,library1 ,cornell ,university7 ,,applied ,,eugenics ,,by ,,paul ,,popenoe ,,editor ,,of ,,the ,,journal ,,of ,,heredity 7,,organ ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,genetic ,,association71 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,,and ,,roswell ,,hill ,,johnson ,,professor ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,pittsburg ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,,new ,,york ,,boston ,,chicago ,,dallas ,,atlanta - ,,san ,,francisco ,,macmillan ,,co41 ,,limited ,,london ,,bombay ,,calcutta ,,melbourne ,,the ,,macmillan ,,co4 ,,of ,,canada1 ,,ltd4 ,,toronto #aiah ,all rights reserved ,,copyright1 #aiah1 ,,by ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,set up and electrotyped4 ,published ,october1 #aiah4 ,,preface ,the science of eugenics consists of a foundation of biology and a superstructure of sociology4 ,galton1 its founder1 emphasized both parts in due proportion4 ,until recently1 however1 most sociologists have been either indifferent or hostile to eugenics1 and the science has been left for the most part in the hands of biologists1 who have naturally worked most on the foundations and neglected the superstructure4 ,although we are not disposed to minimize the importance of the biological part1 we think it desirable that the means of applying the biological principles should be more carefully studied4 ,the reader of this book will1 consequently1 find only a summary explanation of the mechanism of inheritance4 ,emphasis has rather been laid on the practical means by which society may encourage the reproduction of superior persons and discourage that of inferiors4 ,we assume that in general1 a eugenically superior or desirable person has1 to a greater degree than the average1 the germinal basis for the following characteristics3 to live past maturity1 to reproduce adequately1 to live happily and to make contributions to the productivity1 happiness1 and progress of society4 ,it is desirable to discriminate as much as possible between the possession of the germinal basis and the observed achievement1 since the latter consists of the former plus or minus environmental influence4 ,but where the amount of modification is too obscure to be detected1 it is advantageous to take the demonstrated achievement as a tentative measure of the germinal basis4 ,the problem of eugenics is to make such legal1 social and economic adjustments that 7#a7 a larger proportion of superior persons will have children than at present1 7#b7 that the average number of offspring of each superior person will be greater than at present1 7#c7 that the most inferior persons will have no children1 and finally that 7#d7 other inferior persons will have fewer children than now4 ,the science of eugenics is still young and much of its program must be tentative and subject to the test of actual experiment4 ,it is more important that the student acquire the habit of looking at society from a biological as well as a sociological point of view1 than that he put his faith in the efficacy of any particular mode of procedure4 ,the essential points of our eugenics program were laid down by ,professor ,johnson in an article entitled ,human ,evolution and its ,control in the ,popular ,science ,monthly for ,january1 #aiaj4 ,considerable parts of the material in the present book have appeared in the ,journal of ,heredity4 ,helpful suggestions and criticism have been received from several friends1 in particular ,sewall ,wright and ,o4 ,e4 ,baker of the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture4 ,,paul ,,popenoe4 ,,washington1 ,june1 #aiah4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,,page ,,preface v ,,introduction ,,by ,,edward ,a4 ,,ross xi ,,chapter ,i4 ,,nature ,,or ,,nurture8 #a ,,ii4 ,,modification ,,of ,,the ,,germ-,,plasm #be ,,iii4 ,,differences ,,among ,,men #ge ,,iv4 ,,the ,,inheritance ,,of ,,mental ,,capacities #hd ,v4 ,,the ,,laws ,,of ,,heredity #ii ,,vi4 ,,natural ,,selection #aaf ,,vii4 ,,origin ,,and ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,eugenics ,,movement #adg ,,viii4 ,,desirability ,,of ,,restrictive ,,eugenics #afg ,,ix4 ,,the ,,dysgenic ,,classes #agf ,x4 ,,methods ,,of ,,restriction #ahd ,,xi4 ,,the ,,improvement ,,of ,,sexual ,,selection #baa ,,xii4 ,,increasing ,,the ,,marriage ,,rate ,,of ,,the ,,superior #bcg ,,xiii4 ,,increase ,,of ,,the ,,birth-,,rate ,,of ,,the ,,superior #bee ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,color ,,line #bhj ,,xv4 ,,immigration #bih ,,xvi4 ,,war #cah ,,xvii4 ,,genealogy ,,and ,,eugenics #cbi ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,eugenic ,,aspect ,,of ,,some ,,specific ,,reforms #ceb ,,taxation #ceb ,,back ,,to ,,the ,,farm ,,movement #cee ,,democracy #cfj ,,socialism #cfb ,,child ,,labor #cfh ,,compulsory ,,education #cfi ,,vocational ,,guidance ,,and ,,training #cga ,,minimum ,,wage #cgd ,,mother',s ,,pensions #cge ,,housing #cgf ,,feminism #cgh ,,old ,,age ,,pensions #chd ,,sex ,,hygiene ,,movement #che ,,trades ,,unionism #chh ,,prohibition #chi ,,pedagogical ,,celibacy #cij ,,xix4 ,,religion ,,and ,,eugenics #cic ,,xx4 ,,eugenics ,,and ,,euthenics #djb ,,appendix ,a4 ,,ovarian ,,transplantation #dai ,b4 ,,dynamic ,,evolution #dba ,c4 ,,the ,,melting ,,pot #dbd ,d4 ,,the ,,essence ,,of ,,mendelism #dbi ,e4 ,,useful ,,works ,,of ,,reference #dcf ,f4 ,,glossary #dcg ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,figure ,,page #a4 ,four ,baby ,girls at ,once #f #b4 ,the ,effect of ,nurture in ,changing ,nature #aj #c4 ,height in ,corn and ,men #ab #d4 ,why ,men ,grow ,short or ,tall #ad #e4 ,bound ,foot of a ,chinese ,woman #db #f4 ,defective ,little ,toe of a ,prehistoric ,egyptian #db #g4 ,effect of ,lead as a ,racial ,poison #fc #h4 ,distribution of #aj-,year-,old ,school ,children #gf #i4 ,variation in ,ability #gg #aj4 ,origin of a ,normal ,probability ,curve #gh #aa4 ,the ,chance or ,probability ,form of ,distribution #gi #ab4 ,probability ,curve with ,increased ,number of ,steps #hj #ac4 ,normal ,variability ,curve ,following ,law of ,chance #hj #ad4 ,cadets ,arranged to ,show ,normal ,curve of ,variability #hb #ae4 ,variation in ,heights of ,recruits to the ,american ,army #hb #af4 ,how ,do ,you ,clasp ,your ,hands8 #ajj #ag4 ,the ,effect of ,orthodactyly #ajb #ah4 ,a ,family with ,orthodactyly #ajb #ai4 ,white ,blaze in the ,hair #ajd #bj4 ,a ,family of ,spotted ,negroes #ajd #ba4 ,a ,human ,finger-,tip #ajf #bb4 ,the ,limits of ,hereditary ,control #ajf #bc4 ,the ,distribution of ,intelligence #ajf #bd4 ,the ,twins whose ,finger-,prints are ,shown in ,fig4 #be #ajh #be4 ,finger-,prints of ,twins #aaj #bf4 ,a ,home of the ,hickory ,family #afh #bg4 ,a ,chieftain of the ,hickory ,clan #agj #bh4 ,two ,juke ,homes of the ,present ,day #agb #bi4 ,mongolian ,deficiency #agd #cj4 ,feeble-,minded ,men are ,capable of ,much ,rough ,labor #aib #ca4 ,feeble-,minded at a ,vineland ,colony #aib #cb4 ,how ,beauty ,aids a ,girl's ,chance of ,marriage #bae #cc4 ,intelligent ,girls are ,most ,likely to ,marry #baf #cd4 ,years ,between ,graduation and ,marriage #bag #ce4 ,the ,effect of ,late ,marriages #bah #cf4 ,wellesley ,graduates and ,non-,graduates #bdb #cg4 ,birth ,rate of ,harvard and ,yale ,graduates #bff #ch4 ,families of ,prominent ,methodists #bfc #ci4 ,examining ,immigrants at ,ellis ,island1 ,new ,york1 #cjc #dj4 ,line of ,ascent that ,carries the ,family ,name #cca #da4 ,the ,small ,value of a ,famous1 but ,remote1 ,ancestor #cch #db4 ,history of #ajj ,babies #cdd #dc4 ,adult ,morality #cde #dd4 ,influence of ,mother's ,age #cdg #de4 ,the ,mean ,man of the ,old ,white ,american ,stock #dbe #df4 ,the ,carriers of ,heredity #dca ,,introduction ,the ,great ,war has caused a vast destruction of the sounder portion of the belligerent peoples and it is certain that in the next generation the progeny of their weaker members will constitute a much larger proportion of the whole than would have been the case if the ,war had not occurred4 ,owing to this immeasurable calamity that has befallen the white race1 the question of eugenics has ceased to be merely academic4 ,it looms large whenever we consider the means of avoiding a stagnation or even decline of our civilization in consequence of the losses the ,war has inflicted upon the more valuable stocks4 ,eugenics is by no means tender with established customs and institutions1 and once it seemed likely that its teachings would be left for our grandchildren to act on4 ,but the plowshare of war has turned up the tough sod of custom1 and now every sound new idea has a chance4 ,rooted prejudices have been leveled like the forests of ,picardy under gun fire4 ,the fear of racial decline provides the eugenist with a far stronger leverage than did the hope of accelerating racial progress4 ,it may be1 then1 that owing to the ,war eugenic policies will gain as much ground by the middle of this century as without it they would have gained by the end of the century4 ,this book could not have been written ten years ago because many of the data it relies on were not then in existence4 ,in view of inquiries now going on1 we may reasonably hope that ten years hence it will be possible to make a much better book on the subject4 ,but ,i am sure that this book is as good a presentation as can be made of eugenics at its present stage of development4 ,the results of all the trustworthy observations and experiments have been taken into account1 and the testing of human customs and institutions in the light of biological principles tallies well with the sociology of our times4 ,i cannot understand how any conscientious person1 dealing in a large way with human life1 should have the hardihood to ignore eugenics4 ,this book should command the attention not only of students of sociology1 but1 as well1 of philanthropists1 social workers1 settlement wardens1 doctors1 clergymen1 educators1 editors1 publicists1 ,y4 ,m4 ,c4 ,a4 secretaries and industrial engineers4 ,it ought to lie at the elbow of law-makers1 statesmen1 poor relief officials1 immigration inspectors1 judges of juvenile courts1 probation officers1 members of state boards of control and heads of charitable and correctional institutions4 ,finally1 the thoughtful ought to find in it guidance in their problem of mating4 ,it will inspire the superior to rise above certain worldly ideals of life and to aim at a family success rather than an individual success4 ,,edward ,,alsworth ,,ross4 ,the ,university of ,wisconsin ,madison1 ,wisconsin ,july #aiah4 ,,applied ,,eugenics ,,chapter ,i ,,nature ,,or ,,nurture8 ,at the ,first ,race ,betterment ,conference held at ,battle ,creek1 ,mich41 many methods were suggested by which it was believed that the people of ,america might be made1 on the average1 healthier1 happier1 and more efficient4 ,one afternoon the discussion turned to the children of the slums4 ,their condition was pictured in dark colors4 ,a number of eugenists remarked that they were in many cases handicapped by a poor heredity4 ,then ,jacob ,riis--a man for whom every ,american must feel a profound admiration--strode upon the platform1 filled with indignation4 ,we have heard friends here talk about heredity1 he exclaimed4 ,the word has rung in my ears until ,i am sick of it4 ,heredity6 ,heredity6 ,there is just one heredity in all the world that is ours--we are children of ,god1 and there is nothing in the whole big world that we cannot do in ,his service with it4 ,it is probably not beyond the truth to say that in this statement ,jacob ,riis voiced the opinion of a majority of the social workers of this country1 and likewise a majority of the people who are faithfully and with much self-sacrifice supporting charities1 uplift movements1 reform legislation1 and philanthropic attempts at social betterment in many directions4 ,they suppose that they are at the same time making the race better by making the conditions better in which people live4 ,it is widely supposed that1 although nature may have distributed some handicaps at birth1 they can be removed if the body is properly warmed and fed and the mind properly exercised4 ,it is further widely supposed that this improvement in the condition of the individual will result in his production of better infants1 and that thus the race1 gaining a little momentum in each generation1 will gradually move on toward ultimate perfection4 ,there is no lack of efforts to improve the race1 by this method of direct change of the environment4 ,it involves two assumptions1 which are sometimes made explicitly1 sometimes merely taken for granted4 ,these are3 #a4 ,that changes in a man's surroundings1 or1 to use the more technical biological term1 in his nurture1 will change the nature that he has inherited4 #b4 ,that such changes will further be transmitted to his children4 ,any one who proposes methods of race betterment1 as we do in the present book1 must meet these two popular beliefs4 ,we shall therefore examine the first of them in this chapter1 and the second in ,chapter ,,ii4 ,galton adopted and popularized ,shakespere's antithesis of nature and nurture to describe a man's inheritance and his surroundings1 the two terms including everything that can pertain to a human being4 ,the words are not wholly suitable1 particularly since nature has two distinct meanings1--human nature and external nature4 ,the first is the only one considered by ,galton4 ,further1 nurture is capable of subdivision into those environmental influences which do not undergo much change1--e4g41 soil and climate1--and those forces of civilization and education which might better be described as culture4 ,the evolutionist has really to deal with the three factors of germ-plasm1 physical surroundings and culture4 ,but ,galton's phrase is so widely current that we shall continue to use it1 with the implications that have just been outlined4 ,the antithesis of nature and nurture is not a new one2 it was met long ago by biologists and settled by them to their own satisfaction4 ,the whole body of experimental and observational evidence in biology tends to show that the characters which the individual inherits from his ancestors remain remarkably constant in all ordinary conditions to which they may be subjected4 ,their constancy is roughly proportionate to the place of the animal in the scale of evolution2 lower forms are more easily changed by outside influence1 but as one ascends to the higher forms1 which are more differentiated1 it is found more and more difficult to effect any change in them4 ,their characters are more definitely fixed at birth4#a ,it is with the highest of all forms1 ,man1 that we have now to deal4 ,the student in biology is not likely to doubt that the differences in men are due much more to inherited nature than to any influences brought to bear after birth1 even though these latter influences include such powerful ones as nutrition and education within ordinary limits4 ,but the biological evidence does not lend itself readily to summary treatment1 and we shall therefore examine the question by statistical methods4#b ,these have the further advantage of being more easily understood2 for facts which can be measured and expressed in numbers are facts whose import the reader can usually decide for himself3 he is perfectly able to determine1 without any special training1 whether twice two does or does not make four4 ,one further preliminary remark3 the problem of nature vs4 nurture can not be solved in general terms2 a moment's thought will show that it can be understood only by examining one trait at a time4 ,the problem is to decide whether the differences between the people met in everyday life are due more to inheritance or to outside influences1 and these differences must naturally be examined separately2 they can not be lumped together4 ,to ask whether nature in general contributes more to a man than nurture is futile2 but it is not at all futile to ask whether the differences in a given human trait are more affected by differences in nature than by differences in nurture4 ,it is easy to see that a verdict may be sometimes given to one side1 sometimes to the other4 ,albinism in animals1 for instance1 is a trait which is known to be inherited1 and which is very slightly affected by differences of climate1 food supply1 etc4 ,on the other hand1 there are factors which1 although having inherited bases1 owe their expression almost wholly to outside influences4 ,professor ,morgan1 for example1 has found a strain of fruit flies whose offspring in cold weather are usually born with supernumerary legs4 ,in hot weather they are practically normal4 ,if this strain were bred only in the tropics1 the abnormality would probably not be noticed2 on the other hand1 if it were bred only in cold regions1 it would be set down as one characterized by duplication of limbs4 ,the heredity factor would be the same in each case1 the difference in appearance being due merely to temperature4 ,mere inspection does not always tell whether some feature of an individual is more affected by changes in heredity or changes in surroundings4 ,on seeing a swarthy man1 one may suppose that he comes of a swarthy race1 or that he is a fair-skinned man who has lived long in the desert4 ,in the one case the swarthiness would be inheritable1 in the other not4 ,which explanation is correct1 can only be told by examining a number of such individuals under critical conditions1 or by an examination of the ancestry4 ,a man from a dark-skinned race would become little darker by living under the desert sun1 while a white man would take on a good deal of tan4 ,the limited effect of nurture in changing nature is in some fields a matter of common observation4 ,the man who works in the gymnasium knows that exercise increases the strength of a given group of muscles for a while1 but not indefinitely4 ,there comes a time when the limit of a man's hereditary potentiality is reached1 and no amount of exercise will add another millimeter to the circumference of his arm4 ,similarly the handball or tennis player some day reaches his highest point1 as do runners or race horses4 ,a trainer could bring ,arthur ,duffy in a few years to the point of running a hundred yards in #i-c_/e seconds1 but no amount of training after that could clip off another fifth of a second4 ,a parallel case is found in the students who take a college examination4 ,half a dozen of them may have devoted the same amount of time to it--may have crammed to the limit--but they will still receive widely different marks4 ,these commonplace cases show that nurture has seemingly some power to mold the individual1 by giving his inborn possibilities a chance to express themselves1 but that nature says the first and last word4 ,francis ,galton1 the father of eugenics1 hit on an ingenious and more convincing illustration by studying the history of twins4#c ,there are1 everyday observation shows1 two kinds of twins--ordinary twins and the so-called identical twins4 ,ordinary twins are merely brothers1 or sisters1 or brother and sister1 who happen to be born two at a time1 because two ova have developed simultaneously4 ,the fact that they were born at the same time does not make them alike--they differ quite as widely from each other as ordinary brothers and sisters do4 ,identical twins have their origin in a different phenomenon--they are believed to be halves of the same egg-cell1 in which two growing-points appeared at a very early embryonic stage1 each of these developing into a separate individual4 ,as would be expected1 these identical twins are always of the same sex1 and extremely like each other1 so that sometimes their own mother can not tell them apart4 ,this likeness extends to all sorts of traits3--they have lost their milk teeth on the same day in one case1 they even fell ill on the same day with the same disease1 even though they were in different cities4 ,now ,galton reasoned that if environment really changes the inborn character1 then these identical twins1 who start life as halves of the same whole1 ought to become more unlike if they were brought up apart2 and as they grew older and moved into different spheres of activity1 they ought to become measurably dissimilar4 ,on the other hand1 ordinary twins1 who start dissimilar1 ought to become more alike when brought up in the same family1 on the same diet1 among the same friends1 with the same education4 ,if the course of years shows that identical twins remain as like as ever and ordinary twins as unlike as ever1 regardless of changes in conditions1 then environment will have failed to demonstrate that it has any great power to modify one's inborn nature in these traits4 ,with this view1 ,galton collected the history of eighty pairs of identical twins1 thirty-five cases being accompanied by very full details1 which showed that the twins were really as nearly identical1 in childhood1 as one could expect to find4 ,on this point1 ,galton's inquiries were careful1 and the replies satisfactory4 ,they are not1 however1 as he remarks1 much varied in character4 ,when the twins are children1 they are usually distinguished by ribbons tied around the wrist or neck2 nevertheless the one is sometimes fed1 physicked1 and whipped by mistake for the other1 and the description of these little domestic catastrophes was usually given by the mother1 in a phraseology1 that is sometimes touching by reason of its seriousness4 ,i have one case in which a doubt remains whether the children were not changed in their bath1 and the presumed ,a is not really ,b1 and vice versa4 ,in another case1 an artist was engaged on the portraits of twins who were between three and four years of age2 he had to lay aside his work for three weeks1 and1 on resuming it1 could not tell to which child the respective likeness he had in hand belonged4 ,the mistakes become less numerous on the part of the mother during the boyhood and girlhood of the twins1 but are almost as frequent as before on the part of strangers4 ,i have many instances of tutors being unable to distinguish their twin pupils4 ,two girls used regularly to impose on their music teacher when one of them wanted a whole holiday2 they had their lessons at separate hours1 and the one girl sacrificed herself to receive two lessons on the same day1 while the other one enjoyed herself from morning to evening4 ,here is a brief and comprehensive account3 ',exactly alike in all1 their schoolmasters could never tell them apart2 at dancing parties they constantly changed partners without discovery2 their close resemblance is scarcely diminished by age4 ,illustration3 ,,four ,,baby ,,girls ,,at ,,once ,,fig4 #a4--,these quadruplet daughters were born to ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,f4 ,m4 ,keys1 ,hollis1 ,okla41 on ,july #d1 #aiae1 and were seven months old when the photograph was taken4 ,up to that time they had never had any other nourishment than their mother's milk4 ,their weights at birth were as follows 7reading from left to right73 ,roberta1 #d pounds2 ,mona1 #d-a_/b pounds2 ,mary1 #d-a_/d pounds2 ,leota1 #c-c_/d pounds4 ,when photographed1 ,roberta weighed #af pounds and each of the others weighed #af-a_/d4 ,their aunt vouches for the fact that the care of the four is less trouble than a single baby often makes4 ,the mother has had no previous plural births1 although she has borne four children prior to these4 ,her own mother had but two children1 a son and a daughter1 and there is no record of twins on the mother's side4 ,the father of the quadruplets is one of twelve children1 among whom is one pair of twins4 ,it is known that twinning is largely due to inheritance1 and it would seem that the appearance of these quadruplets is due to the hereditary influence of the father rather than the mother4 ,if this is the case1 then the four girls must all have come from one egg-cell1 which split up at an early stage4 ,note the uniform shape of the mouth1 and the ears1 set unusually low on the head4 ,the following is a typical schoolboy anecdote3 ',two twins were fond of playing tricks1 and complaints were frequently made2 but the boys would never own which was the guilty one1 and the complainants were never certain which of the two it was4 ,one head master used to say he would never flog the innocent for the guilty1 and the other used to flog them both4' ,no less than nine anecdotes have reached me of a twin seeing his or her reflection in the looking-glass1 and addressing it in the belief that it was the other twin in person4 ,children are usually quick in distinguishing between their parent and his or her twin2 but ,i have two cases to the contrary4 ,thus1 the daughter of a twin says3 ',such was the marvelous similarity of their features1 voice1 manner1 etc41 that ,i remember1 as a child1 being very much puzzled1 and ,i think1 had my aunt lived much with us1 ,i should have ended by thinking ,i had two mothers6' ,in the other case1 a father who was a twin1 remarks of himself and his brother3 ',we were extremely alike1 and are so at this moment1 so much so that our children up to five and six years old did not know us apart4' ,among my thirty-five detailed cases of close similarity1 there are no less than seven in which both twins suffered from some special ailment or had some exceptional peculiarity4 ,both twins are apt to sicken at the same time in no less than nine out of the thirty-five cases4 ,either their illnesses1 to which ,i refer1 were non-contagious1 or1 if contagious1 the twins caught them simultaneously2 they did not catch them the one from the other4 ,similarity in association of ideas1 in tastes and habits was equally close4 ,in short1 their resemblances were not superficial1 but extremely intimate1 both in mind and body1 while they were young2 they were reared almost exactly alike up to their early manhood and womanhood4 ,then they separated into different walks of life4 ,did this change of the environment alter their inborn character8 ,for the detailed evidence1 one should consult ,galton's own account2 we give only his conclusions3 ,in many cases the resemblance of body and mind continued unaltered up to old age1 notwithstanding very different conditions of life2 in others a severe disease was sufficient to account for some change noticed4 ,other dissimilarity that developed1 ,galton had reason to believe1 was due to the development of inborn characters that appeared late in life4 ,he therefore felt justified in broadly concluding that the only circumstance1 within the range of those by which persons of similar conditions of life are affected1 that is capable of producing a marked effect on the character of adults1 is illness or some accident which causes physical infirmity4 ,the twins who closely resembled each other in childhood and early youth1 and were reared under not very dissimilar conditions1 either grow unlike through the development of natural that is1 inherited characteristics which had lain dormant at first1 or else they continue their lives1 keeping time like two watches1 hardly to be thrown out of accord except by some physical jar4 ,here was a distinct failure of nurture to modify the inborn nature4 ,we next consider the ordinary twins who were unlike from the start4 ,galton had twenty such cases1 given with much detail4 ,it is a fact1 he observes1 that extreme dissimilarity1 such as existed between ,jacob and ,esau1 is a no less marked peculiarity of twins of the same sex than extreme similarity4 ,the character of the evidence as a whole may be fairly conveyed by a few quotations3 7#a7 ,one parent says3 ,they have had exactly the same nurture from their birth up to the present time2 they are both perfectly healthy and strong1 yet they are otherwise as dissimilar as two boys could be1 physically1 mentally1 and in their emotional nature4 7#b7 ,i can answer most decidedly that the twins have been perfectly dissimilar in character1 habits1 and likeness from the moment of their birth to the present time1 though they were nursed by the same woman1 went to school together1 and were never separated until the age of thirteen4 7#c7 ,they have never been separated1 never the least differently treated in food1 clothing1 or education2 both teethed at the same time1 both had measles1 whooping cough1 and scarlatina at the same time1 and neither has had any other serious illness4 ,both are and have been exceedingly healthy1 and have good abilities2 yet they differ as much from each other in mental cast as any one of my family differs from another4 7#d7 ,very dissimilar in mind and body2 the one is quiet1 retiring1 and slow but sure2 good-tempered1 but disposed to be sulky when provoked2--the other is quick1 vivacious1 forward1 acquiring easily and forgetting soon2 quick-tempered and choleric1 but quickly forgiving and forgetting4 ,they have been educated together and never separated4 7#e7 ,they were never alike either in mind or body1 and their dissimilarity increases daily4 ,the external influences have been identical2 they have never been separated4 7#f7 ,the two sisters are very different in ability and disposition4 ,the one is retiring1 but firm and determined2 she has no taste for music or drawing4 ,the other is of an active1 excitable temperament2 she displays an unusual amount of quickness and talent1 and is passionately fond of music and drawing4 ,from infancy1 they have been rarely separated even at school1 and as children visiting their friends1 they always went together4 ,and so on4 ,not a single case was found in which originally dissimilar characters became assimilated1 although submitted to exactly the same influences4 ,reviewing the evidence in his usual cautious way1 ,galton declared1 ,there is no escape from the conclusion that nature prevails enormously over nurture1 when the differences of nurture do not exceed what is commonly to be found among persons of the same rank in society and in the same country4 ,this kind of evidence was a good start for eugenics but as the science grew1 it outgrew such evidence4 ,it no longer wanted to be told1 no matter how minute the details1 that nature prevails enormously over nurture4 ,it wanted to know exactly how much4 ,it refused to be satisfied with the statement that a certain quantity was large2 it demanded that it be measured or weighed4 ,so ,galton1 ,karl ,pearson and other mathematicians devised means of doing this1 and then ,professor ,edward ,l4 ,thorndike of ,columbia ,university took up ,galton's problem again1 with more refined methods4 ,the tool used by ,professor ,thorndike was the coefficient of correlation1 which shows the amount of resemblance or association between any two things that are capable of measurement1 and is expressed in the form of a decimal fraction somewhere between #j and the unit #a4 ,zero shows that there is no constant resemblance at all between the two things concerned1--that they are wholly independent of each other1 while #a shows that they are completely dependent on each other1 a condition that rarely exists1 of course4#d ,for instance1 the correlation between the right and left femur in man's legs is 4#ih4 ,professor ,thorndike found in the ,new ,york ,city schools fifty pairs of twins of about the same age and measured the closeness of their resemblance in eight physical characters1 and also in six mental characters1 the latter being measured by the proficiency with which the subjects performed various tests4 ,then children of the same age and sex1 picked at random from the same schools1 were measured in the same way4 ,it was thus possible to tell how much more alike twins were than ordinary children in the same environment4#e ,illustration3 ,,the ,,effect ,,of ,,nurture ,,in ,,changing ,,nature ,,fig4 #b4--;,corn of a single variety 7,leaming ,dent7 grown in two plots3 at the left spaced far apart in hills1 at the right crowded4 ,the former grows to its full potential height1 the latter is stunted4 ,the size differences in the two plots are due to differences in environment1 the heredity in both cases being the same4 ,plants are much more susceptible to nutritional influences on size than are mammals1 but to a less degree nutrition has a similar effect on man4 ,photograph from ,a4 ,f4 ,blakeslee4 ,if now these resemblances are due to the fact that the two members of any twin pair are treated alike at home1 have the same parental models1 attend the same school and are subject in general to closely similar environmental conditions1 then 7#a7 twins should1 up to the age of leaving home1 grow more and more alike1 and in our measurements the twins #ac and #ad years old should be much more alike than those #i and #aj years old4 ,again 7#b7 if similarity in training is the cause of similarity in mental traits1 ordinary fraternal pairs not over four or five years apart in age should show a resemblance somewhat nearly as great as twin pairs1 for the home and school condition of a pair of the former will not be much less similar than those of a pair of the latter4 ,again1 7#c7 if training is the cause1 twins should show greater resemblance in the case of traits much subject to training1 such as ability in addition or multiplication1 than in traits less subject to training1 such as quickness in marking off the ,a's on a sheet of printed capitals1 or in writing the opposites of words4 ,the data were elaborately analyzed from many points of view4 ,they showed 7#a7 that the twins #ab-ad years old were not any more alike than the twins #i-aa years old1 although they ought to have been1 if environment has great power to mold the character during these so-called plastic years of childhood4 ,they showed 7#b7 that the resemblance between twins was two or three times as great as between ordinary children of the same age and sex1 brought up under similar environment4 ,there seems to be no reason1 except heredity1 why twins should be more alike4 ,the data showed 7#c7 that the twins were no more alike in traits subject to much training than in traits subject to little or no training4 ,their achievement in these traits was determined by their heredity2 training did not measurably alter these hereditary potentialities4 ,the facts1 ,professor ,thorndike wrote1 are easily1 simply and completely explained by one simple hypothesis2 namely1 that the nature of the germ-cells--the conditions of conception--cause whatever similarities and differences exist in the original natures of men1 that these conditions influence mind and body equally1 and that in life the differences in modification of mind and body produced by such differences as obtain between the environments of present-day ,new ,york ,city public school children are slight4 ,the inferences1 he says1 with respect to the enormous importance of original nature in determining the behavior and achievements of any man in comparison with his fellows of the same period of civilization and conditions of life are obvious4 ,all theories of human life must accept as a first principle the fact that human beings at birth differ enormously in mental capacities and that these differences are largely due to similar differences in their ancestry4 ,all attempts to change human nature must accept as their most important condition the limits set by original nature to each individual4 ,meantime other investigators1 principally followers of ,karl ,pearson in ,england1 were working out correlation coefficients in other lines of research for hundreds of different traits4 ,as we show in more detail in ,chapter ,,iv1 it was found1 no matter what physical or mental trait was measured1 that the coefficient of correlation between parent and child was a little less than 4#e and that the coefficient between brother and brother1 or sister and sister1 or brother and sister1 was a little more than 4#e4 ,on the average of many cases the mean nature value1 the coefficient of direct heredity1 was placed at 4#ea4 ,this gave another means of measuring nurture1 for it was also possible to measure the relation between any trait in the child and some factor in the environment4 ,a specific instance will make this clearer4 ,groups of school children usually show an appalling percentage of short-sightedness4 ,now suppose it is suggested that this is because they are allowed to learn to read at too early an age4 ,one can find out the age at which any given child did learn to read1 and work out the coefficient of correlation between this age and the child's amount of myopia4 ,if the relation between them is very close--say 4#g or 4#h--;it will be evident that the earlier a child learns to read1 the more short-sighted he is as he grows older4 ,this will not prove a relation of cause and effect1 but it will at least create a great suspicion4 ,if on the contrary the correlation is very slight1 it will be evident that early reading has little to do with the prevalance of defective vision among school children4 ,if investigators similarly work out all the other correlations that can be suggested1 finding whether there is any regular relation between myopia and overcrowding1 long hours of study1 general economic conditions at home1 general physical or moral conditions of parents1 the time the child spends out of doors1 etc41 and if no important relation is found between these various factors and myopia1 it will be evident that no factor of the environment which one can think of as likely to cause the trouble really accounts for the poor eyesight of school children4 ,illustration3 ,,height ,,in ,,corn ,,and ,,men ,,fig4 #c4--;,an unusually short and an unusually tall man1 photographed beside extreme varieties of corn which1 like the men1 owe their differences in height indisputably to heredity rather than to environment4 ,no imaginable environmental differences could reverse the positions of these two men1 or of these two varieties of corn1 the heredity in each case being what it is4 ,the large one might be stunted1 but the small one could not be made much larger4 ,photograph from ,a4 ,f4 ,blakeslee4 ,this has actually been done1#f and none of the conditions enumerated has been found to be closely related to myopia in school children4 ,correlations between fifteen environmental conditions and the goodness of children's eyesight were measured1 and only in one case was the correlation as high as 4#a4 ,the mean of these correlations was about 4#jd--;an absolutely negligible quantity when compared with the common heredity coefficient of 4#ea4 ,does this prove that the myopia is rather due to heredity8 ,it would1 by a process of exclusion1 if every conceivable environmental factor had been measured and found wanting4 ,that point in the investigation can never be reached1 but a tremendously strong suspicion is at least justified4 ,now if the degree of resemblance between the prevalence of myopia in parents and that in children be directly measured1 and if it be found that when the parent has eye trouble the child also has it1 then it seems that a general knowledge of heredity should lead to the belief that the difficulty lies there1 and that an environmental cause for the poor vision of the school child was being sought1 when it was all the time due almost entirely to heredity4 ,this final step has not yet been completed in an adequate way1#g but the evidence1 partly analogical1 gives every reason to believe in the soundness of the conclusion stated1 that in most cases the schoolboy must wear glasses because of his heredity1 not because of overstudy or any neglect on the part of his parents to care for his eyes properly during his childhood4 ,illustration3 ,,why ,,men ,,grow ,,short ,,or ,,tall ,,fig4 #d4--,pedigree charts of the two men shown in the preceding illustration4 ,squares represent men and circles women2 figures underlined denote measurement in stocking feet4 ,it is obvious from a comparison of the ancestry of the two men that the short one comes from a predominantly short family1 while the tall one gains his height likewise from heredity4 ,the shortest individual in the right-hand chart would have been accounted tall in the family represented on the left4 ,after ,a4 ,f4 ,blakeslee4 ,the extent to which the intelligence of school children is dependent on defective physique and unfavorable home environment is an important practical question1 which ,david ,heron of ,london attacked by the methods we have outlined4 ,he wanted to find out whether the healthy children were the most intelligent4 ,one is constantly hearing stories of how the intelligence of school children has been improved by some treatment which improved their general health1 but these stories are rarely presented in such a way as to contribute evidence of scientific value4 ,it was desirable to know what exact measurement would show4 ,the intelligence of all the children in fourteen schools was measured in its correlation with weight and height1 conditions of clothing and teeth1 state of nutrition1 cleanliness1 good hearing1 and the condition of the cervical glands1 tonsils and adenoids4 ,it could not be found that mental capacity was closely related to any of the characters dealt with4#h ,the particular set of characters measured was taken because it happened to be furnished by data collected for another purpose2 the various items are suggestive rather than directly conclusive4 ,here again1 the correlation in most cases was less than 4#a1 as compared with the general heredity correlation of 4#e4 ,the investigation need not be limited to problems of bad breeding4 ,eugenics1 as its name shows1 is primarily interested in good breeding2 it is particularly worth while1 therefore1 to examine the relations between heredity and environment in the production of mental and moral superiority4 ,if success in life--the kind of success that is due to great mental and moral superiority--is due to the opportunities a man has1 then it ought to be pretty evenly distributed among all persons who have had favorable opportunities1 provided a large enough number of persons be taken to allow the laws of probability full play4 ,england offers a good field to investigate this point1 because ,oxford and ,cambridge1 her two great universities1 turn out most of the eminent men of the country1 or at least have done so until recently4 ,if nothing more is necessary to ensure a youth's success than to give him a first-class education and the chance to associate with superior people1 then the prizes of life ought to be pretty evenly distributed among the graduates of the two universities1 during a period of a century or two4 ,this is not the case4 ,when we look at the history of ,england1 as ,galton did nearly half a century ago1 we find success in life to an unexpected degree a family affair4 ,the distinguished father is likely to have a distinguished son1 while the son of two nobodies has a very small chance of becoming distinguished4 ,to cite one concrete case1 ,galton found#i that the son of a distinguished judge had about one chance in four of becoming himself distinguished1 while the son of a man picked out at random from the population had about one chance in #d1jjj of becoming similarly distinguished4 ,the objection at once occurs that perhaps social opportunities might play the predominant part2 that the son of an obscure man never gets a chance1 while the son of the prominent man is pushed forward regardless of his inherent abilities4 ,this1 as ,galton argued at length1 can not be true of men of really eminent attainments4 ,the true genius1 he thought1 frequently succeeds in rising despite great obstacles1 while no amount of family pull will succeed in making a mediocrity into a genius1 although it may land him in some high and very comfortable official position4 ,galton found a good illustration in the papacy1 where during many centuries it was the custom for a pope to adopt one of his nephews as a son1 and push him forward in every way4 ,if opportunity were all that is required1 these adopted sons ought to have reached eminence as often as a real son would have done2 but statistics show that they reached eminence only as often as would be expected for nephews of great men1 whose chance is notably less1 of course1 than that of sons of great men1 in whom the intensity of heredity is much greater4 ,transfer the inquiry to ,america1 and it becomes even more conclusive1 for this is supposed to be the country of equal opportunities1 where it is a popular tradition that every boy has a chance to become president4 ,success may be in some degree a family affair in caste-ridden ,england2 is it possible that the past history of the ,united ,states should show the same state of affairs8 ,galton found that about half of the great men of ,england had distinguished close relatives4 ,if the great men of ,america have fewer distinguished close relatives1 environment will be able to make out a plausible case3 it will be evident that in this continent of boundless opportunities the boy with ambition and energy gets to the top1 and that this ambition and energy do not depend on the kind of family he comes from4 ,frederick ,adams ,woods has made precisely this investigation4#aj ,the first step was to find out how many eminent men there are in ,american history4 ,biographical dictionaries list about #c1ejj1 and this number provides a sufficiently unbiased standard from which to work4 ,now1 ,dr4 ,woods says1 if we suppose the average person to have as many as twenty close relatives--as near as an uncle or a grandson--then computation shows that only one person in #ejj in the ,united ,states has a chance to be a near relative of one of the #c1ejj eminent men--provided it is purely a matter of chance4 ,as a fact1 the #c1ejj eminent men listed by the biographical dictionaries are related to each other not as one in #ejj1 but as one in five4 ,if the more celebrated men alone be considered1 it is found that the percentage increases so that about one in three of them has a close relative who is also distinguished4 ,this ratio increases to more than one in two when the families of the forty-six ,americans in the ,hall of ,fame are made the basis of study4 ,if all the eminent relations of those in the ,hall of ,fame are counted1 they average more than one apiece4 ,therefore1 they are from five hundred to a thousand times as much related to distinguished people as the ordinary mortal is4 ,to look at it from another point of view1 something like #a of the population of the country is as likely to produce a man of genius as is all the rest of the population put together1--the other #ii4 ,this might still be due in some degree to family influence1 to the prestige of a famous name1 or to educational advantages afforded the sons of successful men4 ,dr4 ,woods' study of the royal families of ,europe is more decisive4#aa ,in the latter group1 the environment must be admitted--on the whole--to be uniformly favorable4 ,it has varied1 naturally1 in each case1 but speaking broadly it is certain that all the members of this group have had the advantage of a good education1 of unusual care and attention4 ,if such things affect achievement1 then the achievements of this class ought to be pretty generally distributed among the whole class4 ,if opportunity is the cause of a man's success1 then most of the members of this class ought to have succeeded1 because to every one of royal blood1 the door of opportunity usually stands open4 ,one would expect the heir to the throne to show a better record than his younger brothers1 however1 because his opportunity to distinguish himself is naturally greater4 ,this last point will be discussed first4 ,dr4 ,woods divided all the individuals in his study into ten classes for intellectuality and ten for morality1 those most deficient in the qualities being put in class #a1 while the men and women of preminent intellectual and moral worth were put in class #aj4 ,now if preminent intellect and morality were at all linked with the better chances that an inheritor of succession has1 then heirs to the throne ought to be more plentiful in the higher grades than in the lower4 ,actual count shows this not to be the case4 ,a slightly larger percentage of inheritors is rather to be found in the lower grades4 ,the younger sons have made just as good a showing as the sons who succeeded to power2 as one would expect if intellect and morality are due largely to heredity1 but as one would not expect if intellect and morality are due largely to outward circumstances4 ,are conditions of turmoil1 stress and adversity strong forces in the production of great men1 as has often been claimed8 ,there is no evidence from facts to support that view4 ,in the case of a few great commanders1 the times seemed particularly favorable4 ,napoleon1 for example1 could hardly have been ,napoleon had it not been for the ,french revolution4 ,but in general there have been wars going on during the whole period of modern ,european history2 there have always been opportunities for a royal hero to make his appearance2 but often the country has called for many years in vain4 ,circumstances were powerless to produce a great man and the nation had to wait until heredity produced him4 ,spain has for several centuries been calling for genius in leadership in some lines2 but in vain4 ,england could not get an able man from the ,stuart line1 despite her need1 and had to wait for ,william of ,orange1 who was a descendant of a man of genius1 ,william the ,silent4 ,italy had to wait fifty years in bondage for her deliverers1 ,cavour1 ,garibaldi and ,victor ,emmanuel4 ,the upshot of it all1 ,dr4 ,woods decides1 is that1 as regards intellectual life1 environment is a totally inadequate explanation4 ,if it explains certain characters in certain instances1 it always fails to explain many more1 while heredity not only explains all1 or at least #ij1 of the intellectual side of character in practically every instance1 but does so best when questions of environment are left out of discussion4 ,despite the good environment almost uniformly present1 the geniuses in royalty are not scattered over the surface of the pedigree chart1 but form isolated little groups of closely related individuals4 ,one centers in ,frederick the ,great1 another in ,queen ,isabella of ,spain1 a third in ,william the ,silent1 and a fourth in ,gustavus ,adolphus4 ,furthermore1 the royal personages who are conspicuously low in intellect and morality are similarly grouped4 ,careful study of the circumstances shows nothing in the environment that would produce this grouping of genius1 while it is exactly what a knowledge of heredity leads one to expect4 ,in the next place1 do the superior members of royalty have proportionately more superior individuals among their close relatives1 as was found to be the case among the ,americans in the ,hall of ,fame8 ,a count shows at once that they do4 ,the first six grades all have about an equal number of eminent relatives1 but grade #g has more while grade #h has more than grade #g1 and the geniuses of grade #aj have the highest proportion of nearer relatives of their own character4 ,surely it cannot be supposed that a relative of a king in grade #h has on the average a much less favorable environment than a relative of a king in grade #aj4 ,is it not fair1 then1 to assume that this relative's greater endowment in the latter case is due to heredity8 ,conditions are the same1 whether males or females be considered4 ,the royal families of ,europe offer a test case because for them the environment is nearly uniformly favorable4 ,a study of them shows great mental and moral differences between them1 and critical evidence indicates that these differences are largely due to differences in heredity4 ,differences of opportunity do not appear to be largely responsible for the achievements of the individuals4 ,but1 it is sometimes objected1 opportunity certainly is responsible for the appearance of much talent that would otherwise never appear4 ,take the great increase in the number of scientific men in ,germany during the last half century1 for example4 ,it can not be pretended that this is due to an increased birth-rate of such talent2 it means that the growth of an appreciation of scientific work has produced an increased amount of scientific talent4 ,j4 ,mc,keen ,cattell has argued this point most carefully in his study of the families of one thousand ,american men of science 7,popular ,science ,monthly1 ,may1 #aiae74 ,a ,darwin born in ,china in #ahji1 he says1 could not have become a ,darwin1 nor could a ,lincoln born here on the same day have become a ,lincoln had there been no ,civil ,war4 ,if the two infants had been exchanged there would have been no ,darwin in ,america and no ,lincoln in ,england4 ,and so he continues1 urging that in the production of scientific men1 at least1 education is more important than eugenics4 ,this line of argument contains a great deal of obvious truth1 but is subject to a somewhat obvious objection1 if it is pushed too far4 ,it is certainly true that the exact field in which a man's activities will find play is largely determined by his surroundings and education4 ,young men in the ,united ,states are now becoming lawyers or men of science1 who would have become ministers had they been born a century or two ago4 ,but this environmental influence seems to us a minor one1 for the man who is highly gifted in some one line is usually1 as all the work of differential psychology shows1 gifted more than the average in many other lines4 ,opportunity decides in just what field his life work shall lie2 but he would be able to make a success in a number of fields4 ,darwin born in ,america would probably not have become the ,darwin we know1 but it is not to be supposed that he would have died a mute1 inglorious ,milton3 it is not likely that he would have failed to make his mark in some line of human activity4 ,dr4 ,cattell's argument1 then1 while admissible1 can not properly be urged against the fact that ability is mainly dependent on inheritance4 ,we need not stop with the conclusion that equality of training or opportunity is unable to level the inborn differences between men4 ,we can go even farther1 and produce evidence to show that equality of training increases the differences in results achieved4 ,this evidence is obtained by measuring the effects of equal amounts of exercise of a function upon individual differences in respect to efficiency in it4 ,suppose one should pick out1 at random1 eight children1 and let them do problems in multiplication for #aj minutes4 ,after a number of such trials1 the three best might average #ci correct solutions in the #aj minutes1 and the three poorest might average #be examples4 ,then let them continue the work1 until each one of them has done #gjj examples4 ,here is equality in training2 does it lead to uniform results8 ,dr4 ,starch made the actual test which we have outlined and found that the three best pupils gained on the average #de in the course of doing #gjj examples2 while the three poorest gained only #bf in the same course of time4 ,similar tests have been made of school children in a number of instances1 and have shown that equality of training fails to bring about equality of performance4 ,all improve to some extent2 but those who are naturally better than their comrades usually become better still1 when conditions for all are the same4 ,e4 ,l4 ,thorndike gives#ab the following tabular statement of a test he conducted3 ,,the ,,effect ,,of ,,equal ,,amounts ,,of ,,practice ,,upon ,,individual ,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,mental ,,multiplication ,,of ,a ,,three-,,place ,,by ,a ,,three-,,place ,,number ,amount done ,percentage of per unit of correct figures time in answers ,hours of ,practice ,first #e ,examples ,first #e ,examples ,last #e or #aj ,last #e or #aj ,examples ,examples ,gain ,gain ,initial highest five individuals #e4a #he #adg #fa #gj #gh #ah next five #e4a #ef #ajg #ea #fh #gh #aj six #e4c #df #fh #bb #gd #hb #h six #e4d #ch #df #h #eh #gj #ab five #e4b #ca #eg #bf #dg #fg #bj one individual #e4b #ai #cb #ac #ajj #hb -#ah ,similar results have been obtained by half a dozen other experimenters1 using the tests of mental multiplication1 addition1 marking ,a's on a printed sheet of capitals1 and the like4 ,it would be a mistake to conclude too much from experiments of such restricted scope2 but they all agree in showing that if every child were given an equal training1 the differences in these traits would nevertheless be very great4 ,and although we do not wish to strain the application of these results too far1 we are at least justified in saying that they strongly indicate that inborn mediocrity can not be made into a high grade of talent by training4 ,not every boy has a chance to distinguish himself1 even if he receives a good education4 ,we are driven back to the same old conclusion1 that it is primarily inborn nature which causes the achievements of men and women to be what they are4 ,good environment1 opportunity1 training1 will give good heredity a chance to express itself2 but they can not produce greatness from bad heredity4 ,these conclusions are familiar to scientific sociologists1 but they have not yet had the influence on social service and practical attempts at reform which they deserve4 ,many popular writers continue to confuse cause and effect1 as for example ,h4 ,addington ,bruce1 who contributed an article to the ,century ,magazine1 not long ago1 on ,the ,boy ,who ,goes ,wrong4 ,after alleging that the boy who goes wrong does so because he is not properly brought up1 ,mr4 ,bruce quotes with approval the following passage from ,paul ,dubois1 the eminent ,swiss physician and philosopher3 ,if you have the happiness to be a well-living man1 take care not to attribute the credit of it to yourself4 ,remember the favorable conditions in which you have lived1 surrounded by the relatives who loved you and set you a good example2 do not forget the close friends who have taken you by the hand and led you away from the quagmires of evil2 keep a grateful remembrance for all the teachers who have influenced you1 the kind and intelligent school-master1 the devoted pastor2 realize all these multiple influences which have made you what you are4 ,then you will remember that such and such a culprit has not in his sad life met with these favorable conditions2 that he had a drunken father or a foolish mother1 and that he has lived without affection1 exposed to all kinds of temptation4 ,you will then take pity upon this disinherited man1 whose mind has been nourished upon malformed mental images1 begetting evil sentiments such as immoderate desire or social hatred4 ,mr4 ,bruce indorses this kind of talk when he concludes1 ,the blame for the boy who goes wrong does not rest with the boy himself1 or yet with his remote ancestors4 ,it rests squarely with the parents who1 through ignorance or neglect1 have failed to mold him aright in the plastic days of childhood4 ,where is the evidence of the existence of these plastic days of childhood8 ,if they exist1 why do not ordinary brothers become as much alike as identical twins8 ,how long are we to be asked to believe1 on blind faith1 that the child is putty1 of which the educator can make either mediocrity or genius1 depending on his skill8 ,what does the environmentalist know about these plastic days8 ,if a boy has a drunken father or foolish mother1 does it not suggest that there is something wrong with his pedigree8 ,with such an ancestry1 we do not expect him to turn out brilliantly1 no matter in what home he is brought up4 ,if a boy has the kind of parents who bring him up well2 if he is1 as ,dr4 ,dubois says1 surrounded by relatives who love him and set him a good example1 we at once have ground for a suspicion that he comes of a pretty good family1 a stock characterized by a high standard of intellectuality and morality1 and it would surprise us if such a boy did not turn out well4 ,but he turns out well because what's bred in the bone will show in him1 if it gets any kind of a chance4 ,it is his nature1 not his nurture1 that is mainly responsible for his character4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,modification ,,of ,,the ,,germ-,,plasm ,every living creature was at some stage of its life nothing more than a single cell4 ,it is generally known that human beings result from the union of an egg-cell and a sperm-cell1 but it is not so universally understood that these germ-cells are part of a continuous stream of germ-plasm which has been in existence ever since the appearance of life on the globe1 and which is destined to continue in existence as long as life remains on the globe4 ,the corollaries of this fact are of great importance4 ,some of them will be considered in this chapter4 ,early investigators tended naturally to look on the germ-cells as a product of the body4 ,being supposedly products of the body1 it was natural to think that they would in some measure reproduce the character of the body which created them2 and ,darwin elaborated an ingenious hypothesis to explain how the various characters could be represented in the germ-cell4 ,the idea held by him1 in common with most other thinkers of his period1 is still held more or less unconsciously by those who have not given particular attention to the subject4 ,generation is conceived as a direct chain3 the body produces the germ-cell which produces another body which in turn produces another germ-cell1 and so on4 ,but a generation ago this idea fell under suspicion4 ,august ,weismann1 professor of zology in the ,university of ,freiburg1 ,germany1 made himself the champion of the new idea1 about #ahhe1 and developed it so effectively that it is now a part of the creed of nearly every biologist4 ,weismann caused a general abandonment of the idea that the germ-cell is produced by the body in each generation1 and popularized the conception of the germ-cell as a product of a stream of undifferentiated germ-plasm1 not only continuous but 7potentially at least7 immortal4 ,the body does not produce the germ-cells1 he pointed out2 instead1 the germ-cells produce the body4 ,the basis of this theory can best be understood by a brief consideration of the reproduction of very simple organisms4 ,death is the end of life1 is the belief of many other persons than the ,lotus ,eaters4 ,it is commonly supposed that everything which lives must eventually die4 ,but study of a one-celled animal1 an ,infusorian1 for example1 reveals that when it reaches a certain age it pinches in two1 and each half becomes an ,infusorian in all appearance identical with the original cell4 ,has the parent cell then died8 ,it may rather be said to survive1 in two parts4 ,each of these daughter cells will in turn go through the same process of reproduction by simple fission1 and the process will be continued in their descendants4 ,the ,infusorian can be called potentially immortal1 because of this method of reproduction4 ,the immortality1 as ,weismann pointed out1 is not of the kind attributed by the ,greeks to their gods1 who could not die because no wound could destroy them4 ,on the contrary1 the ,infusorian is extremely fragile1 and is dying by millions at every instant2 but if circumstances are favorable1 it can live on2 it is not inevitably doomed to die sooner or later1 as is ,man4 ,it dies from accident often1 from old age never4 ,now the single-celled ,infusorian is in many respects comparable with the single-celled germ of the higher animals4 ,the analogy has often been carried too far2 yet it remains indisputable that the germ-cells of men reproduce in the same way--by simple fission--as the ,infusorian and other one-celled animals and plants1 and that they are organized on much the same plan4 ,given favorable circumstances1 the germ-cell should be expected to be equally immortal4 ,does it ever find these favorable circumstances8 ,the investigations of microscopists indicate that it does--that evolution has provided it with these favorable circumstances1 in the bodies of the higher animals4 ,let us recall in outline the early history of the fertilized germ-cell1 the zygote formed by the union of ovum and spermatozon4 ,these two unite to form a single cell1 which is essentially the same1 physiologically1 as other germ-cells4 ,it divides in two similar cells2 these each divide2 the resulting cells again divide1 and so the process continues1 until the whole body--a fully developed man1--has been produced by division and redivision of the one zygote4 ,but the germ-cell is obviously different from most of the cells that make up the finished product1 the body4 ,the latter are highly differentiated and specialized for different functions--blood cells1 nerve cells1 bone cells1 muscle cells1 and so on1 each a single cell but each adapted to do a certain work1 for which the original1 undifferentiated germ-cell was wholly unfit4 ,it is evident that differentiation began to take place at some point in the series of divisions1 that is to say1 in the development of the embryo4 ,th4 ,boveri1 studying the development of a threadworm1 made the interesting discovery that this differentiation began at the first division4 ,of the two daughter-cells produced from the zygote1 one continued dividing at a very slow rate1 and without showing any specialization4 ,its line of descent produced only germ-cells4 ,the products of division of the other daughter-cell began to differentiate1 and soon formed all the necessary kinds of cells to make up the body of the mature worm4 ,in this body1 the cells from the first daughter-cell mentioned were inclosed1 still undifferentiated3 they formed the germ-cells of the next generation1 and after maturity were ready to be ejected from the body1 and to form new threadworms4 ,imagine this process taking place through generation after generation of threadworms1 and one will realize that the germ-plasm was passed on directly from one generation to the next2 that in each generation it gave rise to body-plasm1 but that it did not at any time lose its identity or continuity1 a part of the germ-plasm being always set aside1 undifferentiated1 to be handed on to the next generation4 ,in the light of this example1 one can better understand the definition of germ-plasm as that part of the substance of the parents which does not die with them1 but perpetuates itself in their offspring4 ,by bringing his imagination into play1 the reader will realize that there is no limit to the backward continuity of this germ-plasm in the threadworm4 ,granted that each species has arisen by evolution from some other1 this germ-cell which is observed in the body of the threadworm1 must be regarded as part of what may well be called a stream of germ-plasm1 that reaches back to the beginning of life in the world4 ,it will be equally evident that these is no foreordained limit to the forward extension of the stream4 ,it will continue in some branch1 as long as there are any threadworms or descendants of threadworms in the world4 ,the reader may well express doubt as to whether what has been demonstrated for the threadworm can be demonstrated for the higher animals1 including man4 ,it must be admitted that in many of these animals conditions are too unfavorable1 and the process of embryology too complicated1 or too difficult to observe1 to permit as distinct a demonstration of this continuity of the germ-plasm1 wherever it is sought4 ,but it has been demonstrated in a great many animals2 no facts which impair the theory have been discovered2 and biologists therefore feel perfectly justified in generalizing and declaring the continuity of germ-plasm to be a law of the world of living things4 ,focusing attention on its application to man1 one sees that the race must represent an immense network of lines of descent1 running back through a vast number of different forms of gradually diminishing specialization1 until it comes to a point where all its threads merge in one knot--the single cell with which it may be supposed that life on this globe began4 ,each individual is not only figuratively1 but in a very literal sense1 the carrier of the heritage of the whole race--of the whole past1 indeed4 ,each individual is temporarily the custodian of part of the stuff of life2 from an evolutionary point of view1 he may be said to have been brought into existence1 primarily to pass this sacred heritage on to the next generation4 ,from ,nature's standpoint1 he is of little use in the world1 his existence is scarcely justified1 unless he faithfully discharges this trust1 passing on to the future the ,lamp of ,life whose fire he has been created to guard for a short while4 ,immortality1 we may point out in passing1 is thus no mere hope to the parent3 it is a real possibility4 ,the death of the huge agglomeration of highly specialized body-cells is a matter of little consequence1 if the germ-plasm1 with its power to reproduce not only these body-cells1 but the mental traits--indeed1 we may in a sense say the very soul--that inhabited them1 has been passed on4 ,the individual continues to live1 in his offspring1 just as the past lives in him4 ,to the eugenist1 life everlasting is something more than a figure of speech or a theological concept--it is as much a reality as the beat of the heart1 the growth of muscles or the activity of the mind4 ,this doctrine of the continuity of germ-plasm throws a fresh light on the nature of human relationships4 ,it is evident that the son who resembles his father can not accurately be called a chip off the old block4 ,rather1 they are both chips off the same block2 and aside from bringing about the fusion of two distinct strains of germ-plasm1 father and mother are no more responsible for endowing the child with its characters except in the choice of mate1 than is the child for stamping his impress on his parents4 ,from another point of view1 it has been said that father and son ought to be thought of as half-brothers by two different mothers1 each being the product of the same strain of paternal germ-plasm1 but not of the same strain of maternal germ-plasm4 ,biologically1 the father or mother should not be thought of as the producer of a child1 but as the trustee of a stream of germ-plasm which produces a child whenever the proper conditions arise4 ,or as ,sir ,michael ,foster put it1 ,the animal body is in reality a vehicle for ova or sperm2 and after the life of the parent has become potentially renewed in the offspring1 the body remains as a cast-off envelope whose future is but to die4 ,finally to quote the metaphor of ,j4 ,arthur ,thomson1 one may think for a moment of a baker who has a very precious kind of leaven2 he uses much of this in baking a large loaf2 but he so arranges matters by a clever contrivance that part of the original leaven is always carried on unaltered1 carefully preserved for the next baking4 ,nature is the baker1 the loaf is the body1 the leaven is the germ-plasm1 and each baking is a generation4 ,when the respective functions and relative importance1 from a genetic point of view1 of germ-plasm and body-plasm are understood1 it must be fairly evident that the natural point of attack for any attempt at race betterment which aims to be fundamental rather than wholly superficial1 must be the germ-plasm rather than the body-plasm4 ,the failure to hold this point of view has been responsible for the disappointing results of much of the sociological theory of the last century1 and for the fact that some of the work now carried on under the name of race betterment is producing results that are of little or no significance to true race betterment4 ,on the other hand1 it must be fairly evident1 from the pains which ,nature has taken to arrange for the transmission of the germ-plasm from generation to generation1 that she would also protect it from injury with meticulous care4 ,it seems hardly reasonable to suppose that a material of this sort should be exposed1 in the higher animals at least1 to all the vicissitudes of the environment1 and to injury or change from the chance of outward circumstances4 ,in spite of these presumptions which the biologist would1 to say the least1 consider worthy of careful investigation1 the world is full of well-intentioned people who are anxious to improve the race1 and who in their attempts to do so1 wholly ignore the germ-plasm4 ,they see only the body-plasm4 ,they are devoted to the dogma that if they can change the body 7and what is here said of the body applies equally to the mind7 in the direction they wish1 this change will in some unascertainable way be reproduced in the next generation4 ,they rarely stop to think that man is an animal1 or that the science of biology might conceivably have something to say about the means by which his species can be improved2 but if they do1 they commonly take refuge1 deliberately or unconsciously1 in the biology of half a century ago1 which still believed that these changes of the body could be so impressed on the germ-plasm as to be continued in the following generation4 ,such an assumption is made to-day by few who have thoroughly studied the subject4 ,even those who still believed in what is conventionally called the inheritance of acquired characteristics would be quick to repudiate any such application of the doctrine as is commonly made by most of the philanthropists and social workers who are proceeding without seeking the light of biology4 ,but the idea that these modifications are inherited is so widespread among all who have not studied biology1 and is so much a part of the tradition of society1 that the question must be here examined1 before we can proceed confidently with our program of eugenics4 ,the problem is first to be defined4 ,it is evident that all characters which make up a man or woman1 or any other organism1 must be either germinal or acquired4 ,it is impossible to conceive of any other category4 ,but it is frequently hard to say in which class a given character falls4 ,worse still1 many persons do not even distinguish the two categories accurately--a confusion made easier by the quibble that all characters must be acquired1 since the organism starts from a single cell1 which possesses practically none of the traits of the adult4 ,what we mean by an inborn character is one whose expression is due to something which is present in the germ-plasm2 one which is inherent and due to heredity4 ,an acquired character is simply a modification1 due to some cause external to the germ-plasm acting on an inborn character4 ,in looking at an individual1 one can not always say with certainty which characters are which2 but with a little trouble1 one can usually reach a reliable decision4 ,it is possible to measure the variation in a given character in a group of parents and their children1 in a number of different environments2 if the degree of resemblance between parent and offspring is about the same in each case1 regardless of the different surroundings in which the children may have been brought up1 the character may properly be called germinal4 ,this is the biometric method of investigation4 ,in practice1 one can often reach a decision by much simpler means3 if the character is one that appears at birth1 e4g41 skin color1 it is usually safe to assume that it is a germinal character1 unless there is some evident reason for deciding otherwise1 as in the case of a child born with some disease from which the mother had been suffering for the previous few months4 ,in general1 it is more difficult to decide whether a mental trait is germinal1 than whether a physical one is2 and great care should be used in classification4 ,to make the distinction1 one ought to be familiar with an individual from birth1 and to have some knowledge of the conditions to which he was exposed1 in the period between conception and birth1--for of course a modification which takes place during that time is as truly an acquired character as one that takes place after parturition4 ,blindness1 for example1 may be an inborn defect4 ,the child from conception may have lacked the requisites for the development of sight4 ,on the other hand1 it may be an acquired character1 due to an ill-advised display of patriotism on ,july #d1 at some time during childhood2 or even to infection at the moment of birth4 ,similarly small size may be an inborn character1 due to a small-sized ancestry2 but if the child comes of a normal ancestry and is stunted merely because of lack of proper care and food1 the smallness is an acquired character4 ,deafness may be congenital and inborn1 or it may be acquired as the result1 say1 of scarlet fever during childhood4 ,now the inborn characters 7excepting modifications in utero7 are admittedly heritable1 for inborn characters must exist potentially in the germ-plasm4 ,the belief that acquired characters are also inherited1 therefore1 involves belief that in some way the trait acquired by the parent is incorporated in the germ-plasm of the parent1 to be handed on to the child and reappear in the course of the child's development4 ,the impress on the parental body must in some way be transferred to the parental germ-plasm2 and not as a general influence1 but as a specific one which can be reproduced by the germ-plasm4 ,this idea was held almost without question by the biologists of the past1 from ,aristotle on4 ,questionings indeed arose from time to time1 but they were vague and carried no weight1 until a generation ago several able men elaborated them4 ,for many years1 it was the question of chief dispute in the study of heredity4 ,the last word has not yet been said on it4 ,it has theoretical bearings of immense importance2 for our conception of the process of evolution will be shaped according to the belief that acquired characters are or are not inherited4 ,herbert ,spencer went so far as to say1 ,close contemplation of the facts impresses me more strongly than ever with two alternatives--either that there has been inheritance of acquired characters1 or there has been no evolution4 ,but its practical bearings are no less momentous4 ,again to quote ,spencer3 ,considering the width and depth of the effects which the acceptance or non-acceptance of one or the other of these hypotheses must have on our views of life1 the question1 ,which of them is true8 demands beyond all other questions whatever the attention of scientific men4 ,a grave responsibility rests on biologists in respect of the general question1 since wrong answers lead1 among other effects1 to wrong belief about social affairs and to disastrous social actions4 ,biologists certainly have not shirked this grave responsibility during the last #cj years1 and they have1 in our opinion1 satisfactorily answered the general question4 ,the answer they give is not the answer ,herbert ,spencer gave4 ,but the popular mind frequently lags a generation behind1 in its grasp of the work of science1 and it must be said that in this case the popular mind is still largely under the influence of ,herbert ,spencer and his school4 ,whether they know it or not1 most people who have not made a particular study of the question still tacitly assume that the acquirements of one generation form part of the inborn heritage of the next1 and the present social and educational systems are founded in large part on this false foundation4 ,most philanthropy starts out unquestioningly with the assumption that by modifying the individual for the better1 it will thereby improve the germinal quality of the race4 ,even a self-styled eugenist asks1 ,can prospective parents who have thoroughly and systematically disciplined themselves1 physically1 mentally and morally1 transmit to their offspring the traits or tendencies which they have developed8 and answers the question with the astounding statement1 ,it seems reasonable to suppose that they have this power1 it being simply a phase of heredity1 the tendency of like to beget like4 ,the right understanding of this famous problem is therefore fraught with the most important consequences to eugenics4 ,the huge mass of experimental evidence that has been accumulated during the last quarter of a century has1 necessarily1 been almost wholly based on work with plants and lower animals4 ,even though we can not attempt to present a general review of this evidence1 for which the reader must consult one of the standard works on biology or genetics1 we shall point out some of the considerations underlying the problem and its solution4 ,in the first place1 it must be definitely understood that we are dealing only with specific1 as distinguished from general1 transmission4 ,as the germ-cells derive their nourishment from the body1 it is obvious that any cause profoundly affecting the latter might in that way exercise an influence on the germ-cells2 that if the parent was starved1 the germ-cells might be ill-nourished and the resulting offspring might be weak and puny4 ,there is experimental evidence that this is the case2 but that is not the inheritance of an acquired character4 ,if1 however1 a white man tanned by long exposure to the tropical sun should have children who were brunettes1 when the family stock was all blond2 or if men whose legs were deformed through falls in childhood should have children whose legs1 at birth1 appeared deformed in the same manner2 then there would be a distinct case of the transmission of an acquired characteristic4 ,the precise question1 as ,professor ,thomson words it1 is this3 ,can a structural change in the body1 induced by some change in use or disuse1 or by a change in surrounding influence1 affect the germ-cells in such a specific or representative way that the offspring will through its inheritance exhibit1 even in a slight degree1 the modification which the parent acquired8 ,he then lists a number of current misunderstandings1 which are so widespread that they deserve to be considered here4 7#a7 ,it is frequently argued 7as ,herbert ,spencer himself suggested7 that unless modifications are inherited1 there could be no such thing as evolution4 ,such pessimism is unwarranted4 ,there is abundant explanation of evolution1 in the abundant supply of germinal variations which every individual presents4 7#b7 ,it is common to advance an interpretation of some observation1 in support of the ,lamarckian doctrine1 as if it were a fact4 ,interpretations are not facts4 ,what is wanted are the facts2 each student has a right to interpret them as he sees fit1 but not to represent his interpretation as a fact4 ,it is easy to find structural features in ,nature which may be interpreted as resulting from the inheritance of acquired characters2 but this is not the same as to say and to prove that they have resulted from such inheritance4 7#c7 ,it is common to beg the question by pointing to the transmission of some character that is not proved to be a modification4 ,herbert ,spencer cited the prevalence of short-sightedness among the notoriously studious ,germans as a defect due to the inheritance of an acquired character4 ,but he offered no evidence that this is an acquirement rather than a germinal character4 ,as a fact1 there is reason to believe that weakness of the eyes is one of the characteristics of that race1 and existed long before the ,germans ever became studious--even at a time when most of them could neither read nor write4 7#d7 ,the reappearance of a modification may be mistaken for the transmission of a modification4 ,thus a blond ,european family moves to the tropics1 and the parents become tanned4 ,the children who grow up under the tropical sun are tanned from infancy2 and after the grandchildren or great-grandchildren appear1 brown from childhood1 some one points to the case as an instance of permanent modification of skin-color4 ,but of course the children at the time of birth are as white as their distant cousins in ,europe1 and if taken back to the ,north to be brought up1 would be no darker than their kinsmen who had never been in the tropics4 ,such evidence has often been brought forward by careless observers1 but can deceive no one who inquires carefully into the facts4 7#e7 ,in the case of diseases1 re-infection is often mistaken for transmission4 ,the father had pneumonia2 the son later developed it2 ergo1 he must have inherited it4 ,what evidence is there that the son in this case did not get it from an entirely different source8 ,medical literature is heavily burdened with such spurious evidence4 7#f7 ,changes in the germ-cells along with changes in the body are not relevant to this discussion4 ,the mother's body1 for example1 is poisoned with alcohol1 which is present in large quantities in the blood and therefore might affect the germ-cells directly4 ,if the children subsequently born are consistently defective it is not an inheritance of a body character but the result of a direct modification of the germ-plasm4 ,the inheritance of an acquired modification of the body can only be proved if some particular change made in the parent is inherited as such by the child4 7#g7 ,there is often a failure to distinguish between the possible inheritance of a particular modification1 and the possible inheritance of indirect results of that modification1 or of changes correlated with it4 ,this is a nice but crucial point on which most popular writers are confused4 ,let us examine it through a hypothetical case4 ,a woman1 not herself strong1 bears a child that is weak4 ,the woman then goes in for athletics1 in order better to fit herself for motherhood2 she specializes on tennis4 ,after a few years she bears another child1 which is much stronger and better developed than the first4 ,look1 some one will say1 how the mother has transmitted her acquirement to her offspring4 ,we grant that her improved general health will probably result in a child that is better nourished than the first2 but that is a very different thing from heredity4 ,if1 however1 the mother had played tennis until her right arm was over-developed1 and her spine bent2 if these characteristics were nowhere present in the ancestry and not seen in the first child2 but if the second child were born with a bent spine and a right arm of exaggerated musculature1 we would be willing to consider the case on the basis of the inheritance of an acquired character4 ,we are not likely to have such a case presented to us4 ,to put the matter more generally1 it is not enough to show that some modification in the parent results in some modification in the child4 ,for the purposes of this argument there must be a similar modification4 7#h7 ,finally1 data are frequently presented1 which cover only two generations--parent and child4 ,indeed1 almost all the data alleged to show the inheritance of acquired characteristics are of this kind4 ,they are of little or no value as evidence4 ,cases covering a number of generations1 where a cumulative change was visible1 would be of weight1 but on the rare occasions when they are forthcoming1 they can be explained in some other way more satisfactorily than by an appeal to the theory of ,lamarck4#ac ,if the evidence currently offered to support a belief in the inheritance of acquired characters is tested by the application of these misunderstandings1 it will at once be found that most of it disappears2 that it can be thrown out of court without further formality4 ,the ,lamarckian doctrine is now held mainly by persons who have either lacked training in the evaluation of evidence1 or have never examined critically the assumptions on which they proceed4 ,medical men and breeders of plants or animals are to a large extent believers in ,lamarckism1 but the evidence 7if any7 on which they rely is always susceptible of explanation in a more reasonable way4 ,it must not be forgotten that some of the ablest intellects in the world have been assidously engaged in getting at the truth in the case1 during the last half-century2 and it is certainly worthy of consideration that not in a single case has the transmission of an acquired body character ever been proved beyond dispute4 ,those who still hold a belief in it 7and it is fair to say that some men of real ability are among that number7 too often do so1 it is to be feared1 because it is necessary for the support of some theoretical doctrine which they have formulated4 ,certainly there are few men who can say that they have carefully examined the evidence in the case1 and accept ,lamarckism because the evidence forces them to do so4 ,it will be interesting to review the various classes of alleged evidence1 though we can cite only a few cases from the great number available 7most of them1 however1 dealing with plants or lower animals74 ,nearly all the evidence adduced can be put in one of these four classes3 7#a7 ,mutilations4 7#b7 ,diseases4 7#c7 ,results of use or disuse4 7#d7 ,physico-chemical effects of environment4 ,the case in regard to mutilations is particularly clear cut and leaves little room for doubt4 ,the noses and ears of oriental women have been pierced for generations without number1 yet girls are still born with these parts entire4 ,circumcision offers another test case4 ,the evidence of laboratory experiments 7amputation of tails7 shows no inheritance4 ,it may be said without hesitation that mutilations are not heritable1 no matter how many generations undergo them4 7#b7 ,the transmissibility of acquired diseases is a question involved in more of a haze of ignorance and loose thinking4 ,it is particularly frequent to see cases of uterine infection offered as cases of the inheritance of acquired characters4 ,to use the word heredity in such a case is unjustified4 ,uterine infection has no bearing whatever on the question4 ,taking an historical view1 it seems fairly evident that if diseases were really inherited1 the race would have been extinct long ago4 ,of course there are constitutional defects or abnormalities that are in the germ-plasm and are heritable3 such is the peculiar inability of the blood to coagulate1 which marks bleeders 7sufferers from hemophilia1 a highly hereditary disease74 ,and in many cases it is difficult to distinguish between a real germinal condition of this sort1 and an acquired disease4 ,the inheritance of an acquired disease is not only inconceivable1 in the light of what is known about the germ-plasm1 but there is no evidence to support it4 ,while there is most decidedly such a thing as the inheritance of a tendency to or lack of resistance to a disease1 it is not the result of incidence of the disease on the parent4 ,it is possible to inherit a tendency to headaches or to chronic alcoholism2 and it is possible to inherit a lack of resistance to common diseases such as malaria1 small-pox or measles2 but actually to inherit a zymotic disease as an inherent genetic trait1 is impossible1--is1 in fact1 a contradiction of terms4 7#c7 ,when we come to the effects of use and disuse1 we reach a much debated ground1 and one complicated by the injection of a great deal of biological theorizing1 as well as the presence of the usual large amount of faulty observation and inference4 ,it will be admitted by every one that a part of the body which is much used tends to increase in size1 or strength1 and similarly that a part which is not used tends to atrophy4 ,it is further found that such changes are progressive in the race1 in many cases4 ,man's brain has steadily increased in size1 as he used it more and more2 on the other hand1 his canine teeth have grown smaller4 ,can this be regarded as the inheritance of a long continued process of use and disuse8 ,such a view is often taken1 but the ,lamarckian doctrine seems to us just as mystical here as anywhere else1 and no more necessary4 ,progressive changes can be satisfactorily accounted for by natural selection2 retrogressive changes are susceptible of explanation along similar lines4 ,when an organ is no longer necessary1 as the hind legs of a whale1 for instance1 natural selection no longer keeps it at the point of perfection4 ,variation1 however1 continues to occur in it4 ,since the organ is now useless1 natural selection will no longer restrain variation in such an organ1 and degeneracy will naturally follow1 for of all the variations that occur in the organ1 those tending to loss are more numerous than those tending to addition4 ,if the embryonic development of a whale's hind leg be compared to some complicated mechanical process1 such as the manufacture of a typewriter1 it will be easier to realize that a trivial variation which affected one of the first stages of the process would alter all succeeding stages and ruin the final perfection of the machine4 ,it appears1 then1 that progressive degeneration of an organ can be adequately explained by variation with the removal of natural selection1 and that it is not necessary or desirable to appeal to any ,lamarckian factor of an unexplainable and undemonstrable nature4 ,the situation remains the same1 when purely mental processes1 such as instincts1 are considered4 ,habit often repeated becomes instinctive1 it is said2 and then the instinct thus formed by the individual is passed on to his descendants and becomes in the end a racial instinct4 ,most psychologists have now abandoned this view1 which receives no support from investigation4 ,such prevalence as it still retains seems to be largely due to a confusion of thought brought about by the use of the word instinctive in two different senses1--first literally and then figuratively4 ,a persistent attempt has been made in ,america during recent years1 by ,c4 ,l4 ,redfield1 a ,chicago engineer1 to rehabilitate the theory of the inheritance of the effects of use and disuse4 ,he has presented it in a way that1 to one ignorant of biology1 appears very exact and plausible2 but his evidence is defective and his interpretation of his evidence fallacious4 ,because of the widespread publicity1 ,mr4 ,redfield's work has received1 we discuss it further in ,appendix ,b4 ,since the importance of hormones 7internal secretions7 in the body became known1 it has often been suggested that their action may furnish the clue to some sort of an inheritance of modifications4 ,the hormone might conceivably modify the germ-plasm but if so1 it would more likely be in some wholly different way4 ,in general1 we may confidently say that there is neither theoretical necessity nor adequate experimental proof for belief that the results of use and disuse are inherited4 7#d7 ,when we come to consider whether the effects of the environment are inherited1 we attack a stronghold of sociologists and historians4 ,herbert ,spencer thought one of the strongest pieces of evidence in this category was to be found in the assimilation of foreigners in the ,united ,states4 ,the descendants of the immigrant ,irish1 he pointed out1 lose their ,celtic aspect and become ,americanised4444 ,to say that 'spontaneous variation1' increased by natural selection1 can have produced this effect1 is going too far4 ,unfortunately for ,mr4 ,spencer1 he was basing his conclusions on guesswork4 ,it is only within the last few months that the first trustworthy evidence on the point has appeared1 in the careful measurements of ,hrdlicka who has demonstrated that ,spencer was quite wrong in his statement4 ,as a fact1 the original traits persist with almost incredible fidelity4 7,appendix ,c47 ,in #aiaa1 ,franz ,boas of ,columbia ,university published measurements of the head form of children of immigrants#ad which purported to show that ,american conditions caused in some mysterious manner a change in the shape of the head4 ,this conclusion in itself would have been striking enough1 but was made more startling when he announced that the change worked both ways3 ,the ,east ,european ,hebrew1 who has a very round head1 becomes more long-headed2 the south ,italian1 who in ,italy has an exceedingly long head1 becomes more short-headed2 and moreover this potent influence was alleged to be a subtle one which does not affect the young child born abroad and growing up in ,american environment1 but which makes itself felt among the children born in ,america1 even a short time after the arrival of the parents in this country4 ,boas' work was naturally pleasing to sociologists who believe in the reality of the melting-pot1 and has obtained widespread acceptance in popular literature4 ,it has obtained little acceptance among his fellow-anthropologists1 some of whom allege that it is unsound because of the faulty methods by which the measurements were made and the incorrect standards used for comparison4 ,the many instances quoted by historians1 where races have changed after immigration1 are to be explained in most cases by natural selection under new conditions1 or by interbreeding with the natives1 and not as the direct result of climate4 ,ellsworth ,huntington1 the most recent and careful student of the effect of climate on man1#ae finds that climate has a great deal of influence on man's energy1 but as far as inherited traits in general are concerned1 he is constantly led to remark how little heredity is capable of being changed4 ,most members of the white race have little toes that are partly atrophied1 and considerably deformed4 ,in many cases one of the joints has undergone ankylosis--that is1 the bones have coalesced4 ,it is confidently alleged that this is due to the inheritance of the effects of wearing tight shoes through many centuries4 ,when it is found that the prehistoric ,egyptians1 who knew not tight shoes1 suffered from the same defect in a similar degree1 one's confidence in this kind of evidence is much diminished4 ,the retrogression of the little toe in man is probably to be explained like the degeneration of the hind leg of the whale1 as a result of the excess of deteriorating variations which1 when not eliminated by natural selection1 lead to atrophy4 ,since man began to limit the use of his feet to walking on the ground1 the little toe has had much less value to him4 ,the feet of ,chinese women offer another illustration along this line4 ,although they have been tightly bound for many generations1 no deformity is apparent in the feet of girl babies4 ,breeders are generally of the opinion that good care and feed bestowed on their stock produce results in succeeding generations4 ,this is in a way true1 but it is due merely to the fact that the offspring get better nourishment and therefore a better start in life4 ,the changes in breeds1 the increase in milk yield1 and similar facts1 often explained as due to inheritance of acquired characters1 are better explained as the results of selection1 sometimes conscious1 sometimes quite unconscious4 ,illustration3 ,,bound ,,foot ,,of ,a ,,chinese ,,woman ,,fig4 #e4--;,for centuries the feet of upper class women1 and many lower class women1 in ,china have been distorted in this manner2 but their daughters have perfect feet when born4 ,illustration3 ,,defective ,,little ,,toe ,,of ,a ,,prehistoric ,,egyptian ,,fig4 #f4--,the above illustration shows the foot of a prehistoric ,egyptian who is estimated to have lived about #hjjj ,b4 ,c4 ,the last joint of the little toe had entirely disappeared1 and careful dissection leaves no doubt that it was a germinal abnormality1 such as is occasionally seen to-day1 and not the result of disease4 ,it is1 therefore1 evident that the degeneration of man's little toe must be ascribed to some more natural cause than the wearing of shoes for many generations4 ,photograph from ,dr4 ,gorgy ,sobhy1 ,school of ,medicine1 ,cairo4 ,the question of inherited immunity to diseases1 as the result of vaccination or actual illness from them1 has appeared in the controversy in a number of forms1 and is a point of much importance4 ,it is not yet clear1 partly because the doctors disagree as to what immunity is4 ,but there is no adequate evidence that an immunity to anything can be created and transmitted through the germ-plasm to succeeding generations4 ,in short1 no matter what evidence we examine1 we must conclude that inheritance of acquired bodily characters is not a subject that need be reckoned with1 in applied eugenics4 ,on the other hand1 there is a possible indirect influence of modifications1 which may have real importance in man4 ,if the individual is modified in a certain way1 in a number of generations1 even though such a modification is not transmitted to his descendants1 yet its continued existence may make possible1 the survival of some germinal variation bearing in the same direction1 which without the protecting influence of the pre-existing modification1 would have been swamped or destroyed4 ,finally1 it should be borne in mind that even if physical and mental characters acquired during a man's lifetime are not transmitted1 yet there is a sort of transmission of acquired characters which has been of immense importance to the evolution of the race4 ,this is the so-called inheritance of the environment2 the passing on from one generation to the next of the achievements of the race1 its accumulated social experience2 its civilization1 in short4 ,it is doubtful whether any useful end is gained by speaking of this continuance of the environment as heredity2 it certainly tends to confuse many people who are not used to thinking in biological terms4 ,tradition is the preferable term4 ,there is much to be said in favor of ,e4 ,b4 ,poulton's definition1--,civilization in general is the sum of those contrivances which enable human beings to advance independently of heredity4 ,whatever wisdom1 material gain1 or language is acquired by one generation may be passed on to the next4 ,as far as the environment is concerned1 one generation stands on the shoulders of its predecessor4 ,it might simplify the task of eugenics if the same could be said of biological heredity4 ,but it can not4 ,each generation must start from scratch4 ,in ,august ,weismann's words1 the development of a function in offspring begins at the point where it began in his parents1 not at the point where it ended in them4 ,biological improvement of the race 7and such improvement greatly fosters all other kinds7 must be made through a selective birth-rate4 ,there is no short-cut by way of euthenics1 merely4 ,we must now consider whether there is any direct way of impairing good heredity4 ,it is currently believed that there are certain substances1 popularly known as racial-poisons1 which are capable of affecting the germ-plasm adversely and permanently in spite of its isolation and protection4 ,for example1 the literature of alcoholism1 and much of the literature of eugenics1 abounds with statements to the effect that alcohol originates degeneracy in the human race4 ,the proof or disproof of this proposition must depend in the last analysis on direct observation and carefully controlled experiments4 ,as the latter cannot be made feasibly on man1 a number of students have taken up the problem by using small animals which are easily handled in laboratories4 ,many of these experiments are so imperfect in method that1 when carefully examined1 they are found to possess little or no value as evidence on the point here discussed4 ,hodge1 ,mairet and ,combemale1 for example1 have published data which convinced them that the germ-plasm of dogs was injured by the administration of alcohol4 ,the test was the quality of offspring directly produced by the intoxicated animals under experiment4 ,but the number of dogs used was too small to be conclusive1 and there was no control3 hence these experiments carry little weight4 ,ovize1 ,fr and ,stockard have shown that the effect of alcohol on hen's eggs is to produce malformed embryos4 ,this1 however1 is a case of influencing the development of the individual1 rather than the germ-plasm4 ,evidence is abundant that individual development can be harmed by alcohol1 but the experiments with eggs are not to the point of our present purpose4 ,carlo ,todde and others have carried out similar experiments on cocks4 ,the conclusions have in general been in favor of injury to the germ-plasm1 but the experiments were inadequate in extent4 ,laitinen experimented on rabbits and guinea pigs1 but he used small doses and secured only negative results4 ,several series of experiments with rats indicate that if the dosage is large enough1 the offspring can be affected4 ,nice1 using very small numbers of white mice1 subjected them not only to alcohol1 but to caffein1 nicotin1 and tobacco smoke4 ,the fecundity of all these sets of mice was higher than that of the untreated ones used as control2 all of them gained in weight2 of #gjg young1 none was deformed1 none stillborn1 and there was only one abortion4 ,the young of the alcoholized mice surpassed all others in growth4 ,the dosage ,nice employed was too small1 however1 to give his experiment great weight4 ,at the ,university of ,wisconsin1 ,leon ,j4 ,cole has been treating male rabbits with alcohol and reports that what appear to be decisive results have already been obtained4 ,in the case of alcoholic poisoning of the male the most marked result has been a lessening of his efficiency as a sire1 the alcohol apparently having had some effect on the vitality of his spermatozoa4 ,his experiment is properly planned and carried out1 but so far as results have been made public1 they do not appear to afford conclusive evidence that alcohol originates degeneracy in offspring4 ,the long-continued and carefully conducted experiment of ,charles ,r4 ,stockard at the ,cornell ,medical ,college is most widely quoted in this connection4 ,he works with guinea-pigs4 ,the animals are intoxicated daily1 six days in the week1 by inhaling the fumes of alcohol to the point where they show evident signs of its influence2 their condition may thus be compared to that of the toper who never gets dead drunk but is never entirely sober4 ,treatment of this sort for a period as long as three years produces no apparent bad effect on the individuals2 they continue to grow and become fat and vigorous1 taking plenty of food and behaving in a normal manner in every particular4 ,some of them have been killed from time to time1 and all the tissues1 including the reproductive glands1 have been found perfectly normal4 ,the treated animals are1 therefore1 little changed or injured so far as their behavior and structure goes4 ,nevertheless1 the effects of the treatment are most decidedly indicated by the type of offspring to which they give rise1 whether they are mated together or with normal individuals4 ,before the treatment is begun1 every individual is mated at least once1 to demonstrate its possibility of giving rise to sound offspring4 ,the crucial test of the influence of alcohol on the germ-cells is1 of course1 the mating of a previously alcoholized male with a normal1 untreated female1 in a normal environment4 ,when the experiment was last reported1#af it had covered five years and four generations4 ,the records of #fhb offspring produced by #ega matings were tabulated1 #afd matings of alcoholized animals1 in which either the father1 mother1 or both were alcoholic1 gave #fd1 or almost #dj1 negative results or early abortions1 while only #be of the control matings failed to give full-term litters4 ,of the #ajj full-term litters from alcoholic parents #ah contained stillborn young and only #ej of all the matings resulted in living litters1 while #dg of the individuals in the litters of living young died soon after birth4 ,in contrast to this record #gc of the #ij control matings gave living litters and #hd of the young in these litters survived as normal1 healthy animals4 ,the mating records of the descendants of the alcoholized guinea pigs1 although they themselves were not treated with alcohol1 compare in some respects even more unfavorably with the control records than do the above data from the directly alcoholized animals4 ,the records of the matings in the second filial generation are still worse1 higher mortality and more pronounced deformities1 while the few individuals which have survived are generally weak and in many instances appear to be quite sterile even though paired with vigorous1 prolific1 normal mates4 ,we do not minimize the value of this experiment1 when we say that too much weight has been popularly placed on its results4 ,compare it with the experiment with fowls at the ,university of ,maine1 which ,raymond ,pearl reports4#ag ,he treated #ai fowls with alcohol1 little effect on the general health being shown1 and none on egg production4 ,from their eggs #bcd chicks were produced2 the average percentage of fertility of the eggs was diminished but the average percentage of hatchability of fertile eggs was increased4 ,the infant mortality of these chicks was smaller than normal1 the chicks were heavier when hatched and grew more rapidly than normal afterwards4 ,no deformities were found4 ,out of #ab different characters for which we have exact quantitative data1 the offspring of treated parents taken as a group are superior to the offspring of untreated parents in #h characters1 in two characters they are inferior and in the remaining two there is no discernible difference4 ,at this stage ,dr4 ,pearl's experiment is admittedly too small1 but he is continuing it4 ,as far as reported1 it confirms the work of ,professor ,nice1 above mentioned1 and shows that what is true for guinea pigs may not be true for other animals1 and that the amount of dosage probably also makes a difference4 ,dr4 ,pearl explains his results by the hypothesis that the alcohol eliminated the weaker germs in the parents1 and allowed only the stronger germs to be used for reproduction4 ,despite the unsatisfactory nature of much of the alleged evidence1 we must conclude that alcohol1 when given in large enough doses1 may sometimes affect the germ-plasm of some lower animals in such a way as to deteriorate the quality of their offspring4 ,this effect is probably an induction1 which does not produce a permanent change in the bases of heredity1 but will wear away in a generation or two of good surroundings4 ,it must be remembered that although the second-generation treated males of ,dr4 ,stockard's experiment produced defective offspring when mated with females from similarly treated stock1 they produced normal offspring when mated with normal females4 ,the significance of this fact has been too little emphasized in writings on racial poisons4 ,if a normal mate will counteract the influence of a poisoned one1 it is obvious that the probabilities of danger to any race from this source are much decreased1 while if only a small part of the race is affected1 and mates at random1 the racial damage might be so small that it could hardly be detected4 ,there are several possible explanations of the fact that injury is found in some experiments but not in others4 ,it may be1 as ,dr4 ,pearl thinks1 that only weak germs are killed by moderate treatment1 and the strong ones are uninjured4 ,and it is probable 7this applies more particularly to man7 that the body can take care of a certain amount of alcohol without receiving any injury therefrom2 it is only when the dosage passes the danger point that the possibility of injury appears4 ,as to the location of this limit1 which varies with the species1 little is known4 ,much more work is needed before the problem will be fully cleared up4 ,alcohol has been in use in parts of the world for many centuries2 it was common in the ,orient before the beginning of historical knowledge4 ,now if its use by man impairs the germ-plasm1 then it seems obvious that the child of one who uses alcohol to a degree sufficient to impair his germ-plasm will tend to be born inferior to his parent4 ,if that child himself is alcoholic1 his own offspring will suffer still more1 since they must carry the burden of two generations of impairment4 ,continuing this line of reasoning over a number of generations1 in a race where alcohol is freely used by most of the population1 one seems unable to escape from the conclusion that the effects of this racial poison1 if it be such1 must necessarily be cumulative4 ,the damage done to the race must increase in each generation4 ,if the deterioration of the race could be measured1 it might even be found to grow in a series of figures representing arithmetical progression4 ,it seems impossible1 with such a state of affairs1 that a race in which alcohol was widely used for a long period of time1 could avoid extinction4 ,at any rate1 the races which have used alcohol longest ought to show great degeneracy--unless there be some regenerative process at work constantly counteracting this cumulative effect of the racial poison in impairing the germ-plasm4 ,such a proposition at once demands an appeal to history4 ,what is found in examination of the races that have used alcohol the longest8 ,have they undergone a progressive physical degeneracy1 as should be expected8 ,by no means4 ,in this particular respect they seem to have become stronger rather than weaker1 as time went on2 that is1 they have been less and less injured by alcohol in each century1 as far as can be told4 ,examination of the history of nations which are now comparatively sober1 although having access to unlimited quantities of alcohol1 shows that at an earlier period in their history1 they were notoriously drunken2 and the sobriety of a race seems to be proportioned to the length of time in which it has had experience of alcohol4 ,the ,mediterranean peoples1 who have had abundance of it from the earliest period recorded1 are now relatively temperate4 ,one rarely sees a drunkard among them1 although many individuals in them would never think of drinking water or any other non-alcoholic beverage4 ,in the northern nations1 where the experience of alcohol has been less prolonged1 there is still a good deal of drunkenness1 although not so much as formerly4 ,but among nations to whom strong alcohol has only recently been made available--the ,american ,indian1 for instance1 or the ,eskimo--drunkenness is frequent wherever the protecting arm of government does not interfere4 ,what bearing does this have on the theory of racial poisons8 ,surely a consideration of the principle of natural selection will make it clear that alcohol is acting as an instrument of racial purification through the elimination of weak stocks4 ,it is a drastic sort of purification1 which one can hardly view with complacency2 but the effect1 nevertheless1 seems clear cut4 ,to demonstrate the action of natural selection1 we must first demonstrate the existence of variations on which it can act4 ,this is not difficult in the character under consideration--namely1 the greater or less capacity of individuals to be attracted by alcohol1 to an injurious degree4 ,as ,g4 ,archdall ,reid has pointed out1#ah men drink for at least three different reasons3 7#a7 to satisfy thirst4 ,this leads to the use of a light wine or a malt liquor4 7#b7 ,to gratify the palate4 ,this again usually results in the use of drinks of low alcohol content1 in which the flavor is the main consideration4 7#c7 ,finally1 men drink to induce those peculiar feelings1 those peculiar frames of mind caused by alcohol4 ,although the three motives may and often do coexist in the same individual1 or may animate him at different periods of life1 the fact remains that they are quite distinct4 ,thirst and taste do not lead to excessive drinking2 and there is good evidence that the degree of concentration and the dosage are important factors in the amount of harm alcohol may do to the individual4 ,the concern of evolutionists1 therefore1 is with the man who is so constituted that the mental effects of alcohol acting directly on the brain are pleasing1 and we must show that there is a congenital variability in this mental quality1 among individuals4 ,surely an appeal to personal experience will leave little room for doubt on that point4 ,the alcohol question is so hedged about with moral and ethical issues that those who never get drunk1 or who perhaps never even take a drink1 are likely to ascribe that line of conduct to superior intelligence and great self-control4 ,as a fact1 a dispassionate analysis of the case will show that why many such do not use alcoholic beverages to excess is because intoxication has no charm for them4 ,he is so constituted that the action of alcohol on the brain is distasteful rather than pleasing to him4 ,in other cases it is variation in controlling satisfaction of immediate pleasures for later greater good4 ,some of the real inebriates have a strong will and a real desire to be sober1 but have a different mental make-up1 vividly described by ,william ,james3#ai ,the craving for drink in real dipsomaniacs1 or for opium and chloral in those subjugated1 is of a strength of which normal persons can have no conception4 ',were a keg of rum in one corner of the room1 and were a cannon constantly discharging balls between me and it1 ,i could not refrain from passing before that cannon in order to get that rum4 ,if a bottle of brandy stood on one hand1 and the pit of hell yawned on the other1 and ,i were convinced ,i should be pushed in as surely as ,i took one glass1 ,i could not refrain4' ,such statements abound in dipsomaniacs' mouths4 ,between this extreme1 and the other of the man who is sickened by a single glass of beer1 there are all intermediates4 ,now1 given an abundant and accessible supply of alcohol to a race1 what happens8 ,those who are not tempted or have adequate control1 do not drink to excess2 those who are so constituted as to crave the effects of alcohol 7once they have experienced them71 and who lack the ability to deny themselves the immediate pleasure for the sake of a future gain1 seek to renew these pleasures of intoxication at every opportunity2 and the well attested result is that they are likely to drink themselves to a premature death4 ,although it is a fact that the birth-rate in drunkard's families may be and often is larger than that of the general population1#bj it is none the less a fact that many of the worst drunkards leave no or few offspring4 ,they die of their own excesses at an early age2 or their conduct makes them unattractive as mates2 or they give so little care to their children that the latter die from neglect1 exposure or accident4 ,as these drunkards would tend to hand down their own inborn peculiarity1 or weakness for alcohol1 to their children1 it must be obvious that their death results in a smaller proportion of such persons in the next generation4 ,in other words1 natural selection is at work again here1 with alcohol as its agent4 ,by killing off the worst drunkards in each generation1 nature provides that the following generation shall contain fewer people who lack the power to resist the attraction of the effect of alcohol1 or who have a tendency to use it to such an extent as to injure their minds and bodies4 ,and it must be obvious that the speed and efficacy of this ruthless temperance reform movement are proportionate to the abundance and accessibility of the supply of alcohol4 ,where the supply is ample and available1 there is certain to be a relatively high death-rate among those who find it too attractive1 and the average of the race therefore is certain to become stronger in this respect with each generation4 ,such a conclusion can be abundantly justified by an appeal to the history of the ,teutonic nations1 the nations around the ,mediterranean1 the ,jews1 or any race which has been submitted to the test4 ,there seems hardly room for dispute on the reality of this phase of natural selection4 ,but there is another way in which the process of strengthening the race against the attraction and effect of alcohol may be going on at the same time4 ,if the drug does actually injure the germ-plasm1 and set up a deterioriation1 it is obvious that natural selection is given another point at which to work4 ,the more deteriorated would be eliminated in each generation in competition with the less deteriorated or normal2 and the process of racial purification would then go on the more rapidly4 ,the fact that races long submitted to the action of alcohol have become relatively resistant to it1 therefore1 does not in itself answer the question of whether alcohol injures the human germ-plasm4 ,the possible racial effect of alcoholization is1 in short1 a much more complicated problem than it appears at first sight to be4 ,it involves the action of natural selection in several important ways1 and this action might easily mask the direct action of alcohol on the germ-plasm1 if there be any measurable direct result4 ,no longer content with a long perspective historical view1 we will scrutinize the direct investigations of the problem which have been made during recent years4 ,these investigations have in many cases been widely advertised to the public1 and their conclusions have been so much repeated that they are often taken at their face value1 without critical examination4 ,it must be borne in mind that the solution of the problem depends on finding evidence of degeneracy or impairment in the offspring of persons who have used alcohol1 and that this relation might be explainable in one or more of three ways3 7#a7 ,it may be that alcoholism is merely a symptom of a degenerate stock4 ,in this case the children will