images produced by ,core ,historical ,literature in ,agriculture 7,,chla71 ,cornell ,university7 ,illustration3 ,alsike ,clover in ,northern ,wisconsin ,,clovers ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,grow ,,them ,,by ,,thomas ,,shaw ,author of ,forage ,crops ,other than ,grasses1 ,the ,study of ,breeds1 ,soiling ,crops and the ,silo1 ,animal ,breeding1 ,grasses and ,how to ,grow ,them1 etc4 ,,new ,,york ,,orange ,,judd ,,company #aijf ,,copyright1 #aijf ,by ,,orange ,,judd ,,company ,,to ,,all ,,persons ,,who ,,are ,,or ,,may ,,be ,,interested ,,in ,,the ,,growing ,,of ,,clovers ,,this ,,work ,,is ,,most ,,respectfully ,,dedicated ,,by ,,the ,,author ,st4 ,anthony ,park1 ,minn4 #aijf ,,acknowledgments ,in preparing this work1 the chief sources of information beyond the author's experience and observation have been the bulletins issued by the various experiment stations in the ,united ,states and discussions in the ,agricultural ,press4 ,for the illustrations the author is indebted to ,professor ,a4 ,m4 ,soule of the experiment station of ,tennessee1 ,professor ,h4 ,h4 ,hume of the experiment station of ,louisiana and ,mr4 ,w4 ,t4 ,shaw of the experiment station of ,oregon4 ,,the ,,author',s ,,preface ,some books have been written on ,clover in the ,united ,states1 and as far as they go they serve a good purpose4 ,many references and discussions have also appeared in various bulletins and reports issued by the experiment stations4 ,these have proved helpful not only in the ,states in which they have been issued1 but also in other ,states where the conditions are similar4 ,but no book or bulletin has yet appeared which discusses the growth of clovers as applicable to all parts of the ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,nor has any been issued which takes up the subject in orderly and consecutive sequence4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that there is not only room for a book which will cover the ground with at least measureable fulness1 but also in concise and orderly succession1 but there is great need for it4 ,it has been the aim of the author to write such a book4 ,only those varieties of clover are discussed at length which are possessed of economic value4 ,the treatment of the subjects is virtually the same as was adopted in writing the book on ,grasses and ,how to ,grow ,them4 ,some references are made to the history1 characteristics and distribution of each variety4 ,these are followed by discussions with reference to soil adaptation2 place in the rotation2 preparing the soil2 sowing2 pasturing2 harvesting for hay2 securing seed2 and renewing the stand4 ,the book is intended1 in some measure at least1 to meet the needs of the students of agriculture1 with reference to the plants discussed and also of all who are concerned in the tilling of the soil4 ,st4 ,anthony ,park1 ,minn4 #aijf ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,,chapter ,i4 ,,page4 ,introductory #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,general ,principles for ,growing ,clovers #f ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,medium ,red ,clover #eg ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,alfalfa #aad ,,chapter ,v4 ,alsike ,clover #aid ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,mammoth ,clover #bah ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,crimson ,clover #bch ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,white ,clover #beh ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,japan ,clover #bgi ,,chapter ,x4 ,burr ,clover #bia ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,sweet ,clover #cjj ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,miscellaneous ,clovers #caf ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,fig4 ,,page4 #a ,alsike ,clover--,frontispiece4 #b ,medium ,red #fa #c ,alfalfa #aae #d ,field of ,alfalfa #aga #e ,alsike #aie #f ,crimson #bci #g ,white #bei #h ,japan #bha #i ,sweet #cja #aj ,sainfoin #cah #aa ,beggar ,weed 7,flower and ,seed ,stems7 #cci #ab ,beggar ,weed 7,root ,system7 #cda ,,chapter ,i ,,introductory ,in this book all the varieties of clover will be discussed that have hitherto been found of any considerable value to the agriculture of ,america4 ,varieties that are of but little value to the farmer will be discussed briefly1 if discussed at all4 ,the discussions will be conducted from the standpoint of the practical agriculturist rather than from that of the botanist4 ,it is proposed to point out the varieties of clover worthy of cultivation1 where and how they ought to be cultivated1 and for what uses4 ,definition of ,clover4--,according to ,johnson's ,encyclopdia1 clover or trefoil is a plant of the genus ,trifolium and the family ,leguminos4 ,the ,standard ,dictionary defines it as any one of several species of plants of the genus ,trifolium of the bean family ,leguminos4 ,viewed from the standpoint of the ,american farmer it may be defined in the collective sense as a family of plants leguminous in character1 which are unexcelled in furnishing forage and fodder to domestic animals1 and unequaled in the renovating influences which they exert upon land4 ,the term ,trefoil is given because the leaves are divided into three leaflets4 ,it is also applied to plants not included in the genus1 but belonging to the same order4 ,the true clovers have their flowers collected into roundish or oblong heads and in some instances into cone-shaped spikes4 ,the flowers are small and of several colors in the different varieties1 as crimson1 scarlet1 pink1 blue1 yellow and white1 according to the variety1 and some are variously tinted4 ,the stems are herbaceous and not twining4 ,the seeds are inclosed in pods or seed sacks1 each of which contains one1 two and sometimes1 but not often1 three or four seeds4 ,the plants have tap roots1 and in some varieties these go far down into the subsoil4 ,the roots are also in some varieties considerably branched4 ,varieties4--,at least twenty varieties1 native or naturalized1 are found in ,great ,britain2 more than twelve varieties belong to the ,united ,states4 ,the more valuable varieties found in this country have been introduced from ,europe1 unless it be the small white clover 7,trifolium repens74 ,viewed from the standpoint of the agriculturist the varieties that are most generally useful include medium red clover 7,trifolium pratense71 alfalfa 7,medicago sativa71 alsike 7,trifolium hybridum71 mammoth 7,trifolium magnum71 crimson 7,trifolium incarnatum7 and small white 7,trifolium repens74 ,the varieties which flourish only in the ,south include the ,japan 7,lespedeza striata7 and the burr clover 7,medicago denticulata74 ,sweet clover 7,melilotus alba71 sometimes called ,bokhara1 which will grow equally well ,north and ,south1 is worthy of attention because of its power to grow under hard conditions1 in order to provide honey for bees and to renovate soils4 ,other varieties may render some service to agriculture1 but their value will not compare with that of the varieties named4 ,the most valuable of the varieties named in providing pasture1 include the medium red1 the mammoth1 the alsike and the small white4 ,the most valuable in providing hay are the medium red1 alfalfa and alsike4 ,the most valuable1 viewed from the standpoint only of soil renovation1 are the medium red1 mammoth1 alsike1 crimson1 ,japan and sweet4 ,the most valuable in producing honey accessible to tame bees1 are the small white1 alsike and sweet4 ,distinguishing ,characteristics4--,clovers differ from one another in duration1 habit of growth1 persistence in growth1 their power to endure low or warm temperatures1 and ability to maintain a hold upon the soil4 ,of the varieties named1 alfalfa1 the small white and alsike varieties are perennial4 ,that most intensely so is the first variety named4 ,the medium red and mammoth varieties are biennial1 but sometimes they assume the perennial quality4 ,sweet clover is biennial4 ,the crimson1 ,japan and burr varieties are annual4 ,some varieties1 as alfalfa1 crimson and sweet clover1 are upright in their habit of growth4 ,others1 as the small white and the burr1 are recumbent4 ,others again1 as the medium red1 alsike and mammoth1 are spreading and upright4 ,the alfalfa and medium red varieties grow most persistently through the whole season4 ,the sweet1 small white and alsike varieties can best endure cold1 and the sweet1 ,japan and burr varieties can best endure heat4 ,the small white1 ,japan1 burr and sweet clovers stand highest in ability to maintain a hold upon the soil4 ,the minor points of difference are such as relate to the shape and color of the leaves1 the tints of shade that characterize the leaflets1 the shape and size of the heads and the distinguishing shades of color in the blossoms4 ,the characteristics which they possess in common are the high protein content found in them1 the marked palatability of the pasture and hay1 unless in the sweet and burr varieties1 the power which they have to enrich and otherwise improve soils1 and the honey which they furnish4 ,plan of ,discussion4--,chapter ,i41 that is1 the present chapter1 as already indicated1 is introductory1 and outlines the nature1 scope and plan of the work4 ,chapter ,,ii4 deals with the general principles and facts which relate to the growing of clovers4 ,a close study of these will1 in the judgment of the author1 prove helpful to those who engage in growing any of the varieties of clover discussed in the book4 ,chapters ,,iii4 to ,,xi4 inclusive treat of individual varieties1 a chapter being devoted to each variety4 ,it has been the aim of the author to discuss them in the order of the relative importance which they bear to the whole country and to devote space to them accordingly4 ,the following varieties are discussed and in the order named3 ,medium ,red clover1 ,alfalfa1 ,alsike1 ,mammoth1 ,crimson1 ,small ,white1 ,japan1 ,burr and ,sweet4 ,all of these varieties will be found worthy of more or less attention on the part of the husbandmen in the various parts of this continent4 ,chapter ,,xii4 is devoted to a brief discussion of miscellaneous varieties which have as yet been but little grown in this country1 or of varieties of but local interest4 ,the former are ,sainfoin 7,onobrychis sativa71 ,egyptian clover 7,trifolium ,alexandrianum71 yellow clover 7,medicago lupulina71 ,sand ,lucerne 7,medicago media71 and a newly introduced variety of ,japanese clover 7,lespedeza bicolor74 ,these may prove more or less valuable to the agriculture of the ,united ,states when they have been duly tested1 a work which as yet has been done only in the most limited way4 ,the latter include ,florida clover 7,desmodium tortuosum71 more frequently called ,beggar ,weed1 ,buffalo clover 7,trifolium reflexum71 and ,seaside clover 7,trifolium invulneratum74 ,these may be worthy of some attention in limited areas where the conditions are favorable1 but it is not likely that they will ever be very generally grown4 ,they are dwelt upon rather to show their small economic importance and with a view to prevent needless experimentation with plants possessed of so little real merit4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,some ,,general ,,principles ,,which ,,apply ,,to ,,the ,,growing ,,of ,,clovers ,in growing clovers1 as in growing other crops of the same species1 which embrace several varieties1 certain features of management will apply more or less to all of these in common4 ,it will be the aim to point out the chief of these in the present chapter4 ,adaptation in ,clovers4--,adaptation in the varieties of clover considered will be more fully given when discussing these individually1 but enough will be said here to facilitate comparisons4 ,clover in one or the other of its varieties can be grown in almost all parts of the ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,speaking in a general way1 the medium and mammoth varieties can be grown at their best between parallels #cg and #di north latitude4 ,alfalfa has special adaptation for mountain valleys of the entire ,west1 but it will also grow in good form in parts of all1 or nearly all1 the other ,states4 ,alsike clover grows in about the same areas as the common and mammoth varieties1 but it may also be grown further ,north1 owing to its greater hardihood4 ,crimson clover has highest adaptation to the ,states east of the ,allegheny ,mountains and west of the ,cascades1 but will also grow in the more ,central ,states south1 in which moisture is abundant4 ,small white clover will grow in any part of the ,united ,states or ,canada in which moisture is sufficiently present4 ,japan and burr clover grow best south of parallel #cg and east of longitude #ih4 ,sweet clover will grow in all the ,states and provinces of the ,united ,states and ,canada1 but has highest adaptation for the ,central and ,southern ,states4 ,with reference to adaptation to soils1 medium and mammoth clover grow best on upland clay loam soils1 such as have sustained a growth of hardwood timber1 and on the volcanic ash soils of the ,western mountain valley4 ,alfalfa flourishes best on those mountain valley soils when irrigated1 or when these are so underlaid with water as to furnish the plants with moisture4 ,alsike clover has much the same adaptation to soils as the medium and mammoth varieties1 but will grow better than these on low-lying soils well stored with humus4 ,crimson clover has highest adaptation for sandy loam soils into which the roots can penetrate easily4 ,small1 white clover has adaptation for soils very similar to that of alsike clover4 ,japan clover and burr clover will grow on almost any kind of soil1 but on good soils the growth will1 of course1 be much more vigorous than on poor soils4 ,sweet clover seems to grow about equally well on sandy loams and clay loams1 but it has also much power to grow in stiff clays and even in infertile sands4 ,place in the ,rotation4--,all the varieties of clover discussed in this volume may be grown in certain rotations4 ,their adaptation for this use1 however1 differs much4 ,this increases as the natural period of the life of the plant lessens and vice versa4 ,consequently1 the medium red variety1 the mammoth1 the crimson1 the ,japan and the burr varieties stand high in such adaptation4 ,the alsike1 living longer1 is lower in its adaptation1 and alfalfa1 because of its long life1 stands lowest in this respect4 ,the small1 white variety is almost invariably grown or found growing spontaneously along with grasses1 hence no definite place has been or can be assigned to it in the rotation4 ,sweet clover being regarded by many as a weed has not had any place assigned to it in a regular rotation1 although in certain localities it may yet be grown for purposes of soil renovation4 7,see page #cjf47 ,all these crops are leguminous without any exception4 ,this fact is of great significance where crops can be rotated4 ,they have power to gather nitrogen from the air and store it in the soil in tubercles which form on their roots1 in all soils in which they produce a vigorous growth4 ,this fact indicates where they should come in the rotation4 ,they should be grown with a view to gather food for other crops made to follow them1 which have not the same power4 ,they should1 therefore1 be made to precede such crops as the small cereals1 corn1 the sorghums1 the millets and cotton4 ,but since these clover plants have the power to bring nitrogen from the air1 it must not be supposed that they will grow with sufficient vigor in soils destitute of this element4 ,they must be able to appropriate enough from the seed soil to give them a good start before they can draw nitrogen from the air1 hence1 though they may be made to follow almost any kind of crop1 it may sometimes be necessary to apply some nitrogenous fertilizer before they will make a vigorous growth4 ,the clovers1 unless in the case of some of the smaller varieties1 are more commonly sown to provide hay than pasture in the first crops obtained from them4 ,the value of the hay is increased or lessened in proportion as weeds are present4 ,to insure cleanliness in the hay crop1 therefore1 the system which aims to sow clover seed on land to which clean cultivation has been given while growing on them a cultivated crop1 as corn or field roots1 meets with much favor4 ,the mechanical condition of the soil immediately after growing these crops also favors the vigorous growth of the young clover plants1 more especially when they are sown upon the surface of the land after some form of surface cultivation1 rather than upon a surface made by plowing the land after cultivation has been given to it1 but to this there may be some exceptions4 ,clover in some of its varieties is frequently grown from year to year in orchards and for the two-fold purpose of gathering food for the trees and providing for them a cover crop in winter4 ,the medium red and crimson varieties are preferred for such a use4 ,the latter is the more suitable of the two1 since it does not draw on soil moisture needed by the trees1 owing to the season at which it is grown4 ,enough of the seed of these crops may be allowed to mature to re-seed the land from year to year1 and thus keep it producing4 ,the clover plants not only gather nitrogen for the fruit trees1 but in their decay they increase the power of the soil to retain moisture for the benefit of the trees4 ,some varieties of clover may be grown as catch crops1 that is1 as crops which are grown in addition to some other crop produced the same season4 ,when thus grown1 it is usually for purposes of soil improvement rather than to furnish food4 ,the varieties best adapted for this purpose in the ,northern ,states and ,canada are the medium red and the crimson1 the latter being much more circumscribed in the area where it will grow successfully than the former4 ,when medium red clover is thus grown1 it is commonly sown along with one of the small cereal grains1 and is buried in the autumn or in the following spring4 7,see page #ge47 ,the extent of the advantage is dependent chiefly on the amount of the growth made1 and this in turn is influenced by the character of the soil1 the season1 and the nurse crop4 ,in certain areas favorable to the growth of clover some good farmers sow clover along with all the small cereal grains which they grow4 ,crimson clover is usually sown in the late summer after some crop has been reaped and it is plowed under the following spring4 7,see page #bej47 ,in the ,southern ,states ,japan clover and burr clover will serve the purpose of catch crops better than the other varieties4 ,the former will follow a winter crop 7see page #bhd71 and the latter a summer crop4 7,see page #bid47 ,although alfalfa is not usually looked upon as a rotation crop in the ,rocky ,mountain valleys1 it may be made such a crop4 ,in these it grows so vigorously as to fill the soil with its roots in one or two seasons1 hence it may be made to rotate profitably with other crops4 7,see page #ace47 ,in such instances1 however1 medium red clover would probably answer the purpose quite as well1 and possibly better1 since the labor of burying it with the plow would be less difficult4 ,while some varieties of clover may be grown in various rotations and with profit1 one of the best of these1 where the conditions are favorable1 is a three years' rotation4 ,the first year some small cereal grain is grown and clover is sown along with it or1 at least1 on the same land4 ,the next year the clover is grown for hay or pasture4 ,the third year a crop of corn1 potatoes or vegetables is grown1 and the following year small cereal grain and clover4 ,the clover may thus be made to furnish nitrogen indefinitely for the other crops1 but in some instances it may be necessary to add phosphoric acid and potash4 ,preparing the ,soil4--,clovers are usually sown with a nurse crop4 ,the exceptions are crimson clover1 and in many instances alfalfa4 ,when thus grown1 the preparation of soil for the nurse crop will usually suffice for the clovers also4 ,but there may be instances in which it would be proper to give more attention to cleaning and pulverizing the soil to properly fit it for receiving the clover seed4 ,the leading essentials in a seed-bed for clover are fineness1 cleanness1 moistness and firmness4 ,ordinarily black loam soils1 sandy loam soils1 sandy soils1 humus soils and the volcanic ash soils of the ,west are made sufficiently fine without great labor4 ,clay soils may call for the free use of the harrow and roller used in some sort of alternation before they are sufficiently pulverized4 ,excessive fineness in pulverization of these soils is also to be guarded against in rainy climates1 lest they run together1 but this condition is present far less frequently than the opposite4 ,cleanness can usually be secured when clovers follow cultivated crops by the labor given to these when the land is not plowed in preparing it for the clovers4 ,in other instances the longer the land is plowed before putting in the seed and the more frequently the surface is stirred during the growing part of the season1 the cleaner will the seed-bed be4 ,in the spring the land is usually sufficiently moist for receiving the seed4 ,in the autumn moisture is frequently deficient4 ,stirring the surface of the soil occasionally with the harrow will materially increase the moisture content in the soil near the surface1 even in the absence of rain4 ,as crimson clover is usually sown in the late summer and alfalfa is frequently sown in the autumn1 it may sometimes be necessary to give much attention to securing sufficient moisture to insure germination in the seed4 ,when clovers are sown in the spring on land which is also growing a winter crop1 no preparation is necessary in preparing the land for receiving the seed4 ,on some soils the ground becomes sufficiently honeycombed through the agency of water and frost to put it in a fine condition for receiving the seed4 ,when this condition is not present1 the seed will usually grow if sown amid the grain and covered with the harrow4 ,when clovers are sown on sod land for the purpose of renewing pastures1 disking them will prepare them for receiving the seed4 ,the extent of the disking will depend on such conditions as the toughness of the sod and the nature of the soil4 ,usually disking once when the frost is out a little way from the surface1 and then disking across at an angle will suffice1 and in some instances disking one way only will be sufficient4 ,on newly cleared lands the clovers will usually grow without any stirring of the land before sowing1 or any harrowing after sowing4 ,clovers that are grown chiefly for pasture1 as the small white1 the ,japan and the burr1 will usually obtain a hold upon the soil if scattered upon the surface which is not soon to be cultivated4 ,fertilizers4--,on certain soils low in fertility and much deficient in humus1 it may be necessary to apply fertilizers in some form before clovers will grow vigorously4 ,such are sandy soils that have been much worn by cropping1 and also stiff clays in which the humus has become practically exhausted4 ,in such instances green crops that can be grown on such lands1 as rye1 for instance1 plowed under when the ear begins to shoot1 will be found helpful4 ,if this can be followed on the sandy soil with some crop to be fed off upon the land1 as corn1 for instance1 and the clover is sown1 successful growth is likely to follow4 ,on clays in the condition named it may not be necessary to grow a second crop before sowing clover1 since in these soils the lack is more one of humus than of plant food4 ,the application of farmyard manure will answer the same purpose1 if it can be spared for such a use4 ,other soils are so acid that clovers will not grow on them until the acidity is corrected1 notwithstanding that plant food may be present in sufficient quantities4 ,such are soils1 in some instances at least1 that have been newly drained1 also soils that grow such plants as sorrels4 ,this condition will be improved if not entirely corrected by the application of lime4 ,on such soils this is most cheaply applied in the air-slaked form1 such as is used in plastering and in quantities to effect the end sought4 ,these will vary1 and can only be ascertained positively by experiment4 ,usually it is not necessary to apply much farmyard manure in order to induce growth in nearly all varieties of clover1 and after free growth is obtained1 it is not usually necessary to supply any subsequently for the specific purpose named4 ,in some soils1 however1 alfalfa is an exception4 ,it may be necessary to enrich these with a liberal dressing of farmyard manure to insure a sufficiently strong growth in the plants when they are young4 ,having passed the first winter1 further dressings are not absolutely essential1 though they may prove helpful4 ,farmyard manure applied on the surface will always stimulate the growth of clovers1 but it is not common to apply manure thus1 as the need for it is greater in growing the other crops of the farm4 ,when thus applied1 it should be in a form somewhat reduced1 otherwise the coarse parts may rake up in the hay4 ,it is better applied in the autumn or early winter than in the spring1 as then more of the plant food in it has reached the roots of the clover plants1 and they have also received benefit from the protection which it has furnished them in winter4 ,in a great majority of instances1 soils are sufficiently well supplied with the more essential elements of fertility to grow reasonably good crops of clover1 hence it has not usually been found necessary to apply commercial fertilizers to stimulate growth1 as in the growing of grasses4 ,in some instances1 however1 these are not sufficiently available1 especially is this true of potash4 ,gypsum or land plaster has been often used to correct this condition1 and frequently with excellent results4 ,it also aids in fixing volatile and escaping carbonates of ammonia1 and conveys them to the roots of the clover plants4 ,it is applied in the ground form by sowing it over the land1 and more commonly just when the clover is beginning to grow4 ,the application of #ej to #bjj pounds per acre has in many instances greatly increased the growth1 whether as pasture1 hay or seed4 ,the following indications almost certainly point to the need of dressings of land plaster3 #a4 ,when the plants assume a bluish-green tint1 rather than a pea-green1 while they are growing4 #b4 ,when the plants fail to yield as they once did4 #c4 ,when young plants die after they have begun to grow in the presence of sufficient moisture4 #d4 ,when good crops can only be grown at long intervals1 as1 say1 #e to #h years4 ,it has also been noticed that on some soils where gypsum has long been used in growing clover the response to applications of the plaster is a waning one1 due doubtless to the too rapid depletion of the potash in the soil4 ,potassic fertilizers give the best results when applied to clovers1 but dressings of phosphoric acid may also be helpful4 ,applications of muriate or sulphate of potash or kainit may prove profitable1 but on many soils they are not necessary in growing clover4 ,wood ashes are also excellent4 ,they furnish potash finely divided and soluble1 especially when applied in the unleached form4 ,when applied unleached at the rate of #ej bushels per acre and leached at the rate of #bjj bushels1 the results are usually very marked in stimulating growth in clover4 ,seasons for ,sowing4--,clovers are more commonly sown in the springtime in the ,northern ,states and ,canada than at any other season and they are usually sown early in the spring1 rather than late4 ,on land producing a winter crop1 as rye or wheat1 they can be sown in a majority of instances as soon as the snow has melted4 ,that condition of soil known as honeycombed furnishes a peculiarly opportune time for sowing these seeds1 as it provides a covering for them while the land is moist1 and thus puts them in a position to germinate as soon as growth begins4 ,such a condition1 caused by alternate freezing and thawing1 does not occur on sandy soils4 ,where it does not so occur1 sowing ought to be deferred until the surface of the ground has become dry enough to admit of covering with a harrow4 ,as in sowing the seeds of certain grasses good results usually follow sowing just after a light fall of snow1 which1 as it melts1 carries the seed down into the little openings in the soil4 ,but there are areas1 especially in the ,american and ,canadian northwest1 where in some seasons the young clover plants would be injured from sowing the seed quite early4 ,this1 however1 does not occur very frequently4 ,when sown on spring crops1 as spring wheat1 barley and oats1 the seed cannot1 of course1 be sown until these crops are sown4 ,the earlier that these crops are sown the more likely are the clovers sown to make a stand1 as they have more time to become rooted before the dry weather of summer begins4 ,in a moist season the seed could be safely sown any time from spring until mid-summer1 but since the weather cannot be forecast1 it is considered more or less hazardous to sow clovers in these northern areas at any other season than that of early spring4 ,if sown later1 the seed will more certainly make a stand without a nurse crop1 since it will get more moisture4 ,if sown later than ,august1 the young plants are much more liable to perish in the winter4 ,in the ,states which lie between parallels #dj and #ce north1 and between the ,atlantic and the #ajjth meridian west1 clover seeds may be sown in one form or another from early spring until the early autumn without incurring much hazard from winter killing in the young plants1 but here also early spring sowing will prove the most satisfactory4 ,the hazard from sowing in the summer comes chiefly from want of sufficient moisture to germinate the seed4 ,in the ,southern ,states the seed is sown in the early spring or in the autumn4 ,if sown late1 the heat of summer is much against the plants4 ,seeds sown in the early autumn as soon as the rains come will make a good stand before the winter1 but there are some soils in the ,south in which alternate freezing and thawing in winter1 much more frequent than in the ,north1 would injure and in some instances destroy the plants4 ,in the ,western valleys where irrigation is practiced1 clover seeds may be sown at any time that may be desired1 from the early spring until the early autumn4 ,the ability to apply water when it is needed insures proper germination in the seed and vigor in the young plants4 ,methods of ,sowing4--,clover seed may be sown by hand1 by hand machines1 and by the grain drill1 with or without a grass-seed sowing attachment4 ,these respective methods of sowing will be discussed briefly here1 but since they are practically the same as the methods to be followed in sowing grass seeds1 and since they are discussed more fully in the book ,grasses and ,how to ,grow ,them by the author1 readers who wish to pursue the subject further are referred to the book just named4 ,when clovers are sown by hand1 usually but one hand is used4 ,enough seed is lifted between the thumb and two forefingers of the right hand to suffice for scattering by one swing of the same4 ,on the return trip across the field the seed should be made to overlap somewhat the seed sown when going in the opposite direction4 ,in other words1 the seed is sown in strips or bands1 as it were1 each strip being finished in one round4 ,some sowers1 more expert at their work1 sow with both hands and complete the strip each time they walk over the field4 ,when the ground is plowed in lands of moderate width the furrows will serve to enable the sower to sow in straight lines4 ,where the sowing is done on land sown to grain by the drill1 the drill marks may be made to effect the same result4 ,when sown on light snows1 the foot-marks will serve as guides4 ,in the absence of marks it will be necessary to use stakes to guide the sower4 ,four stakes are used1 two of which are set at each end of the field1 and these are moved as each cast is made4 ,at each round made over the field1 from #ab feet to #ae feet may be sown by the sower who sows only with one hand4 ,the sower with two hands will accomplish twice as much4 ,a comparatively still time should be chosen for sowing the seed by hand1 more especially when grass seeds1 which are usually lighter1 are sown at the same time4 ,in hand sowing much care is necessary in scattering the seed1 so that each cast of the seed will spread evenly as it falls1 leaving no bare spaces between the cast from the hand or between the strips sown at one time4 ,hand sowing1 especially in the ,western ,states1 is in a sense a lost art1 owing to the extent to which machine sowing is practised2 nevertheless1 it is an accomplishment which every farmer should possess1 since it will oftentimes be found very convenient when sowing small quantities of seed1 and in sowing seeds in mixtures which cannot be so well sown by machines4 ,hand machines are of various kinds4 ,those most in favor for ordinary sowing consist of a seeder wheeled over the ground on a frame resembling that of a wheelbarrow4 ,it sows about #ab feet in width at each cast of the seed4 ,it enables the sower to sow the seed while considerable wind is blowing and to sow it quite evenly1 but it is not adapted to the sowing of all kinds of grass and clover mixtures1 which it may be desirable to sow together1 since they do not always feed out evenly1 owing to a difference in size1 in weight1 in shape and in the character of the covering4 ,when clover seed is sown with the grain drill1 it is sometimes sown separately from grain2 that is1 without a nurse crop1 and is deposited in the soil by the same tubes4 ,but it is only some makes of drills that will do this4 ,clover seed1 and especially alfalfa1 may be thus sown with much advantage on certain of the ,western and ,southern soils1 especially on those that are light and open in character1 and when the seed is to be put in without a nurse crop4 ,eastern soils are usually too heavy to admit of depositing the seed thus deeply1 but to this there are some exceptions4 ,when sown with a nurse crop1 the seed is in some instances mixed with the grain before it is sown4 ,in some instances it is mixed before it is brought to the field4 ,at other times it is added when the grain has been put in the seed-box of the drill4 ,this method of sowing is adapted to certain soils of the ,western prairies and to very open soils in some other localities1 but under average conditions it buries seeds too deeply4 ,there is the further objection that they all grow in the line of the grain plants and are more shaded than they would be otherwise4 ,nevertheless1 under some conditions this method of sowing the plants is usually satisfactory4 ,one of the most satisfactory methods of sowing clover seeds along with a nurse crop is to sow the clover with a seeder attachment2 that is1 an attachment for sowing small seeds1 which will deposit the same before or behind the grain tubes as may be desired4 ,the seed is thus sown at the same time as the grain1 and in the process is scattered evenly over the surface of the ground4 ,these seeder attachments1 however1 will not sow all kinds of clover and grass mixtures any more than will hand-sowing machines do the same4 ,depth to ,bury the ,seed4--,the depth to bury the seed varies with the conditions of soil1 climate and season4 ,clover seeds1 like those of grasses1 are buried most deeply in the light soils of the prairie so light that they sink1 so as to make walking over them unusually tiresome when working on newly plowed land1 and in other instances so light as to lift with the wind4 ,on such soils the seeds may be buried to the depth of #b to #c inches4 ,on loam soils1 a covering of #a inch or less would be ample1 and on stiff clays the covering may even be lighter under normal conditions4 ,clover seeds are buried more deeply in dry than in moist climates1 and also more deeply in dry portions of the year than when moisture is sufficient4 ,while it may be proper in some instances to scatter the seeds on the surface without any covering other than is furnished by rain or frost1 it will be very necessary at other seasons to provide a covering to insure a stand of the seed4 ,when clover seed is sown on ground honeycombed with frost1 no covering is necessary4 ,when sown on winter grain in the spring1 the ground not being so honeycombed1 covering with the harrow is usually advantageous4 ,when sown on spring crops and early in the season1 it may not be necessary to cover the seed1 except by using the roller1 even though the seed should fall behind the grain tubes while the grain crop is being sown1 or should be sown subsequently by hand4 ,in other instances the harrow should be used1 and sometimes both the roller and the harrow4 ,under conditions such as appertain to ,new ,england and the adjacent ,states to ,ontario and the provinces east and to the land west of the ,cascade ,mountains1 clover and also grass seeds do not require so much of a covering as when sown on the prairie soils of the central portion of the continent4 ,sowing ,alone or in ,combinations4--,whether clover seed should be sown alone or in combination with the seeds of other grasses will depend upon the object sought in sowing it4 ,when sown to produce seed1 it is usually sown without admixture1 but not in every instance2 when sown to produce hay1 it is nearly always sown in mixtures1 but to this there are some exceptions2 when sown to produce pasture1 it is almost invariably sown with something else2 and when sown to enrich the land1 it is1 in all1 or nearly all1 instances1 sown without admixture4 ,when sown primarily to produce seed1 there are no good reasons why timothy and probably some other grasses may not be sown with medium red and mammoth clover1 when pasture is wanted from the land in the season or seasons immediately following the production of seed4 ,the presence of these grasses may not seriously retard the growth of the clover plants until after they have produced seed1 and subsequently they will grow more assertively and produce pasture as the clover fails4 ,moreover1 should they mature any seed at the same time that the clover seeds mature1 they may usually be separated in the winnowing process1 owing to a difference in the size of the seeds4 ,but timothy should not be sown with alsike clover that is being grown for seed1 since the seeds of these are so nearly alike in size that they cannot be separated4 ,when hay is wanted1 the practice is very common of sowing timothy along with the medium red1 mammoth and alsike varieties of clover4 ,timothy grows well with each of these2 supports them to some extent when likely to lodge2 matures at the same time as the mammoth and alsike clovers2 comes on more assertively as the clovers begin to fail1 thus prolonging the period of cropping or pasturing2 and feeds upon the roots of the clovers in their decay4 ,next to timothy1 redtop is probably the most useful grass to sow with these clovers1 and may in some instances be added to timothy in the mixtures4 ,some other grasses may also be added under certain conditions1 or substituted for timothy or redtop4 ,in certain instances1 it has also been found profitable to mix certain of the clovers in addition to adding grass seeds when hay is wanted4 ,the more important of these mixtures will be referred to when treating of growing the different varieties in subsequent chapters4 ,when growing them1 the aim should be to sow those varieties together which mature about the same time4 ,the advantages from growing them together for hay include larger yields1 a finer quality of hay1 and a more palatable fodder4 ,in the past it has been the almost uniform practice to sow alfalfa alone1 but this practice is becoming modified to some extent1 and is likely to become more so in the future1 especially when grown for pasture4 ,when sown to produce pasture1 unless for one or two seasons1 clover seed is sown in various mixtures of grasses in all or nearly all instances4 ,the grasses add to the permanency of the pastures1 while the clovers usually furnish abundant grazing more quickly than the grasses4 ,several of them1 however1 are more short-lived than grasses usually are1 hence the latter are relied upon to furnish grazing after the clovers have begun to fail4 ,in laying down permanent pastures1 the seed of several varieties is usually sown1 but in moderate quantities4 ,the larger the number of the varieties sown that are adapted to the conditions1 the more varied1 the more prolonged and the more ample is the grazing likely to be4 ,when clovers1 except the crimson variety1 are sown for the exclusive purpose of adding to the fertility of the land1 they are usually sown along with some other crop that is to be harvested1 the clover being plowed under the following autumn or the next spring4 ,these are usually sown without being mixed with other varieties1 and the two kinds most frequently sown primarily to enrich the land are the medium red and crimson varieties4 ,the former grows more quickly than other varieties1 and the latter1 usually sown alone1 comes after some crop already harvested1 and is buried in time to sow some other crop on the same land the following spring4 ,sowing with or without a ,nurse ,crop4--,nearly all varieties of clover are usually sown with a nurse crop2 that is1 a crop which provides shade for the plants when they are young and delicate4 ,but the object in sowing with a nurse crop is not so much to secure protection to the young plants as to get them established in the soil1 so that they will produce a full crop the following season4 ,two varieties1 however1 are more commonly sown alone4 ,these are alfalfa and crimson clover4 ,alfalfa is more commonly sown alone because the young plants are somewhat delicate and easily crowded out by other plants amid which they are growing4 ,because of the several years during which alfalfa will produce crops when once established1 it is deemed proper to sacrifice a nurse crop in order to get a good stand of the young plants4 ,the other clovers are usually able to make a sufficient stand1 though grown along with a nurse crop4 ,in some situations alfalfa will also do similarly1 as1 for instance1 where the conditions are very favorable to its growth4 ,crimson clover is more commonly sown alone for the reason1 first1 that it is frequently sown at a season when other crops are not being sown2 second1 that it grows better without a nurse crop2 and third1 that if grown with a nurse crop the latter would have to be used in the same way as the clover4 ,some have advocated sowing clovers without a nurse crop under any conditions4 ,such advocacy in the judgment of the author is not wise4 ,it is true that in some instances a stand of the various clovers is more certainly assured when they are sown without a nurse crop1 but in such situations it is at least questionable if it would not be better to sow some other crop as a substitute for clover4 ,but there may be instances1 as where clover will make a good crop of hay the year that it is sown1 when sowing it thus would be justifiable4 ,in a majority of instances1 however1 it will not make such a crop1 because of the presence of weeds1 which1 in the first place1 would hinder growth1 and in the second1 would injure the quality of the hay4 ,the nurse crops with which clovers may be sown are the small cereal grains1 as rye1 barley1 wheat and oats4 ,sometimes they are sown with flax1 rape and millet4 ,they usually succeed best when sown along with rye and barley1 since these shade them less and are cut earlier1 thus making less draft on moisture in the soil and admitting sunlight at an earlier period4 ,oats make the least advantageous nurse crop1 because of the denseness of the shade1 but if they are sown thinly and cut for hay soon after they come into head1 they are then a very suitable nurse crop4 ,one chief objection to flax as a nurse crop is that it is commonly sown late4 ,the chief virtue in rape as a nurse crop is that the shade is removed early through pasturing4 ,the millets are objectionable as nurse crops through the denseness of the shade which they furnish and also because of the heavy draught which they make on soil moisture4 ,peas and vetches should not be used as nurse crops1 since they smother the young clover plants through lodging in the advanced stages of their growth4 ,amounts of ,seed to ,sow4--,the amounts of clover seed to sow are influenced by the object sought in sowing2 by combinations with which the seeds are sown1 and by the relative size of the seeds4 ,the soil and climate should also be considered1 although these influences are probably less important than those first named4 ,when clovers are sown for pasture only1 or to fertilize the soil speedily and to supply it with humus1 the largest amounts of seed are sown4 ,but for these purposes it is seldom necessary to use more than #ab pounds of seed per acre4 ,these amounts refer to the medium red and mammoth varieties1 which are more frequently used than the other varieties for the purposes named4 ,they also include the crimson sown usually to fertilize the soil4 ,when sown to provide seed only1 #ab pounds per acre of the medium red1 mammoth and crimson varieties will usually suffice4 ,half the quantity of alsike will be enough1 and one-third the quantity of the small white1 or a little more than that4 ,whether alfalfa is grown for seed1 for hay or for pasture1 about the same amounts of seed are used2 that is1 #ae to #bj pounds per acre4 ,when sown with nurse crops and simply to improve the soil1 it is customary to sow small rather than large quantities of seed1 and for the reason that the hazard of failure to secure a stand every season is too considerable to justify the outlay4 ,from #d to #e pounds per acre are frequently sown and of the medium or mammoth variety4 ,when the mammoth and medium varieties of clover are sown for hay with one or two kinds of grass only1 it is not common to sow more than #f to #h pounds of either per acre4 ,the maximum amount of the seed of the alsike required when thus sown with grasses may be set down at #e pounds per acre4 ,these three varieties are chiefly used for such mixtures4 ,with more varieties of grass in the mixtures1 the quantities of clover seed used will decrease4 ,when clovers are sown with mixtures intended for permanent pastures1 it would not be possible to name the amounts of seed to sow without knowing the grasses used also1 but it may be said that1 as a rule1 in those mixtures1 the clovers combined seldom form more than one-third of the seed used4 ,the seeds of some varieties of clover are less than one-third of the size of other varieties4 ,this1 therefore1 affects proportionately1 or at least approximately so1 the amounts of seed required4 ,for instance1 while it might be proper to sow #ab pounds of medium or mammoth clover to accomplish a certain result1 less than one-third of the quantity of the small white variety would suffice for the same end4 ,the influences of climate and soil on the quantities of seed required are various1 so various that to consider them fully here would unduly prolong the discussion4 ,but it may be said that the harder the conditions in both respects1 the more the quantity of seed required and vice versa4 ,pasturing4--,when clover seed is sown in nurse crops that are matured before being harvested1 the pasturing of the stand secured the autumn following is usually to be avoided4 ,removing the covering which the plants have provided for themselves is against their passing through the winter in the best form4 ,in some instances the injury proves so serious as to result in a loss of all1 or nearly all1 the plants4 ,the colder the winters1 the less the normal snowfall and the more the deficiency of moisture1 the greater is the hazard4 ,but in some instances so great is the growth of the clover plants that not to graze them down in part at least would incur the danger of smothering many of the plants1 especially in regions where the snowfall is at all considerable4 ,but when the seed is sown alone or in mixtures of grain and even of other grasses in the spring1 grazing the same season will have the effect of strengthening the plants4 ,this result is due chiefly to the removal of the shade that weeds and other plants would furnish were they not thus eaten down1 but it is also due in part to the larger share of soil moisture that is thus left for the clover plants4 ,pasturing clover sown thus should be avoided when the ground is so wet as to poach or become impact in consequence4 ,unless on light1 spongy soils which readily lose their moisture1 such grazing should not begin until the plants have made considerable growth1 nor should it be too close1 or root development in the pastures will be hindered4 ,it would not be possible to fix the stage of growth when the grazing should begin on clover fields kept for pasture subsequent to the season of sowing4 ,the largest amount of food would be furnished if grazing were deferred until the blossoming stage were reached and the crop were then grazed down quickly4 ,but this is not usually practicable1 hence the grazing usually begins at a period considerably earlier4 ,in general1 however1 the plants should not be grazed down very closely1 or growth will be more or less hindered4 ,grazing clover in the spring and somewhat closely for several weeks after growth begins1 has been thought conducive to abundant seed production4 ,this result is due probably to the greater increase in the seed heads that follow such grazing4 ,this would seem to explain why clover that has been judiciously grazed produces even more seed than that clipped off by the mower after it has begun to grow freely4 ,in nearly all localities the grazing of medium red clover1 and even of mammoth clover1 somewhat closely in the autumn of the second year1 is to be practised rather than avoided4 ,these two varieties being essentially biennial in their habit of growth will not usually survive the second winter1 even though not grazed1 hence not to graze them would result in a loss of the pasture4 ,with nearly all kinds of clover there is some danger from bloat in grazing them with cattle or sheep while yet quite succulent1 and the danger is intensified when the animals are turned in to graze with empty stomachs or when the clover is wet with dew or rain4 ,when such bloating occurs1 for the method of procedure see page #ie4 ,the danger that bloat will be produced is lessened in proportion as other grasses abound in the pastures4 ,harvesting4--,all the varieties of clover1 except alfalfa1 are best cut for hay when in full bloom4 ,here and there a head may have turned brown4 ,if cut earlier1 the crop is difficult to cure1 nor will it contain a maximum of nutriment4 ,if cut later it loses much in palatability4 ,alfalfa should be cut a little earlier1 or just when it is nicely coming into bloom1 as if cut later the shedding of the leaves in the curing is likely to be large4 ,all clovers are much injured by exposure to rain or dew4 ,they will also lose much if cured in the swath1 without being frequently stirred with the tedder2 that is1 it will take serious injury if cured in the swath as it fell from the mower4 ,if cured thus1 it will lose in aroma and palatability1 through the breaking of leaves and1 consequently1 in feeding value4 ,to avoid these losses1 clover is more frequently cured in the cock4 ,when cured thus1 it preserves the bright green color1 the aroma and the tint of the blossoms1 it is less liable to heat in the mow or stack and is greatly relished by live stock when fed to them4 ,to cure it thus1 it is usually tedded once or twice after it has lost some of its moisture4 ,it is then raked as soon as it is dried enough to rake easily1 and put up into cocks4 ,when the quantity to be cured is not large caps are sometimes used to cover the cocks to shed the rain when the weather is showery4 ,these are simply square strips of some kind of material that will shed rain1 weighted at the corners to keep them from blowing away4 ,the clover remains in the cocks for two or three days1 or until it has gone through the sweating process4 ,exposure to two or three showers of rain falling at intervals while partially cured in the swath or winrow will greatly injure clover hay4 ,when the area to be harvested is large1 clover is sometimes cured in the swath4 ,when thus cured it is stirred with the tedder often enough to aid in curing the hay quickly4 ,it is then raked into winrows and drawn from these to the place of storage4 ,in good weather clover may be cured thus so as to make fairly good hay1 but not so good as is made by the other method of curing4 ,it is much more expeditiously made1 but there is some loss in leaves1 in color and in palatability4 ,some farmers cure clover by allowing it to wilt a little after it is cut1 and then drawing and storing it in a large mow4 ,they claim that it must be entirely free from rain or dew when thus stored4 ,this plan of curing clover has been successfully practised by some farmers for many years2 others who have tried it have failed1 which makes it evident that when stored thus1 close attention must be given to all the details essential to success4 ,clover may also be cured in the silo4 ,while some have succeeded in making good ensilage1 in many cases it has not proved satisfactory4 ,the time may come when the conditions to be observed in making good silage from clover will be such that the element of hazard in making the same will be removed4 ,in the meantime1 it will usually be more satisfactory to cure clover in the ordinary way4 ,grasses cure more easily and more quickly than clovers4 ,consequently1 when these are grown together so that the grasses form a considerable proportion of the hay1 the methods followed in curing the grasses will answer also for the clovers4 ,for these methods the reader is referred to the book ,grasses and ,how to ,grow ,them by the author4 ,the influence that grasses thus exert on the growing of clovers furnishes a weighty reason for growing them together4 ,storing4--,clovers are ready to store when enough moisture has left the stems to prevent excessive fermentation when put into the place of storage4 ,hay that has been cured in the cock is much less liable to heat when stored so as to produce mould1 than hay cured in the swath or winrow4 ,the former has already gone through the heating process or1 at least1 partially so4 ,some experience is necessary to enable one to be quite sure as to the measure of the fitness of hay for being stored4 ,when it can be pitched without excessive labor it is ready for being stored1 but the unskilled will not likely be able to judge of this accurately4 ,if a wisp is taken some distance from the top of the winrow or cock and twisted between the hands1 if moisture exudes it is too damp1 and if the hay breaks asunder readily it is too dry4 ,when no moisture is perceptible and yet the wisp does not break asunder1 the hay is ready to be drawn4 ,care must be taken that the wisp chosen be representative of the mass of the hay4 ,to make sure of this1 the test should be applied several times4 ,where practicable the aim should be to store clover hay under cover1 owing to the little power which it has to shed rain in the stack4 ,this is only necessary1 however1 in climates with considerable rainfall during the year and where irrigation is practised1 as in the mountain ,states clover hay may be kept in the stack without any loss from rain1 and it can be cured exactly as the ranchman may desire1 since he is never embarrassed when making hay by bad weather4 ,when storing clovers1 the time of the day at which it is stored influences the keeping qualities of the hay4 ,hay stored at noontide may keep properly1 whereas1 if the same were stored while dew is falling it might be too damp for being thus stored4 ,much care should be taken in stacking clover hay that it may shed rain properly4 ,the following should be observed among other rules of less importance that may be given3 #a4 ,make a foundation of rails1 poles or old straw or hay that will prevent the hay near the ground from taking injury from the ground moisture4 #b4 ,keep the heart of the stack highest from the first and the slope gradual and even from the center toward the sides4 #c4 ,keep the stack evenly trodden1 or it will settle unevenly1 and the stack will lean to one side accordingly4 #d4 ,increase the diameter from the ground upward until ready to draw in or narrow to form the top4 #e4 ,aim to form the top by gradual rather than abrupt narrowing4 #f4 ,top out by using some other kind of hay or grass that sheds the rain better than clover4 #g4 ,suspend weights to some kind of ropes1 stretching over the top of the stack to prevent the wind from removing the material put on to protect the clover from rain4 ,feeding4--,the clovers furnish a ration more nearly in balance than almost any other kind of food4 ,if the animals to which they are fed could consume enough of them to produce the desired end1 concentrated foods would not be wanted4 ,they are so bulky1 however1 relatively1 that to horses and mules at work1 to dairy cows in milk and cattle that are being fattened1 to sheep under similar conditions1 and to swine1 it is necessary to add the concentrated grain foods1 more or less1 according to the precise object4 ,but for horses1 mules1 cattle1 sheep and goats that are growing subsequent to the weaning stage1 and for mature animals of these respective classes not producing1 that is1 not yielding returns1 a good quality of clover hay will suffice for a considerable time at least without the necessity of adding any other food4 ,it is considered inferior to timothy as a fodder for horses4 ,this preference is doubtless owing largely to the fact1 first1 that clover breaks up more and loses more leaves when being handled1 especially when being transported2 and second1 that clover is frequently cured so imperfectly as to create dust from over-fermentation or through breaking of the leaves1 because of being over-dried1 and the dust thus created is prejudicial to the health of these animals4 ,it tends to produce heaves4 ,this may in part be obviated by sprinkling the hay before it is fed4 ,when clover is properly cured1 it is a more nutritious hay than timothy1 and is so far preferable for horses1 but since timothy transports in much better form1 it is always likely to be more popular in the general market than clover4 ,the possibility of feeding clover to horses for successive years without any evils resulting is made very apparent from feeding alfalfa thus in certain areas of the ,west4 ,clover hay is specially useful as a fodder for milk-producing animals1 owing to the high protein content which it contains4 ,dairymen prefer it to nearly all kinds of fodders grown1 and the same is true of shepherds4 ,when very coarse1 however1 a considerable proportion of the stems is likely to be left uneaten1 especially by sheep4 ,because of this it should be the aim to grow it so that this coarseness of stem will not be present4 ,this is accomplished1 first1 by growing it thickly1 and second1 by growing the clovers in combination with one another and also with certain of the grasses4 ,clovers are especially helpful in balancing the ration where corn is the principal food crop grown4 ,the protein of the clover crop aids greatly in balancing the excess of carbo-hydrates in the corn crop1 hence much attention should be given to the production of clovers in such areas4 ,renewing4--,because of the comparatively short life of several of the most useful of the varieties of clover1 no attempt is usually made to renew them when they fail1 unless when growing in pasture somewhat permanent in character4 ,to this1 however1 there may be some exceptions4 ,on certain porous soils it has been found possible to maintain medium red clover and also the mammoth and alsike varieties for several years by simply allowing some of the seed to ripen in the autumn1 and in this way to re-seed the land1 a result made possible through moderate grazing of the meadow in the autumn1 and in some instances through the absence of grazing altogether1 as when the conditions may not be specially favorable to the growth of clover4 ,it is not uncommon1 however1 to renew alfalfa1 by adding more seed when it is disked in the spring1 as it sometimes is to aid in removing weeds from the land4 ,the results vary much with the favorableness of the conditions for growing alfalfa or the opposite4 ,in pastures more or less permanent in character1 clovers may be renewed by disking the ground1 adding more clover seed1 and then smoothing the surface by running over it the harrow1 and in some instances also the roller4 ,this work is best done when the frost has just left the ground for a short distance below the surface4 ,some kinds of clover are so persistent in their habit of growth that when once in the soil they remain1 and therefore do not usually require renewal4 ,these include the small white1 the yellow1 the ,japan1 burr clover and sweet clover4 ,in soils congenial to these respective varieties1 the seeds usually remain in the soil in sufficient quantities to restock the land with plants when it is again laid down to grass4 ,nearly all of these varieties are persistent seed producers2 hence1 even though grazed1 enough seed is formed to produce another crop of plants4 ,clovers as ,soil ,improvers4--,all things considered1 no class of plants grown upon the farm are so beneficent in the influence which they exert upon the land as clovers4 ,they improve it by enriching it2 they improve it mechanically2 and they aid plant growth by gathering and assimilating1 as it were1 food for other plants4 ,all clovers have the power of drawing nitrogen from the air and depositing the same in the tubercles formed on the roots of the plants4 ,these tubercles are small1 warty-like substances1 which appear during the growing season4 ,they are more commonly formed on the roots within the cultivable area1 and therefore are easily accessible to the roots of the plants which immediately follow4 ,clovers are not equally capable of thus drawing nitrogen from the air1 nor are the same varieties equally capable of doing this under varying conditions4 ,the relative capabilities of varieties to thus deposit nitrogen in the soil is by no means equal1 but up to the present time it would seem correct to say that relative capability in all of these has not yet been definitely ascertained4 ,with reference to the whole question much has yet to be learned1 but it is now certain that in all1 or nearly all1 instances in which clovers are grown on land1 they leave it much richer in nitrogen than it was when they were sown upon the same4 ,they also add to the fertility of the surface soil by gathering plant food in the subsoil below where many plants feed4 ,they have much power to do this1 because they are deep rooted and they are strong feeders2 that is1 they have much power to take up food in the soil or subsoil4 ,part of the food thus gathered in the subsoil helps to form roots in the cultivable area and part aids in forming top growth for pasture or for hay4 ,if grazed down or if made into hay and fed so that the manure goes back upon the land the fertility of the same is increased in all leading essentials4 ,this increase is partly made at the expense of the fertility in the subsoil4 ,but the stores of fertility in the subsoil are such usually as to admit of thus being drawn upon indefinitely4 ,clovers improve soils mechanically by rendering them more friable1 by giving them increased power to hold moisture1 and by improving drainage in the subsoil4 ,of course1 they have not the power to do this equally1 but they all have this power in degree and in all the ways that have been named4 ,clovers send down a tap root into the soil and subsoil as they grow4 ,from the tap roots branch off lateral roots in an outward and downward direction4 ,from these laterals many rootlets penetrate through the soil4 ,when the plants are numerous1 these roots and rootlets fill the soil4 ,when it is broken up1 therefore1 particles of soil are so separated that they tend to fall apart1 hence the soil is always made more or less friable1 even when it consists of the stiffest clays4 ,the shade furnished by the clover also furthers friability4 ,this friability makes the land easier to work1 and it is also more easily penetrated by the roots of plants4 ,the influence on aeration is also marked4 ,the air can more readily penetrate through the interstices in the soil1 and1 in consequence1 chemical changes in the soil favorable to plant growth are facilitated4 ,the roots of clovers are usually so numerous that they literally fill the soil with vegetable matter4 ,this matter1 in process of decay1 greatly increases the power of the soil to hold moisture1 whether it falls from the clouds or ascends from the subsoil through capillary attraction4 ,the moisture thus held is greatly beneficial to the plants that immediately follow1 especially in a dry season and in open soils1 and the influence thus exerted frequently goes on1 though with decreasing potency1 for two1 three or four seasons4 ,reference has already been made to the tap root which clover sends down into the soil and subsoil4 ,in the strong varieties this tap root goes down deeply4 ,when the crop is plowed up1 the roots decay1 and when they do1 for a time at least1 they furnish channels down which the surface water percolates1 if present in excess4 ,thus it is that clover aids in draining lands under the conditions named4 ,the channels thus opened do not close immediately with the decay of the clover roots1 hence the downward movement of water in the soil is facilitated for some time subsequently4 ,it has been stated that clovers have more power than some other plants to gather plant food in the soil4 ,in some instances they literally fill the soil with their roots4 ,when other plants are sown after the clover has been broken up they feed richly on the decaying roots of the clover4 ,thus it is that clover gathers food for other plants which they would not be so well able to gather for themselves1 and puts it in a form in which it can be easily appropriated by these4 ,the nitrogen in clover is yielded up more gradually and continuously as nitrates than it could be obtained from any form of top dressings that can be given to the land4 ,in this fact is found one important reason why cereal grains thrive so well after clover4 ,since the roots of clovers act so beneficently on soils1 it is highly important that they be increased to the greatest extent practicable4 ,owing to the relation between the growth of the roots of plants and the parts produced above ground1 