other female1 who kill little children1 not out of malice but out of love1 because they wish to have the children with them4 ,so when a child dies1 the parents fasten its little body to the branches of a tall tree in the forest1 hoping that the spirit pair will take it and be satisfied1 and will spare its small brothers and sisters4#dii ,sidenote3 ,mummification of the dead4 ,in some parts of ,geelvink ,bay1 however1 the bodies of the dead are treated differently4 ,for example1 on the south coast of the island of ,jobi or ,jappen and elsewhere the corpses are reduced to mummies by being dried on a bamboo stage over a slow fire2 after which the mummies1 wrapt in cloth1 are kept in the house1 being either laid along the wall or hung from the ceiling4 ,when the number of these relics begins to incommode the living inmates of the house1 the older mummies are removed and deposited in the hollow trunks of ancient trees4 ,in some tribes who thus mummify their dead the juices of corruption which drip from the rotting corpse are caught in a vessel and given to the widow to drink1 who is forced to gulp them down under the threat of decapitation if she were to reject the loathsome beverage4#ejj ,sidenote3 ,restrictions observed by mourners4 ,tattooing in honour of the dead4 ,teeth of the dead worn by relatives4 ,the family in which a death has taken place is subject for a time to certain burdensome restrictions1 which are probably dictated by a fear of the ghost4 ,thus all the time till the effigy of the deceased has been made and a feast given in his honour1 they are obliged to remain in the house without going out for any purpose1 not even to bathe or to fetch food and drink4 ,moreover they must abstain from the ordinary articles of diet and confine themselves to half-baked cakes of sago and other unpalatable viands4 ,as these restrictions may last for months they are not only irksome but onerous1 especially to people who have no slaves to fetch and carry for them4 ,however1 in that case the neighbours come to the rescue and supply the mourners with wood1 water1 and the other necessaries of life1 until custom allows them to go out and help themselves4 ,after the effigy of the dead has been made1 the family go in state to a sacred place to purify themselves by bathing4 ,if the journey is made by sea1 no other canoe may meet or sail past the canoe of the mourners under pain of being confiscated to them and redeemed at a heavy price4 ,on their return from the holy place1 the period of mourning is over1 and the family is free to resume their ordinary mode of life and their ordinary victuals4#eja ,that the seclusion of the mourners in the house for some time after the death springs from a fear of the ghost is not only probable on general grounds but is directly suggested by a custom which is observed at the burial of the body4 ,when it has been laid in the earth along with various articles of daily use1 which the ghost is supposed to require for his comfort1 the mourners gather round the grave and each of them picks up a leaf1 which he folds in the shape of a spoon and holds several times over his head as if he would pour out the contents upon it4 ,as they do so1 they all murmur1 ,rur i rama1 that is1 ,the spirit comes4 ,this exclamation or incantation is supposed to prevent the ghost from troubling them4 ,the gravediggers may not enter their houses till they have bathed and so removed from their persons the contagion of death1 in order that the soul of the deceased may have no power over them4#ejb ,mourners sometimes tattoo themselves in honour of the dead4 ,for a father1 the marks are tattooed on the cheeks and under the eyes2 for a grandfather1 on the breast2 for a mother1 on the shoulders and arms2 for a brother1 on the back4 ,on the death of a father or mother1 the eldest son or1 if there is none such1 the eldest daughter wears the teeth and hair of the deceased4 ,when the teeth of old people drop out1 they are kept on purpose to be thus strung on a string and worn by their sons or daughters after their death4 ,similarly1 a mother wears as a permanent mark of mourning the teeth of her dead child strung on a cord round her neck1 and as a temporary mark of mourning a little bag on her throat containing a lock of the child's hair4#ejc ,the intention of these customs is not mentioned4 ,probably they are not purely commemorative but designed in some way either to influence for good the spirit of the departed or to obtain its help and protection for the living4 ,sidenote3 ,rebirth of parents in their children4 ,thus far we have found no evidence among the natives of ,new ,guinea of a belief that the dead are permanently reincarnated in their human descendants4 ,however1 the inhabitants of ,ayambori1 an inland village about an hour distant to the east of ,doreh1 are reported to believe that the soul of a dead man returns in his eldest son1 and that the soul of a dead woman returns in her eldest daughter4#ejd ,so stated the belief is hardly clear and intelligible2 for if a man has several sons1 he must evidently be alive and not dead when the eldest of them is born1 and similarly with a woman and her eldest daughter4 ,on the analogy of similar beliefs elsewhere we may conjecture that these ,papuans imagine every firstborn son to be animated by the soul of his father1 whether his father be alive or dead1 and every firstborn daughter to be animated by the soul of her mother1 whether her mother be alive or dead4 ,sidenote3 ,customs concerning the dead observed in the islands off the western end of ,new ,guinea4 ,beliefs and customs concerning the dead like those which we have found among the natives of ,geelvink ,bay are reported to prevail in other parts of ,dutch ,new ,guinea1 but our information about them is much less full4 ,thus1 off the western extremity of ,new ,guinea there is a group of small islands 7,waaigeoo1 ,salawati1 ,misol1 ,waigama1 and so on71 the inhabitants of which make karwar or wooden images of their dead ancestors4 ,these they keep in separate rooms of their houses and take with them as talismans to war4 ,in these inner rooms are also kept miniature wooden houses in which their ancestors are believed to reside1 and in which even ,mohammedans 7for some of the natives profess ,islam7 burn incense on ,fridays in honour of the souls of the dead4 ,these souls are treated like living beings1 for in the morning some finely pounded sago is placed in the shrines2 at noon it is taken away1 but may not be eaten by the inmates of the house4 ,curiously enough1 women are forbidden to set food for the dead in the shrines3 if they did so1 it is believed that they would be childless4 ,further1 in the chief's house there are shrines for the souls of all the persons who have died in the whole village4 ,such a house might almost be described as a temple of the dead4 ,among the inhabitants of the ,negen ,negorijen or ,nine ,villages the abodes of the ancestral spirits are often merely frameworks of houses decorated with coloured rags4 ,these frameworks are called roem seram4 ,on festal occasions they are brought forth and the people dance round them to music4 ,the mountain tribes of these islands to the west of ,new ,guinea seldom have any such little houses for the souls of the dead4 ,they think that the spirits of the departed dwell among the branches of trees1 to which accordingly the living attach strips of red and white cotton1 always to the number of seven or a multiple of seven4 ,also they place food on the branches or hang it in baskets on the boughs1#eje no doubt in order to feed the hungry ghosts4 ,but among the tribes on the coast1 who make miniature houses for the use of their dead1 these little shrines form a central feature of the religious life of the people4 ,at festivals1 especially on the occasion of a marriage or a death1 the shrines are brought out from the side chamber and are set down in the central room of the house1 where the people dance round them1 singing and making music for days together with no interruption except for meals4#ejf ,sidenote3 ,wooden images of the dead4 ,according to the ,dutch writer1 ,mr4 de ,clercq1 whose account ,i am reproducing1 this worship of the dead1 represented by wooden images 7karwar7 and lodged in miniature houses1 is1 together with a belief in good and bad spirits1 the only thing deserving the name of religion that can be detected among these people4 ,it is certain that the wooden images represent members of the family who died a natural death at home2 they are never1 as in ,ansoes and ,waropen1 images of persons who have been murdered or slain in battle4 ,hence they form a kind of ,penates1 who are supposed to lead an invisible life in the family circle4 ,the natives of the ,negen ,negorijen1 for example1 believe that these wooden images 7karwar71 which are both male and female1 contain the souls of their ancestors1 who protect the house and household and are honoured at festivals by having portions of food set beside their images4#ejg ,the ,seget ,sele1 who occupy the extreme westerly point of ,new ,guinea1 bury their dead in the island of ,lago and set up little houses in the forest for the use of the spirits of their ancestors4 ,but these little houses may never be entered or even approached by members of the family4#ejh ,a traveller1 who visited a hut occupied by members of the ,seget tribe in ,princess ,island1 or ,kararaboe1 found a sick man in it and observed that before the front and back door were set up double rows of roughly hewn images painted with red and black stripes4 ,he was told that these images were intended to keep off the sickness2 for the natives thought that it would not dare to run the gauntlet between the double rows of figures into the house4#eji ,we may conjecture that these rude images represented ancestral spirits who were doing sentinel duty over the sick man4 ,sidenote3 ,customs concerning the dead among the natives of the ,macluer ,gulf4 ,among the natives of the ,macluer ,gulf1 which penetrates deep into the western part of ,dutch ,new ,guinea1 the souls of dead men who have distinguished themselves by bravery or in other ways are honoured in the shape of wooden images1 which are sometimes wrapt in cloth and decorated with shells about the neck4 ,in ,sekar1 a village on the south side of the gulf1 small bowls1 called kararasa after the spirits of ancestors who are believed to lodge in them1 are hung up in the houses2 on special occasions food is placed in them4 ,in some of the islands of the ,macluer ,gulf the dead are laid in hollows of the rocks1 which are then adorned with drawings of birds1 hands1 and so forth4 ,the hands are always painted white or yellowish on a red ground4 ,the other figures are drawn with chalk on the weathered surface of the rock4 ,but the natives either cannot or will not give any explanation of the custom4#eaj ,sidenote3 ,burial and mourning customs in the ,mimika district4 ,the ,papuans of the ,mimika district1 on the southern coast of ,dutch ,new ,guinea1 sometimes bury their dead in shallow graves near the huts2 sometimes they place them in coffins on rough trestles and leave them there till decomposition is complete1 when they remove the skull and preserve it in the house1 either burying it in the sand of the floor or hanging it in a sort of basket from the roof1 where it becomes brown with smoke and polished with frequent handling4 ,the people do not appear to be particularly attached to these relics of their kinsfolk and they sell them readily to ,europeans4 ,mourners plaster themselves all over with mud1 and sometimes they bathe in the river1 probably as a mode of ceremonial purification4 ,they believe in ghosts1 which they call niniki2 but beyond that elementary fact we have no information as to their beliefs concerning the state of the dead4#eaa ,sidenote3 ,burial customs at ,windessi4 ,the natives of ,windessi in ,dutch ,new ,guinea generally bury their dead the day after the decease4 ,as a rule the corpse is wrapt in mats and a piece of blue cloth and laid on a scaffold2 few are coffined4 ,all the possessions of the dead1 including weapons1 fishing-nets1 wooden bowls1 pots1 and so forth1 according as the deceased was a man or a woman1 are placed beside him or her4 ,if the death is attributed to the influence of an evil spirit1 they take hold of a lock of hair of the corpse and mention various places4 ,at the mention of each place1 they tug the hair2 and if it comes out1 they conclude that the death was caused by somebody at the place which was mentioned at the moment4 ,but if the hair does not come out1 they infer that evil spirits had no hand in the affair4 ,before the body is carried away1 the family bathes1 no doubt to purify themselves from the contagion of death4 ,among the people of ,windessi it is a common custom to bury the dead in an island4 ,at such a burial the bystanders pick up a fallen leaf1 tear it in two1 and stroke the corpse with it1 in order that the ghost of the departed may not kill them4 ,when the body has been disposed of either in a grave or on a scaffold1 they embark in the canoe and sit listening for omens4 ,one of the men in a loud voice bids the birds and the flies to be silent2 and all the others sit as still as death in an attitude of devotion4 ,at last1 after an interval of silence1 the man who called out tells his fellows what he has heard4 ,if it was the buzz of the blue flies that he heard1 some one else will die4 ,if it was the booming sound of a triton shell blown in the distance1 a raid must be made in that direction to rob and murder4 ,why it must be so1 is not said1 but we may suppose that the note of the triton shell is believed to betray the place of the enemy who has wrought the death by magic1 and that accordingly an expedition must be sent to avenge the supposed crime on the supposed murderer4 ,if the note of a bird called kohwi is heard1 then the fruit-trees will bear fruit4 ,though all the men sit listening in the canoe1 the ominous sounds are heard only by the man who called out4#eab ,sidenote3 ,mourning customs at ,windessi4 ,when the omens have thus been taken1 the paddles again dip in the water1 and the canoe returns to the house of mourning4 ,arrived at it1 the men disembark1 climb up the ladder 7for the houses seem to be built on piles over the water7 and run the whole length of the long house with their paddles on their shoulders4 ,curiously enough1 they never do this at any other time1 because they imagine that it would cause the death of somebody4 ,meantime the women have gone into the forest to get bark1 which they beat into bark-cloth and make into mourning caps for themselves4 ,the men busy themselves with plaiting armlets and leglets of rattan1 in which some red rags are stuck4 ,large blue and white beads are strung on a red cord and worn round the neck4 ,further1 the hair is shorn in sign of mourning4 ,mourners are forbidden to eat anything cooked in a pot4 ,sago-porridge1 which is a staple food with some of the natives of ,new ,guinea1 is also forbidden to mourners at ,windessi4 ,if they would eat rice1 it must be cooked in a bamboo4 ,the doors and windows of the house are closed with planks or mats1 just as with us the blinds are lowered in a house after a death4 ,the surviving relatives make as many long sago-cakes as there are houses in the village and send them to the inmates2 they also prepare a few for themselves4 ,all who do not belong to the family now leave the house of mourning4 ,then the eldest brother or his representative gets up and all follow him to the back verandah1 where a woman stands holding a bow and arrows1 an axe1 a paddle1 and so forth4 ,every one touches these implements4 ,since the death1 there has been no working in the house1 but this time of inactivity is now over and every one is free to resume his usual occupations4 ,this ends the preliminary ceremonies of mourning1 which go by the name of djawarra4 ,a month afterwards round cakes of sago are baked on the fire1 and all the members of the family1 their friends1 and the persons who assisted at the burial receive three such cakes each4 ,only very young children are now allowed to eat sago-porridge4 ,this ceremony is called djawarra baba4 ,sidenote3 ,festival of the dead4 ,wooden images of the dead4 ,when a year or more has elapsed1 the so-called festival of the dead takes place4 ,often the festival is held for several dead at the same time1 and in that case the cost is borne in common4 ,from far and near the people have collected sago1 coco-nuts1 and other food4 ,for two nights and a day they dance and sing1 but without the accompaniment of drums 7tifa7 and gongs4 ,the first night1 the signs of mourning are still worn1 hence no sago-porridge may be eaten2 only friends who are not in mourning are allowed to partake of it4 ,the night is spent in eating1 drinking1 smoking1 singing and dancing4 ,next day many people make korwars of their dead1 that is1 grotesque wooden images carved in human form1 which are regarded as the representatives of the departed4 ,some people fetch the head of the deceased person1 and having made a wooden image with a large head and a hole in the back of it1 they insert the skull into the wooden head from behind4 ,after that friends feed the mourners with sago-porridge1 putting it into their mouths with the help of the chopsticks which are commonly used in eating sago4 ,when that is done1 the period of mourning is at an end1 and the signs of mourning are thrown away4 ,a dance on the beach follows1 at which the new wooden images of the dead make their appearance4 ,but still the drums and gongs are silent4 ,dancing and singing go on till the next morning1 when the whole of the ceremonies come to an end4#eac ,sidenote3 ,fear of the ghost4 ,the exact meaning of all these ceremonies is not clear1 but we may conjecture that they are based in large measure on the fear of the ghost4 ,that fear comes out plainly in the ceremony of stroking the corpse with leaves in order to prevent the ghost from killing the survivors4 ,the writer to whom we are indebted for an account of these customs tells us in explanation of them that among these people death is ascribed to the influence of evil spirits called manoam1 who are supposed to be incarnate in some human beings4 ,hence they often seek to avenge a death by murdering somebody who has the reputation of being an evil spirit incarnate4 ,if they succeed in doing so1 they celebrate the preliminary mourning ceremonies called djawarra and djawarra baba1 but the festival of the dead is changed into a memorial festival1 at which the people dance and sing to the accompaniment of drums 7tifa71 gongs1 and triton shells2 and instead of carving a wooden image of the deceased1 they make marks on the fleshless skull of the murdered man4#ead ,sidenote3 ,beliefs of the natives of ,windessi as to the life after death4 ,medicine-men inspired by the spirits of the dead4 ,the natives of ,windessi are said to have the following belief as to the life after death1 though we are told that the creed is now known to very few of them2 for their old beliefs and customs are fading away under the influence of a mission station which is established among them4 ,according to their ancient creed1 every man and every woman has two spirits1 and in the nether world1 called sarooka1 is a large house where there is room for all the people of ,windessi4 ,when a woman dies1 both her spirits always go down to the nether world1 where they are clothed with flesh and bones1 need do no work1 and live for ever4 ,but when a man dies1 only one of his spirits must go to the under world2 the other may pass or transmigrate into a living man or1 in rare cases1 into a living woman2 the person so inspired by a dead man's spirit becomes an inderri1 that is1 a medicine-man or medicine-woman and has power to heal the sick4 ,when a person wishes to become a medicine-man or medicine-woman1 he or she acts as follows4 ,if a man has died1 and his friends are sitting about the corpse lamenting1 the would-be medicine-man suddenly begins to shiver and to rub his knee with his folded hands1 while he utters a monotonous sound4 ,gradually he falls into an ecstasy1 and if his whole body shakes convulsively1 the spirit of the dead man is supposed to have entered into him1 and he becomes a medicine-man4 ,next day or the day after he is taken into the forest2 some hocus-pocus is performed over him1 and the spirits of lunatics1 who dwell in certain thick trees1 are invoked to take possession of him4 ,he is now himself called a lunatic1 and on returning home behaves as if he were half-crazed4 ,this completes his training as a medicine-man1 and he is now fully qualified to kill or cure the sick4 ,his mode of cure depends on the native theory of sickness4 ,these savages think that sickness is caused by a malicious or angry spirit1 apparently the spirit of a dead person2 for a patient will say1 ,the korwar 7that is1 the wooden image which represents a particular dead person7 is murdering me1 or is making me sick4 ,so the medicine-man is called in1 and sets to work on the sufferer1 while the korwar1 or wooden image of the spirit who is supposed to be doing all the mischief1 stands beside him4 ,the principal method of cure employed by the doctor is massage4 ,he chews a certain fruit fine and rubs the patient with it2 also he pinches him all over the body as if to drive out the spirit4 ,often he professes to extract a stone1 a bone1 or a stick from the body of the sufferer4 ,at last he gives out that he has ascertained the cause of the sickness2 the sick man has done or has omitted to do something which has excited the anger of the spirit4#eae ,sidenote3 ,ghosts of slain enemies dreaded4 ,from all this it would seem that the souls of the dead are more feared than loved and reverenced by the ,papuans of ,windessi4 ,naturally the ghosts of enemies who have perished at their hands are particularly dreaded by them4 ,that dread explains some of the ceremonies which are observed in the village at the return of a successful party of head-hunters4 ,as they draw near the village1 they announce their approach and success by blowing on triton shells4 ,their canoes also are decked with branches4 ,the faces of the men who have taken a head are blackened with charcoal2 and if several have joined in killing one man1 his skull is divided between them4 ,they always time their arrival so as to reach home in the early morning4 ,they come paddling to the village with a great noise1 and the women stand ready to dance in the verandahs of the houses4 ,the canoes row past the roem sram or clubhouse where the young men live2 and as they pass1 the grimy-faced slayers fling as many pointed sticks or bamboos at the house as they have killed enemies4 ,the rest of the day is spent very quietly4 ,but now and then they drum or blow on the conch1 and at other times they beat on the walls of the houses with sticks1 shouting loudly at the same time1 to drive away the ghosts of their victims4#eaf ,that concludes what ,i have to say as to the fear and worship of the dead in ,dutch ,new ,guinea4 ,footnote #dge3 ,g4 ,bamler1 ,tami1 in ,r4 ,neuhauss's ,deutsch ,neu-,guinea1 iii4 7,berlin1 #aiaa7 pp4 #dhi-dib4 ,footnote #dgf3 ,g4 ,bamler1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ejg-eab4 ,footnote #dgg3 ,g4 ,bamler1 op4 cit4 pp4 #eac sq4 ,footnote #dgh3 ,g4 ,bamler1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ead sq4 ,footnote #dgi3 ,g4 ,bamler1 op4 cit4 pp4 #eae sq4 ,footnote #dhj3 ,g4 ,bamler1 op4 cit4 p4 #eaf4 ,footnote #dha3 ,g4 ,bamler1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dic-ejg4 ,footnote #dhb3 ,j4 ,l4 van ,hasselt1 ,die ,papuastaemme an der ,geelvinkbai 7,neu-guinea71 ,mitteilungen der geographischen ,gesellschaft zu ,jena1 ix4 7#ahij7 p4 #a2 ,f4 ,s4 ,a4 de ,clercq1 ,de ,west en ,noordkust van ,nederlandsch ,nieuw-,guinea1 ,tijdschrift van het ,kon4 ,nederlandsch ,aardrijkskundig ,genootschap1 ,tweede ,serie1 x4 7#ahic7 pp4 #ehg sq4 ,footnote #dhc3 ,j4 ,l4 van ,hasselt1 op4 cit4 pp4 #b1 #c1 #e sq42 ,a4 ,goudswaard1 ,de ,papoewa's van de ,geelvinksbaai 7,schiedam1 #ahfc71 pp4 #bh sqq41 #cc sqq41 #db sq41 #dg sqq4 ,footnote #dhd3 ,j4 ,l4 van ,hasselt1 ,die ,papuastaemme an der ,geelvinkbai 7,neu-guinea71 ,mitteilungen der ,geographischen ,gesellschaft zu ,jena1 ix4 7#ahia7 p4 #aja4 ,footnote #dhe3 ,h4 van ,rosenberg1 ,der ,malayische ,archipel 7,leipsic1 #ahgh71 p4 #dfa4 ,footnote #dhf3 ,h4 van ,rosenberg1 op4 cit4 p4 #dfb4 ,footnote #dhg3 ,m4 ,krieger1 ,neu-,guinea 7,berlin1 ,n4,d41 preface dated #ahii71 pp4 #dja1 #djb4 ,footnote #dhh3 ,a4 ,goudswaard1 ,de ,papoewa's van de ,geelvinksbaai 7,schiedam1 #ahfc71 p4 #gg4 ,compare ,o4 ,finsch1 ,neu-,guinea und seine ,bewohner 7,bremen1 #ahfe71 p4 #aje4 ,footnote #dhi3 ,f4 ,s4 ,a4 de ,clercq1 ,de ,west- en ,noordkust van ,nederlandsch ,nieuw-,guinea1 ,tijdschrift van het ,kon4 ,nederlandsch ,aardrijkskundig ,genootschap1 ,tweede ,serie1 x4 7#ahic7 p4 #fca4 ,on these korwar or karwar 7images of the dead7 see further ,a4 ,goudswaard1 ,de ,papoewa's van de ,geelvinksbaai1 pp4 #gb sq41 #gg-gi2 ,o4 ,finsch1 ,neu-,guinea und seine ,bewohner1 pp4 #ajd-ajf2 ,h4 von ,rosenberg1 ,der ,malayische ,archipel1 pp4 #dfj sq42 ,j4 ,l4 van ,hasselt1 ,die ,papuastaemme an der ,geelvinkbaai 7,neu-,guinea7 ,mitteilungen der ,geographischen ,gesellschaft zu ,jena1 ix4 7#ahia7 p4 #ajj2 ,m4 ,krieger1 ,neu-,guinea1 pp4 #djj sq41 #djb sq41 #dih sqq4 ,in the text ,i have drawn on these various accounts4 ,footnote #dij3 ,j4 ,l4 van ,hasselt1 l4c4 ,footnote #dia3 ,a4 ,goudswaard1 ,de ,papoewa's van de ,geelvinksbaai1 pp4 #gh sq42 ,o4 ,finsch1 ,neu-,guinea und seine ,bewohner1 pp4 #aje sq4 ,footnote #dib3 ,a4 ,goudswaard1 op4 cit4 p4 #gi2 ,o4 ,finsch1 op4 cit4 p4 #ajf4 ,footnote #dic3 ,j4 ,l4 van ,hasselt1 op4 cit4 p4 #ajj4 ,footnote #did3 ,a4 ,goudswaard1 op4 cit4 p4 #gh4 ,footnote #die3 ,f4 ,s4 ,a4 de ,clercq1 op4 cit4 p4 #fcb4 ,footnote #dif3 ,f4 ,s4 ,a4 de ,clercq1 op4 cit4 p4 #fcb4 ,footnote #dig3 ,f4 ,s4 ,a4 de ,clercq1 op4 cit4 p4 #fcb4 ,footnote #dih3 ,a4 ,goudswaard1 ,de ,papoewa's van de ,geelvinksbaai1 pp4 #gj-gc2 ,o4 ,finsch1 ,neu-,guinea und seine ,bewohner pp4 #ajd sq42 ,m4 ,krieger1 ,neu-,guinea1 p4 #cih4 ,footnote #dii3 ,j4 ,l4 van ,hasselt1 in ,mitteilungen der ,geographischen ,gesellschaft zu ,jena1 iv4 7#ahhf7 pp4 #aah sq4 ,as to the spirit or spirits who dwell in tree tops and draw away the souls of the living to themselves1 see further ,eenige bijzonderheden betreffende de ,papoeas van de ,geelvinksbaai van ,nieuw-,guinea1 ,bijdragen tot de ,taal- ,landen ,volkenkunde van ,neerlandsch-,indie1 ii4 7#ahed7 pp4 #cge sq4 ,footnote #ejj3 ,a4 ,goudswaard1 ,de ,papoewa's van de ,geelvinksbaai1 p4 #gc2 ,j4 ,l4 van ,hasselt1 in ,mitteilungen der ,geographischen ,gesellschaft zu ,jena1 iv4 7#ahhf7 p4 #aah2 ,m4 ,krieger1 ,neu-,guinea1 pp4 #cih4 sq4 ,footnote #eja3 ,a4 ,goudswaard1 ,de ,papoewa's van de ,geelvinksbaai1 pp4 #ge sq4 ,footnote #ejb3 ,j4 ,l4 van ,hasselt1 in ,mitteilungen der ,geographischen ,gesellschaft zu ,jena1 iv4 7#ahhf7 #aag sq42 ,m4 ,krieger1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cig sq4 ,footnote #ejc3 ,a4 ,goudswaard1 op4 cit4 pp4 #gd sq4 ,footnote #ejd3 ,nieuw ,guinea ethnographisch en natuurkundig onderzocht en beschreven 7,amsterdam1 #ahfb71 p4 #afb4 ,footnote #eje3 ,f4 ,s4 ,a4 de ,clercq1 ,de ,west- en ,noordkust van ,nederlandsch ,nieuw-,guinea1 ,tijdschrift van het ,kon4 ,nederlandsch ,aardrijkskundig ,genootschap1 ,tweede ,serie1 x4 7#ahic7 pp4 #aih sq4 ,footnote #ejf3 ,f4 ,s4 ,a4 de ,clercq1 op4 cit4 p4 #bja4 ,footnote #ejg3 ,f4 ,s4 ,a4 de ,clercq1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bjb1 #bje4 ,footnote #ejh3 ,f4 ,s4 ,a4 de ,clercq1 op4 cit4 p4 #baa4 ,footnote #eji3 ,j4 ,w4 van ,hille1 ,reizen in ,west-,nieuw-,guinea1 ,tijdschrift van het ,kon4 ,nederlandsch ,aardrijkskundig ,genootschap1 ,tweede ,serie1 xxiii4 7#aijf7 p4 #dfc4 ,footnote #eaj3 ,f4 ,s4 ,a4 de ,clercq1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dei sq41 #dfa sq4 ,a ,german traveller1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,kuehn1 spent some time at ,sekar and purchased a couple of what he calls old heathen idols1 which are now in the ethnological ,museum at ,leipsic4 ,one of them1 about a foot high1 represents a human head and bust2 the other1 about two feet high1 represents a squat sitting figure4 ,they are probably ancestral images 7korwar or karwar74 ,the natives are said to have such confidence in the protection of these idols that they leave their jewellery and other possessions unguarded beside them1 in the full belief that nobody would dare to steal anything from spots protected by such mighty beings4 ,see ,h4 ,kuehn1 ,mein ,aufenthalt in ,neu-,guinea1 ,festschrift des #be;jaehrigen ,bestehens des ,vereins fuer ,erdkunde zu ,dresden 7,dresden1 #ahhh71 pp4 #adc sq4 ,footnote #eaa3 ,a4 ,f4 ,r4 ,wollaston1 ,pygmies and ,papuans 7,london1 #aiab71 pp4 #acb sq41 #acf-adj4 ,footnote #eab3 ,j4 ,l4 ,d4 van der ,roest1 ,uit the leven der bevolking van ,windessi1 ,tijdschrift voor ,indische ,taal- ,landen ,volkenkunde1 xl4 7#ahih7 pp4 #aei sq4 ,footnote #eac3 ,j4 ,l4 ,d4 van der ,roest1 op4 cit4 pp4 #afa sq4 ,footnote #ead3 ,j4 ,l4 ,d4 van der ,roest1 op4 cit4 p4 #afb4 ,footnote #eae3 ,j4 ,l4 ,d4 van der ,roest1 op4 cit4 pp4 #afd-aff4 ,footnote #eaf3 ,j4 ,l4 ,d4 van der ,roest1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aeg sq4 ,,lecture ,,xv ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,natives ,,of ,,southern ,,melanesia 7,,new ,,caledonia7 ,sidenote3 ,melanesia and the ,melanesians4 ,in the last lecture ,i concluded our survey of the beliefs and practices concerning death and the dead which are reported to prevail among the natives of ,new ,guinea4 ,we now pass to the natives of ,melanesia1 the great archipelago or rather chain of archipelagoes1 which stretches round the north-eastern and eastern ends of ,new ,guinea and southward1 parallel to the coast of ,queensland1 till it almost touches the tropic of ,capricorn4 ,thus the islands lie wholly within the tropics and are for the most part characterised by tropical heat and tropical luxuriance of vegetation4 ,only ,new ,caledonia1 the most southerly of the larger islands1 differs somewhat from the rest in its comparatively cool climate and scanty flora4#eag ,the natives of the islands belong to the ,melanesian race4 ,they are dark-skinned and woolly-haired and speak a language which is akin to the ,polynesian language4 ,in material culture they stand roughly on the same level as the natives of ,new ,guinea1 a considerable part of whom in the south-eastern part of the island1 as ,i pointed out before1 are either pure ,melanesians or at all events exhibit a strong infusion of ,melanesian blood4 ,they cultivate the ground1 live in settled villages1 build substantial houses1 construct outrigger-canoes1 display some aptitude for art1 possess strong commercial instincts1 and even employ various mediums of exchange1 of which shell-money is the most notable4#eah ,sidenote3 ,the ,new ,caledonians4 ,we shall begin our survey of these islands with ,new ,caledonia in the south1 and from it shall pass northwards through the ,new ,hebrides and ,solomon ,islands to the ,bismarck ,archipelago1 which consists chiefly of the two great islands of ,new ,britain and ,new ,ireland with the group of the ,admiralty ,islands terminating it to the westward4 ,for our knowledge of the customs and religion of the ,new ,caledonians we depend chiefly on the evidence of a ,catholic missionary1 ,father ,lambert1 who has worked among them since #ahef and has published a valuable book on the subject4#eai ,to be exact1 his information applies not to the natives of ,new ,caledonia itself1 but to the inhabitants of a group of small islands1 which lie immediately off the northern extremity of the island and are known as the ,belep group4 ,father ,lambert began to labour among the ,belep at a time when no white man had as yet resided among them4 ,at a later time circumstances led him to transfer his ministry to the ,isle of ,pines1 which lies off the opposite or southern end of ,new ,caledonia4 ,a comparative study of the natives at the two extremities of ,new ,caledonia revealed to him an essential similarity in their beliefs and customs2 so that it is not perhaps very rash to assume that similar customs prevail among the aborigines of ,new ,caledonia itself1 which lies intermediate between the two points observed by ,father ,lambert4#ebj ,the assumption is confirmed by evidence which was collected by ,dr4 ,george ,turner from the mainland of ,new ,caledonia so long ago as #ahde4eba ,accordingly in what follows ,i shall commonly speak of the ,new ,caledonians in general1 though the statements for the most part apply in particular to the ,belep tribe4 ,sidenote3 ,beliefs of the ,new ,calendonians as to the land of the dead4 ,the souls of the ,new ,caledonians1 like those of most savages1 are supposed to be immortal1 at least to survive death for an indefinite period4 ,they all go1 good and bad alike1 to dwell in a very rich and beautiful country situated at the bottom of the sea1 to the north-east of the island of ,pott4 ,the name of the land of souls is ,tsiabiloum4 ,but before they reach this happy land they must run the gauntlet of a grim spirit called ,kiemoua1 who has his abode on a rock in the island of ,pott4 ,he is a fisherman of souls2 for he catches them as they pass in a net and after venting his fury on them he releases them1 and they pursue their journey to ,tsiabiloum1 the land of the dead4 ,it is a country more fair and fertile than tongue can tell4 ,yams1 taros1 sugar-canes1 bananas all grow there in profusion and without cultivation4 ,there are forests of wild orange-trees1 also1 and the golden fruits serve the blessed spirits as playthings4 ,you can tell roughly how long it is since a spirit quitted the upper world by the colour of the orange which he plays with2 for the oranges of those who have just arrived are green2 the oranges of those who have been longer dead are ripe2 and the oranges of those who died long ago are dry and wizened4 ,there is no night in that blessed land1 and no sleep2 for the eyes of the spirits are never weighed down with slumber4 ,sorrow and sickness1 decrepitude and death never enter2 even boredom is unknown4 ,but it is only the nights1 or rather the hours corresponding to nights on earth1 which the spirits pass in these realms of bliss4 ,at daybreak they revisit their old home on earth and take up their posts in the cemeteries where they are honoured2 then at nightfall they flit away back to the spirit-land beneath the sea1 there to resume their sport with oranges1 green1 golden1 or withered1 till dawn of day4 ,on these repeated journeys to and fro they have nothing to fear from the grim fisherman and his net2 it is only on their first passage to the nether world that he catches and trounces them4#ebb ,sidenote3 ,burial customs of the ,new ,calendonians4 ,the bodies of the dead are buried in shallow graves1 which are dug in a sacred grove4 ,the corpse is placed in a crouching attitude with the head at or above the surface of the ground1 in order to allow of the skull being easily detached from the trunk1 at a subsequent time4 ,in token of sorrow the nearest relations of the deceased tear the lobes of their ears and inflict large burns on their arms and breasts4 ,the houses1 nets1 and other implements of the dead are burnt2 his plantations are ravaged1 his coco-nut palms felled with the axe4 ,the motive for this destruction of the property of the deceased is not mentioned1 but the custom points to a fear of the ghost2 the people probably make his old home as unattractive as possible in order to offer him no temptation to return and haunt them4 ,the same fear of the ghost1 or at all events of the infection of death1 is revealed by the stringent seclusion and ceremonial pollution of the grave-diggers4 ,they are two in number2 no other persons may handle the corpse4 ,after they have discharged their office they must remain near the corpse for four or five days1 observing a rigorous fast and keeping apart from their wives4 ,they may not shave or cut their hair1 and they are obliged to wear a tall pyramidal and very cumbersome head-dress4 ,they may not touch food with their hands4 ,if they help themselves to it1 they must pick it up with their mouths alone or with a stick1 not with their fingers4 ,oftener they are fed by an attendant1 who puts the victuals into their mouths as he might do if they were palsied4 ,on the other hand they are treated by the people with great respect2 common folk will not pass near them without stooping4#ebc ,sidenote3 ,sham fight as a mourning ceremony4 ,a curious ceremony which the ,new ,caledonians observe at a certain period of mourning for the dead is a sham fight4 ,father ,lambert describes one such combat which he witnessed4 ,a number of men were divided into two parties2 one party was posted on the beach1 the other and much larger party was stationed in the adjoining cemetery1 where food and property had been collected4 ,from time to time a long piercing yell would be heard2 then a number of men would break from the crowd in the cemetery and rush furiously down to the beach with their slings and stones ready to assail their adversaries4 ,these1 answering yell with yell1 would then plunge into the sea1 armed with battle-axes and clubs1 while they made a feint of parrying the stones hurled at them by the other side4 ,but neither the shots nor the parries appeared to be very seriously meant4 ,then when the assailants retired1 the fugitives pretended to pursue them1 till both parties had regained their original position4 ,the same scene of alternate attack and retreat was repeated hour after hour1 till at last1 the pretence of enmity being laid aside1 the two parties joined in a dance1 their heads crowned with leafy garlands4 ,father ,lambert1 who describes this ceremony as an eye-witness1 offers no explanation of it4 ,but as he tells us that all deaths are believed by these savages to be an effect of sorcery1 we may conjecture that the sham fight is intended to delude the ghost into thinking that his death is being avenged on the sorcerer who killed him4#ebd ,in former lectures ,i shewed that similar pretences are made1 apparently for a similar purpose1 by some of the natives of ,australia and ,new ,guinea4#ebe ,if the explanation is correct1 we can hardly help applauding the ingenuity which among these savages has discovered a bloodless mode of satisfying the ghost's craving for blood4 ,sidenote3 ,preservation of the skulls of the dead4 ,about a year after the death1 when the flesh of the corpse is entirely decayed1 the skull is removed and placed solemnly in another burying-ground1 or rather charnel-house1 where all the skulls of the family are deposited4 ,every family has such a charnel-house1 which is commonly situated near the dwelling4 ,it appears to be simply an open space in the forest1 where the skulls are set in a row on the ground4#ebf ,yet in a sense it may be called a temple for the worship of ancestors2 for recourse is had to the skulls on various occasions in order to obtain the help of the spirits of the dead4 ,the true worship of the ,new ,caledonians1 says ,father ,lambert1 is the worship of ancestors4 ,each family has its own2 it religiously preserves their name2 it is proud of them and has confidence in them4 ,hence it has its burial-place and its pious hearth for the sacrifices to be offered to their ghosts4 ,it is the most inviolable piece of property2 an encroachment on such a spot by a neighbour is a thing unheard of4#ebg ,sidenote3 ,examples of ancestor-worship among the ,new ,caledonians4 ,a few examples may serve to illustrate the ancestor-worship of the ,new ,caledonians4 ,when a person is sick1 a member of the family1 never a stranger1 is appointed to heal him by means of certain magical insufflations4 ,to enable him to do so with effect the healer first repairs to the family charnel-house and lays some sugar-cane leaves beside the skulls1 saying1 ,i lay these leaves on you that ,i may go and breathe upon our sick relative1 to the end that he may live4 ,then he goes to a tree belonging to the family and lays other sugar-cane leaves at its foot1 saying1 ,i lay these leaves beside the tree of my father and of my grandfather1 in order that my breath may have healing virtue4 ,next he takes some leaves of the tree or a piece of its bark1 chews it into a mash1 and then goes and breathes on the patient1 his breath being moistened with spittle which is charged with particles of the leaves or the bark4#ebh ,thus the healing virtue of his breath would seem to be drawn from the spirits of the dead as represented partly by their skulls and partly by the leaves and bark of the tree which belonged to them in life1 and to which their souls appear in some manner to be attached in death4 ,sidenote3 ,prayers for fish4 ,again1 when a shoal of fish has made its appearance on the reef1 a number of superstitious ceremonies have to be performed before the people may go and spear them in the water4 ,on the eve of the fishing-day the medicine-man of the tribe causes a quantity of leaves of certain specified plants to be collected and roasted in the native ovens4 ,next day the leaves are taken from the ovens and deposited beside the ancestral skulls1 which have been arranged and decorated for the ceremony4 ,all the fishermen1 armed with their fishing-spears1 repair to the holy ground or sacred grove where the skulls are kept1 and there they draw themselves up in two rows1 while the medicine-man chants an invocation or prayer for a good catch4 ,at every verse the crowd raises a cry of approval and assent4 ,at its conclusion the medicine-man sets an example by thrusting with his spear at a fish1 and all the men immediately plunge into the water and engage in fishing4#ebi ,sidenote3 ,prayers for sugar-cane4 ,again1 in order that a sugar plantation may flourish1 the medicine-man will lay a sugar-cane beside the ancestral skulls1 saying1 ,this is for you4 ,we beg of you to ward off all curses1 all tricks of wicked people1 in order that our plantations may prosper4#ecj ,sidenote3 ,prayers for yams4 ,again1 when the store of yams is running short and famine is beginning to be felt1 the ,new ,caledonians celebrate a festival called moulim in which the worship of their ancestors is the principal feature4 ,a staff is wreathed with branches1 apparently to represent a yam1 and a hedge of coco-nut leaves is made near the ancestral skulls4 ,the decorated staff is then set up there1 and prayers for the prosperity of the crops are offered over and over again4 ,after that nobody may enter a yam-field or a cemetery or touch sea-water for three days4 ,on the third day a man stationed on a mound chants an invocation or incantation in a loud voice4 ,next all the men go down to the shore1 each of them with a firebrand in his hand1 and separating into two parties engage in a sham fight4 ,afterwards they bathe and repairing to the charnel-house deposit coco-nut leaves beside the skulls of their ancestors4 ,they are then free to partake of the feast which has been prepared by the women4#eca ,sidenote3 ,caverns used by the natives as charnel-houses in the ,isle of ,pines4 ,while the beliefs and customs of the ,new ,caledonians in regard to the dead bear a general resemblance to each other1 whether they belong to the north or to the south of the principal island1 a special feature is introduced into the mortuary customs of the natives of the ,isle of ,pines by the natural caves and grottoes with which the outer rim of the island1 to the distance of several miles from the shore1 is riddled2 for in these caverns the natives in the old heathen days were wont to deposit the bones and skulls of their dead and to use the caves as sanctuaries or chapels for the worship of the spirits of the departed4 ,some of the caves are remarkable both in themselves and in their situation4 ,most of those which the natives turned into charnel-houses are hidden away1 sometimes at great distances1 in the rank luxuriance of the tropical forests4 ,some of them open straight from the level of the ground2 to reach others you must clamber up the rocks2 to explore others you must descend into the bowels of the earth4 ,a glimmering twilight illumines some2 thick darkness veils others1 and it is only by torchlight that you can explore their mysterious depths4 ,penetrating into the interior by the flickering gleam of flambeaus held aloft by the guides1 and picking your steps among loose stones and pools of water1 you might fancy yourself now in the great hall of a ruined castle1 now in the vast nave of a gothic cathedral with its chapels opening off it into the darkness on either hand4 ,the illusion is strengthened by the multitude of stalactites which hang from the roof of the cavern and1 glittering in the fitful glow of the torches1 might be taken for burning cressets kindled to light up the revels in a baronial hall1 or for holy lamps twinkling in the gloom of a dim cathedral aisle before holy images1 where solitary worshippers kneel in silent devotion4 ,in the shifting play of the light and shadow cast by the torches the fantastic shapes of the incrustations which line the sides or rise from the floor of the grotto appear to the imagination of the observer now as the gnarled trunks of huge trees1 now as statues or torsos of statues1 now as altars1 on which perhaps a nearer approach reveals a row of blanched and grinning skulls4 ,no wonder if such places1 chosen for the last resting-places of the relics of mortality1 have fed the imagination of the natives with weird notions of a life after death1 a life very different from that which the living lead in the glowing sunshine and amid the rich tropical verdure a few paces outside of these gloomy caverns4 ,it is with a shiver and a sense of relief that the visitor escapes from them to the warm outer air and sees again the ferns and creepers hanging over the mouth of the cave like a green fringe against the intense blue of the sky4#ecb ,sidenote3 ,sea-caves4 ,while this is the general character of the caves which are to be found hidden away in the forests1 many of those near the shore consist simply of apertures hollowed out in the face of the cliffs by the slow but continuous action of the waves in the course of ages4 ,on the beach itself sea-caves are found in which the rising tide precipitates itself with a hollow roar as of subterranean thunder2 and at a point1 some way back from the strand1 where the roof of one of these caves has fallen in1 the salt water is projected into the air in the form of intermittent jets of spray1 which vary in height with the force of the wind and tide4#ecc ,sidenote3 ,prayers and sacrifices offered to the dead by the ,new ,caledonians4 ,with regard to the use which the natives make of these caves as charnel-houses and mortuary chapels1 ,father ,lambert tells us that any one of them usually includes three compartments1 a place of burial1 a place of skulls1 and a place of sacrifice4 ,but often the place of skulls is also the place of sacrifice2 and in no case is the one far from the other4 ,the family priest1 who is commonly the senior member of the family1 may address his prayers to the ancestors in the depth of the cavern1 in the place of skulls1 or in the place of sacrifice1 whenever circumstances call for a ritual of unusual solemnity4 ,otherwise with the help of his amulets he may pray to the souls of the forefathers anywhere2 for these amulets consist of personal and portable relics of the dead1 such as locks of hair1 teeth1 and so forth2 or again they may be leaves or other parts of plants which are sacred to the family2 so that a wizard who is in possession of them can always and anywhere communicate with the ancestral spirits4 ,the place of sacrifice would seem to be more often in the open air than in a cave1 for ,father ,lambert tells us that in the centre of it a shrub1 always of the same species1 is planted and carefully cultivated4 ,beside it may be seen the pots and stones which are used in cooking the food offered to the dead4 ,in this worship of the dead a certain differentiation of functions or division of labour obtains between the various families4 ,all have not the same gifts and graces4 ,the prayers of one family offered to their ancestral ghosts are thought to be powerful in procuring rain in time of drought2 the prayers of another will cause the sun to break through the clouds when the sky is overcast2 the supplications of a third will produce a fine crop of yams2 the earnest entreaties of a fourth will ensure victory in war2 and the passionate pleadings of a fifth will guard mariners against the perils and dangers of the deep4 ,and so on through the whole gamut of human needs1 so far as these are felt by savages4 ,if only wrestling in prayer could satisfy the wants of man1 few people should be better provided with all the necessaries and comforts of life than the ,new ,caledonians4 ,and according to the special purpose to which a family devotes its spiritual energies1 so will commonly be the position of its oratory4 ,for example1 if rain-making is their strong point1 their house of prayer will be established near a cultivated field1 in order that the crops may immediately experience the benefit to be derived from their orisons4 ,again1 if they enjoy a high reputation for procuring a good catch of fish1 the family skulls will be placed in the mouth of a cave looking out over the great ocean1 or perhaps on a bleak little wind-swept isle1 where in the howl of the blast1 the thunder of the waves on the strand1 and the clangour of the gulls overhead1 the fancy of the superstitious savage may hear the voices of his dead forefathers keeping watch and ward over their children who are tossed on the heaving billows4#ecd ,thus among these fortunate islanders religion and industry go hand in hand2 piety has been reduced to a co-operative system which diffuses showers of blessings on the whole community4 ,sidenote3 ,prayer-posts4 ,as it is clearly impossible even for the most devout to pray day and night without cessation1 the weakness of the flesh requiring certain intervals for refreshment and repose1 the ,new ,caledonians have devised an ingenious method of continuing their orisons at the shrine in their own absence4 ,for this purpose they make rods or poles of various lengths1 carve and paint them rudely1 wind bandages of native cloth about them1 and having fastened large shells to the top1 set them up either in the sepulchral caves or in the place of skulls4 ,in setting up one of these poles the native will pray for the particular favour which he desires to obtain from the ancestors for himself or his family2 and he appears to think that in some way the pole will continue to recite the prayer in the ears of the ghosts1 when he himself has ceased to speak and has returned to his customary avocations4 ,and when members of his family visit the shrine and see the pole1 they will be reminded of the particular benefit which they are entitled to expect from the souls of the departed4 ,a certain rude symbolism may be traced in the materials and other particulars of these prayer-posts4 ,a hard wood signifies strength2 a tall pole overtopping all the rest imports a wish that he for whose sake it was erected may out-top all his rivals2 and so on4#ece ,sidenote3 ,religion combined with magic in the ritual of the ,new ,caledonians4 ,sacred stones endowed with special magical virtues4 ,the stone of famine4 ,we may assume with some probability that in the mind of the natives such resemblances are not purely figurative or symbolic1 but that they are also magical in intention1 being supposed not merely to represent the object of the supplicant's prayer1 but actually1 on the principle of homoeopathic or imitative magic1 to contribute to its accomplishment4 ,if that is so1 we must conclude that the religion of these savages1 as manifested in their prayers to the spirits of the dead1 is tinctured with an alloy of magic2 they do not trust entirely to the compassion of the spirits and their power to help them2 they seek to reinforce their prayers by a certain physical compulsion acting through the natural properties of the prayer-posts4 ,this interpretation is confirmed by a parallel use which these people make of certain sacred stones1 which apart from their possible character as representatives of the ancestors1 seem to be credited with independent magical virtues by reason of their various shapes and appearances4 ,for example1 there is a piece of polished jade which is called the stone of famine1 because it is supposed capable of causing either dearth or abundance1 but is oftener used by the sorcerer to create1 or at least to threaten1 dearth1 in order thereby to extort presents from his alarmed fellow tribesmen4 ,this stone is kept in a burial-ground and derives its potency from the dead4 ,the worshipper or the sorcerer 7for he combines the two characters7 who desires to cause a famine repairs to the burial-ground1 uncovers the stone1 rubs it with certain plants1 and smears one half of it with black pigment4 ,then he makes a small hole in the ground and inserts the blackened end of the stone in the hole4 ,next he prays to the ancestors that nothing may go well with the country4 ,if this malevolent rite should be followed by the desired effect1 the sorcerer soon sees messengers arriving laden with presents1 who entreat him to stay the famine4 ,if his cupidity is satisfied1 he rubs the stone again1 inserts it upside down in the ground1 and prays to his ancestors to restore plenty to the land4#ecf ,sidenote3 ,stones to drive people mad4 ,again1 certain rough unhewn stones1 which are kept in the sacred places1 are thought to possess the power of driving people mad4 ,to effect this purpose the sorcerer has only to strike one of them with the branches of a certain tree and to pray to the ancestral spirits that they would deprive so-and-so of his senses4#ecg ,sidenote3 ,stones to blight coco-nut palms4 ,stones to make bread-fruit trees bear fruit4 ,again1 there is a stone which they use in cursing a plantation of coco-nut palms4 ,the stone resembles a blighted coco-nut1 and no doubt it is this resemblance which is supposed to endow it with the magical power to blight coco-nut trees4 ,in order to effect his malicious purpose the sorcerer rubs the stone in the cemetery with certain leaves and then deposits it in a hole at the foot of a coco-nut tree1 covers it up1 and prays that all the trees of the plantation may be barren4 ,this ceremony combines the elements of magic and religion4 ,the prayer1 which is no doubt addressed to the spirits of the dead1 though this is not expressly affirmed1 is purely religious2 but the employment of a stone resembling a blighted coco-nut for the purpose of blighting the coco-nut palms is a simple piece of homoeopathic or imitative magic1 in which1 as usual1 the desired effect is supposed to be produced by an imitation of it4 ,similarly1 in order to make a bread-fruit tree bear fruit they employ two stones1 one of which resembles the unripe and the other the ripe fruit4 ,these are kept1 as usual1 in a cemetery2 and when the trees begin to put forth fruit1 the small stone resembling the unripe fruit is buried at the foot of one of the trees with the customary prayers and ceremonies2 and when the fruits are more mature the small stone is replaced by the larger stone which resembles the ripe fruit4 ,then1 when the fruits on the tree are quite ripe1 the two stones are removed and deposited again in the cemetery3 they have done their work by bringing to maturity the fruits which they resemble4 ,this again is a piece of pure homoeopathic or imitative magic working by means of mimicry2 but the magical virtue of the stones is reinforced by the spiritual power of the dead1 for the stones have been kept in a cemetery and prayers have been addressed to the souls of the departed4#ech ,sidenote3 ,the stone of the sun4 ,again1 the natives have two disc-shaped stones1 each with a hole in the centre1 which together make up what they call the stone of the sun4 ,no doubt it is regarded as a symbol of the sun1 and as such it is employed to cause drought in a ceremony which1 like the preceding1 combines the elements of magic and religion4 ,the sun-stone is kept in one of the sacred places1 and when a sorcerer wishes to make drought with it1 he brings offerings to the ancestral spirits in the sacred place4 ,these offerings are purely religious1 but the rest of the ceremony is purely magical4 ,at the moment when the sun rises from the sea1 the magician or priest1 whichever we choose to call him 7for he combines both characters71 passes a burning brand in and out of the hole in the sun-stone1 while he says1 ,i kindle the sun1 in order that he may eat up the clouds and dry up our land1 so that it shall no longer bear fruit4 ,here the putting of fire to the sun-stone is a piece of pure homoeopathic or imitative magic1 designed to increase the burning heat of the sun by mimicry4#eci ,sidenote3 ,stones to make rain4 ,on the contrary1 when a wizard desires to make rain1 he proceeds as follows4 ,the place of sacrifice is decorated and enclosed with a fence1 and a large quantity of provisions is deposited in it to be offered to the ancestors whose skulls stand there in a row4 ,opposite the skulls the wizard places a row of pots full of a medicated water1 and he brings a number of sacred stones of a rounded form or shaped like a skull4 ,each of these stones1 after being rubbed with the leaves of a certain tree1 is placed in one of the pots of water4 ,then the wizard recites a long litany or series of invocations to the ancestors1 which may be summarised thus3 ,we pray you to help us1 in order that our country may revive and live anew4 ,then holding a branch in his hand he climbs a tree and scans the horizon if haply he may descry a cloud1 be it no larger than a man's hand4 ,should he be fortunate enough to see one1 he waves the branch to and fro to make the cloud mount up in the sky1 while he also stretches out his arms to right and left to enlarge it so that it may hide the sun and overcast the whole heaven4#edj ,here again the prayers and offerings are purely religious2 while the placing of the skull-shaped stones in pots full of water1 and the waving of the branch to bring up the clouds1 are magical ceremonies designed to produce rain by mimicry and compulsion4 ,sidenote3 ,stones to make or mar sea-voyages4 ,again1 the natives have a stone in the shape of a canoe1 which they employ in ceremonies for the purpose of favouring or hindering navigation4 ,if the sorcerer desires to make a voyage prosperous1 he places the canoe-shaped stone before the ancestral skulls with the right side up2 but if he wishes to cause his enemy to perish at sea1 he places the canoe-shaped stone bottom upwards before the skulls1 which1 on the principles of homoeopathic or imitative magic1 must clearly make his enemy's canoe to capsize and precipitate its owner into the sea4 ,whichever of these ceremonies he performs1 the wizard accompanies the magical rite1 as usual1 with prayers and offerings of food to the ancestral spirits who are represented by the skulls4#eda ,sidenote3 ,stones to help fishermen4 ,the natives of the ,isle of ,pines subsist mainly by fishing2 hence they naturally have a large number of sacred stones which they use for the purpose of securing the blessing of the ancestral spirits on the business of the fisherman4 ,indeed each species of fish has its own special sacred stone4 ,these stones are kept in large shells in a cemetery4 ,a wizard who desires to make use of one of them paints the stone with a variety of colours1 chews certain leaves1 and then breathes on the stone and moistens it with his spittle4 ,after that he sets up the stone before the ancestral skulls1 saying1 ,help us1 that we may be successful in fishing4 ,the sacrifices to the spirits consist of bananas1 sugar-cane1 and fish1 never of taros or yams4 ,after the fishing and the sacrificial meal1 the stone is put back in its place1 and covered up respectfully4#edb ,sidenote3 ,stones to make yams grow4 ,lastly1 the natives of the ,isle of ,pines cultivate