,alex ,guzman = ! realization ( ! figur$ bass 9 ,figure #fg1 & to ,bunji ,hisamori & ! ,classical ,midi ,connection 7http3_/_/www4classicalmidiconnection4co m7 = ! ,,midi sequ5ce ( ! ,bee?ov5 ,sonata ,op4 #ca1 ,no4 #c4 :i* includes ! orig9al illu/rations & also audio files to :i* ! read] c li/54 ,see #aidii-;h4htm or #aidii-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gut5b]g4org_/dirs_/#a_/i_ /d_/i_/aidii_/aidii-;h_/#aidii-;h4htm7 or 7https3_/_/www4gut5b]g4org_/dirs_/#a_/i_ /d_/i_/aidii_/aidii-;h4zip7 ,transcrib]'s note3 ,9 ?is e-text1 a sup]script is indicat$ by a c>at 77 & a subscript by a s+le und]score 774 ,italics are indicat$ by two und]scores1 e4g4 l>ghetto4 ,! ,cze* r 7) its diacritical7 is repres5t$ by vr1 e4g4 ,dvovrak4 ,,music ,,notation ,,& ,,t]m9ology by ,,k>l ,w4 ,,gehrk5s1 ,a4,m4 ,associate ,pr(essor ( ,s*ool ,music ,ob]l9 ,cons]vatory ( ,music ,illu/ration3 publi%] logo ,! ,a4 ,s4 ,b>nes ,company ,new ,york #aiad ,copyright1 #aiad1 by ,! ,a4 ,s4 ,b>nes ,company ,,preface ,! /udy ( music notation & t]m9ology by classes 9 cons]vatories & 9 music dep>tm5ts ( colleges & normal s*ools is a comp>ative innovation1 "o reason = ! non-exi/5ce ( su* c\rses 9 ! pa/ be+ ! lack ( a suitable text-book1 9 :i* might be f\nd 9 relat$ gr\ps cle> & accurate def9itions ( ! really ess5tial t]ms4 ,b ) ! con/antly increas+ int]e/ 9 music /udy 7bo? private & 9 ! public s*ools71 & ) ! pres5t p]si/5t dem& t music tea*+ %all become m sy/ematic & !re=e m effici5t 9 turn+ out a m intellig5t class ( pupils1 x has become increas+ly necess>y to e/abli% c\rses 9 :i* ! prospective tea*] ( music 7aft] hav+ _h consid]able exp]i5ce ) music itself7 might acquire a concise & accurate k ( a fairly l>ge numb] ( t]ms1 mo/ ( :i* he has probably already enc\nt]$ z a /ud5t1 & _m ( :i* he kn[s ! g5]al mean+ (1 b none ( :i* he p]haps kn[s accurately en\gh to enable him to imp>t 8 k cle>ly & economically to o!rs4 ,to meet ! ne$ ( a text-book = ?is purpose 9 8 own classes ! au?or has be5 = sev]al ye>s ga!r+ mat]ial f all available s\rces1 & x is hop$ t ! arrangem5t ( ?is mat]ial 9 relat$ gr\ps z "h pres5t$ w s]ve to give ! /ud5t n only "s insight into ! pres5t mean+ ( a goodly numb] ( t]ms1 b w also enable him to see m cle>ly :y c]ta9 t]ms h ! mean+ :i* at pres5t atta*es to !m4 ,to ?is latt] end ! d]ivations ( _m ( ! t]ms are giv5 9 connection ) _! def9ition4 ,! aim has n be5 to pres5t an exhau/ive li/1 & ! selection ( t]ms has ( c\rse be5 influ5c$ l>gely by ! au?or's own individual exp]i5ce1 h5ce _m tea*]s w probably feel t important t]ms h be5 omitt$ t %\ld h be5 includ$4 ,= ?is /ate ( affairs no apology is (f]$ except t x w\ld probably be impossible to write a book on ?is subject :i* w\ld satisfy ev]yone 9 ei!r ! selection or actual def9ition ( t]ms4 ,9 =mulat+ ! def9itions !mselves an attempt has be5 made to use su* words z note1 tone1 et cet]a ) at lea/ a fair degree ( accuracy1 & :ile ! attitude ( ! au?or on ?is po9t may be criticiz$ z be+ puri/ic & p$antic1 x is nev]!less 8 op9ion t ! next g5]ation ( music /ud5ts & tea*]s w be pr(it$ by a m accurate use ( c]ta9 t]ms t h be5 inaccurately us$ = s long t ! pres5t g5]ation has to a l>ge ext5t lo/ sight ( ! fact t ! use is inaccurate4 ,! au?or is well aw>e ( ! fact t re=m is a matt] ( gr[? r ?an ( edict1 b he is also ( ! belief t be=e re=m c actually beg9 to come1 ! ne$ ( re=m mu/ be felt by a fairly l>ge numb] ( actively int]e/$ p]sons4 ,x is precisely because s few musicians realize ! ne$ ( any *ange 9 music t]m9ology t ! *anges recomm5d$ by committees :o h giv5 ! matt] c>eful ?\ght are s sl[ 9 be+ adopt$4 ,x is hop$ t "s few po9ts at :i* re=m 9 ! t]m9ology ( music is necess>y may be br\ght to ! att5tion ( a few additional musicians ?ru ?is volume1 & t ! cause may ?us be help$ 9 "s slight degree4 ,x is sugge/$ t 9 us+ ! book = class-room purposes ! tea*] emphasize n only ! def9ition & d]ivation ( all t]ms /udi$1 b ! spell+ & pronunciation z well4 ,= ?is latt] purpose a pron\nc+ index has be5 app5d$4 ,x is impossible to give cr$it to all s\rces f :i* ideas h be5 drawn1 b especial m5tion %\ld be made ( ! em95tly cle> & beautifully word$ def9itions compil$ by ,pr(essor ,waldo ,s4 ,pratt or ! ,c5tury ,diction>y1 & ! exce$+ly valuable articles on an almo/ all-inclusive range ( topics f\nd 9 ! new edition ( ,grove's ,diction>y4 ,especial ?anks = valuable sugge/ions z to ! arrangem5t ( ! mat]ial1 etc41 are also due to ,dr4 ,raymond ,h4 ,/etson1 ,pr(essor ( ,psy*ology1 ,ob]l9 ,college2 ,ar?ur ,e4 ,heacox1 ,pr(essor ( ,!ory1 ,ob]l9 ,cons]vatory ( ,music2 & ,*>les ,i4 ,rice1 ,sup]visor ( ,music1 ,worce/]1 ,mass41 z well z to v>i\s memb]s ( ! ,music ,tea*]s' ,national ,association :o h (f]$ valuable advice along c]ta9 specific l9es4 ,k4,w4,g4 ,,ob]l9 ,,cons]vatory ,,( ,,music1 ,june1 #aiac ,,cont5ts ,,*apt] ,i4--,"s ,pr9ciples ( ,correct ,notation #a #a4 ,note4 #b1 #c4 ,rules = turn+ /ems4 #d4 ,use ( cross-/roke4 #e4 ,re/4 #f4 ,g ,clef4 #g4 ,f ,clef & ,c ,clef4 #h4 ,%>p & d\ble-%>p4 #i4 ,flat1 d\ble-flat & natural4 #aj4 ,tie4 #aa4 ,dot aft] a note4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4--,symbols ( ,music ,def9$ #e #ab4 ,/aff & ,great ,/aff4 #ac4 ,leg] ,l9es4 #ad4 ,/aff degrees4 #ae4 ,clef4 #af4 ,treble & bass ,clefs4 #ag4 ,movable ,c ,clef4 #ah4 ,%>p4 #ai4 ,flat4 #bj4 ,d\ble-%>p & d\ble-flat4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4--,symbols ( ,music ,def9$ 7cont9u$7 #h #ba4 ,natural #bb1 #bc4 ,key-signature2 h[ det]m9e :e!r a major or m9or key4 #bd1 #be4 ,accid5tals2 ) tie across b>4 #bf4 ,rules conc]n+ alt]$ /aff degrees4 #bg4 ,enh>monic4 #bh4 ,notes2 pit* & l5g? ( tones4 #bi4 ,re/s4 #cj4 ,li/s ( notes & re/s4 #ca4 ,engli% names =4 #cb4 ,less common =ms4 #cc4 ,:ole re/1 peculi> use (4 #cd4 ,b>4 #ce4 ,d\ble-b>4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4--,abbreviations1 ,signs1 etc4 #ac #cf-dj4 ,signs = repetition4 #da4 ,cont9uation4 #db4 ,re/4 #dc4 ,pause4 #dd4 ,hold4 #de-dg4 ,alt]ation ( ,pit*4 #dh4 ,octave names4 ,,*apt] ,v4--,abbreviations1 ,signs1 etc4 7cont9u$7 #ag #di-ea4 ,dots aft] notes4 #eb4 ,dots ov] or "u notes4 #ec4 ,da% ov] note4 #ed4 ,tie4 #ee4 ,slur4 #ef4 ,slur or tie ) dots4 #eg4 ,da% ov] note4 #eh4 ,da% & dot ov] note4 #ei4 ,acc5t m>ks4 #fj4 m4d41 m4g41 etc4 #fa4 ,arpeggio4 #fb4 ,messa di voce4 #fc4 ,viol9 b[ signs4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4--,embelli%m5ts #bb #fd4 ,def9ition & k9ds4 #fe4 ,trill4 #ff-fh4 ,mord5t4 #fi-gb4 ,turn4 #gc1 #gd4 ,appoggiatura4 #ge4 ,acciaccatura4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4--,scales #bg #gf4 ,def9ition1 & old =ms4 #gg4 ,orig94 #gh4 ,key4 #gi4 ,?ree g5]al classes4 #hj4 ,diatonic1 def9$4 #ha4 ,major diatonic4 #hb4 ,tetra*ords4 #hc4 ,! fifte5 positions4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4--,scales 7cont9u$7 #cc #hd4 ,m9or diatonic4 #he4 ,orig9al =m4 #hf4 ,h>monic m9or4 #hg4 ,melodic m9or4 #hh4 ,elev5 positions4 #hi4 ,relative m9or4 #ij4 ,tonic m9or4 #ia4 ,diatonic scale names4 #ib4 ,syllable-names4 #ic4 ,*romatic scale4 #id4 ,n9e positions4 #ie4 ,:ole-/ep scale4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4--,auxili>y ,words & ,end+s #db ,,*apt] ,x4--,measure #dd #ig4 ,def9ition4--,two ess5tial *>act]i/ics4 ,rhy?m v]s measure4 #ih4 ,syncopation4 #ii4 ,simple & comp\nd measures4 #ajj4 ,commone/ v>ieties4 #aja4 ,o!r v>ieties4 #ajb4 ,r>e v>ieties4 #ajc4 ,! signs1 ,c & cut-"t symbol4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4--,tempo #dh #ajd4 ,misuses ( ! ^w "t4 #aje-ajg4 ,h[ to correct ^!3 by sub/itut+ rhy?m1 measure1 & tempo4 #ajh4 ,?ree ways ( f9d+ ! correct tempo4 #aji4 ,a conv5i5t gr\p+ ( tempo-t]ms4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4--,tempo 7cont9u$7 #eb #aaj-aai4 ,tempo-t]ms4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4--,dynamics #ef #abj-aca4 ,t]ms relat+ to dynamics4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4--,t]ms ,relat+ to ,=ms & ,/yles #fb #acb4 ,def9ition ( =m4 #acc4 ,basis ( =m4 #acd4 ,diff]5ce betwe5 =m & /yle4 #ace4 ,introductory4 #acf4 ,two /yles4 #acg4 ,monophonic music4 #ach4 ,polyphonic music4 #aci4 ,c\nt]po9t4 #adj4 ,imitation4 #ada4 ,canon4 #adb4 ,s*ool r\nd4 #adc4 ,fugue4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4--,t]ms ,relat+ to ,=ms & ,/yles 7cont9u$7 #fg #add4 ,phrase-section4 #ade4 ,p]iod4 ,antec$5t4 ,consequ5t4 #adf4 ,prim>y =ms4 #adg4 ,!me4 #adh4 ,!matic developm5t4 #adi4 ,rondo4 #aej4 ,suite4 #aea4 ,dances 9 suite4 #aeb4 ,s*]zo4 #aec4 ,sonata4 #aed4 ,trio4 ,qu>tet4 ,*amb] ,music4 #aee4 ,conc]to4 #aef4 ,symphony4 #aeg4 ,sonata-=m4 #aeh4 ,sonat9a4 ,gr& ,sonata4 #aei4 ,program music4 #afj4 ,symphonic or tone poem4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi4--,t]ms ,relat+ to ,vocal ,music #gf #afa4 ,an!m4 #afb4 ,a capella4 #afc4 ,motet4 #afd4 ,*oral4 #afe4 ,mass4 #aff4 ,cantata4 #afg4 ,oratorio4 #afh4 ,op]a4 #afi4 ,libretto4 #agj4 ,recitative4 #aga4 ,aria4 #agb4 ,li$4 #agc4 ,ballad4 #agd4 ,folk-song4 #age4 ,madrigal4 #agf4 ,glee4 #agg4 ,"p-song4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii4--,rhy?m1 ,melody1 ,h>mony & ,int]vals #hb #agh4 ,! f\r elem5ts ( music4 #agi4 ,rhy?m4 #ahj4 ,melody4 #aha4 ,h>mony4 #ahb4 ,timbre4 #ahc4 ,int]val--h>monic & melodic4 #ahd4 ,numb] "n & specific "n4 #ahe4 ,prime4 #ahf4 ,second4 #ahg4 ,?ird4 #ahh4 ,f\r?4 #ahi4 ,fif?4 #aij4 ,six?4 #aia4 ,sev5?4 #aib4 ,octave4 #aic4 ,n9?4 #aid4 ,major1 m9or1 p]fect1 dim9i%$ & augm5t$ int]vals4 #aie4 ,inv]t$ int]vals4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii4--,*ords1 ,cad5ces1 etc4 #hg #aif4 ,*ord4 ,triad4 ,root4 #aig4 ,major1 m9or1 dim9i%$1 augm5t$ triads4 #aih4 ,! ,common *ords4 #aii4 ,fundam5tal position4 ,fir/ inv]sion4 ,second inv]sion4 #bjj4 ,figur$ bass4 #bja4 ,sev5?