,illustration3 ,,moscow4 ,,russia ,as ,seen and ,described by ,famous ,writers ,edited and ,translated by ,,esther ,,singleton ,author of ,turrets1 ,towers and ,temples1 ,great ,pictures1 and ,a ,guide to the ,opera1 and translator of ,the ,music ,dramas of ,richard ,wagner4 ,,with ,,numerous ,,illustrations ,new ,york ,dodd1 ,mead and ,company #aiji ,,preface ,this is intended to be a companion volume to ,japan1 and therefore follows the same general plan and arrangement4 ,it aims to present in small compass a somewhat comprehensive view of the great ,muscovite power4 ,after a short description of the country and race1 we pass to a brief review of the history and religion including ritual and ceremonial observances of the ,greek ,church4 ,next come descriptions of regions1 cities and architectural marvels2 and then follow articles on the various manners and customs of rural and town life4 ,the arts of the nation are treated comprehensively2 and a chapter of the latest statistics concludes the rapid survey4 ,the material is all selected from the writings of those who speak with authority on the subjects with which they deal4 ,the ,russian ,empire is so vast that it would be impossible to give detailed descriptions of all its parts in a work of this size3 therefore ,i have been forced to be content with more general descriptions of provinces with an occasional addition of a typical city4 ,e4 ,s4 ,new ,york1 ,april #ba1 #aijd4 ,,contents ,,part ,i ,,the ,,country ,,and ,,race ,the ,russian ,empire ,prince ,kropotkine4 ,siberia ,jean ,jacques ,elisee ,reclus4 ,the ,russian ,races ,w4 ,r4 ,morfill4 ,,part ,,ii ,,history ,,and ,,religion ,the ,history of ,russia ,w4 ,r4 ,morfill4 ,church ,service ,alfred ,maskell4 ,the ,creeds of ,russia ,ernest ,w4 ,lowry4 ,,part ,,iii ,,descriptions ,st4 ,petersburg ,j4 ,beavington ,atkinson4 ,finland ,harry ,de ,windt4 ,lapland ,alexander ,platonovich ,engelhardt4 ,moscow 7,the ,kremlin and its treasuries--,the ,ancient ,regalia--,the ,romanoff ,house7 ,alfred ,maskell4 ,vassili-,blagennoi 7,st4 ,basil the ,blessed7 ,theophile ,gautier4 ,poland ,thomas ,michell4 ,kief1 the ,city of ,pilgrimage ,j4 ,beavington ,atkinson4 ,nijni-,novgorod ,antonio ,gallenga4 ,the ,volga ,basin4 7,the ,great ,river--,kasan--,tsaritzin--,astrakhan7 ,antonio ,gallenga4 ,odessa ,antonio ,gallenga4 ,the ,don ,cossacks ,thomas ,michell4 ,in the ,caucasus ,j4 ,buchan ,teller4 ,khiva ,fred ,burnaby4 ,the ,trans-,siberian ,railway ,william ,durban4 ,,part ,,iv ,,manners ,,and ,,customs ,high ,life in ,russia ,the ,countess of ,galloway4 ,rural ,life in ,russia ,lady ,verney ,food and ,drink ,h4 ,sutherland ,edwards4 ,carnival-,time and ,easter ,a4 ,nicol ,simpson4 ,russian ,tea and ,tea-,houses ,h4 ,sutherland ,edwards4 ,how ,russia ,amuses ,itself ,fred ,whishaw4 ,the ,kirghiz and their ,horses ,fred ,burnaby4 ,winter in ,moscow ,h4 ,sutherland ,edwards4 ,a ,journey by ,sleigh ,fred ,burnaby4 ,,part ,v ,,art ,,and ,,literature ,russian ,architecture ,eugene ,emmanuel ,viollet-le-,duc4 ,sculpture and ,painting ,philippe ,berthelot4 ,russian ,music ,a4 ,e4 ,keeton4 ,russian ,literature ,w4 ,r4 ,morfill4 ,,part ,,vi ,,statistics ,present ,conditions ,e4 ,s4 ,,illustrations ,,moscow ,,archangel ,,revel ,,siberian ,,natives ,,samojedes ,,of ,,nova ,,zembla ,,room ,,of ,,the ,,tsar ,,michailowitch1 ,,moscow ,,church ,,of ,,the ,,assumption ,a ,,religious ,,procession1 ,,kola ,,shrine ,,in ,,the ,,convent ,,solovetskii1 ,,kola ,,st4 ,,petersburg ,,the ,,hermitage1 ,,st4 ,,petersburg ,,helsingfors1 ,,finland ,,reindeer ,,travelling ,,moscow ,,the ,,kremlin1 ,,moscow ,,vassili--,,blagennoi 7,,st4 ,,basil ,,the ,,blessed71 ,,moscow ,,nowo ,,zjazd ,,street1 ,,warsaw ,,hotel ,,deville1 ,,warsaw ,,the ,,dnieper ,,at ,,kief ,,la ,,lavra1 ,,kief ,,nijni--,,novgorod 7,,bridge ,,of ,,the ,,fair7 ,,from ,,the ,,ramparts ,,of ,,the ,,kremlin1 ,,nijni--,,novgorod ,,place ,,turemnaja1 ,,odessa ,,sebastopol ,,kharkoff ,,tiflis ,,the ,,winter ,,palace1 ,,st4 ,,petersburg ,,russian ,,farm ,,scene ,,the ,,tsar',s ,,dining-,,room1 ,,moscow ,,st4 ,,isaac',s ,,cathedral1 ,,st4 ,,petersburg ,,st4 ,,anne ,,restaurant1 ,,wiborg ,,the ,,red ,,square1 ,,moscow ,,church ,,of ,,the ,,redeemer1 ,,moscow ,,statue ,,of ,,peter ,,the ,,great ,,and ,,the ,,admiralty ,,palace1 ,,st4 ,,petersburg ,,the ,,theatre1 ,,odessa ,,the ,,library1 ,,odessa ,,the ,,tsar ,,nicholas ,,the ,,tsarina ,,kalkstrasse ,,and ,,promenade1 ,,riga ,,the ,,russian ,,empire ,,prince ,,kropotkine ,the ,russian ,empire is a very extensive territory in eastern ,europe and northern ,asia1 with an area exceeding #h1ejj1jjj square miles1 or one-sixth of the land surface of the globe 7one twenty-third of its whole superficies74 ,it is1 however1 but thinly peopled on the average1 including only one-fourteenth of the inhabitants of the earth4 ,it is almost entirely confined to the cold and temperate zones4 ,in ,nova ,zembla 7,novaya ,zemlya7 and the ,taimir peninsula1 it projects within the ,arctic ,circle as far as #gg deg4 #b' and #gg deg4 #dj' ,n4 latitude2 while its southern extremities reach #ch deg4 #ej' in ,armenia1 about #ce deg4 on the ,afghan frontier1 and #db deg4 #cj' on the coasts of the ,pacific4 ,to the ,west it advances as far as #bj deg4 #dj' ,e4 longitude in ,lapland1 #ah deg4 #cb' in ,poland1 and #bi deg4 #db' on the ,black ,sea2 and its eastern limit--,east ,cape in the ,bering ,strait--extends to #aia deg4 ,e4 longitude4 ,the ,arctic ,ocean--comprising the ,white1 ,barents1 and ,kara ,seas--and the northern ,pacific1 that is the ,seas of ,bering1 ,okhotsk1 and ,japan1 bound it on the north and east4 ,the ,baltic1 with its two deep indentations1 the ,gulfs of ,bothnia and ,finland1 limits it on the north-west2 and two sinuous lines of frontier separate it respectively from ,sweden and ,norway on the north-west1 and from ,prussia1 ,austria and ,roumania on the west4 ,the southern frontier is still unsettled4 ,in ,asia beyond the ,caspian1 the southern boundary of the empire remains vague2 the advance into the ,turcoman ,steppes and ,afghan ,turkestan1 and on the ,pamir plateau is still in progress4 ,bokhara and ,khiva1 though represented as vassal khanates1 are in reality mere dependencies of ,russia4 ,an approximately settled frontier-line begins only farther east1 where the ,russian and ,chinese empires meet on the borders of eastern ,turkestan1 ,mongolia and ,manchuria4 ,russia has no oceanic possessions1 and has abandoned those she owned in the last century2 her islands are mere appendages of the mainland to which they belong4 ,such are the ,aland archipelago1 ,hochland1 ,tuetters1 ,dagoe and ,osel in the ,baltic ,sea2 ,nova ,zembla1 with ,kolgueff and ,vaigatch1 in the ,barents ,sea2 the ,solovetsky ,islands in the ,white ,sea2 the ,new ,siberian archipelago and the small group of the ,medvyezhii ,islands off the ,siberian coast2 the ,commandor ,islands off ,kamchatka2 the ,shantar ,islands and ,saghalin in the ,sea of ,okhotsk4 ,the ,aleutian archipelago was sold to the ,united ,states in #ahfg1 together with ,alaska1 and in #ahgd the ,kurile ,islands were ceded to ,japan4 ,,illustration3 ,,archangel4 ,a vast variety of physical features is obviously to be expected in a territory like this1 which comprises on the one side the cotton and silk regions of ,turkestan and ,trans-caucasia1 and on the other the moss and lichen-clothed ,arctic tundras and the ,verkhoyansk ,siberian pole of cold--the dry ,transcaspian deserts and the regions watered by the monsoons on the coasts of the ,sea of ,japan4 ,still1 if the border regions1 that is1 two narrow belts in the north and south1 be left out of account1 a striking uniformity of physical feature prevails4 ,high plateaus1 like those of ,pamir 7the ,roof of the ,world7 or of ,armenia1 and high mountain chains like the snow-clad summits of the ,caucasus1 the ,alay1 the ,thian-,shan1 the ,sayan1 are met with only on the outskirts of the empire4 ,viewed broadly by the physical geographer1 it appears as occupying the territories to the north-west of that great plateau-belt of the old continent--the backbone of ,asia--which spreads with decreasing height and width from the high table-land of ,tibet and ,pamir to the lower plateaus of ,mongolia1 and thence north-eastwards through the ,vitim region to the furthest extremity of ,asia4 ,it may be said to consist of the immense plains and flat-lands which extend between the plateau-belt and the ,arctic ,ocean1 including all the series of parallel chains and hilly spurs which skirt the plateau-belt on the north-west4 ,it extends over the plateau itself1 and crosses it beyond ,lake ,baikal only4 ,a broad belt of hilly tracts--in every respect ,alpine in character1 and displaying the same variety of climate and organic life as ,alpine tracts usually do--skirts the plateau-belt throughout its length on the north and north-west1 forming an intermediate region between the plateaus and the plains4 ,the ,caucasus1 the ,elburz1 the ,kopetdagh1 and ,paropamisus1 the intricate and imperfectly known network of mountains west of the ,pamir1 the ,thian-,shan and ,ala-tau mountain regions1 and farther north-east the ,altai1 the still unnamed complex of ,minusinsk mountains1 the intricate mountain-chains of ,sayan1 with those of the ,olekma1 ,vitim1 and ,aldan1 all of which are ranged en echelon1--the former from north-west to south-east1 and the others from south-west to north-east--all these belong to one immense ,alpine belt bordering that of the plateaus4 ,these have long been known to ,russian colonists1 who1 seeking to escape religious persecutions and exactions by the state1 early penetrated into and rapidly pushed their small settlements up the better valleys of these tracts1 and continued to spread everywhere as long as they found no obstacles in the shape of a former population or in unfavourable climatic conditions4 ,as for the flat-lands which extend from the ,alpine hill-foots to the shores of the ,arctic ,ocean1 and assume the character either of dry deserts in the ,aral-,caspian depression1 or of low table-lands in central ,russia and eastern ,siberia1 of lake-regions in north-west ,russia and ,finland1 or of marshy prairies in western ,siberia1 and of tundras in the north1--their monotonous surfaces are diversified by only a few1 and these for the most part low1 hilly tracts4 ,as to the picturesque ,bureya mountains on the ,amur1 the forest-clothed ,sikhota-alin on the ,pacific1 and the volcanic chains of ,kamchatka1 they belong to quite another orographical world2 they are the border-ridges of the terraces by which the great plateau-belt descends to the depths of the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,it is owing to these leading orographical features--divined by ,carl ,ritter1 but only within the present day revealed by geographical research--that so many of the great rivers of the old continent are comprised within the limits of the ,russian empire4 ,taking rise on the plateau-belt1 or in its ,alpine outskirts1 they flow first1 like the upper ,rhone and ,rhine1 along high longitudinal valleys formerly filled up with great lakes2 next they find their way through the rocky walls2 and finally they enter the lowlands1 where they become navigable1 and1 describing great curves to avoid here and there the minor plateaus and hilly tracts1 they bring into water-communication with one another places thousands of miles apart4 ,the double river-systems of the ,volga and ,kama1 the ,obi and ,irtish1 the ,angara and ,yenisei1 the ,lena and ,vitim on the ,arctic slope1 the ,amur and ,sungari on the ,pacific slope1 are instances4 ,they were the true channels of ,russian colonization4 ,a broad depression--the ,aral-,caspian desert--has arisen where the plateau-belt has reached its greatest height and suddenly changes its direction from a north-western into a north-eastern one2 this desert is now filled only to a small extent by the salt waters of the ,caspian1 ,aral and ,balkash inland seas2 but it bears unmistakable traces of having been during ,post-,pliocene times an immense inland basin4 ,there the ,volga1 the ,ural1 the ,sir ,daria1 and the ,oxus discharge their waters without reaching the ocean1 but continue to bring life to the rapidly drying ,transcaspian ,steppes1 or connect by their river network1 as the ,volga does1 the most remote parts of ,european ,russia4 ,the above-described features of the physical geography of the empire explain the relative uniformity of this wide territory1 in conjunction with the variety of physical features on the outskirts4 ,they explain also the rapidity of the expansion of ,sclavonic colonization over these thinly-peopled regions2 and they also throw light upon the internal cohesion of the empire1 which cannot fail to strike the traveller as he crosses this immense territory1 and finds everywhere the same dominating race1 the same features of life4 ,in fact1 as their advance from the basins of the ,volkhoff and ,dnieper to the foot of the ,altai and ,sayan mountains1 that is1 along nearly a quarter of the earth's circumference1 the ,russian colonizers could always find the same physical conditions1 the same forest and prairies as they had left at home1 the same facilities for agriculture1 only modified somewhat by minor topographical features4 ,new conditions of climate and soil1 and consequently new cultures and civilizations1 the ,russians met with1 in their expansion towards the south and east1 only beyond the ,caucasus in the ,aral-,caspian region1 and in the basin of the ,usuri on the ,pacific coast4 ,favoured by these conditions1 the ,russians not only conquered northern ,asia--they colonized it4 ,the ,russian ,empire falls into two great subdivisions1 the ,european and the ,asiatic1 the latter of which1 representing an aggregate of nearly #f1ejj1jjj square miles1 with a population of only sixteen million inhabitants may be considered as held by colonies4 ,the ,european dominions comprise ,european ,russia1 ,finland1 which is1 in fact1 a separate nationality treated to some extent as an allied state1 and ,poland1 whose very name has been erased from official documents1 but which nevertheless continues to pursue its own development4 ,the ,asiatic dominions comprise the following great subdivisions3--,caucasia1 under a separate governor-general2 the ,transcaspian region1 which is under the governor-general of ,caucasus2 the ,kirghiz ,steppes2 ,turkestan under separate governors-general1 ,western ,siberia and ,eastern ,siberia2 and the ,amur region1 which last comprises also the ,pacific coast region and ,kamchatka4 ,climate of ,russia in ,europe4--,notwithstanding the fact that ,russia extends from north to south through twenty-six degrees of latitude1 the climate of its different portions1 apart from the ,crimea and the ,caucasus1 presents a striking uniformity4 ,the aerial currents--cyclones1 anti-cyclones and dry south-east winds--extend over wide surfaces and cross the flat plains freely4 ,everywhere we find a cold winter and a hot summer1 both varying in their duration1 but differing little in the extremes of temperature recorded4 ,throughout ,russia the winter is of long continuance4 ,the last days of frost are experienced for the most part in ,april1 but also in ,may to the north of fifty-five degrees4 ,the spring is exceptionally beautiful in central ,russia2 late as it usually is1 it sets in with vigour and develops with a rapidity which gives to this season in ,russia a special charm1 unknown in warmer climates2 and the rapid melting of snow at the same time raises the rivers1 and renders a great many minor streams navigable for a few weeks4 ,but a return of cold weather1 injurious to vegetation1 is observed throughout central and eastern ,russia between ,may #ah and #bd1 so that it is only in ,june that warm weather sets in definitely1 reaching its maximum in the first half of ,july 7or of ,august on the ,black ,sea coast74 ,the summer is much warmer than might be supposed2 in south-eastern ,russia it is much warmer than in the corresponding latitudes of ,france1 and really hot weather is experienced everywhere4 ,it does not1 however1 prevail for long1 and in the first half of ,september the first frosts begin to be experienced on the middle ,urals2 they reach western and southern ,russia in the first days of ,october1 and are felt on the ,caucasus about the middle of ,november4 ,the temperature descends so rapidly that a month later1 about ,october #aj on the middle ,urals and ,november #ae throughout ,russia the thermometer ceases to rise above the freezing-point4 ,the rivers rapidly freeze2 towards ,november #bj all the streams of the ,white ,sea basin are covered with ice1 and so remain for an average of #afg days2 those of the ,baltic1 ,black ,sea1 and ,caspian basins freeze later1 but about ,december #bj nearly all the rivers of the country are highways for sledges4 ,the ,volga remains frozen for a period varying between #aej days in the north and #ij days at ,astrakhan1 the ,don for #ajj to #aaj days1 and the ,dneiper for #hc to #abb days4 ,on the ,dwina ice prevents navigation for #abe days and even the ,vistula at ,warsaw remains frozen for #gg days4 ,the lowest temperatures are experienced in ,january1 in which month the average is as low as #bj deg4 to #e deg4 ,fahr4 throughout ,russia2 in the west only does it rise above #bb deg44 ,the flora and fauna of ,russia4--,the flora of ,russia1 which represents an intermediate link between those of ,germany and ,siberia1 is strikingly uniform over a very large area4 ,though not poor at any given place1 it appears so if the space occupied by ,russia be taken into account1 only #c1cjj species of phanerogams and ferns being known4 ,four great regions may be distinguished3--the ,arctic1 the ,forest1 the ,steppe1 and the ,circum-,mediterranean4 ,the ,arctic ,region comprises the tundras of the ,arctic littoral beyond the northern limit of forests1 which last closely follows the coast-line with bends towards the north in the river valleys 7#gj deg4 ,n4 lat4 in ,finland1 on the ,arctic ,circle about ,archangel1 #fh deg4 ,n4 on the ,urals1 #ga deg4 on ,west ,siberia74 ,the shortness of summer1 the deficiency of drainage and the thickness of the layer of soil which is frozen through in winter are the elements which go to the making of the characteristic features of the tundras4 ,their flora is far nearer those of northern ,siberia and ,north ,america than that of central ,europe4 ,mosses and lichens cover them1 as also the birch1 the dwarf willow1 and a variety of shrubs2 but where the soil is drier1 and humus has been able to accumulate1 a variety of herbaceous flowering plants1 some of which are familiar also in western ,europe1 make their appearance4 ,the ,forest ,region of the ,russian botanists occupies the greater part of the country1 from the ,arctic tundras to the ,steppes1 and it maintains over this immense surface a remarkable uniformity of character4 ,viewed as a whole1 the flora of the forest region must be regarded as ,european-,siberian2 and though certain species disappear towards the east1 while new ones make their appearance1 it maintains1 on the whole1 the same characters throughout from ,poland to ,kamchatka4 ,thus the beech1 a characteristic tree of western ,europe1 is unable to face the continental climate of ,russia1 and does not penetrate beyond ,poland and the south-western provinces1 reappearing again in the ,crimea4 ,the silver fir does not extend over ,russia1 and the oak does not cross the ,urals4 ,on the other hand1 several ,asiatic species 7,siberian pine1 larch1 cedar7 grow freely in the north-east1 while several shrubs and herbaceous plants1 originally from the ,asiatic ,steppes1 have spread into the south-east4 ,but all these do not greatly alter the general character of the vegetation4 ,the ,region of the ,steppes1 which covers all ,southern ,russia1 may be subdivided into two zones--an intermediate zone and that of the ,steppes proper4 ,the ,ante-,steppe of the preceding region and the intermediate zone of the ,steppes include those tracts where the ,west-,european climate struggles with the ,asiatic1 and where a struggle is being carried on between the forest and the ,steppe4 ,the ,steppes proper are very fertile elevated plains1 slightly undulated1 and intersected by numerous ravines which are dry in summer4 ,the undulations are scarcely apparent to the eye as it takes in a wide prospect under a blazing sun and with a deep-blue sky overhead4 ,not a tree is to be seen1 the few woods and thickets being hidden in the depressions and deep valleys of the rivers4 ,on the thick sheet of black earth by which the ,steppe is covered a luxuriant vegetation develops in spring2 after the old grass has been burned a bright green covers immense stretches1 but this rapidly disappears under the burning rays of the sun and the hot easterly winds4 ,the colouring of the ,steppe changes as if by magic1 and only the silvery plumes of the kovyl 7,stipa pennata7 wave under the wind1 giving the ,steppe the aspect of a bright1 yellow sea4 ,for days together the traveller sees no other vegetation2 even this1 however1 disappears as he nears the regions recently left dry from the ,caspian1 where salted clays covered with a few ,salsolaceoe1 or mere sands1 take the place of the black earth4 ,here begins the ,aral-,caspian desert4 ,the ,steppe1 however1 is not so devoid of trees as at first sight appears4 ,innumerable clusters of wild cherries1 wild apricots1 and other deep-rooted shrubs grow in the depressions of the surface1 and on the slopes of the ravines1 giving the ,steppe that charm which manifests itself in popular poetry4 ,unfortunately1 the spread of cultivation is fatal to these oases 7they are often called islands by the inhabitants72 the axe and the plough ruthlessly destroy them4 ,the vegetation of the poimy and zaimischas in the marshy bottoms of the ravines1 and in the valleys of streams and rivers1 is totally different4 ,the moist soil gives free development to thickets of various willows1 bordered with dense walls of worm-wood and needle-bearing ,composita1 and interspersed with rich but not extensive prairies harbouring a great variety of herbaceous plants2 while in the deltas of the ,black ,sea rivers impenetrable masses of rush shelter a forest fauna4 ,but cultivation rapidly changes the physiognomy of the ,steppe4 ,the prairies are superseded by wheat-fields1 and flocks of sheep destroy the true steppe-grass 7,stipa-pennata71 which retires farther east4 ,the ,circum-,mediterranean ,region is represented by a narrow strip of land on the south coast of the ,crimea1 where a climate similar to that of the ,mediterranean coast has permitted the development of a flora closely resembling that of the valley of the ,arno4 ,illustration3 ,,revel ,the fauna of ,european ,russia does not very materially differ from that of western ,europe4 ,in the forests not many animals which have disappeared from western ,europe have held their ground2 while in the ,urals only a few--now ,siberian1 but formerly also ,european--are met with4 ,on the whole1 ,russia belongs to the same zoo-geographical region as central ,europe and northern ,asia1 the same fauna extending in ,siberia as far as the ,yenisei and ,lena4 ,in south-eastern ,russia1 however1 towards the ,caspian1 we find a notable admixture of ,asiatic species1 the deserts of that part of ,russia belonging in reality rather to the ,aral-,caspian depression than to ,europe4 ,for the zoo-geographer only three separate sub-regions appear on the ,east-,european plains--the tundras1 including the ,arctic islands1 the forest region1 especially the coniferous part of it1 and the ,ante-,steppe and ,steppes of the black-earth region4 ,the ,ural mountains might be distinguished as a fourth sub-region1 while the south-coast of the ,crimea and ,caucasus1 as well as the ,caspian deserts1 have their own individuality4 ,as for the adjoining seas1 the fauna of the ,arctic ,ocean off the ,norwegian coast corresponds1 in its western parts at least1 to that of the ,north ,atlantic ,gulf ,stream4 ,the ,white ,sea and the ,arctic ,ocean to the east of ,svyatoi ,nos belong to a separate zoological region connected with1 and hardly separable from1 that part of the ,arctic ,ocean which extends along the ,siberian coast as far as to about the ,lena4 ,the ,black ,sea1 of which the fauna was formerly little known but now appears to be very rich1 belongs to the ,mediterranean region1 slightly modified1 while the ,caspian partakes of the characteristic fauna inhabiting the lakes and seas of the ,aral-,caspian depression4 ,in the region of the tundras life has to contend with such unfavourable conditions that it cannot be abundant4 ,still the reindeer frequents it for its lichens1 and on the drier slopes of the moraine deposits four species of lemming1 hunted by the ,canis lagopus1 find quarters4 ,two species of the white partridge1 the lark1 one ,plectrophanes1 two or three species of ,sylvia1 one ,phylloscopus1 and the ,motacilla must be added4 ,numberless aquatic birds1 however1 visit it for breeding purposes4 ,ducks1 divers1 geese1 gulls1 all the ,russian species of snipes and sandpipers1 etc41 cover the marshes of the tundras1 or the crags of the ,lapland coast4 ,the forest region1 and especially its coniferous portion1 though it has lost some of its representatives within historic times1 is still rich4 ,the reindeer1 rapidly disappearing1 is now met with only in ,olonetz and ,vologda2 the ,cervus pygargus is found everywhere1 and reaches ,novgorod4 ,the weasel1 the fox and the hare are exceedingly common1 as also the wolf and the bear in the north2 but the glutton1 the lynx1 and even the elk are rapidly disappearing4 ,the wild boar is confined to the basin of the ,dwina1 and the ,bison eropea to the ,bielovyezha forests4 ,the sable has quite disappeared1 being found only on the ,urals2 the beaver is found at a few places in ,minsk1 and the otter is very rare4 ,on the other hand1 the hare and also the grey partridge1 the hedgehog1 the quail1 the lark1 the rook1 and the stork find their way into the coniferous region as the forests are cleared4 ,the avifauna is very rich2 it includes all the forest and garden birds which are known in western ,europe1 as well as a very great variety of aquatic birds4 ,hunting and shooting give occupation to a great number of persons4 ,the reptiles are few4 ,as for fishes1 all those of western ,europe1 except the carp1 are met with in the lakes and rivers in immense quantities1 the characteristic feature of the region being its wealth in ,coregoni and in ,salmonidoe generally4 ,in the ,ante-,steppe the forest species proper1 such as ,pteromys volans and ,tamias striatus1 disappear1 but the common squirrel1 the weasel1 and the bear are still met with in the forests4 ,the hare is increasing rapidly1 as well as the fox4 ,the avifauna1 of course1 becomes poorer2 nevertheless the woods of the ,steppe1 and still more the forests of the ,ante-,steppe1 give refuge to many birds1 even to the hazel-hen1 the woodcock and the black-grouse4 ,the fauna of the thickets at the bottom of the river-valleys is decidedly1 rich and includes aquatic birds4 ,the destruction of the forests and the advance of wheat into the prairies are rapidly impoverishing the ,steppe fauna4 ,the various species of rapacious animals are disappearing1 together with the colonies of marmots2 the insectivores are also becoming scarce in consequence of the destruction of insects1 while vermin1 such as the suslik 7,spermophilus71 become a real plague1 as also the destructive insects which have been a scourge to agriculture during recent years4 ,the absence of ,coregoni is a characteristic feature of the fish-fauna of the ,steppes2 the carp1 on the contrary1 reappears1 and the rivers are rich in sturgeons4 ,on the ,volga below ,nijni ,novgorod the sturgeon1 and others of the same family1 as also a very great variety of ganoids and ,teleostei1 appear in such quantities that they give occupation to nearly #ajj1jjj people4 ,the mouths of the ,caspian rivers are especially celebrated for their wealth of fish4 ,,siberia ,,jean ,,jacques ,,elisee ,,reclus ,siberia is emphatically the ,land of the ,north4 ,its name has by some etymologists been identified with ,severia1 a term formerly applied to various northern regions of ,european ,russia4 ,the city of ,sibir1 which has given its name to the whole of ,north ,asia1 was so called only by the ,russians1 its native name being ,isker4 ,the ,cossacks1 coming from the south and centre of ,russia1 may have naturally regarded as pre-eminently the ,northern ,land those cold regions of the ,ob basin lying beyond the snowy mountains which form the girdle of the world4 ,long before the conquest of ,sibir by the ,cossacks1 this region was known to the ,arab traders and missionaries4 ,the ,tatars of ,sibir were ,mahommedans and this town was the centre of the great fur trade4 ,the ,russians themselves had constant relations with the inhabitants of the ,asiatic slopes of the ,urals1 and the ,novgorodians were acquainted with the regions stretching beyond the portages4 ,early in the ,sixteenth ,century the ,moscow ,tsars1 heirs of the ,novgorod power1 called themselves lords of ,obdoria and ,kondina2 that is of all the ,lower ,ob basin between the ,konda and the ,irtish confluence1 and the station of ,obdorsk1 under the ,arctic ,circle4 ,their possessions--that is1 the hunting grounds visited by the ,russian agents of the ,strogonov family--consequently skirted the great river for a distance of #fjj miles4 ,but the ,slav power was destined soon to be consolidated by conquest1 and such is the respect inspired by force that the successful expedition of a ,cossack brigand1 on whose head a price had been set1 was supposed to have led to the discovery of ,siberia1 although really preceded by many visits of a peaceful character4 ,even still the conquering ,yermak is often regarded as a sort of explorer of the lands beyond the ,urals4 ,but he merely establishes himself as a master where the ,strogonov traders had been received as guests4 ,maps of the ,ob and of the ,ostiak country had already been published by ,sebastian ,munster and by ,herberstein a generation before the ,cossacks entered ,sibir4 ,the very name of this town is marked on ,munster's map4 ,in #aegi1 ,yermak began the second plundering expedition1 which in two years resulted in the capture of the ,tatar kingdom4 ,when the conquerors entered ,sibir they had been reduced from over #hjj to about #djj men4 ,but this handful represented the power of the ,tsars and ,yermak could sue for pardon1 with the offer of a kingdom as his ransom4 ,before the close of the ,sixteenth ,century the land had been finally subdued4 ,sibir itself1 which stood on a high bluff on the right bank of the ,irtish1 exists no more1 having probably been swept away by the erosions of the stream4 ,but ten miles farther down another capital1 ,tobolsk1 arose1 also on the right bank1 and the whole of the north was gradually added to the ,tsar's dominions4 ,the fur trappers1 more even than the soldiers1 were the real conquerors of ,siberia4 ,nevertheless1 many battles had to be fought down to the middle of the ,seventeenth ,century4 ,the ,buriats of the ,angora basin1 the ,koriaks1 and other tribes long held out2 but most of the land was peacefully acquired1 and permanently secured by the forts erected by the ,cossacks at the junction of the rivers1 at the entrance of the mountain passes1 and other strategic points4 ,history records no other instance of such a vast dominion so rapidly acquired1 and with such slender means1 by a handful of men acting mostly on their own impulse1 without chiefs or instructions from the centre of authority4 ,even ,china allowed the ,cossacks to settle on the banks of the ,amur1 though the treaty of ,nerchinsk required the ,russians to withdraw from that basin in #afhi4 ,but during the present century they have been again attracted to this region1 and the ,government of ,st4 ,petersburg is now fully alive to the advantages of a free access by a large navigable stream to the ,pacific seaboard4 ,hence1 in #ahea1 ,muraviov established the factory of ,nikolaievsk1 near the mouth of the ,amur1 and those of ,mariinsk and ,alexandrovsk at either end of the portage connecting that river with the ,bay of ,castries4 ,during the ,crimean war its left bank was definitely secured by a line of fortified posts1 and in #ahei a ukase confirmed the possession of a territory torn from ,china in time of peace4 ,lastly1 in #ahfj1 while the ,anglo-,french forces were entering ,pekin1 ,russia obtained without a blow the cession of the region south of the ,amur and east of the ,ussuri1 stretching along the coast to the ,corean frontier4 ,and thus was completed the reduction of the whole of ,north ,asia1 a territory of itself alone far more extensive than the ,european continent4 ,in other respects there is1 of course1 no point of comparison between these two regions4 ,this ,siberian world1 where vast wildernesses still remain to be explored1 has a foreign trade surpassed by that of many a third-rate ,european seaport1 such as ,dover or ,boulogne4 ,embracing a thirteenth part of the dry land on the surface of the globe1 its population falls short of that of ,london alone2 it is even more sparsely peopled than ,caucasia and ,turkestan1 having little over one inhabitant to #a1jjj acres4 ,accurate surveys of the physical features and frontier-lines are still far from complete4 ,only quite recently the first circumnavigation of the ,old ,world round the northern shores of ,siberia has been accomplished by the ,swedish explorer1 ,nordenskjoeld4 ,the early attempts made by ,willoughby1 ,chancellor1 and ,burrough failed even to reach the ,siberian coast4 ,hoping later on to reach ,china by ascending the ,ob to the imaginary ,lake ,kitai--that is1 ,kathay1 or ,china--the ,english renewed their efforts to discover the north-east passage1 and in #aehj two vessels1 commanded by ,arthur ,ket and ,charles ,jackman1 sailed for the ,arctic ,ocean2 but they never got beyond the ,kara ,sea4 ,the ,dutch succeeded no better1 none of the voyages undertaken by ,barents and others between #aeid and #aeig reaching farther than the ,spitzbergen and ,novaya ,zembla waters4 ,nor were these limits exceeded by ,hendrick ,hudson in #afjh4 ,this was the last attempt made by the navigators of ,west ,europe2 but the ,russian traders and fishers of the ,white ,sea were familiar with the routes to the ,ob and ,yenisei ,gulfs1 as is evident from a map published in #afjj by ,boris ,godunov4 ,however1 sixteen years afterwards the navigation of these waters was interdicted under pain of death1 lest foreigners should discover the way to the ,siberian coast4 ,illustration3 ,,siberian ,,natives4 ,the exploration of this seaboard had thus to be prosecuted in ,siberia itself by means of vessels built for the river navigation4 ,in #afdh1 the ,cossack ,dejnev sailed with a flotilla of small craft from the ,kolima round the north-east extremity of ,asia1 passing long before the birth of ,bering through the strait which now bears the name of that navigator4 ,stadukhin also explored these eastern seas in search of the islands full of fossil ivory1 of which he had heard from the natives4 ,in #agce1 ,pronchishchev and ,lasinius embarked at ,yakutsk and sailed down the ,lena1 exploring its delta and neighbouring coasts4 ,pronchishchev reached a point east of the ,taimir peninsula1 but failed to double the headlands between the ,lena and the ,yenisei estuaries4 ,the expedition begun by ,laptiev in #agci1 after suffering shipwreck1 was continued overland1 resulting in the exploration of the ,taimir peninsula and the discovery of the ,north ,cape of the ,old ,world1 ,pliny's ,tabin1 and the ,cheluskin of modern maps1 so named from the pilot who accompanied ,pronchishchev and ,laptiev4 ,the western seaboard between the ,yenisei and ,ob estuaries had already been surveyed by ,ovtzin and ,minin in #agcg-i4 ,but the problem was already being attacked from the side of the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,in #agbh1 the ,danish navigator1 ,bering1 in the service of ,russia1 crossed ,siberia overland to the ,pacific1 whence he sailed through the strait now named from him1 and by him first revealed to the ,west1 though known to the ,siberian ,cossacks eighty years previously4 ,even ,bering himself1 hugging the ,asiatic coast1 had not descried the opposite shores of ,america1 and was uncertain as to the exact position of the strait4 ,this point was not cleared up till ,cook's voyage of #aggh1 and even after that the ,sakhalin1 ,yezo and ,kurile waters still remained to be explored4 ,the shores of the mainland and islands were first traced by ,la ,perouse1 who determined the insular character of ,sakhalin1 and ascertained the existence of a strait connecting the ,japanese ,sea with that of ,okhotsk4 ,this completed the general survey of the whole ,siberian seaboard4 ,the scientific exploration of the interior began in the ,eighteenth ,century with ,messerschmidt1 followed by ,gmelin1 ,mueller1 and ,delisle de la ,croyere1 who determined many important physical points between the years #agcc and #agdb4 ,the region stretching beyond ,lake ,baikal was explored by ,pallas and his associates in #aggj-c4 ,the expeditions1 interrupted by the great wars following on the ,french ,revolution1 were resumed in #ahbh by the ,norwegian ,hansteen1 whose memorable expedition in company with ,erman had such important results for the study of terrestrial magnetism4 ,while ,hansteen and ,erman were still prosecuting their labours in every branch of natural science1 ,alexander von ,humboldt1 ,ehrenberg1 and ,gustav ,rose made a short visit to ,siberia1 which1 however1 remained one of the most important in the history of science4 ,middendorff's journeys to ,north and ,east ,siberia had also some very valuable results1 and were soon followed1 in #ahed1 by the expedition to ,siberia undertaken by ,schwartz1 ,schmidt1 ,glehn1 ,usoltzev1 and associates1 extending over the whole region of the ,trans-baikal to the ,lena and northern tributaries of the ,amur4 ,thus began the uninterrupted series of modern journeys1 which are now being systematically continued in every part of ,siberia1 and which promise soon to leave no blanks on the chart of that region4 ,the work of geographical discovery1 properly so called1 may be said to have been brought to a close by ,nordenskjoeld's recent determination of the north-east passage1 vainly attempted by ,willoughby1 ,barents1 and so many other illustrious navigators4 ,such a vast region as ,siberia1 affected in the west by ,atlantic1 in the east by ,pacific influences1 and stretching north and south across #bi deg4 of latitude1 must obviously present great diversities of climate4 ,even this bleak land has its temperate zones1 which the ,slav colonists are fond of calling their ,italies4 ,nevertheless as compared with ,europe1 ,siberia may1 on the whole1 be regarded as a country of extreme temperatures--relatively great heats1 and1 above all1 intense colds4 ,the very term ,siberian has justly become synonymous with a land of winds1 frosts1 and snows4 ,the mean annual temperature in this region comprised between the rivers ,anabara and ,indigirka is #bj deg4 ,fahr4 below freezing point4 ,the pole of cold1 oscillating diversely with the force of the lateral pressure from ,yakutsk to the ,lena estuary1 is the meteorological centre round which the atmosphere revolves4 ,here are to a large extent prepared the elements of the climate of ,west ,europe4 ,travellers speak of the ,siberian winters with mingled feelings of terror and rapture4 ,an infinite silence broods over the land--all is buried in deep sleep4 ,the animals hibernate in their dens1 the streams have ceased to flow1 disappearing beneath the ice and snow2 the earth1 of a dazzling whiteness in the centre of the landscape1 but grey in the distance1 nowhere offers a single object to arrest the gaze4 ,the monotony of endless space is broken by no abrupt lines or vivid tints4 ,the only contrast with the dull expanse of land is the everlasting azure sky1 along which the sun creeps at a few degrees only above the horizon4 ,in these intensely cold latitudes it rises and sets with hard outlines1 unsoftened by the ruddy haze elsewhere encircling it on the edge of the horizon4 ,yet such is the strength of its rays that the snow melts on the housetop exposed to its glare1 while in the shade the temperature is #dj deg4 to #ej deg4 below freezing point4 ,at night1 when the firmament is not aglow with the many-tinted lights and silent coruscations of the aurora borealis1 the zodiacal light and the stars still shine with intense brightness4 ,to this severe winter1 which fissures the surface and rends the rocks of the rivers into regular basalt-like columns1 there succeeds a sudden and delightful spring4 ,so instantaneous is the change that nature seems as if taken by surprise and rudely awakened4 ,the delicate green of the opening leaf1 the fragrance of the budding flowers1 the intoxicating balm of the atmosphere1 the radiant brightness of the heavens1 all combine to impart to mere existence a voluptuous gladness4 ,to ,siberians visiting the temperate climes of ,western ,europe1 spring seems to be unknown beyond their lands4 ,but these first days of new life are followed by a chill1 gusty and changeful interval1 arising from the atmospheric disturbances caused by the thawing of the vast snowy wastes4 ,a relapse is then experienced analogous to that too often produced in ,england by late east winds4 ,the apple blossom is now nipped by the night frosts falling in the latter part of ,may4 ,hence no apples can be had in ,east ,siberia1 although the summer heats are otherwise amply sufficient for the ripening of fruit4 ,after the fleeting summer1 winter weather again sets in4 ,it will often freeze at night in the middle of ,july2 and after the #ajth of ,august the sear leaf begins to fall1 and in a few days all are gone1 except perhaps the foliage of the larch4 ,the snow will even sometimes settle early in ,august on the still leafy branches1 bending and breaking them with its weight4 ,below the surface of the ground1 winter reigns uninterrupted even by the hottest summers4 ,with its vast extent and varied climate1 ,siberia naturally embraces several vegetable zones1 differing more from each other even than those of ,europe4 ,the southern ,steppes have a characteristic and well-marked flora1 forming a continuation of that of the ,aral1 ,caspian and ,volga plains4 ,the treeless northern tundras also constitute a vegetable domain as sharply defined as the desert itself1 while between these two zones of ,steppe and tundra the forest region of ,europe stretches1 with many subdivisions1 west and east right across the continent4 ,of these subdivisions the chief are those of the ,ob1 ,yenisei1 ,lena1 and ,amur basins4 ,beyond the northern tundras and southern ,steppes by far the greatest space is occupied by the forest zone4 ,from the ,urals to ,kamchatka the dense taiga1 or woodlands are interrupted only by the streams1 a few natural glades and some tracts under cultivation4 ,the term taiga is used in a general way for all lands under timber1 but east of the ,altai it is applied more especially to the moist and spongy region overgrown with tangled roots and thickets1 where the mari1 or peat bogs1 and marshes alternate with the padi1 or narrow ravines4 ,the miners call by this name the wooded mountains where they go in search of auriferous sands4 ,but everywhere the taiga is the same dreary forest1 without grass1 birds1 or insects1 gloomy and lifeless1 and noiseless but for the soughing of the wind and crackling of the branches4 ,the most common tree in the taiga is the larch1 which best resists the winter frost and summer chills4 ,but the ,siberian woodlands also include most of the trees common to temperate ,europe--the linden1 alder1 juniper1 service1 willow1 aspen1 poplar1 birch1 cherry1 apricot--whose areas are regulated according to the nature of the soil1 the elevation or aspect of the land4 ,towards the south-east1 on the ,chinese frontier1 the birch is encroaching on the indigenous species1 and the natives regard this as a sure prognostic of the approaching rule of the ,white ,tsar4 ,conflagrations are very frequent in the ,siberian forests1 caused either by lightning1 the woodmen1 or hunters1 and sometimes spreading over vast spaces till arrested by rivers1 lakes or morasses4 ,one of the pleasures of ,siberian travelling is the faint odour of the woods burning in the distance4 ,the native flora is extremely rich in berries of every kind1 supplying food for men and animals4 ,the extreme eastern regions of the ,amur basin and ,russian ,manchuria1 being warmer1 more humid and fertile1 also abound more in animal life than the other parts of ,asiatic ,russia4 ,on the other hand1 the ,siberian bear1 deer1 roebuck1 hare1 squirrel1 marmot and mole are about one-third larger1 and often half as heavy again as their ,european congeners4 ,this is doubtless due partly to the greater abundance of nourishment along the rivers and shores of ,siberia1 and partly to the fact that for ages the western species have been more preyed upon by man1 living in a constant state of fear1 and mostly perishing before attaining their full development4 ,the ,arctic ,seas abound probably as much as the ,pacific ,ocean with marine animals4 ,nordenskjoeld found the ,siberian waters very rich in molluscs and other lower organisms1 implying a corresponding abundance of larger animals4 ,hence fishing1 perhaps more than navigation1 will be the future industry of the ,siberian coast populations4 ,cetacea1 fishes1 molluscs1 and other marine organisms are cast up in such quantities along both sides of ,bering ,strait that the bears and other omnivorous creatures have here become very choice as to their food4 ,but on some parts of the coast in the ,chukchi country whales are never stranded1 and since the arrival of the ,russians certain species threaten to disappear altogether4 ,the ,rhytina stelleri1 a species of walrus formerly frequenting ,bering ,strait in millions1 was completely exterminated between the years #agda-fh4 ,many of the fur-bearing animals1 which attracted the ,cossacks from the ,urals to the ,sea of ,okhotsk1 and which were the true cause of the conquest of ,siberia1 have become extremely rare4 ,their skins are distinguished1 above all others1 for their great softness1 warmth1 lightness1 and bright colours4 ,the more ,alpine or continental the climate1 the more beautiful and highly prized become the furs1 which diminish in gloss towards the coast and in ,west ,siberia1 where the south-west winds prevail4 ,the sables of the ,north ,urals are of small value1 while those of the ,upper ,lena1 fifteen degrees farther south1 are worth a king's ransom4 ,many species assume a white coat in winter1 whereby they are difficult to be distinguished from the surrounding snows4 ,amongst these are the polar hare and fox1 the ermine1 the campagnol1 often even the wolf and reindeer1 besides the owl1 yellow-hammer1 and some other birds4 ,those which retain their brown or black colour are mostly such as do not show themselves in winter4 ,the fur of the squirrels also varies with the surrounding foliage1 those of the pine forests being ruddy1 those of the cedar1 taiga1 and firs inclining to brown1 and all varying in intensity of colour with that of the vegetation4 ,other species besides the peltry-bearing animals have diminished in numbers since the arrival of the ,russian hunters4 ,the reindeer1 which frequented the ,south ,siberian highlands1 and whose domain encroached on that of the camel1 is now found only in the domestic state amongst the ,soyotes of the ,upper ,yenisei and is met with in the wild state only in the dwarf forests and tundras of the far north4 ,the argali has withdrawn to ,mongolia from the ,siberian mountains and plains1 where he was still very common at the end of the last century4 ,on the other hand1 cold and want of food yearly drive great numbers of antelopes and wild horses from the ,gobi ,steppes towards the ,siberian lowlands1 tigers1 wolves and other beasts of prey following in their track1 and returning with them in the early spring4 ,several new species of animals have been introduced by man and modified by crossings in the domestic state4 ,in the north1 the ,samoyeds1 ,chukchis1 and ,kamchadales have the reindeer and dog1 while the horse and ox are everywhere the companions of man in the peopled regions of ,siberia4 ,the yak has been tamed by the ,soyotes of the ,upper ,yenisei1 and the camel1 typical of a distinctly ,eastern civilization1 follows the nomads of the ,kirghiz and ,mongolian ,steppes4 ,all these domesticated animals seem to have acquired special qualities and habits from the various indigenous or ,russian peoples of ,siberia4 ,,the ,,russian ,,races ,w4 ,r4 ,,morfill ,the vast ,empire of ,russia1 as may be readily imagined1 is peopled by many different races4 ,these may ethnologically be catalogued as follows3 ,i4 ,sclavonic races1 the most important in numbers and culture4 ,under this head may be classified3-- 7#a7 ,the ,great ,russians1 or ,russians properly so called1 especially occupying the ,governments round about ,moscow1 and from thence scattered in the north to ,novgorod and ,vologda1 on the south to ,kiev and to ,voronezh1 on the east to ,penza1 ,simbirsk1 and ,viatka1 and on the west to the ,baltic provinces4 ,moreover1 the ,great ,russians1 as the ruling race1 are to be found in small numbers in all quarters of the ,empire4 ,they amount to about #dj1jjj1jjj4 7#b7 ,little ,russians 7,malorossiani71 dwelling south of the ,russians1 upon the shores of the ,black ,sea4 ,these1 together with the ,rusniaks1 amount to #af1cgj1jjj4 ,the ,cossacks come under these two races4 ,to the great ,russians belong the ,don ,cossacks1 with those sprung from them--the ,kouban1 ,stavropol1 ,khoperski1 ,volga1 ,mosdok1 ,kizlarski and ,grebenski4 ,illustration3 ,,samoyedes ,,of ,,nova ,,zembla4 ,to the ,little ,russian3 the ,malorossiiski1 with those sprung from them--the ,zaporoghian1 ,black ,sea 7,chernomorski71 and those of ,azov and of the ,danube4 7#c7 ,the ,white ,russians1 inhabiting the ,western ,governments4 ,their number amounts to #d1jjj1jjj4 7#d7 ,poles1 living in the former ,kingdom of ,poland and the ,western ,governments of the ,empire4 ,their number amounts to #e1jjj1jjj4 7#e7 ,servians1 ,bulgarians1 and other ,slavs1 inhabiting especially ,bessarabia and the country called ,new ,russia4 ,their number reaches #aej1jjj4 ,,ii4 ,the ,non-,sclavonic races comprise either original inhabitants of the country who have been subdued by the ,russians1 or later comers4 ,among races originally inhabiting the country1 and subjugated by the ,russians1 are included--the ,lithuanians and ,letts1 the ,finns1 the ,samoyeds1 the ,mongol-,manzhurians1 the races of eastern ,siberia1 the ,turko-,tartar1 the ,caucasian1 the ,german1 and the ,hebrew4 #a4 ,the ,lithu-,lettish race inhabits the country between the western ,dwina and the ,nieman4 ,in numbers they do not amount to more than #c1jjj1jjj4 ,the ,lithu-,lettish population is divided into the two following branches3-- 7a7 ,the ,lithuanians properly so called 7including the ,samogitans or ,zhmudes71 who inhabit the ,governments of ,vilno1 ,kovno1 ,courland1 and the northern parts of those of ,augustovo and ,grodno 7#a1ijj1jjj74 7b7 ,the ,letts1 who inhabit the ,governments of ,courland1 ,vitebsk1 ,livonia1 ,kovno1 ,pskov1 and ,st4 ,petersburg 7#a1ajj1jjj74 #b4 ,the ,finnish race--known in the old ,sclavonic chronicles under the name of ,chouds--at one time inhabited all the north-eastern part of ,russia4 ,the ,finns1 according to the place of their habitation1 are divided into four groups3--the ,baltic ,finns1 the ,finns in the ,governments of the ,volga1 the ,cis-,oural and the ,trans-,oural ,finns4 7a7 ,the ,baltic ,finns3 the ,chouds 7in the ,governments of ,novgorod and ,olonetz72 the ,livonians 7in ,courland72 the ,esthonians 7in the ,governments of ,esthonia1 ,livonia1 ,vitebsk1 ,pskov1 and ,st4 ,petersburg72 the ,lopari 7in northern ,finland and in the ,government of ,archangel72 the ,corelians 7in the ,government of ,archangel1 ,novgorod1 ,olonetz1 ,st4 ,petersburg1 ,tver1 and ,jaroslav72 ,evremeiseti 7in the ,governments of ,novgorod and ,st4 ,petersburg71 ,savakoti1 ,vod1 and ,izhora4 7b7 ,to the ,finns of the ,governments of the ,volga1 who have become almost lost in the ,russians1 belong the ,cheremisians 7in the ,governments of ,kazan1 ,viatka1 ,kostroma1 ,nijni-,novgorod1 ,orenburg and ,perm74 7c7 ,to the ,cis-,uralian ,finns1 who occupy the country from the borders of ,finland to the ,oural1 belong the ,permiaks 7in the ,governments of ,viatka and ,perm72 ,ziranians 7in the ,governments of ,archangel and ,vologda72 ,votiaks 7in the ,governments of ,viatka and ,kazan72 and ,vogoulichi 7in the ,governments of ,perm74 7d7 ,among the ,trans-,oural ,finns are also to be numbered the ,ziranians and ,vogoulichi 7the first in the ,government of ,tobolsk1 and the second in the ,governments of ,tobolsk and ,tomsk72 and the ,ostiaks1 who1 according to the places of their habitation1 are called ,obski and ,berezovski4 ,the ,finns amount altogether to #b1ajj1jjj4 #c4 ,the ,samoyeds1 in number #gj1jjj1 live in the territory extending from the ,white ,sea to the ,yenesei2 to these belong the ,samoyeds properly so called1 the ,narimski and the ,yenesei ,ostiaks1 the ,olennie ,choukchi1 etc4 #d4 ,the ,mongolo-,manzhourian race amounting to #djj1jjj4 ,among this race may be remarked the ,mongolians properly so called1 on the ,selenga2 the ,kalmucks1 a nomad people in the ,government of ,astrakhan1 as also in ,tomsk1 in the country of the ,don ,cossacks1 and partly in the ,government of ,stavropol4 ,the ,kalmucks appeared first on the eastern confines of ,russia in the year #afcj4 ,about a century later we find them become the regular subjects of the ,tsar4 ,they seem1 however1 to have found the ,russian yoke irksome1 and resolved to return to their original home on the coasts of ,lake ,balkach1 and at the foot of the ,altai ,mountains4 ,nearly the whole nation1 amounting to almost #cjj1jjj persons1 began their march in the winter of #aggj-ga4 ,the passage of this vast horde lasted for weeks1 but the rear were prevented from escaping by the ,kirghiz and ,cossacks1 who intercepted them4 ,they were compelled to remain in ,russia1 where their territory was more accurately defined than had been done previously4 ,the ,kalmucks are obliged to serve with the ,cossack troops1 but their duties are mostly confined to looking after the cattle and horses which accompany the army4 ,their religion is ,buddhism1 and a conspicuous object in the aouls1 or temporary villages which they construct1 is the pagoda4 ,their personal appearance is by no means prepossessing--small eyes and high cheekbones1 with scanty hair of a very coarse texture4 ,in every sense of the word they are still strictly nomads2 their children and tents are carried by camels1 and in a few hours their temporary village1 or oulous1 is established4 ,to these also belong the ,bouriats1 by ,lake ,baikal2 the ,toungusians from the ,yenesei to the ,amur2 the ,lamorets1 by the ,sea of ,okhotsk2 and the ,olentzi1 in the ,government of ,irkutsk4 #e4 ,races of eastern ,siberia3 the ,koriaks1 living in the north-eastern corner of ,siberia2 the ,youkagirs1 in the territory of ,yakutsk2 the ,kamchadales1 in ,kamchatka4 ,their number amounts to #ejj1jjj4 #f4 ,the ,turko-,tartar race amount in number to #c1jjj1jjj4 ,to their branch belong the ,chouvashes1 in the governments of ,orenburg1 ,simbursk1 ,saratov and ,samaria2 the ,mordvinians1 in the same governments as the ,chouvashes1#a and in those of ,tambov1 ,penza1 and ,nijni-,novgorod2 the ,tartars of the ,crimea and ,kazan2 the ,nagais1 on the ,kouban and ,don2 the ,mestcheriaki1 in the governments of ,orenburg1 ,perm1 ,saratov1 and ,viatka2 ,koumki1 in the ,caucasus2 ,kirghizi1 ,yakouti1 on the ,lena2 ,troukhmentzi and ,khivintzi2 ,karakalpaks 7lit4 ,black ,caps71 ,teleouti1 in the government of ,tomsk1 ,siberia4 ,footnote #a3 ,some writers consider the ,chouvashes to belong to the ,finnish race4 #g4 ,the ,caucasian races inhabiting ,georgia1 the valleys and defiles of the ,caucasian ,mountains have different appellations and different origins4 ,among them may be noticed the ,armenians1 ,georgians1 ,circassians1 ,abkhasians1 ,lesghians1 ,osetintzi1 ,chechentzi1 ,kistentzi1 ,toushi1 and others4 ,their number is about #b1jjj1jjj4 ,the languages of the ,caucasus must be regarded as a group distinct both from the ,aryan and ,semitic families4 ,they are agglutinative1 and are divided into two branches4 7a7 ,the ,northern ,division1 extending along the northern slopes of the ,caucasus1 between the ,caspian and the northern shores of the ,black ,sea1 as far as the ,straits of ,yenikale2 its subdivisions are ,lesghian1 ,kistian1 and ,circassian1 each with its dialects4 ,formerly the ,circassians numbered about #ejj1jjj1 but large numbers of them emigrated to ,european ,turkey1 where they were dexterously planted by the government to impede the social progress of their ,bulgarian and ,greek subjects4 7b7 ,the ,southern ,division1 comprising ,georgian1 ,suanian1 ,mingrelian1 and ,lazian4 #h4 ,the ,german race1 in number about #a1jjj1jjj4 ,the ,germans are chiefly in the ,baltic provinces1 in the government of ,st4 ,petersburg1 in the ,grand ,duchy of ,finland1 and the colonies1 especially those on the lower ,volga1 the ,don1 the ,crimea1 and ,new ,russia4 ,the ,germans have acquired great influence throughout the country2 they are represented in the court1 in the army1 and in the administration4 ,here also may be mentioned the ,swedes1 amounting to #bhf1jjj4 #i4 ,the ,jews inhabit especially the former ,kingdom of ,poland1 the ,western ,governments1 and the ,crimea4 ,their number amounts to #c1jjj1jjj4 ,among the ,jews the ,karaimite are noticeable1 living in the governments of ,vilno1 ,volinia1 ,kovno1 ,kherson1 and the ,taurida4 ,among the ,europeans and ,asiatics who have come in later times to settle in ,russia1 are ,greeks1 amounting to #ge1jjj1 in the governments of ,new ,russia and ,chernigov2 ,french1 ,italians1 and ,englishmen1 in the capitals and chief commercial towns2 ,wallachians or ,moldavians 7now generally included under the name of ,roumanians71 in ,bessarabia2 ,albanians2 ,gipsies1 especially in the territory of ,bessarabia1 amounting to #ej1jjj2 ,persians1 to #aj1jjj1 etc4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,russia ,w4 ,r4 ,,morfill ,i shall follow the divisions given in his first volume by ,oustrialov4 ,he divides ,russian history into two great parts1 the ancient and modern4 ,i4 ,ancient history from the commencement of ,russia to the time of ,peter the ,great 7#hfb-afhi74 ,this first period is subdivided into 7a7 the foundation of ,russia and the combination of the ,sclavonians into a political unity under the leadership of the ,normans and by means of the ,christian ,faith under ,vladimir and the legislation of ,yaroslav4 ,according to the theory commonly received at the present day1 the foundation of the ,russian ,empire was laid by ,rurik at ,novgorod4 ,the name ,russian seems to be best explained as meaning the seamen from the ,finnish name for the ,swedes or ,norsemen1 ,ruotsi1 which itself is a corruption of a ,scandinavian word4 ,it has been shown by ,thomsen1 that all the names mentioned in early ,russian history admit of a ,scandinavian explanation2 thus ,ingar becomes ,igor1 and ,helga1 ,oleg4 ,in a few generations the ,scandinavian origin of the settlers was forgotten4 ,the grandson of ,rurik1 ,sviatoslav1 has a purely ,sclavonic name4 ,christianity was introduced into the country by ,vladimir1 and the first code of ,russian laws was promulgated by ,yaroslav1 called ,rousskaia ,pravda1 of which a transcript was found among the chronicles of ,novgorod4 7b7 ,breaking up of ,russia1 under the system of appanages1 into some confederate principalities1 governed by the descendants of ,rurik4 ,this unfortunate disruption of the country paved the way for the invasion of the ,mongols1 whose domination lasted for nearly two centuries4 ,during their occupation the ,russians were ingrafted with many oriental habits1 which were only partially removed by ,peter the ,great1 and in fact many of them have lasted till the present day4 ,the influence of the ,mongolians upon the national language has been greatly exaggerated1 as the words introduced are confined almost exclusively to articles of dress1 money1 etc4 ,had the conquests of the ,mongols been permanent1 ,russia would have become definitely attached to ,asia1 to which its geographical position seems to assign it4 7c7 ,division of ,russia into eastern and western under the ,mongolian yoke #abbh-acbh4 ,this is a very dreary period of the national history4 7d7 ,formation in ,eastern ,russia of the government of ,moscow #acbh-adfb1 which by the energy of its princes became the nucleus of the future empire2 and in ,western ,russia of the principality of ,lithuania1 and its union with ,poland #acbj-aefi4 7e7 ,consolidation of the ,muscovite power under ,ivan ,,iii41 who married the daughter of the ,greek ,emperor1 and succeeded in expelling the ,tartars1 and making himself master of their city ,kazan4 ,he was followed by his son ,vasilii1 who was succeeded by ,ivan ,,iv41 who has gained a very unenviable reputation on account of his cruelties4 ,already the yoke of the ,tartars had begun to have a very deteriorating effect upon the ,russian character1 and the more sanguinary code of the ,asiatics had effaced the tradition of the laws of ,yaroslav4 ,mutilation1 flagellation1 and the abundant use of the knout prevailed4 ,the servile custom of chelobitye1 or knocking the head on the ground1 which was exacted from all subjects on entering the royal presence1 was certainly of ,tartar origin1 as also the punishment inflicted upon refractory debtors1 called the pravezh4 ,they were beaten on the shins in a public square every day from eight to eleven o'clock1 till the money was paid4 ,the custom is fully described by ,giles ,fletcher and ,olearius4 ,another strange habit1 savouring too much of the ,tartar servitude1 was that recorded by ,peter ,heylin in his ,little ,description of the ,great ,world 7,oxford1 #afbi71 who says3 ,it is the custom over all ,muscovie1 that a maid in time of wooing sends to that suitor whom she chooseth for her husband such a whip curiously by herself wrought1 in token of her subjection unto him4 ,a ,russian writer also tells us that it was usual for the husband on the wedding day to give his bride a gentle stroke over the shoulders with his whip1 to show his power over her4 ,herberstein's story of the ,german ,jordan and his ,russian wife will perhaps occur to some of my readers4 ,she complained to her husband that he did not love her2 but upon his expressing surprise at the doubt1 she gave as her reason that he had never beaten her6 ,indeed the position of a woman in ,russia till the time of ,peter was a very melancholy one4 ,her place in society is accurately marked out in the ,domostroi1 or regulations for governing one's household1 written at the time of ,ivan the ,terrible4 ,as this book presents us with some very curious pictures of ,russian family life in the olden time1 a few words may be permitted describing its contents4 ,it was written by the monk ,sylvester1 who was one of the chief counsellors of ,ivan1 and at one time in great favour with him1 but afterwards fell into disgrace and was banished by the capricious tyrant to the ,solovetzki monastery1 where he died4 ,the work was primarily addressed by the worthy priest to his son ,anthemus and his daughter-in-law1 ,pelagia1 but as the bulk of it was of a general character it soon became used in all households4 ,nothing escapes this father of the church from the duties of religion1 down to the minor details of the kitchen and the mysteries of cookery4 ,the wife is constantly recommended to practise humility1 in a way which would probably be repulsive to many of our modern ladies4 ,her industry in weaving and making clothes among her domestics is very carefully dwelt upon4 ,she lived in a kind of ,oriental seclusion1 and saw no one except her nearest relatives4 ,the bridegroom knew nothing of his bride1 she was only allowed to be seen a few times before marriage by his female relatives1 and on these occasions all kinds of tricks were played4 ,a stool was placed under her feet that she might seem taller1 or a handsome female attendant1 or a better-looking sister were substituted4 ,nowhere1 says ,kotoshikhin1 is there such trickery practised with reference to the brides as at ,moscow4 ,the innovations of ,peter the ,great broke through the oriental seclusion of the terem1 as the women's apartments were called4 ,during the minority of ,ivan ,,iv4 the regency was committed to the care of his mother ,elena1 and was at best but a stormy period4 ,when ,i van came to the throne the country was not even yet free from the incursions of the ,tartars4 ,in ,hakluyt's voyages we have a curious account of one of these devastations in a letter of ,richard ,vscombe to ,m4 ,henrie ,lane1 touching the burning of the city of ,mosco by the ,crimme ,tartar1 written the fifth day of ,august1 #aega4 ,the ,mosco is burnt every sticke by the ,crimme1 the #bdth day of ,may last1 and an innumerable number of people2 and in the ,english house was smothered ,thomas ,southam1 ,tosild1 ,waverley1 ,green's wife and children1 two children of ,rafe1 and more to the number of twenty-five persons were stifled in oure beere seller1 and yet in the same seller was ,rafe1 his wife1 ,john ,browne1 and ,john ,clarke preserved1 which was wonderful4 ,and there went to that seller ,master ,glover and ,master ,rowley also2 but because the heat was so great they came foorth againe with much perill1 so that a boy at their heeles was taken with the fire1 yet they escaped blindfold into another seller1 and there as ,god's will was they were preserved4 ,the emperor fled out of the field1 and many of his people were carried away by the ,crimme ,tartar4 ,and so with exceeding much spoile and infinite prisoners1 they returned home againe4 ,what with the ,crimme on the one side and his cruelties on the other1 he hath but few people left 7,hakluyt1 ,i4 #djb74 ,illustration3 ,,room ,,of ,,the ,,tsar ,,michailowitch1 ,,moscow4 ,it is well known that the ,english first became acquainted with ,russia in the time of ,ivan the ,terrible4 ,in the reign of ,edward ,,vi4 a voyage was undertaken by ,sir ,hugh ,willoughby and ,richard ,chancellor1 who attempted to reach ,russia by way of the ,north ,sea4 ,willoughby and his crew were unfortunately lost1 but ,chancellor succeeded in reaching ,moscow1 and showing his letters to the ,tsar1 in reply to which an alliance was concluded and an ambassador soon afterwards visited the ,english court4 ,in spite of his brutal tyrannies1 for which no apologies can be offered1 although some of the ,russian authorities have attempted to gloss them over1 the reign of ,ivan was distinctly progressive for ,russia4 ,the introduction of the printing-press1 the conquest of ,siberia1 the development of commerce1 were all in advance of what had been done by his predecessors4 ,he also had the leading idea afterwards fully carried out by ,peter the ,great of extending the dominions on the north1 and ensuring a footing on the ,baltic4 ,the relations of ,ivan with ,england are fully described in the very interesting diary of ,sir ,jerome ,horsey1 the ambassador from this country1 the manuscript of which