many different kinds of yams1 and they have a correspondingly large number of sacred stones destined to aid them in the cultivation by ensuring the blessing of the dead upon the work4 ,in shape and colour these stones differ from each other1 each of them bearing a resemblance1 real or fanciful1 to the particular species of yam which it is supposed to quicken4 ,but the method of operating with them is much the same for all4 ,the stone is placed before the skulls1 wetted with water1 and wiped with certain leaves4 ,yams and fish1 cooked on the spot1 are offered in sacrifice to the dead1 the priest or magician saying1 ,this is your offering in order that the crop of yams may be good4 ,so saying he presents the food to the dead and himself eats a little of it4 ,after that the stone is taken away and buried in the yam field which it is designed to fertilise4#edc ,here1 again1 the prayer and sacrifice to the dead are purely religious rites intended to propitiate the spirits and secure their help2 while the burying of the yam-shaped stone in the yam-field to make the yams grow is a simple piece of homoeopathic or imitative magic4 ,similarly in order to cultivate taros and bananas1 stones resembling taros and bananas are buried in the taro field or the banana grove1 and their magical virtue is reinforced by prayers and offerings to the dead4#edd ,sidenote3 ,the religion of the ,new ,caledonians is mainly a worship of the dead tinctured with magic4 ,on the whole we may conclude that among the natives of ,new ,caledonia there exists a real worship of the dead1 and that this worship is indeed the principal element in their religion4 ,the spirits of the dead1 though they are supposed to spend part of their time in a happy land far away under the sea1 are nevertheless believed to be near at hand1 hovering about in the burial-grounds or charnel-houses and embodied apparently in their skulls4 ,to these spirits the native turns for help in all the important seasons and emergencies of life2 he appeals to them in prayer and seeks to propitiate them by sacrifice4 ,thus in his attitude towards his dead ancestors we perceive the elements of a real religion4 ,but1 as ,i have just pointed out1 many rites of this worship of ancestors are accompanied by magical ceremonies4 ,the religion of these islanders is in fact deeply tinged with magic2 it marks a transition from an age of pure magic in the past to an age of more or less pure religion in the future4 ,sidenote3 ,evidence as to the religion of the ,new ,caledonians furnished by ,dr4 ,g4 ,turner4 ,thus far ,i have based my account of the beliefs and customs of the ,new ,caledonians concerning the dead on the valuable information which we owe to the ,catholic missionary ,father ,lambert4 ,but1 as ,i pointed out1 his evidence refers not so much to the natives of the mainland as to the inhabitants of certain small islands at the two extremities of the great island4 ,it may be well1 therefore1 to supplement his description by some notes which a distinguished ,protestant missionary1 the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,george ,turner1 obtained in the year #ahde from two native teachers1 one a ,samoan and the other a ,rarotongan1 who lived in the south-south-eastern part of ,new ,caledonia for three years4#ede ,their evidence1 it will be observed1 goes to confirm ,father ,lambert's view as to the general similarity of the religious beliefs and customs prevailing throughout the island4 ,sidenote3 ,material culture of the ,new ,caledonians4 ,the natives of this part of ,new ,caledonia were divided into separate districts1 each with its own name1 and war1 perpetual war1 was the rule between the neighbouring communities4 ,they cultivated taro1 yams1 coco-nuts1 and sugar-cane2 but they had no intoxicating kava and kept no pigs4 ,they cooked their food in earthenware pots manufactured by the women4 ,in former days their only edge-tools were made of stone1 and they felled trees by a slow fire smouldering close to the ground4 ,similarly they hollowed out the fallen trees by means of a slow fire to make their canoes4 ,their villages were not permanent4 ,they migrated within certain bounds1 as they planted4 ,a village might comprise as many as fifty or sixty round houses4 ,the chiefs had absolute power of life and death4 ,priests did not meddle in political affairs4#edf ,sidenote3 ,burial customs2 preservation of the skulls and teeth4 ,at death they dressed the corpse with a belt and shell armlets1 cut off the nails of the fingers and toes1 and kept them as relics4 ,they spread the grave with a mat1 and buried all the body but the head4 ,after ten days the friends twisted off the head1 extracted the teeth to be kept as relics1 and preserved the skull also4 ,in cases of sickness and other calamities they presented offerings of food to the skulls of the dead4 ,the teeth of the old women were taken to the yam plantations and were supposed to fertilise them2 and their skulls were set up on poles in the plantations for the same purpose4 ,when they buried a chief1 they erected spears at his head1 fastened a spear-thrower to his forefinger1 and laid a club on the top of his grave1#edg no doubt for the convenience of the ghost4 ,sidenote3 ,prayers to ancestors4 ,their gods1 we are told1 were their ancestors1 whose relics they kept up and idolised4 ,at one place they had wooden idols before the chiefs' houses4 ,the office of the priest was hereditary4 ,almost every family had its priest4 ,to make sure of favours and prosperity they prayed not only to their own gods1 but also1 in a general way1 to the gods of other lands4 ,fishing1 planting1 house-building1 and everything of importance was preceded by prayers to their guardian spirits for success4 ,this was especially the case before going to battle4 ,they prayed to one for the eye1 that they might see the spear as it flew towards them4 ,to another for the ear1 that they might hear the approach of the enemy4 ,thus1 too1 they prayed for the feet1 that they might be swift in pursuing the enemy2 for the heart1 that they might be courageous2 for the body1 that they might not be speared2 for the head1 that it might not be clubbed2 and for sleep1 that it might be undisturbed by an attack of the enemy4 ,prayers over1 arms ready1 and equipped with their relic charms1 they went off to battle4#edh ,sidenote3 ,grand concert of spirits4 ,the spirits of the dead were believed to go away into the forest4 ,every fifth month they had a spirit night or grand concert of spirits4 ,heaps of food were prepared for the occasion4 ,the people assembled in the afternoon round a certain cave4 ,at sundown they feasted1 and then one stood up and addressed the spirits in the cave1 saying1 ,you spirits within1 may it please you to sing a song1 that all the women and men out here may listen to your sweet voices4 ,thereupon a strange unearthly concert of voices burst on their ears from the cave1 the nasal squeak of old men and women forming the dominant note4 ,but the hearers outside listened with delight to the melody1 praised the sweet voices of the singers1 and then got up and danced to the music4 ,the singing swelled louder and louder as the dance grew faster and more furious1 till the concert closed in a nocturnal orgy of unbridled license1 which1 but for the absence of intoxicants1 might compare with the worst of the ancient bacchanalia4 ,the singers in the cave were the old men and women who had ensconced themselves in it secretly during the day2 but the hoax was not suspected by the children and young people1 who firmly believed that the spirits of the dead really assembled that night in the cavern and assisted at the sports and diversions of the living4#edi ,sidenote3 ,making rain by means of the bones of the dead4 ,the souls of the departed also kindly bore a hand in the making of rain4 ,in order to secure their co-operation for this beneficent purpose the human rain-maker proceeded as follows4 ,he blackened himself all over1 exhumed a dead body1 carried the bones to a cave1 jointed them1 and suspended the skeleton over some taro leaves4 ,after that he poured water on the skeleton so that it ran down and fell on the leaves underneath4 ,they imagined that the soul of the deceased took up the water1 converted it into rain1 and then caused it to descend in refreshing showers4 ,but the rain-maker had to stay in the cavern fasting till his efforts were crowned with success1 and when the ghost was tardy in executing his commission1 the rain-maker sometimes died of hunger4 ,as a rule1 however1 they chose the showery months of ,march and ,april for the operation of rain-making1 so that the wizard ran little risk of perishing a martyr to the cause of science4 ,when there was too much rain1 and they wanted fine weather1 the magician procured it by a similar process1 except that instead of drenching the skeleton with water he lit a fire under it and burned it up1#eej which naturally induced or compelled the ghost to burn up the clouds and let the sun shine out4 ,sidenote3 ,execution of maleficent sorcerers4 ,reincarnation of the dead in white people4 ,another class of magicians were the maleficent sorcerers who caused people to fall ill and die by burning their personal rubbish4 ,when one of these rascals was convicted of repeated offences of that sort1 he was formally tried and condemned4 ,the people assembled and a great festival was held4 ,the condemned man was decked with a garland of red flowers2 his arms and legs were covered with flowers and shells1 and his face and body painted black4 ,thus arrayed he came dashing forward1 rushed through the people1 plunged from the rocks into the sea1 and was seen no more4 ,the natives also ascribed sickness to the arts of white men1 whom they identified with the spirits of the dead2 and assigned this belief as a reason for their wish to kill the strangers4#eea ,footnote #eag3 ,f4 ,h4 ,h4 ,guillemard1 ,australasia1 ,,ii4 ,malaysia and the ,pacific ,archipelagoes 7,london1 #ahid71 p4 #deh4 ,footnote #eah3 ,j4 ,deniker1 ,the ,races of ,man 7,london1 #aijj71 pp4 #dih sq4 ,as to the mediums of exchange1 particularly the shell-money1 see ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians 7,oxford1 #ahia71 pp4 #cbc sqq42 ,r4 ,parkinson1 ,dreissig ,jaehre in der ,suedsee 7,stuttgart1 #aijg71 pp4 #hb sqq4 ,footnote #eai3 ,le ,pere ,lambert1 ,moeurs et ,superstitions des ,neo-,caledoniens 7,noumea1 #aijj74 ,this work originally appeared as a series of articles in the ,catholic missionary journal ,les ,missions ,catholiques4 ,footnote #ebj3 ,lambert1 ,moeurs et ,superstitions des ,neo-,caledoniens1 pp4 ii41 iv4 sq42 #bee4 ,footnote #eba3 ,george ,turner1 ,,ll4,d41 ,samoa a ,hundred ,years ,ago and long before 7,london1 #ahhd71 pp4 #cdj sqq4 ,footnote #ebb3 ,lambert1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ac-af4 ,footnote #ebc3 ,lambert1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bce-bci4 ,footnote #ebd3 ,lambert1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bch1 #bci sq4 ,footnote #ebe3 ,above1 pp4 #acf sq41 #bce sq4 ,footnote #ebf3 ,lambert1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bd1 #bdj4 ,footnote #ebg3 ,lambert1 op4 cit4 p4 #bgd4 ,footnote #ebh3 ,lambert1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bd1 #bf4 ,footnote #ebi3 ,lambert1 op4 cit4 p4 #baa4 ,footnote #ecj3 ,lambert1 op4 cit4 p4 #bah4 ,footnote #eca3 ,lambert1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bbd sq4 ,footnote #ecb3 ,lambert1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bge sqq4 ,footnote #ecc3 ,lambert1 op4 cit4 p4 #bgf4 ,footnote #ecd3 ,lambert1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bhh sq4 ,footnote #ece3 ,lambert1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bij1 #bib4 ,footnote #ecf3 ,lambert1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bib sq4 ,footnote #ecg3 ,lambert1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bic sq4 ,footnote #ech3 ,lambert1 op4 cit4 p4 #bid4 ,footnote #eci3 ,lambert1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bif sq4 ,footnote #edj3 ,lambert1 op4 cit4 pp4 #big sq4 ,footnote #eda3 ,lambert1 op4 cit4 p4 #bih4 ,footnote #edb3 ,lambert1 op4 cit4 p4 #cjj4 ,footnote #edc3 ,lambert1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cja sq4 ,footnote #edd3 ,lambert1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bag sq41 #cjj4 ,footnote #ede3 ,george ,turner1 ,,ll4,d41 ,samoa a ,hundred ,years ,ago and long before 7,london1 #ahhd71 pp4 #cdj sqq4 ,footnote #edf3 ,g4 ,turner1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cdj1 #cda1 #cdc1 #cdd4 ,footnote #edg3 ,g4 ,turner1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cdb sq4 ,footnote #edh3 ,g4 ,turner1 op4 cit4 p4 #cde4 ,footnote #edi3 ,g4 ,turner1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cdf sq4 ,footnote #eej3 ,g4 ,turner1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cde sq4 ,footnote #eea3 ,g4 ,turner1 op4 cit4 p4 #cdb4 ,,lecture ,,xvi ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,natives ,,of ,,central ,,melanesia ,sidenote3 ,the islands of ,central ,melanesia4 ,distinction between the religion of the ,eastern and ,western ,islanders4 ,in our survey of savage beliefs and practices concerning the dead we now pass from ,new ,caledonia1 the most southerly island of ,melanesia1 to the groups of islands known as the ,new ,hebrides1 the ,banks' ,islands1 the ,torres ,islands1 the ,santa ,cruz ,islands1 and the ,solomon ,islands1 which together constitute what we may call ,central ,melanesia4 ,these groups of islands may themselves be distinguished into two archipelagoes1 a western and an eastern1 of which the ,western comprises the ,solomon ,islands and the ,eastern includes all the rest4 ,corresponding to this geographical distinction there is a religious distinction2 for while the religion of the ,western islanders 7the ,solomon ,islanders7 consists chiefly in a fear and worship of the ghosts of the dead1 the religion of the ,eastern islanders is characterised mainly by the fear and worship of spirits which are not supposed ever to have been incarnate in human bodies4 ,both groups of islanders1 the ,western and the ,eastern1 recognise indeed both classes of spirits1 namely ghosts that once were men and spirits who never were men2 but the religious bias of the one group is towards ghosts rather than towards pure spirits1 and the religious bias of the other group is towards pure spirits rather than towards ghosts4 ,it is not a little remarkable that the islanders whose bent is towards ghosts have carried the system of sacrifice and the arts of life to a higher level than the islanders whose bent is towards pure spirits2 this applies particularly to the sacrificial system1 which is much more developed in the west than in the east4#eeb ,from this it would seem to follow that if a faith in ghosts is more costly than a faith in pure spirits1 it is at the same time more favourable to the evolution of culture4 ,sidenote3 ,dr4 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington on the ,melanesians4 ,for the whole of this region we are fortunate in possessing the evidence of the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 one of the most sagacious1 cautious1 and accurate of observers1 who laboured as a missionary among the natives for twenty-four years1 from #ahfd to #ahhg1 and has given us a most valuable account of their customs and beliefs in his book ,the ,melanesians1 which must always remain an anthropological classic4 ,in describing the worship of the dead as it is carried on among these islanders ,i shall draw chiefly on the copious evidence supplied by ,dr4 ,codrington2 and ,i shall avail myself of his admirable researches to enter into considerable details on the subject1 since details recorded by an accurate observer are far more instructive than the vague generalities of superficial observers1 which are too often all the information we possess as to the religion of savages4 ,sidenote3 ,melanesian theory of the soul4 ,in the first place1 all the ,central ,melanesians believe that man is composed of a body and a soul1 that death is the final parting of the soul from the body1 and that after death the soul continues to exist as a conscious and more or less active being4#eec ,thus the creed of these savages on this profound subject agrees fundamentally with the creed of the average ,european2 if my hearers were asked to state their beliefs as to the nature of life and death1 ,i imagine that most of them would formulate them in substantially the same way4 ,however1 when the ,central ,melanesian savage attempts to define the nature of the vital principle or soul1 which animates the body during life and survives it after death1 he finds himself in a difficulty2 and to continue the parallel ,i cannot help thinking that if my hearers in like manner were invited to explain their conception of the soul1 they would similarly find themselves embarrassed for an answer4 ,but an examination of the ,central ,melanesian theory of the soul would lead us too far from our immediate subject2 we must be content to say that1 whatever word the ,melanesian people use for soul1 they mean something essentially belonging to each man's nature which carries life to his body with it1 and is the seat of thought and intelligence1 exercising therefore power which is not of the body and is invisible in its action4#eed ,however the soul may be defined1 the ,melanesians are universally of opinion that it survives the death of the body and goes away to some more or less distant region1 where the spirits of all the dead congregate and continue for the most part to live for an indefinite time1 though some of them1 as we shall see presently1 are supposed to die a second death and so to come to an end altogether4 ,in ,western ,melanesia1 that is1 in the ,solomon ,islands1 the abode of the dead is supposed to be in certain islands1 which differ in the creed of different islanders2 but in ,eastern ,melanesia the abode of the dead is thought to be a subterranean region called ,panoi4#eee ,sidenote3 ,distinction between ghosts of power and ghosts of no account4 ,but though the souls of the departed go away to the spirit land1 nevertheless1 with a seeming or perhaps real inconsistency1 their ghosts are also supposed to haunt their graves and their old homes and to exercise great power for good or evil over the living1 who are accordingly often obliged to woo their favour by prayer and sacrifice4 ,according to the ,solomon ,islanders1 however1 among whom ghosts are the principal objects of worship1 there is a great distinction to be drawn among ghosts4 ,the distinction1 says ,dr4 ,codrington1 is between ghosts of power and ghosts of no account1 between those whose help is sought and their wrath deprecated1 and those from whom nothing is expected and to whom no observance is due4 ,among living men there are some who stand out distinguished for capacity in affairs1 success in life1 valour in fighting1 and influence over others2 and these are so1 it is believed1 because of the supernatural and mysterious powers which they have1 and which are derived from communication with those ghosts of the dead gone before them who are full of those same powers4 ,on the death of a distinguished man his ghost retains the powers that belonged to him in life1 in greater activity and with stronger force2 his ghost therefore is powerful and worshipful1 and so long as he is remembered the aid of his powers is sought and worship is offered him2 he is the tindalo of ,florida1 the lio'a of ,saa4 ,in every society1 again1 the multitude is composed of insignificant persons1 'numerus fruges consumeri nati1' of no particular account for valour1 skill1 or prosperity4 ,the ghosts of such persons continue their insignificance1 and are nobodies after death as before2 they are ghosts because all men have souls1 and the souls of dead men are ghosts2 they are dreaded because all ghosts are awful1 but they get no worship and are soon only thought of as the crowd of the nameless population of the lower world4#eef ,sidenote3 ,ghosts of the great and of the recently dead are chiefly regarded4 ,supernatural power 7mana7 acquired through ghosts4 ,from this account of ,dr4 ,codrington we see that it is only the ghosts of great and powerful people who are worshipped2 the ghosts of ordinary people are indeed feared1 but no worship is paid to them4 ,further1 we are told that it is the ghosts of those who have lately died that are deemed to be most powerful and are therefore most regarded2 as the dead are forgotten1 their ghosts cease to be worshipped1 their power fades away1#eeg and their place in the religion of the people is taken by the ghosts of the more recently departed4 ,in fact here1 as elsewhere1 the existence of the dead seems to be dependent on the memory of the living2 when they are forgotten they cease to exist4 ,further1 it deserves to be noticed that in the ,solomon ,islands what we should call a man's natural powers and capacities are regarded as supernatural endowments acquired by communication with a mighty ghost4 ,if a man is a great warrior1 it is not because he is strong of arm1 quick of eye1 and brave of heart2 it is because he is supported by the ghost of a dead warrior1 whose power he has drawn to himself through an amulet of stone tied round his neck1 or a tuft of leaves in his belt1 or a tooth attached to one of his fingers1 or a spell by the recitation of which he can enlist the aid of the ghost4#eeh ,and similarly with all other pre-eminent capacities and virtues2 in the mind of the ,solomon ,islanders1 they are all supernatural gifts and graces bestowed on men by ghosts4 ,this all-pervading supernatural power the ,central ,melanesian calls mana4#eei ,thus for these savages the whole world teems with ghostly influences2 their minds are filled1 we may almost say1 obsessed1 with a sense of the unseen powers which encompass and determine even in its minute particulars the life of man on earth3 in their view the visible world is1 so to say1 merely a puppet-show of which the strings are pulled and the puppets made to dance by hands invisible4 ,truly the attitude of these savages to the universe is deeply religious4 ,we may now consider the theory and practice of the ,central ,melanesians on this subject somewhat more in detail2 and in doing so we shall begin with their funeral customs1 which throw much light on their views of death and the dead4 ,sidenote3 ,burial customs in the ,solomon ,islands4 ,land burial and sea burial4 ,land-ghosts and sea-ghosts4 ,thus1 for example1 in ,florida1 one of the ,solomon ,islands1 the corpse is usually buried4 ,common men are buried in their gardens or plantations1 chiefs sometimes in the village1 a chief's child sometimes in the house4 ,if the ghost of the deceased is worshipped1 his grave becomes a sanctuary 7vunuhu72 the skull is often dug up and hung in the house4 ,on the return from the burial the mourners take a different road from that by which they carried the corpse to the grave2 this they do in order to throw the ghost off the scent and so prevent him from following them home4 ,this practice clearly shews the fear which the natives feel for the ghosts of the newly dead4 ,a man is buried with money1 porpoise teeth1 and some of his personal ornaments2 but1 avarice getting the better of superstition1 these things are often secretly dug up again and appropriated by the living4 ,sometimes a dying man will express a wish to be cast into the sea2 his friends will therefore paddle out with the corpse1 tie stones to the feet1 and sink it in the depths4 ,in the island of ,savo1 another of the ,solomon ,islands1 common men are generally thrown into the sea and only great men are buried4#efj ,the same distinction is made at ,wango in ,san ,cristoval1 another of the same group of islands2 there also the bodies of common folk are cast into the sea1 but men of consequence are buried1 and some relic of them1 it may be a skull1 a tooth1 or a finger-bone1 is preserved in a shrine at the village4 ,from this difference in burial customs flows a not unimportant religious difference4 ,the souls of the great people who are buried on land turn into land-ghosts1 and the souls of commoners who are sunk in the sea turn into sea-ghosts4 ,the land-ghosts are seen to hover about the villages1 haunting their graves and their relics2 they are also heard to speak in hollow whispers4 ,their aid can be obtained by such as know them4 ,the sea-ghosts have taken a great hold on the imagination of the natives of the south-eastern ,solomon ,islands2 and as these people love to illustrate their life by sculpture and painting1 they shew us clearly what they suppose these sea-ghosts to be like4 ,at ,wango there used to be a canoe-house full of sculptures and paintings illustrative of native life2 amongst others there was a series of scenes like those which are depicted on the walls of ,egyptian tombs4 ,one of the scenes represented a canoe attacked by sea-ghosts1 which were portrayed as demons compounded partly of human limbs1 partly of the bodies and tails of fishes1 and armed with spears and arrows in the form of long-bodied garfish and flying-fish4 ,if a man falls ill on returning from a voyage or from fishing on the rocks1 it is thought that one of these sea-ghosts has shot him4 ,hence when men are in danger at sea1 they seek to propitiate the ghosts by throwing areca-nuts and fragments of food into the water and by praying to the ghosts not to be angry with them4 ,sharks are also supposed to be animated by the ghosts of the dead4#efa ,it is interesting and instructive to find that in this part of the world sea-demons1 who might be thought to be pure spirits of nature1 are in fact ghosts of the dead4 ,sidenote3 ,burnt offerings in honour of the dead4 ,in the island of ,florida1 two days after the death of a chief or of any person who was much esteemed1 the relatives and friends assemble and hold a funeral feast1 at which they throw a bit of food into the fire for the ghost1 saying1 ,this is for you4#efb ,in other of the ,solomon ,islands morsels of food are similarly thrown on the fire at the death-feasts as the dead man's share4#efc ,thus1 in the ,shortlands ,islands1 when a famous chief named ,gorai died1 his body was burnt and his relatives cast food1 beads1 and other property into the fire4 ,the dead chief had been very fond of tea1 so one of his daughters threw a cup of tea into the flames4 ,women danced a funeral dance round the pyre till the body was consumed4#efd ,why should the dead man's food and property be burnt8 ,no explanation of the practice is given by our authorities1 so we are left to conjecture the reason of it4 ,is it that by volatilising the solid substance of the food you make it more accessible to the thin unsubstantial nature of the ghost8 ,is it that you destroy the property of the ghost lest he should come back in person to fetch it and so haunt and trouble the survivors8 ,is it that the spirits of the dead are supposed to reside in the fire on the hearth1 so that offerings cast into the flames are transmitted to them directly8 ,whether it is with any such ideas that the ,solomon ,islanders throw food into the fire for ghosts1 ,i cannot say4 ,the whole question of the meaning of burnt sacrifice is still to a great extent obscure4 ,sidenote3 ,funeral customs in the island of ,florida4 ,the ghostly ferry4 ,at the funeral feast of a chief in the island of ,florida the axes1 spears1 shield and other belongings of the deceased are hung up with great lamentations in his house2 everything remains afterwards untouched and the house falls into ruins1 which as time goes on are thickly mantled with the long tendrils of the sprouting yams4 ,but we are told that the weapons are not intended to accompany the ghost to the land of souls2 they are hung up only as a memorial of a great and valued man4 ,with the same feeling they cut down a dead man's fruit-trees as a mark of respect and affection1 not with any notion of these things serving him in the world of ghosts2 he ate of them1 they say1 when he was alive1 he will never eat again1 and no one else shall have them4 ,however1 they think that the ghost benefits by burial2 for if a man is killed and his body remains unburied1 his restless ghost will haunt the place4#efe ,the ghosts of such ,florida people as have been duly buried depart to ,betindalo1 which seems to be situated in the south-eastern part of the great island of ,guadalcanar4 ,a ship waits to ferry them across the sea to the spirit-land4 ,this is almost the only example of a ferry-boat used by ghosts in ,melanesia4 ,on their way to the ferry the ghosts may be heard twittering2 and again on the shore1 while they are waiting for the ferry-boat1 a sound of their dancing breaks the stillness of night2 but no man can see the dancers4 ,it is not until they land on the further shore that they know they are dead4 ,there they are met by a ghost1 who thrusts a rod into their noses to see whether the cartilage is pierced as it should be2 ghosts whose noses have been duly bored in life follow the onward path with ease1 but all others have pain and difficulty in making their way to the realm of the shades4 ,yet though the souls of the dead thus depart to ,betindalo1 nevertheless their ghosts as usual not only haunt their burial-places1 but come to the sacrifices offered to them and may be heard disporting themselves at night1 playing on pipes1 dancing1 and shouting4#eff ,sidenote3 ,belief of the ,solomon ,islanders that the souls of the dead live in islands4 ,the second death4 ,similarly at ,bugotu in the island of ,ysabel 7one of the ,solomon ,islands7 the ghosts of the dead are supposed to go away to an island1 and yet to haunt their graves and shew themselves to the survivors by night4 ,in the island of the dead there is a pool with a narrow tree-trunk lying across it4 ,here is stationed ,bolafagina1 the ghostly lord of the place4 ,every newly arrived ghost must appear before him1 and he examines their hands to see whether they bear the mark of the sacred frigate-bird cut on them2 if they have the mark1 the ghosts pass across the tree-trunk and mingle with the departed spirits in the world of the dead4 ,but ghosts who have not the mark on their hands are cast into the gulf and perish out of their ghostly life3 this is the second death4#efg ,the same notion of a second death meets us in a somewhat different form among the natives of ,saa in ,malanta1 another of the ,solomon ,islands4 ,all the ghosts of these people swim across the sea to two little islands called ,marapa1 which lie off ,marau in ,guadalcanar4 ,there the ghosts of children live in one island and the ghosts of grown-up people in another2 for the older people would be plagued by the chatter of children if they all dwelt together in one island4 ,yet in other respects the life of the departed spirits in these islands is very like life on earth4 ,there are houses1 gardens1 and canoes there just as here1 but all is thin and unsubstantial4 ,living men who land in the islands see nothing of these things2 there is a pool where they hear laughter and merry cries1 and where the banks are wet with invisible bathers4 ,but the life of the ghosts in these islands is not eternal4 ,the spirits of common folk soon turn into the nests of white ants1 which serve as food for the more robust ghosts4 ,hence a living man will say to his idle son1 ,when ,i die1 ,i shall have ants' nests to eat1 but then what will you have8 ,the ghosts of persons who were powerful on earth last much longer4 ,so long as they are remembered and worshipped by the living1 their natural strength remains unabated2 but when men forget them1 and turn to worship some of the more recent dead1 then no more food is offered to them in sacrifice1 so they pine away and change into white ants' nests just like common folk4 ,this is the second death4 ,however1 while the ghosts survive they can return from the islands to ,saa and revisit their village and friends4 ,the living can even discern them in the form of dim and fleeting shadows4 ,a man who wishes for any reason to see a ghost can always do so very simply by taking a pinch of lime from his betel-box and smearing it on his forehead4 ,then the ghost appears to him quite plainly4#efh ,sidenote3 ,burial customs in ,saa4 ,preservation of the skull and jawbone4 ,burial customs in ,santa ,cruz4 ,burial customs in ,ysabel4 ,in ,saa the dead are usually buried in a common cemetery2 but when the flesh has decayed the bones are taken up and heaped on one side4 ,but if the deceased was a very great man or a beloved father1 his body is preserved for a time in his son's house1 being hung up either in a canoe or in the carved effigy of a sword-fish4 ,very favourite children are treated in the same way4 ,the corpse may be kept in this way for years4 ,finally1 there is a great funeral feast1 at which the remains are removed to the common burial-ground1 but the skull and jawbone are detached from the skeleton and kept in the house enclosed in the hollow wooden figure of a bonito-fish4 ,by means of these relics the survivors think that they can secure the aid of the powerful ghost4 ,sometimes the corpse and afterwards the skull and jawbone are preserved1 not in the house of the deceased1 but in the oha or public canoe-house1 which so far becomes a sort of shrine or temple of the dead4#efi ,at ,santa ,cruz in the ,solomon ,islands the corpse is buried in a very deep grave in the house4 ,inland they dig up the bones again to make arrow-heads2 also they detach the skull and keep it in a chest in the house1 saying that it is the man himself4 ,they even set food before the skull1 no doubt for the use of the ghost4 ,yet they imagine that the ghosts of the dead go to the great volcano ,tamami1 where they are burnt in the crater and thus being renewed stay in the fiery region4 ,nevertheless the souls of the dead also haunt the forests in ,santa ,cruz2 on wet and dark nights the natives see them twinkling in the gloom like fire-flies1 and at the sight they are sore afraid4#egj ,so little consistent with itself is the creed of these islanders touching the state of the dead4 ,at ,bugotu in the island of ,ysabel 7one of the ,solomon ,islands7 a chief is buried with his head near the surface and a fire is kept burning over the grave1 in order that the skull may be taken up and preserved in the house of his successor4 ,the spirit of the dead chief has now become a worshipful ghost1 and an expedition is sent out to cut off and bring back human heads in his honour4 ,any person1 not belonging to the place1 whom the head-hunters come across will be killed by them and his or her skull added to the collection1 which is neatly arranged on the shore4 ,these ghastly trophies are believed to add fresh spiritual power 7mana7 to the ghost of the dead chief4 ,till they have been procured1 the people of the place take care not to move about4 ,the grave of the chief is built up with stones and sacrifices are offered upon it4#ega ,sidenote3 ,beliefs and customs of the ,eastern islanders concerning the dead4 ,panoi1 the subterranean abode of the dead4 ,thus far we have been considering the beliefs and practices concerning the dead which prevail among the ,western ,melanesians of the ,solomon ,islands and ,santa ,cruz4 ,we now turn to those of the ,eastern ,melanesians1 who inhabit the ,torres ,islands1 the ,banks' ,islands1 and the ,new ,hebrides4 ,a broad distinction exists between the ghosts of these two regions in as much as the ghosts of the ,western ,melanesians all live in islands1 but the ghosts of all ,eastern ,melanesians live underground in a subterranean region which commonly bears the name of ,panoi4 ,the exact position of ,panoi has not been ascertained2 all that is regarded as certain is that it is underground4 ,however1 there are many entrances to it and some of them are well known4 ,one of them1 for example1 is a rock on the mountain at ,mota1 others are at volcanic vents which belch flames on the burning hill of ,garat over the lake at ,gaua1 and another is on the great mountain of ,vanua ,lava4 ,the ghosts congregate on points of land before their departure1 as well as at the entrances to the underworld1 and there on moonlight nights you may hear the ghostly crew dancing1 singing1 shouting1 and whistling on the claws of land-crabs4 ,it is not easy to extract from the natives a precise and consistent account of the place of the dead and the state of the spirits in it2 nor indeed1 as ,dr4 ,codrington justly observes1 would it be reasonable to expect full and precise details on a subject about which the sources of information are perhaps not above suspicion4 ,however1 as far as can be made out1 ,panoi or the abode of the dead is on the whole a happy region4 ,in many respects it resembles the land of the living2 for there are houses there and villages1 and trees with red leaves1 and day and night4 ,yet all is hollow and unreal4 ,the ghosts do nothing but talk and sing and dance2 there is no clubhouse there1 and though men and women live together1 there is no marrying or giving in marriage4 ,all is very peaceful1 too1 in that land2 for there is no war and no tyrant to oppress the people4 ,yet the ghost of a great man goes down like a great man among the ghosts1 resplendent in all his trinkets and finery2 but like everything else in the underworld these ornaments1 for all the brave show they make1 are mere unsubstantial shadows4 ,the pigs which were killed at his funeral feast and the food that was heaped on his grave cannot go down with him into that far country2 for none of these things1 not even pigs1 have souls4 ,how then could they find their way to the spirit world8 ,it is clearly impossible4 ,the ghosts in the nether world do not mix indiscriminately4 ,there are separate compartments for such as died violent deaths4 ,there is one compartment for those who were shot1 there is another for those who were clubbed1 and there is another for those who were done to death by witchcraft4 ,the ghosts of those who were shot keep rattling the reeds of the arrows which dealt them their fatal wounds4 ,ghosts in the nether world have no knowledge of things out of their sight and hearing2 yet the living call upon them in time of need and trouble1 as if they could hear and help4 ,life1 too1 in the kingdom of shadows is not eternal4 ,the ghosts die the second death4 ,yet some say that there are two such kingdoms1 each called ,panoi1 the one over the other2 and that when the dead die the second death in the upper realm they rise again from the dead in the nether realm1 where they never die but only turn into white ants' nests4#egb ,sidenote3 ,distinction between the fate of the good and the fate of the bad in the other world4 ,it is interesting and not unimportant to observe that some of these islanders make a distinction between the fate of good people and the fate of bad people after death4 ,the natives of ,motlav1 one of the ,banks' ,islands1 think that ,panoi is a good place and that only the souls of the good can enter it4 ,according to them the souls of murderers1 sorcerers1 thieves1 liars1 and adulterers are not suffered to enter the happy land4 ,the ghost of a murderer1 for example1 is met at the entrance by the ghost of his victim1 who withstands him and turns him back4 ,all the bad ghosts go away to a bad place1 where they live1 not indeed in physical pain1 but in misery3 they quarrel1 they are restless1 homeless1 pitiable1 malignant3 they wander back to earth3 they eat the foulest food1 their breath is noisome3 they harm the living out of spite1 they eat men's souls1 they haunt graves and woods4 ,but in the true ,panoi the souls of the good live in peace and harmony4#egc ,thus these people believe that the state of the soul after death depends on the kind of life a man led on earth2 if he was good1 he will be happy2 if he was bad1 he will be miserable4 ,if this creed is of purely native origin1 and ,dr4 ,codrington seems to entertain no doubt that it is so1 it marks a considerable ethical advance among those who accept it4 ,sidenote3 ,descent of the living to the world of the dead4 ,the ,eastern ,melanesians think that living people can go down to the land of the dead and return alive to the upper world4 ,sometimes they do this in the body1 but at other times only in the spirit1 when they are asleep or in a faint2 for at such times their souls quit their bodies and can wander away down to ,panoi4 ,when the living thus make their way to the spirit land1 they are sometimes cautioned by friendly ghosts to eat nothing there1 no doubt lest by partaking of ghostly food they should be turned to ghosts and never return to the land of the living4#egd ,sidenote3 ,disposal of the dead among the ,eastern islanders4 ,burial customs of the ,banks' ,islanders4 ,we will now consider the various modes in which the ,eastern ,melanesians dispose of their dead2 for funeral customs commonly furnish some indication of the ideas which a people entertain as to the state of the soul after death4 ,the ,banks' ,islanders generally buried their dead in the forest not far from the village2 but if the deceased was a great man or died a remarkable death1 they might inter him in the village near the men's clubhouse 7gamal74 ,a favourite son or child might be buried in the house itself2 but in such cases the grave would be opened after fifty or a hundred days and the bones taken up and hidden in the forest1 though some of them might be hung up in the house4 ,however1 in some places there was1 and indeed still is1 a custom of keeping the putrefying corpse unburied in the house as a mark of affection4 ,at ,gaua1 in ,santa ,maria1 the body was dried over slow fires for ten days or more1 till nothing but skin and bones remained2 and the women who watched over it during these days drank the juices of putrefaction which dripped from the decaying flesh4 ,the same thing used formerly to be done in ,mota1 another of the ,banks' ,islands4 ,the corpses of great men in these islands were adorned in all their finery and laid out on the open space in the middle of the village4 ,here bunches of coco-nuts1 yams1 and other food were heaped up beside the body2 and an orator of fluent speech addressed the ghost telling him that when he had gone down to ,panoi1 the spirit land1 and the ghosts asked him after his rank1 he was to give them a list of all the things heaped beside his dead body2 then the ghosts would know what a great man he was and would treat him with proper deference4 ,the orator dealt very candidly with the moral character of the deceased4 ,if he had been a bad man1 the speaker would say1 ,poor ghost1 will you be able to enter ,panoi8 ,i think not4 ,the food which is piled up beside the body while the orator is pronouncing the eulogium or the censure of the departed is afterwards heaped up on the grave or buried in it4 ,at ,gaua they kill pigs and hang up the carcases or parts of them at the grave4 ,the object of all this display is to make a favourable impression on the ghosts in the spirit land1 in order that they may give the newly deceased man a good reception4 ,when the departed was an eminent warrior or sorcerer1 his friends will sometimes give him a sham burial and hide his real grave1 lest people should dig up his bones and his skull to make magic with them2 for the relics of such a man are naturally endowed with great magical virtue4#ege ,sidenote3 ,ghosts driven away from the village4 ,expulsion of the ghosts of persons who suffered from sores and ulcers4 ,in these islands the ghost does not at once leave the neighbourhood of his old body2 he shews no haste to depart to the nether world4 ,indeed he commonly loiters about the house and the grave for five or ten days1 manifesting his presence by noises in the house and by lights upon the grave4 ,by the fifth day his relations generally think that they have had quite enough of him1 and that it is high time he should set out for his long home4 ,accordingly they drive him away with shouts and the blowing of conch-shells or the booming sound of bull-roarers4#egf ,at ,ureparapara the mode of expelling the ghost from the village is as follows4 ,missiles to be hurled at the lingering spirit are collected in the shape of small stones and pieces of bamboo1 which have been charmed by wizards so as to possess a ghost-expelling virtue4 ,the artillery having been thus provided1 the people muster at one end of the village1 armed with bags of enchanted stones and pieces of enchanted bamboos4 ,the signal to march is given by two men1 who sit in the dead man's house1 one on either side1 holding two white stones in their hands1 which they clink together4 ,at the sound of the clinking the women begin to wail and the men to march2 tramp1 tramp they go like one man through the village from end to end1 throwing stones into the houses and all about and beating the bamboos together4 ,thus they drive the reluctant ghost step by step from the village into the forest1 where they leave him to find his own way down to the land of the dead4 ,till that time the widow of the deceased was bound to remain on his bed without quitting it for a moment except on necessity2 and if she had to leave it for a few minutes she always left a coco-nut on the bed to represent her till she came back4 ,the reason for this was that her husband's ghost was believed to be lingering in the house all these days1 and he would naturally expect to see his wife in the nuptial chamber4 ,at ,motlav the people are not so hard upon the poor ghosts3 they do not drive away all ghosts from their old homes1 but only the ghosts of such as had in their lifetime the misfortune to be afflicted with grievous sores and ulcers4 ,the expulsion of such ghosts may therefore be regarded as a sanitary precaution designed to prevent the spirits from spreading the disease4 ,when a man who suffers severely from sores or ulcers lies dying1 the people of his village1 taking time by the forelock1 send word to the inhabitants of the next village westwards1 warning them to be in readiness to give the ghost a warm reception4 ,for it is well known that at their departure from the body ghosts always go westward towards the setting sun4 ,so when the poor man is dead1 they bury his diseased body in the village and devote all their energies to the expulsion of his soul4 ,by blowing blasts on shell-trumpets and beating the ground with the stalks of coco-nut fronds they chase the ghost clean away from their own village and on to the next4 ,the inhabitants of that village meantime are ready to receive their unwelcome visitor1 and beating their bounds in the most literal sense they soon drive him onwards to the land of their next neighbours4 ,so the chase goes on from village to village1 till the ghost has been finally hunted into the sea at the point of the shore which faces the setting sun4 ,there at last the beaters throw away the stalks which have served to whack the ghost1 and return home in the perfect assurance that he has left the island and gone to his own place down below1 so that he cannot afflict anybody with the painful disease from which he suffered4 ,but as for his ulcerated corpse rotting in the grave1 they do not give a thought to it4 ,their concern is with the spiritual and the unseen2 they do not stoop to regard the material and carnal4#egg ,sidenote3 ,special treatment of the ghosts of women who died in childbed4 ,a special treatment is accorded to the ghosts of women who died in childbed4 ,if the mother dies and the child lives1 her ghost will not go away to the nether world without taking the infant with her4 ,hence in order to deceive the ghost1 they wrap a piece of a banana-trunk loosely in leaves and lay it on the bosom of the dead mother when they lower her into the grave4 ,the ghost clasps the bundle to her breast1 thinking it is her baby1 and goes away contentedly to the spirit land4 ,as she walks1 the banana-stalk slips about in the leaves and she imagines it is the infant stirring2 for she has not all her wits about her1 ghosts being naturally in a dazed state at first on quitting their familiar bodies4 ,but when she arrives in deadland and finds she has been deceived1 and when perhaps some heartless ghosts even jeer at her wooden baby1 back she comes tearing to earth in grief and rage to seek and carry off the real infant4 ,however1 the survivors know what to expect and have taken the precaution of removing the child to another house where the mother will never find it2 but she keeps looking for it always1 and a sad and angry ghost is she4#egh ,sidenote3 ,funeral feasts4 ,after the funeral follows a series1 sometimes a long series1 of funeral feasts1 which form indeed one of the principal institutions of these islands4 ,the number of the feasts and the length of time during which they are repeated vary much in the different islands1 and depend also on the consideration in which the deceased was held4 ,the days on which the feasts are celebrated are the fifth and the tenth after the death1 and afterwards every tenth day up to the hundredth or even it may be1 in the case of a father1 a mother1 or a wife1 up to the thousandth day4 ,these feasts appear now to be chiefly commemorative1 but they also benefit the dead2 for the ghost is naturally gratified by seeing that his friends remember him and do their duty by him so handsomely4 ,at these banquets food is put aside for the dead with the words ,this is for thee4 ,the practice of thus setting aside food for the ghost at a series of funeral feasts appears at first sight1 as ,dr4 ,codrington observes1 inconsistent with the theory that the ghosts live underground4#egi ,but the objection thus suggested is rather specious than real2 for we must always bear in mind that1 to judge from the accounts given of them in all countries1 ghosts experience no practical difficulty in obtaining temporary leave of absence from the other world and coming to this one1 so to say1 on furlough for the purpose of paying a surprise visit to their sorrowing friends and relations4 ,the thing is so well known that it would be at once superfluous and tedious to illustrate it at length2 many examples have incidentally met us in the course of these lectures4 ,sidenote3 ,funeral customs in ,vate or ,efat4 ,old people buried alive4 ,the natives of ,vate or ,efat1 one of the ,new ,hebrides1 set up a great wailing at a death and scratched their faces till they streamed with blood4 ,bodies of the dead were buried4 ,when a corpse was laid in the grave1 a pig was brought to the place and its head was chopped off and thrown into the grave to be buried with the body4 ,this1 we are told1 was supposed to prevent disease spreading to other members of the family4 ,probably1 in the opinion of the natives1 the pig's head was a sop thrown to the ghost to keep him from coming and fetching away other people to deadland4 ,with the same intention1 we may take it1 they buried with the dead the cups1 pillows1 and other things which he had used in his lifetime4 ,on the top of the grave they kindled a fire to enable the soul of the deceased to rise to the sun4 ,if that were not done1 the soul went to the wretched regions of ,pakasia down below4 ,the old were buried alive at their own request4 ,it was even deemed a disgrace to the family of an aged chief if they did not bury him alive4 ,when an old man felt sick and weak and thought that he was dying1 he would tell his friends to get all ready and bury him4 ,they yielded to his wishes1 dug a deep round pit1 wound a number of fine mats round his body1 and lowered him into the grave in a sitting posture4 ,live pigs were then brought to the brink of the grave1 and each of them was tethered by a cord to one of the old man's arms4 ,when the pigs had thus1 as it were1 been made over to him1 the cords were cut1 and the animals were led away to be killed1 baked1 and eaten at the funeral feast2 but the souls of the pigs the old man took away with him to the spirit land1 and the more of them he took the warmer and more gratifying was the reception he met with from the ghosts4 ,having thus ensured his eternal welfare by the pig strings which dangled at his arms1 the old man was ready2 more mats were laid over him1 the earth was shovelled in1 and his dying groans were drowned amid the weeping and wailing of his affectionate kinsfolk4#ehj ,sidenote3 ,burial and mourning customs in ,aurora1 one of the ,new ,hebrides4 ,behaviour of the soul at death4 ,at ,maewo in ,aurora1 one of the ,new ,hebrides1 when a death has taken place1 the body is buried in a grave near the village clubhouse4 ,for a hundred days afterwards the female mourners may not go into the open and their faces may not be seen2 they stay indoors and in the dark and cover themselves with a large mat reaching to the ground4 ,but the widow goes every day1 covered with her mat1 to weep at the grave2 this she does both in the morning and in the afternoon4 ,during this time of mourning the next of kin may not eat certain succulent foods1 such as yams1 bananas1 and caladium2 they eat only the gigantic caladium1 bread-fruit1 coco-nuts1 mallows1 and so forth2 and all these they seek in the bush where they grow wild1 not eating those which have been planted4 ,they count five days after the death and then build up great heaps of stones over the grave4 ,after that1 if the deceased was a very great man1 who owned many gardens and pigs1 they count fifty days and then kill pigs1 and cut off the point of the liver of each pig2 and the brother of the deceased goes toward the forest and calls out the dead man's name1 crying1 ,this is for you to eat4 ,they think that if they do not kill pigs for the benefit of their departed friend1 his ghost has no proper existence1 but hangs miserably on tangled creepers4 ,after the sacrifice they all cry again1 smear their bodies and faces all over with ashes1 and wear cords round their necks for a hundred days in token that they are not eating good food4#eha ,they imagine that as soon as the soul quits the body at death1 it mounts into a tree where there is a bird's nest fern1 and sitting there among the fronds it laughs and mocks at the people who are crying and making great lamentations over his deserted tabernacle4 ,there he sits1 wondering at them and ridiculing them4 ',what are they crying for8' he says2 'whom are they sorry for8 ,here am ,i4' ,for they think that the real thing is the soul1 and that it has gone away from the body just as a man throws off his clothes and leaves them1 and the clothes lie by themselves with nothing in them4#ehb ,this estimate of the comparative value of soul and body is translated from the words of a ,new ,hebridean native2 it singularly resembles that which is sometimes held up to our admiration as one of the finest fruits of philosophy and religion4 ,so narrow may be the line that divides the meditations of the savage and the sage4 ,when a ,maewo ghost has done chuckling at the folly of his surviving relatives1 who sorrow as those who have no hope1 he turns his back on his old home and runs along the line of hills till he comes to a place where there are two rocks with a deep ravine between them4 ,he leaps the chasm1 and if he lands on the further side1 he is dead indeed2 but if he falls short1 he returns to life4 ,at the land's end1 where the mountains descend into the sea1 all the ghosts of the dead are gathered to meet him4 ,if in his lifetime he had slain any one by club or arrow1 or done any man to death by magic1 he must now run the gauntlet of the angry ghosts of his victims1 who beat and tear him and stab him with daggers such as people stick pigs with2 and as they do so1 they taunt him1 saying1 ,while you were still in the world you thought yourself a valiant man2 but now we will take our revenge on you4 ,at another point in the path there is a deep gully1 where if a ghost falls he is inevitably dashed to pieces2 and if he escapes this peril1 there is a ferocious pig waiting for him further on1 which devours the ghosts of all persons who in their life on earth omitted to plant pandanus trees1 from which mats are made4 ,but the wise man1 who planted pandanus betimes1 now reaps the fruit of his labours2 for when the pig makes a rush at his departed spirit1 the ghost nimbly swarms up the pandanus tree and so escapes his pursuer4 ,that is why everybody in ,maewo likes to plant pandanus trees4 ,and if a man's ears were not pierced in his life1 his ghost will not be allowed to drink water2 if he was not tattooed1 his ghost may not eat good food4 ,a thoughtful father will provide for the comfort of his children in the other world by building a miniature house for each of them in his garden when the child is a year old2 if the infant is a boy1 he puts a bow1 an arrow1 and a club in the little house2 if the child is a girl1 he plants pandanus for her beside the tiny dwelling4#ehc ,sidenote3 ,only ghosts of powerful men are worshipped4 ,so much for the fate of common ghosts in ,central ,melanesia4 ,we have now to consider the position of the more powerful spirits1 who after death are believed to exercise great influence over the living1 especially over their surviving relations1 and who have accordingly to be propitiated with prayer and sacrifice4 ,this worship of the dead1 as we saw1 forms the principal feature in the religion of the ,solomon ,islanders4 ,but it must not be supposed1 says ,dr4 ,codrington1 that every ghost becomes an object of worship4 ,a man in danger may call upon his father1 his grandfather1 or his uncle3 his nearness of kin is sufficient ground for it4 ,the ghost who is to be worshipped is the spirit of a man who in his lifetime had mana supernatural or magical power in him2 the souls of common men are the common herd of ghosts1 nobodies alike before and after death4 ,the supernatural power abiding in the powerful living man abides in his ghost after death1 with increased vigour and more ease of movement4 ,after his death1 therefore1 it is expected that he should begin to work1 and some one will come forward and claim particular acquaintance with the ghost2 if his power should shew itself1 his position is assured as one worthy to be invoked1 and to receive offerings1 till his cultus gives way before the rising importance of one newly dead1 and the sacred place where his shrine once stood and his relics were preserved is the only memorial of him that remains2 if no proof of his activity appears1 he sinks into oblivion at once4#ehd ,sidenote3 ,worship paid chiefly to the recent and well-remembered dead4 ,from this instructive account we learn that worship is paid chiefly to the recent and well-remembered dead1 to the men whom the worshippers knew personally and feared or respected in their lifetime4 ,on the other hand1 when men have been long dead1 and all who knew them have also been gathered to their fathers1 their memory fades away and with it their worship gradually falls into complete desuetude4 ,thus the spirits who receive the homage of these savages were real men of flesh and blood1 not mythical beings conjured up by the fancy of their worshippers1 which some legerdemain of the mind has foisted into the shrine and encircled with the halo of divinity4 ,not that the ,melanesians do not also worship beings who1 so far as we can see1 are purely mythical1 though their worshippers firmly believe in their reality4 ,but they themselves make a clear distinction between the existing1 conscious1 powerful disembodied spirits of the dead1 and other spiritual beings that never have been men at all4 ,it is true that the two orders of beings get confused in native language and thought1 but their confusion begins at one end and the confusion of their visitors at another2 they think so much and constantly of ghosts that they speak of beings who were never men as ghosts2 ,europeans take the spirits of the lately dead for gods2 less educated ,europeans call them roundly devils4#ehe ,sidenote3 ,way in which a dead warrior came to be worshipped as a martial ghost4 ,as an example of the way in which the ghost of a real man who has just died may come to be worshipped ,dr4 ,codrington tells us the story of ,ganindo1 which he had from ,bishop ,selwyn4 ,this ,ganindo was a great fighting man of ,honggo in ,florida1 one of the ,solomon ,islands4 ,he went with