-*ord4 ,n9? *ord4 #bjb4 ,cad5ce4 #bjc4 ,au!ntic cad5ce4 #bjd4 ,p]fect au!ntic4 ,imp]fect au!ntic4 #bje4 ,plagal cad5ce4 #bjf4 ,half-cad5ce4 #bjg4 ,deceptive cad5ce4 #bjh4 ,sequ5ce4 #bji4 ,modulation1 h>monic & melodic3 ,dom9ant ,sev5?4 #baj4 ,susp5sion4 #baa4 ,ret>dation4 #bab4 ,anticipation4 #bac4 ,p$al po9t4 #bad4 ,close & op5 position4 #bae4 ,transposition4 ,,*apt] ,,xix4--,miscellane\s ,t]ms #ie ,,*apt] ,,xx4--,miscellane\s ,t]ms 7cont9u$7 #ih ,,app5dix ,a4--,! ,hi/ory ( ,music ,notation #aja ,,app5dix ,b4--,musical ,in/rum5ts #aab #a4 ,two classes4 #b4 ,piano4 #c1 #d4 ,organ1 re$ & pipe4 #e4 ,in/rum5ts us$ = ensemble play+4 #f4 ,b&4 #g4 ,or*e/ra4 #h4 ,! /r+$ in/rum5ts4 #i4 ,wood-w9d4 #aj4 ,brass4 #aa4 ,p]cussion4 #ab4 ,proportion ( in/rum5ts1 9 an or*e/ra4 #ac4 ,books recomm5d$4 #ad4 ,viol94 #ae4 ,viola4 #af4 ,violoncello4 #ag4 ,d\ble-bass4 #ah4 ,flute4 #ai4 ,piccolo4 #bj4 ,oboe family4 #ba4 ,cl>9et & bass cl>9et2 saxophone4 #bb4 ,fr5* horn4 #bc4 ,trumpet4 #bd4 ,cornet4 #be4 ,trombone4 #bf4 ,tuba4 #bg4 ,kettle-drum4 #bh4 ,h>p4 ,,app5dix ,c4--,ac\/ics #aca #a4 ,def9ition4 #b4 ,s\nd1 production (4 #c4 ,s\nd1 transmission (4 #d4 ,rate ( travel4 #e4 ,int5sification (4 #f4 ,classification (4 #g4 ,tones1 prop]ties (4 #h4 ,pit*4 #i4 ,int5sity4 #aj4 ,quality4 #aa4 ,ov]tones4 #ab4 ,equal temp]am5t4 #ac4 ,/&>ds ( pit*4 ,,app5dix ,d4--,t]m9ology ,re=m #aci ,,app5dix ,e4--,analysis ( ,bee?ov5 ,sonata1 ,op4 #ca1 ,no4 #c #adi ,,pron\nc+ ,,index #aei ,,*apt] ,i ,,"s ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,correct ,,notation #a4 ,! note 7f nota--,lat9--a m>k or sign7 consi/s ( ei!r "o1 two1 or ?ree p>ts1 7,illu/ration7 ^! be+ ref]r$ to respectively z head1 /em1 & hook4 ,! hook is (t5 call$ tail or cross-/roke4 ,! /em appe>s on ! "r side ( ! head :5 turn$ up1 b on ! left side :5 turn$ d[n4#a ,illu/ration ,! hook is always on ! "r side4#b ,illu/ration ,footnote #a3 ,x %\ld be not$ at ! outset t ?is /atem5t reg>d+ ! d[n-turn$ /em on ! left side ( ! note-head1 & also a numb] ( simil> pr9ciples "h cit$1 ref] m specifically to music z x appe>s on ! pr9t$ page4 ,9 ! case ( h&-copi$ music ! d[n-turn$ /em appe>s on ! "r side ( ! note1 ?us note symbol4 ,?is is done because ( great] facility 9 writ+1 & = ! same reason o!r slight modifications ( ! notation "h recomm5d$ may sometimes be enc\nt]$4 ,9 deal+ ) *ildr5 x is be/ usually to foll[ z closely z possible ! pr9ciples accord+ to :i* pr9t$ music is notat$1 9 ord] to avoid ^? non-satisfy+ & (t5 emb>rass+ explanations ( diff]5ces :i* w o!rwise be unavoidable4 ,footnote #b3 ,an exception to ?is rule occurs 9 ! case ( notes ( unequal value /rok$ toge!r1 :5 ! hook appe>s on ! left side1 ?us ,illu/ration4 ,9 writ+ music ) p5 ! head & hook are be/ made ) a heavy pressure on ! p5 po9t1 b 9 writ+ at ! bo>d !y are mo/ easily made by us+ a piece ( *alk ab\t an in* long1 turn$ on its side4 #b4 ,:5 only "o "p 7or voice7 is writt5 on ! /aff1 ! foll[+ rules = turn+ /ems apply3 7#a7 ,if ! note-head is bel[ ! ?ird l9e1 ! /em mu/ turn up4 7#b7 ,if ! note-head is above ! ?ird l9e ! /em mu/ turn d[n4 7#c7 ,if ! note-head is on ! ?ird l9e ! /em is turn$ ei!r up or d[n ) due reg>d to ! symmetrical appe>ance ( ! measure 9 :i* ! note occurs4 ,! foll[+ examples w illu/rate ^! po9ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 #c4 ,:5 two p>ts are writt5 on ! same /aff1 ! /ems ( ! upp] "p all turn up1 & ^? ( ! l[] "p turn d[n1 9 ord] t ! p>ts may be cle>ly di/+ui%$4 7,fig4 #b47 ,b 9 music = piano & o!r in/rum5ts on :i* complete *ords c be s\nd$ by "o p]=m] & also 9 simple1 f\r-"p vocal music 9 :i* all voices h approximately ! same rhy?m1 sev]al notes (t5 h "o /em 9 common z 9 ,fig4 #c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4 #d4 ,notes ( small d5om9ation 7eigh?s & small]7 are (t5 writt5 9 gr\ps ( two or m1 all /ems 9 ! gr\p be+ !n connect$ by "o cross-/roke4 ,9 su* a case all ! /ems mu/ ( c\rse be turn$ ! same way1 ! direction be+ det]m9$ by ! position ( ! majority ( note-heads 9 ! gr\p4 ,notes ?us /rok$ may be ( ! same or ( diff]5t d5om9ation4 ,see ,fig4 #d4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,9 vocal music notes are nev] ?us /rok$ :5 a syllable is giv5 to ea* note4 7,see p4 #ai1 ,sec4 #ee1 ,c47 #e4 ,re/s1 l notes1 are be/ made ) a heavy p5 /roke or by us+ a piece ( *alk on its side4 7,see note "u ,sec4 #a47 ,! d\ble-:ole re/1 :ole re/1 & half re/ occupy ! ?ird space unless = ! sake ( cle>ness 9 writ+ two p>ts on ! same /aff !y are writt5 high] or l[]4 ,! re/s ( small] d5om9ation may be plac$ at any po9t on ! /aff1 ! hooks be+ always plac$ on ! spaces4 ,! hook ( ! eigh? re/ is usually plac$ on ! ?ird space4 ,re/s are sometimes dott$1 b are nev] ti$4 #f4 ,! ,g clef %\ld be begun at ! second l9e r ?an bel[ ! /aff4 ,exp]im5ts h %[n cle>ly t beg9n]s le>n to make x mo/ easily 9 ?is way1 & ! process may be fur!r simplifi$ by divid+ x into two p>ts1 ?us1 ,illu/ration4 ,! desc5d+ /roke crosses ! asc5d+ curve at or ne> ! f\r? l9e4 ,! circul> "p ( ! curve occupies approximately ! fir/ & second spaces4 #g4 ,! ,f clef is made ei!r ?us1 bass clef symbol1 or ?us1 old bass clef symbol1 ! dots be+ plac$ "o on ei!r side ( ! f\r? l9e ( ! /aff1 :i* is ! p>ticul> po9t t ! clef m>ks4 ,! ,c clef has also two =ms1 ,c clef symbol & t5or clef symbol4 #h4 ,! %>p is made ) two light v]tical /rokes1 & two heavy slant+ ones1 ! slant ( ! latt] be+ upw>d f left to "r1 %>p4 ,! %>p %\ld nev] be made ?us1 ,illu/ration4 ,! d\ble %>p is made ei!r ?us d\ble-%>p symbol or old d\ble-%>p symbol1 ! fir/ =m be+ at pres5t ! m common4 #i4 ,! flat is be/ made by a d[n /roke retrac$ "p way up1 ! curve be+ made )\t lift+ p5 f pap]4 ,! d\ble flat consi/s ( two flats1#c flatflat4 ,! natural or cancel is made 9 two /rokes1 d[n-"r & "r-d[n1 ?us ,illu/ration4 ,footnote #c3 ,x is to be hop$ t ! figure = ! d\ble-flat sugge/$ by ,mat!son 7:o also sugge/$ ! ,/4 ,&rew's cross 7symbol7 = ! d\ble-%>p7 may "s "t be readopt$4 ,?is figure 0 ! ,greek lett] ,b1 made ?us1 ,greek3 b1 & its use w\ld make our notation "o degree m uni=m ?an x is at pres5t4 #aj4 ,! tie usually connects ! heads ( notes1 ?us tie symbol4 #aa4 ,! dot aft] a note always appe>s on a space1 :e!r ! note-head is on a l9e or space4 7,see ,fig4 #e47 ,9 ! case ( a dot aft] a note on a l9e1 ! dot usually appe>s on ! space above t l9e if ! next note is high] 9 position & on ! space bel[ x if ! foll[+ note is l[]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,note4--,correct notation mu/ be made a habit r ?an a !ory1 & 9 ord] to =m ! habit ( writ+ correctly1 drill is necess>y4 ,?is may p]haps be be/ secur$ by ask+ /ud5ts to write 7at ! bo>d or on rul$ pap]7 f v]bal dictation1 ?us3 ,tea*] says1 ,key ( ,bflat1 ?ree-qu>t] measure3 ,fir/ measure1 ,,d a qu>t] note1 ,,re a qu>t]1 & ,,mi a qu>t]4 ,second measure1 ,,sol a qu>t]1 ,,la a qu>t]1 & ,,sol a qu>t]4 ,?ird measure1 ,,la1 ,,ti1 ,,d1 ,,re1 ,,mi1 eigh?s1 /rok$ 9 pairs4 ,f\r? measure1 high ,,d a dott$ half4 ,pupils respond by writ+ ! ex]cise dictat$1 aft] :i* mi/akes 9 ! turn+ ( /ems1 etc41 are correct$4 ,! pit* names may be dictat$ in/ead ( ! syllables if desir$1 & /ill fur!r practice may be provid$ by ask+ t ! ex]cise be transpos$ to o!r keys4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,symbols ,,( ,,music ,,def9$ #ab4 ,a /aff is a collection ( p>allel l9es1 toge!r ) ! spaces belong+ to !m4 ,! mod]n /aff has five l9es & six spaces1 ^! be+ ord9>ily ref]r$ to z fir/ l9e1 second l9e1 ?ird l9e1 f\r? l9e1 & fif? l9e 7beg9n+ ) ! l[e/72 & space bel[ 7i4e41 space bel[ ! fir/ l9e71 fir/ space1 second space1 ?ird space1 f\r? space1 & space above4 ,! def9ition & discussion above ref] m specifically to "o ( ! portions ( ! great /aff1 ! latt] t]m be+ (t5 appli$ to ! comb9ation ( treble & bass /affs 7) "o leg] l9e betwe57 s commonly us$ 9 piano music1 etc4 #ac4 ,! ext5t ( ! /aff may be increas$ ei!r above or bel[ by ! addition ( %ort l9es call$ leg] l9es1#d & notes may be writt5 on ei!r ^! l9es or on ! spaces above & bel[ !m4 ,footnote #d3 ,! ^w leg] is d]iv$ f ! ,fr5* ^w ,,leg]1 mean+ light1 & ?is use ( ! ^w ref]s to ! fact t ! leg] l9es1 be+ add$ by h&1 are light]--i4e41 less solid 9 color--?an ! pr9t$ l9es ( ! /aff itself4 #ad4 ,! l9es & spaces con/itut+ ! /aff 7includ+ leg] l9es if any7 are (t5 ref]r$ to z /aff degrees1 i4e41 ea* sep>ate l9e & space is consid]$ to be a degree ( ! /aff4 ,! tones ( a scale are also sometimes ref]r$ to z degrees ( ! scale4 #ae4 ,a clef#e is a sign plac$ on ! /aff to designate :at pit*es are to be repres5t$ by its l9es & spaces4 ,?us1 e4g41 ! ,g clef %[s u n only t ! second l9e ( ! /aff repres5ts ,g1 b t ! fir/ l9e repres5ts ,e1 ! fir/ space ,f1 etc4 ,! ,f clef simil>ly %[s u t ! fif? l9e ( ! bass /aff repres5ts ! fir/ ,a bel[ middle ,c1 ! f\r? l9e ! fir/ ,f bel[ middle ,c1 etc4 ,footnote #e3 ,! ^w clef is d]iv$ f ,,clavis--a key--! ref]5ce be+ to ! fact t ! clef unlocks or makes cle> ! mean+ ( ! /aff1 z a key to a puzzle enables u to solve ! puzzle4 ,! /ud5t %\ld note t ^! clefs are m]ely modifi$ =ms ( ! lett]s ,g & ,f1 :i* 7among o!rs7 7 us$ to designate ! pit*es repres5t$ by c]ta9 l9es :5 /aff notation 0 fir/ inaugurat$4 ,= a full] discussion ( ?is matt] see ,app5dix ,a1 p4 #aja4 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,correct$ error ,app5dix ,i 9 orig9al4 #af4 ,:5 ! ,g clef is us$ ! /aff is usually ref]r$ to z ! treble /aff1 & :5 ! ,f