development in root growth is promoted much more when the clover is cut for hay than when it is fed off by grazing4 ,experiments have also demonstrated that the development of root growth is much enhanced in medium red clover by taking a second cutting for hay or seed4 ,they have also demonstrated that more nitrogen is left in the soil by clover roots after a seed crop than after a crop of hay4 ,from what has been said1 it will be apparent that the extent to which clovers enrich the soil will depend upon the strength of the growth of the plants and certain other conditions4 ,it will not be possible to reduce to figures the additions in plant food which clovers add to the soil other than in a comparative way4 ,dr4 ,voelker has stated that there is fully three times as much nitrogen in a crop of clover as in the average produce of the grain and straw of wheat per acre4 ,dr4 ,kedzie is on record as having said that in the hay or sod furnished by a good crop of clover1 there is enough nitrogen for more than four average crops of wheat1 enough phosphoric acid for more than two average crops and enough of potash for more than six average crops4 ,he has said1 moreover1 that the roots and stubble contain fully as much of these elements as hay4 ,it will also be apparent that where clover grows in good form no cheaper or better way can be adopted in manuring land1 and that in certain areas the judicious use of land plaster on the clover hastens the renovating process4 ,it is thought that in some instances the mere loading and spreading of barnyard manure costs more than the clover and plaster4 ,especially will this be true of fields distant from the farm steading4 ,it is specially important1 therefore1 that in enriching these1 clover will be utilized to the fullest extent practicable4 ,clover as a ,weed ,destroyer4--,where clover is much grown1 at least in some of its varieties1 it becomes an aid in reducing the prevalence of many forms of weed growth4 ,it is thus helpful in some instances1 because of the number of the cuttings secured2 in others because of its smothering tendencies1 and in yet others because of the season of the year when it is sown and harvested or plowed under1 as the case may be4 ,alfalfa and medium red clover are cut more frequently than the other varieties and1 therefore1 because of this1 render more service than these in checking weed growth4 ,the former is cut so frequently as to make it practically impossible for most forms of annual weed life to mature seed in the crop4 ,the same is true of biennials and also perennials4 ,but there are some forms of perennial weeds which multiply through the medium of their rootstocks that may eventually crowd alfalfa4 ,medium red clover is usually cut twice a year1 hence1 in it annuals and biennials cannot mature seed1 except in exceptional instances1 and because of the short duration of its life1 perennials have not time to spread so as to do much harm4 ,the clovers that are most helpful in smothering weeds are the mammoth1 the medium and the alsike varieties4 ,these are thus helpful in the order named4 ,to accomplish such an end they must grow vigorously1 and the plants must be numerous on the ground4 ,when grown thus1 but few forms of weed life can make any material headway in the clover crop4 ,even perennials may be greatly weakened1 and in some instances virtually smothered by such growth of clover4 ,to insure a sufficient growth of clover it may be advantageous to top dress the crop with farmyard manure sufficiently decayed1 and in the case of medium red clover to dress the second cutting with land plaster4 ,if the second growth is plowed under1 subsequent cultivation of the surface will further aid in completing the work of destruction4 ,the crimson variety is sown and also harvested at such a time that the influence on weed eradication is very marked4 ,the ground is usually prepared in the summer and so late that weeds which sprout after the clover has been sown cannot mature the same autumn4 ,in the spring it is harvested before any weeds can ripen4 ,when plowed under1 rather than harvested1 the result is the same4 ,when clover is grown in short rotations1 its power to destroy weeds is increased4 ,for instance1 when the medium red or mammoth varieties are grown in the three years' rotation of corn or some root crop1 followed by grain seeded with clover1 the effects upon weed eradication are very marked1 if the cultivation given to the corn or roots is ample4 ,under such a system weeds could be virtually prevented from maturing seeds at any time1 especially if the medium variety of clover were sown1 and if the stubbles were mown some time subsequent to the harvesting of the grain crop4 ,such a system of rotation faithfully carried out for a number of years should practically eradicate all1 or nearly all1 the noxious forms of weed life4 ,clover ,sickness4--,on certain of the soils of ,great ,britain and probably on those of other countries in ,europe1 where clover has been grown quite frequently and for a long period1 as good crops cannot be grown as previously1 and in some instances the crop is virtually a failure4 ,the plants will start from seed in the early spring and grow with sufficient vigor for a time1 after which they will show signs of wilting and finally they die4 ,various theories were advanced for a time as to the cause before it was ascertained by experiment what produced these results4 ,some thought they arose from lack of water in the soil1 others claimed that they were due to the presence of parasites1 which in some way preyed upon the roots1 others again attributed them to improper soil conditions4 ,it is now just about certain that they arose from a deficiency of soluble potash in the subsoil4 ,such1 at least1 was the conclusion reached by ,kutzleb as the result of experiments conducted with a view to ascertain the cause of clover wilt4 ,the cause being known1 the remedy is not difficult4 ,it is to grow clover less frequently on such soils4 ,sufficient time must be given to enable more of the inert potash in the subsoil to become available4 ,another way would be to apply potash somewhat freely to these soils1 and subsoil them where this may be necessary4 ,it is thought that clover sickness is as yet unknown in the ,united ,states and ,canada1 although its presence had sometimes been suspected in some sections where clover has been much grown4 ,this does not mean that it may not yet come to this country4 ,should the symptoms given above appear on soils on which clover has been grown frequently and for a long period1 it would be the part of wisdom to take such indications as a hint to grow clover less frequently in the rotation4 ,possible ,improvement in ,clovers4--,some close observers have noticed that there is much lack of uniformity in the plants found growing in an ordinary field of clover1 especially of the medium red and mammoth varieties4 ,many of the plants vary in characteristics of stem1 leaf1 flower and seed2 in the size and vigor of the plants2 in the rapidity with which they grow2 and in earliness or lateness in maturing4 ,so great are these differences that it may be said they run all the way from almost valueless to high excellence4 ,here1 then1 is a wide-open door of opportunity for improving clover plants through selection4 ,this question has not been given that attention in the past which its importance demands4 ,there may be a difference in view as to all the essential features of improvement that are to be sought for1 but there will probably be agreement with reference to the following in desirable varieties3 #a4 ,they will have the power to grow quickly and continuously under average conditions4 ,this power will render them valuable as pasture plants in proportion as they possess it4 #b4 ,they will produce many stems not too coarse in character4 ,this will affect favorably the character of the hay and will also have a bearing on increase in the production of seed4 #c4 ,there should be an abundance of leaves4 ,such production will affect favorably palatability in the pasture and also in the hay4 #d4 ,the blossoms should be so short that the honey which they contain may be accessible to the ordinary honey bee4 ,the importance of this characteristic cannot be easily overestimated4 ,it would not only tend to a great increase in seed production through the favorable influence which it would have on fertilization1 but it would greatly increase the honey harvest that would be gathered every year1 and #e4 ,they should be possessed of much vigor and hardihood2 that is1 they should have much power to grow under adverse conditions1 as of drought and cold4 ,the person who will furnish a variety of red clover possessed of these characteristics will confer a boon on ,american agriculture4 ,bacteria and ,clovers4--,the fact has long been known1 even as long ago as the days of ,pliny1 and probably much before those days1 that clover1 when grown in the rotation1 had the power to bring fertility to the soil4 ,this fact was generally recognized in modern agriculture and to the extent1 in some instances1 of giving it a place even in the short rotations4 ,but until recent decades1 it was only partially known how clover accomplished such fertilization4 ,it was thought it thus gathered fertility by feeding deeply in the subsoil1 and through the plant food thus gathered1 the root system of the plants were so strengthened in the cultivated surface section of soil as to account for the increased production in the plants that followed clover4 ,according to this view1 the stems and leaves of the plants were thus equally benefited and1 consequently1 when these were plowed under where they had grown these also added plant food to the cultivated portion of the soil1 in addition to what it possessed when the clover seed which produced the plants was sown upon it4 ,in brief1 this theory claimed that fertility was added by the clover plants gathering fertility in the subsoil and depositing it so near the surface that it became easily accessible to the roots of other plants sown after the clover and which had not the same power of feeding so deeply4 ,this theory was true in part4 ,the three important elements of plant food1 nitrogen1 phosphoric acid and potash1 were and are thus increased in the soil1 but this does not account for the source from which the greater portion of the nitrogen thus deposited in the soil was drawn1 as will be shown below4 ,it was also noticed that when the seed of any variety of clover was sown on certain soils1 the plants would grow with more or less vigor for a time and then they would fail to make progress1 and in some instances would perish4 ,it was further noticed that if farmyard manure was applied freely to such land1 the growth made was more vigorous4 ,yet1 again1 it was noticed that by sowing clover at short intervals on such soils1 the improvement in the growth of the plants was constant4 ,but it was not understood why clover plants behaved thus under the conditions named4 ,it is now known that ill success at the first was owing to the lack of certain micro-organisms1 more commonly termed bacteria1 in the soil1 the presence of which are essential to enable clover plants to secure additional nitrogen to that found in the soil and subsoil on which to feed4 ,when manure was applied1 as stated above1 the clover plants secured much or all of their nitrogen from the manure4 ,bacteria were introduced in very limited numbers at first1 it may be through the medium of the seed or in some other way1 and because of an inherent power which they possess to increase rapidly in connection with continued sowing of clover at short intervals1 they came at length to be so numerous in the soil as to make possible the growth of good crops of clover where these could not be thus grown a few years previously4 ,careful observers had noticed that certain warty-like substances were found attached to the roots of clover plants1 and that the more vigorously the plants grew1 the larger and more numerous were these substances1 as a rule4 ,it was thought by many that these warty substances1 now spoken of as nodules1 were caused by worms biting the roots or because of some unfavorable climatic influence or abnormal condition of soil4 ,it is now known that they are owing to the presence of bacteria1 whose special function is the assimilation of free nitrogen obtained in the air found in the interstices2 that is1 the air spaces between the particles of soil4 ,this they store up in the nodules for the use of the clover plants and also the crops that shall follow them4 ,the nodules in clover plants vary in size1 from a pin head to that of a pea1 and they are frequently present in large numbers4 ,bacteria are present within them in countless myriads4 ,they gain an entrance into the plant through the root hairs4 ,the exact way in which benefit thus comes to the clover plants is not fully understood1 but it is now quite generally conceded that the nitrogen taken in by these minute forms of life is converted into soluble compounds1 which are stored in the tissues of the roots1 stems and leaves of the plants1 thus furnishing an explanation to the increased vigor4 ,it cannot be definitely ascertained at present1 if1 indeed1 ever1 what proportion of the nitrogen in clover is taken from the air and from the soil1 respectively1 since it will vary with conditions1 but when these are normal1 it is almost certain that by far the larger proportion comes from the air4 ,but it has been noticed that when soil is freely supplied with nitrogen1 as in liberal applications of farmyard manure1 the plants do not form nodules so freely as when nitrogen is less plentiful in the soil4 ,the inference would1 therefore1 seem to be correct1 that when plants are well supplied with nitrogen in the soil they are less diligent1 so to speak1 in gathering it from the air4 ,in other words1 clover plants will take more nitrogen from the air when the soil is more or less nitrogen hungry than when nitrogen abounds in the soil4 ,and yet the plants should be able to get some nitrogen from the soil in addition to what the seed furnishes to give them a vigorous start4 ,this power to form tubercles1 and thus to store up nitrogen1 is by no means confined to clovers4 ,it is possessed by all legumes1 as peas1 beans and vetches4 ,it is claimed that some of these1 as soy beans1 cow peas and velvet beans1 have even greater power to gather nitrogen from the air and store it in the soil than clover1 since the nodules formed on the roots of these are frequently larger4 ,in some instances1 on the roots of the velvet bean they grow in clusters as large as an ordinary potato4 ,with reference to all these leguminous plants it has been demonstrated that under proper conditions good crops may be grown and removed from the soil and leave it much richer in nitrogen than when the seed was sown4 ,it is thus possible by sowing these crops at suitable intervals to keep the soil sufficiently supplied with nitrogen to grow good crops other than legumes1 adapted to the locality1 without the necessity for purchasing the nitrogen of commerce in any of its forms4 ,they may be made to more than maintain the supply of nitrogen1 notwithstanding the constant loss of the same by leeching down into the subsoil in the form of nitrates1 and through the more or less constant escape of the same into the air in the form of ammonia1 during those portions of the year when the ground is not frozen4 ,they will do this in addition to the food supplies which they furnish1 hence they may be made to supply this most important element of fertility1 and by far the most costly when purchased in the market1 virtually without cost4 ,the favorable influences which these plants thus exert upon crop production is invaluable to the farmer4 ,they make it possible for him to be almost entirely independent of the nitrogen of commerce1 which1 at the rate of consumption during recent years1 will soon be so far reduced as to be a comparatively insignificant factor in its relation to crop production4 ,it is possible1 however1 and not altogether improbable1 that by the aid of electricity a manufactured nitrate of soda or of potash may be put upon the market at a price which will put it within reach of the farmer4 ,the power of legumes to increase the nitrogen content in the soil should allay apprehension with reference to the possible exhaustion of the world's supply of nitrogen1 notwithstanding the enormous waste of the same in various ways4 ,the more common sources of loss in nitrogen are1 first1 through the leeching of nitrates into the drainage water2 second1 through oxidation2 third1 through the use of explosives in war2 and fourth1 through the waste of the sewerage of cities4 ,when plant and animal products are changed into soluble nitrates1 they are usually soon lost to the soil1 unless taken up by the roots of plants4 ,when vegetable matter on or near the surface of the ground is broken down and decomposed1 in the process of oxidation1 there is frequently much loss of nitrogen1 as in the rapid decomposition of farmyard manure in the absence of some material1 as land plaster1 to arrest and hold the escaping ammonia4 ,through explosives used in war there is an enormous vegetable loss of nitrogen1 as nitrate salts1 which should rather be used to preserve and sustain life than to destroy it4 ,the waste of nitrogen through the loss of sewerage is enormous1 nor does there seem to be any practicable way of saving the bulk of it4 ,in many soils the germs which produce nodules are present when clovers are first grown on them4 ,but where they are not present1 the clover plants have no more power to gather nitrogen than wheat or other non-leguminous crops4 ,but since in other soils they are almost entirely absent1 how shall they be introduced8 ,the process of introducing them is generally referred to as a process of inoculation1 and soils when treated successfully are said to be inoculated4 ,three methods have been adopted4 ,by the first1 as previously indicated1 the grower perseveres in sowing clover at short intervals in the rotation4 ,he may also add farmyard manure occasionally1 and thus1 through the inherent power of multiplication in the bacteria1 they increase sufficiently to enable the land to grow good crops4 ,by the second method1 inoculating is effected through soil which is possessed of the requisite bacteria2 and by the third1 it is effected through the aid of a prepared product named nitragin4 ,when fields are to be inoculated by using soil it is obtained from areas which have grown clovers successfully quite recently1 and which are1 therefore1 likely to be well filled with the desired bacteria4 ,in some instances the seed is mixed with the soil and these are sown together4 ,to thus mix the seed with the soil and then sow both together broadcast or with a seed drill is usually effective1 and it is practicable when minimum quantities of soil well laden with germs are used4 ,in other instances the soil containing germs is scattered broadcast before or soon after the seed is sown4 ,considerable quantities of earth must needs be applied by this method4 ,it should be remembered that each class of legumes has its own proper bacteria4 ,because of this1 inoculation can only1 or at least chiefly1 be effected through the use of soils on which that particular class of legumes have grown1 or which are possessed of bacteria proper to that particular species4 ,in other words1 bacteria necessary to the growth of vetches will not answer for the growth of clovers1 and vice versa4 ,nor will the bacteria requisite to grow medium red clover answer for growing alfalfa4 ,in other words1 the bacteria proper to the growth of one member of even a family of plants will not always answer for the growth of another member of the same4 ,but in some instances it is thought that it will answer4 ,the study of this phase of the question has not yet progressed far enough to reflect as much light upon it as could be desired4 ,it is certainly known1 however1 that alfalfa will grow on soils that grow burr clover 7,medicago maculata7 and sweet clover 7,melilotus alba71 hence the inference that soil from fields of either will inoculate for alfalfa4 ,nitragin is the name given by certain ,german investigators to a commercial product put upon the market1 which claims to be a pure culture of the root tubercle organism4 ,these cultures were sold in the liquid form1 and it was customary when using them to treat the seed with them before it was planted4 ,their use has been largely abandoned1 because of the few successes which followed their use compared with the many failures4 ,but it is now believed that these cultures can be prepared and used so as to be generally effective and without excessive cost to the grower4 ,in preparing cultures it has been found that by gradually reducing the amount of nitrogen in the culture of media1 it is possible to increase the nitrogen fixing power in these germs from five to ten times as much as usually occurs in nature4 ,it is now known that the bacteria thus grown upon nitrogen free media retain high activity if carefully dried and then revived in liquid media at the end of the varying lengths of time4 ,some absorbent is used to soak up the tubercle-forming organisms4 ,the cultures are then allowed to dry1 and when in that condition they can be safely sent to any part of the country without losing their efficacy4 ,it is necessary to revive the dry germs by immersing them in water4 ,by adding certain nutrient salts the bacteria are greatly increased if allowed to stand for a limited time--as short1 in some instances1 as #bd hours4 ,the culture thus sent out in a dry form1 and no larger than a yeast cake1 may thus be made to furnish bacteria sufficient to inoculate not less than an acre of land4 ,it is stated that the amount of inoculating material thus obtained is only limited by the quantity of the nutrient water solution used in increasing the germs1 so that the cost of inoculating land by this process is not large4 ,the culture may be applied by simply soaking the seed in it1 by spraying the soil1 or by first mixing the culture into earth1 spreading it over the field and then harrowing it4 ,inoculations thus tried under the supervision of the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture have proved quite successful4 ,where any legume is extensively grown surrounding soils come to be inoculated through the agency of winds and water4 ,the increase brought to the yield of plants on various soils runs all the way from a slight gain to #ajjj-;fold4 ,and when soil is once inoculated it remains so for a long time1 even though the proper legume should not be grown again on the same soil4 ,the amount of nitrogen that may thus be brought to many soils by growing clover and other legumes upon them is only hedged in practically by the nature of the rotation fixed upon4 ,an acre of clover when matured will sometimes add #bjj to #cjj pounds of nitrogen to the soil under favorable conditions4 ,where the soil contains the requisite bacteria1 the young plants begin to form tubercles when but a few weeks old1 and continue to do so while the plant is active until mature4 ,that the plants use much of the nitrogen while growing would seem to be clear1 from the fact that toward the close of the growing season the tubercles become more or less broken down and shrunken4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,medium ,,red ,,clover ,medium ,red ,clover 7,trifolium pratense7 is also known by the names ,common ,red ,clover1 ,broad-,leaved ,clover and ,meadow ,trefoil4 ,the term medium has doubtless come to be applied to it because the plants are in size intermediate between the ,mammoth variety 7,trifolium magnum7 and the smaller varieties1 as the ,alsike 7,trifolium hybridum7 and the small white 7,trifolium repens74 ,but by no designation is it so frequently referred to as that of ,red ,clover4 ,this plant is spreading and upright in its habit of growth4 ,several branches rise up from the crown of each plant1 and these in turn frequently become branched more or less in their upward growth4 ,the heads which produce the flowers are nearly globular in shape1 inclining to ovate1 and average about one inch in diameter4 ,each plant contains several heads1 and frequently a large number when the growth is not too crowded4 ,when in full flower these are of a beautiful purple crimson1 hence1 a field of luxuriant red clover is beautiful to look upon4 ,the stems of the plants are slightly hairy1 and ordinarily they stand at least fairly erect and reach the height of about one foot or more2 but when the growth is rank1 they will grow much higher1 even as high as #d feet in some instances1 but when they grow much higher than the average given1 the crop usually lodges4 ,the leaves are numerous1 and many of them have very frequently1 if not1 indeed1 always1 a whitish mark in the center1 resembling a horseshoe4 ,the tap roots go down deeply into the soil4 ,usually they penetrate the same to about #b feet1 but in some instances1 as when subsoils are open and well stored with accessible food1 they go down to the depth of #e or #f feet4 ,the tap roots are numerously branched1 and the branches extend in all directions4 ,when they are short1 as they must needs be in very stiff subsoils and on thin land underlaid with hard soil1 the branches become about as large as the tap roots4 ,it has been computed that the weight of the roots in the soil is about equal to the weight of the stem and leaves4 ,medium red clover is ordinarily biennial in its habit of growth1 but under some conditions it is perennial4 ,usually in much of the ,mississippi basin it is biennial1 especially on prairie soils4 ,on the clay loam soils of ,ontario1 ,ohio1 ,michigan1 ,wisconsin1 ,indiana and some other ,states1 it is essentially biennial1 but many of the plants will survive for a longer period4 ,in the mountain valleys in the ,northwestern ,states1 and on the ,pacific slope west of the ,cascade ,mountains1 it is perennial4 ,medium red clover meadows in these have been cut for several successive years without re-seeding the crop4 ,the duration of this plant is also more or less influenced by pasturing as compared with cutting for seed4 ,grazing the plants has the effect of prolonging the period of their growth1 while maturing seed from them has the opposite effect4 ,medium red clover is characterized by a rapid growth4 ,seed sown in the spring has in certain climates produced a crop of hay in #abj days from the date of sowing4 ,it is also most persistent in its growth from spring until fall when sufficient moisture is present4 ,in this property it far outranks any of the other varieties of clover4 ,it comes into bloom in the ,south during the latter half of ,may and in the ,north during the month of ,june1 early or later1 according to location1 and in about sixty days from the time that it is cut for hay4 ,ordinarily1 a second cutting of hay may be taken from it and still later some pasture4 ,it furnishes excellent pasture1 soiling food and hay for nearly all classes of live stock4 ,while it is much relished by the stock1 it is probably not exceeded in its capacity for quick and prolonged growth throughout the growing season by any pasture plant1 except alfalfa4 ,for a similar reason it stands high as a soiling food4 ,no other variety of clover grown in ,america will furnish as much of either pasture or soiling food4 ,for animals producing milk and for young animals1 the pasture is particularly excellent4 ,it is also the standard pasture for swine where it can be grown1 and where alfalfa is not a staple crop4 ,when the hay is well cured1 it makes a ration in even balance for cattle and sheep1 and for horses it is equally good4 ,the prejudice which exists in some quarters against feeding it to horses has arisen1 in part1 at least1 from feeding it when improperly harvested1 when over-ripe1 when damaged by rain1 or by overcuring in the sun1 or when it may have been stored so green as to induce molding4 ,it may also be fed with much advantage to brood sows and other swine in winter4 ,as a soil improver1 medium red clover is probably without a rival1 unless it be in mammoth clover1 and in one respect it exceeds the mammoth variety2 that is1 in the more prolonged season1 during which it may be plowed under as a green manure4 ,its quick growth peculiarly adapts it to soil enrichment4 ,for this reason1 it is more sown than any of the other varieties in the spring of the year1 along with the small cereal grains to be plowed under in the late autumn or in the following spring1 after the clover has made a vigorous start1 since it produces two crops in one season1 the first crop may be harvested and the second plowed under after having made a full growth4 ,this can be said of no other variety of clover4 ,more enrichment is also obtained from the falling of the leaves when two crops are grown than from the other varieties4 ,the influence of this plant on weed destruction when grown for hay is greater than with the other varieties of clover4 ,this is owing in part to the shade resulting from its rapid growth and in part to the two cuttings which are usually made of the crop4 ,these two cuttings prevent the maturing of the seeds in nearly all annual weeds1 and to a very great extent in all classes of biennials4 ,the power of this crop to smother out perennials is also considerable1 and when this is linked with the weakening caused by the two cuttings1 it sometimes proves effective in completely eradicating for the time being this class of weeds4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,medium ,red ,clover 7,trifolium pratense7 ,oregon ,experiment ,station ,distribution4--,medium red clover is thought to be native to ,europe4 ,it was probably introduced into ,england some time early in the seventeenth century4 ,that it was attracting attention about the middle of the century or a little later1 is rendered probable by the fact that it is discussed at considerable length in the third edition of ,blyth's ,improver ,improved1 published in #affb1 while it is not mentioned in the first edition1 published in #afej4 ,it was doubtless introduced into the ,united ,states by the early colonists and at sundry times4 ,medium red clover will grow in good form only in the temperate zone1 since it cannot stand excessive heat or excessive cold4 ,the northerly limit of its successful growth in ,north ,america is somewhere about #ej north latitude on the wind-swept prairies1 but on suitable soils1 and protected somewhat by trees and winter snows1 it will probably grow #aj degrees further to the north4 ,in ,british ,columbia1 on the ,pacific slope1 it will probably grow as far north as ,alaska4 ,but on prairies eastward from the ,rocky ,mountains1 it has not been grown with much success much further north than #dh1 unless under the eastern shadow of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,low temperatures in winter1 where there is only a moderate covering of snow1 are far less fatal to clover plants than exposure to the sweep of the cold winds4 ,even where the thermometer is not so low as in the areas just referred to1 such winds are particularly damaging to the plants when they blow fiercely just after a thaw which has removed a previous covering of snow4 ,in some instances1 one cold wave under the conditions named has proved fatal to promising crops of clover over extended areas4 ,in a general way1 the southerly limit of vigorous and reliable growth may be put at about #cg4 ,but in some localities good crops may be grown further ,south1 especially in some parts of ,tennessee4 ,nor would it be correct to say that medium red clover grows at its best in many localities much south of #ch4 ,on the plateaus it can be grown further ,south1 where the soil is suitable4 ,this plant flourishes best in a moist climate4 ,in fact1 the abundance and continuance of the growth for the season are largely dependent on the amount of the precipitation1 and on the distribution of the same throughout the season4 ,in climates in which it is usual for a long spell of dry weather to occur in mid-summer1 the plants will not make rapid growth after the first cutting of the season2 but under conditions the opposite1 they will grow continuously from spring until fall4 ,continuous growth may be secured through all the season on irrigated land4 ,although the plants root deeply1 they will succumb under drought beyond a certain degree1 and in some soils the end comes much more quickly than on others2 on porous and sandy soils1 it comes much sooner than on clays4 ,on the latter1 drought must be excessive to destroy clover plants that have been well rooted4 ,white clover can withstand much heat when supplied with moisture4 ,moderate temperatures are much more favorable to its growth4 ,spring weather1 characterized by prolonged periods of alternate freezing and thawing1 is disastrous to the plants on dry soils1 possessed of an excess of moisture1 when not covered with snow4 ,they are gradually drawn up out of the soil and left to die on the surface4 ,in some instances1 the destruction of an otherwise fine stand is complete4 ,in other instances1 it is partial1 and when it is1 a heavy roller run over the land is helpful in firming the soil around the roots that have been thus disturbed4 ,medium red clover can be grown with some success in certain parts of almost every ,state in the ,union4 ,but in paying crops it is not much grown south of parallel #cg4 ,with irrigation it grows most vigorously in the mountain valleys between the ,rocky and ,cascade mountains1 and between about #cg and #ej north latitude4 ,in these valleys its habit of growth is perennial4 ,without irrigation1 the highest adaptation1 all things considered1 is found in ,washington and ,oregon1 west of the ,cascades1 except where shallow soils lying on gravels exist4 ,east of the mountains1 the best crops are in the ,states of ,michigan1 ,ohio1 ,indiana1 ,kentucky1 ,illinois1 ,missouri1 ,iowa1 ,wisconsin and ,minnesota4 ,the soils of ,northern ,minnesota1 ,wisconsin and ,michigan1 that have produced hardwood timber1 have unusually high adaptation to the growth of this plant1 and as the snow usually covers the ground in these areas in winter1 the crop may be relied upon with much certainty4 ,but on the sandy soils1 which more or less abound in these areas1 it does not succeed so well4 ,it has not yet proved a marked success in ,western ,minnesota or in the ,dakotas1 owing in part probably to the lack of the proper bacteria in the soil4 ,its growth in these localities1 however1 is extending from year to year4 ,indiana and ,ohio are great clover ,states1 and the same is true of much of ,illinois and ,iowa2 but southward in these ,states there is some hazard to the young plants from drought and heat in summer1 and to an occasional frost in winter when the ground is bare4 ,east of the ,states named1 it would probably be correct to say that the highest adaptation is found in ,new ,york and ,pennsylvania1 particularly the former1 in many parts of which excellent crops are grown4 ,in various parts of the ,new ,england ,states good crops may also be grown4 ,much of the soil in these is not sufficiently fertile to grow clover as it can be grown in the more ,central ,states4 ,the same is true of the ,states of ,delaware1 ,maryland and ,eastern ,virginia1 east of the ,rocky ,mountains1 south from the ,canadian boundary and west from ,minnesota1 ,iowa and ,missouri1 but little success has heretofore attended the efforts to grow medium red clover4 ,this statement does not apply equally to ,eastern ,nebraska and ,kansas4 ,usually the climate is not moist enough in summer1 the sweep of the cold winds is too great in winter1 the snowfall is usually insufficient to protect the plants1 and it may be also that the requisite bacteria is lacking in the soil4 ,sometime1 however1 these adverse conditions may in part be overcome by man's resourcefulness4 ,in parts of ,states that lie south of the #cgth parallel1 it may be found profitable to grow crops of medium red clover2 but in these1 other legumes1 as crimson clover1 cow peas and soy beans1 will probably furnish food more reliably and more cheaply4 ,in ,canada the highest all-round adaptation for clover is in ,ontario and ,quebec1 unless it be the mountain valleys and tide lands of ,british ,columbia4 ,because of the high adaptation in the soil of the two provinces first named1 and the plentifulness of the snowfall1 clover in these is one of the surest of the crops grown4 ,the maritime provinces of ,new ,brunswick1 ,nova ,scotia and ,prince ,edward's ,island1 particularly the former1 have soils a little too hungry to produce the highest returns in clover4 ,on the open prairies between ,ontario and the ,rocky ,mountains1 not much success has attended the attempts to grow any kind of clover1 owing probably to present uncongeniality in soils and more especially in climatic conditions4 ,however1 there are good reasons for believing that with the introduction of hardy varieties and through the use of ,northern grown seed1 an inoculated soil1 where inoculation may be necessary1 that medium red clover will yet be grown over wide areas in all the provinces of ,northwestern ,canada1 south of and including the ,saskatchewan valley4 ,soils4--,fortunately1 this most useful plant will grow in a considerable variety of soils1 though1 of course1 not equally well4 ,highest in general suitability1 probably1 are clay loams underlaid with a moderately porous clay subsoil4 ,they should at the same time be moist and reasonably well stored with humus4 ,on such a soil1 in a climate with sufficient rainfall and properly distributed1 a stand of clover should be looked upon as reasonably certain any season when properly sown4 ,it would also be correct to say that on the volcanic soils of the mountain ,states in the ,west1 clover will grow equally well when supplied with moisture1 and in these it is also very tenacious of life4 ,next in adaptation are what may be termed loam soils1 also underlaid with clay4 ,the proportion of the clay in them will exercise an important influence on the growth of the clover4 ,loamy sands will grow clover better than sandy loams1 although both are very suitable1 the other conditions being right4 ,it would seem to be correct to assign third place to stiff clays1 whether of the white or red cast4 ,the better that these are supplied with vegetable matter1 and the more moist the season1 the better is the stand of the clover likely to be4 ,in seasons that are generally favorable1 excellent crops of clover may be obtained from such soils1 but in dry seasons it is easy to secure a good stand of the plants4 ,they are also considerably liable to heave in these soils in the spring of the year from the action of the frost4 ,the more perfectly they are drained1 the less will be the injury from this source1 but it is scarcely possible to drain such lands so perfectly that there will be no loss of clover plants in these from the source named in the winters1 characterized by frequent rains1 accompanied by frequent alternations of freezing and thawing4 ,the loss from this source in such lands varies from nothing at all to #ajj per cent4 ,nearly1 if not equal to the former1 are dark loam soils with a gravel or sand drainage underneath1 providing1 first1 that the sand and gravel do not come too near the surface1 and second1 that the normal rainfall is sufficient4 ,on such soils it seldom fails to grow1 is not liable to heave in the winter or spring1 and usually produces excellent crops when these soils are properly tilled4 ,it has special adaptation for being grown on calcareous or limy soils4 ,it also1 usually1 grows well on soils underlaid with yellow clay of more or less tenacity4 ,the black humus soils of the prairie vary much in their suitability for growing medium red clover4 ,much depends on the clay content in such soils4 ,the more of this element in them and the nearer an underlying clay subsoil is to the surface1 the better will this clover grow on them4 ,in large areas of the prairie1 red clover will grow more successfully on the subsoil when laid bare than when on the surface soil4 ,it has been the experience in many instances that when the humus soils of the prairie1 porous and spongy in character1 were first tilled1 clover grew on them so shyly that it was difficult to get a good stand of the same until it had been sown for several seasons successively or at intervals4 ,eventually1 good crops were grown on these lands1 and are now being grown on them4 ,this was the experience that faced a majority of the first settlers on the prairie where excellent crops are now being grown1 and it is the experience which faces many to-day1 who are located on sections of the prairie but newly broken4 ,two reasons may be given by way of explanation1 but these may not furnish all the reasons for the experience just referred to4 ,first1 much of the land was so porous in its nature that in dry seasons the young plants perished for want of moisture4 ,as such lands become worn through cropping1 they lie more firmly and compactly2 hence1 there is less loss of moisture through the free penetration of the soil within a short distance of the surface of the dry atmosphere4 ,and second1 the requisite bacteria is not in these soils until it is brought to them by sowing seed repeatedly1 more or less of which grows1 and in growing increases the bacteria in the soil until that point is reached when good crops of clover can be grown with the usual regularity4 ,the suitability of sandy and gravelly lands for growing clover depends much on the amount of plant food which they contain1 on the character of the climate1 and on the subsoil4 ,such soils when possessed of some loam when underlaid with clay1 and in a climate with #bj inches and more per annum of rainfall1 usually grow good crops of clover2 but when conditions the opposite prevail1 the growth of this plant is precarious4 ,however1 when sandy or gravelly soils low in fertility are underlaid with the same and the rainfall is sufficient1 good crops of clover may be grown if these soils are first sufficiently supplied with vegetable matter and then sufficiently fertilized4 ,muck soils do not seem to have the proper elements for growing clover in the best form4 ,but when these have in them some clay1 and especially when they are underlaid with clay not distant from the surface1 they will grow good crops of clover1 especially of the alsike variety4 ,thus it is that lands which have grown black ash and tamarack generally make good clover lands also4 ,but clover will not succeed well on unreduced peaty soils1 since it is not able in these to gather food supplies4 ,but when sufficiently reduced1 some kinds of clover will succeed better on these than on some other soils4 ,deposit soils1 such as are found in the bottom lands of rivers and streams1 vary much in the suitability for growing clover1 owing to the great differences in the compositions2 but since they are usually possessed of sufficient friability1 fertility and moisture1 good crops of clover may generally be grown upon them where the climatic conditions are suitable4 ,the injury from overflow on such soils will depend on the depth of the same and its duration1 also the season of the year when it occurs4 ,overflow in the spring season before growth has begun1 or when it is about starting1 will be helpful rather than harmful1 especially if some deposit is left on the land by the subsiding waters4 ,but if the overflow should be deep and of any considerable duration1 and1 moreover1 if it should occur when the clover was somewhat advanced in growth1 and in hot weather1 the submergence of the clover would probably be fatal to it4 ,it may be proper to state here that the lands which grow hardwood timber will usually grow clover4 ,by hardwood timber is meant such trees as maple1 beech1 birch1 oak1 elm1 basswood1 butternut and walnut4 ,where forests are found comprising one or more varieties of these trees anywhere on this continent1 and especially comprising several of them1 the conclusion is safe that medium red clover will grow1 or1 at least1 can be grown1 on such soils4 ,if a considerable sprinkling of pine trees is found in the same1 the indications are not changed in consequence4 ,where the forest is largely composed of maple and birch1 excellent crops of clover may be looked for when the land has been cleared4 ,but because of what has been said1 the conclusion must not be reached that clover will not grow well under some conditions where soft woods abound1 but rather that where the former abound the indications of suitability for clover production are more certain than where soft timbers abound4 ,place in the ,rotation4--,medium red clover may be made to precede or to follow almost any crop that is grown upon the farm4 ,notwithstanding1 there are certain crops which it precedes or follows with much more advantage than others4 ,since it brings nitrogen to the soil from the air and deposits the same for the benefit of the crops that immediately follow1 it is advantageous to plant such crops after it as require much nitrogen to make them productive1 as1 for instance1 wheat4 ,since1 through the medium of its roots1 it stores the ground with humus1 such crops should come after it as feed generously on humus1 as1 for instance1 corn and potatoes4 ,and since it tends to lessen weed growth through smothering1 it may with advantage be followed by crops for which a clean seed bed is specially advantageous1 as flax4 ,it may1 therefore1 be followed with much advantage by wheat1 oats or barley1 corn and sorghum in all their varieties1 flax1 potatoes1 field roots1 vegetables and such small fruits as strawberries4 ,where wheat is a success it is usually first grown among the small cereal grains after clover1 since it is less able to flourish under the conditions which become decreasingly favorable in the years that follow the breaking up of the clover4 ,whether wheat or flax1 corn or potatoes should immediately follow the growing of clover1 should be determined in great part by the immediate necessity for growing one or the other of these crops1 but also to some extent by the crops that are to follow them4 ,clover may follow such crops as require cultivation while they are growing1 and of a character that will clean the soil4 ,this means that it may with advantage be made to follow corn1 sorghum1 potatoes or field roots4 ,it may also follow the summer fallow bare1 or producing crops for being plowed under where these come into the rotation4 ,of course1 since clover can to a considerable extent supply its own nitrogen1 it may be successfully grown on lands that are not clean1 and that may not possess high fertility1 but when thus sown the nurse crop with which it is usually sown is not likely to succeed well1 because of the presence of weeds in it1 and from the same cause the quality of the first of the clover is likely to be much impaired4 ,the conditions of the time of sowing are also less favorable for getting a stand of the seed4 ,there is probably no rotation in which clover may be grown with more advantage than when it is made to alternate with corn or potatoes and some small cereal grains1 as wheat or oats1 growing each crop for but one season4 ,of course the clover must be sown with the grain and harvested the following year1 taking from it two cuttings4 ,in no other form of rotation1 perhaps1 can clover be used to better advantage1 nor would there seem to be any other way in which land may be made to produce abundantly for so large a term of years without fertilization other than that given to the soil by the clover4 ,it would fully supply the needs of the crops alternating with it in the line of humus1 and also in that of nitrogen4 ,in time the supply of phosphoric acid and potash might run low1 but not for a long term of years4 ,the cultivation given to the corn and potatoes would keep the land clean4 ,fortunate is the neighborhood in which a rotation may be practised1 and fortunate are the tillers of the soil who are in a position to adopt it4 ,medium red clover may be followed with much advantage by certain catch crops sown at various times through the season of growth4 ,it may be pastured in the spring for several weeks1 and the land then plowed and sowed with millet or rape1 or planted with corn1 sorghum1 late potatoes1 or certain vegetables1 or it may be allowed to grow for several weeks and then plowed1 to be followed by one or the other of these crops4 ,it may also be harvested for hay in time to follow it with millet or rape for pasture1 and under some conditions with fodder corn4 ,but when the stand of clover is good1 it would usually be profitable to utilize the clover for food rather than the crops mentioned1 since doing so would involve but little labor and outlay4 ,after the second cutting for the season1 winter rye may be grown as a catch crop by growing it as a pasture crop4 ,preparing the ,soil4--,speaking in a general way1 it would be correct to say that it would not be easy to get soil in too friable a condition for the advantageous reception of medium red clover seed4 ,in other words1 it does not often happen that soils are in too fine tilth to sow seed upon them without such fineness resulting in positive benefit to the plants4 ,the exceptions would be clays of fine texture in climates subject to rainfalls so heavy as to produce impaction4 ,on the other hand1 the hazard would be even greater to sow clover on these soils when in a cloddy condition4 ,the rootlets would not then be able to penetrate the soil with sufficient ease to find enough food and moisture to properly nourish them4 ,some soils are naturally friable1 and in these a tilth sufficiently fine can be realized ordinarily with but little labor4 ,other soils1 as stiff clays1 frequently require much labor to bring them into the condition required4 ,usually1 however1 if sufficient time elapses between the plowing of the land and the sowing of the seed1 this work may be materially lessened by using the harrow and roller judiciously soon after rainfall4 ,when preparing prairie soils so open that they will lift with the wind1 the aim should be to firm them rather than to render them more open and porous2 otherwise they will not retain sufficient moisture to properly sustain the young plants1 if prolonged dry weather follows the sowing of the seed4 ,plowing such land in the autumn aids in securing such density4 ,the same result follows summerfallowing the land or growing upon it a cultivated crop after the bare fallow1 or after the cultivated crop has been harvested prior to the sowing of the clover seed1 otherwise the desired firmness of the land will be lessened1 and weed seeds will be brought to the surface1 which will produce plants to the detriment of the clover4 ,in preparing such lands for the seed1 cultivation near the surface is preferable to plowing4 ,when the clover is sown late in the season1 as is sometimes the case1 in locations where the winters are comparatively mild1 the ground may be made reasonably clean before the seed is sown1 by stirring it occasionally at intervals before sowing the seed4 ,this is done with some form of harrow or weeder1 and1 of course1 subsequently to the plowing of the land4 ,sowing4--,the time for sowing clover seed is influenced considerably by the climatic conditions4 ,under some conditions it may be sown in the early autumn4 ,it may be thus sown in the ,southern ,states and with much likelihood that a stand will be secured1 yet in some instances an inauspicious winter proves disastrous to the plants3 all things considered1 it is probably safer to sow clover in the ,south at that season than the spring1 when vegetation is beginning to start4 ,it may also succeed in some instances in areas well to the ,north when sown in the early autumn1 providing snow covers the ground all the winter1 but should the snow fail to come the subsequent winter1 or fail to lie when it does come1 the clover plants would perish4 ,the element of hazard1 therefore1 is too great in northerly areas to justify sowing the seed thus4 ,but on the bench lands of the mountain valleys there may be instances in which the seed may be sown so late in the autumn that it will not sprout before winter sets in1 but lies in the soil ready to utilize the moisture1 so all important in those areas1 as soon as the earliest growth begins in the spring4 ,the seed may be sown with no little assurance of success in the late summer4 ,but this can only be done where moisture is reasonably plentiful from the time of sowing onward1 and where the winters are not really severe4 ,in some of the ,central ,states this method of sowing may succeed reasonably well4 ,clover and timothy sown thus without any nurse crop will produce a full crop the next season4 ,when the seed is sown thus1 it may1 of course1 be made to follow a crop grown on the land the same season4 ,it may also insure a crop the following season1 when the clover seed sown the spring previously may for some reason have failed4 ,while medium red clover is frequently sown in the ,south and in some areas of the far ,west in the months of ,january and ,february on the snow1 in the ,north it is usually sown in the early spring4 ,this also is in a great majority of instances the best time for sowing4 ,in many locations it may be sown with safety as soon as the winter snows have gone4 ,on the whole1 the earlier that it is sown in the spring the better1 that the young plants may have all the benefit possible from the moisture1 which is more abundant than later4 ,but there are certain areas1 as1 for instance1 in the northerly limits of the ,mississippi basin1 in which young clover plants perish by frost after they have germinated4 ,this1 however1 does not happen very frequently4 ,when the seed is sown on the snow1 or while the ground is yet in a honeycombed condition from early frost1 it must of necessity be sown early4 ,but where the hazard is present that the young plants will be killed by frost1 it will be safer to defer sowing the seed until it can be covered with the harrow when sown4 ,whether it will be more advisable to sow the seed on bare ground earlier than the season when growth begins1 or to sow later and cover with the harrow1 will depend to a considerable degree upon the soil and the condition in which it happens to be4 ,on timber soils newly cleaned the early sowing would be quite safe where the young plants are not liable to be killed after germination1 because of the abundance of humus in them4 ,on the same soils1 early sowing would probably be preferable1 even when much reduced in humus1 providing they were in a honeycombed condition at the time of sowing4 ,this condition is far more characteristic of clay and clay loam soils1 than of those sandy in texture4 ,to sow the seed on clay soils that are worn would be to throw it away1 unless in a most favorable season for growth4 ,the same would prove true of the sandy soils low in humus1 since these do not honeycomb at any season4 ,seed sown on honeycombed ground falls into openings made in the soil1 and is covered by the action of the frost and the sun on the same4 ,the rule should be to defer sowing the seed where the ground does not honeycomb until it can be covered with the harrow4 ,in some instances the seed is sown successfully just after a light fall of snow in the spring4 ,the seed is carried down into little crevices or fissures in the soil when these are present1 but the seed should not be thus sown4 ,usually it is not quite safe to sow clover seed where the winter snow still lingers to any considerable depth1 lest much of it should be carried down to the lower lands by the sudden melting of the snows4 ,the chief advantage of sowing before the ground can be harrowed arises from the benefit which the young plants derive from the plentiful supply of moisture in the soil at that season4 ,they are more firmly rooted than plants sown later1 and1 therefore1 can better withstand the dry weather that frequently characterizes the later months of the summer4 ,there is also the further advantage that the labor of harrowing at a season that is usually a busy one is dispensed with4 ,various modes of sowing clover seed have been adopted4 ,sometimes it is sown by hand4 ,in other instances a sower is used which is strapped to the shoulder and turned with a crank4 ,sometimes the seed is sown by a distributor1 which is wheeled over the ground on a frame resembling that of a wheelbarrow4 ,again1 it is sown with a seeder attachment to the ordinary grain drill or to the broadcast seeder1 and yet again with the grain in the ordinary drill tubes1 or scattered with the same by the broadcast seeder2 which of these methods should be adopted will depend on such conditions as relate to season1 climate and soil4 ,the seed may be sown by hand at almost any time desired1 whether it is covered or not4 ,the advantages of hand sowing are that it may be done under some conditions when no other method will answer as well1 as1 for instance1 when it is sown upon snow or upon the ground honeycombed4 ,the disadvantages are that it takes more time than some of the other methods1 especially when the sower only scatters the seed with one hand1 that it cannot be thus sown when the wind blows stiffly or fitfully1 and most of all1 only a limited number of persons who sow seed are thus able to sow it with complete regularity4 ,a still time should1 if possible1 be chosen for hand sowing2 such a time is usually found in the early morning4 ,when one hand is used1 the seed may be sown from a light dish or pail or sowing-bag1 but when both hands are used a sowing-box or a sowing-sack suspended in front of the breast is necessary4 ,clover seed may be sown when a considerable breeze is blowing by having a due regard to the wind4 ,when facing it1 the cast of seed should be low2 when going before the wind it should be high4 ,but when the wind is blowing at right angles1 much care must be observed by the sower as to where he walks1 in relation to the cast that is being sown4 ,when the seed is sown on grain that has been drilled1 the rows of grain will suffice to serve as a guide to the sower1 and when the grain is not up1 the drill marks may be made to serve the same end4 ,the advantages of the hand seeder held in place by straps are that the sowing may be done by an individual who cannot sow by hand1 that the seed may be easily distributed and that it may be used with advantage in sowing seed among brush4 ,the disadvantages are that it cannot be used when much wind is stirring1 and when using it stakes are sometimes necessary for the guidance of the sower4 ,the advantages from using the seeder wheeled over the ground are that the work may be done by any one able to wheel the seeder1 that the seed is distributed evenly1 that it may be sown when a fairly stiff wind is blowing1 and that stakes are not necessary for the guidance of the sower1 as the distance of the cast may be gauged at least fairly well by the wheel marks made4 ,one disadvantage is that it cannot be used with much satisfaction on certain soils when the ground is cloddy or frozen1 or when it is wet4 ,there is also the disadvantage to all three methods of sowing by hand1 that it is frequently necessary to provide a covering for the seed by subsequently using the harrow4 ,the advantages from sowing with the seeder attachment to the grain drill are that the seed may be made to fall before or behind the tubes as may be desired1 or it may be sown with the seed along with the grain1 and that when sown by any of these methods there is much saving of time as compared with sowing by hand4 ,in some sections of the prairie the seed is sown with the grain drill by driving the same across the newly sown grain rows4 ,if necessary to insure sufficiently thin sowing1 the seed should be first mixed with some substance such as common salt4 ,in the moist areas of the upper ,atlantic coast1 ,ontario and the ,puget ,sound region1 the seed is frequently made to fall behind the grain tubes on clay and clay loam soils1 and is covered by running the roller over the ground subsequently2 but in ,states more inland the seed is usually made to fall before the drill tubes1 when1 in some instances1 the sowing of the grain will provide a sufficient covering2 but in others the harrow is used in addition1 and sometimes both the harrow and the roller4 ,when clover seed is sown along with grain and by the same tubes1 it will in some soils be buried too deeply1 but in others the objection does not hold good4 ,the young plants are also injured more by shade from the grain1 since they grow only in the line of the row along with the grain1 and yet this method of sowing clover seed in some localities seems to answer reasonably well4 ,when the broadcast seeder is used in sowing clover seed1 time is also saved as compared with hand sowing1 but the seed can only fall before the seeder1 and must1 therefore1 be given the same covering as the grain1 as1 when the seed is sown with the grain drill1 it will in some instances be buried too deeply4 ,in other instances it is not so4 ,the depth to which the seed of medium and other clovers ought to be buried should vary with soil and climatic conditions1 and with the season of sowing4 ,the more stiff the soil1 the more moist the climate1 and the earlier that the seed is sown1 the less the covering required1 and vice versa4 ,as has been shown1 under certain conditions 7see page #bb71 early sown clover seed does not require any covering artificially given1 and sometimes when sown later1 a reasonably copious rain will provide sufficient covering1 providing it falls quite soon after the sowing of the seed4 ,but in certain of the soft1 open1 spongy soils of the prairie1 it may sometimes be buried to the depth of at least #c inches1 with apparent benefit4 ,lower than #e or #f inches in any soil1 clover seed will not germinate till brought nearer the surface4 ,on all soils that lift with the wind1 the seed should1 as a rule1 be buried deeply4 ,ordinarily1 from half an inch to an inch1 or an approximation to these distances1 is considered a proper depth to bury clover seed4 ,some authorities recommend sowing medium and other clovers without any nurse crop4 ,the advantages claimed are that more or less of a crop may be obtained the same season1 and that a stand of clover is more certain when the seed is sown thus4 ,the first claim is correct in the main4 ,in some localities favored with long seasons for growth1 as in certain areas of ,missouri1 for instance1 good yields may be obtained from sowing the seed thus4 ,this has happened even in ,minnesota4 ,but in other areas and under other conditions1 the yield would be light4 ,in some localities1 as1 for instance1 the ,willamette ,valley1 ,oregon1 satisfactory returns have been obtained by sowing clover seed and rape seed in ,may and then pasturing both4 ,the chief objections to sowing clover seed thus are1 first1 that in a great majority of instances a sufficient stand of the plants may be obtained when the seed is sown with a nurse crop2 and second1 that when it is not thus sown1 the first cutting of the hay will contain more or less of weeds4 ,that a stand is more assured when clover seed is sown alone in areas where adverse weather conditions prevail cannot be disputed4 ,nevertheless1 the fact remains that whenever in order to get a stand of a short-lived crop1 like clover1 it is necessary to sow it alone1 and in many instances get but little return the same season1 it will be well to consider if there is not some more satisfactory way of securing a crop that will prove an equivalent4 ,in northerly areas the stubbles of the nurse crop frequently render substantial service to the clover by holding the snow on the crop1 and also by protecting it more or less from the effect of the cold winds4 ,the old-time practice of sowing clover with a nurse crop is likely to be continued1 notwithstanding that it has some disadvantages4 ,these disadvantages include the following3 #a4 ,the young plants are liable to be weakened by the crowding and by overmuch shading from the grain when it grows rankly and thickly1 and to such an extent that they perish2 #b4 ,when the grain lodges1 as it frequently does1 on rich ground1 the clover plants underneath the lodged portions succumb from want of light2 #c4 ,where the supply of moisture is low1 in the struggle for the same between the stronger plants of the nurse crop and the weaker plants of the clover1 the former secures the larger share4 ,as a result1 when the nurse crop is harvested1 should the weather prove hot and dry beyond a certain degree1 the clover plants will die4 ,this is an experience not at all uncommon on the loose prairie soils of the upper ,mississippi basin4 ,injury from crowding and overshading may be prevented1 or at least lessened1 by pasturing the nurse crop with sheep for a time1 at an early stage in its growth4 ,the lodging of the grain may also be prevented by the same means4 ,injury from drought may also be lessened by cutting the crop at the proper stage of advancement1 and making it into hay1 as in the ripening stage of growth it draws most heavily on the moisture in the soil4 ,the oat crop is the most suitable for being thus dealt with4 ,clover seed may be sown with any of the small cereal grains as a nurse crop1 but not with equal advantage4 ,rye1 barley1 wheat and oats are probably suitable in the order named4 ,rye shades less than wheat and oats and is harvested early2 hence1 its suitability for a nurse crop4 ,winter rye and winter wheat are more suitable than spring varieties of the same1 since1 on these the crop may usually be sown earlier1 and the soil is likely to lose less moisture from surface evaporation4 ,the marked suitability of barley as a nurse crop arises chiefly from the short period which it occupies the ground4 ,nor is the shade so dense as from grains that grow taller4 ,oats are the least suitable of all the crops named as a nurse crop1 since they are characterized by a dense growth of leaves1 which shut out the sunlight too much when the growth is rank4 ,notwithstanding1 the oat crop may well serve such an end when sown thinly and cut for hay4 ,mixed grains grown together1 as1 for instance1 wheat and oats1 or a mixture of the three1 answer quite as well for a nurse crop as clover and oats4 ,the objection to them for such use arises from the fact that they are frequently sown more thickly than grain sown alone4 ,clover may also be sown with flax or millet or mixed grains grown to provide soiling food4 ,when the weather is moist1 it is likely to succeed well with flax1 as the latter does not form so dense a shade when it is growing as some other crops4 ,but flax is usually sown so much later than these