is preserved in the ,british ,museum4 ,he was anxious to have an ,english wife1 and ,elizabeth selected one for him1 ,lady ,mary ,hastings1 but when the bride-elect had been made acquainted with the circumstance that ,ivan had been married several times before1 and was a most truculent and blood-thirsty sovereign1 she entreated her father with many tears not to send her to such a man4 ,the character given of ,ivan by ,horsey is very graphic1 and is valuable as the narration of a person who had frequently been in intimate relations with the ,tsar4 ,we give it in the original spelling3-- ,thus much to conclude with this ,emperor ,ivan ,vasiliwich4 ,he was a goodlie man of person and presence1 well favoured1 high forehead1 shrill voice1 a right ,sithian1 full of readie wisdom1 cruell1 blondye1 merciless2 his own experience mannaged by direction both his state and commonwealth affairs2 was sumptuously intomed in ,michell ,archangell ,church1 where he1 though guarded daye and night1 remaines a fearfull spectacle to the memorie of such as pass by or heer his name spoken of who are contented to cross and bless themselves from his resurrection againe4 ,passing over his feeble son1 we come to the era of ,boris ,godunov1 a man in many respects remarkable1 but not the least that he saw the necessity of western culture4 ,his plans for educating ,russia were extensive1 and several youths were sent abroad for this purpose1 including some to ,england4 ,but his reign ended gloomily1 and was followed by the period of the ,pretenders 7,samozvantzi71 during which ,russia was rent by opposing factions2 and almost ended in receiving a foreign sovereign1 in the person of ,ladislaus 7,wladyslaw71 the son of ,sigismund ,,iii41 the ,king of ,poland4 ,the ,romanovs finally ascended the throne in the person of ,michael in #afac4 ,the son of ,michael1 ,alexis1 was a thoroughly reforming sovereign1 and took many foreigners into his pay4 ,with the reign of ,ivan ,v41 son of ,alexis1 closes the old period of ,russian history4 ,,ii4 ,the new history from the days of ,peter the ,great to the present time4 ,the reforms introduced into ,russia by ,peter the ,great are too well known to need recapitulation here4 ,there will be always many different opinions about this wonderful man4 ,some have not hesitated to say that he knouted ,russia into civilization2 others can see traces of the hero mixed with much clay4 ,one of the darkest pages in the annals of his reign1 is that upon which is written the fate of his unfortunate son1 ,alexis4 ,all ,russia seems but one vast monument of his genius4 ,he gave her six new provinces1 a footing upon two seas1 a regular army trained on the ,european system1 a large fleet1 an admiralty1 and a naval academy2 besides these1 some educational establishments1 a gallery of painting and sculpture1 and a public library4 ,nothing escaped his notice1 even to such minutiae as the alteration of ,russian letters to make them more adapted to printing1 and changing the dress of his subjects so as to be more in conformity with ,european costume4 ,all this interference savoured of despotism1 no doubt1 but it led to the consolidation of a great nationality4 ,the ,russians belong to the ,european family1 and must of necessity return to fulfil their destiny1 although they had been temporarily diverted from their bondage under the ,mongols4 ,owing to the mistake ,peter had committed in allowing the succession to be changed at the will of the ruling sovereign1 the country was for some time after his death in the hands of ,russian and ,german adventurers4 ,on the death of ,peter he was succeeded by his wife ,catherine1 an amiable but illiterate woman1 who was wholly under the influence of ,menshikov1 one of ,peter's chief favourites4 ,after a short reign of two years1 she was succeeded by ,peter ,,ii41 son of the unfortunate ,alexis1 in whose time ,menshikov and his family were banished to ,berezov in ,siberia4 ,after his banishment1 ,peter1 who was a weak prince1 and showed every inclination to undo his grandfather's work1 fell under the influence of the ,dolgoroukis4 ,there is something very touching in the fate of this poor child--he was but fifteen years of age when he died--tossed about amidst the opposing factions of the intriguing courtiers1 each of whom cared nothing for the good of the country1 but only how to find the readiest means to supplant his rival4 ,the last words of the boy as he lay on his death-bed were1 ,get ready the sledge6 ,i want to go to my sister6 alluding to the ,princess ,natalia1 the other child of ,alexis who had died three years previously4 ,on his death ,anne1 ,duchess of ,courland1 and daughter of ,ivan1 the elder brother of ,peter1 was called to the throne4 ,after her death1 by a second revolution de palais1 ,elizabeth1 the daughter of ,peter the ,great1 was made sovereign4 ,in this reign her alliance was concluded with ,maria ,theresa of ,austria1 and during the ,seven ,years' ,war1 a large ,russian force invaded ,prussia2 another took ,berlin in #agfj4 ,during the whole of her reign ,elizabeth was under the influence of favourites1 or vremenstchiki1 as the ,russians call them4 ,she appears to have been an indolent1 good-tempered woman1 and exceedingly superstitious4 ,during her reign ,russia made considerable progress in literature and culture4 ,a national theatre1 of which there had been a few germs even at so early a period as the youth of ,peter the ,great1 was thoroughly developed1 and at ,yaroslavl1 ,volkov1 the son of a merchant1 earned such a reputation as an actor1 that he was summoned to ,st4 ,petersburg by ,elizabeth1 who took him under her patronage4 ,dramatists now sprang up on every side1 but at first were merely translators of ,corneille1 ,racine1 and ,moliere4 ,the ,russian arms were successful during her reign1 and the capture of ,berlin in #agfj1 had a great effect upon ,european politics4 ,two years afterwards ,elizabeth died1 and her nephew ,peter ,,iii4 succeeded1 who admired ,frederick the ,great1 and at once made peace with him4 ,this unfortunate man1 however1 only reigned six months1 having been dethroned and put to death by order of his wife1 who became ,empress of ,russia under the title of ,catherine ,,ii4 ,however unjustifiable the means may have been by which ,catherine became possessed of the throne1 and in mere justice to her we must remember that she had been brutally treated by her husband1 and was in hourly expectation of being immured for life in a dungeon by his orders1 she exercised her power to the advantage of the country4 ,in #aggj1 a ,russian fleet appeared for the first time in the ,mediterranean1 and the ,turkish navy was destroyed at ,chesme4 ,by the treaty of ,kutchuk ,kainardji 7#aggd71 ,turkey was obliged to recognize the independence of the ,crimea1 and cede to ,russia a considerable amount of territory4 ,in #aghc1 ,russia gained the ,crimea1 and in #agic1 by the last partition of ,poland1 a very large portion of that country4 ,the subsequent events of the history are well known4 ,paul1 who succeeded ,catherine1 was assassinated in #ahja4 ,the reign of this emperor has been made very familiar to ,englishmen by the highly coloured portrait given by the traveller ,clarke1 who laboured under the most aggravated ,russophobia4 ,that ,paul did many cruel and capricious things does not admit of a doubt1 but he was capable of generous feelings1 and sometimes surprised people as much by his liberality as by his despotic conduct4 ,thus he set ,kosciuscko at liberty as soon as he had ascended the throne2 and there was a fine revenge in his compelling ,orlov to follow the coffins of ,peter and ,catherine1 when by his order they were buried together in the ,petropavlovski church4 ,alexander ,i41 his son1 added ,finland to the ,russian empire1 and saw his country invaded by ,napoleon in #ahab4 ,the horrors of this campaign have been well described by ,segur1 ,wilson1 and ,labaume4 ,at his death in #ahbe1 his brother ,nicholas succeeded1 not without opposition1 which led to bloodshed and the execution of the five ,dekabrists 7conspirators of ,december74 ,the schemes of these men were impracticable2 so little did the common people understand the very rudiments of liberalism1 that when the soldiers were ordered to shout for ,konstitoutzia 7the constitution1 a word the foreign appearance of which shows how alien it was to the national spirit71 one of them naively asked1 if that was the name of the wife of the ,grand ,duke ,constantine4 ,the policy of the ,emperor ,nicholas was one of complete isolation of the country1 and the prevention of his subjects as much as possible from holding intercourse with the rest of ,europe1 hence permission to travel was but sparingly given1 nor were foreigners encouraged to visit ,russia4 ,in #ahbf1 war broke out with ,persia1 the result of which was that the latter power was compelled to cede ,erivan and the country as far as the ,araxes 7or ,aras74 ,russia also made further additions to her territory by the treaty of ,adrianople in #ahbi1 after ,diebich had crossed the ,balkans4 ,in #ahcj1 the great ,polish rebellion broke out1 which was crushed after much bloodshed in ,sept4 #ahca1 by the capture of ,warsaw4 ,in #ahdi1 the ,russians assisted ,austria in crushing the revolt of her ,hungarian subjects4 ,in #ahec broke out the ,crimean ,war1 the details of which are so well known as to require no enumeration4 ,peace was concluded between ,russia and the ,allies1 after the death of the ,emperor ,nicholas in #ahee1 who was succeeded by his son1 ,alexander ,,ii4 ,the two great events of the reign of this monarch have been the emancipation of the serfs in #ahfa1 by which #bb1jjj1jjj received their liberty1 and the war with ,turkey4 ,,church ,,service ,,alfred ,,maskell ,the history of the introduction and early progress of ,christianity in ,russia is involved in obscurity and overlaid with legendary stories4 ,there is little doubt that it came from ,constantinople1 and was not only rapidly spread1 but firmly established in the country within a short space of time4 ,the date most generally accepted is that of the reign of ,vladimir1 the great prince of ,kief1 grandson of ,olga4 ,as ,dean ,stanley remarks in his ,lectures on the ,eastern ,church3 ,it coincides with a great epoch in ,europe1 the close of the ,tenth ,century1 when throughout the ,west the end of the world was fearfully expected1 when the ,latin ,church was overclouded with the deepest despondency1 when the ,papal ,see had become the prey of ruffians and profligates1 then it was that the ,eastern ,church1 silently and almost unconsciously1 bore into the world her mightiest offspring4 ,illustration3 ,,church ,,of ,,the ,,assumption1 ,,moscow4 ,the ,eastern ,church was then at the zenith of its splendour4 ,the envoys sent by ,vladimir to ,constantinople to examine and report upon the religion which he had almost decided to adopt were dazzled with the magnificence of the ceremonial4 ,they were wavering in their choice and weighing the merits of the different systems which had been brought before them4 ,rome they had not seen2 ,mohammedanism was foreign to their tastes2 ,judaism had been found wanting2 but the ,eastern ,church appealed strongly to their imaginations and barbaric love of splendour4 ,hers was ,st4 ,sophia1 magnificent now1 but how much more gorgeous then6 ,every effort was made to win them1 and the victory was easy4 ,the intercourse of the newly formed empire of ,russia with ,byzantium was at that time great4 ,the change of religion had been very sudden and it was necessary to build at once new edifices for the new order of things4 ,it was naturally to ,byzantium that they turned for their form and ornament4 ,very quickly churches arose4 ,novgorod1 the cradle of the ,empire and the capital until the removal to ,kief1 was the ,metropolitan ,see1 and the first cathedral is said to have been built there as early as ,a4 ,d4 #ihi4 ,the form of a ,russian ,church underwent little change up to the ,seventeenth ,century4 ,in the ,thirteenth ,century the architects imported from ,lombardy brought to bear on the exterior the style of the ,lombardic or ,romanesque architecture which had so long prevailed in their own country4 ,the gilded dome or cupola1 of peculiar onion-shaped form which is so especially ,russian1 was added soon afterwards4 ,the central cupola1 which was adopted from the first1 was afterwards surrounded by others2 their number reached even to twenty or thirty1 and it was not until the ,sixteenth ,century at the time of the establishment of the patriarchate 7#aehi71 that these were authoritatively restricted to five1 which is now the orthodox and obligatory number4 ,the practice of having two1 three1 five1 seven1 nine and thirteen cupolas or spires is as early as the ,eleventh ,century4 ,the numbers were figurative2 two signifying the two natures of ,jesus ,christ1 three1 a symbol of the ,trinity1 five1 our ,lord and the four evangelists or the five wounds1 seven1 the seven sacraments1 the seven gifts of the ,holy ,spirit1 or the seven recumenical councils1 nine1 the nine celestial hierarchies1 and thirteen1 our ,lord and the twelve apostles4 ,within the dimensions are small and the light obscure4 ,still1 the simple1 nearly square disposition of the building1 the enormous plain-shafted pillars which support the domes1 the mass of gilding1 the multitude of lamps1 produce an undoubtedly grand effect4 ,it is strikingly oriental2 and as in ,russian churches there are no seats1 but the people stand in a mingled throng1 now and then prostrating themselves and beating their foreheads on the ground1 each as his own devotion may dictate1 the resemblance is still more marked4 ,all the interior is covered with fresco pictures2 even the pillars have gigantic figures of the saints and doctors of the church painted upon them4 ,from the high roof hang immense brass chandeliers of a peculiar form with many branches1 capable of holding hundreds of candles4 ,in the dim distance1 seemingly a wall of gold1 is the iconostas1 the solid screen which in every church divides the sanctuary from the rest of the sacred edifice4 ,the iconostas is in all cases decorated with a large number of holy pictures or icons1 arranged in formal rows one above the other4 ,it is a solid erection from side to side1 from floor to roof1 and in the centre are the royal doors1 through which none may pass but the consecrating priest1 or the emperor3 and the last once only1 at the time of his coronation4 ,at no time is any woman permitted to enter the sanctuary4 ,the iconostas contains sometimes as many as seven rows of images3 that of the ,uspenski ,sobor#a has five4 ,their arrangement is guided by certain rules and restrictions4 ,our ,lord and the blessed ,virgin must be represented on each side of the royal doors1 and on the doors themselves the ,annunciation and the four evangelists4 ,on the side doors angels must be represented4 ,above must be the usual symbol of the ,trinity figured by ,abraham entertaining the three angels4 ,footnote #a3 ,cathedral of the ,assumption1 ,moscow4 ,the whole of the space behind the screen is known as the altar4 ,the altar itself is square1 or rather a double cube4 ,above it four small columns with a canopy form a baldachino2 and the cross is laid flat upon it4 ,here also is placed the tabernacle or zion which is often an architectural structure in pure gold with figures4 ,there are five zions of this kind in the cathedrals of ,st4 ,sophia at ,novgorod and at the ,troitsa monastery4 ,in the apse behind the altar and facing it is the thronos1 the seat of the archbishop1 with seats for priests on either side4 ,besides the icons and holy pictures on the screen 7and in the ,cathedral of the ,assumption the latter contains the most highly venerated in ,russia7 other smaller icons are set apart in various parts of the church4 ,as is now the custom1 though it is comparatively a recent one1 the greater part of the picture1 with the exception of the faces1 hands and feet1 is covered with an embossed and chased plaque in gold or silver-gilt representing the form and garments4 ,glories or nimbuses in high relief set thick with gems surround the faces1 and sparkle as they reflect the light from the multitude of candles burnt in their honour4 ,some are covered to overloading with jewels1 necklets1 and bracelets2 pearls1 diamonds1 and rubies of large size and value adorning them in profusion4 ,the ceremonial of the ,greek church is excessively complex1 and the symbolical meanings by which it represents the dogmas of religion are everywhere made the subjects of minute observance4 ,during the greater part of the mass the royal doors are closed3 the deacons remain for the most part without1 now and again entering for a short time4 ,from time to time a pope or popes pass throughout the church1 amongst the crowds1 incensing all the holy pictures in turn2 the voice of the officiating priest is raised within1 and is answered in deep tones by the deacons without4 ,now from one corner comes a chant of many voices1 now for another a single one in tones 7it may be71 the epistle or gospel of the day4 ,now the doors fly open and a fleeting glimpse is gained of the celebrant through the thick rolling clouds of incense4 ,then they are closed again suddenly4 ,to a stranger unable to follow and in ignorance of the meaning1 the effect is bewildering4 ,in writing1 even generally1 of the arts in ,russia some reference to religious music is excusable4 ,that of ,russia has a peculiar charm of its own1 far above the barbarous discords that are to be heard in ,greek and other churches of the ,east at the present day4 ,there is a sweetness and attractiveness in the unaccompanied chanting of the choir1 in the deep bass tones of the men mingling with the plaintive trebles of younger voices1 which is indescribable in its harmony4 ,it is unlike any other2 yet underneath lies the original tinge of orientalism1 the wailing semitones of all barbaric music4 ,no accompaniment1 no instrumental music of any kind is permitted4 ,bass voices of extraordinary depth and power are the most desired4 ,it is said that the tones now used in the ,russian church are comparatively modern4 ,the principal churches and monasteries in ,russia possess rich stores of vestments2 some of comparatively high antiquity which are preserved with scrupulous care and still used on occasions of great ceremony4 ,in more modern vestments the ancient ornament is to a great extent strictly copied4 ,the saccos1 formerly the principal vestment of the patriarchs and an emblem of sovereign power1 is now common to all ,russian bishops4 ,it is in the shape of a dalmatic1 formed of two square pieces of stuff joined together at the neck and open at the sides1 having wide short sleeves4 ,many of the finest of these vestments are elaborately embroidered in gold and silver and ornamented with figures of saints2 and in the stuffs themselves sacred subjects are often woven4 ,they are also thickly sown with rows of seed-pearls which follow the lines and edgings of the vestment and border the sacred images4 ,they are besides set with enamelled1 nielloed1 or jewelled plaques of gold or silver4 ,texts in ,greek or ,sclavonic often border the whole of the edges of the garment4 ,these are elaborately worked in gold or silver1 or the letters formed completely of seed-pearls4 ,the saccos of the ,metropolitan ,peter 7made in #acbb71 of ,alexis 7#acfd71 of ,photius 7#adad71 and of ,dionysius 7made in #aehc71 are remarkable vestments of this character1 to be found in the patriarchal sacristy at ,moscow4 ,the stoles1 which usually correspond1 are long1 narrow1 and nearly straight-sided to the bottom4 ,a peculiar episcopal ornament is the epigonation4 ,it is a large lozenge-shaped ornament embroidered and worked in a similar manner to the other vestments1 and by bishops is worn hanging from the right side4 ,the usual form of mitre of a pope of the ,russian church is well-known4 ,the earlier kind was a sort of low cap with a border of fur1 something like the cap of a royal crown1 and probably not different in type from the head-dresses of bishops of the west4 ,some are sewn thick with pearls bordering and heightening the lines of the figures of saints1 and forming the outlines of the ,sclavonic inscriptions4 ,such is that of ,joassof1 first patriarch of the ,russian church 7#aeeh74 ,those of later times are often of metal richly set with precious stones4 ,sometimes they assume a more conical form1 surmounted by a cross1 like an imperial crown1 as that which is termed the ,constantinople mitre1 said to have been made in the time of ,ivan the ,terrible4 ,the mitre of the celebrated ,nikon 7#afee71 who aspired to papal prerogatives1 is diadem-shaped and remarkable for the richness of the precious stones with which it is set4 ,the most usual shape recalls to some extent the favourite cupola1 spreading out from the base to the top4 ,the form of the chalice used in the ,russian church varies considerably1 as it does also in that of the ,latin church4 ,in general characteristics the two have much in common4 ,in early times the chalice was made of wood or crystal as well as of gold and silver4 ,an ancient chalice of crystal is preserved in the ,cathedral of the ,assumption at ,moscow1 and the wooden ones of ,,ss4 ,sergius and ,nikon are in the sacristy at ,troitsa4 ,on some old icons our ,lord is represented as giving the holy communion to the apostles out of narrow-necked vessels which appear to be made of alabaster4 ,the ,greek rite for the celebration of the holy eucharist requires three things which are not used in the western church4 ,these are the knife or spear1 the star or asterisk1 and the spoon for the administration of the chalice as the sacrament is received by the laity under both kinds4 ,it may naturally be supposed that such sacred objects would be the subjects of high artistic workmanship4 ,the paten itself is often elaborately enamelled and otherwise decorated1 whereas in the western church the rubrics require it to be plain4 ,the ceremonial of the preparation of the bread 7which is leavened and in the form of a small loaf7 is exceedingly complex4 ,portions are cut out for consecration1 and for this purpose a knife called a spear is used4 ,these portions placed on the paten are covered with a veil1 and in order to prevent the latter from touching the elements a piece of metal is placed over them3 two strips crossed1 and bent so as to have four feet4 ,the tabernacle1 or perhaps more properly ciborium1 is sometimes in the form of a hill or mount of gold or silver-gilt1 or of a temple1 and there are many remarkable examples4 ,one at ,troitsa is of solid gold with the exception of ,judas1 which is of brass4 ,another is in the sacristy of the church of the ,assumption at ,moscow4 ,from its inscription we learn that it was made for the grand duke ,ivan ,vassilievitch in #adhf1 and it is a characteristic specimen of ,russian art of the period4 ,a peculiar ornament or sacred vessel of the ,russo-,greek church is known under the name of panagia1 and of this there are two kinds4 ,one is a jewel or pectoral worn suspended from the neck by bishops1 and is an object on which much care and rich decoration are lavished4 ,in a somewhat altered form it is worn by priests in the same way for carrying the holy sacrament on a journey or to the sick4 ,pectoral crosses for the dignitaries of the church are of course not uncommon2 not only priests1 however1 but every ,russian man1 woman or child carries a small cross1 more or less ornamental4 ,they are various in form and richness of decoration2 from the simple bronze cross1 rudely stamped1 of the peasant1 to the enamelled and jewelled one of the metropolitan or noble4 ,nearly always the plain three-armed cross is set in the centre of another more elaborate or conventional4 ,almost invariably also the sacred monograms and invocations in ,sclavonic characters are engraved in the field4 ,in some cases it is more a medallion than a cross1 the form of the cross being indicated by cutting four segments in the manner of the ancient stone crosses to be seen in many parts of ,england4 ,besides the inscriptions1 emblems such as the spear and nails and crown of thorns are often to be distinguished though conventionally indicated4 ,crosses on church tops are made of silver1 wood1 lead1 and even gold4 ,the open-worked designs of many of them1 although intended to be placed at great height1 are extremely elegant4 ,they were occasionally ornamented with coins1 and those on churches erected by the ,tsar are surmounted by an imperial crown4 ,a crescent as a symbol beneath the cross is very frequent4 ,various explanations of this symbol have been given4 ,according to some it is in remembrance of the victory of the cross over the crescent on the deliverance from the ,mongol yoke4 ,others think it to have originated simply in the freak of some goldsmith1 afterwards copied by others until it came to be accepted as a necessity4 ,it is certain that the use of the crescent is anterior to the ,mongol invasion1 and was an old symbol in ,byzantium1 as appears from coins4 ,the pastoral staff of ,russian bishops is tau-shaped2 and there are many good old examples1 a few in ivory1 but for the most part in silver-gilt4 ,processional crosses are also used4 ,the censer is a piece of church furniture in constant use in the ,russo-,greek church1 and we find several examples very characteristic of ,russian art4 ,as in the west1 the application of architectural forms is very frequent1 and it is not surprising that the peculiarities of ,russian ecclesiastical ornament should be prominent and especially the dome which naturally suggests itself4 ,amongst the objects kept in the sacristy of the patriarchs in the ,cathedral of the ,assumption1 in ,moscow1 is one which is held in special veneration4 ,this is the vase in which is preserved the deposit of holy chrism used in the annual preparation of holy oils for distribution to the various churches of the empire4 ,the preparation of this oil is an occasion of great ceremony in ,holy ,week4 ,from the fourth week in ,lent the preliminary mixings of oil1 wine1 herbs1 and a variety of different ingredients begin4 ,in the ,holy ,week these ingredient are prepared in a public ceremony3 two large boilers1 several bowls and sixteen vases together with other vessels being used4 ,all of these are of great size of massive silver1 and1 presented by ,catherine ,,ii4 in #agfg1 are specimens of silver work of that time4 ,,the ,,creeds ,,of ,,russia ,,ernest ,w4 ,,lowry ,a report was brought to ,basil1 the ,metropolitan of ,moscow1 in the year #acdj1 by merchants of ,novgorod1 who asserted that they had beheld a glimpse of ,paradise from the shores of the ,white ,sea4 ,whether their vision were merely the dazzling reflection of some sunlit iceberg1 or only the glow of poetic imagination1 it so fired the ardour of the mediaeval prelate that he longed to set sail for this golden gleam4 ,be the old legend true or false1 it is certain that to this day the northern ,mujik shows an even more marked religious enthusiasm than his brother of the central governments4 ,fanaticism1 mysticism1 and fatalism go ever hand in hand in ,northern ,russia4 ,the ,empire of the ,tsars being so vast in area and so embracive of races affords space for all forms of belief1 or want of belief1 within her boundaries4 ,all creeds are represented1 from the pagan ,samoyede of the tundras to the ,mohammedan ,tartar of the ,steppes4 ,our concern is with but one of these--the ,old ,believers4 ,but to understand their doctrine1 we must glance at the clergy of the ,state ,church from which they dissent4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,religious ,,procession1 ,,loka4 ,the clergy of the ,orthodox ,russian ,church are divided into ,black or monks of ,st4 ,basil1 and the ,white or parish priests4 ,the latter must be married before they are ordained1 and may not marry again 7which has led to the saying1 ,a priest takes good care of his wife1 for he cannot get another71 while the monasteries1 of course1 require celibacy4 ,from the latter the bishops are elected1 so that they--in contradistinction to the priests--must be single4 ,this system is much condemned by the lower clergy1 who ask pertinently1 ,how can the bishop know the hardships of our lives8 for he is single and well paid1 we poor and married4 ,the rule1 observed elsewhere1 holds good in ,russia1 the poorer the priest1 the larger the family4 ,few village priests receive any regular stipend1 but are allowed a plot of land in the commune wherein they minister4 ,this allowance is generally from thirty to forty dessiatines 7eighty to one hundred and eight acres71 and can only be converted into money1 or food products1 by the labour of the parson and his family upon it--very literally must they put their hand to the plough4 ,priests are paid for special services1 such as christenings or weddings1 at no fixed tariff1 but at a sliding rate1 according to the means of the payer1 the price being arrived at by means of prolonged bargaining between the shepherd and his flock4 ,would-be couples often wait for months until a sum can be fixed upon with his reverence for tying the knot2 and sometimes1 by means of daily haggling1 the amount first asked can be reduced by one-half1 for the cost of the ceremony varies--according to the social status of the happy pair--from ten to one hundred roubles4 ,funerals1 too1 are at times postponed for most unhealthy periods during this process4 ,generally1 however1 the ,white ,clergy#a are so miserably poor that they cannot be blamed for making the best market they can for their priestly offices4 ,whether the system or the salary be at fault it is hard to say1 but from whatever cause the fact remains that the parish clergy of the villages are not always all they might be2 there are many among them who lead upright lives and gain the respect of their parishioners1 but it would be idle to deny that there are many whose thoughts turn more to vodka than piety1 the kabak than the ,church4 ,such shepherds have little in common with the best elements of their flocks1 and much with the worst1 in whose company they are generally seen4 ,footnote #a3 ,the ,white ,clergy wear any colour but that from which they take their name--a deer-skin cap and long felt boots4 ,the poor ,pope spends much of his time going from izba to izba1 giving his blessing and receiving in return drink and a few copecks2 from this come1 all too easily1 the proverbs of his parishioners1 ,am ,i a priest1 that ,i should sup twice8 etc4 ,count ,tolstoi makes his hero remark in the trial scene of the ,resurrection1 when his fellow jurymen are more friendly than he would wish1 ,the son of a priest will speak to me next4 ,but most of them have a side to their natures which1 though not always to be seen1 is1 nevertheless1 latent--the hour of need often lifts them to the lofty plane of their sublime functions2 the labouring--often hungry--peasant of the weekdays becomes on ,sunday exalted above the petty surroundings of ,mujik life1 and becomes indeed the little father of his people4 ,from the ,established ,church of the ,state1 the ,church of the few in the ,north1 let us turn to the old faith1 the ,church of the many4 ,the ,old ,believers1 ,raskolniks1 or dissenters1 are indeed a numerous1 although officially an uncounted1 body in the ,north2 half the trade of ,moscow1 most of that which is ,russian at all1 in the ,port of ,archangel1 all the ,pomor shipping lies in their hands4 ,the word ,raskolnik means1 literally1 one who splits asunder1 and that is just what the ,old ,believer is--one who has split off from the ,orthodox ,church4 ,two hundred and fifty years ago ,nikon1 a friar of ,solovetsk1 an island monastery in the ,white ,sea1 having quarrelled alike with equal and superior1 was set adrift in an open boat2 he reached the mainland at ,ki1 a small cape in ,onega ,bay1 wandered southward to ,olonets1 where he got together a band of followers1 proceeded to ,moscow1 obtained the notice of the throne1 got preferment1 was soon made ,patriarch4 ,he ruled with an iron hand1 made many enemies1 and when at last he obtained from ,mount ,santo1 in ,roumelia1 authentic ,greek ,church-service books1 and1 having had them translated into ,sclavonic1 forced their use upon the ,church1 with the aid of the ,tsar ,alexis1 in the place of those previously in use1 the revolt began in earnest4 ,in addition to the altered service book1 ,nikon introduced a cross with but two beams1 a new stamp for the holy wafer1 a different way of holding the fingers in pronouncing the blessing1 and a new way of spelling the name ,jesus1 to which the ,church was unaccustomed4 ,in each of these changes ,nikon and his party really wished to go back to older and purer forms of ,greek ritual1 but many resisted the alterations1 believing them to be innovations4 ,such was the beginning of ,raskol2 the end is not yet4 ,those who could not accept these reforms1 or returns to older forms1 took up the name of ,staro-obriadtsi1 or ,old ,believers1 holding that theirs was indeed the true old faith of their fathers4 ,for them began1 in very truth a hard time2 a time which has left its mark most clearly upon their descendants to-day4 ,excommunicated and persecuted under ,alexis and ,peter ,i41 they were driven in thousands from their village homes to seek refuge where they could1 in forest1 mountain or island2 a party reaching in the year #agfg1 even to ,kolgueff ,island1 where1 as might be expected1 they perished during the following year from scurvy4 ,to these brave bands of ,old ,believers1 setting forth under their banner of the ,eight-ended ,cross1 to find new homes beyond the reach of persecution1 is1 in large part1 due the colonization of the huge province of ,archangel and the northern portion of ,siberia4 ,that it was not always easy for the ,raskolnik to get beyond the range of official persecutions is shown by many an old ukas1 and by many an old entry in the books of far-distant communes4 ,farther north and farther east1 from forest to tundra and ,steppe were they driven1 spreading as they went their ,russian nationality over regions ,asiatic2 as exiles they settled among ,polish ,romanists1 ,baltic ,protestants1 and ,caucasian ,mussulmans1 and with the heathen ,lapp and ,samoyede1 and ,ostiac1 on the ,murman coast of ,russian ,lapland1 in the bleak ,northern tundra1 on the ,petchora1 and away beyond the ,ural ,spur1 they found at last the rest they sought4 ,their most dangerous enemy was not1 however1 the persecution of the dominant ,church2 they had placed themselves geographically beyond the reach of that3 far more dangerous was further ,raskol--splitting--among themselves1 and it was not long before this overtook them4 ,cut off by their own faith1 as well by excommunication1 from the ,orthodox ,church1 the supply of consecrated priests soon gave out2 they had lost their apostolic succession and could not renew it1 for the one ,bishop--,paul of ,kalomna--who had joined them1 had died in prison1 without appointing a successor4 ,without an episcopate they were soon without a priesthood2 and the vital question1 ,how shall we get priests and through them ,sacraments8 was answered in two ways1 and according to the answer1 so were the ,old ,believers divided into two main sects4 ,one sect declared that1 as there were no longer faithful priests1 they were cut off from all the ,sacraments except ,baptism1 which could be administered by laymen4 ,these ,bespopoftsi1 or priestless people1 were unable to marry2 and to this--in a land where the economic unit1 is not man1 but man and wife1 where the ties of family life are so strong--was due their further splitting4 ,in #ahdf1 however1 they persuaded an outcast bishop to join their ranks1 and founded a ,see at ,bielokrinitzkaga1 in ,austrian ,bukovina1 beyond the ,russian ,empire2 from thence the succession was handed down1 and now after long decades of waiting1 they have bishops and priests of their own4 ,the practice of hiring a priest from the ,orthodox ,church1 to conduct a service for the ,old ,believers1 is still very common in the far ,north1 where all villages have not the means to keep a ,pope of their own2 and many an ,orthodox clergyman thus adds considerably to his precarious income by officiating for those whom his great-grandfathers excommunicated as heretics2 indeed1 the ,government now encourages this practice1 and has made some attempt to heal up the schism by allowing its priests to adopt1 to a slight extent1 the old customs in villages where all the inhabitants are ,raskolniks4 ,this can the more readily be understood when it is remembered that the ,old ,believers hold in all essential points the same creed as the ,orthodox2 they are--and their name implies--believers in the old faith of the ,russian branch of the ,greek ,church1 as expressed since the day of ,st4 ,vladimir until the ,seventeenth ,century1 but not in the so-called innovations of ,nikon4 ,the points of difference are so small that it seems impossible a ,church should by them have been cleft in twain4 ,the ,orthodox sign the ,cross with three fingers extended1 the dissenters with two1 holding that the two raised fingers indicate the dual nature of ,christ1 while the three bent ones represent the ,trinity4 ,it does not seem to have occurred to either party that the reverse holds true as well4 ,the ,orthodox ,cross has but two beams1 while that of the ,raskolnik has four1 and is made of four woods--cypress1 cedar1 palm1 and olive2 the latter1 too1 repeats his ,allelujah thrice1 the ,orthodox but twice4 ,such are the points to which in all probability1 the peopling of the outlying portions of the ,empire of the ,tsars is due4 ,the ,raskolniks have set a far higher value upon education than the ,orthodox2 the instruction given in their settlements often sheds a strong light upon the darkness of ,orthodox ignorance around1 and with the spread of education so does the sect extend and multiply4 ,their house can generally be distinguished by cleanliness1 the presence of many ,eicons1 brass and silver crosses1 and ancient books2 its mistress by her greater thoughtfulness and capability4 ,old ,believers are always glad to seize the opportunity1 given so well by the long northern winter1 with its almost endless night1 of reading1 and on their shelves are seen translations of our best authors1 from whom1 perhaps1 it is that they have taken their advanced political views1 and the outcome of whose perusal is that the hunter and fisherman will often propound to one questions which show a mind well trained in logical thought4 ,the ,raskolnik is generally fairly well to do1 for1 like the ,quaker and the ,puritan1 he finds a turn for business not incompatible with religious exercise1 and to this is in part due the superiority and comfort of their homes4 ,most of them in the far ,north are fishers and hunters1 sealers and sailors1 and in these and kindred trades they make use of better and more modern appliances than their neighbours1 and so generally realize more for their commodities4 ,far from civilization1 in the impenetrable forests of the great lone land of ,archangel1 the fugitive ,raskolniks were able to found retreats for themselves1 untroubled and unobserved2 these refuges still exist1 and are called ,obitel or cells4 ,in the district of ,mezen there are many such establishments1 both for men and women2 among the former the ,anuphief ,hermitage1 or cells of ,koida1 stand in a splendid position1 on the banks of both lake and river ,koida1 some #ajj versts in summer by river1 and #ej in winter1 over ice1 from the town of that name4 ,on ,nonconformist1 as on ,orthodox1 is laid the burden of severe fasting2 as ,master ,chancellour tells us1 in #aeec1 ,this people hath four ,lents1--indeed1 the eating working year is reduced to some #acj days4 ,in the ,north1 where vegetables and berries are few and fruit non-existent1 the ,mujik is left to fast on treska1 rotten codfish--and the condition of the man who begins ,lent underfed is indeed pitiable when he ends it4 ,the endurance of the ,old ,believer is marvellous2 no offer of food will tempt him from what he considers his duty4 ,let us turn our attention from the ,raskolniks1 or ,old ,believers of the far ,north1 who1 as we have seen1 so literally forsook all for their ancient ,faith1 to some few of the many new1 or lately developed creeds whose followers are seeking after truth with equal earnestness and vigour1 but along very different lines4 ,sect begets sect in the world of theology1 much as cell begets cell in the economy of life4 ,change seems the active principle of all dissent2 new cults are forever springing up in the mystic childlike minds of the ,tsar's great peasant family1 nor could one expect uniformity of confession1 when the size and neighbours of that family are considered1 for ,mohammedan1 ,protestant1 ,catholic1 ,buddhist1 and ,shamanist surround it1 are made subject to it1 and eventually become a part thereof4 ,a ,mosque stands opposite the ,orthodox church in the great square which forms the centre of ,nijni-,novgorod1 a ,roman ,catholic and a ,german ,lutheran church almost face the magnificent ,kazan ,cathedral1 in the ,nevski-,prospekt of ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,the waiters of nearly all restaurants1 from ,archangel to ,baku1 are ,mohammedan ,tartars1 the ,jew is in every market-place1 the native heathen races1 ,lapp1 ,samoyede1 ,ostiac1 ,yakout1 and a score of others1 are closely connected by the bonds of commerce3 can it be wondered at if the ideas of the peasant become tinted by his surroundings8 ,it cannot be gainsaid that the lifelessness and emptiness of the ,state ,church1 with its hireling and often ignorant priesthood1 fails to satisfy the great mind of ,russia--the peasant mind--but now awakening from its long infant slumber1 as did the mind of ,western ,europe three centuries ago4 ,next perhaps to the extreme literalness with which the ,mujik interprets ,holy ,writ1 this dissatisfaction with the official ,church is the greatest cause of the grip which the chameleon-like dissent has taken hold of the popular mind4 ,with very few exceptions--notably the ,skoptsy--the #aej sects which are stated to exist within the pale of ,christianity and the borders of the ,empire of the ,tsar1 begin and end with the ,mujik2 the official world is of necessity ,orthodox1 the wealthy world careless1 and this fact1 of the peasant origin and development of the denominations1 must be carefully borne in mind when attempting to form any idea of the widely different meanings and shades of meaning which have been put upon the one ,bible story4 ,of the strictly rational1 and more or less ,protestant1 portion of ,russian dissent1 the ,dukhobortsy1 or ,wrestlers with the ,holy ,spirit1 and their descendants in the faith1 the ,molokans1 or ,milk ,drinkers1 are perhaps the best known to us1 from the fact of their having emigrated to ,english-speaking lands1 and from the valiant championing of their cause by ,count ,l4 ,d4 ,tolstoi4 ,they form the antithesis of the ,old ,believers1 as is well set forth in the conversation between ,a4 ,leroy-,beauleau 7in the ,empire of the ,tsars7 and a fisherman of the persuasion1 who said1 ,the ,raskolniks would go to the block for the sign of the ,cross with two fingers4 ,as for us1 we don't cross ourselves at all1 either with two fingers or with three1 but we strive to gain a better knowledge of ,god2 and1 indeed1 his words may stand for a declaration of the simple faith of his people1 for their worship is marked by a deep contempt for tradition1 dogma1 and ceremony4 ,they have even done away with the church1 and1 as a rule1 use the house of their elders as a meeting-place4 ,communion has been simplified away1 marriage reduced to a simple declaration1 and invocation of ,god's blessing1 the priesthood question1 the rock which first split the ,old ,faith1 solved by making every man a priest in his own family3 surely their motto1 ,the letter killeth1 but the ,spirit giveth life1 has been well acted up to4 ,indeed1 the whole theology of the ,dukhobortsy may be summed up as a bold attempt to depart from the empty ,greek formalism and arrive at a spiritual and unconventional worship1 an enlargement of the outline given in the shortest and grandest of sermons4 ,the ,molokani are said to have obtained this name from taking milk and butter during fast times when they are forbidden to the ,orthodox1 but more probably from the fact of their having colonies on either bank of the river ,molochnaia1 so called from the whiteness of its waters1 due to potassium salts4 ,they are very closely akin to the ,dukhobortsy1 of which sect they are an offshoot4 ,they hope for a millennium1 and to this end tend all their communistic experiments2 for each of their village settlements is striving to manufacture its own earthly ,paradise and run it on its own lines4 ,illustration3 ,,shrine ,,in ,,the ,,convent ,,solovetskii1 ,,kola4 ,the ,stunda is perhaps the largest and most rapidly developing faction of nonconformity1 for it has ramified from ,odessa--its starting point--throughout ,tsarland1 save in the extreme north and north-east4 ,this faith can be traced directly to the influence of certain ,lutherans who emigrated from ,wuertemberg and settled in the fruitful tchenoziom1 or black earth lands1 some half-century ago4 ,the ,stundist organization is much like that of the ,low ,church division of ,protestantism1 save that it has no ordained clergy1 a body whom it regards as a somewhat expensive luxury1 and replaces by elected elders1 who lead the very simple services1 at which any man or woman who feels called upon to do so may say what he or she will4 ,these gatherings are more prayer-meetings than services1 for there is no ,form of ,prayer to be used1 but simply informal prayer1 praise and song in the best room of a farmhouse1 though1 now that the ,government are not so strict in their search after heretics1 regular wooden meeting-houses have appeared in some of the ,stundist villages4 ,if few of the rational sects have committed their history and their views1 or indeed their creeds1 to writing1 lest they should fall into the hands of spies and be used in evidence against them1 much more is this the case with those whose search after truth has led them to forsake the lines of rationalism and enter the land of mysticism and spiritualism4 ,but two of these mystic schisms need we touch upon in this article1 in order to show to what lengths the ,mujik will go in his efforts to escape from the trammels of ,orthodoxy1 and with what logic he will follow up any given line of thought4 ,most of the irrational sects are older than those already mentioned1 and do not seem to have their roots in other lands1 but to be the expression of the ,mujik's own mind in its waking moments3 thus the ,khlystsy--the name is a nickname taken from the word ,khlyst 7a whip7--date back to the early days of the ,seventeenth ,century4 ,they hold that ,christ has made and still makes repeated appearances on earth and in ,russia1 and indeed they are seldom without an incarnate ,god present with them in flesh and blood4 ,the ,khlystsy meet by night1 with the utmost secrecy1 and are reported to dance1 after the manner of the ,dervishes1 with ever-increasing rapidity1 until their feelings are worked up to such a pitch that they are able to receive messages of inspiration1 which they shout out to their fellows4 ,if one of their number has a fit--not an uncommon event in some communes where close intermarriage among relations has been the practice for generations--he is safe to be regarded as an inspired messenger and duly honoured as such4 ,charges of every kind of vice have been laid at the door of the ,khlystsy2 their secret services have been called cloaks for immorality1 and doubtless on occasion have been used as such2 but1 as the character of their congregation stands for high honesty and industry1 it is surely more charitable to assume that their worst feature is their extreme secrecy1 and that this1 when added to the hatred of orthodox marriage which the sect shows1 lies at the base of most of the accusations4 ,closely connected with these dancing ,khlystsy are the jumping ,shakuny1 whose jumps are said to increase in height as do the circular movements of the former1 until the proper state of mind for inspired prophecy is reached4 ,among the stockbrokers and money-changers of ,russian cities1 as well as among peasants1 may be seen the pale and almost hairless face1 wavering voice1 and mild manner of the ,skopets who has put in practice upon himself the strange doctrine of self-mutilation4 ,these ,white ,doves as they call themselves1 base their self-sacrifice upon the literal rendering of such texts as1 ,if thy right eye offend thee1 pluck it out1 ,except a man become as a little child1 he shall not enter into the ,kingdom of heaven1 and argue that in order to be pleasing to ,god1 man--and in some instances woman--must become like the angels1 whom they assert to be sexless1 on the ground that they neither marry nor are given in marriage4 ,we notice the hold which religion1 in its vast variety of forms1 has over the popular mind of ,russia4 ,no one who has visited1 however casually1 a ,russian city can doubt this2 the icon hangs in the station office1 and men bow to it1 the cabman crosses himself ere he drives over a bridge2 shrines are interposed between shops1 many of which latter are devoted to the sale of crucifixes1 swinging lamps and sacred pictures2 green cupolas and golden crosses gleam against the sky1 look which way you will4 ,so it is in the village1 the white wooden church stands out in front of the black wooden houses1 crosses are placed in the cattle pastures to ward off evil spirits1 the folk cross themselves if they yawn1 lest chort1 the devil jump in at their mouth1 and the drunkard1 at the tavern door1 kneels and uncovers as the procession passes on its way1 may be to bless the waters but now released from the winter grip of ice1 or may be to leave some neighbour in the communal graveyard4 ,we notice1 too1 the stern logic with which the peasant theologian follows up the ideas of his sect1 how he works out his own salvation along lines which he himself lays down1 and in so doing invents some new creed almost daily2 for a ,russian newspaper can hardly ever be taken up without seeing the discovery of such in one corner or other of the vast ,empire4 ,that he has the full courage of his opinions1 that he will suffer for conscience' sake--,russian officials only know how bitterly--that he will lay down his life1 or--almost equal sacrifice for him--forsake his land and izba1 and face the future among the wild native races which bound ,european ,tsarland on its north and east--not so very long ago--he suffered the knout and the stake rather than recant one iota of what he thinks to be the only true rendering of the ,biblical text1 all this must in common fairness be allowed to the poor ,russian4 ,,st4 ,,petersburg ,j4 ,,beavington ,,atkinson ,cronstadt1 the strong fortress which stopped the advance of the ,english squadron in the last ,russian war1 is as the water-gate of ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,a bright ,july sun made no unpleasing picture of the huge hulks of the men-of-war1 and of the many-masted merchant ships which lay within the harbour1 or behind the fortifications4 ,passing ,cronstadt the capital soon comes in sight2 the water is so smooth and shallow1 and the banks are so low1 that ,i was actually reminded of the lagoons of ,venice4 ,far away in the distance glittered in the sunlight cupola beyond cupola1 covered with burnished gold or sparkling with bright stars on a blue ground4 ,the river1 stretching wide as an estuary1 was thronged with merchandise as the ,tagus or the ,thames3 yachts were flying before the wind and steam-tugs laboured slowly against the stream1 dragging behind the heavily-laden lighter4 ,warehouses and wharfs and timber-yards now begin to line either bank2 yet the materials for a sketch-book are scanty and uninviting3 an artist who1 like ,mr4 ,whistler1 has etched at ,battersea and ,blackwell1 would find by comparison on the ,neva the forms without character1 the surface without texture1 the masses without light1 shade1 or colour4 ,as the boat advances the imperial city grows in scale and pomp4 ,the river view becomes imposing1 the banks are lined on either side by granite quays1 which for solidity1 strength1 and area1 have no parallel in ,europe4 ,beneath the bridges the unruly river rushes1 bearing along rafts and merchandise1 and in the broad-laid streets people hurry to and fro1 as if the day were too short for the press of business3 only in great commercial capitals1 the centres of large populations1 is life thus rapid and overburdened4 ,throughout ,russia generally time hangs heavily1 but here at the seat of empire1 the focus of commerce1 life under high pressure moves at full speed4 ,i know of no ,european capital1 excepting perhaps ,london and ,vienna1 which leaves on the mind so strong an impression of power1 wealth1 and ostentation1 as the city of ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,possibly the first idea which may strike the stranger on driving from the steamer to the hotel1 is the large scale on which the city has been planned2 the area of squares and streets seems proportioned to the vast dimensions of the ,russian empire3 indeed the silent solitudes of the city may be said to symbolize the desert tracks of central ,russia and ,siberia4 ,only on the continent of ,america is so much land at command1 so large a sweep of territory brought within the circuit of city life4 ,in the old world1 ,munich offers the closest analogy to ,st4 ,petersburg1 and that not only by wide and half-occupied areas1 but by a certain pretentious and pseudo-classic architecture1 common to the two cities alike3 the design of the ,hermitage in fact came from ,munich4 ,st4 ,petersburg1 like ,munich too1 has been forced into rapid growth2 indeed while looking at the works raised by successive ,tsars1 ,i was reminded of the boast of ,augustus that he found ,rome of brick and left her of marble4 ,st4 ,petersburg1 though sometimes decried as a city of shams1 is certainly not surpassed in the way of show by any capital in ,europe4 ,as to natural situation she may be said to be at once fortunate and infelicitous3 the flatness of the land is not redeemed by fertility1 the monotony of the panorama is not broken by mountains2 the city rides as a raft upon the waters1 so heavily freighted as to run the risk of sinking4 ,and yet ,i know of no capital more imposing when taken from the strong points of view4 ,almost beyond parallel is the array of palaces and public buildings which meets the traveller's eye in a walk or sail from the ,english quay up to the ,gardens of the ,summer ,palace4 ,the structures it is true tend a little too much of what may be termed buckram and fustian styles2 indeed there is scarcely a form or a detail which an architect would care to jot down in his note-book4 ,and yet the general effect is grand3 a big river rushing with large volume of water through the arches of bridges1 along granite quays and before marble palaces1 is a noble and living presence in the midst of city life4 ,the waters of the great ,neva and of the little ,neva appear as an omnipresence2 the rivers are in the streets1 and great buildings1 such as the ,admiralty1 the ,fortress1 and the ,cathedral of ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul1 ride as at anchor on a swelling flood4 ,the views from the three chief bridges--,nicholas ,bridge1 ,palace ,bridge1 and ,troitska ,bridge--are eminently palatial and imperial4 ,the ,academy of ,arts1 the ,academy of ,sciences1 ,st4 ,isaac's ,cathedral1 the ,admiralty1 the ,winter ,palace1 the ,hermitage1 and the fortress and cathedral of ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul1 give to the stranger an overpowering impression of the wealth and the strength of the empire4 ,the ,englishman1 while standing on these bridges1 will naturally recall analogous positions on the river ,thames2 such comparison is not wholly to the disadvantage of the northern capital1 yet on the banks of the ,neva rise no structures which in architectural design equal ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral1 ,somerset ,house1 ,westminster ,abbey1 and the ,houses of ,parliament4 ,indeed1 with the exception of the spire of the ,admiralty1 ,i did not find in ,st4 ,petersburg a single new idea4 ,illustration3 ,,st4 ,,petersburg4 ,of the famous ,nevski-,prospekt1 the chief street in ,st4 ,petersburg1 it may be said as of our ,london ,regent ,street1 that it can stand neither weather nor criticism4 ,as to style of architecture1 strictly speaking the ,nevski-,prospekt has none3 the buildings1 consisting of shops1 interspersed with a few churches and public edifices1 so much partake of the modern and mongrel ,italian manner1 that the traveller might easily fancy himself in ,paris1 ,brussels1 or ,turin4 ,few cities are so pretentious in outside appearances as ,st4 ,petersburg1 and yet the show she makes is that of the whited sepulchre3 false construction and rottenness of material1 facades of empty parade1 and plaster which feigns to be stone1 constitute an accumulative dishonesty which has few parallels in the history of architecture4 ,classic pillars and porticos1 which have been thrust in everywhere on slightest pretext1 are often built up of brick covered with cement and coloured yellow4 ,columns1 here the common and constant expedient1 are mostly mismanaged2 they are as it were gratuitous intrusions1 they seem to be stuck on1 they fail to compose with the rest of the building4 ,neither do the architects of ,st4 ,petersburg understand mouldings or the value of shadow1 there is scarcely a moulding in the city which casts a deep1 broad or delicate shadow3 hence the facades look flat and thin as if built of cards4 ,in the same way the details are poor and treated without knowledge2 it thus happens that conceptions bold and grand are carried out incompletely4 ,the great mistake is that the architects have made no attempt to gather together the scattered elements of a national style4 ,with the noteworthy exception of the use of fine1 fanciful and fantastic domes1 often gilt or brightly coloured1 the architecture of ,russian capitals is either ,classic or ,renaissance of the most commonplace description4 ,i shall not think it worth while to dwell on the very many churches which adorn the northern capital1 because1 with few exceptions1 there is nothing in point of art which merits to be recorded4 ,yet ,i can scarcely refrain from again referring to the fine fantasy played by many-coloured domes against the blue sky4 ,the forms are beautiful1 the colours decorative4 ,the city in its sky outline presents a succession of strange pictures1 at one point the eye might seem to range across a garden of gourds1 at other positions peer above house-tops groups which might be mistaken for turbaned ,turks2 and when the sun shines vividly1 and throws glittering light on the patens of bright gold1 over these many-domed churches1 a stranger might almost fancy that above the city floated fire balloons or bright-coloured lanterns4 ,the large cupola of ,st4 ,isaac1 covered with copper overlaid with gold1 has been said to burn on a bright day like the sun when rising on a mountain top4 ,i can never forget the sight when ,i returned to ,st4 ,petersburg from the most brilliant civic and military spectacle ,i ever witnessed1 the fete of the ,empress at ,tsarskoe ,selo4 ,it was still dark1 but before ,i reached my hotel for the short repose of a night which already brightened into morning1 every cupola on the way was awakening into daylight2 the sun1 hesitating for a moment on the horizon1 announced his coming as by electric light on the golden stars which shone on domes more blue than the grey sky of morning4 ,in ,moscow church cupolas playa part in the city panorama still more conspicuous than in ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,the ,cathedral of ,st4 ,isaac is the most costly and pretentious of ,russian churches4 ,the noble edifice has the advantage of a commanding situation2 not1 it is true1 as to elevation--for that is impossible in a city set throughout on a dead level--but the surface area in its wide sweeping circuit at all events contrasts strikingly with that cribbed and cabined church-yard of ,st4 ,paul's in ,london1 which the ,englishman may have just left behind him4 ,yet ,st4 ,isaac's can scarcely venture on comparison with ,st4 ,paul's1 though the style of the two buildings is similar4 ,the great ,cathedral of ,st4 ,petersburg has1 however1 the advantage of that concentration which belongs to the ,greek as distinguished from the ,latin ,cross1 a distinction which has always been to the disadvantage of ,st4 ,peter's in ,rome4 ,a cross of four equal arms1 with columned porticos mounted nobly on steps at the four extremities1 the whole composition crowned by central and surrounding cupolas1 is assuredly an imposing conception1 of which the ,french artist ,m4 ,montferrand has known how to make the most4 ,i may here1 by way of parenthesis1 remark that the two works which do most honour to ,st4 ,petersburg1 the ,cathedral of ,st4 ,isaac and the adjacent equestrian statue of ,peter the ,great1 are severally due not to ,russian but to ,french artists4 ,this is one example among many of the foreign origin of the arts in ,russia4 ,but at all events let it be admitted that the materials used1 as well as the ideas often brought to bear1 are local or national4 ,for example1 the grandest of all architectural conceptions1 the idea of a dome1 is here glorified in true ,russian or ,oriental manner1 not so much by magnitude of proportion as by decorative splendour1 heightened to the utmost by a surface of burnished gold4 ,then the four porticos which terminate each end of the ,greek cross with stately columns and entablatures of granite from ,finland1 albeit in design mere commonplace complications1 are wholly national in the material used4 ,i do not now stop to mention the large and bold reliefs in bronze1 which though ,french in design were1 ,i believe1 cast in ,st4 ,petersburg3 indeed here1 as in ,munich1 the government makes that liberal provision which only governments can make1 for noble but unremunerative art4 ,the great dome is said to be sustained by iron2 indeed the science of construction brought to bear is great1 yet again it must be acknowledged that whether the material be iron1 bronze1 or stone1 the art1 the skill1 and even the commercial capital1 are not ,russian but foreign1 and often ,english4 ,russian workmen1 however1 are employed as mechanics or machines1 partly because in copyism and mechanism ,russian artisans cannot throughout ,europe be surpassed4 ,when ,i got to ,st4 ,petersburg ,i could scarcely believe the statement to be true that the ,english ,magazine and not any ,russian factory had executed the eight stupendous malachite pillars within the church1 weighing about #cd1jjj pounds and costing ,l#b1ejj sterling4 ,yet while the organization might be ,english1 the operatives were ,russians4 ,the unsurpassed malachite pillars combine in the grand altar-screen with columns of lapis-lazuli3 the latter are said to have cost per pair ,l#ab1jjj sterling4 ,i need scarcely observe that this parade of precious metals partakes more of barbaric magnificence than of artistic taste2 indeed these columns of malachite and lapis-lazuli1 which to the eye present themselves as solid and honest1 have been built up as incrustations on hollow cast-iron tubes4 ,thus hollow are the most precious arts of ,russia4 ,justice1 however1 demands that ,i should speak hereafter in fair appreciation of the interiors of ,russian churches1 whereof the ,cathedral of ,st4 ,isaac is among the chief4 ,nevertheless1 material rather than mind1 money rather than art1 is the governing power2 malachite1 lapis-lazuli1 gold1 and other precious substances are heaped together profusely1 yet no architect in ,europe of the slightest intellectual pretensions1 would care to look a second time at the constructive or decorative conceptions which the churches of ,st4 ,petersburg display4 ,st4 ,isaac's in fact is miraculous only in its monoliths4 ,i could scarcely believe my eyes when first ,i stood beneath the stately porticos and looked from top to bottom of the very many columns1 seven feet in diameter and sixty feet high1 all polished granite monoliths from ,finland4 ,already ,i had made the assertion that there was nothing new in ,st4 ,petersburg when these granite monoliths at once compelled a recantation4 ,the monoliths in ,st4 ,petersburg are so exceptional in number and often so gigantic in dimension as to call for special mention4 ,the monolith obelisks of ancient ,egypt are scarcely more remarkable4 ,in addition to the magnificent columns1 each sixty feet high1 which sustain the four porticos of the ,cathedral of ,st4 ,isaac1 are fifty-six monoliths1 also of granite from ,finland1 thirty-five feet high in the ,kazan ,cathedral2 likewise the noble entrance-hall of the ,hermitage is sustained by sixteen monoliths1 and the magnificent room which receives the treasures from the ,cimmerian ,bosphorus has the support of twenty monoliths4 ,but the greatest single block of modern times stands in front of the ,winter ,palace1 as a monument to ,alexander ,i4 ,the height is eighty-four feet1 and the weight nearly four hundred tons4 ,the story goes that the contractor in ,finland1 finding that he had exceeded the required length1 actually cut off ten or fifteen feet4 ,the vast granite quarries of ,finland supply the ,tsars with these stupendous columns1 just as the granite quarries of ,syene on the ,nile furnished the ,pharaohs with obelisks4 ,these enormous masses are too heavy to be conveyed on wheels1 the only practicable mode of transit is on rollers4 ,in this way each of the sixty-feet columns for ,st4 ,isaac's was transported across country all the way from ,finland4 ,each column represents so incredible an amount of labour as to make it evident that monoliths are luxuries in which only emperors can indulge4 ,and even when these heavy weights have reached their destination the difficulty next occurs how to secure a solid foundation4 ,st4 ,petersburg was once a swamp1 and so rotten is the ground that it would be quite possible for a monolith to sink out of sight and never more be heard of4 ,to provide against such contingencies a forest of piles was driven into the earth at the cost of ,l#bjj1jjj as the foundation of ,st4 ,isaac1 and yet the cathedral sinks4 ,like causes render the roads of ,st4 ,petersburg the worst in ,europe2 winter frosts1 which penetrate several feet below the surface1 seize on the imprisoned waters and tear up the streets4 ,the surface thus broken is so destructive to wheels that ,i have known an ,englishman1 who1 though he kept four carriages1 had not one in a condition to use4 ,the jolting on the roads is so great as to make it wise for a traveller to hold on fast1 and when a lady and gentleman ride side by side1 it is usual for the gentleman to protect the lady by throwing his arm round his companion's waist4 ,this delicate attention is so much of a utilitarian necessity as in no way to imply further obligations4 ,st4 ,petersburg is considerably indebted to the art of sculpture3 public monuments adorn her squares and gardens4 ,indeed the art of sculpture has1 like the sister arts of architecture and painting1 been forced into preternatural proportions4 ,in the large area within sight of the church of ,st4 ,isaac and of the ,admiralty1 stands