clef is us$1 z ! bass /aff4 ,su* expressions z s++ f ! treble clef1 or s++ 9 ! treble clef1 & s++ 9 ! bass clef are /ill frequ5tly he>d1 b are pref]ably replac$ by s++ f ! treble /aff1 & s++ f ! bass /aff4 ,fig4 #f %[s ! p]man5t names ( l9es & spaces :5 ! ,g & ,f clefs are us$4#f ,footnote #f3 ,! ,g]mans use ! same pit* designations z we d ) two exceptions1 viz41 our ,b is call$ by !m ,h1 & our ,bflat is call$ ,b4 ,! scale ( ,c !re=e reads3 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,g1 ,a1 ,h1 ,c2 ! scale ( ,f reads ,f1 ,g1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f4 ,! signatures are 9 all cases writt5 exactly z we write !m4 ,9 ,france & ,italy :]e ! fix$ ,,d sy/em is 9 vogue1 pit*es are usually ref]r$ to by ! syllable names2 e4g41 ,c is ref]r$ to z ,,d 7or ,,ut71 ,d z ,,re1 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4 #ag4 ,! movable ,c clef ,c clef symbol or t5or clef symbol1 =m]ly 9 v common use1 is n[ utiliz$ = only two purposes1 viz41 7#a7 9 music writt5 = c]ta9 or*e/ral in/rum5ts 7cello1 viola1 etc47 ( ext5d$ range1 9 ord] to avoid hav+ to use too _m leg] l9es2 & 7#b7 = indicat+ ! t5or "p 9 vocal music4 ,?is latt] usage seems also to be disappe>+ h[ev]1 & ! t5or "p is commonly writt5 on ! treble /aff1 x be+ und]/ood t ! tones are to be sung an octave l[] ?an ! notes w\ld indicate4 ,! ,c clef z us$ 9 its v>i\s positions is %[n 9 ,figs4 #g1 #h1 & #i4 ,x w be not$ t 9 ea* case ! l9e on :i* ! clef is plac$ repres5ts middle ,c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,soprano clef4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,alto clef4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,t5or clef4 #ah4 ,a %>p is a "* :i* causes ! degree ( ! /aff ) :i* x is associat$ to repres5t a pit* "o half-/ep high] ?an x o!rwise w\ld4 ,?us 9 ,fig4 #aj 7a7 ! fif? l9e & fir/ space repres5t ! pit* ,f1 b 9 ,fig4 #aj 7b7 ^! same /aff degrees repres5t an entirely diff]5t tone--,f%>p4 ,! /ud5t %\ld note t ! %>p does n !n raise any?+2 x m]ely causes a /aff degree to repres5t a high] tone ?an x o!rwise w\ld4 ,!re is j z mu* diff]5ce betwe5 ,f & ,f%>p z betwe5 ,b & ,c1 & yet "o w\ld nev] ?9k ( ref]r+ to ,c z ,b rais$6 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4 #ai4 ,a flat is a "* t causes ! degree ( ! /aff ) :i* x is associat$ to repres5t a tone "o half-/ep l[] ?an x o!rwise w\ld4 7,see note "u ,sec4 #ah & apply ! same discussion "h47 #bj4 ,a d\ble-%>p causes ! /aff degree on :i* x is plac$ to repres5t a pit* "o :ole-/ep high] ?an x w\ld )\t any %>p4 ,simil>ly1 a d\ble-flat causes ! /aff degree on :i* x is plac$ to repres5t a pit* "o :ole-/ep l[] ?an x w\ld )\t any flat4 ,d\ble-%>ps & d\ble-flats are g5]ally us$ on /aff degrees t h already be5 %>p$ or flatt$1 !re=e _! practical effect is to cause /aff degrees to repres5t pit*es respectively a half-/ep high] & a half-/ep l[] ?an w\ld be repres5t$ by ^? same degrees 9 _! diatonic condition4 ,?us 9 ,fig4 #aj 7b7 ! fir/ space 9 its diatonic condition#g repres5ts ,f-%>p1 & ! d\ble-%>p on ?is degree w\ld cause x to repres5t a pit* "o-half /ep high] ?an ,f-%>p1 i4e41 ,f-d\ble-%>p4 ,footnote #g3 ,! expression diatonic condition z "h us$ ref]s to ! /aff aft] ! signature has be5 plac$ ^u x1 9 o!r words aft] ! /aff has be5 prep>$ to repres5t ! pit*es ( ! diatonic scale4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,symbols ,,( ,,music ,,def9$ 7,cont9u$7 #ba4 ,! natural#h 7sometimes call$ cancel7 annuls ! effect ( previ\s %>ps1 flats1 d\ble-%>ps1 & d\ble-flats1 )9 ! measure 9 :i* x occurs4 ,aft] a d\ble-%>p or d\ble-flat ! comb9ation ( a natural ) a %>p1 or a natural ) a flat is (t5 f\nd3 9 ?is case only "o %>p or flat is annull$4 7,sometimes also ! s+le %>p or flat w be f\nd by itself1 cancell+ ! d\ble-%>p or d\ble-flat74 ,! natural is (t5 us$ :5 a composition *anges key1 z 9 ,fig4 #aa1 :]e a *ange f ,e to ,g is %[n4 ,footnote #h3 ,x has already be5 not$ 7p4 #f1 ,note7 t 9 ! ,g]man scale our b-flat is call$ b1 & our b is call$ ,h4 ,f ?is diff]5ce 9 t]m9ology has gr[n up ! cu/om ( us+ ! ,h 7n[ made natural7 to %[ t any /aff-degree is 9 natural condition1 i4e41 n %>p$ or flatt$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4 #bb4 ,! gr\p ( %>ps or flats 7or abs5ce ( !m7 at ! beg9n+ ( a /aff p>tially indicates ! key 9 :i* ! composition is writt54 ,!y are call$ collectively ! key-signature4 #bc4 ,! same key-signature may /& = ei!r "o ( two keys1 ! major key1 or its relative m9or1 h5ce 9 ord] to det]m9e 9 :at key a melody is "o mu/ note :e!r ! tones are gr\p$ ab\t ! major tonic ,,d or ! m9or tonic ,,la4 ,9 a h>moniz$ composition x is almo/ always possible to det]m9e ! key by ref]r+ to ! la/ bass note2 if ! f9al *ord is cle>ly ! ,,d *ord ! composition is 9 ! major key1 b if ?is f9al *ord is cle>ly ! ,,la *ord !n x is almo/ c]ta9 t ! entire composition is 9 ! m9or key4 ,?us if a f9al *ord appe>s z t 9 ,fig4 #ab ! composition is cle>ly 9 ,g major1 :ile if x appe>s z 9 ,fig4 #ac1 x is j z surely 9 ,e m9or4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4 #bd4 ,%>ps1 flats1 naturals1 d\ble-%>ps & d\ble-flats1 occurr+ 9 ! c\rse ( ! composition 7i4e41 aft] ! key signature7 are call$ accid5tals1 :e!r !y actually cause a /aff degree to repres5t a diff]5t pit* z 9 ,fig4 #ad or simply make cle> a notation ab\t :i* !re might o!rwise be "s d\bt z 9 ,fig4 #ae1 measure two4 ,! effect ( su* accid5tals t]m9ates at ! b>4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4 #be4 ,9 ! case ( a tie across a b> an accid5tal rema9s 9 =ce until ! comb9$ value ( ! ti$ notes expires4 ,9 ,fig4 #af fir/ measure1 ?ird beat1 an accid5tal %>p makes ! ?ird space repres5t ! pit* ,c %>p4 ,by virtue ( ! tie across ! b> ! ?ird space cont9ues to repres5t ,c %>p ?ru ! fir/ beat ( ! second measure1 b = ! rema9d] ( ! measure ! ?ird space w repres5t ,c unless ! %>p is repeat$ z 9 ,fig4 #ag4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ag4 #bf4 ,! foll[+ rules = mak+ /aff degrees repres5t pit*es diff]5t f ^? ( ! diatonic scale w be f\nd useful by ! beg9n] 9 ! /udy ( music notation4 ,^! rules are quot$ f ,! ,worce/] ,musical ,manual1 by ,*>les ,i4 ,rice4 #a4 ,to %>p a natural degree1 use a %>p4 ,fig4 #ah4 #b4 ,to %>p a %>p$ degree1 use a d\ble %>p4 ,fig4 #ai4 #c4 ,to %>p a flatt$ degree1 use a natural4 ,fig4 #bj4 #d4 ,to flat a natural degree1 use a flat4 ,fig4 #ba4 #e4 ,to flat a flatt$ degree1 use a d\ble flat4 ,fig4 #bb4 #f4 ,to flat a %>p$ degree1 use a natural4 ,fig4 #bc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bc4 #bg4 ,:5 two diff]5t notations repres5t ! same pit*1 ! ^w enh>monic is appli$4 ,?us we may say t ,f %>p & ,g flat 7on keybo>d in/rum5ts at lea/7 are enh>monically ! same4 ,?is ^w enh>monic is us$ 9 su* expressions z enh>monic *ange1 enh>monic keys1 enh>monic int]val1 enh>monic modulation1 enh>monic relation1 etc41 & 9 all su* comb9ations x has ! same mean+1 viz4--a *ange 9 notation b no *ange 9 ! pit* repres5t$4 #bh4 ,a note is a "* express+ relative duration1 :i* :5 plac$ on a /aff indicates t a c]ta9 tone is to be s\nd$ = a c]ta9 relative l5g? ( "t4 ,! pit* ( ! tone to be s\nd$ is %[n by ! position ( ! note on ! /aff1 :ile ! l5g? ( "t x is to be prolong$ is %[n by ! %ape ( ! note4 ,?us e4g41 a half-note on ! second l9e ( ! treble /aff indicates t a specific pit* 7g'7 is to be play$ or sung = a p]iod ( "t twice z long z w\ld be indicat$ by a qu>t]-note 9 ! same composition4 #bi4 ,a re/ is a "* :i* indicates a rhy?mic sil5ce ( a c]ta9 relative l5g?4 #cj4 ,! notes & re/s 9 common use are z foll[s3 symbol ,:ole-note4 ,an op5 note-head )\t /em4 symbol ,half-note4 ,an op5 note-head ) /em4 symbol ,qu>t]-note4 ,a clos$ note-head ) /em4 symbol ,eigh?-note4 ,a clos$ note-head ) /em & "o hook4 symbol ,sixte5?-note4 ,a clos$ note-head ) /em & two hooks4 symbol ,?irty-second-note4 ,a clos$ note-head ) /em & ?ree hooks4 symbol ,:ole-re/4 symbol ,half-re/4 symbol ,qu>t]-re/4 symbol ,eigh?-re/4 symbol ,sixte5?-re/4 symbol ,?irty-second-re/4 #ca4 ,! ,engli% names = ^! notes are3 ,:ole-note--semi-breve4 ,half-note--m9im4 ,qu>t]-note--crot*et4 ,eigh?-note--quav]4 ,sixte5?-note--semi-quav]4 ,?irty-second-note--demi-semi-quav]4 ,! correspond+ re/s are ref]r$ to by ! same sy/em ( nom5clature3 e4g41 semi-breve re/1 etc4 #cb4 ,sixty-f\r? & "o-hundr$-&-tw5ty-eigh?-notes are occasionally f\nd1 b are n 9 common use4 ,! d\ble-:ole-note 7breve71 made breve symbol or old breve symbol1 is /ill us$1 especially 9 ,engli% music1 :i* frequ5tly employs ! half-note z ! beat-unit4 ,?us 9 f\r-half measure ! breve w\ld be necess>y to indicate a tone hav+ f\r beats4 #cc4 ,! :ole-re/ has a peculi>ity ( usage n common to any ( ! o!r duration symbols1 viz41 t x is (t5 employ$ z a measure-re/1 fill+ an entire measure ( beats1 no matt] :at ! measure-signature may be4 ,?us1 n only 9 f\r-qu>t]-measure1 b 9 two-qu>t]1 ?ree-qu>t]1 six-eigh?1 & o!r v>ieties1 ! :ole-re/ fills ! entire measure1 hav+ a value sometimes great]1 sometimes less ?an ! correspond+ :ole-note4 ,because ( ?is peculi>ity ( usage ! :ole-re/ is t]m$ ,takt-pausa 7measure-re/7 by ! ,g]mans4 #cd4 ,a b> is a v]tical l9e across ! /aff1 divid+ x into measures4 ,! ^w b> is (t5 us$ synonym\sly ) measure by or*e/ral conductors & o!rs2 ?us1 beg9 at ! f\rte5? b> aft] ,j4 ,?is use ( ! ^w1 al?