other warriors on a head-hunting expedition against ,gaeta2 but being mortally wounded with an arrow near the collar-bone he was brought back by his comrades to the hill of ,bonipari1 where he died and was buried4 ,his friends cut off his head1 put it in a basket1 built a house for it1 and said that he was a worshipful ghost 7tindalo74 ,afterwards they said1 ,let us go and take heads4 ,so they embarked on their canoe and paddled away to seek the heads of enemies4 ,when they came to quiet water1 they stopped paddling and waited till they felt the canoe rock under them1 and when they felt it they said1 ,that is a ghost4 ,to find out what particular ghost it was they called out the names of several1 and when they came to the name of ,ganindo1 the canoe rocked again4 ,so they knew that it was he who was making the canoe to rock4 ,in like manner they learned what village they were to attack4 ,returning victorious with the heads of the foe they threw a spear into the roof of ,ganindo's house1 blew conch-shells1 and danced round it1 crying1 ,our ghost is strong to kill6 ,then they sacrificed fish and other food to him4 ,also they built him a new house1 and made four images of him for the four corners1 one of ,ganindo himself1 two of his sisters1 and another4 ,when it was all ready1 eight men translated the relics to the new shrine4 ,one of them carried ,ganindo's bones1 another his betel-nuts1 another his lime-box1 another his shell-trumpet4 ,they all went into the shrine crouching down1 as if burdened by a heavy weight1 and singing in chorus1 ,hither1 hither1 let us lift the leg6 ,at that the eight legs went up together1 and then they sang1 ,hither1 hither6 and at that the eight legs went down together4 ,in this solemn procession the relics were brought and laid on a bamboo platform1 and sacrifices to the new martial ghost were inaugurated4 ,other warlike ghosts revered in ,florida are known not to have been natives of the island but famous warriors of the western isles1 where supernatural power is believed to be stronger4#ehf ,sidenote3 ,offerings to the dead4 ,throughout the islands of ,central ,melanesia prayers and offerings are everywhere made to ghosts or spirits or to both4 ,the simplest and commonest sacrificial act is that of throwing a small portion of food to the dead2 this is probably a universal practice in ,melanesia4 ,a morsel of food ready to be eaten1 for example of yam1 a leaf of mallow1 or a bit of betel-nut1 is thrown aside2 and where they drink kava1 a libation is made of a few drops1 as the share of departed friends or as a memorial of them with which they will be pleased4 ,at the same time the offerer may call out the name of some one who either died lately or is particularly remembered at the time2 or without the special mention of individuals he may make the offering generally to the ghosts of former members of the community4 ,to set food on a burial-place or before some memorial image is a common practice1 though in some places1 as in ,santa ,cruz1 the offering is soon taken away and eaten by the living4#ehg ,sidenote3 ,sacrificial ritual in the ,solomon ,islands4 ,in the ,solomon ,islands the sacrificial ritual is more highly developed4 ,it may be described in the words of a native of ,san ,cristoval4 ,in my country1 he wrote1 they think that ghosts are many1 very many indeed1 some very powerful1 and some not4 ,there is one who is principal in war2 this one is truly mighty and strong4 ,when our people wish to fight with any other place1 the chief men of the village and the sacrificers and the old men1 and the elder and younger men1 assemble in the place sacred to this ghost2 and his name is ,harumae4 ,when they are thus assembled to sacrifice1 the chief sacrificer goes and takes a pig2 and if it be not a barrow pig they would not sacrifice it to that ghost1 he would reject it and not eat of it4 ,the pig is killed 7it is strangled71 not by the chief sacrificer1 but by those whom he chooses to assist1 near the sacred place4 ,then they cut it up2 they take great care of the blood lest it should fall upon the ground2 they bring a bowl and set the pig in it1 and when they cut it up the blood runs down into it4 ,when the cutting up is finished1 the chief sacrificer takes a bit of flesh from the pig1 and he takes a cocoa-nut shell and dips up some of the blood4 ,then he takes the blood and the bit of flesh and enters into the house 7the shrine71 and calls that ghost and says1 ',harumae6 ,chief in war6 we sacrifice to you with this pig1 that you may help us to smite that place2 and whatsoever we shall carry away shall be your property1 and we also will be yours4' ,then he burns the bit of flesh in a fire upon a stone1 and pours down the blood upon the fire4 ,then the fire blazes greatly upwards to the roof1 and the house is full of the smell of pig1 a sign that the ghost has heard4 ,but when the sacrificer went in he did not go boldly1 but with awe2 and this is the sign of it2 as he goes into the holy house he puts away his bag1 and washes his hands thoroughly1 to shew that the ghost shall not reject him with disgust4 ,the pig was afterwards eaten4 ,it should be observed that this ,harumae who received sacrifices as a martial ghost1 mighty in war1 had not been dead many years when the foregoing account of the mode of sacrificing to him was written4 ,the elder men remembered him alive1 nor was he a great warrior1 but a kind and generous man1 believed to be plentifully endowed with supernatural power4 ,his shrine was a small house in the village1 where relics of him were preserved4#ehh ,had the ,melanesians been left to themselves1 it seems possible that this ,harumae might have developed into the war-god of ,san ,cristoval1 just as in ,central ,africa another man of flesh and blood is known to have developed into the war-god of ,uganda4#ehi ,footnote #eeb3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians 7,oxford1 #ahia71 pp4 #abb1 #abc1 #abd1 #ahj sq4 ,footnote #eec3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians 7,oxford1 #ahia71 pp4 #bdg1 #bec4 ,footnote #eed3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 p4 #bdh4 ,footnote #eee3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bee sqq41 #bfd sqq4 ,footnote #eef3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 #bec sq4 ,footnote #eeg3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bed1 #beh1 #bfa2 compare id41 pp4 #abe1 #acj4 ,footnote #eeh3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 pp4 #abj1 #bed4 ,footnote #eei3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aah sqq4 ,footnote #efj3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bed sq4 ,footnote #efa3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 pp4 #beh sq4 ,footnote #efb3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 p4 #bee4 ,footnote #efc3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 p4 #bei4 ,footnote #efd3 ,g4 ,brown1 ,d4,d41 ,melanesians and ,polynesians 7,london1 #aiaj71 pp4 #bad1 #bag4 ,footnote #efe3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 p4 #bee4 ,footnote #eff3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bee sq4 ,footnote #efg3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bef sq4 ,footnote #efh3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bfj sq4 ,footnote #efi3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bfa sq4 ,footnote #egj3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bfc sq4 ,footnote #ega3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 p4 #beg4 ,footnote #egb3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bfd1 #bgc sq41 #bge-bgg4 ,footnote #egc3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bgd sq4 ,footnote #egd3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bff1 #bgf1 #bgg1 #bhf4 ,footnote #ege3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 pp4 #bfg-bgj4 ,footnote #egf3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 p4 #bfi4 ,footnote #egg3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 pp4 #bgj sq4 ,footnote #egh3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 p4 #bge4 ,footnote #egi3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 pp4 #bga sq4 ,footnote #ehj3 ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa a ,hundred ,years ,ago and long before 7,london1 #ahhd71 pp4 #cce sq4 ,this account is based on information furnished by ,sualo1 a ,samoan teacher1 who lived for a long time on the island4 ,the statement that the fire kindled on the grave was intended to enable the soul of the departed to rise to the sun may be doubted2 it may be a mere inference of ,dr4 ,turner's ,samoan informant4 ,more probably the fire was intended to warm the shivering ghost4 ,i do not remember any other evidence that the souls of the ,melanesian dead ascend to the sun2 certainly it is much more usual for them to descend into the earth4 ,footnote #eha3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bha sq4 ,footnote #ehb3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bgh sq4 ,sidenote3 ,journey of the ghost to the other world4 ,footnote #ehc3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bgi sq4 ,footnote #ehd3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 pp4 #abd sq4 ,footnote #ehe3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 p4 #aba4 ,footnote #ehf3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 pp4 #abe sqq4 ,footnote #ehg3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 pp4 #abg1 #abh4 ,footnote #ehh3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 pp4 #abi sq4 ,footnote #ehi3 ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,kibuka1 the ,war ,god of the ,baganda1 ,man1 vii4 7#aijg7 pp4 #afa-aff2 id41 ,the ,baganda 7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #cja sqq4 ,the history of this ,african war-god is more or less mythical1 but his personal relics1 which are now deposited in the ,ethnological ,museum at ,cambridge1 suffice to prove his true humanity4 ,,lecture ,,xvii ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,natives ,,of ,,central ,,melanesia 7concluded7 ,sidenote3 ,public sacrifices to ghosts in the ,solomon ,islands4 ,at the close of last lecture ,i described the mode in which sacrifices are offered to a martial ghost in ,san ,cristoval1 one of the ,solomon ,islands4 ,we saw that the flesh of a pig is burned in honour of the ghost and that the victim's blood is poured on the flames4 ,similarly in ,florida1 another of the ,solomon ,islands1 food is conveyed to worshipful ghosts by being burned in the fire4 ,some ghosts are known by name to everybody1 others may be known only to individuals1 who have found out or been taught how to approach them1 and who accordingly regard such ghosts as their private property4 ,in every village a public ghost is worshipped1 and the chief is the sacrificer4 ,he has learned from his predecessor how to throw or heave the sacrifice1 and he imparts this knowledge to his son or nephew1 whom he intends to leave as his successor4 ,the place of sacrifice is an enclosure with a little house or shrine in which the relics are kept2 it is new or old according as the man whose ghost is worshipped died lately or long ago4 ,when a public sacrifice is performed1 the people assemble near but not in the sacred place2 boys but not women may be present4 ,the sacrificer alone enters the shrine1 but he takes with him his son or other person whom he has instructed in the ritual4 ,muttering an incantation he kindles a fire of sticks1 but may not blow on the holy flame4 ,then from a basket he takes some prepared food1 such as a mash of yams1 and throws it on the fire1 calling out the name of the ghost and bidding him take his food1 while at the same time he prays for whatever is desired4 ,if the fire blazes up and consumes the food1 it is a good sign2 it proves that the ghost is present and that he is blowing up the flame4 ,the remainder of the food the sacrificer takes back to the assembled people2 some of it he eats himself and some of it he gives to his assistant to eat4 ,the people receive their portions of the food at his hands and eat it or take it away4 ,while the sacrificing is going on1 there is a solemn silence4 ,if a pig is killed1 the portion burned in the sacrificial fire is the heart in ,florida1 but the gullet at ,bugotu4 ,one ghost who is commonly known and worshipped is called ,manoga4 ,when the sacrificer invokes this ghost1 he heaves the sacrifice round about and calls him1 first to the east1 where rises the sun1 saying1 ,if thou dwellest in the east1 where rises the sun1 ,manoga6 come hither and eat thy tutu mash6 ,then turning he lifts it towards where sets the sun1 and says1 ,if thou dwellest in the west1 where sets the sun1 ,manoga6 come hither and eat thy tutu6 ,there is not a quarter to which he does not lift it up4 ,and when he has finished lifting it he says1 ,if thou dwellest in heaven above1 ,manoga6 come hither and eat thy tutu6 ,if thou dwellest in the ,pleiades or ,orion's belt2 if below in ,turivatu2 if in the distant sea2 if on high in the sun1 or in the moon2 if thou dwellest inland or by the shore1 ,manoga6 come hither and eat thy tutu6#eij ,sidenote3 ,first-fruits of the canarium nuts sacrificed to ghosts4 ,twice a year there are general sacrifices in which the people of a village take part4 ,one of these occasions is when the canarium nut1 so much used in native cookery1 is ripe4 ,none of the nuts may be eaten till the first-fruits have been offered to the ghost4 ,devil he eat first2 all man he eat behind1 is the lucid explanation which a native gave to an ,english enquirer4 ,the knowledge of the way in which the first-fruits must be offered is handed down from generation to generation1 and the man who is learned in this lore has authority to open the season4 ,he observes the state of the crop1 and early one morning he is heard to shout4 ,he climbs a tree1 picks some nuts1 cracks them1 eats1 and puts some on the stones in his sacred place for the ghost4 ,then the rest of the people may gather the nuts for themselves4 ,the chief himself sacrifices the new nuts1 mixed with other food1 to the public ghost on the stones of the village sanctuary2 and every man who has a private ghost of his own does the same in his own sacred place4 ,about two months afterwards there is another public sacrifice when the root crops generally have been dug2 pig or fish is then offered2 and a man who digs up his yams1 or whatever it may be1 offers his private sacrifice besides4#eia ,sidenote3 ,sacrifice of first-fruits to ancestral spirits in ,tanna4 ,in like manner the natives of ,tanna1 one of the ,southern ,new ,hebrides1 offered the first-fruits to the deified spirits of their ancestors4 ,on this subject ,i will quote the evidence of the veteran missionary1 the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,george ,turner1 who lived in ,tanna for seven months in #ahda4 ,he says3 ,the general name for gods seemed to be aremha2 that means a dead man1 and hints alike at the origin and nature of their religious worship4 ,the spirits of their departed ancestors were among their gods4 ,chiefs who reach an advanced age were after death deified1 addressed by name1 and prayed to on various occasions4 ,they were supposed especially to preside over the growth of the yams and the different fruit trees4 ,the first-fruits were presented to them1 and in doing this they laid a little of the fruit on some stone1 or shelving branch of the tree1 or some more temporary altar of a few rough sticks from the bush1 lashed together with strips of bark1 in the form of a table1 with its four feet stuck in the ground4 ,all being quiet1 the chief acted as high priest1 and prayed aloud thus3 ',compassionate father6 here is some food for you2 eat it2 be kind to us on account of it4' ,and1 instead of an amen1 all united in a shout4 ,this took place about mid-day1 and afterwards those who were assembled continued together feasting and dancing till midnight or three in the morning4#eib ,sidenote3 ,private ghosts4 ,fighting ghosts kept as auxiliaries4 ,in addition to the public ghosts1 each of whom is revered by a whole village1 many a man keeps1 so to say1 a private or tame ghost of his own on leash4 ,the art of taming a ghost consists in knowing the leaves1 bark1 and vines in which he delights and in treating him accordingly4 ,this knowledge a man may acquire by the exercise of his natural faculties or he may learn it from somebody else4 ,however he may obtain the knowledge1 he uses it for his own personal advantage1 sacrificing to the ghost in order to win his favour and get something from him in return4 ,the mode of sacrificing to a private ghost is the same as to a public ghost4 ,the owner has a sacred place or private chapel of his own1 where he draws near to the ghost in prayer and burns his bit of food in the fire4 ,a man often keeps a fighting ghost 7keramo71 who helps him in battle or in slaying his private enemy4 ,before he goes out to commit homicide1 he pulls up his ginger-plant and judges from the ease or difficulty with which the plant yields to or resists his tug1 whether he will succeed in the enterprise or not4 ,then he sacrifices to the ghost1 and having placed some ginger and leaves on his shield1 and stuffed some more in his belt and right armlet1 he sallies forth4 ,he curses his enemy by his fighting ghost1 saying1 ,siria 7if that should be the name of the ghost7 eats thee1 and ,i shall slay thee2 and if he kills him1 he cries to the ghost1 ,thine is this man1 ,siria1 and do thou give me supernatural power6 ,no prudent ,melanesian would attempt to commit manslaughter without a ghost as an accomplice2 to do so would be to court disaster1 for the slain man's ghost would have power over the slayer2 therefore before he imbrues his hands in blood he deems it desirable to secure the assistance of a valiant ghost who can1 if need be1 overcome the ghost of his victim in single combat4 ,if he cannot procure such a useful auxiliary in any other way1 he must purchase him4 ,further1 he fortifies himself with some personal relic1 such as a tooth or lock of hair of the deceased warrior1 whose ghost he has taken into his service2 this relic he wears as an amulet in a little bag round the neck1 when he is on active service2 at other times it is kept in the house4#eic ,sidenote3 ,garden ghosts4 ,different from these truculent spirits are the peaceful ghosts who cause the garden to bear fruit4 ,if the gardener happens to know such a ghost1 he can pray and sacrifice to him on his own account2 but if he has no such friend in the spirit world1 he must employ an expert4 ,the man of skill goes into the midst of the garden with a little mashed food in his left hand1 and smiting it with his right hand he calls on the ghost to come and eat4 ,he says3 ,this produce thou shall eat2 give supernatural power 7mana7 to this garden1 that food may be good and plentiful4 ,he digs holes at the four corners of the garden1 and in them he buries such leaves as the ghost loves1 so that the garden may have ghostly power and be fruitful4 ,and when the yams sprout1 he twines them with the particular creeper and fastens them with the particular wood to which the ghost is known to be partial4 ,these agricultural ghosts are very sensitive2 if a man enters the garden1 who has just eaten pork or cuscus or fish or shell-fish1 the ghost of the garden manifests his displeasure by causing the produce of the garden to droop2 but if the eater lets three or four days go by after his meal1 he may then enter the garden with impunity1 for the food has left his stomach4 ,for a similar reason1 apparently1 when the yam vines are being trained1 the men sleep near the gardens and never approach their wives2 for should they tread the garden after conjugal intercourse1 the yams would be blighted4#eid ,sidenote3 ,human sacrifices to ghosts4 ,sometimes the favour of a ghost is obtained by human sacrifices4 ,on these occasions the flesh of the victim does not1 like the flesh of a pig1 furnish the materials of a sacrificial banquet2 but little bits of it are eaten by young men to improve their fighting power and by elders for a special purpose4 ,such sacrifices are deemed more effectual than the sacrifices of less precious victims2 and advantage was sometimes taken of a real or imputed crime to offer the criminal to some ghost4 ,so1 for example1 within living memory ,dikea1 chief of ,ravu1 convicted a certain man of stealing tobacco1 and sentenced him to be sacrificed2 and the grown lads ate pieces of him cooked in the sacrificial fire4 ,again1 the same chief offered another human sacrifice in the year #ahhf4 ,one of his wives had proved false1 and he sent her away vowing that she should not return till he had offered a human sacrifice to ,hauri4 ,also his son died1 and he vowed to kill a man for him4 ,the vow was noised abroad1 and everybody knew that he would pay well for somebody to kill4 ,now the ,savo people had bought a captive boy in ,guadalcanar1 but it turned out a bad bargain1 for the boy was lame and nearly blind4 ,so they brought him to ,dikea1 and he gave them twenty coils of shell money for the lad4 ,then the chief laid his hand on the victim's breast and cried1 ,hauri6 here is a man for you1 and his followers killed him with axes and clubs4 ,the cripple's skull was added to the chief's collection1 and his legs were sent about the country to make known what had been done4 ,in ,bugotu of ,ysabel1 when the people had slain an enemy in fight1 they used to bring back his head in triumph1 cut slices off it1 and burn them in sacrifice4 ,and if they took a prisoner alive1 they would bring him to the sacred place1 the grave of the man whose ghost was to be honoured4 ,there they bound him hand and foot and buffeted him till he died1 or if he did not die under the buffets they cut his throat4 ,as they beat the man with their fists1 they called on the ghost to take him1 and when he was dead1 they burned a bit of him in the fire for the ghost4#eie ,sidenote3 ,sacrifices to ghosts in ,saa4 ,at ,saa in ,malanta1 one of the ,solomon ,islands1 sacrifices are offered to ghosts on various occasions4 ,thus on his return from a voyage a man will put food in the case which contains the relics of his dead father2 and in the course of his voyage1 if he should land in a desert isle1 he will throw food and call on father1 grandfather1 and other deceased friends4 ,again1 when sickness is ascribed to the anger of a ghost1 a man of skill is sent for to discover what particular ghost is doing the mischief4 ,when he has ascertained the culprit1 he is furnished by the patient's relatives with a little pig1 which he is to sacrifice to the ghost as a substitute for the sick man4 ,provided with this vicarious victim he repairs to the haunt of the ghost1 strangles the animal1 and burns it whole in a fire along with grated yam1 coco-nut1 and fish4 ,as he does so1 he calls out the names of all the ghosts of his family1 his ancestors1 and all who are deceased1 down even to children and women1 and he names the man who furnished the pig for the ghostly repast4 ,a portion of the mixed food he preserves unburnt1 wraps it in a dracaena leaf1 and puts it beside the case which contains the relics of the man to whose ghost the sacrifice has been offered4 ,sometimes1 however1 instead of burning a pig in the fire1 which is an expensive and wasteful form of sacrifice1 the relatives of the sick man content themselves with cooking a pig or a dog in the oven1 cutting up the carcase1 and laying out all the parts in order4 ,then the sacrificer comes and sits at the animal's head1 and calls out the names of all the dead members of the ghost's family in order downwards1 saying1 ,help1 deliver this man1 cut short the line that has bound him4 ,then the pig is eaten by all present except the women2 nothing is burnt4#eif ,sidenote3 ,sacrifices of first-fruits to ghosts in ,saa4 ,the last sort of sacrifices to ghosts at ,saa which we need notice is the sacrifice of first-fruits4 ,thus1 when the yams are ripe the people fetch some of them from each garden to offer to the ghosts4 ,all the male members of the family assemble at the holy place which belongs to them4 ,then one of them enters the shrine1 lays a yam beside the skull which lies there1 and cries with a loud voice to the ghost1 ,this is yours to eat4 ,the others call quietly on the names of all the ancestors and give their yams1 which are very many in number1 because one from each garden is given to each ghost4 ,if any man has besides a relic of the dead1 such as a skull1 bones1 or hair1 in his house1 he takes home a yam and sets it beside the relic4 ,again1 the first flying-fish of the season are sacrificed to ghosts1 who may take the form of sharks2 for we shall see presently that ,melanesian ghosts are sometimes supposed to inhabit the bodies of these ferocious monsters4 ,some ghost-sharks have sacred places ashore1 where figures of sharks are set up4 ,in that case the first flying-fish are cooked and set before the shark images4 ,but it may be that a shark ghost has no sacred place on land1 and then there is nothing for it but to take the flying-fish out to sea and shred them into the water1 while the sacrificer calls out the name of the particular ghost whom he desires to summon to the feast4#eig ,sidenote3 ,vicarious sacrifices for the sick4 ,vicarious sacrifices for the sick are offered in ,san ,cristoval to a certain malignant ghost called ,tapia1 who is believed to seize a man's soul and tie it up to a banyan tree4 ,when that has happened1 a man who knows how to manage ,tapia intercedes with him4 ,he takes a pig or fish to the sacred place and offers it to the grim ghost1 saying1 ,this is for you to eat in place of that man2 eat this1 don't kill him4 ,with that he can loose the captive soul and take it back to the sick man1 who thereupon recovers4#eih ,sidenote3 ,sacrifices to ghosts in ,santa ,cruz4 ,the dead represented by a stock4 ,in ,santa ,cruz the sacrifices offered to ghosts are very economical2 for if the offering is of food1 the living eat it up after a decent interval2 if it is a valuable1 they remove it and resume the use of it themselves4 ,the principle of this spiritual economy probably lies in the common belief that ghosts1 being immaterial1 absorb the immaterial essence of the objects1 leaving the material substance to be enjoyed by men4 ,when a man of mark dies in ,santa ,cruz1 his relations set up a stock of wood in his house to represent him4 ,this is renewed from time to time1 till after a while the man is forgotten or thrown into the shade by the attractions of some newer ghost1 so that the old stock is neglected4 ,but when the stock is first put up1 a pig is killed and two strips of flesh from the back bone are set before the stock as food for the ghost1 but only to be soon taken away and eaten by the living4 ,similar offerings may be repeated from time to time1 as when the stock is renewed4 ,again1 when a garden is planted1 they spread feather-money and red native cloth round it for the use of the ghost2 but his enjoyment of these riches is brief and precarious4#eii ,sidenote3 ,native account of sacrifices to ghosts in ,santa ,cruz4 ,to supplement the foregoing account of sacrifices to ghosts in ,santa ,cruz1 ,i will add a description of some of them which was given by a native of ,santa ,cruz in his own language and translated for us by a missionary4 ,it runs thus3 ,when anyone begins to fall sick he seeks a doctor 7meduka71 and when the doctor comes near the sick man he stiffens his body1 and all those in the house think a ghost has entered into the doctor1 and they are all very quiet4 ,some doctors tell the sick man's relatives to kill a pig for the ghost who has caused the sickness4 ,when they have killed the pig they take it into the ghost-house and invite some other men1 and they eat with prayers to the ghost2 and the doctor takes a little piece and puts it near the base of the ghost-post1 and says to it3 ',this is thy food2 oh1 deliver up again the spirit of thy servant1 that he may be well again4' ,the little portion they have offered to the ghost is then eaten2 but small boys may not eat of it4#fjj ,every year the people plant yams and tomagos2 and when they begin to work and have made ready the place and begun to plant1 first1 they offer to the ghost who they think presides over foods4 ,there is an offering place in the bush1 and they go there and take much food1 and also feather money4 ,men1 women1 and children do this1 and they think the ghost notices if there are many children1 and gives much food at harvest2 and the ghost to whom they offer is named ,ilene4 ,when the bread-fruit begins to bear they take great care lest anyone should light a fire near the bole of the tree1 or throw a stone at the tree4 ,the ghost1 who they think protects the bread-fruit1 is called ,duka-,kane or ,kae ,tuabia1 who has two names2 they think this ghost has four eyes4#fja ,the heathen thinks a ghost makes the sun to shine and the rain4 ,if it is continual sunshine and the yams are withering the people assemble together and contribute money1 and string it to the man with whom the rain-ghost abides1 and food also1 and beseech him not to do the thing he was doing4 ,that man will not wash his face for a long time1 he will not work lest he perspire and his body be wet1 for he thinks that if his body be wet it will rain4 ,then this man1 with whom the rain-ghost is1 takes water and goes into the ghost-house and sprinkles it at the head of the ghost-post 7duka71 and if there are many ghost-posts in the house he pours water over them all that it may rain4#fjb ,sidenote3 ,combination of magic with religion4 ,in these ceremonies for the making of rain we see a combination of magic with religion4 ,the appeal to the rain-ghost is religious2 but the pouring of the water on the ghost-post is magical1 being an imitation of the result which the officiating priest or magician1 whichever we choose to call him1 desires to produce4 ,the taboos observed by the owner of the rain-ghost so long as he wishes to prevent the rain from falling are also based on the principle of homoeopathic or imitative magic3 he abstains from washing his face or working1 lest the water or the sweat trickling down his body should mimick rain and thereby cause it to fall4#fjc ,sidenote3 ,prayers to the dead4 ,the natives of ,aneiteum1 one of the ,southern ,new ,hebrides1 worshipped the spirits of their ancestors1 chiefly on occasions of sickness4#fjd ,again1 the people of ,vate or ,efat1 another of the ,new ,hebrides1 worshipped the souls of their forefathers and prayed to them over the kava-bowl for health and prosperity4#fje ,as an example of prayers offered to the dead we may take the petition which the natives of ,florida put up at sea to ,daula1 a well-known ghost1 who is associated with the frigate-bird4 ,they say3 ,do thou draw the canoe1 that it may reach the land2 speed my canoe1 grandfather1 that ,i may quickly reach the shore whither ,i am bound4 ,do thou1 ,daula1 lighten the canoe1 that it may quickly gain the land and rise upon the shore4 ,they also invoke ,daula to help them in fishing4 ,if thou art powerful1 ,o ,daula1 they say1 put a fish or two into this net and let them die there4 ,after a good catch they praise him1 saying1 ,powerful is the ghost of the net4 ,and when the natives of ,florida are in danger on the sea1 they call upon their immediate forefathers2 one will call on his grandfather1 another on his father1 another on some dead friend1 calling with reverence and saying1 ,save us on the deep6 ,save us from the tempest6 ,bring us to the shore6 ,in ,san ,cristoval people apply to ghosts for victory in battle1 health in sickness1 and good crops2 but the word which they use to signify such an application conveys the notion of charm rather than of prayer4 ,however1 in the ,banks' ,islands what may be called prayer is strictly speaking an invocation of the dead2 indeed the very word for prayer 7tataro7 seems to be identical with that for a powerful ghost 7'ataro in ,san ,cristoval74 ,a man in peril on the sea will call on his dead friends1 especially on one who was in his lifetime a good sailor4 ,and in ,mota1 when an oven is opened1 they throw in a leaf of cooked mallow for a ghost1 saying to him1 ,this is a lucky bit for your eating2 they who have charmed your food or clubbed you 7as the case may be71 take hold of their hands1 drag them away to hell1 let them be dead4 ,so when they pour water on the oven1 they pray to the ghost1 saying1 ,pour it on the head of him down there who has laid plots against me1 has clubbed me1 has shot me1 has stolen things of mine 7as the case may be71 he shall die4 ,again1 when they make a libation before drinking1 they pray1 saying1 ,grandfather6 this is your lucky drop of kava2 let boars come in to me2 the money ,i have spent1 let it come back to me2 the food that is gone1 let it come back hither to the house of you and me4 ,and on starting for a voyage they will say1 ,uncle6 father6 plenty of boars for you1 plenty of money2 kava for your drinking1 lucky food for your eating in the canoe4 ,i pray you with this1 look down upon me1 let me go on a safe sea4 ,or when the canoe labours with a heavy freight1 they will pray1 ,take off your burden from us1 that we may speed on a safe sea4#fjf ,sidenote3 ,sanctuaries of ghosts in ,florida4 ,in the island of ,florida1 the sanctuary of a powerful ghost is called a vunuhu4 ,sometimes it is in the village1 sometimes in the garden-ground1 sometimes in the forest4 ,if it is in the village1 it is fenced about1 lest the foot of any rash intruder should infringe its sanctity4 ,sometimes the sanctuary is the place where the dead man is buried2 sometimes it merely contains his relics1 which have been translated thither4 ,in some sanctuaries there is a shrine and in some an image4 ,generally1 if not always1 stones may be seen lying in such a holy place4 ,the sight of one of them has probably struck the fancy of the man who founded the worship2 he thought it a likely place for the ghost to haunt1 and other smaller stones and shells have been subsequently added4 ,once a sanctuary has been established1 everything within it becomes sacred 7tambu7 and belongs to the ghost4 ,were a tree growing within it to fall across the path1 nobody would step over it4 ,when a sacrifice is to be offered to the ghost on the holy ground1 the man who knows the ghost1 and whose duty it is to perform the sacrifice1 enters first and all who attend him follow1 treading in his footsteps4 ,in going out no one will look back1 lest his soul should stay behind4 ,no one would pass such a sanctuary when the sun was so low as to cast his shadow into it2 for if he did the ghost would seize his shadow and so drag the man himself into his den4 ,if there were a shrine in the sanctuary1 nobody but the sacrificer might enter it4 ,such a shrine contained the weapons and other properties which belonged in his lifetime to the man whose ghost was worshipped on the spot4#fjg ,sidenote3 ,sanctuaries of ghosts in ,malanta4 ,at ,saa in ,malanta1 another of the ,solomon ,islands1 all burial-grounds where common people are interred are so far sacred that no one will go there without due cause2 but places where the remains of nobles repose1 and where sacrifices are offered to their ghosts1 are regarded with very great respect1 they may indeed be called family sanctuaries4 ,some of them are very old1 the powerful ghosts who are worshipped in them being remote ancestors4 ,it sometimes happens that the man who used to sacrifice in such a place dies without having instructed his son in the proper chant of invocation with which the worshipful ghost should be approached4 ,in such a case the young man who succeeds him may fear to go to the old sanctuary1 lest he should commit a mistake and offend the ghost2 so he will take some ashes from the old sacrificial fire-place and found a new sanctuary4 ,it is not common in that part of ,malanta to build shrines for the relics of the dead1 but it is sometimes done4 ,such shrines1 on the other hand1 are common in the villages of ,san ,cristoval and in the sacred places of that island where great men lie buried4 ,to trespass on them would be likely to rouse the anger of the ghosts1 some of whom are known to be of a malignant disposition4#fjh ,sidenote3 ,sanctuaries which are not burial-grounds4 ,but burial-grounds are not the only sanctuaries in the ,solomon ,islands4 ,there are some where no dead man is known to be interred1 though in ,dr4 ,codrington's opinion there are probably none which do not derive their sanctity from the presence of a ghost4 ,in the island of ,florida the appearance of something wonderful will cause any place to become a sanctuary1 the wonder being accepted as proof of a ghostly presence4 ,for example1 in the forest near ,olevuga a man planted some coco-nut and almond trees and died not long afterwards4 ,then there appeared among the trees a great rarity in the shape of a white cuscus4 ,the people took it for granted that the animal was the dead man's ghost1 and therefore they called it by his name4 ,the place became a sanctuary2 no one would gather the coco-nuts and almonds that grew there1 till two ,christian converts set the ghost at defiance and appropriated his garden1 with the coco-nuts and almonds4 ,through the same part of the forest ran a stream full of eels1 one of which was so big that the people were quite sure it must be a ghost2 so nobody would bathe in that stream or drink from it1 except at one pool1 which for the sake of convenience was considered not to be sacred4 ,again1 in ,bugotu1 a district of ,ysabel1 which is another of the ,solomon ,islands1 there is a pool known to be the haunt of a very old ghost4 ,when a man has an enemy whom he wishes to harm he will obtain some scraps of his food and throw them into the water4 ,if the food is at once devoured by the fish1 which swarm in the pool1 the man will die1 but otherwise his life may be saved by the intervention of a man who knows the habits of the ghost and how to propitiate him4 ,in these sacred places there are stones1 on which people place food in order to obtain good crops1 while for success in fishing they deposit morsels of cooked fish4 ,such stones are treated with reverence and seem to be in a fair way to develop into altars4 ,however1 when the old ghost is superseded1 as he often is1 by younger rivals1 the development of an altar out of the stones is arrested4#fji ,sidenote3 ,ghosts in animals1 such as sharks1 alligators1 snakes1 bonitos1 and frigate-birds4 ,from some of these instances we learn that ,melanesian ghosts can sometimes take up their abode in animals1 such as cuscuses1 eels1 and fish4 ,the creatures which are oftenest used as vehicles by the spirits of the dead are sharks1 alligators1 snakes1 bonitos1 and frigate-birds4 ,snakes which haunt a sacred place are themselves sacred1 because they belong to or actually embody the ghost4 ,sharks1 again1 in all these islands are very often thought to be the abode of ghosts2 for men before their death will announce that they will appear as sharks1 and afterwards any shark remarkable for size or colour which haunts a certain shore or coast is taken to be somebody's ghost and receives the name of the deceased4 ,at ,saa certain food1 such as coco-nuts from particular trees1 is reserved to feed such a ghost-shark2 and men of whom it is known for certain that they will be sharks after their death are allowed to anticipate the posthumous honours which await them by devouring such food in the sacred place1 just as if they were real sharks4 ,sharks are very commonly believed to be the abode of ghosts in ,florida and ,ysabel1 and in ,savo1 where they are particularly numerous2 hence1 though all sharks are not venerated1 there is no living creature so commonly held sacred by the ,central ,melanesians as a shark2 and shark-ghosts seem even to form a class of powerful supernatural beings4 ,again1 when a lizard was seen frequenting a house after a death1 it would be taken for the ghost returning to its old home2 and many ghosts1 powerful to aid the mariner at sea1 take up their quarters in frigate-birds4#faj ,sidenote3 ,the belief in ghosts underlies the ,melanesian conception of magic4 ,again1 a belief in powerful ghosts underlies to a great extent the ,melanesian conception of magic1 as that conception is expounded by ,dr4 ,codrington4 ,that invisible power1 he tells us1 which is believed by the natives to cause all such effects as transcend their conception of the regular course of nature1 and to reside in spiritual beings1 whether in the spiritual part of living men or in the ghosts of the dead1 being imparted by them to their names and to various things that belong to them1 such as stones1 snakes1 and indeed objects of all sorts1 is that generally known as mana4 ,without some understanding of this it is impossible to understand the religious beliefs and practices of the ,melanesians2 and this again is the active force in all they do and believe to be done in magic1 white or black4 ,by means of this men are able to control or direct the forces of nature1 to make rain or sunshine1 wind or calm1 to cause sickness or remove it1 to know what is far off in time and space1 to bring good luck and prosperity1 or to blast and curse4 ,no man1 however1 has this power of his own2 all that he does is done by the aid of personal beings1 ghosts or spirits4#faa ,sidenote3 ,illness generally thought to be caused by ghosts4 ,thus1 to begin with the medical profession1 which is a branch of magic long before it becomes a department of science1 every serious sickness is believed to be brought about by ghosts or spirits1 but generally it is to the ghosts of the dead that illness is ascribed both by the ,eastern and by the ,western islanders4 ,hence recourse is had to ghosts for aid both in causing and in curing sickness4 ,they are thought to inflict disease1 not only because some offence1 such as trespass1 has been committed against them1 or because one who knows their ways has instigated them thereto by sacrifice and spells1 but because there is a certain malignity in the feeling of all ghosts towards the living1 who offend them simply by being alive4 ,all human faculties1 apart from the mere bodily functions1 are supposed to be enhanced by death2 hence the ghost of a powerful and ill-natured man is only too ready to take advantage of his increased powers for mischief4#fab ,thus in the island of ,florida illness is regularly laid at the door of a ghost2 the only question that can arise is which particular ghost is doing the mischief4 ,sometimes the patient imagines that he has offended his dead father1 uncle1 or brother1 who accordingly takes his revenge by stretching him on a bed of sickness4 ,in that case no special intercessor is required2 the patient himself or one of his kinsfolk will sacrifice and beg the ghost to take the sickness away2 it is purely a family affair4 ,sometimes the sick man thinks that it is his own private or tame ghost who is afflicting him2 so he will leave the house in order to escape his tormentor4 ,but if the cause of sickness remains obscure1 a professional doctor or medicine-man will be consulted4 ,he always knows1 or at least can ascertain1 the ghost who is causing all the trouble1 and he takes his measures accordingly4 ,thus he will bind on the sick man the kind of leaves that the ghost loves2 he will chew ginger and blow it into the patient's ears and on that part of the skull which is soft in infants2 he will call on the name of the ghost and entreat him to remove the sickness4 ,should all these remedies prove vain1 the doctor is by no means at the end of his resources4 ,he may shrewdly suspect that somebody1 who has an ill-will at the patient1 has set his private ghost to maul the sick man and do him a grievous bodily injury4 ,if his suspicions are confirmed and he discovers the malicious man who is egging on the mischievous ghost1 he will bribe him to call off his ghost2 and if the man refuses1 the doctor will hire another ghost to assault and batter the original assailant4 ,at ,wango in ,san ,cristoval regular battles used to be fought by the invisible champions above the sickbed of the sufferer1 whose life or death depended on the issue of the combat4 ,their weapons were spears1 and sometimes more than one ghost would be engaged on either side4#fac ,sidenote3 ,diagnosis of ghosts who have caused illness4 ,in ,ysabel the doctor employs an ingenious apparatus for discovering the cause of sickness and ascertaining its cure4 ,he suspends a stone at one end of a string while he holds the other end in his hand4 ,then he recites the names of all the people who died lately1 and when the stone swings at anybody's name1 he knows that the ghost of that man has caused the illness4 ,it remains to find out what the ghost will take to relax his clutch on the sick man1 it may be a mash of yams1 a fish1 a pig1 or perhaps a human substitute4 ,the question is put and answered as before2 and whatever the oracle declares to be requisite is offered on the dead man's grave4 ,thus the ghost is appeased and the sufferer is made whole4#fad ,in these islands a common cause of illness is believed to be an unwarrantable intrusion on premises occupied by a ghost1 who punishes the trespasser by afflicting him with bodily pains and ailments1 or it may be by carrying off his soul4 ,at ,maewo in ,aurora1 one of the ,new ,hebrides1 when there is reason to think that a sickness is due to ghostly agency1 the friends of the sick man send for a professional dreamer1 whose business it is to ascertain what particular ghost has been offended and to make it up with him4 ,so the dreamer falls asleep and in his sleep he dreams a dream4 ,he seems to himself to be in the place where the patient was working before his illness2 and there he spies a queer little old man1 who is really no other than the ghost4 ,the dreamer falls into conversation with him1 learns his name1 and winning his confidence extracts from him a true account of the whole affair4 ,the fact is that in working at his garden the man encroached1 whether wittingly or not is no matter1 on land which the ghost regards as his private preserve2 and to punish the intrusion the ghost carried off the intruder's soul and impounded it in a magic fence in his garden1 where it still languishes in durance vile4 ,the dreamer at once tenders a frank and manly apology on behalf of his client2 he assures the ghost that the trespass was purely inadvertent1 that no personal disrespect whatever was intended1 and he concludes by requesting the ghost to overlook the offence for this time and to release the imprisoned soul4 ,this appeal to the better feelings of the ghost has its effect2 he pulls up the fence and lets the soul out of the pound2 it flies back to the sick man1 who thereupon recovers4 ,sometimes an orphan child is made sick by its dead mother1 whose ghost draws away the soul of the infant to keep her company in the spirit land4 ,in such a case1 again1 a dreamer is employed to bring back the lost soul from the far country2 and if he can persuade the mother's ghost to relinquish the tiny soul of her baby1 the child will be made whole4#fae ,once more certain long stones in the ,banks' ,islands are inhabited by ghosts so active and robust that if a man's shadow so much as falls on one of them1 the ghost in the stone will clutch the shadow and pull the soul clean out of the man1 who dies accordingly4 ,such stones1 dangerous as they unquestionably are to the chance passer-by1 nevertheless for that very reason possess a valuable property which can be turned to excellent account4 ,a man1 for example1 will put one of these stones in his house to guard it like a watch-dog in his absence2 and if he sends a friend to fetch something out of it which he has forgotten1 the messenger1 on approaching the house1 will take good care to call out the owner's name1 lest the ghost in the stone1 mistaking him for a thief and a robber1 should pounce out on him and do him a mischief before he had time to explain4#faf ,sidenote3 ,contrast between ,melanesian and ,european medicine4 ,thus it appears that for a medical practitioner in ,melanesia the first requisite is an intimate acquaintance1 not with the anatomy of the human frame and the properties of drugs1 but with ghosts1 their personal peculiarities1 habits1 and haunts4 ,only by means of the influence which such a knowledge enables him to exert on these powerful and dangerous beings can the good physician mitigate and assuage the sufferings of poor humanity4 ,his professional skill1 while it certainly aims at the alleviation of physical evils1 attains its object chiefly1 if not exclusively1 by a direct appeal to those higher1 though invisible1 powers which encompass the life of man1 or at all events of the ,melanesian4 ,the firm faith in the spiritual and the unseen which these sable doctors display in their treatment of the sick presents a striking contrast to the procedure of their ,european colleagues1 who trust exclusively to the use of mere physical remedies1 such as drugs and lancets1 now carving the body of the sufferer with knives1 and now inserting substances1 about which they know little1 into places about which they know nothing4 ,has not science falsely so called still much to learn from savagery8 ,sidenote3 ,the weather believed to be regulated by ghosts and spirits4 ,weather-doctors4 ,but it is not the departments of medicine and surgery alone1 important as these are to human welfare1 which in ,melanesia are directed and controlled by spiritual forces4 ,the weather in those regions is also regulated by ghosts and spirits4 ,it is they who cause the wind to blow or to be still1 the sun to shine forth or to be overcast with clouds1 the rain to descend or the earth to be parched with drought2 hence fertility and abundance or dearth and famine prevail alternately at the will of these spiritual directors4 ,from this it follows that men who stand on a footing of intimacy with ghosts and spirits can by judicious management induce them to adapt the weather to the varying needs of mankind4 ,but it is to be observed that the supernatural beings1 who are the real sources of atmospheric phenomena1 have delegated or deputed a portion of their powers not merely to certain material objects1 such as stones or leaves1 but to certain set forms of words1 which men call incantations or spells2 and accordingly all such objects and formulas do1 by virtue of this delegation1 possess in themselves a real and we may almost say natural influence over the weather1 which is often manifested in a striking congruity or harmony between the things themselves and the effects which they are calculated to produce4 ,this adaptation of means to end in nature may perhaps be regarded as a beautiful proof of the existence of spirits and ghosts working their purposes unseen behind the gaily coloured screen or curtain of the physical universe4 ,at all events men who are acquainted with the ghostly properties of material objects and words can turn them to account for the benefit of their friends and the confusion of their foes1 and they do so very readily if only it is made worth their while4 ,hence it comes about that in these islands there are everywhere weather-doctors or weather-mongers1 who through their familiarity with ghosts and spirits and their acquaintance with the ghostly or spiritual properties of things1 are able to control the weather and to supply their customers with wind or calm1 rain or sunshine1 famine or abundance1 at a reasonable rate and a moderate figure4#fag ,the advantages of such a system over our own blundering method of managing the weather1 or rather of leaving it to its own devices1 are too obvious to be insisted on4 ,to take a few examples4 ,in the island of ,florida1 when a calm is wanted1 the weather-doctor takes a bunch of leaves1 of the sort which the ghost loves1 and hides the bunch in the hollow of a tree where there is water1 at the same time invoking the ghost with the proper charm4 ,this naturally produces rain and with the rain a calm4 ,in the seafaring life of the ,solomon ,islanders the maker of calms is a really valuable citizen4#fah ,the ,santa ,cruz people are also great voyagers1 and their wizards control the weather on their expeditions1 taking with them the stock or log which represents their private or tame ghost and setting it up on a stage in the cabin4 ,the presence of the familiar ghost being thus secured1 the weather-doctor will undertake to provide wind or calm according to circumstances4#fai ,we have already seen how in these islands the wizard makes rain by pouring water on the wooden posts which represent the rain-ghosts4#fbj ,sidenote3 ,black magic working through personal refuse or rubbish of the victim4 ,such exercises of ghostly power for the healing of the sick and the improvement of the weather are1 when well directed and efficacious1 wholly beneficial4 ,but ghostly power is a two-edged weapon which can work evil as well as good to mankind4 ,in fact it can serve the purpose of witchcraft4 ,the commonest application of this pernicious art is one which is very familiar to witches and sorcerers in many parts of the world4 ,the first thing the wizard does is to obtain a fragment of food1 a bit of hair1 a nail-clipping1 or indeed anything that has been closely connected with the person of his intended victim4 ,this is the medium through which the power of the ghost or spirit is brought to bear2 it is1 so to say1 the point of support on which the magician rests the whole weight of his infernal engine4 ,in order to give effect to the charm it is very desirable1 if not absolutely necessary1 to possess some personal relic1 such as a bone1 of the dead man whose ghost is to set the machinery in motion4 ,at all events the essential thing is to bring together the man who is to be injured and the ghost or spirit who is to injure him2 and this can be done most readily by placing the personal relics or refuse of the two men1 the living and the dead1 in contact with each other2 for thus the magic circuit1 if we may say so1 is complete1 and the fatal current flows from the dead to the living4 ,that is why it is most dangerous to leave any personal refuse or rubbish lying about2 you never can tell but that some sorcerer may get hold of it and work your ruin by means of it4 ,hence the people are naturally most careful to hide or destroy all such refuse in order to prevent it from falling into the hands of witches and wizards2 and this sage precaution has led to habits of cleanliness which the superficial ,european is apt to mistake for what he calls enlightened sanitation1 but which a deeper knowledge of native thought would reveal to him in their true character as far-seeing measures designed to defeat the nefarious art of the sorcerer4#fba ,sidenote3 ,black magic working without any personal relic of the victim4 ,the ghost-shooter4 ,unfortunately1 however1 an adept in the black art can work his fell purpose even without any personal relic of his victim4 ,in the ,banks' ,islands1 for example1 he need only procure a bit of human bone or a fragment of some lethal weapon1 it may be a splinter of a club or a chip of an arrow1 which has killed somebody4 ,this he wraps up in the proper leaves1 recites over it the appropriate charm1 and plants it secretly in the path along which his intended victim is expected to pass4 ,the ghost of the man who owned the bone in his life or perished by the club or the arrow1 is now lurking like a lion in the path2 and if the poor fellow strolls along it thinking no evil1 the ghost will spring at him and strike him with disease4 ,the charm is perfectly efficient if the man does come along the path1 but clearly it misses fire if he does not4 ,to remedy this defect in the apparatus a sorcerer sometimes has recourse to a portable instrument1 a sort of pocket pistol1 which in the ,banks' ,islands is known as a ghost-shooter4 ,it is a bamboo tube1 loaded not with powder and shot1 but with a dead man's bone and other magical ingredients1 over which the necessary spell has been crooned4 ,armed with this deadly weapon the sorcerer has only to step up to his unsuspecting enemy1 whip out the pocket pistol1 uncork the muzzle by removing his thumb from the orifice1 and present it at the victim2 the fatal discharge follows in an instant and the man drops to the ground4 ,the ghost in the pistol has done his work4 ,sometimes1 however1 an accident happens4 ,the marksman misses his victim and hits somebody else4 ,this occurred1 for example1 not very many years ago in the island of ,mota4 ,a man named ,isvitag was waiting with his ghost-shooter to pop at his enemy1 but in his nervous excitement he let fly too soon1 just as a woman with a child on her hip stepped across the path4 ,the shot1 or rather the ghost1 hit the child point-blank1 and it was his sister's child1 his own next of kin6 ,you may imagine the distress of the affectionate uncle at this deplorable miscarriage4 ,to prevent inflammation of the wound he1 with great presence of mind1 plunged his pocket pistol in water1 and this timely remedy proved so efficacious that the child took no hurt4#fbb ,sidenote3 ,prophecy inspired by ghosts4 ,another department of ,melanesian life in which ghosts figure very prominently is prophecy4 ,the knowledge of future events is believed to be conveyed to the people by a ghost or spirit speaking with the voice of a man1 who is himself unconscious while he speaks4 ,the predictions which emanate from the prophet under these circumstances are in the strictest sense inspired4 ,his human personality is for the time being in abeyance1 and he is merely the mouthpiece of the powerful spirit which has temporarily taken possession of his body and speaks with his voice4 ,the possession is indeed painfully manifest4 ,his eyes glare1 foam bursts from his mouth1 his limbs writhe1 his whole body is convulsed4 ,these are the workings of the mighty spirit shaking and threatening to rend the frail tabernacle of flesh4 ,this form of inspiration is not clearly distinguishable from what we call madness2 indeed the natives do not attempt to distinguish between the two things2 they regard the madman and the prophet as both alike inspired by a ghost or spirit1 and a man will sometimes pretend to be mad in order that he may get the reputation of being a prophet4 ,at ,saa a man will speak with the voice of a powerful man deceased1 while he twists and writhes under the influence of the ghost2 he calls himself by the name of the deceased who speaks through him1 and he is so addressed by others2 he will eat fire1 lift enormous weights1 and foretells things to come4 ,when the inspiration1 or insanity1 is particularly violent1 and the ,banks' ,islanders think they have had quite enough of it1 the friends of the prophet or of the madman will sometimes catch him and hold him struggling and roaring in the smoke of strong-smelling leaves1 while they call out the names of the dead men whose ghosts are most likely to be abroad at the time1 for as soon as the right name is mentioned the ghost departs from the man1 who then returns to his sober senses4 ,but this method of smoking out a ghost is not always successful4#fbc ,sidenote3 ,divination by means of ghosts4 ,there are many methods by which ghosts and spirits are believed to make known to men who employ them the secret things which the unassisted human intelligence could not discover2 and some of them hardly perhaps need the intervention of a professional wizard4 ,these methods of divination differ very little in the various islands4 ,in the ,solomon ,islands1 for instance1 when an expedition has started in a fleet of canoes1 there is sometimes a hesitation whether they shall proceed1 or a doubt as to what direction they should take4 ,thereupon a diviner may declare that he has felt a ghost step on board2 for did not the canoe tip over to the one side8 ,accordingly he asks the invisible passenger1 ,shall we go on8 ,shall we go to such and such a place8 ,if the canoe rocks1 the answer is yes2 if it lies on an even keel1 the answer is no4 ,again1 when a man is sick and his friends wish to know what ghost is vexing or1 as they say1 eating him1 a diviner or wizard is sent for4 ,he comes bringing an