conspicuously one of the few successful equestrian statues in modern or ancient times1 the colossal bronze to ,peter the ,great4 ,the huge block of granite1 which is said to weigh upwards of #ae1jjj tons1 was conveyed from a marsh1 four miles distance from ,st4 ,petersburg1 by means of ropes1 pulleys1 and windlasses1 worked by men and horses4 ,a drummer stationed on the rock itself gave the signal for onward movement4 ,it would seem that the methods used in ,russia to this day for transporting granite monoliths1 are curiously similar to the appliances of the ancient ,egyptians for moving like masses4 ,in point of art this equestrian statue1 though grand in conception1 is1 after the taste of barbarous nations1 colossal in size4 ,peter the ,great is eleven feet in stature1 the horse is seventeen feet high4 ,the nobility lies in the action1 the horse rears on his hind legs after the favourite manner of ,velasquez in well-known equestrian portraits of ,ferdinand ,,iv4 ,the attitude assumed by the great ,emperor is triumphant1 the fiery steed has dashed up the rock and pauses as in mid-air on the brink of the precipice4 ,the idea is that ,peter the ,great surveys from the height the capital of his creation1 as it may be supposed to rise from the waters4 ,his hand is stretched forth for the protection of the city4 ,this work1 like many other proud achievements in the empire1 unfortunately is not ,russian4 ,the design is due to the ,frenchman ,falconet2 ,marie ,callot is said to have modelled the head1 and the casting was done by ,martelli1 an ,italian4 ,falconet1 in order to be true to the life1 carefully studied again and again a fine ,arab horse1 mounted by a ,russian general who was famous as a rider2 the general day by day made a rush up a mound1 artificially constructed for the purpose1 and when just short of the precipice the horse was reined in and thrown on its hind legs4 ,the artist watched the action and made his studies2 the work accordingly has nature1 movement1 vigour4 ,i may here mention that ,i have nowhere found such large masses of stone conveyed from place to place as here in ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,it is true ,i have seen marble fresh from the mountains of ,carrara tugged along by teams of bullocks1 but ,i have nowhere witnessed so much power brought to bear as in the transit of the granite used in the immense memorial to the ,empress ,catherine4 ,the art collections in ,st4 ,petersburg may give the traveller pleasant occupation for several weeks2 indeed if the tourist be an art student he will find work for months4 ,the ,winter ,palace1 adjoining the ,hermitage1 on the ,neva1 is like the palace at ,versailles1 conspicuous for rooms or galleries commemorative of military exploits4 ,here are well-painted battle-pieces by ,willewalde and ,kotzbue1 also naval engagements by ,aivasovsky1 highly coloured as a matter of course4 ,likewise are hung the best battle-pieces ,i have ever seen1 by ,peter ,hess1 the renowned ,bavarian painter1 who appears to less credit in ,munich than in the ,winter ,palace1 ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,also may be noted the portrait of ,alexander ,i4 by ,dawe1 the ,englishman1 who worked much in ,russia4 ,here likewise is the imperial gallery of portraits of all the sovereigns of the reigning ,russian house4 ,i pass over these multitudinous works thus briefly1 because1 though the collection is of importance in the history of the empire1 it has little value in art4 ,the ,crown ,jewels ,i shall not attempt to describe2 no description of jewels can be worth much4 ,i may venture to say1 however1 that after seeing all the royal jewellery in ,europe1 ,i found these ,russian crowns1 sceptres1 etc41 richer in diamonds than any other4 ,also pearls1 rubies1 ,siberian aqua-marines1 etc41 add colour and splendour to the imperial treasure4 ,the comparison on the spot1 which ,i not unnaturally instituted1 was with the imperial treasury at ,vienna4 ,next1 a word may be given to the room in which the proud1 stern1 and unrelenting ,nicholas died1 where all is kept intact as he left it4 ,i have seldom been more impressed than with this small1 simple1 and almost penurious apartment1 so striking in contrast with the splendour of the rest of the palace4 ,silence1 solitude1 and solemnity all the more attach to the spot from the statement to which credence is given that the great emperor1 on learning of the reverses in the ,crimea1 here committed suicide4 ,in other words1 it is said that he directed his physician to prepare a medicine which after having taken he died4 ,the sword1 helmet1 and grey military cloak are where he laid them4 ,here lies a historic tragedy which remains to be painted2 one of the most dramatic pictorial scenes in ,europe1 the death of ,wallenstein in ,schiller's drama1 painted by ,professor ,piloty and now in the new ,pinakothek1 ,munich1 might in the death of the great ,nicholas find a parallel4 ,the emperor lies buried with all the sovereigns of ,russia since the foundation of ,st4 ,petersburg1 in the cathedral fortress of ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul4 ,nothing in ,europe is grander in the simplicity and silence which befit a sepulchre--not even the imperial tombs in ,vienna--than this stately mausoleum of the ,tsars4 ,the ,emperor ,nicholas lies opposite to ,peter the ,great4 ,in the ,hermitage1 or rather in the ,winter ,palace1 is a gallery illustrative of the life and labours of ,peter the ,great4 ,the collection1 besides turning-lathes and other instruments with which the monarch worked1 contains curiosities1 knickknacks1 as well as some works of real art value3 the connecting point of the whole collection is in ,peter himself4 ,an analogous collection was some years ago opened in the ,louvre as the ,museum of ,napoleon ,i4 ,dynasties all the world over thus seek to perpetuate their memories4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,hermitage1 ,,st4 ,,petersburg4 ,the ,academy of ,fine ,arts is a noble institution1 imposing in its architecture1 and richly endowed4 ,the ,corps des ,mines must also be visited1 the collection of minerals proves the amazing riches of ,european and ,asiatic ,russia4 ,i wish ,i had knowledge and space to describe this unexampled collection1 which though not falling within my art province has direct art relations4 ,nothing beauteous or wondrous in nature lies beyond the sphere of art2 the forms of crystals1 the colours of precious stones are specially objects of delight to the artist's eye4 ,the ,imperial ,public ,library is one of the richest libraries in ,europe2 its literary treasures can hardly be overrated2 ,i regret that ,i cannot enter into its contents4 ,private collections1 though scarcely numerous1 are choice2 the celebrated ,leuchtenberg ,gallery1 formerly in ,munich1 is the richest4 ,the royal residences of ,peterhof and ,tsarshoe ,selo ,i also found to contain much in the way of art1 and yet scarcely of sufficient importance to need special description4 ,the ,imperial ,hermitage alone repays a journey to ,st4 ,petersburg2 for a whole fortnight ,i visited almost every day the picture and sculpture galleries of this vast and rich museum1 and in the end ,i left with the feeling that ,i had done but inadequate justice to these valuable and exhaust-less collections4 ,i am tolerably well acquainted with the great museums in the south and west of ,europe1 and ,i was interested to find that the ,hermitage does not suffer by comparison with the ,vatican1 the ,museum of ,naples1 the ,galleries of ,florence1 the ,louvre in ,paris1 or the ,great ,picture ,gallery in ,madrid4 ,in some departments1 indeed1 ,st4 ,petersburg has the advantage over other capitals2 the collection of gold ornaments from ,kertch is not surpassed by the gold work in the ,etruscan room of the ,vatican2 the coins are not inferior to the numismatic collections in ,paris1 or in the ,british ,museum2 the ,dutch pictures are not to be equalled save in ,holland or in ,dresden2 the ,spanish school has no competitor save in ,madrid and ,seville2 the portraits by ,vandyck1 and the sketches by ,rubens1 are only surpassed in ,england and ,bavaria4 ,it is thus obvious that the collective strength of the assembled collections1 is very great4 ,the picture galleries contain more than #a1ejj works2 the number of drawings is upwards of #ejj1 the coins and medals amount to #bjj1jjj1 the painted vases are above #a1gjj1 the ancient marbles number #cfa1 and the collection of gems is one of the largest in existence4 ,the ,hermitage has been enriched partly to the prejudice of other cities or palaces4 ,from the ,tauris ,palace came classic sculpture4 ,tsarshoe ,selo also furnished contributions4 ,the policy has been to make one astounding museum1 which shall represent not a capital but an empire1 and stand before the world as the exponent of the wealth1 the resource1 and the refined taste of the nation and its rulers4 ,,finland ,,harry ,,de ,,windt ,what sort of a place is ,finland8 asked a friend whom ,i met1 on my return from that country1 in ,london4 ,very much the same as ,lapland1 ,i suppose8 ,snow1 sleighs1 and bears1 and all that kind of thing8 ,my friend was not singular in his idea1 for they are probably those of most people in ,england4 ,at present ,finland is a terra incognita1 though fortunately not likely to remain one4 ,nevertheless1 it will probably take years to eradicate a notion that one of the most attractive and advanced countries in ,europe1 possessed in summer of the finest climate in the world1 is not the eternal abode of poverty1 cold1 and darkness4 ,it was just the same before the railway opened up ,siberia and revealed prosperous cities1 fertile plains1 and boundless mineral resources to an astonished world4 ,a decade ago my return from this land of civilization1 progress1 and1 above all1 humanity was invariably met by the kind of question that heads this chapter1 with the addition1 as a rule1 of facetious allusions to torture and the knout6 ,my ignorance1 however1 of ,finland as she really is was probably unsurpassed before my eyes were opened by a personal inspection1 so ,i cannot afford to criticise4 ,what is ,finland1 and what are its geographical and climatic characteristics8 ,i will try to answer these questions briefly and clearly without wearying the reader with statistics4 ,in the first place1 ,finland 7in ,finnish1 ,suomi7 is about the size of ,great ,britain1 ,holland1 and ,belgium combined1 with a population of about #b1ejj1jjj4 ,its southern and western shores are washed by the ,baltic ,sea1 while ,lake ,ladoga and the ,russian frontier form the eastern boundary4 ,finland stretches northward far beyond the head of the ,gulf of ,bothnia1 where it joins ,norwegian territory4 ,there are thirty-seven towns1 of which only seven have a population exceeding #aj1jjj1 viz41 ,helsingfors1 ,abo1 ,tammerfors1 ,viborg1 ,uleaborg1 ,vasa 7,nikolaistad71 and ,bjorneborg4 ,finland is essentially a flat country1 slightly mountainous towards the north1 but even her highest peak 7,haldesjock1 in ,finnish ,lapland7 is under #d1jjj feet in height4 ,south of this a hill of #cjj feet is called a mountain2 therefore ,alpine climbers have no business here4 ,the interior may be described as an undulating plateau largely composed of swamp and forest1 broken with granite rocks and gravel ridges and honeycombed with the inland waters known as ,the ,thousand ,lakes 7although ten thousand would be nearer the mark71 one of which is three times the size of the ,lake of ,geneva4 ,the rivers are small and unimportant1 the largest being only about the size of the ,seine4 ,on the other hand1 the numerous falls and rapids on even the smallest streams render their ascent in boats extremely difficult and often impossible4 ,but lakes and canals are the natural highways of the country2 rivers are only utilized as a motive power for electricity1 manufactories1 and for conveying millions of logs of timber yearly from the inland forests to the sea4 ,a curious fact is that1 although many parts of the interior are far below the level of the ,baltic1 the latter is gradually but surely receding from the coast1 and many hitherto submerged islets off the latter have been left high and dry by the waves4 ,you may now in places walk from one island to another on dry land1 which1 fifty years ago1 was many fathoms under water1 while signs of primitive navigation are constantly being discovered as far as twenty miles inland6 ,it is therefore probable that the millions of islands which now fringe these shores1 formed1 at some remote period1 one continuous strip of land4 ,how vessels ever find their way1 say from ,hangoe to ,nystad1 is a mystery to the uninitiated landsman4 ,at a certain place there are no less than #cjj islands of various sizes crowded into an area of six square miles6 ,heaven preserve the man who finds himself there1 in thick weather1 with a skipper who does not quite know the ropes6 ,the provinces of which the ,grand ,duchy is composed are as follows1 running from north to south3 7#a7 ,finnish ,lapland1 7#b7 ,ostrobothnia1 7#c7 ,satakunta1 7#d7 ,tavastland1 7#e7 ,savolax1 7#f7 ,karelia1 7#g7 ,finland proper1 7#h7 ,nyland1 and 7#i7 the ,aland ,islands4 ,finnish ,lapland may be dismissed without comment1 for it is a wild1 barren region1 sparsely populated by nomad tribes1 and during the summer is practically impassable on account of its dense forests1 pathless swamps1 and mosquitoes of unusual size and ferocity4 ,in winter-time journeys can be made quickly and pleasantly in sledges drawn by reindeer1 but at other times the country must be crossed in cranky canoes by means of a network of lakes and rivers2 and the travelling is about as tough as monotony1 short rations1 and dirt can make it4 ,i am told that gold has lately been discovered there1 but it would need a considerable amount of the precious metal to tempt me into ,finnish ,lapland in summer-time4 ,ostrobothnia1 which lies immediately south of this undesirable district1 contains the towns of ,tornea and ,uleaborg4 ,we will pass on to the provinces of ,central ,finland1 viz41 ,tavastland1 ,savolax1 and ,karelia4 ,the ,finns say that this is the heart of their country1 while ,helsingfors and ,tammerfors constitute its brains4 ,so crowded and complicated is the lake system in this part of ,finland that water almost overwhelms dry land1 and the district has been likened to one huge archipelago4 ,forests abound1 especially in ,tavastland1 whence timber is exported in large quantities1 while agriculture flourishes in all these provinces4 ,crops are generally grown in the valleys1 while in other parts the sides and summits of the hills are usually selected for cultivation4 ,large tracts of country about here once laid out for arable are now converted into grazing grounds1 for the number of cattle is yearly on the increase4 ,dairy-farming is found to be more profitable and less risky than the raising of wheat and barley in a land where one night of frost sometimes destroys the result of a whole year's patient care and labour4 ,the land is cleared for cultivation by felling and burning1 and it is then ploughed in primitive fashion and sown1 but only one harvest is generally gathered on one spot4 ,the latter is then deserted1 and the following year another patch of virgin soil takes its place4 ,there is thus a good deal of waste1 not only in land1 but also in trees1 which are wantonly cut down for any trifling purpose1 regardless of their value or the possible scarcity in the future of timber4 ,accidental forest fires also work sad havoc at times1 destroying thousands of pounds' worth of timber in a few hours4 ,pine resin burns almost as fiercely as petroleum1 and it sometimes takes days to extinguish a conflagration4 ,many of the poorer people in the central provinces live solely by fishing in the lakes teeming with salmon1 which find a ready market both salted and fresh4 ,there is plenty of rough shooting to be had for the asking1 but no wild animals of any size4 ,in the far north bears are still numerous1 and elk were formerly obtainable4 ,a few of the latter still exist in the wilder parts of the country1 but it is now forbidden to kill them4 ,some years ago the forests of ,tavastland were infested with wolves1 and during one fatal season a large number of cattle and even some children were devoured1 but a battue organized by the peasantry cleared the brutes out of the country4 ,you may now shoot hares here1 and any number of wild fowl1 but that is about all4 ,the remainder of ,finland consists of ,finland proper and ,nyland on the south and south-western coasts1 and as these comprise not only the capital1 but also the large towns of ,abo and ,viborg1 they may be regarded as the most important1 politically1 commercially1 and socially1 in the country4 ,here lakes are still numerous1 but insignificant in size compared with those of the interior4 ,on the other hand1 the vegetation is richer1 for the oak1 lime1 and hazel do well1 and the flora1 both wild and cultivated1 is much more extensive than in the central and northern districts4 ,several kinds of fruit are grown1 and ,nyland apples are famous for their flavour1 while very fair pears1 plums1 and cherries can be bought cheaply in the markets4 ,currants and gooseberries are1 however1 sour and tasteless4 ,in these southern districts the culture of cereals has reached a perfection unknown further north1 for the farms are usually very extensive1 the farmers up to date1 and steam implements in general use4 ,dairy-farming is also carried on with excellent results and yearly increasing prosperity4 ,amongst the towns1 ,bjorneborg1 ,nystad1 ,hangoe1 and ,kotka will in a few years rival the capital in size and commercial importance4 ,the last on the list is the ,aland archipelago1 which consists of one island of considerable size surrounded by innumerable smaller ones1 and situated about fifty miles off the south-western coast of ,finland4 ,here1 oddly enough1 ,nature has been kinder than almost anywhere on the mainland1 for although the greater part of the island is wild and forest-clad1 the eternal pines and silver birch-trees are blended with the oak1 ash and maple1 and bright blossoms such as may and hawthorn relieve to a great extent the monotonous green foliage of ,northern ,europe4 ,that the ,alander has much of the ,swede in his composition is shown by the neatness of his dwellings and cleanly mode of life4 ,he is an amphibious creature1 half mariner1 half yeoman1 a sober1 thrifty individual1 who spends half of his time at the plough-tail and the other half at the helm4 ,fishing for a kind of small herring called stroemming is perhaps the most important industry1 and a lucrative one1 for this fish 7salted7 is sent all over the country and even to ,russia proper4 ,farming is a comparatively recent innovation1 for the ,alanders are born men of the sea1 and were once reckoned the finest sailors in ,finland4 ,less than a century ago ,aland harboured a fine fleet of sailing-ships owned by syndicates formed amongst the peasantry1 and engaged in a profitable trade with ,great ,britain and ,denmark4 ,but steamers have knocked all this upon the head1 and the commercial future of the islands would now seem to depend chiefly upon the fishing and agricultural industries4 ,the population of these ,islands is under #be1jjj1 of which the small town of ,mariehamm1 the so-called capital1 contains about #gjj souls4 ,steamers touch here1 so that there is no difficulty in reaching the place1 which is certainly worth a visit not only for its antiquity 7the ,alands were inhabited long before the mainland71 but on account of the interesting ruins it contains--amongst them the ,castle of ,castelholm1 built by ,birger ,jarl in the ,fourteenth ,century1 and the time-worn walls of which could tell an interesting history4 ,a part of the famous fortress of ,bomarsund1 destroyed by an ,anglo-,french fleet in #ahed1 may also be seen not far from ,mariehamm4 ,plain but decent fare may be obtained here1 but the fastidious will do well to avoid the smaller villages1 where the ,alander's diet generally consists solely of seal-meat1 salt fish1 bread and milk4 ,a delicacy eaten with gusto by these people is composed of seal-oil and the entrails of sea-birds1 and is almost identical with one ,i saw amongst the ,tchuktchis on ,bering ,straits4 ,and yet the ,alanders are cleanly enough in their habits and the smallest village has its bath-house4 ,at one time ,aland was famous for sport1 and in olden days ,swedish sovereigns visited the island to hunt the elk1 which were then numerous4 ,but these and most other wild animals are now extinct and even wild fowl are scarce4 ,only one animal appears to thrive1--the hedgehog2 but the natives do not appear to have discovered its edible qualities4 ,an ,english tramp could enlighten them on this point4 ,illustration3 ,,helsingfors1 ,,finland ,the entire population of ,finland amounts to rather over #b1ejj1jjj1 including a considerable number of ,swedes1 who are found chiefly in the ,aland ,islands1 ,nyland1 and ,finland proper4 ,helsingfors1 the capital1 contains over #hj1jjj souls1 and ,kemi1 the smallest town1 near the northern frontier1 under #djj4 ,of the other cities1 ,abo has #cj1jjj1 ,tammerfors1 #be1jjj1 and ,viborg1 #bj1jjj inhabitants4 ,i should add that there is probably no country in creation where the population has so steadily increased1 notwithstanding adverse conditions1 as ,finland4 ,after the ,russian campaign of #agba the country contained barely #bej1jjj souls1 and yet1 although continually harassed by war and its attendant evils1 these had increased thirty years later to #eee1jjj4 ,fifty years ago the ,finns numbered #a1ejj1jjj1 and the latest census shows nearly double these figures1 although in #ahfh pestilence and famine swept off over #ajj1jjj victims4 ,the languages spoken in the ,grand ,duchy are ,finnish and ,swedish1 the former being used by at least eighty-five per cent4 of the population4 ,russian-speaking inhabitants number about #e1jjj1 while the ,lapps amount to #a1jjj only1 other nationalities to under #c1jjj4 ,although ,swedish is largely spoken in the towns1 ,finnish only is heard1 as a rule1 in the rural districts4 ,there is scarcely any nobility in the country1 if we except titled ,swedish settlers4 ,most ,finns belong to the middle class of life1 with the exception of a few families ennobled in #ahji by the ,tsar of ,russia on his accession as ,grand ,duke of ,finland4 ,the lower orders are generally quiet and reserved in their demeanour1 even on festive public occasions1 and make peaceable1 law-abiding citizens4 ',arry is an unknown quantity here1 and ',arriet does not exist4 ,a stranger will everywhere meet with studied politeness in town and country4 ,drive along a country road1 and every peasant will raise his hat to you1 not deferentially1 but with the quiet dignity of an equal4 ,the high standard of education1 almost legally exacted from the lowest classes in ,finland1 is unusually high1 for the most illiterate plough boy may not marry the girl of his choice until he can read the ,bible from end to end to the satisfaction of his pastor1 and the same rule applies to the fair sex4 ,the climate of ,finland is by no means so severe as is generally imagined4 ,as a matter of fact1 no country of a similar latitude1 with the exception of ,sweden1 enjoys the same immunity from intense cold4 ,this is owing to the ,gulf ,stream1 which also imparts its genial influence to ,scandinavia4 ,in summer the heat is never excessive1 the rainfall is insignificant1 and thunderstorms are rare4 ,july is the warmest1 and ,january the coldest month1 but the mean temperature of ,helsingfors in mid-winter has never fallen below that of ,astrakhan1 on the ,caspian ,sea4 ,the weather is1 however1 frequently changeable1 and even in summer the thermometer often rises or falls many degrees in the space of a few hours4 ,you may sit down to dinner in the open air in ,helsingfors in your shirt-sleeves1 and before coffee is served be sending home for a fur coat4 ,but this is an unusual occurrence1 for a summer in ,finland has been my most agreeable climatic experience in any part of the world4 ,the winter is unquestionably hard1 and lasts about six months1 from ,november till the middle of ,april4 ,at ,christmas time the sun is only visible for six hours a day4 ,the entire surface of the country1 land1 lake1 and river1 then forms one vast and frozen surface of snow1 which may be traversed by means of sledge1 snowshoes1 or ski4 ,a good man on the last-named will easily cover his seven miles an hour4 ,although tourists generally affect this country in the open season1 a true ,finlander loves the winter months as much as he dislikes the summer4 ,in his eyes boredom1 heat1 and mosquitoes are a poor exchange for merry picnics on ski1 skating contests1 and sledge expeditions by starlight with pretty women and gay companions1 to say nothing of the nightly balls and theatre and supper parties4 ,helsingfors is closed to navigation from ,november until ,june1 for the sea forms an icy barrier around the coast of ,finland1 now no longer impenetrable1 thanks to the ice-breakers at ,hangoe4 ,in the north the ,gulf of ,bothnia is frozen for even longer4 ,towards ,april winter shows signs of departure4 ,by the middle of ,may ice and snow have almost disappeared1 except in the north1 where ,uleaborg is1 climatically1 quite three weeks behind any of the southern towns4 ,before the beginning of ,june verdure and foliage have reappeared in all their luxuriance1 and birds and flowers once more gladden field and forest with perfume and song4 ,even now an occasional shower of sleet besprinkles the land1 only to melt in a few minutes1 and leave it fresher and greener than before4 ,may and ,june are1 perhaps1 the best months1 for ,july and ,august are sometimes too warm to be pleasant4 ,october and ,november are gloomy and depressing4 ,never visit ,finland in the late autumn1 for the weather is then generally dull and overcast1 while cold1 raw winds1 mist and sleet1 are not the exception4 ,midwinter and midsummer are the most favourable seasons1 which offer widely different but equally favourable conditions for the comfort and amusement of the traveller4 ,and1 if possible1 choose the former1 if only for one reason4 ,no one who has ever witnessed the unearthly beauty of a summer night in ,finland is likely to forget it4 ,the ,arctic ,circle should1 of course1 be crossed to witness the midnight sun in all its glory1 but ,i doubt if the quiet crepuscule 7,i can think of no other word7 of the twilit hours of darkness is not even more weird and fascinating viewed from amid silent streets and buildings than from the sullen dreariness of an ,arctic desert1 which is generally 7in summer7 as drab and as flat as a biscuit4 ,in ,arctic ,lapland1 where for two months the sun never sinks below the horizon1 you may read small print without difficulty throughout the night between ,june and ,august4 ,this would be impossible in ,helsingfors1 where nevertheless from sunset till dawn it is never quite dark4 ,in the far north the midnight sun affords a rather garish light2 down south it sheds grey but luminous rays1 so faint that they cast no shadows1 but impart a weird and mysterious grace to the most commonplace surroundings4 ,no artist has yet successfully portrayed the indescribable charm and novelty of a summer night under these conditions1 and1 in all probability1 no artist ever will6 ,his ,majesty the ,tsar's manifesto has not as yet 7outwardly1 at any rate7 ,russianized the capital of ,finland4 ,it will probably take centuries to do that1 for ,finland1 like ,france1 has an individuality which the combined ,powers of ,europe would be puzzled to suppress4 ,a stranger arriving at the railway station of ,helsingfors1 for instance1 may readily imagine himself in ,germany1 ,austria1 or even ,switzerland1 but certainly not within a thousand miles of ,petersburg4 ,everything is so different1 from the dapper stationmaster with gold-laced cap of ,german build down to the porters in clean white linen blouses1 which pleasantly contrast with the malodorous sheepskins of unwashed ,russia4 ,at ,helsingfors there is nothing1 save the soldiery1 to remind one of the proximity of ,tsarland4 ,and out in the country it is the same4 ,the line from ,mikkeli traverses a fair and prosperous district1 as unlike the monotonous scenery over the border as the proverbial dock and daisy4 ,here are no squalid hovels and roofless sheds where half-starved cattle share the misery of their owners2 no rotting crops and naked pastures2 but snug homestead1 flower gardens1 and neat wooden fences encircling fields of golden grain and rich green meadow land4 ,to travel in ,southern ,finland after ,northern ,russia is like leaving the most hideous parts of the ,black ,country to suddenly emerge into the brightness and verdure of a sunlit ,devonshire4 ,,lapland ,,alexander ,,platonovich ,,engelhardt ,the ,peninsula of ,kola1 which forms the ,district of that name1 extends about #fej versts1 or #dcc miles1 from west to east1 from the frontiers of ,norway and ,finland to the ,white ,sea1 and about #djj versts1 or #bff miles1 from north to south1 from the ,arctic ,ocean to the ,gulf of ,kandalax1 covering an area of #aca1hfj square versts1 or #cg1jbb1djj acres4 ,the coast belt from the ,norwegian border-line to ,holy ,cape 7or ,sweet-nose71 is called the ,murman ,coast1 or simply the ,murman2 the eastern and south-eastern part1 from ,holy ,cape along the ,white ,sea to the mouth of the ,varzuga1 goes by the name of the ,tierski ,coast2 and the southern part1 from the ,varzuga to ,kandalax1 the ,kandalax ,coast2 whilst the whole of the interior bears the name of ,russian ,lapland4 ,the surface of the ,peninsula is either mountainous1 or covered with tundras 7i4 e41 moss-grown wilds71 and swamps4 ,the ,scandinavian mountain range1 which divides ,sweden from ,norway1 extending to the ,kola ,peninsula1 breaks up into several separate branches4 ,along the shores of the ,murman they form craggy coast cliffs1 rising at times to an elevation of #ejj feet4 ,further to the east they become gradually lower1 so that near the ,white ,sea they seldom exceed fifty or one hundred feet1 with less precipitous descents4 ,the reach their greatest height further inland1 to the east of ,lake ,imandra1 where they form the ,hibinski and ,luiavrout chains1 veiled in perpetual snow4 ,some of the peaks rise to #igj feet above the level of the lake1 which1 in its turn1 is #adj feet higher than the sea-level1 so that the mountains surrounding the lake are over #a1jjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,not far from ,lake ,imandra is the lofty ,mount ,bozia1 7or ,gods' ,hill71 at the foot of which1 according to the traditions of the ,lapps1 their ancestors offered up sacrifices to their gods4 ,even at the present time the ,lapps of the district speak of this site with peculiar veneration4 ,between the village of ,kashkarantz and the ,varzuga rises ,mt4 ,korable1 remarkable for its many caverns1 studded with crystals of translucent quartz and amethyst1 the former1 together with fluor and heavy spar1 being met with1 too1 in the eastern parts of the mountain4 ,the ,kola ,peninsula was carefully explored by ,finnish ,expeditions in #ahhg-ahib4 ,the climate of ,lapland is not everywhere uniform1 but in general it is bleak and raw4 ,winter begins about the end of ,september and continues till ,may4 ,it is colder inland than by the ice-free shores of the ,northern ,ocean1 where the warm currents of the ,gulf ,stream moderate the cold4 ,and yet the severity of the weather does not injuriously affect the health or longevity of the inhabitants4 ,the winter roads are well set in by the end of ,october 7or early in ,november71 the snow-fall during the winter months amounting to seven quarters1 or four feet one inch4 ,the ,polar night lasts from the #beth of ,november to the #aeth of ,january1 but the darkness is not by any means so great as one would imagine4 ,the white of the snow gives a certain glimmer of light1 and the frequent and prolonged flashes of ,aurora ,borealis set the heavens in a blaze as with clouds of fire1 turning night into twilight1 as it were1 and by their brilliancy and beauty making some amends to the natives for the absence of the sun's rays4 ,it is easy even to read by their light2 while each day1 about noon1 there is enough daylight for an hour or so to enable one to dispense with candles4 ,so that under the name of ,polar ,night should be understood not the total absence of light1 but rather the season when the sun no longer appears above the horizon4 ,it begins to show itself again about the #agth of ,january1 gradually rising higher and higher as the days advance4 ,illustration3 ,,reindeer ,,travelling ,snow vanishes from the plains towards the middle 7or end7 of ,may1 but remains the whole year round in the gorges of the mountains4 ,the rivers are clear of ice about the beginning 7or middle7 of ,may1 and within a month from that time the first shoots of verdure begin to appear on the meadows and hill-sides4 ,the sun never sets from the #bdth of ,may to the #bast of ,july4 ,there is neither twilight nor night1--the long ,arctic ,day has set in4 ,during this period the sun warms the soil only at noon1 simply shining for the rest of the day1 seemingly a golden orb without heat4 ,summer1 beginning about the middle 7i4 e41 end7 of ,june1 barely lasts two months4 ,by ,july flowers are already shedding their blossoms1 their rapid growth being aided by the unbroken daylight4 ,any attempts at agriculture in such a climate are1 of course1 foredoomed to failure1 but along the river banks some fairly good meadows enable the settlers of the ,murman to rear all the cattle they need4 ,turnips are the only vegetables that can be raised1 with1 here and there1 a few potatoes4 ,the southern and western portions of the ,peninsula are covered with pretty good timber1 mostly pine 7,pinus silvestris74 ,as you go further north1 the timber becomes more and more stunted1 consisting chiefly of birchwood1 till you reach the open tundra1 which is clothed in moss and low-growing shrubs4 ,the ,lapps lead a semi-nomadic life4 ,the settlements in which they live are called pagosts1 each group of ,lapps having its particular summer and winter pagost4 ,the latter is usually inland near the forests1 where they herd their deer in winter4 ,in summer they wander nearer to the coasts and lakes for the sake of the fishing4 ,the winter dwelling of the ,lapp is called a toopa1 a small smoky sod-covered hut1 covering some #aej to #bjj square feet2 whereas in summer he lives in his vieja1 a large wigwam resembling a ,samoyede choom1 but covered over1 not with skins as with the ,samoyedes1 but with branches1 tree-bark and turfs4 ,the typical ,lapp is dwarf-like and thick-set4 ,he usually wears a grey cloth jacket1 his head being encircled in a high woollen cap tapering to a tassel at the top1 while his feet1 wrapped up in rags1 are then covered with big shoes4 ,in general1 his whole appearance1 with his pointed beard1 bears a striking resemblance to the familiar representations of gnomes1 as these denizens of the subterranean world are pictured to us in fairy books4 ,few of the ,lapps1 however1 confine themselves to this characteristic type of ,lapp costume1 but wear whatever comes to their hands1--hats1 caps1 clothes made in ,germany and so on4 ,among the women1 especially the younger ones1 some fairly pretty faces may be met with4 ,their dress is usually a calico sarafan1 and generally speaking1 there is nothing specially distinguishing about their apparel4 ,the ,lapp race is evidently dying out1 or rather1 is gradually intermingling with1 and being absorbed by1 the neighbouring races4 ,with neither written memorials nor a historic past to cling to1 nor any particular religious belief1 they are all of the ,orthodox ,faith4 ,in assuming the customs and civilization of the ,russians1 the ,lapps often abandon their own tribe1 and assimilate with the stronger race4 ,i have often heard such sayings as the following from ,lapps who have more or less settled down3 ,i'm not a ,lapp at all1 ,i'm a ,russian now1 or ,he's a good man 7i4 e41 active1 energetic7 and not a ,lapp4 ,so that they evidently have no particularly high opinion of themselves1 and put no great value on their tribal individuality2 and yet1 as the free-born child of the broad and boundless tundra1 the ,lapp dearly loves his home and open roving life4 ,the chief occupations of the ,lapps are reindeer-rearing and fishing1 and in winter1 the transport of goods by means of their deer4 ,they are unfortunately bad husbandmen1 utterly reckless about the increase of their herds1 and never dreaming of looking upon them as sources of gain4 ,deer-herding is not1 in their eyes1 a regular business1 they merely keep such head as are required for domestic uses1 that is1 for food1 clothing and travelling4 ,very few ,lapps own big herds1 while most of them hardly know or care how many in reality they have4 ,in summer1 when the deer are not wanted for travelling purposes1 they dismiss them to range at large1 without any surveillance whatever4 ,to escape the persecutions of gadflies and mosquitoes the deer generally flock to the ,hibinski ,mountains1 or else wander to the sea-shore4 ,when thus at large they multiply freely of themselves1 and1 by this time half wild1 often stray away from the herds altogether4 ,the rearing of reindeer might easily be made such a profitable business as to be sufficient in itself to insure a comfortable livelihood to the ,lapps4 ,the deer itself hardly requires any looking after the whole year round4 ,all through the summer it feeds on various grasses1 and in winter on the yagel1 or reindeer lichen 7,cladonia rangiferina71 which it scratches out from under the snow1 with its hoofs4 ,this lichen1 or moss1 grows in profusion all over the tundras and forests of the ,kola ,peninsula4 ,it is his deer which supply the ,lapp with food and clothing1 convey his family and goods hundreds of versts in his wanderings1 and1 finally1 give him the opportunity of adding to his income by acting as carrier1 and by supplying teams to the government postal-stations1 etc4 ,some years ago some ,zirians from the ,petchora settled in the ,kola ,peninsula with their herds1 numbering some #e1jjj head4 ,the ,lapps welcomed them into their community1 looking upon them1 indeed1 as benefactors1 as the ,zirians1 a smart and enterprising race1 get everything needed for household purposes1 which they obtain much cheaper than the ,lapps themselves could before1 at the same time giving good prices for the skins of reindeer and other wild animals killed by the ,lapps4 ,so far no want of grazing plots has been felt4 ,the ,zirians have already over #aj1jjj head of deer1 deriving1 comparatively speaking1 enormous gains from them4 ,but then1 unlike the ,lapps1 the ,zirians go about their business in systematic and sensible fashion1 safeguarding their stock from the incursions of beasts of prey1 tending them carefully winter and summer1 driving them from time to time to suitable pastures1 etc4 ,,moscow ,,the ,,kremlin ,,and ,,its ,,treasuries4 ,,the ,,ancient ,,regalia4 ,,the ,,romanoff ,,house ,,alfred ,,maskell ,moscow is the second capital of the ,empire1 but by ancient right the first1 although now surpassed both in commerce and population by the modern city of ,peter the ,great4 ,moscow occupies almost exactly the geographical centre of ,european ,russia4 ,artistically it is of far greater interest to us than its northern rival4 ,it has preserved the old oriental type3 in its palaces has been displayed the barbaric pomp of the ,muscovite ,tsars of which much yet remains1 not only in their renovated halls but also in what is left of the plate1 jewels and ornaments with which they once abounded4 ,the general plan resembles somewhat that of ,paris2 the different quarters have gradually developed around a centre1 and the river ,moskva meanders through them as the ,seine4 ,the centre is the ,kremlin2 in shape an irregular triangle surrounded by high walls1 outside which is the first walled-in quarter--the ,kitai-,gorod1 that is the ,chinese city1 about the meaning of which term there is some dispute4 ,it is not1 nor ever has been1 in any way ,chinese4 ,the name of ,moscow appears first in the chronicles in #aadg1 when ,youri1 a son of ,vladimir ,monomachus1 built the first houses of a town on the hill where the ,kremlin now stands1 but it was not until at least a century later that the city became of any importance4 ,in #abcg1 it was burned by the ,tartars and the real founder was ,daniel1 a son of ,alexander ,nevski4 ,he was the first prince buried in the church of ,st4 ,michael where1 until the time of ,peter the ,great1 all the sovereigns of ,russia have been buried2 as in the metropolitan ,cathedral of the ,assumption1 but a few steps distant1 they have all been crowned up to the present day4 ,from the ,fifteenth to the ,seventeenth ,centuries1 at the time when the arts flourished in ,russia1 in the greatest profusion and magnificence1 ,moscow was endowed with her richest monuments4 ,it was then the numerous churches arose1 the ,kremlin1 and the palaces of the boyars4 ,at that time the city consisted of the ,kremlin and the three walled-in enclosures which encircle it and each other as the several skins and shell inclose the kernel of a walnut4 ,it appears to have been built in a haphazard fashion1 though the old plans1 with the houses sketched in rows1 exhibit an uniformity of streets and buildings4 ,they show us also that the houses were for the most part of wood1 having each a covered outside staircase leading to the upper stories4 ,built so much of wood it was exposed to frequent conflagrations1 the last being the great burning at the time of the ,french invasion in #ahab4 ,but so quickly was it always rebuilt and on the same lines that it has ever retained its original and irregular aspect4 ,the ,kremlin was at first of wood1 but under the two ,ivans it was surrounded by the solid stone walls of white stone cut in facets1 which have given to the city the name ,white ,mother1 or ,holy ,mother ,moscow with the white walls4 ,illustration3 ,,moscow4 ,the ,kremlin is at the same time a fortress and a city contained within itself1 with its streets and palaces1 churches1 monasteries1 and barracks4 ,eighteen towers and five gateways garnish the long extent of the inclosing wall2 two of the gateways are interesting2 that of the ,saviour built by ,pietro ,solario in #adia1 and that of the ,trinity by ,christopher ,galloway in the ,seventeenth ,century4 ,here1 among the churches are those of the ,assumption and of ,st4 ,michael2 here are the new palace of the ,tsar1 the restored ,terem 7what is left of the old palace71 the sacristy and library of the patriarchs1 the treasure and regalia1 the great tower of ,ivan ,veliki in which hangs the largest bell in the world that will ring1 and beneath it the ,tsar ,kolokol1 the king of bells1 which it is supposed has never been rung and the king of cannons which has never been fired4 ,the ancient ,kazna1 or treasury of the ,kremlin1 where the riches of the ,tsars have been preserved from time immemorial was in the reign of ,ivan ,,iii4 situated within the walls of the ,kremlin1 between the ,cathedrals of ,st4 ,michael and of the ,annunciation4 ,here it remained until the great fire of #agcg4 ,the treasure had already suffered a heavy loss3 in the early part of the ,seventeenth ,century1 at the time of the war with ,poland1 a large quantity of plate was melted down to provide for the payment of the troops4 ,the fire of #agcg caused a further and greater loss and destroyed also a large part of the armoury4 ,at the time of the ,french invasion in #ahab the whole of the treasure1 together with the regalia1 was removed to ,novgorod1 and thus escaped destruction of seizure4 ,on its return to ,moscow in #ahad1 systematic arrangements were made for its preservation1 and for the formation and arrangement of the museum in which it is now exhibited4 ,in the year #ahej the new building of the ,orujenaia ,palata which forms part of the modern palace of the ,kremlin was completed1 and to this the entire collection was transferred4 ,the treasury of ,moscow has been almost from the time of the establishment of the ,russian ,empire the place where the riches of the ,tsars have been kept2 consisting of the regalia1 of the state costumes1 of the plate and vases used in the service of their table1 of their most magnificent armour and horse-trappings1 of their state carriages and sledges and of the presents which from time to time the sovereigns of other countries sent through their ambassadors1 of whose embassies so many interesting accounts have come down to us4 ,the collection of plate is exposed on open stands arranged in tiers round the pillars1 or otherwise displayed in a vast hall of the new building of the ,orujenaia ,palata4 ,the riches thus brought together have suffered many changes4 ,the court was frequently moved1 the state of the empire was continually disturbed1 fires were of frequent occurrence1 and necessity at times caused much treasure to be melted down4 ,the ,tsar's favourites received no doubt from time to time acceptable marks of his approbation in the shape of rich presents1 and many specimens of plate found their way probably in a similar manner to the churches and monasteries4 ,but notwithstanding all this1 there still remains permanently installed and carefully guarded in the treasury of the ,kremlin a collection of plate which1 for extent1 variety1 and interest1 may rival that in any other palace in the world4 ,it appears to have been customary during the last two centuries at least to make a grand display of this treasure on the occasion of the visit of the sovereign1 and especially during the ceremonies of the coronation4 ,then1 in the centre of the hall in the ancient ,terem1 known as the gold room1 where the ,tsar dines in solitary state1 a kind of buffet is arranged and other stands disposed1 loaded and groaning with this rich accumulation4 ,great splendour and richness of material1 the lavish use of jewels in the decoration1 and the brilliant colour derived from the employment of enamels are characteristics of eastern art in the precious metals4 ,but while we are struck by the delicacy and refinement with which these are employed by many eastern countries1 and while we admire the taste and harmony of colour displayed by the workmen of ,india or of ,persia1 it must be confessed that the ,russian tempted by the glitter and display which are so much in accordance with his own taste1 has been unable to use the same judgment as those whom he has taken as his models4 ,few would deny that there reigns throughout his work that quality which is best expressed by the term--barbaric magnificence4 ,this is not vulgarity3 such a term is not applicable2 it is the outcome of the desire which is to be found amongst all nations who have attained a certain degree of civilization and riches to impose respect and awe by a lavish display of material wealth or by the use of gorgeous colour1 which always calls forth the admiration of the multitude4 ,in the plate and jewelled ornament which we find in the treasury of the ,kremlin1 we shall find that ,russian taste was fond of solid material and ornament1 enriched with many and large precious stones of value4 ,all ,oriental nations have ever loved to accumulate riches of this description which1 at the same time that they are of use as ornament1 are also of intrinsic value4 ,the crowns1 and thrones1 and sceptres1 the ornaments of the imperial costume1 the gold and silver plate and vases and other precious objects of the court of the ,tsars have1 therefore1 a character of solid splendour1 a want of refinement and delicacy1 which is almost uniformly characteristic4 ,still they are not deficient in a certain grandeur and even elegance1 and in details there is much that is admirable1 much that is strikingly original4 ,by far the greater number of pieces that we shall find in the ,kremlin and elsewhere belong to the ,seventeenth ,century4 ,in the treasury of the ,kremlin we have but one piece of the ,twelfth ,century and some few of the ,fourteenth and ,fifteenth ,centuries4 ,all the rest are later4 ,the entire number of pieces in the ,kremlin amounts to sixteen hundred4 ,after the disasters of #afab1 all the ancient plate for the service of the ,tsar's table was melted down and converted into money2 many objects in gold and silver and jewelled work being at the same time given in pledge to the troops of ,vladislas ,,iv4 ,there are therefore few examples earlier than the dynasty of the ,romanoffs4 ,the treasure contains also some of the most highly venerated icons1 crosses1 and reliquaries in ,russia4 ,as regards many of these it is difficult to assign a date or a place of production4 ,many of them have histories more or less legendary1 but while some may appear to belong absolutely to the ,greek school1 we must not forget that ,russia sent its workmen to ,mount ,athos to be instructed and to work there1 and on their return the traditions and models of the school were scrupulously observed in the workshops of ,moscow4 ,the regalia of the ancient ,tsars scarcely yield in interest to that of any other country4 ,they consist of a large number of crowns or jewelled caps of peculiar form1 of orbs and sceptres1 of the imperial costume1 and especially of that peculiar part of the latter1 a kind of collar or shoulder ornament1 known as the barmi4 ,other important pieces of the regalia of ,alexis ,michailovitch are the orbs and sceptres1 the bow and arrow case of the same description of workmanship4 ,these are gorgeous specimens of jewelled and enamelled work attributed to ,constantinople4 ,the sceptre of the ,tsar ,michailovitch is of similar enamelled work1 and is probably a good specimen of the effect of western influence on the goldsmiths of ,moscow4 ,the figures especially appear to be of the ,italian renaissance4 ,another sceptre is unmistakably ,russian work1 and if not of pure taste is at least of fine workmanship and imposing magnificence4 ,the thrones are of high interest from more than one point of view4 ,we must content ourselves with choosing two from amongst them1 viz43 the ivory throne of ,ivan ,,iii4 7,antiquities of the ,russian ,empire1 ii4 #hd-ajj71 and the throne known as the ,persian throne 7,ibid1 ii4 #fb-ff74 ,the first was brought from ,constantinople in #adgb by the ,tsarina ,sophia ,paleologus1 who1 by her marriage with ,ivan ,,iii41 united the coats of arms of ,byzantium and ,russia4 ,there is a certain resemblance between this throne and that known as the chair of ,st4 ,peter at ,rome4 ,the general form is the same1 as is the manner in which the ivory plaques and their borderings are placed4 ,the second throne is a magnificent work1 which1 according to a register as the ,book of ,embassies1 was sent from ,persia in the year #affj to the ,tsar ,alexis by a certain ,ichto ,modevlet1 of the ,shah's court4 ,m4 ,weltman1 in his enumeration of the treasury of the ,kremlin1 says3 ,it was therefore probably made in the workshops of ,ispahan about the same time that the globe1 sceptre1 and barmi were ordered from ,constantinople4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,kremlin1 ,,moscow4 ,the ,kremlin contains a large number of pieces of decorative plate of all kinds made for the service of the table of the ,tsars1 or displayed on buffets on state occasions4 ,much of it is the production of other countries1 presented by their ambassadors or purchased for the ,tsar4 ,the frequent fires and the melting down of treasure during the ,polish disturbances have much diminished this collection1 and possibly also many of the finest pieces have disappeared4 ,of the large service of gold plate of the ,tsar ,alexis1 which consisted of #abj covers1 two plates are all that remain4 ,these are1 however1 sufficient evidence of the skill and taste of the ,moscow goldsmiths of the period and of their dexterity in the use of enamel4 ,the ,treasury of the ,kremlin contains a large number of cups or vases of silver-gilt1 for table use1 of ,russian work4 ,there is no great variety in the cups1 but some forms are peculiar to the country4 ,there are especially the cups called bratini 7loving cups1 from brat1 a brother71 the bowls or ladles termed kovsh1 and the small cups with one flat handle for strong liquors4 ,tall beakers expanding at the lip and contracted at the middle are also favourite forms1 but the bulbous shape is the most frequent4 ,indeed1 that form of bulb or cupola which we see upon the churches is peculiarly characteristic4 ,we find it with more or less resemblance1 in the ancient crowns1 in the mitres of the popes1 in the bowls of chalices and in vases and bowls for drinking4 ,in the bratini and kovsh the bulging form of ornament1 the coving up of the bottoms of the bowls1 and the use of twisted lobes are very common4 ,the ,cathedral of the ,assumption is one of the many churches situated within the precincts of the ,kremlin4 ,it was reconstructed by ,fioraventi in #adge after the model of the ,cathedral of ,vladimir1 and in spite of the frequent calamities and fires which have half ruined ,moscow still preserves in a great measure its primitive character4 ,the church of the ,assumption has five domes resting in the centre of the building on four massive circular pillars1 and the sanctuary is composed of four hemicycles4 ,the ,cathedral of the ,archangel ,michael is close by and was built in #aejg in imitation of it4 ,near this again is the ,cathedral of the ,annunciation4 ,this1 which was built in #adaf1 is more original in style and recalls the churches of ,mount ,athos1 or that of ,kertch1 which dates from the ,tenth ,century4 ,mention must be made of an ancient building1 the house known as the ,romanoff ,house in ,moscow4 ,it was the birthplace of the ,tsar ,michael ,theodorovitch1 founder of the now reigning family1 and also of his father ,theodore ,nikitisch1 who became patriarch under the name of ,philaret4 ,in its restored state the ,romanoff ,house is still perhaps the most remarkable ancient building existing in ,russia as a perfect specimen of the old dwelling-houses of the boyards4 ,it is built of stone1 and the solid exterior walls are as they originally stood4 ,the interior restoration1 completed by the emperor ,alexander in #ahei1 has been carried out with great care in the exact style of the time1 the furniture and ornaments being authentic and placed as they would have been4 ,,vassili-,,blagennoi 7,,st4 ,,basil ,,the ,,blessed7 ,,theophile ,,gautier ,we soon reached the ,kitai-,gorod1 which is the business quarter1 upon the ,krasnaia1 the ,red ,square1 or rather the beautiful square1 for in ,russia the words red and beautiful are synonymous4 ,upon one side of this square is the long facade of the ,gostinnoi-,dvor1 an immense bazaar with streets enclosed by glass-like passages1 and which contains no less than #f1jjj shops4 ,the outside wall of the ,kremlin rears itself on another side1 with gates piercing the towers of sharply peaked roofs1 permitting you to see above it the turrets1 the domes1 the belfries and the spires of the churches and convents it encloses4 ,on another side1 strange as the architecture of dreamland1 stands the chimerical and impossible church of ,vassili-,blagennoi1 which makes your reason doubt the testimony of your eyes4 ,although it appears real enough1 you ask yourself if it is not a fantastic mirage1 a building made of clouds curiously coloured by the sunlight1 and which the quivering air will change or cause to dissolve4 ,without any doubt1 it is the most original building in the world2 it recalls nothing that you have ever seen and it belongs to no style whatever3 you might call it a gigantic madrepore1 a colossal formation of crystals1 or a grotto of stalactites inverted4 ,but let us not search for comparisons to give an idea of something that has no prototype4 ,let us try rather to describe ,vassili-,blagennoi1 if indeed there exists a vocabulary to speak of what had never been imagined previously4 ,there is a legend about ,vassili-,blagennoi1 which is probably not true1 but which nevertheless expresses with strength and poetry the sense of wondering stupefaction felt at the semi-barbarous period when that singular edifice1 so remote from all architectural traditions1 was erected4 ,ivan the ,terrible had this cathedral built as a thank-offering for the conquest of ,kasan1 and when it was finished1 he found it so beautiful1 wonderful and astounding1 that he ordered the architect's eyes to be put out--they say he was an ,italian--so that he could never erect anything similar4 ,according to another version of the same legend1 the ,tsar asked the originator of this church if he could not erect a still more beautiful one1 and upon his reply in the affirmative1 he cut off his head1 so that ,vassili-,blagennoi might remain unrivalled forever4 ,a more flattering exhibition of jealous cruelty cannot be imagined1 but this ,ivan the ,terrible was at bottom a true artist and a passionate dilettante4 ,such ferocity in matters of art is more pleasing to me than indifference4 ,imagine on a kind of platform which lifts the base from the ground1 the most peculiar1 the most incomprehensible1 the most prodigious heaping up of large and little cabins1 outside stairways1 galleries with arcades and unexpected hiding-places and projections1 unsymmetrical porches1 chapels in juxtaposition1 windows pierced in the walls at haphazard1 indescribable forms and a rounding out of the interior arrangement1 as if the architect1 seated in the centre of his work had produced a building by thrusting it out from him4 ,from the roof of this church which might be taken for a ,hindu1 ,chinese1 or ,thibetan pagoda1 there springs a forest of belfries of the strangest taste1 fantastic beyond anything else in the world4 ,the one in the centre1 the tallest and most massive1 shows three or four stories from base to spire4 ,first come little columns1 and toothed string-courses1 then come some pilasters framing long mullioned windows1 then a series of blank arches like scales1 overlapping one another1 and on the sides of the spire wart-like ornaments outlining each spire1 the whole terminated by a lantern surmounted by an inverted golden bulb bearing on its tip the ,russian cross4 ,the others1 which are slenderer and shorter1 affect the form of the minaret1 and their fantastically ornamented towers end in cupolas that swell strangely into the form of onions4 ,some are tortured into facets1 others ribbed1 some cut into diamond-shaped points like pineapples1 some striped with fillets in spirals1 others again decorated with lozenge-shaped and overlapping scales1 or honeycombed like a bee-hive1 and all adorned at their summit with the golden ball surmounted by the cross4 ,illustration3 ,,vassili-,,blagennoi 7,,st4 ,,basil ,,the ,,blessed71 ,,moscow4 ,what adds still more to the fantastic effect of ,vassili-,blagennoi1 is that it is coloured with the most incongruous tones which nevertheless produce a harmonious effect that charms the eye4 ,red1 blue1 apple-green and yellow meet here in all portions of the building4 ,columns1 capitals1 arches and ornaments are painted with startling shades which give a strong relief4 ,on the plain spaces of rare occurrence1 they have simulated divisions or panels framing pots of flowers1 rose-windows1 wreathing vines1 and chimaeras4 ,the domes of the bell-towers are decorated with coloured designs that recall the patterns of ,india shawls2 and1 displayed thus on the roofs of the church1 they recall the kiosks of the ,sultans4 ,the same fantastic genius presided over the plan and ornamentation of the interior4 ,the first chapel1 which is very low and in which a few lamps glimmer1 resembles a golden cavern2 unexpected stars throw their rays across the dusky shadows and make the stiff images of the ,greek saints stand out like phantoms4 ,the mosaics of ,st4 ,mark's in ,venice alone can give an approximate idea of the effect of this astonishing richness4 ,at the back1 the iconostas looms up in the twilight shot through with rays like a golden and jewelled wall between the faithful and the priests of the sanctuary4 ,vassili-,blagennoi does not present1 like other churches1 a simple interior composed of several naves communicating and cut at certain points of intersection after the laws of the rites followed in the temple4 ,it is formed of a collection of churches1 or chapels1 in juxtaposition and independent of each other4 ,each bell-tower contains a chapel1 which arranges itself as it pleases in this mass4 ,the dome is the terminal of the spire or the bulb of the cupola4 ,you might believe yourself under the enormous casque of some ,circassian or ,tartar giant4 ,these calottes are1 moreover1 marvellously painted and decorated in the interior4 ,it is the same with the walls covered with those barbaric and hieratic figures1 the traditional designs for which the ,greek monks of ,mount ,athos have preserved from century to century1 and which1 in ,russia1 often deceive the careless observer regarding the age of a building4 ,it is a peculiar sensation to find yourself in these mysterious sanctuaries1 where personages familiar to the ,roman ,catholic cult1 mingle with the saints peculiar to the ,greek ,calendar1 and seem in their archaic ,byzantine and constrained appearance to have been translated awkwardly into gold by the childish devotion of a primitive race4 ,these images that you view across the carved and silver-gilt work of the iconostas1 where they are ranged symmetrically upon the golden screen opening their large fixed eyes and raising their brown hand with the fingers turned in a symbolic fashion1 produce1 by means of their somewhat savage1 superhuman and immutable traditional aspect1 a religious impression not to be found in more advanced works of art4 ,these figures1 seen amid the golden reflections and twinkling light of the lamps1 easily assume a phantasmagorical life1 capable of impressing sensitive imaginations and of creating1 especially at the twilight hour1 a peculiar kind of sacred awe4 ,narrow corridors1 low arched passages1 so narrow that your elbows brush the walls and so low that you have to bend your head1 circle about these chapels and lead from one to the other4 ,nothing could be more fantastic than these passages2 the architect seems to have taken pleasure in tangling up their threading ways4 ,you ascend1 you descend1 you seem to go out of the building1 you seem to return1 twisting about a cornice to follow the curves of a bell-tower1 and walking through thick walls in tortuous passages that might be compared to the capillary tubes of madrepores1 or to the roads made by insects in the barks of trees4 ,after so many turnings and windings1 your head swims1 a vertigo seizes you1 and you wonder if you are not a mollusk in an immense shell4 ,i do not speak of the mysterious corners1 of inexplicable coecums1 low doors opening no one knows whither1 dark stairways descending into profound depths2 for ,i could never finish talking of this architecture1 which you seem to walk through as if in a dream4 ,,poland ,,thomas ,,michell ,the ,tsar still bears the title of ,king of ,poland1 but the constitutional kingdom created at the great settlement of political accounts in #ahae has been officially styled ,the ,cis-,vistula ,provinces1 ever since the absolute incorporation with the ,russian empire in #ahfh4 ,the provinces in question1 ten in number1 have an aggregate area of #di1aeg ,english square miles1 and a population of eight millions1 composed to the extent of sixty-five per cent4 of ,poles1 the remainder being ,jews 7in the proportion of thirteen per cent41 and settled chiefly in towns71 ,lithuanians1 ,russians1 ,germans1 and other aliens4 ,the ,poles 7the ,polacks of ,shakespeare71 are a branch of the ,sclav race1 their language differing but little from that of the ,russians1 ,czechs 7,bohemians71 ,servians1 ,bulgarians1 and other kindred remnants4 ,contact and co-operation with ,western civilization1 and escape from ,tartar subjugation1 permitted the ,poles to work out their own development on lines so widely apart from those pursued by their ,russian brethren1 that the complete amalgamation of these two great ,sclav branches has long been a matter of practical impossibility4 ,polish history begins1 like that of ,russia1 with ,scandinavian invasion2 ,szainocha1 a reliable authority of the present century1 asserted that the ,northmen descended on the ,polish coast of the ,baltic1 and became1 as in ,russia1 ancestors of the noble houses4 ,on the other hand1 it is on record that the first ,grand ,duke of ,poland 7about ,a4 ,d4 #hdb71 was ,piastus1 a peasant1 who founded a dynasty that was superseded only in #ache by the ,lithuanian ,jagellons4 ,christianity was introduced by the fourth of the ,piasts1 ,a4 ,d4 #ifd1 and it was a sovereign of the same ,house1 ,boleslas ,i41 the ,brave1 who gave a solid foundation to the ,polish ,state4 ,he conquered ,dantzig and ,pomerania1 ,silesia1 ,moravia1 and ,white ,russia1 as far as the ,dnieper4 ,after being partitioned1 in accordance with the principle that long obtained in the neighbouring ,russian principalities1 the component territories of ,poland were reunited by ,vladislaf 7,ladislaf7 the ,short1 who established his capital1 in #acbj1 at ,cracow1 where the ,polish kings were ever after crowned4 ,casimir the ,great1 the ,polish ,justinian 7#accd-acgj71 gained for himself the title of ,rex ,rusticorum1 by the bestowal of benefits on the peasantry1 who were adscripti glehoe1 and by the limitation of the power of the nobles1 or freeholders4 ,on his death1 ,louis1 ,king of ,hungary1 his sister's son1 was called to the throne2 but in order to insure its continued possession he was compelled to reinstate the nobles in all their privileges1 under a ,pacta ,conventa1 which1 subject to alterations made at ,diets1 was retained as part of the ,coronation ,oath so long as there were ,polish kings to be consecrated4 ,he was the last sovereign of the ,piast period4 ,after compelling his daughter to marry1 not ,william of ,austria1 whom she loved1 but ,jagellon1 ,duke of ,lithuania1 who offered to unite his extensive and adjacent dominions with those of ,poland1 and to convert his own pagan subjects to ,christianity1 the nobles1 in virtue of their ,magna ,charta1 elected ,jagellon 7baptized under the name of ,ladislas7 to the throne of ,poland1 which thus became dynastically united 7#achf71 with that of ,lithuania4 ,on the death1 in #aegb1 of ,sigismund ,,ii41 ,augustus1 the last of the ,jagellons1 the power of the king1 already limited by that of two chambers1 was still further diminished1 and the crown became elective4 ,while occupied in besieging the ,huguenots at ,rochelle1 and at a time when ,poland enjoyed more religious liberty than any other country in ,europe1 ,henry of ,valois was elected to the throne1 in succession to ,sigismund ,,ii42 but he quickly absconded from ,cracow in order to become ,henry ,,iii4 of ,france4 ,the ,jesuits1 introduced in the next reign1 that of ,stephen ,bathori1 brought strong intolerance with them1 and one of the reasons that led the ,cossacks of the ,polish ,ukraine to solicit ,russian protection was the inferior position to which their ,greek religion had been reduced in relation to ,roman ,catholicism4 ,the ,russians and ,poles had been at war with each other for two centuries4 ,moscow had been occupied in #afaj by the ,poles in the name of ,ladislas1 son of ,sigismund ,,iii41 of the ,swedish ,wasa family1 elected to the ,muscovite throne