,,! ,,poetics ,,( ,,ari/otle  ,by       
,ari/otle  ,a ,translation ,by ,s4 ,h4  
,but*]   ,transcrib]'s ,annotations &   
,conv5tions3 ! translator left intact "s
 ,greek words to illu/rate a specific   
po9t ( ! orig9al disc\rse4 ,9 ?is       
transcription1 9 ord] to reta9 !        
accuracy ( ?is text1 ^? words are r5d]$ 
by spell+ out ea* ,greek lett]          
individually1 su* z alpha beta gamma    
delta4444 ,! read] c di/+ui% ^! words by
 ! enclos+ braces 4 ,:]e multiple words 
occur toge!r1 !y are sep>at$ by ! _/    
symbol = cl>ity4 ,read]s :o d n speak or
 read ! ,greek language w usually nei!r 
ga9 nor lose und]/&+ by skipp+ ov] ^!   
passages4 ,^? :o und]/& ,greek1 h[ev]1  
may ga9 a deep] insight to ! orig9al    
mean+ & di/9ctions express$ by          
,ari/otle4     ,analysis ( ,cont5ts     
,i     ',imitation' ! common pr9ciple ( 
! ,arts ( ,poetry4   ,,ii    ,! ,objects
 ( ,imitation4   ,,iii   ,! ,mann] (    
,imitation4   ,,iv    ,! ,orig9 &       
,developm5t ( ,poetry4   ,v             

,def9ition ( ! ,ludicr\s1 & a brief     
sket* ( ! rise (         ,com$y4   ,,vi 
,def9ition ( ,trag$y4   ,,vii   ,! ,plot
 mu/ be a ,:ole4   ,,viii  ,! ,plot mu/ 
be a ,unity4   ,,ix    7,plot cont9u$47 
,dramatic ,unity4   ,x     7,plot       
cont9u$47 ,def9itions ( ,simple &       
,complex ,plots4   ,,xi    7,plot       
cont9u$47 ,rev]sal ( ! ,situation1      
,recognition1 &         ,tragic or      
disa/r\s ,incid5t def9$ & expla9$4      
,,xii   ,! 'quantitative p>ts' ( ,trag$y
 def9$4   ,,xiii  7,plot cont9u$47 ,:at 
con/itutes ,tragic ,action4   ,,xiv     
7,plot cont9u$47 ,! tragic emotions (   
pity & fe> %\ld         spr+ out ( !    
,plot itself4   ,,xv    ,! elem5t ( ,"* 
9 ,trag$y4   ,,xvi   7,plot cont9u$47   
,recognition3 its v>i\s k9ds1 )         
examples4   ,,xvii  ,practical rules = !
 ,tragic ,poet4   ,,xviii ,fur!r rules =
 ! ,tragic ,poet4   ,,xix   ,?\ght1 or !
 ,intellectual elem5t1 & ,diction 9     
,trag$y4   ,,xx    ,diction1 or         
,language 9 g5]al4   ,,xxi   ,poetic    

,diction4   ,,xxii  7,poetic ,diction   
cont9u$47 ,h[ ,poetry comb9es elevation 
(         language ) p]spicuity4        
,,xxiii ,epic ,poetry4   ,,xxiv  7,epic 
,poetry cont9u$47 ,fur!r po9ts (        
agreem5t ) ,trag$y4   ,,xxv   ,critical 
,objections br\ght aga9/ ,poetry1 & !   
pr9ciples on         :i* !y are to be   
answ]$4   ,,xxvi  ,a g5]al e/imate ( !  
comp>ative wor? ( ,epic ,poetry &       
,trag$y4     ,,ari/otle',s ,,poetics    
,i  ,i propose to treat ( ,poetry 9     
itself & ( its v>i\s k9ds1 not+ !       
ess5tial quality ( ea*2 to inquire into 
! /ructure ( ! plot z requisite to a    
good poem2 into ! numb] & nature ( !    
p>ts ( :i* a poem is compos$2 & simil>ly
 into :atev] else falls )9 ! same       
inquiry4 ,foll[+1 !n1 ! ord] ( nature1  
let u beg9 ) ! pr9ciples :i* come fir/4 
,epic poetry & ,trag$y1 ,com$y also &   
,di?yrambic3 poetry1 & ! music ( ! flute
 & ( ! lyre 9 mo/ ( _! =ms1 are all 9 _!
 g5]al conception modes ( imitation4 ,!y
 diff]1 h[ev]1 f "o3 ano!r 9 ?ree       

respects1--! m$ium1 ! objects1 ! mann]  
or mode ( imitation1 be+ 9 ea* case     
di/9ct4  ,= z !re are p]sons :o1 by     
consci\s art or m]e habit1 imitate &    
repres5t v>i\s objects ?r\gh ! m$ium (  
col\r & =m1 or aga9 by ! voice2 s 9 !   
arts above m5tion$1 tak5 z a :ole1 !    
imitation is produc$ by rhy?m1 language1
 or 'h>mony1' ei!r s+ly or comb9$4  ,?us
 9 ! music ( ! flute & ( ! lyre1        
'h>mony' & rhy?m alone are employ$2 also
 9 o!r arts1 su* z t ( ! %eph]d's pipe1 
:i* are ess5tially simil> to ^!4 ,9     
danc+1 rhy?m alone is us$ )\t 'h>mony'2 
= ev5 danc+ imitates "*1 emotion1 &     
action1 by rhy?mical movem5t4  ,!re is  
ano!r art :i* imitates by means (       
language alone1 & t ei!r 9 prose or     
v]se--:i*1 v]se1 aga91 may ei!r comb9e  
diff]5t metres or consi/ ( b "o k9d--b  
?is has hi!rto be5 )\t a "n4 ,= !re is  
no common t]m we c\ld apply to ! mimes (
 ,sophron & ,x5>*us & ! ,socratic       
dialogues on ! "o h&2 &1 on ! o!r1 to   
poetic imitations 9 iambic1 elegiac1 or 

any simil> metre4 ,p d1 inde$1 add ! ^w 
'mak]' or 'poet' to ! "n ( ! metre1 &   
speak ( elegiac poets1 or epic 7t is1   
hexamet]7 poets1 z if x 7 n ! imitation 
t makes ! poet1 b ! v]se t entitles !m  
all indiscrim9ately to ! "n4 ,ev5 :5 a  
treatise on m$ic9e or natural sci5ce is 
br\ght out 9 v]se1 ! "n ( poet is by    
cu/om giv5 to ! au?or2 & yet ,hom] &    
,emp$ocles h no?+ 9 common b ! metre1 s 
t x w\ld be "r to call ! "o poet1 ! o!r 
physici/ r ?an poet4 ,on ! same         
pr9ciple1 ev5 if a writ] 9 8 poetic     
imitation 7 to comb9e all metres1 z     
,*a]emon did 9 8 ,c5taur1 :i* is a m$ley
 compos$ ( metres ( all k9ds1 we %\ld   
br+ him too "u ! g5]al t]m poet4 ,s mu* 
!n = ^! di/9ctions4  ,!re are1 aga91 "s 
arts :i* employ all ! means above       
m5tion$1 namely1 rhy?m1 tune1 & metre4  
,su* are ,di?yrambic & ,nomic poetry1 & 
also ,trag$y & ,com$y2 b betwe5 !m !    
diff]5ce is1 t 9 ! fir/ two cases ^!    
means are all employ$ 9 comb9ation1 9 ! 
latt]1 n[ "o means is employ$1 n[ ano!r4

  ,su*1 !n1 are ! diff]5ces ( ! arts )  
respect to ! m$ium ( imitation4     ,,ii
  ,s9ce ! objects ( imitation are m5 9  
action1 & ^! m5 mu/ be ei!r ( a high] or
 a l[] type 7= moral "* ma9ly answ]s to 
^! divisions1 goodness & badness be+ !  
di/+ui%+ m>ks ( moral diff]5ces71 x     
foll[s t we mu/ repres5t m5 ei!r z bett]
 ?an 9 real life1 or z worse1 or z !y   
are4 ,x is ! same 9 pa9t+4 ,polygnotus  
depict$ m5 z nobl] ?an !y are1 ,pauson z
 less noble1 ,dionysius drew !m true to 
life4  ,n[ x is evid5t t ea* ( ! modes (
 imitation above m5tion$ w exhibit ^!   
diff]5ces1 & become a di/9ct k9d 9      
imitat+ objects t are ?us di/9ct4 ,su*  
div]sities may be f\nd ev5 9 danc+1     
flute-play+1 & lyre-play+4 ,s aga9 9    
language1 :e!r prose or v]se            
unaccompani$ by music4 ,hom]1 = example1
 makes m5 bett] ?an !y are2 ,cleophon z 
!y are2 ,hegemon ! ,?asian1 ! inv5tor ( 
p>odies1 & ,nico*>es1 ! au?or ( !       
,deiliad1 worse ?an !y are4 ,! same ?+  
holds good ( ,di?yrambs & ,nomes2 "h too

 "o may portray diff]5t types1 z        
,timo!us & ,philox5us diff]$ 9 repres5t+
 _! ,cyclopes4 ,! same di/9ction m>ks (f
 ,trag$y f ,com$y2 = ,com$y aims at     
repres5t+ m5 z worse1 ,trag$y z bett]   
?an 9 actual life4     ,,iii  ,!re is   
/ill a ?ird diff]5ce--! mann] 9 :i* ea* 
( ^! objects may be imitat$4 ,= ! m$ium 
be+ ! same1 & ! objects ! same1 ! poet  
may imitate by n>ration--9 :i* case he c
 ei!r take ano!r p]sonality z ,hom]     
does1 or speak 9 8 own p]son1           
un*ang$--or he may pres5t all 8 *>act]s 
z liv+ & mov+ be=e u4  ,^!1 !n1 z we    
said at ! beg9n+1 are ! ?ree diff]5ces  
:i* di/+ui% arti/ic imitation1--! m$ium1
 ! objects1 & ! mann]4 ,s t f "o po9t ( 
view1 ,sophocles is an imitator ( ! same
 k9d z ,hom]--= bo? imitate high] types 
( "*2 f ano!r po9t ( view1 ( ! same k9d 
z ,ari/ophanes--= bo? imitate p]sons    
act+ & do+4 ,h5ce1 "s say1 ! "n (       
'drama' is giv5 to su* poems1 z         
repres5t+ action4 ,= ! same reason !    
,dorians claim ! inv5tion bo? ( ,trag$y 

& ,com$y4 ,! claim to ,com$y is put =w>d
 by ! ,meg>ians1--n only by ^? ( ,greece
 prop]1 :o allege t x orig9at$ "u _!    
democracy1 b also by ! ,meg>ians (      
,sicily1 = ! poet ,epi*>mus1 :o is mu*  
e>li] ?an ,*ionides & ,magnes1 belong$  
to t c\ntry4 ,trag$y too is claim$ by   
c]ta9 ,dorians ( ! ,peloponnese4 ,9 ea* 
case !y appeal to ! evid5ce ( language4 
,! outly+ villages1 !y say1 are by !m   
call$ kappa omega mu alpha iota1 by !   
,a!nians delta eta mu iota3 & !y assume 
t ,com$ians 7 s nam$ n f kappa omega mu 
'alpha zeta epsilon iota nu1 'to revel1'
 b because !y w&]$ f village to village 
7kappa alpha tau alpha _/ kappa omega mu
 alpha sigma71 be+ exclud$ contemptu\sly
 f ! city4 ,!y add also t ! ,dorian ^w =
 'do+' is delta rho alpha nu1 & !       
,a!nian1 pi rho alpha tau tau epsilon   
iota nu4  ,?is may suffice z to ! numb] 
& nature ( ! v>i\s modes ( imitation4   
,,iv  ,poetry 9 g5]al seems to h sprung 
f two causes1 ea* ( !m ly+ deep 9 our   
nature4 ,fir/1 ! in/9ct ( imitation is  

implant$ 9 man f *ildhood1 "o diff]5ce  
betwe5 him & o!r animals be+ t he is !  
mo/ imitative ( liv+ creatures1 & ?r\gh 
imitation le>ns 8 e>lie/ lessons2 & no  
less univ]sal is ! pleasure felt 9 ?+s  
imitat$4 ,we h evid5ce ( ?is 9 ! facts (
 exp]i5ce4 ,objects :i* 9 !mselves we   
view ) pa91 we delight to contemplate :5
 reproduc$ ) m9ute fidelity3 su* z ! =ms
 ( ! mo/ ignoble animals & ( dead       
bodies4 ,! cause ( ?is aga9 is1 t to    
le>n gives ! livelie/ pleasure1 n only  
to philosoph]s b to m5 9 g5]al2 ^:      
capacity1 h[ev]1 ( le>n+ is m limit$4   
,?us ! reason :y m5 enjoy see+ a lik5ess
 is1 t 9 contemplat+ x !y f9d !mselves  
le>n+ or inf]r+1 & say+ p]haps1 ',ah1 t 
is he4' ,= if y happ5 n to h se5 !      
orig9al1 ! pleasure w be due n to !     
imitation z su*1 b to ! execution1 !    
col\r+1 or "s su* o!r cause4            
,imitation1 !n1 is "o in/9ct ( our      
nature4 ,next1 !re is ! in/9ct =        
'h>mony' & rhy?m1 metres be+ manife/ly  
sections ( rhy?m4 ,p]sons1 !re=e1 />t+ )