assistant1 and the two sit down1 the wizard in front and the assistant at his back1 and they hold a stick or bamboo by the two ends4 ,the wizard then begins to slap the end of the bamboo he holds1 calling out one after another the names of men not very long deceased1 and when he names the one who is afflicting the sick man the stick of itself becomes violently agitated4#fbd ,we are not informed1 but we may probably assume1 that it is the ghost and not the man who really agitates the stick4 ,a somewhat different mode of divination was occasionally employed at ,motlav in the ,banks' ,islands in order to discover a thief or other criminal4 ,after a burial they would take a bag1 put some ,tahitian chestnut and scraped banana into it1 and tie it to the end of a hollow bamboo tube about ten feet long in such a way that the end of the tube was inserted in the mouth of the bag4 ,then the bag was laid on the dead man's grave1 and the diviners grasped the other end of the bamboo4 ,the names of the recently dead were then called over1 and while this was being done the men felt the bamboo grow heavy in their hands1 for a ghost was scrambling up from the bag into the hollow of the bamboo4 ,having thus secured him they carried the imprisoned ghost in the bamboo into the village1 where the roll of the recent dead was again called over in order to learn whose ghost had been caught in the trap4 ,when wrong names were mentioned1 the free end of the bamboo moved from side to side1 but at the mention of the right name it revolved briskly4 ,having thus ascertained whom they had to deal with1 they questioned the entrapped ghost1 ,who stole so and so8 ,who was guilty in such a case8 ,thereupon the bamboo1 moved no doubt by the ghost inside1 pointed at the culprit1 if he was present1 or made signs as before when the names of the suspected evildoers were mentioned4#fbe ,sidenote3 ,taboo based on a fear of ghosts4 ,of the many departments of ,central ,melanesian life which are permeated by a belief in ghostly power the last which ,i shall mention is the institution of taboo4 ,in ,melanesia1 indeed1 the institution is not so conspicuous as it used to be in ,polynesia2 yet even there it has been a powerful instrument in the consolidation of the rights of private property1 and as such it deserves the attention of historians who seek to trace the evolution of law and morality4 ,as understood in the ,banks' ,islands and the ,new ,hebrides the word taboo 7tambu or tapu7 signifies a sacred and unapproachable character which is imposed on certain things by the arbitrary will of a chief or other powerful man4 ,somebody whose authority with the people gives him confidence to make the announcement will declare that such and such an object may not be touched1 that such and such a place may not be approached1 and that such and such an action may not be performed under a certain penalty1 which in the last resort will be inflicted by ghostly or spiritual agency4 ,the object1 place1 or action in question becomes accordingly taboo or sacred4 ,hence in these islands taboo may be defined as a prohibition with a curse expressed or implied4 ,the sanction or power at the back of the taboo is not that of the man who imposes it2 rather it is that of the ghost or spirit in whose name or in reliance upon whom the taboo is imposed4 ,thus in ,florida a chief will forbid something to be done or touched under a penalty2 he may proclaim1 for example1 that any one who violates his prohibition must pay him a hundred strings of shell money4 ,to a ,european such a proclamation seems a proof of the chief's power2 but to the native the chiefs power1 in this and in everything1 rests on the persuasion that the chief has his mighty ghost at his back4 ,the sense of this in the particular case is indeed remote1 the fear of the chiefs anger is present and effective1 but the ultimate sanction is the power of the ghost4 ,if a common man were to take upon himself to taboo anything he might do so2 people would imagine that he would not dare to make such an announcement unless he knew he could enforce it2 so they would watch1 and if anybody violated the taboo and fell sick afterwards1 they would conclude that the taboo was supported by a powerful ghost who punished infractions of it4 ,hence the reputation and authority of the man who imposed the taboo would rise accordingly2 for it would be seen that he had a powerful ghost at his back4 ,every ghost has a particular kind of leaf for his badge2 and in imposing his taboo a man will set the leaf of his private ghost as a mark to warn trespassers of the spiritual power with which they have to reckon2 when people see a leaf stuck1 it may be1 on a tree1 a house1 or a canoe1 they do not always know whose it is2 but they do know that if they disregard the mark they have to deal with a ghost and not with a man1#fbf and the knowledge is a more effectual check on thieving and other crimes than the dread of mere human justice4 ,many a rascal fears a ghost who does not fear the face of man4 ,sidenote3 ,the life of the ,central ,melanesians deeply influenced by their belief in the survival of the human soul after death4 ,what ,i have said may suffice to impress you with a sense of the deep practical influence which a belief in the survival of the human soul after death exercises on the life and conduct of the ,central ,melanesian savage4 ,to him the belief is no mere abstract theological dogma or speculative tenet1 the occasional theme of edifying homilies and pious meditation2 it is an inbred1 unquestioning1 omnipresent conviction which affects his thoughts and actions daily and at every turn2 it guides his fortunes as an individual and controls his behaviour as a member of a community1 by inculcating a respect for the rights of others and enforcing a submission to the public authorities4 ,with him the fear of ghosts and spirits is a bulwark of morality and a bond of society2 for he firmly believes in their unseen presence everywhere and in the punishments which they can inflict on wrongdoers4 ,his whole theory of causation differs fundamentally from ours and necessarily begets a fundamental difference of practice4 ,where we see natural forces and material substances1 the ,melanesian sees ghosts and spirits4 ,a great gulf divides his conception of the world from ours2 and it may be doubted whether education will ever enable him to pass the gulf and to think and act like us4 ,the products of an evolution which has extended over many ages cannot be forced like mushrooms in a summer day2 it is vain to pluck the fruit of the tree of knowledge before it is ripe4 ,footnote #eij3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 pp4 #acj-acb4 ,footnote #eia3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 pp4 #acb sq42 ,c4 ,m4 ,woodford1 ,a ,naturalist among the ,head-hunters 7,london1 #ahij71 pp4 #bf-bh4 ,footnote #eib3 ,g4 ,turner1 ,,ll4,d41 ,samoa a ,hundred ,years ,ago and long before 7,london1 #ahhd71 pp4 #cah sq4 ,yams are the principal fruits cultivated by the ,tannese1 who bestow a great deal of labour on the plantation and keep them in fine order4 ,see ,g4 ,turner1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cag sq4 ,footnote #eic3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 pp4 #acc sq4 ,footnote #eid3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 p4 #acd4 ,footnote #eie3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ace sq4 ,footnote #eif3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 pp4 #acg sq4 ,footnote #eig3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 p4 #ach4 ,footnote #eih3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ach sq4 ,footnote #eii3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 p4 #aci4 ,footnote #fjj3 ,native ,stories of ,santa ,cruz and ,reef ,islands1 translated by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,o',ferrall1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxiv4 7#aijd7 p4 #bbc4 ,footnote #fja3 ,native ,stories from ,santa ,cruz and ,reef ,islands1 op4 cit4 p4 #bbd4 ,footnote #fjb3 ,native ,stories from ,santa ,cruz and ,reef ,islands1 op4 cit4 p4 #bbe4 ,footnote #fjc3 ,compare ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 i4 #bfi sqq4 ,footnote #fjd3 ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa a ,hundred ,years ,ago and long before 7,london1 #ahhd71 p4 #cbf4 ,footnote #fje3 ,g4 ,turner1 op4 cit4 p4 #ccd4 ,footnote #fjf3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 pp4 #ade-adh4 ,footnote #fjg3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 pp4 #age sq4 ,footnote #fjh3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 pp4 #agf sq4 ,footnote #fji3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 pp4 #agg sq4 ,footnote #faj3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 pp4 #agh-ahj4 ,footnote #faa3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 p4 #aia4 ,footnote #fab3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 p4 #aid4 ,footnote #fac3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 pp4 #aid-aif4 ,footnote #fad3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 p4 #aif4 ,footnote #fae3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 pp4 #bjh sq4 ,as to sickness supposed to be caused by trespass on the premises of a ghost see further id41 pp4 #aid1 #aie1 #bah4 ,footnote #faf3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 p4 #ahd4 ,footnote #fag3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 p4 #bjj4 ,footnote #fah3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 pp4 #bjj1 #bja4 ,the spirit whom the ,florida wizard appeals to for good or bad weather is called a vigona2 and the natives believe it to be always the ghost of a dead man4 ,but it seems very doubtful whether this opinion is strictly correct4 ,see ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op cit4 pp4 #abd1 #acd4 ,footnote #fai3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 p4 #bja4 ,the ,santa ,cruz name for such a ghost is duka 7ibid4 p4 #aci74 ,footnote #fbj3 ,above1 p4 #cge4 ,footnote #fba3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 pp4 #bjb-bjd4 ,footnote #fbb3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 pp4 #bje sq4 ,footnote #fbc3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 pp4 #bji sq41 #bah-bbj4 ,footnote #fbd3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 pp4 #baj4 ,footnote #fbe3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 pp4 #baa sq4 ,footnote #fbf3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 pp4 #bae sq4 ,,lecture ,,xviii ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,natives ,,of ,,northern ,,and ,,eastern ,,melanesia ,sidenote3 ,northern ,melanesia4 ,material culture of the ,north ,melanesians4 ,in the last lecture ,i concluded my account of the belief in immortality and the worship of the dead among the natives of ,central ,melanesia4 ,to-day we pass to what may be called ,northern ,melanesia1 by which is to be understood the great archipelago lying to the north-east of ,new ,guinea4 ,it comprises the two large islands of ,new ,britain and ,new ,ireland1 now called ,new ,pomerania and ,new ,mecklenburg1 with the much smaller ,duke of ,york ,island lying between them1 and the chain of ,new ,hanover and the ,admiralty ,islands stretching away westward from the north-western extremity of ,new ,ireland4 ,the whole of the archipelago1 together with the adjoining island of ,bougainville in the ,solomon ,islands1 is now under ,german rule4 ,the people belong to the same stock and speak the same language as the natives of ,central and ,southern ,melanesia1 and their level of culture is approximately the same4 ,they live in settled villages and subsist chiefly by the cultivation of the ground1 raising crops of taro1 yams1 bananas1 sugar-cane1 and so forth4 ,most of the agricultural labour is performed by the women1 who plant1 weed the ground1 and carry the produce to the villages4 ,the ground is1 or rather used to be1 dug by sharp-pointed sticks4 ,the men hunt cassowaries1 wallabies1 and wild pigs1 and they catch fish by both nets and traps4 ,women and children take part in the fishing and many of them become very expert in spearing fish4 ,among the few domestic animals which they keep are pigs1 dogs1 and fowls4 ,the villages are generally situated in the midst of a dense forest2 but on the coast the natives build their houses not far from the beach as a precaution against the attacks of the forest tribes1 of whom they stand greatly in fear4 ,a ,new ,britain village generally consists of a number of small communities or families1 each of which dwells in a separate enclosure4 ,the houses are very small and badly built1 oblong in shape and very low4 ,between the separate hamlets which together compose a village lie stretches of virgin forest1 through which run irregular and often muddy foot-tracks1 scooped out here and there into mud-holes where the pigs love to wallow during the heat of the tropical day4 ,as the people of any one district used generally to be at war with their neighbours1 it was necessary that they should live together for the sake of mutual protection4#fbg ,sidenote3 ,commercial habits of the ,north ,melanesians4 ,their backwardness in other respects4 ,nevertheless1 in spite of their limited intercourse with surrounding villages1 the natives of the ,new ,britain or the ,bismarck ,archipelago were essentially a trading people4 ,they made extensive use of shell money and fully recognised the value of any imported articles as mediums of exchange or currency4 ,markets were held on certain days at fixed places1 where the forest people brought their yams1 taro1 bananas and so forth and exchanged them for fish1 tobacco1 and other articles with the natives of the coast4 ,they also went on long trading expeditions to procure canoes1 cuscus teeth1 pigs1 slaves1 and so forth1 which on their return they generally sold at a considerable profit4 ,the shell which they used as money is the ,nassa immersa or ,nassa calosa1 found on the north coast of ,new ,britain4 ,the shells were perforated and threaded on strips of cane1 which were then joined together in coils of fifty to two hundred fathoms4#fbh ,the rights of private property were fully recognised4 ,all lands belonged to certain families1 and husband and wife had each the exclusive right to his or her goods and chattels4 ,but while in certain directions the people had made some progress1 in others they remained very backward4 ,pottery and the metals were unknown2 no metal or specimen of metal-work has been found in the archipelago2 on the other hand the natives made much use of stone implements1 especially adzes and clubs4 ,in war they never used bows and arrows4#fbi ,they had no system of government1 unless that name may be given to the power wielded by the secret societies and by chiefs1 who exercised a certain degree of influence principally by reason of the reputation which they enjoyed as sorcerers and magicians4 ,they were not elected nor did they necessarily inherit their office2 they simply claimed to possess magical powers1 and if they succeeded in convincing the people of the justice of their claim1 their authority was recognised4 ,wealth also contributed to establish their position in the esteem of the public4#fcj ,sidenote3 ,the ,rev4 ,george ,brown on the ,melanesians4 ,with regard to the religious ideas and customs of the natives we are not fully informed1 but so far as these have been described they appear to agree closely with those of their kinsfolk in ,central ,melanesia4 ,the first ,european to settle in the archipelago was the veteran missionary1 the ,rev4 ,george ,brown1 ,d4,d41 who resided in the islands from #ahge to #ahhj and has revisited them on several occasions since2 he reduced the language to writing for the first time1#fca and is one of our best authorities on the people4 ,in what follows ,i shall make use of his valuable testimony along with that of more recent observers4 ,sidenote3 ,north ,melanesian theory of the soul4 ,fear of ghosts1 especially the ghosts of persons who have been killed and eaten4 ,the natives of the archipelago believe that every person is animated by a soul1 which survives his death and may afterwards influence the survivors for good or evil4 ,their word for soul is nio or niono1 meaning a shadow4 ,the root is nio1 which by the addition of personal suffixes becomes niong my soul or shadow1 niom your soul or shadow1 niono his soul or shadow4 ,they think that the soul is like the man himself1 and that it always stays inside of his body1 except when it goes out on a ramble during sleep or a faint4 ,a man who is very sleepy may say1 ,my soul wants to go away4 ,they believe1 however1 that it departs for ever at death2 hence when a man is sick1 his friends will offer prayers to prevent its departure4 ,there is only one kind of soul1 but it can appear in many shapes and enter into animals1 such as rats1 lizards1 birds1 and so on4 ,it can hear1 see1 and speak1 and present itself in the form of a wraith or apparition to people at the moment of or soon after death4 ,on being asked why he thought that the soul does not perish with the body1 a native said1 ,because it is different2 it is not of the same nature at all4 ,they believe that the souls of the dead occasionally visit the living and are seen by them1 and that they haunt houses and burial-places4 ,they are very much afraid of the ghosts and do all they can to drive or frighten them away4 ,above all1 being cannibals1 they stand in great fear of the ghosts of the people whom they have killed and eaten4 ,the man who is cutting up a human body takes care to tie a bandage over his mouth and nose during the operation of carving in order to prevent the enraged soul of the victim from entering into his body by these apertures2 and for a similar reason the doors of the houses are shut while the cannibal feast is going on inside4 ,and to keep the victim's ghost quiet while his body is being devoured1 a cut from a joint is very considerately placed on a tree outside of the house1 so that he may eat of his own flesh and be satisfied4 ,at the conclusion of the banquet1 the people shout1 brandish spears1 beat the bushes1 blow horns1 beat drums1 and make all kinds of noises for the purpose of chasing the ghost or ghosts of the murdered and eaten men away from the village4 ,but while they send away the souls1 they keep the skulls and jawbones of the victims2 as many as thirty-five jawbones have been seen hanging in a single house in ,new ,ireland4 ,as for the skulls1 they are1 or rather were placed on the branch of a dead tree and so preserved on the beach or near the house of the man who had taken them4#fcb ,sidenote3 ,offerings to the souls of the dead4 ,with regard to the death of their friends they deem it very important to obtain the bodies and bury them4 ,they offer food to the souls of their departed kinsfolk for a long time after death1 until all the funeral feasts are over2 but they do not hold annual festivals in honour of dead ancestors4 ,the food offered to the dead is laid every day on a small platform in a tree2 but the natives draw a distinction between offerings to the soul of a man who died a natural death and offerings to the soul of a man who was killed in a fight2 for whereas they place the former on a living tree1 they deposit the latter on a dead tree4 ,moreover1 they lay money1 weapons1 and property1 often indeed the whole wealth of the family1 near the corpse of their friend1 in order that the soul of the deceased may carry off the souls of these valuables to the spirit land4 ,but when the body is carried away to be buried1 most of the property is removed by its owners for their own use4 ,however1 the relations will sometimes detach a few shells from the coils of shell money and a few beads from a necklace and drop them in a fire for the behoof of the ghost4 ,but when the deceased was a chief or other person of importance1 some of his property would be buried with him4 ,and before burial his body would be propped up on a special chair in front of his house1 adorned with necklaces1 wreaths of flowers and feathers1 and gaudy with war-paint4 ,in one hand would be placed a large cooked yam1 and in the other a spear1 while a club would be put on his shoulder4 ,the yam was to stay the pangs of hunger on his long journey1 and the weapons were to enable him to fight the foes who might resist his entrance into the spirit land4 ,in the ,duke of ,york ,island the corpse was usually disposed of by being sunk in a deep part of the lagoon2 but sometimes it was buried in the house and a fire kept burning on the spot4#fcc ,sidenote3 ,burial customs in ,new ,ireland and ,new ,britain4 ,preservation of the skull4 ,in ,new ,ireland the dead were rolled up in winding-sheets made of pandanus leaves1 then weighted with stones and buried at sea4 ,however1 at some places they were deposited in deep underground watercourses or caverns4 ,towards the northern end of ,new ,ireland corpses were burned on large piles of firewood in an open space of the village4 ,a number of images curiously carved out of wood or chalk were set round the blazing pyre1 but the meaning of these strange figures is uncertain4 ,men and women uttered the most piteous wailings1 threw themselves on the top of the corpse1 and pulled at the arms and legs4 ,this they did not merely to express their grief1 but because they thought that if they saw and handled the dead body while it was burning1 the ghost could not or would not haunt them afterwards4#fcd ,amongst the natives of the ,gazelle ,peninsula in ,new ,britain the dead are generally buried in shallow graves in or near their houses4 ,some of the shell money which belonged to a man in life is buried with him4 ,women with blackened bodies sleep on the grave for weeks4#fce ,when the deceased was a great chief1 his corpse1 almost covered with shell money1 is placed in a canoe1 which is deposited in a small house4 ,thereupon the nearest female relations are led into the house1 and the door being walled up they are obliged to remain there with the rotting body until all the flesh has mouldered away4 ,food is passed in to them through a hole in the wall1 and under no pretext are they allowed to leave the hut before the decomposition of the corpse is complete4 ,when nothing of the late chief remains but a skeleton1 the hut is opened and the solemn funeral takes place4 ,the bones of the dead are buried1 but his skull is hung up in the taboo house in order1 we are told1 that his ghost may remain in the neighbourhood of the village and see how his memory is honoured4 ,after the burial of the headless skeleton feasting and dancing go on1 often for more than a month1 and the expenses are defrayed out of the riches left by the deceased4#fcf ,even in the case of eminent persons who have been buried whole and entire in the usual way1 a special mark of respect is sometimes paid to their memory by digging up their skulls after a year or more1 painting them red and white1 decorating them with feathers1 and setting them up on a scaffold constructed for the purpose4#fcg ,sidenote3 ,disposal of the dead among the ,sulka of ,new ,britain4 ,somewhat similar is the disposal of the dead among the ,sulka1 a tribe of ,new ,britain who inhabit a mountainous and well-watered country to the south of the ,gazelle ,peninsula4 ,when a ,sulka dies1 his plantation is laid waste1 and the young fruit-trees cut down1 but the ripe fruits are first distributed among the living4 ,his pigs are slaughtered and their flesh in like manner distributed1 and his weapons are broken4 ,if the deceased was a rich man1 his wife or wives will sometimes be killed4 ,the corpse is usually buried next morning4 ,a hole is dug in the house and the body deposited in it in a sitting posture4 ,the upper part of the corpse projects from the grave and is covered with a tower-like structure of basket-work1 which is stuffed with banana-leaves4 ,great care is taken to preserve the body from touching the earth4 ,stones are laid round about the structure and a fire kindled4 ,relations come and sleep for a time beside the corpse1 men and women separately4 ,some while afterwards the soul of the deceased is driven away4 ,the time for carrying out the expulsion is settled by the people in whispers1 lest the ghost should overhear them and prepare for a stout resistance4 ,the evening before the ceremony takes place many coco-nut leaves are collected4 ,next morning1 as soon as a certain bird 7,philemon coquerelli7 is heard to sing1 the people rise from their beds and set up a great cry4 ,then they beat the walls1 shake the posts1 set fire to dry coco-nut leaves1 and finally rush out into the paths4 ,at that moment1 so the people think1 the soul of the dead quits the hut4 ,when the flesh of the corpse is quite decayed1 the bones are taken from the grave1 sewed in leaves1 and hung up4 ,soon afterwards a funeral feast is held1 at which men and women dance4 ,for some time after a burial taro is planted beside the house of death and enclosed with a fence4 ,the ,sulka think that the ghost comes and gathers the souls of the taro4 ,the ripe fruit is allowed to rot4 ,falling stars are supposed to be the souls of the dead which have been hurled up aloft and are now descending to bathe in the sea4 ,the trail of light behind them is thought to be a tail of coco-nut leaves which other souls have fastened to them and set on fire4 ,in like manner the phosphorescent glow on the sea comes from souls disporting themselves in the water4 ,persons who at their death left few relations1 or did evil in their life1 or were murdered outside of the village1 are not buried in the house4 ,their corpses are deposited on rocks or on scaffolds in the forest1 or are interred on the spot where they met their death4 ,the reason for this treatment of their corpses is not mentioned2 but we may conjecture that their ghosts are regarded with contempt1 dislike1 or fear1 and that the survivors seek to give them a wide berth by keeping their bodies at a distance from the village4 ,the corpses of those who died suddenly are not buried but wrapt up in leaves and laid on a scaffold in the house1 which is then shut up and deserted4 ,this manner of disposing of them seems also to indicate a dread or distrust of their ghosts4#fch ,sidenote3 ,disposal of the dead among the ,moanus of the ,admiralty ,islands4 ,prayers offered to the skull of a dead chief4 ,among the ,moanus of the ,admiralty ,islands the dead are kept in the houses unburied until the flesh is completely decayed and nothing remains but the bones4 ,old women then wash the skeleton carefully in sea-water1 after which it is disjointed and divided4 ,the backbone1 together with the bones of the legs and upper arms1 is deposited in one basket and put away somewhere2 the skull1 together with the ribs and the bones of the lower arms1 is deposited in another basket1 which is sunk for a time in the sea4 ,when the bones are completely cleaned and bleached in the water1 they are laid with sweet-smelling herbs in a wooden vessel and placed in the house which the dead man inhabited during his life4 ,but the teeth have been previously extracted from the skull and converted into a necklace for herself by the sister of the deceased4 ,after a time the ribs are distributed by the son among the relatives4 ,the principal widow gets two1 other near kinsfolk get one apiece1 and they wear these relics under their arm-bands4 ,the distribution of the ribs is the occasion of a great festival1 and it is followed some time afterwards by a still greater feast1 for which extensive preparations are made long beforehand4 ,all who intend to be present at the ceremony send vessels of coco-nut oil in advance2 and if the deceased was a great chief the number of the oil vessels and of the guests may amount to two thousand4 ,meantime the giver of the feast causes a scaffold to be erected for the reception of the skull1 and the whole art of the wood-carver is exhausted in decorating the scaffold with figures of turtles1 birds1 and so forth1 while a wooden dog acts as sentinel at either end4 ,when the multitude has assembled1 and the orchestra of drums1 collected from the whole neighbourhood1 has sent forth a far-sounding crash of music1 the giver of the feast steps forward and pronounces a florid eulogium on the deceased1 a warm panegyric on the guests who have honoured him by their presence1 and a fluent invective against his absent foes4 ,nor does he forget to throw in some delicate allusions to his own noble generosity in providing the assembled visitors with this magnificent entertainment4 ,for this great effort of eloquence the orator has been primed in the morning by the sorcerer4 ,the process of priming consists in kneeling on the orator's shoulders and tugging at the hair of his head with might and main1 which is clearly calculated to promote the flow of his rhetoric4 ,if none of the hair comes out in the sorcerer's hands1 a masterpiece of oratory is confidently looked forward to in the afternoon4 ,when the speech1 for which such painful preparations have been made1 is at last over1 the drums again strike up4 ,no sooner have their booming notes died away over land and sea1 than the sorcerer steps up to the scaffold1 takes from it the bleached skull1 and holds it in both his hands4 ,then the giver of the feast goes up to him1 dips a bunch of dracaena leaves in a vessel of oil1 and smites the skull with it1 saying1 ,thou art my father6 ,at that the drums again beat loudly4 ,then he strikes the skull a second time with the leaves1 saying1 ,take the food that has been made ready in thine honour6 ,and again there is a crash of drums4 ,after that he smites the skull yet again and prays saying1 ,guard me6 ,guard my people6 ,guard my children6 ,and every prayer of the litany is followed by the solemn roll of the drums4 ,when these impressive invocations to the spirit of the dead chief are over1 the feasting begins4 ,the skull is thenceforth carefully preserved4#fci ,sidenote3 ,disposal of the dead in the ,kaniet ,islands4 ,preservation of the skull4 ,in the ,kaniet ,islands1 a small group to the north-west of the ,admiralty ,islands1 the dead are either sunk in the sea or buried in shallow graves1 face downward1 near the house4 ,all the movable property of the deceased is piled on the grave1 left there for three weeks1 and then burnt4 ,afterwards the skull is dug up1 placed in a basket1 and having been decorated with leaves and feathers is hung up in the house4 ,thus adorned it not only serves to keep the dead in memory1 but is also employed in many conjurations to defeat the nefarious designs of other ghosts1 who are believed to work most of the ills that afflict humanity4#fdj ,apparently these islanders employ a ghost to protect them against ghosts on the principle of setting a thief to catch a thief4 ,sidenote3 ,death attributed to witchcraft4 ,amongst the natives of the ,bismarck ,archipelago few persons1 if any1 are believed to die from natural causes alone2 if they are not killed in war they are commonly supposed to perish by witchcraft or sorcery1 even when the cause of death might seem to the uninstructed ,european to be sufficiently obvious in such things as exposure to heavy rain1 the carrying of too heavy a burden1 or remaining too long a time under water4 ,so when a man has died1 his friends are anxious to discover who has bewitched him to death4 ,in this enquiry the ghost is expected to lend his assistance4 ,thus on the night after the decease the friends will assemble outside the house1 and a sorcerer will address the ghost and request him to name the author of his death4 ,if the ghost1 as sometimes happens1 makes no reply1 the sorcerer will jog his memory by calling out the name of some suspected person2 and should the ghost still be silent1 the wizard will name another and another1 till at the mention of one name a tapping sound is heard like the drumming of fingers on a board or on a mat ,the sound may proceed from the house or from a pearl shell which the sorcerer holds in his hand2 but come from where it may1 it is taken as a certain proof that the man who has just been named did the deed1 and he is dealt with accordingly4 ,many a poor wretch in ,new ,britain has been killed and eaten on no other evidence than that of the fatal tapping4#fda ,sidenote3 ,burial customs in the ,duke of ,york ,island4 ,preservation of the skull4 ,when a man of mark is buried in the ,duke of ,york ,island1 the masters of sorcery take leaves1 spit on them1 and throw them1 with a number of poisonous things1 into the grave1 uttering at the same time loud imprecations on the wicked enchanter who has killed their friend4 ,then they go and bathe1 and returning they fall to cursing again2 and if the miscreant survived the first imprecations1 it is regarded as perfectly certain that he will fall a victim to the second4 ,sometimes1 when the deceased was a chief distinguished for bravery and wisdom1 his corpse would be exposed on a high platform in front of his house and left there to rot1 while his relatives sat around and inhaled the stench1 conceiving that with it they absorbed the courage and skill of the departed worthy4 ,some of them would even anoint their bodies with the drippings from the putrefying corpse for the same purpose4 ,the women also made fires that the ghost might warm himself at them4 ,when the head became detached from the trunk1 it was carefully preserved by the next of kin1 while the other remains were buried in a shallow grave in the house4 ,all the female relatives blackened their dusky faces for a long time1 after which the skull was put on a platform1 a great feast was held1 and dances were performed for many nights in its honour4 ,then at last the spirit of the dead man1 which till that time was supposed to be lingering about his old abode1 took his departure1 and his friends troubled themselves about him no more4#fdb ,sidenote3 ,prayers to the spirits of the dead4 ,the souls of the dead are always regarded by these people as beings whose help can be invoked on special occasions1 such as fighting or fishing or any other matter of importance2 and since the spirits whom they invoke are always those of their own kindred they are presumed to be friendly to the petitioners4 ,the objects for which formal prayers are addressed to the souls of ancestors appear to be always temporal benefits1 such as victory over enemies and plenty of food2 prayers for the promotion of moral virtue are seemingly unknown4 ,for example1 if a woman laboured hard in childbirth1 she was thought to be bewitched1 and prayers would be offered to the spirits of dead ancestors to counteract the spell4 ,again1 young men are instructed by their elders in the useful art of cursing the enemies of the tribe2 and among a rich variety of imprecations an old man will invoke the spirit of his brother1 father1 or uncle1 or all of them1 to put their fingers into the ears of the enemy that he may not hear1 to cover his eyes that he may not see1 and to stop his mouth that he may not cry for help1 but may fall an easy prey to the curser and his friends4#fdc ,more amiable and not less effectual are the prayers offered to the spirits of the dead over a sick man4 ,at the mention of each name in the prayer the supplicants make a chirping or hissing sound1 and rub lime over the patient4 ,before administering medicine they pray over it to the spirits of the dead2 then the patient gulps it down1 thus absorbing the virtue of the medicine and of the prayer in one4 ,in ,new ,britain they reinforce the prayers to the dead in time of need by wearing the jawbone of the deceased2 and in the ,duke of ,york ,island people often wear a tooth or some hair of a departed relative1 not merely as a mark of respect1 but as a magical means of obtaining supernatural help4#fdd ,sidenote3 ,north ,melanesian views as to the land of the dead4 ,sooner or later the souls of all the ,north ,melanesian dead take their departure for the spirit land4 ,but the information which has reached the living as to that far country is at once vague and inconsistent4 ,they call it ,matana nion1 but whereabout it lies they cannot for the most part precisely tell4 ,all they know for certain is that it is far away1 and that there is always some particular spot in the neighbourhood from which the souls take their departure2 for example1 the ,duke of ,york ghosts invariably start from the little island of ,nuruan1 near ,mioko4 ,wherever it may be1 the land of souls is divided into compartments2 people who have died of sickness or witchcraft go to one place1 and people who have been killed in battle go to another4 ,they do not go unattended2 for when a man dies two friends sleep beside his corpse the first night1 one on each side1 and their spirits are believed to accompany the soul of the dead man to the spirit land4 ,they say that on their arrival in the far country1 betel-nut is presented to them all1 but the two living men refuse to partake of it1 because they know that were they to eat it they would return no more to the land of the living4 ,when they do return1 they have often1 as might be expected1 strange tales to tell of what they saw among the ghosts4 ,the principal personage in the other world is called the keeper of souls4 ,it is said that once on a time the masterful ghost of a dead chief attempted to usurp the post of warden of the dead2 in pursuance of this ambitious project he attacked the warden with a tomahawk and cut off one of his legs1 but the amputated limb immediately reunited itself with the body2 and a second amputation was followed by the same disappointing result4 ,life in the other world is reported to be very like life in this world4 ,some people find it very dismal1 and others very beautiful4 ,those who were rich here will be rich there1 and those who were poor on earth will be poor in ,hades4 ,as to any moral retribution which may overtake evil-doers in the life to come1 their ideas are very vague2 only they are sure that the ghosts of the niggardly will be punished by being dumped very hard against the buttress-roots of chestnut-trees4 ,they say1 too1 that all breaches of etiquette or of the ordinary customs of the country will meet with certain appropriate punishments in the spirit land4 ,when the soul has thus done penance1 it takes possession of the body of some animal1 for instance1 the flying-fox4 ,hence a native is much alarmed if he should be sitting under a tree from which a flying-fox has been frightened away4 ,should anything drop from the bat or from the tree on which it was hanging1 he would look on it as an omen of good or ill according to the nature of the thing which fell on or near him4 ,if it were useless or dirty1 he would certainly apprehend some serious misfortune4 ,sometimes when a man dies and his soul arrives in the spirit land1 his friends do not want him there and drive him back to earth1 so he comes to life again4 ,that is the explanation which the natives give of what we call the recovery of consciousness after a faint or swoon4#fde ,sidenote3 ,the land of the dead4 ,state of the dead in the other world supposed to depend on the amount of money they left in this one4 ,some of the natives of the ,gazelle ,peninsula in ,new ,britain imagine that the home of departed spirits is in ,nakanei1 the part of the coast to which they sail to get their shell money4 ,others suppose that it is in the islands off ,cape ,takes4 ,so when they are sailing past these islands they dip the paddles softly in the water1 and observe a death-like stillness1 cowering down in the canoes1 lest the ghosts should spy them and do them a mischief4 ,at the entrance to these happy isles is posted a stern watchman to see that no improper person sneaks into them4 ,to every ghost that arrives he puts three questions1 ,who are you8 ,where do you come from8 ,how much shell money did you leave behind you8 ,on his answers to these three questions hangs the fate of the ghost4 ,if he left much money1 he is free to enter the realm of bliss1 where he will pass the time with other happy souls smoking and eating and enjoying other sensual delights4 ,but if he left little or no money1 he is banished the earthly paradise and sent home to roam like a wild beast in the forest1 battening on leaves and filth4 ,with bitter sighs and groans he prowls about the villages at night and seeks to avenge himself by scaring or plaguing the survivors4 ,to stay his hunger and appease his wrath relatives or friends will sometimes set forth food for him to devour4 ,yet even for such an impecunious soul there is hope2 for if somebody only takes pity on him and gives a feast in his honour and distributes shell money to the guests1 the ghost may return to the islands of the blest1 and the door will be thrown open to him4#fdf ,sidenote3 ,fiji and the ,fijians4 ,so much for the belief in immortality as it is reported to exist among the ,northern ,melanesians of ,new ,britain and the ,bismarck ,archipelago4 ,we now pass to the consideration of a similar belief among another people of the same stock1 who have been longer known to ,europe1 the ,fijians4 ,the archipelago which they occupy lies to the east of the ,new ,hebrides and forms in fact the most easterly outpost of the black ,melanesian race in the ,pacific4 ,beyond it to the eastward are situated the smaller archipelagoes of ,samoa and ,tonga1 inhabited by branches of the brown ,polynesian race1 whose members are scattered over the islands of the ,pacific ,ocean from ,hawaii in the north to ,new ,zealand in the south4 ,of all the branches of the ,melanesian stock the ,fijians at the date of their discovery by ,europeans appear to have made the greatest advance in culture1 material1 social1 and political4 ,the ,fijian1 says one who knew him long and intimately1 takes no mean place among savages in the social scale4 ,long before the white man visited his shores he had made very considerable progress towards civilisation4 ,his intersexual code had advanced to the 'patriarchal stage'3 he was a skilful and diligent husbandman1 who carried out extensive and laborious agricultural operations3 he built good houses1 whose interior he ornamented with no little taste1 carved his weapons in graceful and intricate forms1 manufactured excellent pottery1 beat out from the inner bark of a tree a serviceable papyrus-cloth1 upon which he printed1 from blocks either carved or ingeniously pieced together1 elegant and elaborate patterns in fast colours2 and1 with tools no better than a stone hatchet1 a pointed shell1 and a firestick1 he constructed large canoes capable of carrying more than a hundred warriors across the open sea4#fdg ,sidenote3 ,political superiority of the ,fijians over the other ,melanesians4 ,politically the ,fijians shewed their superiority to all the other ,melanesians in the advance they had made towards a regular and organised government4 ,while among the other branches of the same race government can hardly be said to exist1 the power of chiefs being both slender and precarious1 in ,fiji the highest chiefs exercised despotic sway and received from ,europeans the title of kings4 ,the people had no voice in the state2 the will of the king was generally law1 and his person was sacred4 ,whatever he touched or wore became thereby holy and had to be made over to him2 nobody else could afterwards touch it without danger of being struck dead on the spot as if by an electric shock4 ,one king took advantage of this superstition by dressing up an ,english sailor in his royal robes and sending him about to throw his sweeping train over any article of food1 whether dead or alive1 which he might chance to come near4 ,the things so touched were at once conveyed to the king without a word of explanation being required or a single remonstrance uttered4 ,some of the kings laid claim to a divine origin and on the strength of the claim exacted and received from their subjects the respect due to deities4 ,in these exorbitant pretensions they were greatly strengthened by the institution of taboo1 which lent the sanction of religion to every exertion of arbitrary power4#fdh ,corresponding with the growth of monarchy was the well-marked gradation of social ranks which prevailed in the various tribes from the king downwards through chiefs1 warriors1 and landholders1 to slaves4 ,the resulting political constitution has been compared to the old feudal system of ,europe4#fdi ,sidenote3 ,means of subsistence of the ,fijians4 ,ferocity and depravity of the ,fijians4 ,like the other peoples of the ,melanesian stock the ,fijians subsist chiefly by agriculture1 raising many sorts of esculent fruits and roots1 particularly yams1 taro1 plantains1 bread-fruit1 sweet potatoes1 bananas1 coco-nuts1 ivi nuts1 and sugar-cane2 but the chief proportion of their food is derived from yams 7,dioscorea71 of which they cultivate five or six varieties4#fej ,it has been observed that the increase of cultivated plants is regular on receding from the ,hawaiian group up to ,fiji1 where roots and fruits are found that are unknown on the more eastern islands4#fea ,yet the ,fijians in their native state1 like all other ,melanesian and ,polynesian peoples1 were entirely ignorant of the cereals2 and in the opinion of a competent observer the consequent defect in their diet has contributed to the serious defects in their national character4 ,the cereals1 he tells us1 are the staple food of all races that have left their mark in history2 and on the other hand the apathy and indolence of the ,fijians arise from their climate1 their diet and their communal institutions4 ,the climate is too kind to stimulate them to exertion1 their food imparts no staying power4 ,the soil gives the means of existence for every man without effort1 and the communal institutions destroy the instinct of accumulation4#feb ,nor are apathy and indolence the only or the worst features in the character of these comparatively advanced savages4 ,their ferocity1 cruelty1 and moral depravity are depicted in dark colours by those who had the best opportunity of knowing them in the old days before their savagery was mitigated by contact with a milder religious faith and a higher civilisation4 ,in contemplating the character of this extraordinary portion of mankind1 says one observer1 the mind is struck with wonder and awe at the mixture of a complicated and carefully conducted political system1 highly finished manners1 and ceremonious politeness1 with a ferocity and practice of savage vices which is probably unparalleled in any other part of the world4#fec ,one of the first civilised men to gain an intimate acquaintance with the ,fijians draws a melancholy contrast between the baseness and vileness of the people and the loveliness of the land in which they live4#fed ,sidenote3 ,scenery of the ,fijian islands4 ,for the ,fijian islands are exceedingly beautiful4 ,they are of volcanic origin1 mostly high and mountainous1 but intersected by picturesque valleys1 clothed with woods1 and festooned with the most luxuriant tropical vegetation4 ,among their attractions1 we are told1 are high mountains1 abrupt precipices1 conical hills1 fantastic turrets and crags of rock frowning down like olden battlements1 vast domes1 peaks shattered into strange forms2 native towns on eyrie cliffs1 apparently inaccessible2 and deep ravines1 down which some mountain stream1 after long murmuring in its stony bed1 falls headlong1 glittering as a silver line on a block of jet1 or spreading like a sheet of glass over bare rocks which refuse it a channel4 ,here also are found the softer features of rich vales1 cocoa-nut groves1 clumps of dark chestnuts1 stately palms and bread-fruit1 patches of graceful bananas or well-tilled taro-beds1 mingling in unchecked luxuriance1 and forming1 with the wild reef-scenery of the girdling shore1 its beating surf1 and far-stretching ocean beyond1 pictures of surpassing beauty4#fee ,each island is encircled by a reef of white coral1 on which the sea breaks1 with a thunderous roar1 in curling sheets of foam2 while inside the reef stretches the lagoon1 a calm lake of blue crystalline water revealing in its translucent depths beautiful gardens of seaweed and coral which fill the beholder with delighted wonder4 ,great and sudden is the contrast experienced by the mariner when he passes in a moment from the tossing1 heaving1 roaring billows without into the unbroken calm of the quiet haven within the barrier reef4#fef ,sidenote3 ,fijian doctrine of souls4 ,like most savages1 the ,fijians believed that man is animated by a soul which quits his body temporarily in sleep and permanently at death1 to survive for a longer or a shorter time in a disembodied state thereafter4 ,indeed1 they attributed souls to animals1 vegetables1 stones1 tools1 houses1 canoes1 and many other things1 allowing that all of them may become immortal4#feg ,on this point ,i will quote the evidence of one of the earliest and best authorities on the customs and beliefs of the ,south ,sea ,islanders4 ,there seems1 says ,william ,mariner1 to be a wide difference between the opinions of the natives in the different clusters of the ,south ,sea islands respecting the future existence of the soul4 ,whilst the ,tonga doctrine limits immortality to chiefs1 matabooles1 and at most1 to mooas1 the ,fiji doctrine1 with abundant liberality1 extends it to all mankind1 to all brute animals1 to all vegetables1 and even to stones and mineral substances4 ,if an animal or a plant die1 its soul immediately goes to ,bolotoo2 if a stone or any other substance is broken1 immortality is equally its reward2 nay1 artificial bodies have equal good luck with men1 and hogs1 and yams4 ,if an axe or a chisel is worn out or broken up1 away flies its soul for the service of the gods4 ,if a house is taken down1 or any way destroyed1 its immortal part will find a situation on the plains of ,bolotoo2 and1 to confirm this doctrine1 the ,fiji people can show you a sort of natural well1 or deep hole in the ground1 at one of their islands1 across the bottom of which runs a stream of water1 in which you may clearly perceive the souls of men and women1 beasts and plants1 of stocks and stones1 canoes and houses1 and of all the broken utensils of this frail world1 swimming or rather tumbling along one over the other pell-mell into the regions of immortality4 ,such is the ,fiji philosophy1 but the ,tonga people deny it1 unwilling to think that the residence of the gods should be encumbered with so much useless rubbish4 ,the natives of ,otaheite entertain similar notions respecting these things1 viz4 that brutes1 plants1 and stones exist hereafter1 but it is not mentioned that they extend the idea to objects of human invention4#feh ,sidenote3 ,reported ,fijian doctrine of two human souls1 a light one and a dark one4 ,according to one account1 the ,fijians imagined that every man has two souls1 a dark soul1 consisting of his shadow1 and a light soul1 consisting of his reflection in water or a looking-glass3 the dark soul departs at death to ,hades1 while the light soul stays near the place where he died or was killed4 ,probably1 says ,thomas ,williams1 this doctrine of shadows has to do with the notion of inanimate objects having spirits4 ,i once placed a good-looking native suddenly before a mirror4 ,he stood delighted4 ',now1' said he1 softly1 ',i can see into the world of spirits4'#fei ,however1 according to another good authority this distinction of two human souls rests merely on a misapprehension of the ,fijian word for shadow1 yaloyalo1 which is a reduplication of yalo1 the word for soul4#ffj ,apparently the ,fijians pictured to themselves the human soul as a miniature of the man himself4 ,this may be inferred from the customs observed at the death of a chief among the ,nakelo tribe4 ,when a chief dies1 certain men who are the hereditary undertakers call him1 as he lies1 oiled and ornamented1 on fine mats1 saying1 ,rise1 sir1 the chief1 and let us be going4 ,the day has come over the land4 ,then they conduct him to the river side1 where the ghostly ferryman comes to ferry ,nakelo ghosts across the stream4 ,as they attend the chief on his last journey1 they hold their great fans close to the ground to shelter him1 because1 as one of them explained to a missionary1 ,his soul is only a little child4#ffa ,sidenote3 ,absence of the soul in sleep4 ,catching the soul of a rascal in a scarf4 ,the souls of some men were supposed to quit their bodies in sleep and enter into the bodies of other sleepers1 troubling and disturbing them4 ,a soul that had contracted this bad habit was called a yalombula4 ,when any one fainted or died1 his vagrant spirit might1 so the ,fijians thought1 be induced to come back by calling after it4 ,sometimes1 on awaking from a nap1 a stout man might be seen lying at full length and bawling out lustily for the return of his own soul4#ffb ,in the windward islands of ,fiji there used to be an ordeal called yalovaki which was much dreaded by evil-doers4 ,when the evidence was strong against suspected criminals1 and they stubbornly refused to confess1 the chief1 who was also the judge1 would call for a scarf1 with which to catch away the soul of the rogue4 ,a threat of the rack could not have been more effectual4 ,the culprit generally confessed at the sight and even the mention of the light instrument2 but if he did not1 the scarf would be waved over his head until his soul was caught in it like a moth or a fly1 after which it would be carefully folded up and nailed to the small end of a chief's canoe1 and for want of his soul the suspected person would pine and die4#ffc ,sidenote3 ,fijian dread of sorcery and witchcraft4 ,further1 the ,fijians1 like many other savages1 stood in great terror of witchcraft1 believing that the sorcerer had it in his power to kill them by the practice of his nefarious art4 ,of all their superstitions1 says ,thomas ,williams1 this exerts the strongest influence on the minds of the people4 ,men who laugh at the pretensions of the priest tremble at the power of the wizard2 and those who become christians lose this fear last of all the relics of their heathenism4#ffd ,indeed native agents of the mission who1 in the discharge of their duty1 have boldly faced death by open violence1 have been driven from their posts by their dread of the sorcerer2 and my own observation confirms the statement of more than one observer that savages not unfrequently die of fear when they think themselves bewitched4#ffe ,professed practitioners of witchcraft were dreaded by all classes1 and by destroying mutual confidence they annulled the comfort and shook the security of society4 ,almost all sudden deaths were set down to their machinations4 ,a common mode of effecting their object was to obtain a shred of the clothing of the man they intended to bewitch1 some refuse of his food1 a lock of his hair1 or some other personal relic2 having got it they wrapped it up in certain leaves1 and then cooked or buried it or hung it up in the forest2 whereupon the victim was supposed to die of a wasting disease4 ,another way was to bury a coco-nut1 with the eye upward1 beneath the hearth of the temple1 on which a fire was kept constantly burning2 and as the life of the nut was destroyed1 so the health of the person whom the nut represented would fail till death put an end to his sufferings4 ,the native imagination1 we are told1 is so absolutely under the control of fear of these charms1 that persons1 hearing that they were the object of such spells1 have lain down on their mats1 and died through fear4#fff ,to guard against the fell craft of the magician the people resorted to many precautions4 ,a man who suspected another of plotting against him would be careful not to eat in his presence or at all events to leave no morsel of food behind1 lest the other should secrete it and bewitch him by it2 and for the same reason people disposed of their garments so that no part could be removed2 and when they had their hair cut they generally hid the clippings in the thatch of their own houses4 ,some even built themselves a small hut and surrounded it with a moat1 believing that a little water had power to neutralise the charms directed against them4#ffg ,sidenote3 ,the fear of sorcery has had the beneficial effect of enforcing habits of personal cleanliness4 ,in the face of such instances as these1 says one who knows the ,fijians well1 it demands some courage to assert that upon the whole the belief in witchcraft was formerly a positive advantage to the community4 ,it filled1 in fact1 the place of a system of sanitation4 ,the wizard's tools consisting in those waste matters that are inimical to health1 every man was his own scavenger4 ,from birth to old age a man was governed by this one fear2 he went into the sea1 the graveyard or the depths of the forest to satisfy his natural wants2 he burned his cast-off malo2 he gave every fragment left over from his food to the pigs2 he concealed even the clippings of his hair in the thatch of his house4 ,this ever-present fear even drove women in the western districts out into the forest for the birth of their children1 where fire destroyed every trace of their lying-in4 ,until ,christianity broke it down1 the villages were kept clean2 there were no festering rubbish-heaps nor filthy raras4#ffh ,sidenote3 ,fijian dread of ghosts4 ,uproar made to drive away ghosts4 ,of apparitions the ,fijians used to be very much afraid4 ,they believed that the ghosts of the dead appeared often and afflicted mankind1 especially in sleep4 ,the spirits of slain men1 unchaste women1 and women who died in childbed were most dreaded4 ,after a death people have been known to hide themselves for a few days1 until they supposed the soul of the departed was at rest4 ,also they shunned the places where people had been murdered1 particularly when it rained1 because then the moans of the ghost could be heard as he sat up1 trying to relieve his pain by resting his poor aching head on the palms of his hands4 ,some however said that the moans were caused by the soul of the murderer knocking down the soul of his victim1 whenever the wretched spirit attempted to get up4#ffi ,when ,fijians passed a spot in the forest where a man had been clubbed to death1 they would sometimes throw leaves on it as a mark of homage to his spirit1 believing that they would soon be killed themselves if they failed in thus paying their respects to the ghost4#fgj ,and after they had buried a man alive1 as they very often did1 these savages used at nightfall to make a great din with large bamboos1 trumpet-shells1 and so forth1 in order to drive away his spirit and deter him from loitering about his old home4 ,the uproar is always held in the late habitation of the deceased1 the reason being that as no one knows for a certainty what reception he will receive in the invisible world1 if it is not according to his expectations he will most likely repent of his bargain and wish to come back4 ,for that reason they make a great noise to frighten him away1 and dismantle his former habitation of everything that is attractive1 and clothe it with everything that to their ideas seems repulsive4#fga ,sidenote3 ,killing a ghost4 ,however1 stronger measures were sometimes resorted to4 ,it was believed to be possible to kill a troublesome ghost4 ,once it happened that many chiefs feasted in the house of ,tanoa1 ,king of ,ambau4 ,in the course of the evening one of them related how he had slain a neighbouring chief4 ,that very night1 having occasion to leave the house1 he saw1 as he believed1 the ghost of his victim1 hurled his club at him1 and killed him stone dead4 ,on his return to the house he roused the king and the rest of the inmates from their slumbers1 and recounted his exploit4 ,the matter was deemed of high importance1 and they all sat on it in solemn conclave4 ,next morning a search was made for the club on the scene of the murder2 it was found and carried with great pomp and parade to the nearest temple1 where it was laid up for a perpetual memorial4 ,everybody was firmly persuaded that by this swashing blow the ghost had been not only killed but annihilated4#fgb ,sidenote3 ,dazing the ghost of a grandfather4 ,a more humane method of dealing with an importunate ghost used to be