,,the ,,poetics ,,of ,,aristotle ,by ,aristotle ,a ,translation ,by ,s4 ,h4 ,butcher ,transcriber's ,annotations and ,conventions3 the translator left intact some ,greek words to illustrate a specific point of the original discourse4 ,in this transcription1 in order to retain the accuracy of this text1 those words are rendered by spelling out each ,greek letter individually1 such as alpha beta gamma delta4444 ,the reader can distinguish these words by the enclosing braces 4 ,where multiple words occur together1 they are separated by the _/ symbol for clarity4 ,readers who do not speak or read the ,greek language will usually neither gain nor lose understanding by skipping over these passages4 ,those who understand ,greek1 however1 may gain a deeper insight to the original meaning and distinctions expressed by ,aristotle4 ,analysis of ,contents ,i ',imitation' the common principle of the ,arts of ,poetry4 ,,ii ,the ,objects of ,imitation4 ,,iii ,the ,manner of ,imitation4 ,,iv ,the ,origin and ,development of ,poetry4 ,v ,definition of the ,ludicrous1 and a brief sketch of the rise of ,comedy4 ,,vi ,definition of ,tragedy4 ,,vii ,the ,plot must be a ,whole4 ,,viii ,the ,plot must be a ,unity4 ,,ix 7,plot continued47 ,dramatic ,unity4 ,x 7,plot continued47 ,definitions of ,simple and ,complex ,plots4 ,,xi 7,plot continued47 ,reversal of the ,situation1 ,recognition1 and ,tragic or disastrous ,incident defined and explained4 ,,xii ,the 'quantitative parts' of ,tragedy defined4 ,,xiii 7,plot continued47 ,what constitutes ,tragic ,action4 ,,xiv 7,plot continued47 ,the tragic emotions of pity and fear should spring out of the ,plot itself4 ,,xv ,the element of ,character in ,tragedy4 ,,xvi 7,plot continued47 ,recognition3 its various kinds1 with examples4 ,,xvii ,practical rules for the ,tragic ,poet4 ,,xviii ,further rules for the ,tragic ,poet4 ,,xix ,thought1 or the ,intellectual element1 and ,diction in ,tragedy4 ,,xx ,diction1 or ,language in general4 ,,xxi ,poetic ,diction4 ,,xxii 7,poetic ,diction continued47 ,how ,poetry combines elevation of language with perspicuity4 ,,xxiii ,epic ,poetry4 ,,xxiv 7,epic ,poetry continued47 ,further points of agreement with ,tragedy4 ,,xxv ,critical ,objections brought against ,poetry1 and the principles on which they are to be answered4 ,,xxvi ,a general estimate of the comparative worth of ,epic ,poetry and ,tragedy4 ,,aristotle',s ,,poetics ,i ,i propose to treat of ,poetry in itself and of its various kinds1 noting the essential quality of each2 to inquire into the structure of the plot as requisite to a good poem2 into the number and nature of the parts of which a poem is composed2 and similarly into whatever else falls within the same inquiry4 ,following1 then1 the order of nature1 let us begin with the principles which come first4 ,epic poetry and ,tragedy1 ,comedy also and ,dithyrambic3 poetry1 and the music of the flute and of the lyre in most of their forms1 are all in their general conception modes of imitation4 ,they differ1 however1 from one3 another in three respects1--the medium1 the objects1 the manner or mode of imitation1 being in each case distinct4 ,for as there are persons who1 by conscious art or mere habit1 imitate and represent various objects through the medium of colour and form1 or again by the voice2 so in the arts above mentioned1 taken as a whole1 the imitation is produced by rhythm1 language1 or 'harmony1' either singly or combined4 ,thus in the music of the flute and of the lyre1 'harmony' and rhythm alone are employed2 also in other arts1 such as that of the shepherd's pipe1 which are essentially similar to these4 ,in dancing1 rhythm alone is used without 'harmony'2 for even dancing imitates character1 emotion1 and action1 by rhythmical movement4 ,there is another art which imitates by means of language alone1 and that either in prose or verse--which1 verse1 again1 may either combine different metres or consist of but one kind--but this has hitherto been without a name4 ,for there is no common term we could apply to the mimes of ,sophron and ,xenarchus and the ,socratic dialogues on the one hand2 and1 on the other1 to poetic imitations in iambic1 elegiac1 or any similar metre4 ,people do1 indeed1 add the word 'maker' or 'poet' to the name of the metre1 and speak of elegiac poets1 or epic 7that is1 hexameter7 poets1 as if it were not the imitation that makes the poet1 but the verse that entitles them all indiscriminately to the name4 ,even when a treatise on medicine or natural science is brought out in verse1 the name of poet is by custom given to the author2 and yet ,homer and ,empedocles have nothing in common but the metre1 so that it would be right to call the one poet1 the other physicist rather than poet4 ,on the same principle1 even if a writer in his poetic imitation were to combine all metres1 as ,chaeremon did in his ,centaur1 which is a medley composed of metres of all kinds1 we should bring him too under the general term poet4 ,so much then for these distinctions4 ,there are1 again1 some arts which employ all the means above mentioned1 namely1 rhythm1 tune1 and metre4 ,such are ,dithyrambic and ,nomic poetry1 and also ,tragedy and ,comedy2 but between them the difference is1 that in the first two cases these means are all employed in combination1 in the latter1 now one means is employed1 now another4 ,such1 then1 are the differences of the arts with respect to the medium of imitation4 ,,ii ,since the objects of imitation are men in action1 and these men must be either of a higher or a lower type 7for moral character mainly answers to these divisions1 goodness and badness being the distinguishing marks of moral differences71 it follows that we must represent men either as better than in real life1 or as worse1 or as they are4 ,it is the same in painting4 ,polygnotus depicted men as nobler than they are1 ,pauson as less noble1 ,dionysius drew them true to life4 ,now it is evident that each of the modes of imitation above mentioned will exhibit these differences1 and become a distinct kind in imitating objects that are thus distinct4 ,such diversities may be found even in dancing1 flute-playing1 and lyre-playing4 ,so again in language1 whether prose or verse unaccompanied by music4 ,homer1 for example1 makes men better than they are2 ,cleophon as they are2 ,hegemon the ,thasian1 the inventor of parodies1 and ,nicochares1 the author of the ,deiliad1 worse than they are4 ,the same thing holds good of ,dithyrambs and ,nomes2 here too one may portray different types1 as ,timotheus and ,philoxenus differed in representing their ,cyclopes4 ,the same distinction marks off ,tragedy from ,comedy2 for ,comedy aims at representing men as worse1 ,tragedy as better than in actual life4 ,,iii ,there is still a third difference--the manner in which each of these objects may be imitated4 ,for the medium being the same1 and the objects the same1 the poet may imitate by narration--in which case he can either take another personality as ,homer does1 or speak in his own person1 unchanged--or he may present all his characters as living and moving before us4 ,these1 then1 as we said at the beginning1 are the three differences which distinguish artistic imitation1--the medium1 the objects1 and the manner4 ,so that from one point of view1 ,sophocles is an imitator of the same kind as ,homer--for both imitate higher types of character2 from another point of view1 of the same kind as ,aristophanes--for both imitate persons acting and doing4 ,hence1 some say1 the name of 'drama' is given to such poems1 as representing action4 ,for the same reason the ,dorians claim the invention both of ,tragedy and ,comedy4 ,the claim to ,comedy is put forward by the ,megarians1--not only by those of ,greece proper1 who allege that it originated under their democracy1 but also by the ,megarians of ,sicily1 for the poet ,epicharmus1 who is much earlier than ,chionides and ,magnes1 belonged to that country4 ,tragedy too is claimed by certain ,dorians of the ,peloponnese4 ,in each case they appeal to the evidence of language4 ,the outlying villages1 they say1 are by them called kappa omega mu alpha iota1 by the ,athenians delta eta mu iota3 and they assume that ,comedians were so named not from kappa omega mu 'alpha zeta epsilon iota nu1 'to revel1' but because they wandered from village to village 7kappa alpha tau alpha _/ kappa omega mu alpha sigma71 being excluded contemptuously from the city4 ,they add also that the ,dorian word for 'doing' is delta rho alpha nu1 and the ,athenian1 pi rho alpha tau tau epsilon iota nu4 ,this may suffice as to the number and nature of the various modes of imitation4 ,,iv ,poetry in general seems to have sprung from two causes1 each of them lying deep in our nature4 ,first1 the instinct of imitation is implanted in man from childhood1 one difference between him and other animals being that he is the most imitative of living creatures1 and through imitation learns his earliest lessons2 and no less universal is the pleasure felt in things imitated4 ,we have evidence of this in the facts of experience4 ,objects which in themselves we view with pain1 we delight to contemplate when reproduced with minute fidelity3 such as the forms of the most ignoble animals and of dead bodies4 ,the cause of this again is1 that to learn gives the liveliest pleasure1 not only to philosophers but to men in general2 whose capacity1 however1 of learning is more limited4 ,thus the reason why men enjoy seeing a likeness is1 that in contemplating it they find themselves learning or inferring1 and saying perhaps1 ',ah1 that is he4' ,for if you happen not to have seen the original1 the pleasure will be due not to the imitation as such1 but to the execution1 the colouring1 or some such other cause4 ,imitation1 then1 is one instinct of our nature4 ,next1 there is the instinct for 'harmony' and rhythm1 metres being manifestly sections of rhythm4 ,persons1 therefore1 starting with this natural gift developed by degrees their special aptitudes1 till their rude improvisations gave birth to ,poetry4 ,poetry now diverged in two directions1 according to the individual character of the writers4 ,the graver spirits imitated noble actions1 and the actions of good men4 ,the more trivial sort imitated the actions of meaner persons1 at first composing satires1 as the former did hymns to the gods and the praises of famous men4 ,a poem of the satirical kind cannot indeed be put down to any author earlier than ,homer2 though many such writers probably there were4 ,but from ,homer onward1 instances can be cited1--his own ,margites1 for example1 and other similar compositions4 ,the appropriate metre was also here introduced2 hence the measure is still called the iambic or lampooning measure1 being that in which people lampooned one another4 ,thus the older poets were distinguished as writers of heroic or of lampooning verse4 ,as1 in the serious style1 ,homer is