be defective1 not because their parents drank1 but because their parents were defective--the parents' drinking being merely one of the symptoms of their defect4 7#b7 ,it may be that alcohol directly poisons the germ-plasm1 in such a way that parents of sound stock1 who drink alcoholic beverages1 will have defective offspring4 7#c7 ,it may be that the degeneracy observed in the children of drunkards 7for of course no one will deny that children of drunkards are frequently defective7 is due solely to social and economic causes1 or other causes in the environment3 that the drunken parents1 for instance1 do not take adequate care of their children1 and that this lack of care leads to the defects of the children4 ,the latter influence is doubtless one that is nearly always at work1 but it is wholly outside the scope of the present inquiry1 and we shall therefore ignore it1 save as it may appear incidentally4 ,nor does it require emphasis here2 for the disastrous social and economic effects of alcoholism are patent to every observer4 ,we find it most convenient to concentrate our attention first on the second of the questions above enumerated3 to ask whether there is any good evidence that the use of alcoholic beverages by men and women really does originate degeneracy in their offspring4 ,to get such evidence1 one must seek an instance that will be crucial1 one that will leave no room for other interpretations4 ,one must1 therefore1 exclude consideration of cases where a mother drank before child birth4 ,it is well-known that alcohol can pass through the placenta1 and that if a prospective mother drinks1 the percentage of alcohol in the circulation of the unborn child will very soon be nearly equal to that in her own circulation4 ,it is well established that such a condition is extremely injurious to the child2 but it has nothing directly to do with heredity4 ,therefore we can not accept evidence of the supposed effect of alcohol on the fertilized egg-cell1 at any stage in its development1 because that is an effect on the individual1 not on posterity4 ,and the only means by which we can wholly avoid this fallacy is to give up altogether an attempt to prove our case by citing instances in which the mother was alcoholic4 ,if this is not done1 there will always be liability of mistaking an effect of prenatal nutrition for a direct injury to the germ-plasm4 ,but if we can find cases where the mother was of perfectly sound stock1 and non-alcoholic2 where the father was of sound stock1 but alcoholic2 and where the offspring were impaired in ways that can be plausibly attributed to an earlier injury to the germ-plasm by the father's alcohol2 then we have evidence that must weigh heavily with the fair-minded4 ,an interesting case is the well-known one recorded by ,schweighofer1 which is summarized as follows3 ,a normal woman married a normal man and had three sound children4 ,the husband died and the woman married a drunkard and gave birth to three other children2 one of these became a drunkard2 one had infantilism1 while the third was a social degenerate and a drunkard4 ,the first two of these children contracted tuberculosis1 which had never before been in the family4 ,the woman married a third time and by this sober husband again produced sound children4 ,although such evidence is at first sight pertinent1 it lacks much of being convincing4 ,much must be known about the ancestry of the drunken husband1 and of the woman herself1 before it can be certain that the defective children owe their defect to alcoholism rather than to heredity4 ,we can not undertake to review all the literature of this subject1 for it fills volumes1 but we shall refer to a few of the studies which are commonly cited1 by the believers in the racial-poison character of alcohol1 as being the most weighty4 ,taav ,laitinen of ,helsingfors secured information from the parents of #b1abe babies1 who agreed to weigh their infants once a month for the first eight months after birth1 and who also furnished information about their own drinking habits4 ,his conclusion is that the average weight of the abstainer's child is greater at birth1 that these children develop more rapidly during the first eight months than do the children of the moderate drinker1 and that the latter exceed in the same way the children of the heavier drinker4 ,but a careful analysis of his work by ,karl ,pearson1 whose great ability in handling statistics has thrown light on many dark places in the alcohol problem1 shows#ba that ,professor ,laitinen's statistical methods were so faulty that no weight can be attached to his conclusions4 ,furthermore1 he appears to have mixed various social classes and races together without distinction2 and he has made no distinction between parents1 one of whom drank1 and parents1 both of whom drank4 ,yet1 this distinction1 as we have pointed out1 is a critical one for such inquiries4 ,professor ,laitinen's paper1 according to one believer in racial poisons1 surpasses in magnitude and precision all the many studies of this subject which have proved the relation between drink and degeneracy4 ,as a fact1 it proves nothing of the sort as to race degeneracy4 ,again1 ,t4 ,a4 ,mac,nicholl reported on #ee1jjj ,american school children1 from #bj1adg of whom he secured information about the parents' attitude to alcoholic drinks4 ,he found an extraordinarily large proportion 7#eh7 of deficient and backward children in the group4 ,but the mere bulk of his work1 probably1 has given it far more prestige than it deserves2 for his methods are careless1 his classifications vague1 his information inadequate2 he seems to have dealt with a degenerate section of the population1 which does not offer suitable material for testing the question at issue2 and he states that many of the children drank and smoked1--hence1 any defects found in them may be due to their own intemperance1 rather than that of their parents4 ,in short1 ,dr4 ,mac,nicholl's data offer no help in an attempt to decide whether alcoholism is an inheritable effect4 ,another supposed piece of evidence which has deceived a great many students is the investigation of ,bezzola into the distribution of the birth-rate of imbeciles in ,switzerland4 ,he announced that in wine-growing districts the number of idiots conceived at the time of the vintage and carnival is very large1 while at other periods it is almost nil4 ,the conclusion was that excesses of drunkenness occurring in connection with the vintage and carnival caused this production of imbeciles4 ,but aside from the unjustified assumptions involved in his reasoning1 ,professor ,pearson has recently gone over the data and shown the faulty statistical method2 that1 in fact1 the number of imbeciles conceived at vintage-time1 in excess of the average monthly number1 was only three in spite of the large numbers6 ,bezzola's testimony1 which has long been cited as proof of the disastrous results of the use of alcohol at the time of conception1 must be discarded4 ,demme's plausible investigation is also widely quoted to support the belief that alcohol poisons the germ-plasm4 ,he studied the offspring of #aj drunken and #aj sober pairs of parents1 and found that of the #fa children of the latter1 #ej were normal1 while of the #eg progeny of the drunkards1 only nine were normal4 ,this is a good specimen of much of the evidence cited to prove that alcohol impairs the germ-plasm2 it has been widely circulated by propagandists in ,america during recent years4 ,of course1 its value depends wholly on whether the #bj pairs of parents were of sound1 comparable stock4 ,karl ,pearson has pointed out that this is not the case4 ,demme selected his children of drunkards by selecting children who came to his hospital on account of imperfect development of speech1 mental defect1 imbecility or idiocy4 ,when he found families in which such defective children occurred1 he then inquired as to their ancestry4 ,many of these children1 he found1 were reduced to a condition approaching epilepsy1 or actually epileptic1 because they themselves were alcoholic4 ,obviously such material can not legitimately be used to prove that the use of alcohol by parents injures the heredity of their children4 ,the figures do not at all give the proof we are seeking1 that alcohol can so affect sound germ-plasm as to lead to the production of defective children4 ,dr4 ,bertholet made a microscopic examination of the reproductive glands of #ge chronic male alcoholics1 and in #cg cases he found them more or less atrophied1 and devoid of spermatozoa4 ,observing the same glands in non-alcoholics who had died of various chronic diseases1 such as tuberculosis1 he found no such condition4 ,his conclusion is that the reproductive glands are more sensitive to the effects of alcohol than any other organ4 ,so far as is known to us1 his results have never been discredited2 they have1 on the contrary1 been confirmed by other investigators4 ,they are of great significance to eugenics1 in showing how the action of natural selection to purge the race of drunkards is sometimes facilitated in a way we had not counted1 through reduced fertility due to alcohol1 as well as through death due to alcohol4 ,but it should not be thought that his results are typical1 and that all chronic alcoholists become sterile3 every reader will know of cases in his own experience1 where drunkards have large families2 and the experimental work with smaller animals also shows that long-continued inebriety is compatible with great fecundity4 ,it is probable that extreme inebriety reduces fertility1 but a lesser amount increases it in the cases of many men by reducing the prudence which leads to limited families4 ,in #aiaj appeared the investigation of ,miss ,ethel ,m4 ,elderton and ,karl ,pearson on school children in ,edinburgh and ,manchester4#bb ,their aim was to take a population under the same environmental conditions1 and with no discoverable initial differentiation1 and inquire whether the temperate and intemperate sections had children differing widely in physique and mentality4 ,handling their material with the most refined statistical methods1 and in an elaborate way1 they reached the conclusion that parental alcoholism does not markedly affect the physique or mentality of the offspring as children4 ,whether results might differ in later life1 their material did not show4 ,their conclusions were as follows3 7#a7 ,there is a higher death-rate among the offspring of alcoholic than among the offspring of sober parents4 ,this appears to be more marked in the case of the mother than in the case of the father1 and since it is sensibly higher in the case of the mother who has drinking bouts periodical sprees than of the mother who habitually drinks1 it would appear to be due very considerably to accidents and gross carelessness and possibly in a minor degree to toxic effect on the offspring4 ,owing to the greater fertility of alcoholic parents1 the net family of the sober is hardly larger than the net family of the alcoholic4 ,it should be remembered that the study did not include childless couples4 7#b7 ,the mean weight and height of the children of alcoholic parents are slightly greater than those of sober parents1 but as the age of the former children is slightly greater1 the correlations when corrected for age are slightly positive1 i4e41 there is slightly greater height and weight in the children of the sober4 7#c7 ,the wages of the alcoholic as contrasted with the sober parent show a slight difference compatible with the employers' dislike for an alcoholic employee1 but wholly inconsistent with a marked mental or physical inferiority in the alcoholic parent4 7#d7 ,the general health of the children of alcoholic parents appears on the whole slightly better than that of sober parents4 ,there are fewer delicate children1 and in a most marked way cases of tuberculosis and epilepsy are less frequent than among the children of sober parents4 ,the source of this relation may be sought in two directions2 the physically strongest in the community have probably the greatest capacity and taste for alcohol4 ,further the higher death rate of the children of alcoholic parents probably leaves the fittest to survive4 ,epilepsy and tuberculosis both depending upon inherited constitutional conditions1 they will be more common in the parents of affected offspring1 and probably if combined with alcohol1 are incompatible with any length of life or size of family4 ,if these views be correct1 we can only say that parental alcoholism has no marked effect on filial health4 7#e7 ,parental alcoholism is not the source of mental defect in offspring4 7#f7 ,the relationship1 if any1 between parental alcoholism and filial intelligence is so slight that even its sign can not be determined from the present material4 7#g7 ,the normal visioned and normal refractioned offspring appear to be in rather a preponderance in the families of the drinking parents1 the parents who have 'bouts' give intermediate results1 but there is no substantial relationship between goodness of sight and parental alcoholism4 ,some explanation was sought on the basis of alcoholic homes driving the children out into the streets4 ,this was found to be markedly the case1 the children of alcoholic parents spending much more of their spare time in the streets4 ,an examination1 however1 of the vision and refraction of children with regard to the time they spent in-and out-of-doors1 showed no clear and definite result1 the children who spent the whole or most of their spare time in the streets having the most myopia and also most normal sight4 ,it was not possible to assert that the outdoor life was better for the sight1 or that the better sight of the offspring of alcoholic parentage was due to the greater time spent outdoors4 7#h7 ,the frequency of diseases of the eye and eyelids1 which might well be attributed to parental neglect1 was found to have little1 if any1 relation to parental alcoholism4 ,to sum up1 then no marked relation has been found between the intelligence1 physique or disease of the offspring and the parental alcoholism in any of the categories mentioned4 ,on the whole the balance turns as often in favor of the alcoholic as of the non-alcoholic parentage4 ,it is needless to say that we do not attribute this to the alcohol but to certain physical and possibly mental characters which appear to be associated with the tendency to alcohol4 ,of the many criticisms made of this work1 most are irrelevant to our present purpose1 or have been satisfactorily met by the authors4 ,it must be said1 however1 that as the children examined were all school children1 the really degenerate offspring of alcoholics1 if any such existed1 would not have been found1 because they would not have been admitted to the school4 ,further1 it is not definitely known whether the parents' alcoholism dated from before or after the birth of the child examined4 ,then1 the report did not exactly compare the offspring of drinkers and non-drinkers1 but classified the parents as those who drank1 and those who were sober2 the latter were not1 for the most part1 teetotalers1 but merely persons whose use of alcohol was so moderate that it exercised no visible bad influence on the health of the individual or the welfare of the home4 ,something can be said on both sides of all these objections2 but giving them as much weight as one thinks necessary1 the fact remains that the ,elderton-,pearson investigation failed to demonstrate any racial poisoning due to alcohol1 in the kind of cases where one would certainly have expected it to be demonstrated1 if it existed4 ,much more observation and measurement must be made before a generalization can be safely drawn1 as to whether alcohol is or is not a racial poison1 in the sense in which that expression is used by eugenists4 ,it has been shown that the evidence which is commonly believed to prove beyond doubt that alcohol does injure the germ-plasm1 is mostly worthless4 ,but it must not be thought that the authors intend to deny that alcohol is a racial poison1 where the dosage is very heavy and continuous4 ,if we have no good evidence that it is1 we equally lack evidence on the other side4 ,we wish only to suggest caution against making rash generalizations on the subject which lack supporting evidence and therefore are a weak basis for propaganda4 ,so far as immediate action is concerned1 eugenics must proceed on the basis that there is no proof that alcohol as ordinarily consumed will injure the human germ-plasm4 ,to say this is not in any way to minify the evil results which alcohol often has on the individual1 or the disastrous consequences to his offspring1 euthenically4 ,but nothing is to be gained by making an assumption of racial poisoning1 and acting on that assumption1 without evidence that it is true2 and the temperance movement would command more respect from genetics if it ceased to allege proof that alcohol has a directly injurious effect on the race1 by poisoning the human germ-plasm1 when no adequate proof exists4 ,how1 then1 can one account for the immense bulk of cases1 some of which come within everyone's range of vision1 where alcoholism in the parent is associated with defect in the offspring8 ,by a process of exclusion1 we are driven to the explanation already indicated3 that alcoholism may be a symptom1 rather than a cause1 of degeneracy4 ,some drunkards are drunkards1 because they come of a stock that is1 in a way1 mentally defective2 physical defects are frequently correlated in such stocks2 naturally the children inherit part or all of the parental defects including1 very likely1 alcoholism2 but the parent's alcoholism1 we repeat1 must not be considered the cause of the child's defect4 ,the child would have been defective in the same way1 regardless of the parent's beverage4 ,it follows1 then1 as a practical consequence for eugenics1 that in the light of present knowledge any campaign against alcoholic liquors would be better based on the very adequate ground of physiology and economics1 than on genetics4 ,from the narrowest point of view of genetics1 the way to solve the liquor problem would be1 not to eliminate drink1 but to eliminate the drinker3 to prevent the reproduction of the degenerate stocks and the tainted strains that contribute most of the chronic alcoholics4 ,we do not mean to advocate this as the only proper basis for the temperance campaign1 because the physiological and economic aspects are of sufficient importance to keep up the campaign at twice the present intensity4#bc ,but it is desirable to have the eugenic aspect of the matter clearly understood1 and to point out that in checking the production of defectives in the ,united ,states1 eugenics will do its share1 and a big share1 toward the solution of the drink problem1 which is at the same time being attacked along other and equally praiseworthy lines by other people4 ,a number of other substances are sometimes credited with being racial poisons4 ,the poison of ,spirochte pallida1 the microrganism which causes syphilis1 has been widely credited with a directly noxious effect on the germ-plasm1 and the statement has been made that this effect can be transmitted for several generations4 ,on the other hand1 healthy children are reported as being born to cured syphilitics4 ,further evidence is needed1 taking care to eliminate cases of infection from the parents4 ,if the alleged deterioration really occurs1 it will still remain to be determined if the effect is permanent or an induction1 that is1 a change in the germ-cells which does not permanently alter the nature of the inherited traits1 and which would disappear in a few generations under favorable conditions4 ,the case against lead is similar4 ,sir ,thomas ,oliver1 in his ,diseases of ,occupation1 sums up the evidence as follows3 ,rennert has attempted to express in statistical terms the varying degrees of gravity in the prognosis of cases in which at the moment of conception both parents are the subjects of lead poisoning1 also when one alone is affected4 ,the malign influence of lead is reflected upon the fetus and upon the continuation of the pregnancy #id times out of #ajj when both parents have been working in lead1 #ib times when the mother alone is affected1 and #fc times when it is the father alone who has worked in lead4 ,taking seven healthy women who were married to lead workers1 and in whom there was a total of #cb pregnancies1 ,lewin 7,berlin7 tells us that the results were as follows3 #aa miscarriages1 one stillbirth1 #h children died within the first year after their birth1 four in the second year1 five in the third year and one subsequent to this1 leaving only two children out of #cb pregnancies as likely to live to manhood4 ,in cases where women have had a series of miscarriages so long as their husbands worked in lead1 a change of industrial occupation on the part of the husband restores to the wives normal child-bearing powers4 ,the data of ,constantin ,paul1 published as long ago as #ahfj1 indicated that lead exercised an injurious effect through the male as well as the female parent4 ,this sort of evidence is certainly weak1 in that it fails to take into account the possible effects of environment2 and one would do well to keep an open mind on the subject4 ,in a recent series of careful experiments at the ,university of ,wisconsin1 ,leon ,j4 ,cole has treated male rabbits with lead4 ,he reports3 ,the 'leaded' males have produced as many or more offspring than normal fathers1 but their young have averaged smaller in size and are of lowered vitality1 so that larger numbers of them die off at an early age than is the case with those from untreated fathers4 ,illustration3 ,,effect ,,of ,,lead ,,as ,a ,,racial ,,poison ,,fig4 #g4--,that lead poisoning can affect the germ plasm of rabbits is indicated by experiments conducted by ,leon ,j4 ,cole at the ,university of ,wisconsin4 ,with reference to the above illustration1 ,professor ,cole writes3 ,each of the photographs shows two young from the same litter1 in all cases the mother being a normal 7nonpoisoned7 albino4 ,in each of the litters the white young is from an albino father which received the lead treatment1 while the pigmented offspring is from a normal1 homozygous1 pigmented male4 ,while these are1 it is true1 selected individuals1 they represent what tend to be average1 rather than extreme1 conditions4 ,the albino male was considerably larger than the pigmented male2 nevertheless his young average distinctly smaller in size4 ,note also the brighter expression of the pigmented young4 ,there is1 then1 a suspicion that lead is a racial poison1 but no evidence as yet as to whether the effect is permanent or in the nature of an induction4 ,this concludes the short list of substances for which there has been any plausible case made out1 as racial poisons4 ,gonorrhea1 malaria1 arsenic1 tobacco1 and numerous other substances have been mentioned from time to time1 and even ardently contended by propagandists to be racial poisons1 but in the case of none of them1 so far as we know1 is there any evidence to support the claim4 ,and as has been shown1 in the case of the three chief so-called racial poisons1 alcohol1 syphilis and lead1 the evidence is not great4 ,we are thus in a position to state that1 from the eugenists' point of view1 the origination of degeneracy1 by some direct action of the germ-plasm1 is a contingency that hardly needs to be reckoned with4 ,even in case the evidence were much stronger than it is1 the damage done may only be a physiological or chemical induction1 the effects of which will wear off in a few generations2 rather than a radical change in the hereditary constituents of the germ-plasm4 ,the germ-plasm is so carefully isolated and guarded that it is almost impossible to injure it1 except by treatment so severe as to kill it altogether2 and the degeneracy with which eugenists are called on to deal is a degeneracy which is running along from generation to generation and which1 when once stopped by the cessation of reproduction1 is in little danger of being originated anew through some racial poison4 ,through these facts1 the problem of race betterment is not only immensely simplified1 but it is clearly shown to be more a matter for treatment by the biologist1 acting through eugenics1 than for the optimistic improver of the environment4 ,there is another way in which it is widely believed that some such result as a direct influence of the germ-plasm can be produced3 that is through the imaginary process known as maternal impression1 prenatal influence1 etc4 ,belief in maternal impressions is no novelty4 ,in the book of ,genesis#bd ,jacob is described as making use of it to get the better of his tricky father-in-law4 ,some animal breeders still profess faith in it as a part of their methods of breeding3 if they want a black calf1 for instance1 they will keep a white cow in a black stall1 and express perfect confidence that her offspring will resemble midnight darkness4 ,it is easy to see that this method1 if it works1 would be a potent instrument for eugenics4 ,and it is being recommended for that reason4 ,says a recent writer1 who professes on the cover of her book to give a complete and intelligent summary of all the principles of eugenics3 ,too much emphasis can not be placed upon the necessity of young people making the proper choice of mates in marriage2 yet if the production of superior children were dependent upon that one factor1 the outlook would be most discouraging to prospective fathers and mothers1 for weak traits of character are to be found in all4 ,but when young people learn that by a conscious endeavor to train themselves1 they are thereby training their unborn children1 they can feel that there is some hope and joy in parentage2 that it is something to which they can look forward with delight and even rapture2 then they will be inspired to work hard to attain the best and highest that there is in them1 leading the lives that will not only be a blessing to themselves1 but to their succeeding generation4 ,the author of this quotation has no difficulty in finding supporters4 ,many physicians and surgeons1 who are supposed to be trained in scientific methods of thought1 will indorse what she says4 ,the author of one of the most recent and in many respects admirable books on the care of babies1 is almost contemptuous in her disdain for those who think otherwise3 ,science wrangles over the rival importance of heredity and environment1 but we women know what effects prenatal influence works on children4 ,the woman who frets brings forth a nervous child4 ,the woman who rebels generally bears a morbid child4 ,self-control1 cheerfulness and love for the little life breathing in unison with your own will practically insure you a child of normal physique and nerves4 ,such statements1 backed up by a great array of writers and speakers whom the layman supposes to be scientific1 and who think themselves scientific1 can not fail to influence strongly an immense number of fathers and mothers4 ,if they are truly scientific statements1 their general acceptance must be a great good4 ,but think of the misplaced effort if these widespread statements are false6 ,is there1 or is there not1 a short cut to race betterment8 ,everyone interested in the welfare of the race must feel the necessity of getting at the truth in the case2 and the truth can be found only by rigorously scientific thought4 ,let us turn to the observed facts4 ,this sample is taken from the health department of a popular magazine1 quite recently issued3 ,since birth my body has been covered with scales strikingly resembling the surface of a fish4 ,my parents and ,i have expended considerable money on remedies and specialists without deriving any permanent benefit4 ,i bathe my entire body with hot water daily1 using the best quality of soap4 ,the scales fall off continually4 ,my brother1 who is younger than myself1 is afflicted with the same trouble1 but in a lesser degree4 ,my sister1 the third member of the family1 has been troubled only on the knees and abdomen4 ,my mother has always been quite nervous and susceptible to any unusual mental impression4 ,she believes that she marked me by craving fish1 and preferring to clean them herself4 ,during the prenatal life of my brother1 she worried much lest she might mark him in the same way4 ,in the case of my sister she tried to control her mind4#be ,another is taken from a little publication which is devoted to eugenics4#bf ,as a horrible example the editor gives the case of ,jesse ,pomeroy1 a murderer whom older readers will remember4 ,his father1 it appears1 worked in a meat market4 ,before the birth of ,jesse1 his mother went daily to the shop to carry a luncheon to her husband1 and her eyes naturally fell upon the bloody carcases hung about the walls4 ,inevitably1 the sight of such things would produce bloody thoughts in the mind of the unborn child6 ,these are extreme cases2 we quote from a medieval medical writer another case that carries the principle to its logical conclusion3 ,a woman saw a ,negro1--at that time a rarity in ,europe4 ,she immediately had a sickening suspicion that her child would be born with a black skin4 ,to obviate the danger1 she had a happy inspiration--she hastened home and washed her body all over with warm water4 ,when the child appeared1 his skin was found to be normally white--except between the fingers and toes1 where it was black4 ,his mother had failed to wash herself thoroughly in those places6 ,of course1 few of the cases now credited are as gross as this1 but the principle involved remains the same4 ,we will take a hypothetical case of a common sort for the sake of clearness3 the mother receives a wound on the arm2 when her child is born it is found to have a scar of some sort at about the same place on the corresponding arm4 ,few mothers would fail to see the result of a maternal impression here4 ,but how could this mark have been transmitted8 ,this is not a question of the transmission of acquired characters through the germ-plasm1 or anything of that sort1 for the child was already formed when the mother was injured4 ,one is obliged1 therefore1 to believe that the injury was in some way transmitted through the placenta1 the only connection between the mother and the unborn child2 and that it was then reproduced in some way in the child4 ,here is a situation which1 examined in the cold light of reason1 puts a heavy enough strain on the credulity4 ,such an influence can reach the embryo only through the blood of the mother4 ,is it conceivable to any rational human being1 that a scar1 or what not1 on the mother's body can be dissolved in her blood1 pass through the placenta into the child's circulation1 and then gather itself together into a definite scar on the infant's arm8 ,there is just as much reason to expect the child to grow to resemble the cow on whose milk it is fed after birth1 as to expect it to grow to resemble its mother1 because of prenatal influence1 as the term is customarily used1 for once development has begun1 the child draws nothing more than nourishment from its mother4 ,of course we are accustomed to the pious rejoinder that man must not expect to understand all the mysteries of life2 and to hear vague talk about the wonder of wireless telegraphy4 ,but wireless telegraphy is something very definite and tangible--there is little mystery about it4 ,waves of a given frequency are sent off1 and caught by an instrument attuned to the same frequency4 ,how any rational person can support a belief in maternal impressions by such an analogy1 if he knows anything about anatomy and physiology1 passes comprehension4 ,now we are far from declaring that a reason can be found for everything that happens4 ,science does not refuse belief in an observed fact merely because it is unexplainable4 ,but let us examine this case of maternal impressions a little further4 ,what can be learned of the time element8 ,immediately arises the significant fact that most of the marks1 deformities and other effects which are credited to prenatal influence must on this hypothesis take place at a comparatively late period in the antenatal life of the child4 ,the mother is frightened by a dog2 the child is born with a dog-face4 ,if it be asked when her fright occurred1 it is usually found that it was not earlier than the third month1 more likely somewhere near the sixth4 ,but it ought to be well known that the development of all the main parts of the body has been completed at the end of the second month4 ,at that time1 the mother rarely does more than suspect the coming of the child1 and events which she believes to mark the child1 usually occur after the fourth or fifth month1 when the child is substantially formed1 and it is impossible that many of the effects supposed to occur could actually occur4 ,indeed1 it is now believed that most errors of development1 such as lead to the production of great physical defects1 are due to some cause within the embryo itself1 and that most of them take place in the first three or four weeks1 when the mother is by no means likely to influence the course of embryological development by her mental attitude toward it1 for the very good reason that she knows nothing about it4 ,unless she is immured or isolated from the world1 nearly every expectant mother sees many sights of the kind that1 according to popular tradition1 cause marks4 ,why is it that results are so few8 ,why is it that women doctors and nurses1 who are constantly exposed to unpleasant sights1 have children that do not differ from those of other mothers8 ,darwin1 who knew how to think scientifically1 saw that this is the logical line of proof or disproof4 ,when ,sir ,joseph ,hooker1 the botanist and geologist who was his closest friend1 wrote of a supposed case of maternal impression1 one of his kinswomen having insisted that a mole which appeared on her child was the effect of fright upon herself for having1 before the birth of the child1 blotted with sepia a copy of ,turner's ,liber ,studiorum that had been lent her with special injunctions to be careful1 ,darwin#bg replied3 ,i should be very much obliged1 if at any future or leisure time you could tell me on what you ground your doubtful belief in imagination of a mother affecting her offspring4 ,i have attended to the several statements scattered about1 but do not believe in more than accidental coincidences4 ,w4 ,hunter told my father1 then in a lying-in hospital1 that in many thousand cases he had asked the mother1 before her confinement1 whether anything had affected her imagination1 and recorded the answers2 and absolutely not one case came right1 though1 when the child was anything remarkable1 they afterwards made the cap to fit4 ,any doctor who has handled many maternity cases can call to mind instances where every condition was present to perfection1 for the production of maternal impression1 on the time-honored lines4 ,none occurred4 ,most mothers can1 if they give the matter careful consideration1 duplicate this experience from their own4 ,why is it that results are so rare8 ,that ,darwin gave the true explanation of a great many of the alleged cases is perfectly clear to us4 ,when the child is born with any peculiar characteristic1 the mother hunts for some experience in the preceding months that might explain it4 ,if she succeeds in finding any experience of her own at all resembling in its effects the effect which the infant shows1 she considers she has proved causation1 has established a good case of prenatal influence4 ,it is not causation2 it is coincidence4 ,if the prospective mother plays or sings a great deal1 with the idea of giving her child a musical endowment1 and the child actually turns out to have musical talent1 the mother at once recalls her yearning that such might be the case2 her assiduous practice which she hoped would be of benefit to her child4 ,she immediately decides that it did benefit him1 and she becomes a convinced witness to the belief in prenatal culture4 ,has she not herself demonstrated it8 ,she has not4 ,but if she would examine the child's heredity1 she would probably find a taste for music running in the germ-plasm4 ,her study and practice had not the slightest effect on this hereditary disposition2 it is equally certain that the child would have been born with a taste for music if its mother had devoted eight hours a day for nine months to cultivating thoughts of hatred for the musical profession and repugnance for everything that possesses rhythm or harmony4 ,it necessarily follows1 then1 that attempts to influence the inherent nature of the child1 physically or mentally1 through prenatal culture1 are doomed to disappointment4 ,the child develops along the lines of the potentialities which existed in the two germ-cells that united to become its origin4 ,the course of its development can not be changed in any specific way by any corresponding act or attitude of its mother1 good hygiene alone need be her concern4 ,it must necessarily follow that attempts to improve the race on a large scale1 by the general adoption of prenatal culture as an instrument of eugenics1 are useless4 ,indeed1 the logical implication of the teaching is the reverse of eugenic4 ,it would give a woman reason to think she might marry a man whose heredity was most objectionable1 and yet1 by prenatal culture1 save her children from paying the inevitable penalty of this weak heritage4 ,the world has long shuddered over the future of the girl who marries a man to reform him2 but think what it means to the future of the race if a superior girl1 armed with correspondence school lessons in prenatal culture1 marries a man to reform his children6 ,those who practice this doctrine are doomed to disillusion4 ,the time they spend on prenatal culture is not cultivating the child2 it is merely perpetuating a fallacy4 ,not only is their time thus spent wasted1 but worse1 for they might have employed it in ways that really would have benefited the child--in open-air exercise1 for instance4 ,to recapitulate1 the facts are3 7#a7 ,that there is1 before birth1 no connection between mother and child1 by which impressions on the mother's mind or body could be transmitted to the child's mind or body4 7#b7 ,that in most cases the marks or defects whose origin is attributed to maternal impression1 must necessarily have been complete long before the incident occurred which the mother1 after the child's birth1 ascribes as the cause4 7#c7 ,that these phenomena usually do not occur when they are1 and by hypothesis ought to be1 expected4 ,the explanations are found after the event1 and that is regarded as causation which is really coincidence4 ,pre-natal care as a euthenic measure is of course not only legitimate but urgent4 ,the embryo derives its entire nourishment from the mother2 and its development depends wholly on its supply of nourishment4 ,anything which affects the supply of nourishment will affect the embryo in a general1 not a particular way4 ,if the mother's mental and physical condition be good1 the supply of nourishment to the embryo is likely to be good1 and development will be normal4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the mother is constantly harassed by fear or hatred1 her physical health will suffer1 she will be unable properly to nourish her developing offspring1 and it may be its poor physical condition when born1 indicates this4 ,further1 if the mother experiences a great mental or physical shock1 it may so upset her health that her child is not properly nourished1 its development is arrested1 mentally as well as physically1 and it is born defective4 ,h4 ,h4 ,goddard1 for example1 tells#bh of a high-grade imbecile in the ,training ,school at ,vineland1 ,n4 ,j4 ,nancy belongs to a thoroughly normal1 respectable family4 ,there is nothing to account for the condition unless one accepts the mother's theory4 ,while it sounds somewhat like the discarded theory of maternal impression1 yet it is not impossible that the fright and shock which the mother received may have interfered with the nutrition of the unborn child and resulted in the mental defect4 ,the story in brief is as follows4 ,shortly before this child was born1 the mother was compelled to take care of a sister-in-law who was in a similar condition and very ill with convulsions4 ,our child's mother was many times frightened severely as her sister-in-law was quite out of her mind4 ,it is easily understandable that any event which makes such an impression on the mother as to affect her health1 might so disturb the normal functioning of her body that her child would be badly nourished1 or even poisoned4 ,such facts undoubtedly form the basis on which the airy fabric of prenatal culture was reared by those who lived before the days of scientific biology4 ,thus1 it is easy enough to see the real explanation of such cases as those mentioned near the beginning of this discussion4 ,the mothers who fret and rebel over their maternity1 she found1 are likely to bear neurotic children4 ,it is obvious 7#a7 that mothers who fret and rebel are quite likely themselves to be neurotic in constitution1 and the child naturally gets its heredity from them3 7#b7 that constant fretting and rebellion would so affect the mother's health that her child would not be properly nourished4 ,when1 however1 she goes on to draw the inference that self-control1 cheerfulness and love 444 will practically insure you a child normal in physique and nerves1 we are obliged to stop4 ,we know that what she says is not true4 ,if the child's heredity is bad1 neither self-control1 cheerfulness1 love1 nor anything else known to science1 can make that heredity good4 ,at first thought1 one may wish it were otherwise4 ,there is something inspiring in the idea of a mother overcoming the effect of heredity by the sheer force of her own will-power4 ,but perhaps in the long run it is as well2 for there are advantages on the other side4 ,it should be a satisfaction to mothers to know that their children will not be marked or injured by untoward events in the antenatal days2 that if the child's heredity can not be changed for the better1 neither can it be changed for the worse4 ,the prenatal culturists and maternal-impressionists are trying to place on her a responsibility which she need not bear4 ,obviously1 it is the mother who is most nearly concerned with the bogy of maternal impressions1 and it should make for her peace of mind to know that it is nothing more than a bogy4 ,it is important for the expectant mother to keep herself in as nearly perfect condition as possible1 both physically and mentally4 ,her bodily mechanism will then run smoothly1 and the child will get from her blood the nourishment needed for its development4 ,beyond that there is nothing the mother can do to influence the development of her child4 ,there is another and somewhat similar fallacy which deserves a passing word1 although it is of more concern to the livestock breeder than to the eugenist4 ,it is called telegony and is1 briefly1 this3 that conception by a female results in a definite modification of her germ-plasm from the influence of the male1 and that this modification will be shown in the offspring she may subsequently bear to a second male4 ,the only case where it is often invoked in the human race is in miscegenation4 ,a white woman has been married to a ,negro1 for instance1 and has borne one or more mulatto offspring4 ,subsequently1 she mates with a white man2 but her children by him1 instead of being pure white1 it is alleged1 will be also mulattoes4 ,the idea of telegony1 the persistent influence of the first mating1 may be invoked to explain this discrepancy4 ,it is a pure myth4 ,there is no good evidence#bi to support it1 and there is abundant evidence to contradict it4 ,telegony is still believed by many animal breeders1 but it has no place in science4 ,in such a case as the one quoted1 the explanation is undoubtedly that the supposed father is not the real one2 and this explanation will dispose of all other cases of telegony which can not be explained1 as in most instances they can be1 by the mixed ancestry of the offspring and the innate tendency of all living things to vary4 ,now to sum up this long chapter4 ,we started with a consideration of the germ-plasm1 the physical basis of life2 pointing out that it is continuous from generation to generation1 and potentially immortal2 that it is carefully isolated and guarded in the body1 so that it is not likely to be injured by any ordinary means4 ,one of the logical results of this continuity of the germ-plasm is that modifications of the body of the parent1 or acquired characters1 can hardly be transferred to the germ-plasm and become a part of the inheritance4 ,further the experimental evidence upholds this position1 and the inheritance of acquired body characters may be disregarded by eugenics1 which is therefore obliged to concern itself solely with the material already in existence in the germ-plasm1 except as that material may be changed by variation which can neither be predicted nor controlled4 ,the evidence that the germ-plasm can be permanently modified does not warrant the belief2 and such results1 if they exist at all1 are not large enough or uniform enough to concern the eugenist4 ,pre-natal culture and telegony were found to be mere delusions4 ,there is no justification for hoping to influence the race for good through the action of any kind of external influences2 and there is not much danger of influencing it for ill through these external influences4 ,the situation must be faced squarely then3 if the race is to be improved1 it must be by the use of the material already in existence2 by endeavor to change the birth-and death-rates so as to alter the relative proportions of the amounts of good and bad germ-plasm in the race4 ,this is the only road by which the goal of eugenics can be reached4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,differences ,,among ,,men ,while ,mr4 ,jefferson1 when he wrote into the ,declaration of ,independence his belief in the self-evidence of the truth that all men are created equal1 may have been thinking of legal rights merely1 he was expressing an opinion common among philosophers of his time4 ,j4 ,j4 ,rousseau it was who made the idea popular1 and it met with widespread acceptance for many years4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 that the phrase has long been a favorite with the demagogue and the utopian4 ,even now the doctrine is by no means dead4 ,the ,american educational system is based largely on this dogma1 and much of the political system seems to be grounded on it4 ,it can be seen in the tenets of labor unions1 in the practice of many philanthropies--traces may be found almost anywhere one turns1 in fact4 ,common enough as applied to mental qualities1 the theory of human equality is even more widely held of moral qualities4 ,men are considered to be equally responsible for their conduct1 and failure to conform to the accepted code in this respect brings punishment4 ,it is sometimes conceded that men have had differing opportunities to learn the principles of morality2 but given equal opportunities1 it is almost universally held that failure to follow the principles indicates not inability but unwillingness4 ,in short1 public opinion rarely admits that men may differ in their inherent capacity to act morally4 ,in view of its almost universal and unquestioned1 although half unconscious1 acceptance as part of the structure of society1 it becomes of the utmost importance that this doctrine of human equality should be examined by scientific methods4 ,fortunately this can be done with ease4 ,methods of mental and physical measurement that have been evolved during the last few decades offer results that admit of no refutation1 and they can be applied in hundreds of different places4 ,illustration3 ,,distribution ,,of #aj-,,year-,,old ,,school ,,children ,,fig4 #h4--,the graph shows that #aj-year-old children in ,connecticut 7#aijc7 are to be found in every grade1 from the first to the eighth4 ,the greatest number is in the fourth grade1 and the number who are advanced is just about the same as the number who are retarded4 ,it will not be worth while to spend any time demonstrating that all individuals differ1 at birth and during their subsequent life1 physically4 ,the fact is patent to all4 ,it carries with it as a necessary corollary mental differences1 since the brain is part of the body2 nevertheless1 we shall demonstrate these mental differences independently4 ,we present in ,fig4 #h a graph from ,e4 ,l4 ,thorndike1 showing the number of #aj-year-old children in ,connecticut 7#aijc7 in each school grade4 ,if the children are all intellectually equal1 all the #aj-year-olds ought to be in the same grade1 or near it4 ,numerous explanations of their wide distribution suggest themselves2 as a working hypothesis one might adopt the suggestion that it is because the children actually differ in innate ability to the extent here indicated4 ,this hypothesis can be tested by a variety of mental measurements4 ,s4 ,a4 ,courtis' investigation of the arithmetical abilities of the children in the schools of ,new ,york ,city will be a good beginning4 ,he measured the achievements of pupils in responding to eight tests1 which were believed to give a fair idea of the pupil's capacity for solving simple arithmetical problems4 ,the results were1 on the average1 similar to the result he got in a certain eighth-grade class1 whose record is shown in ,fig4 #i4 ,it is evident that some of the children were good in arithmetic1 some were poor in it2 the bulk of them were neither good nor bad but half way between1 or1 in statistical language1 mediocre4 ,illustration3 ,,variation ,,in ,,ability ,,fig4 #i4--;,diagram to show the standing of children in a single class in a ,new ,york ,city school1 in respect to their ability in arithmetic4 ,there are wide divergences in the scores they made4 ,the literature of experimental psychology and anthropology is crammed with such examples as the above4 ,no matter what trait of the individual be chosen1 results are analogous4 ,if one takes the simplest traits1 to eliminate the most chances for confusion1 one finds the same conditions every time4 ,whether it be speed in marking off all the ,a's in a printed sheet of capitals1 or in putting together the pieces of a puzzle1 or in giving a reaction to some certain stimulus1 or in making associations between ideas1 or drawing figures1 or memory for various things1 or giving the opposites of words1 or discrimination of lifted weights1 or success in any one of hundreds of other mental tests1 the conclusion is the same4 ,there are wide differences in the abilities of individuals1 no two being alike1 either mentally or physically1 at birth or any time thereafter4 ,illustration3 ,,origin ,,of ,a ,,normal ,,probability ,,curve ,,fig4 #aj4--,when deviations in all directions are equally probable1 as in the case of shots fired at a target by an expert marksman1 the frequencies will arrange themselves in the manner shown by the bullets in compartments above4 ,a line drawn along the tops of these columns would be a normal probability curve4 ,diagram by ,c4 ,h4 ,popenoe4 ,whenever a large enough number of individuals is tested1 these differences arrange themselves in the same general form4 ,it is the form assumed by the distribution of any differences that are governed absolutely by chance4 ,suppose an expert marksman shoots a thousand times at the center of a certain picket in a picket fence1 and that there is no wind or any other source of constant error that would distort his aim4 ,in the long run1 the greatest number of his shots would be in the picket aimed at1 and of his misses there would be just as many on one side as on the other1 just as many above as below the center4 ,now if all the shots1 as they struck the fence1 could drop into a box below1 which had a compartment for each picket1 it would be found at the end of his practice that the compartments were filled up unequally1 most bullets being in that representing the middle picket and least in the outside ones4 ,the intermediate compartments would have intermediate numbers of bullets4 ,the whole scheme is shown in ,fig4 #aa4 ,if a line be drawn to connect the tops of all the columns of bullets1 it will make a rough curve or graph1 which represents a typical chance distribution4 ,it will be evident to anyone that the distribution was really governed by chance1 i4e41 a multiplicity of causes too complex to permit detailed analysis4 ,the imaginary sharp-shooter was an expert1 and he was trying to hit the same spot with each shot4 ,the deviation from the center is bound to be the same on all sides4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,the ,chance or ,probability ,form of ,distribution4 ,now suppose a series of measurements of a thousand children be taken in1 let us say1 the ability to do #ah problems in subtraction in #aj minutes4 ,a few of them finish only one problem in that time2 a few more do two1 more still are able to complete three1 and so on up4 ,the great bulk of the children get through from #h to #ab problems in the allotted time2 a few finish the whole task4 ,now if we make a column for all those who did one problem1 another column beside it for all those who did two1 and so on up for those who did three1 four and on to eighteen1 a line drawn over the tops of the columns make a curve like the above from ,thorndike4 ,comparing this curve with the one formed by the marksman's spent bullets1 one can not help being struck by the similarity4 ,if the first represented a distribution governed purely by chance1 it is evident that the children's ability seems to be distributed in accordance with a similar law4 ,with the limited number of categories used in this example1 it would not be possible to get a smooth curve1 but only a kind of step pyramid4 ,with an increase in the number of categories1 the steps become smaller4 ,with a hundred problems to work out1 instead of #ah1 the curve would be something like this3 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,probability curve with increased number of steps4 ,and with an infinite number1 the steps would disappear altogether1 leaving a perfectly smooth1 flowing line1 unmarred by a single step or break4 ,it would be an absolutely continuous distribution4 ,if then1 the results of all the tests that have been made on all mental traits be studied1 it will be found that human mental ability as shown in at least #ie of all the traits that have been measured1 is distributed throughout the race in various degrees1 in accordance with the law of chance1 and that if one could measure all the members of the species and plot a curve for these measurements1 in any trait1 he would get this smooth1 continuous curve4 ,in other words1 human beings are not sharply divided into classes1 but the differences between them shade off into each other1 although between the best and the worst1 in any respect1 there is a great gulf4 ,if this statement applies to simple traits1 such as memory for numbers1 it must also apply to combinations of simple traits in complex mental processes4 ,for practical purposes1 we are therefore justified in saying that in respect of any mental quality1--ability1 industry1 efficiency1 persistence1 attentiveness1 neatness1 honesty1 anything you like1--in any large group of people1 such as the white inhabitants of the ,united ,states1 some individuals will be found who show the character in question in a very low degree1 some who show it in a very high degree2 and there will be found every possible degree in between4 ,illustration3 ,,normal ,,variability ,,curve ,,following ,,law ,,of ,,chance ,,fig4 #ac4--,the above photograph 7from ,a4 ,f4 ,blakeslee71 shows beans rolling down an inclined plane and accumulating in compartments at the base which are closed in front by glass4 ,the exposure was long enough to cause the moving beans to appear as caterpillar-like objects hopping along the board4 ,assuming that the irregularity of shape of the beans is such that each may make jumps toward the right or toward the left1 in rolling down the board1 the laws of chance lead to the expectation that in very few cases will these jumps all be in the same direction1 as is demonstrated by the few beans collected in the compartments at the extreme right and left4 ,rather the beans will tend to jump in both right and left directions1 the most probable condition being that in which the beans make an equal number of jumps to the right and left1 as is shown by the large number accumulated in the central compartment4 ,if the board be tilted to one side1 the curve of beans would be altered by this one-sided influence4 ,in like fashion a series of factors--either of environment or of heredity--if acting equally in both favorable and unfavorable directions1 will cause a group of men to form a similar variability curve1 when classified according to their relative height4 ,the consequences of this for race progress are significant4 ,is it desired to eliminate feeble-mindedness8 ,then it must be borne in mind that there is no sharp distinction between feeble-mindedness and the normal mind4 ,one can not divide sheep from goats1 saying ,a is feeble-minded4 ,b is normal4 ,c is feeble-minded4 ,d is normal1 and so on4 ,if one took a scale of a hundred numbers1 letting #a stand for an idiot and #ajj for a genius1 one would find individuals corresponding to every single number on the scale4 ,the only course possible would be a somewhat arbitrary one2 say to consider every individual corresponding to a grade under seven as feeble-minded4 ,it would have to be recognized that those graded eight were not much better than those graded seven1 but the drawing of the line at seven would be justified on the ground that it had to be drawn somewhere1 and seven seemed to be the most satisfactory point4 ,in practice of course1 students of retardation test children by standardized scales4 ,testing a hundred #aj-year-old children1 the examiner might find a number who were able to do only those tests which are passed by a normal six-year-old child4 ,he might properly decide to put all who thus showed four years of retardation1 in the class of feeble-minded2 and he might justifiably decide that those who tested seven years 7i4e41 three years mental retardation7 or less would1 for the present1 be given the benefit of the doubt1 and classed among the possibly normal4 ,such a procedure1 in dealing with intelligence1 is necessary and justifiable1 but its adoption must not blind students1 as it often does1 to the fact that the distinction made is an arbitrary one1 and that there is no more a hard and fast line of demarcation between imbeciles and normals than there is between rich men and poor men4 ,illustration3 ,,cadets ,,arranged ,,to ,,show ,,normal ,,curve ,,of ,,variability ,,fig4 #ad4--,the above company of students at ,connecticut ,agricultural ,college was grouped according to height and photographed by ,a4 ,f4 ,blakeslee4 ,the height of each rank1 and the number of men of that height1 is shown by the figures underneath the photograph4 ,the company constitutes what is technically known as a population grouped in arrays of variates2 the middle rank gives the median height of the population2 the tallest array 7#e ft41 #h in47 is the mode4 ,if a line be drawn connecting the upper ends of the rows1 the resulting geometric figure will be a scheme of distribution of variates or more briefly a variability curve1 such as was shown in several preceding figures4 ,the arrangement of homogeneous objects of any kind in such form as this is the first step in the study of variation by modern statistical methods1 and on such study much of the progress of genetics depends4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,height is one of the stock examples of a continuous character--one of which all grades can be found4 ,as will be seen from the above diagram1 every height from considerably under five feet to considerably over six feet can be found in the army1 but extreme deviations are relatively rare in proportion to the amount of deviation4 ,the vertical columns represent the total number of individuals of a given height in inches4 ,from ,davenport4 ,if a group of soldiers be measured as the children were measured for arithmetical ability1 their height will be distributed in this same curve of probability4 ,fig4 #ad shows the cadets of ,connecticut ,agricultural ,college2 it is obvious that a line drawn along the tops of the files would again make the step-pyramid shown in ,figures #aj1 #aa and #ac4 ,if a larger number were taken1 the steps would disappear and give place to a smooth curve2 the fact is well shown in a graph for the heights of recruits to the ,american ,army 7,fig4 #ae74 ,the investigation in this direction need not be pursued any farther4 ,for the purpose of eugenics1 it is sufficient to recognize that great differences exist between men1 and women1 not only in respect of physical traits1 but equally in respect of mental ability4 ,this conclusion might easily have been reached from a study of the facts in ,chapter ,i1 but it seemed worth while to take time to present the fact in a more concrete form as the result of actual measurements4 ,the evidence allows no doubt about the existence of considerable mental and physical differences between men4 ,the question naturally arises1 ,what is the cause of these differences8 ,the study of twins showed that the differences could not be due to differences in training or home surroundings4 ,if the reader will think back over the facts set forth in the first chapter1 he will see clearly that the fundamental differences in men can not be due to anything that happens after they are born2 and the facts presented in the second chapter showed that these differences can not be due in an important degree to any influences acting on the child prior to birth4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,inheritance ,,of ,,mental ,,capacities ,we have come to the climax of the eugenist's preliminary argument2 if the main differences between human beings are not due to anything in the environment or training1 either of this or previous generations1 there can be but one explanation for them4 ,they must be due to the ancestry of the individual--that is1 they must be matters of heredity in the ordinary sense1 coupled with the fortuitous variations which accompany heredity throughout the organic world4 ,we need not limit ourselves1 however1 to the argument by exclusion1 for it is not difficult to present direct evidence that the differences between men are actually inherited by children from parents4 ,the problem1 formally stated1 is to measure the amount by which the likeness of individuals of like ancestry surpasses the likeness of individuals of different ancestry4 ,after subtraction of the necessary amount for the greater likeness in training1 that the individuals of like ancestry will have1 whatever amount is left will necessarily1 represent the actual inheritance of the child from its ancestors--parents1 grandparents1 and so on4 ,obviously1 the subtraction for environmental effects is the point at which a mistake is most probable4 ,we may safely start1 therefore1 with a problem in which no subtraction whatever need be made for this cause4 ,eye color is a stock example1 and a good one1 for it is not conceivable that home environment or training would cause a change in the color of brothers' eyes4 ,the correlation#cj between brothers1 or sisters1 or brothers and sisters--briefly1 the fraternal resemblance--for eye-color was found by ,karl ,pearson1 using the method described in ,chapter ,i1 to be 4#eb4 ,we are in no danger of contradiction if we state with positiveness that this figure represents the influence of ancestry1 or direct inheritance1 in respect to this particular trait4 ,suppose the resemblance between brothers be measured for stature--it is 4#ea2 for cephalic index1 that is1 the ratio of width of skull to length of skull--it is 4#di2 for hair color--it is 4#ei4 ,in all of these points1 it will be admitted that no home training1 or any other influence except heredity1 can conceivably play an important part4 ,we could go on with a long list of such measurements1 which biometrists have made2 and if they were all summed up it would be found that the fraternal correlation in these traits as to the heritability of which there can be no dispute1 is about 4#eb4 ,here is a good measure1 albeit a technical one1 of the influence of heredity from the near ancestry4 ,it is possible1 too1 to measure the direct correlation between a trait in parent and the same trait in offspring2 the average of many cases where only heredity can be thought to have had any effect in producing the result1 is 4#di4 ,by the two methods of measurement1 therefore1 quite comparable results are obtained4 ,so much work has been done in this subject that we have no hesitation in affirming 4#e to represent approximately the average intensity of heredity for physical characters in man4 ,if any well-marked physical character be measured1 in which training and environment can not be assumed to have had any part1 it will be found1 in a large enough number of subjects1 that the resemblance1 measured on a scale from #j to #a1 is just about one-half of unity4 ,of course1 perfect identity with the parents is not to be expected1 because the child must inherit from both parents1 who in turn each inherited from two parents1 and so on4 ,so far1 it may be said1 we have had plain sailing because we have carefully chosen traits in which we were not obliged to make any subtraction whatever for the influence of training4 ,but it is evident that not all traits fall in that class4 ,this is the point at which the inheritance of mental traits has been most often questioned4 ,probably no one will care to dispute the inheritance of such physical traits as eye-color4 ,but in considering the mind1 a certain school of popular pseudo-psychological writers question the reality of mental inheritance1 and allege that the proofs which the geneticist offers are worthless because they do not make account of the similarity in environment or training4 ,of course1 it is admitted that some sort of a mental groundwork must be inherited1 but extremists allege that this is little more than a clean slate on which the environment1 particularly during the early years of childhood1 writes its autograph4 ,we must grant that the analysis of the inheritance of mental traits is proceeding slowly4 ,this is not the fault of the geneticist1 but rather of the psychologist1 who has not yet been able to furnish the geneticist with the description of definite traits of such a character as to make possible the exhaustive analysis of their individual inheritance4 ,that department of psychology is only now being formed4 ,we might even admit that no inherited unit character in the mind has yet been isolated2 but it would be a great mistake to assume from this admission that proof of the inheritance of mental qualities1 in general1 is lacking4 ,the psychologists and educators who think so appear either to be swayed by metaphysical views of the mind1 or else to believe that resemblance between parent and offspring is the only evidence of inheritance that can be offered4 ,the father dislikes cheese1 the son dislikes cheese4 ,aha1 you think that that is the inheritance of a dislike for cheese1 cries the critic1 but we will teach you better4 ,an interesting example of this sort of teaching is furnished by ,boris ,sidis1 whose feelings are outraged because geneticists have represented that some forms of insanity are hereditary4 ,he declaims for several pages#ca in this fashion3 ,the so-called scientific method of the eugenists is radically faulty1 in spite of the rich display of colored plates1 stained tables1 glittering biological speculations1 brilliant mathematical formul and complicated statistical calculations4 ,the eugenists pile ,ossa on ,pelion of facts by the simple method of enumeration which ,bacon and the thinkers coming after him have long ago condemned as puerile and futile4 ,from the savage's belief in sympathetic1 imitative magic with its consequent superstitions1 omens1 and taboos down to the articles of faith and dogmas of the eugenists we find the same faulty1 primitive thought1 guided by the puerile1 imbecile method of simple enumeration1 and controlled by the wisdom of the logical post hoc1 ergo propter hoc4 ,now if resemblance between parent and offspring were1 as ,dr4 ,sidis supposes1 the only evidence of inheritance of mental traits which the eugenist can produce1 his case would indeed be weak4 ,and it is perfectly true that evidence of this kind has sometimes been advanced as sufficient by geneticists who should have known better4 ,but this is not the real evidence which genetics offers4 ,the evidence is of numerous kinds1 and several lines might be destroyed without impairing the validity of the remainder4 ,it is impossible to review the whole body of evidence here1 but some of the various kinds may be indicated1 and samples given1 even though this involves the necessity of repeating some things we have said in earlier chapters4 ,the reader will then be able to form his own opinion as to whether the geneticists' proofs or the mere assurances of those who have not studied the subject are the more weighty4 #a4 ,the analogy from breeding experiments4 ,tame rats1 for instance1 are very docile2 their offspring can be handled without a bit of trouble4 ,the wild rat1 on the other hand1 is not at all docile4 ,w4 ,e4 ,castle1 of ,harvard ,university1 writes3#cb ,we have repeatedly mated tame female rats with wild males1 the mothers being removed to isolated cages before the birth of the young4 ,these young which had never seen or been near their father were very wild in disposition in every case4 ,the observations of ,yerkes on such rats raised by us indicates that their wildness was not quite as extreme as that of the pure wild rat but closely approached it4 ,who can suggest any plausible explanation of their conduct1 save that they inherited a certain temperament from their sire8 ,yet the inheritance of temperament is one of the things which certain psychologists most view with alarm4 ,if it is proved in other animals1 can it be considered wholly impossible in man8 #b4 ,the segregation of mental traits4 ,when an insane1 or epileptic1 or feeble-minded person mates with a normal individual1 in whose family no taint is found1 the offspring 7generally speaking7 will be mentally sound1 even though one parent is not4 ,on the other hand1 if two people from tainted stocks marry1 although neither one may be personally defective1 part of their offspring will be affected4 ,this production of sound children from an unsound parent1 in the first case1 and unsound children from two apparently sound parents in the second case1 is exactly the opposite of what one would expect if the child gets his unsoundness merely by imitation or contagion4 ,the difference can not reasonably be explained by any difference in environment or external stimuli4 ,heredity offers a satisfactory explanation1 for some forms of feeble-mindedness and epilepsy1 and some of the diseases known as insanity1 behave as recessives and segregate in just the way mentioned4 ,there are abundant analogies in the inheritance of other traits in man1 lower animals and plants1 that behave in exactly the same manner4 ,if mental defects are inherited1 then it is worth while investigating whether mental excellencies may not also be4 #c4 ,the persistence of like qualities regardless of difference in environment4 ,any parent with open eyes must see this in his own children--must see that they retained the inherited traits even when they left home and lived under entirely different surroundings4 ,but the histories of twins furnish the most graphic evidence4 ,galton1 who collected detailed histories of thirty-five pairs of twins who were closely alike at birth1 and examined their history in after years1 writes3#cc ,in some cases the resemblance of body and mind had continued unaltered up to old age1 notwithstanding very different conditions of life2 in other cases where some dissimilarity developed1 it could be traced to the influence of an illness4 ,making due allowance for the influence of illness1 yet instances do exist of an apparently thorough similarity of nature1 in which such differences of external circumstances as may be consistent with the ordinary conditions of the same social rank and country do not create dissimilarity4 ,positive evidence1 such as this1 can not be outweighed by any amount of negative evidence4 ,frederick ,adams ,woods has brought forward#cd a piece of more exact evidence under this head4 ,it is known from many quantitative studies that in physical heredity1 the influence of the paternal grandparents and the influence of the maternal grandparents is equal2 on the average one pair will contribute no more to the grandchildren than the other4 ,if mental qualities are due rather to early surroundings than to actual inheritance1 this equality of grandparental influence is incredible in the royal families where ,dr4 ,woods got his material2 for the grandchild has been brought up at the court of the paternal grandfather1 where he ought to have gotten all his acquirements1 and has perhaps never even seen his maternal grandparents1 who therefore could not be expected to impress their mental peculiarities on him by contagion4 ,when ,dr4 ,woods actually measured the extent of resemblance to the two sets of grandparents1 for mental and moral qualities1 he found it to be the same in each case2 as is inevitable if they are inherited1 but as is incomprehensible if heredity is not largely responsible for one's mental make-up4 #d4 ,persistence of unlike qualities regardless of sameness in the environment4 ,this is the converse of the preceding proposition1 but even more convincing4 ,in the last paragraph but one1 we mentioned ,galton's study 7cited at some length in our ,chapter ,i7 of identical twins1 who are so much alike at birth for the very good reason that they have identical heredity4 ,this heredity was found to be not modified1 either in the body or the mind1 by ordinary differences of training and environment4 ,some of ,galton's histories#ce of ordinary1 non-identical twins were also given in ,chapter ,i2 two more follow3 ,one parent says3 ,they have been treated exactly alike2 both were brought up by hand2 they have been under the same nurse and governess from their birth1 and they are very fond of each other4 ,their increasing dissimilarity must be ascribed to a natural difference of mind and character1 as there has been nothing in their treatment to account for it4 ,another writes3 ,this case is1 ,i should think1 somewhat remarkable for dissimilarity in physique as well as for strong contrast in character4 ,they have been unlike in mind and body throughout their lives4 ,both were reared in a country house and both were at the same schools until the age of #af4 ,in the face of such examples1 can anyone maintain that differences in mental make-up are wholly due to different influences during childhood1 and not at all to differences in germinal make-up8 ,it is not necessary to depend1 under this head1 on mere descriptions1 for accurate measurements are available to demonstrate the point4 ,if the environment creates the mental nature1 then ordinary brothers1 not more than four or five years apart in age1 ought to be about as closely similar to each other as identical twins are to each other2 for the family influences in each case are practically the same4 ,professor ,thorndike1 by careful mental tests1 showed#cf that this is not true4 ,the ordinary brothers come from different egg-cells1 and1 as is known from studies on lower animals1 they do not get exactly the same inheritance from their parents2 they show1 therefore1 considerable differences in their psychic natures4 ,real identical twins1 being two halves of the same egg-cell1 have the same heredity1 and their natures are therefore much more nearly identical4 ,again1 if the mind is molded during the plastic years of childhood1 children ought to become more alike1 the longer they are together4 ,twins who were unlike at birth ought to resemble each other more closely at #ad than they did at #i1 since they have been for five additional years subjected to this supposedly potent but very mystical molding force4 ,here again ,professor ,thorndike's exact measurements explode the fallacy4 ,they are actually1 measurably1 less alike at the older age2 their inborn natures are developing along predestined lines1 with little regard to the identity of their surroundings4 ,heredity accounts easily for these facts1 but they cannot be squared with the idea that mental differences are the products solely of early training4 #e4 ,differential rates of increase in qualities subject to much training4 ,if the mind is formed by training1 then brothers ought to be more alike in qualities which have been subject to little or no training4 ,professor ,thorndike's measurements on this point show the reverse to be true4 ,the likeness of various traits is determined by heredity1 and brothers may be more unlike in traits which have been subjected to a large and equal amount of training4 ,twins were found to be less alike in their ability at addition and multiplication1 in which the schools had been training them for some years1 than they were in ability to mark off the ,a's on a printed sheet1 or to write the opposites to a list of words--feats which they had probably never before tried to do4 ,this same proposition may be put on a broader basis4#cg ,in so far as the differences in achievement found amongst a group of men are due to the differences in the quantity and quality of training which they had had in the function in question1 the provision of equal amounts of the same sort of training for all individuals in the group should act to reduce the differences4 ,if the addition of equal amounts of practice does not reduce the differences found amongst men1 those differences can not well be explained to any large extent by supposing them to have been due to corresponding differences in amount of previous practice4 ,if1 that is1 inequalities in achievement are not reduced by equalizing practice1 they can not well have been caused by inequalities in previous practice4 ,if differences in opportunity cause the differences men display1 making opportunity more nearly equal for all1 by adding equal amounts to it in each case should make the differences less4 ,the facts found are rather startling4 ,equalizing practice seems to increase differences4 ,the superior man seems to have got his present superiority by his own nature rather than by superior advantages of the past1 since1 during a period of equal advantage for all1 he increases his lead4 ,this point has been tested by such simple devices as mental multiplication1 addition1 marking ,a's on a printed sheet of capitals and the like2 all the contestants made some gain in efficiency1 but those who were superior at the start were proportionately farther ahead than ever at the end4 ,this is what the geneticist would expect1 but fits very ill with some popular pseudo-science which denies that any child is mentally limited by nature4 #f4 ,direct measurement of the amount of resemblance of mental traits in brothers and sisters4 ,it is manifestly impossible to assume that early training1 or parental behavior1 or anything of the sort1 can have influenced very markedly the child's eye color1 or the length of his forearm1 or the ratio of the breadth of his head to its length4 ,a measure of the amount of resemblance between two brothers in such traits may very confidently be said to represent the influence of heredity2 one can feel no doubt that the child inherits his eye-color and other physical traits of that kind from his parents4 ,it will be recalled that the resemblance1 measured on a scale from #j to #a1 has been found to be about #j4e4 ,karl ,pearson measured the resemblance between brothers and sisters in mental traits--for example1 temper1 conscientiousness1 introspection1 vivacity--and found it on the average to have the same intensity--that is1 about #j4e4 ,starch gets similar results in studying school grades4 ,professor ,pearson writes3#ch ,it has been suggested that this resemblance in the psychological characters is compounded of two factors1 inheritance on the one hand and training and environment on the other4 ,if so1 one must admit that inheritance and environment make up the resemblance in the physical characters4 ,now these two sorts of resemblance being of the same intensity1 either the environmental influence is the same in both cases or it is not4 ,if it is the same1 we are forced to the conclusion that it is insensible1 for it can not influence eye-color4 ,if it is not the same1 then it would be a most marvelous thing that with varying degrees of inheritance1 some mysterious force always modifies the extent of home influence1 until the resemblance of brothers and sisters is brought sensibly up to the same intensity6 ,occam's razor#ci will enable us at once to cut off such a theory4 ,we are forced1 ,i think1 literally forced1 to the general conclusion that the physical and psychical characters in man are inherited within broad lines in the same manner1 and with approximate intensity4 ,the average parental influence is in itself largely a result of the heritage of the stock and not an extraneous and additional factor causing the resemblance between children from the same home4 ,a paragraph from ,edgar ,schuster#dj may appropriately be added4 ,after considering the published evidence a word must be said of facts which most people may collect for themselves4 ,they are difficult to record1 but are perhaps more convincing than any quantity of statistics4 ,if one knows well several members of a family1 one is bound to see in them likenesses with regard to mental traits1 both large and small1 which may sometimes be accounted for by example on the one hand or unconscious imitation on the other1 but are often quite inexplicable on any other theory than heredity4 ,it is difficult to understand how the inheritance of mental capacity can be denied by those whose eyes are open and whose minds are open too4 ,strictly speaking1 it is of course true that man inherits nothing more than the capacity of making mental acquirements4 ,but this general capacity is made up of many separate capacities1 all of these capacities are variable1 and the variations are inherited4 ,such seems to us to be the unmistakable verdict of the evidence4 ,our conclusions as to the inheritance of all sorts of mental capacity are not based on the mere presence of the same trait in parent and child4 ,as the psychological analysis of individual traits proceeds1 it will be possible to proceed further with the study of the inheritance of these traits4 ,some work has been done on spelling1 which is particularly interesting because most people1 without reflection1 would take it for granted that a child's spelling ability depends almost wholly on his training4 ,professor ,thorndike's exposition#da of the investigation is as follows3 ,e4 ,l4 ,earle 7'#jc7 measured the spelling abilities of some #hjj children in the ,st4 ,xavier school in ,new ,york by careful tests4 ,as the children in this school commonly enter at a very early age1 and as the staff and methods of teaching remain very constant1 we have in the case of the #ahj pairs of brothers and sisters included in the #fjj children closely similar school training4 ,mr4 ,earle measured the ability of any individual by his deviation from the average for his grade and sex1 and found the coefficient of correlation between children of the same family to be 4#ej4 ,that is1 any individual is on the average #ej as much above or below the average for his age and sex as his brother or sister4 ,similarities of home training might account for this1 but any one experienced in teaching will hesitate to attribute much efficacy to such similarities4 ,bad spellers remain bad spellers though their teachers change4 ,moreover1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,m4 ,rice in his exhaustive study of spelling ability 7'#ig7 found little or no relationship between good spelling and any one of the popular methods1 and little or none between poor spelling and foreign parentage4 ,cornman's more careful study of spelling 7'#jg7 supports the view that ability to spell is little influenced by such differences in school or home training as commonly exist4 ,this is a very clear-cut case of a definite intellectual ability1 differences in which might be supposed to be due almost wholly to the child's training1 but which seem1 on investigation1 to be largely due to heredity4 ,the problem may be examined in still greater detail4 ,does a man merely inherit manual skill1 let us say1 or does he inherit the precise kind of manual skill needed to make a surgeon but not the kind that would be useful to a watchmaker8 ,is a man born merely with a generalized artistic ability1 or is it one adapted solely for1 let us say1 music2 or further1 is it adapted solely for violin playing1 not for the piano8 ,galton1 in his pioneer studies1 sought for data on this question4 ,in regard to ,english judges1 he wrote3 ,do the judges often have sons who succeed in the same career1 where success would have been impossible if they had not been gifted with the special qualities of their fathers8 ,out of the #bhf judges1 more than one in every nine of them have been either father1 son or brother to another judge1 and the other high legal relationships have been even more numerous4 ,there can not1 then1 remain a doubt but that the peculiar type of ability that is necessary to a judge is often transmitted by descent4 ,unfortunately1 we can not feel quite as free from doubt on the point as ,galton did4 ,the judicial mind1 if that be the main qualification for a judge1 might be inherited1 or it might be the result of training4 ,such a case1 standing alone1 is inconclusive4 ,galton similarly showed that the sons of statesmen tended to be statesmen1 and that the same was true in families of great commanders1 literary men1 poets and divines4 ,in his list of eminent painters1 all the relatives mentioned are painters save four1 two of whom were gifted in sculpture1 one in music and one in embroidery4 ,as to musicians1 ,mendelssohn and ,meyerbeer are the only ones in his list whose eminent kinsmen achieved their success in other careers than music4 ,havelock ,ellis1 who likewise studied ,british men of genius1 throws additional light on the subject4 ,painters and sculptors1 he found1 constitute a group which appears to be of very distinct interest from the point of view of occupational heredity4 ,in social origin1 it may be noted1 the group differs strikingly in constitution from the general body of men of genius in which the upper class is almost or quite predominant4 ,of #fc painters and sculptors of definitely known origin1 only two can be placed in the aristocratic division4 ,of the remainder #g are the sons of artists1 #bb the sons of craftsmen1 leaving only #cb for all other occupations1 which are mainly of lower middle class character1 and in many cases trades that are very closely allied to crafts4 ,even1 however1 when we omit the trades as well as the cases in which the fathers were artists1 we find a very notable predominance of craftsmen in the parentage of painters1 to such an extent indeed that while craftsmen only constitute #i4b among the fathers of our eminent persons generally1 they constitute nearly #ce among the fathers of the painters and sculptors4 ,it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that there is a real connection between the father's aptitude for craftsmanship and the son's aptitude for art4 ,to suppose that environment adequately accounts for this relationship is an inadmissible theory4 ,the association between the craft of builder1 carpenter1 tanner1 jeweller1 watchmaker1 woodcarver1 ropemaker1 etc41 and the painter's art is small at best1 and in most cases is non-existent4 ,arreat1 investigating the heredity of #bjj eminent ,european painters1 reached results similar to those of ,ellis1 according to the latter's citation4 ,arithmetical ability seems similarly to be subdivided1 according to ,miss ,cobb4#db ,she made measurements of the efficiency with which children and their parents could do problems in addition1 subtraction1 multiplication and division1 and could copy a column of figures4 ,the measurements made1 she writes1 show that if1 for instance1 a child is much quicker than the average in subtraction1 but not in addition1 multiplication or division1 it is to be expected that one at least of his parents shows a like trait2 or if he falls below the average in subtraction and multiplication1 and exceeds it in addition and division1 again the same will hold true of at least one of his parents4 ,these various kinds of arithmetic appear to be due to different functions of the brain1 and are therefore probably inherited independently1 if they are inherited at all4 ,to assume that the resemblance between parent and offspring in arithmetical ability is due to association1 training and imitation is not plausible4 ,if this were the case1 a class of children ought to come to resemble their teacher1 but they do not4 ,moreover1 the child sometimes resembles more closely the parent with whom he has been less associated in daily life4 ,from such data as these1 we conclude that mental inheritance is considerably specialized4 ,this conclusion is in accord with ,burris' finding 7cited by ,thorndike7 that the ability to do well in some one high school study is nearly or quite as much due to ancestry as is the ability to do well in the course as a whole4 ,to sum up1 we have reason to believe not only that one's mental character is due largely to heredity1 but that the details of it may be equally due to heredity1 in the sense that for any particular trait or complex in the child there is likely to be found a similar trait or complex in the ancestry4 ,such a conclusion should not be pushed to the point of assuming inheritance of all sorts of dispositions that might be due to early training2 on the other hand1 a survey of the whole field would probably justify us in concluding that any given trait is more likely than not to be inherited4 ,the effect of training in the formation of the child's mental character is certainly much less than is popularly supposed2 and even for the traits that are most due to training1 it must never be forgotten that there are inherited mental bases4 ,if the reader has accepted the facts presented in this chapter1 and our inferences from the facts1 he will admit that mental differences between men are at bottom due to heredity1 just as physical differences are2 that they are apparently inherited in the same manner and in approximately the same degree4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,laws ,,of ,,heredity ,we have now established the bases for a practicable eugenics program4 ,men differ2 these differences are inherited2 therefore the make-up of the race can be changed by any method which will alter the relative proportions of the contributions which different classes of men make to the following generation4 ,for applied eugenics1 it is sufficient to know that mental and physical differences are inherited2 the exact manner of inheritance it would be important to know1 but even without a knowledge of the details of the mechanism of heredity1 a program of eugenics is yet wholly feasible4 ,it is no part of the plan of this book to enter into the details of the mechanism of heredity1 a complicated subject for which the reader can refer to one of the treatises mentioned in the bibliography at the close of this volume4 ,it may be worth while1 however1 to outline in a very summary way the present status of the question4 ,as to the details of inheritance1 research has progressed in the last few years far beyond the crude conceptions of a decade ago1 when a primitive form of ,mendelism was made to explain everything that occurred4#dc ,one can hardly repress a smile at the simplicity of those early ideas1--though it must be said that some students of eugenics have not yet outgrown them4 ,in those days it was thought that every visible character in man 7or in any other organism7 was represented by some determiner in the germ-plasm2 that by suitable matings a breeder could rid a stream of germ-plasm of almost any determiner he wished2 and that the corresponding unit character would thereupon disappear from the visible make-up of the individual4 ,was a family reported as showing a taint1 for instance1 hereditary insanity8 ,then it was asserted that by the proper series of matings1 it was possible to squeeze out of the germ-plasm the particular concrete something of which insanity was the visible expression1 and have left a family stock that was perfectly sound and sane4 ,the minute1 meticulous researches of experimental breeders#dd have left such a view of heredity far behind4 ,certainly the last word has not been said2 yet the present hypotheses work1 whenever the conditions are such as to give a fair chance4 ,the results of these studies have led to what is called the factorial hypothesis of heredity1#de according to which all the visible characters of the adult are produced by 7purely hypothetical7 factors in the germ-plasm2 it is the factors that are inherited1 and they1 under proper conditions for development1 produce the characters4 ,the great difference between this and the earlier view is that instead of allotting one factor to each character1 students now believe that each individual character of the organism is produced by the action of an indefinitely large number of factors1#df and they have been further forced to adopt the belief that each individual factor affects an indefinitely large number of characters1 owing to the physiological interrelations and correlations of every part of the body4 ,illustration3 ,,how ,,do ,,you ,,clasp ,,your ,,hands8 ,,fig4 #af4--;,if the hands be clasped naturally with fingers alternating1 as shown in the above illustration1 most people will put the same thumb--either that of the right or that of the left hand--uppermost every time4 ,frank ,e4 ,lutz showed 7,american ,naturalist1 xliii7 that the position assumed depends largely on heredity4 ,when both parents put the right thumb uppermost1 about three-fourths of the children were found to do the same4 ,when both parents put the left thumb uppermost1 about three-fifths of the children did the same4 ,no definite ratios could be found from the various kinds of matings4 ,apparently the manner of clasping hands has no connection with one's right-handedness or left-handedness4 ,it can hardly be due to imitation for the trait is such a slight one that most people have not noticed it before their attention is called to it by the geneticist4 ,furthermore1 babies are found almost always to clasp the hands in the same way every time4 ,the trait is a good illustration of the almost incredible minuteness with which heredity enters into a man's make-up4 ,photograph by ,john ,howard ,paine4 ,the sweet pea offers a good illustration of the widespread effects which may result from the change of a single factor4 ,in addition to the ordinary climbing vine1 there is a dwarf variety1 and the difference between the two seems to be proved1 by exhaustive experimental breeding1 to be due to only one inherited factor4 ,yet the action of this one factor not only changes the height of the plant1 but also results in changes in color of foliage1 length of internodes1 size and arrangement of flowers1 time of opening of flowers1 fertility and viability4 ,again1 a mutant stock in the fruit fly 7,drosophila7 has as its most marked characteristic very short wings4 ,but the factor for rudimentary wings also produces other effects as well4 ,the females are almost completely sterile1 while the males are fertile4 ,the viability of the stocks is poor4 ,when flies with rudimentary wings are put into competition with wild flies relatively few of the rudimentary flies come through1 especially if the culture is crowded4 ,the hind legs are also shortened4 ,all of these effects are the results of a single factor-difference4 ,to be strictly accurate1 then1 one should not say that a certain variation affects length of wing1 but that its chief effect is to shorten the wing4 ,one may venture to guess1 ,t4 ,h4 ,morgan says1#dg that some of the specific and varietal differences that are characteristic of wild types and which at the same time appear to have no survival value1 are only by-products of factors whose most important effect is on another part of the organism where their influence is of vital importance4 ,i am inclined to think1 ,professor ,morgan continues1 that an overstatement to the effect that each factor may affect the entire body1 is less likely to do harm than to state that each factor affects only a particular character4 ,the reckless use of the phrase 'unit character' has done much to mislead the uninitiated as to the effects that a single change in the germ-plasm may produce on the organism4 ,fortunately the expression 'unit character' is being less used by those students of genetics who are more careful in regard to the implications of their terminology4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,effect ,,of ,,orthodactyly ,,fig4 #ag4--;,at the left is a hand with the third1 fourth and fifth fingers affected4 ,the middle joints of these fingers are stiff and cannot be bent4 ,at the right the same hand is shown1 closed4 ,a normal hand in the middle serves to illustrate by contrast the nature of the abnormality1 which appears in every generation of several large families4 ,it is also called symphalangism1 and is evidently related to the better-known abnormality of brachydactyly4 ,photograph from ,frederick ,n4 ,duncan4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,family ,,with ,,orthodactyly ,,fig4 #ah4--,squares denote males and circles females1 as is usual in the charts compiled by eugenists2 black circles or squares denote affected individuals4 ,a#a had all fingers affected in the way shown in ,fig4 #ag2 ,b#b had all but one finger affected2 ,c#b had all but one finger affected2 ,d#b had all fingers affected2 ,d#c has all but forefingers affected4 ,the family here shown is a branch1 found by ,f4 ,n4 ,duncan1 of a very large family first described by ,harvey ,cushing1 in which this abnormality has run for at least seven generations4 ,it is an excellent example of an inherited defect due to a single ,mendelian factor4 ,one of the best attested single characters in human heredity is brachydactyly1 short-fingerness1 which results in a reduction in the length of the fingers by the dropping out of one joint4 ,if one lumps together all the cases where any effect of this sort is found1 it is evident that normals never transmit it to their posterity1 that affected persons always do1 and that in a mating between a normal and an affected person1 all the offspring will show the abnormality4 ,it is a good example of a unit character4 ,but its effect is by no means confined to the fingers4 ,it tends to affect the entire skeleton1 and in a family where one child is markedly brachydactylous1 that child is generally shorter than the others4 ,the factor for brachydactyly evidently produces its primary effect on the bones of the hand1 but it also produces a secondary effect on all the bones of the body4 ,moreover1 it will be found1 if a number of brachydactylous persons are examined1 that no two of them are affected to exactly the same degree4 ,in some cases only one finger will be abnormal2 in other cases there will be a slight effect in all the fingers2 in other cases all the fingers will be highly affected4 ,why is there such variation in the results produced by a unit character8 ,because1 presumably1 in each individual there is a different set of modifying factors or else a variation in the factor4 ,it has been found that an abnormality quite like brachydactyly is produced by abnormality in the pituitary gland4 ,it is then fair to suppose that the factor which produces brachydactyly does so by affecting the pituitary gland in some way4 ,but there must be many other factors which also affect the pituitary and in some cases probably favor its development1 rather than hindering it4 ,then if the factor for brachydactyly is depressing the pituitary1 but if some other factors are at the same time stimulating that gland1 the effect shown in the subject's fingers will be much less marked than if a group of modifying factors were present which acted in the same direction as the brachydactyly factor1--to perturb the action of the pituitary gland4 ,this illustration is largely hypothetical2 but there is no room for doubt that every factor produces more than a single effect4 ,a white blaze in the hair1 for example1 is a well-proved unit factor in man2 the factor not only produces a white streak in the hair1 but affects the pigmentation of the skin as well1 usually resulting in one or more white spots on some part of the body4 ,it is really a factor for piebaldism4 ,for the sake of clear thinking1 then1 the idea of a unit character due to some unit determiner or factor in the germ-plasm must be given up1 and it must be recognized that every visible character of an individual is the result of numerous factors1 or differences in the germ-plasm4 ,ordinarily one of these produces a more notable contribution to the end-product than do the others2 but there are cases where this statement does not appear to hold good4 ,this leads to the conception of multiple factors4 ,in crossing a wheat with brown chaff and one with white chaff1 ,h4 ,nilsson-,ehle 7#aiji7 expected in the second hybrid generation to secure a ratio of #c brown to #a white4 ,as a fact1 he got #adaj brown and #id white1 a ratio of #ae3a4 ,he interpreted this as meaning that the brown color in this particular variety was due not to one factor1 but to two1 which were equivalent to each other1 and either one of which would produce the same result alone as would the two acting together4 ,in further crossing red wheat with white1 he secured ratios which led him to believe that the red was produced by three independent factors1 any one of which would produce red either alone or with the other two4 ,a4 and ,g4 ,howard later corroborated this work1#dh but showed that the three factors were not identical3 they are qualitatively slightly different1 although so closely similar that the three reds look alike at first sight4 ,e4 ,m4 ,east has obtained evidence from maize and ,g4 ,h4 ,shull from shepherd's-purse1 which bears out the multiple factor hypothesis4 ,illustration3 ,,white ,,blaze ,,in ,,the ,,hair ,,fig4 #ai4--,the white lock of hair here shown is hereditary and has been traced back definitely through six generations2 family tradition derives it from a son of ,harry ,hot-,spur ,percy1 born in #adjc1 and fallaciously assigns its origin to prenatal influence or maternal impression4 ,this young woman inherited the blaze from her father1 who had it from his mother1 who had it from her father1 who migrated from ,england to ,america nearly a century ago4 ,the trait appears to be a simple dominant1 following ,mendel's ,law2 that is1 when a person with one of these locks who is a child of one normal and one affected parent marries a normal individual1 half of the children show the lock and half do not4 ,photograph from ,newton ,miller4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,family ,,of ,,spotted ,,negroes ,,fig4 #bj4--,the piebald factor sometimes shows itself as nothing more than a blaze in the hair 7see preceding figure72 but it may take a much more extreme form1 as illustrated by the above photograph from ,q4 ,i4 ,simpson and ,w4 ,e4 ,castle4 ,mrs4 ,s4 ,a41 a spotted mutant1 founded a family which now comprises1 in several generations1 #ag spotted and #af normal offspring4 ,the white spotting factor behaves as a ,mendelian dominant1 and the expectation would be equal numbers of normal and affected children4 ,similar white factors are known in other animals4 ,it is worth noting that all the well attested ,mendelian characters in man are abnormalities1 no normal character having yet been proved to be inherited in this manner4 ,apart from multiple factors as properly defined 7that is1 factors which produce the same result1 either alone or together71 extensive analysis usually reveals that apparently simple characters are in reality complex4 ,the purple aleurone color of maize seeds is attributed by ,r4 ,a4 ,emerson to five distinct factors1 while ,e4 ,baur found four factors responsible for the red color of snapdragon blossoms4 ,there are1 as ,g4 ,n4 ,collins says1#di still many gross characters that stand as simple ,mendelian units1 but few1 if any1 of these occur in plants or animals that have been subjected to extensive investigation4 ,there is now such a large number of characters which at first behaved as units1 but which have since been broken up by crossing with suitable selected material1 that it seems not unreasonable to believe that the remaining cases await only the discovery of the right strains with which to hybridize them to bring about corresponding results4 ,in spite of the fact that there is a real segregation between factors as has been shown1 it must not be supposed that factors and their determiners are absolutely invariable4 ,this has been too frequently assumed without adequate evidence by many geneticists4 ,it is probable that just as the multiplicity and interrelation and minuteness of many factors have been the principal discoveries of genetics in recent years that the next few years will see a great deal of evidence following the important lead of ,castle and ,jennings1 as to variation in factors4 ,knowing that all the characters of an individual are due to the interaction of numerous factors1 one must be particularly slow in assuming that such complex characters as man's mental traits are units1 in any proper genetic sense of the word4 ,it will1 for instance1 require very strong evidence to establish feeble-mindedness as a unit character4 ,no one who examines the collected pedigrees of families marked by feeble-mindedness1 can deny that it does appear at first sight to behave as a unit character1 inherited in the typical ,mendelian fashion4 ,the psychologist ,h4 ,h4 ,goddard1 who started out with a strong bias against believing that such a complex trait could even behave as a unit character1 thought himself forced by the tabulation of his cases to adopt the conclusion that it does behave as a unit character4 ,and other eugenists have not hesitated to affirm1 mainly on the strength of ,dr4 ,goddard's researches1 that this unit character is due to a single determiner in the germ-plasm1 which either is or is not present1--no halfway business about it4 ,how were these cases of feeble-mindedness defined8 ,the definition is purely arbitrary4 ,ordinarily1 any adult who tests much below #ab years by the ,binet-,simon scale is held to be feeble-minded2 and the results of this test vary a little with the skill of the person applying it and with the edition of the scale used4 ,furthermore1 most of the feeble-minded cases in institutions1 where the ,mendelian studies have usually been made1 come from families which are themselves of a low grade of mentality4 ,if the whole lot of those examined were measured1 it would be difficult to draw the line between the normals and the affected2 there is not nearly so much difference between the two classes1 as one would suppose who only looks at a ,mendelian chart4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,human ,,finger-,,tip ,,fig4 #ba4--,the palms of the hands and soles of the feet are covered with little ridges or corrugations1 which are supposed to be useful in preventing the grasp from slipping2 whence the name of friction-skin has been given to these surfaces4 ,the ridges are developed into various patterns2 the one above is a loop on the left forefinger4 ,the ridges are studded with the openings of the sweat glands1 the elevated position of which is supposed to prevent them from being clogged up2 further1 the moisture which they secrete perhaps adds to the friction of the skin4 ,friction-skin patterns are inherited in some degree4 ,photograph by ,john ,howard ,payne4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,limits ,,of ,,hereditary ,,control ,,fig4 #bb4--,print of a finger-tip showing a loop-pattern1 enlarged about eight times4 ,this is a common type of pattern1 and at first glance the reader may think it could be mistaken for one of his own4 ,there are1 however1 at least sixty-five ridge characteristics on the above print1 which an expert would recognize and would use for the purpose of identification4 ,if it were found that the first two or three of them noted corresponded to similar characteristics on another print1 the expert would have no doubt that the two prints were made by the same finger4 ,in police bureaus1 finger-prints are filed for reference with a classification based on the type of pattern1 number of ridges between two given points1 etc42 and a simple formula results which makes it easy to find all prints which bear a general resemblance to each other4 ,the exact identity or lack of it is then determined by a comparison of such minuti as the sixty-five above enumerated4 ,while the general outline of a pattern is inherited1 these small characters do not seem to be1 but are apparently rather due to the stretching of the skin as it grows4 ,illustration from ,j4 ,h4 ,taylor4 ,illustration3 ,,distribution ,,of ,i ,q',s ,,of #ije ,,unselected ,,children1 #e-ad ,,years ,,of ,,age ,,the ,,distribution ,,of ,,intelligence ,,fig4 #bc4--;,diagram showing the mentality of #ije unselected children1 #e to #ad years of age1 who may probably be taken as representative of the whole population4 ,the median or tallest column1 about one-third of the whole number1 represents those who were normal or1 as a statistician would say1 mediocre4 ,their mental ages and chronological ages were practically identical4 ,to the left of these the diminishing columns show the number whose mental ages fell short of their chronological ages4 ,they are the mentally retarded1 ranging all the way down to the lowest one-third of one per cent who represent a very low grade of feeble-mindedness4 ,on the other side the mentally superior show a similar distribution4 ,a curve drawn over the tops of the columns makes a good normal curve4 ,since the frequency of the various grades of intelligence decreases gradually and at no point abruptly on each side of the median1 it is evident that there is no definite dividing line between normality and feeble-mindedness1 or between normality and genius4 ,psychologically1 the mentally defective child does not belong to a distinct type1 nor does the genius4444 ,the common opinion that extreme deviations below the median are vastly more frequent than extreme deviations above the median seems to have no foundation in fact4 ,among unselected school children1 at least1 for every child of any given degree of deficiency there is roughly another child as far above the average as the former is below4 ,lewis ,m4 ,terman1 ,the ,measurement of ,intelligence1 pp4 #ff-fg4 ,it would be well to extend our view by measuring a whole population with one of the standard tests4 ,if the intelligence of a thousand children picked at random from the population be measured1 it will prove 7as outlined in ,chapter ,,iii7 that some of them are feeble-minded1 some are precocious or highly intelligent2 and that there is every possible degree of intelligence between the two extremes4 ,if a great number of children1 all #aj years old1 were tested for intelligence1 it would reveal a few absolute idiots whose intelligence was no more than that of the ordinary infant1 a few more who were as bright as the ordinary kindergarten child1 and so up to the great bulk of normal #aj-year-olds1 and farther to a few prize eugenic specimens who had as much intelligence as the average college freshman4 ,in other words1 this trait of general intelligence would be found distributed through the population in accordance with that same curve of chance1 which was discussed and illustrated when we were talking about the differences between individuals4 ,now what has become of the unit character1 feeble-mindedness8 ,how can one speak of a unit character1 when the unit has an infinite number of values8 ,is a continuous quantity a unit8 ,if intelligence is due to the inheritance of a vast1 but indeterminate1 number of factors of various kinds1 each of which is independent1 knowledge of heredity would lead one to expect that some children would get more of these factors than others and that1 broadly speaking1 no two would get the same number4 ,all degrees of intelligence between the idiot and the genius would thus exist2 and yet we can not doubt that a few of these factors are more important than the others1 and the presence of even one or two of them may markedly affect the level of intelligence4 ,it may make the matter clearer if we return for a moment to the physical4 ,height1 bodily stature1 offers a very good analogy for the case we have just been discussing1 because it is obvious that it must depend on a large number of different factors1 a man's size being due to the sum total of the sizes of a great number of bones1 ligaments1 tissues1 etc4 ,it is obvious that one can be long in the trunk and short in the legs1 or vice versa1 and so on through a great number of possible combinations4 ,here is a perfectly measurable character 7no one has ever claimed that it is a genetic unit character in man although it behaves as such in some plants7 as to the complex basis of which all will agree4 ,and it is known1 from common observation as well as from pedigree studies1 that it is not inherited as a unit3 children are never born in two discontinuous classes1 tall and short1 as they are with color blindness or normal color vision1 for example4 ,is it not a fair assumption that the difference between the apparent unit character of feeble-mindedness1 and the obvious non-unit character of height1 is a matter of difference in the number of factors involved1 difference in the degree to which they hang together in transmission1 variation in the factors1 and certainly difference in the method of measurement8 ,add that the line between normal and feeble-minded individuals is wholly arbitrary1 and it seems that there is little reason to talk about feeble-mindedness as a unit character4 ,it may be true that there is some sort of an inhibiting factor inherited as a unit1 but it seems more likely that feeble-mindedness may be due to numerous different causes2 that its presence in one child is due to one factor or group of factors1 and in another child to a different one4#ej ,it does not fall wholly into the class of blending inheritance1 for it does segregate to a considerable extent1 yet some of the factors may show blending4 ,much more psychological analysis must be done before the question of the inheritance of feeble-mindedness can be considered solved4 ,but at present one can say with confidence of this1 as of other mental traits1 that like tends to produce like2 that low grades of mentality usually come from an ancestry of low mentality1 and that bright children are usually produced in a stock that is marked by intelligence4 ,most mental traits are even more complex in appearance than feeble-mindedness4 ,none has yet been proved to be due to a single germinal difference1 and it is possible that none will ever be so demonstrated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,the twins whose finger-prints are shown in ,fig4 #be4 ,intensive genetic research in lower animals and plants has shown that a visible character may be due to #a4 ,independent multiple factors in the germ-plasm1 as in the case of wheat mentioned a few pages back4 #b4 ,multiple allelomorphs1 that is1 a series of different grades of a single factor4 #c4 ,one distinct ,mendelian factor 7or several such factors71 with modifying factors which may cause either 7a7 intensification1 7b7 inhibition1 or 7c7 dilution4 #d4 ,variation of a factor4 #e4 ,or several or all of the above explanations may apply to one case4 ,moreover1 the characters of which the origin has been most completely worked out are mostly color characters1 whose physiological development seems to be relatively simple4 ,it is probable that the development of a mental character is much more complicated1 and therefore there is more likelihood of additional factors being involved4 ,to say1 then1 that any mental trait is a unit character1 or that it is due to a single germinal difference1 is to go beyond both the evidence and the probabilities4 ,and if mental traits are1 in their germinal foundations1 not simple but highly complex1 it follows that any advice given as to how human matings should be arranged to produce any precise result in the progeny1 should be viewed with distrust4 ,such advice can be given only in the case of a few pathological characters such as color-blindness1 night-blindness1 or ,huntington's ,chorea4 ,it is well that the man or woman interested in one of these abnormalities can get definite information on the subject2 and ,huntington's ,chorea1 in particular1 is a dysgenic trait which can and should be stamped out4 ,but it can not be pretended that any of man's traits1 as to whose inheritance prediction can be made with confidence1 is of great importance to national eugenics4 ,in short1 a knowledge of heredity shows that attempts to predict the mode of inheritance of the important human traits 7particularly mental traits7 are still uncertain in their results4 ,the characters involved are too complex to offer any simple sequences4 ,if two parents have brown eyes1 it can not be said that all their children will have brown eyes2 still less can it be said that all the children of two musically gifted parents are certain to be endowed with musical talent in any given degree4 ,prediction is possible only when uniform sequences are found4 ,how are such sequences to be found in heredity1 if they do not appear when a parent and his offspring are examined8 ,obviously it is necessary to examine a large number of parents and their offspring1--to treat the problem by statistical methods4 ,but1 it may be objected1 a uniformity gained by such methods is spurious4 ,it is merely shutting the eyes to the mass of contradictions which are concealed by an apparent statistical uniformity4 ,this objection would be valid1 if the statistical results were used for prediction in individual cases4 ,the statistician1 however1 expressly warns that his conclusions must not be used for such prediction4 ,they are intended to predict only general trends1 only average results2 and for this purpose they are wholly legitimate4 ,moreover1 evolution itself is a problem of statistics1 and therefore the statistical method of studying heredity may offer results of great value to eugenics1 even though it can not furnish in individual cases the prediction which would be desirable4 ,from this standpoint1 we return to attack the problem of the relation between parent and offspring4 ,we noted that there is no uniform sequence in a single family1 and illustrated this by the case of brown eyes4 ,but if a thousand parents and their offspring be selected and some trait1 such as eye-color1 or stature1 or general intelligence1 be measured1 a uniformity at once appears in the fact of regression4 ,its discoverer1 ,sir ,francis ,galton1 gives this account of it3 ,illustration3 ,,finger-,,prints ,,of ,,twins ,,fig4 #be4--;,above are the finger-prints1 supplied by ,j4 ,h4 ,taylor of the ,navy ,department1 of the two young sailors shown in ,fig4 #bd4 ,the reader might examine them once or twice without seeing any differences4 ,systematic comparison reveals that the thumbs of the left hands and the middle fingers of the right hands particularly are distinguishable4 ,finger-prints as a means of identification were popularized by ,sir ,francis ,galton1 the founder of eugenics1 and their superiority to all other methods is now generally admitted4 ,in addition to this practical usefulness1 they also furnish material for study of the geneticist and zologist4 ,the extent to which heredity is responsible for the patterns is indicated by the resemblance in pattern in spite of the great variability in this tract4 ,if the word 'peculiarity' be used to signify the difference between the amount of any faculty possessed by a man1 and the average of that possessed