adopted in ,vanua-levu1 the largest but one of the ,fijian islands4 ,in that island1 as a consequence1 it is said1 of reckoning kinship through the mother1 a child was considered to be more closely related to his grandfather than to his father4 ,hence when a grandfather died1 his ghost naturally desired to carry off the soul of his grandchild with him to the spirit land4 ,the wish was creditable to the warmth of his domestic affection1 but if the survivors preferred to keep the child with them a little longer in this vale of tears1 they took steps to baffle grandfather's ghost4 ,for this purpose when the old man's body was stretched on the bier and raised on the shoulders of half-a-dozen stout young fellows1 the mother's brother would take the grandchild in his arms and begin running round and round the corpse4 ,round and round he ran1 and grandfather's ghost looked after him1 craning his neck from side to side and twisting it round and round in the vain attempt to follow the rapid movements of the runner4 ,when the ghost was supposed to be quite giddy with this unwonted exercise1 the mother's brother made a sudden dart away with the child in his arms1 the bearers fairly bolted with the corpse to the grave1 and before he could collect his scattered wits grandfather was safely landed in his long home4#fgc ,sidenote3 ,special relation of grandfather to grandchild4 ,soul of a grandfather reborn in his grandchildren4 ,mr4 ,fison1 who reports this quaint mode of bilking a ghost1 explains the special attachment of the grandfather to his grandchild by the rule of female descent which survives in ,vanua-levu2 and it is true that where exogamy prevails along with female descent1 a child regularly belongs to the exogamous class of its grandfather and not of its father and hence may be regarded as more closely akin to the grandfather than to the father4 ,but on the other hand it is to be observed that exogamy at present is unknown in ,fiji1 and at most its former prevalence in the islands can only be indirectly inferred from relics of totemism and from the existence of the classificatory system of relationship4#fgd ,perhaps the real reason why in ,vanua-levu a dead grandfather is so anxious to carry off the soul of his living grandchild lies nearer to hand in the apparently widespread belief that the soul of the grandfather is actually reborn in his grandchild4 ,for example1 in ,nukahiva1 one of the ,marquesas ,islands1 every one is persuaded that the soul of a grandfather is transmitted by nature into the body of his grandchildren2 and that1 if an unfruitful wife were to place herself under the corpse of her deceased grandfather1 she would be sure to become pregnant4#fge ,again1 the ,kayans of ,borneo believe in the reincarnation of the soul1 although this belief is not clearly harmonised with the belief in the life in another world4 ,it is generally believed that the soul of a grandfather may pass into one of his grandchildren1 and an old man will try to secure the passage of his soul to a favourite grandchild by holding it above his head from time to time4 ,the grandfather usually gives up his name to his eldest grandson1 and reassumes the original name of his childhood with the prefix or title ,laki1 and the custom seems to be connected with this belief or hope4#fgf ,sidenote3 ,a dead grandfather may reasonably reclaim his own soul from his grandchild4 ,now where such a belief is held1 it seems reasonable enough that a dead grandfather should reclaim his own soul for his personal use before he sets out for the spirit land2 else how could he expect to be admitted to that blissful abode if on arriving at the portal he were obliged to explain to the porter that he had no soul about him1 having left that indispensable article behind in the person of his grandchild8 ,then you had better go back and fetch it4 ,there is no admission at this gate for people without souls4 ,such might very well be the porter's retort2 and foreseeing it any man of ordinary prudence would take the precaution of recovering his lost spiritual property before presenting himself to the ,warden of the ,dead4 ,this theory would sufficiently account for the otherwise singular behaviour of grandfather's ghost in ,vanua-levu4 ,at the same time it must be admitted that the theory of the reincarnation of a grandfather in a grandson would be suggested more readily in a society where the custom of exogamy was combined with female descent than in one where the same custom coexisted with male descent2 since1 given exogamy and female descent1 grandfather and grandson regularly belong to the same exogamous class1 whereas father and son never do so4#fgg ,thus ,mr4 ,fison may after all be right in referring the partiality of a ,fijian grandfather for his grandson in the last resort to a system of exogamy and female kinship4 ,footnote #fbg3 ,g4 ,brown1 ,d4,d41 ,melanesians and ,polynesians 7,london1 #aiaj71 pp4 #bc sq41 #abe1 #cbj sqq4 ,footnote #fbh3 ,g4 ,brown1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bid sqq42 ,p4 ,a4 ,kleintitschen1 ,die ,kuestenbewohner der ,gazellehalbinsel 7,hiltrup bei ,muenster1 ,n4,d471 pp4 #ij sqq4 ,the shell money is called tambu in ,new ,britain1 diwara in the ,duke of ,york ,island1 and aringit in ,new ,ireland4 ,footnote #fbi3 ,rev4 ,g4 ,brown1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cjg1 #cac1 #dce1 #dcf4 ,footnote #fcj3 ,rev4 ,g4 ,brown1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bgj sq41 compare pp4 #abg1 #bjj4 ,footnote #fca3 ,rev4 ,g4 ,brown1 op4 cit4 pp4 v41 #ah4 ,footnote #fcb3 ,g4 ,brown1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ada sq41 #add1 #ade1 #aij-aic4 ,footnote #fcc3 ,g4 ,brown1 op4 cit4 pp4 #adb1 #aib1 #che1 #chf sq4 ,footnote #fcd3 ,g4 ,brown1 op4 cit4 p4 #cij4 ,the custom of cremating the dead in ,new ,ireland is described more fully by ,mr4 ,r4 ,parkinson1 who says that the life-sized figures which are burned with the corpse represent the deceased 7,dreissig ,jahre in der ,suedsee1 pp4 #bgc sqq474 ,in the central part of ,new ,ireland the dead are buried in the earth2 afterwards the bones are dug up and thrown into the sea4 ,see ,albert ,hahl1 ,das mittlere ,neumecklenburg1 ,globus1 xci4 7#aijg7 p4 #cad4 ,footnote #fce3 ,r4 ,parkinson1 ,dreissig ,jahre in der ,suedsee 7,stuttgart1 #aijg7 p4 #gh2 ,p4 ,a4 ,kleintitschen1 ,die ,kuestenbewohner der ,gazellehalbinsel 7,hiltrup bei ,muenster1 ,n4,d471 p4 #bbb4 ,footnote #fcf3 ,mgr4 ,couppe1 ,en ,nouvelle-,pomeranie1 ,les ,missions ,catholiques1 xxiii4 7#ahia7 pp4 #cfd sq42 ,j4 ,graf ,pfeil1 ,studien und ,beobachtungen aus der ,suedsee 7,brunswick1 #ahii71 p4 #gi4 ,footnote #fcg3 ,r4 ,parkinson1 op4 cit4 p4 #ha4 ,footnote #fch3 ,p4 ,rascher1 ,m4,s4,c41 ,die ,sulka1 ein ,beitrag zur ,ethnographic ,neu-,pommern1 ,archiv fuer ,anthropologie1 xxix4 7#aijd7 pp4 #bad sq41 #baf2 ,r4 ,parkinson1 ,dreissig ,jahre in der ,suedsee1 pp4 #ahe-ahg4 ,footnote #fci3 ,r4 ,parkinson1 ,dreissig ,jahre in der ,suedsee1 pp4 #djd-djf4 ,footnote #fdj3 ,r4 ,parkinson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dda sq4 ,footnote #fda3 ,g4 ,brown1 op4 cit4 pp4 #agf1 #ahc1 #che sq4 ,as to the wide-spread belief in ,new ,britain that what we call natural deaths are brought about by sorcery1 see further ,p4 ,rascher1 ,m4,s4,c41 ,die ,sulka1 ein ,beitrag zur ,ethnographic ,neu-,pommern1 ,archiv fuer ,ethnographie1 xxix4 7#aijd7 pp4 #bba sq42 ,r4 ,parkinson1 ,dreissig ,jahre in der ,suedsee1 pp4 #aag sq4 #aii-bja2 ,p4 ,a4 ,kleintitschen1 ,die ,kuesten-bewohner der ,gazellehalbinsel 7,hiltrup bei ,muenster1 ,n4,d471 p4 #bae4 ,footnote #fdb3 ,g4 ,brown1 op4 cit4 pp4 #chg-cij4 ,footnote #fdc3 ,g4 ,brown1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ce1 #hi1 #aif1 #bja4 ,footnote #fdd3 ,g4 ,brown1 op4 cit4 pp4 #agg1 #ahc1 #ahd4 ,footnote #fde3 ,g4 ,brown1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aib-aie4 ,footnote #fdf3 ,p4 ,a4 ,kleintitschen1 ,die ,kuestenbewohner der ,gazellehalbinsel1 pp4 #bbe sq4 ,compare ,r4 ,parkinson1 ,dreissig ,jahre in der ,suedsee1 p4 #gi4 ,footnote #fdg3 ,lorimer ,fison1 ,tales from ,old ,fiji 7,london1 #aijd71 p4 xiv4 ,footnote #fdh3 ,thomas ,williams1 ,fiji and the ,fijians1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahfj71 i4 #bb-bf4 ,footnote #fdi3 ,charles ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ,new ,edition 7,new ,york1 #ahea71 iii4 #gg2 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #ah4 ,footnote #fej3 ,charles ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ,new ,edition 7,new ,york1 #ahea71 iii4 #ccb sqq42 ,thomas ,williams ,fiji and the ,fijians1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahfj71 i4 #fj sqq42 ,berthold ,seeman1 ,viti 7,cambridge1 #ahfb71 pp4 #bgi sqq42 ,basil ,thomson1 ,the ,fijians 7,london1 #aijh71 pp4 #cce sq4 ,footnote #fea3 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #fj sq4 ,footnote #feb3 ,basil ,thomson1 ,the ,fijians1 pp4 #cch1 #chi sq4 ,the ,fijians are in the main vegetarians1 but the vegetables which they cultivate contain a large proportion of starch and water1 and are deficient in proteids4 ,moreover1 the supply of the principal staples is irregular1 being greatly affected by variable seasons1 and the attacks of insects and vermin4 ,very few of them will bear keeping1 and almost all of them must be eaten when ripe4 ,as the food is of low nutritive value1 a native always eats to repletion4 ,in times of plenty a full-grown man will eat as much as ten pounds' weight of vegetables in the day2 he will seldom be satisfied with less than five4 ,a great quantity1 therefore1 is required to feed a very few people1 and as everything is transported by hand1 a disproportionate amount of time is spent in transporting food from the plantation to the consumer4 ,the time spent in growing native food is also out of all proportion to its value 7,basil ,thomson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ccd sq474 ,the same writer tells us 7p4 #cce7 that it has never occurred to the ,fijians to dry any of the fruits they grow and to grind them into flour1 as is done in ,africa4 ,footnote #fec3 ,capt4 ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine1 ,journal of a ,cruise among the ,islands of the ,western ,pacific 7,london1 #ahec71 pp4 #bgb sq4 ,footnote #fed3 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 iii4 #df1 #cfc4 ,as to the cruelty and depravity of the ,fijians in the old days see further ,lorimer ,fison1 ,tales from ,old ,fiji 7,london1 #aijd71 pp4 xv4 sqq4 ,footnote #fee3 ,th4 ,williams1 ,fiji and the ,fijians1 i4 #f sq4 ,as to the scenery of the ,fijian archipelago see further id41 i4 #d sqq42 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 iii4 #df1 #cbb2 ,stanford's ,compendium of ,geography and ,travel1 ,australasia1 vol4 ii4 ,malaysia and the ,pacific ,archipelago1 edited by ,f4 ,h4 ,h4 ,guillemard 7,london1 #ahid71 pp4 #dfg sqq42 ,miss ,beatrice ,grimshaw1 ,from ,fiji to the ,cannibal ,islands 7,london1 #aijg71 pp4 #dc sq41 #ed sq41 #gf-gh1 #ajf1 #aji sq4 ,footnote #fef3 ,th4 ,williams1 ,fiji and the ,fijians1 i4 #e sq41 #aa2 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 iii4 #df sq4 ,however1 there is a remarkable difference not only in climate but in appearance between the windward and the leeward sides of these islands4 ,the windward side1 watered by abundant showers1 is covered with luxuriant tropical vegetation2 the leeward side1 receiving little rain1 presents a comparatively barren and burnt appearance1 the vegetation dying down to the grey hues of the boulders among which it struggles for life4 ,hence the dry leeward side is better adapted for ,european settlement4 ,see ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 iii4 #cbj sq42 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #aj2 ,b4 ,seeman1 ,viti1 an ,account of a ,government ,mission to the ,vitian or ,fijian ,islands in the years #ahfj-ahfa 7,cambridge1 #ahfb71 pp4 #bgg sq4 ,footnote #feg3 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #bda2 ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine1 op4 cit4 p4 #bdi2 ,b4 ,seeman1 ,viti 7,cambridge1 #ahfb71 p4 #cih4 ,footnote #feh3 ,william ,mariner1 ,an ,account of the ,natives of the ,tonga ,islands1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahah71 ii4 #abi sq4 ,the matabooles were a sort of honourable attendants on chiefs and ranked next to them in the social hierarchy2 the mooas were the next class of people below the matabooles4 ,see ,w4 ,mariner1 op4 cit4 ii4 #hd1 #hf4 ,bolotoo or ,bulu was the mythical land of the dead4 ,footnote #fei3 ,th4 ,williams1 ,fiji and the ,fijians1 i4 #bda4 ,footnote #ffj3 ,this is the opinion of my late friend1 the ,rev4 ,lorimer ,fison1 which he communicated to me in a letter dated #bfth ,august1 #ahih4 ,footnote #ffa3 ,communication of the late ,rev4 ,lorimer ,fison in a letter to me dated #crd ,november1 #ahih4 ,i have already published it in ,taboo and the ,perils of the ,soul1 pp4 #bi sq4 ,footnote #ffb3 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #bdb2 ,lorimer ,fison1 ,tales from ,old ,fiji1 pp4 #afc sq42 ,taboo and the ,perils of the ,soul1 pp4 #ci sq4 ,footnote #ffc3 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #bej4 ,footnote #ffd3 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #bdh4 ,footnote #ffe3 ,lorimer ,fison1 op4 cit4 p4 xxxii4 ,footnote #fff3 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #bdh sq42 ,lorimer ,fison1 op4 cit4 pp4 xxxi4 sq4 ,footnote #ffg3 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #bdi4 ,footnote #ffh3 ,basil ,thomson1 ,the ,fijians 7,london1 #aijh71 p4 #aff4 ,a rara is a public square 7,rev4 ,lorimer ,fison1 in ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xiv4 7#ahhe7 p4 #ag74 ,footnote #ffi3 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #bda4 ,footnote #fgj3 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 iii4 #ej4 ,footnote #fga3 ,narrative of ,john ,jackson1 in ,capt4 ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine's ,journal of a ,cruise among the ,islands of the ,western ,pacific 7,london1 #ahec71 p4 #dgg4 ,footnote #fgb3 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 iii4 #he4 ,footnote #fgc3 ,lorimer ,fison1 op4 cit4 pp4 #afh sq4 ,footnote #fgd3 ,w4 ,h4 ,r4 ,rivers1 ,totemism in ,fiji1 ,man1 viii4 7#aijh7 pp4 #acc sqq42 ,totemism and ,exogamy1 ii4 #acd sqq4 ,footnote #fge3 ,u4 ,lisiansky1 ,a ,voyage ,round the ,world 7,london1 #ahad71 p4 #hi4 ,footnote #fgf3 ,ch4 ,hose and ,w4 ,mc,dougall1 ,the ,pagan ,tribes of ,borneo 7,london1 #aiab71 ii4 #dg4 ,footnote #fgg3 ,compare ,totemism and ,exogamy1 iii4 #big-bii4 ,,lecture ,,xix ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,natives ,,of ,,eastern ,,melanesia 7,,fiji7 7continued7 ,sidenote3 ,fijian indifference to death4 ,at the close of last lecture ,i illustrated the unquestioning belief which the ,fijians entertain with regard to the survival of the human soul after death4 ,the native superstitions with regard to a future state1 we are told1 go far to explain the apparent indifference of the people about death2 for1 while believing in an eternal existence1 they shut out from it the idea of any moral retribution in the shape either of reward or punishment4 ,the first notion concerning death is that of simple rest1 and is thus contained in one of their rhymes3-- ,death is easy3 ,of what use is life8 ,to die is rest4#fgh ,again1 another writer1 speaking of the ,fijians1 says that in general1 the passage from life to death is considered as one from pain to happiness1 and ,i was informed that nine out of ten look forward to it with anxiety1 in order to escape from the infirmities of old age1 or the sufferings of disease4#fgi ,sidenote3 ,john ,jackson's account of the burying alive of a young ,fijian man4 ,son buried alive by his father4 ,the cool indifference with which the ,fijians commonly regarded their own death and that of other people might be illustrated by many examples4 ,i will give one in the words of an ,english eye-witness1 who lived among these savages for some time like one of themselves4 ,at a place on the coast of ,viti ,levu1 the largest of the ,fijian ,islands1 he says1 ,i walked into a number of temples1 which were very plentiful1 and at last into a bure theravou 7young man's bure71 where ,i saw a tall young man about twenty years old4 ,he appeared to be somewhat ailing1 but not at all emaciated4 ,he was rolling up the mat he had been sleeping upon1 evidently preparing to go away somewhere4 ,i addressed him1 and asked him where he was going1 when he immediately answered that he was going to be buried4 ,i observed that he was not dead yet1 but he said he soon should be dead when he was put under ground4 ,i asked him why he was going to be buried8 ,he said it was three days since he had eaten anything1 and consequently he was getting very thin2 and that if he lived any longer he would be much thinner1 and then the women would call him a lila 7skeleton71 and laugh at him4 ,i said he was a fool to throw himself away for fear of being laughed at2 and asked him what or who his private god was1 knowing it to be no use talking to him about ,providence1 a thing he had never heard of4 ,he said his god was a shark1 and that if he were cast away in a canoe and was obliged to swim1 the sharks would not bite him4 ,i asked him if he believed the shark1 his god1 had any power to act over him8 ,he said yes4 ',well then1' said ,i1 'why do you not live a little longer1 and trust to your god to give you an appetite8' ,finding that he could not give me satisfactory answers1 and being determined to get buried to avoid the jeers of the ladies1 which to a ,feejeean are intolerable1 he told me ,i knew nothing about it1 and that ,i must not compare him to a white man1 who was generally insensible to all shame1 and did not care how much he was laughed at4 ,i called him a fool1 and said the best thing he could do was to get buried out of the way1 because ,i knew that most of them work by the rules of contrary2 but it was all to no purpose4 ,by this time all his relations had collected round the door4 ,his father had a kind of wooden spade to dig the grave with1 his mother a new suit of tapa bark-cloth1 his sister some vermilion and a whale's tooth1 as an introduction to the great god of ,rage-,rage4 ,he arose1 took up his bed and walked1 not for life1 but for death1 his father1 mother1 and sister following after1 with several other distant relations1 whom ,i accompanied4 ,i noticed that they seemed to follow him something in the same way that they follow a corpse in ,europe to the grave 7that is1 as far as relationship and acquaintance are concerned71 but1 instead of lamenting1 they were1 if not rejoicing1 acting and chatting in a very unconcerned way4 ,at last we reached a place where several graves could be seen1 and a spot was soon selected by the man who was to be buried4 ,the old man1 his father1 began digging his grave1 while his mother assisted her son in putting on a new tapa bark-cloth1 and the girl 7his sister7 was besmearing him with vermilion and lamp-black1 so as to send him decent into the invisible world1 he 7the victim7 delivering messages that were to be taken by his sister to people then absent4 ,his father then announced to him and the rest that the grave was completed1 and asked him1 in rather a surly tone1 if he was not ready by this time4 ,the mother then nosed him1 and likewise the sister4 ,he said1 ',before ,i die1 ,i should like a drink of water4' ,his father made a surly remark1 and said1 as he ran to fetch it in a leaf doubled up1 ',you have been a considerable trouble during your life1 and it appears that you are going to trouble us equally at your death4' ,the father returned with the water1 which the son drank off1 and then looked up into a tree covered with tough vines1 saying he should prefer being strangled with a vine to being smothered in the grave4 ,his father became excessively angry1 and1 spreading the mat at the bottom of the grave1 told the son to die faka tamata 7like a man71 when he stepped into the grave1 which was not more than four feet deep1 and lay down on his back with the whale's tooth in his hands1 which were clasped across his belly4 ,the spare sides of the mats were lapped over him so as to prevent the earth from getting to his body1 and then about a foot of earth was shovelled in upon him as quickly as possible4 ,his father stamped it immediately down solid1 and called out in a loud voice1 ',sa tiko1 sa tiko 7,you are stopping there1 you are stopping there71' meaning ',good-bye1 good-bye4' ,the son answered with a very audible grunt1 and then about two feet more earth was shovelled in and stamped as before by the loving father1 and ',sa tiko' called out again1 which was answered by another grunt1 but much fainter4 ,the grave was then completely filled up1 when1 for curiosity's sake1 ,i said myself1 ',sa tiko' but no answer was given1 although ,i fancied1 or really did see1 the earth crack a little on the top of the grave4 ,the father and mother then turned back to back on the middle of the grave1 and1 having dropped some kind of leaves from their hands1 walked away in opposite directions towards a running stream of water hard by1 where they and all the rest washed themselves1 and made me wash myself1 and then we returned to the town1 where there was a feast prepared4 ,as soon as the feast was over 7it being then dark71 began the dance and uproar which are always carried on either at natural or violent deaths4#fhj ,sidenote3 ,the readiness of the ,fijians to die seems to have been partly a consequence of their belief in immortality4 ,the readiness with which the ,fijians submitted to or even sought death appears to have been to some extent a direct consequence of their belief in immortality and of their notions as to the state of the soul hereafter4 ,thus we are informed by an early observer of this people that self-immolation is by no means rare1 and they believe that as they leave this life1 so will they remain ever after4 ,this forms a powerful motive to escape from decrepitude1 or from a crippled condition1 by a voluntary death4#fha ,or1 as another equally early observer puts it more fully1 the custom of voluntary suicide on the part of the old men1 which is among their most extraordinary usages1 is also connected with their superstitions respecting a future life4 ,they believe that persons enter upon the delights of their elysium with the same faculties1 mental and physical1 that they possess at the hour of death1 in short1 that the spiritual life commences where the corporeal existence terminates4 ,with these views1 it is natural that they should desire to pass through this change before their mental and bodily powers are so enfeebled by age as to deprive them of their capacity for enjoyment4 ,to this motive must be added the contempt which attaches to physical weakness among a nation of warriors1 and the wrongs and insults which await those who are no longer able to protect themselves4 ,when therefore a man finds his strength declining with the advance of age1 and feels that he will soon be unequal to discharge the duties of this life1 and to partake in the pleasures of that which is to come1 he calls together his relations1 and tells them that he is now worn out and useless1 that he sees they are all ashamed of him1 and that he has determined to be buried4 ,so on a day appointed they met and buried him alive4#fhb ,sidenote3 ,the sick and aged put to death by their relatives4 ,the proposal to put the sick and aged to death did not always emanate from the parties principally concerned2 when a son1 for example1 thought that his parents were growing too old and becoming a burden to him1 he would give them notice that it was time for them to die1 a notice which they usually accepted with equanimity1 if not alacrity4 ,as a rule1 it was left to the choice of the aged and infirm to say whether they would prefer to be buried alive or to be strangled first and buried afterwards2 and having expressed a predilection one way or the other they were dealt with accordingly4 ,to strangle parents or other frail and sickly relatives with a rope was considered a more delicate and affectionate way of dispatching them than to knock them on the head with a club4 ,in the old days the missionary ,mr4 ,hunt witnessed several of these tender partings4 ,on one occasion1 he was called upon by a young man1 who desired that he would pray to his spirit for his mother1 who was dead4 ,mr4 ,hunt was at first in hopes that this would afford him an opportunity of forwarding their great cause4 ,on inquiry1 the young man told him that his brothers and himself were just going to bury her4 ,mr4 ,hunt accompanied the young man1 telling him he would follow in the procession1 and do as he desired him1 supposing1 of course1 the corpse would be brought along2 but he now met the procession1 when the young man said that this was the funeral1 and pointed out his mother1 who was walking along with them1 as gay and lively as any of those present1 and apparently as much pleased4 ,mr4 ,hunt expressed his surprise to the young man1 and asked him how he could deceive him so much by saying his mother was dead1 when she was alive and well4 ,he said1 in reply1 that they had made her death-feast1 and were now going to bury her2 that she was old2 that his brother and himself had thought she had lived long enough1 and it was time to bury her1 to which she had willingly assented1 and they were about it now4 ,he had come to ,mr4 ,hunt to ask his prayers1 as they did those of the priest4 ,he added1 that it was from love for his mother that he had done so2 that1 in consequence of the same love1 they were now going to bury her1 and that none but themselves could or ought to do so sacred an office6 ,mr4 ,hunt did all in his power to prevent so diabolical an act2 but the only reply he received was1 that she was their mother1 and they were her children1 and they ought to put her to death4 ,on reaching the grave1 the mother sat down1 when they all1 including children1 grandchildren1 relations1 and friends1 took an affectionate leave of her2 a rope1 made of twisted tapa bark-cloth1 was then passed twice around her neck by her sons1 who took hold of it1 and strangled her2 after which she was put into her grave1 with the usual ceremonies4 ,they returned to feast and mourn1 after which she was entirely forgotten as though she had not existed4#fhc ,sidenote3 ,wives strangled or buried alive at their husbands' funerals4 ,again1 wives were often strangled1 or buried alive1 at the funeral of their husbands1 and generally at their own instance4 ,such scenes were frequently witnessed by white residents in the old days4 ,on one occasion a ,mr4 ,david ,whippy drove away the murderers1 rescued the woman1 and carried her to his own house1 where she was resuscitated4 ,but far from feeling grateful for her preservation1 she loaded him with reproaches and ever afterwards manifested the most deadly hatred towards him4 ,that women should desire to accompany their husbands in death1 is by no means strange when it is considered that it is one of the articles of their belief1 that in this way alone can they reach the realms of bliss1 and she who meets her death with the greatest devotedness1 will become the favourite wife in the abode of spirits4 ,the sacrifice is not1 however1 always voluntary2 but1 when a woman refuses to be strangled1 her relations often compel her to submit4 ,this they do from interested motives2 for1 by her death1 her connexions become entitled to the property of her husband4 ,even a delay is made a matter of reproach4 ,thus1 at the funeral of the late king ,ulivou1 which was witnessed by ,mr4 ,cargill1 his five wives and a daughter were strangled4 ,the principal wife delayed the ceremony1 by taking leave of those around her2 whereupon ,tanoa1 the present king1 chid her4 ,the victim was his own aunt1 and he assisted in putting the rope around her neck1 and strangling her1 a service he is said to have rendered on a former occasion to his own mother4#fhd ,in the case of men who were drowned at sea or killed and eaten by enemies in war1 their wives were sacrificed in the usual way4 ,thus when ,ra ,mbithi1 the pride of ,somosomo1 was lost at sea1 seventeen of his wives were destroyed2 and after the news of a massacre of the ,namena people at ,viwa in #ahci eighty women were strangled to accompany the spirits of their murdered husbands4#fhe ,sidenote3 ,human grass for the grave4 ,the bodies of women who were put to death for this purpose were regularly laid at the bottom of the grave to serve as a cushion for the dead husband to lie upon2 in this capacity they were called grass 7thotho71 being compared to the dried grass which in ,fijian houses used to be thickly strewn on the floors and covered with mats4#fhf ,on this point1 however1 a nice distinction was observed4 ,while wives were commonly sacrificed at the death of their husbands1 in order to be spread like grass in their graves1 it does not transpire that husbands were ever sacrificed at the death of their wives for the sake of serving as grass to their dead spouses in the grave4 ,the great truth that all flesh is grass appears to have been understood by the ,fijians as applicable chiefly to the flesh of women4 ,sometimes a man's mother was strangled as well as his wives4 ,thus ,ngavindi1 a young chief of ,lasakau1 was laid in the grave with a wife at his side1 his mother at his feet1 and a servant not far off4 ,however1 men as well as women were killed to follow their masters to the far country4 ,the confidential companion of a chief was expected as a matter of common decency to die with his lord2 and if he shirked the duty1 he fell in the public esteem4 ,when ,mbithi1 a chief of high rank and greatly esteemed in ,mathuata1 died in the year #ahdj1 not only his wife but five men with their wives were strangled to form the floor of his grave4 ,they were laid on a layer of mats1 and the body of the chief was stretched upon them4#fhg ,there used to be a family in ,vanua ,levu which enjoyed the high privilege of supplying a hale man to be buried with the king of ,fiji on every occasion of a royal decease4 ,it was quite necessary that the man should be hale and hearty1 for it was his business to grapple with the ,fijian ,cerberus in the other world1 while his majesty slipped past into the abode of bliss4#fhh ,sidenote3 ,sacrifices of foreskins and fingers in honour of the dead4 ,circumcision performed on a lad as a propitiatory sacrifice to save the life of his father or father's brother4 ,the rite of circumcision followed by a licentious orgy4 ,a curious sacrifice offered in honour of a dead chief consisted in the foreskins of all the boys who had arrived at a suitable age2 the lads were circumcised on purpose to furnish them4 ,many boys had their little fingers chopped off on the same occasion1 and the severed foreskins and fingers were placed in the chief's grave4 ,when this bloody rite had been performed1 the chief's relatives presented young bread-fruit trees to the mutilated boys1 whose friends were bound to cultivate them till the boys could do it for themselves4#fhi ,women as well as boys had their fingers cut off in mourning4 ,we read of a case when after the death of a king of ,fiji sixty fingers were amputated and being each inserted in a slit reed were stuck along the eaves of the king's house4#fij ,why foreskins and fingers were buried with a dead chief or stuck up on the roof of his house1 we are not informed1 and it is not easy to divine4 ,apparently we must suppose that1 when they were buried with the body1 they were thought to be of some assistance to the departed spirit in the land of souls4 ,at all events it deserves to be noted that according to a very good authority a similar sacrifice of foreskins used to be made not only for the dead but for the living4 ,when a man of note was dangerously ill1 a family council would be held1 at which it might be agreed that a circumcision should take place as a propitiatory measure4 ,notice having been given to the priests1 an uncircumcised lad1 the sick man's own son or the son of one of his brothers1 was then taken by his kinsman to the ,vale tambu or ,god's ,house1 and there presented as a soro1 or offering of atonement1 in order that his father or father's brother might be made whole4 ,his escort at the same time made a present of valuable property at the shrine and promised much more in future1 should their prayers be answered4 ,the present and the promises were graciously received by the priest1 who appointed a day on which the operation was to be performed4 ,in the meantime no food might be taken from the plantations except what was absolutely required for daily use2 no pigs or fowls might be killed1 and no coco-nuts plucked from the trees4 ,everything1 in short1 was put under a strict taboo2 all was set apart for the great feast which was to follow the performance of the rite4 ,on the day appointed the son or nephew of the sick chief was circumcised1 and with him a number of other lads whose friends had agreed to take advantage of the occasion4 ,their foreskins1 stuck in the cleft of a split reed1 were taken to the sacred enclosure 7,nanga7 and presented to the chief priest1 who1 holding the reeds in his hand1 offered them to the ancestral gods and prayed for the sick man's recovery4 ,then followed a great feast1 which ushered in a period of indescribable revelry and licence4 ,all distinctions of property were for the time being suspended4 ,men and women arrayed themselves in all manner of fantastic garbs1 addressed one another in the foulest language1 and practised unmentionable abominations openly in the public square of the town4 ,the nearest relationships1 even that of own brother and sister1 seemed to be no bar to the general licence1 the extent of which was indicated by the expressive phrase of an old ,nandi chief1 who said1 ,while it lasts1 we are just like the pigs4 ,this feasting and orgy might be kept up for several days1 after which the ordinary restraints of society and the common decencies of life were observed once more4 ,the rights of private property were again respected2 the abandoned revellers and debauchees settled down into staid married couples2 and brothers and sisters1 in accordance with the regular ,fijian etiquette1 might not so much as speak to one another4 ,it should be added that these extravagances in connexion with the rite of circumcision appear to have been practised only in certain districts of ,viti ,levu1 the largest of the ,fijian ,islands1 where they were always associated with the sacred stone enclosures which went by the name of ,nanga4#fia ,sidenote3 ,these orgies were apparently associated with the worship of the dead1 to whom offerings were made in the ,nanga or sacred enclosure of stones4 ,the meaning of such orgies is very obscure1 but from what we know of the savage and his ways we may fairly assume that they were no mere outbursts of unbridled passion1 but that in the minds of those who practised them they had a definite significance and served a definite purpose4 ,the one thing that seems fairly clear about them is that in some way they were associated with the worship or propitiation of the dead4 ,at all events we are told on good authority that the ,nanga1 or sacred enclosure of stones1 in which the severed foreskins were offered1 was the ,sacred ,place where the ancestral spirits are to be found by their worshippers1 and thither offerings are taken on all occasions when their aid is to be invoked4 ,every member of the ,nanga has the privilege of approaching the ancestors at any time4 ,when sickness visits himself or his kinsfolk1 when he wishes to invoke the aid of the spirits to avert calamity or to secure prosperity1 or when he deems it advisable to present a thank-offering1 he may enter the ,nanga with proper reverence and deposit on the dividing wall his whale's tooth1 or bundle of cloth1 or dish of toothsome eels so highly prized by the elders1 and therefore by the ancestors whose living representatives they are3 or he may drag into the ,sacred ,nanga his fattened pig1 or pile up there his offering of the choicest yams4 ,and1 having thus recommended himself to the dead1 he may invoke their powerful aid1 or express his thankfulness for the benefits they have conferred1 and beg for a continuance of their goodwill4#fib ,the first-fruits of the yam harvest were presented with great ceremony to the ancestors in the ,nanga before the bulk of the crop was dug for the people's use1 and no man might taste of the new yams until the presentation had been made4 ,the yams so offered were piled up in the sacred enclosure and left to rot there4 ,if any one were impious enough to appropriate them to his own use1 it was believed that he would be smitten with madness4 ,great feasts were held at the presentation of the first-fruits2 and the sacred enclosure itself was often spoken of as the ,mbaki or ,harvest4#fic ,sidenote3 ,periodical initiation of young men in the ,nanga4 ,but the most characteristic and perhaps the most important of the rites performed in the ,nanga or sacred stone enclosure was the periodical initiation of young men1 who by participation in the ceremony were admitted to the full privileges of manhood4 ,according to one account the ceremony of initiation was performed as a rule only once in two years2 according to another account it was observed annually in ,october or ,november1 when the ndrala tree 7,erythrina7 was in flower4 ,the flowering of the tree marked the beginning of the ,fijian year2 hence the novices who were initiated at this season bore the title of ,vilavou1 that is1 ,new ,year's ,men4 ,as a preparation for the feasts which attended the ceremony enormous quantities of yams were garnered and placed under a strict taboo2 pigs were fattened in large numbers1 and bales of native cloth stored on the tie-beams of the house-roofs4 ,spears of many patterns and curiously carved clubs were also provided against the festival4 ,on the day appointed the initiated men went first into the sacred enclosure and made their offerings1 the chief priest having opened the proceedings by libation and prayer4 ,the heads of the novices were clean shaven1 and their beards1 if they had any1 were also removed4 ,then each youth was swathed in long rolls of native cloth1 and taking a spear in one hand and a club in the other he marched with his comrades1 similarly swathed and armed1 in procession into the sacred enclosure1 though not into its inner compartment1 the ,holy of ,holies4 ,the procession was headed by a priest bearing his carved staff of office1 and it was received on the holy ground by the initiates1 who sat chanting a song in a deep murmuring tone1 which occasionally swelled to a considerable volume of sound and was thought to represent the muffled roar of the surf breaking on a far-away coral reef4 ,on entering the enclosure the youths threw down their weapons before them1 and with the help of the initiated men divested themselves of the huge folds of native cloth in which they were enveloped1 each man revolving slowly on his axis1 while his attendant pulled at the bandage and gathered in the slack4 ,the weapons and the cloth were the offerings presented by the novices to the ancestral spirits for the purpose of rendering themselves acceptable to these powerful beings4 ,the offerings were repeated in like manner on four successive days2 and as each youth was merely1 as it were1 the central roller of a great bale of cloth1 the amount of cloth offered was considerable4 ,it was all put away1 with the spears and clubs1 in the sacred storehouse by the initiated men4 ,a feast concluded each day and was prolonged far into the night4 ,sidenote3 ,ceremony of death and resurrection4 ,on the fifth day1 the last and greatest of the festival1 the heads of the young men were shaven again and their bodies swathed in the largest and best rolls of cloth4 ,then1 taking their choicest weapons in their hands1 they followed their leader as before into the sacred enclosure4 ,but the outer compartment of the holy place1 where on the previous days they had been received by the grand chorus of initiated men1 was now silent and deserted4 ,the procession stopped4 ,a dead silence prevailed4 ,suddenly from the forest a harsh scream of many parrots broke forth1 and then followed a mysterious booming sound which filled the souls of the novices with awe4 ,but now the priest moves slowly forward and leads the train of trembling novices for the first time into the inner shrine1 the ,holy of ,holies1 the ,nanga tambu-tambu4 ,here a dreadful spectacle meets their startled gaze4 ,in the background sits the high priest1 regarding them with a stony stare2 and between him and them lie a row of dead men1 covered with blood1 their bodies seemingly cut open and their entrails protruding4 ,the leader steps over them one by one1 and the awestruck youths follow him until they stand in a row before the high priest1 their very souls harrowed by his awful glare4 ,suddenly he utters a great yell1 and at the cry the dead men start to their feet1 and run down to the river to cleanse themselves from the blood and filth with which they are besmeared4 ,they are initiated men1 who represent the departed ancestors for the occasion2 and the blood and entrails are those of many pigs that have been slaughtered for that night's revelry4 ,the screams of the parrots and the mysterious booming sound were produced by a concealed orchestra1 who screeched appropriately and blew blasts on bamboo trumpets1 the mouths of which were partially immersed in water4 ,sidenote3 ,sacrament of food and water4 ,the dead men having come to life again1 the novices offered their weapons and the bales of native cloth in which they were swathed4 ,these were accordingly removed to the storehouse and the young men were made to sit down in front of it4 ,then the high priest1 cheered perhaps by the sight of the offerings1 unbent the starched dignity of his demeanour4 ,skipping from side to side he cried in stridulous tones1 ,where are the people of my enclosure8 ,are they gone to ,tongalevu8 ,are they gone to the deep sea8 ,he had not called long when an answer rang out from the river in a deep-mouthed song1 and soon the singers came in view moving rhythmically to the music of their solemn chant4 ,singing they filed in and took their places in front of the young men2 then silence ensued4 ,after that there entered four old men of the highest order of initiates2 the first bore a cooked yam carefully wrapt in leaves so that no part of it should touch the hands of the bearer2 the second carried a piece of baked pork similarly enveloped2 the third held a drinking-cup of coco-nut shell or earthenware filled with water and wrapt round with native cloth2 and the fourth bore a napkin of the same material4 ,thereupon the first elder passed along the row of novices putting the end of the yam into each of their mouths1 and as he did so each of them nibbled a morsel of the sacred food2 the second elder did the same with the sacred pork2 the third elder followed with the holy water1 with which each novice merely wetted his lips2 and the rear was brought up by the fourth elder1 who wiped all their mouths with his napkin4 ,then the high priest or one of the elders addressed the young men1 warning them solemnly against the sacrilege of divulging to the profane any of the high mysteries they had seen and heard1 and threatening all such traitors with the vengeance of the gods4 ,sidenote3 ,presentation of the pig4 ,that ceremony being over1 all the junior initiated men 7,lewe ni ,nanga7 came forward1 and each man presented to the novices a yam and a piece of nearly raw pork2 whereupon the young men took the food and went away to cook it for eating4 ,when the evening twilight had fallen1 a huge pig1 which had been specially set aside at a former festival1 was dragged into the sacred enclosure and there presented to the novices1 together with other swine1 if they should be needed to furnish a plenteous repast4 ,sidenote3 ,acceptance of the novices by the ancestral spirits4 ,the novices were now accepted members of the ,nanga1 qualified to take their place among the men of the community1 though still only on probation4 ,as children--their childhood being indicated by their shaven heads--they were presented to the ancestors1 and their acceptance was notified by what 7looking at the matter from the natives' standpoint7 we might1 without irreverence1 almost call the sacrament of food and water1 too sacred even for the elders' hands to touch4 ,this acceptance was acknowledged and confirmed on the part of all the ,lewe ni ,nanga junior initiated men by their gift of food1 and it was finally ratified by the presentation of the ,sacred ,pig4 ,in like manner1 on the birth of an infant1 its father acknowledges it as legitimate1 and otherwise acceptable1 by a gift of food2 and his kinsfolk formally signify approval and confirmation of his decision on the part of the clan by similar presentations4 ,sidenote3 ,the initiation followed by a period of sexual license4 ,sacred pigs4 ,next morning the women1 their hair dyed red and wearing waistbands of hibiscus or other fibre1 came to the sacred enclosure and crawled through it on hands and knees into the ,holy of ,holies1 where the elders were singing their solemn chant4 ,the high priest then dipped his hands into the water of the sacred bowl and prayed to the ancestral spirits for the mothers and for their children4 ,after that the women crawled back on hands and feet the way they had come1 singing as they went and creeping over certain mounds of earth which had been thrown up for the purpose in the sacred enclosure4 ,when they emerged from the holy ground1 the men and women addressed each other in the vilest language1 such as on ordinary occasions would be violently resented2 and thenceforth to the close of the ceremonies some days later very great1 indeed almost unlimited1 licence prevailed between the sexes4 ,during these days a number of pigs were consecrated to serve for the next ceremony4 ,the animals were deemed sacred1 and had the run of the fleshpots in the villages in which they were kept4 ,indeed they were held in the greatest reverence4 ,to kill one1 except for sacrifice at the rites in the ,nanga1 would have been a sacrilege which the ,fijian mind refused to contemplate2 and on the other hand to feed the holy swine was an act of piety4 ,men might be seen throwing down basketfuls of food before the snouts of the worshipful pigs1 and at the same time calling the attention of the ancestral spirits to the meritorious deed4 ,take knowledge of me1 they would cry1 ye who lie buried1 our heads6 ,i am feeding this pig of yours4 ,finally1 all the men who had taken part in the ceremonies bathed together in the river1 carefully cleansing themselves from every particle of the black paint with which they had been bedaubed4 ,when the novices1 now novices no more1 emerged from the water1 the high priest1 standing on the river bank1 preached to them an eloquent sermon on the duties and responsibilities which devolved on them in their new position4#fid ,sidenote3 ,the intention of the initiatory rites seems to be to introduce the young men to the ancestral spirits4 ,the drama of death and resurrection4 ,the ,fijian rites of initiation seem to have been imported by ,melanesian immigrants from the west4 ,the general intention of these initiatory rites appears to be1 as ,mr4 ,fison has said in the words which ,i have quoted1 to introduce the young men to the ancestral spirits at their sanctuary1 to incorporate them1 so to say1 in the great community which embraces all adult members of the tribe1 whether living or dead4 ,at all events this interpretation fits in very well with the prayers which are offered to the souls of departed kinsfolk on these occasions1 and it is supported by the analogy of the ,new ,guinea initiatory rites which ,i described in former lectures2 for in these rites1 as ,i pointed out1 the initiation of the youths is closely associated with the conceptions of death and the dead1 the main feature in the ritual consisting indeed of a simulation of death and subsequent resurrection4 ,it is1 therefore1 significant that the very same simulation figures prominently in the ,fijian ceremony1 nay it would seem to be the very pivot on which the whole ritual revolves4 ,yet there is an obvious and important difference between the drama of death and resurrection as it is enacted in ,new ,guinea and in ,fiji2 for whereas in ,new ,guinea it is the novices who pretend to die and come to life again1 in ,fiji the pretence is carried out by initiated men who represent the ancestors1 while the novices merely look on with horror and amazement at the awe-inspiring spectacle4 ,of the two forms of ritual the ,new ,guinea one is probably truer to the original purpose of the rite1 which seems to have been to enable the novices to put off the old1 or rather the young1 man and to put on a higher form of existence by participating in the marvellous powers and privileges of the mighty dead4 ,and if such was really the intention of the ceremony1 it is obvious that it was better effected by compelling the young communicants1 as we may call them1 to die and rise from the dead in their own persons than by obliging them to assist as mere passive spectators at a dramatic performance of death and resurrection4 ,yet in spite of this difference between the two rituals1 the general resemblance between them is near enough to justify us in conjecturing that there may be a genetic connexion between the one and the other4 ,the conjecture is confirmed1 first1 by the very limited and definite area of ,fiji in which these initiatory rites were practised1 and1 second1 by the equally definite tradition of their origin4 ,with regard to the first of these points1 the ,nanga or sacred stone enclosure with its characteristic rites was known only to certain tribes1 who occupied a comparatively small area1 a bare third of the island of ,viti ,levu4 ,these tribes are the ,nuyaloa1 ,vatusila1 ,mbatiwai1 and ,mdavutukia4 ,they all seem to have spread eastward and southward from a place of origin in the western mountain district4 ,their physical type is pure ,melanesian1 with fewer traces of ,polynesian admixture than can be detected in the tribes on the coast4#fie ,hence it is natural to enquire whether the ritual of the ,nanga may not have been imported into ,fiji by ,melanesian immigrants from the west4 ,the question appears to be answered in the affirmative by native tradition4 ,this is the word of our fathers concerning the ,nanga1 said an old ,wainimala grey-beard to ,mr4 ,fison4 ,long1 long ago their fathers were ignorant of it2 but one day two strangers were found sitting in the rara 7public square71 and they said they had come up from the sea to give them the ,nanga4 ,they were little men1 and very dark-skinned1 and one of them had his face and bust painted red1 while the other was painted black4 ,whether these two were gods or men our fathers did not tell us1 but it was they who taught our people the ,nanga4 ,this was in the old old times when our fathers were living in another land--not in this place1 for we are strangers here4 ,our fathers fled hither from ,navosa in a great war which arose among them1 and when they came there was no ,nanga in the land4 ,so they built one of their own after the fashion of that which they left behind them4 ,here1 says ,mr4 ,basil ,thomson1 we have the earliest tradition of missionary enterprise in the ,pacific4 ,i do not doubt that the two sooty-skinned little men were castaways driven eastward by one of those strong westerly gales that have been known to last for three weeks at a time4 ,by ,fijian custom the lives of all castaways were forfeit1 but the pretence to supernatural powers would have saved men full of the religious rites of their ,melanesian home1 and would have assured them a hearing4 ,the ,wainimala tribes can name six generations since they settled in their present home1 and therefore the introduction of the ,nanga cannot have been less than two centuries ago4 ,during that time it has overspread one third of the large island4 ,sidenote3 ,the general licence associated with the ritual of the ,nanga may be a temporary revival of primitive communism4 ,a very remarkable feature in the ,nanga ritual consists in the temporary licence accorded to the sexes and the suspension of proprietary rites in general4 ,what is the meaning of this curious and to the civilised mind revolting custom8 ,here again the most probable1 though merely conjectural1 answer is furnished by ,mr4 ,fison4 ,we cannot for a moment believe1 he says1 that it is a mere licentious outbreak1 without an underlying meaning and purpose4 ,it is part of a religious rite1 and is supposed to be acceptable to the ancestors4 ,but why should it be acceptable to them unless it were in accordance with their own practice in the far-away past8 ,there may be another solution of this difficult problem1 but ,i confess myself unable to find any other which will cover all the corroborating facts4#fif ,in other words1 ,mr4 ,fison supposes that in the sexual licence and suspension of the rights of private property which characterise these festivals we have a reminiscence of a time when women and property were held in common by the community1 and the motive for temporarily resuscitating these obsolete customs was a wish to propitiate the ancestral spirits1 who were thought to be gratified by witnessing a revival of that primitive communism which they themselves had practised in the flesh so long ago4 ,truly a religious revival of a remarkable kind6 ,sidenote3 ,description of the ,nanga or sacred enclosure of stones4 ,to conclude this part of my subject ,i will briefly describe the construction of a ,nanga or sacred stone enclosure1 as it used to exist in ,fiji4 ,at the present day only ruins of these structures are to be seen1 but by an observation of the ruins and a comparison of the traditions which still survive among the natives on the subject it is possible to reconstruct one of them with a fair degree of exactness4 ,a ,nanga has been described as an open-air temple1 and the description is just4 ,it consisted of a rough parallelogram enclosed by flat stones set upright and embedded endwise in the earth4 ,the length of the enclosure thus formed was about one hundred feet and its breadth about fifty feet4 ,the upright stones which form the outer walls are from eighteen inches to three feet high1 but as they do not always touch they may be described as alignments rather than walls4 ,the long walls or alignments run east and west1 the short ones north and south2 but the orientation is not very exact4 ,at the eastern end are two pyramidal heaps of stones1 about five feet high1 with square sloping sides and flat tops4 ,the narrow passage between them is the main entrance into the sacred enclosure4 ,internally the structure was divided into three separate enclosures or compartments by two cross-walls of stone running north and south4 ,these compartments1 taking them from east to west1 were called respectively the ,little ,nanga1 the ,great ,nanga1 and the ,sacred ,nanga or ,holy of ,holies 7,nanga tambu-tambu74 ,the partition walls between them were built solid of stones1 with battering sides1 to a height of five feet1 and in the middle of each there was an opening to allow the worshippers to pass from one compartment to another4 ,trees1 such as the candlenut and the red-leaved dracaena1 and odoriferous shrubs were planted round the enclosure2 and outside of it1 to the west of the ,holy of ,holies1 was a bell-roofed hut called ,vale tambu1 the ,sacred ,house or ,temple4 ,the sacred kava bowl stood in the ,holy of ,holies4#fig ,it is said that when the two traditionary founders of the ,nanga in ,fiji were about to erect the first structure of that name in their new home1 the chief priest poured a libation of kava to the ancestral gods1 and1 calling upon those who died long1 long ago by name1 he prayed that the people of the tribe1 both old and young1 might live before them4#fih ,sidenote3 ,comparison of the ,nanga with the cromlechs and other megalithic monuments of ,europe4 ,the sacred enclosures of stones which ,i have described have been compared to the alignments of stones at ,carnac in ,brittany and ,merivale on ,dartmoor1 and it has been suggested that in the olden time these ancient ,european monuments may have witnessed religious rites like those which were till lately performed in the rude open-air temples of ,fiji4#fii ,if there is any truth in the suggestion1 which ,i mention for what it is worth1 it would furnish another argument in favour of the view that our ,european cromlechs and other megalithic monuments were erected specially for the worship of the dead4 ,the mortuary character of ,stonehenge1 for example1 is at least suggested by the burial mounds which cluster thick around and within sight of it2 about three hundred such tombs have been counted within a radius of three miles1 while the rest of the country in the neighbourhood is comparatively free from them4#gjj ,footnote #fgh3 ,th4 ,williams1 ,fiji and the ,fijians1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahfj71 i4 #bdb sq4 ,footnote #fgi3 ,charles ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ,new ,edition 7,new ,york1 #ahea71 iii4 #hf4 ,footnote #fhj3 ,john ,jackson's ,narrative1 in ,capt4 ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine's ,journal of a ,cruise among the ,islands of the ,western ,pacific 7,london1 #ahec71 pp4 #dge-dgg4 ,the narrator1 ,john ,jackson1 was an ,english seaman who resided alone among the ,fijians for nearly two years and learned their language4 ,footnote #fha3 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 iii4 #if4 ,footnote #fhb3 ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ,ethnology and ,philology1 by ,h4 ,hale 7,philadelphia1 #ahdf71 p4 #fe4 ,compare ,capt4 ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine1 op4 cit4 p4 #bdh3 ,it would also seem that a belief in the resurrection of the body1 in the exact condition in which it leaves the world1 is one of the causes that induce1 in many instances1 a desire for death in the vigour of manhood1 rather than in the decrepitude of old age2 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #ahc3 ,the heathen notion is1 that1 as they die1 such will their condition be in another world2 hence their desire to escape extreme infirmity4 ,footnote #fhc3 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 iii4 #id sq4 ,compare ,th4 ,williams1 ,fiji and the ,fijians1 i4 #ahc-ahf2 ,lorimer ,fison1 ,tales from ,old ,fiji 7,london1 #aijd71 pp4 xxv4 sq4 ,footnote #fhd3 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 iii4 #if4 ,compare ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #ahh sq41 #aic sqq41 #bjj-bjb2 ,lorimer ,fison1 op4 cit4 pp4 xxv4 sq4 ,footnote #fhe3 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #bjj4 ,footnote #fhf3 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #ahi2 ,lorimer ,fison1 op4 cit4 p4 xvi4 ,footnote #fhg3 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #ahi4 ,footnote #fhh3 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #aig4 ,footnote #fhi3 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 iii4 #ajj4 ,williams also says 7op4 cit4 i4 #afg7 that the proper time for performing the rite of circumcision was after the death of a chief1 and he tells us that many rude games attend it4 ,blindfolded youths strike at thin vessels of water hung from the branch of a tree4 ,at ,lakemba1 the men arm themselves with branches of the cocoa-nut1 and carry on a sham fight4 ,at ,ono1 they wrestle4 ,at ,mbau1 they fillip small stones from the end of a bamboo with sufficient force to make the person hit wince again4 ,on ,vanua ,levu1 there is a mock siege4 ,footnote #fij3 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #aih4 ,footnote #fia3 ,rev4 ,lorimer ,fison1 ,the ,nanga1 or ,sacred ,stone ,enclosure1 of ,wainimala1 ,fiji1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xiv4 7#ahhe7 pp4 #bg sq4 ,on the other hand ,mr4 ,basil ,thomson's enquiries1 made at a later date1 did not confirm ,mr4 ,fison's