crops1 that in some climates the dry weather following injures and in some instances destroys the young plants4 ,the dense shade furnished by millet is also detrimental to the clover plants2 nevertheless1 owing to the short period which the former occupies the ground1 under favorable conditions a stand of clover may be secured4 ,but since millet is sown later than flax1 it frequently happens that there is not sufficient moisture in the soil to sustain both crops4 ,mixed grains sown as soiling food are usually sown reasonably early1 and as they are cut before maturity1 the danger is so far lessened that the young plants will perish from want of moisture1 but since these crops are usually grown thickly and on rich land1 owing to the dense character of the growth1 the plants are much more likely to be injured by the dense shade thus provided4 ,clover seed may also be sown with corn and certain other crops that are usually grazed down1 as rape and mixed grains4 ,when sown with corn1 the seed is usually scattered over the ground just before the last cultivation given to the corn4 ,attention is now being given to the introduction of cultivators which scatter such seeds as clover and rape in front of them1 and so preclude the necessity for hand sowing4 ,from ,central ,ohio southward1 this method of securing a stand of clover will succeed in corn-growing areas1 the other conditions being right4 ,north from the areas named1 the young clover plants may be winter killed when the seed is sown thus4 ,the less dense the shade furnished by the corn1 and the less dry the weather subsequently to sowing the seed1 the better will be the stand of the plants secured4 ,when sown with rape that has been broadcast1 clover usually makes a good stand1 providing the rape crop is not sown too late in the season4 ,when the rape is grazed down1 the grazing does not appear to materially injure the clover1 and when the shade has been removed by such grazing1 the clover plants may be expected to make a vigorous growth on such land4 ,in northerly areas1 clover seed may be sown along with rape seed as late as the end of ,may4 ,if sown later than that time1 the season may prove too short subsequently to the grazing of the rape to allow the plants to gather sufficient strength to carry them safely through northern winters4 ,when clover seed is sown with rape1 the seeds may be mixed and sown together4 ,clover seed in several of the varieties may be successfully sown on certain grain crops grown to provide grazing1 especially when these are sown early4 ,such pastures may consist of any one of the small cereal grains1 or more than one1 or of all of them4 ,the seed may be sown in these the same as with any crop sown to furnish grain4 ,a stand of clover may thus be secured under some conditions in which the clover would perish if sown along with the grain to be harvested2 under other conditions it would not succeed so well4 ,the former include soils so open as to readily lose moisture by surface evaporation4 ,the tramping of the animals on these increases their power to hold moisture1 the grazing down of the grain lessens its demands upon the same1 thus leaving more for the clover plants1 and they are further strengthened by the freer access of sunlight4 ,the latter include firm1 stiff clays in rainy climates4 ,to pasture these when thus sown1 if moist beyond a certain degree1 would result in so impacting them that the yield of the pasture would be greatly decreased in consequence4 ,medium red clover is quite frequently sown alone2 that is1 without admixture with clovers or grasses4 ,it is always sown thus when it is to be plowed under1 as green manure4 ,it is also usually sown alone in rotations where it is to be cropped or grazed for one year4 ,but when grown for meadow1 which is to remain longer than one season1 it is commonly sown along with timothy4 ,the first year after sowing1 the crop is chiefly clover1 and subsequently it is chiefly timothy4 ,orchard grass or tall oat grass1 or both1 may also be sown along with medium red clover1 since these are ready for being cut at the same time as the clover4 ,when medium red clover is sown to provide pasture for periods of limited duration1 it is frequently sown along with alsike clover and timothy4 ,sometimes a moderate amount of alfalfa seed is added4 ,but in arable soils in the semi-arid ,west1 these will provide pastures for many years in succession1 if supplied with moisture4 ,the same is true of much of the land west of the ,cascades1 and without irrigation4 ,east from the ,mississippi and for some distance west from it1 much of the medium red clover will disappear after being grazed for one season1 but the alsike1 timothy and alfalfa will endure for a longer period4 ,in permanent pastures1 whether few or many varieties of seed are sown1 medium red clover is usually included in the mixture4 ,it is sown because of the amount of the grazing which it furnishes the season after sowing1 and with the expectation that it will virtually entirely disappear in the pastures in two or three seasons after it has been sown4 ,when medium red clover is sown for being plowed under as green manure1 it is always sown with a nurse crop4 ,some farmers1 in localities well adapted to the growth of clover1 sow more or less of the medium red variety on all1 or nearly all1 of the land devoted to the growth of such cereals as rye1 wheat1 barley and oats1 when the land is to be plowed the autumn or spring following4 ,reduced quantities of seed are used4 ,they believe that the benefit from the young clover plants to the land will more than pay for the cost of the seed and the sowing of the same4 ,the amount of seed to sow will depend on the degree of suitability in the conditions for growing medium red clover4 ,the more favorable these are1 the less the necessity for using maximum quantities of seed1 and vice versa4 ,more seed is required when the clover is not grown with other grasses or clovers than when it is grown with these4 ,when grown without admixture1 #af pounds of seed per acre may be named as the maximum quantity to sow and #h pounds as the minimum1 with #ab pounds as an average4 ,with all the conditions quite favorable1 #aj pounds should suffice4 ,in ,new ,england and some of the ,atlantic ,states1 many growers sow much more seed than the quantities named1 and it may be that the necessities of the land call for more4 ,in ,great ,britain also1 considerably larger quantities are sown4 ,when sown in grass or clover mixtures1 the amount of the seed required will vary with the other factors of the mixture1 and the amount of each that is sown2 that is1 with the character of the hay or pasture that is sought4 ,the seed is much more frequently sown with timothy than with any other kind of grass1 and the average amount of each of these to sow per acre may be put at #h pounds of clover and #f pounds of timothy4 ,when other clovers are added1 as the mammoth or the alsike1 for every pound of the seed of the former added1 the seed of the medium red may be reduced by one pound1 and for every pound of the alsike added it may be reduced by #a-a_/b pounds4 ,in mixtures for permanent pastures1 #f pounds may be fixed upon as the maximum quantity of medium red clover seed to sow1 and #c pounds as the average quantity4 ,when sown to provide green manure1 maximum quantities of seed are used when it is desired to improve the soil quickly4 ,usually not less than #ab pounds per acre are sown1 and quite frequently more4 ,but when the gradual improvement of the land is sought1 by sowing the seed on all land devoted to the small cereal grains1 not more than #f pounds per acre are used1 and frequently even less than #d pounds4 ,the greater the hazard to the plants in sowing the seed thus1 the less the quantities of the seed that are usually sown1 with a view to reduce the loss in case of failure to secure a stand of the clover4 ,a stand of medium red clover is sometimes secured by what may be termed self-sowing4 ,for instance1 where clover has been cut for hay and then allowed to mature even but a portion of the seed before being plowed under the same autumn1 the seed thus buried remains in the ground without sprouting4 ,when the land is again plowed to the same depth and sown with some kind of grain1 the clover seed thus brought to the surface will germinate4 ,if the plowing last referred to is done in the autumn1 it ought to be done late rather than early1 lest the seed should sprout in the autumn and perish in the winter1 or be destroyed by the cultivation given in sowing the grain crop that follows4 ,the same result may be obtained from clover pastured after the first cutting for the season1 when the pasturing is not close4 ,when medium red clover is much grown for seed1 many of the ripe heads are not cut by the mower1 since they lie near the ground1 and many break off in the curing process4 ,the seed thus becomes so distributed in the ground1 that many plants come up and grow amid the grain every season4 ,these may1 of course1 be grazed or plowed under for the enrichment of the land1 as desired4 ,seed thus buried is1 therefore1 not lost by any means4 ,the plants which grow will render much assistance in keeping the land in a good condition of tilth1 as well as in enhancing its fertility4 ,when clover seed is much grown1 therefore1 on any piece of land1 the quantity of seed sown may be reduced materially4 ,in fact1 it may be so much reduced that it has been found possible to grow clover in rotation for many years without adding seed4 ,the first growth of the clover was taken as hay1 and the second growth as seed4 ,the ground was then plowed and a crop of corn was taken4 ,the corn land was then plowed and sown with some cereal1 such as wheat1 oats or barley4 ,pasturing4--,medium red clover will furnish grazing very suitable for any kind of live stock kept upon the farm4 ,all farm animals relish it1 but not so highly as blue grass1 when the latter is tender and succulent4 ,no plant is equally suitable in providing pasture for swine1 unless it be alfalfa2 hence1 for that class of stock1 it has come to be the staple pasture outside of areas where alfalfa may be readily grown4 ,when desired1 the grazing may begin even at a reasonably early stage in the growth of the plants1 and it may continue to the end of the pasturing season4 ,usually it is considered unwise to pasture medium red clover the same season in which it has been sown when sown with a nurse crop4 ,it has been noticed that when so pastured1 it does not winter so well1 and that the later and more close the pasturing and the colder the winter following1 the greater is the hazard from pasturing the clover4 ,this hazard arises chiefly from the exposure of the roots to the sweep of the cold winds4 ,it should be the rule1 therefore1 not only to refrain from pasturing clover thus1 but also to leave the stubbles high when pasturing the grain4 ,where the snowfall is light and the cold is intense1 to leave the stubbles thus high is important1 since they aid in holding the snow4 ,but there may be instances when the clover plants grow so vigorously that in places of heavy snowfall1 smothering may result unless the mass of vegetation is in some way removed4 ,in such instances1 pasturing may be in order2 but when practised1 the grazing should be with cattle rather than sheep or horses1 and it should cease before the covering is removed4 ,there may also be locations where much benefit follows in several ways close1 or reasonably close1 cutting of the stubbles quite soon after the nurse crop has been harvested4 ,when clover is sown without a nurse crop1 it may be not only proper1 but advantageous1 to pasture it4 ,the grazing should not1 however1 be continued so late that the plants will not have time to make a sufficiency of growth to protect them in winter4 ,such grazing is better adapted to areas in which the season of growth is long1 rather than short2 where weed growth is abundant1 as on certain of the soils of the prairie1 it may be necessary to call in the aid of the mower once or even twice during the season of growth4 ,when a crop of medium red clover is desired1 the surest way to obtain it in good form is to pasture the field during the early part of the season1 and closely enough to have the clover eaten down on every part of the field4 ,when it is not so eaten1 the mower should be so used that the growth and maturing of the seed crop may be even and uniform4 ,the season for removing the live stock will depend upon latitude and altitude1 but it will be correct to say that it ought to be from two to three weeks earlier than the proper season for cutting clover for hay4 ,when clover is not grazed the year that it is sown1 in some seasons the stronger plants will bear seed1 if allowed4 ,to such an extent does this follow under certain conditions and in certain areas1 that a considerable crop of seed could be obtained if this were desired1 even as many as #d or #e bushels per acre in some instances4 ,but it has been noticed that if thus allowed to produce seed1 the effect upon the growth of the crop the next season is decidedly injurious4 ,to prevent such a result the mower should be run over the field as soon as much hazard is certainly apparent1 and the earlier in the season that this can be done the better1 for the reason that all weeds growing are clipped off1 and the clover has also a better chance to provide protection for the winter by growth subsequently made4 ,when there is an over-luxuriant growth in the plants1 it may be well to thus mow the field1 even though seed should not be produced4 ,the growth made by the plants and the mulch provided by the portion cut make an excellent preparation for entering the cold season4 ,but few pasture crops grown will furnish as much grazing in one season as medium red clover4 ,it will probably furnish the most grazing if allowed to grow up before it is grazed until the stage of bloom is approached or reached1 but since it is seldom practicable to graze it down quickly enough after that stage has been reached1 and since there is frequently waste from tramping1 grazing usually begins1 and properly so1 at an earlier period4 ,when cattle and sheep graze upon young clover1 there is some danger that hoven or bloating may result to the extent of proving quickly fatal if not promptly relieved4 ,the danger is greater if the animals are hungry when turned in upon the clover1 and when it is wet with dew or rain1 or in a more than ordinarily succulent condition4 ,such danger may be lessened1 if not1 indeed1 entirely eliminated1 by giving the animals access to other food1 as dry clover hay1 for instance1 before turning them in on the pasture1 and the danger is always less in proportion as grasses are abundant in the pasture4 ,should bloating occur1 relief must usually be prompt to be effective4 ,in mild cases1 certain medicines may bring relief4 ,one of the most potent is the following3 ,give spirits of turpentine in doses of #a to #e tablespoonfuls1 according to the size of the animal4 ,dilute with milk before administering4 ,in bad cases1 the paunch should be at once punctured4 ,the best instruments are the trocar and canula1 but in the absence of these a pocket knife and goose quill may be made to answer4 ,the puncture is made on the left side1 at a point midway between the last rib and hook point1 and but a few inches from the backbone4 ,the thrusting instrument should point downward and slightly inward going into the paunch4 ,with much promptness the canula or the quill should be pushed down into the paunch and held there till the gas escapes4 ,before the tube is withdrawn the contents of the paunch that have risen in the same should be first pushed down4 ,harvesting for ,hay4--,medium red clover is at its best for cutting for hay when in full bloom1 and when a few of the heads which first bloomed are beginning to turn brown2 that is to say1 in the later rather than in the earlier stage of full bloom4 ,if cut sooner1 the curing of the crop is tedious4 ,if cut later the stalks lose in palatability4 ,but when the weather is showery it may be better to defer cutting even for several days after the clover has reached the proper stage for harvesting1 as the injury from rain while the crop is being cured may be greater than the injury from overmaturity in the same before it is mown4 ,when curing the crop1 the aim should be to preserve to the greatest extent practicable the loss of the leaves4 ,to accomplish such a result1 the clover ought to be protected as far as possible from exposure to dew or rain1 and also from excessive exposure to sunshine4 ,dew injures more or less the color of the hay and detracts from its palatability4 ,rain intensifies such injury in proportion as the crop being harvested is exposed to it4 ,it also washes out certain substances1 which1 when present1 affect favorably its aroma4 ,the injury from such exposure increases with the interval between cutting and storing the crop4 ,exposure to successive showers may so seriously injure the hay as to render it almost valueless for feeding4 ,after the mown clover has been exposed in the swath to the sunlight beyond a certain time1 it turns brown1 and if exposed thus long enough the aroma will be lost4 ,the aim should be1 therefore1 to cure the clover to the greatest extent practicable by the aid of the wind rather than by that of the sun4 ,the method of procedure to be followed is in outline as given below3 ,mow as far as possible when the meadow is not wet with rain or dew4 ,mow in the afternoon rather than the forenoon1 as the injury from dew the night following will be less4 ,stir with the tedder as soon as the clover has wilted somewhat4 ,the tedder should be used once1 twice or oftener as the circumstances may require4 ,the heavier the crop and the less drying the weather1 the more the tedding that should be given4 ,sometimes tedding once1 and in nearly all instances twice1 will be sufficient4 ,the hay should then be raked4 ,it is ready for being raked as soon as the work can be done easily and in an efficient manner4 ,when clover is not dry enough for being raked1 the draught on the rake will be unnecessarily heavy1 the dumping of the hay will be laborious1 and it does not rake as clean as it would if the hay were in a fit condition for being raked4 ,the aim should be to have the crop put up in heaps1 usually called cocks1 but sometimes called coils1 before the second night arrives after the mowing of the clover2 and in order to accomplish this1 it may be necessary to work on until the shades of evening are drawing near4 ,when there is a reasonable certainty that the weather shall continue dry1 it is quite practicable to cure clover in the winrow1 but in showery weather to attempt to do so would mean ruin to the clover4 ,in no form does it take injury so quickly from rain as in the winrow1 and when rain saturates it1 much labor is involved in spreading it out again4 ,nor is it possible to make hay quite so good in quantity when clover is cured in the winrow1 as the surface exposed to the sunshine is much greater than when it is mixed with timothy or some other grass that purpose1 nevertheless1 to cure it thus1 especially when it is mixed with timothy or some other grass that cures more easily and readily than clover4 ,it may also be taken up with the hay-loader when cured thus1 which very much facilitates easy storing4 ,but when it is to be lifted with the hay-loader1 the winrows should be made small rather than large4 ,when the clover is to be put up into cocks1 these should be small rather than large1 if quick curing is desired4 ,in making these1 skilled labor counts for much4 ,the cocks are simply little miniature stacks4 ,the part next to the ground has less diameter than the center of the cock4 ,as each forkful is put on after the first1 the fork is turned over so that the hay spreads out over the surface of the heap as it is being deposited4 ,smaller forkfuls are put on as the top is being reached4 ,the center is kept highest when making the cock4 ,each one may be made to contain about #ajj pounds and upward of cured hay1 but in some instances they should not contain more than half the amount to facilitate drying4 ,when the heap has become large enough1 the inverted fork should be made to draw down on every side the loose portions1 which in turn are put upon the top of the cock4 ,such trimming is an important aid to the shedding of rain4 ,an expert hand will put up one of these cocks of hay in less time than it takes to read about how it is done4 ,a light rain will not very much injure a crop of clover after it has been put up into cocks1 but a soaking rain will probably penetrate them to the bottom4 ,to guard against this1 in localities where the rainfall may be considerable in harvest time1 hay caps are frequently used4 ,these may be made from a good quality of unbleached muslin or strong cotton1 or they may be obtained from some of those who deal in tent awnings and stack covers4 ,when of good quality and well cared for they should last for #aj to #bj years4 ,care should be taken in putting them on lest the wind which frequently precedes a thunder storm should blow them away4 ,the pins used at the corners of the caps should be carefully and firmly inserted in the hay or the ground1 or the caps should have sufficiently heavy weights attached to them at the corners to prevent their lifting with the wind4 ,in putting up the hay the size of the cocks should be adjusted to the size of the covers used4 ,one person should apply the covers as quickly as two will put up the hay4 ,when clover hay is put up into cocks1 it undergoes what is termed the heating process2 that is1 it becomes warm in the center of the heaps up to a certain point1 after which the heat gradually leaves it4 ,the heat thus generated is proportionate to the size of the cocks and the amount of moisture in the clover4 ,the sweating process usually covers two or three days1 after which the hay is ready for being stored4 ,when clover is cured in the winrow1 it does not go through the sweating process to the same extent as when cured in the cock2 hence1 it is liable to sweat in the mow1 and to such an extent as to induce mold1 if it has been stored away with moisture in it beyond a certain degree4 ,if a wisp of clover is taken from the least cured portion of the winrow or cock1 and twisted between the hands1 it is considered ready for being stored if no liquid is discernible4 ,if overcured1 when thus twisted it will break asunder4 ,a skilled workman can also judge fairly well of the degree of the curing by the weight when lifted with the fork4 ,under some conditions1 it may be advisable to open out the cocks two or three hours before drawing them1 that the hot sunshine may remove undue moisture4 ,when this is done1 if the cocks are taken down in distinct forkfuls1 as it were1 each being given a place distinct from the others1 the lifting of these will be much easier than if the clover in each cock had been strewn carelessly over the ground4 ,the lowest forkful in the cock should be turned over1 since the hay in it will have imbibed more or less of dampness from the ground4 ,but in some instances the weather for harvesting is so favorable that the precaution is unnecessary of thus opening out the cocks or even of making them at all4 ,storing4--,storing clover under cover is far preferable to putting it up in stacks1 except in rainless climates4 ,with the aid of the hay-loader in lifting it from winrows in the field1 and of the hay fork in unloading1 the hand labor in storing is greatly reduced1 but when it is unloaded with the horse fork1 the aim should be to dump the hay from the fork on different parts of the mow or stack1 lest it should become too solidly pressed together under the dump1 and heat and mold in consequence4 ,when the hay is stacked1 especially in climates of considerable rainfall1 a bottom should be prepared on which to stack it4 ,this may be made of poles or rails4 ,a few of these should first be laid one way on the ground and parallel1 and others across them4 ,where such material cannot be had1 old straw or hay of but little value should be spread over the stack bottom to a considerable depth4 ,where these precautions are not taken1 the hay in the bottom of the stack will be spoiled for some distance upward by moisture ascending from the ground4 ,in building the stack1 the center should be kept considerably higher than the outer edges1 that rain may be shed1 and the width of the same should increase up to at least two-thirds of the height1 the better to protect the hay underneath4 ,the tramping should be even1 or the hay in settling will draw to one side1 and the topping out should be gradual rather than abrupt4 ,in topping out a clover stack some hay should be used not easily penetrated by rain1 as1 for instance1 blue grass obtained from fence corners1 or slough hay obtained from marshes4 ,the last-named is better put on green4 ,if the clover is not thus protected1 a considerable quantity will spoil on the top of the stacks4 ,it is not a good hay to turn rain4 ,the shape of the stack should in a considerable degree be determined by its size4 ,it is probably preferable to make small stacks round1 since they are more easily kept in shape1 but large stacks should be long rather than round1 as large1 round stacks call for undue height in bringing them to a top4 ,because of the ease with which rain penetrates clover1 it is very desirable to have it put under a roof4 ,where it cannot be protected by the roof of a barn or stable1 the aim should be to store it in a hay shed2 that is to say1 a frame structure1 open on all sides and covered with a roof4 ,such sheds may be constructed in a timber country without great cost4 ,should the clover hay be stored a little undercured1 some growers favor sowing salt1 say1 from #d to #h quarts over each load when spread over the mow4 ,they do so under the conviction that its preservative qualities will be to some extent efficacious in preventing the hay from molding1 and that it adds to the palatability of the hay4 ,while it may render some service in both of these respects1 it would seem probable that the benefits claimed have been overrated4 ,the more frequently clover hay is handled1 the more is its feeding value impaired1 because of the loss of heads and leaves which attend each handling of the crop4 ,because of this1 it is not so good a crop for baling as timothy1 and also for other reasons4 ,it should be the aim when storing it for home feeding to place it where it can be fed as far as possible directly from the place of storage4 ,in the location of hay sheds1 therefore1 due attention should be given to this matter4 ,in climates that are moist1 some growers store clover in a mow when it has only reached the wilting stage in the curing process4 ,when thus stored it is preserved on the principle which preserves silage4 ,the aim is when storing to exclude the air as far as possible by impacting the mass of green clover through its own weight1 aided by tramping4 ,it should be more or less wilted before being stored1 according to the succulence in it1 and it is considered highly important that it shall also be free from external moisture4 ,when thus stored it should be in large mows1 and it should be well tramped1 otherwise the impaction may not be sufficient4 ,to this method of storage there are the following objections3 #a4 ,the hay has to be handled while it is yet green and wet4 #b4 ,there is hazard that much of the hay will be spoiled in unskilled hands4 #c4 ,under the most favorable conditions more or less of the clover is pretty certain to mold near the edges of the mass4 ,where clover can be made into hay in the ordinary way without incurring much hazard of spoiling1 the practice of storing it away in the green form1 except in a silo1 would seem of questionable propriety4 ,the making of clover into ensilage is discussed in the book ,soiling ,crops and the ,silo by the author4 ,securing ,seed4--,as a rule1 seed is not produced from the first cutting for the season of medium red clover4 ,it is claimed that this is due to lack of pollenization in the blossoms1 and because they are in advance of the active period of working in bumble bees1 the medium through which fertilization is chiefly effected4 ,this would seem to be a sufficient explanation as to why medium red clover plants will frequently bear seed the first year1 if allowed to1 though the first cutting from older plants will have little or no seed4 ,but it is claimed that the ordinary honey bee may be and is the medium for fertilizing alsike and small white clover1 but not that through which the mammoth variety is fertilized4 ,experience has shown1 further1 that1 as a rule1 better crops of clover seed may be obtained from clover that has been pastured off than from that which has been mown for hay1 although to this rule there are some exceptions4 ,this arises1 in part1 from the fact that the energies of the plant have been less drawn upon in producing growth1 and1 therefore1 can produce superior seed heads and seed1 and in part from the further fact that there is usually more moisture in the soil at the season when the plants which have been pastured off are growing4 ,there would seem to be some relation between the growing of good crops of clover seed and pasturing the same with sheep4 ,it has been claimed that so great is the increase of seed in some instances from pasturing with sheep till about ,june #ast1 say1 in the latitude of ,ohio1 that the farmer who has no sheep could afford to give the grazing to one who has1 because of the extra return in seed resulting4 ,the best crops of seed are obtained when the growth is what may be termed medium or normal4 ,summers1 therefore1 that are unusually wet or dry are not favorable to the production of clover seed4 ,if weeds are growing amid the clover plants that are likely to mature seed1 they should1 where practicable1 be removed4 ,the ,canada thistle1 ragweed1 plantain and burdock are among the weeds that may thus ripen seeds in medium clover4 ,when not too numerous they can be cut with the spud4 ,when too numerous to be thus cut1 where practicable1 they should be kept from seeding with the aid of the scythe4 ,to prevent them from maturing is important1 as the seeds of certain weeds cannot be separated from those of clover with the fanning mill1 they are so alike in size4 ,the crop is ready for being cut when the heads have all turned brown1 except a few of the smaller and later ones4 ,it may be cut by the mower as ordinarily used1 by the mower1 with a board or zinc platform attachment to the cutter bar1 by the self-rake reaper1 or by the grain binder4 ,the objection to the first method is that the seed has to be raked and that the raking results in the loss of much seed2 to the second1 that it calls for an additional man to rake off the clover2 and to the third1 that the binder is heavier than the self-rake reaper4 ,the latter lays the clover off in loose sheaves4 ,these may be made large or small1 as desired1 and if care is taken to lay them off in rows1 the lifting of the crop is rendered much easier4 ,when the clover is cut with the mower1 it should be raked into winrows while it is a little damp1 as1 for instance1 in the evening4 ,if raked in the heat of the day many of the heads will break off and will thus be lost4 ,from the winrows it is lifted with large forks4 ,when the crop is laid off in sheaves it may be necessary to turn them once1 even in the absence of rain1 but frequently this is not necessary4 ,in the turning process gentle handling is important1 lest much of the seed should be lost4 ,the seed heads of a mature crop break off very easily in the hours of bright sunshine4 ,rather than turn the sheaves over1 it may be better1 in many instances1 just to lift them with a fork with many tines1 and set them down easily again on ground which is not damp under them1 like unto that from which they have been removed4 ,clover seed may be stored in the barn or stack1 or it may be threshed directly in the field or from the same4 ,the labor involved in handling the crop is less when it is threshed at once than by any other method1 but frequently at such a busy season it is not easily possible to secure the labor required for this work4 ,it is usually ready for being threshed in two or three days after the crop has been cut1 but when the weather is fair it may remain in the field for as many weeks after being harvested without any serious damage to the seed4 ,if1 however1 the straw1 or haulm1 as it is more commonly called1 is to be fed to live stock1 the more quickly that the threshing is done after harvesting1 the more valuable will the haulm be for such a use4 ,when stored in the barn or stack1 it is common to defer threshing until the advent of frosty weather1 for the reason1 first1 that the seed is then more easily separated from the chaff which encases it2 and second1 that farm work is not then so pressing4 ,when threshed in or directly from the field1 bright weather ought to be chosen for doing the work1 otherwise more or less of the seed will remain in the chaff4 ,in lifting the crop for threshing or for storage1 much care should be exercised1 as the heads break off easily4 ,the fork used in lifting it1 whether with iron or with wooden prongs1 should have these long and so numerous that in lifting the tines would go under rather than down through the bunch to be lifted4 ,the wagon rack should also be covered with canvas1 if all the seed is to be saved4 ,if stored in stacks much care should be used in making these1 as the seed crop in the stack is even more easily injured by rain than the hay crop4 ,the covering of old hay of some kind that will shed rain easily should be most carefully put on4 ,years ago the idea prevailed that clover seed could not be successfully threshed until the straw had1 in a sense1 rotted in the field by lying exposed in the same for several weeks4 ,the introduction of improved machinery has dispelled this idea4 ,the seed is more commonly threshed by a machine made purposely for threshing clover called a clover huller4 ,the cylinder teeth used in it are much closer than in the ordinary grain separator4 ,the sieves are also different1 and the work is less rapidly done than if done by the former4 ,during recent years1 however1 the seed is successfully threshed with an ordinary grain threshing machine1 and the work of threshing is thus more expeditiously done4 ,certain attachments are necessary1 but it is claimed that not more than an hour is necessary to put these in place1 or to prepare the machine again for threshing grain4 ,since the seed is not deemed sufficiently clean for market as it comes from the machine1 it should be carefully winnowed by running it through a fanning mill with the requisite equipment of sieves4 ,it is important that this work should be carefully done if the seed is to grade as ,no4 #a in the market4 ,if it does not1 the price will be discounted in proportion as it falls below the standard4 ,a certain proportion of the seed thus separated will be small and light4 ,this1 if sold at all1 must be sold at a discount4 ,if mixed with weed seeds it should be ground and fed to some kind of stock4 ,the haulm1 when the seed crop has been well saved1 has some feeding value1 especially for cattle4 ,if not well saved it is only fit for litter1 but even when thus used its fertilizing value is about two-thirds that of clover hay4 ,more or less seed remains in the chaff1 and because of this the latter is sometimes drawn and strewn over pastures1 or in certain by places where clover plants are wanted4 ,seed sown in the chaff has much power to grow1 owing1 it is thought1 to the ability of the hull enclosing the seed to hold moisture4 ,the yields in the seed crops of medium red clover vary all the way from #a to #h bushels per acre4 ,the average yields under certain conditions are from #c to #d bushels per acre4 ,under conditions less favorable1 from #b to #c bushels4 ,within the past two decades the seed crop has been seriously injured by an insect commonly spoken of as the clover midge 7,cecidomyia leguminicola7 which preys upon the heads so that they fail to produce4 ,a field thus affected will not come properly into bloom4 ,the remedy consists in so grazing or cutting the clover that the bloom will come at that season of the summer when the insects do not work upon the heads4 ,this season can only be determined by actual test4 ,in ,northern areas it can usually be accomplished by pushing the period of bloom usual for the second crop two to four weeks forward4 ,renewing4--,when clover is grown for hay1 it is not usual to try to renew the crop1 because of the short-lived period of the plant4 ,but in some instances it has been found advantageous4 ,on light prairie soils sandy in texture1 located in the upper ,mississippi basin1 it has been found possible to grow timothy meadow for several years in succession with a goodly sprinkling of clover in it without re-seeding4 ,in such instances1 the land is not pastured at all1 except in seasons quite favorable to growth1 and in these the pasturing is not close4 ,the clover plants that grow after the crop has been cut for hay produce seed4 ,the heads in due time break off and are scattered more or less over the soil by the winds4 ,in time they disintegrate1 and more or less of the seed germinates1 thus forming new plants1 some of which1 especially in favorable seasons1 retain their hold upon the soil4 ,this method may be worthy of imitation in localities where it has been found difficult to get a stand in dry seasons on this class of soils4 ,when the stand of clover secured is variable1 that is to say1 partial1 as when the clover is abundant in the lower portions of the land and entirely absent on the higher ground1 it may be worth while to re-sow the seed on the latter early the following spring4 ,but before doing so1 the land should be carefully disked in the fall1 and the clover seed harrowed or otherwise covered in the spring4 ,should the summer following prove favorable1 the seed thus sown may produce hay1 but not likely in time to be harvested with the other portions of the field4 ,but though it should not produce much hay the seed is likely to be benefited to an extent that will far more than repay the outlay involved in labor and seed4 ,if the clover has been sown for pasture1 the renewal of the same on higher ground may be made as stated above1 but with the difference that the same kind or kinds of grain may also be sown at the same time as the clover is becoming rooted4 ,in pastures1 medium red clover may be renewed whenever the attempt is made to renew the pastures1 as by disking them and then sowing upon them the seeds of certain grasses or clovers or both4 ,the disking is usually done in the spring and while the frost is out for only a short distance below the surface4 ,the amount of seed to sow need not be large1 usually not more than #b or #c pounds per acre1 especially when seed of other varieties is sown at the same time4 ,one stroke of the harrow following will provide a sufficient covering for the seed4 ,clover as a ,fertilizer4--,it would probably be correct to say that no plant has yet been introduced into ,american agriculture that has been found so generally useful as clover in fertilizing land and in improving the mechanical condition4 ,some who have investigated claim that there is more nitrogen in a clover sod after the removal of a good crop of clover than will suffice for four average farm crops1 more phosphoric acid than will suffice for two1 and more potash than will suffice for six4 ,it begins to draw nitrogen from the air as soon as the tubercles commence to form and continues to add thus to the enrichment of the land during all the succeeding period of active growth4 ,as previously stated1 the nitrogen is drawn in great part from the air2 consequently1 soil from which a bountiful crop of clover has been removed will be considerably richer in nitrogen than before it grew the same1 and this will hold true as intimated above1 even though the crop should be removed and sold4 ,under the same conditions it will also be true in available phosphoric acid and potash4 ,but the latter are gathered from the soil and subsoil while the plants were growing4 ,consequently1 if crops of clover are grown in short rotation periods and if no fertilizer is given to the land other than the clover brings to it1 while it will be abundantly supplied with nitrogen1 a time will come when the supply of phosphoric acid and potash may be so reduced that the soil will not grow even good crops of clover4 ,when this point is reached the soil is spoken of as clover sick4 ,happily1 however1 nearly all soils are so well stored with phosphoric acid and potash that this result is not likely to follow for many years4 ,but lest it should1 attention should be given to fertilizing the land occasionally with farmyard manure1 or with phosphoric acid and potash applied as commercial fertilizers4 ,because of this1 and also for other reasons1 it is usually considered more profitable in the end to feed clover on the farm and return it to the land in the form of manure4 ,but clover may cease to grow on land where once it grew well1 because of other reasons1 such as changes in the mechanical condition of the soil caused by the depletion of its humus and changes in its chemical condition1 such as increased acidity4 ,the remedy is the removal of the cause4 ,the roots also put large quantities of humus in the soil4 ,where crops are regularly grown in short rotations they will suffice to keep it amply supplied for ordinary production4 ,because of this it is usually considered more profitable to cut both the crops which medium red clover produces in one season1 or to pasture off one or both1 than to plow under either as green manure4 ,but when soils are too stiff or too open in character it may be advantageous to bury clover to restore the equilibrium4 ,it may also be necessary to bury an occasional crop in order to put the land quickly in a condition to produce some desired crop1 the growth of which calls for large supplies of humus4 ,when clover is plowed under it will usually be found more profitable to bury the second growth of the season than the first4 ,the crop is in the best condition for being plowed under when the plants are coming into bloom4 ,if left until the stems lose their succulence the slow decay following in conjunction with the bulkiness of the mass plowed under might prove harmful to the crop following the clover4 ,the influence of the roots upon the mechanical condition of the soil is most beneficial4 ,the roots go down deep into the subsoil and also abound in fibrous growth4 ,the tap roots in their decay furnish openings through which the superfluous water may go down into the subsoil4 ,the fibers adhering to the main roots so ramify through the soil that when even stiff land is filled with them it is rendered friable1 and is consequently brought into a good mechanical condition4 ,while all varieties of clover may be utilized in producing food and in enriching land1 none is equal to the medium red for the two purposes combined4 ,this arises from the fact that none save the medium red grows two crops in one season under ordinary conditions4 ,though the first crop should be taken for food1 as it generally is1 there is still ample time for a second crop to grow for plowing under the same season4 ,this second growth is ready for being plowed under when time is less valuable than it would be when the mammoth or alsike varieties would be in season for being thus covered4 ,and yet the work may be done sufficiently early to admit of sowing fall or winter crops on the land which produced the clover4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,alfalfa ,alfalfa 7,medicago sativa7 previous to its introduction into ,california1 from ,chili1 about the middle of the last century1 was usually known by the ,french name ,lucerne4 ,the name ,alfalfa is probably ,arabic in its origin1 and the term ,lucerne has probably been given to it from the ,canton ,lucerne in ,switzerland4 ,it has followed the plant into ,spain and ,south ,america1 and now it seems probable that soon it will be known by no other name over all the ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,it has also been known by names applied to it from various countries for which it has shown high adaptation1 as1 for instance1 ,sicilian ,clover1 ,mexican ,clover1 ,chilian ,clover1 ,brazilian ,clover1 ,styrian ,clover and ,burgundy ,clover4 ,in yet other instances1 names have been applied to it indicative of some peculiarity of growth1 as1 for instance1 ,branching ,clover1 ,perennial ,clover1 ,stem ,clover and ,monthly ,clover4 ,alfalfa is upright and branching in its habit of growth1 more so than the common varieties of clover4 ,it usually grows to the height of #b to #c feet1 but it has been known to reach a much greater height4 ,although possessed of a single stem when the plants are young1 the number of the stems increases up to a certain limit1 with the age of the plants and the number of the cuttings4 ,forty to fifty stalks frequently grow up from the crown of a single plant where the conditions are quite favorable to growth1 and in some instances as many as a hundred4 ,the leaves are not large1 but numerous1 and in the curing of the plants they drop off much more easily than those of the more valuable of the clovers4 ,the flowers are borne toward the top of the stems and branches1 and they are in a long cluster1 rather than in a compact head4 ,they are usually of a bluish tint1 but the shades of the color vary with the strain from blue to pink and yellow4 ,the seeds are borne in spirally coiled pods4 ,they resemble those of red clover in size1 but are less uniform in shape4 ,the color should be a light olive green4 ,the tap roots go down deeply into the soil and subsoil where the conditions as to texture and moisture are favorable4 ,it has been claimed that alfalfa roots have gone down into congenial subsoils #dj to #ej feet1 but usually less1 probably1 than one-fourth of the distances mentioned would measure the depths to which the roots go4 ,and with decreasing porosity in the subsoil1 there will be decrease in root penetration until it will reach in some instances not more than #c to #d feet4 ,but where the roots are thus hindered from going deeper1 they branch out more in their search for food4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,alfalfa 7,medicago sativa7 ,oregon ,experiment ,station ,alfalfa is perennial4 ,in the duration of its growth1 no fodder plant grown under domestication will equal it4 ,it has been known1 it is claimed1 to produce profitable crops for half a century4 ,in some of the ,western ,states are meadows from #be to #dj years old4 ,ordinarily1 however1 the season of profitable growth is not more than1 say1 #f to #ab years when grown on upland soils4 ,the meadows usually become more or less weedy or possessed by various grasses1 and some of the plants die4 ,the plants at first send up a single stem4 ,when this matures or is cut back the uncut portion of the stem dies down to the crown of the plant1 which then sends out other stems4 ,this is repeated as often as the stems are cut down until many stems grow up from one plant as indicated above1 unless the plants are so crowded that such multiplication is more or less hindered4 ,the plants grow rapidly as soon as spring arrives1 and as often as cut off they at once spring again into vigorous life1 where the conditions are favorable to such growth2 hence1 from one to twelve cuttings of soiling may be obtained in a single season1 the former result being obtained in arid climates1 where the conditions are unpropitious1 and the latter being possible only in congenial soils1 where the winters are very mild and where the soils are irrigated4 ,usually1 however1 even on upland soils and in the absence of irrigation1 not fewer than #c to #e cuttings of soiling food are obtained each year and not fewer than #b to #d crops of hay4 ,a number of varieties so called are grown in this country4 ,they differ from each other more1 however1 in their adaptation in essential properties relating to the quality of the pasture and fodder produced1 than in the quality of food product obtained from them4 ,the variety commonly grown from seed produced in the ,west is usually spoken of simply as alfalfa1 while that grown from seed ,european in origin has been more commonly called ,lucerne4 ,the former of these has a tendency to grow taller than the latter and to send its roots down to a greater depth4 ,in addition to these1 such strains as the ,turkestan1 the ,rhenish1 the ,minnesota and ,sand ,lucerne have been introduced4 ,the ,turkestan variety was introduced by the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture during recent years4 ,it was brought from provinces beyond the ,caspian in ,russia1 ,asia4 ,the object sought was to introduce a variety that would better withstand the rigors of a climate dry in summer and cold in winter than the variety commonly grown4 ,some strains of this variety have proved drought resistant to a remarkable degree4 ,it has also shown itself capable of enduring without injury temperatures so low as to result in the destruction of plants of the common variety4 ,in trials made by growers in ,north ,dakota and ,northern ,minnesota1 it has been found able to endure the winter's cold in these areas4 ,but it has also been found that while the plants produced some seed in the ,central ,mountain ,states1 they did not produce much seed when grown in the ,northern ,states4 ,unless seed can be secured from plants grown in the latter in sufficient quantities to meet the needs of growers1 it is feared that in time some of the hardy characteristics of this variety will be lost if the ,central and ,southern ,mountain ,states must be relied upon as the ,american sources of seed supplies4 ,the ,rhenish strain comes from ,central ,europe4 ,it has been highly commended by some ,european seedsmen for its hardihood1 but it has been as yet grown to only a limited extent in ,america4 ,the ,minnesota strain was doubtless brought to ,carver ,county by ,german farmers1 by whom it has been grown in the neighborhood of ,lake ,waconia for nearly #bj years4 ,it has been found much hardier than the common variety when grown in that neighborhood1 and the endurance of plants grown from seed of this strain far northward has been very pronounced4 ,as this variety produces reasonably good seed crops in ,central ,minnesota1 it would seem reasonable to expect that it will become popular in ,northern areas4 ,sand ,lucerne1 which comes from ,central ,europe1 has considerable adaptation for poor and light soils1 and in trials made at the ,michigan experiment station was found possessed of distinctive merit for such soils4 ,where alfalfa can be grown freely1 it is unexcelled as a pasture for swine1 and is in favor also as a pasture for horses4 ,while cattle and sheep grazed upon it are exceedingly fond of it1 the danger that it will produce bloat in them is so frequently present as to greatly neutralize its value for such a use4 ,it is a favorite pasture for fowls4 ,in furnishing soiling food where it produces freely1 it is without an equal in all the ,united ,states4 ,it is highly relished by all kinds of farm animals1 not excluding rabbits and goats1 and when fed judiciously may be fed in this form with perfect safety4 ,its high value in producing such food rests on its productiveness1 its high palatability and the abundant nutrition which it contains4 ,as a hay crop1 it is greatly prized4 ,even swine may be wintered in a large measure on cured alfalfa hay4 ,as a fertilizer1 the value of alfalfa will be largely dependent on the use that is made of the plants4 ,when pastured or fed upon the farm1 the fertility resulting being put back upon the land1 it ranks highly as a producer of fertility4 ,but this question is further discussed on page #aia4 ,as a destroyer of weeds much will depend upon the way in which it is grown4 ,this question also is discussed again4 7,see page #ahe47 ,distribution4--,it is thought that alfalfa is more widely distributed over the earth's surface1 furnishes more food for live stock1 and has been widely cultivated for a longer period than any other legume4 ,it is grown over wide areas of ,asia1 ,europe1 ,north and ,south ,america1 and its cultivation is constantly extending4 ,it was grown on the irrigated plains of ,babylon long before the days of ,nebuchadnezzar4 ,it was the principal fodder used in the stables of the kings of ,persia4 ,from ,persia1 it is thought1 it was brought to ,greece about #dgj ,b4 ,c41 and that its cultivation in ,italy began at least two centuries before the ,christian era4 ,several ,roman writers1 as ,virgil1 ,columella and ,varro1 mention it4 ,from ,italy it was introduced into ,spain and from ,spain it was doubtless carried by missionaries of the ,roman ,catholic ,church to ,mexico and the ,south ,american ,states which lie west of the ,andes1 as ,peru and ,chili4 ,in the arid and semi-arid regions of the ,andes1 the conditions were found so favorable to the growth of alfalfa that it is now the principal forage crop grown4 ,it is almost certain that it was brought from ,chili to ,california1 from which it has spread over much of the cultivated portion of the arid and semi-arid west4 ,western grown seed is also the chief source of supply at the present time for all the ,states of the ,union4 ,fully a century ago attempts were made by ,chancellor ,livingstone and others to introduce it into the ,eastern ,states1 but without much success1 owing1 probably1 to the lack of knowledge on the part of the people as to how it should be grown4 ,the seed at that time was doubtless brought from ,european sources1 probably ,france4 ,it has been noticed by more recent growers in these ,states that the results from sowing such seed do not prove as satisfactory as those from ,american grown seed1 but that alone should not sufficiently explain why the attempts to grow alfalfa just referred to were not successful4 ,but it is not alone in the areas named that alfalfa has proved so helpful to agriculture4 ,in ,central ,asia and northward it has for long centuries furnished the ,tartars with the principal forage crop grown4 ,in ,turkestan and other places it will grow under conditions so dry as to forbid the vigorous growth of many hardy grasses4 ,in ,southern ,asia1 from ,india to ,arabia1 it has lost none of the popular favor accorded to it long centuries ago4 ,in ,southern ,russia it is extensively grown1 and up and down the basin of the ,danube4 ,in the ,mediterranean provinces of ,southern ,europe it is still one of the leading forage crops4 ,in ,france it stands high in the popular estimate1 and also in some parts of ,germany4 ,and even in humid ,england it is grown more or less freely on dry1 calcareous soils4 ,and the day is doubtless near when in many parts of ,africa1 ,australia1 ,new ,zealand and ,eastern ,south ,america this great fodder plant will be found capable of yielding abundant harvests4 ,in some parts of ,argentina it has been claimed that it grows like a weed4 ,it is believed by many that alfalfa if exposed to very low temperatures will perish and that it cannot stand as much winter exposure as medium red or alsike clover4 ,this is only true of some varieties4 ,other varieties1 as the ,turkestan1 for instance1 will endure lower temperatures and more exposure than the clovers named4 ,alfalfa has been grown with some success at the government experiment station1 ,indian ,head1 ,sask1 ,canada1 and yet it sometimes winter kills in ,texas4 ,as with clover1 it is injured most by exposure to sweeping winds blowing over it in winter when the mercury is low1 and the injury is more fatal just after the removal of a snow covering and when the plants are young4 ,ice forming over the fields after a sudden thaw and remaining for a time is very liable to kill the plants4 ,it can stand considerably more summer heat than any of the clovers grown northward1 as witnessed in the good crops grown in some parts of ,louisiana during the hottest weather of summer4 ,nevertheless1 with reference to temperatures1 what may be termed a mild climate1 such as characterizes ,southern ,france in ,europe and ,western ,california in the ,united ,states1 is best adapted to its growth4 ,it is better adapted to climates that are dry1 where the plants can be irrigated1 as then rains do not interfere with the harvesting of the hay4 ,even in the absence of irrigation1 a climate that is reasonably dry is preferable to one where drenching rains frequently fall1 which wash away the soil when sandy1 or which fill it full of water when composed of clay4 ,but where rains fall frequently and in moderation1 as in the northern ,puget ,sound region1 the effect is helpful to the growth of the alfalfa plants1 although it may add somewhat to the labor of making alfalfa hay1 and to the hazard in curing it4 ,alfalfa will maintain its hold for years on some portions of the table lands of the mountain ,states under conditions so dry that the plants can only furnish one cutting of hay in a season4 ,it is safe to assume1 therefore1 that alfalfa can be grown under a wider range of climatic conditions than any other legume grown in the ,united ,states4 ,but the influence which climate should be allowed to exercise on the use that is to be made of it should not be lost from view4 ,in climates much subject to frequent rains in summer1 it should be grown rather for soiling food and pasture than for hay1 whereas in dry climates1 and especially where it can be irrigated1 it should be grown for hay1 soiling food and pasture1 but especially the former4 ,while alfalfa can be successfully grown in one or the other of its varieties in some portion of every ,state in the ,union1 it has its favorite feeding grounds4 ,the best conditions for growing it are found in the valleys of all the ,rocky ,mountain ,states1 where the growth can be regulated by the application of irrigating waters4 ,in these the conditions southward are superior to those northward1 because of the milder climate1 which precludes the danger of winter killing by exposure1 which occasionally happens in the more northerly of the mountain ,states1 and because of the more prolonged season for growth1 which adds to the number of the cuttings4 ,this does not mean that the river bottoms in other parts of the ,united ,states will not be found good for growing alfalfa4 ,it can be grown in many of these2 in fact1 in nearly all of them1 and to some extent by the aid of irrigation1 if the waste waters were stored1 but the deposit soil in these valleys being of much closer texture than that in the western valleys1 is1 on the whole1 lower in adaptation than the soil in the latter4 ,in the western valleys of the mountain ,states1 alfalfa is the crop around which it may be said that agricultural production centers4 ,it is the principal hay crop of those ,states4 ,the extent to which it may be grown there is revolutionizing the production of live stock on the ranges1 as it is providing food for them in winter1 which is fast removing1 and will probably soon entirely remove1 the element of hazard from live stock dependent on the range pastures for support in that season4 ,the dairy and swine industries in those valleys must largely depend upon it4 ,fruit orchards must ultimately grow on buried alfalfa meadows1 and the rotation of all crops in the same will be largely dependent upon the growing of alfalfa4 ,next in adaptation to the mountain ,states are1 it is thought1 certain soils that lie between the ,rocky ,mountains and the ,mississippi1 especially such as are in proximity to rivers1 or are underlaid with sheet water not far distant from the surface4 ,but an unusually large proportion of the upland soil in these ,states1 from ,central ,minnesota southward1 have high adaptation for the growth of this plant4 ,particularly is this true of the soils of ,nebraska and ,kansas and of considerable portions of ,missouri1 ,arkansas and ,louisiana4 ,in ,states east of the ,mississippi1 the adaptation is not so general1 and is more dependent on soil conditions than on those that are climatic4 ,in nearly all of the river bottoms of these ,states it will grow with more or less success4 ,on nearly all upland soils it will also grow well1 where the subsoil furnishes naturally good drainage4 ,for the exception1 see page #acb4 ,but in no ,state east of the ,mississippi1 is such a proportion of the area so highly adapted to growing alfalfa as in many of the ,states west of that river4 ,in other ,states areas are found in which alfalfa will produce excellent crops1 but usually these do not embrace the larger portion of the entire area in any ,state4 ,in a considerable number of the ,states such areas are more or less limited1 and usually they are distributed variously in the different ,states2 that is1 they do not lie side by side4 ,the favorite soil conditions in these are a good loam1 preferably more or less sandy and resting upon a porous subsoil4 ,a more exact idea will be given of relative adaptation in various ,states in what is now submitted4 ,in ,california1 ,nevada1 ,utah1 ,colorado and ,new ,mexico1 alfalfa is now grown chiefly by the aid of irrigation1 and all of these ,states have highest adaptation for its growth4 ,in some parts of ,california #f to #aj tons of cured hay are obtained in one year1 with pasture in winter additional4 ,in ,utah1 good crops have been grown successively on the same land for more than a quarter of a century4 ,in ,colorado two cuttings are obtained the first season1 and it is said that there the plants are not easily destroyed4 ,it yields enormously in the irrigated valleys of ,new ,mexico and ,arizona4 ,in ,washington1 ,oregon1 ,idaho1 ,montana and ,wyoming1 it is grown with and without irrigation4 ,in large areas in all these ,states1 excellent crops are and may be grown1 but the season of growth being shorter1 not so many cuttings are obtained per year as in the mountain ,states further south4 ,in ,northern ,idaho two cuttings may be obtained per year1 even on high1 dry land4 ,in ,north ,dakota1 especially westward1 alfalfa gives promise of successful growth4 ,it will grow well in much of ,south ,dakota1 especially on sandy soils not too distant from water4 ,in ,minnesota it has been grown successfully in ,carver ,county since #ahhf4 ,good success is being obtained from growing it in other parts of the ,state1 even in some parts of the ,red ,river valley4 ,in ,western ,iowa it is being grown with much success1 and in some portions of ,eastern ,iowa4 ,in ,missouri1 the two important centers for growing it are the northwest and the southeast1 but in other areas it has also done well4 ,in ,kansas it will grow well in all parts of the ,state where the subsoil is porous4 ,it has been cut for hay in that ,state in less than #fj days from the date of sowing4 ,it grows equally well over at least two-thirds of ,nebraska1 especially the eastern half1 and its growth in ,nebraska is rapidly extending4 ,in the ,arkansas valley it luxuriates1 and it is also being grown in ,oklahoma4 ,in ,louisiana immense fields are being grown along the ,red ,river and in other parts of the ,state4 ,in ,texas it is being grown more or less north1 east and south1 and especially in the valley of the ,brazos4 ,in the ,southern ,states alfalfa has not in many instances been given a good chance where tried4 ,the plants have too frequently had to contend there as elsewhere with ill-prepared and weedy soils and imprudent pasturing4 ,yet it is being grown with considerable success1 though as yet in limited areas1 in all the ,southern ,states4 ,it has done well in parts of ,kentucky1 ,tennessee1 ,mississippi and ,alabama1 and in ,georgia are some alfalfa meadows #be years old4 ,in the other ,southeastern ,states1 viz41 ,virginia1 the ,carolinas and ,florida1 it does well only in areas more or less circumscribed1 but it has been grown with some success even in the rainy climate of ,southern ,florida4 ,in the ,states northward from the ,ohio ,river1 that is1 ,illinois1 ,indiana1 ,ohio1 ,michigan and ,wisconsin1 the necessity for growing alfalfa has not been so much felt as in some other ,states1 because of the excellence of the crops of clover grown in these4 ,its growth1 however1 is extending in all of these ,states4 ,much of the soil in ,illinois1 it is said1 must first be inoculated with the bacteria proper to alfalfa before vigorous crops can be grown1 and this is probably true of sections of ,indiana soil4 ,some sections of ,ohio are becoming noted for the crops of alfalfa which they have grown1 and in ,wisconsin ,hon4 ,w4 ,d4 ,hoard succeeded in securing #e4g tons of alfalfa hay in one season from four cuttings made on three-fifths of an acre4 ,in all the ,eastern and ,new ,england ,states1 alfalfa is being grown to some extent4 ,in some counties of ,new ,york1 as ,onondaga and ,madison1 it is becoming the leading soiling and hay crop4 ,in ,massachusetts it has borne cuttings year after year on sandy loam soil4 ,on ,long ,island three to four cuttings each season have been obtained for a series of years4 ,it is believed that it will grow over nearly the whole of ,southern ,maryland and also in much of the eastern part of that ,state1 and its growth has been quite successful in parts of ,delaware and ,pennsylvania4 ,alfalfa will grow well in considerable areas in ,canada4 ,the statement would seem safe that at the present time profitable crops could be grown in some parts of every province of ,canada in which the land is tilled4 ,in ,quebec1 even on high land1 it usually endures the winters4 ,near ,montreal it has been cut for soiling food at the height of #cj inches as early as ,may #aeth4 ,in some parts of ,eastern ,ontario good crops can be grown1 and also over considerable areas of ,western ,ontario4 ,the author grew it with much success at the experiment station at ,guelph in #ahij and subsequently1 and during recent years considerable areas are being grown in several of the ,lake ,erie counties and in those that lie north from them4 ,but in no part of ,ontario are the conditions for growing alfalfa better than in some of the mountain valleys of ,british ,columbia4 ,but few crops1 if1 indeed1 any1 are being experimented with at the present time to so great an extent as alfalfa2 hence1 the expectation is reasonable that there will be an enormous increase in the area grown in the future that is near4 ,the two chief causes of failure in the past were want of knowledge in growing and caring for it on the part of the growers1 and the absence of the proper bacteria in the soil4 ,acidity in some soils and want of drainage in others are also responsible for many of the