\gh popul>1 is incorrect4 #ce4 ,a d\ble-b> consi/s ( two v]tical l9es across ! /aff1 at lea/ "o ( ! two be+ a heavy l9e4 ,! d\ble b> m>ks ! end ( a division1 movem5t1 or entire composition4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,abbreviations1 ,,signs1 ,,etc4 #cf4 ,a d\ble b> 7or s+le heavy b>7 ) ei!r two or f\r dots indicates t a section is to be repeat$4 ,if ! repeat m>ks occur at only "o po9t ! entire prec$+ "p is to be repeat$1 b if ! m>ks occur twice 7! fir/ "t at ! "r ( ! b> b ! second "t at ! left71 only ! section ?us enclos$ by ! m>ks is to be repeat$4 ,illu/ration #cg4 ,sometimes a diff]5t cad5ce 7or end+7 is to be us$ = ! repetition1 & ?is is indicat$ z 9 ,fig4 #bd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bd4 #ch4 ,! ,italian ^w bis is occasionally us$ to indicate t a c]ta9 passage or section is to be repeat$4 ,?is use is becom+ obsolete4 #ci4 ,! words da capo 7,d4,c47 mean lit]ally f ! head1 i4e41 repeat f ! beg9n+4 ,! words dal segno 7,d4,s47 indicate a repetition f ! sign 7segno symbol or segno symbol7 in/ead ( f ! beg9n+4 ,9 ! case ( bo? ,d4,c4 & ,d4,s4 ! ^w f9e 7mean+ lit]ally ! end7 is ord9>ily us$ to designate ! po9t at :i* ! repeat$ section is to t]m9ate4 ,! f]mata 7f]mata symbol7 0 =m]ly 9 common use = ?is same purpose1 b is seldom s employ$ at pres5t4 ,d4,c4 7s9#i7 al f9e means--repeat f ! beg9n+ to ! ^w f9e4 ,footnote #i3 ,! ^w s9 is a contraction ( ! ,italian ^w s9o1 mean+ z f> z or until2 9 ! t]m giv5 above 7,sec4 #ci7 x is really sup]flu\s z ! ^w al includes 9 itself bo? preposition & article1 mean+ to !4 ,d4,c4 al f]mata symbol means--repeat to ! f]mata 7or hold74 ,d4,c4 s5za repetizione1 or ,d4,c4 ma s5za repetizione1 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,correct$ misspell+ repetitione bo? mean--repeat f ! beg9n+1 b )\t obs]v+ o!r repeat m>ks dur+ ! repetition4 ,d4,c4 e poi la coda means--repeat ! fir/ section only to ! m>k coda symbol1 !n skip to ! coda4 7,see p4 #gd1 ,sec4 #aeg1 = discussion ( coda74 #dj4 ,9 c]ta9 cases :]e ! repetition ( *>act]i/ic figures c be indicat$ )\t caus+ confusion1 x is ! practice ( compos]s 7especially 9 or*e/ral music7 to make use ( c]ta9 signs ( repetition4 ,"s ( ! commone/ ( ^! abbreviations are %[n 9 ! foll[+ examples4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,9 ,fig4 #bh ! repetition ( an entire measure is call$ =4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bh4 #da4 ,! ^w simile ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,correct$ error similie 7sometimes segue7 indicates t a c]ta9 effect previ\sly begun is to be cont9u$1 z e4g41 /accato play+1 p$all+1 /yle ( b[+ 9 viol9 music1 etc4 ,! ^w segue is also occasionally us$ to %[ t an accompanim5t figure 7especially 9 or*e/ral music7 is to be cont9u$4 #db4 ,:5 "s "p is to re/ = two or m measures sev]al me?ods ( notation are possible4 ,a re/ ( two measures is usually indicat$ ?us ,illu/ration4 ,?ree measures ?us ,illu/ration4 ,f\r measures ?us ,illu/ration4 ,re/s ( m ?an f\r measures are usually indicat$ 9 "o ( ! foll[+ ways3 ,illu/ration4 ,sometimes ! numb] ( measures is writt5 directly on ! /aff1 ?us2 ,illu/ration4 #dc4 ,! lett]s ,g4,p4 7g5]al pause1 or grosse pause71 ! words lunga pausa1 or simply ! ^w lunga1 are sometimes writt5 ov] a re/ to %[ t !re is to be a prolong$ pause or re/ 9 all p>ts4 ,su* expressions are f\nd only 9 ensemble music1 i4e41 music 9 :i* sev]al p]=m]s are engag$ at ! same "t4 #dd4 ,! f]mata or hold f]mata symbol ov] a note or *ord indicates t ! tone is to be prolong$1 ! duration ( ! prolongation dep5d+ ^u ! "* ( ! music & ! ta/e ( ! p]=m] or conductor4 ,x has already be5 not$ t ! hold ov] a b> 0 =m]ly us$ to designate ! end ( ! composition1 z ! ^w f9e is employ$ at pres5t1 b ?is usage has practically disappe>$ & ! hold ov] ! b> n[ usually indicates a %ort re/ betwe5 two sections ( a composition4 #de4 ,! sign #hva444444 7an abbreviation ( all'ottava1 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,correct$ error al ottava 9 orig9al4 lit]ally at ! octave7 above ! /aff1 indicates t all tones are to be s\nd$ an octave high] ?an ! notes w\ld indicate4 ,:5 f\nd bel[ ! /aff ! same sign s]ves to indicate t ! tones are to be s\nd$ an octave l[]4 ,! t]m #hva bassa has also ?is latt] signification4 #df4 ,sometimes ! ^w loco 79 place7 is us$ to %[ t ! "p is no long] to be s\nd$ an octave high] 7or l[]71 b ?is is m (t5 indicat$ by ! t]m9ation ( ! dott$ 7or wavy7 l9e4 #dg4 ,! sign ,col #h 7coll'ottava--) ! octave7 %[s t ! tones an octave high] or l[] are to be s\nd$ ) ! tones indicat$ by ! pr9t$ notes4 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,correct$ error col ottava 9 orig9al4 #dh4 ,= ! sake ( def9it5ess 9 ref]r+ to pit*es1 a p>ticul> "n is appli$ to ea* octave1 & all pit*es 9 ! octave are ref]r$ to by means ( a uni=m nom5clature4 ,! foll[+ figure w make ?is sy/em cle>3 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,?us e4g41 great ,g 7writt5 simply ,g71 is ! ,g repres5t$ by ! fir/ l9e ( ! bass /aff4 ,small ,a 7writt5 a71 is repres5t$ by ! fif? l9e ( ! bass /aff4 ,two-l9$ ,g1 7writt5 #b-l9$ g symbol71 is repres5t$ by ! space above ! fif? l9e1 treble /aff4 ,?ree-l9$ ,c1 7writt5 #c-l9$ c symbol71 is repres5t$ by ! second add$ l9e above ! treble /aff1 etc4 ,! "o-l9$ octave may be describ$ z ! octave f middle ,c to ! ,b repres5t$ by ! ?ird l9e ( ! treble /aff1 & any tone )9 t octave is ref]r$ to z "o-l9$4 ,?us--"o-l9$ ,d1 "o-l9$ ,g1 etc4 ,9 sci5tific works on ac\/ics1 etc41 ! pit*es 9 ! sub octave 7or sub-contra octave z x is (t5 call$7 are ref]r$ to z ,c#b1 ,d#b1 ,e#b1 etc42 ^? 9 ! contra octave z ,c#a1 ,d#a1 etc42 9 ! great octave1 z c#a1 d#a1 etc42 9 ! small octave z c#b1 d#b1 etc4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,abbreviations1 ,,signs1 ,,etc41 7,cont9u$7 #di4 ,a dot aft] a note %[s t ! value ( ! note is to be half aga9 z great z x w\ld be )\t ! dot1 i4e41 ! value is to be ?ree-halves t ( ! orig9al note4 ,illu/ration #ej4 ,:5 two dots foll[ ! note ! second dot adds half z mu* z ! fir/ dot has add$1 i4e41 ! entire value is sev5-f\r?s t ( ! orig9al note4 ,illu/ration #ea4 ,:5 ?ree dots foll[ ! note ! ?ird dot adds "o-half ! value add$ by ! second1 i4e41 ! entire value ( ! triple-dott$ note is fifte5-eigh?s t ( ! orig9al note4 ,illu/ration #eb4 ,a dot ov] or "u a note is call$ ! /accato m>k & indicates t ! tone is to be s\nd$ & !n in/antly releas$4 ,illu/ration ,9 music = organ & = "s o!r in/rum5ts ! /accato note is sometimes int]pret$ diff]5tly1 ?is dep5d+ on ! "* ( ! in/rum5t4 ,on /r+$ in/rum5ts ( ! viol9 family ! /accato effect is usually secur$ by a long1 rapid /roke ( ! b[ = ea* tone2 9 ! case ( h>p & drum ! h& is quickly br\ght 9 contact ) ! vibrat+ body1 ?us /opp+ ! tone in/antly4 ,on ! organ ! tone is (t5 prolong$ to "o-half ! value ( ! pr9t$ note be=e ! keys are releas$4 #ec4 ,! w$ge-%ap$ da% ov] ! note 7/accatissimo7 0 =m]ly employ$ to indicate a tone /ill m deta*$ ?an t indicat$ by ! dot1 b ?is sign is really sup]flu\s1 & is seldom us$ at pres5t4 ,illu/ration #ed4 ,a tie is a curv$ l9e connect+ ! heads ( two notes t call = ! same tone4 ,x indicates t !y are to be s\nd$ z "o tone hav+ a duration equal to ! comb9$ value ( bo? notes4 ,e4g41 a half-note ti$ to a qu>t]-note w\ld indicate a tone equal 9 duration-l5g? to t %[n by a dott$ half-note2 two half-notes ti$ w\ld indicate a tone equal 9 duration to t %[n by a :ole-note4 7,see examples "u ,sections #di1 #ej1 & #ea74 ,fig4 #cj illu/rates ! m common v>iety ( tie1 :ile ,fig4 #ca %[s an example ( ! enh>monic#aj tie4 ,footnote #aj3 ,= def9ition ( enh>monic see p4 #aj1 ,sec4 #bg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ca4 #ee4 ,! slur is us$ 9 s _m diff]5t ways t x is impossible to give a g5]al def9ition4 ,x consi/s ( a curv$ l9e1 sometimes v %ort 79 :i* case x looks l ! tie71 b sometimes v long1 connect+ t51 fifte51 or m notes4 ,"s ( ! m common uses ( ! slur are3 ,a4 ,to indicate legato 7su/a9$ or connect$7 tones1 z contra/$ ) /accato 7deta*$7 ones4 ,9 viol9 music ?is implies play+ all tones ?us slurr$ 9 "o b[2 9 music = ! voice & = w9d in/rum5ts x implies s++ or play+ !m 9 "o brea?4 ,b4 ,z a phrase-m>k1 9 ! int]pretation ( :i* ! fir/ tone ( ! phrase is (t5 acc5t$ slightly1 & ! la/ "o %ort5$ 9 value4 ,?is int]pretation ( ! phrase is especially common :5 ! phrase is %ort 7z 9 ! two-note phrase71 & :5 ! tones con/itut+ ! phrase are ( %ort duration1 e4g41 ! phrase giv5 9 ,fig4 #cb w\ld be play$ approximately z writt5 9 ,fig4 #cc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,b if ! notes are ( great] value1 especially 9 sl[ tempi1 ! slur m]ely indicates legato1 i4e41 su/a9$ or connect$ r5dition4 ,fig4 #cd illu/rates su* a case4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,?is is a matt] ( su* div]se usage t x is difficult to g5]alize reg>d+ x4 ,! t5d5cy seems at pres5t to be 9 ! direction ( us+ ! slur 79 in/rum5tal music7 z a phrase-m>k exclusively1 x be+ und]/ood t unless !re is "s direction to ! contr>y1 ! tones are to be p]=m$ 9 a connect$ mann]4 ,c4 ,9 vocal music1 to %[ t two or m tones are to be sung to "o syllable ( text4 ,see ,fig4 #ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,,m5delssohn 7,s4 ,paul7 re-mem-b]s ,8 *il-dr54 ,9 notes ( small d5om9ation 7eigh?s & small]7 ?is same ?