by the population at large1 then the law of regression may be described as follows3 each peculiarity in a man is shared by his kinsmen1 but on the average in a less degree4 ,it is reduced to a definite fraction of its amount1 quite independently of what its amount might be4 ,the fraction differs in different orders of kinship1 becoming smaller as they are more remote4 ,when the kinship is so distant that its effects are not worth taking into account1 the peculiarity of the man1 however remarkable it may have been1 is reduced to zero in his kinsmen4 ,this apparent paradox is fundamentally due to the greater frequency of mediocre deviations than of extreme ones1 occurring between limits separated by equal widths4 ,as to the application of this law1 let ,galton himself speak3 ,the ,law of ,regression tells heavily against the full hereditary transmission of any gift4 ,only a few out of many children would be likely to differ from mediocrity so widely as their ,mid-,parent i4 e41 the average of their two parents1 allowing for sexual differences1 and still fewer would differ as widely as the more exceptional of the two parents4 ,the more bountifully the parent is gifted by nature1 the more rare will be his good fortune if he begets a son who is as richly endowed as himself1 and still more so if he has a son who is endowed yet more largely4 ,but the law is evenhanded2 it levies an equal succession-tax on the transmission of badness as of goodness4 ,if it discourages the extravagant hopes of a gifted parent that his children on the average will inherit all his powers1 it not less discountenances extravagant fears that they will inherit all his weakness and disease4 ,it must be clearly understood that there is nothing in these statements to invalidate the general doctrine that the children of a gifted pair are much more likely to be gifted than the children of a mediocre pair4 ,to this it should be added that progeny of very great ability will arise more frequently in proportion to the quality of their parents4 ,it must be reiterated that this is a statistical1 not a biological1 law2 and that even ,galton probably goes a little too far in applying it to individuals4 ,it will hold good for a whole population1 but not necessarily for only one family4 ,further1 we can afford to remphasize the fact that it in no way prevents the improvement of a race by selection and assortative mating4 ,stature is the character which ,dr4 ,galton used to get an exact measurement of the amount of regression4 ,more recent studies have changed the value he found1 without invalidating his method4 ,when large numbers are taken it is now abundantly proved that if parents exceed the average stature of their race by a certain amount their offspring will1 in general1 exceed the racial average by only one-half as much as their parents did4 ,this is due1 as ,galton said1 to the drag of the more remote ancestry1 which when considered as a whole must represent very nearly mediocrity1 statistically speaking4 ,the general amount of regression in heredity1 then1 is one-half4 ,if it be expressed as a decimal1 4#e1 the reader will at once note its identity with the coefficient of correlation which we have so often cited in this book as a measure of heredity4 ,in fact1 the coefficient of correlation is nothing more than a measure of the regression1 and it is probably simpler to think of it as correlation than it is to speak of a ,law of ,regression1 as ,sir ,francis did4 ,this correlation or regression can1 of course1 be measured for other ancestors as well as for the immediate parents4 ,from studies of eye-color in man and coat-color in horses1 ,karl ,pearson worked out the necessary correlations1 which are usually referred to as the law of ,ancestral ,inheritance4 ,dr4 ,galton had pointed out1 years before1 that the contributions of the several generations of individuals probably formed a geometrical series1 and ,professor ,pearson calculated this series1 for the two cases mentioned1 as3 ,parents ,grandparents ,g-,grandparents ,g-,g-,grandparents 4#fbdd 4#aihh 4#jfcj 4#jbjb 444 etc4 ,in other words1 the two parents1 together1 will on the average of a great many cases be found to have contributed a little more than three-fifths of the hereditary peculiarities of any given individual2 the four grandparents will be found responsible for a little less than one-fifth1 and the eight great-grandparents for about six hundredths1 and so on1 the contribution of each generation becoming smaller with ascent1 but each one having1 in the average of many cases1 a certain definite though small influence1 until infinity4 ,it can not be too strongly emphasized that this is a statistical law1 not a biological law4 ,it must not be applied to predict the character of the offspring of any one particular mating1 for it might be highly misleading4 ,it would be wholly unjustified1 for example1 to suppose that a certain man got three-tenths of his nature from his father1 because the ,law of ,ancestral ,heredity required it3 in point of fact1 he might get one-tenth or nine-tenths1 none or all of a given trait4 ,but1 when dealing with a large population1 the errors on one side balance the errors on the other1 and the law is found1 in the cases to which it has been applied1 to express the facts4#ea ,while1 therefore1 this ,galton-,pearson law gives no advice in regard to individual marriages1 it is yet of great value to applied eugenics4 ,in the first place1 it crystallizes the vague realization that remote ancestry is of much less importance than immediate ancestry1 to an individual1 while showing that every generation has a part in making a man what he is4 ,in the second place1 it is found1 by mathematical reasoning which need not here be repeated1 that the type of a population may be quickly changed by the mating of like with like2 and that this newly established type may be maintained when not capable of further progress4 ,regression is not inevitable1 for it may be overcome by selection4 ,to put the matter in a more concrete form1 there is reason to think that if for a few generations superior people would marry only people on the average superior in like degree 7superior in ancestry as well as individuality71 a point would be reached where all the offspring would tend to be superior1 mediocrities of the former type being eliminated2 and this superiority could be maintained as long as care was taken to avoid mating with inferior4 ,in other words1 the ,galton-,pearson ,law gives statistical support for a belief that eugenic marriages will create an improved breed of men4 ,and this1 it seems to us1 is the most important implication of that law for eugenics1 although it is an implication that is generally ignored4 ,we do not propose to discuss further the laws of heredity2 but it is likely that the reader who has made no other study of the subject may by this time find himself somewhat bewildered4 ,can we talk only in generalities8 he may well ask2 ,does eugenics know no laws of heredity that will guide me in the choice of a wife8 ,i thought that was the purpose of eugenics6 ,we reply3 7#a7 ,the laws of heredity are vastly complicated in man by the complex nature of most of his characters4 ,the definite way in which some abnormalities are inherited is known2 but it has not been thought necessary to include an account of such facts in this work4 ,they are set forth in other books1 especially ,davenport's ,heredity in ,relation to ,eugenics4 ,the knowledge of how such a trait as color-blindness is inherited may be of importance to one man out of a thousand in choosing a wife2 but we are taking a broader view of eugenics than this4 ,as far as the great mass of human characters go1 they are1 in our opinion1 due to so many separately inheritable factors that it is not safe to dogmatize about exactly how they will behave in heredity4 ,such knowledge1 desirable as it may be1 is not necessary for race progress4 7#b7 ,but it is possible1 with present knowledge1 to say that human traits1 mental as well as physical1 are inherited1 in a high degree4 ,even before the final details as to the inheritance of all traits are worked out--a task that is never likely to be accomplished--there is ample material on which to base action for eugenics4 ,the basal differences in the mental traits of man 7and the physical as well1 of course7 are known to be due to heredity1 and little modified by training4 ,it is therefore possible to raise the level of the human race--the task of eugenics--by getting that half of the race which is1 on the whole1 superior in the traits that make for human progress and happiness1 to contribute a larger proportion to the next generation than does the half which is on the whole inferior in that respect4 ,eugenics need know nothing more1 and the smoke of controversy over the exact way in which some trait or other is inherited must not be allowed for an instant to obscure the known fact that the level can be raised4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,natural ,,selection ,man has risen from the ape chiefly through the action of natural selection4 ,any scheme of conscious race betterment1 then1 should carefully examine nature's method1 to learn to what extent it is still acting1 and to what extent it may better be supplanted or assisted by methods of man's own invention4 ,natural selection operates in two ways3 7#a7 through a selective death-rate and 7#b7 through a selective birth-rate4 ,the first of these forms has often been considered the whole of natural selection1 but wrongly4 ,the second steadily gains in importance as an organism rises in the scale of evolution2 until in man it is likely soon to dwarf the lethal factor into insignificance4 ,for it is evident that the appalling slaughter of all but a few of the individuals born1 which one usually associates with the idea of natural selection1 will take place only when the number of individuals born is very large4 ,as the reproductive rate decreases1 so does the death-rate1 for a larger proportion of those born are able to find food and to escape enemies4 ,when considering man1 one realizes at once that relatively few babies or adults starve to death4 ,the selective death-rate therefore must include only those who are unable to escape their enemies2 and while these enemies of the species1 particularly certain microrganisms1 still take a heavy toll from the race1 the progress of science is likely to make it much smaller in the future4 ,the different aspects of natural selection may be classified as follows3 ,lethal ,sustentative ,non-sustentative ,natural selection ,reproductive ,sexual ,fecundal ,the lethal factor is the one which ,darwin himself most emphasized4 ,obviously a race will be steadily improved1 if the worst stock in it is cut off before it has a chance to reproduce1 and if the best stock survives to perpetuate its kind4 ,this preservation of favourable individual differences and variations1 and the destruction of those which are injurious1 ,i have called natural selection1 or the survival of the fittest1 ,darwin wrote2 and he went on to show that the principal checks on increase were overcrowding1 the difficulty of obtaining food1 destruction by enemies1 and the lethal effects of climate4 ,these causes may be conveniently divided as in the above diagram1 into sustentative and non-sustentative4 ,the sustentative factor has acquired particular prominence in the human species1 since ,malthus wrote his essay on population--that essay which both ,darwin and ,wallace confess was the starting point of their discovery of natural selection4 ,there is a constant tendency in all animated life to increase beyond the nourishment prepared for it1 ,malthus declared4 ,it is incontrovertibly true that there is no bound to the prolific plants and animals1 but what is made by their crowding and interfering with each others' means of subsistence4 ,his deduction is well known3 that as man tends to increase in geometrical ratio1 and can not hope to increase his food-supply more rapidly than in arithmetical ratio1 the human race must eventually face starvation1 unless the birth-rate be reduced4 ,darwin was much impressed by this argument and ever since his time it has usually been the foundation for any discussion of natural selection4 ,nevertheless it is partly false for all animals1 as one of the authors showed#eb some years ago1 since a species which regularly eats up all the food in sight is rare indeed2 and it is of very little racial importance in the present-day evolution of man4 ,scarcity of food may put sufficient pressure on him to cause emigration1 but rarely death4 ,the importance of ,malthus' argument to eugenics is too slight to warrant further discussion4 ,when the non-sustentative forms of lethal selection are considered1 it is seen very clearly that man is not exempt from the workings of this law4 ,a non-sustentative form of natural selection takes place through the destruction of the individual by some adverse feature of the environment1 such as excessive cold1 or bacteria2 or by bodily deficiency2 and it is independent of mere food-supply4 ,w4 ,f4 ,r4 ,weldon showed by a long series of measurements1 for example1 that as the harbor of ,plymouth1 ,england1 kept getting muddier1 the crabs which lived in it kept getting narrower2 those with the greatest frontal breadth filtered the water entering their gills least effectively1 and died4 ,but1 it was objected1 man is above all this4 ,he has gained the control of his own environment4 ,the bloody hand of natural selection may fall on crabs3 but surely you would not have us think that ,man1 the ,lord of ,creation1 shares the same fate8 ,biologists could hardly think otherwise4 ,statisticians were able to supply the needed proof4 ,a selective death-rate in man can not only be demonstrated but it can be actually measured4 ,the measure of the selective death-rate4 says#ec ,karl ,pearson1 to whom this achievement is due1 is extraordinarily simple4 ,it consists in the fact that the inheritance of the length of life between parent and offspring is found statistically to be about one-third of the average inheritance of physical characters in man4 ,this can only be due to the fact that the death of parent or of offspring in a certain number of cases is due to random and not to constitutional causes4 ,he arrived at the conclusion#ed that #fj of the deaths were selective1 in the ,quaker families which he was then studying4 ,the exact proportion must vary in accordance with the nature of the material and the environment1 but as ,a4 ,ploetz found at least #fj of the deaths to be selective in the ,european royal families and nobility1 where the environment is uniformly good1 there is no reason to think that ,professor ,pearson's conclusion is invalid4 ,dr4 ,ploetz#ee investigated the relation between length of life in parents1 and infant mortality1 in about #a1jjj families including #e1ejj children2 half of these were from the nobility and half from the peasantry4 ,the results were of the same order in each case1 indicating that environment is a much less important factor than many have been wont to suppose4 ,after discussing ,professor ,pearson's work1 he continued3 ,it seems to me that a simpler result can be reached from our material in the following way4 ,since the greater child-mortality of each of our classes of children 7divided according to the ages at death of their parents7 indicates a higher mortality throughout the rest of their lives1 the offspring of parents who die young will therefore be eliminated in a higher degree1 that is1 removed from the composition of the race1 than will those whose parents died late4 ,now the elimination can be non-selective1 falling on all sorts of constitutions with the same frequency and degree4 ,in that case it will of course have no connection with selection inside the race4 ,or it may be of a selective nature1 falling on its victims because they differ from those who are not selected1 in a way that makes them less capable of resisting the pressure of the environment1 and avoiding its dangers4 ,then we speak of a selective process1 of the elimination of the weaker and the survival of the stronger4 ,since in our examination of the various causes of the difference in infant mortality1 in the various age-classes of parents1 we found no sufficient cause in the effects of the environment1 which necessarily contains all the non-selective perils1 but found the cause to be in the different constitutions inherited by the children1 we can not escape the conclusion that the differences in infant mortality which we observe indicate a strong process of natural selection4 ,our tables also permit us to get an approximate idea of the extent of selection by death among children in the first five years of life4 ,the minimum of infant mortality is reached among those children whose parents have attained #he years of age4 ,since these represent the strongest constitutions1 the mortality of their children would appear to represent an absolute minimum1 made up almost wholly of chance1 non-selective1 unavoidable deaths4 ,as the number of children from marriages1 both parties to which reached #he years of age1 is so small as to render any safe conclusions impossible1 our only recourse is to take the children of the #he-year-old fathers and the children of the #he-year-old mothers1 add them together1 and strike an average4 ,but we must recognize that the minimum so obtained is nevertheless still too large1 because among the consorts of the long-lived fathers and mothers1 some died early with the result of increasing the infant mortality4 ,the infant mortality with the #he-year-old fathers and mothers is found to be #aa4b-ae4d1 average about #ac4 ,the total child-mortality reaches #ca-cb1 of which the #ac make about #dj4 ,accordingly at least #fj1 and considering the above mentioned sources of error we may say two-thirds1 of the child mortality is selective in character4 ,that accords reasonably well with the #ee-gd which ,pearson found for the extent of selective deaths in his study4 ,in general1 then1 one may believe that more than a half of the persons who die nowadays1 die because they were not fit by by nature 7i4 e41 heredity7 to survive under the conditions into which they were born4 ,they are the victims of lethal natural selection1 nearly always of the non-sustentative type4 ,as ,karl ,pearson says1 ,every man who has lived through a hard winter1 every man who has examined a mortality table1 every man who has studied the history of nations has probably seen natural selection at work4 ,there is still another graphic way of seeing natural selection at work1 by an examination of the infant mortality alone4 ,imagine a thousand babies coming into the world on a given day4 ,it is known that under average ,american conditions more than one-tenth of them will die during the first year of life4 ,now if those who die at this time are the inherently weaker1 then the death-rate among survivors ought to be correspondingly less during succeeding years1 for many will have been cut down at once1 who might otherwise have lingered for several years1 although doomed to die before maturity4 ,on the other hand1 if only a few die during the first year1 one might expect a proportionately greater number to die in succeeding years4 ,if it is actually found that a high death-rate in the first year of life is associated with a low death-rate in succeeding years1 then there will be grounds for believing that natural selection is really cutting off the weaker and allowing the stronger to survive4 ,e4 ,c4 ,snow#ef analyzed the infant mortality registration of parts of ,england and ,prussia to determine whether any such conclusion was justified4 ,his investigation met with many difficulties1 and his results are not as clear-cut as could be desired1 but he felt justified in concluding from them that the general result can not be questioned4 ,natural selection1 in the form of a selective death-rate1 is strongly operative in man in the early years of life4 ,we assert with great confidence that a high mortality in infancy 7the first two years of life7 is followed by a correspondingly low mortality in childhood1 and vice-versa4444 ,our work has led us to the conclusion that infant mortality does effect a 'weeding out' of the unfit4 ,unfitness in this connection must not be interpreted too narrowly4 ,a child may be unfit to survive in its environment1 merely because its parents are ignorant and careless4 ,such unfitness makes more probable an inheritance of low intelligence4 ,evidence of natural selection was gathered by ,karl ,pearson from another source and published in #aiab4 ,he dealt with material analogous to that of ,dr4 ,snow and showed that when allowance was made for change of environment in the course of #ej years1 a very high association existed between the deaths in the first year of life and the deaths in childhood 7#a to #e years74 ,this association was such that if the infantile death-rate increased by #aj the child death rate decreased by #e4c in males1 while in females the fall in the child death-rate was almost #a for every #a rise in the infantile death-rate4 ,to put the matter in the form of a truism1 part of the children born in any district in a given year are doomed by heredity to a premature death2 and if they die in one year they will not be alive to die in some succeeding year4 ,lately a new mathematical method1 which is termed the ,variate ,difference ,correlation method1 has been invented and gives more accurate results1 in such an investigation as that of natural selection1 than any hitherto used4 ,with this instrument ,professor ,pearson and ,miss ,elderton have confirmed the previous work4 ,applying it to the registered births in ,england and ,wales between #ahej and #aiab1 and the deaths during the first five years of life in the same period1 they have again found#eg that for both sexes a heavy death-rate in one year of life means a markedly lower death-rate in the same group in the following year of life4 ,this lessened death-rate extends in a lessened degree to the year following that1 but is not by the present method easy to trace further4 ,it is difficult1 as they conclude1 to believe that this important fact can be due to any other source than natural selection1 i4 e41 a heavy mortality leaves behind it a stronger population4 ,to avoid misunderstandings1 it may be well to add to this review the closing words of the ,elderton-,pearson memoir4 ,nature is not concerned with the moral or the immoral1 which are standards of human conduct1 and the duty of the naturalist is to point out what goes on in ,nature4 ,there can now be scarcely a doubt that even in highly organized human communities the death-rate is selective1 and physical fitness is the criterion for survival4 ,to assert the existence of this selection and measure its intensity must be distinguished from an advocacy of high infant mortality as a factor of racial efficiency4 ,this reminder is the more needful as there are not wanting those who assert that demonstrating the existence of natural selection in man is identical with decrying all efforts to reduce the infantile death-rate4 ,a further discussion of this point will be found in a later chapter4 ,the conclusion that1 of the infants who die1 a large number do so through inherent weakness--because they are not fit to survive--is also suggested by a study of the causes of death4 ,from a third to a half of the deaths during the first year of life1 and particularly during the first month1 are due to what may be termed uterine causes1 such as debility1 atrophy1 inanition1 or premature birth4 ,although in many cases such a death is the result of lack of prenatal care1 in still more it must be ascribed to a defect in the parental stock4 ,in connection with infant mortality1 it may be of interest to point out that the intensity of natural selection is probably greater among boys than among girls4 ,there is a steady preponderance of boys over girls at birth 7about #aje to #ajj1 in the ,united ,states71 while among the stillborn the proportion is #aeh to #ajj1 if the ,massachusetts figures for #ahia-aijj may be taken as general in application4 ,evidently a large number of weak males have been eliminated before birth4 ,this elimination continues for a number of years to be greater among boys than among girls1 until in the period of adolescence the death-rates of the two sexes are equal4 ,in adult life the death-rate among men is nearly always higher than that among women1 but this is due largely to the fact that men pursue occupations where they are more exposed to death4 ,in such cases1 and particularly where deaths are due to accident1 the mortality may not only be non-selective1 but is sometimes contra-selective1 for the strongest and most active men will often be those who expose themselves most to some danger4 ,such a reversal of the action of natural selection is seen on a large scale in the case of war1 where the strongest go to the fray and are killed1 while the weaklings stay at home to perpetuate their type of the race4 ,a curious aspect of the kind of natural selection under consideration1--that which operates by death without reference to the food-supply1--is seen in the evolution of a wide pelvis in women4 ,before the days of modern obstetrics1 the woman born with an unusually narrow pelvis was likely to die during parturition1 and the inheritance of a narrower type of pelvis was thus stopped4 ,with the introduction and improvement of instrumental and induced deliveries1 many of these women are enabled to survive1 with the necessary consequence that their daughters will in many cases have a similarly narrow pelvis1 and experience similar difficulty in childbirth4 ,the percentage of deliveries in which instrumental aid is necessary is thus increasing from generation to generation1 and is likely to continue to increase for some time4 ,in other words1 natural selection1 because of man's interference1 can no longer maintain the width of woman's pelvis1 as it formerly did1 and a certain amount of reversion in this respect is probably taking place--a reversion which1 if unchecked1 would necessarily lead after a long time to a reduction in the average size of skull of that part of the human race which frequently uses forceps at childbirth4 ,the time would be long because the forceps permit the survival of some large-headed infants who otherwise would die4 ,but it must not be supposed that lethal1 non-sustentative selection works only through forms of infant mortality4 ,that aspect was first discussed because it is most obvious1 but the relation of natural selection to microbic disease is equally widespread and far more striking4 ,as to the inheritance of disease as such there is little room for misunderstanding3 no biologist now believes a disease is actually handed down from parent to child in the germ-plasm4 ,but what the doctors call a diathesis1 a predisposition to some given disease1 is most certainly heritable--a fact which ,karl ,pearson and others have proved by statistics that can not be given here4#eh ,and any individual who has inherited this diathesis1 this lack of resistance to a given disease1 is marked as a possible victim of natural selection4 ,the extent to which and the manner in which it operates may be more readily understood by the study of a concrete case4 ,tuberculosis is1 as everyone knows1 a disease caused directly by a bacillus2 and a disease to which immunity can not be acquired by any process of vaccination or inoculation yet known4 ,it is a disease which is not directly inherited as such4 ,yet every city-dweller in the ,united ,states is almost constantly exposed to infection by this bacillus1 and autopsies show that most persons have actually been infected at some period of life1 but have resisted further encroachment4 ,perhaps a fraction of them will eventually die of consumption2 the rest will die of some other disease1 and will probably never even know that they have carried the bacilli of tuberculosis in their lungs4 ,of a group of men picked at random from the population1 why will some eventually die of tuberculosis and the others resist infection8 ,is it a matter of environment8--are open-air schools1 sanitary tenements1 proper hygiene1 the kind of measures that will change this condition8 ,such is the doctrine widely preached at the present day4 ,it is alleged that the white plague may be stamped out1 if the open cases of tuberculosis are isolated and the rest of the population is taught how to live properly4 ,the problem is almost universally declared to be a problem of infection4 ,infection certainly is the immediate problem1 but the biologist sees a greater one a little farther back4 ,it is the problem of natural selection4 ,to prove this1 it is necessary to prove 7#a7 that some people are born with less resistance to tuberculosis than others and 7#b7 that it is these people with weak natural resistance who die of phthisis1 while their neighbors with stronger resistance survive4 ,the proof of these propositions has been abundantly given by ,karl ,pearson1 ,g4 ,archdall ,reid and others4 ,their main points may be indicated4 ,in the first place it must be shown that the morbidity from tuberculosis is largely due to heredity--a point on which most medical men are still uninformed4 ,measurement of the direct correlation between phthisis in parent and child shows it to be about 4#e1 i4 e41 what one expects if it is a matter of heredity4 ,this is the coefficient for most physical and mental characters3 it is the coefficient for such pathological traits as deafness and insanity1 which are obviously due in most cases to inheritance rather than infection4 ,but1 one objects1 this high correlation between parent and child does not prove inheritance1--it obviously proves infection4 ,the family relations are so intimate that it is folly to overlook this factor in the spread of the disease4 ,very well1 ,professor ,pearson replied1 if the relations between parent and child are so intimate that they lead to infection1 they are certainly not less intimate between husband and wife1 and there ought to be just as much infection in this relationship as in the former4 ,the correlation was measured in thousands of cases and was found to lie around 4#be1 being lowest in the poorer classes and highest in the well-to-do classes4 ,at first glance this seems partly to confirm the objection--it looks as if there must be a considerable amount of tubercular infection between husband and wife4 ,but when it is found that the resemblance between husband and wife in the matter of insanity is also 4#be1 the objection becomes less formidable4 ,certainly it will hardly be argued that one of the partners infects the other with this disability4 ,as a fact1 a correlation of 4#be between husband and wife1 for tuberculosis1 is only partly due to infection4 ,what it does mean is that like tends to mate with like--called assortative mating4 ,this coefficient of resemblance between husband and wife in regard to phthisis is about the same as the correlation of resemblance between husband and wife for eye color1 stature1 longevity1 general health1 truthfulness1 tone of voice1 and many other characters4 ,no one will suppose that life partners infect each other in these respects4 ,certainly no one will claim that a man deliberately selects a wife on the basis of resemblance to himself in these points2 but he most certainly does so to some extent unconsciously1 as will be described at greater length in ,chapter ,,xi4 ,assortative mating is a well-established fact1 and there is every reason to believe that much of the resemblance between husband and wife as regards tuberculosis is due to this fact1 and not to infection4#ei ,again1 it is objected that the infection of children is not a family matter1 but due to tuberculous cows' milk3 how then does it appear equally among the ,japanese1 where cows are not tuberculous and cow's milk rarely used as an infant food3 or among such people as the ,esquimaux and ,polynesians1 who have never seen a cow8 ,but1 it is argued1 at any rate bad housing and unsanitary conditions of life will make infection easier and lower the resistance of the individual4 ,perhaps such conditions may make infection easier1 but that is of little importance considering how easy it is for all city dwellers--for the population as a whole4 ,the question remains1 will not bad housing cause a greater liability to fatal phthisis8 ,will not destitution and its attendant conditions increase the probability that a given individual will succumb to the white plague8 ,most physicians think this to be the case1 but they have not taken the pains to measure the respective rles1 by the exact methods of modern science4 ,s4 ,adolphus ,knopf of ,new ,york1 an authority on tuberculosis1 recognizes the importance of the heredity factor1 but says that after this1 the most important predisposing conditions are of the nature of unsanitary schools1 unsanitary tenements1 unsanitary factories and workshops4 ,this may be very true2 these conditions may follow after heredity in importance--but how near do they follow8 ,that is a matter capable of fairly accurate measurement1 and should be discussed with figures1 not generalities4 ,taking the case of destitution1 which includes1 necessarily1 most of the other evils specified1 ,professor ,pearson measured the correlation with liability to phthisis and found it to be 4#jb4 ,the correlation for direct heredity--that is1 the resemblance between parent and offspring--it will be remembered1 is 4#ej4 ,as compared with this1 the environmental factor of 4#jb is utterly insignificant4 ,it seems evident that whether or not one dies from tuberculosis1 under present-day urban conditions1 depends mainly on the kind of constitution one has inherited4 ,there is no escape1 then1 from the conclusion that in any individual1 death from tuberculosis is largely a matter of natural selection4 ,but by taking a longer view1 one can actually see the change to which natural selection is one of the contributors4 ,the following table shows the deaths from consumption in ,massachusetts1 per #aj1jjj population3 #ahea-fj #ci4i #ahfa-gj #cd4i #ahga-hj #cb4g #ahha-ij #bi4b #ahia-aijj #ba4d #aija #ag4e #aijb #ae4i ,f4 ,l4 ,hoffman further points out#fj that in ,massachusetts1 ,rhode ,island1 and ,connecticut1 #ahgb-aiaa1 the decline in the death-rate from tuberculosis has been about #ej4 ,the evidence is absolutely conclusive that actually as well as relatively1 the mortality from tuberculosis in what is the most intensely industrial area of ,america has progressively diminished during the last #dj years4 ,it will be noted that the great increase in death from consumption in this area began in the decade following #ahdj1 when the large ,irish immigration began4 ,the ,irish are commonly believed to be particularly susceptible to phthisis4 ,crowded together in industrial conditions1 they rapidly underwent infection1 and their weak racial resistance led to a high death-rate4 ,the weak lines of heredity were rapidly cut off2 in other words1 the intensity of natural selection was great1 for a while4 ,the result was to leave the population of these ,new ,england states much more resistant1 on the average1 than it was before2 and as the ,irish immigration soon slowed down1 and no new stocks with great weakness arrived1 tuberculosis naturally tended to burn itself out4 ,this seems to be a partial explanation of the decline in the death-rate from phthisis in ,new ,england during the last half century1 although it is not suggested that it represents the complete explanation3 improved methods of treatment and sanitation doubtless played their part4 ,but that they are the sole cause of the decline is made highly improbable by the low correlation between phthisis and environmental factors1 which was mentioned above1 and by all the other biometric study of tuberculosis1 which has proved that the results ascribed to hygiene1 including sanitorium treatment1 are to some degree illusory4 ,that tuberculosis is particularly fatal to the ,negro race is well known4 ,even to-day1 after several centuries of natural selection in the ,united ,states1 the annual death-rate from consumption among ,negroes in the registration area is #dca4i per #ajj1jjj population 7census of #aijj7 as compared with #agj4e for the whites2 in the cities alone it is #dga4j4 ,that overcrowding and climate can not be the sole factors is indicated by the fact that the ,negro race has been decimated1 wherever it has met tuberculosis4 ,in the years #ahjc and #ahaj the ,british government imported three or four thousand ,negroes from ,mozambique into ,ceylon to form into regiments1 and of these in ,december1 #ahbj1 there were left just #ddj1 including the male descendants4 ,all the rest had perished mainly from tuberculosis1 and in a country where the disease is not nearly so prevalent as in ,england4#fa ,archdall ,reid has pointed out#fb that the ,american1 ,polynesian and ,australian aborigines1 to whom tuberculosis was unknown before the advent of ,europeans1 and who had therefore never been selected against it1 could not survive its advent3 they were killed by much smaller infections than would have injured a ,european1 whose stock has been purged by centuries of natural selection4 ,these racial histories are the most important evidence available to the student of natural selection in man4 ,the conclusion to be drawn from them seems plain4 ,natural selection1 which has in the past never had an opportunity to act upon the ,negro race through tuberculosis1 is now engaged in hastening1 at a relatively rapid rate1 the evolution of this race toward immunity from death by tuberculosis4 ,the evolution of the white race on this line is1 as the figures show1 going on simultaneously1 but having begun centuries earlier1 it is not now so rapid4 ,the weakest white stocks were cut off hundreds of years ago1 in ,great ,britain or ,europe2 those of the black race are only now going4 ,despite all the efforts of medicine and sanitation1 it is likely that the ,negro death-rate from phthisis will continue high for some years1 until what is left of the race will possess a degree of resistance1 or immunity1 not much inferior to that of the whites among whom they live4 ,the blacks in ,north ,america now must be already more resistant than their ancestors2 the mulattoes descended of normal healthy unions should be more resistant than the pure ,negroes1 although no statistics are available on the point2 but were a new immigration to take place from ,africa to-day1 and the immigrants to be put into villages with their ,americanized brethren1 the high death-rate would result4 ,while the ,negroes were thus undergoing the radical surgery of natural selection1 what was happening to the aborigines of ,america8 ,the answer of history is unmistakable2 they were meeting the same fate1 in an even more violent form4 ,not tuberculosis alone1 but small-pox1 measles1 alcohol and a dozen other importations of the conquerors1 found in the aborigines of the ,new ,world a stock which had never been selected against these diseases4 ,it is the custom of sentimentalists sometimes to talk as if the ,north ,american ,indian had been killed off by the white man4 ,so he was1--but not directly3 he was killed off by natural selection1 acting through the white man's diseases and narcotics4 ,in #ahda ,catlin wrote1 ,thirty millions of white men are now scuffling for the goods and luxuries of life over the bones of twelve millions of red men1 six millions of whom have fallen victims to small-pox4 ,small-pox is an old story to the white race1 and the death of the least resistant strains in each generation has left a population that is fairly resistant4 ,it was new to the natives of ,america1 and history shows the result4 ,alcohol1 too1 counted its victims by the thousand1 for the same reason4 ,the process of natural selection among the ,north ,american ,indians has not yet stopped2 if there are a century from now any ,indians left1 they will of necessity belong to stocks which are relatively resistant to alcohol and tuberculosis and the other widespread and fatal diseases which were unknown upon this continent before ,columbus4 ,the decrease of natives following the ,spanish conquest of tropical ,america has long been one of the most striking events of history4 ,popular historians sometimes speak as if most of the native population had been killed off by the cruelty of the conquistadores4 ,surely such talk could not proceed from those who are familiar with the action of natural selection4 ,it is obvious that when the ,spaniard brought the natives together1 making them work in mines and assemble in churches1 he brought them under conditions especially favorable for infection by the new diseases which he had brought4 ,the aborigines of the ,new ,world1 up to the time the ,spaniards came1 had undergone no evolution whatever against these diseases2 consequently the evolution began at so rapid a rate that in a few centuries only those who lived in out-of-the-way places remain unscathed4 ,the same story is repeated1 in a survey of the history of the ,pacific ,islands4 ,even such a disease as whooping-cough carried off adults by the hundred4 ,robert ,louis ,stevenson has left a graphic picture#fc of natural selection at work3 ,the tribe of ,hapaa1 he writes1 is said to have numbered some four hundred when the small-pox came and reduced them by one-fourth4 ,six months later a woman developed tubercular consumption2 the disease spread like fire about the valley1 and in less than a year two survivors1 a man and a woman1 fled from the newly-created solitude4444 ,early in the year of my visit1 for example1 or late the year before1 the first case of phthisis appeared in a household of #ag persons1 and by the end of ,august1 when the tale was told me1 one soul survived1 a boy who had been absent at his schooling4 ,in ,tasmania is another good illustration of the evolution of a race proceeding so rapidly as to be fatal to the race4 ,when the first ,english settled on the island1 in #ahjc1 the native population consisted of several thousand4 ,tuberculosis and many other new diseases1 and1 most of all1 alcohol1 began to operate on the aborigines1 who were attracted to the settlements of the whites4 ,in a quarter of a century there were only a few hundred left4 ,many1 of course1 had met violent deaths1 but an enlightened perusal of any history of the period1#fd will leave no doubt that natural selection by disease was responsible for most of the mortality4 ,by #ahdg the number of native ,tasmanians was reduced to #dd1 who were already unmistakably doomed by alcohol and bacteria4 ,when the last full-blood ,tasmanian died in #ahgf1 a new chapter was written in the story of the modern evolution of the human race4 ,no such stories are told about the white settlements on this continent1 even before the days of quarantine and scientific medicine4 ,there is no other adequate explanation of the difference1 than that the two races have evolved to a different degree in their resistance to these diseases4 ,it is easily seen1 then1 that man's evolution is going on1 at varying rates of speed1 in probably all parts of the human race at the present time4 ,we do not mean1 of course1 to suggest that all the natives who have died in the ,new ,world since the landing of ,columbus1 have died because the evolution of their race had not proceeded so far in certain directions as had that of their conquerors4 ,but the proportion of them who were eliminated for that reason is certainly very large4 ,in the more remote parts of ,south ,america the process is still going on4 ,recent press dispatches have carried the account of the ,university of ,pennsylvania's ,amazon ,expedition1 under the direction of ,william ,c4 ,farrabee4 ,in a letter dated ,march #af1 #aiaf1 the leader told of the discovery of the remains of the tribe of ,pikipitanges1 a once populous tribe of which a chief1 six women and two boys alone are left4 ,the tribe had been almost wiped out1 ,dr4 ,farabee reported1 by an epidemic of influenza6 ,if the aborigines of the ,new ,world succumb to the diseases of the ,european1 it is not less true that the ,european succumbs to diseases against which his race has not been selected4 ,the deadliness of yellow fever to ,americans in the tropics1 and the relative immunity of ,negroes1 is familiar2 so too is the frequently fatal result of the ,african tropical fevers on the white man1 while the natives suffer from them much less1 having been made more resistant by centuries of natural selection4 ,this long discussion may now be summarized4 ,we dealt with lethal selection1 that form of natural selection which operates by prematurely killing off the less fit and leaving the more fit to survive and reproduce their kind4 ,it is of course understood that the word fit in this connection does not necessarily mean morally or mentally superior1 but merely fit for the particular environment4 ,in a community of rascals1 the greatest rascal might be the fittest to survive4 ,in the slums of a modern city the ,jewish type1 stringently selected through centuries of ghetto life1 is particularly fit to survive1 although it may not be the physical ideal of an anthropologist4 ,two forms of lethal selection were distinguished1 one depending on starvation and the other on causes not connected with the food supply4 ,direct starvation is not a factor of importance in the survival of most races during most of the time at the present day so far as the civilized portion of the world is concerned4 ,but disease and the other lethal factors not connected with the food-supply1 through which natural selection acts1 are still of great importance4 ,from a half to two-thirds of all deaths are of a selective character1 even under favorable conditions4 ,it is also to be noted1 however1 that with the progress of medicine1 and the diminution of unfit material1 this kind of natural selection will tend to become less and less widespread4 ,for a long time1 natural selection in man has probably done little to cause marked change in his physical or mental characteristics4 ,man's interference has prevented4 ,in recent centuries natural selection has probably done no more on the whole than keep the race where it was3 it is to be feared that it has not even done that4 ,it is doubtful if there is any race to-day which attains the physical and mental average of the ,athenians of #b1ejj years ago4 ,lethal natural selection1 then1 has been and still is a factor of great importance in the evolution of the race1 but at present it is doing little or nothing that promises to further the ideal of eugenics--race betterment4 ,but lethal natural selection is only half the story4 ,it is obvious that if the constitution of a race can be altered by excess of deaths in a certain class1 it can equally be altered by excess of births in a certain class4 ,this is reproductive selection1 which may appear in either one of two forms4 ,if the individual leaves few or no progeny because of his failure to mate at the proper time1 it is called sexual selection2 if1 however1 he mates1 yet leaves few or no progeny 7as compared with other individuals71 it is called fecundal selection4 ,even in man1 the importance of the rle of reproductive selection is insufficiently understood2 in the lower animals scientists have tended still more to undervalue it4 ,as a fact1 no species ordinarily multiplies in such numbers as to exhaust all the food available1 despite the teaching of ,malthus and ,darwin to the contrary4 ,the rate of reproduction is the crux of natural selection2 each species normally has such a reproduction rate as will suffice to withstand the premature deaths and sterility of some individuals1 and yet not so large as to press unduly upon the food supply4 ,the problem of natural selection is a problem of the adjustment between reproductive rate and death-rate1 and the struggle for subsistence is only one of several factors4 ,while the reproductive rate must be looked upon as a characteristic which has its adaptations like other characteristics1 it has one peculiarity--its increase is always opposed by lethal selection4 ,the chances of life are reduced by reproducing1 inasmuch as more danger is entailed by the extra activities of courtship1 and later1 in bearing and caring for the young1 since these duties reduce the normal wariness of individual life4 ,the reproductive rate1 therefore1 always remains at the lowest point which will suffice for the reproductive needs of the species4 ,for this reason alone the non-sustentative form of selection might be expected to be the predominant kind4 ,j4 ,t4 ,gulick and ,karl ,pearson have pointed out that there is a normal conflict between natural selection and fecundal selection4 ,fecundal selection is said by them to be constantly tending to increase the reproductive rate1 because fecundity is partly a matter of heredity1 and the fecund parents leave more offspring with the same characteristic4 ,lethal selection1 on the contrary1 constantly asserts its power to reduce the reproductive rate1 because the reproductive demands on the parents reduce their chances of life by interference with their natural ability of self-protection4 ,this is quite true1 but the analysis is incomplete1 for an increased number of progeny not only decreases the life chances of the parents1 but also of the young1 by reducing the amount of care they receive4 ,in short1 lethal selection and reproductive selection accomplish the same end--a change in the constitution of the species--by different means2 but they are so closely linked together and balanced that any change in the operation of one is likely to cause a change in the operation of the other4 ,this will be clearer when the effect of reproductive selection is studied in man4 ,recalling the truism that most human characters have a hereditary basis1 it is evident that the constitution of society will remain stable from generation to generation1 only if each section of society is reproducing at the same rate as every other 7and assuming1 for the moment1 that the death-rate remains constant74 ,then if the birth-rate of one part of the population is altered1 if it is decreased1 for example1 the next generation will contain proportionately fewer representatives of this class1 the succeeding generation fewer still1 and so on indefinitely--unless a selective death-rate is operating at the same time4 ,it is well known not only that the death-rate varies widely in different parts of the population1 as was pointed out in the earlier part of this chapter1 but that the birth-rate is rarely the same in any two sections of the population4 ,evidently1 therefore1 the make-up of society must necessarily be changing from generation to generation4 ,it will be the object of the rest of this chapter to investigate the ways in which it is changing1 while in the latter half of the book we shall point out some of the ways in which it might be changed to better advantage than it is at present4 ,sexual selection1 or differential success in marrying1 will be discussed at some length in ,chapter ,,xi2 here it may be pointed out that the number who fail to marry is very much greater than one often realizes4 ,it has already been noted that a large part of the population dies before it reaches the age of marriage4 ,of #a1jjj babies born in the ,united ,states1 only #gej will reach the average age of marriage2 in some countries half of the thousand will have fallen by that time4 ,these dead certainly will leave no descendants2 but even of the survivors1 part will fail to marry4 ,the returns of the thirteenth ,u4 ,s4 census showed that of the males #de-fd years of age1 #aj were single1 while #aa of the females1 #ce-dd years old1 were single4 ,few marriages will take place after those ages4 ,add the number who died unmarried previous to those ages1 but after the age of #bj1 and it is safe to say that at least one-third of the persons born in the ,united ,states die 7early or late7 without having married4 ,the consideration of those who died before the age of marriage properly comes under the head of lethal selection1 but if attention is confined to those who1 though reaching the age of marriage1 fail to marry1 sexual selection still has importance4 ,for instance1 it is generally known 7and some statistical proof will be given in ,chapter ,,xi7 that beauty is directly associated with the chance of marriage4 ,the pretty girls in general marry earlier as well in larger percentage2 many of the ugly ones will never find mates4 ,herbert ,spencer argued ingeniously that beauty is associated with general mental and moral superiority1 and the more exact studies of recent years have tended to confirm his generalization4 ,a recent1 but not conclusive1 investigation#fe showed beauty to be correlated with intelligence to the extent of 4#cd4 ,if this is confirmed1 it offers a good illustration of the action of sexual selection in furthering the progressive evolution of the race4 ,miss ,gilmore1 studying a group of normal school graduates1 found a direct correlation between intelligence 7as judged by class marks7 and early marriage after graduation4 ,anyone who would take the trouble could easily investigate numerous cases of this sort1 which would show the effect of sexual selection in perpetuating desirable qualities4 ,but sexual selection no longer has the importance that it once had1 for nowadays the mere fact of marriage is not a measure of fecundity1 to the extent that it once was4 ,in the old days of unlimited fecundity1 the early marriage of a beautiful1 or intelligent1 woman meant a probable perpetuation of her endowments2 but at present1 when artificial restraint of fertility is so widespread1 the result does not follow as a matter of course3 and it is evident that the race is little or not at all helped by the early marriage of an attractive woman1 if she has too few or no children4 ,fecundal selection1 then1 is becoming the important phase of reproductive selection1 in the evolution of civilized races4 ,the differential birth-rate is1 as we have often insisted1 the all-important factor of eugenics1 and it merits careful consideration from all sides4 ,such consideration is made difficult by the inadequate vital statistics of the ,united ,states 7which ranks with ,turkey and ,china in this respect72 but there is no doubt that the birth-rate as a whole is low1 as compared with that of other countries2 although as a whole it is not dangerously low and there is1 of course1 no necessary evil in a low birth-rate1 of itself1 if the quality be satisfactory4 ,the ,u4 ,s4 ,census tabulation for #aiae gives the following comparison of the number of babies born alive each year1 per #a1jjj population1 in various countries3 ,russia in ,europe 7#aiji7 #dd4j ,japan 7#aiaa7 #cd4a ,italy 7#aiac7 #ca4g ,austria 7#aiab7 #ca4c ,spain 7#aiac7 #cj4d ,austria 7#aiac7 #bh4c ,german ,empire 7#aiab7 #bh4c ,holland 7#aiac7 #bh4a ,denmark 7#aiac7 #be4f ,norway 7#aiac7 #be4c ,united ,states 7registration area only1 #aiae7 #bd4i ,england and ,wales 7#aiac7 #bd4a ,sweden 7#aiab7 #bc4h ,switzerland 7#aiac7 #bc4a ,belgium 7#aiab7 #bb4f ,france 7#aiab7 #ai4j ,the ,united ,states birth-rate may1 on its face1 appear high enough2 but its face does not show that this height is due largely to the fecundity of immigrant women4 ,statistics to prove this are given in ,chapter ,,xiii1 but may be supplemented here by some figures from ,pittsburgh4 ,ward #g1 in that city1 contains the homes of many well-to-do1 and contains more representatives of the old ,american stock than any other ward in the city1 having #ef4d of residents who are native born of native parents while the majority of the residents in nearly all the other wards in the city are either themselves foreign-born1 or the offspring of foreign-born parents4 ,ward #g has the lowest birth-rate and the lowest rate of net increase of any ward in the city4 ,with this may be contrasted the sixth ward1 which runs along the south bank of the ,allegheny river4 ,it is one of the great factory districts of the city1 but also contains a large number of homes4 ,nearly #c1jjj of its #ad1hag males of voting age are illiterate4 ,its death-rate is the highest in the city4 ,almost nine-tenths of its residents are either foreigners or the children of foreigners4 ,its birth-rate is three times that of the seventh ward4 ,taking into account all the wards of the city1 it is found that the birth-rate rises as one considers the wards which are marked by a large foreign population1 illiteracy1 poverty and a high death-rate4 ,on the other hand1 the birth-rate falls as one passes to the wards that have most native-born residents1 most education1 most prosperity--and1 to some extent1 education and prosperity denote efficiency and eugenic value4 ,for #bg wards there is a high negative correlation 7-4#fgc71 between birth-rate and percentage of native-born of native parents in the population4 ,the correlation between illiteracy and net increase#ff is 4#gca4 ,the net increase of ,pittsburgh's population1 therefore1 is greatest where the percentage of foreign-born and of illiterates is greatest4 ,the significance of such figures in natural selection must be evident4 ,pittsburgh1 like probably all large cities in civilized countries1 breeds from the bottom4 ,the lower a class is in the scale of intelligence1 the greater is its reproductive contribution4 ,recalling that intelligence is inherited1 that like begets like in this respect1 one can hardly feel encouraged over the quality of the population of ,pittsburgh1 a few generations hence4 ,of course these illiterate foreign laborers are1 from a eugenic point of view1 not wholly bad4 ,the picture should not be painted any blacker than the original4 ,some of these ignorant stocks1 in another generation and with decent surroundings1 will furnish excellent citizens4 ,but taken as a whole1 it can hardly be supposed that the fecund stocks of ,pittsburgh1 with their illiteracy1 squalor and tuberculosis1 their high death-rates1 their economic straits1 are as good eugenic material as the families that are dying out in the more substantial residence section which their fathers created in the eastern part of the city4 ,and it can hardly be supposed that the city1 and the nation1 of the future1 would not benefit by a change in the distribution of births1 whereby more would come from the seventh ward and its like1 and fewer from the sixth and its like4 ,evidently1 there is no difficulty about seeing this form of natural selection at work1 and at work in such a way as greatly to change the character of one section of the species4 ,for comparison1 some figures are presented from ,european sources4 ,in the ,french war budget of #aiaa it appears that from #a1jjj women between the ages of #ae and #ej1 in different districts of ,paris1 the number of yearly births was as follows3 ,very poor #ajh ,poor #ii ,well-to-do #gb ,very prosperous #fe ,rich #ec ,very rich #ce ,disregarding the last class altogether1 it is yet evident that while the mother in a wealthy home bears two children1 the mother in the slums bears four4 ,it is evident then that in ,paris at the present time reproductive selection is changing the mental and moral composition of the population at a rapid rate1 which can not be very materially reduced even if it is found that the death-rate in the poorer districts is considerably greater than it is on the more fashionable boulevards4 ,j4 ,bertillon has brought together#fg in a similar way data from a number of cities1 showing the following birth-rates3 ,berlin ,vienna ,london ,very poor quarters #aeg #bjj #adg ,poor quarters #abi #afd #adj ,comfortable quarters #aad #aee #ajg ,very comfortable #if #aec #ajg ,rich #fc #ajg #hg ,very rich #dg #ha #fc --- --- --- ,average #ajb #aec #aji ,obviously1 in all these cases reproductive selection will soon bring about such a change in the character of the population1 that a much larger part of it than at present will have the hereditary characteristics of the poorer classes and a much smaller part of it than at present the hereditary characteristics of the well-to-do classes4 ,david ,heron and others have recently studied#fh the relation which the birth-rate in different boroughs of ,london bears to their social and economic conditions4 ,using the correlation method1 they found that in ,london the birth-rate per #a1jjj married women1 aged #ae to #ed1 is highest where the conditions show the greatest poverty--namely1 in quarters where pawnbrokers abound1 where unskilled labor is the principal source of income1 where consumption is most common and most deadly1 where pauperism is most rife1 and1 finally1 where the greatest proportion of the children born die in infancy4 ,the correlation coefficients show that the association of these evil conditions with the relative number of children born is a very close one2 and if the question is put in another way1 and the calculations are based on measures of prosperity instead of on measures of poverty1 a high degree of correlation is found between prosperity and a low birth-rate4 ,it must not be supposed that a high rate of infant mortality1 which almost invariably accompanies a high birth-rate1 either in ,london or elsewhere1 goes far toward counteracting the effects of the differential birth-rate4 ,where infant mortality is highest the average number of children above the age of two for each married woman is highest also1 and although the chances of death at all ages are greater among the inhabitants of the poorer quarters1 their rate of natural increase remains considerably higher than that of the inhabitants of the richer4 ,from the detailed study of the figures made by ,newsholme and ,stevenson1 conclusions essentially the same as those of ,heron can be drawn4444 ,their first step was to divide the ,london boroughs into six groups according to the average number of domestic servants for #ajj families in each4 ,this is probably as good a measure of prosperity as any other4 ,they then determined the total birth-rate of the population in each group1 and arrived at the following figures3 ,group ,i4 #aj domestic servants for #ajj families #cd4ig ,,ii4 #aj-bj #ch4cb ,,iii4 #bj-cj #be4ii ,,iv4 #cj-dj #be4hc ,v4 #dj-fj #be4aa ,,vi4 ,over #fj #ah4bd ,in order to find out how far the differences shown by these figures are due to differences in the percentage of women who marry in each group and the age at which they marry1 they corrected the figures in such a way as to make them represent what the birth-rates would be in each group1 if the proportion of wives of each age to the whole population comprising the group was the same as it is in the whole of ,england and ,wales4 ,the corrected birth-rates thus obtained were as follows3 ,group ,i #ca4ef ,,ii #be4hb ,,iii #be4fc ,,iv #be4ej ,v #be4ef ,,vi #bj4de ,it will readily be seen that the effect of the correction has been to reduce the difference between the two extreme groups by about one-third1 showing that to this extent it is due to the way in which they differ as to the average age and number of the women who marry4 ,further1 ,groups ,,ii1 ,,iii1 ,,iv and ,v have all been brought to about the same level1 with a corrected birth-rate about halfway between the highest and the lowest4 ,this shows that there is no gradual decrease in fertility associated with a gradually increasing grade of prosperity1 but that three sharply divided classes may be distinguished3 a very poor class with a high degree of fertility1 to which about a quarter of the population of ,london belong1 a rich class with a low degree of fertility1 and a class intermediate in both respects4 ,eugenics is less directly concerned with this side of the question that with the relative rate of increase of the different classes4 ,this may be found for the six groups in the usual way by deducting the death-rate from the birth-rate4 ,the following figures for the rate of natural increase are then obtained3 ,group ,i #af4ef ,,ii #ac4hi ,,iii #aa4dc ,,iv #ac4ha ,v #aj4bi ,,vi #e4gi ,the figures show in a manner which hardly admits of any doubt that in ,london at any rate the inhabitants of the poorest quarters--over a million in number--are reproducing themselves at a much greater rate than the more well-to-do4 ,a research on similar lines by ,s4 ,r4 ,steinmetz#fi in ,holland shows that the average number of children in the lowest class families is #e4dd4 ,people in industry or small trade1 skilled mechanics and professors of theology have five children to the family2 in other classes the number is as follows3 ,artists #d4cj ,well-to-do ,commercial ,classes #d4bg ,high ,officials #d4jj ,university ,professors 7excluding theological7 #c4ej #bc ,scholars and ,artists of the first rank #b4fj ,it is not hard to see that the next generation in ,holland is likely to have proportionately fewer gifted individuals than has the present one4 ,fortunately1 it is very probable that the differential birth-rate is not of such ominous import in rural districts as it is in cities1 although some of the tribes of degenerates which live in the country show birth-rates of four to six children per wife4#gj ,but in the more highly civilized nations now1 something like a half of the population lives in urban districts1 and the startling extent to which these urban populations breed from the bottom involves a disastrous change in the balance of population within a few generations1 unless it is in some way checked4 ,just how great the change may be1 statistically1 has been emphasized by ,karl ,pearson1 who points out that #ej of the married population provide #ge of the next generation1 owing to the number of deaths before maturity1 the number of celibates and the number of childless marriages4 ,the same rule may be expressed in another way3 #ej of the next generation is produced by #be of the married population4 ,at this rate in a few generations the less efficient and socially valuable1 with their large families1 will overwhelm the more efficient and socially valuable1 and their small families4 ,fecundal selection is at work to-day on a large scale1 changing the character of the population1 and from a eugenic point of view changing it for the worse4 ,fortunately1 it is not impossible to arrest this change4 ,but1 it may be objected1 is not this change merely the survival of the fittest8 ,in a sense1 yes2 and it is necessary that the more intelligent classes should make themselves fitter to survive1 by a change of attitude toward reproduction4 ,but the dying-out of the intellectually superior part of the population is a pathological condition1 not a part of normal evolution2 for barring artificial interference with the birth-rate1 fertility has been found to go hand in hand with general superiority4 ,this demonstration is due to ,f4 ,a4 ,woods' study#ga of #fjh members of the royal families of ,europe1 among whom1 for reasons of state1 large families are desired1 and among whom there has probably been little restraint on the birth-rate4 ,averaging the ratings of his individuals from grade #a1 the mentally and physically very inferior1 to grade #aj1 the mentally and physically very superior1 he found that the number of children produced and brought to maturity increased in a fairly direct ratio4 ,his figures are as follows3 ,,both ,,sexes 7,,averaged7 ,grades for virtues #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h #i #aj ,average number of adult children4 #a4ff #b4hf #b4ii #b4da #c4dd #c4di #c4je #c4jc #c4ic #c4hc ,investigations of ,karl ,pearson and ,alexander ,graham ,bell#gb show that fecundity and longevity are associated4 ,it follows that the mentally and morally superior1 who are the most fecund1 are also the longest-lived2 and as this longevity is largely due to inheritance it follows that1 under natural conditions1 the standard of the stratum of society under consideration would gradually rise1 in respect to longevity1 in each generation4 ,such is probably one of the methods by which the human race has gradually increased its level of desirable characters in each generation4 ,the desirable characters were associated with each other1 and also with fecundity4 ,the desirable characters are still associated with each other1 but their association with fecundity is now negative4 ,it is in this change that eugenics finds justification for its existence as a propaganda4 ,its object is to restore the positive correlation between desirable characters and fecundity1 on which the progressive evolution of the race depends4 ,the bearing of natural selection on the present-day evolution of the human race1 particularly in the ,united ,states of ,america1 must be reviewed in a few closing paragraphs4 ,selection by death may result either from inadequate food supply1 or from some other lethal factor4 ,the former type1 although something of a bugaboo ever since the time of ,malthus1 has in reality relatively little effect on the human race at present4 ,non-sustentative lethal selection in man is operating chiefly through zymotic diseases and the bad hygiene of the mentally inferior4 ,reproductive selection is increasingly effective and its action is such as to cause grave alarm both through the failure of some to marry properly 7sexual selection7 and the failure of some to bear enough children1 while others bear too many 7fecundal selection74 ,it is obvious that the racial result of this process will depend on what kind of people bear and rear the most children2 and it has been shown that in general the larger families are in the section of the population that makes fewer contributions to human prosperity and happiness1 while those endowed with great gifts1 who ought to be transmitting them to their children1 are in many cases not even reproducing their own number4 ,natural selection raised man from apehood to his present estate4 ,it is still operating on him on a large scale1 in several ways1 but in none of these ways is it now doing much actually to improve the race1 and in some ways1 owing to man's own interference1 it is rapidly hastening race degeneracy4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,origin ,,and ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,eugenics ,,movement ,eugenics1 wrote ,francis ,galton1 who founded the science and coined the name1 is the study of agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations1 either physically or mentally4 ,the definition is universally accepted1 but by its use of the word study it defines a pure science1 and the present book is concerned rather with the application of such a science4 ,accepting ,galton's definition1 we shall for our purposes slightly extend it by saying that applied eugenics embraces all such measures1 in use or prospect either individually or collectively1 as may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations of man1 either physically or mentally1 whether or not this was the avowed purpose4 ,it is one of the newest of sciences4 ,it was practically forced into existence by logical necessity4 ,it is certainly here to stay1 and it demands the right to speak1 in many cases to cast the deciding vote1 on some of the most important questions that confront society4 ,the science of eugenics is the natural result of the spread and acceptance of organic evolution1 following the publication of ,darwin's work on ,the ,origin of ,species by ,means of ,natural ,selection1 in #ahei4 ,it took a generation for his ideas to win the day2 but then they revolutionized the intellectual life of the civilized world4 ,man came to realize that the course of nature is regular2 that the observed sequences of events can be described in formulas which are called natural laws2 he learned that he could achieve great results in plant and animal breeding by working in harmony with these laws4 ,then the question logically arose1 ,is not man himself subject to these same laws8 ,can he not use his knowledge of them to improve his own species1 as he has been more or less consciously improving the plants and animals that were of most value to him1 for many centuries8 ,the evolutionist answered both these questions affirmatively4 ,however great may be the superiority of his mind1 man is first of all an animal1 subject to the natural laws that govern other animals4 ,he can learn to comply with these laws2 he can1 therefore1 take an active share in furthering the process of evolution toward a higher life4 ,that1 briefly1 is the scope of the science of eugenics1 as its founder1 ,sir ,francis ,galton1 conceived it4 ,now that this new animal1 man1 finds himself somehow in existence1 endowed with a little power and intelligence1 ,galton wrote #cj years ago1 he ought1 ,i submit1 to awake to a fuller knowledge of his relatively great position1 and begin to assume a deliberate part in furthering the great work of evolution4 ,he may infer the course it is bound to pursue1 from his observation of that which it has already followed1 and he might devote his modicum of power1 intelligence and kindly feeling to render its future progress less slow and painful4 ,man has already furthered evolution very considerably1 half consciously1 and for his own personal advantages1 but he has not yet risen to the conviction that it is his religious duty to do so1 deliberately and systematically4 ,but1 it may well be asked1 how does this sudden need for eugenics arise1 when the world has gone along without it for hundreds of millions of years in the past1 and the human race has made the great ascent from an ape-like condition in spite of the fact that such a science as eugenics was never dreamed of8 ,for answer recall that natural selection1 which is mainly responsible for bringing man to his present situation1 has worked chiefly through a differential death-rate4 ,the less fit die3 the more fit survive4 ,in the earlier stages of society1 man interfered little with natural selection4 ,but during the last century the increase of the philanthropic spirit and the progress of medicine have done a great deal to interfere with the selective process4 ,in some ways1 selection in the human race has almost ceased2 in many ways it is actually reversed1 that is1 it results in the survival of the inferior rather than the superior4 ,in the olden days the criminal was summarily executed1 the weakly child died soon after birth through lack of proper care and medical attention1 the insane were dealt with so violently that if they were not killed by the treatment they were at least left hopelessly incurable and had little chance of becoming parents4 ,harsh measures1 all of these1 but they kept the germ-plasm of the race reasonably purified4 ,to-day1 how is it8 ,the inefficients1 the wastrels1 the physical1 mental1 and moral cripples are carefully preserved at public expense4 ,the criminal is turned out on parole after a few years1 to become the father of a family4 ,the insane is discharged as cured1 again to take up the duties of citizenship4 ,the feeble-minded child is painfully educated1 often at the expense of his normal brother or sister4 ,in short1 the undesirables of the race1 with whom the bloody hand of natural selection would have made short work early in life1 are now nursed along to old age4 ,of course1 one would not have it otherwise with respect to the prolongation of life4 ,to expose deformed children as the ,spartans did would outrage our moral sentiments2 to chloroform the incurable is a proposition that almost every one condemns4 ,but this philanthropic spirit1 this zealous regard for the interests of the unfortunate1 which is rightly considered one of the highest manifestations of ,christian civilization1 has in many cases benefited the few at the expense of the many4 ,the present generation1 in making its own life comfortable1 is leaving a staggering bill to be paid by posterity4 ,it is at this point that eugenics comes in and demands that a distinction be made between the interests of the individual and the interests of the race4 ,it does not yield to any one in its solicitude for the individual unfortunate2 but it says1 ,his happiness in life does not need to include leaving a family of children1 inheritors of his defects1 who if they were able to think might curse him for begetting them and curse society for allowing them to be born4 ,and looking at the other side of the problem1 eugenics says to the young man and young woman1 ,you should enjoy the greatest happiness that love can bring to a life4 ,but something more is expected of you than a selfish1 short-sighted indifference to all except yourselves in the world4 ,when you understand the relation of the individual to the race1 you will find your greatest happiness only in a marriage which will result in a family of worthy children4 ,you are temporarily a custodian of the inheritance of the whole past2 it is far more disgraceful for you to squander or ruin this heritage1 or to regard it as intended solely for your individual1 selfish gratification1 than it would be for you to dissipate a fortune in money which you had received1 or to betray any trust which had been confided to you by one of your fellow men4 ,such is the teaching of eugenics4 ,it is not wholly new4 ,the early ,greeks gave much thought to it1 and with the insight which characterized them1 they rightly put the emphasis on the constructive side2 they sought to breed better men and women1 not merely to accomplish a work of hygiene1 to lessen taxes1 and reduce suffering1 by reducing the number of unfortunates among them4 ,as early as the first half of the sixth century ,b4 ,c4 the ,greek poet ,theognis of ,megara wrote3 ,we look for rams and asses and stallions of good stock1 and one believes that good will come from good2 yet a good man minds not to wed an evil daughter of an evil sire1 if he but give her much wealth4444 ,wealth confounds our stock4 ,marvel not that the stock of our folk is tarnished1 for the good is mingling with the base4 ,a century later eugenics was discussed in some detail by ,plato1 who suggested that the state intervene to mate the best with the best1 and the worst with the worst2 the former should be encouraged to have large families1 and their children should be reared by the government1 while the children of the unfit were to be1 as he says1 put away in some mysterious1 unknown places1 as they should be4 ,aristotle developed the idea on political lines1 being more interested in the economic than the biological aspects of marriage2 but he held firmly to the doctrine that the state should feel free to intervene in the interests of reproductive selection4 ,for nearly two thousand years after this1 conscious eugenic ideals were largely ignored4 ,constant war reversed natural selection1 as it is doing to-day1 by killing off the physically fit and leaving the relatively unfit to reproduce the race2 while monasticism and the enforced celibacy of the priesthood performed a similar office for many of the mentally superior1 attracting them to a career in which they could leave no posterity4 ,at the beginning of the last century a germ of modern eugenics is visible in ,malthus' famous essay on population1 in which he directed attention to the importance of the birth-rate for human welfare1 since this essay led ,darwin and ,wallace to enunciate the theory of natural selection1 and to point out clearly the effects of artificial selection4 ,it is really on ,darwin's work that the modern science of eugenics is based1 and it owes its beginning to ,darwin's cousin1 ,francis ,galton4 ,galton was born in #ahbb1 studied mathematics and medicine1 traveled widely1 attained fame as an explorer in ,south ,africa1 and after inheriting sufficient income to make him independent1 settled down in ,london and gave his time to pioneering experiments in many branches of science4 ,he contributed largely to founding the science of meteorology1 opened new paths in experimental psychology1 introduced the system of finger prints to anthropology1 and took up the study of heredity1 publishing in #ahfe a series of articles under the title of ,hereditary ,talent and ,genius1 which contained his first utterances on eugenics4 ,the present generation can hardly understand what a new field ,galton broke4 ,even ,darwin had supposed that men do not differ very much in intellectual endowment1 and that their differences in achievement are principally the result of differences in zeal and industry4 ,galton's articles1 whose thesis was that better men could be bred by conscious selection1 attracted much attention from the scientific world and were expanded in #ahfi in his book ,hereditary ,genius4 ,this was an elaborate and painstaking study of the biographies of #igg men who would rank1 according to ,galton's estimate1 as about #a to #d1jjj of the general population1 in respect to achievement4 ,the number of families found to contain more than one eminent man was #cjj1 divided as follows3 ,judges1 #he2 ,statesmen1 #ci2 ,commanders1 #bg2 ,literary1 #cc2 ,scientific1 #dc2 ,poets1 #bj2 ,artists1 #bh2 ,divines1 #be4 ,the close groupings of the interrelated eminence led to the conclusion that heredity plays a very important part in achievement4 ,the greater success of real sons of great men as compared with adopted sons of great men likewise indicated1 he thought1 that success is due to actual biological heredity rather than to the good opportunities afforded the scion of the illustrious family4 ,galton's conclusion was that by selecting from strains that produced eminence1 a superior human stock could be bred4 ,in #ahgd he published a similar study of the heredity of #ahj eminent ,english scientists1 remphasizing the claims of nature over nurture1 to use his familiar antithesis4 ,in #ahhc he published ,inquiries into the ,human ,faculty and ,its ,development1 a collection of evolutionary and anthropometric essays where the word ,eugenics was first used in a new exposition of the author's views4 ,natural ,inheritance appeared in #ahhi1 being the essence of various memoirs published since ,hereditary ,genius1 dealing with the general biological principles underlying the study of heredity and continuing the study of resemblances between individuals in respect to stature1 eye color1 artistic faculty and morbid conditions4 ,galton's interest in eugenics was not lessened by the abundant criticism he received1 and in #aija he defended ,the ,possible ,improvement of the ,human ,breed under ,existing ,conditions of ,law and ,sentiment before the ,anthropological ,society4 ,three years later he read a paper entitled ,eugenics2 ,its ,definition1 ,scope and ,aims1 to the ,sociological ,society4 ,his program1 in brief1 was as follows3 #a4 ,disseminate knowledge of hereditary laws as far as surely known and promote their further study4 #b4 ,inquire into birth rates of various strata of society 7classified according to civic usefulness7 in ancient and modern nations4 #c4 ,collect reliable data showing how large and thriving families have most frequently originated4 #d4 ,study the influences affecting marriage4 #e4 ,persistently set forth the national importance of ,eugenics4 ,the following year1 ,galton again read a paper before the ,society1 suggesting the award of certificates of quality to the eugenically fit4 ,he also maintained that marriage customs which are largely controlled by public opinion could be modified for racial welfare through a molding of public sentiment4 ,in #aijd he founded a ,research ,fellowship at the ,university of ,london to determine1 if possible1 what the standard of fitness is1 and in #aije a ,scholarship was added4 ,edgar ,schuster and ,miss ,e4 ,m4 ,elderton held these posts until #aijg1 when ,professor ,karl ,pearson took charge of the research work and1 at the resignation of ,mr4 ,schuster1 ,david ,heron was appointed ,fellow4 ,on ,galton's death1 ,january #ag1 #aiaa1 it became known that through the terms of his will a professorship was founded and ,professor ,pearson was invited to hold it4 ,his corps of workers constitutes the ,galton ,eugenics ,laboratory staff4 ,to spread throughout the ,british ,empire such knowledge of eugenics as might be gathered by specialists1 the ,eugenics ,education ,society was formed in #aijh with ,galton as honorary president4 ,its field comprises3 7#a7 ,biology in so far as it concerns hereditary selection2 7#b7 ,anthropology as related to race and marriage2 7#c7 ,politics1 where it bears on parenthood in relation to civic worth2 7#d7 ,ethics1 in so far as it promotes ideals that lead to the improvement of social quality2 7#e7 ,religion1 in so far as it strengthens and sanctifies eugenic duty4 ,in ,america the movement got an early start but developed slowly4 ,the first definite step was the formation of an ,institute of ,heredity in ,boston1 shortly after #ahhj1 by ,loring ,moody1 who was assisted by the poet ,longfellow1 ,samuel ,e4 ,sewall1 ,mrs4 ,horace ,mann1 and other well-known people4 ,he proposed to work very much along the lines that the ,eugenics ,record ,office later adopted1 but he was ahead of his time1 and his attempt seems to have come to nothing4 ,in #ahhc ,alexander ,graham ,bell1 who may be considered the first scientific worker in eugenics in the ,united ,states1 published a paper on the danger of the formation of a deaf variety of the human race in this country1 in which he gave the result of researches he had made at ,martha's ,vineyard and other localities during preceding years1 on the pedigrees of congenitally deaf persons--deaf mutes1 as they were then called4 ,he showed clearly that congenital deafness is largely due to heredity1 that it is much increased by consanguineous marriages1 and that it is of great importance to prevent the marriage of persons1 in both of whose families congenital deafness is present4 ,about five years later he founded the ,volta ,bureau in ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 for the study of deafness1 and this has fostered a great deal of research work on this particular phase of heredity4 ,in #aijc the ,american ,breeders' ,association was founded at ,st4 ,louis by plant and animals breeders who desired to keep in touch with the new subject of genetics1 the science of breeding1 which was rapidly coming to have great practical importance4 ,from the outset1 the members realized that the changes which they could produce in races of animals and plants might also be produced in man1 and the science of eugenics was thus recognized on a sound biological basis4 ,soon a definite eugenics section was formed1 and as the importance of this section increased1 and it was realized that the name of ,breeders' ,association was too narrowly construed by the public1 the association changed its name 7#aiac7 to the ,american ,genetic ,association1 and the name of its organ from the ,american ,breeders' ,magazine to the ,journal of ,heredity4 ,under the auspices of this association1 the ,eugenics ,record ,office was established at ,cold ,spring ,harbor1 ,long ,island1 by ,dr4 ,c4 ,b4 ,davenport4 ,it has been mainly supported by ,mrs4 ,e4 ,h4 ,harriman1 but has since been taken over by the ,carnegie ,institution of ,washington4 ,it is gathering pedigrees in many parts of the ,united ,states1 analyzing them and publishing the results in a series of bulletins4 ,in the last few years1 the public has come to take a keen interest in the possibilities of eugenics4 ,this has led some sex hygienists1 child welfare workers1 and persons similarly engaged1 to attempt to capitalize the interest in eugenics by appropriating the name for their own use4 ,we strongly object to any such misuse of the word1 which should designate the application of genetics to the human race4 ,sex hygiene1 child welfare1 and other sanitary and sociological movements should stand on their own feet and leave to eugenics the scope which its ,greek derivation indicates for it1--the science of good breeding4#gc ,in all parts of ,europe1 the ideas of eugenics have gradually spread4 ,in #aiab the first ,international ,eugenics ,congress was held at ,london1 under auspices of the ,eugenics ,education ,society2 more than #gjj delegates were in attendance4 ,germany1 ,sweden1 ,switzerland and ,austria are united in an ,international ,eugenics ,society and the war led to the formation of a number of separate societies in ,germany4 ,hungary has formed an organization of its own1 ,france has its society in ,paris1 and the ,italian ,anthropological ,society has given much attention to the subject4 ,the ,anthropological ,society of ,denmark has similarly recognized eugenics by the formation of a separate section4 ,the ,institut ,solvay of ,belgium1 a foundation with sociological aims1 created a eugenics section several years ago2 and in ,holland a strong committee has been formed4 ,last of all1 ,sweden has put a large separate organization in the field4 ,in the ,united ,states the subject has interested many women's clubs1 college organizations and ,young ,men's ,christian ,associations1 while the periodical press has given it a large amount of attention4 ,public enthusiasm1 often ill-guided1 has in a few cases outrun the facts1 and has secured legislation in some states1 which by no means meets the approval of most scientific eugenists4 ,when we speak of scientific eugenists1 it may appear that we use the word in an invidious way4 ,we use it deliberately1 and by using it we mean to intimate that we do not think enthusiasm is an adequate substitute for knowledge1 in anyone who assumes to pass judgment upon a measure as being eugenic or dysgenic--as likely to improve the race or cause its deterioration4 ,eugenics is a biological science which1 in its application1 must be interpreted with the help of the best scientific method4 ,very few social workers1 whose field eugenics touches1 are competent to understand its bearings without some study1 and an appreciation of eugenics is the more difficult for them1 because an understanding of it will show them that some of their work is based on false premises4 ,the average legislator is equally unlikely to understand the full import of eugenics1 unless he has made a definite effort to do so4 ,all the more honor1 then1 to the rapidly increasing number of social workers and legislators who have grasped the full meaning of eugenics and are now striving to put it in effect4 ,the agriculturist1 through his experience with plants and animals1 is probably better qualified than anyone else to realize the practicability of eugenics1 and it is accordingly not a matter of mere chance that the science of eugenics in ,america was built up by a breeders' association1 and has found and still finds hundreds of effective advocates in the graduates of the agricultural colleges4 ,the program of eugenics naturally divides itself in two parts3 7#a7 ,reducing the racial contribution of the least desirable part of the population4 7#b7 ,increasing the racial contribution of the superior part of the population4 ,the first part of this program is the most pressing and the most easily dealt with2 it is no cause for surprise1 then1 that to many people it has seemed to be the predominant aim of eugenics4 ,certainly the problem is great enough to stagger anyone who looks it full in the face2 although for a variety of reasons1 satisfactory statistical evidence of racial degeneracy is hard to get4 ,considering only the institutional population of the ,united ,states1 one gets the following figures3 ,,blind3 total1 #fd1gfc according to census of #aijj4 ,of these1 #ce1fde were totally blind and #bi1aah partly blind4 ,the affection is stated to have been congenital in #d1gcj cases4 ,nineteen per cent of the blind were found to have blind relatives2 #d4e of them were returned as the offspring of cousin marriages4 ,,deaf3 total1 #hf1eae1 according to the census of #aijj4 ,more than #ej1jjj of them were deaf from childhood 7under #bj71 #ab1fji being deaf from birth4 ,at least #d4e of the deaf were stated to be offspring of cousin marriages1 and #cb4a to have deaf relatives4 ,the significance of this can not be determined unless it is known how many normal persons have deaf relatives 7or blind relatives1 in considering the preceding paragraph71 but it points to the existence of families that are characterized by deafness 7or blindness74 ,,insane3 the census of #aiaj enumerated only the insane who were in institutions2 they numbered #ahg1gia4 ,the number outside of institutions is doubtless considerable but can not be computed4 ,the institutional population is not a permanent1 but mainly a transient one1 the number of persons discharged from institutions in #aiaj being #bi1cjd4 ,as the number and size of institutions does not increase very rapidly1 it would appear probable that #be1jjj insane persons pass through and out of institutions1 and back into the general population1 each year4 ,from this one can get some idea of the amount of neurotic weakness in the population of the ,united ,states1--much of it congenital and heritable in character4 ,,feeble-,,minded3 the census 7#aiaj7 lists only those in institutions1 who totaled about #dj1jjj4 ,the census experts believe that #bjj1jjj would be a conservative estimate of the total number of feeble-minded in the country1 and many psychologists think that #cjj1jjj would be more nearly accurate4 ,the number of feeble-minded who are receiving institutional care is almost certainly not more than #aj or #ae of the total1 and many of these 7about #ae1jjj7 are in almshouses1 not special institutions4 ,,paupers3 ,there were #hd1aih paupers enumerated in almshouses on ,january #a1 #aiaj1 and #hh1cac admitted during the year1 which indicates that the almshouse paupers are a rapidly shifting group4 ,this population1 probably of several hundred thousand persons1 who drift into and out of almshouses1 can hardly be characterized accurately1 but in large part it must be considered at least inefficient and probably of mentally low grade4 ,,criminals3 ,the inmates of prisons1 penitentiaries1 reformatories1 and similar places of detention numbered #aaa1fji in #aiaj2 this does not include #be1jjj juvenile delinquents4 ,the jail population is nearly all transient2 one must be very cautious in inferring that conviction for an offense against the law indicates lack of eugenic value2 but it is worth noting that the number of offenders who are feeble-minded is probably not less than one-fourth or one-third4 ,if the number of inebriates could be added1 it would greatly increase the total2 and inebriacy or chronic alcoholism is generally recognized now as indicating in a majority of cases either feeble-mindedness or some other defect of the nervous system4 ,the number of criminals who are in some way neurotically tainted is placed by some psychologists at #ej or more of the total prison population4 ,add to these a number of epileptics1 tramps1 prostitutes1 beggars1 and others whom the census enumerator finds it difficult to catch1 and the total number of possible undesirable parents becomes very large4 ,it is in fact much larger than appears in these figures1 because of the fact that many people carry defects that are latent and only appear in the offspring of a marriage representing two tainted strains4 ,thus the feeble-minded child usually if not always has feeble-mindedness in both his father's and mother's ancestry1 and for every one of the patent feeble-minded above enumerated1 there may be several dozen latent ones1 who are themselves probably normal in every way and yet carry the dangerously tainted germ-plasm4 ,the estimate has frequently been made that the ,united ,states would be much better off eugenically if it were deprived of the future racial contributions of at least #aj of its citizens4 ,while literally true this estimate is too high for the group which could be considered for attempts to directly control in a practical eugenics program4 ,natural selection1 in the early days of man's history1 would have killed off many of these people early in life4 ,they would have been unable to compete with their physically and mentally more vigorous fellows and would have died miserably by starvation or violence4 ,natural selection's use of the death-rate was a brutal one1 but at least it prevented such traits as these people show from increasing in each generation4 ,eugenists hope to arrive at the same result1 not by the death-rate but by the birth-rate4 ,if germinally anti-social persons are kept humanely segregated during their lifetime1 instead of being turned out after a few years of institutional life and allowed to marry1 they will leave no descendants1 and the number of congenital defectives in the community will be notably diminished4 ,if the same policy is followed through succeeding generations1 the number of defectives1 of those incapable of taking a useful part in society1 will become smaller and smaller4 ,one who does not believe that these people hand on their traits to their descendants may profitably consider the famous history of the so-called ,juke family1 a strain originating among the finger lakes of ,new ,york1 whose history was published by ,r4 ,l4 ,dugdale as far back as #ahgg and lately restudied by ,a4 ,h4 ,estabrook4 ,from one lazy vagabond nicknamed ',juke1' born in #agbj1 whose two sons married five degenerate sisters1 six generations numbering about #a1bjj persons of every grade of idleness1 viciousness1 lewdness1 pauperism1 disease1 idiocy1 insanity and criminality were traced4 ,of the total seven generations1 #cjj died in infancy2 #caj were professional paupers1 kept in almshouses a total of #b1cjj years2 #ddj were physically wrecked by their own 'diseased wickedness'2 more than half the women fell into prostitution2 #acj were convicted criminals2 #fj were thieves2 #g were murderers2 only #bj learned a trade1 #aj of these in state prison1 and all at a state cost of over #a1bej1jjj4gd ,how heredity works both ways1 is shown by the history of the ,kallikak family1 published by ,h4 ,h4 ,goddard a few years ago4 ,at the beginning of the ,revolutionary ,war a young man1 known in the history as ,martin ,kallikak1 had a son by a nameless1 feeble-minded girl1 from whom there have descended in the direct line four hundred and eighty individuals4 ,one hundred and forty-three of these are known to have been feeble-minded1 and only forty-six are known to have been normal4 ,the rest are unknown or doubtful4 ,thirty-six have been illegitimate2 thirty-three1 sexually immoral1 mostly prostitutes2 twenty-four1 alcoholic2 three1 epileptic2 eighty-two died in infancy2 three were criminal1 and eight kept houses of ill-fame4 ,after the war1 ,martin ,kallikak married a woman of good stock4 ,from this union have come in direct line four hundred and ninety-six1 among whom only two were alcoholic1 and one known to be sexually immoral4 ,the legitimate children of ,martin have been doctors1 lawyers1 judges1 educators1 traders1 landholders1 in short1 respectable citizens1 men and women prominent in every phase of social life4 ,these two families have lived on the same soil1 in the same atmosphere1 and in short1 under the same general environment1 yet the bar sinister has marked every generation of one and has been unknown in the other4 ,if it were possible to improve or eradicate these defective strains by giving them better surroundings1 the nation might easily get rid of this burden4 ,but we have given reasons in ,chapter ,i for believing that the problem can not be solved in that way1 and more evidence to the same effect will be present in other chapters of the book4 ,an understanding of the nature of the problem will show that present methods of dispensing justice1 giving charity1 dealing with defectives and working for social betterment need careful examination and numerous modifications1 if they are not to be ineffectual or merely palliative1 or worse still1 if they are not to give temporary relief at the cost of greatly aggravating the social disease in the end4 ,in the past ,america has given and at present still gives much thought to the individual and little1 if any1 to posterity4 ,eugenics does not want to diminish this regard for the individual1 but it does insistently declare that the interests of the many are greater than those of the few1 and it holds that a statesmanlike policy requires thought for the future as well as the present4 ,it would be hard to find a eugenist to-day who would propose1 with ,plato1 that the infants with bad heredity should be put to death1 but their right to grow up to the fullest enjoyment of life does not necessarily include the right to pass on their defective heredity to a long line of descendants1 naturally increasing in number in each generation4 ,indeed a regard for the totality of human happiness makes it necessary that they should not so continue4 ,while it is the hope of eugenics that fewer defective and anti-social individuals shall be born in the future1 it has been emphasized so much that the program of eugenics is likely to be seen in false perspective4 ,in reality it is the less important side of the picture4 ,more good citizens are wanted1 as well as fewer bad ones4 ,every race requires leaders4 ,these leaders appear from time to time1 and enough is known about eugenics now to show that their appearance is frequently predictable1 not accidental4 ,it is possible to have them appear more frequently2 and in addition1 to raise the level of the whole race1 making the entire nation happier and more useful4 ,these are the great tasks of eugenics4 ,america needs more families like that old ,puritan strain which is one of the familiar examples of eugenics3 ,at their head stands ,jonathan ,edwards1 and behind him an array of his descendants numbering in #aijj1 #a1cid1 of whom #bie were college graduates2 #ac presidents of our greatest colleges2 #fe professors in colleges1 besides many principals of other important educational institutions2 #fj physicians1 many of whom were eminent2 #ajj and more clergymen1 missionaries1 or theological professors2 #ge were officers in the army and navy2 #fj prominent authors and writers1 by whom #ace books of merit were written and published and #ah important periodicals edited2 #cc ,american states and several foreign countries1 and #ib ,american cities and many foreign cities have profited by the beneficent influences of their eminent activity2 #ajj and more were lawyers1 of whom one was our most eminent professor of law2 #cj were judges2 #hj held public office1 of whom one was vice president of the ,united ,states2 three were ,united ,states senators2 several were governors1 members of ,congress1 framers of state constitutions1 mayors of cities and ministers of foreign courts2 one was president of the ,pacific ,mail ,steamship ,company2 #ae railroads1 many banks1 insurance companies1 and large industrial enterprises have been indebted to their management4 ,almost if not every department of social progress and of the public weal has felt the impulse of this healthy and long-lived family4 ,it is not known that any one of them was ever convicted of crime4 ,every one will agree that the nation needs more families like that4 ,how can it get them8 ,galton blazed the way in #ahfe1 when he pointed to selective breeding as the effective means4 ,the animal breeder knows what marvels he can accomplish by this means2 but it is not practicable to breed human beings in that direct way4 ,is there any indirect method of reaching the same ends8 ,there are1 in our opinion1 a good many such means1 and it is the principal purpose of this book to point them out4 ,the problem of constructive or positive eugenics1 naturally divides itself into two parts3 #a4 ,to secure a sufficient number of marriages of the superior4 #b4 ,to secure an adequate birth-rate from these marriages4 ,the problem of securing these two results is a complex one1 which must be attacked by a variety of methods4 ,it is necessary that superior people first be made to desire marriage and children2 and secondly1 that it be economically and otherwise possible for them to carry out this desire4 ,it may be of interest to know how the ,germans are attacking the problem1 even though some of their measures may be considered ineffective or inadvisable4 ,at its annual meeting in #aiad the ,german ,society for ,race ,hygiene adopted a resolution on the subject of applied eugenics4 ,the future of the ,german people is at stake1 it declares4 ,the ,german empire can not in the long run maintain its true nationality and the independence of its development1 if it does not begin without delay and with the greatest energy to mold its internal and external politics as well as the whole life of the people in accordance with eugenic principles4 ,most important of all are measures for a higher reproduction of healthy and able families4 ,the rapidly declining birth-rate of the healthy and able families necessarily leads to the social1 economical and political retrogression of the ,german people1 it points out1 and then goes on to enumerate the causes of this decline1 which it thinks is partly due to the action of racial poisons but principally to the increasing willful restriction of the number of children4 ,the society recognizes that the reasons for this limitation of the size of families are largely economic4 ,it enumerates the question of expense1 considerations of economic inheritance--that is1 a father does not like to divide up his estate too much2 the labor of women1 which is incompatible with the raising of a large family2 and the difficulties caused by the crowded housing in the large cities4 ,in order to secure a posterity sufficient in number and ability1 the resolution continues1 ,the ,german ,society for ,race ,hygiene demands3 #a4 ,a back-to-the farm movement4 #b4 ,better housing facilities in the cities4 #c4 ,economic assistance of large families through payment of a substantial relief to married mothers who survive their husbands1 and consideration of the number of children in the payment of public and private employees4 #d4 ,abolition of certain impediments to marriage1 such as the army regulation forbidding officers to marry before they reach a certain grade4 #e4 ,increase of tax on alcohol1 tobacco and luxuries1 the proceeds to be used to subsidize worthy families4 #f4 ,medical regulations of a hygienic nature4 #g4 ,setting out large prizes for excellent works of art 7novels1 dramas1 plastic arts7 which glorify the ideal of motherhood1 the family and simple life4 #h4 ,awakening a national mind ready to undergo sacrifices on behalf of future generations4 ,in spite of some defects such a program brings out clearly the principle of eugenics1--the substitution of a selective birth-rate for the selective death-rate by which natural selection has brought the race to its present level4 ,nature lets a multitude of individuals be born and kills off the poorer ones2 eugenics proposes to have fewer poor ones and more good ones born in each generation4 ,any means which tends to bring about one of those ends1 is a part of ,applied ,eugenics4 ,by this time the reader will have seen that eugenics has some definite ideals not only as to how the race can be kept from deteriorating further1 under the interference with natural selection which civilization entails1 but as to how its physical1 mental and moral level can actually be raised4 ,he can easily draw his own conclusions as to what eugenics does not propose4 ,no eugenist worthy of the name has ever proposed to breed genius as the stockman breeds trotting horses1 despite jibes of the comic press to the contrary4 ,but if young people1 before picking out their life partners1 are thoroughly imbued with the idea that such qualities as energy1 longevity1 a sound constitution1 public and private worth1 are primarily due to heredity1 and if they are taught to realize the fact that one marries not an individual but a family1 the eugenist believes that better matings will be made1 sometimes realized1 sometimes insensibly4 ,furthermore1 if children from such matings are made an asset rather than a liability2 if society ceases to penalize1 in a hundred insidious ways1 the parents of large and superior families1 but honors and aids them instead1 one may justifiably hope that the birth-rate in the most useful and happy part of the population will steadily increase4 ,perhaps that is as far as it is necessary that the aim of eugenics should be defined2 yet one can hardly ignore the philosophical aspect of the problem4 ,galton's suggestion that man should assist the course of his own evolution meets with the general approval of biologists2 but when one asks what the ultimate goal of human evolution should be1 one faces a difficult question4 ,under these circumstances1 can it be said that eugenics really has a goal1 or is it merely stumbling along in the dark1 possibly far from the real road1 of whose existence it is aware but of whose location it has no knowledge8 ,there are several routes on which one can proceed with the confidence that1 if no one of them is the main road1 at least it is likely to lead into the latter at some time4 ,fortunately1 eugenics is1 paradoxical as it may seem1 able to advance on all these paths at once2 for it proposes no definite goal1 it sets up no one standard to which it would make the human race conform4 ,taking man as it finds him1 it proposes to multiply all the types that have been found by past experience or present reason to be of most value to society4 ,not only would it multiply them in numbers1 but also in efficiency1 in capacity to serve the race4 ,by so doing1 it undoubtedly fulfills the requirements of that popular philosophy which holds the aim of society to be the greatest happiness for the greatest number1 or more definitely the increase of the totality of human happiness4 ,to cause not to exist those who would be doomed from birth to give only unhappiness to themselves and those about them2 to increase the number of those in whom useful physical and mental traits are well developed2 to bring about an increase in the number of energetic altruists and a decrease in the number of the anti-social or defective2 surely such an undertaking will come nearer to increasing the happiness of the greatest number1 than will any temporary social palliative1 any ointment for incurable social wounds4 ,to those who accept that philosophy1 made prominent by ,jeremy ,bentham1 ,john ,stuart ,mill1 ,herbert ,spencer1 and a host of other great thinkers1 eugenics rightly understood must seem a prime necessity of society4 ,but can any philosophy dispense with eugenics8 ,take those to whom the popular philosophy of happiness seems a dangerous goal and to whom the only object of evolution that one is at present justified in recognizing is that of the perpetuation of the species and of the progressive conquest of nature1 the acquiring of an ascendancy over all the earth4 ,this is now as much a matter of self-preservation as it is of progress3 although man no longer fights for life with the cave bear and saber-toothed tiger1 the microbes which war with him are far more dangerous enemies than the big mammals of the past4 ,the continuation of evolution1 if it means conquest1 is not a work for dilettantes and ,lotos ,eaters2 it is a task that demands unremitting hard work4 ,to this newer philosophy of creative work eugenics is none the less essential4 ,for eugenics wants in the world more physically sound men and women with greater ability in any valuable way4 ,whatever the actual goal of evolution may be1 it can hardly be assumed by any except the professional pessimist1 that a race made up of such men and women is going to be handicapped by their presence4 ,the correlation of abilities is as well attested as any fact in psychology4 ,those who decry eugenics on the ground that it is impossible to establish any standard of perfection1 since society needs many diverse kinds of people1 are overlooking this fact4 ,any plan which increases the production of children in able families of various types will thereby produce more ability of all kinds1 since if a family is particularly gifted in one way1 it is likely to be gifted above the average in several other desirable ways4 ,eugenics sets up no specific superman1 as a type to which the rest of the race must be made to conform4 ,it is not looking forward to the cessation of its work in a eugenic millenium4 ,it is a perpetual process1 which seeks only to raise the level of the race by the production of fewer people with physical and mental defects1 and more people with physical and mental excellencies4 ,such a race should be able to perpetuate itself1 to subdue nature1 to improve its environment progressively2 its members should be happy and productive4 ,to establish such a goal seems justified by the knowledge of evolution which is now available2 and to make progress toward it is possible4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,desirability ,,of ,,restrictive ,,eugenics ,in a rural part of ,pennsylvania lives the ,l4 family4 ,three generations studied all show the same drifting1 irresponsible tendency4 ,no one can say they are positively bad or serious disturbers of the communities where they may have a temporary home4 ,certain members are epileptic and defective to the point of imbecility4 ,the father of this family drank and provided little for their support4 ,the mother1 though hard working1 was never able to care for them properly4 ,so they and their #ab children were frequent recipients of public relief1 a habit which they have consistently kept up4 ,ten of the children grew to maturity1 and all but one married and had in their turn large families4 ,with two exceptions these have lived in the territory studied4 ,nobody knows how they have subsisted1 even with the generous help they have received4 ,they drift in and out of the various settlements1 taking care to keep their residence in the county which has provided most liberally for their support4 ,in some villages it is said that they have been in and out half a dozen times in the last few years4 ,first one family comes slipping back1 then one by one the others trail in as long as there are cheap shelters to be had4 ,then rents fall due1 neighbors become suspicious of invaded henroosts and potato patches1 and one after another the families take their departure1 only to reappear after a year or two4 ,the seven children of the eldest son were scattered years ago through the death of their father4 ,they were taken by strangers1 and though kept in school1 none of them proved capable of advancement4 ,three at least could not learn to read or handle the smallest quantities4 ,the rest do this with difficulty4 ,all but two are now married and founding the fourth generation of this line4 ,the family of the fourth son are now county charges4 ,of the #ad children of school age in this and the remaining families1 all are greatly retarded4 ,one is an epileptic and at #af can not read or write4 ,one at #ae is in the third reader and should be set down as defective4 ,the remainder are from one to four years retarded4 ,there is nothing striking in the annals of this family4 ,it comes as near the lowest margin of human existence as possible and illustrates how marked defect may sometimes exist without serious results in the infringement of law and custom4 ,its serious menace1 however1 lies in the certain marriage into stocks which are no better1 and the production of large families which continue to exist on the same level of semi-dependency4 ,in place of the two dependents of a generation ago we now find in the third generation #cb descendants who bid fair to continue their existence on the same plane--certainly an enormous multiplication of the initial burden of expense4#ge ,from cases of this sort1 which represent the least striking kind of bad breeding1 the student may pass through many types up to the great tribes of ,jukes1 ,nams1 ,kallikaks1 ,zeros1 ,dacks1 ,ishmaels1 ,sixties1 ,hickories1 ,hill ,folk1 ,piney ,folk1 and the rest1 with which the readers of the literature of restrictive eugenics are familiar4 ,it is abundantly demonstrated that much1 if not most1 of their trouble is the outcome of bad heredity4 ,indeed1 when a branch of one of these clans is transported1 or emigrates1 to a wholly new environment1 it soon creates for itself1 in many cases1 an environment similar to that from which it came4 ,whether it goes to the city1 or to the agricultural districts of the west1 it may soon manage to restablish the debasing atmosphere to which it has always been accustomed4#gf ,those who see in improvement of the environment the cure for all such plague spots as these tribes inhabit1 overlook the fact that man largely creates his own environment4 ,the story of the tenement-dwellers who were supplied with bath tubs but refused to use them for any other purpose than to store coal1 exemplifies a wide range of facts4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,to this shanty an elderly man of the ,hickory family1 a great clan of defectives in rural ,ohio1 brought his girl-bride1 together with his two grown sons by a former marriage4 ,the shanty was conveniently located at a distance of #ajj feet from the city dump where the family1 all of which is feeble-minded1 secured its food4 ,such a family is incapable of protecting either itself or its neighbors1 and should be cared for by the state4 ,photograph from ,mina ,a4 ,sessions4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,chieftain ,,of ,,the ,,hickory ,,clan ,,fig4 #bg4--,this is ,young ,hank1 otherwise known as ,sore-,eyed ,hank4 ,he is the eldest son and heir of that ,hank ,hickory who1 with his wife and seven children1 applied for admission to their ,county ,infirmary when it was first opened4 ,for generation after generation1 his family has been the chief patron of all the charities of its county4 ,young ,hank married his cousin and duplicated his father's record by begetting seven children1 three of whom 7all feeble-minded7 are now living4 ,the number of his grandchildren and great-grandchildren is increasing every year1 but the total can not be learned from him1 for he is mentally incapable of counting even the number of his own children4 ,he is about #gj years of age1 and has never done any work except to make baskets4 ,he has lived a wandering life1 largely dependent on charity4 ,for the last #be years he has been partly blind1 due to trachoma4 ,he gets a blind pension of #e a month1 which is adequate to keep him supplied with chewing tobacco1 his regular mastication being #aj cents a day4 ,such specimens can be found in many rural communities2 if they were segregated in youth both they and the community would be much better off4 ,photograph from ,mina ,a4 ,sessions4 ,although conditions may be worst in the older and more densely populated states1 it is probable that there is no state in the union which has not many families1 or group of families1 of this dependent type1 which in favorable cases may attract little notice1 but therefore do all the more harm eugenically2 in other cases may be notorious as centers of criminality4 ,half a dozen well-defined areas of this kind have been found in ,pennsylvania1 which is probably not exceptional in this respect4 ,these differ1 of course1 in extent and character and the gravity of the problems they present4 ,in some there is great sexual laxity1 which leads to various forms of dependency and sometimes to extreme mental defect4 ,in others alcoholism prevails and the people show a propensity for deeds of violence4 ,all informants1 however1 practically agreed to the following characterization3 #a4 ,because of the thefts and depredations and the frequent applications for charitable relief from such sections they constitute a parasitic growth which saps the resources of the self-respecting1 self-sustaining contingent of the population4 #b4 ,they furnish an undue proportion of court cases1 and are thus a serious expense to county and state4 #c4 ,they are a source of physical decay and moral contamination1 and thus menace the integrity of the entire social fabric4#gg ,society has long since admitted that it is desirable to restrict the reproduction of certain classes of gross defectives1 and criminals1 by the method of segregation4 ,the ground for this is sometimes biological1 perhaps more often legal1 as in the case of the insane and criminal1 where it is held that the individual is legally incapacitated from entering into a contract1 such as that of marriage4 ,it would be better to have the biological basis of restriction on marriage and reproduction recognized in every case2 but even with the present point of view the desired end may be reached4 ,from an ethical standpoint1 so few people would now contend that two feeble-minded or epileptic persons have any right to marry and perpetuate their kind1 that it is hardly worth while to argue the point4 ,we believe that the same logic would permit two individuals to marry1 but deny them the privilege of having children4 ,the reasons for this may be considered under three heads4 #a4 ,biological4 ,are there cases in which persons may properly marry but may properly be prevented by society from having any offspring1 on the ground that such offspring would be undesirable components of the race8 ,the right of marriage is commonly1 and may well be properly1 regarded as an inalienable right of the individual1 in so far as it does not conflict with the interests of the race4 ,the companionship of two persons between whom true love exists1 is beyond all question the highest happiness possible1 and one which society should desire and strive to give its every member4 ,on that point there will be no difference of opinion1 but when it is asked whether there can be a separation between the comradeship aspect and the reproduction aspect1 in marriage1 whether any interest of the race can justifiably divorce these two phases1 often considered inseparable1 protests are at once aroused4 ,in these protests1 there is some justice4 ,we would be the last ones to deny that a marriage has failed to achieve its goal1 has failed to realize for its participants the greatest possible happiness1 unless it has resulted in sound offspring4 ,that word sound is the key to the distinction which must be made4 ,the interests of the race demand sound offspring from every couple in a position to furnish them--not only in the interests of that couple1--interests the importance of which it is not easy to underestimate--but in the interests of the future of the race1 whose welfare far transcends in importance the welfare of any one individual1 or any pair of individuals4 ,as surely as the race needs a constant supply of children of sound character1 so surely is it harmed by a supply of children of inherently unsound character1 physically or mentally1 who may contribute others like themselves to the next generation4 ,a recollection of the facts of heredity1 and of the fact that the offspring of any individual tend to increase in geometric ratio1 will supply adequate grounds for holding this conviction3--that from a biological point of view1 every child of congenitally inferior character is a racial misfortune4 ,the ,spartans and other peoples of antiquity fully realized this fact1 and acted on it by exposing deformed infants4 ,christianity properly revolted as such an action2 but in repudiating the action1 it lost sight of the principle back of the action4 ,the principle should have been regarded1 and civilized races are now coming back to a realization of that fact--are1 indeed1 realizing its weight far more fully than any other people has ever done1 because of the growing realization of the importance of heredity4 ,no one is likely seriously to argue again that deformed infants 7whether their deformity be physical or mental7 should be exposed to perish2 but the argument that in the interests of the future of the race they would better not be born1 is one that admits of no refutation4 ,from a biological point of view1 then1 it is to the interest of the race that the number of children who will be either defective themselves1 or transmit anti-social defects to their offspring1 should be as small as possible4 #b4 ,the humanitarian aspect of the case is no less strong and is likely1 in the present state of public education1 to move a larger number of individuals4 ,a visit to the children's ward of any hospital1 an acquaintance with the sensitive mother of a feeble-minded or deformed child1 will go far to convince anyone that the sum total of human happiness1 and the happiness of the parents1 would be greater had these children never been born4 ,as for the children themselves1 they will in many cases grow up to regret that they were ever brought into the world4 ,we do not overlook the occasional genius who may be crippled physically or even mentally2 we are here dealing with only the extreme defectives1 such as the feeble-minded1 insane1 and epileptic4 ,among such persons1 human happiness would be promoted both now and in the future if the number of offspring were naught4 #c4 ,there is another argument which may legitimately be brought forward1 and which may appeal to some who are relatively insensitive to the biological or even the humanitarian aspects of the case4 ,this is the financial argument4 ,except students of eugenics1 few persons realize how staggering is the bill annually paid for the care of defectives4 ,the amount which the state of ,new ,york expends yearly on the maintenance of its insane wards1 is greater than it spends for any other purpose except education2 and in a very few years1 if its insane population continues to increase at the present rate1 it will spend more on them than it does on the education of its normal children4 ,the cost of institutional care for the socially inadequate is far from being all that these people cost the state2 but those figures at least are not based on guesswork4 ,the annual cost#gh of maintaining a feeble-minded ward of the state1 in various commonwealths1 is3 ,illinois #acf4ej ,indiana #adg4di ,minnesota #adh4je ,ohio #aee4dg ,wisconsin #aei4gg ,kansas #agj4af ,michigan #agi4db ,kentucky #ahd4gg ,california #bjh4ig ,maine #bbb4ii ,at such prices1 each state maintains hundreds1 sometimes thousands1 of feeble-minded1 and the number is growing each year4 ,in the near future the expenditures must grow much more rapidly1 for public sentiment is beginning to demand that the defectives and delinquents of the community be properly cared for4 ,the financial burden is becoming a heavy one2 it will become a crushing one unless steps are taken to make the feeble-minded productive 7as described in the next chapter7 and an intangible sinking fund at the same time created to reduce the burden gradually by preventing the production of those who make it up4 ,the burden can never be wholly obliterated1 but it can be largely reduced by a restriction of the reproduction of those who are themselves socially inadequate4 ,illustration3 ,,two ,,juke ,,homes ,,of ,,the ,,present ,,day ,,fig4 #bh4--,the ,jukes have mostly been country-dwellers1 a fact which has tended to increase the amount of consanguineous marriage among them4 ,removal into a new environment usually does not mean any substantial change for them1 because they succeed immediately in re-creating the same squalid sort of an environment from which they came4 ,in the house below1 one part was occupied by the family and the other part by pigs4 ,photographs from ,a4 ,h4 ,estabrook4 ,alike then on biological1 humanitarian and financial grounds1 the nation would be the better for a diminution in the production of physically1 mentally or morally defective children4 ,and the way to secure this diminution is to prevent reproduction by parents whose offspring would almost certainly be undesirable in character4 ,granted that such prevention is a proper function of society1 the question again arises whether it is an ethically correct procedure to allow these potentially undesirable parents to marry at all4 ,should they be doomed to perpetual celibacy1 or should they be permitted to mate1 on condition that the union be childless4 ,the eugenic interests of society1 of course1 are equally safeguarded by either alternative4 ,all the other interests of society appear to us to be better safeguarded by marriage than by celibacy4 ,adding the interests of the individual1 which will doubtless be for marriage1 it seems to us that there is good reason for holding such a childless marriage ethically correct1 in the relatively small number of cases where it might seem desirable4 ,though such unions may be ethically justifiable1 yet they would often be impracticable2 the limits will be discussed in the next chapter4 ,it is constantly alleged that the state can not interfere with an individual matter of this sort3 ,it is an intolerable invasion of personal liberty2 it is reducing humanity to the level of the barn-yard2 it is impossible to put artificial restraints on the relations between the sexes1 founded as they are on such strong and primal feelings4 ,the doctrine of personal liberty1 in this extreme form1 was enunciated and is maintained by people who are ignorant of biology and evolution2#gi people who are ignorant of the world as it is1 and deal only with the world as they think it ought to be4 ,nature reveals no such extreme law of personal liberty1 and the race that tries to carry such a supposed law to its logical conclusion will soon find1 in the supreme test of competition with other races1 that the interests of the individual are much less important to nature than the interests of the race4 ,perpetuation of the race is the first end to be sought4 ,so far as according a wide measure of personal liberty to its members will compass that end1 the personal liberty doctrine is a good one2 but if it is held as a metaphysical dogma1 to deny that the race may take any action necessary in its own interest1 at the expense of the individual1 this dogma becomes suicidal4 ,as for reducing humanity to the level of the barn-yard1 this is merely a catch-phrase intended to arouse prejudice and to obscure the facts4 ,the reader may judge for himself whether the eugenic program will degrade mankind to the level of the brutes1 or whether it will ennoble it1 beautify it1 and increase its happiness4 ,the delusion which so many people hold1 that it is impossible to put artificial restraint on the relations between the sexes1 is amazing4 ,restraint is already a fait accompli4 ,every civilized nation already puts restrictions on numerous classes of people1 as has been noted--minors1 criminals1 and the insane1 for example4 ,even though this restriction is usually based on legal1 rather than biological grounds1 it is nevertheless a restriction1 and sets a precedent for further restrictions1 if any precedent were needed4 ,illustration3 ,,mongolian ,,deficiency ,,fig4 #bi4--;,a common type of feeble-mindedness is accompanied by a face called ,mongoloid1 because of a certain resemblance to that of some of the ,mongolian races as will be noted above4 ,the mother at the left and the father were normal4 ,this type seems not to be inherited1 but due to some other influence1--,goddard suggests uterine exhaustion from too many frequent pregnancies4 ,it is1 we conclude1 both desirable and possible to enforce certain restrictions on marriage and parenthood4 ,what these restrictions may be1 and to whom they should be applied1 is next to be considered4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,dysgenic ,,classes ,before examining the methods by which society can put into effect some measure of negative or restrictive eugenics1 it may be well to decide what classes of the population can properly fall within the scope of such treatment4 ,strictly speaking1 the problem is of course one of individuals rather than classes1 but for the sake of convenience it will be treated as one of classes1 it being understood that no individual should be put under restriction with eugenic intent merely because he may be supposed to belong to a given class2 but that each case must be investigated on its own merits1--and investigated with much more care than has hitherto usually been thought necessary by many of those who have advocated restrictive eugenic measures4 ,the first class demanding attention is that of those feeble-minded whose condition is due to heredity4 ,there is reason to believe that at least two-thirds of the feeble-minded in the ,united ,states owe their condition directly to heredity1#hj and will transmit it to a large per cent of their descendants1 if they have any4 ,feeble-minded persons from sound stock1 whose arrested development is due to scarlet fever or some similar disease of childhood1 or to accident1 are of course not of direct concern to eugenists4 ,the number of patent feeble-minded in the ,united ,states is probably not less than #cjj1jjj1 while the number of latent individuals--those carrying the taint in their germ-plasm and capable of transmitting it to their descendants1 although the individuals themselves may show good mental development--is necessarily much greater4 ,the defect is highly hereditary in nature3 when two innately feeble-minded persons marry1 all their offspring1 almost without exception1 are feeble-minded4 ,the feeble-minded are never of much value to society--they never present such instances as are found among the insane1 of persons with some mental lack of balance1 who are yet geniuses4 ,if restrictive eugenics dealt with no other class than the hereditarily feeble-minded1 and dealt with that class effectively1 it would richly justify its existence4 ,but there are other classes on which it can act with safety as well as profit1 and one of these is made up by the germinally insane4 ,according to the census of #aiaj1 there are #ahg1gia insane in institutions in the ,united ,states2 there are also a certain number outside of institutions1 as to whom information can not easily be obtained4 ,the number in the hospitals represented a ratio of #bjd4c per #ajj1jjj of the general population4 ,in #ahhj1 when the enumeration of insane was particularly complete1 a total of #ia1iei was reported--a ratio of #ahh4c per #ajj1jjj of the total population at that time4 ,this apparent increase of insanity has been subjected to much analysis1 and it is admitted that part of it can be explained away4 ,people are living longer now than formerly1 and as insanity is primarily a disease of old age1 the number of insane is thus increased4 ,better means of diagnosis are undoubtedly responsible for some of the apparent increase4 ,but when every conceivable allowance is made1 there yet remains ground for belief that the proportion of insane persons in the population is increasing each year4 ,this is partly due to immigration1 as is indicated by the immense and constantly increasing insane population of the state of ,new ,york1 where most immigrants land4 ,in some cases1 people who actually show some form of insanity may slip past the examiners2 in the bulk of cases1 probably1 an individual is adapted to leading a normal life in his native environment1 but transfer to the more strenuous environment of an ,american city proves to be too much for his nervous organization4 ,the general flow of population from the country to large cities has a similar effect in increasing the number of insane4 ,but when all is said1 the fact remains that there are several hundred thousand insane persons in the ,united ,states1 many of whom are not prevented from reproducing their kind1 and that by this failure to restrain them society is putting a heavy burden of expense1 unhappiness and a fearful dysgenic drag on coming generations4 ,the word insanity1 as is frequently objected1 means little or nothing from a biological point of view--it is a sort of catch-all to describe many different kinds of nervous disturbance4 ,no one can properly be made the subject of restrictive measures for eugenic reasons1 merely because he is said to be insane4 ,it would be wholly immoral so to treat1 for example1 a man or woman who was suffering from the form of insanity which sometimes follows typhoid fever4 ,but there are certain forms of mental disease1 generally lumped under the term insanity1 which indicate a hereditarily disordered nervous organization1 and individuals suffering from one of these diseases should certainly not be given any chance to perpetuate their insanity to posterity4 ,two types of insanity are now recognized as especially transmissible3--dementia precox1 a sort of precocious old age1 in which the patient 7generally young7 sinks into a lethargy from which he rarely recovers2 and manic-depressive insanity1 an over-excitable condition1 in which there are occasional very erratic motor discharges1 alternating with periods of depression4 ,constitutional psychopathic inferiority1 which means a lack of emotional adaptability1 usually shows in the family history4 ,the common type of insanity which is characterized by mild hallucinations is of less concern from a eugenic point of view4 ,in general1 the insane are more adequately restricted than any other dysgenic class in the community2 not because the community recognizes the disadvantage of letting them reproduce their kind1 but because there is a general fear of them1 which leads to their strict segregation2 and because an insane person is not considered legally competent to enter into a marriage contract4 ,in general1 the present isolation of the sexes at institutions for the insane is satisfactory2 the principal problem which insanity presents lies in the fact that an individual is frequently committed to a hospital or asylum1 kept there a few years until apparently cured1 and then discharged2 whereupon he returns to his family to beget offspring that are fairly likely to become insane at some period in their lives4 ,every case of insanity should be accompanied by an investigation of the patient's ancestry1 and if there is unmistakable evidence of serious neuropathic taint1 such steps as are necessary should be taken to prevent that individual from becoming a parent at any time4 ,the hereditary nature of most types of epilepsy is generally held to be established1#ha and restrictive measures should be used to prevent the increase of the number of epileptics in the country4 ,it has been calculated that the number of epileptics in the state of ,new ,jersey1 where the most careful investigation of the problem has been made1 will double every #cj years under present conditions4 ,in dealing with both insanity and epilepsy1 the eugenist faces the difficulty that occasionally people of the very kind whose production he most wishes to see encouraged--real geniuses--may carry the taint4 ,the exaggerated claims of the ,italian anthropologist ,c4 ,lombroso and his school1 in regard to the close relation between genius and insanity1 have been largely disproved2 yet there remains little doubt that the two sometimes do go together2 and such supposed epileptics as ,mohammed1 ,julius ,csar1 and ,napoleon will at once be called to mind4 ,to apply sweeping restrictive measures would prevent the production of a certain amount of talent of a very high order4 ,the situation can only be met by dealing with every case on its individual merits1 and recognizing that it is to the interests of society to allow some very superior individuals to reproduce1 even though part of their posterity may be mentally or physically somewhat unsound4 ,a field survey in two typical counties of ,indiana 7#aiaf7 showed that there were #a4h recognizable epileptics per thousand population4 ,if these figures should approximately hold good for the entire ,united ,states1 the number of epileptics can hardly be put at less than #aej1jjj4 ,some of them are not anti-social1 but many of them are4 ,feeble-mindedness and insanity were also included in the census mentioned1 and the total number of the three kinds of defectives was found to be #ai per thousand in one county and #aa4d per thousand in the other4 ,this would suggest a total for the entire ,united ,states of something like one million4 ,in addition to these well-recognized classes of hopelessly defective1 there is a class of defectives embracing very diverse characteristics1 which demands careful consideration4 ,in it are those who are germinally physical weaklings or deformed1 those born with a hereditary diathesis or predisposition toward some serious disease 7e4g41 ,huntington's ,chorea71 and those with some gross defect of the organs of special sense4 ,the germinally blind and deaf will particularly occur to mind in the latter connection4 ,cases falling in this category demand careful scrutiny by biological and psychological experts1 before any action can be taken in the interest of eugenics2 in many cases the affected individual himself will be glad to coperate with society by remaining celibate or by the practice of birth control1 to the end of leaving no offspring to bear what he has borne4 ,finally1 we come to the great class of delinquents who have hitherto been made the particular object of solicitude1 on the part of those who have looked with favor upon sterilization legislation4 ,the chronic inebriate1 the confirmed criminal1 the prostitute1 the pauper1 all deserve careful study by the eugenist4 ,in many cases they will be found to be feeble-minded1 and proper restriction of the feeble-minded will meet their cases4 ,thus there is reason to believe that from a third to two-thirds of the prostitutes in ,american cities are feeble-minded4#hb ,they should be committed to institutions for the feeble-minded and kept there4 ,it is certain that many of the pauper class1 which fills up almshouses1 are similarly deficient4 ,indeed1 the census of #aiaj discovered that of the #hd1aih paupers in institutions on the first of ,january in that year1 #ac1bch were feeble-minded1 #c1eah insane1 #b1bjb epileptic1 #iah deaf-mute1 #c1cge blind1 #ac1gec crippled1 maimed or deformed4 ,a total of #fc4g of the whole had some serious physical or mental defect4 ,obviously1 most of these would be taken care of under some other heading1 in the program of restrictive eugenics4 ,while paupers should be prohibited from reproduction as long as they are in state custody1 careful discrimination is necessary in the treatment of those whose condition is due more to environment than heredity4 ,in a consideration of the chronic inebriate1 the problem of environmental influences is again met in an acute form1 aggravated by the venom of controversy engendered by bigotry and self-interest4 ,that many chronic inebriates owe their condition almost wholly to heredity1 and are likely to leave offspring of the same character1 is indisputable4 ,as to the possibility of reforming such an individual1 there may be room for a difference of opinion2 as to the possibility of reforming his germ-plasm1 there can be none4 ,society owes them the best possible care1 and part of its care should certainly be to see that they do not reproduce their kind4 ,as to the borderland cases--and in the matter of inebriety borderland is perhaps bigger than mainland--it is doubtful whether much direct action can be taken in the present state of scientific knowledge and of public sentiment4 ,education of public opinion to avoid marriage with drunkards will probably be the most effective means of procedure4 ,finally1 there is the criminal class1 over which the respective champions of heredity and environment have so often waged partisan warfare4 ,there is probably no field in which restrictive eugenics would think of interfering1 where it encounters so much danger as here--danger of wronging both the individual and society4 ,laws such as have been passed in several states1 providing for the sterilization of criminals as such1 must be deplored by the eugenist as much as they are by the pseudo-sociologist who does not believe in heredity2 but this is not saying that there are not many cases in which eugenic action is desirable2 for inheritance of a lack of emotional control makes a man in one sense a born criminal4#hc ,he is not1 in most respects1 the creature which he was made out to be by ,lombroso and his followers2 but he exists1 nevertheless1 and no ameliorative treatment given him will be of such value to society as preventing his reproduction4 ,the feeble-minded who make up a large proportion of the petty criminals that fill the jails1 must1 of course1 be excluded from this discussion except to note that their conviction assists in discovering their defect4 ,they should be treated as feeble-minded1 not as criminals4#hd ,those who may have been made criminals by society1 by their environment1 must also be excepted4 ,in an investigation1 the benefit of the doubt should be given to the individual4 ,but when every possible concession is made to the influence of environment1 the psychiatric study of the individual and the investigation of his family history still show that there are criminals who congenitally lack the inhibitions and instincts which make it possible for others to be useful members of society4#he ,when a criminal of this natural type is found1 the duty of society is unquestionably to protect itself by cutting off that line of descent4 ,this1 we believe1 covers all the classes which are at this time proper subjects for direct restrictive action with eugenic intent2 and we repeat that the problem is not to deal with classes as a whole1 but to deal with individuals of the kind described1 for the sake of convenience1 in the above categories4 ,artificial class names mean nothing to evolution4 ,it would be a crime to cut off the posterity of a desirable member of society merely because he happened to have been popularly stigmatized by some class name that carried opprobrium with it4 ,similarly it would be immoral to encourage or permit the reproduction of a manifestly defective member of society of the kinds indicated1 even though that individual might in some way have secured the protection of a class name that was generally considered desirable4 ,bearing this in mind1 we believe no one can object to a proposal to prevent the reproduction of those feeble-minded1 insane1 epileptic1 grossly defective or hopelessly delinquent people1 whose condition can be proved to be due to heredity and is therefore probably transmissible to their offspring4 ,we can imagine only one objection that might be opposed to all the advantages of such a program--namely1 that no proper means can be found for putting it into effect4 ,this objection is occasionally urged1 but we believe it to be wholly without weight4 ,we now propose to examine the various possible methods of restrictive eugenics1 and to inquire which of them society can most profitably adopt4 ,,chapter ,x ,,methods ,,of ,,restriction ,the means of restriction can be divided into coercive and non-coercive4 ,we shall discuss the former first1 interpreting the word coercive very broadly4 ,from an historical point of view1 the first method which presents itself is execution4 ,this has been used since the beginning of the race1 very probably1 although rarely with a distinct understanding of its eugenic effect2 and its value in keeping up the standard of the race should not be underestimated4 ,it is a method the use of which prevents the rectification of mistakes4 ,there are arguments against it on other grounds1 which need not be discussed here1 since it suffices to say that to put to death defectives or delinquents is wholly out of accord with the spirit of the times1 and is not seriously considered by the eugenics movement4 ,the next possible method castration4 ,this has practically nothing to recommend it1 except that it is effective--an argument that can also be made for the lethal chamber4 ,the objections against it are overwhelming4 ,it has hardly been advocated1 even by extremists1 save for those whose sexual instincts are extremely disordered2 but such advocacy is based on ignorance of the results4 ,as a fact1 castration frequently does not diminish the sexual impulses4 ,its use should be limited to cases where desirable for therapeutic reasons as well4 ,it is possible1 however1 to render either a man or woman sterile by a much less serious operation than castration4 ,this operation1 which has gained wide attention in recent years under the name of sterilization1 usually takes the form of vasectomy in man and salpingectomy in woman2 it is desirable that the reader should have a clear understanding of its nature4 ,vasectomy is a trivial operation performed in a few minutes1 almost painlessly with the use of cocain as a local ansthetic2 it is sometimes performed with no ansthetic whatever4 ,the patient's sexual life is not affected in any way1 save in the one respect that he is sterile4 ,salpingectomy is more serious1 because the operation can not be performed so near the surface of the body4 ,the sexual life of the subject is in no way changed1 save that she is rendered barren2 but the operation is attended by illness and expense4 ,the general advantage claimed for sterilization1 as a method of preventing the reproduction of persons whose offspring would probably be a detriment to race progress1 is the accomplishment of the end in view without much expense to the state1 and without interfering with the liberty and pursuit of happiness of the individual4 ,the general objection to it is that by removing all fear of consequences from an individual1 it is likely to lead to the spread of sexual immorality and venereal disease4 ,this objection is entitled to some consideration2 but there exists a still more fundamental objection against sterilization as a program--namely1 that it is sometimes not fair to the individual4 ,its eugenic effects may be all that are desired2 but in some cases its euthenic effects must frequently be deplorable4 ,most of the persons whom it is proposed to sterilize are utterly unfit to hold their own in the world1 in competition with normal people4 ,for society to sterilize the feeble-minded1 the insane1 the alcoholic1 the born criminals1 the epileptic1 and then turn them out to shift for themselves1 saying1 ,we have no further concern with you1 now that we know you will leave no children behind you1 is unwise4 ,people of this sort should be humanely isolated1 so that they will be brought into competition only with their own kind2 and they should be kept so segregated1 not only until they have passed the reproductive age1 but until death brings them relief from their misfortunes4 ,such a course is1 in most cases1 the only one worthy of a ,christian nation2 and it is obvious that if such a course is followed1 the sexes can be effectively separated without difficulty1 and any sterilization operation will be unnecessary4 ,generally speaking1 the only objection urged against segregation is that of expense4 ,in reply1 it may be said that the expense will decrease steadily1 when segregation is viewed as a long-time investment1 because the number of future wards of the state of any particular type will be decreasing every year4 ,moreover1 a large part of the expense can be met by properly organizing the labor of the inmates4 ,this is particularly true of the feeble-minded1 who will make up the largest part of the burden because of their numbers and the fact that most of them are not now under state care4 ,as for the insane1 epileptic1 incorrigibly criminal1 and the other defectives and delinquents embraced in the program1 the state is already taking care of a large proportion of them1 and the additional expense of making this care life-long1 and extending it to those not yet under state control1 but equally deserving of it1 could probably be met by better organization of the labor of the persons involved1 most of whom are able to do some sort of work that will at least cover the cost of their maintenance4 ,that the problem is less serious than has often been supposed1 may be illustrated by the following statement from ,h4 ,hastings ,hart of the ,russell ,sage ,foundation3 ,of the #aj1jjj 7estimated7 mentally defective women of child-bearing age in the state of ,new ,york1 only about #a1gej are cared for in institutions designated for the care of the feeble-minded1 and about #d1jjj are confined in insane asylums1 reformatories and prisons1 while at least #d1jjj 7probably many more7 are at large in the community4 ,with reference to the #d1jjj feeble-minded who are confined in hospitals for insane1 prisons and reformatories and almshouses1 the state would actually be the financial gainer by providing for them in custodial institutions4 ,at the ,rome ,custodial ,asylum #a1bcj inmates are humanely cared for at #b4ci per week4 ,the same class of inmates is being cared for in the boys' reformatories at #d4ff2 in the hospitals for insane at #c4ij2 in the girls' reformatory at #e4dg1 and in the almshouse at about #a4be4 ,if all of these persons were transferred to an institution conducted on the scale of the ,rome ,custodial ,asylum1 they would not only relieve these other institutions of inmates who do not belong there and who are a great cause of care and anxiety1 but they would make room for new patients of the proper class1 obviating the necessity for enlargement4 ,the money thus saved would build ample institutions for the care of these people at a much less per capita cost than that of the prisons1 reformatories and asylums where they are now kept1 and the annual per capita cost of maintenance would be reduced from #bj to #ej per cent41 except in almshouses1 where the cost would be increased about #a per week1 but the almshouse inmates compose only a small fraction of the whole number4 ,i desire to emphasize the fact that one-half of the feeble-minded of this state are already under public care1 but that two-thirds of them are cared for in the wrong kind of institutions4 ,this difficulty can be remedied without increasing the public burden1 in the manner already suggested4 ,that leaves #ae1jjj feeble-minded for whom no provision has yet been made4 ,it must be remembered that these #ae1jjj persons are being cared for in some way4 ,we do not allow them to starve to death1 but they are fed1 clothed and housed1 usually by the self-denying labor of their relatives4 ,thousands of poor mothers are giving up their lives largely to the care of a feeble-minded child1 but these mothers are unable to so protect them from becoming a menace to the community1 and1 in the long run1 it would be far more economical for the community to segregate them in institutions than to allow them to remain in their homes1 only to become ultimately paupers1 criminals1 prostitutes or parents of children like themselves4 ,some sort of provision is now made for some of the feeble-minded in every state excepting eleven1 viz43 ,alabama1 ,arizona1 ,florida1 ,georgia1 ,louisiana1 ,nevada1 ,new ,mexico1 ,south ,carolina1 ,tennessee and ,utah and ,west ,virginia4 ,delaware sends a few cases to ,pennsylvania institutions2 other states sometimes care for especially difficult cases in hospitals for the insane4 ,the ,district of ,columbia should be added to the list1 as having no institution for the care of its #hjj or more feeble-minded4 ,alaska is likewise without such an institution4 ,of the several hundred thousand feeble-minded persons in the ,united ,states1 probably not more than a tenth are getting the institutional care which is needed in most cases for their own happiness1 and in nearly every case for the protection of society4 ,it is evident that a great deal of new machinery must be created1 or old institutions extended1 to meet this pressing problem--#hf a problem to which1 fortunately1 the public is showing signs of awakening4 ,in our opinion1 the most promising attempt to solve the problem has been made by the ,training ,school of ,vineland1 ,new ,jersey1 through its ,colony ,plan4 ,superintendent ,e4 ,r4 ,johnstone of the ,training ,school describes the possibilities of action along this line1 as follows3#hg ,there are idiots1 imbeciles1 morons and backward children4 ,the morons and the backward children are found in the public schools in large numbers4 ,goddard's studies showed twelve per cent4 of an entire school district below the high school to be two or three years behind their grades1 and three per cent4 four or more years behind4 ,it is difficult for the expert to draw the line between these two classes1 and parents and teachers are loth to admit that the morons are defective4 ,this problem can best be solved by the establishment of special classes in the public schools for all who lag more than one year behind4 ,if for no other reason1 the normal children should be relieved of the drag of these backward pupils4 ,the special classes will become the clearing houses4 ,the training should be largely manual and industrial and as practical as possible4 ,as the number of classes in any school district increases1 the classification will sift out those who are merely backward and a little coaching and special attention will return them to the grades4 ,the others--the morons--will remain and as long as they are not dangerous to society 7sexually or otherwise7 they may live at home and attend the special classes4 ,as they grow older they will be transferred to proper custodial institutions4 ,in the city districts1 where there are many classes1 this will occur between twelve and sixteen years of age4 ,in the country districts it will occur earlier4 ,these institutions will be the training schools and will form the center for the training and care of the other two groups1 i4 e41 the imbeciles and idiots4 ,branching out from the training schools should be colonies 7unless the parent institution is on a very large tract of ground1 which is most advisable74 ,these colonies1 or groups of comparatively small buildings1 should be of two classes4 ,for the imbeciles1 simple buildings costing from two to four hundred dollars per inmate4 ,the units might well be one hundred4 ,a unit providing four dormitories1 bath house1 dining-halls1 employees' buildings1 pump house1 water tank1 sewage disposal1 laundry1 stables and farm buildings can be built within the above figures providing the buildings are of simple construction and one story4 ,this has been done at ,vineland by having the larger imbecile and moron boys make the cement blocks of which the buildings are constructed4 ,for the idiots the construction can be much the same4 ,larger porches facing the south and more toilet fixtures will be necessary1 and so add a little to the cost4 ,the colony should be located on rough uncleared land--preferable forestry land4 ,here these unskilled fellows find happy and useful occupation1 waste humanity taking waste land and thus not only contributing toward their own support1 but also making over land that would otherwise be useless4 ,one reason for building inexpensive buildings is that having cleared a large tract--say #a1jjj acres--the workers can be moved to another waste tract and by brushing1 clearing of rocks1 draining and what not1 increase its value sufficiently to keep on moving indefinitely4 ,many of these boy-men make excellent farmers1 dairymen1 swineherds and poultry raisers under proper direction1 and in the winter they can work in the tailor1 paint1 carpenter1 mattress and mat shops4 ,nor need this be confined to the males alone4 ,the girl-women raise poultry1 small fruits and vegetables very successfully4 ,they pickle and can the products of the land1 and in winter do knitting1 netting and sewing of all kinds4 ,no manufacturer of to-day has let the product of his plant go to waste as society has wasted the energies of this by-product of humanity4 ,and the feeble-minded are happy when they have occupation suited to their needs4 ,if one will but see them when they are set at occupations within their comprehension and ability1 he will quickly understand the joy they get out of congenial work4 ,colonies such as ,mr4 ,johnstone describes will take care of the able-bodied feeble-minded2 other institutions will provide for the very young and the aged2 finally1 there will always be many of these defectives who can best be segregated in their own homes2 whose relatives have means and inclination to care for them1 and sufficient feeling of responsibility to see that the interests of society are protected4 ,if there is any doubt on this last point1 the state should itself assume charge1 or should sterilize the defective individuals2 but it is not likely that sterilization will need to be used to any large extent in the solution of this problem4 ,in general it may be said that feeble-mindedness is the greatest single dysgenic problem facing the country1 that it can be effectively solved by segregation1 and that it presents no great difficulty save the initial one of arousing the public to its importance4 ,similarly the hereditarily insane and epileptic can best be cared for through life-long segregation--a course which society is likely to adopt readily1 because of a general dread of having insane and epileptic persons at liberty in the community4 ,there are undoubtedly cases where the relatives of the affected individual can and should assume responsibility for his care4 ,no insane or epileptic person whose condition is probably of a hereditary character should be allowed to leave an institution unless it is absolutely certain that he or she will not become a parent3 if sterilization is the only means to assure this1 then it should be used4 ,in many cases it has been found that the individual and his relatives welcome such a step4 ,the habitual criminals1 the chronic alcoholics1 and the other defectives whom we have mentioned as being undesirable parents1 will in most cases need to be given institutional care throughout life1 in their own interest as well as that of society4 ,this is already being done with many of them1 and the extension of the treatment involves no new principle nor special difficulty4 ,it should be borne in mind that1 from a eugenic point of view1 the essential element in segregation is not so much isolation from society1 but separation of the two sexes4 ,properly operated1 segregation increases the happiness of the individuals segregated1 as well as working to the advantage of the body politic4 ,in most cases the only objection to it is the expense1 and this1 as we have shown1 need not be an insuperable difficulty4 ,for these reasons1 we believe that segregation is the best way in which to restrict the reproduction of those whose offspring could hardly fail to be undesirable1 and that sterilization should be looked upon only as an adjunct1 to be used in special cases where it may seem advantageous to allow an individual full liberty1 or partial liberty1 and yet where he or she can not be trusted to avoid reproduction4 ,having reached this point in the discussion of restrictive eugenics1 it may be profitable to consider the so-called eugenic laws which have been before the public in many states during recent years4 ,they are one of the first manifestations of an awakening public conscience on the subject of eugenics2 they show that the public1 or part of it1 feels the necessity of action2 they equally show that the principles which should guide restrictive eugenics are not properly understood by most of those who have interested themselves in the legislative side of the program4 ,twelve states now have laws on their statute books 7but usually not in force7 providing for the sterilization of certain classes of individuals4 ,similar laws have been passed in a number of other states1 but were vetoed by the governors2 while in many others bills have been introduced but not passed4 ,we shall review only the bills which are actually on the statute books in #aiaf1 and shall not attempt to detail all the provisions of them1 but shall consider only the means by which they propose to attain a eugenic end4 ,the state of ,indiana allows the sterilization of all inmates of state institutions1 deemed by a commission of three surgeons to be unimprovable physically or mentally1 and unfit for procreation4 ,the object is purely eugenic4 ,after a few hundred operations had been performed in ,jeffersonville reformatory1 the law aroused the hostility of ,governor ,thomas ,r4 ,marshall1 who succeeded in preventing its enforcement2 since #aiac we believe it has not been in effect4 ,it is defectively drawn in some ways1 particularly because it includes those who will be kept in custody for life1 and who are therefore not proper objects of sterilization4 ,the ,washington law applies to habitual criminals and sex offenders2 it is a punitive measure which may be ordered by the court passing sentence on the offender1 but has never been put in force4 ,sterilization is not a suitable method of punishment1 and its value as a eugenic instrument is jeopardized by the interjection of the punitive motive4 ,california applied her law to all inmates 7not voluntary7 of state hospitals for the insane and the state home for the feeble-minded1 and all recidivists in the state prisons4 ,the motive is partly eugenic1 partly therapeutic1 partly punitive4 ,it is reported#hh that #fce operations have been performed under this law1 which is administered by the state commission for the insane1 the resident physician of any state prison1 and the medical superintendent of any state institution for fools and idiots4 ,for several years ,california had the distinction of being the only state where sterilization was actually being performed in accordance with the law4 ,the ,california measure applies to those serving life sentences--an unnecessary application4 ,although falling short of an ideal measure in some other particulars1 it seems on the whole to be satisfactorily administered4 ,connecticut's law provides that all inmates of state prisons and of the state hospitals at ,middletown and ,norwich may be sterilized if such action is recommended by a board of three surgeons1 on eugenic or therapeutic grounds4 ,it has been applied to a few insane persons 7#ba1 up to ,september1 #aiaf74 ,nevada has a purely punitive sterilization law applying to habitual criminals and sex offenders4 ,the courts1 which are authorized to apply it1 have never done so4 ,illustration3 ,,feeble-,,minded ,,men ,,are ,,capable ,,of ,,much ,,rough ,,labor ,,fig4 #cj4--,most of the cost of segregating the mentally defective can be met by properly organizing their labor1 so as to make them as nearly self-supporting as possible4 ,it has been found that they perform excellently such work as clearing forest land1 or reforesting cleared land1 and great gangs of them might profitably be put at such work1 in most states4 ,photograph from the ,training ,school1 ,vineland1 ,n4 ,j4 ,illustration3 ,,feeble-,,minded ,,at ,a ,,vineland ,,colony ,,fig4 #ca4--,they have the bodies of adults but the minds of children4 ,it is not to the interest of the state that they should be allowed to mingle with the normal population2 and it is quite as little to their own interest1 for they are not capable of competing successfully with people who are normal mentally4 ,iowa's comprehensive statute applies to inmates of public institutions for criminals1 rapists1 idiots1 feeble-minded1 imbeciles1 lunatics1 drug fiends1 epileptics1 syphilitics1 moral and sexual perverts and diseased and degenerate persons4 ,it is compulsory in case of persons twice convicted of felony or of a sexual offense other than white slavery1 in which offense one conviction makes sterilization mandatory4 ,the state parole board1 with the managing officer and physician of each institution1 constitute the executive authorities4 ,the act has many objectionable features1 one of the most striking of which is the inclusion of syphilitics under the head of persons whom it is proposed to sterilize4 ,as syphilis is a curable disease1 there is scarcely more reason for sterilizing those afflicted with it than there is for sterilizing persons with measles4 ,it is true that the sterilization of a large number of syphilitics might have a eugenic effect1 if the cured syphilitics had a permanently impaired germ-plasm--a proposition which is very doubtful4 ,but the framers of the law apparently were not influenced by that aspect of the case1 and in any event such a method of procedure is too round-about to be commendable4 ,criminals as such1 and syphilitics1 should certainly be removed from the workings of this law1 and dealt with in some other way4 ,however1 no operations are reported as having been performed under the act4 ,new ,jersey's law1 which has never been operative1 represents a much more advanced statute2 it applies to inmates of state reformatories1 charitable and penal institutions 7rapists and confirmed criminals7 and provides for a board of expert examiners1 as well as for legal procedure4 ,new ,york's law1 applying to inmates of state hospitals for the insane1 state prisons1 reformatories and charitable institutions1 is also fairly well drawn1 providing for a board of examiners1 and surrounding the operation with legal safeguards4 ,no operations have been performed under it4 ,north ,dakota includes inmates of state prisons1 reform school1 school for feeble-minded and asylum for the insane in its law1 which is administered by a special board4 ,although an emergency clause was tacked on1 when it was passed in #aiac1 putting it into effect at once1 no operations have been performed under it4 ,michigan's law applies to all inmates of state institutions maintained wholly or in part at public expense4 ,it lacks many of the provisions of an ideal law1 but is being applied to some of the feeble-minded4 ,the ,kansas law1 which provides suitable court procedure1 embraces inmates of all state institutions intrusted with the care or custody of habitual criminals1 idiots1 epileptics1 imbeciles or insane1 an habitual criminal being defined as a person who has been convicted of some felony involving moral turpitude4 ,it has been a dead letter ever since it was placed on the statute books4 ,wisconsin#hi provides for a special board to consider the cases of all inmates of state and county institutions for criminal1 insane1 feeble-minded and epileptic persons1 prior to their release4 ,the law has some good features1 and has been applied to a hundred or more feeble-minded persons4 ,in #aiaa the ,american ,breeders' ,association appointed a ,committee to ,study and ,report on the ,best ,practical ,means of ,cutting ,off the ,defective ,germ-,plasm in the ,american ,population1 and this committee has been at work ever since1 under auspices of the ,eugenics ,record ,office1 making a particular study of legal sterilization4 ,it points out#ij that a sterilization law1 to be of the greatest possible value1 must3 7#a7 ,consider sterilization as a eugenic measure1 not as a punitive or even therapeutic one4 7#b7 ,provide due process of law1 before any operation is carried out4 7#c7 ,provide adequate and competent executive agents4 7#d7 ,designate only proper classes of persons as subject to the law4 7#e7 ,provide for the nomination of individuals for sterilization1 by suitable procedure4 7#f7 ,make an adequate investigation of each case1 the family history being the most important part1 and one which is often neglected at present4 7#g7 ,have express and adequate criteria for determining upon sterilization4 7#h7 ,designate the type of operation authorized4 7#i7 ,make each distinct step mandatory and fix definitely the responsibility for it4 7#aj7 ,make adequate appropriation for carrying out the measure4 ,tested by such standards1 there is not a sterilization law in existence in the ,united ,states at the time this is written that is wholly commendable2 and those introduced in various states during the last few years1 but not passed1 show few signs of improvement4 ,it is evident that the commendable zeal has not had adequate guidance1 in the drafting of sterilization legislation4 ,the committee above referred to has drawn up a model law1 and states which wish to adopt a program of legislative sterilization should pass a measure embodying at least the principles of this model law4 ,but1 as we have pointed out1 wholesale sterilization is an unsatisfactory substitute for segregation4 ,there are cases where it is advisable1 in states too poor or niggardly to care adequately for their defectives and delinquents1 but eugenists should favor segregation as the main policy1 with sterilization for the special cases as previously indicated4 ,there is another way in which attempts have recently been made to restrict the reproduction of anti-social persons3 by putting restrictions on marriage4 ,this form of campaign1 although usually calling itself eugenic1 has been due far less to eugenists than to sex hygienists who have chosen to sail under a borrowed flag4 ,every eugenist must wish them success in their efforts to promote sex hygiene1 but it is a matter of regret that they can not place their efforts in the proper light1 for their masquerade as a eugenic propaganda has brought undeserved reproach on the eugenics movement4 ,the customary form of legal action in this case is to demand that both applicants for a marriage license1 or in some cases only the male1 sign an affidavit or present a certificate from some medical authority stating that an examination has been made and the applicant found to be free from any venereal disease4 ,in some cases other diseases or mental defects are included4 ,when the law prevents marriage on account of insanity1 feeble-mindedness1 or other hereditary defect1 it obviously has a eugenic value2 but in so far as it concerns itself with venereal diseases1 which are not hereditary1 it is only of indirect interest to eugenics4 ,the great objection to such laws is that they are too easily evaded by the persons whom they are intended to reach--a fact that has been demonstrated conclusively wherever they have been put in force4 ,furthermore1 the nature of the examination demanded is usually wholly inadequate to ascertain whether the applicant really is or is not afflicted with a venereal disease4 ,finally1 it is to be borne in mind that the denial of a marriage license will by no means prevent reproduction1 among the anti-social classes of the community4 ,for these reasons1 the so-called eugenic laws of several states1 which provide for a certificate of health before a marriage license is issued1 are not adequate eugenic measures4 ,they have some value in awakening public sentiment to the value of a clean record in a prospective life partner4 ,to the extent that they are enforced1 the probability that persons afflicted with venereal disease are on the average eugenically inferior to the unaffected gives these laws some eugenic effect4 ,we are not called on to discuss them from a hygienic point of view2 but we believe that it is a mistake for eugenists to let legislation of this sort be anything but a minor achievement1 to be followed up by more efficient legislation4 ,laws which tend to surround marriage with a reasonable amount of formality and publicity are1 in general1 desirable eugenically4 ,they tend to discourage hasty and secret marriages1 and to make matrimony appear as a matter in which the public has a legitimate interest1 and which is not to be undertaken lightly and without consideration4 ,laws compelling the young to get the consent of their parents before marriage are to be placed in this category2 and likewise the ,german law which requires the presentation of birth-certificates before a marriage license is issued4 ,a revival under proper form of the old custom of publishing the banns is desirable4 ,undoubtedly many hasty and ill-considered marriages are contracted at the present time1 with dysgenic results1 which could be prevented if the relatives and friends of the contracting parties knew what was going on1 and could bring to light defects or objections unknown or not properly realized by the young people4 ,among other states1 ,missouri has recently considered such a law1 proposing that each applicant for a marriage license be required to present a certificate from a reputable physician1 stating in concise terms the applicant's health and his fitness to marry4 ,notice of application for a marriage license shall be published in a daily paper three consecutive times1 at the expense of the county4 ,if at the expiration of one day from the publication of the last notice1 no charges have been filed with the recorder alleging the applicants' unfitness to marry1 license shall be granted4 ,if objection be made by three persons not related in blood to each other1 on the ground of any item mentioned in the physician's certificate1 the case shall be taken before the circuit court2 if the court sustains the objection of these three unrelated persons1 a license to wed shall be denied2 if the court overrules the objection1 the license shall be granted and court costs charged to the objectors4 ,although interesting as showing the drift of public sentiment toward a revival of the banns1 this proposed law is poorly drawn4 ,three unrelated laymen and the judge of a circuit court are not the proper persons to decide on the biological fitness of a proposed marriage4 ,we believe the interests of eugenics would be sufficiently met at this time by a law which provided that adequate notice of application for marriage license should be published1 and no license granted 7except under exceptional circumstances7 until the expiration of two weeks from the publication of the notice4 ,this would give families and friends time to act2 but it is probably not practicable to forbid the issuance of a license at the expiration of the designated time1 unless evidence is brought forward showing that one of the applicants is not legally capable of contracting marriage because of a previous mate still living and undivorced1 or because of insanity1 feeble-mindedness1 under age1 etc4 ,such a law1 we believe1 could be put on the statute books of any state1 and enforced1 without arousing prejudices or running counter to public sentiment2 and its eugenic value1 if small1 would certainly be real4 ,this exhausts the list of suggested coercive means of restricting the reproduction of the inferior4 ,what we propose is1 we believe1 a very modest program1 and one which can be carried out1 as soon as public opinion is educated on the subject1 without any great sociological1 legal or financial hindrances4 ,we suggest nothing more than that individuals whose offspring would almost certainly be subversive of the general welfare1 be prevented from having any offspring4 ,in most cases1 such individuals are1 or should be1 given life-long institutional care for their own benefit1 and it is an easy matter1 by segregation of the sexes1 to prevent reproduction4 ,in a few cases1 it will probably be found desirable to sterilize the individual by a surgical operation4 ,such coercive restriction does1 in some cases1 sacrifice what may be considered personal rights4 ,in such instances1 personal rights must give way before the immensely greater interests of the race4 ,but there is a much larger class of cases1 where coercion can not be approved1 and yet where an enlightened conscience1 or the subtle force of public opinion1 may well bring about some measure of restraint on reproduction4 ,this class includes many individuals who are not in any direct way detrimental to society2 and who yet have some inherited taint or defect that should be checked1 and of which they1 if enlightened1 would probably be the first to desire the elimination4 ,the number of high-minded persons who deliberately refrain from marriage1 or parenthood1 in the interests of posterity1 is greater than any one imagines1 except a eugenist brought into intimate relations with people who take an intelligent interest in the subject4 ,x4 comes1 let us say1 from a family in which there is a persistent taint of epilepsy1 or insanity4 ,x4 is a normal1 useful1 conscientious member of society4 ,to talk of segregating such an individual would be rash4 ,but ,x4 has given some thought to heredity and eugenics1 and decides that he1 or she1 will refrain from marriage1 in order to avoid transmitting the family taint to another generation4 ,here we have1 in effect1 a non-coercive restriction of reproduction4 ,what shall we say of the action of ,x4 in remaining celibate1--is it wise or unwise8 ,to be encouraged or condemned8 ,it is perhaps the most delicate problem which applied eugenics offers4 ,it is a peculiarly personal one1 and the outsider who advises in such a case is assuming a heavy responsibility1 not only in regard to the future welfare of the race1 but to the individual happiness of ,x4 ,we can not accept the sweeping generalization sometimes made that ,strength should marry weakness and weakness marry strength4 ,no more can we hold fast to the ideal1 which we believe to be utopian1 that ,strength should only marry strength4 ,there are cases where such glittering generalities are futile2 where the race and the individual would both be gainers by a marriage which produced children that had the family taint1 but either latent or not to a degree serious enough to counteract their value4 ,the individual must decide for himself with especial reference to the trait in question and his other compensating qualities2 but he should at least have the benefit of whatever light genetics can offer him1 before he makes his decision4 ,for the sake of a concrete example1 let us suppose that a man1 in whose ancestry tuberculosis has appeared for several generations1 is contemplating marriage4 ,the first thing to be remembered is that if he marries a woman with a similar family history1 their children will have a double inheritance of the taint1 and are almost certain to be affected unless living in an especially favorable region4 ,it would in most cases be best that no children result from such a marriage4 ,on the other hand1 the man may marry a woman in whose family consumption is unknown4 ,the chance of their children being tuberculous will not be great2 nevertheless the taint1 the diathesis1 will be passed on just the same1 although concealed1 possibly to appear at some future time4 ,such a marriage is in some ways more dangerous to the race1 in the long run1 than that of weakness with weakness4 ,yet society at present certainly has no safe grounds for interference1 if such a marriage is made4 ,if the two persons come of superior stock1 it seems probable that the gain will outweigh the loss4 ,in any event1 it is at least to be expected that both man and woman would have a deliberate consciousness of what they are doing1 and that no person with any honor would enter into a marriage1 concealing a defect in his or her ancestry4 ,love is usually blind enough to overlook such a thing1 but if it chooses not to1 it ought not to be blindfolded4 ,in short1 the mating of strength with strength is certainly the ideal which society should have and which every individual should have4 ,but human heredity is so mixed that this ideal is not always practicable2 and if any two persons wish to abandon it1 society is hardly justified in interfering1 unless the case be so gross as those which we were discussing in the first part of this chapter4 ,progress in this direction is to be expected mainly from the enlightened action of the individual4 ,much more progress in the study of heredity must be made before advice on marriage matings can be given in any except fairly obvious cases4 ,the most that can now be done is to urge that a full knowledge of the family history of an intended life partner be sought1 to encourage the discreet inquiries and subtle guidance of parents1 and to appeal to the eugenic conscience of a young man or woman4 ,in case of doubt the advice of a competent biologist should be taken4 ,there is a real danger that high-minded people may allow some minor physical defect to outweigh a greater mental excellence4 ,there remains one other non-coercive method of influencing the distribution of marriage1 which deserves consideration in this connection4 ,we have said that society can not well put many restrictions on marriage at the present time4 ,we urge by every means at our command that marriage be looked upon more seriously1 that it be undertaken with more deliberation and consideration4 ,we consider it a crime for people to marry1 without knowing each other's family histories4 ,but in spite of all this1 ill-assorted1 dysgenic marriages will still be made4 ,when such a marriage is later demonstrated to have been a mistake1 not only from an individual1 but also from a eugenic point of view1 society should be ready to dissolve the union4 ,divorce is far preferable to mere separation1 since the unoffending party should not be denied the privilege of remarriage1 as the race in most cases needs his or her contribution to the next generation4 ,in extreme cases1 it would be proper for society to take adequate steps to insure that the dysgenic party could neither remarry nor have offspring outside marriage4 ,the time-honored justifiable grounds for divorce1--adultery1 sterility1 impotence1 venereal infection1 desertion1 non-support1 habitual cruelty1--appear to us to be no more worthy of legal recognition than the more purely dysgenic grounds of chronic inebriety1 feeble-mindedness1 epilepsy1 insanity or any other serious inheritable physical1 mental or moral defect4 ,this view of the eugenic value of divorce should not be construed as a plea for the admission of mutual consent as a ground for divorce4 ,it is desirable1 however1 to realize that mismating is the real evil4 ,divorce in such cases is merely a cure for an improper condition4 ,social condemnation should stigmatize the wrong of mismating1 not the undoing of such a wrong4 ,restrictions on age at marriage are almost universal4 ,the object is to prevent too early marriages4 ,the objections which are commonly urged against early marriage 7in so far as they bear upon eugenics7 are the following3 #a4 ,that it results in inferior offspring4 ,this objection is not well supported except possibly in the most extreme cases4 ,physically1 there is evidence that the younger parents on the whole bear the sounder children4 #b4 ,that a postponement of marriage provides the opportunity for better sexual selection4 ,this is a valid ground for discouraging the marriage of minors4 #c4 ,the better educated classes are obliged to marry late1 because a man usually can not marry until he has finished his education and established himself in business4 ,a fair amount of restriction as to age at marriage will therefore not affect these classes1 but may affect the uneducated classes4 ,in so far as lack of education is correlated with eugenic inferiority1 some restriction of this sort is desirable1 because it will keep inferiors from reproducing too rapidly1 as compared with the superior elements of the population4 ,while the widespread rule that men should not marry under #ba and women under #ah has some justification1 then1 an ideal law would permit exceptions where there was adequate income and good mating4 ,laws to prohibit or restrict consanguineous marriages fall within the scope of this chapter1 in so far as they are not based on dogma alone1 since their aim is popularly supposed to be to prevent marriages that will result in undesirable offspring4 ,examining the laws of all the ,united ,states1 ,c4 ,b4 ,davenport#ia found the following classes excluded from marriage3 #a4 ,sibs 7i4e41 full brothers and sisters7 in all states1 and half sibs in most states4 #b4 ,parent and child in all states1 and parent and grandchild in all states except ,pennsylvania4 #c4 ,child and parent's sibs 7i4e41 niece and uncle1 nephew and aunt74 ,prohibited in all but four states4 #d4 ,first cousins4 ,marriages of this type are prohibited in over a third of the states1 and tacitly or specifically permitted in the others4 #e4 ,other blood relatives are occasionally prohibited from marrying4 ,thus1 second cousins in ,oklahoma and a child and his or her parent's half sibs in ,alabama1 ,minnesota1 ,new ,jersey1 ,texas1 and other states4 ,in the closest of blood-relationships the well-nigh universal restrictions should be retained4 ,but when marriage between cousins--the commonest form of consanguineous marriage--is examined1 it is found to result frequently well1 sometimes ill4 ,there is a widespread belief that such marriages are dangerous1 and in support of this idea1 one is referred to the histories of various isolated communities where consanguineous marriage is alleged to have led to an appalling amount of defect and degeneracy4 ,without questioning the facts1 one may question the interpretation of the facts1 and it seems to us that a wrong interpretation of these stories is partly responsible for the widespread condemnation of cousin marriage at the present time4 ,the ,bahama ,islands furnish one of the stock examples4 ,clement ,a4 ,penrose writes#ib of them3 ,in some of the white colonies where black blood has been excluded1 and where1 owing to their isolated positions1 frequent intermarriage has taken place1 as for instance at ,spanish ,wells1 and ,hopetown1 much degeneracy is present1 manifested by many abnormalities of mind and body4444 ,i am strongly of the opinion that the deplorable state of degeneracy which we observed at ,hopetown has been in a great measure1 if not entirely1 brought about by too close intermarrying of the inhabitants4 ,to demonstrate his point1 he took the pains to compile a family tree of the most degenerate strains at ,hopetown4 ,there are fifty-five marriages represented1 and the chart is overlaid with twenty-three red lines1 each of which is said to represent an intermarriage4 ,this looks like a good deal of consanguineous mating2 but to test the matter a little farther the fraternity at the bottom of the chart1--eight children1 of whom five were idiots1--was traced4 ,in the second generation it ran to another island1 and when the data gave out1 at the fourth generation1 there was not a single case of consanguineous marriage involved4 ,another fraternity was then picked out consisting of two men1 both idiots and congenitally blind1 and a woman who had married and given birth to ten normal children4 ,in the fourth generation this pedigree1 which was far from complete1 went out of the islands2 so far as the data showed there was not a single case of consanguineous marriage4 ,there was one case where a name was repeated1 but the author had failed to mark this as a case of intermarriage1 if it really was such4 ,it is difficult to share the conviction of ,dr4 ,penrose1 that the two pedigrees investigated1 offer an example of the nefarious workings of intermarriage4 ,finally a fraternity was traced to which the author had called particular attention because three of its eleven members were born blind4 ,the defect was described as optic atrophy associated with a pigmentary retinitis and choryditis and this condition1 ,dr4 ,penrose averred1 is one stated by the authorities to be due to the effects of consanguineous marriage4 ,fortunately1 the pedigree was fairly full and several lines of it could be carried through the sixth generation4 ,there was1 indeed1 a considerable amount of consanguineous marriage involved4 ,when the amount of inbreeding represented by these blind boys was measured1 it proved to be almost identical with the amount represented by the present ,kaiser of ,germany4#ic ,we are unable to see in such a history as that of ,hopetown1 ,bahama ,islands1 any evidence that consanguineous marriage necessarily results in degeneracy4 ,dr4 ,penrose himself points to a potent factor when he says of his chart in another connection3 ,it will be noticed that only a few of the descendants of ,widow ,malone the first settler at ,hopetown are indicated as having married4 ,by this it is not meant that the others did not marry2 many of them did1 but they moved away and settled elsewhere1 and in no way affected the future history of the settlement of ,hopetown4 ,by moving away1 it appears to us1 they did very decidedly affect the future history of ,hopetown4 ,who are the emigrants8 ,might they not have been the more enterprising and intelligent1 the physically and mentally superior of the population1 who rebelled at the limited opportunities of their little village1 and went to seek a fortune in some broader field8 ,did not the best go in general2 the misfits1 the defectives1 stay behind to propagate8 ,emigration in such a case would have the same effect as war2 it would drain off the best stock and leave the weaklings to stay home and propagate their kind4 ,under such conditions1 defectives would be bound to multiply1 regardless of whether or not the marriages are consanguineous4 ,it will be seen at a glance1 ,dr4 ,penrose writes1 that early in the history of the ,malone family these indications of degeneracy were absent2 but they began in the fourth generation and rapidly increased afterward until they culminated by the presence of five idiots in one family4 ,the original stock was apparently excellent1 but the present state of the descendants is deplorable4 ,now three generations of emigration from a little community1 which even to-day has only #a1jjj inhabitants1 would naturally make quite a difference in the average eugenic quality of the population4 ,in almost any population1 a few defectives are constantly being produced4 ,take out the better individuals1 and leave these defectives to multiply1 and the amount of degeneracy in the population will increase1 regardless of whether the defectives are marrying their cousins1 or unrelated persons4 ,the family of five idiots1 cited by ,dr4 ,penrose1 is an excellent illustration1 for it is not the result of consanguineous marriage--at least1 not in a close enough degree to have appeared on the chart4 ,it is doubtless a mating of like with like2 and biologically1 consanguineous marriage is nothing more4 ,honesty demands1 therefore1 that consanguineous marriage be not credited with results for which the consanguineous element is in no wise responsible4 ,the prevailing habit of picking out a community or a strain where consanguineous marriage and defects are associated and loudly declaring the one to be the cause of the other1 is evidence of the lack of scientific thought that is all too common4 ,most of the studies of these isolated communities where intermarriage has taken place1 illustrate the same point4 ,c4 ,b4 ,davenport1 for example1 quotes#id an anonymous correspondent from the island of ,bermuda1 which shows the usual consequence of island life4 ,he writes3 ,in some of the parishes 7,somerset and ,paget chiefly7 there has been much intermarriage1 not only with cousins but with double first cousins in several cases4 ,intermarriage has chiefly caused weakness of character leading to drink1 not lack of brains or a certain amount of physical strength1 but a very inert and lazy disposition4 ,it is difficult to believe that anyone who has lived in the tropics could have written this except as a practical joke4 ,those who have resided in the warmer parts of the world know1 by observation if not by experience1 that a weakness of character leading to drink and an inert and lazy disposition are by no means the prerogatives of the inbred4 ,if one is going to credit consanguineous marriage with these evil results1 what can one say when evil results fail to follow8 ,what about ,smith's ,island1 off the coast of ,maryland1 where all the inhabitants are said to be interrelated1 and where a physician who lived in the community for three years failed to find among the #gjj persons a single case of idiocy1 insanity1 epilepsy or congenital deafness8 ,what about the community of ,batz1 on the coast of ,france1 where ,voisin found five marriages of first cousins and thirty-one of second cousins1 without a single case of mental defect1 congenital deafness1 albinism1 retinitis pigmentosa or malformation8 ,the population was #c1jjj1 all of whom were said to be interrelated4 ,what about ,cape ,cod1 whose natives are known throughout ,new ,england for their ability8 ,at a recent visit to the ,congregational ,sunday-,school1 says a student1 ,i noticed all officers1 many teachers1 organist1 ex-superintendent1 and pastor's wife all ,dyers4 ,a lady at ,truro united in herself four quarters ,dyer1 father1 mother and both grandmothers ,dyers4 ,and finally1 what about the experience of livestock breeders8 ,not only has strict brother and sister mating--the closest inbreeding possible--been carried on experimentally for twenty or twenty-five generations without bad results2 but the history of practically every fine breed shows that inbreeding is largely responsible for its excellence4 ,the ,ptolemies1 who ruled ,egypt for several centuries1 wanted to keep the throne in the family1 and hence practiced a system of intermating which has long been the classical evidence that consanguineous marriage is not necessarily followed by immediate evil effects4 ,the following fragment of the genealogy of ,cleopatra ,,vii 7mistress of ,julius ,csar and ,marc ,antony7 is condensed from ,weigall's ,life and ,times of ,cleopatra 7#aiad7 and ,ptolemy ,i ,ptolemy ,,ii ,ptolemy ,,iii m4 ,berenice ,,ii1 his half-cousin4 ,ptolemy ,,iv m4 ,arsino ,,iii1 his full sister4 ,ptolemy ,v4 ,ptolemy ,,vii m4 ,cleopatra ,,ii1 his full sister4 ,cleopatra ,,iii m4 ,ptolemy ,,ix 7brother of ,,vii71 her uncle4 ,ptolemy ,x4 m4 ,cleopatra ,,iv1 his full sister4 ----- ,berenice ,,ii m4 ,ptolemy ,,xi 7brother of ,x71 her uncle4 ,ptolemy ,,xii1 d4 without issue1 succeeded by his uncle4 ---,ptolemy ,,xiii4 ,cleopatra ,,vii4 shows an amount of continued inbreeding that has never been surpassed in recorded history1 and yet did not produce any striking evil results4 ,the ruler's consort is named1 only when the two were related4 ,the consanguineous marriages shown in this line of descent are by no means the only ones of the kind that took place in the family1 many like them being found in collateral lines4 ,it is certain that consanguineous marriage1 being the mating of like with like1 intensifies the inheritance of the offspring1 which gets a double dose of any trait which both parents have in common4 ,if the traits are good1 it will be an advantage to the offspring to have a double dose of them2 if the traits are bad1 it will be a disadvantage4 ,the marriage of superior kin should produce children better than the parents2 the marriage of inferior kin should produce children even worse than their parents4 ,in passing judgment on a proposed marriage1 therefore1 the vital question is not1 ,are they related by blood8 but ,are they carriers of desirable traits8 ,the nature of the traits can be told only by a study of the ancestry4 ,of course1 characters may be latent or recessive1 but this is also the case in the population at large1 and the chance of unpleasant results is so small1 when no instance can be found in the ancestry1 that it can be disregarded4 ,if the same congenital defect or undesirable trait does not appear in the three previous generations of two cousins1 including collaterals1 the individuals need not be discouraged from marrying if they want to4 ,laws which forbid cousins to marry are1 then1 on an unsound biological basis4 ,as ,dr4 ,davenport remarks1 ,the marriage of ,charles ,darwin and ,emma ,wedgewood would have been illegal and void1 and their children pronounced illegitimate in ,illinois1 ,indiana1 ,iowa1 ,kansas1 ,missouri1 ,nebraska1 ,new ,hampshire1 ,oklahoma1 ,oregon1 ,pennsylvania1 ,south ,dakota1 ,utah1 ,washington1 ,wyoming1 and other states4 ,the vitality and great capacity of their seven children are well known4 ,a law which would have prevented such a marriage is certainly not eugenic4 ,we conclude1 then1 that laws forbidding cousin marriages are not desirable4 ,since it would be well to make an effort to increase the opportunities for further play of sexual selection1 the lack of which is sometimes responsible for cousin marriages1 consanguineous marriage is by no means to be indiscriminately indorsed4 ,still1 if there are cases where it is eugenically injurious1 there are also cases where its results are eugenically highly beneficial1 as in families with no serious defects and with outstanding ability4 ,the laws prohibiting marriage between persons having no blood relationship but connected by marriage should all be repealed4 ,the best-known ,english instance1 which was eugenically very objectionable1--the prohibition of marriage between a man and his deceased wife's sister1--has fortunately been extirpated1 but laws still exist1 in some communities1 prohibiting marriage between a man and his stepchild or stepparent1 between a woman and her deceased husband's brother1 and between the second husband or wife of a deceased aunt or uncle and the wife or husband of a deceased nephew or niece1 etc4 ,the only other problem of restrictive eugenics which it seems necessary to consider is that offered by miscegenation4 ,this will be considered in ,chapters ,,xiv and ,,xv4 ,to sum up3 we believe that there are urgent reasons for and no objections to preventing the reproduction of a number of persons in the ,united ,states1 many of whom have already been recognized by society as being so anti-social or inferior as to need institutional care4 ,such restriction can best be enforced by effective segregation of the sexes1 although there are cases where individuals might well be released and allowed full freedom1 either on parole1 so to speak1 or after having undergone a surgical operation which would prevent their reproduction4 ,laws providing for sterilization1 such as a dozen states now possess1 are not framed with a knowledge of the needs of the case2 but a properly drafted sterilization law to provide for cases not better treated by segregation is desirable4 ,segregation should be considered the main method4 ,it is practicable to place only minor restrictions on marriage1 with a eugenic goal in view4 ,a good banns law1 however1 could meet no objections and would yield valuable results4 ,limited age restrictions are proper4 ,marriages of individuals whose families are marked by minor taints can not justify social interference2 but an enlightened conscience and a eugenic point of view should lead every individual to make as good a choice as possible4 ,if a eugenically bad mating has been made1 society should minimize as far as possible the injurious results1 by means of provision for properly restricted divorce4 ,consanguineous marriages in a degree no closer than that of first cousins1 are neither to be condemned nor praised indiscriminately4 ,their desirability depends on the ancestry of the two persons involved2 each case should therefore be treated on its own merits4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,improvement ,,of ,,sexual ,,selection ,love is blind and ,marriage is a lottery1 in the opinion of proverbial lore4 ,but as usual the proverbs do not tell the whole truth4 ,mating is not wholly a matter of chance2 there is and always has been a considerable amount of selection involved4 ,this selection must of course be with respect to individual traits1 a man or woman being for this purpose merely the sum of his or her traits4 ,reflection will show that with respect to any given trait there are three ways of mating3 random1 assortative and preferential4 #a4 ,random mating is described by ,j4 ,arthur ,harris#ie as follows3 ,suppose a most highly refined socialistic community should set about to equalize as nearly as possible not only men's labor and their recompense1 but the quality of their wives4 ,it would never do to allow individuals to select their own partners--superior cunning might result in some having mates above the average desirability1 which would be socially unfair6 ,the method adopted would be to write the names of an equal number of men and women officially condemned to matrimony on cards1 and to place those for men in one lottery wheel and those for women in another4 ,the drawing of a pair of cards1 one from each wheel1 would then replace the 'present wasteful system' of 'competitive' courtship4 ,if the cards were thoroughly shuffled and the drawings perfectly at random1 we should expect only chance resemblances between husband and wife for age1 stature1 eye and hair color1 temper and so on2 in the long run1 a wife would resemble her husband no more than the husband of some other woman4 ,in this case1 the mathematician can give us a coefficient of resemblance1 or of assortative mating1 which we write as zero4 ,the other extreme would be the state of affairs in which men of a certain type 7that is to say men differing from the general average by a definite amount7 always chose wives of the same type2 the resemblance would then be perfect and the correlation1 as we call it1 would be expressed by a coefficient of #a4 ,if all mating were at random1 evolution would be a very slow process4 ,but actual measurement of various traits in conjugal pairs shows that mating is very rarely random4 ,there is a conscious or unconscious selection for certain traits1 and this selection involves other traits because of the general correlation of traits in an individual4 ,random mating1 therefore1 need not be taken into account by eugenists1 who must rather give their attention to one of the two forms of non-random mating1 namely1 assortative and preferential4 #b4 ,if men who were above the average height always selected as brides women who were equally above the average height and short men selected similarly1 the coefficient of correlation between height in husbands and wives would be #a1 and there would thus be perfect assortative mating4 ,if only one half of the men who differed from the average height always married women who similarly differed and the other half married at random1 there would be assortative mating for height1 but it would not be perfect3 the coefficient would only be half as great as in the first case1 or 4#e4 ,if on the other hand 7as is indeed the popular idea7 a tall man tended to marry a woman who was shorter than the average1 the coefficient of correlation would be less than #j2 it would have some negative value4 ,actual measurement shows that a man who exceeds the average height by a given amount will most frequently marry a woman who exceeds the average by a little more than one-fourth as much as her husband does4 ,there is thus assortative mating for height1 but it is far from perfect4 ,the actual coefficient given by ,karl ,pearson is 4#bh4 ,in this case1 then1 the idea that unlikes attract is found to be the reverse of the truth4 ,if other traits are measured1 assortative mating will again be found4 ,whether it be eye color1 hair color1 general health1 intelligence1 longevity1 insanity1 or congenital deafness1 exact measurements show that a man and his wife1 though not related by blood1 actually resemble each other as much as do uncle and niece1 or first cousins4 ,in some cases assortative mating is conscious1 as when two congenitally deaf persons are drawn together by their common affliction and mutual possession of the sign language4 ,but in the greater number of cases it is wholly unconscious4 ,certainly no one would suppose that a man selects his wife deliberately because her eye color matches his own2 much less would he select her on the basis of resemblance in longevity1 which can not be known until after both are dead4 ,sigmund ,freud and ,ernest ,jones explain such selection by the supposition that a man's ideal of everything that is lovely in womankind is based on his mother4 ,during his childhood1 her attributes stamp themselves on his mind as being the perfect attributes of the female sex2 and when he later falls in love it is natural that the woman who most attracts him should be one who resembles his mother4 ,but as he1 because of heredity1 resembles his mother1 there is thus a resemblance between husband and wife4 ,cases where there is no resemblance would1 on this hypothesis1 either be not love matches1 or else be cases where the choice was made by the woman1 not the man4 ,proof of this hypothesis has not yet been furnished1 but it may very well account for some part of the assortative mating which is so nearly universal4 ,the eugenic significance of assortative mating is obvious4 ,marriage of representatives of two long-lived strains ensures that the offspring will inherit more longevity than does the ordinary man4 ,marriage of two persons from gifted families will endow the children with more than the ordinary intellect4 ,on the other hand1 marriage of two members of feeble-minded strains 7a very common form of assortative mating7 results in the production of a new lot of feeble-minded children1 while marriage contracted between families marked by criminality or alcoholism means the perpetuation of such traits in an intensified form4 ,for alcoholism1 ,charles ,goring found the resemblance between husband and wife in the following classes to be as follows3 ,very poor and destitute 4#dd ,prosperous poor 4#eh ,well-to-do 4#fi ,the resemblance of husband and wife1 in respect of possession of a police record1 he found to be 4#bj4 ,of course alcoholism and criminality are not wholly due to heredity2 the resemblance between man and wife is partly a matter of social influences4 ,but in any case the existence of assortative mating for such traits is significant4 #c4 ,preferential mating occurs when certain classes of women are discriminated against by the average man1 or by men as a class2 or vice versa4 ,it is the form of sexual selection made prominent by ,charles ,darwin1 who brought it forward because natural selection1 operating solely through a differential death-rate1 seemed inadequate to account for many phases of evolution4 ,by sexual selection he meant that an individual of one sex1 in choosing a mate1 is led to select out of several competitors the one who has some particular attribute in a high degree4 ,the selection may be conscious1 and due to the exercise of sthetic taste1 or it may be unconscious1 due to the greater degree of excitation produced by the higher degree of some attribute4 ,however the selection takes place1 the individual so selected will have an opportunity to transmit his character1 in the higher degree in which he possesses it1 to his descendants4 ,in this way it was supposed by ,darwin that a large proportion of the ornamental characters of living creatures were produced3 the tail of the peacock1 the mane of the lion1 and even the gorgeous coloring of many insects and butterflies4 ,in the early years of ,darwinism1 the theory of sexual selection was pushed to what now seems an unjustifiable extent4 ,experiment has often failed to demonstrate any sexual selection1 in species where speculation supposed it to exist4 ,and even if sexual selection1 conscious or unconscious1 could be demonstrated in the lower animals1 yet the small percentage of unmated individuals indicates that its importance in evolution could not be very great4#if ,illustration3 ,,how ,,beauty ,,aids ,a ,,girl',s ,,chance ,,of ,,marriage ,,fig4 #cb4--;,graph showing the marriage rate of graduates of a normal school1 correlated with their facial attractiveness as graded by estimates4 ,the column of figures at the left-hand side shows the percentage of girls who married4 ,of the prettiest girls 7those graded #hj or over71 #gj married4 ,as the less attractive girls are added to the chart1 the marriage rate declines4 ,of the girls who graded around #ej on looks1 only about one-half married4 ,in general1 the prettier the girl1 the greater the probability that she will not remain single4 ,in man1 however1 there is--nowadays at least--a considerable percentage of unmated individuals4 ,the ,census of #aiaj shows that in the ,united ,states one-fourth of all the men between #be and #dd years of age1 and one-sixth of all the women1 were unmarried4 ,many of the men1 and a smaller number of the women1 will still marry2 yet at the end there will remain a large number1 particularly in the more highly educated classes1 who die celibate4 ,if these unmated individuals differ in any important respect from the married part of the population1 preferential mating will be evident4 ,illustration3 ,,intelligent ,,girls ,,are ,,most ,,likely ,,to ,,marry ,,fig4 #cc4--;,graph showing the marriage-rate 7on the same scale as in ,fig4 #cb7 of the graduates of a normal school1 as correlated with their class standing4 ,the girls who received the highest marks in their studies married in the largest numbers4 ,it is evident that1 on the whole1 girls who make a poor showing in their studies in such schools as this are more likely to be life-long celibates than are the bright students4 ,at the extremes1 there is no difficulty in seeing such mating4 ,certain men and women are so defective1 physically1 mentally1 or morally1 as to be unable to find mates4 ,they may be idiots1 or diseased1 or lacking normal sexuality1 or wrongly educated4 ,but to get any adequate statistical proof of preferential mating on a broad scale1 has been found difficult4 ,two small but suggestive studies made by ,miss ,carrie ,f4 ,gilmore of the ,university of ,pittsburgh are interesting1 though far from conclusive4 ,she examined the records of the class of #aijb1 ,southwestern ,state ,normal ,school of ,pennsylvania1 to find which of the girls had married4 ,by means of photographs1 and the opinions of disinterested judges1 the facial appearance of all the girls in the class was graded on a scale of #ajj1 and the curve in ,fig4 #cb plotted1 which shows at a glance just what matrimonial advantage a woman's beauty gives her4 ,in general1 it may be said that the prettier the girl1 the better her chance of marriage4 ,illustration3 ,,years ,,between ,,graduation ,,and ,,marriage ,,fig4 #cd4--;,curve showing period that elapsed between the graduation of women at ,washington ,seminary 7at the average age of #ai years7 and their marriage4 ,it includes all the graduates of the classes of #ahda to #aijj1 status of #aiac4 ,miss ,gilmore further worked out the marriage rate of these normal school girls1 on the basis of the marks they obtained in their class work1 and found the results plotted in ,fig4 #cc4 ,it is evident that the most intelligent girls1 measured by their class standing1 were preferred as wives4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,effect ,,of ,,late ,,marriages ,,fig4 #ce4--;,given a population divided in two equal parts1 one of which produces a new generation every #be years and the other every #cc-a_/c years1 the diagram shows that the former group will outnumber the latter two to one1 at the end of a century4 ,the result illustrated is actually taking place1 in various groups of the population of the ,united ,states4 ,largely for economic reasons1 many superior people are postponing the time of marriage4 ,the diagram shows graphically how they are losing ground1 in comparison with other sections of the population which marry only a few years earlier1 on the average4 ,it is assumed in the diagram that the two groups contain equal numbers of the two sexes2 that all persons in each group marry2 and that each couple produces four children4 ,it will be noted that these studies merely show that the brighter and prettier girls were preferred by men as a class4 ,if the individual men whom the girls married had been studied1 it would probably have been found that the mating was also partly assortative4 ,if the choice of a life partner is to be eugenic1 random mating must be as nearly as possible eliminated1 and assortative and preferential mating for desirable traits must take place4 ,the concern of the eugenist is1 then1 7#a7 to see that young people have the best ideals1 and 7#b7 to see that their matings are actually guided by these ideals1 instead of by caprice and passion alone4 #a4 ,in discussing ideals1 we shall ask 7a7 what are the present ideals governing sexual selection in the ,united ,states2 7b7 is it psychologically possible to change them2 7c7 is it desirable that they be changed1 and if so1 in what ways8 7a7 ,there are several studies which throw light on the current ideals4 ,physical ,culture magazine lately invited its women readers to send in the specifications of an ideal husband1 and the results are worth considering because the readers of that publication are probably less swayed by purely conventional ideas than are most accessible groups of women whom one might question4 ,the ideal husband was held by these women to be made up of the following qualities in the proportions given3 ,per cent4 ,health #bj ,financial success #ai ,paternity #ah ,appearance #aa ,disposition #h ,education #h ,character #f ,housekeeping #g ,dress #c --- #ajj ,without laying weight on the exact figures1 and recognizing that each woman may have defined the qualities differently1 yet one must admit aside from a low concern for mental ability that this is a fairly good eugenic specification4 ,appearance1 it is stated1 meant not so much facial beauty as intelligent expression and manly form4 ,financial success is correlated with intelligence and efficiency1 and probably is not rated too high4 ,the importance attached to paternity--which1 it is explained1 means a clean sex life as well as interest in children--is worth noticing4 ,for comparison there is another census of the preferences of #aae young women at ,brigham ,young ,college1 ,logan1 ,utah4 ,this is a ,mormon institution and the students1 mostly farmers' daughters1 are probably expressing ideals which have been very little affected by the demoralizing influences of modern city life4 ,the editor of the college paper relates that3 ,eighty-six per cent of the girls specifically stated that the young man must be morally pure2 #ad did not specifically state4 ,ninety-nine per cent specifically stated that he must be mentally and physically strong4 ,ninety-three per cent stated that he must absolutely not smoke1 chew1 or drink2 #g did not state4 ,twenty per cent named an occupation they would like the young man to follow1 and these fell into three different classes1 that of farmer1 doctor and business4 ,four and seven-tenths per cent of the #bj named farmer2 #b4g named doctor1 and #a4g named business man2 #hj did not state any profession4 ,thirty-three and one-third per cent specifically stated that he must be ambitious2 #ff-b_/c did not state4 ,eight per cent stated specifically that he must have high ideals4 ,fifty-two per cent demanded that he be of the same religious conviction2 #dh said nothing about religion4 ,seventy-two per cent said nothing regarding money matters2 #bh stated what his financial condition must be1 but none named a specific amount4 ,one-half of the #bh stated that he must be rich1 and three-fourths of these were under twenty years of age2 the other half of the #bh said that he must have a moderate income and two-thirds of these were under twenty years of age4 ,forty-five per cent stated that the young man must be taller than they2 #ee did not state4 ,twenty per cent stated that the young man must be older1 and from two to eight years older2 #hj did not state4 ,fifty per cent stated that he must have a good education2 one-fourth of the #ej stated that he must have a college education2 #ie of these were under twenty-one years of age2 #ej did not state his intellectual attainments4 ,ninety-one per cent of all the ideals handed in were written by persons under twenty years of age2 the other #h-a_/b were over twenty years of age4 ,physical ,culture1 on another occasion1 invited its male readers to express their requirements of an ideal wife4 ,the proportions of the various elements desired are given as follows3 ,per cent ,health #bc ,looks #ad ,housekeeping #ab ,disposition #aa ,maternity #aa ,education #aj ,management #g ,dress #g ,character #e --- #ajj ,one might feel some surprise at the low valuation placed on character1 but it is really covered by other points4 ,on the whole1 one can not be dissatisfied with these specifications aside from its slight concern about mental ability4 ,such wholesome ideals are probably rather widespread in the less sophisticated part of the population4 ,in other strata1 social and financial criteria of selection hold much importance4 ,as a family ascends in economic position1 its standards of sexual selection are likely to change4 ,and in large sections of the population1 there is a fluctuation in the standards from generation to generation4 ,there is reason to suspect that the standards of sexual selection among educated young women in the ,united ,states to-day are higher than they were a quarter of a century1 or even a decade1 ago4 ,they are demanding a higher degree of physical fitness and morality in their suitors4 ,men1 in turn1 are beginning to demand that the girls they marry shall be fitted for the duties of home-maker1 wife and mother1--qualifications which were essential in the colonial period but little insisted on in the immediate past4 7b7 ,it is evident1 then1 that the standards of sexual selection do change2 there is therefore reason to suppose that they can change still further4 ,this is an important point1 for it is often alleged as an objection to eugenics that human affections are capricious and can not be influenced by rational considerations4 ,such an objection will be seen1 on reflection1 to be ill-founded4 ,as to the extent of change possible1 the psychologist must have the final word4 ,the ingenious ,mr4 ,diffloth1#ig who reduced love to a series of algebraical formul and geometrical curves1 and proposed that every young man should find a girl whose curve was congruent to his own1 and at once lead her to the altar1 is not likely to gain many adherents4 ,but the psychologist declares without hesitation that it is possible to influence the course of love in its earlier1 though rarely in its later1 stages4 ,francis ,galton pointed this out with his usual clearness1 showing that in the past the incidence of love1 to borrow a technical term1 had been frequently and sometimes narrowly limited by custom--by those unwritten laws which are sometimes as effective as the written ones4 ,monogamy1 endogamy1 exogamy1 ,australian marriages1 tabu1 prohibited degrees and sacerdotal celibacy all furnished him with historical arguments to show that society could bring about almost any restriction it chose2 and a glance around at the present day will show that the barriers set up by religion1 race and social position are frequently of almost prohibitive effect4 ,there is1 therefore1 from a psychological point of view1 no reason why the ideals of eugenics should not become a part of the mores or unwritten laws of the race1 and why the selection of life partners should not be unconsciously influenced to a very large extent by them4 ,as a necessary preliminary to such a condition1 intelligent people must cultivate the attitude of conscious selection1 and get away from the crude1 fatalistic viewpoint which is to-day so widespread1 and which is exploited ad nauseam on the stage and in fiction4 ,it must be remembered that there are two well-marked stages preceding a betrothal3 the first is that of mere attraction1 when reason is still operative1 and the second is that of actual love1 when reason is relegated to the background4 ,during the later stage1 it is notorious that good counsel is of little avail1 but during the preliminary period direction of the affections is still possible1 not only by active interference of friends or relatives1 but much more easily and usefully by the tremendous influence of the mores4 ,eugenic mores will exist only when many intelligent people become so convinced of the ethical value of eugenics that that conviction sinks into their subconscious minds4 ,the general eugenics campaign can be expected to bring that result about in due time4 ,care must be taken to prevent highly conscientious people from being too critical1 and letting a trivial defect outweigh a large number of good qualities4 ,moreover1 changes in the standards of sexual selection should not be too rapid1 as that results in the permanent celibacy of some excellent but hyper-critical individuals4 ,the ideal is an advance of standards as rapidly as will yet keep all the superior persons married4 ,this is accomplished if all superior individuals marry as well as possible1 yet with advancing years gradually reduce the standard so that celibacy may not result4 ,having decided that there is room for improvement in the standards of sexual selection1 and that such improvement is psychologically feasible1 we come to point 7c73 in what particular ways is this improvement needed8 ,any discussion of this large subject must necessarily be only suggestive1 not exhaustive4 ,if sexual selection is to be taken seriously1 it is imperative that there be some improvement in the general attitude of public sentiment toward love itself4 ,it is difficult for the student to acquire sound knowledge#ih of the normal manifestations of love3 the psychology of sex has been studied too largely from the abnormal and pathological side2 while the popular idea is based too much on fiction and drama which emphasize the high lights and make love solely an affair of emotion4 ,we are not arguing for a rationalization of love1 for the terms are almost contradictory2 but we believe that more common sense could profitably be used in considering the subject4 ,if a typical love affair be examined1 it is found that propinquity and a common basis for sympathy in some probably trivial matter lead to the development of the sex instinct2 the parental instinct begins to make itself felt1 particularly among women2 the instincts of curiosity1 acquisitiveness1 and various others play their part1 and there then appears a well-developed case of love4 ,such love may satisfy a purely biological definition1 but it is incomplete4 ,love that is worthy of the name must be a function of the will as well as of the emotions4 ,there must be a feeling on the part of each which finds strong satisfaction in service rendered to the other4 ,if the existence of this constituent of love could be more widely recognized and watched for1 it would probably prevent many a sensible young man or woman from being stampeded into a marriage of passion1 where the real community of interest is slight2#ii and sexual selection would be improved in a way that would count immensely for the future of the race4 ,moreover1 there would be much more real love in the world4 ,eugenics1 as ,havelock ,ellis has well pointed out1#ajj is not plotting against love but against those influences that do violence to love1 particularly3 7#a7 reckless yielding to mere momentary desire2 and 7#b7 still more fatal influences of wealth and position and worldly convenience which give a factitious value to persons who would never appear attractive partners in life were love and eugenic ideals left to go hand in hand4 ,the eugenic ideal1 ,dr4 ,ellis foresees1 will have to struggle with the criminal and still more resolutely with the rich2 it will have few serious quarrels with normal and well-constituted lovers4 ,the point is an important one4 ,to rationalize marriage1 is out of the question4 ,marriage must be mainly a matter of the emotions2 but it is important that the emotions be exerted in the right direction4 ,the eugenist seeks to remove the obstacles that are now driving the emotions into wrong channels4 ,if the emotions can only be headed in the right direction1 then the more emotions the better1 for they are the source of energy which are responsible for almost everything that is done in the world4 ,there is in the world plenty of that love which is a matter of mutual service and of emotions unswayed by any petty or sordid influences2 but it ought not only to be common1 it ought to be universal4 ,it is not likely to be in the present century2 but at least1 thinking people can consciously adopt an attitude of respect toward love1 and consciously abandon as far as possible the attitude of jocular cynicism with which they too often treat it1--an attitude which is reflected so disgustingly in current vaudeville and musical comedy4 ,it is the custom to smile at the extravagantly romantic idea of love which the boarding-school girl holds2 but unrealizable as it may be1 hers is a nobler conception than that which the majority of adults voice4 ,very properly1 one does not care to make one's deepest feelings public2 but if such subjects as love and motherhood can not be discussed naturally and without affectation1 they ought to be left alone4 ,if intelligent men and women will set the example1 this attitude of mind will spread1 and cultured families at least will rid themselves of such deplorable habits as that of plaguing children1 not yet out of the nursery1 about their sweethearts4 ,no sane man would deny the desirability of beauty in a wife1 particularly when it is remembered that beauty1 especially as determined by good complexion1 good teeth and medium weight1 is correlated with good health in some degree1 and likewise with intelligence4 ,nevertheless1 we are strongly of the opinion that beauty of face is now too highly valued1 as a standard of sexual selection4#aja ,good health in a mate is a qualification which any sensible man or woman will require1 and for which a marriage certificate is in most cases quite unnecessary4#ajb ,what other physical standard is there that should be given weight8 ,alexander ,graham ,bell has lately been emphasizing the importance of longevity in this connection1 and in our judgment he has thereby opened up a very fruitful field for education4 ,it goes without saying that anyone would prefer to marry a partner with a good constitution4 ,how can we find a test of a good1 sound constitution8 ,dr4 ,bell asked in a recent lecture4 ,i think we could find it in the duration of life in a family4 ,take a family in which a large proportion live to old age with unimpaired faculties4 ,there you know is a good constitution in an inheritable form4 ,on the other hand1 you will find a family in which a large proportion die at birth and in which there are relatively few people who live to extreme old age4 ,there has developed an hereditary weakness of constitution4 ,longevity is a guide to constitution4 ,not only does it show that one's vital organs are in good running order1 but it is probably the only means now available of indicating strains which are resistant to zymotic disease4 ,early death is not necessarily an evidence of physical weakness2 but long life is a pretty good proof of constitutional strength4 ,dr4 ,bell has elsewhere called attention to the fact that1 longevity being a characteristic which is universally considered creditable in a family1 there is no tendency on the part of families to conceal its existence1 as there is in the case of unfavorable characters--cancer1 tuberculosis1 insanity1 and the like4 ,this gives it a great advantage as a criterion for sexual selection1 since there will be little difficulty in finding whether or not the ancestors of a young man or woman were long-lived4#ajc ,karl ,pearson and his associates have shown that there is a tendency to assortative mating for longevity3 that people from long-lived stocks actually do marry people from similar stocks1 more frequently than would be the case if the matings were at random4 ,an increase of this tendency would be eugenically desirable4#ajd ,so much for the physique4 ,though eugenics is popularly supposed to be concerned almost wholly with the physical1 properly it gives most attention to mental traits1 recognizing that these are the ones which most frequently make races stand or fall1 and that attention to the physique is worth while mainly to furnish a sound body in which the sound mind may function4 ,now men and women may excel mentally in very many different ways1 and eugenics1 which seeks not to produce a uniform good type1 but excellence in all desirable types1 is not concerned to pick out any particular sort of mental superiority and exalt it as a standard for sexual selection4 ,but the tendency1 shown in ,miss ,gilmore's study1 for men to prefer the more intelligent girls in secondary schools1 is gratifying to the eugenist1 since high mental endowment is principally a matter of heredity4 ,from a eugenic point of view it would be well could such intellectual accomplishments weigh even more heavily with the average young man1 and less weight be put on such superficial characteristics as flashiness1 ability to use the latest slang freely1 and other smart traits which are usually considered attractive in a girl1 but which have no real value and soon become tiresome4 ,they are not wholly bad in themselves1 but certainly should not influence a young man very seriously in his choice of a wife1 nor a young woman in her choice of a husband4 ,it is to be feared that such standards are largely promoted by the stage1 the popular song1 and popular fiction4 ,in a sense1 the education which a young woman has received is no concern of the eugenist1 since it can not be transmitted to her children4 ,yet when1 as often happens1 children die because their mother was not properly trained to bring them up1 this feature of education does become a concern of eugenics4 ,young men are more and more coming to demand that their wives know something about woman's work1 and this demand must not only increase1 but must be adequately met4 ,woman's education is treated in more detail in another chapter4 ,it is proper to point out here1 however1 that in many cases woman's education gives no great opportunity to judge of her real intellectual ability4 ,her natural endowment in this respect should be judged also by that of her sisters1 brothers1 parents1 uncles1 aunts and grandparents4 ,if a girl comes of an intellectual ancestry1 it is likely that she herself will carry such traits germinally1 even if she has never had an opportunity to develop them4 ,she can1 then1 pass them on to her own children4 ,francis ,galton long ago pointed out the good results of a custom obtaining in ,germany1 whereby college professors tended to marry the daughters or sisters of college professors4 ,a tendency for men of science to marry women of scientific attainments or training is marked among biologists1 at least1 in the ,united ,states2 and the number of cases in which musicians intermarry is striking4 ,such assortative mating means that the offspring will usually be well endowed with a talent4 ,finally1 young people should be taught a greater appreciation of the lasting qualities of comradeship1 for which the purely emotional factors that make up mere sexual attraction are far from offering a satisfactory substitute4 ,it will not be out of place here to point out that a change in the social valuation of reputability and honor is greatly needed for the better working of sexual selection4 ,the conspicuous waste and leisure that ,thorstein ,veblen points out as the chief criterion of reputability at present have a dubious relation to high mental or moral endowment1 far less than has wealth4 ,there is much left to be done to achieve a meritorious distribution of wealth4 ,the fact that the insignia of success are too often awarded to trickery1 callousness and luck does not argue for the abolition altogether of the financial success element in reputability1 in favor of a dead level of equality such as would result from the application of certain communistic ideals4 ,distinctions1 rightly awarded1 are an aid1 not a hindrance to sexual selection1 and effort should be directed1 from the eugenic point of view1 no less to the proper recognition of true superiority than to the elimination of unjustified differentiations of reputability4 ,this leads to the consideration of moral standards1 and here again details are complex but the broad outlines clear4 ,it seems probable that morality is to a considerable extent a matter of heredity1 and the care of the eugenist should be to work with every force that makes for a clear understanding of the moral factors of the world1 and to work against every force that tends to confuse the issues4 ,when the issue is clear cut1 most people will by instinct tend to marry into moral rather than immoral stocks4 ,true quality1 then1 should be emphasized at the expense of false standards4 ,money1 social status1 family alignment1 though indicators to some degree1 must not be taken too much at their face value4 ,emphasis is to be placed on real merit as shown by achievement1 or on descent from the meritoriously eminent1 whether or not such eminence has led to the accumulation of a family fortune and inclusion in an exclusive social set4 ,in this respect1 it is important that the value of a high average of ancestry should be realized4 ,a single case of eminence in a pedigree should not weigh too heavily4 ,when it is remembered that statistically one grandparent counts for less than one-sixteenth in the heredity of an individual1 it will be obvious that the individual whose sole claim to consideration is a distinguished grandfather1 is not necessarily a matrimonial prize4 ,a general high level of morality and mentality in a family is much more advantageous1 from the eugenic point of view1 than one lion several generations back4 ,while we desire very strongly to emphasize the importance of breeding and the great value of a good ancestry1 it is only fair to utter a word of warning in this connection4 ,good ancestry does not necessarily make a man or woman a desirable partner4 ,what stockmen know as the pure-bred scrub is a recognized evil in animal breeding1 and not altogether absent from human society4 ,due to any one or more of a number of causes1 it is possible for a germinal degenerate to appear in a good family2 discrimination should certainly be made against such an individual4 ,furthermore1 it is possible that there occasionally arises what may be called a mutant of very desirable character from a eugenic point of view4 ,furthermore a stock in general below mediocrity will occasionally1 due to some fortuitous but fortunate combination of traits1 give rise to an individual of marked ability or even eminence1 who will be able to transmit in some degree that valuable new combination of traits to his or her own progeny4 ,persons of this character are to be regarded by eugenists as distinctly desirable husbands or wives4 ,the desirability of selecting a wife 7or husband7 from a family of more than one or two children was emphasized by ,benjamin ,franklin1 and is also one of the time-honored traditions of the ,arabs1 who have always looked at eugenics in a very practical1 if somewhat cold-blooded way4 ,it has two advantages3 in the first place1 one can get a better idea of what the individual really is1 by examining sisters and brothers2 and in the second place1 there will be less danger of a childless marriage1 since it is already proved that the individual comes of a fertile stock4 ,francis ,galton showed clearly the havoc wrought in the ,english peerage1 by marriages with heiresses 7an heiress there being nearly always an only child74 ,such women were childless in a much larger proportion than ordinary women4 ,marrying a man to reform him is a speculation in which many women have indulged and usually--it may be said without fear of contradiction--with unfortunate results4 ,it is always likely that she will fail to reform him2 it is certain that she can not reform his germ-plasm4 ,psychologists agree that the character of a man or woman undergoes little radical change after the age of #be2 and the eugenist knows that it is largely determined1 potentially1 when the individual is born4 ,it is1 therefore1 in most cases the height of folly to select a partner with any marked undesirable trait1 with the idea that it will change after a few years4 ,all these suggestions have in general been directed at the young man or woman1 but it is admitted that if they reach their target at all1 it is likely to be by an indirect route4 ,no rules or devices can take the place1 in influencing sexual selection1 of that lofty and rational ideal of marriage which must be brought about by the uplifting of public opinion4 ,it is difficult to bring under the control of reason a subject that has so long been left to caprice and impulse2 yet much can unquestionably be done1 in an age of growing social responsibility1 to put marriage in a truer perspective4 ,much is already being done1 but not in every case of change is the future biological welfare of the race sufficiently borne in mind4 ,the interests of the individual are too often regarded to the exclusion of posterity4 ,the eugenist would not sacrifice the individual1 but he would add the welfare of posterity to that of the individual1 when the standards of sexual selection are being fixed4 ,it is only necessary to make the young person remember that he will marry1 not merely an individual1 but a family2 and that not only his own happiness but to some extent the quality of future generations is being determined by his choice4 ,we must have 7#a7 the proper ideals of mating but 7#b7 these ideals must be realized4 ,it is known that many young people have the highest kind of ideals of sexual selection1 and find themselves quite unable to act on them4 ,the college woman may have a definite idea of the kind of husband she wants2 but if he never seeks her1 she often dies celibate4 ,the young man of science may have an ideal bride in his mind1 but if he never finds her1 he may finally marry his landlady's daughter4 ,opportunity for sexual selection must be given1 as well as suitable standards2 and while education is perhaps improving the standards each year1 it is to be feared that modern social conditions1 especially in the large cities1 tend steadily to decrease the opportunity4 ,statistical evidence1 as well as common observation1 indicates that the upper classes have a much wider range of choice in marriage than the lower classes4 ,the figures given by ,karl ,pearson for the degree of resemblance between husband and wife with regard to phthisis are so remarkable as to be worth quoting in this connection3 ,all poor 4#ja ,prosperous poor 4#af ,middle classes 4#bd ,professional classes 4#bh ,it can hardly be argued that infection between husband and wife would vary like this1 even if infection1 in general1 could be proved4 ,moreover1 the least resemblance is among the poor1 where infection should be greatest4 ,professor ,pearson thinks1 as seems reasonable1 that this series of figures indicates principally assortative mating1 and shows that among the poor there is less choice1 the selection of a husband or wife being more largely due to propinquity or some other more or less random factor4 ,with a rise in the social scale1 opportunity for choice of one from a number of possible mates becomes greater and greater2 the tendency for an unconscious selection of likeness then has a chance to appear1 as the coefficients graphically show4 ,if such a class as the peerage of ,great ,britain be considered1 it is evident that the range of choice in marriage is almost unlimited4 ,there are few girls who can resist the glamor of a title4 ,the hereditary peer can therefore marry almost anyone he likes and if he does not marry one of his own class he can select and 7until recently7 usually has selected the daughter of some man who by distinguished ability has risen from a lower social or financial position4 ,thus the hereditary nobilities of ,europe have been able to maintain themselves2 and a similar process is undoubtedly taking place among the idle rich who occupy an analogous position in the ,united ,states4 ,but it is the desire of eugenics to raise the average ability of the whole population1 as well as to encourage the production of leaders4 ,to fulfill this desire1 it is obvious that one of the necessary means is to extend to all desirable classes that range of choice which is now possessed only by those near the top of the social ladder4 ,it is hardly necessary to urge young people to widen the range of their acquaintance1 for they will do it without urging if the opportunity is presented to them4 ,it is highly necessary for parents1 and for organizations and municipalities1 deliberately to seek to further every means which will bring unmarried young people together under proper supervision4 ,social workers have already perceived the need of institutional as well as municipal action on these lines1 although they have not in every case recognized the eugenic aspect1 and from their efforts it is probable that suitable institutions1 such as social centers and recreation piers1 and municipal dance halls1 will be greatly multiplied4 ,it is an encouraging sign to see such items as this from a ,washington newspaper3 ,the ,modern ,dancing ,club of the ,margaret ,wilson ,social ,center gave a masquerade ball at the ,grover ,cleveland school last night1 which was attended by about #ajj couples4 ,still more promising are such institutions as the self-supporting ,inkowa camp for young women1 at ,greenwood ,lake1 ,n4 ,j41 conducted by a committee of which ,miss ,anne ,morgan is president1 and directed by ,miss ,grace ,parker4 ,near it is a similar camp1 ,kechuka1 for young men1 and during the summer both are full of young people from ,new ,york ,city4 ,a newspaper account says3 ,there is no charity1 no philanthropy1 no subsidy connected with ,camp ,inkowa4 ,its members are successful business women1 who earn from #ae to #be a week4 ,board in the camp is #i a week4 ,so every girl who goes there for a vacation has the comfortable feeling that she pays her way fully4 ,this rate includes all the activities of camp life4 ,architects1 doctors1 lawyers1 bookkeepers1 bank clerks1 young business men of many kinds are the guests of ,kechuka4 ,next week #bh young men from the ,national ,city ,bank will begin their vacations there4 ,inkowa includes young women teachers1 stenographers1 librarians1 private secretaries and girls doing clerical work for insurance companies and other similar business institutions4 ,saturday and ,sunday are at home days at ,camp ,inkowa and the young men from ,kechuka may come to call on the ,inkowa girls1 participate with them in the day's hike or go on the moonlight cruise around the lake if there happens to be one4 ,young men and women need clean1 healthy association with each other1 ,miss ,parker told me yesterday1 when ,i spent the day at ,camp ,inkowa4 ,social workers in ,new ,york city ask me sometimes1 ',how dare you put young men and women in camps so near to each other8' ,how dare you not do it8 ,no plan of recreation or out-of-door life which does not include the healthy association of men and woman can be a success4 ,young men and women need each other's society4 ,and if you get the right kind they won't abuse their freedom4 ,the churches have been important instruments in this connection1 and the worth of their services can hardly be over-estimated1 as they tend to bring together young people of similar tastes and1 in general1 of a superior character4 ,such organizations as the ,young ,people's ,society of ,christian ,endeavor serve the eugenic end in a satisfactory way2 it is almost the unanimous opinion of competent observers that matches made in the church turn out well4 ,some idea of the importance of the churches may be gathered from a census which ,f4 ,o4 ,george of the ,university of ,pittsburgh made of #ge married couples of his acquaintance1 asking them where they first met each other4 ,the answers were3 ,church #cb ,school 7only #c at college7 #ai ,private home #ag ,dance #g -- #ge ,these results need not be thought typical of more than a small part of the country's population1 yet they show how far-reaching the influence of the church may be on sexual selection4 ,quite apart from altruistic motives1 the churches might well encourage social affairs where the young people could meet1 because to do so is one of the surest way of perpetuating the church4 ,an increase in the number of non-sectarian bisexual societies1 clubs and similar organizations1 and a diminution of the number of those limited to men or to women alone is greatly to be desired4 ,it is doubtful whether the ,y4 ,m4 ,c4 ,a4 and ,y4 ,w4 ,c4 ,a4 are1 while separated1 as useful to society as they might be4 ,each of them tends to create a celibate community1 where the chance for meeting possible mates is practically nil4 ,the men's organization has made1 so far as we are aware1 little organized attempt to meet this problem4 ,the women's organization in some cities has made the attempt1 but apparently with indifferent success4 ,the idea of a merger of the two organizations with reasonable differentiation as well would probably meet with little approval from their directors just now1 but is worth considering as an answer to the urgent problem of providing social contacts for young people in large cities4 ,it is encouraging that thoughtful people in all walks of life are beginning to realize the seriousness of this problem of contacts for the young1 and the necessity of finding some solution4 ,the novelist ,miss ,maria ,thompson ,davies of ,sweetbriar ,farm1 ,madison1 ,tenn41 is quoted in a recent newspaper interview as saying3 ,i'm a ,wellesley woman1 but one reason why ,i'm dead against women's colleges is because they shut girls up with women1 at the most impressionable period of the girls' lives1 when they should be meeting members of the opposite sex continually1 learning to tolerate their little weaknesses and getting ready to marry them4 ,the city should make arrangements to chaperon the meetings of its young citizens4 ,there ought to be municipal gathering places where1 under the supervision of tactful1 warm-hearted women--themselves successfully married--girls and young men might get introduced to each other and might get acquainted4 ,if it is thought that the time has not yet come for such municipal action1 there is certainly plenty of opportunity for action by the parents1 relatives and friends of young persons4 ,the match-making proclivities of some mothers are matters of current jest3 where subtly and wisely done they might better be taken seriously and held up as examples worthy of imitation4 ,formal full dress social functions for young people1 where acquaintance is likely to be too perfunctory1 should be discouraged1 and should give place to informal dances1 beach parties1 house parties and the like1 where boys and girls will have a chance to come to know each other1 and1 at the proper age1 to fall in love4 ,let social stratification be not too rigid1 yet maintained on the basis of intrinsic worth rather than solely on financial or social position4 ,if parents will make it a matter of concern to give their boys and girls as many desirable acquaintances of the opposite sex as possible1 and to give them opportunity for ripening these acquaintances1 the problem of the improvement of sexual selection will be greatly helped4 ,young people from homes where such social advantages can not be given1 or in large cities where home life is for most of them non-existent1 must become the concern of the municipality1 the churches1 and every institution and organization that has the welfare of the community and the race at heart4 ,to sum up this chapter1 we have pointed out the importance of sexual selection1 and shown that its eugenic action depends on young people having the proper ideals1 and being able to live up to these ideals4 ,eugenists have in the past devoted themselves perhaps too exclusively to the inculcation of sound ideals1 without giving adequate attention to the possibility of these high standards being acted upon4 ,one of the greatest problems confronting eugenics is that of giving young people of marriageable age a greater range of choice4 ,much could be done by organized action2 but it is one of the hopeful features of the problem that it can be handled in large part by intelligent individual action4 ,if older people would make a conscious effort to help young people widen their circles of suitable acquaintances1 they would make a valuable contribution to race betterment4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,increasing ,,the ,,marriage ,,rate ,,of ,,the ,,superior ,no race can long survive unless it conforms to the principles of eugenics1 and indisputably the chief requirement for race survival is that the superior part of the race should equal or surpass the inferior part in fecundity4 ,it follows that the superior members of the community must marry1 and at a reasonably early age4 ,if in the best elements of the community celibacy increases1 or if marriage is postponed far into the reproductive period1 the racial contribution of the superior will necessarily fall1 and after a few generations the race will consist mainly of the descendants of inferior people1 its eugenic average being thereby much lowered4 ,in a survey of vital statistics1 to ascertain whether marriages are as frequent and as early as national welfare requires1 the eugenist finds at first no particularly alarming figures4 ,in ,france1 to whose vital statistics one naturally turns whenever race suicide is suggested 7and usually with a holier-than-thou attitude which the ,frenchman might much more correctly assume toward ,america71 it appears that there has been a very slight decrease in the proportion of persons under #bj who are married1 but that between the ages of #bj and #cj the proportion of those married has risen during recent years4 ,the same condition exists all over ,europe1 according to ,f4 ,h4 ,hankins1#aje except in ,england and ,scotland4 ,moreover on the whole marriages take place earlier in ,france than in ,england1 ,germany or ,america4 ,nor is this all1 for a larger proportion of the ,french population is married than in any of these countries4 ,thus the birth-rate in ,france has continued to fall in spite of those very conditions which should have sustained it or even caused it to increase4 ,in ,america1 conditions are not dissimilar4 ,although it is generally believed that young persons are marrying at a later age than they did formerly1 the census figures show that for the population as a whole the reverse is the case4 ,marriages are not only more numerous1 but are contracted at earlier ages than they were a quarter of a century ago4 ,comparison of census returns for #ahij1 #aijj and #aiaj1 reveals that for both sexes the percentage of married has steadily increased and the percentage listed as single has as steadily decreased4 ,the census classifies young men1 for this purpose1 in three age-groups3 #ae-ai1 #bj-bd1 and #be-cd2 and in every one of these groups1 a larger proportion was married in #aiaj than in #aijj or #ahij4 ,conditions are the same for women4 ,so far as the ,united ,states as a whole is concerned1 therefore1 marriage is neither being avoided altogether1 nor postponed unduly1--in fact1 conditions in both respects seem to be improving every year4 ,so far the findings should gratify every eugenist4 ,but the census returns permit further analysis of the figures4 ,they classify the population under four headings3 ,native ,white of ,native ,parentage1 ,native ,white of ,foreign ,parentage or of ,mixed ,parentage1 ,foreign-born ,white1 and ,negro4 ,except among ,foreign-born ,whites1 who are standing still1 the returns for #aiaj show that in every one of these groups the marriage rate has steadily increased during the past three decades2 and that the age of marriage is steadily declining in all groups during the same period1 with a slight irregularity of no real importance in the statistics for foreign-born males4 ,on the whole1 then1 the marriage statistics of the ,united ,states are reassuring4 ,even if examination is limited to the ,native ,whites of ,native ,parentage1 who are probably of greater eugenic worth1 as a group1 than any of the other three1 the marriage rate is found to be moving in the right direction4 ,but going a step farther1 one finds that within this group there are great irregularities1 which do not appear when the group is considered as a whole4 ,and these irregularities are of a nature to give the eugenist grave concern4 ,if one sought1 for example1 to find a group of women distinctly superior to the average1 he might safely take the college graduates4 ,their superior quality as a class lies in the facts that3 7a7 ,they have survived the weeding-out process of grammar and high school1 and the repeated elimination by examinations in college4 7b7 ,they have persevered1 after those with less mental ability have grown tired of the strain and have voluntarily dropped out4 7c7 ,some have even forced their way to college against great obstacles1 because attracted by the opportunities it offers them for mental activity4 7d7 ,some have gone to college because their excellence has been discovered by teachers or others who have strongly urged it4 ,all these attributes can not be merely acquired1 but must be in some degree inherent4 ,furthermore1 these girls are not only superior in themselves1 but are ordinarily from superior parents1 because 7a7 ,their parents have in most cases coperated by desiring this higher education for their daughters4 7b7 ,the parents have in most cases had sufficient economic efficiency to be able to afford a college course for their daughters4 ,therefore1 although the number of college women in the ,united ,states is not great1 their value eugenically is wholly disproportionate to their numbers4 ,if marriage within such a selected class as this is being avoided1 or greatly postponed1 the eugenist can not help feeling concerned4 ,and the first glance at the statistics gives adequate ground for uneasiness4 ,take the figures for ,wellesley ,college1 for instance3 ,status in fall of #aiab ,graduates ,all students ,per cent married 7graduated #ahgi-ahhh7 #ee #fj ,per cent married in3 #aj years from graduation #ce #cg #bj years from graduation #dh #di ,from a racial standpoint1 the significant marriage rate of any group of women is the percentage that have married before the end of the child-bearing period4 ,classes graduating later than #ahhh are therefore not included1 and the record shows the marital status in the fall of #aiab4 ,in compiling these data deceased members and the few lost from record are of course omitted4 ,in the foregoing study care was taken to distinguish as to when the marriage took place4 ,obviously marriages with the women at #de or over being sterile must not be counted where it is the fecundity of the marriage that is being studied4 ,the reader is warned therefore to make any necessary correction for this factor in the studies to follow in some of which unfortunately care has not been taken to make the necessary distinction4 ,turn to ,mount ,holyoke ,college1 the oldest of the great institutions for the higher education of women in this country4 ,professor ,amy ,hewes has collected the following data3 ,decade of graduation ,per cent remaining single ,per cent marrying #ahdb-ahdi #ad4f #he4d #ahej-ahei #bd4e #ge4e #ahfj-ahfi #ci4a #fj4i #ahgj-ahgi #dj4f #ei4d #ahhj-ahhi #db4d #eg4f #ahij-ahib #ej4j #ej4j ,bryn ,mawr ,college1 between #ahhh and #aijj1 graduated #cgf girls1 of whom #afe1 or #dc4i1 had married up to ,january #a1 #aiac4 ,studying the ,vassar ,college graduates between #ahfg and #ahib1 ,robert ,j4 ,sprague found that #eji of the total of #iei had married1 leaving #dg celibate4 ,adding the classes up to #aijj1 it was found that less than half of the total number of graduates of the institution had married4 ,remembering what a selected group of young women go to college1 the eugenist can hardly help suspecting that the women's colleges of the ,united ,states1 as at present conducted1 are from his point of view doing great harm to the race4 ,this suspicion becomes a certainty1 as one investigation after another shows the same results4 ,statistics compiled on marriages among college women 7#aija7 showed that3 #de of college women marry before the age of #dj4 #ij of all ,united ,states women marry before the age of #dj4 #if of ,arkansas women marry before the age of #dj4 #hj of ,massachusetts women marry before the age of #dj4 ,in ,massachusetts1 it is further to be noted1 #cj of all women have married at the age when college women are just graduating4 ,it has1 moreover1 been demonstrated that the women who belong to ,phi ,beta ,kappa and other honor societies1 and therefore represent a second selection from an already selected class1 have a lower marriage rate than college women in general4 ,in reply to such facts1 the eugenist is often told that the college graduates marry as often and as early as the other members of their families4 ,we are comparing conditions that can not properly be compared1 we are informed1 when we match the college woman's marriage rate with that of a non-college woman who comes from a lower level of society4 ,but the facts will not bear out this apology4 ,miss ,m4 ,r4 ,smith's statistics#ajf from the data of the ,collegiate ,alumn show the true situation4 ,the average age at marriage was found to be for ,years ,college women #bf4c ,their sisters #bd4b ,their cousins #bd4g ,their friends #bd4b and the age distribution of those married was as follows3 ,equivalent ,percentage of married ,college non-college ,under #bc years #h4f #cj4a #bc-cb years #hc4b #fd4i #cc and over #h4j #e4j ,illustration3 ,wellesley ,graduates and ,non-graduates ,,fig4 #cf4--;,graph showing at a glance the record of the student body in regard to marriage and birth rates1 during the years indicated4 ,statistics for the latest years have not been compiled1 because it is obvious that girls who graduated during the last fifteen years still have a chance to marry and become mothers4 ,if these differences did not bring about any change in the birth-rate1 they could be neglected4 ,a slight sacrifice might even be made1 for the sake of having mothers better prepared4 ,but taken in connection with the birth-rate figures which we shall present in the next chapter1 they form a serious indictment against the women's colleges of the ,united ,states4 ,such conditions are not wholly confined to women's colleges1 or to any one geographical area4 ,miss ,helen ,d4 ,murphey has compiled the statistics for ,washington ,seminary1 in ,washington1 ,pennsylvania1 a secondary school for women1 founded in #ahcg4 ,the marriage rate among the graduates of this institution has steadily declined1 as is shown in the following table where the records are considered by decades3 '#de '#ee '#fe '#ge '#he '#ie '#jj ,per cent4 married #gh #gd #fg #gb #ei #eg #ee ,per cent4 who have gone into #bj #ac #ab #ai #cj #cj #ci other occupations than home-making ,a graph1 plotted to show how soon after graduation these girls have married1 demonstrates that the greatest number of them wed five or six years after receiving their diplomas1 but that the number of those marrying #aj years afterward is not very much less than that of the girls who become brides in the first or second year after graduation 7see ,fig4 #ce74 ,c4 ,s4 ,castle's investigation#ajg of the ages at which eminent women of various periods have married1 is interesting in this connection1 in spite of the small number of individuals with which it deals3 ,century ,average age ,range ,number of cases #ab #af4b #h-cj #e #ac #af4f #ab-bi #e #ad #ac4h #f-ah #aa #ae #ag4f #ac-bf #bj #af #ba4g #ab-ej #bh #ag #bj4j #ac-dc #cj #ah #bc4a #ac-ec #abg #ai #bf4b #ae-fg #ahi ,women in coeducational colleges1 particularly the great universities of the west1 can not be compared without corrections with the women of the eastern separate colleges1 because they represent different family and environmental selection4 ,their record none the less deserves careful study4 ,miss ,shinn#ajh calculated the marriage rate of college women as follows1 assuming graduation at the age of #bb3 ,women over ,coeducated ,separate #be #ch4a #bi4f #cj #di4a #dj4a #ce #ec4f #df4f #dj #ef4i #ea4h ,she has shown that only a part of this discrepancy is attributable to the geographic difference1 some of it is the effect of lack of co-education4 ,some of it is also attributable to the type of education4 ,the marriage rate of women graduates of ,iowa ,state ,college#aji is as follows3 #ahgb-ha #ie4h #ahhb-ia #fb4e #ahib-ja #ga4b #aijb-jf #fi4j ,study of the alumni register of ,oberlin1#aaj one of the oldest coeducational institutions1 shows that the marriage rate of women graduates1 #ahhd-aije1 was #fe4b1 only #cd4h of them remaining unmarried4 ,if the later period1 #ahij-aije1 alone is taken1 only #ee4b of the girls have married4 ,the figures for the last few classes in this period are probably not complete4 ,at ,kansas ,state ,agricultural ,college1 #ahhe-aije1 #fg4f of the women graduates have married4 ,at ,ohio ,state ,university in the same period1 the percentage is only #ed4j4 ,wisconsin ,university1 #ahgj-aije1 shows a percentage of #ea4h1 the figures for the last five years of that period being3 #aija #cc4i #aijb #eb4i #aijc #de4a #aijd #cb4c #aije #cg4d ,from alumni records of the ,university of ,illinois1 #ed of the women1 #ahhj-aije1 are found to be married4 ,it is difficult to discuss these figures without extensive study of each case4 ,but that only #ec of the women graduates of three great universities like ,illinois1 ,ohio and ,wisconsin1 should be married1 #aj years after graduation1 indicates that something is wrong4 ,in most cases it is not possible to tell1 from the alumni records of the above colleges1 whether the male graduates are or are not married4 ,but the class lists of ,harvard and ,yale have recently been carefully studied by ,john ,c4 ,phillips1#aaa who finds that in the period #ahea-ahij #gd of the ,harvard graduates and #gh of the ,yale graduates married4 ,in that period1 he found1 the age of marriage has advanced only about #a year1 from a little over #cj to just about #ca4 ,this is a much higher rate than that of college women4 ,statistics from ,stanford ,university#aab offer an interesting comparison because they are available for both men and women4 ,of #fgj male graduates1 classes #ahib to #aijj1 inclusive1 #dij or #gc4b were reported as married in #aiaj4 ,of #ccj women1 #afj or #dh4e were married4 ,these figures are not complete1 as some of the graduates in the later classes must have married since #aiaj4 ,the conditions existing at ,stanford are likewise found at ,syracuse1 on the opposite side of the continent4 ,here1 as ,h4 ,j4 ,banker has shown1#aac the men graduates marry most frequently #d4e years after taking their degrees1 and the women #d4g years4 ,of the women #eg marry1 of the men #ha4 ,the women marry at the average age of #bg4g years and the men at #bh4h4 ,less than one-fourth of the marrying men married women within the college4 ,the last five decades he studied show a steady decrease in the number of women graduates who marry1 while the men are much more constant4 ,his figures are3 ,per cent of men ,per cent of women ,decade graduates graduates married married #aheb-fa #ha #hg #ahfb-ga #hg #hg #ahgb-ha #ij #ha #ahhb-ia #hd #ee #ahib-ja #gc #dh ,c4 ,b4 ,davenport1 looking at the record of his own classmates at ,harvard1 found#aad in #aiji that among the #cbh original members there were #bhg surviving1 of whom nearly a third 7#ca7 had never married4 ,of these 7#bhg71 he continues1 #bf were in ',who's ,who in ,america8' ,we should expect1 were success in professional life promoted by bachelorship1 to find something over a third of those in ,who's ,who to be unmarried4 ,actually all but two1 or less than #h1 were married1 and one of these has since married4 ,the only still unmarried man was a temporary member of the class and is an artist who has resided for a large part of the time in ,europe4 ,there is1 therefore1 no reason to believe that bachelorship favors professional success4 ,particularly pernicious in tending to prevent marriage is the influence of certain professional schools1 some of which have come to require a college degree for entrance4 ,in such a case the aspiring physician1 for example1 can hardly hope to obtain a license to practice until he has reached the age of #bg since #d years are required in ,medical ,college and #a year in a hospital4 ,his marriage must in almost every case be postponed until a number of years after that of the young men of his own class who have followed business careers4 ,this brief survey is enough to prove that the best educated young women 7and to a less extent young men7 of the ,united ,states1 who for many reasons may be considered superior1 are in many cases avoiding marriage altogether1 and in other cases postponing it longer than is desirable4 ,the women in the separate colleges of the ,east have the worst record in this respect1 but that of the women graduates of some of the coeducational schools leaves much to be desired4 ,it is difficult to separate the causes which result in a postponement of marriage1 from those that result in a total avoidance of marriage4 ,to a large extent the causes are the same1 and the result differs only in degree4 ,the effect of absolute celibacy of superior people1 from a eugenic point of view1 is of course obvious to all1 but the racial effect of postponement of marriage1 even for a few years1 is not always so clearly realized4 ,the diagram in ,fig4 #cf may give a clearer appreciation of this situation4 ,francis ,galton clearly perceived the importance of this point1 and attempted in several ways to arrive at a just idea of it4 ,one of the most striking of his investigations is based on ,dr4 ,duncan's statistics from a maternity hospital4 ,dividing the mothers into five-year groups1 according to their age1 and stating the median age of the group for the sake of simplicity1 instead of giving the limits1 he arrived at the following table3 ,age of mother at ,approximate average her marriage fertility #ag #i4jj--f #a4e #bb #g4ej--e #a4e #bg #f4jj--d #a4e #cb #d4ej--c #a4e which shows that the relative fertility of mothers married at the ages of #ag1 #bb1 #bg and #cb1 respectively1 is as #f1 #e1 #d1 and #c approximately4 ,the increase in population by a habit of early marriages1 he adds1 is further augmented by the greater rapidity with which the generations follow each other4 ,by the joint effect of these two causes1 a large effect is in time produced4 ,certainly the object of eugenics is not to merely increase human numbers4 ,quality is more important than quantity in a birth-rate4 ,but it must be evident that other things being equal1 a group which marries early will1 after a number of generations1 supplant a group which marries even a few years later4 ,and there is abundant evidence to show that some of the best elements of the old1 white1 ,american race are being rapidly eliminated from the population of ,america1 because of postponement or avoidance of marriage4 ,taking the men alone1 we find that failure to marry may often be ascribed to one of the following reasons3 #a4 ,the cultivation of a taste for sexual variety and a consequent unwillingness to submit to the restraints of marriage4 #b4 ,pessimism in regard to women from premature or unfortunate sex experiences4 #c4 ,infection by venereal disease4 #d4 ,deficiency in normal sexual feeling1 or perversion4 #e4 ,deficiency of one kind or another1 physical or mental1 causing difficulty in getting an acceptable mate4 ,the persons in groups #d and #e certainly and in groups #a1 #b1 and #c probably to a less extent1 are inferior1 and their celibacy is an advantage to the race1 rather than a disadvantage1 from a eugenic point of view4 ,their inferiority is in part the result of bad environment4 ,but since innate inferiority is so frequently a large factor1 the bad environment often being experienced only because the nature was inferior to start with1 the average of the group as a whole must be considered innately inferior4 ,then there are among celibate men two other classes1 largely superior by nature3 #f4 ,those who seek some other end so ardently that they will not make the necessary sacrifice in money and freedom1 in order to marry4 #g4 ,those whose likelihood of early marriage is reduced by a prolonged education and apprenticeship4 ,prolongation of the celibate period often results in life-long celibacy4 ,some of the most important means of remedying the above conditions1 in so far as they are dysgenic1 can be grouped under three general heads3 #a4 ,try to lead all young men to avoid a loose sexual life and venereal disease4 ,a general effort will be heeded more by the superior than by the inferior4 #b4 ,hold up the rle of husband and father as particularly honorable1 and proclaim its shirking1 without adequate cause1 as dishonorable4 ,depict it as a happier and healthier state than celibacy or pseudo-celibacy4 ,for a man to say he has never met a girl he can love simply means he has not diligently sought one1 or else he has a deficient emotional equipment2 for there are many1 surprisingly many1 estimable1 attractive1 unmarried women4 #c4 ,cease prolonging the educational period past the early twenties4 ,it is time to call a halt on the schools and universities1 whose constant lengthening of the educational period will result in a serious loss to the race4 ,external circumstances of an educational nature should not be allowed to force a young man to postpone his marriage past the age of #be4 ,this means that students must be allowed to specialize earlier4 ,if there is need of limiting the number of candidates1 competitive entrance examinations may be arranged on some rational basis4 ,superior young men should marry1 even at some cost to their early efficiency4 ,the high efficiency of any profession can be more safely kept up by demanding a minimum amount of continuation work in afternoon1 evening1 or seasonal classes1 laboratories1 or clinics4 ,no more graduate fellowships should be established until those now existing carry a stipend adequate for marriage4 ,those which already carry larger stipends should not be limited to bachelors1 as are the most valuable awards at ,princeton1 the ten yearly ,proctor fellowships of #a1jjj each4 ,the causes of the remarkable failure of college women to marry can not be exhaustively investigated here1 but for the purposes of eugenics they may be roughly classified as unavoidable and avoidable4 ,under the first heading must be placed those girls who are inherently unmarriageable1 either because of physical defect or1 more frequently1 mental defect1--most often an over-development of intellect at the expense of the emotions1 which makes a girl either unattractive to men1 or inclines her toward a celibate career and away from marriage and motherhood4 ,opinions differ as to the proportion of college girls who are inherently unmarriageable4 ,anyone who has been much among them will testify that a large proportion of them are not inherently unmarriageable1 however1 and their celibacy for the most part must be classified as avoidable4 ,their failure to marry may be because 7#a7 ,they desire not to marry1 due to a preference for a career1 or development of a cynical attitude toward men and matrimony1 due to a faulty education1 or 7#b7 ,they desire to marry1 but do not1 for a variety of reasons such as3 7a7 ,they are educated for careers1 such as school-teaching1 where they have little opportunity to meet men4 7b7 ,their education makes them less desirable mates than girls who have had some training along the lines of home-making and mothercraft4 7c7 ,they have remained in partial segregation until past the age when they are physically most attractive1 and when the other girls of their age are marrying4 7d7 ,due to their own education1 they demand on the part of suitors a higher degree of education than the young men of their acquaintance possess4 ,a girl of this type wants to marry but desires a man who is educationally her equal or superior4 ,as men of such type are relatively rare1 her chances of marriage are reduced4 7e7 ,their experience in college makes them desire a standard of living higher than that of their own families or of the men among whom they were brought up4 ,they become resistant to the suit of men who are of ordinary economic status4 ,while waiting for the appearance of a suitor who is above the average in both intelligence and wealth1 they pass the marriageable age4 7f7 ,they are better educated than the young men of their acquaintance1 and the latter are afraid of them4 ,some young men dislike to marry girls who know more than they do1 except in the distinctively feminine fields4 ,these and various similar causes help to lower the marriage-rate of college women and to account for the large number of alumn who desire to marry but are unable to do so4 ,in the interest of eugenics1 the various difficulties must be met in appropriate ways4 ,marriage is not desirable for those who are eugenically inferior1 from weak constitutions1 defective sexuality1 or inherent mental deficiency4 ,but beyond these groups of women are the much larger groups of celibates who are distinctly superior1 and whose chances of marriage have been reduced for one of the reasons mentioned above or through living in cities with an undue proportion of female residents4 ,then there are1 besides these1 superior women who1 because they are brought up in families without brothers or brothers' friends1 are so unnaturally shy that they are unable to become friendly with men1 however much they may care to4 ,it is evident that life in a separate college for women often intensifies this defect4 ,there are still other women who repel men by a manner of extreme self-repression and coldness1 sometimes the result of parents' or teachers' over-zealous efforts to inculcate modesty and reserve1 traits valuable in due degree but harmful in excess4 ,when will educators learn that the education of the emotions is as important as that of the intellect8 ,when will the schools awake to the fact that a large part of life consists in relations with other human beings1 and that much of their educational effort is absolutely valueless1 or detrimental1 to success in the fundamentally necessary practice of dealing with other individuals which is imposed on every one8 ,many a college girl of the finest innate qualities1 who sincerely desires to enter matrimony1 is unable to find a husband of her own class1 simply because she has been rendered so cold and unattractive1 so over-stuffed intellectually and starved emotionally1 that a typical man does not desire to spend the rest of his life in her company4 ,the same indictment applies in a less degree to men4 ,it is generally believed that an only child is frequently to be found in this class4 ,on the other hand1 it is equally true--perhaps more important--that many innately superior young men are rejected1 because of their manner of life4 ,superior young men should be induced to keep their physical records clean1 in order that they may not suffer the severe depreciation which they would otherwise sustain in the eyes of superior women4 ,but in efforts to teach chastity1 sex itself must not be made to appear an evil thing4 ,this is a grave mistake and all too common since the rise of the sex-hygiene movement4 ,undoubtedly a considerable amount of the celibacy in sensitive women may be traced to ill-balanced mothers and teachers who1 in word and attitude1 build up an impression that sex is indecent and bestial1 and engender in general a damaging suspicion of men4#aae ,level heads are necessary in the sex ethics campaign4 ,whereas the venereal diseases will probably1 with a continuation of present progress in treatment and prophylaxis1 be brought under control in the course of a century1 the problem of differential mating will exist as long as the race does1 which can hardly be less than tens of millions of years4 ,lurid presentation1 by drama1 novel1 or magazine-story1 of dramatic and highly-colored individual sex histories1 is to be avoided4 ,these often impress an abnormal situation on sensitive girls so strongly that aversion to marriage1 or sex antagonism1 is aroused4 ,every effort should be made to permeate art--dramatic1 plastic1 or literary--with the highest ideals of sex and parenthood4 ,a glorification of motherhood and fatherhood in these ways would have a portentous influence on public opinion4 ,the true1 intimate chronicle of an everyday married life has not been written4 ,here is a theme for genius2 for only genius can divine and reveal the beauty1 the pathos1 and the wonder of the normal or the commonplace4 ,a felicitous marriage has its comedy1 its complexities1 its element1 too1 of tragedy and grief1 as well as its serenity and fealty4 ,matrimony1 whether the pair fare well or ill1 is always a great adventure1 a play of deep instincts and powerful emotions1 a drama of two psyches4 ,every marriage provides a theme for the literary artist4 ,no lives are free from enigmas4#aaf ,more temperance in work would probably promote marriage of able and ambitious young people4 ,walter ,gallichan complains that we do not even recognize love as a finer passion than money greed4 ,it is a kind of luxury1 or pleasant pastime1 for the sentimentally minded4 ,love is so undervalued as a source of happiness1 a means of grace1 and a completion of being1 that many men would sooner work to keep a motor car than to marry4 ,men should be taught greater respect for the individuality of women1 so that no high-minded girl will shrink from marriage with the idea that it means a surrender of her personality and a state of domestic servitude4 ,a more discriminating idea of sex-equality is desirable1 and a recognition by men that women are not necessarily creatures of inferior mentality4 ,it would be an advantage if men's education included some instruction along these lines4 ,it would be a great gain1 also if intelligent women had more knowledge of domestic economy and mothercraft1 because one of the reasons why the well-educated girl is handicapped in seeking a mate is the belief all too frequently well founded of many young men that she is a luxury which he can not afford4 ,higher education in general needs to be reoriented4 ,it has too much glorified individualism1 and put a premium on white collar work4 ,the trend toward industrial education will help to correct this situation4 ,professor ,sprague#aag points out another very important fault1 when he says3 ,more strong men are needed on the staffs of public schools and women's colleges1 and in all of these institutions more married instructors of both sexes are desirable4 ,the catalogue of one of the women's colleges referred to above shows #aad professors and instructors1 of whom #ajj are women1 of whom only two have ever married4 ,is it to be expected that the curriculum created by such a staff would idealize and prepare for family and home life as the greatest work of the world and the highest goal of woman1 and teach race survival as a patriotic duty8 ,or1 would it be expected that these bachelor staffs would glorify the independent vocation and life for women and create employment bureaus to enable their graduates to get into the offices1 schools and other lucrative jobs8 ,the latter seems to be what occurs4 ,increase of opportunity for superior young people to meet each other1 as discussed in our chapter on sexual selection1 will play a very large part in raising the marriage rate4 ,and finally1 the delayed or avoided marriage of the intellectual classes is in large part a reflection of public opinion1 which has wrongly represented other things as being more worth while than marriage4 ,the promotion of marriage in early adult life1 as a part of social hygiene1 must begin with a new canonization of marriage1 ,mr4 ,gallichan declares4 ,this is equally the task of the fervent poet and the scientific thinker1 whose respective labors for humanity are never at variance in essentials4444 ,the sentiment for marriage can be deepened by a rational understanding of the passion that attracts and unites the sexes4 ,we need an apotheosis of conjugal love as a basis for a new appreciation of marriage4 ,reverence for love should be fostered from the outset of the adolescent period by parents and pedagogues4 ,if1 in addition to this diffusion of healthier views of the conjugal relation1 some of the economic changes suggested in later chapters are put in effect1 it seems probable that the present racially disastrous tendency of the most superior young men and women to postpone or avoid marriage would be checked4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,increase ,,of ,,the ,,birth-,,rate ,,of ,,the ,,superior ,imagine #bjj babies born to parents of native stock in the ,united ,states4 ,on the average1 #ajc of them will be boys and #ig girls4 ,by the time the girls reach a marriageable age 7say #bj years71 at least #ai will have died1 leaving #gh possible wives1 on whom the duty of perpetuating that section of the race depends4 ,we said ,possible wives1 not probable2 for not all will marry4 ,it is difficult to say just how many will become wives1 but ,robert ,j4 ,sprague has reported on several investigations that illuminate the point4 ,in a selected ,new ,england village in #ahij1 he says1 there were forty marriageable girls between the ages of #bj and #ce4 ,to-day thirty-two of these are married1 #bj per cent4 are spinsters4 ,an investigation of #bfj families of the ,massachusetts ,agricultural ,college students shows that out of #hcb women over #dj years of age #gee or #ia per cent4 have married1 leaving only #i per cent4 spinsters4 ,this and other observations indicate that the daughters of farmers marry more generally than those of some other classes4 ,in sixty-nine 7reporting7 families represented by the freshman class of ,amherst ,college 7#aiad7 there are #bbi mothers and aunts over #dj years of age1 of whom #ahf or #ha per cent4 have already married4 ,it would seem safe to conclude that about #ae per cent4 of native women in general ,american society do not marry during the child-bearing period4 ,deducting #ae per cent4 from the #gh possible wives leaves sixty-six probable wives4 ,now among the native wives of ,massachusetts #bj per cent4 do not produce children1 and deducting these thirteen childless ones from the sixty-six probable wives leaves fifty-three probable1 married1 child-bearing women1 who must be depended on to reproduce the original #bjj individuals with whom we began this chapter4 ,that means that each woman who demonstrates ability to bear offspring must bear #c4g children4 ,this it must be noted1 is a minimum number1 for no account has been taken of those who1 through some defect or disease developed late in life1 become unmarriageable4 ,in general1 unless every married woman brings three children to maturity1 the race will not even hold its own in numbers4 ,and this means that each woman must bear four children1 since not all the children born will live4 ,if the married women of the country bear fewer than nearly four children each1 the race is in danger of losing ground4 ,such a statement ought to strike the reader as one of grave importance2 but we labor under no delusion that it will do so4 ,for we are painfully aware that the bugaboo of the declining birth-rate of superior people has been raised so often in late years1 that it has become stale by repetition4 ,it no longer causes any alarm4 ,the country is filled with sincere but mentally short-sighted individuals1 who are constantly ready to vociferate that numbers are no very desirable thing in a birth-rate2 that quality is wanted1 not quantity2 that a few children given ideal care are of much more value to the state and the race than are many children1 who can not receive this attention4 ,and this attitude toward the subject1 we venture to assert1 is a graver peril to the race than is the declining birth-rate itself4 ,for there is enough truth in it to make it plausible1 and to separate the truth from the dangerous untruth it contains1 and to make the bulk of the population see the distinction1 is a task which will tax every energy of the eugenist4 ,unfortunately1 this is not a case of mere difference of opinion between men2 it is a case of antagonism between men and nature4 ,if a race hypnotize itself into thinking that its views about race suicide are superior to nature's views1 it may make its own end a little less painful2 but it will not postpone that end for a single minute4 ,the contest is to the strong1 and although numbers are not the most important element in strength1 it is very certain that a race made up of families containing one child each will not be the survivor in the struggle for existence4 ,the idea1 therefore1 that race suicide and general limitation of births to the irreducible minimum1 can be effectively justified by any conceivable appeal to economic or sociological factors1 is a mistake which will eventually bring about the extinction of the people making it4 ,this statement must not be interpreted wrongly4 ,certainly we would not argue that a high birth-rate in itself is necessarily a desirable thing4 ,it is not the object of eugenics to achieve as big a population as possible1 regardless of quality4 ,but in the last analysis1 the only wealth of a nation is its people2 moreover some people1 are as national assets1 worth more than others4 ,the goal1 then1 might be said to be3 a population adjusted in respect to its numbers to the resources of the country1 and that number of the very best quality possible4 ,great diversity of people is required in modern society1 but of each desirable kind the best obtainable representatives are to be desired4 ,it is at once evident that a decline1 rather than an increase1 in the birth-rate of some sections of the population1 is wanted4 ,there are some strata at the bottom that are a source of weakness rather than of strength to the race1 and a source of unhappiness rather than of happiness to themselves and those around them4 ,these should be reduced in number1 as we have shown at some length earlier in this book4 ,the other parts of the population should be perpetuated by the best1 rather than the worst4 ,in no other way can the necessary leaders be secured1 without whom1 in commerce1 industry1 politics1 science1 the nation is at a great disadvantage4 ,the task of eugenics is by no means what it is sometimes supposed to be3 to breed a superior caste4 ,but a very important part of its task is certainly to increase the number of leaders in the race4 ,and it is this part of its task1 in particular1 which is menaced by the declining birth-rate in the ,united ,states4 ,as every one knows1 race suicide is proceeding more rapidly among the native whites than among any other large section of the population2 and it is exactly this part of the population which has in the past furnished most of the eminent men of the country4 ,it has been shown in previous chapters that eminent men do not appear wholly by chance in the population4 ,the production of eminence is largely a family affair2 and in ,america1 the land of opportunity as well as in older countries1 people of eminence are much more interrelated than chance would allow4 ,it has been shown1 indeed1 that in ,america it is at least a #ejj to #a bet that an eminent person will be rather closely related to some other eminent person1 and will not be a sporadic appearance in the population4#aah ,taken with other considerations advanced in earlier chapters1 this means that a falling off in the reproduction of the old ,american best strains means a falling off in the number of eminent men which the ,united ,states will produce4 ,no improvement in education can prevent a serious loss1 for the strong minds get more from education4 ,the old ,american stock has produced a vastly greater proportion of eminence1 has accomplished a great deal more proportionately1 in modern times1 than has other any stock whose representatives have been coming in large numbers as immigrants to these shores during the last generation4 ,it is1 therefore1 likely to continue to surpass them1 unless it declines too greatly in numbers4 ,for this reason1 we feel justified in concluding that the decline of the birth-rate in the old ,american stock represents a decline in the birth-rate of a superior element4 ,there is another way of looking at this point4 ,the stock under discussion has been1 on the whole1 economically ahead of such stocks as are now immigrating4 ,in competition with them under equal conditions1 it appears to remain pretty consistently ahead1 economically4 ,now1 although we would not insist on this point too strongly1 it can hardly be questioned that eugenic value is to some extent correlated with economic success in life1 as all desirable qualities tend to be correlated together4 ,within reasonable limits1 it is justifiable to treat the economically superior sections of the nation as the eugenically superior4 ,and it is among these economically superior sections of the nation that the birth-rate has most rapidly and dangerously fallen4 ,the constant influx of highly fecund immigrant women tends to obscure the fact that the birth-rate of the older residents is falling below par1 and analysis of the birth-rate in various sections of the community is necessary to give an understanding of what is actually taking place4 ,in ,rhode ,island1 ,f4 ,l4 ,hoffmann found the average number of children for each foreign-born woman to be #c4ce1 and for each native-born woman to be #b4jf4 ,there were wide racial differences among the foreign born2 the various elements were represented by the following average number of children per wife3 ,french-,canadians #d4db ,russians #c4ea ,italians #c4di ,irish #c4de ,scotch and ,welsh #c4ji ,english #b4hi ,germans #b4hd ,swedes #b4eh ,english-,canadians #b4ef ,poles #b4ca ,in short1 the native-born whites in this investigation fell below every one of the foreign nationalities4 ,the ,massachusetts censuses for #ahge and #ahhd showed similar results3 the foreign-born women had #d4e children each1 and the native-born women #b4g each4 ,frederick ,s4 ,crum's careful investigation#aai of ,new ,england genealogies1 including #ab1gbb wives1 has thrown a great deal of light on the steady decline in their birth-rate4 ,he found the average number of children to be3 #agej-agii #f4dc #ahjj-ahdi #d4id #ahej-ahfi #c4dg #ahgj-ahgi #b4gg ,there1 in four lines1 is the story of the decline of the old ,american stock4 ,at present1 it is barely reproducing itself1 probably not even that1 for there is reason to believe that #ahgi does not mark the lowest point reached4 ,before #agjj1 less than #b of the wives in this investigation had only one child1 now #bj of them have only one4 ,with the emigration of old ,new ,england families to the west1 and the constant immigration of foreign-born people to take their places1 it is no cause for surprise that ,new ,england no longer exercises the intellectual leadership that she once held4 ,for ,massachusetts as a whole1 the birth-rate among the native-born population was #ab4g per #a1jjj in #ahij1 #ad4i in #aiaj1 while in the foreign-born population it was #ch4f in #ahij and #di4a in #aiaj4 ,after excluding all old women and young women1 the birth-rate of the foreign-born women in ,massachusetts is still found to be #c_/d greater than that of the native-born4#abj ,in short1 the birth-rate of the old ,american stock is now so low that that stock is dying out and being supplanted by immigrants4 ,in order that the stock might even hold its own1 we have shown that each married woman should bear three to four children4 ,at present the married women of the old white ,american race in ,new ,england appear to be bringing two or less to maturity4 ,it will be profitable to digress for a moment to consider farther what this disappearance of the ancient population of ,massachusetts means to the country4 ,when all the distinguished men of the ,united ,states are graded1 in accordance with their distinction1 it is regularly found1 as ,frederick ,adams ,woods says1 that ,some states in the union1 some sections of the country1 have produced more eminence than others1 far beyond the expectation from their respective white populations4 ,in this regard ,massachusetts always leads1 and ,connecticut is always second1 and certain southern states are always behind and fail to render their expected quota4 ,the accurate methods used by ,dr4 ,woods in this investigation leave no room for doubt that in almost every way ,massachusetts has regularly produced twice as many eminent men as its population would lead one to expect1 and has for some ranks and types of achievement produced about four times the expectation4 ,scott ,nearing's studies#aba confirm those of ,dr4 ,woods4 ,taking the most distinguished men and women ,america has produced1 he found that the number produced in ,new ,england1 per #ajj1jjj population1 was much larger than that produced by any other part of the country4 ,rhode ,island1 the poorest ,new ,england state in this respect1 was yet #cj above ,new ,york1 the best state outside ,new ,england4 ,the advantage of ,new ,england1 however1 he found to be rapidly decreasing4 ,of the eminent persons born before #ahej1 #cj were ,new ,englanders although the population of ,new ,england in #ahej was only #aa4h of that of the whole country4 ,but of the eminent younger men1--those born between #ahhj and #ahhi1 ,new ,england1 with #g4e of the country's population1 could claim only #ab of the genius4 ,cambridge1 ,mass41 has produced more eminent younger men of the present time than any other city1 he discovered1 but the cities which come next in order are ,nashville1 ,tenn41 ,columbus1 ,ohio1 ,lynn1 ,mass41 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,portland1 ,ore41 ,hartford1 ,conn41 ,boston1 ,mass41 ,new ,haven1 ,conn41 ,kansas ,city1 ,mo41 and ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,there is reason to believe that some of the old ,new ,england stock1 which emigrated to the ,west1 retains a higher fecundity than does that part of the stock which remains on the ,atlantic seaboard4 ,this fact1 while a gratifying one1 of course does not compensate for the low fertility of the families which still live in ,new ,england4 ,within this section of the population1 the decline is undoubtedly taking place faster in some parts than in others4 ,statistical evidence is not available1 to tell a great deal about this1 but the birth-rate for the graduates of some of the leading women's colleges is known1 and their student bodies are made up largely of girls of superior stork4 ,at ,wellesley1 the graph in ,fig4 #cf shows at a glance just what is happening4 ,briefly1 the graduates of that college contribute less than one child apiece to the race4 ,the classes do not even reproduce their own numbers4 ,instead of the #c4g children which1 according to ,sprague's calculation1 they ought to bear1 they are bearing 4#hf of a child4 ,the foregoing study is one of the few to carefully distinguish between families which were complete at the time of study and those families where additional children may yet be born4 ,in the studies to follow this distinction may in some cases be made by the reader in interpreting the data while in other cases families having some years of possible productiveness ahead are included with others and the relative proportion of the types is not indicated4 ,the error in these cases is therefore important and the reader is warned to accept them only with a mental allowance for this factor4 ,the best students make an even worse showing in this respect4 ,the ,wellesley alumn who are members of ,phi ,beta ,kappa1--that is1 the superior scholars--have not 4#hf of a child each1 but only 4#fe of a child2 while the holders of the ,durant and ,wellesley scholarships1 awarded for intellectual superiority1#abb make the following pathetic showing in comparison with the whole class4 ,,wellesley ,,college ,graduates of '#ja1 '#jb1 '#jc1 '#jd1 ,status of ,fall of #aiab ,all ,durant or ,wellesley scholars ,per cent married #dd #ce ,number of children3 ,per graduate 4#cg 4#bj ,per wife 4#hg 4#eg ,it must not be thought that ,wellesley's record is an exception1 for most of the large women's colleges furnish deplorable figures4 ,mount ,holyoke's record is3 ,children per ,children per ,decade of graduation married graduate graduate #ahdb-ahdi #b4gg #b4cg #ahej-ahei #c4ch #b4ee #ahfj-ahfi #b4fd #a4fj #ahgj-ahgi #b4ge #a4fc #ahhj-ahhi #b4ed #a4df #ahij-ahib #a4ia #j4ie ,nor can graduation from ,bryn ,mawr ,college be said to favor motherhood4 ,by the #cgf alumn graduated there between #ahhh and #aijj1 only #ach children had been produced up to ,jan4 #a1 #aiac4 ,this makes 4#hd of a child per married alumna1 or 4#cg of a child per graduate1 since less than half of the graduates marry4 ,these are the figures published by the college administration4 ,professor ,sprague's tabulation of the careers of ,vassar college graduates1 made from official records of the college1 is worth quoting in full1 for the light it throws on the histories of college girls1 after they leave college3 ,,classes ,,from #ahfg ,,to #ahib ,number of graduates #iei ,number that taught #dca 7#de7 ,number that married #eji 7#ec7 ,number that did not marry #dej 7#dg7 ,number that taught and afterward married #aff 7#ci of all who taught7 ,number that taught1 married and had children #aab 7#fg of all who taught and married7 ,number that taught1 married and were childless #ed 7#cc7 ,number of children of those who taught and had children #bhg 7#a4gc children per family7 ,number of children of those who married but did not teach #fhf 7#b per married graduate that did not teach7 ,total number of children of all graduates #igc 7#a child per graduate7 ,average number of children per married graduate #a4ia ,average number of children per graduate #a4jj ,,classes ,,from #ahfg ,,to #aijj ,number of graduates #agci ,number that taught #hjj 7#df7 ,number that married #hed 7#di7 ,number that did not marry #hhe 7#ea7 ,number that taught and afterward married #bid 7#ca7 ,number that taught1 married and had children #bjc 7#fi of all who taught and married7 ,number that taught1 married and were childless #ia 7#ca7 ,number of children of those who taught and had children #dfc 7#a4eg children per family7 ,number of children of those who married but did not teach #ajbe 7#b each7 ,total number of children of all graduates #adhh 74#h child per graduate7 ,average number of children per married graduate #a4gd 7per married graduate7 ,average number of children per graduate #j4h ,if the women's colleges were fulfilling what the writers consider to be their duty toward their students1 their graduates would have a higher marriage and birth-rate than that of their sisters1 cousins and friends who do not go to college4 ,but the reverse is the case4 ,m4 ,r4 ,smith's investigation showed the comparison between college girls and girls of equivalent social position and of the same or similar families1 as follows3 ,number of ,per cent childless children at time ,college #a4fe #be4cf ,equivalent ,non-,college #a4hgd #ag4hi ,now if education is tending toward race suicide1 then the writers believe there is something wrong with modern educational methods4 ,and certainly all statistics available point to the fact that girls who have been in such an atmosphere as that of some colleges for four years1 are1 from a eugenic point of view1 of diminished value to the race4 ,this is not an argument against higher education for women1 but it is a potent argument for a different kind of higher education than many of the colleges of ,america are now giving them4 ,this is one of the causes for the decline of the birth-rate in the old ,american stock4 ,but of course it is only one4 ,a very large number of causes are unquestionably at work to the same end1 and the result can be adequately changed only if it is analyzed into as many of its component parts as possible1 and each one of these dealt with separately4 ,the writers have emphasized the shortcoming of women's colleges1 because it is easily demonstrated and1 they believe1 relatively easily mitigated4 ,but the record of men's colleges is not beyond criticism4 ,miss ,smith found that among the college graduates of the #ahth century in ,new ,england1 only #b remained unmarried1 while in the ,yale classes of #ahfa-ahgi1 #ba never married1 and of the ,harvard graduates from #ahgj-ahgi #bf remained single4 ,the average number of children per ,harvard graduate of the earlier period was found to be #c4dd1 for the latest period studied #a4ib4 ,among the ,yale graduates it was found that the number of children per father had declined from #e4af to #b4ee4 ,illustration3 ,,birth ,,rate ,,of ,,harvard ,,and ,,yale ,,graduates ,,fig4 #cg4--;,during the period under consideration it declined steadily1 although marriage was about as frequent and as early at the end as at the beginning of the period4 ,it is necessary to suppose that the decline in the birth rate is due principally to voluntary limitation of families4 ,j4 ,c4 ,phillips1 who made the above graph1 thinks that since #ahij the birth rate among these college graduates may be tending slightly to rise again4 ,figures were obtained from some other colleges1 which are incomplete and should be taken with reservation4 ,their incompleteness probably led the number of children to be considerably underestimated4 ,at ,amherst1 #ahgb-ahgi1 it was found that #dd of the #ddj graduates of the period remained unmarried4 ,the average number of children per married man was #a4gb4 ,at ,wesleyan it was found that #bj of the #bjh graduates1 from #ahfc to #ahgj1 remained single2 the average number of children per married man was #b4ca4 ,the only satisfactory study of the birth-rate of graduates of men's colleges is that recently made by ,john ,c4 ,phillips from the class lists of ,harvard and ,yale1 #ahej-ahij1 summarized in the accompanying graph 7,fig4 #cg74 ,in discussing his findings1 ,dr4 ,phillips writes3 ,roughly1 the number of children born per capita per married graduate has fallen from about #c4be in the first decade to #b4ej in the last decade4 ,the per cent of graduates marrying has remained about the same for forty years1 and is a trifle higher for ,yale2 but the low figure1 #fh for the first decade of ,harvard1 is probably due to faulty records1 and must not be taken as significant4 ,the next most interesting figure is the ',children ,surviving per ,capita per ,graduate4' ,this has fallen from over #b4ej to about #a4i4 ,the per cent of childless marriages increased very markedly during the first two decades and held nearly level for the last two decades4 ,for the last decade at ,yale it has even dropped slightly1 an encouraging sign4 ,it is worthy of note that the number of children born to ,yale graduates is almost constantly a trifle higher than that for ,harvard1 while the number of childless marriages is slightly less4 ,this is probably owing to the larger proportion of ,harvard students living in a large city4 ,if the birth-rate of graduates both of separate men's colleges and of separate women's colleges is alarmingly low1 that of graduates of coeducational institutions is not always satisfactory1 either4 ,to some extent the low birth-rate is a characteristic of educated people1 without regard to the precise nature of their education4 ,in a study of the graduates of ,syracuse ,university1 one of the oldest coeducational colleges of the eastern ,united ,states1 ,h4 ,j4 ,banker found#abc that the number of children declined with each decade4 ,thus married women graduates prior to the ,civil ,war had #b surviving children each2 in the last decade of the nineteenth century they had only one4 ,for married men graduates1 the number of surviving children had fallen in the same length of time from #b4fb to #a4ch4 ,when all graduates1 married or not1 are counted in the decade #ahib-aija1 it is found that the men of ,syracuse have contributed to the next generation one surviving child each1 the women only half a child apiece4 ,dr4 ,cattell's investigation of the families of #a1jjj contemporary ,american men of science all of which were probably not complete however1 shows that they leave1 on the average1 less than two surviving children4 ,only one family in #ge is larger than six1 and #bb of them are childless4 ,obviously1 as far as those families are concerned1 there will be fewer men of inherent scientific eminence in the next generation than in this4 ,the decline in the birth-rate is sometimes attributed to the fact that people as a whole are marrying later than they used to2 we have already shown that this idea is1 on the whole1 false4 ,the idea that people as a whole are marrying less than they used to is also1 as we have shown1 mistaken4 ,the decline in the general birth-rate can be attributed to only one fact1 and that is that married people are having fewer children4 ,the percentage of childless wives in the ,american stock is steadily increasing4 ,dr4 ,crum's figures show the following percentage of childless wives1 in the ,new ,england genealogies with which he worked3 #agej-agii #a4hh #ahjj-ahdi #d4jg #ahej-ahfi #e4ia #ahgj-ahgi #h4aj ,j4 ,a4 ,hill#abd found1 from the #aiaj census figures1 that one in eight of the native-born wives is childless1 as compared with one in five among the ,negroes1 one in nineteen among the foreign born4 ,childlessness of ,american wives is therefore a considerable1 although not a preponderant factor1 in this decline of the birth rate4 ,dr4 ,hill further found that from #aj marriages1 in various stocks1 the following numbers of children could be expected3 ,native-born women #bg ,negro-born women #ca ,english-born women #cd ,russian-born women #ed ,french ,canada-born women #ef ,polish-born women #fb ,the women of the old ,american stock are on the whole more sterile or1 if not sterile1 less fecund1 than other women in the ,united ,states4 ,why8 ,in answer1 various physiological causes are often alleged4 ,it is said that the dissemination of venereal diseases has caused an increase of sterility2 that luxurious living lowers fecundity1 and so on4 ,it is impossible to take the time to analyze the many explanations of this sort which have been offered1 and which are familiar to the reader2 we must content ourselves with saying that evidence of a great many kinds1 largely statistical and1 in our opinion1 reliable1 indicates that physiological causes play a minor part in the decrease of the birth-rate4#abe ,or1 plainly1 women no longer bear as many children1 because they don't want to4 ,this accords with ,dr4 ,cattel's inquiry of #dfa ,american men of science2 in #bhe cases it was stated that the family was voluntarily limited1 the cause being given as health in #acc cases1 expense in #ih cases1 and various in #ed cases4 ,sidney ,webb's investigation among intellectuals in ,london showed an even greater proportion of voluntary limitation4 ,the exhaustive investigation of the ,galton ,laboratory of ,national ,eugenics leaves little room for doubt that in ,england the decline in the birth-rate began about #ahgf-gh1 when the trial of ,charles ,bradlaugh and the ,theosophist leader1 ,mrs4 ,annie ,besant1 on the charge of circulating neo-,malthusian literature1 focused public attention on the possibility of birth control1 and gradually brought a knowledge of the means of contraception within reach of many4 ,in the ,united ,states statistics are lacking1 but medical men and others in a position to form opinions generally agree that the limitation of births has been steadily increasing for the last few decades2 and with the propaganda at present going on1 it is pretty sure to increase much more rapidly during the next decade or two4 ,some instructive results can be drawn1 in this connection1 from a study of the families of ,methodist clergymen in the ,united ,states4#abf ,although #ih out of every hundred of them marry1 and they marry early1 the birth-rate is not high4 ,its distribution is presented in the accompanying graph 7,fig4 #ch74 ,it is evident that they have tended to standardize the two-child family which is so much in evidence among college professors and educated classes generally1 all over the world4 ,the presence of a considerable number of large families raises the average number of surviving children of prominent ,methodists to #c4ab4 ,and in so explaining the cause of the declining birth-rate among native-born ,americans1 we have also found the principal reason for the differential nature of the decline in the nation at large1 which is the feature that alarms the eugenist4 ,the more intelligent and well-to-do part of the population has been able to get and use the needed information1 and limit its birth-rate2 the poor and ignorant has been less able to do so1 and their rate of increase has therefore been more natural in a large percentage of cases4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 that many eugenists should have advocated wider dissemination of the knowledge of means of limiting births1 with the idea that if this practice were extended to the lower classes1 their birth-rate would decrease just the same as has that of the upper classes1 and the alarming differential rate would therefore be abolished4 ,illustration3 ,,families ,,of ,,prominent ,,methodists ,,fig4 #ch4--,the heavy line shows the distribution of families of prominent ,methodists 7mostly clergymen7 who married only once4 ,eleven percent had no surviving children and nearly half of the families consisted of two children or less4 ,the dotted line shows the families of those who were twice married4 ,it would naturally be expected that two women would bear considerably more children than one woman1 but as an average fact it appears that a second wife means the addition of only half a child to the minister's family4 ,it is impossible to avoid the conclusion that the birth-rate in these families is determined more by the desire of the parents 7based on economic grounds7 than on the natural fecundity of the women4 ,in other words1 the number of children is limited to the number whom the minister can afford to bring up on his inadequate salary4 ,against this it might be argued that the desired result will never be wholly attained1 because the most effective means of birth control involve some expense1 and because their effective use presupposes a certain amount of foresight and self-control which is not always found among the lower strata of society4 ,despite certain dangers accompanying a widespread dissemination of the knowledge of how to limit births1 it seems to be the opinion of most eugenists that if free access to such information be not permitted that at least such knowledge ought to be given in many families1 where it would be to the advantage of society that fewer children be produced4 ,such a step1 of course1 must be taken on the individual responsibility of a doctor1 nurse or other social worker4 ,a propaganda has arisen during recent years1 in the ,united ,states1 for the repeal of all laws which prohibit giving knowledge about and selling contraceptives4 ,whether or not it succeeds in changing the law it will1 like the ,bradlaugh-,besant episode1 spread contraception widely4 ,this propaganda is based largely on social and economic grounds1 and is sometimes unscientific in its methods and avowed aims4 ,but whatever its nature may be1 there seems little reason 7judging from analogy in ,european countries7 to believe that it can be stopped4 ,the infant mortality movement also has an effect here which is rarely recognized4 ,it is a stock argument of birth control propagandists that a high birth-rate means a high rate of infant mortality2 but ,a4 ,o4 ,powys has demonstrated that cause and effect are to some extent reversed in this statement1 and that it is equally true that a high rate of infant mortality means a high birth-rate1 in a section of the population where birth control is not practiced4 ,the explanation is the familiar fact that conception takes place less often in nursing mothers4 ,but if a child dies early or is bottle-fed1 a new conception is likely to occur much sooner than would otherwise be the case4 ,by reducing infant mortality and teaching mothers to feed their babies naturally1 the infant mortality movement is thereby reducing the birth-rate in the poorer part of the population1 a eugenic service which to some extent offsets the dysgenic results that1 as we shall show in the last chapter1 follow the ,save the ,babies propaganda4 ,with the spread of the birth control and infant mortality movements one may therefore look forward to some diminution of the differential element in the birth-rate1 together with a further decline in that birth-rate as a whole4 ,such a situation1 which seems to us almost a certainty within the next decade or two1 will not change the duty of eugenics1 on which we have been insisting in this chapter and1 to a large extent1 throughout the present book4 ,it will be just as necessary as ever that the families which are1 and have been in the past1 of the greatest benefit and value to the country1 have a higher birth-rate4 ,the greatest task of eugenics1 as we see it1 will still be to find means by which the birth-rate among such families can be increased4 ,this increase in the birth-rate among superior people must depend largely on a change in public sentiment4 ,such a change may be brought about in many ways4 ,the authority of religion may be invoked1 as it is by the ,roman ,catholic and ,mormon churches#abg whose communicants are constantly taught that fecundity is a virtue and voluntary sterility a sin4 ,unfortunately their appeal fails to make proper discriminations4 ,whatever may be the theological reasons for such an attitude on the part of the churches1 its practical eugenic significance is clear enough4 ,nothing can be more certain than that1 if present conditions continue1 ,roman ,catholics will soon be in an overwhelming preponderance in the eastern ,united ,states1 because of the differential birth-rate1 if for no other reason2 and that the ,mormon population will steadily gain ground in the west4 ,similarly1 it is alleged that the population of ,france is gradually assuming the characteristics of the ,breton race1 because that race is the notably fecund section of the population1 while nearly all the other components of the nation are committing race suicide 7although not so rapidly as is the old white stock in ,new ,england74 ,again1 the rle of religion in eugenics is shown in ,china1 where ancestor worship leads to a desire for children1 and makes it a disgrace to be childless4 ,a process analogous to natural selection applies to religions much as it does to races2 and if the ,chinese religion1 with its requirement of a high birth-rate1 and the present-day ,american ,protestant form of the ,christian religion1 with its lack of eugenic teaching1 should come into direct competition1 under equal conditions of environment1 it is obvious that the ,chinese form would be the eventual survivor1 just because its adherents would steadily increase and those of its rival would as steadily decrease4 ,such a situation may seem fanciful2 yet the leaders of every church may well consider whether the religion which they preach is calculated to fill all the needs of its adherents1 if it is silent on the subject of eugenics4 ,the influence of economic factors on the birth-rate is marked4 ,the child1 under modern urban conditions1 is not an economic asset1 as he was on the farm in earlier days4 ,he is an economic liability instead4 ,and with the constant rise of the standard of living1 with the increase of taxation1 the child steadily becomes more of a liability4 ,many married people desire children1 or more children1 but feel that they can not have them without sacrificing something that they are unwilling to sacrifice4 ,analysis of this increase in the cost of children1 reveals not less than five main elements which deserve attention from eugenists4 #a4 ,it costs more to clothe children than it used to4 ,not only does clothing of a given quality cost more now than it did a decade or two ago1 but there are more fabrics and designs available1 and many of these1 while attractive1 are costly and not durable4 ,compliance to fashion has increasingly made itself felt in the clothing of the child4 #b4 ,it costs more to feed them than it used to4 ,not only has food for everyone increased in price1 but the standards for feeding children have been raised4 ,once children were expected to be content with plain fare2 now it is more frequently the custom to give them just what the rest of the family eats4 #c4 ,the cost of medical attention has increased4 ,all demand more of the doctors now than they did in the last generation4 ,the doctors are able to do more than they formerly could1 and particularly for his children1 every man wants the best that he can possibly afford4 ,hence medical attendance for a child is constantly becoming more costly1 because more frequent2 and further1 the amount of money which parents spend on medical attendance for their children usually increases with any increase in their income4 #d4 ,the cost of domestic labor is greater4 ,most kinds of domestic service have more than doubled in price within the memory of relatively young people4 ,moreover1 it is gradually being realized that a high standard is desirable in selecting a nurse for children4 ,as a fact1 a children's nurse ought to have much greater qualifications than the nurse whose duty is to care for sick adults4 ,if a mother is obliged to delegate part of the work of bringing up her children to some other woman1 she is beginning to recognize that this substitute mother should have superior ability2 and the teachers of subconscious psychology have emphasized the importance of giving a child only the best possible intellectual surroundings4 ,ignorant nursemaids are unwillingly tolerated1 and as the number of competent assistants for mothers is very small1 the cost is correspondingly high4 ,an increase in the number of persons trained for such work is to be anticipated1 but it is likely that the demand for them will grow even more rapidly2 hence there is no reason to expect that competent domestic help will become any less costly than it is now4 #e4 ,the standards of education have risen steadily4 ,there is perhaps no other feature which has tended more to limit families4 ,conscientious parents have often determined to have no more children than they could afford to educate in the best possible way4 ,this meant at least a college education1 and frequently has led to one and two-child families4 ,it is a motive of birth control which calls for condemnation4 ,the old idea of valuable mental discipline for all kinds of mental work to be gained from protracted difficult formal education is now rejected by educational psychologists1 but its prevalence in the popular mind serves to make higher education still something of a fetish1 from which marvelous results1 not capable of precise comprehension1 are anticipated4 ,we do not disparage the value of a college education1 in saying that parents should not attach such importance to it as to lead them to limit their family to the number to whom they can give #bj years of education without pecuniary compensation4 ,the effect of these various factors in the increasing cost of children is to decrease fecundity not so much on the basis of income of parents1 as on the basis of their standards4 ,the prudent1 conscientious parent is therefore the one most affected1 and the reduction in births is greatest in that class1 where eugenics is most loth to see it4 ,the remedy appears to be a change in public opinion which will result in a truer idea of values4 ,some readjustments in family budgets are called for1 which will discriminate more clearly between expenditure that is worth while1 and that which is not4 ,without depriving his children of the best medical attention and education1 one may eliminate those invidious sources of expense which benefit neither the children nor anyone else1--overdressing1 for instance4 ,a simplification of life would not only enable superior people to have larger families1 but would often be an advantage to the children already born4 ,on the other hand1 the fact that higher standards in a population lead to fewer children suggests a valuable means of reducing the birth-rate of the inferior4 ,raise their low standards of living and they will reduce their own fertility voluntarily 7the birth control movement furnishing them with the possibility74 ,all educational work in the slums therefore is likely to have a valuable though indirect eugenic outcome4 ,the poor foreign-speaking areas in large cities1 where immigrants live huddled together in squalor1 should be broken up4 ,as these people are given new ideas of comfort1 and as their children are educated in ,american ways of living1 there is every reason to expect a decline in their birth-rate1 similar to that which has taken place among the native-born during the past generation4 ,this elevation of standards in the lower classes will be accomplished without any particular exertion from eugenists2 there are many agencies at work in this field1 although they rarely realize the result of their work which we have just pointed out4 ,but to effect a discriminating change in the standards of the more intelligent and better educated classes calls for a real effort on the part of all those who have the welfare of society at heart4 ,the difficulties are great enough and the obstacles are evident enough2 it is more encouraging to look at the other side1 and to see evidences that the public is awakening4 ,the events of every month show that the ideals of eugenics are filtering through the public mind more rapidly than some of us1 a decade ago1 felt justified in expecting4 ,there is a growing recognition of the danger of bad breeding2 a growing recognition in some quarters at least of the need for more children from the superior part of the population2 a growing outcry against the excessive standards of luxury that are making children themselves luxuries4 ,the number of those who call themselves eugenists1 or who are in sympathy with the aims of eugenics1 is increasing every year1 as is evidenced by the growth of such an organization as the ,american ,genetic ,association4 ,legislators show an eager desire to pass measures that as they 7too often wrongly7 believe will have a eugenic result4 ,most colleges and universities are teaching the principles of heredity1 and a great many of them add definite instruction in the principles of eugenics4 ,although the ultimate aim of eugenics--to raise the level of the whole human race--is perhaps as great an undertaking as the human mind can conceive1 the ,american nation shows distinct signs of a willingness to grapple with it4 ,and this book will have failed in its purpose1 if it has not convinced the reader that means are available for attacking the problem at many points1 and that immediate progress is not a mere dream4 ,one of the first necessary steps is a change in educational methods to give greater emphasis to parenthood4 ,and this change1 it is a great pleasure to be able to say1 is being made in many places4 ,the public schools are gradually beginning to teach mothercraft1 under various guises1 in many cities and the ,school of ,practical ,arts1 ,columbia ,univ41 gives a course in the ,physical ,care of the ,infant4 ,public and private institutions are beginning to recognize1 what has long been ignored1 that parenthood is one of the functions of men and women1 toward which their education should be directed4 ,every such step will tend1 we believe1 to increase the birth-rate among the superior classes of the community2 every such step is therefore1 indirectly if not directly1 a gain for eugenics2 for1 as we have emphasized time and again1 a change in public opinion1 to recognize parenthood as a beautiful and desirable thing1 is one of the first desiderata of the eugenics program4 ,the introduction of domestic science and its rapid spread are very gratifying1 yet there are serious shortcomings1 as rather too vigorously set forth by ,a4 ,e4 ,hamilton3 ,there are rows of little gas stoves over which prospective wives conduct culinary chemical experiments4 ,there are courses in biology1 something of physiology and hygiene1 the art of interior decoration and the science of washing clothes4 ,there is text-book sociology and sometimes lectures on heredity or eugenics4 ,but the smile of incredulity as to my seriousness when ,i asked a ,professor in the ,margaret ,morrison ,carnegie ,school a college of ,practical ,arts for ,women1 ',where are the babies8' is typical4 ,babies were impossible4 ,they would interfere with the curriculum1 there was no time for practice with babies1 and besides1 where could they be got1 and how could they be taken care of8 ,the students were altogether too busy with calories1 balanced rations1 and the history of medieval art4 ,perhaps the time is not so far distant when babies will be considered an integral part of a girl's curriculum4 ,if educators begin systematically to educate the emotions as well as the intellect1 they will have taken a long step toward increasing the birth-rate of the superior4 ,the next step will be to correlate income more truly with ability in such a way as to make it possible for superior young parents to afford children earlier4 ,the child ought1 if eugenically desirable1 to be made an asset rather than a liability2 if this can not be done1 the parents should at least not be penalized for having children4 ,in this chapter1 emphasis has been laid on the need for a change in public opinion2 in future chapters some economic and social reforms will be suggested1 which it is believed would tend to make superior parents feel willing to have more children4 ,the education of public opinion which1 acting through the many agencies named1 will gradually bring about an increase in the birth-rate of superior people1 will not be speedy2 but it has begun4 ,the writers1 therefore1 feel justified in thinking1 not solely as a matter of optimistic affirmation1 but because of the evidence available1 that the race suicide now taking place in the old ,american stock will soon reach its lowest limit1 and that thereafter the birth-rate in that particular stock will slowly rise4 ,if it does1 and if1 as seems probable1 the birth-rate in some inferior sections of the ,american population at the same time falls from its present level1 a change in the racial composition of the nation will take place1 which1 judged by past history1 is bound to be of great eugenic value4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,color ,,line ,a young white woman1 a graduate of a great university of the far ,north1 where ,negroes are seldom seen1 resented it most indignantly when she was threatened with social ostracism in a city farther ,south with a large ,negro population because she insisted upon receiving upon terms of social equality a ,negro man who had been her classmate4#abh ,the incident seems trivial4 ,but the phenomenon back of it1 the color line1 is so far-reaching that it deserves careful examination4 ,as the incident suggests1 the color line is not a universal phenomenon4 ,the ,germans appear to have little aversion to receiving ,negroes--in ,germany--on terms of equality4 ,these same ,germans1 when brought face to face with the question in their colonies1 or in the southern ,united ,states1 quickly change their attitude4 ,similarly a ,negro in ,great ,britain labors under much less disadvantage than he does among the ,british inhabitants of ,australia or ,south ,africa4 ,the color line therefore exists only as the result of race experience4 ,this fact alone is sufficient to suggest that one should not dismiss it lightly as the outgrowth of bigotry4 ,is is not perhaps a social adaptation with survival value8 ,the purpose of this chapter is to analyze society's unconscious reasoning which has led to the establishment of a color line--to the denial of social equality--wherever the white#abi and black races have long been in contact during recent history2 and to see whether this discrimination appears to be justified by eugenics4 ,j4 ,m4 ,mecklin#acj summarizes society's logic as follows3 ,when society permits the free social intercourse of two young persons of similar training and interests1 it tacitly gives its consent to the possible legitimate results of such relations1 namely1 marriage4 ,but marriage is not a matter that concerns the contracting parties alone2 it is social in its origin and from society come its sanctions4 ,it is society's legitimatised method for the perpetuation of the race in the larger and inclusive sense of a continuous racial type which shall be the bearer of a continuous and progressive civilization4 ,there are1 however1 within the community1 two racial groups of such widely divergent physical and psychic characteristics that the blending of the two destroys the purity of the type of both and introduces confusion--the result of the blend is a mongrel4 ,the preservation of the unbroken1 self-conscious existence of the white or dominant ethnic group is synonymous with the preservation of all that has meaning and inspiration in its past and hope for its future4 ,it forbids by law1 therefore1 or by the equally effective social taboo1 anything that would tend to contaminate the purity of its stock or jeopardize the integrity of its social heritage4 ,it is needless to say that the social mind does not consciously go through any such process of reasoning1 before it draws a color line4 ,the social mind rarely even attempts to justify its conclusions4 ,it merely holds a general attitude of superiority1 which in many cases appears to be nothing more than a feeling that another race is different4 ,in what way different8 ,the difference between the white race and the black 7or any other race7 might consist of two elements3 7#a7 differences in heredity--biological differences2 7#b7 differences in traditions1 environment1 customs--social differences1 in short4 ,a critical inquirer would want to know which kind of difference was greater1 for he would at once see that the second kind might be removed by education and other social forces1 while the first kind would be substantially permanent4 ,it is not difficult to find persons of prominence who will assert that all the differences between white and ,negro are differences of a social nature1 that the differences of a physical nature are negligible1 and that if the ,negro is given a chance the significant differences will disappear4 ,this attitude permeates the public school system of northern states4 ,a recent report on the condition of ,negro pupils in the ,new ,york ,city public schools professes to give few1 perhaps no1 recommendations that would not apply to the children of other races4 ,where the application is more true in regard to colored children1 it seems largely to be because of this lack of equal justice in the cases of their parents4 ,race weakness appears but this could easily be balanced by the same or similar weakness in other races4 ,given an education carefully adapted to his needs and a fair chance for employment1 the normal child of any race will succeed1 unless the burden of wrong home conditions lies too heavily upon him4#aca ,as the writer does not define what she means by succeed1 one is obliged to guess at what she means3 ,her anthropology is apparently similar to that of ,franz ,boas of ,columbia ,university1 who has said that1 ,no proof can be given of any material inferiority of the ,negro race2--without doubt the bulk of the individuals composing the race are equal in mental aptitude to the bulk of our own people4 ,if such a statement is wholly true1 the color line can hardly be justified1 but must be regarded1 as it is now the case sometimes1 as merely the expression of prejudice and ignorance4 ,if the only differences between white and black1 which can not be removed by education1 are of no real significance1--a chocolate hue of skin1 a certain kinkiness of hair1 and so on1--then logically the white race should remove the handicaps which lack of education and bad environment have placed on the ,negro1 and receive him on terms of perfect equality1 in business1 in politics1 and in marriage4 ,the proposition needs only to be stated in this frank form1 to arouse an instinctive protest on the part of most ,americans4 ,yet it has been urged in an almost equally frank form by many writers1 from the days of the abolitionists to the present1 and it seems to be the logical consequence of the position adopted by such anthropologists as ,professor ,boas1 and by the educators and others who proclaim that there are no significant differences between the ,negro and the white1 except such as are due to social conditions and which1 therefore1 can be removed4 ,but what are these social differences1 which it is the custom to dismiss in such a light-hearted way8 ,are they not based on fundamental incompatibilities of racial temperament1 which in turn are based on differences in heredity8 ,modern sociologists for the main part have no illusions as to the ease with which these differences in racial tradition and custom can be removed4 ,the social heritage of the ,negro has been described at great length and often with little regard for fact1 by hundreds of writers4 ,only a glance can be given the subject here1 but it may profitably be asked what the ,negro did when he was left to himself in ,africa4 ,the most striking feature of the ,african ,negro is the low forms of social organization1 the lack of industrial and political cooperation1 and consequently the almost entire absence of social and national self-consciousness4 ,this rather than intellectual inferiority explains the lack of social sympathy1 the presence of such barbarous institutions as cannibalism and slavery1 the low position of woman1 inefficiency in the industrial and mechanical arts1 the low type of group morals1 rudimentary art-sense1 lack of race-pride and self-assertiveness1 and in intellectual and religious life largely synonymous with fetishism and sorcery4#acb ,an elementary knowledge of the history of ,africa1 or the more recent and much-quoted example of ,haiti1 is sufficient to prove that the ,negro's own social heritage is at a level far below that of the whites among whom he is living in the ,united ,states4 ,no matter how much one may admire some of the ,negro's individual traits1 one must admit that his development of group traits is primitive1 and suggests a mental development which is also primitive4 ,if the number of original contributions which it has made to the world's civilization is any fair criterion of the relative value of a race1 then the ,negro race must be placed very near zero on the scale4#acc ,the following historical considerations suggest that in comparison with some other races the ,negro race is germinally lacking in the higher developments of intelligence3 #a4 ,that the ,negro race in ,africa has never1 by its own initiative1 risen much above barbarism1 although it has been exposed to a considerable range of environments and has had abundant time in which to bring to expression any inherited traits it may possess4 #b4 ,that when transplanted to a new environment--say1 ,haiti--and left to its own resources1 the ,negro race has shown the same inability to rise2 it has there1 indeed1 lost most of what it had acquired from the superior civilization of the ,french4 #c4 ,that when placed side by side with the white race1 the ,negro race again fails to come up to their standard1 or indeed to come anywhere near it4 ,it is often alleged that this third test is an unfair one2 that the social heritage of slavery must be eliminated before the ,negro can be expected to show his true worth4 ,but contrast his career in and after slavery with that of the ,mamelukes of ,egypt1 who were slaves1 but slaves of good stock4 ,they quickly rose to be the real rulers of the country4 ,again1 compare the record of the ,greek slaves in the ,roman republic and empire or that of the ,jews under ,islam4 ,without pushing these analogies too far1 is not one forced to conclude that the ,negro lacks in his germ-plasm excellence of some qualities which the white races possess1 and which are essential for success in competition with the civilizations of the white races at the present day8 ,if so1 it must be admitted not only that the ,negro is different from the white1 but that he is in the large eugenically inferior to the white4 ,this conclusion is based on the relative achievements of the race2 it must be tested by the more precise methods of the anthropological laboratory4 ,satisfactory studies of the ,negro should be much more numerous1 but there are a few informative ones4 ,physical characters are first to be considered4 ,as a result of the careful measurement of many skulls1 ,karl ,pearson#acd has come to the following conclusions3 ,there is for the best ascertainable characters a continuous relationship from the ,european skull1 through prehistoric ,european1 prehistoric ,egyptian1 ,congo-,gaboon ,negroes to ,zulus and ,kafirs4 ,the indication is that of a long differentiated evolution1 in which the ,negro lies nearer to the common stem than the ,european2 he is nearer to the childhood of man4 ,this does not prove any mental inferiority3 there is little or no relation between conformation of skull and mental qualities1 and it is a great mistake to make hasty inferences from physical to mental traits4 ,bean and ,mall have made studies directly on the brain1 but it is not possible to draw any sure conclusions from their work4 ,a4 ,hrdlicka found physical differences between the two races1 but did not study traits of any particular eugenic significance4 ,on the whole1 the studies of physical anthropologists offer little of interest for the present purpose4 ,studies of mental traits are more to the point1 but are unfortunately vitiated in many cases by the fact that no distinction was made between full-blood ,negroes and mulattoes1 although the presence of white blood must necessarily have a marked influence on the traits under consideration4 ,if the investigations are discounted when necessary for this reason1 it appears that in the more elementary mental processes the two races are approximately equal4 ,white and colored children in the ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 schools ranked equally well in memory2 the colored children were found to be somewhat the more sensitive to heat4#ace ,summing up the available evidence1 ,g4 ,o4 ,ferguson concludes that in the so-called lower traits there is no great difference between the ,negro and the white4 ,in motor capacity there is probably no appreciable racial difference4 ,in sense capacity1 in perceptive and discriminative ability1 there is likewise a practical equality4 ,this is what one would1 a priori1 probably expect4 ,but it is on the higher mental functions that race progress largely depends1 and the ,negro must be judged eugenically mainly by his showing in these higher functions4 ,one of the first studies in this line is that of ,m4 ,j4 ,mayo1#acf who summarizes it as follows3 ,the median age of white pupils at the time of entering high school in the city of ,new ,york is #ad years #f months3 of colored pupils #ae years #a month--a difference of #g months4 ,the average deviation for whites is #i months2 for colored #ae months4 ,twenty-seven per cent of the whites are as old as the median age of the colored or older4 ,colored pupils remain in school a greater length of time than do the whites4 ,for the case studied #aej white and #aej colored1 the average time spent in high school for white pupils was #c4h terms2 for colored #d4e terms4 ,about #bh of the whites attain the average time of attendance for colored4 ,considering the entire scholastic record1 the median mark of the #aej white pupils is #ff2 of the #aej colored pupils #fb2 a difference of #d4 ,the average deviation of white pupils is #g2 of colored #f4e4 ,twenty-nine per cent4 of the colored pupils reach or surpass the median mark of the whites4 ,the white pupils have a higher average standing in all subjects 444 the colored pupils are about #c_/d as efficient as the whites in the pursuit of high school studies4 ,this whole investigation is probably much too favorable to the ,negro race1 first because ,negro high school pupils represent a more careful selection than do the white pupils2 but most of all because no distinction was made between ,negroes and mulattoes4 ,b4 ,a4 ,phillips1 studying the public elementary schools of ,philadelphia1 found#acg that the percentage of retardation in the colored schools ranged from #gb4h to #eh4b1 while the percentage of retardation in the districts which contained the schools ranged from #de4a to #cc4c4 ,the average percentage of retardation for the city as a whole was #dj4c4 ,each of the colored schools had a greater percentage of retardation than any of the white schools1 even those composed almost entirely of foreigners1 and in those schools attended by both white and colored pupils the percentage of retardation on the whole varied directly with the percentage of colored pupils in attendance4 ,these facts might be interpreted in several ways4 ,it might be that the curriculum was not well adapted to the colored children1 or that they came from bad home environments1 or that they differed in age1 etc4 ,dr4 ,phillips accordingly undertook to get further light on the cause of retardation of the colored pupils by applying ,binet tests to white and colored children of the same chronological age and home conditions1 and found a difference in the acceleration between the two races of #ca in favor of the white boys1 #be in favor of the white girls1 #bh in favor of the white pupils with boys and girls combined4 ,a4 ,c4 ,strong1 using the ,binet-,simon tests1 found#ach colored school children of ,columbia1 ,s4 ,c41 considerably less intelligent than white children4 ,w4 ,h4 ,pyle made an extensive test#aci of #djh colored pupils in ,missouri public schools and compared them with white pupils4 ,he concludes3 ,in general the marks indicating mental ability of the ,negro are about two-thirds those of the whites4444 ,in the substitution1 controlled association1 and ,ebbinghaus tests1 the ,negroes are less than half as good as the whites4 ,in free association and the ink-blot tests they are nearly as good4 ,in quickness of perception and discrimination and in reaction1 the ,negroes equal or excel the whites4 ,perhaps the most important question that arises in connection with the results of these mental tests is3 ,how far is ability to pass them dependent on environmental conditions8 ,our tests show certain specific differences between ,negroes and whites4 ,what these differences would have been had the ,negroes been subject to the same environmental influences as the whites1 it is difficult to say4 ,the results obtained by separating the ,negroes into two social groups would lead one to think that the conditions of life under which the negroes live might account for the lower mentality of the ,negroes4 ,on the other hand1 it may be that the ,negroes living under better social conditions are of better stock4 ,they may have more white blood in them4 ,the most careful study yet made of the relative intelligence of ,negroes and whites is that of ,g4 ,o4 ,ferguson1 ,jr41#adj on #dhf white and #dba colored pupils in the schools of ,richmond1 ,fredericksburg1 and ,newport ,news1 ,va4 ,tests were employed which required the use of the higher functions1 and as far as possible 7mainly on the basis of skin-color7 the amount of white blood in the colored pupils was determined4 ,four classes were made3 full-blood ,negro1 #c_/d ,negro1 #a_/b ,negro 7mulatto7 and #a_/d ,negro 7quadroon74 ,it was found that the pure ,negroes scored #fi4b as high as the whites2 that the #c_/d pure ,negroes scored #gc4b as high as the whites2 that the mulattoes scored #ha4b as high as the whites2 and that the quadroons obtained #ia4h of the white score4 ,this confirms the belief of many observers that the ability of a colored man is proportionate to the amount of white blood he has4 ,summarizing a large body of evidence1 ,dr4 ,ferguson concludes that the intellectual performance of the general colored population is approximately #ge as efficient as that of the whites1 but that pure ,negroes have only #fj of white intellectual efficiency1 and that even this figure is probably too high4 ,it seems as though the white type has attained a higher level of development1 based upon the common elementary capacities1 which the ,negro has not reached to the same degree4 ,all of the experimental work which has been done has pointed to the same general conclusion4 ,this is a conclusion of much definiteness and value1 but it does not go as far as one might wish1 for the deeper racial differences of impulse and inhibition1 which are at present incapable of precise measurement1 are likewise of great importance4 ,and it is the common opinion that the ,negro differs in such traits even more than in intellect proper4 ,he is said to be lacking in that aggressive competitiveness which has been responsible for so much of the achievement of the ,nordic race2 it is alleged that his sexual impulses are strongly developed and inhibitions lacking2 that he has an instability of character1 involving a lack of foresight1 an improvidence1 a lack of persistence1 small power of serious initiative1 a tendency to be content with immediate satisfactions4 ,he appears to be more gregarious but less apt at organization than most races4 ,the significance of these differences depends largely on whether they are germinal1 or merely the results of social tradition4 ,in favor of the view that they are in large part racial and hereditary1 is the fact that they persist in all environments4 ,they are found1 as ,professor ,mecklin says1 ,only at the lower level of instinct1 impulse and temperament1 and do not1 therefore1 admit of clear definition because they are overlaid in the case of every individual with a mental superstructure gotten from the social heritage which may vary widely in the case of members of the same race4 ,that they do persist1 however1 is evidenced in the case of the ,negroes subjected to the very different types of civilization in ,haiti1 ,santo ,domingo1 the ,united ,states1 and ,jamaica4 ,in each of these cases a complete break has been made with the social traditions of ,africa and different civilizations have been substituted1 and yet in temperament and character the ,negro in all these countries is essentially the same4 ,the so-called 'reversion to type' often pointed out in the ,negro is in reality but the recrudescence of fundamental1 unchanged race traits upon the partial breakdown of the social heritage or the ,negro's failure successfully to appropriate it4 ,again1 as ,professor ,ferguson points out1 the experimental tests above cited may be thought to give some support to the idea that the emotional characteristics of the ,negro are really inherent4 ,strong and changing emotions1 an improvident character and a tendency to immoral conduct are not unallied1 he explains2 ,they are all rooted in uncontrolled impulse4 ,and a factor which may tend to produce all three is a deficient development of the more purely intellectual capacities4 ,where the implications of the ideas are not apprehended1 where thought is not lively and fertile1 where meanings and consequences are not grasped1 the need for the control of impulse will not be felt4 ,and the demonstrable deficiency of the ,negro in intellectual traits may involve the dynamic deficiencies which common opinion claims to exist4 ,there are other racial and heritable differences of much importance1 which are given too little recognition--namely1 the differences of disease resistance4 ,here one can speak unhesitatingly of a real inferiority in respect to the environment of ,north ,america4 ,as was pointed out in the chapter on ,natural ,selection1 the ,negro has been subjected to lethal selection for centuries by the ,negro diseases1 the diseases of tropical ,africa1 of which malaria and yellow fever are the most conspicuous examples4 ,the ,negro is strongly resistant to these and can live where the white man dies4 ,the white man1 on the other hand1 has his own diseases1 of which tuberculosis is an excellent example4 ,compared with the ,negro1 he is relatively resistant to phthisis and will survive where the ,negro dies4 ,when the two races are living side by side1 it is obvious that each is proving a menace to the other1 by acting as a disseminator of infection4 ,the white man kills the ,negro with tuberculosis and typhoid fever4 ,in ,north ,america the ,negro can not kill the white man with malaria or yellow fever1 to any great extent1 because these diseases do not flourish here4 ,but the ,negro has brought some other diseases here and given them to the white race2 elephantiasis is one example1 but the most conspicuous is hookworm1 the extent and seriousness of which have only recently been realized4 ,in the ,new ,england states the average expectation of life1 at birth1 is #ej4f years for native white males1 #cd4a years for ,negro males4 ,for native white females it is #ed4b years and for ,negro females #cg4g years1 according to the ,bureau of the ,census 7#aiaf74 ,these very considerable differences can not be wholly explained away by the fact that the ,negro is crowded into parts of the cities where the sanitation is worst4 ,they indicate that the ,negro is out of his environment4 ,in tropical ,africa1 to which the ,negro is adapted by many centuries of natural selection1 his expectation of life might be much longer than that of the white man4 ,in the ,united ,states he is much less fit1 in the ,darwinian sense4 ,in rural districts of the ,south1 according to ,c4 ,w4 ,stiles1 the annual typhoid death rate per #ajj1jjj population is3 ,whites ,negroes ,males #cg4d #ge4c ,females #bg4d #ef4c ,these figures again show1 not alone the greater intelligence of the white in matters of hygiene1 but probably also the greater inherent resistance of the white to a disease which has been attacking him for many centuries4 ,biologically1 ,north ,america is a white man's country1 not a ,negro's country1 and those who are considering the ,negro problem must remember that natural selection has not ceased acting on man4 ,from the foregoing different kinds of evidence1 we feel justified in concluding that the ,negro race differs greatly from the white race1 mentally as well as physically1 and that in many respects it may be said to be inferior1 when tested by the requirements of modern civilization and progress1 with particular reference to ,north ,america4 ,we return now to the question of intermarriage4 ,what is to be expected from the union of these diverse streams of descent8 ,the best answer would be to study and measure the mulattoes and their posterity1 in as many ways as possible4 ,no one has ever done this4 ,it is the custom to make no distinction whatever between mulatto and ,negro1 in the ,united ,states1 and thus the whole problem is beclouded4 ,there is some evidence from life insurance and medical sources1 that the mulatto stands above the ,negro but below the white in respect to his health4 ,there is considerable evidence that he occupies the same relation in the intellectual world2 it is a matter of general observation that nearly all the leaders of the ,negro race in the ,united ,states are not ,negroes but mulattoes4 ,without going into detail1 we feel perfectly safe in drawing this conclusion3 that in general the white race loses and the ,negro gains from miscegenation4 ,this applies1 of course1 only to the germinal nature4 ,taking into consideration the present social conditions in ,america1 it is doubtful whether either race gains4 ,but if social conditions be eliminated for the moment1 biologists may believe that intermarriage between the white and ,negro races represents1 on the whole1 an advance for the ,negro2 and that it represents for the white race a distinct loss4 ,if eugenics is to be thought of solely in terms of the white race1 there can be no hesitation about rendering a verdict4 ,we must unhesitatingly condemn miscegenation4 ,but there are those who declare that it is small and mean to take such a narrow view of the evolution of the race4 ,they would have ,america open its doors indiscriminately to immigration1 holding it a virtue to sacrifice one's self permanently for someone else's temporary happiness2 they would equally have the white race sacrifice itself for the ,negro1 by allowing a mingling of the two blood-streams4 ,that1 it is alleged1 is the true way to elevate the ,negro4 ,the question may well be considered from that point of view1 even though the validity of such a point of view is not admitted4 ,to ensure racial and social progress1 nothing will take the place of leadership1 of genius4 ,a race of nothing but mediocrities will stand still1 or very nearly so2 but a race of mediocrities with a good supply of men of exceptional ability and energy at the top1 will make progress in discovery1 invention and organization1 which is generally recognized as progressive evolution4 ,if the level of the white race be lowered1 it will hurt that race and be of little help to the ,negro4 ,if the white race be kept at such a level that its productivity of men of talent will be at a maximum1 everyone will progress2 for the ,negro benefits just as the white does from every forward step in science and art1 in industry and politics4 ,remembering that the white race in ,america is nine times as numerous as the black race1 we conclude that it would be desirable to encourage amalgamation of the two races only in case the average of mulattoes is superior to the average of the whites4 ,no one can seriously maintain that this supposition is true4 ,biologically1 therefore1 there is no reason to think that an increase in the number of mulattoes is desirable4 ,there is a curious argument in circulation1 which points out that mulattoes are almost always the offspring of ,negro mothers and white fathers1 not of ,negro fathers and white mothers4 ,therefore1 it is said1 production of mulattoes does not mean at all a decrease in the number of white births1 but merely substitutes a number of mulatto births for an equivalent number of pure ,negro births4 ,it is therefore alleged that the production of mulattoes is in the long run a benefit1 elevating the ,negro race without impairing the white race4 ,but this argument assumes that most mulatto births are illegitimate1--a condition which eugenists do not sanction1 because it tends to disintegrate the family4 ,rather than such a condition1 the legitimate production of pure-blood ,negroes is preferable1 even though they be inferior in individual ability to the illegitimate mulattoes offered as a substitute4 ,there are not at the present time enough desirable white fathers in the country4 ,if desirable ones are set aside to produce mulattoes1 it would be a great loss to the nation2 while if the mulattoes are the offspring of eugenically undesirable white fathers1 then the product is not likely to be anything ,america wants4 ,from whatever standpoint we take1 we see nothing good to be said for miscegenation4#ada ,we have discussed the problem as a particular one between the blacks and whites but the argument will hold good when applied to any two races between which the differences are so marked that one may be considered decidedly inferior to the other4 ,society1--white society1--long ago reached the instinctive conclusion1 which seems to us a correct one1 that it must put a ban on intermarriage between two such races4 ,it has given expression to this feeling by passing laws to prohibit miscegenation in #bb states1 while six other states prohibit it in their constitutions4 ,there are thus #bb states which have attempted legally to prevent intermarriage of the white and black race4 ,while in #bj states there is no law on the subject1 it is needless to say that popular feeling about it is almost uniform1 and that the legislators of ,new ,england for instance would refuse to give their daughters in marriage to ,negroes1 even though they might the day before have voted down a proposed law to prohibit intermarriage on the ground that it was an expression of race prejudice4 ,in a majority of the states which have no legislation of this kind1 bills have been introduced during the last two or three years1 and have been defeated through the energetic interference of the ,national ,association for the ,advancement of ,colored ,people1 an organization of which ,oswald ,garrison ,villard is chairman of the ,board of ,directors and ,w4 ,e4 ,b4 ,du,bois1 a brilliant mulatto1 is ,director of ,publicity and ,research4 ,as this association represents a very large part of the more intelligent ,negro public opinion1 its attitude deserves careful consideration4 ,it is set forth summarily in a letter#adb which was addressed to legislators in various states1 as follows3 ,the ,national ,association for the ,advancement of ,colored ,people earnestly protests against the bill forbidding intermarriage between the races1 not because the ,association advocates intermarriage1 which it does not1 but primarily because whenever such laws have been enacted they have become a menace to the whole institution of matrimony1 leading directly to concubinage1 bastardy1 and the degradation of the ,negro woman4 ,no man-made law can stop the union of the races4 ,if intermarriage be wrong1 its prevention is best left to public opinion and to nature1 which wreaks its own fearful punishments on those who transgress its laws and sin against it4 ,we oppose the proposed statute in the language of ,william ,lloyd ,garrison in #ahdc1 in his successful campaign for the repeal of a similar law in ,massachusetts3 ',because it is not the province1 and does not belong to the power of any legislative assembly1 in a republican government1 to decide on the complexional affinity of those who choose to be united together in wedlock2 and it may as rationally decree that corpulent and lean1 tall and short1 strong and weak persons shall not be married to each other as that there must be an agreement in the complexion of the parties4' ,we oppose it for the physical reason that to prohibit such intermarriage would be publicly to acknowledge that black blood is a physical taint1 something no self-respecting colored man and woman can be asked to admit4 ,we oppose it for the moral reason that all such laws leave the colored girl absolutely helpless before the lust of the white man1 without the power to compel the seducer to marry4 ,the statistics of intermarriage in those states where it is permitted show this happens so infrequently as to make the whole matter of legislation unnecessary4 ,both races are practically in complete agreement on this question1 for colored people marry colored people1 and white marry whites1 the exceptions being few4 ,we earnestly urge upon you an unfavorable report on this bill4 ,legislation on the subject of marriage is clearly inside the province of government4 ,that such an argument as is quoted from ,william ,lloyd ,garrison can still be circulated in the ,united ,states and apparently carry weight1 is sufficient cause for one to feel pessimistic over the spread of the scientific spirit in this nation4 ,suffice it to say that on this point the ,national ,association is a century behind the times4 ,the following policy seems to us to be in accordance with modern science1 and yet meet all the legitimate arguments of the ,national ,association4 ,we will state our attitude as definitely as possible3 #a4 ,we hold that it is to the interests of the ,united ,states1 for the reasons given in this chapter1 to prevent further ,negro-white amalgamation4 #b4 ,the taboo of public opinion is not sufficient in all cases to prevent intermarriage1 and should be supplemented by law1 particularly as the ,united ,states have of late years received many white immigrants from other countries 7e4 g41 ,italy7 where the taboo is weak because the problem has never been pressing4 #c4 ,but to prevent intermarriage is only a small part of the solution1 since most mulattoes come from extramarital miscegenation4 ,the only solution of this1 which is compatible with the requirements of eugenics1 is not that of laissez faire1 suggested by the ,national ,association1 but an extension of the taboo1 and an extension of the laws1 to prohibit all sexual intercourse between the two races4 ,four states 7,louisiana1 ,nevada1 ,south ,dakota and ,alabama7 have already attempted to gain this end by law4 ,we believe it to be highly desirable that such laws should be enacted and enforced by all states4 ,a necessary preliminary would be to standardize the laws all over the ,union1 particularly with a view to agreement on what a ,negro legally is2 for in some states the legislation applies to one who is one-sixteenth1 or even less1 ,negro in descent1 while in other states it appears to refer only to full-blood or1 at the most1 half-blood individuals4 ,such legislation1 and what is more important1 such public opinion1 leading to a cessation of ,negro-white amalgamation1 we believe to be in the interests of national eugenics1 and to further the welfare of both of the races involved4 ,miscegenation can only lead to unhappiness under present social conditions and must1 we believe1 under any social conditions be biologically wrong4 ,we favor1 therefore1 the support of the taboo which society has placed on these mixed marriages1 as well as any legal action which can practicably be taken to make miscegenation between white and black impossible4 ,justice requires that the ,negro race be treated as kindly and considerately as possible1 with every economic and political concession that is consistent with the continued welfare of the nation4 ,such social equality and intercourse as might lead to marriage are not compatible with this welfare4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,immigration ,there are now in the ,united ,states some #ad1jjj1jjj foreign-born persons1 together with other millions of the sons and daughters of foreigners who although born on ,american soil have as yet been little assimilated to ,americanism4 ,this great body of aliens1 representing perhaps a fifth of the population1 is not a pool to be absorbed1 but a continuous1 inflowing stream1 which until the outbreak of the ,great ,war was steadily increasing in volume1 and of which the fountain-head is so inexhaustible as to appal the imagination4 ,from the beginning of the century1 the inflow averaged little less than a million a year1 and while about one-fifth of this represented a temporary migration1 four-fifths of it meant a permanent addition to the population of the ,new ,world4 ,the character of this stream will inevitably determine to a large extent the future of the ,american nation4 ,the direct biological results1 in race mixture1 are important enough1 although not easy to define4 ,the indirect results1 which are probably of no less importance to eugenics1 are so hard to follow that some students of the problem do not even realize their existence4 ,the ancestors of all white ,americans1 of course1 were immigrants not so very many generations ago4 ,but the earlier immigration was relatively homogeneous and stringently selected by the dangers of the voyage1 the hardships of life in a new country1 and the equality of opportunity where free competition drove the unfit to the wall4 ,there were few people of eminence in the families that came to colonize ,north ,america1 but there was a high average of sturdy virtues1 and a good deal of ability1 particularly in the ,puritan and ,huguenot invasions and in a part of that of ,virginia4 ,in the first three-quarters of the nineteenth century1 the number of these patriots and founders was greatly increased by the arrival of immigrants of similar racial stocks from ,ireland1 ,germany1 ,scandinavia1 and to a less extent from the other countries of northern and western ,europe4 ,these arrivals added strength to the ,united ,states1 particularly as a large part of them settled on farms4 ,this stream of immigration gradually dried up1 but was succeeded by a flood from a new source1--southern and eastern ,europe4 ,italians1 ,slavs1 ,poles1 ,magyars1 ,east ,european ,hebrews1 ,finns1 ,portuguese1 ,greeks1 ,roumanians and representatives of many other small nationalities began to seek fortunes in ,america4 ,the earlier immigration had been made up largely of those who sought escape from religious or political tyranny and came to settle permanent homes4 ,the newer immigration was made up1 on the whole1 of those who frankly sought wealth4 ,the difference in the reason for coming could not fail to mean a difference in selection of the immigrants1 quite apart from the change in the races4 ,last of all began an immigration of ,levantines1 of ,syrians1 ,armenians1 and other inhabitants of ,asiatic ,turkey4 ,beyond this region lie the great nations of ,asia1 oversaturated with population4 ,so far there has been little more than the threat of their overflow1 but the threat is certain to become a reality within a few years unless prevented by legal restriction4 ,the eugenic results of immigration are partly indirect and partly direct4 ,direct results follow if the newcomers are assimilated1--a word which we shall use rather narrowly to mean that free intermarriage takes place between them and all parts of the older population4 ,we shall discuss the direct results first1 the nature of which depends largely on whether the newcomers are racially homogeneous with the population already in the country4 ,if they are like1 the old and new will blend without difficulty4 ,the effects of the immigration then depend on whether the immigrants are better or worse in average quality than the older residents4 ,if as good or better1 they are valuable additions2 if inferior they are biologically a detriment4 ,but if the new arrivals are different1 if they represent a different subspecies of ,homo sapiens1 the question is more serious1 for it involves the problem of crossing races which are biologically more or less distinct4 ,genetics can throw some light on this problem4 ,waiving for the moment all question as to the relative quality of two distinct races1 what results are to be expected from crossing8 ,it 7#a7 gives an increase of vigor which diminishes in later generations and 7#b7 produces recombination of characters4 ,the first result may be disregarded1 for the various races of man are probably already much mixed1 and too closely related1 to give rise to much hybrid vigor in crosses4 ,the second result will be favorable or unfavorable1 depending on the characters which go into the cross2 and it is not possible to predict the result in human matings1 because the various racial characters are so ill known4 ,it is1 therefore1 not worth while here to discuss at length genetic theory4 ,in general it may be said that some valuable characters are likely to disappear1 as the result of such crosses1 and less desirable ones to take their place4 ,the great bulk of the population resulting from such racial crosses is likely to be more or less mongrel in nature4 ,finally1 some individuals will appear who combine the good characters of the two races1 without the bad ones4 ,the net result will therefore probably be some distinct gain1 but a greater loss4 ,there is danger that complex and valuable traits of a race will be broken down in the process of hybridization1 and that it will take a long time to bring them together again4 ,the old view that racial crosses lead fatally to race degeneration is no longer tenable1 but the view recently advanced1 that crosses are advantageous1 seems equally hasty4 ,w4 ,e4 ,castle has cited the ,pitcairn ,islanders and the ,boer-,hottentot mulattoes of ,south ,africa as evidence that wide crosses are productive of no evil results4 ,these cases may be admitted to show that such a hybrid race may be physically healthy1 but in respect of mental traits they hardly do more than suggest the conclusion we advanced in our chapter on the ,color ,line1--that such miscegenation is an advantage to the inferior race and a disadvantage to the superior one4 ,on the whole1 we believe wide racial crosses should be looked upon with suspicion by eugenists4 ,the colonizers of ,north ,america mostly belonged to the ,nordic race4#adc ,the earlier immigrants to the ,united ,states1--roughly1 those who came here before the ,civil ,war1--belonged mostly to the same stock1 and therefore mixed with the early settlers without difficulty4 ,the advantages of this immigration were offset by no impairment of racial homogeneity4 ,but the more recent immigration belongs mostly to other races1 principally the ,mediterranean and ,alpine4 ,even if these immigrants were superior on the average to the older population1 it is clear that their assimilation would not be an unmixed blessing1 for the evil of crossbreeding would partly offset the advantage of the addition of valuable new traits4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the average of the new immigration is inferior in quality1 or in so far as it is inferior in quality1 it is evident that it must represent biologically an almost unmixed evil2 it not only brings in new undesirable traits1 but injures the desirable ones already here4 ,e4 ,a4 ,ross has attempted to predict some of the changes that will take place in the population of the ,united ,states1 as a result of the immigration of the last half-century4#add ,it is reasonable1 he thinks1 to expect an early falling off in the frequency of good looks in the ,american people4 ,a diminution of stature1 a depreciation of morality1 an increase in gross fecundity1 and a considerable lowering of the level of average natural ability are among other results that he considers probable4 ,not only are the races represented in the later immigration in many cases inferior in average ability to the earlier immigrant races1 but ,america does not get the best1 or even a representative selection1#ade from the races which are now contributing to her population4 ,europe retains most of her brains1 but sends multitudes of the common and sub-common4 ,there is little sign of an intellectual element among the ,magyars1 ,russians1 ,south ,slavs1 ,italians1 ,greeks or ,portuguese who are now arriving4 ,this does not hold1 however1 for currents created by race discrimination or oppression4 ,the ,armenian1 ,syrian1 ,finnish and ,russo-,hebrew streams seem representative1 and the first wave of ,hebrews out of ,russia in the eighties was superior4 ,while the earlier immigration brought a liberal amount of intelligence and ability1 the later immigration 7roughly1 that of the last half century7 seems to have brought distinctly less4 ,it is at present principally an immigration of unskilled labor1 of vigorous1 ignorant peasants4 ,some of this is promoted by agents of transportation companies and others who stand to gain by stirring up the population of a country village in ,russia or ,hungary1 excite the illiterate peasants by stories of great wealth and freedom to be gained in the ,new ,world1 provide the immigrant with a ticket to ,new ,york and start him for ,ellis ,island4 ,naturally1 such immigration is predominantly male4 ,on the whole1 females make up one-third of the recent inflow1 but among some races--,greeks1 ,italians and ,roumanians1 for example--only one-fifth4 ,in amount of inherent ability these immigrants are not only less highly endowed than is desirable1 but they furnish1 despite weeding out1 altogether too large a proportion of the three ,d's--defectives1 delinquents and dependents4 ,in the single year #aiad more than #cc1jjj would-be immigrants were turned back1 about half of them because likely to become public charges4 ,the immigration law of #aijg1 amended in #aiaj1 #aiac and #aiag1 excludes the following classes of aliens from admission into the ,united ,states3 ,idiots1 imbeciles1 feeble-minded persons1 epileptics1 insane persons1 persons who have been insane within #e years previously2 persons who have had two or more attacks of insanity at any time previously or who are affected by constitutional psychopathic inferiority or chronic alcoholism2 paupers1 vagrants1 persons likely to become public charges2 professional beggars1 persons afflicted with tuberculosis or with a loathsome or contagious disease2 persons who have been convicted of a crime involving moral turpitude2 polygamists1 anarchists1 contract laborers1 prostitutes1 persons not comprehended within any one of the foregoing excluded classes who are found to be and are certified by the examining surgeon as being mentally or physically defective1 such mental or physical defect being of such a nature as to affect the ability of the alien to earn a living4 ,illustration3 ,,examining ,,immigrants ,,at ,,ellis ,,island1 ,,new ,,york ,,fig4 #ci4--,surgeons of the ,united ,states ,public ,health ,service test every immigrant1 physically and mentally1 in order to send back any who give promise of being undesirable additions to the population4 ,the above photograph shows how the examination of those whose condition has aroused suspicion1 is conducted4 ,the boy under the measuring bar1 in the foreground1 and the three immediately to the left of the desk1 are examples of congenital asthenia and poor physique2 two of the four were found to be dull mentally4 ,photograph from ,u4 ,s4 ,public ,health ,service4 ,despite the efficiency of the ,u4 ,s4 ,public ,health ,service1 it is quite impossible for its small staff to examine thoroughly every immigrant1 when three or four thousand arrive in a single day1 as has frequently happened at ,ellis ,island4 ,under such circumstances1 the medical officer must pass the immigrants with far too cursory an inspection4 ,it is not surprising that many whose mental defects are not of an obvious nature manage to slip through2 particularly if1 as is charged1#adf many of the undesirables are informed that the immigrant rush is greatest in ,march and ,april1 and therefore make it a point to arrive at that time1 knowing the medical inspection will be so overtaxed that they will have a better chance to get by4 ,the state hospitals of the ,atlantic states are rapidly filling up with foreign-born insane4#adg ,probably few of these were patently insane when they passed through the port of entry4 ,insanity1 it must be remembered1 is predominantly a disease of old age1 whereas the average alien on arrival is not old4 ,the mental weakness appears only after he has been here some years1 perhaps inevitably or perhaps because he finds his environment in1 say1 lower ,manhattan ,island is much more taxing to the brain than the simple surroundings of his farm overlooking the bay of ,naples4 ,the amount of crime attributable to certain sections of the more recent immigration is relatively large4 ,it was frequently stated to the members of the ,immigration ,commission in southern ,italy that crime had greatly diminished in many communities because most of the criminals had gone to ,america4 ,the amount of crime among immigrants in the ,united ,states is partly due to their age and sex distribution1 partly due to their concentration in cities1 partly to the bad environment from which they have sometimes come2 partly to inherent racial characteristics1 such as make crimes of violence frequent among the ,southern ,italians1 crimes of gain proportionately more frequent among the ,jews1 and violence when drunk more a characteristic of the ,slavs4 ,no restriction of immigration can wholly eliminate the criminal tendencies1 but1 says ,dr4 ,warne1#adh after balancing the two sides1 ,it still remains true that because of immigration we have a greater amount of pauperism and crime than would be the case if there were no immigration4 ,it is also an indisputable fact that with a better regulation of immigration the ,united ,states would have less of these social horrors4 ,to dwell too much on the undesirable character of part of the present immigration would be to lose perspective4 ,most of it consists of vigorous1 industrious1 ignorant peasants1 induced to come here in search of a better living than they can get at home4 ,but it is important to remember that if they come here and stay1 they are pretty certain to be assimilated sooner or later4 ,in cases superior to the average of the older population1 their arrival should be welcomed if not too racially diverse2 but if1 as we believe the record of their achievements shows1 a large part of the immigration is on the average inferior to the older population of the ,united ,states1 such are eugenically a detriment to the future progress of the race4 ,the direct biological result to be expected from the assimilation of such newcomers is the swamping of the best characteristics of the old ,american stock1 and a diminution of the average of intelligence of the whole country4 ,the interbreeding is too slow at present to be conspicuous1 and hence its effects are little noticed4 ,the foreigners tend to keep by themselves1 to form ,little ,italies1 ,little ,russias1 transplanted ,ghettoes and foreign quarters1 where they retain their native languages and customs and marry compatriots4 ,this condition of segregation can not last forever2 the process of amalgamation will be more rapid with each generation1 particularly because of the preponderance of males in the newer immigration who must marry outside their own race1 if they are to marry at all4 ,the direct results of immigration that lead to intermarriage with the older population are fairly easy to outline4 ,the indirect results1 which we shall now consider1 are more complex4 ,we have dealt so far only with the effects of an immigration that is assimilated2 but some immigration 7that from the ,orient1 for example7 is not assimilated2 other immigration remains unassimilated for a long time4 ,what are the eugenic consequences of an unassimilated immigration8 ,the presence of large numbers of immigrants who do not intermarry with the older stock will1 says ,t4 ,n4 ,carver1#adi inevitably mean one of three things3 #a4 ,geographical separation of races4 #b4 ,social separation of races 7as the color line in the ,south and to a large extent in the ,north1 between ,negroes and whites who yet live side by side74 #c4 ,continuous racial antagonism1 frequently breaking out into race war4 ,this third possibility has been at least threatened1 by the conflict between the white and yellow races in ,california1 and the conflict between whites and ,hindus in ,british ,columbia4 ,none of these alternatives is attractive4 ,the third is undesirable in every way and the first two are difficult to maintain4 ,the first is perhaps impossible2 the second is partly practicable1 as is shown by the case of the ,negro4 ,one of its drawbacks is not sufficiently recognized4 ,in a soundly-organized society1 it is necessary that the road should be open from top to bottom and bottom to top1 in order that genuine merit may get its deserts4 ,a valuable strain which appears at the bottom of the social scale must be able to make its way to the top1 receiving financial and other rewards commensurate with its value to the state1 and being able to produce a number of children proportionate to its reward and its value4 ,this is an ideal which is seldom approximated in government1 but it is the advantage of a democratic form of government that it presents the open road to success1 more than does an oligarchic government4 ,that this freedom of access to all rewards that the state can give should be open to every one 7and conversely that no one should be kept at the top and over-rewarded if he is unworthy7 is essential to eugenics2 but it is quite incompatible with the existence within the state of a number of isolated groups1 some of which must inevitably and properly be considered inferior4 ,it is certain that1 at the present time in this country1 no ,negro can take a place in the upper ranks of society1 which are and will long remain white4 ,the fact that this situation is inevitable makes it no less unfortunate for both ,negro and white races2 consolation can only be found in the thought that it is less of a danger than the opposite condition would be4 ,but this condition of class discrimination is likely to exist1 to a much less extent it is true1 in every city where there are foreign-born and native-born populations living side by side1 and where the epithets of ,sheeny1 ,dago1 ,wop1 ,kike1 ,greaser1 ,guinea1 etc41 testify to the feeling of the older population that it is superior4 ,while eugenic strength in a state is promoted by variety1 too great a heterogeneity offers serious social difficulties4 ,it is essential if ,america is to be strong eugenically that it slow down the flood of immigrants who are not easily assimilable4 ,at present a state of affairs is being created where class distinctions are likely to be barriers to the promotion of individual worth--and equally1 of course1 to the demotion of individual worthlessness4 ,even if an immigration is not assimilated1 then1 it yet has an indirect effect on eugenics4 ,but there are other indirect effects of immigration1 which are quite independent of assimilation3 they inhere in the mere bulk and economic character of the immigration4 ,the arrivals of the past few decades have been nearly all unskilled laborers4 ,professor ,carver believes that continuous immigration which enters the ranks of labor in larger proportion and the business and professional classes in a smaller proportion than the native-born will produce the following results3 #a4 ,distribution4 ,it will keep competition more intense among laborers and less intense among business and professional men3 it will therefore raise the income of the employing classes and lower the wages of unskilled labor4 #b4 ,production4 ,it will give a relatively low marginal productivity to a typical immigrant and make him a relatively unimportant factor in the production of wealth4 #c4 ,organization of industry4 ,immigrants can only be employed economically at low wages and in large gangs1 because of 7#b74 #d4 ,agriculture4 ,if large numbers of immigrants should go into agriculture1 it will mean one of two things1 probably the second3 7a7 ,continuous subdivision of farms resulting in inefficient and wasteful application of labor and smaller crops per man1 although probably larger crops per acre4 7b7 ,development of a class of landed proprietors on the one hand and a landless agricultural proletariat on the other4 ,it is true that the great mass of unskilled labor which has come to the ,united ,states in the last few decades has made possible the development of many industries that have furnished an increased number of good jobs to men of intelligence1 but many who have made a close study of the immigration problem think that despite this1 unskilled labor has been coming in altogether too large quantities4 ,professor ,ross publishes the following illustration3 ,what a college man saw in a copper-mine in the ,southwest gives in a nutshell the logic of low wages4 ,the ,american miners1 getting #b4ge a day1 are abruptly displaced without a strike by a train-load of #ejj raw ,italians brought in by the company and put to work at from #a4ej to #b a day4 ,for the ,americans there is nothing to do but to 'go down the road4' ,at first the ,italians live on bread and beer1 never wash1 wear the same filthy clothes night and day1 and are despised4 ,after two or three years they want to live better1 wear decent clothes1 and be respected4 ,they ask for more wages1 the bosses bring in another train-load from the steerage1 and the partly ,americanized ,italians follow the ,american miners 'down the road4' ,no wonder the estimate of government experts as to the number of our floating casual laborers ranges up to five millions6 ,it is claimed that the natives are not displaced by the constant inflow of alien unskilled labor1 says ,h4 ,p4 ,fairchild1#aej but that they are simply forced into higher occupations4 ,those who were formerly common laborers are now in positions of authority4 ,while this argument holds true of individuals1 its fallacy when applied to groups is obvious4 ,there are not nearly enough places of authority to receive those who are forced out from below4 ,the introduction of #ejj ,slav laborers into a community may make a demand for a dozen or a score of ,americans in higher positions1 but hardly for #ejj4 ,the number of unskilled workers coming in at the present time is sufficient to check decidedly the normal tendency toward an improved standard of living in many lines of industry1 in the opinion of ,j4 ,w4 ,jenks1 who was a member of the ,immigration ,commission appointed by ,president ,roosevelt in #aijg4 ,he alludes to the belief that instead of crowding the older workers out1 the aliens merely crowd them up1 and says that he himself formerly held that view2 but the figures collected by the ,immigration commission1 from a sufficient number of industries in different sections of the country to give general conclusions1 prove beyond a doubt that in a good many cases these incoming immigrants actually drive out into other localities and into other unskilled trades large numbers of ,american workingmen and workingmen of the earlier immigration who do not get better positions but1 rather1 worse ones4444 ,professor ,lauck1 our chief superintendent of investigators in the field1 and1 so far as ,i am aware1 every single investigator in the field1 before the work ended1 reached the conclusion from personal observation that the tendency of the large percentage of immigration of unskilled workers is clearly to lower the standard of living in a number of industries1 and the statistics of the commission support this impression4 ,i therefore changed my earlier views4 ,if the immigration of large quantities of unskilled labor with low standards of living tends in most cases to depress wages and lower the standard of living of the corresponding class of the old ,american population1 the consequences would appear to be3 #a4 ,the employers of labor would profit1 since they would get abundant labor at low wages4 ,if this increase in the wealth of employers led to an increase in their birth-rate1 it would be an advantage4 ,but it apparently does not4 ,the birth-rate of the employing class is probably little restricted by financial difficulties2 therefore on them immigration probably has no immediate eugenic effect4 #b4 ,the ,american skilled laborers would profit1 since there is more demand for skilled labor in industries created by unskilled immigrant labor4 ,would the increasing prosperity and a higher standard of living here1 tend to lower the relative birth-rate of the class or not8 ,the answer probably depends on the extent of the knowledge of birth control which has been discussed elsewhere4 #c4 ,the wages and standard of living of ,american unskilled laborers will fall1 since they are obliged directly to compete with the newcomers4 ,it seems most likely that a fall in wages and standards is correlated with a fall in birth-rate4 ,this case must be distinguished from cases where the wages and standards never were high1 and where poverty is correlated with a high birth-rate4 ,if this distinction is correct1 the present immigration will tend to lower the birth-rate of ,american unskilled laborers4 ,the arguments here used may appear paradoxical1 and have little statistical support1 but they seem to us sound and not in contradiction with any known facts4 ,if they are valid1 the effect of such immigration as the ,united ,states has been receiving is to reduce the birth-rate of the unskilled labor with little or no effect on the employers and managers of labor4 ,since both the character and the volume of immigration are at fault1 remedial measures may be applied to either one or both of these features4 ,it is very desirable that we have a much more stringent selection of immigrants than is made at the present time4 ,but most of the measures which have been actually proposed and urged in recent years have been directed at a diminution of the volume1 and at a change in character only by somewhat indirect and indiscriminate means4 ,the ,immigration ,commission made a report to ,congress on ,dec4 #e1 #aiaj1 in which it suggested the following possible methods of restricting the volume of immigration3 #a4 ,the exclusion of those unable to read and write in some language4 #b4 ,the reduction of the number of each race arriving each year to a certain percentage of the average of that race arriving during a given period of years4 #c4 ,the exclusion of unskilled laborers unaccompanied by wives or families4 #d4 ,material increase in the amount of money required to be in the possession of the immigrant at the port of arrival4 #e4 ,material increase in the head tax4 #f4 ,limitation of the number of immigrants arriving annually at any port4 #g4 ,the levying of the head tax so as to make a marked discrimination in favor of men with families4 ,eugenically1 it is probable that 7#c7 and 7#g71 which would tend to admit only families1 would be a detriment to ,american welfare2 7#a7 and 7#b7 have been the suggestions which have met with the most favor4 ,all but one member of the commission favored 7#a71 the literacy test1 as the most feasible single method of restricting undesirable immigration1 and it was enacted into law by ,congress1 which passed it over ,president ,wilson's veto1 in ,february1 #aiag4 ,records for #aiad show that illiteracy among the total number of arrivals of each race ranged all the way from #fd for the ,turkish to less than #a for the ,english1 the ,scotch1 the ,welsh1 the ,scandinavian1 and the ,finnish4 ,the ,bohemian and ,moravian1 the ,german1 and the ,irish each had less than #e illiterate4 ,races other than the ,turkish1 whose immigration in #aiad was more than one-third illiterate1 include the ,dalmatians1 ,bosnians1 ,herzegovinians1 ,russians1 ,ruthenians1 ,italians1 ,lithuanians1 and ,roumanians4 ,it is frankly admitted by the proponents of this method of restriction that it will keep out some who ought to come in1 and let in some who ought to be kept out4 ,it is in some cases a test of opportunity rather than of character1 but in the belief of its advocates1 it will meet the situation as disclosed by the investigation of the ,immigration ,commission better than any other means that human ingenuity can devise4 ,it is believed that it would exclude more of the undesirable and fewer of the desirable immigrants than any other method of restriction4 ,on the other hand1 it is argued that the literacy test will fail of success because those who want to come will learn to read and write1 which will only delay their arrival a few months without changing their real character4 ,but the effect of such attempts will separate those who succeed from those who are too inferior to succeed1 which would be an advantage of the plan rather than a defect4 ,the second method of selection enumerated 7#b7 above1 was proposed by ,rev4 ,sidney ,l4 ,gulick1 particularly with a view to meeting the need of restriction of ,asiatic immigration4#aea ,this immigration will be discussed shortly1 but in the meantime the details of his plan may be presented4 ,only so many immigrants of any people should be admitted as we can ,americanize4 ,let the maximum permissible annual immigration from any people be a definite per cent4 7say five7 of the sum of the ,american-born children of that people plus those who have become naturalized of the same people4 ,let this restriction be imposed only upon adult males4 ,taking the #aiaj census as our basis1 the #e ,restriction ,proposal would have fixed the maximum permissible immigration of males from ,north and ,west ,europe at #gei1jjj annually1 while the actual annual immigration for the last #e years averages but #aae1jjj4 ,the permissible immigration from ,south and ,east ,europe would have been #ahi1jjj annually1 while the average for the last five years has been #cgb1jjj4 ,when applied to ,china1 the policy would have admitted #a1ajf males per year1 while the number admitted on the average for the last #e years has been #a1ega4 ,the proposal would provide for the admission of #a1bjj ,japanese annually1 here again resulting in the exclusion on the average of #a1bch males yearly during the years #aiaa-aiae4 ,no estimate is made here of the effect of the exclusion of males on the arrival of women and children4 ,the percentage restriction is unsatisfactory to a eugenist1 as not sufficiently discriminating4 ,the literary restriction has been a great step forward but should be backed by the addition of such mental tests as will make it fairly certain to keep out the dull-minded as well as feeble-minded4 ,long division would suffice as such a test until better tests relatively unaffected by schooling can be put into operation1 since it is at this point in the grades that so many dull-minded drop out of the schools4 ,oriental immigration is becoming an urgent problem1 and it is essential that its biological1 as well as its economic and sociological features be understood1 if it is to be solved in a satisfactory and reasonably permanent way4 ,in the foregoing discussion1 ,oriental immigration has hardly been taken into account2 it must now receive particular consideration4 ,what are the grounds1 then1 for forbidding the yellow races1 or the races of ,british ,india1 to enter the ,united ,states8 ,the considerations urged in the past have been 7#a7 ,political3 it is said that they are unable to acquire the spirit of ,american institutions4 ,this is an objection which concerns eugenics only indirectly4 7#b7 ,medical3 it is said that they introduce diseases1 such as the oriental liver1 lung and intestinal flukes1 which are serious1 against which ,americans have never been selected1 and for which no cure is known4 7#c7 ,economic3 it is argued that the ,oriental's lower standard of living makes it impossible for the white man to compete with him4 ,the objection is well founded1 and is indirectly of concern to eugenics1 as was pointed out in a preceding section of this chapter4 ,as eugenists we feel justified in objecting to the immigration of large bodies of unskilled ,oriental labor1 on the ground that they rear larger families than our stock on the same small incomes4 ,a biological objection has also been alleged1 in the possibility of interbreeding between the yellow and white races4 ,in the past such cases have been very rare2 it is authoritatively stated#aeb that there are on our whole ,pacific coast not more than #bj instances of intermarriage between ,americans and ,japanese1 and 444 one might count on the fingers of both hands the number of ,american-,chinese marriages between ,san ,diego and ,seattle4 ,the presence of a body of non-interbreeding immigrants is likely to produce the adverse results already discussed in the earlier part of this chapter4 ,eugenically1 then1 the immigration of any considerable number of unskilled laborers from the ,orient may have undesirable direct results and is certain to have unfavorable indirect results4 ,it should therefore be prevented1 either by a continuation of the gentlemen's agreement now in force between the ,united ,states and ,japan1 and by similar agreements with other nations1 or by some such non-invidious measure as that proposed by ,dr4 ,gulick4 ,this exclusion should not of course be applied to the intellectual classes1 whose presence here would offer advantages which would outweigh the disadvantages4 ,we have a different situation in the ,philippine islands1 there the yellow races have been denied admission since the ,united ,states took possession4 ,previously1 the ,chinese had been trading there for centuries1 and had settled in considerable numbers almost from the time the ,spaniards colonized the archipelago4 ,at present it is estimated that there are #ajj1jjj ,chinese in the islands1 and their situation was not put too strongly by ,a4 ,e4 ,jenks1 when he wrote3#aec ,as to the ,chinese1 it does not matter much what they themselves desire2 but what their descendants desire will go far toward answering the whole question of the ,filipinos' volition toward assimilation1 because they are the ,filipinos4 ,to be specific3 ,during the latter days of my residence in the ,islands in #aije ,governor-,general ,wright one day told me that he had recently personally received from one of the most distinguished ,filipinos of the time1 and a member of the ,insular ,civil ,commission1 the statement that 'there was not a single prominent and dominant family among the ,christianized ,filipinos which did not possess ,chinese blood4' ,the voice and will of the ,filipinos of to-day is the voice and the will of these brainy1 industrious1 rapidly developing men whose judgment in time the world is bound to respect4 ,this statement will be confirmed by almost any ,american resident in the ,islands4 ,most of the men who have risen to prominence in the ,islands are mestizos1 and while in political life some of the leaders are merely ,spanish metis1 the financial leaders almost without exception1 the captains of industry1 have ,chinese blood in their veins1 while this class has also taken an active part in the government of the archipelago4 ,emilio ,aguinaldo is one of the most conspicuous of the ,chinese mestizos4 ,individual examples might be multiplied without limit2 it will be sufficient to mention ,bautista ,lim1 president of the largest tobacco firm in the islands and also a physician2 his brother1 formerly an insurgent general and later governor of ,sampango province under the ,american administration2 the banker ,lim ,hap2 ,faustino ,lechoco1 cattle king of the ,philippines2 ,fernandez brothers1 proprietors of a steamship line2 ,locsin and ,lacson1 wealthy sugar planters2 ,mariano ,velasco1 dry-goods importer2 ,datto ,piang1 the ,moro warrior and chieftain2 ,paua1 insurgent general in southern ,luzon2 ,ricardo ,gochuico1 tobacco magnate4 ,in most of these men the proportion of ,chinese blood is large4 ,generalizing1 we are justified in saying that the cross between ,chinese and ,filipinos produces progeny superior to the ,filipinos4 ,it must be remembered that it is not a very wide cross1 the ,malayans1 who include most of the ,filipinos1 being closely related to the ,chinese4 ,it appears that even a small infusion of ,chinese blood may produce long-continued favorable results1 if the case of the ,ilocanos is correctly described4 ,this tribe1 in ,northern ,luzon1 furnishes perhaps the most industrious workers of any tribe in the islands2 foremen and overseers of ,filipinos are quite commonly found to be ,ilocanos1 while the members of the tribe are credited with accomplishing more steady work than any other element of the population4 ,the current explanation of this is that they are ,chinese mestizos3 their coast was constantly exposed the raids of ,chinese pirates1 a certain number of whom settled there and took ,ilocano women as wives4 ,from these unions1 the whole tribe in the course of time is thought to have benefited4#aed ,the history of the ,chinese in the ,philippines fails to corroborate the idea that he never loses his racial identity4 ,it must be borne in mind that nearly all the ,chinese in the ,united ,states are of the lowest working class1 and from the vicinity of ,canton2 while those in the ,philippines are of a higher class1 and largely from the neighborhood of ,amoy4 ,they have usually married ,filipino women of good families1 so their offspring had exceptional advantages1 and stand high in the estimation of the community4 ,the requirement of the ,spanish government was that a ,chinese must embrace ,christianity and become a citizen1 before he could marry a ,filipino4 ,usually he assumed his wife's name1 so the children were brought up wholly as ,filipinos1 and considered themselves such1 without cherishing any particular sentiment for the ,flowery ,kingdom4 ,the biologist who studies impartially the ,filipino peoples may easily conclude that the ,american government is making a mistake in excluding the ,chinese2 that the infiltration of intelligent ,chinese and their intermixture with the native population would do more to raise the level of ability of the latter than a dozen generations of that compulsory education on which the government has built such high hopes4 ,and this conclusion leads to the question whether much of the surplus population of the ,orient could not profitably be diverted to regions occupied by savage and barbarian people4 ,chinese immigrants1 mostly traders1 have long been going in small numbers to many such regions and have freely intermarried with native women4 ,it is a matter of common observation to travelers that much of the small mercantile business has passed into the hands of ,chinese mestizos4 ,as far as the first few generations1 at least1 the cross here seems to be productive of good results4 ,whether ,oriental immigration should be encouraged must depend on the decision of the respective governments1 and considerations other than biologic will have weight4 ,as far as eugenics is concerned it is likely that such regions would profit by a reasonable amount of ,chinese or ,japanese immigration which resulted in interbreeding and not in the formation of isolated race-groups1 because the superior ,orientals tend to raise the level of the native population into which they marry4 ,the question of the regulation of immigration is1 as we have insisted throughout this chapter1 a question of weighing the consequences4 ,a decision must be reached in each case by asking what course will do most for the future good both of the nation and of the whole species4 ,to talk of the sacred duty of offering an asylum to any who choose to come1 is to indulge in immoral sentimentality4 ,even if the problem be put on the most unselfish plane possible1 to ask not what will be for this country's own immediate or future benefit1 but what will most benefit the world at large1 it can only be concluded that the duty of the ,united ,states is to make itself strong1 efficient1 productive and progressive4 ,by so doing they will be much better able to help the rest of the world than by progressively weakening themselves through failure to regulate immigration4 ,further1 in reaching a decision on the regulation of immigration1 there are numerous kinds of results to be considered3 political1 social1 economic and biologic1 among others4 ,all these interact1 and it is hard to say that one is more important than another2 naturally we have limited ourselves to the biologic aspect1 but not without recognizing that the other aspects exist and must be taken into account by those who are experts in those fields4 ,looking only at the eugenic consequences1 we can not doubt that a considerable and discriminatory selection of immigrants to this country is necessary4 ,both directly and indirectly1 the immigration of recent years appears to be diminishing the eugenic strength of the nation more than it increases it4 ,the state would be in a stronger position eugenically 7and in many other ways7 if it would decrease the immigration of unskilled labor1 and increase the immigration of creative and directing talent4 ,a selective diminution of the volume of immigration would tend to have that result1 because it would necessarily shut out more of the unskilled than the skilled4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,war ,war always changes the composition of a nation2 but this change may be either a loss or a gain4 ,the modification of selection by war is far more manifold than the literature on the biological effects of war would lead the reader to suppose4 ,all wars are partly eugenic and partly dysgenic2 some are mainly the one1 some are mainly the other4 ,the racial effects of war occur in at least three periods3 #a4 ,the period of preparation4 #b4 ,the period of actual fighting4 #c4 ,the period of readjustment after the war4 ,the first division involves the effect of a standing army1 which withdraws men during a part of the reproductive period and keeps most of them in a celibate career4 ,the officers marry late if at all and show a very low birth-rate4 ,the prolonged celibacy has in many armies led to a higher incidence of venereal diseases which prolongs the celibacy and lowers the birthrate4#aee ,without extended discussion1 the following considerations may be named as among those which should govern a policy of military preparedness that will safeguard1 as far as possible1 the eugenic interests3 #a4 ,if the army is a standing one1 composed of men serving long terms of enlistment1 they should be of as advanced an age as is compatible with military efficiency4 ,if a man of #ce has not married1 it is probable that he will never marry1 and therefore there is less loss to the race in enrolling him for military service1 than is the case with a man of #bj-be4 #b4 ,the army 7except in so far as composed of inferior men7 should not foster celibacy4 ,short enlistments are probably the most valuable means of avoiding this evil4 #c4 ,universal conscription is much better than voluntary service1 since the latter is highly selective1 the former much less so4 ,those in regular attendance in college should receive their military training in their course as is now done4 #d4 ,officers' families should be given an additional allowance for each child4 ,this would aid in increasing the birth-rate1 which appears to be very low among army and navy officers in the ,united ,states service1 and probably in that of all civilized countries4 #e4 ,every citizen owes service to his nation1 in time of need1 but fighting service should not be exacted if some one else could perform it better than he where he is expert in some other needed field4 ,the recent action of ,england in sending to the front as subaltern officers1 who were speedily killed1 many highly trained technicians and young scientists and medical men who would have been much more valuable at home in connection with war measures1 is an example of this mistake4 ,carrying the idea farther1 one sees that in many nations there are certain races which are more valuable on the firing line than in industries at the rear2 and it appears that they should play the part for which they are best fitted4 ,from this point of view1 the ,entente allies were wholly justified in employing their ,asiatic and ,african subjects in war4 ,in the ,united ,states are millions of negroes who are of less value than white men in organized industry but almost as valuable as the whites1 when properly led1 at the front4 ,it would appear to be sound statesmanship to enlist as many ,negroes as possible in the active forces1 in case of war1 thus releasing a corresponding number of more skilled white workers for the industrial machine on whose efficiency success in modern warfare largely rests4 ,the creation of the ,national ,army in the ,united ,states1 in #aiag1 while in most ways admirably conducted1 was open to criticism in several respects1 from the eugenic point of view3 7a7 ,too many college men and men in intellectual pursuits were taken as officers1 particularly in the aviation corps4 ,there should have been more men employed as officers who had demonstrated the necessary qualifications1 as foremen and others accustomed to boss gangs of men4 7b7 ,the burden was thrown too heavily on the old white ,americans1 by the exemption of aliens1 who make up a large part of the population in some states4 ,there were communities in ,new ,england which actually could not fill their quotas1 even by taking every acceptable native-born resident1 so large is their alien population4 ,the quota should have been adjusted if aliens were to be exempt4 7c7 ,the district boards were not as liberal as was desirable1 in exempting from the first quota men needed in skilled work at home4 ,the spirit of the selective draft was widely violated1 and necessitated a complete change of method before the second quota was called by the much improved questionnaire method4 ,it is difficult to get such mistakes as these corrected2 nevertheless a nation should never lose sight of the fact that war is inevitably damaging1 and that the most successful nation is the one which wins its wars with the least possible eugenic loss4 ,leaving the period of preparedness1 we consider the period of open warfare4 ,the reader will remember that1 in an earlier chapter1 we divided natural selection into 7#a7 lethal1 that which operates through differential mortality2 7#b7 sexual1 that which operates through differential mating2 and 7#c7 fecundal1 that which operates through differential fecundity4 ,again1 selection operates both in an inter-group competition and an intra-group competition4 ,the influence of any agency on natural selection must be examined under each of these six heads4 ,in the case of war1 however1 fecundal selection may be eliminated1 as it is little influenced4 ,still another division arises from the fact that the action of selection is different during war upon the armed forces themselves and upon the population at home2 and after the war1 upon the nations with the various modifications that the war has left4 ,we will consider lethal selection first4 ,to measure the effect of the inter-group selection of the armed forces1 one must compare the relative quality of the two races involved4 ,the evidence for believing in substantial differences between races is based 7a7 upon their relative achievement when each is isolated1 7b7 upon the relative rank when the two are competing in one society1 and 7c7 upon the relative number of original contributions to civilization each has made4 ,such comparisons are fatal to the sentimental equalitarianism that denies race differences4 ,while there is1 of course1 a great deal of overlapping1 there are1 nevertheless1 real average differences4 ,to think otherwise is to discard evolution and revert to the older standpoint of special creation4 ,comparison of the quality of the two sides is sometimes1 of course1 very difficult4 ,one may feel little hesitation in giving a decision in the classical war of the ,greeks and ,persians1 or the more modern case of the ,english and ,afghans1 but when considering the ,franco-,prussian war1 or the ,russo-,japanese war1 or the ,boer war1 or the ,american civil war1 it is largely a matter of mere opinion1 and perhaps an advantage can hardly be conceded to either side4 ,those who1 misunderstanding the doctrine of evolution1 adhere to the so-called philosophy of force1 would answer without hesitation that the side which won was1 ipso facto1 the better side4 ,but such a judgment is based on numerous fallacies1 and can not be indorsed in the sweeping way it is uttered4 ,take a concrete example3 ,in #ahjf1 ,prussia was defeated at the battle of ,jena4 ,according to the philosophy of force1 this was because ,prussia was 'inferior' and ,france was 'superior4' ,suppose we admit for the moment that this was the case4 ,the selection now represents the survival of the fittest1 the selection which perfects the human species4 ,but what shall we say of the battle of ,leipsic8 ,at ,leipsic1 in #ahac1 all the values were reversed2 it is now ,france which is the 'inferior' nation4444 ,furthermore1 a large number of the same generals and soldiers who took part in the battle of ,jena also took part in the battle of ,leipsic4 ,napoleon belonged1 therefore1 to a race which was superior to that of ,blcher in #ahjf1 but to an inferior race in #ahac1 in spite of the fact that they were the same persons and had not changed their nationality4 ,as soon as we bring these assertions to the touchstone of concrete reality we see at once how untenable and even ridiculous are direct biological comparisons4#aef ,without going into further detail1 it is readily seen that1 on the world at large1 the eugenic effect of a war would be very different according as the sides differ much or little4 ,yet this difference in quality1 however great1 will have no significance1 unless the superior or inferior side is in general more likely to lose fewer men4 ,where the difference has been considerable1 as between a civilized and savage nation1 it has been seldom that the superior has not triumphed with fewer losses4 ,victory1 however1 is influenced much less in these later days by the relative military efficiency of two single nations than by their success in making powerful alliances4 ,but such alignments are by no means always associated with better quality1 because 7a7 there is a natural tendency for the weak to unite against a strong nation1 7b7 to side with a group which is apparently succeeding1 and 7c7 the alliances may be the work of one or a few individuals who happen to be in positions of power at the critical time4 ,modern ,european wars1 especially the latest one1 have been marked by the high quality of the combatants on both sides relative to the rest of the world4 ,as these same races fight with pertinacity1 there is a high mortality rate1 so that the dysgenic result of these wars is particularly deplorable4 ,as for the selection taking place within each of the struggling nations1 the combatants and the non-combatants of the same age and sex must first be compared4 ,the difference here depends largely on how the army in question was raised4 ,where the army is a permanent1 paid force1 it probably does not represent a quality above the average of the nation1 except physically4 ,when it is conscripted1 it is superior physically and probably slightly in other respects4 ,if it is a volunteer army1 its quality depends largely on whether the cause being fought for is one that appeals merely to the spirit of adventure or one that appeals to some moral principle4 ,in the latter case1 the quality may be such that the loss of a large part of the army will be peculiarly damaging to the progress of the race4 ,this situation is more common than might be supposed1 for by skillful diplomacy and journalism a cause which may be really questionable is presented to the public in a most idealistic light4 ,but here1 again1 one can not always apply sweeping generalizations to individual cases4 ,it might be supposed1 for instance1 that in the ,confederate army the best eugenic quality was represented by the volunteers1 the second best by those who stayed out until they were conscripted1 and the poorest by the deserters4 ,yet ,david ,starr ,jordan and ,harvey ,ernest ,jordan1 who investigated the case with care1 found that this was hardly true and that1 due to the peculiar circumstances1 the deserters were probably not as a class eugenically inferior to the volunteers4#aeg ,again some wars1 such as that between the ,united ,states and ,spain1 probably develop a volunteer army made up largely of the adventurous1 the nomadic1 and those who have fewer ties2 it would be difficult to demonstrate that they are superior to those who1 having settled positions at home1 or family obligations1 fail to volunteer4 ,the greatest damage appears to be done in such wars as those waged by great ,european nations1 where the whole able-bodied male population is called out1 and only those left at home who are physically or mentally unfit for fighting--but not1 it appears to be thought1 unfit to perpetuate the race4 ,even within the army of one side1 lethal selection is operative4 ,those who are killed are by no means a haphazard sample of the whole army4 ,among the victims there is a disproportionate representation of those with 7#a7 dauntless bravery1 7#b7 recklessness1 7#c7 stupidity4 ,these qualities merge into each other1 yet in their extremes they are widely different4 ,however1 as the nature of warfare changes with the increase of artillery1 mines1 bombs1 and gases1 and decrease of personal combat1 those who fall are more and more chance victims4 ,in addition to the killed and mortally wounded1 there are many deaths from disease or from wounds which were not necessarily fatal4 ,probably the most selective of any of these three agencies is the variable resistance to disease and infection and the widely varying knowledge and appreciation of the need for hygienic living shown by the individual1 as1 for instance1 by less reckless drinking of unsterilized water4 ,but here1 too1 in modern warfare1 this item is becoming less selective1 with the advance in discipline and in organized sanitation4 ,the efficiency of selection will be affected by the percentage that each side has sent to the front1 if the combatants are either above or below the average of the population4 ,a nation that sends all its able-bodied males forward will be affected differently from its enemy that has needed to call upon only one-half of its able-bodied men in order to win its cause4 ,away from the fighting lines of the contending sides1 conditions that prevail are rendered more severe in many ways than in times of peace4 ,poverty becomes rife1 and sanitation and medical treatment are commonly sacrificed under the strain4 ,during a war1 that mitigation of the action of natural selection which is so common now among civilized nations1 is somewhat less effective than in times of peace4 ,the scourge of typhus in ,serbia is a recent and graphic illustration4 ,after a war has been concluded1 certain new agencies of inter-group selection arise4 ,the result depends largely on whether the vanquished have had a superior culture brought to them1 as in the case of the ,philippines1 or whether1 on the contrary1 certain diseases have been introduced1 as to the natives of the ,new ,world by the ,spanish conquerors and explorers1 or crushing tribute has been levied1 or grievous oppression such as has befallen ,belgium4 ,sometimes the conquerors themselves have suffered severely as the result of excessive spoliation1 which has produced vicious idleness and luxurious indulgence1 with the ultimate effect of diminishing the birth-rate4 ,within the nation there may be various results4 ,sometimes1 by the reduction of overcrowding1 natural selection will be less severe4 ,on the other hand1 the loss of that part of the population which is more economically productive is a very serious loss1 leading to excessive poverty with increased severity in the action of natural selection1 of which some of the ,southern ,states1 during the ,reconstruction period1 offer a good illustration4 ,selection is also rendered more intense by the heavy burden of taxation1 and in the very common depreciation of currency as is now felt in ,russia4 ,sexual selection as well as lethal is affected by war in manifold ways4 ,considering the armed force1 there is an inter-group selection1 when the enemy's women are assaulted by the soldiers4 ,while this has been an important factor in the past1 it is somewhat less common now1 with better army discipline and higher social ideals4 ,within the group1 mating at the outset of a war is greatly increased by many hurried marriages4 ,there is also alleged to be sometimes an increase of illegitimacy in the neighborhood of training camps4 ,in each of these instances1 these matings do not represent as much maturity of judgment as there would have been in times of peace1 and hence give a less desirable sexual selection4 ,in the belligerent nation at home1 the number of marriageable males is of course far less than at ordinary times4 ,it becomes important1 then1 to compare the quality of the non-combatants and those combatants who survive and return home1 since their absence during the war period of course decreases their reproduction as compared with the non-combatants4 ,the marked excess of women over men1 both during the war and after1 necessarily intensifies the selection of women and proportionately reduces that of men1 since relatively fewer men will remain unmated4 ,this excess of women is found in all classes4 ,among superiors there are1 in addition1 some women who never marry because the war has so reduced the number of suitors thought eligible4 ,the five years' war of ,paraguay with ,brazil1 ,uruguay and ,argentina 7#ahfd-ahfi7 is perhaps the most glaring case on record#aeh in recent years of the destruction of the male population of a country4 ,whole regiments were made up of boys of #af or less4 ,at the beginning of the war the population of ,paraguay had been given as #a1ccg1dcg4 ,it fell to #bba1gji 7#bh1gdf men1 #ajf1bed women1 #hf1jgi children72 it is even now probably not more than half of the estimate made at the beginning of the war4 ,here in a small area has occurred a drastic case of racial ravage without parallel since the time of the ,thirty ,years' ,war4 ,macedonia1 however1 furnishes a fairly close parallel--,d4 ,s4 ,jordan found whole villages there in #aiac in which not a single man remained3 only women and children4 ,conditions were not so very much better in parts of the ,south at the close of the ,civil ,war1 particularly in ,virginia and ,north ,carolina1 where probably #dj of the young men of reproductive age died without issue4 ,and in a few of the ,northern states1 such as ,vermont1 ,connecticut and ,massachusetts1 the loss was proportionately almost as great4 ,these were probably as good men as any country has produced1 and their loss1 with that of their potential offspring1 undoubtedly is causing more far-reaching effects in the subsequent history of the ,united ,states than has ever been realized4 ,in the past and still among many savage peoples1 inter-group selection has been affected by the stealing of women from the vanquished4 ,the effect of this has been very different1 depending on whether these women would otherwise have been killed or spared1 and also depending on the relative quality of their nation to that of their conquerors4 ,to sum up1 there are so many features of natural selection1 each of which must be separately weighed and the whole then balanced1 that it is a matter of extensive inquiry to determine whether a certain war has a preponderance of eugenic or dysgenic results4 ,when the quality of the combatants is so high1 compared with the rest of the world1 as during the ,great ,war1 no conceivable eugenic gains from the war can offset the losses4 ,it is probably well within the facts to assume that the period of this war represents a decline in inherent human quality1 greater than in any similar length of time in the previous history of the world4 ,unfortunately1 it does not appear that war is becoming much less common if we consider number of combatants rather than number of wars as times goes on1#aei and it steadily tends to be more destructive4 ,war1 then1 offers one of the greatest problems which the eugenist must face1 for a few months of war may undo all that eugenic reforms can gain in a generation4 ,the total abolition of war would1 of course1 be the ideal1 but there is no possibility of this in the near future4 ,the fighting instinct1 it must be remembered1 is one of the most primitive and powerful that the human mechanism contains4 ,it was evolved in great intensity1 to give man supremacy over his environment--for the great struggle for existence is with the environment1 not with members of one's own species4 ,man long ago conquered the environment so successfully that he has never since had to exert himself in physical combat in this direction2 but the fighting instinct remained and could not be baulked without causing uneasiness4 ,spurred on by a complex set of psychological and economic stimuli1 man took to fighting his own kind1 to a degree that no other species shows4 ,now contrary to what the militarist philosophers affirm1 this particular sort of struggle for existence is not a necessity to the further progressive evolution of the race4 ,on the contrary it more frequently reverses evolution and makes the race go backward1 rather than forward4 ,the struggle for existence which makes the race progress is principally that of the species with its environment1 not that of some members of the species with others4 ,if the latter struggle could be supplanted by the former then racial evolution would go ahead steadily without the continuous reversals that warfare now gives4 ,william ,james saw1 we believe1 the true solution of the problem of militarism1 when he wrote his famous essay on ,the ,moral ,equivalent of ,war4 ,here is man1 full of fighting instinct which will not be baulked4 ,what is he to do8 ,professor ,james suggested that the youth of the nation be conscripted to fight the environment1 thus getting the fight out of its system and rendering a real service to the race by constructive reclamation work1 instead of slaying each other and thus turning the hands of the evolutionary clock backward4 ,when education has given everyone the evolutionary and eugenic view of man as a species adapted to his environment1 it may be possible to work out some such solution as this of ,james4 ,the only immediate course of action open seems to be to seek1 if possible1 to diminish the frequency of war by subduing nations which start wars and1 by the organization of a ,league to ,enforce ,peace2 to avoid war-provoking conquests2 to diminish as much as possible the disastrous effects of war when it does come1 and to work for the progress of science and the diffusion of knowledge which will eventually make possible the greater step1 effective international organization4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,genealogy ,,and ,,eugenics ,scientific plant breeders to-day have learned that their success often depends on the care with which they study the genealogy of their plants4 ,live-stock breeders admit that their profession is on a sure scientific basis only to the extent that the genealogy of the animals used is known4 ,human genealogy is one of the oldest manifestations of man's intellectual activity1 but until recently it has been subservient to sentimental purposes1 or pursued from historical or legal motives4 ,biology has had no place in it4 ,genealogy1 however1 has not altogether escaped the re-examination which all sciences received after the ,darwinian movement revolutionized modern thought4 ,numerous ways have been pointed out in which it could be brought into line with the new way of looking at man and his world4 ,the field of genealogy has already been invaded at many points by biologists1 seeking the furtherance of their own aims4 ,it will be worth while to discuss briefly the relations between the conventional genealogy and eugenics4 ,it may be that genealogy could become an even more valuable branch of human knowledge than it now is1 if it were more closely aligned with biology4 ,in order to test this possibility1 one must inquire3 7#a7 ,what is genealogy8 7#b7 ,what does it now attempt to do8 7#c7 ,what faults1 from the eugenist's standpoint1 seem to exist in present genealogical methods8 7#d7 ,what additions should be made to the present methods8 7#e7 ,what can be expected of it1 after it is revised in accordance with the ideas of the eugenist8 ,the answer to the first question1 ,what is genealogy8 may be brief4 ,genealogy may be envisaged from several points4 ,it serves history4 ,it has a legal function1 which is of more consequence abroad than in ,america4 ,it has social significance1 in bolstering family pride and creating a feeling of family solidarity--this is perhaps its chief office in the ,united ,states4 ,it has1 or can have1 biological significance1 and this in two ways3 either in relation to pure science or applied science4 ,in connection with pure science1 its function is to furnish means for getting knowledge of the laws of heredity4 ,in application1 its function is to furnish a knowledge of the inherited characters of any given individual1 in order to make it possible for the individual to find his place in the world and1 in particular1 to marry wisely4 ,it is obvious that the use of genealogy in the applied science of eugenics is dependent on previous research by geneticists2 for marriage matings which take account of heredity can not be made unless the mode of inheritance of human traits has previously been discovered4 ,the historical1 social1 legal and other aspects of genealogy do not concern the present discussion4 ,we shall discuss only the biological aspect2 not only because it alone is germane to the present book1 but because we consider it to have by far the greatest true value1 accepting the criterion of value as that which increases the welfare of mankind4 ,by this criterion1 the historical1 legal and social aspects of genealogy will be seen1 with a little reflection1 to be of secondary importance to its biological aspect4 7#b7 ,genealogy now is too often looked upon as an end in itself4 ,it would be recognized as a science of much greater value to the world if it were considered not an end but a means to a far greater end than it alone can supply4 ,it has1 indeed1 been contended1 even by such an authority as ,ottokar ,lorenz1 who is often called the father of modern scientific genealogy1 that a knowledge of his own ancestry will tell each individual exactly what he himself is4 ,this appears to be the basis of ,lorenz's valuation of genealogy4 ,it is a step in the right direction3 but 7#c7 ,the present methods of genealogy are inadequate to support such a claim4 ,its methods are still based mainly on the historical1 legal and social functions4 ,a few of the faults of method in genealogy1 which the eugenist most deplores1 are3 7a7 ,the information which is of most value is exactly that which genealogy ordinarily does not furnish4 ,dates of birth1 death and marriage of an ancestor are of interest1 but of limited biological importance4 ,the facts about that ancestor which vitally concern his living descendant are the facts of his character1 physical and mental2 and these facts are given in very few genealogies4 ,illustration3 ,,line ,,of ,,ascent ,,that ,,carries ,,the ,,family ,,name ,,fig4 #dj4--;,in some pedigrees1 particularly those dealing with antiquity1 the only part known is the line of ascent which carries the family name1--what animal breeders call the tail-male4 ,in such cases it is evident that from the point of view of a geneticist practically nothing is known4 ,how insignificant any single line of ascent is1 by comparison with the whole ancestry1 even for a few generations1 is graphically shown by the above chart4 ,it is assumed in this chart that no cousin marriages took place4 7b7 ,genealogies are commonly too incomplete to be of real value4 ,sometimes they deal only with the direct male line of ascent--the line that bears the family name1 or what animal breeders call the tail-male4 ,in this case1 it is not too much to say that they are nearly devoid of genuine value4 ,it is customary to imagine that there is some special virtue inherent in that line of descent which carries the family name4 ,some one remarks1 for instance1 to ,mr4 ,jones that he seems to be fond of the sea4 ,yes1 he replies1 ,you know the ,joneses have been sailors for many generations4 ,but the small contribution of heredity made to an individual by the line of descent carrying his family name1 in comparison with the rest of his ancestry1 may be seen from ,fig4 #dj4 ,such incomplete pedigrees are rarely published nowadays1 but in studying historic characters1 one frequently finds nothing more than the single line of ascent in the family name4 ,fortunately1 ,american genealogies rarely go to this extreme1 unless it be in the earliest generations2 but it is common enough for them to deal only with the direct ancestors of the individual1 omitting all brothers and sisters of those ancestors4 ,although this simplifies the work of the genealogist immensely1 it deprives it of value to a corresponding degree4 7c7 ,as the purpose of genealogy in this country has been largely social1 it is to be feared that in too many cases discreditable data have been tacitly omitted from the records4 ,the anti-social individual1 the feeble-minded1 the insane1 the alcoholic1 the generally no-count1 has been glossed over4 ,such a lack of candor is not in accord with the scientific spirit1 and makes one uncertain1 in the use of genealogies1 to what extent one is really getting all the facts4 ,there are few families of any size which have not one such member or more1 not many generations removed4 ,to attempt to conceal the fact is not only unethical but from the eugenist's point of view1 at any rate1 it is a falsification of records that must be regarded with great disapproval4 ,at present it is hard to say to what extent undesirable traits occur in the most distinguished families2 and it is of great importance that this should be learned4 ,maurice ,fishberg contends#afj that many ,jewish families are characterized by extremes1--that in each generation they have produced more ability and also more disability than would ordinarily be expected4 ,this seems to be true of some of the more prominent old ,american families as well4 ,on the other hand1 large families can be found1 such as the remarkable family of ,new ,england office-holders described by ,merton ,t4 ,goodrich1#afa in which there is a steady production of civic worth in every generation with almost no mental defectives or gross physical defectives4 ,in such a family there is a high sustained level4 ,it is such strains which eugenists wish especially to increase4 ,in this connection it is again worth noting that a really great man is rarely found in an ancestry devoid of ability4 ,this was pointed out in the first chapter1 but is certain to strike the genealogist's attention forcibly4 ,abraham ,lincoln is often quoted as an exception2 but more recent studies of his ancestry have shown that he is not really an exception2 that1 as ,ida ,m4 ,tarbell#afb says1 ,so far from his later career being unaccounted for in his origin and early history1 it is as fully accounted for as is the case of any man4 ,the ,lincoln family was one of the best in ,america1 and while ,abraham's own father was an eccentric person1 he was yet a man of considerable force of character1 by no means the poor white trash which he is often represented to have been4 ,the ,hanks family1 to which the ,emancipator's mother belonged1 had also maintained a high level of ability in every generation2 furthermore1 ,thomas ,lincoln and ,nancy ,hanks1 the parents of ,abraham ,lincoln1 were first cousins4 ,the more difficult cases1 for the eugenist1 are rather to be found in such ancestries as those of ,louis ,pasteur and ,michael ,faraday4 ,pasteur#afc might perhaps be justly considered the greatest man ,france has ever produced2 his father was a non-commissioned soldier who came of a long line of tanners1 while his mother's family had been gardeners for generations4 ,faraday1 who is worthy to be placed close to ,charles ,darwin among eminent ,englishmen1 was the son of a blacksmith and a farmer's daughter4 ,such pedigrees are striking2 and yet1 as ,frederick ,adams ,woods has remarked1 they ought to strengthen rather than to weaken one's belief in the force of heredity4 ,when it is considered how rarely such an ancestry produces a great man1 it must be fairly evident that his greatness is due to an accidental conjunction of favorable traits1 as the modern theory of genetics holds2 and that greatness is not due to the inheritance of acquired characters1 on which hypothesis ,pasteur and ,faraday would indeed be difficult to explain4 ,cases of this sort1 even though involving much less famous people1 will be found in almost every genealogy1 and add greatly to the interest of its study1 as well as offering valuable data to the professional geneticist4 7d7 ,even if the information it furnishes were more complete1 human genealogy would not justify the claims sometimes made for it as a science1 because1 to use a biological phrase1 the matings are not controlled4 ,the results of a certain experiment are exhibited1 but can not be interpreted unless one knows what the results would have been1 had the preceding conditions been varied in this way or in that way4 ,these controlled experiments can be made in plant and animal breeding2 they have been made by the thousand1 by the hundred thousand1 for many years4 ,they can not be made in human society4 ,it is1 of course1 not desirable that they should be made2 but the consequence is that the biological meaning of human history1 the real import of genealogy1 can not be known unless it is interpreted in the light of modern plant and animal breeding4 ,it is absolutely necessary that genealogy go into partnership with genetics1 the general science of heredity4 ,if a spirit of false pride leads genealogists to hold aloof from these experiments1 they will make slow progress4 ,the interpretation of genealogy in the light of modern research in heredity through the experimental breeding of plants and animals is full of hope2 without such light1 it will be discouragingly slow work4 ,genealogists are usually proud of their pedigrees2 they usually have a right to be4 ,but their pride should not lead them to scorn the pedigrees of some of the peas1 and corn1 snapdragons and sugar beets1 bulldogs and ,shorthorn cattle1 with which geneticists have been working during the last generation2 for these humble pedigrees may throw more light on their own than a century of research in purely human material4 ,the science of genealogy will not have full meaning and full value to those who pursue it1 unless they bring themselves to look on men and women as organisms subject to the same laws of heredity and variation as other living things4 ,biologists were not long ago told that it was essential for them to learn to think like genealogists4 ,for the purpose of eugenics1 neither science is complete without the other2 and we believe that it is not invidious to say that biologists have been quicker to realize this than have genealogists4 ,the ,golden ,age of genealogy is yet to come4 7#d7 ,in addition to the correction of these faulty methods1 there are certain extensions of genealogical method which could advantageously be made without great difficulty4 7a7 ,more written records should be kept1 and less dependence placed on oral communication4 ,the obsolescent family ,bible1 with its chronicle of births1 deaths and marriages1 is an institution of too great value in more ways than one1 to be given up4 ,the ,united ,states have not the advantage of much of the machinery of ,state registration which aids ,european genealogy1 and while working for better registration of vital statistics1 it should be a matter of pride with every family to keep its own archives4 7b7 ,family trees should be kept in more detail1 including all brothers and sisters in every family1 no matter at what age they died1 and including as many collaterals as possible4 ,this means more work for the genealogist1 but the results will be of much value to science4 7c7 ,more family traits should be marked4 ,those at present recorded are mostly of a social or economic nature1 and are of little real significance after the death of their possessor4 ,but the traits of his mind and body are likely to go on to his descendants indefinitely4 ,these are therefore the facts of his life on which attention should be focused4 7d7 ,more pictorial data should be added4 ,photographs of the members of the family1 at all ages1 should be carefully preserved4 ,measurements equally deserve attention4 ,the door jamb is not a satisfactory place for recording the heights of children1 particularly in this day when removals are so frequent4 ,complete anthropometric measurements1 such as every member of the ,young ,men's ,christian ,association1 most college students1 and many other people are obliged to undergo once or periodically1 should be placed on file4 7e7 ,pedigrees should be traced upward from a living individual1 rather than downward from some hero long since dead4 ,of course1 the ideal method would be to combine these two1 or to keep duplicate pedigrees1 one a table of ascendants and the other of descendants1 in the same stock4 ,genealogical data of the needed kind1 however1 can not be reduced to a mere table or a family tree4 ,the ideal genealogy starts with a whole fraternity--the individual who is making it and all his brothers and sisters4 ,it describes fully the fraternity to which the father belongs1 giving an account of each member1 of the husband or wife of that member 7if married7 and their children1 who are of course the first cousins of the maker of the genealogical study4 ,it does the same for the mother's fraternity4 ,next it considers the fraternity to which the father's father belongs1 considers their consorts and their children and grandchildren1 and then takes up the study of the fraternity of the father's mother in the same way4 ,the mother's parents next receive attention2 and then the earlier generations are similarly treated1 as far as the available records will allow4 ,a pedigree study constructed on this plan really shows what traits are running through the families involved1 and is vastly more significant than a mere chain of links1 even though this might run through a dozen generations4 7#e7 ,with these changes1 genealogy would become the study of heredity1 rather than the study of lineage4 ,it is not meant to say that the study of heredity is nothing more than applied genealogy4 ,as understood nowadays1 it includes mathematical and biological territory which must always be foreign to genealogy4 ,it might be said that in so far as man is concerned1 heredity is the interpretation of genealogy1 and eugenics the application of heredity4 ,genealogy should give its students a vision of the species as a great group of ever-changing1 interrelated organisms1 a great network originating in the obscurity of the past1 stretching forward into the obscurity of the future1 every individual in it organically related to every other1 and all of them the heritors of the past in a very real sense4 ,genealogists do well in giving a realization of the importance of the family1 but they err if they base this teaching altogether on the family's pride in some remote ancestor who1 even though he bore the family name and was a prodigy of virtues1 probably counts for very little in the individual's make-up to-day4 ,to take a concrete though wholly imaginary illustration3 what man would not feel a certain satisfaction in being a lineal descendant of ,george ,washington8 ,and yet1 if the ,father of his ,country be placed at only four removes from the living individual1 nothing is more certain than that this hypothetical living individual had fifteen other ancestors in ,george ,washington's generation1 any one of whom may play as great or a greater part in his ancestry2 and so remote are they all that1 as a statistical average1 it is calculated that the contribution of ,george ,washington to the ancestry of the hypothetical living individual would be perhaps not more than one-third of #a of the total4 ,the small influence of one of these remote ancestors may be seen at a glance1 if a chart of all the ancestors up to the generation of the great hero is made4 ,following out the illustration1 a pedigree based on ,george ,washington would look like the diagram in ,fig4 #da4 ,in more remote generations1 the probable biological influence of the ancestor becomes practically nil4 ,thus ,americans who trace their descent to some royal personage of ,england or the ,continent1 a dozen generations ago1 may get a certain amount of spiritual satisfaction out of the relationship1 but they certainly can derive little real help1 of a hereditary kind1 from this ancestor4 ,and when one goes farther back1--as to ,william the ,conqueror1 who seems to rank with the ,mayflower immigrants as a progenitor of many descendants--the claim of descent becomes really a joke4 ,if #bd generations have elapsed between the present and the time of ,william the ,conqueror1 every individual living to-day must have had living in the epoch of the ,norman conquest not less than sixteen million ancestors4 ,of course1 there was no such number of people in all ,england and ,normandy1 at that time1 hence it is obvious that the theoretical number has been greatly reduced in every generation by consanguineous marriages1 even though they were between persons so remotely related that they did not know they were related4 ,c4 ,b4 ,davenport1 indeed1 has calculated that most persons of the old ,american stock in the ,united ,states are related to each other not more remotely than thirtieth cousins1 and a very large proportion as closely as fifteenth cousins4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,small ,,value ,,of ,a ,,famous1 ,,but ,,remote1 ,,ancestor ,,fig4 #da4--;,a living individual who was a lineal descendant of ,george ,washington might well take pride in the fact1 but genetically that fact might be of very little significance4 ,the above chart shows graphically how small a part any single ancestor plays1 a few generations back4 ,a general high average of ability in an ancestry is much more important1 eugenically1 than the appearance of one or two distinguished individuals4 ,at any rate1 it must be obvious that the ancestors of any person of old ,american stock living to-day must have included practically all the inhabitants of ,england and ,normandy1 in the eleventh century4 ,looking at the pedigree from the other end1 ,william the ,conqueror must have living to-day at least #af1jjj1jjj descendants4 ,most of them can not trace back their pedigrees1 but that does not alter the fact4 ,such considerations give one a vivid realization of the brotherhood of man2 but they can hardly be said to justify any great pride in descent from a family of crusaders for instance1 except on purely sentimental grounds4 ,descent from a famous man or woman should not be disparaged4 ,it is a matter of legitimate pride and congratulation4 ,but claims for respect made on that ground alone are1 from a biological point of view1 negligible1 if the hero is several generations removed4 ,what ,sir ,francis ,galton wrote of the peers of ,england may1 with slight alterations1 be given general application to the descendants of famous people3 ,an old peerage is a valueless title to natural gifts1 except so far as it may have been furbished up by a succession of wise intermarriages4444 ,i cannot think of any claim to respect1 put forward in modern days1 that is so entirely an imposture as that made by a peer on the ground of descent1 who has neither been nobly educated1 nor has any eminent kinsman within three degrees4 ,but1 some one may protest1 are we not shattering the very edifice of which we are professed defenders1 in thus denying the force of heredity8 ,not at all4 ,we wish merely to emphasize that a man has sixteen great-great-grandparents1 instead of one1 and that those in the maternal lines are too often overlooked1 although from a biological point of view they are every bit as important as those in the paternal lines4 ,and we wish further to emphasize the point that it is the near relatives who1 on the whole1 represent what one is4 ,the great family which for a generation or two makes unwise marriages1 must live on its past reputation and see the work of the world done and the prizes carried away by the children of wiser matings4 ,no family can maintain its eugenic rank merely by the power of inertia4 ,every marriage that a member of the family makes is a matter of vital concern to the future of the family3 and this is one of the lessons which a broad science of genealogy should inculcate in every youth4 ,is it practicable to direct genealogy on this slightly different line8 ,as to that1 the genealogist must decide4 ,these are the qualifications which old ,professor ,william ,chauncey ,fowler laid down as essential for a successful genealogist3 ,love of kindred4 ,love of investigation4 ,active imagination4 ,sound and disciplined judgment4 ,conscientious regard to truth4 ,a pleasing style as a writer4 ,with such qualifications1 one can go far1 and it would seem that one who possesses them has only to fix his attention upon the biological aspect of genealogy1 to become convinced that his science is only part of a science1 as long as it ignores eugenics4 ,after all1 nothing more is necessary than a slight change in the point of view2 and if genealogists can adopt this new point of view1 can add to their equipment some familiarity with the fundamental principles of biology as they apply to man and are laid down in the science of eugenics1 the value of the science of genealogy to the world ought to increase at least five-fold within a generation4 ,what can be expected from a genealogy with eugenic foundation8 ,first and foremost1 it will give genetics a chance to advance with more rapidity1 in its study of man4 ,genetics1 the study of heredity1 can not successfully proceed by direct observation in the human species as it does with plants and rapidly-breeding animals1 because the generations are too long4 ,less than three generations are of little value for genetic researches1 and even three can rarely be observed to advantage by any one person4 ,therefore1 second-hand information must be used4 ,so far1 most of this has been gained by sending field-workers--a new kind of genealogist--out among the members of a family1 and having them collect the desired information1 either by study of extant records1 or by word of mouth4 ,but the written records of value have been usually negligible in quantity1 and oral communication has therefore been the mainstay4 ,it has not been wholly satisfactory4 ,few people--aside from genealogists--can give even the names of all their great-grandparents1 far less can they tell anything of importance about them4 ,it is thus to genealogy that genetics is driven4 ,unless family records are available1 it can accomplish little4 ,and it can not get these family records unless genealogists realize the importance of furnishing them2 for as has already been pointed out1 most genealogies at present available are of little value to genetics1 because of the inadequacy of the data they furnish4 ,it is only in the case of exceptional families1 such as the royal houses of ,europe1 that enough information is given about each individual to furnish an opportunity for analysis4 ,what could be done if there were more such data available is brilliantly illustrated in the investigation by ,frederick ,adams ,woods of ,boston of the reigning houses of ,europe4 ,his writings should be read by every genealogist1 as a source of inspiration as well as information4 ,more such data must be obtained in the future4 ,genealogists must begin at once to keep family records in such a way that they will be of the greatest value possible--that they will serve not only family pride1 but bigger purposes4 ,it will not take long to get together a large number of family histories1 in which the idea will be to tell as much as possible1 instead of as little as possible1 about every individual mentioned4 ,the value of pedigrees of this kind is greater than most people realize4 ,in the first place1 it must be remembered that these traits1 on whose importance in the pedigree we have been insisting1 are responsible not only for whatever the individual is1 but for whatever society is1--whatever the race is4 ,they are not personal matters1 as ,c4 ,b4 ,davenport and ,h4 ,h4 ,laughlin well point out2 they come to us from out of the population of the past1 and1 in so far as we have children1 they become disseminated throughout the population of the future4 ,upon such traits society is built2 good or bad they determine the fate of our society4 ,apart from migration1 there is only one way to get socially desirable traits into our social life1 and that is reproduction2 there is only one way to get them out1 by preventing the reproduction4 ,all social welfare work is merely education of the germs of traits2 it does not provide such germs4 ,in the absence of the germs the traits can not develop4 ,on the other hand1 it is possible with difficulty1 if possible at all1 by means of the strongest repressive measures merely1 to prevent the development of undesirable hereditary traits4 ,society can treat the delinquent individual more reasonably1 more effectively1 and more humanely1 if it knows the 'past performance' of his germ-plasm4 ,in addition to their importance to society1 a knowledge of the traits of a pedigree has a great direct importance to the individual2 one of the most valuable things to be learned from that knowledge is the answer to the question1 ,what shall a boy or girl do8 ,what career shall one lay out for one's children8 ,a knowledge of the child's inborn nature1 such as can be had only through study of his ancestry1 will guide those who have his education in hand1 and will further guide those who decide1 or help the child decide1 what work to take up in life4 ,this helps to put the problem of vocational guidance on a sound basis1--the basis of the individual's inherent aptitudes4 ,not too much must be expected from vocational guidance at the present time1 but in the case of traits that are inherited1 it is a fair inference that a child is more likely to be highly endowed with a trait which both parents possess1 than with one that only one parent possesses4 ,among the traits which have been said to occur in some such direct hereditary way1 ,h4 ,l4 ,hollingworth#afd observes1 or as the result of unexplained mutation or deviation from type1 are3 mathematical aptitude1 ability in drawing1#afe musical composition1#aff singing1 poetic reaction1 military strategy1 chess playing4 ,pitch discrimination seems to depend on structural factors which are not susceptible of improvement by practice4#afg ,the same may be said of various forms of professional athletic achievement4 ,color blindness seems to be an instance of the conspicuous absence of such a unit characteristic4 ,again1 the knowledge of ancestry is an essential factor in the wise selection of a husband or wife4 ,insistence has been laid on this point in an earlier chapter of this book1 and it is not necessary here to repeat what was there said4 ,but it seems certain that ancestry will steadily play a larger part in marriage selection in the future2 it is at least necessary to know that one is not marrying into a family that carries the taint of serious hereditary defect1 even if one knows nothing more4 ,an intelligent study of genealogy will do much1 we believe1 to bring about the intelligent selection of the man or woman with whom one is to fall in love4 ,in addition to these general considerations1 it is evident that genealogy1 properly carried out1 would throw light on most of the specific problems with which eugenics is concerned1 or which fall in the field of genetics4 ,a few examples of these problems may be mentioned1 in addition to those which are discussed in various other chapters of this book4 ,illustration3 ,,history ,,of #ajj ,,babies ,,fig4 #db4--,the top of the diagram shows the children starting from scratch4 ,by following down the vertical lines1 one can see that their longevity depends largely on the size of family from which they come4 ,those who had #aj or a dozen brothers and sisters are most likely to live to extreme age4 ,alexander ,graham ,bell's data1 #bifd members of the ,hyde family in ,america4 ,illustration3 ,,adult ,,mortality ,,fig4 #dc--;,if child mortality is eliminated1 and only those individuals studied who live to the age of #bj or longer1 the small families are still found to be handicapped4 ,in general it may be said that the larger the family1 the longer a member of it will live4 ,large families 7in a normal1 healthy section of the population7 indicate vitality on the part of the parents4 ,this does not1 of course1 hold good in the slums1 where mental and financial inefficiency are abundant4 ,within certain classes1 however1 it may be said with confidence that the weaklings in the population are most likely to be from small families4 ,alexander ,graham ,bell's data4 #a4 ,the supposed inferiority of first-born children has been debated at some length during the last decade1 but is not yet wholly settled4 ,it appears possible that the first-born may be1 on the average1 inferior both physically and mentally to the children who come directly after him2 on the other hand1 the number of first-born who attain eminence is greater than would be expected on the basis of pure chance4 ,more data are needed to clear up this problem4#afh #b4 ,the advantage to a child of being a member of a large or small family is a question of importance4 ,in these days of birth control1 the argument is frequently heard that large families are an evil of themselves1 the children in them being handicapped by the excessive child-bearing of the mother4 ,the statistics cited in support of this claim are drawn from the slums1 where the families are marked by poverty and by physical and mental inferiority4 ,it can easily be shown1 by a study of more favored families1 that the best children come from the large fraternities4 ,in fact ,alexander ,graham ,bell found evidence1#afi in his investigation of the ,hyde ,family in ,america1 that the families of #aj or more children were those which showed the greatest longevity 7see ,figs4 #db and #dc74 ,in this connection1 longevity is of course a mark of vitality and physical fitness4 #c4 ,the question of the effect of child-bearing on the mother is equally important1 since exponents of birth control are urging that mothers should not bear more children than they desire4 ,a4 ,o4 ,powys' careful study#agj of the admirable vital statistics of ,new ,south ,wales showed that the mothers who lived longest were those who bore from five to seven children4 #d4 ,the age at which men and women should marry has not yet been sufficiently determined1 on biological grounds4 ,statistics so far compiled do not indicate that the age of the father has any direct influence on the character of the children1 but the age of the mother undoubtedly exercises a strong influence on them4 ,thus it is now well established#aga that infant mortality is lowest among the children of young mothers1--say from #bj to #be years of age1--and that delay in child-bearing after that age penalizes the children 7see ,fig4 #dd74 ,there is also some evidence that1 altogether apart from the infant mortality1 the children of young mothers attain a greater longevity than do those of older women4 ,more facts are needed1 to show how much of this effect is due to the age of the mother1 how much to her experience1 and how much to the influence of the number of children she has previously borne4 #e4 ,assortative mating1 consanguineous marriage1 the inheritance of a tendency to disease1 longevity1 sex-linked heredity1 sex-determination1 the production of twins1 and many other problems of interest to the general public as well as to the biologist1 are awaiting the collection of fuller data4 ,all such problems will be illuminated1 when more genealogies are kept on a biological basis4 ,illustration3 ,,influence ,,of ,,mother',s ,,age ,,fig4 #dd4--;,as measured by the percentage of infant deaths1 those children show the greatest vitality who were born to mothers between the ages of #bj and #be4 ,infant mortality increases steadily as the mother grows older4 ,in this case the youngest mothers 7those under #bj years of age7 do not make quite as good a showing as those who are a little older1 but in other studies the youngest mothers have made excellent records4 ,in general1 such studies all show that the babies are penalized if marriage is delayed beyond the age of #be1 or if child-bearing is unduly delayed after marriage4 ,alexander ,graham ,bell's data4 ,here1 however1 an emphatic warning against superficial investigation must be uttered4 ,the medical profession has been particularly hasty1 many times1 in reporting cases which were assumed to demonstrate heredity4 ,the child was so and so2 it was found on inquiry that the father was also so and so3 ,post hoc1 ergo propter hoc--it was heredity4 ,such a method of investigation is calculated to bring genetics into disrepute1 and would hazard the credit of genealogy4 ,as a fact1 one case counts for practically nothing as proof of hereditary influence2 even half a dozen or a dozen may be of no significance4 ,there are two ways in which genealogical data can be analyzed to deduce biological laws3 one is based on the application of statistical and graphic methods to the data1 and needs some hundreds of cases to be of value2 the other is by pedigree-study1 and needs at least three generations of pedigree1 usually covering numerous collaterals1 to offer important results4 ,it is not to be supposed that anyone with a sufficiently complete record of his own ancestry would necessarily be able by inspection to deduce from it any important contribution to science4 ,but if enough complete family records are made available1 the professional geneticist can be called into cooperation1 can supplement the human record with his knowledge of the results achieved by carefully controlled animal and plant breeding1 and between them1 the genealogist and the geneticist can in most cases arrive at the truth4 ,that such truth is of the highest importance to any family1 and equally to society as a whole1 must be evident4 ,let the genealogist1 then1 bring together data on every trait he can think of4 ,as a guide and stimulus1 he should read the opening chapters of ,herbert's ,spencer's ,autobiography1 or of ,karl ,pearson's1 ,life1 ,letters and ,labors of ,sir ,francis ,galton1 or ,c4 ,b4 ,davenport's study#agb of ,c4 ,o4 ,whitman1 one of the foremost ,american biologists4 ,he will also find help in ,bulletin ,no4 #ac of the ,eugenics ,record ,office1 ,cold ,spring ,harbor1 ,long ,island1 ,new ,york4 ,it is entitled1 ,how to ,make a ,eugenical ,family ,study1 and gives a list of questions which should be answered1 and points which should be noted4 ,with some such list as this1 or even with his own common-sense1 the genealogist may seek to ascertain as much as possible about the significant facts in the life of his ancestors1 bearing in mind that the geneticist will ask two questions about every trait mentioned3 #a4 ,is this characteristic inherited8 #b4 ,if so1 how8 ,nor must it be forgotten that the geneticist is often as much interested in knowing that a given character is not inherited under certain conditions1 as that it is4 ,it is highly desirable that genealogists should acquire the habit of stating the traits of their subjects in quantitative terms4 ,they too often state that a certain amount is much2 what should be told is how much4 ,instead of saying that an individual had fairly good health1 tell exactly what diseases he had during his lifetime2 instead of remarking that he was a good mathematician1 tell some anecdote or fact that will allow judgment of the extent of his ability in this line4 ,did he keep record of his bank balance in his head instead of on paper8 ,was he fond of mathematical puzzles8 ,did he revel in statistics8 ,was the study of calculus a recreation to him8 ,such things probably will appear trivial to the genealogist1 but to the eugenist they are sometimes important4 ,aside from biology1 or as much of it as is comprised in eugenics1 genealogy may also serve medicine1 jurisprudence1 sociology1 statistics1 and various other sciences as well as the ones which it now serves4 ,but in most cases1 such service will have a eugenic aspect4 ,the alliance between eugenics and genealogy is so logical that it can not be put off much longer4 ,genealogists may well ask what facilities there are for receiving and using pedigrees such as we have been outlining1 if they were made up4 ,all are1 of course1 familiar with the repositories which the different patriotic societies1 the ,national ,genealogical ,society1 and similar organizations maintain1 as well as the collections of the ,library of ,congress and other great public institutions4 ,anything deposited in such a place can be found by investigators who are actively engaged in eugenic research4 ,in addition to this1 there are certain establishments founded for the sole purpose of analyzing genealogies from a biological or statistical point of view4 ,the first of these was the ,galton ,laboratory of the ,university of ,london1 directed by ,karl ,pearson4 ,there are two such at work in the ,united ,states4 ,the larger is the ,eugenics ,record ,office at ,cold ,spring ,harbor1 ,long ,island1 ,new ,york1 directed by ,charles ,b4 ,davenport4 ,blank schedules are sent to all applicants1 in which the pedigree of an individual may be easily set down1 with reference particularly to the traits of eugenic importance4 ,when desired1 the office will send duplicate schedules1 one of which may be retained by the applicant for his own files4 ,the schedules filed at the ,eugenics ,record ,office are treated as confidential1 access to them being given only to accredited investigators4 ,the second institution of this kind is the ,genealogical ,record ,office1 founded and directed by ,alexander ,graham ,bell at #afja ,thirty-fifth ,street ,n4 ,w41 ,washington ,d4 ,c4 ,this devotes itself solely to the collection of data regarding longevity1 and sends out schedules to all those in whose families there have been individuals attaining the age of #hj or over4 ,it welcomes correspondence on the subject from all who know of cases of long life1 and endeavors to put the particulars on record1 especially with reference to the ancestry and habits of the long-lived individual4 ,the ,eugenics ,registry at ,battle ,creek1 ,mich41 likewise receives pedigrees1 which it refers to ,cold ,spring ,harbor for analysis4 ,persons intelligently interested in their ancestry might well consider it a duty to society1 and to their own posterity1 to send for one of the ,eugenics ,record ,office schedules1 fill it out and place it on file there1 and to do the same with the ,genealogical ,record ,office1 if they are so fortunate as to come of a stock characterized by longevity4 ,the filling out of these schedules would be likely to lead to a new view of genealogy2 and when this point of view is once gained1 the student will find it adds immensely to his interest in his pursuit4 ,genealogists are all familiar with the charge of long standing that genealogy is a subject of no use1 a fad of a privileged class4 ,they do not need to be told that such a charge is untrue4 ,but genealogy can be made a much more useful science than it now is1 and it will be at the same time more interesting to its followers1 if it is no longer looked upon as an end in itself1 nor solely as a minister to family pride4 ,we hope to see it regarded as a handmaid of evolution1 just as are the other sciences2 we hope to see it linked with the great biological movement of the present day1 for the betterment of mankind4 ,so much for the science as a whole4 ,what can the individual do8 ,nothing better than to broaden his outlook so that he may view his family not as an exclusive entity1 centered in a name1 dependent on some illustrious man or men of the past2 but rather as an integral part of the great fabric of human life1 its warp and woof continuous from the dawn of creation and criss-crossed at each generation4 ,when he gets this vision1 he will desire to make his family tree as full as possible1 to include his collaterals1 to note every trait which he can find on record1 to preserve the photographs and measurements of his own contemporaries1 and to take pleasure in feeling that the history of his family is a contribution to human knowledge1 as well as to the pride of the family4 ,if the individual genealogist does this1 the science of genealogy will become a useful servant of the whole race1 and its influence1 not confined to a few1 will be felt by all1 as a positive1 dynamic force helping them to lead more worthy lives in the short span allotted to them1 and helping them to leave more worthy posterity to carry on the names they bore and the sacred thread of immortality1 of which they were for a time the custodians4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,the ,,eugenic ,,aspect ,,of ,,some ,,specific ,,reforms ,nearly every law and custom of a country has an influence direct or remote on eugenics4 ,the eugenic progress to be expected if laws and customs are gradually but steadily modified in appropriate ways1 is vastly greater and more practicable than is any possible gain which could be made at present through schemes for the direct control of eugenic marriages4 ,in this present chapter1 we try to point out some of the eugenic aspects of certain features of ,american society4 ,it must not be supposed that we have any legislative panaceas to offer1 or that the suggestions we make are necessarily the correct ones4 ,we are primarily concerned with stimulating people to think about the eugenic aspects of their laws and customs4 ,once the public thinks1 numerous changes will be tried and the results will show whether the changes shall be followed up or discontinued4 ,the eugenic point of view that we have here taken is becoming rather widespread1 although it is often not recognized as eugenic4 ,thinkers in all subjects that concern social progress are beginning to realize that the test of whether or not a measure is good is its effect4 ,the pragmatic school of philosophy1 which has been in vogue in recent years1 has reduced this attitude to a system4 ,it is an attitude to be welcomed wherever it is found1 for it only needs the addition of a knowledge of biology1 to become eugenic4 ,,taxation ,to be just1 any form of taxation should repress productive industry as little as possible1 and should be of a kind that can not easily be shifted4 ,in addition to these qualifications1 it should1 if possible1 contribute directly to the eugenic strength of the nation by favoring1 or at least by not penalizing1 useful families4 ,a heavy tax on land values 7in extreme1 the single-tax7 and a heavy tax on bachelors have sometimes been proposed as likely to be eugenic in effect4 ,but they are open to criticism4 ,the tax on land values appears too likely to be indiscriminate in working3 it would appear to favor inferior families as much as superior ones4 ,the tax on bachelors is proposed as a means of getting bachelors to marry2 but is this always desirable8 ,it depends on the quality of the bachelors4 ,even at present it is our belief that1 on the whole1 the married men of the population are superior to the unmarried men4 ,if the action of sexual selection is improved still further by the eugenics campaign1 this difference in quality will be increased4 ,it will then be rather an advantage that the bachelors should remain single1 and a tax which would force them into marriage for reasons of economy1 is not likely to result in any eugenic gain4 ,but a moderate indirect tax by an exemption for a wife and each child after a general exemption of #b1jjj would be desirable4 ,the inheritance tax seems less open to criticism4 ,very large inheritances should be taxed to a much greater degree than is at present attempted in the ,united ,states1 and the tax should be placed1 not on the total amount of the inheritance1 but on the amount received by each individual beneficiary4 ,this tends to prevent the unfair guarantee of riches to individuals regardless of their own worth and efforts4 ,but to suggest1 on the other hand1 as has often been done1 that inheritances should be confiscated by the government altogether1 shows a lack of appreciation of the value of a reasonable right to bequeath in encouraging larger families among those having a high standard of living4 ,it is not desirable to penalize the kind of strains which possess directing talent and constructive efficiency2 and they certainly would be penalized if a man felt that no matter how much he might increase his fortune1 he could not leave any of it to those who continued his stock4 ,the sum exempted should not be large enough to tempt the beneficiary to give up work and settle down into a life of complacent idleness1 but enough to be of decided assistance to him in bringing up a family3 #ej1jjj might be a good maximum4 ,above this1 the rate should advance rapidly1 and should be progressive1 not proportional4 ,a #ej tax on inheritances above #bej1jjj seems to us desirable1 since large inheritances tend to interfere with the correlation of wealth and social worth1 which is so necessary from a eugenic point of view as well as from that of social justice4 ,the ,federal estate law1 passed in ,september1 #aiaf1 is a step in the right direction4 ,it places the exemption at #ej1jjj net4 ,the rate1 however1 is not rapid enough in its rise3 e4g41 estates exceeding #bej1jjj but less than #dej1jjj are taxed only #d1 while the maximum1 for estates above #e1jjj1jjj1 is only #aj4 ,this1 moreover1 is on the total estate1 while we favor the plan that taxes not the total amount bequeathed but the amount inherited by each individual4 ,with the ever increasing need of revenue1 it is certain that ,congress will make a radical increase in progressive inheritance tax on large fortunes1 which should be retained after the war4 ,wisconsin and ,california have introduced an interesting innovation by providing a further graded tax on inheritances in accordance with the degree of consanguinity between the testator and the beneficiary4 ,thus a small bequest to a son or daughter might be taxed only #a2 a large bequest to a trained nurse or a spiritualistic medium might be taxed #ae4 ,this is frank recognition of the fact that inheritance is to be particularly justified as it tends to endow a superior family4 ,eugenically it may be permissible to make moderate bequests to brothers1 nephews and nieces1 as well as one's own children2 and to endow philanthropies2 but the ,state might well take a large part of any inheritance which would otherwise go to remote heirs1 or to persons not related to the testator4 ,at present there is1 on the whole1 a negative correlation between size of family and income4 ,the big families are1 in general in the part of the population which has the smallest income1 and it is well established that the number of children tends to decrease as the income increases and as a family rises in the social scale--a fact to which we have devoted some attention in earlier chapters4 ,if this condition were to be permanent1 it would be somewhat difficult to suggest a eugenic form of income tax4 ,we believe1 however1 that it is not likely to be permanent in its present extent4 ,the spread of birth control seems likely to reduce the negative correlation and the spread of eugenic ideas may possibly convert it into a slight positive correlation1 so that the number of children may be more nearly proportional to the means of the family4 ,perhaps it is ,utopian to expect a positive correlation in the near future1 yet a decrease in the number of children born to the class of casual laborers and unskilled workers is pretty certain to take place as rapidly as the knowledge of methods of birth control is extended2 and at present it does not seem that this extension can be stopped by any of the agencies that are opposing it4 ,if the size of a family becomes more nearly proportional to the income1 instead of being inversely proportional to it as at present1 and if income is even roughly a measure of the value of a family to the community--an assumption that can hardly be denied altogether1 however much one may qualify it in individual cases1--then the problem of taxing family incomes will be easier4 ,the effect of income differences will be1 on the whole1 eugenic4 ,it would then seem desirable to exempt from taxation all incomes of married people below a certain critical sum1 this amount being the point at which change in income may be supposed to not affect size of family4 ,this means exemption of all incomes under #b1jjj1 an additional #b1jjj for a wife and an additional #b1jjj for each child1 and a steeply-graded advance above that amount1 as very large incomes act to reduce the size of family by introducing a multiplicity of competing cares and interests4 ,there is also a eugenic advantage in heavy taxes on harmful commodities and unapprovable luxuries4 ,,the ,,back ,,to ,,the ,,farm ,,movement ,one of the striking accompaniments of the development of ,american civilization1 as of all other civilizations1 is the growth of the cities4 ,if 7following the practice of the ,u4 ,s4 ,census7 all places with #b1ejj or more population be classed as urban1 it appears that #cf4a of the population of the ,united ,states was urban in #ahij1 that the percentage had risen to #dj4e in #aijj1 and that by #aiaj not less than #df4c of the total population was urban4 ,there are four components of this growth of urban population3 7#a7 excess of births over deaths1 7#b7 immigration from rural districts1 7#c7 immigration from other countries1 and 7#d7 the extension of area by incorporation of suburbs4 ,it is not to be supposed that the growth of the cities is wholly at the expense of the country2 ,j4 ,m4 ,gillette calculates#agc that #bi4h of the actual urban gain of #aa1hbf1jjj between #aijj and #aiaj was due to migration from the country1 the remaining #gj4b being accounted for by the other three causes enumerated4 ,thus it appears that the movement from country to city is of considerable proportions1 even though it be much less than has sometimes been alleged4 ,this movement has eugenic importance because it is generally believed1 although more statistical evidence is needed1 that families tend to run out in a few generations under city conditions2 and it is generally agreed that among those who leave the rural districts to go to the cities1 there are found many of the best representatives of the country families4 ,if superior people are going to the large cities1 and if this removal leads to a smaller reproductive contribution than they would otherwise have made1 then the growth of great cities is an important dysgenic factor4 ,this is the view taken by ,o4 ,f4 ,cook1#agd when he writes3 ,statistically speaking cities are centers of population1 but biologically or eugenically speaking they are centers of depopulation4 ,they are like sink-holes or siguanas1 as the ,indians of ,guatemala call the places where the streams of their country drop into subterranean channels and disappear4 ,it never happens that cities develop large populations that go out and occupy the surrounding country4 ,the movement of population is always toward the city4 ,the currents of humanity pass into the urban siguanas and are gone4 ,if the time has really come for the consideration of practical eugenic measures1 here is a place to begin1 a subject worthy of the most careful study--how to rearrange our social and economic system so that more of the superior members of our race will stay on the land and raise families1 instead of moving to the city and remaining unmarried or childless1 or allowing their children to grow up in unfavorable urban environments that mean deterioration and extinction4 ,the cities represent an eliminating agency of enormous efficiency1 a present condition that sterilizes and exterminates individuals and lines of descent rapidly enough for all but the most sanguinary reformer4 ,all that is needed for a practical solution of the eugenic problem is to reverse the present tendency for the better families to be drawn into the city and facilitate the drafting of others for urban duty4444 ,the most practical eugenists of our age are the men who are solving the problems of living in the country and thus keeping more and better people under rural conditions where their families will survive4 ,to recognize the relation of eugenics to agriculture1 ,mr4 ,cook concludes1 does not solve the problems of our race1 but it indicates the basis on which the problems need to be solved1 and the danger of wasting too much time and effort in attempting to salvage the derelict populations of the cities4 ,however important the problems of urban society may be1 they do not have fundamental significance from the standpoint of eugenics1 because urban populations are essentially transient4 ,the city performs the function of elimination1 while agriculture represents the constructive eugenic condition which must be maintained and improved if the development of the race