failures referred to4 ,but even where it does grow reasonably well1 some trouble is found from the alfalfa failing in spots4 ,in some instances the cause can be traced1 as when coated with ice in winter1 or where the soil is not uniform1 but in other instances the precise causes have not been determined4 ,notwithstanding these drawbacks1 however1 greatly increased areas will be grown in the future1 especially in ,states in which the dairy interest is paramount or even important4 ,soils4--,it was formerly thought by many that alfalfa would only grow vigorously on soils and subsoils sandy in character1 and underlaid at some distance from the surface with water4 ,it is now being ascertained that it will grow on a great variety of soils1 providing they are reasonably fertile1 free from acidity1 sufficiently porous below to carry away water with reasonable quickness1 and not underlaid with hard pan or a subsoil so tenacious that it is almost impervious to water4 ,the best soils for alfalfa are those of the ,western mountain ,states1 and in these the deposit soils of the river valleys stand among the foremost4 ,these soils are usually of much depth4 ,many of them have water underneath1 and the subsoil is usually so porous that the roots can go far down in them1 such is the character of nearly all the bottom land west of the ,mississippi4 ,but in nearly all of the mountain region of the ,west1 from ,banff in ,british ,columbia to ,mexico1 alfalfa will grow well under irrigation1 or in the absence of irrigation1 if ground water is not too distant from the surface4 ,in this region alfalfa grows more vigorously and more persistently than in almost any other portion of the ,united ,states4 ,in regions where alfalfa is not dependent upon irrigation1 the best soils probably are deep1 rich calcareous loams1 clay or sandy1 and underlaid with what may be termed a mild or reasonably porous clay subsoil4 ,with such soils the plants may be in no way influenced by sheet water below1 as on some of these in ,nebraska1 for instance1 such water is fully #aej feet below the surface4 ,these soils are usually possessed of abundant food supplies to nourish the plants1 and the roots can go far down into the subsoils to gather food and moisture4 ,such lands are found more or less in nearly all the ,states of the ,union east from the ,rocky ,mountains2 hence1 when the requisite bacteria are present1 good crops can be grown on them in every ,state in the ,union4 ,on the ordinary black soils of the prairie1 alfalfa will usually grow reasonably well if underlaid with clay not too distant nor too tenacious4 ,when the roots get down into the subsoil1 they can usually find much food in the same1 and unless in very dry areas a sufficiency of moisture1 but in many instances it may be necessary to introduce the requisite bacteria1 and to apply farmyard manure to encourage sufficient growth to carry the roots down quickly to the subsoil4 ,in some prairie soils the growth will be vigorous from the start1 but usually these are lands that have grown hardwood timber1 and that have in them more or less clay4 ,in climates where the rainfall is considerable1 alfalfa will frequently grow well on gravelly soils and on those that are stony4 ,some of the best alfalfa soils in the ,state of ,new ,york1 ,new ,england ,states1 and in the ,canadian provinces of ,quebec and ,ontario are of this character4 ,alfalfa will frequently grow fairly well even on stiff clays1 and in some instances on gumbo soils4 ,but these soils must not be so retentive as to collect and hold water for any considerable time within a few feet of the surface4 ,such lands have usually much staying power2 hence1 alfalfa grown on them frequently improves for years after it has been sown4 ,on the reddish soils that cover much of the ,south1 it has been found1 as in growing alfalfa on stiff clays in the ,north1 that where deep subsoiling is practiced alfalfa is not only more easily established1 but it also grows with added vigor4 ,on upland soils sandy or gravelly in character where the rainfall is much less than normal and where the subsoil is not underlaid with sheet water1 alfalfa will not usually succeed1 notwithstanding that it may grow well on these soils where the rainfall is normal4 ,on such soils it is not easy to get a stand of the plants1 as they are much apt to perish in the dry weather of the first season1 but if once established on such soils the plants have much power to grow even where the rainfall is considerably less than normal4 ,alfalfa will not grow well in soils naturally wet until they are drained4 ,and when drained it will not grow with normal vigor1 on what may be termed slough soils1 where the subsoil is far down and covered with a deep covering of vegetable mold4 ,what are termed slough soils in the ,western prairies1 therefore1 are not well fitted for the growth of alfalfa4 ,on these it may not succeed well1 when it may grow with much vigor on the adjoining upland4 ,when some wet soils are drained1 alfalfa may not succeed well on them for a time and later may grow luxuriantly4 ,this may arise from the lack of time for proper aeration after being drained1 or from the want of lime to further correct acidity in the soil1 or from the want of the proper bacteria4 ,notwithstanding that alfalfa will not grow well on undrained lands that are naturally wet1 and notwithstanding that it will perish if the roots reach standing water at a distance too near the surface1 the best crops by far are usually grown on irrigated lands4 ,this arises1 first1 from the ability to adjust the supplies of water to meet the needs of the plants1 and second1 from the congenial character of the soil and subsoil4 ,next to these the best crops are grown where congenial soils are underlaid with ground water1 not too near nor too distant from the surface4 ,on these soils the plants are largely supplied with moisture from the water below ascending on the principle of capillary attraction4 ,how near or how distant such water should be will depend somewhat on subsoil conditions4 ,it would seem correct to say that it ought never to come nearer to the surface than #c feet1 nor should it be more than #bj feet down4 ,the most suitable distance would be1 say1 #h to #af feet4 ,when the roots of alfalfa reach water at too short a depth they will die4 ,alfalfa may sometimes be grown satisfactorily on soils subject to overflow1 but usually there is hazard in growing it on these4 ,if the overflow occurs comparatively early in the season1 if it is not of great depth1 if it is of short duration1 and if the waters quickly drain out of the subsoil possessed by the alfalfa1 it may receive little or no harm from such overflow4 ,instances are on record wherein ice has formed on alfalfa and yet the plants survived1 but such a condition will usually prove fatal to them4 ,but should the overflow take place in hot weather1 usually it will injure the plants seriously1 and may1 indeed1 completely destroy them4 ,so great is such hazard1 that care must be taken against the application of an excess of irrigating waters under such conditions4 ,overflow waters that are stagnant are more injurious probably than those that are in motion1 owing1 it may be1 to the less supply of dissolved oxygen in the former4 ,soils suitable in themselves1 but lying on stiff clay bottoms or underlaid with hard pan within two or three feet of the surface1 will not maintain a good stand of alfalfa4 ,the plants in these may grow well for a time1 probably a year or two1 after which they will fail4 ,the roots are not able to go down to gather food4 ,when the subsoils are simply stiff clays1 deep subsoiling1 as already intimated1 may render much service1 but when composed of hard pan this may not be practicable4 ,in moist climates1 however1 reasonably good crops have been obtained from soils with underlying rock not more than four feet below the surface4 ,the fact should not be overlooked that soils may have the requisite physical conditions for growing alfalfa1 and they may possess in fair supply the essential elements of plant food1 and yet alfalfa will not succeed at the first when sown on these1 because of the absence of the soil bacteria1 the presence of which is essential to the vigorous growth of the plants4 ,because of this1 growers should be slow to conclude that alfalfa will not flourish on the soils on which they sow it until they have first tried to grow it on those soils that have been inoculated with the requisite alfalfa bacteria4 ,for the methods of procedure in such cases see page #ec4 ,some persons claim that soils which will grow medium red clover in good form will also grow alfalfa in good form4 ,this does not necessarily follow4 ,while there is much of similarity in the soils suitable for the growth of both1 alfalfa may fail on lands that grow red clover luxuriantly until the bacteria proper to alfalfa have been introduced4 ,soils may be tested for bacteria1 and even in winter1 by sowing some seed in pots and treating them like well-cared-for house plants4 ,when the plants are #b to #c months old1 if tubercles are found on the roots1 the conclusion would seem safe that such soil does not require inoculation4 ,place in the ,rotation4--,in a certain sense it can scarcely be said of alfalfa that it is a rotation plant1 because of the long term of years for which it is grown in an unbroken succession4 ,nevertheless1 in all places it cannot always be maintained for a long term of successive years without renewal4 ,in the ,eastern ,states it is frequently1 though not always so crowded by various grasses1 that the fields in which it grows are broken up at some period short of ten years1 and not infrequently at the end of five or six years4 ,when thus grown1 it becomes a rotation plant1 though grown in what may be termed long rotations4 ,but even in the ,west1 where1 under irrigation1 it may be grown for a quarter of a century or even for a longer period without renewal1 it may be used when desired in short rotations4 ,in such situations it grows so readily and becomes established so quickly1 that the fields may be broken with a view to alternate with other crops at the end of the second year1 or of any year subsequently from the sowing of the seed that may be desired4 ,alfalfa in these soils will serve even better than medium red clover in such situations1 since while it is growing1 it will produce more hay or soiling food1 and consequently should excel the former in the fertility which it makes available4 ,east of the ,mississippi and north of the ,ohio ,river1 alfalfa will frequently follow cultivated crops1 as corn1 potatoes and field roots1 and when the fields are broken1 it will be followed by crops other than legumes4 ,on many soils the influence which this crop has on relieving the surface soil from excessive moisture1 through channels opened into the subsoil by the decaying roots1 is so helpful as to considerably stimulate production in addition to the fertilizing influence which it exerts directly4 ,particularly good crops of corn1 the small cereal grains1 and even field roots may be grown after alfalfa4 ,on soils east of the ,mississippi and south of the ,ohio1 the rotation will be somewhat similar4 ,but on ,southern soils alfalfa will frequently follow immediately crops especially grown to be plowed under as green manures for the benefit of the alfalfa4 ,these crops include cow peas1 soy beans1 crimson clover1 and to a limited extent1 burr clover4 ,it will also be followed frequently by crops of cotton and other non-leguminous plants1 the growth of which in the ,united ,states is confined to the area now being considered4 ,in the area west of the ,mississippi and east of the semi-arid region beside the mountains1 alfalfa may follow the small cereal grains1 and may in turn be followed by them and also by millets4 ,it may also follow and precede corn1 or the non-saccharine sorghums1 where the climatic conditions are suitable for growing the latter4 ,in the irrigated regions of the ,west1 alfalfa may be made to serve almost any purpose in the rotation that may be desired4 ,by growing it as a rotation crop in these valleys it may be made to furnish the soil indefinitely with supplies of nitrogen and humus4 ,in these soils it may be made to follow directly almost any crop grown on them1 and similarly it may be made to precede the growth of almost any crop for which the locality has marked adaptation4 ,small cereal grains1 timothy1 vegetables1 field roots1 potatoes1 corn1 small fruits and orchards may be profitably grown on buried alfalfa meadows4 ,this does not imply1 however1 that alfalfa meadows should not1 as a rule1 be maintained for a long term of years4 ,preparing the ,soil4--,in preparing the soil for alfalfa the aim should be to make a seed-bed clean1 rich1 fine1 moist1 even1 and sufficiently firm or friable1 according to the conditions4 ,the subsoil should also be made sufficiently dry and open4 ,from what has just been said1 it will be apparent that in properly preparing the seed-bed1 it will be necessary to study closely the requisite conditions4 ,the advantage from having a clean seed-bed will be apparent when it is called to mind that alfalfa is a somewhat delicate plant when young1 and that because of this1 it is ill able to overcome in the fight with weeds4 ,cleanness in the surface soil may be obtained by summerfallowing the land1 by growing a root crop or a crop of corn or any of the non-saccharine sorghums4 ,when the seed is spring sown1 this preparation must be given the year previously1 but when autumn sown1 it may be given the same season4 ,in preparing the land thus1 the aim should be to make the surface as clean as possible1 rather than to get weed seeds out of the lower strata of the cultivated soil1 in which they will likely perish before the field sown to alfalfa is broken up again4 ,summerfallowing makes an excellent preparation for the land1 because of the fine opportunity which it furnishes for cleaning the same perfectly and leveling it off properly4 ,the excellent condition in which it puts the seed-bed1 viewed from the standpoint of the duration of the years of cropping that are likely to follow1 would seem to more than justify such preparation of the land4 ,the outcome may more than justify the loss of the crop for one season when thus summerfallowing the land4 ,but it may not be necessary to lose the production of one season whether the seed is sown spring or autumn1 as the summerfallowing in the ,north may follow the pasturing off of some crop1 and in the ,south the interval for fallowing the land may be sufficiently long after the harvesting of an early winter grain crop1 before sowing the seed in the autumn4 7,see page #acf47 ,when sowing the seed autumn or spring1 on land that is filled with weed seeds near the surface1 it is frequently better to defer sowing the seed for some weeks to give time for sprouting many of these than to sow at once4 ,this suggestion is specially applicable to spring sowing4 ,it should also be mentioned that when the weeds infesting the soil are annual or even biennial in character1 the harm done to the alfalfa by these will be much less than when the land is infested with perennials at the time of sowing4 ,the former may be prevented from seeding by clipping back frequently1 while the latter remain in the soil1 increase from year to year1 and injure the plants by crowding4 ,where crab grass grows abundantly1 as in some parts of the ,south1 unless the alfalfa is sown and cultivated1 spring sowing ought to be avoided4 ,but it is less objectionable to sow alfalfa on land that is weedy when the adaptation of the land for the crop is high than when it is low1 as the alfalfa in the former instance has so much more power to fight its own battle4 ,on good alfalfa soils1 therefore1 it may be wiser in some instances to sow alfalfa in weed-infested land than to defer sowing for a whole year in order to clean the land4 ,it is greatly important that the land shall be rich in available plant food on which the seed is sown4 ,if naturally poor1 it should be well fertilized before sowing4 ,when this cannot be done1 it is better not to sow4 ,a vast preponderance of the land in the ,rocky ,mountain region1 when first broken1 would seem to possess abundantly all the essential foods required by alfalfa2 hence1 for a time1 at least1 it is not necessary to enrich these before sowing the seed4 ,the sandy and hungry gravelly soils1 which are considerable in the ,south1 in the ,atlantic ,states1 and in some of the ,central and ,northern ,states1 should be fertilized before laying them down to alfalfa4 ,such fertilization usually calls for both humus and readily available plant food1 and these are most cheaply supplied by growing certain green crops and plowing them under1 or by applying farmyard manure4 ,these may be supplemented when necessary by commercial fertilizers4 ,some precede alfalfa on such soils by growing cow peas or soy beans1 followed by crimson clover1 both crops being plowed in1 and shortly before sowing the alfalfa they apply more or less of phosphoric acid and potash1 which is usually incorporated in the surface soil by the harrow4 ,on some soils1 as in some parts of ,florida1 two successive crops of cow peas should be plowed under before sowing alfalfa4 ,when farmyard manure can be used in fertilizing those leechy soils it is well when it can be applied on the surface in a somewhat decomposed form and also kept near the surface during the subsequent cultivation given when preparing the seed-bed4 ,in the ,north it is best applied in the autumn or winter1 and in the ,south in the summer4 ,but on loam soils with a reasonably retentive subsoil1 the better way to apply farmyard manure is to make a heavy application of the same to the crop preceding the alfalfa4 ,it has thus become incorporated with the soil1 and many weed seeds in it will have sprouted before sowing the alfalfa4 ,the results from applying manure on soil somewhat stiff and not highly productive have been noticeably marked4 ,this may have been owing in part to the mechanical influence of the manure on the land4 ,the relation between the free application of farmyard manure and abundant growth in alfalfa is so marked in all1 or nearly all1 soils west of the ,mississippi ,river that in many instances better crops will be obtained from poor soils well manured than from good soils unmanured4 ,the relation between abundant manuring and soil inoculation is worthy of more careful study1 in the judgment of the author1 than has yet been accorded to it4 ,fine pulverization of the surface soil is advantageous when sowing alfalfa1 because of the influence which it has upon the retention of moisture near the surface1 and upon the exclusion from the soil of an overabundance of light4 ,it is in clay soils1 of course1 that this condition is most difficult to secure4 ,the agencies in securing it are the cultivator1 the harrow and the roller1 and in many instances the influences of weather1 after the land has been plowed1 especially when plowed in the autumn prior to spring seeding4 ,moistness in the seed-bed sufficient to promptly sprout the seed is a prime essential1 but it is very much more important where the seasons are dry than where the lack of rain is but little feared4 ,when the seed is sown after summerfallow or cultivated crops1 it is usually considered preferable to make the seed-bed without using the plow1 but to this there may be some exceptions4 ,if sowing is deferred for a few weeks in the spring on such lands1 or on other lands autumn plowed or early spring plowed1 a free use of the harrow ought to be made in the interval1 because of the favorable influence which this will have on the retention of moisture4 ,in preparing some soils for autumn sowing after a grain crop1 as in some parts of ,nebraska and ,kansas1 it is only necessary to use the harrow2 in preparing others the disk and harrow2 and in yet others the disk and harrow and roller4 ,in preparing other soils1 as the clays of the ,south1 it may be necessary first to plow and subsoil1 and subsequently to use sufficiently the harrow and roller4 ,evenness in the soil on the surface is important when it is so retentive that water may collect in the depressions after heavy rain4 ,in such places the plants are much liable to fail1 especially in the early winter1 or even shortly after they may have begun to grow1 if moisture is excessive4 ,in order to smooth and even the land sufficiently1 it may be necessary to run over it some form of leveller4 ,this does not mean1 however1 that it will not be necessary sometimes to plow the land in ridges1 or lands1 as they are sometimes called1 but it does mean that the slope from the center of the lands toward the furrows shall be even and gradual1 in order that an excess of surface water1 as in rainy climates1 shall be carried away by the latter4 ,firmness in the seed-bed is necessary chiefly to prevent too much drying out near the surface in dry weather1 and the holding of too much water in the spaces between the particles near the surface in wet weather1 followed by freezing of the soil4 ,the less deep the stirring of the cultivated portion when preparing it1 the longer the interval between such stirring and the sowing of the seed1 and the heavier the pressure when rolling1 the more firm will the seed-bed be4 ,the deeper the land is plowed1 therefore1 the longer should be the interval before it is sowed1 but ample rainfall will shorten this period4 ,firmness in the seed-bed is more important1 relatively1 in summer or early autumn when evaporation from the surface soil is the most rapid4 ,on some soils of the ,middle ,states which border on the ,mississippi1 the early sown autumn crop will sometimes perish after the plants have grown some distance above the ground1 because of want of firmness in the soil2 hence1 in such locations harrowing the surface of the ground thoroughly may sometimes be a more suitable preparation than plowing and harrowing4 ,friability in the seed-bed is important when the soils are heavy4 ,the influences which promote it are the presence of humus1 liberal cultivation1 and sometimes weather influences1 as rain and frost4 ,unless heavy clay soils are brought into this condition1 the roots of the alfalfa will not be able to penetrate the soil quickly enough or deeply enough in search of food4 ,as has been intimated1 it will not avail to sow alfalfa in soils not sufficiently drained naturally or otherwise4 ,usually1 good alfalfa soils have sufficient drainage naturally1 the subsoil being sufficiently open to admit of the percolation of water down into the subsoil with sufficient quickness4 ,but good crops of alfalfa may be grown on subsoils so retentive that underdrainage is necessary to facilitate the escape of an excess of moisture with sufficient quickness4 ,the question has been raised as to whether the roots of the plants will be much liable to enter and choke the drains at the joints between the tiles4 ,while it would not be safe to say that this would never happen1 it is not likely to happen1 owing to the character of the root growth4 ,where too much water is held near the surface1 in climates characterized by alternate freezing and thawing in winter1 the young plants will certainly be thrown out through the heaving of the soil4 ,the subsoiling of lands not sufficiently open below will be greatly helpful to the growth of alfalfa4 ,this may also be true of lands not over-retentive naturally1 but made so by the treading of the animals for successive years on the soil under the furrow when plowing the land4 ,in some conditions1 without subsoiling thus1 the growing of alfalfa will not be successful1 but in doing this work1 care should be taken not to bring up raw subsoil to the surface4 ,in subsoiling for alfalfa1 usually the more deeply the ground can be stirred by the subsoiler1 the better will be the results that will follow4 ,subsoiling is particularly helpful to the growing of alfalfa on many of the clay soils of the ,south4 ,in the far ,west1 toward the mountains1 and probably within the same1 are areas in which excellent stands of alfalfa may be obtained by simply sowing the seed on surfaces stirred with a disk or with a heavy harrow weighted while it is being driven over the land4 ,the implements should be driven first one way and then the other1 and1 of course1 the seed is harrowed after it has been sown4 ,where the soil is sufficiently level1 this plan of preparing will prove satisfactory1 more especially where water can be put upon the land1 but it will also succeed frequently in the absence of irrigating waters4 ,in some instances the disking and sowing are both done by the same implement1 which is driven both ways across the field4 ,alfalfa is sometimes sown1 and with profit1 on steep hill sides which are inclined to wash4 ,when set on these it tends to prevent the washing of the land4 ,in such situations it is better to sow with a nurse crop1 which will help to hold the soil until the alfalfa becomes rooted4 ,where land is so loose as to blow and irrigation cannot be practiced1 only as much should be sown each season as can be covered with stable litter and well-rotted straw drawn out at the proper season4 ,sowing4--,the best season for sowing alfalfa will depend upon such conditions as relate to soil1 moisture and climate4 ,on rather stiff clay soils1 the other conditions being right1 the most satisfactory results are obtained from sowing the seed in the spring1 and on land that has been plowed in the autumn and exposed to the mellowing influences of winter4 ,but to this there may be some exceptions4 ,on lands so light as to lift with the wind1 that season should be avoided in sowing1 if possible1 when lifting winds prevail4 ,such winds are common in some localities in the spring1 and may uncover the seed in some places and bury it too deeply in others4 ,where moisture is deficient the seed must be sown at those times when it is most plentiful4 ,this may be in the autumn1 but more commonly it is in the quite early spring4 ,in some of the mountain ,states the best results have been obtained under semi-arid conditions from sowing the seed in the late autumn1 so that it would be ready for germination at the first commencement of the period of growth in the spring4 ,under some conditions the too dry character of the weather may preclude the sowing of alfalfa in the summer and autumn months4 ,where moisture is plentiful all the season of growth1 alfalfa may be sown almost any time1 except the early spring or late autumn4 ,where irrigating waters are plentiful1 the only hindrances to sowing alfalfa at any season of the year are such as may arise from climate4 ,far ,south in very mild areas it may be sown almost any time4 ,where the temperatures are low in winter1 the best results are obtained from sowing alfalfa in the spring and early summer1 otherwise the plants do not become sufficiently well established to withstand the rigors of the winter following4 ,under some conditions1 sufficiently satisfactory results follow sowing in the early summer1 even in ,northern latitudes4 ,where the winters are sufficiently mild and the moisture is sufficiently plentiful1 early autumn sowing1 as in ,august or ,september1 according to the locality1 is1 all things considered1 the most satisfactory1 for the reason1 first1 that it follows1 or may follow1 a crop grown the same season2 second1 that the plants are less hindered in their growth by weeds when they are young2 and third1 that they produce crops of soiling food or hay the first season after sowing4 ,many weeds do not grow in autumn and winter2 hence1 the less injury done by them to alfalfa plants1 since the latter are so strong by spring that they overshadow the weeds in their effort to grow4 ,when alfalfa is sown at such a time1 the growth of one year virtually is gained by the process4 ,north of parallel #dj1 that is1 north of the latitude of ,columbus1 ,ohio1 and ,denver1 ,colorado1 speaking in a general way1 alfalfa is more commonly sown in the spring1 but not usually so early as clover1 lest the young plants1 which are more tender than clover plants1 should be nipped by spring frosts4 ,this danger is frequently present in the region of the upper ,missouri4 ,east of the ,mississippi it may usually be advisable to sow in the spring some distance south from the latitude named4 ,west from the same are areas where early autumn sowing is frequently the best4 ,in much of the ,southern and ,southwestern ,states1 early autumn sowing is considered better practice than spring sowing1 but to this there are exceptions4 ,under some conditions alternate freezing and thawing of the land near the surface tend to throw out young plants1 as1 for instance1 those autumn sown1 more readily than plants from spring-sown seed4 ,alfalfa is usually sown much the same as medium red clover 7see page #ge71 but there are the following points of difference3 #a4 ,since alfalfa is more commonly sown in dry areas1 it is more important1 relatively1 that the seed shall be buried more uniformly and deeply in the soil in such areas4 #b4 ,since it is liable to be more injured1 relatively1 by a nurse crop than the clovers1 it is more frequently sown without one4 ,and #c4 ,since it is expected to furnish food for a much longer term of years than any of the clovers1 it is relatively more important that the seed shall be sown with a view to seek a uniform and sufficient stand of the plants4 ,whether the seed is sown by hand1 or by any of the hand machines in use1 the results will usually prove satisfactory1 but in climates where moisture is deficient1 decidedly better results are obtained from sowing the seed with some form of seed drill4 ,a press drill is preferred in soils so light and open as to dry out easily or to lift easily with the wind4 ,under conditions of ample moisture1 a light covering with a harrow will suffice1 but under conditions the opposite1 more covering is necessary4 ,in areas where spring and early autumn showers are frequent1 the roller will provide a sufficient covering1 especially where the soils are well charged with a clay content4 ,on other soils1 as those which cover much of the prairie1 the seed should be buried from #a to #b inches deep4 ,where alfalfa is much sown on soils well supplied with humus1 and on the soils which prevail in the ,rocky ,mountain region1 many growers sow the seed with the grain drill1 and before sowing they first mix the seed with some material1 as earth1 some kind of coarse meal1 bran or other substance to make it feed out more regularly4 ,in some instances one-half of the seed is sown the first time the drill is driven over the land1 and the balance is sown by driving again over the same at right angles to the drill marks previously made4 ,when thus sown1 the plants are more evenly distributed over the soil1 and produce1 it is thought1 a more uniform quality of stalk4 ,this method meets1 in part1 at least1 the objection sometimes made to drill sowing1 that it does not distribute the plants sufficiently in the soil4 ,in the ,northern and ,atlantic ,states1 also west of the ,cascade ,mountains1 and in some parts of the ,south1 alfalfa is frequently sown with a nurse crop1 and under favorable conditions the results are usually satisfactory1 if the nurse crop is not sown too thickly4 ,the best nurse crops in the areas named are barley and winter rye1 but oats will answer also1 if sown thinly and cut for hay4 ,it has also been sown quite successfully along with winter wheat in the spring and also with spring wheat4 ,when sown with winter wheat or winter rye1 it is usually advantageous to cover the seed well with the harrow4 ,in many instances1 however1 even in these areas1 it is thought better to sow the seed without a nurse crop1 in order that the plants may have all the benefit from moisture and sunlight which it is possible to give them4 ,this is specially desirable when the fear is present that they may succumb the first winter to the severity of the weather4 ,as weeds grow rapidly along with the plants1 the mower should be run over the field from one to three times during the season4 ,if the mowing is done at the proper time1 it will not be necessary to remove what has been cut off by the mower4 ,it may be allowed to lie as a mulch on the land4 ,but should the growth of weeds be excessive before the mowing is done1 it would then be necessary to remove them1 in order to avoid smothering the plants4 ,the clipping back of the alfalfa plants is helpful1 rather than hurtful4 ,when not thus clipped back the leaves frequently assume a yellowish tint on the top of the plants1 which gradually extends downward until the greater portion of the leaves may be thus affected4 ,such condition frequently betokens a lack of nitrogen1 but it may also be induced by other causes4 ,when it does appear1 the mower should at once be used and also as often as it appears4 ,as soon as mowed off the plants usually stool out1 sending up fresh shoots more numerously4 ,they thus form a crown1 somewhat like the crown in clover plants4 ,root growth is also strengthened1 and the plants are thus made much stronger for going into the winter4 ,each clipping during the season1 of course1 cuts down weeds and prevents them from making seed4 ,if not thus clipped1 they would frequently injure the crop more by shade and crowding than would a nurse crop4 ,the mulch thus made through clipping back the plants is in many instances quite helpful to them1 because of the check which it gives to the escape of ground moisture4 ,there is some difference in the view held as to whether close clipping is preferable1 but the balance of authority is in favor of reasonably close clipping4 ,alfalfa is usually sown alone1 but in some instances it maybe advantageous to sow more or less of some other kind or kinds of grass or clover along with it4 ,when grown for hay it is usually preferable to sow the seed without admixture4 ,but there may be instances in which medium red or alsike clover may improve the crop the first year or two that it is mown for hay4 ,but where red clover grows much more vigorously than alfalfa the first season1 it should not be thus sown in any considerable quantities1 or the clover plants will injure the alfalfa plants by crowding and overshading4 ,nevertheless1 alfalfa may frequently with profit form a considerable factor in clover grown as pasture4 ,where the main purpose of sowing alfalfa is to provide pasture1 various grasses and clovers may be sown along with it1 and in varying quantities1 according to the attendant conditions4 ,the choice of the variety or varieties to sow along with the alfalfa should be based on the needs of the stock to be pastured1 and on the degree of the vigor with which these grow and maintain themselves in the locality4 ,in the ,northern ,states and ,eastern ,canada timothy and ,russian brome grass 7,bromus inermis7 may be chosen4 ,in areas with ,southern ,illinois as a center1 red top and timothy should be satisfactory4 ,in the ,southern ,states1 the claims of orchard grass and tall oat grass would probably be paramount4 ,in areas with ,iowa as a center1 nothing would be more suitable1 probably1 than ,russian brome grass4 ,in the mountain ,states1 with ,wyoming as a center1 timothy and alsike clover would be suitable4 ,in the dry upland country in ,washington and ,oregon1 ,russian brome grass or tall oat grass would answer the purpose4 ,in many areas the plan of sowing clover chiefly with the alfalfa is a good one1 providing the alfalfa is cut for a year or two1 and is then grazed1 as by that time grasses indigenous to the locality1 or which grow well in the same1 come in to such an extent as to form a very considerable proportion of the pasture4 ,blue grass frequently behaves thus in the ,north1 and crab grass in the ,south4 ,the amounts of seed to sow will vary with the character of the soil and climate1 with the use that is to be made of the alfalfa1 and with the manner in which it is sown4 ,on soils and in climates quite favorable to the growth of alfalfa it is common to sow more seed than in those with less adaptation1 and with a view1 probably1 to check coarseness in the growth of the stems4 ,if sown thinly in such areas1 the rank growth which follows would be coarse4 ,this explains why in the ,western and mountain ,states more seed is usually sown than in the ,eastern and ,northern ,states4 ,averaging the whole country1 #bj pounds of seed per acre is more frequently mentioned as the proper amount to sow than any other quantity4 ,in the ,northern ,states many growers sow #ae pounds per acre1 and judging by the yield obtained1 this amount of seed has proved satisfactory4 ,some growers even mention #aj to #ab pounds as satisfactory4 ,the amounts last named are certainly too small for average conditions4 ,fifteen to #bj pounds may be fixed upon as the proper amounts to sow on soil in good condition for speedy germination4 ,but many growers claim satisfactory results from sowing larger amounts of seed than those named4 ,under semi-arid conditions1 where irrigation cannot be given1 a moderate amount of seed will be more satisfactory than very thick seeding1 as when sown too thickly the plants would suffer more from want of moisture than if sown more thinly4 ,the aim should be to obtain a stand that will cover the ground evenly and as thickly as will admit of the vigorous growing of the plants4 ,because of the relatively long duration of the period of the growth of alfalfa fields1 it is specially important that good stands shall be obtained at the first1 and for the further reason that the plants will then be better able to contend with intruding weeds1 the great bane of alfalfa meadows4 ,when alfalfa is grown mainly for seed1 it should be more thinly sown than when it is grown for hay or soiling food4 ,it has been noticed that when the plants stand thickly beyond a certain degree1 they do not seed well4 ,twelve to #af pounds have been mentioned as quite enough to sow for such production in the mountain ,states4 ,where both objects are important1 medium thick sowing would be the most suitable4 ,when sown in combinations such as have been named above1 it will be necessary to modify somewhat the amounts of alfalfa seed sown1 according to the proportion of the other seeds sown with the alfalfa4 ,but since many grasses are more aggressive than alfalfa1 it is not necessary to reduce the amount of alfalfa seed sown proportionately to the amounts of the other seeds that may be sown along with it4 ,in many instances it may be proper not to reduce the amount of the alfalfa seed at all1 as some of these grasses will soon crowd the alfalfa plants1 to their injury1 even though the usual amount of seed should be sown4 ,the amount of the grasses sown with the alfalfa will1 of course1 vary4 ,it will seldom be necessary in any instance to sow more than #f or #g pounds per acre1 and under many conditions not more than #e pounds4 ,when alfalfa is sown with timothy and clover in temporary meadows or pastures1 it is seldom necessary to sow more than #c to #e pounds per acre1 and the same is true of it when sown in a permanent pasture4 ,the crop is so little grown for hay in mixtures1 that it is scarcely necessary to dwell upon the nature of these1 or the respective amounts of seed to sow in making them4 ,when alfalfa is sown with the grain1 there will be a saving of seed to the extent of at least #bj per cent41 as compared with broadcast sowing4 ,this arises from the more general sprouting of all the seeds1 since they are planted at a more uniform depth1 and from the subsequent loss of a smaller percentage of the plants through drought1 and it may be other causes4 ,but when sowing broadcast1 it will in many instances prove more satisfactory to add #bj per cent4 to the amounts mentioned above1 as suitable for being sown without admixture with other grasses and clovers1 rather than to deduct #bj per cent4 from these amounts when sowing the seed with the drill4 ,cultivating4--,under some conditions1 it is1 in a sense1 necessary to sow alfalfa in rows1 and to give it cultivation during the first season and sometimes for a longer period4 ,in some parts of ,florida1 for instance1 the most satisfactory results have been obtained from sowing in rows with #ab to #bd inches between the rows1 and then to cultivate between these as may be necessary to keep down the growth of weeds4 ,under some conditions also in the ,atlantic ,states1 the most satisfactory results have been obtained from sowing alfalfa in rows #ad to #af inches apart and cultivating between them4 ,even hand hoeing the first season may be justifiable along the line of the rows for small areas1 but with the price of labor as at present1 would be too costly for large areas4 ,when grown in rows as indicated in the ,atlantic ,states and westward from these1 the yields of seed have been more satisfactory than when sown broadcast1 but the crop is less satisfactory for hay1 owing to the coarse and uneven character of the stems4 ,the amounts of seed wanted for such sowing will1 of course1 vary chiefly with the distance between the rows4 ,as small an amount as #f pounds or even less will in some instances suffice per acre4 ,pasturing4--,the practice of pasturing alfalfa the first season1 especially where it cannot be irrigated1 is usually condemned1 lest it should weaken the plants unduly for entering the winter4 ,it would seem probable1 however1 that under some conditions such grazing would be helpful rather than hurtful4 ,the cropping of the plants by stock1 in the influence which it exerts upon the plants1 is akin to that which arises from cutting them back frequently during the summer4 ,the animals thus grazed will also crop down weeds4 ,this1 at least1 is true of sheep4 ,the author has succeeded in getting a good stand of alfalfa by sowing seed at the rate of #ae pounds per acre1 along with #b to #d pounds of ,dwarf ,essex rape seed1 and grazing the same with sheep4 ,other growers1 during recent years1 have succeeded similarly4 ,the grazing should not begin until the plants have made a good start1 but it should not be deferred so long that the rape and the weeds will unduly shade the alfalfa plants4 ,the pasturing should not be too close1 nor should it be so long continued that the alfalfa plants will not be able to provide a good growth in the early autumn before the advent of winter4 ,the management of the spring-sown crop the first season requires careful attention in areas where the hazard exists in any considerable degree that the plants may take serious harm at that season1 or1 indeed1 fail altogether4 ,in ,western areas1 from ,canada to ,kentucky and ,missouri1 it is important that the stubbles of the grain shall be cut high1 amid which alfalfa grows when it is sown with a nurse crop4 ,when not thus sown1 it is of prime importance that the plants shall stand up several inches above the surface of the ground before the advent of winter4 ,this is specially important in ,states west of the ,mississippi ,river4 ,the objects effected are three-fold4 ,first1 the snow is arrested and held for the protection of the plants1 and to furnish them with moisture when the snow melts4 ,the extent to which the stubbles and the erect young alfalfa plants will hold snow is simply surprising4 ,on the exposed prairies1 the snow usually drifts so completely from unprotected lands1 that during almost any winter a large proportion of the area will be quite bare4 ,the melting of the snow thus held is also of much value to the crop in the moisture which it brings to it1 especially in areas where the rainfall is less than normal4 ,second1 the plants are thus protected from the sweep of the cold winds which blow so much of the season in the unprotected prairie1 and which are frequently fatal to various winter crops4 ,third1 they are also protected from the intensity of the frost1 which may in some instances kill young alfalfa plants in areas northward4 ,in the ,northern ,states east of ,minnesota1 the ,new ,england ,states1 and the provinces of ,canada east of ,lake ,huron1 the considerable covering on the ground is not so important1 relatively1 to protect the plants against the coming winter1 but it is also of considerable importance1 as sometimes the early snows melt so completely that the fields are left bare in midwinter4 ,the warm temperatures which melt the snow may be followed by a cold wave1 which may be greatly injurious to the plants4 ,there may be instances1 as where the snow usually falls very deeply1 in which the covering left would prove excessive1 and so tend to smother the plants2 hence1 sometimes it may be necessary to guard against too much covering4 ,if the plants should lack age or vigor on entering the first winter1 a top-dressing of farmyard manure will render great service in protecting them4 ,this1 however1 is only practicable with comparatively limited areas4 ,it is sometimes practiced in the ,north ,atlantic ,states1 where the manure thus applied will prove greatly helpful to the growth of the alfalfa during the following season4 ,these precautions to guard against the severity of winter weather are not nearly so necessary in the ,rocky ,mountain ,states where irrigation is practiced4 ,in these1 alfalfa spring sown is sometimes pastured during the following winter1 and without any great harm to the crop4 ,thus greatly do conditions vary4 ,it may also be well to remember that where rainfall is usually plentiful and sometimes excessive1 that a better stand of the young plants can be obtained when the rainfall is moderate than when it is copious4 ,saturated ground is hurtful to the young plants4 ,they will not grow properly under such conditions and are likely to assume a sickly appearance4 ,mildew may appear and the plants may fail in patches4 ,and this may happen on land which will ordinarily produce reasonably good crops of alfalfa after they have once been established4 ,the value of alfalfa in providing pasture is more restricted than in providing hay4 ,this arises in part from the injury which may come to the plants from grazing too closely at certain times1 and in a greater degree from injury which may result to certain animals which may feed upon the plants1 more especially cattle and sheep1 through bloating1 to which it frequently gives rise4 ,this plant is pre-eminently a pasture for swine4 ,they may be grazed upon it with profit all the season1 from spring until fall4 ,no plant now grown in the ,united ,states will furnish so much grazing from a given area in localities well adapted to its growth4 ,swine are very fond of it4 ,some growers do not feed any grain supplement to their swine when grazing on alfalfa1 but it is generally believed that1 under average conditions1 it is wise to supplement the alfalfa pasture daily with a light feed of grain1 carbonaceous in character1 as of rye1 corn or barley1 and that this should be gradually increased with the advancement of the grazing season4 ,one acre of alfalfa will provide pasture for #e to #ae head of swine1 through all the grazing season1 dependent upon the degree of the favorable character of the conditions for growth in the alfalfa1 the age of the swine1 and the extent to which the pasture is supplemented with grain4 ,but in some instances the area named will graze at least #ae hogs through all the growing season without a grain supplement4 ,swine may be turned in to graze on alfalfa when well set1 as soon as it begins to grow freely in the spring4 ,it should be so managed that the grazing will be kept reasonably tender and succulent4 ,for swine pasture the plants should never be allowed to reach the blossoming stage4 ,this can be managed by running the field mower over the pasture occasionally when the stems are growing long and coarse4 ,close and prolonged grazing by swine will tend to shorten the period of the life of the alfalfa4 ,the extent to which this result will follow will depend upon soil and climatic conditions and the closeness of the grazing4 ,to avoid such a result and also to secure the utilization of the food to the utmost1 some growers advocate cutting the alfalfa and feeding it to swine as soiling4 ,the advisability of handling it thus will be dependent to some extent on the relative price of labor4 ,the best results1 relatively1 from growing alfalfa to provide pasture will be found in the ,western valleys1 where alfalfa grows with much vigor1 and in certain areas of the ,south1 where it grows freely and can be pastured during much of the year4 ,in areas eminently adapted to the growth of clover1 it is not so necessary to grow alfalfa for such a use4 ,in ,western areas1 where ,canada field peas are a success1 and especially where artichokes are not hidden from swine by frost1 pork can be grown very cheaply1 and without the necessity of harvesting any very large portion of these crops1 except through grazing them down by swine4 ,such conditions would be highly favorable to the maintenance of health in the swine1 and the quality of the pork made would be of the best4 ,in some instances a small stack of ,canada field peas is put up in the swine pasture that the swine may help themselves from the same the following year1 as in rainless or nearly rainless climates1 where such grain will keep long without injury4 ,alfalfa furnishes excellent grazing for horses1 more especially when they are not at work4 ,like other succulent pastures1 it tends too much to induce laxness in the bowels with horses which graze it1 without any dry fodder supplement4 ,but it has high adaptation for providing pasture for brood mares1 colts1 and horses that are idle or working but little4 ,while it induces abundant milk production in brood mares1 and induces quick and large growth in colts until matured1 it is thought by some practical horsemen that horses grown chiefly on alfalfa have not the staying power and endurance of those1 for instance1 that are grazed chiefly on ,kentucky blue grass and some other grasses4 ,there is probably some truth in the surmise1 and if so1 the objection raised could be met by dividing the grazing either through alternating the same with other pastures or by growing some other grass or grasses along with the alfalfa4 ,the alfalfa furnishes excellent grazing for cattle1 whether they are grown as stockers1 are kept for milk producing1 or are being fattened for beef4 ,for the two purposes first named it has high excellence1 and it will also produce good beef1 but alfalfa grazing alone will not finish animals for the block quite so well without a grain supplement as with one4 ,but the danger is usually present to a greater or less degree that cattle thus grazed may suffer from bloat1 induced by eating the green alfalfa4 ,this danger increases with the humidity of the atmosphere1 with the succulence of the alfalfa1 and with the degree of the moisture resting on it1 as from dew or rain4 ,this explains why in some sections the losses from this source are much greater than in others4 ,it also explains why such losses are greater in some areas than in others4 ,it is considered that grazing alfalfa with cattle in the mountain valleys is less hazardous than in areas ,east and ,southeast1 as the atmosphere is less humid1 the danger from the succulence can be better controlled by the amount of irrigating water supplied1 and because of the infrequency of the rainfall4 ,nevertheless1 the losses from bloat are sometimes severe in both cattle and sheep in the mountain ,states1 notwithstanding that some seasons large herds are grazed upon alfalfa through the entire season without any loss4 ,cattle grazed upon alfalfa may be so managed that the extent of this hazard will be very much lessened1 if not entirely obviated1 but with large herds some of the precautionary methods now to be submitted may not always be practicable4 ,they should never be turned in to graze upon alfalfa when hungry4 ,some grazers adopt the plan of leaving them on the grazing continuously when once put in to graze4 ,others leave them in for a limited time each day at the first1 increasing the duration of the pasturing period from day to day4 ,after managing them thus for a week or two1 the animals are only removed from the pasture for such purposes as milking4 ,others1 again1 feed some alfalfa or other food in the morning before turning them on to alfalfa pastures4 ,another plan adopted is to graze them on a field of other grazing1 located1 if possible1 beside the alfalfa field1 until after the dew has lifted1 and then to open the gate into the alfalfa pasture4 ,this is readily practicable with a herd of cows1 but not to anything like the same extent with a large herd being grown for beef4 ,the danger from bloat in pasturing sheep upon alfalfa is at least as great as in pasturing cattle on the same1 and the methods of managing them while thus being grazed are not far different4 ,so1 too1 the experiences in such grazing are very similar4 ,the losses from such grazing some seasons have been slight4 ,other seasons they have proved so heavy as to make such grazing unprofitable4 ,when sheep are being grazed on alfalfa1 a light feed of grain given in the early morning reduces materially the danger from bloat4 ,it also enables the flock-master to finish his sheep or lambs for the market cheaply and in fine form1 since this small grain factor1 not necessarily more than half a pound a day1 whether given as wheat1 rye1 barley1 oats or corn1 puts the ration practically in balance for the purpose named1 and it may be given to the sheep daily in troughs without taking them out of the pasture4 ,it is thought that there is more danger to cattle and sheep from grazing on alfalfa than on any of the clovers1 and probably such is the case4 ,but whether this is true or not1 the danger is very considerable1 and is enhanced by the presence of frost as well as the presence of moisture1 from much succulence in the plants1 from rain and from dew4 ,so great is the danger that the inexperienced should proceed with much caution in such grazing4 ,when bloat does occur1 the method of dealing with it is given on page #ie4 ,the tendency to produce bloat in alfalfa pastures decreases with the extent to which other grasses are present in the pastures4 ,should alfalfa be grown1 therefore1 for the purpose of providing pasture1 some other grass or grasses should be sown along with it4 ,which of these should be thus sown ought to depend chiefly on the adaptation of the grasses for producing vigorous growth under the conditions present4 ,in the ,states east of the ,mississippi and north of the ,ohio1 and in all of ,canada east from ,lake ,huron1 alfalfa may be made an important feature in pastures variously composed4 ,for instance1 on suitable soils alfalfa may be made an important feature in pastures composed otherwise of medium red and alsike clover and timothy4 ,the author can speak from experience as to the slightness of the danger from grazing cattle and sheep on such pastures4 ,in the ,southern ,states tall oat grass could be sown with the alfalfa1 and probably orchard grass4 ,in some areas alfalfa will maintain its hold on lands smitten with ,johnson grass1 both producing freely4 ,in much of ,kansas meadow fescue would answer the purpose1 northward brome grass would probably answer1 and in some places timothy4 ,in ,idaho and the ,states adjoining1 tall oat grass1 meadow fescue and orchard grass will all be helpful1 and in some of the mountain ,states it has been found that when alsike clover is grown freely in alfalfa pastures1 the tendency to bloat is not only lessened in the animals grazing1 but the value of the pasture1 especially for winter grazing1 is greatly improved4 ,some grazers1 especially in the mountain ,states1 have adopted the plan of sowing other pastures1 as wheat or barley1 beside the alfalfa pastures1 and these are made accessible at will to the animals that are being grazed4 ,the plan has some commendable features1 but grazing animals thus does not reduce the danger as much as when they are grazed on pastures in which other grasses grow up amid alfalfa4 ,in some of the ,western ,states pure alfalfa meadows are grazed through successive seasons with but little loss1 but in such instances the grazing began in the spring and was continuous4 ,judicious care should be exercised in grazing alfalfa lest the stand of the plants shall be injured4 ,the liability to injury in the plants from injudicious grazing increases with the lack of adaptation in the soil and climate for abundant and prolonged growth in the alfalfa4 ,in a large majority of instances1 as previously intimated1 it is not wise to graze down alfalfa at all closely the season of sowing1 and in some instances it should not then be grazed to any extent1 lest the plants be unduly weakened for entering the winter4 ,in cold areas the hazard is much greater from such grazing than in those that are mild1 and likewise1 it is greater when the growth is only moderately vigorous than in areas where alfalfa grows with the vigor of a weed1 as in ,western mountain valleys4 ,in areas where the winters are cold1 and especially where the snowfall is light and the winds have a wide sweep1 the animals which graze upon alfalfa should be removed in time to allow the plants to grow up to the height of several inches before the advent of winter4 ,the growth thus secured will catch and hold the snow1 and the protection thus furnished is greatly helpful to the preservation and vigor of the plants4 ,experience has shown that in ,northern areas pasturing alfalfa in winter1 especially when the ground is bare and frozen1 brings imminent hazard to the plants4 ,on the other hand1 grazing in winter in the mountain valleys1 when as far north as ,central ,montana1 may be practiced with little or no hazard to the stand of plants when these have become well established4 ,in such areas alfalfa may be grazed practically as may be desired1 providing this grazing is not too close4 ,cattle injure alfalfa less than other animals when they graze upon it1 as they do not crop it too closely2 swine injure it more1 if the grazing is constant4 ,horses do even greater injury1 through biting the crowns of the plants too closely2 but sheep injure alfalfa pastures more than any of these animals1 when the grazing is close1 owing to the extent to which they trim off the leaves4 ,as ,soiling ,food4--,for being fed as soiling food1 alfalfa has the very highest adaptation1 owing1 #a4 ,to the long period covered by the growth4 #b4 ,to the rapidity of the growth resulting in large relative production4 #c4 ,to the palatability of the green food produced4 #d4 ,to the entire safety to the animals fed4 ,and #e4 ,to its high feeding value4 ,in ,louisiana1 for instance1 alfalfa may be made to furnish soiling food for nine months in the year4 ,in the ,north1 of course1 the duration of production is much less1 but it is seldom less than five months4 ,the growth is so rapid that cuttings for soiling food may usually be made at intervals of four to six weeks1 according to season and climate2 hence1 the cuttings for soiling food will run all the way from two to eight or nine each season4 ,it is so palatable that horses1 mules1 cattle1 sheep and swine relish it highly4 ,when wilted a little before being fed1 the danger of producing bloat is eliminated4 ,its feeding value is nearly the same as that of the medium red clover1 thus making it in itself what may be termed a balanced or perfect food for horses1 mules1 cattle and sheep until development is completed and subsequently when they are at rest2 that is1 when they are not producing1 as in the form of labor or milk4 ,the highest use1 probably1 from feeding alfalfa when green will arise from feeding it to milch cows4 ,its high protein content in combination with its succulence pre-eminently adapts it to such a use4 ,wherever alfalfa can be grown and will produce even two cuttings a year1 it will serve a good purpose in producing milk4 ,every dairyman dependent more or less on soiling food will find it to his advantage to grow alfalfa where it may be grown in good form4 ,when fed to milch cows1 some meal added1 carbonaceous in character1 as corn or non-saccharine sorghum seed1 may prove a paying investment1 and it may also be advisable to alternate the green alfalfa1 morning or evening1 with such other green crops as oats and peas1 millet1 rape1 corn or sorghum when in season1 to provide variety4 ,but even though alfalfa alone should be thus made to supplement the pastures1 the outcome should be at least fairly satisfactory4 ,when fed to horses that are working1 some care must be exercised in feeding it1 lest too lax a condition of the bowels should be induced1 and a grain factor should be fed at the same time4 ,it has frequently been given to sheep that were being fitted for show purposes1 but may also be fed green to the entire flock1 with a view to supplement the pastures4 ,it has special adaptation for promoting large growth in lambs1 and1 indeed1 in any kind of young stock to which it may be fed4 ,when fed to swine1 a small grain supplement properly chosen and fed will insure more satisfactory growth4 ,it is thought that more satisfactory results will be obtained from allowing the alfalfa to get fairly well on toward the blossoming stage before beginning to feed1 and to continue to feed until in full bloom4 ,this in practice may not always be possible1 but usually an approximation to it may be reached1 especially when the production of the alfalfa will more than supply the needs in soiling food4 ,the ideal plan is to commence cutting the alfalfa as soon as a good growth is made1 cutting enough daily or every other day to supply the needs of the animals4 ,if the growth becomes too much advanced before the field is gone over thus1 the balance should be made into hay1 and the cutting should begin again where it began previously4 ,there is no question but that considerably more food can be obtained from a given area when green alfalfa is fed in the soiling form1 instead of being grazed4 ,the difference in such production would not be easy to determine1 but of the fact stated there cannot be any doubt4 ,ordinarily1 each cutting of green alfalfa for soiling should not produce less than #d tons2 hence1 where #h cuttings can be secured1 not fewer than #cb tons of soiling food could be obtained per season4 ,but whether the increase from soiling alfalfa1 as compared with pasturing the same1 would repay the cost of the extra labor1 will depend upon conditions that vary with time and place4 ,alfalfa fields thus managed or cut for hay will also produce for a longer period than when the fields are grazed4 ,continuity in the production of soiling food may not be possible some seasons in the absence of irrigation2 hence1 under such conditions provision should always be made for a supply of such other soiling foods as may be needed1 and of a character that will make it practical to turn them into dry fodder when not wanted as soiling food4 ,but where irrigating waters are unfailing1 it is quite possible to furnish soiling food from alfalfa soils through practically all the growing season4 ,dairymen thus located are in a dairyman's paradise4 ,alfalfa1 like clover1 may be made into silage4 ,in dry climates this would seem to be unnecessary1 but in rainy climates it may be wise in some instances to make alfalfa ensilage1 the better to insure the curing of the crop4 ,what has been said with reference to clover ensilage will apply almost equally to alfalfa4 7,see page #ajc47 ,it would be more desirable1 usually1 to make the first cutting from alfalfa into ensilage than later cuttings1 because of the showery character of the weather at that season1 but the strong objection stands in the way of doing so1 that no carbonaceous food1 as corn1 sorghum or soy beans1 is ready for going into the silo then as they are later1 with a view of aiding in the better preservation of the ensilage and of making a better balanced ration4 ,good alfalfa silage is more easily made when the alfalfa has been run through a cutting-box than when in the uncut forms4 ,harvesting for ,hay4--,the best time to harvest alfalfa for hay is just after the blossoms begin to appear4 ,ordinarily1 not more than one-third of the blossoms are out when the harvesting should begin1 but when the hay is to be fed to horses the cutting may be deferred until more than half the blooms are out4 ,if cut earlier1 the loss of weight in the crop will be considerable1 as much as #cj to #de per cent41 as compared with cutting when in full bloom4 ,if cut later1 the stems become over-woody1 and the loss of leaves in curing will be much greater4 ,when the cutting is delayed beyond the period of early bloom1 the growth of the next cutting is retarded1 and when it is deferred until some of the leaves turn yellow or until some seed is formed1 in many situations the influence on the succeeding crop is seriously adverse1 and in some instances this influence would seem to react against the vigorous growth of the plant during the remainder of the season4 ,in other instances1 as where the conditions are quite favorable to the growth of the plant1 these results are not present in so marked a degree4 ,when large areas of alfalfa are to be harvested1 the importance of beginning early cannot easily be overestimated4 ,it would be much better to sacrifice something in loss of weight in the hay1 through cutting too early1 than to meet with greater loss in weight in the next crop or crops by cutting too long deferred4 ,much that has been said about the harvesting of medium1 red clover will apply equally to alfalfa4 7,see page #ie47 ,the mowing should begin as soon as the dew has lifted in the morning4 ,the tedder should follow after the hay has wilted somewhat1 and later1 the horse rake1 the aim being to get the crop made into winrows1 preferably small1 before nightfall1 and when the weather is uncertain1 the aim should be also to put the hay up into small cocks the same evening4 ,this may not always be practicable4 ,if the loss of leaves is likely to be considerable when raking the hay1 raking should be deferred until the influence of evening dews begins to be felt4 ,after the hay has become wilted it should not be stirred or handled any more than is really necessary1 that loss of leaves and of the tips of the stems and branches may be avoided1 and the handling during the curing process should be done to the greatest extent practicable before or after the sunshine has waxed strong4 ,in showery weather1 when small areas are being harvested1 hay caps can be used with profit4 ,where large areas are to be harvested and where there is no danger of rain1 the crop when nicely wilted is drawn into winrows1 and in these the curing is completed without further stirring or handling4 ,from the winrows it is drawn usually on rakes of a certain make1 and the rake loads thus slid over the