by the ,russian boyars1 but soon expelled by the patriots1 under ,minin and ,pojarski4 ,sobieski1 who had saved ,vienna for the ,austrians1 could not keep ,kief and ,little ,russia for the ,poles4 ,such was the outcome of disorders and revolutions in the ,state1 and of wars with ,muscovy1 ,turkey1 and ,sweden1 as well as with ,tartars and ,cossacks4 ,frederick ,augustus ,,ii41 ,elector of ,saxony1 succeeded ,sobieski1 and reigned until #agcc1 with an interval of five years1 during which he was superseded by ,stanislas ,i4 ,illustration3 ,,nowo ,,zjazd ,,street1 ,,warsaw4 ,dissension and anarchy became still more general1 in the reign of the next sovereign1 ,augustus ,,iii4 ,civil war1 in which the question of the rights of ,lutherans1 ,calvinists1 and other dissidents obnoxious to the ,roman ,catholic ,church played a great part1 resulted in the intervention of ,russia and ,prussia1 and in #aggb the first partition of ,poland was consummated4 ,the second followed in #agic1 under an arrangement between the same countries1 which had taken alarm at a liberal constitution voted by the ,polish ,diet in #agia1 especially as it had provided for the emancipation of the adscripti gleboe4 ,the struggle made by ,thaddeus ,kosciuszko ended in the entry of ,suvoroff into ,warsaw over the ashes of the ,prague suburb1 and in the third dismemberment 7#agie71 of ancient ,poland1 under which even ,warsaw was absorbed by ,russia4 ,previous to these several partitions1 ,poland occupied a territory much more extensive than that of ,france4 ,in addition to the kingdom proper1 it included the province of ,posen and part of ,west ,prussia1 ,cracow1 and ,galicia1 ,lithuania1 the provinces of ,volhynia and ,podolia1 and part of the present province of ,kief4 ,in #aggb1 ,dantzig was a seaport of ,poland1 ,kaminets1 in ,podolia1 its border stronghold against ,turkey2 while to the west and north its frontier extended almost to the walls of ,riga1 and to within a short distance from ,moscow4 ,in still earlier times1 ,bessarabia1 ,moldavia1 ,silesia1 and ,livonia were embraced within the ,polish possessions4 ,these successive partitions gave the most extensive portion of ,polish territory to ,russia1 the most populous to ,austria1 and the most commercial to ,prussia4 ,napoleon ,i4 revived a ,polish state out of the provinces that had been seized by ,prussia and ,austria4 ,this was first constituted into a ,grand ,duchy under the ,king of ,saxony1 and in #ahae1 when ,galicia 7with ,cracow7 was restored to ,austria1 and ,posen to ,prussia1 ,warsaw became again a kingdom under a constitution granted by ,alexander ,i4 ,the old ,polish provinces that had fallen to the share of ,catherine ,,ii4 at the partitions remained incorporated with the ,russian ,empire1 but were not fully subjected to a ,russian administration until after the great ,polish insurrection of #ahcj1 when also the constitution of #ahae was withdrawn1 the national army abolished1 and the ,polish language proscribed in the public offices4 ,notwithstanding the wide measures of ,home ,rule introduced by ,alexander ,,ii4 into the administration of the kingdom1 and which1 in combination with many liberal and pregnant reforms in ,russia ,proper appeared to offer to the ,poles the prospect of no inconsiderable influence over the destinies of the ,russian ,empire1 the old spirit of national independence began to manifest itself1 and in #ahfb1 not without encouragement from ,napoleon ,,iii41 an insurrection broke out at ,warsaw4 ,outside ,warsaw and its immediate vicinity there is little in ,russian ,poland to interest the tourist4 ,the country is generally level and monotonous1 with wide expanses of sand1 heath1 and forest1 and it is only towards the north and east that the ground may be said to be heavily timbered4 ,dense forests stretch down from the ,russian1 anciently ,polish1 province of ,grodno1 and now form the last retreat in ,europe of the ,bison ,europeans1 the survivor of the ,aurochs 7,bos primigenius71 which is supposed to have been the original stock of our horned cattle4 ,although much worried by the wolf1 the bear1 and the lynx1 the bison is strictly preserved from the hunter1 and are not therefore likely to disappear like the ,bos ,americanus1 or buffalo1 which has so long been ruthlessly slaughtered in the ,united ,states4 ,interspersed among these barren or wooded tracts are areas containing some of the finest corn-bearing soil in ,europe1 supplying from time immemorial vast quantities of superior grain for shipment from ports in the ,baltic4 ,it is produced on the larger estates of two hundred to fifteen hundred acres1 belonging to more than eight thousand proprietors4 ,the peasantry1 who hold more than #bdj1jjj farms--seldom exceeding forty acres--contribute next to nothing towards exportation1 their mode of agriculture being almost as rude as that of the ,russian peasantry1 and their habits of life but little superior1 especially in the matter of drink4 ,towns1 large and small1 occur more frequently than in ,russia1 and while some are rich and industrial1 others--we may say the great majority--are poor and squalid1 affording no accommodation that would render possible the visit of even the least fastidious traveller4 ,consequently we confine ourselves to ,warsaw1 which we take on our way by rail to or from ,st4 ,petersburg or ,moscow4 ,founded in the ,twelfth ,century1 and1 during the ,piast period1 the seat of the appanaged ,dukes of ,masovia1 ,warszawa1 replaced ,cracow as the residence of the ,polish kings and therefore as the capital of ,poland1 on the election of ,sigismund ,,iii4 7#aehf74 ,it has now a population of about #dde1jjj1 not including the ,russian garrison of #ca1ejj officers and men4 ,the left bank of the ,vistula1 on which ,warsaw is chiefly built1 is high1 and the pretty1 gay1 and animated city1 with its stately lines of streets1 wide squares1 and spacious gardens1 is picturesquely disposed along the brow of the cliff and on the plains above4 ,across the broad sandy bed of the stream1 here shallow1 ever-changing1 and divided as ,poland itself1 and which is on its way from the ,carpathians to the ,baltic1 is the ,prague suburb1 which1 formerly fortified1 has never recovered from the assault by ,suvoroff in #agid1 when its sixteen thousand inhabitants were indiscriminately put to the sword4 ,a vast panorama spreads out in every direction from this melancholy and dirty point of vantage4 ,opposite is the ,zamek1 or castle1 built by the ,dukes of ,masovia1 and enlarged and restored by several of the ,polish kings1 from ,sigismund ,,iii4 to ,stanislas ,augustus ,poniatovski4 ,its pictures and objects of art are now at ,st4 ,petersburg1 and ,moscow1 and the old royal apartments are occupied by the ,governor-,general4 ,the square in front of the castle was the scene of the last ,polish demonstrations1 in #ahfa1 when it was twice stained with blood4 ,in the ,stare ,miasto1 or ,old ,town1 strongly old ,german in aspect1 stands the cathedral1 built in the ,thirteenth ,century1 and restored on the last occasion by ,king ,john ,sobieski4 ,a still more ancient sacred edifice is the ,church of ,our ,lady in the ,nove ,miasto1 or ,new ,town2 but it certainly retains no traces of deep antiquity4 ,beyond the great ,sapieha and ,sierakovski ,barracks towers the ,alexander ,citadel1 with its outlying fortifications1 built in #ahcb-ce1 at the expense of the city1 as a penalty for the insurrection in #ahcj4 ,in the same direction1 but a considerable distance from the town1 is ,mariemont1 the country seat of the consort of ,john ,sobieski2 also ,kaskada1 a place of entertainment much frequented by the inhabitants of ,warsaw1 and ,bielany1 a pretty spot on the ,vistula commanding a fine view4 ,the churches and chapels1 mostly ,roman ,catholic1 are numerous 7eighty-five71 and so are the monasteries and convents 7twenty-two74 ,near ,novi ,sviat 7,new ,world7 ,street1 we find the ,avenues1 or ,champs ,elysees1 bordered by fine lime-trees1 in front of elegant private residences4 ,crossing a large square1 in which the troops are exercised1 and the military hospital at ,uiazdov1 formerly a castle of the kings of ,poland1 we reach the fine park of ,lazienki1 a country seat of much elegance built by ,king ,stanislas ,augustus1 and now the residence of the ,emperor when he visits ,warsaw4 ,the ceilings of this chateau were painted by ,bacciarelli1 and its walls are hung with portraits of numerous beautiful women4 ,contiguous to the ,lazienki ,park are the extensive gardens of the ,belvedere ,palace1 in which the ,poles attempted in #ahcj to get rid of their viceroy1 the ,grand ,duke ,constantine4 ,we drive hence in less than an hour to one of the most interesting places near ,warsaw4 ,this is the ,castle of ,villanov1 built by ,john ,sobieski1 who died in it4 ,to this retreat he brought back the trophies of his mighty deeds in arms1 and here sought repose after driving the ,turks from the walls of ,vienna4 ,the chateau1 now the property of ,countess ,potocka1 is full of historical portraits1 objects of art1 and other curiosities1 of which the most interesting is the magnificent suit of armour presented by the ,pope to ,sobieski in memory of his great victory4 ,the apartments of his beautiful consort are of great elegance4 ,in the gallery of pictures we notice an admirable ,rubens--the ,death of ,seneca2 although we are more strongly attracted by an original portrait of ,bacon1 which is but little known in ,england4 ,illustration3 ,,hotel ,,de ,,ville1 ,,warsaw4 ,for want of space1 again we must plead guilty of omitting to describe many palatial residences1 and several noticeable monuments1 among which is one to ,copernicus1 the ,polish founder of modern astronomy4 ,on the same ground we pass over handsome public buildings1 theatres1 gardens and cemeteries1 in one of which1 the ,evangelical ,cemetery1 is buried ,john ,cockerell1 to whom ,belgium owes so much of her industrial prosperity4 ,,kief1 ,,the ,,city ,,of ,,pilgramage ,j4 ,,beavington ,,atkinson ,kief1 the ,jerusalem of ,russia1 is by nature marked for distinction2 she rises like an ,etruscan city from the plain2 she is flanked by fortifications2 she is pleasantly clothed by trees1 and height beyond height is crowned by castle or by church4 ,fifty thousand pilgrims annually1 many of whom are footsore from long and weary journeying1 throw themselves on their knees as they see the sacred city from afar3 her holy places shine in the sun as a light set upon a hill which cannot be hid4 ,three holy shrines which ,i can recall to mind--,kief1 ,assisi1 and ,jerusalem--are alike fortunate in command of situation2 the approach to each is most impressive4 ,in ,kief particularly the natural landscape is heightened in pictorial effect by the picturesque groups of pilgrims1 staves in hand and wallets on back1 who may be seen at all hours of the day clambering up the hill1 resting under the shadow of a tree1 or reverently bowing the head at the sound of a convent bell4 ,kief is not one city1 but three cities1 each with its own fortification4 ,the old town1 strong in position1 and enclosing within its circuit the ,cathedral of ,st4 ,sophia and the ,palace of the ,metropolitan1 was in remote ages a ,sclavonian ,pantheon1 sacred to the ,russian ,jupiter and other savage gods4 ,the new town1 separated from the old town by a deep ravine1 stands on a broad platform which rises precipitously from the banks of the ,dnieper4 ,the walls are massive1 the fort is strong1 and the famous monastery1 the first in rank in ,russia1 with its gilt and coloured domes1 shines from out the shade of a deep wood4 ,the third division1 the ,town of the ,vale1 situated between the hills and the river1 is chiefly devoted to commerce4 ,without much stretch of fancy it might be said that ,kief1 like ,rome1 ,lisbon and some other cities1 is built on seven hills4 ,and thus the pictorial aspect changes almost at every step2 a winding path will bring to view an unsuspected height1 or open up a valley previously hid4 ,the traveller has in the course of his wanderings often to feel thankful that a kind providence has planted sacred places in the midst of lovely scenery4 ,the holy mountain at ,varallo1 the sacred hill at ,orta1 are1 like the shrines of ,kief1 made doubly pleasant for pilgrimage through the beauties of nature by which they are surrounded4 ,it is said that at the monastery of the ,grande ,chartreuse the monks do not permit themselves to look too much at the outward landscape1 lest their hearts should by the loveliness of earth be estranged from heaven4 ,i do not think that ,russian priests or pilgrims incur any such danger4 ,when they are neither praying nor eating they are sleeping2 in short1 ,i did not among the motley multitude see a single eye open to the loveliness of colour in the sky above1 or to the beauty of form in the earth beneath4 ,it is singular how obtuse these people are2 ,i have noticed in a crowded railway carriage that not a face would be turned to the glory of the setting sun1 but if a church tower came into view on the distant horizon1 every hand was raised to make the sign of the cross4 ,while taking my observations among the pilgrims at ,kief ,i was struck with the fact1 not only that a superstitious faith1 but that a degraded art blinds the eye to the beauty of nature4 ,it is one of the high services of true art to lead the mind to the contemplation1 to the love and the better understanding1 of the works of creation4 ,but1 on the contrary1 it is the penalty of this ,byzantine art to close the appointed access between nature and nature's ,god4 ,an art which ignores and violates truth and beauty cannot do otherwise than lead the mind away from nature4 ,this seemed one of the several lessons taught by ,kief1 the city of pilgrimage4 ,sketchers of character and costume will find excellent studies among the pilgrims of ,kief4 ,the upper and educated classes1 who in ,russia are assimilating with their equals in other nations1 and are therefore not tempting to the pencil or the brush1 do not1 as we have already seen1 come in any numbers to these sacred shrines4 ,it is the lower orders1 who still preserve the manners and customs of their ancestors1 that make these church festivals so attractive to the artist4 ,the variety of races brought together from afar--a diversity only possibly within an empire1 like ,russia1 made up of heterogeneous materials--might serve not only to fill a portfolio1 but to illustrate a volume2 the ethnologist equally with the painter would find at the time of great festivities curious specimens of humanity4 ,i remember some years ago to have met with the ,french artist1 ,m4 ,theodore ,valerio1 when he had brought home the ,album ,ethnographique from ,hungary1 ,croatia1 and the more distant borders of the ,danube4 ,it was quite refreshing1 after the infinite number of costume-studies ,i had seen from ,italian peasantry1 to find that art had the possibility of an entirely new sphere among the ,sclavonic races4 ,a like field for any painter of enterprise is now open in ,russia4 ,the large and famous composition1 ,the ,butter ,week 7,carnival7 in ,st4 ,petersburg1 by ,c4 ,makowski1 may serve to indicate the hitherto undeveloped pictorial resources of the empire4 ,when the conditions are new there is a possibility that the art may be new also4 ,the ethnology1 the physical geography1 the climate1 the religion1 the products of the animal and vegetable kingdoms1 so far as they are peculiar to ,russia1 will some day become reflected into the national art4 ,it is true that the painter may occasionally feel a want of colour1 the costumes of the peasant are apt to be dull and heavy1 yet not unfrequently rags and tatters bring compensation by picturesque outlines and paintable surface-textures4 ,at ,kief1 however1 the traveller is sufficiently south and east to fall in with warm southern hues and ,oriental harmonies1 broken and enriched1 moreover1 among the lower orders by that engrained dirt which ,i have usually noted as the special privilege and prerogative of pilgrims in all parts of the world4 ,the use of soap would seem to be accounted as sacrilege on religious sentiment4 ,what with dust1 and what with sun1 the wayfarers who toil up the heights leading to the holy hill have gained a colour which a ,murillo would delight in4 ,the face and neck bronzed by the hot sun tell out grandly from a flowing mass of hair worthy of a patriarch4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,dnieper ,,at ,,kief4 ,beggars1 who in ,russia are as thick about the churches as the pigeons that pick up crumbs in front of ,st4 ,mark's1 are almost essential to the histrionic panoramas at these places of pilgrimage4 ,i have never seen so large or so varied a collection of professional and casual mendicants as within and about the sacred enclosures of ,kief4 ,some appeared to enjoy vested rights2 these privileged personages would as little endure to be driven from a favoured post as with us a sweeper at a crossing would tolerate a rival broom4 ,several of these waiters upon charity might be termed literary beggars2 their function is to read aloud from a large book in the hearing of the passers-by4 ,they are often infirm1 and occasionally blind1 but they read just the same4 ,another class may be called the incurables2 in ,england they would be kept out of sight1 but here in ,russia1 running sores1 mutilated hands and legs1 are valuable as stock-in-trade4 ,loathsome diseases are thrust forward as a threat1 distorted limbs are extortionate for alms2 it is a piteous sight to see2 some of these sad objects are in the jaws of death1 and come apparently that they may die on holy ground4 ,another class may be called the pious beggars2 they stand at the church doors2 they are picturesque and apostolic2 long beards and quiet bearing1 with a certain professional get-up of misery and desolation1 make these sacred mendicants grand after their kind4 ,such figures are usually ranged on either side of the chief entrance2 they are motionless as statues1 save when in the immediate act of soliciting alms2 indeed ,i have sometimes noticed how beggars standing before a church facade are suggestive of statuary1 the want of which is so much felt in the unsculpturesque architecture of ,russia4 ,pilgrims and beggars--the line of demarcation it is not always easy to define--have an ,oriental way of throwing themselves into easy and paintable attitudes2 in fact posture plays a conspicuous part in the devotions of such people2 they pray bodily almost more than mentally1--the figure and its attendant costume become instruments of worship4 ,the ,cathedral of ,st4 ,sophia1 which dates back to the ,eleventh ,century1 is of interest from its resemblance to ,st4 ,mark's1 ,venice1 in the plan of the ,greek cross1 in the use of domes and galleries1 and in the introduction of mosaics as surface-decorations4 ,i saw the galleries full of fashionable worshippers2 the galleries in ,st4 ,mark's on the contrary1 are always empty and useless1 though constructed for use4 ,in the apse are the only old mosaics ,i have met with in ,russia2 it is strange that an art which specially pertains to ,byzantium was not turned to more account by the ,greco-,russian ,church4 ,there is in the apse1 besides1 a subject composition1--a noble female figure1 colossal in size1 the arms upraised in attitude of prayer1 the drapery cast broadly and symmetrically4 ,in the same interior are associated with mosaics1 frescoes1 or rather wall-paintings in secco4 ,on the columns which support the cupola are frescoes which1 though of no art value1 naturally excited curiosity when they were discovered some few years since1 after having been hid for two or more centuries by a covering of whitewash4 ,some other wall-pictures are essentially modern1 and others have been restored1 after ,russian usage1 in so reckless and wholesale a fashion as to be no longer of value as archaeologic records4 ,in the staircase leading to the galleries are some further wall-paintings1 said to be contemporaneous with the building of the cathedral2 the date1 however1 is wholly uncertain4 ,these anomalous compositions represent a boar-hunt and other sports1 with groups of musicians1 dancers1 and jugglers1 intervening4 ,in accord with the secular character of the subjects is the rude naturalism of the style4 ,positive knowledge as to date being wanting1 it is impossible to speak of these works otherwise than to say that they cannot be of ,byzantine origin4 ,if of real antiquity they will have to join company with other semi-barbaric products in metal1 etc41 which prove1 as we have seen1 that ,russia has two historic schools1 the ,byzantine1 on the one hand1 debilitated and refined1 as of periods of decline1 and1 on the other1 a non-,byzantine and barbarous style1 strong and coarse as of races still vital and vigorous4 ,a like conflict is found in the ,north of ,italy between the ,byzantine and the ,lombard manner2 and even in ,england the west front of ,wells ,cathedral presents the same unresolved contradictions4 ,it would seem that over the greater part of ,europe1 ,eastern as well as ,western1 these two hostile arts were practiced contemporaneously2 at all events the same buildings are found to display the two opposite styles4 ,it would appear probable1 however1 that the respective artists or artisans belonged to at least two distinct nationalities4 ,the ,pecherskoi ,monastery1 or ,kievo-,pecherskaya ,lavra1 at ,kief1 the ,kremlin in ,moscow1 and the grand monastery of ,troitza1 have this in common1 that the situation is commanding1 the site elevated4 ,also1 these three venerable sanctuaries are strongholds1 for though the holy places at ,kief are not on all sides fortified1 yet the approach from the old city1 which is the most accessible1 lies along bastions and walls4 ,in fact1 here we have again a semblance to the ancient idea of a church1 a citadel1 and a palace united1 as in an acropolis--the ,church and the ,state being one2 the arm of the flesh sustaining the sword of the spirit1--a condition of things which has always given to the world its noblest art4 ,the walk to this most ancient monastery in ,russia passes pleasantly by the side of a wood2 then opens a view of the vast plain beneath1 intersected by the river ,dnieper1 over which is flung the great suspension-bridge built by the ,english engineer1 ,charles ,vignolles1 at the cost of ,l#cej1jjj4 ,the immediate approach is lined with open shops or stalls for the sale of sacred pictures1 engravings of saints1 and other articles which pilgrims love to carry back to their homes4 ,within the enclosure trees throw a cool shade1 under which1 as in the courtyards of mosques in ,constantinople1 the hot and weary may repose4 ,the cathedral dedicated to the ascension of the ,virgin1 has not the slightest pretence to external architecture4 ,the walls are mostly whitewashed1 and some of the windows have common square heads crowned by mean pediments2 the intervening pilasters and floral decorations in relief1 and all in the midst of whitewash1 are of the poorest character4 ,the seven gilded cupolas or domes may be compared to inverted cups surmounted by crosses4 ,the form resembles the cup commonly combined in the fantastic towers and spires of ,protestant churches in ,germany1 where1 however1 it has been supposed to signify that the laity partake of the chalice4 ,these domes are made further decorative at the point of the small circular neck which connects the cupola with the upper member or finial2 around this surface is painted a continuous series of single saints standing2 the effect of these pictures against the sky1 if not quite artistic1 is striking4 ,other parts of the exterior may indicate ,italian rather than ,oriental origin1 but the style is far too mongrel to boast of any legitimate parentage4 ,here1 as in the ,kremlin1 are external wall-paintings of saints1 some standing on solid ground1 others sitting among clouds2 the ,madonna is of course of the company1 and the ,first and ,second ,persons of the ,trinity crown the composition4 ,the ideas are trite and the treatment is contemptible--the colours pass from dirty red into brown and black4 ,these certainly are the worst wall-paintings ,i have ever met with1 worse even than the coarsest painted shrines on the waysides of ,italy2 indeed no ,church save the ,greek ,church would tolerate an art thus debased4 ,a year after my journey to ,kief ,i travelled through the ,tyrol on my way from the ,ammergau ,passion ,play4 ,the whole of this district abounds in frescoes1 many being on the external walls of private dwellings4 ,this village art of the ,bavarian ,highlands1 though often the handiwork of simple artisans1 puts to shame both the external and the internal wall-paintings at ,kief1 ,troitza1 and the ,kremlin4 ,yet this contrast between ,russia and ,southern nations does not arise so much from the higher ability of the artists1 as from the superiority of the one school to the other school4 ,the pictorial arts fostered by the ,western ,church are fundamentally true1 while the arts which the ,eastern ,church has patronized and petrified are essentially false and effete4 ,the scene which strikes the eye on entering this parti-coloured ,cathedral of the ,assumption1 though strange1 is highly picturesque4 ,to this holy shrine are brought the halt1 the lame1 and the blind1 as to the moving of the waters4 ,some press forward to kiss the foot of a crucifix1 others bow the head and kiss the ground1 a servile attitude of worship1 which in the ,greco-,russian ,church has been borrowed from the ,mohammedans4 ,the groups which throng the narrow1 crowded floor1 are wonderfully effective2 an artist with sketch-book in hand would have many a good chance of catching graphic heads and costumes1 and all the more easily because these pilgrims are not so lively as lethargic4 ,still1 for grand scenic impression1 ,i have never in ,russia witnessed any church function so striking as the piazza in front of ,st4 ,peter's on ,easter ,day1 when all ,rome flocks to receive the ,pope's blessing from the balcony4 ,yet the whole interior of this cathedral is itself a picture1 or rather a countless succession of pictures2 as to the architecture there is not the minutest space that has not been emblazoned by aid of a paint-pot4 ,but the greatest marvel in this ,cathedral of the ,assumption is the iconostas1 or screen for the sacred pictures1 a structure indispensable to all ,russian churches1 of which ,i have withheld the description till now1 when ,i find myself in front of a large and more astounding erection than can be found in ,st4 ,petersburg1 ,moscow1 or ,troitza4 ,in small churches these sacred placards1 bearing the character of drop-scenes1 are apt to be paltry1 indeed the irreverent stranger may even be reminded of painted caravans at village fairs4 ,but in large cathedrals the screen which stands between the people in the nave and the priests in the holy of holies1 presents a vast facade1 upon which are ranged1 in three1 four1 or five stories1 a multitude of sacred pictures covered with gold and decked with jewels4 ,these elaborate contrivances correspond to the reredos in ,western churches1 only with this important difference1 that they are not behind the holy place but in front of it4 ,they might1 perhaps1 with more correctness be compared to the rood-screens which in our churches stand between the altar and the people4 ,the sacred screen now before me mounts its head into the dome1 and presents an imposing and even an architectonic aspect1 but certain details1 such as classic mouldings of columns1 and a broken entablature1 pronounce the edifice to be comparatively modern4 ,the summit is fitly crowned by a crucifix1 almost in the flat1 in order not to evade the law of the ,russian ,church1 which prohibits statues in the round2 the figure of ,christ is silver1 the cross and the drapery of gold or silver-gilt4 ,on either side of the crucifix stand in their prescriptive stations the ,madonna and ,st4 ,john4 ,on the story beneath comes the entombment1 all covered with gold and silver1 in a low-relief which indicates the forms of the figures beneath2 the heads1 which are not in relief but merely pictorial1 are the only portions of the picture actually visible4 ,these altar-screens1 which in ,russia are counted not by tens but by hundreds and thousands1 are highly ornate4 ,silver and gold and jewellery are conjoined with painting after the nursery and doll-like fashion approved in the ,south of ,spain and at ,naples4 ,only in the most corrupt of ,roman ,catholic capitals does ecclesiastical art assume the childish forms common in ,russia4 ,resuming the description of the above altar-screen1 we find next in range below the entombment a large composition1 comprising ,god the ,father surrounded by cherubs1 with two full-grown seraphs1 encircled by six gold wings1 standing on either side4 ,again1 the only parts of the picture permitted to be seen are the heads1 crossed hands1 black legs and feet4 ,christ with the open book of judgment is another conspicuous figure2 also a companion head1 gigantic in size1 is the ,madonna1 directly ,byzantine in type1 though its smooth and well-kept surface gives little sign of age4 ,the ,christ1 too1 must be accounted but as modernized ,byzantine2 here is none of the severity or of the tenuity of the early periods4 ,the type is poor though refined1 debilitated though ideal4 ,the hair1 parted on the forehead1 falls thickly on the shoulders4 ,the face is youthful1 not more than thirty1 and without a wrinkle2 the cheeks are a little flushed1 the prevailing expression is placidity4 ,the accessories of glory1 drapery1 and open book are highly decorative2 here embossed patterns on the gold coverings enhance the richness of the surface-ornament4 ,once again the ,russians appear supreme in metal-work1 especially in the elaboration of decoration in the flat4 ,most of the pictures above mentioned are evidently supremely holy2 they are black and highly gilded2 moreover1 they move most deeply all sorts and conditions of men1 women1 and children4 ,i may here again mention that one purpose of my ,russian journey was to discover whether there were heads of ,christ in the possession of the ,russian ,church older or nobler than the ivory carvings1 the frescoes1 or easel pictures which are found in ,italy and other ,southern or ,western nations4 ,and ,i was1 ,i confess1 disappointed not to meet with any data which could materially enlarge or enrich this most interesting of subjects4 ,as to priority of date1 it seems to be entirely on the side of the ,roman catacombs and the ,latin ,church2 moreover1 in ,russia1 as ,i before frequently remarked1 chronology is untrustworthy1 inasmuch as comparatively modern works assume and parody the style of the most ancient4 ,the heads of ,christ in ,russia1 one of which has been just described1 are1 as already said1 more or less servile reproductions of ,byzantine types4 ,still the typical form is found under varying phases2 the general tendency in these replicas of anterior originals would appear to be towards the mitigation of the asperities in the confirmed ,byzantine formulas4 ,thus the more recent heads of the ,saviour in the churches of ,st4 ,petersburg1 ,moscow1 ,troitza and ,kief1 assume a certain modern manner1 and occasionally wear a smooth1 pretty and ornamental aspect4 ,in these variations on the prescriptive ,eastern type1 the hair usually flows down upon the shoulders1 as with the ,greek and ,russian ,priests in the present day4 ,as to the beard1 it is thick and full1 or short and scant1 but the cheeks are left uncovered1 and show an elongated face and chin4 ,these ,russian heads of the ,saviour in softening down the severe and aged type common to ,byzantium1 assume a physiognomy not sufficiently intellectual for the ,greatest of ,teachers4 ,these images in fact inspire little reverence except with blind worshippers2 they are mostly wrought up and renovated1 so as to fulfil the preconceived conditions of sanctity3 undefined generality1 weakness1 smoothness1 and blackness1 are the common characteristics of these supposititious heads of the ,saviour4 ,it will thus again be easily understood how opposite has been the practice of the ,eastern and ,western ,churches2 it is a striking fact that at the time when1 in ,italy1 under ,leonardo da ,vinci1 ,raphael and others1 the mystery of a ,god manifest in the flesh had been as it were solved by a perfected art1 this ,russian ,church was still under bondage to the once accepted but now discarded notion that the ,redeemer ought to be represented as one who had no form or comeliness4 ,art in the ,western world gained access to the beautiful1 the perfect1 and the divine1 as soon as it was permitted to the painter or the sculptor to develop to uttermost perfection the idea of the ,man-,god4 ,all such conceptions of the infinite1 whether it be that of ,jupiter in pagan periods1 or of ,christ under our divine dispensation1 have always been the life and inspiration of the arts4 ,but in ,russia ignoble heads of ,christ convinced me that such life and inspiration were denied4 ,and ,i look upon the head of ,christ as the turning point in the ,christian art of a nation4 ,if that head be conceived of unworthily there is no possibility that prophets1 apostles1 martyrs1 shall receive their due4 ,illustration3 ,,la ,,lavra1 ,,kief4 ,,nijni-,,novgorod ,,antonio ,,gallenga ,nijni-,novgorod1 or ,lower ,new-town1 is older than ,moscow1 and only not so old as ,novgorod the ,great1 which was a contemporary of ,venice1 and was still new when the semi-fabulaus ,ruric and his ,varangians are supposed to have given their name to ,russia4 ,nijni-,novgorod1 which everybody here calls simply ,nijni1 dates from #abbb2 and mention of its fair occurs1 we are told1 in #acff1 since which epoch its celebration has suffered very rare and only violent interruption4 ,to understand why this venerable spot should have been for so many years1 and should be still1 so extensively favoured by the world's trade1 it is hardly necessary to see it4 ,we only need bear in mind that ,nijni lies near the confluence of the ,oka and the ,volga1 two of the greatest rivers of this ,russia which alone of all countries of ,europe may be said to have great rivers2 the ,volga having a course of #b1cbj miles1 and the ,oka1 a mere tributary1 of #hej miles4 ,it is the position which the ,saoene and the ,rhone have made for ,lyons2 the position for which ,st4 ,louis is indebted to the ,mississippi and ,missouri2 the position which ,corientes will soon owe to the ,parana and the ,paraguay4 ,nijni lies at the very centre of that water communication which joins the ,caspian and the ,black ,sea to the ,white ,sea and the ,baltic1 and which1 were it always summer1 might almost have enabled ,russia to dispense with roads and railroads4 ,but ,nijni is1 besides1 the terminus of the railway from ,moscow4 ,that line places this town and its fair in communication with all the lines of ,russia and the ,western ,world1 while the ,volga1 with its tributary1 the ,kama1 leads to ,perm1 and the ,pass of the ,ural ,mountains1 and the vast regions of ,siberia and ,central ,asia4 ,nijni-,novgorod is thus one of the most important links between the two great continents1 the point of contact between ,asiatic wealth and ,european industry2 and its fair the best meeting-place for the interchange of commodities between the nations that still walk1 ride1 or row at the rate of three to five miles an hour1 and those who fly on the wings of steam at the rate of thirty to fifty4 ,the site of ,nijni is somewhat like what ,i still remember of ,st4 ,louis after a seventeen years' interval4 ,we travelled from ,moscow over a distance of #bgc miles in thirteen hours4 ,for the last hour or two before we reached our journey's end1 we had on our right the river ,oka and a hilly ridge rising all along it and forming its southern bank4 ,on alighting at the station we drove through a flat1 marshy ground1 intersected by broad canals1 to a triangular space between the ,oka and the ,volga at their confluence1 where the fair is held4 ,we went through the maze of bazaars and market buildings1 of rows of booths1 shops and stalls1 eating and drinking sheds1 warehouses and counting-houses4 ,we struggled through long lines of heavy-laden country carts1 and swarms of clattering droskies1 all striving to force their way along with that hurry-skurry that adds to confusion and lessens speed2 and we came at last to a long pontoon bridge1 over which we crossed the ,oka1 and beyond which rises the hill-range or ravine1 on the top and at the foot of which is built the straggling town of ,nijni-,novgorod4 ,nijni-,novgorod is a town of #de1jjj inhabitants1 and1 like most ,russian towns1 it occupies a space which could accommodate half a million of people4 ,like many old ,russian towns1 also1 it is laid out on the pattern of ,moscow1 as far as its situation allowed2 and1 to keep up the resemblance1 it boasts a ,kremlin of its own1 a grim1 struggling citadel with battlemented walls and mediaeval towers over its gates1 with its scores of ,byzantine churches1 most of them with their five cupolas de rigueur1 clustering together like a bunch of radishes--one big radish between four little radishes--but not as liberally covered with gilding as those which glisten on the top of sacred buildings in ,st4 ,petersburg or ,moscow2 down the slopes and ravines are woods and gardens1 with coffee-houses and eating-houses1 and other places of popular entertainment4 ,it is a town to be admired on the outside and at a distance as a picture1 but most objectionable as a residence on account of its marvellous distances and murderous pavement1 a stroll on which reminds you of the martyrdom of those holy pilgrims who1 to give glory to ,god1 walked with dry peas in their shoes4 ,the pavements are bad in ,nijni town1 but worse in ,nijni fair1 for if in the former all is hard1 sharp1 uneven flint1 in the latter1 what is not wood is mud1 and what is not mud is dust1 for heavy showers alternate with stifling heat2 and1 after a three hours' drought one would say that these good people1 who live half in and half out of a swamp1 and who drink anything rather than water1 can never spare a poor drop to slake the pulverized clay of their much trodden thoroughfares4 ,with all these drawbacks1 however1 and even with the addition of its villainous smells1 this is an interesting and striking spot4 ,no place can boast of a more sublime view than one can get here from the ,imperial ,palace and ,terrace1 or from the church-domes or spires on the ,kremlin2 or1 even better1 from the ,esplanade of ,mouravief's ,folly--a tower erected by the well-known ,general of that name on the highest and foremost ravine1 and on the summit of which he had planned to place a fac-simile of the famous ,strassburg clock1 but constructed on so gigantic a scale that hours and minutes1 the moon's phases1 the planets' cycles and all besides1 should be distinctly visible from every locality of the town and fair for miles and miles around4 ,from any of those vantage-grounds on the hill look down4 ,the town is at your feet2 the fair--a city1 a ,babylon of shops--stretches beyond the bridge2 the plain1 a boundless ocean of green1 field and forest1 dotted here and there with church-spires and factory-shafts at prodigious distances2 and the two broad rivers1 bearing the tribute of remote regions from north and south in numberless boats and lighters1 and neat gallant steamers2 the two streams meeting here at right angles just below the pontoon-bridge where an immense five-domed church of recent construction has been reared to mark and hallow the spot4 ,down at the fair1 in the centre of its hubbub1 rises the governor's summer-place4 ,the governor dwells there with his family during the few weeks of the fair 7mid-,august to mid-,september71 coming down hither from the ,imperial ,palace in the town ,kremlin1 and occupying the upper floor4 ,the whole basement1 the entrance-hall1 and all passages--with the exception of a narrow1 private1 winding staircase--are invaded by the crowd and converted into a bazaar1 the noisiest in the fair1 where there is incessant life and movement1 and music and hurly-burly at every hour between noon and night--a lively scene upon which his ,excellency and his guests and friends look down from the balcony after their five o'clock dinner1 smoking their cigarettes1 and watching the policemen as they pounce like trained hawks on the unwary pick-pockets prowling among the crowd4 ,of this immense mass of strangers now in ,nijni1 the town itself1 and especially the upper town1 sees and hears but little4 ,the fair has its own ground1 on its own side of the bridge1 its own hotels and lodging-houses1 its own churches1 chapels1 theatres1 eating1 gambling1 and other houses1 its long straight streets and boulevards1 and pleasure as well as business resorts4 ,it has its fine ,chinese ,row1 though ,chinamen have lately discontinued their attendance2 it has rich traders' temporary homes1 fitted up with comfort1 and even taste and luxury2 and it has its charity dormitory1 a vast wooden shed1 built by ,court ,ignatieff1 and bearing his name1 intended to accommodate #bej houseless vagrants1 but alas6 in a place where there must be #bj1jjj1 if not #bjj1jjj persons answering that description4 ,of women coming to this market the number is comparatively small--one1 ,i should say1 for every #ajj men2 of ladies not one in #aj1jjj1 or #ajj1jjj4 ,of those who muster sufficiently strong at the evening promenade on the ,boulevard1 indigenous or resident1 for the most part1 rather the look than the number is formidable2 and it is here in ,nijni1 as it is generally in ,russia1 that a ,mussulman becomes convinced of the wisdom of his ,arabian prophet1 who invented the yashmak as man's best protection1 and hallowed it2 for of the charms of most ,russian women1 blessed are those who believe without seeing6 ,in working hours only men and beasts are to be seen--a jumble and scramble of men and beasts3 car-loads of goods2 piles of hogsheads1 barrels1 bales1 boxes1 and bundles1 merchandise of all kinds1 of every shape1 colour1 or smell1 all lying in a mass topsy-turvy1 higgledy-piggledy2 the thoroughfares blocked up1 the foot-paths encumbered2 chaos and noise all-pervading2 and yet1 by degrees1 almost imperceptibly1 you will see everything going its way1 finding its own place2 for every branch of trade has1 or was at least intended to have1 here its appointed abode2 and there are ,tea ,rows2 ,silversmiths and ,calico ,streets2 ,fur ,lanes2 ,soap1 ,candle1 and ,caviare ,alleys2 ,photograph1 ,holy ,images1 and ,priestly ,vestments ,bazaars2 ,boot1 ,slop1 ,tag and ,rag ,marts and ,depositories--all in their compartments1 kin with kin1 and like with like2 and everything is made to clear out of the way1 and all is smoothed down2 all subsides into order and rule1 and not very late at night--quiet4 ,the ,tartars do the most of the work4 ,they are the descendants of the old warriors of ,genghis ,khan and ,timour the ,lame1 of the ruthless savages who for #bjj years overran all ,russia1 spreading death and desolation wherever their coursers' hoofs trod1 making slaves of the people1 and tributary vassals of their ,princes2 but1 who by their short-sighted policy favoured the rise of that dynasty of ,moscow ,grand ,princes1 who presently became strong enough to extend their sway both over ,russ and ,tartar4 ,the great merchants of ,moscow and ,st4 ,petersburg or their representatives and partners come here for a few days1 partners and clerks taking up the task by turns1 according as business allows them absence from their chief establishments4 ,they bring here no goods1 but merely samples of goods--tea1 cotton1 woollen and linen tissues1 silk1 cutlery1 jewellery1 and generally all articles of ,european 7home ,russian7 manufacture4 ,they have most of them good apartments in the upper floors of their warehouses2 they see their customers1 mostly provincial retail dealers2 they show their samples1 drive their bargains1 receive orders1 attend on ',change 7for they have a ,bourse at the fair1 near the bridge71 smoke indoors 7for in the streets that indulgence is forbidden all over the fair for fear of fire71 lunch or dine together often by mutual invitation4 ,they are gentlemenly men1 young men for the most part 7for their elders are at home minding the main business71 young ,russians or ,russified ,germans1 some of whom adopt and even affect and exaggerate ,russian feeling and habits2 young men to whom it seems to be a principle that easy-made money should be readily spent2 leisurely1 business young men1 who sit up late and get up later1 take the world and its work and pleasure at their ease2 understand little and care even less about politics2 profess to be neither great readers nor great thinkers2 but are1 as a rule1 free-handed1 hospitable1 sociable1 most amiable1 and anything rather than unintelligent men4 ,of all the articles of trade which come to court public favour in ,nijni1 the most important and valuable is tea2 and although the ,moscow merchants1 by the excellence of their sea-faring tea1 chiefly imported from ,odessa or through ,england1 have almost entirely driven from the market the caravan tea1 still about one-tenth of the enormous quantity of tea sold here is grown in the north of ,china1 and comes overland from ,kiakhta1 the city on the border between the ,asiatic-,russian and the ,celestial ,empire4 ,i was curious to compare the taste of some of the very best qualities of both kinds1 and was brought to the conclusion1 confirmed by the opinion of gentlemen interested in the sale of sea-faring tea1 that1 although some of their own is more high-flavoured and stronger1 there is in the ,kiakhta tea an exquisite delicacy1 which will always receive in its favour a higher price4 ,the difference1 ,i am told1 mainly arises from the fact that the caravan tea1 exposed to the air during its twelve months' journey in loose and clumsy and much-shaken paper and sheep-skin bundles1 gets rid of the tannin and other gross substances1 a process of purification which cannot be effected in the necessarily sealed and hermetically-closed boxes in which it reaches ,europe by the sea-route2 so that if sea-faring tea1 like port-wine1 easily recommends itself to the taste and nerves of a strong1 hard-working man1 a dainty1 refined lady will give preference to a cup of ,kiakhta tea1 as she would to a glass of ,chateau ,yquem4 ,the interest of a ,european1 however1 would be chiefly attracted by what is less familiar in his own part of the world2 and1 short of an actual journey to the remote regions of ,siberia and ,central ,asia1 nothing is calculated to give him a more extensive idea of the produce of those ,trans-,uralian ,russian possessions than a survey of the goods they send here for sale4 ,what astonishes a stranger at first sight is the quantity4 ,you may walk for hours along yards and sheds1 the repositories of iron from ,siberia4 ,you pass hundreds of shops of malachite and lapis-lazuli1 and a variety of gold and silver work and precious stones from the ,caucasus1 cut with all the minute diligence of ,asiatic skill4 ,you will see ,turkish carpets1 ,persian silks1 and above all things the famous ,orenburg shawls1 so finely knitted1 and with such patience that one can 7they say1 but ,i have not made the experiment71 be made to pass through a lady's ring1 though they be so broad on all sides as to wrap the lady all around from head to foot4 ,one may1 besides1 have his choice of hundreds and thousands of those delightful curiosities and knickknacks1 recommendable less for their quaintness than for the certainty one feels that there is no possible use in the world they may be put to4 ,there is no novelty at ,nijni2 no new shape1 pattern1 or colour just coming out to catch popular favour2 no unknown mechanical contrivance2 no discovery likely to affect human progress and brought here for the entertainment of the intelligent1 un-commercial visitor4 ,there are only the shop-keeper and his customer1 though it is a wholesale shop and on a very large scale4 ,the fair1 moreover1 has not the duration that is generally allowed for an ,exhibition4 ,illustration3 ,,nijni-,,novgorod 7,,bridge ,,of ,,the ,,fair74 ,though officially opened on the #bgth of ,july1 the fair does not begin in good earnest till the #ahth of ,august2 and it reaches its height on the #bgth1 when accounts are settled1 and payments ensue2 after which1 goods are removed1 and the grounds cleared2 only a portion of the business lingering throughout ,september4 ,about half a score of days1 out of the two months during which the fair is held1 are all that may have attraction for the generality of strangers4 ,and although many come from all parts of ,russia1 and from foreign countries1 ,i do not think they tarry here for pleasure beyond two or three days4 ,it would be interesting to anticipate what change a few weeks will effect in this scene which is now so full of life1 bustle1 and gaiety2 this stage1 where so great a variety of human beings from nearly all regions of the world1 with their money or money's worth1 with their hopes and fears1 their greed and extravagance1 all their good and evil instincts and faculties at play4 ,in a few weeks the flags will be furled1 the tents struck2 the pontoon-bridge removed2 the shops closed2 hotels1 bazaars1 and churches1 all private and public edifices1 utterly deserted and silent2 and every house stripped of the last stick of valuable furniture2 every door locked1 barred1 and sealed2 the place left to take care of itself4 ,for autumn rains and spring thaws must set in1 when the seven or eight square miles of the ground of the fair1 as well as the country to an immense extent1 will be under water4 ,,the ,,volga ,,basin ,,the ,,great ,,river--,,kasan1 ,,tsaritzin--,,astrakhan ,,antonio ,,gallenga ,it is hardly possible to travel on the ,volga without falling in love with the great river at first sight4 ,the range of low hills which we had on our right as we descended the ,oka continued now on the same side as we came down the ,volga4 ,the ,volga1 however1 has nothing of the wild1 erratic instincts of its tributary4 ,it is a grand1 calm1 dignified stream1 keeping to its course as a respectable matron1 and gliding down in placid loveliness1 without weir or leap1 fall or rapids1 or break of any kind--a fine1 broad1 almost unrippled sheet of water1 with an even1 steady1 and grandly monotonous flow1 like that of the stanzas of ,tasso4 ,its width1 so far as eye can judge1 does not greatly exceed that of the ,thames at ,gravesend1 but it is always the same from the bridge at ,twer above ,moscow to the only other bridge1 one mile in length1 between ,syzran and ,samara2 everywhere the same full bumper for a run of #b1jjj ,english miles4 ,though the ,volga is numbered among the ,european rivers1 and has its sources on the ,valdai hills between the ,european cities1 ,st4 ,petersburg and ,moscow1 it is a frontier stream1 and seemed intended to form the natural line of demarcation between two parts of the world--between two worlds4 ,up to the middle of the ,sixteenth ,century1 ,kasan was the advanced guard of the ,tartar hordes4 ,these wandering tribes1 which1 profiting by dissensions among the ,russian princes1 overcame and overran all ,russia1 weakened in their turn by division1 fell back from the main part of the invaded territory1 but still held for some time their own on the ,volga1 from ,kasan to ,astrakhan1 till they were utterly routed and brought under ,russian sway by ,ivan the ,terrible4 ,even then1 however1 though their strength was broken1 their spirit was untamed4 ,the men of high warrior caste who survived their defeat sought a refuge among their kindred tribes further east1 at ,samarkand1 ,bokhara1 and ,khiva1 where the ,russians have now overtaken them2 but a large part of the mere multitude laid aside without giving up their arms1 passively accepted without formally acknowledging the ,tsar's sway1 and abided in their tents1--swallowed at once1 but very leisurely digested1 by the all-absorbing ,russian civilization4 ,large bodies of the nation1 however1 migrated en masse from time to time1 the lands they left vacant being rapidly filled up by bands of ,cossacks1 and by foreign 7chiefly ,german71 colonists4 ,for more than three centuries1 though already mistress of ,siberia and victorious in remote ,asia1 ,russia proper might be considered as ending at the ,volga2 so that most of the older and most important towns south of ,kasan and north of ,astrakhan1 such as ,simbirsk1 ,syzran1 ,volsk1 ,saratof1 ,kamyshin1 and ,tsaritzin1 lie on the right1 or ,russo-,european bank of the stream4 ,tsaritzin is at the head of the ,delta of the ,volga1 and it lies #ehj versts above ,astrakhan1 which is said to be at the river's mouth1 but which is still #aej versts from the roadstead or anchorage1 called the ,nine ,feet ,station2 the spot on the ,caspian where sea navigation really begins4 ,at ,tsaritzin we might have fancied ourselves in some brand-new town in one of the remote backwoods of ,america4 ,it was nothing of a place before the railway reached it4 ,no one can foretell what it may become before the locomotive travels past it4 ,for under present circumstances all the postal service1 the light goods and time-saving passenger traffic from all parts of ,russia to ,astrakhan1 the ,caspian and the ,trans-,caspian region1 or vice versa1 must pass between the ,tsaritzin pier on the ,volga and the platforms of the ,tsaritzin railway station4 ,we did not see much of the upstart town1 for the horrible clouds of thick1 dung-impregnated dust would not allow us to keep our eyes open4 ,but we perceived that almost every trace of what was once little better than a second rate fortress and a village was obliterated2 the old inhabitants were nowhere1 and a bustling set of new settlers were sharing the broad area among themselves1 taking as much of it as suited their immediate wants1 and extending it to the utmost limits of their sanguine expectations2 drawing lines of streets at great distances1 tracing the sides of broad squares and crescents1 and laying the foundations of what would rise in time into shops and houses1 hotels1 bazaars1 theatres and churches4 ,tzaritzin when we saw it was merely the embryo of a city4 ,those that may visit it a score of years hence will tell us what they find it4 ,two more nights and a day down the sluggish waters of the main channel of the ,volga landed us on the tenth day after our departure from ,nijni-,novgorod1 at ,astrakhan1 where we stayed a whole week4 ,from ,tsaritzin to ,astrakhan the ,volga flows through the ,steppe1 the great ,asiatic grass desert extending from the ,caucasus to the frontier of ,china4 ,the wild tenants of this wilderness1 the various tribes of ,tartars1 once the terror of ,east and ,west1 were like a vast ocean of human beings swayed to and fro by nomadic and predatory instincts1 which for centuries threatened to overwhelm and efface every vestige of the world's civilization4 ,the ,russians who were first invested and overpowered by the flood1 were able by the valour and more by the craft of their princes1 first to stem the tide1 then to force it back1 and in the end to rear such bulwarks as might for ever baffle its fury1 and prevent its further onset4 ,such bulwarks were once the strong places of ,kasan and ,astrakhan1 the former seats of ,tartar hordes1 which the ,tsars of ,moscow made their bases of operations for the indefinite extension of their civilized empire over ,tartar barbarism4 ,for the experience of centuries had proved that the ,steppe was not everywhere and altogether an irreclaimable land1 nor the ,tartars an utterly untameable race4 ,astrakhan1 like ,kasan1 is a ,russian town1 of whose #ej1jjj inhabitants one-fourth or one-fifth at least are tamed ,tartars1 and the sands around which can be made to yield grapes and peaches1 and a profusion of melons and watermelons4 ,beyond the immediate neighbourhood1 over the whole province or ,government of ,astrakhan1 stretches the vast land of the ,steppe1 the wide and thin pasture-grounds on which the ,tartar tribes roam at will with their flocks2 a pastoral set of men2 without fixed homes1 and1 in our sense of the word1 without laws2 and yet perfectly harmless and peaceful--exempt1 at least till very lately1 from military service1 and only paying a tribute of #de1jjj roubles1 at so much a head for each horse1 ox1 or camel1 ranging over an extent of #g1jjj1jjj dessiatines 7#bj1jjj1jjj acres7 of land1 an area of #bbd1ead kilometers1 or about half of that of ,france1 with a population1 including that of the capital1 of #fja1ead inhabitants4 ,astrakhan is a modern town1 with the usual broad1 straight streets1 most of them boasting no other pavement than sand1 with brick side-walks1 much worn and dilapidated1 and1 like those of ,buenos ,ayres and many other ,american cities1 so raised above the roadway as to require great attention from those who do not wish to run the risk of broken shins4 ,the town has its own ,kremlin1 apart from the citadel4 ,the ,kremlin is a kind of cathedral-close1 with the cathedral and the archbishop's palace1 and several monasteries and priests' habitations4 ,the whole town1 besides1 and the environs1 as usual in ,russia1 muster more churches than they can number priests or worshippers4 ,in a walk of two or three miles ,i took outside the town and as far as the cemeteries1 ,i had a scattered group of at least half a score of churches all around me1 but there was scarcely a human habitation within sight4 ,the governor's palace is a low building over a row of shops in the main square of the city4 ,the square itself and the thoroughfares were enveloped in thick clouds of blinding dust1 almost as troublesome as that of ,tsaritzin2 but on the whole1 the place is less unclean than one might expect from a population made up of ,russians1 ,tartars1 ,calmucks1 ,persians1 ,armenians and ,jews4 ,the ,volga and the hundred channels which constitute its delta1 and the northern shores of the ,caspian ,sea into which they flow1 yield more fish than the coasts of ,norway and ,newfoundland put together4 ,the nets employed in catching them would1 if laid side by side on the ground in all their length1 extend over a line of #dj1jjj versts1 or twice the distance from ,st4 ,petersburg to ,tashkend and back4 ,the annual produce of these ,astrakhan fisheries--sturgeon1 sterlet1 salmon1 pike1 shad1 etc4--amounts to #aj1jjj1jjj puds of fish 7the pud thirty-six ,english pound weight7 of the value of #bj1jjj1jjj roubles1 the herrings alone yielding a yearly income of #d1jjj1jjj roubles4 ,with the exception of the caviare1 which is sold all over the world1 the produce of these fisheries1 salted or pickled1 is destined for home consumption1 and travels all over the empire1 although as far as ,i have been1 ,i have found everywhere the waters equally well-stocked by nature with every description of fish2 a provident dispensation1 since the ,russian clergy1 like the ,roman ,catholic1 are indefatigable in their promotion of what they call the ,apostles' trade1 by their injunction of #bbf fast or fish days throughout the year4 ,the ,delta of the ,volga and the ,caspian ,sea lie twenty-five metres below the level of the ,black ,sea4 ,the city of ,astrakhan1 placed on the left bank of the main channel of the ,delta1 and1 as ,i said1 #aej versts above its anchorage1 becomes like an island in the midst of a vast sea when the ,volga comes down in its might with the thaw of the northern ice in late spring2 and most of its lowest wards would be overwhelmed were it not for the dikes that encompass it like a town in ,holland4 ,the eight principal branches and the hundred minor channels and outlets of the ,delta1 breaking up the land into a labyrinth of hundreds of islets1 are then blended together in one watery surface1 out of which only the crests of these islets emerge with isolated villages1 with log-huts and long whitewashed buildings1 and high-domed churches1 all dammed and diked up like the town itself--,tartar villages1 ,calmuck villages1 ,cossack villages1 all or most of them fishers' homes and fishing establishments--a population of #bj1jjj to #cj1jjj souls being thus scattered on the bare sand-hills and dunes2 men of all race1 colour1 and faith1 all employed in the same fishing pursuit2 the ,tartars and ,calmucks usually as rank and file1 the ,russians and other ,europeans as overseers1 foremen1 and skilled labourers4 ,from ,astrakhan1 the queen of the ,steppes1 to ,tiflis the queen of the ,caucasus1 we had a choice of routes4 ,tourists from ,england1 or from any part of ,western ,europe1 may easily visit the great mountain-chain on which ,prometheus was found1 by crossing the ,black ,sea from ,constantinople or from ,odessa1 and landing at ,poti1 where the ,russians have constructed a railway to ,tiflis1 once the capital of ,georgia1 now the residence of the ,governor-,general of the whole ,caucasus region4 ,a traveller from the north1 bound to the same goal1 can take the train at ,moscow1 and come down by rail1 via ,rostov-on-the-,don1 all the way to ,vladikavkas1 a distance of #a1hjc versts2 and about #bjj additional versts1 by post1 over a good military road1 and across the main ,caucasian chain1 will bring him from ,vladikavkas to ,tiflis4 ,but we had descended the ,volga1 and were now near its mouth4 ,we had to go down the ,volga to the ,nine ,feet ,station below ,astrakhan1 embark there on the ,caspian ,sea1 and cross over either to ,baku1 whence we could go by post round the mountain-chain at its southern extremity as far as ,tiflis2 or land at ,petrofsk1 and travel along the chain to ,vladikavkas and the good military road across the chain to ,tiflis4 ,we gave our preference to the last-named route4 ,we left ,astrakhan at ten in the evening on board a heavy barge belonging to the ,caucasus and ,mercury steam-navigation company1 towed by a tug down stream at the rate of five or six miles an hour4 ,we were all that afternoon and night1 and part of the following day1 descending the main channel of the ,volga1 and it was past noon before we reached the ,nine ,feet ,station1 for so they call the roadstead above which vessels of more than nine feet draught dare not venture4 ,all sight of land1 of the seventy larger islands of the ,delta1 and even of the minor islets1 and of the lowest sand-banks1 had been lost for several hours1 and we were here in the open sea1 though scarcely beyond the boundary that the ,creator has elsewhere fixed between land and water4 ,for the ,station which1 if ,i can allow myself an apparent ,irishism1 is a moveable one1 has to be pushed forward almost day by day as the sands of the ,volga silt up far beyond the choked-up lands of the ,delta1 encroaching with a steady inroad on the depths of the waves2 the ,steppe everywhere widening as the sea dwindles1 and suggesting the thought that the whole region that is now ,steppe must in remote ages have been sea1 and that whatever is now sea1 must in time become ,steppe4 ,indeed1 it seems not impossible to calculate how many years or centuries it may take for the sands of the ,volga1 aided by those of the ,ural and the ,emba on the eastern1 and of the ,kuma1 the ,terek1 and the ,kur or ,kura1 with its tributary the ,aras1 on the western shore1 to fill up the land-locked ,caspian1 though its extreme depth1 according to the ,gazetteers1 is #fjj feet1 and the area covered by it probably exceeds #ahj1jjj square miles1 a surface as large as that of ,spain4 ,kasan1 once the residence of a redoubted horde1 was probably1 under ,tartar sway1 in a great measure a mere encampment1 chiefly a city of tents2 for whatever the guide-books may say1 there is no positive evidence of its present buildings belonging to a date anterior to the ,russian ,conquest4 ,its situation probably recommended itself to the ,tartars chiefly on the score of strength2 for although it stands high above the river1 its present distance from it is at least three miles1 and it is surrounded by a sandy and marshy plain1 intersected by the channels of the ,kasana river1 erratic water-courses which may have proved sufficient obstacles to the onset of an invader1 but which raise no less serious hindrances to the conveyance of goods from the landing-place to the town2 an inconvenience hitherto not removed by the tramway1 as it as yet only carries passengers4 ,kasan is on the main line of communication between ,central ,russia and ,siberia4 ,the travellers bound to that bourne embark here on steamers that go down the ,volga as far as its confluence with the ,kama1 a tributary stream1 and thence ascend the ,kama1 which is navigable all the way to ,perm4 ,from ,perm a railway runs up to the ,pass of the ,ural mountains to ,ekaterinenburg1 probably to be in course of time continued to ,tiumen1 ,tobolsk1 ,tomsk1 ,irkutsk1 the ,baikal ,lake1 the ,chinese frontier at ,kiakhta1 the banks of the ,amoor1 and the shores of the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,along this route it is calculated that some ,l#c1jjj1jjj worth of merchandise are brought yearly from ,siberia down the ,kama and up the ,volga to the ,nijni-,novgorod fair4 ,kasan is a highly flourishing city4 ,it has a population of #ij1jjj to #ajj1jjj inhabitants1 one-fourth of whom are ,tartars4 ,these descendants of the old ,nomad race are now here at home1 and live in the city perfectly at peace with their ,russian fellow-subjects1 though being ,mahometans1 they have distinct1 if not separate1 quarters1 and mosques and a burial-ground of their own4 ,it would seem impossible for two races which have so little reason for mutual good-will1 to show so little disposition to quarrel4 ,but it should be remembered that ,sclav and ,tartar were not in former times so far asunder in manners1 in language1 in polish1 nor so free from admixture in blood as the ,russians fondly believe4 ,the town has its ,kremlin1 on the site of the old citadel1 with its cathedral and other churches1 and several telescope towers1 if they may be so called1 built on several stories1 dwindling in size from floor to floor as they rise one above the other1 so that one can conceive how they might easily sink into one another and shut up like a spy-glass4 ,the great brick tower of ,pier ,crescenzi in ,rome is such a tower2 and here are many in the same style at ,moscow and in most other old ,russian cities4 ,kasan has several public edifices of some pretension3 the ,admiralty2 the ,university--one of the seven of the ,empire1 etc4 ,but we had enough of it all after two or three hours1 and were glad to shun the heat of the rest of the day in the cool sitting-room of ,commonen's ,hotel1 which alone may be taken as a voucher for the high degree of civilization reached by ,kasan4 ,we gave even less time to the other cities of the ,volga1 not thinking it always worth while to alight at all the stations1 though the steamer stopped at some of these for many a long1 weary hour4 ,with the exception of ,kasan1 ,samara1 and ,astrakhan1 the most important cities are1 as ,i said1 on the right or ,russian bank of the ,river2 and three of them1 ,syzran1 ,saratof1 and ,tsaritzin1 are connected by various railways with ,moscow and all the other important centres of life in the ,empire4 ,the ,volga1 which between ,nijni-,novgorod and ,kasan flows in an almost straight easterly direction1 takes a turn to the southward after leaving ,kasan and the confluence of the ,kama2 but it makes a loop below ,simbirsk1 turning eastward to ,samara1 and again west to ,syzran1 after which it resumes its southerly course to ,saratof1 ,tsaritzin1 and ,astrakhan4 ,the railway from ,moscow to ,syzran1 upon reaching ,syzran1 