 ?is natural gift develop$ by degrees _!
 special aptitudes1 till _! rude        
improvisations gave bir? to ,poetry4    
,poetry n[ div]g$ 9 two directions1     
accord+ to ! individual "* ( ! writ]s4  
,! grav] spirits imitat$ noble actions1 
& ! actions ( good m54 ,! m trivial sort
 imitat$ ! actions ( mean] p]sons1 at   
fir/ compos+ satires1 z ! =m] did hymns 
to ! gods & ! praises ( fam\s m54 ,a    
poem ( ! satirical k9d _c inde$ be put  
d[n to any au?or e>li] ?an ,hom]2 ?\gh  
_m su* writ]s probably !re 74 ,b f ,hom]
 onw>d1 in/ances c be cit$1--8 own      
,m>gites1 = example1 & o!r simil>       
compositions4 ,! appropriate metre 0    
also "h introduc$2 h5ce ! measure is    
/ill call$ ! iambic or lampoon+ measure1
 be+ t 9 :i* p lampoon$ "o ano!r4 ,?us !
 old] poets 7 di/+ui%$ z writ]s ( h]oic 
or ( lampoon+ v]se4  ,z1 9 ! s]i\s /yle1
 ,hom] is pre-em95t among poets1 = he   
alone comb9$ dramatic =m ) excell5ce (  
imitation1 s he too fir/ laid d[n ! ma9 
l9es ( ,com$y1 by dramatis+ ! ludicr\s  

in/ead ( writ+ p]sonal satire4 ,8       
,m>gites be>s ! same relation to ,com$y 
t ! ,iliad & ,odyssey d to ,trag$y4 ,b  
:5 ,trag$y & ,com$y came to light1 ! two
 classes ( poets /ill foll[$ _! natural 
b5t3 ! lampoon]s became writ]s ( ,com$y1
 & ! ,epic poets 7 succe$$ by           
,trag$ians1 s9ce ! drama 0 a l>g] &     
high] =m ( art4  ,:e!r ,trag$y has z yet
 p]fect$ its prop] types or n2 & :e!r x 
is to be judg$ 9 itself1 or 9 relation  
also to ! audi5ce1--?is raises ano!r "q4
 ,be t z x may1 ,trag$y--z also         
,com$y--0 at fir/ m]e improvisation4 ,! 
"o orig9at$ ) ! au?ors ( ! ,di?yramb1 ! 
o!r ) ^? ( ! phallic songs1 :i* are /ill
 9 use 9 _m ( our cities4 ,trag$y       
advanc$ by sl[ degrees2 ea* new elem5t t
 %[$ itself 0 9 turn develop$4 ,hav+    
pass$ ?r\gh _m *anges1 x f\nd its       
natural =m1 & !re x /opp$4  ,aes*ylus   
fir/ introduc$ a second actor2 he       
dim9i%$ ! importance ( ! ,*orus1 &      
assign$ ! lead+ "p to ! dialogue4       
,sophocles rais$ ! numb] ( actors to    

?ree1 & add$ sc5e-pa9t+4 ,moreov]1 x 0 n
 till late t ! %ort plot 0 disc>d$ = "o 
( great] compass1 & ! grotesque diction 
( ! e>li] satyric =m = ! /ately mann] ( 
,trag$y4 ,! iambic measure !n replac$ ! 
tro*aic tetramet]1 :i* 0 orig9ally      
employ$ :5 ! poetry 0 ( ! ,satyric ord]1
 & _h great] aff9ities ) danc+4 ,once   
dialogue _h come 91 ,nature h]self      
discov]$ ! appropriate measure4 ,= !    
iambic is1 ( all measures1 ! mo/        
colloquial3 we see x 9 ! fact t         
conv]sational spee* runs into iambic    
l9es m frequ5tly ?an into any o!r k9d ( 
v]se2 r>ely into hexamet]s1 & only :5 we
 drop ! colloquial intonation4 ,!       
additions to ! numb] ( 'episodes' or    
acts1 & ! o!r accessories ( :i*         
tradition2 tells1 mu/ be tak5 z already 
describ$2 = to discuss !m 9 detail w\ld1
 d\btless1 be a l>ge und]tak+4     ,v   
,com$y is1 z we h said1 an imitation (  
*>act]s ( a l[] type1 n1 h[ev]1 9 ! full
 s5se ( ! ^w bad1 ! ,ludicr\s be+ m]ely 
a subdivision ( ! ugly4 ,x consi/s 9 "s 

defect or ugl9ess :i* is n pa9ful or    
de/ructive4 ,to take an obvi\s example1 
! comic mask is ugly & di/ort$1 b does n
 imply pa94  ,! successive *anges ?r\gh 
:i* ,trag$y pass$1 & ! au?ors ( ^!      
*anges1 are well kn[n1 :]eas ,com$y has 
_h no hi/ory1 because x 0 n at fir/     
treat$ s]i\sly4 ,x 0 late be=e ! ,ar*on 
grant$ a comic *orus to a poet2 ! p]=m]s
 7 till !n volunt>y4 ,com$y _h already  
tak5 def9ite %ape :5 comic poets1       
di/9ctively s call$1 are he>d (4 ,:o    
furni%$ x ) masks1 or prologues1 or     
increas$ ! numb] ( actors1--^! & o!r    
simil> details rema9 unkn[n4 ,z = !     
plot1 x came orig9ally f ,sicily2 b (   
,a!nian writ]s ,crates 0 ! fir/ :o1     
ab&on+ ! 'iambic' or lampoon+ =m1       
g5]alis$ 8 !mes & plots4  ,epic poetry  
agrees ) ,trag$y 9 s f> z x is an       
imitation 9 v]se ( *>act]s ( a high]    
type4 ,!y diff]1 9 t ,epic poetry admits
 b "o k9d ( metre1 & is n>rative 9 =m4  
,!y diff]1 aga91 9 _! l5g?3 = ,trag$y   
endeav\rs1 z f> z possible1 to conf9e   

itself to a s+le revolution ( ! sun1 or 
b slightly to exce$ ?is limit2 :]eas !  
,epic action has no limits ( "t4 ,?is1  
!n1 is a second po9t ( diff]5ce2 ?\gh at
 fir/ ! same fre$om 0 admitt$ 9 ,trag$y 
z 9 ,epic poetry4  ,( _! con/itu5t p>ts 
"s are common to bo?1 "s peculi> to     
,trag$y1 :oev]1 !re=e1 kn[s :at is good 
or bad ,trag$y1 kn[s also ab\t ,epic    
poetry4 ,all ! elem5ts ( an ,epic poem  
are f\nd 9 ,trag$y1 b ! elem5ts ( a     
,trag$y are n all f\nd 9 ! ,epic poem4  
,,vi  ,( ! poetry :i* imitates 9        
hexamet] v]se1 & ( ,com$y1 we w speak   
h]eaft]4 ,let u n[ discuss ,trag$y1     
resum+ its =mal def9ition1 z result+ f  
:at has be5 already said4  ,trag$y1 !n1 
is an imitation ( an action t is s]i\s1 
complete1 & ( a c]ta9 magnitude2 9      
language embelli%$ ) ea* k9d ( arti/ic  
ornam5t1 ! sev]al k9ds be+ f\nd 9       
sep>ate p>ts ( ! play2 9 ! =m ( action1 
n ( n>rative2 ?r\gh pity & fe> effect+ !
 prop] purgation ( ^! emotions4 ,by     
'language embelli%$1' ,i mean language  

into :i* rhy?m1 'h>mony1' & song ent]4  
,by '! sev]al k9ds 9 sep>ate p>ts1' ,i  
mean1 t "s p>ts are r5d]$ ?r\gh ! m$ium 
( v]se alone1 o!rs aga9 ) ! aid ( song4 
,n[ z tragic imitation implies p]sons   
act+1 x necess>ily foll[s1 9 ! fir/     
place1 t ,spectacul> equipm5t w be a "p 
( ,trag$y4 ,next1 ,song & ,diction1 = ^!
 are ! m$ium ( imitation4 ,by ',diction'
 ,i mean ! m]e metrical arrangem5t ( !  
words3 z = ',song1' x is a t]m ^: s5se e
 "o und]/&s4  ,aga91 ,trag$y is !       
imitation ( an action2 & an action      
implies p]sonal ag5ts1 :o necess>ily    
possess c]ta9 di/9ctive qualities bo? ( 
"* & ?\ght2 = x is by ^! t we qualify   
actions !mselves1 & ^!--?\ght & "*--are 
! two natural causes f :i* actions spr+1
 & on actions aga9 all success or       
failure dep5ds4 ,h5ce1 ! ,plot is !     
imitation ( ! action3 = by plot ,i "h   
mean ! arrangem5t ( ! incid5ts4 ,by ,"* 
,i mean t 9 virtue ( :i* we ascribe     
c]ta9 qualities to ! ag5ts4 ,?\ght is   
requir$ :]ev] a /atem5t is prov$1 or1 x 

may be1 a g5]al tru? enunciat$4 ,e      
,trag$y1 !re=e1 mu/ h six p>ts1 :i* p>ts
 det]m9e its quality--namely1 ,plot1    
,"*1 ,diction1 ,?\ght1 ,spectacle1      
,song4 ,two ( ! p>ts con/itute ! m$ium (
 imitation1 "o ! mann]1 & ?ree ! objects
 ( imitation4 ,& ^! complete ! li/4 ,^! 
elem5ts h be5 employ$1 we may say1 by ! 
poets to a man2 9 fact1 e play conta9s  
,spectacul> elem5ts z well z ,"*1 ,plot1
 ,diction1 ,song1 & ,?\ght4  ,b mo/     
important ( all is ! /ructure ( !       
incid5ts4 ,= ,trag$y is an imitation1 n 
( m51 b ( an action & ( life1 & life    
consi/s 9 action1 & its end is a mode ( 
action1 n a quality4 ,n[ "* det]m9es    
m5's qualities1 b x is by _! actions t  
!y are happy or ! rev]se4 ,dramatic     
action1 !re=e1 is n ) a view to !       
repres5tation ( "*3 "* comes 9 z        
subsidi>y to ! actions4 ,h5ce ! incid5ts
 & ! plot are ! end ( a trag$y2 & ! end 
is ! *ief ?+ ( all4 ,aga91 )\t action   
!re _c be a trag$y2 !re may be )\t "*4  
,! trag$ies ( mo/ ( our mod]n poets fail

 9 ! r5d]+ ( "*2 & ( poets 9 g5]al ?is  
is (t5 true4 ,x is ! same 9 pa9t+2 & "h 
lies ! diff]5ce betwe5 ,zeuxis &        
,polygnotus4 ,polygnotus del9eates "*   
well3 ! /yle ( ,zeuxis is devoid (      
e?ical quality4 ,aga91 if y /r+ toge!r a
 set ( spee*es expressive ( "*1 & well  
f9i%$ 9 po9t ( diction & ?\ght1 y w n   
produce ! ess5tial tragic effect ne>ly s
 well z ) a play :i*1 h[ev] defici5t 9  
^! respects1 yet has a plot &           
arti/ically con/ruct$ incid5ts4 ,besides
 :i*1 ! mo/ p[]ful elem5ts ( emotional3 
int]e/ 9 ,trag$y ,p]ipeteia or ,rev]sal 
( ! ,situation1 & ,recognition          
sc5es--are p>ts ( ! plot4 ,a fur!r pro( 
is1 t novices 9 ! art atta9 to f9i%3 (  
diction & precision ( portraiture be=e  
!y c con/ruct ! plot4 ,x is ! same )    
almo/ all ! e>ly poets4  ,! ,plot1 !n1  
is ! fir/ pr9ciple1 &1 z x 71 ! s\l ( a 
trag$y3 ,"* holds ! second place4 ,a    
simil> fact is se5 9 pa9t+4 ,! mo/      
beautiful col\rs1 laid on confus$ly1 w n
 give z mu* pleasure z ! *alk outl9e ( a

 portrait4 ,?us ,trag$y is ! imitation (
 an action1 & ( ! ag5ts ma9ly ) a view  
to ! action4  ,?ird 9 ord] is ,?\ght1--t
 is1 ! faculty ( say+ :at is possible & 
p]t95t 9 giv5 circum/ances4 ,9 ! case ( 
oratory1 ?is is ! function ( !          
,political art & ( ! art ( rhetoric3 & s
 inde$ ! old] poets make _! *>act]s     
speak ! language ( civic life2 ! poets (
 our "t1 ! language ( ! rhetoricians4   
,"* is t :i* reveals moral purpose1 %[+ 
:at k9d ( ?+s a man *ooses or avoids4   
,spee*es1 !re=e1 :i* d n make ?is       
manife/1 or 9 :i* ! speak] does n *oose 
or avoid any?+ :atev]1 are n expressive 
( "*4 ,?\ght1 on ! o!r h&1 is f\nd :]e  
some?+ is prov$ to be1 or n to be1 or a 
g5]al maxim is enunciat$4  ,f\r? among !
 elem5ts enum]at$ comes ,diction2 by :i*
 ,i mean1 z has be5 already said1 !     
expression ( ! mean+ 9 words2 & its     
ess5ce is ! same bo? 9 v]se & prose4  ,(
 ! rema9+ elem5ts ,song holds ! *ief    
place among ! embelli%m5ts4  ,!         
,spectacle has1 inde$1 an emotional     

attraction ( its own1 b1 ( all ! p>ts1 x
 is ! lea/ arti/ic1 & connect$ lea/ ) ! 
art ( poetry4 ,= ! p[] ( ,trag$y1 we may
 be sure1 is felt ev5 ap>t f            
repres5tation & actors4 ,besides1 !     
production ( spectacul> effects dep5ds m
 on ! art ( ! /age ma*9i/ ?an on t ( !  
poet4     ,,vii  ,^! pr9ciples be+      
e/abli%$1 let u n[ discuss ! prop]      
/ructure ( ! ,plot1 s9ce ?is is ! fir/ &
 mo/ important ?+ 9 ,trag$y4  ,n[1      
accord+ to our def9ition1 ,trag$y is an 
imitation ( an action t is complete1 &  
:ole1 & ( a c]ta9 magnitude2 = !re may  
be a :ole t is want+ 9 magnitude4 ,a    
:ole is t :i* has a beg9n+1 a middle1 & 
an end4 ,a beg9n+ is t :i* does n itself
 foll[ any?+ by causal necessity1 b aft]
 :i* some?+ naturally is or comes to be4
 ,an end1 on ! contr>y1 is t :i* itself 
naturally foll[s "s o!r ?+1 ei!r by     
necessity1 or z a rule1 b has no?+      
foll[+ x4 ,a middle is t :i* foll[s     
some?+ z "s o!r ?+ foll[s x4 ,a well    
con/ruct$ plot1 !re=e1 mu/ nei!r beg9   