ground are lifted bodily onto the stack by the use of the rickers4 7,see page #ajj47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,field of ,alfalfa in ,california ,storing4--,when cured in cocks1 these are preferably made small to facilitate quick curing1 but usually from two to four days are necessary to complete the curing4 ,if the cocks require opening out before being drawn1 the work should be done with care4 ,ordinary stacking and storing may be done in practically the same way as in handling medium red clover1 and the same care is necessary in protecting the stacks4 ,in areas where considerable rain falls in the autumn1 hay sheds will prove a great convenience in storing alfalfa in the absence of better facilities4 ,in the ,eastern ,states alfalfa is sometimes stored in mows undercured1 by putting it into the mow in alternate layers with straw4 ,the straw not only aids in preserving the alfalfa in good condition1 but the alfalfa imparts an aroma to the straw which induces live stock to eat it readily4 ,in showery weather this method of curing alfalfa merits careful attention where straw can be had near at hand and in sufficient quantities4 ,the method is sometimes adopted of cutting alfalfa even for hay by using the self-rake reaper4 ,the sheaves thus made are allowed to lie on the ground undisturbed until they are ready for being drawn4 ,by this method of cutting1 the loss of leaves is almost entirely avoided1 but there are these objections to it3 that it exposes unduly to sunlight during the curing process1 and in case of rain the sheaves are easily saturated and do not dry readily unless turned over4 ,rain falling on alfalfa will injure it quite as much as it does red clover4 7,see page #if47 ,in climates with much rainfall in ,may or ,june1 when the first cutting of alfalfa is ready for being harvested1 according to locality1 in instances not a few much difficulty is found in curing alfalfa without loss4 ,sometimes the entire cutting will be rendered practically useless by rain4 ,because of this1 as previously intimated1 it may be well to arrange1 where practicable1 to cut the first crop of the season for soiling food4 ,the number of cuttings during the year depends on such conditions as relate to the length of the season1 the character of the soil1 the abundance of moisture present1 and the use to which the alfalfa is put4 ,in some of the river bottoms southward in the ,rocky ,mountains1 where irrigating waters are plentiful1 it is claimed that alfalfa may be made to furnish one cutting for soiling food every month in the year4 ,even in the ,northern western valleys1 as many as five or six cuttings for the use named may be obtained4 ,north from the ,ohio and ,potomac rivers three to five cuttings of soiling food may be looked for each season1 and south of these rivers even a larger number4 ,north of the same rivers the hay crops run from two to four1 and southward from the same they are seldom less than three4 ,in the western valleys they range from three to five or six1 according to location4 ,in ,states bordering on the semi-arid ,states eastward and some distance south of the ,canadian boundary1 from three to four cuttings may usually be expected4 ,in ,colorado and ,states north and south from the same1 two good crops of alfalfa may be cut from spring-sown seed the same season1 but where irrigation is not practiced it is seldom that one crop of hay is harvested under similar conditions of sowing4 ,but in the semi-arid belt not more than one cutting is usually obtained each season in the absence of water4 ,but the number of cuttings will be reduced when one of these is a seed crop4 ,when a seed crop is taken1 the vitality of the plants is apparently so much reduced for the season that the subsequent growth is much less vigorous than if seed had not been thus taken4 ,the yield of hay from each cutting will1 of course1 vary much with conditions1 but it is seldom less than a ton4 ,an approximate average would place the average cutting at about #a-a_/d tons1 but as much as #b tons have been obtained per acre at a cutting1 and1 again1 not more than #a_/b ton4 ,in ,new ,jersey an average of #d4eg tons per acre was obtained under good conditions of management1 but without irrigation1 at the experiment station for three years in succession4 ,in ,kansas1 #d to #f tons per acre may usually be expected from good soils4 ,in ,tulare ,county1 ,california1 as much as #f to #aj tons have been secured under irrigation4 ,the yields from the various cuttings are by no means uniform1 especially in the absence of irrigation4 ,they are much influenced by rainfall4 ,in such areas1 the second cutting is usually the best for the season1 the subsequent cuttings being considerably less4 ,where irrigation is practiced1 the crops are much more uniform1 but even in mild climates1 as the season advances1 there is a tendency to lesser yields1 indicative of the necessity of at least partial rest for plants during a portion of the year4 ,the yields of alfalfa are usually exceeded by those of no other crop1 where the conditions are quite favorable to its growth1 even in the absence of irrigation4 ,at the ,new ,jersey ,experiment ,station1 as stated in ,bulletin ,no4 #adh1 one acre of alfalfa produced #cf1edj pounds of green food2 of corn1 #bd1jjj2 of red clover1 #ad1jjj2 of crimson clover1 #ad1jjj2 of millet1 #af1jjj2 of cow peas1 #af1jjj2 and of oats and peas1 #ad1jjj pounds4 ,but where only two1 or even three1 cuttings can be obtained per year1 some crops may produce larger yields than alfalfa4 ,in the distinctive alfalfa belt in the ,west1 no forage crop can be grown that will compare with it in the yields obtained4 ,the protein in alfalfa is also relatively high4 ,at the station quoted above it was found one ton of alfalfa contained #bfe pounds of protein2 hence1 its high relative value as a food2 red clover1 #bdf pounds2 timothy1 #aah pounds2 and wheat bran1 #aah pounds4 ,at the ,delaware ,experiment ,station1 in ,bulletin ,no4 #ee1 it is stated that maximum crops of cow peas and of crimson clover gave #gbj pounds of protein1 while a maximum crop of alfalfa gave #abcj pounds4 ,where alfalfa is irrigated1 it is usual to apply irrigating waters just after each cutting of the crop4 ,it is a matter of some importance that the water shall be applied at once as soon as the previous crop has been harvested1 otherwise time will be lost in growing the next crop4 ,there are instances where it is necessary to apply water before the first crop is grown1 but usually the moisture which falls in the winter and spring will suffice to produce the first crop of the season4 ,some irrigators apply water some time previous to harvesting the crop1 but not so late as to leave the ground in a soft condition when mowing is begun4 ,the amount of water required will vary with the soil1 the season of the year1 the distance of the ground water from the surface1 and the precipitation4 ,the more porous the soil and subsoil1 the hotter the weather1 the less the precipitation and the farther below the surface1 up to a certain limit1 the greater will be the amount of water needed4 ,there are situations1 as in some of the islands in the ,yellowstone ,river1 in which ground water is so near the surface that alfalfa grown on these is able to get enough of water from this subterranean source to produce good crops4 ,care should be taken not to apply water in excess of the needs of the crop1 or the yields will be proportionately reduced4 ,the amounts that will best serve the end sought can only be ascertained by actual test4 ,caution is also necessary where the winters are cold not to apply water late or in excessive quantities1 lest a sappy condition of the plants shall be induced1 which will make them succumb to the cold of the winter following4 ,moreover1 on some soils alfalfa fields will produce good crops1 if irrigated only the first season1 until the roots get down to moisture1 the irrigating waters being utilized when more needed4 ,alfalfa hay is fed freely to all kinds of domestic animals on the farm1 and with results that should prove highly satisfactory4 ,properly fed1 it is an excellent food for horses and mules4 ,it not only serves to maintain flesh1 but it is favorable to glossiness in the coat4 ,horses that are working hard should be accustomed to it gradually4 ,when it is fed to them too freely at the first1 it induces too much of a laxity in the bowels1 too free urination1 and profuse sweating4 ,when fed to such horses or mules1 some authorities claim that several weeks should be covered in getting them on to what is termed a full feed of alfalfa4 ,when fed to milch cows1 free lactation results4 ,alfalfa fine in character is now manufactured into food suitable for calves and other young stock4 ,cattle and sheep are now fattened for slaughter on alfalfa hay fed alone1 but when thus fattened the finish made is not equal to that resulting from adding grain to the alfalfa4 ,to meet the needs of the best markets1 alfalfa alone does not produce enough of fat or of firmness in the flesh1 but it has been claimed1 and probably it is true1 that one-half the amount of grain required for finishing along with carbonaceous fodder1 such as corn stalks or timothy1 will give equally good and quick increase when fed with alfalfa hay4 ,it is most excellent fodder on which to grow cattle and sheep1 even in the absence of a grain supplement4 ,the later cuttings of the season are thought to be the most suitable for calves and also for sheep and lambs1 because of the greater fineness of the fodder and the greater abundance of leaves on it4 ,alfalfa hay is used with much advantage in wintering swine1 especially brood sows4 ,swine have been wintered on alfalfa hay without any grain supplement where the winters are mild1 but they will fare much better with a grain supplement4 ,it is thought that half the usual amount of grain fed will produce equal results when fed with alfalfa1 to those obtained from feeding a full allowance of grain in its absence4 ,alfalfa and sorghum properly grown make an excellent food for swine1 and the two may be profitably fed thus where the conditions may be over-dry for corn1 but not for sorghum4 ,when feeding alfalfa1 the aim should be to use it in conjunction with a carbonaceous food1 as corn4 ,fortunate is the country which grows good crops of corn and alfalfa4 ,securing ,seed4--,localities differ much in their capacity to produce alfalfa seed4 ,the best crops of seed are now grown west and southwest of the ,mississippi ,river4 ,certain areas in the semi-arid country east of and between the ranges of the ,western mountains seem to have special adaptation for growing seed4 ,at the present time the greatest seed-producing ,states are ,kansas1 ,colorado1 ,utah1 ,arizona and ,california4 ,but in some areas east of that river paying crops can be grown4 ,it has also been noticed that when the crop is sown less thickly than it is usually sown for hay1 the plants seed more freely1 when sown with sufficient distance between the rows to admit of cultivating the crop1 and when such cultivation is given1 the influence on seed production is also markedly favorable2 such treatment given to the varieties of recent introduction may possibly result in the production of seed from the same1 notwithstanding that they bear seed very shyly when grown in the ordinary way4 ,nearly all the seed now grown in the ,united ,states is produced by fields that have been sown in the usual way1 and primarily to produce hay1 but in some areas1 especially where irrigation is practiced1 it is sometimes grown mainly for seed4 ,on the irrigated lands of the ,west it is customary to grow the first cutting of the season for hay and the second for seed4 ,but in many instances the second cutting also is made into hay1 and the seed is taken from the third cutting2 even in the ,states east of the ,mississippi1 and also in ,ontario and ,quebec1 seed is usually taken from the second cutting4 ,but in ,montana1 ,washington and ,idaho1 on the higher altitudes1 seed is not unfrequently taken from the first cutting for the season1 since1 in the short season for growth of those uplands1 seed from cuttings later than the first does not always mature so well4 ,in a large majority of instances seed does not form so profusely from plants of the first cutting as from those of later growths4 ,this is thought to arise1 in part1 at least1 from the fact that bees1 and it may be other insects1 are then less active in searching for food1 and because of this do not aid in the fertilization of the plants as they do later4 ,nor does seed of the first cutting ripen so evenly4 ,an important justification is also found for taking seed from the later cuttings1 in the fact that when a crop has produced seed1 it grows less vigorously during the subsequent period of growth that same season4 ,so pronounced is this habit of growth in alfalfa1 that in many localities1 if the first growth is allowed to produce seed1 but little subsequent growth will be made again the same season4 ,the second cutting1 all things considered1 is the most favorable to seed production1 as1 unless on irrigated lands1 the third cutting is not usually possessed of that vigor necessary to induce abundant seeding in the plants4 ,the yields of seed are also much influenced by moisture4 ,an excess of moisture is more unfavorable to the production of seed than a shortage in the same4 ,hence1 in areas where the rainfall for the season is very abundant1 but little seed will be produced4 ,where irrigation is practiced1 the excessive application of water would have a similar effect1 though less pronounced in degree2 hence1 the apportionment of the water to the prospective needs of the seed crop calls for careful adjustment4 ,where the first crop is grown for seed1 where irrigation is practiced1 in many instances no water is applied until after the seed crop has been harvested4 ,the seed is ready for being harvested when a majority of the seed-pods assume a dark brown tint4 ,the pods of later formation will still possess a yellow tint1 and some of them may still possess the green color4 ,these do not produce seed nearly equal in quality to the pods which ripen earlier4 ,to wait for all the later maturing pods to ripen before harvesting the crop would mean the loss of much of the best seed through shattering4 ,another test of maturity is made by shelling the pods in the hand4 ,when the seed can be thus shelled in a majority of the pods in a single plant1 it is ready for being harvested4 ,alfalfa seed shatters easily2 hence1 it is important to harvest the seed crop with promptness when it is ready1 to handle it with due carefulness1 and in some instances to refrain from handling during the hottest hours of sunshine4 ,the seed crop is sometimes cut with the mower and raked into winrows1 and in some instances put up into cocks4 ,when it is handled thus1 the aim should be to do the work1 as far as this may be practicable1 in the early and late hours of the day1 but not1 of course1 while much dew is on the crop4 ,sometimes the seed is drawn from the winrows to the thresher2 in other instances from the cocks1 and in yet other instances it is stacked before being threshed1 a work that calls for the exercise of much care in the storing of the crop1 lest the seed should be injured by heating in the stack4 ,this method of harvesting is usually attended with much loss of seed4 ,there is probably no better way of harvesting alfalfa than to cut it with the self-rake reaper or the binder4 ,the loose sheaves dry quickly1 and when lifted1 the aim is to carry them directly to the thresher4 ,less seed1 it is considered1 will be lost in this way than by the other mode of harvesting given above1 and the work is more expeditiously done4 ,but owing to the difficulty in securing a thresher to thresh the seed1 it is sometimes found necessary to stack the crop1 but in areas where irrigation is practiced such stacking is seldom necessary4 ,the seed is frequently threshed with the ordinary threshing machine1 but in many instances it is also threshed with a clover huller4 ,the huller does the work less quickly1 but probably1 on the whole1 more perfectly4 ,threshing machines1 with or even without certain adjustments in the arrangement of the teeth in the cylinder and concave1 and with extra screens1 are now doing the work with much despatch1 and with a fair measure of satisfaction4 ,but the opinion is held by competent judges that a machine that would more completely combine the qualities of the thresher and the huller would be still more satisfactory4 ,it is easily possible to have the crop too dry to thresh in the best condition1 and care should be taken to regulate the feed in threshing so that the alfalfa will not enter the cylinder in bunches4 ,more than #bjj bushels of seed have been threshed in a day from crops which yielded abundantly4 ,the seed should be carefully winnowed before putting it on the market4 ,the seed crops1 as would naturally be expected1 vary much2 crops are harvested which run all the way from #a to #bj bushels per acre4 ,from irrigated lands the yields are1 of course1 much more uniform than from unirrigated lands1 since in the former the supply of moisture may be controlled4 ,fair to good average yields on these may be stated at from #d to #f bushels1 good yields at from #f to #h bushels per acre1 and specially good yields at from #aj to #ab bushels4 ,the bushel weighs #fj pounds4 ,growing alfalfa seed under irrigation has frequently proved very profitable4 ,the seed grown in such areas is larger and more attractive to the eye than that ordinarily grown in the absence of irrigation1 and because of this many are lured into sowing it on unirrigated land when the former would better serve their purpose4 ,the seed is frequently adulterated with that of yellow clover 7,medicago lupulina71 which resembles it closely1 but this is more likely to be true of imported than of ,american grown seed4 ,renewing4--,alfalfa may be renewed and also renovated where the stand secured at the first has been insufficient1 where it may have been injured from various causes1 where it is being crowded with weeds1 and even with useful grasses1 and where the land requires enriching4 ,the stand of alfalfa secured is sometimes thin and uneven4 ,this may arise from such causes as sowing too little seed2 whether over-dry or through the crowding of the young plants4 ,when this happens1 in many situations it is quite practicable to thicken the stand by disking the ground more or less1 adding fresh seed1 according to the need of the crop1 and then covering the seed thus added with the harrow4 ,such renovation would be comparatively easy on clean land1 were it not for fact that the alfalfa plants already rooted overshadow the young plants1 always to their injury1 and sometimes to their total destruction4 ,the spring will probably be the best season to attempt such renovation1 but there may be instances where the winters are not severe1 in which autumn seeding will succeed as well or better than spring seeding4 ,because of the uncertainty of the results of such renovation1 the aim should be so to prepare the land and sow the seed that a good1 thick stand will be secured at the first4 ,should the alfalfa fields be spotted1 because in places the nurse crop lodged and smothered the plants1 or because excessive moisture destroyed them on the lower portions of the field in an abnormally wet season1 the renewing process is simple indeed4 ,it consists in disking those parts so thoroughly as to destroy all vegetation that may have become rooted on them1 and sowing seed in the usual way without a nurse crop4 ,but should the low places be such as to hold an excess of water at any time of the year under normal conditions for days in succession1 even though it should not rise to the surface1 the attempts to make alfalfa grow successfully on these will prove abortive4 ,when weeds and grasses crowd the crop1 the plan of disking the fields to destroy these is becoming quite common1 especially in the ,west4 ,the work is usually done in the early spring4 ,in doing it1 disk harrows are driven over the field1 usually two ways1 the second disking being done at right angles to the first4 ,the disks are set at that angle which will do the least injury to the plants1 and that will at the same time do the work effectively4 ,this can only be determined by actual test in each instance4 ,some of the crowns of the plants will be split open by the disk1 which some authorities claim is an advantage in that it tends to an increase in the number of the stems produced1 an opinion which is by no means held in common at the present time1 and yet there are localities where it has certainly proved advantageous4 ,occasionally1 a plant will be cut off4 ,there can be no doubt1 however1 that such disking1 when necessary1 does tend to clean the land and also to strengthen growth in the alfalfa crop1 on the principle that cultivation which does not seriously disturb growing plants is always helpful to them4 ,the frequency of such diskings will depend on the needs of the crop4 ,some advocate disking every spring1 some every other spring1 and some not at all4 ,that plan which disks the ground only when it is necessary to keep the weeds at bay would seem to be the most sensible4 ,this would mean that sometimes1 as where crab grass has a firm hold1 disking may be necessary at least for a time every spring4 ,in other instances it would be necessary only every second or third season1 and in yet other instances not at all4 ,however1 some growers in dry areas advocate disking frequently1 as1 for instance1 after some of the cuttings of the hay1 and with a view to retain moisture4 ,it is at least questionable1 however1 if disking so frequently would not soon tend to thin the plants too much1 to say nothing of the labor while the work is being done4 ,the idea of stirring the surface soil in alfalfa fields is by no means new4 ,in ,england the plan prevailed to some extent years ago of harrowing the fields in the autumn with heavy harrows until1 when the process was completed1 they would take on the appearance of the bare fallow for a time4 ,in the ,eastern ,states and in some parts of ,canada the harrow is used instead of the disk1 but usually the latter will do the work more effectively and with less cost4 ,frequently1 when the disk has been used on alfalfa1 it may also be advantageous to run a light harrow over the ground to smoothen the surface4 ,with a view to renovate the crop and increase the yields1 in some sections1 as in the ,atlantic ,states1 it has been recommended to top-dress alfalfa fields with farmyard manure every autumn4 ,this1 no doubt1 would prove very effective1 but it would also be very expensive1 unless in the neighborhood of large cities4 ,it would be impracticable without neglecting the needs of the other crops of the farm4 ,in the mountain areas of the ,west1 it has been found that the cost of fertilizing with farmyard manure is in the meantime greater than the increased production in the alfalfa is worth1 but it may not be always thus1 even on these rich lands4 ,some ,eastern growers also apply more or less gypsum4 ,this is generally sown over the fields after the crop has begun to grow in the spring4 ,renovating alfalfa fields is much more easily and effectively done1 as would naturally be expected1 in areas where conditions are highly favorable to its growth than where these are only moderately favorable4 ,in some of the mountain valleys instances have occurred in which alfalfa fields have been plowed and sown with oats1 with a result1 first that a good crop of oats was reaped1 and second1 that fairly good crops of alfalfa were harvested the following season without re-sowing the field4 ,sources of ,injury to ,alfalfa4--,chief among the sources of injury to alfalfa1 after the plants have become established1 are frost in saturated ground1 ice1 floods1 grasshoppers1 gophers1 dodder1 and pasturing by live stock in the late autumn or winter4 ,when it happens that two or three of these act in conjunction1 the injury following is just so much more rapid and complete4 ,as has been intimated1 where water is excessive1 in a climate which in winter or spring is characterized by alternations of freezing and thawing1 the plants will either have the roots snapped asunder1 or they will be gradually raised out of the ground4 ,this will only happen in soil with a subsoil more retentive than is compatible with well-doing of the highest order in the plants4 ,the danger from this source is greatest during the first winter after sowing the plants1 as then the roots are not really established4 ,the only remedy for such a contingency is the draining of the land4 ,some reference has also been made to injury done through ice1 where it collects in low places in land4 ,the destructiveness of the ice depends on its thickness and its nearness to the ground4 ,when it rests upon the ground for any considerable time the plants die4 ,if1 however1 water intervenes1 the plants may live when the submergence is for a limited time4 ,one instance is on record in ,onondaga ,county in ,new ,york ,state1 in which alfalfa survived submergence for a considerable period under a thin sheet of water covered by three inches of ice1 but when growth came it was for a time less vigorous than normal4 ,floods in warm weather are greatly injurious to alfalfa4 ,the extent of the injury done increases with increase of depth in the waters of submergence1 increase in stagnation in the waters1 and increase in the duration of the period of overflow4 ,stagnant water sooner loses its dissolved nitrogen2 hence1 the plants cannot breathe normally4 ,the harm done1 therefore1 by floods in each case can only be known by waiting to see the results4 ,these summer floods always harm the crops temporarily1 and in many instances kill them outright4 ,occasional periods of overflow should not prevent the sowing of alfalfa on such lands1 since on these it is usually not difficult to start a new crop1 but the seed should not be sown on such lands when overflow occurs at such a season4 ,when it occurs in cool weather and quickly subsides1 it may be possible to grow paying crops of alfalfa4 ,in some areas grasshoppers are a real scourge in alfalfa fields4 ,because of the shade provided by the ground and the influence which this exerts in softening it1 they are encouraged to deposit their eggs and remain so as to prove a source of trouble the following year4 ,it has been found that through disking of the land both ways after sharp frosts have come is greatly effective in destroying the grasshopper eggs deposited in the soil4 ,they are thus exposed to the action of the subsequent frosts and so perish4 ,the disking has also tended to stimulate growth in the crop the following year4 ,the eggs will not1 of course1 be all destroyed by such disking1 but so large a percentage will1 that the crop should be practically protected from serious injury1 unless when grasshoppers come from elsewhere4 ,it would seem correct to say that gophers do more injury to alfalfa fields in certain areas of the ,west than comes to them from all other sources combined4 ,they not only destroy the plants by feeding upon them1 but they fill the soil with mounds1 which greatly interfere with the harvesting of the crops4 ,they are destroyed by giving them poisoned food1 trapping1 shooting1 and suffocating through the use of bisulphide of carbon4 ,poison is frequently administered by soaking grain in strychnine or dropping it on pieces of potato and putting the same in or near the burrows4 ,bisulphide of carbon is put upon a rag or other substance1 which is put into the burrow and the opening closed4 ,dodder is a parasitical plant introduced1 probably1 in seed from ,europe1 which feeds upon alfalfa plants1 to their destruction4 ,the seeds of alfalfa sometimes become so impregnated with the seeds of dodder that the latter will grow where the seed is sown1 thus introducing it to new centers4 ,the dodder starts in the soil and soon throws up its golden-colored thread-like stems1 which reach out and fasten on the alfalfa plants that grow sufficiently near4 ,the dodder then loses its hold upon the soil and gets its food entirely from the alfalfa plants1 which it ultimately destroys4 ,but since the seeds of the dodder remain at least for a time in the soil1 and the adjacent soil becomes infected with them1 the circles in which the dodder feeds continually widen4 ,in certain parts of ,new ,york ,state some fields have become so seriously affected as to lead to investigations conducted through officials from the ,state experiment station4 ,pending these investigations1 the exercise of great care in the purchase of seed and the immediate plowing of the infested areas are recommended4 ,some reference has already been made to injurious results from pasturing close in the autumn or winter1 except in the most favored alfalfa regions4 ,in addition to what has been already said1 the wisdom of not grazing alfalfa the first year is here emphasized1 and also the mistake of grazing at any time when the ground is frozen1 at least in areas east of and1 generally speaking1 adjacent to the ,mississippi ,river4 ,alfalfa as a ,fertilizer4--,alfalfa is not considered equal to medium red clover as a direct means of fertilizing and otherwise improving the land on which it grows4 ,this does not arise from less inherent power on the part of alfalfa to draw nitrogen from the air and deposit it in the soil1 but rather from the fact that clover establishes itself more quickly1 and is much more frequently grown in the rotation4 ,several crops of medium red clover can be grown in short rotations1 each one being a source of much benefit to the crops that follow1 while one crop of alfalfa occupies the land4 ,but when the alfalfa is all fed upon the farm on which it grew1 where the plants grow freely1 it then becomes a source of fertilization without a rival1 probably1 among plants grown upon the farm4 ,the fertility thus furnished does not consist so much in the plant food deposited in the soil directly as in that furnished in the successive crops that are grown and fed every year4 ,in ,farmers' ,bulletin ,no4 #acc1 published by the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 it is stated that the ,wyoming ,experiment ,station found #dd pounds of nitrogen1 #h4bg pounds of phosphoric acid1 and #ej4ie pounds of potash in one ton of alfalfa4 ,this would mean that in the yield of alfalfa hay from a given area1 estimated at four tons per acre for the season1 alfalfa would furnish #agf pounds of nitrogen1 #cc4jh pounds of phosphoric acid1 and #bjc4h pounds of potash4 ,if this alfalfa were fed upon the farm1 it would not only prove a cheap source of protein for feeding1 but it would furnish fertility1 as stated above1 without seriously diminishing the supply of the same in the surface soil1 since much of the fertilizing material produced would come from the air and subsoil4 ,the manure thus made1 if carefully saved and applied1 would thus add materially to the fertility of the land4 ,if1 however1 the alfalfa were sold1 the mineral matter drawn from the cultivable area of the soil and from the subsoil lying under it would be reduced to the extent of the draft made upon these in growing the alfalfa4 ,the direct influence of alfalfa upon the fertility of the land on which it grows is shown in the greatly increased production in the crops which follow alfalfa4 ,this increase is not only marked1 but it is frequently discernible for several successive years4 ,but as has been intimated1 the benefit that would otherwise accrue from growing alfalfa as a direct means of fertilizing the land is much circumscribed by the long term of years for which it is usually grown4 ,the mechanical effects of alfalfa upon the land are beneficent4 ,it improves the tilth by means of the shade furnished1 and the extent to which the roots fill the soil4 ,these in their decay further influence favorably that friability which is so desirable in soils that are cultivated1 and as previously stated1 the long1 deep roots in their decay exercise a salutary influence on drainage4 ,the work of breaking alfalfa fields is frequently laborious1 owing to the number and size of the roots4 ,if1 however1 a plow is used1 the share of which has a serrated edge1 the roots will be cut or broken off more easily and more effectively4 ,,chapter ,v ,,alsike ,,clover ,alsike ,clover 7,trifolium hybridum7 takes its name from a parish in the south of ,sweden4 ,from there it is probable that it was introduced into ,england4 ,linnus gave it the name of hybridum1 imagining it to be a cross between the red and the white varieties4 ,botanists do not generally hold this view4 ,it is known by various names1 as ,swedish1 ,white ,swedish1 ,alsace1 ,hybrid1 ,perennial ,hybrid1 ,elegant and ,pod ,clover1 but more commonly in ,america it is spoken of as alsike4 ,the plants of this variety are more slender than those of the medium red variety1 although they grow in some instances to a greater height4 ,the slender stems are much branched4 ,the leaves are numerous and oblong in shape1 the flowers are of a pinkish tint1 the heads are globular and are about three-fourths of an inch in diameter1 and the pods1 like those in white clover1 contain more than one seed4 ,the roots are in no small degree fibrous1 and yet the slender tap root goes down to a considerable distance4 ,alsike clover is a perennial4 ,in favorable situations it will live for many years4 ,ordinarily1 it grows to the height of #ah to #bd inches1 but in slough lands it sometimes grows to the height of #e feet4 ,the plants do not reach their full size until the second year1 and in some instances until a period even later4 ,they grow less rapidly than those of medium red clover1 are several weeks later coming into flower1 and grow much less vigorously in the autumn4 ,ordinarily1 they furnish but one cutting of hay each year4 ,because of the more fibrous character of the root growth1 the plants do not heave so readily as those of red clover4 ,in moist situations they are much given to lodge2 hence1 the importance of growing this crop1 when grown for hay1 along with some kind of grass that will help to keep the stems erect4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,alsike ,clover 7,trifolium hybridum7 ,oregon ,experiment ,station ,alsike clover furnishes a large amount of pasture4 ,it is relished1 at least1 fairly well4 ,the leaves are slightly bitter1 but not enough to seriously interfere with their palatability4 ,the quality of the hay is excellent4 ,this arises from its fineness1 from the number of the small branches and leaves on the stems1 and from its fragrance when well cured4 ,while it makes a very suitable hay for horses and cattle1 it has peculiar adaptation for sheep1 owing to its fineness4 ,as a fertilizer it is probably not equal to medium red clover1 since the root growth is not so bulky4 ,nor does it produce a second cutting anything like so vigorous as the former4 ,nevertheless1 the roots possess even stiff soils to such an extent that they not only furnish them with much plant food1 but they also tend to disintegrate them and to render them more easy to pulverize4 ,as a honey plant1 alsike clover is without a rival among clovers1 unless it be in the small white variety4 ,it is a great favorite with bee-keepers4 ,many of them sow it to enable them to furnish pastures for their bees4 ,the bloom remains for a relatively long period4 ,the honey is also accessible to the common honey bee1 since the branches are numerous on the stems1 and since each branch bears a head1 the flower heads are relatively quite numerous4 ,since the honey is accessible to the common bee1 pollination in the plants is assured2 hence1 the failures in the seed crop are few1 and when other conditions are favorable1 seed production is abundant4 ,because of the many good qualities of this clover it is deservedly a favorite wherever it can be successfully grown4 ,when in full bloom1 a field of alsike clover is a very beautiful sight4 ,the flowers are a pale white at first1 but gradually they deepen into a beautiful pink of tinted shades1 and their fragrance is fully equal to their beauty4 ,distribution4--,alsike clover is found in ,europe1 ,northern ,africa and ,western ,asia4 ,in these it has been cultivated for a long time1 but its favorite home in the ,old ,world would seem to be in ,northern ,europe4 ,it would doubtless be correct to say that it is indigenous to ,europe1 and probably that it is indigenous to each of the three continents named4 ,it is not indigenous to ,america1 but was introduced into the same probably from ,great ,britain or ,scandinavia4 ,in some parts of ,north ,america it grows with a luxuriance equal to1 if not1 indeed1 greater1 than that shown by this plant when grown under the most favorable conditions which ,europe furnishes4 ,this plant is better adapted to a cool and humid climate than to one hot and dry4 ,it is even more hardy than medium red clover1 in the sense of enduring cold1 and will live under conditions of climate so austere as to be fatal to red clover4 ,it may1 therefore1 be grown further north than medium red clover1 and under conditions so exposed as to cause medium red clover to fail4 ,but it does not succeed quite so well as the former toward the southerly limit of the successful production of medium red clover2 hence1 the limit of production in the semi-arid belt ceases sooner than in the case of the other variety4 ,the best climatic conditions for growing it are found not far from the boundary line between the ,united ,states and ,canada1 and in the vicinity of the ,atlantic and ,pacific oceans and the ,great ,lakes4 ,in the ,united ,states the best crops are grown in the ,states which border on ,canada1 and in these the highest adaptation1 climate and soil considered1 is found in ,michigan1 ,wisconsin and ,northeastern ,minnesota4 ,but in ,new ,york the adaptation is also high1 and also in certain parts of ,montana1 ,idaho and ,washington4 ,good crops may also be grown in nearly all the second tier of ,states that lie southward from the ,canadian boundary4 ,the exceptions are those embraced in the semi-arid belt4 ,further south than the second tier of ,states to which reference has just been made1 the successful growth of alsike generally lessens1 and yet in parts of these ,states1 as1 for instance1 ,kentucky1 ,tennessee and ,missouri1 good crops are grown4 ,some of the ,rocky ,mountain valleys1 more especially those that can be irrigated1 and that are also sufficiently elevated1 grow excellent crops of alsike4 ,much of the province of ,ontario has very high adaptation to the growth of alsike clover1 and in several counties of that province large quantities are grown1 not only for hay1 but also for seed4 ,in ,ontario ,county in the said province1 are certain clay soils rich in lime2 in fact1 almost marley in character1 which have been found especially well adapted to growing alsike clover seed1 and in certain areas in proximity to the ,georgian ,bay1 adaptation exists about equally high4 ,in some parts of ,quebec good crops are also grown4 ,but this variety of clover has not been grown as yet with much success in ,manitoba1 ,assiniboia1 ,alberta or ,saskatchewan4 ,both soil and climate1 however1 in these provinces should not be uncongenial to it in the main4 ,in the cultivable lands of ,british ,columbia1 as in those of ,washington1 it grows remarkably well4 ,especially in the river bottoms and on the tide lands can immense crops be grown1 as also on the tide lands of ,nova ,scotia and ,new ,brunswick1 but not on the upland sandy soils of these provinces4 ,soils4--,the most suitable soil for alsike clover is a moist clay loam1 not too friable nor too dense1 and moist and deep4 ,a goodly impregnation of lime in the same is favorable to maximum production4 ,abundant moisture conduces to the same end4 ,this plant will1 however1 produce good crops1 and in a moist season1 excellent crops1 on the stiffest clays1 whether white or red1 after a good stand has once been secured1 providing hard pan is not found near the surface1 but in dry seasons it is not easy to secure a stand on such soils4 ,the plants send their fibrous roots down into the soil in all directions1 and in this way render it much more friable when it is broken up4 ,next in adaptation1 probably1 come slough soils1 even though covered with humus to a considerable depth1 providing that clay lies under the humus4 ,enormous crops of hay or pasture can be grown on such soils1 but the crops of seed are not usually so large as on the moist clays referred to above4 ,on these also the hay is much more liable to lodge1 unless supported by some kind of grass growing along with it4 ,after slough soils come those that have been deposited by the action of water1 as in river beds and on lake bottoms1 when the waters have subsided1 providing the clay element so necessary to the successful growth of this clover is plentifully present4 ,in some instances the very best crops of alsike can be grown on such lands1 but in many other instances these deposit soils have in them too much sand to produce these4 ,good crops can be grown on sandy loam soils1 if well stored with vegetable matter1 and at the same time fairly well impregnated with clay1 but if one or both of these elements is lacking1 adaptation in these soils will be correspondingly reduced4 ,on the average upland prairie soil1 alsike clover does not grow so vigorously as the medium red4 ,the less of density that these possess under ordinary conditions1 the less suitable are they to the needs of this plant1 but when ample moisture is present1 good crops may be grown on much of the soil in prairie areas4 ,soils lowest in adaptation to the growth of alsike include infertile sands and gravels1 and the vegetable soils of the prairie so light that when cultivated they lift more or less with the wind4 ,on such soils the growth of alsike is short and feeble1 and any lack of moisture renders it increasingly so4 ,this plant not only requires much moisture to insure the most vigorous growth1 but it is also able to thrive under conditions of soil saturation such as some of the useful forage plants could not endure4 ,when the weather is cool1 it may be covered with shallow water for several days in succession without apparent injury4 ,the possession of this characteristic makes it possible to grow alsike clover in sloughs not yet drained1 but which are dry certain portions of the year4 ,place in the ,rotation4--,much of what has been said about the place for medium red clover in the rotation may also apply to alsike clover4 7,see page #gj47 ,on upland soils its place in the rotation will be very similar to that of the other variety1 but with the difference that the rotations will be longer1 because of the perennial habit of growth in the alsike4 ,it will be best sown1 therefore1 on clean land which has produced a crop that has been cultivated the previous year4 ,consequently1 it may follow such crops as corn1 potatoes1 field roots and beans in the ,north1 and the same crops in the ,south1 with the addition of cow peas1 soy beans and the non-saccharine sorghums4 ,but it may be sown after other crops when necessary1 especially when it is to be pastured4 ,one chief objection to sowing it thus for hay is that the hay will be less free from weeds4 ,on upland this crop may be followed with any kind of a crop requiring much nitrogen4 ,no crops can be made to follow it with more advantage1 however1 than corn and the sorghums1 or potatoes4 ,rape will feed ravenously on the overturned sod1 and wheat and the other small grains will also feed similarly4 ,on low lands1 especially when they partake of the nature of sloughs1 the rotation is different4 ,in some instances alsike may follow the natural grasses produced by the slough in the drained or undrained form1 as the case may be1 and may be made to supersede them without breaking the land1 but more commonly on these it is sown after the natural sod has been broken and has decayed somewhat1 by growing on it some such crop as rape or flax4 ,on these lands it is usually grown in long rotations for pasture and also for hay1 and when the sod is again plowed1 it is followed by corn1 potatoes1 rape1 and grains grown for soiling uses1 since such land has naturally high adaptation for these4 ,flax also is a favorite crop to sow in such situations after alsike clover4 ,preparing the ,soil4--,the preparation of the land for alsike clover on ordinary soils is the same as for medium red clover4 7,see page #gd47 ,usually1 that degree of fineness in the pulverization which best prepares the soil for the nurse crop with which alsike clover is sown1 will also best prepare it for the alsike4 ,but there may be some instances1 as in strong clays1 when a fine pulverization that would suffice for the needs of the nurse crop would be advantageous to the alsike4 ,this finer pulverization can only be secured by the judicious use of the roller and the harrow4 ,in loose-lying soils1 more especially in areas where the precipitation in winter comes in the form of snow1 and1 therefore1 does not wash the land as it does when it falls as rain1 if the land on which alsike is to be sown is plowed in the fall1 and only harrowed in the spring1 or cultivated and harrowed when preparing it1 the moisture will be better conserved than if it were plowed in the spring4 ,when thus managed1 strong clays in the area under consideration will usually have a much finer pulverization than can be obtained from spring plowing4 ,when the preceding crop has been given clean cultivation1 to plow land subsequently before sowing to alsike would bring up many weed seeds to the surface1 where they would at once begin to grow4 ,on slough lands1 where water saturation is present during a portion of the year1 even to the extent of appearing for a short interval over more or less of the surface1 the seed may be sown without any previous preparation of the land1 and in some instances successfully4 ,in other instances it will fail should the following summer prove adverse4 ,the stand is rendered much more certain in such instances by first burning off the grass1 sowing the seed upon it1 covering it more or less with the harrow and running the mower over the ground1 say1 twice in the season1 to let in sunlight to the young plants4 ,the grass thus mown may be left as a mulch4 ,pasturing1 but not too early in the season1 will in some instances give results equally good4 ,in such situations the sowing should be done1 and also the harrowing1 before the frost has left the ground1 except for a short distance from the surface1 or the horses may sink too deeply when doing the work4 ,the success is dependent in no small degree on the denseness or want of denseness of the root growth of the grass plants already covering the soil4 ,the more dense these are1 the less easy is it to obtain a stand1 and the more peaty the soil immediately underneath the surface1 the greater is the danger that the young plants will perish in a time of drought4 ,when alsike seed is sown on drained sloughs1 the aim should be to reduce the excess of coarse vegetable matter1 if present1 and to secure a smooth surface1 such as will facilitate the easy mowing of the crop4 ,more especially should this be the aim if the alsike is sown to produce hay4 ,this can be most easily and speedily done by growing on it some reducing crop1 as flax or rape1 and then smoothing the surface by implements best suited to such work1 as1 for instance1 some form of plow leveler4 ,sowing4--,the time at which alsike clover may best be sown is the same as that for sowing the medium red variety2 that is to say1 the early spring4 7,see page #ge47 ,since it is hardier than the medium red variety1 the danger is less that spring frosts will destroy the plants after they begin to grow4 ,as with medium red clover1 it may also be sown at sundry times1 from the opening of spring until the late summer when the opportunity offers1 and when the conditions for growth are favorable4 ,for instance1 there may be seasons when alsike clover1 and1 indeed1 any kind of clover1 will succeed along with a catch crop sown for pasture or to provide soiling food4 ,but it should not be sown in the autumn unless where the winters are mild1 or the young plants will not survive their rigors4 ,alsike clover is more commonly sown with a nurse crop4 ,as with medium red1 the crops with which it may be best sown are the small cereal grains1 as winter rye1 barley1 wheat and oats1 favorable in the order named4 ,but it may also be sown with flax1 with rape1 and with grain crops that are to be cut for soiling or to be grazed down4 ,the method of sowing alsike clover is virtually the same as that followed in sowing medium red clover 7see page #gh72 that is to say1 it may be sown by hand machines1 with a grass-seeder attachment to the grain drill1 or with the ordinary tubes of the grain drill and along with the grain4 ,the seed is very small1 and1 consequently1 may not admit of being buried so deeply as medium red clover1 but in the open soils of the prairie it will sometimes succeed as well sown along with the grain as when buried less deeply1 but in many soils the roller will provide a sufficient covering4 ,especially is this true in climates that are moist4 ,alsike clover has special adaptation for being sown along with timothy and red top on slough soils1 and soils made up of rich deposit4 ,it matures about the same time as these grasses4 ,they support the slender stems of the alsike1 and in doing so prevent lodging more or less4 ,this greatly improves the quality of the hay4 ,the more numerous the plants in those mixtures1 the finer also will be the quality of the hay4 ,if but two varieties are wanted in the mixture1 ordinarily these two should be alsike clover and timothy4 ,both furnish hay of excellent quality2 hence1 when the proportion of alsike is not too large1 such hay sells readily to dairymen who have to purchase fodder4 ,although this clover does not mature until three to four weeks later than the medium red1 nevertheless1 it may be well to add the latter to the timothy and alsike clover mixture4 ,when these are thus sown in due balance1 the first cutting will be mainly red clover1 after which there will be but little of the red present4 ,but the medium red clover will add much to the pasture after the first cutting for hay4 ,subsequently1 the hay crop will usually consist of alsike and timothy4 ,alsike clover along with timothy may also be sown with mammoth clover1 since the two mature about the same time4 ,but the mammoth variety will monopolize the ground while the first hay crop is being produced4 ,the advantage from sowing the seed thus lies chiefly in prolonging the period of clover production along with timothy grown chiefly for hay4 ,it is not wise1 usually1 to sow alsike clover alone for hay1 owing to its tendency to lodge4 ,in the ,south it is frequently sown with red top and orchard grass1 especially the latter4 ,it fills in the spaces between the plants in the orchard grass1 and in so doing adds much to the hay or to the pasture4 ,there may be conditions in which it would be advisable to sow alsike clover alone1 as when it is wanted for seed1 and subsequently for pasture4 ,but ordinarily to provide pasture1 it is better to sow it along with some other grass or clover1 or with a number of these4 ,it greatly improves a timothy pasture in the upland or in the valley4 ,it has also been used with much advantage in strengthening alfalfa pastures for horses in winter in certain of the ,rocky ,mountain valleys4 ,it would probably be correct to say that with the area of adaptation for this plant1 no kind of pasture can be grown on reasonably moist land that would not be benefited by having alsike in it4 ,among the clovers it has1 relatively1 high adaptation for permanent pastures1 because of its enduring character4 ,the seeds of alsike clover are small4 ,they are considered to be less than half the size of those of medium red clover1 consequently1 the amounts of seed are relatively much less4 ,when alsike clover is sown alone and for seed1 from #c to #e pounds of seed should suffice per acre1 according to the soil conditions4 ,four pounds are frequently sown4 ,in the various mixtures given above1 the amounts of seed will vary with local and other conditions1 but the following amounts may be given as averages3 ,alsike and timothy1 #d and #f pounds1 respectively1 per acre2 alsike1 timothy and red top1 #c1 #d and #c pounds2 alsike1 timothy and red clover1 #c1 #d and #c pounds2 alsike1 timothy and mammoth clover1 #c1 #d and #c pounds4 ,when sown with other grasses for pasture1 it would not be possible to give the amounts to sow that would best meet the needs of the grower under all conditions4 ,but it may be said that #a to #b pounds of alsike seed per acre1 sown under almost any circumstances in moist soils and within the alsike clover area1 will be a good investment when laying down pastures of any considerable permanency4 ,this clover is also sometimes added to the seed sown in making lawns1 more especially on farms where the lawn cannot be given that close attention which is necessary to keep it in the most presentable form4 ,because of its permanence1 it is helpful in giving variety to the sward1 and when mown but two or three times in the season1 as is frequently the case with such lawns1 it provides considerable bloom in the same1 which is very attractive4 ,the amount of seed to use on these lawns may vary to suit the desires of the owner4 ,it is not usual1 however1 to sow in these more than maximum amounts for field crops4 ,at the rate of #c to #d pounds of seed per acre should be ample4 ,pasturing4--,alsike clover has by some authorities been assigned to a high place as a pasture plant4 ,for such a use it has no little merit1 but in the judgment of the author it is not nearly equal to medium red clover as a pasture plant1 under average conditions1 since it does not grow so well1 relatively1 on average upland soils1 and because the aftermath is usually light1 after the crop has been cut for hay or for seed4 ,nor is it thought to be relished quite as highly by stock as the medium red clover4 ,nevertheless1 domestic animals eat it freely1 and under suitable conditions it will furnish for them a considerable amount of grazing4 ,this feature has been finely illustrated by an experiment in grazing conducted at the ,agricultural ,experiment ,station of ,montana1 on irrigated land1 at ,bozeman1 in the ,gallatin valley4 ,full particulars relating to this unique experiment are given in ,bulletin ,no4 #ca1 issued by the afore-mentioned station4 ,in the summer of #aijj1 #ah cattle1 one and two years old1 were pastured on #e4jd acres of alsike clover for #ajb days1 beginning with ,june #ith4 ,the increase in the weight obtained from the pasture in the time stated was #defj pounds4 ,this gain was valued at the very moderate price of #d cents per pound live weight2 hence1 the net return per acre for the pasture for the season was #cf4ai4 ,it would scarcely be possible under any conditions1 howsoever favorable1 to obtain such results without irrigation4 ,ordinarily1 the results from pasturing alsike clover will be more satisfactory when one or two other plants are grown along with it1 as1 for instance1 medium red clover or medium red clover and orchard grass1 since both of these plants tend to prolong the period of grazing4 ,in slough lands1 red top and timothy add considerably to the value of the grazing4 ,when grazing alsike clover1 much more pasture will be obtained if it can be allowed to make a good start in the spring1 and if it is then kept grazed so short that the plants do not come into flower4 ,such treatment tends very much to prolong the period of grazing for the season4 ,should the grazing be so uneven as to admit of certain areas in the pasture pushing on into the flower stage1 the mower may sometimes be profitably used to prevent such a result4 ,weeds should also be kept from going to seed in the pastures by using the mower or the scythe1 or both4 ,nor should the fact be lost sight of that the tendency to produce bloat in alsike clover is much the same as in medium red clover4 ,harvesting for ,hay4--,alsike clover is ready to harvest for hay when the plants are just beginning to pass beyond the meridian of full bloom4 ,some of the first blossoms will then have turned brown and some of the smaller ones will still be deepening their tints1 since the season of bloom is about the same as for timothy1 and since alsike for hay is more commonly grown with timothy than with any other grass1 both may be cut when at their best1 especially when intended for cows and sheep4 ,but when the hay is intended for horses1 it should stand a few days longer than the stage indicated above1 in order to have the timothy in the condition best suited to feeding horses4 ,but the alsike1 in the meantime1 would lose something in digestibility4 ,if grown alone for hay1 the process of harvesting would be much the same as in harvesting medium red clover4 7,see page #ie47 ,but since the stems of alsike clover are finer than those of the medium red1 less time will suffice for curing it4 ,it will also cure more quickly along with some other grass than if alone1 since it does not then lie so closely in the winrow or in the cock4 ,grasses1 as a rule1 cure more quickly than clovers1 and this also has a bearing on hastening curing in clover when the two are grown together2 and also in lessening the degree of the fermentation after the crop has been stored4 ,ordinarily1 when the weather is bright1 alsike clover along with timothy may be cut in the forenoon1 tedded once or twice soon after cutting1 raked into small winrows the same evening and stored away the following afternoon4 ,when thus managed1 the hay loader may be used in lifting the hay from the winrows4 ,alsike clover growing alone could not be cured thus quickly4 ,nor would it be wise in showery weather to try and cure the crop without putting it into cocks1 whether grown alone or with some other crop4 ,when properly cured1 the heads retain much of their bloom and the stems much of their greenness4 ,the yields of hay vary greatly with the soil4 ,on dry1 sandy uplands the yields of cured hay may not exceed #a_/b ton1 while on rich loam soils it may exceed #c tons4 ,ordinarily1 on good soils a combined crop of alsike clover should yield from #a-a_/b to #b tons per acre of very excellent hay4 ,some authorities speak of getting two cuttings per year1 but this is not usual4 ,under quite favorable conditions it would be possible to get two cuttings for soiling uses1 providing the first was taken when the plants were coming into bloom4 ,usually1 the growth of the aftermath1 when the hay has been removed1 is very moderate4 ,securing ,seed4--,alsike is a great producer of seed4 ,this arises in part from the relatively large number of the heads on the plants1 and in part from the completeness of the pollinations1 through the action of the honey bee4 ,these are relatively much more numerous than the bumble bees1 which alone among bees1 it has been claimed1 aid in the pollination of medium red and mammoth clover4 ,although the seeds are considerably less than half the size of those of medium red clover1 as much as #h bushels of seed have been secured from an acre4 ,frequently1 however1 the yields are less than #b bushels4 ,good average yields may be stated as running from #c to #d bushels per acre4 ,the best yields are usually obtained from the first crop1 but under favorable conditions this clover may be cut for seed for two and even three years in succession4 ,better yields are usually obtained from crops of medium vigor than from those of excessive rankness4 ,the latter lodge to such an extent as to reduce materially the yields of the seed1 since the heads do not fill well4 ,the cost of harvesting and threshing such crops is also greater1 relatively1 than of those of medium growth4 ,to prevent such excessive growth in the seed crop1 pasturing for a time is frequently resorted to4 ,the grazing should begin reasonably early in the season before growth anywhere becomes so rank that the animals do not eat it in certain portions of the field1 whereas1 at the same time1 they graze other portions of the field too closely4 ,rather close grazing1 from the time that grazing begins1 is preferable to grazing that leaves the crop uneven4 ,when certain portions of the field are left ungrazed1 or only partially grazed1 the mower should be run over such portions about the time that the grazing ceases4 ,if this is done a few days before the removal of the stock1 they will eat much of the clover thus mown4 ,unless the mower is thus used1 under such conditions the seed will ripen unevenly in the grazed and ungrazed portions of the same4 ,the duration of the grazing is much dependent on the soil and the season4 ,the more moist and rich the soil and the more moist the season1 the more prolonged should the grazing be4 ,in ,northern areas it seldom begins earlier than ,may #ast1 and seldom extends beyond ,june #ast4 ,if prolonged unduly and dry weather follows1 the growth of the plants will not be enough to produce average crops of seed4 ,quite frequently on upland soils1 the grazing should cease before the end of ,may4 ,either cattle or sheep1 or both1 may be used in the grazing4 ,cattle do not graze quite so closely as sheep1 which is so far favorable to subsequent growth4 ,but sheep will glean weeds to a much greater extent than cattle4 ,when the field is made to carry so much stock that the grazing is quickly and thoroughly done1 the results are usually more satisfactory than when the opposite method is practiced4 ,it is important that weeds shall be prevented from maturing seeds in the clover4 ,to prevent this1 it may be necessary to run the mower over the whole field at the close of the grazing season4 ,in crops that are not grazed1 it may be necessary to use the scythe in clipping back weeds and in cutting off any stray heads of timothy that may be pushing up toward maturity4 ,in some instances it may even be found profitable to use the spud in destroying weeds of more dwarfish growth than those which can be clipped with the scythe4 ,it is more important1 relatively1 that weeds shall be thus dealt with in growing alsike clover than in growing clover of the larger varieties1 since1 owing to the small size of the seeds of alsike1 it is more difficult to remove foul seeds with the winnowing mill4 ,no kind of seed1 probably1 is more difficult to separate from alsike seed than timothy2 hence1 when the former is grown for market1 these plants should not be grown together4 ,if1 perchance1 they should be so grown and the crop cut for seed1 it would be well not to try to separate the seeds1 but to sow them thus1 as even when thus mixed the seed has a considerable market value4 ,the crop is ready for being harvested when nearly all the heads are fully matured4 ,the bloom will then have left them and they will be characterized by a reddish cast4 ,the earlier heads will have turned a dark color1 almost black4 ,some bloom may yet linger on the later and smaller heads1 but harvesting should not be delayed until these mature4 ,the seed crop can best be cut with the self-rake reaper1 which throws off the sheaves unbound4 ,if cut with the grain binder1 the sheaves should not be bound4 ,a sort of box attachment may be fastened to the cutter-bar of the mower1 which will enable the workmen to leave the hay in sheaves1 but to do this an additional hand is wanted to rake or pitch off the sheaves4 ,the sheaves should be laid off in rows1 and by system1 rather than at random1 for convenience in storing4 ,usually1 the sheaves are not disturbed until ready for being stored1 but in case of very heavy rain it may be necessary to turn the sheaves1 to prevent the seeds which come in contact with the ground from sprouting4 ,the sheaves should be carefully lifted1 otherwise many of the heads will break off and be lost4 ,because of this1 it may be wise1 frequently1 to refrain from lifting the sheaves for loading in the middle of the day4 ,large forks1 which may be run under the bunches1 are more suitable than ordinary forks4 ,when absolutely necessary1 the seed crop may be harvested with the field mower1 as ordinarily used1 but when it is thus harvested1 the crop should be cut with all promptness as soon as it is ready4 ,it must then be raked into winrows and lifted as hay is usually lifted4 ,all the work of harvesting should be done in those portions of the day when the heads will break off less freely1 and when at the same time the dew is not resting on the seed plants in any considerable degree4 ,when1 however1 a crop of alsike is thus harvested for seed1 many heads will break off1 howsoever careful the workmen may be4 ,the seed may be threshed at once or stored4 ,storing under a roof is preferable to storing in the stack1 but the latter method will suffice1 if the tops of the stacks are well protected with a covering of marsh hay or of some other suitable material4 ,when the seed is not threshed at once it is usual to defer threshing until cold weather1 as with medium red clover1 as then the seed is much more easily removed from the seed pod4 ,ordinarily1 the work can best be done by clover hullers1 the same as are used in threshing medium red and mammoth clover1 but grain separators1 with certain attachments1 will now do this work in good form4 ,much care should be exercised in winnowing the seed4 ,it ought to be so cleaned that it will grade as ,no4 #a1 and so bring the highest current price4 ,due care in this matter will make the major part of even ordinary seed bring the best price4 ,renewing4--,when the stand of the alsike is but partial1 as1 for instance1 when young plants have failed1 or partially so1 on the high land1 and are sufficiently plentiful on the lower land1 a full stand may sometimes be secured by simply scattering seed where it is needed so late in the fall that it will not sprout before winter1 covering with the harrow and then top dressing with farmyard manure well decomposed4 ,but where the winters are so mild that the clover might be sprouted during some warm spell followed by severe weather1 the seed should not be sown then4 ,on certain soils1 as those naturally moist and porous1 it may be possible so to renew alsike clover that it will produce hay or pasture crops almost indefinitely1 by simply allowing some heads to seed every year and fall to the ground4 ,in meadows1 this may be done by not grazing after the hay has been harvested until other heads have formed and ripened4 ,a limited number of these will thus form after the crop has been mown for hay4 ,if the crop has been cut for seed1 many