pre-eminent among poets1 for he alone combined dramatic form with excellence of imitation1 so he too first laid down the main lines of ,comedy1 by dramatising the ludicrous instead of writing personal satire4 ,his ,margites bears the same relation to ,comedy that the ,iliad and ,odyssey do to ,tragedy4 ,but when ,tragedy and ,comedy came to light1 the two classes of poets still followed their natural bent3 the lampooners became writers of ,comedy1 and the ,epic poets were succeeded by ,tragedians1 since the drama was a larger and higher form of art4 ,whether ,tragedy has as yet perfected its proper types or not2 and whether it is to be judged in itself1 or in relation also to the audience1--this raises another question4 ,be that as it may1 ,tragedy--as also ,comedy--was at first mere improvisation4 ,the one originated with the authors of the ,dithyramb1 the other with those of the phallic songs1 which are still in use in many of our cities4 ,tragedy advanced by slow degrees2 each new element that showed itself was in turn developed4 ,having passed through many changes1 it found its natural form1 and there it stopped4 ,aeschylus first introduced a second actor2 he diminished the importance of the ,chorus1 and assigned the leading part to the dialogue4 ,sophocles raised the number of actors to three1 and added scene-painting4 ,moreover1 it was not till late that the short plot was discarded for one of greater compass1 and the grotesque diction of the earlier satyric form for the stately manner of ,tragedy4 ,the iambic measure then replaced the trochaic tetrameter1 which was originally employed when the poetry was of the ,satyric order1 and had greater affinities with dancing4 ,once dialogue had come in1 ,nature herself discovered the appropriate measure4 ,for the iambic is1 of all measures1 the most colloquial3 we see it in the fact that conversational speech runs into iambic lines more frequently than into any other kind of verse2 rarely into hexameters1 and only when we drop the colloquial intonation4 ,the additions to the number of 'episodes' or acts1 and the other accessories of which tradition2 tells1 must be taken as already described2 for to discuss them in detail would1 doubtless1 be a large undertaking4 ,v ,comedy is1 as we have said1 an imitation of characters of a lower type1 not1 however1 in the full sense of the word bad1 the ,ludicrous being merely a subdivision of the ugly4 ,it consists in some defect or ugliness which is not painful or destructive4 ,to take an obvious example1 the comic mask is ugly and distorted1 but does not imply pain4 ,the successive changes through which ,tragedy passed1 and the authors of these changes1 are well known1 whereas ,comedy has had no history1 because it was not at first treated seriously4 ,it was late before the ,archon granted a comic chorus to a poet2 the performers were till then voluntary4 ,comedy had already taken definite shape when comic poets1 distinctively so called1 are heard of4 ,who furnished it with masks1 or prologues1 or increased the number of actors1--these and other similar details remain unknown4 ,as for the plot1 it came originally from ,sicily2 but of ,athenian writers ,crates was the first who1 abandoning the 'iambic' or lampooning form1 generalised his themes and plots4 ,epic poetry agrees with ,tragedy in so far as it is an imitation in verse of characters of a higher type4 ,they differ1 in that ,epic poetry admits but one kind of metre1 and is narrative in form4 ,they differ1 again1 in their length3 for ,tragedy endeavours1 as far as possible1 to confine itself to a single revolution of the sun1 or but slightly to exceed this limit2 whereas the ,epic action has no limits of time4 ,this1 then1 is a second point of difference2 though at first the same freedom was admitted in ,tragedy as in ,epic poetry4 ,of their constituent parts some are common to both1 some peculiar to ,tragedy1 whoever1 therefore1 knows what is good or bad ,tragedy1 knows also about ,epic poetry4 ,all the elements of an ,epic poem are found in ,tragedy1 but the elements of a ,tragedy are not all found in the ,epic poem4 ,,vi ,of the poetry which imitates in hexameter verse1 and of ,comedy1 we will speak hereafter4 ,let us now discuss ,tragedy1 resuming its formal definition1 as resulting from what has been already said4 ,tragedy1 then1 is an imitation of an action that is serious1 complete1 and of a certain magnitude2 in language embellished with each kind of artistic ornament1 the several kinds being found in separate parts of the play2 in the form of action1 not of narrative2 through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions4 ,by 'language embellished1' ,i mean language into which rhythm1 'harmony1' and song enter4 ,by 'the several kinds in separate parts1' ,i mean1 that some parts are rendered through the medium of verse alone1 others again with the aid of song4 ,now as tragic imitation implies persons acting1 it necessarily follows1 in the first place1 that ,spectacular equipment will be a part of ,tragedy4 ,next1 ,song and ,diction1 for these are the medium of imitation4 ,by ',diction' ,i mean the mere metrical arrangement of the words3 as for ',song1' it is a term whose sense every one understands4 ,again1 ,tragedy is the imitation of an action2 and an action implies personal agents1 who necessarily possess certain distinctive qualities both of character and thought2 for it is by these that we qualify actions themselves1 and these--thought and character--are the two natural causes from which actions spring1 and on actions again all success or failure depends4 ,hence1 the ,plot is the imitation of the action3 for by plot ,i here mean the arrangement of the incidents4 ,by ,character ,i mean that in virtue of which we ascribe certain qualities to the agents4 ,thought is required wherever a statement is proved1 or1 it may be1 a general truth enunciated4 ,every ,tragedy1 therefore1 must have six parts1 which parts determine its quality--namely1 ,plot1 ,character1 ,diction1 ,thought1 ,spectacle1 ,song4 ,two of the parts constitute the medium of imitation1 one the manner1 and three the objects of imitation4 ,and these complete the list4 ,these elements have been employed1 we may say1 by the poets to a man2 in fact1 every play contains ,spectacular elements as well as ,character1 ,plot1 ,diction1 ,song1 and ,thought4 ,but most important of all is the structure of the incidents4 ,for ,tragedy is an imitation1 not of men1 but of an action and of life1 and life consists in action1 and its end is a mode of action1 not a quality4 ,now character determines men's qualities1 but it is by their actions that they are happy or the reverse4 ,dramatic action1 therefore1 is not with a view to the representation of character3 character comes in as subsidiary to the actions4 ,hence the incidents and the plot are the end of a tragedy2 and the end is the chief thing of all4 ,again1 without action there cannot be a tragedy2 there may be without character4 ,the tragedies of most of our modern poets fail in the rendering of character2 and of poets in general this is often true4 ,it is the same in painting2 and here lies the difference between ,zeuxis and ,polygnotus4 ,polygnotus delineates character well3 the style of ,zeuxis is devoid of ethical quality4 ,again1 if you string together a set of speeches expressive of character1 and well finished in point of diction and thought1 you will not produce the essential tragic effect nearly so well as with a play which1 however deficient in these respects1 yet has a plot and artistically constructed incidents4 ,besides which1 the most powerful elements of emotional3 interest in ,tragedy ,peripeteia or ,reversal of the ,situation1 and ,recognition scenes--are parts of the plot4 ,a further proof is1 that novices in the art attain to finish3 of diction and precision of portraiture before they can construct the plot4 ,it is the same with almost all the early poets4 ,the ,plot1 then1 is the first principle1 and1 as it were1 the soul of a tragedy3 ,character holds the second place4 ,a similar fact is seen in painting4 ,the most beautiful colours1 laid on confusedly1 will not give as much pleasure as the chalk outline of a portrait4 ,thus ,tragedy is the imitation of an action1 and of the agents mainly with a view to the action4 ,third in order is ,thought1--that is1 the faculty of saying what is possible and pertinent in given circumstances4 ,in the case of oratory1 this is the function of the ,political art and of the art of rhetoric3 and so indeed the older poets make their characters speak the language of civic life2 the poets of our time1 the language of the rhetoricians4 ,character is that which reveals moral purpose1 showing what kind of things a man chooses or avoids4 ,speeches1 therefore1 which do not make this manifest1 or in which the speaker does not choose or avoid anything whatever1 are not expressive of character4 ,thought1 on the other hand1 is found where something is proved to be1 or not to be1 or a general maxim is enunciated4 ,fourth among the elements enumerated comes ,diction2 by which ,i mean1 as has been already said1 the expression of the meaning in words2 and its essence is the same both in verse and prose4 ,of the remaining elements ,song holds the chief place among the embellishments4 ,the ,spectacle has1 indeed1 an emotional attraction of its own1 but1 of all the parts1 it is the least artistic1 and connected least with the art of poetry4 ,for the power of ,tragedy1 we may be sure1 is felt even apart from representation and actors4 ,besides1 the production of spectacular effects depends more on the art of the stage machinist than on that of the poet4 ,,vii ,these principles being established1 let us now discuss the proper structure of the ,plot1 since this is the first and most important thing in ,tragedy4 ,now1 according to our definition1 ,tragedy is an imitation of an action that is complete1 and whole1 and of a certain magnitude2 for there may be a whole that is wanting in magnitude4 ,a whole is that which has a beginning1 a middle1 and an end4 ,a beginning is that which does not itself follow anything by causal necessity1 but after which something naturally is or comes to be4 ,an end1 on the contrary1 is that which itself naturally follows some other thing1 either by necessity1 or as a rule1 but has nothing following it4 ,a middle is that which follows something as some other thing follows it4 ,a well constructed plot1 therefore1 must neither begin nor end at haphazard1 but conform to these principles4 ,again1 a beautiful object1 whether it be a living organism or any whole composed of parts1 must not only have an orderly arrangement of parts1 but must also be of a certain magnitude2 for beauty depends on magnitude and order4 ,hence a very small animal organism cannot be beautiful2 for the view of it is confused1 the object being seen in an almost imperceptible moment of time4 ,nor1 