nor end at haphaz>d1 b con=m to ^!      
pr9ciples4  ,aga91 a beautiful object1  
:e!r x be a liv+ organism or any :ole   
compos$ ( p>ts1 mu/ n only h an ord]ly  
arrangem5t ( p>ts1 b mu/ also be ( a    
c]ta9 magnitude2 = beauty dep5ds on     
magnitude & ord]4 ,h5ce a v small animal
 organism _c be beautiful2 = ! view ( x 
is confus$1 ! object be+ se5 9 an almo/ 
imp]ceptible mom5t ( "t4 ,nor1 aga91 c  
"o ( va/ size be beautiful2 = z ! eye _c
 take x all 9 at once1 ! unity & s5se ( 
! :ole is lo/ = ! spectator2 z = in/ance
 if !re 7 "o a ?\s& miles long4 ,z1     
!re=e1 9 ! case ( animate bodies &      
organisms a c]ta9 magnitude is necess>y1
 & a magnitude :i* may be easily embrac$
 9 "o view2 s 9 ! plot1 a c]ta9 l5g? is 
necess>y1 & a l5g? :i* c be easily      
embrac$ by ! memory4 ,! limit ( l5g? 9  
relation to dramatic competition &      
s5su\s pres5tm5t1 is no "p ( arti/ic    
!ory4 ,= _h x be5 ! rule = a hundr$     
trag$ies to compete toge!r1 ! p]=mance  
w\ld h be5 regulat$ by ! wat]-clock1--z 

inde$ we are told 0 =m]ly done4 ,b !    
limit z fix$ by ! nature ( ! drama      
itself is ?is3 ! great] ! l5g?1 ! m     
beautiful w ! piece be by reason ( its  
size1 provid$ t ! :ole be p]spicu\s4 ,& 
to def9e ! matt] r\ghly1 we may say t ! 
prop] magnitude is compris$ )9 su*      
limits1 t ! sequ5ce ( ev5ts1 accord+ to 
! law ( probability or necessity1 w     
admit ( a *ange f bad =tune to good1 or 
f good =tune to bad4     ,,viii  ,unity 
( plot does n1 z "s p]sons ?9k1 consi/ 9
 ! ,unity ( ! h]o4 ,= inf9itely v>i\s   
are ! incid5ts 9 "o man's life :i* _c be
 r$uc$ to unity2 & s1 too1 !re are _m   
actions ( "o man out ( :i* we _c make "o
 action4 ,h5ce1 ! error1 z x appe>s1 (  
all poets :o h compos$ a ,h]acleid1 a   
,!seid1 or o!r poems ( ! k9d4 ,!y imag9e
 t z ,h]acles 0 "o man1 ! /ory (        
,h]acles mu/ also be a unity4 ,b ,hom]1 
z 9 all else he is ( surpass+ m]it1 "h  
too--:e!r f art or natural g5ius--seems 
to h happily disc]n$ ! tru?4 ,9 compos+ 
! ,odyssey he did n include all !       

adv5tures ( ,odysseus--su* z 8 w\nd on  
,p>nassus1 or 8 feign$ madness at !     
mu/]+ ( ! ho/--incid5ts betwe5 :i* !re 0
 no necess>y or probable connection3 b  
he made ! ,odyssey1 & likewise ! ,iliad1
 to c5tre r\nd an action t 9 our s5se ( 
! ^w is "o4 ,z !re=e1 9 ! o!r imitative 
arts1 ! imitation is "o :5 ! object     
imitat$ is "o1 s ! plot1 be+ an         
imitation ( an action1 mu/ imitate "o   
action & t a :ole1 ! /ructural union ( !
 p>ts be+ su* t1 if any "o ( !m is      
displac$ or remov$1 ! :ole w be disjo9t$
 & di/urb$4 ,= a ?+ ^: pres5ce or abs5ce
 makes no visible diff]5ce1 is n an     
organic "p ( ! :ole4     ,,ix  ,x is1   
moreov]1 evid5t f :at has be5 said1 t x 
is n ! function ( ! poet to relate :at  
has happ5$1 b :at may happ51--:at is    
possible accord+ to ! law ( probability 
or necessity4 ,! poet & ! hi/orian diff]
 n by writ+ 9 v]se or 9 prose4 ,! "w (  
,h]odotus might be put into v]se1 & x   
w\ld /ill be a species ( hi/ory1 ) metre
 no less ?an )\t x4 ,! true diff]5ce is 

t "o relates :at has happ5$1 ! o!r :at  
may happ54 ,poetry1 !re=e1 is a m       
philosophical & a high] ?+ ?an hi/ory3 =
 poetry t5ds to express ! univ]sal1     
hi/ory ! p>ticul>4 ,by ! univ]sal1 ,i   
mean h[ a p]son ( a c]ta9 type w on     
occasion speak or act1 accord+ to ! law 
( probability or necessity2 & x is ?is  
univ]sality at :i* poetry aims 9 ! names
 %e atta*es to ! p]sonages4 ,! p>ticul> 
is--= example--:at ,alcibiades did or   
suff]$4 ,9 ,com$y ?is is already app>5t3
 = "h ! poet fir/ con/ructs ! plot on ! 
l9es ( probability1 & !n ins]ts         
*>act]i/ic names2--unlike ! lampoon]s :o
 write ab\t p>ticul> individuals4 ,b    
trag$ians /ill keep to real names1 !    
reason be+ t :at is possible is cr$ible3
 :at has n happ5$ we d n at once feel   
sure to be possible3 b :at has happ5$ is
 manife/ly possible3 o!rwise x w\ld n h 
happ5$4 ,/ill !re are ev5 "s trag$ies 9 
:i* !re are only "o or two well kn[n    
names1 ! re/ be+ fictiti\s4 ,9 o!rs1    
none are well kn[n1 z 9 ,aga?on's       

,an!us1 :]e incid5ts & names alike are  
fictiti\s1 & yet !y give none ! less    
pleasure4 ,we mu/ n1 !re=e1 at all co/s 
keep to ! receiv$ leg5ds1 :i* are !     
usual subjects ( ,trag$y4 ,inde$1 x w\ld
 be absurd to attempt x2 = ev5 subjects 
t are kn[n are kn[n only to a few1 & yet
 give pleasure to all4 ,x cle>ly foll[s 
t ! poet or 'mak]' %\ld be ! mak] (     
plots r ?an ( v]ses2 s9ce he is a poet  
because he imitates1 & :at he imitates  
are actions4 ,& ev5 if he *ances to take
 an hi/orical subject1 he is none ! less
 a poet2 = !re is no reason :y "s ev5ts 
t h actually happ5$ %\ld n con=m to !   
law ( ! probable & possible1 & 9 virtue 
( t quality 9 !m he is _! poet or mak]4 
,( all plots & actions ! epeisodic are !
 wor/4 ,i call a plot 'epeisodic' 9 :i* 
! episodes or acts succe$ "o ano!r )\t  
probable or necess>y sequ5ce4 ,bad poets
 compose su* pieces by _! own fault1    
good poets1 to please ! play]s2 =1 z !y 
write %[ pieces = competition1 !y /ret* 
! plot beyond its capacity1 & are (t5   

=c$ to break ! natural cont9uity4  ,b   
aga91 ,trag$y is an imitation n only ( a
 complete action1 b ( ev5ts inspir+ fe> 
or pity4 ,su* an effect is be/ produc$  
:5 ! ev5ts come on u by surprise2 & !   
effect is height5$ :51 at ! same "t1 !y 
foll[ z cause & effect4 ,! tragic wond] 
w !e be great] ?an if !y happ5$ (       
!mselves or by accid5t2 = ev5 co9cid5ces
 are mo/ /rik+ :5 !y h an air ( design4 
,we may in/ance ! /atue ( ,mitys at     
,argos1 :i* fell ^u 8 murd]] :ile he 0 a
 spectator at a fe/ival1 & kill$ him4   
,su* ev5ts seem n to be due to m]e      
*ance4 ,plots1 !re=e1 con/ruct$ on ^!   
pr9ciples are necess>ily ! be/4     ,x  
,plots are ei!r ,simple or ,complex1 = !
 actions 9 real life1 ( :i* ! plots are 
an imitation1 obvi\sly %[ a simil>      
di/9ction4 ,an action :i* is "o &       
cont9u\s 9 ! s5se above def9$1 ,i call  
,simple1 :5 ! *ange ( =tune takes place 
)\t ,rev]sal ( ! ,situation & )\t       
,recognition4  ,a ,complex action is "o 
9 :i* ! *ange is accompani$ by su*      

,rev]sal1 or by ,recognition1 or by bo?4
 ,^! la/ %\ld arise f ! int]nal /ructure
 ( ! plot1 s t :at foll[s %\ld be !     
necess>y or probable result ( ! prec$+  
action4 ,x makes all ! diff]5ce :e!r any
 giv5 ev5t is a case ( propt] hoc or po/
 hoc4     ,,xi  ,rev]sal ( ! ,situation 
is a *ange by :i* ! action ve]s r\nd to 
its opposite1 subject always to our rule
 ( probability or necessity4 ,?us 9 !   
,o$ipus1 ! mess5g] comes to *e] ,o$ipus 
& free him f 8 al>ms ab\t 8 "m1 b by    
reveal+ :o he is1 he produces ! opposite
 effect4 ,aga9 9 ! ,lynceus1 ,lynceus is
 be+ l$ away to 8 dea?1 & ,danaus goes )
 him1 mean+1 to slay him2 b ! outcome ( 
! prec$+ incid5ts is t ,danaus is kill$ 
& ,lynceus sav$4 ,recognition1 z ! "n   
indicates1 is a *ange f ignorance to k1 
produc+ love or hate betwe5 ! p]sons    
de/9$ by ! poet = good or bad =tune4 ,! 
be/ =m ( recognition is co9cid5t ) a    
,rev]sal ( ! ,situation1 z 9 ! ,o$ipus4 
,!re are inde$ o!r =ms4 ,ev5 inanimate  
?+s ( ! mo/ trivial k9d may 9 a s5se be 

objects ( recognition4 ,aga91 we may    
recognise or discov] :e!r a p]son has   
done a ?+ or n4 ,b ! recognition :i* is 
mo/ intimately connect$ ) ! plot &      
action is1 z we h said1 ! recognition ( 
p]sons4 ,?is recognition1 comb9$1 )     
,rev]sal1 w produce ei!r pity or fe>2 & 
actions produc+ ^! effects are ^? :i*1  
by our def9ition1 ,trag$y repres5ts4    
,moreov]1 x is ^u su* situations t !    
issues ( good or bad =tune w dep5d4     
,recognition1 !n1 be+ betwe5 p]sons1 x  
may happ5 t "o p]son only is recognis$  
by ! o!r-:5 ! latt] is already kn[n--or 
x may be necess>y t ! recognition %\ld  
be on bo? sides4 ,?us ,iphig5ia is      
reveal$ to ,ore/es by ! s5d+ ( ! lett]2 
b ano!r act ( recognition is requir$ to 
make ,ore/es kn[n to ,iphig5ia4  ,two   
p>ts1 !n1 ( ! ,plot--,rev]sal ( !       
,situation & ,recognition--turn ^u      
surprises4 ,a ?ird "p is ! ,sc5e (      
,suff]+4 ,! ,sc5e ( ,suff]+ is a        
de/ructive or pa9ful action1 su* z dea? 
on ! /age1 bodily agony1 w\nds & ! l4   

,,xii  ,! p>ts ( ,trag$y :i* mu/ be     
treat$ z elem5ts ( ! :ole h be5 already 
m5tion$4 ,we n[ come to ! quantitative  
p>ts1 & ! sep>ate p>ts into :i* ,trag$y 
is divid$1 namely1 ,prologue1 ,episode1 
,exode1 ,*oric song2 ?is la/ be+ divid$ 
into ,p>ode & ,/asimon4 ,^! are common  
to all plays3 peculi> to "s are ! songs 
( actors f ! /age & ! ,commoi4  ,!      
,prologue is t entire "p ( a trag$y :i* 
prec$es ! ,p>ode ( ! ,*orus4 ,! ,episode
 is t entire "p ( a trag$y :i* is betwe5
 complete *oric songs4 ,! ,exode is t   
entire "p ( a trag$y :i* has no *oric   
song aft] x4 ,( ! ,*oric "p ! ,p>ode is 
! fir/ undivid$ utt]ance ( ! ,*orus3 !  
,/asimon is a ,*oric ode )\t anapae/s or
 tro*aic tetramet]s3 ! ,commos is a jo9t
 lam5tation ( ,*orus & actors4 ,! p>ts (
 ,trag$y :i* mu/ be treat$ z elem5ts ( !
 :ole h be5 already m5tion$4 ,!         
quantitative p>ts ! sep>ate p>ts into   
:i* x is divid$--are "h enum]at$4       
,,xiii  ,z ! sequel to :at has already  
be5 said1 we mu/ proce$ to consid] :at !