statement that the rite of circumcision was practised as a propitiation to recover a chief from sickness4 ,i was assured1 he says1 on the contrary1 that while offerings were certainly made in the ,nanga for the recovery of the sick1 every youth was circumcised as a matter of routine1 and that the rite was in no way connected with sacrifice for the sick 7,basil ,thomson1 ,the ,fijians1 pp4 #aef sq474 ,however1 ,mr4 ,fison was a very careful and accurate enquirer1 and his testimony is not to be lightly set aside4 ,footnote #fib3 ,rev4 ,lorimer ,fison1 ,the ,nanga1 or ,sacred ,stone ,enclosure1 of ,wainimala1 ,fiji1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xiv4 7#ahhe7 p4 #bf4 ,compare ,basil ,thomson1 ,the ,fijians1 p4 #adg3 ,the ,nanga was the 'bed' of the ,ancestors1 that is1 the spot where their descendants might hold communion with them2 the ,mbaki were the rites celebrated in the ,nanga1 whether of initiating the youths1 or of presenting the first-fruits1 or of recovering the sick1 or of winning charms against wounds in battle4 ,footnote #fic3 ,rev4 ,lorimer ,fison1 op4 cit4 p4 #bg4 ,footnote #fid3 ,rev4 ,lorimer ,fison1 ,the ,nanga1 or ,sacred ,stone ,enclosure1 of ,wainimala1 ,fiji1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xiv4 7#ahhe7 pp4 #ad-bf4 ,the ,nanga and its rites have also been described by ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,joske 7,the ,nanga of ,viti-levu1 ,internationales ,archiv fuer ,ethnographie1 ii4 7#ahhi7 pp4 #bed-bff71 and ,mr4 ,basil ,thomson 7,the ,fijians1 pp4 #adf-aef74 ,as to the interval between the initiatory ceremonies ,mr4 ,fison tells us that it was normally two years1 but he adds3 ,this period1 however1 is not necessarily restricted to two years4 ,there are always a number of youths who are growing to the proper age1 and the length of the interval depends upon the decision of the elders4 ,whenever they judge that there is a sufficient number of youths ready for admission1 a ,nanga is appointed to be held2 and thus the interval may be longer or shorter1 according to the supply of novices 7op4 cit4 p4 #ai74 ,according to ,mr4 ,basil ,thomson the rites were celebrated annually4 ,mr4 ,fison's evidence as to the gross license which prevailed between the sexes after the admission of the women to the sacred enclosure is confirmed by ,mr4 ,basil ,thomson1 who says1 amongst other things1 that a native of ,mbau1 who lived for some years near the ,nanga1 assured me that the visit of the women to the ,nanga resulted in temporary promiscuity2 all tabus were defied1 and relations who could not speak to one another by customary law committed incest 7op4 cit4 p4 #aed74 ,footnote #fie3 ,rev4 ,lorimer ,fison1 ,the ,nanga1 or ,sacred ,stone ,enclosure1 of ,wainimala1 ,fiji1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xiv4 7#ahhe7 pp4 #ad sqq42 ,basil ,thomson1 ,the ,fijians1 pp4 #adg1 #adi4 ,footnote #fif3 ,rev4 ,lorimer ,fison1 op4 cit4 p4 #cj4 ,footnote #fig3 ,rev4 ,lorimer ,fison1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ae1 #ag1 with ,plate ,i42 ,basil ,thomson1 ,the ,fijians1 pp4 #adg sq4 ,mr4 ,fison had not seen a ,nanga2 his description is based on information received from natives4 ,mr4 ,basil ,thomson visited several of these structures and found them so alike that one description would serve for all4 ,he speaks of only two inner compartments1 which he calls the ,holy of ,holies 7,nanga tambu-tambu7 and the ,middle ,nanga 7,loma ni ,nanga71 but the latter name appears to imply a third compartment1 which is explicitly mentioned and named by ,mr4 ,fison4 ,the bell-shaped hut or temple to the west of the sacred enclosure is not noticed by ,mr4 ,thomson4 ,footnote #fih3 ,rev4 ,lorimer ,fison1 op4 cit4 p4 #ag4 ,footnote #fii3 ,basil ,thomson1 ,the ,fijians1 p4 #adg4 ,footnote #gjj3 ,as to these monuments see ,sir ,john ,lubbock 7,lord ,avebury71 ,prehistoric ,times1 ,fifth ,edition 7,london1 #ahij71 p4 #abg4 ,,lecture ,,xx ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,natives ,,of ,,eastern ,,melanesia 7,,fiji7 7concluded7 ,sidenote3 ,worship of ancestors in ,fiji4 ,in the last lecture ,i described the rites of ancestor worship which in certain parts of ,fiji used to be celebrated at the sacred enclosures of stones known as ,nangas4 ,but the worship of ancestral spirits was by no means confined to the comparatively small area in ,fiji where such sacred enclosures were erected1 nor were these open-air temples the only structures where the homage of the living was paid to the dead4 ,on the contrary we are told by one who knew the ,fijians in the old heathen days that among them as soon as beloved parents expire1 they take their place amongst the family gods4 ,bures1 or temples1 are erected to their memory1 and offerings deposited either on their graves or on rudely constructed altars--mere stages1 in the form of tables1 the legs of which are driven into the ground1 and the top of which is covered with pieces of native cloth4 ,the construction of these altars is identical with that observed by ,turner in ,tanna1 and only differs in its inferior finish from the altars formerly erected in ,tahiti and the adjacent islands4 ,the offerings1 consisting of the choicest articles of food1 are left exposed to wind and weather1 and firmly believed by the mass of ,fijians to be consumed by the spirits of departed friends and relations2 but1 if not eaten by animals1 they are often stolen by the more enlightened class of their countrymen1 and even some of the foreigners do not disdain occasionally to help themselves freely to them4 ,however1 it is not only on tombs or on altars that offerings are made2 often1 when the natives eat or drink anything1 they throw portions of it away1 stating them to be for their departed ancestors4 ,i remember ordering a young chief to empty a bowl containing kava1 which he did1 muttering to himself1 ',there1 father1 is some kava for you4 ,protect me from illness or breaking any of my limbs whilst in the mountains4'#gja ,sidenote3 ,fijian notion of divinity4 ,two classes of gods1 namely1 gods strictly so called1 and deified men4 ,the native word expressive of divinity is kalou1 which1 while used to denote the people's highest notion of a god1 is also constantly heard as a qualificative of any thing great or marvellous1 or1 according to ,hazlewood's ,dictionary1 'anything superlative1 whether good or bad4'444 ,often the word sinks into a mere exclamation1 or becomes an expression of flattery4 ',you are a kalou6' or1 ',your countrymen are gods6' is often uttered by the natives1 when hearing of the triumphs of art among civilized nations4#gjb ,the ,fijians distinguished two classes of gods3 first1 kalou vu1 literally ,root-gods1 that is1 gods strictly so called1 and second1 kalou yalo1 literally1 ,soul-gods1 that is1 deified mortals4 ,gods of the first class were supposed to be absolutely eternal2 gods of the second class1 though raised far above mere humanity1 were thought nevertheless to be subject to human passions and wants1 to accidents1 and even to death4 ,these latter were the spirits of departed chiefs1 heroes1 and friends2 admission into their number was easy1 and any one might secure his own apotheosis who could ensure the services of some one to act as his representative and priest after his death4#gjc ,however1 though the ,fijians admitted the distinction between the two classes of gods in theory1 they would seem to have confused them in practice4 ,thus we are informed by an early authority that they have superior and inferior gods and goddesses1 more general and local deities1 and1 were it not an obvious contradiction1 we should say they have gods human1 and gods divine2 for they have some gods who were gods originally1 and some who were originally men4 ,it is impossible to ascertain with any degree of probability how many gods the ,fijians have1 as any man who can distinguish himself in murdering his fellow-men may certainly secure to himself deification after death4 ,their friends are also sometimes deified and invoked4 ,i have heard them invoke their friends who have been drowned at sea4 ,i need not advert to the absurdity of praying to those who could not save themselves from a watery grave4 ,tuikilakila1 the chief of ,somosomo1 offered ,mr4 ,hunt a preferment of this sort4 ',if you die first1' said he1 ',i shall make you my god4' ,in fact1 there appears to be no certain line of demarcation between departed spirits and gods1 nor between gods and living men1 for many of the priests and old chiefs are considered as sacred persons1 and not a few of them will also claim to themselves the right of divinity4 ',i am a god1' ,tuikilakila would sometimes say2 and he believed it too4 ,they were not merely the words of his lips2 he believed he was something above a mere man4#gjd ,writers on ,fiji have given us lists of some of the principal gods of the first class1#gje who were supposed never to have been men2 but in their account of the religious ritual they do not distinguish between the worship which was paid to such deities and that which was paid to deified men4 ,accordingly we may infer that the ritual was practically the same1 and in the sequel ,i shall assume that what is told us of the worship of gods in general holds good of the worship of deified men in particular4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,fijian temple 7bure74 ,every ,fijian town had at least one bure or temple1 many of them had several4 ,significantly enough the spot where a chief had been killed was sometimes chosen for the site of a temple4 ,the structure of these edifices was somewhat peculiar4 ,each of them was built on the top of a mound1 which was raised to the height of from three to twenty feet above the ground and faced on its sloping sides with dry rubble-work of stone4 ,the ascent to the temple was by a thick plank1 the upper surface of which was cut into notched steps4 ,the proportions of the sacred edifice itself were inelegant1 if not uncouth1 its height being nearly twice as great as its breadth at the base4 ,the roof was high-pitched2 the ridge-pole was covered with white shells 7,ovula cypraea7 and projected three or four feet at each end4 ,for the most part each temple had two doors and a fire-place in the centre4 ,from some temples it was not lawful to throw out the ashes1 however much they might accumulate1 until the end of the year1 which fell in ,november4 ,the furniture consisted of a few boxes1 mats1 several large clay jars1 and many drinking vessels4 ,a temple might also contain images1 which1 though highly esteemed as ornaments and held sacred1 were not worshipped as idols4 ,from the roof depended a long piece of white bark-cloth2 it was carried down the angle so as to hang before the corner-post and lie on the floor4 ,this cloth formed the path down which the god was believed to pass in order to enter and inspire his priest4 ,it marked the holy place which few but he dared to approach4 ,however1 the temples were by no means dedicated exclusively to the use of religion4 ,each of them served also as a council-chamber and town-hall2 there the chiefs lounged for hours together2 there strangers were entertained2 and there the head persons of the village might even sleep4#gjf ,in some parts of ,viti ,levu the dead were sometimes buried in the temples1 that the wind might not disturb1 nor the rain fall upon them1 and in order that the living might have the satisfaction of lying near their departed friends4 ,a child of high rank having died under the charge of the queen of ,somosomo1 the little body was placed in a box and hung from the tie-beam of the principal temple4 ,for some months afterwards the daintiest food was brought daily to the dead child1 the bearers approaching with the utmost respect and clapping their hands when the ghost was thought to have finished his meal just as a chiefs retainers used to do when he had done eating4#gjg ,sidenote3 ,worship at the temples4 ,temples were often unoccupied for months and allowed to fall into ruins1 until the chief had some request to make to the god1 when the necessary repairs were first carried out4 ,no regular worship was maintained1 no habitual reverence was displayed at the shrines4 ,the principle of fear1 we are told1 seemed to be the only motive of religious observances1 and it was artfully fomented by the priests1 through whom alone the people had access to the gods when they desired to supplicate the favour of the divine beings4 ,the prayers were naturally accompanied by offerings1 which in matters of importance comprised large quantities of food1 together with whales' teeth2 in lesser affairs a tooth1 club1 mat1 or spear sufficed4 ,of the food brought by the worshippers part was dedicated to the god1 but as usual he only ate the soul of it1 the substance being consumed by the priest and old men2 the remainder furnished a feast of which all might partake4#gjh ,sidenote3 ,the priests4 ,the office of priest 7mbete1 bete7 was usually hereditary1 but when a priest died without male heirs a cunning fellow1 ambitious of enjoying the sacred character and of living in idleness1 would sometimes simulate the convulsive frenzy1 which passed for a symptom of inspiration1 and if he succeeded in the imposture would be inducted into the vacant benefice4 ,every chief had his priest1 with whom he usually lived on a very good footing1 the two playing into each other's hands and working the oracle for their mutual benefit4 ,the people were grossly superstitious1 and there were few of their affairs in which the priest had not a hand4 ,his influence over them was great4 ,in his own district he passed for the representative of the deity2 indeed1 according to an early missionary1 the natives seldom distinguished the idea of the god from that of his minister1 who was viewed by them with a reverence that almost amounted to deification4#gji ,sidenote3 ,oracles given by the priest under the inspiration of the god4 ,paroxysm of inspiration4 ,the principal duty of the priest was to reveal to men the will of the god1 and this he always did through the direct inspiration of the deity4 ,the revelation was usually made in response to an enquiry or a prayer2 the supplicant asked1 it might be1 for a good crop of yams or taro1 for showers of rain1 for protection in battle1 for a safe voyage1 or for a storm to drive canoes ashore1 so that the supplicant might rob1 murder1 and eat the castaways4 ,to lend force to one or other of these pious prayers the worshipper brought a whale's tooth to the temple and presented it to the priest4 ,the man of god might have had word of his coming and time to throw himself into an appropriate attitude4 ,he might1 for example1 be seen lying on the floor near the sacred corner1 plunged in a profound meditation4 ,on the entrance of the enquirer the priest would rouse himself so far as to get up and then seat himself with his back to the white cloth1 down which the deity was expected to slide into the medium's body4 ,having received the whale's tooth he would abstract his mind from all worldly matters and contemplate the tooth for some time with rapt attention4 ,presently he began to tremble1 his limbs twitched1 his features were distorted4 ,these symptoms1 the visible manifestation of the entrance of the spirit into him1 gradually increased in violence till his whole frame was convulsed and shook as with a strong fit of ague3 his veins swelled3 the circulation of the blood was quickened4 ,the man was now possessed and inspired by the god3 his own human personality was for a time in abeyance3 all that he said and did in the paroxysm passed for the words and acts of the indwelling deity4 ,shrill cries of ,koi au6 ,koi au6 ,it is ,i6 ,it is ,i6 filled the air1 proclaiming the actual presence of the powerful spirit in the vessel of flesh and blood4 ,in giving the oracular response the priest's eyes protruded from their sockets and rolled as in a frenzy3 his voice rose into a squeak3 his face was pallid1 his lips livid1 his breathing depressed1 his whole appearance that of a furious madman4 ,at last sweat burst from every pore1 tears gushed from his eyes3 the strain on the organism was visibly relieved2 and the symptoms gradually abated4 ,then he would look round with a vacant stare3 the god within him would cry1 ,i depart6 and the man would announce the departure of the spirit by throwing himself on his mat or striking the ground with his club1 while blasts on a shell-trumpet conveyed to those at a distance the tidings that the deity had withdrawn from mortal sight into the world invisible4#gaj ,i have seen1 says ,mr4 ,lorimer ,fison1 this possession1 and a horrible sight it is4 ,in one case1 after the fit was over1 for some time the man's muscles and nerves twitched and quivered in an extraordinary way4 ,he was naked except for his breech-clout1 and on his naked breast little snakes seemed to be wriggling for a moment or two beneath his skin1 disappearing and then suddenly reappearing in another part of his chest4 ,when the mbete 7which we may translate 'priest' for want of a better word7 is seized by the possession1 the god within him calls out his own name in a stridulous tone1 ',it is ,i6 ,katouviere6' or some other name4 ,at the next possession some other ancestor may declare himself4#gaa ,sidenote3 ,specimens of the oracular utterances of ,fijian gods4 ,from this last description of an eye-witness we learn that the spirit which possessed a priest and spoke through him was often believed to be that of a dead ancestor4 ,some of the inspired utterances of these prophets have been recorded4 ,here are specimens of ,fijian inspiration4 ,speaking in the name of the great god ,ndengei1 who was worshipped in the form of a serpent1 the priest said3 ,great ,fiji is my small club4 ,muaimbila is the head2 ,kamba is the handle4 ,if ,i step on ,muaimbila1 ,i shall sink it into the sea1 whilst ,kamba shall rise to the sky4 ,if ,i step on ,kamba1 it will be lost in the sea1 whilst ,muaimbila would rise into the skies4 ,yes1 ,viti ,levu is my small war-club4 ,i can turn it as ,i please4 ,i can turn it upside down4 ,again1 speaking by the mouth of a priest1 the god ,tanggirianima once made the following observations3 ,i and ,kumbunavannua only are gods4 ,i preside over wars1 and do as ,i please with sickness4 ,but it is difficult for me to come here1 as the foreign god fills the place4 ,if ,i attempt to descend by that pillar1 ,i find it pre-occupied by the foreign god4 ,if ,i try another pillar1 ,i find it the same4 ,however1 we two are fighting the foreign god2 and if we are victorious1 we will save the woman4 ,i will save the woman4 ,she will eat food to-day4 ,had ,i been sent for yesterday1 she would have eaten then1 and so on4 ,the woman1 about whose case the deity was consulted and whom he announced his fixed intention of saving1 died a few hours afterwards4#gab ,sidenote3 ,human sacrifices in ,fiji4 ,ferocious and inveterate cannibals themselves1 the ,fijians naturally assumed that their gods were so too2 hence human flesh was a common offering1 indeed the most valued of all4#gac ,formal human sacrifices were frequent4 ,the victims were usually taken from a distant tribe1 and when war and violence failed to supply the demand1 recourse was sometimes had to negotiation4 ,however obtained1 the victims destined for sacrifice were often kept for a time and fattened to make them better eating4 ,then1 tightly bound in a sitting posture1 they were placed on hot stones in one of the usual ovens1 and being covered over with leaves and earth were roasted alive1 while the spectators roared with laughter at the writhings and contortions of the victims in their agony4 ,when their struggles ceased and the bodies were judged to be done to a nicety1 they were raked out of the oven1 their faces painted black1 and so carried to the temple1 where they were presented to the gods1 only1 however1 to be afterwards removed1 cut up1 and devoured by the people4#gad ,sidenote3 ,human sacrifices offered when a king's house was built or a great new canoe launched4 ,however1 roasting alive in ovens was not the only way in which men and women were made away with in the service of religion4 ,when a king's house was built1 men were buried alive in the holes dug to receive the posts3 they were compelled to clasp the posts in their arms1 and then the earth was shovelled over them and rammed down4 ,and when a large new canoe was launched1 it was hauled down to the sea over the bodies of living men1 who were pinioned and laid out at intervals on the beach to serve as rollers on which the great vessel glided smoothly into the water1 leaving a row of mangled corpses behind4 ,the theory of both these modes of sacrifice was explained by the ,fijians to an ,englishman who witnessed them4 ,i will quote their explanation in his words4 ,they said in answer to the questions ,i put respecting the people being buried alive with the posts1 that a house or palace of a king was just like a king's canoe3 if the canoe was not hauled over men1 as rollers1 she would not be expected to float long1 and in like manner the palace could not stand long if people were not to sit down and continually hold the posts up4 ,but ,i said1 ',how could they hold the posts up after they were dead8' ,they said1 if they sacrificed their lives endeavouring to hold the posts in their right position to their superior's turanga kai na kalou 7chiefs and god71 that the virtue of the sacrifice would instigate the gods to uphold the house after they were dead1 and that they were honoured by being considered adequate to such a noble task4#gae ,apparently the ,fijians imagined that the souls of the dead men would somehow strengthen the souls of the houses and canoes and so prolong the lives of these useful objects2 for it is to be remembered that according to ,fijian theology houses and canoes as well as men and women were provided with immortal souls4 ,sidenote3 ,high estimation in which murder was held by the ,fijians4 ,perhaps the same theory of immortality partially accounts for the high honour in which the ,fijian held the act of murder and for the admiration which he bestowed on all murderers4 ,shedding of blood1 we are told1 to him is no crime1 but a glory4 ,whoever may be the victim1--whether noble or vulgar1 old or young1 man1 woman1 or child1--whether slain in war1 or butchered by treachery1--to be somehow an acknowledged murderer is the object of the ,fijian's restless ambition4#gaf ,it was customary throughout ,fiji to give honorary names to such as had clubbed to death a human being1 of any age or either sex1 during a war4 ,the new epithet was given with the complimentary prefix ,koroi4 ,mr4 ,williams once asked a man why he was called ,koroi4 ,because1 he replied1 ,i1 with several other men1 found some women and children in a cave1 drew them out and clubbed them1 and then was consecrated4#gag ,mr4 ,fison learned from another stout young warrior that he had earned the honourable distinction of ,koroi by lying in wait among the mangrove bushes at the waterside and killing a miserable old woman of a hostile tribe1 as she crept along the mudflat seeking for shellfish4 ,the man would have been equally honoured1 adds ,mr4 ,fison1 if his victim had been a child4 ,the hero of such an exploit1 for two or three days after killing his man or woman1 was allowed to besmear his face and bust with a mixture of lampblack and oil which differed from the common black war-paint2 decorated with this badge of honour he strutted proudly through the town1 the cynosure of all eyes1 an object of envy to his fellows and of tender interest to the girls4 ,the old men shouted approval after him1 the women would lulilu admiringly as he passed by1 and the boys looked up to him as a superior being whose noble deeds they thirsted to emulate4 ,higher titles of honour still were bestowed on such as had slain their ten1 or twenty1 or thirty2 and ,mr4 ,fison tells us of a chief whose admiring countrymen had to compound all these titles into one in order to set forth his superlative claims to glory4 ,a man who had never killed anybody was of very little account in this life1 and he received the penalty due to his sin in the life hereafter4 ,for in the spirit land the ghost of such a poor-spirited wretch was sentenced to what the ,fijians regarded as the most degrading of all punishments1 to beat a heap of muck with his bloodless club4#gah ,sidenote3 ,ceremony of consecrating a manslayer4 ,the temporary restrictions laid on a manslayer were probably dictated by a fear of his victim's ghost4 ,the ceremony of consecrating a manslayer was elaborate4 ,he was anointed with red oil from the hair of his head to the soles of his feet2 and when he had been thus incarnadined he exchanged clubs with the spectators1 who believed that their weapons acquired a mysterious virtue by passing through his holy hands4 ,afterwards the anointed one1 attended by the king and elders1 solemnly stalked down to the sea and wetted the soles of his feet in the water4 ,then the whole company returned to the town1 while the shell-trumpets sounded and the men raised a peculiar hoot4 ,custom required that a hut should be built in which the anointed man and his companions must pass the next three nights1 during which the hero might not lie down1 but had to sleep as he sat2 all that time he might not change his bark-cloth garment1 nor wash the red paint away from his body1 nor enter a house in which there was a woman4#gai ,the reason for observing these curious restrictions is not mentioned1 but in the light of similar practices1 some of which have been noticed in these lectures1#gbj we may conjecture that they were dictated by a fear of the victim's ghost1 who among savages generally haunts his slayer and will do him a mischief1 if he gets a chance4 ,as it is especially in dreams that the naturally incensed spirit finds his opportunity1 we can perhaps understand why the slayer might not lie down for the first three nights after the slaughter2 the wrath of the ghost would then be at its hottest1 and if he spied his murderer stretched in slumber on the ground1 the temptation to take an unfair advantage of him might have been too strong to be resisted4 ,but when his anger had had time to cool down or he had departed for his long home1 as ghosts generally do after a reasonable time1 the precautions taken to baffle his vengeance might be safely relaxed4 ,perhaps1 as ,i have already hinted1 the reverence which the ,fijians felt for any man who had taken a human life1 or at all events the life of an enemy1 may have partly sprung from a belief that the slayer increased his own strength and valour either by subjugating the ghost of his victim and employing it as his henchman1 or perhaps rather by simply absorbing in some occult fashion the vital energy of the slain4 ,this view is confirmed by the permission given to the killer to assume the name of the killed1 whenever his victim was a man of distinguished rank2#gba for by taking the name he1 according to an opinion common among savages1 assumed the personality of his namesake4 ,sidenote3 ,other funeral customs based on a fear of the ghost4 ,the same fear of the ghost of the recently departed which manifested itself1 if my interpretation of the customs is right1 in the treatment of manslayers1 seems to have imprinted itself1 though in a more attenuated form1 on some of the practices observed by ,fijian mourners after a natural1 not a violent1 death4 ,sidenote3 ,persons who have handled a corpse forbidden to touch food4 ,seclusion of grave-diggers4 ,thus all the persons who had handled a corpse were forbidden to touch anything for some time afterwards2 in particular they were strictly debarred from touching their food with their hands2 their victuals were brought to them by others1 and they were fed like infants by attendants or obliged to pick up their food with their mouths from the ground4 ,the time during which this burdensome restriction lasted was different according to the rank of the deceased3 in the case of great chiefs it lasted from two to ten months2 in the case of a petty chief it did not exceed one month2 and in the case of a common person a taboo of not more than four days sufficed4 ,when a chief's principal wife did not follow him to the other world by being strangled or buried alive1 she might not touch her own food with her hands for three months4 ,when the mourners grew tired of being fed like infants or feeding themselves like dogs1 they sent word to the head chief and he let them know that he would remove the taboo whenever they pleased4 ,accordingly they sent him presents of pigs and other provisions1 which he shared among the people4 ,then the tabooed persons went into a stream and washed themselves2 after that they caught some animal1 such as a pig or a turtle1 and wiped their hands on it1 and the animal thereupon became sacred to the chief4 ,thus the taboo was removed1 and the men were free once more to work1 to feed themselves1 and to live with their wives4 ,lazy and idle fellows willingly undertook the duty of waiting on the dead1 as it relieved them for some time from the painful necessity of earning their own bread4#gbb ,the reason why such persons might not touch food with their hands was probably a fear of the ghost or at all events of the infection of death2 the ghost or the infection might be clinging to their hands and might so be transferred from them to their food with fatal effects4 ,in ,great ,fiji not every one might dig a chief's grave4 ,the office was hereditary in a certain clan4 ,after the funeral the grave-digger was shut up in a house and painted black from head to foot4 ,when he had to make a short excursion1 he covered himself with a large mantle of painted native cloth and was supposed to be invisible4 ,his food was brought to the house after dark by silent bearers1 who placed it just within the doorway4 ,his seclusion might last for a long time2#gbc it was probably intended to screen him from the ghost4 ,sidenote3 ,hair cropped and finger-joints cut off in mourning4 ,the usual outward sign of mourning was to crop the hair or beard1 or very rarely both4 ,some people merely made bald the crown of the head4 ,indeed the ,fijians were too vain of their hair to part with it lightly1 and to conceal the loss which custom demanded of them on these occasions they used to wear wigs1 some of which were very skilfully made4 ,the practice of cutting off finger-joints in mourning has already been mentioned2 one early authority affirms and another denies that joints of the little toes were similarly amputated by the living as a mark of sorrow for the dead4 ,so common was the practice of lopping off the little fingers in mourning that till recently few of the older natives could be found who had their hands intact2 most of them indeed had lost the little fingers of both hands4 ,there was a ,fijian saying that the fourth finger cried itself hoarse in vain for its absent mate 7droga-droga-wale74 ,the mutilation was usually confined to the relations of the deceased1 unless he happened to be one of the highest chiefs4 ,however1 the severed joints were often sent by poor people to wealthy families in mourning1 who never failed to reward the senders for so delicate a mark of sympathy4 ,female mourners burned their skin into blisters by applying lighted rolls of bark-cloth to various parts of their bodies2 the brands so produced might be seen on their arms1 shoulders1 necks1 and breasts4#gbd ,during the mourning for a king people fasted till evening for ten or twenty days2 the coast for miles was tabooed and no one might fish there2 the nuts also were made sacred4 ,some people in token of grief for a bereavement would abstain from fish1 fruit1 or other pleasant food for months together2 others would dress in leaves instead of in cloth4#gbe ,sidenote3 ,men whipped by women in time of mourning for a chief4 ,though the motive for these observances is not mentioned1 we may suppose that they were intended to soothe and please the ghost by testifying to the sorrow felt by the survivors at his decease4 ,it is more doubtful whether the same explanation would apply to another custom which the ,fijians used to observe in mourning4 ,during ten days after a death1 while the soul of a deceased chief was thought to be still lingering in or near his body1 all the women of the town provided themselves with long whips1 knotted with shells1 and applied them with great vigour to the bodies of the men1 raising weals and inflicting bloody wounds1 while the men retorted by flirting pellets of clay from splinters of bamboo4#gbf ,according to ,mr4 ,williams1 this ceremony was performed on the tenth day or earlier1 and he adds3 ,i have seen grave personages1 not accustomed to move quickly1 flying with all possible speed before a company of such women4 ,sometimes the men retaliate by bespattering their assailants with mud2 but they use no violence1 as it seems to be a day on which they are bound to succumb4#gbg ,as the soul of the dead was believed to quit his body and depart to his destined abode on the tenth day after death1#gbh the scourging of the men by the women was probably supposed in some way to speed the parting guest on his long journey4 ,sidenote3 ,the dead taken out of the house by a special opening made in a wall4 ,examples of the custom among ,aryan peoples4 ,when a certain king of ,fiji died1 the side of the house was broken down to allow the body to be carried out1 though there were doorways wide enough for the purpose close at hand4 ,the missionary who records the fact could not learn the reason of it4#gbi ,the custom of taking the dead out of the house by a special opening1 which is afterwards closed up1 has not been confined to ,fiji2 on the contrary it has been practised by a multitude of peoples1 savage1 barbarous1 and civilised1 in many parts of the world4 ,for example1 it was an old ,norse rule that a corpse might not be carried out of the house by the door which was used by the living2 hence a hole was made in the wall at the back of the dead man's head and he was taken out through it backwards1 or a hole was dug in the ground under the south wall and the body was drawn out through it4#gcj ,the custom may have been at one time common to all the ,aryan or ,indo-european peoples1 for it is mentioned in other of their ancient records and has been observed by widely separated branches of that great family down to modern times4 ,thus1 the ,zend-,avesta prescribes that1 when a death has occurred1 a breach shall be made in the wall and the corpse carried out through it by two men1 who have first stripped off their clothes4#gca ,in ,russia the corpse was often carried out of the house through a window1 or through a hole made for the purpose1 and the custom is still kept up in many parts4#gcb ,speaking of the ,hindoos a ,french traveller of the eighteenth century says that instead of carrying the corpse out by the door they make an opening in the wall by which they pass it out in a seated posture1 and the hole is closed up after the ceremony4#gcc ,among various ,hindoo castes it is still customary1 when a death has occurred on an inauspicious day1 to remove the corpse from the house not through the door1 but through a temporary hole made in the wall4#gcd ,old ,german law required that the corpses of criminals and suicides should be carried out through a hole under the threshold4#gce ,in the ,highlands of ,scotland the bodies of suicides were not taken out of the house for burial by the doors1 but through an opening made between the wall and the thatch4#gcf ,sidenote3 ,examples of the custom among non-,aryan peoples4 ,but widespread as such customs have been among ,indo-european peoples1 they have been by no means confined to that branch of the human race4 ,it was an ancient ,chinese practice to knock down part of the wall of a house for the purpose of carrying out a corpse4#gcg ,some of the ,canadian ,indians would never take a corpse out of the hut by the ordinary door1 but always lifted a piece of the bark wall near which the dead man lay and then drew him through the opening4#gch ,among the ,esquimaux of ,bering ,strait a corpse is usually raised through the smoke-hole in the roof1 but is never taken out by the doorway4 ,should the smoke-hole be too small1 an opening is made in the rear of the house and then closed again4#gci ,when a ,greenlander dies1 they do not carry out the corpse through the entry of the house1 but lift it through the window1 or if he dies in a tent1 they unfasten one of the skins behind1 and convey it out that way4 ,a woman behind waves a lighted chip backward and forward1 and says3 ',there is nothing more to be had here4'#gdj ,similarly the ,hottentots1 ,bechuanas1 ,basutos1 ,marotse1 ,barongo1 and many other tribes of ,south and ,west ,africa never carry a corpse out by the door of the hut but always by a special opening made in the wall4#gda ,a similar custom is observed by the maritime ,gajos of ,sumatra#gdb and by some of the ,indian tribes of ,north-west ,america1 such as the ,tlingit and the ,haida4#gdc ,among the ,lepchis of ,sikhim1 whose houses are raised on piles1 the dead are taken out by a hole made in the floor4#gdd ,dwellers in tents who practise this custom remove a corpse from the tent1 not by the door1 but through an opening made by lifting up an edge of the tent-cover3 this is done by ,european gypsies#gde and by the ,koryak of north-eastern ,asia4#gdf ,sidenote3 ,the motive of the custom is a desire to prevent the ghost from returning to the house4 ,in all such customs the original motive probably was a fear of the ghost and a wish to exclude him from the house1 lest he should return and carry off the survivors with him to the spirit land4 ,ghosts are commonly credited with a low degree of intelligence1 and it appears to be supposed that they can only find their way back to a house by the aperture through which their bodies were carried out4 ,hence people made a practice of taking a corpse out not by the door1 but through an opening specially made for the purpose1 which was afterwards blocked up1 so that when the ghost returned from the grave and attempted to enter the house1 he found the orifice closed and was obliged to turn away disappointed4 ,that this was the train of reasoning actually followed by some peoples may be gathered from the explanations which they themselves give of the custom4 ,thus among the ,tuski of ,alaska those who die a natural death are carried out through a hole cut in the back of the hut or yarang4 ,this is immediately closed up1 that the spirit of the dead man may not find his way back4#gdg ,among the ,esquimaux of ,hudson ,bay the nearest relatives on approach of death remove the invalid to the outside of the house1 for if he should die within he must not be carried out of the door but through a hole cut in the side wall1 and it must then be carefully closed to prevent the spirit of the person from returning4#gdh ,again1 when a ,siamese is dead1 his relations deposit the body in a coffin well covered4 ,they do not pass it through the door but let it down into the street by an opening which they make in the wall4 ,they also carry it thrice round the house1 running at the top of their speed4 ,they believe that if they did not take this precaution1 the dead man would remember the way by which he had passed1 and that he would return by night to do some ill turn to his family4#gdi ,in ,travancore the body of a dead rajah is taken out of the palace through a breach in the wall1 made for the purpose1 to avoid pollution of the gate1 and afterwards built up again so that the departed spirit may not return through the gate to trouble the survivors4#gej ,among the ,kayans of ,borneo1 whose dwellings are raised on piles above the ground1 the coffin is conveyed out of the house by lowering it with rattans either through the floor1 planks being taken up for the purpose1 or under the eaves at the side of the gallery4 ,in this way they avoid carrying it down the house-ladder2 and it seems to be felt that this precaution renders it more difficult for the ghost to find its way back to the house4#gea ,among the ,cheremiss of ,russia1 old custom required that the corpse should not be carried out by the door but through a breach in the north wall1 where there is usually a sash-window4 ,but the custom has long been obsolete1 even among the heathen1 and only very old people speak of it4 ,they explain it as follows3 to carry it out by the door would be to shew the ,asyren 7the dead man7 the right way into the house1 whereas a breach in the wooden wall is immediately closed by replacing the beams in position1 and thus the ,asyren would in vain seek for an entrance4#geb ,the ,samoyeds never carry a corpse out of the hut by the door1 but lift up a piece of the reindeer-skin covering and draw the body out1 head foremost1 through the opening4 ,they think that if they were to carry a corpse out by the door1 the ghost would soon return and fetch away other members of the family4#gec ,on the same principle1 as soon as the ,indians of ,tumupasa1 in north-west ,bolivia1 have carried a corpse out of the house1 they shift the door to the opposite side1 in order that the deceased may not be able to find it4#ged ,once more1 in ,mecklenburg it is a law regulating the return of the dead that they are compelled to return by the same way by which the corpse was removed from the house4 ,in the villages of ,picher1 ,bresegard1 and others the people used to have movable thresholds at the house-doors1 which1 being fitted into the door-posts1 could be shoved up4 ,the corpse was then carried out of the house under the threshold1 and therefore could not return over it4#gee ,sidenote3 ,some people only remove in this manner the bodies of persons whose ghosts are especially feared4 ,even without such express testimonies to the meaning of the custom we may infer from a variety of evidence that the real motive for practising it is a fear of the ghost and a wish to prevent his return4 ,for it is to be observed that some peoples do not carry out all their dead by a special opening1 but that they accord this peculiar mode of removal only to persons who die under unlucky or disgraceful circumstances1 and whose ghosts accordingly are more than usually dreaded4 ,thus we have seen that some modern ,hindoo castes observe the custom only in the case of people who have died on inauspicious days2 and that in ,germany and the ,highlands of ,scotland this mode of removal was specially reserved for the bodies of suicides1 whose ghosts are exceedingly feared by many people1 as appears from the stringent precautions taken against them4#gef ,again1 among the ,kavirondo of ,central ,africa1 when a woman dies without having borne a child1 she is carried out of the back of the house4 ,a hole is made in the wall and the corpse is ignominiously pushed through the hole and carried some distance to be buried1 as it is considered a curse to die without a child4 ,if the woman has given birth to a child1 then her corpse is carried out through the front door and buried in the verandah of the house4#geg ,in ,brittany a stillborn child is removed from the house1 not by the door1 but by the window2 for if by ill-luck it should chance otherwise1 the mothers who should pass through that fatal door would bear nothing but stillborn infants4#geh ,in ,perche1 another province of ,france1 the same rule is observed with regard to stillborn children1 though the reason for it is not alleged4#gei ,but of all ghosts none perhaps inspire such deep and universal terror as the ghosts of women who have died in childbed1 and extraordinary measures are accordingly taken to disable these dangerous spirits from returning and doing a mischief to the living4#gfj ,amongst the precautions adopted to keep them at bay is the custom of carrying their corpses out of the house by a special opening1 which is afterwards blocked up4 ,thus in ,laos1 a province of ,siam1 the bodies of women dying in childbirth1 or within a month afterwards1 are not even taken out of the house in the ordinary way by the door1 but are let down through the floor4#gfa ,the ,kachins of ,burma stand in such fear of the ghosts of women dying in childbed that no sooner has such a death occurred than the husband1 the children1 and almost all the people in the house take to flight lest the woman's ghost should bite them4 ,the body of the deceased must be burned as soon as possible in order to punish her for dying such a death1 and also in order to frighten her ghost 7minla74 ,they bandage her eyes with her own hair and with leaves to prevent her from seeing anything2 they wrap her in a mat1 and they carry her out of the house1 not by the ordinary door1 but by an opening made for the purpose in the wall or the floor of the room where she breathed her last4 ,then they convey her to a deep ravine1 where no one dares to pass2 they lay her in the midst of a great pyre with all the clothes1 jewellery1 and other objects which belonged to her and of which she made use2 and they burn the whole to cinders1 to which they refuse the rites of sepulture4 ,thus they destroy all the property of the unfortunate woman1 in order that her soul may not think of coming to fetch it afterwards and to bite people in the attempt4#gfb ,similarly among the ,kayans or ,bahaus of ,central ,borneo the corpses of women dying in childbed excite a special horror2 no man and no young woman may touch them2 they are not carried out of the house through the front gallery1 but are thrown out of the back wall of the dwelling1 some boards having been removed for the purpose4#gfc ,indeed so great is the alarm felt by the ,kayans at a miscarriage of this sort that when a woman labours hard in childbed1 the news quickly spreads through the large communal house in which the people dwell2 and if the attendants begin to fear a fatal issue1 the whole household is thrown into consternation4 ,all the men1 from the chief down to the boys1 will flee from the house1 or1 if it is night1 they will clamber up among the beams of the roof and there hide in terror2 and1 if the worst happens1 they remain there until the woman's corpse has been removed from the house for burial4#gfd ,sidenote3 ,sometimes the custom is observed when the original motive for it is forgotten4 ,sometimes1 while the custom continues to be practised1 the idea which gave rise to it has either become obscured or has been incorrectly reported4 ,thus we are told that when a death has taken place among the ,indians of ,north-west ,america the body is at once taken out of the house through an opening in the wall from which the boards have been removed4 ,it is believed that his ghost would kill every one if the body were to stay in the house4#gfe ,such a belief1 while it would furnish an excellent reason for hurrying the corpse out of the house as soon as possible1 does not explain why it should be carried out through a special opening instead of through the door4 ,again1 when a ,queen of ,bali died1 the body was drawn out of a large aperture made in the wall to the right-hand side of the door1 in the absurd opinion of cheating the devil1 whom these islanders believe to lie in wait in the ordinary passage4#gff ,again1 in ,mukden1 the capital of ,manchuria1 the corpses of children must not be carried out of a door or window1 but through a new or disused opening1 in order that the evil spirit which causes the disease may not enter4 ,the belief is that the ,heavenly ,dog which eats the sun at an eclipse demands the bodies of children1 and that if they are denied to him he will bring certain calamity on the household4#gfg ,these explanations of the custom are probably misinterpretations adopted at a later time when its original meaning was forgotten4 ,for a custom often outlives the memory of the motives which gave it birth4 ,and as royalty is very conservative of ancient usages1 it would be no matter for surprise if the corpses of kings should continue to be carried out through special openings long after the bodies of commoners were allowed to be conveyed in commonplace fashion through the ordinary door4 ,in point of fact we find the old custom observed by kings in countries where it has apparently ceased to be observed by their subjects4 ,thus among the ,sakalava and ,antimerina of ,madagascar1 when a sovereign or a prince of the royal family dies within the enclosure of the king's palace1 the corpse must be carried out of the palace1 not by the door1 but by a breach made for the purpose in the wall2 the new sovereign could not pass through the door that had been polluted by the passage of a dead body4#gfh ,similarly among the ,macassars and ,buginese of ,southern ,celebes there is in the king's palace a window reaching to the floor through which on his decease the king's body is carried out4#gfi ,that such a custom is only a limitation to kings of a rule which once applied to everybody becomes all the more probable1 when we learn that in the island of ,saleijer1 which lies to the south of ,celebes1 each house has1 besides its ordinary windows1 a large window in the form of a door1 through which1 and not through the ordinary entrance1 every corpse is regularly removed at death4#ggj ,sidenote3 ,another ,fijian funeral custom4 ,to return from this digression to ,fiji1 we may conclude with a fair degree of probability that when the side of a ,fijian king's house was broken down to allow his corpse to be carried out1 though there were doors at hand wide enough for the purpose1 the original intention was to prevent the return of his ghost1 who might have proved a very unwelcome intruder to his successor on the throne4 ,but ,i cannot offer any explanation of another ,fijian funeral custom4 ,you may remember that in ,fiji it was customary after the death of a chief to circumcise such lads as had reached a suitable age4#gga ,well1 on the fifth day after a chief's death a hole used to be dug under the floor of a temple and one of the newly circumcised lads was secreted in it4 ,then his companions fastened the doors of the temple securely and ran away4 ,when the lad hidden in the hole blew on a shell-trumpet1 the friends of the deceased chief surrounded the temple and thrust their spears at him through the fence4#ggb ,what the exact significance of this curious rite may have been1 ,i cannot even conjecture2 but we may assume that it had something to do with the state of the late chief's soul1 which was probably supposed to be lingering in the neighbourhood4 ,sidenote3 ,fijian notions concerning the other world and the way thither4 ,the ,river of the ,souls4 ,it remains to say a little as to the notions which the ,fijians entertained of the other world and the way thither4 ,after death the souls of the departed were believed to set out for ,bulu or ,bulotu1 there to dwell with the great serpent-shaped god ,ndengei4 ,his abode seems to have been generally placed in the ,nakauvandra mountains1 towards the western end of ,viti ,levu1 the largest of the ,fijian ,islands4 ,but on this subject the ideas of the people were1 as might be expected1 both vague and inconsistent4 ,each tribe filled in the details of the mythical land and the mythical journey to suit its own geographical position4 ,the souls had generally to cross water1 either the sea or a river1 and they were put across it by a ghostly ferryman1 who treated the passengers with scant courtesy4#ggc ,according to some people1 the ,river of the ,souls 7,waini-yalo7 is what mortals now call the ,ndravo ,river4 ,when the ghosts arrived on the bank1 they hailed the ferryman and he paddled his canoe over to receive them4 ,but before he would take them on board they had to state whether they proposed to ship as steerage or as cabin passengers1 and he gave them their berths accordingly2 for there was no mixing up of the classes in the ferry-boat2 the ghosts of chiefs kept strictly to themselves at one end of the canoe1 and the ghosts of commoners huddled together at the other end4#ggd ,the natives of ,kandavu1 in ,southern ,fiji1 say that on clear days they often see ,bulotu1 the spirit land1 lying away across the sea with the sun shining sweetly on it2 but they have long ago given up all hope of making their way to that happy land4#gge ,they seem to say with the ,demon ,lover1 ,o yonder are the hills of heaven ,where you will never win4 ,sidenote3 ,the place of embarcation for the ghosts4 ,though every island and almost every town had its own portal through which the spirits passed on their long journey to the far country1 yet there was one called ,nai ,thombothombo1 which appears to have been more popular and frequented than any of the others as a place of embarcation for ghosts4 ,it is at the northern point of ,mbua ,bay1 and the ghosts shew their good taste in choosing it as their port to sail from1 for really it is a beautiful spot4 ,the foreland juts out between two bays4 ,a shelving beach slopes up to precipitous cliffs1 their rocky face mantled with a thick green veil of creepers4 ,further inland the shade of tall forest trees and the softened gloom cast by crags and rocks lend to the scene an air of solemnity and hallowed repose well fitted to impress the susceptible native mind with an awful sense of the invisible beings that haunt these sacred groves4 ,natives have been known to come on pilgrimage to the spot expecting to meet ghosts and gods face to face4#ggf ,sidenote3 ,the ghost and the pandanus tree4 ,many are the perils and dangers that beset the ,path of the ,souls 7,sala ,ni ,yalo74 ,of these one of the most celebrated is a certain pandanus tree1 at which every ghost must throw the ghost of the real whale's tooth which was placed for the purpose in his hand at burial4 ,if he hits the tree1 it is well for him2 for it shews that his friends at home are strangling his wives1 and accordingly he sits down contentedly to wait for the ghosts of his helpmeets1 who will soon come hurrying to him4 ,but if he makes a bad shot and misses the tree1 the poor ghost is very disconsolate1 for he knows that his wives are not being strangled1 and who then will cook for him in the spirit land8 ,it is a bitter thought1 and he reflects with sorrow and anger on the ingratitude of men and especially of women4 ,his reflections1 as reported by the best authority1 run thus3 ,how is this8 ,for a long time ,i planted food for my wife1 and it was also of great use to her friends3 why then is she not allowed to follow me8 ,do my friends love me no better than this1 after so many years of toil8 ,will no one1 in love to me1 strangle my wife8#ggg ,sidenote3 ,hard fate of unmarried ghosts4 ,but if the lot of a married ghost1 whose wives have not been murdered1 is hard1 it is nevertheless felicity itself compared to the fate of bachelor ghosts4 ,in the first place there is a terrible being called the ,great ,woman1 who lurks in a shady defile1 ready to pounce out on him2 and if he escapes her clutches it is only to fall in with a much worse monster1 of the name of ,nangganangga1 from whom there is1 humanly speaking1 no escape4 ,this ferocious goblin lays himself out to catch the souls of bachelors1 and so vigilant and alert is he that not a single unmarried ,fijian ghost is known to have ever reached the mansions of the blest4 ,he sits beside a big black stone at high-water mark waiting for his prey4 ,the bachelor ghosts are aware that it would be useless to attempt to march past him when the tide is in2 so they wait till it is low water and then try to sneak past him on the wet sand left by the retiring billows4 ,vain hope6 ,nangganangga1 sitting by the stone1 only smiles grimly and asks1 with withering sarcasm1 whether they imagine that the tide will never flow again8 ,it does so only too soon for the poor ghosts1 driving them with every breaking wave nearer and nearer to their implacable enemy1 till the water laps on the fatal stone1 and then he grips the shivering souls and dashes them to pieces on the big black block4#ggh ,sidenote3 ,the ,killer of ,souls4 ,again1 there is a very terrible giant armed with a great axe1 who lies in wait for all and sundry4 ,he makes no nice distinction between the married and the unmarried1 but strikes out at all ghosts indiscriminately4 ,those whom he wounds dare not present themselves in their damaged state to the great ,god ,ndengei2 so they never reach the happy fields1 but are doomed to roam the rugged mountains disconsolate4 ,however1 many ghosts contrive to slip past him unscathed4 ,it is said that after the introduction of fire-arms into the islands the ghost of a certain chief made very good use of a musket which had been providentially buried with his body4 ,when the giant drew near and was about to lunge out with the axe in his usual style1 the ghost discharged the blunderbuss in his face1 and while the giant was fully engaged in dodging the hail of bullets1 the chief rushed past him and now enjoys celestial happiness4#ggi ,some lay the scene of this encounter a little beyond the town of ,nambanaggatai2 for it is to be remembered that many of the places in the ,path of the ,souls were identified with real places in the ,fijian ,islands4 ,and the name of the giant is ,samu-yalo1 that is1 the ,killer of ,souls4 ,he artfully conceals himself in some mangrove bushes just beyond the town1 from which he rushes out in the nick of time to fell the passing ghosts4 ,whenever he kills a ghost1 he cooks and eats him and that is the end of the poor ghost4 ,it is the second death4 ,the highway to the ,elysian fields runs1 or used to run1 right through the town of ,nambanaggatai2 so all the doorways of the houses were placed opposite each other to allow free and uninterrupted passage to the invisible travellers4 ,and the inhabitants spoke to each other in low tones and communicated at a little distance by signs4 ,the screech of a paroquet in the woods was the signal of the approach of a ghost or ghosts2 the number of screeches was proportioned to the number of the ghosts1--one screech1 one ghost1 and so on4#ghj ,sidenote3 ,a trap for unwary ghosts4 ,souls who escape the ,killer of ,souls pass on till they come to ,naindelinde1 one of the highest peaks of the ,kauvandra mountains4 ,here the path ends abruptly on the brink of a precipice1 the foot of which is washed by a deep lake4 ,over the edge of the precipice projects a large steer-oar1 and the handle is held either by the great god ,ndengei himself or1 according to the better opinion1 by his deputy4 ,when a ghost comes up and peers ruefully over the precipice1 the deputy accosts him4 ,under what circumstances1 he asks1 do you come to us8 ,how did you conduct yourself in the other world8 ,should the ghost be a man of rank1 he may say1 ,i am a great chief4 ,i lived as a chief1 and my conduct was that of a chief4 ,i had great wealth1 many wives1 and ruled over a powerful people4 ,i have destroyed many towns1 and slain many in war4 ,good1 good1 says the deputy1 just sit down on the blade of that oar1 and refresh yourself in the cool breeze4 ,if the ghost is unwary enough to accept the invitation1 he has no sooner seated himself on the blade of the oar with his legs dangling over the abyss1 than the deputy-deity tilts up the other end of the oar and precipitates him into the deep water1 far far below4 ,a loud smack is heard as the ghost collides with the water1 there is a splash1 a gurgle1 a ripple1 and all is over4 ,the ghost has gone to his account in ,murimuria1 a very second-rate sort of heaven1 if it is nothing worse4 ,but a ghost who is in favour with the great god ,ndengei is warned by him not to sit down on the blade of the oar but on the handle4 ,the ghost takes the hint and seats himself firmly on the safe end of the oar2 and when the deputy-deity tries to heave it up1 he cannot1 for he has no purchase4 ,so the ghost remains master of the situation1 and after an interval for refreshment is sent back to earth to be deified4#gha ,sidenote3 ,murimuria1 an inferior sort of heaven4 ,the ,fijian ,elysium4 ,in ,murimuria1 which1 as ,i said1 is an inferior sort of heaven1 the departed souls by no means lead a life of pure and unmixed enjoyment4 ,some of them are punished for the sins they committed in the flesh4 ,but the ,fijian notion of sin differs widely from ours4 ,thus we saw that the ghosts of men who did no murder