,illuminated                            
,manuscripts                            
,john ,bradley                          
,,bracken ,,books                       
,,london     ,,contents  ,,book ,i      
,,chapter ,i  ,,introductory  ,what is  
meant by art8--,the art faculty--,how   
artists may be compared--,the aim of    
illumination--,distinction between      
illumination and miniature--,definition 
of illumination--,the first miniature   
painter--,origin of the term            
miniature--,ovid's allusion to his      
little book4  ,,chapter ,,ii  ,,vellum  
,,and ,,other ,,materials  ,difference  
between vellum and parchment--,names of 
different preparations--,the kinds of   
vellum most prized for illuminated      
books--,the parcheminerie of the ,abbey 
of ,cluny--,origin of the term          
parchment--,papyrus4  ,,chapter ,,iii   
,,writing  ,its different               
styles--,origin of ,western             
alphabets--,various forms of            
letters--,capitals1 uncials1            

etc4--,texts used in ,western           
,europe--,forms of ancient              
writings--,the roll1 or volume--,the    
codex--,tablets--,diptychs1 etc4--,the  
square book--,how different sizes of    
books were produced4  ,,chapter ,,iv    
,,greek ,,and ,,roman ,,illumination    
,the first miniature painter--,the      
,vatican ,vergils--,methods of          
painting--,origin of ,christian         
art--,the ,vienna ,genesis--,the        
,dioscorides--,the ,byzantine ,revival4 
,,chapter ,v  ,,byzantine ,,illumination
  ,the rebuilding of the city of        
,byzantium the beginning of ,byzantine  
art--,justinian's fondness for building 
and splendour--,description of ,paul the
 ,silentiary--,sumptuous garments--,the 
,gospel-book of                         
,hormisdas--,characteristics of         
,byzantine work--,comparative scarcity  
of examples--,rigidity of ,byzantine    
rules of art--,periods of ,byzantine    
art--,examples--,monotony and           
lifelessness of the style4  ,,chapter   

,,vi  ,,celtic ,,illumination  ,early   
liturgical books reflect the            
ecclesiastical art of their time--,this 
feature a continuous characteristic of  
illumination down to the latest         
times--,elements of ,celtic             
ornament--,gospels of ,st4              
,chad--,durham ,gospels--,contrast of   
,celtic and ,byzantine--,st4            
,columba--,book of ,kells--,details of  
its decoration4  ,,chapter ,,vii        
,,celtic ,,illumination--continued  ,the
 ,iona ,gospels--,contrast with ,roman  
and ,byzantine--,details--,treatment of 
animal forms--,colour schemes--,the     
,gospel-book of ,st4 ,columbanus--,that 
of ,mael ,brith ,mac ,durnan--,the      
,lindisfarne ,gospels--,cumdachs--,other
 book-shrines4  ,,chapter ,,viii        
,,semi-,,barbaric ,,illumination        
,visigothic--,merovingian--,lombardic--,
extinction of classic art--,splendid    
reign of ,dagobert--,st4 ,eloy of       
,noyon--,the ,library of ,laon--,natural
 ,history of ,isidore of                

,seville--,elements of contemporary     
art--,details of                        
ornament--,symbolism--,luxeuil and      
,monte ,cassino--,sacramentary of       
,gellone--,prudentius--,orosius--,value 
of the ,sacramentary of ,gellone4       
,,chapter ,,ix  ,,development ,,of ,,the
 ,,initial  ,the initial and initial    
paragraph the main object of decoration 
in ,celtic illumination--,study of the  
letter ,l as an example--,the ,i of ,in 
principio and the ,b of ,beatus ,vir4   
,,chapter ,x  ,,first ,,english ,,styles
  ,transition from ,iona to             
,lindisfarne--,influence of ,frankish   
art--,the ,opus ,anglicum--,the         
,winchester school and its              
characteristics--,whence                
obtained--,method of                    
painting--,examples--,where found and   
described4  ,,chapter ,,xi              
,,carolingian ,,illumination  ,why      
so-called--,works to be consulted--,the 
,library of ,st4 ,gall--,rise and       
progress of ,carolingian art--,account  

of various ,,mss4--,feature of the      
style--,gospels of ,st4 ,sernin--,the   
,ada-,codex--,centres of                
production--,other splendid             
examples--,the ,alcuin ,bible--,the     
,gospel of ,st4 ,mdard of ,soissons4    
,,chapter ,,xii  ,,monastic             
,,illumination                          
,introductory--,monasteries and their   
work from the sixth to the ninth        
century--,the claustral                 
schools--,alcuin--,warnefrid and        
,theodulf--,clerics and monastics--,the 
,golden ,age of monasticism--,the ,order
 of ,st4 ,benedict--,cistercian         
houses--,other ,orders--,progress of    
writing in ,carolingian times--,division
 of labour4  ,,chapter ,,xiii           
,,monastic ,,illumination--continued    
,the copyist--,gratuitous labour--,last 
words of copyists--,disputes between    
,cluny and ,citeaux--,the ,abbey of     
,cluny3 its grandeur and                
influences--,use of gold and purple     
vellum--,the more influential abbeys and

 their work in ,france1 ,germany1 and   
the ,netherlands4  ,,chapter ,,xiv      
,,othonian ,,illumination  ,departure   
from ,carolingian--,bird and            
serpent--,common use of dracontine forms
 in letter-ornament--,influence of      
metal-work on the forms of              
scroll-ornament--,the vine-stem and its 
developments--,introduction of ,greek   
taste and fashion into                  
,germany--,cistercian illumination--,the
 ,othonian period--,influence of women  
as patronesses and                      
practitioners--,german princesses--,the 
,empress ,adelheid of ,burgundy--,the   
,empress ,theophano--,henry ,,ii4 and   
the ,empress                            
,cunegunda--,bamberg--,examples of      
,othonian art4  ,,chapter ,,xv          
,,franconian ,,illumination  ,the later 
,saxon schools--,bernward of            
,hildesheim--,tuotilo and ,hartmut of   
,st4 ,gallen--,portrait of ,henry ,,ii4 
in ,,ms4 #dj at ,munich--,netherlandish 
and other work compared--,alleged       

deterioration of work under the         
,franconian ,emperors not true--,bad    
character of the eleventh century as to 
art--,example to the contrary4          
,,chapter ,,xvi  ,,artistic ,,education 
,,in ,,the ,,cloister  ,the             
,manual--,its discovery--,its origin and
 contents--,didron's translation--,the  
,compendium of ,theophilus--,its        
contents--,english version by           
,hendrie--,benedictine and ,cistercian  
illumination--,how they                 
differ--,character of monastic          
architects and artists4  ,,chapter      
,,xvii  ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,gothic      
,,illumination  ,germany the chief power
 in ,europe in the twelfth              
century--,rise of ,italian              
influence--,the ,emmeram                
,,mss4--,coronation of ,henry           
,,ii4--,the ,apocalypse--,the ,hortus   
,deliciarum--,romanesque--,,ms4 of      
,henry the ,lion--,the ,niedermnster    
,gospels--,description of the           
,,ms4--,rise of ,gothic--,uncertainty of

 its origin--,the spirit of the age4    
,,book ,,ii  ,,chapter ,i  ,,the        
,,golden ,,age ,,of ,,illumination  ,the
 ,gothic spirit--,a zeitgeist not the   
invention of a single artist nor of a   
single country--,the thirteenth century 
the beginning of the new                
style--,contrast between ,north and     
,south1 between ,east and ,west1 marked 
in the character of artistic            
leaf-work--,gradual development of      
,gothic foliage--,the bud of the        
thirteenth century1 the leaf of the     
fourteenth1 and the flower of the       
fifteenth--,the                         
,freemasons--,illumination transferred  
from the monastery to the lay           
workshop--,the ,psalter of ,st4         
,louis--,characteristics of ,french     
,gothic illumination--,rise of the      
miniature as a distinct                 
feature--,guilds--,lay artists4         
,,chapter ,,ii  ,,rise ,,of ,,national  
,,styles  ,the fourteenth century the   
true ,golden ,age of ,gothic            

illumination--,france the cradle of     
other national styles--,netherlandish1  
,italian1 ,german1 etc4--,distinction of
 schools--,difficulty of assigning the  
provenance of ,,mss4--,the reason for   
it--,,ms4 in ,fitzwilliam ,museum1      
,cambridge--,the ,padua                 
,missal--,artists' names--,whence       
obtained4  ,,chapter ,,iii  ,,french    
,,illumination ,,from ,,the ,,thirteenth
 ,,century ,,to ,,the ,,renaissance     
,ivy-leaf and chequered                 
backgrounds--,occasional introduction of
 plain burnished gold--,reign of        
,charles ,,vi4 of ,france--,the ,dukes  
of ,orleans1 ,berry1 and ,burgundy2     
their prodigality and fine taste for    
,,mss4--,christine de ,pisan and her    
works--,description of her ,mutation of 
,fortune in the ,paris ,library--,the   
,roman de la ,rose and ,cit des         
,dames--,details of the ,french style of
 illumination--,burgundian ,,mss41      
,harl4 #ddca--,roy4 #ae ,e4 #f--,the    
,talbot ,romances--,gradual approach to 

,flemish on the one hand and ,italian on
 the other4  ,,chapter ,,iv  ,,english  
,,illumination ,,from ,,the ,,tenth ,,to
 ,,the ,,fifteenth ,,century            
,organisation of the monastic           
scriptoria--,professional outsiders3 lay
 artists--,the whole sometimes the work 
of the same practitioner--,the          
,winchester ,abbeys of ,st4 ,swithun's  
and ,hyde--,their vicissitudes--,st4    
,alban's--,westminster--,royal ,,ms4 #b 
,a #bb--;,description of style--,the    
,tenison ,psalter--,features of this    
period--,the ,arundel ,psalter--,hunting
 and shooting scenes1 and               
games--,characteristic pictures1        
grotesques1 and caricatures--,queen     
,mary's ,psalter--,rapid changes under  
,richard ,,ii4--,royal ,,ms4 #b ,e4     
#i--,their cause4  ,,chapter ,v  ,,the  
,,sources ,,of ,,english                
,,fifteenth-,,century ,,illumination    
,attributed to the ,netherlands--,not   
altogether ,french--,the home of ,anne  
of ,bohemia1 ,richard ,,ii4's           

,queen--,court of ,charles ,,iv4 at     
,prag--,bohemian ,art--,john of         
,luxembourg1 ,king of ,bohemia--,the    
,golden ,bull of ,charles               
,,iv4--,marriage of ,richard ,,ii4--,the
 transformation of ,english work owing  
to this marriage and the arrival of     
,bohemian artists in                    
,england--,influence of ,queen ,anne on 
,english ,art and                       
,literature--,depression caused by her  
death--,examination of ,roy4 ,,ms4 #a   
,e4 #i and #b ,a4 #ah--,the ,grandison  
,hours--,other ,,mss4--,introduction of 
,flemish work by ,edward ,,iv4          
,,chapter ,,vi  ,,italian ,,illumination
  ,barbaric character of ,italian       
illumination in the twelfth             
century--,ravenna and ,pavia the        
earliest centres of revival--,the       
,exultet--,la ,cava and ,monte          
,cassino--,the writers of early ,italian
 ,,mss4 not ,italians--,in the early    
fourteenth century the art is           
,french--,peculiarities of ,italian     

foliages--,the ,law ,books--,poems of   
,convenevole da ,prato1 the tutor of    
,petrarch--,celebrated patrons--,the    
,laon ,boethius--,the ,decretals1       
,institutes1 etc4--,decretum ,gratiani1 
other collections and ,,mss4--,statuts  
du ,saint ,esprit--,method of           
painting--,don ,silvestro--,the         
,rationale of ,durandus--,nicolas of    
,bologna1 etc4--,triumphs of            
,petrarch--,books at ,san ,marco1       
,florence--,the ,brera ,graduals at     
,milan--,other ,italian                 
collections--,examples of different     
localities in the ,british              
,museum--,places where the best work was
 done--,fine ,neapolitan ,,ms4 in the   
,british ,museum--,the white-vine style 
superseded by the classical renaissance4
  ,,chapter ,,vii  ,,german             
,,illumination ,,from ,,the ,,thirteenth
 ,,to ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century       
,frederick ,,ii41 ,stupor ,mundi1 and   
his ,,ms4 on hunting--,the ,sicilian    
school mainly ,saracenic1 but a mixture 

of ,greek1 ,arabic1 and ,latin          
tastes--,the ,franconian ,emperors at   
,bamberg--,charles of ,anjou--,the      
,house of ,luxembourg at ,prag--,,mss4  
in the ,university ,library--,the       
,collegium ,carolinum of the ,emperor   
,charles ,,iv4--,,mss4 at ,vienna--,the 
,wenzel ,bible--,the ,weltchronik of    
,rudolf v4 ,ems at ,stuttgard--,wilhelm 
v4 ,oranse at ,vienna--,the ,golden     
,bull--,various schools--,hildesheimer  
,prayer-book at ,berlin--,the ,nuremberg
 school--,the ,glockendons--,the        
,brethren of the ,pen4  ,,chapter ,,viii
  ,,netherlandish ,,illumination  ,what 
is meant by the ,netherlands--,early    
realism and study of                    
nature--,combination of symbolism with  
imitation--,anachronism in design--,the 
value of the pictorial methods of the   
old illuminators--,the oldest           
,netherlandish ,,ms4--,harlinda and     
,renilda--,the nunnery at               
,maas-,eyck--,description of the        
,,ms4--,thomas  ,kempis--,the school of 

,zwolle--,character of the work--,the   
use of green landscape backgrounds--,the
 ,dukes of ,burgundy--,netherlandish    
artists--,no miniatures of the ,van     
,eycks or ,memling known to             
exist--,schools of ,bruges1 ,ghent1     
,lige1 etc4--,brussels                  
,library--,splendid ,netherlandish      
,,mss4 at ,vienna--,gerard ,david and   
the ,grimani ,breviary--,british        
,museum--,romance of the                
,rose--,isabella ,breviary--,grisailles4
  ,,chapter ,,ix  ,,the ,,french        
,,renaissance  ,communication with      
,italy--,renaissance not sudden--,origin
 of the schools of ,france and          
,burgundy--,touraine and its            
art--,fouquet--,brentano                
,,mss4--,versailles ,livy--,munich      
,boccaccio1 etc4--,perral and           
,bourdichon--,hours of ,anne of         
,brittany--,poyet--,the school of       
,fontainebleau--,stained glass--,jean   
,cousin--,gouffier ,heures--,british    
,museum ,offices of ,francis            

,i4--,dinteville ,offices--,paris       
,heures de ,montmorency1 ,heures de     
,dinteville1 etc4  ,,chapter ,x         
,,spanish ,,and ,,portuguese            
,,illumination  ,late period of ,spanish
 illumination--,isidore of              
,seville--,archives at                  
,madrid--,barcelona--,toledo--,madrid--,
choir-books of the ,escorial--,philip   
,,ii4--,illuminators of the             
choir-books--,the size and beauty of the
 volumes--,fray ,andrs de ,leon and     
other artists--,italian                 
influence--,giovanni ,battista ,scorza  
of ,genoa--,antonio de ,holanda1        
well-known ,portuguese miniaturist in   
sixteenth century--,his son             
,francesco--,the choir-books at         
,belem--,french invasion--,missal of    
,gonalvez--,sandoval                    
,genealogies--,portuguese ,genealogies  
in ,british ,museum--,the ,stowe ,missal
 of ,john ,,iii4  ,,chapter ,,xi        
,,illumination ,,since ,,the ,,invention
 ,,of ,,printing  ,the invention of     

printing--,its very slight affect on    
illuminating--,preference by rich       
patrons for written books--,work        
produced in various cities in the       
sixteenth century--,examples in ,german1
 ,italian1 and other cities1 and in     
various public libraries up to the      
present time4  ,,manuscripts ,,that     
,,may ,,be ,,consulted  ,,bibliography  
,,illuminated ,,manuscripts             
,,book ,i     ,,chapter ,i              
,,introductory  ,what is meant by       
art8--,the art faculty--,how artists may
 be compared--,the aim of               
illumination--,distinction between      
illumination and miniature--,definition 
of illumination--,the first miniature   
painter--,origin of the term            
miniature--,ovid's allusion to his      
little book4   ,the desire for          
decoration is probably as old as the    
human race4 ,nature1 of course1 is the  
source of beauty1 and this natural      
beauty affects something within us which
 has or is the faculty of reproducing   

the cause of its emotion in a material  
form4 ,whether the reproduction be such 
as to appeal to the eye or the ear      
depends on the cast of the faculty4 ,in 
a mild or elementary form1 probably both
 casts of faculty exist in every        
animated creature1 and especially in the
 human being4  ,art being the           
intelligent representation of that      
quality of beauty which appeals to any  
particular observer1 whoever exercises  
the faculty of such representation is an
 artist4  ,greatness or otherwise is    
simply the measure of the faculty1 for  
in ,nature herself there is no          
restriction4 ,there is always enough of 
beauty in ,nature to fill the mightiest 
capacity of human genius4 ,artists1     
therefore1 are measured by comparison   
with each other in reference to the     
fraction of art which they attempt to   
reproduce4  ,the art of illumination    
does not aim at more than the           
gratification of those who take pleasure
 in books4 ,its highest ambition is to  

make books beautiful4  ,to some persons1
 perhaps1 all ordinary books are ugly   
and distasteful4 ,probably they are so  
to the average schoolboy4 ,hence the    
laudable endeavour among publishers of  
school-books to make them attractive4   
,the desire that books should be made   
attractive is of great antiquity4 ,how  
far back in the world's history we      
should have to go to get in front of it 
we cannot venture to reckon4 ,the       
methods of making books attractive are  
numerous and varied4 ,that to which we  
shall confine our attention is a rather 
special one4 ,both its processes and its
 results are peculiar4 ,mere pictures or
 pretty ornamental letters in sweet     
colours and elegant drawing do not      
constitute illumination1 though they do 
form essential contributions towards it2
 and1 indeed1 in the sixteenth century  
the clever practitioners who wished1 in 
bright colours1 to awaken up the old    
woodcuts used to call themselves        
illuminists1 and the old ,german books  

which taught how the work should be done
 were called ,illuminir bcher4          
,illuminists were not illuminators4  ,in
 the twelfth century when1 as far as we 
know1 the word illuminator was first    
applied to one who practised the art of 
book decoration1 it meant one who       
lighted up the page of the book with    
bright colours and burnished gold4      
,these processes suggest the definition 
of the art4 ,perfect illumination must  
contain both colours and metals4 ,to    
this extent it is in perfect unison with
 the other medival art of heraldry2 it  
might almost be called a twin-sister4   
,as an art it is much older than its    
name4 ,we find something very like it   
even among the ancient ,egyptians1 for  
in the ,louvre at ,paris is a papyrus   
containing paintings of funeral         
ceremonies1 executed in bright colours  
and touched in its high lights with     
pencilled gold4 ,but after this for many
 centuries there remains no record of   
the existence of any such art until just

 before the ,christian era4 ,then1      
indeed1 we have mention of a lady artist
 who painted a number of miniature      
portraits for the great biographical    
work of the learned ,varro4 ,we must    
carefully observe1 however1 that there  
is a distinction between illumination   
and mere miniature painting4 ,sometimes 
it is true that miniatures--as e4g4     
those of the early ,byzantine artists1  
and afterwards those of ,western        
,europe--were finished with touches of  
gold to represent the lights4 ,this     
brought them into the category of       
illuminations1 for while miniatures may 
be executed without the use of gold or  
silver1 illuminations may not4 ,there   
are thousands of miniatures that are not
 illuminations4  ,at the period when    
illuminating was at its best the        
miniature1 in its modern sense of a     
little picture1 was only just beginning 
to appear as a noticeable feature1 and  
the gold was as freely applied to it as 
to the penmanship or the ornament4 ,but 

such is not the case with miniature     
painting generally4  ,lala of ,cyzicus1 
the lady artist just referred to1 lived 
in the time of ,augustus ,csar4 ,she has
 the honour of being the first          
miniaturist on record1 and is said to   
have produced excellent portraits in    
little1 especially those of ladies1 on  
both vellum and ivory4 ,her own         
portrait1 representing her engaged in   
painting a statuette1 is still to be    
seen among the precious frescoes        
preserved in the museum at ,naples4     
,the term miniature1 now applied to this
 class of work1 has been frequently     
explained4 ,it is derived from the      
,latin word minium1 or red paint1 two   
pigments being anciently known by this  
name--one the sulphide of mercury1 now  
known also as vermilion1 the other a    
lead oxide1 now called red lead4 ,it is 
the latter which is generally understood
 as the minium of the illuminators1     
though both were used in manuscript     
work4 ,the red paint was employed to    

mark the initial letters or sections of 
the ,,ms4 ,its connection with          
portraiture and other pictorial subjects
 on a small scale is entirely owing to  
its accidental confusion by ,french     
writers with their own word mignon1 and 
so with the ,latin minus4 ,in classical 
times1 among the ,romans1 the miniator  
was simply a person who applied the     
minium1 and had nothing to do with      
pictures or portraits at all1 but with  
the writing4 ,that the rubrication of   
titles1 however1 was somewhat of a      
luxury may be gathered from the         
complaint of ,ovid when issuing the     
humble edition of his verses from his   
lonely exile of ,tomi3--                
,parve 7nec invideo7 sine me liber ibis 
in urbem3           ,hei mihi quo domino
 non licet ire tuo4                     
444444444444444444444444444             
,nec te purpureo velent vaccinia succo  
,non est conveniens luctibus ille color4
           ,nec titulus minio1 nec cedro
 carta notetur           ,candida nec   

nigra cornua fronte geras4#a            
,tristia1 ,cl4 #a1 ,eleg4 #a4  #a ,go1  
little book1 nor do ,i forbid1--go      
without me into that city where1 alas6  
,i may enter never more4444 ,nor shall  
whortleberries adorn thee with their    
crimson juice2 that colour is not       
suitable for lamentations4 ,nor shall   
thy title be marked with minium1 nor thy
 leaf scented with cedar-oil4 ,nor shalt
 thou bear horns of ivory or ebony upon 
thy front4  ,there are many allusions in
 these pathetic lines which would bear  
annotation1 but space forbids4 ,the one 
point is the use of minium4             
,,chapter ,,ii  ,,vellum ,,and ,,other  
,,materials  ,difference between vellum 
and parchment--,names of different      
preparations--,the kinds of vellum most 
prized for illuminated books--,the      
parcheminerie of the ,abbey of          
,cluny--,origin of the term             
parchment--,papyrus4   ,as vellum is    
constantly spoken of in connection with 
illumination and illuminated books1 it  

becomes necessary to explain what it is1
 and why it was used instead of paper4  
,we often find writers1 when referring  
to ancient documents1 making use of the 
words parchment and vellum as if the    
terms were synonymous2 but this is not  
strictly correct4 ,it is true that both 
are prepared from skins1 but the skins  
are different4 ,they are similar1 but   
not the same1 nor1 indeed1 are they     
interchangeable4 ,in point of fact1 the 
skins of almost all the well-known      
domestic animals1 and even of fishes1   
have been used for the purpose of making
 a material for writing upon4           
,specifically among the skins so        
prepared were the following3 the        
ordinary lambskin1 called aignellinus#b2
 that prepared from stillborn lambs1    
called virgin parchment4  #b ,strictly  
agnellinus4  ,from sheepskins was       
produced ordinary parchment1 and also a 
sort of leather called basane or        
cordovan4 ,vellum was produced from     
calfskin2 that of the stillborn calf    

being called uterine vellum1 and        
considered the finest and thinnest4 ,it 
is often spoken of in connection with   
the exquisitely written ,bibles of the  
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries as  
of the highest value4  ,besides these   
were the prepared skins of oxen1 pigs1  
and asses2 but these were chiefly used  
for bindings1 though occasionally for   
leaves of account and other books liable
 to rough usage4  ,before the tenth     
century the vellum used for ,,mss4 is   
highly polished1 and very white and     
fine4 ,afterwards it becomes thick and  
rough1 especially on the hair side4 ,in 
the examination of certain ,,mss4 the   
distinction of hair side and smooth side
 is of importance in counting the       
gatherings so as to determine the       
completeness1 or otherwise1 of a given  
volume4 ,towards the period of the      
,renaissance1 however1 the vellum       
gradually regains its better qualities4 
,thus it may be seen that the difference
 between vellum and parchment is not a  

mere difference of thickness2 for while1
 in general1 vellum is stouter than     
parchment1 there is some vellum which is
 thinner than some parchment4 ,not only 
are they made from different kinds of   
skin1 but the vellum used for           
illuminated books was1 and still is1    
prepared with greater care than the     
parchment used for ordinary school or   
college treatises1 or legal documents4  
,the fabrication of both parchment and  
vellum in the ,middle ,ages was quite as
 important a matter as that of paper at 
the present time1 and certain monastic  
establishments had a special reputation 
for the excellence of their manufacture4
 ,thus the parcheminerie1 as it was     
called1 of the ,abbey of ,cluny1 in     
,france1 was quite celebrated in the    
twelfth century4 ,one reason probably   
for this celebrity was the fact that    
,cluny had more than three hundred      
churches1 colleges1 and monasteries     
amongst its dependencies1 and therefore 
had ample opportunities for obtaining   

the best materials and learning the best
 methods in use throughout literary     
,christendom4 ,as to the name vellum1 it
 is directly referable to the familiar  
,latin term for the hide or pelt of the 
sheep or other animal1 but specially    
applied1 as we have said1 to that of the
 calf1 the writing material thus        
prepared being termed charta            
vitulina--in ,french vlin1 and in       
monastic ,latin and ,english vellum4    
,the name parchment had quite a         
different kind of origin4 ,it is an old 
story1 found in ,pliny's ,natural       
,history 7bk4 xiii4 ch4 #gj71 that the  
ancient use or revival of the use of    
parchment was due to the determination  
of ,king ,eumenes ,,ii4 of ,mysia or    
,pergamos to form a library which should
 rival those of ,alexandria1 but that   
when he applied to ,egypt for papyrus1  
the writing materials then in use1      
,ptolemy ,epiphanes jealously refused to
 permit its exportation4 ,in this       
difficulty ,eumenes1 we are told1 had   

recourse to the preparation of          
sheepskins1 and that from the place of  
its invention it was called charta      
pergamena4  ,pliny and his authority1   
however1 were both wrong in point of    
history4 ,eumenes1 who reigned from     
about #aig to #aeh ,b4,c41 was not the  
inventor1 but the restorer of its use   
7see ,herodotus1 v4 #eh74 ,it was called
 in ,greek ,,greek ,,small ,,letter     
,,mu,,greek ,,small ,,letter            
,,epsilon,,greek ,,small ,,letter       
,,mu,,greek ,,small ,,letter            
,,beta,,greek ,,small ,,letter          
,,rho,,greek ,,small ,,letter ,,alpha   
,,with ,,tonos,,greek ,,small ,,letter  
,,nu,,greek ,,small ,,letter ,,alpha 7#b
 ,tim4 iv4 #ac74  ,we may mention1 by   
the way1 that neither vellum nor        
parchment are by any means the oldest   
materials known4 ,far older1 and more   
generally used in ,italy1 ,greece1 and  
,egypt1 was the material which has given
 us the name of our commonest writing   
material of to-day1 viz4 paper4 ,the    

name of this older material was papyrus 
7,gr4 ,,greek ,,small ,,letter          
,,pi,,greek ,,small ,,letter ,,alpha    
,,with ,,tonos,,greek ,,small ,,letter  
,,pi,,greek ,,small ,,letter            
,,upsilon,,greek ,,small ,,letter       
,,rho,,greek ,,small ,,letter           
,,omicron,,greek ,,small ,,letter       
,,final ,,sigma and ,,greek ,,small     
,,letter ,,chi,,greek ,,small ,,letter  
,,alpha ,,with ,,tonos,,greek ,,small   
,,letter ,,rho,,greek ,,small ,,letter  
,,tau,,greek ,,small ,,letter           
,,eta,,greek ,,small ,,letter ,,final   
,,sigma74 ,as a writing material it was 
known in ,egypt from remote antiquity4  
,it was plentiful in ,rome in the time  
of the ,csars1 and it continued1 both in
 ,grecian and ,roman ,egypt1 to be the  
ordinary material employed down to the  
middle of the tenth century of our era4 
,in ,europe1 too1 it continued in common
 use long after vellum had been adopted 
for books1 though more especially for   
letters and accounts4 ,st4 ,jerome      

mentions vellum as an alternative       
material in case papyrus should fail    
7,ep4 vii471 and ,st4 ,augustine 7,ep4  
xv47 apologises for using vellum instead
 of papyrus4#c ,papyrus was also used in
 the early ,middle ,ages4 ,examples1    
made up into book-form--i4e4 in leaves1 
with sometimes a few vellum leaves among
 them for stability--are still extant4  
,among such are some seven or eight     
books in various ,european libraries1   
the best known being the ,homilies of   
,st4 ,avitus at ,paris1 the ,antiquities
 of ,josephus at ,milan1 and the        
,isidore at ,st4 ,gall4  #c ,thompson1  
,greek and ,latin ,palography1 p4 #cc4  
,and in the ,papal ,chancery papyrus    
appears to have been used down to a late
 date in preference to vellum4#d  #d    
,thompson1 op4 cit41 p4 #cd2 ,aug4      
,molinier1 ,les ,manuscrits1 ,prlim42   
,lecoy de la ,marche1 ,les ,,mss4 et la 
,miniature1 p4 #bd4  ,in ,france papyrus
 was in common use in the sixth and     
seventh centuries4 ,merovingian         

documents dating from #fbe to #fib are  
still preserved in ,paris4     ,,chapter
 ,,iii  ,,writing  ,its different       
styles--,origin of ,western             
alphabets--,various forms of            
letters--,capitals1 uncials1            
etc4--,texts used in ,western           
,europe--,forms of ancient              
writings--,the roll1 or volume--,the    
codex--,tablets--,diptychs1 etc4--,the  
square book--,how different sizes of    
books were produced4   ,seeing that     
illumination grew originally out of the 
decoration of the initial letters1 our  
next point to notice is the penmanship4 
,the alphabet which we now use is that  
formerly used by the ,romans1 who       
borrowed it from the ,greeks1 who in    
turn obtained it 7or their modification 
of it7 from the ,phoenicians1 who1      
lastly it is said1 constructed it from  
that of the ,egyptians4 ,of course1 in  
these repeated transfers the letters    
themselves1 as well as the order of     
them1 underwent considerable            

alterations4 ,with these we have here no
 concern4 ,our alphabet1 i4e4 the ,roman
 and its variations1 is quite sufficient
 for our story4 ,in order to show as    
clearly as may be the varieties of      
lettering and the progress of penmanship
 from classical times to the revival of 
the old ,roman1 letters in the fifteenth
 century1 we offer the following        
synopsis1 which classifies and indicates
 the development of the different hands 
used by writers and illuminators of     
,,mss4 ,it is constructed on the        
information given in ,wailly's large    
work on ,palography1 and in ,dr4 de     
,grey ,birch's book on the ,utrecht     
,psalter4 ,the former work affords      
excellent facsimiles1 which1 together   
with those given in the plates published
 by the ,palographical ,society1 will   
give the student the clearest possible  
ideas respecting these ancient          
handwritings4  ,omitting the cursive or 
correspondence hand1 the letters used by
 the ,romans were of four               

kinds--capitals 7usually made angular to
 be cut in stone71 rustic1 uncials1 and 
minuscules4  ,the rounded capitals were 
intended to be used in penwork4 ,uncials
 differ from capitals only in the       
letters ,a1 ,d1 ,e1 ,g1 ,m1 ,q1 ,t1 ,v1 
for the sake of ease in writing4 ,it is 
said that this class of letters was     
first called uncials from being made an 
inch 7uncia7 high1 but this is mere     
tradition2 the word is first used on    
,jerome's preface to the ,book of ,job4 
,no uncials have ever been found        
measuring more than five-eighths of an  
inch in height4  ,for the assistance of 
such students as may wish for examples  
we must refer to certain ,,mss4 and     
reproductions in which the foregoing    
hands are exemplified4  ,,circa ,,fourth
 ,,century4  ,capitals1 yet not pure4   
,the ,vatican ,vergil1 ,no4 #cbbe1      
throughout 7,birch1 p4 #ad2 ,silvestre's
     ,palographie universelle1 pl4 #gd74
  ,with regard to the relative antiquity
 of capitals and uncials1 ,m4 de ,wailly

 observes3 ,the titles in pure uncials1 
but less than the text itself1 give an  
excellent index to the highest          
antiquity4 ,this is verified in ,,mss4  
#aeb1 #bfcj1 #ajg of the ,bibl4 du ,roi1
 etc4 ,,mss4 of the seventh or eighth   
century1 whether on uncial or           
demi-uncial1 or any other letter1 are   
never constant in noting the title at   
the top of the page1 or the kind of     
writing will vary1 or if uncials be     
constantly used1 the titles will not be 
smaller than the text4 ,these variations
 become still greater in the following  
centuries4 ,the ornaments which relieve 
the titles of each page commence about  
the eighth century 7i4 p4 #di ,c74      
,capitals and ,uncials4   ,the ,homilies
 of ,st4 ,augustine 7,silvestre1 pl4    
#gd74   ,augustine ,opera1 ,paris ,lib41
 #aafda 7,palograph4 ,soc41 pl4 #db1    
#dc74  ,rustic4   ,the ,second ,vatican 
,vergil1 ,no4 #chfg 7,wailly1 pl4 #b71  
called the     ,codex ,romanus4  ,,sixth
 ,,century4  ,rustic and ,uncial4   ,the

 ,montamiata ,bible 7,birch1 #ce2       
,wailly1 pl4 #b1 #d74  ,rustic and      
,minuscule4   ,the ,cambridge ,gospels  
7,westwood1 ,palograph4 ,sacra          
,pictoria1 pl4 #de74  ,uncials4         
,gospels in ,brit4 ,mus4 ,add4 ,,ms4    
#edfc4   ,paris ,lib41 ,gregory of      
,tours 7,silvestre1 pl4 #hf74   ,vienna 
,imp4 ,lib41 ,livy 7,silvestre1 pl4     
#ge74   ,brit4 ,mus41 ,harl4 #agge      
7,palograph4 ,soc41 pl4 #af74  ,,seventh
 ,,century4  ,uncials and ,minuscule4   
,the ,st4 ,chad's ,gospels in library of
 ,lichfield ,cathedral 7,palograph4     
,soc41 pl4 #bj1 #ba1 #ce74  ,,ninth     
,,century4  ,capitals and ,minuscules4  
,paris ,lib41 ,bible of ,charles the    
,bald4  ,there is scarcely anything more
 difficult to judge than the true age of
 square capital ,,mss4 or of pure       
uncials4 ,even the rustic capitals1 like
 the first ,vatican ,vergil1 ,no4 #cbbe1
 are extremely rare4 ,the letters in    
this ,,ms4 are about three-sixteenths of
 an inch high4   ,,texts ,,in ,,use ,,in

 ,,western ,,europe ,,before ,,the ,,age
 ,,of ,,charlemagne4  ,lombardic4 ,the  
national hand of ,italy4 ,founded on the
 old ,roman cursive1 it does not attain 
to any great beauty until the tenth or  
eleventh century4 ,examples may be seen 
in ,palographical ,society1 pl4 #ie1 and
 in the excellent lithographs published 
by the monks of ,monte ,cassino         
7,paleografia artistica di ,monte       
,cassino1 ,longobardo-,cassinese1 tav4  
xxxiv41 etc474 ,a very fine example     
occurs in pl4 xv41 dated #ajhg-hh4 ,its 
characteristic letters are a1 e1 g1 t4  
,visigothic4 ,the national hand of      
,spain4 ,also founded on the old ,roman 
cursive4 ,it becomes an established hand
 in the eighth century1 and lasts until 
the twelfth4 ,examples occur in ,ewald  
and ,loewe1 ,exempla ,scriptur          
,visigotic1 ,heidelberg1 #ahhc4 ,it was 
at first very rude and illegible1 but   
afterwards became even handsome4 ,a fine
 example exists in the ,british ,museum 
7,palograph4 ,soc41 pl4 #dh74 ,its      

characteristic letters are g1 s1 t4     
,merovingian4 ,the national hand of     
,france4 ,a hand made up chiefly of     
loops and angles in a cramped1 irregular
 way4 ,its derivation the same as the   
preceding4 ,in the seventh century it is
 all but illegible4 ,in the eighth it is
 much better1 and almost easy to read4  
,celtic4 ,the national hand of ,ireland4
 ,it is founded on the demi-uncial      
,roman1 borrowed as to type from ,,mss4 
taken to ,ireland by missionaries4 ,it  
is bold1 clear1 and often beautiful1    
lending itself to some of the most      
astonishing feats of penmanship ever    
produced4  ,such are the chief varieties
 of writing found in the ,,mss4 produced
 before the great revival of the arts   
and learning which took place during the
 reign of ,charles the ,great 7,karl der
 ,grosse71 known familiarly as          
,charlemagne4  ,wattenbach              
7,schriftwesen1 etc47 says that uncials 
date from the second century ,a4,d4     
,from examples still extant of the fifth

 and following centuries1 it seems that 
while the ,roman capitals were not      
uncommon1 in ,celtic ,,mss4 the form    
generally adopted was the uncial4 ,it   
was the form also usually chosen for    
ornamentation or imitation in those     
,visigothic1 ,merovingian1 or ,lombardic
 ,,mss41 which made such remarkable use 
of fishes1 birds1 beasts1 and plants for
 the construction of initial letters and
 principal words1 of which we see so    
many examples in the elaborately        
illustrated ,catalogue of the library at
 ,laon by ,ed4 ,fleury1 and in that of  
,cambray1 by ,m4 ,durieux4 ,most of     
these pre-,carolingian designs are      
barbarous in the extreme1 dreadfully    
clumsy in execution1 but they evince    
considerable ingenuity and a strong     
predilection for symbolism4  ,before    
concluding this chapter perhaps         
something should be said concerning the 
shape of books1 though this is a matter 
somewhat outside the scope of our proper
 subject4 ,yet1 as the brief digression 

will afford an opportunity for the      
explanation of certain terms used in    
,,mss41 we will avail ourselves of it4  
,the ancient form of writing upon skins 
and papyrus was that of the roll4 ,the  
,hebrew1 ,arabic1 or ,greek terms for   
this do not concern us1 but its ,latin  
name was volumen1 something rolled1 and 
from this we obtain our word volume4    
,such words as explicit liber primus    
etc41 which we often find in early      
,,mss41 refer to this roll-form2        
explicare in ,latin meaning to unroll2  
hence1 apropos of a chapter or book1 to 
finish4 ,when transferred to the square 
form1 or codex1 it simply means1 here   
ends book first1 etc4  ,the modern book 
shape first came into use with the      
beginning of the ,christian era under   
the name of codex4 ,here it will be     
necessary to explain that caudex1 codex1
 in ,latin1 meant a block of wood1 and  
had its humorous by-senses among the    
,roman dramatists1 as the word block has
 among ourselves1 such as blockhead4#e  

,so caudicalis provincia was a jocular  
expression for the occupation of        
wood-splitting4  #e ,terence1           
,heautont41 #e4 #a1 #d4  ,whether the   
word had originally any connection with 
cauda1 a tail1 is not here worth        
considering1 as if so1 it had long lost 
the connection2 and when used to mean a 
book1 had only the sense of a board1 or 
a number of boards from two upwards1    
fastened together by means of rings     
passed through holes made in their      
edges4  ,probably the first use was as  
plain smooth boards only2 examples of   
such are still in existence4 ,then of   
boards thinly covered with1 usually1    
black wax4 ,a pair of such tablets1     
wax-covered1 was a common form of a     
,roman pocket-or memorandum-book4 ,it   
was also used as a means of conveying   
messages1 the reply being returned on   
the same tablets4 ,the method was to    
write on the wax with a fine-pointed    
instrument called a style1 the reverse  
end of which was flattened4 ,when the   

person to whom the message was sent had 
read it1 he 7or she7 simply flattened   
out the writing1 smoothed it level1 and 
then wrote the reply on the same wax4   
,school-children did their exercises on 
these tablets1 housewives and stewards  
kept their accounts on them1 and on them
 literary people jotted down their ideas
 as they do now in their pocket-books4  
,extant examples of these early books1  
or tablets1 are fairly numerous1 and may
 be seen in most public museums4 ,a     
codex of two leaves was called a        
diptych2 of three1 a triptych1 etc4 ,the
 codex form was used for legal          
documents1 wills1 conveyances1 and      
general correspondence4 ,hence the      
,roman postman was called a tabellarius1
 the tablets containing correspondence  
being tied with a thread or ribbon and  
sealed4 ,this custom of sending letters 
on tablets survived for some centuries  
after ,augustan times4 ,wattenbach gives
 several interesting instances of their 
medival use4#f  #f ,schriftwesen1 #dh4  

,of course when the tablet gave place to
 the codex of skin or paper1 the papyrus
 was too brittle and fragile for        
practical utility1 and examples1 as we  
have seen1 were very rare2 but vellum   
soon became popular4 ,we may mention1 in
 passing1 that the papyrus roll gave us 
a word still in use in diplomatics1 the 
word protocol4 ,the first sheet of a    
papyrus roll was called the ,,greek     
,,small ,,letter ,,pi,,greek ,,small    
,,letter ,,rho,,greek ,,small ,,letter  
,,omega,,greek ,,small ,,letter         
,,tau,,greek ,,small ,,letter ,,omicron 
,,with ,,tonos,,greek ,,small ,,letter  
,,kappa,,greek ,,small ,,letter         
,,omicron,,greek ,,small ,,letter       
,,lamda,,greek ,,small ,,letter         
,,lamda,,greek ,,small ,,letter         
,,omicron,,greek ,,small ,,letter ,,nu4 
,it usually contained the name of place 
and date of manufacture of the papyrus1 
and was stamped or marked with the name 
of the government officer who had charge
 of the department4  ,in the vellum     

codex1 though each leaf might have only 
one fold1 and thus technically be       
considered as a folio1 the actual shape 
of it was nearly square1 hence its name 
of codex quadratus4 ,when other forms of
 books1 such as octavo1 duo-decimo1     
etc41 came into use1 it was in          
consequence of the increased number of  
foldings4 ,the gatherings1 originally   
quaternions or quires1 became different1
 and those who undertake to examine     
,,mss4 with respect to their            
completeness have to be familiar with   
the various methods4#g ,this kind of    
knowledge1 however1 though useful1 is by
 no means essential to the story of     
illumination4  #g ,wattenbach1          
,schriftwesen2 ,madan1 ,books in        
,manuscript1 etc4     ,,chapter ,,iv    
,,greek ,,and ,,roman ,,illumination    
,the first miniature painter--,the      
,vatican ,vergils--,methods of          
painting--,origin of ,christian         
art--,the ,vienna ,genesis--,the        
,dioscorides--,the ,byzantine ,revival4 

,it has been already stated that the    
earliest recorded miniature painter was 
a lady named ,lala of ,cyzicus in the   
days of ,augustus ,csar1 days when      
,cyzicus was to ,rome what ,brussels is 
to ,paris1 or ,brighton to ,london4 ,all
 her work1 as far as we know1 has       
perished4 ,it was portraiture on ivory1 
probably much the same as we see in the 
miniature portraiture of the present    
day4  ,but this was not illumination4   
,the kind of painting employed in the   
two ,vatican ,vergils was1 however1     
something approaching it4 ,these two    
precious volumes contain relics of      
,pagan art1 but it is the very art which
 was the basis and prototype of         
so-called ,christian art of those       
earliest examples found in the catacombs
 and in the first liturgical books of   
,christian times4  ,the more ancient of 
the two ,vergils referred to1 ,no4      
#cbbe1 which ,labarte 7#bnd ed41 ii4    
#aeh7 thinks to be a century older than 
the other1 ,sir ,m4,d4 ,wyatt considered

 as containing some of the best and most
 interesting specimens of ancient       
painting which have come down to us4    
,the design is free and the colours     
applied with good effect1 the whole     
presenting classical art in the period  
of decline1 but before its final        
debasement4 ,whereas in the second      
,,ms41 ,no4 #chfg1 the style1 though    
still classical1 is greatly debased1 and
 probably1 in addition to this1 by no   
means among the best work of its time4  
,it is described as rough1 inaccurate1  
and harsh4 ,the method is of the kind   
called gouache1 i4e4 the colours are    
applied thickly in successive couches or
 layers1 probably by means of white of  
egg diluted with fig-tree sap1 and      
finished in the high lights with touches
 of gold 7,palograph4 ,soc41 pl4 #aad1  
#aag74 ,this finishing with touches of  
gold brings the work within the range of
 illumination4 ,there is1 indeed1       
wanting the additional ornamentation of 
the initial letter which would bring it 

fully into the class of medival work2   
but1 such as it is1 it may fairly claim 
to be suggestive of the future art4     
,indeed1 certain points in the ,,ms4    
#cbbe--viz4 that ,zeus is always red and
 ,venus fair1 that certain costumes and 
colours of drapery are specially        
appropriated--would lead to the         
supposition that even then there existed
 a code of rules like those of the      
,byzantine ,guide1 and that therefore   
the art owed its origin to the ,greeks4 
,between this ,,ms4 and the first known 
,christian book work there may have been
 many that have now perished1 and which1
 had they remained1 would have marked   
the transition more gradually4 ,but even
 as they stand there is no appreciable  
difference between the earliest         
monuments of ,christian art and those of
 the period which preceded them4 ,nor   
shall we find any break1 any distinct   
start on new principles4 ,it is one     
continuous series of processes--the     
gradual change of methods growing out of

 experience alone--not owing to any     
change of religion or the adoption of a 
new set of theological opinions4 ,of    
course we shall find that for a very    
long time the preponderance of          
illuminated ,,mss4 will be towards      
liturgical works2 and we shall also find
 that where the contents of the ,,ms4   
are the same the subjects taken for     
illustration are also selected according
 to some fixed and well-known set of    
rules4 ,we shall see the explanation of 
this by-and-by4  ,the first example of a
 ,christian illuminated ,,ms4 is one    
containing portions of the ,book of     
,genesis in ,greek preserved in the     
,imperial ,library at ,vienna4 ,it is a 
mere fragment1 only twenty-six leaves of
 purple vellum--that is1 bearing the    
imperial stain--yet it contains         
eighty-eight pictures4 ,we call them    
miniatures1 but we must remember that by
 miniator a ,roman bookseller would not 
understand what we call a miniaturist2  
and1 as we have said1 the word          

illuminator was not then known4  ,this  
,vienna ,genesis is not introduced among
 illuminated books1 therefore1 because  
of its miniatures--pictures we prefer to
 call them--but because the text is     
nearly all written in gold and silver   
letters4 ,the pictures1 according to the
 ,greek manner1 are placed in little    
square frames4 ,they were executed1 no  
doubt1 by a professional painter1 not   
without technical skill and not hampered
 by monastic restrictions4 ,the         
symbolism which underlies all early art 
is here shown in the allegorical figures
 7such as we shall meet with again in   
later ,byzantine work71 which are       
introduced to interpret the scene4 ,we  
see the same thing in the catacombs4    
,being a relic of great importance1 this
 ,genesis codex has been often described
 and examples given of its pictures4 ,of
 course1 in a little manual like the    
present we cannot pretend to exhibit the
 literature of our subject4 ,we can     
scarcely do more than refer the reader  

to a single source4 ,in this case       
perhaps we cannot do better than send   
the inquirer to the ,victoria and       
,albert ,museum at ,south ,kensington4  
,if we select another ,,ms4 of this     
early period it is the one which may be 
said to be the oldest existing ,,ms4 in 
which the ornamentation is worthy of as 
much notice as the pictures4 ,we refer  
to the ,collection of ,treatises by     
,greek physicians on plants1 fishing1   
the chase1 and kindred matters in the   
same library as the ,genesis fragment4  
,it goes under the name of ,dioscorides1
 who was one of the authors1 and dates  
from the beginning of the sixth century4
 ,the ,genesis is a century older4      
,engravings from the ,dioscorides are   
given in ,labarte's ,arts industriels1  
etc41 pl4 #gh1 and in ,louandre's ,arts 
somptuaires1 etc41 i41 pl4 #b1 #c4      
,enough has been said on these earlier  
centuries to show quite clearly the     
character of the art known as ,early    
,christian4 ,it is simply a continuation

 of such art as had existed from        
classical times1 and had1 in fact1      
passed from the ,greeks1 who were       
artists1 to the ,romans1 who were rarely
 better than imitators4 ,it is carried  
on to the period when it again is       
nourished by ,greek ideas in the ,later 
,empire1 and once more attains          
distinction in the splendid revival of  
art under the ,emperor ,justinian4      
,,note4--,julius ,capitolinus1 in his   
,life of the exquisite ,emperor         
,maximin1 junior1 mentions that the     
emperor's mother#h made him a present of
 a copy of the poems of ,homer1 written 
in golden letters on purple#i vellum4   
,this is the earliest recorded instance 
of such a book in ,christian times4 ,its
 date would be about #bce ,a4,d4  #h    
,qudam parens sua4  #i ,purpureos       
libros4     ,,chapter ,v  ,,byzantine   
,,illumination  ,the rebuilding of the  
city of ,byzantium the beginning of     
,byzantine art--,justinian's fondness   
for building and splendour--,description

 of ,paul the ,silentiary--,sumptuous   
garments--,the ,gospel-book of          
,hormisdas--,characteristics of         
,byzantine work--,comparative scarcity  
of examples--,rigidity of ,byzantine    
rules of art--,periods of ,byzantine    
art--,examples--,monotony and           
lifelessness of the style4   ,the signal
 event which gave birth to medival      
illumination1 or rather to the ideas    
which were thereby concentrated upon the
 production of magnificent books1 was   
the rebuilding of the ,imperial ,palace 
and the ,basilica of ,constantine1      
henceforward to be known as the ,church 
of ,sancta ,sophia1 or the ,divine      
,wisdom1 at ,byzantium4 ,the ,emperor   
,justinian had been reigning six years  
when a terrific fire1 caused by the     
conflicts between the various seditions1
 called ,circus factions1 of the time1  
almost entirely destroyed not only his  
own palace and the great ,christian     
church adjoining it1 but the city of    
,constantinople itself4 ,so important a 

scheme of reconstruction had probably   
never been forced upon a government     
since the great fire in ,rome under     
,nero4 ,justinian1 whose early training 
had been of the most economical kind1   
and whose disposition seemed to be      
rather inclined to parsimony than       
extravagance1 now came out in his true  
character4 ,for various reasons he had  
hitherto studiously concealed his       
master-passion2 but this catastrophe of 
the fire1 which seemed at first so      
disastrous1 was really a stroke of      
fortune4 ,it afforded the hitherto      
frugal sovereign the chance he had long 
waited for of spending without stint the
 hoarded savings of his two miserly     
predecessors1 and gratifying his own    
tastes for magnificent architecture and 
splendour of apparel4  ,not only ,asia1 
with its wealth of gold and gems1 but   
all the known world capable of supplying
 material for the reconstructions1 were 
called upon1 and ivory1 marbles1        
mosaics1 lamps1 censers1 candelabra1    

chalices1 ciboria1 crosses1 furniture1  
fittings1 pictures--in short1 everything
 that his own taste and the experience  
of four or five of the ablest architects
 of the time could suggest--administered
 to the gorgeous1 the unspeakable       
splendour of the new edifices and their 
furniture4  ,paul the ,silentiary1 an   
eye-witness of the whole proceeding1 has
 left a description in verse1 and the   
accurate ,du ,fresne in prose1 which    
enable us easily to trace how the ,roman
 city of ,constantine became transformed
 into the semi-oriental ,byzantium of   
,justinian4 ,during the two centuries   
which had elapsed since the days of the 
first ,christian emperor many foreign   
luxuries had found their way into the   
,eastern capital4 ,byzantine jewellery  
and ,byzantine silks were already       
famous4 ,the patterns on the latter were
 not merely floral or geometrical1 but  
four-footed animals1 birds1 and scenes  
from outdoor sports formed part of the  
embellishment1 which1 therefore1 must   

have taken the place occupied in later  
times by the tapestries of ,arras and   
,fontainebleau4  ,hitherto the          
,byzantines had imported their silks    
from ,persia4 ,after the rebuilding of  
the ,basilica1 ,justinian introduced    
silk-culture into ,greece4 ,the garments
 ridiculed by ,asterius1 ,bishop of     
,amasia1 in the fourth century1 were    
repeated in the sixth century4 ,when    
men1 says he1 appear in the streets thus
 dressed1 the passers-by look at them as
 at painted walls4 ,their clothes are   
pictures which little children point out
 to one another4 ,the saintlier sort    
wear likenesses of ,christ1 the         
,marriage of ,galilee444and ,lazarus    
raised from the dead4  ,on the robe of  
the ,empress ,theodora--the wife of     
,justinian1 who is shown in one of the  
mosaics of ,st4 ,vitale at ,ravenna as  
presenting rich gifts to that           
church--there is embroidered work along 
the border1 showing the ,adoration of   
the ,magi4 ,theodora pia was one among  

the many rles played by that            
all-accomplished actress2 but this seems
 to have been after her death4 ,like    
,lucrezia ,borgia1 perhaps1 she was     
better than her reputation4 ,with such  
surroundings liturgical books could not 
have existed without sharing in the     
universal luxury of enrichment4 ,and1 in
 point of fact1 we still have records of
 such books4 ,while ,justinian reigned  
in ,byzantium it happened that          
,hormisdas1 a native of ,frosinone1 was 
,pope of ,rome4 ,he was a zealous       
eradicator of heresy 7especially of the 
,eutychian and ,manichan71 and in       
recognition of his services in this     
direction the ,greek ,emperor1 with his 
thanks1 sent him a great ,gospel-book   
richly decorated1 no doubt1 with those  
splendid ,eusebian canons and portraits 
of the ,evangelists1 the like of which  
we see in the ,byzantine examples still 
preserved at ,paris1 in ,london1 and    
elsewhere4 ,plates of beaten gold1      
studded with gems1 formed the covers of 

the ,gospel-book of ,hormisdas4  ,nor   
was this sumptuous volume the only1 or  
even a rare1 example of its kind4 ,we   
read that the art of book decoration had
 become a fashionable craze4 ,no expense
 was spared in the search for costly    
materials4 ,colours were imported from  
,india1 ,persia1 and ,spain1 including  
vermilion and ultramarine1 while the    
renowned ,byzantine gold ink was        
manufactured from imported ,indian gold4
 ,persian calligraphers had taught its  
use afresh to the ,byzantine scribes4   
,if1 as we may believe1 the first object
 of the ,roman miniatores was           
distinctness combined with beauty1 we   
may now believe that the object of the  
,byzantine scribes was splendour4 ,the  
progress had been from mere cheirography
 to calligraphy2 now it was from        
calligraphy to chrysography and         
arguriography4  ,this employment of gold
 and silver inks may be looked upon as  
the first step in the art of            
illumination as practised in the ,middle

 ,ages4 ,and the preliminary to the use 
of metallic inks was attention to the   
tint of the vellum4 ,the pioneers in    
this career of luxury no doubt had      
observed that very white vellum fatigued
 the eye4 ,hence1 at first1 they tinted 
or stained it with saffron1 on one side 
at least1 sometimes on both4 ,once      
begun1 the tinting of the vellum        
extended to other colours4 ,for works of
 the highest rank the favourite was a   
fine purple1 the imperial colour of the 
,roman and ,greek emperors4 ,for        
chrysography1 or gold-writing1 the tint 
was nearly what we call crimson4 ,for   
arguriography1 or silver-writing1 it    
became the bluish hue we call           
grape-purple4 ,on the cooled purples    
vermilion ink was used instead of1 or   
together with1 the gold or silver4 ,as  
the usage began with the ,greeks1 we may
 be sure that it came originally from   
,asia4  ,the ,emperor ,nero1 once having
 heard that an ,olympic ,ode of ,pindar 
in letters of gold was laid up in one of

 the temples at ,athens1 desired that   
certain verses of his own should be     
similarly written and dedicated on the  
,altar of ,jupiter ,capitolinus at      
,rome4 ,this was an imperial luxury     
several times repeated by other princes4
  ,after the official establishment of  
,christianity it became a common        
practice to have the greater liturgical 
books executed in the same costly       
fashion4 ,and between the time of       
,constantine and that of ,basil the     
,macedonian many a burning homily was   
directed against the custom1 denounced  
as a sinful extravagance1 which no doubt
 it was1 but in vain until the fashion  
had worn itself out4  ,it might fairly  
be expected1 this being the case1 that  
many examples of this kind of codex     
would still be in existence4 ,but owing 
to war1 fire1 robbery1 and other        
misfortunes but very few remain4 ,one of
 the oldest and finest is the so-called 
,codex ,argenteus1 or ,silver-book1 now 
kept at ,upsala1 in ,sweden1 containing 

portions of the ,gospels of the         
,msogothic ,bishop ,ulfilas4 ,originally
 the effect of the stamped or burnished 
silver on the rich purple of the vellum 
must have been very splendid1 but now   
the action of the air has blackened it1 
as it has done in many other instances  
where silver was used in illumination4  
,even gold will gather tarnish1 and in  
several such ,,mss4 has turned of a     
rusty red4 ,gold ink was not invariably 
confined to tinted vellum2 it was often 
used on the plain ground4 ,the copy of  
the ,old ,testament in ,greek1 presented
 by the high priest ,eleazar to ,king   
,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 was a roll of   
fine white vellum1 upon which the text  
was written in letters of gold4  ,to    
enter upon the antiquities of ,greek    
palography would lead us too far from   
our track in view of the brevity of our 
present survey4 ,we therefore with some 
reluctance turn from this interesting   
topic to our more immediate subject4 ,we
 may remark1 however1 that the great    

majority of ,greek ,,mss4 are written on
 vellum4 ,in the eleventh century are   
found instances of what is called charta
 bombycina1 or cotton-paper1 appearing  
more plentifully in the twelfth century1
 but on the whole vellum is the chief   
material of ,byzantine illuminated      
books4 ,much has been said about the    
want of life and total lack of variety  
of treatment in this school of art4 ,to 
a very great extent the charge is just1 
yet it could scarcely be otherwise4 ,the
 one circumstance which compelled       
,byzantine work to remain so long as if 
cast in one unalterable mould1 and thus 
to differ so strangely from that of     
,western artists1 was due to the fact   
that in very early ,christian times the 
scribes and illuminators were enrolled  
into a minutely organised corporation   
originating primarily in monasticism1   
but by no means confined to the monastic
 ,orders4 ,lay guilds existed1 the      
regulations and methods of which were   
rigid beyond modern belief4 ,so that1 as

 a class1 ,byzantine art has acquired   
the reputation of a soulless adherence  
to mechanical rules and precedents1     
depriving it of originality and even of 
individuality1 and therefore excluding  
the remotest scintilla of artistic      
genius4 ,of the great crowd of examples 
of ordinary work this may be true1 but  
it certainly is not true of the best1 by
 which it has the right to be judged1 as
 we shall see from the examples referred
 to by-and-by4 ,certainly there is one  
invaluable particular in which ,greek   
,,mss4 are superior to those of the     
,west1 ,latin or otherwise4 ,that is1   
they are much more frequently signed    
with the names1 localities1 and dates of
 the copyists and illuminators4  ,it    
will be some help towards our knowledge 
of this school if we divide its         
existence into chronological sections or
 periods4  #a4 ,from pr-,christianity to
 the ,age of ,justinian1 i4e4 down to   
the year #ece4 7,justinian reigned from 
#ebf to #efd47  ,this period marks the  

decadence of ancient art1 but carries   
with it the characteristics and methods 
of the ancient ,greek painters4  #b4    
,from the ,age of ,justinian to the     
,iconoclastic paralysis of art under    
,leo ,,iii4 the ,isaurian1 i4e4 #efd to 
#gbf4 7,leo reigned from #gag to #gda47 
,during this period vast numbers of     
illuminated liturgical books were       
destroyed for religious or fanatical    
reasons1 just as in our own ,cromwellian
 times numbers of ,hor1 ,missals1 etc41 
were destroyed as papistical and        
superstitious4  ,this ,edict of #gbf did
 not absolutely put an end to all art in
 ,,mss4 ,it only had the effect of      
excluding images of ,god1 ,christ1 and  
the saints1 as in ,arabian and ,persian 
,,mss41 leaving the artist the free use 
of flowers1 plants1 and line ornament1  
after the manner of the ,mohammedan     
arabesques4  #c4 ,from ,leo ,,iii4 to   
the ,empress ,irene1 who restored the   
worship of images in part1 i4e4 from    
#gda to #ghe4 7,irene ruled from #ghj to