 poet %\ld aim at1 & :at he %\ld avoid1 
9 con/ruct+ 8 plots2 & by :at means !   
specific effect ( ,trag$y w be produc$4 
,a p]fect trag$y %\ld1 z we h se51 be   
arrang$ n on ! simple b on ! complex    
plan4 ,x %\ld1 moreov]1 imitate actions 
:i* excite pity & fe>1 ?is be+ !        
di/9ctive m>k ( tragic imitation4 ,x    
foll[s pla9ly1 9 ! fir/ place1 t !      
*ange1 ( =tune pres5t$ mu/ n be !       
spectacle ( a virtu\s man br\ght f      
prosp]ity to adv]sity3 = ?is moves nei!r
 pity nor fe>2 x m]ely %ocks u4 ,nor1   
aga91 t ( a bad man pass+ f adv]sity to 
prosp]ity3 = no?+ c be m ali5 to ! _s ( 
,trag$y2 x possesses no s+le tragic     
quality2 x nei!r satisfies ! moral s5se 
nor calls =? pity or fe>4 ,nor1 aga91   
%\ld ! d[nfall ( ! utt] villa9 be       
exhibit$4 ,a plot ( ?is k9d w\ld1       
d\btless1 satisfy ! moral s5se1 b x w\ld
 inspire nei!r pity nor fe>2 = pity is  
ar\s$ by unm]it$ mis=tune1 fe> by !     
mis=tune ( a man l ourselves4 ,su* an   
ev5t1 !re=e1 w be nei!r pitiful nor     

t]rible4 ,!re rema9s1 !n1 ! "* betwe5 ^!
 two extremes1--t ( a man :o is n       
em95tly good & j1-yet ^: mis=tune is    
br\ght ab\t n by vice or depravity1 b by
 "s error or frailty4 ,he mu/ be "o :o  
is highly r5[n$ & prosp]\s1--a p]sonage 
l ,o$ipus1 ,?ye/es1 or o!r illu/ri\s m5 
( su* families4  ,a well con/ruct$ plot 
%\ld1 !re=e1 be s+le 9 its issue1 r ?an 
d\ble z "s ma9ta94 ,! *ange ( =tune %\ld
 be n f bad to good1 b1 rev]sely1 f good
 to bad4 ,x %\ld come ab\t z ! result n 
( vice1 b ( "s great error or frailty1 9
 a "* ei!r su* z we h describ$1 or bett]
 r ?an worse4 ,! practice ( ! /age be>s 
out our view4 ,at fir/ ! poets rec\nt$  
any leg5d t came 9 _! way4 ,n[1 ! be/   
trag$ies are f\nd$ on ! /ory ( a few    
h\ses1 on ! =tunes ( ,alcmaeon1 ,o$ipus1
 ,ore/es1 ,meleag]1 ,?ye/es1 ,telephus1 
& ^? o!rs :o h done or suff]$ some?+    
t]rible4 ,a trag$y1 !n1 to be p]fect    
accord+ to ! rules ( art %\ld be ( ?is  
con/ruction4 ,h5ce !y are 9 error :o    
c5sure ,euripides j because he foll[s   

?is pr9ciple 9 8 plays1 _m ( :i* end    
unhappily4 ,x is1 z we h said1 ! "r     
end+4 ,! be/ pro( is t on ! /age & 9    
dramatic competition1 su* plays1 if well
 work$ out1 are ! mo/ tragic 9 effect2 &
 ,euripides1 faulty ?\gh he may be 9 !  
g5]al managem5t ( 8 subject1 yet is felt
 to be ! mo/ tragic ( ! poets4  ,9 !    
second rank comes ! k9d ( trag$y :i* "s 
place fir/4 ,l ! ,odyssey1 x has a d\ble
 ?read ( plot1 & also an opposite       
cata/rophe = ! good & = ! bad4 ,x is    
acc\nt$ ! be/ because ( ! weakness ( !  
spectators2 = ! poet is guid$ 9 :at he  
writes by ! wi%es ( 8 audi5ce4 ,!       
pleasure1 h[ev]1 !nce d]iv$ is n ! true 
tragic pleasure4 ,x is prop] r to       
,com$y1 :]e ^? :o1 9 ! piece1 are !     
deadlie/ enemies--l ,ore/es &           
,aegi/hus--quit ! /age z fri5ds at !    
close1 & no "o slays or is sla94        
,,xiv  ,fe> & pity may be ar\s$ by      
spectacul> means2 b !y may also result f
 ! inn] /ructure ( ! piece1 :i* is !    
bett] way1 & indicates a sup]ior poet4  

,= ! plot ought to be s con/ruct$ t1 ev5
 )\t ! aid ( ! eye1 he :o he>s ! tale   
told w ?rill ) horror & melt to pity at 
:at takes place4 ,?is is ! impression we
 %\ld receive f he>+ ! /ory ( ! ,o$ipus4
 ,b to produce ?is effect by ! m]e      
spectacle is a less arti/ic me?od1 &    
dep5d5t on extrane\s aids4 ,^? :o employ
 spectacul> means to create a s5se n ( !
 t]rible b only ( ! mon/r\s1 are /rang]s
 to ! purpose ( ,trag$y2 = we mu/ n dem&
 ( ,trag$y any & e k9d ( pleasure1 b    
only t :i* is prop] to x4 ,& s9ce !     
pleasure :i* ! poet %\ld af=d is t :i*  
comes f pity & fe> ?r\gh imitation1 x is
 evid5t t ?is quality mu/ be impress$ ^u
 ! incid5ts4  ,let u !n det]m9e :at are 
! circum/ances :i* /rike u z t]rible or 
pitiful4  ,actions capable ( ?is effect 
mu/ happ5 betwe5 p]sons :o are ei!r     
fri5ds or enemies or indiff]5t to "o    
ano!r4 ,if an enemy kills an enemy1 !re 
is no?+ to excite pity ei!r 9 ! act or !
 int5tion1--except s f> z ! suff]+ 9    
itself is pitiful4 ,s aga9 ) indiff]5t  

p]sons4 ,b :5 ! tragic incid5t occurs   
betwe5 ^? :o are ne> or de> to "o       
ano!r--if1 = example1 a bro!r kills1 or 
int5ds to kill1 a bro!r1 a son 8 fa!r1 a
 "m h] son1 a son 8 "m1 or any o!r de$ (
 ! k9d is done--^! are ! situations to  
be look$ = by ! poet4 ,he may n inde$   
de/roy ! framework ( ! receiv$ leg5ds--!
 fact1 = in/ance1 t ,clytemne/ra 0 sla9 
by ,ore/es & ,eriphyle by ,alcmaeon b he
 ought to %[ inv5tion ( 8 own1 &        
skilfully h&le ! traditional mat]ial4   
,let u expla9 m cle>ly :at is meant by  
skilful h&l+4  ,! action may be done    
consci\sly & ) k ( ! p]sons1 9 ! mann] (
 ! old] poets4 ,x is ?us too t          
,euripides makes ,m$ea slay h] *ildr54  
,or1 aga91 ! de$ ( horror may be done1 b
 done 9 ignorance1 & ! tie ( k9%ip or   
fri5d%ip be discov]$ aft]w>ds4 ,!       
,o$ipus ( ,sophocles is an example4 ,"h1
 inde$1 ! incid5t is outside ! drama    
prop]2 b cases occur :]e x falls )9 !   
action ( ! play3 "o may cite ! ,alcmaeon
 ( ,a/ydamas1 or ,telegonus 9 ! ,w\nd$  

,odysseus4 ,aga91 !re is a ?ird         
case1--to be ab\t to act ) k ( ! p]sons 
& !n n to act4 ,! f\r? case is :5 "s "o 
is ab\t to d an irrep>able de$ ?r\gh    
ignorance1 & makes ! discov]y be=e x is 
done4 ,^! are ! only possible ways4 ,= !
 de$ mu/ ei!r be done or n done1--& t   
witt+ly or unwitt+ly4 ,b ( all ^! ways1 
to be ab\t to act kn[+ ! p]sons1 & !n n 
to act1 is ! wor/4 ,x is %ock+ )\t be+  
tragic1 = no disa/] foll[s4 ,x is1      
!re=e1 nev]1 or v r>ely1 f\nd 9 poetry4 
,"o in/ance1 h[ev]1 is 9 ! ,antigone1   
:]e ,haemon ?reat5s to kill ,creon4 ,!  
next & bett] way is t ! de$ %\ld be     
p]petrat$4 ,/ill bett]1 t x %\ld be     
p]petrat$ 9 ignorance1 & ! discov]y made
 aft]w>ds4 ,!re is !n no?+ to %ock u1   
:ile ! discov]y produces a />tl+ effect4
 ,! la/ case is ! be/1 z :5 9 !         
,cresphontes ,m]ope is ab\t to slay h]  
son1 b1 recognis+ :o he is1 sp>es 8     
life4 ,s 9 ! ,iphig5ia1 ! si/]          
recognises ! bro!r j 9 "t4 ,aga9 9 !    
,helle1 ! son recognises ! "m :5 on !   

po9t ( giv+ h] up4 ,?is1 !n1 is :y a few
 families only1 z has be5 already       
obs]v$1 furni% ! subjects ( trag$y4 ,x 0
 n art1 b happy *ance1 t l$ ! poets 9   
se>* ( subjects to impress ! tragic     
quality ^u _! plots4 ,!y are compell$1  
!re=e1 to h rec\rse to ^? h\ses ^:      
hi/ory conta9s mov+ incid5ts l ^!4      
,en\gh has n[ be5 said conc]n+ !        
/ructure ( ! incid5ts1 & ! "r k9d (     
plot4     ,,xv  ,9 respect ( ,"* !re are
 f\r ?+s to be aim$ at4 ,fir/1 & mo/    
important1 x mu/ be good4 ,n[ any spee* 
or action t manife/s moral purpose ( any
 k9d w be expressive ( "*3 ! "* w be    
good if ! purpose is good4 ,?is rule is 
relative to ea* class4 ,ev5 a woman may 
be good1 & also a slave2 ?\gh ! woman   
may be said to be an inf]ior be+1 & !   
slave q wor?less4 ,! second ?+ to aim at
 is propriety4 ,!re is a type ( manly   
val\r2 b val\r 9 a woman1 or unscrupul\s
 clev]ness1 is inappropriate4 ,?irdly1  
"* mu/ be true to life3 = ?is is a      
di/9ct ?+ f goodness & propriety1 z "h  

describ$4 ,! f\r? po9t is consi/5cy3 =  
?\gh ! subject ( ! imitation1 :o sugge/$
 ! type1 be inconsi/5t1 /ill he mu/ be  
consi/5tly inconsi/5t4 ,z an example (  
motiveless degradation ( "*1 we h       
,m5elaus 9 ! ,ore/es3 ( "* indecor\s &  
inappropriate1 ! lam5t ( ,odysseus 9 !  
,scylla1 & ! spee* ( ,melanippe3 (      
inconsi/5cy1 ! ,iphig5ia at ,aulis1--=  
,iphig5ia ! suppliant 9 no way resembles
 h] lat] self4  ,z 9 ! /ructure ( !     
plot1 s too 9 ! portraiture ( "*1 ! poet
 %\ld always aim ei!r at ! necess>y or !
 probable4 ,?us a p]son ( a giv5 "* %\ld
 speak or act 9 a giv5 way1 by ! rule   
ei!r ( necessity or ( probability2 j z  
?is ev5t %\ld foll[ t by necess>y or    
probable sequ5ce4 ,x is !re=e evid5t t !
 unravell+ ( ! plot1 no less ?an !      
complication1 mu/ arise out ( ! plot    
itself1 x mu/ n be br\ght ab\t by !     
',deus ex ,ma*9a'--z 9 ! ,m$ea1 or 9 !  
,return ( ! ,greeks 9 ! ,iliad4 ,!      
',deus ex ,ma*9a' %\ld be employ$ only =
 ev5ts ext]nal to ! drama1--= antec$5t  

or subsequ5t ev5ts1 :i* lie beyond !    
range ( human k1 & :i* require to be    
report$ or =etold2 = to ! gods we       
ascribe ! p[] ( see+ all ?+s4 ,)9 !     
action !re mu/ be no?+ irrational4 ,if !
 irrational _c be exclud$1 x %\ld be    
outside ! scope ( ! trag$y4 ,su* is !   
irrational elem5t 9 ! ,o$ipus (         
,sophocles4  ,aga91 s9ce ,trag$y is an  
imitation ( p]sons :o are above ! common
 level1 ! example ( good portrait-pa9t]s
 %\ld be foll[$4 ,!y1 :ile reproduc+ !  
di/9ctive =m ( ! orig9al1 make a lik5ess
 :i* is true to life & yet m beautiful4 
,s too ! poet1 9 repres5t+ m5 :o are    
irascible or indol5t1 or h o!r defects (
 "*1 %\ld pres]ve ! type & yet ennoble  
x4 ,9 ?is way ,a*illes is portray$ by   
,aga?on & ,hom]4  ,^! !n are rules !    
poet %\ld obs]ve4 ,nor %\ld he neglect  
^? appeals to ! s5ses1 :i*1 ?\gh n among
 ! ess5tials1 are ! concomitants (      
poetry2 = "h too !re is mu* room =      
error4 ,b ( ?is en\gh has be5 said 9 our
 publi%$ treatises4     ,,xvi  ,:at     

,recognition is has be5 already expla9$4
 ,we w n[ enum]ate its k9ds4  ,fir/1 !  
lea/ arti/ic =m1 :i*1 f pov]ty ( wit1 is
 mo/ commonly employ$ recognition by    
signs4 ,( ^! "s are cong5ital1--su* z '!
 spe> :i* ! e>?-born race be> on _!     
bodies1' or ! />s introduc$ by ,c>c9us 9
 8 ,?ye/es4 ,o!rs are acquir$ aft] bir?2
 & ( ^! "s are bodily m>ks1 z sc>s2 "s  
ext]nal tok5s1 z necklaces1 or ! little 
ark 9 ! ,tyro by :i* ! discov]y is      
effect$4 ,ev5 ^! admit ( m or less      
skilful treatm5t4 ,?us 9 ! recognition (
 ,odysseus by 8 sc>1 ! discov]y is made 
9 "o way by ! nurse1 9 ano!r by !       
sw9eh]ds4 ,! use ( tok5s = ! express    
purpose ( pro(--&1 inde$1 any =mal pro( 
) or )\t tok5s--is a less arti/ic mode (
 recognition4 ,a bett] k9d is t :i*     
comes ab\t by a turn ( incid5t1 z 9 !   
,ba? ,sc5e 9 ! ,odyssey4  ,next come !  
recognitions inv5t$ at w by ! poet1 & on
 t acc\nt want+ 9 art4 ,= example1      
,ore/es 9 ! ,iphig5ia reveals ! fact t  
he is ,ore/es4 ,%e1 inde$1 makes h]self 

kn[n by ! lett]2 b he1 by speak+        
himself1 & say+ :at ! poet1 n :at ! plot
 requires4 ,?is1 !re=e1 is ne>ly alli$  
to ! fault above m5tion$3--= ,ore/es    
might z well h br\ght tok5s ) him4      
,ano!r simil> in/ance is ! 'voice ( !   
%uttle' 9 ! ,t]eus ( ,sophocles4  ,!    
?ird k9d dep5ds on memory :5 ! sight (  
"s object awak5s a feel+3 z 9 !         
,cyprians ( ,dicaeog5es1 :]e ! h]o      
breaks into te>s on see+ ! picture2 or  
aga9 9 ! ',lay ( ,alc9\s1' :]e          
,odysseus1 he>+ ! m9/rel play ! lyre1   
recalls ! pa/ & weeps2 & h5ce !         
recognition4  ,! f\r? k9d is by process 
( reason+4 ,?us 9 ! ,*oephori3 ',"s "o  
resembl+ me has come3 no "o resembles me
 b ,ore/es3 !re=e ,ore/es has come4'    
,su* too is ! discov]y made by ,iphig5ia
 9 ! play ( ,polyidus ! ,sophi/4 ,x 0 a 
natural reflection = ,ore/es to make1   
',s ,i too mu/ die at ! alt> l my si/]4'
 ,s1 aga91 9 ! ,tydeus ( ,!odectes1 !   
fa!r says1 ',i came to f9d my son1 & ,i 
lose my own life4' ,s too 9 ! ,ph9eidae3