crosses the ,volga on an iron bridge1 one verst and a half1 or one ,english mile1 in length1 and high enough to allow the largest steamer pass without lowering its funnel--a masterpiece of engineering greatly admired by the people here1 who describe it as the longest bridge in ,russia and in the world4 ,we went under it at midnight by a dim moonlight which barely allowed us to see it looming in the distance not much bigger than a telegraph-wire drawn all across the valley1 the gossamer line of the bridge and all the landscape round striking us as dreamlike and unreal4 ,after crossing the river the railway proceeds to ,samara1 and hence #dai versts further to ,orenburg1 a large and thriving place on the ,ural river1 the spot from which the straightest and probably the shortest way is1 or will be1 open to all parts of ,siberia or ,central ,asia2 preferable1 ,i should think1 to that of ,perm and ,ekaterinenburg above-mentioned1 which is now the most frequented route4 ,beyond ,syzran and ,samara the river scenery1 which has hitherto been verdant1 assumes a southerly aspect2 the hill-sides sloping to the river have a parched and faded brown look2 the hill-tops are bared and seamed with chalky ravines2 every trace of the forests has disappeared2 and it is only at rare intervals that the banks are clad with the verdure of the new growth4 ,illustration3 ,,from ,,the ,,ramparts ,,of ,,the ,,kremlin ,,nijni-,,novgorod4 ,from ,nijni to ,tsaritzin we have stopped at more than thirty different stations1 and no pen could describe the stir and bustle of goods and passengers that awaited us at every wharf and pier4 ,several of these stations are towns of #ej1jjj to #ajj1jjj inhabitants1 and1 besides their corn trade and tobacco1 they all deal in some articles of necessity or luxury1 of which they produce enough for their own1 if not always for their neighbours'1 consumption4 ,everywhere one sees huge buildings--steam flour-mills1 tobacco-factories1 salt-mines1 soap and candle factories1 tanneries--and last1 not least1 palaces for the sale of koumiss or fermented mare's milk1 a sanitary beverage2 and extensive establishments1 especially near ,samara1 for the koumiss cure1--fashionable resorts as watering-places1 frequented by persons affected by consumption1 and other real or imaginary ailments4 ,there is something appalling in the thought that all this busy1 and1 on the whole1 merry life on the banks of the ,volga must come to a dead stand-still for six or seven months in the year4 ,i have been vainly taxing my brain to guess what may become of the captains1 mates and crews of the #gjj steamers1 and of the #e1jjj heavy barges with which the river is now swarming2 of the porters1 agents1 clerks1 and other officials at the various stations2 of the thousands of women employed to carry all the firewood from the piers to the steam-boats4 ,what becomes of all these1 and of the men and horses toiling at the steam-row and tow-boats on the ,oka1 the ,kama1 the ,don1 the ,dnieper1 and a hundred other rivers during the long season in which the vast plains of ,russia are turned into a howling wilderness of snow and ice from end to end8 ,railway communication and sledge-driving may1 by doubling their activity1 afford employment to some of the men and beasts who would otherwise be doomed to passive and torpid hybernation4 ,but much of the work that is practicable in other countries almost throughout the year--nearly all that is done in the open air--suffers here grievous interruption4 ,what should we think in ,england of a six months' winter1 in which the land were as hard as a rock1 in which all the cattle had to be kept within doors1 in which the bricklayer's trowel and the road-mender's roller had to be laid aside8 ,and1 by way of compensation1 what mere human bone and muscle can stand the crushing labour by which the summer months1 with their long days of twenty hours' sunlight1 must make up for the winter's forced idleness2 in a climate too1 where1 as far as my own experience goes1 the heat is hardly less oppressive and stifling than in the level lands of ,lombardy or the ,emilia8 ,,odessa ,,antonio ,,gallenga ,from ,yalta to ,sebastopol there are two routes4 ,one strikes across the ,yaila hills to ,simpheropol1 whence we could proceed by rail to ,sebastopol2 the other runs along the coast1 high up on the hills1 to the ,baidar ,gate and through the ,baidar ,valley leading to ,balaclava and the other well-known spots encompassing the ruins of what was once the great naval station of the ,russians on the ,black ,sea4 ,we chose the coast route1 and travelled for five hours in the afternoon over forty-eight versts of the most singular road in the world4 ,it rambles up and down along the side of the hills--as a road did once on the beautiful ,cornice along the ,ligurian ,riviera--midway between the upper hill crest and the sea1 having on the right the mountains1 a succession of wall-like1 perpendicular1 hoary cliffs1 between #a1ejj feet and #b1jjj feet high1 a great wall riven into every variety of fantastic shapes of bastions1 towers1 and pyramids1 all bare and rugged1 crumbling here and there into huge boulders1 strewn along the slopes down to the road1 across the road1 and further down to the water-edge1 a scene which might befit the battle-field of the ,titans against the gods2 and on the left the wide expanse of the waters1 with a coast like a fringe of little glens and creeks and headlines1 and the sun's glitter on the waves like ,dante's tremolar della marina on the shore of ,purgatory4 ,between the road and the sea far below us1 in the distance1 embosomed in woods still untouched by the autumn frosts1 lay the marine villas of ,livadia1 ,orianda1 ,alupka1 etc41 very ,edens1 where on their first annexation of the ,crimea the wealthy ,russians sought a refuge against the horrors of their wintry climate2 more recently1 ,imperial residences--,livadia1 the darling of the late ,emperor2 ,orianda1 now a mere wreck from the recent conflagration1 the seat of the ,grand ,duke ,constantine2 ,alupka1 the abode of ,prince ,woronzoff1 the son of the benevolent genius of these districts1 the road-maker1 the patron of ,yalta1 the second founder of ,odessa4 ,a scene of irresistible enchantment is the whole of what the ,russians emphatically call their southern coast4 ,and1 as if to enhance its charm by contrast1 everything changes as you pass the ,baidar ,gate1 and when you have crossed the ,baidar ,valley the balmy air becomes raw and chill1 the bald mountains tame and common-place1 and the long descent is through an ashy-gray country1 swept over by an icy blast1 saddened by a lowering sky1 unrelieved by a flower1 a bush1 or a cottage4 ,so marvellous is the power of mere position1 so great the difference between the two sides of the same mountain-wall6 ,you pass at once from a garden to a steppe4 ,away from these sheltering rocks1 away from the southern slopes of the ,caucasian ridges1 you are in ,russia4 ,the only mountains throughout all the rest of the ,tsar's ,european territories are the ,urals1 which nowhere reach even the heights of the ,apennines1 which do not form everywhere a continuous chain1 and which run in almost a straight line from north to south4 ,from the icy pole the wind sweeping over the frozen ocean and the snowy wastes of the northern provinces finds nowhere a hindrance to its cruel blasts1 and spreads its chill over the whole land with such steady keenness as to make the climate of the exposed parts of the ,black ,sea coast almost as wintry as that of the ,white ,sea4 ,at ,odessa in the early days of ,october both our hotel and the private houses we had occasion to enter had already put up double doors and windows1 and people lived in apartments as hermetically closed as if their homes had been in ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,we slept at ,baidar1 a ,tartar village1 where a maiden of that ,moslem race was the only attendant at the ,russian inn1 and on the morrow we drove in three hours to ,sebastopol1 a distance of forty-two versts4 ,sebastopol has still not a little of that ,pompeian look which it bore on the day after its surrender to the ,western ,allies in #ahef4 ,we drove through miles of ruins1 the roofless walls staring at us from the dismantled doors and windows1 the dust from the rubbish-heaps of brick and mortar blinding us at every turning of the streets1 though1 we were told1 the city is looking up and thriving1 and both house-rent and building-ground are rising in price from day to day4 ,we had to wait two days for the ,olga1 detained by stress of weather1 and it was with a hope of enlivening ourselves that1 under the escort of the ,english ,consul1 a ,crimean veteran who takes care of the heroic dead1 and actually lives with as well as for them1 we drove out to some of the eleven ,english cemeteries1 to the house where ,lord ,raglan died1 and the monument marking the spot where the six hundred rode into the jaws of death--those localities made forever memorable by a war than which none was ever undertaken with less distinct aims1 none fought with greater valour1 none brought to an end with less important results4 ,we left ,sebastopol at three in the afternoon in the ,olga1 and landed at ,odessa in the morning at ten4 ,throughout the first week after our arrival1 we never caught a single glimpse of the sun4 ,odessa1 like ,sebastopol1 like ,kertch1 like ,astrakhan1 and other places lying on the edge of the ,russian ,steppe1 seems habitually1 under the influence of the wind in peculiar quarters1 to be haunted by fogs that set in at sunrise and only sometimes clear off after sunset4 ,during this gloomy state of the atmosphere the night is usually warmer than the day4 ,illustration3 ,,place ,,turemnaja ,,odessa4 ,odessa has a magnificent position1 for it lies high on ravines1 which give it a wide command over its large harbour1 lately improved1 as well as on the open sea and coast1 the striking feature of the place being its boulevard1 a terrace or platform about #ejj yards in length1 laid out and planted as a promenade1 looking out seawards and accessible by a flight of stairs of #aej steps from the landing-place4 ,odessa is not an old town1 but it looks brand-new1 for there has been of late a great deal of building1 and the crumbling nature of the stone keeps the mason and white-washer perpetually at work4 ,it is lively1 though monotonous1 for its broad1 straight streets are astir with business1 and the rattle of hackney-carriages1 heavy-laden vans1 and tramway-cars is incessant4 ,it boasts many private palaces and has few public edifices1 and in its municipal institutions it is1 or used to be1 taxed with consulting rather more the purposes of luxury and ornament than the real wants of the people or the interests of charity4 ,odessa is in ,russia1 but not of ,russia1 for among its citizens1 we are told1 possibly with exaggeration1 more than one-third 7#gj1jjj7 are ,jews1 besides #aj1jjj ,greeks and ,germans1 and ,italians in good number4 ,it is unlike any other ,russian city1 for it is tolerably well paved1 has plenty of drinking-water1 and rows of trees--however stunted1 wind-nipped1 and sickly--in every street4 ,it is not ,russian1 because few ,russians succeed here in business2 but strenuous efforts are made to ,russify it1 for the names of the streets1 which were once written in ,italian as well as in ,russian1 are now only set up in ,russian1 unreadable to most foreign visitors2 and the so-called ,italian ,street 7,strada ,italiana71 reminding one of what the town owes to its first settlers1 has been rebaptized as ,pushkin ,street4 ,of the three ,french newspapers which flourished here till very lately1 not one any longer exists1 for whatever is not ,russian is discountenanced and tabooed in a town which1 in spite of all1 is not and never will be1 ,russian4 ,french is1 nevertheless1 more generally understood than in most ,russian cities1 but ,italian is dying off here as in all the ,levant and the north coast of ,africa1 ,italy losing as a united nation such hold as she had as a mere nameless cluster of divided states4 ,it is difficult to foresee what results the great change that is visibly going on in the economical and commercial conditions of the ,russian ,empire may have on the destinies of ,odessa4 ,half a century ago1 if we may trust the statistics of the ,journal d' ,odessa1 this city had only the third rank among the commercial places of ,russia4 ,at the head of all then was ,st4 ,petersburg1 whose harbour was frequented by #a1ejj to #b1jjj vessels1 the exports being #ajj1jjj1jjj to #abj1jjj1jjj roubles1 and the imports #adj1jjj1jjj to #afj1jjj1jjj roubles4 ,next in importance came ,riga1 with #a1jjj to #a1ejj vessels1 #ce1jjj1jjj to #ej1jjj1jjj roubles exports1 and #ae1jjj1jjj to #bj1jjj1jjj roubles imports2 and ,odessa1 as third1 received #fjj to #hjj vessels1 her exports amounting from #be1jjj1jjj to #cj1jjj1jjj roubles1 and her imports from #bj1jjj1jjj to #be1jjj1jjj roubles4 ,the relative commercial importance of the three ports was1 therefore1 as twenty-five to six and five4 ,matters have undergone a considerable alteration since then4 ,st4 ,petersburg1 whose imports and exports doubled in amount those of all the other ports of the ,empire put together1 has been gradually declining1 the ports of ,esthonia1 ,livonia1 and ,courland threatening to deprive her inconvenient harbour of a great part of the ,baltic trade1 and the centre of general business being rapidly removed from the present seat of ,government to the old capital1 ,moscow4 ,riga1 also1 has been and is slowly sinking from its high position in the ,baltic1 and may1 perhaps1 eventually succumb to the active rivalry of ,revel and ,libau4 ,odessa1 on the contrary1 has been looking up for these many years1 absorbing nearly all the ,russian trade in the ,black ,sea1 and rapidly rising from the third to the second rank as a seaport4 ,the main cause of the rise and progress of ,odessa was owing to the development of agricultural enterprise in the provinces of what is called ,little and ,new ,russia1 or the ,black ,earth ,country the granary of the ,empire and for a long time of all ,europe4 ,beyond the steppes which encompass the whole southern seacoast of ,russia1 from the ,sea of ,azof to the ,danube1 there spreads far inland a fertile region1 embracing the whole or part of the ,governments of ,podolia1 ,poltava1 ,kharkof1 ,kief1 ,voronei1 ,don ,cossacks1 etc41 including the districts of what was once known as the ,ukraine1 which was for many years debatable land between ,poland1 ,turkey1 and ,russia1 and on which roamed the mongrel bands of the ,cossacks1 an uncouth population recruited among the many tramps and vagabonds from the northern provinces1 mixed with all the races of men with whom they came into contact1 settling here and there in new1 loose1 and almost lawless communities1 organized as military colonies1 and perpetually shifting their allegiance from one to the other of these three ,powers1 till the policy and good fortune of ,peter the ,great and ,catherine ,,ii4 extended the sway of ,russia over the whole territory4 ,at the close of the last century1 and contemporaneously with the foundation of ,odessa 7#agid71 the bountiful nature of the soil of this region became known1 and the country was overrun by colonists from ,great or ,northern ,russia1 from ,germany1 and from ,bulgaria and ,wallachia2 and its rich harvests were soon sufficient1 not only to satisfy1 but to exceed the wants of the whole ,empire4 ,odessa1 endowed by its founder1 ,catherine ,,ii41 with the privilege of a free port1 which it enjoyed till after the war of the ,crimea1 monopolized during that time the export of the produce of this southern land1 consisting chiefly of grain and wool2 and its prosperity went on1 always on the increase--affected only temporarily by wars and bad harvests--to such an extent that the total value of the exports1 which was1 in round numbers1 about #eb1jjj1jjj roubles in #ahga1 rose to #hf1jjj1jjj roubles in #ahgh1 to #hh1jjj1jjj roubles in #ahgi1 and fell1 owing to the bad harvest1 to #ef1jjj1jjj roubles in #ahhj4 ,the ,odessa trade was for a long time in the hands of ,greek and ,italian merchants1 the original settlers in the town at its foundation1 the produce being1 before the invention of steamers1 conveyed to ,italy1 ,france and ,england in ,italian bottoms4 ,but1 of late years1 preference being given to steamers over sailing vessels1 and the ,italians1 either failing to perceive the value of time and the importance of the revolution that steam had effected1 or lacking capital to profit by it1 allowed the ,english to have the lion's share of the ,black ,sea trade1 so that1 in #ahgi1 the ,english vessels entering the port of ,odessa were #edi steamers and four sailing vessels1 with #ejj1jjj tons1 while the ,italians had only fifty steamers and #aai sailing vessels1 with #he1gjj tons4 ,next to the ,english were1 in the same year1 the ,austrians 7eighty-seven steam and #aai sailing vessels1 #aai1jjj tons74 ,the ,russians1 at home here1 had #aej steam and eight sailing vessels and #ahj1jjj tons4 ,odessa1 however1 though she had so much of the trade to herself1 had not of late years the whole of it4 ,as the means of land and water conveyance improved1 and especially after the construction of railways1 a number of minor rivals arose all along the coast--,rostov1 at the mouth of the ,don2 ,taganrog1 ,mariupol or ,marianopolis1 and ,berdianski1 on the north coast of the ,sea of ,azof1 where ,greek colonies are flourishing2 ,kherson1 at the mouth of the ,dnieper2 ,nicolaief1 at the mouth of the ,bug2 and others4 ,odessa was thus reduced to the trade of the region to the west of the last-named river1 having lost that of the provinces of ,poltava1 ,kharkof1 ,kursk1 ,orel1 ,ekaterinoslaf1 etc41 and only retaining ,kherson1 ,bessarabia1 ,volhynia1 ,kief1 etc41 which would still be sufficient for her commercial well-being4 ,but ,odessa is threatened with a new and far more formidable rival in ,sebastopol4 ,sebastopol1 with all its inlets1 is by far the most perfect harbour in the ,black ,sea1 and has the inestimable advantage that it never freezes1 while in ,odessa the ice brings all trade to a standstill for two or three weeks every winter1 and all the ports of ,azof and the mouths of the rivers are frozen from ,november to ,march or even mid-,april4 ,sebastopol has the additional advantage of being in the most direct and nearest communication by rail with ,kharkof1 the very heart of the ,black ,earth ,country1 and with ,moscow1 the centre of the ,russian commercial and industrial business4 ,the people in ,sebastopol have hopes that the ,imperial ,government1 giving up all thought of bringing back their great ,black ,sea naval station from ,nicolaief to its former seat1 may not be unwilling that their fine harbour be turned to the purposes of trading enterprise1 and even to favour it for a few years with the privileges of a free port4 ,illustration3 ,,sebastopol4 ,the citizens of ,odessa1 on the other hand1 scout such expectations as over-sanguine1 if not quite chimerical1 laugh to scorn the idea that the ,government may at any time lay aside its intention of going back with its naval establishment to ,sebastopol2 and1 in that case1 they contend that the juxtaposition of a commercial with an ,imperial naval port would be as monstrous a combination as would be in ,france that of ,marseilles and ,toulon1 or in ,england that of ,portsmouth and ,liverpool1 in one and the same place4 ,they add that the railway between ,moscow and ,sebastopol is ill-constructed and almost breaking down2 that1 although it is by some hundred miles shorter than that from ,odessa to ,moscow1 the express and mail trains are so arranged that the most rapid communication between north and south is effected between ,odessa and ,st4 ,petersburg1 which route is travelled over in less than three days4 ,whichever of the contending parties may have the best of the argument1 there is no doubt that1 were even the ,government to be favourable to the wishes of the people of ,sebastopol1 there would be no just reason for jealousy between the two cities1 for ,odessa has already proved that she can manage to grow richer than ever upon one-half of the trade of ,southern ,russia1 while ,sebastopol might safely rely on carrying on the other half--that other half which is now already in the hands of ,taganrog1 ,mariupol1 ,nicolaief1 etc4 ,for all these ports of ,azof and the mouths of the rivers1 besides being closed by ice for at least four months in the year1 are so shallow that no amount of dredging can keep back the silting sands1 and vessels must anchor at distances of ten to twenty and even thirty miles outside the harbours4 ,,the ,,don ,,cossacks ,,thomas ,,michell ,coming from the north1 the first town of any importance in ,southern ,russia is ,kursk1 three hundred and thirty-five miles from ,moscow in an almost direct line1 the railway passing through the cities of ,tula 7the ,russian ,birmingham71 and ,orel1 the centre of a rich agricultural district connected by rail1 on the west1 with ,riga on the ,baltic1 and on the south-east with ,tsaritzin on the ,volga4 ,authentic records attest the existence of ,kursk in #ajcb1 and in #ajie it was held by ,isiaslaf1 son of ,vladimir ,monomachus1 from whom it passed alternately to the ,princes of ,chernigof and of ,pereyaslasl4 ,in the ,thirteenth ,century it was razed to the ground by the ,tartars4 ,in #aehf the southern frontiers of ,moscovy were fortified1 and ,kursk became one of the principal places on that line of defence against the ,crimean ,tartars and the ,poles4 ,its disasters and sufferings as a military outpost ceased only towards the end of the ,seventeenth ,century1 after ,little ,russia 7the more southerly districts watered by the ,dnieper71 submitted to the ,tsar ,alexis4 ,we are now almost in the heart of the ,chernozem1 or black soil country1 so called from the rich black loam of which its surface is composed to a depth of two and three yards and more4 ,these vast plains were known to ,herodotus1 ,strabo1 and other ancient geographers only in their present ,steppe1 or flat and woodless condition4 ,it is a great relief to the eye to see at last a handsomely-built city like ,kursk1 perched1 relatively to the surrounding flatness1 on an elevation and almost smothered in the verdure of numerous gardens4 ,there is1 however1 not much to see within it1 for even the churches are mostly not older than the second half of the ,eighteenth ,century4 ,the more southerly part of the province of ,kursk is in the ,ukraine1 or ancient border country4 ,its semi-nomadic population obtained in early days the designation of ,cossacks4 ,this word is not ,sclavonic1 but ,turkish2 and although it long denoted in ,russia a free man1 or1 rather1 a man free to do anything he chose1 it had been used by the ,tartar hordes to designate the lower class of their horsemen4 ,from the princes of the ,house of ,rurik these southerly districts passed into the possession of ,lithuania1 and1 later1 into those of ,poland4 ,little ,russia was another arbitrary name anciently given to a great part of what has been also known as the ,ukraine4 ,no fixed geographical limits can be assigned to either of these designations1 and especially to the ,ukraine of the ,poles or the ,muscovites2 for as the borders or marshes became safe and populated1 they were absorbed by the dominant power1 and ultimately incorporated into provinces4 ,little ,russia is1 in fact1 a term now used only to denote the ,southern ,russians as distinguished principally from the ,great ,russians of the more central part of the empire4 ,there is a strongly-marked difference in the outward appearance1 the mode of life1 and even the cast of thought of these two branches of the ,sclav race4 ,the language of the ,little ,russian1 or ,hohol1 as he is contemptuously called by his more vigorous northern brother1 is a cross between the ,polish and the ,russian1 although nearer akin to the ,muscovite than to the ,polish tongue4 ,ethnographically1 also1 the ,little ,russians become gradually fused with the ,white ,russians of the north-west 7,mohilef and ,vitebsk7 and with the ,slovaks of the other side of the ,carpathians4 ,the ,malo-,ros 7,little ,russian7 is physically a better1 though a less muscular man than the ,veliko-,ros1 or ,great ,russian4 ,he is taller1 finer-featured1 and less rude and primitive in his domestic surroundings4 ,the women have both beauty and grace1 and make the most of those qualities by adorning themselves in neat and picturesque costumes1 resembling strongly those of the ,roumanian and ,transylvanian peasantry4 ,their houses are not like those of other parts of ,russia--log huts1 full1 generally1 of vermin and cockroaches2 but wattled1 thatched1 and whitewashed cottages1 surrounded by gardens1 and kept internally in order and cleanliness4 ,their lives are altogether more happy1 although their songs1 full of deep feeling1 and not without a vein of romance are1 like those of all ,sclavs1 plaintive and in the minor key4 ,the men sing of the daring exploits of their ,cossack forefathers1 who were not free-booters like the old ,cossacks of the ,volga1 but courageous men engaged in a life-and-death struggle with nomadic hordes1 and later with internal enemies1 ,poles and rebels4 ,the greater refinement of the women of ,little ,russia is attributable to the comparative ease of their lives in a fertile country1 with a climate more genial than that of the more northerly parts of the empire4 ,there the ,great and the ,white ,russians had to contend with a soil much less productive1 with swamps which had to be drained1 with thick forests which had to be cleared1 with wild beasts which had to be destroyed or guarded against1 and with frost and snow that left scarcely four months in the year for labour in the field4 ,the upper classes of ,south ,russia1 enriched by the cultivation of large and fertile estates1 and favoured in their social development by long contact with the ancient ,western civilization of ,poland1 exhibit a similar superiority over the bulk of their compeers in ,great ,russia4 ,except1 however1 in the case of the larger landed proprietors1 the everyday life of the ,southern ,russian bears a strong resemblance to that of the ,irish squireen4 ,there is a strong tinge of the same insouciance as to the material future1 and an equal propensity to reckless hospitality1 to sport 7principally coursing71 social jollification1 and to a great extent to card-playing4 ,indeed1 there are well-appointed country seats in the ,south of ,russia in which the long summer days are entirely spent in card-playing1 with interruptions only for meals4 ,there are horses in plenty in the stable1 and vehicles of every description to which they can be harnessed2 but taking a drive through endless cornfields along natural roads or tracks1 parched1 cracked1 and dusty one day1 and presenting the next a surface of black mud1 offers but few attractions to the ladies1 and vehicular locomotion is therefore resorted to only as a matter of necessity1 on journeys to estates or towns often fifty to one hundred miles distant4 ,country life1 indeed1 has no great attractions in any part of ,russia ,proper1 and ever since the ,emancipation of the ,serfs and the accompanying extinction of the power and authority of the proprietary classes1 absenteeism has been largely on the increase1 to the advantage solely of the principal provincial towns1 and of certain capitals and watering-places in ,western ,europe4 ,thus1 while ,kursk and ,kharkof owe much of their riches and progress to the immigration of landed proprietors from the northerly and eastern districts of the ,black ,soil ,zone1 ,kief is the resort of more princely landlords of the south-western districts1 strongly and favourably affected by ,polish culture4 ,kharkof1 to the east of ,kief1 is the principal seat of trade in ,south ,russia1 being a centre from which the products and manufactures of ,northern and ,central ,russia are spread throughout the provinces to the east and south1 down even to the ,caucasus4 ,sugar1 largely produced in this part of ,russia from beet-root and bounty-fed1 and corn1 brandy1 wool and hides from the central provinces1 are largely sold at the five fairs held each year at ,kharkof1 which has also reason to be proud of its university with upwards of six hundred students1 and of its connection by rail with the shores of the ,baltic and those of the ,black and ,azof ,seas4 ,in #agfe1 ,kharkof became the capital of the ,ukraine1 after having been a ,cossack outpost town since #afdg1 when ,poland finally ceded the province to ,muscovy4 ,anciently1 this was the camping-ground of nomadic tribes1 particularly of the ,khazars1 and later the high road of the ,tartar invaders of ,russia1 whether from the ,crimea or the shores of the ,caspian4 ,in the province of ,kharkof are found those remarkable idols of stone which we have seen in the ,historical ,museum at ,moscow1 and a vast number of tumuli1 which have yielded coins establishing the fact of an early intercourse both with ,rome and ,arabia4 ,poltava1 also a place of extensive trade1 principally in wool1 horses1 and cattle1 is familiar to us in connection with the defeat of ,charles ,,xii4 by ,peter the ,great in #agji4 ,the centre of the field so disastrous to the ,swedes is marked by a mound which covers the remains of their slain4 ,two monuments commemorate the victory4 ,at ,ekaterinoslaf we are again on the great ,dnieper4 ,it was only a village when ,catherine ,,ii41 descending the river from ,kief in a stately barge accompanied by ,joseph ,,ii4 of ,austria1 ,king ,stanislaus ,augustus of ,poland and a brilliant suite1 raised it to the dignity of a town bearing her own name4 ,on that occasion she laid the first stone of a cathedral which was not destined to be completed on the imposing scale she had projected1 and which has been reduced to one-sixth in the edifice that was consecrated only in #ahce4 ,the town consists of only one row of buildings1 almost concealed in gardens and running for nearly three miles parallel with the ,dnieper4 ,catherine's ,palace1 a bronze statue which represents her clad in ,roman armour and crowned1 and the garden of her magnificent favourite1 ,prince ,potemkin1 constitute the sights of ,ekaterinoslaf1 the more striking feature of which1 however1 is its ,jewish population1 huddled together in a special quarter between the river and the bazaar4 ,a considerable number of them pursue the favourite ,jewish occupation of money-changing1 and the ,ekaterinoslaf ,prospekt is dotted with their stands and their money-chests1 painted blue and red4 ,a drive over forty miles of ,steppe1 somewhat relieved in its monotony by numerous ancient tumuli1 bring those who do not proceed by steamer to the great naval station and commercial port of ,nicolaief1 at the junction of the ,ingul with the ,bug4 ,it was the site until #agge of a ,cossack setch1 or fortified settlement1 and in #aghi it received its present appellation in commemoration of the capture of ,otchakof from the ,turks on the feast-day of ,st4 ,nicholas4 ,destined from the first by ,potemkin to be the harbour of a ,russian fleet in the ,black ,sea1 temporarily neglected by the naval authorities1 ,nicolaief reasserted its claim to that proud position after the fall of ,sebastopol4 ,it owes much of its present affluence to the sound administration of ,admiral ,samuel ,greig1 son of the admiral of ,scotch parentage who1 with the aid of some equally gallant countrymen1 won for the ,russians the naval battle of ,chesme in #agfi4 ,next to ,odessa1 ,nicolaief is the handsomest town in ,new ,russia1 as this part of the country was called after its conquest from the ,turks and ,tartars4 ,its large trade1 mostly in grain1 has been greatly promoted by the railway1 which now connects this important harbour with ,kharkof and other rich agricultural centres4 ,of the six ports on the neighbouring ,sea of ,azof1 ,taganrog1 where ,alexander ,i4 died in #ahbe1 is the most considerable1 although steamers have to anchor at a considerable distance from it1 owing to the shallowness of the roadstead4 ,the annual value of its exports of corn1 wool1 tallow1 etc41 is about five millions sterling1 and1 as at ,nicolaief1 ,british shipping is chiefly employed in the trade4 ,much of the produce shipped here comes from ,rostov-on-the-,don1 the chief centre of inland trade in the south-east provinces of ,russia1 and one in which many industries 7especially the manipulation of tobacco grown in the ,caucasus and the ,crimea71 are pursued4 ,a short distance above this great mart is ,novocherkask1 the capital of the ,country of the ,don ,cossacks1 anciently the abode of ,scythians1 ,sarmatians1 ,huns1 ,bolgars1 ,khazars and ,tartars4 ,the present population dates from the ,sixteenth ,century1 when renegades from ,muscovy and vagrants of every description formed themselves into ,cossack1 or robber communities4 ,they attacked the ,tartars and ,turks1 and in #afcg took the ,turkish fortress of ,azof4 ,under the reign of ,peter the ,great the powerful and independent ,cossacks were not much interfered with1 but from #agah they were gradually brought under subjection to the ,tsar1 whom they powerfully assisted in subsequent wars4 ,the town was founded in #ahjd1 and is adorned with a bronze monument to the famous ,hetman 7,ataman or chief7 ,platof1 leader of the ,cossacks between #aggj and #ahaf4 ,it is usual to bestow on the ,russian heir-apparent the title of ,ataman of the ,don ,cossacks4 ,the last investiture with ,cossack baton took place in #ahhg1 when also the reigning ,emperor confirmed1 at a circle1 or open-air assemblage1 all the ancient rights and privileges of the warlike ,cossacks of the ,don4 ,illustration3 ,,kharkof4 ,the chief town of the ,kuban district is ,ekaterinodar1 a name which signifies1 literally1 ,catherine's gift1 from having been founded by the sovereign of that name and bestowed1 in #agib1 together with the adjacent territory1 on the ,zaporogian1 subsequently known as the ,black ,sea ,cossacks4 ,catherine mistrusted their power and influence1 and tempted them to the ,kuban with grants of land and other privileges4 ,the first service of some #bj1jjj of those new warrior settlers consisted in barring all egress from the mountains1 by means of a first fortified line of stations that extended to ,vladikavkas1 where they united with the descendants of the ,grebenski ,cossacks1 with whom they are not to be confounded4 ,the predominant type amongst the ,zaporogians is still that of the ,little ,russians1 the ,grebenski continuing to preserve their identity with the natives of ,great ,russia1 whence their origin2 and although the whole of this imposing force1 maintained at half a million1 has long since adopted the dress of the ,caucasian mountaineers1 the ,cossacks remain true to the orthodox faith and to the customs of their forefathers1 whose vernacular tongue has never been forgotten by them4 ,the dress so universally worn by the male sex1 even from boyhood1 in all parts of the ,caucasus1 consists of a single-breasted garment1 like a frock-coat1 but reaching almost to the ankles1 tightened in closely at the waist1 with a belt from which are suspended dagger1 sword1 and frequently a pistol1 and having on either breast a row of ten or twelve sockets1 each of a size to hold a cartridge4 ,a rifle1 which every man possesses1 is slung across the back2 and a tall sheep-skin hat finished off at its summit with a piece of coloured cloth completes the costume4 ,the number of ,cossacks in ,transcaucasia being very limited1 for a few only are stationed in each principal town1 chiefly as an escort to the governor of the province1 their duties are performed by ,chapars1 an irregular force1 equally dashing horsemen1 and trained in like manner from early youth in those singular exercises and breakneck evolutions for which the ,cossacks of the ,caucasus have become so famous4 ,setting their horses at full gallop1 they will stand on the saddle and fire all around at an imaginary enemy2 or throw the body completely over to the right1 with the left heel resting on their steed's hind quarter1 and fire as if at an enemy in pursuit1 or turn clean round1 and sitting astride facing the horse's tail1 keep up a rapid fire4 ,a favourite feat1 among many others1 is to throw their hat and rifle to the ground1 wheel1 and pick them up whilst going at the horse's fullest speed4 ,should the traveller elect to proceed eastward1 but north of the great range1 he will meet with the ,kabardines1 the first amongst the ,circassians to enter into friendly relations with ,russia2 they are the blood of the ,caucasus1 a noble race1 thoroughly domesticated1 hospitable to strangers1 and useful breeders of cattle4 ,to the south of the ,circassians1 and occupying about one hundred miles of the coast in the ,black ,sea1 are the ,abkhases1 who have enjoyed the reputation1 from time immemorial1 of being an indolent and lawless race1 anciently given to piracy1 now addicted to thieving when the opportunity is afforded them1 for they are determinedly inimical to strangers4 ,their mountains abound in forests of magnificent walnut and box1 where the enthusiastic sportsman will find the bear1 hyena1 and wolf1 and plenty of smaller game1 with seldom a roof to cover him other than the vault of heaven2 but the ordinary traveller is likely to encounter difficulties and delays that he would prefer to avoid4 ,christianity was here introduced by ,justinian1 who constructed many churches that would have been notable specimens of ,byzantine architecture1 had the ,abkhases not destroyed them in their struggles against the ,russians1 every such edifice being occupied and converted by the latter into a military post4 ,one church1 at ,pitzunda on the coast1 remarkable as being the place to which ,john ,chrysostom was banished at the instance of ,empress ,eudoxia--although the exile never reached his destination--having escaped the general destruction1 has been thoroughly restored of late years1 and is a striking object to passing vessels4 ,being the mother church in the ,caucasus1 ,pitzunda1 then ,pityus1 continued to be the seat of the ,catholics of ,abkhasia until the ,twelfth ,century4 ,practically1 the ,abkhases are at present heathens4 ,farther south1 and extending some way inland from the sea1 is the principality of ,mingrelia1 where we again tread classic ground1 inasmuch as our wanderings have brought us to the ,a,ea of ,circe and the ,argonauts4 ,in a ,mingrelian landscape we are struck at the aspect afforded by the numerous whitewashed cottages as they dot the well-wooded hills4 ,the ,mingrelians1 too1 like their neighbours whom we have just quitted1 are incurably given to indolence1 except in the making of wine from their abundant vineyards2 otherwise they are content to live on the produce of their orchards1 prolific through the interposition of a beneficent ,providence rather than to any agricultural diligence on their part4 ,they may certainly be included amongst the handsomest people in ,transcaucasia1 with their well-defined features and usually raven black hair4 ,the ,dadian1 or prince1 is the wealthiest of the dispossessed rulers3 the foresight of his predecessor and his own ,european training having taught him the danger of disposing of land and squandering the proceeds1 rather than preserving the property and contenting himself with a smaller income4 ,between ,mingrelia and ,abkhasia courses the ,ingur1 and if we ascend to near its water-shed--a journey easily accomplished on horse-back1 say from ,sougdidi1 the well-known military station--we should find ourselves amongst a very wild and singular people1 the ,svanni1 whose complete subjugation dates back no farther it may be said than #ahgf1 although they made a formal submission in #ahcc4 ,they occupy some forty or fifty miles of the upper valley of the ,ingur1 at no part exceeding ten miles in width1 and are cut off from all outside communication between the beginning of ,september and the end of ,may1 in consequences of the passes being blocked with snow4 ,the scenery in this valley1 writes a recent traveller1 is of great beauty and wildness1 and grand beyond description2 amid the most profuse vegetation1 every imaginable flower is seen in its wild state1 and bank1 meadow1 hill-side and grass plot are literally covered with all that is most lovely2 in every forest and grove1 and all undergrowth even1 indeed wherever the pure air of heaven and its divine light is not obstructed1 the earth is thus gorgeously arrayed4 ,,in ,,the ,,caucasus ,j4 ,,buchan ,,teller ,returning to ,mingrelia1 we find it bounded on the south by the river ,rion1 the ancient ,phasis1 which flows through the country whence was introduced into ,europe the ,phasian bird--our pheasant4 ,the ,rion divides ,mingrelia from ,guria1 another principality1 where is situated ,batoum1 a somewhat pestiferous but important military station and commercial port1 that has tended in no small degree1 since its annexation to ,russia in #ahgh1 towards the development of the resources of this beautiful country1 intersected with good roads through valleys highly cultivated with maize1 corn1 and barley1 the hills and their declivities being overspread with the oak and box1 exported in large quantities1 and yielding handsome returns4 ,ozurgheti1 the chief town1 attractively situated1 was the residence of the rulers who lie interred at the ancient monastery and episcopal church1 ,chemokmedy1 about six miles distant4 ,passengers from ,odessa and the ,crimea landing at ,batoum find the train in readiness to convey them to ,tiflis1 the capital of the whole ,transcaucasia1 reached in about fifteen hours1 the train travelling slowly enough1 but through a land of much interest1 historically and pictorially4 ,on the right1 in the distance1 are the highlands of the old kingdom of ,armenia1 to the left is ,imeritia1 a glory1 like ,mingrelia and ,guria1 of the past4 ,if so inclined1 the traveller may exchange1 at ,rion station1 the main for a branch line1 which will take him to ,kutais1 the chief town of the old kingdom of ,imeritia1 where he may tarry for a while to great advantage4 ,it is the ancient ,khytaea1 the residence of ,a,etes2 at any rate a city of great antiquity1 beautifully situated on the banks of the ,rion4 ,between ,kutais and ,tiflis is the ,pass of ,suram1 at an altitude of three thousand and twenty-seven feet1 over which are laid the lines of rail by gradients of one in twenty-two feet over a distance of about eight miles2 a triumph of engineering skill due1 as is the entire railway1 to ,british capital and enterprise4 ,beyond this ,pass the train stops at ,gori1 situated at the limits of a glorious plain1 watered by the ,kur and its tributaries4 ,since fairly good accommodation is obtainable1 it were well to halt at this station for the purpose of visiting the unique rock-cut town1 ,uplytztzykhe1 some eight miles off4 ,here is a town--there can be no other designation for it--consisting of public edifices--if such a term may be employed--of large habitations1 presumably for the great1 smaller dwellings for others1 each being conveniently divided1 and having doorways1 openings for light1 and partitions1 while many are ornamented with cornices1 mouldings1 beams and pillars4 ,the groups are separated by streets and lanes1 and grooves have been cut1 unquestionably for water-courses1 and yet the whole has been entirely hewn and shaped out of the solid rock4 ,tradition is replete with incidents in the history of these remarkable excavations1 but faithful historiographers have hitherto refrained from endorsing any of the tales that have been handed down by romancers of ,georgia4 ,tiflis1 the chief seat of ,government and residence of the ,governor-,general1 having a population of about one hundred thousand souls1 is unpleasantly situated between ranges of perfectly barren hills1 and but for the ,river ,kur1 on the banks of which it is built1 would be almost uninhabitable4 ,having driven through the suburbs on his way from the railway terminus1 the traveller crosses the ,kur over the ,woronzoff ,bridge1 which at once brings him to the principal street1 where he passes in succession the public gardens1 gymnasium1 law-courts1 palace of the ,governor-,general1 the main guard-house1 public library1 museum1 etc42 by which time he will have reached ,palace ,street and ,erivan ,square1 where are situated the best hotels and restaurants1 and the ,national ,theatre4 ,from the square three main thoroughfares lead to as many separate quarters1 viz43 the ,european1 where the wealthy live in well-built houses of elegant construction2 the native bazaars1 and the marketplace and ,russian bazaar4 ,an extensive view of the city and an interesting sight is obtained from the eminence crowned by the old fortress which immediately overlooks the ,asiatic quarter and bazaars1 whence rise the confused sounds of human cries and the din from the iron1 brass1 and copper-workers4 ,as is the custom elsewhere in the ,east1 those of one trade congregate together1 apart from the other trades1 and so are passed a succession of silversmiths in their stalls1 of furriers1 armourers1 or eating and wine-shops1 the wine of the country being kept in buffalo1 goat1 or sheep-skins laid on their back1 and presenting the disagreeable appearance of carcases swollen after lengthened immersion in water4 ,the ,georgians are merry folk1 rarely allowing themselves to be depressed by the troubles of life4 ,they love wine and music1 and ever seek to drive away dull care by indulging in their favourite ,kakhety--two bottles being the usual allowance to a man's dinner1 an allowance1 however1 greatly exceeded when1 of an evening1 friends meet together to join in the national dance1 called the ,lezghinka4 ,the ,cathedral of ,zion was formerly the church of the ,patriarch of ,georgia4 ,it dates from the ,fifth ,century1 and encloses that most precious relic1 with which the nation was converted to ,christianity in the ,fourth ,century--nothing less than a cross of vine stems bound with the hair of ,st4 ,nina1 the patron saint1 who first preached the truth6 ,the patriarchate has long been suppressed1 and is replaced by a ,russian ,exarch1 so that the ,georgian ,church may be considered in all respects identical with that of ,russia4 ,the palace of the kings has entirely disappeared1 for not a vestige remains4 ,george ,,xiii4 signed his renunciation of the crown in favour of the ,emperor ,paul in #ahjj1 and died shortly afterwards amid the execrations of his subjects1 for having ignominiously betrayed them4 ,many of his descendants are in the service of ,russia1 and are the representatives of one of the most ancient monarchies of the world--for the ,bagrations first rose to power in #ehg2 and if allowance be made for interregnums it will be found that their reign extended over #ajib years1 during the twelve centuries that elapsed from their earliest election4 ,as ,georgia is the land of wine and song1 so is ,armenia essentially the land of legend and tradition1 for which must be held in great part responsible the magnificent mountain that exhibits itself suddenly at a dip in the road long before the plains are in sight4 ,well may the ,armenians glory in their ,ararat1 peerless among the mighty works of the ,creator1 almost symmetrical in its outlines1 and rising to an altitude of #af1iaf feet above the sea1 ,lesser ,ararat1 #ab1hdj feet1 looking almost dwarfed by the side of its mighty neighbour4 ,at ,erivan1 the largest city in ,russian ,armenia1 the traveller will find fairly good accommodation1 but the place is dull enough1 whether in the ,persian quarter1 where crooked lanes are lined with high walls1 that mask the dwellings within like the defences of a fortress1 or in the broad streets and unpaved quarter laid out by the ,russians since their occupation of the province in #ahbi1 even though enlivened by a boulevard and gardens fair to look upon4 ,the population is ,armenian and ,persian1 for ,persia ruled here during a considerable period until vanquished by ,russia2 but at the bazaar one meets with other nationalities1 such as ,tartars from the ,steppes1 ,kurds1 ,greeks1 and ,turkish dealers in search of good horses1 upon which they will fly across the frontier1 defying ,cossacks and custom officers alike4 ,within a short distance of ,erivan1 and the post-station nearest to the ,persian frontier1 is ,nahitchevan1 the first abode of ,noah after he came forth from the ark1 and probably also his last1 since his tomb is reverently shown by the inhabitants1 who eagerly escort strangers to see it4 ,other still more important towns in ,armenia1 available by carriage-road1 are ,alexandropol and ,kars1 the former being the largest and most powerful fortress and the principal arsenal in ,transcaucasia2 the latter1 long a ,turkish fortress town1 was gallantly defended in #ahee by ,sir ,fenwick ,williams and a few ,british officers1 until the garrison was starved into surrender by ,general ,mouravieff4 ,kars was finally ceded to ,russia by the ,treaty of ,berlin in #ahgh4 ,illustration3 ,,tiflis4 ,a ,tartar city brought into prominence of late years through the introduction of railways is ,elizavetpol1 on the line between ,tiflis and the ,caspian1 where we must now pick ourselves up after having retraced our steps from the plains1 to journey by rail to dismal looking ,baku--a town of recent creation1 approached through a desert of sand and stones1 where neither vegetable nor animal life can possibly find an existence4 ,viewed from the sea1 ,baku presents a distinctly picturesque appearance1 with its sombre citadel1 numerous minarets1 and the palace of the princes of bygone days towering above the old town1 where the houses look as if they were piled the one above the other--the new or ,russian quarter being at the base1 and lining the shore of the pretty little bay4 ,modern ,baku contains some handsome residences and well-paved streets1 the principal being the busy quay1 constructed of massive blocks of greystone masonry1 where the naphtha1 the wealth of ,baku1 is embarked for transport to the interior of ,russia by the ,volga1 or for conveyance across the ,caspian to ,central ,asia4 ,numerous refineries1 worth inspecting1 at the west end of ,baku compose the ,black ,town1 so called from its begrimed condition1 and from being ever enveloped in clouds of the densest smoke4 ,since a remote period has this neighbourhood been considered holy by fire-worshippers1 because of the many naphtha springs that were constantly burning1 some even perpetually2 indeed1 the fires at ,surakan1 a suburb of ,baku1 continued to be guarded by fire-worshippers from ,yezd in ,persia1 and even from ,india1 until1 with the connivance of the government1 they were hustled away some ten years ago by the increasing number of speculators engaged in a trade which has now completely driven out of the market all ,american produce4 ,in ,daghestan is ,gunib1 the last stronghold of the brave ,shamyl1 whom the strength of ,russia was unequal to subdue during the space of thirty years4 ,do the ,russians say that they are numerous as the grains of sand8 ,then are we the waves that will carry away that sand1 said the great ,tartar chief addressing the numerous tribes who placed themselves under his leadership to repel the invader4 ,the mountaineers posted themselves on the heights1 and1 hidden by trees1 shot down their enemies in scores as they advanced in column up the narrow defiles4 ,the great thoroughfare between ,transcaucasia and ,russia is from ,tiflis to ,vladikavkaz1 the terminus of the ,moscow-,rostof railway1 by way of the ,dariel road1 a stupendous engineering success completed in the reign of ,nicholas4 ,this road winds over a pass #g1igg feet above the sea1 and is kept in repair and clear for traffic in winter by the ,ossets1 whose country it traverses1 in return for which service they are exempt from all taxes4 ,when the traveller will have completed the journey from ,tiflis to ,vladikavkaz1 he will have arrived at the depot and point of transit for all goods brought by rail from ,russia1 and there transferred1 for conveyance to the ,transcaucasian provinces1 to clumsy1 unwieldly carts or vans drawn by horses or oxen2 those in charge of the caravans never being in a hurry1 completely indifferent as to when they start1 or when they arrive at their destination1 and rejoicing in a lengthened stay at ,mlety station1 after having accomplished the most tiresome part of the distance--the ascent and descent of the pass4 ,vladikavkaz was founded in #aghe on the site of an ,osset village1 and became the headquarters and chief military depot of the ,russians during their lengthened struggle for supremacy with the stout-hearted hillmen2 it is now the chief town and seat of government for the province of ,kuban1 and still an important military station4 ,the population is made up of ,circassians1 ,armenians1 and ,russians1 and a few ,ossets at the bazaars1 for the natives made off long ago4 ,the chief industries are the manufacture of silver and gold lace1 arms1 burkas1 the ,caucasian's all-weathers cloak1 silver ornaments1 etc4 ,the hotels are fairly good1 but there being nothing at ,vladikavkaz itself sufficiently inviting to encourage a longer stay than is absolutely necessary1 the following choice of routes lays before the stranger4 ,he may post through ,eastern ,caucasus and embark at ,petrovsk for ,astrakhan and the tedious voyage up the ,volga2 or take the railway to ,rostof en route to ,moscow2 or travel by rail to ,novorossisk on the ,black ,sea1 and there embark2 or1 following that line as far as ,ekaterinodar1 post thence to ,taman and cross the straits to ,kertch4 ,,khiva ,,fred ,,burnaby ,we were now fast nearing ,khiva1 which could be just discerned in the distance1 but was hidden1 to a certain extent1 from our view by a narrow belt of tall1 graceful trees2 however1 some richly-painted minarets and high domes of coloured tiles could be seen towering above the leafy groves4 ,orchards surrounded by walls eight and ten feet high1 continually met the gaze1 and avenues of mulberry-trees studded the landscape in all directions4 ,the two ,khivans rode first2 ,i followed1 having put on my black fur pelisse instead of the sheep-skin garment1 so as to present a more respectable appearance on entering the city4 ,nazar1 who was mounted on the horse that stumbled1 brought up the rear4 ,he had desired the camel-driver to follow in the distance with the messenger and the caravan2 my servant being of opinion that the number of our animals was not sufficient to deeply impress the ,khivans with my importance1 and that on this occasion it was better to ride in without any caravan than with the small one ,i possessed4 ,we now entered the city1 which is of an oblong form1 and surrounded by two walls3 the outer one is about fifty feet high3 its basement is constructed of baked bricks1 the upper part being built of dried clay4 ,this forms the first line of defense1 and completely encircles the town1 which is about a quarter of a mile within the wall4 ,four high wooden gates1 clamped with iron1 barred the approach from the north1 south1 east1 and west1 while the walls themselves were in many places out of repair4 ,the town itself is surrounded by a second wall1 not quite so high as the one just described1 and with a dry ditch1 which is now half filled with ruined debris4 ,the slope which leads from the wall to the trench has been used as a cemetery1 and hundreds of sepulchres and tombs were scattered along some undulating ground just without the city4 ,the space between the first and second walls is used as a market-place1 where cattle1 horses1 sheep1 and camels are sold1 and where a number of carts were standing1 filled with corn and grass4 ,here an ominous-looking cross-beam had been erected1 towering high above the heads of the people with its bare1 gaunt poles4 ,this was the gallows on which all people convicted of theft are executed2 murderers being put to death in a different manner1 having their throats cut from ear to ear in the same way that sheep are killed4 ,this punishment is carried out by the side of a large hole in the ground1 not far from the principal street in the centre of the town4 ,but ,i must here remark that the many cruelties stated to have been perpetrated by the present ,khan previous to the capture of his city did not take place4 ,indeed1 they only existed in the fertile ,muscovite imagination1 which was eager to find an excuse for the appropriation of a neighbour's property4 ,on the contrary1 capital punishment was only inflicted when the laws had been infringed2 and there is no instance of the ,khan having arbitrarily put any one to death4 ,the two walls above mentioned appear to have made up the defenses of the city1 which was also armed with sixteen guns4 ,these1 however1 proved practically useless against the ,russians1 as the garrison only fired solid shot1 not being provided with shell4 ,the ,khan seemed to have made no use whatever of the many inclosed gardens in the vicinity of the city during the ,russian advance1 as1 if he had1 and firmly contested each yard of soil1 ,i much doubt whether the ,tsar's troops could have ever entered the city4 ,it is difficult to estimate the population of an ,oriental city by simply riding round its walls2 so many houses are uninhabited1 and others again are densely packed with inhabitants4 ,however1 ,i should say1 as a mere guess1 that there are about #be1jjj human beings within the walls of ,khiva4 ,the streets are broad and clean1 while the houses belonging to the richer inhabitants are built of highly polished bricks and coloured tiles1 which lend a cheerful aspect to the otherwise somewhat sombre colour of the surroundings4 ,there are nine schools3 the largest1 which contains #acj pupils1 was built by the father of the present ,khan4 ,these buildings are all constructed with high1 coloured domes1 and are ornamented with frescoes and arabesque work1 the bright aspect of the cupolas first attracting the stranger's attention on his nearing the city4 ,presently we rode through a bazaar similar to the one at ,oogentch1 thin rafters and straw uniting the tops of the houses in the street1 and forming a sort of roof to protect the stall-keepers and their customers from the rays of a summer sun4 ,we were followed by crowds of people2 and as some of the more inquisitive approached too closely1 the ,khivans who accompanied me1 raising their whips in the air1 freely belaboured the shoulders of the multitude1 thus securing a little space4 ,after riding through a great number of streets1 and taking the most circuitous course--probably in order to duly impress me with an idea of the importance of the town--we arrived before my companion's house4 ,several servants ran forward and took hold of the horses4 ,the ,khivan dismounted1 and1 bowing obsequiously1 led the way through a high door-way constructed of solid timber4 ,we next entered a square open court1 with carved stone pillars supporting a balcony which looked down upon a marble fountain1 or basin1 the general appearance of the court being that of a patio in some nobleman's house in ,cordova or ,seville4 ,a door of a similar construction to the one already described1 though somewhat lower1 gave access to a long1 narrow room1 a raised dais at each end being covered with handsome rugs4 ,there were no windows1 glass being a luxury which has only recently found its way to the capital2 but the apartment received its light from an aperture at the side1 which was slightly concealed by some trellis-work1 and from a space left uncovered in the ceiling1 which was adorned with arabesque figures4 ,the two doors which led from the court were each of them handsomely carved1 and in the middle of the room was a hearth filled with charcoal embers4 ,my host1 beckoning to me to take the post of honour by the fire1 retired a few paces and folded his arms across his chest2 then1 assuming a deprecatory air1 he asked my permission to sit down4 ,grapes1 melons1 and other fruit1 fresh as on the day when first picked1 were brought in on a large tray and laid at my feet1 while the host himself1 bringing in a ,russian tea-pot and cup1 poured out some of the boiling liquid and placed it by my side2 ,i all this time being seated on a rug1 with my legs crossed under me1 in anything but a comfortable position4 ,he then inquired if ,i had any commands for him1 as the ,khan had given an order that everything ,i might require was instantly to be supplied4 ,in the afternoon two officials arrived from the ,khan's palace1 with an escort of six men on horseback and four on foot4 ,the elder of the two dignitaries said that ,his ,majesty was waiting to receive me1 and my horse being brought round1 ,i mounted1 and accompanied him towards the palace4 ,the six men on horseback led the way1 then ,i came between the two officials1 and ,nazar brought up the rear with some attendants on foot1 who freely lashed the crowd with their whips whenever any of the spectators approached our horses too closely4 ,the news that the ,khan was about to receive me had spread rapidly through the town1 and the streets were lined with curious individuals all eager to see the ,englishman4 ,perhaps in no part of the world is ,india more talked of than in the ,central ,asian khanates2 and the stories of our wealth and power1 which have reached ,khiva through ,afghan and ,bokharan sources1 have grown like a snow-ball in its onward course1 until the riches described in the garden discovered by ,aladdin would pale if compared with the fabled treasures of ,hindoostan4 ,after riding through several narrow streets1 where1 in some instances1 the house-tops were thronged with people desirous of looking at our procession1 we emerged on a small1 flat piece of ground which was not built over1 and which formed a sort of open square4 ,here a deep hole was pointed out to me as the spot where criminals who have been found guilty of murder had their throats cut from ear to ear4 ,the ,khan's palace is a large building1 ornamented with pillars and domes1 which1 covered with bright-coloured tiles1 flash in the sun1 and attract the attention of the stranger approaching ,khiva4 ,a guard of thirty or forty men armed with cimeters stood at the palace gates4 ,we next passed into a small court-yard4 ,the ,khan's guards were all arrayed in long flowing silk robes of various patterns1 bright-coloured sashes being girt around their waists1 and tall fur hats surmounting their bronzed countenances4 ,the court-yard was surrounded by a low pile of buildings1 which are the offices of the palace1 and was filled with attendants and menials of the court1 while good-looking boys of an effeminate appearance1 with long hair streaming down their shoulders1 and dressed a little like the women1 lounged about1 and seemed to have nothing in particular to do4 ,a door at the farther end of the court gave access to a low passage1 and1 after passing through some dirty corridors1 where ,i had occasionally to stoop in order to avoid knocking my head against the ceiling1 we came to a large1 square-shaped room4 ,here the treasurer was seated1 with three moullahs1 who were squatted by his side1 while several attendants crouched in humble attitudes at the opposite end of the apartment4 ,the treasurer and his companions were busily engaged in counting some rolls of ruble-notes and a heap of silver coin1 which has been received from the ,khan's subjects1 and were now to be sent to ,petro-,alexandrovsk as part of the tribute to the ,tsar4 ,the great man now made a sign to some of his attendants1 when a large wooden box1 bearing signs of having been manufactured in ,russia1 was pushed a little from the wall and offered to me as a seat4 ,nazar was accommodated among the dependents at the other end of the room4 ,after the usual salaams had been made1 the functionary continued his task1 leaving me in ignorance as to what was to be the next part of the programme2 ,nazar squatting himself as far as possible from one of the attendants1 who was armed with a cimeter1 and whom he suspected of being the executioner4 ,after ,i had been kept waiting for about a quarter of an hour1 a messenger entered the room and informed the treasurer that the ,khan was disengaged1 and ready to receive me4 ,we now entered a long corridor1 which led to an inner court-yard4 ,here we found the reception-hall1 a large tent1 or kibitka1 of a dome-like shape4 ,the treasurer1 lifting up a fold of thick cloth1 motioned to me to enter1 and on doing so ,i found myself face to face with the celebrated ,khan1 who was reclining against some pillows or cushions1 and seated on a handsome ,persian rug1 warming his feet by a circular hearth filled with burning charcoal4 ,he raised his hand to his forehead as ,i stood before him1 a salute which ,i returned by touching my cap4 ,he then made a sign for me to sit down by his side4 ,before ,i relate our conversation1 it may not be uninteresting if ,i describe the sovereign4 ,he is taller than the average of his subjects1 being quite five feet ten in height1 and is strongly built3 his face is of a broad1 massive type1 he has a low1 square forehead1 large dark eyes1 a short straight nose with dilated nostrils1 and a coal-black beard and mustache2 while an enormous mouth1 with irregular but white teeth1 and a chin somewhat concealed by his beard1 and not at all in character with the otherwise determined appearance of his face1 must complete the picture4 ,he did not look more than eight-and-twenty1 and has a pleasant1 genial smile1 and a merry twinkle in his eye1 very unusual among ,orientals2 in fact1 to me an expression in ,spanish would better describe his face than any ,english one ,i can think of4 ,it is very simpatica1 and ,i must say ,i was greatly surprised1 after all that has been written in ,russian newspapers about the cruelties and other iniquities perpetrated by this ,khivan potentate1 to find the original such a cheery sort of fellow4 ,his countenance was of a very different type from his treasurer's4 ,the hang-dog expression of the latter made me bilious to look at him1 and it was said that he carried to great lengths these peculiar vices and depraved habits to which ,orientals are so often addicted4 ,the ,khan was dressed in a similar sort of costume to that generally worn by his subjects1 but it was made of much richer materials1 and a jewelled sword was lying by his seat4 ,his head was covered by a tall black ,astrakhan hat1 of a sugar-loaf shape2 and on my seeing that all the officials who were in the room at the same time as myself kept on their fur hats1 ,i did the same4 ,the sovereign1 turning to an attendant1 gave an order in a low tone1 when tea was instantly brought1 and handed to me in a small porcelain tea-cup4 ,a conversation with the ,khan was now commenced1 and carried on through ,nazar and a ,kirghiz interpreter who spoke ,russian1 and occasionally by means of a moullah1 who was acquainted with ,arabic1 and had spent some time in ,egypt4 ,,the ,,trans-,,siberian ,,railway ,,william ,,durban ,the general characteristics of the ,trans-,siberian ,railroad may be described in a few words4 ,it is by far the longest railway on earth4 ,it is very much more solidly constructed1 for the most part1 than is generally supposed4 ,the road bed is perfectly firm1 and the track is well ballasted4 ,though in certain of the sections far to the east great engineering difficulties had to be contended with1 the gradients on the greater part of the route are remarkably easy4 ,uniformity of gauge is the keynote of ,russian railway engineers4 ,accordingly in possessing a five-foot guage1 the ,great ,siberian is uniform