 #hja47  ,this was a period of          
stagnation1 though by no means of       
extinction of art4  #d4 ,from ,irene to 
,basil ,i4 the ,macedonian1 i4e4 from   
#hja to #hfg4  ,a half-century and more 
of rapid renaissance to the most        
brilliant epoch of ,byzantine art since 
the time of ,justinian1 if not the      
zenith of the school4  ,basil ,i4 was a 
great builder--building1 in fact1 was   
his ruling passion--so that it may be   
said that he took ,justinian for his    
model both as a ruler and as a patron of
 the arts4 7,he reigned from #hfg to    
#hhf47  #e4 ,from ,basil the ,macedonian
 to the ,fall of ,constantinople1 i4e4  
from #hhf to #adec4  ,allowing for a few
 flashes of expiring skill in various   
reigns1 this may be considered as a     
period of gradual but certain decline to
 a state worse than death1 for though   
the monks of ,greek and ,russian        
convents still kept up the execution of 
,,mss41 it was only with the driest and 
most lifeless adhesion to the ,manual4  

,this so-called art still exists1 but   
more like a magnetised corpse than a    
living thing4  ,examples of the first   
period are seldom met with4 ,we have one
 signal specimen in the ,british ,museum
 ,add4 ,,ms4 #eaaa1 being two leaves    
only of a ,gospel-book1 and containing  
part of the ,eusebian canons1 or        
contents-tables of the ,four ,gospels1  
etc4 ,the work is attributed to the time
 of ,justinian himself4 ,it is of the   
kind already referred to as probably    
affording the model of work to the early
 illuminators of ,france and ,ireland1  
and as being like the ,gospel-book of   
,hormisdas and those brought to ,england
 by ,augustine in #eif4 ,another example
 of the same ,eusebian canons is found  
in ,roy4 ,,ms4 #a ,e4 vi4  ,of the      
fourth period--i4e4 the ninth           
century--perhaps the most typical       
example is the ,menologium 7a sort of   
compound of a calendar and lives of the 
saints71 now in the ,vatican ,library   
7,,ms4 ,gr4 #afac74 ,this ,,ms4 shows   

that the revival under ,basil the       
,macedonian was a return not to ,roman1 
but to ancient ,greek art1 the facial   
types being of the purest classical     
character4  ,illustration3 ,,evang4     
,,gr,,ca #f,,th ,,cent4 ,brit4 ,mus4    
,add4 ,,ms4 #eaaa1 fol4 #ac             
,illustration3 ,,evang4 ,,gr,,ca #i,,th 
,,cent4 ,brit4 ,mus4 ,burney ,,ms4 #ai  
fol4 #a v4  ,in some of them we see the 
horizontal frown of the ,homeric heroes 
7,,greek ,,small ,,letter ,,sigma,,greek
 ,,small ,,letter ,,upsilon ,,with      
,,tonos,,greek ,,small ,,letter         
,,nu,,greek ,,small ,,letter            
,,omicron,,greek ,,small ,,letter       
,,phi,,greek ,,small ,,letter           
,,rho,,greek ,,small ,,letter           
,,upsilon,,greek ,,small ,,letter       
,,final ,,sigma ,,greek ,,capital       
,,letter ,,omicron,,greek ,,small       
,,letter ,,delta,,greek ,,small ,,letter
 ,,upsilon,,greek ,,small ,,letter      
,,sigma,,greek ,,small ,,letter         
,,sigma,,greek ,,small ,,letter         

,,epsilon,,greek ,,small ,,letter       
,,upsilon,,greek ,,small ,,letter       
,,final ,,sigma71 and of the ,georgian  
and ,armenian races shown in the        
features of the ,emperor ,johannes      
,ducas4 ,we have1 too1 the large ,hera- 
like eye with its mystic gaze1 which1 in
 later ,byzantine work1 becomes first a 
gaze of lofty indifference1 as in the   
portraits of the emperors and empresses1
 and lastly a stony and expressionless  
stare2 still1 if possible1 more stony   
and glaring when transferred to ,celtic 
and ,carolingian ,gospel-books4 7,see   
chapter on ,carolingian ,illumination47 
,of this fourth period we might indeed  
point to many examples4 ,one must       
suffice4 ,it is the beautiful ,greek    
,psalter1 now at ,paris 7,,ms41 p4      
#aci71 containing lovely examples of    
antique design1 including remarkable    
personifications or allegorical figures4
 ,in this ,,ms4 is one of the most      
graceful personifications ever painted1 
that of ,night1 with her veil of gauze  

studded with stars floating overhead4   
,the seven pictures from the ,life of   
,david are among the best ever put into 
a ,,ms4 ,but personification is carried 
to an extreme4 ,thus the ,red ,sea1 the 
,jordan1 ,rivers1 ,mountains1 ,night1   
,dawn1 etc41 are all represented as     
persons4 ,the drawings are really       
beautiful and the illuminated initials  
and general ornament in good taste4     
,for other examples the reader may      
consult the ,british ,museum ,cat4 of   
,addit4 ,,mss41 #ahda-e1 p4 #hg2 also   
,du ,sommerard1 ,les ,arts au ,moyen-ge1
 tom4 v41 #ahdf1 pp4 #ajg1 #afb-h1 and  
album1 #b;e sr4 pl4 xxix41 #h;e sr4 pl4 
xii4-xvi4  ,it is noticeable in these   
,byzantine pictures that while the      
figure-painting is often really         
excellent1 the design skilful1 and the  
pose natural1 the landscape1 trees1     
etc41 are quite symbolic and fanciful4  
,the painters seem to have been utterly 
ignorant of perspective4 ,buildings1    
too1 without any regard to relative     

proportion1 are coloured merely as parts
 of a colour scheme4 ,they are pink1    
pale green1 yellow1 violet1 blue1 just  
to please the eye4 ,that the painter had
 a system of colour-harmony is plain1   
but he paid no regard to the facts of   
city life1 unless1 indeed1 it was the   
practice of the medival ,byzantines to  
paint the outside of their houses in    
this truly brilliant style4 ,possibly   
they did so2 we have similar things in  
,italy even nowadays4  ,no doubt the    
,french illuminators of the thirteenth  
and fourteenth centuries drew from these
 sources both their perspective and     
their architectural colouring4 ,as for  
ornamental illumination1 the principal  
method of decoration was a square       
heading1#aj perhaps including a         
semicircular arch sweeping over several 
arcades1 the corners and wall-space     
being occupied either with arabesque    
patterns1 showing them to be after the  
time of ,leo ,,iii41 or with scrolls of 
line-ornament enriched with acanthus    

foliages4 ,under this the scribe has    
placed his title4  #aj ,it has been     
thought to represent the ,greek ,,greek 
,,small ,,letter ,,pi1 and to mean      
,,greek ,,small ,,letter ,,pi,,greek    
,,small ,,letter ,,upsilon ,,with       
,,tonos,,greek ,,small ,,letter         
,,lamda,,greek ,,small ,,letter ,,eta1 a
 gate or door4  ,illustration3 ,,carved 
,,ivory ,,cover ,,latin ,,psalter ,,of  
,,mellisenda #ab,,th ,,cent4 ,brit4     
,mus4 ,egert4 ,,ms4 #aaci               
,illustration3 ,,codex ,,aurens         
7,,golden ,,gospels ,,of ,,athelstan7   
,c4 #hce ,brit4 ,mus4 ,harl4 ,,ms4      
#bghh1 fol4 #agf  ,other examples have a
 square frame filled with the latter    
kind of scrolls and foliages1 leaving a 
sort of open panel in the centre1 in    
which is placed a small scene of sacred 
history or perhaps of country life4     
,sometimes the title1 in golden letters1
 is surrounded with medallions          
containing heads of ,christ and the     
,virgin1 apostles1 and saints4 ,the     

peculiar interlacing bands of violet1   
yellow1 rose1 blue1 etc41 which are     
still often seen in ,russian ornament1  
are also features of these ,byzantine   
,,mss42 but most of all is the lavish   
use of gold4 ,perhaps the fact most to  
be remembered about these ,,mss4 is that
 the painters of them worked in a manner
 that was absolutely fixed and rigid1   
the rules of which are laid down in a   
manual called the ,guide to ,painting1 a
 work which has been translated by ,m4  
,didron4  ,so fixed and unalterable1    
indeed1 is the manner that there is     
absolutely no difference to indicate    
relative antiquity between a ,,ms4 of   
the eleventh century and one of the     
sixteenth or even later1 we might almost
 say1 of the present day4 ,in the matter
 of saint-images this is strictly true4 
,,chapter ,,vi  ,,celtic ,,illumination 
,early liturgical books reflect the     
ecclesiastical art of their time--,this 
feature a continuous characteristic of  
illumination down to the latest         

times--,elements of ,celtic             
ornament--,gospels of ,st4              
,chad--,durham ,gospels--,contrast of   
,celtic and ,byzantine--,st4            
,columba--,book of ,kells--,details of  
its decoration4   ,in the earlier       
centuries of ,christianity1 when        
liturgical books were the chief         
occupation of the illuminator1 it will  
need little pointing out to demonstrate 
that the page of the illuminated        
manuscript1 where it contained more than
 the mere ornamental initial1 was simply
 a mirror of the architectural          
decoration of the church in which it was
 intended to be used4 ,where the church 
enrichments consist1 as on the          
,byzantine basilicas1 of panellings1    
arcades1 and tympana of gilded sculpture
 in wood or stone1 with figures of      
saints1 the pages of the ,gospel-book   
bear similar designs4 ,where1 as in the 
,romanesque1 they are rich in mosaics1  
and fretted arcades interlacing each    
other1 so are the illuminated ,lives of 

the ,saints1 the ,menologia1 ,psalters1 
and ,gospel-books4 ,where1 as in the    
,gothic cathedrals of the ,west--of     
,france1 ,germany1 or ,italy--the       
stained glass is the striking feature of
 the interior1 so it is with the        
illumination2 it is a vitrail--a        
glass-painting on vellum4 ,on this      
latter point we shall have more to say  
when we reach the period of ,gothic     
illumination4  ,incidentally1 also1 the 
book reflects the minor arts in vogue at
 the period of its execution4 ,often in 
the illumination we may detect these    
popular local industries4 ,we see mosaic
 enamelling1 wood-and stone-carving1 and
 lacquer-work1 and as we approach the   
,renaissance1 even gem-cutting and the  
delicate craft of the medallist4 ,in    
,venice and the ,netherlands we have the
 local taste for flower-culture2 in     
,germany we find sculpture in wood and  
stone2 in ,france the productions of the
 enameller and the goldsmith2 until at  
length1 in the full blaze of the        

,renaissance itself1 we have in almost  
every land the same varieties of        
enrichment practised according to its   
own special style of work4  ,it has been
 said that the oldest ,celtic           
illuminated ,,mss4 show no signs of     
classic1 or even ,byzantine1 influence1 
yet the plan or framework of the designs
 makes use both of the cross and the    
arch1 as used in the earliest ,byzantine
 examples4 ,the details1 indeed1 are    
quite different1 and manifestly derived 
from indigenous sources4 ,it may be1    
therefore1 that the framework is merely 
a geometrical coincidence which could   
not well be avoided4 ,the fact that the 
basis of pure ,irish ornament is        
geometrical1 and developed out of the   
prehistoric and barbarous art of the    
savages who preceded the ,celts in      
,ireland2 such art as is used on the    
carved shafts of spears1 and oars1 and  
staves of honour1 and afterwards on     
stone crosses and metal-work1 may       
account for the similarity of ideas in  

ornament developed by old ,roman        
decorators in their mosaic pavements1   
and may reconcile1 in some measure1 the 
varied opinions of different writers who
 have approached the subject from       
different points of view4 ,westwood     
adhered to the theory of its being      
purely indigenous4 ,fleury1 on the other
 hand1 in his ,catalogue of the ,,mss4  
in the ,library at ,laon1 asserts that  
we owe the knots and interlacements to  
the influence of the painters1          
sculptors1 and mosaicists of ,rome4     
,these interlacings1 cables1 etc41 there
 is no ,gallo-,roman monument which does
 not exhibit them1 and1 only to cite    
local instances1 the cord of four or    
five strands is seen in the beautiful   
mosaics discovered in profusion within  
the last five years 7#aheg-fb7 at       
,blanzy1 at ,bazoches1 at ,vailly1 and  
at ,reims4 ,it was from them that the   
,franks borrowed their knots and twists 
and ribbons for their belts and buckles1
 their rings and bracelets 7pt4 i41 p4  

#h74  ,the elements1 therefore1 of book 
ornament1 as used by the ,celtic penmen1
 are such as were employed by the       
prehistoric and sporadic nations in the 
textile art in plaiting and handweaving1
 and afterwards transferred to that of  
metal-work4 ,terminals of animal1 bird1 
or serpent form afterwards combine with 
the linear designs4 ,the dog and dragon 
are common1 as may be seen in the       
archaic vases produced by the ,greeks   
before they came under the influence of 
ideas from ,western ,asia4  ,among      
,celtic artists1 as among those of later
 times1 the practice of working in      
various materials was common to the same
 individual1 and ,dagus 7d4 #ehf7 may   
compare with ,dunstan1 ,eloy1 ,tuotilo1 
and others4  ,to apply these            
observations to the style of            
illumination which now comes under our  
notice it may be said that if we allow  
the cross and arch to be copied from the
 ,byzantine ,,mss4 introduced from      
abroad1 the details are undoubtedly     

supplied by the wickerwork and textile  
netting familiar to the everyday life of
 the artist4 ,assisted by the fertile   
imagination of bardic lore in snakes1   
dragons1 and other mythic monsters of   
heroic verse1 the illuminator produces a
 pencilled tapestry of textile fabric or
 flexile metal-work as marvellous as it 
is unique4 ,no amount of description can
 give a true idea of what ,celtic work  
is like2 it must be seen to be          
comprehended4 ,one glance at a facsimile
 of such a ,,ms4 as the ,book of ,kells 
or the ,lindisfarne ,gospels1 or those  
of ,st4 ,chad at ,lichfield1 or         
wherever1 as at ,st4 ,gall1 such work is
 to be met with1 will supersede the most
 laboured attempt at description4 ,we   
must therefore at once refer the reader 
to the facsimile4 ,when that has been   
inspected1 we may proceed4 ,in the first
 place it may be noted that with these  
,occidental ,,mss4 begins the importance
 and development of the initial1 which1 
indeed1 as regards the illumination of  

,western ,europe1 is the very root of   
the matter4 ,it is the development of   
the initial letter first into the       
bracket1 then into the border1 which    
forms the great distinction of the ,art 
of ,paris1 as ,dante calls it1 from that
 of ,byzantium4 ,the latter is almost   
always of a squared or tabular design1  
traced and painted on a ground of       
burnished gold4 ,the former exhausts    
itself first in fantastic lacertine     
forms1 twisted into the shapes of the   
commencing letters or words of the      
writing1 to which the suggestion of some
 ,byzantine ,,ms1 perhaps occasionally  
adds a frame4 ,next come birds1 dogs1   
dragons1 vine-stems1 and spirals        
embedded in couches of colour2 but1     
whatever its character1 always it is the
 letter that governs and originates the 
ornament4 ,only at the very end of its  
life1 when the border has completely    
eclipsed the initial1 is the idea of    
origin forgotten4 ,then1 indeed1 we find
 the border treillages of flower-stem or

 leaf-work starting from meaningless    
points of the design1 or scattered      
shapelessly at random4  ,when we meet   
with work of this sort1 we need no      
further proof that the real art is dead4
 ,we have before us in such a           
performance--a trade production--a mere 
object of commerce1 valuable so far as  
it is the result of labour1 but not as a
 work of art4  ,according to the ,abb   
,geoghegan1#aa ,christianity was known  
to the people of ,ireland in the fourth 
century4 ,the ,greek ,menology asserts  
that it was carried thither by ,simon   
,zelotes1 but this is contradicted by   
the ,roman ,breviary and the            
,martyrologists4 ,simeon ,metaphrastes  
attributes it to ,st4 ,peter1 ,vincent  
of ,beauvais to ,st4 ,james4 ,unreliable
 as these traditions may be taken       
singly1 they nevertheless agree in      
placing the conversion of ,ireland at a 
very early date1 probably1 as ,geoghegan
 says1 in the fourth century4 ,it is    
certain that about the middle of the    

sixth century an ,irish prince of       
distinguished ancestry1 and himself a   
saint1 led a band of missionaries from  
,donegal to ,iona4 ,it is curious to    
observe that the event is almost        
contemporary with the renovations of    
,justinian at ,byzantium1 and only a    
short time before the founding of the   
famous ,abbey of ,monte ,cassino by ,st4
 ,benedict4 ,before the existence of the
 ,benedictine ,order there was a        
monastery at ,durrow1 in ,ireland1 and  
in this monastery the aforesaid prince  
was educated4 ,his name was ,columba4   
,at least1 so he is called1 but whether 
it be merely in allusion to his         
mission--the ,dove--or really a         
patronymic1 it is hard to say4 ,he was  
the messenger of peace to the natives of
 ,iona1 and even the name of the island 
seems to suggest an allusion to the ,old
 ,testament missionary to the           
,ninevites1 ,jonah4 ,the ,irish         
missionaries called the spot to which   
they went ,i4 columcille1 the cell of   

the ,dove's isle1 or ,columba's cell4   
,it is usually spoken of as the         
,monastery of ,iona4 ,columba went on   
many other missions1 but ultimately     
returned to his beloved ,iona1 where he 
died in #eig1 the year after the arrival
 of ,augustine at ,canterbury4  #aa     
,hist4 de l',irlande4  ,his companions  
busied themselves with the transcription
 of the ,gospels for the use of new     
converts1 after the model of those they 
had seen and used at ,durrow4 ,it is    
even traditionally asserted that        
,columba himself took part in the work1 
and transcribed both a ,psalter and a   
,gospel-book1 moreover1 that one of the 
,iona ,gospel-books written by him is   
still in existence4 ,this ,,ms41 whether
 the work of ,st4 ,columba or not1 and  
probably it is not1 is the earliest     
known monument of ,irish calligraphic   
art4 ,it is known as the ,book of       
,kells1 and there is no doubt that it is
 the most amazing specimen of penmanship
 ever seen4 ,it is at once the most     

ancient1 the most perfect1 and the most 
precious example of ,celtic art in      
existence4 ,it exhibits the striking    
peculiarities and features of the       
style--the band work knots and          
interlacings1 such as may be seen on the
 stone crosses which mark the           
burial-places of ,british and ,irish    
chieftains4 ,witness1 for instance1 the 
,carew1 or the ,nevern ,cross1 described
 in the ,journal of the ,archoelogical  
,institute1 iii4 #ga1 which might be    
taken to represent an initial ,i wrought
 in stone4 ,there is no foliage1 no     
plant form at all4 ,it is not1          
therefore1 derivable from ,romanesque1  
,byzantine1 or ,oriental ornament4 ,it  
is indigenous1 if not to ,ireland1 at   
least to those prehistoric ,aryan tribes
 of which the ,irish were a branch4 ,its
 basis is the art of weaving1 and in    
some respects resembles the matting of  
,polynesia much more closely that the   
vine-stems of ,sicily or the arabesques 
of ,byzantium4 ,spirals occur that      

bewilder the eye1 yet are so faultlessly
 perfect that only the magnifying-glass 
brings out the incredible accuracy of   
the drawing4 ,among them are            
mythological and allegorical beasts1    
snakes1 and lizards--thought to         
represent demons1 like the gargoyles of 
,gothic architecture--in every          
conceivable attitude of contortion and  
agony4 ,there are also doves and fishes1
 but the latter1 being sacred emblems   
together with the lamb1 are seldom made 
grotesque4 ,it was a monkish legend that
 the devil could take the shape of any  
bird or beast1 except those of the dove 
and the lamb4     ,,chapter ,,vii       
,,celtic ,,illumination--continued  ,the
 ,iona ,gospels--,contrast with ,roman  
and ,byzantine--,details--,treatment of 
animal forms--,colour schemes--,the     
,gospel-book of ,st4 ,columbanus--,that 
of ,mael ,brith ,mac ,durnan--,the      
,lindisfarne ,gospels--,cumdachs--,other
 book-shrines4   ,we have seen that in  
both ,roman and ,byzantine ,,mss4 the   

titles and beginnings of books were     
merely distinguished by a lettering in  
red or gold1 rather smaller1 in fact1   
than the ordinary text1 but rendered    
distinct by the means referred to4 ,the 
handwriting1 too1 is clear and legible1 
whether capital1 uncial1 or minuscule4  
,in absolute contrast to all this the   
,iona ,gospels have the first page      
completely covered with ornament4 ,on   
the next the letters are of an enormous 
size1 followed by a few words1 not      
merely in uncials1 but in characters    
varying from half an inch to two inches 
in height4 ,the page opposite to each   
,gospel is similarly filled with        
decoration1 separated into four         
compartments by an ornamented ,greek    
cross4 ,this may1 of course1 be simply a
 geometrical device in no way connected 
with ,greece1 but1 taken in connection  
with other features1 we see in it an    
indication of contact with ,byzantine   
work and the side of illumination which 
deals rather with the tabular enrichment

 of the page than the development of the
 initial4 ,further1 the writing1 though 
large1 is not easily legible1 for it is 
involved1 enclaved1 and conjointed in a 
manner sufficiently puzzling to those   
who see it for the first time4  ,the    
plaiting and inlaying are certainly     
borrowed from local usages1 and the     
survival of the same kind of interlaced 
plaiting in the ,scottish tartans is    
some evidence of the long familiarity of
 the ,celtic race with the art of       
weaving4 ,when we remember that some of 
the early illuminators were also workers
 in metals1 we can understand that      
penmen like ,dagus1 ,dunstan1 and ,eloy 
had designs at their command producible 
by either method4 ,so we see1 both in   
the ,,ms4 and in the brooch and buckle1 
the same kind of design4 ,among the     
earliest animals brought into this      
,celtic work we find the dog and the    
dragon2 the latter both wingless and    
winged1 according to convenience or     
requirement4 ,the dog is so common in   

some of the ,celto-,lombardic ,,ms41 of 
which examples still exist at ,monte    
,cassino1 as almost to create a style2  
while the dragon survives to the latest 
period of ,gothic art4  ,whatever is    
introduced into a ,celtic illumination  
is at once treated as a matter of       
ornament4 ,when the human figure appears
 it is remorselessly subjected to the   
same rules as the rest of the work2 the 
hair and beard are spiral coils1 the    
eyes1 nostrils1 and limbs are           
symmetrical flourishes4 ,colour is quite
 regardless of natural possibility4 ,the
 hair and draperies are simply patterned
 as compartments of green or blue1 or   
red or black1 as may be required for the
 tout ensemble2 the face remains white4 
,lightened tints are preferred to full  
colours1 as pale yellow1 pink1 lavender1
 and light green4 ,a very ludicrous     
device is made use of to denote the     
folds of the drapery2 they are not      
darkened1 there is no light and shade in
 ,celtic work1 but are simply lines of a

 strongly contrasting colour4 ,the blue 
and red appear to be opaque1 and        
therefore mineral colours2 the rest are 
thin and transparent4 ,nothing can be   
more wayward than the colouring of the  
symbolic beasts of the ,gospels4 ,in the
 ,evangeliary of ,st4 ,columbanus 7not  
,columba1 but the founder of ,luxeuil   
and ,bobbio1 who died in #fad7 the ,lion
 of ,st4 ,mark is an admirable beast in 
a suit of green-and-red chain armour in 
the form of mascles or lozenges4 7,see  
the illustration in ,westwood's         
,palographia ,sacra ,pictoria of a      
figure page from the ,gospels of ,mael  
,brith ,mac ,durnan for a typical       
example47#ab  #ab ,see also an article  
by ,westwood in ,journal ,archol4       
,inst41 vii4 #ag1 on ,irish ,miniatures4
  ,the only point that might argue the  
freedom in ,celtic work from ,byzantine 
influence is the absence of gold1 but   
perhaps this was only because the       
earlier ,irish illuminators could not   
obtain it2 we find it later on4 ,in the 

,book of ,kells and the ,lambeth        
,gospels there is no gold4 ,the former  
dates somewhere in the seventh century1 
not the sixth1 as sometimes stated2 the 
latter1 shortly before #ibg4 ,in the    
,lindisfarne ,gospels 7#fih-gba7 gold is
 used4 ,in the ,psalter of ,ricemarchus1
 now in ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin1 are 
traces of silver4 ,it is in connection  
with these ,irish ,,mss4 that decorated 
and jewelled cases1 called cumdachs1    
make their appearance1 such as the one  
attached to the ,gospels of ,st4 ,moling
 in the ,library of ,trinity ,college1  
,dublin4 ,these book-shrines are almost 
exclusively an ,irish production4 ,in   
other countries the idea was to adorn   
the volume itself with a splendid and   
costly binding1 perhaps including gold1 
silver1 and gems4 ,in ,ireland the idea 
of sacredness was carried out in another
 way4 ,instead of decorating the covers 
of the book itself1 it was held1 as in  
such a ,,ms41 for instance1 as the ,book
 of ,durrow1 to be too venerable a relic

 to be meddled with1 and a box or case  
was made for it1 on which they spent all
 their artistic skill4 ,generally the   
case is known as a cumdach2 but one     
kind1 called the cathach1 was so closed 
that the book was completely concealed1 
and it was superstitiously believed that
 if it were opened some terrible        
calamity would overtake its possessors4 
,such was the cathach of ,tyrconnell4   
,we must remember1 however1 that in this
 instance the keepers were not men of   
book-learning1 but hardy warriors who   
carried the cathach into battle as a    
charm and an incitement to victory4  ,of
 similar shrines1 which were made for   
precious books by both the ,greeks and  
,lombards1 the oldest and most famous is
 that made for ,theudelinde1 wife of    
,agilulf1 ,king of the ,lombards1 and   
given by her1 in #faf1 together with the
 famous iron crown and other relics1 to 
the ,cathedral of ,monza1 where they are
 still to be seen4  ,the enrichment of  
the covers of books themselves1 as      

distinct from the use of cases or       
shrines1 has been usual in almost all   
ages and styles of decoration4 ,when we 
come to speak of ,carolingian ,,mss4 we 
shall find several remarkable instances4
  ,we must now pass on from this        
curiously attractive theme of ,celtic   
calligraphy to its contemporary styles  
of ,france1 ,germany1 ,spain1 and       
,italy1 only remarking by the way that  
no other style of its time had so marked
 an influence on the local scriptoria   
into which it was introduced as this    
same ,celtic of ,ireland4 ,it is not    
only traceable1 but easily recognised   
all along the ,rhine1 in ,burgundy1 the 
,swiss ,cantons1 and ,lombardy1 until at
 length overwhelmed by the general      
introduction of ,romanesque or          
,byzantine1 which was restored and      
filtered through the ,exarchate and the 
,lombard schools during the early days  
of the new ,carolingian ,empire4        
,,chapter ,,viii  ,,semi-,,barbaric     
,,illumination                          

,visigothic--,merovingian--,lombardic--,
extinction of classic art--,splendid    
reign of ,dagobert--,st4 ,eloy of       
,noyon--,the ,library of ,laon--,natural
 ,history of ,isidore of                
,seville--,elements of contemporary     
art--,details of                        
ornament--,symbolism--,luxeuil and      
,monte ,cassino--,sacramentary of       
,gellone--,prudentius--,orosius--,value 
of the ,sacramentary of ,gellone4   ,to 
reach the beginning's of these various  
degenerate and illiterate attempts at   
book-work we have only to watch the last
 expiring gleams of classic art beneath 
the ruthless footsteps of the barbarian 
invaders of the old ,roman ,empire4  ,in
 the sixth century the light of the old 
civilisation was fast fading away4      
,perhaps we may look upon the so-called 
splendour of the reign of ,dagobert in  
,france as the spasmodic scintillations 
of its latest moments of existence4 ,the
 kingdom of ,dagobert1 after #fca1 was  
almost an empire4 ,for the seven years  

preceding his death1 in #fch1 he ruled  
from the ,elbe and the ,saxon frontier  
to that of ,spain1 and from the         
,atlantic ,ocean to the confines of     
,hungary4 ,it was during his reign that 
we read of the skill in metal-work of   
the celebrated ,st4 ,eloy of ,noyon1 the
 rival of our own ,st4 ,dunstan4  ,st4  
,eloy or ,eligius 7#ehh-fei7 began his  
artistic career as the pupil of ,abbo1  
the goldsmith and mint-master to        
,chlothaire ,,ii41 and rose from the    
rank of a goldsmith to that of ,bishop  
of ,noyon4 ,among his handiwork were    
crowns1 chalices1 and crosiers1 and he  
is reputed to have made the chair of    
bronze-gilt now in the ,national        
,library at ,paris1 called the fauteuil 
of ,dagobert1 and many other works1     
which disappeared either during the wars
 of ,louis ,,xv4 or those of the        
,revolution of #aghi4 ,he founded the   
,abbey of ,solignac1 near ,limoges1 and 
it is not improbable that the reputation
 of this city for metal-work and        

enamelling may be dated from his        
foundation4 ,with such works as those of
 ,eloy before them1 it is difficult to  
believe that the wretched and puerile   
attempts at ornamental penmanship and   
illumination which are shown at ,laon   
and other places as the work of this    
period can possibly represent the       
highest efforts of the calligrapher4    
,but we must remember that ,st4 ,eloy   
was an extraordinary genius in his art1 
and that the bulk of the clergy1 not to 
mention ordinary workmen1 were very     
ignorant and ill-taught4 ,very few1     
indeed1 were men who could be considered
 cultured4 ,gregory of ,tours1 the      
historian1 and ,venantius ,fortunatus1  
the hymn-writer1 are among the few4  ,in
 the ,library at ,laon1 ,m4 ,fleury     
describes a ,,ms4 of the ,natural       
,history of ,isidore of ,seville1 which 
is looked upon as a work of reference   
both as regards art and learning4 ,it   
was at one time a very popular book1    
being a ,latin cyclopdia1 dealing with  

the sciences and general knowledge of   
the time2 yet the example referred to by
 ,m4 ,fleury shows us only a crowd of   
initials learnedly styled by the        
,benedictine authors and others         
ichthio-morphiques and ornithoeides1    
i4e4 made up of fishes and birds1 and   
about equal in quality and finish to the
 efforts of a very ordinary schoolboy4  
,these initials betray an utter         
decadence from the beautiful uncials of 
the fifth and sixth centuries1 seen in  
the ,st4 ,germain's ,psalter1 for       
example1 now in the ,national ,library  
at ,paris4 ,the colours are coarse and  
badly applied1 and even where brightest 
are utterly unrefined and without taste4
  ,notwithstanding1 however1 the        
apparently total eclipse or extinction  
of ,roman art in ,gaul1 or1 as it must  
henceforth be called1 ,france1 it is    
claimed by ,m4 ,fleury#ac that the      
interlacements which constitute the     
principal feature of these earlier      
,merovingian ,,mss4 are derived from the

 remains of ,roman mosaics found        
profusely at ,blanzy1 ,bazoches1 and    
,reims4 ,this may be so1 but those      
mosaics would not account for the same  
features in the ,irish work1 for the    
,romans never reached ,ireland as       
occupants or colonists4  #ac ,see later4
  ,take another example from the ,laon  
collection1 the ,history of ,orosius4   
,the first page is a type of the species
 to which it belongs1 and1 moreover1 a  
good sample of the earliest efforts of  
all pictorial art4 ,an ordinary         
rectangular cross occupies the centre of
 the page4 ,the centre shows us the     
,lamb of the ,apocalypse and ,st4 ,john4
 ,on the arms are the beasts which      
typify the ,evangelists--their emblems1 
as they are sometimes called4 ,we notice
 that they are all symbolic1 and not    
intended to be natural imitations of    
reality4 ,the various animals scattered 
about the page are all symbolic--all    
have a mystical interpretation and      
raison d'tre4 ,a border-frame1 passing  

behind each extremity of the cross1     
contains a number of dog-like animals1  
some plain1 others spotted1 while the   
body of the cross itself is occupied    
with attempts at foliage ornaments4 ,in 
the left upper corner are the letters ,x
 ,p ,i1 in the right ,i ,h ,v1 thick    
foliage springing from the ,i and ,v and
 falling back over the monogram4 ,in the
 lower corners are two fishes and two   
doves1 each pair hanging to a penwork   
chain4  ,the emblem of ,john1 on the    
upper extremity of the cross1 is an     
eagle-headed and winged man holding a   
book2 its opposite one of ,lucas at foot
 is a singularly conceived anthropoid   
and winged ox1 also with a book4 ,on the
 left ,marcus1 whose head is            
indescribable2 and on the right         
,matthew1 with human head1 the rest of  
the figures being as before4 ,the eye in
 all the figures is a most remarkable   
feature4 ,both in the pictures and the  
initials of this ,,ms4 the outline has  
been drawn in black ink1 and the colours

 yellow1 red1 brown1 and green applied  
afterwards4  ,as the new masters of the 
,west were not so much interested in the
 artistic remains of the mangled        
civilisation they were endeavouring to  
destroy as in mastery and military      
success1 it was left for the monasteries
 and the church to see to the welfare of
 books and monuments4  ,in the seventh  
century it was the monasteries that     
saved almost all we know of the         
preceding centuries4 ,during the turmoil
 of the period from the fifth to the    
eighth century we find certain quiet    
corners where learning and the arts     
still breathed1 grew1 and dwelt in      
security4 ,lrins1 founded by ,st4       
,honoratus of ,aries2 ,luxeuil by       
,columbanus1 ,bobbio his last retreat2  
and1 above all1 ,monte ,cassino1 the    
great pattern of monasticism1 the ,rule 
of whose founder was destined to become 
the basis of all later ,orders1 were    
each of them steadily labouring to      
rescue the civilisation daily threatened

 by the ravage of war1 and to preserve  
it for the benefit of the ignorant      
hordes who1 because of their ignorance1 
now only aimed at its entire            
destruction4 ,we have seen how these    
monks and clerics1 with more goodwill   
than ability1 did their best to adorn   
the books which came into their hands4  
,it is a poor show1 but there is no     
better4 ,it is absolutely our only      
record of how civilisation managed to   
struggle through the storm4  ,let us1   
then1 be thankful even for the ,laon    
,orosius1 for the ,sacramentary of      
,gellone1 and the ,mozarabic ,liturgies 
of ,puy4 ,they are among the links      
between ancient and medival art4  ,as   
already stated1 the handwriting of      
,merovingian ,,mss4 is mainly an        
adaptation of the ,roman uncial1 as it  
is in ,irish and ,lombardic1 or1 we     
might say1 everywhere else4             
,abbreviations we still uncommon4 ,where
 minuscules are used1 the writing is not
 quite so legible as in the larger      

hands1 but we are not met by the        
singular difficulties of some of the    
,lombardic texts4  ,a few solitary texts
 of the earliest time are in capitals1  
such as the really handsome ,prudentius 
of the ,paris ,national ,library1 where 
the entire text of the great ,christian 
poet is boldly inscribed in the centre  
of a large white page of vellum1 like a 
series of separate inscriptions4 ,the   
first few words are rubrished in the    
antique manner4 ,the ,,ms4 is supposed  
to date previous to the year #ebg4 ,a   
little later than this ,st4 ,columbanus 
founded the monastery of ,luxeuil1 and  
later still1 viz4 in #faf1 that of      
,bobbio4  ,if we turn to the ,visigothic
 area1 including the ,south of ,france  
and the entire peninsula of ,spain1 our 
first and typical example is the        
celebrated ,sacramentary of ,gellone4   
,this ,,ms4 dates1 it is said1 from the 
eighth century4 ,it is written          
throughout in ,visigothic uncials1      
though executed in the ,south of        

,france4 ,its ornamentation is frankly  
barbaric4 ,the colours used are yellow1 
red1 and green4 ,the great initials are 
double lined1 and the interlinear space 
filled in with a flat tint of colour and
 lines of red dots1 as in the ,book of  
,kells occasionally follow the contours4
 ,here1 also1 are the fish or bird-form 
letters as in the ,laon ,orosius4 ,now  
and then occurs a tiny scene--perhaps a 
fight between two grotesque brutes1     
neither fish1 nor fowl1 nor beast known 
to the naturalist1 but a horrible       
compound of the worst qualities of each4
 ,the human figure1 when it occurs1 is  
childishly shapeless4 ,but the design   
and treatment1 nevertheless1 bear       
witness to a lively imagination and     
considerable knowledge of ,christian    
symbolism4 ,it is these mental qualities
 which1 in spite of the manifest absence
 of manual skill1 render the ,gellone   
,evangeliary one of the most precious   
monuments of its time4 ,of the rest of  
the ,,mss4 of this wretched period we   

will say nothing4            ,non       
ragioniam di lor'1 ma guard' e passa4   
,we are glad to hurry on for another    
century or so1 remembering that the     
leading idea now is the development of  
the initial letter4     ,,chapter ,,ix  
,,development ,,of ,,the ,,initial  ,the
 initial and initial paragraph the main 
object of decoration in ,celtic         
illumination--,study of the letter ,l as
 an example--,the ,i of ,in principio   
and the ,b of ,beatus ,vir4   ,from the 
moment when the initial was placed      
beneath the miniature the object of the 
whole design was not to give prominence 
to the initial but to the picture4      
,until then1 that is1 whilst the initial
 remains above or beside or outside the 
picture1 it is the initial we must watch
 for style and development4 ,and        
therefore we seize on one letter among  
those of the latter part of the eighth  
century1 because of the frequency of its
 occurrence in the ,gospel-book or      
,evangeliary1 one of the commonest books

 of the time4 ,this the letter ,l of    
,liber ,generationis1 etc41 the         
commencing words of ,st4 ,matthew4 ,this
 passage is always made of importance1  
and on the initial and arrangement of   
the words the artist expends his best   
efforts4  ,properly ,i should here      
display pictorially the series of which 
,i speak4 ,it would certainly be the    
quickest way of explaining the matter4  
,but as this is out of the question for 
many reasons1 and as the present little 
guide aims rather at showing the way    
than marching through it1 the reader    
must be content to take its advice about
 where to look for examples which it    
cannot reproduce4  ,regarding the letter
 ,l as an index of time and style1 first
 we may take the ,irish ,l of the ,book 
of ,kells on p4 #ag1 pt4 #a1 of ,miss   
,stokes' ,early ,christian ,art in      
,ireland4 ,note first the form of the   
letter1 then the way it is filled up    
with ornament4 ,compare this1 which     
dates from the seventh century1 with a  

similar ,l in the ,ada-,codex in the    
,town ,library at ,trves1 ,no4 #bb4 ,a  
black and white copy of this is given in
 taf4 #f of ,lamprecht ,initial         
,ornamentik4 ,this carries up the work  
to the second half of the eighth        
century4 ,next1 say the ,l in the ,town 
,archives at ,cologne1 ,no4 #adg4 ,this 
belongs to the second half of the ninth 
century4 ,the chief departure here is   
towards the knotted band work which     
figures so largely afterwards both in   
,german and ,italian book ornament1 the 
form is still unchanged4 ,but with the  
tenth century comes change of form as   
well as of mode of filling1 as for      
example taf4 #ai of ,lamprecht1 in which
 there is a complete alteration of      
treatment4 ,the student may take for    
similar comparison also the ,i of ,in   
principio of ,st4 ,john's ,gospel1 and  
the ,b of the first psalm in the        
,psalter1 and carry the comparison on to
 the end of the fourteenth century1 by  
referring to the ,,mss4 in the ,british 

,museum and other public libraries1 or  
in the numerous illustrated works to be 
found in those collections4             
,,chapter ,x  ,,first ,,english ,,styles
  ,transition from ,iona to             
,lindisfarne--,influence of ,frankish   
art--,the ,opus ,anglicum--,the         
,winchester school and its              
characteristics--,whence                
obtained--,method of                    
painting--,examples--,where found and   
described4   ,the succession of the     
school of ,iona shows us in the first   
examples of ,english illumination the   
type exemplified in the ,book of ,kells1
 modified1 but not very much1 by its    
transference to ,lindisfarne4  ,whatever
 doubt may be felt as to the influence  
of ,byzantine or ,romanesque models on  
pure ,irish work1 such as the ,book of  
,kells1 there can be none as regards the
 ,lindisfarne ,gospels4 ,in the first   
place we have gold both in the lettering
 and ornament4 ,this ,,ms41 known also  
as the ,durham ,book 7,brit4 ,mus41     

,nero ,d4 iv471 was the work of ,abbat  
,eadfrith1 of ,lindisfarne4 ,it has been
 often described1 as it is really a most
 precious example of eighth-century art 
in this country4 ,no other ,,ms4 of its 
time is to be found in any continental  
scriptorium to be compared with it4 ,it 
is not a collection of clumsy inartistic
 attempts at ornamental writing1 but    
high-class1 effective work1 which should
 be seen and studied by every student of
 illumination4  ,from its style of      
execution1 its details of portraiture1  
and other features1 it may be looked on 
as one of the earliest links between the
 two extremes of ,oriental and          
,occidental ,art4  ,another ,,ms4 in the
 ,british ,museum 7,vesp4 ,a4 #a71 which
 combines the ,roman method of painting 
as in the ,vergils with the penwork of  
these ,anglo-,celtic ,gospel-books1 may 
also repay careful examination4  ,it is 
very possible that the celebrated       
scriptoria of ,york and ,jarrow may have
 been furnished with both ,,mss4 and    

copyists from ,rome1 yet there can be   
little doubt that the intercourse with  
,durham would be quite as active4 ,nor  
is it less probable that similar        
intercourse would keep them en rapport  
with ,oxford1 ,st4 ,alban's1            
,westminster1 ,glastonbury1 and other   
scriptoria1 so that in the eighth       
century ,england stood with respect to  
art second to no other country in the   
,christian world4  ,during the ninth    
century active intercourse with the     
,frankish ,empire enriched ,english     
churches and religious houses1          
especially ,winchester1 with examples of
 ,byzantine and ,roman models1 which    
,charlemagne had introduced into his own
 palatine schools4 ,from such secondary 
models as the ,sacramentaries and       
,evangeliaries executed at ,tours1      
,soissons1 ,metz1 and other busy centres
 of production1 ,english illuminators   
succeeded in forming a distinctive style
 of their own4 ,in the ,french or1      
rather1 ,frankish ,,mss41 while the     

richness of the gold and the beauty and 
delicacy of the colouring are in        
themselves most charming1 and while     
certain features may in general be      
recognised as no doubt suggestive there 
is nothing which quite predicts the     
remarkable treatment which characterises
 the ,english work4 ,opus ,anglicum was 
its distinctive title4 ,the term1       
indeed1 was applied to all ,english     
artistic productions more or            
less--embroidery among the rest4 ,the   
women of ,england1 says ,william of     
,poitiers1 were famous for their        
needlework1 the men excelled in         
metal-work and jewellery4 ,but it was   
the illuminated ,service ,books that    
have perpetuated the term4  ,from the   
,lindisfarne ,gospels to the ,winchester
 ,benedictionals is a far cry--but ,art 
is long and time is fleeting1 hence many
 pages of intervening description must  
be omitted4 ,we may1 however1 refer the 
reader to ,westwood's ,palographia      
,sacra ,pictoria1 the ,palographical    

,society's publications1 and other      
works1 for enlightenment on this period4
 ,on the ,rouen and ,devonshire         
,benedictionals much interesting        
information may be found in vol4 #bd of 
the ,archologia and in the recent volume
 of the ,bradshaw ,society concerning   
them4  ,the work is peculiar2 and if we 
consider the treatment of foliage apart 
from the colour1 we cannot but notice   
its similarity to the ivory carving     
observable in the consular diptychs4    
,ivory carving was then a popular       
artistic occupation4 ,the foliage is    
graceful1 the composition well-balanced1
 and the colour mostly bright body      
colour applied in the ,greek manner4    
,the fault of the heads is that they are
 too small for the figure1 and of the   
draperies that the folds are overdone   
too much fluttering detail4 ,the gilding
 differs from the ,byzantine in not     
being laid on the vellum in the form of 
burnished leaf1 but painted on like the 
colours1 not only in the figures but in 

the framework and ornaments4  ,the      
,british ,museum contains several       
characteristic examples1 but1 as has    
been said1 the very finest are those at 
,rouen and in the library of the ,duke  
of ,devonshire4  ,perhaps no genuine    
example exists earlier than the ,golden 
,charter of ,king ,edgar of true        
,winchester illumination1 executed forty
 years after the accession of           
,athelstan1 whose ,coronation ,book     
7,brit4 ,mus41 ,tib4 ,a4 #b7 is most    
probably not ,english at all1 but       
,carolingian of the finest type4 ,many  
other scriptoria in ,england in the     
tenth century were equally busy with    
,winchester1 but none could vie with the
 royal city in the production of        
illuminated books4     ,,chapter ,,xi   
,,carolingian ,,illumination  ,why      
so-called--,works to be consulted--,the 
,library of ,st4 ,gall--,rise and       
progress of ,carolingian art--,account  
of various ,,mss4--,features of the     
style--,gospels of ,st4 ,sernin--,the   

,ada-,codex--,centres of                
production--,other splendid             
examples--,the ,alcuin ,bible--,the     
,gospel of ,st4 ,mdard of ,soissons4    
,once more crossing the ,channel let us 
now inquire what has been doing among   
the ,franks since the ,gellone          
,sacramentary1 especially in the schools
 instituted by the ,emperor ,charles the
 ,great4 ,materials for this inquiry are
 most abundant4 ,one of the more        
important works on the subject is the   
lucid monograph of ,dr4 ,rahn1 of       
,zurich1 on the ,golden ,psalter of     
,folchard at ,st4 ,gall1 which deals    
more or less with the whole question of 
,carolingian art1 while ,m4 ,lop4       
,delisle's brochure on the ,evangeliary 
of ,st4 ,vaast of ,arras gives us a     
copious account of the ,franco-,saxon   
branch of it4 ,apart1 however1 from     
these sources of information1 we have   
not a few original ,,mss4 still extant1 
which1 of course1 more vividly speak for
 themselves1 and only require pointing  

out to the student4  ,the clearest      
method of study being to take things in 
the order of their creation1 so in order
 to understand the character of savage  
grandeur and nave originality which has 
been attributed to this style1 it will  
be best to take up these ,,mss4         
chronologically4 ,at the same time1 if  
anyone merely wishes to know what the   
style is like at its best1 ,dr4 ,rahn   
must be his guide1 as the ,golden       
,psalter which he has selected for study
 is as splendid an example as perhaps   
may be found in the whole career of the 
art4 ,we have noticed how the ,irish    
missionary-artists carried their work to
 their continental settlements1 how they
 planted their schools in ,burgundy1    
,switzerland1 and ,lombardy4 ,of all    
their depositories1 however1 numerous as
 they are elsewhere1 none is richer in  
the relics of their work than the       
celebrated abbey which takes its name of
 ,st4 ,gall from that disciple of ,st4  
,columbanus1 who in #fad founded his    

little cell beside the ,steinach1 about 
nine miles south of the ,lake of        
,constance4 ,under ,charles ,martel the 
cell had become a monastery1 which he   
endowed as a ,benedictine abbey4 ,in    
#hcj was founded its magnificent library
 of ,,mss4 ,the library still exists1   
and at the present moment gives         
shelf-room to #a1hjj ,,mss4 and more    
than #da1gjj printed books4 ,besides    
this1 another1 called the ,town         
,library1 founded in the sixteenth      
century1 and containing #ejj ,,mss4 and 
#fj1djj printed books1 gives this       
upland1 busy1 modern manufacturing      
,swiss town no mean importance as a     
centre of literary culture4 ,physically 
it is probably the highest town in      
,europe1 its street-level being very    
nearly #b1bjj feet above that of the    
sea4 ,its libraries and museums are rich
 storehouses of medival treasures4 ,the 
architect raves over its monastic       
buildings2 the scholar and palographer  
gloat over its books and ,,mss4 ,in the 

libraries of ,st4 ,gall are some of the 
masterpieces of ,irish ,saxon1 and      
,carolingian art1 and its great         
,benedictine abbey under ,grimald from  
#hda1 i4e4 during the later ,carolingian
 period1 possessed one of the most      
active scriptoria in ,europe4 ,to begin 
with the beginning1 however1 we must    
leave ,st4 ,gall1 and1 passing by some  
less important ,,mss41 go back to the   
year #gha and the city of ,toulouse4 ,in
 that year1 and in the ,abbey of ,st4   
,sernin 7,saturninus7 in that city1 was 
finished a wonderful and truly splendid 
manuscript of the ,gospels as a present 
to the ,emperor and his wife            
,hildegardis4 ,this is our first        
example4 ,it now is to be seen in the   
,national ,library1 ,paris 7,nouv4 acqu4
 ,lat4 #abjc74  ,next comes the         
,evangeliary of ,abbat ,angilbert of    
,centula 7now ,st4 ,riquier71 near      
,abbeville1 ,charlemagne's son-in-law4  
,this ,,ms41 executed about the year    
#gic1 is still preserved in the ,town   

,library of ,abbeville4 ,in the same    
rank1 but somewhat finer in execution1  
comes a third ,evangeliary1 that of ,st4
 ,mdard of ,soissons1 now in the        
,national ,library1 ,paris 7,no4 #hhej1 
,lat474  ,in these three ,,mss41        
reproductions from which are to be found
 in various modern works on art1 the    
writing and ornamentation are the parts 
into which the artist puts his best     
work1 not the figure drawing4 ,although 
in the ,st4 ,sernin ,,ms4 there is1 in  
the ,christ-figure1 a distinct attempt  
at portraiture quite different from the 
coils and pen-flourishes which make up  
the ,gospel-figures in the ,irish and   
,merovingian ,,mss4 ,here the           
inspiration is clearly ,greek1 not      
,irish4 ,the figure is draped in green  
and violet--seated on an embroidered    
cushion before a low castellated wall4  
,the hair is light1 and the chin        
beardless4 ,the design shows a decided  
likeness to the consular ivory diptychs1
 and the painting follows the ,eastern  

methods4 ,in the details of ornament    
only are ,irish features4 ,thus we trace
 in this ,,ms4 the sources of           
,carolingian art4 ,the ,,ms4 being      
dated1 is important as affording a means
 of comparison with other undated work4 
,it was presented to ,st4 ,sernin on the
 occasion of the visit of the ,emperor  
and ,empress with their son1 the amiable
 ,louis le ,debonaire1#ad just after the
 latter had been made ,king of          
,aquitaine4 ,godeschalk1 the writer of  
it1 on the last two leaves tells us that
 it took him seven years to accomplish4 
,it is written throughout in gold and   
silver letters on purple vellum1 and is1
 moreover1 ornamented with borders1     
pictures1 portraits1 and panellings4 ,at
 first it was kept in a cumdach of      
silver1 set with precious stones1 but   
that has disappeared4  #ad ,mod4 ,fr4   
,debonnaire4  ,the ,golden ,gospels of  
,st4 ,mdard1 like the ,centula ,,ms41   
are similar1 but betoken an advance in  
both taste and execution4 ,the figures  

are still rude and deformed1 but the    
artist shows a laudable desire1 an      
ambition1 in fact1 to imitate the work  
of better artists than himself4         
,nevertheless1 the calligraphy and      
borderwork are the best parts of his    
performance4 ,in this ,,ms4 the use of  
silver betrays a tendency to            
prodigality4 ,in design1 the influence  
of the artists who built the new church 
of ,san ,vitale at ,ravenna1 a church   
which became the model for the ,abbey of
 ,st4 ,mdard itself1 is quite manifest1 
yet perhaps need not be traced further  
than ,soissons or ,pavia4 ,in certain of
 the illustrations1 as1 for instance1   
the ,fountain of ,life1 there is at once
 a likeness and a variation as compared 
with the same symbol in the ,evangeliary
 of ,st4 ,sernin4 ,they are both too    
intricate to describe1 but of both it   
may be said that they show an intimate  
acquaintance with early ,christian      
symbolism4 ,the ivory carving and       
architecture of ,ravenna have evidently 

been known to the director of these     
frames and backgrounds4 ,in the year    
which saw the completion of             
,godeschalk's ,gospels1 ,alcuin was at  
,parma1 but when the ,st4 ,mdard's      
,gospels were written he was ,abbot of  
,st4 ,martin's at ,tours4 ,it was the   
presence of ,alcuin at the ,court of    
,charlemagne that accounts for the      
prevalence of the ,saxon character in   
the new and beautiful handwriting we now
 call ,carolingian4 ,it was the presence
 of ,paul ,warnefrid that accounts for  
much of the classic and most of the     
,lombardic features1 both of the writing
 and the illumination4 ,many other      
scholars assisted these two in the      
various centres in which ,alcuin        
established branches of the palatine    
schools4 ,the intercourse with ,italy   
and ,england was constant1 and led to   
the frequent interchange of books1 and  
community of methods and models4        
,another fine ,,ms4 of the same period  
7c4 #ghj7 is the ,golden ,ada-,codex of 

,st4 ,mesmin or ,maximin1 of ,trves4 ,in
 #agid this ,,ms4 was taken from ,trves 
to ,mainz2 in #ahae it was transferred  
to ,aix-la-,chapelle1 and is now back   
again at ,trves4 ,the externals of the  
,ada-,codex are very costly1 its binding
 being a late ,gothic pendant to the    
cover of the ,echternach ,evangeliary at
 ,gotha4 ,in the centre of the          
fore-cover there is a magnificent       
topaz1#ae with several imperial figures4
 ,inside1 the work is a handsome example
 of the early ,carolingian4#af ,it      
contains the four ,gospels written by   
order of the ,mother and ,lady ,ada1    
sister of ,charles the ,great1 ,abbess  
of ,st4 ,mesmin4 ,next we have in the   
,british ,museum another grand example  
of the style as modified by ,english or 
,saxon influence4 ,also the ,zurich     
,bible1 of the same date1 executed at   
,tours--and the ,bamberg ,bible1 said to
 be a copy of the ,alcuin ,bible of the 
same school4 ,then follow the ,drogo    
,sacramentary1 presented by the ,emperor

 to his natural son ,drogo1 ,archbishop 
of ,metz 7#hbf-hee71 perhaps illuminated
 at ,metz1 but of the same school as    
those above mentioned4  #ae ,or sardonyx
 7,lamprecht says topaz47  #af ,a       
photograph of the cover is sold by ,f4  
,linz of ,trves4  ,in our own ,national 
,library1 again1 we have the ,athelstan 
,gospels 7,harl4 #bghh71 also in all    
probability executed at ,metz4 ,at      
,paris 7,nat4 ,lib41 ,theol4 ,lat4 #bff7
 is the ,evangeliary of ,lothaire--a    
most beautiful example of gold-writing  
and ornament4 ,so we might enumerate a  
score of splendid ,,mss41 and classify  
them into their various minor schools4  
,but such is not our object4 ,all we    
want here is a general but clear idea of
 the style as a whole4  ,to characterise
 it broadly by the names of its most    
important elements we should call it a  
,lombard-,saxon style--the interlacing  
bands and knots and other minor features
 and the main character of the writing  
being of ,saxon origin1 the classical   

foliages and manner of painting the     
figures and certain ideas of design     
,lombardic1 strengthened by direct      
contact with the sources of the latter  
style4 ,whatever variations there may   
be1 they can generally be accounted for 
according to locality and centre of     
production4 ,we have instanced a few    
examples of the earlier time as showing 
the principal features of the style4    
,under the ,emperor ,charles the        
,great's grandson1 ,charles the ,bald1  
,carolingian illumination reached its   
highest point of excellence1 and the    
,,mss4 executed for him or his          
contemporaries accordingly give a       
correct idea of what ,carolingian       
illuminators considered as good work4   
,the chief centres were still ,tours and
 ,metz--the latter a branch of the      
former1 but gradually developing        
distinct features of its own2 and among 
the productions of these schools there  
still remain precious--we might say     
priceless--examples1 such as the ,vivien