 ! wom51 on see+ ! place1 inf]r$ _!     
fate3--',"h we are doom$ to die1 = "h we
 7 ca/ =?4' ,aga91 !re is a composite   
k9d ( recognition involv+ false inf]5ce 
on ! "p ( "o ( ! *>act]s1 z 9 !         
,odysseus ,disguis$ z a ,mess5g]4 ,a    
said t no "o else 0 able to b5d ! b[2444
 h5ce ,b 7! disguis$ ,odysseus7 imag9$ t
 ,a w\ld recognise ! b[ :i*1 9 fact1 he 
_h n se52 & to br+ ab\t a recognition by
 ?is means t ! expectation ,a w\ld      
recognise ! b[ is false inf]5ce4  ,b1 ( 
all recognitions1 ! be/ is t :i* arises 
f ! incid5ts !mselves1 :]e ! />tl+      
discov]y is made by natural means4 ,su* 
is t 9 ! ,o$ipus ( ,sophocles1 & 9 !    
,iphig5ia2 = x 0 natural t ,iphig5ia    
%\ld wi% to dispat* a lett]4 ,^!        
recognitions alone disp5se ) !          
artificial aid ( tok5s or amulets4 ,next
 come ! recognitions by process (       
reason+4     ,,xvii  ,9 con/ruct+ ! plot
 & work+ x out ) ! prop] diction1 ! poet
 %\ld place ! sc5e1 z f> z possible1    
be=e 8 eyes4 ,9 ?is way1 see+ ev]y?+ ) !

 utmo/ vividness1 z if he 7 a spectator 
( ! action1 he w discov] :at is 9 keep+ 
) x1 & be mo/ unlikely to ov]look       
inconsi/5cies4 ,! ne$ ( su* a rule is   
%[n by ! fault f\nd 9 ,c>c9us4          
,amphi>aus 0 on 8 way f ! temple4 ,?is  
fact escap$ ! obs]vation ( "o :o did n  
see ! situation4 ,on ! /age1 h[ev]1 !   
piece fail$1 ! audi5ce be+ (f5d$ at !   
ov]sight4  ,aga91 ! poet %\ld "w out 8  
play1 to ! be/ ( 8 p[]1 ) appropriate   
ge/ures2 = ^? :o feel emotion are mo/   
conv9c+ ?r\gh natural sympa?y ) !       
*>act]s !y repres5t2 & "o :o is agitat$ 
/orms1 "o :o is angry rages1 ) ! mo/    
life-l reality4 ,h5ce poetry implies    
ei!r a happy gift ( nature or a /ra9 (  
madness4 ,9 ! "o case a man c take !    
m\ld ( any "*2 9 ! o!r1 he is lift$ out 
( 8 prop] self4  ,z = ! /ory1 :e!r !    
poet takes x ready made or con/ructs x =
 himself1 he %\ld fir/ sket* its g5]al  
outl9e1 & !n fill 9 ! episodes & amplify
 9 detail4 ,! g5]al plan may be         
illu/rat$ by ! ,iphig5ia4 ,a "y girl is 

sacrific$2 %e disappe>s my/]i\sly f !   
eyes ( ^? :o sacrific$ h]2 ,%e is       
transport$ to ano!r c\ntry1 :]e ! cu/om 
is to (f] up all /rang]s to ! goddess4  
,to ?is m9i/ry %e is appo9t$4 ,"s "t    
lat] h] own bro!r *ances to arrive4 ,!  
fact t ! oracle = "s reason ord]$ him to
 g !re1 is outside ! g5]al plan ( !     
play4 ,! purpose1 aga91 ( 8 com+ is     
outside ! action prop]4 ,h[ev]1 he      
comes1 he is seiz$1 &1 :5 on ! po9t (   
be+ sacrific$1 reveals :o he is4 ,! mode
 ( recognition may be ei!r t (          
,euripides or ( ,polyidus1 9 ^: play he 
exclaims v naturally3--',s x 0 n my si/]
 only1 b ,i too1 :o 0 doom$ to be       
sacrific$'2 & by t rem>k he is sav$4    
,aft] ?is1 ! names be+ once giv51 x     
rema9s to fill 9 ! episodes4 ,we mu/ see
 t !y are relevant to ! action4 ,9 !    
case ( ,ore/es1 = example1 !re is !     
madness :i* l$ to 8 capture1 & 8        
deliv]ance by means ( ! purificatory    
rite4 ,9 ! drama1 ! episodes are %ort1 b
 x is ^! t give ext5sion to ,epic       

poetry4 ,?us ! /ory ( ! ,odyssey c be   
/at$ briefly4 ,a c]ta9 man is abs5t f   
home = _m ye>s2 he is jeal\sly wat*$ by 
,poseidon1 & left desolate4 ,mean:ile 8 
home is 9 a wret*$ plight--suitors are  
wa/+ 8 sub/ance & plott+ aga9/ 8 son4   
,at l5g?1 tempe/-to/1 he himself        
arrives2 he makes c]ta9 p]sons acqua9t$ 
) him2 he attacks ! suitors ) 8 own h&1 
& is himself pres]v$ :ile he de/roys !m4
 ,?is is ! ess5ce ( ! plot2 ! re/ is    
episode4     ,,xviii  ,e trag$y falls   
into two p>ts1--,complication &         
,unravell+ or ,d5\em5t4 ,incid5ts       
extrane\s to ! action are frequ5tly     
comb9$ ) a portion ( ! action prop]1 to 
=m ! ,complication2 ! re/ is !          
,unravell+4 ,by ! ,complication ,i mean 
all t ext5ds f ! beg9n+ ( ! action to ! 
"p :i* m>ks ! turn+-po9t to good or bad 
=tune4 ,! ,unravell+ is t :i* ext5ds f !
 beg9n+ ( ! *ange to ! end4 ,?us1 9 !   
,lynceus ( ,!odectes1 ! ,complication   
consi/s ( ! incid5ts presuppos$ 9 !     
drama1 ! seizure ( ! *ild1 & !n aga91 ,!

 ,unravell+ ext5ds f ! accusation (     
murd] to ! end4  ,!re are f\r k9ds (    
,trag$y1 ! ,complex1 dep5d+ entirely on 
,rev]sal ( ! ,situation & ,recognition2 
! ,pa!tic 7:]e ! motive is              
passion71--su* z ! trag$ies on ,ajax &  
,ixion2 ! ,e?ical 7:]e ! motives are    
e?ical71--su* z ! ,ph?iotides & !       
,peleus4 ,! f\r? k9d is ! ,simple ,we "h
 exclude ! purely spectacul> elem5t1    
exemplifi$ by ! ,phorcides1 ! ,prome!us1
 & sc5es laid 9 ,hades4 ,! poet %\ld    
endeav\r1 if possible1 to comb9e all    
poetic elem5ts2 or fail+ t1 ! greate/   
numb] & ^? ! mo/ important2 ! m s1 9    
face ( ! cavill+ criticism ( ! day4 ,=  
:]eas !re h hi!rto be5 good poets1 ea* 9
 8 own bran*1 ! critics n[ expect "o man
 to surpass all o!rs 9 _! sev]al l9es ( 
excell5ce4  ,9 speak+ ( a trag$y z !    
same or diff]5t1 ! be/ te/ to take is ! 
plot4 ,id5tity exi/s :]e ! ,complication
 & ,unravell+ are ! same4 ,_m poets tie 
! knot well1 b unravel x ill4 ,bo? arts1
 h[ev]1 %\ld always be ma/]$4  ,aga91 ! 

poet %\ld rememb] :at has be5 (t5 said1 
& n make an ,epic /ructure into a       
,trag$y--by an ,epic /ructure ,i mean "o
 ) a multiplicity ( plots--z if1 =      
in/ance1 y 7 to make a trag$y out ( !   
entire /ory ( ! ,iliad4 ,9 ! ,epic poem1
 ow+ to its l5g?1 ea* "p assumes its    
prop] magnitude4 ,9 ! drama ! result is 
f> f answ]+ to ! poet's expectation4 ,! 
pro( is t ! poets :o h dramatis$ ! :ole 
/ory ( ! ,fall ( ,troy1 in/ead ( select+
 portions1 l ,euripides2 or :o h tak5 ! 
:ole tale ( ,niobe1 & n a "p ( h] /ory1 
l ,aes*ylus1 ei!r fail utt]ly or meet ) 
poor success on ! /age4 ,ev5 ,aga?on has
 be5 kn[n to fail f ?is "o defect4 ,9 8 
,rev]sals ( ! ,situation1 h[ev]1 he %[s 
a m>vell\s skill 9 ! ef=t to hit !      
popul> ta/e1--to produce a tragic effect
 t satisfies ! moral s5se4 ,?is effect  
is produc$ :5 ! clev] rogue1 l          
,sisyphus1 is outwitt$1 or ! brave      
villa9 defeat$4 ,su* an ev5t is probable
 9 ,aga?on's s5se ( ! ^w3 'x is         
probable1' he says1 't _m ?+s %\ld happ5

 contr>y to probability4'  ,! ,*orus too
 %\ld be reg>d$ z "o ( ! actors2 x %\ld 
be an integral "p ( ! :ole1 & %>e 9 !   
action1 9 ! mann] n ( ,euripides b (    
,sophocles4 ,z = ! lat] poets1 _! *oral 
songs p]ta9 z little to ! subject ( !   
piece z to t ( any o!r trag$y4 ,!y are1 
!re=e1 sung z m]e int]ludes1 a practice 
fir/ begun by ,aga?on4 ,yet :at diff]5ce
 is !re betwe5 introduc+ su* *oral      
int]ludes1 & transf]r+ a spee*1 or ev5 a
 :ole act1 f "o play to ano!r8     ,,xix
  ,x rema9s to speak ( ,diction &       
,?\ght1 ! o!r p>ts ( ,trag$y hav+ be5   
already discuss$4 ,conc]n+ ,?\ght1 we   
may assume :at is said 9 ! ,rhetoric1 to
 :i* inquiry ! subject m /rictly        
belongs4 ,"u ,?\ght is includ$ e effect 
:i* has to be produc$ by spee*1 !       
subdivisions be+1--pro( & refutation2 ! 
excitation ( ! feel+s1 su* z pity1 fe>1 
ang]1 & ! l2 ! sugge/ion ( importance or
 its opposite4 ,n[1 x is evid5t t !     
dramatic incid5ts mu/ be treat$ f ! same
 po9ts ( view z ! dramatic spee*es1 :5 !

 object is to evoke ! s5se ( pity1 fe>1 
importance1 or probability4 ,! only     
diff]5ce is1 t ! incid5ts %\ld speak =  
!mselves )\t v]bal exposition2 :ile !   
effects aim$ at 9 spee* %\ld be produc$ 
by ! speak]1 & z a result ( ! spee*4 ,= 
:at 7 ! bus9ess ( a speak]1 if ! ,?\ght 
7 reveal$ q ap>t f :at he says8  ,next1 
z reg>ds ,diction4 ,"o bran* ( ! inquiry
 treats ( ! ,modes ( ,utt]ance4 ,b ?is  
prov9ce ( k belongs to ! art ( ,deliv]y 
& to ! ma/]s ( t sci5ce4 ,x includes1 = 
in/ance1--:at is a comm&1 a pray]1 a    
/atem5t1 a ?reat1 a "q1 an answ]1 & s   
=?4 ,to "k or n to "k ^! ?+s involves no
 s]i\s c5sure ^u ! poet's art4 ,= :o c  
admit ! fault imput$ to ,hom] by        
,protagoras1--t 9 ! words1 ',s+1        
goddess1 ( ! wra?1' he gives a comm& "u 
! idea t he utt]s a pray]8 ,= to tell "s
 "o to d a ?+ or n to d x is1 he says1 a
 comm&4 ,we may1 !re=e1 pass ?is ov] z  
an inquiry t belongs to ano!r art1 n to 
poetry4     ,,xx  ,language 9 g5]al     
includes ! foll[+ p>ts3--,lett]1        

,syllable1 ,connect+ ^w1 ,n\n1 ,v]b1    
,inflexion or ,case1 ,s5t5ce or ,phrase4
  ,a ,lett] is an indivisible s\nd1 yet 
n e su* s\nd1 b only "o :i* c =m "p ( a 
gr\p ( s\nds4 ,= ev5 brutes utt]        
indivisible s\nds1 none ( :i* ,i call a 
lett]4 ,! s\nd ,i mean may be ei!r a    
v[el1 a semi-v[el1 or a mute4 ,a v[el is
 t :i* )\t impact ( tongue or lip has an
 audible s\nd4 ,a semi-v[el1 t :i* ) su*
 impact has an audible s\nd1 z ,s & ,r4 
,a mute1 t :i* ) su* impact has by      
itself no s\nd1 b jo9$ to a v[el s\nd   
becomes audible1 z ,g & ,d4 ,^! are     
di/+ui%$ accord+ to ! =m assum$ by ! m\?
 & ! place :]e !y are produc$2 accord+ z
 !y are aspirat$ or smoo?1 long or %ort2
 z !y are acute1 grave1 or ( an         
int]m$iate tone2 :i* inquiry belongs 9  
detail to ! writ]s on metre4  ,a        
,syllable is a non-significant s\nd1    
compos$ ( a mute & a v[el3 = ,,gr )\t ,a
 is a syllable1 z also ) ,a1--,,gra4 ,b 
! inve/igation ( ^! diff]5ces belongs   
also to metrical sci5ce4  ,a ,connect+  