with all the railroads throughout the ,russian ,empire4 ,thus1 the ample breadth of the cars harmonizes with the luxury which astonishes the traveller who visits ,russia for the first time1 no matter in what region of the ,empire he happens to be touring4 ,the great height of the carriages1 proportionate with the width1 adds to the imposing aspect of the trains4 ,it is necessary to bear these considerations in mind1 for the idea prevails throughout the world outside ,russia that this colossal road was carried through1 not only with great haste1 but also on a flimsy and superficial system4 ,the bridges are necessarily very numerous1 for ,siberia is a land of mighty rivers with countless tributaries4 ,all the permanent bridges are of iron4 ,those which were temporarily made of timber are being in every case reconstructed1 and the ,great ,siberian includes some of the most magnificent bridges in the world4 ,the bridge over the ,irtish is unrivalled4 ,being nearly four miles long1 it is on that account phenomenal2 but its stupendous piers1 designed specially to resist the fearful pressure of the ice1 would alone convince any sceptic of the determination of the ,russian administration to spare none of the resources of the ,empire in order to make this railway absolutely efficient1 alike for mercantile and military purposes4 ,the ,trans-,siberian ,railway is intended to create a new ,siberia4 ,it is already fulfilling that aim1 as ,i shall show4 ,the most potent of the civilizing factors of the ,twentieth ,century is in this enterprise presented to the world1 and in a very few years people will realize with astonishment what this railway means4 ,the ,trans-,siberian nominally begins in ,europe4 ,it is inaugurated by the magnificent iron bridge which spans the ,volga at ,samara in ,east ,russia4 ,the ,volga is here a giant river1 and this noble bridge joins the ,european railway system with the new ,asiatic line4 ,but practically the ,asian line commences in the heart of the ,ural ,mountains1 if that long and broad chain of low and pretty hills ought to be dignified with the name of mountains4 ,here lies the little town of ,cheliabinsk1 which in #ahid was the terminus of the ,european system4 ,it is an interesting fact that ,americans and ,englishmen were the real authors of this splendid and romantic scheme for spanning the ,asiatic continent with a railway from west to east4 ,in #aheg1 an ,american named ,collins came forward with a scheme for the formation of an ,amur ,railway ,company1 to lay a line from ,irkutsk to ,chita4 ,although his plan was not officially adopted1 it was carefully kept in mind1 and it actually forms the main and central part of the present line4 ,an ,english engineer offered to lay a tramroad across ,siberia1 after ,muravieff had carried ,russia to the ,pacific by his brilliant annexation of the mouths of the ,amur4 ,in #aheh1 three ,englishmen offered to construct a railway from ,moscow through ,nijni-,novgorod to ,tartar ,bay4 ,though all proposals by foreigners have been courteously shelved1 they have in reality formed the bases of native enterprise4 ,it is to the credit of ,russia that she has determined to depend on the energy and ability of her own sons to carry out this colossal undertaking4 ,one of the chronic troubles of the ,russian ,government arises from the uneven distribution of the population4 ,it happens that those are the most thickly inhabited districts which are the least able to support a dense population4 ,for instance1 an immense number of villages are scattered through the vast forest regions of ,central and ,western ,russia1 where birch trees grow by millions1 while the great wheat-growing plains of the west centre and south-west are but sparsely inhabited4 ,then again1 the infatuation of the military oligarchy has been evidenced in the plan by which all the railways except this new ,siberian line have been designed for purely military purposes4 ,the ,emperor ,nicholas insisted on all the lines being developed without the slightest regard to the wants of the towns and the conveniences of commerce4 ,even the natural facilities for engineering operations were not allowed by that autocrat to be for a moment taken into consideration4 ,his engineers were once consulting him as to the expediency of taking the line from ,st4 ,petersburg to ,moscow by a slight detour1 to avoid some very troublesome obstacles4 ,the ,tsar took up a ruler1 and with his pencil drew a straight line from the old metropolis4 ,handing back the chart1 he peremptorily said3 ,there1 gentlemen1 that is to be the route for the line6 ,and certainly there is not a straighter reach of #fjj miles on any railroad in the world1 as every tourist knows who has journeyed between the two chief cities of the ,russian ,empire4 ,for instance1 not very far beyond the ,urals there is one magnificent stretch of perfectly straight road for #aaf versts1 or nearly eighty miles4 ,the traveller who expects that on the great ,siberian route he will speedily find himself plunged into semi-savagery1 or that he will on leaving ,europe begin to realize the solitude of a vast forlorn wilderness1 will be agreeably disappointed4 ,this great line is intended to carry forward in its progress all the comforts of modern civilization4 ,every station is picturesque and even artistic4 ,no two stations are alike in style1 and all are neat1 substantial1 comfortable1 and comparable to the best rural stations anywhere in ,europe or ,america4 ,in one respect ,russian provision for travellers is always far in advance of that in other countries4 ,those familiar with the country will know at once that ,i refer to the railway restaurants4 ,the ,great ,siberian follows the rule of excellence and abundance4 ,there1 at every station1 just as on the ,european side of the ,urals1 the traveller sees on entering the handsome dining-room the immense buffet loaded with freshly cooked ,russian dishes1 always hot and steaming1 and of a variety not attempted in any other land excepting at great hotels4 ,you select what fancy and appetite dictate1 without any supervision4 ,to dine at a railway restaurant anywhere in the ,russian ,empire is one of the luxuries of travel4 ,your dinner costs only a rouble--about two shillings1 and what a dinner you secure for the money6 ,soup1 beef1 sturgeon1 trout1 poultry1 game1 bear's flesh1 and vegetables in profusion are supplied ad libitum1 the visitor simply helping himself just as he pleases4 ,i mention these little details to prove that the longest railway in the world is to push civilization with it as it goes forward4 ,readers who will glance at any map of the new line will notice that the track runs across the upper waters of the great rivers1 just about where they begin to be navigable4 ,all through the summer1 at any rate1 ,america and ,england will1 by the ,arctic passage and by these mighty rivers1 communicate with the heart of ,asia1 the railway in the far interior completing the circle of commerce4 ,other results will follow4 ,siberia at present contains a population of four million--less by more than a million than ,london reckons within its borders4 ,millions of the ,russian peasantry in ,europe are in a condition of chronic semi-starvation4 ,ere long thousands of these will weekly stream to the new ,canaan in the ,east4 ,within the borders of ,siberia1 the whole of the ,united ,states of ,america could be enclosed1 with a great spare ring around for the accommodation of a collection of little kingdoms4 ,in the wake of the new line towns are springing up like mushrooms4 ,many of these will become great cities4 ,there are several reasons for this development4 ,the first is that the railway runs through ,south ,siberia1 where the climate is delightfully mild compared with the rigorous conditions of the atmosphere further north4 ,the next reason is that all the chief gold-fields are in this southern latitude4 ,one characteristic worthy of note is the absolute security aimed at by the administration of the line4 ,train and track are protected by an immense army of guards4 ,the road is divided into sections of a verst each1 a verst being about two-thirds of a mile4 ,every section is marked by a neat cottage1 the home of the guard and his family4 ,night and day the guard or one of his household must patrol the section4 ,a train is never out of sight of the guards1 several of whom are employed wherever there are heavy curves4 ,there are nearly #d1jjj of these guards on the stretch between the ,urals and ,tomsk4 ,all sense of solitude is thus removed from the mind of the traveller4 ,the old post road through ,siberia is one of the most dangerous routes in the world1 being infested by murderous brodyags1 or runaway convicts2 but the ,siberian line is as safe as ,cheapside or ,oxford ,street4 ,with the fact of perfect safety is soon blended in the mind of the observer that of plenty4 ,all along this wonderful route grass is seen growing in rank luxuriance that can hardly be equalled in any other part of the globe1 ,siberia being emphatically a grass-growing country4 ,it is the original home of the whole graniferous stock4 ,wheat is indigenous to ,siberia4 ,here is the largest grazing region in existence4 ,through this the train rolls on hour after hour1 as in ,european ,russia it goes on and on through interminable birch forests4 ,countless herds of animals in superb condition are everywhere seen roaming over these magnificent flowering ,steppes1 over which the ,muscovite ,eagle proudly floats4 ,parts of the great railway1 however1 traverse regions other than these4 ,to make the reader understand the general characteristics of ,siberia and the importance of the railway in the light of these characteristics1 a few words must be said about the three great zones which mainly make up the country4 ,the first is the tundra1 the vast region which stretches through the northern sub-arctic latitudes4 ,this desolate belt is not less than #e1jjj miles in extent4 ,in breadth it varies from #bjj to #ejj miles4 ,in winter the tundra is1 of course1 one vast frozen sheet4 ,in the brief summer it is swampy1 steaming1 and swarming with mosquitoes4 ,treeless and sterile1 the tundra is the home of strange uncouth tribes1 but it is a valuable training ground for hardy hunters4 ,to the minds of most people the tundra is ,siberia4 ,this mischievous fallacy is difficult to dispel4 ,in a few years the ,siberian railway will have completely dissipated it4 ,much more valuable is the far wider zone called the taiga1 the most wonderful belt of forest on the surface of the earth4 ,i can testify to the profound impression of mingled mystery and delight produced on the mind by riding a thousand miles through ,russian forests as they still exist in ,european ,russia1 where myriads of square miles in the north and centre of the land are covered by birch1 spruce1 larch1 pine1 and oak plantations4 ,where do these forests begin and where do they have an end8 ,that is the traveller's thought4 ,he finds that they thicken and broaden1 and deepen as they sweep in their majestic gloom across the ,urals1 and make up for thousands of miles the grand ,siberian arboreal belt4 ,in this taiga the ,tsar possesses wealth beyond all computation2 and the railway will put it actually at his disposal4 ,the third zone1 the most valuable of all1 is that which mainly constitutes ,southern ,siberia4 ,it is the region of the ,steppes1 that endless natural garden which again makes ,siberia an incomparable land4 ,sheeted with flowers1 variegated by woodlands1 it holds in its lap ranges of mountains1 all running with fairly uniform trend from north to south1 while in its heart lies the romantic and mysterious ,baikal1 the deepest of lakes4 ,through the spurs of the taiga1 running irregularly through the lovely ,steppes1 passes the new railroad1 which thus taps the chief resources of the land4 ,it will open up the forests1 the arable country land1 the cattle-breeding districts1 and1 above all1 the mineral deposits4 ,here is a fine coming opportunity for the capitalists of the world4 ,the ,siberian railway starts at ,cheliabinsk1 just across the ,ural ,mountains1 which it reaches through ,samara on the ,volga from the ,european side1 coming over the boundary hills through ,ufa1 ,miass and ,zlatoust4 ,shortly after leaving the latter town1 which is the centre of the ,uralian iron industry1 the train passes that pathetic ,monument of ,tears1 which marks the boundary between ,europe and ,asia4 ,the triangular post of white marble1 which thousands of weeping exiles every year embrace as they pay their sad farewell to ,europe1 is simply inscribed on one of its three sides1 ,asia1 on another1 ,europe4 ,passing down the eastern slopes of the ,urals the train soon reaches ,cheliabinsk1 running beside the ,isset1 a tributary of the ,irtish1 one of the main branches of the grand ,obi river4 ,on leaving ,cheliabinsk1 the traveller begins to realize that he is in ,siberia4 ,in the near future this section of the line will be traversed by many an explorer and many a hunter1 who will in summer come to seek fresh fields on the course of the ,obi1 to track out towards the north the haunts of the seal1 the walrus1 and the white bear4 ,the line crosses the ,tobol at ,kurgan1 the ,ishim at ,patropavlosk1 and the ,irtish at ,omsk1 where the majestic new bridge spans a stream of two hundred yards4 ,the three fine rivers are confluents of the ,obi4 ,kurgan lies embosomed in the finest and richest1 as well as the largest pasturage in the world4 ,the magnitude of this undertaking may be imagined from the fact that the ,yenisei river is only reached after a ride of #b1jjj miles from ,cheliabinsk1 and then the traveller has not traversed half the distance across the continent which this railroad spans4 ,we arrive at the main stream of the ,obi when the train rolls into the station at ,kolivan4 ,thus ,tomsk1 one of the chief cities of ,siberia1 is missed1 for it lies further north on the ,obi4 ,in the same way does the line ignore ,tobolsk1 the ,siberian capital1 as it touches the ,irtish far south of the city4 ,these important places will be served by branch lines4 ,indeed1 the branch to ,tomsk is already finished4 ,it is eighty miles long1 and runs down the ,tom valley northward to the city1 which is the largest and most important in all ,siberia4 ,tomsk will become the hub of ,asia4 ,it lies near the centre of the new railway system4 ,it has a telephone system1 is lighted by electricity1 and possesses a flourishing university with thirty professors and #cjj students4 ,tomsk1 ,tobolsk1 and ,yeniseisk would be difficult to reach by the main line as they are surrounded by vast swamps1 and therefore the line is thus laid considerably south of these great towns4 ,they are accessible with ease by side lines down their respective rivers4 ,the ,siberian line is designed to run through the arable lands of the fertile zone4 ,the adjacent land will be worth countless millions of roubles to a ,government which has not had to pay a single copeck for it4 ,on for many hundreds of versts rolls the train through the pasture lands of the splendid ,kirghiz race4 ,the ,kirghiz are by far the finest of the ,tartars4 ,they are a purely pastoral people1 frugal1 cleanly1 and hospitable1 living mainly on meats1 and milk and cheese1 the products of their herds4 ,both for pasture and for the culture of cereals1 the vast territory between the ,obi and the ,yenisei will be unrivalled in the whole world4 ,kurgan is the capital4 ,it will become an ,asiatic ,chicago4 ,on the ,shim river1 a fairly important though minor tributary of the ,obi1 is ,patropavlosk1 with a population already of #bj1jjj4 ,it is growing rapidly1 and fine buildings are springing up1 in attestation of the immense influence of the new line4 ,this city was once the frontier fortress erected by ,russia against the ,kirghiz4 ,it was of commercial importance before the railroad was thought of1 as the emporium of the brisk trade with ,samarkand and ,central ,asia2 great camel caravans constantly reaching it4 ,all the old towns which are traversed by the ,great ,siberian are being transformed as if by magic4 ,from ,patropavlosk to ,omsk is a distance equal to that between ,london and ,edinburgh1 about #djj miles4 ,new and promising villages are frequently espied in the midst of the level1 fertile flowery plains1 varied by great patches of cultivated land4 ,all along the track the land is being taken up on each side1 and crops are being raised4 ,we are in the midst of the great future granary of the whole ,russian ,empire1 and not of that ,empire alone4 ,reaching the ,yenisei river1 the grandest stream in ,siberia1 the train crosses a bridge #a1jjj yards in length4 ,but some time before this a stoppage is made at the town of ,obb1 which is a striking sample of the magical results of the railway4 ,the whole country was till recently a scene of wild desolation4 ,the thriving community1 busy with a prosperous trade1 is typical of the coming transformation of ,siberia4 ,a short distance beyond ,irkutsk the line reaches one of the most remarkable places in the world--,lake ,baikal4 ,this grand lake is as long as ,england4 ,it is nearly a mile deep1 and covers an area of #ac1dcj square miles4 ,its surface is #a1ejj feet above the level of the sea4 ,on every side it is hemmed in by lofty mountains1 covered with thick forest4 ,only a few tiny villages relieve its dreary solitude4 ,the early ,russian settlers1 impressed by the mystic silence and gloomy grandeur of ,baikal1 named it the ,holy ,sea4 ,it abounds in fish of many species1 and every season thousands of pounds' worth of salmon are caught and dried4 ,at the north end great numbers of seals have their habitat1 the ,buriat hunters sometimes taking as many as #a1jjj in a single season4 ,baikal is the only fresh-water sea in the world in which this animal is found4 ,the ,transbaikalian section takes the line from ,lake ,baikal to the great ,amur ,river4 ,the line gradually ascends to the crest of the ,yablonoi ,mountains1 reaching a height of #c1dab feet above the sea level4 ,this is the greatest altitude of the ,siberian ,railway4 ,in this province of ,transbaikalia lies the interesting city of ,chita1 the far-off home of the most famous and estimable ,socialist exiles sent from ,russia4 ,from this point to the ,amur1 where ,manchuria is reached1 the line is carried down the ,pacific slope1 through one of the wildest and most romantic tracks ever penetrated by railway engineers4 ,it is not generally remembered that the ,great ,siberian ,railway was begun at the ,pacific end1 and that the present ,tsar ,nicholas ,,ii41 when ,tsarevitch1 inaugurated the colossal enterprise by laying the first stone of the eastern terminus at ,vladivostock1 on ,may #ab1 #ahia4 ,,high ,,life ,,in ,,russia ,,the ,,countess ,,of ,,galloway ,the ,russian aristocracy and plutocracy have few powers or privileges beyond that of serving their sovereign1 and their position depends entirely on the will of the emperor4 ,official rank is the only distinction1 and all ranks or tchin1 as it is called1 is regulated according to the army grades4 ,by this tchin alone is the right of being received at ,court acquired4 ,society is1 therefore1 subservient to the ,court1 and occupies itself more with those whose position can best procure them what they desire than with any other ideas4 ,the ,court itself is very magnificent1 and its entertainments display unbounded splendour1 taste1 and art4 ,in the midst of winter the whole palace is decorated for the balls with trees of camellias1 dracaenas and palms4 ,the suppers seem almost to be served by magic4 ,two thousand people sup at the same moment3 they all sit down together1 and all finish together in an incredibly short space of time4 ,the palace is lit by the electric light1 the tables are placed under large palm-trees1 and the effect is that of a grove of palms by moonlight4 ,at these ,court balls1 besides the ,royal ,family of ,grand ,dukes and ,duchesses1 with gorgeous jewels1 may be seen many of the great generals and governors of the provinces who come to ,st4 ,petersburg to do homage to their sovereign2 a splendid-looking ,circassian ,prince1 whose costume of fur and velvet is covered with chains of jewels and gold2 the commander of the ,cossack ,guard1 ,tcherevine1 who watches over the ,emperor's safety1 dressed in what resembles a well-fitting scarlet dressing-gown1 with a huge scimitar in his belt sparkling with precious stones2 ,prince ,dondoukoff ,korsakoff1 the ,governor of the ,caucasus1 also in ,cossack attire1 with the beard which is the privilege of the ,cossack birth4 ,m4 de ,giers1 whose civilian blue coat with gold buttons is remarkable among the numberless brilliant uniforms1 talks to the ,ambassadors with the wearied anxious expression habitual to his countenance4 ,the ,empress dances1 but not the ,emperor2 he does not sit down to supper either1 but walks about1 after the ,russian fashion of hospitality1 to see that all his guests are served4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,winter ,,palace1 ,,st4 ,,petersburg ,if1 to the outsider1 society seems to lack the serious side1 science1 learning1 and politics1 it gains energy from its contact with men who are continually engaged in distant provinces1 carrying ,russian rule and civilization to the conquered ,eastern tribes4 ,notwithstanding the great ease and luxury1 the fact that so much of the male portion is composed of officers1 who wear no other clothes than their uniforms1 gives something of a business-like air1 and produces a sense of discipline at the entertainments4 ,individually1 the ,russians have much sympathy with ,english ways and habits1 and the political antagonism between the two nations does not appear to affect their social intercourse4 ,they are exceedingly courteous1 hospitable1 and friendly1 throwing themselves with much zest into the occupation or amusement of the moment4 ,in these days of rapid communication social life is much the same in every great capital4 ,st4 ,petersburg is a very gay society1 and the great troubles underlying the fabric do not come to the surface in the daily life4 ,there are of course representatives of all the different lines of thought and policy1 and because they cannot govern themselves1 it must not be supposed that they have not predilections in favour of this or that line of action4 ,the season in ,st4 ,petersburg begins on the ,russian ,new ,year's ,day1 which is thirteen days late1 for they adhere to what the ,western nations now call the ,old ,style4 ,it lasts till ,lent1 which the ,eastern ,church fixes also by a different calculation from the ,western1 and during that time there are ,court balls twice a week and dancing at private houses nearly every other night1 ,sundays included4 ,private balls begin1 as in ,london1 very late and end very late4 ,the dancing is most vigorous and animated4 ,the specially ,russian dance is the ,mazurka1 of ,polish origin1 and very pretty and graceful4 ,like the ,scotch reel1 it is a series of different figures with numerous and varied steps4 ,the music1 too1 is special and spirited4 ,the supper1 which is always eaten sitting down1 is a great feature of the evening1 and there is invariably a cotillon afterwards4 ,the pleasantest and most sociable entertainments are the little suppers every evening1 where there is no dancing1 and where the menu is most recherche and the conversation brilliant4 ,the houses are well adapted for entertainments1 and those we saw comfortable and luxurious as far as the owners are concerned4 ,the bedrooms were prettily furnished1 and the dressing-rooms attached fitted up with a tiled bath1 hot and cold water1 and numberless mirrors4 ,the wives of the great ,court and ,state officials1 as well as many other ladies1 have one afternoon in the week on which they sit at home and receive visitors4 ,there is always tea and ,russian bonbons1 which are most excellent4 ,what strikes an ,english-woman is the number of men1 officers of the army1 and others1 who attend these jours1 as they are called in ,french4 ,many of noted activity1 such as ,general ,kaulbars1 may be seen quietly sipping their tea and talking of the last ball to the young lady of the house4 ,a fete given by ,madame ,polovtsoff1 wife of the ,secretaire de l',empire1 was wonderfully conducted and organized4 ,it took place at a villa on the ,islands1 as that part of ,st4 ,petersburg which lies between the two principal branches of the ,neva is called4 ,it is to villas here that the officials can retire after the season when obliged to remain near the capital4 ,the rooms and large conservatories were lit by electricity4 ,at the further end of the conservatory1 buried in palm-trees were the gipsies chanting and wailing their savage national songs and choruses1 while the guests wandered about amongst groves of camellias1 and green lawns studded with lilies-of-the-valley and hyacinths2 rose-bushes in full flower at the corners4 ,when the gipsies were exhausted1 dancing began1 and later there was an excellent supper in another still more spacious conservatory4 ,the entertainment ended with a cotillon1 and for the stranger its originality was only marred by the fact that it had been thawing1 and the company could not arrive or depart in troikas1--sleighs with three horses which seem to fly along the glistening moonlit snow4 ,a favourite amusement1 even in winter1 is racing these troikas1 or sleighs1 with fast trotters4 ,the races are to be seen from stands1 as in ,england1 and are only impeded by falling snow4 ,the pretty little horses are harnessed1 for trotting races1 singly1 to a low sleigh 7in summer to a drosky7 driven by one man1 wearing the colours of the owner4 ,two of these start at once in opposite directions on a circular or oblong course marked out on a flat expanse of snow and ice1 which may be either land or water1 as is found most convenient4 ,it is a picturesque sight1 and reminds one of the pictures of ancient chariot races on old vases and carved monuments4 ,the character of a nation can scarcely fail to be affected by the size of the country it inhabits1 and a certain indifference to time and distance is produced by this circumstance4 ,there is also a peculiar apathy as regards small annoyances and casualties4 ,whatever accident befalls the ,russian of the lower orders1 his habitual remark is ,nitchivo 7,it is nothing74 ,nevertheless1 ,northern blood and a ,northern climate have mixed a marvellous amount of energy and enterprise with this ,oriental characteristic4 ,take for example the ,caspian railway1 undertaken by ,general ,annenkoff4 ,this general completes fifteen hundred miles of railway in the incredibly short space of time of a year and a half1 and almost before the public is aware of its having been commenced1 he is back again in ,st4 ,petersburg dancing at a ,court ball in a quadrille opposite the ,empress4 ,the railway made by him runs at present from the ,caspian ,sea to the ,amou-,daria ,river1 and will be continued to ,bokhara1 ,samarkand1 and ,tashkend1 in a northerly direction1 while on the south it is to enter ,persia4 ,should ,european complications1 by removing the risk of foreign interposition1 make it possible for a ,russian army to reach the ,caspian by way of the ,black ,sea and the ,caucasus1 this railway gives it the desired approach to ,india4 ,by attacking us in ,india1 which they possibly do not desire to conquer1 the ,panslavists and ,russian enthusiasts believe they would establish their empire at ,constantinople1 and unite the whole ,sclav race under the dominion of the ,tsar4 ,the one preponderating impression produced by a short visit to ,russia is an almost bewildering sense of its vastness1 with an equally bewildering feeling of astonishment at the centralization of all government in the hands of the ,emperor4 ,this impression is perhaps increased by the nature of the town of ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,long1 broad streets1 lit at night by the electric light1 huge buildings1 public and private1 large and almost deserted places or squares1 all tend to produce the reflection that the ,russian nation is emerging from the long ages of ,cimmerian darkness into which the repeated invasions of ,asiatic hordes had plunged it1 and that it is full of the energy and aspirations belonging to a people conscious of a great future in the history of mankind4 ,,rural ,,life ,,in ,,russia ,,lady ,,verney ,the amount of territory given up to the serfs by the ,emancipation ,act of #ahfa was about one-half of the arable land of the whole empire1 so that the experiment of cutting up the large properties of a country1 and the formation instead of a landed peasantry1 has now been tried on a sufficiently large scale for a quarter of a century to enable the world to judge of its success or failure4 ,there is no doubt of the philanthropic intentions of ,alexander the ,first1 but he seems to have also aimed 7like ,richelieu7 at diminishing the power of the nobles1 which formed some bulwark between the absolute sway of the ,crown and the enormous dead level of peasants4 ,the serfs belonged soul and body to the landowner3 even when they were allowed to take service or exercise a trade in distant towns1 they were obliged to pay a due1 obrok1 to their owner1 and to return home if required2 while the instances of oppression were sometimes frightful1 husbands and wives were separated1 girls were sold away from their parents1 young men were not allowed to marry4 ,on the other hand1 when the proprietor was kind1 and rich enough not to make money of his serfs1 the patriarchal form of life was not unhappy4 ,see now1 said an old peasant1 what have ,i gained by the emancipation8 ,i have nobody to go to to build my house1 or to help in the ploughing time2 the ,seigneur1 he knew what ,i wanted1 and he did it for me without any bother4 ,now if ,i want a wife1 ,i have got to go and court her myself2 he used to choose for me1 and he knew what was best4 ,it is a great deal of trouble1 and no good at all6 ,under the old arrangements three generations were often found living in one house1 and the grandfather1 who was called the ,big ,one1 bore a very despotic sway4 ,the plan allowed several of the males of the family to seek work at a distance1 leaving some at home to perform the corvee 7forced labour7 three days a week2 but the families quarrelled among themselves1 and the effect of the emancipation has been to split them up into different households4 ,a considerable portion of the serfs were not really serfs at all4 ,they were coachmen1 grooms1 gardeners1 gamekeepers1 etc41 while their wives and daughters were nurses1 ladies'-maids1 and domestic servants4 ,their number was out of all proportion to their work1 which was always carelessly done1 but there was often great attachment to the family they served4 ,the serfs proper lived in villages1 had houses and plots of land of their own1 and were nominally never sold except with the estate4 ,the land1 however1 was under the dominion of the ,mir2 they could neither use it nor cultivate it except according to the communal obligations4 ,the outward aspect of a ,russian village is not attractive1 and there is little choice in the surrounding country between a wide grey plain with a distance of scrubby pine forest1 or the scrubby pine forest with distant grey plains4 ,the peasants' houses are scattered up and down without any order or arrangement1 and with no roads between1 built of trunks of trees1 unsquared1 and mortised into each other at the corners1 the interstices filled with moss and mud1 a mode of building warmer than it sounds4 ,in the interior there is always an enormous brick stove1 five or six feet high1 on which and on the floor the whole family sleep in their rags4 ,the heat and the stench are frightful4 ,no one undresses1 washing is unknown1 and sheepskin pelisses with the wool inside are not conducive to cleanliness4 ,wood1 however1 is becoming very scarce1 the forests are used up in fuel for railway engines1 for wooden constructions of all kind1 and are set fire to wastefully--in many places the peasants are forced to burn dung1 weeds1 or anything they can pick up--fifty years1 it is said1 will exhaust the peasant forests1 and fresh trees are never planted4 ,the women are more diligent than the men1 and the hardest work is often turned over to them1 as is generally the case in countries where peasant properties prevail4 ,they are only the females of the male1 and have few womanly qualities4 ,they toil at the same tasks in the field as the men1 ride astride like them1 often without saddles1 and the mortality is excessive among the neglected children1 who are carried out into the fields1 where the babies lie the whole day with a bough over them and covered with flies1 while the poor mother is at work4 ,eight out of ten children are said to die before ten years old in rural ,russia4 ,in the little church 7generally built of wood7 there are no seats1 the worshippers prostrate themselves and knock their heads two or three times on the ground1 and must stand or kneel through the whole service4 ,the roof consists of a number of bulbous-shaped cupolas2 four1 round the central dome1 in the form of a cross is the completed ideal1 with a separate minaret for the ,virgin4 ,these are covered with tiles of the brightest blue1 green1 and red1 and gilt metal4 ,the priest is a picturesque figure1 with his long unclipped hair1 tall felt hat largest at the top1 and a flowing robe4 ,he must be married when appointed to a cure1 but is not allowed a second venture if his wife dies4 ,until lately they formed an hereditary caste1 and it was unlawful for the son of a pope to be other than a pope4 ,they are taken from the lowest class1 and are generally quite as uneducated1 and are looked down upon by their flocks4 ,one loves the ,pope1 and one the ,popess is an uncomplimentary proverb given by ,gogol4 ,to have priests' eyes1 meaning to be covetous or extortionate1 is another4 ,the drunkenness in all classes strikes ,russian statesmen with dismay1 and the priests and the popes1 are among the worst delinquents4 ,they are fast losing the authority they once had over the serfs1 when they formed part of the great political system1 of which the ,tsar was the religious and political head4 ,a ,russian official report says that the churches are now mostly attended by women and children1 while the men are spending their last kopeck1 or getting deeper into debt1 at the village dram shop4 ,church festivals1 marriages1 christenings1 burials and fairs1 leave only two hundred days in the year for the ,russian labourer4 ,the climate is so severe as to prevent out-of-door work for months1 and the enforced idleness increases the natural disposition to do nothing4 ,we are a lethargic people1 says ,gogol1 and require a stimulus from without1 either that of an officer1 a master1 a driver1 the rod1 or vodki 7a white spirit distilled from corn72 and this1 he adds in another place1 whether the man be peasant1 soldier1 clerk1 sailor1 priest1 merchant1 seigneur or prince4 ,at the time of the ,crimean ,war it was always believed that the ,russian soldier could only be driven up to an attack1 such as that of ,inkermann1 under the influence of intoxication4 ,the ,russian peasant is indeed a barbarian at a very low stage of civilization4 ,in the ,crimean hospitals every nationality was to be found among the patients1 and the ,russian soldier was considered far the lowest of all4 ,stolid1 stupid1 hard1 he never showed any gratitude for any amount of care and attention1 or seemed1 indeed1 to understand them2 and there was no doubt that during the war he continually put the wounded to death in order to possess himself of their clothes4 ,the ,greek ,church is a very dead form of faith1 and the worship of saints of every degree of power amounts to a fetishism almost as bad as any to be found in ,africa4 ,i am myself the happy possessor of a little rude wooden bas-relief1 framed and glazed1 of two saints whose names ,i have ungratefully forgotten1 to whom if you pray as you go out to commit a crime1 however heinous1 you take your pardon with you--a refinement upon the whipping of the saints in ,calabria and ,spanish hagiolatry4 ,the icons1 the sacred images1 are hung in the chief corner1 called ,the ,beautiful1 of a ,russian izba4 ,a lamp is always lit before them1 and some food spread for the ghosts to come and eat4 ,the well-to-do peasant is still strict about his fasts and festivals1 and never neglects to prepare for ,lent4 ,during the whole year his forethought never wearies2 the children pick up a number of fungi1 which the ,english kick away as toadstools1 these are dried in the sun or the oven1 and packed in casks with a mixture of hot water and dry meal in which they ferment4 ,the staple diet of the peasant consists of buckwheat1 rye meal1 sauerkraut1 and coarse cured fish 7little1 however1 but black bread1 often mouldy and sauerkraut1 nearly putrid1 is found in the generality of ,russian peasant homes74 ,no milk1 butter1 cheese1 or eggs are allowed in ,lent1 all of which are permitted to the ,roman ,catholic1 and the oil the peasant uses for his cooking is linseed instead of olive oil1 which last he religiously sets aside for the lamps burning before the holy images4 ,to neglect fasting would cause a man to be shunned as a traitor1 not only to his religion1 but to his class and country4 ,illustration3 ,,russian ,,farm ,,scene4 ,in a bettermost household1 the samovar1 the tea-urn1 is always going4 ,if a couple of men have a bargain to strike1 the charcoal is lighted inside the urn1 which has a pipe carried into the stone chimney1 and the noise of the heated air is like a roaring furnace4 ,they will go on drinking boiling hot weak tea1 in glasses1 for hours1 with a liberal allowance of vodki4 ,the samovar1 however1 is a completely new institution1 and the old peasants will tell you1 ,ah1 ,holy ,russia has never been the same since we drank so much tea4 ,the only bit of art or pastime to be found among the peasants seems to consist in the circling dances with songs1 at harvest1 ,christmas1 and all other important festivals1 as described by ,mr4 ,ralston4 ,and even here the settled gloom1 the monotonous sadness1 are most remarkable4 ,wife-beating1 husbands' infidelities1 horrible stories of witches and vampires1 are the general subjects of the songs4 ,the lament of the young bride who is treated almost like a slave by her father and mother-in-law1 has a chorus3 ,thumping1 scolding1 never lets his daughter sleep2 ,up1 you slattern6 up1 you sloven1 sluggish slut6 ,a wife entreats3 ,oh1 my husband1 only for good cause beat thou thy wife1 not for little things4 ,far away is my father dear1 and farther still my mother4 ,the husband who is tired of his wife sings3 ,thanks1 thanks to the blue pitcher 7i4 e41 poison71 it has rid me of my cares2 not that cares afflicted me1 my real affliction was my wife1 ending1 ,love will ,i make to the girls across the stream4 ,next comes a wife who poisons her husband3 ,i dried the evil root1 and pounded it small2 but in this case the husband was hated because he had killed her brother4 ,the most unpleasant of all1 however1 are the invocations to vodki4 ,a circle of girls imitate drunken women1 and sing as they dance3 ,vodki delicious ,i drank1 ,i drank2 not in a cup or a glass1 but a bucketful ,i drank4444 ,i cling to the posts of the door4 ,oh1 doorpost1 hold me up1 the drunken woman1 the tipsy rogue4 ,the account of the ,baba ,zaga1 a hideous old witch1 is enough to drive children into convulsions4 ,she has a nose and teeth made of strong sharp iron4 ,as she lies in her hut she stretches from one corner to the other1 and her nose goes through the roof4 ,the fence is made of the bones of the people she has eaten1 and tipped with their skulls4 ,the uprights of the gate are human legs4 ,she has a broom to sweep away the traces of her passage over the snow in her seven-leagued boots4 ,she steals children to eat them4 ,remains of paganism are to be found in some of the sayings4 ,a curse still existing says1 ,may ,perun 7i4 e41 the lightning7 strike thee4 ,the god ,perun1 the ,thunderer1 resembles ,thor1 and like him carries a hammer4 ,he has been transformed into ,elijah1 the prophet ,ilya1 the rumbling of whose chariot as he rolls through heaven1 especially on the week in summer when his festival falls1 may be heard in thunder4 ,there is a dismal custom by which the children are made to eat the mouldy bread1 because the ,rusalkas 7the fairies7 do not choose bread to be wasted4 ,inhuman stories about burying a child alive in the foundation of a new town to propitiate the earth spirit2 that a drowning man must not be saved1 lest the water spirit be offended2 that if groans or cries are heard in the forest1 a traveller must go straight on without paying any attention1 for it is only the wood demon1 the lyeshey1 seem only to be invented as excuses for selfish inaction4 ,wolves bear a great part in the stories4 ,a peasant driving in a sledge with three children is pursued by a pack of wolves3 he throws out a child1 which they stop to devour2 then the howls come near him again1 and he throws out a second2 again they return1 when the last is sacrificed2 and one is grieved to hear that he saves his own wretched cowardly life at last4 ,the ,emancipation was doubtless a great work4 ,twenty million serfs belonging to private owners1 and #cj1jjj1jjj more1 the serfs of the ,crown were set free4 ,they had always1 however1 considered the communal land as in one sense their own4 ,we are yours but the land is ours1 was the phrase4 ,the ,act was received with mistrust and suspicion1 and the owners were supposed to have tampered with the good intentions of the ,tsar4 ,land had been allotted to each peasant family sufficient1 as supposed1 for its support1 besides paying a fixed yearly sum to ,government4 ,much of it1 however1 is so bad that it cannot be made to afford a living and pay the tax1 in fact a poll tax1 not dependent on the size of the strip1 but on the number of the souls4 ,the population in ,russia has always had a great tendency to migrate1 and serfdom in past ages is said to have been instituted to enable the lord of the soil to be responsible for the taxes4 ,it would have been impossible to collect these from peasants free to roam from ,archangel to the ,caucasus1 from ,st4 ,petersburg to ,siberia4 ,it was therefore necessary to enforce the payments from the village community1 the ,mir1 which is a much less merciful landlord than the nobles of former days1 and constantly sells up the defaulting peasant4 ,the rule of the ,mir is strangely democratic in so despotic an empire4 ,the ,government never interferes with the communes if they pay their taxes1 and the ignorant peasants of the rural courts may pass sentences of imprisonment for seven days1 inflict twenty strokes with a rod1 impose fines1 and cause a man who is pronounced vicious or pernicious to be banished to ,siberia4 ,the authority of the ,mir1 of the ,starosta1 the ,whiteheads1 the chief elders1 seems never to be resisted1 and there are a number of proverbs declaring what the ,mir decides must come to pass2 ,the neck and shoulders of the ,mir are broad2 ,the tear of the ,mir is cold but sharp4 ,each peasant is bound hand and foot by minute regulations2 he must plough1 sow and reap only when his neighbours do1 and the interference with his liberty of action is most vexatious and very injurious4 ,the agriculture enforced is of the most barbarous kind4 ,jensen1 ,professor of ,political ,economy at ,moscow1 says3 ,the three-field system--corn1 green crops and fallow--which was abandoned in ,europe two centuries ago1 has most disastrous consequences here4 ,the lots are changed every year1 and no man has any interest in improving property which will not be his in so short a time4 ,hardly any manure is used1 and in many places the corn is threshed out by driving horses and wagons over it4 ,the exhaustion of the soil by this most barbarous culture has reached a fearful pitch4 ,the size of the allotments varies extremely in the different climates and soils1 and the country is so enormous that the provinces were divided into zones to carry out the details of the ,emancipation ,act--the zone without black soil2 the zone with black soil2 and1 third1 the great steppe zone4 ,in the first two the allotments range from two and two-thirds to twenty acres1 in the steppes from eight and three-quarters to thirty-four and one-third4 ,whether1 however1 says ,jensen1 the peasants cultivate their land as proprietors at #as4 #i;d4 or hire it at #ahs4 #f;d4 the result is the same--the soil is scourged and exhausted1 and semi-starvation has become the general feature of peasant life4 ,usury is the great nightmare of rural ,russia1 at present1 an evil which seems to dog the peasant proprietor in all countries alike4 ,the ,gombeen ,man is fast getting possession of the little ,irish owners4 ,a man who hires land cannot borrow on it2 the little owner is tempted always to mortgage it at a pinch4 ,in ,russia he borrows to the outside of its value to pay the taxes and get in his crop4 ,the bondage labourers1 i4 e41 men bound to work on their creditor's land as interest for money lent1 receive no wages and are in fact a sort of slaves4 ,they repay their extortioners by working as badly as they can--a level worst1 far inferior to that of the serfs of old1 they harvest three and a half or four stacks of corn where the other peasants get five4 ,the ,koulaks and ,mir-eaters1 and other usurers1 often of peasant origin1 exhaust the peasant in every way2 they then foreclose the mortgages1 unite the small pieces of land once more1 and reconstitute large estates4 ,a ,koulak is not to be trifled with2 he finds a thousand occasions for revenge2 the peasant cannot cheat the ,jew as he does the landlord1 and is being starved out--the mortality is enormous4 ,the peasant class comprises five-sixths of the whole population--a stolid1 ignorant1 utterly unprogressive mass of human beings4 ,they have received in gift nearly half the empire for their own use1 and cling to the soil as their only chance of existence4 ,they consequently dread all change1 fearing that it should endanger this valuable possession4 ,a dense solid stratum of unreasoning conservatism thus constitutes the whole basis of ,russian society backed by the most corrupt set of officials to be found in the whole world4 ,the middle and upper classes are often full of ardent wishes for the advancement of society and projects for the reform of the ,state4 ,these are generally of the wildest and most terrible description1 but their objects are anything but unreasonable4 ,they desire to share in political power and the government of their country1 as is the privilege of every other nation in ,europe1 and they hope to do something for the seething mass of ignorance and misery around them4 ,the ,nihilists have an ideal at least of good1 and the open air of practical politics would probably get rid of the unhealthy absurdities and wickedness of their creeds4 ,but the ,russian peasant cares neither for liberty nor politics1 neither for education1 nor cleanliness1 nor civilization of any kind4 ,his only interest is to squeeze just enough out of his plot of ground to live upon and get drunk as many days in the year as possible4#a ,with such a base to the pyramid as is constituted by the peasant proprietors of ,russia1 aided by the enormous army1 recruited almost to any extent from among their ranks1 whose chief religion is a superstitious reverence for the great father1 the ,tsar is safe in refusing all concessions1 all improvements2 and the hopeless nature of ,russian reform hitherto1 mainly hangs upon the conviction of the ,government that nothing external can possibly act upon this inert mass4 ,great is stupidity1 and shall prevail4 ,but surely not forever6 ,footnote #a3 ,when ,god created the world ,he made different nations and gave them all sorts of good things--land1 corn and fruit4 ,then ,he asked them if they were satisfied1 and they all said ',yes' except the ,russian1 who had got as much as the rest1 but simpered ',please ,lord1 some vodki4'--,russian ,popular ,tale4 ,,food ,,and ,,drink ,h4 ,,sutherland ,,edwards ,the essential point in the service of the ,russian dinner is--as is now generally known throughout ,europe--that the dishes should be handed round instead of being placed on the table1 which is covered throughout the meal with flowers1 fruit1 and the whole of the dessert4 ,one advantage of this plan is1 that it makes the dinner-table look well2 another1 that it renders the service more rapid1 and saves much trouble to the host4 ,the dishes are brought in one by one2 or two at a time1 and of the same kind1 if a large number are dining4 ,the ordinary wines are on the table1 and nothing has to be changed except the plates4 ,at the end of dinner1 as the cloth is not removed1 the dessert is ready served2 and this has always been one of the great glories of a ,russian banquet4 ,i was particularly struck1 says ,archdeacon ,coxe1 with the quantity and quality of the fruit which made its appearance in the dessert4 ,pines1 peaches1 apricots1 grapes1 pears1 and cherries1 none of which can in this country be obtained without the assistance of hot-houses1#a were served1 he tells us1 in the greatest profusion4 ,there was a delicious species of small melon1 which had been sent by land-carriage from ,astrakhan to ,moscow--a distance of a thousand miles4 ,these melons1 he adds1 sometimes cost five pounds apiece1 and at other times may be purchased in the markets of ,moscow for less than half-a-crown apiece4 ,one instance of elegance which distinguished the dessert1 and which appears to have made an impression on the ,archdeacon1 is then mentioned4 ,at the upper and lower ends of the table were placed two china vases1 containing cherry-trees in full leaf1 and fruit hanging on the boughs which was gathered by the company4 ,this cherry-tree is also a favourite1 and certainly a very agreeable ornament1 in the present day4 ,at the conclusion of the dessert coffee is served as in ,france and ,england4 ,men and women leave the table together1 and after dinner no wine is taken4 ,later in the evening tea is brought in1 with biscuits1 cakes1 and preserved fruits4 ,footnote #a3 ,that is to say1 not in the winter4 ,in the summer1 pears and cherries abound in ,moscow1 and every kind of fruit ripens in the south4 ,the reception-rooms in ,russian houses are all en suite2 and instead of doors you pass from room to room through arches hung with curtains4 ,the number of the apartments in most of the houses ,i remember varied from three to six or seven2 but in the clubs and in large mansions there are more4 ,grace before or after dinner is never said under any circumstances2 but all the guests make the sign of the cross before sitting down to table1 usually looking at the same time towards the eastern corner of the room1 where the holy image hangs4 ,this ceremony is never omitted in families1 though in the early part of the century1 when the ,gallomania was at its height1 it is said to have been much neglected4 ,in club dinners1 when men are dining alone1 it will be easily believed that the same importance is not attached to it2 but the custom may be described as almost universal among the rich1 and quite universal among the poor4 ,indeed1 a peasant or workman would not on any account eat without first making the sign of the cross4 ,in ,russia1 with its patriarchal society 7as the ,russians are fond of saying71 it is usual to thank the lady of the house1 either by word or gesture1 after dining at her table2 and those who are sufficiently intimate kiss her hand4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,tsar',s ,,dining-,,room1 ,,moscow4 ,we now come to the composition of the ,russian dinners2 and here ,i must repeat with ,archdeacon ,coxe1 that although the ,russians have adopted many of the delicacies of ,french cookery1 they neither affect to despise their native dishes nor squeamishly reject the solid joints which characterize our own repasts4 ,i was astonished1 at one ,russian dinner1 which ,i was assured was thoroughly national in style1 to meet with the homely roast leg of mutton and baked potatoes of my native land4 ,like the ,english1 the ,russians take potatoes with nearly every dish--either plain boiled1 fried1 or with parsley and butter over them4 ,plum-pudding1 too1 and boiled rice-pudding with currants in it1 and with melted butter1 are known in ,russia--at all events in ,moscow and ,st4 ,petersburg2 and goose is not considered complete without apple-sauce4 ,as in ,france1 every dinner begins with soup2 but this custom has not been borrowed from the ,french4 ,it seems to date from time immemorial1 for all the ,russian peasants1 a thoroughly stationary class1 take their soup daily4 ,the ,russians are very successful with some kinds of pickles1 such as salted cucumbers and mushrooms2 and they excel in salads1 composed not only of lettuce1 endive1 and beetroot1 but also of cherries1 grapes1 and other fruits1 preserved in vinegar4 ,the fruit is always placed at the top1 and has a very picturesque effect in the midst of the green leaves4 ,altogether it may be said that the ,russian cuisine is founded on a system of eclecticism1 with a large number of national dishes for its base4 ,of course1 in some ,russian houses1 as in some ,english ones1 the cooking is nearly all in the ,french style2 but even then there are always a few dishes on the table that might easily be recognized as belonging to the country4 ,we need scarcely remark1 that only very rich persons dine every day in the sumptuous style described by ,archdeacon ,coxe1 though the rule as to service may be said to be general--one dish at a time1 and nothing on the table but flowers and the dessert4 ,in the winter1 when it is difficult and expensive to get dessert1 those who are rich send for it where it can be obtained--perhaps to their own hot-houses2 and those who are not rich1 as in other countries1 go without4 ,at the traktirs1 or restaurants1 the usual dinner supplied for three-quarters of a rouble consists of soup1 with a pie of mince-meat1 or minced vegetables1 an entree1 roast meat1 and some kind of sweet4 ,that1 too1 may be considered the kind of dinner which persons of moderate means have every day at home4 ,rich proprietors1 who keep a head-cook1 a roaster1 a pastry-cook1 and two or three assistant-cooks1 would perhaps despise so moderate a repast2 but from a little manual of cookery which a friend has been kind enough to send me from ,russia1 it would appear that the generality of persons do not have more than four dishes at each meal4 ,the most ancient and popular drinks in ,russia are hydromel or mead 7called by the same name in ,russia71 beer1 and kvass4 ,mead1 the fine old ,scandinavian drink1 is mentioned as far back as the ,tenth ,century2 and in a chronicle of ,novgorod of the year #ihi1 it is stated that ,a great festival took place1 at which a hundred and twenty thousand pounds of honey were consumed4 ,hydromel is flavoured with various kinds of spices and fermented with hops4 ,gerebtzoff states that beer is mentioned 7under the name of oloul--the present word being pivo7 in the ,book of ,ranks1 written in the ,eleventh and ,twelfth ,centuries4 ,but no drink is so ancient as kvass1 which1 according to the chronicle of ,nestor1 was in use among the ,sclavonians in the first century of our era4 ,among the laws of ,yaroslaff there is an old edict determining the quantity of malt to be furnished for making kvass to workmen engaged in building a town4 ,the ,russians learnt to drink wine from the ,greeks1 during their frequent intercourse with the ,eastern ,empire1 long before the ,mongol invasion4 ,during the ,tartar domination there was less communication with ,constantinople and the consumption of wine decreased1 but it became greater again during the period of the ,tsars4 ,in the beginning of the ,seventeenth ,century wine was supplied to ambassadors1 but the ,russians for the most part still preferred their native drinks4 ,the cultivation of the vine was introduced at ,astrakhan in #afac1 and a ,german traveller named ,strauss1 who visited the city in #afge1 found that it had been attended with great success2 so much so1 that1 without counting what was sold in the way of general trade1 the province supplied to the ,tsar alone every year two hundred tuns of wine1 and fifty tuns of grape brandy4 ,the wines of ,greece were at the same time replaced by those of ,hungary1 which were in great demand when ,peter came and introduced the vintage of ,france4 ,this by many persons will be considered not the least of his reforms4 ,the ,russians acquired the art of distilling from grain in the ,fourteenth ,century from the ,genoese established in the ,crimea1 and seem to have lost no time in profiting by their knowledge4 ,they soon began to invent infusions of fruit and berries1 which under the name of nalivka have long been known to travellers1 and which ,i for my part found excellent4 ,raki1 about the consumption of which by the ,russian soldiers so much was written during the ,crimean war1 is a ,turkish spirit1 and is unknown in ,russia4 ,the ,russian grain-spirit is called vodka4 ,the best qualities are more like the best whiskey than anything else1 only weaker2 but it is of various degrees of excellence as of price4 ,the new common vodka1 like other new spirits1 is fiery2 but when purified1 and kept for some time1 it is excellent and particularly mild4 ,travellers to ,moscow who are curious on the subject of vodka may visit a gigantic distillery in the neighbourhood1 to which it is easy to gain admission1 and where they can obtain information and samples in abundance4 ,vodka is sometimes made in imitation of brandy1 and there are also sweet and bitter vodkas2 and1 indeed1 vodka of all flavours4 ,but the ,british spirit which the ordinary vodka chiefly resembles is whiskey4 ,there is one curious custom connected with drinking in ,russia which1 as far as ,i am aware1 has never been noticed4 ,the ,russians drink first and eat afterwards1 and never drink without eating4 ,if wine and biscuits are placed on the table1 everyone takes a glass of wine first1 and then a biscuit2 and at the zakouska before dinner1 those who take the customary glass of vodka take an atom of caviare or cheese after it1 but not before4 ,it may also be remarked that1 as a general rule1 the ,russians1 like the ,orientals1 drink only at the beginning of a repast4 ,a hospitable ,englishman entertaining a ,russian1 on seeing him eat after drinking1 would press him to drink again1 and having drunk a second time1 the ,russian would eat once more on his own account2 which would involve another invitation to drink on the part of the ,englishman4 ,as a hospitable ,russian1 on the other hand1 entertaining an ,englishman1 would endeavour to prevail upon him to eat after drinking1 and as it is the ,englishman's habit to drink after eating1 it is easy to see that too much attention on either side might lead to very unfortunate results4 ,a great deal is said about the enormous quantity of champagne consumed in ,russia4 ,champagne1 however1 costs five roubles 7from sixteen to seventeen shillings7 a bottle--the duty alone amounting to one rouble a bottle--and is only drunk habitually by persons of considerable means4 ,nor does the champagne bottle go round so frequently at ,russian as at ,english dinners4 ,it is usually given1 as in ,france1 with the pastry and dessert1 and no other wine is taken after it4 ,the rich merchants are said to drink champagne very freely at their evening entertainments2 but the only merchant at whose house ,i dined had1 unfortunately1 adopted ,western manners1 and gave nothing during the evening but tea4 ,however1 at festivals and celebrations of all kinds--whether of congratulation1 of welcome1 or of farewell--champagne is indispensable4 ,what ,alphonse ,karr says of women and their toilette--that they regard every event in life as an occasion for a new dress--may certainly be paraphrased and applied to the ,russians in connection with champagne4 ,besides the champagne which is given as a matter of course at dinner-parties and balls1 there must be champagne at birthdays1 champagne at christenings1 champagne at1 or in honour of1 betrothals1 champagne in abundance at weddings1 champagne at the arrival of a friend1 and champagne at his departure4 ,for those who cannot afford veritable champagne1 ,russian viniculture supplies an excellent imitation in the shape of ,donskoi and ,crimskoi1--the wines of the ,don and of the ,crimea4 ,as ,donskoi costs only a fifth of the price of real champagne1 it will be understood that it is not seldom substituted for the genuine article1 both by fraudulent wine merchants and economic hosts4 ,however1 it is a true wine1 and far superior to the fabrications of ,hamburg1 which1 under the name of champagne1 find their way all over the north of ,europe4 ,it has often been said that the ,russians drink champagne merely because it is dear4 ,but the fact is1 they have a liking for all effervescing drinks1 and naturally1 therefore1 for champagne1 the best of all4 ,among the effervescing drinks peculiar to ,russia1 we may mention apple kvass1 kislya shchee1 and voditsa4 ,kislya shchee is made out of two sorts of malt1 three sorts of flour1 and dried apples2 in apple kvass there are more apples and less malt and flour4 ,voditsa 7a diminutive of voda1 water71 is made of syrup1 water1 and a little spirit4 ,all these summer-drinks are bottled and kept in the ice-house4 ,,carnival-,,time ,,and ,,easter ,a4 ,,nicol ,,simpson ,lent is heralded by carnival1 called by ,russians ,maslanitza--the ,butter ,wochen of the ,germans4 ,maslanitza is held during the eighth week preceding ,easter1 the fast proper is observed during the intervening seven weeks4 ,during ,maslanitza every article of diet1 flesh excepted1 is allowed to be partaken of1 but over-indulgence in other articles1 including drinks1 is not forbidden4 ,carnival commences on ,sunday at noon and continues till the close of the succeeding ,sunday4 ,the salutation during the week is ,maslanitza1 or ,sherokie ,maslanitza1 ,sherokie meaning1 literally broad1 indicating a full amount of pleasure1 and the facial expression accompanying this salutation shows plainly that unrestrained enjoyment is the aim and object for the week4 ,upon the discharge of the time gun at noon1 there emerge from all parts of the city tiny sleighs driven by peasants1 chiefly ,finns1 who for the time are allowed to ply for hire by the payment of a nominal tax imposed by the police or city corporation4 ,most of these ,finns are unable to speak ,russian intelligibly1 although living at no great distance from the capital4 ,it is said that from #e1jjj to #aj1jjj of these jehus come annually to ,st4 ,petersburg for ,maslanitza1 and they add materially to the gaiety of the city as they drive along the streets4 ,these ,finns are mostly patronized by the working-classes1 for the simple reason that their charges are lower than the ordinary isvozchick1 or cabby4 ,during the festivities the great centre of attraction for the working population is the ,marco ,polo1 or ,champ de ,mars1 an immense plain on the banks of the ,neva4 ,here a huge fair is held1 with the usual assortment of stalls1 loaded with sweetmeats and similar dainties4 ,actors from the city theatres are upon the ground1 with smaller booths where the stage-struck hero acts the leading part4 ,there are dwarfs1 fat women1 giants1 and the renowned ubiquitous ,punch and ,judy1 merry-go-rounds1 card-sharpers1 cheap-jacks1 and a medley crowd of men and women all catering for the roubles of the crowd4 ,what are termed the ice-hills are perhaps the most attractive feature of the gathering4 ,in the city feasting and visiting are the order of the day4 ,there is no limit to the consumption of bleenies1 a kind of pancake made of buckwheat flour1 and eaten with butter sauce or fresh caviare1 according to the circumstances of the families4 ,morn1 noon1 and night bleenies are cooked and eaten by the dozen1 moistened1 of course1 with the indispensable vodka or native gin1 which is distilled from rye4 ,when midnight of the second ,sunday arrives1 all gaieties are supposed to vanish1 and a subdued and demure aspect must be assumed1 and the form of congratulation between friends and acquaintances is--,pozdravlin vam post1 or ,i congratulate you on the fast4 ,the church bells toll mournfully at brief intervals from #d or #e ,a4 ,m41 when early mass is celebrated until about #h ,p4 ,m41 when evening service closes4 ,before the ,passion--like the ,jews1 who at ,passover search diligently for and cast out the old leaven--the ,russian housewife likewise searches out every corner1 most remorselessly sweeps from its hiding-place every particle of dust4 ,everything is done to make the house and its contents fit to meet a risen ,saviour4 ,the streets1 always very clean1 receive special attention1 even the lamp-posts are carefully washed down and the kerbs sanded4 ,everything that will clean has brush and soap-and-water applied to it4 ,the reason of this is the belief that our ,saviour invisibly walks about the earth for forty days after ,easter1 that is1 until ,ascension ,day4 ,on the ,thursday of ,passion ,week ,strashnaya ,nedelli1 i4 e41 ,terrible ,week1 is enacted in a very realistic fashion one of the last acts of our ,saviour--the washing of the ,disciples' feet4 ,after the close of the second diet of worship at ,st4 ,isaac's ,cathedral this ceremony is performed4 ,the most important day of the week is that of ,strashnaya ,piatnitsa1 or ,good ,friday1 when the burial of our ,lord is enacted before the people in a truly solemn and impressive manner4 ,in every church there is a sarcophagus in imitation of our ,saviour's tomb1 and many of these sarcophagi are of elaborate workmanship with gorgeous gilt and otherwise ornamented4 ,the lid is adorned with a painting representing our ,saviour in death4 ,at dawn this lid is carried into the chapel1 and by #c ,p4 ,m4 the sarcophagus is in its place on the dais ready to receive the body of our ,lord4 ,shortly before the service is concluded1 all the worshippers have their tapers lighted1 the flame being procured from a candelabrum in front of the sacred icon4 ,this is done by those nearest to the candelabrum lighting their tapers1 while those behind them get the sacred flame from them1 and in this way all get their tapers lit4 ,many endeavour to carry their burning tapers home1 so that they may have the holy flame in their dwellings4 ,illustration3 ,,st4 ,,isaac',s ,,cathedral1 ,,st4 ,,petersburg4 ,leaving the chapel the crowd musters in the street4 ,then there emerges a church dignitary bearing a large brightly-burnished crucifix1 followed by others bearing bannerettes and other symbols1 the names and uses of which are to us a mystery4 ,last of all come forth four priests1 clad in their gorgeous canonical vestments1 bearing the lid of the sarcophagus which is supported on brass rods4 ,under the lid walks an aged priest clad in his clerical vestments1 representing the dead ,christ being carried to his tomb4 ,slowly1 sadly1 and reverently he is borne to the tomb1 the worshippers crossing themselves most devoutly4 ,a sudden rush is made for the church to witness the interment1 the big bell meanwhile tolling mournfully as the procession moves on4 ,the sad procession enters the church1 and1 going up to where the sarcophagus is placed with all the external appearances of love1 mourning1 and lamentation1 the lid is placed on the sarcophagus and the last obsequies of the crucified ,christ are over4 ,preparations are now industriously made