is to continue4 ,on the other hand1 city life does select those who are adapted to it4 ,it is said to favor the ,mediterranean race in competition with the ,nordic1 so that mixed city populations tend to become more brunette1 the ,nordic strains dying out4 ,how well this claim has been established statistically is open to question2 but there can be no doubt that the ,jewish race is an example of urban selection4 ,it has withstood centuries of city life1 usually under the most severe conditions1 in ghettoes1 and has survived and maintained a high average of mentality4 ,until recently it has been impossible1 because of the defective registration of vital statistics in the ,united ,states1 to get figures which show the extent of the problem of urban sterilization4 ,but ,dr4 ,gillette has obtained evidence along several indirect lines1 and is convinced that his figures are not far from the truth4#age ,they show the difference to be very large and its eugenic significance of corresponding importance4 ,when it is noted1 ,dr4 ,gillette says1 that the rural rate is almost twice the urban rate for the nation as a whole1 that in only one division does the latter exceed the former1 and that in some divisions the rural rate is three times the urban rate1 it can scarcely be doubted that the factor of urbanization is the most important cause of lowered increase rates4 ,urban birth-rates are lower than rural birth-rates1 and its death-rates are higher than those of the latter4 ,considering the ,united ,states in nine geographical divisions1 ,dr4 ,gillette secured the following results3 ,,rate ,,of ,,net ,,annual ,,increase ,division ,rural ,urban ,average ,new ,england #e4j #g4c #f4h ,middle ,atlantic #aj4g #i4f #aj4d ,east ,north ,central #ab4d #aj4h #aa4f ,west ,north ,central #ah4a #aj4a #ae4h ,south ,atlantic #ah4i #f4jj #af4j ,east ,south ,central #ai4g #g4d #ag4h ,west ,south ,central #bc4i #aj4b #ba4f ,mountain #ba4a #aj4e #ag4f ,pacific #ab4f #f4f #i4h ---- ---- ----- ,average #af4i #h4h #ac4fe ,even though fuller returns might show these calculations to be inaccurate1 ,dr4 ,gillette points out1 they are all compiled on the same basis1 and therefore can be fairly compared1 since any unforeseen cause of increase or decrease would affect all alike4 ,it is difficult to compare the various divisions directly1 because the racial composition of the population of each one is different4 ,but the difference in rates is marked4 ,the ,west ,south ,central states would almost double their population in four decades1 by natural increase alone1 while ,new ,england would require #bjj years to do so4 ,dr4 ,gillette tried1 by elaborate computations1 to eliminate the effect of immigration and emigration in each division1 in order to find out the standing of the old ,american stock4 ,his conclusions confirm the beliefs of the most pessimistic4 ,only three divisions1 all ,western1 add to their population by means of an actual excess of income over outgo of native-born ,americans1 he reports4 ,even should this view turn out to be exaggerated1 it is certain that the population of the ,united ,states is at present increasing largely because of immigration and the high fecundity of immigrant women1 and that as far as its own older stock is concerned1 it has ceased to increase4 ,to state that this is due largely to the fact that country people are moving to the city is by no means to solve the problem1 in terms of eugenics4 ,it merely shows the exact nature of the problem to be solved4 ,this could be attacked at two points4 #a4 ,attempts might be made to keep the rural population on the farms1 and to encourage a movement from the cities back to the country4 ,measures to make rural life more attractive and remunerative and thus to keep the more energetic and capable young people on the farm1 have great eugenic importance1 from this point of view4 #b4 ,the growth of cities might be accepted as a necessary evil1 an unavoidable feature of industrial civilization1 and direct attempts might be made1 through eugenic propaganda1 to secure a higher birth-rate among the superior parts of the city population4 ,the second method seems in many ways the more practicable4 ,on the other hand1 the first method is in many ways more ideal1 particularly because it would not only cause more children to be born1 but furnish these children with a suitable environment after they were born1 which the city can not do4 ,on the other hand1 the city offers the better environment for the especially gifted who require a specialized training and later the field for its use in most cases4 ,in practice1 the problem will undoubtedly have to be attacked by eugenists on both sides4 ,dr4 ,gillette's statistics1 showing the appalling need1 should prove a stimulus to eugenic effort4 ,,democracy ,by democracy we understand a government which is responsive to the will of a majority of the entire population1 as opposed to an oligarchy where the sole power is in the hands of a small minority of the entire population1 who are able to impose their will on the rest of the nation4 ,in discussing immigration1 we have pointed out that it is of great importance that the road for promotion of merit should always be open1 and that the road for demotion of incompetence should likewise be open4 ,these conditions are probably favored more by a democracy than by any other form of government1 and to that extent democracy is distinctly advantageous to eugenics4 ,yet this eugenic effect is not without a dysgenic after-effect4 ,the very fact that recognition is attainable by all1 means that democracy leads to social ambition2 and social ambition leads to smaller families4 ,this influence is manifested mainly in the women1 whose desire to climb the social ladder is increased by the ease of ascent which is due to lack of rigid social barriers4 ,but while ascent is possible for almost anyone1 it is naturally favored by freedom from handicaps1 such as a large family of children4 ,in the successful business and professional classes1 therefore1 there is an inducement to the wife to limit the number of her offspring1 in order that she may have more time to devote to social duties4 ,in a country like ,germany1 with more or less stratified social classes1 this factor in the differential birth-rate is probably less operative4 ,the solution in ,america is not to create an impermeable social stratification1 but to create a public sentiment which will honor women more for motherhood than for eminence in the largely futile activities of polite society4 ,in quite another way1 too great democratization of a country is dangerous4 ,the tendency is to ask1 in regard to any measure1 ,what do the people want8 while the question should be ,what ought the people to want8 ,the vox populi may and often does want something that is in the long run quite detrimental to the welfare of the state4 ,the ultimate test of a state is whether it is strong enough to survive1 and a measure that all the people1 or a voting majority of them 7which is the significant thing in a democracy71 want1 may be such as to handicap the state severely4 ,in general1 experts are better able to decide what measures will be desirable in the long run1 than are voters of the general population1 most of whom know little about the real merits of many of the most important projects4 ,yet democracies have a tendency to scorn the advice of experts1 most of the voters feeling that they are as good as any one else1 and that their opinion is entitled to as much weight as that of the expert4 ,this attitude naturally makes it difficult to secure the passage of measures which are eugenic or otherwise beneficial in character1 since they often run counter to popular prejudices4 ,the initiative by small petitions1 and the referendum as a frequent resort1 are dangerous4 ,they are of great value if so qualified as to be used only in real emergencies1 as where a clique has got control of the government and is running it for its self-interest1 but as a regularly and frequently functioning institution they are unlikely to result in wise statesmanship4 ,the wise democracy is that which recognizes that officials may be effectively chosen by vote1 only for legislative offices2 and which recognizes that for executive offices the choice must be definitely selective1 that is1 a choice of those who by merit are best fitted to fill the positions4 ,appointment in executive officers is not offensive when1 as the name indicates1 it is truly the best who govern4 ,all methods of choice by properly judged competition or examination with a free chance to all1 are1 in principle1 selective yet democratic in the best sense1 that of equality of opportunity4 ,when the governing few are not the best fitted for the work1 a so-called aristocracy is of course not an aristocracy 7government by the best7 at all1 but merely an oligarchy4 ,when officers chosen by vote are not well fitted then such a government is not for the people4 ,good government is then an aristo-democracy4 ,in it the final control rests in a democratically chosen legislature working with a legislative commission of experts1 but all executive and judicial functions are performed by those best qualified on the basis of executive or judicial ability1 not vote-getting or speech-making ability4 ,all1 however1 are eligible for such positions provided they can show genuine qualifications4 ,,socialism ,it is difficult to define socialism in terms that will make a discussion practicable4 ,the socialist movement is one thing1 the socialist political program is another4 ,but though the idea of socialism has as many different forms as an amoeba1 there is always a nucleus that remains constant1--the desire for what is conceived to be a more equitable distribution of wealth4 ,the laborer should get the value which his labor produces1 it is held1 subject only to subtraction of such a part as is necessary to meet the costs of maintenance2 and in order that as little as possible need be subtracted for that purpose1 the socialists agree in demanding a considerable extension of the functions of government3 collective ownership of railways1 mines1 the tools of production4 ,the ideal socialistic state would be so organized1 along these lines1 that the producer would get as much as possible of what he produces1 the non-producer nothing4 ,this principle of socialism is invariably accompanied by numerous associated principles1 and it is on these associated principles1 not on the fundamental principle1 that eugenists and socialists come into conflict4 ,equalitarianism1 in particular1 is so great a part of current socialist thought that it is doubtful whether the socialist movement as such can exist without it4 ,and this equalitarianism is usually interpreted not only to demand equality of opportunity1 but is based on a belief in substantial equality of native ability1 where opportunity is equal4 ,any one who has read the preceding chapters will have no doubt that such a belief is incompatible with an understanding of the principles of biology4 ,how1 then1 has it come to be such an integral part of socialism8 ,apparently it is because the socialist movement is1 on the whole1 made up of those who are economically unsatisfied and discontented4 ,some of the intellectual leaders of the movement are far from inferior1 but they too often find it necessary to share the views of their following1 in order to retain this following4 ,a group which feels itself inferior will naturally fall into an attitude of equalitarianism1 whereas a group which felt itself superior to the rest of society would not be likely to4 ,before criticising the socialistic attitude in detail1 we will consider some of the criticisms which some socialists make of eugenics4 #a4 ,it is charged that eugenics infringes on the freedom of the individual4 ,this charge 7really that of the individualists more than of socialists strictly speaking7 is based mainly on a misconception of what eugenics attempts to do4 ,coercive measures have little place in modern eugenics1 despite the gibes of the comic press4 ,we propose little or no interference with the freedom of the normal individual to follow his own inclinations in regard to marriage or parenthood2 we regard indirect measures and the education of public opinion as the main practicable methods of procedure4 ,such coercive measures as we indorse are limited to grossly defective individuals1 to whom the doctrine of personal liberty can not be applied without stultifying it4 ,it is indeed unfortunate that there are a few sincere advocates of eugenics who adhered to the idea of a wholesale surgical campaign4 ,a few reformers have told the public for several years of the desirability of sterilizing the supposed #aj1jjj1jjj defectives at the bottom of the ,american population4 ,lately one campaigner has raised this figure to #ae1jjj1jjj4 ,such fantastic proposals are properly resented by socialists and nearly every one else1 but they are invariably associated in the public mind with the conception of eugenics1 in spite of the fact that #ii out of #ajj eugenists would repudiate them4 ,the authors can speak only for themselves1 in declaring that eugenics will not be promoted by coercive means except in a limited class of pathological cases2 but they are confident that other geneticists1 with a very few exceptions1 hold the same attitude4 ,there is no danger that this surgical campaign will ever attain formidable proportions1 and the socialist1 we believe1 may rest assured that the progress of eugenics is not likely to infringe unwarrantably on the principle of individual freedom1 either by sterilization or by coercive mating4 #b4 ,eugenists are further charged with ignoring or paying too little attention to the influence of the environment in social reform4 ,this charge is sometimes well founded1 but it is not an inherent defect in the eugenics program4 ,the eugenist only asks that both factors be taken into account1 whereas in the past the factor of heredity has been too often ignored4 ,in the last chapter of this book we make an effort to balance the two sides4 #c4 ,again1 it is alleged that eugenics proposes to substitute an aristocracy for a democracy4 ,we do think that those who have superior ability should be given the greatest responsibilities in government4 ,if aristocracy means a government by the people who are best qualified to govern1 then eugenics has most to hope from an aristo-democratic system4 ,but admission to office should always be open to anyone who shows the best ability2 and the search for such ability must be much more thorough in the future than it has been in the past4 #d4 ,eugenists are charged with hindering social progress by endeavoring to keep woman in the subordinate position of a domestic animal1 by opposing the movement for her emancipation1 by limiting her activity to child-bearing and refusing to recognize that she is in every way fitted to take an equal part with man in the world's work4 ,this objection we have answered elsewhere1 particularly in our discussion of feminism4 ,we recognize the general equality of the two sexes1 but demand a differentiation of function which will correspond to biological sex-specialization4 ,we can not yield in our belief that woman's greatest function is motherhood1 but recognition of this should increase1 not diminish1 the strength of her position in the state4 #e4 ,eugenists are charged with ignoring the fact of economic determinism1 the fact that a man's acts are governed by economic conditions4 ,to debate this question would be tedious and unprofitable4 ,while we concede the important rle of economic determinism1 we can not help feeling that its importance in the eyes of socialists is somewhat factitious4 ,in the first place1 it is obvious that there are differences in the achievements of fellow men4 ,these socialists1 having refused to accept the great weight of germinal differences in accounting for the main differences in achievement1 have no alternative but to fall back on the theory of economic determinism4 ,further1 socialism is essentially a reform movement2 and if one expects to get aid for such a movement1 it is essential that one represent the consequences as highly important4 ,the doctrine of economic determinism of course furnishes ground for glowing accounts of the changes that could be made by economic reform1 and therefore fits in well with the needs of the socialist propagandists4 ,when the failure of many nations to make any use of their great resources in coal and water power is remembered2 when the fact is recalled that many of the ablest socialist leaders have been the sons of well-to-do intellectuals who were never pinched by poverty2 it must be believed that the importance of economic determinism in the socialist mind is caused more by its value for his propaganda purposes than a weighing of the evidence4 ,such are1 we believe1 the chief grounds on which socialists criticise the eugenics movement4 ,all of these criticisms should be stimulating1 should lead eugenists to avoid mistakes in program or procedure4 ,but none of them1 we believe1 is a serious objection to anything which the great body of eugenists proposes to do4 ,what is to be said on the other side8 ,what faults does the eugenist find with the socialist movement8 ,for the central principle1 the more equitable distribution of wealth1 no discussion is necessary4 ,most students of eugenics would probably assent to its general desirability1 although there is much room for discussion as to what constitutes a really equitable division of wealth4 ,in sound socialist theory1 it is to be distributed according to a man's value to society2 but the determination of this value is usually made impossible1 in socialist practice1 by the intrusion of the metaphysical and untenable dogma of equalitarianism4 ,if one man is by nature as capable as another1 and equality of opportunity#agf can be secured for all1 it must follow that one man will be worth just as much as another2 hence the equitable distribution of wealth would be an equal distribution of wealth1 a proposal which some socialists have made4 ,most of the living leaders of the socialist movement certainly recognize its fallacy1 but it seems so far to have been found necessary to lean very far in this direction for the maintenance of socialism as a movement of class protest4 ,now this idea of the equality of human beings is1 in every respect that can be tested1 absolutely false1 and any movement which depends on it will either be wrecked or1 if successful1 will wreck the state which it tries to operate4 ,it will mean the penalization of real worth and the endowment of inferiority and incompetence4 ,eugenists can feel no sympathy for a doctrine which is so completely at variance with the facts of human nature4 ,but if it is admitted that men differ widely1 and always must differ1 in ability and worth1 then eugenics can be in accord with the socialistic desire for distribution of wealth according to merit1 for this will make it possible to favor and help perpetuate the valuable strains in the community and to discourage the inferior strains4 ,t4 ,n4 ,carver sums up the argument#agg concisely3 ,distribution according to worth1 usefulness or service is the system which would most facilitate the progress of human adaptation4 ,it would1 in the first place1 stimulate each individual by an appeal to his own self-interest1 to make himself as useful as possible to the community4 ,in the second place1 it would leave him perfectly free to labor in the service of the community for altruistic reasons1 if there was any altruism in his nature4 ,in the third place it would exercise a beneficial selective influence upon the stock or race1 because the useful members would survive and perpetuate their kind and the useless and criminal members would be exterminated4 ,in so far as socialists rid themselves of their sentimental and ,utopian equalitarianism1 the eugenist will join them willingly in a demand that the distribution of wealth be made to depend as far as feasible on the value of the individual to society4#agh ,as to the means by which this distribution can be made1 there will of course be differences of opinion1 to discuss which would be outside the province of this volume4 ,fundamentally1 eugenics is anti-individualistic and in so far a socialistic movement1 since it seeks a social end involving some degree of individual subordination1 and this fact would be more frequently recognized if the movement which claims the name of socialist did not so often allow the wish to believe that a man's environmental change could eliminate natural inequalities to warp its attitude4 ,,child ,,labor ,it is often alleged that the abolition of child labor would be a great eugenic accomplishment2 but as is the case with nearly all such proposals1 the actual results are both complex and far-reaching4 ,the selective effects of child labor obviously operate directly on two generations3 7#a7 the parental generation and 7#b7 the filial generation1 the children who are at work4 ,the results of these two forms of selection must be considered separately4 #a4 ,on the parental generation4 ,the children who labor mostly come from poor families1 where every child up to the age of economic productivity is an economic burden4 ,if the children go to work at an early age1 the parents can afford to have more children and probably will1 since the children soon become to some extent an asset rather than a liability4 ,child labor thus leads to a higher birth-rate of this class1 abolition of child labor would lead to a lower birth-rate1 since the parents could no longer afford to have so many children4 ,karl ,pearson has found reason to believe that this result can be statistically traced in the birth-rate of ,english working people1--that a considerable decline in their fecundity1 due to voluntary restriction1 began after the passage of each of the laws which restricted child labor and made children an expense from which no return could be expected4 ,if the abolition of child labor leads to the production of fewer children in a certain section of the population the value of the result to society1 in this phase1 will depend on whether or not society wants that strain proportionately increased4 ,if it is an inferior stock1 this one effect of the abolition of child labor would be eugenic4 ,comparing the families whose children work with those whose children do not1 one is likely to conclude that the former are on the average inferior to the latter4 ,if so1 child labor is in this one particular aspect dysgenic1 and its abolition1 leading to a lower birth-rate in this class of the population1 will be an advantage4 #b4 ,on the filial generation4 ,the obvious result of the abolition of child labor will be1 as is often and graphically told1 to give children a better chance of development4 ,if they are of superior stock1 and will be better parents for not having worked as children 7a proviso which requires substantiation7 the abolition of their labor will be of direct eugenic benefit4 ,otherwise1 its results will be at most indirect2 or1 possibly1 dysgenic1 if they are of undesirable stock1 and are enabled to survive in greater numbers and reproduce4 ,in necessarily passing over the social and economic aspects of the question1 we do not wish it thought that we advocate child labor for the purpose of killing off an undesirable stock prematurely4 ,we are only concerned in pointing out that the effects of child labor are many and various4 ,the effect of its abolition within a single family further depends on whether the children who go to work are superior to those who stay at home4 ,if the strongest and most intelligent children are sent to work and crippled or killed prematurely1 while the weaklings and feeble-minded are kept at home1 brought up on the earnings of the strong1 and enabled to reach maturity and reproduce1 then this aspect of child labor is distinctly dysgenic4 ,the desirability of prohibiting child labor is generally conceded on euthenic grounds1 and we conclude that its results will on the whole be eugenic as well1 but that they are more complex than is usually recognized4 ,,compulsory ,,education ,whether one favors or rejects compulsory education will probably be determined by other arguments than those derived from eugenics2 nevertheless there are eugenic aspects of the problem which deserve to be recognized4 ,one of the effects of compulsory education is similar to that which follows the abolition of child labor--namely1 that the child is made a source of expense1 not of revenue1 to the parent4 ,not only is the child unable to work1 while at school1 but to send him to school involves in practice dressing him better than would be necessary if he stayed at home4 ,while it might fit the child to work more gainfully in later years1 yet the years of gain are so long postponed that the parent can expect to share in but little of it4 ,these arguments would not affect the well-to-do parent1 or the high-minded parent who was willing or able to make some sacrifice in order that his children might get as good a start as possible4 ,but they may well affect the opposite type of parent1 with low efficiency and low ideals4#agi ,this type of parent1 finding that the system of compulsory education made children a liability1 not an immediate asset1 would thereby be led to reduce the size of his family1 just as he seems to have done when child labor was prohibited in ,england and children ceased to be a source of revenue4 ,compulsory education has here1 then1 a eugenic effect1 in discouraging the reproduction of parents with the least efficiency and altruism4 ,if this belief be well founded1 it is likely that any measure tending to decrease the cost of schooling for children will tend to diminish this effect of compulsory education4 ,such measures as the free distribution of text-books1 the provision of free lunches at noon1 or the extension to school children of a reduced car-fare1 make it easier for the selfish or inefficient parent to raise children2 they cost him less and therefore he may tend to have more of them4 ,if such were the case1 the measures referred to1 despite the euthenic considerations1 must be classified as dysgenic4 ,in another and quite different way1 compulsory education is of service to eugenics4 ,the educational system should be a sieve1 through which all the children of the country are passed1--or more accurately1 a series of sieves1 which will enable the teacher to determine just how far it is profitable to educate each child so that he may lead a life of the greatest possible usefulness to the state and happiness to himself4 ,obviously such a function would be inadequately discharged1 if the sieve failed to get all the available material2 and compulsory education makes it certain that none will be omitted4 ,it is very desirable that no child escape inspection1 because of the importance of discovering every individual of exceptional ability or inability4 ,since the public educational system has not yet risen to the need of this systematic mental diagnosis1 private philanthropy should for the present be alert to get appropriate treatment for the unusually promising individual4 ,in ,pittsburgh1 a committee of the ,civic ,club is seeking youths of this type1 who might be obliged to leave school prematurely for economic reasons1 and is aiding them to appropriate opportunities4 ,such discriminating selection will probably become much more widespread and we may hope a recognized function of the schools1 owing to the great public demonstration of psychometry now being conducted at the cantonments for the mental classification of recruits4 ,compulsory education is necessary for this selection4 ,we conclude that compulsory education1 as such1 is not only of service to eugenics through the selection it makes possible1 but may serve in a more unsuspected way by cutting down the birth-rate of inferior families4 ,,vocational ,,guidance ,,and ,,training ,in arguments for vocational guidance and education of youth1 one does not often hear eugenics mentioned2 yet these measures1 if effectively carried out1 seem likely to be of real eugenic value4 ,the need for as perfect a correlation as possible between income and eugenic worth1 has been already emphasized4 ,it is evident that if a man gets into the wrong job1 a job for which he is not well fitted1 he may make a very poor showing in life1 while if properly trained in something suited to him1 his income would have been considerably greater4 ,it will be a distinct advantage to have superior young people get established earlier1 and this can be done if they are directly taught efficiency in what they can do best1 the boys being fitted for gainful occupations1 and the girls for wifehood and motherhood in addition4 ,as to the details of vocational guidance1 the eugenist is perhaps not entitled to give much advice2 yet it seems likely that a more thorough study of the inheritance of ability would be of value to the educator4 ,it was pointed out in ,chapter ,,iv that inheritance often seems to be highly specialized1--a fact which leads to the inference that the son might often do best in his father's calling or vocation1 especially if his mother comes from a family marked by similar capacities4 ,it is difficult to say how far the occupation of the son is1 in modern conditions1 determined by heredity and how far it is the result of chance1 or the need of taking the first job open1 the lack of any special qualifications for any particular work1 or some similar environmental influence4 ,miss ,perrin investigated #a1eej pairs of fathers and sons in the ,english ,dictionary of ,national ,biography and an equal number in the ,english ,who's ,who4 ,it seems clear1 she concluded1 that whether we take the present or the long period of the past embraced by the ,dictionary1 the environmental influences which induce a man in this country to follow his father's occupation must have remained very steady4 ,she found the coefficient of contingency#ahj between occupation of father and occupation of son in ,who's ,who to be 4#ge and in the ,dictionary of ,national ,biography 4#gf4 ,for the inheritance of physical and mental characters1 in general1 the coefficient would be about 4#e4 ,she thinks1 therefore1 we may say that in the choice of a profession inherited taste counts for about #b_/c and environmental conditions for about #a_/c4 ,an examination of #iij seventh and eighth grade boys in the public schools of ,st4 ,paul#aha showed that only #aa of them desired to enter the occupation of their fathers2 there was a pronounced tendency to choose occupations of a more remunerative or intellectual and less manual sort than that followed by the father4 ,that this preference would always determine the ultimate occupation is not to be expected1 as a considerable per cent may fail to show the necessary ability4 ,while inherited tastes and aptitude for some calling probably should carry a good deal of weight in vocational guidance1 we can not share the exaggerated view which some sociologists hold about the great waste of ability through the existence of round pegs in square holes4 ,this attitude is often expressed in such words as those of ,e4 ,b4 ,woods3 ,ability receives its reward only when it is presented with the opportunities of a fairly favorable environment1 its peculiarly indispensable sort of environment4 ,naval commanders are not likely to be developed in the ,transvaal1 nor literary men and artists in the soft coal fields of western ,pennsylvania4 ,for ten men who succeed as investigators1 inventors1 or diplomatists1 there may be and probably are in some communities fifty more who would succeed better under the same circumstances4 ,while there is some truth in this view1 it exaggerates the evil by ignoring the fact that good qualities frequently go together in an individual4 ,the man of ,transvaal who is by force of circumstances kept from a naval career is likely to distinguish himself as a successful colonist1 and perhaps enrich the world even more than if he had been brought up in a maritime state and become a naval commander4 ,it may be that his inherited talent fitted him to be a better naval commander than anything else2 if so1 it probably also fitted him to be better at many other things1 than are the majority of men4 ,intrinsically good traits have also good correlatives1 physical1 mental and moral4 ,f4 ,a4 ,woods has brought together the best evidence of this1 in his studies of the royal families of ,europe4 ,if the dozen best generals were selected from the men he has studied1 they would of course surpass the average man enormously in military skill2 but1 as he points out1 they would also surpass the average man to a very high degree as poets1--or doubtless as cooks or lawyers1 had they given any time to those occupations4#ahb ,the above considerations lead to two suggestions for vocational guidance3 7i7 it is desirable to ascertain and make use of the child's inherited capacities as far as possible2 but 7#b7 it must not be supposed that every child inherits the ability to do one thing only1 and will waste his life if he does not happen to get a chance to do that thing4 ,it is easy to suppose that the man who makes a failure as a paperhanger might1 if he had had the opportunity1 have been a great electrical engineer2 it is easy to cite a few cases1 such as that of ,general ,u4 ,s4 ,grant1 which seem to lend some color to the theory1 but statistical evidence would indicate it is not the rule4 ,if a man makes a failure as a paperhanger1 it is at least possible that he would have made a failure of very many things that he might try2 and if a man makes a brilliant success as a paperhanger1 or railway engineer1 or school teacher1 or chemist1 he is a useful citizen who would probably have gained a fair measure of success in any one of several occupations that he might have taken up but not in all4 ,to sum up3 vocational guidance and training are likely to be of much service to eugenics4 ,they may derive direct help from heredity2 and their exponents may also learn that a man who is really good in one thing is likely to be good in many things1 and that a man who fails in one thing would not necessarily achieve success if he were put in some other career4 ,one of their greatest services will probably be to put a lot of boys into skilled trades1 for which they are adapted and where they will succeed1 and thus prevent them from yielding to the desire for a more genteel clerical occupation1 in which they will not do more than earn a bare living4 ,this will assist in bringing about the high correlation between merit and income which is so much to be desired4 ,,the ,,minimum ,,wage ,legal enactment of a minimum wage is often urged as a measure that would promote social welfare and race betterment4 ,by minimum wage is to be understood1 according to its advocates1 not the wage that will support a single man1 but one that will support a man1 wife1 and three or four children4 ,in the ,united ,states1 the sum necessary for this purpose can hardly be estimated at less than #b4ej a day4 ,a living wage is certainly desirable for every man1 but the idea of giving every man a wage sufficient to support a family can not be considered eugenic4 ,in the first place1 it interferes with the adjustment of wages to ability1 on the necessity of which we have often insisted4 ,in the second place1 it is not desirable that society should make it possible for every man to support a wife and three children2 in many cases it is desirable that it be made impossible for him to do so4 ,eugenically1 teaching methods of birth control to the married unskilled laborer is a sounder way of solving his problems1 than subsidizing him so he can support a large family4 ,it must be frankly recognized that poverty is in many ways eugenic in its effect1 and that with the spread of birth control among people below the poverty line1 it is certain to be still more eugenic than at present4 ,it represents an effective1 even though a cruel1 method of keeping down the net birth-rate of people who for one reason or another are not economically efficient2 and the element of cruelty1 involved in high infant mortality1 will be largely mitigated by birth control4 ,free competition may be tempered to the extent of furnishing every man enough charity to feed him1 if he requires charity for that purpose2 and to feed his family1 if he already has one2 but charity which will allow him to increase his family1 if he is too inefficient to support it by his own exertions1 is rarely a benefit eugenically4 ,the minimum wage is admittedly not an attempt to pay a man what he is worth4 ,it is an attempt to make it possible for every man1 no matter what his economic or social value1 to support a family4 ,therefore1 in so far as it would encourage men of inferior quality to have or increase families1 it is unquestionably dysgenic4 ,,mothers' ,,pensions ,half of the states of the ,union have already adopted some form of pension for widowed mothers1 and similar measures are being urged in nearly all remaining states4 ,the earliest of these laws goes back only to #aiaa4 ,in general1#ahc these laws apply to mothers who are widows1 or in some cases to those who have lost their means of support through imprisonment or incapacity of the husband4 ,the maximum age of the child on whose account allowance is made varies from #ad to #af1 in a few cases to #ag or #ah4 ,the amount allowed for each child varies in each state1 approximately between the limits of #ajj and #bjj a year4 ,in most states the law demands that the mother be a fit person1 physically1 mentally and morally to bring up her children1 and that it be to their interest that they remain with her at home instead of being placed at work or sent to some institution4 ,in all cases considerable latitude is allowed the administrator of the law1--a juvenile court1 or board of county commissioners1 or some body with equivalent powers4 ,laws of this character have often been described as being eugenic in effect1 but examination shows little reason for such a characterization4 ,since the law applies for the most part to women who have lost their husbands1 it is evident that it is not likely to affect the differential birth-rate which is of such concern to eugenics4 ,on the whole1 mothers' pensions must be put in the class of work which may be undertaken on humanitarian grounds1 but they are probably slightly dysgenic rather than eugenic1 since they favor the preservation of families which are1 on the whole1 of inferior quality1 as shown by the lack of relatives with ability or willingness to help them4 ,on the other hand1 they are not likely to result in the production from these families of more children than those already in existence4 ,,housing ,at present it is sometimes difficult1 in the more fashionable quarters of large cities1 to find apartments where families with children are admitted4 ,in other parts of the city1 this difficulty appears to be much less4 ,such a situation tends to discourage parenthood1 on the part of young couples who come of good families and desire to live in the part of the city where their friends are to be found4 ,it is at least likely to cause postponement of parenthood until they feel financially able to take a separate house4 ,here is an influence tending to lower the birth-rate of young couples who have social aspirations1 at least to the extent of desiring to live in the pleasanter and more reputable part of their city4 ,such a hindrance exists to a much less extent1 if at all1 for those who have no reason for wanting to live in the fashionable part of the city4 ,this discrimination of some apartment owners against families with children would therefore appear to be dysgenic in its effect4 ,married people who wish to live in the more attractive part of a city should not be penalized4 ,the remedy is to make it illegal to discriminate against children4 ,it is gratifying to note that recently a number of apartment houses have been built in ,new ,york1 especially with a view to the requirements of children4 ,the movement deserves wide encouragement4 ,any apartment house is an unsatisfactory place in which to bring up children1 but since under modern urban conditions it is inevitable that many children must be brought up in apartments1 if they are brought up at all1 the municipality should in its own interests take steps to ensure that conditions will be as good as possible for them4 ,in a few cases of model tenements1 the favored poor tenants are better off than the moderately well-to-do4 ,it is essential that the latter be given a chance to have children and bring them up in comfortable surroundings1 and the provision of suitable apartment houses would be a gain in every large city4 ,the growing use of the automobile1 which permits a family to live under pleasant surroundings in the suburbs and yet reach the city daily1 alleviates the housing problem slightly4 ,increased facilities for rapid transit are of the utmost importance in placing the city population 7a selected class1 it will be remembered7 under more favorable conditions for bringing up their children4 ,zone rates should be designed to effect this dispersal of population4 ,,feminism ,the word feminism might be supposed to characterize a movement which sought to emphasize the distinction between woman's nature and that of man to provide for women's special needs4 ,it was so used in early days on the continent4 ,but at present in ,england and ,america it denotes a movement which is practically the reverse of this2 which seeks to minimize the difference between the two sexes4 ,it may be broadly described as a movement which seeks to remove all discrimination based on sex4 ,it is a movement to secure recognition of an equality of the two sexes4 ,the feminists variously demand that woman be recognized as the equal of man 7#a7 biologically1 7#b7 politically1 7#c7 economically4 #a4 ,whether or not woman is to be regarded as biologically equal to man depends on how one uses the word equal4 ,if it is meant that woman is as well adapted to her own particular kind of work as is man to his1 the statement will readily be accepted4 ,unfortunately1 feminists show a tendency to go beyond this and to minimize differentiation in their claims of equality4 ,an attempt is made to show that women do not differ materially from men in the nature of their capacity of mental or physical achievement4 ,mrs4 ,charlotte ,perkins ,gilman makes the logical application by demanding that little girls' hair be cut short and that they be prevented from playing with dolls in order that differences fostered in this way be reduced4 ,in forming a judgment on this proposition1 it must be remembered that civilization covers not more than #aj1jjj years out of man's history of half a million or more4 ,during #dij1jjj out of the #ejj1jjj years1 man was the hunter and warrior2 while woman stayed at home of necessity to bear and rear the young1 to skin the prey1 to prepare the food and clothing4 ,he must have a small knowledge of biology who could suppose that this long history would not lead to any differentiation of the two sexes2 and the biologist knows that man and woman in some respects differ in every cell of their bodies3 that1 as ,jacques ,loeb says1 ,man and woman are1 physiologically1 different species4 ,but the biologist also knows that sex is a quantitative character4 ,it is impossible to draw a sharp line and say that those on one side are in every respect men1 and those on the other side in every respect women1 as one might draw a line between goats and sheep4 ,many women have a considerable amount of maleness2 numerous men have distinct feminine characteristics1 physical and mental4 ,there is thus an ill-defined intermediate sex1 as ,edward ,carpenter called it1 whose size has been kept down by sexual selection2 or better stated there is so much overlapping that it is a question of different averages with many individuals of each sex beyond the average of the other sex4 ,a perusal of ,havelock ,ellis' book1 ,man and ,woman1 will leave little doubt about the fact of sex differentiation1 just as it will leave little doubt that one sex is1 in its way1 quite as good as the other1 and that to talk of one sex as being inferior is absurd4 ,it is worth noting that the spread of feminism will reinforce the action of sexual selection in keeping down the numbers of this intermediate sex4 ,in the past1 women who lacked femininity or maternal instinct have often married because the pressure of public opinion and economic conditions made it uncomfortable for any woman to remain unmarried4 ,and they have had children because they could not help it1 transmitting to their daughters their own lack of maternal instinct4 ,under the new rgime a large proportion of such women do not marry1 and accordingly have few if any children to inherit their defects4 ,hence the average level of maternal instinct of the women of ,america is likely steadily to rise4 ,we conclude that any claim of biological equality of the two sexes must use the word in a figurative sense1 not ignoring the differentiation of the two sexes1 as extreme feminists are inclined to do4 ,to this differentiation we shall return later4 #b4 ,political equality includes the demand for the vote and for the removal of various legal restrictions1 such as have sometimes prevented a wife from disposing of her own property without the consent of her husband or such as have made her citizenship follow that of her husband4 ,in the ,united ,states1 these legal restrictions are rapidly being removed1 at such a rate that in some states it is now the husband who has a right to complain of certain legal discriminations4 ,equal suffrage is also gaining steadily1 but its eugenic aspect is not wholly clear4 ,theoretically much is to be said for it1 as making use of woman's large social sympathies and responsibilities and interest in the family2 but in the states where it has been tried1 its effects have not been all that was hoped4 ,beneficial results are to be expected unless an objectionably extreme feminism finds support4 ,in general1 the demand for political equality1 in a broad sense1 seems to the eugenist to be the most praiseworthy part of the feminist program4 ,the abolition of those laws1 which now discharge women from positions if they marry or have children1 promises to be in principle a particularly valuable gain4 #c4 ,economic equality is often summed up in the catch phrase equal pay for equal work4 ,if the phrase refers to jobs where women are competing on piecework with men1 no one will object to it4 ,in practice it applies particularly to two distinct but interlocking demands3 7a7 that women should receive the same pay as men for any given occupation--as1 stenography1 for example2 and 7b7 that child-bearing should be recognized as just as much worthy of remuneration as any occupation which men enter1 and should be paid for 7by the state7 on the same basis4 ,at present1 there is almost universally a discrimination against women in commerce and industry4 ,they sometimes get no more than half as much pay as men for similar grades of employment4 ,but there is for this one good reason4 ,an employer needs experienced help1 and he expects a man to remain with him and become more valuable4 ,he is1 therefore1 willing to pay more because of this anticipation4 ,in hiring a woman1 he knows that she will probably soon leave to marry4 ,but whatever may be the origin of this discrimination1 it is justified in the last analysis by the fact that a man is paid as the head of a family1 a woman only as an individual who ordinarily has fewer or no dependents to support4 ,indeed1 it is largely this feature which1 under the law of supply and demand1 has caused women to work for low wages4 ,it is evident that real economic equality between men and women must be impossible1 if the women are to leave their work for long periods of time1 in order to bear and rear children4 ,it is normally impossible for a woman to earn her living by competitive labor1 at the same time that she is bearing and rearing children4 ,either the doctrine of economic equality is largely illusory1 therefore1 or else it must be extended to making motherhood a salaried occupation just as much as mill work or stenography4 ,the feminists have almost universally adopted the latter alternative4 ,they say that the woman who is capable of earning money1 and who abandons wage-earning for motherhood1 ought to receive from the state as nearly as possible what she would have received if she had not had children2 or else they declare that the expense of children should be borne wholly by the community4 ,this proposal must be tested by asking whether it would tend to strengthen and perpetuate the race or not4 ,it is1 in effect1 a proposal to have the state pay so much a head for babies4 ,the fundamental question is whether or not the quality of the babies would be taken into account4 ,doubtless the babies of obviously feeble-minded women would be excluded1 but would it be possible for the state to pay liberally for babies who would grow up to be productive citizens1 and to refuse to pay for babies that would doubtless grow up to be incompetents1 dolts1 dullards1 laggards or wasters8 ,the scheme would work1 eugenically1 in proportion as it is discriminatory and graded4 ,but the example of legislation in ,france and ,england1 and the main trend of popular thought in ,america1 make it quite certain that at present1 and for many years to come1 it will be impossible to have babies valued on the basis of quality rather than mere numbers4 ,it is sometimes possible to get indirect measures of a eugenic nature passed1 and it has been found possible to secure the passage of direct measures which prevent reproduction of those who are actually defective4 ,but even the most optimistic eugenist must feel that1 short of the remote future1 any attempt to have the state grade and pay for babies on the basis of their quality is certain to fail to pass4 ,the recent action of the municipality of ,schnberg1 ,berlin1 is typical4 ,it is now paying baby bounties at the rate of #ab4ej a head for the first born1 #b4ej a head for all later born1 and no questions asked4 ,it is to be feared that any success which the feminists may gain in securing state aid for mothers in ,america will secure1 as in ,schnberg1 in ,england1 in ,france1 and in ,australia1 merely a small uniform sum4 ,this acts dysgenically because it is a stimulus to married people to have large families in inverse proportion to their income1 and is felt most by those whose purpose in having children is least approvable4 ,the married woman of good stock ought to bear four children4 ,for many reasons these ought to be spaced well apart1 preferably not much less than three years4 ,she must have oversight of these children until they all reach adolescence4 ,this means a period of about #ab #ac #be years during which her primary1 though by no means her only1 concern will be mothercraft4 ,it is hardly possible and certainly not desirable that she should support herself outside of the home during this period4 ,as state support would pretty certainly be indiscriminate and dangerously dysgenic1 it therefore appears that the present custom of having the father responsible for the support of the family is not only unavoidable but desirable4 ,if so1 it is desirable to avoid reducing the wages of married men too much by the competition of single women4 ,to attain this end1 without working any injustice to women1 it seems wise to modify their education in general in such a way as to prepare women for the kinds of work best adapted to her capacities and needs4 ,women were long excluded from a higher education1 and when they secured it1 they not unnaturally wanted the kind of education men were receiving1--partly in order to demonstrate that they were not intellectually inferior to men4 ,since this demonstration is now complete1 the continuation of duplicate curricula is uncalled for4 ,the coeducational colleges of the west are already turning away from the old single curriculum and are providing for the election of more differentiated courses for women4 ,the separate women's colleges of the east will doubtless do so eventually1 since their own graduates and students are increasingly discontented with the present narrow and obsolete ideals4 ,if the higher education of women1 and much of the elementary education1 is directed toward differentiating them from men and giving them distinct occupations 7including primarily marriage and motherhood7 instead of training them so the only thing they are capable of doing is to compete with men for men's jobs1 the demand of equal pay for equal work will be less difficult to reconcile with the interests of the race4 ,in this direction the feminists might find a large and profitable field for the employment of their energies4 ,there is good ground for the feminist contention that women should be liberally educated1 that they should not be regarded by men as inferior creatures1 that they should have the opportunity of self-expression in a richer1 freer life than they have had in the past4 ,all these gains can be made without sacrificing any racial interests2 and they must be so made4 ,the unrest of intelligent women is not to be lessened or removed by educating them in the belief that they are not different from men and setting them to work as men in the work of the world4 ,except where the work is peculiarly adapted to women or there is a special individual aptitude1 such work will1 for the reasons we have set forth1 operate dysgenically and therefore bring about the decadence of the race which practices it4 ,the true solution is rather to be sought in recognizing the natural differentiation of the two sexes and in emphasizing this differentiation by education4 ,boys will be taught the nobility of being productive and of establishing families2 girls will have similar ideals held up to them but will be taught to reach them in a different way1 through cultivation of the intellectual and emotional characters most useful to that division of labor for which they are supremely adapted1 as well as those that are common to both sexes4 ,the home must not be made a subordinate interest1 as some feminists desire1 but it must be made a much richer1 deeper1 more satisfying interest than it is too frequently at present4 ,,old ,,age ,,pensions ,pensions for aged people form an important part of the modern program of social legislation4 ,what their merits may be in relieving poverty will not be discussed here4 ,but beyond the direct effect1 it is important to inquire what indirect eugenic effect they would have1 as compared with the present system where the aged are most frequently supported by their own children when they have failed through lack of thrift or for other reasons to make provision for their old age4 ,the ordinary man1 dependent on his daily work for a livelihood1 can not easily support his parents and his offspring at the same time4 ,aid given to the one must be in some degree at the expense of the other4 ,the eugenic consequences will depend on what class of man is required to contribute thus to parental support4 ,it is at once obvious that superior families will rarely encounter this problem4 ,the parents will1 by their superior earning capacity and the exercise of thrift and foresight1 have provided for the wants of their old age4 ,a superior man will therefore seldom be under economic pressure to limit the number of his own children because of the necessity of supporting his parents4 ,in inferior families1 on the other hand1 the parents will have made no adequate provision for their old age4 ,a son will have to assume their support1 and thus reduce the number of his own children1--a eugenic result4 ,with old age pensions from the state1 the economic pressure would be taken off these inferior families and the children would thus be encouraged to marry earlier and have more children1--a dysgenic result4 ,from this point of view1 the most eugenic course would perhaps be to make the support of parents by children compulsory1 in cases where any support was needed4 ,such a step would not handicap superior families1 but would hold back the inferior4 ,a contributory system of old age pensions1 for which the money was provided out of the individual's earnings1 and laid aside for his old age1 would also be satisfactory4 ,a system which led to the payment of old age pensions by the state would be harmful4 ,the latter system would be evil in still another way because1 as is the case with most social legislation of this type1 the funds for carrying out such a scheme must naturally be furnished by the efficient members of the community4 ,this adds to their financial burdens and encourages the young men to postpone marriage longer and to have fewer children when they do marry1--a dysgenic result4 ,it appears1 therefore1 that old age pensions paid by the state would be dysgenic in a number of ways1 encouraging the increase of the inferior part of the population at the expense of the superior4 ,if old age pensions are necessary1 they should be contributory4 ,,the ,,sex ,,hygiene ,,movement ,sexual morality is thought by some to be substantially synonymous with eugenics or to be included by it4 ,one of the authors has protested previously#ahd against this confusion of the meaning of the word eugenics4 ,the fallacy of believing that a campaign against sexual immorality is a campaign for eugenics will be apparent if the proposition is analyzed4 ,first1 does sexual immorality increase or decrease the marriage rate of the offenders8 ,we conclude that it reduces the marriage rate4 ,although it is true that some individuals might by sexual experience become so awakened as to be less satisfied with a continent life1 and might thus in some cases be led to marriage1 yet this is more than counterbalanced by the following considerations3 #a4 ,the mere consciousness of loss of virginity has led in some sensitive persons1 especially women1 to an unwillingness to marry from a sense of unworthiness4 ,this is not common1 yet such cases are known4 #b4 ,the loss of reputation has prevented the marriage of the desired mates4 ,this is not at all uncommon4 #c4 ,venereal infection has led to the abandonment of marriage4 ,this is especially common4 #d4 ,illicit experiences may have been so disillusioning1 owing to the disaffecting nature of the consorts1 that an attitude of pessimism and misanthropy or misogyny is built up4 ,such an attitude prevents marriage not only directly1 but also indirectly1 since persons with such an outlook are thereby less attractive to the opposite sex4 #e4 ,a taste for sexual variety is built up so that the individual is unwilling to commit himself to a monogamous union4 #f4 ,occasionally1 threat of blackmail by a jilted paramour prevents marriage by the inability to escape these importunities4 ,we consider next the relative birth-rate of the married and the incontinent unmarried4 ,there can not be the slightest doubt that this is vastly greater in the case of the married4 ,the unmarried have not only all the incentives of the married to keep down their birth-rate but also the obvious and powerful incentive of concealment as well4 ,passing to the relative death-rate of the illegitimate and legitimate progeny1 the actual data invariably indicate a decided advantage of the legitimately born4 ,the reasons are too obvious to be retailed4 ,now1 then1 knowing that the racial contribution of the sexually moral is greater than that of the sexually immoral1 we may compare the quality of the sexually moral and immoral1 to get the evolutionary effect4 ,for this purpose a distinction must be made between the individual who has been chaste till the normal time of marriage and whose sexual life is truly monogamous1 and that abnormal group who remain chaste and celibate to an advanced age4 ,these last are not moral in the last analysis1 if they have valuable and needed traits and are fertile1 because in the long run their failure to reproduce affects adversely the welfare of their group4 ,while the race suffers through the failure of many of these individuals to contribute progeny1 probably this does not happen1 so far as males are concerned1 as much as might be supposed1 for such individuals are often innately defective in their instincts or1 in the case of disappointed lovers1 have a badly proportioned emotional equipment1 since it leads them into a position so obviously opposed to race interests4 ,but1 to pass to the essential comparison1 that between the sexually immoral and the sexually moral as limited above1 it is necessary first of all to decide whether monogamy is a desirable and presumably permanent feature of human society4 ,we conclude that it is3 #a4 ,because it is spreading at the expense of polygamy even where not favored by legal interference4 ,the change is most evident in ,china4 #b4 ,in monogamy1 sexual selection puts a premium on valuable traits of character1 rather than on mere personal beauty or ability to acquire wealth2 and #c4 ,the greatest amount of happiness is produced by a monogamous system1 since in a polygamous society so many men must remain unmarried and so many women are dissatisfied with having to share their mates with others4 ,assuming this1 then adaptation to the condition of monogamous society represents race progress4 ,such a race profits if those who do not comply with its conditions make a deficient racial contribution4 ,it follows then that sexual immorality is eugenic in its result for the species and that if all sexual immorality should cease1 an important means of race progress might be lost4 ,an illustration is the case of the ,negro in ,america1 whose failure to increase more rapidly in number is largely attributable to the widespread sterility resulting from venereal infection4#ahe ,should venereal diseases be eliminated1 that race might be expected to increase in numbers very much faster than the whites4 ,it may be felt by some that this position would have an immoral effect upon youth if widely accepted4 ,this need not be feared4 ,on the contrary1 we believe that one of the most powerful factors in ethical culture is pride due to the consciousness of being one who is fit and worthy4 ,the traditional view of sexual morality has been to ignore the selectional aspect here discussed and to stress the alleged deterioration of the germ-plasm by the direct action of the toxins of syphilis4 ,the evidence relied upon to demonstrate this action seems to be vitiated by the possibility that there was1 instead1 a transmitted infection of the progeny4 ,this racial poison action1 since it is so highly improbable from analogy1 can not be credited until it has been demonstrated in cases where the parents have been indubitably cured4 ,is it necessary1 then1 to retain sexual immorality in order to achieve race progress8 ,no1 because it is only one of many factors contributing to race progress4 ,society can mitigate this as well as alcoholism1 disease1 infant mortality--all powerful selective factors--without harm1 provided increased efficiency of other selective factors is ensured1 such as the segregation of defectives1 more effective sexual selection1 a better correlation of income and ability1 and a more eugenic distribution of family limitation4 ,,trades ,,unionism ,a dysgenic feature often found in trades unionism will easily be understood after our discussion of the minimum wage4 ,the union tends to standardize wages2 it tends to fix a wage in a given industry1 and demand that nearly all workers in that classification be paid that wage4 ,it cannot be denied that some of these workers are much more capable than others4 ,artificial interference with a more exact adjustment of wages to ability therefore penalizes the better workmen and subsidizes the worse ones4 ,economic pressure is thereby put on the better men to have fewer children1 and with the worse men encourages more children1 than would be the case if their incomes more nearly represented their real worth4 ,payment according to the product1 with prizes and bonuses so much opposed by the unions1 is more in accord with the principles of eugenics4 ,,prohibition ,it was shown in ,chapter ,,ii that the attempt to ban alcoholic beverages on the ground of direct dysgenic effect is based on dubious evidence4 ,but the prohibition of the use of liquors1 at least those containing more than #e alcohol1 can be defended on indirect eugenic grounds1 as well as on the familiar grounds of pathology and economics which are commonly cited4 #a4 ,unless it is present to such a degree as to constitute a neurotic taint1 the desire to be stimulated is not of itself necessarily a bad thing4 ,this will be particularly clear if the distribution of the responsiveness to alcoholic stimulus is recalled4 ,some really valuable strains1 marked by this susceptibility1 may be eliminated through the death of some individuals from debauchery and the penalization of others in preferential mating2 this would be avoided if narcotics were not available4 #b4 ,in selection for eugenic improvement1 it is desirable not to have to select for too many traits at once4 ,if alcoholism could1 through prohibition1 be eliminated from consideration1 it would just so far simplify the problem of eugenics4 #c4 ,drunkenness interferes with the effectiveness of means for family limitation1 so that if his alcoholism is not extreme1 the drunkard's family is sometimes larger than it would otherwise be4 ,on the other hand1 prohibition is dysgenic and intemperance is eugenic in their effect on the species in so far as alcoholism is correlated with other undesirable characters and brings about the elimination of undesirable strains4 ,but its action is not sufficiently discriminating nor decisive2 and if the strains have many serious defects1 they can probably be dealt with better in some other1 more direct way4 ,we conclude1 then1 that1 on the whole1 prohibition is desirable for eugenic as well as for other reasons4 ,,pedagogical ,,celibacy ,whether women are more efficient teachers than men1 and whether single women are more efficient teachers than married women1 are disputed questions which it is not proposed here to consider4 ,accepting the present fact1 that most of the school teachers in the ,united ,states are unmarried women1 it is proper to examine the eugenic consequences of this condition4 ,the withdrawal of this large body of women from the career of motherhood into a celibate career may be desirable if these women are below the average of the rest of the women of the population in eugenic quality4 ,but it would hardly be possible to find enough eugenic inferiors to fill the ranks of teachers1 without getting those who are inferior in actual ability1 in patent as well as latent traits4 ,and the idea of placing education in the hands of such inferior persons is not to be considered4 ,it is1 therefore1 inevitable that the teachers are1 on the whole1 superior persons eugenically4 ,their celibacy must be considered highly detrimental to racial welfare4 ,but1 it may be said1 there is a considerable number of women so deficient in sex feeling or emotional equipment that they are certain never to marry2 they are1 nevertheless1 persons of intellectual ability4 ,let them be the school teachers4 ,this solution is1 however1 not acceptable4 ,many women of the character described undoubtedly exist1 but they are better placed in some other occupation4 ,it is wholly undesirable that children should be reared under a neuter influence1 which is probably too common already in education4 ,if women are to teach1 then1 it must be concluded that on eugenic grounds preference should be given to married rather than single teachers1 and that the single ones should be encouraged to marry4 ,this requires 7#a7 that considerable change be made in the education of young women1 so that they shall be fitted for motherhood rather than exclusively for school teaching as is often the case1 and 7#b7 that social devices be brought into play to aid them in mating--since undoubtedly a proportion of school teachers are single from the segregating character of their profession1 not from choice1 and 7#c7 provision for employing some women on half-time and 7#d7 increase of the number of male teachers in high schools4 ,it is1 perhaps1 unnecessary to mention a fifth change necessary3 that school boards must be brought to see the undesirability of employing only unmarried women1 and of discharging them1 no matter how efficient1 if they marry or have children4 ,the courts must be enabled to uphold woman's right of marriage and motherhood1 instead of1 as in some cases at present1 upholding school boards in their denial of this right4 ,contracts which prevent women teachers from marrying or discontinuing their work for marriage should be illegal1 and talk about the moral obligation of normal school graduates to teach should be discountenanced4 ,against the proposal to employ married school teachers1 two objections are urged4 ,it is said 7#a7 that for most women school teaching is merely a temporary occupation1 which they take up to pass the few years until they shall have married4 ,to this it may be replied that the hope of marriage too often proves illusory to the young woman who enters on the pedagogical career1 because of the lack of opportunities to meet men1 and because the nature of her work is not such as to increase her attractiveness to men1 nor her fitness for home-making4 ,pedagogy is too often a sterilizing institution1 which takes young women who desire to marry and impairs their chance of marriage4 ,again it will be said 7#b7 that married teachers would lose too much time from their work2 that their primary interests would be in their own homes instead of in the school2 that they could not teach school without neglecting their own children4 ,these objections fall in the realm of education1 not eugenics1 and it can only be said here that the reasons must be extraordinarily cogent1 which will justify the enforcement of celibacy on so large a body of superior young women as is now engaged in school teaching4 ,the magnitude of the problem is not always realized4 ,in #aiad the ,commissioner of education reported that there were1 in the ,united ,states1 #afi1ibi men and #ecg1abc women engaged in teaching4 ,not less than half a million women1 therefore1 are potentially affected by the institution of pedagogical celibacy4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,religion ,,and ,,eugenics ,man is the only animal with a religion4 ,the conduct of the lower animals is guided by instinct1#ahf and instinct normally works for the benefit of the species4 ,any action which is dictated by instinct is likely to result in the preservation of the species1 even at the expense of the individual which acts1 provided there has not been a recent change in the environment4 ,but in the human species reason appears1 and conduct is no longer governed by instinct alone4 ,a young man is impelled by instinct1 for instance1 to marry4 ,it is to the interests of the species that he marry1 and instinct therefore causes him to desire to marry and to act as he desires4 ,a lower animal would obey the impulse of instinct without a moment's hesitation4 ,not so the man4 ,reason intervenes and asks1 ,is this really the best thing for you to do now8 ,would you not better wait awhile and get a start in your business8 ,of course marriage would be agreeable1 but you must not be short-sighted4 ,you don't want to assume a handicap just now4 ,there is a corresponding reaction among the married in respect to bearing additional children4 ,the interests of self are immediate and easily seen1 the interests of the species are not so pressing4 ,in any such conflict between instinct and reason1 one must win2 and if reason wins it is in some cases for the immediate benefit of the individual but at the expense of the species' interests4 ,now with reason dominant over instinct in man1 there is a grave danger that with each man consulting his own interests instead of those of the species1 some groups and even races will become exterminated4 ,along with reason1 therefore1 it is necessary that some other forces shall appear to control reason and give the interests of the species a chance to be heard along with the interests of the individual4 ,one such force is religion4 ,without insisting that this is the only view which may be taken of the origin of religion1 or that this is the only function of religion1 we may yet assert that one of the useful purposes served by religion is to cause men to adopt lines of conduct that will be for the good of the race1 although it may sacrifice the immediate good of the individual4#ahg ,thus if a young ,mohammedan be put in the situation just described1 he may decide that it is to his material interest to postpone marriage4 ,his religion then obtrudes itself1 with quotations from the ,prophet to the effect that ,hell is peopled with bachelors4 ,the young man is thereupon moved to marry1 even if it does cause some inconvenience to his business plans4 ,religion1 reinforcing instinct1 has triumphed over reason and gained a victory for the larger interests of the species1 when they conflict with the immediate interests of the individual4 ,from this point of view we may1 paraphrasing ,matthew ,arnold1 define religion as motivated ethics4 ,ethics is a knowledge of right conduct1 religion is an agency to produce right conduct4 ,and its working is more like that of instinct than it is like that of reason4 ,the irreligious man1 testing a proposition by reason alone1 may decide that it is to the interests of all concerned that he should not utter blasphemy4 ,the orthodox ,christian never considers the pros and cons of the question2 he has the ,ten ,commandments and the teachings of his youth in his mind1 and he refrains from blasphemy in almost the instinctive way that he refrains from putting his hand on a hot stove4 ,this chapter proposes primarily to consider how eugenics can be linked with religion1 and specifically the ,christian religion2 but the problem is not a simple one1 because ,christianity is made of diverse elements4 ,not only has it undergone some change during the last #aijj years1 but it was founded upon ,judaism1 which itself involved diverse elements4 ,we shall undertake to show that eugenics fits in well with ,christianity2 but it must fit in with different elements in different ways4 ,we can distinguish four phases of religion3 #a4 ,charm and taboo1 or reward and punishment in the present life4 ,the believer in these processes thinks that certain acts possess particular efficacies beyond those evident to his observation and reason2 and that peculiar malignities are to be expected as the consequence of certain other acts4 ,perhaps no one in the memory of the tribe has ever tested one of these acts to find whether the expected result would appear2 it is held as a matter of religious belief that the result would appear1 and the act is therefore avoided4 #b4 ,reward and punishment in a future life after death4 ,whereas the first system was supposed to bring immediate reward and punishment as the result of certain acts1 this second system postpones the result to an after-life4 ,there is in nature a system of reward and punishment which everyone must have observed because it is part of the universal sequence of cause and effect2 but these two phases of religion carry the idea still farther2 they postulate rewards and punishments of a supernatural character1 over and above those which naturally occur4 ,it is important to note that in neither of these systems is ,god essentially involved4 ,they are in reality independent of the idea of ,god1 since that is called luck in some cases which in others is called the favor or wrath of ,god4 ,and again in some cases1 one may be damned by a human curse1 although in others this curse of damnation is reserved for divine power4 #c4 ,theistic religion4 ,in essence this consists of the satisfaction derived from doing that which pleases ,god1 or getting into harmony with the underlying plan of the universe1 as some put it4 ,it is idealistic and somewhat mystic4 ,it should be distinguished from the idea of doing or believing certain things to insure salvation1 which is not essentially theistic but belongs under 7#b74 ,the true theist desires to conform to the will of ,god1 wholly apart from whether he will be rewarded or punished for so doing4 #d4 ,humanistic religion4 ,this is a willingness to make the end of ethics the totality of happiness of all men1 or some large group of men1 rather than to judge conduct solely by its effects on some one individual4 ,at its highest1 it is a sort of loyalty to the species4 ,it must be noted that most cults include more than one of these elements--usually all of them at various stages4 ,as a race rises in intelligence1 it tends to progress from the first two toward the last two1 but usually keeping parts of the earlier attitude1 more or less clearly expressed4 ,and individual adherents of a religion usually have different ideas of its scope2 thus the religious ideas of many ,christians embrace all four of the above elements2 others who equally consider themselves ,christians may be influenced by little more than 7#d7 alone1 or 7#c7 alone1 or even 7#b7 alone4 ,there is no reason to believe that any one of these types of religion is the only one adapted to promoting sound ethics in all individuals1 nor that a similar culture can bring about uniformity in the near future1 since the religion of a race corresponds to some extent to the inherent nature of the mind of its individuals4 ,up to a certain point1 each type of religion has a distinct appeal to a certain temperament or type of mind4 ,with increasing intelligence1 it is probable that a religion tends to emphasize the interests of all rather than the benefits to be derived by one2 such has been clearly the case in the history of the ,christian religion4 ,the diverse elements of retribution1 damnation1 communion with ,god and social service still exist1 but in ,america the last-named one is yearly being more emphasized4 ,emphasis upon it is the marked characteristic of ,jesus' teaching4 ,with this rough sketch of religious ideas in mind1 the part religion can play at the present day in advancing the eugenic interests of the race or species may be considered4 ,each religion can serve eugenics just as well as it can serve any other field of ethics1 and by the very same devices4 ,we shall run over our four types again and note what appeals eugenics can make to each one4 #a4 ,reward and punishment in this life4 ,here the value of children1 emotionally and economically1 to their parents in their later life can be shown1 and the dissatisfaction that is felt by the childless4 ,the emotions may be reached 7as they have been reached in past centuries7 by the painting of ,madonnas1 the singing of lullabies1 by the care of the baby sister1 by the laurel wreath of the victorious son1 by the great choruses of white-robed girls1 by the happiness of the bride1 and by the sentiment of the home4 ,here are some of the noblest subjects for the arts1 which in the past have unconsciously served eugenics well4 ,in a less emotional way1 a deep desire for that terrestrial immortality involved in posterity should be fostered4 ,the doctrine of the continuity of germ-plasm might play a large part in religion4 ,it should at least be brought home to everyone at some point in his education4 ,man should have a much stronger feeling of identity with his forebears and his progeny4 ,is it not a loss to ,christians that they have so much less of this feeling than the ,chinese8 ,it may be urged in opposition that such conceptions are dangerously static and have thereby harmed ,china4 ,but that can be avoided by shifting the balance a little from progenitors to posterity4 ,if people should live more in their children than they now do1 they would be not only anxious to give them a sound heredity1 but all the more eager to improve the conditions of their children's environment by modifying their own4 ,it may be objected that this sort of propaganda is indiscriminate1--that it may further the reproduction of the inferior just as much as the superior4 ,we think not4 ,such steps appeal more to the superior type of mind and will be little heeded by the inferior4 ,they will be ultimately1 if not directly1 discriminative4 ,in so far as the foregoing appeals to reason alone it is not religion4 ,the appeal to reason must either be emotionalized or colored with the supernatural to be religion4 #b4 ,reward and punishment in a future life4 ,here the belief in the absolute1 verbal inspiration of sacred writings and the doctrine of salvation by faith alone are rapidly passing1 and it is therefore the easier to bring eugenics into this type of religion4 ,even where salvation by faith is still held as an article of creed1 it is accompanied by the concession that he who truly believes will manifest his belief by works4 ,altruism can be found in the sacred writings of probably all religions1 and the modern tendency is to make much of such passages1 in which it is easy for the eugenist to find a warrant4 ,what is needed here1 then1 is to impress upon the leaders in this field that eugenic conduct is a good work and as such they may properly include it along with other modern virtues1 such as honest voting and abstinence from graft as a key to heaven4 ,dysgenic conduct should equally be taught to be an obstacle to salvation4 #c4 ,theism4 ,the man who is most influenced by the desire to be at one with ,god naturally wants to act in accordance with ,god's plan4 ,but ,god being omnibeneficent1 he necessarily believes that ,god's plan is that which is for the best interests of ,his children--unless he is one of those happily rare individuals who still believe that the end of man is to glorify ,god by voice1 not by means of human betterment4 ,this type of religion 7and the other types in different degrees7 is a great motive power4 ,it both creates energy in its adherents1 and directs that energy into definite outlets4 ,it need only be made convincingly evident that eugenics is truly a work of human betterment1--really the greatest work of human betterment1 and a partnership with ,god--to have it taken up by this type of religion with all the enthusiasm which it brings to its work4 #d4 ,the task of enlisting the humanist appears to be even simpler4 ,it is merely necessary to show him that eugenics increases the totality of happiness of the human species4 ,since the keynote of his devotion is loyalty1 we might make this plea3 ,can we not make every superior man or woman ashamed to accept existence as a gift from his or her ancestors1 only to extinguish this torch instead of handing it on8 ,eugenics is in some ways akin to the movement for the conservation of natural resources4 ,in pioneer days a race uses up its resources without hesitation4 ,they seem inexhaustible4 ,some day it is recognized that they are not inexhaustible1 and then such members of the race as are guided by good ethics begin to consider the interests of the future4 ,no system of ethics is worth the name which does not make provision for the future4 ,it is right here that the ethics of present-day ,america is too often found wanting4 ,as this fault is corrected1 eugenics will be more clearly seen as an integral part of ethics4 ,provision for the future of the individual leads1 in a very low state of civilization1 to the accumulation of wealth4 ,even the ants and squirrels have so much ethics6 ,higher in the evolutionary scale comes provision for the future of children2 their interests lead to the foundation of the family and1 at a much later date1 a man looks not only to his immediate children but to future generations of heirs1 when he entails his estates and tries to establish a notable family line4 ,provision for the future is the essence of his actions4 ,but so far only the individual or those related closely to him have been taken into consideration4 ,with a growth of altruism1 man begins to recognize that he must make provision for the future of the race2 that he should apply to all superior families the same anxiety which he feels that his children shall not tarnish the family name by foolish marriages2 that they shall grow up strong and intelligent4 ,this feeling interpreted by science is eugenics1 an important element of which is religion3 for religion more than any other influence leads one to look ahead1 and to realize that immediate benefits are not the greatest values that man can secure in life1--that there is something beyond and superior to eating1 drinking and being merry4 ,if the criterion of ethical action is the provision it makes for the future1 then the ethics of the eugenist must rank high1 for he not only looks far to the future1 but takes direct and effective steps to safeguard the future4 ,theoretically1 then1 there is a place for eugenics in every type of religion4 ,in practice1 it will probably make an impression only on the dynamic religions1--those that are actually accomplishing something4 ,buddhism1 for example1 is perhaps too contemplative to do anything4 ,but ,christianity1 above any other1 would seem to be the natural ally of the eugenist4 ,christianity itself is undergoing a rapid change in ideals at present1 and it seems impossible that this evolution should leave its adherents as ignorant of and indifferent to eugenics as they have been in the past--even during the last generation4 ,followers of other religions1 as this chapter has attempted to show1 can also make eugenics a part of their respective religions4 ,if they do not1 then it bodes ill for the future of their religion and of their race4 ,it is not difficult to get people to see the value of eugenics1--to give an intellectual adhesion to it4 ,but as eugenics sometimes calls for seeming sacrifices1 it is much more difficult to get people to act eugenically4 ,we have at numerous points in this book emphasized the necessity of making the eugenic appeal emotional1 though it is based fundamentally on sound reasoning from facts of biology4 ,the great value of religion in this connection is that it provides a driving power1#ahh a source of action1 which the intellect alone can rarely furnish4 ,reason itself is usually an inhibitor of action4 ,it is the emotions that impel one to do things4 ,the utilization of the emotions in affecting conduct is by no means always a part of religion1 yet it is the essence of religion4 ,without abandoning the appeal to reason1 eugenists must make every effort to enlist potent emotional forces on their side4 ,there is none so strong and available as religion1 and the eugenist may turn to it with confidence of finding an effective ally1 if he can once gain its sanction4 ,the task1 as this chapter was intended to show1 is a complex one1 yet we see no insuperable obstacles to it4 ,eugenics may not become a part of the ,christian religion1 as a whole1 until scientific education is much more widespread than at present1 but it is not too soon to make a start1 by identifying the interests of the two wherever such identification is justified and profitable4 ,we have endeavored to point out that as a race rises1 and instinct becomes less important in guiding the conduct of its members1 religion has often put a restraint on reason1 guiding the individual in racially profitable paths4 ,what is to happen when religion gives way8 ,unbridled selfishness too often takes the reins1 and the interests of the species are disregarded4 ,religion1 therefore1 appears to be a necessity for the perpetuation of any race4 ,it is essential to racial welfare that the national religion should be of such a character as to appeal to the emotions effectively and yet conciliate the reason4 ,we believe that the religion of the future is likely to acquire this character1 in proportion as it adheres to eugenics4 ,there is no room in the civilized world now for a dysgenic religion4 ,science will progress4 ,the idea of evolution will be more firmly grasped4 ,religion itself evolves1 and any religion which does not embrace eugenics will embrace death4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,eugenics ,,and ,,euthenics ,emphasis has been given1 in several of the foregoing chapters1 to the desirability of inheriting a good constitution and a high degree of vigor and disease-resistance4 ,it has been asserted that no measures of hygiene and sanitation can take the place of such inheritance4 ,it is now desirable to ascertain the limits within which good inheritance is effective1 and this may be conveniently done by a study of the lives of a group of people who inherited exceptionally strong physical constitutions4 ,the people referred to are taken from a collection of histories of long life made by the ,genealogical ,record ,office of ,washington4#ahi ,one hundred individuals were picked out at random1 each of whom had died at the age of #ij or more1 and with the record of each individual were placed those of all his brothers and sisters4 ,any family was rejected in which there was a record of wholly accidental death 7e4g41 families of which a member had been killed in the ,civil ,war74 ,the #ajj families1 or more correctly fraternities or sibships1 were classified by the number of children per fraternity1 as follows3 ,number of ,total number ,number of children per of children fraternities fraternity in group #a #b #b #aa #c #cc #h #d #cb #ag #e #he #ac #f #gh #ad #g #ih #i #h #gb #aa #i #ii #aj #aj #ajj #c #aa #cc #b #ab #bd #a #ac #ac --- --- #ajj #ffi ,the average at death of these #ffi persons was #fd4g years4 ,the child mortality 7first #d years of life7 was #g4e of the total mortality1 #fi families showing no deaths of that kind4 ,the group is as a whole1 therefore1 long-lived4 ,the problem was to measure the resemblance between brothers and sisters in respect of longevity1--to find whether knowledge of the age at which one died would justify a prediction as to the age at death of the others1--or technically1 it was to measure the fraternal correlation of longevity4 ,a zero coefficient here would show that there is no association2 that from the age at which one dies1 nothing whatever can be predicted as to the age at which the others will die4 ,since it is known that heredity is a large factor in longevity1 such a finding would mean that all deaths were due to some accident which made the inheritance of no account4 ,in an ordinary population it has been found that the age at death of brothers and sisters furnishes a coefficient of correlation of the order of 4#c1 which shows that heredity does determine the age at which one shall die to considerable extent1 but not absolutely4#aij ,the index of correlation#aia between the lengths of life within the fraternity in these #ajj selected families1 furnished a coefficient of-4#jafc4jfgb1 practically zero4 ,in other words1 if the age is known at which a member of one of these families died1 whether it be one month or #ajj years1 nothing whatever can be predicted about the age at which his brothers and sisters died4 ,remembering that longevity is in general inherited1 and that it is found in the families of all the people of this study 7since one in each fraternity lived to be #ij or over7 how is one to interpret this zero coefficient8 ,evidently it means that although these people had inherited a high degree of longevity1 their deaths were brought about by causes which prevented the heredity from getting full expression4 ,as far as hereditary potentialities are concerned1 it can be said that all their deaths were due to accident1 using that word in a broad sense to include all non-selective deaths by disease4 ,if they had all been able to get the full benefit of their heredity1 it would appear that each of these persons might have lived to #ij or more1 as did the one in each family who was recorded by the ,genealogical ,record ,office4 ,genetically1 these other deaths may be spoken of as premature4 ,in an ordinary population1 the age of death is determined to the extent of probably #ej by heredity4 ,in this selected long-lived population1 heredity appears not to be responsible in any measurable degree whatsoever for the differences in age at death4 ,the result may be expressed in another1 and perhaps more striking1 way4 ,of the #ffi individuals studied1 a hundred--namely1 one child in each family--lived beyond #ij2 and there were a few others who did4 ,but some #eej of the group1 though they had inherited the potentiality of reaching the average age of #ij1 actually died somewhere around #fj2 they failed by at least one-third to live up to the promise of their inheritance4 ,if we were to generalize from this single case1 we would have to say that five-sixths of the population does not make the most of its physical inheritance4 ,this is certainly a fact that discourages fatalistic optimism4 ,the man who tells himself that1 because of his magnificent inherited constitution1 he can safely take any risk1 is pretty sure to take too many risks and meet with a non-selective--i4e41 genetically1 a premature--death1 when he might in the nature of things have lived almost a generation longer4 ,it should be remarked that most of the members of this group seem to have lived in a hard environment4 ,they appear to belong predominantly to the lower strata of society2 many of them are immigrants and only a very few of them1 to judge by a cursory inspection of the records1 possessed more than moderate means4 ,this necessitated a frugal and industrious life which in many ways was doubtless favorable to longevity but which may often have led to overexposure1 overwork1 lack of proper medical treatment1 or other causes of a non-selective death4 ,we would not push the conclusion too far1 but we can not doubt that this investigation shows the folly of ignoring the environment1--shows that the best inherited constitution must have a fair chance4 ,and what has here been found for a physical character1 would probably hold good in even greater degree for a mental character4 ,all that man inherits is the capacity to develop along a certain line under the influence of proper stimuli1--food and exercise4 ,the object of eugenics is to see that the inherent capacity is there4 ,given that1 the educational system is next needed to furnish the stimuli4 ,the consistent eugenist is therefore an ardent euthenist4 ,he not only works for a better human stock but1 because he does not want to see his efforts wasted1 he always works to provide the best possible environment for this better stock4 ,in so far1 then1 as euthenics is actually providing man with more favorable surroundings1--not with ostensibly more favorable surroundings which1 in reality1 are unfavorable--there can be no antagonism between it and eugenics4 ,eugenics is1 in fact1 a prerequisite of euthenics1 for it is only the capable and altruistic man who can contribute to social progress2 and such a man can only be produced through eugenics4 ,eugenic fatalism1 a blind faith in the omnipotence of heredity regardless of the surroundings in which it is placed1 has been shown by the study of long-lived families to be unjustified4 ,it was found that even those who inherited exceptional longevity usually did not live as long as their inheritance gave them the right to expect4 ,if they had had more euthenics1 they should have lived longer4 ,but this illustration certainly gives no ground for a belief that euthenics is sufficient to prolong one's life beyond the inherited limit4 ,a study of these long-lived families from another point of view will reveal that heredity is the primary factor and that good environment1 euthenics1 is the secondary one4 ,for this purpose we augment the #ajj families of the preceding section by the addition of #bdj more families like them1 and we examine each family history to find how many of the children died before completing the fourth year of life4 ,the data are summarized in the following table3 ,,child ,,mortality ,,in ,,families ,,of ,,long-,,lived ,,stock1 ,,genealogical ,,record ,,office ,,data ,size of ,no4 of families ,no4 of families ,total no4 family investigated showing deaths of deaths under #e years #a child #f #j #j #b children #f #j #j #c #ch #d #e #d #dj #f #g #e #ch #d #d #f #dd #ab #ac #g #cd #h #aa #h #df #ac #ah #i #ca #ad #bj #aj #bg #ad #ad #aa #ac #f #i #ab #ac #i #af #ac #a #j #j #ad #b #j #j #ag #a #a #b --- --- --- #cdj #ia #aai ,the addition of the new families 7which were not subjected to any different selection than the first #ajj7 has brought down the child mortality rate4 ,for the first #ajj1 it was found to be #g4e4 ,if in the above table the number of child deaths1 #aai1 be divided by the total number of children represented1 #b1bei1 the child mortality rate for this population is found to be #e4bg1 or #ec per thousand4 ,the smallness of this figure may be seen by comparison with the statistics of the registration area1 ,u4 ,s4 ,census of #ahhj1 when the child mortality 7#j-d years7 was #djj per thousand1 as calculated by ,alexander ,graham ,bell4 ,a mortality of #ec for the first four years of life is smaller than any district known in the ,united ,states1 even to-day1 can show for the first year of life alone4 ,if any city could bring the deaths of babies during their first twelve months down to #ec per #a1jjj1 it would think it had achieved the impossible2 but here is a population in which #ec per #a1jjj covers the deaths1 not only of the fatal first #ab months1 but of the following three years in addition4 ,now this population with an unprecedentedly low rate of child mortality is not one which had had the benefit of any ,baby ,saving ,campaign1 nor even the knowledge of modern science4 ,its mothers were mostly poor1 many of them ignorant2 they lived frequently under conditions of hardship2 they were peasants and pioneers4 ,their babies grew up without doctors1 without pasteurized milk1 without ice1 without many sanitary precautions1 usually on rough food4 ,but they had one advantage which no amount of applied science can give after birth--namely1 good heredity4 ,they had inherited exceptionally good constitutions4 ,it is not by accident that inherited longevity in a family is associated with low mortality of its children4 ,the connection between the two facts was first discovered by ,mary ,beeton and ,karl ,pearson in their pioneer work on the inheritance of duration of life4 ,they found that high infant mortality was associated with early death of parents1 while the offspring of long-lived parents showed few deaths in childhood4 ,the correlation of the two facts was quite regular1 as will be evident from a glance at the following tables prepared by ,a4 ,ploetz3 ,,length ,,of ,,life ,,of ,,mothers ,,and ,,child-,,mortality ,,of ,,their ,,daughters4 ,,english ,,quaker ,,families1 ,,data ,,of ,,beeton ,,and ,,pearson1 ,,arranged ,,by ,,ploetz ,year of life in which mothers died ,at all #j-ch #ci-ec #ed-fh #fi-hc #hd up ages ,no4 of daughters #bcd #cjd #cje #fff #bdg #ahdf ,no4 of them who died in first #e years #abb #aad #aah #aca #bf #eaa ,per cent4 of daughters who died #eb4a #cg4e #bi4i #ai4g #aj4e #bg4g ,,length ,,of ,,life ,,of ,,fathers ,,and ,,child-,,mortality ,,of ,,their ,,daughters ,year of life in which fathers died ,at #j-ch #ci-ec #ed-fh #fi-hc #hd up all ages ,no4 of daughters #aje #bhd #ehe #gig #bcf #bjji ,no4 of them who died in first #e years #ea #ih #aef #agg #dj #ebb ,per cent4 of daughters who died #dh4f #cd4e #bf4g #bb4b #ag4j #bf4j ,to save space1 we do not show the relation between parent and son2 it is similar to that of parent and daughter which is shown in the preceding tables4 ,in making comparison with the #cdj families from the ,genealogical ,record ,office1 above studied1 it must be noted that ,dr4 ,ploetz' tables include one year longer in the period of child mortality1 being computed for the first five years of life instead of the first four4 ,his percentages would therefore be somewhat lower if computed on the basis used in the ,american work4 ,these various data demonstrate the existence of a considerable correlation between short life 7brachybioty1 ,karl ,pearson calls it7 in parent and short life in offspring4 ,not only is the tendency to live long inherited1 but the tendency not to live long is likewise inherited4 ,but perhaps the reader may think they show nothing of the sort4 ,he may fancy that the early death of a parent left the child without sufficient care1 and that neglect1 poverty1 or some other factor of euthenics brought about the child's death4 ,perhaps it lacked a mother's loving attention1 or perhaps the father's death removed the wage-earner of the family and the child thenceforth lacked the necessities of life4 ,dr4 ,ploetz has pointed out#aib that this objection is not valid1 because the influence of the parent's death is seen to hold good even to the point where the child was too old to require any assistance4 ,if the facts applied only to cases of early death1 the supposed objection might be weighty1 but the correlation exists from one end of the age-scale to the other4 ,it is not credible that a child is going to be deprived of any necessary maternal care when its mother dies at the age of #fi2 the child herself was probably married long before the death of the mother4 ,nor is it credible that the death of the father takes bread from the child's mouth1 leaving it to starve to death in the absence of a pension for widowed mothers1 if the father died at #hc1 when the child herself was getting to be an old woman4 ,the early death of a parent may occasionally bring about the child's death for a reason wholly unconnected with heredity1 but the facts just pointed out show that such cases are exceptional4 ,the steady association of the child death-rate and parent death-rate at all ages demonstrates that heredity is a common cause4 ,but the reader may suspect another fallacy4 ,the cause of this association is really environmental1 he may think1 and the same poverty or squalor which causes the child to die early may cause the parent to die early4 ,they may both be of healthy1 long-lived stock1 but forced to live in a pestiferous slum which cuts both of them off prematurely and thereby creates a spurious correlation in the statistics4 ,we can dispose of this objection most effectively by bringing in new evidence4 ,it will probably be admitted that in the royal families of ,europe1 the environment is as good as knowledge and wealth can make it4 ,no child dies for lack of plenty of food and the best medical care1 even if his father or mother died young4 ,and the members of this caste are not exposed to any such unsanitary conditions1 or such economic pressure as could possibly cause both parent and child to die prematurely4 ,if the association between longevity of parent and child mortality holds for the royal families of ,europe and their princely relatives1 it can hardly be regarded as anything but the effect of heredity1--of the inheritance of a certain type of constitution4 ,dr4 ,ploetz studied the deaths of #c1baj children in ,european royalty1 from this viewpoint4 ,the following table shows the relation between father and child3 ,,length ,,of ,,life ,,of ,,fathers ,,and ,,child-,,mortality ,,of ,,their ,,children ,,in ,,royal ,,and ,,princely ,,families1 ,,ploetz' ,,data ,at ,year of life in which fathers died ,years all ages #af-be #bf-ce #cf-de #df-ee #ef-fe #ff-ge #gf-he #hf up ,no4 of children4 #bc #ij #cfg #ede #gbe #ihc #ddd #cc #cbaj ,no4 who died in first #e years #ab #bi #aae #aga #bjj #bed #aje #a #hhg ,per cent4 who died #eb4b #cb4b #ca4c #ca4d #bg4f #be4h #bc4f #c4j #bg4f ,allowing for the smallness of some of the groups1 it is evident that the amount of correlation is about the same here as among the ,english ,quakers of the ,beeton-,pearson investigation1 whose mortality was shown in the two preceding tables4 ,in the healthiest group from the royal families--the cases in which the father lived to old age--the amount of child mortality is about the same as that of the ,hyde family in ,america1 which ,alexander ,graham ,bell has studied--namely1 somewhere around #bej per #a1jjj4 ,one may infer that the royal families are rather below par in soundness of constitution4#aic ,all these studies agree perfectly in showing that the amount of child mortality is determined primarily by the physical constitution of the parents1 as measured by their longevity4 ,in the light of these facts1 the nature of the extraordinarily low child mortality shown in the #cdj families from the ,genealogical ,record ,office1 with which we began the study of this point1 can hardly be misunderstood4 ,these families have the best inherited constitution possible and the other studies cited would make us certain of finding a low child mortality among them1 even if we had not directly investigated the facts4 ,if the interpretation which we have given is correct1 the conclusion is inevitable that child mortality is primarily a problem of eugenics1 and that all other factors are secondary4 ,there is found to be no warrant for the statement so often repeated in one form or another1 that the fundamental cause of the excessive rate of infant mortality in industrial communities is poverty1 inadequate incomes1 and low standards of living4#aid ,royalty and its princely relatives are not characterized by a low standard of living1 and yet the child mortality among them is very high--somewhere around #djj per #a1jjj1 in cases where a parent died young4 ,if poverty is responsible in the one case1 it must be in the other--which is absurd4 ,or else the logical absurdity is involved of inventing one cause to explain an effect to-day and a wholly different cause to explain the same effect to-morrow4 ,this is unjustifiable in any case1 and it is particularly so when the single cause that explains both cases is so evident4 ,if weak heredity causes high mortality in the royal families1 why1 similarly1 can not weak heredity cause high infant mortality in the industrial communities8 ,we believe it does account for much of it1 and that the inadequate income and low standard of living are largely the consequences of inferior heredity1 mental as well as physical4 ,the parents in the ,genealogical ,record ,office files had1 many of them1 inadequate incomes and low standards of living under frontier conditions1 but their children grew up while those of the royal families were dying in spite of every attention that wealth could command and science could furnish4 ,if the infant mortality problem is to be solved on the basis of knowledge and reason1 it must be recognized that sanitation and hygiene can not take the place of eugenics any more than eugenics can dispense with sanitation and hygiene4 ,it must be recognized that the death-rate in childhood is largely selective1 and that the most effective way to cut it down is to endow the children with better constitutions4 ,this can not be done solely by any euthenic campaign2 it can not be done by swatting the fly1 abolishing the midwife1 sterilizing the milk1 nor by any of the other panaceas sometimes proposed4 ,but1 it may be objected1 this discussion ignores the actual facts4 ,statistics show that infant mortality campaigns have consistently produced reductions in the death-rate4 ,the figures for ,new ,york1 which could be matched in dozens of other cities1 show that the number of deaths per #a1jjj births1 in the first year of life1 has steadily declined since a determined campaign to ,save the ,babies was started3 #aijb #aha #aijc #aeb #aijd #afb #aije #aei #aijf #aec #aijg #add #aijh #abh #aiji #abi #aiaj #abe #aiaa #aab #aiab #aje #aiac #ajb #aiad #ie ,to one who can not see beyond the immediate consequences of an action1 such figures as the above indeed give quite a different idea of the effects of an infant mortality campaign1 than that which we have just tried to create4 ,and it is a great misfortune that euthenics so often fails to look beyond the immediate effect1 fails to see what may happen next year1 or #aj years from now1 or in the next generation4 ,we admit that it is possible to keep a lot of children alive who would otherwise have died in the first few months of life4 ,it is being done1 as the ,new ,york figures1 and pages of others that could be cited1 prove4 ,the ultimate result is twofold3 #a4 ,some of those who are doomed by heredity to a selective death1 but are kept alive through the first year1 die in the second or third or fourth year4 ,they must die sooner or later2 they have not inherited sufficient resistance to survive more than a limited time4 ,if they are by a great effort carried through the first year1 it is only to die in the next4 ,this is a statement which we have nowhere observed in the propaganda of the infant mortality movement2 and it is perhaps a disconcerting one4 ,it can only be proved by refined statistical methods1 but several independent determinations by the ,english biometricians leave no doubt as to the fact4 ,this work of ,karl ,pearson1 ,e4 ,c4 ,snow1 and ,ethel ,m4 ,elderton1 was cited in our chapter on natural selection2 the reader will recall how they showed that nature is weeding out the weaklings1 and in proportion to the stringency with which she weeds them out at the start1 there are fewer weaklings left to die in succeeding years4 ,to put the facts in the form of a truism1 part of the children born in any district in a given year are doomed by heredity to an early death2 and if they die in one year they will not be alive to die in the succeeding year1 and vice versa4 ,of course there are in addition infant deaths which are not selective and which if prevented would leave the infant with as good a chance as any to live4 ,in the light of these researches1 we are forced to conclude that baby-saving campaigns accomplish less than is thought2 that the supposed gain is to some extent temporary and illusory4 #b4 ,there is still another consequence4 ,if the gain is by great exertions made more than temporary2 if the baby who would otherwise have died in the first months is brought to adult life and reproduction1 it means in many cases the dissemination of another strain of weak heredity1 which natural selection would have cut off ruthlessly in the interests of race betterment4 ,in so far1 then1 as the infant mortality movement is not futile it is1 from a strict biological viewpoint1 often detrimental to the future of the race4 ,do we then discourage all attempts to save the babies8 ,do we leave them all to natural selection8 ,do we adopt the better dead gospel8 ,unqualifiedly1 no6 ,the sacrifice of the finer human feelings1 which would accompany any such course1 would be a greater loss to the race than is the eugenic loss from the perpetuation of weak strains of heredity4 ,the abolition of altruistic and humanitarian sentiment for the purpose of race betterment would ultimately defeat its own end by making race betterment impossible4 ,but race betterment will also be impossible unless a clear distinction is made between measures that really mean race betterment of a fundamental and permanent nature1 and measures which do not4 ,we have chosen the ,infant ,mortality ,movement for analysis in this chapter because it is an excellent example of the kind of social betterment which is taken for granted1 by most of its proponents1 to be a fundamental piece of race betterment2 but which1 as a fact1 often means race impairment4 ,no matter how abundant and urgent are the reasons for continuing to reduce infant mortality wherever possible1 it is dangerous to close the eyes to the fact that the gain from it is of a kind that must be paid for in other ways2 that to carry on the movement without adding eugenics to it will be a short-sighted policy1 which increases the present happiness of the world at the cost of diminishing the happiness of posterity through the perpetuation of inferior strains4 ,while some euthenic measures are eugenically evils1 even if necessary ones1 it must not be inferred that all euthenic measures are dysgenic4 ,many of them1 such as the economic and social changes we have suggested in earlier chapters1 are an important part of eugenics4 ,every euthenic measure should be scrutinized from the evolutionary standpoint2 if it is eugenic as well as euthenic1 it should be whole-heartedly favored2 if it is dysgenic but euthenic it should be condemned or adopted1 according to whether or not the gain in all ways from its operation will exceed the damage4 ,in general1 euthenics1 when not accompanied by some form of selection 7i4 e41 eugenics7 ultimately defeats its own end4 ,if it is accompanied by rational selection1 it can usually be indorsed4 ,eugenics1 on the other hand1 is likewise inadequate unless accompanied by constant improvement in the surroundings2 and its advocates must demand euthenics as an accompaniment of selection1 in order that the opportunity for getting a fair selection may be as free as possible4 ,if the euthenist likewise takes pains not to ignore the existence of the racial factor1 then the two schools are standing on the same ground1 and it is merely a matter of taste or opportunity1 whether one emphasizes one side or the other4 ,each of the two factions1 sometimes thought to be opposing1 will be seen to be getting the same end result1 namely1 human progress4 ,not only are the two schools working for the same end1 but each must depend in still another way upon the other1 in order to make headway4 ,the eugenist can not see his measures put into effect except through changes in law and custom--i4 e41 euthenic changes4 ,he must and does appeal to euthenics to secure action4 ,the social reformer1 on the other hand1 can not see any improvements made in civilization except through the discoveries and inventions of some citizens who are inherently superior in ability4 ,he in turn must depend on eugenics for every advance that is made4 ,it may make the situation clearer to state it in the customary terms of biological philosophy4 ,selection does not necessarily result in progressive evolution4 ,it merely brings about the adaptation of a species or a group to a given environment4 ,the tapeworm is the stock example4 ,in human evolution1 the nature of this environment will determine whether adaptation to it means progress or retrogression1 whether it leaves a race happier and more productive1 or the reverse4 ,all racial progress1 or eugenics1 therefore1 depends on the creation of a good environment1 and the fitting of the race to that environment4 ,every improvement in the environment should bring about a corresponding biological adaptation4 ,the two factors in evolution must go side by side1 if the race is to progress in what the human mind considers the direction of advancement4 ,in this sense1 euthenics and eugenics bear the same relation to human progress as a man's two legs do to his locomotion4 ,social workers in purely euthenic fields have frequently failed to remember this process of adaptation1 in their efforts to change the environment4 ,eugenists1 in centering their attention on adaptation1 have sometimes paid too little attention to the kind of environment to which the race was being adapted4 ,the present book holds that the second factor is just as important as the first1 for racial progress2 that one leg is just as important as the other1 to a pedestrian4 ,its only conflict with euthenics appertains to such euthenic measures as impair the adaptability of the race to the better environment they are trying to make4 ,some supposedly euthenic measures opposed by eugenics are not truly euthenic1 as for instance the limitation of a superior family in order that all may get a college education4 ,for these spurious euthenic measures1 something truly euthenic should be substituted4 ,measures which show a real conflict may be typified by the infant mortality movement4 ,there can be no doubt but that sanitation and hygiene1 prenatal care and intelligent treatment of mothers and babies1 are truly euthenic and desirable4 ,at the same time1 as has been shown1 these euthenic measures result in the survival of inferior children1 who directly or through their posterity will be a drag on the race4 ,euthenic measures of this type should be accompanied by counterbalancing measures of a more eugenic character4 ,barring these two types1 euthenics forms a necessary concomitant of the eugenic program2 and1 as we have tried to emphasize1 eugenics is likewise necessary to the complete success of every euthenic program4 ,how foolish1 then1 is antagonism between the two forces6 ,both are working toward the same end of human betterment1 and neither can succeed without the other4 ,when either attempts to eliminate the other from its work1 it ceases to advance toward its goal4 ,in which camp one works is largely a matter of taste4 ,if on a road there is a gradient to be leveled1 it will be brought down most quickly by two parties of workmen1 one cutting away at the top1 the other filling in the bottom4 ,for the two parties to indulge in mutual scorn and recrimination would be no more absurd than for eugenics and euthenics to be put in opposition to each other4 ,the only reason they have been in opposition is because some of the workers did not clearly understand the nature of their work4 ,with the dissemination of a knowledge of biology1 this ground of antagonism will disappear4 ,,appendix ,a ,,ovarian ,,transplantation ,in #ahij1 ,w4 ,heape published an account of some experiments with rabbits4 ,taking the fertilized egg of an angora rabbit 7i4 e41 a long-haired1 white one7 from the oviduct of its mother previous to its attachment to the wall of the uterus1 he transferred it to the uterus of a ,belgian hare1 a rabbit which is short-haired and gray4 ,the egg developed normally in the new body and produced an animal with all the characteristics1 as far as could be seen1 of the real mother1 rather than the foster-mother4 ,its coat was long and white1 and there was not the slightest trace of influence of the short1 gray-haired doe in whose body it had grown4 ,here was a case in which environment certainly failed to show any modifying influence4 ,but it was objected that the transplanted egg was already full-grown and fertilized when the transfer was made1 and that therefore no modification need be expected4 ,if the egg were transferred at an earlier stage1 it was thought1 the result might be different4 ,w4 ,e4 ,castle and ,j4 ,c4 ,phillips therefore undertook an experiment to which this objection should not be possible4#aie ,a female albino guinea-pig just attaining sexual maturity was by an operation deprived of its ovaries1 and instead of the removed ovaries there were introduced into her body the ovaries of a young black female guinea-pig1 not yet sexually mature1 aged about three weeks4 ,the grafted animal was now mated with a male albino guinea-pig4 ,from numerous experiments with albino guinea-pigs it may be stated emphatically that normal albinos mated together1 without exception1 produce only albino young1 and the presumption is strong1 therefore1 that had this female not been operated on she would have done the same4 ,she produced1 however1 by the albino male three litters of young1 which together consisted of six individuals1 all black4 ,the first litter of young was produced about six months after the operation1 the last about one year4 ,the transplanted ovarian tissue must have remained in its new environment therefore from four to ten months before the eggs attained full growth and were discharged2 ample time1 it would seem1 for the influence of a foreign body upon the inheritance to show itself were such influence possible4 ,while such experiments must not be stretched too far1 in application to the human species1 they certainly offer striking evidence of the fact that the characters of any individual are mainly due to something in the germ-plasm1 and that this germ-plasm is to a surprising degree independent of any outside influence1 even such an intimate influence as that of the body of the mother in which it reaches maturity4 ,,appendix ,b ,,dynamic ,,evolution ,as ,c4 ,l4 ,redfield has secured considerable publicity for his attempt to bolster up the ,lamarckian theory1 it deserves a few words of comment4 ,his contention is that the energy in animals1 known as intelligence and physical strength1 is identical with the energy known in mechanics1 and is governed by the same laws4 ,he therefore concludes that 7#a7 an animal stores up energy in its body1 in some undescribed and mystical way1 and 7#b7 that in some equally undescribed and mystical way it transmits this stored-up energy to its offspring4 ,it follows that he thinks superior offspring are produced by parents of advanced age1 because the latter have had more time to do work and store up energy for transmission4 ,in his own words3 ,educating the