^w is a non-significant s\nd1 :i* nei!r 
causes nor h9d]s ! union ( _m s\nds into
 "o significant s\nd2 x may be plac$ at 
ei!r end or 9 ! middle ( a s5t5ce4 ,or1 
a non-significant s\nd1 :i* out ( sev]al
 s\nds1 ea* ( !m significant1 is capable
 ( =m+ "o significant s\nd1--z alpha mu 
!ta iota1 pi epsilon rho iota1 & ! l4   
,or1 a non-significant s\nd1 :i* m>ks ! 
beg9n+1 end1 or division ( a s5t5ce2    
su*1 h[ev]1 t x _c correctly /& by      
itself at ! beg9n+ ( a s5t5ce1 z mu     
epsilon nu1 eta tau omicron iota1 delta 
epsilon4  ,a ,n\n is a composite        
significant s\nd1 n m>k+ "t1 ( :i* no "p
 is 9 itself significant3 = 9 d\ble or  
comp\nd words we d n employ ! sep>ate   
p>ts z if ea* 7 9 itself significant4   
,?us 9 ,!odorus1 'god-giv51' ! delta    
omega rho omicron nu or 'gift' is n 9   
itself significant4  ,a ,v]b is a       
composite significant s\nd1 m>k+ "t1 9  
:i*1 z 9 ! n\n1 no "p is 9 itself       
significant4 ,= 'man1' or ':ite' does n 
express ! idea ( ':5'2 b 'he walks1' or 

'he has walk$' does connote "t1 pres5t  
or pa/4  ,inflexion belongs bo? to ! n\n
 & v]b1 & expresses ei!r ! relation '(1'
 'to1' or ! l2 or t ( numb]1 :e!r "o or 
_m1 z 'man' or 'm5 '2 or ! modes or     
tones 9 actual deliv]y1 e4g4 a "q or a  
comm&4 ',did he g8' & 'g' are v]bal     
inflexions ( ?is k9d4  ,a ,s5t5ce or    
,phrase is a composite significant s\nd1
 "s at lea/ ( ^: p>ts are 9 !mselves    
significant2 = n e su* gr\p ( words     
consi/s ( v]bs & n\ns--'! def9ition (   
man1' = example--b x may disp5se ev5 ) !
 v]b4 ,/ill x w always h "s significant 
"p1 z '9 walk+1' or ',cleon son (       
,cleon4' ,a s5t5ce or phrase may =m a   
unity 9 two ways1--ei!r z signify+ "o   
?+1 or z consi/+ ( sev]al p>ts l9k$     
toge!r4 ,?us ! ,iliad is "o by ! l9k+   
toge!r ( p>ts1 ! def9ition ( man by !   
unity ( ! ?+ signifi$4     ,,xxi  ,words
 are ( two k9ds1 simple & d\ble4 ,by    
simple ,i mean ^? compos$ (             
non-significant elem5ts1 su* z gamma    
eta4 ,by d\ble or comp\nd1 ^? compos$   

ei!r ( a significant & non-significant  
elem5t 7?\gh )9 ! :ole ^w no elem5t is  
significant71 or ( elem5ts t are bo?    
significant4 ,a ^w may likewise be      
triple1 quadruple1 or multiple 9 =m1 l s
 _m ,massilian expressions1 e4g4        
',h]mo-caico-xan?us :o pray$ to ,fa!r   
,zeus4'  ,e ^w is ei!r curr5t1 or       
/range1 or metaphorical1 or ornam5tal1  
or newly-co9$1 or l5g!n$1 or contract$1 
or alt]$4  ,by a curr5t or prop] ^w ,i  
mean "o :i* is 9 g5]al use among a p2 by
 a /range ^w1 "o :i* is 9 use 9 ano!r   
c\ntry4 ,pla9ly1 !re=e1 ! same ^w may be
 at once /range & curr5t1 b n 9 relation
 to ! same p4 ,! ^w sigma iota gamma    
upsilon nu omicron nu1 'lance1' is to ! 
,cyprians a curr5t t]m b to u a /range  
"o4  ,metaphor is ! application ( an    
ali5 "n by transf]5ce ei!r f g5us to    
species1 or f species to g5us1 or f     
species to species1 or by analogy1 t is1
 proportion4 ,?us f g5us to species1 z3 
',!re lies my %ip'2 = ly+ at an*or is a 
species ( ly+4 ,f species to g5us1 z3   

',v]ily t5 ?\s& noble de$s ha? ,odysseus
 wr\ght'2 = t5 ?\s& is a species ( l>ge 
numb]1 & is "h us$ = a l>ge numb]       
g5]ally4 ,f species to species1 z3 ',)  
blade ( bronze drew away ! life1' &     
',cleft ! wat] ) ! vessel ( unyield+    
bronze4' ,"h alpha rho upsilon rho alpha
 iota1 'to draw away1' is us$ = tau     
alpha mu epsilon iota nu1 'to cleave1' &
 tau alpha mu epsilon iota nu aga9 =    
alpha rho upsilon alpha iota1--ea* be+ a
 species ( tak+ away4 ,analogy or       
proportion is :5 ! second t]m is to !   
fir/ z ! f\r? to ! ?ird4 ,we may !n use 
! f\r? = ! second1 or ! second = ! f\r?4
 ,sometimes too we qualify ! metaphor by
 add+ ! t]m to :i* ! prop] ^w is        
relative4 ,?us ! cup is to ,dionysus z !
 %ield to ,ares4 ,! cup may1 !re=e1 be  
call$ '! %ield ( ,dionysus1' & ! %ield  
'! cup ( ,ares4' ,or1 aga91 z old age is
 to life1 s is ev5+ to day4 ,ev5+ may   
!re=e be call$ '! old age ( ! day1' &   
old age1 '! ev5+ ( life1' or1 9 ! phrase
 ( ,emp$ocles1 'life's sett+ sun4' ,= "s

 ( ! t]ms ( ! proportion !re is at times
 no ^w 9 exi/5ce2 /ill ! metaphor may be
 us$4 ,= in/ance1 to scatt] se$ is call$
 s[+3 b ! action ( ! sun 9 scatt]+ 8    
rays is nameless4 ,/ill ?is process be>s
 to ! sun ! same relation z s[+ to !    
se$4 ,h5ce ! expression ( ! poet 's[+ ! 
god-creat$ light4' ,!re is ano!r way 9  
:i* ?is k9d ( metaphor may be employ$4  
,we may apply an ali5 t]m1 & !n d5y ( t 
t]m "o ( its prop] attributes2 z if we 7
 to call ! %ield1 n '! cup ( ,ares1' b  
'! w9eless cup4'  ,an ornam5tal ^w444   
,a newly-co9$ ^w is "o :i* has nev] be5 
ev5 9 local use1 b is adopt$ by ! poet  
himself4 ,"s su* words !re appe> to be3 
z epsilon rho nu upsilon gamma epsilon  
sigma1 'spr\t]s1' = kappa epsilon rho   
alpha tau alpha1 'horns1' & alpha rho   
eta tau eta rho1 'supplicator1' = iota  
epsilon rho epsilon upsilon sigma1      
'prie/4'  ,a ^w is l5g!n$ :5 its own    
v[el is ex*ang$ = a long] "o1 or :5 a   
syllable is ins]t$4 ,a ^w is contract$  
:5 "s "p ( x is remov$4 ,in/ances (     

l5g!n+ are1--pi omicron lambda eta      
omicron sigma = pi omicron lambda       
epsilon omega sigma1 & ,pi eta lambda   
eta iota alpha delta epsilon omega = ,pi
 eta lambda epsilon iota delta omicron  
upsilon3 ( contraction1--kappa rho iota1
 delta omega1 & omicron psi1 z 9 mu iota
 alpha _/ gamma iota nu epsilon tau     
alpha iota _/ alpha mu phi omicron tau  
episilon rho omega nu _/ omicron psi4   
,an alt]$ ^w is "o 9 :i* "p ( ! ord9>y  
=m is left un*ang$1 & "p is re-ca/2 z 9 
delta epsilon xi iota-tau epsilon rho   
omicron nu _/ kappa alpha tau alpha _/  
mu alpha zeta omicron nu1 delta epsilon 
xi iota tau epsilon rho omicron nu is = 
delta epsilon xi iota omicron nu4  ,n\ns
 9 !mselves are ei!r mascul9e1 fem99e1  
or neut]4 ,mascul9e are su* z end 9 nu1 
rho1 sigma1 or 9 "s lett] comp\nd$ )    
sigma1--^! be+ two1 & xi4 ,fem99e1 su* z
 end 9 v[els t are always long1 namely  
eta & omega1 &--( v[els t admit (       
l5g!n+--^? 9 alpha4 ,?us ! numb] (      
lett]s 9 :i* n\ns mascul9e & fem99e end 

is ! same2 = psi & xi are equival5t to  
end+s 9 sigma4 ,no n\n ends 9 a mute or 
a v[el %ort by nature4 ,?ree only end 9 
iota1--mu eta lambda iota1 kappa omicron
 mu mu iota1 pi epsilon pi epsilon rho  
iota3 five end 9 upsilon4 ,neut] n\ns   
end 9 ^! two latt] v[els2 also 9 nu &   
sigma4     ,,xxii  ,! p]fection ( /yle  
is to be cle> )\t be+ mean4 ,! cle>e/   
/yle is t :i* uses only curr5t or prop] 
words2 at ! same "t x is mean3--witness 
! poetry ( ,cleophon & ( ,/h5elus4 ,t   
diction1 on ! o!r h&1 is l(ty & rais$   
above ! commonplace :i* employs unusual 
words4 ,by unusual1 ,i mean /range 7or  
r>e7 words1 metaphorical1               
l5g!n$1--any?+1 9 %ort1 t diff]s f !    
normal idiom4 ,yet a /yle :olly compos$ 
( su* words is ei!r a riddle or a j>gon2
 a riddle1 if x consi/s ( metaphors2 a  
j>gon1 if x consi/s ( /range 7or r>e7   
words4 ,= ! ess5ce ( a riddle is to     
express true facts "u impossible        
comb9ations4 ,n[ ?is _c be done by any  
arrangem5t ( ord9>y words1 b by ! use ( 

metaphor x c4 ,su* is ! riddle3--',a man
 ,i saw :o on ano!r man _h glu$ ! bronze
 by aid ( fire1' & o!rs ( ! same k9d4 ,a
 diction t is made up ( /range 7or r>e7 
t]ms is a j>gon4 ,a c]ta9 infusion1     
!re=e1 ( ^! elem5ts is necess>y to /yle2
 = ! /range 7or r>e7 ^w1 ! metaphorical1
 ! ornam5tal1 & ! o!r k9ds above        
m5tion$1 w raise x above ! commonplace &
 mean1 :ile ! use ( prop] words w make x
 p]spicu\s4 ,b no?+ contributes m to    
produce a cle>ness ( diction t is remote
 f commonness ?an ! l5g!n+1 contraction1
 & alt]ation ( words4 ,= by deviat+ 9   
exceptional cases f ! normal idiom1 !   
language w ga9 di/9ction2 :ile1 at !    
same "t1 ! p>tial con=mity ) usage w    
give p]spicuity4 ,! critics1 !re=e1 are 
9 error :o c5sure ^! lic5ses ( spee*1 & 
hold ! au?or up to ridicule4 ,?us       
,eucleides1 ! eld]1 decl>$ t x w\ld be  
an easy matt] to be a poet if y might   
l5g!n syllables at w4 ,he c>icatur$ !   
practice 9 ! v =m ( 8 diction1 z 9 !    
v]se3 ',epsilon pi iota *i alpha rho eta

 nu _/ epsilon iota delta omicron nu _/ 
,mu alpha rho alpha !ta omega nu alpha  
delta epsilon _/ ,beta alpha delta iota 
zeta omicron nu tau alpha1 or1 omicron  
upsilon kappa _/ alpha nu _/ gamma _/   
epsilon rho alpha mu epsilon nu omicron 
sigma _/ tau omicron nu _/ epsilon kappa
 epsilon iota nu omicron upsilon        
_/epsilon lambda lambda epsilon beta    
omicron rho omicron nu4 ,to employ su*  
lic5se at all obtrusively is1 no d\bt1  
grotesque2 b 9 any mode ( poetic diction
 !re mu/ be mod]ation4 ,ev5 metaphors1  
/range 7or r>e7 words1 or any simil> =ms
 ( spee*1 w\ld produce ! l effect if us$
 )\t propriety & ) ! express purpose (  
be+ ludicr\s4 ,h[ great a diff]5ce is   
made by ! appropriate use ( l5g!n+1 may 
be se5 9 ,epic poetry by ! ins]tion (   
ord9>y =ms 9 ! v]se4 ,s1 aga91 if we    
take a /range 7or r>e7 ^w1 a metaphor1  
or any simil> mode ( expression1 &      
replace x by ! curr5t or prop] t]m1 !   
tru? ( our obs]vation w be manife/4 ,=  
example ,aes*ylus & ,euripides ea*      

compos$ ! same iambic l9e4 ,b !         
alt]ation ( a s+le ^w by ,euripides1 :o 
employ$ ! r>] t]m in/ead ( ! ord9>y "o1 
makes "o v]se appe> beautiful & ! o!r   
trivial4 ,aes*ylus 9 8 ,philoctetes     
says3 ,phi alpha gamma epsilon delta    
alpha iota nu alpha _/ delta _/ eta _/  
mu omicron upsilon _/ sigma alpha rho   
kappa alpha sigma _/ epsilon rho !ta    
iota epsilon iota _/ pi omicron delta   
omicron sigma4  ,euripides sub/itutes   
,!ta omicron iota nu alpha tau alpha    
iota 'fea/s on' = epsilon sigma !ta iota
 epsilon iota 'fe$s on4' ,aga91 9 ! l9e1
 nu upsilon nu _/ delta epsilon _/ mu   
_/epsilon omega nu _/ omicron lambda    
iota gamma iota gamma upsilon sigma _/  
tau epsilon _/ kappa alpha iota _/      
omicron upsilon tau iota delta alpha nu 
omicron sigma _/ kappa alpha iota _/    
alpha epsilon iota kappa eta sigma71 !  
diff]5ce w be felt if we sub/itute !    
common words1 nu upsilon nu _/ delta    
epsilon _/ mu _/ epsilon omega nu _/ mu 
iota kappa rho omicron sigma _/ tau     