heads will in any event be left upon the ground4 ,the same result will follow when grazing the crop1 if grazing is made to cease at the right time1 and for a period long enough to allow a considerable number of heads to mature4 ,this method of renewal will not prove a complete success on all soils1 as1 for instance1 on those very stiff and very light4 ,natural meadows that lie low may be changed in whole or in part into alsike meadows or pastures in some of the ,states1 as has been previously intimated1 by sowing seed on them in the early spring4 7,see page #bjb47 ,in some instances such change has been effected by sowing seed but once1 and at the rate of from #c to #d pounds per acre4 ,in other instances it has been found preferable to sow a less quantity for two successive seasons1 lest one of the two should prove adverse to successful growth in the plants4 ,but on some slough soils a stand cannot be secured by this method of sowing1 more especially when they are composed of raw peat4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,mammoth ,,clover ,mammoth ,clover 7,trifolium magnum7 was long ago named ,trifolium medium by ,linnus4 ,however appropriate the designation may have been at the time1 it is not so now1 at least under ,american conditions1 as in this country there is no other variety of clover so large1 unless sweet clover 7,melilotus alba74 ,to apply to it the distinguishing term medium1 therefore1 is positively misleading1 since the smaller variety of red clover commonly grown occupies such middle ground1 as the term medium would indicate4 ,because of this1 the author has ventured to designate it ,trifolium magnum4 ,it has also been classified1 and with no little appropriateness1 ,trifolium pratense perenne1 which has reference to the mildly perennial habit of growth in this plant4 ,in common phrase it is known by such names as ,large1 ,tall1 ,saplin or ,sapling1 ,giant1 ,meadow1 ,perennial ,red1 ,red ,perennial ,meadow1 ,pea ,vine1 ,zigzag1 ,wavy ,stemmed1 ,soiling1 and ,cow clover or ,cow grass4 ,each of these names has reference to some peculiarity of growth in the plant4 ,for instance1 the terms ,large1 ,tall1 ,saplin and ,giant have reference to the size of the plant2 and the terms ,pea ,vine1 ,zigzag and ,wavy ,stemmed to the somewhat irregular and trailing habit of growth in the stems1 and so of the others4 ,the designation ,cow grass is an ,english term4 ,mammoth clover is a large variety of red clover2 in fact1 the largest variety of red clover in ,america4 ,the plants are strong1 stronger than those of the medium red variety1 and the stems are much larger4 ,they are softer than those of the medium red1 which to some extent may account for the less erect habit of growth which characterizes it4 ,the leaves are usually destitute of the white spot found on those of the other variety4 ,the heads are also probably larger and somewhat more open1 but there is no appreciable difference in the size of the seed4 ,the plants1 notwithstanding1 bear so much resemblance to those of the common red variety that it is not easy to distinguish them unless by the large size of the plants of the former4 ,the roots are larger and stronger than those of the medium red variety1 and as a result have more power to gather plant food in the soil4 ,mammoth clover is biennial under some conditions and under others it is perennial1 although it is not usually a long-lived perennial4 ,it has a stronger habit of growth than the medium red1 and is1 therefore1 rather better fitted to thrive under adverse conditions1 more especially when it has once obtained a hold upon the soil4 ,it grows chiefly in the first half of the season1 and makes but little growth1 relatively1 in the autumn1 or1 indeed1 any time the same season after the crop has been harvested for hay4 ,in the ,northern ,states it comes into flower about the middle of ,july1 and in those of the ,south correspondingly earlier4 ,it is relished by all kinds of domestic animals kept upon the farm1 but the hay is relatively better adapted to cows and other cattle than to horses and sheep4 ,if cut too late1 or much injured in the curing1 it is too dusty for horses1 and the growth is too coarse to make first-class hay for sheep4 ,it makes excellent soiling food1 because of the abundance of the growth and the considerable season during which it may be fed in the green form4 ,it is peculiarly valuable as a fertilizer and as an improver of soils4 ,in addition to the nitrogen which it draws from the air and deposits in the soil1 it brings up plant food from the subsoil and stores it in the leaves and stems1 so that when fed it can be returned to the land4 ,it also fills the soil with an abundance of roots and rootlets4 ,these render stiff soils more friable1 and sandy soils less porous2 they increase the power of all soils to hold moisture1 and in their decay yield up a supply of plant food already prepared for the crops that are next grown upon the ground4 ,mammoth clover may also be utilized with advantage in lessening the numbers of certain noxious weeds1 and in some instances of eradicating them altogether4 ,this it does in some instances by smothering them1 through the rankness of the growth4 ,in other instances it is brought about through the setback which is given to the weeds by first pasturing the crop and then cutting it later for seed4 ,distribution4--,mammoth clover has long been grown in several of the countries of ,europe and ,western ,asia4 ,it is also grown in certain parts of ,siberia4 ,it was doubtless introduced into the ,united ,states from ,europe by emigrants from that continent1 but when exactly is not known4 ,it has probably been many years since its introduction into ,america1 but it is only within the more recent of the decades that it has attracted general notice4 ,in some areas in this country it grows with great luxuriance1 fully equaling1 if not exceeding1 the crops grown in any part of ,europe4 ,mammoth clover calls for climatic conditions about the same as those for medium red clover4 7,see page #fa47 ,it flourishes best in moist climates of moderate temperature1 and it will endure more drought than the medium red variety and possibly more cold4 ,the distribution of mammoth clover covers nearly all the ,states of the ,union1 but as with medium red clover the adaptation for it is relatively higher in the ,northern than in the ,southern ,states of the ,union4 ,the highest adaptation for mammoth clover is probably found in certain parts of ,michigan1 ,wisconsin1 ,minnesota1 the northern valleys of the ,rocky ,mountain ,states1 the elevated portions of those further south and the country around ,puget ,sound4 ,the adaptation is also high in much of ,new ,york1 ,ohio1 ,indiana1 ,illinois1 ,iowa1 ,missouri1 ,kansas and ,nebraska4 ,in the ,southern ,states that lie northward1 good crops may be grown in some locations1 but not in all4 ,as the semi-arid belt is approached1 mammoth clover will grow further west than the medium red1 but in the greater portion of this region it will not succeed4 ,the adaptation of the ,north ,atlantic ,states1 including those of ,new ,england1 is not of a high order1 but rather more so1 probably1 than for the medium red4 ,in ,canada also the adaptation of medium and mammoth clover is much the same as for the medium red4 ,in some parts of ,ontario1 especially ,western ,ontario1 it grows remarkably well2 but in the maritime provinces it does not grow so well2 nor does it thrive in the provinces of the ,canadian ,northwest as it does in ,ontario4 ,as with medium red clover1 the distribution of this variety has not been fully determined in either the ,united ,states or ,canada1 more especially on soils of the prairie1 where it does not succeed well at present4 ,it is probable that under some conditions on these soils1 and also in the ,south1 the absence of the requisite bacteria in the soil may account1 in part1 at least1 for failure in attempts made to grow it4 ,with the introduction of these1 the area of successful cultivation may be considerably extended4 ,soils4--,mammoth clover may usually be successfully grown in soils well adapted to the growth of the medium red variety4 7,see page #fe47 ,this means that it will usually grow with much luxuriance in all areas which produce hardwood timber1 and are usually covered with a clay or muddy loam soil underlaid with clay4 ,it will also grow with great luxuriance in the volcanic ash soils of the irrigated valley lands of the ,rocky ,mountain ,states1 and in the loam and light loam soils of the ,puget ,sound country4 ,it has greater power than the common red variety to grow in stiff clays1 in sandy soils underlaid with clay1 and in areas where moisture is insufficient near the surface soil4 ,in stiff clays the roots penetrate to a greater distance than those of the medium red variety and gather more food4 ,consequently1 a stiff clay soil that would only furnish a light crop of the medium red variety in a dry season may furnish an excellent crop of the mammoth4 ,the quality of the hay is likely to be superior to that grown on soils altogether congenial1 since it is not likely to be over-rank or coarse4 ,on sandy soils underlaid with clay1 and especially where the clay is some distance from the surface1 this clover is more certain to make a stand1 since the vigor of the plants enables them to gather food until the roots go down into the clay4 ,in areas where the moisture is more or less deficient1 the other conditions being favorable1 this clover can send its roots down into the subsoil1 where moisture is more abundant than on the surface4 ,because of this power1 it is better adapted than the medium red to much of the area of ,southwestern ,minnesota1 ,western ,iowa1 ,western ,kansas and ,nebraska1 and1 in fact1 much of the area bordering on the semi-arid country4 ,on clay soils that are so saturated with water that in the winter or spring the clover is much liable to heave1 there is conflict in opinion as to whether the mammoth or the common red variety will heave the more readily1 but the preponderance of the evidence favors the view that the roots of the mammoth variety can better resist such influences than those of the common red4 ,this clover1 like the common red1 is not well adapted to hungry1 sandy soils1 to the blow soils of the prairie1 to the muck soils of the watery slough1 or to the peaty soils of the drained muskeg4 ,place in the ,rotation4--,the place for mammoth clover in the rotation is much the same as for the medium red variety4 7,see page #gj47 ,it may1 therefore1 be best sown on a clean soil2 that is to say1 on a soil which has grown a crop the previous season that has called for clean cultivation1 as1 for instance1 corn1 potatoes1 sorghum1 or one or the other of the non-saccharine sorghums1 field beans1 soy beans1 cow peas and field roots4 ,but it is not so necessary that it shall be made to follow either kind of beans or cow peas as the other crops named1 since these have already gathered nitrogen1 which is more needed by leguminous crops4 ,this clover should rather be grown in rotations where more nitrogen is wanted1 when the soil will profit by increased supplies of humus1 and where strong plants are wanted1 the root growth of which will have the effect of rendering the cultivated portion of the soil more friable when stiff and more retentive when sandy1 and that will have the effect of opening up many little channels in the subsoil when the roots decay1 through which an excess of surface water may percolate into the subsoil4 ,it may precede such crops as revel in humus and that feed ravenously on nitrogen4 ,these include all the small cereals1 corn and all the sorghums1 rape1 and all kinds of garden vegetables and strawberries4 ,it is1 of course1 better adapted to short than to long rotations1 because of the limited duration of the life of the plants4 ,the length of the rotation will1 of course1 depend upon various contingencies4 ,frequently1 the clover is cropped or pastured but one season following the year on which the seed was sown1 whatsoever the character of the crops that precede or follow it1 but in more instances1 probably1 it is used as crop or pasture for two years4 ,when timothy is sown along with this clover the pasturing or cropping may continue for one or more seasons longer before the ground is broken1 but in such instances the timothy will have consumed much or all of the nitrogen put into the soil by the clover1 save what has escaped in the drainage water4 ,one of the best rotations in which to sow mammoth clover1 as also the medium red1 is the following3 ,sow in a nurse crop of rye1 wheat1 oats or barley1 as the case may be1 in order that it may be pastured or cut for hay the following season1 and then follow with a crop of corn or potatoes4 ,this in turn is followed by one or another of the small grains4 ,this constitutes a three years' rotation1 but in the case of mammoth clover it is frequently lengthened to four years4 ,the year following the sowing of the clover1 it is cut for hay or for seed1 and the next year it is pastured with or without a top-dressing of farmyard manure4 ,this rotation meets with considerable favor in certain areas of ,wisconsin1 well adapted to the growth of the plant4 ,preparing the ,soil4--,the preparation of the soil called for by the mammoth clover is virtually the same as that required when preparing a seed-bed for the medium red variety4 7,see page #gd47 ,clay loam soils1 whatsoever their color1 cannot easily be made too fine and smooth1 and the same is true of sandy loams4 ,stiff clays should be made so fine as to contain ample loose mold to germinate the seed readily1 and yet they ought not to be made so fine that they will readily run together under the influence of a soaking rain4 ,usually1 such soils are seldom made too fine1 but sometimes they are4 ,the aim should be to firm sandy soils1 especially when light enough to lift with the wind1 and to leave them more or less uneven on the surface when the seed is sown4 ,in many ,states the ground should be plowed in the fall for spring sowing1 and in yet others it should be plowed in the spring4 ,conditions of soil and climate govern this feature of the work4 ,usually1 however1 the longer the soil is plowed and then properly worked on the surface before receiving the seed1 the finer1 cleaner1 firmer and moister it is likely to be1 and the larger the store of the available fertility to promote the growth of the young plants4 ,because of this1 after cultivated crops1 the ground is not usually plowed or otherwise stirred on the surface4 ,when the soil is low in fertility1 it may be necessary to fertilize it before a crop of mammoth clover can be successfully grown4 ,for such fertilization1 farmyard manure is very suitable4 ,when soils are low in the content of humus1 before a good crop of clover can be grown1 it may be necessary to supply humus4 ,but few soils are so deficient in fertility that they will not grow clover if supplied with humus4 ,farmyard manure supplies both humus and fertility1 but in its absence1 a crop of rye buried in the soil will insure a stand of clover4 ,in other instances it may be necessary to follow with some kind of a crop that has much power to gather plant food1 as corn of some hardy variety1 and to graze or otherwise feed it from the land4 ,sowing4--,much of what has been said about the sowing of medium red clover will apply also to the sowing of mammoth clover4 ,east of the ,mississippi and north of the ,potomac and ,ohio rivers1 mammoth clover is usually sown in the spring1 and for the reason that the young plants are frequently killed by the severity of the winter weather when sown in the autumn4 ,but when sown at that season1 the seed being mixed with winter rye and being deposited by the drill as early as ,september #ast1 the plants frequently survive the winter as far north as ,marquette ,county in ,wisconsin4 ,the rye in the line of the drill marks provides a sufficient protection for the clover4 ,but this only occurs where the conditions are eminently favorable to the growth of the clover4 ,around ,puget ,sound it may also be sown with advantage in the early autumn1 as then it should produce a full crop the next season1 and the same is true of nearly all the ,rocky ,mountain valley region1 but in these areas it may also be sown in the spring4 ,between the ,mississippi and the ,rocky ,mountains and ,oklahoma and ,canada1 spring sowing is usually preferable1 and in much of the area is an absolute necessity to insure a stand4 ,in the ,south the seed may be sown fall or spring2 which season is to be preferred should be determined chiefly by the character of the soil4 ,on soil much given to heaving in the winter it is usually preferable to sow in the spring4 ,in all1 or nearly all1 parts of ,canada spring sowing only is admissible4 ,when the seed is sown in the early spring1 it should usually be sown quite early1 as early1 in fact1 as the ground is in condition to receive the seed when the nurse crop has been sown the previous autumn4 ,when the ground is smooth and impacted on the surface1 it is considered preferable to defer sowing until the ground is dry enough to admit of covering the seed with the harrow4 ,when deposited at the same time as spring-sown nurse crops1 and with these1 the time of sowing will be determined by the most suitable time for sowing the nurse crop4 ,this plant may be sown under certain conditions as late in the spring as moisture exists in the soil sufficient to produce vigorous germination in the seed4 ,this means that it may be sown as late as ,june1 if sown alone1 and even later4 ,when sown thus late it should be on soil that has been well cleaned near the surface4 ,when sown in the autumn1 as with medium red clover1 the aim should be to put the seed in as early as the arrival of the autumn rains1 that the plants may be well rooted before the arrival of freezing weather4 ,ordinarily1 mammoth clover1 like the medium red1 is sown with a nurse crop1 whether sown fall or spring4 7,see page #hd47 ,the nurse crops in the ,north include winter rye1 winter wheat1 barley1 spring wheat and oats1 suitable1 probably1 in the order named1 also such pasture crops as rape1 vetches1 and various mixtures of grain sown on certain soils to provide pasture for cattle1 sheep or swine4 ,the best nurse crops in the ,south include winter rye1 winter barley and winter oats1 even though the seed should not be sown on them until the spring4 ,on certain sandy loam soils a stand of mammoth clover is more assured if sown with a pasture crop than if sown with a grain crop which is to mature4 7,see page #hb47 ,under certain conditions of soil and climate1 this crop may be sown on plowed or disked land in certain of the ,states1 after a crop of grain1 and in other instances by sowing amid the stubbles and covering with the harrow4 ,but there is more of hazard in growing thus than by other methods4 ,sometimes this clover is sown amid standing corn1 at the last cultivation1 but too much shade or too little moisture may cause only partial success1 or even failure1 whereas at other times the plan may succeed4 ,the modes of sowing the clover are virtually the same as those to be followed in sowing medium red clover4 7,see page #gh47 ,it will be sown by hand1 by hand machines1 and by the grain drill1 with or without attachments4 ,the seed of this variety1 however1 will1 on the whole1 be more frequently mixed in with the grain than the seed of the medium red clover1 because of the stronger growth that it makes4 ,this will frequently be found the preferable mode of sowing it when sown in the autumn4 ,when sown to provide hay1 mammoth clover and timothy make an excellent combination for the reasons1 first1 that they mature about the same time2 second1 that more of this clover is likely to survive the first year of cutting than of the common red2 and third1 that more food1 it is believed1 will be furnished to the timothy in the dead roots of this clover than of the medium red4 ,the first year of cutting1 the hay crop is likely to be nearly all clover2 the second year1 clover and timothy mixed1 and the third year1 timothy4 ,but if alsike is sown in the mixture1 though it may be little in evidence the first year1 it will show itself the second year and probably the third year4 ,when sown for pasture in short rotations1 this clover may be sown alone or with other varieties of clover1 timothy or tall oat grass being added4 ,when sown for seed1 it is probably better to sow it alone1 but there is no very strong objection to sowing timothy alone with the clover1 since the latter may aid in sustaining the clover1 and it is not difficult to separate mammoth clover seed and timothy seed4 ,when mammoth clover is sown alone for hay or for seed1 not fewer than #ab pounds per acre of seed should be used4 ,when sown with timothy1 #f and #h pounds1 respectively1 would be an average seeding4 ,if alsike clover is added1 the seed of the mammoth may be reduced by one pound1 and the same amount of alsike added to the mixture4 ,when sown with the medium red variety to provide short rotation pastures1 about #f pounds of each may be sown4 ,the pasture furnished will be more continuous than where only one kind is sown4 ,if timothy or tall oat grass is added1 a pound of one or the other of these should be added for every pound of the clover withheld from the mixture4 ,for permanent pastures #f pounds of the mammoth clover may be set down as the maximum to sow per acre1 varying the quantity with varying conditions4 ,and when the clover is sown with small grain to be plowed under in the fall or early in the spring1 usually only very moderate amounts of seed ought to be used1 especially where the hazard is considerable that the dry weather may cause failure in the catch of the seed4 ,pasturing4--,mammoth clover furnishes much pasture when it is grazed1 on into ,july and sometimes even into ,august1 because of the vigorous character of the growth1 but after that season the growth is usually light4 ,nor is there generally much growth after the crop has been cut for hay4 ,the palatability of the pasture is much the same as that of the medium red variety4 ,more grazing is furnished where the crop is fairly well grown before the pasturing begins1 but it is not so palatable1 and when unduly rank1 to defer pasturing thus long would result in a considerable waste of pasture1 which the stock would tread under foot4 ,when the crop is wanted for hay1 there may be instances in which it may be advantageous to pasture it for a time to prevent the growth from becoming overly luxuriant4 ,there have been instances in which the clover has grown so rankly that the lodged clover killed nearly all the plants by excluding the air from the roots4 ,when grown on soils that in a normal season produce a rank growth1 the quality of the hay will1 in nearly all instances1 be improved by grazing4 ,this1 however1 should be done soon after the growth begins and should not be long continued1 and it should be close1 in order to promote evenness and uniformity in the growth of the hay crop4 ,when grown for seed1 mammoth clover is quite frequently pastured4 ,in fact1 in a majority of instances it is either pastured or cut with the mower when a seed crop is wanted4 ,the pasturing usually continues until ,june #ast1 but in some instances it is prolonged far on into ,june4 ,the duration of the pasturing season should be gauged largely by the character of the soil and weather4 ,the better the conditions for growth in the plants1 the longer may the pasturing be continued1 and vice versa4 ,there are also conditions in which such pasturing may not be necessary4 ,but when the grazing is not close1 the mower should be run over the field1 otherwise the seeds will not ripen evenly4 ,there is the same danger from bloating that is present when pasturing medium red clover4 7,see page #id47 ,to avoid this danger1 cattle that are being thus pastured are in some instances given access to cured clover hay4 ,in other instances the haulm of the seed is left in the field so that the cattle have access to it4 ,but the second season of grazing1 the danger from bloat is not so great as the first season1 as usually more of other pasture plants grow amid the clover4 ,horses1 cattle1 sheep or swine may be used in grazing off the clover for seed4 ,all of these may be used at the same time4 ,horses bite the crowns of the plants so closely as to somewhat injure subsequent growth2 sheep also crop rather closely2 cattle do not crop the plants so closely2 consequently1 they are so far preferable to horses or sheep for such grazing4 ,on the other hand1 sheep will prove far more destructive to weed growth in the pasture4 ,harvesting for ,hay4--,ordinarily1 the methods of making the hay crop are the same as those followed in curing medium red clover4 ,the mammoth variety1 however1 frequently requires a longer season in which to cure1 owing1 first1 to the heavier character of the growth1 and second1 to the larger stems of the latter4 ,after it has been mown there is greater reason for using the tedder in getting it ready for being raked1 and it calls for more curing before it is put into cocks4 ,the larger the proportion of the timothy in the crop1 the more easily it is cured4 ,it is ready for cutting when in full bloom1 and loses more than the medium red when cutting is too long deferred1 because of the larger proportion of coarse stems in the crop4 ,it is also relatively more injured by rain in the cocks1 since it sheds rain even less readily than the medium red clover1 and the same is true of it in the stack4 ,some farmers cure mammoth clover in its green form in the mow as they also cure the medium red variety1 but the same objections apply to curing it thus that apply to the similar curing of the medium red4 7,see page #ajb47 ,others cure it in the mow by storing good bright straw1 preferably oat straw1 in alternate layers along with the clover4 ,from one-third to one-half the quantity of the straw as compared with the hay will suffice for such curing1 varying with the degree of the wilting in the hay4 ,clover cut in the morning after the dew has lifted may be thus stored the same day4 ,where the facilities are present such a method of curing mammoth clover may be eminently wise in showery weather4 ,the natural color of the hay and blossoms is thus preserved and the straw is eaten with avidity1 because of what it has imbibed from the clover4 ,securing ,seed4--,it has been already intimated more seed will be obtained when the clover has been pastured or cut back with the mower4 7,see page #bcc47 ,when the mower is used1 it should not be set to cut quite low1 or the subsequent growth will not be so vigorous as it would otherwise be4 ,the state of growth at which the clover ought to be cut will be influenced by the luxuriance of the growth1 but ordinarily clover seed should not be more than #f to #h inches high when the mower is used4 ,what is thus cut by the mower is left on the ground as a mulch4 ,mowing the crop thus will also be helpful in destroying weeds1 but some weeds will sprout again and mature seed as quickly as the clover4 ,when mammoth clover is neither pastured nor mown early in the season1 when grown for seed some kinds of weeds may be prevented from going to seed in it by cutting them off with the scythe4 ,when not too plentiful they may be removed with the spud4 ,among the more troublesome weeds that infest mammoth clover are the ,canada thistle 7,cirsium arvense71 the plantain 7,plantago lanceolata71 and in some instances the horse nettle 7,solanum ,carolinense7 and spring nightshade 7,solanum74 ,the yields of the clover seed will be much influenced by the character of the weather4 ,excessive rankness in the crop and excessive rainfall during the blossoming season are adverse to abundant seed production4 ,but the seed crop is more injured by drought than by too much rain4 ,when injured by drought the growth will not be sufficiently strong1 or1 if it is1 the blossoms will be of a pale red tint4 ,warm winds while the seed is forming are also adverse to seed production1 since they cause the crop to mature too quickly4 ,some experience will enable the capable observer to forecast with no little certainty the probable yield of the seed4 ,if the indications point to a yield of seed less than #b bushels per acre1 it is deemed more profitable1 as a rule1 to cut the crop for hay4 ,large heads of a rich dark purple shade accompanied by vigor in the entire plant are indicative of abundant seed production4 ,the crop is ready for being harvested when a majority of the heads have ripened so far that the bloom on them is all gone and the shade of color in the head has not yet become brown4 ,if left until a majority of the heads are brown many of them will break off while being harvested4 ,the crop is usually cut with a self-rake reaper1 but it may be cut with a mower4 ,when cut by either method the sheaves should be made small1 so that they will dry out quickly4 ,it is important that the crop shall be threshed before it is rained on1 as one thorough wetting will so far bedim the attractive brightness as compared with seed that has not been rained on that it will considerably discount the price that would otherwise be obtained for it4 ,it is usually threshed with a huller1 but may also be threshed like the medium red variety by a grain separator with a suitable attachment4 ,the yields of the seed vary much4 ,instances are on record where as much as #aa or #ab bushels per acre have been reaped1 but ordinarily even on good producing soils the yields are not more than #d to #e bushels per acre1 and under ordinary conditions for the production of mammoth clover they are even less than the amount named4 ,notwithstanding the greater strength of the plants1 the seeds are apparently no larger than those of the medium red variety1 nor can they be distinguished from them unless by an expert4 ,renewing4--,much that has been said with reference to the renewing of medium red clover will apply equally to the renewing of the mammoth4 7,see page #aji47 ,where seed crops are much grown1 the soil becomes so impregnated with the seed that more or less of the plants will appear any season4 ,renewal in the ,south is more important1 relatively1 than in the ,north1 as under some conditions the plants survive for a longer period in ,southern soils4 ,compared with ,medium ,red ,clover4--#a4 ,the mammoth is larger and coarser than the medium red and is considerably less erect in its habit of growth4 ,it has larger and longer roots2 hence1 it goes down more deeply into the subsoil in search of food4 #b4 ,it is1 on the whole1 longer lived than the medium red variety and has greater power to grow in a sandy soil and under conditions in which moisture is not plentiful4 #c4 ,it provides more pasture than the medium red variety during the early part of the season1 but not so much after harvest1 the season of growth being less continuous then than with the former4 #d4 ,the hay which it furnishes is usually considerably more bulky and coarse1 and because of this it is not so highly prized by stock4 #e4 ,it blooms about three weeks later than the medium red variety and remains a little longer in bloom and seeds more freely1 but can only be cut once in a season4 #f4 ,it furnishes more green food for plowing under than the medium red2 hence1 it is1 on the whole1 a better improver of the soil4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,crimson ,,clover ,crimson ,clover 7,trifolium incarnatum7 is also known by the names ,french1 ,german1 ,german ,mammoth1 ,italian1 ,egyptian and ,carnation clover4 ,in ,america it is common in certain areas to speak of it as winter clover1 from the greater powers of growth which it possesses at that season as compared with other clovers4 ,the plants have an erect habit of growth1 and yet they are soft and hairy1 and they have much power to stool4 ,more than #ajj stems have been produced by one plant1 but under conditions the most favorable4 ,the leaves are numerous4 ,the heads are oblong1 cylindrical1 and considerably cone-shaped1 and are from #a to #b inches long1 and much larger than those of medium red clover4 ,the bloom is scarlet or crimson and of the richest dye2 hence1 a more beautiful sight is seldom seen than that of a vigorous crop of crimson clover in full bloom4 ,the average height of the plants may be put at about #ah inches1 but they have been grown to the height of #c and even #d feet4 ,the root growth is fully twice that of the stems4 ,the roots are strong1 go down straight into the soil1 and are to some extent branched4 ,crimson clover is an annual1 although usually the growth covers a part of two years4 ,sown in the summer or early autumn1 growth is completed by the advent of the following summer4 ,it is1 therefore1 pre-eminently a catch crop1 and because of this1 when conditions admit of it1 serves a purpose in ,american agriculture1 which can be served by none of the other varieties of clover that are now grown4 ,it has much power to grow in cool weather1 when the clovers are practically dormant4 ,it does not cease to grow until the ground has become frozen1 and as soon as the frost leaves the soil growth begins at once2 hence1 the greater relative value this plant has for areas in which the winters are mild4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,crimson ,clover 7,trifolium incarnatum7 ,tennessee ,experiment ,station ,crimson clover is much relished by farm animals1 whether used as pasture1 soiling food1 silage or hay4 ,under some conditions it may be pastured autumn and spring1 and even through much of the winter4 ,as a soiling plant1 its value is high1 not only because it is a legume1 but because it comes in season at a time when it may be fed with winter rye used as soiling4 ,but the period is short during which it furnishes soiling food4 ,its value as hay will always be lessened by the difficulty in curing it so early in the season1 and because of the danger from feeding it to horses when cut at a too advanced stage of growth4 ,it is much in favor for furnishing chicken pasture in winter4 ,as a catch crop crimson clover may be made to do duty in seasons in which other clover crops may have failed4 ,as a cover crop or a mulch for orchards1 it is in high favor1 as the growth which it produces protects the roots of the same4 ,but its greatest use lies in the beneficial influence which it exerts upon soils by enriching them and also improving their mechanical condition4 ,it is likely1 therefore1 to be grown more for this purpose than for any other4 ,while growing it in many instances will not render unnecessary the use of commercial fertilizers1 it will greatly reduce the quantity of these that would otherwise be necessary4 ,owing to the season at which it is grown1 it will be found quite helpful in destroying weeds4 ,the behavior of crimson clover has thus far been somewhat erratic1 even in areas where the conditions are looked upon as generally favorable to its growth4 ,the opinions of practical men differ much with reference to its value4 ,there have been many instances of success and failure in the same locality1 and even in the experience of the same individual4 ,these varied experiences are doubtless due in a considerable degree to a difference in seasons1 to want of acclimation in the seed sown1 to a difference in varieties and to want of knowledge on the part of the growers1 whose work1 heretofore1 has been largely tentative4 ,five different varieties have been grown1 and these have not shown equal degrees of hardiness4 ,but the rapidly increasing sales of seed point to the conclusion that larger areas are being sown every year4 ,the increase referred to may be expected to grow greater for many years to come2 since1 when the needs of the plant are better understood1 the failures will be fewer4 ,distribution4--,crimson clover is probably indigenous to certain parts of ,europe1 especially to the countries that lie southwest and south4 ,it has been grown to a considerable extent in ,france1 ,germany and ,italy4 ,the name ,egyptian would seem also to imply that it is grown in ,egypt4 ,it is not grown to any considerable extent north and west in ,europe1 owing1 probably1 to the too severe conditions of climate which characterize these4 ,it is not indigenous to ,america1 but was probably introduced from ,europe two or three decades ago4 ,its late introduction accounts for the fact that its adaptation in some parts of the ,united ,states is as yet controverted4 ,this plant needs a climate rather mild and decidedly moist4 ,it cannot withstand severe freezing when the ground is bare2 hence1 its uniformly successful growth cannot be relied on very far north of the ,ohio and ,potomac rivers4 ,true1 in certain winters of much snowfall it has come through in good form considerably north of the rivers mentioned1 but in more instances it has failed4 ,on the other hand1 while it grows best in warm climates1 the growth in these is made chiefly when the weather is cool1 as in the autumn and spring1 and in some instances in the winter4 ,it would be about correct to say that the climatic adaptation of this plant is nearly the same as that of the peach4 ,climates too cold for fruitage in the latter would be too cold for the uniformly safe wintering of crimson clover4 ,it would also seem correct to state that on suitable soils and with sufficient precipitation1 this clover will do best in the ,united ,states when the climate is too warm for the medium red clover to grow at its best4 ,in the ,united ,states1 soil and climatic conditions taken together1 would probably give ,delaware1 ,new ,jersey1 ,maryland1 ,virginia and ,tennessee highest adaptation for the growth of this plant4 ,taking in a wide area1 highest adaptation would lie in the ,states south of the ,potomac and ,ohio rivers and east of the ,mississippi4 ,washington and ,oregon1 west to the ,cascade ,mountains1 would probably furnish exceptions1 but in these the necessity for growing crimson clover is not likely to be so great as in the area just referred to1 owing to the ease with which other varieties of clover may be grown4 ,in some parts of ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania1 ,ohio and ,michigan many farmers have succeeded well in growing crimson clover1 but a larger number have failed4 ,the failures have arisen largely through dry weather in the autumn1 want of plant food in the soil and the severity of the winter weather4 ,westward from these ,states to the ,mississippi1 the adaptation is still lower1 and the same is true of the ,new ,england ,states4 ,in fact1 it is so low in these that it is far more likely that it will fail than that it will succeed4 ,between the ,mississippi and the ,cascade ,mountains1 crimson clover is not likely to be much grown4 ,it will not grow well in any part of the semi-arid belt4 ,in the mountain valleys it would probably succeed1 but in these alfalfa and some other varieties of clover will give far better returns4 ,crimson clover will not grow well in any part of ,canada1 except in that narrow strip of land between the ,rocky ,mountains and the ,pacific4 ,the winter climate is too cold for it4 ,some crops have been grown successfully in the peach-producing areas of ,ontario contiguous to ,lakes ,erie and ,ontario1 but even in these it is an uncertain crop4 ,the attempt has been made to grow it in some of the provinces of ,canada1 and in several of the ,states1 by sowing the seed in the spring4 ,some fairly good crops have been thus obtained1 but usually not so good as can be grown by sowing certain other varieties of clover at the same season4 ,it is but reasonable to expect1 however1 that adaptation in growing crimson clover will widen with the acclimation of the plant1 and with increasing knowledge as to its needs on the part of those who grow it4 ,soils4--,crimson clover though usually grown for the enrichment of soils will not1 as a rule1 make satisfactory growth on soils very low in the elements of fertility1 whatsoever may be their composition or texture4 ,on orchard lands liberally fertilized1 in the ,middle ,atlantic ,states1 excellent crops have been obtained1 whereas on adjacent soils precisely similar they have failed4 ,in the ,southern ,states1 however1 better results1 relatively1 will be obtained from sowing this clover on comparatively infertile lands1 owing to the longer season which it has for continuous growth4 ,where the winters are possessed of considerable severity and when the protection of snow is more or less wanting1 unless the plants are strong when they enter the winter1 they are almost certain to perish4 ,loam soils with reasonably porous subsoils are best adapted to its growth4 ,of these1 sandy loams have a higher adaptation than clay loams1 when equal to the former in fertility1 as in the latter the plants can more quickly gather the needed food supplies1 since the roots and rootlets can penetrate them more readily4 ,such soils are well adapted to the growth of orchards1 especially peach orchards1 and it is in such areas that crimson clover has been grown with highest success4 ,in the alfalfa soils of the ,rocky ,mountain valleys it should also grow well1 but on these it would be less profitable to grow than alfalfa1 because of the permanency of the alfalfa4 ,even on sandy soils a good growth will be obtained when these have been fertilized and sufficient moisture is present4 ,on stiff clays the growth is too slow to produce crops highly satisfactory either ,north or ,south1 and in dry weather it is also difficult to obtain a stand of the plants4 ,the alluvial soils of river bottoms in the ,south produce good crops4 ,the vegetable soils of the prairie do not grow the plants very well1 and the adaptation in slough or swamp soils is even lower4 ,good crops will not be obtained on soils underlaid with hardpan which comes up near the surface1 whatsoever the nature of the top soil may be1 since the roots cannot penetrate these4 ,place in the ,rotation4--,it cannot be said of crimson clover1 in the ordinary usage of the word1 that it is a rotation plant4 ,it has probably no fixed place in any regular rotation1 and yet it can be used almost anywhere in the rotation that may be desired1 and in any rotation whether long or short1 regular or irregular4 ,as previously intimated1 it is usually grown as a catch crop1 and primarily to fertilize the land2 and since its growth is chiefly or entirely made in the late summer1 autumn1 winter and early spring1 that is to say1 when the land is not otherwise occupied1 the only hindrances to using it anywhere in the rotation are such as arise from the nature of the weather1 the mechanical condition of the land and the needs of the crops that are to follow4 ,for instance1 at the usual season for sowing it1 the weather may be so dry as to preclude the hope of successful germination in the seed4 ,this influence may also make it impossible to bring the land into that mechanical condition which makes a good seed-bed without undue labor1 and ordinarily it would not be necessary to have crimson clover precede another leguminous crop2 since the latter1 under many conditions1 can secure its own supply of nitrogen4 ,to this there may be some exceptions4 ,there may be instances1 as on light1 porous and leechy soils1 when it might be proper to grow crimson clover as an aid in securing a stand of the medium red variety1 or in growing a crop of peas for the summer market4 ,ordinarily1 however1 this crop is grown to increase the supply of plant food in the soil for crops which require nitrogen1 and to give soils more or less porous1 increased power to hold moisture and applied fertilizers4 ,it is probably seldom grown to improve the mechanical condition of stiff soils1 since on these it grows slowly4 ,some other plants can do this more effectively4 ,it is pre-eminently the catch crop for the orchardist and the market gardener1 and yet it may be made the catch crop also of the farmer1 under certain conditions4 ,crimson clover may be made to follow any crop1 but it is seldom necessary to have it follow another leguminous crop which has brought nitrogen to the soil4 ,nor is it usually sown after a grass crop which has brought humus to the land4 ,it is frequently sown after small cereal grain crops that have been harvested4 ,it may be made to follow any of these4 ,sometimes it is sown in standing corn4 ,but oftener than anywhere else probably1 it is sown in orchards and on soils from which early potatoes and garden vegetables have been removed4 ,it is peculiarly fitted for being grown in orchards4 ,in these it may be grown from year to year4 ,it may be thus grown not only to gather nitrogen for the trees1 but to make them more clean than they would otherwise be when the fruit is being gathered1 to protect the roots of the trees in winter and to aid in the retention of moisture when plowed under4 ,but this plant may also1 with peculiar fitness1 be made to precede late garden crops4 ,it may be plowed under sufficiently early to admit of this1 and when so buried it aids in making a fine seed-bed1 since the roots promote friability in the land4 ,when grown under what may be termed strictly farm conditions1 it usually precedes a cultivated crop1 as potatoes1 corn1 or one of the sorghums4 ,it is equally suitable in fitting the soil for the growth of vine crops1 such as melons1 squashes and pumpkins4 ,but in some localities this crop may be grown so as to break down the lines of old-time rotations1 since in some instances it may be successfully grown from year to year for several years without change4 ,potatoes and sweet corn1 for instance1 may be thus grown4 ,preparing the ,soil4--,in preparing the seed-bed for crimson clover1 the aim should be to secure fineness of pulverization near the surface and moistness in the same4 ,the former is greatly important1 because of the aid which it renders in securing the latter at a season when moisture is often lacking in the soil4 ,as it is rather grown on soils deficient in humus than on those plentifully supplied with the same1 fineness in the seed-bed is not so important as it is with some classes of prairie soils4 ,in starting the seed1 drought is the chief hindrance to be overcome in the ,north1 owing to the season at which the seed must be sown2 hence1 the aim should be to begin preparing the seed-bed as long as possible before the sowing of the seed4 ,the preparation called for will be influenced by the kind of soil1 the crop last grown upon it and also the weather2 hence1 the process of preparing the seed-bed will vary4 ,the judgment must determine whether the land should be plowed1 or disked and pulverized1 or simply harrowed4 ,after potatoes and other garden crops1 harrowing may suffice2 after certain grain crops on soils not too stiff1 disking may suffice2 but where much trash is to be buried1 plowing would be necessary1 and when the ground is at all cloddy1 the roller should be freely used4 ,in corn fields the last cultivation will make a suitable seed-bed1 and the same is sometimes true in cotton fields4 ,to grow good crops of crimson clover1 it is necessary that there shall be a considerable amount of plant food in the soil that is readily available4 ,farmyard manure when it can be spared or secured will supply the need4 ,but the results will probably be more satisfactory where the manure has been applied to the previous crop1 as1 for instance1 to potatoes or corn1 and for the reason1 probably1 that in the relatively dry season at which the seed of this plant is sown1 the residue of the manure still in the soil is more readily available than freshly applied manure would be4 ,good crops have been grown on land thus manured1 when at the same time seed sown on land under similar conditions and similar in other respects failed to give satisfactory yields4 ,in a majority of instances farmyard manure cannot be spared for such a use4 ,when it cannot1 if necessary1 commercial fertilizers may be applied4 ,those rich in phosphoric acid and potash are usually most needed1 but sometimes nitrogen also is necessary4 ,when nitrogen is used1 it may be best applied on the growing crop and while it is young4 ,phosphoric acid and potash may be fitly applied when the land is being prepared1 and in a way that will incorporate them with the surface soil4 ,these may be used in the form of wood ashes1 bone meal1 ,thomas' slag1 ,kainit1 sulphate or muriate of potash1 ,south ,carolina rock and acid phosphate4 ,acid phosphate and muriate of potash stand high in favor with some growers when applied in the proportions of #i and #a parts and at the rate of1 say1 #bjj pounds more or less per acre4 ,sowing4--,the date for sowing crimson clover would seem to depend more upon latitude than upon any other influence4 ,north of the ,ohio ,river it should seldom be sown later than ,september #ast1 lest the growth of the plants should not be strong enough to endure the winter weather4 ,nor should it be sown earlier than ,july #ast1 lest the plants should reach the blooming stage without having made a sufficient growth1 an objection which applies to sowing earlier than ,july #ast in any part of the ,united ,states4 ,all things considered1 ,august is the most favorable month for sowing the seed north of the ,ohio and ,potomac rivers4 ,in the ,south1 sowing at a later period is preferable4 ,in the latitude of ,tennessee1 ,september would usually prove more suitable for sowing than an earlier date1 and near the ,gulf1 ,october4 ,but it may be sown earlier and later in these respective latitudes4 ,it is a good time to sow the seed in much of the ,south when the autumn rains begin to come1 and the same is true of the ,puget ,sound country4 ,the seed may be sown by hand1 by the aid of hand machines1 by some makes of grain drills in the same way as grain is sown1 and by others with a grass-seeder attachment4 ,when sown by the latter1 the seed should usually be allowed to fall before the grain tubes to aid in securing a covering for it2 the covering thus provided should be supplemented by additional harrowing and in some instances rolling4 ,when sown by hand or by hand machines on soils ,east and ,south1 the roller should in many instances follow and then the harrow1 but on cloddy surfaces the harrow should be used first and then the roller4 ,no method of sowing the seed is more satisfactory than that which sows it by grain drills1 which can deposit it in the soil as grain is sown1 as it is then buried at an even depth4 ,sowing to a medium depth1 say1 #a_/b to #a-a_/b inches1 is preferable to either extreme4 ,whether it is advisable to sow a nurse crop will depend upon conditions4 ,when the seed is sown early1 in hot weather the young plants are helped by more or less of shade4 ,such shade is usually provided by the other factor or factors of the mixture4 ,but when shade only is wanted from the nurse crop1 a thin seeding of buckwheat has been found to answer4 ,melons and tomatoes have in some instances furnished shade satisfactorily1 and in others upright growing varieties of cow peas or soy beans4 ,the less complete the preparation of the seed-bed1 the greater also is the necessity for shade4 ,in orchards the shade of the trees is usually ample1 and in some instances excessive4 ,the same is true of vigorous corn and cotton crops4 ,whether this clover should be sown alone or in mixtures will also depend upon conditions4 ,if the crop is wanted solely for the enrichment of the land1 it will usually be better to sow it alone1 as crops other than legumes do not bring as much fertility to the land4 ,as a rule1 therefore1 it should be sown alone in orchards4 ,it should also1 usually1 be sown alone for soiling crops and for hay1 but in some instances for both uses it may be sown with such crops as winter oats or winter vetches4 ,on some soils1 however1 these will too much crowd the clover plants4 ,on others the reverse will be true4 ,for seed the crop should1 of course1 always be sown alone4 ,for pasture1 crimson clover is sometimes sown with rape1 winter rye1 winter oats1 the common vetch or the sand vetch4 ,when sown with rape1 the date of the sowing should be early4 ,with the other crops named the most suitable date for sowing the clover will usually prove the most suitable also for sowing these4 ,when sown alone1 from #aj to #bj pounds of seed are used per acre4 ,with all the conditions favorable1 #ab to #ae pounds should suffice4 ,when sown with rape for pasture1 #c pounds of rape and #aj of the clover1 or even a less quantity1 should be enough4 ,when sown with winter rye or winter oats1 about #a bushel of each and #aj pounds of clover should suffice1 and when sown with the common or the sand vetch1 #a_/b bushel of either and #aj pounds of the clover should be enough4 ,when sown in the chaff1 from #b to #c bushels ought to suffice1 but the amount required will be much affected by the character of the seed crop4 ,pasturing4--,crimson clover may be pastured in the autumn or in the spring or at both seasons1 either when sown alone1 or in conjunction with some other pasture crops1 as winter rye1 oats1 barley or vetches4 ,but it is not probable that it will ever become so popular as some other pasture plants that grow during the same seasons of the year2 since1 first1 when it is grown1 it is usually wanted for green manure2 second1 it does not under some conditions grow satisfactorily with other crops2 and third1 when grazed down in the autumn the covering thus removed renders the plants much more liable to perish in the winter4 ,when1 however1 it is sown early in the season1 as in ,july1 along with ,dwarf ,essex rape1 or even alone1 much grazing may be furnished1 even though the clover should not survive the winter4 ,it may be grazed by horses1 mules1 cattle1 sheep or swine1 but when grazed with cattle and sheep1 it is probable that some danger from hoven or bloat will be present1 as when grazing other kinds of clover4 7,see page #id47 ,this danger1 however1 will be lessened1 if not entirely removed1 when nurse crops are grown with the clover1 except in the case of rape4 ,the grazing should not begin when the plants are small1 lest the growth should be too much hindered at a season when growth is critical4 ,harvesting for ,hay4--,crimson clover is ready to be cut for hay when coming into1 and a little before it is in1 fullest bloom4 ,some authorities claim that it should be harvested when the blooms begin to appear4 ,it should certainly not be allowed to pass the stage of full bloom1 lest the hay when cured should prove hurtful to horses and possibly to other live stock1 because of the presence of hair balls1 which are then liable to form from the hairs so numerously found on this plant4 ,these balls produce death by forming an impermeable wedge in the intestines of horses1 thereby impeding and in some instances totally arresting the process of digestion4 ,these balls1 almost circular in form1 are composed of minute and rather stiff hairs1 and several have been found in one animal4 ,these hairs1 numerous on the heads2 do not stiffen sooner than the period of full bloom2 hence1 until that stage is reached in the growth of the plants1 the danger from feeding cured hay made from them does not occur4 ,in ,new ,jersey and the neighboring ,states1 crimson clover is ready for being cut sometimes in ,may earlier or later1 as the season is early or late4 ,further ,south it is fit to harvest earlier4 ,at that season it is not easily cured1 since then rains are more frequent than in the ordinary harvest season and the weather is less drying4 ,consequently1 hay caps may frequently be used with much advantage by the growers of this hay4 7,see page #ih47 ,it is harvested as other clover2 that is1 it is cut with the field mower1 raked when wilted1 put up into cocks1 and left to stand in these until it has gone through the sweating process1 when the cocks are opened out again on a bright day for a few hours prior to drawing them4 ,the tedder should be used freely in getting the hay ready to rake1 as at that season of the year it dries slowly4 ,securing ,seed4--,crimson clover does not ripen quite so quickly after flowering as common red clover1 owing1 in part1 at least1 to the less intense character of the heat and drying influences at the season when it matures4 ,nevertheless1 when it is ripe1 unless it is cut with much promptness1 the seed will shed much from the heads1 and the heads will break off much during the curing process4 ,if cut even two or three days too soon1 the seeds will not be large and plump4 ,moreover1 showery or muggy weather will soon greatly injure the crop4 ,one or two days of such weather after the crop has been cut will stain the seed2 two or three days of the same will cause much of the seed to sprout1 and three or four days will practically ruin the crop4 ,because of the ease with which the seed sheds off the heads1 it is better to cut the seed crop while it is a little damp1 or at least to refrain from cutting during the greatest heat of the day4 ,in some instances it is cut with the mower and raked early or late in the day1 put up in small cocks and threshed from these in four or five days after being cut4 ,but this method of harvesting1 however carefully done1 is attended with much loss of seed4 ,it is better to harvest with the self-rake reaper1 the rakes being so adjusted that the hay will be dropped off in small gavels or sheaves1 so small that in two or three days they may be lifted without being turned over2 ,much care should be exercised in lifting the sheaves to avoid shedding in the seed1 and it should be drawn on wagons with tight racks4 ,while it is not absolutely necessary to thresh the seed crop at once1 the work can usually be done at that time with less outlay and with less loss of seed4 ,it is threshed with a huller or with a grain separator with suitable attachments4 ,some attention must be given to the arrangement of the teeth used in the machine1 lest many of the seeds1 which are large2 should be split2 and as it is not easy to separate the seeds from the haulms1 specially made riddles and sieves must needs be used4 ,the seed crop is usually harvested in ,june north of the ,ohio and ,potomac rivers1 and southward from these in the month of ,may4 ,the yield of seed runs all the way from #aj bushels per acre downwards4 ,the average crop is #d to #e bushels4 ,renewing4--,since crimson clover is an annual1 but little can be done in the sense of renewing it on the same land without breaking the ground4 ,but in orchards1 it is sometimes grown from year to year by what may be termed a process of self-seeding4 ,when the seed is not quite ripe in the heads1 or even somewhat earlier1 the orchard is plowed so as to leave some of the heads standing up along the line of the furrow4 ,when these have matured1 the land is harrowed1 which scatters the seeds in the chaff1 and from these another crop is produced4 ,but to this plan there is the objection that it allows the clover to draw too heavily on the moisture in the soil before it is plowed under4 ,facts ,regarding ,crimson ,clover4--#a4 ,when crimson clover is sown so early in the season that it has at least three to four months in which to grow before winter sets in1 the benefits to the land from sowing the seed will usually more than pay for the seed and labor1 even though it should not survive the winter4 #b4 ,prominent among the causes of failure where crimson clover does not succeed are3 7a7 ,the seed fails to germinate because of the want of moisture1 or having germinated the young plants are killed by heat or drought2 7b7 they perish in the winter from exposure to cold winds or frosts1 or by alternate freezing and thawing in the soil2 or 7c7 the land is too low in fertility to produce a sufficiently vigorous growth in the plants4 #c4 ,the mechanical effects upon the soil from growing crimson clover on it are very marked1 especially when it inclines to stiffness1 owing to the strong development of the root growth4 #d4 ,when crimson clover has been sown in the spring1 a reasonably good growth is usually obtained before midsummer1 even as far north as the ,canadian boundary line1 but since hot weather checks further growth and frequently causes wilting in the plants1 this variety is not equal to some of the other varieties of clover for being sown at that season4 #e4 ,in the ,southern ,states1 crimson clover has been found to render considerable service by aiding in preventing land from washing in the winter season4 #f4 ,when plowed under in orchards1 the work should be done at an early rather than a late stage in the growth of the plants1 lest it should rob the trees of their rightful share of the moisture4 ,because of this1 in some instances1 if not in all1 the plants should be buried before the season of full bloom and sometimes before the blooms begin to open4 #g4 ,the seed is more certain to germinate while yet enclosed in the chaff scales1 and because of this1 where home-grown seed is used1 it may be worth while to secure it in this form by flailing out the seed or treading it out with horses4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,white ,,clover ,white ,clover 7,trifolium repens7 is also called ,dutch1 ,white ,dutch1 ,white ,trefoil1 ,creeping ,trifolium and ,honeysuckle clover4 ,the name ,dutch clover has doubtless been applied to it because of the extent to which it is in evidence in the pastures and meadows of ,holland2 the name ,creeping ,trifolium1 because of the creeping character of the stems1 which1 under favorable conditions1 send roots down into the soil2 and ,honeysuckle clover1 because of the honey supplies which it furnishes for bees4 ,it is one of the plants known as ,shamrock1 the national emblem of ,ireland4 ,white clover is perennial1 the stems of which creep along the ground and1 as above intimated1 root at the joints2 so that from this source plants are indefinitely multiplied4 ,they also come from the seed4 ,the leaves are small and very numerous1 and with the exception of the flower stems and flowers1 furnish all the forage obtained4 ,the flowers are very numerous1 especially when showery weather precedes and accompanies the flowering season4 ,they are large for the size of the plant1 are supported by a leafless stem of considerable length1 and are white or tinted with a delicate rose color4 ,the roots are numerous and fibrous4 ,they cannot go down into the soil so deeply as the larger clovers2 hence1 the dwarfing effect of dry seasons upon the growth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,white ,clover 7,trifolium repens7 ,oregon ,experiment ,station ,this plant is exceedingly hardy4 ,it comes out from under the snow with a green tint1 and the leaves are not easily injured by the frosts of autumn4 ,the growth is not rapid until the general late rains of spring fall freely4 ,it then pushes on rapidly1 and1 sending up innumerable flower stems1 turns the pastures in which it abounds into immense flower gardens in the months of ,may and ,june1 according to the latitude of the locality4 ,the bloom remains out for a considerable time1 and free grazing has the effect of prolonging the period of bloom4 ,under such conditions1 blossoms continue to form and mature seeds during much of the summer4 ,when these escape being grazed1 they fall down upon the land and aid in forming additional plants4 ,hence it is that when white clover has once possessed a soil1 it so stores the land with seed possessed of so much vitality that subsequently white clover plants grow1 as it were1 spontaneously on these lands when they have been thus grazed even for a limited term of years4 ,the power of this useful plant to travel and possess the land is only equalled by that of blue grass4 ,when timber lands are cleared1 white clover plants soon appear1 and in a few years will spread over the whole surface of the land4 ,but the amount of grazing furnished by it varies greatly with the character of the season4 ,some seasons its bloom is scarcely in evidence2 other seasons it overspreads the pastures4 ,while it is an excellent pasture plant for stock1 they do not relish it so highly as some other pasture plants2 when forming seed1 it is least valuable for horses1 owing to the extent to which it salivates them4 ,its diminutive habit of growth unfits it for making meadows1 unless in conjunction with other hay plants4 ,in nutritive properties1 it is placed ahead of medium red clover4 ,some growers have spoken highly of it as a pasture plant for swine4 ,being a legume1 it has the power of enriching soils with nitrogen1 but probably not to so great an extent as the larger varieties of clover4 ,its rootlets1 however1 have a beneficent influence on the texture of soils1 because of their number1 and because of the power of the stems to produce fresh plants1 which occupy the soil when other plants die4 ,the latter furnish a continued source of food to other grasses1 which grow along with white clover in permanent pastures4 ,along with blue grass1 white clover plants aid in choking out weeds4 ,this result follows largely as the outcome of the close sod formed by the two4 ,but in some soils1 plants of large growth and bushes and young trees will not thus be crowded out4 ,distribution4--,white clover is certainly indigenous to ,europe and to the ,northern ,states1 and probably ,western ,asia4 ,it grows in every country in ,europe1 but with greatest luxuriance in those countries which border on the ,north ,sea1 the climates of which are very humid1 and more especially in the ,netherlands and ,great ,britain4 ,it stands in high favor in ,holland1 but is not regarded so highly in ,england1 owing1 probably1 to the great variety of grasses grown there in permanent pastures4 ,it is generally thought that it was not indigenous to the ,southern ,states1 but has reached these from those farther north4 ,it would seem to be capable of growing in all countries well adapted to the keeping of cattle2 hence1 it follows in the wake of successful live-stock husbandry4 ,white clover seems able to adapt itself to a great variety of climatic conditions4 ,nevertheless1 it is certainly better adapted to a moderately cool climate than to one that is hot1 and to a moist1 humid climate than to one that is dry4 ,it has much power to live through dry seasons1 but it will not thrive in a climate in which the rainfall is too little for the successful growth of small cereal grains4 ,where snow covers it in winter1 this clover will grow on timber soils as far north as any kind of cereal can be made to mature2 and it will also grow as far south as the ,mexican boundary on the higher grounds1 when there is enough moisture present to sustain it4 ,it would probably be correct to say that this plant is found in every ,state in the ,union1 and that it succeeds well in nearly all the ,northern ,states1 from sea to sea4 ,although it