 ,bible of the ,paris ,library1         
so-called because presented by ,count   
,vivien1 ,abbat of ,st4 ,martin's of    
,tours1 to ,charles the ,bald in #hej4ag
 ,it contains a fine picture of the     
presentation with beardless figures4 ,it
 has also a number of exceedingly       
splendid initials showing strong        
,byzantine influence--capitals of       
columns of classic origin and traces of 
,merovingian in letter forms and        
ornamental details4 ,it is like the     
,evangeliary of ,lothaire1 already      
mentioned1 a most sumptuous example rich
 in silver and gold--the latter having a
 grand portrait of ,lothaire seated on  
his throne4 ,both ,,mss4 are in the     
,national ,library at ,paris1 the       
,vivien1 ,no4 #a 7,theol4 ,lat471 the   
,lothaire1 ,no4 #bff4 ,but the one      
example to which we would call the      
reader's attention1 though among the    
earlier productions of the period1 as   
not only most readily accessible1 but   
most precious to the ,english student1  

is the celebrated ,alcuin ,bible in the 
,british ,museum 7,add4 ,,ms4 #ajedf74  
,this venerable ,,ms4 is a copy of the  
,vulgate revised by ,alcuin himself1 and
 said to be exactly similar to the one  
at ,bamberg4 ,biblical revision was     
perhaps the most important of his many  
literary occupations1 and this volume is
 reasonably believed to be the actual   
copy prepared for presentation to       
,charlemagne under the reviser's own    
superintendence1 possibly1 in part at   
least1 the work of his own hand4 ,it is 
a large folio1 finely written in a neat 
minuscule1 mainly ,saxon hand1 with     
uncial initials in two columns4 ,the    
miniatures1 including their             
architectural details1 are in the ,roman
 manner1 the ornaments partly           
,byzantine1 partly ,celtic4 ,the great  
similarity of design between different  
manuscripts is strikingly exemplified by
 a comparison of three borders from 7a7 
the ,evangeliary of ,st4 ,vaast of      
,arras1 fol4 #bh v4 7see ,delisle72 7b7 

the ,evangel4 in ,national ,library1    
,paris1 anc4 fds4 ,lat4 #beg 7see       
,louandre71 and ,evangeliary ,no4 #cji  
,bibl4 de ,cambrai 7see ,durieux74  #ag 
,plate in t4 #a of ,louandre4  ,indeed1 
comparisons of this kind are very       
instructive frequently as suggestive of 
provenance1 as each working centre would
 have its own set of models and designs4
 ,of course1 comparison of the ,,mss4   
themselves is out of the question1 but  
the comparisons can often be effected by
 the student's having ,louandre1        
,durieux1 ,fleury1 ,labarte1 etc41 by   
his side during the examination of any  
given period4 ,the limits of our little 
book forbid our speaking of other       
examples of this splendid style1 but we 
cannot conclude without noticing that in
 the opinion of ,m4 ,ferdinand ,denis1  
the ,golden ,gospels of ,st4 ,mdard of  
,soissons is the most beautiful         
,carolingian ,,mss4 extant4             
,,chapter ,,xii  ,,monastic             
,,illumination                          

,introductory--,monasteries and their   
work from the sixth to the ninth        
century--,the claustral                 
schools--,alcuin--,warnefrid and        
,theodulf--,clerics and monastics--,the 
,golden ,age of monasticism--,the ,order
 of ,st4 ,benedict--,cistercian         
houses--,other ,orders--,progress of    
writing in ,carolingian times--,division
 of labour4   ,in the sixth century the 
monasteries1 such as they were1         
necessarily kept themselves very quiet  
and unobtrusive4 ,they were situated    
usually in out-of-the-way corners1      
solitudes apart from civilisation1 or1  
at least1 apart from the busy haunts of 
men4 ,in the eighth century there is a  
marked difference4 ,the ,capitular of   
,aix-la-,chapelle1 of #ghi1 required    
that minor schools should be attached to
 all monasteries and cathedral churches 
without exception1 and that children of 
all ranks1 both noble and servile1      
should be received into them4 ,also that
 the larger monasteries should open     

major schools in which the seven        
sciences of mathematics1 astronomy1     
arithmetic1 music1 rhetoric1 dialectics1
 and geography1 were to be taught--and  
this in two ways4 ,there were to be two 
sorts of schools--interior or claustral1
 intended for monastics only1 and       
exterior or canonical1 intended for     
secular students4 ,these schools were   
under separate scholastics or masters1  
and lay students were received in the   
exterior schools as freely and fully as 
in the public schools of the present    
time4 ,mabillon#ah gives a list of some 
twenty-seven monastic and cathedral     
schools1 by no means confined to great  
or wealthy cities1 but well distributed 
throughout the ,empire4  #ah ,prfat4 in 
iv4 ,scul4 #ahd4  ,in the time of       
,charlemagne those most in repute were  
,tours1 ,st4 ,gall1 ,fulda1 ,reims1 and 
,hirsfeld4  ,we have given the names of 
,alcuin and ,paul ,warnefrid as the     
chief promoters of the ,carolingian     
,revival1 but we should not omit that of

 ,theodulf1 of ,orleans1 the            
indefatigable school inspector of the   
time4 ,he it was who assisted the       
artistic side of the movement by his    
ingenious contrivances as a writer and  
illustrator of school books4            
,undoubtedly it was from his suggestions
 that we so often find in medival       
scientific treatises of the driest kind 
those graphic and wonderful tabulations 
and edifices1 labelled and turreted1    
which make ,aristotle1 ,priscian1 and   
,marcianus ,capella1 not only           
comprehensible1 but attractive4         
,theodulf composed in simple and easy   
,latin verse--somewhat after the style  
of the ,propria qu maribus our own      
childhood--the description of a supposed
 tree of science1 which he had drawn and
 painted1 on the trunk and branches of  
which were the figures and names of the 
seven liberal arts4 ,at the foot sat    
,grammar--the basis of all              
learning--holding on her hand a lengthy 
rod 7ominous for the tender student74   

,on the right ,rhetoric stretched forth 
her hand4 ,on the left was ,dialectic4  
,philosophy sat on the summit2 the rest 
being disposed according to their       
relative importance4 ,the whole was     
explained in the ,carmina de septem     
artibus1 in which the bishop1 who was   
one of the famous poets of the age1     
strove in flowery language to render    
these dry-as-dust studies acceptable to 
the youthful understanding4 ,theodulf   
was a great scholar1 and assisted       
,alcuin in the revision of the ,bible1  
one copy of which he himself had written
 whilst still ,abbat of ,fleury1 about  
#gij4 ,at the beginning of this ,bible  
is a poem in golden letters on purple1  
and a preface in prose1 also in golden  
letters1 giving a synopsis of the       
several books4 ,the text differs        
somewhat from the ,alcuin ,bible1 as it 
is that of ,jerome before ,alcuin's     
revision4 ,this ,,ms4 is now at ,paris4 
,another ,bible executed to the order of
 ,theodulf is now in the ,town ,library 

at ,puy4  ,it seems incredible1 after   
the efforts made by ,charlemagne and his
 ministers for the maintenance of       
learning and the arts1 that there should
 ever be any risk of a return to        
barbarism1 but it is a fact that the    
dissolution of the ,empire proved in    
certain localities the suspension of    
prosperity4 ,fortunately the            
monastics--especially the               
,benedictines--and the canons of the    
cathedrals still kept up the practice of
 copying books2 but almost all the      
,south of ,france1 ,languedoc1 and      
,provence1 always conservative1 remained
 more or less illiterate4 ,they produced
 poets and jongleurs1 but seldom artists
 or scholars4 ,and even in the ,north1  
where the capitular schools were most   
flourishing--as ,paris1 ,reims1 and     
,chartres--the general tendency was     
towards relapse4 ,in ,high ,germany it  
was even worse4 ,in spite of all efforts
 of the clergy by the extension of      
secular schools1 the laity preferred the

 excitement of chase and camp to the    
quiet humdrum of the schoolroom4        
,religion seemed to be regarded rather  
as a profession than a principle1 quite 
right in its place1 i4e4 the ,church and
 the monastery1 but unsuited for active 
life4 ,the wealthy land-owners1         
therefore1 did not cease to endow       
religious houses or to build churches1  
but they left book-learning to the      
clerics4 ,accordingly the clerics and   
the monastics flourished exceedingly4   
,from the beginning of the tenth century
 to the beginning of the thirteenth was 
the ,golden ,age of monasticism4 ,the   
,order of ,st4 ,benedict scattered its  
foundations thickly over ,france and    
,western ,germany1 while its reformed   
colonies of ,cluny1 ,citeaux1           
,clairvaux1 and the ,chartreuse again   
spread their settlements in all         
directions4 ,thus we find ,cluny        
established in #iaj1 ,grammont in #ajgf1
 the ,chartreuse in #ajhj1 ,citeaux in  
#ajih1 ,savigny in #aaje1 ,tiron in     

#aaji1 ,austin ,canons in #ajch1        
,premonstrants in #aabj1 ,crutched      
,friars in #aafi4 ,in ,england1 from    
#aajj1 scarcely a year passed by without
 the establishment of some fresh        
foundation4 ,during the thirty-five     
years of the reign of ,henry ,i4 more   
than #aej religious houses were founded4
 ,and even during the disastrous reign  
of ,stephen1 in less than twenty years1 
no fewer than #ajj houses of various    
,orders were established4 ,the twelfth  
century in ,england was especially the  
age of monasteries4  ,it is true that   
not very much in the way of original    
literature1 except theological          
treatises1 can be assigned to the three 
centuries referred to1 but the unwearied
 labours of the copyist and illuminator 
did much to preserve the works which    
previous centuries had created4 ,of     
course1 in so long a period changes were
 many and great4 ,so great1 indeed1 that
 between a ,,ms4 of #hej and another of 
#abjj scarcely is there a common        

feature4  ,from #hej to #ajjj in ,france
 the ,carolingian minuscule1 from the   
first so clear and beautiful1 remained  
with scarce a stroke of alteration4 ,but
 immediately after the opening of the   
eleventh century a series of rapid      
changes set in1 and by the beginning of 
the twelfth a new hand1 perfectly clear 
and regular1 but quite different from   
the ,carolingian1 had been formed1 which
 lasted until it was superseded by the  
,gothic1 while a system of contractions 
adopted because of the scarcity of      
parchment creates a fresh need for study
 apart from the peculiarities of        
personal habits4 ,side by side1 too1    
with this there grows up a              
non-professional hand--the so-called    
cursive or running hand of the ordinary 
writer--in many cases1 especially in    
deeds and other brief compositions1 all 
but utterly illegible1 except to the    
professional palographer4 ,occasionally 
these autographs are of the highest     
importance and intensely interesting1   

as1 for instance1 when in an ,english   
,,ms4 we come ,across a note in the     
handwriting of ,ordericus 7,vitalis7 or 
,matthew ,paris4  ,from #ijj to #abjj   
the vast majority of ,,mss41 illuminated
 and otherwise1 were the work of        
monastics4 ,every house of any note had 
its room set apart for writing4 ,the    
larger monasteries sometimes utilised   
the cloisters of the churches           
themselves1 in recesses of which they   
had desks or tables placed for the      
copyist4 ,usually1 however1 they had a  
large common room called the            
scriptorium1 where either the copyist   
and illuminator worked separately and   
each on his own account1 or where a     
number of copyists awaited with pen and 
parchment the dictation by one of the   
fraternity of some work of which a      
number of copies had to be made4 ,no    
admittance except on business was the   
rule of this chamber4 ,there1 under the 
direction of the armarius1 the expert   
writers did their work4  ,sometimes a   

single monk executed the book from first
 to last by himself4 ,he prepared the   
vellum1 ruled it with the fine metal    
point1 copied the text1 painted the     
illuminations1 put on the gilding1 and  
even added the binding4 ,generally1     
however1 the labour was divided--one    
monk scraped and polished the parchment2
 another ruled it2 another wrote the    
text1 leaving spaces for initials and   
miniatures2 another put in the initials 
and did the gilding and flourishing with
 borders1 etc42 and another painted the 
miniatures4 ,this in the monasteries was
 done in the case of large and important
 ,,mss41 and afterwards1 when           
illuminating became a lay-craft1        
subdivision of labour was the common    
practice4 ,binding was done in a special
 apartment1 and by one specially skilled
 therein4  ,the scriptorium was looked  
upon as a sort of sacred place1 and the 
work of copying often considered as a   
labour of piety and love--entered upon  
with devout prayer1 and solemnly blessed

 by the superior1 especially in cases   
where the books to be written were      
,bibles1 or connected with the services 
of the house1 the ,lives of the ,saints1
 or ,treatises on ,theology4  ,very     
frivolous or absurd indeed are sometimes
 the inducements to copyists to do      
gratuitous work of this kind1 such as   
that every letter transcribed paid for  
one sin of the copyist1 and it is said  
that a certain monk--a heavy            
sinner--only owed his salvation to the  
fact that the number of letters in a    
,bible which he copied exceeded by a    
single unit the sum total of his sins4  
,,chapter ,,xiii  ,,monastic            
,,illumination--continued  ,the         
copyists--,gratuitous labour--,last     
words of copyists--,disputes between    
,cluny and ,citeaux--,the ,abbey of     
,cluny3 its grandeur and                
influences--,use of gold and purple     
vellum--,the more influential abbeys and
 their work in ,france1 ,germany1 and   
the ,netherlands4   ,of course1 only    

really expert calligraphers were        
employed on great and important works4  
,in the monastery all such labour was   
gratuitous1 that is1 the copyist        
received no pecuniary remuneration1 only
 his food and lodging4 ,yet even this   
had to be provided for4 ,hence the      
frequent requests for donations from the
 laity4  ,to give a volume to a         
monastery did not always mean actually  
to present the book1 but to stand the   
expense of its production in the        
monastery itself4 ,in the case of       
specially distinguished penmen1 their   
entertainment in a monastery was        
sometimes an expensive business4 ,it was
 only in later times1 however1 when     
lay-artists were invited to reside in   
the monastery to do their work that     
money was paid for their services4 ,very
 often we find notices at the end of    
volumes that ,so-and-so had ordered the 
book to be written and illuminated at   
his expense1 and an invocation for the  
gratitude of the reader and remembrance 

in his prayers is added1 sometimes with 
the date to the very hour when the book 
was finished4  ,the copyist's last words
 after his task was completed are often 
very full of weariness--sometimes pious1
 sometimes hankering after fleshly      
lusts1 occasionally quite too dreadful  
to repeat4 ,may ,christ recompense for  
ever him who caused this book to be     
written4 ,at the end of a ,life of ,st4 
,sebastian3 ,illustrious martyr1        
remember the monk ,gondacus who in this 
slender volume has included the story of
 thy glorious miracles4 ,may thy merits 
assist me to penetrate the heavenly     
kingdom2 and may thy holy prayers aid me
 as they have aided so many others who  
have owed to them the ineffable         
enjoyments both of body and soul4       
,wailly quotes the following3 ,dextram  
scriptoris benedicat mater honoris 7,may
 the mother of honour bless the writer's
 right hand74 ,a very common ending is  
,qui scripsit scribat semper cum ,domino
 vivat 7,he who wrote1 let him write2   

may he ever live with the ,lord74       
,another3 ,explicit expliceat4 ,bibere  
scriptor eat 7,it is finished4 ,let it  
be finished1 and let the writer go out  
for a drink74 ,another ending is ,vinum 
scriptori reddatur de meliori 7,let wine
 of the best be given to the writer74   
,and again3 ,vinum reddatur scriptori1  
non teneatur 7,let wine be given to the 
writer2 let it not be withheld74 ,here  
is the recompense wished for by a       
,french monk3 ,detur pro pen scriptori  
pulcra puella 7,let a pretty girl be    
given to the writer for his pains1 or as
 a penance7 ,the monks enjoyed puns1 as 
bibere1 a common pun on vivere4 ,one    
writer groans thus3 ,scribere qui       
nescit1 nullum putat esse laborem       
7,whoso knows not how to write1 thinks  
it is no trouble74  ,as time goes on1   
after the tenth century1 it is          
noticeable that the more beautiful a    
manuscript becomes in its writing the   
less accurate becomes its ,latinity4    
,and so the monks who once were noted   

for learning1 gradually lose their grip 
on ,latin4 ,the manuscripts executed in 
,benedictine abbeys became              
inaccurate--almost illiterate4 ,faults  
of ignorance of words2 misrendering of  
proper names2 blundering in the inept   
introduction of marginal notes and      
confounding such notes with the text1   
showing that the heart of the copyist   
was not in his work nor his head capable
 of performing it4 ,his hand is simply a
 machine1 which when it goes wrong does 
so without remorse and without shame4   
,so in the greater houses1 men were     
appointed whose sole business was to    
supervise the copyists--in fact1 to     
supply the brains1 while the scribe     
furnished the manipulation of the pen4  
,even they1 however1 did not always     
succeed to perfection1 as very few of   
them were too well furnished with       
scholarship4 ,there were not many       
,alcuins or ,theodulfs in the twelfth   
century4 ,what they did usually keep    
free from serious error were the books  

used in their own services4 ,it was the 
aim1 particularly among the ,cistercian 
houses1 to have their liturgical texts  
absolutely without fault4 ,in respect of
 illumination1 there was a great quarrel
 between the ,abbey of ,citeaux and that
 of ,cluny4 ,the great ,abbey of ,clugny
 7or ,cluny7 in ancient ,burgundy was   
founded in #iaj1 and in the course of a 
century or obtained a degree of         
splendour1 influence1 and prosperity    
unrivalled by any other medival         
foundation4 ,it possessed enormous      
wealth and covered ,western ,europe with
 its affiliated settlements4 ,under     
,peter the ,venerable1 when the         
controversy began1 it was the chief     
monastic centre of the ,christian world4
 ,the words of ,pope ,urban ,,ii41 when 
addressing the community1 were3 ,ye are 
the light of the world4  ,the grand     
,basilica at ,cluny was completed in    
#aaca1 and1 until the erection of ,st4  
,peter's at ,rome1 was the largest      
church in ,christendom1 and even then   

was only ten feet shorter than the      
,roman edifice4 ,the building is a      
masterpiece of architectural beauty and 
massiveness1 being with its narthex     
added by ,abbat ,roland de ,hainaut1 no 
less in length than #eee feet4 ,the     
splendour of the church1 its gorgeous   
tombs and mausoleums1 its huge coronals 
for lights of brass1 silver1 and        
gold--the grand candelabrum before the  
altar1 with its settings of crystal and 
beryl--the mural painting of the cupola1
 and the general luxury and magnificence
 of the whole constituted an            
unpardonable sin in the eyes of the     
stern and self-denying ,cistercians4    
,hence arose long disputes between the  
abbats of the two houses about tithes   
and other matters4 ,among the other     
matters were included questions of      
candlesticks and bindings and gildings  
of books4 ,the two houses were long at  
variance on the right definition of     
luxury in living1 and this variance may 
to this day be observed in their        

separate and distinct styles1 both of   
architecture and the ornamentation of   
books4 ,the use of gold was still       
continued in the older ,benedictine     
abbeys1 but was long forbidden in the   
,cistercian1 almost all the ornament of 
the latter being confined to pen-drawing
 and the use of coloured inks4 ,the     
employment of gold for the text of      
manuscripts so common in the ninth      
century became rare in the eleventh4    
,only here and there do we hear of such 
volumes4 ,where the gold lettering still
 lingers1 it is confined to the first   
page or two1 and the same may be said of
 the purple vellum4 ,a certain monk1    
,admar1 who died at ,jerusalem in #ajcd1
 wrote a ,life of ,st4 ,martial of      
,limoges entirely in letters of gold2   
but it was quite an exceptional volume4 
,another example occurs in an           
,evangeliary1 which was probably a copy 
of a ninth-century model1 as at first   
glance it might be assigned to that age1
 but on closer examination it is found  

that in one of the borders is a         
medallion bearing the name of the       
,emperor ,otho1 showing that it cannot  
be later than the latter part of the    
tenth century4 ,it is now in the        
,national ,library at ,paris4  ,before  
speaking of ,othonian illumination it   
may be well to refer to that of the     
,netherlands in these earlier centuries4
  ,the most ancient writings known in   
this district were charters and other   
documents1 and the pious effusion of the
 occupants of the monasteries1 such as  
,st4 ,amand1 ,lobbes1 ,stavelot1 etc4   
,it was the revival of art and          
literature under ,charlemagne that was  
the beginning of artistic calligraphy1  
then followed the production of books   
outside the monasteries1 classical      
authors1 chronicles1 and mirrors of     
various sciences4 ,in the eleventh      
century we find monastic books and      
others of which the ornamentation is    
sometimes even splendid1 such as        
,psalters1 ,evangeliaries1 ,bibles1 and 

,missals1 glowing with gold and colours4
 ,already the ,abbeys of ,stavelot and  
,lige were high-class centres of        
production4 ,st4 ,martin's of ,tournay  
had a famous scriptorium also1 noted for
 the beauty of its writing and its grand
 initial letters4 ,immediately following
 ,st4 ,martin's1 the ,abbeys of         
,gembloux1 ,st4 ,bavon at ,ghent1 and   
others1 produced or acquired ,,mss4 of  
the most sumptuous kind1 and before the 
thirteenth century the ,netherlands had 
established quite a distinguished       
reputation4  ,in a later chapter we     
shall deal with the development of its  
remarkable schools1 whose work          
eventually took rank1 not only among the
 most artistic1 but the most prolific in
 ,europe4     ,,chapter ,,xiv           
,,othonian ,,illumination  ,departure   
from ,carolingian--,bird and            
serpent--,common use of dracontine forms
 in letter-ornament--,influence of      
metal-work on the forms of              
scroll-ornament--,the vine-stem and its 

developments--,introduction of ,greek   
taste and fashion into                  
,germany--,cistercian illumination--,the
 ,othonian period--,influence of women  
as patronesses and                      
practitioners--,german princesses--,the 
,empress ,adelheid of ,burgundy--,the   
,empress ,theophano--,henry ,,ii4 and   
the ,empress                            
,cunegunda--,bamberg--,examples of      
,othonian art4   ,perhaps the first     
departure towards a new style arising   
out of the elements of ,carolingian     
illumination is in the combination of   
the bird and serpent used for letter    
forms and continued into coils of       
vine-stem and foliage in combination    
with golden panelled frames or          
pilasters4 ,the monsters thus produced  
seem to be a revival of the dracontine  
forms of the semi-barbarous ,celtic and 
early ,frankish arts4 ,but the          
difference in elegance and refinement of
 drawing and beauty of colouring is very
 great indeed4 ,other animal forms are  

also made use of1 nor is the human      
figure altogether absent4 ,sometimes    
entire letters are made up of the latter
 in various attitudes4 ,little scenes   
illustrative of the subject which the   
initial commences are often placed      
within it1 as1 for instance1 in the ,b  
of the first psalm4#ai  #ai ,a          
characteristic ,othonian ,evangeliary of
 the eleventh century1 executed at the  
,abbey of ,stavelot1 may be seen in the 
,royal ,library at ,brussels4           
,illustration3 ,,biblia ,,sacra #ab,,th 
,,cent4 7,,late7 ,brit4 ,mus4 ,harl4    
,,ms4 #bgii1 fol4 #ahe v4               
,illustration3 ,,evangelia 7,,paris     
,,use7 ,c4 #abge ,brit4 ,mus4 ,add4     
,,ms4 #agcda1 fol4 #abj v4  ,many       
twelfth-century initials look like      
designs in metal-work placed on the     
panelled grounds of coloured enamels4   
,but the rapid development of the       
vine-stem coils out of the stemless     
foliages of the ,carolingian and        
,winchester styles is one of the wonders

 of the early ,german revival after the 
accession of the ,emperor ,otho ,i4 ,a  
still greater improvement takes place   
after the marriage of his son ,otho     
,,ii4 to the ,princess ,theophano1      
daughter of ,romanus ,,ii41             
attributable1 no doubt1 to a fresh      
accession of artistic enthusiasm from   
the home of the new ,empress4 ,in point 
of elegance of design1 beauty of curve1 
adaptation of every part to its share in
 the composition1 nothing could be finer
 than the initial letters of the        
,othonian period of illumination4 ,the  
year #ifc introduced ,greek fashions and
 ,greek artists into ,germany1 the      
results of which are at once traceable  
in the increased splendour of monastic  
illumination in that country4 ,the      
details of ,greek ornament become the   
fillings of the frames and panels of the
 large initials4  ,the ,cistercian      
illuminators1 or rather calligraphers1  
while they constantly repudiate the     
golden splendour and monstrous follies  

of their rivals1 absolutely excel in    
this same ornamental draughtsmanship4   
,what1 for example1 could be finer than 
the pen-drawing of the great ,arnstein  
,bible in the ,british ,museum 7,harl4  
#bhjj78 ,the ornament is mostly in a red
 ink1 with flat-coloured blue1 green1 or
 yellow backgrounds1 but it is not to be
 surpassed4 ,no1 the interlacements and 
coils1 foliages and panels of the       
twelfth century are absolutely among the
 finest examples of ornamental lettering
 ever conceived4 ,illuminating seemed at
 this epoch to be more and more closely 
following the details of contemporary   
architecture1 and so paving the way to  
the next great variety of the art1 which
 is looked upon by some writers as the  
real beginning of medival illumination4 
,it must be admitted1 however1 that the 
excellence limits itself to the         
ornament4 ,the human figure is          
wretchedly incorrect--even barbarous4   
,it may be asked why is this8 ,how is it
 that while the decorative portion of an

 illuminated book is beautiful in the   
highest degree1 both in line and colour1
 and yet occasionally the artist seems  
not to have the remotest idea of the    
true shape of hands and feet or any part
 of the human body8 ,of course the usual
 explanation offered is that monastic   
education did not permit the study of   
the nude1 and hence the monkish         
ignorance of figure drawing4 ,but that  
is scarcely an excuse for the monstrous 
hands and feet and exaggerated facial   
expression of the miniatures4 ,the      
,italian monk ,angelico1 in spite of his
 monastic limitations1 succeeded in a   
most graceful rendering of the figure1  
and a charming delicacy in the forms of 
the hands4 ,as in some instances the    
artist does reach a fair standard1 it   
must be admitted that where he does not 
is owing to actual inability in himself 
and not in his system4 ,the three       
emperors who give the name of ,othonian 
to the period immediately succeeding the
 ,carolingian ruled ,germany1 and had   

much to do with the ruling of ,italy1   
from #icf1 when ,otho ,i41 called the   
,great1 succeeded ,henry the ,fowler    
about five years before the death of    
,athelstan1 whose sister ,eadgyth#bj was
 ,otho's first wife4 ,his mother        
,mathilda was the patroness of the      
cloister-schools for women1 working in  
them personally4 ,she herself taught her
 servants and maids the art of reading4 
,her daughter ,mathilda1 the famous     
,abbess of ,quedlinburg1 in #ifi        
persuaded the ,abbat ,wittikind of      
,corvey to write the ,history of the    
,saxon ,kings1 ,henry her father1 and   
,otho her brother 7now in the ,royal    
,library at ,dresden74 ,hazecha1 the    
,treasury-mistress of ,quedlinburg1 also
 employed the monks of ,corvey1 with    
whose beautiful initial drawing she was 
greatly pleased1 to illuminate her own  
,life of ,st4 ,christopher4 ,the        
beautiful but imperious ,princess       
,hedwig1 another of ,otho's sisters1    
read ,virgil with ,ekkehard of ,st4     

,gall1 and taught the child ,burchard   
,greek1 while ,otho's niece ,gerberga1  
,abbess of ,gandersheim1 was the        
instructress of the celebrated          
,hrosvita1 the oldest ,german poetess4  
,and this reminds us that at this time  
the women-cloisters of ,germany and the 
,netherlands were among the most active 
centres of learning and book-production4
 ,the great monument of feminine        
erudition and artistic skill1 called the
 ,hortus ,deliciarum1 was of a somewhat 
later time1 but other examples still    
exist1 among them the beautiful         
,niedermnster ,gospels of the ,abbess   
,uota1 now at ,munich4 ,a wood-cut by   
,albert ,drer prefixed to the first     
edition of ,hrosvita's works 7,nrnberg1 
#aeja7 represents the nun ,hrosvita     
kneeling before the ,emperor and beside 
the ,archbishop ,wilhelm of ,mainz      
presenting her book4#ba ,as to the      
literary labours of ,hrosvita1 this is  
not the place to discuss them4 ,she is  
simply an incidental figure in our view 

of the brilliant ,court of the ,othos4  
,a ,,ms4 of her works #ejj years after  
her death was found among the dust of   
the cloister-library at ,st4 ,emmeram of
 ,regensburg by ,conrad ,celtis1 and1 as
 we have seen1 printed for the first    
time in #aeja4 ,thus she stands out as  
an illustration of the fact often       
alluded to1 of the importance of        
feminine foundations in the monastic    
scheme4  #bj ,the chroniclers are rather
 confused as to the name of this        
,princess4  #ba ,it is thought1 however1
 by some that the figure behind is that 
of the ,abbess--not the ,archbishop4    
,see ,drer ,soc4 ,portfolio for #aijj4  
,her picturesque story of the romantic  
adventures of ,adelheid of ,burgundy1   
her marriage in #idg to ,king ,lothaire 
of ,italy1 her widowhood and perils1 her
 misfortunes and eventual marriage to   
the ,emperor ,otho1 reads more like a   
chapter from the ,morte d',arthur or the
 ,arabian ,nights than a veracious      
history of real people4 ,the ,empress   

,adelheid was1 indeed1 a remarkable     
woman1 and the nun of ,gandersheim is   
full of her praises4 ,in her younger    
days she had been a zealous patron and  
protectress of the ,abbey of ,cluny1    
which stood on her native land of       
,burgundy1 and her sympathies remained  
always with the religious houses4 ,in   
this respect1 indeed1 she was a worthy  
successor of the pious ,mathilda and her
 daughters4 ,she died in her            
seventy-first year in her ,abbey of     
,selz in ,elsass1 leaving a memory rich 
in benefits to the monastics1 especially
 those of ,cluny1 and venerated as the  
patroness of many an illuminated volume 
of poems or theology1 not to mention the
 liturgical books executed at her       
expense for use in her various          
foundations4 ,the tenth century seems to
 have been an age of illustrious women4 
,no sooner do we leave the story of     
,adelheid than we enter upon that of the
 young wife of ,otho ,,ii41 the ,empress
 ,theophano1 daughter of the ,greek     

,emperor1 ,romanus ,,ii4 ,when little   
more than a child she was married to the
 son of ,adelheid1 he himself being in  
his twentieth year in the year #igb1 and
 in the city of ,rome4 ,the young ,greek
 ,princess who had been reared amid the 
luxury and splendour of the ,eastern    
capital at once became the fashion--the 
manners of her ,byzantine household     
became those of her ,roman court1 and   
were transplanted to her ,german home at
 ,bamberg4 ,artists1 limners1 copyists1 
musicians1 scholars1 formed part of her 
retinue1 and at once the ,german ,court 
became the rival of those of ,england1  
,byzantium1 ,cordova1 and ,rome4  ,it   
was1 indeed1 a ,renaissance1 an         
awakening in literature1 art1 and social
 life4 ,nor did its glory fade until    
eclipsed by the succeeding rivalries of 
,france and ,italy4 ,theophano survived 
her husband1 who died in #ihc1 and      
proved herself a capable ,regent during 
the infancy of her son ,otho ,,iii4     
,she1 however1 did not live to see his  

early death1 nor indeed to see that of  
the aged ,adelheid1 who survived her    
eight years1 and died in the same year  
7#iii7 as ,otho's aunt1 ,matilda1       
,abbess of ,quedlinburg4  ,the death of 
,otho ,,iii4 in #ajjb did not affect    
materially the steady advance of        
monastic art4 ,bamberg1 ,st4 ,gall1     
,corvey1 ,luxeuil1 ,bobbio1 ,monte      
,cassino continued their accustomed     
labours4 ,under the ,capetian ,kings the
 ,french foundations maintained the     
reputations they had won during the     
,carolingian times1 while others were   
added from time to time throughout the  
,rhineland1 ,limousin1 and the ,south of
 ,france1 where the ,romanesque or      
,byzantine tastes had not yet           
penetrated1 and whose work therefore    
remained distinct from that of ,italy   
and the ,german ,empire4  ,henry ,,ii4  
and the ,empress ,cunigunda made        
,bamberg the great centre of ,german    
art1 and it is to ,bamberg1 ,st4 ,gall1 
,luxeuil1 ,monte ,cassino1 and          

,magdeburg that we have to look for the 
finest productions of the eleventh      
century4 ,among the earlier works of the
 ,othonian period we may mention the    
famous ,gospel-book executed for the    
minister of ,otho ,,ii41 ,egbert1       
,archbishop of ,trves1 and known as the 
,codex ,egberti4 ,it was written in #ihj
 at ,reichenau on the ,lake of          
,constance 7or ,bodensee1 as it is      
locally known7 by two monks1 ,kerald and
 ,heribert1 whose dwarfish figures      
appear beneath that of the archbishop on
 the frontispiece4 ,it contains         
fifty-seven illuminations and several   
folios of violet parchment with golden  
ornaments and lettering4 ,but its       
pictures are rather remarkable1 mostly  
the figures are too short and the limbs 
and extremities badly drawn1 but in some
 of the statelier personages the error  
is reversed and they are too tall--this 
seems to be owing to ,greek influence1  
while the ,byzantine taste shows itself 
in the treatment of the border-foliages4

 ,beasts are unnatural--demons and swine
 are alike1 both in form and colour     
7,pub4 ,lib41 ,trves74  ,an             
,evangeliary1 formerly in the ,cathedral
 ,treasury at ,bamberg1 but now in the  
,royal ,library at ,munich 7,cimel4     
#eh71 is a good example of the kind of  
work that at first glance appears to be 
actually ,carolingian both in the       
figures1 attitudes1 and treatment of    
drapery1 but which on closer examination
 proves to be really due to the reign of
 ,otho ,,ii4 ,in this ,,ms4 the         
beginning of ,st4 ,matthew contains four
 medallions--two of ,henry ,i4 7the     
,fowler71 one of ,otho ,i41 his son1 and
 another of his grandson1 ,otho ,,ii4   
7,nat4 ,lib41 ,paris1 ,lat4 #hhea74  ,a 
still more notable ,,ms4 is kept in the 
,munich ,library 7,cimel4 #eh71         
containing a two-paged picture of       
tributary cities bringing gifts to the  
,emperor ,otho ,,iii4 ,in the painting  
in this ,,ms41 notwithstanding the      
exaggerated solemnity of expression1 the

 faces are well drawn and the features  
carefully modelled4 ,the painting is in 
the ,greek manner1 as is also the       
general character of the draperies4 ,the
 small1 ill-drawn feet are by no means  
comparable with the heads4  ,the        
,imperial crown is square1 like those of
 the ,magi in the ,bremen ,,ms4 now in  
the ,library of ,brussels1 or like that 
of ,baldwin as ,emperor of              
,constantinople4 ,in the several        
enthronements which occur among the     
,imperial miniatures at ,munich there   
are important and significant           
differences which might not be noticed  
unless pointed out4  ,the changes in the
 shape and treatment of the orb1 for    
instance1 mean more than a mere advance 
in enrichment1 or an improvement in     
artistic skill4 ,the difference         
indicates a change in political usage4  
,in the miniature of ,charles it does   
not occur at all2 in that of ,otho      
,,iii4 it is a mere symbol2 in that of  
,henry ,,ii4 it is the actual emblem of 

sovereignty presented by the ,pope to   
the ,emperor1 to be held by the latter  
in token of his investiture4  ,it was   
,selden's opinion that the orb1         
surmounted by the cross1 never appears  
in western art until the time of ,henry 
,,ii4 ,thus it is here one of the many  
seemingly insignificant details which1  
in the miniature art of the ,middle     
,ages1 contribute to the elucidation of 
,history4     ,,chapter ,,xv            
,,franconian ,,illumination  ,the later 
,saxon schools--,bernward of            
,hildesheim--,tuotilo and ,hartmut of   
,st4 ,gallen--,portrait of ,henry ,,ii4 
in ,,ms4 #dj at ,munich--,netherlandish 
and other work compared--,alleged       
deterioration of work under the         
,franconian ,emperors not true--,bad    
character of the eleventh century as to 
art--,example to the contrary4   ,the   
,,ms4 just referred to 7,munich1 ,cimel4
 #eh7 brings us most probably to the    
time of the third4 ,otho1 but it is     
really with his father's marriage to the

 ,princess ,theophano that the great    
revival in the arts began1 and the names
 of ,st4 ,bruno of ,cologne and         
,augsburg1 ,gerbert1 ,bernward of       
,hildesheim1 ,tuotilo1 ,salomon1        
,hartmut1 ,folchard1 and ,sintramn of   
,st4 ,gallen1 are1 as it were1 points of
 light and centres of expanding circles 
of artistic skill4 ,bruno and ,gerbert  
are too well known to need any further  
remark4 ,bernward of ,hildesheim1 made  
bishop there in #iib by ,theophano1 and 
tutor to her son ,otho ,,iii41 excelled 
no less in the mechanical than in the   
liberal arts4 ,he was an excellent      
penman1 a good painter1 and as a        
household manager was unequalled4 ,such 
is ,tangmar's tribute to his pupil's    
character4 ,he was1 indeed1 an          
enthusiast in painting1 mosaic1 and     
metal-work1 and used to collect all the 
objects of art he could lay hands on1 to
 form a museum or studio for the        
instruction of a class of art students  
and workmen4 ,the collection was formed 

mainly out of the numerous presents     
brought to the young ,emperor from      
foreign1 and especially ,greek and      
,oriental1 princes1 and contained many  
examples of beautiful metal-work and    
,greek illumination4 ,his own ,cathedral
 of ,hildesheim was supplied with       
jewelled service-books1 in part at least
 the work of his own hand4 ,the chalices
 and incense-burners and the massive    
golden corona or candelabrum of the     
cathedral were also the productions of  
his own workshops4 ,the mural paintings1
 too1 were executed by himself4 ,his    
handiwork1 so lovingly described by his 
old schoolmaster ,tangmar1 may still be 
seen in ,hildesheim1 where visitors to  
that quaint old ,saxon city are told    
that the bronze gates of the cathedral  
and the jewelled crucifix were placed   
there by the venerable bishop himself in
 #ajae1 while in the cathedral-close    
rises a column adorned with bronze      
reliefs from the ,life of ,christ1      
authoritatively declared to be the work 

of his own hands--let us say they came  
out of his own workshops1 in the year   
#ajbb1 nearly a thousand years ago4 ,st4
 ,bernward was canonised by ,celestine  
,,iii4 in #aaid4 ,his sarcophagus is in 
the crypt of the ,basilica of ,st4      
,michael at ,hildesheim4 ,of ,tuotilo1  
the pupil of ,moengall 7or ,marcellus71 
it is said that he was physically almost
 a giant2 just the man1 says his        
biographer1 that you would choose for a 
wrestler4 ,he was a good speaker1 had a 
fine musical voice1 was a capital carver
 in wood1 and an accomplished           
illuminator4 ,like most of the earlier  
monks of ,st4 ,gallen1 he was a clever  
musician1 equally skilful with the      
trumpet and the harp4 ,and the charm    
about it all was that he was always     
cheerful and in excellent spirits1 and  
in consequence a general favourite4 ,nor
 is this all4 ,besides being teacher of 
music in the upper school to the sons of
 the nobility1 he was classical tutor1  
and could preach both in ,latin and     

,greek4 ,his chief accomplishments1     
however1 were music and painting1 and on
 these his reputation mainly rests4 ,he 
composed songs1 which1 like an ,irish   
bard1 he sang to the harp--the popular  
instrument of this ,irish foundation4   
,being thus multifariously accomplished 
7he was1 by the way1 an excellent       
boxer71 he was much in request1 and by  
the permission of his abbot travelled to
 distant places4 ,one of his celebrated 
sculptures was the image of the ,blessed
 ,virgin for the cathedral at ,metz1    
said to be quite a masterpiece4 ,nay1 he
 was even a mathematician and           
astronomer1 and constructed an astrolabe
 or orrery1 which showed the courses of 
the planets4  ,this allusion to the     
astrolabe reminds us that it was ,abbat 
,hartmut of ,st4 ,gallen1 who was also  
an accomplished illuminator1 who        
constructed a large map of the          
world--one of the extremely few that    
until that time the world had ever seen4
  ,st4 ,gallen and its artists1 however1

 must not be permitted to monopolise our
 attention too long4 ,the reader must   
for the rest refer to ,dr4 ,rahn and the
 writers whom he quotes4 ,sometimes it  
is said that the illuminations of the   
eleventh century are proofs of the rapid
 decline of art1 and to demonstrate the 
fact that they are frankly hideous1 some
 writers bring forward instances such as
 the miniatures of a ,missal1 especially
 a ,crucifixion1 said to be at          
,paris1#bb and a ,,ms4 at ,berlin said  
to have been executed in the earlier    
days of the ,franconian dynasty         
7#ajcd-aabe7 containing another         
,crucifixion1 which1 though not quite so
 horrible as the one just referred to1  
is sufficiently bad4 ,these miniatures  
are irredeemably barbaric and not in any
 sense typical of the age4 ,such        
examples1 in fact1 can be found in any  
age and in any country4 ,were they      
really representative of the best art of
 the time1 there might be an excuse for 
their reproduction1 but they are not1   

and therefore no reliance can be placed 
on their evidence4  #bb ,le ,livre1     
etc41 par ,m4,p4 ,louisy1 ,paris1 #ahhf1
 #h1 p4 #gi4  ,in the miniatures of     
,,mss4 executed for the ,othos and      
,henrys of the early ,saxon dynasty the 
worst they can be charged with1 as      
compared with the periods before and    
after them1 is slavish imitation4 ,the  
portrait of ,henry ,,ii4 7,saint ,henry1
 husband of ,cunegunda7 in ,,ms4 #dj at 
,munich is by no means barbaric--it is  
more ,greek than anything else--but it  
is down to the smallest element of      
composition a direct imitation of the   
similar portrait of ,charles the ,bald  
in the ,emmeram ,gospels4 ,it is not a  
copy1 for there is a significant        
difference in the attitudes of the      
emperors4 ,henry holds a sceptre in his 
right hand and an orb in his left1 like 
,otho ,,iii4 in the miniature already   
described1 whereas ,charles is empty    
handed4 ,then both on the ,emperor's    
head and on the smaller figures the     

crowns are different--the panelling of  
the ,imperial canopy is different1 and1 
of course1 there is a different         
inscription4 ,lastly1 it may be said    
that some of the differences are        
improvements4 ,another change is        
characteristic--,charles was beardless1 
,henry has a pointed beard4  ,it is true
 this is an example belonging to the    
very brightest years of the ,othonian   
revival4 ,but to pass over other ,saxon 
,,mss41 there are extant examples from  
,evroul 7when ,roger de ,warenne1 son of
 the great ,earl of ,surrey1 practised  
as a scribe and illuminator on his      
retirement to that monastery71 ,st4     
,martin's of ,tournay1 ,st4 ,amand1     
,benedictbeuern1 ,lobbes1 and           
,weissobrunn could all boast            
accomplished calligraphers4 ,the last   
establishment produced the celebrated   
,diemudis1 who1 though a woman1 was     
distinguished by a most extraordinary   
activity and skill4  ,nor are these all 
that could be named1 for by no means    

least among them we may quote ,monte    
,cassino1 many of whose elegant         
productions have been published by the  
present occupants of the monastery4     
,then the ,greek miniaturists of the    
eleventh century are once more to the   
front4 ,the famous ,slav ,evangeliary of
 ,ostromir 7#ajef-fg7 shows us a ,,ms4  
probably executed for a governor of     
,novgorod1 which contains by no means   
despicable work1 whether in the figures 
of the evangelists or the ornamental    
borders4 ,of course1 in ,greek ,,mss4 we
 know pretty well what to expect2 fairly
 good ornament1 rich details of         
embroidery1 etc41 wilfulness of colour  
in architecture1 mannerism in the       
attitudes and faces1 but good1 clever   
technic and bright gold4  ,lastly1 there
 is the celebrated ,evangeliary given to
 ,san ,benedetto of ,mantua by the      
,countess ,matilda now in the ,vatican1 
enriched with little miniatures from the
 ,life of the ,virgin1 which ,lanzi     
declares surpass everything else he ever

 saw of the same period4  ,the ,poitevin
 ,,ms4 at ,poitiers1 a biographical     
compilation of saints in honour of ,st4 
,radegonde1 though nothing wonderful1 is
 worth recording as a transitional      
example just before the close of the    
century4 ,as an example of the latter   
part of a continual deterioration1 it   
should be worse than anything preceding4
 ,yet it is not so4 ,it is certainly    
heavy and rather dull1 and the drawing  
far from excellent1 but it is also1 on  
the other hand1 far from frankly        
horrible4 ,in introducing examples of   
other schools into this chapter the     
writer's object has solely been to      
vindicate the illuminators of the       
eleventh century from the sweeping      
charge sometimes made against them of   
absolute deterioration4 ,of the school  
directly under our notice1 the charge is
 certainly not true1 and the wretched   
stuff cited in support of it can only be
 looked upon as accidental salvages of  
no artistic value whatever4  ,in proof  

that the book-work of the eleventh      
century was not all worthless1 we may   
refer to just one example4 ,it is a     
,,ms4 consisting of but a few fragments 
executed at ,luxeuil under ,abbat       
,gerard ,,ii4 ,the remains are such as  
to cause regret for the loss of the     
rest4 ,on one page ,christ is shown     
seated on a rich sella covered with an  
embroidered cushion in the manner of the
 consular diptychs4 ,he is clothed in a 
pale yellow tunic1 over which is worn a 
purple pallium with a white border4 ,he 
is beardless1 and his brown hair is kept
 close to the head and neck1 and falls  
over the shoulders4 ,the feet are nude  
and by no means ill-drawn4 ,surrounding 
the head is a cruciform nimbus enclosed 
in a circle--both cross and circle being
 pale green1 the latter outlined with   
red4 ,the chief fault of the head is the
 excessive length of the nose and the   
wide stare of the eyes4 ,the right arm  
is raised somewhat as in the ,st4       
,sernin ,evangeliary1 but with the palm 

outwards1 and much superior in drawing4 
,the whole figure is painted on1 or at  
least surrounded by1 a golden           
background--so far indicating the       
,byzantine origin of the design4 ,it is 
enclosed in a cusped aureola formed of  
several coloured bands of green1 violet1
 and rose4 ,this shows ,german taste4   
,eight circlets or medallions surround  
this figure of ,christ1 four of which   
contain the symbols of the evangelists2 
the other four--,isaiah1 ,daniel1       
,ezechiel1 and ,jeremiah4 ,all hold     
portions of the band which connects     
them1 and on which appears a series of  
inscriptions in ,latin4 ,these consist  
of passages from the ,vulgate4  ,the    
whole picture is placed in a square     
frame consisting of bands of various    
colours and gold outlined in red4 ,the  
inner ground is chiefly blue1 and the   
names of the prophets and evangelists   
are painted on it in white ,roman       
capitals4 ,taken altogether it is a very
 splendid page1 but even this is        

surpassed in gorgeous richness of       
ornament by the miniature of ,st4 ,mark4
 ,and the borders of other pages in this
 ,luxeuil fragment are full of ornament1
 giving the impression that the work was
 imitated from that of the goldsmith and
 enameller4 ,the figures and symbols of 
the evangelists in these early ,gospel  
texts are fully explained after ,st4    
,jerome by ,alcuin1 whose revision of   
the ,vulgate forms the text of the      
,durham ,book already referred to4  ,the
 ,manual shortly to be mentioned differs
 somewhat in its explanation of these   
symbols4 ,the curious combination called
 the ,tetra morph is a compound of the  
four attributes or symbols into a single
 figure1 to signify that the four       
evangelists give only one gospel1 and   
ought not to be separated4 ,it occurs   
frequently in ,greek1 but only seldom in
 ,latin or ,western iconography4#bc  #bc
 ,on this figure see ,annales           
,archologiques1 tom4 #h1 p4 #bjf1 etc4  
,,chapter ,,xvi  ,,artistic ,,education 

,,in ,,the ,,cloister  ,the             
,manual--,its discovery--,its origin and
 contents--,didron's translation--,the  
,compendium of ,theophilus--,its        
contents--,english version by           
,hendrie--,benedictine and ,cistercian  
illumination--,how they                 
differ--,character of monastic          
architects and artists4   ,about the    
twelfth century comes forward the       
mention of a certain manual minutely    
detailing every process of painting1 and
 laying down rules for the due          
composition and arrangement of every    
subject to be represented in the sacred 
history and other books connected with  
divine service4 ,how long such a manual 
had been in use is unknown1 but it is   
thought that something of the kind must 
have existed from the time1 at least1 of
 ,justinian1 perhaps earlier4 ,the      
manual here referred to was found by ,m4
 ,didron at ,sphigmenou1 on ,mt4 ,athos4
 ,this little monastery is said to have 
been founded by the ,empress ,pulcheria1

 sister of the ,emperor ,theodosius the 
,younger4 ,she died in the year #dec4   
,theodosius1 it may be remembered1 was  
himself an admirable penman and         
illuminator1 so much so as to have      
acquired the cognomen of ,kalligrphos4  
,the monastery is built in a narrow     
valley by the seaside1 between three    
little hills1 and as it were squeezed   
in1 and hence its name 7in ,greek       
,,greek ,,small ,,letter ,,sigma,,greek 
,,small ,,letter ,,phi,,greek ,,small   
,,letter ,,iota,,greek ,,small ,,letter 
,,gamma,,greek ,,small ,,letter         
,,mu,,greek ,,small ,,letter ,,epsilon  
,,with ,,tonos,,greek ,,small ,,letter  
,,nu,,greek ,,small ,,letter            
,,omicron,,greek ,,small ,,letter       
,,final ,,sigma71 which describes its   
situation exactly4 ,it is occupied by   
about thirty unusually neat and orderly 
monks1 who are justly proud of the few  
relics and curiosities which they       
exhibit to visitors4 ,it was at         
,sphigmenou that ,curzon saw the piece  

of ancient jewellery set with diamonds  
and a ,russian or ,bulgarian ,,ms4 of   
the ,gospels4  ,the book which ,m4      
,didron found there is the copy of an   
older ,,ms4 which1 it is said1 was      
copied by ,dionysius1 one of the monks1 
from the works of the once celebrated   
master1 ,manuel ,panselines of          
,thessalonica1 who was the ,giotto of   
the ,byzantine school and flourished in 
the twelfth century4 ,if by works the   
monk meant literary1 it is most likely  
that it was the transcript of a still   
older document4 ,if by works ,dionysius 
meant paintings1 it is a manual of his  
practice4 ,one of his pupils1 in order  
to propagate the art of painting which  
he had learnt at ,thessalonica1 writes  
down the series of subjects to be taken 
from the ,bible1 so as to epitomise the 
divine scheme of salvation1 and         
describes the manner in which the events
 of the ,old ,testament1 and the        
miracles and parables of the ,new1 ought
 to be represented4 ,he mentions the    

scrolls and inscriptions 7such as we    
noticed in the ,gospels of ,luxeuil7    
belonging to each of the prophets and   
evangelists1 with the names and         
characteristics of the principal saints 
in the order of the menologium or       
martyrology1 and then goes on to direct 
how the subjects should be arranged on  
the walls and cupolas of the churches4  
,the ,manual of ,dionysius is an        
abstract of this wide scheme1 but is    
still very comprehensive4 ,the copy of  
it seen by ,didron was one belonging to 
a monk of ,sphigmenou named ,joasaph1   
who was himself a painter4 ,it was      
loaded with notes added by himself and  
his master1 which in course of time     
would be incorporated1 according to     
immemorial custom1 in the text4 ,in this
 way1 indeed1 the ,manual has grown to  
what it is at present4 ,a transcript of 
it may probably be found in every       
monastery belonging to the ,greek       
,church4 ,another monk named ,macarios1 
also a painter1 had a fine copy of it   

laid open in his atelier1 and his pupils
 read from it in turn1 whilst the rest  
painted according to its directions4    
,for the scheme itself we must refer the
 reader to the second volume of         
,didron's ,christian ,iconography1 p4   
#aic4 ,unfortunately the transcriber did
 not think it of sufficient importance  
or relevancy to copy the first part1 as 
being purely technical and dealing      
merely with the art of painting4 ,the   
scheme1 therefore1 only contains the    
part relating expressly to iconography4 
,it is to be regretted1 too1 that this  
part also has been in some places       
considerably abridged1 as dealing with  
,greek art and martyrology more         
copiously than1 it was thought by the   
translator1 would be interesting to     
,english readers4 ,there are numerous   
good and reliable introductory works    
dealing with early ,christian art1      
besides the greater treatises to which  
the student who wants to pursue this    
line of research shall be directed later

 on4 ,but there is another of these     
original manuals to which we must call  
attention1 as especially dealing with   
the practice of monastic artists in the 
twelfth and following centuries4  ,the  
one to which we now refer is quite      
distinct from the ,greek ,manual which  
we just mentioned1 and by way of        
contrast may be called the ,latin       
,manual as being originally composed in 
that language4 ,moreover1 as the ,greek 
,manual formed the guide and vade mecum 
of all the painters of the ,greek       
,church1 so this ,latin one became the  
indispensable monitor in all ,latin     
foundations4 ,its origin was ,german1   
and said to be the compilation of a     
,benedictine monk who is variously      
spoken of as ,rutgerius1 ,rugerius1     
,rotkerius1 etc41 and assigned by       
different editors and critics to either 
the eleventh1 twelfth1 or thirteenth    
centuries4 ,probably we shall not be far
 wrong in placing him about the middle  
of the twelfth4 ,the treatise is known  

as ,diversarum ,artium ,schedula1 and   
the compiler of it calls himself simply 
,theophilus presbiter humilis1 which1 of
 course1 records nothing but his        
personal modesty4  ,it was at first     
attributed to ,tuotilo of ,st4 ,gallen4 
,this opinion was put forward by        
,lessing1 but it had no foundation      
whatever beyond the fact of ,tuotilo's  
well-known versatility4#bd ,besides1    
,tuotilo lived in the ninth century4    
,but really the question of attributions
 does not concern us here4 ,it matters  
little who he was outside the ,treatise1
 and certainly we shall not discuss the 
question further4 ,it is with the       
,treatise that we are concerned4 ,we    
shall simply call the author            
,theophilus1 and his work the           
,compendium4 ,let us turn to it at once4
  #bd ,tuotilo was renowned throughout  
all ,germany as painter1 architect1     
preacher1 professor1 musician1          
calligrapher1 ,latinist1 ,hellenist1    
sculptor1 and astronomer4  ,the         

,compendium1 which is thus known to     
contain the working methods of all the  
monastic illuminators1 mosaicists1 glass
 painters1 enamellers1 and so forth1    
throughout ,germany1 ,lombardy1 and     
,france1 consists of three books1       
containing altogether one hundred and   
ninety-five chapters of definite and    
special instructions in artistic        
matters4 ,book ,i41 comprising forty    
chapters1 treats of the preparation1    
mixture1 and use of colours for         
wall-painting1 panel1 and parchment1    
i4e4 for the decoration of churches1    
furniture1 and books4 ,it contains some 
most curious and valuable instructions  
for the employment of gold1 silver1 and 
other metals in the decoration of       
,,mss42 how it should be applied2       
whether in leaf or as an ink2 how raised
 and burnished1 down to the minutest    
details of practice2 how colours are to 
be tempered 7i4e4 mixed72 what media or 
temperings are best for each colour1    
according to the surface to which it is 

to be applied4 ,such is the ,compendium4
 ,we need not1 therefore1 wonder at its 
popularity and the estimation in which  
it was held4  ,thirty-one chapters on   
glass1 glass painting1 enamelling1 etc41
 form a second book1 and the third and  
last book contains some hundred and     
twenty-four chapters on gold and silver 
work--the art of the goldsmith--in cups1
 chalices1 vases1 candelabra1 shrines1  
and so on4 ,it is the first book that is
 of most interest to us1 and had we     
space we would have liked to quote from 
its pages4 ,but as it is we can only    
refer the reader to the work itself4 ,it
 is to be met with in various forms and 
editions4 ,first1 we recommend the      
,english translation by ,robert         
,hendrie4 ,the oldest ,,ms4 of the work 
is one of the twelfth century in the    
,library at ,wolfenbttel4 ,the next is  
in the ,imperial ,library at ,vienna4   
,fragments of other copies exist in     
several other public libraries1 but the 
completest copy known is that in the    