+ is (t5 indicat$ by /rok+ ! /ems toge!r z 9 ,fig4 #cf4 ,?is c only be done 9 cases :]e ! natural gr\p+ ( notes 9 ! measure w n be de/roy$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ev-er & ev-er1 = ev-er & ,d4 ,to m>k special note-gr\ps 7triplets1 etc471 9 :i* case ! slur is accompani$ by a figure indicat+ ! numb] ( notes 9 ! gr\p4 ,see ,fig4 #cg 7a7 ,! mo/ common ( ^! irregul> note-gr\ps is ! triplet1 :i* consi/s ( ?ree notes to be p]=m$ 9 ! "t ord9>ily giv5 to two ( ! same value4 ,sometimes ! triplet consi/s ( only two notes z 9 ,fig4 #cg 7b74 ,9 su* a case ! fir/ two ( ! ?ree notes compos+ ! triplet are consid]$ to be ti$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,:5 ! triplet =m is p]fectly obvi\s1 ! ,fig4 #c 7z well z ! slur7 may be omitt$4 ,o!r examples ( irregul> note-gr\ps1 toge!r ) ! names commonly appli$1 foll[4 ,illu/ration3 ,d\blet4 ,qu9tuplet or ,qu9tolet4 ,sextuplet or ,sextolet4 ,septolet or ,septimole4 #ef4 ,! comb9ation ( slur or tie & dots ov] ! notes indicates t ! tones are to be some:at deta*$1 b n %>ply s4 ,illu/ration ,?is effect is sometimes errone\sly t]m$ portam5to 7lit4 c>ry+71 b ?is t]m is m prop]ly res]v$ = an entirely diff]5t effect1 viz41 :5 a s+]1 or play] on a /r+$ in/rum5t1 passes f a high tone to a l[ "o 7or vice v]sa7 t\*+ lightly on "s or all ( ! diatonic tones betwe5 ! two melody tones4 #eg4 ,! horizontal da% ov] a note ,illu/ration indicates t ! tone is to be slightly acc5t$1 & su/a9$4 ,?is m>k is also sometimes us$ aft] a /accato passage to %[ t ! tones are no long] to be p]=m$ 9 deta*$ fa%ion1 b are to be su/a9$4 ,?is latt] use is especially common 9 music = /r+$ in/rum5ts4 #eh4 ,! comb9ation ( da% & dot ov] a note ,illu/ration indicates t ! tone is to be slightly acc5t$ & sep>at$ f its neighbor+ tones4 #ei4 ,acc5t m>ks are made 9 a v>iety ( fa%ions4 ,! mo/ common =ms foll[4 horizontal acc5t symbol v]tical acc5t symbol sf fz4 ,all indicate t a c]ta9 tone or *ord is to be diff]5tiat$ f its neighbor+ tones or *ords by receiv+ a c]ta9 relative am\nt ( /ress4 #fj4 ,9 music = keybo>d in/rum5ts x is sometimes necess>y to indicate t a c]ta9 "p is to be play$ by a c]ta9 h&4 ,! abbreviations r4h4 7"r h&71 m4d4 7mano de/ra1 ,x471 & m4d4 7ma9 droite1 ,fr471 designate t a passage or tone is to be play$ ) ! "r h&1 :ile l4h4 7left h&71 m4s4 7mano s9i/ra1 ,x471 & m4g4 7ma9 gau*e1 ,fr471 %[ t ! left h& is to be employ$4 #fa4 ,! wavy l9e plac$ v]tically beside a *ord ,illu/ration indicates t ! tones are to be s\nd$ consecutively in/ead ( simultane\sly1 beg9n+ ) ! l[e/ tone1 all tones be+ su/a9$ until ! duration-value ( ! *ord has expir$4 ,?is is call$ arpeggio play+4 ,:5 ! wavy l9e ext5ds ?r\gh ! entire *ord 7cov]+ bo? /affs7 z 9 ,fig4 #ch1 all ! tones ( ! *ord are to be play$ "o aft] ano!r1 beg9n+ ) ! l[e/3 b if !re is a sep>ate wavy l9e = ea* /aff z at ,fig4 #ci !n ! l[e/ tone repres5t$ on ! upp] /aff is to be play$ simultane\sly ) ! l[e/ tone repres5t$ on ! bass /aff4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,! ^w arpeggio 7plural arpeggi7 is a d]ivation ( ! ,italian ^w arpa 7mean+ h>p71 & f ?is ^w arpa & its correspond+ v]b arpeggi>e 7to play on ! h>p7 are d]iv$ also a numb] ( o!r t]ms commonly us$ 9 in/rum5tal music4 ,among ^! are--arpeggiam5to1 arpeggi&o1 arpeggiato1 etc41 all ( ^! t]ms ref]r+ to a h>p /yle ( p]=mance1 ! tones be+ s\nd$ "o aft] ano!r 9 rapid succession in/ead ( simultane\sly z on ! piano4 #fb4 ,! sign cresc5do-decresc5do symbol ov] a note indicates t ! tone is to be begun s(tly1 gradually increas$ 9 p[]1 & z gradually decreas$ aga91 end+ z s(tly z x began4 ,9 vocal music ?is effect is call$ messa di voce4 #fc4 ,9 music = /r+$ in/rum5ts ( ! viol9 family1 ! sign d[n-b[ symbol indicates d[n-b[ & ! sign up-b[ symbol up-b[4 ,9 cello music ! d[n-b[ sign is sometimes writt5 cello d[n-b[ symbol4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,embelli%m5ts #fd4 ,embelli%m5ts 7or graces7 7,fr4 agrem5ts7 are ornam5tal tones1 ei!r repres5t$ 9 full 9 ! score or indicat$ by c]ta9 signs4 ,! foll[+ are ! embelli%m5ts mo/ commonly f\nd3 ,trill 7or %ake71 mord5t1 inv]t$ mord5t 7or prall trill71 turn 7gruppetto71 inv]t$ turn1 appoggiatura & acciaccatura4 ,usage v>ies greatly 9 ! int]pretation ( ! signs repres5t+ ^! embelli%m5ts & x is impossible to give examples ( all ! diff]5t =ms4 ,! foll[+ def9itions repres5t !re=e only ! mo/ commonly f\nd examples & ! mo/ g5]ally accept$ int]pretations4 #fe4 ,! trill 7or %ake7 consi/s ( ! rapid alt]nation ( two tones to ! full value ( ! pr9t$ note4 ,! l[] ( ^! two tones is repres5t$ by ! pr9t$ note1 :ile ! upp] "o is ! next high] tone 9 ! diatonic scale ( ! key 9 :i* ! composition is writt54 ,! int]val betwe5 ! two tones may !re=e be ei!r a half-/ep or a :ole-/ep4 ,:e!r ! trill is to beg9 ) ! pr9cipal tone 7repres5t$ by ! pr9t$ note7 or ) ! "o above is a matt] ( "s dispute among !ori/s & p]=m]s1 b x may safely be said t ! majority ( mod]n writ]s on ! subject w\ld h x beg9 on ! pr9cipal tone r ?an on ! tone above4 ,fig4 #dj4 ,:5 ! pr9cipal note is prec$$ by a small note on ! degree above1 x is ( c\rse und]/ood t ! trill beg9s on ! tone above4 ,fig4 #da4 ,! trill is indicat$ by ! sign trill symbol4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,! above examples w\ld be t]m$ p]fect trills because !y close ) a turn4 ,by inf]5ce1 an imp]fect trill is "o clos+ )\t a turn4 #ff4 ,! mord5t mord5t symbol consi/s ( ?ree tones2 fir/ ! "o repres5t$ by ! pr9t$ note2 second ! "o next bel[ x 9 ! diatonic scale2 ?ird ! "o repres5t$ by ! pr9t$ note aga94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #db4 #fg4 ,! d\ble 7or long7 mord5t has five tones 7sometimes sev57 in/ead ( ?ree1 ! fir/ two ( ! ?ree tones ( ! regul> mord5t be+ repeat$ once or m4 7,see ,fig4 #dc47 ,9 ! case ( bo? mord5t & d\ble-mord5t ! tones are s\nd$ z quickly z possible1 ! "t tak5 by ! embelli%m5t be+ subtract$ f ! value ( ! pr9cipal note z pr9t$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dc4 #fh4 ,! inv]t$ mord5t inv]t$ mord5t symbol 7note ! abs5ce ( ! v]tical l9e7 is l ! mord5t except t ! tone bel[ is replac$ by ! tone above 9 ea* case4 ,?is ornam5t is sometimes call$ a transi5t %ake because x is really only a "p ( ! m elaborate grace call$ trill4 7,see ,fig4 #dd47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,! confusion at pres5t att5d+ ! int]pretation ( ! la/ two embelli%m5ts describ$1 might be l>gely obviat$ if ! sugge/ion ( a rec5t writ]#aa to call ! "o ! upw>d mord5t1 & ! o!r ! d[nw>d mord5t 7 to be univ]sally adopt$4 ,footnote #aa3 ,elson--,diction>y ( ,music1 article mord5t4 #fi4 ,! turn consi/s ( f\r tones2 fir/1 ! diatonic scale-tone above ! pr9cipal tone2 second1 ! pr9cipal tone itself2 ?ird1 ! tone bel[ ! pr9cipal tone2 & f\r?1 ! pr9cipal tone aga94 ,:5 ! sign 7turn symbol or fancy turn symbol7 occurs ov] a note ( small value 9 rapid tempo 7,fig4 #de7 ! turn consi/s ( f\r tones ( equal value2 b if x occurs ov] a note ( great] value1 or 9 a sl[ tempo1 ! tones are usually play$ quickly 7l ! mord5t71 & ! f\r? tone is !n held until ! "t-value ( ! note has expir$4 7,fig4 #df47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #df4 #gj4 ,:5 ! turn-sign is plac$ a little to ! "r ( ! note ! pr9cipal tone is s\nd$ fir/ & held to almo/ its full "t-value1 !n ! turn is play$ j be=e ! next tone ( ! melody4 ,9 ?is case ! f\r tones are ( equal l5g? z 9 ! fir/ example4 7,see ,fig4 #dg47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,! /ud5t %\ld note ! diff]5ce betwe5 ^! two effects2 9 ! case ( a turn ov] ! note ! turn comes at ! beg9n+1 b 9 ! case ( ! sign aft] ! note ! turn comes at ! v end4 ,b 9 bo? cases ! "t tak5 by ! embelli%m5t is tak5 f ! "t-value ( ! pr9cipal note4 ,= fur!r details see ,grove's ,diction>y ( ,music & ,musicians1 ,vol4 ,v1 p4 #ahd4 ,also ,elson1 op4 cit4 p4 #bgd4 #ga4 ,sometimes an accid5tal occurs ) ! turn1 & 9 ?is case :5 writt5 above ! sign x ref]s to ! highe/ tone ( ! turn1 b :5 writt5 bel[1 to ! l[e/ 7,fig4 #dh74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dh4 #gb4 ,9 ! inv]t$ turn ! ord] ( tones is rev]s$1 ! l[e/ "o com+ fir/1 ! pr9cipal tone next1 ! highe/ tone ?ird1 & ! pr9cipal tone aga91 la/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #di4 #gc4 ,! appoggiatura 7lit4 lean+ note7 consi/s ( an ornam5tal tone introduc$ be=e a tone ( a melody1 ?us delay+ ! melody tone until ! ornam5tal tone has be5 he>d4 ,! "t tak5 = ?is ornam5tal tone is tak5 f t ( ! melody tone4 ,! appoggiatura 0 =m]ly classifi$ into long appoggiatura & %ort appoggiatura1 b mod]n writ]s seem to consid] ! t]m %ort appoggiatura to be synonym\s ) acciaccatura#ab1 & to avoid confusion ! ^w acciaccatura w be us$ 9 ?is s5se1 & def9$ "u its own head+4 ,footnote #ab3 ,9 organ music ! acciaccatura is /ill tak5 to mean t ! embelli%+ tone & ! melody tone are to be s\nd$ toge!r1 ! =m] be+ !n in/antly releas$1 :ile ! latt] is held to its full "t-value4 #gd4 ,?ree rules = ! int]pretation ( ! appoggiatura are commonly cit$1 viz43 7#a7 ,:5 x is possible to divide ! pr9cipal tone into halves1 !n ! appoggiatura receives "o-half ! value ( ! pr9t$ note4 7,fig4 #ej47 7#b7 ,:5 ! pr9cipal note is dott$ 7division into halves be+ !re=e n possible71 ! appoggiatura receives two-?irds ( ! value4 7,fig4 #ea47 7#c7 ,:5 ! pr9cipal note is ti$ to a note ( small] d5om9ation ! appoggiatura receives ! value ( ! fir/ ( ! two notes4 7,fig4 #eb47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eb4 #ge4 ,! acciaccatura 7or %ort appoggiatura7 is writt5 l ! appoggiatura except t x has a light /roke across its /em4 ,illu/ration ,x has no def9ite duration-value1 b is s\nd$ z quickly z possible1 tak+ its "t f t ( ! pr9cipal tone4 ,! appoggiatura is always acc5t$1 b ! acciaccatura nev] is1 ! /ress always fall+ on ! melody tone4 7,see ,grove1 op4 cit4 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #if47 ,! use ( embelli%m5ts is on ! wane1 & ! /ud5t ( to-day ne$s ! above in=mation only to aid him 9 ! int]pretation ( music writt5 9 previ\s c5turies4 ,9 ! e>ly days ( in/rum5tal music x 0 necess>y to introduce graces ( all sorts because ! in/rum5ts 9 use 7 n capable ( su/a9+ tone = any l5g? ( "t2 b ) ! adv5t ( ! mod]n piano ) its comp>atively great su/a9+ p[]1 & also ) ! adv5t 9 vocal music ( a new /yle ( s++ 7,g]man ,li$] s++ z contra/$ ) ,italian coloratura s++71 ornam5tal tones 7 us$ less & less1 & :5 f\nd n[ are usually writt5 out 9 full 9 ! score in/ead ( be+ indicat$ by signs4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,scales #gf4 ,a scale 7f scala1 a ,lat9 ^w mean+ ladd]2 ,g]4 ,ton-leit]7 is an asc5d+ or desc5d+ s]ies ( tones1 progress+ accord+ to "s def9ite sy/em1 & all be>+ 79 ! case ( tonality scales at lea/7 a v intimate relation to ! fir/ tone--! key-tone or tonic4 7,see p4 #bh1 ,sec4 #gh2 also note #a at bottom ( p4 #ch47 ,_m diff]5t k9ds ( scales h exi/$ 9 v>i\s musical eras1 ! po9t ( resemblance among !m all be+ ! fact t !y h all m or less recogniz$ ! octave z ! natural limit ( ! s]ies4 ,! diff]5ce among ! v>i\s scales has be5 9 ! selection ( int]vals betwe5 ! scale-tones1 &1 consequ5tly1 9 ! numb] ( tones )9 ! octave4 ,?us e4g41 9 our major scale ! int]vals betwe5 ! tones are all :ole-/eps except two 7:i* are half-/eps71 & ! result is a scale ( eight tones 7includ+ 9 ?is numb] bo? ! key-tone & its octave73 b 9 ! s-call$ p5tatonic scale ( ! ,*9ese & o!r old] civilizations we f9d l>g] int]vals 7e4g41 ! /ep-&-a-half71 & consequ5tly a small] numb] ( tones )9 ! octave4 ,?us 9 ! scale ^u :i* _m ( ! old] ,scot* folk songs are bas$ ! int]vals are arrang$ z foll[s3 #a :ole #b :ole #c /ep-&- #d :ole #e /ep-&- #f /ep /ep a-half /ep a-half ,! result is a scale ( six tones1 correspond+ approximately ) ,c--,d--,e--,g--,a--,c 9 our mod]n sy/em4 ,! t]m p5tatonic is ?us se5 to be a misnom] s9ce ! six? tone is necess>y = ! completion ( ! s]ies1 j z ! eigh? tone is ess5tial 9 our diatonic scales4 ,! foll[+ ,*9ese tune 7call$ ,jasm9e7 is bas$ on ! p5tatonic scale4 ,illu/ration #gg4 ,9 /udy+ ! !ory ( ! scale ! /ud5t %\ld be> 9 m9d ! fact t a scale is n an arbitr>y s]ies ( tones :i* "s "o has inv5t$1 & :i* o!rs are requir$ to make use (4 ,x is r ! result ( accu/om+ ! e> to c]ta9 melodic comb9ations 7:i* 7 orig9ally hit ^u by accid5t71 & f9ally analyz+ & sy/ematiz+ ^! comb9ations into a c]ta9 def9ite ord] or arrangem5t4 ,! application ( ?is idea may be v]ifi$ :5 x is recall$ t mo/ primitive peoples h inv5t$ melodies ( "s sort1 b t only 9 mod]n times1 & p>ticul>ly s9ce ! developm5t ( in/rum5tal music1 h ^! melodies be5 analyz$1 & ! scale ^u :i* !y h be5 bas$1 discov]$1 ! inv5tors ( ! melodies be+ !mselves :olly ignorant ( ! exi/5ce ( su* scales4 #gh4 ,a key is a numb] ( tones gr\p+ !mselves naturally 7bo? melodically & h>monically7 ab\t a c5tral tone--! key tone4 ,! ^w tonality is (t5 us$ synonym\sly ) key 9 ?is s5se4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 key & scale is !re=e ?is1 t :ile bo? key & scale employ ! same tone mat]ial1 by key we mean ! mat]ial 9 g5]al1 )\t any p>ticul> ord] or arrangem5t 9 m9d1 :ile by scale we mean ! same tones1 b n[ arrang$ into a regul> asc5d+ or desc5d+ s]ies4 ,x %\ld be not$ 9 ?is connection also t n all scales pres5t an equally good opportunity ( hav+ _! tones us$ z a basis = tonality or key-feel+3 nei!r ! *romatic nor ! :ole-/ep scale possess ! necess>y *>act]i/ics = be+ us$ z tonality scales 9 ! same s5se t our major & m9or scales are s us$4 #gi4 ,!re are ?ree g5]al classes ( scales extant at ! pres5t "t1 viz43 7#a7 ,diatonic2 7#b7 ,*romatic2 7#c7 ,:ole-tone4#ac ,footnote #ac3 ,if /rictly logical t]m9ology is to be insi/$ ^u ! :ole-tone scale %\ld be call$ ! :ole-/ep scale4 #hj4 ,! ^w diatonic means ?r\gh ! tones 7i4e41 ?r\gh ! tones ( ! key71 & is appli$ to bo? major & m9or scales ( our mod]n tonality sy/em4 ,9 g5]al a diatonic scale may be def9$ z "o :i* proce$s by half-/eps & :ole-/eps4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "o exception to ?is pr9ciple1 viz41 9 ! progression six to sev5 9 ! h>monic m9or scale1 :i* is ( c\rse a /ep-&-a-half4 7,see p4 #cc1 ,sec4 #hf47 #ha4 ,a major diatonic scale is "o 9 :i* ! int]vals betwe5 ! tones are arrang$ z foll[s3 #a :ole #b :ole #c half #d :ole #e :ole #f :ole #g half #h /ep /ep /ep /ep /ep /ep /ep ,9 o!r words1 a major diatonic scale is "o 9 :i* ! int]vals betwe5 ?ree & f\r1 & betwe5 sev5 & eight are half-/eps1 all ! o!rs be+ :ole-/eps4 ,a composition bas$ on ?is scale is said to be writt5 9 ! major mode1 or 9 a major key4 ,! major diatonic scale may beg9 on any "o ( ! twelve pit*es ,c1 ,c%>p or ,dflat1 ,d1 ,d%>p or ,eflat1 ,e1 ,f1 ,f%>p or ,gflat1 ,g1 ,g%>p or ,aflat1 ,a1 ,a%>p or ,bflat1 ,b1 b 9 ea* case x is ! same scale because ! int]vals betwe5 its tones are ! same4 ,we h !n "o major scale only1 b ?is scale may be writt5 9 _m diff]5t positions1 & may be sung or play$ beg9n+ on any "o ( a numb] ( diff]5t pit*es4 #hb4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t ! major scale consi/s ( two id5tical s]ies ( f\r tones ea*2 i4e41 ! fir/ f\r tones ( ! scale are sep>at$ f "o ano!r by exactly ! same int]vals & ^! int]vals appe> 9 exactly ! same ord] z 9 ! case ( ! la/ f\r tones ( ! scale4 ,fig4 #ec w make ?is cle>4 ,! fir/ f\r tones ( any diatonic scale 7major or m9or7 are (t5 ref]r$ to z ! l[] tetra*ord#ad & ! upp] f\r tones z ! upp] tetra*ord4 ,footnote #ad3 ,! ^w tetra*ord means lit]ally f\r /r+s & ref]s to ! primitive in/rum5t1 ! f\r /r+s ( :i* 7 s tun$ t ! l[e/ & ! highe/ tones produc$ 7 a p]fect f\r? ap>t4 ,) ! ,greeks ! tetra*ord 0 ! unit ( analysis z ! octave is ) u to-day1 & all ,greek scales are capable ( division into two tetra*ords1 ! arrangem5t ( ! int]vals betwe5 ! tones 9 ea* tetra*ord diff]5tiat+ "o scale f ano!r1 b ! tetra*ords !mselves always consi/+ ( gr\ps ( f\r tones1 ! highe/ be+ a p]fect f\r? above ! l[e/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,x is int]e/+ fur!r to note t ! upp] tetra*ord ( any %>p scale is always us$ )\t *ange z ! l[] tetra*ord ( ! next major scale involv+ %>ps1 :ile ! l[] tetra*ord ( any flat scale is us$ z ! upp] tetra*ord ( ! next flat scale4 ,see ,figs4 #ed & #ee4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ee4 #hc4 ,f ! /&po9t ( /aff notation ! major scale may be writt5 9 fifte5 diff]5t positions1 z foll[s3 ,illu/ration ,x w be obs]v$ t 9 ! above s]ies ( scales ^? beg9n+ on ,f%>p & ,gflat call = ! same keys on ! piano1 i4e41 :ile ! notation is diff]5t1 ! actual tones ( ! scale are ! same4 ,! scales ( ,c%>p & ,dflat likewise employ ! same tones4 ,:5 two scales ?us employ ! same tones b diff] 9 notation !y are said to be enh>monic1 7cf4 p4 #ch1 ,sec4 #ic47 ,note4--,! /ud5t is advis$ to adopt "s uni=m me?od ( writ+ scales1 pref]ably ! "o foll[$ 9 ^? giv5 above1 ! necess>y %>ps & flats appe>+ be=e ! notes 9 ! scale & !n repeat$ collectively at ! end z a signature4 ,he is also advis$ to repeat ^! scales & signatures ov] & ov] until absolute famili>ity is atta9$4 ,e4g41 ,e--,f%>p--,g%>p--,a--,b--,c%>p--,d%>p-- ,e2 signature1 f\r %>ps1 ,f1 ,c1 ,g1 & ,d4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,scales 7,cont9u$7 #hd4 ,! m9or diatonic scale is us$ 9 sev]al slightly diff]5t =ms1 b ! *>act]i/ic int]val betwe5 ! fir/ & ?ird tones 7:i* diff]5tiates x f ! major scale7 rema9s ! same 9 e case4 ,?is int]val betwe5 ! fir/ & ?ird tones consi/s ( f\r half-/eps 9 ! major scale & ( ?ree half-/eps 9 ! m9or scale & ?is diff]5ce 9 size has giv5 rise to ! designation major = ! scale hav+ ! l>g] ?ird1 & m9or = ! scale hav+ ! small] "o4 #he4 ,! orig9al 7or primitive7 =m ( ! m9or scale has its tones arrang$ z foll[s4 #a :ole #b half #c :ole #d :ole #e half #f :ole #g :ole #h /ep /ep /ep /ep /ep /ep /ep ,z its "n implies1 ?is is ! olde/ ( ! ?ree =ms 7be+ d]iv$ f ! old ,greek ,aeolian scale71 b because ( ! abs5ce ( a lead+ tone x is suitable = ! simple/ "o-"p music only1 & is !re=e little us$ at pres5t4 #hf4 ,! h>monic m9or scale is l ! primitive =m except t x sub/itutes a tone "o half-/ep high] = ! sev5? tone ( ! old] 7i4e41 ! primitive7 =m4 ,?is *ange 0 made because ! developm5t ( writ+ music 9 sev]al p>ts 7p>ticul>ly h>monic "p-writ+7 made necess>y a lead+ tone1 i4e41 a tone ) a /rong t5d5cy to move on up to ! key-tone z a clos+ po9t4 ,9 ord] to secure a tone ) su* a /rongly upw>d t5d5cy ! int]val betwe5 sev5 & eight _h to be r$uc$ 9 size to a half-/ep4 ,x %\ld be not$ t ?is *ange 9 ! sev5? tone ( ! scale caus$ an int]val ( a /ep-&-a-half betwe5 ! six? & sev5? tones ( ! scale4 #a :ole #b half #c :ole #d :ole #e half #f /ep & #g half #h /ep /ep /ep /ep /ep a half /ep #hg4 ,! melodic m9or scale sub/itutes a tone "o half-/ep high] ?an six z well z "o a half-/ep high] ?an sev51 b ?is *ange is made 9 ! asc5d+ scale only1 ! desc5d+ scale be+ l ! primitive =m4 ,! high] six? 7commonly ref]r$ to z ! rais$ six?7 0 us$ to get rid ( ! unmelodic int]val ( a /ep-&-a-half#ae 7augm5t$ second71 :ile ! return to ! primitive =m 9 desc5d+ is made because ! asc5d+ =m is too mu* l ! tonic major scale4 ,footnote #ae3 ,! /ep-&-a-half 7augm5t$ second7 is unmelodic because x is ! same size z a m9or ?ird & ! m9d f9ds x difficult to take 9 z a second 7notes repres5t+ x be+ on adjac5t /aff-degrees7 an int]val ( ! same size z a ?ird4 #a :ole #b half #c :ole #d :ole #e :ole #f :ole #g half #h /ep /ep /ep /ep /ep /ep /ep #g :ole #f half #e :ole #d :ole #c half #b :ole #a /ep /ep /ep /ep /ep /ep ,?is =m is us$ only to a v limit$ ext5t1 & !n pr9cipally 9 vocal music1 ! h>monic =m be+ 9 almo/ univ]sal use 9 spite ( ! augm5t$ second4 #hh4 ,! m9or scale 9 its v>i\s positions 7up to five %>ps & five flats7 & 9 all ?ree =ms foll[s3 a composition bas$ on any "o ( ^! =ms 