grows well in certain parts of the ,southern ,states1 especially in those that lie northward1 the general adaptation in these is not so high as in those further north4 ,the highest adaptation in the ,united ,states is probably found in the ,puget ,sound region and in the hardwood timber producing areas of the ,states which lie south from the ,great ,lakes and in proximity to them1 as ,northeastern ,minnesota1 ,northern ,wisconsin1 ,michigan1 ,ohio and ,new ,york4 ,but the adaptation is also high in the more elevated of the mountain valleys of the ,northwestern ,states when irrigated waters may be led on to these lands4 ,the areas lowest in adaptation are those that lie within the semi-arid belt4 ,the low-lying lands of the ,south1 where hot weather is prolonged in summer1 are likewise low in their adaptation1 but not so low as the former4 ,the prairie areas of the ,northern ,mississippi basin have an adaptation for growing white clover that may be termed intermediate1 but where hardwood forests grow naturally on these the adaptation is high4 ,in ,new ,england the climatic conditions are very favorable1 much more so than the soil conditions4 ,in ,canada1 conditions are found highly favorable to the growth of this plant in the country lying eastward from ,lake ,huron1 north of ,lakes ,erie and ,ontario and also on both sides of the ,st4 ,lawrence ,river4 ,adaptation is also high along the ,pacific and in the mountain valleys not distant from the ,pacific4 ,in all the areas of ,canada1 which once produced forests1 this plant will grow well4 ,but north from ,lakes ,huron and ,superior1 the soil conditions are against it1 because of their rocky character4 ,certain forest areas west from ,lake ,superior1 and also in other parts1 the sandy soils of which sustain a growth of ,jack ,pine 7,pinus murrayana7 trees1 do not grow white clover with much vigor4 ,the prairie areas of ,canada1 westward from ,lake ,superior to the mountains1 do not grow white clover with much success1 and the adaptation for its growth would seem to lessen gradually until the ,rocky ,mountains are approached4 ,soils4--,small white clover will grow on almost any kind of soil1 but by no means equally well4 ,highest1 probably1 in adaptation1 especially when climatic conditions are considered along with those of soil1 are the clay loams west of the ,cascade ,mountains and northward from ,california to ,alaska4 ,during the moist months of early summer1 this plant turns the pastures in these areas into a flower garden4 ,almost equally high in adaptation are the volcanic ash soils of the ,rocky ,mountain valleys4 ,when amply supplied with water1 the finest crops of white clover can be grown even superior to those grown on the lands described above4 ,almost the same may be said of what are termed the hardwood timber soils1 which are usually made up of clay loam lying upon clay4 ,such areas abound in ,minnesota1 ,wisconsin1 ,michigan1 ,ontario and some ,states further south4 ,in these soils it grows with much luxuriance1 more especially when lime and potash are abundant4 ,similar luxuriance may be looked for in the deposit soils of river basins in which the clay element predominates1 but not in those that are largely made up of sand4 ,it will also grow well on the stiffest clays1 whether white or red1 when moisture is present4 ,on prairie soils1 the success attending it is dependent largely on their texture1 composition and the moisture which they contain under normal conditions4 ,the more firm these soils are1 the better will the clover grow in them1 and vice versa4 ,this is equivalent to saying that the more clay they contain1 the better will the white clover grow in them4 ,where the humus soils of the prairies are deep and are underlaid with clay1 white clover will grow much better in the subsoil1 if laid bare1 than in the surface soil4 ,prairie soils which lift with the wind are ill adapted to the growth of this plant1 whatsoever may be their composition4 ,much of the soil in the semi-arid belt would grow this plant in fine form1 but want of moisture1 where irrigation is absent makes its growth prohibitory in a large portion of this area4 ,on ordinary slough soils1 this clover finds a congenial home1 but it will not grow quite so well1 relatively1 in these as alsike clover4 ,on sandy soils1 such as those on which ,jack pine and ,norway pine 7,pinus resinosa7 grow1 this plant will maintain itself1 and in wet seasons will make considerable showing on these2 but in very dry seasons the plants will die1 the growth the following season coming from seeds already in the soil4 ,in the soils of the extreme ,south1 the inability of white clover to make a good showing is probably more the result of summer heat than of want of power in the plants to gather food4 ,in those of the ,southwest1 want of moisture and excessive heat render its growth1 in a sense1 prohibitory4 ,place in the ,rotation4--,since white clover is usually not sown for meadow1 but is rather sown for pasture1 it can scarcely be called a rotation plant in the strict sense of the term2 and yet1 because of the extent to which it grows when it has once obtained a footing in soils1 it is more or less frequent in all rotations in which grass or clover is one of the factors4 ,as it usually comes into the grass pastures1 when these have become established1 it will occupy about the same place as blue grass in rotations2 that is to say1 whatever would be proper to sow after the blue grass would be proper to sow after this plant2 since the two usually unite in making the same sod4 ,it will1 therefore1 be in order to follow this plant with corn to feed upon the nitrogen furnished by the clover4 ,the same will be true of any small cereal that has special adaptation for being grown on overturned sod1 as for instance1 flax or oats1 or of any crop that revels in the decay of vegetable matter1 more especially in the early stages of such decay1 as1 for instance1 potatoes and rape4 ,when white clover is sown on land that is cultivated1 though only sown as a factor in a pasture crop1 as with all other clovers it may best be sown on land that is clean2 that is1 on land on which the preceding crop has been cultivated to the extent of securing a clean surface on the same4 ,if1 however1 this crop must needs be sown on land that has not been thus cleaned1 its great inherent hardihood will enable it to establish itself where some clovers and grasses would fail4 ,it is common to sow white clover on land from which the forest has recently been removed1 also on natural prairie1 where it has not previously grown4 ,in these instances it simply follows the crop of forest in the one case and of native prairie in the other4 ,but it will not take possession of the land in either case to the exclusion of other grasses4 ,preparing the ,soil4--,the preparation of the soil for growing this plant is much the same as for growing other plants of the clover or grass family4 ,fineness1 firmness1 cleanness and moistness are the chief essentials to be looked for in making the seed-bed4 ,for the same reason that it has much power to grow among weeds for so small a plant1 it has also much power to grow on surfaces not in the best condition of preparation for receiving so small a seed4 ,but when sown to provide a seed crop1 it is specially necessary to make the land thoroughly clean before sowing the seed4 ,this is necessary for the reason1 first1 that small white clover1 because of its tardiness in growing in the spring1 and because of its comparatively small growth has not much power to crowd weeds2 and second1 because of the labor involved in preventing weed seeds from maturing in a crop that ripens its seeds somewhat late in the season4 ,while it is advantageous to burn off the grass from a natural meadow where white clover1 is to be sown1 it is not so essential1 nevertheless1 as when preparing such land for being sown with some other varieties of grass or clover4 ,the young plants will endure under conditions which would cause those of many other varieties to fail4 ,sowing4--,white clover is sown by much the same methods as the medium red variety4 7,see page #ge47 ,but it will stand more hardship than the other variety2 hence1 it may be sown earlier4 ,this means that it may be sown in northerly latitudes any time1 from the melting of the winter snows until early summer1 and in southern latitudes almost any season1 except during the hot summer months4 ,in either latitude1 however1 the early spring is usually the most suitable season for sowing4 ,the seed may be sown by hand1 by hand machines1 or by the seeder attachment of grain drills4 ,it is more commonly sown along with other clovers and grasses1 and the methods of sowing these will also be suitable for the sowing of white clover4 7,see page #ah47 ,but when the seed is sown alone1 as for producing seed crops1 the nurse crop need not of necessity be sown thinly1 from the fear that the young plants should be smothered by an undue density of shade4 ,there is no mixture of clovers and grasses grown for pasture to which this plant may not be added with profit1 providing the seed is not already in the land in sufficient supply4 ,but it is seldom sown with either clovers or grasses1 or with these combined1 for the production of hay4 ,it is the judgment of the author1 however1 that in localities which have special adaptation for the growth of this plant1 it should render excellent service in providing hay for sheep1 if sown along with alsike clover1 and a little timothy2 the latter being sown mainly to support the clovers so that they will not lodge4 ,the white clover would furnish hay considerably finer even than the alsike2 hence1 such hay should be peculiarly adapted to the needs of sheep4 ,some authorities object to the presence of white clover in hay intended for horses or cattle1 lest it should induce in them more or less salivation4 ,the author leans to the opinion that in cured hay injury from the source named will in no instance prove serious1 owing to the small amount1 relatively1 of white clover in average hay crops4 ,the amount of seed to sow will vary with such conditions as soil1 climate and the nature of the pasture1 but in any event it need not be large4 ,the seeds of white clover are small1 considerably smaller than those of alsike4 ,for ordinary grazing along with other grasses1 or grasses and clovers1 it will seldom be necessary to sow more than #a pound of seed per acre4 ,sometimes a less quantity will suffice1 as when there is more or less of seed in the land1 and1 as already intimated1 because of the store of seed in the land in many instances1 it is not necessary to sow it at all4 ,especially is this true of sections which have been tilled for some time4 ,when sown with alsike clover to provide hay1 #b pounds of seed per acre would be a maximum amount1 and #d pounds when sown alone to provide seed4 ,when sown in newly cleared forest lands or on prairie sod1 the methods to be followed will depend upon circumstances4 ,more commonly when thus sown the seed is not covered artificially2 consequently1 much of it in dry seasons may not grow4 ,the plan1 therefore1 of sowing small amounts of the seed on such lands two years in succession would be safer than to sow twice the amount of the same in one year4 ,in time this clover would find its way into such areas4 ,it comes through such agencies as birds1 hay fed to teams engaged in lumbering1 and the overflow of streams2 and as soon as it gets a foothold its distribution is further accelerated by the droppings of cattle which contain the seeds1 and by the winds4 ,the power of this plant to increase is simply wonderful4 ,this is owing to3 #a4 ,the relatively large number of seedheads produced from the plants4 #b4 ,the power which these have to multiply by means of rootlets from the incumbent stems1 which fasten into the soil4 #c4 ,the prolonged season during which the heads form4 #d4 ,the habit of growth in many of the heads1 because of which they are not grazed off4 #e4 ,the strong vitality of the seed4 ,and #f4 ,the great hardihood of the plants4 ,pasturing4--,white clover ranks next to blue grass as a pasture plant within the area of its adaptation 7see page #bfa71 when its productiveness1 continuity in growth1 ability to remain in the land1 palatability and nutritive properties are considered together4 ,in palatability it ranks as medium only4 ,in the early part of the season while it is still tender and juicy1 it will be eaten by stock with avidity1 but as the seed-maturing season is approached1 it is not so highly relished4 ,in nutrition it ranks higher than medium red clover4 ,it does not make much of a showing in the early part of the season1 but in favorable seasons1 about the time that blue grass begins to fail1 it grows rapidly and furnishes much pasture4 ,it is pre-eminently the complement of a blue-grass pasture4 ,when these grow together1 the two will furnish grazing in a moist year through all the season of grazing4 ,both have the property of retaining their hold indefinitely in many soils and of soon making a sward on the same without being re-sown1 when the cultivation of the ground ceases4 ,the blue grass grows quickly quite early and late in the season1 and the clover grows likewise during much of the summer4 ,as the older plants of the clover fail1 fresh ones appear1 and the blue grass feeds on the former in their decay4 ,they thus furnish humus and nitrogen for the sustenance of the blue grass4 ,but much moisture is necessary in order to insure good blue grass pastures1 and they are more luxuriant when the moisture comes early in the season1 rather than when the plants are nearing the season of bloom4 ,to such an extent is white clover influenced in growth by such weather1 that in some seasons it will abound in certain pastures1 while in others it will scarcely appear in the same4 ,those favorable seasons are frequently spoken of as being white-clover years4 ,while this plant furnishes good grazing for all kinds of domestic animals kept upon the farm1 as a pasture for horses and mules1 there is the objection to it that it will in a considerable degree so salivate them that much slobbering follows4 ,this is sometimes produced to such an extent as to be seriously harmful4 ,the trouble from this cause increases as the seed-forming season is approached4 ,it has been known thus to salivate cattle1 but the danger of injury to them from this source is slight4 ,these injurious results to horses will be obviated in proportion as the other grasses are allowed to grow up amid the clover2 in other words1 in proportion as the pasture is not grazed closely early in the season4 ,the animals which then graze on these pastures must take other food with the clover4 ,harvesting for ,hay4--,since white clover is seldom grown alone for hay1 and since it seldom forms the most bulky factor in a hay crop1 the methods of harvesting will be similar to those practiced in harvesting the more bulky factor or factors of the crop4 ,the want of bulk in this clover is against it as a hay crop1 owing to the smallness of the yields1 compared with the other hay crops that may be usually grown on the same land4 ,as a factor of a hay crop1 however1 this little plant will add much to its weight and also to its palatability1 especially for sheep and dairy cows4 ,when it is grown for hay in mixtures in which the large clovers or timothy predominates1 the white clover should1 of course1 be cut at the most suitable season for cutting these clovers or the timothy1 as one is present in excess4 ,when the larger clovers predominate1 the method of curing will be the same as for curing these 7see page #bcd71 that is to say1 it can best be cured in cocks4 ,when timothy predominates1 the method of curing will be the same as for timothy2 that is to say1 it may be cured in the cock or in the winrow1 according to circumstances4 ,owing to the fineness of the stems1 it may be cured more quickly than red clover2 hence1 its presence in a crop of timothy will not delay much the curing of the latter unless when present in great abundance4 ,under some conditions it would be easily possible to grow white clover for hay alone1 and in some instances with profit1 more especially in providing what would be a matchless fodder for young lambs and young calves4 ,it might be so grown in the clover lands that lie immediately southward from ,lakes ,superior and ,huron1 in the northern ,rocky ,mountain valleys and on the valley lands around ,puget ,sound4 ,on these lands in a favorable season1 it would be quite possible to cut not less than #b tons per acre1 while on average land white clover alone would not yield more1 probably1 than #a_/b ton per acre4 ,but even when grown for the purpose named1 some alsike clover sown along with the white clover would add to the yield of hay1 and without in any considerable degree lessening its value for the use named4 ,securing ,seed4--,white clover is a great seed-producing plant4 ,the season for bloom covers a period relatively long1 and the number of blossoms produced under favorable conditions on a given area is very large4 ,but when seed crops are to be produced with regularity1 it is necessary that moisture can be depended upon in sufficient supply in the spring months to produce a vigorous growth in the plants4 ,such a climate is found in the ,puget ,sound country and in a less degree for some distance south from ,lakes ,huron and ,superior4 ,in areas which can be irrigated1 it is not imperative that the climate shall be thus moist4 ,such areas1 therefore1 may be looked upon as possessed of superior adaptation for the growth of seed crops of white clover4 ,the areas are limited1 however1 in which seed crops are grown in the ,united ,states2 so limited are they that it has been found very difficult to locate them4 ,wood ,county in ,central ,wisconsin grows a considerable quantity1 and some counties northward in the same ,state1 and probably also some parts of ,northern ,michigan1 will grow seed equally well4 ,where a seed crop is grown every care should be exercised to have it free from foul weeds4 ,the aim should be to grow it on clean land4 ,sometimes1 however1 the seed is self-sown2 that is1 it comes into the land without being sown1 but even in such areas it is safer to sow #c pounds of seed per acre in the early spring along with a nurse crop4 ,the best seed crops in ,wisconsin and ,michigan are grown on a reasonably stiff clay soil4 ,to get a full crop of seed1 it should be pastured for a time in the spring1 or the crop should be run over with the mower about ,june #ast1 setting the mower bar so as to cut #c or #d inches high4 ,no harm will follow if some of the tops of the clover should be cut off4 ,the grass and weeds thus cut are usually left on the ground1 but sometimes it may be necessary to remove them4 ,in a short time the field should be one mass of bloom4 ,the crop is ready for being harvested when the bulk of the heads have turned a dark brown and when the bulk of them have assumed a reddish brown tint1 notwithstanding that some of the later heads may still be in full flower4 ,vigorous crops may be cut with the self-rake reaper set to cut low1 otherwise many of the heads will not be gathered4 ,to facilitate this process1 the ground should be made quite smooth even before sowing the seed4 ,but the seed crop is more commonly cut with the field mower1 to the cutter bar of which a galvanized platform is bolted1 the sides of which are about #f inches high4 ,from this the clover is raked off into bunches with a rake4 ,these bunches should not be large1 and since nearly all the heads in them will point upward1 they should not be turned over if rained on1 but simply lifted up with a suitable fork and moved on to other ground4 ,the seed crop cures quickly4 ,it may be drawn and threshed at once1 or it may be stacked and threshed when convenient4 ,if stacked1 a goodly supply of old hay or straw should be put next the ground1 and much care should be taken to protect the clover by finishing off the stack carefully with some kind of grass or hay that will shed the rain easily4 ,since the heads are very small and numerous1 and since1 as with all clovers1 they break off easily when ripe1 much promptness and care should be exercised in harvesting the seed crop4 ,the best machine for threshing a seed so small is the clover huller4 ,the yields of seed will run all the way from less than #c bushels per acre to #e bushels1 and some crops have been harvested in ,wisconsin which gave #g bushels per acre4 ,four bushels would probably be about an average yield4 ,as the price is usually relatively high compared with other clovers1 the seed from white clover would be quite remunerative were it not that in a dry season the yield is disappointing4 ,in some instances two crops are grown in succession2 in others1 one crop is reaped4 ,the land is then sown to barley the next year1 and the following year clover seed may be reaped again without sowing a second time4 ,usually1 after two successive crops of seed have been cut1 blue grass crowds the clover4 ,it should be possible to grow prodigious crops of white clover in certain of the northern ,rocky ,mountain valleys1 as1 for instance1 in ,montana and ,washington1 where the conditions for the application of water to grow the plants and of withholding the same when ripening the seed are completely under the control of the husbandman4 ,the soils in these valleys1 as previously intimated1 have high adaptation for growing white clover4 ,renewing4--,white clover is probably more easily renewed than any plant of the clover family4 ,in fact1 it seldom requires renewal in a pasture in which it has obtained a footing as long as it remains a pasture4 ,this arises from the abundance of the seed production and from the power of the same to retain germinating properties for a long period4 ,nevertheless1 there may be instances when it may be wise to scatter more seed in the early spring in a pasture in which white clover may not be sufficiently abundant4 ,it is also renewed1 in a sense1 when suitable fertilizer is applied on the pastures4 ,a dressing of potash will greatly stimulate the growth of any kind of clover on nearly all soils2 hence1 the marked increase in the growth of the clover that usually follows the application of a dressing of wood ashes1 especially in the unleached form4 ,top-dressings of farmyard manure are also quite helpful to such growth4 ,the conclusion must not be reached that because white clover is not much in evidence in a permanent pasture for one or two1 or even three dry seasons1 if these should follow each other1 that it will not come again and with great vigor and in much abundance when a wet season arrives again4 ,for ,lawns4--,no other plant of the clover family is so frequently sown when making lawns4 ,for such a use it is not sown alone1 but is always the complement of ,kentucky blue grass or of a mixture of grasses4 ,no two plants can be singled out that are more suitable for lawn making than white clover and ,kentucky blue grass4 ,both are fine in their habit of growth4 ,the two in conjunction usually make a more dense sward than either alone1 and the clover will grow and produce many flowers1 if not kept clipped too closely when the blue grass is resting in midsummer4 ,as lawns are usually small1 and a dense sward is desired as quickly as it can be obtained2 the seed should be sown thickly on lawns1 at the rate of not less than #e pounds of seed to the acre4 ,the early spring is the best time for sowing the seed1 but in mild climates it may be sown at almost any season that may be convenient1 providing the ground is moist enough to germinate the seed4 ,in cold climates1 the seed should be sown not later than ,august1 unless when sown too late for autumn germination4 ,this in some instances may not only be proper1 but commendable4 ,as a ,honey ,plant4--,white clover is proverbial for its ability to furnish honey4 ,there is probably no single plant which furnishes more or better honey4 ,but its value for such a use varies greatly in different years4 ,in seasons that are quite dry in the spring1 it makes but little growth and produces but few blossoms2 hence1 in such seasons bees can obtain but little honey1 relatively1 from such a source4 ,it would doubtless be good policy1 therefore1 for the growers to encourage the sowing of alsike clover where bees are much kept1 since the growth of this clover is less hindered by dry weather at the season named4 ,less close pasturing than is commonly practiced would favorably influence the production of honey from white clover1 and would also result in considerably greater yields of pasture4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,japan ,,clover ,japan ,clover 7,lespedeza striata7 was introduced from ,china or ,japan1 or from both countries1 into ,south ,carolina in #ahdi1 under the name ,japan clover4 ,it is thought the seed came in connection with the tea trade with these countries4 ,according to ,phares1 the generic term ,lespedeza1 borne by the one-seeded pods of the plants of this family1 was assigned to them in honor of ,lespedez1 a governor of ,florida under ,spanish rule4 ,it is sometimes called ,bush clover1 from the bush-shaped habit of growth in the plants when grown on good soils1 but is to be carefully distinguished from the ,bush clovers proper1 which are of little value as food plants4 ,japan clover is an annual1 but owing to its remarkable power to retain its hold upon the soil1 through the shedding of the seed and the growing of the same1 it has equal ability with many perennials to retain its hold upon the soil4 ,it does not start until late in the spring1 nor can it endure much frost2 but its ability to grow in and retain its hold upon poor soils is remarkable1 while its powers of self-propagation in the ,south would seem to be nearly equal to those of small white clover 7,trifolum repens7 in the ,north4 ,it is1 therefore1 one of the hardiest plants of the clover family4 ,where it has once obtained a foothold1 in some soils1 at least1 it has been known to crowd out ,bermuda grass and even broom sage4 ,the form of the plants is much affected by the character of the soil in which they grow4 ,on poor soils1 the habit of growth is low and spreading2 on good soils1 it is more upright4 ,but it is always more or less branched1 and the stems are relatively stiffer than those of other clovers4 ,they rise but a few inches above the ground in poor soils1 not more than #b to #d2 but in good rich soils it will attain to the height of #b feet4 ,about #a foot may be named as the average height4 ,the leaves are trifoliate4 ,the flower produced in the axils of the leaves are numerous1 but quite small4 ,they appear from ,july onward1 according to locality1 but are probably more numerous in ,september1 and vary from a pink to a rose-colored or purplish tint4 ,the seed pods are small1 flattish oval in shape and contain but one seed4 ,the tap roots are strong in proportion to the size of the plant and are relatively deep feeding2 hence1 the ability of the plant to survive severe drought4 ,the roots have much power to penetrate stiff subsoils4 ,japan clover is not usually relished by stock at first1 but they soon come to like it1 and are then fond of it4 ,close grazing does not readily injure it2 it also furnishes a good quality of hay1 but except on reasonably good soils1 the yields of the hay are not very large4 ,the chemical analysis compares well with that of red clover4 ,japan clover is also an excellent soil renovator4 ,in the ,southern ,states1 it is credited with the renovation of soils so poor that the return was not worth the labor of tillage4 ,throughout much of the ,south1 it has rendered much service in thus improving soils4 ,it also grows so thickly on many soils as to lessen and1 in many instances1 entirely prevent washing1 that great bane of ,southern soils4 ,it will even grow and produce some pasture under the shade of grass or ,southern pines4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,japan ,clover 7,lespedeza striata7 ,tennessee ,experiment ,station ,distribution4--,japan clover is said to be native to ,china and other countries in ,eastern ,asia4 ,when introduced into ,japan1 the soil and climatic conditions proved so favorable that before long it spread out over the whole island4 ,since its introduction into the ,united ,states it has spread very rapidly4 ,since it does not grow early in the season1 it needs a warm climate4 ,it grows much better in moist weather than in a time of drought1 but it will also continue to grow in the absence of rain until the drought becomes excessive4 ,it will then wilt down on poor soils1 but grows again as soon as rain falls4 ,since the introduction of ,japan clover into the ,united ,states in #ahdi1 or1 as some think1 somewhat earlier1 it has spread over the entire ,south1 from the ,ohio ,river to the ,gulf1 from the ,atlantic to the ,mississippi1 and also to the ,states of ,arkansas1 ,louisiana and ,texas beyond the ,mississippi4 ,it was early introduced into ,georgia1 and came into much favor there4 ,it reached ,tennessee in #ahgj1 and soon spread over many counties4 ,it came later into ,louisiana1 but soon became very popular there1 largely through the efforts of ,colonel ,j4 ,burgess ,mc,ghee of ,west ,feliciana1 who gave much attention to cultivating it and placing it before the public4 ,while it will grow readily in any part of the ,south1 it renders better service in the ,gulf ,states than in those farther north1 owing to the longer season for growth4 ,north of the ,ohio ,river it is not likely to be cultivated1 since in the ,northern ,states it is not needed1 because of the abundance of the red clovers and also the small white4 ,it is a less abundant producer than the red clovers1 and is also less palatable4 ,moreover1 the season for growing it is much shorter in these ,states than in those south2 a fact which greatly lessens its adaptation to northern conditions4 ,japan clover has no mission for any of the provinces of ,canada1 and for the reason that it has no mission for the ,northern ,states4 ,soils4--,japan clover is adapted to a wide range of soils4 ,there would seem to be a concensus of opinion in the ,southern ,states that it will grow on almost any kind of soil4 ,it has grown well on hard1 stiff clays1 both white and red2 on sandy levels2 on gravelly undulations and slopes2 on the banks and in the bottom of gullies2 on soils too poor to produce other crops1 as on denuded hills and also in groves4 ,but it will grow much better1 of course1 on good1 rich land1 as on moist loams and rich alluvial soils4 ,while it prefers moist situations1 it is not well adapted to saturated lands4 ,there is no useful pasture plant in the ,south that would seem so well able to fight its own battle unaided on poor soils as ,japan clover1 nor is there any which has brought so much of renovation to these for the labor involved4 ,place in the ,rotation4--,japan clover can scarcely be classed as a rotation plant in the strict sense of the term1 since it more frequently comes into the fields1 as it were1 spontaneously1 and owing to the uncommon degree to which it has the power of re-seeding itself1 it is frequently grown and grazed for successive years on the land upon which it has been allowed thus to grow4 ,nevertheless1 since it is a nitrogen gatherer1 when it has fertilized the land sufficiently by bringing to it a supply of nitrogen and by putting humus into it1 crops should follow such as require much of growth to grow them in best form4 ,such are cotton1 corn and the small cereal grains4 ,owing to its power to grow on worn and even on abandoned soils1 and to crowd weeds that grow on them1 on such soils it comes in between the cessation of cultivation and the resumption of the same4 ,it frequently grows as a volunteer crop along with ,johnson grass1 and where it comes1 it tends to crowd grasses of but little value1 as brown sage4 ,where pasture is desired winter and summer1 it should be quite possible in some localities to obtain it by sowing such crops annually1 as winter oats and sand vetches 7,vicia villosa7 every autumn1 and the seed of ,japan clover on the same4 ,the crops first named would provide winter and spring grazing1 and the clover1 summer and autumn grazing4 ,the clovers and the vetches would both aid in fertilizing the land4 ,preparing the ,soil4--,while careful preparation of the land will result in more certain and uniform germination in the seed1 and more rapid growth in the plants1 careful preparation of the seed is not so necessary with ,japan clover as with many other pasture and hay plants4 ,the seeds are strong in germinating power and the plants are much able to grow1 even under adverse conditions1 when they do germinate4 ,usually1 the preparation which is suited to nurse crops1 amid which this clover is sown1 will be suited also to the clover when it is sown thus4 ,in many instances1 however1 it is allowed to re-seed itself where it has been once sown1 or even where it may have come into the soil without sowing4 ,in this way successive pasture crops have been obtained4 ,but usually where hay crops are wanted1 it will prove more satisfactory1 all things considered1 to sow the seed4 ,in many instances1 simply scarifying the ground has been found a sufficient preparation for the seed4 ,any implement that will pulverize the surface for a few inches downward will answer for such work4 ,in very many instances1 seed1 of course1 self-sown has become rooted and grown vigorously on unplowed land4 ,sowing4--,japan clover is more commonly sown in the spring1 but it is sometimes sown in the autumn4 ,there is more or less of hazard in sowing it in the autumn north of the ,gulf ,states1 since when the plants are young they will not stand much frost4 ,for the same reason1 there is the element of hazard in sowing it too early in the spring4 ,spring sowing stands highest in favor1 taking the whole area into account1 in which the clover is grown4 ,while it is possible to sow the seed too early in the spring1 it will be readily apparent that the earlier it may be sown without hazard to the young plants1 the better will be the returns1 because of the growth secured before the advent of dry weather4 ,the seed may be sown by any of the methods adopted when sowing medium red clover4 7,see page #gh47 ,the method which is most labor-saving1 however1 when sown with a nurse crop1 is that which sows it with an attachment to the grain drill used in sowing the nurse crop4 ,if allowed to fall in front of the drill tubes1 it will not usually need any other covering than that furnished by the drill tubes followed by the roller4 ,it may be sown with any of the small cereals1 whether these are grown for pasture1 for hay1 or for grain4 ,when these are fall sown and the clover seed is not sown until the spring1 it will be well worth while1 when the weather and soil will admit of it1 to cover the seed with the harrow4 ,it may also be advisable to sow the seed in pastures1 as1 for instance1 along with orchard grass1 or with tall oat grass1 as it would tend to fill the vacancies in the land4 ,when sown alone1 #aj pounds of seed per acre will usually suffice4 ,but where there is much seed in the land that has been self-sown1 a less quantity will suffice4 ,where hay crops are wanted from year to year on the same land1 it may be obtained by simply disking the land and re-sowing4 ,if the hay is allowed to approach maturity before being cut1 sufficient seed will fall to re-sow the land for the next year's crop1 but the quality of hay so ripe is not so good as if cut earlier4 ,in pastures1 the grazing must not be too close when self-seeding is wanted4 ,pasturing4--,japan clover is much used in providing grazing in the ,south4 ,some writers have spoken of it as being the most valuable grazing plant that grows in the ,south4 ,viewed from the standpoint of productiveness1 this would be assigning it too high a place1 since ,bermuda grass produces more grazing1 but taking productiveness and the probable influence exerted on soil fertility together1 the estimate may be correct4 ,the ease with which ,japan clover may be propagated is also a strong point in its favor4 ,since it starts late in the spring1 it only provides grazing during the summer and autumn months1 from ,may1 ,june or ,july onward1 according to the locality1 and it fails with the appearance of the first heavy frosts4 ,in moist situations1 it will furnish grazing during all the summer and autumn1 if not allowed to seed1 but in time of drought1 it may wither on dry1 thin soils and come on again when the rains of autumn begin to fall4 ,in order to keep the grazing tender and palatable1 it should be reasonably close4 ,if allowed to mature much seed before grazing begins1 the plants will then die1 to the great injury of the grazing4 ,that stock do not take kindly to it at first1 as they do to alfalfa and some other plants1 cannot be doubted4 ,but they can soon learn to relish it4 ,it has been praised both for milk and meat production2 hence1 the aim should be to have it in all permanent pastures4 ,in some of these it may be necessary to sow a few pounds of seed per acre at the first4 ,if the grazing is not too close1 the plants thereafter will sufficiently re-seed the land4 ,it has been found quite possible in short rotations to secure pasture from ,japan clover without sowing it on land on which it has once grown4 ,but to accomplish this effectively1 the grazing must not be so close as to preclude a self-seeding4 ,by growing such plants for winter and spring grazing1 as turf oats and sand vetches1 and then grazing the ,japan clover1 which will grow later on lands thus managed1 grazing may be furnished indefinitely from year to year4 ,harvesting for ,hay4--,japan clover is a good hay plant when grown on strong soils4 ,the quality is good also when grown under adverse conditions1 but the quantity is deficient4 ,on good soils1 the yield is from #a to #b tons per acre1 the average being about #a-a_/d to #a-a_/b tons4 ,the hay is also quite merchantable in ,southern markets4 ,it is considered superior to baled timothy--timothy brought in from the ,north--especially when fed to cows producing milk4 ,japan clover is best cut when the plants are in full bloom4 ,but harvesting is frequently deferred to a period somewhat later where self-seeding of the land is desirable4 ,late cutting1 however1 lowers the quality of the hay1 both as regards palatability and digestibility4 ,much that has been said as to the curing of medium red clover will also apply to ,japan clover4 ,successive crops of hay may be grown from year to year on the same land1 as already intimated4 7,see page #bhe47 ,but where other crops are wanted on the same farm1 it would be wiser to grow these in some sort of alternation or succession with the clover crops1 so that the former could feed upon the nitrogen brought to the land by the clover4 ,securing ,seed4--,japan clover is ready for being harvested when the major portion of the seeds are ripe4 ,this is late in the season4 ,the seed crop is more easily gathered when grown on good land1 owing to the more upright habit of growth4 ,the self-rake reaper is probably the best implement for cutting1 since it lays it off in loose sheaves1 and on well-prepared land it may be made to cut so low as to gather the bulk of the seed4 ,but it may also be cut with the field mower as small white clover is frequently cut4 7,see page #bge47 ,owing to the lateness of the season at which the seed matures1 careful and prompt attention may be necessary to secure the seed crop without loss1 owing to the moistness which characterizes the weather at that season4 ,when ,japan clover is to be harvested for seed1 care should be taken to prevent weeds from ripening their seeds in the same4 ,with a view to prevent this1 it will be found helpful in many instances to run the mower over the field some time after the clover has begun to grow freely in the late spring or early summer4 ,such clipping will also have the effect of securing more uniformity in the ripening of the seed4 ,the seed may be threshed in much the same way as other clover seed4 7,see page #ajg47 ,the yields per acre should run from #c to #h bushels4 ,it weighs #bj pounds per bushel4 ,renewing4--,since ,japan clover is an annual1 it is not necessary to renew it1 in the sense in which more long-lived clovers are renewed1 as1 for instance1 the alsike variety4 7,see page #baf47 ,about the only renewal practicable is that which insures successive crops of pasture1 hay or seed from the same land where the crop has once been grown4 7,see page #bhe47 ,but the growth may1 of course1 be stimulated by the application of dressings of fertilizer1 such as gypsum1 or those that may be termed potassic in character4 ,,chapter ,x ,,burr ,,clover ,burr ,clover 7,medicago maculata7 is sometimes called ,spotted ,medick and sometimes ,california clover1 also ,yellow clover4 ,the name burr clover has doubtless arisen from the closely coiled seed pod1 which1 being covered with curved prickles1 adhere to wool more or less as burrs do4 ,the name ,spotted ,medick has been given because of the dark spot found in the middle of the leaflets1 in conjunction with the family of plants to which it belongs4 ,the name ,california clover is given because of the claim that it was much grown in ,california after having been introduced there from ,chili1 and the name yellow clover1 from the color of the blossoms4 ,after its introduction into the ,united ,states1 seedsmen sell ,california and ,southern burr clover as two varieties1 but the correctness of the distinction thus made has been questioned4 ,many persons were wont to confuse it with alfalfa1 or1 as it is frequently called1 lucerne1 but the latter is much more upright in its habit of growth1 grows to a greater height1 has more blossoms1 blue in color1 and seed pods more loosely coiled4 ,it is also to be distinguished from a variety 7,medicago denticulata7 which bears much resemblance to it1 and which1 growing wild over portions of the plains and foothills of the ,west1 affords considerable pasture4 ,burr clover may properly be termed a winter annual1 since the seed comes up in the autumn1 furnishes grazing in the winter and spring1 and dies with the advent of summer4 ,it is procumbent or spreading and branched4 ,on good soil some of the plants radiate to the distance of several feet from the parent root4 ,they have been known to overlap1 and thus accumulate until the ground was covered #b feet deep with this clover1 thus making it very difficult to plow them under4 ,it is only under the most favorable conditions1 however1 that the plants produce such a mass of foliage4 ,the leaves are composed of three somewhat large leaflets4 ,the flowers1 as previously intimated1 are yellow1 and there are but two or three in each cluster1 but the clusters are numerous2 hence1 also the pods are numerous4 ,they are about #a_/d of an inch broad1 and when mature are possessed of considerable food value4 ,burr clover grows chiefly during the winter1 and is at its best for pasture during the months of ,march and ,april1 and in the ,gulf ,states dies down after having produced seed in ,may4 ,though it is frequently sown1 it has the power of self-propagation to a marked degree1 which makes it possible to grow many crops in succession without re-seeding by hand4 ,it is not considered a good hay plant1 but its value for pasture is considerable1 although1 as a rule1 animals do not take kindly to it at first1 as they do to alfalfa or medium red clover1 but later they become fond of it1 but less so1 probably1 in the case of horses than of other animals4 ,being a legume1 it is helpful in enriching the land1 and being a free grower1 it improves the soil mechanically through its root growth1 and also through the stems and leaves1 when these are plowed under4 ,distribution4--,burr clover is said to be native to ,europe and ,north ,africa1 but not to ,north ,america1 although it has shown high adaptation in adapting itself to conditions as found in the latter4 ,although this plant is hardy in the ,south1 and1 as previously stated1 makes most of its growth in the winter1 it is not sufficiently hardy to endure the winters far northward4 ,its highest adaptation is found in ,states around the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,it also grows with more or less vigor as far north as ,north ,carolina1 ,tennessee and ,arkansas4 ,for these ,states its adaptation is1 on the whole1 higher than crimson clover1 although where the latter will grow readily it is considered the valuable plant of the two4 ,for ,canada1 burr clover has no mission1 owing to the sternness of the winter climate in that country4 ,soils4--,while burr clover will grow with more or less success on almost any kind of soil possessed of a reasonable amount of fertility and moisture1 it is much better adapted to soils alluvial in character and moist1 as1 for instance1 the deposit soils in the bottom of rivers4 ,its power to fight the battle of existence on poor lands is much less than that of ,japan clover1 but on soils that grow crops1 such as corn or cotton1 it may be made to render a service which the other cannot1 since it grows chiefly in winter and early spring1 whereas ,japan clover grows in the summer and early autumn1 when cultivated crops occupy the land4 ,place in the ,rotation4--,burr clover is grown more in the sense of a catch crop and for pasture than in that of a crop to be marketed directly4 ,since it is grown in the winter and spring1 it may be made to come in between various crops4 ,on good producing lands of the ,south it has given satisfaction as a pasture plant for winter for many successive years without re-sowing by hand1 when sown in conjunction with crab grass 7,panicum sanguinale7 for hay4 ,dr4 ,phares grew it thus in ,mississippi for about #bj years4 ,in ,june crab grass sprang up on the ground1 and being cut when in blossom1 produced a good crop of hay in ,august4 ,a lighter cutting was again taken in ,october4 ,the clover then took possession of the land and was grazed until spring1 but not so closely as to prevent re-seeding in ,may1 after which the plants died down4 ,by thus allowing the plants to mature seed1 any crop may follow that can be grown after ,may4 ,by following burr clover with cow peas1 land may be much fertilized in one year4 ,by reversing the process on land low in fertility1 that is1 sowing the peas first and the clover later1 a much better growth of the clover will be secured4 ,the seed may also be sown in corn and cotton crops1 with a view to enriching the land4 ,but it is only in the ,gulf ,states that much attention is given to growing burr clover thus1 and for the reason1 probably1 that the winters are too cold to admit of the plants furnishing a sufficiency of grazing at that season4 ,burr clover is sometimes grown with ,bermuda grass4 ,the latter furnishes summer grazing4 ,there is some merit in the plan1 if the seed of the burr clover were sown from year to year4 ,when the re-seeding of the plants is depended on from season to season there is difficulty in adjusting the grazing so as to admit of the plants properly re-seeding for the growth that is to follow4 ,if the ,bermuda grass is not closely grazed many of the burrs which contain the seeds may not reach the ground in time to germinate4 ,preparing the ,soil4--,since burr clover has much power to re-seed the land without preparation1 it is more commonly reproduced thus4 ,but1 as with all other plants1 it will grow more quickly and more luxuriantly on a well-prepared seed-bed1 where it may be thought worth while to thus prepare the land4 ,the cultivation given to such crops as corn1 cotton or cow peas makes an excellent preparation of the soil on which to sow burr clover4 ,sowing4--,usually1 burr clover is allowed to re-seed itself after it has once become established in the soil4 ,in this respect it is not unlike small white clover and ,japan clover1 but it does not grow so well as these on poor soil4 ,where not yet established1 it must1 of course1 be sown where it is desired to grow it4 ,the seed is commonly sown in ,september or early ,october1 but some growers recommend sowing in the burrs as early as ,june or ,july1 that the tough surrounding which encloses the seed may have time to decay4 ,when seed separate from the burr is used1 it is sown in the months named4 ,when sown on well-prepared soil1 grazing should be plentiful from ,february onward4 ,burr clover is more commonly sown in the burr4 ,the burrs are usually scattered by hand and on land that has been pulverized1 but it is easily possible1 when the conditions are favorable1 to obtain a stand on land that has not been plowed4 ,where seed is scarce1 the burrs are sometimes planted in squares #c feet apart each way1 a limited number of burrs being dropped at one time4 ,when thus planted1 #a bushel of burrs will plant several acres4 ,the plants will soon possess all the ground1 but to enable them to do so1 pasturing must be deferred for one season4 ,whether sown in the burr or otherwise1 it is better to cover the seed with the harrow4 ,one bushel of burrs weighs from #aj to #ab pounds4 ,it has been stated #a bushel of clean seed weighs #fj pounds4 ,when sown in the burr1 it is usual to sow #c to #e bushels per acre1 but in some instances less is sown and in some more4 ,when seed apart from the burr is sown #ab pounds per acre should suffice4 ,in some instances it is sown on ,bermuda sod1 but the attempts to grow it thus have not always proved satisfactory4 ,at the ,louisiana ,experiment ,station it was found that the burr clover remained long enough and grew large enough to injure the ,bermuda4 ,possibly closer grazing would have prevented such injury4 ,when sown on ,bermuda grass1 ,june1 ,july or ,august are the months chosen for scattering the seed4 ,burr clover is also sometimes sown in corn and cotton to provide winter grazing1 but when thus sown the object more frequently sought is to enrich the land4 ,both ends may be accomplished in some degree4 ,pasturing4--,opinions differ as to the palatability of this grass4 ,all are agreed that stock do not take kindly to it at first1 but that they come to relish it at least reasonably well when accustomed to it4 ,it is said to be relished less by horses and mules than by other domestic animals4 ,it has been praised as a pasture for swine4 ,it is more palatable in the early stages of its growth1 and will bear close grazing1 and also severe tramping4 ,it will provide pasture for six months1 but not so bountifully in the first months of growing as later4 ,harvesting for ,hay4--,burr clover is not a good hay plant4 ,owing to the recumbent character of the growth it is not easily mowed1 nor has it much palatability in the cured form4 ,the yield is said to be from #a_/b to #a ton per acre4 ,securing ,seed4--,in the ,gulf ,states the seed matures in ,april and ,may4 ,the plants grow seed profusely4 ,sown in ,october1 stock may usually be allowed free access to it until ,march1 and if then removed1 it will spring up quickly and mature seed so profusely that when the plants die and partially decay seed may sometimes be collected in hollows1 into which it has been driven by the wind4 ,it is more commonly sown in the burr form1 the form in which it is usually gathered4 ,the more common method of saving the seed1 as given by ,mr4 ,a4 ,h4 ,beattie of ,starkville1 ,mississippi1 is to first rake off the dead vines so as to leave the burrs on the ground and then sweep them together with a suitable wire or street broom4 ,it is then lifted and run through two sets of sifters of suitable mesh by hand to remove the trash swept up in gathering the seed4 ,it is probable that other methods more economical of labor are yet to be devised when harvesting the seed crop4 ,as much as #ajj bushels of burrs have been obtained from an acre1 but that is considerably more than the average yield of seed4 ,renewing4--,since this plant is an annual1 it cannot be renewed in the sense in which renewal is possible with a perennial4 ,but as has been shown above 7see page #bid71 it may be grown annually for an indefinite period in the same land and without re-sowing by hand4 ,it has also been shown that by sowing the seed in certain crops at the proper season1 from year to year1 it may be made to grow from year to year where the rotation will admit of this4 7,see page #bie47 ,when the ground is well stored with seed1 the plants will continue to come up freely in the soil for at least two or three years1 even without any re-seeding of the land4 ,as a ,fertilizer4--,the growing of burr clover exercises a beneficial influence on the land4 ,its value for this purpose1 since it can be grown as a catch crop1 is probably greater than its value in providing food for stock4 ,like all plants that are more or less creeping in their habit of growth1 it shades the soil and keeps it moist1 which1 in conjunction with the influence of the roots1 puts it in a friable condition4 ,when the plants grow rankly1 it is not easy to bury them properly with the ordinary plow1 but in such instances1 if cut up with a disk harrow1 the work is facilitated4 ,the plants quickly die down so as to make plowing easily possible1 but the aim should be to have such decay take place within the soil rather than above it4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,sweet ,,clover ,sweet clover is so named from the sweet odor which emanates from the living plants4 ,it is of two species4 ,these are designated1 respectively1 ,melilotus alba and ,melilotus officinalis4 ,the former is also called ,bokhara clover1 ,white ,melilot and ,tree clover4 ,it is possibly more widely known by the name ,bokhara than by any other designation4 ,the latter is sometimes called ,yellow clover4 ,the difference between these in appearance and habits of growth does not seem to be very marked1 except that the blossoms of the former are white and those of the latter are yellow4 ,sweet clover is upright and branched in its habit of growth4 ,it attains to a height of from #b to #h feet1 according to the soil in which the plants grow4 ,the somewhat small and truncate leaves are not so numerous1 relatively1 as with some other varieties of clover1 and the stems are woody in character1 especially as they grow older4 ,the blossoms are small and white or yellow1 according to the variety1 and the seed pods are black when ripe4 ,the roots are large and more or less branched1 and go down to a great depth in the soil2 especially is this true of the main1 or tap root4 ,the plants1 according to ,beale1 are annual or biennial1 but more commonly they are biennial4 ,they do not usually blossom the year that they are sown1 but may blossom within a year from the date of sowing4 ,for instance1 when sown in the early autumn1 they may bloom the following summer4 ,they are exceedingly hardy1 having much power to endure extremes of heat and cold1 and to grow in poor soils and under adverse conditions4 ,in some soils they take possession of road sides and vacant lands1 and continue to grow in these for successive years4 ,the impaction of such soils by stock treading on them seems rather to advance than to hinder the growth4 ,they start growing early in the spring and grow quickly1 especially the second year4 ,they come into bloom in ,june1 early or later1 according to the latitude1 and ordinarily only in the year following that in which they were sown4 ,because of the fragrant odor which is emitted from the plants as they grow1 they are sometimes introduced into gardens and ornamental grounds4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,sweet ,clover 7,melilotus alba7 ,tennessee ,experiment ,station ,the uses of the plants are at least three4 ,it has some value as a food for live stock4 ,it has much value as a fertilizer4 ,it has probably even more value as a food for bees4 ,it has also been used in binding soils4 ,its value as a food for stock has probably been overestimated4 ,it is bitter1 notwithstanding the fragrant odor that emanates from it2 hence1 it is not relished by stock1 insomuch that they will not eat it when they can get other food that is more palatable4 ,as hay1 it is hard to cure and of doubtful palatability when cured4 ,as a fertilizer1 its value does not seem to have been sufficiently recognized1 and the same is probably true of it as bee pasture1 although many bee-keepers are alive to its great merit for such a use4 ,this plant does not seem to find much favor with many4 ,the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture has spoken of it as a weedy biennial1 concerning which extravagant claims have been made4 ,the laws of some ,states proscribe it as a weed1 and impose penalties directed against any who allow it to grow4 ,legislatures should be slow to class a legume as a weed1 especially one that has much power to enrich soils4 ,the author cherishes the opinion that this plant has a mission in the economy of agriculture and of considerable importance to farmers1 especially in soils that are poor and worn1 as soon as they come to understand it properly4 ,distribution4--,sweet clover is probably indigenous to the semi-arid regions of ,asia4 ,the name ,bokhara would seem to indicate as much1 but it is also found in many parts of ,europe1 and if the facts were known1 was doubtless brought from ,europe to ,north ,america by the first settlers4 ,for many decades it has been represented in many flower gardens in all parts of the country4 ,the plant will endure almost any amount of cold when it is once established4 ,it has stood well the winters of ,manitoba4 ,it can also endure extreme summer heat1 since it thrives well in some parts of ,texas4 ,it grows most vigorously where the rainfall is abundant1 as in ,western ,oregon1 and it makes a strong growth in the dry areas of ,western ,kansas and ,nebraska4 ,sweet clover will grow vigorously in some part or parts of every ,state in the ,union4 ,of course1 it has higher adaptation for some conditions than others4 ,in some of the ,central and ,southern ,states1 it has multiplied to such an extent without cultivation as to have assumed the character of a weed2 hence1 the legislation against it4 ,when it is called to mind that this plant is a legume1 and when the further fact is recognized that it may be used not only in enriching soils1 but at the same time improving them mechanically1 in addition to other benefits that it may be made to render1 surely the enactments which prohibit its growth should be repealed in any ,state where these exist4 ,in the ,northern ,states1 with a normal rainfall1 the mission of this plant is likely to be circumscribed1 for the reason that other legumes possessed of a much higher food value may be grown in these4 ,in the ,southern ,states1 its mission will be more important1 since it may be used in some of these with decided advantage in binding soils and in renovating them1 even when too poor to produce a vigorous growth of cow peas4 ,it is likely also that it may yet be made to render good service in the semi-arid country west of the ,mississippi ,river1 where other clovers cannot be grown4 ,sweet clover will grow in all the provinces of ,canada4 ,for economic uses1 however1 it is not likely to grow to any great extent east of ,lake ,superior1 or west of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,other legumes more useful may be grown in these areas4 ,but in the intervening wheat-growing region it is possible that it may come to be used for purposes of soil renovation4 ,soils4--,but little can be gleaned from ,american sources on this subject4 ,notwithstanding1 it may be said with safety that it has greater power to grow on poor1 worn and hard soils than any forage plant that has yet been introduced into ,america for economic uses4 ,it will probably be found true of it1 as of other clovers1 that it will thrive best on soils that have produced timber1 and more especially timber of the hardwood varieties4 ,this means1 therefore1 that it will grow well in probably all kinds of clay soils and also in loam soils underlaid with clay4 ,it has high adaptation for soils abounding in lime4 ,it can be made to succeed on hard clay subsoils from which the surface soil has been removed4 ,but it will also grow well on sandy soils and even on gravels when a reasonable amount of moisture is present4 ,the author succeeded in growing it in good form in #ahig and #ahih in a vacant lot in ,st4 ,paul1 from which #f to #h feet of surface soil had been removed a short time previously4 ,the subsoil was so sandy that it would almost have answered for building uses4 ,this clover will probably grow with least success on soils of the prairie so light in texture as to lift with the winds1 and in which the underlying clay is several feet from the surface1 also in slough soils that are much saturated with water4 ,since it grows vigorously on road sides1 in rocky waste places and even in brick yards when sown without a covering1 the idea has gained currency that the harder the soil1 the better the plants will grow1 and the more surely will they be established in the soil2 but this view does not seem to be in accord with the principles which usually govern plant growth4 ,it will1 however1 send its roots down into hard subsoils so deeply that in certain seasons the plants could not be dug up without the aid of a pick4 ,place in the ,rotation4--,since sweet clover seed is more commonly scattered in byplaces1 or is self-sown from plants that have run wild1 it can scarcely be said that it has ever been grown as a regular crop and in a regular rotation4 ,nor is it ever likely to become a factor in such a rotation unless its properties shall be so modified that it can be grown acceptably as a pasture plant4 ,in such an event it would have the same place in the rotation as other clovers2 that is1 it would naturally follow a cultivated1 that is1 a cleaning crop1 and precede some crop or a succession of crops that would profit from the nitrogen and humus which it had brought to the soil1 and also from the influence which the roots would exercise mechanically upon the same4 ,but the necessity for sowing it on clean ground would not be so great as with the other clovers1 since it has greater power than these to overshadow weeds when the two grow together4 ,in the meantime1 this plant will probably continue to be grown as in the past2 that is1 if sown1 it will be sown3 #a4 ,in byplaces to provide pasture for bees1 in which case in time it will be superseded by other plants4 #b4 ,on worn lands so poor that they refuse to grow valuable food products sown1 partly1 at least1 with a view to renovate them4 ,and #c4 ,in cuttings made by railroads and in gullies that have been made in fields1 with a view to prevent soil movement4 ,it may also come to be sown in grain crops in localities where other varieties of clover will not grow1 to be plowed under the following spring4 ,preparing the ,soil4--,since sweet clover will grow on the firmest and most forbidding soils1 even when self-sown1 it would not seem necessary1 ordinarily1 to spend much time in specially preparing a seed-bed for it4 ,the fact stated is proof of its ability to grow on a firm surface4 ,it does not follow1 however1 that such a condition of the seed-bed will give a better stand of the plants than a pulverized condition of the same1 as some have contended4 ,it may be that on soils that are quite loose near the surface1 and under conditions that incline to dry a seed-bed firm and even hard1 may be more conductive to growth in the plants than one in which the conditions are the opposite4 ,much rolling of loose soils has been recommended when preparing the seed-bed with a view to firm them4 ,when the seed is sown along with grain1 the preparation of the soil needed for grain would be ample preparation also for the clover4 ,when sown on stubble land1 in many instances no preparation by way of stirring the soil would seem necessary4 ,and when sown on railroad embankments1 road sides1 rocky situations and byplaces generally no preparation of the soil would be possible4 ,sowing4--,in the ,north sweet clover is best sown in the spring4 ,in fact1 it can only be sown then with the assurance that it will survive the winter north of a certain limit4 ,that limit will vary with altitude1 but it will probably run irregularly across the ,middle ,states1 from the ,atlantic westward to the ,cascade ,mountains1 beyond which it will veer away to the ,north4 ,in the ,southern ,states1 it may be sown fall or spring1 but if sown late in the fall the young plants will in some instances succumb to the frost of winter4 ,early fall sowing1 therefore1 is much to be preferred to sowing late4 ,the method of sowing may be the same as in sowing medium red clover 7see page #gh72 that is1 when the seed is sown with grain crops4 ,when sown in byplaces1 it will ordinarily be sown by hand4 ,in such places it will re-seed itself and will likely grow in these for successive seasons4 ,on railroad embankments1 the seed is scattered more commonly on the upper portion1 and from the plants which grow there the seeds produced scatter downward4 ,the plants not only lessen washing in the soil1 but they prepare the same for the growth of grasses4 ,they also aid thus in the introduction of grasses into rocky and very hard soils4 ,sweet clover may be sown with almost any kind of a nurse crop desired1 which does not destroy it with an over-abundant shade4 ,or it may be sown alone where such a necessity exists4 ,but the instances are not numerous in which it would be desirable or necessary to sow it alone on arable soils4 ,there may be conditions when it could be sown successfully at the time of the last cultivation given to corn and with a view to soil enrichment4 ,since sweet clover is seldom sown for the purpose of providing food for live stock1 it is not sown in mixtures1 nor is it well adapted for being sown thus1 because of the large and luxuriant character of the growth1 which would tend to smother other plants sown along with it4 ,the amount of seed to sow has been variously stated at from #ae to #bj pounds per acre4 ,the smaller amount should be enough for almost any purpose1 and a much smaller amount should suffice for sowing in byplaces and along road sides1 where the plants retain possession of the ground through self-seeding4 ,pasturing4--,because of the bitter aromatic principle which it contains1 known as commarin1 stock dislike it1 especially at the first4 ,and it is questionable if they can be educated to like it in areas where other food1 which is more palatable1 grows abundantly4 ,in an experiment directed by the author at the ,minnesota ,university ,experiment ,station1 sheep pastured upon it1 and did not take kindly to it2 but by turning them in to graze upon it in the morning1 they