for the due celebration of the ,resurrection morn4 ,shopping1 shopping1 shopping goes on without intermission4 ,those who can1 prepare to adorn their bodies with one or more articles of new clothing1 but all make preparations for a sumptuous feast4 ,it is interesting to watch the shops1 especially in the public markets1 to see the avidity with which every article of food is bought up4 ,the butchers come in1 perhaps1 for the largest share of custom1 as flesh1 especially smoked ham1 is in universal demand4 ,ham among all classes of the community is indispensable for the breaking of the fast and the due celebration of the feast4 ,dyed eggs are in universal request4 ,the exchange of eggs1 accompanied with kissing on the lips and cheeks in the form of the cross1 accompanies all gifts or exchange4 ,the koolitch and paska have also to be bought4 ,the koolitch is a sweet kind of wheaten bread1 circular in form1 in which there are raisins4 ,it is ornamented with candied sugar and usually has the ,easter salutation on it3 ,christos vozkress--,christ is risen--the whole surmounted with a large gaudy red-paper rose4 ,the paska is made of cords1 pyramidal in shape1 and contains a few raisins1 and1 like the former1 has also a paper rose inserted on the top4 ,these are the sine qua non for the due observance of ,easter1 but what relation they may have1 if any1 to the ,jewish ,feast of the ,passover1 it is difficult to see1 although in many other respects there is a striking resemblance to the service of the ,temple in ,jerusalem in the ritual of the ,russo-,greek ,church4 ,the koolitch and paska and dyed eggs are brought to1 but not into1 the church on the ,saturday evening4 ,some have burning tapers inserted into them1 while a pure white table napkin is spread on the ground1 or on benches specially provided for the purpose1 awaiting the priests' blessing4 ,the hours for this purpose are six1 eight1 and ten o'clock4 ,the priests sprinkle the koolitch1 paska1 and dyed eggs at these hours1 those to whom they belong slipping a silver or copper coin into his hand as a reward for his services4 ,these articles are then carried home1 and along with the other necessities for the feast are laid out on a table1 there to lie untouched till the resurrection of the ,saviour is an accomplished fact4 ,meanwhile the lessons are being read over the tomb of ,christ1 and the devotees1 still in large numbers1 kiss ,his face and feet4 ,about #aa ,p4 ,m4 the sarcophagus is wheeled to its usual place in the church1 where it remains until the following ,easter4 ,all the churches by this time are densely packed with worshippers1 silently waiting with eager expectancy the time when their ,saviour will break the bonds of death and rise from the tomb in which he has now lain for three days4 ,as if by magic1 everyone has lighted his or her taper1 and looks anxiously towards the altar-screen1 where preparations are being made by the priests to go to ,joseph of ,arimathea's garden1 as the disciples and women did of old to visit the tomb where ,christ was buried4 ,this they do by forming a procession with the crucifix1 bannerettes1 etc41 each carrying a lighted candle in his hand4 ,there is a rush among the worshippers to join the procession4 ,they walk thrice round the church1 searching diligently by the aid of their candles for ,christ1 and not finding ,him1 they go to bring the disciples word that ,he is risen from the dead4 ,when the procession enters the threshold of the church1 the royal gates are thrown back1 suddenly displaying a marvellously beautiful stained glass window1 and all eyes behold an enchanting representation of the ,saviour in the act of rising from the cold grave4 ,the priests with the choristers1 as they enter the church1 proclaim in joyful tones1 ,christos vozkress 7,christ is risen71 the response being ,voestenno vozkress 7,truly ,he is risen74 ,it is really a jubilant song of praise they sing--the finely trained voices of the choir and priests1 joined with those of the worshippers1 making it most impressive4 ,every face in the vast crowd bears the joyous expression of gladness1 for to these men and women a really dead ,christ has risen1 and is now invisibly in their midst4 ,relatives and friends kiss each other and shake hands1 and the salutation1 ,christos vozkress1 with the refrain1 ,voestenno vozkress1 is heard on every side4 ,the officiating priest begins the usual early morning service 7celebrated on ordinary ,sundays at #e ,a4 ,m471 which continues until nearly three o'clock1 when the churches are closed for the day4 ,immediately after midnight a salute of one hundred and one guns is given from the fortress to greet the sacred morn4 ,the whole city is stirred as the loud peal of cannon reverberates1 proclaiming to the faithful that ,christ is indeed risen from the dead4 ,some few worshippers remain in church until the early service is over1 but the majority retire to their homes to tender the greetings of the day4 ,then families and friends assemble at the domestic board that groans under a load of the good things of this life1 according to their circumstances1 and to make reparation to their stomachs for the privation they have endured during the seven weeks of ,lent4 ,and full compensation their stomachs get1 as the feast is a literal gorge of meat and drink4 ,ham is on the table of prince and peasant alike1 and it is first partaken of4 ,the table of the rich is spread with all gastronomical luxuries1 vodka and wines1 cold roast beef1 eggs1 etc4 ,these dainties remain on the table for several days2 indeed a free table is kept1 and all who call to congratulate are expected to partake of the hospitality4 ,not to do so is regarded in the light of an insult4 ,on ,easter ,sunday only gentlemen pay visits of congratulation2 ladies remain at home for that day to receive and entertain visitors4 ,presents are dispensed to domestic and other servants4 ,a good drink is as indispensable to the feast among the peasant class as a good feed1 and they neither deny themselves the one nor the other1 their potations lasting for several days4 ,to the ,western mind the continual kissing and giving of eggs on the streets appear strangely out of keeping with the solemnity of the hour4 ,to see a couple of bearded men hugging and kissing each other and each other's wives on the public streets1 with the salutation1 ,christos vozkress1 is indeed peculiar4 ,but use and wont justify this1 and it would be a breach of courtesy to withhold the lips and cheeks1 and would be regarded as indicating indifference to the great feast of the ,church4 ,present-giving1 although on somewhat similar lines to our ,christmas greetings1 is a much heavier tax on a ,russian household than ,christmas gifts are with us4 ,in the ordinary house in ,st4 ,petersburg1 the master1 on gaining his breakfast-room1 is saluted by his domestic servant with ,prazdnik 7holiday71 ,christos vozkress1 which involves a new dress for the female1 or a money equivalent4 ,then the dvorniks1 or house-porters1 resplendent in clean white aprons1 make their appearance1 giving the usual salutation1 and one or two roubles must be given4 ,they have scarcely vanished when a couple of chimney-sweepers put in an appearance1 necessitating another appeal to the purse2 postmen follow1 and in their rear come the juvenile representatives of your butcher1 greengrocer1 etc41 all bent upon testing your liberality4 ,you go to church and the doorkeeper gravely says1 ,christos vozkress1 while he of the cloak-room echoes the sentiment to the impoverishment of one's exchequer4 ,but this seeming mendicancy is not confined to these classes1 for even the reverend fathers and brethren walk in the same footsteps unblushingly4 ,either on foot or by carriage they call upon the well-to-do of their church1 give the usual salutation1 ,christos vozkress1 and the kiss1 partake of the general hospitality1 and get their gratuity or ,na ,chai1 as it is called1 and retire4 ,they are scarcely gone when the ,staroste1 or elders1 put in an appearance1 followed by the ,pyefche1 or choristers1 all of whom share in the bounty and hospitality of those on whom they call4 ,the priests1 of course1 come in for the largest share1 and1 generally speaking1 they know the value of the adage1 ,first come first served4 ,at mid-day of ,easter ,sunday a salute is fired from the fortress1 and carnival begins again4 ,it is a repetition of the same amusements as in carnival before ,lent1 and continues until the following ,sunday evening4 ,,russian ,,tea ,,and ,,tea-,,houses ,h4 ,,sutherland ,,edwards ,a true ,russian restaurant1 or traktir 7probably from the ,french traiteur71 is not to be found in ,st4 ,petersburg1 whose cafes and restaurants are either ,german or ,french1 or imitated from ,german or ,french models4 ,one of the large ,moscow traktirs is not only very much larger1 but at least twelve times larger than an ordinary ,french cafe4 ,the best of them is the ,troitzkoi traktir1 where the merchants meet to complete the bargains they have commenced on the ,exchange--that is to say--in the street beneath1 where all business is carried on1 summer and winter1 in the open air4 ,st4 ,petersburg is more fortunate1 and has a regular bourse1 with a chapel attached to it4 ,the merchants always enter this chapel before commencing their regular afternoon's work 7',change is held at four o'clock in ,st4 ,petersburg71 and remain for several minutes at their devotions1 occasionally offering a candle to the ,virgin or some saint4 ,now and then it must happen that a speculator for the rise and a speculator for the fall enter the chapel and commence their orisons at the same time4 ,probably they pray that they may not be tempted to cheat one another4 ,there is no special chapel for the ,moscow merchants1 nor is there one attached to the ,troitzkoi traktir1 which ,i am inclined to look upon after all as the real ,moscow ,exchange4 ,but in each of the rooms1 of which the entrances as usual are arched1 and which together form an apparently interminable suite1 the indispensable holy picture is to be seen2 and no ,russian goes in or out without making the sign of the cross4 ,no ,russian1 to whatever class he may belong1 remains for a moment with his hat on in any inhabited place2 whether out of compliment to those who inhabit it1 or from respect to the holy pictures1 or from mixed reasons4 ,the waiters1 of whom there are said to be a hundred and fifty at the ,troitzkoi traktir1 are all dressed in white1 and it is facetiously asserted that they are forbidden to sit down during the day for fear of disturbing the harmony and destroying the purity of their spotless linen4 ,the service is excellent4 ,the waiters watch and divine the wishes of the guests1 instead of the guests having to watch1 seek1 and sometimes scream for the waiters1 as is too often the case in ,england4 ,here the attendants do everything for the visitor2 cut up his pirog 7meat1 or fish patty71 so that he may eat it with his fork2 pour out his tea1 fill his chibouk1 and even bring it to him ready lighted4 ,the reader perceives that there is a certain ,oriental style about the ,russian traktirs4 ,the great article of consumption in them is tea4 ,every one orders tea1 either by itself1 or to follow the dinner2 and the majority of those who come into the place take nothing else4 ,you can have a tumbler of tea1 or a pot of tea2 but in ordering it you do not ask for tea at all1 but for so many portions of sugar4 ,the origin of this curious custom it is scarcely worth while to consider2 but it apparently dates from the last ,european war1 when1 during the general blockade1 the price of sugar in ,russia rose to about four shillings a pound4 ,all sorts of stories have been told about the quantity of tea consumed by ,russian merchants1 nor do ,i look upon any of them as exaggerated4 ,from twelve to twenty cups are thought nothing of4 ,i have seen two merchants enter a traktir1 order so many portions of sugar1 and drink cup after cup of tea1 until the tea-urn before them is empty2 yet the ordinary tea-urn of the traktir holds at least a gallon1 or a gallon and a half4 ,tea1 says ,m4 ,gerebtzoff1 has become1 for every one1 an habitual article of consumption1 and replaces1 advantageously for morality1 brandy and beer2 for on all occasions when a bargain has to be concluded1 or when a companion has to be entertained1 or on receiving or taking leave of a friend1 tea is given instead of wine or brandy4 ,indeed1 ,i not only observed that in the ,moscow traktirs nearly every one drank tea1 but that it was a favourite beverage with all classes on all occasions4 ,the middle and upper classes take tea twice or three times a day1--always in the morning1 and often twice in the evening4 ,the isvostchik1 who formerly had a reputation for drunkenness1 which travellers of the present day continue to ascribe to him1 appears to prefer tea to every other drink4 ,such1 at least1 was my experience2 and his mode of asking for a pour boire seems to confirm it4 ,some years since travellers used to tell us of the isvostchik asking at the end of his drive for vodka money 7na votkou72 at present the invariable request is for tea-money 7na tchai74 ,even in roadside inns1 where ,i have seen from twelve to twenty coachmen and postilions sitting down together1 nothing but tea was being drunk4 ,a well-known tourist has told us that every ,russian peasant possesses a tea-urn1 or samovar2 but this is not the case4 ,the majority of the peasants are too poor to afford such a luxury as tea1 except on rare occasions1 but a tea-urn is one of the first objects that a peasant who has saved a little money buys2 and it is true1 that in some prosperous villages there is a samovar in every hut2 and in all the post-houses and inns each visitor is supplied with a separate one4 ,illustration3 ,,st4 ,,anne ,,restaurant1 ,,wiborg4 ,the samovar1 which1 literally1 means self-boiler1 is made of brass lined with tin1 with a tube in the centre4 ,in fact1 it resembles the ,english urn1 except that in the centre-tube red-hot cinders are placed instead of the iron heater4 ,of course1 the charcoal1 or braise1 has to be ignited in a back kitchen or court-yard2 for in a room the carbonic acid proceeding from it would prove injurious4 ,it has no advantage then1 whatever1 over the ,english urn1 except that it can be heated with facility in the open air1 with nothing but some charcoal1 a few sticks of thin dry wood1 and a lucifer2 hence its value at picnics1 where it is considered indispensable4 ,in the woods of ,sakolniki1 in the gardens of ,marina ,roschia1 and in the grounds adjoining the ,petrovski ,palace1 all close to ,moscow1 large supplies of samovars are kept at the tea-houses1 and each visitor1 or party of visitors1 is supplied with one4 ,indeed1 the quantity of tea consumed at these suburban retreats in the spring and summer is prodigious4 ,in ,russia there is no interval between winter and spring4 ,as soon as the frost breaks up the grass sprouts1 the trees blossom1 and all nature is alive4 ,in that country of extremes there is sometimes as much difference between ,april and ,may as there is in ,england between ,january and ,june4 ,the summer is celebrated by various promenades to the country1 which take place at ,easter1 on the first of ,may1 ,ascension ,day1 ,trinity ,sunday1 and other occasions4 ,the great majority of these promenades are of a festive nature1 but some1 like that which is made on the #aith of ,may to the monastery and cemetery of the ,don1 have a penitential1 or1 at least1 a mournful character4 ,the samovar1 however1 is present even in the churchyard4 ,i never joined in one of the funeral pilgrimages to the ,donskoi convent2 but in other cemeteries outside ,moscow and ,st4 ,petersburg 7intramural burial not being tolerated71 ,i noticed that the custodians kept in their lodges a supply of samovars for the benefit of visitors4 ,and1 after all1 what can be more appropriate than an urn in a cemetery8 ,between ,st4 ,petersburg and ,kovno or ,tauroggen1 there are upwards of fifty stations1 at each of which tea can be procured4 ,travellers whose route does not lie along the government post-roads1 take samovars with them in their carnages2 and small samovars that can be packed into the narrowest compass are made for the use of officers starting on a campaign1 and other persons likely to find themselves in places where it may be difficult to procure hot water4 ,small tea-caddies are also manufactured with a similar object4 ,each caddy contains one or more glasses2 for men among themselves usually drink their tea1 not out of tea-cups1 but out of tumblers4 ,not many years since it was the fashion to give cups to women and tumblers to men in the evening2 but the tumbler is gradually being banished1 at least from the drawing-room4 ,the ,russians never take milk in their tea2 they take either cream1 or a slice of lemon or preserved fruit1 or simply sugar without the addition of anything else4 ,they hold that milk spoils tea1 and they are right4 ,tea with lemon or preserves 7forming a kind of tea-punch1 well worthy the attention of tea-totallers71 is only taken in the evening4 ,sometimes the men add rum4 ,,how ,,russia ,,amuses ,,itself ,,fred ,,whishaw ,if ,i were asked to state what a ,russian schoolboy does with his spare time after working hours are over1 ,i should be much puzzled what to say4 ,unfortunately young ,russia has not the faintest glimmering of knowledge of the practice or even of the existence of such things as football1 cricket1 fives1 rackets1 golf1 athletic sports1 hockey1 or any other of the numerous pastimes which play so important a part in the life of every schoolboy in this merry land of ,england4 ,therefore there is no question1 for him1 of staying behind at the school premises after working hours1 in order to take part in any game4 ,he goes home2 that much is certain2 most of his time is loafed away--that1 too1 is beyond question4 ,he may skate a little1 perhaps1 in the winter1 if he happens to live near a skating ground1 but he will not go far for it2 and in the summer1 which is holiday time for him1 from ,june to ,september1 he walks up and down the village street clothed in white calico garments1 or plays cup and ball in the garden2 fishes a little1 perhaps1 in the river or pond if there happen to be one1 and lazies his time away without exertion4 ,of late years lorteneece1 as lawn-tennis is called in the ,tsar's country has been slightly attempted2 but it is not really liked3 too many balls are lost and the rules of the game have never yet been thoroughly grasped4 ,a quartette of men will occasionally rig up their net1 which they raise to about the height of a foot and a half1 and play a species of battledore and shuttlecock over it until the balls disappear2 but it is scarcely tennis4 ,as a matter of fact1 a ,russian generally rushes at the ball and misses it2 on the rare occasions when he strikes the object1 he does so with so much energy that the ball unless stopped by the adversary's eye1 or his partner's1 disappears forever into the blue4 ,croquet is a mild favourite1 too2 but it is played very languidly and unscientifically4 ,most gardens in ,russian country houses contain a swing1 a rotting horizontal bar for the gymnastically 7and suicidally7 inclined1 and a giant stride4 ,occasionally there is a flower-bed in the centre1 in which our dear old ,british friend the rhubarb1 monopolizes the space1 and makes a good show as an ornamental plant2 for he is not known in that benighted country as a comestible1 though1 of course1 children are acquainted with and hate him in his medicinal capacity4 ,besides the swings and the rhubarb1 there are sand or gravel paths2 and built out over the dusty road is an open summer-house1 wherein the ,muscovitish householder and his ladies love to sit and sip their tea for the greater part of each day--this being their acme of happiness4 ,the dust may lie half-an-inch thick over the surface of their tea and bread and butter1 but this does not detract from the delights of the fascinating occupation4 ,i should point out that in all ,i have said above1 ,i refer not so much to the highest or to the lowest classes of ,russian society1 as to that middle stratum to which belong the families of the ,chinovnik1 of the infantry officer1 or the well-to-do merchant4 ,the aristocracy amuse themselves very much in the same way as our own4 ,they shoot1 they loaf and play cards in their clubs1 they butcher pigeons out of traps1 they have their race-meetings1 they dance much and well2 some have yachts of their own4 ,many of them keep ,english grooms1 and their ,english--when they speak it--for this reason smacks somewhat of the stable1 though they are not usually aware that this is the case4 ,if a ,russian autocrat has succeeded in making himself look like an ,englishman1 and behaves like one1 he is happy4 ,of winter sports--in which1 however1 but a small minority of the ,russian youth care to take part--there are skating1 ice-yatching1 snow-shoeing1 and ice-hilling4 ,the skating ought1 naturally1 to be very good in ,russia4 ,as a matter of fact the ice is generally dead and lacking in that elasticity and spring which is characteristic of our ,english ice4 ,it is too thick for elasticity1 though the surface is beautifully kept and scientifically treated with a view to skating wherever a space is flooded or an acre or two of the ,neva's broad bosom is reclaimed to make a skating-ground4 ,some of the ,russian amateurs skate marvellously1 as also do many of the ,english and other foreign residents4 ,ice-yachting is confined almost entirely to these latter1 the natives not having as yet awakened to the merits of this fine pastime4 ,ice-hilling1 however1 at fair-time--that is1 during the carnival week1 preceding the long fast or ,lent--is much practised by the people4 ,this is a kind of cross between the switchback and tobogganing1 and is an exceedingly popular amusement among the ,english residents of ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,snow-shoeing1 again1 is a fine and healthful recreation2 it is the ski-running of ,norway1 and is beloved and much practised by all ,englishmen who are fortunate enough to be introduced to its fascinations4 ,it is too difficult and requires too much exertion1 however1 for young ,russia1 and that indolent individual1 in consequence1 rarely dons the snow-shoe4 ,the ,russians are a theatre-loving people1 and the acting must be very good to please their critical taste4 ,many of their theatres are imperial1 that is1 the state pays the piper if the receipts of the theatre so protected do not balance the expenditure4 ,in paying for good artists1 whether operatic or dramatic1 the ,russians are most lavish1 and the ,imperial ,italian ,opera must have been a source of considerable expense to the authorities in the days of its state endowment4 ,nearly every ,russian is a natural musician1 and cannot only sing in tune1 but can take a part by ear4 ,the man with the balaleika1 or garmonka1 is always sure of an admiring audience1 whether in town or village2 and there is not a tiny hamlet in the empire but resolves itself1 on holidays1 into a pair of choral societies--one for male and one for female voices--which either parade up and down the village street1 singing1 without1 of course1 either conductor or accompaniment1 or sit in rows upon the benches outside the huts1 occupied in a similar manner4 ,occasionally1 but very rarely1 you may see a party of ,russian children1 or young men and women1 playing1 in the open air1 at one of two games4 ,the first is a variant of prisoner's base2 the other is a species of ninepins1 or skittles1 played with a group of uprights at which short1 thick clubs are thrown4 ,the ,russian youth--those who are energetic enough to practise the game--sometimes attain considerable proficiency with these grim little weapons1 and make wonderful shots at a distance of some thirty yards or so4 ,as for the middle-class ,russian sportsman1 he forms a class by himself1 and is a very original person indeed1 unless taught the delights of the chase by an ,englishman4 ,in his eyes the be-all and end-all of a true sportsman is to purchase the orthodox equipment of a green-trimmed coat1 ,tyrolese hat1 and long boots1 and to pay his subscription to a shooting club4 ,he rarely discharges a gun2 the rascally thing kicks1 he finds2 and the birds will fly before he can point his weapon at them as they crouch in the heather at his feet2 of course he is not such a fool as to fire after they are up and away4 ,as a rule1 however1 he goes no farther afield than the card-table of the club-house4 ,why should he8 ,he has bought all the clothes2 and what more does a man need to be a sportsman8 ,i cannot honestly affirm that ,i ever saw one of these good fellows actually fire off a gun2 for whenever ,i have been informed that such an event is about to take place1 ,i have always done my best to put two or three good miles1 or a village or two1 between myself and the ,muscovitish sportsman4 ,,the ,,kirghiz ,,and ,,their ,,horses ,,fred ,,burnaby ,the aspect of the country now underwent an entire change4 ,we had left all traces of civilization behind us1 and were regularly upon the ,steppes4 ,not the ,steppes as they are described to us in the summer months1 when hundreds of nomad tribes1 like their forefathers of old1 migrate from place to place1 with their families1 flocks1 and herds1 and relieve the dreary aspect of this vast flat expanse with their picturesque kibitkas1 or tents1 while hundreds of horses1 grazing on the rich grass1 are a source of considerable wealth to the ,kirghiz proprietors4 ,a large dining-table covered with naught but its white cloth is not a cheery sight4 ,to describe the country for the next one hundred miles from ,orsk1 ,i need only extend the table-cover4 ,for here1 there1 and everywhere was a dazzling1 glaring sheet of white1 as seen under the influence of a mid-day sun2 then gradually softening down as the god of light sunk into the west1 it faded into a vast1 melancholy-looking1 colourless ocean4 ,this was shrouded in some places from the view by filmy clouds of mist and vapour1 which rose in the evening air and shaded the wilderness around--a picture of desolation which wearied1 by its utter loneliness1 and at the same time appalled by its immensity2 a circle of which the centre was everywhere1 and the circumference nowhere4 ,such were the ,steppes as ,i drove through them at night-fall or in the early morn2 and where1 fatigued by want of sleep1 my eye searched eagerly1 but in vain1 for a station4 ,on arriving at the halting-place1 which was about twenty-seven versts from ,orsk1 ,nazar came to me1 and said1 ,i am very sleepy2 ,i have not slept for three nights1 and shall fall off if we continue the journey4 ,when ,i began to think of it1 the poor fellow had a good deal of reason on his side4 ,i could occasionally obtain a few moments' broken slumber1 which was out of the question for him4 ,i felt rather ashamed that in my selfishness ,i had over-driven a willing horse1 and the fellow had shown first-class pluck when we had to pass the night out on the roadside2 so1 saying that he ought to have told me before that he wanted rest1 ,i sent him to lie down1 when1 stretching his limbs alongside the stove1 in an instant he was fast asleep4 ,the inspector was a good-tempered1 fat old fellow1 with red cheeks and an asthmatic cough4 ,he had been a veterinary surgeon in a ,cossack regiment1 and consequently his services were much in request with the people at ,orsk4 ,he informed me that land could be bought on these flats for a rouble and a half a desyatin 7#b1gjj acres72 that a cow cost ,l#c #bs4 #f;d42 a fat sheep1 two years old1 #abs4 #f;d42 and mutton or beef1 a penny per pound4 ,a capital horse could be purchased for three sovereigns1 a camel for ,l#g #ajs41 while flour cost #as4 #d;d4 the pood of forty pounds4 ,these were the prices at ,orsk1 but at times he said that provisions could be bought at a much lower rate1 particularly if purchased from the ,tartars themselves4 ,the latter had suffered a great deal of late years from the cattle-pest1 and vaccinating the animals had been tried as an experiment1 but1 according to my informant1 with but slight success4 ,the ,kirghiz themselves have but little faith in doctors or vets4 ,it is with great difficulty that the nomads can be persuaded to have their children vaccinated2 the result is1 that when small-pox breaks out among them it creates fearful havoc in the population4 ,putting this epidemic out of the question1 the roving ,tartars are a peculiarly healthy race4 ,the absence of medical men does not seem to have affected their longevity1 the disease they most suffer from being ophthalmia1 which is brought on by the glare of the snow in the winter1 and by the dust and heat in the summer months4 ,the country now began to change its snowy aspect1 and party-coloured grasses of various hues dotted the ,steppes around4 ,the ,kirghiz had taken advantage of the more benignant weather1 and hundreds of horses were here and there to be seen picking up what they could find4 ,in fact1 it is extraordinary how any of these animals manage to exist through the winter months1 as the nomads hardly ever feed them with corn1 trusting to the slight vegetation which exists beneath the snow4 ,occasionally the poor beasts perish by thousands1 and a ,tartar who is a rich man one week may find himself a beggar the next4 ,this comes from the frequent snow-storms1 when the thermometer sometimes descends to from forty to fifty degrees below zero1 ,fahrenheit2 but more often from some slight thaw taking place for perhaps a few hours4 ,this is sufficient to ruin whole districts1 for the ground becomes covered with an impenetrable coating of ice1 and the horses simply die of starvation1 not being able to kick away the frozen substance as they do the snow from the grass beneath their hoofs4 ,no horses which ,i have ever seen are so hardy as these little animals1 which are indigenous to the ,kirghiz ,steppes2 perhaps for the same reason that the ,spartans of old excelled all other nations in physical strength1 but with this difference1 that nature doles out to the weakly colts the same fate which the ,spartan parents apportioned to their sickly offspring4 ,the ,kirghiz never clothe their horses1 even in the coldest winter4 ,they do not even take the trouble to water them1 the snow eaten by the animals supplying this want4 ,towards the end of the winter months the ribs of the poor beasts almost come through their sides2 but once the snow disappears and the rich vegetation which replaces it in the early spring comes up1 the animals gain flesh and strength1 and are capable of performing marches which many people in this country would deem impossible1 a hundred-mile ride not being at all an uncommon occurrence in ,tartary4 ,kirghiz horses are not generally well shaped1 and cannot gallop very fast1 but they can traverse enormous distances without water1 forage1 or halting4 ,when the natives wish to perform any very long journey they generally employ two horses3 on one they carry a little water in a skin1 and some corn1 while they ride the other1 changing from time to time1 to ease the animals4 ,it is said that a ,kirghiz chief once galloped with a ,cossack escort 7on two horses7 #bjj miles in twenty-four hours1 the path extending for a considerable distance over a mountainous and rocky district4 ,the animals1 however1 soon recovered from the effects of the journey1 although they were a little lame for the first few days4 ,an extraordinary march was made by ,count ,borkh to the ,sam1 in ,may1 #ahgj4 ,the object of his expedition was to explore the routes across the ,ust ,urt1 and if possible to capture some ,kirghiz auls 7villages71 which were the headquarters of some marauding bands from the town of ,kungrad4 ,the ,russian officer determined to cross the northern ,tchink1 and by a forced march to surprise the tribes which nomadized on the ,sam4 ,up to that time only small ,cossack detachments had ever succeeded in penetrating to this locality4 ,to explain the difficulties to be overcome1 it must be observed that the ,ust ,urt plateau is bounded on all sides by a scarped cliff1 known by the name of the ,tchink4 ,it is very steep1 attaining in some places an elevation of from #djj to #fjj feet1 and the tracks down its rugged sides are blocked up by enormous rocks and loose stones4 ,count ,borkh resolved to march as lightly equipped as possible1 and without baggage1 as he wished to avoid meeting any parties of the nomad tribes on his road4 ,his men carried three days' rations on their saddles1 while the artillery took only as many rounds as the limber-box would contain4 ,the expedition was made up of #aej ,orenburg ,cossacks1 sixty mounted riflemen1 and a gun1 which was taken more by way of experiment than for any other reason1 the authorities being anxious to know if artillery could be transported in that direction4 ,the detachment reached ,ak-,tiube in six days without contretemps1 after a march of #ccc miles1 and with the loss of only two lame horses4 ,,winter ,,in ,,moscow ,h4 ,,sutherland ,,edwards ,russia in the summer is no more like ,russia in the winter than a camp in time of peace is like a camp in the presence of the enemy4 ,moreover1 snow is one of the chief natural productions of the country2 and without it ,russia is as uninteresting as an orchard without fruit4 ,one always thinks of ,russia in connection with its frosts1 and of its frosts in connection with such great events as the campaign of #ahab1 or the winter of #ahed in the ,crimea4 ,accordingly1 a foreigner in ,russia naturally looks forward to the winter with much interest1 mingled perhaps with a certain amount of awe4 ,he waits for it1 in fact1 as a man waits for a thief1 expecting the visitor with a certain kind of apprehension1 and not without a due provision of life-preservers in the shape of goloshes1 seven-leagued boots1 scarves1 fur coats1 etc4 ,the house ,i lived in was in the middle of ,moscow2 and with the exception of the stoves1 the internal arrangement seemed like that of most other dwellings in ,europe4 ,the ,russian stoves1 however1 are1 in fact1 thick hollow party-walls1 built of brick1 and sometimes separating1 or connecting1 as many as three or four rooms1 and heating them all from one common centre4 ,the outer sides of these lofty intramural furnaces are usually faced with a kind of white porcelain1 though in some houses they are papered like the rest of the wall1 so that the presence of the stove is only known in summer by two or three apertures like port-holes1 which have been made for the purpose of admitting the hot air1 and which1 when there is no heat within1 are closed with round metal covers like the tops of canisters4 ,sometimes1 especially in country houses1 the stove1 or peitchka as it is called1 is not only a wall1 but a wall which1 towards the bottom1 projects so as to form a kind of dresser or sofa1 and which the lazier of the inmates use not infrequently in the latter capacity4 ,in the huts the peitchka is almost invariably of this form2 and the peasants not only lie and sleep upon it as a matter of course1 but even get inside and use it as a bath4 ,not that they fill their stoves with water--that would be rather difficult4 ,but the ,russian bath is merely a room paved with stone slabs and heated like an oven1 in which the bather stands to be rubbed and lathered1 and to have buckets of water poured over him1 or thrown at him1 by naked attendants2 and accordingly a stove makes an excellent bath on a small scale4 ,as a general rule1 every row of huts has one or more baths attached to it1 which the inhabitants support by subscription2 but when this is not the case1 the peasant1 after carefully raking out the ashes1 creeps into the hot peitchka1 and is soon bathed in his own perspiration4 ,he would infallibly be baked alive but for the pailfuls of water with which he soon begins to cool his heated skin4 ,thanks1 however1 to this precaution1 he issues from the fiery furnace uninjured1 and1 it is to be hoped1 benefited4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,red ,,square1 ,,moscow4 ,when a stove is being heated1 the port-holes are kept carefully shut1 to prevent the egress of carbonic-acid gas4 ,but after the wood has become thoroughly charred1 and every vestige of flame has disappeared1 the chimney is closed on a level with the garret floor1 the covers are removed from the apertures in the side of the stove1 and the hot air is allowed to penetrate freely into the room2 which1 if enough wood has been put into the peitchka1 and the lid of the chimney closes hermetically1 will1 by this one fire1 be kept warm for twelve or fourteen hours4 ,occasionally it happens that the port-holes are opened while there still flickers a little blue flame above the whitening embers4 ,in this case there is death in the stove4 ,the carbonic-acid gas1 which is still proceeding from the burning charcoal1 enters the room1 and produces asphyxia1 or at all events some of its symptoms4 ,if you have not time1 or if you are already too weak1 to open the door when you find yourself attacked by ougar 7as the ,russians call this gas71 you had better throw the first thing you have at hand through the window2 and the cold air1 rushing rapidly into the room1 will save you4 ,a foreigner unaccustomed to the hot apartments of ,russia will scarcely perceive the presence of ougar until he is already seriously affected by it2 and in this manner the son of the ,persian ambassador lost his life1 some years since1 in one of the principal hotels of ,moscow4 ,a native1 however1 if the stove should chance to be covered before the wood is thoroughly charred1 will detect the presence of the fatal gas almost instantaneously2 and having done so1 the best remedy he can adopt for the headache and sickness1 which even then will inevitably follow1 is to rush into the open air1 and cool his temples by copious applications of snow4 ,persons who are almost insensible from the effect of ougar have to be carried out and rolled in the snow1--a process which speedily restores them to their natural condition4 ,one morning there was a fall of snow2 and the cream was brought in from the country in jars wrapped carefully round with matting to prevent its freezing4 ,hundreds of cabbages and thousands of potatoes1 similarly protected1 were purchased and stowed away4 ,furlongs of wood 7in ,russia wood is sold by the foot71 were laid up in the courtyard2 an inspector of stoves arrived to see that every peitchka was in proper working order2 and an examiner and fitter-in of windows was summoned to adjust the usual extra sash4 ,at last the windows had been made fast1 each pane being at the same time reputtied into its frame4 ,on the window-sill1 in the space between the outer and inner panes1 was something resembling a long deep line of snow1 which was1 however1 merely a mass of cotton-wool placed there as an additional protection against the external air4 ,indeed1 the winds of the ,russian winter have such powers of penetration that1 in a room guarded by triple windows1 besides shutters closed with the greatest exactness1 ,i have seen the curtains slightly agitated when the howling outside was somewhat louder than usual4 ,the wind1 says ,gregorovitch in his ,winter's ,tale1 howls like a dog2 and like a dog will bite the feet and calves of those who have not duly provided themselves with fur-goloshes and doubly-thick pantaloons4 ,such a wind must not be suffered to intrude into any house intended to be habitable4 ,besides the cotton-wool1 which is a special provision against draughts1 the space between the two sashes is usually adorned with artificial flowers2 indeed1 the fondness of the ,russians for flowers and green leaves during the winter is remarkable4 ,the corridors are converted into greenhouses1 by means of trellis-work covered with creepers4 ,the windows of many of the apartments are encircled by evergreens1 and in the drawing-rooms1 flower-stands form the principal ornaments4 ,at the same time enormous sums are paid for bouquets from the hot-houses which abound in both the capitals4 ,doubtless the long winters have some share in the production of this passion for flowers and green plants1 just as love of country is increased by exile1 and love of liberty by imprisonment4 ,there are generally at least two heavy snow-storms by way of warning before winter fairly commences its reign4 ,the first fall of snow thaws perhaps a few days afterwards1 the second in about a week1 the third in five months4 ,if a lady drops her bracelet or brooch in the street during the period of this third fall1 she need not trouble herself to put out handbills offering a reward for its discovery1 at all events not before the spring2 for it will be preserved in its hiding-place1 as well as ice can preserve it1 until about the middle of ,april1 when1 if the amount of the reward be greater than the value of the article lost1 it will in all probability be restored to her4 ,the ,russians put on their furs at the first signs of winter1 and the sledges make their appearance in the streets as soon as the snow is an inch or two thick4 ,of course at such a time a sledge is far from possessing any advantage over a carriage on wheels2 but the ,russians welcome their appearance with so much enthusiasm1 that the first sledge-drivers are sure of excellent receipts for several days4 ,the droshkies disappear one by one with the black mud of autumn2 and by the time the gilt cupolas of the churches1 and the red and green roofs of the houses1 have been made whiter than their own walls1 the city swarms with sledges4 ,it is not1 however1 until near ,christmas1 when the frost of ,st4 ,nicholas sets in1 that they are seen in all their glory4 ,the earlier frosts of ,october and ,november mayor may not be attended to without any very dangerous results ensuing2 but when the frigid ,st4 ,nicholas makes his appearance1--staying the most rapid currents1 forming bridges over the broadest rivers1 and converting seas into deserts of ice1--then a blast from his breath1 if not properly guarded against1 may prove fatal4 ,it has been said that it is not until the ,nikolskoi ,maros1 or ,frost of ,st4 ,nicholas1 that the sledges fly through the streets in all their glory4 ,by that time the rich boyars#a 7as foreigners persist in styling the ,russian proprietors of the present day71 have arrived from their estates1 and the poor peasants1 who have long ceased to till the ground1 and have not thrashed all the corn1 begin to come in from theirs2 for1 humble and dependent as he may be1 each peasant has nevertheless his own patch of land4 ,for the former are the elegant sledges of polished nut-wood1 with rugs of soft1 thick fur to protect the legs of the occupants2 whose drivers1 in their green caftans fastened round the waist with red sashes1 and in their square thickly-wadded caps of crimson velvet1 like sofa-cushions1 urge on the prodigiously fast trotting horses1 at the same time throwing themselves back in their seats with outstretched arms and tightened reins1 as though the animals were madly endeavouring to escape from their control4 ,the latter bring with them certain strongly-made wooden boxes1 with a seat at the back for two passengers and a perch in front for a driver4 ,these boxes are put upon rails1 and called sledges4 ,the bottom of each box 7or sledge71 is plentifully strewn with hay1 which after a few days becomes converted1 by means of snow and dirty goloshes1 into something very like manure4 ,the driver is immediately in front of you1 with his brass badge hanging on his back like the label on a box of sardines4 ,he wears a sheepskin2 but it is notorious that after ten years' wear the sheepskin loses its odour1 besides which it is winter1 so that your sense of smell has really nothing to fear4 ,the one thing necessary is to keep your legs to yourself1 or at all events not to obtrude them beneath the perch of the driver1 or you will run the chance of having your foot crushed by that gentleman's heel4 ,sometimes the horse is fresh from the plough1 and requires a most vigorous application of the driver's thong to induce him to quit his accustomed pace2 but for the most part the animals are willing enough1 and as rapid as their masters are skilful4 ,the driver is generally much attached to his horse1 whom he affectionately styles his dove or his pigeon1 assuring him that although the ground is covered with snow1 there is still grass in the stable for his galoupchik--as the favourite bird is called1 etc41 etc4 ,footnote #a3 ,it would be equally correct to speak of the ,english nobility of the present day as the barons4 ,as for the real pigeons and doves1 they are to be found everywhere1--on the belfries of the churches1 in the courtyards of the houses1 in the streets blocking up the pavement1 and above all1 beneath the projecting edges of the roofs1 where you may see them clustering in long deep lines like black cornices4 ,at home we associate snow with darkness and gloom2 but1 when once the snow has fallen1 the sky of ,moscow is as bright and as blue as that of ,italy2 the atmosphere is clear and pure2 the sun shines for several hours in the day with a brightness from which the reflection of the snow becomes perfectly dazzling2 and if the frost be intense1 there is not a breath of wind4 ,the breath that really does attract your notice is that of the pedestrians1 who appear to be blowing forth columns of smoke or steam into the rarefied atmosphere1 and who look like so many walking chimneys or human locomotives4 ,and if breath looks like smoke1 smoke itself looks almost solid4 ,rise early1 when the fires are being lighted which are to heat the stoves through the entire day1 and if the thermometer outside your window marks more than #ae deg41 you will see the grey columns rising heavily into the air1 until at a certain height the smoke remains stationary1 and hangs in clouds above the houses4 ,looking from some great elevation1 such as the tower of ,ivan ,veliki in the ,kremlin1 you see these clouds beneath you1 agitated like waves1 and forming a kind of nebulous sea1 which is1 however1 soon taken up by the surrounding atmosphere4 ,it is astonishing how much cold one can support when the sky is bright and the sun shining2 certainly ten or fifteen degrees more by ,reaumur's thermometer1 than when the day is dark and gloomy4 ,and the effect is the same on all4 ,on one of these fine frosty days there is unwonted cheerfulness in the look1 unwonted energy in the movements of everyone you meet4 ,if there were the slightest wind with so keen a temperature1 you would feel1 every time it grazed your face1 as if you were being shaved with a blunt razor1--for to be cut with a sharp one is comparatively nothing4 ,but the air is calm2 and as the day exhilarates you generally1 it makes you walk more briskly than you are in the habit of doing in your shouba of cloth1 wadding1 and fur2 and the result is1 you are so warm and so surrounded by sunshine1 that1 but for seeing the cold1 you might fancy yourself on the shores of the ,mediterranean instead of on the banks of the ,moskva1 which is now a long1 shiny1 serpent-like path of ice4 ,in ,london1 on a damp1 foggy1 sunless winter's day1 when the thermometer is not quite down to freezing-point1 the system is so depressed by the atmosphere and the cheerless aspect of the streets1 that you feel the cold more acutely than you would do on a sunshiny morning in ,moscow with ten degrees of frost4 ,in ,st4 ,petersburg1 where the winter sun is1 as in northern climes1 but dimly bright1 and where the city is frequently enveloped in a mist 7which is1 however1 ethereal vapour compared to the opaque fogs of ,london71 the cold is1 on the same principle1 more severely felt than in ,moscow4 ,nevertheless1 in ,st4 ,petersburg people go about far more lightly clad than in the more southern towns of the empire1--for ,st4 ,petersburg is half a foreign city1 and the numerous pedestrians have found it necessary to reject the ponderous shouba for a long wadded paletot with a fur-collar4 ,the real ,russian shouba is undoubtedly very warm2 for it enables the ,moscow merchant to go upon ',change1 which in the old capital1 during the coldest weather1 is held in the open air4 ,in considering the advantages and disadvantages of a ,russian winter1 one should not forget the question of rain4 ,it is evident1 then1 that where there is frost there can be no rain2 and accordingly1 for nearly six months in the year1 you can dispense altogether with that most unpleasant encumbrance1 the umbrella4 ,for it must be remembered that in ,russia the snow does not fall in the soft feathery flakes to which we are accustomed in the more temperate latitudes4 ,it comes down in showers of microscopic darts1 which1 instead of intercepting the light of the sun1 like the arrows of ,xerxes' army1 glitter and sparkle in the rays as they reflect them in every direction4 ,the minute crystals1 or rather crystalline fragments1 can be at once shaken from the collars of fur1 on the points of which they hang like needles1 but above all like ,epsom salts2 and on the cloth of the men's shoubas and the satin of the women's cloaks they have scarcely any hold4 ,the most pleasant time of the whole winter is during the moonlight nights1 when the wind is still and the snow deep on the ground4 ,in the streets the sparkling trottoir1 which appears literally paved with diamonds1 is as hard as the agate floor of the ,cathedral of the ,annunciation in the ,kremlin4 ,in the country1 where alone you can enjoy the night in all its beauty1 the frozen surface crunches1 but scarcely sinks1 beneath the sledge1 as your troika tears along the road as fast as the centre horse can trot and the two outsiders gallop4 ,for it is a peculiarity of the troika that the three horses that constitute it are harnessed abreast2 and that while the one in the shafts1 whose head is upheld by a bow1 with a little bell suspended from the top1 is trained to trot1 and never to leave that pace1 however fast he may be driven1 the two who are harnessed outside must gallop1 even if they gallop but six miles an hour2 though it is far more likely that they will be called upon to do twelve4 ,lastly1 the troika must present a fan-like front2 to produce which the driver tightens the outside reins till the heads of the outriggers stand out at an angle of forty or fifty degrees from that of the horse in the shafts4 ,at the same time the centre horse trots with his head high in the air1 while the two who have their existences devoted to galloping have their noses depressed towards the ground1 like bulls running at a dog4 ,there may be enough moonlight to read by when the moon itself is obscured by clouds4 ,but if it shines directly on the white ermine-like snow1 which covers the vast plains like an interminable carpet1 the atmosphere becomes full of light1 and the night in its brightness1 its solitude1 and its silence1 broken only by the bells of some distant team1 reminds you of the calmness of an unusually quiet and beautiful day4 ,as you turn away from the main road towards the woods1 you pass groups of tall slender birch-trees1 with their white silvery bark1 and their delicate thread-like fibres hanging in frozen showers from the ends of the branches1 and clothing the birch with a kind of icy foliage1 while the other trees remain bare and ragged4 ,the birch is eminently a winter tree1 and its tresses of fibres1 whether petrified and covered with crystal by the frost1 or waving freely in the breeze which has stripped them of their snow1 are equally ornamental4 ,the ground is strewed with the shadows of the trees1 traced with exquisite fineness on the white snow1 from which these lunar photographs stand forth with wonderful distinctness4 ,to drive out with an indefinite number of troikas to some village in the environs1 or to the first station on one of the ,government roads1 is a common mode of spending a fine winter's night1 and one which is equally popular in ,moscow and ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,these excursions1 which always partake more or less of the nature of a picnic1 form one of the chief pleasures of the cold season4 ,of course such expeditions also take place during the day1 but1 whatever the hour of the departure1 if there happen to be a moon that night1 the return is sure not to take place before it has made its appearance4 ,a ,,journey ,,by ,,sleigh ,,fred ,,burnaby ,bring out another sleigh1 said my friend4 ,how the wind cuts6 does it not8 he continued1 as the breeze1 whistling against our bodies1 made itself felt in spite of all the precautions we had taken4 ,the vehicle now brought was broader and more commodious than the previous one1 which1 somewhat in the shape of a coffin1 seemed especially designed so as to torture the occupants1 particularly if1 like my companion and self1 they should happen to be endowed by nature with that curse during a sleigh journey--however desirable appendages they may be when in a crowd--long legs4 ,three horses abreast1 their coats white with pendent icicles and hoar-frost1 were harnessed to the sleigh2 the centre animal was in the shafts and had his head fastened to a huge wooden head-collar1 bright with various colors4 ,from the summit of the head-collar was suspended a bell1 while the two outside horses were harnessed by cord traces to splinter-bars attached to the sides of the sleigh4 ,the object of all this is to make the animal in the middle trot at a brisk pace1 while his two companions gallop1 their necks arched round in a direction opposite to the horse in the centre1 this poor beast's head being tightly reined up to the head-collar4 ,a well-turned-out troika with three really good horses1 which get over the ground at the rate of twelve miles an hour1 is a pretty sight to witness1 particularly if the team has been properly trained1 and the outside animals never attempt to break into a trot1 while the one in the shafts steps forward with high action2 but the constrained position in which the horses are kept must be highly uncomfortable to them1 and one not calculated to enable a driver to get as much pace out of his animals as they could give him if harnessed in another manner4 ,off we went at a brisk pace1 the bell dangling from our horse's head-collar1 and jingling merrily at every stride of the team4 ,the sun rose high in the heavens3 it was a bright and glorious morning in spite of the intense cold1 and the amount of oxygen we inhaled was enough to elevate the spirits of the most dyspeptic of mankind4 ,presently1 after descending a slight declivity1 our ,jehu turned sharply to the right2 then came a scramble and a succession of jolts and jerks as we slid down a steep bank1 and we found ourselves on what appeared to be a broad high-road4 ,here the sight of many masts and shipping which1 bound in by the fetters of a relentless winter1 would remain imbedded in the ice till the ensuing spring1 showed me that we were on the ,volga4 ,it was an animated spectacle1 this frozen highway1 thronged with peasants who strode beside their sledges1 which were bringing cotton and other goods from ,orenburg to the railway4 ,now a smart troika would dash by us1 its driver shouting as he passed1 when our ,jehu1 stimulating his steeds by loud cries and frequent applications of the whip1 would vainly strive to overtake his brother coachman4 ,old and young alike seemed like octogenarians1 their short thick beards and mustaches being white as hoar-frost from the congealed breath4 ,according to all accounts the river had not been long frozen1 and till very recently steamers laden with corn from ,southern ,russia had plied between ,sizeran and ,samara4 ,the price of corn is here forty copecks the pood of forty pounds1 while the same quantity at ,samara could be purchased for eighteen copecks4 ,an iron bridge was being constructed a little farther down the ,volga4 ,here the railroad was to pass1 and it was said that in two years' time there would be railway communication1 not only between ,samara and the capital1 but even as far as ,orenburg4 ,presently the scenery became very picturesque as we raced over the glistening surface1 which flashed like a burnished cuirass beneath the rays of the rising sun4 ,now we approach a spot where seemingly the waters from some violent blast or other had been in a state of foam and commotion1 when a stern frost transformed them into a solid mass4 ,pillars and blocks of the shining and hardened element were seen modelled into a thousand quaint and grotesque patterns4 ,here a fountain1 perfectly formed with ,ionic and ,doric columns1 was reflecting a thousand prismatic hues from the diamond-like stalactites which had attached themselves to its crest4 ,there a huge obelisk1 which1 if of stone1 might have come from ancient ,thebes1 lay half buried beneath a pile of fleecy snow4 ,farther on we came to what might have been a ,roman temple or vast hall in the palace of a ,caesar1 where many half-hidden pillars and monuments erected their tapering summits above the piles of the debris4 ,the wind had done in that northern latitude what has been performed by some violent pre-adamite agency in the ,berber desert4 ,take away the ebon blackness of the stony masses which have been there cast forth from the bowels of the earth1 and replace them on a smaller scale by the crystal forms ,i have faintly attempted to describe1 and the resemblance would be striking4 ,now we came to some fishing-huts1 which were constructed on the frozen river1 the traffic in the finny tribe which takes place in this part of ,russia being very great1 the ,volga producing the sterlet 7a fish unknown in other rivers of ,europe71 in large quantities4 ,i have often eaten them1 but must say ,i could never appreciate this so-called delicacy4 ,the bones are of a very glutinous nature1 and can be easily masticated1 while the taste of a sterlet is something between that of a barbel and a perch1 the muddy flavour of the former predominating4 ,however1 they are an expensive luxury1 as1 to be perfection for the table1 they should be taken out of the water alive and put at once into the cooking-pot4 ,the distance to ,st4 ,petersburg from the ,volga is considerable1 and a good-sized fish will often cost from thirty to forty roubles1 and sometimes even a great deal more4 ,we were now gradually nearing our first halting-place1 where it was arranged that we should change horses4 ,this was a farm-house known by the name of ,nijnege ,pegersky ,hootor1 twenty-five versts distant from ,sizeran4 ,some men were engaged in winnowing corn in a yard hard by the dwelling2 and the system they employed to separate the husks from the grain probably dates from before the flood1 for1 throwing the corn high up into the air with a shovel1 they let the wind blow away the husks1 and the grain descended on to a carpet set to catch it in the fall4 ,it was then considered to be sufficiently winnowed1 and fit to be sent to the mill4 ,the farm-house was fairly clean1 and1 for a wonder1 there were no live animals inside the dwelling4 ,it is no uncommon thing in farm-houses in ,russia to find a calf domesticated in the sitting-room of the family1 and this more particularly during the winter months4 ,but here the good housewife permitted no such intruders1 and the boards were clean and white1 thus showing that a certain amount of scrubbing was the custom4 ,the habitation1 which was of a square shape1 and entirely made of wood1 contained two good-sized but low rooms1 a large stove made of dried clay being so arranged as to warm both the apartments4 ,a heavy wooden door on the outside of the building gave access to a small portico1 at the other end of which there was the customary obraz1 or image1 which is to be found in almost every house in ,russia4 ,these obrazye are made of different patterns1 but generally take the form of a picture of saints or of the ,trinity4 ,they are executed in silver-gilt or brass relief1 and adorned with tawdry fringe or other gewgaws4 ,the repeated bows and crosses made by the peasantry before these idols is very surprising to an ,englishman1 who may have been told that there is little difference between the ,greek religion and his own2 but if this is the case1 the sooner the second commandment is omitted from our service1 the better4 ,it may be said that the ,russian peasantry only look upon these images as symbols1 and that in reality they are praying to the living ,god4 ,let any one who indulges in this delusion travel in ,russia and talk to the inhabitants with reference to the obrazye1 or go to ,kief at the time of a pilgrimage to the mummified saints in that sanctuary1 and ,i think he will then say that no country in the world is so imbued with superstitious credences as ,russia4 ,above the stove1 which was about five feet high1 a platform of boards had been erected at a distance of about three feet from the ceiling4 ,this was the sleeping resort of the family1 and occasionally used for drying clothes during the day4 ,the ,russian moujik likes this platform more than any other part of the habitation1 and his great delight is to lie there and perspire profusely1 after which he finds himself the better able to resist the cold of the elements outside4 ,the farm-house in which ,i now found myself had cost in building two hundred roubles1 about twenty-six pounds of our money1 and her home was a source of pride to the good housewife1 who could read and write1 an accomplishment not often possessed by the women of this class in the province of ,russia4 ,by this time our former team had been replaced by three fresh horses1 and the driver who was to accompany us had nearly finished making his own preparations for the sleigh journey4 ,several long bands of cloth1 first carefully warmed at the stove1 were successively wound round his feet1 and then1 having put on a pair of thick boots and stuffed some hay into a pair of much larger dimensions1 he drew the latter on as well1 when1 with a thick sheep-skin coat1 cap1 and vashlik1 he declared that he was ready to start4 ,the cold was very intense when we quitted the threshold1 and the thermometer had fallen several degrees during the last half-hour2 the wind had also increased1 and it howled and whistled against the eaves of the farm-house1 bearing millions of minute snowy flakes before it in its course4 ,presently the sound of a little stamping on the bottom of the sleigh announced to me that the cold had penetrated to my companion's feet1 and that he was endeavouring to keep up the circulation4 ,very soon that so-called pins-and-needles sensation1 recalling some snow-balling episodes of my boyish days1 began once more to make itself felt1 and ,i found myself commencing a sort of double-shuffle against the boards of the vehicle4 ,the snow was falling in thick flakes1 and with great difficulty our driver could keep the track1 his jaded horses sinking sometimes up to the traces in the rapidly forming drifts1 and floundering heavily along the now thoroughly hidden road4 ,the cracks of his whip sounded like pistol-shots against their jaded flanks1 and volumes of invectives issued from his lips4 ,oh1 sons of animals6--whack4 ,oh1 spoiled one6--whack4 ,this to a brute which looked as if he never had eaten a good feed of corn in his life4 ,oh1 woolly ones6 whack6 whack6 whack64 ,o ,lord ,god6 ,this as we were all upset into a snowdrift1 the sleigh being three parts overturned1 and our ,jehu precipitated in the opposite direction4 ,how far are we from the next halting-place8 suddenly inquired my companion1 with an ejaculation which showed that even his good temper had given way under the cold and our situation4 ,only four versts1 one of noble birth1 replied the struggling ,jehu1 who was busily engaged endeavouring to right the half-overturned sleigh4 ,a ,russian verst about night-fall1 and under such conditions as ,i have endeavoured to point out to the reader1 is an unknown quantity4 ,a ,scotch mile and a bit1 an ,irish league1 a ,spanish legua1 or the ,german stunde1 are at all times calculated to call forth the wrath of the traveller1 but in no way equal to the first-named division of distance4 ,for the verst is barely two-thirds of an ,english mile1 and when1 after driving yet for an hour1 we were told that there were still two versts more before we could arrive at our halting-place1 it began fully to dawn upon my friend that either our driver's knowledge of distance1 or otherwise his veracity1 was at fault4 ,at last we reached a long1 struggling village1 formed of houses constructed much in the same way as that previously described1 when our horses stopped before a detached cottage4 ,the proprietor came out to meet us at the threshold4 ,samovar1 samovar6 7urn71 said my companion4 ,quick1 quick6 samovar6 and hurrying by him1 and hastily throwing off our furs1 we endeavoured to regain our lost circulation beside the walls of a well-heated stove4 ,the ,russian peasants are not ignorant of the good old maxim that the early bird gets the worm1 and the few hours' daylight they enjoy during the winter months makes it doubly necessary for them to observe this precept4 ,we were all up a good hour before sunrise1 my companion making the tea1 while our driver was harnessing the horses1 but this time not three abreast1 for the road was bad and narrow2 so we determined to have two small sleighs with a pair of horses to each1 and put our luggage in one vehicle while we travelled in the other4 ,off we went1 a motley crew4 ,first1 the unwashed peddler who had wished to be my companion's bedfellow the night before2 then our luggage sleigh2 and1 finally1 my friend and self1 who brought up the rear1 with a careful eye upon our effects1 as the people in that part of the country were said to have some difficulty in distinguishing between meum and tuum4 ,the sun was bright and glorious1 and in no part of the world hitherto visited have ,i ever seen aurora in such magnificence4 ,first1 a pale blue streak1 gradually extending over the whole of the eastern horizon1 arose like a wall barring the unknown beyond2 then1 suddenly changing colour until the summit was like lapis-lazuli1 and its base a sheet of purple waves of grey and crystal1 radiating from the darker hues1 relieved the eye1 appalled by the vastness of the barrier2 the purple foundations were in turn upheaved by a sea of fire1 which dazzled the eye with its glowing brilliancy1 and the wall of colours floating in space broke up into castles1 battlements1 and towers1 which were wafted by the breeze far away from our view4 ,the sea of flame meanwhile had lighted up the whole horizon2 the eye quailed beneath the glare4 ,the snowy carpet at our feet reflected like a camera the wonderful panorama overhead4 ,flakes of light in rapid succession bound earth to sky1 until the globe of sparkling light arising from the depths of this ocean of flame dimmed into insignificance the surroundings of the picture4 ,presently a sudden check and exclamation of our ,jehu told us that the harness had given way1 and a conversation1 freely interlarded with epithets exchanged between the driver and the peddler1 showed that there was decidedly a difference of opinion between them4 ,it appeared that the man of commerce was the only one of the party who knew the road1 and having discovered this fact1 he determined to make use of his knowledge by refusing to show the way unless the proprietor of the horses who drove the vehicle containing our luggage would abate a little from the price he had demanded for the hire of the horse in the peddler's sleigh4 ,a bargain is a bargain6 cried our driver1 wishing to curry favour with his master1 now a few yards behind him4 ,a bargain is a bargain4 ,oh1 thou son