,harl4#be ,collection of the ,british   
,museum used by ,hendrie as the basis of
 his translation 7#h1 #ahdg74  #be #a   
,harl4 ,,ms4 #ciae4  ,it was1 as we have
 said1 in the eleventh and twelfth      
centuries especially that the great     
abbeys were founded4 ,and it cannot be  
too clearly stated that the principal   
abbatial churches--those most splendid  
monuments of architecture whose         
structure and dimensions are still the  
admiration of the most cultured critics1
 and in which all the rules of art were 
so marvellously applied--were the work  
of simple monks4 ,the great ,church of  
,st4 ,benignus at ,dijon 7so often      
spoken of by writers on ,burgundian art7
 was built in #ajja1 under ,abbat       
,william1 assisted by a young monk named
 ,hunaldus4 ,the period between #ajca   
and #ajfj saw the creation of the grand 
abbatial ,church of ,st4 ,remi at       
,reims4 ,in the words of the ,comte de  
,montalembert3 ,from the very beginning 
of the ,monastic ,orders ,st4 ,benedict 

had provided in his ,rule that there    
should be artists in the monasteries4   
,he had imposed on the exercise of their
 art only one condition--humility4      
,hence it is that all we know of the    
author of the ,compendium from himself  
is humilis presbiter ,theophilus4 ,for  
the same reason ,tuotilo and ,folchard  
and ,sintramn and the rest are never    
anxious to put their names upon their   
work4 ,for the same reason the          
occurrence of an artist's name in a     
monastic ,,ms4 is quite exceptional and 
unexpected4 ,the foresight of ,st4      
,benedict was accomplished and his law  
faithfully fulfilled4 ,the ,benedictine 
monasteries soon possessed not only     
libraries but ateliers1 where           
architecture1 painting1 mosaic1         
sculpture1 metal-chasing1 calligraphy1  
ivory carving1 gem-setting1             
book-binding1 and all the branches of   
ornamentation were studied and practised
 with equal care and success1 without   
interfering in the least with the exact 

and austere discipline of the           
foundation4 ,the teaching of these      
various arts formed an essential part of
 monastic education4 ,the greatest and  
most saintly abbeys were precisely those
 most renowned for their zeal in the    
culture of ,art4 ,st4 ,gallen in        
,germany1 ,monte ,cassino in ,italy1    
,cluny in ,france1 were for centuries   
the mother-cities of ,christian ,art4   
,and after the establishment of the     
reformed colony at ,citeaux1 the        
,cistercian ,order became the one above 
all others which has left the most      
perfect edifices1 and if the ,cistercian
 illumination may not claim the         
splendour of some contemporary examples1
 it often excels them in soundness of   
design and severe correctness of        
execution4  ,in saying that all this    
kind of work was executed by monks1 we  
are speaking literally4 ,the monks were 
not only the architects1 but also the   
masons1 and even the hodmen of their    
edifices4 ,nor were the superiors in    

this respect different from their humble
 followers4 ,whilst ordinary monks were 
often the architects-in-chief of the    
constructions1 the abbats voluntarily   
accepted the rle of labourers4 ,during  
the building of the ,abbey of ,bee1 in  
#ajcc1 the founder and first abbat1     
grand-seigneur though he was1 worked as 
a common mason's labourer1 carrying on  
his back the lime1 sand1 and stones     
necessary for the builder4 ,this was    
,herluin4 ,another ,norman noble1 ,hugh1
 ,abbat of ,selby in ,yorkshire1 when1  
in #ajif1 he rebuilt in stone the whole 
of that important monastery1 putting on 
the labourer's blouse1 mixed with the   
other masons and shared their labours4  
,monks1 illustrious by birth1           
distinguished themselves by sharing the 
most menial occupations4 ,it is related 
of ,roger de ,warenne that when he      
retired to ,evroul1 he took up quite a  
serious rle of this kind in cleaning the
 shoes of the brethren1 and performing  
other offices which a mere cottager     

would have probably considered          
degrading4  ,occasionally in our school 
histories we come across the mention of 
a man like ,dunstan1 of whom it is      
related as a wonderful thing that he was
 at the same time a metal worker1       
architect1 and calligrapher2 but        
monastic biographies abound in such     
instances4 ,we have already quoted      
several4 ,the same man was frequently1  
says ,montalembert1 architect1          
goldsmith1 bell-founder1 miniaturist1   
musician1 calligrapher1 organ builder1  
without ceasing to be theologian1       
preacher1 litterateur1 sometimes even   
bishop1 or intimate counsellor of       
princes4#bf  #bf ,l',art et les ,moines1
 ,ann4 ,archologiques1 t4 vi4 p4 #aba1  
etc4     ,,chapter ,,xvii  ,,the ,,rise 
,,of ,,gothic ,,illumination  ,germany  
the chief power in ,europe in the       
twelfth century--,rise of ,italian      
influence--,the ,emmeram                
,,mss4--,coronation of ,henry           
,,ii4--,the ,apocalypse--,the ,hortus   

,deliciarum--,romanesque--,,ms4 of      
,henry the ,lion--,the ,niedermnster    
,gospels--,description of the           
,,ms4--,rise of ,gothic--,uncertainty of
 its origin--,the spirit of the age4    
,in the chapter on ,othonian art we saw 
how the ornamentation of books was drawn
 away from the great ,french centres1   
and began to take a new departure from  
the various leading cities of ,germany1 
such as ,bamberg1 which the ,othos had  
made their capital4 ,whilst the decline1
 which was the inevitable consequence of
 a personal government like that of     
,charlemagne1 took place in ,france1 it 
was but natural that the new artistic   
movement at ,bamberg should become the  
fashion1 and ,germany predominant in    
art1 as she was in politics4 ,in the    
twelfth century the ,german ,empire was 
the principal power in ,europe4 ,france1
 ,italy1 ,england1 and ,spain were all  
more or less secondary4 ,italy1 however1
 was already on the alert4 ,she was     
initiating certain movements in social  

life that must soon withdraw the        
cultivation of all the arts from the    
control of the monasteries4 ,at the same
 time the love of learning and personal 
accomplishments of the second and third 
,othos and 7,st47 ,henry ,,ii4 soon     
prepared the ,imperial ,court to become 
as brilliant as classical scholarship   
and artistic skill of the highest class 
could make it4  ,the wave of ,byzantine 
influence which had passed over ,germany
 by the time of ,henry ,,ii4 had        
immensely benefited the ,germans4 ,we   
notice it especially in the miniatures  
of the ,gospel-books4 ,the technic is   
much more masterly1 the painting really 
methodical in soundly worked body-colour
 with a delicate sense of harmony1 and  
showing no longer that coarse handling  
and slovenliness of execution that marks
 some of the ,carolingian miniatures4   
,in the figure a sense of proportion has
 been gained1 the tendency1 perhaps1    
being rather to excessive tallness1 as  
compared with the thick-set proportions 

of the ,carolingian work4 ,again1       
expression is improved--the faces are   
more intellectual--not beautiful but    
strong1 and quite superior to the       
utterly expressionless faces of the     
,carolingian type4  ,take1 for example1 
that fine ,missal now at ,munich        
7,cimel4 #fj--,lat4 #ddef71 in which    
,st4 ,henry1 who is bearded1 receives   
his crown from a bearded ,christ1 his   
arms being upheld by two bishops1       
,ulrich of ,augsburg and ,emmeram of    
,regensburg1 the two great saints of    
,bavaria4 ,we know these to be the      
personages represented1 because two     
inscriptions tell us so4 ,to the one    
supporting the ,king's right hand3      
,huius ,,vodalricvs cor regis signet et 
actus4 ,to the other3 ,,emmeranvs ei    
faveat solamine dulci4 ,the ,christ is  
seated on a rainbow within a cusped     
aureola or amande of several bands of   
different colours1 on the central one   
being inscribed in a mixture of ,greek  
and ,latin characters--one of the new   

fashions brought in by the ,greek       
revival3      ,clemens ,,xpe tuo longum 
da vivere ,,xpic to3      ,ut tibi      
devotus non perdat temporis usus4  ,some
 writers have thought this to be a      
picture of the ,emperor's apotheosis1   
and that the crown is that of ,life or  
,immortality2 but such is certainly not 
the import of the above verses4      ,o 
gentle ,christ give to thy ,christ long 
to live      ,that devoted to ,thee he  
may not lose the use of time4  ,besides1
 two angels on either side ,christ      
precipitately bestow on the ,emperor the
 spear and sword of a temporal          
sovereignty4 ,round the ,emperor are the
 words3 ,ecce coronatur divinitus atque 
beatur4 ,rex pius ,heinricus proavorum  
stirp7e7 polosus1 all which can scarcely
 refer to anything but his ,german      
,empire4  ,the expression1 give to thy  
,christ1 is an allusion to the ,hebrew  
usage of calling the king the anointed  
or the ,christ4  ,besides the interest  
possessed by this ,,ms4 as a monument of

 the art of its own time1 it has a      
special value resting in the fact that  
its illuminations were copied from the  
famous ,emmeram ,golden ,gospels of     
,charles the ,bald1 written by ,linthard
 and ,berenger1 and sent as a present to
 ,regensburg4 ,another illumination in  
it1 representing the enthronement of the
 ,emperor1 is extremely interesting as  
showing how the later artist renders the
 work of the earlier one4 ,the general  
composition is precisely the same1 the  
lower figures in the same attitudes and 
bearing the same insignia4 ,but in the  
details of costume1 and in the          
significant position of the ,emperor1   
there are alterations4 ,in the miniature
 of the ,emmeram ,gospels the two angels
 above are simply winged messengers of  
the usual biblical type2 in the ,missal 
they are cloaked and crowned and bear   
horns in their hands4 ,in the older     
,,ms4 the two crowned figures with horns
 on either side wear simple mural       
crowns2 in the later one they are regal 

like those of the ,emperor4 ,the details
 also of the canopies are different4    
,but the remarkable difference is that  
while ,charles the ,bald is beardless   
and bears nothing in his hands1 merely  
sitting as if addressing an assembly1   
,henry ,,ii4 holds in his right hand a  
sceptre and in his left an orb and      
cross4 ,here is a distinctly new feature
 with a meaning4 ,here are the symbols  
of authority in the ,emperor's own      
hands1 and not merely in those of his   
attendants4#bg ,these two ,,mss4 are    
worthy of careful study4  #bg ,see p4   
#ib4  ,in another ,missal in the library
 at ,bamberg is a miniature of the      
,emperor presenting the book to the     
,virgin4 ,in the great ,evangeliary     
presented by the ,emperor ,henry ,,ii4  
to the ,cathedral of ,bamberg there is a
 grand picture of the ,emperor and his  
consort the famous saint ,cunegunda     
being crowned by ,christ1 with ,,ss4    
,peter and ,paul standing at the sides4 
,here also1 as in the ,carolingian ,,ms4

 already mentioned1 are the nations     
bringing tribute1 but not in the same   
order4 ,here ,germany stands upright    
between two figures of ,gaul and ,rome1 
while six others appear simply as busts 
7,munich1 ,cimel4 #fj4 #ddef74  ,the    
twelfth century was clearly much given  
to symbolism and allegory1 as shown in  
apocalyptic commentaries and similar    
works4 ,a very remarkable ,apocalypse is
 that in the library of the ,marquis    
d',astorga4 ,the latter is remarkably   
rich in pictures1 which have been       
described by ,m4,a4 ,bachelin of ,paris4
 ,the drawing in these pictures reminds 
one of the bas-reliefs of the campaigns 
of ,hadrian and ,trajan and other work  
of the early ,roman centuries4 ,one     
hundred and ten miniatures of uncommon  
interest constitute the illustrations1  
many of which are perfect curiosities of
 symbolism1 depicting not only the four 
figures of the evangelists1 but the     
mysteries of the seals and vials1       
serpents1 beasts1 etc41 on yellow1 red1 

green1 blue1 and brown backgrounds4 ,the
 draperies in some of the miniatures    
show ,byzantine teaching1 but with the  
grandiose style of the early ,roman     
times4 ,the ,,ms4 it might be compared  
with of the twelfth century is the      
,hortus ,deliciarum of the ,abbess      
,herrade4 ,this latter ,,ms41 which     
unfortunately was burnt with many other 
treasures during the siege of           
,strassburg by the ,germans in #ahgj1   
was a veritable treasury of medival     
customs1 furniture1 and costumes1       
illustrating a medley of encyclopdic    
information for the use of the nuns and 
secular students of the ,abbey of       
,hohenburg in ,alsace4 ,the good abbess 
called her book a ,garden of ,delights4 
,it is known that it dated from #aaei1  
as that date and also the date of #aage 
occurred in its pages4 ,we do not know  
whether the authoress was also the      
illuminatrix1 but at any rate she       
directed the illumination4 ,their style 
is of the same type as that of the      

,apocalypse just spoken of1 somewhat    
monumental as figures of the ,liberal   
,arts1 allegorical figures of the       
virtues and vices1 and the syrens as    
symbols of sensual temptation4 ,there   
was a figure of the ,church riding upon 
a beast with the four heads of the      
evangel-symbols--the sun and moon in    
chariots as in the classical mythology1 
and scenes of warfare1 marriage         
festivities1 banquets1 everything indeed
 depicting the life of contemporary     
persons4#bh ,the drawing and treatment  
generally is of no very skilful         
kind--the colouring bright and in       
body-colour4 ,draperies as usual much   
folded and fluttering1 and the heads    
generally of the calm expression of the 
later ,french school1 but the action    
sometimes very spirited4  #bh ,for a    
copious and exhaustive account of the   
,hortus1 see ,het ,gildeboek1 ,utrecht1 
#ahgg1 v4 i4 ,also ,engelhardt1 ,herrad 
v4 ,h41 etc41 #h1 with atlas of twelve  
plates1 #ahah4  ,the title began thus3  

,incipit hortus deliciarum1 in quo      
collectis floribus scripturarum assidue 
jucundetur turmula adolescentularum4 ,in
 the ,rhytmus came the lines3--         
,salve cohors virginum                  
,hohenburgensium               ,albens  
quasi lilium               ,amans dei   
filium                ,herrat           
devotissima               ,tua          
fidelissima               ,mater et     
ancillula               ,cantat tibi    
cantica                ,sic et liber    
utilis               ,tibi delectabilis 
,et non cesses volvere                  
,hanc in tuo pectore4  ,in the          
,netherlands1 which mostly at this time 
lay within the boundary of ,lotharingia 
or ,lorraine1 the style of illumination 
was much the same as in other ,german   
districts4 ,gospel-books and ,psalters1 
however1 exhibit features somewhat akin 
to ,english work4  ,in the eleventh and 
twelfth centuries the continental       
methods prevail in more solid painting  
and less penwork4  ,of the              

twelfth-century work of ,germany        
examples are exceedingly numerous1      
stretching over every province from     
,west to ,east1 as ,westphalia1 the     
,palatinate1 ,burgundy1 ,switzerland and
 ,bavaria1 extending even into ,bohemia4
 ,an ,evangeliary in the ,university    
,library at ,prag agrees altogether with
 those of ,germany4  ,towards the middle
 of the twelfth century1 with the       
accession of the ,house of ,hohenstaufen
 7#aach1 etc471 arose a new style1 since
 called ,romanesque1 of which many      
examples are to be found in various     
libraries4 ,it is not very easy to      
select the most typical examples1 but   
one good and typical ,,ms4 is found in a
 ,gospel-book at ,carlsruhe1 which      
contains some capital miniatures of this
 most thoroughly ,german style4  ,under 
,frederick ,barbarossa1 as under the    
,caroling ,emperors and the ,othos1 we  
may note a wave of new life1 especially 
in ,saxony4 ,a contrast as regards      
artistic ability to the ,hortus         

,deliciarum is the ,gospel-book executed
 for ,henry the ,lion at the convent of 
,helmershausen1 once in the ,cathedral  
,library at ,prag1 and bought by ,king  
,george of ,hanover4#bi ,in the page of 
the ,eusebian ,canons we see features   
which take us across the plains of      
,lombardy to the doors of ,s4 ,michele  
of ,pavia1 and to the churches of       
,venice4 ,the columns rest on crouching 
animals4 ,allegorical figures are       
introduced striving with each other as  
in the later ,gothic illuminations4 ,a  
half-nude figure of ,faith vanquishes   
the champion of ,paganism4 ,on the      
dedication page sits the ,madonna with  
,,ss4 ,john ,baptist and ,bartholomew1  
and below them the patron saints of     
,brunswick1 ,blaize1 and ,egidius       
leading forth the ,duke and his wife1   
,mathilda4 ,it may indeed be called a   
splendid book4 ,among the rest of the   
pictures1 some of them within richly    
decorated borders1 occurs the usual     
representation of the ,duke and his     

,duchess receiving crowns4 ,the figures 
are well drawn1 even elegant1 the       
draperies good1 and the colouring       
skilful4  #bi ,see ,f4 ,culemann in     
,neue hannov4 ,zeitung1 #ahfa1 ,nos4    
#bb-d4  ,one of the many characteristic 
,,mss4 of this period to be seen in     
continental libraries is the ,mater     
,verborum of the monk ,conrad1 of       
,scheyern in ,bavaria1 a noted scribe1  
illuminator1 goldsmith1 and grammarian4 
,the subject is one that scarcely gives 
promise of lending itself to pictorial  
illustration1 but after the successful  
attempts of ,theodulf we may be prepared
 for anything in the way of diagram and 
symbol4 ,imagine a dictionary in which  
not only actual objects are pictorially 
represented1 but also abstract terms4   
,music1 philosophy1 virtues and vices   
illustrated by historical               
instances--sacred subjects treated in   
the manner of the glass painters which  
is so commonly found in ,german and     
,french work of this period4  ,of       

twelfth-century illumination in general 
it may be said that it shows a marked   
effort towards true artistic design and 
subtle beauty of linear outline4 ,some  
of the noblest curve-drawing1 with rich 
and massive grouping of foliages1 is to 
be found in the ornamental initials and 
dignified border designs presented on   
the later examples of the century1 and  
it is very interesting to observe the   
rapid pace at which the climax is       
reached in mere calligraphic ornament   
after the opening of the ,gothic period4
 ,initials become smaller but           
exquisitely drawn1 and reasonable       
expression takes the place of the       
senseless stare or grotesque            
exaggeration of attitude and feature    
which detract from the artistic value of
 all preceding efforts4 ,to conclude our
 list of ,german illuminations of purely
 monastic production1 we will bring     
forward one more example of women's     
work1 which whether as regards its      
curious illustrations of symbolism1 or  

its richly foliaged geometrical         
backgrounds and borders1 is one of the  
most interesting ,,mss4 in any          
collection4 ,it is the ,evangeliary of  
the ,abbess ,uota1 or perhaps1 rather1  
,tuota of ,niedermnster1 a lady of the  
,house of the ,counts of ,falckenstein  
7#aagg-hj72 or of ,utta1 abbess from    
#ajji to #ajab1 but more probably the   
former4 ,another1 ,tutta1 ruled the     
abbey from #ibj to #icd1 and still      
another #abci-db4 ,this precious ,,ms41 
which ,cahier has very fully described  
as the ,manuscrit du ,niedermuenster de 
,ratisbonne1 is now in the ,royal       
,library at ,munich 7,cimel4 #ce74 ,some
 writers1 in speaking of it1 have       
classed it among the ,,mss4 of the      
eleventh century1 but it is too refined 
and too well done for that period1 and1 
indeed1 that it belongs to the latter   
part of the twelfth is almost proved    
from the work itself4 ,perhaps it was   
the profusion of inscriptions or legends
 placed all over the miniatures that    

gave the idea of its belonging to the   
eleventh century4 ,in this respect the  
,,ms4 certainly resembles the           
,evangeliary of ,luxeuil already        
described4 ,the miniature of the        
,crucifixion is very remarkable4        
,besides the figure of ,christ showing a
 return to the primitive ,syriac        
idea1#cj instead of the figures as usual
 of ,mary and ,john1 here are given     
allegorical figures of ,life and ,death4
 7,cf4 ,fest4 in exaltatione sce crucis4
 ,ad ,laudes1 #adth ,sept474 ,perhaps   
the best commentary on these old figures
 is the ,biblia ,pauperum1 as it is     
commonly called1 or as it should be     
called1 the ,bible of the poor          
preachers4 ,it also has the old         
allegories and inscriptions rendered    
into later forms4  #cj ,cf4 the ,rabula 
,,ms4 at ,vienna4  ,as for the texts or 
inscriptions1 they would require a      
commentary to themselves--not to speak  
of translations and remarks upon the    
calligraphy4 ,one of these remarkable   

miniatures may be described1 as it      
depicts the presentation of the volume  
to the ,madonna4 ,our ,lady in the      
centre of the design is seated on a     
,byzantine sedile with the infant ,jesus
 on her knees4 ,she is crowned1 and has 
the nimbus1 and appears as if intended  
to represent the glory of the ,church4  
,her hand is raised as in the act of    
teaching4 ,christ1 also1 has the nimbus1
 but with the cross upon it1 and raises 
his hand in the attitude of benediction4
 ,in the tympanum of the semicircle over
 the ,madonna1 written in letters of    
gold on purple1 surrounded by the word  
,sancta in ordinary ink1 is the monogram
 of ,maria1 having a small sun and moon 
above it1 and other inscriptions1 partly
 ,latin1 partly ,greek4 ,below the      
,madonna1 on the left1 stands the       
abbess1 her knees slightly bent1 holding
 up her book1 and clothed in the costume
 of her ,order1 but coloured1 no doubt1 
simply for artistic reasons4 ,thus she  
wears a blue veil and a claret-coloured 

robe4 ,in the reversed semicircle before
 her is another monogram1 ,uota or      
,tuota1 a name which perhaps may be     
translated ,uta1 ,utta1 ,ida1 etc4 ,it  
has been said already who she is likely 
to have been4 ,it does not follow1 of   
course1 that she herself wrote or       
illuminated the book she is presenting1 
but judging from similar instances1 as  
e4g4 ,herrade of ,landsberg and         
,hrosvita of ,gandersheim1 she may have 
done so4  ,still the work looks         
technically too masterly for anyone not 
a trained artist to have done4 ,in the  
corners are small quadretti1 containing 
busts of the four cardinal              
virtues3--,prudence1 ,justice1          
,temperance1 and ,fortitude2 and in     
circlets in the centre of each border   
are ,faith1 ,hope1 and ,charity1 the    
latter twice1 at top and bottom4 ,a     
number of extraordinary beasts fill up  
little niches in the design1 which may  
possibly be also symbolical1 but        
possibly also nothing but artistic      

fancies4 ,the other miniatures we must  
pass over4 ,nevertheless those          
representing the four evangelists are   
worth examination2#ca the ornamentation 
being especially rich and elaborate4    
,let us now turn our attention to a new 
element--a new spirit we might term     
it--which was manifesting itself in     
,italy and ,france4 ,we cannot too      
strongly insist upon the fact that      
whatever appears in illumination has    
appeared first in architecture and its  
auxilliary arts4 ,now we have to see how
 this fact begins to change almost      
entirely the character of the           
ornamentation of books4 ,during the     
latter part of the twelfth century1 when
 precisely we cannot say1 nor where1 a  
new form of architecture began to show  
itself4 ,this new style1 laying aside   
both the classic cornice and the        
,romanesque arch1 makes use of a new    
vertical principle of construction1     
called in ,french the ogive or arch1    
composed of two sections only1 instead  

of the whole semicircle4 ,by some       
fatality1 of which no exact explanation 
can be given1 ,english writers have     
given this new style the name of        
,gothic4 ,scores of cathedrals          
throughout ,europe are called ,gothic   
cathedrals1 whereas in all probability1 
if we exclude ,sweden1 there is only one
 really ,gothic building in the world1  
that is the ,tomb of ,theodoric at      
,ravenna1 and none of the so-called     
,gothic cathedrals are in the least like
 it4 ,as to the invention itself1 it has
 been claimed by almost every           
nationality in ,europe4 ,there can be no
 doubt that accidentally1 or otherwise1 
the pointed arch had been used often    
enough without any idea of its adoption 
as a principle of construction even in  
ancient buildings4 ,the famous gate at  
,mycoene is one instance4 ,this is not  
the place to discuss the question1 so we
 let it pass4 ,we could point out long  
and elaborate arguments intended to     
prove that it originated in             

,england--that it originated in         
,france--in ,germany4#cb ,possibly they 
may all be right in a sense1 for most   
probably the origin was not in any      
particular locality1 but in the         
religious spirit of the time4 ,it was a 
general revival of the ,church itself   
that was its cause4 ,if any special     
locality has more reason on its side    
than another1 it is probably ,france1   
but as we say1 that is not an essential 
point4 ,it must suffice us here that it 
arose1 and that by the end of the       
twelfth century it was a fact4 ,and the 
remarkable part about it is that it was 
by the influence of lay artists and     
especially of the freemasons that it    
became the accepted architecture of     
,christendom4  #ca ,for more about them1
 see ,cahier1 ,mlanges d',archologie1   
etc4  #cb ,not to mention theories1     
which are endless4                      
,,book ,,ii     ,,chapter ,i  ,,the     
,,golden ,,age ,,of ,,illumination  ,the
 ,gothic spirit--,a ,zeitgeist not the  

invention of a single artist nor of a   
single country--,the thirteenth century 
the beginning of the new                
style--,contrast between ,north and     
,south1 between ,east and ,west1 marked 
in the character of artistic            
leaf-work--,gradual development of      
,gothic foliage--,the bud of the        
thirteenth century1 the leaf of the     
fourteenth1 and the flower of the       
fifteenth--,the                         
,freemasons--,illumination transferred  
from the monastery to the lay           
workshop--,the ,psalter of ,st4         
,louis--,characteristics of ,french     
,gothic illumination--,rise of the      
miniature as a distinct                 
feature--,guilds--,lay artists4   ,we   
have now reached the parting of the     
ways4 ,the study of ,nature is fast     
superseding the dogmas of the monastic  
code1 and what some writers have        
characterised as the hieratic is giving 
way to the naturalistic treatment of    
art4 ,like the pointed architecture     

itself1 it is an outcome of the spirit  
of the age4 ,exactly when it begins we  
cannot say4 ,as in the physical         
sciences1 our limits are necessarily    
somewhat arbitrary to suit our          
convenience in classification4 ,we take 
the beginning of the thirteenth century 
as a convenient dividing line between   
old and new4 ,we accept it as the       
boundary between the artistic sway of   
the ,east and ,south--and that of the   
,west and ,north--between the lifeless  
fetters of prescription and the living  
freedom of invention4 ,the contrast     
between the two is very strongly marked4
 ,the soft and curling foliages of the  
sunny ,south are for a season giving way
 to the hard and thorny leafage of the  
wintry ,north4 ,it would seem as if     
pointed architecture began with the hard
 and frozen winter of its existence1 and
 if it had been the plan or design of   
one individual we might have accepted   
this peculiarity as part of the scheme1 
and all that followed as a natural      

consequence and development4 ,but it is 
curious that as a system worked out by  
many minds pointed architecture should  
thus begin4 ,first come thorns and cusps
 and lanceolate forms without foliage4  
,then1 not perfect leaves1 but buds4 ,in
 due time the bud opens1 at first into  
the profile coil1 and by-and-by into the
 full-spread leaf4 ,then comes the      
flower1 and finally the fruit4 ,after   
that1 rottenness and decay4 ,it is      
curious that this should actually take  
place through a course of centuries4    
,that it should be reflected in book    
illumination is simply the usual order  
of things--the fact has been frequently 
observed1 and as it is curious1 we call 
attention to it4 ,but1 as we have said1 
the great change itself was brought     
about by the influence of lay artists1  
and chiefly by the freemasons4  ,who and
 what the freemasons were everybody is  
supposed to know1 but on inquiry we find
 very few people indeed know anything   
definite about them4 ,of course we do   

not refer to the friendly societies or  
social guilds that now bear the name1   
but to the medival builders4 ,everybody 
knows1 says ,batissier1#cc that the     
study of the sciences and of literature 
and the practice of the various branches
 of art took refuge in the monasteries  
during the irruptions of the barbarians 
and the strife of international war4 ,in
 those retreats1 not only painting1     
sculpture1 engraving on metals1 and     
mosaic1 but also architecture were      
cultivated4 ,if the question arose about
 building a church1 it was nearly always
 an ecclesiastic who furnished the plan 
and monks who carried out the works     
under his direction4 ,the brethren in   
travelling from convent to convent      
naturally exercised a reciprocal        
influence over each other4 ,we conceive1
 then1 that the abbeys of any given     
,order would put in vogue the same      
style1 and that the art would be        
modified under certain points of view1  
in the same manner in each country4  #cc

 ,hist4 de l' ,art ,monumental1 p4 #dff1
 ,paris1 #ahde1 ,i4 #h4  ,it is certain1
 moreover1 that outside the cloisters   
there were also troops of workmen not   
monastics1 who laboured under the       
direction of the latter4  ,masons were  
associated among them in the same way as
 other trade corporations4 ,it was the  
same with these corporations in the     
,south as with the communes--the dbris  
of the ,roman organisation2 they took   
refuge in the ,church1 and had arrived  
at a condition of public life and       
independence1 when order was established
 between the commune1 the ,seignory1 and
 the ,church4  ,during the twelfth and  
thirteenth centuries these corporations 
were organised into recognised          
fraternities having their own statutes1 
but there is abundant evidence of their 
having a much earlier existence4  ,a    
great number of masons were trained in  
,italy1 and came from ,lombardy1 which  
in the tenth century even was an active 
centre of civilisation4 ,italy had its  

corporations of masons called maestri   
comaccini1 enjoying exclusive           
privileges1 who1 having passed the      
different degrees of apprenticeship1    
became 'accepted'#cd masons1 and had the
 right of exercising their profession   
wherever they might be4 ,the sovereigns 
of different countries granted them     
special privileges1 and the popes       
protected them in all ,catholic         
countries where they might travel4 ,thus
 the lodges grew and prospered4 ,the    
,greek artists who had fled from        
,constantinople during the various      
,iconoclast persecutions had got        
themselves enrolled in the ranks of the 
freemasons1 and taught their            
fellow-masons their ,byzantine methods4 
#cd ,german angenommen4  ,speedily these
 corporations spread through ,france1   
,england1 and ,germany1 where they were 
employed almost exclusively by the      
religious ,orders1 in building their    
churches and conventual buildings4      
,while1 therefore1 the general plan and 

rules of construction were common to all
 members of the fraternity1 the details 
were almost entirely left1 under        
regulations1 to the individual taste of 
certain members of each band of workmen1
 who1 being all qualified artists1 were 
quite capable of putting in execution1  
and with masterly skill1 any such minuti
 of ornament as might be left to their  
discretion4#ce ,local illuminators would
 thus speedily get hold of every        
novelty1 and the page of the ,psalter or
 ,bible would become1 as a ,french      
writer has explained it1 a vitrail sur  
velin4 ,if not indeed exclusively       
following the stained glass1 they copied
 the mural decorations1 and so we find  
the backgrounds of the miniatures1      
whether fitted into the initials or     
placed separately in framed mouldings1  
faithfully reproducing the imbrications1
 carrelages1 panellings1 and diapers of 
these mural enrichments4  #ce ,governor 
,pownall 7,observations on the ,origin  
and ,progress of ,gothic ,architecture1 

and on the ,corporation of ,freemasons1 
,archologia1 #aghh1 vol4 #i1 pp4        
#aaj-abf7 was of opinion that the       
,collegium or ,corporation of           
,freemasons1 were the first formers of  
,gothic architecture into a regular and 
scientific order by applying the models 
and proportions of timber framework to  
building in stone1 and that this method 
came into use and application about the 
close of the twelfth or commencement of 
the thirteenth century4 ,see also ,gould
 7,r4,f471 ,history of ,freemasonry1    
vol4 i4 p4 #bei1 note4 ,without going so
 far as to agree with ,governor ,pownall
 that the ,freemasons invented ,gothic1 
it may be reasonably contended that     
without them it could not have been     
brought to perfection1 and without      
,gothic they would not have stood in the
 peculiar and prominent position that   
they did1 that there was mutual         
indebtedness1 and while without         
,freemasons there would have been no    
,gothic444without ,gothic the           

,freemasons would have formed but a very
 ordinary community of trades unionists4
  ,to select an example of ,gothic      
illumination which shall exemplify the  
earliest features of the pointed style  
is not an easy matter1 notwithstanding  
the number of thirteenth-century ,,mss4 
which still exist in public collections4
 ,in the ,national ,library at ,paris   
are several such ,,mss4 ,one that       
decidedly marks the change from the     
,german work hitherto in vogue is the   
,psalter of ,st4 ,louis 7,nat4 ,lib41   
,paris41 ,lat4 #ajebe71 which contains  
nearly eighty small1 delicately executed
 miniatures4 ,it was completed about    
#abej4 ,its noticeable features are a   
vastly improved dexterity in            
draughtsmanship1 which displays a       
refined certainty of touch1 enabling the
 artist to express his intention with   
unhesitating freedom4 ,the drawing thus 
produced in outline is filled in with   
flat tints of body-colour1 without      
gradation or any attempt at brush-work  

shading4 ,whatever finishing in this    
respect might be thought necessary was  
added with the pen4 ,nothing could show 
more clearly that it is simply and      
frankly imitative of stained glass4 ,as 
in the glass the black outline is left  
for definition4 ,no colour is used on   
hands of faces except a slight touch of 
red on the cheeks and lips4 ,the        
prevailing colours are rich blue and    
bright scarlet4 ,perhaps the illuminator
 would have been better advised had he  
neglected some of the harder features of
 this kind of work4 ,not considering    
that the limits of the glass painter did
 not apply to his vellum1 he fettered   
himself unnecessarily1 and instead of a 
picture he has only succeeded in        
producing a surface enamel1 or a mere   
reticulation of surface-patterns4 ,this 
very defect has by some writers been    
held up to admiration as the true       
perfection of all illumination4 ,its    
flatness was applauded because it had to
 be shut up in a book1 and was therefore

 the only appropriate way of making a   
picture for such a purpose4 ,but whoever
 would dream that because a picture1    
painted in due perspective and proper   
light and shade1 was to be shut up in a 
book that the figures represented in    
relief would actually be crushed4 ,such 
reasoning is most puerile4 ,the supposed
 parallel case of a carpet or hearth-rug
 representing groups of flowers--even if
 the latter ever did deceive the        
domestic cat--does not in the least     
affect the most childish conception of a
 picture in a book4 ,we see it in a     
scene in light and shade1 we enjoy and  
admire its reliefs1 but at the same time
 we know it is a picture1 and that it is
 quite flat4 ,the two tests of knowledge
 never interfere with each other4 ,to   
suppose they do is to suppose a case of 
imbecility that even a lunatic must     
laugh to scorn4 ,so far1 therefore1 we  
think the illuminator mistaken in       
slavishly copying the limitations of the
 glass-painter4 ,it is no very great    

knowledge of nature that is shown in    
these drawings4 ,there is a good example
 of the method of study followed by     
thirteenth-century artists in the       
sketch-book of a ,french mason named    
,villars de ,honnecourt1 still kept in  
the ,national ,library at ,paris4#cf ,in
 this book the artist has made drawings1
 as he says1 from the life--some are    
views1 others drawings of objects of    
art2 one represents a lion of the       
medival heraldic type1 yet the artist   
assures us it is from the life4 ,but    
there is no real accuracy1 everything is
 done with reference to some canon4 ,it 
is1 however1 quite free from the        
,byzantine influence1 though by no means
 free from a certain tincture of        
symbolism4 ,the nude is rarely          
attempted1 but when it is it is         
certainly less ugly than in ,carolingian
 and ,romanesque4 ,to return to the     
,psalter--the style of the figures is   
rather graceful1 attitudes are gentle   
and modest1 though the inclination of   

head and body are such as to suggest a  
sort of undulatory movement in walking  
that is scarcely natural4 ,the forms are
 slender1 and the limbs occasionally    
beyond the owner's control--sometimes   
even deformed4 ,the feet are small and  
weak--now and then over-twisted4 ,the   
hands more delicate than formerly1      
especially when open4 ,faces are gently 
oval and sometimes expressive4  #cf ,it 
has been published as the ,album of ,v4 
de ,h41 ,paris1 #aheh4  ,sometimes the  
histories are placed in initial letters1
 the grounds of which1 when not of      
burnished gold1 consist of imitations of
 mural carrelages1 chequers1 etc41 or   
rich enamelled patterns imitative of    
engraved traceries on metal4 ,in other  
cases they are placed in                
frame-mouldings1 consisting of a bar or 
beading of gold supporting an inner bar 
of coloured and polished wood or enamel 
work--the polish being represented by a 
fine line of white along the centre4    
,for illustrations of this precious     

volume the reader may refer to ,labarte1
 ,hist4 des ,arts industriels1 album1   
pl4 #ib 7,paris1 #ahfd74  ,now that the 
monasteries had ceased to be the        
exclusive nurseries of art and          
literature1 the masters of the different
 arts and crafts usually belonged to the
 middle classes of the towns1 where at  
first each art or craft had its own     
fraternity1 and as the idea of          
trade-association crew1 the crafts most 
nearly related would form a guild or    
corporation4 ,all who joined these      
corporations bound themselves to work   
only as the ruler of the guild          
permitted4 ,nor were outsiders allowed  
to compete with them in their own       
branches1 so exclusive was the          
protection of the guild4  ,each         
confraternity had its altar in some     
particular church1 whose patron saint   
became the protector of the guild4 ,and 
indeed the constitution of the guild    
included even political rights and      
obligations--military service among the 

rest1 like other feudal institutions4   
,each town had its own special          
corporations1 which thus led to the     
formation of separate schools of art2   
while travelling apprenticeships gave   
the opportunity to all of acquiring     
knowledge not accessible at home4       
,members were accustomed to travel and  
to attach themselves to the service of  
various princes1 receiving appointments 
as varlets or escripvains or            
enlumineurs1 which sometimes obliged    
them to resign their membership4        
,occasionally they became political     
agents and even ambassadors4  ,it will  
be remembered that1 some pages back1 we 
noticed the fact that in ,western       
illumination generally the design of the
 page depended upon the initial letter1 
or that at least the initial was the    
principal object of it4 ,in the         
thirteenth century1 although the initial
 had very much diminished in size1 the  
same principle still prevailed4 ,the    
letter itself was formed of some        

fabulous long-necked and long-tailed    
animal or bird1 mostly a dragon as      
conceived by the medival artist4 ,the   
head framed more or less on that of the 
mastiff or lion1 or both2 the legs of a 
bird of prey2 the body and tail of a    
serpent2 wings of heraldic construction 
to suit the form of the letter4 ,while  
the body of this unspeakable beast      
formed the body of the letter1 the tail 
was indefinitely extended to sweep down 
the margin of the text and round the    
base of it1 so as to form a border1     
while not unfrequently slender branches 
would spring from it to form coils here 
and there ending in a kind of           
flower-bud1 the extremity of the tail   
forming a similar coil4 ,very soon1     
however1 the animal form was abandoned1 
and the letter made simply as a         
decorated initial or capital4 ,if       
possible1 one of its limbs was made to  
sweep up and down the margin and along  
the bottom or top as before4 ,where the 
interior is not occupied by a history1  

we find coiled stems ending in profile  
leaves or buds4  ,at the same time the  
text has diminished in size1 sometimes  
down to dimensions no greater than those
 of an ordinary printed book of to-day1 
but often beautiful and regular as the  
clearest printing4 ,such a book is the  
,bible written by a certain ,william of 
,devon1 now in the ,british ,museum     
7,roy4 ,,ms4 #a ,d4 #a74 ,a description 
of this beautiful ,,ms4 may be seen in  
,bibliographica1 vol4 i4 p4 #cid1       
written by ,sir ,e4,m4 ,thompson4 ,here1
 though the writing is that of an       
,englishman1 the style is completely    
,french4  ,another ,,ms4 deserving of   
study is a richly illuminated ,bible now
 in the ,burney ,collection of our      
,national ,library 7,no4 #c74 ,another1 
which1 owing to its being recommended   
for study by the late ,john ,ruskin1 was
 once known as the ,ruskin ,book1 is    
,add4 ,,ms4 #agcda1 which contains many 
fine initials with border and bracket   
foliages similar to those of the        

,evangeliary of the ,sainte ,chapelle1  
now in the ,national ,library1 ,paris   
7,,ms4 ,lat4 #agcbf74 ,both the ,,mss4  
show the contemporary peculiarity of    
presenting ,bible characters1 excepting 
divine personages1 apostles1 and        
evangelists in ordinary local costume4  
,paris1 of course1 is the city where    
most1 and perhaps the best1 of these    
,,mss4 are preserved2 but those named   
above1 in ,london1 are also among the   
finest known examples4     ,,chapter    
,,ii  ,,rise ,,of ,,national ,,styles   
,the fourteenth century the true ,golden
 ,age of ,gothic illumination--,france  
the cradle of other national            
styles--,netherlandish1 ,italian1       
,german1 etc4--,distinction of          
schools--,difficulty of assigning the   
provenance of ,,mss4--,the reason for   
it--,,ms4 in ,fitzwilliam ,museum1      
,cambridge--,the ,padua                 
,missal--,artists' names--,whence       
obtained4   ,through the thirteenth     
century is the epoch of the ,gothic     

renaissance1 it is the fourteenth to    
which really belongs the title of the   
,golden ,age4 ,the style of work remains
 precisely the same1 only it grows4 ,it 
changes from the bud to the leaf4 ,it   
casts off the severity and much of the  
restraint of its earlier character4 ,to 
the grace of youth it adds beauty1 the  
beauty of adolescence4 ,to              
fourteenth-century illumination we can  
give no higher praise than that it is   
beautiful4 ,not1 indeed1 because of its 
deliberate limitations1 but in spite of 
them4 ,for after ages have taught us    
that if in pure ornament and resplendent
 decorative completeness the pages of   
the fourteenth century cannot be        
surpassed1 in miniature historiation it 
must take a second place4 ,the skilled  
illuminators of the later schools are   
the masters of the mere picture4 ,for   
surely no judge of art could possibly   
assert that the miniatures of the       
,grunani ,breviary or of the ,brera     
,graduals as miniatures are inferior to 

those of the ,psalter of ,st4 ,louis1   
the ,berry ,bible1 or the ,prayer-book  
of ,margaret of ,bavaria4 ,yet these are
 typical ,,mss4 of the highest rank4    
,hence we say that while the            
illumination of the ,golden ,age of the 
art was beautiful1 it was not absolutely
 perfect4 ,it is not to be taken by     
modern students as the only possible    
model or basis simply because it was the
 best of its kind4 ,there is no such    
despotism in art4 ,to those who think it
 the only possible form of book         
decoration1 let it be so by all means1  
but we may as well hope to clothe our   
soldiers in chain or plate armour1 and  
send the elite of our nobility on       
another crusade to ,jerusalem1 or       
satisfy our universities with the quod  
libets and quiddities of the trivium and
 quadrivium1 as hope to make popular to 
the ,england of the twentieth century   
the artistic tastes of the fourteenth4  
,we indulge in no such dreams4 ,if we   
are to have illuminated books1 our own  

age must invent them4 ,the illuminators 
of the ,bibles1 ,romances1 ,mirrors1 and
 ,chronicles of the fourteenth century  
no doubt did their best1 and we honour  
and praise them for it4 ,we think their 
work among the loveliest gratifications 
of the eye that can be imagined4 ,but   
the eye is very catholic--it has immense
 capacities for enjoyment4 ,the window  
of the soul opens on illimitable        
prospects1 and if the soul be satisfied 
for the time1 it is not necessarily     
repleted for ever4 ,golden ages are     
cyclical1 and it may be that the glory  
of the books of the future shall surpass
 all the glories of the past4  ,by #acej
 ,france had absorbed all the antecedent
 varieties of illumination4 ,from       
,france1 therefore1 spring all the      
succeeding styles now considered        
national4  ,and as is most natural1     
these styles develop by proximity--the  
nearest to ,french being ,netherlandish4
 ,the next1 as a result of immediate    
intercourse1 ,italian4 ,then ,german1   

,spanish1 and the rest1 as intercourse  
gave opportunity4 ,it is not always an  
easy matter to say offhand whether a    
,,ms4 is ,french or ,flemish4 ,in the   
earlier days it is not easy to say      
whether it be ,french or ,english1 or   
even whether ,french or ,italian4 ,but  
the distinctness comes later on4  ,in   
the fifteenth century the ,italian1     
,german1 ,french1 and ,english are quite
 distinct varieties4 ,towards the       
sixteenth the ,netherlandish is quite as
 distinct4 ,but the styles of ,spain1   
,bohemia1 ,hungary1 ,poland1 though     
possessing features which identify them 
to an experienced eye1 are to the       
ordinary spectator merely sub-varieties 
of ,netherlandish1 ,italian1 or ,german4
  ,with regard to the distinctions of   
schools or local centres within the same
 country1 the evidence of probable      
origin has to be corroborated by        
historic fact4 ,it is not safe without  
further proof than that afforded by     
general features to affirm that this or 

that ,,ms4 was executed at ,paris1      
,dijon1 ,amiens1 or ,limoges in ,france2
 or at ,ghent1 ,bruges1 or elsewhere in 
,flanders2 or whether a ,,ms4 be        
,rhenish or ,saxon1 ,bavarian or        
,westphalian1 in ,germany2 ,bolognese1  
,florentine1 ,siennese1 ,milanese1 or   
,neapolitan in ,italy2 or executed at   
,westminster1 ,st4 ,albans1 ,exeter1 or 
elsewhere in ,england4 ,nevertheless the
 special characteristics of all these   
schools are quite distinguishable4 ,in  
the attempt to distinguish them1        
although the diagnosis may be perfectly 
accurate1 the actual facts may be       
otherwise accounted for4 ,hence the     
danger to which even the experienced    
connoisseur is liable4 ,for example1    
certain ,,mss4 are written in a fine    
,bolognese hand1 which it is proved were
 actually executed in ,flanders2 others 
that one would feel sure were           
,netherlandish1 were illuminated in     
,spain4 ,some very fine typical ,flemish
 miniatures were painted in ,italy2     

certain ,florentine miniatures were the 
work of artists residing in ,rome4      
,milanese illumination is quite         
distinguishable from ,neapolitan1 and   
,venetian from both1 yet the school is  
not proof of the provenance4            
,illuminators1 like other craftsmen1    
travelled from city to city1 and princes
 employed men1 who resided in their     
patrons' palaces1 who yet had learned   
their art many leagues away4 ,how often 
we find the names of artists with the   
words ,dallemagna1 il ,tedesco1 le      
,poitevin1 ,veronese1 ,franco1 ,crovata1
 etc41 employed in ,italian houses1     
indicating the place of their nativity4 
,so that even when we know every feature
 of the work we have much to learn ere  
we can say with truth that it was       
executed in such and such a city4 ,we   
must take into account details which are
 liable to escape the ordinary observer1
 such as quality of vellum or paper1    
choice of pigments1 mode of application1
 and other particulars quite distinct   

from style of ornament or varieties of  
form in foliage4 ,in the ,fitzwilliam   
,library at ,cambridge is an ,italian   
,,ms41 the characteristics of whose     
ornamentation are unequivocally ,french1
 but whose mode of treatment shows not  
only that it is ,italian but that it is 
,milanese1 but whether executed in      
,milan or not is more than anyone can   
affirm4 ,in the ,british ,museum is a   
magnificent service-book called the     
,padua ,missal1 but the probability is  
that the ,paduan artist who painted its 
splendid pages1 painted them at ,venice4
 ,that it was executed for ,sta4        
,justina1 at ,padua1 is no proof that   
the work was done in that city4  ,in    
monastic times we have seen why the     
artist rarely signed his name4 ,after   
the thirteenth century the lay artist   
had no such scruples1 and hence we often
 find particulars of origin and purpose 
which explain all we wish to know4 ,but 
if the ,,mss4 themselves do not contain 
the particulars1 very often the         

account-books of cathedrals and other   
establishments for which the books were 
illuminated1 give the details of price  
and purpose1 and add the names of the   
artists4 ,the household expense books1  
guild books1 municipal records1 and the 
journals of the painters themselves are 
fertile sources of information4 ,and if 
we seek with sufficient diligence these 
will probably be the means by which it  
may eventually be found4     ,,chapter  
,,iii  ,,french ,,illumination ,,from   
,,the ,,thirteenth ,,century ,,to ,,the 
,,renaissance   ,ivy-leaf and chequered 
backgrounds--,occasional introduction of
 plain burnished gold--,reign of        
,charles ,,vi4 of ,france--,the ,dukes  
of ,orleans1 ,berry1 and ,burgundy2     
their prodigality and fine taste for    
,,mss4--,christine de ,pisan and her    
works--,description of her ,mutation of 
,fortune in the ,paris ,library--,the   
,roman de la ,rose and ,cit des         
,dames--,details of the ,french style of
 illumination--,burgundian ,,mss41      

,harl4 #ddca--,roy4 #ae ,e4 #f--,the    
,talbot ,romances--,gradual approach to 
,flemish on the one hand and ,italian on
 the other4   ,in addition to the       
expanding ivy leaf which forms the chief
 feature of fourteenth-century          
book-ornament1 we find the miniaturist  
as a further improvement adding delicate
 colour in the faces4 ,also that instead
 of the invariable lozenging or         
diapering of the background he          
occasionally makes a background of plain
 burnished gold4 ,and as if to prove    
that his predecessors were really       
hampered with the restrictions imposed  
by their imitations of painted glass1 he
 begins to try his best to paint up his 
miniatures into real pictures with high 
lights on draperies and shading upon the
 folds4 ,a certain amount of flatness1  
however1 still remains1 but it scarcely 
seems to have been the intention or aim 
of the painter4 ,there is a similar     
flatness in the work of all the early   
schools of painting1 which had no       

reference whatever to the destination of
 the picture4 ,see1 for instance1 the   
,origny ,treasure ,book in the ,print   
,room at ,berlin 7,,ms4 #ch71 and the   
,life of ,st4 ,denis in the ,national   
,library at ,paris 7,nos4 #bjij-b71 both
 ,,mss4 dating somewhere about #acae4   
,the drapery shading in the latter ,,ms4
 is no longer the work of the pen1 but  
brush-work in proper colour4 ,the       
,westreenen ,missal in the ,museum at   
the ,hague1 which dates about #acfe1    
though not a ,french ,,ms41 is an       
example of the fact that by the middle  
of the century the tradition of penwork 
outline and flat-colouring had become   
pretty nearly obsolete4  ,the reign of  
the afflicted ,charles ,,vi4 of ,france1
 disastrous in the extreme to the       
material welfare of his own subjects1   
full of untold misery to the poor1 and  
of oppression to the growing community  
of artisans and traders1 was            
nevertheless1 as regards literature and 
the arts1 a period of progress and even 

splendour4 ,the ,king's incapacity1 by  
affording his uncles and brothers       
opportunities for fingering the revenues
 during the self-appointed and          
irresponsible regencies1 enabled them to
 gratify their magnificent tastes in the
 purchasing of costly furniture and the 
ordering of splendid books4 ,louis of   
,orleans1 usually credited with the     
worst of this prodigality1 was by no    
means singular in his conduct4 ,his     
uncle1 the ,duke of ,berry1 while daily 
earning the execrations of the          
tax-payers by his unscrupulous          
employment of the public money1 was     
constantly enriching his library1 and   
both he and his brothers and nephews    
were in the habit of sending priceless  
volumes1 illuminated by the best        
artists1 as wedding and birthday gifts1 
to each other1 or their wives or        
acquaintances4 ,we talk1 and justly1 of 
the fine taste and noble love of        
literature of ,jean de ,berry4 ,his     
contemporaries1 at least those beneath  

his own rank1 looked upon him as a      
tyrant and plunderer4 ,his disastrous   
administration of ,languedoc was        
described as one long fte where the     
excess of expenditure was rivalled only 
by the excess of scandal4 ,if the       
marmousets could have hanged him they   
would4 ,in default they hanged his      
treasurer4  ,all this maladministration 
was very wrong1 but we cannot afford to 
burn the ,,mss4 in consequence1 for the 
,bible1 the ,grandes ,heures1 and other 
books once possessed by the wicked      
,duke1 are among the most precious      
relics of any age4 ,add to them the     
beautiful volumes of poetry and romance 
composing the contemporary literature of
 the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1
 and we have treasures that we dare not 
relinquish4  ,by the beginning of the   
fifteenth century pure ,french          
illumination was losing its own         
characteristics and acquiring others4   
,in the ,north1 in ,flanders and        
,brabant1 ,franche-,comt and the        

,burgundian ,dukedom generally1 it was  
becoming that peculiar kind of ,french  
which had received the name of          
,burgundian4 ,it can scarcely be said to
 be ,flemish enough to rank as          
,netherlandish1 yet neither can it stand
 side by side with ,french of ,paris4   
,let us look at a few examples4 ,there  
is the ,book of ,offices in the ,library
 of ,st4 ,genevive at ,paris 7,bibl4    
,lat4 #ff71 also the ,st4 ,augustine in 
the same library4 ,also a small crowd of
 volumes in the ,royal ,library at      
,brussels1 another in the ,national     
,library at ,paris4 ,one of the richest 
examples known is the ,psalter of the   
,convent of ,salem1 in the ,university  
,library at ,heidelberg4 ,other grand   
,,mss4 are the two volumes of the       
,mutacion de ,fortune of ,christine de  
,pisan and the ,cit des ,dames of the   
same authoress4 ,the volume of her      
poems1 etc41 in the ,british ,museum1 is
 a marvellously fine work 7,harl4       
#ddca74 ,the greater part of this volume

 is in the earlier or ,berry style1 i4e4
 the fine pen-sprays of ivy leaf of     
burnished gold4 ,but the first grand    
border is altogether transitional1      
consisting of the pen-sprays of golden  
ivy leaf alternating with sprays of     
natural flowers4 ,this innovation1 it   
has been said1 was due to the school of 
van ,eyck1 but as no proof is           
forthcoming that ,j4 van ,eyck ever     
worked on illuminating we may be content
 to say that it arose about #adac1 and  
that probably it came from ,bruges4 ,it 
is the beginning of the ,burgundian     
style4 ,but the ornamental leafage is   
different from ordinary ,brugeois1      
inasmuch as it is pearled along the     
central veins1 and is not symmetrical4  
,the pearling is perhaps a suggestion   
from glass painting4 ,it was very early 
adapted in ,german foliage work4 ,on the
 first fly-leaf are several signatures1 
including the name and device of ,louis 
,gruthuse3 ,plus est en vous ,gruthuse4 
,the miniatures still remain ,french    

with mostly panelled backgrounds1 some  
with landscape4 ,it is evidently a      
transitional document4  ,illustration3  
,,psalterm4 ,,et ,,officia #ad,,th      
,,cent4 ,brit4 ,mus4 ,harl4 ,,ms4 #bhig1
 fol4 #ahd  ,illustration3 ,,heures1    
,,etc4 #ad,,th ,,cent4 ,brit4 ,mus4     
,harl4 ,,ms4 #bieb1 fol4 #bb  ,the works
 of ,christine de ,pisan1 the           
popular--one may fairly say             
fashionable--authoress1 were perhaps    
among the best known and most widely    
read while ,caxton was setting up his   
press at ,westminster1 as she was among 
the most welcome guests at the ,courts  
of ,charles ,,vi4 and ,philip of        
,burgundy4 ,she was the daughter of a   
distinguished ,venetian savant1 ,thomas 
de ,pisan1 who had come at the          
invitation of ,charles le ,sage to      
,paris as ,astrologue du ,roi4 ,at the  
age of fifteen ,christine1 who was as   
beautiful as she was accomplished1      
became the wife of a ,picard gentleman  
named ,estienne ,castel4 ,two years     

afterwards the death of the ,king       
brought trouble upon her father1 and    
with it sickness and despondency4 ,then 
followed sorrow upon sorrow4 ,whilst she
 was herself still burdened with the    
cares of early motherhood her father    
died1 and within nine years from her    
marriage the sudden death from          
contagion1 of her husband1 to whom she  
was most fondly attached1 left her a    
widow with two little children dependent
 upon her1 and with only what she       
herself could earn as a means of        
livelihood4 ,she was not yet twenty-six 
years old4 ,to assuage her misery she   
betook herself to study and the         
composition of essays and poetry4 ,her  
works speedily brought her the          
recognition of distinguished personages2
 her children were provided for1 and she
 herself soon acquired both fortune and 
reputation4 ,charles ,,vi4 allowed her a
 pension1 and she composed for his      
,queen1 ,isabella of ,bavaria1 several  
important treatises4 ,among her numerous

 compositions were ,les cens ,histoires 
de ,troyes in verse1 ,le ,chemin de     
longue estude1 ,la ,mutacion de         
,fortune1 and a ,life of ,charles ,v41  
the latter composed at the request of   
,philip the ,good of ,burgundy4 ,but the
 work which sets off her wit and        
learning to the best advantage was an   
allegorical essay on ,womanhood1 which  
she called ,le ,trsor de la ,cit des    
,dames4 ,altogether her works include   
fifteen books and about sixty smaller   
writings1 which she dedicated to the    
,king and ,queen of ,france1 the ,dukes 
of ,burgundy and ,orleans1 and the      
princesses and princes of the ,court4   
,one beautifully illuminated copy of the
 ,mutation of ,fortune in two volumes is
 a curious example of its title1 for one
 volume of it is in the ,national       
,library at ,paris 7fonds fr4 #fjc7 and 
the other in the ,royal ,library at     
,munich4 ,in the former we have her     
portrait4 ,in a blue gown she sits at   
her writing-desk busy at her work4 ,on  

her head is the muslin-draped and       
high-peaked hennin4 ,beside her a table 
covered with a green cloth and laden    
with crimson and violet-bound books and 
an inkstand4 ,her chair has a high back1
 and the floor is of the usual kind seen
 in illuminations2 that is1 as if       
composed of a parquetry of coloured     
woodwork or of tiles of various kinds of
 marble4 ,on the sill of the            
,gothic-latticed window1 through which  
we catch a glimpse of the blue sky1     
stands a vase of flowers4 ,not perhaps  
an ideal lady's boudoir1 but still an   
apartment of taste1 and an altogether   
charming little picture4 ,in the second 
miniature of the ,munich volume         
,christine is standing in a chamber--in 
the same costume as above described4    
,the pictures on the walls are--a       
fortress1 a watchman1 two knights1 a    
prince with crown and sceptre1 seated on
 his throne1 surrounded by courtiers2 a 
duel2 and a martyr having his head      
struck off4 ,just such medival subjects 

as we may expect in a fifteenth-century 
mansion4  ,in a copy of the ,cit des    
,dames at ,munich is another portrait of
 ,christine4 ,the book is an ,apology   
for the feminine sex1 and it is well    
thought out4 ,it appears that the       
conversation of the time was not always 
free from rather severe sarcasm         
concerning the ladies4 ,we learn from   
,du ,verdier that the continuator of the
 ,romance of the ,rose narrowly escaped 
most condign chastisement from some of  
the insulted sex at the ,french ,court  
for the base insinuations in his poem   
against the character of women4         
,christine herself heartily disapproved 
of the ,romance of the ,rose1 and wrote 
a sharp criticism upon it4 ,her ,cit des
 ,dames is an elaborate confutation of  
the opinion that women are naturally    
more immoral and less capable of noble  
studies or high intellectual attainments
 than men4 ,in her introduction she     
says3 ,i reflected why men are so       
unanimous in attributing wickedness to  

women4 ,i examined my own life and those
 of other women to learn why we should  
be worse than men1 since we also were   
created by ,god4 ,i was sitting ashamed 
with bowed head and eyes blinded with   
tears1 resting my chin on my hands in my
 elbow-chair1 when a dazzling beam of   
,light flashed before me1 which came not
 from the sun1 for it was late in the   
evening4 ,i glanced up and saw standing 
before me three female figures wearing  
crowns of gold1 and with radiant        
countenances4 ,i crossed myself1        
whereupon one of the three addressed me4
 ',fear not1 dear daughter1 for we will 
counsel and help thee4 ,the aphorisms of
 the ,philosophers are not ,articles of 
,faith1 but simply the mists of error   
and self-deception4' ,the three ladies  
or goddesses are ,fame1 ,prudence1 and  
,justice1 and they command ,christine   
under the supervision of ,reason 7or    
,commonsense7 to build a city for the   
noblest and best of her own sex4 ,so the
 city was begun1 and the elect1         

allegorically1 let into it4 ,in varied  
ranks following one another came        
goddesses and saintly women1 ,christian 
and heathen women--among them walks as  
leader the ,queen of the ,amazons4      
,queen ,ceres1 who taught the art and   
practice of agriculture4 ,queen ,isis1  
who first led mankind to the cultivation
 of plants4 ,arachne1 who invented the  
arts of dyeing1 weaving1 flax-growing1  
and spinning4 ,damphile1 who discovered 
how to breed silkworms4 ,queen ,tomyris1
 who vanquished ,cyrus4 ,the noble      
,sulpicia1 who shared her husband's     
exile1 and many others1 among whom may  
be seen ,dame ,sarah1 the wife of       
,abraham1 ,penelope1 ,ruth1 and the     
,saints ,katharine1 ,margaret1 ,lucia1  
and ,dorothea4 ,in the first miniature  
on the left sits ,christine with a coif 
upon her head and a great book on her   
lap2 on her left hand is the plan of her
 new city1 while opposite stand the     
three ladies already spoken of as her   
advisers1 furnished with building tools 

and giving her their advice4 ,on the    
right she appears again in elegant      
costume with hewn stones and a trowel   
assisted by two workmen who are busily  
at work4 ,before her is an unfinished   
wall and several completed towers4 ,in  
two other miniatures the gradual        
progress and entire completion of the   
city are shown1 and in the foreground of
 each ,christine and her three          
patronesses as before4 ,other examples  
deserving of extended notice are the    
,shrewsbury ,romances 7,roy4 #ae ,e4 #f7
 and ,augustine1 ,cit de ,dieu 7,roy4   
#ad ,d4 #a71 two great folios1 the      
former most interesting for its         
miniatures--the latter as a fair example
 of the rougher kind of ,lille work1    
bold in design1 good drawing4 ,the      
choice of colours includes marone1 blue1
 green1 and gold4 ,the ornaments1 as    
usual1 consist of sprays of ivy leaf and
 grounds filled in with treillages of   
natural flowers1 among which are the    
daisy1 viola tricolor1 thistle1         

cornbottle1 and wild stock4 ,fruits and 
vegetables also1 as grapes1 field peas1 
and strawberries4 ,the miniatures       
include a few rather coarse grisailles4 
,a little volume 7,harl4 #bicf7 contains
 exquisitely drawn ,brugeois scrolls in 
monochrome on grounds of the same colour
 or plain gold or black4 ,lastly we may 
mention ,les ,heures de la ,dame de     
,saluces1 otherwise called the ,yemeniz 
,hours1 in the ,british ,museum 7,add4  
#bgifg71 a large octavo1 as an example  
of transitional ,burgundian4 ,here the  
secondary borders have mostly the       
penwork ivy leaf with ,brugeois corners 
and with strawberries1 etc41 in the     
midst of the sprays4 ,among the foliages
 grotesque figures frequently appear4   
,the principal pages1 however1 are more 
like ,harl4 #ddca1 yet without the      
ivy-leaf tendrils4 ,the miniatures are  
still ,gothic1 but richer and deeper in 
colour than ordinary ,french work4 ,it  
would appear that two different artists 
were employed--one decidedly ,french1   

the other ,netherlandish1 and of a more 
individual character1 still with ,french
 accessories4 ,every page has a border  
of some kind4 ,among the flowers the    
thistle is peculiar in having a golden  
cup next the down4 ,the work generally  
resembles1 in some parts1 #ddca ,harl42 
in others1 and perhaps more strongly1   
#ae ,e4 #f4 ,the colours are chiefly    
blue1 scarlet1 rose-pink1 green1 and    
gold4  ,we have now pretty nearly worked
 our way into ,flemish illumination4    
,the after-history of ,french as        
developed through the influence of      
,italy on the schools of ,paris and     
,tours must have a chapter to itself4   
,,chapter ,,iv  ,,english ,,illumination
 ,,from ,,the ,,tenth ,,to ,,the        
,,fifteenth ,,century  ,organisation of 
the ,monastic scriptoria--,professional 
outsiders3 lay artists--,the whole      
sometimes the work of the same          
practitioner--,the ,winchester ,abbeys  
of ,st4 ,swithun's and ,hyde--,their    
vicissitudes--,st4                      