7or ^u a mixture ( !m1 :i* (t5 occurs7 is said to be 9 ! m9or mode4 ,x w be not$ t ! fir/ f\r tones are alike 9 all ?ree =ms2 i4e41 ! l[] tetra*ord 9 ! m9or scale is inv>iable no matt]1 :at may happ5 to ! upp] tetra*ord4 ,! sign m>ks ! /ep-&-a-half4 ,illu/ration ,note4--,! /ud5t is advis$ to recite ! h>monic =m ( ! m9or scale z 0 sugge/$ 9 ! case ( ! major scale1 not+ t ! rais$ sev5? does n affect ! key-signature4 ,e4g41--,e--,f%>p--,g--,a--,b--,c--,d%>p --,e2 signature1 "o %>p1 ,f4 #hi4 ,a m9or scale hav+ ! same signature z a major scale is said to be its relative m9or4 ,e4g41--e is ! relative m9or ( ,g1 c ( ,eflat1 d ( ,f1 etc41 ! small lett] be+ us$ to ref] to ! m9or key or scale1 :ile ! capital lett] indicates ! major key or scale unless accompani$ by ! ^w m9or4 ,relative keys are !re=e def9$ z ^? hav+ ! same signature4 ,g & e are relative keys1 z are also ,a & f%>p1 etc4 #ij4 ,a m9or scale beg9n+ ) ! same tone z a major scale is ref]r$ to z its tonic m9or4 ,?us1 e4g41 c ) ?ree flats 9 its signature is ! tonic m9or ( ,c ) all degrees 9 natural condition2 e ) "o %>p is ! tonic m9or ( ,e ) f\r %>ps1 etc4 ,tonic keys are !re=e ^? hav+ ! same key-tone4 #ia4 ,! eight tones ( ! diatonic scale 7bo? major & m9or7 are (t5 ref]r$ to by specific names1 z foll[s3 #a4 ,tonic--! tone4 7,?is ref]s to ! fact t ! tonic is ! pr9cipal tone1 or g5]at+ tone ( ! key1 i4e41 x is ! tone47 #b4 ,sup]-tonic--above ! tone4 #c4 ,m$iant--midway betwe5 tonic & dom9ant4 #d4 ,sub-dom9ant--! "u dom9ant4 7,?is "n does n ref] to ! position ( ! tone "u ! dom9ant b to ! fact t ! fif? bel[ ! tonic is also a dom9ant tone--! "u dom9ant--j z ! fif? above is ! upp] dom9ant74 #e4 ,dom9ant--! gov]n+ tone4 7,f ! ,lat9 ^w dom9us mean+ ma/]47 #f4 ,sup]-dom9ant--above ! dom9ant4 ,or ,sub-m$iant--midway betwe5 tonic & sub-dom9ant4 #g4 ,lead+ tone--! tone :i* dem&s resolution to ! tonic 7"o-half /ep above x74 #h4 ,octave--! eigh? tone4 #ib4 ,! syllables commonly appli$ to ! v>i\s major & m9or scales 9 tea*+ sight-s++ are z foll[s3#af ,footnote #af3 ,^! syllables are said to h be5 d]iv$ orig9ally f ! initial syllables ( ! ,hymn to ,sa9t ,john1 ! music ( :i* 0 a typical ,gregorian *ant4 ,! application ( ^! syllables to ! scale tones w be made cle> by ref]5ce to ?is hymn z giv5 bel[4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ?is hymn provid$ syllables only = ! six tones ( ! hexa*ord !n recogniz$2 :5 ! octave scale 0 adopt$ 7e>ly 9 ! sixte5? c5tury7 ! initial lett]s ( ! la/ l9e 7s & i7 7 comb9$ into a syllable = ! sev5? tone4 ,illu/ration3 ,ut que-ant lax-is ,re-s-na-re fi-bris ,mi-ra ges-to-rum ,fa-mu-li tu-o-rum ,sol-ve pol-lu-ti ,la-bi-i re-a-tum ,sanc-te ,jo-han-nes4 ,major--,,d1 ,,re1 ,,mi1 ,,fa1 ,,sol1 ,,la1 ,,ti1 ,,d4 ,m9or#ag--orig9al--,,la1 ,,ti1 ,,d1 ,,re1 ,,mi1 ,,fa1 ,,sol1 ,,la4 h>monic--,,la1 ,,ti1 ,,d1 ,,re1 ,,mi1 ,,fa1 ,,si1 ,,la4 melodic--,,la1 ,,ti1 ,,d1 ,,re1 ,,mi1 ,,fi1 ,,si1 ,,la1 ,,sol1 ,,fa1 ,,mi1 ,,re1 ,,d1 ,,ti1 ,,la4 ,footnote #ag3 ,a consid]able numb] ( tea*]s 7p>ticul>ly ^? :o did n le>n to s+ by syllable 9 *ildhood7 object to call+ ! tonic ( ! m9or scale la1 insi/+ t bo? major & m9or tonic %\ld be call$ d4 ,accord+ to ?is plan ! syllables us$ 9 s++ ! h>monic m9or scale w\ld be3 ,,d1 ,,re1 ,,me1 ,,fa1 ,,sol1 ,,le1 ,,ti1 ,,d4 ,!re is no p>ticul> basis = ?is !ory1 = al?\gh all scales mu/ ( c\rse beg9 ) ! key-tone or tonic1 ?is tonic may be ref]r$ to by any syllable :i* w s]ve z a basis = an association process enabl+ "o to feel ! =ce ( ! tone z a clos+ po9t--a home tone4 ,?us 9 ! ,dorian mode ! tonic w\ld be ,,re1 9 ! ,phrygian1 ,,mi1 etc4 ,x is int]e/+ to /udy ! *anges 9 bo? spell+ & pronunciation t h occurr$ 7& are /ill occurr+7 9 ^! syllables4 ,! fir/ "o 7ut7 0 *ang$ to ,,d z e>ly z ! sixte5? c5tury because ( ! difficulty ( produc+ a good s++ tone on ut4 ,= ! same reason & also 9 ord] to avoid hav+ two diatonic syllables ) ! same initial lett]1 ! tonic-sol-fa sy/em 7inv5t$ 9 ,engl& ab\t #ahab & sy/ematiz$ ab\t #ahej7 *ang$ ,,si to ,,ti & ?is *ange has be5 almo/ univ]sally adopt$ by tea*]s ( sight-s++ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,! m elaborate tonic-sol-fa spell+ ( ! diatonic syllables 7,,doh1 ,,lah1 etc471 has n1 h[ev]1 be5 favorably receiv$ 9 ?is c\ntry & ! t5d5cy seems to be t[>d /ill fur!r simplification r ?an t[>d elaboration4 ,x is probable t fur!r *anges 9 bo? spell+ & pronunciation w be made 9 ! ne> future1 "o su* *ange t seems especially desirable be+ "s o!r syllable ?an ,,re = ! second tone ( ! major scale1 s t ! pres5t syllable may be res]v$ = flat-two1 ?us provid+ a uni=m v[el-s\nd = all int]m$iate tones ( ! desc5d+ *romatic scale1 z is already ! case 9 ! asc5d+ =m4 #ic4 ,! *romatic scale#ah is "o :i* proce$s always by half-/eps4 ,its int]vals are !re=e always equal no matt] ) :at tone x beg9s4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 we h 7f ! /&po9t ( ! piano keybo>d7 five pairs ( tones#ai :i* are enh>monically ! same1 x may readily be se5 t ! *romatic scale might be notat$ 9 all sorts ( fa%ions1 & ?is is 9 fact ! real /atus ( ! matt]1 !re be+ no "o me?od uni=mly agre$ ^u by compos]s4 ,footnote #ah3 ,! /ud5t %\ld diff]5tiate betwe5 ! s-call$ tonality scales l ! major & m9or1 ! tones ( :i* are actually us$ z a basis = key-feel+ ) ! famili> exp]i5ce ( com+ home to ! tonic aft] a melodic or h>monic excursion1 & on ! o!r h& ! purely artificial & me*anical con/ruction ( ! *romatic scale4 ,footnote #ai3 ,_m o!r enh>monic notations are possible1 al?o ! five pairs ( tones above ref]r$ to are ! mo/ common4 ,?us ,e%>p & ,f are enh>monically ! same1 z are also ,cflat & ,b1 ,c%>p & ,bd\ble-%>p1 etc4 ,p>ry 7,grove's ,diction>y1 article *romatic7 recomm5ds writ+ ! scale ) su* accid5tals z c occur 9 *romatic *ords )\t *ang+ ! key 9 :i* ! passage occurs4 ,?us1 tak+ ,c z a type1 ! fir/ accid5tal w be ,dflat1 z ! upp] note ( ! m9or n9? on ! tonic2 ! next w be ,eflat1 ! m9or ?ird ( ! key2 ! next ,f%>p1 ! major ?ird ( ! sup]-tonic--all ( :i* c occur )\t caus+ modulation--& ! rema9+ two w be ,aflat & ,bflat1 ! m9or six? & sev5? ( ! key4 ,accord+ to ?is plan ! *romatic scale beg9n+ ) ,c w\ld be spell$--,c1 ,dflat1 ,d1 ,eflat1 ,e1 ,f1 ,f%>p1 ,g1 ,aflat1 ,a1 ,bflat1 ,b1 ,c--! =m be+ ! same bo? asc5d+ & desc5d+4 ,?is is ( c\rse writt5 exclusively f a h>monic /&po9t & ! advantage ( su* a =m is its def9it5ess4 #id4 ,= sight-s++ purposes ! *romatic scale#bj is usually writt5 by repres5t+ ! int]m$iate tones 9 asc5d+ by %>ps1 79 "s cases naturals & d\ble-%>ps71 & ! int]m$iate tones 9 desc5d+ by flats 7sometimes naturals & d\ble-flats74 ,! *romatic scale 9 n9e diff]5t positions1 writt5 f ?is /&po9t1 foll[s1 & ! syllables mo/ commonly appli$ 9 sight-s++ h also be5 add$4 ,9 ! fir/ two scales ! /ud5t ( h>mony is ask$ to note t because ( ! v common practice ( modulat+ to ! dom9ant & sub-dom9ant keys1 ! int]m$iate tones %>p#d & flat#g are q univ]sally us$ 9 bo? asc5d+ & desc5d+ melody passages4 ,9 o!r words ! scales t foll[ w\ld m ne>ly repres5t actual usage if 9 ea* case %>p#d 7,,fi7 7 sub/itut$ = flat#e 7,,se7 9 ! desc5d+ scale2 & if flat#g 7,,te7 7 sub/itut$ = %>p#f 7,,li7 9 ! asc5d+ =m4 ,footnote #bj3 ,! ^w *romatic means lit]ally color$ & 0 fir/ appli$ to ! int]m$iate tones because by us+ !m ! s+] c\ld get smoo!r & m div]sely-%ad$ progressions1 i4e41 c\ld get m color ?an by us+ only ! diatonic tones4 ,compos]s 7 n long discov]+ ! peculi> value ( ^! additional tones & soon f\nd t ^! same tones 7 exce$+ly valuable also 9 modulat+1 h5ce ! two uses ( int]m$iate tones at ! pres5t "t--fir/1 to embelli% a melody2 second1 to modulate to ano!r key4 ,illu/ration ,note4--,9 writ+ *romatic scales f ?is sight-s++ /&po9t ! /ud5t is urg$ to adopt a ?ree-/ep process2 fir/1 writ+ ! major diatonic scale bo? asc5d+ & desc5d+2 second1 m>k+ ! half-/eps2 ?ird1 ins]t+ accid5tal notes call+ = ! int]m$iate tones4 ,9 ! above *romatic scales ^! int]m$iate tones h be5 repres5t$ by black note-heads s z to diff]5tiate !m f ! notes repres5t+ diatonic scale tones4 #ie4 ,! :ole-/ep scale 7! ?ird type m5tion$ 9 ,sec4 #gi7 is1 z its "n implies1 a scale 9 :i* ! int]vals betwe5 ! tones consi/ 9 e in/ance ( :ole-/eps4 ,?is r$uces ! numb] ( tones 9 ! scale to sev54 ,beg9n+ ) ,c ! scale reads3 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f%>p or ,gflat1 ,aflat1 ,bflat1 ,c4 ,?is scale has be5 us$ some:at ext5sively by ! ultramod]n ,fr5* s*ool ( composition repres5t$ by ,debussy1 ,ravel1 & o!rs1 b is n mak+ any progress t[>d univ]sal adoption4 ,! rem>ks ( a rec5t ,engli% writ]#ba on ?is subject may be int]e/+ to ! /ud5t :o is puzzl$ by ! app>5t pres5t-day t5d5cies ( ,fr5* music4 ,he says3 ,! /ud5t ( "s int]e/+ mod]n developm5ts w also spe$ily discov] t ! adoption ( ! s-call$ :ole-tone scale z a basis ( music is1 except ^u a key$ in/rum5t tun$ to ! compromise ( equal temp]am5t1 unnatural & impossible4 ,no play] ^u a /r+$ in/rum5t c play ! scale ( :ole-tones & arrive at an octave :i* is 9 tune ) ! />t+ note1 unless he delib]ately *anges "o ( ! notes on ! road & alt]s x :ile play+ x4 ,! obvi\s result ( ! application ( ! :ole-tone scale to an or*e/ra or a /r+ qu>tet w\ld be to =ce !m to adopt ! equal temp]am5t ( ! pian(orte1 & play e int]val except ! octave out ( tune4 ,:5 ?is modification _h tak5 hold all music 9 ! pure scale w\ld be di/ort$ & de/roy$1 unless /r+ play]s 7 to face ! practically impossible drudg]y ( /udy+ bo? ! equal temp]am5t & ! pure scale f ! />t1 & 7 able to tackle ei!r =m at a mom5t's notice4 ,a ?or\gh k ( ! natural g5esis ( ! scale ( we/]n nations w be ! be/ antidote to fads