again1 can one of vast size be beautiful2 for as the eye cannot take it all in at once1 the unity and sense of the whole is lost for the spectator2 as for instance if there were one a thousand miles long4 ,as1 therefore1 in the case of animate bodies and organisms a certain magnitude is necessary1 and a magnitude which may be easily embraced in one view2 so in the plot1 a certain length is necessary1 and a length which can be easily embraced by the memory4 ,the limit of length in relation to dramatic competition and sensuous presentment1 is no part of artistic theory4 ,for had it been the rule for a hundred tragedies to compete together1 the performance would have been regulated by the water-clock1--as indeed we are told was formerly done4 ,but the limit as fixed by the nature of the drama itself is this3 the greater the length1 the more beautiful will the piece be by reason of its size1 provided that the whole be perspicuous4 ,and to define the matter roughly1 we may say that the proper magnitude is comprised within such limits1 that the sequence of events1 according to the law of probability or necessity1 will admit of a change from bad fortune to good1 or from good fortune to bad4 ,,viii ,unity of plot does not1 as some persons think1 consist in the ,unity of the hero4 ,for infinitely various are the incidents in one man's life which cannot be reduced to unity2 and so1 too1 there are many actions of one man out of which we cannot make one action4 ,hence1 the error1 as it appears1 of all poets who have composed a ,heracleid1 a ,theseid1 or other poems of the kind4 ,they imagine that as ,heracles was one man1 the story of ,heracles must also be a unity4 ,but ,homer1 as in all else he is of surpassing merit1 here too--whether from art or natural genius--seems to have happily discerned the truth4 ,in composing the ,odyssey he did not include all the adventures of ,odysseus--such as his wound on ,parnassus1 or his feigned madness at the mustering of the host--incidents between which there was no necessary or probable connection3 but he made the ,odyssey1 and likewise the ,iliad1 to centre round an action that in our sense of the word is one4 ,as therefore1 in the other imitative arts1 the imitation is one when the object imitated is one1 so the plot1 being an imitation of an action1 must imitate one action and that a whole1 the structural union of the parts being such that1 if any one of them is displaced or removed1 the whole will be disjointed and disturbed4 ,for a thing whose presence or absence makes no visible difference1 is not an organic part of the whole4 ,,ix ,it is1 moreover1 evident from what has been said1 that it is not the function of the poet to relate what has happened1 but what may happen1--what is possible according to the law of probability or necessity4 ,the poet and the historian differ not by writing in verse or in prose4 ,the work of ,herodotus might be put into verse1 and it would still be a species of history1 with metre no less than without it4 ,the true difference is that one relates what has happened1 the other what may happen4 ,poetry1 therefore1 is a more philosophical and a higher thing than history3 for poetry tends to express the universal1 history the particular4 ,by the universal1 ,i mean how a person of a certain type will on occasion speak or act1 according to the law of probability or necessity2 and it is this universality at which poetry aims in the names she attaches to the personages4 ,the particular is--for example--what ,alcibiades did or suffered4 ,in ,comedy this is already apparent3 for here the poet first constructs the plot on the lines of probability1 and then inserts characteristic names2--unlike the lampooners who write about particular individuals4 ,but tragedians still keep to real names1 the reason being that what is possible is credible3 what has not happened we do not at once feel sure to be possible3 but what has happened is manifestly possible3 otherwise it would not have happened4 ,still there are even some tragedies in which there are only one or two well known names1 the rest being fictitious4 ,in others1 none are well known1 as in ,agathon's ,antheus1 where incidents and names alike are fictitious1 and yet they give none the less pleasure4 ,we must not1 therefore1 at all costs keep to the received legends1 which are the usual subjects of ,tragedy4 ,indeed1 it would be absurd to attempt it2 for even subjects that are known are known only to a few1 and yet give pleasure to all4 ,it clearly follows that the poet or 'maker' should be the maker of plots rather than of verses2 since he is a poet because he imitates1 and what he imitates are actions4 ,and even if he chances to take an historical subject1 he is none the less a poet2 for there is no reason why some events that have actually happened should not conform to the law of the probable and possible1 and in virtue of that quality in them he is their poet or maker4 ,of all plots and actions the epeisodic are the worst4 ,i call a plot 'epeisodic' in which the episodes or acts succeed one another without probable or necessary sequence4 ,bad poets compose such pieces by their own fault1 good poets1 to please the players2 for1 as they write show pieces for competition1 they stretch the plot beyond its capacity1 and are often forced to break the natural continuity4 ,but again1 ,tragedy is an imitation not only of a complete action1 but of events inspiring fear or pity4 ,such an effect is best produced when the events come on us by surprise2 and the effect is heightened when1 at the same time1 they follow as cause and effect4 ,the tragic wonder will thee be greater than if they happened of themselves or by accident2 for even coincidences are most striking when they have an air of design4 ,we may instance the statue of ,mitys at ,argos1 which fell upon his murderer while he was a spectator at a festival1 and killed him4 ,such events seem not to be due to mere chance4 ,plots1 therefore1 constructed on these principles are necessarily the best4 ,x ,plots are either ,simple or ,complex1 for the actions in real life1 of which the plots are an imitation1 obviously show a similar distinction4 ,an action which is one and continuous in the sense above defined1 ,i call ,simple1 when the change of fortune takes place without ,reversal of the ,situation and without ,recognition4 ,a ,complex action is one in which the change is accompanied by such ,reversal1 or by ,recognition1 or by both4 ,these last should arise from the internal structure of the plot1 so that what follows should be the necessary or probable result of the preceding action4 ,it makes all the difference whether any given event is a case of propter hoc or post hoc4 ,,xi ,reversal of the ,situation is a change by which the action veers round to its opposite1 subject always to our rule of probability or necessity4 ,thus in the ,oedipus1 the messenger comes to cheer ,oedipus and free him from his alarms about his mother1 but by revealing who he is1 he produces the opposite effect4 ,again in the ,lynceus1 ,lynceus is being led away to his death1 and ,danaus goes with him1 meaning1 to slay him2 but the outcome of the preceding incidents is that ,danaus is killed and ,lynceus saved4 ,recognition1 as the name indicates1 is a change from ignorance to knowledge1 producing love or hate between the persons destined by the poet for good or bad fortune4 ,the best form of recognition is coincident with a ,reversal of the ,situation1 as in the ,oedipus4 ,there are indeed other forms4 ,even inanimate things of the most trivial kind may in a sense be objects of recognition4 ,again1 we may recognise or discover whether a person has done a thing or not4 ,but the recognition which is most intimately connected with the plot and action is1 as we have said1 the recognition of persons4 ,this recognition1 combined1 with ,reversal1 will produce either pity or fear2 and actions producing these effects are those which1 by our definition1 ,tragedy represents4 ,moreover1 it is upon such situations that the issues of good or bad fortune will depend4 ,recognition1 then1 being between persons1 it may happen that one person only is recognised by the other-when the latter is already known--or it may be necessary that the recognition should be on both sides4 ,thus ,iphigenia is revealed to ,orestes by the sending of the letter2 but another act of recognition is required to make ,orestes known to ,iphigenia4 ,two parts1 then1 of the ,plot--,reversal of the ,situation and ,recognition--turn upon surprises4 ,a third part is the ,scene of ,suffering4 ,the ,scene of ,suffering is a destructive or painful action1 such as death on the stage1 bodily agony1 wounds and the like4 ,,xii ,the parts of ,tragedy which must be treated as elements of the whole have been already mentioned4 ,we now come to the quantitative parts1 and the separate parts into which ,tragedy is divided1 namely1 ,prologue1 ,episode1 ,exode1 ,choric song2 this last being divided into ,parode and ,stasimon4 ,these are common to all plays3 peculiar to some are the songs of actors from the stage and the ,commoi4 ,the ,prologue is that entire part of a tragedy which precedes the ,parode of the ,chorus4 ,the ,episode is that entire part of a tragedy which is between complete choric songs4 ,the ,exode is that entire part of a tragedy which has no choric song after it4 ,of the ,choric part the ,parode is the first undivided utterance of the ,chorus3 the ,stasimon is a ,choric ode without anapaests or trochaic tetrameters3 the ,commos is a joint lamentation of ,chorus and actors4 ,the parts of ,tragedy which must be treated as elements of the whole have been already mentioned4 ,the quantitative parts the separate parts into which it is divided--are here enumerated4 ,,xiii ,as the sequel to what has already been said1 we must proceed to consider what the poet should aim at1 and what he should avoid1 in constructing his plots2 and by what means the specific effect of ,tragedy will be produced4 ,a perfect tragedy should1 as we have seen1 be arranged not on the simple but on the complex plan4 ,it should1 moreover1 imitate actions which excite pity and fear1 this being the distinctive mark of tragic imitation4 ,it follows plainly1 in the first place1 that the change1 of fortune presented must not be the spectacle of a virtuous man brought from prosperity to adversity3 for this moves neither pity nor fear2 it merely shocks us4 ,nor1 again1 that of a bad man passing from adversity to prosperity3 for nothing can be more alien to the spirit of ,tragedy2 it possesses no single tragic quality2 it neither satisfies the moral sense nor calls forth pity or fear4 ,nor1 again1 should the downfall of the utter villain be exhibited4 ,a plot of this kind would1 doubtless1 satisfy the moral sense1 but it would inspire neither pity nor fear2 for pity is aroused by unmerited misfortune1 fear by the misfortune of a man like ourselves4 ,such an event1 therefore1 will be neither pitiful nor terrible4 ,there remains1 then1 the character between these two extremes1--that of a man who is not eminently good and just1-yet whose misfortune is brought about not by vice or depravity1 but by some error or frailty4 ,he must be one who is highly renowned and prosperous1--a personage like ,oedipus1 ,thyestes1 or other illustrious men of such families4 ,a well constructed plot should1 therefore1 be single in its issue1 rather than double as some maintain4 ,the change of fortune should be not from bad to good1 but1 reversely1 from good to bad4 ,it should come about as the result not of vice1 but of some great error or frailty1 in a character either such as we have described1 or better rather than worse4 ,the practice of the stage bears out our view4 ,at first the poets recounted any legend that came in their way4 ,now1 the best tragedies are founded on the story of a few houses1 on the fortunes of ,alcmaeon1 ,oedipus1 ,orestes1 ,meleager1 ,thyestes1 ,telephus1 and those others who have done or suffered something terrible4 ,a tragedy1 then1 to be perfect according to the rules of art should be of this construction4 ,hence they are in error who censure ,euripides just because he follows this principle in his plays1 many of which end unhappily4 ,it is1 as we have said1 the right ending4 ,the best proof is that on the stage and in dramatic competition1 such plays1 if well worked out1 are the most tragic in effect2 and ,euripides1 faulty though he may be in the general management of his subject1 yet is felt to be the most tragic of the poets4 ,in the second rank comes the kind of tragedy which some place first4 ,like the ,odyssey1 it has a double thread of plot1 and also an opposite catastrophe for the good and for the bad4 ,it is accounted the best because of the weakness of the spectators2 for the poet is guided in what he writes by the wishes of his audience4 ,the pleasure1 however1 thence derived is not the true tragic pleasure4 ,it is proper rather to ,comedy1 where those who1 in the piece1 are the deadliest enemies--like ,orestes and ,aegisthus--quit the stage as friends at the close1 and no one slays or is slain4 ,,xiv ,fear and pity may be aroused by spectacular means2 but they may also result from the inner structure of the piece1 which is the better way1 and indicates a superior poet4 ,for the plot ought to be so constructed that1 even without the aid of the eye1 he who hears the tale told will thrill with horror and melt to pity at what takes place4 ,this is the impression we should receive from hearing the story of the ,oedipus4 ,but to produce this effect by the mere spectacle is a less artistic method1 and dependent on extraneous aids4 ,those who employ spectacular means to create a sense not of the terrible but only of the monstrous1 are strangers to the purpose of ,tragedy2 for we must not demand of ,tragedy any and every kind of pleasure1 but only that which is proper to it4 ,and since the pleasure which the poet should afford is that which comes from pity and fear through imitation1 it is evident that this quality must be impressed upon the incidents4 ,let us then determine what are the circumstances which strike us as terrible or pitiful4 ,actions capable of this effect must happen between persons who are either friends or enemies or indifferent to one another4 ,if an enemy kills an enemy1 there is nothing to excite pity either in the act or the intention1--except so far as the suffering in itself is pitiful4 ,so again with indifferent persons4 ,but when the tragic incident occurs between those who are near or dear to one another--if1 for example1 a brother kills1 or intends to kill1 a brother1 a son his father1 a mother her son1 a son his mother1 or any other deed of the kind is done--these are the situations to be looked for by the poet4 ,he may not indeed destroy the framework of the received legends--the fact1 for instance1 that ,clytemnestra was slain by ,orestes and ,eriphyle by ,alcmaeon but he ought to show invention of his own1 and skilfully handle the traditional material4 ,let us explain more clearly what is meant by skilful handling4 ,the action may be done consciously and with knowledge of the persons1 in the manner of the older poets4 ,it is thus too that ,euripides makes ,medea slay her children4 ,or1 again1 the deed of horror may be done1 but done in ignorance1 and the tie of kinship or friendship be discovered afterwards4 ,the ,oedipus of ,sophocles is an example4 ,here1 indeed1 the incident is outside the drama proper2 but cases occur where it falls within the action of the play3 one may cite the ,alcmaeon of ,astydamas1 or ,telegonus in the ,wounded ,odysseus4 ,again1 there is a third case1--to be about to act with knowledge of the persons and then not to act4 ,the fourth case is when some one is about to do an irreparable deed through ignorance1 and makes the discovery before it is done4 ,these are the only possible ways4 ,for the deed must either be done or not done1--and that wittingly or unwittingly4 ,but of all these ways1 to be about to act knowing the persons1 and then not to act1 is the worst4 ,it is shocking without being tragic1 for no disaster follows4 ,it is1 therefore1 never1 or very rarely1 found in poetry4 ,one instance1 however1 is in the ,antigone1 where ,haemon threatens to kill ,creon4 ,the next and better way is that the deed should be perpetrated4 ,still better1 that it should be perpetrated in ignorance1 and the discovery made afterwards4 ,there is then nothing to shock us1 while the discovery produces a startling effect4 ,the last case is the best1 as when in the ,cresphontes ,merope is about to slay her son1 but1 recognising who he is1 spares his life4 ,so in the ,iphigenia1 the sister recognises the brother just in time4 ,again in the ,helle1 the son recognises the mother when on the point of giving her up4 ,this1 then1 is why a few families only1 as has been already observed1 furnish the subjects of tragedy4 ,it was not art1 but happy chance1 that led the poets in search of subjects to impress the tragic quality upon their plots4 ,they are compelled1 therefore1 to have recourse to those houses whose history contains moving incidents like these4 ,enough has now been said concerning the structure of the incidents1 and the right kind of plot4 ,,xv ,in respect of ,character there are four things to be aimed at4 ,first1 and most important1 it must be good4 ,now any speech or action that manifests moral purpose of any kind will be expressive of character3 the character will be good if the purpose is good4 ,this rule is relative to each class4 ,even a woman may be good1 and also a slave2 though the woman may be said to be an inferior being1 and the slave quite worthless4 ,the second thing to aim at is propriety4 ,there is a type of manly valour2 but valour in a woman1 or unscrupulous cleverness1 is inappropriate4 ,thirdly1 character must be true to life3 for this is a distinct thing from goodness and propriety1 as here described4 ,the fourth point is consistency3 for though the subject of the imitation1 who suggested the type1 be inconsistent1 still he must be consistently inconsistent4 ,as an example of motiveless degradation of character1 we have ,menelaus in the ,orestes3 of character indecorous and inappropriate1 the lament of ,odysseus in the ,scylla1 and the speech of ,melanippe3 of inconsistency1 the ,iphigenia at ,aulis1--for ,iphigenia the suppliant in no way resembles her later self4 ,as in the structure of the plot1 so too in the portraiture of character1 the poet should always aim either at the necessary or the probable4 ,thus a person of a given character should speak or act in a given way1 by the rule either of necessity or of probability2 just as this event should follow that by necessary or probable sequence4 ,it is therefore evident that the unravelling of the plot1 no less than the complication1 must arise out of the plot itself1 it must not be brought about by the ',deus ex ,machina'--as in the ,medea1 or in the ,return of the ,greeks in the ,iliad4 ,the ',deus ex ,machina' should be employed only for events external to the drama1--for antecedent or subsequent events1 which lie beyond the range of human knowledge1 and which require to be reported or foretold2 for to the gods we ascribe the power of seeing all things4 ,within the action there must be nothing irrational4 ,if the irrational cannot be excluded1 it should be outside the scope of the tragedy4 ,such is the irrational element in the ,oedipus of ,sophocles4 ,again1 since ,tragedy is an imitation of persons who are above the common level1 the example of good portrait-painters should be followed4 ,they1 while reproducing the distinctive form of the original1 make a likeness which is true to life and yet more beautiful4 ,so too the poet1 in representing men who are irascible or indolent1 or have other defects of character1 should preserve the type and yet ennoble it4 ,in this way ,achilles is portrayed by ,agathon and ,homer4 ,these then are rules the poet should observe4 ,nor should he neglect those appeals to the senses1 which1 though not among the essentials1 are the concomitants of poetry2 for here too there is much room for error4 ,but of this enough has been said in our published treatises4 ,,xvi ,what ,recognition is has been already explained4 ,we will now enumerate its kinds4 ,first1 the least artistic form1 which1 from poverty of wit1 is most commonly employed recognition by signs4 ,of these some are congenital1--such as 'the spear which the earth-born race bear on their bodies1' or the stars introduced by ,carcinus in his ,thyestes4 ,others are acquired after birth2 and of these some are bodily marks1 as scars2 some external tokens1 as necklaces1 or the little ark in the ,tyro by which the discovery is effected4 ,even these admit of more or less skilful treatment4 ,thus in the recognition of ,odysseus by his scar1 the discovery is made in one way by the nurse1 in another by the swineherds4 ,the use of tokens for the express purpose of proof--and1 indeed1 any formal proof with or without tokens--is a less artistic mode of recognition4 ,a better kind is that which comes about by a turn of incident1 as in the ,bath ,scene in the ,odyssey4 ,next come the recognitions invented at will by the poet1 and on that account wanting in art4 ,for example1 ,orestes in the ,iphigenia reveals the fact that he is ,orestes4 ,she1 indeed1 makes herself known by the letter2 but he1 by speaking himself1 and saying what the poet1 not what the plot requires4 ,this1 therefore1 is nearly allied to the fault above mentioned3--for ,orestes might as well have brought tokens with him4 ,another similar instance is the 'voice of the shuttle' in the ,tereus of ,sophocles4 ,the third kind depends on memory when the sight of some object awakens a feeling3 as in the ,cyprians of ,dicaeogenes1 where the hero breaks into tears