,alban's--,westminster--,royal ,,ms4 #b 
,a4 #bb--;,description of style--,the   
,tenison ,psalter--,features of this    
period--,the ,arundel ,psalter--,hunting
 and shooting scenes1 and               
games--,characteristic pictures1        
grotesques1 and caricatures--,queen     
,mary's ,psalter--,rapid changes under  
,richard ,,ii4--,royal ,,ms4 #a ,e4     
#i--,their cause4   ,in a former chapter
 we left our native schools of          
illumination at work on such ,,mss4 as  
the ,devonshire and ,rouen              
,benedictionals1 and with the reputation
 of being the best schools of the kind  
in ,christendom4 ,mention also is made  
elsewhere in dealing with monastic art  
of the usages of the scriptoria4 ,such  
usages1 of course1 could only obtain in 
houses where scribes themselves were to 
be had4 ,hence we should discover1 were 
it not otherwise known1 that writing and
 illumination1 even in the monastic age1
 were not confined absolutely to the    
cloister4  ,with respect to the secular 

scribes1 who sometimes worked in the    
monastery1 sometimes at their own homes1
 in those days when the monastic orders 
still did most of the book-production1  
there were three classes of specialists4
 ,these were the ,librarii or ordinary  
copyists2 the ,notarii or law-scribes1  
whose business lay in copying deeds1    
charters1 and such-like instruments1 and
 taking notes in the courts2 and        
,paginators or ,illuminatores4 ,it      
sometimes happened1 as we have said1    
that in some monastery or other1 no     
monastic was found qualified to         
undertake any of these duties4 ,it then 
fell to the prior or abbat to seek the  
assistance of professional outsiders4   
,the paging and rubrication1 putting in 
initials in the spaces left by the      
common scribe1 and1 if needed1 the      
addition of pictures or marginal        
drawings and ornaments1 caricatures1    
heraldic illustrations1 etc41 were the  
proper work of the illuminator1 but it  
often happened that the same man had to 

do the whole work from the commencement 
to the finish4 ,the ,chronicon          
,trudonense tells us3 ,graduale unum    
propria manu formavit1 purgavit1 pinxit1
 sulcabit1 scripsit1 illuminavit1       
musiceque notavit syllabatim4 ,several  
of our old ,english chronicles1 of which
 the ,,mss4 exist in the ,british       
,museum and elsewhere1 seem to be of    
this description4  ,reference has been  
made to the scriptoria at ,winchester1  
i4e4 at ,st4 ,swithun's and the ,new    
,minster4 ,it is the latter foundation  
which is usually referred to in speaking
 of ,winchester work4 ,the ,monastery of
 the ,holy ,trinity or the ,new ,minster
 was founded in the first year of his   
reign by ,king ,edward1 son of ,alfred1 
no doubt in obedience to his father's   
wish1 if not absolutely in the terms of 
his will4 ,its first charter is dated   
#ijj 7for #ija7 and the second in #ijc4 
,in the latter document the abbey is    
spoken of as dedicated to the ,holy     
,trinity1 the ,blessed ,virgin ,mary1   

and to ,st4 ,peter1 and is amply endowed
 under the ,augustinian ,rule4 ,in #ife1
 not without trouble and resistance1 it 
was converted into a ,benedictine abbey4
 ,in #ifh ,ethelgar1 who had been       
trained at ,glastonbury and ,abingdon1  
became abbat1 and from this time the    
,new ,minster became famous for both    
discipline and the production of ,,mss4 
,as we walk along the ,high ,street of  
,winchester now we find the story in    
moss-grown stones or other memorials    
how1 among other methods1 ,william the  
,norman punished the monks for their    
,english warlike proclivities by walling
 them up nearly close to their church   
with the walls of his royal palace4 ,in 
the old time1 when the two monasteries  
stood side by side--,st4 ,swithun's is  
close behind the ,new ,minster--so      
closely packed together1 says the old   
chronicler1#cg were the two communities 
of ,st4 ,swithun and ,st4 ,peter that   
between the foundation of their         
respective buildings there was barely   

room for a man to pass along4 ,the      
choral service of one monastery         
conflicted with that of the other1 so   
that both were spoiled1 and the ringing 
of their bells together produced a      
horrid discord4 ,the result of this was1
 first the above-mentioned hemming in of
 the younger establishment and          
eventually its migration to another site
 in ,hyde ,meadow4 ,here while the      
monastic buildings suffered much through
 fires and other disasters1 the ,rule   
remained until #aech1 when it was       
surrendered into the ,king's hands1 and 
the abbat1 prior1 and nineteen monks1   
the last survivors of this once-famous  
foundation1 were pensioned4  #cg        
,dugdale1 ,monasticon4  ,the scriptorium
 at ,st4 ,alban's1 to which the fame of 
book production in the ,middle ,ages    
very largely reverted1 was not founded  
until nearly three centuries after the  
foundation of that abbey4 ,the library  
began with twenty-eight notable volumes1
 and eight ,psalters1 a book of         

collects1 another of epistles1 and      
,evangelia legenda per annum1 two       
,gospel-books bound in gold and silver  
and set with gems1 together with other  
necessary volumes for ordinary use4     
,almost every succeeding abbat          
contributed something to the library    
shelves4 ,geoffrey1 the sixteenth abbat1
 a ,norman who once had a school at     
,dunstable1 and who was both a popular  
and liberal ruler1 enriched the library 
with a ,missal bound in gold1 another   
incomparably illuminated and beautifully
 written1 and also a ,psalter richly    
illuminated1 a ,benedictional1 and      
others4 ,his successor1 ,ralph ,gubiun1 
also gave a number of ,,mss4 ,robert de 
,gosham1 the next abbat1 gave very many 
books1 which he had caused to be written
 and sumptuously bound for the purpose4 
,and ,abbat ,simon1 who followed in     
#aaff1 created the office of            
historiographer to the abbey1 repaired  
and enlarged the scriptorium1 and kept  
two or three of the cleverest writers   

constantly employed in transcription1   
and ordained that for the future every  
abbat should maintain at least one      
suitable and capable scribe4 ,among the 
many choice ,,mss4 added by ,abbat      
,simon was a beautiful copy of the      
,bible specially written with the       
greatest care and exactness4 ,in        
addition he presented the library with  
all his own precious collection4        
,another liberal benefactor was ,john de
 ,cell1 a man of vast learning in       
grammar and poetry1 and also a          
practitioner in medicine4 ,being unfit  
for household management1 he committed  
the secular affairs of the abbey to his 
prior ,reymund1 by whose zeal many noble
 and valuable books were transcribed for
 the library4 ,and so grew in magnitude 
and importance the great collection     
which supplied ,roger of ,wendover and  
,matthew ,paris with materials for their
 famous histories4 ,st4 ,alban's1       
indeed1 was at one period perhaps the   
most noted of all the ,english centres  

of book production4 ,to dilate on other 
centres1 such as ,westminster1 ,exeter1 
,worcester1 ,norwich1 or ,york1 would   
lead us too far afield for a mere       
handbook like the present4 ,enough has  
been said to give a good idea of what   
our ,english abbats and priors were in  
the habit of doing for art and letters4 
,illustration3 ,,psalterium ,,cum       
,,canticis ,a4,d4 #abdj ,brit4 ,mus4    
,roy4 ,,ms4 #b1 ,a4 xxii1 fol4 #ad      
,illustration3 ,,epistre ,,au ,,roy     
,,rich4 #b ,c4 #acge ,brit4 ,mus4 ,roy4 
,,ms4 #bj ,b1 vi1 fol4 #a  ,since #ihj a
 considerable quantity of transcription 
and illumination must have been         
produced1 notwithstanding disquiet1     
turbulence1 and war4 ,at ,westminster   
the traditions of illumination seem to  
have followed the methods of the earlier
 ,winchester school4 ,but in the twelfth
 century ,english work shows1 on the    
whole1 a greater likeness to the        
contemporary work of ,germany4 ,of      
,westminster work an example occurs     

among the ,royal ,,mss4 7#b ,a4 #bb74   
,the subject is the ,psalter1 and the   
text is the handsome style of penmanship
 known as ,english ,gothic of the latter
 part of the twelfth century4 ,it would 
appear from the frequent occurrence of  
this particular service-book that it    
held the place of the later ,book of    
,hours1 and so we may expect a great    
similarity among different copies1 both 
in the selection of the illustrations   
and their mode of treatment4 ,it was    
usual in all such volumes to prefix to  
the text a series of subjects from the  
,old and ,new ,testaments and the ,lives
 of the ,saints4 ,here we have them from
 the ,life of the ,virgin and from the  
,life of ,david1 by no means unworthy   
samples of the school4 ,one represents  
the ,virgin and ,child seated on a seat 
of the ,germano-,byzantine type beneath 
an arch and within a square             
frame-border4 ,the border seems first to
 have been flatly painted in two        
colours1 pale blue and pale red ochre1  

and on this a foliage scroll of         
recurring forms in a bold dull red      
outline finely relieved with white4     
,this is more or less repeated as the   
form of border to the other             
illuminations4 ,outside the whole is a  
characteristic slender frame of bright  
green in two tints4 ,the arch overhead  
has two bands of vermilion1 with white  
edge-reliefs and a central band of blue1
 again in two tints1 with pairs of black
 cross-bars every half-inch or so       
resting on the capitals of the two      
pillars which form the sides of the     
scene4 ,these pillars have each a green 
abacus at the top of each capital and   
scarlet bead below4 ,each pillar is of  
dappled red1 marble-like porphyry1 with 
plinths of scarlet and blue4 ,tiers of  
differently coloured steps separated by 
bands of scarlet1 green1 etc41 form the 
seat4 ,the ,virgin wears the hood1 cape1
 and robe of the ,benedictine nun1 but  
coloured grey1 chocolate1 and blue      
respectively4 ,an under garment of pale 

amber completes her dress4 ,the infant  
wears an amber tunic1 wrapped in a      
scarlet robe4 ,a very common embroidery 
of the drapery consists of little stars 
or triads of white studs4 ,this also is 
a characteristic of ,german and early   
,netherlandish illumination4 ,there is a
 rich gold brocade border to the blue   
robe of the ,virgin4 ,both mother and   
child have round nimbuses1 the former in
 plain circular bands of russet and     
orange1 the latter consisting of bands  
of pale blue surmounted by a scarlet    
cross4 ,two lumps of green glass or     
metal hang from the arch4 ,the          
background is a plate of gold4 ,the     
flesh tones are livid1 being of a pale  
greenish ochre tint4 ,one other of the  
illuminations of this exceedingly       
interesting ,,ms4 may be mentioned1 viz4
 the ,david playing his harp4 ,he also  
wears three garments--a tunic of white  
shaded with pale blue1 then another of  
lavender or lilac and having rich       
brocaded borders1 and1 lastly1 a pallium

 or robe of pale chocolate lined with   
ermine2 orange-coloured hose4 ,the      
throne1 like the previous one1 is of    
several colours--slate-blue1 green1     
orange1 and white1 with a buff cushion4 
,here is a back to the throne of a deep 
blue1 with a background1 as before1 of  
bright flat gold4 ,the white moulding is
 shaded with pale green1 with bluish    
slate corners4 ,the outer border is of  
the pale red ochre or pink1 so common in
 later work in contrast with deep blue4 
,an outer frame or edging of green      
completes the page4 ,the harp is not    
gilded1 but of a drab hue1 with two     
quatrefoil studs or orifices in the     
frame1 relieved as usual with fine edges
 of white4 ,compare this ,,ms4 with one 
in the ,library at ,lambeth4  ,the      
,english illumination of the thirteenth 
century is so like that of ,france that 
it is often difficult to determine its  
real nationality4 ,there is occasionally
 some feature which we know from other  
sources to be ,english1 or some         

circumstance in the history of the ,,ms4
 which fixes its origin1 as1 for        
example1 in the ,additional ,,ms4       
#bdfhf1 known as the ,tenison ,psalter4 
,sir ,e4,m4 ,thompson also describes    
this ,,ms4 in the ,bibliographica1 i4   
#cig4 ,but it was previously described  
at some length by ,sir ,edward ,bond in 
the ,fine ,arts ,quarterly ,review4 ,the
 ,psalter1 which has had a somewhat     
eventful history1 is one of the best    
examples of ,english thirteenth-century 
illumination4 ,at least1 this may be    
said of the early portion of it1 for    
while it is illuminated throughout1 only
 the first gathering is in the earlier  
manner4 ,the peculiar value to the      
student lies in the fact that although  
quite in the same style as contemporary 
,french work1 it is the work of an      
,english illuminator4 ,the colouring1   
however1 is not confined1 as in somewhat
 earlier examples1 to blue and dull pale
 rose or paled red ochre and gold4 ,it  
gives us scarlet1 crimson-lake1 green1  

and brown1 besides the blue and pink and
 bright gold which suggests some ,german
 influences4 ,the line fillings are     
somewhat peculiar as having silver      
tracery1 on the blue1 side by side with 
golden tracery on the crimson4 ,the full
 ivy leaf appears in the long branch    
work of the borders1 and some of the    
initials still retain the bird or dragon
 forms in their construction4 ,the      
compound bar-frame1 gold and traceried  
colour side by side1 is however already 
taking the place of the mere sweeping   
tail or branch4 ,but perhaps the best   
indication of ,english design is the    
presence of a number of grotesque       
animals1 with birds and occasional      
humorous scenes disposed1 not in framed 
miniatures1 but simply among the stems  
and coils of the foliage4 ,this is a    
form of illustration much appreciated by
 ,english illuminators at all times1    
though it appears also in much          
continental work4 ,among other ,english 
,,mss4 which display this taste we may  

point out ,arund4 #hc1 which among many 
other treatises and curious             
compositions1 such as the ,turris       
,sapienti and a valuable calendar1 in   
which are notes on the ,arundels of     
,wemme1 contains a psalter with anthems1
 etc41 and hence is known as the        
,arundel ,psalter4 ,its date is probably
 between #accj and #achj4  ,the         
drolleries are very funny1 and the other
 illuminations very instructive and     
curious4 ,some of them contain really   
good pen-drawing--refined1 expressive1  
and graceful1 but above all typical of  
,english draughtsmanship4 ,in a little  
scene of the adoration of the ,magi     
7folio #abe7 the kings are costumed like
 our ,henry ,,iii41 as we find him 'n   
sculpture1 wall paintings1 etc4 ,over a 
very expressive picture of the three    
living and the three dead occur the     
lines1 each over a figure3 ,ich am afert
 ,lo wet ich se ,methinketh hit beth    
deueles thre4 ,ich wes welfair ,such    
scheltou be ,for godes loue be wer by me

 7folio #abh74ch ,the three living in   
this illumination are three fashionable 
ladies--no doubt princesses1 for they   
wear crowns4 ,generally they are men1 as
 at ,lutterworth in the sculptures over 
the door1 and in the famous fresco of   
,gozzoli at ,pisa4 ,the subject occurs  
sometimes in ,books of ,hours4  #ch ,i  
am afraid4 ,lo1 what ,i see ,methinketh 
it be devils three4 ,i was well fair4   
,such shalt thou be4 ,for love of ,god  
beware by me4  ,many ,,mss4 of this     
period and later have hunting scenes1   
shooting practice1 and games4  ,in ,,ms4
 #bfd1 ,misc41 ,bodl4 ,lib41 ,oxford1   
there are such scenes1 one being a game 
at ,blind ,man's ,buff1 or as literally 
here ,hoodman ,blind1 for the latter    
actually wear a hood drawn down over his
 head and shoulders1 and three girls are
 having a fine game with him4 ,the      
goldfinch or linnet looking on from the 
border seems to enjoy the fun4 ,another 
fine source of similar things is the    
,louterell ,psalter in the ,british     

,museum4 ,in this also are some richly  
diapered backgrounds and exquisite      
border bands4 ,this ,,ms4 dates about   
#acdj4 ,but the gem of ,english         
fourteenth-century illumination is the  
,royal ,,ms4 7#b ,c4 #g7 called ,queen  
,mary's ,psalter1 not as being painted  
for her1 since it had been painted      
nearly two centuries before she ever saw
 it4 ,but in the year 787 #aeec1 being  
about to be sent abroad1 it was stopped 
by a customs officer and presented to   
,queen ,mary ,tudor4 ,it is bound in    
what appears to be the binding put on it
 by the ,queen--i4e4 crimson velvet     
embroidered on each cover with a large  
pomegranate1 and having gilt corner     
protections and 7once upon a time7      
golden clasps4 ,the clasps are gone1 but
 the plates remain riveted on the       
covers1 engraven with the ,tudor badges4
 ,the ,,ms4 contains #cbj large octavo  
leaves1 the first fifty-six being taken 
up with illuminated illustrations of    
biblical history from the ,creation to  

the death of ,solomon4 ,these pictures  
are arranged in pairs one over the      
other1 and to each one is given a       
description in ,french1 taken sometimes 
from the canonical text1 sometimes from 
an apocryphal one4 ,the drawings are    
really exquisite1 they are so fine1 so  
delicately yet so cleverly sketched4    
,they are not coloured in full          
body-colours1 but just suggestively1 the
 draperies being washed over in thin    
tints1 the folds well defined1 but      
lightly shaded4 ,next after these       
subjects follows the ,psalter with      
miniatures of ,new ,testament scenes and
 figures of saints accompanied with most
 beautiful initials and ornaments1      
illuminated by a thoroughly practised   
hand1 for the artist of this volume was 
by no means a novice at his work4 ,a    
good example of it is given in          
,bibliographica1 pl4 #g #bc1 which forms
 the frontispiece to vol4 i41 and one or
 two outlines in the folio catalogue of 
the ,arundel ,,mss4  ,arund4 ,,ms4 #hd  

is also a good example of               
thirteenth-century illumination to a    
rather unpromising subject1 being a     
,latin translation of ,euclid from the  
,arabic by ,athelard of ,bath4 ,it is   
illustrated with diagrams4  ,speaking of
 fourteenth-century illumination brings 
us to notice a very striking change     
which takes place in the reign of       
,richard ,,ii4 in the character of      
,english illumination4 ,in the ,british 
,museum 7,roy4 #bj ,b4 #f7 is a ,,ms4   
entitled an ,epistle to ,richard ,,ii41 
written1 it is said1 in ,paris1 in which
 the illuminations and foliages are     
purely ,french1 but which are the type  
of all the ,english work of the same    
date4 ,take1 for example1 the ,,ms4     
already spoken of 7,roy4 #b ,a4 #bb71   
produced in the scriptorium at          
,westminster ,abbey4 ,compare with it a 
,bible written for the use of           
,salisbury1 and dated #abed4 ,then add  
the ,tenison ,psalter1 the ,arundel     
,psalter1 illuminated #acaj-bj4 ,if     

these ,,mss4 be compared1 however1 with 
,lansd4 #dea1 or ,roy4 #a ,e4 #i1 the   
least accustomed eye must notice the    
entire and almost startling change in   
the luxuriance and character of the     
flowers and foliages which constitute   
the initial and border decorations4 ,it 
is not merely a development4 ,there are 
additional features1 but that these     
features are added1 as usual1 from      
,france1 is contradicted by reference to
 ,roy4 #bj ,b4 #f1 mentioned above4 ,the
 new features are not ,french4 ,the     
question is1 where did they come from8  
,,chapter ,v  ,,the ,,sources ,,of      
,,english ,,fifteenth-,,century         
,,illumination  ,attributed to the      
,netherlands--,not altogether           
,french--,the home of ,anne of ,bohemia1
 ,richard ,,ii4's queen--,court of      
,charles ,,iv4 at ,prag--,bohemian      
,art--,john of ,luxembourg1 ,king of    
,bohemia--,the ,golden ,bull of ,charles
 ,,iv4--,marriage of ,richard           
,,ii4--,the transformation of ,english  

work owing to this marriage and the     
arrival of ,bohemian artists in         
,england--,influence of ,queen ,anne on 
,english ,art and                       
,literature--,depression caused by her  
death--,examination of ,roy4 ,,ms4 #a   
,e4 #i1 and #b ,a4 #ah--,the ,grandison 
,hours--,other ,,mss4--,introduction of 
,flemish work by ,edward ,,iv4   ,it has
 been suggested by a high authority that
 the immediate sources of the third     
period of ,english illumination were    
,netherlandish1 but probable as this    
seems at first sight1 there is another  
explanation which seems to the present  
writer to be a better one4 ,as already  
pointed out1 the influence on ,english  
work before #acgg1 notwithstanding      
political conditions1 are distinctly    
,french4 ,after this date1 though the   
artistic relation with ,france is not   
broken off1 yet long before #acij we    
find this new influence which is not    
,french1 and for which we have no       
special evidence that it is             

,netherlandish4 ,if we go1 however1 a   
little farther afield1 we shall find it4
 ,in the new work is a softer kind of   
foliage and a greater variety of sweet  
colour1 and both these characteristics  
are found in a school of illumination   
that was being formed under the auspices
 of the ,emperor ,charles ,,iv4 at ,prag
 in ,bohemia4 ,the artists in that      
capital who executed the famous ,golden 
,bull and commenced the grand ,wenzel   
,bible were a select band of ,frenchmen 
and ,italians2 the combined result of   
whose designs and labours was this very 
mixture of ,gothic ivy leaf and thorn   
with the softer ,othonian and ,roman    
foliages and a new scheme of colour4    
,charles ,,iv41 son of that famous ,john
 of ,luxembourg1 the blind king of      
,bohemia1 who perished at ,crcy1 was    
himself ,king of ,bohemia as well as    
,emperor1 and a man of brilliant        
personal accomplishments and cultivated 
tastes in literature and art4  ,becoming
 ,emperor the very next year after his  

succession to the throne of ,bohemia1 he
 fixed his residence at ,prag1 where he 
began the building of the new city1 and 
founded a university on the model of    
that of ,paris1 where he had studied1   
and whence he had married his first     
wife1 ,blanche1 daughter of ,charles1   
,count of ,valois4 ,his university soon 
attracted some thousands of students1   
and with them no small crowd of literary
 men and artists1 both from ,france and 
,italy4 ,the great fact1 however1 to    
remember about ,charles ,,iv4 is the    
,golden ,bull1 the masterly scheme by   
which all matters concerning the        
election to the ,empire were in future  
to be settled4 ,all the ,constitutions  
were written in a book called1 from the 
bulla or seal of gold which was appended
 to it1 the ,golden ,bull1 of which the 
text was drawn up either at ,metz or    
,nuremberg in #acef1 and many copies    
distributed throughout the ,empire4 ,it 
is further affirmed that the absolute   
original is at ,frankfort4 ,but the     

splendid copy made by order of the      
,emperor ,wenzel in #adjj is still      
preserved in the ,imperial ,library at  
,vienna4 ,and as it is ah example of the
 style of illumination practised in     
,prag during the reign of ,charles      
,,iv41 we may call it ,bohemian4 ,it is 
true that the foliages are a little more
 luxuriant in this ,wenzel-book than in 
the earliest examples of the style seen 
in ,england1 but the twenty years which 
had elapsed would easily account for    
this difference4 ,as compared1 however1 
with either ,french or ,netherlandish1  
the new ,english style shows a much     
greater similarity to the work then     
being done in ,lower ,bavaria4 ,in these
 soft curling foliages and the fresh    
carnations of the flesh-tints of the    
,prag and ,nuremberg illuminators we may
 trace the actual source of the         
remarkable transformation seen in       
,english illumination after the marriage
 of ,richard ,,ii4  ,charles ,,iv4 was  
four times married4 ,his successor1     

,wenzel1 whose ghastly dissipations can 
only be regarded as the terrible proofs 
of insanity1 was the child of his third 
wife4 ,his fourth wife1 the beautiful   
daughter of the ,duke of ,pomerania and 
,stettin1 had four children1 of whom    
,sigismund1 the eldest1 afterwards      
succeeded ,wenzel as emperor1 and ,anne1
 the third1 came to ,england as the wife
 of ,richard ,,ii4 ,the magnificence of 
her equipage and the crowd of persons   
who formed her retinue are noticed by   
contemporary writers1 and the effect    
upon ,english manners was instantaneous4
 ,her beauty1 sweetness of manners1 and 
culture rendered her at once not merely 
the idol of her husband1 who1 says      
,walsingham1 could scarcely bear her to 
be out of his sight1 but universally    
beloved by all the ,english nation4  ,to
 her the first ,english writer on       
heraldry1 ,john of ,guildford dedicated 
his book1 and the artists who came with 
her from her luxurious home at ,prag    
would naturally become the leaders of   

taste in their adopted country4 ,after a
 while1 indeed1 the numbers of          
countrymen of the ,queen were looked    
upon as the cause of extortions         
practised on the ,english people in     
order to supply the money lavished on   
these foreigners4 ,more than once is    
this grievance referred to4 ,in an old  
,,ms4 in the ,harley ,library 7#bbfa71  
containing a fifteenth-century          
translation of ,higden's ,polychronicon1
 these foreigners are made responsible  
for at least one fashionable            
extravagance3 ,anne qwene of ,ynglonde  
dyede in this year 7#acic7 at ,schene   
the viith day of the monethe of ,janius1
 on the day of ,pentecoste3 the dethe of
 whom the ,kynge sorowede insomoche that
 he causede the maner there to be       
pullede downe1 and wolde not comme in   
eny place by oon yere folowynge where   
sche hade be1 the churche excepte2      
whiche was beryede in the churche of    
,westmonastery1 in the feste of seynte  
,anne nexte folowynge1 with grete       

honoure and solennite4 ,that qwene ,anne
 purchased of the pope that the feste of
 ,seynte ,anne scholde be solenniysed in
 ,ynglonde4 ,the dethe of this qwene    
,anne induced grete hevynesse to noble  
men and to commune peple also1 for sche 
causede noo lytelle profite to the      
realme4 ,but mony abusions comme from   
,boemia into ,englonde with this qwene1 
and specially schoone with longe pykes1 
insomoche that they cowthe not go       
untylle that thei were tyede to theire  
legges1 usenge that tyme cheynes of     
silvyr at the pykes of theire schoone4  
,it is a fact that the ,bohemian manner 
of illumination1 with its three-lobed   
and vari-coloured foliages1 became the  
fashion in every ,english centre of     
illumination4 ,in the preceding remarks 
we have endeavoured to account for it4  
,that the same style went from ,prag to 
,nuremberg may be only the natural      
result of its being carried in the      
marriage and retinue of the ,princess   
,margaret1 ,anne's half-sister1 who     

became the wife of the ,burggrave ,john4
  ,quite a similar ,,ms4 to those       
executed in the reign of ,richard ,,ii4 
in ,england and those of ,bohemia is the
 ,wilhelm van ,oransse of ,wolfram v4   
,eschenbach1 now in the ,imperial       
,library at ,vienna4 ,a similar1 but    
inferior1 work exists in the            
,prayer-book written by ,josse de       
,weronar in the ,british ,museum 7,add4 
#aefij74 ,the ,english foliages never   
show quite all the varieties of colour  
seen in the continental examples1 but   
the golden diapers and pounced gold     
patterns are quite as elaborate4 ,see   
this work1 however1 in ,arundel #hc4 ,it
 appears also in the mural paintings of 
the end of the fourteenth and beginning 
of the fifteenth centuries4 ,no doubt   
the ,english art of the fourteenth      
century is of ,french origin--so mainly 
is that of ,bohemia--for ,charles ,,iv4 
was brought up at the ,court of ,france4
 ,further than this1 we think we are    
justified in tracing the new elements in

 ,bohemian to ,italy1 and those in      
,english to ,bohemia4 ,the most striking
 proof is not only the foliages1 but the
 change from the long1 colourless faces 
of ,french miniatures to the plump and  
ruddy countenances seen1 for example1 in
 the ,lancastrian ,,mss4 in the ,record 
,office and in ,harl4 #gjbfci of the    
,british ,museum4 ,of course1 this      
suggestion of source is not put forward 
as a dead certainty1 but it affords this
 probability that as the style suddenly 
arose during the lifetime of ,anne of   
,bohemia--and she was the acknowledged  
leader of fashion--so her tastes in     
respect of illuminated books and        
heraldic decoration would become those  
of her new subjects4 ,let us examine    
this fifteenth-century ,english work1   
and for this purpose let us take the    
great illuminated ,bible in the ,royal  
,library1 #a ,e4 #i4 ,it is an enormous 
folio1 and rather unwieldly1 but a most 
interesting example of the new style4   
,its initials are large1 richly         

illuminated in gold and attractive      
colours4 ,it has well-executed histories
 within the initials1 and boldly        
designed border frames1 elegantly       
adorned with foliages and conventional  
or idealised flowers4 ,perhaps the most 
noticeable feature is the beautiful1    
decorative foliage work in the limbs of 
the letters--itself a ,south ,german    
peculiarity--then the alternation of    
colours without interrupting the design1
 the profusion of foliage modelling in  
the backgrounds of the letter panels    
outside the historiations4 ,the next    
thing is the bold use of minium side by 
side even with pure rose-petal colour1  
pale bright cerulean blue1 and bright   
gold4 ,lastly1 the immense variety of   
leaf-forms1 based on the three1 five1   
and seven-lobed groupings of the typical
 form4 ,the coil and spiral are freely  
used as the groundwork1 and the colours 
alternated as the coils or spirals      
change from front to back of the leaf4  
#ci ,the ,lovell ,psalter4              

,illustration3 ,,missale 7,,sarum ,,use7
 #ad,,th ,,cent4 7,,late7 ,brit4 ,mus4  
,harl4 ,,ms4 #bghe1 fol4 #aid v4        
,illustration3 ,,hor ,e4 ,,mar4         
,,viesis4 #ae,,th ,,cent4 7,,early7     
,brit4 ,mus4 ,roy4 ,ms4 #b1 ,a4 xviii1  
fol4 #ee  ,backgrounds of miniature     
histories are treated as in the         
,bohemian ,,mss4--,wilhelm v4 ,oransse1 
for example--that is1 with fine golden  
tracery-patterns on deep1 rich colours4 
,the figure-painting is vastly          
improved--the features now being        
actually painted and modelled as in     
modern portrait painting1 not merely    
indicated by pen strokes4 ,the          
flesh-tints as previously noticed are   
bright and ruddy4 ,the principal colours
 used on the foliages are blue1 crimson1
 of various depths1 and bright          
vermilion1 with occasional admission of 
bright green and paled red ochre4 ,very 
similar to #a ,e4 #i is ,harl4 #ahib1   
and among other ,,mss4 that may be      
studied with this one is #b ,a4 #ah--;a 

book of ,offices1 very sweetly          
illuminated1 and full of typical        
examples of treatment both of           
architectural design and treillages of  
foliage4  ,the ,gothic pilasters are    
filled with the same kind of coiling and
 spiral leaves and ribbons that are used
 in #a ,e4 #i and ,harl4 #ahib1 the     
backgrounds of the miniatures enriched  
with fine gold patterns4 ,the furniture 
and costumes indicate the later years of
 the reign of ,richard ,,ii41 being     
similar to those shown in the miniatures
 of ,harl4 #acai1 which relates the     
story of ,richard's misfortunes4 ,a few 
miniatures of saints accompany the      
prayers to them4 ,one of the saints is  
peculiar1 being the ,prior of           
,bridlington1 perhaps the ,robertus     
scriba who copied certain theological   
treatises for the library1 and who lived
 in the time of ,stephen or ,henry ,,ii4
  ,in the beautiful initial ,d is the   
figure of a lady praying1 the first few 
words of the prayer being written on a  

floating ribbon above her head4 ,a fine 
panelling of black and gold forms the   
background4 ,the lady's costume is that 
of the end of the fourteenth century1   
her head-dress being somewhat lower than
 that worn in the time of ,isabella of  
,bavaria2 in other respects she recalls 
the figure of ,christine de ,pisan in   
,harl4 #ddca--one of the fine ,,mss4 of 
the ,french school4 ,as the psalter or  
offices was once the property of the    
,grandison family1 as is shown by the   
numerous entries respecting them in the 
calendar1 no doubt this lady was the    
first owner of the ,,ms41 and probably  
the same as shown in the beautiful      
miniature of the ,annunciation          
previously given4 ,many charming        
initials follow this one1 and brightly  
coloured bracket treillages and borders 
are given in profusion1 introducing     
every variety of coloured ideal         
leaf-form known to the art of the time4 
,it seems probable from its style and   
the costumes that the ,,ms4 was executed

 for the ,lady ,margaret1 widow of      
,thomas1 the last ,lord ,grandison1 who 
died in #acgf1 and given to her by ,sir 
,john ,tuddenham1 her second husband4 ,a
 better model for the modern illuminator
 could not easily be found4 ,other      
examples may be briefly enumerated1 in  
#b ,b4 #h1 #b ,b4 #aj1 #b ,b4 #a1 #b ,b4
 #ab and #ac1 #ah ,a4 #ab1 #ah ,c4 #bf1 
,harl4 #agai1 #ahib1 etc4 ,the ,psalter 
#b ,b4 #h has the good fortune to be    
dated1 and its purpose and other        
particulars clearly set forth in a      
statement at the beginning of the       
volume4 ,the gist of this is that it was
 composed at the instance of the ,lady  
,joan ,princess of ,wales1 mother of    
,richard ,,ii41 and that it was executed
 by ,brother ,john ,somour 7,seymour71 a
 ,franciscan1 in #achj4 ,thus the       
illumination of it would probably be    
done about the time1 of the young       
,queen's arrival in ,england4 ,the      
,princess ,joan died ,july #hth1 #ache4 
,the work corresponds with this date4   

,the ,grandison ,psalter is perhaps     
somewhat later than ,roy4 #b ,b4 #a1 and
 the rest are later still4              
,illustration3 ,,vegetius ,,four ,,books
 ,,of ,,knighthood 7,,de ,,re           
,,militari7 #ae,,th ,,cent4 ,brit4 ,mus4
 ,roy4 ,,ms4 #ah ,a4 xii1 f4 #a         
,illustration3 ,,psalterium ,c4 #adgj   
,brit4 ,mus4 ,harl4 ,,ms4 #agai1 fol4   
#gc v4  ,one rather fine example is seen
 in ,arund4 ,,ms4 #aji1 a folio called  
the ,melreth ,missal1 because given by  
,william ,melreth1 ,alderman of ,london1
 to the church of ,st4 ,lawrence1 ,old  
,jewry4 ,he died in #addf4  ,for        
topographical miniature a good example  
occurs in ,roy4 #af ,f4 #b1 which       
contains a grand view of ,london1       
including the ,tower1 but this ,,ms4 is 
probably not of genuine ,english        
production4 ,nor is ,roy4 #ai ,c4 #h1   
though a very interesting example as    
regards costume and local usages4 ,the  
genuine ,english work of which ,arund4  
#aji is a type has received the name of 

,lancastrian1 as falling to the reigns  
of the three ,lancastrian kings--,henry 
,,iv41 ,v41 and ,,vi4  ,in the reign of 
,edward ,,iv4 we meet with the          
introduction of ,flemish illumination1  
which gradually supersedes the native   
style1 and by the time of ,henry ,,vii4 
the latter has almost disappeared4 ,its 
final extinction1 however1 was left for 
the sixteenth century1 when either      
,flemish or ,italian renaissance work   
entirely took its place4 ,by the time of
 ,queen ,elizabeth ,english illumination
 was a thing of the past4     ,,chapter 
,,vi  ,,italian ,,illumination          
,barbaric character of ,italian         
illumination in the twelfth             
century--,ravenna and ,pavia the        
earliest centres of revival--,the       
,exultet--,la ,cava and ,monte          
,cassino--,the writers of early ,italian
 ,,mss4 not ,italians--,in the early    
fourteenth century the art is           
,french--,peculiarities of ,italian     
foliages--,the ,law ,books--,poems of   

,convenevole da ,prato1 the tutor of    
,petrarch--,celebrated patrons--,the    
,laon ,boethius--,the ,decretals1       
,institutes1 etc4--,decretum ,gratiani1 
other collections and ,,mss4--,statuts  
du ,saint-,esprit--,method of           
painting--,don ,silvestro--,the         
,rationale of ,durandus--,nicolas of    
,bologna1 etc4--,triumphs of            
,petrarch--,books at ,san ,marco1       
,florence--,the ,brera ,graduals at     
,milan--,other ,italian                 
collections--,examples of different     
localities in the ,british              
,museum--,places where the best work was
 done--,fine ,neapolitan ,,mss4 in the  
,british ,museum--,the white-vine style 
superseded by the classical renaissance4
   ,considering the position occupied by
 the ,roman ,empire as the civiliser of 
,europe1 it is not a little curious and 
somewhat surprising to find that in the 
twelfth century1 when ,german and       
,french artists were doing such good and
 even admirable work1 that of ,italy was

 almost barbaric4 ,a ,,ms4 in the       
,vatican 7#dibb7 is shown as a proof of 
this4 ,it is not an obscure sort of book
 that might have been written by a      
merely devout but untrained monk for his
 own use1 but a work of importance      
executed for no less a personage than   
the celebrated ,countess ,matilda4 ,the 
scribe was ,donizo1 a monk of the       
,benedictine ,abbey of ,canossa4 ,it is 
of the early or pr-,carolingian type1   
rather inclined to ,byzantine1 but with 
the big hands and aimless expression of 
all semi-barbaric work4 ,yet it has a   
certain delicacy and carefulness4 ,in   
,rome itself during the ninth century   
barbarism was at its very lowest point4 
,only the sea-port towns had any notion 
of what was being done in other places4 
,painting was practised1 it is true1 so 
was mosaic1 but the worst of ,oriental  
carpets would be a masterpiece of       
elegance beside anything done in ,italy4
 ,whatever gleams of artistic           
intelligence appear1 they certainly     

emanated from ,ravenna or ,pavia4 ,but  
as there were no wealthy and peaceful   
courts1 no indolent1 high-bred1         
luxurious courtiers during that dark and
 troublous period1 miniature or         
illumination had no call for existence4 
,in the twelfth century                 
book-illustration consisted simply of   
pen-sketching of the most elementary    
kind4 ,the ,lombards alone produced     
anything like illumination4 ,a sort of  
roll containing pictures of the various 
scenes of the ,old and ,new ,testaments 
which represented the leading doctrines 
of the ,church1 and which used to hang  
over the pulpit as the preacher         
discoursed upon them1 is the only       
representative of the time4 ,such a roll
 was called an ,exultet from its first  
word1 which is the beginning of the line
 ,exultet jam ,angelica turba clorum of 
the hymn for the benediction of the     
paschal wax tapers on ,easter ,eve4     
,several of these ,exultets are still   
kept in the ,cathedral at ,pisa1 and in 

the ,barberini and ,minerva ,libraries  
in ,rome4#dj ,of course the pictures are
 upside down to the reader1 so as to be 
right for the congregation4  #dj ,see   
one in ,british ,mus41 ,add4 ,,ms4      
#cjccg1 and description of it in ,journ4
 of the ,archol4 ,assoc4 vol4 #cd1 p4   
#cba4  ,very little progress was made1  
as we may imagine1 until after the great
 revival movement begun by ,cimabue1    
,giotto1 and their contemporaries1 about
 the middle of the thirteenth century4  
,but before taking up any inquiry into  
,italian work generally we must not omit
 reference to the remarkable ,,mss4     
produced at ,la ,cava and ,monte        
,cassino during the ,franco-,lombard    
period4 ,some idea has already been     
furnished in dealing with ,celtic ,,mss4
 and the foundations begun by           
,columbanus and his scholars4 ,indeed1  
the general character of these ,lombard 
,,mss4 is seen in the ,franco-,celtic4  
,the distinguishing feature1 if there be
 one1 is the frequent recurrence among  

the interlacements of the white dog4    
,the ,la ,cava ,library1 which was one  
of the finest in ,italy1 has been       
transferred to ,naples4 ,monte ,cassino 
still continues and maintains not only a
 library but a printing press1 from     
which the learned fathers have issued at
 least one great work on the subject of 
,cassinese palography4 ,of all the      
pr-,carolingian hands1 ,lombardic or    
,lombardesque was certainly the most    
peculiar1 and is perhaps the most       
difficult to read4 ,one evidence of this
 is the diversity of opinion on the true
 reading of certain proper names in the 
original ,,ms4 containing the oldest    
text of ,tacitus which happens to be a  
,lombard ,,ms4 ,the characters and other
 examples of the eleventh to the        
thirteenth century that have been       
published at ,monte ,cassino1 however1  
fully illustrate the peculiarities of   
the handwriting1 and give besides       
several splendid examples of            
calligraphy4#da  #da ,the ,la ,cava     

,,mss4 have been described by ,p4       
,gillaume in an essay published at      
,naples1 #ahgg1 and those of ,monte     
,cassino by ,a4 ,caravita1 ,monte       
,cassino1 #ahfj-ga4  ,one of the        
earliest illuminated ,italian ,,ms4     
which bears a date is a ,volume of      
,letters of ,st4 ,bernard1 now in the   
,library of ,laon4 ,it is very seldom   
that the earlier scribes and            
illuminators who produced ,italian      
,,mss4 or worked in ,italy were         
,italians4 ,they were usually foreigners
 and mostly ,frenchmen1 and the art was 
looked upon at the beginning of the     
fourteenth century as a ,french art4    
,this very decided example of ,italian  
work is already different from the      
,french work of the same period4 ,the   
profile foliages have already acquired  
that peculiar trick of sudden change and
 reversion of curve1 showing the other  
side of a leaf with change of colour1   
which is a marked characteristic of all 
fourteenth-century ,italian             

illumination4 ,for examples of it1 the  
,bolognese ,law ,books1 ,decretals1 and 
such-like1 afford frequent illustration4
 ,before leaving this first-quoted      
,,ms41 we may say that it points to     
,france rather than to ,germany or      
,lombardy for its general form of       
design1 but the foliages are quite of   
another kind4 ,another ,laon ,,ms4      
7#ceb7 shows the same treatment of      
foliage1 but in effect more like what   
may be considered as the typical        
,italian style seen in the famous       
,avignon ,bible of the anti-pope1       
,clement ,,vii4 7,robert of ,geneva71   
which dates between #acgh and #acid4db  
#db ,see ,humphreys1 ,illum4 ,books of  
the ,middle ,ages1 pl4 #af2 and         
,silvestre1 ,palographie ,universelle1  
pl4 #aag4  ,a further example still more
 powerful in expression and skilful in  
manipulation is seen in a copy of the   
,poems of ,convenevole da ,prato1 in the
 ,british ,museum 7,roy4 #f ,e4 #i71    
executed for ,king ,robert of ,naples1 a

 patron of ,giotto 7#abgf-accg71 which1 
in comparison with the ,laon ,letters of
 ,st4 ,bernard of about the same date1  
is even still more ,italian4  ,cardinal 
,stefaneschi1 another of ,giotto's      
patrons1 was also a promoter of         
illumination4 ,his ,missal1 now at ,rome
 in the archives of the ,canons of ,st4 
,peter's1 is a fine example of this     
style4 ,it dates from #acbg to #acdc4   
,the ,,ms4 of ,boethius at ,laon is     
another4 ,but one of the most masterly1 
whether as to design or manipulation1 is
 a law book in the ,library at ,laon    
7,no4 #chb74 ,this grand folio contains 
,glossa ,ioannis ,andre in              
,clementinas--,the ,gloss or            
,explanation of ,joannes ,andreas on the
 ,clementines4  ,by the way1 as         
illuminated law books1 civil and        
canonical1 form so large a section of   
,italian ,,mss41 it may be well in this 
place to warn the reader against random 
explanations sometimes offered in sale  
catalogues concerning these books1 their

 authors and commentators4 ,for         
instance1 this commentator ,joannes     
,andreas was not1 as we have seen it    
confidently stated 7as if it were part  
of the actual contemporary title of the 
,,ms471 ,bishop of ,aleria 7,episcopus  
,aleriersis71 but a jurist of ,bologna4 
,the bishop lived a century or so after 
the jurist1 who had completed his long  
career as professor of law at ,bologna  
extending over forty-five years before  
the bishop was born4 ,his chief works   
are ,commentaries on the ,clementines   
7printed in folio at ,mayence #adga1 and
 again at ,dijon in #aege71 and         
,commentaries on ,five ,books of the    
,decretals 7printed in folio at ,mayence
 in #adee1 and at ,venice in #aeha74    
,while on this topic of ,italian law    
,,mss41 it may be useful to state       
clearly what they are4 ,by way of       
contrast to the ,corpus ,juris          
,canonici1 or ,body of ,canon ,law1 the 
subject of books dealing with the       
so-called ,decretals1 the other branch1 

including the ,institutes ,digest and   
,novell of ,justinian1 was entitled     
,corpus ,juris ,civilis4  ,the          
,decretals1 then1 which we so often meet
 with in public libraries under various 
names1 are the canons which mainly      
constitute the ,canon ,law4 ,strictly   
speaking they are the papal epistolary  
decrees 7decreta71 said to have existed 
from very early times4 ,in the ninth    
century a collection of them was formed1
 or manufactured1 in the name of the    
celebrated ,isidore of ,seville4 ,but   
with the donation of ,constantine to    
,pope ,sylvester and many others in the 
later compilation of ,gratian1 these are
 usually looked upon as spurious and    
false4 ,the great and authorised        
collection was completed by a simple    
,benedictine monk of ,st4 ,felix1 in    
,bologna1 a native of ,chiusi1 the      
ancient ,clusium1 in ,tuscany1 a man so 
learned in the law as to have earned the
 title of ,magister4 ,this is the work  
often richly illuminated which goes by  

the name of the ,decretum ,gratiani4#dc 
,when glancing over the lovely initials 
and beautiful foliages or resplendent   
ornaments1 we are apt to overlook the   
work itself which is truly monumental2  
being a summary of the papal epistolary 
decrees1 the synodal canons of #aej     
councils1 selections from various regal 
codes1 extracts from the ,fathers1 and  
comments of ,schoolmen2 all methodically
 arranged and digested so as to         
facilitate its use as a manual for the  
schools4 ,it is said to have occupied   
the compiler incessantly for twenty-five
 years4 ,immediately on its completion  
in #aaea it was at once authorised by   
the ,pope ,eugenius ,,iii4 as the only  
text-book to be used in the public      
schools1 and to govern the decrees of   
the ,ecclesiastical ,courts4 ,hence its 
celebrity4 ,its transcripts are very    
numerous1 and it has been often printed4
 ,as to the ,sext and ,clementines they 
are merely additional commentaries on   
supplementary collections of decrees4   

,thus a new collection authorised by    
,boniface ,,viii4 is called the sext1   
i4e4 the sixth book of the ,decretals4  
,the ,clementines were the constitutions
 of ,clement ,v4 ,other collections such
 as that of ,john ,,xxii4 are called    
,extravagantes4  #dc ,see ,add4 #aebgd1 
,british ,museum4  ,the most ancient    
,,mss4 of the ,decretals bear the title 
of ,concordantia discordantium ,canonum 
7a concordance of discordant decrees72  
afterwards ,the ,book of ,decrees2      
lastly1 ,the ,decretals4 ,it was        
considered1 however1 by some1 jurists   
and others1 to be not so much a         
concordance of discordant canons as a   
subjugation of the ancient canons to the
 decrees of the ,papacy1 and as already 
stated1 many of its decrees were found  
to be false and fictitious4             
,nevertheless1 it is by no means an     
uncommon volume among the illuminators4 
,let us now return to the ,laon         
example--one of four or five of the     
species in that collection4 ,the scene  

where the author is presenting his work 
to the pope--we now know them both--is  
quite a painting4 ,except for the defect
 that kneeling figures are somewhat     
mis-shapen or ill-proportioned in the   
lower limbs1 the work is quite          
comparable with contemporary mural      
painting1 both for composition and      
colour4 ,it is almost modern4 ,it is    
quite realistic4 ,in costume1           
expression1 easy and appropriate        
attitude1 it has quite outrun ,french   
illumination altogether4  ,another dated
 ,,ms4 7#accb7 in the same ,library     
7,no4 #ceg71 ,rubrics of the ,decretals1
 is a most amusing example of the       
universal taste for irony and satire in 
the initial figures and corner effigies4
  ,a much-lauded ,,ms4 among these      
fourteenth-century examples is one that 
has been carefully and expensively      
reproduced by the late ,cte4 ,horace de 
,viel-,castel1 namely1 the ,statuts de  
l',ordre du ,saint-,esprit au ,droit    
,dsir ou du ,noeud1 an order instituted 

at ,naples in #aceb by ,louis ,i4       
d',anjou 7called ,louis of ,taranto71   
,king of ,jerusalem1 ,naples1 and       
,sicily1 cousin and husband of ,queen   
,joanna of ,naples4 ,the style of the   
illumination is precisely the same as   
those just mentioned belonging to ,laon1
 and as several ,,mss4 in the ,british  
,museum4 ,its stem and foliage ornament 
is very brightly coloured in fine green1
 scarlet1 rose1 ultramarine1 and gold4  
,the miniatures which occasionally      
contain evident attempts at portraiture1
 are painted in the manner of the school
 of ,cimabue and the earlier ,italian   
painters1 more particularly that of     
,simone ,memmi4 ,it is substantially the
 ,byzantine manner1 but improved and    
enlivened by attention to natural       
attitude and expression4 ,the greenish  
under-painting of the flesh-tints is    
often noticeable4 ,the decorative       
portions are very skilful and elaborate1
 as well as extremely neat and          
symmetrical2 the gold profuse and       

brilliant4 ,indeed1 the whole production
 may be studied as a typical example of 
its time4 ,the text1 though good1 is not
 so beautiful as the ,bolognese hand    
usually found in ,italian ,,mss4 of the 
following century4 ,but perhaps this    
should add to its value as a proof of   
its being absolutely contemporaneous    
with the foundation of the ,order1 and  
therefore of its being the identical    
,,ms4 ordered by the magnificent        
founder1 ,louis of ,taranto1 second     
husband of the too-celebrated ,joanna of
 ,naples4 ,their marriage took place in 
the ,august of #acdf1 and on the #bgth  
of ,may1 #aceb1 being ,whitsun ,day1    
they were crowned4 ,in memory of this   
happy event1 ,joanna founded the ,church
 of the ,virgin1 ,louis instituted the  
,order of the ,holy ,spirit1 or of the  
,knot1 the symbols of which appear      
frequently in the illumination of the   
,,ms4 ,it was named in honour of the    
,day of ,pentecost--,l',ordre de la     
,chevalerie du ,saint-,esprit4 ,the     

phrase au droit dsir had reference to   
the circumstances preceding the         
marriage4 ,the knot was worn in token of
 the perfect amity of the members of the
 ,order4#dd  #dd ,see reproduction1     
published at ,paris by ,englemann and   
,graf in #ahec1 #a4 fol4  ,other works  
of the fourteenth century are           
enthusiastically praised by ,italian    
writers1 as1 e4g41 those of ,don        
,silvestro1 a ,camaldolese monk1 who    
flourished at the same time as the      
illuminator of this ,,ms4 of ,louis of  
,taranto1 and who worked on the great   
choir books of the ,monastery degli     
angeli1 in ,florence1 so loudly         
commended by ,vasari and others who had 
seen them4 ,they have long been broken  
up and dispersed1 and it is not         
improbable that cuttings from them were 
among those bought by ,ottley1 ,rogers1 
and other amateurs4 ,a fragment of an   
,antiphonary of ,nocturnal ,services1   
now in the ,laurentian ,library at      
,florence1 finished in #acgj1 shows the 

style of work to be of the kind just    
described4 ,other great choir books of  
the earlier period are preserved in the 
,academy at ,pisa4 ,but the number of   
,,mss4 to which reference might be made 
is legion4 ,those of this date are      
chiefly civil law books2 next to these  
come the canon law1 and divinity4 ,among
 the intermediate class are the copies  
of the ,rationale of ,durandus1 one of  
these being in the ,british ,museum     
7,add4 #cajcb74 ,now and then a fine    
,missal1 like the ,stefaneschi1 or the  
,munich ,missal of #acgd1 which may be  
referred to as being one of the models  
of the school of ,prag4 ,on the whole1  
perhaps1 the law books are more numerous
 than liturgical ones1 and are referable
 generally to ,bologna or ,padua4 ,the  
name of ,nicholaus of ,bologna occurs   
more than once in these books4 ,a book  
of offices of the ,virgin1 by           
,nicholaus1 is now at ,kremsmnster1 and 
a ,new ,testament1 dated #acbh1 in the  
,vatican4 ,tommaso di ,modena1 another  

distinguished ,italian illuminator1 also
 had much to do with altering the style 
of the artists who worked for ,charles  
,,iv4 at ,prag4 ,some of his work1 or   
work presumed to be his1 is still to be 
seen in the ,bohemian capital4 ,next to 
these ,bolognese ,,mss4 we may place    
those of ,florence--copies of the       
,divina ,commedia and the ,triumphs and 
,sonnets of ,petrarch1 which1 with      
historians and copies or translations of
 the classics1 chiefly occupied the     
illuminators of ,florence and ,siena1   
with one notable exception4 ,whoever has
 visited any of the ,north ,italian     
cities cannot fail to have noticed and  
admired the magnificent choir-books     
still to be seen in the cathedrals and  
cathedral libraries4 ,at ,siena the     
,piccolomini service-books are truly    
splendid2 those in ,san ,marco1 the     
,riccardi1 the ,laurentian1 and other   
collections in ,florence1 are no less   
admirable4 ,verona's best work is       
chiefly elsewhere1 at ,florence1 ,siena1

 etc4 ,at ,milan the ,brera             
,graduals--each of them a man's load to 
carry--are simply gorgeous in the lavish
 richness of their letters1 miniatures1 
and decorations4 ,venice1 again1 has    
another grand collection of ,,mss4 of   
the highest class in her ,attavantes and
 ,gerard ,davids2 ,rome1 in a crowd of  
princely libraries1 has                 
multitudes--literally multitudes--of    
exquisitely illuminated volumes4 ,naples
 also has some noble examples of the    
great craftsmen4 ,we have not yet       
mentioned the ,ambrosian ,library in    
,milan1 nor1 except the ,vatican1 a     
single library by name in ,rome4 ,the   
mere names of the ,corsini1 ,sciarra1   
,barberini ,libraries are enough to     
those who have ever explored their      
contents to remind them of work that can
 nowhere else be seen so perfect1 so    
profuse1 as in beautiful ,italy4  ,as   
specimens of local centres the ,british 
,museum offers many examples4 ,thus     
,add4 #aehac1 though ordered for ,sta4  