epsilon _/ kappa alpha iota _/ alpha rho
 !ta epsilon nu iota kappa omicron sigma
 _/ kappa alpha iota _/ alpha epsilon   
iota delta gamma sigma4 ,or1 if = ! l9e1
 delta iota phi rho omicron nu _/ alpha 
epsilon iota kappa epsilon lambda iota  
omicron nu _/ kappa alpha tau alpha !ta 
epsilon iota sigma _/ omicron lambda    
iota gamma eta nu _/ tau epsilon _/ tau 
rho alpha pi epsilon iota sigma _/      
omicron lambda iota gamma eta nu _/ tau 
epsilon _/ tau rho alpha pi epsilon zeta
 alpha nu1 ,we read1 delta iota phi rho 
omicron nu _/ mu omicron *i !ta eta rho 
omicron nu _/ kappa alpha tau alpha !ta 
epsilon iota sigma _/ mu iota kappa rho 
alpha nu _/ tau epsilon _/ tau rho alpha
 pi epsilon zeta alpha nu4  ,or1 = eta  
iota omicron nu epsilon sigma _/ beta   
omicron omicron omega rho iota nu1 eta  
iota omicron nu epsilon sigma kappa rho 
alpha zeta omicron upsilon rho iota nu  
,aga91 ,ariphrades ridicul$ ! trag$ians 
= us+ phrases :i* no "o w\ld employ 9   
ord9>y spee*3 = example1 delta omega mu 

alpha tau omega nu _/ alpha pi omicron  
in/ead ( alpha pi omicron _/ delta omega
 mu alpha tau omega nu1 rho epsilon !ta 
epsilon nu1 epsilon gamma omega _/ delta
 epsilon _/ nu iota nu1 ,alpha *i iota  
lambda lambda epsilon omega sigma _/ pi 
epsilon rho iota in/ead ( pi epsilon rho
 iota _/ ',alpha *i iota lambda lambda  
epsilon omega sigma1 & ! l4 ,x is       
precisely because su* phrases are n "p (
 ! curr5t idiom t !y give di/9ction to !
 /yle4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 he fail$ to see4  ,x
 is a great matt] to obs]ve propriety 9 
^! sev]al modes ( expression1 z also 9  
comp\nd words1 /range 7or r>e7 words1 & 
s =?4 ,b ! greate/ ?+ by f> is to h a   
comm& ( metaphor4 ,?is alone _c be      
imp>t$ by ano!r2 x is ! m>k ( g5ius1 =  
to make good metaphors implies an eye = 
resemblances4  ,( ! v>i\s k9ds ( words1 
! comp\nd are be/ adapt$ to ,di?yrambs1 
r>e words to h]oic poetry1 metaphors to 
iambic4 ,9 h]oic poetry1 inde$1 all ^!  
v>ieties are s]viceable4 ,b 9 iambic    
v]se1 :i* reproduces1 z f> z may be1    

famili> spee*1 ! mo/ appropriate words  
are ^? :i* are f\nd ev5 9 prose4 ,^!    
are1--! curr5t or prop]1 ! metaphorical1
 ! ornam5tal4  ,conc]n+ ,trag$y &       
imitation by means ( action ?is may     
suffice4     ,,xxiii  ,z to t poetic    
imitation :i* is n>rative 9 =m & employs
 a s+le metre1 ! plot manife/ly ought1 z
 9 a trag$y1 to be con/ruct$ on dramatic
 pr9ciples4 ,x %\ld h = its subject a   
s+le action1 :ole & complete1 ) a       
beg9n+1 a middle1 & an end4 ,x w ?us    
resemble a liv+ organism 9 all its      
unity1 & produce ! pleasure prop] to x4 
,x w diff] 9 /ructure f hi/orical       
compositions1 :i* ( necessity pres5t n a
 s+le action1 b a s+le p]iod1 & all t   
happ5$ )9 t p]iod to "o p]son or to _m1 
little connect$ toge!r z ! ev5ts may be4
 ,= z ! sea-fight at ,salamis & ! battle
 ) ! ,c>?ag9ians 9 ,sicily took place at
 ! same "t1 b did n t5d to any "o       
result1 s 9 ! sequ5ce ( ev5ts1 "o ?+    
sometimes foll[s ano!r1 & yet no s+le   
result is !reby produc$4 ,su* is !      

practice1 we may say1 ( mo/ poets4 ,"h  
aga91 !n1 z has be5 already obs]v$1 !   
transc5d5t excell5ce ( ,hom] is manife/4
 ,he nev] attempts to make ! :ole w> (  
,troy ! subject ( 8 poem1 ?\gh t w> _h a
 beg9n+ & an end4 ,x w\ld h be5 too va/ 
a !me1 & n easily embrac$ 9 a s+le view4
 ,if1 aga91 he _h kept x )9 mod]ate     
limits1 x mu/ h be5 ov]-complicat$ by ! 
v>iety ( ! incid5ts4 ,z x is1 he deta*es
 a s+le portion1 & admits z episodes _m 
ev5ts f ! g5]al /ory ( ! w>--su* z !    
,catalogue ( ! %ips & o!rs--?us         
div]sify+ ! poem4 ,all o!r poets take a 
s+le h]o1 a s+le p]iod1 or an action    
s+le inde$1 b ) a multiplicity ( p>ts4  
,?us did ! au?or ( ! ,cypria & ( !      
,little ,iliad4 ,= ?is reason ! ,iliad &
 ! ,odyssey ea* furni% ! subject ( "o   
trag$y1 or1 at mo/1 ( two2 :ile !       
,cypria supplies mat]ials = _m1 & !     
,little ,iliad = eight--! ,aw>d ( !     
,arms1 ! ,philoctetes1 ! ,neoptolemus1 !
 ,eurypylus1 ! ,m5dicant ,odysseus1 !   
,laconian ,wom51 ! ,fall ( ,ilium1 !    

,dep>ture ( ! ,fleet4     ,,xxiv  ,aga91
 ,epic poetry mu/ h z _m k9ds z ,trag$y3
 x mu/ be simple1 or complex1 or        
'e?ical1' or 'pa!tic4' ,! p>ts also1 ) !
 exception ( song & spectacle1 are !    
same2 = x requires ,rev]sals ( !        
,situation1 ,recognitions1 & ,sc5es (   
,suff]+4 ,moreov]1 ! ?\ghts & ! diction 
mu/ be arti/ic4 ,9 all ^! respects ,hom]
 is our e>lie/ & suffici5t model4 ,inde$
 ea* ( 8 poems has a tw(old "*4 ,!      
,iliad is at once simple & 'pa!tic1' & !
 ,odyssey complex 7= ,recognition sc5es 
run ?r\gh x71 & at ! same "t 'e?ical4'  
,moreov]1 9 diction & ?\ght !y are      
supreme4  ,epic poetry diff]s f ,trag$y 
9 ! scale on :i* x is con/ruct$1 & 9 its
 metre4 ,z reg>ds scale or l5g?1 we h   
already laid d[n an adequate limit3--!  
beg9n+ & ! end mu/ be capable ( be+     
br\ght )9 a s+le view4 ,?is condition w 
be satisfi$ by poems on a small] scale  
?an ! old epics1 & answ]+ 9 l5g? to !   
gr\p ( trag$ies pres5t$ at a s+le sitt+4
  ,epic poetry has1 h[ev]1 a great--a   

special--capacity = enl>g+ its          
dim5sions1 & we c see ! reason4 ,9      
,trag$y we _c imitate sev]al l9es (     
actions c>ri$ on at "o & ! same "t2 we  
mu/ conf9e ourselves to ! action on !   
/age & ! "p tak5 by ! play]s4 ,b 9 ,epic
 poetry1 ow+ to ! n>rative =m1 _m ev5ts 
simultane\sly transact$ c be pres5t$2 & 
^!1 if relevant to ! subject1 add mass &
 dignity to ! poem4 ,! ,epic has "h an  
advantage1 & "o t conduces to gr&eur (  
effect1 to div]t+ ! m9d ( ! he>]1 &     
reliev+ ! /ory ) v>y+ episodes4 ,=      
sam5ess ( incid5t soon produces satiety1
 & makes trag$ies fail on ! /age4  ,z = 
! metre1 ! h]oic measure has prov$ its  
fitness by ! te/ ( exp]i5ce4 ,if a      
n>rative poem 9 any o!r metre or 9 _m   
metres 7 n[ compos$1 x w\ld be f\nd     
incongru\s4 ,= ( all measures ! h]oic is
 ! /atelie/ & ! mo/ massive2 & h5ce x   
mo/ readily admits r>e words &          
metaphors1 :i* is ano!r po9t 9 :i* !    
n>rative =m ( imitation /&s alone4 ,on !
 o!r h&1 ! iambic & ! tro*aic tetramet] 

are /irr+ measures1 ! latt] be+ ak9 to  
danc+1 ! =m] expressive ( action4 ,/ill 
m absurd w\ld x be to mix toge!r diff]5t
 metres1 z 0 done by ,*a]emon4 ,h5ce no 
"o has ev] compos$ a poem on a great    
scale 9 any o!r ?an h]oic v]se4 ,nature 
h]self1 z we h said1 tea*es ! *oice ( ! 
prop] measure4  ,hom]1 admirable 9 all  
respects1 has ! special m]it ( be+ !    
only poet :o rightly appreciates ! "p he
 %\ld take himself4 ,! poet %\ld speak z
 little z possible 9 8 own p]son1 = x is
 n ?is t makes him an imitator4 ,o!r    
poets appe> !mselves ^u ! sc5e ?r\gh\t1 
& imitate b little & r>ely4 ,hom]1 aft] 
a few prefatory words1 at once br+s 9 a 
man1 or woman1 or o!r p]sonage2 none (  
!m want+ 9 *>act]i/ic qualities1 b ea* )
 a "* ( 8 own4  ,! elem5t ( ! wond]ful  
is requir$ 9 ,trag$y4 ,! irrational1 on 
:i* ! wond]ful dep5ds = its *ief        
effects1 has wid] scope 9 ,epic poetry1 
because !re ! p]son act+ is n se54 ,?us1
 ! pursuit ( ,hector w\ld be ludicr\s if
 plac$ ^u ! /age--! ,greeks /&+ /ill & n

 jo9+ 9 ! pursuit1 & ,a*illes wav+ !m   
back4 ,b 9 ! ,epic poem ! absurdity     
passes unnotic$4 ,n[ ! wond]ful is      
pleas+3 z may be inf]r$ f ! fact t e "o 
tells a /ory ) "s addition ( 8 own1 kn[+
 t 8 he>]s l x4 ,x is ,hom] :o has      
*iefly taught o!r poets ! art ( tell+   
lies skilfully4 ,! secret ( x lies 9 a  
fallacy1 ,=1 assum+ t if "o ?+ is or    
becomes1 a second is or becomes1 m5     
imag9e t1 if ! second is1 ! fir/        
likewise is or becomes4 ,b ?is is a     
false inf]5ce4 ,h5ce1 :]e ! fir/ ?+ is  
untrue1 x is q unnecess>y1 provid$ !    
second be true1 to add t ! fir/ is or   
has become4 ,= ! m9d1 kn[+ ! second to  
be true1 falsely inf]s ! tru? ( ! fir/4 
,!re is an example ( ?is 9 ! ,ba? ,sc5e 
( ! ,odyssey4  ,accord+ly1 ! poet %\ld  
pref] probable impossibilities to       
improbable possibilities4 ,! tragic plot
 mu/ n be compos$ ( irrational p>ts4    
,ev]y?+ irrational %\ld1 if possible1 be
 exclud$2 or1 at all ev5ts1 x %\ld lie  
outside ! action ( ! play 7z1 9 !       