on seeing the picture2 or again in the ',lay of ,alcinous1' where ,odysseus1 hearing the minstrel play the lyre1 recalls the past and weeps2 and hence the recognition4 ,the fourth kind is by process of reasoning4 ,thus in the ,choephori3 ',some one resembling me has come3 no one resembles me but ,orestes3 therefore ,orestes has come4' ,such too is the discovery made by ,iphigenia in the play of ,polyidus the ,sophist4 ,it was a natural reflection for ,orestes to make1 ',so ,i too must die at the altar like my sister4' ,so1 again1 in the ,tydeus of ,theodectes1 the father says1 ',i came to find my son1 and ,i lose my own life4' ,so too in the ,phineidae3 the women1 on seeing the place1 inferred their fate3--',here we are doomed to die1 for here we were cast forth4' ,again1 there is a composite kind of recognition involving false inference on the part of one of the characters1 as in the ,odysseus ,disguised as a ,messenger4 ,a said that no one else was able to bend the bow2444 hence ,b 7the disguised ,odysseus7 imagined that ,a would recognise the bow which1 in fact1 he had not seen2 and to bring about a recognition by this means that the expectation ,a would recognise the bow is false inference4 ,but1 of all recognitions1 the best is that which arises from the incidents themselves1 where the startling discovery is made by natural means4 ,such is that in the ,oedipus of ,sophocles1 and in the ,iphigenia2 for it was natural that ,iphigenia should wish to dispatch a letter4 ,these recognitions alone dispense with the artificial aid of tokens or amulets4 ,next come the recognitions by process of reasoning4 ,,xvii ,in constructing the plot and working it out with the proper diction1 the poet should place the scene1 as far as possible1 before his eyes4 ,in this way1 seeing everything with the utmost vividness1 as if he were a spectator of the action1 he will discover what is in keeping with it1 and be most unlikely to overlook inconsistencies4 ,the need of such a rule is shown by the fault found in ,carcinus4 ,amphiaraus was on his way from the temple4 ,this fact escaped the observation of one who did not see the situation4 ,on the stage1 however1 the piece failed1 the audience being offended at the oversight4 ,again1 the poet should work out his play1 to the best of his power1 with appropriate gestures2 for those who feel emotion are most convincing through natural sympathy with the characters they represent2 and one who is agitated storms1 one who is angry rages1 with the most life-like reality4 ,hence poetry implies either a happy gift of nature or a strain of madness4 ,in the one case a man can take the mould of any character2 in the other1 he is lifted out of his proper self4 ,as for the story1 whether the poet takes it ready made or constructs it for himself1 he should first sketch its general outline1 and then fill in the episodes and amplify in detail4 ,the general plan may be illustrated by the ,iphigenia4 ,a young girl is sacrificed2 she disappears mysteriously from the eyes of those who sacrificed her2 ,she is transported to another country1 where the custom is to offer up all strangers to the goddess4 ,to this ministry she is appointed4 ,some time later her own brother chances to arrive4 ,the fact that the oracle for some reason ordered him to go there1 is outside the general plan of the play4 ,the purpose1 again1 of his coming is outside the action proper4 ,however1 he comes1 he is seized1 and1 when on the point of being sacrificed1 reveals who he is4 ,the mode of recognition may be either that of ,euripides or of ,polyidus1 in whose play he exclaims very naturally3--',so it was not my sister only1 but ,i too1 who was doomed to be sacrificed'2 and by that remark he is saved4 ,after this1 the names being once given1 it remains to fill in the episodes4 ,we must see that they are relevant to the action4 ,in the case of ,orestes1 for example1 there is the madness which led to his capture1 and his deliverance by means of the purificatory rite4 ,in the drama1 the episodes are short1 but it is these that give extension to ,epic poetry4 ,thus the story of the ,odyssey can be stated briefly4 ,a certain man is absent from home for many years2 he is jealously watched by ,poseidon1 and left desolate4 ,meanwhile his home is in a wretched plight--suitors are wasting his substance and plotting against his son4 ,at length1 tempest-tost1 he himself arrives2 he makes certain persons acquainted with him2 he attacks the suitors with his own hand1 and is himself preserved while he destroys them4 ,this is the essence of the plot2 the rest is episode4 ,,xviii ,every tragedy falls into two parts1--,complication and ,unravelling or ,denouement4 ,incidents extraneous to the action are frequently combined with a portion of the action proper1 to form the ,complication2 the rest is the ,unravelling4 ,by the ,complication ,i mean all that extends from the beginning of the action to the part which marks the turning-point to good or bad fortune4 ,the ,unravelling is that which extends from the beginning of the change to the end4 ,thus1 in the ,lynceus of ,theodectes1 the ,complication consists of the incidents presupposed in the drama1 the seizure of the child1 and then again1 ,the ,unravelling extends from the accusation of murder to the end4 ,there are four kinds of ,tragedy1 the ,complex1 depending entirely on ,reversal of the ,situation and ,recognition2 the ,pathetic 7where the motive is passion71--such as the tragedies on ,ajax and ,ixion2 the ,ethical 7where the motives are ethical71--such as the ,phthiotides and the ,peleus4 ,the fourth kind is the ,simple ,we here exclude the purely spectacular element1 exemplified by the ,phorcides1 the ,prometheus1 and scenes laid in ,hades4 ,the poet should endeavour1 if possible1 to combine all poetic elements2 or failing that1 the greatest number and those the most important2 the more so1 in face of the cavilling criticism of the day4 ,for whereas there have hitherto been good poets1 each in his own branch1 the critics now expect one man to surpass all others in their several lines of excellence4 ,in speaking of a tragedy as the same or different1 the best test to take is the plot4 ,identity exists where the ,complication and ,unravelling are the same4 ,many poets tie the knot well1 but unravel it ill4 ,both arts1 however1 should always be mastered4 ,again1 the poet should remember what has been often said1 and not make an ,epic structure into a ,tragedy--by an ,epic structure ,i mean one with a multiplicity of plots--as if1 for instance1 you were to make a tragedy out of the entire story of the ,iliad4 ,in the ,epic poem1 owing to its length1 each part assumes its proper magnitude4 ,in the drama the result is far from answering to the poet's expectation4 ,the proof is that the poets who have dramatised the whole story of the ,fall of ,troy1 instead of selecting portions1 like ,euripides2 or who have taken the whole tale of ,niobe1 and not a part of her story1 like ,aeschylus1 either fail utterly or meet with poor success on the stage4 ,even ,agathon has been known to fail from this one defect4 ,in his ,reversals of the ,situation1 however1 he shows a marvellous skill in the effort to hit the popular taste1--to produce a tragic effect that satisfies the moral sense4 ,this effect is produced when the clever rogue1 like ,sisyphus1 is outwitted1 or the brave villain defeated4 ,such an event is probable in ,agathon's sense of the word3 'it is probable1' he says1 'that many things should happen contrary to probability4' ,the ,chorus too should be regarded as one of the actors2 it should be an integral part of the whole1 and share in the action1 in the manner not of ,euripides but of ,sophocles4 ,as for the later poets1 their choral songs pertain as little to the subject of the piece as to that of any other tragedy4 ,they are1 therefore1 sung as mere interludes1 a practice first begun by ,agathon4 ,yet what difference is there between introducing such choral interludes1 and transferring a speech1 or even a whole act1 from one play to another8 ,,xix ,it remains to speak of ,diction and ,thought1 the other parts of ,tragedy having been already discussed4 ,concerning ,thought1 we may assume what is said in the ,rhetoric1 to which inquiry the subject more strictly belongs4 ,under ,thought is included every effect which has to be produced by speech1 the subdivisions being1--proof and refutation2 the excitation of the feelings1 such as pity1 fear1 anger1 and the like2 the suggestion of importance or its opposite4 ,now1 it is evident that the dramatic incidents must be treated from the same points of view as the dramatic speeches1 when the object is to evoke the sense of pity1 fear1 importance1 or probability4 ,the only difference is1 that the incidents should speak for themselves without verbal exposition2 while the effects aimed at in speech should be produced by the speaker1 and as a result of the speech4 ,for what were the business of a speaker1 if the ,thought were revealed quite apart from what he says8 ,next1 as regards ,diction4 ,one branch of the inquiry treats of the ,modes of ,utterance4 ,but this province of knowledge belongs to the art of ,delivery and to the masters of that science4 ,it includes1 for instance1--what is a command1 a prayer1 a statement1 a threat1 a question1 an answer1 and so forth4 ,to know or not to know these things involves no serious censure upon the poet's art4 ,for who can admit the fault imputed to ,homer by ,protagoras1--that in the words1 ',sing1 goddess1 of the wrath1' he gives a command under the idea that he utters a prayer8 ,for to tell some one to do a thing or not to do it is1 he says1 a command4 ,we may1 therefore1 pass this over as an inquiry that belongs to another art1 not to poetry4 ,,xx ,language in general includes the following parts3--,letter1 ,syllable1 ,connecting word1 ,noun1 ,verb1 ,inflexion or ,case1 ,sentence or ,phrase4 ,a ,letter is an indivisible sound1 yet not every such sound1 but only one which can form part of a group of sounds4 ,for even brutes utter indivisible sounds1 none of which ,i call a letter4 ,the sound ,i mean may be either a vowel1 a semi-vowel1 or a mute4 ,a vowel is that which without impact of tongue or lip has an audible sound4 ,a semi-vowel1 that which with such impact has an audible sound1 as ,s and ,r4 ,a mute1 that which with such impact has by itself no sound1 but joined to a vowel sound becomes audible1 as ,g and ,d4 ,these are distinguished according to the form assumed by the mouth and the place where they are produced2 according as they are aspirated or smooth1 long or short2 as they are acute1 grave1 or of an intermediate tone2 which inquiry belongs in detail to the writers on metre4 ,a ,syllable is a non-significant sound1 composed of a mute and a vowel3 for ,,gr without ,a is a syllable1 as also with ,a1--,,gra4 ,but the investigation of these differences belongs also to metrical