,justina of ,padua1 was probably        
illuminated at ,venice2 #aehad at       
,bologna2 #aebfj probably at ,ferrara2  
#ahjjj at ,venice2 most of the fragments
 in #badab in ,rome2 #bjibg in ,rome2   
#baeia at ,naples2 #bhifb at ,naples2   
#badac at ,milan2 the majority of the   
,ducali1 of which the museum contains a 
large collection1 in ,venice4 ,some of  
the ,spanish-looking ,,mss4 executed for
 ,alphonse ,v4 of ,aragon were actually 
produced in ,naples4  ,illustration3    
,,missale ,c4 #aecj ,brit4 ,mus4 ,ada4  
,,ms4 #aehac1 fol4 #bg  ,illustration3  
,,katholisches ,,gebethbuch #aehd ,brit4
 ,mus4 ,add4 ,,ms4 #agebe1 fol4 #aee    
,it is not safe to assert that because a
 work is ordered for a monastery or a   
prince that the copyists or illuminators
 always went to the monastery or palace 
to do the work1 though frequently they  
did so4 ,most of the ,,mss4 executed for
 ,matthias ,corvinus1 ,king of ,hungary1
 were produced in ,florence4 ,there was 
more than one atelier of illuminators in

 ,florence4 ,there were others in       
,bologna1 others in ,rome1 and quite a  
large establishment in ,naples4 ,others 
resided in ,milan1 ,ferrara1 and        
,verona4 ,those at ,ferrara lived       
chiefly at the ,ducal ,palace4 ,those at
 ,verona were the guests of the great   
,ghibelline leader1 ,can della ,scala1  
and his immediate successors4 ,those at 
,naples1 in the time of ,alphonso the   
,magnanimous1 and especially of his son1
 ,ferdinand ,i41 were maintained solely 
for the augmentation and embellishment  
of the ,royal ,library4#de ,a list of   
seventeen copyists1 including the famous
 names of ,antonio ,sinibaldo1          
,giovanni1 ,rinaldo1 ,mennio1 and       
,hippolito ,lunensis1 and of fourteen or
 fifteen illuminators1 all of           
distinguished ability1 is given by      
,signer ,riccio from the archives of the
 city4 ,the splendid work they achieved 
may still occasionally be met with4 ,in 
the ,british ,museum 7,add4 #baabj7     
there is a beautiful copy of the ,ethics

 of ,aristotle1 with very peculiar      
initials and ornaments2 and in the      
,national ,library1 at ,paris1 many     
other very fine examples of ,neapolitan 
work4 ,of the handwriting of ,mennius we
 have a fine example in ,add4 #aaiab1   
which is a quarto copy of ,lucretius1   
written on #afj leaves of vellum4 ,fol4 
#a has a grand border on a gold ground1 
with a miniature containing a handsome  
initial ,e suspended over the author's  
head1 who is seated at a desk writing4  
,the first three lines of the text are  
in ,roman capitals1 alternately gold and
 blue4 ,the illumination is of a        
transitional character1 inclining rather
 towards the candelabra style of the    
,milanese and ,neapolitan               
,renaissance--the ,heures d',aragon1    
executed for ,frederick ,,iii41 show a  
similar taste for candelabra1 etc4 ,on  
the other hand1 the initials are of the 
older white stem type1 with coloured    
grounds4 ,the writing is a small and    
very neat ,roman minuscule1 and dates   

probably about #adhe1 or between #adhj  
and #adij4 ,the penmanship of ,hippolito
 ,lunensis appears in ,ficino's         
,translation of ,plato2 also in the     
,british ,museum1 ,harl4 #cdha1 and in  
,add4 #aebgj1 #aebga4  #de ,riccio1     
,c4,w41 ,cenno ,storico dell ,accademia 
,alfonsina4 ,naples1 #ahfe4  ,the       
,heures d',aragon referred to above are 
a rich example of the ,neapolitan       
,renaissance preserved in the ,national 
,library at ,paris4 ,writers on ,italian
 miniatures are very numerous1 and a    
good deal of interesting information    
about ,italian ,,mss4 may be found in   
,m4 ,delisle's ,cabinet des ,,mss41 etc4
  ,there is one style of ,italian       
illumination made very popular by the   
illuminators of the works of ,petrarch1 
many of which are found in various      
libraries4 ,that is the one called the  
vine-stem style4 ,it consists of        
gracefully coiled stems1 usually left   
uncoloured or softly tinted with yellow1
 and bearing here and there peculiar    

ornamental flowerets1 while the grounds 
are picked out with various colours1 on 
which are fine white triads of dots or  
traceries in delicate white or golden   
tendrils4 ,a later variety of this style
 makes the stems of some pale but bright
 tint1 and the grounds of deep colour4  
,the vine-stem style seems to have      
prevailed throughout the whole of ,italy
 just previous to the classic revival   
brought about by the ,medici in throwing
 open their museums of sculptures1      
coins1 and other antiquities1 and by the
 liberal patronage of the new classic   
work by ,matthias ,corvinus1 ,king of   
,hungary1 and the ,dukes of ,urbino4    
,after #aejj the vine-stem style seems  
to have gradually died out1 and         
thenceforward only varieties of the     
revived antique became the fashion4  ,to
 the ,italian ,renaissance we shall     
revert in a later chapter4     ,,chapter
 ,,vii  ,,german ,,illumination ,,from  
,,the ,,thirteenth ,,to ,,the           
,,sixteenth ,,century  ,frederick ,,ii41

 ,stupor ,mundi1 and his ,,ms4 on       
hunting--,the ,sicilian school mainly   
,saracenic1 but a mixture of ,greek1    
,arabic1 and ,latin tastes--,the        
,franconian ,emperors at                
,bamberg--,charles of ,anjou--,the      
,house of ,luxembourg at ,prag--,,mss4  
in the ,university ,library--,the       
,collegium ,carolinum of the ,emperor   
,charles ,,iv4--,,mss4 at ,vienna--,the 
,wenzel ,bible--,the ,weltchronik of    
,rudolf v4 ,ems at ,stuttgard--,wilhelm 
v4 ,oranse at ,vienna--,the ,golden     
,bull--,various schools--,hildesheimer  
,prayer-book at ,berlin--,the ,nuremberg
 school--,the ,glockendons--,the        
,brethren of the ,pen4   ,in a former   
chapter we brought up the story of      
,german illumination to the time of the 
,hohenstaufen emperors4 ,we may now make
 a new start with ,frederick ,,ii41 the 
eccentric1 resolute1 intractable1       
accomplished ,stupor ,mundi 7#abaj-ej74 
,not only was he a patron and encouraged
 art1 but also an author4 ,the work     

which he composed is still extant1 and  
is preserved in the ,vatican ,library   
under the title ,de arte venandi cum    
avibus4 ,paintings of birds and hunting 
scenes embellish its pages4 ,the art is 
not specially high class1 and though in 
courtesy it may be called ,german1      
seeing that he was the ,german ,emperor1
 and in some respects is like the       
,imperial ,,mss4 of the ,saxon period1  
in point of fact it is ,italian or      
,sicilian4#df ,this ,sicilian school is 
peculiar1 and exhibits very slight      
traits of relationship with the rest of 
,italy4 ,after the ,arab conquest of the
 island in #hbg1 whilst new ideas were  
imported1 still the old ,greek cities   
kept their ancient traditions and       
methods in art1 especially in those     
branches we term industrial1 and just as
 both ,greek and ,arabic tongues existed
 as vernaculars beside the ,latin1 so   
the arts and industries bore the        
features of three artistic tastes4  #df 
7,bibl4 ,vatican1 ,palatina1 ,no4       

#ajga74 ,notice in ,kobell1 ,kunstv4    
,miniaturen1 p4 #dd4  ,the silk-weaving 
of the ,greek craftsmen was embellished 
with the designs of embroidery from     
,damascus1 and these were mingled with  
patterns in which the foliages of       
,carolingian and ,german origin are     
distinctly traceable4 ,examples of the  
kind of manufacture here referred to may
 be seen in the robes of the ,emperor   
,henry ,,ii41 still preserved in the    
,cathedral ,treasury at ,bamberg4 ,also 
the coronation mantle of ,st4 ,stephen  
of ,hungary1 husband of ,henry's sister 
,gisela--originally a closed casula     
covering the body1 but now an open cloak
 richly embroidered with figures of     
prophets1 animals1 and foliages1 and    
even portraits of the ,king and ,queen4 
,it has sometimes been thought1 from the
 inscription on its border1 that1 like  
the ,bayeux tapestries of ,queen        
,matilda1 the needlework was from the   
,queen's own hand2 but no doubt both    
these attributions are mistaken4#dg     

,still more ,saracenic in taste are the 
mantle and alb now in the ,imperial     
,treasury at ,vienna1 of the twelfth    
century1 and executed at ,palermo4      
,sicilian in some respects is           
intermediate between ,italian and       
,german1 hence we deem this a proper    
place to speak of it1 and rather as a   
transient phase than a style1 for it    
perished with the ,hohenstaufen dynasty4
  #dg ,see description in ,bock1 ,die   
,kleinodien des heiligen ,rmisches      
,reichs1 pl4 #ag4  ,the cruel tyranny of
 the cold-blooded despot1 remembered1   
but execrated1 in ,sicily as ,charles of
 ,anjou1 extinguished the last scintilla
 of native art1 and when the ,italian   
revival of the thirteenth century took  
place1 it was confined entirely to the  
,north1 except when such patrons as     
,robert or ,ferdinand or ,alfonso       
encouraged ,tuscan artists by inviting  
them to ,naples4 ,palermo was no longer 
of importance1 though a capital1 and    
,sicily existed merely as a portion of  

the kingdom of ,naples4  ,let us pass1  
then1 to the great ,german capital4     
,changes here1 too1 have taken place4   
,it is not ,bamberg but ,prag1 for the  
,imperial crown has passed from the     
,house of ,suabia through the ,hapsburgs
 to that of ,luxembourg1 and among its  
territories is the picturesque old city 
with its historic bridge and            
gate-towers1 a ,slavonic not a ,german  
city in its origin4 ,the ten ,german    
circles of ,suabia and ,franconia1      
,westphalia1 ,bohemia1 and the rest did 
not as yet exist--they were the later   
creation of ,maximilian2 the ,fatherland
 consisted of some two or three hundred 
dukedoms1 counts1 marquisates1 and      
lordships1 all absolute sovereignties1  
but all pledged to support the ,holy    
,roman ,empire4 ,very thinly1 perhaps1  
but still the ,imperial sceptre meant a 
real supremacy1 and in the hands of such
 emperors as ,henry of ,luxembourg1 a   
supremacy maintained with real and      
becoming dignity4  ,prag1 as we have    

said1 is in a ,slavonic country1 and one
 sometimes hostile to the ,empire4 ,it  
was the capital of ,bohemia4 ,in #acaj  
its ,king was ,john1 the restless son of
 the new ,emperor ,henry ,,vii4 of      
,luxembourg4 ,hence we find it at the   
moment we begin the study of its art a  
nominally ,german city4 ,shortly before 
this time were produced several examples
 of ,german work2 as1 for instance1 the 
,minnelieder1 with more than a hundred  
miniatures of hunting scenes and similar
 outdoor amusements1 which are useful as
 studies of costume1 but otherwise of   
little interest4 ,but it is not until   
#acab--the new ,king being then1 for the
 sake of acquiring the crown1 though    
only1 it is said1 thirteen years of age1
 already the husband of the ,princess   
,elizabeth1 the late ,king's second     
daughter1 yet neither a favourite with  
his wife nor with her father's          
people--that the ,abbess of ,st4        
,george's in ,prag1 the ,princess       
,cunigunda1 composed a ,passionale1     

richly illustrated with interesting     
miniatures4 ,the saints1 histories1 and 
allegories are painted in tender        
water-colours1 the architectural details
 being in ,gothic taste4 ,it is still   
preserved in the ,university ,library at
 ,prag1 ,no4 xiv41 ,a4 #ag4dh ,the      
,emperor ,charles ,,iv41 son of the     
valorous but impracticable ,john 7born  
#acaf1 died #acgh71 and who has already 
been spoken of in connection with       
,english illumination1 was the founder  
of the ,bohemian school1 or1 rather1 of 
the school of ,prag4 ,owing probably his
 fine tastes and many accomplishments   
rather to his mother than his father1 he
 devoted himself to art and literature1 
inviting painters and scholars from     
other countries to reside in the        
,bohemian capital4 ,for the ,collegium  
,carolinum1 of which he was the founder1
 he caused many noble volumes to be     
executed1 and among the vast treasures  
and curiosities of his celebrated       
,schloss ,karlstein was a fine          

collection of illuminated ,,mss4 ,in the
 ,museum at ,prag and other local       
libraries are still kept some relics of 
his library4 ,the ,liber ,viaticus of   
,bishop ,john of ,newmarkt--the         
,orationale of ,bishop ,arnestus 7under 
,french influence7--the ,pontificale of 
,bishop ,albert von ,sternberg 7in the  
library of the ,prmonstrant ,monastery  
of ,strahow7--the ,missal of ,archbishop
 ,ozko von ,wlaschim 7library of the    
,metropolitan ,chapter in ,prag7--the   
,evangeliary of ,canon ,john von        
,troppau 7,johannes de ,oppavia71       
written and illuminated at ,brunn1 in   
,moravia1 now in the ,imperial ,library 
at ,vienna4 ,all these illuminated      
,,mss4 are examples of the great variety
 of styles in which the ,bohemian colony
 produced their work under the auspices 
of their liberal patron1 yet not without
 peculiarities which mark the           
individuality of the artist4 ,thus while
 the ,orationale of ,arnestus is almost 
,french1 the ,passionale of ,cunegunda  

is entirely free from ,french influence4
 ,for costumes the ,weltchronik of      
,rudolf von ,ems1 #acej-he1 and now in  
the ,royal ,private ,library at         
,stuttgard1 is almost an encyclopdia4   
,similar is the ,legenda ,aurea of #acfb
 in the ,public ,library at ,munich     
7,cod4 ,germ4 #f74 ,a very interesting  
,,ms4 with miniatures of costumes and   
curious usages is the ,bellifortis of   
,conrad ,kyeser 7,gttingen1 ,public     
,library1 ,philos41 ,no4 #fc74 ,the     
,evangeliary of ,troppau is most        
beautifully written2 its text is a model
 of elegant and perfect penmanship2 its 
ornaments distinctly ,bohemian4 ,three  
or four ,prag ,,mss4 executed for       
,charles's son ,wenzel 7#acgh-adji7 are1
 it may be said1 typical4 ,of these the 
grandest1 though incomplete1 is the     
illuminated ,bible1 called the ,wenzel  
,bible1 executed by order of ,martin    
,rotlw for presentation to the ,emperor4
 ,the choice of illustrations in this   
singular performance are rather more    

than on a par with the woodcuts of the  
great ,english ,bible of ,cranmer4 ,the 
,wilhelm von ,oranse of #achg1 now in   
the ,ambras ,museum at ,vienna 7,no4    
#g71 affords splendid examples of the   
fine embroidered and richly coloured    
backgrounds we so often see towards     
#adjj in ,english ,,mss41 and the       
,golden ,bull of ,charles ,,iv41 also in
 the ,imperial ,library at ,vienna 7j4  
c4 #cch71 has the softly curling        
foliages variously coloured1 which form 
the characteristic difference between   
the ,french and ,english illumination of
 the fifteenth century4  #dh ,wocel1    
,mittheil4 der ,central4-,commiss41 v41 
#ahfj1 p4 #ge1 with illustrations4      
,another rich example of ,german as     
distinct from ,french or ,italian work  
of this period is the grand ,salzburg   
,missal now at ,munich 7,lat4 #aegaj74  
,when we reach the fifteenth century    
,german illumination begins to grow     
gaudy1 especially in the revived taste  
for parti-coloured border-frames1 in    

which green and scarlet are often to be 
seen4 ,the ,kuttenberg ,gradual at      
,vienna 7,imp4 ,lib41 #aeeja7 is of the 
,bohemian type4 ,now and then a ,,ms4   
will show the influence of ,westphalian 
treatment of foliage--and1 again1 of the
 school of ,cologne or ,nuremberg or    
,augsburg4 ,these all differ1 whilst    
still keeping an unmistakable ,german   
character4 ,the ,hildesheimer           
,prayer-book at ,berlin points to       
,cologne4 ,the ,frankendorfer           
,evangeliary at ,nuremberg is           
characteristic of that city4 ,the       
,choir-book of ,st4 ,ulrich and ,afra in
 their abbey at ,augsburg is typical of 
its locality4 ,the ,missal of ,sbinco1  
,archbishop of ,prag1 inclines to       
,nuremberg rather than ,prag 7,imp4     
,lib41 ,vienna1 ,no4 #ahdd74 ,it is     
eighty years earlier than the ,augsburg 
and ,hildesheim ,,mss4 ,passing actively
 onwards1 we find illumination still in 
vogue in the sixteenth century1         
notwithstanding that ,germany was the   

cradle of the printing press4  ,in fact1
 it seems to wax more and more          
sumptuous--the books more profusely     
ornamented than ever4 ,the ,missal and  
,prayer-book of ,albert of ,brandenburg1
 ,archbishop of ,mainz1 once at         
,aschaffenburg1 executed about #aebd are
 among the finest productions of the    
illuminator's art4 ,while perhaps we may
 complain that design has given way to  
profusion and the border flowers and    
insects--a contemporary characteristic  
of ,netherlandish art also--are neither 
more nor less than portraiture applied  
to flowers1 fruits1 and the insect      
world4 ,the larger miniatures are modern
 paintings1 including portraits1        
differing in nothing but dimensions from
 the works of the greatest masters of   
the schools of painting4 ,in ignorance  
of the strict rules of the gilds1 some  
writers have gone so far as to say that 
miniatures also such as these were the  
work of the ,van ,eycks1 the ,memlings1 
and the ,lucas van ,leydens of our      

public galleries4 ,this particular ,,ms4
 was the work of a famous ,nuremberg    
miniaturist1 one of a distinguished     
family of artists--,nicolas ,glockendon4
  ,a very similar1 but perhaps still    
richer1 ,,ms41 is the ,prayer-book of   
,william of ,bavaria1 still kept in the 
,imperial ,library at ,vienna 7,no4     
#ahhj71 painted by ,albert ,glockendon4 
,it is one of the most exquisite volumes
 possibly to be met with4 ,a            
,prayer-book in the ,british ,museum    
7,add4 #agebe71 though far inferior1 may
 give some idea of the sumptuous        
character of the ,glockendon work4  ,the
 first ,archbishop of ,prag1 ,arnestus  
or ,ernest von ,pardubitz1 was an       
industrious collector of ,,mss4 and     
employed many scribes4 ,another of the  
famous patrons in ,prag was ,gerhard    
,groot1 who employed one of the best    
penmen to copy ,st4 ,john ,chrysostom's 
,commentary on ,st4 ,matthew4 ,in #achc 
he founded at ,deventer the famous      
,house of the ,brothers of the ,common  

,life1 who made a business of           
transcribing books2 and1 indeed1 so     
profitably1 that1 for instance1 ,ian van
 ,enkhuisen of ,zwolle received five    
hundred golden gulden for a ,bible4 ,on 
account of the goose-quill which the    
brothers wore in their hats1 they were  
familiarly known as the ,brethren of the
 ,pen4#di  #di ,wattenbach1             
,schriftwesen im ,mittelalter1 p4 #bfd4 
,,chapter ,,viii  ,,netherlandish       
,,illumination  ,what is meant by the   
,netherlands--,early realism and study  
of nature--,combination of symbolism    
with imitation--,anachronism in         
design--,the value of the pictorial     
methods of the old illuminators--,the   
oldest ,netherlandish ,,ms4--,harlinda  
and ,renilda--,the nunnery at           
,maas-,eyck--,description of the        
,,ms4--,thomas  ,kempis--,the school of 
,zwolle--,character of the work--,the   
use of green landscape backgrounds--,the
 ,dukes of ,burgundy--,netherlandish    
artists--,no miniatures of the ,van     

,eycks or ,memling known to             
exist--,schools of ,bruges1 ,ghent1     
,lige1 etc4--,brussels                  
,library--,splendid ,netherlandish      
,,mss4 at ,vienna--,gerard ,david and   
the ,grimani ,breviary--,british        
,museum--,romance of the                
,rose--,isabella ,breviary--,grisailles4
   ,in speaking of the ,netherlands we  
have to bear in mind that some portions 
of what are now called the ,netherlands 
were once parts of ,germany1 while      
others were parts of ,france4 ,in the   
thirteenth century ,netherlandish art   
was simply a variety either of ,northern
 ,german or ,northern ,french4 ,the     
earlier schools of ,flanders and        
,hainaut1 and perhaps of ,brabant1      
belong rather to ,france1 while         
,holland1 ,limburg1 ,luxembourg1 and the
 ,rhine districts were more inclined    
towards ,germany4 ,but as soon as the   
schools of ,ghent and ,bruges and other 
,burgundian centres began to assert     
their claims1 it was speedily apparent  

that they had an individuality of their 
own4 ,in no country had the study of    
nature a more direct influence on the   
character of illumination4 ,the         
allegorical method which so long had    
characterised both ,french and ,german  
art was promptly abandoned1 and direct  
realism both in figure and landscape    
became the prevailing characteristic4   
,symbolism1 it is true1 remained in the 
representation of cities and other      
generalities of pictorial composition1  
but the details were in all cases direct
 imitations of contemporary facts4 ,half
 a dozen soldiers or houses might       
indicate an army or a city1 and even    
some particular army or city named in   
the text1 but the individual soldiers1  
though representing the army of         
,alexander or ,roland1 would wear the   
equipment or armour of the artist's     
military acquaintances1 or his          
overlord's own company4 ,the city1      
whether ,ghent or ,bagdad1 would consist
 of the same sort of houses peaked and  

parapeted1 the same towers and pinnacles
 that the illuminator saw before him in 
his daily walks4 ,his conception of a   
scene from ,scripture history would     
probably be framed more or less upon the
 traditions of the schools transmitted  
from the ,sphigmenou ,manual or the     
master's portfolio of schemes1 but while
 a prophet1 an angel1 or a divinity     
would wear ideal raiment1 ,abraham and  
,pharaoh would be arrayed in the costume
 of a contemporary burgomaster1 and an  
almost contemporary ,french king4 ,in   
one memorable instance1 we are told1 so 
realistic was the scene that ,isaac was 
about to be despatched with a           
horse-pistol2 and in another1           
representing the birth of ,cain1 ,adam  
was bringing to the ,french tester      
bedside a supply of hot water from the  
kitchen boiler in a copper saucepan4    
,this kind of anachronism1 it is true1  
is to some degree chargeable on all     
early work2 we see it among the early   
,italian painters no less frequently    

perhaps1 but mostly accompanied with so 
much of allegory or imagination that we 
scarcely notice it1 or if we do1 we wink
 at it as part of the times of          
ignorance4 ,it is really a mark of      
over-haste to be truthful1 or at least  
to be understood1 and at the worst it is
 no more than the natural rebound from  
the evil constraint of the old          
,byzantine tyranny over scheme and      
costume and invention4 ,it is often     
truly diverting in its very insouciance4
 ,but its priceless value to us--and    
here the same remark applies to all     
styles of pictorial art before the      
fifteenth century--is the ocular record 
of dress1 architecture1 implements of   
peace and war1 incidents of daily life1 
etc41 for which no ,encyclopdia         
,britannica of verbal explanation could 
ever be more than the poorest makeshift4
 ,as we say1 this same happy anachronism
 is common to other schools of          
illumination1 and we cannot fail to     
notice it from ,byzantium to ,britain1  

but it is the intense realism of the    
,netherlands that forces it upon us so  
strongly that we are bound to speak of  
it4  ,the oldest notice of illuminated  
work in the ,netherlands is in a        
,benedictine chronicle of the ninth     
century1 where mention is made of two   
ladies1 daughters of the ,lord of       
,denain1 named ,harlinda and            
,renilda1#ej who were educated in the   
convent of ,valenciennes4 ,in #gad they 
left their native province to found a   
monastery on the banks of the           
,maas--among the meadows of ,alden and  
,maas-,eyck4 ,they there consecrated    
their lives to the praise of ,god and   
the transcription of books1 adorning    
them with precious pictures4#ea ,about  
the year #agcj an ,evangeliary of great 
age was discovered in the sacristy of   
the church by the ,benedictine          
antiquary1 ,edmond ,martne1 which on    
good ground has been attributed to the  
two sisters4 ,the ,,ms4 is still in     
existence1 and was exhibited in         

,brussels in #ahhj4 ,it is a small      
folio1 and contains a great number of   
miniatures in the ,carolingian or1      
perhaps more strictly1 ,franco-,saxon   
manner4 ,on the first leaf is a         
,romanesque colonnade of arches         
surmounted by a larger one4 ,under the  
smaller arches are the figures of       
saints1 demons1 and monsters1 and in the
 tympanum scrolls of foliage and birds4 
,between the columns are the reference  
numbers to the chapters4  #ej ,or       
,relinda4  #ea ,bradley1 ,dict4 of      
,miniaturists1 ii4 #hg4  ,the evangelist
 portraits are dignified and saintly1   
recalling the earliest work of the      
,byzantine school and that of the       
catacombs4 ,draperies and other details 
are heavy1 dull1 and ill drawn4 ,in     
short1 the work is of the same class as 
the early ,carolingian4 ,the blue1 red1 
green1 and gold of the borders1 etc41   
have all kept their brilliancy4#eb ,it  
is somewhat curious that the ,van       
,eycks1 the founders of ,flemish        

painting1 were natives of this little   
town--then1 doubtless1 pretty and rural1
 now a busy place of breweries1         
oil-factories1 tanneries1 and other     
fragrant nuisances4 ,some miles further 
northward lie ,deventer and ,zwolle and 
,kempen1 the land of the ,brothers of   
the ,pen1 and of the immortal ,thomas   
,kempis4 ,there is a style of           
calligraphic ornament deriving its      
origin from these ,northern ,hollandish 
foundations such as ,zwolle1 which is   
confined almost entirely to the painting
 of the initial letters and the         
decorating of the borders with          
flourished scrolls of penwork very      
neatly drawn and terminating in equally 
neat but extremely fanciful flowers     
finely painted4 ,it seems to have been  
brought at some time from the           
neighbourhood of ,milan1 where a similar
 kind of initial and exceedingly neat   
penmanship also is found in the choir   
books4 ,many ,south ,german choir books 
are similarly ornamented1 so that it is 

not easy to say at once where the work  
was done4 ,the ,dutch illuminators1     
however1 may usually be recognised by   
the ,netherlandish character of the     
miniatures combined with neat and       
sometimes rigidly careful penmanship in 
the scrolls and tendrils and a hardness 
in the outline of the flowers4          
,sometimes the large initials are       
entirely produced by the pen1 the       
labyrinthine patterns in blue or        
vermilion being filled in with circlets1
 loops1 and other designs with infinite 
patience and excellent effect4 ,some of 
the border scrolls are exceedingly      
pretty1 and the borders differ from     
,flemish in mixing natural flowers      
painted in thin water-colours with the  
more conventional flowers painted with a
 different medium1 not in the later     
,flemish manner where the flowers are   
frankly direct imitations of nature1 and
 painted in the same medium as the rest 
of the illumination4  #eb ,see ,messager
 des ,sciences1 etc41 #aaj1 #aheh1 and  

,deshaines1 ,l',art ,chrtien en         
,flandre1 #cd 7,douai1 #ahfj1 #h74      
,after the ,maas-,eyck ,evangeliary the 
work of these northern foundations may  
well reckon either with the ,french or  
,german schools until the fifteenth     
century4 ,where otherwise they are not  
distinguishable1 the ,netherlandish     
miniatures are usually such as prefer   
plain burnished gold backgrounds to     
diapered ones1 or have a plain deep blue
 paled towards the horizon1 and lastly  
replace the background by a natural1 or 
what was intended to be a natural1      
landscape4 ,as a test between ,french or
 ,german influence generally1 the use of
 green shows the latter1 that of blue   
the former4 ,not that this was any      
sthetic point of difference in taste1   
but somehow the ,germans had the green  
paint when the ,french had not1 and so  
they used it4 ,it is an open question   
whether ,flanders or ,italy first       
introduced the landscape background1 but
 ,flemish artists were so numerous1 so  

ubiquitous1 that we can hardly say where
 they were not at work--in ,france1     
,italy1 or ,spain4 ,plenty of so-called 
,spanish illumination is really the work
 of ,flemish craftsmen4 ,this was       
largely owing to the political          
conditions of the times4 ,the ,dukes of 
,burgundy and the ,austrian ,archdukes  
both ruled over ,flemish municipalities1
 and employed the gildmen as their      
household enlumineurs4 ,and1 of course1 
the success of the ,van ,eycks1 ,rogier 
van der ,weide 7de la ,pasture71        
,derrick ,bonts1 and ,hans ,memling1    
stirred up the spirit of rivalry among  
the illuminators4 ,they all worked in   
the same minutely1 careful manner1 and  
one could almost take a corporal oath on
 the identity of illuminations and      
panels which are really the work of     
different artists4 ,even yet the        
illuminations of the ,grimani ,breviary 
are attributed in part to ,hans         
,memling--and no wonder6 ,only the best 
qualified judges can distinguish them4  

,it is known that ,gerard ,david of     
,oudewater1 in ,holland1 a master       
painter1 belonged also to the gild of   
miniaturists4 ,but no miniatures are    
known to be from the hands of either    
,ian1 or ,hubert1 or ,marguerite van    
,eyck1 or ,hans ,memling4 ,the supposed 
identifications are merely guesses4 ,but
 while this is so there is still no lack
 of illuminators1 not to mention the    
illustrious few who were employed by the
 brothers of ,charles ,v41 ,king of     
,france2 and when we come to the days of
 his grandson1 ,philip of ,burgundy     
7#adai-fg71 we might name quite a crowd 
of distinguished illuminators4 ,from    
#adbb to #adbe ,ian van ,eyck was varlet
 de chamber to ,duke ,john of ,bavaria1 
first bishop of ,lige1 and ,regent of   
,luxembourg1 ,holland1 and ,brabant4 ,in
 #adbe he passed into the service of    
,philip4 ,he died in #addj4 ,in court   
service there were besides1 ,jean de    
,bruges1 ,david ,aubert1 ,jean ,mielot1 
,jean ,wanguelin1 ,loyset ,lyeder1 and  

others connected more or less closely   
with the ,maas valley and the province  
of ,limburg4 ,this valley seems to have 
been the cradle of ,netherlandish       
miniature art4 ,it is from this         
neighbourhood that ,paris was supplied  
with craftsmen in the days of the       
brilliant if reckless administration of 
the uncles of ,philip the ,good4 ,there 
were schools of illuminating artists in 
,maestricht and ,lige1 and within a very
 brief period the style of the          
,netherlander surpassed that of all     
competitors for facility1 clearness1 and
 realism4 ,a marked feature in this     
mastery is the free use of architectural
 and sculptural design4 ,all ,gothic    
draperies are in some degree            
sculpturesque1 and in miniatures we find
 sculpture to be the ruling principle4  
,perhaps it was the practice of uniting 
the crafts of painter and imagier in one
 person that fostered this peculiarity4 
,but certain it is that ,netherlandish  
illumination1 in its border foliages1   

after the taste for the larger vine and 
acanthus leaf had superseded the ivy1   
the drawing is studiously sculpturesque4
 ,many of the ,gantois borders are like 
undercut wood carvings4 ,even as to     
colour we find either the gilded wood   
brown or the stone grey1 quite as       
frequently as gayer colours1 and much   
more so than any natural green4 ,the    
after-fashion for grisailles or camaieu 
gris has reference probably rather to   
stained glass than to carving4 ,before  
the fifteenth century we do not often   
meet with individual illuminators by    
name1 but in the ,limburg ,chronicle    
under #achj is this entry3 ,there was at
 this time in ,cologne a celebrated     
painter 7he was probably a native of    
,herle in ,limburg71 the like of whom   
was not in the whole of ,christendom1   
and more to his praise4 ,his name was   
,wilhelm4 ,in the municipal expense     
book1 under #acgj-ij1 page #ab1 is      
written1 ,to ,master ,wilhelm for       
painting the ,oath ,book1 #i marks4 ,the

 ,oath ,book still exists1 but          
unfortunately the miniature has been cut
 out4#ec  #ec ,woltmann1 ,hist4 of      
,painting1 ,eng4 transl41 i4 p4 #dab4   
,of course1 it may be expected that some
 of the best examples of ,netherlandish 
illumination are to be found in the     
,royal ,library at ,brussels4 ,the      
,bibliothque de ,bourgogne1 as it is    
called1 contains1 indeed1 a great number
 of them4 ,some1 of course1 may be      
classed as ,burgundian4 ,there are1 for 
instance1 the grand ,chroniques de      
,hainaut in three immense folio volumes1
 written from #addf to #addi 7,nos4     
#ibdb-d74 ,also ,jean ,mansel's ,fleur  
des ,histoires in three grand folios    
7,nos4 #ibca-c71 written about #adge4   
,the frontispiece to the ,chroniques    
shows the ,duke ,philip with his son the
 ,count of ,charolais receiving the work
 from the author1 perhaps the best      
illumination in all three volumes4      
,another 7#ibde71 the ,book of the      
,seven ,sages of ,rome1 is an example of

 the last quarter of the fourteenth     
century4 ,still another 7#ibdf71 the    
,history of ,st4 ,graal1 or of the      
,round ,table1 is dated #adhj4 ,a       
,missal and ,pontifical 7#ibaf1 #ibag7  
shows miniatures dating about #adge4    
,but other public libraries also possess
 admirable examples4 ,the ,imperial     
,library at ,vienna possesses a most    
masterly production in the fragments of 
a folio ,chronicle of ,jerusalem 7,no4  
#becc71 in which both figures and       
architectural details are most          
delicately and minutely finished1 so    
that the miniatures form a most valuable
 treasury of costumes1 armour1 and      
architecture1 correctly drawn and       
exquisitely painted4 ,the figure of     
,baldwin1 ,king of ,jerusalem1 shows the
 pointed toes which ,anne of ,bohemia is
 said to have introduced into ,england4 
,at ,vienna1 also1 is the richly        
illuminated ,history of ,grard de       
,roussillon in ,french 7,no4 #bedi74 ,at
 ,paris we find the ,champion des ,dames

 7,no4 #abdgf74 ,round the first        
miniature in this ,,ms4 are splendidly  
emblazoned the armorials of the various 
countries and cities of his             
dominions--,burgundy1 ,brabant1         
,flanders1 ,franche-,comt1 ,holland1    
,namur1 ,lower ,lorraine1 ,luxembourg1  
,artois1 ,hainaut1 ,zealand1 ,friesland1
 ,malines1 and ,salins4 ,on either side 
are scenes from the story1 and beneath a
 symbolical crown is the motto of       
,philip's grandfather1 ,philip le       
,hardi1 aultre n'aray4 ,the same motto  
appears in the ,chronicle of ,jerusalem 
at ,vienna1 and on the velvet of the das
 of ,isabella of ,portugal1 ,philip's   
third consort4  ,it may be interesting  
to note1 as a means of distinguishing   
these ,burgundian princes or their      
,,mss41 that the arms of ,philip ,,ii4  
the ,good differ from those of his      
father1 during the latter's lifetime1 by
 having in chief a label of three       
points1 and from those of his           
grandfather1 ,philip the ,bold1 by      

having an inescutcheon of pretence on   
the centre of the arms of ,margaret de  
,maele1 first assumed by his father1    
,john the ,fearless1 that is1 or1 a lion
 rpt4 sa2 for ,flanders4 ,as we have    
just said1 many of the ,,mss4 claimed as
 ,netherlandish may be classed as       
,burgundian4 ,the difference lies mainly
 in the miniatures4 ,where the latter   
are manifestly ,french with the mixed   
,brugeois borders1 they may pass as     
,burgundian2 but with similar borders   
yet distinguishably ,netherlandish1 that
 is1 broad-nosed1 square-jawed1 and     
excited faces as compared with the finer
 features and placid expression of the  
,french artists1 the work may still be  
,burgundian1 but it will be also        
,netherlandish4 ,the individuality of   
,netherlandish illumination above every 
other quality establishes its identity4 
,look at the expression of the onlookers
 in a ,crucifixion1 or a ,christ before 
,pilate1 or a ,stoning of ,st4          
,stephen--the diabolical ferocity1 the  

fiendish earnestness1 the downright     
intentional ugliness put on some of the 
characters are in direct contrast to the
 sweet indifference1 the calm           
complaisance1 and blank unconcern of a  
crowd as shown in similar scenes by     
,french illuminators4  ,illustration3   
,,hor #ae,,th ,,cent4 7,,late7 ,brit4   
,mus4 ,add4 ,,ms4 #agbhj4 fol4 #ba      
,illustration3 ,,valere ,,maxime1       
,,trad4 ,,par ,,simon ,,de ,,hesdin     
#ae,,th ,,cent4 7,,late7 ,brit4 ,mus4   
,harl4 ,,ms4 #dcge1 fol4 #fh  ,we have  
seen something of the earlier kind of   
,netherlandish ,,mss4 in those already  
referred to4 ,it now remains to take a  
rapid glance at a few of the later ones1
 and here the difficulty is that of     
selection4  ,in #adhd ,gerard ,david    
appears on the list of illuminators of  
,bruges1#ed and it appears that he1 and 
not ,hans ,memling1 was the painter of  
those marvellous miniatures in the      
,grimani ,breviary at ,venice usually   
attributed to the latter1 and therefore 

may be considered as one of the founders
 of the school of ,bruges1 or at least  
of the later style that may be referred 
to the ,grimani ,breviary as its most   
perfect example4 ,executed in much the  
same manner is a ,book of ,offices in   
the ,british ,museum1 containing        
portraits of ,philip the ,fair and his  
wife1 the unhappy ,juana la ,loca1 son  
and daughter-in-law of the ,emperor     
,maximilian4 ,similar1 again1 are the   
,offices of the ,elector1 ,albert of    
,brandenburg1 possibly the work of the  
same artists who produced the ,grimani  
,breviary4 ,there are also some         
fragments in a guard-book in the        
,british ,museum 7,add4 #bdjih71 which  
may compare with any of the preceding   
examples4 ,but perhaps to many          
book-lovers no better specimen of the   
highest class of ,netherlandish art     
could be more welcome or more           
interesting than the celebrated copy of 
the ,roman de la ,rose1 also in our     
great national collection 7,harl4       

#ddbe74 ,this justly famous ,,ms4 is a  
real masterpiece in every department1   
whether we consider the expression in   
its miniatures or the consummate        
technical skill displayed in the drawing
 and colour of the borders4 ,these      
secondary embellishments consist of     
fruit1 flowers1 birds1 beetles1 and     
butterflies4 ,but1 of course1 the great 
interest of this book lies in its       
miniatures1 scenes from the poet's      
allegory1 and in the little statuesque  
figures of the various characters in the
 poem4  #ed ,cf4 his ,judgement of      
,cambyses in the museum at ,bruges4     
,two marvellous little volumes there are
 in the ,national ,museum at ,munich    
7#hfa-b7 which are surely               
unapproachable4 ,one of the borders in  
#hfa consists of the eyes of peacock    
feathers so absolutely perfect that we  
can only wonder at its rainbow hues and 
pearly sheen of colour4 ,something      
similar to it exists in a fragment 7,no4
 #ddfa7 in the ,victoria and ,albert    

,museum at ,south ,kensington4 ,the     
,isabella ,breviary of the ,british     
,museum 7,add4 #ahhea7 ought not to pass
 unmentioned1 but space forbids us to   
add more on this inexhaustible topic4   
,there is1 however1 the class of work   
alluded to early in the chapter1 and in 
that on ,french work1 which must be at  
least mentioned4 ,we refer to what the  
,italians call chiaroscuro and the      
,french grisaille2 i4e4 painting        
executed in tones of grey1 in which the 
lights are given in white or gold and   
the backgrounds in rich blue4           
,occasionally the draperies and         
ornaments also are touched with gold1   
and the flesh tints as in life4         
,grisaille is not limited to            
,netherlandish illuminations4 ,we find  
it both in ,french and ,italian1 but    
perhaps it is among the ,netherlandish  
books we meet with it most frequently4  
,several examples are to be seen in the 
,royal ,library at ,brussels1 and there 
is at least one in the ,british ,museum 

7,add4 #bdahi74     ,,chapter ,,ix      
,,the ,,french ,,renaissance            
,communication with ,italy--,renaissance
 not sudden--,origin of the schools of  
,france and ,burgundy--,touraine and its
 art--,fouquet--,brentano               
,,mss4--,versailles ,livy--,munich      
,boccaccio1 etc4--,perral and           
,bourdichon--,hours of ,anne of         
,brittany--,poyet--,the school of       
,fontainebleau--,stained glass--,jean   
,cousin--,gouffier ,heures--,british    
,museum ,offices of ,francis            
,i4--,dinteville ,offices--,paris       
,heures de ,montmorency1 ,heures de     
,dinteville1 etc4   ,when the new ideas 
derived from the ,italian revival first 
reached ,france1 it would be difficult  
to say4 ,there must have been           
communication with ,italy going on the  
whole time that ,cimabue and ,giotto1   
,memmi and the rest were astonishing    
their fellow-citizens with their divine 
performances4 ,the roads from ,lyons1   
,poictiers1 ,dijon1 and ,paris were well

 known1 and frequently trodden by both  
artists and merchants as well as by     
soldiers4 ,the ,renaissance1 therefore1 
was no sudden convulsion4 ,perhaps a    
very careful examination of some of our 
,burgundian ,,mss4 might reveal the     
presence of notions derived from        
,italian travel1 for it is in the       
details of ornament that we find the    
traces of a new movement1 and when the  
great change of style is clearly        
noticeable it is when the habits of     
society themselves have been remodelled1
 and when the once strange and foreign  
element has become a familiar guest4    
,in the fixing of schools and centres   
much is owing1 of course1 to the        
residential choice of princes1 on whose 
patronage depends the very existence of 
art4 ,this explains the schools of      
,bruges and ,dijon1 of ,paris and       
,tours1 for while the earlier dukes of  
,burgundy and the earlier kings of      
,france had lived at ,bruges and ,paris1
 the later dukes had preferred ,dijon1  

and ,louis ,,xi41 ,charles ,,viii41 and 
,louis ,,xii4 lived mostly at ,tours4   
,so that while ,dijon became the new    
centre of ,burgundian illumination1     
,tours became to the new movement from  
,italy what ,paris had been at the      
commencement of the ,gothic period4     
,tours1 in fact1 became the centre of   
the ,renaissance4 ,the influence of     
,dijon was on the wane1 ,burgundy itself
 was going down4 ,michel ,coulombe1 the 
great ,breton sculptor1 who had been    
trained at ,dijon1 left it for ,tours1  
and probably illuminators and other     
artists followed his example4 ,as we    
know from examples1 the ,burgundian art 
of ,dijon had the ,flemish stamp        
strongly marked--the ,flemish artists   
had a way of making strong impressions4 
,tours1 on the other hand1 had had an   
entirely different training4 ,the       
artists of ,touraine had no shadow of   
,flemish influence in their practice4   
,their sculptures1 enamels1             
colour-scheme were of another bias4     

,their stamp came from ,italy1 and if   
not so deep as that of ,flanders or     
,dijon1 it was equally inevitable and   
more permanent4  ,the first name that we
 meet with among the illuminators of    
,touraine who are expressly connected   
with the ,renaissance is that of ,jean  
,fouquet4 ,of his origin or training    
nothing seems to be known1 but he was   
born probably about #adae4 ,he must have
 acquired distinction even as a youth1  
for some twenty-five years afterwards   
7#addj-c7 he was invited to ,rome to    
paint the portrait of ,pope ,eugenius   
,,iv41 and he stayed in ,italy until    
#addg4 ,on his return to ,france he was 
made valet de chambre and painter to    
,charles ,,vii4 at ,tours1 and continued
 in the same office under ,louis ,,xi4  
,it was part of the business of the     
paintre du roy to design and provide    
decorations and costumes1 banners and   
devices for all state ceremonies1 and   
this became ,fouquet's duty at the      
funeral of ,charles ,,vii41 and when    

,louis instituted the ,order of ,st4    
,michel in #adgj1 and the last trace of 
him as an artist occurs about #adgg4    
,his sons1 ,louis and ,francis1 were    
both painters1 and1 like himself1 worked
 much at the illumination of books4 ,it 
is curious that this great master--one  
of the greatest miniaturists of any     
school1 and one of the founders of the  
,french school of painting--became      
entirely forgotten until the discovery  
of some fragments of a ,book of ,hours  
painted for ,estienne ,chevalier1 the   
,king's treasurer4  ,forty miniatures of
 the most masterly description came into
 the hands of ,m4 ,louis                
,brentano-,laroche1 of                  
,frankfort-on-the-,maine4 ,their        
uncommon excellence led to a most       
diligent search for information         
respecting the artist1 which resulted in
 the unearthing of many other examples  
of his unequalled pencil4 ,we now know  
of a dozen most precious examples4      
,besides the ,brentano miniatures1 two  

other fragments of the same ,book of    
,hours have been found1 and several     
large and important ,,mss4 ,among these 
we may name the ,antiquities of the     
,jews1 by ,josephus1 in the ,national   
,library at ,paris 7,,mss4 ,des4 #fhia71
 and a ,book of ,hours1 executed for    
,marie de ,clve1 widow of ,charles ,duke
 of ,orleans1 in #adgb4 ,attributed to  
him are the ,versailles ,livy 7,nat4    
,lib41 ,paris1 #fijg72 the ,sorbonne    
,livy 7fds4 de ,sorb4 #big74 ,a ,livy in
 the public library at ,tours also      
passes under his name1 and the famous   
,boccaccio of ,estienne ,chevalier at   
,munich1 containing ninety miniatures1  
is also confidently assigned to him4    
,other ,,mss4 that are imputed to him   
are probably the work of his sons or    
scholars4  ,the ,paris ,josephus is     
generally considered his masterpiece4   
,the volume 7which contains only the    
first fourteen books7 is in folio1      
written most beautifully in two columns1
 and is adorned with miniatures1        

vignettes1 and initials1 but much of its
 interest lies in the note at the end1  
placed there by ,robortet1 secretary to 
the ,due de ,bourbon3 ,en ce livre a    
douze ystoires les troys premieres de   
l'enlumineur du duc ,jehan de ,berry1 et
 les neuf de la main du bon paintre et  
enlumineur du roy ,loys ,x,ie ,jehan    
,foucquet1 natif de ,tours4 ,and we     
gather from another note that the book  
had been entrusted to ,fouquet for      
completion by ,jacques d',armagnac duc  
de ,nemours4 ,a further note informs us 
that the book belonged to the ,duc de   
,bourbon4 ,it seems to have been one of 
the rich presents made by the ,due de   
,berry to ,jacques de ,nemours4 ,the    
first three miniatures are by the       
illuminator of the ,duc de ,berry1 and  
this artist was probably ,andrieu       
,beauneveu1 though other illuminators   
did work for him1 as ,jacques de ,hesdin
 and ,pol de ,limbourg4 ,the fourth     
miniature is by ,fouquet1 and represents
 a battle2 the rest to the seventh are  

either not his best work or else the    
work of his pupils1 but the seventh on  
folio #ace gives us a good idea of      
,fouquet at his best4 ,it represents    
,david receiving with his crown the news
 of the death of ,saul4 ,the eighth1    
ninth1 and tenth are very fine1 but the 
eleventh ,m4 ,paulin ,paris 7,,mss4 du  
,roy7 thinks the most beautiful of all4 
,its subject is the clemency of ,cyrus  
towards the captive ,jews in            
,babylon4#ee ,of the other ,,mss4 space 
forbids us reluctantly to forego        
description4  #ee ,see ,mrs4 ,mark      
,pattison's 7,lady ,dilke7 ,the         
,renaissance in ,france1 i4 #bgc1 etc42 
,bradley1 ,dict4 of ,miniaturists art4  
,fouquet1 i4 #cdf4  ,the characteristics
 of the school of ,tours as seen in the 
work of the greatest of its expositors  
is 7#a7 ,the clearly marked influence of
 ,italy and the antique4 7#b7 ,a        
masterly understanding of ,french       
landscape 7see fine instances of this   
understanding also in ,trsor des        

,histoires1 now in the ,british ,museum1
 ,cott41 ,aug4 #e74 7#c7 ,a complete    
freedom from ,gothic influence and from 
the domination of the school of ,bruges4
 ,the colours for which ,fouquet seems  
to have a preference are1 first1 a clear
 orange-vermilion1 supported by golden  
brown and gold1 clear blue and green1   
lemon-yellow2 and then1 as a contrast1  
grey of various tones in walls and      
buildings1 soft landscape greens1 and   
arial tints of distance and sky4        
,perhaps the technical skill of ,fouquet
 has never been surpassed4 ,it is so    
perfect that some have tried to explain 
it by supposing that he was trained in a
 ,flemish studio4 ,his sons and pupils  
continued his methods1 and thus while   
,paris remains under the influence of   
,flemish masters1 ,tours was carrying   
forward a quite different type of       
traditions4  ,the ,valerius ,maximus    
7,harl4 #dcgd7 of the ,british ,museum  
will give an idea of the later ,paris   
school4 ,its date is about the end of   

the fifteenth century4  ,we ought not in
 this place to forget the influence     
brought into ,french art through the    
marriage of the murdered ,duke of       
,orleans with ,valentina of ,milan1 not 
only directly through books and artists1
 but by the hereditary transmission of  
that love of art and beautiful things   
for which ,valentina and her family were
 well known4 ,it was in art1 letters1   
and books that the widowed princess     
sought such consolation as was          
possible4#ef ,in her best days she had  
united in herself a seductive grace of  
carriage1 beauty of person1 and dignity 
of rank1 which made her the ornament of 
the ,french ,court4 ,she was almost the 
only one about the unfortunate ,charles 
,,vi4 who could influence him in his    
moments of mental aberration4 ,coming   
from the luxury of the most splendid    
court in ,italy1 she brought into       
,france the most refined taste in       
matters connected with the arts4 ,the   
inventory of her jewels at the time of  

her marriage includes three ,books of   
,hours1 three ,german ,,mss41 and a     
volume called ,mandavilla4 ,like her    
husband she was an employer both of     
copyists and illuminators1 and before   
her death had collected at her ,castle  
of ,blois a very fine collection of     
beautiful books4  #ef ,she assumed as   
her impresa the chantepleure1 with the  
sorrowful motto3 ,plus ne m'est rien3   
rien ne m'est plus4  ,her son ,charles1 
the poet1 inherited her tastes1 and     
added to her collections4 ,we are not   
surprised1 therefore1 to find her       
grandson ,louis1 afterwards ,louis      
,,xii41 supporting the great artistic   
movement which he and his ,queen ,anne  
of ,brittany helped so effectually to   
identify with the ,court of ,france4    
,about the time that we hear the last of
 ,fouquet we have the earliest notices  
of another illuminator who plays an     
important part in the illuminations     
executed for ,anne of ,brittany1 the    
noble and gifted ,queen of ,france1 and 

wife1 first of ,charles ,,viii4 and then
 of his successor1 ,louis ,,xii4  ,in   
#adgb ,jean ,perral is entrusted with   
the glass paintings of the ,carmelite   
church at ,tours4 ,lemaire1 in his      
,lgende des ,vnitiens1 calls him a      
second ,zeuxis or ,apelles4 ,during the 
reigns of ,charles ,,viii4 and ,louis   
,,xii4 he is the chief artist of the    
time3 ,in #adia1 and perhaps earlier1 he
 is engaged in the usual duties of a    
valet de chambre1 i4e4 designing and    
preparing the requisite devises1 arms1  
and banners for public functions4 ,in   
#aejb he went to ,italy4 ,in #aeji his  
name occurs in connection with that of  
,jean ,bourdichon1 of whom we shall hear
 more when we come to the work done for 
the ,queen4 ,in #aebc in the household  
of ,francis ,i4 he is still valet de    
chambre4 ,twenty-four years previously  
it was as valet de chambre that he      
prepared the decorations for ,louis     
,,xii4's entry into ,lyons4 ,on the     
death of ,anne of ,brittany also he     

performed similar duties1 and again on  
that of ,louis ,,xii4 ,he even came to  
,england in #aead1 sent by ,louis       
,,xii41 to superintend the trousseau of 
,mary ,tudor1 pour aider  dresser le    
dict appareil  la mode de ,france1      
previous to her wedding journey to      
,paris4#eg ,four months afterwards he   
was summoned to direct the funeral      
obsequies of ,louis himself4 ,no        
illuminated work can be really          
identified as the work of ,perral1 but  
,mrs4 ,patteson 7,lady ,dilke7 strongly 
urges the probability that he painted   
the ,bible ,historie of ,corpus ,christi
 ,college1 ,cambridge1 bequeathed by    
,general ,oglethorpe4#eh ,she considers 
it quite the sort of work that would    
grow out of that of ,fouquet1 and dwells
 upon the fact of his official duties as
 valet de chambre giving him just that  
minute facility in the decoration of    
armour and furniture in the miniatures  
which the ,,ms4 displays4 ,whether this 
be so or not1 it is certain that the    

,bible ,historie is a fine example of   
the school of ,tours4  #eg ,see ,vespas1
 b4 #b 7,brit4 ,mus474  #eh ,see her    
,renaissance of ,art in ,france1 i4     
#cjc4  ,another court painter and valet 
de chambre to ,louis ,,xi4 and his      
successors was ,jean ,bourdichon1 an    
artist born at ,tours in #adeg1 and     
therefore as a youth probably one of the
 scholars in the atelier of ,jean       
,fouquet4 ,he is first noticed in the   
accounts in or about #adgh3 ,a ,jehan   
,bourdichon1 paintre1 la somme de vingt 
livres dix sept solz ung denier tournois
 pour avoir paint le tabernacle fait    
pour la chapelle du ,plessis du ,pare1  
de fin or et d'azur4#ei ,later on1 after
 naming the painting of a statute of    
,st4 ,martin1 for which he received     
twenty golden crowns1 is a note of his  
painting a ,,ms41 which we translate3   
,to the said ,bourdichon for having had 
written a book in parchment named the   
,papalist--the same illuminated in gold 
and azure and made in the same #ai rich 

histories 7miniatures7 and for getting  
it bound and covered1 thirty crowns of  
gold4 ,for this by virtue of the said   
order of the ,king and by quittance of  
the abovenamed written the #eth ,april  
,one thousand four hundred and eighty   
7milcccciiiixx7 after ,easter1 here     
rendered the sum of #ai #a4 #h4  #ei    
,comptes de l',htel de ,louis ,,xi41    
#adgh-ha4  ,another quittance shows him 
to have been employed on the decorations
 of the chteau of ,plessis les ,tours4  
,we may easily see how it is that these 
artists1 when they came to illuminate   
the books entrusted to them1 had such   
special knowledge of embroideries and   
decoration of armour when we read in the
 accounts how they were constantly      
employed in designing dresses for       
weddings1 tournaments1 and funeral      
obsequies1 and making patterns for the  
dress and equipment of war4  ,a notice  
in #aejh tells us that ,anne of         
,brittany made an order of payment to   
,bourdichon of #a1jej livres tournois   

for having richly and sumptuously       
historiated and illuminated a great     
,book of ,hours for our use and service 
to which he has given and employed much 
time1 and also on behalf of other       
services which he has rendered hitherto4
 ,this refers to the celebrated ,hours  
of ,anne of ,brittany1 now in the       
,national ,library at ,paris4  ,this    
volume1 peerless of its kind1 has been  
reproduced in colour lithography by     
,curmer of ,paris--the result1 however1 
is disappointing from the flat and faded
 look of the prints as compared with the
 brilliancy of the original pages4 ,the 
,,ms4 is an invaluable monument of      
,french ,renaissance illumination4 ,it  
is ,french of ,touraine rather than of  
,paris1 yet bearing traces in its       
flowers and fruit borders of ,flemish   
modes of ornament4 ,it has also         
reminiscences of ,italian painting4 ,but
 the ,french neatness and restraint from
 over-decoration have kept it in a      
manner unique4 ,it has not quite the    

softness of ,italian1 and is far from   
the intensity of ,flemish4 ,indeed1 its 
fault1 if it be faulty1 is in its want  
of force4 ,with the exception of ,anne's
 own portrait given with her patrons1   
,st4 ,anne1 ,st4 ,helena1 and ,st4      
,ursula4 ,the ,queen's gown is of brown 
gold brocade trimmed with dark brown    
fur4 ,her hair is brown1 like the fur4  
,she wears a necklace of gems set in    
gold4 ,on her head is a black hood edged
 with gold and jewels1 beneath which and
 next her face is a border of crimped   
white muslin1 ,she has brown eyes and   
finely pencilled eyebrows4 ,as to nose  
and mouth1 she and the two younger      
saints are pretty much alike4 ,with the 
allowance of blue for black1 ,st4 ,anne 
wears the dress of a ,benedictine       
abbess4 ,a dark crimson cloth covers a  
table before which the ,queen is        
kneeling1 and on which lies open a      
finely illuminated ,service-book4 ,the  
,calendar which follows this portrait is
 for each month enclosed in a margin of 

ornament4 ,to the outer margin of every 
other page of the book is placed a broad
 tablet or pilaster containing flowers1 
fruits1 insects1 etc41 from five to six 
inches high1 each having the ,latin name
 of the plant1 etc41 at top in red1 and 
the ,french one in red or blue at the   
bottom4 ,these names may have been put  
in later4 ,it must be admitted that the 
fruits1 flowers1 and insects are painted
 with the greatest care and neatness1   
though sometimes a little assisted by   
the imagination of the painter4 ,the    
text and initials are rather heavy and  
commonplace4 ,now and then a border     
surrounds the text completely1 where    
flowers or fruits are                   
scattered--somewhat recklessly at times1
 but usually with good design--over a   
ground of plain gold1 on which the      
branches1 etc41 cast heavy shadows4     
,this part of the design is certainly   
,flemish4 ,where histories occur the    
border is a plain brown gilt frame      
within a black border4 ,undoubtedly the 