,o$ipus1 ! h]o's ignorance z to ! mann] 
( ,laius' dea?72 n )9 ! drama1--z 9 !   
,electra1 ! mess5g]'s acc\nt ( ! ,py?ian
 games2 or1 z 9 ! ,mysians1 ! man :o has
 come f ,tegea to ,mysia & is /ill      
spee*less4 ,! plea t o!rwise ! plot w\ld
 h be5 ru9$1 is ridicul\s2 su* a plot   
%\ld n 9 ! fir/ in/ance be con/ruct$4 ,b
 once ! irrational has be5 introduc$ &  
an air ( likelihood imp>t$ to x1 we mu/ 
accept x 9 spite ( ! absurdity4 ,take   
ev5 ! irrational incid5ts 9 ! ,odyssey1 
:]e ,odysseus is left ^u ! %ore (       
,i?aca4 ,h[ intol]able ev5 ^! might h   
be5 w\ld be app>5t if an inf]ior poet 7 
to treat ! subject4 ,z x is1 ! absurdity
 is veil$ by ! poetic *>m ) :i* ! poet  
inve/s x4  ,! diction %\ld be elaborat$ 
9 ! pauses ( ! action1 :]e !re is no    
expression ( "* or ?\ght4 ,=1 conv]sely1
 "* & ?\ght are m]ely obscur$ by a      
diction t is ov] brilliant4     ,,xxv   
,) respect to critical difficulties & _!
 solutions1 ! numb] & nature ( ! s\rces 
f :i* !y may be drawn may be ?us        

exhibit$4  ,! poet be+ an imitator1 l a 
pa9t] or any o!r arti/1 mu/ ( necessity 
imitate "o ( ?ree objects1--?+s z !y 7  
or are1 ?+s z !y are said or ?\ght to   
be1 or ?+s z !y ought to be4 ,! vehicle 
( expression is language1--ei!r curr5t  
t]ms or1 x may be1 r>e words or         
metaphors4 ,!re are also _m             
modifications ( language1 :i* we conc$e 
to ! poets4 ,add to ?is1 t ! /&>d (     
correctness is n ! same 9 poetry &      
politics1 any m ?an 9 poetry & any o!r  
art4 ,)9 ! art ( poetry itself !re are  
two k9ds ( faults1 ^? :i* t\* its       
ess5ce1 & ^? :i* are accid5tal4 ,if a   
poet has *os5 to imitate some?+1 b has  
imitat$ x incorrectly ?r\gh want (      
capacity1 ! error is inh]5t 9 ! poetry4 
,b if ! failure is due to a wrong *oice 
if he has repres5t$ a horse z ?r[+ out  
bo? 8 (f legs at once1 or introduc$     
te*nical inaccuracies 9 m$ic9e1 =       
example1 or 9 any o!r art ! error is n  
ess5tial to ! poetry4 ,^! are ! po9ts ( 
view f :i* we %\ld consid] & answ] !    

objections rais$ by ! critics4  ,fir/ z 
to matt]s :i* conc]n ! poet's own art4  
,if he describes ! impossible1 he is    
guilty ( an error2 b ! error may be     
ju/ifi$1 if ! end ( ! art be !reby      
atta9$ 7! end be+ t already m5tion$71   
if1 t is1 ! effect ( ?is or any o!r "p (
 ! poem is ?us r5d]$ m /rik+4 ,a case 9 
po9t is ! pursuit ( ,hector4 ,if1 h[ev]1
 ! end might h be5 z well1 or bett]1    
atta9$ )\t violat+ ! special rules ( !  
poetic art1 ! error is n ju/ifi$3 = e   
k9d ( error %\ld1 if possible1 be       
avoid$4  ,aga91 does ! error t\* !      
ess5tials ( ! poetic art1 or "s accid5t 
( x8 ,= example1--n to "k t a h9d has no
 horns is a less s]i\s matt] ?an to pa9t
 x in>ti/ically4  ,fur!r1 if x be       
object$ t ! description is n true to    
fact1 ! poet may p]haps reply1--',b !   
objects are z !y ought to be'3 j z      
,sophocles said t he drew m5 z !y ought 
to be2 ,euripides1 z !y are4 ,9 ?is way 
! objection may be met4 ,if1 h[ev]1 !   
repres5tation be ( nei!r k9d1 ! poet may

 answ]1--,?is is h[ m5 say ! ?+ is4'    
,?is applies to tales ab\t ! gods4 ,x   
may well be t ^! /ories are n high] ?an 
fact nor yet true to fact3 !y are1 v    
possibly1 :at ,x5ophanes says ( !m4 ,b  
anyh[1 '?is is :at is said4' ,aga91 a   
description may be no bett] ?an ! fact3 
'/ill1 x 0 ! fact'2 z 9 ! passage ab\t !
 arms3 ',upright ^u _! butt-ends /ood ! 
spe>s4' ,?is 0 ! cu/om !n1 z x n[ is    
among ! ,illyrians4  ,aga91 9 exam9+    
:e!r :at has be5 said or done by "s "o  
is poetically "r or n1 we mu/ n look    
m]ely to ! p>ticul> act or say+1 & ask  
:e!r x is poetically good or bad4 ,we   
mu/ also consid] by :om x is said or    
done1 to :om1 :51 by :at means1 or = :at
 end2 :e!r1 = in/ance1 x be to secure a 
great] good1 or av]t a great] evil4     
,o!r difficulties may be resolv$ by due 
reg>d to ! usage ( language4 ,we may    
note a r>e ^w1 z 9 omicron upsilon rho  
eta alpha sigma _/ mu epsilon nu _/ pi  
rho omega tau omicron nu1 :]e ! poet    
p]haps employs omicron upsilon rho eta  

alpha sigma n 9 ! s5se ( mules1 b (     
s5t9els4 ,s1 aga91 ( ,dolon3 'ill-fav\r$
 inde$ he 0 to look ^u4' ,x is n meant t
 8 body 0 ill-%ap$1 b t 8 face 0 ugly2 =
 ! ,cretans use ! ^w epsilon upsilon    
epsilon iota delta epsilon sigma1       
'well-fav\r$1' to d5ote a fair face4    
,aga91 zeta omega rho omicron tau       
epsilon rho omicron nu _/ delta epsilon 
_/ kappa epsilon rho alpha iota epsilon1
 'mix ! dr9k liveli]1' does n mean mix x
 /rong]' z = h>d dr9k]s1 b 'mix x       
quick]4'  ,sometimes an expression is   
metaphorical1 z ',n[ all gods & m5 7    
sleep+ ?r\gh ! night1'--:ile at ! same  
"t ! poet says3 ',(t5 inde$ z he turn$ 8
 gaze to ! ,trojan pla91 he m>vell$ at !
 s\nd ( flutes & pipes4' ',all' is "h   
us$ metaphorically = '_m1' all be+ a    
species ( _m4 ,s 9 ! v]se1--'alone %e   
ha? no "p4441' omicron iota eta1        
'alone1' is metaphorical2 = ! be/ kn[n  
may be call$ ! only "o4  ,aga91 !       
solution may dep5d ^u acc5t or brea?+4  
,?us ,hippias ( ,?asos solv$ !          

difficulties 9 ! l9es1--delta iota delta
 omicron mu epsilon nu 7delta iota delta
 omicron mu epsilon nu7 delta epsilon _/
 omicron iota1 &  tau omicron _/ mu     
epsilon nu _/ omicron upsilon 7omicron  
upsilon7 kappa alpha tau alpha pi       
upsilon !ta epsilon tau alpha iota _/   
omicron mu beta rho omega4  ,or aga91 ! 
"q may be solv$ by punctuation1 z 9     
,emp$ocles1--',( a sudd5 ?+s became     
mortal t be=e _h le>nt to be immortal1 &
 ?+s unmix$ be=e mix$4'  ,or aga91 by   
ambiguity ( mean+1--z pi alpha rho omega
 *i eta kappa epsilon nu _/ delta       
epsilon _/ pi lambda epsilon omega _/ nu
 upsilon xi1 :]e ! ^w pi lambda epsilon 
omega is ambigu\s4  ,or by ! usage (    
language4 ,?us any mix$ dr9k is call$   
omicron iota nu omicron sigma1 'w9e4'   
,h5ce ,ganym$e is said 'to p\r ! w9e to 
,zeus1' ?\gh ! gods d n dr9k w9e4 ,s too
 work]s 9 iron are call$ *i alpha lambda
 kappa epsilon alpha sigma1 or work]s 9 
bronze4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 may also be tak5 z 
a metaphor4  ,aga91 :5 a ^w seems to    

involve "s inconsi/5cy ( mean+1 we %\ld 
consid] h[ _m s5ses x may be> 9 !       
p>ticul> passage4 ,= example3 '!re 0    
/ay$ ! spe> ( bronze'--we %\ld ask 9 h[ 
_m ways we may take 'be+ *eck$ !re4' ,! 
true mode ( int]pretation is ! precise  
opposite ( :at ,glaucon m5tions4        
,critics1 he says1 jump at c]ta9        
gr\ndless conclusions2 !y pass adv]se   
judgm5t & !n proce$ to reason on x2 &1  
assum+ t ! poet has said :atev] !y happ5
 to ?9k1 f9d fault if a ?+ is inconsi/5t
 ) _! own fancy4 ,! "q ab\t ,ic>ius has 
be5 treat$ 9 ?is fa%ion4 ,! critics     
imag9e he 0 a ,lac$aemonian4 ,!y ?9k x  
/range1 !re=e1 t ,telema*us %\ld n h met
 him :5 he w5t to ,lac$aemon4 ,b !      
,cephall5ian /ory may p]haps be ! true  
"o4 ,!y allege t ,odysseus took a wife f
 among !mselves1 & t h] fa!r 0 ,icadius 
n ,ic>ius4 ,x is m]ely a mi/ake1 !n1 t  
gives plausibility to ! objection4  ,9  
g5]al1 ! impossible mu/ be ju/ifi$ by   
ref]5ce to arti/ic requirem5ts1 or to ! 
high] reality1 or to receiv$ op9ion4 ,) 

respect to ! requirem5ts ( art1 a       
probable impossibility is to be pref]r$ 
to a ?+ improbable & yet possible4      
,aga91 x may be impossible t !re %\ld be
 m5 su* z ,zeuxis pa9t$4 ',yes1' we say1
 'b ! impossible is ! high] ?+2 = !     
ideal type mu/ surpass ! reality4' ,to  
ju/ify ! irrational1 we appeal to :at is
 commonly said to be4 ,9 addition to    
:i*1 we urge t ! irrational sometimes   
does n violate reason2 j z 'x is        
probable t a ?+ may happ5 contr>y to    
probability4'  ,?+s t s\nd contradictory
 %\ld be exam9$ by ! same rules z 9     
dialectical refutation :e!r ! same ?+ is
 meant1 9 ! same relation1 & 9 ! same   
s5se4 ,we %\ld !re=e solve ! "q by      
ref]5ce to :at ! poet says himself1 or  
to :at is tacitly assum$ by a p]son (   
intellig5ce4  ,! elem5t ( ! irrational1 
&1 simil>ly1 depravity ( "*1 are ju/ly  
c5sur$ :5 !re is no inn] necessity =    
introduc+ !m4 ,su* is ! irrational      
elem5t 9 ! introduction ( ,aegeus by    
,euripides & ! badness ( ,m5elaus 9 !   

,ore/es4  ,?us1 !re are five s\rces f   
:i* critical objections are drawn4 ,?+s 
are c5sur$ ei!r z impossible1 or        
irrational1 or morally hurtful1 or      
contradictory1 or contr>y to arti/ic    
correctness4 ,! answ]s %\ld be s\ght "u 
! twelve heads above m5tion$4     ,,xxvi
  ,! "q may be rais$ :e!r ! ,epic or    
,tragic mode ( imitation is ! high]4 ,if
 ! m ref9$ art is ! high]1 & ! m ref9$ 9
 e case is t :i* appeals to ! bett] sort
 ( audi5ce1 ! art :i* imitates any?+ &  
ev]y?+ is manife/ly mo/ unref9$4 ,!     
audi5ce is suppos$ to be too dull to    
compreh5d unless some?+ ( _! own is ?r[n
 9 by ! p]=m]s1 :o !re=e indulge 9      
re/less movem5ts4 ,bad flute-play]s twi/
 & twirl1 if !y h to repres5t '!        
quoit-?r[1' or hu/le ! coryphaeus :5 !y 
p]=m ! ',scylla4' ,trag$y1 x is said1   
has ?is same defect4 ,we may comp>e !   
op9ion t ! old] actors ent]ta9$ ( _!    
successors4 ,mynniscus us$ to call      
,callippides 'ape' on acc\nt ( !        
extravagance ( 8 action1 & ! same view 0

 held ( ,p9d>us4 ,tragic art1 !n1 z a   
:ole1 /&s to ,epic 9 ! same relation z !
 y\ng] to ! eld] actors4 ,s we are told 
t ,epic poetry is address$ to a         
cultivat$ audi5ce1 :o d n ne$ ge/ure2   
,trag$y1 to an inf]ior public4 ,be+ !n  
unref9$1 x is evid5tly ! l[] ( ! two4   
,n[1 9 ! fir/ place1 ?is c5sure atta*es 
n to ! poetic b to ! hi/rionic art2 =   
ge/iculation may be equally ov]done 9   
epic recitation1 z by ,sosi-/ratus1 or 9
 lyrical competition1 z by ,mnasi!us !  
,opuntian4 ,next1 all action is n to be 
condemn$ any m ?an all danc+--b only t (
 bad p]=m]s4 ,su* 0 ! fault f\nd 9      
,callippides1 z also 9 o!rs ( our own   
day1 :o are c5sur$ = repres5t+ degrad$  
wom54 ,aga91 ,trag$y l ,epic poetry     
produces its effect ev5 )\t action2 x   
reveals its p[] by m]e read+4 ,if1 !n1 9
 all o!r respects x is sup]ior1 ?is     
fault1 we say1 is n inh]5t 9 x4  ,&     
sup]ior x is1 because x has all ! epic  
elem5ts--x may ev5 use ! epic metre--) !
 music & spectacul> effects z important 

accessories2 & ^! produce ! mo/ vivid ( 
pleasures4 ,fur!r1 x has vividness (    
impression 9 read+ z well z 9           
repres5tation4 ,moreov]1 ! art atta9s   
its end )9 n>r[] limits2 = ! conc5trat$ 
effect is m pleasurable ?an "o :i* is   
spread ov] a long "t & s dilut$4 ,:at1 =
 example1 w\ld be ! effect ( ! ,o$ipus (
 ,sophocles1 if x 7 ca/ into a =m z long
 z ! ,iliad8 ,once m1 ! ,epic imitation 
has less unity2 z is %[n by ?is1 t any  
,epic poem w furni% subjects = sev]al   
trag$ies4 ,?us if ! /ory adopt$ by !    
poet has a /rict unity1 x mu/ ei!r be   
concisely told & appe> truncat$2 or1 if 
x con=m to ! ,epic canon ( l5g?1 x mu/  
seem weak & wat]y4 ,su* l5g? implies "s 
loss ( unity1 if1 ,i mean1 ! poem is    
con/ruct$ out ( sev]al actions1 l !     
,iliad & ! ,odyssey1 :i* h _m su* p>ts1 
ea* ) a c]ta9 magnitude ( its own4 ,yet 
^! poems are z p]fect z possible 9      
/ructure2 ea* is1 9 ! highe/ degree     
atta9able1 an imitation ( a s+le action4
  ,if1 !n1 ,trag$y is sup]ior to ,epic  

poetry 9 all ^! respects1 &1 moreov]1   
fulfils its specific function bett] z an
 art = ea* art ought to produce1 n any  
*ance pleasure1 b ! pleasure prop] to x1
 z already /at$ x pla9ly foll[s t       
,trag$y is ! high] art1 z atta9+ its end
 m p]fectly4  ,?us mu* may suffice      
conc]n+ ,tragic & ,epic poetry 9 g5]al2 
_! sev]al k9ds & p>ts1 ) ! numb] ( ea* &
 _! diff]5ces2 ! causes t make a poem   
good or bad2 ! objections ( ! critics & 
! answ]s to ^! objections4