science4 ,a ,connecting word is a non-significant sound1 which neither causes nor hinders the union of many sounds into one significant sound2 it may be placed at either end or in the middle of a sentence4 ,or1 a non-significant sound1 which out of several sounds1 each of them significant1 is capable of forming one significant sound1--as alpha mu theta iota1 pi epsilon rho iota1 and the like4 ,or1 a non-significant sound1 which marks the beginning1 end1 or division of a sentence2 such1 however1 that it cannot correctly stand by itself at the beginning of a sentence1 as mu epsilon nu1 eta tau omicron iota1 delta epsilon4 ,a ,noun is a composite significant sound1 not marking time1 of which no part is in itself significant3 for in double or compound words we do not employ the separate parts as if each were in itself significant4 ,thus in ,theodorus1 'god-given1' the delta omega rho omicron nu or 'gift' is not in itself significant4 ,a ,verb is a composite significant sound1 marking time1 in which1 as in the noun1 no part is in itself significant4 ,for 'man1' or 'white' does not express the idea of 'when'2 but 'he walks1' or 'he has walked' does connote time1 present or past4 ,inflexion belongs both to the noun and verb1 and expresses either the relation 'of1' 'to1' or the like2 or that of number1 whether one or many1 as 'man' or 'men '2 or the modes or tones in actual delivery1 e4g4 a question or a command4 ',did he go8' and 'go' are verbal inflexions of this kind4 ,a ,sentence or ,phrase is a composite significant sound1 some at least of whose parts are in themselves significant2 for not every such group of words consists of verbs and nouns--'the definition of man1' for example--but it may dispense even with the verb4 ,still it will always have some significant part1 as 'in walking1' or ',cleon son of ,cleon4' ,a sentence or phrase may form a unity in two ways1--either as signifying one thing1 or as consisting of several parts linked together4 ,thus the ,iliad is one by the linking together of parts1 the definition of man by the unity of the thing signified4 ,,xxi ,words are of two kinds1 simple and double4 ,by simple ,i mean those composed of non-significant elements1 such as gamma eta4 ,by double or compound1 those composed either of a significant and non-significant element 7though within the whole word no element is significant71 or of elements that are both significant4 ,a word may likewise be triple1 quadruple1 or multiple in form1 like so many ,massilian expressions1 e4g4 ',hermo-caico-xanthus who prayed to ,father ,zeus4' ,every word is either current1 or strange1 or metaphorical1 or ornamental1 or newly-coined1 or lengthened1 or contracted1 or altered4 ,by a current or proper word ,i mean one which is in general use among a people2 by a strange word1 one which is in use in another country4 ,plainly1 therefore1 the same word may be at once strange and current1 but not in relation to the same people4 ,the word sigma iota gamma upsilon nu omicron nu1 'lance1' is to the ,cyprians a current term but to us a strange one4 ,metaphor is the application of an alien name by transference either from genus to species1 or from species to genus1 or from species to species1 or by analogy1 that is1 proportion4 ,thus from genus to species1 as3 ',there lies my ship'2 for lying at anchor is a species of lying4 ,from species to genus1 as3 ',verily ten thousand noble deeds hath ,odysseus wrought'2 for ten thousand is a species of large number1 and is here used for a large number generally4 ,from species to species1 as3 ',with blade of bronze drew away the life1' and ',cleft the water with the vessel of unyielding bronze4' ,here alpha rho upsilon rho alpha iota1 'to draw away1' is used for tau alpha mu epsilon iota nu1 'to cleave1' and tau alpha mu epsilon iota nu again for alpha rho upsilon alpha iota1--each being a species of taking away4 ,analogy or proportion is when the second term is to the first as the fourth to the third4 ,we may then use the fourth for the second1 or the second for the fourth4 ,sometimes too we qualify the metaphor by adding the term to which the proper word is relative4 ,thus the cup is to ,dionysus as the shield to ,ares4 ,the cup may1 therefore1 be called 'the shield of ,dionysus1' and the shield 'the cup of ,ares4' ,or1 again1 as old age is to life1 so is evening to day4 ,evening may therefore be called 'the old age of the day1' and old age1 'the evening of life1' or1 in the phrase of ,empedocles1 'life's setting sun4' ,for some of the terms of the proportion there is at times no word in existence2 still the metaphor may be used4 ,for instance1 to scatter seed is called sowing3 but the action of the sun in scattering his rays is nameless4 ,still this process bears to the sun the same relation as sowing to the seed4 ,hence the expression of the poet 'sowing the god-created light4' ,there is another way in which this kind of metaphor may be employed4 ,we may apply an alien term1 and then deny of that term one of its proper attributes2 as if we were to call the shield1 not 'the cup of ,ares1' but 'the wineless cup4' ,an ornamental word444 ,a newly-coined word is one which has never been even in local use1 but is adopted by the poet himself4 ,some such words there appear to be3 as epsilon rho nu upsilon gamma epsilon sigma1 'sprouters1' for kappa epsilon rho alpha tau alpha1 'horns1' and alpha rho eta tau eta rho1 'supplicator1' for iota epsilon rho epsilon upsilon sigma1 'priest4' ,a word is lengthened when its own vowel is exchanged for a longer one1 or when a syllable is inserted4 ,a word is contracted when some part of it is removed4 ,instances of lengthening are1--pi omicron lambda eta omicron sigma for pi omicron lambda epsilon omega sigma1 and ,pi eta lambda eta iota alpha delta epsilon omega for ,pi eta lambda epsilon iota delta omicron upsilon3 of contraction1--kappa rho iota1 delta omega1 and omicron psi1 as in mu iota alpha _/ gamma iota nu epsilon tau alpha iota _/ alpha mu phi omicron tau episilon rho omega nu _/ omicron psi4 ,an altered word is one in which part of the ordinary form is left unchanged1 and part is re-cast2 as in delta epsilon xi iota-tau epsilon rho omicron nu _/ kappa alpha tau alpha _/ mu alpha zeta omicron nu1 delta epsilon xi iota tau epsilon rho omicron nu is for delta epsilon xi iota omicron nu4 ,nouns in themselves are either masculine1 feminine1 or neuter4 ,masculine are such as end in nu1 rho1 sigma1 or in some letter compounded with sigma1--these being two1 and xi4 ,feminine1 such as end in vowels that are always long1 namely eta and omega1 and--of vowels that admit of lengthening--those in alpha4 ,thus the number of letters in which nouns masculine and feminine end is the same2 for psi and xi are equivalent to endings in sigma4 ,no noun ends in a mute or a vowel short by nature4 ,three only end in iota1--mu eta lambda iota1 kappa omicron mu mu iota1 pi epsilon pi epsilon rho iota3 five end in upsilon4 ,neuter nouns end in these two latter vowels2 also in nu and sigma4 ,,xxii ,the perfection of style is to be clear without being mean4 ,the clearest style is that which uses only current or proper words2 at the same time it is mean3--witness the poetry of ,cleophon and of ,sthenelus4 ,that diction1 on the other hand1 is lofty and raised above the commonplace which employs unusual words4 ,by unusual1 ,i mean strange 7or rare7 words1 metaphorical1 lengthened1--anything1 in short1 that differs from the normal idiom4 ,yet a style wholly composed of such words is either a riddle or a jargon2 a riddle1 if it consists of metaphors2 a jargon1 if it consists of strange 7or rare7 words4 ,for the essence of a riddle is to express true facts under impossible combinations4 ,now this cannot be done by any arrangement of ordinary words1 but by the use of metaphor it can4 ,such is the riddle3--',a man ,i saw who on another man had glued the bronze by aid of fire1' and others of the same kind4 ,a diction that is made up of strange 7or rare7 terms is a jargon4 ,a certain infusion1 therefore1 of these elements is necessary to style2 for the strange 7or rare7 word1 the metaphorical1 the ornamental1 and the other kinds above mentioned1 will raise it above the commonplace and mean1 while the use of proper words will make it perspicuous4 ,but nothing contributes more to produce a clearness of diction that is remote from commonness than the lengthening1 contraction1 and alteration of words4 ,for by deviating in exceptional cases from the normal idiom1 the language will gain distinction2 while1 at the same time1 the partial conformity with usage will give perspicuity4 ,the critics1 therefore1 are in error who censure these licenses of speech1 and hold the author up to ridicule4 ,thus ,eucleides1 the elder1 declared that it would be an easy matter to be a poet if you might lengthen syllables at will4 ,he caricatured the practice in the very form of his diction1 as in the verse3 ',epsilon pi iota chi alpha rho eta nu _/ epsilon iota delta omicron nu _/ ,mu alpha rho alpha theta omega nu alpha delta epsilon _/ ,beta alpha delta iota zeta omicron nu tau alpha1 or1 omicron upsilon kappa _/ alpha nu _/ gamma _/ epsilon rho alpha mu epsilon nu omicron sigma _/ tau omicron nu _/ epsilon kappa epsilon iota nu omicron upsilon _/epsilon lambda lambda epsilon beta omicron rho omicron nu4 ,to employ such license at all obtrusively is1 no doubt1 grotesque2 but in any mode of poetic diction there must be moderation4 ,even metaphors1 strange 7or rare7 words1 or any similar forms of speech1 would produce the like effect if used without propriety and with the express purpose of being ludicrous4 ,how great a difference is made by the appropriate use of lengthening1 may be seen in ,epic poetry by the insertion of ordinary forms in the verse4 ,so1 again1 if we take a strange 7or rare7 word1 a metaphor1 or any similar mode of expression1 and replace it by the current or proper term1 the truth of our observation will be manifest4 ,for example ,aeschylus and ,euripides each composed the same iambic line4 ,but the alteration of a single word by ,euripides1 who employed the rarer term instead of the ordinary one1 makes one verse appear beautiful and the other trivial4 ,aeschylus in his ,philoctetes says3 ,phi alpha gamma epsilon delta alpha iota nu alpha _/ delta _/ eta _/ mu omicron upsilon _/ sigma alpha rho kappa alpha sigma _/ epsilon rho theta iota epsilon iota _/ pi omicron delta omicron sigma4 ,euripides substitutes ,theta omicron iota nu alpha tau alpha iota 'feasts on' for epsilon sigma theta iota epsilon iota 'feeds on4' ,again1 in the line1 nu upsilon nu _/ delta epsilon _/ mu _/epsilon omega nu _/ omicron lambda iota gamma iota gamma upsilon sigma _/ tau epsilon _/ kappa alpha iota _/ omicron upsilon tau iota delta alpha nu omicron sigma _/ kappa alpha iota _/ alpha epsilon iota kappa eta sigma71 the difference will be felt if we substitute the common words1 nu upsilon