cropped it down4 ,in localities where good grazing is not plentiful1 if live stock have access to it1 especially when the plants are young1 they will so crop it down that in a few years it will entirely disappear4 ,but where other pastures are abundant1 it will continue to grow indefinitely4 ,it would not seem wise to sow it for the purpose of providing grazing1 unless where the conditions for growing other and better grazing are unfavorable4 ,some have spoken favorably of sweet clover for soiling uses4 ,it makes a very rapid growth quite early in the season1 and when cut and wilted more or less before being fed1 the palatability is thereby considerably increased4 ,small plots of this plant near the outbuildings may in this way be utilized with some advantage in the absence of better soiling plants4 ,harvesting for ,hay4--,sweet clover is not a really good hay plant under any conditions1 and if not cut until it becomes woody1 is practically valueless for hay4 ,it ought to be cut for hay a little before the stage of bloom4 ,if cutting is longer deferred1 the plants become woody4 ,such early cutting1 however1 adds much to the difficulty of curing the crop1 since1 while naturally succulent1 its succulence is then1 of course1 considerably more than at a later period4 ,it should be cured like medium red clover4 7,see page #if47 ,if not cut sufficiently early1 and cured with as much care as is exercised in curing alfalfa1 there will be considerable loss from the shedding of the leaves4 ,more commonly the plants are not cut for hay the year that they are sown1 but some seasons such harvesting is entirely practicable in certain situations4 ,the hay crop or crops are usually taken the second year4 ,sometimes the crop is cut twice4 ,it is entirely practicable to obtain two cuttings under ordinary conditions1 because of the vigor in the growth1 and because of the early season at which it must be harvested for hay4 ,from #c to #d or #e tons may thus be obtained in many instances from the two cuttings4 ,securing ,seed4--,nearly all of the seed sown in this country is imported4 ,the author has not been able to obtain information with reference to growing seed within the ,united ,states2 hence1 the inference is fair that but little of it has been grown for that purpose up to the present time4 ,since1 however1 it seeds freely1 and since the price of seed is high1 seed crops1 more especially when the plants are also utilized as bee pasture1 ought to prove remunerative in the hands of judicious growers4 ,the seed crop is obtained usually1 if not always1 the second year after the sowing4 ,if cut for hay before coming into bloom1 it will grow up again and bear seed profusely4 ,this would seem preferable on strong soils1 as it would prevent that rankness in growth which would militate against abundant seed production1 and which would add much to the labor of handling the crop4 ,the seed crop may be cut and handled in substantially the same way as medium red clover when grown for seed4 ,it may also be cured and thrashed essentially in the same way4 7,see page #aje47 ,the author has not been able to obtain information with reference to the average yield of the seed crop under ,american conditions4 ,the seed1 like that of the medium red variety1 should weigh #fj pounds per bushel4 ,renewing4--,in the sense of a pasture or hay crop1 it would not seem necessary to try to renew this crop1 because of the relatively low value which it possesses for these uses4 ,when grown for bee pasture1 it will renew itself for an indefinite period when the plants are not cut for seed and where the conditions are favorable to growth4 ,when grown to keep soils from washing or railroad embankments from breaking down1 it will1 of course1 renew itself in the same way4 ,in time1 however1 it is usually superseded by some kind of grass1 for which it has prepared the way by the ameliorating and renewing influence which it exerts upon the soil4 ,value for ,bee ,pasture4--,all authorities are agreed as to the high value of this plant as a honey producer4 ,the claim has been made for it that for such a use it is more valuable acre for acre than any ordinary grain crop4 ,by cutting a part of the crop before it comes into bloom1 the season of honey production may be prolonged from1 say1 ,july #ast until some time in the autumn1 as the part thus cut will come into bloom after the blooms have left the plants that were cut4 ,when not disturbed1 sweet clover yields honey in the interval between the blooming of the basswood and the golden rod4 ,the honey is of excellent quality4 ,there should be no good reasons1 therefore1 why bee-keepers should not sow the seed in by and waste places4 ,but the wisdom of growing it as a honey-producing crop on valuable land where other honey crops1 as alsike and white clover1 can be grown in good form may be questioned4 ,value as a ,fertilizer4--,the high value of this plant as a fertilizer and soil improver cannot be questioned4 ,but whether it should ever be sown for such a use will depend on the capacity of the soil to produce other crops valuable for fertilizing and also more valuable for producing forage or fodder4 ,where other clovers more useful can be grown1 also cow peas1 soy beans and other legumes valuable for food uses1 it would seem unwise to sow sweet clover4 ,this would restrict its use1 therefore1 as a soil renovator2 first1 to soils too poor to grow those useful legumes2 second1 to areas where the climate conditions will not admit of the growth of these2 and third1 to areas from which the surface soil has been removed1 and which it is desirable to so ameliorate and improve the soil thus laid bare that it could later be covered with some more valuable cover crop4 ,under present conditions this would restrict its growth for the purpose named to sandy and gravelly soils1 to certain areas in the semi-arid region east of the ,rocky ,mountains1 and to such small areas as the surface soil had been removed from4 ,in the semi-arid region where crops of grain and also some varieties of field corn can be grown successfully1 but where the clovers are not successful2 it would seem practicable to sow a few pounds of sweet clover seed per acre at the same time as the grains1 and to plow under the plants produced some time in the month of ,may the next season4 ,the clover thus buried could be at once followed by corn or potatoes1 or1 indeed1 by any kind of a cleaning crop4 ,the high price of seed at present practically forbids growing clover thus4 ,whether sweet clover grown for renovating uses should be turned under the season in which it has been sown will depend largely on the growth that has been made4 ,in many instances1 the growth made is so rank as to justify plowing it under the following autumn4 ,in other instances1 better results will follow plowing it under the next season4 ,it frequently happens that the growth made is so rank that a strong plow and also a strong team are necessary to do the work properly4 ,value on ,alkali soils4--,this plant has been grown to some extent to aid in removing alkali from soils superabundantly impregnated with the same4 ,it will grow1 it is claimed1 under certain conditions on such soils so surcharged with alkali as to prohibit almost every other form of vegetable growth4 ,the extent to which it may be thus used profitably had not yet been fully demonstrated4 ,but where it can be grown on such soils1 the fact that it takes up and removes relatively large quantities of alkali would appear to be well established4 ,destroying the ,plants4--,should the conditions be found so favorable to the growth of the plant that it persists in growing where it is not wanted1 it will soon cease to appear1 if prevented from going to seed4 ,ordinarily1 the blossoms appear only during the second year of growth4 ,if1 therefore1 the plants are cut off when in bloom1 seed forming will not only be prevented1 but since sweet clover is a biennial1 the plants will die4 ,when thus dealt with1 the only source from which other plants may come while extermination is being thus sought is from seed lodged in the soil and still capable of germinating4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,miscellaneous ,,varieties ,,of ,,clover ,in addition to the varieties of clover that have been discussed at some length in previous chapters are a number the value of which may be considerable to areas more or less local and limited4 ,these include ,sainfoin1 ,egyptian clover1 ,yellow clover1 ,sand lucerne1 ,japanese clover1 ,beggarweed and ,seaside clover4 ,some of these1 as ,sainfoin and ,buffalo clover1 have been in the country for several years1 and yet but little is known as to their behavior1 except in very limited areas4 ,others1 as ,buffalo clover1 native to the country are thought to have merit1 and yet the degree of such merit does not appear to have been yet proved under cultivation4 ,the three varieties but recently introduced are thought to have considerable promise for certain soils and climates to which they have special adaptation1 but sufficient trial has not been given them to determine even approximately the measure of their worth to this country4 ,these varieties will now be discussed1 but for the reasons stated above it will be manifest that the discussion will of necessity be imperfect and fragmentary in character4 ,,sainfoin ,sainfoin 7,onobrychis sativa7 is a perennial1 leguminous1 clover-like forage plant of the bean family4 ,the word ,sainfoin is equivalent to the ,french words for sound or wholesome hay4 ,it is also frequently called ,esparcette or ,asperset1 more especially in ,germany4 ,it is further known in ,england by the name ,cock's ,head1 ,french ,grass and ,medick ,vetchling4 ,in some parts of ,france and ,switzerland the name has been and probably is yet applied to lucerne 7,medicago sativa74 ,in its habit of growth it is more woody in the rootstock than clover and more branched4 ,it also grows to a greater average height4 ,the stems1 which are covered with fine hairs1 bear numerous leaves long and pinnate4 ,the blossoms are numerous and of an attractive1 pinkish color1 brightening into a crimson tint4 ,the seed pods are flattened from side to side and wrinkled1 and are also sickle-shaped4 ,they bear but one seed4 ,the roots are strong and more or less branched4 ,sainfoin1 as already intimated1 is perennial in its habit of growth4 ,when a field is once well set with the plants1 it should continue to produce crops for a decade1 but will eventually be crowded out with weeds or other grasses4 ,it grows very early in the season1 quite as early1 if not earlier1 than alfalfa1 and continues to grow until autumn4 ,the feeding value of sainfoin is much the same as that of alfalfa4 ,it is much esteemed where it can be grown for the production of pasture1 of soiling food1 and also hay1 valuable for enriching the land1 through the medium of the roots1 and also when the tops are plowed under as green manure4 ,sainfoin is native throughout the whole of ,central ,europe and over much of ,siberia4 ,although native to the southern counties of ,england1 it does not appear to have been cultivated there before the year #afea1 at which time it is said to have been introduced from ,flanders4 ,from what has been said with reference to the distribution of sainfoin in ,europe and ,asia1 it will be apparent that it is a hardy plant1 which has highest adaptation for climates temperate and mild to moderately cool4 ,its hardihood has been shown by its surviving the winters in the latitude of the ,st4 ,lawrence ,river1 but the abundant snow covering then provided should not be lost sight of4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,sainfoin 7,onobrychis sativa7 ,oregon ,experiment ,station ,its adaptation to the ,united ,states does not appear to have been proved yet1 except in limited areas4 ,in some of the ,montana valleys good crops have been grown with much success in many of those western valleys1 and even on the bench lands at the base of foothills4 ,nor would there seem to be any good reasons for supposing that good crops could not be grown in various parts of the ,united ,states where the soil is suitable4 ,in ,canada1 sainfoin has succeeded in ,quebec4 ,in trials made by the author at the ,ontario ,agricultural ,college at ,guelph success was only partial1 but the trials were limited4 ,there would seem to be no good reasons why this plant should not succeed in many places in ,canada where limestone soils prevail4 ,this plant is best adapted to dry soils calcareous in their composition and somewhat porous in character4 ,this explains its great affinity for the chalk soils which abound in the south of ,england4 ,on the dry1 limestone soils of this country it ought to succeed4 ,it has shown much adaptation for the volcanic soils of the ,western mountain region1 where it has been tried4 ,on stiff clays it grows too slowly to be entirely satisfactory4 ,it ought not to be sown on soils wet or swampy in character4 ,since sainfoin is perennial in its habit of growth1 and since1 when once well set1 it will retain its hold upon the soil for several years1 it is not in the strict sense of the term a rotation plant4 ,when it is grown1 however1 it should be followed by crops which require large quantities of nitrogen easily accessible1 to enable them to complete their growth4 ,if this plant should ever be grown to any considerable extent in the mountain ,states1 much that has been said with reference to the place for alfalfa in the rotation will also apply to sainfoin4 7,see page #ace47 ,it has been found more difficult to get a good stand of sainfoin plants than of other varieties of the clover family4 ,this is owing to the low germinating power frequently found in the seed4 ,the stand of plants is frequently found to be too thin and scattering4 ,weeds1 therefore1 and sometimes grasses are much liable to come into the soil occupied by the sainfoin and to crowd the same4 ,because of this it is specially important that sainfoin shall be sown on a clean seed-bed4 ,the seed is very frequently sown in the hull1 and usually in the early spring4 ,but there would seem to be no reasons why the seed should not be sown in the early autumn in localities where alfalfa can be sown thus4 7,see page #ade47 ,in the rough form1 it is usually broadcasted by hand1 but would probably also feed through a seed drill4 ,when sown apart from the hull1 the seed may be sown by the same methods as alfalfa4 7,see page #adg47 ,in the rough form1 from #c to #e bushels per acre are sown4 ,in the clean form1 it is claimed that #dj pounds of seed should be sown1 but that amount of clean and good seed would seem to be excessive on well-prepared land4 ,the seed in the hull weighs #bf pounds per bushel4 ,the plan of sowing #b to #c pounds per acre of the seed of alsike clover along with the sainfoin would doubtless be found helpful under some conditions1 as it would tend to thicken the crop1 more especially the first season4 ,sainfoin is a good pasture plant when properly grazed4 ,it does not produce bloat in cattle or sheep as alfalfa does4 ,in this fact is found one of the strongest reason why it should be grown in areas where alfalfa is wanted for pasture4 ,it will furnish grazing about as early as alfalfa1 and considerably earlier than medium red clover4 ,this plant is more frequently grown for soiling food than for hay4 ,for the former use it has high adaptation1 since it will furnish several cuttings of soiling food per season4 ,it will also furnish two cuttings of hay1 or one of hay and one of seed1 and under some conditions more than two cuttings can be obtained4 ,in the latitude of ,montreal it is ready to be cut for hay during the early days of ,june4 ,it is ready for being cut when the blossoms begin to expand4 ,much care is necessary in curing the hay1 in order to prevent the too free shedding of the leaves4 ,the methods for making alfalfa hay will apply also to sainfoin4 ,seed may be obtained from the first or second cutting of the crop4 ,it is usually obtained from the second cutting1 as the yield is much larger than that obtained from the first cutting4 ,the author has not been able to obtain any facts based on experience regarding the harvesting of the seed crop under ,american field conditions4 ,but the methods followed in obtaining seed from alfalfa would probably also answer equally well for sainfoin4 ,great care is necessary in handling the seed crop1 owing to the ease with which the seed shatters4 ,special pains are also necessary to keep the germinating power of the seed from injury from overheating4 ,nor does the seed seem able to retain germinating power as long as the seeds of some other varieties of clover4 ,in experiments conducted by ,professor ,c4 ,a4 ,zavitz at the ,ontario ,experiment ,station at ,guelph in #aijb and #aijc1 the average yield per acre was #dbf4a pounds4 ,,egyptian ,,clover ,egyptian clover 7,trifolium ,alexandrianum7 is more commonly known in the ,nile valley as ,berseem4 ,it is of at least three varieties4 ,these are the ,muscowi1 ,fachl and ,saida1 all of which are more or less closely related to medium red clover4 ,the term ,alexandrianum as applied above is somewhat misleading1 as its growth is not specially identified with ,alexandria1 nor is its growth in ,egypt supposed to be of great antiquity1 since no trace of it is found upon the ancient monuments4 ,the ,muscowi variety1 which is commonly grown more especially in lower ,egypt1 sometimes grows to the height of #e feet and over1 but usually it is not more than half the height named4 ,in its habit of growth it is rather upright1 like alfalfa1 but the hollow stems are softer and more succulent1 and the blossoms occur on heads resembling those of clover1 but not so compactly formed1 and they are white in color4 ,the seeds bear a close resemblance to those of crimson clover4 ,the roots are much shorter1 but more spreading in their habit of growth than those of alfalfa1 and in ,egyptian soils they bear small tubercles abundantly4 ,this variety1 which is usually grown on land that can be irrigated at any season1 produces in some instances #e cuttings in a season4 ,the ,fachl variety is usually grown on land irrigated by the basin system2 that is1 the system which covers the land with water but once a year1 and for a period more or less prolonged4 ,but one crop a year is taken from such land4 ,the hay from this variety is heavier for the bulk than that of the ,muscowi4 ,the ,saida variety is of a lower habit of growth than the ,muscowi and has a longer tap root1 which enables it to stand drought better than the ,muscowi4 ,it is more commonly sown in ,egypt southward from ,cairo4 ,all these varieties are annual4 ,the period of growth covered by any one of them is never more than #i months1 and usually not more than #f months2 that is to say1 from ,october to ,march4 ,the ,muscowi variety especially grows very rapidly4 ,egyptian clover in all its varieties is pre-eminently a soiling plant4 ,it is sometimes pastured and is also made into hay4 ,it is practically the one fodder crop of ,egypt1 and is more commonly fed in the green form4 ,all kinds of stock are fond of it1 and it is fed freely to horses1 donkeys and camels at labor1 to cows in milk1 and to cattle that are being fattened4 ,it also serves to keep ,egyptian soils supplied with nitrogen1 for the support of crops grown on them in summer1 especially cotton1 and various kinds of grain4 ,moreover1 because of the frequency of the cuttings1 with the ,muscowi variety1 its growth tends very much to check the growth of weeds4 ,egyptian clover is not native to ,egypt1 but was introduced from some country outside of ,egypt1 yet bordering on the ,mediterranean4 ,this1 at least1 is the view presented in ,bulletin ,no4 #bc1 issued by the ,bureau of ,plant ,industry1 ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 from which source much of what is written with reference to this plant has been obtained4 ,in ,egypt more than #a1jjj1jjj acres are grown annually4 ,it is also being tried1 with much promise1 in other portions of ,northern ,africa1 as ,tunis and ,algiers4 ,it is also now being experimented with in various parts of the ,southern and ,southwestern ,states4 ,egyptian clover is only adapted to a warm climate4 ,in those parts of the ,united ,states which have a climate not unlike that of ,egypt1 in many respects1 as ,florida1 ,southern ,texas1 ,new ,mexico and ,arizona1 it may have an important mission4 ,it may yet be grown in these areas1 or some of them1 where irrigation is practiced in conjunction with cotton1 or with certain of the cereals4 ,if it can be thus grown1 it will prove of much value1 as it would only occupy the land when not occupied by the crops usually grown in summer1 and it would bring much fertility to the same1 in addition to the forage provided4 ,since in ,tunis it has been found that the plants have not been killed by cold #b below zero and in ,algiers #i below that point1 the hope would seem to be justifiable that this clover may yet be grown much further north than the ,states named4 ,if grown thus1 however1 it should not be as a substitute for alfalfa1 but rather to occupy the ground in winter when not producing otherwise4 ,it may yet be found that the ,saida variety may have adaptation for some localities in the ,west where irrigation cannot be practiced4 ,this clover is not likely to render any considerable service to any part of ,canada1 because of the lack of adaptation in the climate4 ,egyptian clover has highest adaptation for deposit soils1 such as are made by the settling of silt held in solution by waters that overflow4 ,in these it will grow with vigor1 though they rest upon coarse sand or even upon gravel not too near the surface4 ,irrigating waters to some extent are necessary to grow the plants in best form1 although1 as previously intimated1 the ,saida variety may yet be grown without the aid of such waters4 ,it is the first crop sown on reclaimed alkaline lands1 and growing it on these tends to remove the alkali and to sweeten and otherwise improve the soils4 ,the place for this plant in the rotation is readily apparent4 ,like crimson clover1 it is clearly a catch crop1 as it were1 and a winter plant1 but with the difference that it grows much more rapidly under suitable conditions and furnishes much more food4 ,the advantage of growing it northward in the ,western mountain valleys when sown in spring1 as intimated by the writer of the bulletin already referred to1 would seem to be at least problematical1 since it could not be sown early enough in the spring to produce a crop as early as alfalfa already established4 ,it would then be grown also as the crop of the season1 rather than as a catch crop4 ,the place for ,egyptian clover in the rotation is clearly that of a winter crop1 to provide soiling food for stock and plant food for the land1 which may be utilized by the summer crop that follows4 ,in ,egypt the seed is frequently sown on the silt deposited by the waters that have subsided and before it would be dry enough to plow4 ,at other times1 it is sowed on land stirred on the surface to a greater or less depth1 and sprouted through the aid of irrigating waters4 ,in the valleys of the ,west that preparation of the soil found suitable for alfalfa would also1 doubtless1 be found suitable for this clover4 ,the seed is sown in the autumn in ,egypt1 usually in ,october1 but the season of sowing lasts from ,september to ,january1 and some crops have been obtained sown as late as ,april #ast1 but when sown late1 the number of the cuttings is reduced and the occupancy of the soil by the clover interferes with the growing of other crops4 ,under ,american conditions1 it will doubtless be found that the best season for sowing ,egyptian clover will be just after the removal of the crop that occupied the land in summer4 ,the seed is usually sowed by hand and without admixture1 but the ,fachl variety is sown in some instances with wheat or barley when seed is wanted4 ,the methods of sowing found suitable for alfalfa would also seem to be proper for sowing ,egyptian clover4 7,see page #gh47 ,as much as one bushel of seed is sown per acre1 but it is thought that a less amount will suffice under good methods of tillage4 ,egyptian clover is sometimes pastured1 but it has higher adaptation to soiling1 because of the softness of the stems4 ,when pastured reasonably close1 cropping would probably be preferable1 as there would then be less waste from the treading of the plants4 ,nevertheless1 in ,egypt considerable quantities of the hay are stored for feeding in the summer months when green fodder is scarce4 ,egyptian clover is sometimes made into hay1 but it is not essentially a hay plant4 ,much care is necessary when it is being cured to prevent loss in the leaves1 and when cured the stems are so brittle that it is difficult to prevent waste in handling the hay4 ,it is pre-eminently a soiling crop1 and the greater portion is fed in the green form4 ,from #d cuttings of the ,muscowi variety as much as #be to #cj tons of green fodder are harvested1 and about #aj tons are produced by #b cuttings of the ,saida variety4 ,egyptian clover has not been grown sufficiently long in this country to justify giving information based upon ,american experience that could be taken as authoritative1 with reference to the best methods of harvesting the seed crop4 ,there would seem to be no reasons1 however1 to suppose that the methods followed in harvesting alfalfa could not be followed with equal advantage in harvesting ,egyptian clover4 ,nor can anything be said as yet with reference to which cutting of the series will furnish the best seed crop4 ,the best service1 probably1 which this crop can render to the ,united ,states is the enrichment of the soils on which the plants are grown4 ,as the same bacteria which inoculate alfalfa soils will not answer for ,egyptian clover1 and as the requisite bacteria may not be found in soils where it is desirable to grow this clover1 the conclusion that it will not grow sufficiently well in certain soils on which it is being tried should not be reached until the question relating to the presence or absence of the proper bacteria has been settled4 ,if necessary to introduce bacteria from ,egypt1 the obstacles in the way of such introduction would not be at all serious1 if undertaken by the ,department of ,agriculture4 ,,yellow ,,clover ,yellow clover 7,medicago lupulina7 is to be carefully distinguished from ,hop clover 7,medicago procumbens71 which it resembles so closely in the form of the leaves and the color of the bloom as to have given rise in some instances to the interchangeable use of the names4 ,the latter is so named from the resemblance of the withered head when ripe to a bunch of hops4 ,its growth has been almost entirely superseded by ,medicago lupulina1 since the other variety was low in production and also in nutrition4 ,medicago lupulina is also called ,black ,medick1 ,nonesuch1 ,black ,nonesuch and ,hop ,trefoil4 ,in both ,england and ,germany it is now more commonly grown than white clover4 ,it is more or less recumbent in its habit of growth1 but the stems do not root as do the runners in the small white variety4 ,the stems1 though tender in the early spring1 become woody as the season advances4 ,the flowers1 as the name would indicate1 are yellow1 and the plants produce seed numerously4 ,the roots1 like those of the small white variety1 are more fibrous than in some of the larger varieties4 ,yellow clover is perennial4 ,owing to the power which the plants have to multiply through rooting and re-seeding1 they can stay indefinitely in congenial soils4 ,the growth is vigorous in the early part of the season1 but less so later1 and with the advance of the season the herbage produced becomes more woody in character4 ,this plant furnishes considerable pasture during the spring months1 but in the summer and autumn it makes but little growth4 ,though palatable early in the season1 it is less so later4 ,nevertheless1 it may be made to add materially to the produce of pastures in which it grows4 ,it also aids in fertilizing the soil1 though probably not quite to the same extent as white clover4 ,yellow clover is indigenous to ,europe4 ,it is grown to a considerable extent in pastures in certain areas in ,great ,britain1 ,france1 ,germany and other countries4 ,it has highest adaptation for climates that are moist and temperate4 ,although this plant is not extensively grown in the ,united ,states1 it would seem probable that it will grow at least reasonably well in a majority of the ,states4 ,the exceptions will be those lacking in moisture in the absence of irrigation4 ,it will grow best in those that more properly lie within the clover belt2 that is1 in those that lie northward4 ,it grows with much vigor in ,oregon and ,washington west of the ,cascade ,mountains4 ,in ,canada1 yellow clover will grow with much vigor in all areas susceptible of cultivation1 unless on certain of the western prairies4 ,yellow clover has highest adaptation for calcareous soils4 ,in certain parts of ,england it has grown so vigorously on soils rich in lime as almost to assume the character of a troublesome weed4 ,it will grow well on all clay loam soils1 and reasonably well on stiff clays1 the climatic conditions being suitable4 ,it has greater power to grow on dry soils than the small white variety4 ,since yellow clover is usually grown as an adjunct to permanent pastures1 it can scarcely be called a rotation plant4 ,but1 like other clovers1 it enriches the soil1 and1 therefore1 should be followed by crops that are specially benefited by such enrichment1 as1 for instance1 the small cereal grains4 ,yellow clover when sown is usually sown with other grass mixtures1 and along with grain as a nurse crop2 hence1 that preparation of the soil suitable for the nurse crop will also be found suitable for the clover4 ,it is1 moreover1 a hardy plant1 insomuch that in some instances1 if the seed is scattered over unplowed surfaces1 as those of pastures1 in the early spring1 a sufficient number of plants will be obtained to eventually establish the clover through self-seeding4 ,the seed is usually sown in the early spring1 but in mild latitudes it may also be sown in the early autumn4 ,it may be sown by the same methods as other clovers4 7,see page #bfg47 ,it is usually sown to provide pasture1 the seed being mixed with that of other pasture plants before being sown4 ,as the plants1 like those of the small white variety1 have much power to increase rather than decrease in pastures1 it is not necessary to sow large quantities of seed1 not more usually than #a pound to the acre4 ,but should the crops be wanted for seed1 then not fewer than #c to #e pounds per acre should be sown and without admixture with other grasses or clovers4 ,when the plants once obtain a footing on congenial soils1 there is usually enough of seed in the soil to make a sufficient stand of the plants in pastures without sowing any seed1 but since the seed is usually relatively cheap1 where an insufficient supply in the soil is suspected1 more or less seed should be sown4 ,since the stems of yellow clover plants become tough as the season of growth becomes considerably advanced1 where it forms a considerable proportion of the pasture the aim should be to graze most heavily during the early part of the season4 ,the plants do not make much growth during the autumn4 ,it would probably be correct to say that it can grow under conditions more dry than are suitable for white clover1 and1 consequently1 it is more uniformly prominent in evidence in permanent pastures when it has become established4 ,yellow clover is not a really good hay plant1 owing to its lack of bulkiness4 ,but in some soils its presence may add considerably to the weight of a crop of hay1 of which it is a factor4 ,this plant produces seed freely4 ,the seeds are dark in color and weigh #fj pounds to the bushel4 ,the seed matures early1 usually in ,june or ,july1 according to locality4 ,the methods of harvesting1 threshing and preparing the seed for market are substantially the same as those adapted in handling small white clover4 7,see page #bgb47 ,while yellow clover is not the equal of the small white clover in adaptation to our conditions1 it would seem that there are no reasons why it should not be sown to a greater extent than it is sown under ,american conditions4 ,a plant that is so hardy1 that provides a considerable quantity of reasonably good pasture1 that stores nitrogen in the soil1 and that1 moreover1 does not stay in the soil to the extent of injuring crops that follow the breaking up of the pastures1 should certainly be encouraged to grow4 ,,sand ,,lucerne ,sand ,lucerne 7,medicago media71 sometimes designated ,medicago falcata1 is probably simply a variety of the common alfalfa 7,medicago sativa74 ,some botanists1 however1 look upon these as two distinct species4 ,others believe that ,medicago sativa1 with blossoms ranging from blue to violet purple1 and ,medicago falcata1 with yellow blossoms1 are two distinct species1 while ,medicago media1 with blossoms ranging from bluish and purple to lemon yellow1 is a hybrid between these4 ,the name ,sand ,lucerne has doubtless been given to this plant because of the power which it has to grow in sandy soils4 ,sand lucerne is so nearly like common alfalfa in appearance and habits of growth1 that until the blossoming season1 careless observers cannot distinguish between the plants4 7,see page #aad47 ,sand lucerne1 however1 has a more spreading habit of growth than common alfalfa1 the seed-pods are less coiled and the seeds are lighter4 ,the root system is strong and the roots are probably more branched than those of ordinary alfalfa4 ,under ,michigan experience1 given in ,bulletin ,no4 #aih of the ,michigan ,experiment ,station1 it has shown considerably higher adaptation to light1 sandy and gravelly soils than the former4 ,the feeding properties of sand lucerne would not seem to be far different from those of common alfalfa 7see page #aai71 but it is claimed that the former is considerably less liable to produce bloat in cattle and sheep than the latter4 ,sand lucerne is probably native to ,europe and ,asia4 ,some attention is given to growing it in ,germany1 the principal source from which comes supplies of seed at the present time4 ,it was introduced into ,michigan by the experiment station of that ,state in #ahig1 and its behavior in several trials made to grow it on sandy and gravelly soils in various places1 has1 on the whole1 been encouraging4 ,since this variety1 like the ,turkestan1 being considerably hardier than common alfalfa1 can undoubtedly be grown further north than the latter1 there would seem to be no reasons at the same time why sand lucerne would not grow satisfactorily on sandy soils that lie far south1 but this does not seem as yet to have been proved by actual demonstration4 ,it is possible1 therefore1 that this plant may render considerable service to areas scattered over considerable portions of the ,united ,states and ,canada1 in which the soil is light4 ,while sand lucerne has higher adaptation than common alfalfa for sandy and gravelly soils1 it does not follow that it has equal adaptation for being grown on ordinary alfalfa soils4 ,no advantage1 however1 would result from growing sand lucerne where common alfalfa will grow equally well1 as it is not superior to the latter as a food1 if1 indeed1 it is equal to the same1 and there would be a distinct disadvantage in the greater cost of the seed of sand lucerne4 ,sand lucerne is not any more a rotation plant than the common variety4 ,in fact1 it is even less so1 since it would not be practicable to introduce it into short rotations when grown in northerly latitudes1 as it does not reach a maximum growth for several years after the seed has been sown4 ,but in mild latitudes1 it may be found practicable to introduce it into short rotations1 like other alfalfa 7see page #ace71 and on land that is too sandy to grow the common variety in the best form4 ,much of what has been said about the preparation of the soil for common alfalfa will equally apply to the preparation of the same for sand lucerne4 7,see page #acg47 ,but when the latter is sown on sandy or gravelly land1 a moist condition of the seed-bed at the time of sowing is even more important than when sowing common alfalfa under ordinary conditions4 ,the same methods of sowing the seed will be in order as are suitable for sowing common alfalfa in any particular locality4 7,see page #adg47 ,this will mean that in ,northern areas sand lucerne can best be sown in the spring and as early as the danger from frost is over1 that the plants may get as much benefit as possible from the moisture in the soil before dry weather begins4 ,it will also mean that if sown southward in the autumn1 it may in some instances be necessary to wait longer for the sandy soils on which the seed is sown to become sufficiently moist to sprout the seed than for such a condition in soils on which common alfalfa is usually sown4 ,the amounts of seed to sow will also be practically the same4 7,see page #aeb47 ,the adaptation of sand lucerne for providing pasture is as high1 if not1 indeed1 higher1 than that of common alfalfa1 since it is said that it has less tendency to produce bloat in cattle and sheep1 and it is not so easily destroyed1 at least in ,northern areas1 by grazing4 ,in providing pasture1 its higher adaptation is in furnishing the same for cattle1 swine and horses4 ,with ample moisture1 even as far north as ,lansing1 ,michigan1 three crops of hay may ordinarily be looked for4 ,at the ,michigan ,experiment ,station1 sand lucerne sown in #ahig yielded cured3 ,in #ahih1 at the rate of #fhjj pounds per acre2 in #ahii1 #aj1ehj pounds2 in #aijj1 #ab1caj pounds2 and in #aija1 #ac1hci pounds4 ,the methods of cutting and curing are the same as for other varieties of alfalfa4 7,see page #agj47 ,the quality of the hay is not far different from that of common alfalfa4 ,if there is a difference1 it would1 perhaps1 be a little against the sand lucerne1 owing to the nature of the land producing it4 ,for soiling food1 it may be handled in the same way as common alfalfa4 7,see page #aff47 ,no further information would seem to be available with reference to the production of seed in the ,united ,states than the statement that the efforts to grow it in ,michigan had not been altogether successful4 ,the question thus raised has an important bearing on the future growth of the plant1 as1 if seed is to be imported from ,europe when sand lucerne is to be sown1 the expense of securing seed is likely to militate against extending its growth4 ,it is probable1 however1 that this difficulty will be overcome through the more perfect acclimation of the plants in the ,north1 or by growing seed from the same in ,western areas which have shown higher adaptation to the production of alfalfa seed4 ,the value of sand lucerne in fertilizing sandy and gravelly soils in this country may yet be very considerable4 ,its value in putting humus into the same may prove equally high4 ,this value will arise chiefly from its greater ability to grow on such soils than various other legumes4 ,when sown primarily for such a use1 heavy seeding would seem to be preferable to ordinary seeding4 ,,japanese ,,clover ,the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture has quite recently introduced a variety of clover known botanically as ,lespedeza bicolor4 ,in #aijb small lots of seed were distributed to ascertain the value of the plant grown under ,american conditions4 ,sufficient time has not yet elapsed to prove its value1 but the indications encourage the belief that it will be of some agricultural value under certain conditions4 ,this variety of clover is more erect and less branched in its habit of growth than the ,japanese variety ,lespedeza striata4 ,under ,michigan conditions it was found to grow to the height of #c feet on sandy soil and to about half that height on clay soil1 the seed having been sown about the middle of ,may4 ,the stalks are about the same in structure as those of alfalfa1 and like alfalfa they do not lodge readily4 ,the leaves are ovate in form and of a pea-green tint4 ,the seed is formed in pods resembling those of lentils1 only smaller4 ,the seeds are larger than those of crimson clover and are oblong in shape4 ,in color they are mottled brown1 yellow and green4 ,the roots in the ,michigan test produced nodules freely and without inoculating the soil by any artificial means4 ,the plants in the same tests were killed to the ground by early ,october frosts4 ,this variety1 like that grown so freely in the ,southern ,states1 is an annual4 ,in the absence of experience in growing it under varied conditions1 it would be premature to dwell upon its value4 ,if it should grow readily on sandy land1 as the ,michigan test would seem to indicate1 it would render substantial service in fertilizing such soils4 ,in the grass garden of the ,department of ,agriculture at ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 its behavior has been such as to encourage making further tests4 ,,florida ,,clover ,florida clover 7,desmodium tortuosum7 is sometimes grown both for hay and pasture1 more especially in the ,gulf ,states4 ,it has been designated botanically ,desmodium molle1 and is also known by the common names ,beggar ,weed1 ,giant ,beggar ,weed1 ,beggar ,ticks and ,tickweed4 ,the name ,florida ,clover has been given to it because of its prevalence on the light soils of ,florida4 ,the name beggar has probably been applied to this plant because of its relation to poverty in soils1 in which it is more commonly grown1 and the name ticks from the clinging habit of the seed-pods to surfaces with which they come in contact4 ,beggar ,weed is an erect and branching plant1 which grows from #b to #aj feet high4 ,the branches are woody in character1 especially in the lower parts1 which prevents close cropping by animals grazing on the plants4 ,the trifoliate leaves are numerous1 especially on the upper portions4 ,the panicle is erect and is considerably branched4 ,the pods are prickly and have many joints4 ,these break asunder when matured1 and are frequently distributed by adhering to the covering of animals and the clothing of men4 ,the strong1 spreading roots have much power to gather food in the soil and also to enrich the same by means of the tubercles formed on the roots4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,beggar ,weed or ,florida ,clover 7,desmodium tortuosum7 7,flower and ,seed ,stems7 ,north ,carolina ,experiment ,station ,this plant grows only in warm weather1 and it is able to withstand much drought4 ,its value for pasture and hay would seem to depend considerably on the stage of growth at which it is grazed or harvested for hay4 ,when nearing maturity1 stock do not relish it much1 either as pasture or hay4 ,it is frequently classed as a weed1 but in certain poor soils it has been deemed worthy of cultivation4 ,beggar weed is native to the ,west ,india ,islands and also1 it is thought1 to ,southern ,florida4 ,in #ahgi seeds were distributed by the ,department of ,agriculture4 ,it is now grown more or less in the wild or cultivated form in all the ,gulf ,states4 ,while it may be successfully grown as far north as the ,ohio ,river1 it is not probable that it will be sown far north of any of the ,gulf ,states1 since other fodder plants more valuable in producing food can be grown to supply the wants of live stock4 ,at the ,minnesota ,university ,experiment ,farm1 the author sowed seed in ,may4 ,the plants came into bloom in ,september1 but did not mature any seed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,beggar ,weed 7,desmodium tortuosum7 7,root ,system7 ,north ,carolina ,experiment ,station ,beggar weed will grow on almost any kind of soil reasonably free from an excess of ground moisture4 ,its power to grow on poor and light soils1 even light enough to lift with the wind1 is very considerable4 ,its highest use will probably be found on soils so light and sterile that better forms of useful vegetation are not easily grown on them4 ,it can scarcely be called a rotation plant1 since it more commonly grows in the wild form1 and on lands so poor as to be considered unprofitable for regular cropping4 ,but when cultivated1 it should be followed by some crop that can make a good use of the nitrogen left in the soil in the tubercles formed on the roots of the beggar weed plants4 ,the soil does not1 as a rule1 require deep stirring when preparing it for beggar weed4 ,this fact finds demonstration in the ability of the plants to re-seed the ground when grown for grazing4 ,the seed is usually sown in the ,gulf ,states late in ,march or early in ,april4 ,it germinates slowly1 and the plants make the most vigorous growth after the weather becomes warm4 ,the seed is more commonly scattered broadcast1 but may be drilled in1 and at distances that will or will not admit of cultivation as may be desired4 ,thick seeding is preferable to prevent coarseness and woodiness in the growth of the plants4 ,not less than #aj pounds of hulled seed per acre should be sown in the broadcast form when sown for hay4 ,when sown in drills1 less seed is required1 but usually the seed is sown broadcast4 ,in the hulled form1 in which the seed is more commonly sold1 according to ,professor ,h4 ,h4 ,hume1 the measured bushel weighs #fj to #fd pounds1 and with the hulls on1 from #aj to #dj pounds1 the average weight1 as purchased by dealers1 being about #bj pounds4 ,the cleaned seed bears considerable resemblance to clover seed4 ,all kinds of farm stock1 as cattle1 horses1 mules1 sheep and even swine1 are said to do well when grazing on beggar-weed pastures in the summer and autumn4 ,they do not usually graze it closely after it has been well started1 owing to the woody character of the stems4 ,when thus cropped back1 it starts out afresh1 and thus continues to produce grazing until the arrival of frost4 ,it is said that the pasture is of but little value in winter4 ,one strong point1 however1 in favor of such pastures1 is the ability of the plants to re-seed the land when not grazed too closely1 and thus to perpetuate the grazing from year to year4 ,no little diversity of opinion exists as to the value of this plant for producing hay4 ,some growers speak highly of its palatability and nutrition4 ,others speak of it as being of very little value as a hay plant4 ,this difference in opinion is doubtless due largely to cutting the crop at different stages of growth4 ,if allowed to become too advanced before it is cut1 the woody character of the hay would doubtless make it unpalatable1 whereas1 if cut early1 at least as early as the showing of the first blooms1 if not1 indeed1 earlier1 it would be eaten with a much greater relish4 ,the yields of hay are said to usually exceed #b tons per acre4 ,the seed matures in ,september and ,october4 ,the methods of saving the seed have usually been of a somewhat primitive character1 as by hand when saved in small quantities4 ,but there would seem to be no reason why the seed crop could not be harvested by the binder4 ,where alfalfa or cow peas can be successfully grown1 either crop would be preferable4 ,but on some soils these are not a success1 especially when the first attempts are made to grow crops4 ,the choice of hay may be one between a crop of beggar weed and no crop at all4 ,all are agreed as to the renovation which it brings to soils2 hence1 when grown or allowed to grow on unproductive soil for a few years and then plowed under1 the soil becomes productive4 ,since it grows late rather than early in the season where the seed is in the land1 it will not interfere with the growth of the corn1 but will come on later1 and thus exert a beneficial influence on the soil4 ,but the fact should not be overlooked that beggar weed once in the land has considerable power to stay there4 ,in other words1 like sweet clover1 it has some of the characteristics of a weed4 ,,buffalo ,,clover ,buffalo clover 7,trifolium stoloniferum7 is a native species procumbent in its habit of growth4 ,the leaves are most abundant at the base of the plants4 ,the flower heads1 about an inch in diameter1 are rose colored1 and rise to the height of about one foot from the ground4 ,this variety1 said to be perennial in its habit of growth1 is probably the same as ,trifolium reflexum1 said to be biennial in ,kansas4 ,plants are found growing wild in prairies1 between forests1 and in open woodlands1 from ,kentucky on the east1 to ,kansas on the west4 ,it is thought that this clover would repay cultivation1 but the author has not been able to get any information bearing upon its behavior under cultivation4 ,,seaside ,,clover ,seaside clover 7,trifolium invulneratum7 has rendered some service to agriculture in what is known as the ,great ,basin1 which includes parts of ,oregon and ,nevada4 ,in ,bulletin ,no4 #ae1 ,bureau of ,plant ,industry1 issued by the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 it is referred to as one of the most promising species for cultivation in that area4 ,under the influence of irrigation it has spread1 in one instance cited1 into sage brush soil1 and there1 along with timothy and red top1 has aided in producing fine crops4 ,in1 low1 swampy1 non-alkaline areas1 it often yields from #a_/b to #a-a_/d tons of hay per acre4 ,it has been estimated that with correct conditions it would be found about equal in producing power and feeding value to alsike clover4 ,it is at least questionable1 however1 if it is likely to supersede to any considerable degree the varieties already under general cultivation4 ,,index ,alfalfa discussion of #aad-aic described #aad distribution #abj soils #abi place in rotation #ace preparing the soil #acg sowing #ade cultivating #aed pasturing #aee as soiling food #aff harvesting for hay #agj storing #agb securing seed #agi renewing #ahd sources of injury #ahg as a fertilizer #aia ,alsike clover discussion of #aid-bag described #aid distribution #aig soils #aii place in rotation #bja preparing the soil #bjb sowing #bjd pasturing #bjh harvesting for hay #baj securing seed #bab renewing #baf ,bloating #id ,buffalo clover discussion of #cdd ,burr clover discussion of #bia-bii described #bia distribution #bic soils #bic place in the rotation #bid preparing the soil #bie sowing #bie pasturing #big harvesting for hay #big securing seed #big renewing #bih as a fertilizer #bih ,clover introduction #a-e definition #a varieties #b distinguishing characteristics #c plan of discussion #d ,clover1 general principles for growing discussion of #f-ef adaptation in #f place in the rotation #g preparing the soil #aa fertilizers #ac seasons for sowing #af methods of sowing #ah depth to bury the seed #ba sowing alone or in combinations #bb with or without a nurse crop #be amounts of seed to sow #bg pasturing #bi harvesting #ca storing #cc feeding #ce renewing #cg as soil improvers #ch as a weed destroyer #dc clover sickness #de possible improvement in #df bacteria and clovers #dg ,clovers1 synonyms ,alexandrian #cbb ,alsace #aid ,aspercet #cag ,berseem #cbb ,beggar ticks #cch ,beggar weed #cch ,black ,medic #cbi ,black ,nonesuch #cbi ,bokhara #cjj ,branching #aad ,broad-leaved #eg ,burgundy #aad ,california #bia ,chilian #aad ,cocks head #cag ,cow clover #bah ,cow grass #bah ,creeping ,trifolium #beh ,dutch #beh ,elegant #aid ,esparcette #cag ,fachl #cbc ,french clover #cch ,french grass #cag ,german #bch ,german mammoth #bch ,giant beggar weed #cch ,giant #bah ,honeysuckle #beh ,hop #cbh ,hop trefoil #cbi ,hybrid #aid ,italian #bch ,large #bah ,lucerne 7,alfalfa7 #aad ,mammoth #eg ,meadow #bah ,meadow trefoil #eg ,medick vetchling #cag ,mexican #aad ,minnesota #aah ,monthly #aad ,muscowi #cbc ,nonesuch #cbi ,pea vine #bah ,perennial #aad ,perennial hybrid #aid ,perennial red #bah ,pod #aid ,red perennial meadow #aah ,rhenish #bah ,saida #cbc ,sand ,lucerne #aah ,saplin #bah ,shamrock #beh ,sicilian #aad ,soiling #bah ,spotted ,medick #bia ,stem #aad ,swedish #aid ,styrian #aad ,tall #bah ,tickweed #cch ,tree #cjj ,turkestan #aah ,wavy stemmed #bah ,white ,dutch #beh ,white ,melilot #cjj ,white ,swedish #aid ,white trefoil #beh ,winter #bch ,yellow #bia ,zigzag #bah ,crimson clover discussion of #bch-beg described #bch distribution #bda soils #bdd place in the rotation #bde preparing the soil #bdh sowing #bej pasturing #beb harvesting for hay #bec securing seed #bed renewing #bef facts regarding #bef ,dodder #aij ,egyptian clover discussion of #cbb-cbh ,florida clover discussion of #cch-cdd ,grasshoppers #ahi ,hoven #id ,inoculation1 soil #ec ,japan clover discussion of #bgi-bij described #bgi distribution #bhb soils #bhc place in the rotation #bhd preparing the soil #bhe sowing #bhe pasturing #bhg harvesting for hay #bhh securing seed #bhi renewing #bij new variety #ccg ,mammoth clover discussion of #bah-bcg described #bah distribution #bbj soils #bbb place in the rotation #bbd preparing the soil #bbf sowing #bbg pasturing #bca harvesting for hay #bcc securing seed #bcd renewing #bcf compared with medium red #bcg ,medium red clover discussion of #eg-aac described #eg distribution #fa soils #fe place in the rotation #gj preparing the soil #gd sowing #ge pasturing #ia harvesting for hay #ie storing #ajj securing seed #ajc renewing #aji as a fertilizer #aaj ,micro-organisms #dh ,nitragin #ec ,nodules in clover plants #di ,root tubercles #ej ,sand ,lucerne discussion of #ccc-ccg ,sainfoin discussion of #caf-cbb ,seaside clover discussion of #cde ,sweet clover discussion of #cjj-cae described #cjj distribution #cjc soils #cje place in the rotation #cjf preparing the soil #cjg sowing #cjh pasturing #cji harvesting for hay #caj securing seed #caa renewing #caa value for bee pasture #cab as a fertilizer #cac value on alkali soils #cad destroying the plants #cad ,tubercles1 root #ej ,weeds troublesome #bce ,white clover discussion of #beh-bgh described #beh distribution #bfa soils #bfd place in the rotation #bfe preparing the soil #bfg pasturing #bgj harvesting for hay #bga securing seed #bgc renewing #bgf for lawns #bgg as a honey plant #bgh ,yellow clover discussion of #cbh-ccb ,alfalfa ,by ,f4 ,d4 ,,coburn4 ,its growth1 uses1 and feeding value4 ,the fact that alfalfa thrives in almost any soil2 that without reseeding1 it goes on yielding two1 three1 four1 and sometimes five cuttings annually for five1 ten1 or perhaps #ajj years2 and that either green or cured it is one of the most nutritious forage plants known1 makes reliable information upon its production and uses of unusual interest4 ,such information is given in this volume for every part of ,america1 by the highest authority4 ,illustrated4 #afd pages4 #e x #g inches4 ,cloth4 #j4ej ,ginseng1 ,its ,cultivation1 ,harvesting1 ,marketing and ,market ,value ,by ,,maurice ,g4 ,,kains1 with a short account of its history and botany4 ,it discusses in a practical way how to begin with either seed or roots1 soil1 climate and location1 preparation1 planting and maintenance of the beds1 artificial propagation1 manures1 enemies1 selection for market and for improvement1 preparation for sale1 and the profits that may be expected4 ,this booklet is concisely written1 well and profusely illustrated1 and should be in the hands of all who expect to grow this drug to supply the export trade1 and to add a new and profitable industry to their farms and gardens1 without interfering with the regular work4 ,new edition4 ,revised and enlarged4 ,illustrated4 #e x #g inches4 ,cloth4 #j4ej ,landscape ,gardening ,by ,f4 ,a4 ,,waugh1 professor of horticulture1 university of ,vermont4 ,a treatise on the general principles governing outdoor art2 with sundry suggestions for their application in the commoner problems of gardening4 ,every paragraph is short1 terse and to the point1 giving perfect clearness to the discussions at all points4 ,in spite of the natural difficulty of presenting abstract principles the whole matter is made entirely plain even to the inexperienced reader4 ,illustrated4 #aeb pages4 #e x #g inches4 ,cloth4 #j4ej ,hedges1 ,windbreaks1 ,shelters and ,live ,fences ,by ,e4 ,p4 ,,powell4 ,a treatise on the planting1 growth and management of hedge plants for country and suburban homes4 ,it gives accurate directions concerning hedges2 how to plant and how to treat them2 and especially concerning windbreaks and shelters4 ,it includes the whole art of making a delightful home1 giving directions for nooks and balconies1 for bird culture and for human comfort4 ,illustrated4 #adj pages4 #e x #g inches4 ,cloth4 #j4ej ,animal ,breeding ,by ,,thomas ,,shaw4 ,this book is the most complete and comprehensive work ever published on the subject of which it treats4 ,it is the first book which has systematized the subject of animal breeding4 ,the leading laws which govern this most intricate question the author has boldly defined and authoritatively arranged4 ,the chapters which he has written on the more involved features of the subject1 as sex and the relative influence of parents1 should go far toward setting at rest the wildly speculative views cherished with reference to these questions4 ,the striking originality in the treatment of the subject is no less conspicuous than the superb order and regular sequence of thought from the beginning to the end of the book4 ,the book is intended to meet the needs of all persons interested in the breeding and rearing of live stock4 ,illustrated4 #dje pages4 #e x #g inches4 ,cloth #a4ej ,forage ,crops ,other ,than ,grasses ,by ,,thomas ,,shaw4 ,how to cultivate1 harvest and use them4 ,indian corn1 sorghum1 clover1 leguminous plants1 crops of the brassica genus1 the cereals1 millet1 field roots1 etc4 ,intensely practical and reliable4 ,illustrated4 #bhg pages4 #e x #g inches4 ,cloth4 #a4jj ,soiling ,crops and the ,silo ,by ,,thomas ,,shaw4 ,the growing and feeding of all kinds of soiling crops1 conditions to which they are adapted1 their plan in the rotation1 etc4 ,not a line is repeated from the ,forage ,crops book4 ,best methods of building the silo1 filling it and feeding ensilage4 ,illustrated4 #cfd pages4 #e x #g inches4 ,cloth4 #a4ej ,the ,study of ,breeds ,by ,,thomas ,,shaw4 ,origin1 history1 distribution1 characteristics1 adaptability1 uses1 and standards of excellence of all pedigreed breeds of cattle1 sheep and swine in ,america4 ,the accepted text book in colleges1 and the authority for farmers and breeders4 ,illustrated4 #cga pages4 #e x #g inches4 ,cloth4 #a4ej ,profits in ,poultry ,useful and ornamental breeds and their profitable management4 ,this excellent work contains the combined experience of a number of practical men in all departments of poultry raising4 ,it forms a unique and important addition to our poultry literature4 ,profusely illustrated4 #ceb pages4 #e x #g inches4 ,cloth4 #a4jj ,land ,draining ,a handbook for farmers on the principles and practice of draining1 by ,,manly ,,miles1 giving the results of his extended experience in laying tile drains4 ,the directions for the laying out and the construction of tile drains will enable the farmer to avoid the errors of imperfect construction1 and the disappointment that must necessarily follow4 ,this manual for practical farmers will also be found convenient for reference in regard to many questions that may arise in crop growing1 aside from the special subjects of drainage of which it treats4 ,illustrated4 #bjj pages4 #e x #g inches4 ,cloth4 #a4jj ,barn ,plans and ,outbuildings ,two hundred and fifty-seven illustrations4 ,a most valuable work1 full of ideas1 hints1 suggestions1 plans1 etc41 for the construction of barns and outbuildings1 by practical writers4 ,chapters are devoted to the economic erection and use of barns1 grain barns1 horse barns1 cattle barns1 sheep barns1 cornhouses1 smokehouses1 icehouses1 pig pens1 granaries1 etc4 ,there are likewise chapters on birdhouses1 doghouses1 tool sheds1 ventilators1 roofs and roofing1 doors and fastenings1 workshops1 poultry houses1 manure sheds1 barnyards1 root pits1 etc4 #bce pages4 #e x #g inches4 ,cloth4 #a4jj ,irrigation ,farming ,by ,,lute ,,wilcox4 ,a handbook for the practical application of water in the production of crops4 ,a complete treatise on water supply1 canal construction1 reservoirs and ponds1 pipes for irrigation purposes1 flumes and their structure1 methods of applying water1 irrigation of field crops1 the garden1 the orchard and vineyard1 windmills and pumps1 appliances and contrivances4 ,new edition1 revised1 enlarged and rewritten4 ,profusely illustrated4 ,over #ejj pages4 #e x #g inches4 ,cloth4 #b4jj ,forest ,planting ,by ,h4 ,,nicholas ,,jarchow1 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,a treatise on the care of woodlands and the restoration of the denuded timberlands on plains and mountains4 ,the author has fully described those ,european methods which have proved to be most useful in maintaining the superb forests of the old world4 ,this experience has been adapted to the different climates and trees of ,america1 full instructions being given for forest planting of our various kinds of soil and subsoil1 whether on mountain or valley4 ,illustrated4 #bej pages4 #e x #g inches4 ,cloth4 #a4ej ,coburn's ,swine ,husbandry ,by ,f4 ,d4 ,,coburn4 ,new1 revised and enlarged edition4 ,the breeding1 rearing and management of swine1 and the prevention and treatment of their diseases4 ,it is the fullest and freshest compendium relating to swine breeding yet offered4 ,illustrated4 #cab pages4 #e x #g inches4 ,cloth4 #a4ej ,home ,pork ,making ,the art of raising and curing pork on the farm4 ,by ,a4 ,w4 ,,fulton4 ,a complete guide for the farmer1 the country butcher and the suburban dweller1 in all that pertains to hog slaughtering1 curing1 preserving and storing pork product--from scalding vat to kitchen table and dining room4 ,illustrated4 #abe pages4 #e x #g inches4 ,cloth4 #j4ej ,harris on the ,pig ,by ,,joseph ,,harris4 ,new edition4 ,revised and enlarged by the author4 ,the points of the various ,english and ,american breeds are thoroughly discussed1 and the great advantage of using thoroughbred males clearly shown4 ,the work is equally valuable to the farmer who keeps but a few pigs1 and to the breeder on an extensive scale4 ,illustrated4 #cah pages4 #e x #g inches4 ,cloth4 #a4jj ,the ,dairyman's ,manual ,by ,,henry ,,stewart1 author of the ,shepherd's ,manual1 ,irrigation1 etc4 ,a useful and practical work1 by a writer who is well known as thoroughly familiar with the subject of which he writes4 ,illustrated4 #dge pages4 #e x #g inches4 ,cloth4 #a4ej ,feeds and ,feeding ,by ,w4 ,a4 ,,henry4 ,this handbook for students and stockmen constitutes a compendium of practical and useful knowledge on plant growth and animal nutrition1 feeding stuffs1 feeding animals and every detail pertaining to this important subject4 ,it is thorough1 accurate and reliable1 and is the most valuable contribution to live stock literature in many years4 ,all the latest and best information is clearly and systematically presented1 making the work indispensable to every owner of live stock4 #feh pages4 #f x #i inches4 ,cloth4 #b4jj ,farmer's ,cyclopedia of ,agriculture ,a ,compendium of ,agricultural ,science and ,practice on ,farm1 ,orchard and ,garden ,crops1 and the ,feeding and ,diseases of ,farm ,animals ,by ,,earley ,,vernon ,,wilcox1 ,ph4,d4 and ,,clarence ,,beaman ,,smith1 ,m4,s4 ,associate ,editors in the ,office of ,experiment ,stations1 ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture ,this is a new1 practical1 and complete presentation of the whole subject of agriculture in its broadest sense4 ,it is designed for the use of agriculturists who desire up-to-date1 reliable information on all matters pertaining to crops and stock1 but more particularly for the actual farmer4 ,the volume contains ,detailed directions for the culture of every important field1 orchard1 and garden crop grown in ,america1 together with descriptions of their chief insect pests and fungous diseases1 and remedies for their control4 ,it contains an account of modern methods in feeding and handling all farm stock1 including poultry4 ,the diseases which affect different farm animals and poultry are described1 and the most recent remedies suggested for controlling them4 ,every bit of this vast mass of new and useful information is authoritative1 practical1 and easily found1 and no effort has been spared to include all desirable details4 ,there are between #f1jjj and #g1jjj topics covered in these references1 and it contains #gjj royal #hvo pages and nearly #ejj superb half-tone and other original illustrations1 making the most perfect ,cyclopedia of ,agriculture ever attempted4 ,handsomely bound in cloth1 #c4ej2 half morocco 7very sumptuous71 #d4ej1 postpaid ,,orange ,,judd ,,company1 #eb ,lafayette ,place1 ,new ,york1 ,n4,y4 ,marquette ,building1 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,list of ,illustrations3 ,the number '#b' was missing before ',medium ,red'4 ,changed4 ,page #ec3 ,the term 'nitragin' though an odd spelling and is capitalized elsewhere1 as it is a commercial name4 ,unchanged4 ,page #fj3 ,the term 'adap s' is a typo for 'adapts'4 ,changed4 ,page #fi3 ,the term 'throgh cropping' is a typo for 'through cropping'4 ,changed4 ,page #ajj3 ,the phrase 'skilled workmen' is a typo for 'skilled workman'4 ,changed4 ,page #ajc3 ,the term 'pollenization' may be a substitute for 'pollenation' or 'pollination'4 ,unchanged4 ,page #abb3 ,the term ',sask' is apparently a substitute or abbreviation here for the province of ',saskatchewan'4 ,page #abd3 ,the phrase 'western alleys' is a typo for western valleys4 ,changed4 ,page #abd3 ,the phrase 'largely de-depend' is a typo for 'largely depend'4 ,changed4 ,page #ahi3 ,the phrase 'many instance' is a typo for 'many instances'4 ,changed4 ,page #aig3 ,the phrase 'with beekeepers' changed to 'with bee-keepers' to be consistent with two other occurrences4 ,page #bbi3 ,the term ',seee page #gh' is a typo for ',see page #gh'4 ,changed4 ,page #cji3 ,the phrase 'ground through self-feeding' is a typo for 'ground through self-seeding'4 ,changed4 ,page #cag3 ,the term ',asperset' is spelled ',aspercet' in the index4 ,unchanged4 ,couldn't determine correct spelling4 ,page #cbf3 ,the phrase 'it it clearly a catch crop' is a typo for 'it is clearly a catch crop'4 ,changed4 ,index ,page #cdi3 ,although the term ',sanfoin' is an acceptable alternate spelling for ',sainfoin'1 it doesn't match other occurrences in this text4 ,changed4 ,several instances of comma and periods either missing or interchanged in original text have been fixed without listing each4 ,they are obvious errors4 ,various3 ,the term 'midsummer' is also spelled 'mid-summer' in this book4 ,unchanged4 ,end of ,transcriber's ,notes4