,hours of ,anne of ,brittany is a very  
precious volume4 ,the figure subjects   
are of various degrees of excellence4   
,the four evangelists are vivid1 and    
recall the portraits of ,ghirlandaio1   
and it is to ,italy also that the       
illuminator is indebted for his         
architectural and sculptural details4   
,yet ,bourdichon is inferior to ,fouquet
 in colouring1 as the latter is to the  
,italians in design and composition4    
,perhaps he is most successful in his   
flowers and insects4 ,nothing1 said     
,muntz1 is less like the elegant        
foliages of ,ghirlandaio and ,attavante1
 and nothing is more worthy of being put
 in comparison with them4#fj  #fj ,la   
,renaissance en ,italie1 etc41 #edg-h4  
,an illuminator of the name of ,jehan   
,poyet is said to have assisted in the  
,hours1 thus while ,bourdichon painted  
the miniatures1 ,poyet put in the       
flowers and fruit1 etc42 but this share 
of work is by some believed to belong to
 a smaller ,book of ,hours executed for 

the ,queen4 ,flowers and fruit are said 
to have been ,poyet's speciality1 and it
 is quite possible that he may have had 
the painting of the borders of the      
,grandes ,heures1 while ,bourdichon did 
the rest4 ,the writer of the ,,ms4 was  
another native of ,tours1 named ,jehan  
,riveron4 ,during the reign of ,francis 
,i4 the school of ,tours was removed to 
,paris because the ,court had settled   
there4 ,louis ,,xii4 had died in the    
,htel des ,tournelles1 and ,francis1    
though full of plans for plaisances     
elsewhere1 lived mostly in ,paris4      
,fontainebleau is the dream of the near 
future4 ,il ,rosso1 the ,italian        
architect1 painter1 poet1 and musician1 
was busy there amid a crowd of other    
artists from ,florence and ,rome--the   
refuse of a once brilliant sodality4 ,it
 was the frivolous1 pretty1 graceful    
side of ,italian art that came northward
 in that great migration--the graver and
 more dignified elements were left      
behind4 ,to see what ,italian art became

 in ,france1 we have only to enter the  
,grand ,gallery at ,fontainebleau1 and  
we see it at its best in architecture1  
sculpture1 and painting4 ,and we cannot 
help admiring it1 for it is amazingly   
beautiful4 ,yet it is not ,italian--the 
,italian of the ,medici and ,farnese    
palaces4 ,il ,rosso was neither a       
,michelangelo nor a ,carracci2 but he   
set a fashion4 ,he changed the face of  
art for ,france4 ,nor was it in painting
 and sculpture only4 ,the ,italian      
passion for devises1 anagrams1 emblems1 
and mottoes became the rage in ,paris4  
,it first came in with the return of    
,charles ,,viii4 from his ,neapolitan   
campaign4 ,louis ,,xii4 adopted the     
hedgehog or porcupine1 with the motto   
,cominus et eminus4 ,his ,queen         
,claude's motto was ,candida candidis4  
,the ,princess ,marguerite's emblem was 
a marigold or heliotrope2 others        
assigned her the daisy4 ,her motto3 ,non
 inferiora secutus4 ,the well-known     
emblem of ,francis was a                

salamander--why1 is a mystery--with the 
motto1 ,nutrisco et extinguo4 ,all this 
entered into the taste of the           
illuminator1 and elegant cartouche      
frames--probably of ,dutch origin1 as we
 see in the old map-books of ,ortelius  
,cluverius and ,bleau1 imported by      
,ortelius and his friends into ,italy1  
and made use of by ,clovis1 and thence  
transferred to ,france--were made into  
border-frames for miniatures1 varied    
with altar-forms1 doorways1 and other   
fanciful frameworks from the new        
architecture decorated with flowers1    
ribbons1 panels1 mottoes4 ,another new  
thing1 too1 no doubt afforded plenty of 
suggestion to the illuminator4 ,this was
 stained glass4 ,jean ,cousin was in his
 glory in glass-painting2 ,robert       
,pinagrier also4 ,but it was ,cousin who
 adopted the new ,italian ideas1 and    
whose works were models for the         
illuminator4 ,in the backgrounds and    
details of his glass-paintings at ,sens1
 ,fleurigny1 ,paris1 and elsewhere1 we  

may trace his progress2 and an excellent
 model1 too1 was ,jean ,cousin4 ,he has 
other claims to remembrance in          
sculpture1 engraving1 authorship1 but it
 is as the glass-painter that his       
influence is seen in illumination4      
,indeed1 ,mr4 ,a4,f4 ,didot strongly    
urged the probability that ,cousin was  
himself the illuminator of the splendid 
,breviary or ,hours of ,claude          
,gouffier4#fa ,the drawing is in his    
best manner1 the frame-border of        
caryatides in camaieu is of a richness  
of ornamentation in keeping with the    
rest of the volume4 ,the arms and motto 
of ,gouffier are painted in it4 ,it is  
objected that ,cousin's name does not   
appear in the ,gouffier account-books1  
while those of other artists are given4 
,but only a portion of the accounts is  
extant4 ,cousin may1 perhaps1 only have 
designed the book1 and the other        
miniaturists carried out his designs4   
,at any rate1 the accounts give us the  
names of three miniaturists which we may

 here record--,jean ,lemaire1 of ,paris 
7#aeee71 ,charles ,jourdain1 and        
,geoffroy ,ballin 7#acei74 ,these       
enlumineurs are stated to have decorated
 two ,books of ,hours for ,gouffier's   
wedding4 ,as a good example of the style
 employed in the decoration of          
title-pages1 we may quote the           
chimney-piece of the ,chteau d',anet1   
executed for ,diane de ,poitiers1 where 
a sculptured marble frame surrounds a   
painted landscape4 ,many of the books of
 the time of ,francis ,i4 and ,henry    
,,ii4 are ornamented in this style4  #fa
 ,now belonging to ,m4 le ,vicomte de   
,tanz4  ,in the ,british ,museum are    
several fine ,,mss4 illustrative of this
 period of ,french illumination1 viz4   
,add4 #ahhec1 #ahhed1 and #ahhee4 ,these
 three ,,mss4 formed part of the        
purchase which included the ,bedford    
,offices4 #ahhec is a ,book of ,offices 
executed apparently for ,francis ,i4 ,in
 some of the borders is a large ,f with 
the ,cordelire of the third ,order of   

,st4 ,francis and a rayed crown1 and on 
folio #ig v4 a large monogram consisting
 of the letter ,f1 with two crossed     
sceptres and palm branches1 surmounted  
by the crown-royal of ,france4  ,nothing
 is known of the history of the ,,ms4   
from #aedg to #agbc1 when it was in     
possession of the ,regent ,philippe     
d',orlans4 ,possibly it had remained as 
an heirloom in the family4 ,philippe    
gave it to his natural son the ,abb     
,rothelin1 a great lover of rare books  
and a noted collector1 at whose death it
 was bought by ,gaignat1 another        
collector1 who sold it to the ,duc de la
 ,vallire1 and so1 step by step1 it came
 at length to ,sir ,john ,tobin1 of     
,liverpool1 and thence to the ,british  
,museum4  ,the partly sculpturesque     
character of the border-frames are of   
the kind just referred to1 with festoons
 and garlands of flowers1 and drapery1  
monograms1 and emblems in full rich     
colours2 the architecture and other     
ornaments sometimes finished with       

pencillings of gold4 ,the miniatures are
 of excellent design and colour1 finely 
modelled1 and quite in the manner of the
 paintings of ,fontainebleau4 ,the text 
is a combination of ,jarry-like ,roman  
with italic4 ,it may be compared with   
#ahhed1 similar in some respects1 but   
the smaller miniatures and the frames   
look more like the older school of      
,tours4 ,this ,,ms4 is also a ,book of  
,offices1 and was written for ,franois  
de ,dinteville1 ,bishop of ,auxerre1 in 
#aebe1 as appears from an inscription in
 gold letters on fol4 #bf v4            
,illustration3 ,,officm4 ,b4 ,,mari     
,,virgines ,c4 #aecj ,brit4 ,mus4 ,add4 
,,ms4 #ahhec1 fol4 #eb  ,illustration3  
,,officm4 ,,mortuorum4 #af,,th ,,cent4  
7,,early7 ,brit4 ,mus4 ,egert4 ,,ms4    
#babe1 fol4 #ahc  ,some of the          
border-frames are drawn in sepia1 others
 in red-brown or burnt siena1 and highly
 finished with gold4 ,the writing is a  
small ,roman hand4 ,on the whole it is  
richer in illustration than #ahhec1 but 

not so perfect in drawing1 yet it is a  
very fine ,,ms4 ,sometimes it has a     
border like those in the ,hours of ,anne
 of ,brittany4 ,on fol4 #bf v4 is a     
curious border of twisted ribbons       
covered with mottoes1 such as ,virtutis 
fortuna comes1 ,ingrates servire nephas1
 etc4  ,some of the tiny miniatures of  
the saints in the ,memori are very      
charmingly painted3 ,st4 ,mary          
,magdalene1 for instance1 on fol4 #adg  
v4 ,the pillar architecture of some of  
the borders1 with pendant festoons of   
flowers1 is also very handsome4  #ahhee1
 folio1 is a ,book of ,offices written  
in a ,gothic text4 ,the miniatures are  
large full-page paintings within        
architectural frames or porches1 with   
coloured pillars or pilasters with      
panels of rich blue1 covered with golden
 traceries1 bronze gold pendants at     
side1--occasional borders as in the     
,hours of ,anne of ,brittany4 ,the work 
is of the older school of ,tours1 but   
loaded with ornamental details from     

,north ,italian pilaster-work4 ,among   
the best miniatures are the ,nativity   
7#cd v471 the ,adoration of the ,magi   
7#db v471 and the ,bathsheba4 ,the last 
perhaps a little too open a scene for a 
lady's bathroom1 but placed within a    
most gorgeous architectural window or   
doorway 7fol4 #fb v74 ,compare also     
,harl4 #eibe1 ,no4 #egd1 for a          
title-page of ,french ,renaissance style
 from a printed book1 which suggests    
,venice as the source of the style of   
#ahhec4   ,in the ,national ,library at 
,paris are1 of course1 a number of this 
class of ,,mss41 such as the ,offices   
7,,ms4 ,lat4 #ajefc71 ,officium ,beat   
,mari ,virginis ad usum ,romanor        
7#aeca71 or the exquisitely painted     
,heures de ,henry #b;d 7fds4 ,lat4      
#adbi71 or the magnificent ,epistres    
d',ovide of ,louisa of ,savoy 7fds4 fr4 
#hge71 and others4  ,by no means of less
 importance we may cite the beautiful   
volume belonging to the late ,comte     
d',haussonville1 now in the ,muse ,cond 

at ,chantilly1 called the ,heures du    
,conntable ,anne de ,montmorency1 and   
the ,heures de ,dinteville 7,,ms4 ,lat4 
#ajeeh71 the decoration of which is     
quite on a par with the ,heures de      
,montmorency1 or those of ,henry ,,ii41 
also the ,psalter of ,claude ,gouffier  
7,arsenal ,lib41 #ejie71 containing the 
,psalms of ,marot4  ,it is scarcely     
worth while to carry the subject        
further4 ,what is done later than       
,francis ,,ii4 does not grow finer or   
better3 it only becomes more overloaded 
with ornament1 too much gold1 too much  
richness4 ,even foliages are often      
variegated like pearls1 or change       
gradually from colour to colour on the  
same sweep of acanthus as in a ,,ms4 in 
the ,british ,museum attributed to      
,pierre ,mignard 7,sol ,gallicus1 ,add4 
#bcgde74 ,compare also the ,heures de   
,louis ,,xiv4 ,now and then an          
exceptional work1 like that of          
,d',eaubonne at ,rouen1 belongs to no   
particular school4     ,,chapter ,x     

,,spanish ,,and ,,portuguese            
,,illumination  ,late period of ,spanish
 illumination--,isidore of              
,seville--,archives at                  
,madrid--,barcelona--,toledo--,madrid--,
choir-books of the ,escorial--,philip   
,,ii4--,illuminators of the             
choir-books--,the size and beauty of the
 volumes--,fray ,andrs de ,leon and     
other artists--,italian                 
influence--,giovanni ,battista ,scorza  
of ,genoa--,antonio de ,holanda1        
well-known ,portuguese miniaturist in   
sixteenth century--,his son             
,francesco--,the choir-books at         
,belem--,french invasion--,missal of    
,gonalvez--,sandoval                    
,genealogies--,portuguese ,genealogies  
in ,british ,museum--,the ,stowe ,missal
 of ,john ,,iii4   ,since all the best  
and best-known work of ,spanish or      
,portuguese illuminators was executed in
 the sixteenth century1 and is          
manifestly a reflection with peculiar   
mannerisms of either ,flemish or        

,italian illumination of the same       
period1 it may seem almost superfluous  
to devote a separate chapter to the     
subject4 ,yet there is a goodly list of 
both ,spanish and ,portuguese artists   
who practised the art of illumination4  
,so early as the time of ,isidore of    
,seville we find notices of libraries1  
copyists1 and the like 7see book iv4 of 
his ,encyclopdia71 and an able writer of
 the last century1 ,don ,jos ,maria de  
,eguren1 published a work on the ,,ms4  
rarities of ,spain4#fb ,the most        
important of the miniatures in the      
famous ,codex ,vigilano are also        
reproduced in ,el ,museo ,espaol de     
antiguedades1 most interesting          
respecting the calligraphy and miniature
 art of the eleventh century4  #fb      
,memoria de los ,codices notables       
conservados en los archivos             
ecleseasticos de ,espana4 ,madrid1      
#ahei1 ,l4 #h4  ,one of the earliest    
instances of royal patronage bestowed on
 painting in ,spain is a document in the

 ,royal ,library at ,madrid1 containing 
the expenses of ,king ,sanchez ,,iv4 in 
#abia-b4 ,thus to ,rodrigo ,esteban1    
painter of the king for many paintings  
done by the king's orders in the        
bishop's palace #ajj golden maravedis4  
,again1 in the archives at ,barcelona we
 find that ,juan ,cesilles1 painter of  
history1 was engaged #afth ,march1      
#achb1 to paint the ,history of the     
twelve apostles for the grand altar of  
the ,church at ,reps for #ccj florins4  
,in #acci one ,gonzalez ,ferran had some
 reputation both as a wood engraver and 
a painter4 ,he was probably a           
miniaturist4 ,in #acdj-ha1 ,garcia      
,martinez1 a ,spanish illuminator1      
worked at ,avignon4 ,a copy of the      
,decretals1 dated #acha1 in the         
,cathedral ,library of ,seville is by   
his hand4  ,in the fifteenth century we 
have many notices of painters1          
especially in ,toledo1 whither the taste
 was in all likelihood brought from     
,naples after the conquest of that      

kingdom by ,alphonso ,v4 of ,aragon in  
#adda4  ,it has been observed by those  
familiar with native ,spanish art that  
its chief characteristic is that it is  
gloomy4 ,this may be so1 but it is not  
fairly chargeable to the artists but to 
the tyranny of the ,spanish ,inquisidor1
 who laid the embargo on the illuminator
 that he should not follow the wicked   
gaiety of the ,italians1 nor the        
sometimes too realistic veracity of the 
,flemings4 ,this accounts usually for   
backgrounds of black where the ,fleming 
would have had rich colour or gold for  
the prevalence of black in the draperies
 and for the sombre tone in general of  
,spanish painting4 ,it is not always in 
evidence1 as may be seen in many of the 
miniatures of the famous choir-books in 
the ,escorial4 ,the sombre period began 
under ,ferdinand the ,catholic1 and it  
has left its mark on the schools of the 
fifteenth century4 ,the sixteenth began 
a new era1 and under ,philip ,,ii4      
several1 both ,netherlandish and        

,italian1 miniaturists were invited to  
assist in the production of the enormous
 choir-books ordered by the ,king for   
,san ,lorenzo of the ,escorial1 between 
#aegb and #aehi4 ,the volumes are bound 
in wooden boards covered with leather1  
stamped and bossed with ornaments of    
gilded bronze4 ,it is said that #e1ejj  
lbs4 of bronze and #dj lbs4 of pure gold
 were used in the bindings4 ,the actual 
dimensions of the volumes are #aae by   
#hd centimetres4 ,every volume has at   
least seventy folios1 and every folio is
 splendidly illuminated1 thus affording 
more than #cj1jjj pages covered with    
richly ornamented initials1 miniatures1 
and borders4 ,the illuminators and      
copyists of these choir-books were      
,cristobal ,ramirez1 who planned the    
work1 fixed the size and other details  
of the volumes and the character of the 
handwriting1 ,fray ,andrs de ,leon1     
,fray ,julian de ,fuente del ,saz1      
,ambrosio ,salazar1 ,fray ,martin de    
,palencia1 ,francisco ,hernandez1 ,pedro

 ,salavarte1 and ,pedro ,gomez4 ,ramirez
 was engaged at the ,escorial from #aeff
 to #aegb4 ,in the latter year he       
presented a ,breviary with musical      
notation to the ,king1 and was then     
engaged for the great undertaking       
mentioned above4  ,andrs ,cristobal was 
also an illuminator of note at ,seville1
 where he worked from #aeee to #aeei4   
,andrs de ,leon worked at the ,escorial 
from #aefh1 and is especially mentioned 
by ,los ,santos in his well-known       
description of the monastery of ,san    
,lorenzo3 ,son de gran numero y         
excelencia las iluminaciones que tienen 
de mano nuestro ,fray ,andrs de ,leon1  
que fue otro ,don ,julio en el ,arte4#fc
 ,the allusion is to the celebrated ,don
 ,giulio ,clovio1 then in the height of 
his fame in ,italy4 ,fray ,julian       
received similar praise for a           
capitolario for the principal festivals 
of the year1 especially for the grand   
dimensions of the miniatures1 the like  
of which the writer says had never been 

seen before1 either in ,spain or ,italy4
 ,andrs de ,leon died at the ,escorial  
in #aehj4 ,salazar continued working on 
them till they were completed1 and in   
#aeij went to ,toledo1 where he finished
 two ,missals for the ,cathedral1 which 
had been begun by the famous ,juan      
,martinez de los ,corrales4 ,he was     
still engaged on similar work until his 
death in #afjd4 ,two other illuminators1
 ,esteban and ,julian de ,salazar1 were 
working at the ,escorial in #aehe4      
,bermudez#fd mentions ,fray ,martin de  
,palencia as having executed a volume in
 a fine handwriting and with beautiful  
miniatures for the monastery of ,saso4  
,thus we see there were numerous        
miniaturists in ,spain in the latest    
years of the existence of the art that  
had been imported chiefly from ,italy4  
#fc ,fr4 ,francisco de los ,santos1     
,description breve del ,monasterio de   
,s4 ,lorenzo el ,real del ,escorial1    
#bd4  #fd ,diccionario1 iv4 #bd4  ,after
 most of these great choir-books had    

been finished there were still others in
 progress4 ,in #aehc ,giovanni ,battista
 ,scorza of ,genoa1 who is celebrated in
 the ,galleria of the ,cavaliero        
,marini1 was invited by the ,king to    
take part in his great choir-book       
scheme4 ,scorza was then thirty-six     
years of age1 and in the height of his  
reputation as a painter of small animals
 and insects4 ,after a little time he   
returned to ,genoa1 where he lived to be
 ninety years old4 ,he had a brother1   
,sinibaldo1 who was equally skilful in  
miniature1 and especially in scenes from
 history4 ,the ,scorzas were pupils of  
,luca ,cambiaso4 ,it may be noticed that
 all this work in miniature1 although so
 late in its own history1 is            
accomplished before the greatest names  
in ,spanish painting are known4 ,josefo 
,ribera was born in #aehh2 ,zurbaran in 
#aeih2 ,velasquez in #aeii2 ,alonzo     
,cano in #afja2 ,murillo in #afag4      
,this1 in a sense1 is the natural course
 of things1 as1 generally1 illumination 

has preceded the other kinds of         
painting4  ,with regard to ,portugal1   
very little is recorded that does not in
 some way connect itself with ,spain4   
,so we find that ,antonio and ,francesco
 de ,holanda1 seemingly of              
,netherlandish origin1 are mentioned in 
relation to the books illuminated for   
the ,royal ,monastery of ,thomar2       
,francesco also worked for the monastery
 of ,belem4 ,francesco de ,holanda was a
 great admirer and imitator of ,clovio1 
but he always insisted that his father  
,antonio was the inventor of the method 
of stippling1 as the finishing with     
minute points of colour is technically  
called1 which was brought to such       
perfection by ,clovio and his scholars  
and imitators4  ,taken altogether1 the  
work of the ,spanish illuminators at the
 ,escorial and those of ,toledo and     
,seville is really the same1 with just  
the variations we might expect from     
pupils and imitators1 as that of their  
masters in ,genoa1 ,rome1 ,venice1 or   

,bruges4 ,examples of it may be seen    
occasionally in diplomas1 such as are   
found in the ,british ,museum and other 
public libraries1 as1 e4g4 ,claud4 ,b4  
x4 ,lansd4 #ahi1 ,add4 #abbad1 #ahaia1  
#bgbca1 etc4  ,in #aegb1 the same year  
in which ,luiz de ,camoens published his
 ,lusiades1 an accomplished             
calligrapher1 ,miguel ,barata1 published
 an elaborate treatise on his own art1  
then in high repute4  ,in the fourteenth
 century the ,cancioniero of ,don ,pedro
 ,affonso ,ct4 de ,barcellos affords an 
example of the calligraphy 7for which   
,spain and ,portugal have always been   
famous7 and illumination which is       
precious for the student4 ,it is still  
in existence in the ,palace of ,ajuda4  
,its date is #acbj-dj4 ,and there are   
,,mss4 in the ,torre do ,tombo of       
,lisbon that are richly illuminated4    
,again1 in ,seville there is the ,juego 
de las ,tablas1 executed under ,alphonso
 the ,wise in #abhc1 with its ,gothic   
arcades and ornaments4 ,m4 ,joaquin de  

,vasconcellas has made a study of this  
,,ms4 ,the miniatures of the ,torre do  
,tombo of the thirteenth and fourteenth 
centuries are mostly of the ,french     
school4  ,about #adbh #cc was executed a
 splendid ,,ms4 entitled ,leal          
,conselheiro1 which is attributed to a  
famous miniaturist in his time named    
,vasco4 ,it is1 however1 simply a       
monument of penmanship1 as it contains  
no miniatures4 ,the ,,ms4 has been      
edited by ,l',abb ,roquete in #ahdb4    
,the ,portuguese ,,mss4 of the fifteenth
 century betray a decided ,flemish      
influence1 as well they may1 for        
probably the producers of them were     
,flemings4 ,constant intercourse with   
the ,court of ,burgundy had something to
 do with this4  ,the ,chronica do       
descobrimento e conquista de ,guin1 now 
at ,torre do ,tombo1 is clearly a       
,flemish work4 ,it was begun about      
#addj1 and finished in #adec4 ,the      
portrait of the ,enfante ,don ,henrique1
 called the ,navigator1 is set in a     

border evidently by a pupil or imitator 
of ,j4 ,van ,eyck4 ,the calligraphy of  
the ,,ms4 is most beautiful4 ,this      
influence of the ,netherlands on        
,portuguese art is1 indeed1 confirmed by
 the political diplomatic relations of  
the fifteenth century1 and is of some   
importance in the history of art4 ,we   
shall refer again to this matter when   
dealing with another ,,ms4  ,among all  
the calligraphic monuments of ,portugal 
it is claimed that the most splendid is 
the ,bible of the ,hieronymites4 7,see  
,revista universal ,lisbonense1 #ahdh1  
pp4 #bd-h47 ,this work1 it is said1 was 
a present from the ,court of ,rome to   
,emanuel1 successor of ,john ,,ii41 in  
remembrance of the homage made to the   
,holy ,see1 of the first gold brought   
from the ,indies1 but the story is very 
doubtful4 ,the ,king1 in bequeathing the
 seven volumes to the convent of ,belem1
 says nothing about such an origin4     
,they are manifestly in great part the  
work of foreign artists4 ,one well-known

 miniaturist1 ,antonio de ,holanda1 the 
father of the better-known ,francesco1  
took part in the work1 and having a good
 conceit of his own abilities 7we shall 
probably hear of him again71 reserved an
 entire volume to himself in order to   
give proof of them4 ,the seven volumes  
which then were covered with crimson    
velvet and silver bosses and enamels1   
are now simply bound in red morocco4 ,in
 the middle of each cover are the arms  
of ,emanuel ,king of ,portugal4 ,vols4  
v4 and vii4 have those of ,dona ,isabel1
 his ,spanish wife4  ,the initials and  
ornaments show that the art of ,italy is
 freely mixed with that of ,portugal4   
,indeed1 from the signatures in the     
volumes it is seen that the work of the 
penman was ,italian2 vol4 i4 being      
written at ,ferrara by ,sigismundo de   
,sigismundis1 the well-known ,italian   
calligrapher1 in #adie4 ,the second     
volume1 also finished in #adie1 bears   
the name of ,alessandro ,verazzano1     
another famous copyist1 who wrote       

several of the volumes illuminated by   
,attavante4 ,vol4 iii4 is dated #adif1  
and is unsigned4 ,the next three volumes
 are also without signature4 ,vol4 vii4 
is the work of ,antonio de ,holanda1 who
 from his name appears to have been of  
,dutch descent4 ,his work is certainly  
excellent1 and renders this volume a    
very precious monument of the art of    
,portugal4 ,he was the official herald  
of the ,king1 and he and his son        
,francesco gave their whole time to the 
practice of illumination4 ,his son's    
,memoirs give a most interesting account
 of his travels and intercourse with    
,giulio ,clovio and the other ,italian  
artists whom he met with in ,rome4#fe   
,for some years the ,hieronymite ,bible 
was in ,paris1 having been brought      
thither by ,marshal ,junot1 where it    
remained unnoticed for several years4   
,being called for by the ,portuguese    
,government1 ,louis ,,xviii4 paid       
#ej1jjj francs to the family of ,junot1 
and restored it to the monastery of     

,belem4 ,a splendidly illuminated atlas 
by an illuminator and cartographer named
 ,fernando ,vas ,dourado was published  
in the year of his death1 #aega4  #fe   
,see my ,life of ,clovio4  ,as an       
important example of what we may fairly 
call native art1 we will now briefly    
refer to the celebrated ,missal of      
,estevam ,gonalvez ,neto1 one of the    
productions of the busy second half of  
the sixteenth century4 ,the clever      
amateur who achieved this beautiful     
series of paintings1 for paintings they 
are1 in addition to the writing and     
other ornamentation of the ,,ms41 was   
descended from a noble family of ,srem1 
in the parish of ,macinhata1 forty-three
 leagues from ,lisbon4 ,he became ,canon
 of ,viseu1 and during his leisure1     
after this appointment1 executed the    
,pontifical ,missal which bears his     
name4 ,it is dedicated to ,don ,jos     
,manuel1 of the ,house of ,tancos1      
,bishop of ,viseu1 afterwards of        
,coimbra1 and lastly ,archbishop of     

,lisbon4 ,this prelate gave the book to 
the ,church of ,viseu4 ,the original    
,,ms4 was afterwards in the library of  
the ,convent of ,jesus1 and is now in   
the ,academy of ,sciences at ,lisbon4   
,stephen ,gonsalvez died ,july #bith1   
#afbg4 ,the ,missal is signed3 ,steph4  
,glz4 ,abbas ,sereicencis fac4 #afaj4   
,it has been very well reproduced in    
colours by ,macia1 of ,paris4  ,the     
,genealogies of the ,house of ,sandoval1
 written and painted in ,lisbon in      
#afab1 is now in ,paris4 ,it is called  
,genealogia universal de la ,nobilissima
 casa de ,sandoval ,ramo del ,generoso  
tronco de los soberanos ,reyes de       
,castilla y ,leon4 ,por ,don ,melchior  
de ,teves del ,conseio ,real de         
,castilla del ,rey ,d8 ,philippe ,,iii4 
,at the foot of the page is written     
,eduardus ,caldiera ,vlisspone scripsit1
 ,anno ,dni ,,mdcxii4 ,this magnificent 
,,ms41 which measures forty-six by      
thirty centimetres1 is numbered in the  
,catalogue of the ,national ,library as 

#ajjae4 ,a grand frontispiece1 formed of
 two columns of the ,composite ,order1  
occupies the first page1 representing a 
king in royal robes and crown arresting 
the wheel of ,fortune4 ,two lions       
accompany the scene1 and the motto of   
the picture is ,virtute duce non comite 
,fortuna4 ,page #b contains the various 
escutcheons of the family of the ,count 
of ,lerma1 for whom the book was        
written4 ,it contains a great number of 
portraits4 ,a final instance of the     
influence1 or rather the inroad1 of     
,flemish art in ,portugal in the        
fifteenth century may be shown in the   
,,ms4 called the ,portuguese            
,genealogies in the ,british ,museum4   
,the work consists of eleven large folio
 sheets separately mounted and measuring
 eighteen by ten inches4 ,it commences  
with a prologue1 with the arms of       
,portugal supported by two savages1     
having clubs and shields4 ,outside the  
inner frame are three scenes3 7#a7 wild 
animals in combat2 7#b7 a sea-nymph     

being rescued2 7#c7 a fight among sylvan
 savages4 ,next comes a series of       
portraits painted in the most finished  
and life-like style1 beginning with ,dom
 ,garcia ,f del rey ,abarca and ,dona   
,constancia on a fruitful tree with     
foliage1 fruits1 and birds1 a cat1 and  
other things4 ,the tree is an oak1      
beside it are apple and cherry trees4   
,on the oak are green acorns4 ,the birds
 are very beautiful1 the cat simply     
perfect4 ,these details recall the      
highly finished and lovely work of      
,georg ,hoefnagel on the great ,missal  
at ,vienna4 ,gothic brown-gold          
architecture and three battle scenes    
complete the page4  ,then follow the    
genealogical tables1 and more portraits1
 the whole showing the most patient and 
careful work4 ,letters on the borders of
 the robes recall the same kind of      
ornament in the ,grimani ,breviary at   
,venice4 ,no one has been able to       
explain these curious inscriptions4 ,in 
the ,grimani ,breviary they were thought

 to be either ,croatian or merely       
ornament4 ,here they cannot well mean   
anything but decoration4 ,the portraits 
are fanciful but interesting mementoes  
of the period1 and include several      
personages noted in history4  ,the last 
,,ms4 to be mentioned in this hasty     
sketch is one in the ,british ,museum   
7,stowe #eig74 ,it is a ,missale        
,romanum1 and is said to have been      
illuminated for ,john ,,iii4 in #aeeg4  
,it was once the property of the ,abb   
,gamier1 chaplain for near thirty years1
 of the ,french factory at ,lisbon4 ,the
 binding is red morocco1 and once had   
silver clasps4  ,it commences with a    
large mirror-like oval tablet1          
containing the title1 set between two   
pillars of pink-veined marble with      
bronze-gold capitals and bases4 ,the    
tablet is crimson with a violet-slate   
frame moulding of egg and dart pattern4 
,at foot are two ,roman legionaries1 one
 seated as supporting the tablet1 on    
each side4 ,on folio #c is the index in 

a rose-wood panel and pale green frame4 
,the peculiar forms of the frames and   
the scroll-work on them are of the      
fantastic kind1 differing from ,italian1
 which is characteristic both of        
,spanish and ,portuguese ornament4 ,the 
chief colours are a bright emerald green
 and blue1 with ochre1 gold1 and        
crimson4 ,the initials are still more   
fantastic--partly human1 partly plant or
 fish-form1 sometimes sculptured        
ornament and plant-forms combined--but  
all so sweetly painted and so delicately
 finished as to be most attractive4 ,the
 text is a fine and elegant ,roman      
minuscule interspersed with italic4     
,here and there are exquisite little    
drawings of ecclesiastical utensils1    
etc41 but the everlasting variety among 
the quaint and fanciful initials        
provides an unwearying fund of interest4
 ,tiny birds of the loveliest plumage   
sit among and beneath the limbs of the  
letters1 or elegant scrolls of pencilled
 gold cover the little coloured panels  

on which the plain gold ,roman initials 
are placed4 ,some of the larger initials
 are very finely executed and contain   
full-length figures of saints1 bishops1 
or queens4 ,one lovely initial ,b has a 
graceful girl simply clad in blue tunic 
and pale yellow skirt with a silken coil
 of pale rose forming the upper loop of 
the letter1 the lower being formed of   
the curved body of a green dragon4 ,her 
left hand lifts the silk-work1 her      
right1 hanging by her side1 holds a     
little golden pitcher4 ,the whole is    
painted on a panel of bright gold4      
,another 7,l7 shows a peasant rushing   
laughingly1 with a hare slung over his  
shoulder1 past the figure of a guardian 
terminus of bronze4 ,but the ,missal    
should be seen to be properly           
understood1 for though in a general way 
it has a look of ,italian influence1 its
 originality is beyond question4        
,,chapter ,,xi  ,,illumination ,,since  
,,the ,,invention ,,of ,,printing  ,the 
invention of printing--,its very slight 

effect on illuminating--,preference by  
rich patrons for written books--,work   
produced in various cities in the       
sixteenth century--,examples in ,german1
 ,italian1 and other cities1 and in     
various public libraries up to the      
present time4   ,the art of printing1 as
 the reading world has been frequently  
informed1 was invented in the fifteenth 
century1 and undoubtedly had1 to a      
considerable extent1 a destructive      
effect upon the craft of professional   
copyists4 ,but in the fifteenth century 
the art of the writer and that of the   
illuminator had long been separate      
professions4 ,there was no particular   
reason1 therefore1 why the invention of 
printing should interfere with the      
illuminator4 ,as a matter of fact1 it   
made little difference4 ,nor1 indeed1   
did printing entirely put a stop to the 
professional career of the scribe4 ,it  
was prophesied1 before practical        
experience of facts proved the contrary1
 that the invention of the railway      

engine would abolish the horse4 ,the    
printing-press did not abolish the      
penman1 but it certainly spoiled his    
trade4 ,we have seen in the course of   
the preceding chapters that it did not  
spoil the trade of the illuminator4 ,nor
 was it quite owing to the fact that    
many printed books were so adorned as to
 appear like illuminated ,,mss4 ,more   
than one wealthy patron absolutely      
declined to have anything to do with    
printed books4 ,the matter was too      
vulgar and too cheap4 ,the last ,duke of
 ,urbino was a prince of this lofty way 
of thinking1 and scarcely a court in    
,europe but continued to have ,,mss4    
produced as if no such thing as the     
printing-press were known4 ,how they    
were multiplied in ,spain and ,france we
 have seen in detail4 ,we will now      
proceed to take a farewell look at the  
,german and ,italian libraries1 in order
 to see how the illustrious presses of  
,mainz1 ,strassburg1 ,augsburg1 ,kln1   
,munich1 ,vienna1 ,venice1 ,milan1      

,florence1 and ,rome affected the       
ateliers of the great schools of        
illumination established in most of     
these cities4 ,what do we find8 ,in     
point of fact1 some of the richest1 most
 magnificent books ever produced by the 
illuminator1 not only whilst the press  
was still a novelty1 but long after it  
had become perfectly familiar to        
everybody4 ,for several of the cities   
aforesaid we have the means of proof3   
thus for ,mainz1 at the end of the      
superb copy of the ,mazarine ,bible1 now
 at ,paris1 is the following            
inscription3 ,iste liber illuminatus1   
legatus and completus est henricum      
,cremer vicari8 ecclesie collegiate     
,sancti ,stephani ,moguntini sub anno   
dni ,melesimo quatring entesimo         
quinquagesimo ,sexto1 festo assumptiois 
gloriose ,virginis ,marie4 ,deo gratias 
alleluya4 ,this was in #adef1 the year  
before the first press was set up4 ,in  
#aebd we have two most splendidly       
illuminated ,,mss4--a ,missal and a     

,prayer-book--executed by order of      
,albert of ,brandenburg1 ,archbishop of 
,mainz4 ,two richer examples of the     
,german ,renaissance cannot easily be   
imagined4 ,we cannot dilate upon them4  
,we may1 however1 truly say that        
together with very many other examples  
of illuminated work1 both in manuscripts
 and printed books1 they show the art of
 the illuminator to be no less splendid 
or elaborate after the invention of     
printing than it was before4  ,on the   
last page of the ,missal is written3    
,ich ,niklas ,glockendon zu ,nurenberg  
hab dieses ,bhuch illuminiert ond       
vollent im jar #aebd4  ,the ,prayer-book
 is similarly adorned with miniatures   
and brightly coloured borders4 ,on the  
cover is a copy of the ,archbishop's    
portrait1 painted by ,drer1 and on folio
 #a is written by the ,archbishop       
himself3 ,anno domini ,,mdxxxi completum
 est presens opus1 ,sabbato post        
',invocavit4' ,albertus ,cardinalis     
moguntinus manu propria scripsit4       

,other ,glockendon books exist in other 
libraries4 ,then there is the ,beham    
,prayer-book at ,aschaffenburg and a    
,bible in the library at ,wolfenbttel in
 two thick #d volumes--a work well worth
 examination4 ,at ,nuremberg is the     
,service-book executed by ,conrad       
,frankendorfer1 of ,nuremberg1 in #adih4
  ,in the ,british ,museum is the fine  
,german ,,ms4--the ,splendor ,sous1 a   
sixteenth century ,,ms4 7,harl4 #cdfi74 
,in the ,national ,library at ,paris is 
the ,prayer-book of ,william of ,baden  
7#ajefg-h7 executed at ,strassburg by   
,frederic ,brentel in #afdg4  ,augsburg 
was producing illuminated ,service-books
 ten years after ,gnther ,zainer had set
 up the press in that city4  ,munich1   
also1 with the ,penitential ,psalms1    
etc41 by ,hans ,mielich4 ,vienna1 too1  
can show a magnificent ,missal by ,georg
 ,hoefnagel1 bearing the dates #aehb to 
#aeij4 ,venice is represented in the    
work of ,benedetto ,bordone and the     
,ducali4 ,florence in the splendid      

,missals1 etc41 of ,attavante and his   
contemporaries4  ,milan shows the       
gorgeous ,graduals of the ,brera        
belonging to the sixteenth century and  
the ,sforziadas of ,london and ,paris4  
,so we might pass from city to city     
almost all over ,western ,europe4 ,the  
great ,spanish choir-books were almost  
all produced under ,philip ,,ii4        
,several ,papal ,service-books are      
represented in the fifteenth-and        
sixteenth-century examples of the       
scrap-book #badab of the ,british       
,museum2 and the works of ,clovio1 the  
most noted of ,italian illuminators1 all
 belong to the sixteenth century4       
,these instances are amply sufficient to
 prove that in every city in ,europe    
where printing was in full practice the 
art of the illuminator continued to     
flourish until the progress of modern   
inventions and various processes1 added 
to the general cheapening of books1 led 
to its disuse4 ,its present application 
seems to be almost solely to diplomas   

and testimonials1 and in point of       
quality1 usually as poor and spiritless 
as the incapacity of most of its        
professors can make it4  ,there seems1  
however1 no reason why the artistic     
skill and elaborate methods of          
reproduction of the present day should  
not produce magnificent books--indeed   
the ,imitation of ,thomas  ,kempis1 and 
other continental examples prove that   
this is amply possible4  ,the next few  
years will probably show that readers   
are still desirous of possessing        
beautiful books1 and that artists are   
still found capable of producing them4  
,,manuscripts ,,that ,,may ,,be         
,,consulted ,,as ,,examples  7,partly   
taken by permission from the ,victoria  
and ,albert ,museum ,handbook7          
,,classical ,,and ,,early ,,christian   
---------------                         
----------------------------------------
--------------- ,no    ,name4           
,where     ,where ,kept4   ,date4       
,remarks4                  ,produced4   

----------------------------------------
------------------------------          
#a,vergil       444444      ,vatican    
,lib41#crd or   ,doubtful which is the  
7fragment7               ,rome1 ,cod4   
#dth cent4older                         
,vat4 #cbbe                             
#b,vergil       444444      ,vat4 ,lib4 
#dth cent4                              
#chfg                                   
#c,rom4         444444      ,imp4 ,lib41
              ,calend47f47              
,vienna                                 
#d;,genesis 7f47 444444                 
#eth cent4,gold and silver text         
on purple vellum2 #hh                   
miniatures4                             
#e;,genesis 7f47 444444      ,brit4     
,mus41          ,much burnt in #agca4   
,cott4 ,oth4 ,b4                        
#f                                      
#f;,iliad 7f47   444444      ,ambros4   
,lib41        ,fine handwriting and     
,milan                 clever pictures4 
#g;,joshua 7f4 of444444      ,vat4      

,lib41   444444   #ae leaves1 #cb ft4   
,roll7                    ,rome         
long1 #aa in4 wide4                     
,contains from ch4                      
#bbb to #ajah1 brush                    
outlines to                             
miniatures4 ,rivers1                    
etc41 personified in                    
,byzantine manner4                      
#h;,dioscorides1 444444      ,imp4      
,lib41   c4     ,personifications of    
etc4                     ,vienna        
#ejj-e    abstract qualities4           
#i;,bible of     444444      ,laurent4  
c4 #edj ,valuable as a   ,montamiata    
,lib41                 theological      
document1                               
,florence              but poor work1   
and in                                  
bad condition4                          
#aj,syriac       ,monastery of          
c4 #ehf ,brought to ,florence   ,gospels
      ,zagba1 in                        
in #adig4 ,remarkable                   
,mesopotamia                            

,crucifixion1 see                       
,byzantine1 #a4                         
#aa,terence      444444      ,nat4      
,lib41   #ith cent4,copy of a #eth-cent4
                            ,paris      
,,ms4 pen-drawings4                     
#ab,pentateuch   ,tours       ,nat4     
,lib41   #gth cent4,called the          
,ashburnham                             
,paris1 ,nouv4          ,pentateuch2 #ai
 large                            acq4  
#bccd             miniatures4           
,,byzantine                             
----------------------------------------
------------------------------ ,no      
,name4       ,where     ,where ,kept4   
,date4        ,remarks4                 
,produced4                              
----------------------------------------
------------------------------          
#a,syriac       ,zagba1 in   ,laur4     
,lib41  c4 #ehf ,shows ,byzantine       
,gospels      ,mesopotamia ,florence    
influence4                              
#b;,gospel-book  ,byzantium   ,brit4    

,mus41  #fth cent4,lettering1 etc41 on  
7f47                     ,add4 #eaaa    
gold ground4                            
#c,menologium              ,vat4 ,lib41 
#ith cent4,a typical ,byzantine         
,gr4 #afac              ,,ms4           
#d;,gregory of   ,byzantium   ,nat4     
,lib41   #ith cent4,fine antique design 
,nazianzum                ,paris1 ,gr4  
and composition4                        
#eaj                                    
#e                       ,nat4 ,lib41   
,good small figures4                    
,paris1 ,gr4                            
#edc                                    
#f                       ,nat4 ,lib41   
,good small figures                     
,paris1 ,gr4            and headings4   
#eej                                    
#g;,evangeliary  444444      ,brit4     
,mus41                                  
,arund4 #edg                            
#h            444444      ,brit4 ,mus41 
,burney #ai1                            
#bj4                                    

#i,lectionary   444444      ,brit4      
,mus41  #ajth     ,fine initials4       
,harl4 #eeih   cent41                   
end                                     
#aj;,chrysostom   444444      ,nat4     
,lib41   #ajth     ,remarkable initials4
                            ,paris1 ,gr4
   cent4                                
#fed                                    
#aa,simeon       444444      ,brit4     
,mus41  #aath     ,fine ornaments4      
,metaphrastes             ,add4 #aahgj  
cent4                                   
#ab;,evangeliary  444444      ,brit4    
,mus41          ,beautiful headings4    
,add4 #aahch                            
#ac,psalter      444444      ,brit4     
,mus41  #abth     ,executed for         
,add4 ,egert4  cent4    ,melisenda1     
daughter                                
#aaci                  of ,king of      
,jerusalem4   ,,irish ,,or ,,celtic     
----------------------------------------
------------------------------- ,no     
,name4       ,where     ,where ,kept4   

,date4        ,remarks4                 
,produced4                              
----------------------------------------
------------------------------          
#a;,gospels of   444444      ,trin4     
,coll41 #gth cent4   ,st4 ,columba      
,dublin                                 
#b;,gospels of   ,st4                   
,arnoul's,nuremberg               ,st4  
,arnoul1  ,abbey1 ,metz ,museum         
of ,metz                                
#c;,book of ,st4  444444      ,roy4     
,lib41              ,columbanus         
,naples                                 
#d;,bible of ,st4 444444      ,cath4    
,lib41  #hth cent4,curious ,crucifixion4
   ,kilian                   ,wurzburg  
#e;,gospels of   ,monastery of,pub4     
,lib41           ,signed ,thomas        
,thomas     ,hanow       ,trves         
scribsit4                               
#f,psalter      444444      ,brit4      
,mus41          ,anglo-,irish1 with     
,cott4 ,vesp4           arched          
frame-border4                           

a4 #a                                   
#g;,gospels of   444444      ,bodl4     
,lib41  #ith cent4,see ,westwood1       
,mac,regol                 ,oxford      
,palographia ,sacra                     
,pict41 pl4 #af4                        
#h;,book of      444444      ,roy4      
,irish           ,p4 #ajc4 ,remarkable4 
,armagh                   ,acad41       
,dublin                                 
#i,st4 ,chad's   444444      ,lichfield 
,fine ,anglo-,irish4   ,gospels         
,cath4 ,lib4                            
#aj,lindisfarne  ,lindisfarne ,brit4    
,mus41  #gth cent4,anglo-,celtic--a very
   ,gospels      ,monastery   ,cott1    
,nero ,d4         fine example4         
#d                        ,,carolingian 
----------------------------------------
------------------------------- ,no     
,name4       ,where     ,where ,kept4   
,date4        ,remarks4                 
,produced4                              
----------------------------------------
------------------------------          

#a,sacramentary ,abbey of    ,nat4      
,lib41   c4 #gej ,symbolism4 ,given by  
,gellone     ,paris1 ,,ms4              
,ct4 ,william of                        
,lat4 #abjdh            ,toulouse4      
#b;,ada-,codex    ,abbey of             
,st4,municip4     c4 #gge ,written for  
,ada1                ,mesmin1 of  ,lib41
 ,trves          sister of              
,trves                                  
,charlemagne1 ,abbess                   
of ,st4 ,mesmin4                        
#c,psalter of   44444       ,imp4 ,lib41
   c4 #ghj ,written for ,queen          
,dagolfus                 ,vienna       
,theol4         ,hildegardis1 wife of   
,lat4 #ahfa             ,charlemagne4   
#d;,evangeliarium,abbey of ,st4,nat4    
,lib41           ,written for   of      
,godescale ,sernin1 of  ,paris1 nouv4   
,charlemagne and                        
,toulouse    acq4 #abjc                 
,hildegardis4 ,has gold                 
and silver letters on                   
purple vellum4                          

#e,sacramentary ,abbey of ,st4,abb4 ,st4
             ,franco-,saxon4   of       
,gelasius  ,gall        ,gall1 ,no4 #cdh
                                        
#f;,evangeliarium,abbey of ,st4,town    
,lib41   c4 #gic ,on purple vellum4   of
 ,st4       ,riquier     ,abbeville     
,angilbert                              
#g;,alcuin ,bible ,abbey of    ,brit4   
,mus41  c4 #hjj ,coronation gift to     
,tours       ,add4 #ajedf               
,charlemagne4 ,very                     
fine example4                           
#h;,bible        ,tours       ,cantonal 
,like #g4                               
,lib41 ,zurich                          
#i                       ,bamberg ,roy4 
,said to be an exact                    
,lib                   copy of #g4      
#aj;,gospels of              ,imp4      
,lib41           ,found by ,emperor     
,otho   ,charles the                    
,vienna                ,,iii4 in tomb of
   ,great                               
,charlemagne4   7,charlemagne7          

#aa,sacramentary ,abbey of    ,nat4     
,lib4    c4 #had ,the gift of   of      
,drogo1    ,metz1 or    ,paris1 ,theol4 
,charlemagne to his   ,abp4 of ,metz    
,tours       ,lat4 #idbh                
natural son ,drogo4                     
#ab;,golden       444444      ,brit4    
,mus41  c4 #hce ,a splendid example4    
,gospels of               ,harl4 #bghh  
,athelstan                              
#ac;,golden       444444      ,roy4     
,lib41   c4 #hej ,ditto1 written in     
,gospels of               ,munich       
gold letters4   ,charles the            
,bald                                   
#ad;,evangeliary  ,abbey of ,st4,nat4   
,lib41           ,remarkably beautiful4 
of ,lothaire  ,martin's1   ,paris1      
,theol4                         ,tours  
,lat4 #bff                              
#ae;,golden       ,abbey of ,st4,nat4   
,lib41           ,one of most beautiful 
,gospels      ,mdard1 of  ,paris1       
,theol4         ,carol4 ,,mss4 known4   
,soissons    ,lat #hhej                 

#af;,bible of     ,abbey of ,st4,nat4   
,lib41           ,presented to ,charles 
,count ,vivien ,martin1 of  ,paris1     
,theol4         the ,bald in #hej4      
,tours       ,lat #a                    
,miniature of                           
presentation4                           
#ag;,bible of ,st4 444444               
,monastery of c4 #hfj ,written for      
,charles   ,paul's                      
,st4 ,calixtus1         the ,bald by    
,ingobert4                              
,rome                                   
#ah,prayer-book  444444      ,nat ,lib41
    c4 #hff ,written by ,ingobert   7or 
,hours7 of            ,paris            
and presented to   ,charles the         
,charles the ,bald in   ,bald           
#hff4                                   
#ai;,golden       ,abbey of ,st4,lib4 at
 ,st4  c4 #hgj ,written for ,abbot      
,gospels of   ,gall        ,gall1 ,no4  
#bb          ,grimwold1 or ,hartmut4    
,st4 ,gall                              
#bj,psalter of              ,lib4 at    

,st4          ,written for ,abbot       
,folchard                 ,gall1 ,no4   
#bc          ,hartmut4 ,gold and        
silver initials4                        
#ba;,evangeliarium,st4 ,gall    ,lib41  
,st4    c4 #ibj ,written by ,sintramn   
,longum                   ,gall         
of the ,wondrous                        
,hand4 ,profile #bb;,evangeliary  444444
      ,roy4 ,lib41   c4 #ibe foliages in
 gold and                               
,brussels1 ,no4         silver4         
#afchc                                  
#bc            444444      ,nat4 ,lib41 
c4 #idj ,large #d1 written              
,paris                 entirely in gold 
letters2 #e miniatures                  
and #ab porticoes4                      
#bd,psalter      444444      ,brit4     
,mus41  c4 #iie ,transition to the      
,harl4 #bijd            style of the    
,benedictionals4   ,,winchester ,,work  
,,and ,,similar                         
----------------------------------------
------------------------------- ,no     

,name4       ,where     ,where ,kept4   
,date4        ,remarks4                 
,produced4                              
----------------------------------------
------------------------------  #a,king 
,edgar's ,hyde ,abbey1 ,brit4 ,mus41    
#iff      ,style of the   ,charter      
,winchester  ,cott4 ,vesp4              
,benedictionals of                      
,a4 #h                  thelwold and    
,robert4                                
#b;,breviarium   ,monte       ,mazarine 
444444   ,tendency to same   ,cassinense
   ,cassino8    ,lib41 ,paris1          
style colouring as in                   
#gei                   school of ,metz4 
#cthelwold's  ,hyde ,abbey1 ,lib4 of    
,duke c4 #igj ,best example known4      
,benedictional,winchester  of           
,devonshire                             
#d;,benedictional           ,pub4 ,lib41
   c4 #ihj ,drawing bold1 but   of ,abp4
                  ,rouen                
colouring unequal to   ,robert          
#c4                                     

#e;,gospels      444444      ,trin4     
,coll41 c4 #ijj ,borders like           
,camb                  ,winchester work4
                                        
#f,psalter      444444      ,brit4      
,mus41  444444   ,fol4 frames similar4  
,harl4 #bijd                            
#g            444444      ,brit4 ,mus41 
c4 #ajjj;,init4 ,d on f4 #aae4          
,tib4 ,c4 #g                            
#h            ,winchester  ,brit4 ,mus41
                                        
,arund4 #fj                             
#i                       ,brit4 ,mus41  
,arund4 #aee                            
#aj;,cnut's                  ,brit4     
,mus41  c4 #ajag;,fine example4         
,gospels                  ,roy4 #a ,d4  
#i                                      
#aa,leofric      444444      ,bodl4     
,lib41  #ajth     ,byzantine influence4 
,missal                   ,oxford ,no4  
cent4                                   
#egi                      ,,monastic    
,,styles                                

----------------------------------------
------------------------------- ,no     
,name4       ,where     ,where ,kept4   
,date4        ,remarks4                 
,produced4                              
----------------------------------------
------------------------------          
#a,weissobrun   ,weissobrun  ,roy4      
,lib41   c4 #had ,netherlandish4        
,prayer-book              ,munich       
#b;,gospels      444444      ,nat4      
,lib41   c4 #ige ,medallions of         
,paris1 #hhea           ,emperors ,henry
 ,i4 and                                
,otho ,i and ,,ii4                      
#c;,egbert ,codex ,reichenau   ,pub4    
,lib4    #igg-ic   ,beautiful initials4 
,trves1 ,no4                            
#bd                                     
#d;,gospels      ,echternach  ,gotha    
,museum c4 #iij ,portrait of ,otho      
,,iii4                                  
and ,theophanu4                         
,jewelled covers4                       
#e,otho ,codex   444444      ,roy4      

,lib41   c4 #iih ,see p4 #ia4           
,munich ,cimel4                         
#eh                                     
#f;,gospels      444444      ,brit4     
,mus41  #ajth     ,branch-work initials4
                            ,egert4 #fjh
   cent4                                
#g;,bernward's   ,hildesheim  ,cath4    
,lib41  #iic-ajbb    ,gospels           
,hildesheim                             
#h;,ellinger's   ,tegernsee   ,roy4     
,lib41   c4 #ajef   ,gospels            
,munich ,no4 #ca                        
#i;,hortus       ,landsberg   ,formerly 
at  c4     ,burnt in #afgj4             
,deliciarum               ,strassburg   
#aage-hj                                
#aj,life of      ,tegernsee   ,roy4     
,lib41   #aagc-abjj,written1 etc41 for  
,virgin                   ,berlin       
the ,emperor ,frederick                 
,i4 by ,werinher4                       
#aa,plenarium    ,quedlinburg ,town     
,lib41   #aahd-abjc,written for ,abbess 
,quedlinburg           ,agnes4          

#ab,passionale   ,arnstein1   ,brit4    
,mus41  c4 #aaid                near    
,trves ,harl4 #bhjj-b                   
#ac;,bible                   ,brit4     
,mus41  c4 #aaij                        
,harl4 #bhjc                            
#ad            ,floreffe    ,brit4      
,mus41  c4 #abec;,chronological tables  
,add4 #aggcg-h          in coloured     
inks4                                   
#ae,missal       ,st4 ,bavon of,brit4   
,mus41  #aaej-aage                ,ghent
       ,add4 #afidi                     
#af;,chronicle of 444444      ,roy4     
,lib41   444444   ,fine miniatures--    
,jerusalem                ,brussels1    
,no4         costumes4                  
#aaadb                                  
#ag,psalter      444444      ,brit4     
,mus41  #abth     ,transition from      
,arund4 #aeg   cent4    ,winchester to  
,othonian4 #ah            444444        
,brit4 ,mus41                           
,lansd4 #dbj                            
#ai            444444      ,brit4 ,mus41

                                        
,lansd4 #dca                            
#bj            444444      ,brit4 ,mus41
                                        
,roy4 ,i ,d4,x4                         
#ba;,bible        ,st4         ,brit4   
,mus41          ,typical #abth cent4    
,nicholas1 of,harl4 #bgih               
,,ms4                ,arnstein          
#bb,vauclere     444444      ,pub4      
,lib41   444444   ,a perfect type of    
,psalter                  ,laon1 ,no4   
#bi          #abth cent4                
illumination4                           
#bc,mater        ,scheyern    ,roy4     
,lib41   444444   ,by ,conrad of        
,verborum                 ,munich       
,scheyern1 with all                     
manner of diagrams1                     
etc4   ,,french ,,and ,,anglo-,,french  
,,gothic                                
----------------------------------------
------------------------------- ,no     
,name4       ,where     ,where ,kept4   
,date4        ,remarks4                 

,produced4                              
----------------------------------------
------------------------------          
#a,psalter of   44444       ,muse ,cond1
 #aaic-abcfbg large miniatures   ,queen 
,ghantilly             ,transitional to 
,ingeburga                              
,gothic                                 
#b,psalter of   44444       ,arsenal    
,lib41c4 #abbj;,hieratic1 and   ,queen  
,paris1 ,theol4         transitional to 
,blanche1                 ,lat4 #afe ,b4
           ,gothic4   mother of         
,louis ,,ix4                            
#c,psalter of   44444       ,nat4 ,lib41
   c4 #abej,transitional to   ,st4      
,louis                ,paris1 ,no4      
,gothic4 #gh delicate   7,,ix47         
#ajebe                 miniatures4      
#d;,joinville's  44444       ,nat4      
,lib41   #abhg     ,gothic portrait of  
,credo                    ,paris        
,st4 ,louis4                            
#e;,alfonso      ,blackfriar's,brit4    
,mus41  c4 #abhd,see article in ,fine   