nu _/ delta epsilon _/ mu _/ epsilon omega nu _/ mu iota kappa rho omicron sigma _/ tau epsilon _/ kappa alpha iota _/ alpha rho theta epsilon nu iota kappa omicron sigma _/ kappa alpha iota _/ alpha epsilon iota delta gamma sigma4 ,or1 if for the line1 delta iota phi rho omicron nu _/ alpha epsilon iota kappa epsilon lambda iota omicron nu _/ kappa alpha tau alpha theta epsilon iota sigma _/ omicron lambda iota gamma eta nu _/ tau epsilon _/ tau rho alpha pi epsilon iota sigma _/ omicron lambda iota gamma eta nu _/ tau epsilon _/ tau rho alpha pi epsilon zeta alpha nu1 ,we read1 delta iota phi rho omicron nu _/ mu omicron chi theta eta rho omicron nu _/ kappa alpha tau alpha theta epsilon iota sigma _/ mu iota kappa rho alpha nu _/ tau epsilon _/ tau rho alpha pi epsilon zeta alpha nu4 ,or1 for eta iota omicron nu epsilon sigma _/ beta omicron omicron omega rho iota nu1 eta iota omicron nu epsilon sigma kappa rho alpha zeta omicron upsilon rho iota nu ,again1 ,ariphrades ridiculed the tragedians for using phrases which no one would employ in ordinary speech3 for example1 delta omega mu alpha tau omega nu _/ alpha pi omicron instead of alpha pi omicron _/ delta omega mu alpha tau omega nu1 rho epsilon theta epsilon nu1 epsilon gamma omega _/ delta epsilon _/ nu iota nu1 ,alpha chi iota lambda lambda epsilon omega sigma _/ pi epsilon rho iota instead of pi epsilon rho iota _/ ',alpha chi iota lambda lambda epsilon omega sigma1 and the like4 ,it is precisely because such phrases are not part of the current idiom that they give distinction to the style4 ,this1 however1 he failed to see4 ,it is a great matter to observe propriety in these several modes of expression1 as also in compound words1 strange 7or rare7 words1 and so forth4 ,but the greatest thing by far is to have a command of metaphor4 ,this alone cannot be imparted by another2 it is the mark of genius1 for to make good metaphors implies an eye for resemblances4 ,of the various kinds of words1 the compound are best adapted to ,dithyrambs1 rare words to heroic poetry1 metaphors to iambic4 ,in heroic poetry1 indeed1 all these varieties are serviceable4 ,but in iambic verse1 which reproduces1 as far as may be1 familiar speech1 the most appropriate words are those which are found even in prose4 ,these are1--the current or proper1 the metaphorical1 the ornamental4 ,concerning ,tragedy and imitation by means of action this may suffice4 ,,xxiii ,as to that poetic imitation which is narrative in form and employs a single metre1 the plot manifestly ought1 as in a tragedy1 to be constructed on dramatic principles4 ,it should have for its subject a single action1 whole and complete1 with a beginning1 a middle1 and an end4 ,it will thus resemble a living organism in all its unity1 and produce the pleasure proper to it4 ,it will differ in structure from historical compositions1 which of necessity present not a single action1 but a single period1 and all that happened within that period to one person or to many1 little connected together as the events may be4 ,for as the sea-fight at ,salamis and the battle with the ,carthaginians in ,sicily took place at the same time1 but did not tend to any one result1 so in the sequence of events1 one thing sometimes follows another1 and yet no single result is thereby produced4 ,such is the practice1 we may say1 of most poets4 ,here again1 then1 as has been already observed1 the transcendent excellence of ,homer is manifest4 ,he never attempts to make the whole war of ,troy the subject of his poem1 though that war had a beginning and an end4 ,it would have been too vast a theme1 and not easily embraced in a single view4 ,if1 again1 he had kept it within moderate limits1 it must have been over-complicated by the variety of the incidents4 ,as it is1 he detaches a single portion1 and admits as episodes many events from the general story of the war--such as the ,catalogue of the ships and others--thus diversifying the poem4 ,all other poets take a single hero1 a single period1 or an action single indeed1 but with a multiplicity of parts4 ,thus did the author of the ,cypria and of the ,little ,iliad4 ,for this reason the ,iliad and the ,odyssey each furnish the subject of one tragedy1 or1 at most1 of two2 while the ,cypria supplies materials for many1 and the ,little ,iliad for eight--the ,award of the ,arms1 the ,philoctetes1 the ,neoptolemus1 the ,eurypylus1 the ,mendicant ,odysseus1 the ,laconian ,women1 the ,fall of ,ilium1 the ,departure of the ,fleet4 ,,xxiv ,again1 ,epic poetry must have as many kinds as ,tragedy3 it must be simple1 or complex1 or 'ethical1' or 'pathetic4' ,the parts also1 with the exception of song and spectacle1 are the same2 for it requires ,reversals of the ,situation1 ,recognitions1 and ,scenes of ,suffering4 ,moreover1 the thoughts and the diction must be artistic4 ,in all these respects ,homer is our earliest and sufficient model4 ,indeed each of his poems has a twofold character4 ,the ,iliad is at once simple and 'pathetic1' and the ,odyssey complex 7for ,recognition scenes run through it71 and at the same time 'ethical4' ,moreover1 in diction and thought they are supreme4 ,epic poetry differs from ,tragedy in the scale on which it is constructed1 and in its metre4 ,as regards scale or length1 we have already laid down an adequate limit3--the beginning and the end must be capable of being brought within a single view4 ,this condition will be satisfied by poems on a smaller scale than the old epics1 and answering in length to the group of tragedies presented at a single sitting4 ,epic poetry has1 however1 a great--a special--capacity for enlarging its dimensions1 and we can see the reason4 ,in ,tragedy we cannot imitate several lines of actions carried on at one and the same time2 we must confine ourselves to the action on the stage and the part taken by the players4 ,but in ,epic poetry1 owing to the narrative form1 many events simultaneously transacted can be presented2 and these1 if relevant to the subject1 add mass and dignity to the poem4 ,the ,epic has here an advantage1 and one that conduces to grandeur of effect1 to diverting the mind of the hearer1 and relieving the story with varying episodes4 ,for sameness of incident soon produces satiety1 and makes tragedies fail on the stage4 ,as for the metre1 the heroic measure has proved its fitness by the test of experience4 ,if a narrative poem in any other metre or in many metres were now composed1 it would be found incongruous4 ,for of all measures the heroic is the stateliest and the most massive2 and hence it most readily admits rare words and metaphors1 which is another point in which the narrative form of imitation stands alone4 ,on the other hand1 the iambic and the trochaic tetrameter are stirring measures1 the latter being akin to dancing1 the former expressive of action4 ,still more absurd would it be to mix together different metres1 as was done by ,chaeremon4 ,hence no one has ever composed a poem on a great scale in any other than heroic verse4 ,nature herself1 as we have said1 teaches the choice of the proper measure4 ,homer1 admirable in all respects1 has the special merit of being the only poet who rightly appreciates the part he should take himself4 ,the poet should speak as little as possible in his own person1 for it is not this that makes him an imitator4 ,other poets appear themselves upon the scene throughout1 and imitate but little and rarely4 ,homer1 after a few prefatory words1 at once brings in a man1 or woman1 or other personage2 none of them wanting in characteristic qualities1 but each with a character of his own4 ,the element of the wonderful is required in ,tragedy4 ,the irrational1 on which the wonderful depends for its chief effects1 has wider scope in ,epic poetry1 because there the person acting is not seen4 ,thus1 the pursuit of ,hector would be ludicrous if placed upon the stage--the ,greeks standing still and not joining in the pursuit1 and ,achilles waving them back4 ,but in the ,epic poem the absurdity passes unnoticed4 ,now the wonderful is pleasing3 as may be inferred from the fact that every one tells a story with some addition of his own1 knowing that his hearers like it4 ,it is ,homer who has chiefly taught other poets the art of telling lies skilfully4 ,the secret of it lies in a fallacy1 ,for1 assuming that if one thing is or becomes1 a second is or becomes1 men imagine that1 if the second is1 the first likewise is or becomes4 ,but this is a false inference4 ,hence1 where the first thing is untrue1 it is quite unnecessary1 provided the second be true1 to add that the first is or has become4 ,for the mind1 knowing the second to be true1 falsely infers the truth of the first4 ,there is an example of this in the ,bath ,scene of the ,odyssey4 ,accordingly1 the poet should prefer probable impossibilities to improbable possibilities4 ,the tragic plot must not be composed of irrational parts4 ,everything irrational should1 if possible1 be excluded2 or1 at all events1 it should lie outside the action of the play 7as1 in the ,oedipus1 the hero's ignorance as to the manner of ,laius' death72 not within the drama1--as in the ,electra1 the messenger's account of the ,pythian games2 or1 as in the ,mysians1 the man who has come from ,tegea to ,mysia and is still speechless4 ,the plea that otherwise the plot would have been ruined1 is ridiculous2 such a plot should not in the first instance be constructed4 ,but once the irrational has been introduced and an air of likelihood imparted to it1 we must accept it in spite of the absurdity4 ,take even the irrational incidents in the ,odyssey1 where ,odysseus is left upon the shore of ,ithaca4 ,how intolerable even these might have been would be apparent if an inferior poet were to treat the subject4 ,as it is1 the absurdity is veiled by the poetic charm with which the poet invests it4 ,the diction should be elaborated in the pauses of the action1 where there is no expression of character or thought4 ,for1 conversely1 character and thought are merely obscured by a diction that is over brilliant4 ,,xxv ,with respect to critical difficulties and their solutions1 the number and nature of the sources from which they may be drawn may be thus exhibited4 ,the poet being an imitator1 like a painter or any other artist1 must of necessity imitate one of three objects1--things as they were or are1 things as they are said or thought to be1 or things as they ought to be4 ,the vehicle of expression is language1--either current terms or1 it may be1 rare words or metaphors4 ,there are also many modifications of language1 which we concede to the poets4 ,add to this1 that the standard of correctness is not the same in poetry and politics1 any more than in poetry and any other art4 ,within the art of poetry itself there are two kinds of faults1 those which touch its essence1 and those which are accidental4 ,if a poet has chosen to imitate something1 but has imitated it