grandfather helps to make the grandson a superior person4444 ,we are1 in our inheritance1 exactly what our ancestors made us by the work they performed before reproducing4 ,whether our descendants are to be better or worse than we are will depend upon the amount and kind of work we do before we produce them4 ,the question of the influence of parental age on the characters of the offspring is one of great importance1 for the solution of which the necessary facts have not yet been gathered together4 ,the data compiled by ,mr4 ,redfield are of value1 but his interpretation of them can not be accepted for the following reasons4 #a4 ,in the light of modern psychology1 it is absurd to lump all sorts of mental ability under one head1 and to suppose that the father's exercise of reasoning power1 for example1 will store up energy to be manifested in the offspring in the shape of executive or artistic ability4 ,mental abilities are much subdivided and are inherited separately4 ,mr4 ,redfield's idea of the process is much too crude4 ,moreover1 ,mr4 ,redfield's whole conception of the increase of intelligence with increase of age in a parent shows a disregard of the facts of psychology4 ,as ,e4 ,a4 ,doll has pointed out1#aif in criticising ,mr4 ,redfield's recent and extreme claim that feeble-mindedness is the product of early marriage1 it is incorrect to speak of #bj-1 #cj-1 or #dj-year standards of intelligence2 for recent researches in measurement of mental development indicate that the heritable standard of intelligence of adults increases very little beyond the age of approximately #af years4 ,a person #dj years old has an additional experience of a quarter of a century1 and so has a larger mental content1 but his intelligence is still nearly at the #af-year level4 ,mental activity is the effect1 not the cause1 of mental growth or development4 ,education merely turns inherent mental powers to good account2 it makes very little change in those powers themselves4 ,to suppose that a father can1 by study1 raise his innate level of intelligence and transmit it at the new level to his son1 is a nave idea which finds no warrant in the known facts of mental development4 #b4 ,in his entire conception of the storing-up and transmission of energy1 ,mr4 ,redfield has fallen victim to a confusion of ideas due to the use of the same word to mean two different things4 ,he thinks of energy as an engineer2 he declares the body-cell is a storage battery2 he believes that the athlete by performing work stores up energy in his body 7in some mysterious and unascertainable way7 just as the clock stores up energy when it is wound4 ,the incorrectness of supposing that the so-called energy of a man is of that nature1 is remarkable4 ,if1 hearing ,bismarck called a man of iron1 one should analyze his remains to find out how much more iron he contained than ordinary men1 it would be a performance exactly comparable to ,mr4 ,redfield's1 when he thinks of a man's energy as something stored up by work4 ,as a fact1 a man contains less energy1 after the performance of work1 than he did at the start4 ,all of his energy comes from the metabolism of food that he has previously eaten4 ,his potential energy is the food stored up in his body1 particularly the glycogen in the liver and muscles4#aig ,why1 then1 can one man run faster than another8 ,mr4 ,redfield thinks it is because the sprinter has1 by previous work1 stored up energy in his body1 which carries him over the course more rapidly than the sluggard who has not been subjected to systematic training4 ,but the differences in men's ability are not due to the amount of energy they have stored up4 ,it is due rather to differences in their structure 7using this word in a very broad sense71 which produce differences in the efficiency with which they can use the stored-up energy 7i4e41 food7 in their bodies4 ,a fat ,shorthorn bull contains much more stored-up energy than does a race horse1 but the latter has the better structure--cordination of muscles with nervous system1 in particular--and there is never any doubt about how a race between the two will end4 ,the difference between the results achieved by a highly educated thinker and a low-grade moron are similarly differences in structural efficiency3 the moron may eat much more1 and thereby have more potential energy1 than the scholar2 but the machine1 the brain1 can not utilize it4 ,the effects of training are not to store up energy in the body1 for it has been proved that work decreases rather than increases the amount of energy in the body4 ,how is it1 then1 that training increases a man's efficiency8 ,it is obviously by improving his structure1 and probably the most important part of this improvement is in bringing about better relations between the muscles and the nerves4 ,to pursue the analogy which ,mr4 ,redfield so often misuses1 the effect of training on the human machine is merely to oil the bearings and straighten out bent parts1 to make it a more efficient transformer of the energy that is supplied to it4 ,the foundation stone of ,mr4 ,redfield's hypothesis is his idea that the animal by working stores up energy4 ,this idea is the exact reverse of the truth4 ,while the facts which ,mr4 ,redfield has gathered deserve much study1 his idea of ,dynamic ,evolution need not be taken seriously4#aih ,,appendix ,c ,,the ,,melting ,,pot ,america as the ,melting ,pot of peoples is a picture often drawn by writers who do not trouble themselves as to the precision of their figures of speech4 ,it has been supposed by many that all the racial stocks in the ,united ,states were tending toward a uniform type4 ,there has never been any real evidence on which to base such a view1 and the study completed in #aiag by ,dr4 ,ales ,hrdlicka1 curator of the division of physical anthropology of the ,u4 ,s4 ,national ,museum1 furnishes evidence against it4 ,he examined #djj individuals of the ,old ,white ,american stock1 that is1 persons all of whose ancestors had been in the ,united ,states as far as the fourth ascending generation4 ,he found little or no evidence that hereditary traits had been altered4 ,even the descendants of the ,pilgrim ,fathers1 the ,virginia cavaliers1 the ,pennsylvania ,dutch and the ,huguenots1 while possibly not as much unlike as their ancestors were1 are in no sense a blend4 ,the ,melting ,pot1 it must be concluded1 is a figure of speech2 and as far as physical anthropology is concerned1 it will not be anything more in this country1 at least for many centuries4 ,announcing the results of study of the first #ajj males and #ajj females of his series1#aii ,dr4 ,hrdlicka said1 ,the most striking result of the examinations is the great range of variation among ,old ,americans in nearly all the important measurements4 ,the range of variation is such that in some of the most significant determinations it equals not only the variation of any one group1 but the combined variations of all the groups that enter into the composition of the ,americans4 ,this fact would be interpreted by the geneticist as an evidence of hybridity4 ,it is clear that1 at the very beginning1 a number of diverse1 although not widely differing1 stocks must have made up the colonial population2 and intermarriage and the influence of the environment have not welded these stocks into one blend1 but have merely produced a mosaic-like mixture4 ,this is good evidence of the permanence of inherited traits1 although it must be qualified by the statement that it does not apply equally to all features of the body1 the face1 hands and feet having been found less variable1 for instance1 than stature and form of head4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,mean ,,man ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,white ,,american ,,stock ,,fig4 #de4--;,anthropologists have an ideal mean man1 whose every feature measures the arithmetic mean or average of that feature in all the individuals of his race4 ,the above diagram drawn to scale from ,dr4 ,hrdlivcka's measurements represents the mean man of ,colonial ancestry4 ,the outline of the face is almost oblong2 the head is high and well-developed1 particularly in the regions which are popularly supposed to denote superior intelligence4 ,in general1 it is a highly specialized type1 denoting an advanced evolution4 ,the stature of both ,american men and women is high1 higher than the average of any ,european nation except the ,scotch4 ,the individual variation is1 however1 enormous1 amounting to #af4d of the average in males and nearly #af in females4 ,for males1 #agd cm4 is the average height1 for females #afb4 ,the arm spread in males is greater than their stature1 in females it is less4 ,the average weight of the males is #aed lbs4typo3 missing comma8 of the females #acj4 ,taking into consideration the tall stature1 these weights are about equal to those among ,europeans4 ,the general proportions of the body must be classed as medium1 but great fluctuations are shown4 ,the face is1 in general1 high and oval2 in females it occasionally gives the impression of narrowness4 ,the forehead is well developed in both sexes4 ,the nose is prevalently long and of medium breadth1 its proportions being practically identical with those of the modern ,english4 ,the ears are longer than those of any modern immigrants except the ,english4 ,the mouth shows medium breadth in both sexes1 and its averages exactly equal those obtained for modern ,french4 ,one of the most interesting results is that there were obtained among these first #bjj individuals studied no pronounced blonds1 although the ancestry is ,north ,european1 where blondness is more or less prevalent4#bjj ,the exact distribution is3 ,male ,female ,light-brown #ab #af ,medium-brown to dark #gg #fh ,very dark #aa #f ,golden-red and red #j #aj ,dr4 ,hrdlicka's classification of the eye is as follows3 ,male ,female ,gray #b #d ,greenish #g #aj ,blues #ed #ej ,browns #cg #cf ,the head among ,old ,americans is in many cases notable for its good development1 particularly in males4 ,among #ab groups of male immigrants#bja measured at ,ellis ,island under ,dr4 ,hrdlicka's direction in recent years1 not one group quite equals in this respect the ,americans1 the nearest approach being noted in the ,irish1 ,bohemians1 ,english1 ,poles1 and ,north ,italians4 ,the type of head1 however1 differs among the ,americans very widely1 as is the case with most civilized races at the present day4 ,head form is most conveniently expressed by means of the cephalic index1 that is1 the ratio of breadth to length4 ,anthropologists generally speak of any one with an index of #ge 7or where the breadth is #ge of the length7 and below this as dolichocephalic1 or long-headed2 from #ge to #hj is the class of the mesocephalic1 intermediates2 while above #hj is that of the subbrachycephalic and brachycephalic1 or round-headed4 ,for the most part1 the ,old ,americans fall into the intermediate class1 the average index of males being #gh4c and that of females #gi4e4 ,barring a few ,french ,huguenots1 the ,old ,americans considered here are mostly of ,british ancestry1 and their head form corresponds rather closely to that of the ,english of the present day4 ,in ,england1 as is well known1 the round-headed type of ,central and ,eastern ,europe1 the ,alpine or ,celto-,slav type1 has few representatives4 ,the population is composed principally of long-headed peoples1 deriving from the two great ,european stocks1 the ,nordic and the ,mediterranean4 ,to the latter the frequency of dark hair and brown eyes is probably due1 both in ,england and ,america4 ,while the average of the ,old ,americans corresponds closely to the average of the ,english1 there is a great deal of variation in both countries4 ,unfortunately1 it is impossible to compare the present ,americans with their ancestors1 because measurements of the latter are lacking4 ,but to assume that the early colonists did not differ greatly from the modern ,english is probably justifiable4 ,a comparison of modern ,americans 7of the old white stock7 with modern ,english should give basis for an opinion as to whether the ,english stock underwent any marked modifications1 on coming to a new environment4 ,it has already been noted that the average cephalic index is practically the same2 the only possibility of a change then lies in the amount of variability4 ,is the ,american stock more or less variable8 ,can a melting pot influence be seen1 tending to produce homogeneity1 or has change of environment rather produced greater variability1 as is sometimes said to be the case8 ,the amount of variability is most conveniently measured by a coefficient known as the standard deviation 7,greek3 s71 which is small when the range of variation is small1 but large when diversity of material is great4 ,the following comparisons of the point at issue may be made4#bjb ,avg4 ,greek3 s #ajj ,american men #gh4c #c4a #ajaa ,cambridge graduates 7,english males7 #gi4he #b4ie ,for the men1 little difference is discernible4 ,the ,old ,americans are slightly more long-headed than the ,english1 but the amount of variation in this trait is nearly the same on the two sides of the ocean4 ,the average of the ,american women is #gi4e with ,greek3 s #b4f4 ,no suitable series of ,english women has been found for comparison47#bjc7 ,it will be noted that the ,american women are slightly more round-headed than the men2 this is found regularly to be the case1 when comparisons of the head form of the two sexes are made in any race4 ,in addition to establishing norms or standards for anthropological comparison1 the main object of ,dr4 ,hrdlicka's study was to determine whether the descendants of the early ,american settlers1 living in a new environment and more or less constantly intermarrying1 were being amalgamated into a distinct sub-type of the white race4 ,it has been found that such amalgamation has not taken place to any important degree4 ,the persistence in heredity of certain features1 which run down even through six or eight generations1 is one of the remarkable results brought out by the study4 ,if the process could continue for a few hundred years more1 ,dr4 ,hrdlicka thinks1 it might reach a point where one could speak of the members of old ,american families as of a distinct stock4 ,but so far this point has not been reached2 the ,americans are almost as diverse and variable1 it appears1 as were their first ancestors in this country4 ,,appendix ,d ,,the ,,essence ,,of ,,mendelism ,it is half a century since the ,austrian monk1 ,gregor ,mendel1 published in a provincial journal the results of his now famous breeding experiments with garden peas4 ,they lay unnoticed until #aijj1 when three other breeders whose work had led them to similar conclusions1 almost simultaneously discovered the work of ,mendel and gave it to the world4 ,breeding along the lines marked out by ,mendel at once became the most popular method of attack1 among those who were studying heredity4 ,it became an extremely complicated subject1 which can not be grasped without extended study1 but its fundamentals can be briefly summarized4 ,inherited differences in individuals1 it will be admitted1 are due to differences in their germ-plasms4 ,it is convenient to think of these differences in germ-plasms 7that is1 differences in heredity7 as being due to the presence in the germ-plasm of certain hypothetical units1 which are usually referred to as factors4 ,the factor1 nowadays1 is the ultimate unit of ,mendelian research4 ,each of these factors is considered to be nearly or quite constant1--that is1 it undergoes little1 or no change from generation to generation4 ,it is ordinarily resistant to contamination by other factors with which it may come in contact in the cell4 ,the first fundamental principle of ,mendelism1 then1 is the existence of relatively constant units1 the ,mendelian factors1 as the basis for transmission of all the traits that go to make up an animal or plant4 ,experimental breeding gives reason to believe that each factor has one or more alternatives1 which may take its place in the mechanism of heredity1 thereby changing the visible character of the individual plant or animal in which it occurs4 ,to put the matter a little differently1 one germ-cell differs from another in having alternatives present in place of some of the factors of the latter4 ,a given germ-cell can never have more than one of the possible alternatives of each factor4 ,these alternatives of a factor are called its allelomorphs4 ,now a mature germ-cell has a single system of these factors3 but when two germ-cells unite1 there result from that union two kinds of cells--namely1 immature germ-cells and body-cells2 and both these kinds of cells contain a double system of factors1 because of course they have received a single entire system from each parent4 ,this is the second of the fundamental principles of ,mendelism3 that the factors are single in the mature germ-cell1 but in duplicate in the body-cell 7and also in the immature germ-cell74 ,in every cell with a double system of factors1 there are necessarily present two representatives from each set of allelomorphs1 but these may or may not be alike--or in technical language the individual may be homozygous1 or heterozygous1 as regards the given set of alternative factors4 ,looking at it from another angle1 there is a single visible character in the plant or animal1 but it is produced by a double factor1 in the germ-plasm4 ,when the immature germ-cell1 with its double system of factors1 matures1 it throws out half the factors1 retaining only a single system3 and the allelomorphic factors which then segregate into different cells are1 as has been said above1 ordinarily uninfluenced by their stay together4 ,but the allelomorphic factors are not the only ones which are segregated into different germ-cells1 at the maturation of the cell2 for the factors which are not alternative are likewise distributed1 more or less independently of each other1 so that it is largely a matter of chance whether factors which enter a cross in the same germ-cell1 segregate into the same germ-cell or different ones1 in the next generation4 ,this is the next fundamental principle of ,mendelism1 usually comprehended under the term segregation1 although1 as has been pointed out1 it is really a double process1 the segregation of alternative factors being a different thing from the segregation of non-alternative factors4 ,from this fact of segregation1 it follows that as many kinds of germ-cells can be formed by an individual1 as there are possible combinations of factors1 on taking one alternative from each pair of allelomorphs present4 ,in practice1 this means that the possible number of different germ-cells is almost infinitely great1 as would perhaps be suspected by anyone who has tried to find two living things that are just alike4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,carriers ,,of ,,heredity ,,fig4 #df4--,many different lines of study have made it seem probable that much1 although not all1 of the heredity of an animal or plant is carried in the nucleus of the germ-cell and that in this nucleus it is further located in little rods or threads which can be easily stained so as to become visible1 and which have the name of chromosomes4 ,in the above illustration four different views of the nucleus of the germ-cell of an earthworm are shown1 with the chromosomes in different stages2 in section #ai each chromosome is doubled up like a hairpin4 ,study of the fruit-fly ,drosophila has made it seem probable not only that the hypothetical factors of heredity are located in the chromosomes1 but that each factor has a perfectly definite location in its chromosome2 and ,t4 ,h4 ,morgan and his associates have worked out an ingenious method of measuring the distance from either end1 at which the factor lies4 ,photomicrograph after ,foot and ,strobell4 ,such is the essence of ,mendelism2 and the reader is probably ready to admit that it is not a simple matter1 even when reduced to the simplest terms4 ,to sum up1 the principal features at the base of the hypothetical structure are these3 #a4 ,there exist relatively constant units in the germ-plasm4 #b4 ,there are two very distinct relationships which these units may show to each other4 ,two 7or more7 unit factors may be alternatives in the mechanism of inheritance1 indicating that one is a variation 7or loss7 of the other2 or they may be independent of each other in the mechanism of inheritance4 #c4 ,the mature germ-cell contains a single system of independent factors 7one representative from each set of alternates74 ,the immature germ-cells1 and body-cells1 have double systems of independent factors 7two from each set of alternatives74 #d4 ,the double system arises simply from the union of two single systems 7i4 e41 two germ-cells71 without union or even contamination of the factors involved4 ,in the formation of a single system 7mature germ-cells7 from a double 7immature germ-cells71 pairs of alternates separate1 passing into different germ-cells4 ,factors not alternates may or may not separate--the distribution is largely a matter of chance4 ,such are the fundamental principles of ,mendelism2 but on them was early grafted a theoretical structure due mainly to the ,german zologist1 ,august ,weismann4 ,to understand his part in the story1 we must advert to that much mooted and too often misunderstood problem furnished by the chromosomes4 7,see ,fig4 #df47 ,these little rods of easily stained material1 which are found in every cell of the body1 were picked out by ,professor ,weismann as the probable carriers of heredity4 ,with remarkable acuteness1 he predicted their behavior at cell-division1 the intricate nature of which is usually the despair of every beginner in biology4 ,when ,mendelian breeding1 in the early years of this century1 showed temporary pairing and subsequent separation of units in the germ-cell1 it was soon realized that the observed facts of breeding fitted to a nicety the observed facts 7predicted by ,weismann7 of chromosome-behavior2 for at each cell-division the chromosomes1 too1 pair and separate again4 ,the observed behavior of transmitted characters in animals and plants followed1 in so many cases1 the observed behavior of the chromosomes1 that many students found it almost impossible to believe that there was no connection between the two1 and ,dr4 ,weismann's prediction1 that the chromosomes are the carriers of heredity1 came to be looked on as a fact1 by many biologists4 ,but when so much of ,professor ,weismann's system was accepted1 other parts of it went along1 including a hypothetical system of determiners in the chromosome1 which were believed to determine the development of characters in the organism4 ,every trait of an animal or plant1 it was supposed1 must be represented in the germ-plasm by its own determiner2 one trait1 one determiner4 ,did a notch in the ear run through a pedigree8 ,then it must be due to a determiner for a notch in the ear in the germ-plasm4 ,was mathematical ability hereditary8 ,then there must be a determiner1 the expression of which was mathematical ability4 ,for a while1 this hypothesis was of service in the development of genetics2 some students even began to forget that it was a hypothesis1 and to talk as if it were a fact4 ,but the exhaustive tests of experimental breeding of plants and animals have long caused most of the advanced students of genetics to drop this simple hypothesis4 ,in its place stands the factorial hypothesis1 evolved by workers in ,america1 ,england1 and ,france at about the same time4 ,as explained in ,chapter ,v1 this hypothesis carries the assumption that every visible character is due to the effects of not one but many factors in the germ-cell4 ,in addition to these fundamentals1 there are numerous extensions and corollaries1 some of them of a highly speculative nature4 ,the reader who is interested in pursuing the subject farther must turn to one of the text-books on ,mendelism4 ,in plant-breeding a good deal of progress has been made in the exact study of ,mendelian heredity2 in animal breeding1 somewhat less2 in human heredity1 very little4 ,the reason is obvious3 that experiments can not be made in man1 and students must depend on the results of such matings as they can find2 that only a very few offspring result from each mating2 and that generations are so long that no one observer can have more than a few under his eyes4 ,these difficulties make ,mendelian research in man a very slow and uncertain matter4 ,altogether1 it is probable that something like a hundred characters in man have been pointed out as inherited in ,mendelian fashion4 ,a large part of these are pathological conditions or rare abnormalities4 ,but the present writers can not accept most of these cases4 ,it has been pointed out in ,chapter ,v that there are good reasons for doubting that feeble-mindedness is inherited in a simple ,mendelian fashion1 although it is widely accepted as such4 ,we can not help feeling that in most cases heredity in man is being made to appear much simpler than it really is2 and that particularly in mental characters1 analysis of traits has by no means reached the bottom4 ,if we were asked to make out a list of characters1 as to the ,mendelian inheritance of which there could be little doubt1 we would hardly be able to go farther than the following3 ,the sex-linked characters 7one kind of color-blindness1 hemophilia1 one kind of night-blindness1 atrophy of the optic nerve1 and a few other rare abnormalities74 ,albinism4 ,this appears to be a recessive1 but probably involves multiple allelomorphs in man1 as in other animals4 ,brachydactyly1 apparently a dominant4 ,this is so much cited in text-books on ,mendelism that the student might think it is a common character4 ,as a fact1 it is extremely rare1 being found in only a few families4 ,the similar trait of orthodactyly or symphalangism1 which likewise appears to be a good ,mendelian dominant1 seems to exist in only one family4 ,traits like these1 which are easily defined and occur very rarely1 make up a large part of the cases of probably ,mendelian heredity4 ,they are little more than curiosities1 their rarity and abnormal nature depriving them of evolutionary significance other than to demonstrate that ,mendelian heredity does operate in man4 ,white blaze in the hair or1 as it might better be called to show its resemblance to the trait found in other mammals1 piebaldism4 ,a rather rare dominant4#bjd ,huntington's ,chorea1 which usually appears to be a good dominant1 although the last investigators 7,muncey and ,davenport7 found some unconformable cases4 ,a few abnormalities1 such as a premature graying of the hair 7one family cited by ,k4 ,pearson7 are well enough attested to be admitted4 ,many others1 such as baldness1 are probably ,mendelian but not yet sufficiently supported by evidence4 ,none of these characters1 it will be observed1 is of much significance eugenically4 ,if the exact manner of inheritance of some of the more important mental and physical traits were known1 it would be of value4 ,but it is not a prerequisite for eugenic action4 ,enough is known for a working program4 ,to sum up3 the features in the modern view of heredity1 which the reader must keep in mind1 are the following3 #a4 ,that the various characters which make up the physical constitution of any individual plant or animal are due to the action 7concurrently with the environment1 of course7 of what are called1 for convenience1 factors1 separable hypothetical units in the germ-plasm1 capable of independent transmission4 #b4 ,that each visible character is due to the coperative action of an indefinitely large number of factors2 conversely1 that each of these factors affects an indefinitely large number of characters4 ,,appendix ,e ,,useful ,,works ,,of ,,reference ,the most complete bibliography is that published by the ,state ,board of ,charities of the ,state of ,new ,york 7,eugenics and ,social ,welfare ,bulletin ,no4 ,,iii1 pp4 #acj1 ,albany1 #aiac74 ,an interesting historical review of eugenics1 with critical comments on the literature and a bibliography of #ajj titles1 was published by ,a4 ,e4 ,hamilton in the ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,vol4 ,,xxi1 pp4 #bh-fa1 ,march1 #aiad4 ,much of the important literature of eugenics has been mentioned in footnotes4 ,for convenience1 a few of the books which are likely to be most useful to the student are here listed3 ,,genetics ,,and ,,eugenics1 by ,w4 ,e4 ,castle4 ,harvard ,university ,press1 ,cambridge1 #aiaf4 ,,heredity ,,and ,,environment ,,in ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,men1 by ,edwin ,g4 ,conklin4 ,princeton ,university ,press1 #aiae4 ,,heredity ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,eugenics1 by ,c4 ,b4 ,davenport1 ,henry ,holt and ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aiaa4 ,,essays ,,in ,,eugenics1 by ,francis ,galton4 ,eugenics ,education ,society1 ,london1 #aiji4 ,,being ,,well-,,born1 by ,michael ,f4 ,guyer4 ,indianapolis1 ,bobbs-,merrill ,co41 #aiaf4 ,,the ,,social ,,direction ,,of ,,human ,,evolution1 by ,w4 ,e4 ,kellicott4 ,new ,york1 #aiaa4 ,,the ,,physical ,,basis ,,of ,,society1 by ,carl ,kelsey4 ,new ,york1 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 #aiaf4 ,,eugenics1 by ,edward ,schuster4 ,collins' ,clear ,type ,press1 ,london and ,glasgow1 #aiac4 ,,heredity1 by ,j4 ,arthur ,thompson4 ,edinburgh1 #aijh4 ,,genetics1 by ,herbert ,e4 ,walter4 ,the ,macmillan ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aiac4 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,eugenics1 by ,w4 ,c4 ,d4 ,whetham and ,c4 ,d4 ,whetham4 ,macmillan and ,co41 ,london1 #aiab4 ,,heredity ,,and ,,society1 by ,w4 ,c4 ,d4 ,whetham and ,c4 ,d4 ,whetham4 ,longmans1 ,green ,co41 ,london1 #aiab4 ,,the ,,family ,,and ,,the ,,nation1 by ,w4 ,c4 ,d4 ,whetham and ,c4 ,d4 ,whetham4 ,longmans1 ,green ,co41 ,london1 #aiji4 ,the publications of the ,galton ,laboratory of ,national ,eugenics1 ,university of ,london1 directed by ,karl ,pearson1 and of the ,eugenics ,record ,office1 ,cold ,spring ,harbor1 ,long ,island1 ,n4 ,y41 directed by ,c4 ,b4 ,davenport1 furnish a constantly increasing amount of original material on heredity4 ,the principal periodicals are the ,journal of ,heredity 7organ of the ,american ,genetic ,association71 #eaa ,eleventh ,st41 ,n4 ,w41 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 7monthly72 and the ,eugenics ,review 7organ of the ,eugenics ,education ,society71 ,kingsway ,house1 ,kingsway1 ,w4 ,c41 ,london 7quarterly74 ,these periodicals are sent free to members of the respective societies4 ,membership in the ,american organization is #b a year1 in the ,english #a guinea a year1 associate membership #e shillings a year4 ,,appendix ,f ,,glossary ,,acquired ,,character1 a modification of a germinal trait after cell fusion4 ,it is difficult to draw a line between characters that are acquired and those that are inborn4 ,the idea involved is as follows3 in a standard environment1 a given factor in the germ-plasm will develop into a trait which varies not very widely about a certain mean4 ,the mean of this trait is taken as representing the germinal trait in its typical condition4 ,but if the environment be not standard1 if it be considerably changed1 the trait will develop a variation far from the mean of that trait in the species4 ,thus an ,american1 whose skin in the standard environment of the ,united ,states would be blonde1 may under the environment of ,cuba develop into a brunette4 ,such a wide variation from the mean thus caused is called an acquired character2 it is usually impressed on the organism after the germinal trait has reached a full1 typical development4 ,,allelomorph 7one another form71 one of a pair of factors which are alternative to each other in ,mendelian inheritance4 ,instead of a single pair1 there may be a group of multiple allelomorphs1 each member being alternative to every other member of the group4 ,,allelomorphism1 a relation between two or more factors1 such that two which are present in one zygote do not both enter into the same gamete1 but are separated into sister gametes4 ,,biometry 7life measure71 the study of biology by statistical methods4 ,,brachydactyly 7short-finger71 a condition in which the bones1 particularly of the fingers and toes1 fail to grow to their normal length4 ,in well-marked cases one of these is a reduction from three phalanges or joints to two4 ,,character 7a contraction of characteristic71 a term which is used1 often rather vaguely1 to designate any function1 feature1 or organ of the body or mind4 ,,chromosome 7color body1 so called from its affinity for certain stains71 a body of peculiar protoplasm1 in the nucleus of the cell4 ,each species has its own characteristic number2 the cells of the human body contain #bd chromosomes each4 ,,congenital 7with birth71 present at birth4 ,the term fails to distinguish between traits which are actually inherited1 and modifications acquired during prenatal life4 ,in the interest of clear thinking its use should be avoided so far as possible4 ,,correlation 7together relation71 a relation between two variables in a certain population1 such that for every variation of one1 there is a corresponding variation of the other4 ,mathematically1 two correlated variables are thus mutually dependent4 ,but a correlation is merely a statistical description of a particular case1 and in some other population the same two variables might be correlated in a different way1 other influences being at work on them4 ,,cytology 7cell word71 the study of the cell1 the constituent unit of organisms4 ,,determiner 7completely end71 an element or condition in a germ-cell1 supposed to be essential to the development of a particular quality1 feature1 or manner of reaction of the organism which arises from that germ-cell4 ,the word is gradually falling into disuse1 and factor taking its place4 ,,dominance 7mastery71 in ,mendelian hybrids the capacity of a character which is derived from only one of two generating gametes to develop to an extent nearly or quite equal to that exhibited by an individual which has derived the same character from both of the generating gametes4 ,in the absence of dominance the given character of the hybrid usually presents a blend or intermediate condition between the two parents4 ,,dysgenic 7bad origin71 tending to impair the racial qualities of future generations2 the opposite of eugenic4 ,,endogamy 7within mating71 a custom of some primitive peoples1 in compliance with which a man must choose his wife from his own group 7clan1 gens1 tribe1 etc474 ,,eugenic 7good origin71 tending to improve the racial qualities of future generations1 either physical or mental4 ,,euthenic 7good thriving71 tending to produce beneficial acquired characters or better conditions for people to live in1 but not tending 7except incidentally and indirectly7 to produce people who can hand on the improvement by heredity4 ,,evolution 7unroll71 ,,organic1 the progressive change of living forms1 usually associated with the development of complex from simple forms4 ,,exogamy 7out mating71 a custom of primitive peoples which requires a man to choose a wife from some other group 7clan1 gens1 tribe1 etc47 than his own4 ,,factor 7maker71 a name given to the hypothetical something1 the independently inheritable element in the germ-cell1 whose presence is necessary to the development of a certain inherited character or characters or contributes with other factors to the development of a character4 ,gene and determiner are sometimes used as synonyms of factor4 ,,feeble-,,mindedness1 a condition in which mental development is retarded or incomplete4 ,it is a relative term1 since an individual who would be feeble-minded in one society might be normal or even bright in another4 ,the customary criterion is the inability of the individual1 because of mental defect existing from an early age1 to compete on equal terms with his normal fellows1 or to manage himself or his affairs with ordinary prudence4 ,american students usually distinguish three grades of mental defect3 ,idiots are those who are unable to take care of themselves1 even to the extent of guarding against common physical dangers or satisfying physical needs4 ,their mentality does not progress beyond that of a normal two-year-old child4 ,imbeciles can care for themselves after a fashion1 but are unable to earn their living4 ,their mental ages range from three to seven years1 inclusive4 ,morons1 who correspond to the common acceptation of the term feeble-minded1 can under proper direction become more or less self-supporting but they are as a rule incapable of undertaking affairs which demand judgment or involve unrestricted competition with normal individuals4 ,their intelligence ranges with that of normal children from seven to twelve years of age4 ,there is necessarily a considerable borderline1 but any adult whose intelligence is beyond that of the normal twelve-year-old child is usually considered to be not feeble-minded4 ,,gamete 7mate71 a mature germ-cell2 in animals an ovum or spermatozon4 ,,genetics 7origins71 for a long time meant the study of evolution by experimental breeding and was often synonomous with ,mendelism4 ,it is gradually returning to its broader1 original meaning of the study of variation and heredity1 that is1 the origin of the individual's traits4 ,this broader meaning is preferable4 ,,germinal 7sprig71 due to something present in the germ-cell4 ,a trait is germinal when its basis is inherited1--as eye color1--and when it develops with nothing more than the standard environment2 remaining relatively constant from one generation to another1 except as influenced by reproduction4 ,,germ-,,plasm 7sprig form71 mature germ-cells and the living material from which they are produced4 ,h,,mophilia 7blood love71 an inability of the blood to clot4 ,it thus becomes impossible to stop the flow of blood from a cut1 and one who has inherited hmophilia usually dies sooner or later from hmorrhage4 ,,heredity 7heirship71 is usually considered from the outside1 when it may properly be defined as organic resemblance based on descent1 or the correlation between relatives4 ,but a better definition1 based on the results of genetics1 looks at it as a mechanism1 not as an external appearance4 ,from this point of view1 heredity may be said to be the persistence of certain cell-constituents 7in the germ-cells7 through an unending number of cell-divisions4 ,,heterozygote 7different yolk71 a zygotic individual which contains both members of an allelomorphic pair4 ,,homozygote 7same yolk71 an individual which contains only one member of an allelomorphic pair1 but contains that in duplicate1 having received it from both parents4 ,a homozygous individual1 having been formed by the union of like gametes1 in turn regularly produces gametes of only one kind with respect to any given factor1 thus giving rise to offspring which are1 in this regard1 like the parents2 in other words1 homozygotes regularly breed true4 ,an individual may be a homozygote with respect to one factor and a heterozygote with respect to another4 ,,hormones 7chain71 the secretions of various internal glands1 which are carried in the blood and have an important specific influence on the growth and functioning of various parts of the body4 ,their exact nature is not yet understood4 ,,inborn usually means germinal1 as applied to a trait1 and it is so used in this book4 ,strictly speaking1 however1 any trait which appears in a child at birth might be called inborn1 and some writers1 particularly medical men1 thus refer to traits acquired in prenatal life4 ,because of this ambiguity the word should be carefully defined when used1 or avoided4 ,,inherent 7in stick71 as used in this book1 is synonymous with germinal4 ,,induction 7in lead71 a change brought about in the germ-plasm with the effect of temporarily modifying the characters of an individual produced from that germ-plasm2 but not of changing in a definite and permanent way any such germ-plasm and therefore any individual inherited traits4 ,,innate 7inborn71 synonymous with inborn4 ,,latent 7lie hidden71 a term applied to traits or characters whose factors exist in the germ-plasm of an individual1 but which are not visible in his body4 ,,law1 in natural science means a concise and comprehensive description of an observed uniform sequence of events4 ,it is thus quite different from the law of jurists1 who mean a rule laid down for the guidance of an intelligent being1 by an intelligent being having power over him4 ,,mendelism1 a collection of laws of heredity 7see ,appendix ,d7 so-called after the discoverer of the first of them to become known2 also the analytical study of heredity with a view to learning the constitution of the germ-cells of animals and plants4 ,,mendelize1 to follow ,mendel's laws of inheritance4 ,,mores 7customs71 the approved customs or unwritten laws of a people2 the conventions of society2 popular usage or folk-ways which are reputable4 ,,mutation 7change71 has now two accepted meanings3 7#a7 a profound change in the germ-plasm of an organism such as will produce numerous changes in its progeny2 and 7#b7 a discontinuous heritable change in a ,mendelian factor4 ,it is used in the first sense by ,de ,vries and other mutationists and in the second sense by ,morgan and other ,mendelists2 confusion has arisen from failure to note the difference in usage4 ,,normal ,,curve1 the curve of distribution of variations of something whose variations are due to a multiplicity of causes acting nearly equally in both directions4 ,it is characterized by having more individuals of a mediocre degree and progressively fewer above and below this mode4 ,,nucleus 7little nut71 a central1 highly-organized part of every living cell1 which seems to play a directive rle in cell-development and contains1 among other things1 the chromosomes4 ,,patent 7lie open71 a term applied to traits which are manifestly represented in the body as well as the germ-plasm of an individual4 ,the converse of latent4 ,,probability ,,curve1 the same as normal curve4 ,also called a ,gaussian curve4 ,,protoplasm 7first form71 the physical basis of life2 a chemical compound or probably an emulsion of numerous compounds4 ,it contains proteins which differ slightly in many species of organism4 ,it contains carbon1 hydrogen1 oxygen1 nitrogen1 sulphur1 and various salts1 but is so complex as to defy exhaustive analysis4 ,,psychiatry 7soul healing71 the study of diseases of the mind4 ,,recessive 7draw back71 the converse of dominant2 applied to one of a pair of contrasted ,mendelian characters which can not appear in the presence of the other4 ,,regression 7back go71 the average variation of one variable for a unit variation of a correlated variable4 ,,segregation 7aside flock71 7#a7 as used in eugenics means the policy of isolating feeble-minded and other anti-social individuals from the normal population into institutions1 colonies1 etc41 where the two sexes are kept apart4 7#b7 ,the term is also used technically in genetics1 to refer to the discontinuity of the variation of characteristics resulting from the independent distribution of factors before or at the time of formation of the gametes4 ,,selection 7apart pick71 the choice 7for perpetuation by reproduction7 from a mixed population1 of the individuals possessing in common a certain character or a certain degree of some character4 ,two kinds of selection may be distinguished3 7#a7 natural selection1 in which choice is made automatically by the failure to reproduce 7through death or some other cause7 of the individuals who are not fit to pass the tests of the environment 7vitality1 disease resistance1 speed1 success in mating1 or what not72 and 7#b7 artificial selection1 in which the choice is made consciously by man1 as a livestock breeder4 ,,sex-,,limited1 a term applied to traits which differ in the two sexes1 because influenced by the hormones of the reproductive glands4 ,example1 the beard4 ,,sex-,,linked1 a term applied to traits which are connected with sex accidentally and not physiologically in development4 ,the current explanation is that such traits happen to be in the same chromosome as the determiner of maleness or femaleness1 as the case may be4 ,color-blindness is the classical example in man4 ,,sexual ,,selection1 the conscious or unconscious preference by individuals of one sex1 or by that sex as a whole1 for individuals of the other sex who possess some particular attribute or attributes in a degree above or below the average of their sex4 ,if the deviation of the chosen character is in the same direction 7plus or minus7 as in the chooser1 the mating is called assortative2 if in one direction independent of the characteristic of the chooser1 it is called preferential4 ,,soma 7body71 the body as distinguished from the germ-plasm4 ,from this point of view every individual consists of only two parts1--germ-plasm and soma or somatoplasm4 ,,trait1 a term used by geneticists as a synonym of character4 ,,unit-,,character1 in ,mendelian heredity a character or alternative difference of any kind1 which is apparently not capable of subdivision in heredity1 but is inherited as a whole1 and which is capable of becoming associated in new combinations with other characters4 ,the term is now going out of use1 as it makes for clearer thinking about heredity to fix the attention on the factors of the germ-cells instead of on the characters of the adult4 ,,variation1 a deviation in the size1 shape1 or other feature of a character or trait1 from the mean or average of that character in the species4 ,,vestigial 7footstep71 a term applied to a character which at some time in the evolutionary history of the species possessed importance1 or functioned fully1 but which has now lost its importance or its original use1 so that it remains a mere souvenir of the past1 in a degenerated condition4 ,example1 the muscles which move a man's ears4 ,,zygote 7yolk71 the fertilized egg-cell2 the united cell formed by the union of the ovum and spermatozon after fertilization4 ,,zymotic1 caused by a microrganism1--a term applied to diseases4 ,example1 tuberculosis4 ,,index ,a ,abderholden1 ,e41 #dbb ,acquired character1 #dcg ,administrative aspects1 #aid ,adult mortality1 #cde ,afghans1 #cba ,africa1 #bij1 #bia ,agriculture1 #cjg ,aguinaldo1 ,e41 #cad ,aims of eugenics1 #aeb ,alabama1 #ahg1 #bjb1 #bif ,alaska1 #ahg ,albinism1 #dcc ,alcohol1 #dd1 #dh1 #di1 #acj ,alcoholism1 #bac1 #cjb ,aleurone1 #ajd ,allelomorphism1 #dcg ,allelomorphs1 #ajh1 #dbg1 #dcg ,alpine ,type1 #dbg ,america1 #dcb ,american ,breeders ,assn41 #aed1 #aid ,american ,breeders ,magazine1 #aed ,american ,prison ,assn41 #ahb ,american ,genetic ,assn41 #aed1 #bgg ,american stock1 #beh1 #dbd ,americans1 #dbg1 #dbh ,american-,chinese ,marriages1 #cac ,amherst ,college1 #bee1 #bff ,amoy1 #cae ,ancestral ,inheritance ,law1 #aab ,anglian1 #dbf ,anglo-,saxon1 #dbf ,anthropological ,soc4 of ,denmark1 #aee ,apartment houses1 #cgg ,appearance1 #bai1 #bba ,appropriate opportunity1 #cff ,arabs1 #bcj1 #bhj ,argentina1 #cbf ,aristocracy1 #cfb ,aristodemocracy1 #cfb ,aristotle1 #cb ,arizona1 #ahg ,arkansas1 #bda ,armenians1 #bii1 #cjb1 #dbg ,army1 ,american1 #hc ,arnold1 ,m41 #cid ,arsenic1 #fc ,art1 #if ,asiatic immigration1 #caa ,asiatic ,turkey1 #bii ,assortative mating1 #abf1 #baa ,athenians1 #acc ,atrophy of optic nerve1 #dcc ,atwater1 ,w4 ,o41 #dbb ,austria1 #acg1 #aee ,australian1 #abi ,australian marriages1 #bbb ,automobile1 effect of #cgg ,b ,baby saving campaign1 #djh ,bachelors1 tax on1 #cec ,back to the farm movement1 #cee ,backward children1 #ahh ,bahama ,islands1 #bjc ,baker1 ,o4 ,e41 #f ,baltzly1 ,a41 #cbg ,banker1 ,h4 ,j41 #bfg1 #bde ,banns1 #aig ,barrington1 ,a41 #ac ,batz1 #bjg ,baur1 ,e41 #ajd ,bean and ,mall1 #bhe ,beans1 ,fig4 #ac4 ,beeton1 ,m41 #add1 #djd1 #djh1 #daa ,beggars1 #cjb ,belgium1 #ach1 #aee1 #cbd ,bell1 ,a4 ,g41 #add1 #ahc1 #bbf1 #cde1 #cdg1 #cej1 #djb1 #djg1 #daa ,bentham1 ,j41 #afe ,berlin1 #adj ,bermuda1 #bje ,bertholet1 ,e41 #eg ,bertillon1 ,j41 #adj ,besant1 ,a41 #bfi ,better babies movement1 #aee ,bezzola1 ,d41 #ef ,billings1 ,w4 ,c41 #cac ,binet tests1 #bhg ,biometric method1 #ca ,biometry1 #dcg ,birth control1 #bfi ,bisexual societies1 #bcd ,bismarck1 von1 ,o4 ,e4 ,l41 #dbb ,blakeslee1 ,a4 ,f41 ,figs4 #b1 #c1 #ac1 #ad ,blascoe1 ,f41 #bhb ,bleeders1 #ch ,blind1 #aef ,blindness1 #cb ,blcher1 von ,g4 ,l41 #cba ,blumer1 ,j4 ,c41 #bdd ,boas1 ,f41 #da1 #bhb1 #bhc ,boer ,war1 #cba ,boer-,hottentot mulattoes1 #cjj ,body-plasm1 #bg ,bohemians1 #caa1 #dbg ,boston1 ,mass41 #bfa1 #ahb ,boveri1 ,t41 #bg ,brachybioty1 #dji ,brachycephalic heads1 #dbg ,brachydactyly1 #dcc1 #dcg1 ,fig4 #ag ,bradlaugh1 ,c41 #bfi ,brazil1 #cbe ,breton race1 #bgc ,bridges1 ,c4 ,b41 #aja ,brigham ,young ,college1 #bai ,british1 #dbg ,british ,columbia1 #cje ,british ,indian immigration1 #cab ,bruce1 ,h4 ,a41 #bc ,bryn ,mawr ,college1 #bdj1 #bfc ,burris1 ,w4 ,p41 #ig ,c ,csar1 ,j41 #agi1 #bjg ,caffeine1 #de ,california1 #agb1 #aib ,california ,university1 #ajj ,cambridge graduates1 #dbh ,cambridge1 ,mass41 #bfa ,cape ,cod1 #bjf ,carnegie ,institution of ,washington1 #aed ,carnegie1 ,margaret ,morrison1 ,school1 #bgh ,carpenter1 ,e41 #cgi ,carver1 ,t4 ,n41 #cje1 #cfg ,castle1 ,c4 ,s41 #bdc ,castle1 ,w4 ,e41 #hg1 #ajj1 #aje1 #ajh1 #cjj1 #dai1 #dce1 ,fig4 #bj ,catlin1 ,g41 #acj ,cattell1 ,j4 ,mc,k41 #bj1 #ba1 #bfh1 #bfi ,cavour1 ,c4 ,b41 #ai ,celibacy1 #agc ,celtic1 #da ,celto-,slav ,type1 #dbg ,central ,europe1 #dbg ,ceylon1 #abi ,character1 #bai1 #bba1 #dcg ,charm and taboo1 #cie ,chastity1 #bea1 #chf ,chicago1 ,ill41 #ahb1 #bfa ,chicks1 #dg ,child bearing1 ,effect of1 #cdf ,child ,labor1 #cfh ,childless wives1 #bfh ,child mortality1 #djc1 #djg ,children surviving per capita1 #bfg ,china1 #bj1 #acg1 #bgd ,chinese1 #cae1 #cig1 ,fig4 #e ,chinese immigration1 #cba ,chorea1 ,huntingdon's1 #aji1 #dcc ,christianity1 #aga1 #cid ,chromosomes1 #hg1 #dca1 #dcg ,church acquaintances1 #bcd ,civic ,club 7,pittsburgh1 ,penn471 #cga ,civil ,war1 #bfh1 #cja1 #cba1 #cbf1 #djb ,cleopatra1 #bjg ,climate1 #db ,cobb1 ,m4 ,v41 #if ,co-education1 #bfg1 #chc ,coefficient of correlation1 #bab ,coercive means1 #ahd ,cold ,spring ,harbor1 #ajj ,coldness1 #bea ,cole1 ,l4 ,j41 #de1 #ea1 #fc1 ,fig4 #g ,collateral inheritance1 #djd ,college women1 #bda ,collins1 ,g4 ,n41 #ajd ,colonial ancestry1 #dbf ,colony plan1 #ahh ,color line1 #bhj ,color-blindness1 #aji1 #dcc ,columbus1 ,c41 #acb ,columbia1 ,district of1 #ahg ,columbus1 ,ohio1 #bfa ,columbia ,university1 #aj1 #da1 #ajj1 #bgh ,combemale1 #dd ,compulsory education1 #cfi ,confederate ,army1 #cbc ,congenital1 #dch ,conklin1 ,e4 ,g41 #dce ,connecticut1 #gf1 #abh1 #aib1 #bfa1 #cbf ,connecticut ,agricultural ,college1 #hb1 ,fig4 #ad ,consanguinity1 #bjg ,conscription1 #cai ,continuity of germ-plasm1 #bi ,controlled association tests1 #bhh ,cook1 ,o4 ,f41 #cef ,corn1 ,fig4 #b ,cornell ,medical ,college1 #de ,correlation1 #ac1 #bab1 #dch ,cost of clothing1 #bgd ,cost of domestic labor1 #bge ,cost of food1 #bgd ,cost of medical attention1 #bge ,courtis1 ,s4 ,a41 #gg ,cousins1 #bjb ,criminals1 #aeh1 #ahb1 #aib ,croatians1 #dbg ,crum1 ,frederick ,s41 #bei ,cushing1 ,h41 #ajb ,cynical attitude1 #bdi ,cytology1 #dch ,d ,danes1 #dbf ,dalmatians1 #caa ,dance acquaintances1 #bcd ,dark family1 #afh ,darwin1 ,c41 #bj1 #ba1 #be1 #fh1 #fi1 #aag1 #acd1 #adg1 #aea1 #agd1 #bjh1 #bad1 #ccd ,darwinism1 #bad ,davenport1 ,c4 ,b41 #ff1 #aed1 #aei1 #ahb1 #bjb1 #bje1 #bjh1 #bdf1 #cch1 #cda1 #cdb1 #cdh1 #cdi1 #dcc1 #dce ,davies1 ,maria ,thompson1 #bce ,deaf1 #aeg ,deafness1 #cb1 #aed ,declaration of ,independence1 #ge ,declining birth rate1 #bcg1 #bef1 #bfh1 #djj ,defective germ-plasm1 #aid ,defectives1 #cjb ,definition of eugenics1 #adg1 #aeb ,degenerate persons1 #aic ,delaware1 #ahg ,delayed marriage1 #bag ,delinquents1 #cjb ,demme1 ,r41 #ef ,democracy1 #cfj ,denmark1 #acg ,dependents1 #cjb ,desirability of ,restrictive ,eugenics1 #afg ,destitute classes1 #bad ,determiners1 #dcb1 #dch ,differences among men1 #ge ,diffloth1 ,p41 #bbb ,diseases1 #ch ,disease resistance1 #djb ,disposition1 #bai1 #bba ,distribution1 #cjg ,district of ,columbia1 #ahg ,divorce1 #bja ,dolichocephalic heads1 #dbg ,doll1 ,e4 ,a41 #dba ,dominance1 #dch ,dominant1 #dcc ,dress1 #bai1 #bba ,drinkwater1 #cdb ,drosophila1 #aja ,drug fiends1 #aic ,drunkenness1 #chi ,dublin1 ,l4 ,i41 #djj ,dubois1 ,p41 #bc1 #bd ,du,bois1 ,w4 ,e4 ,b41 #bie ,duncan1 ,j4 ,m41 #bdg ,duncan1 ,f4 ,n41 #ajb1 ,fig4 #ag ,dugdale1 ,r4 ,l41 #aei ,durant scholarship1 #bfb ,dyer family1 #bjf ,dynamic evolution1 #dba ,dynamic of manhood1 #bbc ,dysgenic1 definition of1 #dch ,dysgenic types1 #agf ,e ,earle1 ,e4 ,l41 #id ,early marriages1 #bdg ,eastern ,europe1 #dbg ,east1 ,e4 ,m41 #ajd ,east north central states1 #ceh ,east south central states1 #ceh ,ebbinghaus tests1 #bhh ,economic determinism1 #cfe ,economic equality of sexes1 #chj ,economic status1 #bej ,economic standing of parents1 #cgj ,edinburgh1 #eg ,education1 #bai1 #bba ,education1 compulsory1 #cfh ,education and race suicide1 #bec ,edwards1 ,j41 #afa ,egypt1 #bjf ,egyptian1 #bhe1 ,fig4 #f ,elderton1 ,e4 ,m41 #aj1 #ee1 #eg1 #fj1 #abb1 #aec1 #dac ,elderton1 ,w4 ,p41 #abd ,elevation of standards1 #bgg ,ellis1 ,h41 #if1 #bbd1 #cgi ,ellis ,island1 #cjb1 #cjc1 #dbg ,emancipation of women1 #cfd ,emerson1 ,r4 ,a41 #ajd ,endogamy1 #bbb1 #dch ,england1 #ae1 #af1 #aba1 #abb1 #ach1 #bcg1 #cha1 #dbg1 #dcb ,english1 #bei1 #caa1 #cba1 #dbf1 #dbg1 #dbh ,epilepsy1 #eh1 #gi ,epileptics1 #aic1 #cjb ,eskimo1 #di1 #abg ,estabrook1 ,a4 ,h41 #adc1 #aei1 #afh ,equalitarianism1 #cfb ,equality1 #bbi ,equality of opportunity1 #cff ,equal pay for equal work1 #chj ,essence of ,mendelism1 #dbi ,eugenic aspect of specific reforms1 #ceb ,eugenic laws1 #aia ,eugenic marriages1 #ceb ,eugenics and euthenics1 #dch ,eugenics ,education ,society1 #aec ,eugenics movement1 #adg ,eugenics registry1 #cej ,eugenics ,record ,office1 #aec1 #aid1 #bjb1 #cdh1 #cdi1 #dcf ,eugenics ,review1 #dcf ,eugenics and social welfare1 ,bulletin1 #dce ,euthenics1 #aee1 #dae1 #daf1 #dag1 #dch ,euthenics1 eugenics and1 #djb ,eye1 #ei ,evolution1 #dch ,exogamy1 #bb1 #dch ,f ,facial attractiveness1 #bae ,fairchild1 ,h4 ,p41 #cjh ,family alignment1 #bbi ,faraday1 ,m41 #ccd ,farrabee1 ,w4 ,c41 #acb ,fecundal selection1 #acg ,feebly inhibited1 #ahb ,feeble minded1 #aeg1 #agb1 #cjb ,feeble-mindedness1 #ga1 #agf ,fr1 ,c4 ,s41 #dd ,fernandez brothers1 #cad ,ferguson1 ,g4 ,o41 ,jr41 #bhg1 #bhh ,fertility1 relative1 #bdg ,filipinos1 #cae ,financial aspect1 #agc ,financial success1 #bai ,finger prints1 ,fig4 #be ,finger tip1 ,figs4 #ba1 #bb ,finns1 #bii1 #cjb1 #caa ,fishberg1 ,m41 #abf ,florida1 #ahg ,foot1 ,egyptian1 ,fig4 #f ,foreign-born1 #bch ,formal social functions1 #bcf ,foster1 ,m41 #bi ,france1 #ach1 #aee1 #bjf1 #bcg ,franco-,prussian war1 #cba ,franklin1 ,b41 #bcj ,frederick the ,great1 #ai ,fredericksburg1 ,va41 #bhh ,freiburg1 ,university1 of1 #abe ,french-,canadians1 #bei ,french revolution1 #ah ,freud1 ,s41 #bac ,g ,gallichan1 ,w41 #beb ,galton1 ,eugenics ,laboratory1 #aec1 #cdi ,galton1 ,f41 ,v1 #b1 #e1 #f1 #h1 #i1 #aj1 #ae1 #af1 #hi1 #ij1 #ie1 #ii1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aac1 #adg1 #adh1 #aea1 #aeb1 #afb1 #bbb1 #bbh1 #bcj1 #bdg1 #cdb1 #dce ,galton ,laboratory of ,national ,eugenics1 #bfi1 #dcf ,galton-,pearson law1 #aac1 #aad ,gamete1 #dci ,garibaldi1 ,g41 #ai ,garrison1 ,w4 ,l41 #bie1 #bif ,genealogical ,record ,office1 #djb1 #dje1 #djg1 #dji1 #daa1 #dab ,genealogy and eugenics1 #cbi1 #dci ,genesis1 #fd ,genetics1 #cdj1 #dci ,genius1 hereditary1 #aea ,george1 ,f4 ,o41 #bcd ,georgia1 #ahg ,geographical distribution1 #bfa ,german1 #ce1 #bei1 #bhj1 #caa ,german society for race hygiene1 #afc ,germany1 #bj1 #acg1 #aee1 #bii1 #cfj ,germinal1 #dci ,germ-plasm1 #be1 #dbi1 #ddj ,ghetto1 #cje ,gifted families1 #bac ,gillette1 ,j4 ,m41 #cef1 #ceh1 #cei ,gilman1 ,c4 ,p41 #cgh ,gilmore1 ,c4 ,f41 #acf1 #baf1 #bbg ,gini1 ,c41 #cdd1 #cdf ,giotto1 #cdb ,gochuico1 ,ricardo1 #cae ,goddard1 ,h4 ,h41 #ga1 #aje1 #ajh1 #afj1 #agf1 #ahh ,gonorrhea1 #fc ,goodrich1 ,m4 ,t41 #ccc ,goring1 ,c41 #abd1 #bad ,grant1 ,madison1 #cja1 #dbj ,grant1 ,u4 ,s41 #cgd ,great ,britain1 #acj1 #bcb ,great race1 #dbf ,great war1 ix1 #bih1 #cbg ,greek idea of eugenics1 #aej ,greek slaves1 #bhd ,greeks1 #bii1 #cjb1 #cba1 #dbg ,greenwood lake1 #bcc ,growth of eugenics1 #adg ,gruber von1 and ,rubin1 #bjd ,guatemala ,indians1 #cef ,guinea pigs1 #de1 #dai ,gulick1 ,j4 ,t41 #acd ,gulick1 ,l4 ,h41 #bbc ,gulick1 ,s4 ,l41 #caa1 #cac ,gustavus ,adolphus1 #ai ,guyer1 ,m4 ,f41 #aid1 #dce ,h ,habitual criminal1 #aid ,hair1 white blaze in1 #dcc ,haiti1 #bhd1 #bhi ,hall1 ,g4 ,s41 #bbe ,hall of ,fame1 #ag1 #ai ,hamilton1 ,a4 ,e41 #bgh1 #dcc1 #dce ,hankins1 ,f4 ,h41 #bcg ,hanks ,family1 #ccc ,hap1 ,l41 #cad ,hapaa1 #aca ,harrison1 ,mrs4 ,e4 ,h41 #aed ,harris1 ,j4 ,a41 #ajj1 #baa1 #djd ,hart1 ,h4 ,h41 #ahf ,hartford1 ,conn41 #bfa ,harvard ,university1 #hg1 #bde1 #bdf1 #bff ,health1 #bai1 #bba ,heape1 ,w41 #dai ,hebrews1 #da1 #cjb ,hebrews1 ,east ,european1 #bii ,hebrews1 ,russian1 #cjb ,heller1 ,l4 ,l4 #fd ,helsingfors1 #ed ,hemophilia1 #ch1 #dj1 #dcc ,hereditary genius1 #af1 #aea ,hereditary1 #ddj ,heredity1 laws of1 #ii ,heredity1 talent and genius1 #aea ,heron1 ,d41 #ad1 #ae1 #adj1 #aec ,herzegovinians1 #caa ,heterozygote1 #ddj ,heterozygous1 #dbg1 #dcc ,hewes1 ,a41 #bdj ,hibbs1 ,h4 ,h41 ,jr41 #daa ,hickory ,family1 #afh ,higher education1 #bgf ,hill folk1 #afh ,hill1 ,j4 ,a41 #bfh ,hindus1 #cje ,hitchcock1 ,c4 ,h41 #ccc ,hodge1 #dd ,hoffman1 ,f4 ,l41 #abh1 #bei ,holland1 #acg1 #adc1 #aee ,hollingworth1 ,h4 ,l41 #cdb ,home acquaintances1 #bcd ,homo sapiens1 #cjj ,homozygote1 #ddj ,homozygous1 #dbg ,hooker1 ,j41 #fh ,hopetown1 #bjc ,hormones1 #ddj ,horsley1 ,v41 #ee ,housekeeping1 #bai1 #bba ,housing1 #cgf ,howard1 ,a41 #ajd ,howard1 ,g41 #ajd ,howard ,university1 #chh ,hrdlicka1 ,a41 #bhe1 #dbd1 #dbf1 #dbg1 #dbh ,huguenots1 #dbd1 #dbg ,humanistic religion1 #cif ,humanitarian aspect1 #aga ,hungary1 #aee1 #cjb ,hunter1 ,w41 #fi ,huntington1 ,e41 #db ,huntington's ,chorea1 #ahj ,huxley1 ,j4 ,l41 #c ,hyde ,family1 #cdf1 #daa ,i ,idiots1 #ahh1 #cjb ,illegitimacy1 #cbe ,illegitimate children1 #bjh1 #chf ,illinois1 #agb1 #bjh ,illinois1 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99 99 ,,footnotes #a ,see ,woods1 ,frederick ,adams1 ,laws of ,diminishing ,environmental ,influences1 ,popular ,science ,monthly1 ,april1 #aiaj1 pp4 #cac-ccf2 ,huxley1 ,j4 ,s41 ,the ,individual in the ,animal ,kingdom1 ,cambridge and ,new ,york1 #aiab4 ,pike1 ,f4 ,h41 and ,scott1 ,e4 ,l41 ,the ,significance of ,certain ,internal ,conditions of the ,organism in ,organic ,evolution1 ,american ,naturalist1 ,vol4 ,,xlix1 pp4 #cba-cei1 ,june1 #aiae4 #b ,there is one line of experiment which is simple and striking enough to deserve mention--namely1 ovarian transplantation4 ,a description of this is given in ,appendix ,a4 #c ,galton1 ,francis1 ,inquiries into ,human ,faculty1 #aijg edition1 pp4 #aec-agc4 ,this volume of ,galton's1 which was first published in #ahhc1 has been reissued in ,everyman's ,library1 and should be read by all eugenists4 #d ,what is said here refers to positive correlations1 which are the only kind involved in this problem4 ,correlations may also be negative1 lying between #j and -#a2 for instance1 if we measured the correlation between a man's lack of appetite and the time that had elapsed since his last meal1 we would have to express it by a negative fraction1 the minus sign showing that the greater his satiety1 the less would be the time since his repast4 ,the best introduction to correlations is ,elderton's ,primer of ,statistics 7,london1 #aiab74 #e ,dr4 ,thorndike's careful measurements showed that it is impossible to draw a hard and fast line between identical twins and ordinary twins4 ,there is no question as to the existence of the two kinds1 but the ordinary twins may happen to be so nearly alike as to resemble identical twins4 ,accordingly1 mere appearance is not a safe criterion of the identity of twins4 ,his researches were published in the ,archives of ,philosophy1 ,psychology and ,scientific ,methods1 ,no4 #a1 ,new ,york1 #aije4 #f ,a ,first ,study of the ,inheritance of ,vision and the ,relative ,influence of ,heredity and ,environment on ,sight4 ,by ,amy ,barrington and ,karl ,pearson4 ,eugenics ,laboratory 7,london71 ,memoir ,series ,v4 #g ,dr4 ,james ,alexander ,wilson1 assistant surgeon of the ,opthalmic ,institute1 ,glasgow1 published an analysis of #a1ejj cases of myopia in the ,british ,medical ,journal1 p4 #cie1 ,august #bi1 #aiad4 ,his methods are not above criticism1 and too much importance should not be attached to his results1 which show that in #eh of the cases heredity can be credited with the myopia of the patient4 ,in #ab of the cases it was due to inflammation of the cornea 7keratitis7 while in the remaining #cj no hereditary influence could be proved1 but various reasons made him feel certain that in many cases it existed4 ,the distribution of myopia by trades and professions among his patients is suggestive3 #fe of the cases among school children showed myopic heredity2 #fc among housewives and domestic servants2 #fh among shop and factory works2 #fj among clerks and typists2 #fj among laborers and miners4 ,if environment really played an active part1 one would not expect to find this similarity in percentages between laborers and clerks1 between housewives and schoolteachers1 etc4 #h ,the ,influence of ,unfavourable ,home ,environment and ,defective ,physique on the ,intelligence of ,school ,children4 ,by ,david ,heron4 ,eugenics ,laboratory 7,london71 ,memoir ,series ,no4 ,,viii4 #i ,hereditary ,genius2 an ,inquiry into its ,laws and ,consequences4 ,london1 #ahfi4 #aj ,woods1 ,frederick ,adams1 ,heredity and the ,hall of ,fame1 ,popular ,science ,monthly1 ,may1 #aiac4 #aa ,woods1 ,frederick ,adams1 ,mental and ,moral ,heredity in ,royalty1 ,new ,york1 #aijf4 ,see also ,sovereigns and the ,supposed ,influence of ,opportunity1 ,science1 n4 s41 ,,xxxix1 ,no4 #ajaf1 pp4 #ijb-ije1 ,june #ai1 #aiad1 where ,dr4 ,woods answers some criticisms of his work4 #ab ,educational ,psychology1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #cjf4 ,starch's results are also quoted from ,thorndike4 #ac ,jean ,baptiste ,lamarck1 a ,french naturalist1 born in #agdd1 was one of the pioneers in the philosophical study of evolution4 ,the theory 7published in #ahji7 for which he is best known is as follows3 ,changes in the animal's surroundings are responded to by changes in its habits4 ,any particular habit involves the regular use of some organs and the disuse of others4 ,those organs which are used will be developed and strengthened1 those not used diminished and weakened1 and the changes so produced will be transmitted to the offspring1 and thus progressive development of particular organs will go on from generation to generation4 ,his classical example is the neck of the giraffe1 which he supposes to be long because1 for generation after generation1 the animals stretched their necks in order to get the highest leaves from the trees4 #ad ,boas1 ,f41 ,changes in ,body ,form of ,descendants of ,immigrants1 #aiaa4 #ae ,civilization and ,climate4 ,by ,ellsworth ,huntington1 ,yale ,university ,press1 #aiaf4 #af ,american ,naturalist1 ,l41 pp4 #fe-hi1 #add-agh1 ,feb4 and ,mar41 #aiaf4 #ag ,proc4 ,am4 ,philos4 ,soc4 ,,lv1 pp4 #bdc-bei1 #aiaf4 #ah ,dr4 ,reid is the author who has most effectively called attention to this relation between alcohol and natural selection4 ,those interested will find a full treatment in his books1 ,the ,present ,evolution of ,man1 ,the ,laws of ,heredity1 and ,the ,principles of ,heredity4 #ai ,principles of ,psychology1 ii1 p4 #edc4 #bj ,leon ,j4 ,cole points out that this may be due in considerable part to less voluntary restriction of offspring on the part of those who are often under the influence of alcohol4 #ba ,for a review of the statistical problems involved1 see ,karl ,pearson4 ,an attempt to correct some of the misstatements made by ,sir ,victor ,horsley1 ,f4 ,r4 ,s41 ,f4 ,r4 ,c4 ,s41 and ,mary ,d4 ,sturge1 ,m4 ,d41 in their criticisms of the ,galton ,laboratory ,memoir3 ,first ,study of the ,influence of ,parental ,alcoholism1 etc42 and ,professor ,pearson's various popular lectures1 also ,a ,second ,study of the ,influence of ,parental ,alcoholism on the ,physique and ,intelligence of ,offspring4 ,by ,karl ,pearson and ,ethel ,m4 ,elderton4 ,eugenics ,laboratory ,memoir ,series ,,xiii4 #bb ,a ,first ,study of the ,influence of ,parental ,alcoholism on the ,physique and ,intelligence of ,offspring4 ,by ,ethel ,m4 ,elderton and ,karl ,pearson4 ,eugenics ,laboratory ,memoir ,series ,x4 ,harald ,westergaard1 who rexamined the ,elderton-,pearson data1 concludes that considerable importance is to be attached to the selective action of alcohol1 the weaklings in the alcoholic families having been weeded out early in life4 #bc ,prohibition would have some indirect eugenic effects1 which will be discussed in ,chapter ,,xviii4 #bd ,chapter ,,xxx1 verses #ca-dc4 ,a knowledge of the pedigree of ,laban's cattle would undoubtedly explain where the stripes came from4 ,it is interesting to note how this idea persists3 a correspondent has recently sent an account of seven striped lambs born after their mothers had seen a striped skunk4 ,the actual explanation is doubtless that suggested by ,heller in the ,journal of ,heredity1 ,,vi1 #dhj 7,october1 #aiae71 that a stripe is part of the ancestral coat pattern of the sheep1 and appears from time to time because of reversion4 #be ,such a skin affection1 known as icthyosis1 xerosis or xeroderma1 is usually due to heredity4 ,davenport says it is especially apt to be found in families in which consanguineous marriages occur and this fact1 together with the pedigrees which he studied1 suggests that it is due to the absence of some factor that controls the process of cornification of the skin4 ,on this hypothesis a normal person who belongs to an affected family may marry into a normal family with impunity1 but cousin marriages are to be avoided4 ,see ,davenport1 ,c4 ,b41 ,heredity in ,relation to ,eugenics1 p4 #acd4 ,new ,york1 #aiaa4 #bf ,its eugenics is to be effected through the mental exertion of mothers4 ,and we have lately been in correspondence with a western attorney who is endeavoring to form an association of persons who will agree to be the parents of willed children4 ,by this means1 he has calculated 7and sends a chart to prove it7 that it will require only four generations to produce the ,superman4 #bg ,life and ,letters of ,charles ,darwin1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #cjb1 ,new ,york1 #ahig4 ,the letter is dated #ahdd4 #bh ,goddard1 ,h4 ,h41 ,feeble-mindedness1 p4 #cei4 ,new ,york1 the ,macmillan ,company1 #aiad4 #bi ,for a review of the evidence consult an article on ,telegony by ,dr4 ,etienne ,rabaud in the ,journal of ,heredity1 ,vol4 ,v1 ,no4 #i1 pp4 #chi-djj2 ,september1 #aiad4 #cj ,it will be recalled that the coefficient of correlation measures the resemblance between two variables on a scale between #j and-#a or #a4 ,if the correlation is zero1 there is no constant relation2 if it is unity1 any change in one must result in a determinate change in the other2 if it is #j4e1 it means that when one of the variables deviates from the mean of its class by a given amount1 the other variable will deviate from the mean of its class by #ej of that amount 7each deviation being measured in terms of the variability of its own class1 in order that they may be properly comparable47 #ca ,sidis1 ,boris1 ,m4,a41 ,ph4,d41 ,m4,d41 ,neurosis and ,eugenics1 ,medical ,review of ,reviews1 ,vol4 ,,xxi1 ,no4 #aj1 pp4 #ehg-eid1 ,new ,york1 ,october1 #aiae4 ,a psychologist who writes of some miraculous germ-plasm 7chromatin7 with wonderful dominant 'units' 7,chromosomes7 is hardly a competent critic of the facts of heredity4 #cb ,in a letter to the ,journal of ,heredity1 under date of ,august #d1 #aiaf4 #cc ,galton1 ,francis1 ,inquiries into ,human ,faculty1 p4 #afg1 ,london1 #aijg4 #cd ,woods1 ,frederick ,adams1 ,heredity in ,royalty1 ,new ,york1 #aijf4 #ce ,op4 cit41 pp4 #agj-aga4 #cf ,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l41 ,measurements of ,twins1 ,arch4 of ,philos41 ,psych4 and ,sci4 ,methods1 ,no4 #a1 ,new ,york1 #aije2 summarized in his ,educational ,psychology1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #bdg-bea1 ,new ,york1 #aiad4 ,measured on a scale where #a identity1 he found that twins showed a resemblance to each other of about 4#ge1 while ordinary brothers of about the same age resembled each other to the extent of about 4#ej only4 ,the resemblance was approximately the same in both physical and mental traits4 #cg ,the quotations in this and the following paragraph are from ,thorndike's ,educational ,psychology1 pp4 #cjd-cje1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 #ch ,biometrika1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #aef4 #ci ,william of ,occam's ,razor is the canon of logic which declares that it is unwise to seek for several causes of an effect1 if a single cause is adequate to account for it4 #dj ,schuster1 ,edgar1 ,eugenics1 pp4 #aej-afc1 ,london1 #aiac4 #da ,educational ,psychology 7#aiad71 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bce4 #db ,cobb1 ,margaret ,v41 ,journal of ,educational ,psychology1 viii1 pp4 #a-bj1 ,jan41 #aiag4 #dc ,this is not true of the small ,english school of biometrists1 founded by ,sir ,francis ,galton1 ,w4 ,f4 ,r4 ,weldon and ,karl ,pearson1 and now led by the latter4 ,it has throughout denied or minified ,mendelian results1 and depended on the treatment of inheritance by a study of correlations4 ,with the progress of ,mendelian research1 biometric methods must be supplemented with pedigree studies4 ,in human heredity1 on the other hand1 because of the great difficulties attendant upon an application of ,mendelian methods1 the biometric mode of attack is still the most useful1 and has been largely used in the present book4 ,it has been often supposed that the methods of the two schools 7biometry and ,mendelism7 are antagonistic4 ,they are rather supplementary1 each being valuable in cases where the other is less applicable4 ,see ,pearl1 ,raymond1 ,modes of ,research in ,genetics1 p4 #ahb1 ,new ,york1 #aiae #dd ,few people realize what large numbers of plants and animals have been bred for experimental purposes during the last decade2 ,w4 ,e4 ,castle of ,bussey ,institution1 ,forest ,hills1 ,mass41 has bred not less than #de1jjj rats4 ,in the study of a single character1 the endosperm of maize1 nearly #ajj1jjj pedigreed seeds have been examined by different students4 ,workers at the ,university of ,california have tabulated more than #aj1jjj measurements on flower size alone1 in tobacco hybrids4 ,t4 ,h4 ,morgan and his associates at ,columbia ,university have bred and studied more than half a million fruit flies1 and ,j4 ,arthur ,harris has handled more than #fjj1jjj bean-plants at the ,carnegie ,institution's ,station for ,experimental ,evolution1 ,cold ,spring ,harbor1 ,l4 ,i4 ,while facts of human heredity1 and of inheritance in large mammals generally1 are often grounded on scanty evidence1 it must not be thought that the fundamental generalizations of heredity are based on insufficient data4 #de ,for a brief account of ,mendelism1 see ,appendix ,d4 #df ,of course these factors are not of equal importance2 some of them produce large changes and some1 as far as can be told1 are of minor significance4 ,the factors1 moreover1 undergo large changes from time to time1 thus producing mutations2 and it is probable small changes as well1 the evidence for which requires greater refinements of method than is usual among those using the pedigree method4 #dg ,a ,critique of the ,theory of ,evolution1 by ,thomas ,hunt ,morgan1 professor of experimental zology in ,columbia ,university4 ,princeton ,university ,press1 #aiaf4 ,this book gives the best popular account of the studies of heredity in ,drosophila4 ,the advanced student will find ,the ,mechanism of ,mendelian ,heredity 7,new ,york1 #aiae71 by ,morgan1 ,sturtevant1 ,mller1 and ,bridges1 indispensable1 but it is beyond the comprehension of most beginners4 #dh ,on the ,inheritance of ,some ,characters in ,wheat1 ,a4 and ,g4 ,howard1 ,mem4 ,dep4 of ,agr4 ,india1 ,v3 #a-df1 #aiab4 ,this careful and important work has never received the recognition it deserves1 apparently because few geneticists have seen it4 ,while the multiple factors in wheat seem to be different1 those reported by ,east and ,shull appear to be merely duplicates4 #di ,the ,nature of ,mendelian ,units4 ,by ,g4 ,n4 ,collins1 ,journal of ,heredity1 ,v3 #dbe ff41 ,oct41 #aiad4 #ej ,dr4 ,castle1 reviewing ,dr4 ,goddard's work 7,journal of ,abnormal ,psychology1 ,aug4-,sept41 #aiae7 concludes that feeble-mindedness is to be explained as a case of multiple allelomorphs4 ,the evidence is inadequate to prove this1 and proof would be1 in fact1 almost impossible1 because of the difficulty of determining just what the segregation ratios are4 #ea ,in strict accuracy1 the law of ancestral inheritance must be described as giving means of determining the probable deviation of any individual from the mean of his own generation1 when the deviations of some or all of his ancestry from the types of their respective generations are known4 ,it presupposes 7#a7 no assortative mating1 7#b7 no inbreeding and 7#c7 no selection4 ,galton's own formula1 which supposed that the parents contributed #a_/b1 the grandparents #a_/d1 the great-grandparents #a_/h1 the next generation #a_/af1 and so on1 is of value now only historically1 or to illustrate to a layman the fact that he inherits from his whole ancestry1 not from his parents alone4 #eb ,johnson1 ,roswell ,h41 ,the ,malthusian ,principle and ,natural ,selection1 ,american ,naturalist1 ,,xlvi 7#aiab71 pp4 #cgb-cgf4 #ec ,karl ,pearson1 ,the ,groundwork of ,eugenics1 p4 #be1 ,london1 #aiab4 #ed ,let p be the chance of death from a random1 not a constitutional source1 then #a-p is the chance of a selective death in a parent and #a-p again of a selective death in the case of an offspring1 then 7#a-p7#b must equal about #a_/c1 4#cf1 more exactly 'therefore' #a-p 4#f and p 4#dj4 ,in other words1 #fj of the deaths are selective4 #ee ,archiv f4 ,rassen-u4 ,gesellschafts ,biologie1 ,,vi 7#aiji71 pp4 #cc-dc4 #ef ,snow1 ,e4 ,c41 ,on the ,intensity of ,natural ,selection in ,man1 ,london1 #aiaa4 #eg ,biometrika1 ,vol4 ,x1 pp4 #dhh-ejf1 ,london1 ,may1 #aiae4 #eh ,pearson1 ,karl1 ,tuberculosis1 ,heredity and ,environment1 ,london1 #aiab4 ,among the most careful contributions to the problem of tuberculosis are those of ,charles ,goring 7,on the ,inheritance of the ,diathesis of ,phthisis and ,insanity1 ,london1 #aiaj71 ,ernest ,g4 ,pope 7,a ,second ,study of the ,statistics of ,pulmonary ,tuberculosis1 ,london1 ,dulau ,co471 and ,w4 ,p4 ,elderton and ,s4 ,j4 ,perry 7,a ,third ,study of the ,statistics of ,pulmonary ,tuberculosis4 ,the ,mortality of the ,tuberculous and ,sanatorium ,treatment71 ,london1 #aiji4 ,see also our discussion in ,chapter ,i4 #ei ,while most physicians lay too great stress on the factor of infection1 this mistake is by no means universal4 ,maurice ,fishberg1 for example 7quoted in the ,medical ,review of ,reviews1 ,,xxii1 #h1 ,august1 #aiaf7 states3 ,for many years the writer was physician to a charitable society1 having under his care annually #hjj to #a1jjj consumptives who lived in poverty and want1 in overcrowded tenements1 having all opportunities to infect their consorts2 in fact most of the consumptives shared their bed with their healthy consorts4 ,still1 very few cases were met with in which tuberculosis was found in both the husband and wife4 ,widows1 whose husbands died from phthisis1 were only rarely seen to develop the disease4 #fj ,in #ith ,trans4 of ,american ,association for the ,study and ,prevention of ,tuberculosis1 p4 #aag4 #fa ,geographical and ,historical ,pathology 7,new ,sydenham ,society1 #ahhc71 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bff4 #fb ,reid1 ,g4 ,archdall1 ,the ,present ,evolution of ,man1 and ,the ,laws of ,heredity4 #fc ,in the ,south ,seas1 p4 #bg2 quoted by ,g4 ,archdall ,reid1 ,the ,principles of ,heredity 7,new ,york1 #aije71 p4 #ahc4 ,dr4 ,reid has discussed the rle of disease and alcohol on the modern evolution of man more fully than any other writer4 #fd ,see1 for example1 ,john ,west's ,history of ,tasmania1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,launceston1 ,tasmania1 #aheb4 #fe ,see ,hollingworth1 ,h4 ,l41 ,vocational ,psychology1 p4 #agj1 ,new ,york1 #aiaf4 #ff ,net increase here refers only to the first year of life1 and was computed by deducting the deaths under one year1 in a ward1 from the number of births in the same ward for the same year4 ,for details of this study of the ,pittsburgh vital statistics1 see the ,journal of ,heredity1 ,vol4 ,,viii1 pp4 #agh-ahc 7,april1 #aiag74 #fg ,quoted from ,newsholme and ,stevenson1 ,the ,decline of ,human ,fertility1 ,london1 #aijf4 #fh ,heron1 ,david1 ,on the ,relation of ,fertility in ,man to ,social ,status1 ,london1 #aijf4 ,the account is quoted from ,schuster1 ,edgar1 ,eugenics1 pp4 #bbj-bba1 ,london1 #aiac4 #fi ,ztschft4 f4 ,sozialwissenschaft1 ,,vii 7#aijd71 pp4 #a ff4 #gj ,two of the best known of these tribes are the ,jukes and ,nams4 ,an analysis of the figures of the ,jukes in regard to the birth-rate shows that of a total of #djc married ,juke women1 #ccj reproduced one or more children and #gc were barren4 ,the average fecundity1 counting those who are barren1 is #c4ebf children per female4 ,the #ccj women having children have an average fecundity of #d4cjf as compared with that of #d4jbe1 based on #abj reproducing women in the ,nam family4--,estabrook1 ,a4 ,h41 ,the ,jukes in #aiae1 p4 #ea1 ,washington1 ,carnegie ,institution1 #aiaf4 #ga ,woods1 ,frederick ,adams1 ,heredity in ,royalty1 ,new ,york1 #aijf4 #gb ,beeton1 ,miss ,m41 ,yule1 ,g4,u41 and ,pearson1 ,karl1 ,on the ,correlation between ,duration of ,life and the ,number of ,offspring1 ,proc4 ,r4 ,s4 ,london1 #fg 7#aijj71 pp4 #aei-aga4 ,the material consisted of ,english and ,american ,quaker families4 ,dr4 ,bell's work is based on old ,american families1 and has not yet been published4 #gc ,the entire field of race betterment and social improvement is divided between eugenics1 which considers only germinal or heritable changes in the race2 and euthenics1 which deals with improvement in the individual1 and in his environment4 ,of course1 no sharp line can be drawn between the two spheres1 each one having many indirect effects on the other4 ,it is important to note1 however1 that any change in the individual during his prenatal life is euthenic1 not eugenic4 ,therefore1 contrary to the popular idea of the case1 the ,better ,babies movement1 the agitation for proper care of expectant mothers1 and the like1 are not directly a part of eugenics4 ,the moment of conception is the point at which eugenics gives place to euthenics4 ,eugenics is therefore the fundamental method of human progress1 euthenics the secondary one2 their relations will be further considered in the last chapter of this book4 #gd ,the clan has now reached its ninth generation and its present status has been exhaustively studied by ,a4 ,h4 ,estabrook 7,the ,jukes in #aiae3 ,carnegie ,institution of ,washington1 #aiaf74 ,he enumerates #b1hbj individuals1 of whom half are still living4 ,in the early #hj's they left their original home and are now scattered all over the country4 ,the change in environment has enabled some of them to rise to a higher level1 but on the whole1 says ,c4 ,b4 ,davenport in a preface to ,estabrook's book1 they still show the same feeble-mindedness1 indolence1 licentiousness and dishonesty1 even when not handicapped by the associations of their bad family name and despite the fact of being surrounded by better social conditions4 ,estabrook says the clan might have been exterminated by preventing the reproduction of its members1 and that the nation would thereby have saved about #b1ejj1jjj4 ,it is interesting to note that out of approximately #fjj living feeble-minded and epileptic ,jukes1 there are only three now in custodial care4 #ge ,key1 ,dr4 ,wilhelmina ,e41 ,feeble-minded ,citizens in ,pennsylvania1 pp4 #aa1 #ab1 ,philadelphia1 ,public ,charities ,assn41 #aiae4 #gf ,the most recent extensive study of this point is ,a4 ,h4 ,estabrook's ,the ,jukes in #aiae 7,carnegie ,institution of ,washington1 #aiaf74 ,the ,jukes migrated from their original home1 in the mountains of ,new ,york1 a generation ago1 and are now scattered all over the country4 ,estabrook tried to learn1 at first hand1 whether they had improved as the result of new environments1 and free from the handicap of their name1 which for their new neighbors had no bad associations4 ,in general1 his findings seem to warrant the conclusion that a changed environment in itself was of little benefit4 ,such improvement as occurred in the tribe was rather due to marriage with better stock2 marriages of this kind were made more possible by the new environment1 but the tendency to assortative mating restricted them4 ,it is further to be noted that while such marriages may be good for the ,juke family1 they are bad for the nation as a whole1 because they tend to scatter anti-social traits4 #gg ,key1 op4 cit41 p4 #g4 #gh ,figures furnished 7,september1 #aiag7 by the ,national ,committee for ,mental ,hygiene1 #ej ,union ,square1 ,new ,york ,city4 #gi ,this applies even to such an acute thinker as ,john ,stuart ,mill1 whose ideas were formed in the pre-,darwinian epoch1 and whose works must now be accepted with great reserve4 ,darwin was quite right in saying1 ,the ignoring of all transmitted mental qualities will1 as it seems to me1 be hereafter judged as a most serious blemish in the works of ,mr4 ,mill4 7,descent of ,man1 p4 #ih47 ,a quotation from the ,principles of ,political ,economy 7,vol4 #a1 p4 #chi7 will give an idea of ,mr4 ,mill's point of view3 ,of all the vulgar methods of escaping from the effects of social and moral influences on the mind1 the most vulgar is that of attributing diversities of conduct and character to inherent natural differences6 #hj ,feeble-mindedness1 its ,causes and ,consequences4 ,by ,h4 ,h4 ,goddard1 director of the ,research ,laboratory of the ,training ,school at ,vineland1 ,new ,jersey1 for feeble-minded boys and girls4 ,new ,york1 ,the ,macmillan ,co41 #aiad4 #ha ,probably the word now covers a congeries of defects1 some of which may be non-germinal4 ,epilepsy is so very generally found associated with various other congenital defects1 that action should not be delayed4 #hb ,goddard1 ,h4 ,h41 ,feeble-,mindedness1 pp4 #ad-af4 #hc ,see the recent studies of ,c4 ,b4 ,davenport1 particularly ,the ,feebly ,inhibited1 ,washington1 ,carnegie ,institution1 #aiae4 #hd ,in this connection diagnosis is naturally of the utmost importance4 ,the recent action of ,chicago1 ,new ,york1 ,boston1 and other cities1 in establishing psychological clinics for the examination of offenders is a great step in advance4 ,these clinics should be attached to the police department1 as in ,new ,york1 not merely to the courts1 and should pass on offenders before1 not after1 trial and commitment4 #he ,as a result of psychiatric study of the inmates of ,sing ,sing in #aiaf1 it was said that two-thirds of them showed some mental defect4 ,examination of #ajj convicts selected at random in the ,massachusetts ,state ,prison showed that #bi were feeble-minded and #aa borderline cases4 ,the highest percentage of mental defectives was found among criminals serving sentence for murder in the second degree1 manslaughter1 burglary and robbery4 7,rossy1 ,c4 ,s41 in ,state ,board of ,insanity ,bull41 ,boston1 ,nov41 #aiae74 ,paul ,m4 ,bowers told the #aiaf meeting of the ,american ,prison ,association of his study of #ajj recidivists1 each of whom had been convicted not fewer than four times4 ,of these #ab were insane1 #bc feeble-minded and #aj epileptic1 and in each case ,dr4 ,bowers said the mental defect bore a direct causal relation to the crime committed4 ,such studies argue for the need of a little elementary biology in the administration of justice4 #hf ,for a sane and cautious discussion of the subject see ,wallin1 ,j4 ,e4 ,w41 ,a ,program for the ,state ,care of the ,feeble-,minded and ,epileptic1 ,school and ,society1 ,,iv1 pp4 #gbd-gca1 ,new ,york1 ,nov4 #aa1 #aiaf4 #hg ,johnstone1 ,e4 ,r41 ,waste ,land ,plus ,waste ,humanity1 ,training ,school ,bulletin1 ,,xi1 pp4 #fj-fc1 ,vineland1 ,n4 ,j41 ,june1 #aiad4 #hh ,report of the ,committee on the ,sterilization of ,criminals1 ,journal of the ,institute of ,criminal ,law and ,criminology1 ,september1 #aiaf4 ,of the operations mentioned1 #fcd are said to have been performed on insane persons and one on a criminal4 #hi ,guyer1 ,m4 ,f41 ,wisconsin ,eugenics ,legislation4 ,trans4 ,amer4 ,asso4 ,study and ,prevention of ,infant ,mortality1 #aiag1 pp4 #ib-ig4 #ij ,eugenics ,record ,office1 ,bulletin ,no4 #aj ,a1 ,the ,scope of the ,committee's ,work1 ,cold ,spring ,harbor1 ,l4 ,i41 ,feb41 #aiad2 ,no4 #aj ,b1 ,the ,legal1 ,legislative and ,administrative ,aspects of ,sterilization1 same date4 #ia ,eugenics ,record ,office ,bulletin ,no4 #i3 ,state ,laws ,limiting ,marriage ,selection ,examined in the ,light of ,eugenics4 ,cold ,spring ,harbor1 ,l4 ,i41 ,june1 #aiac4 #ib ,penrose1 ,clement ,a41 ,sanitary ,conditions in the ,bahama ,islands1 ,geographical ,society of ,baltimore1 #aije4 #ic ,see von4 ,gruber and ,rdin1 ,fortpflanzung1 ,vererbung1 ,rassenhygiene1 p4 #afi1 ,mnchen1 #aiaa4 #id ,davenport1 ,charles ,b41 ,heredity in ,relation to ,eugenics1 pp4 #ahd ff41 ,new ,york1 #aiaa4 #ie ,harris1 ,j4 ,arthur1 ,assortative ,mating in ,man1 ,popular ,science ,monthly1 ,,lxxx1 pp4 #dgf-dic1 ,may1 #aiab4 ,the most important studies on the subject are cited by ,dr4 ,harris4 #if ,an interesting and critical treatment of sexual selection is given by ,vernon ,l4 ,kellogg in ,darwinism ,to-day1 pp4 #ajf-abh 7,new ,york1 #aijh74 ,darwin's own discussion 7,the ,descent of ,man7 is still very well worth reading1 if the reader is on his guard4 ,the best general treatment of the theory of sexual selection1 especially as it applies to man1 is in chapter ,,xi of ,karl ,pearson's ,grammar of ,science 7#b;d ed41 ,london1 #aijj74 #ig ,diffloth1 ,paul1 ,le ,fin de ,l',enigme1 ,paris1 #aijg4 #ih ,the best popular yet scientific treatment of the subject we have seen is ,the ,dynamic of ,manhood1 a book recently written by ,luther ,h4 ,gulick for the ,young ,men's ,christian ,association 7,new ,york1 ,the ,association ,press1 #aiag74 #ii ,the sympathy which we mentioned as the beginning of the hypothetical love affair does lead to a partial identity of will1 it is true2 but there is often too little in common between the man and woman to make this identity at all complete4 ,as ,karl ,pearson points out1 it is almost essential to a successful marriage that two people have sympathy with each other's aims and a considerable degree of similarity in habits4 ,if such a bond is lacking1 the bond of sympathy aroused by some trivial circumstance will not be sufficient to keep the marriage from shipwreck4 ,the occasional altruism of young men who marry inferior girls because they feel sorry for them is not praiseworthy4 #ajj ,ellis1 ,havelock1 ,the ,task of ,social ,hygiene1 pp4 #bjh-bji1 ,boston1 ,houghton ,mifflin ,co41 #aiab4 #aja ,g4 ,stanley ,hall 7,adolescence1 ,,ii1 #aac7 found the following points1 in order1 specified as most admired in the other sex by young men and women in their teens3 eyes1 hair1 stature and size1 feet1 eyebrows1 complexion1 cheeks1 form of head1 throat1 ears1 chin1 hands1 neck1 nose4 ,the voice was highly specialized and much preferred4 ,the principal dislikes1 in order1 were3 prominent or deep-set eyes1 fullness of neck1 ears that stand out1 eyebrows that meet1 broad and long feet1 high cheek-bones1 light eyes1 large nose1 small stature1 long neck or teeth1 bushy brows1 pimples1 red hair4 ,an interesting study of some of the trivial traits of manner which may be handicaps in sexual selection is published by ,iva ,lowther ,peters in the ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,,xxiii1 ,no4 #d1 pp4 #eej-egj1 ,dec41 #aiaf4 #ajb ,it has been suggested that the same goal would be reached if a young man before marriage would take out a life insurance policy in the name of his bride4 ,the suggestion has many good points4 #ajc ,the correlation between fecundity and longevity which ,karl ,pearson has demonstrated gives longevity another great advantage as a standard in sexual selection4 ,see ,proc4 ,royal ,soc4 ,london1 ,vol4 #fg1 p4 #aei4 #ajd ,it is objected that if the long-lived marry each other1 the short-lived will also marry each other and thus the race will gain no more than it loses4 ,the reply to this is that the short-lived will marry in fewer numbers1 as some of them die prematurely2 that they will have fewer children2 and that these children in turn will tend to die young4 ,thus the short-lived strains will gradually run out1 while the long-lived strains are disseminated4 #aje ,hankins1 ,f4 ,h41 ,the ,declining ,birth-,rate1 ,journal of ,heredity1 ,v1 pp4 #cf-ci1 ,august1 #aiad4 #ajf ,smith1 ,mary ,roberts1 ,statistics of ,college and ,non-college ,women1 ,quarterly ,pubs4 of the ,american ,statistical ,assn41 ,,vii1 p4 #a ff41 #aijj4 #ajg ,statistics of ,eminent ,women1 ,pop4 ,sci4 ,mo41 ,june1 #aiac4 #ajh ,marriage of ,college ,women1 ,century ,magazine1 ,oct41 #ahie4 #aji ,blumer1 ,j4 ,o41 in ,journal of ,heredity1 ,,viii1 p4 #bag1 ,may1 #aiag4 #aaj ,the statistics of this and the following middle west universities were presented by ,paul ,popenoe in the ,journal of ,heredity1 ,,viii1 pp4 #dc-de4 #aaa ,harvard ,graduates' ,magazine1 ,,xxv1 ,no4 #ig1 pp4 #be-cd1 ,september1 #aiaf4 #aab ,popenoe1 ,paul1 ,stanford's ,marriage-,rate1 ,journal of ,heredity1 ,,viii1 p4 #agj-agc4 #aac ,banker1 ,howard ,j41 ,co-education and ,eugenics1 ,journal of ,heredity1 ,,viii1 pp4 #bjh-bad1 ,may1 #aiag4 #aad ,eugenics3 ,twelve ,university ,lectures1 p4 #i1 ,new ,york1 #aiad4 #aae ,cf4 ,gould1 ,miriam ,c41 ,the ,psychological ,influence upon ,adolescent ,girls of the ,knowledge of ,prostitution and ,venereal ,disease1 ,social ,hygiene1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #aia-bjg1 ,april1 #aiaf4 ,this interesting and important study of the reactions of #ej girls reveals that present methods or indifference to the need of reasonable methods of teaching sex-hygiene are responsible for a large percentage of harmful results1 such as conditions bordering on neurasthenia1 melancholia1 pessimism and sex antagonism4 #aaf ,gallichan1 ,walter ,m41 ,the ,great ,unmarried1 ,new ,york1 #aiaf4 #aag ,sprague1 ,robert ,j41 ,education and ,race ,suicide1 ,journal of ,heredity1 ,vol4 ,,vi1 pp4 #aeh ff41 ,april1 #aiae4 ,many of the statistics of women's colleges1 cited in the first part of this chapter1 are from ,dr4 ,sprague's paper4 #aah ,odin calculated that #af of the eminent men of ,france had at least one relative who was in some way eminent2 that #bb of the men of real talent had such relation2 and that among the geniuses the percentage rose to #dj4 ,there are thus two chances out of five that a man of genius will have an eminent relative2 for a man picked at random from the population the chance is one in several thousand4 ,see ,odin1 ,a41 ,la ,gense des ,grands ,hommes1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #dcb and ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,tableau xii1 ,lausanne1 #ahie4 #aai ,crum1 ,frederick ,s41 ,the ,decadence of the ,native ,american ,stock1 ,quarterly ,pubs4 ,am4 ,statistical ,assn41 ,,xiv1 n4 s4 #ajg1 pp4 #bae-bbc1 ,sept41 #aiad4 #abj ,kuczynski1 ,r4 ,r41 ,quarterly ,journ4 of ,economics1 ,nov4 #aija1 and ,feb41 #aijb4 #aba ,nearing1 ,scott1 ,the ,younger ,generation of ,american ,genius1 ,the ,scientific ,monthly1 ,,ii1 pp4 #dh-fa1 ,jan41 #aiaf4 ,geographical ,distribution of ,american ,genius1 ,popular ,science ,monthly1 ,,ii1 ,august1 #aiad4 #abb ,in the chapter on ,sexual ,selection it was shown that the ,normal ,school girls who stood highest in their classes married earliest4 ,this may seem a contradiction of the ,wellesley marriage rates in this table4 ,the explanation probably is that while mental superiority is itself attractive in a mate1 there are interferences built up in the collegiate life4 #abc ,banker1 ,howard ,j41 ,co-education and ,eugenics1 ,journal of ,heredity1 ,,viii1 pp4 #bjh-bad1 ,may1 #aiag4 #abd ,hill1 ,joseph ,a41 ,comparative ,fecundity of ,women of ,native and ,foreign ,parentage1 ,quarterly ,pubs4 ,amer4 ,statistical ,assn41 ,,xiii1 #ehc-fjd4 #abe ,see ,willcox1 ,w4 ,f41 ,fewer ,births and ,deaths3 ,what ,do ,they ,mean8 ,journal of ,heredity1 ,,vii1 pp4 #aai-abh1 ,march1 #aiaf4 #abf ,the data are published in full by ,paul ,popenoe in the ,journal of ,heredity1 ,october1 #aiag4 ,it must be noted that1 in spite of their small salaries1 the ,methodist clergymen marry earlier and have more children than do other men of equal education and social status1 such as the ,harvard and ,yale graduates4 ,this difference in marriage and birth-rate is doubtless to be credited in part to their inherent nature and in part to the action of religious idealism4 ,it confirms the belief of eugenists that even under present economic circumstances the birth-rate of the superior classes might be raised appreciably by a campaign of eugenic education4 #abg ,for an official statement of the attitude of the birth-rate of the ,mormon church1 see ,journal of ,heredity1 ,,vii1 pp4 #dej-dea1 ,oct41 #aiaf4 #abh ,mecklin1 ,john ,m41 ,democracy and ,race ,friction1 a ,study in ,social ,ethics1 ,new ,york1 #aiad4 p4 #adg4 #abi ,it would be more accurate to say the ,nordic race4 ,other white races have not uniformly shown this discrimination4 ,the ,mediterranean race in particular has never manifested the same amount of race feeling4 ,the ,arabs have tended to receive the ,negro almost on terms of equality1 partly on religious grounds2 it seems probable that the decadence of the ,arabs is largely due to their miscegenation4 #acj ,mecklin1 op4 cit41 p4 #adg4 #aca ,blascoer1 ,frances1 ,colored ,school ,children in ,new ,york1 ,public ,education ,association of the ,city of ,new ,york1 #aiae4 ,the preface1 from which the quotation is taken1 is by ,eleanor ,hope ,johnson1 chairman of the committee on hygiene of school children4 #acb ,mecklin1 op4 cit41 p4 #cb4 #acc ,the ,negro's contribution has perhaps been most noteworthy in music4 ,this does not necessarily show advanced evolution2 ,august ,weismann long ago pointed out that music is a primitive accomplishment4 ,for an outline of what the ,negro race has achieved1 particularly in ,america1 see the ,negro ,year ,book1 ,tuskegee ,institute1 ,ala4 #acd ,social ,problems2 ,their ,treatment1 ,past1 ,present and ,future1 p4 #h1 ,london1 #aiab4 #ace ,stetson1 ,g4 ,r41 ,memory ,tests on ,black and ,white ,children1 ,psych4 ,rev41 #ahig1 p4 #bhe4 ,see also ,mac,donald1 ,a41 in ,rep4 ,u4 ,s4 ,comm4 of ,educ41 #ahig-ih4 #acf ,mayo1 ,m4 ,j41 ,the ,mental ,capacity of the ,american ,negro1 ,arch4 of ,psych41 ,no4 #bh4 #acg ,phillips1 ,b4 ,a41 ,retardation in the ,elementary ,schools of ,philadelphia1 ,psych4 ,clinic1 ,,vi1 pp4 #gi-ij2 ,the ,binet ,tests ,applied to ,colored ,children1 ibid41 ,,viii1 pp4 #aij-aif4 #ach ,strong1 ,a4 ,c41 ,ped4 ,sem41 ,,xx1 pp4 #dhe-eae4 #aci ,pyle1 ,w4 ,h41 ,the ,mind of the ,negro ,child1 ,school and ,society1 ,i1 pp4 #ceg-cfj4 #adj ,ferguson1 ,g4 ,o41 ,jr41 ,the ,psychology of the ,negro1 ,arch4 of ,psych4 ,no4 #cf1 ,april1 #aiaf4 #ada ,though the ,negro is not assimilable1 he is here to stay2 he should therefore be helped to develop along his own lines4 ,it is desirable not to subject him to too severe a competition with whites2 yet such competition1 acting as a stimulus1 is probably responsible for part of his rapid progress during the last century1 a progress which would not have been possible in a country where ,negroes competed only with each other4 ,the best way to temper competition is by differentiation of function1 but this principle should not be carried to the extent of pocketing the ,negro in blind-alley occupations where development is impossible4 ,as mental tests show him to be less suited to literary education than are the whites1 it seems likely that agriculture offers the best field for him4 #adb ,this letter1 and much of the data regarding the legal status of ,negro-white amalgamation1 are from an article by ,albert ,ernest ,jenks in the ,am4 ,journ4 ,sociology1 ,,xxi1 #e1 pp4 #fff-fgi1 ,march1 #aiaf4 #adc ,a recent readable account of the races of the world is ,madison ,grant's ,the ,passing of the ,great ,race 7,new ,york1 #aiaf74 #add ,the ,old ,world in the ,new4 ,by ,e4 ,a4 ,ross1 professor of ,sociology in the ,university of ,wisconsin1 ,new ,york1 #aiad4 #ade ,cf4 ,stevenson1 ,robert ,louis1 ,the ,amateur ,emigrant4 #adf ,interview with ,w4 ,williams1 former commissioner of immigration1 in the ,new ,york ,herald1 ,april #ac1 #aiab4 #adg ,of the total number of inmates of insane asylums of the entire ,u4 ,s4 of ,jan4 #a1 #aiaj1 #bh4h were whites of foreign birth1 and of the persons admitted to such institutions during the year #aiaj1 #be4e were of this class4 ,of the total population of the ,united ,states in #aiaj the foreign-born whites constituted #ad4e4 ,special report on the insane1 ,census of #aiaj 7pub4 #aiad74 #adh ,the ,tide of ,immigration4 ,by ,frank ,julian ,warne1 special expert on foreign-born population1 #acth ,u4 ,s4 ,census1 ,new ,york1 #aiaf4 #adi ,essays in ,social ,justice4 ,by ,thomas ,nixon ,carver1 professor of ,political ,economy in ,harvard ,university1 ,cambridge1 #aiae4 #aej ,fairchild's and ,jenks' opinions are quoted from ,warne1 ,chapter ,,xvi4 #aea ,america and the ,orient3 ,a ,constructive ,policy1 by ,rev4 ,sidney ,l4 ,gulick1 ,methodist ,book ,concern4 ,the ,american ,japanese ,problem3 a ,study of the ,racial ,relations of the ,east and ,west1 ,new ,york1 ,scribner's4 #aeb ,oriental ,immigration4 ,by ,w4 ,c4 ,billings1 surgeon1 ,u4 ,s4 ,public ,health ,service2 ,chief ,medical ,officer1 ,immigration ,service2 ,angel ,island 7,san ,francisco71 ,calif41 ,journal of ,heredity1 ,vol4 ,,vi 7#aiae71 pp4 #dfb-dfg4 #aec ,assimilation in the ,philippines1 etc4 ,by ,albert ,ernest ,jenks1 professor of anthropology in the ,university of ,minnesota4 ,american ,journal of ,sociology1 ,vol4 ,,xix 7#aiad71 p4 #ghc4 #aed ,students of the inheritance of mental and moral traits may be interested to note that while the ordinary ,chinese mestizo in the ,philippines is a man of probity1 who has the high regard of his ,european business associates1 the ,ilocanos1 supposed descendants of pirates1 are considered rather tricky and dishonest4 #aee ,an important study of this subject was published by ,professor ,vernon ,l4 ,kellogg in ,social ,hygiene 7,new ,york71 ,dec1 #aiad4 #aef ,nasmyth1 ,george1 ,social ,progress and the ,darwinian ,theory1 p4 #adf1 ,new ,york1 #aiaf4 ,while his book is too partisan1 his ,chapter ,,iii is well worth reading by those who want to avoid the gross blunders which militarists and many biologists have made in applying ,darwinism to social progress2 it is based on the work of ,professor ,j4 ,novikov of the ,university of ,odessa4 ,see also ,headquarters ,nights by ,vernon ,kellogg4 #aeg ,jordan1 ,d4 ,s41 and ,jordan1 ,h4 ,e41 ,war's ,aftermath1 ,boston1 #aiae4 #aeh ,jordan1 ,david ,starr1 ,war and the ,breed1 p4 #afd4 ,boston1 #aiae4 ,chancellor ,jordan has long been the foremost exponent of the dysgenic significance of war1 and this book gives an excellent summary of the problem from his point of view4 #aei ,see ,woods1 ,frederick ,adams1 and ,baltzly1 ,alexander1 ,is ,war ,diminishing8 ,new ,york1 #aiaf4 #afj ,see an interesting series of five articles in ,the ,american ,hebrew1 ,jan and ,feb41 #aiag4 #afa ,journal of ,heredity1 ,,viii1 pp4 #bgg-bhc1 ,june1 #aiag4 #afb ,the ,early ,life of ,abraham ,lincoln1 ,new ,york1 #ahif4 ,for the ,emancipator's maternal line see ,nancy ,hanks1 by ,caroline ,hanks ,hitchcock4 ,new ,york1 #ahii4 #afc ,the ,life of ,pasteur by his son-in-law1 ,ren ,vallery ,radot1 should be read by every student of biology4 #afd ,hollingworth1 ,h4 ,l41 ,vocational ,psychology1 pp4 #bab-bac1 ,new ,york1 #aiaf4 #afe ,sir ,francis ,galton and ,c4 ,b4 ,davenport have called attention to the probable inheritance of artistic ability and lately ,h4 ,drinkwater 7,journal of ,genetics1 ,july1 #aiaf71 has attempted to prove that it is due to a ,mendelian unit4 ,the evidence alleged is inadequate to prove that the trait is inherited in any particular way1 but the pedigrees cited by these three investigators1 and the boyhood histories of such artists as ,benjamin ,west1 ,giotto1 ,ruskin and ,turner1 indicate that an hereditary basis exists4 #aff ,the difficulty about accepting such traits as this is that they are almost impossible of exact definition4 ,the long teaching experience of ,mrs4 ,evelyn ,fletcher-,copp 7,journal of ,heredity1 ,,vii1 #big-cje1 ,july1 #aiaf7 suggests that any child of ordinary ability can and will compose music if properly taught1 but of course in different degree4 #afg ,seashore1 ,c4 ,e41 in ,psychol4 ,monogs1 ,,xiii1 ,no4 #a1 pp4 #ba-fj1 ,dec41 #aiaj4 ,see also ,fletcher-,copp1 ubi sup4 ,mrs4 ,copp declares that the gift of positive pitch or absolute pitch1 i4 e41 the ability to name any sound that is heard1 may be acquired1 speaking very conservatively1 by #hj of normal children1 if they begin at an early age4 ,it may be that this discrepancy with ,seashore's careful laboratory tests is due to the fact that the pupils and teachers trained by ,mrs4 ,copp are a selected lot1 to start with4 #afh ,the contributions on this subject are very widely scattered through periodical literature4 ,the most important is ,karl ,pearson's memoir 7#aiad71 reviewed in the ,journal of ,heredity1 ,,vi1 pp4 #ccb-ccf1 ,july1 #aiae4 ,see also ,gini1 ,corrado1 ,the ,superiority of the ,eldest1 ,journal of ,heredity1 ,,vi1 #cg-ci1 ,jan41 #aiae4 #afi ,journal of ,heredity1 ,,viii1 pp4 #bii-cjb1 ,july1 #aiag4 #agj ,biometrika1 ,,iv1 pp4 #bcc-bhf1 ,london1 #aije4 #aga ,see1 for example1 ,journal of ,heredity1 ,,viii1 pp4 #cid-cif1 ,september1 #aiag4 ,a large body of evidence from ,european sources1 bearing on the relation between various characters of the offspring1 and the age of the parents1 was brought together by ,corrado ,gini in ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,problems in ,eugenics 7,london1 #aiac74 #agb ,davenport1 ,charles ,b41 ,the ,personality1 ,heredity and ,work of ,charles ,otis ,whitman1 ,american ,naturalist1 ,,li1 pp4 #e-cj1 ,jan41 #aiag4 #agc ,gillette1 ,john ,m41 ,constructive ,rural ,sociology1 p4 #hi1 ,new ,york1 #aiaf4 #agd ,cook1 ,o4 ,f41 ,eugenics and ,agriculture1 ,journal of ,heredity1 ,,vii1 pp4 #bdi-bed1 ,june1 #aiaf4 #age ,gillette1 ,john ,m41 ,a ,study in ,social ,dynamics3 ,a ,statistical ,determination of the ,rate of ,natural ,increase and of the ,factors ,accounting for the ,increase of ,population in the ,united ,states1 ,quarterly ,publications of the ,american ,statistical ,association1 n4 s4 #aaf1 ,vol4 ,,xv1 pp4 #cde-chj1 ,december1 #aiaf4 #agf ,the popular demand for equality of opportunity is1 if taken literally1 absurd1 in the light of the provable inequality of abilities4 ,what is wanted is more correctly defined as an equal consideration of all with an appropriate opportunity for each based on his demonstrated capacities4 #agg ,essays in ,social ,justice4 ,by ,thomas ,nixon ,carver1 ,harvard ,university ,press1 #aiae1 pp4 #afh-afi4 #agh ,answering the question ,how ,much is a ,man ,worth8 ,professor ,carver states the following axioms3 ,the value of a man equals his production minus his consumption4 ,his economic success equals his acquisition minus his consumption4 ,when his acquisition equals his production then his economic success equals his value4 ,it is the duty of the state to make each man's acquisition equal his production4 ,that is justice4 ,of course1 production is here used in a broad sense1 to mean the real social value of the services rendered1 and not merely the present exchange value of the services1 or the goods produced4 #agi ,kornhauser1 ,a4 ,w41 ,economic ,standing of ,parents and the ,intelligence of their ,children1 ,jour4 of ,educ4 ,psychology1 ,vol4 ,,ix41 pp4 #aei-afd1 ,march1 #aiah4 #ahj ,the coefficient of contingency is similar in significance to the coefficient of correlation1 with which readers have already become familiar4 ,miss ,perrin's study is in ,biometrika1 ,,iii 7#aijd71 pp4 #dfg-dfi4 #aha ,the ,social ,waste of ,unguided ,personal ,ability4 ,by ,erville ,b4 ,woods1 ,american ,journal of ,sociology1 ,,xix 7#aiac71 pp4 #ceh-cfi4 #ahb ,see also ,eugenics3 ,with ,special ,reference to ,intellect and ,character1 by ,e4 ,l4 ,thorndike4 ,in ,eugenics3 ,twelve ,university ,lectures1 pp4 #cai-cdb1 ,new ,york1 #aiad4 #ahc ,see ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,labor1 ,children's ,bureau ,publication1 ,no4 #g1 ,laws ,relating to ,mothers' ,pensions in the ,united ,states1 ,denmark and ,new ,zealand1 ,washington1 #aiad4 #ahd ,american ,journal of ,sociology1 ,vol4 ,,xx1 ,no4 #a1 pp4 #if-ajc1 ,july1 #aiad4 #ahe ,according to ,captain 7now ,lt4 ,col47 ,e4 ,b4 ,vedder of the ,medical ,corps1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a41 #ej of the ,negroes of the class applying for enlistment in the army are syphilitic4 ,he believes that the amount of infection among ,negro women is about the same4 7,therapeutic ,gazette1 ,may #ae1 #aiaf47 ,venereal disease must1 then1 play a much more important part than is generally supposed1 in cutting down the birth-rate of the ,negro race1 but it would of course be a mistake to suppose that an abnormally low birth-rate among ,negroes is always to be explained on this ground4 ,professor ,kelly ,miller points out 7,scientific ,monthly1 ,june1 #aiag7 that the birth-rate among college professors at ,howard ,university1 the leading ,negro institution for higher education1 is only #j4g of a child and that the completed families will hardly have more than two children4 ,he attributes this to 7#a7 the long period of education required of ,negro intellectuals1 7#b7 the high standard of living required of them1 and 7#c7 the unwillingness of some of them to bring children into the world1 because of the feeling that these children would suffer from race prejudice4 #ahf ,one can not draw a hard and fast distinction between reason and instinct in this way1 nor deny to animals all ability to reason4 ,we have simplified the case to make it more graphic4 ,the fact that higher animals may have mental processes corresponding to some of those we call reason in man does not impair the validity of our generalization1 for the present purpose4 #ahg ,see ,jewish ,eugenics and ,other ,essays1 ,by ,rabbi ,max ,reichler1 ,new ,york1 ,bloch ,publishing ,co41 #aiaf4 #ahh ,dublin1 ,louis ,i41 ,significance of the ,declining ,birth ,rate1 ,congressional ,record1 ,jan4 #aa1 #aiah4 #ahi ,at the request of ,alexander ,graham ,bell1 founder and director of the ,genealogical ,record ,office1 ,paul ,popenoe made an examination and report on these records in the fall of #aiaf4 ,thanks are due to ,dr4 ,bell for permitting the use in this chapter of two portions of the investigation4 #aij ,beeton1 ,mary1 and ,karl ,pearson1 ,biometrika ,i1 p4 #fj4 ,the actual correlation varies with the age and sex3 the following are the results3 ,,collateral ,,inheritance ,elder adult brother and younger adult brother 4#bbij 4#jaid ,adult brother and adult brother 4#bhec 4#jaif ,minor brother and minor brother 4#ajbf 4#jbid ,adult brother and minor brother -4#jbfb 4#jbdf ,elder adult sister and younger adult sister 4#cdfd 4#jahc ,adult sister and adult sister 4#ccbb 4#jahe ,minor sister and minor sister 4#agdh 4#jcjg ,adult sister and minor sister -4#jbfj 4#jbia ,adult brother and adult sister 4#bcai 4#jade ,minor brother and minor sister 4#adce 4#jbea ,adult brother and minor sister -4#jjfb 4#jcdi ,adult sister and minor brother -4#jbgd 4#jbch #aia ,the method used is the ingenious one devised by ,j4 ,arthur ,harris 7,biometrika ,,ix1 p4 #dfa74 ,the probable error is based on n#ajj4 #aib ,a4 ,ploetz1 ,lebensdauer der ,eltern und ,kindersterblichkeit1 ,archiv fr ,rassen-u ,gesellschafts-,biologie1 ,,vi 7#aiji71 pp4 #cc-dc4 #aic ,or it may be supposed that the environment is so good as to make a non-selective death less likely1 and therefore such deaths as do occur must more frequently be selective4 #aid ,hibbs1 ,henry ,h41 ,jr41 ,infant ,mortality3 ,its ,relation to ,social and ,industrial ,conditions1 ,new ,york1 #aiaf4 #aie ,see ,castle1 ,w4 ,e41 ,heredity1 pp4 #cj-cb1 ,new ,york1 #aiaa4 #aif ,doll1 ,e4 ,a41 ,education and ,inheritance1 ,journal of ,education1 ,feb4 #a1 #aiag4 #aig ,atwater's celebrated experiments proved that all the energy 7food7 which goes into an animal can be accounted for in the output of heat or work4 ,they are conveniently summarized in ,abderhalden's ,text-book of ,physiological ,chemistry1 p4 #cce4 #aih ,in this connection see farther ,raymond ,pearl's review of ,mr4 ,redfield's ,dynamic ,evolution 7,journal of ,heredity7 ,,vi1 p4 #bed1 and ,paul ,popenoe's review1 ,the ,parents of ,great ,men1 ,journal of ,heredity1 ,,viii1 pp4 #djj-djh4 #aii ,see ,dr4 ,hrdlicka's communication to the ,x,i,xth ,international ,congress of ,americanists1 ,dec4 #bh1 #aiae 7the proceedings were published at ,washington1 in ,march1 #aiag72 or an account in the ,journal of ,heredity1 ,,viii1 pp4 #ih ff41 ,march1 #aiag4 #bjj ,cf4 ,grant1 ,madison1 ,the ,passing of the ,great ,racep4 #gd 7,new ,york1 #aiaf73 ,one often hears the statement made that native ,americans of ,colonial ancestry are of mixed ethnic origin4 ,this is not true4 ,at the time of the ,revolutionary ,war the settlers in the #ac colonies were not only purely ,nordic1 but also purely ,teutonic1 a very large majority being ,anglo-,saxon in the most limited meaning of that term4 ,the ,new ,england settlers in particular came from those counties in ,england where the blood was almost purely ,saxon1 ,anglian1 and ,dane4 #bja ,comprising ,armenians1 ,croatians1 ,english1 ,greeks1 ,russian ,jews1 ,irish1 ,south ,italians1 ,north ,italians1 ,magyars1 ,poles1 ,rumanians and ,russians1 #ejj individuals in all4 #bjb ,english data from ,k4 ,pearson1 ,biometrika ,v1 p4 #abd4 #bjc ,pearson 7ubi supra7 measured #ab-year-old ,english school children1 and found the average cephalic index for #bbih boys to be #gh4hh1 with ,greek3 s #c4b1 for #bahh girls #gh4dc1 with ,greek3 s #c4i4 ,it is not proper to compare adolescents with adults1 however4 #bjd ,sewall ,wright has pointed out 7,journal of ,heredity1 ,,viii1 p4 #cgf7 that the white blaze in the hair can not be finally classed as dominant or recessive until the progeny of two affected persons have been seen4 ,all matings so far studied have been between an affected person and a normal4 ,it may be that the white blaze 7or piebaldism7 represents merely a heterozygous condition1 and that the trait is really a recessive4 ,the same argument applies to brachydactyly4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following pages contain advertisements of a few of the ,macmillan books on kindred subjects4 ,comparative ,free ,government ,,by ,,jesse ,,macy ,professor ,emeritus of ,political ,science ,,and ,,john ,w4 ,,gannaway ,professor of ,political ,science in ,grinnell ,college ,cloth1 #hvo1 #b4be ,the ,united ,states is made the basis for this study because it has been in fact the pioneer in securing world recognition for free government1 and it is the originator of the ,presidential type4 ,the first part of ,comparative ,free ,government is devoted to a somewhat detailed description of the organization and processes of government in the ,united ,states1 together with a brief comparative study of selected ,south ,american republics4 ,the second part is devoted chiefly to a study of the cabinet type4 ,england is given first place as the originator of the system4 ,the object of the book is to throw light upon the growth and perfection of free government in all states rather than to make a general comparison of governmental institutions4 ,it is particularly adapted to use as a text in college courses4 99 99 99 99 99 ,problems of ,child ,welfare ,by ,,george ,b4 ,,mangold1 ,ph4,d4 ,director of the ,school of ,social ,economy of ,washington ,university ,cloth1 #hvo1 #b4jj ,although this book is designed especially for use as a text in college courses on philanthropy1 it will also appeal to that growing class of men and women who in a systematic way are endeavoring to acquaint themselves with the various aspects of practical sociology4 ,much of the constructive philanthropy of to-day must deal directly with the child1 the improvement of his conditions being the direct objective4 ,those problems which affect children in an indirect way1 whether in the field of remedial or preventive philanthropy1 are not treated4 ,under each separate problem are discussed the causes and conditions1 the machinery of social betterment1 and the plans and programme of improvement4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,social ,,science ,,text-,,books ,,edited ,,by ,,richard ,t4 ,,ely 99 99 99 99 99 ,history of ,economic ,thought ,a ,critical ,account of the ,origin and ,development of the ,economic ,theories of the ,leading ,thinkers and the ,leading ,nations4 ,by ,,lewis ,h4 ,,haney ,cloth1 xvii #efg pp41 #hvo1 #b4jj ,dr4 ,haney's work is both complete and exhaustive without being discursive4 ,we shall look far before finding anything of its kind so satisfying4--,the ,argonaut4 ,this valuable precis of the world's economic wisdom serves not only as a trustworthy text-book1 but also as an authoritative denotement of old economic landmarks4 ,in the light it casts on bygone commercial and political conditions1 the rapid progress and impulsive changes in present-day methods of trade and legislation become clearly outlined and intelligible4--,american1 ,philadelphia4 ,the present volume is of suitable compass1 and the treatment is such as to make it satisfactory as a text-book4--,the ,nation4 ,the book should be of value to ,english readers and students of economics1 for unlike ,french and ,german economic writers1 who have produced several histories of economic thought1 only one has been written previously in ,english1 and that is now out of date4 ,dr4 ,haney has made a distinct contribution to economic literature and one reflecting credit on ,american scholarship4--,the ,boston ,transcript4 99 99 99 99 99 ,outlines of ,sociology ,,by ,,frank ,w4 ,,blackmar ,professor of ,sociology in the ,university of ,kansas ,,and ,,john ,l4 ,,gillin ,associate ,professor of ,sociology in the ,university of ,wisconsin #ehf pp41 crown octavo1 #b4be ,in this volume not only the theoretical phases of sociology are treated with some degree of completeness1 but the practical bearings of the science are also brought out in a series of chapters dealing with social pathology and methods of social investigation4 ,this survey of the whole field1 including both the theoretical and the so-called practical1 finds its justification in the unity it gives to sociology in the mind of the beginner4 ,it prevents that vicious one-sidedness sometimes resulting from a study of one phase of a subject before a general survey has been made4 ,with this purpose in mind the subject-matter has been grouped under the following headings3 ,part ,i4 ,the ,nature and ,import of ,sociology2 ,part ,,ii4 ,social ,evolution2 ,part ,,iii4 ,socialization and ,social ,control2 ,part ,,iv4 ,social ,ideals2 ,part ,v4 ,social ,pathology2 ,part ,,vi4 ,methods of ,social ,investigation2 ,part ,,vii4 ,the ,history of ,sociology4 ,it has been the endeavor of the authors to bring together in this book the results of the most recent discussions in the various fields of sociology1 to present the accepted conclusions of sociologists respecting the origin1 nature1 structure1 functions and abnormal phenomena of society without controversy1 and in a simple1 direct way suited to the ordinary college undergraduate4 99 99 99 99 99 ,social ,problems1 ,a ,study of ,everyday ,social ,conditions ,by ,,ezra ,,thayer ,,towne1 ,ph4,d4 ,professor of ,economics and ,political ,science1 ,carleton ,college #a4jj ,a carefully written record and analysis of the growth in modern society of the attempt to deal intelligently with social problems1 such1 for instance1 as immigration1 unemployment1 divorce1 liquor1 conservation1 and so on4 ,dr4 ,towne has carried out this task with excellent judgment and intelligence4 ,a valuable book for any library4--,outlook4 ,a teacher would find this book admirable for private study2 a solitary student with its aid might go far toward mastering these subjects4--,boston ,transcript4 ,professor ,towne of ,carleton ,college has rendered good public service in furnishing the best introduction to the study of present day social conditions which has yet appeared for the use of high school and undergraduate college students4 ,up to date1 well proportioned1 progressive in attitude and spirit1 yet conservatively sound in judgment1 it can scarcely fail to fulfil its purpose to give to all who study it a 'better understanding of our own times' and proof of 'the possibility of wise1 sane1 constructive social action4'--,survey4 ,prof4 ,towne aided by a lucid style and the ability to make statistics interesting has stripped the subjects he deals with to their barest necessities and has packed into the book the kind of information that will stimulate to further study and research those who are at all interested in strengthening civilization where evil conditions sap its vitality4--,philadelphia ,press4 99 99 99 99 99 ,outlines of ,economics ,by ,,richard ,t4 ,,ely1 ,ph4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,professor of ,political ,economy at the ,university of ,wisconsin2 ,,thomas ,s4 ,,adams1 ,ph4,d41 ,professor of ,political ,economy at ,yale ,university2 ,,max ,o4 ,,lorenz1 ,associate ,statistician of the ,interstate ,commerce ,commission1 and ,professor ,a4 ,a4 ,,young of ,cornell4 ,third ,revised ,edition1 ,cloth1 #hvo1 #b4be ,it is a sign of the time when such a standard and authoritative book as this requires such revision for its third edition that it was not possible to use the old type4 ,the chapters on transportation1 insurance1 socialism1 and agriculture needed expansion to include legislation4 ,the ,federal ,reserve system demanded a chapter to itself1 and so did labor legislation4 ,the statistics and references have been brought down to date1 and the book in general is more useful to the teacher1 and more attractive to the reader4 ,the authors are both open-minded and conservative1 not condemning new ideas for their newness nor yet accepting them for the same reason and without challenge4 ,the book is a useful antidote to the economic poisons which command attention through their promises of the millennium1 which they are less able to deliver1 nevertheless1 than writers like these whose imaginations and benevolence are corrected by their knowledge4--,new ,york ,times4 ,so far as the practical side of the subjects with which this volume deals is concerned1 everything has been done by the authors to keep their work abreast of the times and the latest developments so that the readers and students may find there the important things of contemporary record as well as the highlights of economic history4 ,the theoretical side of economics has not been neglected in this general revision and that chapter has been simplified and made more easily comprehensible to those first entering the study of this subject4 ,this volume maintains the same high standard it held at the time it was first published4 ,it is one of the best books on this subject4--,philadelphia ,press4 ,anyone who got his foundations in political economy out of the text-books of the last generation cannot fail to be struck with the enormous range of subjects covered in such a book as this1 compared with what was then included2 and there is always some danger that in the mind of the student this wealth of material1 important as it is1 may yet carry with it the drawback of more or less submerging the central truths4 ,in ,professor ,ely's book1 the distribution of emphasis1 as well as of space1 is such as to reduce this danger4--,the ,nation4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,publishers #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,new ,york ,printed in the ,united ,states of ,america