,psalter      ,london      ,add4 #bdfhf 
,arts ,qu4 ,rev41 i4   7,tenison7       
#gg1 and                                
,bibliographica1 pt4                    
#d4                                     
#f;,bible        44444       ,brit4     
,mus41  #abbe-eb  ,richly illuminated4  
,burney #c                              
#g,somme le ,roy 44444       ,brit4     
,mus41  c4 #acjji large                 
,add4 #bhafb            illuminations4  
#h,life of ,st4  44444       ,nat4      
,lib41   #acaf-bb  ,contains view of    
,denis                    ,paris1 fds4  
,paris1 and portrait                    
fr4 #bjij-b            of ,philip ,v4   
,drolleries1 coloured                   
shading of draperies4                   
#i;,bible        44444       ,brit4     
,mus41  c4     ,typical work1           
,roy4 #a ,d4 #a  #acaj-ae  ,english4    
#aj,ormsby       ,norwich     ,bodl4    
,lib41  c4 #abie;,english work4         
,psalter                  ,oxford1      
,douce                                  

#cff                                    
#aa;,bible        44444       ,brit4    
,mus1   ,late #acth,a typical ,,ms4     
,add4 #agcda   cent4                    
#ab,psalter      44444       ,brit4     
,mus41  ,early    ,drolleries and       
,roy4 #b ,b4 #g  #adth     interesting  
scenes4                                 
cent4                                   
#ac,miroir       44444       ,arsen4    
,lib41 c4 #acef,large folio richly      
,historiale               ,paris        
illuminated4                            
#ad,louterell    44444       ,lulworth  
c4 #acdj;,fine diapered   ,psalter      
,castle                backgrounds4     
#ae,missal       44444       ,westreenen
   #acff     ,gouache painting in       
,mus41 ,the             miniatures4     
,hague                                  
#af;,chronicle of 44444       ,nat4     
,lib41   #acge-hj  ,miniature in gold   
and   ,st4 ,denis                ,paris1
 #hcie           grey4                  
#ag;,hours of     44444       ,roy4     

,lib41   ,finished ,illuminated by ,andr
   ,john1 ,duke of            ,brussels1
    #achj     ,beauneveu and   ,berry   
#aajfj                 ,jacquemart de   
,hesdin4                                
#ah;,epistle to   ,paris       ,brit4   
,mus41  #acgj-hj  ,fine ivy-branch      
,richard ,,ii4              ,roy4 #bj   
,b4 #f          style4                  
#ai,offices      44444       ,brit4     
,mus41  44444    ,prayer-book of        
,b4,m4,v4                   ,harl4 #bhig
            ,margaret of ,bavaria4      
,a typical ,,ms4                        
#bj,little ,hours 44444       ,nat4     
,lib41   c4 #adjjaac beautiful   of     
,berry                 ,paris1 #ahjad   
miniatures4                             
#ba,psalter of   ,paris       ,nat4     
,lib41   #adja     ,contains #bd fine   
the ,duke of              ,paris1 ,no4  
miniatures by ,andr   ,berry            
#acjia                 ,beauneveu4      
#bb;,grandes                 ,nat4      
,lib41   #adji     ,by ,jacquemart de   

,heures de                ,paris1 fds4  
,hesdin1 ,andr   ,berry                 
,lat4 #iai              ,beauneveu1 and 
,pol de                                 
,limbourg4                              
#bc;,heures de               ,muse      
,dond1 #adaj     ,considered the finest 
,berry                    ,chantilly    
example known4                          
#bd,poems of     444444      ,brit4     
,mus41  #adjj-f   ,fine miniatures--    
,christine de             ,harl4 #ddca  
costumes and   ,pisan                   
portraits4                              
#be,talbot       444444      ,brit4     
,mus41  #adjj     ,curious miniatures1  
,romances                 ,roy4 #ae ,e4 
#f          portraits of ,henry         
,,vi41 etc4                             
#bf;,bedford      444444      ,brit4    
,mus41  c4 #adce,richly illuminated4    
,offices                  ,add4 #ahhej  
,contains ,french1                      
,english1 and                           
,netherlandish work4                    

#bg;,bedford      444444      ,nat4     
,lib41   c4 #adcj;,contains ,english and
   ,breviary                 ,paris1    
fds4           ,french work4            
,lat4 #agbid                            
#bh,pontifical   444444      ,brit4     
,mus41  c4 #adej;,fine borders4         
,add4 #affaj                            
#bi,valerius     444444      ,brit4     
,mus41          ,northern ,french and   
,maximus                  ,harl4 #dcge  
,netherlandish4                         
#cj;,girart de    444444      ,nat4     
,lib41   c4 #adgj,netherlandish--       
,nevers                   ,paris1 fds4  
costumes1 etc4                          
fr4 #djib                 ,,german ,,and
 ,,bohemian                             
----------------------------------------
------------------------------- ,no     
,name4       ,where     ,where ,kept4   
,date4        ,remarks4                 
,produced4                              
----------------------------------------
------------------------------          

#a,minnelieder  444444      ,nat4 ,lib41
   c4 #acjj;,hunting scenes1            
,paris1 fds4           costumes4        
fr4 #gbff                               
#b,wilhelm von  444444      ,pub4 ,lib41
   #accd     ,written for ,henry        
,oranse                   ,cassel       
,landgrave of ,hesse4                   
,french influence4  #c,picture          
,bible444444      ,lib4 of      c4 #acjj
                            ,prince     
,lobkowitz1                             
,prag                                   
#d,passionale of,prag        ,univ4     
,lib41  #acab     ,transparent   ,abbess
                   ,prag1 xiv4 ,a4      
water-colour4 ,no   ,cunigunda          
#ag                    ,french          
influence4                              
#e,weltchronik  444444      ,roy4 ,lib41
   c4 #acej,old ,cologne school4   of   
,rudolf v4             ,stuttgart       
,hohen-,ems                             
#f,liber        ,prag        ,bohem4    
,mus41 c4 #acfj,written for ,john v4    

,viaticus                 ,prag         
,neumarkt1 ,bishop of                   
,leitomischl4                           
#g,mariale                 ,bohem4      
,mus41 c4 #acde,written for ,arnestus   
,prag                  v4 ,pardubitz1   
,archbishop of ,prag                    
7#acdd-fd74 ,bohemian                   
school4                                 
#h,orationale              ,bohem4      
,mus41 c4 #acde,written for same        
,prag                  prelate1 in      
,french                                 
,gothic style4                          
#i;,bible of                ,imp4 ,lib41
   444444   ,executed by order of       
,emperor                  ,vienna1 ,no4 
,martin ,rotlw for   ,wenzel            
#bgei                  presentation to  
the                                     
,emperor4                               
#aj;,gospels of              ,imp4      
,lib41   #acfh     ,beautiful penmanship
   ,john of                  ,vienna    
and ornaments4   ,oppavia               

#aa,wilhelm von             ,ambras     
#achg     ,fine diapered   ,oranse      
,museum1               backgrounds1     
,vienna1 ,no4 #g         costumes1 and  
armour4                                 
#ab,salzburg     444444      ,roy4      
,lib41   c4 #acej;,in #e fol4 vols4     
,missal                   ,munich1 ,lat4
          ,splendid colouring4          
#aegaj                                  
#ac,weltchronik  444444      #aegaj     
,pub4   c4 #achc,large folio4   of      
,rudolf v4             ,lib41           
,westphalian school4   ,hohen-,ems      
,stuttgart                              
#ad;,durandus     444444      ,imp4     
,lib41   #achd     ,written for ,albert 
,vienna1 ,no4           ,,iii41 ,duke of
                            #bgfe       
,austria4 ,illuminated                  
in later ,bohemian4                     
#ae;,golden ,bull  ,prag        ,imp4   
,lib41   c4 #acii,rich soft-leaved   of 
,charles               ,vienna1 jus4    
foliages4 ,ornament   ,,iv4             

c4 #cch                superior to      
miniatures4                             
#af,wurzburg     444444      ,brit4     
,mus41  ,after    ,large foliages1 fine 
,bible                    ,arund4 #ajf  
#adjj     initials1 bright              
colours4                                
#ag,missal of    444444      ,imp4      
,lib41   #addh     ,german work4        
,emperor                  ,vienna       
,frederick                              
,,iii4                                  
#ah;,gospels      444444      ,pub4     
,lib41   #adih     #dc miniatures and   
,nuremberg             splendid borders1
                                        
etc41 by ,conrad                        
,frankendorfer4                         
#ai;,choir-book of,abbey of ,st4,lib41  
#adhi     ,written by ,l4 ,wagner1      
,,ss4 ,ulrich   ,ulrich1     ,augsburg  
and illuminated by ,g4   and ,afra1     
,augsburg                               
,beck4   ,augsburg                      
#bj,miniature of ,augsburg    ,vict4 and

    c4 #adhi,taken from #ai4            
presentation             ,alb4 ,mus41   
of #ai                    ,south        
,kensington                             
#ba,offices      ,upper       ,brit4    
,mus41  #aeac        ,b4,m4,v4          
,carinthia   ,add4 #aegaa               
#bb,prayer-book  ,nuremberg             
,aschaffenburg#aebd     ,illuminated by 
,a4   of ,albert of             ,castle 
,glockendon4   ,brandenburg             
,library                                
#bc,prayer-book             ,imp4 ,lib41
   #aece     ,illuminated by ,albert    
of ,william               ,vienna1 ,no4 
,glockendon4   ,,iv4 of                 
#ahhj                     ,bavaria      
#bd,prayer-book             ,brit4      
,mus41  #aehd     ,school of            
,glockendon4                            
,add4 #agebe                            
#be,splendor     444444      ,harl4     
#cdfi   ,late #afth,astrological        
,solis                                  
cent4    diagrams1 etc41                

scenes4                                 
#bf,penitential  ,munich      ,roy4     
,lib41   #aegj     ,painted by ,hans    
,psalms                   ,munich1      
,mielich4                               
,cimel4 ,saal                           
#bg;,hor         444444      ,brit4     
,mus41  ,late #afth,fine foliages and   
,egert4 #aadf  cent4    initials4       
#bh,prayer-book  ,strassburg  ,nat4     
,lib41   #afdg     #b vols41 #h4   of   
,william of            ,paris1 ,nos4    
,renaissance by   ,baden                
#ajefg-h               ,frederic        
,brentel4   ,,sicilian ,,and ,,italian  
----------------------------------------
------------------------------- ,no     
,name4       ,where     ,where ,kept4   
,date4        ,remarks4                 
,produced4                              
----------------------------------------
------------------------------  #a;,de  
arte      ,palermo     ,vat4 ,lib41   c4
 #abbe;,composed by ,emperor   venandi  
cum              ,rome1 palat4          

,frederick ,,ii4   avibus               
#ajga                  7#abab-ej74      
,paintings                              
of birds and hunting                    
scenes4                                 
#b,offices1     ,gubbio      ,acad4     
,lib41  444444   ,attributed to   ordo  
offic4             ,siena               
,oderigi4   ,senensis                   
#c,legends      ,florence8   ,canon4    
,lib41 c4     ,attributed to ,giotto4   
#acbg-dc                                
#d,vergil       ,florence8   ,rome      
,ambros4 c4 #acaj;,attributed to ,simone
                            ,lib41      
,milan           ,martini4              
#e;,durandus     ,siena8      ,brit4    
,mus41  c4 #accj;,fine work4            
,add4 #cajcb                            
#f;,aristotle    ,bologna8    ,brit4    
,mus41  c4 #acce,like the ,avignon      
,harl4 #fcca            ,decretals4     
#g,stefaneschi  ,rome8       ,canon4    
,lib41 #acbg-dc  ,in same vol4 with #c1 
,missal                   ,rome         

and attributed to                       
,giotto4                                
#h,poems of     ,naples8     ,brit4     
,mus41  #acji-dc  ,bold gouache         
,convenevole              ,roy4 #f ,e4  
#i           painting4 ,executed   da   
,prato#ff                               
for ,king ,robert of                    
,naples4                                
#i;,breviarium   ,florence8   ,brit4    
,mus41  c4 #adjj;,fine initials4        
,romanum                  ,harl4 #bijc  
#aj;,concordanti ,bologna8    ,nat4     
,mus41   c4 #acej;,allegorical figures  
,canonic                 ,naples        
and gouache                             
painting4                               
#aa,statuts de   ,naples      ,nat4     
,lib41   c4 #aced;,executed for ,louis  
l',ordre do               ,paris1 fds4  
,i41 of ,house of   ,st4 ,esprit        
fr4 #dbgd              ,anjou1 ,king of 
,sicily                                 
and ,jerusalem4                         
#ab,romance of   ,avignon8    ,brit4    

,mus41  c4 #acee;,executed for ,louis   
,meliadus                 ,add4 #abbbh  
,,ii4 of ,naples4                       
#ac,triumphs of  444444      ,brit4     
,mus41  c4 #acgj,small miniatures and   
,fr4 ,petrarch             ,harl4 #caji 
initials in older                       
style4                                  
#ad            444444      ,nat4 ,lib41 
444444   ,miniatures of                 
,paris                 triumphs4        
#ae;,joannes      444444      ,abp4 of  
,st4  c4 #acgj;,fine ,bolognese         
,andreae1 ,lib4            ,florian     
miniatures4   ,,vi4                     
,decretalium                            
#af;,glossa       ,bologna8    ,laon1   
,no4 #chb;c4     ,very finely   ,joannis
                               #accj-dc 
illuminated4   ,andreae in              
,clementinas                            
#ag,rubrics on              ,laon1 ,no4 
#cegaccb     ,many grotesque   the      
,decretals                              
figures4                                

#ah;,decretum                ,brit4     
,mus41  c4 #acge;,exquisitely           
,gratiani                 ,add4 #aebgd1 
illuminated4                            
#aebge                                  
#ai,missale                 ,roy4 ,lib41
   c4 #acgd;,by ,nicolaus de   ,romanum 
,munich1 ,lat4          ,bononia4       
#ajjgb                                  
#bj                       ,st4 ,mark's1 
c4 #acgj                                
,venice1 cl4                            
iii4 xcvii4                             
#ba            ,florence8   ,brit4      
,mus41  c4     ,fine pen work diapers   
,add4 #baigc   #achj-adjj;and initials4 
#bb,latin ,bible  ,bologna8    ,brit4   
,mus41  c4     ,sweet colouring and     
,add4 #ahgbj   #acge-adjj;fine foliages4
                                        
#bc;,hymnarium    ,sienese8    ,brit4   
,mus41  c4 #adjj;,fine initials4        
,heremitarum              ,add4 #cjjad  
#bd,questions on ,naples      ,brit4    
,mus41  c4     ,written by ,hippolytus  

#d ,books of               ,add4        
#aebgj-c #adeh-id  ,lunensis for        
,sentences by                           
,ferdinand ,i41 ,king of   ,job4 ,scot1 
,naples1 and finely   ,franciscan       
illuminated4                            
#be,platonis                ,brit4      
,mus41  c4 #adgj,written for ,ferdinand 
,opera                    ,harl4 #cdha  
,i41 ,king of ,naples4                  
,finely illuminated4                    
#bf;,csar                    ,brit4     
,mus41  #adfb     ,white stem-work4     
,add4 #afihb                            
#bg            ,rome8       ,brit4      
,mus41  c4 #adfj;,executed for ,pius    
,,ii4                            ,harl4 
#bfhc            ,roman ,renaissance    
7#adeh-fd74                             
#bh,petrarch     444444      ,brit4     
,mus41  c4 #adfe,white stem-work4       
,sonnets1 etc4            ,harl4 #cdaa  
,written by ,j4 ,and4                   
,mussolini4                             
#bi,offices      ,milan8      ,brit4    

,mus41  c4 #adge;,a pretty little       
,add4 #aidag            volume of       
,milanese                               
work4                                   
#cj,missale      444444      ,brit4     
,mus41          ,like ,,mss4 executed   
,romanum                  ,add4 #aebfj  
for the ,dukes of                       
,ferrara4 ,very fine4                   
#ca            444444      ,brit4 ,mus41
  c4 #adhj,of ,florentine type4         
,harl4 #bhge                            
#cb,officium     ,florence    ,brit4    
,mus41  c4 #adge;,a small volume1 but   
,b4,m4,v4                   ,add4 #aeebh
            rich initials4              
#cc,missale      ,bologna     ,brit4    
,mus41  c4 #adie,like #cb1 but finer4   
,romanum                  ,add4 #aehad  
,written by ,jo4 de                     
,lyvonia for one of                     
the ,visconti4                          
#cd;,josephus     ,rome        ,brit4   
,mus41  c4 #adij,roman ,renaissance4    
,harl4 #cfii                            

#ce;,herodean     ,florence    ,brit4   
,mus41  #adhg     ,written by ,alexander
                            ,add4 #bcggc
            ,verazzanus4                
#cf,scrapbook of ,rome and    ,brit4    
,mus41  #adhj-aejj;,a very interesting  
cutting's    ,florence    ,add4 #badab  
collection4 ,roman and                  
,florentine4                            
#cg;,grant of     ,milan       ,brit4   
,mus41  #adid     ,illuminated by       
,ludovico                 ,add4 #badac  
,antonio da ,monza4   ,sforza 7il       
,moro7                                  
#ch,offices      ,naples      ,brit4    
,mus41  #aejj     ,written and          
,add4 #baeia            illuminated for 
,frederick of ,aragon1                  
,king of ,naples4                       
#ci,prayer-book             ,brit4      
,mus41  c4 #adee;,finest ,neapolitan    
of ,alfonso ,i4            ,add4 #bhifb 
work4 ,portraits                        
7#adaf-eh74                             
#dj,orations of             ,imp4 ,lib41

   c4 #adij;,executed for   ,cicero     
,vienna                ,ferdinand ,i41  
,king of                                
,naples 7#adeh-id74                     
,very fine4  #ff ,petrarch's tutor4     
,,renaissance ,,illumination  ,,italian 
----------------------------------------
------------------------------- ,no     
,name4       ,where     ,where ,kept4   
,date4        ,remarks4                 
,produced4                              
----------------------------------------
------------------------------  #a,life 
of      ,florence    ,brit4 ,mus41      
#aejf     ,neat in execution4   ,manetti
                  ,add4 #iggj           
#b,life of ,st4             ,brit4      
,mus41  c4 #aeje,very fine   ,francis   
,harl4 #cbbi            illumination4   
#c;,eusebius                ,brit4      
,mus41  c4 #aeae                        
,harl4 #ccjh                            
#d,life of                 ,brit4 ,mus41
  c4 #aebe   ,manetti                   
,lansd4 #hdb                            

#e;,eusebius     ,milan       ,brit4    
,mus41                                  
,roy                                    
#f,missale      ,venice      ,brit4     
,mus41  c4 #aecj;,attributed to         
,add4 #aehac            ,benedetto      
,bordone4                               
#g;,ethics of    ,naples or   ,imp4     
,lib41   c4     ,fine ,renaissance      
,aristotle    ,calabria    ,vienna      
#adij-aeajwork4 ,elaborately            
designed frames1 and                    
fine miniatures                         
painted in a strong                     
gouache1 by ,rinaldo                    
,piramo1 for ,and4                      
,matt4 ,acquavira1 #hth                 
,duke of ,atri4                         
#h,st4 ,jerome on,florence    ,imp4     
,lib41   c4     ,illuminated by         
,ezechiel                 ,vienna1 ,no4 
#adij-aebj;,attavante for ,matt4        
#fed                   ,corvinus1 ,king 
of                                      
,hungary 7#addc-ij74                    

#i,philostratus            ,imp4 ,lib41 
,illuminated probably   7,latin7        
,vienna1 ,no4           by ,attavante   
for                            #be      
,matt4 ,corvinus4                       
#aj,missale                 ,roy4 ,lib41
           ,illuminated by   ,romanum of
               ,brussels                
,attavante for   ,corvinus              
,corvinus4 ,used for                    
admission oaths of                      
,governors of                           
,netherlands4                           
#aa;,augustine3              ,imp4      
,lib41   c4 #adie;,illuminated by       
,epistles                 ,vienna       
,attavante for ,matt4                   
,corvinus4 ,signed                      
,attavantes pinsit4                     
#ab,martianus               ,lib4 ,st4  
c4 #aejj;,illuminated by   ,capella     
,mark's1               ,attavante for   
,matt4                                  
,venice                ,corvinus4       
,signed4                                

,written by ,al1                        
,verazzanus                             
#ac,psalter                 ,ducal      
,lib41          ,illuminated by         
,wolfenbttel          ,attavante4       
#ad;,diurnale                ,laurent4  
,illuminated by                         
,lib41                 ,attavante or    
,florence              ,gherardo4       
#ae,missal of ,bp4           ,pub4      
,lib41           ,illuminated by   of   
,dle                  ,lyons            
,attavante4                             
#af,st4 ,gregory             ,estense   
,lib41        ,illuminated by   on      
,ezechiel              ,modena          
,attavante4 ,signed4                    
#ag;,dionysii ,opp4           ,pub4     
,lib41                                  
,besanon                                
#ah;,gran                  ,nat4 ,lib41 
,probably illuminated   ,breviary       
,paris1 ,,ms4            by ,boccardino 
il                            ,lat4     
#hhgi             ,vecchio1 though      

attributed to                           
,attavante4                             
#ai;,hieronymi               ,nat4      
,lib41   #adhh-aejj,written for ,matt4  
,breviar4 in              ,paris1 ,,ms4 
,corvinus by ,anton   psalmos           
,lat4 #afhci            ,sinibaldi1 and 
illuminated by                          
,attavante4                             
#bj,poems of     ,rome        ,imp4     
,lib41   c4 #aecf;,illuminated by       
,giulio   ,eurialo                      
,vienna                ,clovio          
7#adih-aegh74   d',ascoli               
#ba,rothesay              ,brit4 ,mus41 
c4 #aedf;,illuminated by   ,offices     
,add4 #bjibg            ,clovio4        
#bb;,commentary on           ,soane     
,mus41  c4 #aecf;,executed for ,cardinal
   ,st4 ,paul's               ,london   
,grimani by ,clovio4   ,epistles        
#bc,psalter of              ,nat4 ,lib41
   c4 #aedb;,illuminated by   ,paul     
,,iii4                ,paris1 ,,ms4     
,vincenzio ,raimondi4                   

,lat4 #gjb4                             
#bd,papal                   ,lenox      
,lib41  c4 #aedf;,by ,clovio and his    
,lectionary               ,new ,york    
assistants4   7,towneley                
,clovio7                                
#be;,dante                   ,vat4      
,lib41   c4 #aeee;,illuminated in part  
,no4 #cfe               by ,clovio4     
#bf;,investiture             ,brit4     
,mus41  c4 #aefj,very fine ornament4    
from ,duke of             ,add4 #bbffj  
,urbino                                 
#bg,triumphs of             ,lib4 of    
,capt4c4 #aeej;,fine miniatures4        
,petrarch                 ,holford1     
,london                                 
#bh,missal of               ,rylands    
,lib41c4 #aebj;,fine miniatures4        
,card4 ,colonna            ,manchester  
,attributed1 but                        
without authority1 to                   
,raffaelle4                             
#bi,prayer-book  ,rome1 or    ,barberini
    c4 #aejj,many fine miniatures4      

,florence    ,lib41 ,rome1              
,no4 #cbd                               
#cj,missal of    ,rome        ,chigi    
,lib41  c4     ,executed for ,pius ,,ii4
   ,pius ,,ii4                 ,rome    
#adfj-gj                                
#ca,missal of               ,corsini    
,lib41c4 #aecj;,fine framed   ,card4    
,corsini            ,rome1 ,no4         
miniatures4                             
#ajae                                   
#cb,missal of               ,minerva    
,lib41c4 #aebj;,fine miniatures4        
,card4 ,cornaro            ,rome        
#cc,pavia      ,milan       ,brera      
,lib41  #aecj-hj  ,by several artists1  
,graduals                 ,milan        
especially ,g4                          
,berretta4 ,enormous                    
folios4                                 
#cd,prayer-book  444444      ,roy4      
,lib41   c4 #aegd;,finest ,roman   of   
,albert ,,iv4            ,munich1 ,cim4 
,renaissance1 but   of ,bavaria         
,saal4 #db              written by ,hans

                                        
,lenker1 of ,munich                     
7not a ,clovio74                        
#ce;,apologia di  ,rome        ,brit4   
,mus41  c4 #aeaj;,executed for ,henry   
,colenuccio               ,roy4 #ab1 c4 
,,viii4 of ,england4                    
viii4                                   
#cf,prayer-book  ,milan       ,roy4     
,lib41   c4 #adej;,illuminated by       
,bianca ,maria             ,munich1 ,no4
           ,giovanni da ,como4   of     
,milan                 #ii;,a           
,contains ,visconti and                 
,sforza arms4                           
#cg;,hours of ,bona           ,brit     
,mus41   c4 #adij;,finest ,milanese     
,sforza of                ,add4 #cdbid  
,renaissance1 with   ,milan             
some ,flemish                           
additions4   ,,french                   
----------------------------------------
------------------------------- ,no     
,name4       ,where     ,where ,kept4   
,date4        ,remarks4                 

,produced4                              
----------------------------------------
------------------------------  #a,the  
,tours       ,nat4 ,lib41   444444      
,attributed to ,jehan   ,versailles     
,paris1 #fijg           ,fouquet of     
,tours4   ,livy                         
#b,the                     ,nat4 ,lib41 
444444   ,attributed to ,jehan          
,sorbonne               ,paris1 fds4    
,fouquet of ,tours4   ,livy             
,sorb4 #big                             
#c;,antiquities             ,nat4 ,lib41
   444444   ,fouquet's   of the ,jews   
,paris1 ,resew4         masterpiece4    
#fhia                                   
#d;,boccacio                ,roy4 ,lib41
   444444   ,executed for ,etienne      
,munich                ,chevalier4      
#e,trsor des              ,brit4 ,mus41 
c4 #adij;,fine arial   ,histoires       
,cott4 ,aug4 v4         perspective and 
landscape4                              
#f,valerius     ,paris       ,brit4     
,mus41          ,a very fine ,,ms4      

,maximus                  ,harl4 #dcgd-e
                                        
#g;,hours of ,anne           ,nat4      
,lib41   c4 #aejh;,a magnificent   of   
,brittany              ,paris           
example1 eclectic in                    
style1 with natural                     
flowers and insects                     
in borders1 and fine                    
figure-painting4                        
#h;,hours of                ,vicomte de 
c4 #aeej;,attributed to ,jean   ,claude 
,janz                 ,cousin4          
,influence of   ,gouffier               
glass-painting4                         
#i,offices                 ,brit4 ,mus41
  c4 #aecj,probably executed for        
,add4 #ahhec            ,francis ,i4 of 
,france4                                
,excellent work1                        
eclectic in style4                      
#i;a,hours of                ,libr4 of  
#aedi     ,same style as #h and         
,montmorency              ,count of     
#i1 and probably by ,j4                 

,haussonville          ,cousin1         
#aj,offices      ,tours8      ,brit4    
,mus41  c4 #aebe;,architectural details 
,add4 #ahhed            of ,school of   
,tours4                                 
,written for ,fr4 de                    
,dinteville1 ,bp4 of                    
,auxerre4                               
#aa                       ,brit4 ,mus41 
,architectural frames                   
,add4 #ahhee            to miniatures as
 in                                     
#ab            ,paris       ,nat4 ,lib41
   #aeca     #aj1 but larger and        
,paris1 ,lat4           more fanciful   
#ajefc                 details1 somewhat
                                        
like #g in portions4                    
#ac;,epistres     444444      ,nat4     
,lib41   c4 #aejj;,executed for ,louise 
d',ovide                  ,paris1 fds4  
de ,savoie1 mother of                   
fr4 #hge               ,francis ,i4     
#ad;,boece        ,paris       ,nat4    
,lib41           ,fine miniatures with  

,paris1 u4             ,renaissance     
fds4 ,lat4             architectural    
#ffdc                  details4         
#ae;,epistres                ,nat4      
,lib41           ,translated by         
,paris1 #fhgg           ,octavien de    
d',ovide                                
,st4 ,gelay4 ,beautiful                 
miniatures4                             
#af,petrarch's   444444      ,nat4      
,lib41   c4 #aebj,very fine miniatures  
,triumphs                 ,paris1 f4 fr4
         of triumphs4 ,italian          
#gjgi                  influence4       
#ag;,chants royaux444444      ,nat4     
,lib41           ,fine miniatures4      
,paris1 #fihg                           
#ah;,chants ,royaux,paris       ,nat4   
,lib41           ,magnificent           
,paris1 f4 fr4         miniatures under 
#cgi                   ,italian         
influence of                            
,andrea del ,sarto4                     
#ai,petrarch                ,nat4 ,lib41
   c4 #aejc,miniature of                

,paris1 f4 fr4         presentation to  
,louis                            #bbe  
,,xii4 ,many full-page                  
miniatures4                             
#bj;,fleur des               ,nat4      
,lib41   c4 #aeje;,executed for         
,cardinal   ,histoires                  
,paris1 f4 fr4         d',amboise4      
#ed                                     
#ba;,chron4 de               ,nat4      
,lib41           ,three large folio     
,monstrelet               ,paris1       
vols4 ,vol4 i4                          
#bjcfj-b               contains five    
equestrian portraits                    
of ,louis ,,xii4                        
#bb,les ,echecs              ,nat4      
,lib41   c4 #aejj;,executed for use of  
amoreux                  ,paris1 f4 fr4 
,francis1 d4 of                         
#adc                   ,angoulme1 and   
his                                     
sister ,marguerite4                     
#bc;,boccace de              ,nat4      
,lib41           ,by same illuminator   

claris et                ,paris1 f4 fr4 
as #bb4 ,executed for   nobilibus       
#eii                   ,louise de       
,savoie4   mulieribus                   
#bd,reception de            ,brit4      
,mus41  c4 #aead;,avec belles   ,marie  
,vesp4 ,b4 #b            peintures4     
d',angleterre                           
,paris                                  
#be;,chants ,royaux           ,nat4     
,lib41   #aeae     ,presented in #aeae  
to                            ,paris1 f4
 fr4         ,louise de ,savoie by      
#ade                   the ,city of     
,amiens4                                
,the miniatures                         
painted in grisaille                    
by ,j4 ,plastel1 and                    
coloured by ,j4                         
,pinchon4 ,contains                     
portrait of ,louise4                    
#bf;,commentaires            ,brit4     
,mus4   c4 #aeai;,attributed to   de    
,csar1                                  
,geoffroy ,tory4 ,part   ,vol4 i4       

grisaille4 ,written in                  
,roman text4 ,see                       
,dict4 ,miniat4 iii4                    
#cab4                                   
,commentaires            ,nat4 ,lib41   
de ,csar1                ,paris1 #acdbi 
,vol4 ii4                               
,commentaires            ,lib4 of ,duc  
de ,csar1                d',aumale      
,vol4 iii4                              
#bg;,dutillet1    444444      ,nat4     
,lib41   444444   ,presented to ,charles
   ,french ,kings1            ,paris1   
#bhdh           ,,ix4   etc4            
#bh;,hours of     444444      ,nat4     
,lib41   c4 #aeie,peculiar style and    
,henry ,,iv4                ,paris1     
,lat4           colouring4              
#aaga                                   
#bi;,gospel of ,st4,boisleduc   ,brit4  
,mus41  444444   ,finely written1 but   
,john                     ,roy41 ,e4 #e 
not illuminated by                      
,pet4 ,meghen4                          
#cj,sol                    ,brit4 ,mus41

  c4 #afhb,painted by ,pierre           
,gallicus                ,add4 #bcgde   
,mignard4                               
#ca,psalter      ,london      ,brit4    
,mus41  #aefe     ,written by ,petrucco 
,roy4 #b ,b4 #i           ,ubaldini1 a  
,florentine4                            
#cb;,book of      ,english8    ,brit4   
,mus41  c4 #afjj,very elegant borders4  
,sentences for,london8     ,roy4 #ag ,a4
 #bc            ,lady ,sumley           
,,english ,,illumination  ,,from ,,the  
,,thirteenth ,,to ,,the ,,sixteenth     
,,century                               
----------------------------------------
------------------------------- ,no     
,name4       ,where     ,where ,kept4   
,date4        ,remarks4                 
,produced4                              
----------------------------------------
------------------------------          
#a,offices and  ,westminster ,brit4     
,mus41  #abdj     ,imitation of stained 
,prayers                  ,roy4 #b ,a4  
#bb          glass4 ,typical ,,ms4      

#b;,bible in     ,canterbury  ,brit4    
,mus41  #abde        ,latin             
,burney #c                              
#c            ,salisbury   ,brit4 ,mus41
  #abed     ,written by ,will de        
,roy4 #a ,b4 #ab          ,hales4       
#d,tenison      ,london      ,brit4     
,mus41  #abid     ,written and          
,psalter                  ,add4 #bdfhf  
illuminated by order                    
of ,edward ,i4                          
#e;,bible in     444444      ,brit4     
,mus41  #acth     ,written by ,will of  
,latin                    ,roy4 #a ,d #a
   cent4    ,devon4                     
#f;,apocalypse in444444      ,brit4     
,mus41  c4 #accj,see ,bibliographica1   
,french                   ,roy4 #ai ,b4 
#ae         pt4 v4 pl4 #a4              
#g;,arundel      444444      ,brit4     
,mus41          ,see ,bibliographica1   
,psalter                  ,arund4 #hc   
pt4 v4 pl4 #b                           
#h,psalter of   444444      ,brit4      
,mus41  #achj     ,transition from      

,joan of ,kent             ,roy4 #b ,b4 
#h           ,french ,gothic to         
,lancastrian4                           
#i,pontifical   444444      ,brit4      
,mus41  c4 #adjj;,early ,lancastrian4   
,lansd4 #dea                            
#aj;,bible in     444444      ,brit4    
,mus41          ,large folio4 ,see      
,latin                    ,roy4 #a ,e4  
ix4         ,bibliographica1 pt4        
v4 pl4 #d4                              
#aa;,breviary     444444      ,brit4    
,mus41          ,something like #g4     
,harl4 #bige                            
#ab,offices      444444      ,brit4     
,mus41  c4                              
,add4 #afifh   #acij-adjj               
#ac            444444      ,brit4 ,mus41
  c4 #adaj;,executed for ,anne          
,add4 #afiih            ,mauleverer4    
#ad,liber ,albus  ,london               
,guildhall            ,bracket borders4 
,lib41 ,london                          
#ae,liber de ,hyda,winchester  ,shirburn
             ,richly illuminated        

,castle ,lib4           borders1 some   
unfinished4 ,see ,rolls                 
,series4 #ahff4                         
#af,offices      444444      ,brit4     
,mus41  c4     ,early ,lancastrian4     
,roy4 #b ,b4 #a  #adjj-adaj             
#ag;,grandison    444444      ,brit4    
,mus41  c4 #adaj;,fine initials with    
,offices                  ,roy4 #b ,a4  
#ah          ,lancastrian brackets4     
,see ,bibliographica1                   
v4 pl4 #e4                              
#ah,occleve de   444444      ,brit4     
,mus41  c4 #adae,traceried backgrounds  
,regim4                   ,ar4 #ch      
in ,bohemian manner4   ,principum       
,cf4 ,will4 v4 ,orange                  
,,ms4                                   
#ai,ormonde      444444      ,brit4     
,mus41  c4 #adbj,similar to #ag4 ,called
   ,offices                  ,roy4 #b   
,b4 #ae          by ,humphreys 7,books  
of ,middle ,ages7                       
,queen ,mary's                          
,breviary4                              

#bj;,gower's      444444      ,brit4    
,mus41          ,lancastrian style4     
,confessio                ,harl4 #cdij  
,amantis                                
#ba,psalter of   ,st4 ,alban's ,brit4   
,mus41  #adfj     ,fine ,english work4  
,queen ,mary               ,roy4 #b ,b4 
#g           ,presented in #aeec to     
,queen ,mary                            
#bb;,hor         444444      ,brit4     
,mus41  c4 #adfj,many mediocre          
,harl4 #bhhd            illuminations4  
#bc;,gospels and  ,london      ,brit4   
,mus41  c4 #aejh;,given by ,stephen and 
,epistles1                ,roy4 #b ,b4  
#ab1         ,margaret ,jenyns to   etc4
                     #ac                
the church at                           
,aldermanbury1 ,london4                 
#bd;,bourchier               ,brit4     
,mus41  c4 #adeh;,contains ,bourchier   
,psalter                  ,roy4 #b ,b4  
#ad          obituaries4                
#be,psalter and  444444      ,brit4     
,mus41  c4 #adgj;,good text and many    

,canticles1               ,harl4 #agai  
illuminated letters   etc4              
and borders4   ,,spanish ,,and          
,,portuguese                            
----------------------------------------
------------------------------- ,no     
,name4       ,where     ,where ,kept4   
,date4        ,remarks4                 
,produced4                              
----------------------------------------
------------------------------          
#a;,hours1 etc41 444444      ,brit4     
,mus41  444444   ,netherlandish   ,lat4 
and                 ,add4 #ahaic        
influence4   ,catalan4                  
#b,offices      444444      ,brit4      
,mus41  444444   ,italian influence4    
,b4,m4,v4                   ,add4 #bhbga
                                        
#c;,hidalguia    444444      ,brit4     
,mus41  #afjd     ,in ,genoese manner4  
,add4 #abbad                            
#d;,diploma of   444444      ,brit4     
,mus41  #agth        ,philip ,,iii4     
,roy4 ,claud4  cent4                    

,b4 x4                                  
#e,patent to    444444      ,brit4      
,mus41  #agig     ,allegorical designs4 
,princ4 de la             ,add4 #agjf   
,paz                                    
#f,ordo ,miss4   444444      ,brit4     
,mus41  #agth     ,roman text1 good     
,pontificales             ,add4 #cjheg  
cent4    initials4                      
#g,portuguese   444444      ,brit4      
,mus41  444444   ,written for ,john     
,missal                   ,stowe #eig   
,,iii41 ,king of                        
,portugal4                              
#h;,hidalguia de ,spain       ,brit4    
,mus41  #aegh     ,granted by ,philip   
,gonsalo de               ,add4 #bbadc  
,,ii41 with his   ,castro ,cepeda       
portrait4     ,,bibliography  ,abrahams1
 ,n4,c4,l4 ,description des ,,mss4      
franaises du ,moyen ,age de la          
,bibliothque ,royale de ,copenhague4    
#dto4 ,copenhagen4 #ahdd4  ,alt1 ,h4    
,die ,heiligenbilder oder die bildende  
,kunst u4 die ,theologie4 #hvo4 ,berlin1

 #ahde4  ,astle1 ,thomas4 ,the ,origin  
and ,progress of ,writing4 #dto4        
,london1 #aghd1 #ahjc4   ,barrois1 ,j4  
,bibliothque ,protypographique ou       
librairies du roi ,jean4 #dto1 ,paris1  
#ahcj4 #f plates4  ,bastard1 ,aug4      
,librairie de ,jean de ,france duc de   
,berry444illustre des plus belles       
miniatures de ses ,,mss41 etc4 ,folio4  
,paris1 #ahcd4 #cb plates4  ,beissel1   
,stephan4 ,des heiligen ,bernward       
,evangelienbuch im ,dome zu ,hildesheim4
 ,mit ,hdschr4 des #aj4 und #aa4        
,jahrh41 etc4 ,third edition4 #bf       
photo-lithographs 7#ab x #i74           
,hildesheim1 #ahid4  ,beissel1 ,stephan4
 ,vaticanische ,miniaturen4 ,folio4     
,freiburg im ,breisgau1 #ahic4 ,many    
lithographed plates4  ,birch1 ,w4 de ,g4
 ,history1 ,art1 and ,palography of the 
,,ms4 commonly styled the ,utrecht      
,psalter4 #hvo4 #c facsimile plates in  
autotype4 ,b1 ,quaritch1 ,london1 #ahgf4
  ,birch1 ,w4 de ,g41 and ,jenner1 ,h4  
,early ,drawings and ,illuminations 7in 

,,mss41 chiefly in the ,british         
,museum74 #abmo4 ,london1 #ahgi4        
,biscionii1 ,a4,m4 ,catal4 bibl4        
,medico-,laurentiana4 ,folio4           
,florentine1 #ageb-g4 7,valuable plates 
of facsimiles1 etc47  ,bradley1 ,j4,w4  
,life and ,works of ,g4,g4 ,clovio1     
,miniaturist1 etc4 #hvo4 ,london1 #ahia4
 #ah plates4  ,bradley1 ,j4,w4          
,dictionary of ,miniaturists1           
,calligraphers1 etc4 #hvo4 #c vols4     
,quaritch1 ,london1 #ahhg-ij4  ,bradley1
 ,j4,w4 ,venetian ,ducali1 in           
,bibliographica1 ,,ii4 #beg4 #d         
phototypes4  ,bucher1 ,b4 ,geschichte   
des ,technischen ,knste1 etc41 vol4 i4  
,miniatur1 etc4 #hvo4 ,stuttgart1 #ahge4
   ,cahier and ,martin4 ,nouveaux       
,mlanges d',archologie1 etc4 ,large     
#dto4 ,paris1 #ahgd-gg1 etc4 ,many fine 
plates of miniatures1 etc41 mostly      
without colour4  ,campori1 ,g4 ,gli     
artisti ,italiani1 etc41 nelle ,stati   
,estensi4 #hvo4 ,modena1 #ahee4         
,campori1 ,g4 ,racconti artistici       

italiani4 #hvo4 ,firenze1 #aheh4        
,caravita1 ,a4 ,i codici e le ,arti a   
,monte ,cassino4 #hvo4 ,montec41        
#ahfi-ga4  ,carta1 ,f4 ,codici1 corali e
 libri a stampa miniati della           
,biblioteca nazionale di ,milano4       
,folio4 ,roma1 #ahie4 ,with #be         
phototype facsimiles4  ,chassant1 ,alph4
 ,palographie des chartes et des ,,mss4 
du #aa;e au #ag;e ,sicle4 #hvo4 ,paris1 
#ahfg1 and companion vols4  ,curmer1 ,l4
 ,les ,evangiles des ,dimanches et      
,ftes4 ,large #hvo4 ,paris1 #ahfd4 ,many
 facsimiles in gold and colours from    
illuminated ,,mss4   ,delisle1 ,l4 ,mm4 
sur l'cole calligraphique de ,tours au  
,i,xe ,sicle4 ,paris1 #ahhe4 #e         
heliograv4  ,delisle1 ,l4 ,l'vangliaire 
d',arras et la ,calligraphie            
,franco-,saxonne du neuvime ,sicle4     
#dto4 ,paris1 #ahhh4 ,large heliogravure
 facsimiles4  ,delaunay 7l',abb ,h474   
,le livre d',heures de la reine ,anne de
 ,bretagne4 ,with facsimile of the whole
 ,,ms4 ,large #hvo4 ,paris1 #ahfa4      

,delia ,valle1 ,g4 ,lettere ,senese1    
,sopra le ,belle ,arti4 #c vols4 #hvo4  
,venezia1 #aghb-hf4 7,relating to       
,sienese miniaturists47  ,delisle1 ,l4  
,le cabinet des manuscrits de la        
bibliothque impriale 7in ,hist4 gn4 de  
,paris74 #dto4 ,paris1 #ahfh4  ,denis1  
,ferd4 ,histoire de l'ornementation des 
manuscrits4 #hvo4 ,paris1 #aheh4 7#adc  
pp41 with illustrations47  ,deshaines1  
,c4 ,histoire de l',art dans la         
,flandre1 d',artois1 et le ,hainaut4    
#hvo4 ,lille1 #ahhf4  ,dibdin1 ,t4,f4   
,the ,bibliographical ,decameron4 #c    
vols4 #hvo4 ,london1 #ahag4  ,didron    
7edit474 ,annales ,archologiques4       
,periodical #dto4 #ahdd1 etc4 7,p4,p4   
#aica1 d4 a4 ,brit4 ,mus47  ,derange1   
,a4 ,cat4 descr4 et raisonn des manuscr4
 de la bibl4 de ,tours4 #dto4 ,tours1   
#ahge4  ,durieux1 ,a4 ,les ,artistes    
,cambrsiens du ,i,xe a ,x,i,xe ,sicle1  
etc4 #hvo4 ,cambray1 #ahgd4 7,with      
plates in folio47  ,durieux1 ,a4        
,miniatures des manuscr4 de la bibl4 de 

,cambrai4 #hvo4 ,cambrai1 #ahfa4 #ah    
plates4  ,du ,sommerard1 ,andr4 ,les    
,arts du ,moyen-ge4 #f vols4 ,folio4    
,paris1 #ahch-df4   ,fleury1 ,e4 ,les   
,,mss4  miniatures de la bibliothque de 
,soissons4 #dto4 ,paris1 #ahfe4         
,lithograph facsimiles4  ,fleury1 ,e4   
,les manuscrits  miniatures de la bibl4 
de ,laon4 #dto4 ,laon1 #ahfc4 #ej plates
 7good74   ,gabelentz1 ,h4 von der4 ,zur
 ,geschichte der oberdeutschen          
,miniaturmalerei im #aften ,jahrhundert4
 ,large #hvo4 ,strassburg1 #ahii4 #ab   
phototypes4  ,gamier1 ,j4 ,catalogue    
descriptif et raisonn des ,,mss4 de la  
bibl4 de la ville d',amiens4 #hvo4      
,amiens1 #ahdc4  ,girardot1 ,b4 de4     
,cat4 des manuscrits de la bibl4 de     
,bourges4 ,folio4 ,paris1 #ahei4        
,gualandi1 ,m4,a4 ,memorie originate    
,italiane risguardante le ,belle ,arti4 
#hvo4 ,bologna1 #ahdj-de4   ,hardy1 ,sir
 ,thomas ,d4 ,the ,athanasian ,creed in 
,connection with the ,utrecht ,psalter3 
being a ,report1 etc4 ,with autotype    

facsimiles4 ,folio4 ,spottiswoode and   
,co41 #ahgb4  ,hendrie1 ,r4 ,encyclopdia
 of the ,arts of the ,middle ,ages by   
the monk ,theophilus4 ,translated1 with 
notes4 #hvo4 ,london1 #ahdg4 ,one of the
 best collections of medival methods and
 recipes relating to illumination4      
,humphreys1 ,h4 ,noel4 ,the ,illuminated
 ,books of the ,middle ,ages4 ,folio4   
,london1 #ahdi4 #ci plates4  ,husenbeth1
 ,f4,c4 ,emblems of ,saints by which    
they are ,distinguished in ,works of    
,art4 #hvo4 ,london1 #ahej4 ,second     
edition1 #ahfj4 ,third edition1 #ahhb4  
,jck1 ,j4,j4 ,viele ,alphabete und ganze
 ,schriftmuster vom #h1 bis zum #af1    
,jahrh4 aus den ,handschr4 der ffentl4  
,bibl4 zu ,bamberg4 ,folio4 ,bamberg1   
#ahcc-ce4  ,james1 ,m4,r4 ,descriptive  
,catalogue of the ,illuminated ,,mss4 in
 the ,fitzwilliam ,museum1 ,cambridge4  
7,fine phototype facsimiles1 and an     
excellent text47 ,large #hvo4 ,cambridge
 ,university ,press1 #ahie4  ,jorand1   
,j4,b4,j4 ,grammatographie du neuvime   

sicle4 #dto4 ,paris1 #ahcg4 #fe plates1 
folio4   ,kirchoff1 ,albr4              
,handschriftenhndler des ,mittelalters4 
,second edition4 #hvo4 ,leipzig1 #ahec4 
,kondakov4 ,hist4 de l',art ,byzantin   
considerr444dans les miniatures4 #b     
vols4 ,small folio4 ,paris1 #ahia4      
,plates and woodcuts4  ,kugler4 ,kleine 
,schriften4 #c vols4 #hvo4 ,stuttgart4  
#ahec-ed4 7,german illumination47       
,labarte1 ,jules4 ,historie des ,arts   
industriels au ,moyen-ge4 7,vol4 iii47  
#hvo4 ,paris1 #ahfe4  ,laborde1 ,l4 ,la 
renaissance des arts  la cour de        
,france4 #b vols4 #hvo4 ,paris1         
#ahee-ef4  ,lacroix1 ,p4 ,military and  
,religious ,life in the ,middle ,ages4  
#hvo4 ,london1 #ahgd4  ,lacroix1 ,p4    
,the ,arts of the ,middle ,ages4 #dto4  
,london1 #ahgj4  ,lacroix1 ,p4 ,manners1
 ,customs1 and ,dress during the ,middle
 ,ages4 #dto4 ,london1 #ahgd4  ,lacroix1
 ,paul1 and ,sr ,ferd4 ,le ,moyen-ge et 
la ,renaissance4 #e vols4 #dto4 ,paris1 
#ahdh-eb1 #ahgd4  ,lacroix1 ,p41        

,fournier1 ,ed41 and ,sr1 ,f4 ,livre    
d'or des mtiers4 #hvo4 ,paris1 #aheb4   
,lambecius1 ,p4 ,commentar4 de          
,bibliotheca ,csarea ,vindobonensi4     
,folio4 ,vindobona 7,vienna74 #afgj4    
,plates4  ,langlois1 ,e4,h4 ,mmoire sur 
la calligraphic les ,,mss4 du ,moyen-ge4
 #hvo4 ,paris1 #ahda4 #ag plates4  ,le  
,arti4 ,various ,articles on            
,illuminated ,,mss41 by ,frizzoni1      
,venturi1 etc4 7,italian ,periodical4   
,roma1 v4 #g4 ,from #ahih47  ,lecoy de  
la ,marche1 ,a4 ,les ,,mss4 et la       
,miniature4 #abmo4 ,paris1 #ahhd4       
,woodcuts4  ,leitschuh1 ,f4,f4          
,geschichte der ,karolingischen         
,malerei1 etc4 ,berlin1 #ahid4 ,many    
prototype facsimiles4  ,libri1 ,gul4    
,monumens indits4 ,folio4 ,london1      
#ahfd4 #fe plates4   ,madden1 ,sir      
,fred4 ,universal ,palography4 #b vols4 
#hvo4 ,london1 #ahej4  ,marchal1 ,j4    
,cat4 des ,,mss4 de la bibl4 royale des 
dues de ,bourgogne4 #c vols4 #dto4      
,brussels1 #ahdb4  ,middleton1 ,j4,h4   

,illuminated ,,mss4 in ,classical and   
,medival ,times3 their ,art and their   
,technique4 ,large #hvo4 ,cambridge     
,university ,press1 #ahib4  ,milanesi1  
,g4 ,documenti per la ,storia dell' arte
 ,senese1 etc4 #hvo4 ,siena1 #ahed-ef4  
,molinier1 ,a4 ,les ,,mss4 et les       
,miniatures4 #abmo4 ,paris1 #ahib4      
,woodcuts4  ,monte ,cassino4            
,paleografia artistica4 ,monte ,cassino1
 #ahgg4 ,folio4 ,facsimiles in gold and 
colours1 etc41 from ,gothic and         
,lombardic ,,mss4  ,montfaucon4         
,palographia ,grca4 ,small folio4       
,parisiis1 #agjh4  ,mugnier1 ,fr4 ,les  
,,mss4  miniatures de la ,maison de     
,savoie1 etc4 #hvo4                     
,moutiers-,tarantaise1 #ahid4 #ag       
phototypes4   ,ottley1 ,w4,y4 ,history  
of ,engraving4 #dto4 ,london1 #ahaf4    
,peignot1 ,gabr4 ,essai sur l'histoire  
du parchemin et du vlin4 #hvo4 ,paris1  
#ahab4  ,pinchart1 ,a4 ,miniaturistes1  
,enlumineurs1 et ,calligraphes ,employs 
par ,philippe le ,bon1 etc4 #hvo4       

,bruxelles1 #ahfe4  ,publications of the
 ,palographical ,society of ,london4    
,folio4 ,vol4 vii41 etc4 ,very useful4  
,quaritch1 ,b4 ,examples of the ,art of 
,book-illumination during the ,middle   
,ages4 #dto4 ,london1 #ahii4 ,fine      
facsimiles in gold and colours4         
,raczynski1 ,a4 7,cte474 ,les arts en   
,portugal4 #hvo4 ,paris1 #ahdf4  ,rahn1 
,j4,r4 ,das ,psalterium ,aureum v4      
,sanct ,gallen4 ,folio4 ,st4 ,gallen1   
#ahgh4 u chromolithogr4 in colours and  
gold4 #g lithogr4 and many woodcuts4 7,a
 capital account of ,carolingian and    
,irish ,,mss47   ,sacken1 ,ed4 ,frh4    
von4 ,die ,ambraser ,sammlung4 #hvo4    
,wien1 #ahee4  ,sakcinski1 ,j4,k4 ,leben
 des ,giulio ,clovio4 #hvo4 ,agram1     
#aheb4  ,sakcinski1 ,j4,k4 ,slovnik     
umjetnah ,jugoslavenskih4 7,biographical
 ,dict4 of ,south ,slavonic ,artists47  
#hvo4 ,uzagreba1 #aheh4  ,sanftl1 ,k4   
,dissertatio in aureum ac pervetustum   
,,ss4 ,evangelior4 ,codicem ,,ms4       
,monast4 ,s4 ,emmerani4 #daj4 ,ratisbon1

 #aghf4 ,gives a large folding plate of 
the ,gospel-book cover1 and facsimiles  
of illumination and writing4            
,schnemann4 #ajj ,merkwrdigkeiten des   
,herzoglichen ,biblioth4 zu             
,wolfenbttel4 #hvo4 ,hannover1 #ahdi4   
,schultz1 ,a4 ,deutsches ,leben in      
#adten und #aeten ,jahrh4 #b vols4      
,large #hvo4 ,wien1 #ahib4 7,contains   
many facsimiles in gold and colours1    
from ,german and ,bohemian ,,mss47      
,serapeum1 ,zeitschrift fr              
,bibliothekens ,wissenschaft4 #hvo4     
,leipzig4 ,vol4 vii4  ,seroux           
,d',agincourt1 ,j4 ,historie de l',art  
par les ,monuments4 ,folio4 #c vols4    
,paris1 #ahbc4 ,london1 #ahdg4          
,engravings4  ,shaw1 ,h4 ,the ,art of   
,illuminating as ,practised in the      
,middle ,ages4 ,second edition4 #dto4   
,london1 #ahde4 ,plates4  ,shaw1 ,h4    
,alphabets1 ,numerals1 and ,devices of  
the ,middle ,ages4 ,folio4 ,london1 ,w4 
,pickering1 #ahde4 ,many plates1 some in
 gold and colours4  ,silvestre1 ,j4,b4  

,palographie universelle4 #d vols4      
,folio4 ,paris1 #ahda4 #fjj plates4     
7,plates very good47  ,smet1 ,j4,j4 de4 
,quelques recherches sur nos anciens    
enlumineurs1 etc4 ,in ,bulletin de      
l',acadmie de ,belgique1 t4 xiv41 pt4   
#b1 p4 #gh1 and ,bullet4 du ,bibliophile
 ,belge1 t4 iii41 p4 #cgf1 t4 iv41 p4   
#agf4  ,stokes1 ,m4 ,early ,christian   
,art in ,ireland4 #abmo4 ,london1 #ahhg4
 ,woodcuts4 7,victoria and ,albert ,m4  
,handbook47  ,swarzenski1 ,g4 ,die      
,regensburger ,buchmalerei des ,x4 und  
,,xi4 ,jahrhunderts4 ,large #hvo4       
,leipzig1 #aija4 #ce phototypes4        
,tambroni1 ,g4 ,cennino ,cennini3       
,trattato della ,pittura4 #hvo4 ,roma1  
#ahba4 ,later edition 7,milanesi71      
,firenze1 #ahei4 7,contains many        
practical directions and recipes47      
,thompson1 ,sir ,edward ,m4 ,english    
,illuminated ,,mss4 ,in ,bibliographica1
 vol4 i4 pp4 #abi1 #che1 etc4 ,large    
#hvo4 ,london1 #ahie4   ,venturi1 ,ad4  
,la miniatura ferrarese nel secolo      

,,xv41 etc4 ,folio4 ,roma1 #ahii4 #d    
chromolithographs and #g phototypes4 ,in
 ,le ,gallerie ,nazionale ,italiane4    
,vol4 iv41 #ahg4  ,viel-,castel1 ,cte4  
,horace de4 ,statuts de l',ordre du     
,saint-,esprit1 etc4 ,,ms4 du #ad;e     
,sicle avec une notice sur la peinture  
des ,,mss4 ,large folio4 ,paris1 #ahec4 
#ag very fine facsimiles in gold and    
colours4  ,vogelsang1 ,w4 ,hollndische  
,miniaturen des spteren ,mittelalters4  
,large #hvo4 ,strassburg1 #ahii4 ,many  
phototype facsimiles4   ,wailly1 ,j4,n4 
de4 lmens de ,palographie4 #b thick     
vols4 #dto4 ,paris1 #ahch4 ,many plates 
of writing1 seals1 etc4  ,wallther1     
,j4,l4 ,lexicon diplomaticum4 ,folio4   
#agea4 ,many examples of writings4      
,waagen1 ,g4,f4 ,on the ,importance of  
,,mss4 with ,miniatures in the ,history 
of ,art4 #hvo4 ,philobiblon ,society4   
,vol4 i4 ,london1 #ahed4  ,waagen1      
,g4,f4 ,die ,vornehmsten ,knstler in    
,wien4 #hvo4 ,wien1 #ahff4 7,,mss4 in   
,imperial ,library1 etc41 in ,vienna47  

,warner1 ,g4,f4 ,miniatures and ,borders
 from the ,hours of ,bona ,sforza1      
,duchess of ,milan4 ,small #dto4        
,london1 #ahid4 #fe sepia facsimiles4   
,warner1 ,g4,f4 ,illuminated ,,mss4 in  
the ,british ,museum4 #dto4 ,london1    
#ahii1 etc4 ,many coloured facsimiles4  
,wattenbach1 ,w4 ,das ,schriftwesen im  
,mittelalter4 #hvo4 ,leipzig1 #ahga4    
,westwood1 ,j4,o4 ,palographia ,sacra   
,pictoria4 #dto4 ,london1 #ahde4 #ej    
facsimile plates1 mostly in colours and 
gold4  ,westwood1 ,j4,o4 ,miniatures and
 ,ornaments of ,anglo-,saxon and ,irish 
,,mss4 ,folio4 ,oxford1 #ahfh4 ,many    
fine facsimiles in colours4  ,wyatt1    
,m4,d41 and ,tymms4 ,the ,art of        
,illuminating4 ,large #hvo4 ,london1    
#ahfj4 ,many facsimiles in gold and     
colours4