in their lives were punished for their negligence by having to pound muck with clubs4 ,again1 people who had not their ears bored on earth are forced in ,hades to go about for ever bearing on their shoulders one of the logs of wood on which bark-cloth is beaten out with mallets1 and all who see the sinner bending under the load jeer at him4 ,again1 women who were not tattooed in their life are chased by the female ghosts1 who scratch and cut and tear them with sharp shells1 giving them no respite2 or they scrape the flesh from their bones and bake it into bread for the gods4 ,and ghosts who have done anything to displease the gods are laid flat on their faces in rows and converted into taro beds4 ,but the few who do find their way into the ,fijian ,elysium are blest indeed4 ,there the sky is always cloudless2 the groves are perfumed with delicious scents2 the open glades in the forest are pleasant2 there is abundance of all that heart can desire4 ,language fails to describe the ineffable bliss of the happy land4 ,there the souls of the truly good1 who have murdered many of their fellows on earth and fed on their roasted bodies1 are lapped in joy for ever4#ghb ,sidenote3 ,fijian doctrine of transmigration4 ,nevertheless the souls of the dead were not universally believed to depart by the ,spirit ,path to the other world or to stay there for ever4 ,to a certain extent the doctrines of transmigration found favour with the ,fijians4 ,some of them held that the spirits of the dead wandered about the villages in various shapes and could make themselves visible or invisible at pleasure4 ,the places which these vagrant souls loved to haunt were known to the people1 who in passing by them were wont to make propitiatory offerings of food or cloth4 ,for that reason1 too1 they were very loth to go abroad on a dark night lest they should come bolt upon a ghost4 ,further1 it was generally believed that the soul of a celebrated chief might after death enter into some young man of the tribe and animate him to deeds of valour4 ,persons so distinguished were pointed out and regarded as highly favoured2 great respect was paid to them1 they enjoyed many personal privileges1 and their opinions were treated with much consideration4#ghc ,sidenote3 ,few souls saved under the old ,fijian dispensation4 ,on the whole1 when we survey the many perils which beset the way to the ,fijian heaven1 and the many risks which the souls of the dead ran of dying the second death in the other world or of being knocked on the head by the living in this1 we shall probably agree with the missionary ,mr4 ,williams in concluding that under the old ,fijian dispensation there were few indeed that were saved4 ,few1 comparatively1 he says1 are left to inhabit the regions of ,mbulu1 and the immortality even of these is sometimes disputed4 ,the belief in a future state is universal in ,fiji2 but their superstitious notions often border upon transmigration1 and sometimes teach an eventual annihilation4#ghd 99 99 99 99 99 ,sidenote3 ,concluding observations4 ,here ,i must break off my survey of the natural belief in immortality among mankind4 ,at the outset ,i had expected to carry the survey further1 but ,i have already exceeded the usual limits of these lectures and ,i must not trespass further on your patience4 ,yet the enquiry which ,i have opened seems worthy to be pursued1 and if circumstances should admit of it1 ,i shall hope at some future time to resume the broken thread of these researches and to follow it a little further through the labyrinth of human history4 ,be that as it may1 ,i will now conclude with a few general observations suggested by the facts which ,i have laid before you4 ,sidenote3 ,strength and universality of the natural belief in immortality among savages4 ,wars between savage tribes spring in large measure from their belief in immortality4 ,economic loss involved in sacrifices to the dead4 ,in the first place1 then1 it is impossible not to be struck by the strength1 and perhaps we may say the universality1 of the natural belief in immortality among the savage races of mankind4 ,with them a life after death is not a matter of speculation and conjecture1 of hope and fear2 it is a practical certainty which the individual as little dreams of doubting as he doubts the reality of his conscious existence4 ,he assumes it without enquiry and acts upon it without hesitation1 as if it were one of the best-ascertained truths within the limits of human experience4 ,the belief influences his attitude towards the higher powers1 the conduct of his daily life1 and his behaviour towards his fellows2 more than that1 it regulates to a great extent the relations of independent communities to each other4 ,for the state of war1 which normally exists between many1 if not most1 neighbouring savage tribes1 springs in large measure directly from their belief in immortality2 since one of the commonest motives for hostility is a desire to appease the angry ghosts of friends1 who are supposed to have perished by the baleful arts of sorcerers in another tribe1 and who1 if vengeance is not inflicted on their real or imaginary murderers1 will wreak their fury on their undutiful fellow-tribesmen4 ,thus the belief in immortality has not merely coloured the outlook of the individual upon the world2 it has deeply affected the social and political relations of humanity in all ages2 for the religious wars and persecutions1 which distracted and devastated ,europe for ages1 were only the civilised equivalents of the battles and murders which the fear of ghosts has instigated amongst almost all races of savages of whom we possess a record4 ,regarded from this point of view1 the faith in a life hereafter has been sown like dragons' teeth on the earth and has brought forth crop after crop of armed men1 who have turned their swords against each other4 ,and when we consider further the gratuitous and wasteful destruction of property as well as of life which is involved in sacrifices to the dead1 we must admit that with all its advantages the belief in immortality has entailed heavy economical losses upon the races--and they are practically all the races of the world--who have indulged in this expensive luxury4 ,it is not for me to estimate the extent and gravity of the consequences1 moral1 social1 political1 and economic1 which flow directly from the belief in immortality4 ,i can only point to some of them and commend them to the serious attention of historians and economists1 as well as of moralists and theologians4 ,sidenote3 ,how does the savage belief in immortality bear on the question of the truth or falsehood of that belief in general8 ,the answer depends to some extent on the view we take of human nature4 ,the view of the grandeur and dignity of man4 ,my second observation concerns1 not the practical consequences of the belief in immortality1 but the question of its truth or falsehood4 ,that1 ,i need hardly say1 is an even more difficult problem than the other1 and as ,i intimated at the outset of the lectures ,i find myself wholly incompetent to solve it4 ,accordingly ,i have confined myself to the comparatively easy task of describing some of the forms of the belief and some of the customs to which it has given rise1 without presuming to pass judgment upon them4 ,i must leave it to others to place my collections of facts in the scales and to say whether they incline the balance for or against the truth of this momentous belief1 which has been so potent for good or ill in history4 ,in every enquiry much depends upon the point of view from which the enquirer approaches his subject2 he will see it in different proportions and in different lights according to the angle and the distance from which he regards it4 ,the subject under discussion in the present case is human nature itself2 and as we all know1 men have formed very different estimates of themselves and their species4 ,on the one hand1 there are those who love to dwell on the grandeur and dignity of man1 and who swell with pride at the contemplation of the triumphs which his genius has achieved in the visionary world of imagination as well as in the realm of nature4 ,surely1 they say1 such a glorious creature was not born for mortality1 to be snuffed out like a candle1 to fade like a flower1 to pass away like a breath4 ,is all that penetrating intellect1 that creative fancy1 that vaulting ambition1 those noble passions1 those far-reaching hopes1 to come to nothing1 to shrivel up into a pinch of dust8 ,it is not so1 it cannot be4 ,man is the flower of this wide world1 the lord of creation1 the crown and consummation of all things1 and it is to wrong him and his creator to imagine that the grave is the end of all4 ,to those who take this lofty view of human nature it is easy and obvious to find in the similar beliefs of savages a welcome confirmation of their own cherished faith1 and to insist that a conviction so widely spread and so firmly held must be based on some principle1 call it instinct or intuition or what you will1 which is deeper than logic and cannot be confuted by reasoning4 ,sidenote3 ,the view of the pettiness and insignificance of man4 ,on the other hand1 there are those who take a different view of human nature1 and who find in its contemplation a source of humility rather than of pride4 ,they remind us how weak1 how ignorant1 how short-lived is the individual1 how infirm of purpose1 how purblind of vision1 how subject to pain and suffering1 to diseases that torture the body and wreck the mind4 ,they say that if the few short years of his life are not wasted in idleness and vice1 they are spent for the most part in a perpetually recurring round of trivialities1 in the satisfaction of merely animal wants1 in eating1 drinking1 and slumber4 ,when they survey the history of mankind as a whole1 they find the record chequered and stained by folly and crime1 by broken faith1 insensate ambition1 wanton aggression1 injustice1 cruelty1 and lust1 and seldom illumined by the mild radiance of wisdom and virtue4 ,and when they turn their eyes from man himself to the place he occupies in the universe1 how are they overwhelmed by a sense of his littleness and insignificance6 ,they see the earth which he inhabits dwindle to a speck in the unimaginable infinities of space1 and the brief span of his existence shrink into a moment in the inconceivable infinities of time4 ,and they ask1 ,shall a creature so puny and frail claim to live for ever1 to outlast not only the present starry system but every other that1 when earth and sun and stars have crumbled into dust1 shall be built upon their ruins in the long long hereafter8 ,it is not so1 it cannot be4 ,the claim is nothing but the outcome of exaggerated self-esteem1 of inflated vanity2 it is the claim of a moth1 shrivelled in the flame of a candle1 to outlive the sun1 the claim of a worm to survive the destruction of this terrestrial globe in which it burrows4 ,those who take this view of the pettiness and transitoriness of man compared with the vastness and permanence of the universe find little in the beliefs of savages to alter their opinion4 ,they see in savage conceptions of the soul and its destiny nothing but a product of childish ignorance1 the hallucinations of hysteria1 the ravings of insanity1 or the concoctions of deliberate fraud and imposture4 ,they dismiss the whole of them as a pack of superstitions and lies1 unworthy the serious attention of a rational mind2 and they say that if such drivellings do not refute the belief in immortality1 as indeed from the nature of things they cannot do1 they are at least fitted to invest its high-flown pretensions with an air of ludicrous absurdity4 ,sidenote3 ,the conclusion left open4 ,such are the two opposite views which ,i conceive may be taken of the savage testimony to the survival of our conscious personality after death4 ,i do not presume to adopt the one or the other4 ,it is enough for me to have laid a few of the facts before you4 ,i leave you to draw your own conclusion4 ,footnote #gja3 ,berthold ,seeman1 ,viti1 an ,account of a ,government ,mission to the ,vitian or ,fijian ,islands 7,cambridge1 #ahfb71 pp4 #cia sq4 ,footnote #gjb3 ,th4 ,williams1 ,fiji and the ,fijians1 i4 #baf4 ,footnote #gjc3 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #baf1 #bah sq42 ,basil ,thomson1 ,the ,fijians1 p4 #aab4 ,footnote #gjd3 ,hazlewood1 quoted by ,capt4 ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine1 ,journal of a ,cruise among the ,islands of the ,western ,pacific 7,london1 #ahec71 pp4 #bdf sq4 ,footnote #gje3 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ,new ,edition 7,new ,york1 #ahea71 iii4 #hc sq42 ,th4 ,williams1 ,fiji and the ,fijians1 i4 #bag sqq4 ,footnote #gjf3 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ,new ,edition 7,new ,york1 #ahea71 iii4 #di1 #hf1 #cea1 #ceb2 ,th4 ,williams1 ,fiji and the ,fijians1 i4 #bba-bbc2 ,b4 ,seeman1 ,viti1 pp4 #cib-cid4 ,footnote #gjg3 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #aia sq4 ,footnote #gjh3 ,th4 ,williams1 ,fiji and the ,fijians1 i4 #bbc1 #bca4 ,footnote #gji3 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 iii4 #hg2 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #bbf1 #bbg2 ,basil ,thomson1 ,the ,fijians1 pp4 #aeg sqq4 ,footnote #gaj3 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 iii4 #hg sq42 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #bbd sq42 ,capt4 ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine1 op4 cit4 p4 #bej2 ,lorimer ,fison1 ,tales from ,old ,fiji 7,london1 #aijd71 pp4 #aff sq4 ,as for the treatment of castaways1 see ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine1 op4 cit4 p4 #bdi2 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #baj4 ,the latter writer mentions a recent case in which fourteen or sixteen shipwrecked persons were cooked and eaten4 ,footnote #gaa3 ,the ,rev4 ,lorimer ,fison1 in a letter to me dated ,august #bfth1 #ahih4 ,i have already quoted the passage in ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 i4 #cgh4 ,footnote #gab3 ,th4 ,williams1 ,fiji and the ,fijians1 i4 #bbe sq4 ,footnote #gac3 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #bca4 ,footnote #gad3 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 iii4 #ig2 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #ec4 ,footnote #gae3 ,john ,jackson's ,narrative1 in ,capt4 ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine's ,journal of a ,cruise among the ,islands of the ,western ,pacific 7,london1 #ahec71 pp4 #dfd sq41 #dgb sq4 ,the genital members of the men over whom the canoe was dragged were cut off and hung on a sacred tree 7akau-tambu71 which was already artificially prolific in fruit1 both of the masculine and feminine gender4 ,the tree which bore such remarkable fruit was commonly an ironweed tree standing in a conspicuous situation4 ,as to these sacrifices compare ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 iii4 #ig2 ,lorimer ,fison1 ,tales from ,old ,fiji1 pp4 xvi4 sq4 ,footnote #gaf3 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i1 #aab4 ,footnote #gag3 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #ee4 ,footnote #gah3 ,lorimer ,fison1 ,tales from ,old ,fiji1 pp4 xx41 xxi4 sq42 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #bdg2 ,b4 ,seeman1 ,viti 7,cambridge1 #ahfb71 p4 #dja4 ,footnote #gai3 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #ee sq4 ,the writer witnessed what he calls the ceremony of consecration in the case of a young man of the highest rank in ,somosomo and he has described what he saw4 ,in this case a special hut was not built for the manslayer1 and he was allowed to pass the nights in the temple of the war god4 ,footnote #gbj3 ,see above1 pp4 #bje sq41 #bbi sq41 #beh1 #bgi sq41 #cbc1 #cif1 #dae4 ,footnote #gba3 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #ee4 ,footnote #gbb3 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 iii4 #ih1 #ii sq4 ,compare ,lorimer ,fison1 ,tales from ,old ,fiji1 p4 #afc3 ,a person who has defiled himself by touching a corpse is called yambo1 and is not allowed to touch food with his hands for several days4 ,the custom as to a surviving widow is mentioned by ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #aih4 ,footnote #gbc3 ,lorimer ,fison1 ,tales from ,old ,fiji1 p4 #afg4 ,footnote #gbd3 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 iii4 #aja2 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #aig sq42 ,lorimer ,fison1 ,tales from ,old ,fiji1 p4 #afh2 ,basil ,thomson1 ,the ,fijian1 p4 #cge4 ,footnote #gbe3 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #aig1 #aih4 ,footnote #gbf3 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 iii4 #ii4 ,footnote #gbg3 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #aih sq4 ,footnote #gbh3 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 l4c4 ,footnote #gbi3 ,th4 ,williams1 ,fiji and the ,fijians1 i4 #aig4 ,footnote #gcj3 ,k4 ,weinhold1 ,altnordisches ,leben 7,berlin1 #ahef71 p4 #dgf4 ,footnote #gca3 ,the ,zend-,avesta1 ,part i4 ,the ,vendidad1 translated by ,james ,darmesteter 7,oxford1 #ahhj71 p4 #ie 7,fargard1 viii4 #b4 #aj7 7,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 iv474 ,footnote #gcb3 ,w4 ,r4 ,s4 ,ralston1 ,the ,songs of the ,russian ,people1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahgb71 p4 #cah4 ,footnote #gcc3 ,sonnerat1 ,voyage aux ,indes ,orientales et a la ,chine 7,paris1 #aghb71 i4 #hf4 ,footnote #gcd3 ,j4 ,a4 ,dubois1 ,moeurs1 ,institutions et ,ceremonies des ,peuples de l',inde 7,paris1 #ahbe71 ii4 #bbe2 ,e4 ,thurston1 ,ethnographic ,notes in ,southern ,india 7,madras1 #aijf71 pp4 #bbf sq4 ,footnote #gce3 ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,rechtsalterthuemer #crd ed4 7,goettingen1 #ahha71 pp4 #gbf sqq4 ,footnote #gcf3 ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,campbell1 ,superstitions of the ,highlands and ,islands of ,scotland 7,glasgow1 #aijj71 p4 #bdb4 ,footnote #gcg3 ,the ,sacred ,books of ,china1 translated by ,james ,legge1 ,part iii4 ,the ,li-,ki1 i4-x4 7,oxford1 #ahhe7 pp4 #add sq4 7,bk4 ii4 ,sect4 i4 ,pt4 ,,ii4 #cc7 7,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 xxvii472 ,j4 ,f4 ,lafitau1 ,moeurs des ,sauvages ,ameriquains 7,paris1 #agbd71 ii4 #dja sq41 citing ,le ,comte1 ,nouv4 ,memoires de la ,chine1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ahg4 ,footnote #gch3 ,relations des ,jesuites1 #afcc1 p4 #aa2 id41 #afcd1 p4 #bc 7,canadian reprint1 ,quebec1 #aheh72 ,j4 ,g4 ,kohl1 ,kitschi-,gami 7,bremen1 #ahei71 p4 #adi note4 ,footnote #gci3 ,e4 ,w4 ,nelson1 ,the ,eskimo about ,bering ,strait1 ,eighteenth ,annual ,report of the ,bureau of ,american ,ethnology1 ,part i4 7,washington1 #ahii71 p4 #caa4 ,footnote #gdj3 ,david ,crantz1 ,history of ,greenland 7,london1 #agfg71 i4 #bcg4 ,compare ,hans ,egede1 ,description of ,greenland1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahah71 pp4 #aeb sq42 ,captain ,g4 ,f4 ,lyon1 ,private ,journal 7,london1 #ahbd71 p4 #cgj2 ,c4 ,f4 ,hall1 ,narrative of the ,second ,arctic ,expedition 7,washington1 #ahgi71 p4 #bfe 7,esquimaux74 ,footnote #gda3 ,p4 ,kolben1 ,the ,present ,state of the ,cape of ,good ,hope 7,london1 #agca-agch71 i4 #caf2 ,c4 ,p4 ,thunberg1 ,an ,account of the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 xvi4 7,london1 #ahad7 p4 #adb2 ,bulletin de la ,societe de ,geographie 7,paris71 ii1 ,serie1 ii4 7#ahcd7 p4 #aif 7,bechuanas72 id41 vii4 ,serie1 vii4 7#ahhf7 p4 #ehg 7,fernando ,po72 ,t4 ,arbousset et ,f4 ,daumas1 ,relation d'un ,voyage d',exploration au ,nord-est de la ,colonie du ,cap de ,bonne-,esperance 7,paris1 #ahdb71 pp4 #ejb sq42 ,c4 ,j4 ,andersson1 ,lake ,ngami1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahef71 p4 #dff2 ,g4 ,fritsch1 ,die ,eingeborenen ,sued-,afrika's 7,breslau1 #ahgb71 pp4 #baj1 #cce2 ,r4 ,moffat1 ,missionary ,labours and ,scenes in ,southern ,africa 7,london1 #ahdb71 p4 #cjg2 ,e4 ,casalis1 ,the ,basutos 7,london1 #ahfa71 p4 #bjb2 ,ladislaus ,magyar1 ,reisen in ,sued-,afrika 7,buda-,pesth and ,leipsic1 #ahei71 p4 #cej2 ,rev4 ,j4 ,macdonald1 ,light in ,africa1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahij71 p4 #aff2 ,e4 ,beguin1 ,les ,ma-,rotse 7,lausanne and ,fontaines1 #aijc71 p4 #aae2 ,henri ,a4 ,junod1 ,les ,ba-,ronga 7,neuchatel1 #ahih71 p4 #dh2 id41 ,the ,life of a ,south ,african ,tribe1 i4 7,neuchatel1 #aiab7 p4 #ach2 ,dudley ,kidd1 ,the ,essential ,kafir 7,london1 #aijd71 p4 #bdg2 ,a4 ,f4 ,mockler-,ferryman1 ,british ,nigeria 7,london1 #aijb71 p4 #bcd2 ,ramseyer and ,kuehne1 ,four ,years in ,ashantee 7,london1 #ahge71 p4 #ej2 ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 ,the ,land of ,fetish 7,london1 #ahhc71 p4 #ac2 id41 ,the ,tshi-speaking ,peoples of the ,gold ,coast 7,london1 #ahhg71 p4 #bci2 ,e4 ,perregaud1 ,chez les ,achanti 7,neuchatel1 #aijf71 p4 #abg2 ,j4 ,spieth1 ,die ,ewe-,staemme 7,berlin1 #aijf71 p4 #gef2 ,h4 ,r4 ,palmer1 ,notes on the ,kororofawa and ,jukon1 ,journal of the ,african ,society1 ,no4 #dd 7,july1 #aiab71 p4 #dad4 ,the custom is also observed by some tribes of ,central ,africa4 ,see ,miss ,a4 ,werner1 ,the ,natives of ,british ,central ,africa 7,london1 #aijf71 p4 #afa2 ,b4 ,gutmann1 ,trauer und ,begraebnisssitten der ,wadschagga1 ,globus1 lxxxix4 7#aijf7 p4 #bjj2 ,rev4 ,n4 ,stam1 ,religious ,conceptions of the ,kavirondo1 ,anthropos1 v4 7#aiaj7 p4 #cfa4 ,footnote #gdb3 ,c4 ,snouck ,hurgronje1 ,het ,gajoland en zijne ,bewoners 7,batavia1 #aijc71 p4 #cac4 ,footnote #gdc3 ,aurel ,krause1 ,die ,tlinkit-,indianer 7,jena1 #ahhe71 p4 #bbe2 ,franz ,boas1 in ,sixth ,report of the ,committee on the ,north-western ,tribes of ,canada1 p4 #bc 7separate reprint from the ,report of the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 ,leeds ,meeting1 #ahij72 ,j4 ,r4 ,swanton1 ,contributions to the ,ethnology of the ,haida 7,leyden and ,new ,york1 #aije71 pp4 #eb1 #ed 7,the ,jesup ,north ,pacific ,expedition1 ,memoir of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history74 ,footnote #gdd3 ,j4 ,a4 ,h4 ,louis1 ,the ,gates of ,thibet 7,calcutta1 #ahid71 p4 #aad4 ,footnote #gde3 ,h4 von ,wlislocki1 ,volksglaube und religioeser ,brauch der ,zigeuner 7,muenster i4 ,w41 #ahia71 p4 #ii4 ,footnote #gdf3 ,w4 ,jochelson1 ,the ,koryak 7,new ,york and ,leyden1 #aijh71 pp4 #aaj sq4 7,the ,jesup ,north ,pacific ,expedition1 ,memoir of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history74 ,footnote #gdg3 ,w4 ,h4 ,dall1 ,alaska and its ,resources 7,london1 #ahgj71 p4 #chb4 ,footnote #gdh3 ,lucien ,m4 ,turner1 ,ethnology of the ,ungava ,district1 ,hudson ,bay ,territory1 ,eleventh ,annual ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology 7,washington1 #ahid71 p4 #aia4 ,footnote #gdi3 ,mgr4 ,bruguiere1 in ,annales de l',association de la ,propagation de la ,foi1 v4 7,lyons and ,paris1 #ahca7 p4 #ahj4 ,compare ,mgr4 ,pallegoix1 ,description du royaume ,thai ou ,siam 7,paris1 #ahed71 i4 #bde2 ,adolf ,bastian1 ,die ,volker des oestlichen ,asien1 iii4 7,jena1 #ahfg7 p4 #beh2 ,e4 ,young1 ,the ,kingdom of the ,yellow ,robe 7,westminster1 #ahih71 p4 #bdf4 ,footnote #gej3 ,s4 ,mateer1 ,native ,life in ,travancore 7,london1 #ahhc71 p4 #acg4 ,compare ,a4 ,butterworth1 ,royal ,funerals in ,travancore1 ,indian ,antiquary1 xxxi4 7#aijb7 p4 #bea4 ,footnote #gea3 ,ch4 ,hose and ,w4 ,mc,dougall1 ,the ,pagan ,tribes of ,borneo 7,london1 #aiab71 ii4 #ce4 ,footnote #geb3 ,s4 ,k4 ,kusnezow1 ,ueber den ,glauben vom ,jenseits und den ,todtencultus der ,tscheremissen1 ,internationales ,archiv fuer ,ethnographie1 ix4 7#ahif7 p4 #aeg4 ,footnote #gec3 ,p4 ,s4 ,pallas1 ,reise durch verschiedene ,provinzen des ,russischen ,reichs 7,st4 ,petersburg1 #agga-aggf71 iii4 #ge2 ,middendorff1 ,reise in den aeussersten ,norden und ,osten ,sibiriens1 iv4 #adfd4 ,footnote #ged3 ,exploraciones y ,noticias hidrograficas de los ,rios del ,norte de ,bolivia1 publicados por ,manuel ,v4 ,ballivian1 ,segunda ,parte1 ,diario del ,viage al ,madre de ,dios hecho por el ,p4 ,fr4 ,nicolas ,armentia1 en los anos de #ahhd y #ahhe 7,la ,paz1 #ahij71 p4 #bj3 ,cuando muere alguno1 apenas sacan el cadaver de la casa1 cambian la puerta al lado opuesto1 para que no de con ella el difunto4 ,footnote #gee3 ,karl ,bartsch1 ,sagen1 ,maerchen und ,gebraeuche aus ,meklenburg 7,vienna1 #ahgi-ahhj71 ii4 #ajj1 ,sec4 #ceh4 ,footnote #gef3 ,for some evidence on this subject1 see ,r4 ,lasch1 ,die ,behandlung der ,leiche des ,selbstmoerders1 ,globus1 lxxxvi4 7#ahii7 pp4 #fc-ff2 ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda 7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #bj sq42 ,a4 ,karasek1 ,beitraege zur ,kenntnis der ,waschamba1 ,baessler-,archiv1 i4 7#aiaa7 pp4 #aij sq4 ,footnote #geg3 ,rev4 ,n4 ,stam1 ,the ,religious ,conceptions of the ,kavirondo1 ,anthropos1 v4 7#aiaj7 p4 #cfa4 ,footnote #geh3 ,alfred de ,nore1 ,coutumes1 ,mythes1 et ,traditions des ,provinces de ,france 7,paris and ,lyons1 #ahdf71 p4 #aih4 ,footnote #gei3 ,felix ,chapiseau1 ,le ,folk-lore de la ,beauce et du ,perche 7,paris1 #aijb71 ii4 #afd4 ,footnote #gfj3 ,for some evidence on this subject see ,psyche's ,task1 pp4 #fd sq4 ,footnote #gfa3 ,carl ,bock1 ,temples and ,elephants 7,london1 #ahhd71 p4 #bfb4 ,footnote #gfb3 ,ch4 ,gilhodes1 ,naissance et ,enfance chez les ,katchins 7,birmanie71 ,anthropos1 vi4 7#aiaa7 pp4 #hgb sq4 ,footnote #gfc3 ,a4 ,w4 ,nieuwenhuis1 ,quer durch ,borneo 7,leyden1 #aija-aijg71 i4 #ia4 ,footnote #gfd3 ,ch4 ,hose and ,w4 ,mc,dougall1 ,the ,pagan ,tribes of ,borneo 7,london1 #aiab71 ii4 #aee4 ,footnote #gfe3 ,franz ,boas1 in ,sixth ,report of the ,committee on the ,north-western ,tribes of ,canada1 p4 #bc 7separate reprint from the ,report of the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 ,leeds ,meeting1 #ahij74 ,footnote #gff3 ,prevost1 quoted by ,john ,crawford1 ,history of the ,indian ,archipelago 7,edinburgh1 #ahbj71 ii4 #bde4 ,compare ,adolf ,bastian1 ,die ,voelker des oestlichen ,asien1 v4 7,jena1 #ahfi7 p4 #hc4 ,footnote #gfg3 ,mrs4 ,bishop 7,isabella ,l4 ,bird71 ,korea and her ,neighbours 7,london1 #ahih71 i4 #bci sq4 ,footnote #gfh3 ,arnold van ,gennep1 ,tabou et ,totemisme a ,madagascar 7,paris1 #aijd71 p4 #fe1 quoting ,dr4 ,catat4 ,footnote #gfi3 ,b4 ,f4 ,matthes1 ,bijdragen tot de ,ethnologie van ,zuid-,celebes 7,the ,hague1 #ahge71 p4 #aci2 id41 ,over de ada's of gewoonten der ,makassaren en ,boegineezen1 ,verslagen en ,mededeelingen der ,koninklijke ,akademie van ,wetenschappen1 ,afdeeling ,letterkunde1 ,derde ,reeks1 ii4 7,amsterdam1 #ahhe7 p4 #adb4 ,footnote #ggj3 ,w4 ,m4 ,donselaar ,aanteekeningen over het eiland ,saleijer1 ,mededeelingen van wege het ,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1 i4 7#aheg7 p4 #bia4 ,footnote #gga3 ,see above1 p4 #dbf4 ,footnote #ggb3 ,th4 ,williams1 ,fiji and the ,fijians1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahfj71 i4 #afg4 ,footnote #ggc3 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ,new ,edition 7,new ,york1 #ahea71 iii4 #hc2 ,basil ,thomson1 ,the ,fijians1 p4 #aag4 ,footnote #ggd3 ,basil ,thomson1 op4 cit4 p4 #aba4 ,footnote #gge3 ,lorimer ,fison1 ,tales from ,old ,fiji1 p4 #afc4 ,footnote #ggf3 ,th4 ,williams1 ,fiji and the ,fijians1 i4 #bci4 ,footnote #ggg3 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #bdc sq4 ,compare ,berthold ,seeman1 ,viti1 an ,account of a ,government ,mission to the ,vitian of ,fijian ,islands in the years #ahfj-ahfa 7,cambridge1 #ahfb71 p4 #cii2 ,lorimer ,fison1 ,tales from ,old ,fiji1 p4 #afc2 ,basil ,thomson1 ,the ,fijians1 pp4 #abj sq41 #aba sq4 ,footnote #ggh3 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i1 #bdd sq4 ,footnote #ggi3 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 iii4 #hc4 ,footnote #ghj3 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #bde sq4 ,footnote #gha3 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #bdf sq4 ,footnote #ghb3 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #bdg4 ,footnote #ghc3 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 iii4 #he sq4 ,footnote #ghd3 ,th4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 i4 #bdh4 ,,note ,,myth ,,of ,,the ,,continuance ,,of ,,death#ghe ,the following story is told by the ,balolo of the ,upper ,congo to explain the continuance1 if not the origin1 of death in the world4 ,one day1 while a man was working in the forest1 a little man with two bundles1 one large and one small1 went up to him and said1 ,which of these bundles will you have8 ,the large one contains knives1 looking-glasses1 cloth and so forth2 and the small one contains immortal life4 ,i cannot choose by myself1 answered the man2 ,i must go and ask the other people in the town4 ,while he was gone to ask the others1 some women arrived and the choice was left to them4 ,they tried the edges of the knives1 decked themselves in the cloth1 admired themselves in the looking-glasses1 and1 without more ado1 chose the big bundle4 ,the little man1 picking up the small bundle1 vanished4 ,so when the man came back from the town1 the little man and his bundles were gone4 ,the women exhibited and shared the things1 but death continued on the earth4 ,hence the people often say1 ,oh1 if those women had only chosen the small bundle1 we should not be dying like this6#ghf ,footnote #ghe3 ,see above1 p4 #gg4 ,footnote #ghf3 ,rev4 ,john ,h4 ,weeks1 ,stories and other ,notes from the ,upper ,congo1 ,folk-lore1 xii4 7#aija7 p4 #dfa2 id41 ,among ,congo ,cannibals 7,london1 #aiac71 p4 #bah4 ,the country of the ,balolo lies five miles south of the ,equator1 on ,longitude #ah deg4 ,east4 ,,index ,abinal1 ,father1 #di ,abipones1 their belief in sorcery as a cause of death1 #ce ,abnormal mental states explained by inspiration1 #ae ,aborigines1 magical powers attributed by immigrants to1 #aic ,abstinence from certain food in mourning1 #aih1 #bjh1 #bji1 #bcj1 #cad1 #cfj1 #deb ,abundance of food and water favourable to social progress1 #ij sq4 ,action as a clue to belief1 #adc ,actors personating ghosts and spirits1 #agf1 #agi sq41 #ahj sqq41 #ahe sqq4 ,adiri1 the land of the dead1 #baa1 #bab1 #bac1 #bad ,admiralty ,islands1 #cic1 #djj1 #dja ---- ,islanders1 their myths of the origin of death1 #ga1 #gf sq4 ,advance of culture among the aborigines of ,south-,eastern ,australia1 #ada sq41 #adh sq4 ,africa1 aborigines of1 their ideas as to the cause of death1 #di sqq42 use of poison ordeal in1 #ej sqq4 ----1 ,british ,central1 #afb ----1 ,british ,east1 #fa1 #ff1 #bed ,agriculture1 rise of1 favourable to astronomy1 #adj sq42 ,fijian1 #djh ,akamba1 their story of the origin of death1 #fa sq4 ,akikuyu1 resurrection and circumcision among the1 #bed ,alcheringa or dream times1 #if1 #ajc1 #aad ---- ancestors1 their marvellous powers1 #ajc ---- home of the dead1 #afg ,alfoors of ,celebes1 #aff ,alligators1 ghosts in1 #chj ,alols1 bachelors' houses1 #bba1 #bbb ,altars1 stones used as1 #cgi ,amputation of fingers in mourning1 #aii1 #dbf sq41 #dea ,amulets consisting of relics of the dead1 #ccb1 #cgj ,ancestor1 totemic1 developing into a god1 #aac ,ancestor-worship possibly evolved from totemism1 #aad sq4 ,ancestors1 reincarnation of1 #ib sqq42 marvellous powers ascribed to remote1 #ajc1 #aad sq42 totemic1 traditions concerning1 #aae sqq42 dramatic ceremonies to commemorate the doings of1 #aah sqq42 possible evolution of worship of1 in ,central ,australia1 #abe sq42 worshipped1 #bba1 #big sq41 #cbh sqq41 #cch1 #cdj2 ghosts of1 appealed to for help1 #beh sq42 offerings to1 #bih2 prayers to1 #cbi sq41 #ccb sqq4 ,see also ,dead ,ancestral gods1 foreskins of circumcised lads offered to1 #dbg2 libations to1 #dcj1 #dch ---- images1 #cjg sqq41 #cae1 #caf sq41 #cba1 #cbb ---- spirits help hunters and fishers1 #bbf2 shrines for1 #caf1 #cag2 worshipped as gods1 #cfi2 worshipped in the ,nanga1 #dbh sq42 first-fruits offered to1 #dbi2 cloth and weapons offered to1 #dcj sq42 novices presented to1 at initiation1 #dcb sq41 #dcd4 ,angola1 the poison ordeal in1 #ea sq4 ,angoni1 their burial customs1 #afb ,animals1 souls of sorcerers in1 #ci2 spirits of1 go to the spirit land1 #baj2 sacrifices to the souls of1 #bci2 transmigration of dead into1 #bdb1 #bde2 ghosts in the form of1 #bhb2 ghosts turn into1 #bhg2 ghosts incarnate in1 #cgi sq4 ,animistic views of the ,papuans1 #bfd ,anjea1 a mythical being1 #abh ,annam1 #fg1 #fi ,anointing manslayers1 #ddh ,ant-hills1 ghosts turn into1 #bhg ,ant totem1 dramatic ceremony concerned with1 #abj sq4 ,ants' nests1 ghosts turn into1 #cea ,anthropology1 comparative and descriptive1 #bcj sq4 ,antimerina of ,madagascar1 burial custom of the1 #dfa ,anuto1 a creator1 #bif ,apparitions1 #cif2 fear of1 #dad ,appearance of the dead in dreams1 #bbi ,araucanians of ,chili1 their disbelief in natural death1 #ce1 #ec sq4 ,arawaks of ,guiana1 #cf2 their myth of the origin of death1 #gj ,arm-bone1 final burial ceremony performed with the1 #afg sq42 lower1 of dead preserved1 #bgd ---- -bones1 special treatment of the1 #aii2 of dead preserved1 #bbe1 #bdi ,aroma district of ,british ,new ,guinea1 #bja1 #bjb ,arrow-heads made of bones of the dead1 #ceb ,art1 primitive religious1 #aad2 ,papuan1 #bbj ,arugo1 soul of dead1 #bjg ,arumburinga1 spiritual double1 #afd ,arunta1 the1 of ,central ,australia1 #id2 ceremonies connected with totems1 #aai sqq42 their magical ceremonies for the multiplication of the totems1 #abb sq42 their customs as to the hair of the dead1 #ach2 their cuttings for the dead1 #aee sq41 #aei2 burial customs of the1 #afd sq41 #aff ,aryan burial custom1 #dec ,asa1 ,secret ,society1 #bcc ,ashantee story of the origin of death1 #fc sq4 ,ashes smeared on mourners1 #ahd1 #cfa ,astrolabe ,bay in ,german ,new ,guinea1 #bah1 #bcj1 #bce1 #bcg ,astronomy1 rise of1 favoured by agriculture1 #adj sq4 ,asylums1 #bdc ,asyren1 dead man1 #deg ,ataro1 a powerful ghost1 #cgg ,atonement for sick chief1 #dbg ,aukem1 a mythical being1 #aha ,aurora1 one of the ,new ,hebrides1 #cfj1 #chb ,australia1 causes which retarded progress in1 #hi sq42 germs of a worship of the dead in1 #afh sq4 ,see also ,central ,australia1 ,western ,australia ----1 the aborigines of1 their ideas as to death from natural causes1 #dj sqq42 their primitive character1 #hh1 #ia2 the belief in immortality among1 #abg sqq42 thought to be reborn in white people1 #acj1 #aca sqq42 their burial customs1 #add sqq42 their primitive condition1 #bag ----1 ,south1 beliefs as to the dead in1 #acd sqq4 ,australia1 ,south-,eastern1 beliefs as to the dead in1 #acc sq41 #aci2 burial customs among the aborigines of1 #ade sqq4 ----1 ,western1 burial customs in1 #adg1 #aej1 #aea ,authority of chiefs based on their claim to magical powers1 #cie ,avenging a death1 pretence of1 #bhb1 #cbh ,bachelor ghosts1 hard fate of1 #dfd ,bachelors' houses1 #bba ,bad and good1 different fate of the1 after death1 #ced ,baganda1 the1 their ideas as to the causes of death1 #ef n4 #b2 their myth of the origin of death1 #gh sqq4 ,see also ,uganda ,bahaus1 the1 of ,borneo1 #dei ,bahnars of ,cochinchina1 #gd ,bakairi1 the1 of ,brazil1 #ce ,bakerewe1 the1 of the ,victoria ,nyanza1 #ej ,bali1 burial custom in1 #dfj ,balking ghosts1 #dee sqq4 ,balolo1 of the ,upper ,congo1 their myth of the continuance of death1 #dgb ,balum1 ghost or spirit of dead1 #bdd2 name for bull-roarer1 #bej2 name for a ghost or monster who swallows lads at initiation1 #bea1 #bee1 #bfj1 #bfa2 soul of a dead man1 #beg1 #bfa ,bamler1 ,g41 #bia1 #big sq4 ,bananas in myths of the origin of death1 #fj1 #gj1 #gb sq4 ,bandages to prevent entrance of ghosts1 #cif ,bandaging eyes of corpse1 #dei ,banks' ,islands1 #cdc1 #cec1 #chf2 myths of the origin of death in1 #ga1 #hc sq4 ---- ,islanders1 funeral customs of the1 #cee sqq4 ,bantu family1 #fj ,baronga1 the1 #fa2 burial custom of the1 #ded ,bartle ,bay1 #bjf1 #bjh ,basutos1 the1 #fa2 burial custom of the1 #ded ,bat in myth of origin of death1 #ge ,bathing in sea after funeral1 #bjg sq42 as purification after a death1 #cad1 #cai ,battel1 ,andrew1 #ea sq4 ,bechuanas1 the1 #fa2 burial custom of the1 #ded ,beetles in myth of the origin of death1 #gj ,belep tribe of ,new ,caledonia1 #cbe ,belief1 acts as a clue to1 #adc ,belief in immortality1 origin of belief in1 #be sqq42 almost universal among races of mankind1 #cc2 among the aborigines of ,central ,australia1 #hg sqq42 among the islanders of ,torres ,straits1 #agj sqq42 among the natives of ,british ,new ,guinea1 #aij sqq42 among the natives of ,german ,new ,guinea1 #baf sqq42 among the natives of ,dutch ,new ,guinea1 #cjc sqq42 among the natives of ,southern ,melanesia1 #cbd sqq42 among the natives of ,central ,melanesia1 #cdc sqq42 its practical effect on the life of the ,central ,melanesians1 #cia sq42 among the natives of ,northern ,melanesia1 #cic sqq42 among the ,fijians1 #djf sqq42 strongly held by savages1 #dfh2 destruction of life and property entailed by the1 #dfh sq42 the question of its truth1 #dfi sqq4 ,belief in sorcery a cause of keeping down the population1 #ch1 #dj ,berkeley1 his theory of knowledge1 #aa sq4 ,berlin ,harbour in ,german ,new ,guinea1 #bah ,bernau1 ,rev4 ,j4 ,h41 #ch ,beryl-stone in ,rose ,mary1 #acj ,betindalo1 the land of the dead1 #cej ,bhotias1 the1 of the ,himalayas1 #afc ,biak or ,wiak1 island1 #cjc ,bilking a ghost1 #daf ,bird in divination as to cause of death1 #de ,birds1 souls of sorcerers in1 #ci ,birth1 new1 at initiation1 pretence of1 #bed ,birthplaces1 the dead buried in their1 #afj ,birth-stones and birth-sticks 7churinga7 of the ,central ,australians1 #if sqq4 ,bismarck ,archipelago1 #gj1 #cid1 #djb ,black1 mourners painted1 #agh1 #bda1 #bic2 gravediggers painted1 #dea ---- -snake people1 #id ,blackened1 faces of mourners1 #djc ,blood of mourners dropped on corpse or into grave1 #aeh sq41 #ahc1 #ahe2 and hair of mourners offered to the dead1 #ahc2 of pigs smeared on skulls and bones of the dead1 #bjj2 soul thought to reside in the1 #cjg2 of sacrificial victim not allowed to fall on the ground1 #cfe ---- revenge1 duty of1 #bgd1 #bgf sq42 discharged by sham fight1 #acf sq4 ,bogadyim1 in ,german ,new ,guinea1 #bcj1 #bca ,boigu1 the island of the dead1 #age1 #ahd1 #bac ,bolafagina1 the lord of the dead1 #cej ,bolotoo1 the land of souls1 #daa ,bones of the dead1 second burial of the1 #aff sq42 kept in house1 #bjc2 worn by survivors1 #bbe2 disinterred and kept in house1 #bbe1 #bid2 making rain by means of the1 #cda ---- and skulls of dead smeared with blood of pigs1 #bjj ,bonitos1 ghosts in1 #chj ,boollia1 magic1 #da sq4 ,born of an oak or a rock1 #abh ,bougainville1 island of1 #cic ,boulia district of ,queensland1 #adg1 #aee ,bow1 divination by1 #bda ,bread-fruit trees1 stones to make them bear fruit1 #cce sq4 ,breaking things offered to the dead1 #bgf ,breath1 vital principle associated with the1 #abi sq4 ,brett1 ,rev4 ,w4 ,h41 #ce sqq4 ,brewin1 an evil spirit1 #de ,brittany1 burial custom in1 #deh ,brothers-in-law in funeral rites1 #agg ,brown1 ,rev4 ,dr4 ,george1 #dh1 #cie ,buandik1 the1 #ach ,buckley1 the convict1 #aca ,buginese1 burial custom of the1 #dfa ,bugotu1 #cej1 #ceb2 in ,ysabel1 #cgb1 #cgi ,building king's house1 men sacrificed at1 #ddf ,bukaua1 the1 of ,german ,new ,guinea1 #bdb1 #bef sqq4 ,bull-roarers1 #bdc2 used in divination1 #bdi2 described1 #bej2 used at initiation of young men among the ,yabim1 #bej sqq42 among the ,kaya-,kaya1 #bee2 at initiation among the ,bukaua1 #bfj sq42 associated with the spirits of the dead1 #bfa2 at initiation among the ,kai1 #bfc1 #bia2 at initiation of young men among the ,tami1 #cja1 #cjb ,bulotu or ,bulu1 the land of the dead1 #dfb1 #dfc ,bundle1 the fatal1 #dgb2 story of1 #gg sq4 ,bures1 ,fijian temples1 #dci ,burial different for old and young1 married and unmarried1 etc41 #afa sqq42 and burning of the dead1 #afb sq42 special modes of1 intended to prevent or facilitate the return of the spirit1 #afc sqq42 second1 custom of1 #aff sq42 in trees1 #bjc2 in island1 #cai2 in the sea1 #cdg sq4 ---- customs of the ,australian aborigines1 #add sqq42 in ,tumleo1 #bbc2 of the ,kai1 #bgd2 of the ,new ,caledonians1 #cbf sq41 #cci sq42 in ,new ,ireland1 #cig sq42 in the ,duke of ,york ,island1 #djc4 ,see also ,corpse1 ,grave ---- -grounds1 sacred1 #cgh ,buried alive1 old people1 #cei sq4 ,burma1 #ge ,burning and burial of the dead1 #afb sq4 ---- bodies of women who died in childbed1 #dei ,burns inflicted on themselves by mourners1 #aed1 #aee1 #aeg1 #cbg1 #dea ,burnt offerings to the dead1 #bid ---- sacrifices1 reasons for1 #cdh sq42 to ghosts1 #cff1 #cfg sq41 #cgc ,burying alive the sick and old1 ,fijian custom of1 #dbj sqq4 ---- people in their birthplaces1 #afj ,bushmen1 #fe ,buwun1 deities1 #bif ,caffres of ,south ,africa1 their beliefs as to the causes of death1 #ee sq4 ,calabar1 poison ordeal in1 #eb ,california1 ,indians of1 #fh ,calling back a lost soul1 #cab ,calm and wind produced by weather-doctors1 #che sq4 ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 #aga1 #aia ,canaanites1 the heathen1 #aed ,canadian ,indians1 burial custom of the1 #ded ,canarium nuts1 first-fruits of1 offered to ghosts1 #cfh sq4 ,cannibal feasts in ,fiji1 #ddf ,cannibals fear the ghosts of their victims1 #cif ,canoe1 men sacrificed at launching a new1 #ddf sq4 ,canoes1 ,papuan1 #bbj ,cape ,bedford in ,queensland1 #abi1 #acj1 #aca ---- ,king ,william in ,german ,new ,guinea1 #bah1 #bch ,carnac in ,brittany1 #dch ,catching soul in a scarf1 #dab sq4 ,cause1 ,hume's analysis of1 #ah sq4 ,causes1 the propensity to search for1 #ag sq42 two classes of1 #bb ,caves used as burial-places or charnel-houses1 #ccj sqq4 ,celebes1 ,central1 #gb ,central ,australia1 aborigines of1 their ideas as to natural death1 #df sq42 their ideas as to resurrection1 #fh2 their belief in immortality1 #hg sqq42 their belief in reincarnation of the dead1 #ib sqq42 their attitude towards the dead1 #abd sqq4 ,cereals unknown to ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 #djh ,ceremonial impurity of manslayer1 #bbi sq4 ,ceremonies performed in honour of the ,wollunqua1 a mythical water-snake1 #ajh sqq42 dramatic1 to commemorate the doings of ancestors1 #aah sqq42 funeral1 of the ,torres ,straits ,islanders1 #agf sqq4 ,see also ,dramatic ,ceremonies1 ,dramatic ,representations1 ,funeral ,ceremonies1 ,totems ,chameleon in myths of the origin of death1 #fj sqq4 ,chams of ,annam1 #fg ,charms imparted by dead in dreams1 #aci ,charnel-houses1 #bba sq41 #bbe1 #cbh ,cheating the devil1 #dfj ,chepara1 the1 #aci ,cheremiss of ,russia1 burial custom of the1 #deg ,cherokee ,indians1 #gg ,chief1 spirit of dead1 a worshipful ghost1 #ceb ,chief's power in ,central ,melanesia based on a fear of ghosts1 #cia ,chiefs deified after death1 #cfi ,chiefs' authority based on their claim to magical powers1 #cie ,chieftainship1 rise of1 #ada ,childbed1 treatment of ghosts of women dying in1 #ceh2 special fear of ghosts of women dying in1 #deh sqq4 ,childless women1 burial of1 #deh ,children1 ,central ,australian theory of the birth of1 #ic sq42 belief of ,queensland natives as to the birth of1 #abh ,children buried in trees1 #afa1 #cab sq42 stillborn1 burial of1 #deh ,child-stones1 #ic sq4 ,chingpaws of ,burma1 #ge ,choi1 disembodied human spirits1 #abh ,chukchansi ,indians1 #afc ,churinga1 sacred sticks or stones1 #if sqq4 ,circumcision as initiatory rite of young men1 #bcc2 among the ,yabim1 #bej sqq42 among the ,akikuyu1 #bed2 among the ,bukaua1 #bfj sq42 among the ,kai1 #bij sq42 among the ,tami1 #cja sq42 as a propitiatory sacrifice1 #dbf sqq4 ,clans1 totemic1 #ajd ,clay1 widow's body smeared with1 #bbc ,cleanliness due to fear of sorcery1 #chf sq41 #dad ,cleft stick used in cure1 #bga ,clercq1 ,f4 ,s4 ,a4 de1 #caf ,cloth and weapons offered to ancestral spirits1 #dcj sq4 ,clubhouses for men1 #bba1 #bbe1 #bbf1 #bdc1 #bef sq41 #cee ,cochinchina1 #gd ,coco-nut trees of dead cut down1 #bjh1 #bji1 #cbg2 stones to blight1 #cce ---- -nuts tabooed1 #big ,codrington1 ,dr4 ,r4 ,h41 #ed sq41 #cdd1 #cde sq41 #cec1 #cee1 #cei1 #cfb sq41 #cfh1 #chj sq4 ,collins1 ,david1 #acc ,commemorative and magical ceremonies combined1 #abb1 #abf ,commercial habits of the ,north ,melanesians1 #cid ,communal houses1 #cjd ,communism1 temporary revival of primitive1 #dcf sq4 ,comparative and descriptive anthropology1 their relation1 #bcj sq4 ,comparative method applied to the study of religion1 #e sq42 in anthropology1 #cj ,compartments in land of the dead1 #bdd1 #ced1 #djd ,competition as a cause of progress1 #hi sq4 ,conception in women1 ,central ,australian theory of1 #ic sq42 belief of ,queensland natives concerning1 #abh ,conception of death1 the savage1 #ca sqq4 ,concert of spirits1 #cdj sq4 ,confession of sins1 #bja ,congo1 natives of the1 their ideas as to natural death1 #ej2 worship of the moon on the1 #fh ,consecration of manslayers in ,fiji1 #ddh sq4 ,consultation of ancestral images1 #cjh sqq4 ,continence1 required in training yam vines1 #cga ,continuance of death1 myth of the1 #dgb ,contradictions and inconsistencies in reasoning not peculiar to savages1 #aaa sq4 ,convulsions as evidence of inspiration1 #ddc1 #ddd ,co-operative system of piety1 #ccc ,coorgs1 the1 #afc ,cord worn round neck by mourners1 #bda1 #bdb1 #bdi1 #bei1 #cfa ,corpse inspected to discover sorcerer1 #cg1 #ch1 #ec sq42 dried on fire1 #ace1 #ahd1 #bdi1 #cac1 #cee2 tied to prevent ghost from walking1 #add2 mauled and mutilated in order to disable the ghost1 #aec2 putrefying juices of1 received by mourners on their bodies1 #afg1 #bje2 carried out feet foremost1 #agd2 decked with ornaments and flowers1 #bcb2 painted white and red1 #bcc2 crowned with red roses1 #bcc1 #bcd2 stript of ornaments before burial1 #bcd1 #bda2 kept in house1 #cee2 property displayed beside the1 #cig2 persons who have handled a corpse forbidden to touch food with their hands1 #dej sq42 carried out of house by special opening1 #deb sqq4 ,corpses mummified1 #cac2 of women dying in childbed burnt1 #dei ,costume of mourners1 #ahd1 #aih1 #bda sq42 of widow and widower1 #bjd ,costumes of actors in dramatic ceremonies concerned with totems1 #aai sqq4 ,crabs in myth of the origin of death1 #gj ,cracking joints of fingers at incantation1 #bbc ,creator1 the1 and the origin of death1 #gc ,crocodiles1 transmigration of dead into1 #bde ,cromlechs1 #dch ,crops1 ghosts expected to make the crops thrive1 #bei1 #bhd1 #bhh sq4 ,cross-questioning a ghost by means of fire1 #bgh ,cultivation of the ground1 spirits of ancestors supposed to help in the1 #bei ,culture1 advance of1 among the aborigines of ,south-,eastern ,australia1 #ada sq41 #adh sq42 advanced1 of the ,fijians1 #djg ,cursing enemies1 #cgj1 #djc1 #djd ,cutting down trees of the dead1 #bjh1 #bji ,cuttings of the flesh in honour of the dead1 #aed sqq41 #ahc1 #ahd sq41 #aif1 #bgb1 #cbg1 #cei ,dance of death1 #ahe sqq4 ,dances as funeral rites1 #agi sqq41 #bjj2 masked1 of the ,monumbo1 #bbh2 masked1 of a ,secret ,society1 #bcc2 at deaths1 #bic sq42 of masked men in imitation of spirits1 #big2 at festivals1 #caf2 at festivals of the dead1 #cba2 at funeral feasts1 #cii ---- and games at festivals1 #bbf ,dark1 ghosts dreaded in the1 #aig1 #bhc1 #cjf1 #dfg2 female mourners remain in the1 #cfj ,daula1 a ghost associated with the frigate-bird1 #cgf ,dawson1 ,james1 #db1 #adb1 #adc ,dazing a ghost1 #daf ,dead1 worship of the1 #bc sqq41 #ca1 #cbh sqq41 #cch2 seen in dreams1 #bg2 belief in the reincarnation of the1 #ib sqq41 #ajg2 spirits of1 associated with conspicuous features of the landscape1 #aae sqq42 reincarnation of the1 #abd sq41 #abg sqq42 souls of the1 supposed to go to the sky1 #acc sq41 #ace1 #ach sq41 #ada1 #adb2 souls of the1 supposed to be in stars1 #acd1 #adj2 names of the1 not mentioned1 #ace2 magical virtue attributed to the hair of the1 #acg sq42 appear to the living in dreams1 #aci1 #aie1 #bac1 #bbi2 attentions paid to the1 in regard to food1 fire1 property1 etc41 #add sqq42 property of1 deposited in grave1 #ade sqq42 motive for destroying the property of the1 #adg sq42 economic loss entailed by sacrifices to the1 #adi2 incipient worship of the1 in ,australia1 #adi1 #aej2 feared1 #aeb sq41 #agc sqq41 #aif sq41 #bja1 #bjc1 #bdd1 #bdh2 cuttings of the flesh in honour of the1 #aed sqq41 #ahc1 #ahd sq41 #aif1 #cbg1 #cei2 thought to be strengthened by blood1 #aei2 disposed of in different ways according to their age1 manner of death1 etc41 #afa sqq42 fear of the1 #afh2 germs of a worship of the1 in ,australia1 #afh sq42 destruction of the property of the1 #agd2 land of the1 #age sq41 #aib1 #aic1 #aid sq41 #bjb1 #bjc1 #bjg1 #bji sq41 #baa sqq41 #bbd1 #bbh sq41 #bdd1 #bfj1 #bhf sq41 #bib1 #bii1 #cje sq41 #cjg1 #cbb1 #cbf1 #cde1 #cej sq41 #cec sq41 #djd sqq41 #dfb sqq42 personated by masked men1 #agf1 #agi sq41 #ahb sq41 #ahe sqq42 food offered to the1 #ahc1 #baa1 #bad1 #bcb1 #bda1 #ccb1 #cch1 #cdh sq41 #cfd sq41 #cfg sq41 #cgb sq41 #cif sq41 #dbi1 #ddb1 #dfg2 elements of a worship of the1 in ,torres ,straits1 #ahi2 laid on platforms1 #aii1 #bjc1 #bje2 worshipped in ,british ,new ,guinea1 #bja sq42 prayers to the1 #bja sq41 #bad1 #bei1 #bhh1 #cjg1 #cbi sq41 #ccb sqq41 #cdj1 #cgf sq41 #dja1 #djc sq41 #dbg1 #dda2 names of1 not mentioned1 #baj1 #bdf2 monuments of the1 #bbe2 offerings of hunters and fishers to the1 #bbf2 oracles of the1 #bce2 buried in the house1 #bcf1 #cdg1 #ceb1 #cig1 #cih1 #cii2 offerings to the1 #bci1 #bgf1 #bib1 #bih2 transmigrate into animals1 #bdb1 #bde2 spirits of the1 give good crops1 #bdg sq42 elements of a worship of the dead among the ,yabim1 #bee2 spirits of the1 believed to be mischievous1 #beg2 ancestors supposed to help in the cultivation of the ground1 #bei2 first-fruits offered to the1 #bei2 buried under houses1 #bei2 envious of the living1 #bfg1 #cha2 burnt offerings to the1 #bid2 predominance of the worship of the1 #big sq42 power of the1 over the living1 #bih1 #cjf sq41 #cjg2 sacrifices to the1 #cjg1 #cch2 wooden images 7korwar7 of the1 #cjg sqq41 #cae1 #caf sq41 #cba1 #cbb2 buried in island1 #cai2 festival of the1 #cbj sq42 medicine-men1 inspired by spirits of the1 #cbb2 spirits of the1 embodied in their skulls1 #cch2 spirits of the1 identified with white men1 #cdb2 buried in the sea1 #cdg sq41 #cig2 relics of the1 preserved1 #cdh2 bodies of the1 preserved for a time in the house1 #cea2 represented by wooden stocks1 #cgd1 #chf2 burned in ,new ,ireland1 #cig2 carried out of house by special opening1 #deb sqq4 ,see also ,ghost ,dead kings of ,uganda consulted as oracles1 #aea ,death1 the problem of1 #ca sqq42 the savage conception of1 #ca sqq42 thought to be an effect of sorcery1 #cc sqq42 by natural causes1 recognised by some savages1 #ee sq42 myths of the origin of1 #ei sqq42 personified in tales1 #gi sqq42 not regarded as a natural necessity1 #hd sqq42 the second1 of the dead1 #aie1 #bhf1 #bii1 #cde1 #cej1 #cea1 #ced2 attributed to sorcery1 #bdi2 violent1 ascribed to sorcery1 #bfh sq42 myth of the continuance of1 #dgb ,death and resurrection at initiation1 ceremony of1 #dca1 #dcd sq42 pretence of1 at initiation1 #bed sq41 #bfa1 #cjb ,death-dances1 #bic sq42 of the ,torres ,straits ,islanders1 #agi sqq4 ,deaths from natural causes1 disbelief of savages in1 #cc sqq42 attributed to sorcery1 #acf1 #bjc2 set down to sorcery or ghosts1 #bjc1 #bfh1 #bgj ,deceiving the ghost1 #bcg1 #bgc1 #bhj sqq41 #cbh ,deceiving the spirits1 #bih ,deification of the dead1 #bd1 #be2 of parents1 #dci ,deity consumes soul of offering1 #big ,demon carries off soul of sick1 #aid ,demons as causes of disease and death1 #cf sq4 ,demonstrations1 extravagant1 of grief at a death1 dictated by fear of the ghost1 #bga sqq4 ,dene or ,tinneh ,indians1 their ideas as to death1 #ci sq4 ,departure of ghost thought to coincide with disappearance of flesh from bones1 #afe sq4 ,descent of the living into the nether world1 #cjj1 #cee ,descriptive and comparative anthropology1 their relation1 #bcj sq4 ,descriptive method in anthropology1 #cj ,desertion of house after a death1 #aie1 #aif n4 #a1 #baj1 #bdh1 #bge1 #cdi1 #djj2 of village after a death1 #bge ,deserts as impediments to progress1 #hi1 #ij ,design emblematic of totem1 #afh ,destruction of house after a death1 #baj ---- of life and property entailed by the belief in immortality1 #dfh sq4 ---- of property of the dead1 #agd1 #dei2 motive for1 #adg sq41 #cbg ,development arrested or retarded in savagery1 #hh sqq4 ,dieri1 the1 #ach2 their burial customs1 #add ,differentiation of function in prayer1 #ccb sq4 ,disbelief of savages in death from natural causes1 #cd sqq4 ,disease supposed to be caused by sorcery1 #ce sqq42 demons regarded as causes of1 #cf sq42 recognised by some savages as due to natural causes1 #ee sq42 special modes of disposing of bodies of persons who die of1 #afb1 #afc4 ,see also ,sickness ,diseases ascribed to ghosts1 #beg ,disinterment of the bones of the dead1 #bbe1 #bid ,dissection of corpse to discover cause of death1 #ec sq4 ,divination to discover cause of death1 #ce1 #cf1 #cg sq41 #ch1 #ci sq41 #dd1 #de sq41 #ej sqq41 #ec sq41 #acf2 by liver1 #ed2 by dreams1 #acf1 #chc2 by the skulls of the dead1 #agi2 to discover sorcerer who caused death1 #bdj sq41 #bdi sq41 #beg1 #djb2 by bow1 #bda2 by hair to discover cause of death1 #cai2 by means of ghosts1 #chi sq42 to discover ghost who has caused sickness1 #chb ,divinity of kings1 #af2 of ,fijian kings1 #djg sq42 ,fijian notion of1 #ddj sq4 ,dog1 in myth of the origin of death1 #ff2 the ,heavenly1 #dfj ,dogs sacrificed to the dead1 #bcb1 #bcd2 sacrificed in epidemics1 #bif ,doreh ,bay in ,dutch ,new ,guinea1 #cjc1 #cjf ,dragon supposed to swallow lads at initiation1 #cja4 ,see also ,monster ,drama of death and resurrection at initiation1 #dca1 #dcd sq4 ----1 evolution of1 #ahi ,dramatic ceremonies in ,central ,australia1 magical intention of1 #abb sq41 #abf ---- concerned with totems1 #aai sqq4 ---- to commemorate the doings of ancestors1 #aah sqq4 ,dramatic representation of ghosts and spirits by masked men1 #agf1 #agi sq41 #ahj sqq41 #ahe sqq4 ,drawings on ground in religious or magical ceremony1 #aab sq4 ---- on rocks1 #cah ,dread of witchcraft1 #dac sq4 ,dreamer1 professional1 #chc ,dreams as a source of the belief in immortality and of the worship of the dead1 #bg sq41 #bad2 divination by1 #acf2 appearance of the dead to the living in1 #aci1 #aie1 #bac1 #bbi2 savage faith in the truth of1 #aci sq42 consultation of the dead in1 #agi2 danger of1 #aid2 the dead communicate with the living in1 #bdh ,driving away the ghost1 #agh1 #aig1 #bdh1 #cje1 #cjf1 #cbc1 #cef sqq41 #cif1 #cii1 #dae ,drowning of ghosts1 #bbd ,duke of ,york ,island1 #cic1 #cig1 #djc1 #djd ,dying1 threats of the1 #bgc ,ears of corpse stopped with hot coals1 #aeb2 of mourners cut1 #ahc1 #bgb1 #cbg ,earth-burial and tree-burial1 #afa1 #aff sq4 ,earthquakes ascribed to ghosts1 #bhf1 #bhh2 caused by deities1 #bif ,eating totemic animals or plants1 #abj sq4 ,economic loss entailed by sacrifices to the dead1 #adi2 entailed by the belief in immortality1 #dfh sq4 ,eel1 ghost in1 #cgi ,eels offered to the dead1 #dbi ,egypt1 custom at embalming a corpse in ancient1 #agh ,elysium1 the ,fijian1 #dff sq4 ,embryology of religion1 #hh ,emu totem1 dramatic ceremonies concerned with1 #abb1 #abc ,encounter ,bay tribe of ,south ,australia1 #db ,epilepsy ascribed to anger of ghosts1 #beg1 #bhc ---- and inspiration1 #ae ,erdweg1 ,father ,josef1 #bah1 #bai1 #bbg ,erskine1 ,capt4 ,j4 ,e41 #dji ,ertnatulunga1 sacred store-house1 #ii ,erythrophloeum guiniense1 in poison ordeal1 #ej ,esquimaux1 burial custom of the1 #ded1 #def ,essence1 immaterial1 of sacrifice absorbed by ghosts and spirits1 #bhe1 #bhg1 #cgd ,euhemerism1 #bd sq4 ,euhemerus1 #bd ,european teaching1 influence of1 on native beliefs1 #adb sq4 ,evil spirits regarded as causes of death1 #cf sq4 ,excitement as mark of inspiration1 #ad ,exogamy with female descent1 #daf1 #dah ,exorcism as cure for sickness1 #bbb sq4 ,experience defined1 #ab2 two sorts of1 #ac sq4 ---- and intuition1 #aa ,external world1 question of the reality of1 #ac sq42 an illusion1 #ba ,eye1 soul resides in the1 #bfg ,eyes of corpse bandaged1 #dei ,faints ascribed to action of ghosts1 #beg1 #bhc ,faith1 weakening of religious1 #d ,falling stars the souls of the dead1 #bbi1 #cii ,family prayers of the ,new ,caledonians1 #ccb sq41 #cdj ---- priests1 #ccb1 #cdj ,famine1 the stone of1 #ccd sq4 ,fasting in mourning for a king1 #dea sq4 ,father-in-law1 mourning for a1 #aee ,favourable natural conditions1 their influence in stimulating social progress1 #ada sq41 #adh sq4 ,fear of ghosts1 #acd1 #ace1 #adg1 #aea sqq41 #aeh1 #agc sqq41 #aie1 #aif sq41 #bja1 #bjc1 #bbi sq41 #bcb1 #bcg1 #bgf1 #bhb sq41 #cje1 #cba1 #cbg1 #cdg1 #cif1 #dad sq41 #ddi1 #dee1 #dfg2 a moral restraint1 #age2 the source of extravagant demonstrations of grief at death1 #bga sqq42 taboo based on1 #cij sq42 a bulwark of morality1 #cib2 funeral customs based on1 #dej sqq42 of women dying in childbed1 #deh sqq4 ,fear of the dead1 #aeb sq41 #afh1 #agc sqq41 #aie1 #aif sq41 #bja1 #bjc1 #bdd1 #bdh ---- of witchcraft1 #bdd ---- the only principle of religious observances in ,fiji1 #ddc ,feasts provided for ghosts1 #bdg sq4 ,see also ,funeral ,feasts ,feather-money offered to ghosts1 #cgd1 #cge ,feet foremost1 corpse carried out1 #agd ,ferry for ghosts1 #bbd1 #bdd sq41 #cej1 #dab1 #dfb ,festival of the dead1 #cbj sq4 ,fig-trees1 sacred1 #aii ,fighting or warrior ghosts1 #cgj ,fiji and the ,fijians1 #djf sqq4 ----1 human sacrifices in1 #ddf sq4 ,fijian islands1 scenery of1 #dji sq4 ---- myths of origin of death1 #ff sq41 #ge sq4 ,fijians1 belief in immortality among the1 #djf sqq42 their advanced culture1 #djg ,fingers amputated in mourning1 #aii1 #dea ---- of living sacrificed in honour of the dead1 #dbf sq4 ,finsch ,harbour in ,german ,new ,guinea1 #bah1 #bdb1 #bfb ,fire as a means of keeping off ghosts1 #aca ---- -flies1 ghosts as1 #ceb ---- kindled on grave1 to warm ghost1 #add sq41 #aif sq41 #bji1 #baa1 #bbc1 #bge1 #cei ---- supplied to ghost1 #bdf sq42 used to keep off ghosts1 #beh1 #bhc2 used in cross-questioning a ghost1 #bgh ,firstborn children1 skull-topped images made of dead1 #cab ,first-fruits offered to the dead1 #bei2 of canarium nuts offered to ghosts1 #cfh sq42 offered to deified spirits of dead chiefs1 #cfi2 offered to ghosts1 #cgc sq42 of yams offered to the ancestral spirits1 #dbi ,fish offered by fishermen to the dead1 #bbf2 prayers for1 #cbi2 ghost in1 #cgi ---- totem1 dramatic ceremony concerned with1 #aai sq41 #aba ,fishermen pray to ghosts1 #bhi ----1 stones to help1 #ccg ,fison1 ,lorimer1 #djg1 #dab1 #daf1 #dah1 #dbh n4 #a1 #dcd1 #dce sqq41 #dch n4 #a1 #dde1 #ddh ,fits ascribed to contact with ghosts1 #bhc4 ,see also ,epilepsy ,florida1 one of the ,solomon ,islands1 #cdf1 #cdg1 #cdh1 #cdi1 #cfg1 #cfh1 #cgf1 #cgg1 #cgi1 #chj ,flutes1 sacred1 #bba1 #bbf1 #bcc1 #beb ,flying-foxes1 souls of the dead in1 #dje ,food placed on grave1 #add2 offered to the dead1 #ahc1 #bja1 #bjh1 #baa1 #bad1 #bcb1 #bda1 #ccb1 #cch1 #cfd sq41 #cfg sq41 #cgb sq41 #cif sq41 #dbi1 #ddb1 #dfg2 abstinence from certain1 in mourning1 #aih1 #bjh1 #bji1 #bcj1 #cad1 #cfj1 #deb2 supply promoted by ghosts1 #bhc2 offered to ancestral spirits1 #caf2 offered to the skulls of the dead1 #cci sq41 #ceb2 offered to ghosts1 #cdh sq42 of ghosts1 the living not to partake of the1 #cee ---- not to be touched with the hands by gravediggers1 #cbg2 not to be touched with hands by persons who have handled a corpse1 #dej sq4 ---- and water1 abundance of1 favourable to social progress1 #ij sq42 offered to the dead1 #agd ,fool and ,death1 #hc ,footprints1 magic of1 #de ,foundation-sacrifice of men1 #ddf ,fowlers pray to ghosts1 #bhi ,frenzy a symptom of inspiration1 #ddc1 #ddd sq4 ,frigate-bird1 mark of the1 #cej2 ghost associated with the1 #cgf ,frigate-birds1 ghosts in1 #chj ,frog in stories of the origin of death1 #fa1 #fb sq4 ,fruit-trees cut down for ghost1 #bdf ---- of the dead cut down1 #cii ,funeral ceremonies intended to dismiss the ghost from the land of the living1 #agd sq4 ---- ceremonies of the ,torres ,straits ,islanders1 #agf sqq4 ---- customs of the ,tami1 #bic sq42 of the ,central ,melanesians1 #cdg sqq41 #cee sqq42 based on fear of ghosts1 #dej sqq4 ---- feasts1 #cdh1 #cea1 #ceh sq41 #cfj1 #cif2 orations1 #cee sq4 ,forces1 impersonal1 the world conceived as a complex of1 #ba ,foreskins sacrificed in honour of the dead1 #dbf sq42 of circumcised lads presented to ancestral gods1 #dbg ,gaboon1 the1 #ed ,gajos of ,sumatra1 burial custom of the1 #dee ,gall used in divination1 #ed ,game offered by hunters to the dead1 #bbf ,ganindo1 a warrior ghost1 #cfc sq4 ,gardens1 ghosts of1 #cga ,gazelle ,peninsula1 ,new ,britain1 #dh1 #fi1 #cih1 #dje ,geelvink ,bay1 in ,dutch ,new ,guinea1 #cjc1 #cjg ,genital members of human victims hung on tree1 #ddg n4 #a ,german burial custom1 #dec1 #deh ,ghost appeased by sham fight1 #acg2 hunted into the grave1 #afd sq42 thought to linger near body till flesh is decayed1 #afe sq42 elaborate funeral ceremonies designed to get rid of1 #agd sq42 driven away1 #agh1 #aig1 #bdh2 extracted from body of patient1 #bga2 calls for vengeance1 #bgh2 cursed and ill-treated1 #bhe2 who causes sunshine and rain1 #cge ---- -posts1 #cge ---- -seer1 #bjd sq41 #bad1 #bbi ---- -shooter1 #chg sq4 ,ghostly ferry1 #cej1 #dab4 ,see also ,ferry ,ghosts1 mischievous nature of1 #bh2 as causes of sickness1 #ed sqq41 #aie1 #aig1 #bbb1 #cjj1 #cje1 #cbb1 #chi2 feared1 #acd1 #ace1 #adg1 #aea sqq41 #aeh1 #agc sqq41 #aie1 #aif sq41 #bja1 #bjc1 #bbi sq41 #bcb1 #bcg1 #bga sqq41 #bgf1 #bhb sq41 #cje1 #cba1 #cbg1 #cdg1 #cif1 #dad sq41 #ddi1 #deg1 #dfg2 attentions paid to1 in regard to food1 fire1 property1 etc41 #add sqq42 feared only of recently departed1 #aea sq42 of nearest relations most feared1 #aec2 represented dramatically by masked men1 #agf1 #agi sq41 #ahb sq41 #ahe sqq42 should have their noses bored1 #aib1 #aid sq42 return of the1 #aie1 #aih1 #bdf1 #cjj2 carry off the souls of the living1 #aig2 cause bad luck in hunting and fishing1 #aig2 identified with phosphorescent lights1 #aih1 #beh2 appear to seer1 #bjd sq42 of slain enemies especially dreaded1 #bje2 of the hanged specially feared1 #bab2 certain classes of ghosts specially feared1 #bab2 malignity of1 #bab1 #cha2 drowned1 #bbd2 village of1 #bca sq41 #bcd2 give information1 #bdj2 provided with fire1 #bdf sq42 feasts provided for1 #bdg sq42 thought to give good crops1 #bdg sq42 communicate with the living in dreams1 #bdh2 diseases ascribed to action of1 #beg2 of the slain1 special fear of1 #beh1 #bgi1 #cjf1 #cbc2 of ancestors appealed to for help1 #beh sq42 precautions taken against1 #beh2 expected to make the crops thrive1 #bei1 #bhd1 #bhh sq42 natural death ascribed to action of1 #bfh2 sickness ascribed to action of1 #bfi sq41 #bga1 #bgi1 #cgb1 #cge1 #cha sqq42 deceived1 #bgc1 #bhj sqq41 #cbh2 thought to help hunters1 #bgd1 #bhd sq42 in the form of animals1 #bhb2 help the living by promoting supply of food1 #bhc2 cause earthquakes1 #bhf1 #bhh2 as patrons of hunting and other departments1 #bhg2 die the second death1 #bhg2 turn into animals1 #bhg2 turn into ant-hills1 #bhg2 of warriors invoked by warriors1 #bhh2 invoked by warriors1 farmers1 fowlers1 fishermen1 etc41 #bhh sqq42 of men may grow into gods1 #bhi sq42 of the dead in the form of serpents1 #cjj2 driven away1 #cje1 #cjf1 #cbc1 #cef sqq41 #cif1 #cii1 #dae2 cause all sorts of misfortunes1 #cjf sq42 call for vengeance1 #caj1 #dfh2 sacrifices to1 #cbh2 of power and ghosts of no account1 distinction between1 #cde sq42 of the recent dead most powerful1 #cdf2 prayers to1 #cdh2 of land and sea1 #cdh2 food offered to1 #cdh sq42 live in islands1 #cej1 #cec2 live underground1 #cec sq42 worshipful1 #cfb sq42 public and private1 #cfg1 #cfi sq42 first-fruits offered to1 #cfh sq41 #cgc sq42 warlike1 #cgj2 of gardens1 #cga2 human sacrifices to1 #cga sq42 incarnate in sharks1 #cgc2 sacrifices to1 at planting1 #cge2 sanctuaries of1 #cgg sq42 incarnate in animals1 #cgi sq42 envious of the living1 #cha2 carry off souls1 #chc2 in stones1 #chc sq42 inspiration by means of1 #chi sq42 killed1 #dae sq42 dazed1 #daf2 prevented from returning to the house1 #dee sq42 unmarried1 hard fate of1 #dfd ,ghosts and spirits1 distinction between1 in ,central ,melanesia1 #cdc1 #cfc2 regulate the weather1 #chd sq4 ---- of women dying in childbed1 special fear of1 #deh sqq42 special treatment of1 #ceh4 ,see also ,dead and ,spirits ,giant1 mythical1 thought to appear annually with the south-east monsoon1 #bee ,gifford1 ,lord1 #b1 #c ,girdle made from hair of dead1 #ach ,gnanji1 the1 of ,central ,australia1 #ib ,goat in story of the origin of death1 #fd ,god1 the question of his existence1 #b2 defined1 #i sq42 knowledge of1 how acquired1 #aa sqq42 inferred as a cause1 #bb sq42 and the origin of death1 #fa sqq42 in form of serpent1 #dde1 #dfb ,gods created by man in his own likeness1 #ai sq42 of nature1 #bj2 human1 #bj1 #bc sqq42 unknown among aborigines of ,australia1 #ia2 often developed out of ghosts1 #bhi sq42 ancestors worshipped as1 #cdj1 #cfi2 ancestral1 sacrifice of foreskins to1 #dbg2 ancestral1 libations to1 #dch2 two classes of1 in ,fiji1 #ddj ---- and spirits1 no certain demarcation between1 #dda ,goldie1 ,rev4 ,hugh1 #eb ,good crops given by ghosts1 #bdg sq4 ---- spirit1 #adc ---- and bad1 different fate of the1 after death1 #ced ,gran ,chaco1 in ,argentina1 #afe ,grandfather1 soul of1 reborn in grandchild1 #dag2 his ghost dazed1 #daf ,grandfather and grandchild1 their relation under exogamy and female kinship1 #daf1 #dah ,grandidier1 ,a41 #di ,grass for graves1 euphemism for human victims buried with the dead1 #dbe sq4 ---- -seed1 magical ceremony for increasing1 #ajb ,grave1 food placed on1 #add1 #ade2 property of dead deposited in1 #ade sqq42 hut erected on1 #bjc2 of worshipful dead a sanctuary1 #cdg2 stones heaped on1 #cfj2 sacrifices to ghost on1 #chb ,gravediggers1 purification of1 #cad2 secluded1 #cbg2 secluded and painted black1 #dea ,graves1 huts built on1 for use of ghosts1 #aej sq42 under the houses1 #bgd4 ,see also ,huts ,great ,woman1 the1 #dfd ,greek tragedy1 ,w4 ,ridgeway on the origin of1 #ahi ,greeks1 purificatory rites of ancient1 #bjf ,greenlanders1 burial custom of the1 #ded ,grey1 ,sir ,george1 #da2 taken for an ,australian aboriginal1 #aca sqq4 ,grief1 extravagant demonstrations of grief in mourning1 their motives1 #ace sq4 ---- at a death1 extravagant demonstrations of1 dictated by fear of the ghost1 #bga sqq4 ,grihya-,sutras1 #afc ,ground drawings in magical or religious ceremony1 #aab sq4 ,groves1 sacred1 the dead buried in1 #cbf ,guadalcanar1 one of the ,solomon ,islands1 #cej1 #cgb ,guardian spirits1 #bbg ,guiana1 ,indians of1 their ideas as to the cause of death1 #ce sqq42 their offerings to the dead1 #afe ,gullet of pig sacrificed1 #cfh ,gulu1 king of heaven1 #gh ,gypsies1 ,european1 burial custom of1 #dee ,haddon1 ,dr4 ,a4 ,c41 #aga1 #agb sq41 #age1 #agf1 #ahj ,hagen1 ,dr4 ,b41 #bcj1 #bca ,haida1 burial custom of the1 #dee ,hair burnt as charm1 #dc2 cut in mourning1 #ace1 #cbj1 #dea2 of widow unshorn1 #ahd2 of dead child worn by mother1 #cae2 of gravediggers not cut1 #cbg2 used as amulet1 #ccb ---- of the dead1 magical virtue attributed to1 #acg sq42 worn by relatives1 #bdi2 divination by means of1 #cai ---- of mourners offered to the dead1 #ahc2 cut off1 #ahc1 #bjd ,hakea flower totem1 dramatic ceremony concerned with1 #aai1 #aba ,hands1 gravediggers and persons who have handled a corpse not to touch food with their1 #cbg1 #dej sq4 ,hanged1 ghosts of the1 specially feared1 #bab ,hare in myth of the origin of death1 #fe ,harumae1 a warrior ghost1 #cfe sq4 ,hasselt1 ,j4 ,l4 van1 #cje ,hauri1 a worshipful ghost1 #cgb ,head-dress of gravediggers1 #cbg ,head-hunters1 #ceb ,head of corpse cut off in order to disable the ghost1 #aec2 removed and preserved1 #agh4 ,see also ,skulls ,heads of mourners shaved1 #bjh ----1 human1 cut off in honour of the dead1 #ceb ,heaps of stones on grave1 #cfj ,heart supposed to be the seat of human spirit1 #abi ---- of pig sacrificed1 #cfh ,heavenly ,dog1 #dfj ,hebrew prophets1 #ad ,hen in myth of the origin of death1 #gi ,highlands of ,scotland1 burial custom in the1 #dec1 #deh ,hindoos1 burial custom of the1 #dec1 #deh ,historical method of treating natural theology1 #b sq4 ,history of religion1 its importance1 #c ,hiyoyoa1 the land of the dead1 #bjg ,hole in the wall1 dead carried out through a1 #deb sqq4 ,holy of ,holies1 #dcj1 #dca1 #dcc1 #dcg1 #dch ,homer on blood-drinking ghosts1 #aei ,homicides1 precautions taken by1 against the ghosts of their victims1 #bje sq42 purification of1 #bjf2 honours bestowed on1 in ,fiji1 #ddg sq4 ,see also ,manslayers ,homoeopathic magic1 #bhh1 #cgf ---- or imitative magic1 #cce1 #ccf1 #cch ,honorary titles of homicides in ,fiji1 #ddg sq4 ,hood ,peninsula of ,british ,new ,guinea1 #dg1 #bjb1 #bjc ,hos of ,togoland1 their myth of the origin of death1 #ha sqq4 ,hose1 ,ch41 and ,mc,dougall1 ,w41 quoted1 #bfe n41 #dag ,hottentots1 their myth of the origin of death1 #fe2 burial custom of the1 #ded ,house deserted after a death1 #aie1 #aif n4 #a1 #bdh1 #bge1 #cdi1 #djj2 deserted or destroyed after a death1 #baj2 dead buried in the1 #bcf1 #cdg1 #ceb1 #cig1 #cih1 #cii2 dead carried out of1 by special opening1 #deb sqq4 ,houses1 native1 at ,kalo1 #bjb2 communal1 #cjd ,howitt1 ,dr4 ,a4 ,w41 #dd sq41 #aci1 #ada ,human gods1 #bj1 #bc sqq4 ---- nature1 two different views of1 #dfi sqq4 ---- sacrifices to ghosts1 #cga sq42 in ,fiji1 #ddf sq4 ,hume's analysis of cause1 #ah sq4 ,hunt1 ,mr41 his experience in ,fiji1 #dbc sq4 ,hunters supposed to be helped by ghosts1 #bgd1 #bhd sq4 ,huon ,gulf1 in ,german ,new ,guinea1 #bdb1 #bef ,hut built to represent mythical monster at initiation1 #bea1 #bij1 #cja sq4 ,huts erected on graves for use of ghosts1 #aej sq42 erected on graves1 #bjc1 #bbc1 #bdh1 #bei1 #bge1 #bic1 #bid ,hypocritical lamentations at a death1 #bgc ---- indignation of accomplice at a murder1 #bhj sqq4 ,idu1 mountain of the dead1 #aic1 #aid sq4 ,iguana in myth of origin of death1 #gj ,ilene1 a worshipful ghost1 #cgc ,ill-treatment of ghost who gives no help1 #bhe ,illusion of the external world1 #ba ,images of the dead1 wooden 7korwar or karwar71 #cjg sqq41 #caa1 #cae1 #caf sq41 #cba1 #cbb2 of sharks1 #cgc2 in temples1 #ddb ,imitation of totems by disguised actors1 #aai sqq42 of totemic animals1 #agg ,imitative magic1 #cce1 #ccf1 #cch1 #cgf ,immortality1 belief in1 among the aborigines of ,central ,australia1 #hg sqq42 among the islanders of ,torres ,straits1 #agj sqq42 among the natives of ,british ,new ,guinea1 #aij sqq42 among the natives of ,german ,new ,guinea1 #baf sqq42 among the natives of ,dutch ,new ,guinea1 #cjc sqq42 among the natives of ,southern ,melanesia1 #cbd sqq42 among the natives of ,central ,melanesia1 #cdc sqq42 among the natives of ,northern ,melanesia1 #cic sqq42 among the ,fijians1 #djf sqq42 strongly held by savages1 #dfh ,immortality1 limited sense of1 #be2 origin of belief in1 #be sqq42 belief in human1 almost universal among races of mankind1 #cc2 rivalry between men and animals for gift of1 #gd sq42 question of the truth of the belief in1 #dfi sqq42 destruction of life and property entailed by the belief in1 #dfh sq4 ---- in a bundle1 #gg sq4 ,impecunious ghosts1 hard fate of1 #djf ,impurity1 ceremonial1 of manslayer1 #bbi sq4 ,im ,thurn1 ,sir ,everard ,f41 #ch sq4 ,incantations or spells1 #che ,inconsistencies and contradictions in reasoning not peculiar to savages1 #aaa sq4 ,inconsistency of savage thought1 #adc ,indians of ,guiana1 their ideas about death1 #ce sqq42 their beliefs as to the dead1 #afe ---- of ,north-,west ,america1 burial custom of the1 #dee1 #dfj ,indifference to death1 #dai2 a consequence of belief in immortality1 #dbb sq4 ,indo-,european burial custom1 #dec ,infanticide as cause of diminished population1 #dj ,influence of ,european teaching on native beliefs1 #adb sq4 ,initiation at puberty regarded as a process of death and resurrection1 #bed1 #bfa ---- of young men1 #bcc2 in ,central ,australia1 #ajj2 among the ,yabim1 #bej sqq42 among the ,bukaua1 #bfj sq42 among the ,kai1 #bij sq42 in ,fiji1 #dbi sqq4 ,insanity1 influence of1 in history1 #ae sq4 ---- and inspiration not clearly distinguished1 #chh ,insect in divination as to cause of death1 #dd1 #df ,inspiration1 theory of1 #ad sq42 of medium by ancestral spirits1 #cjh sqq42 by spirits of the dead1 #cbb2 by ghosts in ,central ,melanesia1 #chh sq42 attested by frenzy1 #ddc1 #ddd sq4 ---- and insanity not clearly distinguished1 #chh ,insufflations1 magical1 to heal the sick1 #cbi ,intichiuma1 magical ceremonies for the multiplication of totems1 #abb sq4 ,intuition and experience1 #aa ,invocation of ghosts1 #bhh sq42 of the dead1 #cbi sq41 #ccb sqq41 #cgg1 #cgh1 #dja1 #dda ,island1 dead buried in1 #cai ---- of the dead1 fabulous1 #age ,islands1 ghosts live in1 #cej1 #cec ,isle of ,pines1 #cbe1 #ccj1 #ccg ,israelites forbidden to cut themselves for the dead1 #aed ,ivory ,coast1 #eb ,jackson1 ,john1 quoted1 #dai sqq41 #ddg ,jappen or ,jobi1 island1 #cjc ,jawbone of husband worn by widow1 #bjd2 lower1 of corpse preserved1 #bcd sq41 #bcf1 #bgd2 of dead king of ,uganda preserved and consulted oracularly1 #bce ,jawbones of the dead preserved1 #cea sq42 of dead worn by relatives1 #djd ,journey of ghosts to the land of the dead1 #bhf sq41 #cfa sq41 #dfb sqq4 ,juices of putrefaction received by mourners on their bodies1 #afg1 #bje1 #djc ---- of putrefying corpse drunk by widow1 #cac2 drunk by women1 #cee ,kachins of ,burma1 burial custom of the1 #dei ,kafirs1 their beliefs as to the causes of death1 #ef ,kagoro1 the1 of ,northern ,nigeria1 #bh n4 #a1 #di ,kai1 the1 of ,german ,new ,guinea1 #ga1 #bfb sqq42 theory of the soul1 #bfg ,kaikuzi1 brother of ,death1 #hj ,kaitish1 the1 #fh1 #aeh1 #aff ,kalo1 in ,british ,new ,guinea1 #bjb sq4 ,kalou1 ,fijian word for god1 #ddj ,kalou vu1 root gods1 #ddj ,kalou yalo1 soul gods1 #ddj ,kami1 the souls of the dead1 #big sq4 ,kamilaroi tribe of ,new ,south ,wales1 #df1 #aee ,kanaima 7kenaima71 #cf1 #ch ,kani1 name applied to ghosts1 to bull-roarers1 and to the monster who is thought to swallow lads at circumcision1 #cja ,kaniet islands1 #dja ,kava offered to ancestral spirits1 #ddj ,kavirondo1 burial custom of the1 #deh ,kaya-,kaya or ,tugeri1 the1 of ,dutch ,new ,guinea1 #bee ,kayans1 the1 of ,borneo1 #dag2 burial custom of1 #def sq41 #dei ,kemp ,welch ,river1 #bjb ,keramo1 a fighting ghost1 #cgj ,keysser1 ,ch41 #bfb1 #bfc sq41 #bfg1 #bfi n4 #c ,kibu1 the land of the dead1 #age ,kibuka1 war-god of ,uganda1 #cff ,kidd1 ,dudley1 #ee ,kidney-fat1 extraction of1 #dc ,killer of ,souls1 the1 #dfe sq4 ,killing a ghost1 #dae sq4 ,king1 mourning for a1 #dea sq4 ,king's corpse not carried out through the door1 #deb1 #dfa ,kings1 divinity of1 #af2 sanctity of ,fijian1 #djg sq4 ,kintu and the origin of death1 #gh sqq4 ,kiwai1 beliefs and customs concerning the dead in island of1 #baa sqq4 ,koita or ,koitapu1 of ,british ,new ,guinea1 #aic ,kolosh ,indians1 #afc ,komars1 the1 #afc ,koroi1 honorary title of homicides in ,fiji1 #ddg sq4 ,korwar1 or karwar1 wooden images of the dead1 #cjg sqq41 #cae1 #caf sq41 #cba1 #cbb ,koryak1 burial custom of the1 #dee ,kosi and the origin of death1 #gf sq4 ,knowledge1 natural1 how acquired1 #aa ---- of ,god1 how acquired1 #aa sqq42 of ghosts essential to medical practitioners in ,melanesia1 #chd ,kulin1 the1 #ach ,kurnai tribe of ,victoria1 #dd1 #ach ,kweariburra tribe1 #aec ,kwod1 sacred or ceremonial ground1 #agi ,lambert1 ,father1 #cbe1 #cbg1 #cbh1 #ccb1 #cci ,lamboam1 the land of the dead1 #bfj1 #bib1 #bii ,lamentations1 hypocritical1 at a death1 #bga sqq41 #bhj sqq4 ,land burial and sea burial1 #cdg sq4 ---- cleared for cultivation1 #bch1 #bdb sq41 #bef1 #bfb sq41 #cjd ---- ghosts and sea ghosts1 #cdh ---- of the dead1 #age sq41 #aib1 #aic1 #aid sq41 #bjb1 #bjc1 #bjg1 #bji sq41 #baa sqq41 #bbd1 #bbh sq41 #bdd1 #bfj1 #bhf sq41 #bib1 #bii1 #cje sq41 #cjg1 #cbb1 #cbf1 #cde1 #cej sq41 #cec sq41 #djd sqq41 #dfb sqq42 journeys of the living to the1 #bjg1 #cee2 way to the1 #bab sq41 #dfb sqq4 ,landtman1 ,dr4 ,g41 #bad ,lang1 ,andrew1 #baf sq4 ,laos1 burial custom in1 #dei ,leaf as badge of a ghost1 #cia ,leaves thrown on scene of murder1 #dae ,leg bones of the dead preserved1 #bba1 #bdi ,legs of corpse broken in order to disable the ghost1 #aec ,lehner1 ,stefan1 #bef ,lepchis of ,sikhim1 burial custom of the1 #dee ,le ,souef1 ,a4 ,a4 ,c41 #dj sq4 ,libations to ancestral gods1 #dcj1 #dch ,licence1 period of1 following circumcision1 #dbg sq42 following initiation1 #dcc1 #dcd n4 #a1 #dcf sq4 ,licentious orgy following circumcision1 #dbg sq4 ,life in the other world like life in this1 #bhf sq4 ,lightning1 savage theory of1 #ai ,lights1 phosphorescent1 thought to be ghosts1 #aih1 #beh ,lime1 powdered1 used to dust the trail of a ghost1 #bgg sq4 ,lio'a1 a powerful ghost1 #cdf ,liver extracted by magic1 #ej2 divination by1 #ed ,livers of pigs offered to the dead1 #cfj sq4 ,lizard in divination as to cause of death1 #dd2 in myths of the origin of death1 #fj sq41 #gj1 #gd sq4 ,lizards1 ghosts in1 #chj ,local totem centres1 #ig1 #ii1 #abd ,long soul and short soul1 #bia sq4 ,lost souls1 recovery of1 #bgj sq41 #cjj sq4 ,luck1 bad1 in fishing and hunting1 caused by ghosts1 #aig ,luck of a village dependent on ghosts1 #aih ,lum1 men's clubhouse1 #bdc1 #bej1 #beg ,mabuiag1 island of1 #agd ,macassars1 burial custom of the1 #dfa ,macluer ,gulf in ,dutch ,new ,guinea1 #cag1 #cah ,mad1 stones to drive people1 #cce ,madagascar1 ideas as to natural death in1 #dh sq4 ,mafulu 7,mambule71 the1 of ,british ,new ,guinea1 #aih sqq4 ,maggots1 appearance of1 sign of departure of soul1 #bib ,magic as a cause of death1 #cd sqq42 ,age of1 #eh2 attributed to aboriginal inhabitants of a country1 #aic2 homoeopathic or imitative1 #bhh1 #cce1 #ccf1 #cch1 #cgf2 combined with religion1 #aaa sq41 #ccd1 #cce1 #ccf1 #ccg1 #cch1 #cgf2 ,melanesian conception of1 #chj sq42 working by means of personal refuse1 #dac sq4 ,see also ,sorcery and ,witchcraft ---- and religion compared in reference to their destruction of human life1 #ef sq4 ,magical ceremonies for increasing the food supply1 #ajb2 ceremonies for the multiplication of totems1 #abd sq42 intention of dramatic ceremonies in ,central ,australia1 #abb sq41 #abf2 virtues attributed to sacred stones in ,new ,caledonia1 #ccd sqq4 ,magician or priest1 #ccf1 #cch4 ,see also ,sorcerer ,magicians1 their importance in history1 #af2 but no priests at ,doreh1 #cjf ,malagasy1 their ideas as to natural death1 #dh sq4 ,malanta1 one of the ,solomon ,islands1 #cej ,malayalis1 the1 of ,malabar1 #afb ,malignity of ghosts1 #bab1 #cha ,malo1 island of1 #dh ,man creates gods in his own likeness1 #ai sq4 ----1 grandeur and dignity of1 #dfi sq42 pettiness and insignificance of1 #dgj sq4 ,mana1 supernatural or spiritual power1 #cdf sq41 #ceb1 #cga1 #chj ,manoam1 evil spirits1 #cba ,manoga1 a worshipful ghost1 #cfh ,manslayers1 precautions taken by1 against the ghosts of their victims1 #bje sq41 #beh1 #bgi1 #cbc2 secluded1 #bgi sq41 consecration of1 #ddh sq42 restrictions imposed on1 #ddi4 ,see also ,homicides ,mari or mar1 ghost1 #agc ,mariget1 ghost-hand1 #agg ,mariner1 ,william1 #daa ,mariners1 stones to help1 #ccg ,markets1 native1 #cid ,marotse1 burial custom of the1 #ded ,marquesas ,islands1 #dag ,married and unmarried1 different modes of disposing of their corpses1 #afb ,masai1 their myth of the origin of death1 #fe sq4 ,masked men1 dramatic representation of ghosts and spirits by1 #agf1 #agi sq41 #ahj sqq41 #ahe sqq4 ---- dances1 #big2 of the ,monumbo1 #bbh ,masks worn by actors in sacred ceremonies1 #agi2 used in dances1 #bcc1 #big ,masquerades1 #big ,massim1 the1 of ,british ,new ,guinea1 #bjf ,master of ,life1 #afc ,matacos ,indians1 #afe ,mate1 a worshipful spirit1 #bci ,material culture of the natives of ,new ,guinea1 #aia2 of the natives of ,tumleo1 #bai sq42 of ,papuans1 #bca2 of the ,yabim1 #bdb sq42 of the ,noofoor1 #cjd sq42 of the ,new ,caledonians1 #cci2 of the ,north ,melanesians1 #cic sqq4 ,mawatta or ,mowat1 #dg ,mbete1 priest1 #ddc1 #dde ,mea1 a spiritual medium1 #aif ,mecklenburg1 burial custom in1 #deg ,medicine-men1 their importance in history1 #af2 inspired by spirits of the dead1 #cbb ,medium inspired by soul of dead1 #cjh sq4 ,mediums1 spiritual1 #aif ,mediums who send their souls to deadland1 #cjj ,megalithic monuments1 #dch ,melanesia1 ,central1 belief in immortality among the natives of1 #cdc sqq4 ----1 ,northern1 belief in immortality among the natives of1 #cic sqq4 ----1 ,southern1 belief in immortality among the natives of1 #cbd sqq4 ,melanesian myths of the origin of death1 #fi1 #ga sq41 #hc sq42 theory of the soul1 #cdd sq4 ,melanesians1 their ideas as to natural deaths1 #dh1 #ed sq42 ,central1 funeral customs of the1 #cdg sqq41 #cee sqq42 and ,papuans in ,new ,guinea1 #aij sq4 ,memorial trees1 #bbe ,men sacrificed to support posts of new house1 #ddf sq42 whipped by women in mourning1 #deb ,men's clubhouses1 #bba1 #bbe1 #bbf1 #bdc1 #bef sq41 #cee ,mentras or ,mantras of the ,malay ,peninsula1 #gc ,merivale on ,dartmoor1 #dch ,messengers1 the ,two1 myth of origin of death1 #fj sqq4 ,messou1 ,indian magician1 #gh ,metals unknown in ,northern ,melanesia1 #cie ,metempsychosis1 widespread belief in1 #bi ,methods of treating natural theology1 #a sqq4 ---- of natural knowledge1 #aa ,mexicans1 the ancient1 #afc ,meyer1 ,h4 ,e4 ,a41 #db ,migration of villages1 #cci ,migratory cultivation1 #bdc ,miklucho-,maclay1 ,baron ,n41 #bce ,milky ,way1 ,central ,australian belief as to the1 #adj2 souls of dead go to1 #aec ,milne ,bay1 #bjg ,mimika district in ,dutch ,new ,guinea1 #cah ,minnetaree ,indians1 #afc ,misfortunes of all kinds caused by ghosts1 #cjf sq4 ,moanus1 the1 of the ,admiralty ,islands1 #djj ,monarchical government1 rise of1 #ada sq4 ,monsoon1 south-east1 festival at1 #bee ,monsoons1 seasons determined by1 #baf ,monster supposed to swallow lads at initiation1 #bea sq41 #bee1 #bfj1 #bfa1 #bij sq41 #cja sq4 ,monumbo1 the1 of ,german ,new ,guinea1 #bbg sq4 ,monuments of the dead1 #bbe ,moon1 the waxing and waning1 in myths of the origin of death1 #fj1 #fe sqq4 ---- in relation to doctrine of resurrection1 #fg sq42 worship of the1 #fh ,moral restraint afforded by a fear of ghosts1 #age ---- depravity of the ,fijians1 #dji ,morality1 superstition a crutch to1 #age ,mortuary dramas1 #ahi ,mos1 a disembodied soul1 #bbd ,mota1 island of1 #chg ,motlav1 in the ,banks' ,islands1 #ceg ,motu1 the1 of ,british ,new ,guinea1 #aib ,mound erected in a totemic ceremony1 #aaj sq4 ,mounds on graves1 #aej1 #afd ,mourners1 professional1 #acf ---- smeared with white clay1 #aeh1 #agg2 painted black1 #agh1 #bic1 #djc2 garb of1 #ahd1 #aih2 cut their hair1 #ahc1 #bjd1 #cbj1 #dea2 abstain from certain foods1 #aih1 #bjh1 #bji1 #bcj1 #cad1 #cfj1 #deb2 restrictions observed by1 #cac sq42 tattooed1 #cad2 purified by bathing1 #cad1 #cai2 plastered with mud1 #cah2 cut or tear their ears1 #ahc1 #bgb1 #cbg2 secluded1 #cfj2 smeared with ashes1 #cfa2 anoint themselves with juices of putrefying corpse1 #djc2 amputate their fingers1 #aii1 #dea2 burn their skin1 #aed1 #aee1 #aeg1 #cbg1 #dea4 ,see also ,cuttings and ,seclusion ,mourning1 hair cut in1 #ace2 extravagant demonstrations of grief in1 #ace sq42 for a father-in-law1 #aee2 amputation of fingers in1 #aii2 varying period of1 #bgd1 #bic2 for a king1 #dea sq4 ---- costume1 #bdi1 #bgd1 #cbj2 a protection against ghosts1 #bda sq42 of widower and widow1 #bei sq4 ,mowat or ,mawatta1 #dg ,mud1 mourners plastered with1 #cah ,mukden1 burial custom in1 #dfj ,mukjarawaint tribe1 #aee ,mummies of dead preserved in houses1 #ahh ,mummification of the dead1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #cac ,mungai1 places associated with totems1 #aag1 #abd ,murder1 leaves thrown on scene of1 #dae ---- highly esteemed in ,fiji1 #ddg sq4 ,murdered man1 ghost of1 haunts murderer1 #bdh ,murimuria1 a second-rate heaven1 #dff ,murray ,island1 #agd ,mutilations1 bodily1 at puberty1 #cjc ,myth of the prelogical savage1 #bff ---- of the continuance of death1 #dgb ,myths of the origin of death1 #ei sqq4 ,nai1 souls of the dead1 #bdj ,nai ,thombothombo1 in ,fiji1 #dfc ,nails of dead detached1 #ade2 preserved1 #cci ,naindelinde in ,fiji1 #dfe ,naiteru-kop1 a ,masai god1 #fe ,namaquas1 their myth of the origin of death1 #fe ,nambanaggatai1 in ,fiji1 #dfe ,nambi and the origin of death1 #gh sqq4 ,name of mythical water-snake not uttered1 #aje ,names of the dead not mentioned1 #ace1 #baj1 #bdf ,nandi1 their myth of the origin of death1 #ff ,nanga1 sacred stone enclosure1 #dbh sqq42 description of1 #dcg sq4 ,nangganangga1 the foe of unmarried ghosts1 #dfd ,nanja tree or stone1 #ih ---- spot1 #afd1 #afe ,narrinyeri tribe of ,south ,australia1 #dc2 their beliefs as to the dead1 #acd sqq4 ,nassau1 ,rev4 ,r4 ,h41 #ea ,native beliefs influenced by ,european teaching1 #adb sq4 ,natural theology defined1 #a1 #h ---- death1 disbelief of savages in1 #cc sqq4 ---- causes of death recognised by some savages1 #ee sq4 ---- features of landscape associated with traditions about the dead1 #aae sqq4 ,nature1 gods of1 #bj2 souls of the dead identified with spirits of1 #acj2 two different views of human1 #dfi sqq4 ,nayars1 the1 of ,cochin1 #afb sq4 ,ndengei1 ,fijian god in form of serpent1 #dde1 #dfb1 #dfd1 #dfe1 #dff ,necklaces worn in mourning1 #aih ,negen ,negorijen in ,dutch ,new ,guinea1 #caf1 #cag ,negrito admixture in ,new ,guinea1 #aih ,nemunemu1 a creator1 #bdj ,nether world1 the lord of the1 #bhf2 abode of the dead in the1 #bib1 #bii1 #cbb1 #cbf1 #cec sq42 descent of the living into the1 #cjj2 ,see also ,land of the ,dead ,nets worn by widows in mourning1 #bdi1 #bfj1 #bgd1 #bic2 worn by women in mourning1 #bda ,new birth at initiation1 pretence of1 #bed ,new ,britain 7,new ,pomerania71 #dh1 #fi1 #cic1 #cid1 #djb1 #djd ---- ,caledonia1 natives of1 #cbd2 their beliefs and customs concerning the dead1 #cbe sqq42 their system of family prayers1 #ccb sq41 #cdj2 material culture of the1 #cci ---- ,georgia1 #dh ---- ,guinea1 aborigines of1 their ideas as to natural death1 #dg2 the races of1 #aij sq42 belief in immortality among the natives of ,british1 #aij sqq42 belief in immortality among the natives of ,dutch1 #cjc sqq42 belief in immortality among the natives of ,german1 #baf sqq4 ,new ,hebrides1 myth of the origin of death in1 #ga1 #cdc1 #cec ---- ,ireland 7,new ,mecklenburg71 #cic1 #cig ---- ,south ,wales1 aborigines of1 their ideas as to the causes of death1 #de sq42 as to the home of the dead1 #acc sq4 ,newton1 ,alfred1 #ij n4 #a ,neyaux1 the1 of the ,ivory ,coast1 #eb ,ngai1 human spirit1 #abi ,ngoc1 the1 of ,annam1 #fi ,ngoni1 the1 #fa ,nias1 island of1 #gj ,nigeria1 ,northern1 #bh n4 #a1 #di ,niggardly people punished in the other world1 #dje ,noblemen alone immortal1 #cc ,noofoor1 the1 of ,dutch ,new ,guinea1 #cjc ,noomfor1 island1 #cjc ,norse burial custom1 #dec ,noses bored1 ghosts should have their1 #aib1 #aid sq4 ,novices presented to ancestral spirits at initiation1 #dcb sq41 #dcd ,nukahiva1 one of the ,marquesas ,islands1 #dag ,objects offered to the dead broken1 #bgf ,offering1 soul of1 consumed by deity or spirit1 #big1 #bih ,offerings of food and water to the dead1 #agd2 of food to the dead1 #ahc1 #bja1 #bjh1 #baa1 #bad1 #bcb1 #bda1 #ccb1 #cch1 #cfd sq41 #cfg sq41 #cgb sq41 #cif sq41 #dbi1 #ddb1 #dfg2 of blood and hair to the dead1 #ahc2 of game and fish to the dead1 #bbf2 to the dead1 #bci1 #bgf1 #bib2 of first-fruits to the dead1 #bei2 to ancestors1 #bih2 of food to ghosts1 #cdh sq42 to ghosts1 #cfd sq42 of first-fruits to ancestral spirits1 #dbi2 of cloth and weapons to ancestral spirits1 #dcj sq4 ,see also ,sacrifices ----1 burnt1 to the dead1 #bid ,oknanikilla1 local totem centre1 #ig1 #ii1 #abd ,old and young1 difference between the modes of burying1 #afa1 #afb sq4 ,old people buried alive1 #cei ,olympia1 ,pelops at1 #aei ,omens after a death1 #cai ,opening1 special1 for carrying dead out of house1 #deb sqq4 ,oracles of dead kings1 #aea ---- of the dead1 #aea1 #agf1 #agi1 #bce ,oracular responses of ,fijian priests1 #ddc sqq4 ,oranges1 spirits of the dead play with1 #cbf ,ordeal to detect sorcerer1 #ej sqq4 ,orgy1 licentious1 following circumcision1 #dbg sq4 ,origin of belief in immortality1 #bf sqq4 ---- of death1 myths of the1 #ei sqq4 ,orion's belt1 #cfh ,ornaments of corpse removed before burial1 #bbc1 #bcd1 #bda ,pahouins1 the1 #ed ,palsy1 a ,samoan god1 #gb ,pandanus1 reason for planting1 #cfb ---- and ghosts1 #dfc ,panoi1 ,melanesian land of the dead1 #hc1 #cde1 #cec sq41 #cee1 #cef ,papuan art1 #bbj ,papuans1 animistic views of the1 #bfd ---- and ,melanesians in ,new ,guinea1 #aij sq4 ,paraks1 temples1 #bbj ,parents deified1 #dci ,parkinson1 ,r41 #bai1 #bba ,pelops1 human blood offered on grave of1 #aei ,penates in ,new ,guinea1 #cjh1 #cag ,pennefather ,river1 natives of the1 their belief in reincarnation of the dead1 #abh ,perche1 burial custom in1 #deh ,personal refuse1 magic working through1 #chf1 #dac sq4 ,personification of natural phenomena1 #bj2 of death1 #ha ,phosphorescent lights supposed to be ghosts1 #aih1 #beh ,physostigma venenosum in poison ordeal1 #eb ,piety1 two types of1 #bc2 co-operative system of1 #ccc ,pigs1 blood of1 smeared on skulls and bones of the dead1 #bjj2 sacrificed to the dead1 #bja2 sacrificed to monster who swallows lads at initiation1 #bea1 #bec1 #bfj1 #bij1 #cja2 sacrificed at grave1 #cef2 sacrificed at burial1 #cei2 sacrificed to ghosts1 #cfe sq42 sacrificed vicariously for the sick1 #cgc1 #cgd1 #cge2 sacred1 #dcc ----1 livers of1 offered to the dead1 #cfj sq4 ,pines1 ,isle of1 #cbe1 #ccj1 #ccg ,pirnmeheel1 good spirit1 #adc ,place of sacrifice to ghosts1 #cgj ,planting1 sacrifices to ghosts at1 #cge ,platforms1 dead laid on1 #aii1 #bjc1 #bje ,plato1 on death1 #cc ,pleiades1 the1 #cfh ,plum-tree people1 #id ---- totem1 dramatic ceremony connected with1 #abj1 #aba ,poison ordeal to detect sorcerers1 #ej sqq4 ,political constitution of the ,fijians1 #djg ,pollution1 ceremonial1 of gravediggers1 #cbg ,polynesian blood1 infusion of1 in ,new ,guinea1 #bia ---- race1 #djf ,polytheism and monotheism1 #aa ,polytheism discarded1 #bj sq4 ,population1 belief in sorcery a cause of keeping down the1 #ch1 #dj1 #df sq41 #ea sqq4 ,port ,lincoln tribe of ,s4 ,australia1 #db ---- ,moresby1 #aic1 #aie ,poso in ,celebes1 #gb ,posts of new house1 men sacrificed to support1 #ddf sq4 ,potsdam ,harbour1 in ,german ,new ,guinea1 #bah1 #bbg ,pottery1 native1 #bbj2 in ,new ,guinea1 #cje ----1 ,fijian1 #djg ---- unknown in ,northern ,melanesia1 #cie ,practical character of the savage1 #bgd ,prayer-posts1 #ccc sq4 ,prayers to the dead1 #bja sq41 #bad1 #bbb sq41 #bei1 #bhh1 #cjg1 #cbi sq41 #ccb sqq41 #cdj1 #cgf sq41 #dja1 #djc sq41 #dbg1 #dda2 to ghosts1 #cdh ,precautions taken against ghosts1 #aeb sq41 #beh2 against a wife's ghost1 #aig2 against ghosts of the slain1 #bje sq4 ,predominance of the worship of the dead1 #big sq4 ,prelogical savage1 myth of the1 #bff ,pretence of attacking persons engaged in attending to a corpse1 #agg1 #agh ---- of avenging the dead1 #acf sq41 #bhb1 #cbh ,see also ,sham fight ,priest1 family1 #ccb1 #cdj ----1 chief or high1 #dcj1 #dca1 #dcb1 #dcc1 #dcd ---- or magician1 #ccf1 #cch ,priests1 ,fijian1 #dcc sqq4 ,private or tame ghosts1 #cfi sq41 #cha1 #chb1 #chf ---- property1 rights of1 consolidated by taboo1 #cij ,problem of death1 #ca sqq4 ,progress partly determined by competition1 #hi sq4 ----1 social1 stimulated by favourable natural conditions1 #adh sq4 ,promiscuity1 temporary1 #dbg sq41 #dcc1 #dcd n4 #a1 #dcf sq4 ,property displayed beside the corpse1 #cig ----1 rights of private1 consolidated by taboo1 #cij2 temporarily suspended1 #dbg sq4 ,property of dead deposited in grave1 #ade sqq41 #cei1 #cig2 motive for destroying1 #adg sq42 hung up on trees1 #adh2 destroyed1 #cbg1 #dei2 burnt1 #dja sq4 ,prophecy inspired by ghosts1 #chh ,prophets inspired by ghosts1 #chh sq4 ----1 ,hebrew1 #ad ,propitiation of the dead1 #bja1 #cjg1 #cch2 of ghosts and spirits1 #bbf1 #bci1 #cdh ,puberty1 initiation at1 #bed sq42 bodily mutilations at1 #cjc ,public ghosts1 #cfg1 #cfi ,purification of homicides1 #bjf1 #bbi ---- by bathing and shaving1 #bjh ---- of mourners by bathing1 #cad1 #cai ,queensland1 belief in reincarnation of the dead among the aborigines of1 #abg sqq42 burial customs in1 #adg ,rain sent by a mythical water-snake1 #aab1 #aad2 prayers for1 #bhh2 stones to make1 #ccf sq4 ---- and sunshine caused by a ghost1 #cge ---- -ghost1 #cge ---- -making1 #bhh2 by the bones of the dead1 #cda ,rat in myth of the origin of death1 #fg ,rationality of the savage1 #bfd sqq4 ,rebirth of the dead1 #ic sq41 #ajg1 #abg sq4 ,see also ,reincarnation ---- of parents in their children1 #cae ,recovery of lost souls1 #aid1 #bgj sq41 #cjj sq4 ,red1 skulls painted1 #agh ,red bark in poison ordeals1 #ej1 #eb ---- paint1 manslayers smeared with1 #ddh1 #ddi ---- roses1 corpse crowned with1 #bcc1 #bcd ,reflection or shadow1 soul associated with1 #bjg1 #bfg ,refuse1 personal1 magic working by means of1 #dac sq4 ,reincarnation1 widespread belief in1 #bi4 ,see also ,rebirth ---- doctrine of1 unknown in ,torres ,straits1 #agb ---- of the dead1 belief of ,central ,australians in1 #ib sqq41 #ajg ---- of the dead1 #abd sq41 #abg sq42 of ,australian aborigines in white people1 #acj1 #aca sqq42 of parents in their children1 #cae2 of grandfather in grandchild1 #dag1 #dah ,relics of the dead as amulets1 #ccb1 #cgj2 preserved1 #cdh ,religion1 importance of the history of1 #c2 embryology of1 #hh ,religion and magic compared in reference to their destruction of human life1 #eg sq42 combined in ritual1 #aaa sq41 #ccd1 #cce1 #ccf1 #ccg1 #cch1 #cgf ---- and theology1 how related1 #i ,resemblance of children to the dead1 a source of belief in the transmigration of souls1 #bh sq4 ,restrictions observed by mourners1 #cac sq42 ceremonial1 laid on gravediggers1 #cbg2 imposed on manslayers1 #ddi ,resurrection1 ceremony of1 among the ,akikuya1 #bed ---- from the dead after three days1 #fg sq42 of the dead1 steps taken to prevent the1 #add2 as an initiatory rite at puberty1 #bed sq41 #bfa1 #cjb1 #dca1 #dcd sq4 ,return of the ghosts1 #aie1 #aih1 #bdf1 #cjj ,revelation1 the question of a supernatural1 #h sq4 ,revival1 temporary1 of primitive communism1 #dcf sq4 ,rheumatism attributed to sorcery1 #de ,rhodesia1 #gg ,ribs of dead distributed among relatives1 #djj ,ridgeway1 ,w41 on the origin of ,greek tragedy1 #ahi ,rights of property temporarily suspended1 #dbg sq4 ,ritual combining elements of religion and magic1 #aaa sq4 ,rivalry between man and animals for gift of immortality1 #gd sq4 ,river crossed by souls of the dead1 #bii1 #dfb ,rocking stone1 #bac ,roro-speaking tribes of ,british ,new ,guinea1 #dg1 #aif1 #aih ,roth1 ,w4 ,e41 #abh ,run or ,ron1 island1 #cjc1 #caa ,russia1 burial custom in1 #dec ,saa1 in ,malanta1 #cej1 #cea1 #cgb1 #cgh ,sacrament of pork and water at initiation1 #dcb sq4 ,sacred stones in ,new ,caledonia1 magical virtues attributed to1 #ccd sqq4 ---- enclosure of stones 7,nanga7 in ,fiji1 #dbh sqq41 #dcg sq4 ---- pigs1 #dcc ,sacrifice1 crude motives for1 #bih sq42 place of1 #ccb ---- of dogs in epidemics1 #bif2 of foreskins and fingers in honour of the dead1 #dbf sq4 ,sacrifices to the dead1 economic loss entailed by1 #adi ---- to the dead1 #bci1 #cjg1 #cch4 ,see also ,offerings ,sacrifices1 burnt1 reasons for1 #cdh sq42 burnt1 to ghosts1 #cff1 #cfg sq41 #cgc ---- to ghosts1 #cbh2 at planting1 #cge ----1 human1 to ghosts1 #cga sq42 human1 in ,fiji1 #ddf sq4 ,sacrificial ritual in the ,solomon ,islands1 #cfe sq4 ,saddle ,mountain in ,german ,new ,guinea1 #bfb ,st4 ,joseph ,river in ,new ,guinea1 #aif1 #aih ,sakalava1 the1 of ,madagascar1 #di2 burial custom of1 #dfa ,saleijer1 island of1 burial custom in1 #dfa ,samoa1 #djf ---- ,harbour1 in ,german ,new ,guinea1 #bef ,samoan myth of the origin of death1 #gb ,samoyeds1 burial custom of the1 #deg ,samu-yalo1 the killer of souls1 #dfe ,san ,cristoval1 one of the ,solomon ,islands1 #cdg1 #cgf ,sanctuaries1 primitive1 #ii ---- of ghosts1 #cgg sq4 ,sanctuary1 grave of worshipful dead becomes a1 #cdg ,sanitation based on fear of sorcery1 #chf sq41 #dad ,santa ,cruz ,islands1 #cdc ,santa ,cruz1 in the ,solomon ,islands1 burial customs at1 #ceb2 sacrifices to ghosts in1 #cgd sq4 ,savage1 myth of the prelogical1 #bff ----1 practical character of the1 #bgd ----1 rationality of the1 #bfd sqq4 ---- notions of causality1 #ai sq42 conception of death1 #ca sqq42 disbelief in death from natural causes1 #cc sqq42 thought vague and inconsistent1 #adc ---- religion1 the study of1 #g ,savagery1 importance of the study of1 #f sq42 a case of arrested or retarded development1 #hh sq42 rise of monarchy essential to emergence from1 #adb ,savages pay little attention to the stars1 #adj2 strength and universality of belief in immortality among1 #dfh ,savo1 one of the ,solomon ,islands1 #cdg ,scarf1 soul caught in a1 #dab sq4 ,scenery of ,fiji1 #dji sq4 ,schomburgk1 ,richard1 #ch ,schuermann1 ,c4 ,w41 #db sq4 ,scientific conception of the world as a system of impersonal forces1 #bj sq4 ,scotland1 burial custom in1 #dec1 #deh ,sea1 land of the dead at the bottom of the1 #cjg1 #cbf ---- -burial1 #cig ---- -burial and land-burial1 #cdg sq4 ---- -ghosts and land-ghosts1 #cdh ,seclusion of widow and widower1 #bjd1 #bdh sq41 #bei1 #bge2 of relatives at grave1 #bji2 of mourners1 #bbc sq41 #cac sq41 #cfj2 of novices at circumcision1 #bea sq41 #bfj sq41 #cjb2 of manslayers1 #bgi sq42 of gravediggers1 #cbg1 #dea2 of female mourners1 #cih ,seclusion and purification of manslayer1 #bbi sq4 ,second death of the dead1 #aie1 #bhg1 #bii1 #cde1 #cej1 #cea1 #ced ,secret societies1 #cie ---- ,society 7,asa71 #bcc ,seemann1 ,berthold1 #dci sq4 ,seer describes ghosts1 #bjd sq4 ,seget ,sele1 the1 of ,dutch ,new ,guinea1 #cag ,seligmann1 ,dr4 ,c4 ,g41 #dg1 #aia1 #aig1 #bjf ,selwyn1 ,bishop1 #cfc ,serpent and his cast skin in myths of the origin of death1 #fj1 #fi sqq41 #gd sq41 #hc ----1 god in form of1 #dde1 #dfb ,serpents1 souls of the dead in the form of1 #cjj ,setting sun1 ghosts attracted to the1 #age sq4 ,sexual licence following initiation1 #dcc1 #dcd n4 #a1 #dcf sq4 ,shadow or reflection1 human soul associated with1 #abi1 #acj1 #agc1 #bjg1 #bfg1 #cie1 #dab ,shadows of people seized by ghosts1 #cgh1 #chc ,shaking of medium a symptom of inspiration1 #cjh1 #cji1 #caa ,sham attack on men engaged in attending to a corpse1 #agg1 #agh ---- burial1 #cef ---- fight to appease ghost1 #acf sq42 as a funeral ceremony1 #bce sq41 #cbg sq42 as a ceremony to promote the growth of yams1 #ccj4 ,see also ,pretence ,sharks animated by ghosts1 #cdh ----1 ghosts incarnate in1 #cgc1 #chj2 images of1 #cgc ,shaving heads of mourners1 #bjh ,sheep in story of the origin of death1 #fd ,shell-money1 #cid2 laid on corpse and buried with it1 #cih ,shortlands ,islands1 #ga ,shrine of warrior ghost1 #cfe ,shrines for ancestral spirits1 #caf1 #cag ,siamese1 burial custom of the1 #def ,siasi ,islands1 #bdd ,sick and old buried alive in ,fiji1 #dbj sqq4 ,sickness caused by demons1 #aid2 caused by ghosts1 #ef sq41 #aie1 #aig1 #bbb1 #bfi sq41 #bga1 #bgi1 #cjj1 #cje1 #cbb1 #cgb1 #cha sqq41 #chi ---- supposed to be an effect of witchcraft1 #ce sqq4 ,sickness and death set down to sorcery1 #bdj1 #beg ---- and disease recognised by some savages as due to natural causes1 #ee sq4 ,see also ,disease ,sido1 his journey to the land of the dead1 #baa sq4 ,sins1 confession of1 #bja ,skin cast as a means of renewing youth1 #fi sqq41 #gd sq41 #hc ,skull-shaped stones in rain-making1 #ccf sq4 ,skulls1 spirits of the dead embodied in their1 #cch ---- and arm-bones1 special treatment of the1 #aii sq42 carried by dancers at funeral dance1 #bjj ---- of the dead preserved1 #aii sqq41 #bji1 #bdi1 #cah1 #cbh1 #cci1 #cdg1 #cea sq41 #cih1 #djj sq41 #djc2 preserved and consulted as oracles1 #agf1 #agh sq41 #agi2 used in divination1 #bac2 kept in men's clubhouses1 #bba1 #bbe2 inserted in wooden images1 #caa sq41 #cba2 religious ceremonies performed with the1 #cbi sq42 food offered to the1 #cci sq41 #ceb2 used to fertilise plantations1 #cdj2 used in conjurations1 #djb ,sky1 souls of the dead thought to be in the1 #acc sq41 #ace1 #ach sq41 #ada1 #adb ,slain1 ghosts of the1 especially dreaded1 #bje1 #beh1 #bgi1 #cjf1 #cbc ,sleep1 soul thought to quit body in1 #beg1 #bia1 #cie1 #dab ,smith1 ,e4 ,r41 #ec ,smyth1 ,r4 ,brough1 #dc sq4 ,snakes1 ghosts in1 #chj ,sneezing1 omens from1 #aid ,social progress stimulated by favourable natural conditions1 #ada sq41 #adh sq4 ---- ranks1 gradation of1 in ,fiji1 #djh ,solomon ,islands1 #cdc1 #cdf sqq42 sacrificial ritual in the1 #cfe sq4 ,somosomo1 one of the ,fijian islands1 #dbe1 #dda1 #ddb ,sorcerers1 their importance in history1 #af ---- catch and detain souls1 #bfg1 #bfh sq41 #bgj ---- put to death1 #ce1 #ce sq41 #cg sq41 #dj sq41 #dd1 #ej1 #acf1 #bej1 #bfi1 #bgg1 #bgh sq41 #cda sq4 ,see also ,magician ,sorcery as the supposed cause of natural deaths1 #cc sqq41 #acf1 #bfh1 #bgj1 #djb2 sickness and death ascribed to1 #beg ---- a cause of keeping down the population1 belief in1 #ch1 #dj1 #df sq41 #ea sqq4 ---- ,fijian dread of1 #dac sq42 ,see also ,magic and ,witchcraft ,sores ascribed to action of ghosts1 #beg ,soro1 atonement1 #dbg ,soul1 world-wide belief in survival of soul after death1 #bd1 #be1 #cc ,soul of sleeper detained by enemy1 #di2 human1 associated with shadow or reflection1 #agc1 #bfg1 #cie1 #dab2 pretence of carrying away the1 #aha sq42 detained by demon1 #aid2 recovery of a lost1 #aid1 #bgj sq42 thought to quit body in sleep1 #beg1 #bia1 #cie1 #dab2 resides in the eye1 #bfg2 thought to pervade the body1 #bfg2 two kinds of human1 #bfg sq42 caught and detained by sorcerer1 #bfg1 #bfh sq41 #bgj2 long soul and short soul1 #bia sq42 of offering consumed by deity or spirit1 #big1 #bih2 thought to reside in the blood1 #cjg2 ,melanesian theory of the1 #cdd sq42 of sick tied up by ghost1 #cgd2 ,north ,melanesian theory of the1 #cie sq42 in form of animals1 #cif2 ,fijian theory of the1 #daj sqq42 caught in a scarf1 #dab sq42 of grandfather reborn in grandchild1 #dag2 of offerings consumed by gods1 #ddc ---- -stuff or spiritual essence1 #bfg sq41 #bgj1 #bga1 #bgi4 ,see also ,spirit ,souls1 recovery of lost1 #cjj sq42 ,river of the1 #dfb2 the killer of1 #dfd sq4 ---- of animals1 sacrifices to the1 #bci2 of animals offered to ghosts1 #bdf ---- attributed by the ,fijians to animals1 vegetables1 and inanimate things1 #daj sq4 ---- of the dead identified with spirits of nature1 #acj2 turned into animals1 #bbi2 as falling stars1 #bbi2 live in trees1 #caf ---- carried off by ghosts1 #aig1 #chc2 of sorcerers in animals1 #ci ---- of noblemen only saved1 #cc2 of those who died from home called back1 #caa ,spells or incantations1 #che ,spencer and ,gillen1 #df sq41 #ia sq41 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aje1 #ajf1 #ajh1 #aaf sqq41 #abc sq41 #adj1 #adh1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aeh ,spider and ,death1 #hb sq4 ,spirit1 human1 associated with the heart1 #abi2 associated with the shadow1 #abi1 #acj4 ,see also ,soul ,spirits1 ancestral1 help hunters and fishers1 #bbf2 worshipped in the ,nanga1 #dbh sq42 cloth and weapons offered to1 #dcj sq42 novices presented to1 at initiation1 #dcb sq41 #dcd ---- of animals go to the spirit land1 #baj ---- consume spiritual essence of sacrifices1 #bhe1 #bhg1 #big1 #bih ---- of the dead thought to be strengthened by blood1 #aei2 reborn in women1 #ic sq42 give information to the living1 #bdj2 give good crops1 #bdg sq42 thought to be mischievous1 #beg ,spirits and ghosts1 distinction between1 in ,central ,melanesia1 #cdc1 #cfc ---- and gods1 no certain demarcation between1 #dda ----1 grand concert of1 #cdj sq42 represented by masked dancers1 #big2 in tree-tops1 #cac ----1 guardian1 #bbg ---- of nature identified with souls of the dead1 #acj4 ,see also ,dead and ,ghost ,spiritual essence or soul-stuff1 #bfg sq41 #bgi4 ,see also ,soul-stuff ,squatting posture of corpse in burial1 #bjg ,stanbridge1 ,w4 ,e41 #dd ,stars associated with the souls of the dead1 #acd1 #adj2 little regarded by savages1 #adj2 falling1 the souls of the dead1 #bbi ,steinen1 ,k4 von den1 #ce ,sternberg1 ,l41 #ae n4 #a ,stick1 cleft1 used in cure1 #bga ,stillborn children1 burial of1 #deh ,stocks1 wooden1 as representatives of the dead1 #cgd1 #chf ,stolz1 ,mr41 #bch1 #bci ,stomach1 soul seated in1 #bia sq4 ,stone1 a rocking1 #bac ---- used in rain-making1 #bhh ---- of ,famine1 #ccd ---- of the ,sun1 #ccf ,stonehenge1 #dch ,stones1 sacred1 in ,new ,caledonia1 magical virtues attributed to1 #ccd sqq42 sacred1 in sanctuaries1 #cgg sq4 ---- used as altars1 #cgi ,stones inhabited by ghosts1 #chc sq4 ,store-houses1 sacred1 in ,central ,australia1 #ii1 #aja ,strangling the sick and aged in ,fiji1 #dbc sq4 ,sua1 human spirit or ghost1 #aic ,suicide to escape decrepitude of old age1 #dbb sq4 ,suicides1 burial of1 #afd1 #dec1 #deh ,sulka1 the1 of ,new ,britain1 #cih sq4 ,sumatra1 the ,gajos of1 #dee ,sun and the origin of death1 #gg ----1 ghosts attracted to the setting1 #age sq4 ----1 ,stone of the1 #ccf ,sunshine1 the making of1 #ccf ---- and rain caused by a ghost1 #cge ,supernatural or spiritual power 7mana7 acquired from ghosts1 #cdf sq41 #ceb1 #cga1 #chj ,superstition a crutch to morality1 #age ,supreme ,being unknown among aborigines of ,central ,australia1 #ia sq42 among the ,monumbo1 #bbh ,survival of human soul after death1 world-wide belief in1 #bd1 #be1 #cc ,swallowed by monster1 pretence that candidates at initiation are1 #bea sqq41 #bfj sq41 #bij sq41 #cja sq4 ,swine sent to ravage fields by ghosts1 #bgh ,symbolism of prayer-posts1 #ccc sq4 ,taboo1 meaning of1 #cij2 in ,central ,melanesia based on a fear of ghosts1 #cij sq42 a prop of monarchical power1 #djh ,tabu1 demon1 #aid ,tago1 spirits1 #big ,tahiti1 #dci ,tamanachiers1 an ,indian tribe1 #gj sq4 ,tami ,islanders of ,german ,new ,guinea1 #bia sqq4 ,taming a ghost1 #cgj ,tamos1 the1 of ,german ,new ,guinea1 #bcj ,tanna1 one of the ,new ,hebrides1 #cfi1 #dci ,tanoa1 king of ,fiji1 #dbe ,taplin1 ,rev4 ,george1 #dc1 #acd sqq4 ,tapum1 guardian spirits1 #bbg ,taro1 prayer for good crop of1 #bhi ,tasmanians1 the1 #hi ,tattooing as sign of mourning1 #cad ,teeth of dead worn by relatives1 #cad sq41 #djj1 #djd2 used as amulets1 #ccb2 preserved as relics1 #cci2 used to fertilise plantations1 #cdj ,temples 7paraks7 in ,tumleo1 #bbj sq4 ----1 ,fijian1 #dci1 #dda sq4 ,terer1 a mythical being1 #aha ,thapauerlu1 a pool1 #aje1 #ajh ,theology1 natural1 defined1 #a1 #h ---- and religion1 how related1 #i ,thomson1 ,basil1 #djh1 #dad1 #dbh n4 #a1 #dbi n4 #a1 #dcd n4 #a1 #dcf ,threats of the dying1 #bgc ,three days1 resurrection after1 #fg sq4 ,threshold1 the dead carried out under the1 #dec1 #deg2 movable1 #deg ,thrush in story of the origin of death1 #fa sq4 ,thunder the voice of a mythical being1 #aab1 #aad1 #adc ,tindalo1 a powerful ghost1 #cdf ,tinneh or ,dene ,indians1 their ideas as to death1 #ci sq4 ,tlaloc1 ,mexican rain-god1 #afc ,tlingit ,indians1 #afc2 burial custom of the1 #dee ,to ,kambinana1 #fi ,to ,korvuvu1 #fi ,togoland1 ,west ,africa1 #ha ,toll exacted from ghosts1 #bbd ,tollkeeper1 ghostly1 #bbd ,tonga1 #djf1 #daa ,tongans1 their limited doctrine of immortality1 #cc ,torres ,islands1 #cdc1 #cec ---- ,straits ,islanders1 their ideas as to sickness and death1 #dg2 their belief in immortality1 #agj sqq42 their ethnological affinity and social culture1 #agj sqq42 funeral ceremonies of the1 #agf sqq4 ,totem1 a dominant1 #aac2 design emblematic of1 #afh ,totemic ancestor developing into a god1 #aac2 ancestors1 traditions concerning1 #aae sqq4 ---- animals1 imitation of1 #agg ---- clans1 #ajd2 animals and plants eaten1 #abj sq42 animals and plants dramatically represented by actors1 #aba sq4 ,totemism1 #ie2 possibly developing into ancestor worship1 #aad sq42 in ,torres ,straits1 #agb ,totems1 dramatic ceremonies connected with1 #aai sqq42 eaten1 #abj sqq42 magical ceremonies for the multiplication of1 #abd sq4 ,tracking a ghost1 #bgg sq4 ,traditions of the dead associated with conspicuous features of the landscape1 #aae sqq4 ,transmigration1 widespread belief in1 #bi2 of dead into animals1 #bdb1 #bde2 of souls1 #cbb2 ,fijian doctrine of1 #dfg ,travancore1 burial custom in1 #def ,tree of immortality1 #gd ,tree-burial1 #afa1 #aff1 #afg1 #aii1 #bjc2 of young children1 #cab sq4 ---- -tops1 spirits in1 #cac ,trees1 property of dead hung up on1 #adh2 as monuments of the dead1 #bbe2 huts built in1 #bfc2 souls of the dead live in1 #caf ,tremearne1 ,major ,a4 ,j4 ,n41 #bh n4 #a ,truth of the belief in immortality1 question of the1 #dfi sqq4 ,tsiabiloum1 the land of the dead1 #cbf ,tube inserted in grave1 #bgg ,tubes1 magical1 #bfi1 #bgj ,tubetube1 island of1 #bjf1 #bji1 #baj ,tugeri or ,kaya-,kaya1 the1 of ,dutch ,new ,guinea1 #bee ,tully ,river in ,queensland1 #acj ,tulmeng1 lord of the nether world1 #bhf ,tumleo1 island of1 #bah sqq4 ,tumudurere1 a mythical being1 #bjg ,tumupasa1 burial custom of the ,indians of1 #deg ,turner1 ,dr4 ,george1 #cbe1 #cci1 #cfi ,turrbal tribe1 #adf ,tuski of ,alaska1 burial custom of the1 #def ,two ,messengers1 the1 myth of the origin of death1 #fj sqq4 ,uganda1 first man in1 #gh2 dead kings of1 worshipped1 #aea2 jawbones of dead kings of1 preserved1 #bce2 war-god of1 #cff4 ,see also ,baganda ,unburied dead1 ghosts of the1 #cdi ,unfruitful wife1 mode of impregnating1 #dag ,unkulunkulu1 #fj ,unmarried ghosts1 hard fate of1 #dfd ,umatjera tribe1 #fh1 #aff ,urabunna1 the1 of ,central ,australia1 #ie ,vagueness and inconsistency of savage thought1 #adc ,vale tambu1 the ,sacred ,house1 #dch ,vanigela ,river1 #bjb1 #bjc ,vanua ,lava1 mountain1 #cee ---- -levu1 one of the ,fijian ,islands1 #daf1 #dag1 #dah1 #dbf ,vate or ,efat1 one of the ,new ,hebrides1 #cei1 #cgf ,vengeance taken on enemies by means of a ghost1 #beh2 ghost calls for1 #bgh1 #caj1 #dfh ,vetter1 ,konrad1 #bdb1 #bdd1 #bde1 #bdh1 #bee ,vicarious sacrifices of pigs for the sick1 #cgb1 #cgd1 #cge ,victoria1 aborigines of1 their ideas as to natural death1 #dj sq41 #db2 their beliefs as to the dead1 #adb2 their burial customs1 #ade1 #ade sq42 cuttings for the dead among the1 #aed sq4 ,views of human nature1 two different1 #dfi sqq4 ,village of ghosts1 #bca sq41 #bcd ---- deserted after a death1 #bge ,viti ,levu1 one of the ,fijian ,islands1 #dai1 #dbh1 #dce1 #dde ,vormann1 ,franz1 #bbh sq4 ,vuatom1 island1 #gj ,wagawaga1 in ,british ,new ,guinea1 #bjf sqq4 ,wainimala in ,fiji1 #dcf ,wakelbura1 the1 #aeb ,wallace1 ,alfred ,russel1 on death1 #he sq4 ,war1 ancestral images taken to1 #caj1 #cae2 perpetual state of1 #cci ---- -god of ,uganda1 #cff ,warramunga1 the1 of ,central ,australia1 #id2 their totem the ,wollunqua1 #ajc sqq41 #ajh sqq42 dramatic ceremonies connected with totems among the1 #abc sq42 cuttings for the dead among the1 #aef sqq42 burial customs of the1 #afg sq4 ,warrior ghost1 #cfc sq4 ,warriors pray to ghosts1 #bhh ,wars among savages undertaken to appease angry ghosts1 #dfh ,wa-,sania1 tribe of ,e4 ,africa1 #ff ,washing body a rain-charm1 #cge ,watch-an-die1 tribe of ,w4 ,australia1 #da ,watch at the grave1 #bic ---- of widow or widower on grave1 #bda ,water as a barrier against ghosts1 #aeb2 poured as a rain-charm1 #cge sq4 ---- great1 to be crossed by ghosts1 #bbd ---- -snake1 great mythical 7,wollunqua71 #ajd sqq41 #ajh sqq4 ,way to the land of the dead1 #bab sq4 ,weakening of religious faith1 #d ,weapons deposited with the dead1 #ade sqq42 deposited at grave1 #baa2 of dead broken1 #cii ,weather regulated by ghosts and spirits1 #chd sq4 ---- -doctors1 #che sq4 ,weaving in ,new ,guinea1 #cje ,weismann1 ,august1 on death1 #hd sq4 ,wemba1 the1 of ,northern ,rhodesia1 #gg ,western ,australia1 beliefs as to death among the natives of1 #da sq4 ,whale's teeth as offerings1 #dbj1 #dba1 #dbi1 #ddc1 #ddd ,whip of souls1 #bgj ,whipping men in mourning1 #deb ,white ants' nests1 ghosts turn into1 #cea ---- clay smeared on mourners1 #aeh1 #agg ---- men identified with the spirits of the dead1 #cdb ---- people1 souls of dead ,australian aborigines thought to be reborn in1 #acj1 #aca sqq4 ,whitened with chalk1 bodies of lads after circumcision1 #cjb ,widow1 mourning costume of1 #ahd1 #bjd2 seclusion of1 #bjd2 killed to accompany the ghost of her husband1 #bdi1 #bge2 drinks juices of putrefying corpse1 #cac ,widower exposed to attacks of his wife's ghost1 #aig2 costume of1 #bjd2 seclusion of1 #bjd1 #bdh sq41 #bei ,widows cut and burn their bodies in mourning1 #agf ,wigs worn by ,fijians1 #dea ,wiimbaio tribe1 #ade ,wilkes1 ,charles1 #dbd sq4 ,williams1 ,thomas1 #djh1 #dab1 #dac1 #deb1 #dfg ,williamson1 ,r4 ,w41 #bja ,wind1 ghosts float down the1 #agf ,windessi1 in ,dutch ,new ,guinea1 burial customs at1 #cah sq4 ,wingara1 early mythical times1 #aaf ,witchcraft1 fear of1 #bdd2 death ascribed to1 #bgg1 #djb2 ,fijian terror of1 #dac sq42 benefits derived from1 #dad ,witchcraft or black magic in ,central ,melanesia1 #chf sq4 ---- as a cause of death1 #cd sqq4 ,see also ,sorcery ,witchetty grub totem1 dramatic ceremonies concerned with1 #aba sq41 #abc ,wives of the dead killed1 #cii2 strangled or buried alive at their husbands' funerals in ,fiji1 #dbd sq4 ,woibu1 the land of the dead1 #baa ,wolgal tribe1 #adf ,wollunqua1 mythical water-snake1 totem of the ,warramunga1 #ajc sqq41 #ajh sqq41 #abe2 ceremonies in honour of the1 #ajh sqq4 ,woman1 old1 in myths of the origin of death1 #fd1 #ga sq4 ----1 the ,great1 #dfd ,women thought not to have immortal spirits1 #ib2 cut and burn their bodies in mourning1 #aed sqq41 #aif1 #bjc2 excluded from circumcision ground1 #bia1 #cja2 dance at deaths1 #bic2 drink juices of putrefying corpse1 #cee2 not allowed to be present at sacrifices1 #cfg2 whip men in mourning1 #deb2 burial of childless1 #deh2 the cause of death1 #dgb ---- dying in childbed1 special treatment of their ghosts1 #ceh2 their ghosts specially feared1 #bab1 #deh sqq4 ,wordsworth on immortality1 #bf n4 #a ,worship of ancestors1 #bba1 #cbh sqq41 #cch2 predominance of the1 #big sq42 possibly evolved from totemism1 #aad sq4 ,see also ,worship of the dead4 ---- of ancestors in ,central ,australia1 possible evolution of1 #abe sq42 of ancestral spirits in the ,nanga1 #dbh sq4 ---- of the dead1 #bc sqq41 #cbh sqq41 #cch2 in part based on a theory of dreams1 #bg sq42 elements of it widespread1 #ca2 in ,british ,new ,guinea1 #bja sq42 predominance of the1 #big sq4 ---- of the dead1 incipient1 in ,australia1 #adi1 #aej1 #afh sq4 ---- of the dead in ,torres ,straits1 elements of a1 #ahi2 among the ,yabim1 elements of a1 #bee ,worshipful ghosts1 #cfb sq4 ,wotjobaluk1 the1 #fg1 #aci ,wraiths1 #cif ,wurunjerri1 the1 #adf ,yabim1 the1 of ,german ,new ,guinea1 #bdb sqq42 their ideas as to death1 #dg ,yams1 prayers for1 #ccj2 stones to make yams grow1 #ccg sq4 ,young children buried on trees1 #cab sq4 ,young and old1 difference between the modes of burying1 #afa1 #afb sq4 ,youth supposed to be renewed by casting skin1 #fi sqq41 #gd sq41 #hc ,ysabel1 one of the ,solomon ,islands1 #cej1 #cgb1 #cgi1 #chj ,yule ,island1 #aif n4 #b1 #aig ,zahn1 ,heinrich1 #bdb1 #bdd ,zend-,avesta1 #dec ,zulus1 their story of the origin of death1 #fj sq4 ,,end ,,of ,,vol4 ,i 99 99 99 99 99 ,works by ,j4 ,g4 ,,frazer1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d41 ,litt4,d4 ,,the ,,golden ,,bough ,a ,,study ,,in ,,magic ,,and ,,religion ,third ,edition1 revised and enlarged4 #hvo4 ,part ,i4 ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings4 ,two volumes1 #bjs4 net4 ,,ii4 ,taboo and the ,perils of the ,soul4 ,one volume4 #ajs4 net4 ,,iii4 ,the ,dying ,god4 ,one volume4 ,second ,impression4 #ajs4 net4 ,,iv4 ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris4 ,one volume4 ,second ,edition4 #ajs4 net4 ,v4 ,spirits of the ,corn and of the ,wild4 ,two volumes4 #bjs4 net4 ,,vi4 ,the ,scapegoat4 7,spring1 #aiac47 ,,vii4 ,balder the ,beautiful4 7,spring1 #aiac47 ,,times4--,the verdict of posterity will probably be that ,the ,golden ,bough has influenced the attitude of the human mind towards supernatural beliefs and symbolical rituals more profoundly than any other books published in the nineteenth century except those of ,darwin and ,herbert ,spencer4 ,,lectures ,,on ,,the ,,early ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,kingship4 #hvo4 #hs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,athenaeum4--,it is the effect of a good book not only to teach1 but also to stimulate and to suggest1 and we think this the best and highest quality1 and one that will recommend these lectures to all intelligent readers1 as well as to the learned4 ,,psyche',s ,,task4 ,a ,discourse concerning the ,influence of ,superstition on the ,growth of ,institutions4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,times4--,dr4 ,frazer has answered the question of how the moral law has been safeguarded1 especially in its infancy1 with a wealth of learning and a clearness of utterance that leave nothing to be desired4 ,perhaps the uses of superstition is not quite such a new theme as he seems to fancy4 ,even the most ignorant of us were aware that many false beliefs of a religious or superstitious character had had very useful moral or physical1 or especially sanitary1 results4 ,but if the theme is fairly familiar1 the curious facts which are adduced in support of it will be new to most people1 and will make the book as interesting to read as the lectures must have been to hear4 ,,the ,,scope ,,of ,,social ,,anthropology4 #hvo4 ,sewed4 #f;d4 net4 ,,oxford ,,magazine4--,in his inaugural lecture the new ,professor of ,social ,anthropology in the ,university of ,liverpool defines his ,science1 states its aims1 and puts in a spirited plea for the scientific study of primitive man while there is still time1 before the savage in his natural state becomes as extinct as the dodo4 ,,totemism ,,and ,,exogamy4 ,a ,treatise on ,certain ,early ,forms of ,superstition and ,society4 ,with ,maps4 ,four vols4 #hvo4 #ejs4 net4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,crawley in ,,nature4--,prof4 ,frazer is a great artist as well as a great anthropologist4 ,he works on a big scale2 no one in any department of research1 not even ,darwin1 has employed a wider induction of facts4 ,no one1 again1 has dealt more conscientiously with each fact2 however seemingly trivial1 it is prepared with minute pains and cautious tests for its destiny as a slip to be placed under the anthropological microscope4 ,he combines1 so to speak1 the merits of ,tintoretto and ,meissonier4444 ,that portion of the book which is concerned with totemism 7if we may express our own belief at the risk of offending ,prof4 ,frazer's characteristic modesty7 is actually ',the ,complete ,history of ,totemism1 its ,practice and its ,theory1 its ,origin and its ,end4'444 ,nearly two thousand pages are occupied with an ethnographical survey of totemism1 an invaluable compilation4 ,the maps1 including that of the distribution of totemic peoples1 are a new and useful feature4 ,,pausanias',s ,,description ,,of ,,greece4 ,translated with a ,commentary1 ,illustrations1 and ,maps4 ,second ,edition4 ,six vols4 #hvo4 #abfs4 net4 ,,athenaeum4--,all these writings in many languages ,mr4 ,frazer has read and digested with extraordinary care1 so that his book will be for years the book of reference on such matters1 not only in ,england1 but in ,france and ,germany4 ,it is a perfect thesaurus of ,greek topography1 archaeology1 and art4 ,it is1 moreover1 far more interesting than any dictionary of the subject2 for it follows the natural guidance of the ,greek traveller1 examining every town or village which he describes2 analysing and comparing with foreign parallels every myth or fairy tale which he records2 citing every information which can throw light on the works of art he admires4 ,,pausanias ,,and ,,other ,,greek ,,sketches4 ,globe #hvo4 #ds4 net4 ,,guardian4--,here we have material which every one who has visited ,greece1 or purposes to visit it1 most certainly should read and enjoy4444 ,we cannot imagine a more excellent book for the educated visitor to ,greece4 ,,letters ,,of ,,william ,,cowper4 ,chosen and ,edited with a ,memoir and a few ,notes by ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d41 ,litt4,d4 ,two vols4 ,globe #hvo4 #hs4 net4 7,eversley ,series47 ,mr4 ,clement ,shorter in the ,,daily ,,chronicle4--,to the task ,dr4 ,frazer has given a scholarly care that will make the edition one that is a joy to possess4 ,his introductory ,memoir1 of some eighty pages in length1 is a valuable addition to the many appraisements of ,cowper that these later years have seen4 ,it is no mere perfunctory 'introduction' but a piece of sound biographical work4444 ,dr4 ,frazer has given us two volumes that are an unqualified joy4 ,mac,millan and ,co41 ,ltd41 ,london4