of an animal1 drive on6 ,it is very cold1 muttered my companion4 ,for the sake of ,god1 he shouted1 go on6 ,but neither the allusion to the peddler's parentage nor the invocation of the ,deity had the slightest effect upon the fellow's mercenary soul4 ,i am warm1 and well wrapped up1 he said2 it is all the same to me if we wait here one hour or ten2 and with the most provoking indifference he commenced to smoke1 not even the manner in which the other drivers aspersed the reputation of his mother appearing to have the smallest effect4 ,at last the proprietor1 seeing it was useless holding out any longer1 agreed to abate somewhat from the hire of the horse1 and once more the journey continued over a break-neck country1 though at anything but a break-neck pace1 until we reached the station--a farm-hause--eighteen versts from our sleeping quarters1 and1 as we were informed1 forty-five from ,samara4 ,,russian ,,architecture ,,eugene ,,emmanuel ,,viollet-,,le-,,duc ,the ,russian people1 composed of diverse elements in which the ,sclav predominated at the moment when that vast empire began to be established under great princes and amid incessant struggle1 was in too close communication with ,byzantium not to have been to a certain extent in submission to ,byzantine art2 but nevertheless each of these elements was in possession of certain notions of art which we must not neglect4 ,the ,sclavs1 like the ,varangians1 knew scarcely anything but construction by wood1 but at a comparatively early period they had already carried the art of carpentry very far1 and in many different channels4 ,the ,sclavs 7as extant traditions show71 proceeded by piles in their wooden buildings3 and the ,scandinavians resorted to joining and dove-tailing4 ,thus1 the latter early attained great skill in naval construction4 ,these two methods of construction in wood have persisted till the present day1 which fact is easily established on examining the rural dwellings of ,russia4 ,the ,sclavs1 moreover1 as well as the ,varangians1 possessed certain art expressions which denote an ,asiatic origin4 ,even in ,byzantine art1 so far as ornamentation is concerned1 there were origins that were evidently common to those that are felt in the ,sclav arts2 and these original elements are again found in ,central ,asia4 ,that ornamentation1 composed of interlacings and conventional floral motives1 dry and metallic1 which was adopted at ,byzantium1 where it very soon destroyed the last vestiges of ,roman art1 also appears on the most ancient monuments of the ,sclavs1 and even on objects that in ,france are attributed to the ,merovingians1 that is to say1 the ,franks who came from the shores of the ,baltic4 ,thus1 ,russia was to take her arts1 as regards ornamentation1 from branches that are far apart from one another in time and distance1 but which sprang from a common trunk4 ,about the ,tenth ,century1 the ,russian buildings were of wood2 all texts agree on this point1 and consequently these constructions could have no part in ,byzantine architecture1 which does not recall even the traditions of carpentry work4 ,towards the ,eleventh ,century1 when the ,russians began to build religious edifices of masonry1 the structure of which1 particularly in the vaulting1 is inspired by ,byzantine art1 they adapted to this structure1 together with a sensibly modified ,byzantine garb1 an ornamentation1 derived from ,asiatic1 ,sclavic and ,turanian elements in variable1 that is to say local1 proportions4 ,illustration3 ,,church ,,of ,,the ,,redemer1 ,,moscow4 ,for at least three centuries1 ,byzantium was the great school sought by the ,latin1 ,visigothic and ,germanic nations of ,europe for art teaching1 and it was not till the end of the ,twelfth ,century that the ,french broke away from these traditions4 ,their example was followed in ,italy1 ,england and ,germany more or less successfully4 ,russia held aloof from these attempts3 she was too closely identified with ,byzantine art to try any other course2 it may be said that she was the guardian of that art1 and was to carry on its traditions by mingling with it elements due to the ,asiatic ,sclavic genius4 ,all the dominant elements in ,russian art1 whether they come from the north or south1 belong to ,asia4 ,iranians or ,persians1 ,indians1 ,turanians1 or ,mongols have furnished tribute1 though in unequal quantities1 to this art4 ,it may also be said that if ,russia has borrowed much from ,byzantium1 the art elements among her population have not been without influence upon the formation of ,byzantine art4 ,we think even that the influence of ,byzantine upon ,russian art has been greatly exaggerated1 and that ,persia may have had at least as much effect upon the course of art in ,russia4 ,however1 we must except everything pertaining to images4 ,but even here ,asiatic influence makes itself felt1 not in the form1 but in the preservation of the types4 ,the imagery of the ,greek school has never gone out of favour in ,russia1 and it still holds its place there in the representation of holy personages4 ,in this1 ,russia shows her attachment to tradition1 as all the ,asiatic races do1 and shows how little her intimate sentiments have suffered modification4 ,the ,russians avoided the influence of the ,iconoclasts which was felt so violently in the ,western ,empire in the ,eighth ,century1 and later still in various parts of ,western ,europe2 among the ,vaudois and ,albigenses in the ,twelfth and ,thirteenth ,century1 the ,hussites in the ,fifteenth1 and the ,reformers in the ,sixteenth4 ,but if ,russian architecture and ornamentation show marked originality1 this does not seem to be the case with the representation of holy personages4 ,these remain ,byzantine4 ,it was the school of ,mount ,athos that supplied ,russia with the types1 as it did to almost all the ,greek ,christians of the ,orient4 ,in these representations1 we have difficulty in finding a tendency towards realism1 which1 morever1 does not appear till quite late1 and does not come to full bloom4 ,in ,russian art1 it is possible to find a few ,scandinavian traces1 or1 to be more exact1 in the arts of ,scandinavia we find some elements borrowed from the same sources whence the ,russians took theirs4 ,russia has been one of the laboratories in which the arts1 brought from all parts of ,asia1 have been united to adopt an intermediate form between the ,eastern and the ,western world4 ,geographically1 she was favourably placed to gather together these influences2 and1 ethnologically1 she was entirely prepared to assimilate these arts and develop them4 ,if she has stopped short in this work1 it was only at a very recent period1 and when repudiating her origin and traditions1 she tried to become ,western1 in spite of her own genius4 ,in the first place1 the oldest religious edifices of ,russia affect slender forms1 in elevation1 which distinguishes them from the purely ,byzantine buildings4 ,evidently1 the ,russians1 from the ,twelfth ,century on1 employed in their religious edifices a geometrical plan that was different from that employed by the ,byzantine architects1 but one very close to that admitted by the architects of ,greece during the early years of the ,middle ,ages4 ,in ,georgia and ,armenia1 a number of ancient churches1 the majority of which are very small1 are also of this character4 ,but1 while submitting to these dispositions1 as soon as they adopted masonry instead of wood for building1 the ,russians gave quite individual proportions to their religious edifices4 ,by the ,fifteenth ,century1 ,russia had combined all the various elements by the aid of which a national art should be constituted4 ,to recapitulate these origins3 ,we find already among the ,scythians some elements of art fairly well developed1 foreign to ,greek art and derived from ,oriental tradition4 ,byzantium1 in constant contact with the people of ,southern ,russia1 made its arts felt there2 but in the ,north1 some slight ,finnish influences and then some ,scandinavian ones1 make themselves felt4 ,from ,persia likewise1 ,russia received impulses in art1 on account of her commercial relations with that country through ,georgia and ,armenia4 ,in the ,thirteenth ,century1 the ,tartar-,mongol domination was imposed upon ,russia1 employed her artists and craftsmen1 and thus placed her in direct contact with that ,mediaeval ,orient that was so mighty and so brilliant in all its art productions4 ,at length left to herself1 in the ,fifteenth ,century1 ,russia constituted her own art from these various sources4 ,but this variety of sources is more apparent than real4 ,it is enough to examine ,scythian ornamentation to recognize that it is of a pronounced ,indo-,oriental character4 ,byzantine taste has exerted a preponderating influence upon ,russia4 ,but it has been recognized that this ,byzantine style is itself composed of very varied elements among which figure most largely the art of ,eastern ,asia1 and that from this ,byzantine art ,russia likes to appropriate the ,asiatic side in particular4 ,so that we may regard ,russian art as composed of elements borrowed from the ,orient to the almost complete exclusion of all others4 ,moreover1 if we follow the streams of art to their sources1 we soon come to recognize that the tributaries are not at all numerous4 ,in the matter of architecture1 there are only two principles3 structure by wood and concrete structure3 grottoes1 and construction with clay1 and with masonry1 which is derived from it4 ,as to construction with cut stones1 there results1 either from a tradition of building with wood or from concrete construction1 grottoes or conglomerate masses1 sometimes both1 as in ,egyptian art1 for example4 ,the innumerable races who issued from the ,east and finally overwhelmed the ,roman ,empire had preserved from their cradle their own traditions1 and continued to keep up communication with their old homes4 ,better than any other nation1 the ,russians preserved these traditions1 and they were1 so to speak1 rejuvenated every time a new wave passed across their territories2 for it was always from the northern or southern ,orient1 from the ,ural or the ,taurus1 that the invaders came4 ,whether they presented themselves as enemies or colonists they brought with them something of ,asia1 the great mother of civilizations4 ,this ,russian art1 therefore1 was never struck with decadence as was the ,byzantine art4 ,it did not live solely upon itself1 but profited by all that was brought from the ,orient4 ,so1 when the ,eastern ,empire fell during the ,fifteenth ,century1 leaving only a pale trace of the last expressions of its arts1 ,russia1 on the contrary1 was raising edifices and fabricating objects of great value from an artistic point of view4 ,the ,west had only a small share in these productions1 but even this was enough to enable ,russian art to be distinguished from the arts of the ,east by a certain freedom of conception and variety in the execution that rendered it an original product full of promise1 the developments of which might have been marvellous if the natural course of events had not been hindered by the passion with which high ,russian society threw itself on the works of art of ,italy1 ,germany and ,france4 ,,sculpture ,,and ,,painting ,,philippe ,,berthelot ,western influence was very strongly felt in sculpture and painting in ,russia during the ,eighteenth and ,nineteenth ,centuries4 ,narrowly confined to the representation of conventional types of saints1 these arts did not acquire either personality or expression for two centuries4 ,it was not until the ,eighteenth ,century that they began to raise statues to the memory of ,russia's great men3 one of the first monuments was consecrated1 as was indeed just1 to ,peter the ,great1 ,russia's great reformer2 in his lifetime1 ,count ,bartolomeo ,rastrelli the sculptor1 father of the architect1 executed a ,peter the ,great on ,horseback1 which was cast in bronze in #ahdg2 but the successors of ,peter the ,great did not like this group which they did not consider sufficiently animated and would not allow it to be erected on a public square4 ,catherine ,,ii4 had ,falconet model a ,peter the ,great mounted on a fiery horse climbing up a rock2 this bronze group is placed in the centre of the ,square of ,peter the ,great on the ,neva1 at ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,among the most celebrated works of ,russian sculpture1 we may cite the bronze monument erected to the memory of ,prince ,poyarski and the butcher ,minine on the ,red ,square1 ,moscow 7by ,martoss1 rector of the ,academy of ,fine ,arts1 ,st4 ,petersburg1 in #ahhh72 ,lomonossov's monument 7by ,martoss72 those of ,generals ,barclay de ,tolly and ,koutousov 7#ahah-ahcf after the model by ,b4 ,orlovski1 placed in front of the ,cathedral of ,kazan1 ,st4 ,petersburg72 the colossal bust of ,alexander ,i4 7by ,orlovski72 the commemorative monument of ,alexander ,i4 7#ahcb1 by ,montferrand71 with a statue of the ,angel of ,peace1 by ,orlovski2 the statue of ,krilov1 the fabulist1 #ahee1 by ,baron ,clodt in the ,summer ,garden1 ,st4 ,petersburg2 an equestrian statue of the emperor ,nicholas ,i4 7by ,clodt1 #ahei1 on the ,st4 ,mary square72 the monument of ,novgorod1 elevated in memory of the millenary of the ,russian occupation 7#ahfb71 in the form of a gigantic bell containing scenes from ,russian history1 by ,mikiechin2 the monument to ,catherine ,,ii4 by ,mikiechin1 she being represented as surrounded by her generals and statesmen 7#ahgd1 before the ,alexander ,theatre72 the monument to ,pushkin in ,moscow 7#ahcj1 by ,objekuchin and ,bogomolov72 the monument to ,bohdan-,chmelnizki1 at ,kiev 7#ahgc1 by ,mikiechin and other sculptors74 ,the principal ,russian sculptors are ,popov1 ,antokolski 7statue of ,ivan the ,terrible1 #ahga1 in ,st4 ,petersburg71 ,tchichov and ,e4 ,lanceray4 ,they are characterized by a very pronounced realism that is common to all4 ,russian painting has developed in various directions during the last two centuries under the influence of ,western ,europe2 until the first half of the ,nineteenth ,century the imitation of ,italian painting1 the classical ,french school and the execution of strictly academic painting were the three principal paths attempted by the ,russian artists4 ,but for half a century1 art has found a national expression for itself4 ,at the end of the ,eighteenth and beginning of the ,nineteenth ,century1 the principal representatives of religious and historical painting were ,losenko 7died in #aggc71 ,antropov 7died in #agib71 ,akimov 7died in #ahad71 ,ugriumov 7died in #ahbc71 ,levizki 7died in #ahbb71 ,ivanov 7died in #ahbc71 and ,moschov 7died in #ahci74 ,the landscape and marine painters of greatest repute are ,sim4 and ,sil4 ,schtchedrin 7the first died in #ahjd1 and the second in #ahcj71 ,pritchetnikov 7died in #ahji71 ,f4 ,alekseiev 7died in #ahbd74 ,academic painting was cultivated principally by ,tropinin 7died in #ahbg71 ,warnek 7died in #ahdc71 ,lebediev 7died in #ahcg71 ,worobiev 7died in #ahee71 ,k4 ,rabus 7died in #aheg71 ,bruni 7died in #ahge71 ,markov 7died in #ahgh71 ,a4 ,beidemann 7died in #ahfi7 and ,willewalde4 ,the chief painter of the romantic school is ,k4 ,brullov1 who formed a school and had numerous scholars4 ,other romantic painters of repute are ,bronnikov and various landscape and marine painters such as ,aivasovski1 ,bogolnibov1 ,l4 ,lagorio and ,a4 ,mechtcherski4 ,religious and popular painting has ,a4 ,ivanov for its representative4 ,the principal realistic painters in genre and historical painting are ,fedotov1 ,makovski1 ,perov1 ,polenor1 ,vereschagin1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,statue ,,of ,,peter ,,the ,,great ,,and ,,the ,,admiralty ,,palace1 ,,st4 ,,petersburg4 ,ornamental sculpture seems to be superior to statuary in ,russia3 it is abundantly practised in the decoration of churches2 the innumerable chapels standing at the street corners in honour of some saint possess icons and lamps of bronze and silver2 the iconostases of the cathedrals are extremely rich1--gold1 silver-gilt1 silver1 lapis-lazuli1 malachite and enamel-work are lavishly employed there4 ,in the churches of ,saint ,isaac and the ,saviour there are many admirable and veritable chefs d'oeuvre of originality and brilliancy to be found4 ,the industry of bronze and goldsmith's work in religious objects is very flourishing and gives occupation to numerous workmen and artists in ,moscow and ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,an imperial manufactory produces the mosaics which occupy such a great place in the decoration of the churches4 ,industrial arts are very prosperous in ,russia and have made great progress during the last century3 silken goods are no longer imported from ,lyons2 and the ,russian cabinet-makers produce beautiful furniture1 not only in their national style1 but in the purest forms of ,french art of the ,louis ,,xv4 and ,louis ,,xvi4 styles4 ,civil goldsmith's work and jewellery have also been benefited by the national ,renaissance3 the ,emperor ,alexander ,,iii4 restored to honour the national feminine costume for official balls1 and ordered works of art to be made after the models of the ,muscovite style1 and indeed even after the marvels found in the excavations of the ,cimmerian ,bosphorus4 ,the religious images1 particularly those made in ,moscow and ,kazan1 come very near being works of art4 ,numerous manufactories produce icons painted on wood or copper1 ornamented with reliefs of copper1 crysocale1 silver1 silver-gilt and gold4 ,the workmen are monks and peasants3 each part of the icon--eyes1 nose1 mouth1 hands and feet--is executed by a specialist who always makes the same thing1 after the immutable types that the ,muscovite convents received from ,mount ,athos4 ,,russian ,,music ,a4 ,e4 ,,keeton ,russian music is the strangest paradox--it owes more to the music of other countries than any other school1 yet no music is more thoroughly individual and unmistakable4 ,it clothes itself after the form and fashion of its neighbours1 but beneath its garb peeps out a physiognomy indubitably ,sclavonic4 ,its utterances impress us as the most modern--yet the student who would correctly analyze many of its unique characteristics of harmony and modulation is often obliged to take a flying leap backwards over a space of centuries in order to investigate old ,church modes1 or ,persian and ,arabian scale systems1 both so ancient as to be well-nigh forgotten in ,western ,europe4 ,sixty years ago1 there was no ,russian school of music1 properly speaking2 then suddenly it sprang into being4 ,the wonderful rapidity of its growth almost confuses one4 ,its exponents at once displayed the astonishing receptiveness common to their race4 ,d'un trait1 as the ,french would say1 they appropriated the knowledge and experience which the ,italian and ,german schools had been slowly amassing for centuries4 ,technique1 form1 counterpoint--all these they found ready made to their hand1 and borrowed them unstintingly4 ,had they done this and no more1 the onlooker might have dismissed them as clever plagairists1 and probably no one would have paid them any further attention4 ,but they had other means at their disposal4 ,their country contained a treasure-house of native melody and rhythm2 a region albeit which few ,russians had hitherto thought it worth their while to explore4 ,it is true that1 since the middle of the ,seventeenth ,century1 tentative excursions had been made in this direction from time to time1 chiefly1 though1 by outsiders settled in ,russia1 nor had any of their efforts led to very appreciable results4 ,the man who first turned with serious intent to the pent-up musical resources of his own country was ,michael ,ivanovitch ,glinka4 ,he had sufficient strength of purpose to carry out his designs--he became the founder of the modern ,russian school of music and the father of ,russian opera4 ,glinka belonged to a good if not very wealthy family1 who lived upon their estate in the government of ,smolensk1 where he was born in #ahjd4 ,from babyhood upwards he delighted his friends and relations by his aptitude not for music alone1 but also for languages1 literature1 zoology1 botany--in fact1 for each and every intellectual pursuit which came in his way4 ,the brilliance of his college course in ,st4 ,petersburg was noteworthy4 ,he quitted it to occupy a civil post under ,government1 a position1 however1 which he soon abandoned1 in order to devote himself solely to music4 ,like so many other men of genius1 he married a woman quite incapable of comprehending his artistic aims and ambitions2 to quote the words of a ,russian writer1 ,madame ,glinka1 nee ,maria ,petrovna1 was only a pretty doll1 who loved society and fine clothes1 and had no sympathy whatever with her husband's romantic1 poetic side4 ,one is glad to state that ,glinka never had to struggle with poverty4 ,he died at ,berlin in #aheg4 ,he did for ,russian music what his contemporary1 ,pushkin1 did for ,russian literature1 each in his own department representing a national movement4 ,perhaps it is not too far-fetched a theory to trace this movement to the momentous date of #ahab1 when it fell to the lot of ,russia to administer the first check in ,napoleon's triumphant career4 ,ever since the reign of ,peter the ,great it had been the fashion to ape foreign habits1 to speak foreign tongues1 to import foreign music1 to mimic foreign literature4 ,but when a foreign invader1 who had marched all-conquering through the rest of ,europe1 appeared in serious earnest at the very gates of ,moscow1 there was a rebound3 slumbering patriotism awoke with a great shout1 and1 united by a common danger1 all classes gathered together for the protection of their ,tsar and their ,kremlin4 ,to have repulsed a ,napoleon was a mighty deed1 which could reveal to the ,russians of what stuff they were made4 ,it taught them to rely upon each other and be strong in themselves2 and as the art of a nation is invariably the outcome of its history1 so the rising generation of ,russian thinkers looked inwards rather than abroad4 ,glinka1 ,pushkin1 and their followers sought no foreign aid2 they represent a ,russian ,renaissance4 ,they were content1 indeed1 to abide by the forms universally adopted elsewhere1 but the spirit of their art manifestation was ,russian to its core4 ,in literature1 ,pushkin and ,gogol were never weary of delineating their compatriots in every grade of ,sclavonic society1 whilst ,glinka took his musical inspirations from his native folk-songs and dance-rhythms--from the historic chronicles of his country or its legendary lore4 ,in reality1 the foreign influences and environment with which he came so continuously into contact served more and more to convince him that ,russia in her turn had as great a mission in music as any other nation4 ,for thirty years the idea was gradually gaining strength in his mind4 ,i want1 he said to a friend1 to write an essentially national opera both as regards subject and music2 something which no foreigner can possibly accuse of being borrowed1 and which shall come home to my compatriots as a part of themselves4 ,his fame depends solely upon the two operas1 ,la ,vie pour le ,tsar and ,russlan et ,ludmille4 ,that he should have chosen to express himself especially in opera is a significant fact4 ,the unerring instinct of his genius evidently told him that in this form1 rather than in purely instrumental music1 he would most truly represent that people whose musical aspirations he wished above all else to portray faithfully1 and certainly in opera lay his surest way towards enlisting the sympathies of his compatriots4 ,as before remarked1 one might have imagined that opera would scarcely ally itself to his personal individuality2 it seems probable1 therefore1 that various salient traits inherent in the ,russians as a nation must have led him to the choice4 ,first and foremost1 any music which claims to proceed from the very heart of the ,russian people must contain a vocal element4 ,so universal a love of singing as exists throughout ,russia is to be met with in no other country4 ,by this one does not mean to infer that ,russian cultivated singing1 either solo or choral1 is in any way superior to what is heard elsewhere4 ,the ,russian peasant knows absolutely nothing about voice production1 nor1 maybe1 is he gifted with any unusual vocal material1 nevertheless1 singing is closely bound up with every rural event of his cheerless existence4 ,during the last half-century many hundreds of the native melodies sung by the ,russian country people for generations past have been collected and written down by different musicians--,balakireff1 ,rimsky-,korsakoff1 ,prokoudin1 and ,lisenko amongst others4 ,the variety of these folk-songs is astonishing4 ,they never become monotonous1 each song having its distinctive climax1 and the air always suits the words4 ,often the untutored singer has one melody in his repertoire1 but intuitively he modifies its strains according to the sentiment of his subject4 ,this general love of music applies as much to the noble as to the peasant4 ,where there is a ,sclav there is a ,song1 says a ,sclavonic proverb1 and no public ceremony or ,court function is ever deemed complete in ,russia without an outburst of singing to heighten its impressiveness4 ,there is besides a marked dramatic ingredient in the ,sclavonic character4 ,the typical ,russian loves acting4 ,to discover this1 it is only necessary to visit a ,russian village and witness the unconscious presentments of lyric drama or of desolate tragedy set forth by the quaint rites of a country wedding or a rustic funeral4 ,or study a ,russian legend4 ,it at once impresses you with its wealth of dramatic situations most concisely defined4 ,in this1 the ,sclavonic folktale differs radically from its ,celtic neighbour4 ,a comparison of the two types suggests that the ,russian principally desires a clear statement of facts2 a poetic idea which must be extracted from clouds of metaphor conveys but little significance to his mind4 ,an innate love of song1 an innate love of acting1 a keen perception of dramatic unity1 combined with a passionate love of colour and a strong sense of movement--here surely1 without any manner of doubt1 one has the basis of a well-nigh perfect school of opera4 ,glinka1 the cultivated musician1 himself a ,russian1 thoroughly appreciated these national qualities2 indeed they were part and parcel of his birthright4 ,he could assimilate the characteristics of his race and merge them into his own very remarkable originality4 ,the first product of the combined motors was ,la ,vie pour le ,tsar1 given at ,st4 ,petersburg in #ahcf4 ,fifty years later it had reached its #eggth performance1 and from all accounts it still retains an undiminished popularity4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,theater1 ,,odessa4 ,if we dissect this opera and examine its wonderful mastery of technique and its depth of musical inspiration1 it displays beauties which cannot fail to appeal to connoisseurs of every race and school4 ,but regarded as a whole1 one is inclined to doubt its ever becoming a standard work outside its native home4 ,its true scope and meaning can only be justly estimated by a public acquainted with ,russia herself1 with her people1 her history and her innermost modes of thought4 ,glinka attached the highest value to the folk-song1 of which1 as already stated1 he found a treasure trove ready to his hand4 ,nothing1 though1 was further from his thoughts than to employ this material in pot-pourri style4 ,russians themselves are all agreed that it would be difficult to select one whole folk-song from any single work of ,glinka's4 ,it would naturally require a native of ,russia with an accurate knowledge of these native tunes to tell us exactly when and where he used them4 ,he seized their mood4 ,in this way he developed every species of ,sclavonic folk-song--,great ,russian1 ,little ,russian1 ,circassian1 ,polish1 ,finnish--with a passing flavour contributed by ,persia1 for undoubtedly ,oriental music had1 at some remote period1 influenced its ,sclavonic neighbour very strongly4 ,glinka may be said to have attained his end almost unconscious of his mode of procedure4 ,determined to compose ,russian music1 he pursued his idea unremittingly1 but it was only towards the close of his life that he began to seriously analyze his effects1 asking himself whence he had obtained them and in what essential points they exhibited their nationality4 ,this inquiry involved him in a field of research bewildering in its magnitude1 and one which his early death unfortunately prevented him from thoroughly investigating4 ,nor is the task by any means completed now1 some forty years later1 although many ,russian musicians have thrown considerable light upon its varied aspects4 ,the first step towards a folk-song analysis was the collecting of the melodies in sufficient numbers for comparison4 ,so much being done1 it flashed upon ,glinka that there was an intimate connection between the ,russian folk-song and the most ancient ,russian ,church music4 ,that is to say1 the melody and the freedom of rhythm typical of the folk-song had been evolved by the people1 whilst its harmonization1 in which lay one of its most striking essentialities1 had been bequeathed it by the ,church4 ,from all that can be gathered concerning music in ,muscovy prior to the introduction of ,christianity1 it seems justifiable to admit that harmony1 or part singing1 was already practised amongst the inhabitants1 in what manner it is impossible to conjecture4 ,at any rate1 when the ,church of ,byzantium took root there1 the ,sclav was sufficiently advanced musically to imbibe a new idea4 ,we know that the ,byzantine ,church modes were purely diatonic1 so is the harmonization of the ,russian folk-song in its most elementary and uncorrupted form4 ,that the one produced the other is a most natural conclusion4 ,in the oldest of the ,russian national melodies ,glinka discovered the most clearly defined type of the earliest ,christian songs on record4 ,a wonderful testimony this to the indwelling religious spirit of the ,russian people1 who change but little and who are singularly tenacious of their customs in spite of all their ready receptiveness4 ,in one sense the folk-song is as rude and hardy as its singer2 from another point of view it is a shy1 delicate emanation shrinking from all human intercourse outside its own small coterie of familiar voices4 ,in ,russia1 as in every other country1 it has had to be sought in the remote ,steppes and far-off districts where foreign influences had never penetrated1 and by a curious inverse process its harmonies1 of course1 transmitted orally1 were the means of preserving the ,byzantine ,church tonality long after this first cause had accepted chromatic and enharmonic modulations4 ,in the chief ,russian cities and more opened-up parts of the country1 the ,italian1 ,french1 and later on ,german elements gradually formed themselves into ,church as well as secular music1 and only within the last sixty years have attempts been made to restore this to its pristine and1 perhaps it may be added1 somewhat monotonous purity4 ,the minor key in which the ,sclavonic folksong was usually couched1 together with its extraordinary variety of rhythm and phrase1 protected it from this monotony1 the minor keys having infinitely richer resources of colour1 even when strictly diatonically treated1 than the major4 ,sclavonic music figures so constantly upon every concert programme in these days that we are probably most of us accustomed to its vagaries of rhythm1 or what may be styled irregularity of metre4 ,this is a direct heritage from the folk-song1 which ,glinka and his successors have borrowed largely4 ,the leading musical spirits of his day were quick to accredit him a kindred genius4 ,berlioz welcomed him gladly1 and furthered his cause by eloquent writing as well as by obtaining him a hearing in ,paris4 ,liszt was another enthusiastic ,glinkite1 and ,schumann1 unfailingly keen to notice new talent pursuing a new path1 speedily drew attention to a ,russian who was doing for the music of his country what ,chopin and ,moniusco had done for ,poland4 ,rubinstein1 who was still a boy when ,glinka's sun was near setting1 grew up with a warm admiration for the founder of his native school1 and in #ahee he spent some of his ardour upon a highly laudatory article in the ,wiener ,zeitschrift fir ,musik1 placing ,glinka on a par with ,beethoven4 ,glinka thoroughly detesting anything that savoured of flattery1 took the young musician soundly to task for his pains2 but ,rubinstein remained true to his tenets1 and later on1 when years had matured his judgment1 we find him including the name of ,glinka with that of ,bach1 ,beethoven1 ,schubert and ,chopin1 as the chief germinators of modern music2 whilst one of the last acts of his generous public career was a concert given in aid of a national monument to the composer of ,la ,vie pour le ,tsar4 ,with one or two minor exceptions1 successive ,russian masters have followed faithfully in ,glinka's footsteps4 ,to ,borodine1 ,dargomijsky1 ,seroff1 ,balakireff1 and ,rimsky-,korsakoff a full meed of nationality has been granted4 ,to ,rubinstein and ,tschaikowski criticism is at present disposed to deny the quality in its most salient features4 ,but their prolific mass of compositions has so far scarcely been sufficiently explored outside their own ,russian domain for a final judgment to be hazarded4 ,a nearer inspection of their work1 indeed1 together with a more accurate study of ,russian art as a whole1 distinctly leads to the opinion that a revolution of feeling may eventually spring up1 especially on the subject of their operas4 ,also ,rubinstein's dramatic works1 now mostly dismissed by foreigners as his weakest productions1 may in due course be accepted as his finest creations4 ,from the different reasons previously deduced there can be little doubt that in opera ,glinka purposely laid the corner-stone of what he earnestly believed to be a true ,russian school1 and a glance at contemporary musical activity shows that here ,russia has every opportunity for distinguishing herself1 and that with very little competition4 ,,russian ,,literature ,w4 ,r4 ,,morfill ,of the ,russian there are the following chief dialects--,great1 ,little1 and ,white ,russian4 ,the ,great ,russian is the literary and official language of the ,empire4 ,in its structure it is highly synthetic1 having three genders and seven cases1 and the nouns and adjectives being fully inflected4 ,its great peculiarity 7which it shares in common with all the ,sclavonic languages71 is the structure of the verbs1 which are divided into so-called aspects1 which modify the meaning1 just as the ,latin terminations sco1 urio1 and ita1 only the forms are developed into a more perfect system4 ,the letters employed are the ,cyrillian1 held to have been invented by ,st4 ,cyril in the ,ninth ,century4 ,they are on the whole well adapted to express the many sounds of the ,russian alphabet1 for which the ,latin letters would be wholly inadequate1 and must perforce be employed in some such uncouth combinations as those which communicate a grotesque appearance to ,polish4 ,it would be out of place here to discuss the ,ecclesiastical ,sclavonic employed in so many of the early writings composed in ,russian4 ,i shall proceed to speak of the literature in ,russian properly so-called4 ,the great epochs of this will be-- ,i4 ,from the earliest times to the reign of ,peter the ,great4 ,,ii4 ,from the reign of ,peter the ,great to our own time4 ,the ,russians1 like the rest of the ,sclavonic peoples are very rich in national songs1 many 7as one may judge from the allusions found in them71 going back to a remote antiquity4 ,for a long time1 and especially during the period of ,french influence1 these productions were neglected4 ,in the last twenty years1 however1 they have been assiduously collected by ,bezsonov1 ,kirievski1 ,ribnikov1 ,hilferding and others4 ,the ,russian legendary poems are called ,bilini 7literally1 tales of old time71 and may be most conveniently divided into the following classes3-- #a4 ,that of the earlier heroes4 #b4 ,the ,cycle of ,vladimir4 #c4 ,the ,royal1 or ,moscow ,cycle4 ,the early heroes are of a half-mythical type1 and perform prodigies of valour4 ,to this class belong ,volga ,vseslavich1 ,mikoula ,selianinovich and ,sviatogor4 ,the great glory of the ,cycle of ,vladimir is ,ilya ,murometz4 ,the ,bilinas are filled with his magnificent exploits1 either alone1 or in the company of ,sviatogor4 ,the national songs are carried on through the troublous times of ,boris ,godunov1 and the false ,dimitri1 to the days of ,peter the ,great1 when they seem to have acquired new vigour on account of the military achievements of the regenerator of his country4 ,nor are they extinct in our own time1 for we find exploits of ,napoleon1 especially his disastrous expedition to ,russia1 made the subject of verse4 ,the interest1 however1 of these legendary poems fades away as we advance into later days4 ,the number of minstrels is rapidly diminishing2 and ,riabanin1 and his companions among the ,great ,russians1 and ,ostap ,veresai among the ,malo-,russians1 will probably be the last of these generations of rhapsodists1 who have transmitted their traditional chants from father to son1 from tutor to pupil4 ,a great feature in ,russian literature is the collection of chronicles1 which begin with ,nestor1 monk of the ,pestcherski ,cloister at ,kiev1 who was born about ,a4 ,d4 #ajef1 and died about #aaaf4 ,during the time when ,russia groaned under the yoke of the ,mongols1 the nation remained silent1 except here and there1 perhaps1 in some legendary song1 sung among peasants1 and destined subsequently to be gathered from oral tradition by a ,ribnikov and a ,hilferding4 ,such literature as was cultivated formed the recreation of the monks in their cells4 ,a new era1 however1 was to come4 ,ivan ,,iii4 established the autocracy and made ,moscow the centre of the new government4 ,the ,russians naturally looked to ,constantinople as the centre of their civilization2 and even when the city was taken by the ,turks its influence did not cease4 ,many learned ,greeks fled to ,russia1 and found an hospitable reception in the dominions of the ,grand ,duke4 ,during the reigns of ,ivan the ,terrible and his immediate successors1 although the material progress of the country was considerably advanced1 and a strong ,government founded1 yet little was done for learning4 ,simeon ,polotzki 7#afbh-hj71 tutor to the ,tsar ,feodor1 son of ,alexis1 was an indefatigable writer of religious and educational books1 but his productions can now only interest the antiquarian4 ,the verses composed by him on the new palace built by the ,tsar ,alexis1 at ,kolomenski are deliciously quaint4 ,of a more important character is the sketch of the ,russian government1 and the habits of the people1 written by one ,koshikin 7or ,kotoshikin--for the name is found in both forms71 a renegade diak or secretary1 which1 after having lain for a long time in manuscript in the library of ,upsala1 in ,sweden1 was edited in #ahdj1 by the ,russian historian ,soloviev4 ,kotoshikin terminated a life of strange vicissitudes by perishing at the hands of the public executioner at ,stockholm1 about #affi4 ,with the reforms of ,peter the ,great commences an entirely new period in the history of ,russian literature1 which was now to be under ,western influence4 ,the epoch was inaugurated by ,lomonosov1 the son of a poor fisherman of ,archangel1 who forms one of the curious band of peasant authors--of very various merit1 it must be confessed--who present such an unexpected phenomenon in ,russian literature4 ,occasionally we have men of real genius1 as in the cases of ,koltzov1 ,nikitin1 and ,shevchenko1 the great glory of southern ,russia2 sometimes1 perhaps1 a man whose abilities have been overrated as in the instance of ,slepoushkin4 ,lemonosov is more praised than read by his countrymen4 ,his turgid odes1 stuffed with classical allusions1 in praise of ,anne and ,elizabeth1 are still committed to memory by pupils at educational establishments4 ,his panegyrics are certainly fulsome1 but probably no worse than those of ,boileau in praise of ,louis ,,xiv41 who grovelled without the excuse of the imperfectly educated ,scythian4 ,the reign of ,catherine ,,ii4 7#agfb-if71 saw the rise of a whole generation of court poets4 ,the great maxim1 ,un ,auguste peut aisement faire un ,virgile1 was seen in all its absurdity in semi-barbarous ,russia4 ,these wits were supported by the ,empress and her immediate entourage1 to whom their florid productions were ordinarily addressed4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,library1 ,,odessa4 ,from ,byzantine traditions1 from legends of saints1 from confused chronicles1 and orthodox hymnologies1 ,russia was to pass by one of the most violent changes ever witnessed in the literature of any country1 into epics moulded upon the ,henriade1 and tedious odes in the style of ,boileau and ,jean ,baptiste ,rousseau4 ,oustrialov1 the historian1 truly characterizes most of the voluminous writers of this epoch1 as mediocre verse makers1 for claiming merits in the cases of ,bogdanovich1 ,khemnitzer1 ,von ,vizin1 ,dmitriev1 and ,derzhavin4 ,bogdanovich wrote a very pretty lyric piece1 styled ,dushenka based on the story of ,cupid and ,psyche1 and partly imitated from ,lafontaine1 with a sportive charm about the verse which will preserve it from becoming obsolete4 ,with ,khemnitzer begin the fabulists4 ,but ,i shall reserve my remarks upon this species of literature and its ,russian votaries until ,i come to ,krilov1 who may be said to be one of the few ,sclavonic authors who have gained a reputation beyond the limits of their own country4 ,in ,denis ,von ,vizin1 born at ,moscow1 but as his name shows1 of ,german extraction1 ,russia saw a writer of genuine national comedy4 ,hitherto she had to content herself with poor imitations of ,moliere4 ,his two plays1 the ,brigadier and the ,minor 7,nederosl71 have much original talent4 ,no such vigorous representations of character appeared again on the stage till ,the ,misfortune of being too ,clever 7,gore et ,ouma7 of ,griboiedov1 and the ,revisor of ,gogol4 ,dmitriev deserves perhaps no more than a passing mention4 ,the name of ,derzhavin is spoken of with reverence among his countrymen3 he was the laureate of the epoch of ,catherine1 and had a fresh ode for every new military glory4 ,there is much fire and vigour in his productions and he could develop the strength and flexibility of his native language which can be made as expressive and concise as ,greek4 ,perhaps1 however1 we get a little tired of his endless perfections of ,felitza1 the name under which he celebrates the ,empress ,catherine1 a woman who--whatever her private faults may have been1--did a great deal for ,russia4 ,in ,nicholas ,karamzin appeared the first ,russian historian who can properly claim the title4 ,his poems are almost forgotten3 here and there we come upon a solitary lyric in a book of extracts4 ,his ,history of the ,russian ,empire1 however1 is a work of extensive research1 and must always be quoted with respect by ,sclavonic scholars4 ,unfortunately1 it only extends to the election of ,michael ,romanov4 ,karamzin was followed by ,nicholas ,polevoi1 son of a ,siberian merchant1 who hardly left any species of literature untouched4 ,his ,history of the ,russian ,people1 however1 did not add to his reputation1 and is now almost forgotten4 ,in later times both these authors have been eclipsed by such writers as ,soloviev and ,kostomarov4 ,a new and more critical school of ,russian historians has sprung up2 but for the early history of the ,sclavonic peoples1 the great work is still ,schafarik's ,sclavonic ,antiquities1 first published in the ,bohemian language1 and more familiar to scholars in the ,west of ,europe in its ,german version4 ,with the breaking up of old forms of government caused by the ,french ,revolution1 came the dislocation of the old conventional modes of thought4 ,classicism in literature was dead1 having weighed like an incubus upon the fancy and fresh life of many generations4 ,england and ,germany were at the head of the new movement1 which was at a later period to be joined to ,france4 ,the influence was to extend to ,russia1 and may be said to date from the reign of ,alexander ,i4 ,it was headed by ,zhukovski1 who was rather a fluent translator than an original poet4 ,he has given excellent versions of ,schiller1 ,goethe1 ,moore1 and ,byron1 and has better enriched the literature of his country in this way than by his original productions4 ,he had1 however1 some lyric fire of his own2 the ode entitled ,the ,poet in the ,camp of the ,russian ,warriors1 written in the memorable year #ahab1 did something to stimulate the national feelings1 and procure for the poet a good appointment at court4 ,in ,alexander ,pushkin1 the ,russians were destined to find their greatest poet4 ,his first work1 ,rouslan and ,lioudmilla1 was a tale of half-mythical times1 in which the influence of ,byron was clearly visible1 but the author had never allowed himself to become a mere copyist4 ,the same may be said of ,the ,prisoner of the ,caucasus1 in which ,pushkin had an opportunity of describing the romantic scenery of that wild country1 which was then entirely new ground4 ,in the ,fountain of ,bakchiserai he chose an episode in the history of the ,khans of the ,crimea1 which he has handled very poetically4 ,the ,gipsies is a wild oriental tale of passion and vengeance4 ,the poet1 who had been spending some time amid the ,steppes of ,bessarabia1 has left us wonderful pictures of the wandering tribes and their savage life4 ,many ,russians consider the ,evgenie ,oniegin of ,pushkin to be his best effort4 ,it is a powerfully written love-story1 full of sketches of modern life1 interspersed with satire and pathos4 ,a criticism of ,pushkin would necessarily be imperfect1 which left out of all consideration his drama on the subject of ,boris ,godunov4 ,here he has used ,shakespeare as his model4 ,up to this time the traditions of the ,russian stage--such as they were--were wholly ,french4 ,the piece is undoubtedly very clever1 and conceived with true dramatic power4 ,since ,pushkin's attempt1 the historical drama based upon the ,english1 has been very successfully cultivated4 ,a fine trilogy has been composed by ,count ,a4 ,tolstoi 7whose premature death all ,russia deplored71 on the three subjects1 ,the ,death of ,ivan the ,terrible 7#ahff71 ,the ,tsar ,feodor 7#ahfh7 and the ,tsar ,boris 7#ahfi74 ,the ,russian fabulists1 whose name is legion1 demand some mention2 ,khemnitzer1 ,dmitriev1 ,ivanov and others1 have attempted this style of poetry2 but the most celebrated of all is ,ivan ,krilov 7#agfh-ahdd74 ,many of his short sentences have become proverbs among the ,russian people1 like the couplets of ,lafontaine among the ,french1 and ,butler's ,hudibras among ourselves4 ,his pictures of life and manners are most thoroughly national4 ,in ,koltzov the true voice of the people1 which had before only expressed itself in the national ballads was heard4 ,the life of this sensitive and warm-hearted man of genius was clouded by poverty and suffering4 ,the poems of ,koltzov are written1 for the most part1 in an unrhymed verse2 the sharp1 well-defined accent in ,russian amply satisfying the ear1 as in ,german4 ,his poetical taste had been nurtured by the popular lays of his country4 ,he has caught their colouring as truly as ,burns did that of the ,scottish minstrelsy4 ,he is unquestionably the most national poet that ,russia has produced2 ,slepoushkin and ,alipanov1 two other peasant poets1 who made some little noise in their time1 cannot for one moment be compared with him2 but1 on the other hand1 he has been excelled by the fiery energy and picturesque power of the ,cossack1 ,taras ,shevchenko1 of whom ,i shall speak4 ,since the death of ,pushkin1 ,lermontov alone has appeared to dispute the poetical crown with him4 ,the short life of this author 7#ahad-da71 ended in the same way as ,pushkin's--in a duel provoked by himself4 ,many of his lyrics are exquisite1 and have become standard poems in ,russia1 such as the ,gifts of ,terek and ,the ,cradle ,song of the ,cossack ,mother4 ,in ,gogol1 who died in #aheb1 the ,russians had to lament the loss of a keen and vigorous satirist4 ,with a happy humour reminding us of ,dickens in his best moods1 he has sketched all classes of society in the ,dead ,souls1 perhaps the cleverest of all ,russian novels4 ,no one1 also has reproduced the scenery and habits of ,little ,russia1 of which he was a native1 more vigorously than ,gogol1 whether in the pictures of country life in his ,old-,fashioned ,household 7if we may translate in so free a manner the title ,starovetskie ,pomestchiki71 or in the wilder sketches of the struggles which took place between the ,poles and ,cossacks in ,taras ,boulba4 ,in the ,portrait and ,memoirs of a ,madman1 ,gogol shows a weird power1 which may be compared with that of the fantastic ,american1 ,edgar ,allan ,poe4 ,besides his novels1 he wrote a brilliant comedy called the ,revisor1 dealing with the evils of bureaucracy4 ,towards the end of the year #ahgg1 died ,nicholas ,nekrasov1 the most remarkable poet produced by ,russia since ,lermontov4 ,he has left six volumes of poetry1 of a peculiarly realistic type1 chiefly dwelling upon the misfortunes of the ,russian peasantry1 and putting before us most forcibly the dull grey tints of their monotonous and purposeless lives4 ,i have not space to enumerate here even the most prominent ,russian novelists4 ,no account1 however1 of their literature would be anything like complete which omitted the name of ,ivan ,tourgheniev1 whose reputation is ,european4 ,with the ,russians the ,english novel of the realistic type is the fashionable model4 ,in this branch of literature1 ,french influences have hardly been felt at all4 ,the historical novel--an echo of the great romances of ,sir ,walter ,scott--had its cultivators in such writers as ,zagoskin and ,lazhechnikov2 but at the present time1 with the exception of the recent productions of ,count ,tolstoi1 it is a form of literature as dead in ,russia as in our own country4 ,the novel of domestic life bids fair to swallow up all the rest1 and it is to this that the ,russians are devoting their attention4 ,tourgheniev first made a name by his ,memoirs of a ,sportsman1 a powerfully written work1 in which harrowing descriptions are given of the miserable condition of the ,russian serfs4 ,since the publication of this novel1 or rather series of sketches1 he has written a succession of able works of the same kind1 in which all classes of ,russian society have been reviewed4 ,no more pathetic tale than the ,gentleman's ,retreat 7,dvorianskoe ,gnezdo7 can be shown in the literature of any country4 ,there are touches in it worthy of ,george ,eliot4 ,in ,fathers and ,children and ,smoke1 ,tourgheniev has grappled with the nihilistic ideas which for a long time have been so current in ,russia4 ,the study of ,russian history1 so well commenced by ,karamzin1 has been further developed by ,oustrialov and ,soloviev4 ,the ,malo-,russian is very rich in skazki 7national tales7 and in songs4 ,peculiar to them is the douma1 a kind of narrative poem1 in which the metre is generally very irregular2 but a sort of rhythm is preserved by the recurrence of accentuated syllables4 ,the douma of the ,little ,russians corresponds to the bilina of the ,great ,russians4 ,as might naturally be expected1 most ,malo-,russian authors of eminence1 have preferred using the ,great ,russian1 notably ,gogol1 who however is very fond of introducing provincial expressions which require a glossary4 ,the foundation of the ,malo-,russian cultivated literature was laid by the travisty of the ,a,eneid1 by ,kotliarevski1 which enjoys great popularity among his countrymen4 ,a truly national poet appeared in ,taras ,shevchenko1 born a serf in the ,government of ,kiev1 at the village of ,kirilovka4 ,of the literature of the ,white ,russians1 but little need be said1 as it is very scanty1 amounting to a few collections of songs edited by ,shein1 ,bezsonov and others4 ,,present ,,conditions ,e4 ,s4 ,nicholas ,i41 ,tsar of all the ,russias 7born in #ahfh71 the eldest son of ,alexander ,,iii4 and the ,princess ,dagmar1 daughter of ,king ,christian ,,ix4 of ,denmark1 ascended the throne on the death of his father in #ahid4 ,he is descended from ,michael ,romanof1 elected ,tsar in #afac1 after the extinction of the ,house of ,rurik1 and also from the ,oldenburg family4 ,nicholas ,,ii4 was married in #ahid to ,princess ,alexandra ,alix 7,alexandra ,feodorovina71 daughter of ,ludwig ,,iv41 ,grand ,duke of ,hesse1 and ,alice ,maud ,mary1 daughter of ,queen ,victoria4 ,their four daughters are3 ,olga 7born #ahie72 ,tatiana 7born #ahig72 ,marie 7born #ahii72 and ,anastasia 7born #aija74 ,the ,grand ,duke ,michael 7born #ahgh71 brother of the ,emperor1 is the ,heir ,presumptive4 ,the ,emperor's vast revenue is derived from ,crown domains3 the amount is unknown1 as no reference is made in the budgets or finance accounts4 ,it consists1 however1 of more than a million of square miles of cultivated lands and forests1 besides gold and other mines in ,siberia4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,tsar ,,nicholas4 ,russia is an absolute hereditary monarchy4 ,the ,emperor's will is law1 and in him the whole legislative1 executive and judicial power is united4 ,the administration of the ,empire is entrusted to four great boards or councils3 the ,council of the ,state2 the ,ruling ,senate2 the ,holy ,synod2 and the ,committee of ,ministers4 ,the ,council of ,state1 established by ,alexander ,i4 in #ahja1 consists of a president nominated every year by the ,emperor and a large number of members appointed by him4 ,this council is divided into four departments3 ,legislation2 ,civil and ,church ,administration2 ,state's ,economy and ,industry2 ,sciences and ,commerce4 ,the ,ruling ,senate1 founded by ,peter ,i4 in #agaa1 is really the high court of justice for the ,empire4 ,it is divided into six departments1 or sections4 ,the ,holy ,synod1 founded by ,peter ,i4 in #agbh1 has charge of the religious affairs of the ,empire4 ,its members are the ,metropolitans of ,st4 ,petersburg1 ,moscow and ,kief1 the archbishop of ,georgia and several bishops who sit in turn4 ,the ,president is ,antonious1 the ,metropolitan of ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,the ,emperor has to approve of all the decisions of the ,holy ,synod4 ,european ,russia consists of ,russia ,proper 7#ej ,provinces71 ,poland 7#aj ,provinces71 and ,finland 7,grand ,duchy74 ,the population in #ahig was respectively1 #ic1dfg1gcf2 #i1dja1jig2 and #b1ebg1hja4 ,asiatic ,russia consists of ,caucasia 7#aa ,provinces2 population #i1bia1jjj72 ,siberia 7#h ,provinces and ,regions2 population #e1gbf1gai72 and ,central ,asia 7#aj ,provinces and ,regions2 population #g1gdj1cid74 ,russian subjects in ,khiva and ,bokhara number #f1dab4 ,of the total population #abh1afa1bdi1 #fd1faf1bhj were men and #fd1eid1hhc1 women4 ,in ,european ,russia the annual increase of population is at the rate of nearly a million and a half4 ,the chief cities of ,european ,russia are ,st4 ,petersburg 7#a1bfg1jbc72 ,moscow 7#ihh1fad72 ,warsaw 7#fch1bjh72 ,odessa 7#dje1jda72 ,lodz 7#cae1bji72 ,riga 7#bef1aig72 ,kief 7#bdg1dcb72 ,kharkoff 7#agd1hdf72 ,tiflis 7#afj1fde72 ,vilna 7#aei1efh72 ,tashkend 7#aef1dad72 ,saratov 7#acg1aji72 ,kasan 7#aca1ejh72 ,ekaterinoslav 7#aba1baf72 ,rostov-on-the-,don 7#aai1hhi72 ,astrakhan 7#aac1jja72 ,baku 7#aab1bec72 ,tula 7#aaa1jdh71 and ,kishineff7#ajh1gif74 ,the population of ,novgorod1 ,samara1 ,minsk and ,nikolaieff is between #ie1jjj and #ij1jjj4 ,tiflis and ,baku in the ,caucasus have respective populations of #afj1jjj and #aab1jjj4 ,the largest towns in the ,trans-,caspia are ,askhabad 7#ai1ejj7 and ,merv 7#h1gej71 and those of ,turkestan are ,tashkend1 ,namangan ,samarkand and ,andijan4 ,there are about #ej1jjj in each of the ,siberian towns of ,tomsk1 ,irkutsk and ,ekaterinburg4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,tsarina4 ,there has been no census since #ahig1 but in #aijj the population of ,st4 ,petersburg was #a1dci1gci2 ,moscow1 #a1jce1ffd2 and ,riga1 #bhb1idc4 ,the mortality in the towns is so great that the deaths exceed the births4 ,emigration is on the increase1 and1 of late years1 the ,russians1 particularly the ,jews1 flock to the ,united ,states1 chiefly through ,hamburg1 ,luebeck and ,bremen4 ,in #aijj1 #di1ehj emigrated to the ,united ,states2 #a1bec to ,argentina2 and numbers to ,canada and ,brazil4 ,emigration to ,siberia varies from year to year1 but is on the increase4 ,in #ahih1 #hj1jjj went and in #aija from #aej1jjj to #bjj1jjj4 ,there is also much emigration to the ,southern ,ural and the ,steppe provinces4 ,in ,european ,russia1 there is an average of a town or village to every four or seven square miles1 and in the ,caucasus1 one to every nine square miles2 but in ,asiatic ,russia the average varies2 for example1 in ,samarkand there is one to every fourteen square miles1 and in the province of ,yakutsk1 one to every #b1gfj square miles4 ,the principal ports are ,st4 ,petersburg1 ,cronstadt1 ,narva1 ,riga1 ,libau1 ,pernau and ,vindau 7on the ,baltic72 ,hango 7on the ,gulf of ,bothnia72 ,revel1 ,helsingfoers and ,wiborg 7on the ,gulf of ,finland72 ,archangel and ,ekaterinsk 7,arctic and ,white ,seas72 ,odessa1 ,nicolaieff1 ,sebastopol1 ,nova-,rossiisk1 ,berdiansk and ,batoum1 ,taganrog1 ,marinpol1 ,rostov and ,kertch 7on the ,black ,sea and ,sea of ,azov72 ,astrakhan1 ,derbent and ,baku 7on the ,caspian ,sea72 ,nicolaieffsk1 ,vladivostok and ,petrapaulovsk in ,kamtchatka2 and ,port ,arthur and ,dalni or ,ta-lien-wan 7,gulf of ,pechili71 have been occupied since the ,russo-,chinese ,treaty of #ahih4 ,the established religion is the ,russo-,greek1 or ,graeco-,russian1 known officially as the ,orthodox ,catholic ,faith4 ,it maintains the relations of a sister church with the four patriarchates of ,constantinople1 ,antioch1 ,jerusalem and ,alexandria4 ,the ,emperor is the head of the church4 ,the ,russian ,empire is divided into #fd bishoprics1 under #c metropolitans1 #ad archbishops and #dh bishops2 in #ahih1 there were #ff1adf churches 7#gah of which were cathedrals71 and #ghe monasteries4 ,with the exception of the ,jewish1 all religions are allowed to be professed4 ,there are more than #ab1jjj1jjj dissenters scattered throughout the ,empire4 ,the numbers are3 ,orthodox ,greek1 #hg1chd1dhj2 ,dissenters1 #b1agc1gch2 ,roman ,catholic1 #aa1dbj1ibg2 ,protestants1 #c1gdc1bji2 other ,christians1 #a1bba1eaa2 ,mohammedans1 #ac1hhi1dba2 ,jews1 #e1ahi1dja2 and other religions1 #fde1ejc4 ,in #aijc1 the ,holy ,synod received #bh1chh1jdi roubles from the ,imperial budget1 besides other revenue and gifts4 ,the ,empire is divided into #ae educational districts3 ,st4 ,petersburg1 ,moscow1 ,kasan1 ,orenburg1 ,kharkoff1 ,odessa1 ,kief1 ,vilna1 ,warsaw1 ,riga1 ,caucasus1 ,turkestan1 ,west ,siberia1 ,east ,siberia and ,amur4 ,in some of the primary village schools1 there are school-gardens1 while bee-keeping and silk-worm culture1 as well as trades and handiwork1 are taught4 ,in #aijj1 the ,ministers contributed #ea1jfb1hdb roubles for schools and universities4 ,the universities are in ,moscow 7#d1cdd students in #aijb72 ,st4 ,petersburg 7#c1gjh72 ,kief 7#b1caf72 ,kharkov 7#a1cdj72 ,dorpat 7#a1gia72 ,warsaw 7#a1cab72 ,kasan 7#hbc72 ,odessa 7#a1aaf72 and ,tomsk 7#edi74 ,helsingfors1 ,finland1 had #a1baa students in #aijj-a4 ,since #ahgd military service has been obligatory for all men from the age of #ba4 ,the period of service in ,european ,russia is five years in the active army 7reduced by furloughs to four7 #ac in the ,zapas those who have passed through active service and five years in the ,opolchenie1 or reserve2 in ,asiatic ,russia1 seven years in the active army and six in the ,zapas2 and in ,caucasia1 three years in the active army and #ae in the ,zapas4 ,the ,opolchenie is a reserve force of drilled conscripts4 ,the ,cossacks 7,don1 ,kuban ,terek1 ,astrakhan1 ,orenburg1 ,ural1 ,siberia1 ,semiryetchensk1 ,transbaikalia1 ,amur and ,usuri7 are divided in three classes2 the first in active service1 the second on furlough with their arms and horses2 the third with arms and without horses4 ,some of the ,cossack cavalry serves with the regular cavalry4 ,military service is also obligatory in ,finland4 ,the ,russian army consists of #ca corps4 ,the lowest estimate of its peace strength is about #a1ajj1jjj with #db1jjj officers2 the war strength about #ge1jjj officers1 #d1ejj1jjj men and #efb1jjj horses4 ,owing to its widely separated seas1 the ,russian navy maintains four squadrons3 the ,baltic1 the ,black ,sea1 the ,pacific and the ,caspian4 ,cronstadt is the chief base of the ,baltic ,fleet2 ,sebastopol of the ,black ,sea2 and ,vladivostok and ,port ,arthur of the ,pacific4 ,the ,caspian fleet is comparatively insignificant4 ,in #aijc1 the navy consisted of #bf battleships1 #ad coast defence ships1 #bd first-class cruisers1 #ae second-class cruisers1 #afa gunboats and torpedo craft4 ,the ocean shipping of the ,russian ,empire is not relatively large1 but its lake and river shipping is very extensive4 ,in #aijj1 the sea-going marine consisted of #b1bic sailing vessels and #gde steamers4 ,the total length of railway open for traffic and travel on ,january #a1 #aijc1 was #ce1ccf miles 7not including #a1gec miles in ,finland74 ,of this #d1ife miles were in ,asiatic ,russia4 ,the legal unit of money is the silver rouble of #ajj kopecks of the value of #bs4 #a4f;d41 or about fifty cents of ,american money4 ,the coins called imperial and half-imperial contain #ae and #g-a_/b roubles respectively4 ,there are also credit notes of #ajj1 #be1 #aj1 #e1 #c and #a rouble4 ,russia's chief source of revenue is the liquor traffic4 ,her chief exports are spirits1 tallow1 wool1 tow1 bristles1 timber1 hides and skins1 grain1 raw and dressed flax1 linseed and hemp4 ,her principal imports are tea1 cotton and other colonial produce1 iron1 machinery1 wool1 wine1 fruits1 vegetables and oil4 ,russia is the second largest ,european grower of wheat4 ,hemp1 flax1 potatoes and tobacco are also raised in large quantities4 ,barley1 buckwheat1 oats1 millet and rye form the staple food of the inhabitants4 ,mines of great value exist in the ,ural1 ,obdorsk and ,altai mountains1 which produce gold1 copper1 iron1 silver1 platinum1 rock-salt1 marble and kaolin or china clay4 ,rich naphtha springs exist on the ,caspian and an immense bed of coal has been discovered between the ,donetz and ,dnieper rivers4 ,the ,grand ,duchy of ,finland1 which ,russia conquered from ,sweden and finally annexed in #ahjh1 had a population in #ahih of about #b1eie1jjj 7#b1bcj1jjj ,finns2 #cej1jjj ,swedes2 #ab1jjj ,russians2 #b1jjj ,germans2 and #a1jjj ,laps74 ,the chief religion is the ,lutheran4 ,the capital is ,helsingfors with a population of #aaa1jjj1 including the ,russian garrison4 ,the ,tsar of ,russia is the ,grand ,duke2 ,lieut4-,gen4 ,n4 ,bobrikov1 the governor-general2 and ,v4 von ,plehwe1 ,secretary of ,state4 ,the ,diet1 convoked triennially1 consists of nobles1 clergy1 burgesses and peasants1 but the country is chiefly governed by the ,imperial ,finnish ,senate of twenty-two members4 ,the army consists of nine battalions of ,finnish ,rifles 7#e1fjj men71 and one regiment of dragoons 7#ijj men1 with a reserve of #cj1jjj74 ,the chief export is timber and the chief industry iron mines4 ,in #ahih1 the marine comprised #b1bih vessels of #cbd1cdd tons4 ,bokhara and ,khiva in ,central ,asia are vassal states of ,russia4 ,bokhara1 bounded on the north by ,russian ,turkestan1 was once the most famous state of ,central ,asia4 ,genghis ,khan took it from the ,arabs in the ,thirteenth ,century1 and it was taken by the ,uzbegs1 fanatical ,sunni ,mahommedans of ,turkish extraction1 in #aeje4 ,after the ,russian capture of ,tashkend in #ahfe1 the ,amir ,muzeffared-din proclaimed a holy war against the ,russians1 who invaded his province and captured ,samarkand in #ahfh4 ,by a treaty of #ahgc1 no foreigner may be admitted into ,bokhara without a ,russian passport4 ,the population is estimated at #b1jjj1jjj4 ,the ,amir ,syed ,abdul ,ahad succeeded in #ahhe4 ,the ,uzbegs are still the dominant race4 ,the religion is ,mahommedan4 ,the chief towns are ,bokhara 7about #ge1jjj7 and ,karshi 7#be1jjj74 ,the chief products are sheep1 goats1 camels1 horses1 rice1 cotton1 silk1 corn1 fruit1 hemp and tobacco4 ,gold1 salt1 alum and sulphur are the chief minerals4 ,there are cotton1 woollen and silk manufacturers4 ,many ,indian goods such as shawls1 tea1 drugs1 indigo and muslins are imported4 ,the ,amir has #aa1jjj troops1 #d1jjj of which are quartered in ,bokhara4 ,the ,russian ,trans-,caspian ,railway runs through ,bokhara and there is steam navigation on the ,oxus4 ,a telegraph connects ,bokhara with ,tashkend4 ,the conquest of ,khiva1 another ,uzbeg ,state also founded on the ruins of ,tamerlane's ,central ,asian ,empire1 was attempted by ,peter the ,great in #agag and again in #ahci by the ,tsar ,nicholas4 ,on the pretext that the ,khivans had aided the rebellious ,kirghiz1 the ,russians invaded ,khiva in #ahgc and forced the ,khan to sign a treaty putting the ,khanate under ,russian government4 ,the reigning sovereign is ,seyid ,mahomed ,rahim ,khan who succeeded his father in #ahfe4 ,he was born about #ahde4 ,the population is estimated at #hjj1jjj1 including #djj1jjj nomad ,turcomans4 ,the principal towns are ,khiva 7about #e1jjj7 and ,new ,urgenj 7#c1jjj74 ,the religion is ,mahommedan4 ,the army consists of about #b1jjj men4 ,the chief productions are silk and cotton4 ,illustration3 ,,kalkstrasse ,,and ,,the ,,promenade1 ,,riga4 ,in #ahih1 ,russia obtained a lease of twenty-five years from ,china of ,point ,arthur and ,ta-lien-wan with the adjacent seas and territory to the north4 ,to this the name of ,kwang-,tung was given in #ahii4 ,port ,arthur1 the capital1 is a naval station for ,russian and ,chinese ships4 ,at the end of the port a new town1 ,dalni1 has been founded2 it is connected by rail with the ,trans-,siberian railway system4 ,russia's history in #aijc was marked by general disquietude and turbulence4 ,the disorders among the peasantry in #aijb led to a special committee being appointed to inquire into and ameliorate their condition and also to improve agriculture4 ,on ,march #aa1 #aijc1 the ,tsar issued a manifesto promising reform in the government of local towns and tolerance in religion4 ,as little or no improvement was noticed1 strike riots resulted in ,slatoust 7,ufa7 and at ,nijni-,novgorod1 and riots also broke out in the university of ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,in ,may1 the ,governor of ,ufa was assassinated4 ,to these disturbances1 the ,anti-,semitic outrages were encouraged at ,kishineff 7,bessarabia7 when forty-five ,jews were killed1 #dhd injured1 #gjj houses demolished1 and #fjj houses sacked4 ,strike riots also broke out in ,south ,russia and the ,caucasus1 particularly in the towns of ,kief1 ,odessa1 ,baku1 ,rostov1 ,nikolaieff4 ,many smaller towns also suffered loss of life4 ,military troops were called out to quell the rioters4 ,the policy of ,russification was carried on in ,finland as well as in the more recent acquisitions4 ,the chief interest1 however1 lay in the extension of ,russia's diplomatic and military policy in the ,far ,east under ,admiral ,alexeieff 7appointed ,august #ac1 #aijc74