incorrectly through want of capacity1 the error is inherent in the poetry4 ,but if the failure is due to a wrong choice if he has represented a horse as throwing out both his off legs at once1 or introduced technical inaccuracies in medicine1 for example1 or in any other art the error is not essential to the poetry4 ,these are the points of view from which we should consider and answer the objections raised by the critics4 ,first as to matters which concern the poet's own art4 ,if he describes the impossible1 he is guilty of an error2 but the error may be justified1 if the end of the art be thereby attained 7the end being that already mentioned71 if1 that is1 the effect of this or any other part of the poem is thus rendered more striking4 ,a case in point is the pursuit of ,hector4 ,if1 however1 the end might have been as well1 or better1 attained without violating the special rules of the poetic art1 the error is not justified3 for every kind of error should1 if possible1 be avoided4 ,again1 does the error touch the essentials of the poetic art1 or some accident of it8 ,for example1--not to know that a hind has no horns is a less serious matter than to paint it inartistically4 ,further1 if it be objected that the description is not true to fact1 the poet may perhaps reply1--',but the objects are as they ought to be'3 just as ,sophocles said that he drew men as they ought to be2 ,euripides1 as they are4 ,in this way the objection may be met4 ,if1 however1 the representation be of neither kind1 the poet may answer1--,this is how men say the thing is4' ,this applies to tales about the gods4 ,it may well be that these stories are not higher than fact nor yet true to fact3 they are1 very possibly1 what ,xenophanes says of them4 ,but anyhow1 'this is what is said4' ,again1 a description may be no better than the fact3 'still1 it was the fact'2 as in the passage about the arms3 ',upright upon their butt-ends stood the spears4' ,this was the custom then1 as it now is among the ,illyrians4 ,again1 in examining whether what has been said or done by some one is poetically right or not1 we must not look merely to the particular act or saying1 and ask whether it is poetically good or bad4 ,we must also consider by whom it is said or done1 to whom1 when1 by what means1 or for what end2 whether1 for instance1 it be to secure a greater good1 or avert a greater evil4 ,other difficulties may be resolved by due regard to the usage of language4 ,we may note a rare word1 as in omicron upsilon rho eta alpha sigma _/ mu epsilon nu _/ pi rho omega tau omicron nu1 where the poet perhaps employs omicron upsilon rho eta alpha sigma not in the sense of mules1 but of sentinels4 ,so1 again1 of ,dolon3 'ill-favoured indeed he was to look upon4' ,it is not meant that his body was ill-shaped1 but that his face was ugly2 for the ,cretans use the word epsilon upsilon epsilon iota delta epsilon sigma1 'well-favoured1' to denote a fair face4 ,again1 zeta omega rho omicron tau epsilon rho omicron nu _/ delta epsilon _/ kappa epsilon rho alpha iota epsilon1 'mix the drink livelier1' does not mean mix it stronger' as for hard drinkers1 but 'mix it quicker4' ,sometimes an expression is metaphorical1 as ',now all gods and men were sleeping through the night1'--while at the same time the poet says3 ',often indeed as he turned his gaze to the ,trojan plain1 he marvelled at the sound of flutes and pipes4' ',all' is here used metaphorically for 'many1' all being a species of many4 ,so in the verse1--'alone she hath no part4441' omicron iota eta1 'alone1' is metaphorical2 for the best known may be called the only one4 ,again1 the solution may depend upon accent or breathing4 ,thus ,hippias of ,thasos solved the difficulties in the lines1--delta iota delta omicron mu epsilon nu 7delta iota delta omicron mu epsilon nu7 delta epsilon _/ omicron iota1 and tau omicron _/ mu epsilon nu _/ omicron upsilon 7omicron upsilon7 kappa alpha tau alpha pi upsilon theta epsilon tau alpha iota _/ omicron mu beta rho omega4 ,or again1 the question may be solved by punctuation1 as in ,empedocles1--',of a sudden things became mortal that before had learnt to be immortal1 and things unmixed before mixed4' ,or again1 by ambiguity of meaning1--as pi alpha rho omega chi eta kappa epsilon nu _/ delta epsilon _/ pi lambda epsilon omega _/ nu upsilon xi1 where the word pi lambda epsilon omega is ambiguous4 ,or by the usage of language4 ,thus any mixed drink is called omicron iota nu omicron sigma1 'wine4' ,hence ,ganymede is said 'to pour the wine to ,zeus1' though the gods do not drink wine4 ,so too workers in iron are called chi alpha lambda kappa epsilon alpha sigma1 or workers in bronze4 ,this1 however1 may also be taken as a metaphor4 ,again1 when a word seems to involve some inconsistency of meaning1 we should consider how many senses it may bear in the particular passage4 ,for example3 'there was stayed the spear of bronze'--we should ask in how many ways we may take 'being checked there4' ,the true mode of interpretation is the precise opposite of what ,glaucon mentions4 ,critics1 he says1 jump at certain groundless conclusions2 they pass adverse judgment and then proceed to reason on it2 and1 assuming that the poet has said whatever they happen to think1 find fault if a thing is inconsistent with their own fancy4 ,the question about ,icarius has been treated in this fashion4 ,the critics imagine he was a ,lacedaemonian4 ,they think it strange1 therefore1 that ,telemachus should not have met him when he went to ,lacedaemon4 ,but the ,cephallenian story may perhaps be the true one4 ,they allege that ,odysseus took a wife from among themselves1 and that her father was ,icadius not ,icarius4 ,it is merely a mistake1 then1 that gives plausibility to the objection4 ,in general1 the impossible must be justified by reference to artistic requirements1 or to the higher reality1 or to received opinion4 ,with respect to the requirements of art1 a probable impossibility is to be preferred to a thing improbable and yet possible4 ,again1 it may be impossible that there should be men such as ,zeuxis painted4 ',yes1' we say1 'but the impossible is the higher thing2 for the ideal type must surpass the reality4' ,to justify the irrational1 we appeal to what is commonly said to be4 ,in addition to which1 we urge that the irrational sometimes does not violate reason2 just as 'it is probable that a thing may happen contrary to probability4' ,things that sound contradictory should be examined by the same rules as in dialectical refutation whether the same thing is meant1 in the same relation1 and in the same sense4 ,we should therefore solve the question by reference to what the poet says himself1 or to what is tacitly assumed by a person of intelligence4 ,the element of the irrational1 and1 similarly1 depravity of character1 are justly censured when there is no inner necessity for introducing them4 ,such is the irrational element in the introduction of ,aegeus by ,euripides and the badness of ,menelaus in the ,orestes4 ,thus1 there are five sources from which critical objections are drawn4 ,things are censured either as impossible1 or irrational1 or morally hurtful1 or contradictory1 or contrary to artistic correctness4 ,the answers should be sought under the twelve heads above mentioned4 ,,xxvi ,the question may be raised whether the ,epic or ,tragic mode of imitation is the higher4 ,if the more refined art is the higher1 and the more refined in every case is that which appeals to the better sort of audience1 the art which imitates anything and everything is manifestly most unrefined4 ,the audience is supposed to be too dull to comprehend unless something of their own is thrown in by the performers1 who therefore indulge in restless movements4 ,bad flute-players twist and twirl1 if they have to represent 'the quoit-throw1' or hustle the coryphaeus when they perform the ',scylla4' ,tragedy1 it is said1 has this same defect4 ,we may compare the opinion that the older actors entertained of their successors4 ,mynniscus used to call ,callippides 'ape' on account of the extravagance of his action1 and the same view was held of ,pindarus4 ,tragic art1 then1 as a whole1 stands to ,epic in the same relation as the younger to the elder actors4 ,so we are told that ,epic poetry is addressed to a cultivated audience1 who do not need gesture2 ,tragedy1 to an inferior public4 ,being then unrefined1 it is evidently the lower of the two4 ,now1 in the first place1 this censure attaches not to the poetic but to the histrionic art2 for gesticulation may be equally overdone in epic recitation1 as by ,sosi-stratus1 or in lyrical competition1 as by ,mnasitheus the ,opuntian4 ,next1 all action is not to be condemned any more than all dancing--but only that of bad performers4 ,such was the fault found in ,callippides1 as also in others of our own day1 who are censured for representing degraded women4 ,again1 ,tragedy like ,epic poetry produces its effect even without action2 it reveals its power by mere reading4 ,if1 then1 in all other respects it is superior1 this fault1 we say1 is not inherent in it4 ,and superior it is1 because it has all the epic elements--it may even use the epic metre--with the music and spectacular effects as important accessories2 and these produce the most vivid of pleasures4 ,further1 it has vividness of impression in reading as well as in representation4 ,moreover1 the art attains its end within narrower limits2 for the concentrated effect is more pleasurable than one which is spread over a long time and so diluted4 ,what1 for example1 would be the effect of the ,oedipus of ,sophocles1 if it were cast into a form as long as the ,iliad8 ,once more1 the ,epic imitation has less unity2 as is shown by this1 that any ,epic poem will furnish subjects for several tragedies4 ,thus if the story adopted by the poet has a strict unity1 it must either be concisely told and appear truncated2 or1 if it conform to the ,epic canon of length1 it must seem weak and watery4 ,such length implies some loss of unity1 if1 ,i mean1 the poem is constructed out of several actions1 like the ,iliad and the ,odyssey1 which have many such parts1 each with a certain magnitude of its own4 ,yet these poems are as perfect as possible in structure2 each is1 in the highest degree attainable1 an imitation of a single action4 ,if1 then1 ,tragedy is superior to ,epic poetry in all these respects1 and1 moreover1 fulfils its specific function better as an art for each art ought to produce1 not any chance pleasure1 but the pleasure proper to it1 as already stated it plainly follows that ,tragedy is the higher art1 as attaining its end more perfectly4 ,thus much may suffice concerning ,tragic and ,epic poetry in general2 their several kinds and parts1 with the number of each and their differences2 the causes that make a poem good or bad2 the objections of the critics and the answers to these objections4