f\nd$ ^u ignorance ( x4 ,x is a curi\s comm5t>y ^u ?is "q t ,wagn]1 9 ! op5+ ( ! ?ird act ( ,tri/an 7b>s #f to #aj71 exp]im5t$ ) ! :ole-tone scale & drew 8 p5 ?r\gh x1 z 0 to be expect$ f a compos] ^: e "w proves ! writ] to h _h ! pure scale inbr$ 9 him4 ,footnote #ba3 ,/an=d--,musical ,composition 7#aiaa7 p4 #ag4 ,!re may be "s diff]5ce ( op9ion among ac\/icians z to :e!r ,mr4 ,/an=d is correct 9 8 sci5tific assumptions reg>d+ ! diff]5ce betwe5 temp]$ & pure scales1#bb b ev5 s1 !re is a f> m pot5t reason :y ! :ole-/ep scale w probably nev] become popul> z ! major & m9or scales n[ are1 viz41 ! fact t x (f]s no possibility ( inculcat+ tonality feel+1 :i* has always be5 ! basis ( ev5 ! simple/ primitive music4 ,tonality scales give rise to a feel+ ( alt]nate p]iods ( contraction & relaxation--an active tone 7or *ord7 foll[$ by a passive "o1 b no su* effect is possible 9 ! :ole-/ep scale1 & x seems suitable !re=e only = t class ( music ^: outl9es are purposely int5d$ to be vague & indef9ite--! impressioni/ic /yle ( music writ+4 ,footnote #bb3 ,rec5t te/s 9 ,g]many seem to prove conclusively t ! temp]$ scale is ! scale ord9>ily employ$ by bo? vocali/s & play]s on /r+$ in/rum5ts1 & t ! ideal ( & agitation = a pure 7i4e41 untemp]$7 scale 9 vocal & 9 /r+ music is some:at ( a my?4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,auxili>y ,,words ,,& ,,end+s #if4 ,be+ a li/ ( articles1 adv]bs1 conjunctions1 prepositions1 & end+s1 (t5 utiliz$ 9 comp\nd+ t]ms relat+ to musical effects4 ,a--preposition--v>i\sly translat$ to1 at1 =1 by1 91 )1 t[>ds4 ,a cappella--9 *ur* /yle4 ,a capriccio--at ! fancy ( ! p]=m]4 ,a deux ma9s--= two h&s4 ,a mezza voce--) half voice4 ,a la1 or alla--9 ! mann] (4 ,alla m>cia--9 ! /yle ( a m>*4 ,assai--v1 or v mu*4 ,allegro assai--v fa/4 ,b5--well4 ,b5 m>cato--well m>k$4 ,coi1 con1 col1 colla1 colle1 collo--)1 or ) !4 ,con amore--) t5d]ness4 ,colla voce--) ! voice4 ,come--z1 l4 ,come primo--z at fir/4 ,contra--aga9/4 ,9 comp\nd words means an octave bel[4 ,da--f4 ,da ,capo--f ! head4 ,di--by1 )1 (1 =4 ,di bravura--) d>+4 ,di molto--exce$+ly--v mu*4 ,allegro di molto--exce$+ly rapid4 ,doppio--d\ble4 ,doppio movim5to--d\ble movem5t4 ,e1 ed1 et--&4 ,cresc4 et accel4--l\d] & fa/]4 ,ensemble--toge!r1 ! opposite ( solo4 ,il1 ,la1 l'1 le--!4 ,il basso--! bass4 ,l'i/esso tempo--! same spe$4 ,il piu--! mo/4 ,il piu =te possible--z l\dly z possible4 ,issimo--,italian sup]lative end+4 ,=te--=tissimo4 ,ino1 etto--,italian dim9utive end+s4 ,&ante--&ant9o4 ,poco--po*etto4 ,m5o--less4 ,m5o =te--less l\d4 ,m5te--! end+ :i* *anges a n\n or adjective to an adv]b4 ,l>go l>gam5te4 ,mezzo or mezza--half1 or m$ium4 ,mezzo =te--m$ium l\d4 ,molto--mu*1 or v mu*4 ,molto cresc4--v mu* l\d]4 ,nel1 nella1 etc4--9 !1 or at !4 ,nel batt]e--at ! d[n beat4 ,non--n4 ,non tanto--n too mu*4 ,ossia--or else4 ,ossia piu facile--or else m easily4 ,p]--=4 ,p] il viol9o--= ! viol94 ,peu--little4 ,un peu cresc4--a little increase 9 tone4 ,piu--m4 ,piu =te--m l\dly4 ,poco--little4 ,poco a poco--little by little4 ,poi--!n4 ,e poi la coda--& !n ! coda4 ,possibile--possible4 ,=te possibile--z l\dly z possible4 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,correct$ error possible = ,italian possibile4 ,quasi--9 ! mann] (4 ,allegro quasi &ante--a fairly rapid movem5t1 yet 9 ! /yle ( an &ante2 almo/ z sl[ z an &ante4 ,sans--)\t4 ,sans p$ales--)\t p$als4 ,sempre--always1 or cont9ually4 ,sempre =te--a long passage to be play$ =te ?r\gh\t its entirety4 ,s5za--)\t4 ,s5za accompagnam5to--)\t accompanim5t4 ,s9o1 s9--z f> z4 ,see p4 #ad1 note4 ,solo--alone4 ,opposite ( ensemble4 ,sub--"u or l[]4 ,sub-dom9ant--! "u dom9ant4 ,tanto--same z troppo1 q4v4 ,tre--?ree4 ,tre corde--?ree /r+s4 ,tres--v4 ,tres vivem5t--v lively4 ,troppo--too mu*4 ,non tanto allegro1 or non troppo allegro--n too fa/4 ,una1 un1 uno--"o1 or a4 ,una corda--"o /r+4 ,un peu--a little4 ,a work+ k ( ^! auxili>y t]ms w aid ! /ud5t greatly 9 arriv+ at ! mean+ ( hundr$s ( t]ms )\t /opp+ to look up ea* individual "o4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,measure #ig4 ,f ! /&po9t ( ! eye1 a measure is t portion ( ! /aff f\nd betwe5 two b>s1 79 c]ta9 cases ?is space may be less ?an a measure1 z e4g41 at ! beg9n+ & end ( a movem5t72 b f ! /&po9t ( ! e> a s+le1 isolat$ measure is n possible1 & ! t]m mu/ !re=e be def9$ 9 ! plural =m4 ,measures are simil>ly acc5t$ gr\ps ( ev5ly-spac$ beats1 ea* gr\p hav+ at lea/ "o acc5t$ & "o non-acc5t$ beat4 ,! /ronge/ acc5t falls normally on ! fir/ beat 9 ! measure4 ,two ess5tial *>act]i/ics are involv$ 9 ! ord9>y musical measure3 7#a7 ,a gr\p ( ev5 beats 7or pulses71 always felt1 ?\gh n always actually s\nd$1 "o or m ( ^! beats be+ /rong] ?an ! re/2 7#b7 ,c]ta9 rhy?mic figures 7,illu/ration1 etc47 :i* =m ! actual musical cont5t ( ^! gr\ps4 ,! /ud5t w note ! ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 rhy?m & measure4 ,rhy?m is ! regul> recurr5ce ( acc5t 9 a s]ies ( beats 7or pulses71 :ile measure is ! gr\p+ ( ^! beats accord+ to "s specifi$ sy/em4 ,9 li/5+ to a piece ( music1 two he>]s ,a & ,b may feel ! rhy?m equally /rongly1 b ,a may subjectively gr\p ! beats into--"o1 two "o1 two --etc41 :ile ,b feels ! gr\ps z--"o1 two1 ?ree1 f\r "o1 two1 ?ree1 f\r --etc4 ,rhy?m is ?us se5 to be a fundam5tal ?+1 inh]5t 9 ! music itself1 :ile measure is to a c]ta9 ext5t at lea/ an arbitr>y gr\p+ :i* musicians h adopt$ = practical purposes4 #ih4 ,9 syncopation ! normal sy/em ( acc5t+ is tempor>ily susp5d$ & ! acc5t$ tone falls on ! regul>ly unacc5t$ "p ( ! measure4 ,syncopation may !re=e be def9$ z ! tempor>y int]ruption ( a normal s]ies ( acc5ts1 i4e41 acc5t+ a beat t is usually n acc5t$4 ,?us e4g41 9 ,fig4 #ef1 measure "o has ! regul> sy/em ( acc5ts normally f\nd 9 f\r-qu>t]-measure1 7/rong acc5t on "o1 second>y acc5t on ?ree72 b measure ?ree has only "o acc5t1 & x falls on ! second beat4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ef4 #ii4 ,measures are usually classifi$ z simple & comp\nd4 ,a simple measure is "o :i* has b a s+le acc5t1 i4e41 ! measure _c be divid$ into small] con/itu5t gr\ps4 ,!re are two ma9 classes ( simple measures1 two-beat measure1 & ?ree-beat measure4 ,a comp\nd measure is 7z its "n implies7 "o made up by comb9+ two or m simple measures1 or by ! elaboration ( a s+le measure 79 sl[ tempo7 into sev]al con/itu5t gr\ps4 ,! pr9cipal comp\nd measures are f\r-beat & six-beat1 bo? be+ ref]r$ to z comp\nd-duple measures4 ,five-beat1 sev5-beat1 n9e-beat1 & twelve-beat measures are also classifi$ z comp\nd measures4 ,an ,engli% writ]#bc classifies measures z duple1 triple1 or quadruple1 specify+ t a simple measure is "o 9 :i* ea* beat is repres5t$ by a note ^: value c be divid$ into halves 7,illu/ration etc47 & t a comp\nd measure is "o 9 :i* ea* beat is repres5t$ by a dott$-note1 ^: value c be divid$ into ?ree p>ts1 7,illu/ration74 ,!re is ?us se5 to be consid]able diff]5ce ( op9ion z to ! mean+ ( ! words simple & comp\nd :5 appli$ 9 ?is connection1 ! pr9cipal "q at issue be+ :e!r f\r-beat measure is an individual v>iety1 or :e!r x is a v>iety comp\nd$ out ( two-beat measures1 ei!r by plac+ two ( ^! 9 a gr\p or by ! elaboration ( a s+le measure into a l>g] numb] ( beats1 z is (t5 necess>y 9 sl[ tempi4 ,p]haps ! easie/ way out ( ! difficulty is to admit t bo? may be true--b 9 diff]5t compositions4 ,t is1 x is frequ5tly impossible to tell :e!r a composition t is be+ li/5$ to is 9 two-beat1 or 9 f\r-beat measure2 & yet x is sometimes possible s to discrim9ate4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 "o _c 9 ! majority ( cases di/+ui% betwe5 two-beat & f\r-beat measures1 x w probably be be/ to leave ! orig9al classification intact & reg>d f\r-beat measure z a comp\nd v>iety4 ,footnote #bc3 ,pe>se--,rudim5ts ( ,musical ,k1 p4 #cg4 #ajj4 ,! commone/ v>ieties ( measure are3 #a4 ,duple 7sometimes call$ ev5 measure1 or ev5 "t71 9 :i* !re are two beats1 ! fir/ "o be+ acc5t$4 ,examples ( duple measure are #b_/d1 #b_/h1 #b_/b1 two-qu>t]1#bd two-eigh?1 & two-half measure1 respectively4 ,footnote #bd3 ,= explanation ( t]m9ology1 see p4 #dh1 ,sec4 #ajf4 #b4 ,triple1 7! old p]fect measure71 9 :i* !re are ?ree beats1 ! fir/ "o be+ acc5t$1 ! second & ?ird unacc5t$4 ,examples are #c_/h1 #c_/d1 #c_/b1 ?ree-eigh?1 ?ree-qu>t]1 & ?ree-half measure1 respectively4 #c4 ,quadruple1 9 :i* !re are f\r beats1 ! fir/ & ?ird be+ acc5t$ 7prim>y acc5t on "o1 second>y acc5t on ?ree71 ! second & f\r? unacc5t$4 7,see note above1 "u ,sec4 #ii47 #d4 ,sextuple1 9 :i* !re are six beats1 ! fir/ & f\r? be+ acc5t$1 ! o!rs n4 ,9 rapid tempi ?is is always tak5 z comp\nd duple measure1 a dott$ qu>t] note hav+ a beat4 ,x w be not$ t ! two measures ,illu/ration are id5tical 9 effect ) ,illu/ration4 #aja4 ,o!r v>ieties ( measure sometimes f\nd are #i_/h & #ab_/h1 b ^! are practically always tak5 z ?ree-beat & f\r-beat measures respectively1 be+ equival5t to ^! if ea* gr\p ( ?ree tones is ?\ght ( z a triplet4 ,illu/ration is id5tical 9 effect ) ,illu/ration4 #ajb4 ,qu9tuple 7five-beat7 & septuple 7sev5-beat7 measures are occasionally met )1 b ^! are r>e & w always be sporadic4 ,! five-beat measure is tak5 z a comb9ation ( ?ree & two1 or ( two & ?ree 7sometimes a mixture ( bo? 9 ! same composition71 :ile ! sev5-beat measure is tak5 9 gr\ps ( f\r & ?ree1 or ( ?ree & f\r4 #ajc4 ,! sign common-"t symbol is usually und]/ood to mean f\r-qu>t] measure1 & ! sign cut-"t symbol1 two-half measure1 b usage v>ies some:at1 & ! second sign is sometimes us$ to indicate f\r-half measure4 ,x may safely be said h[ev] t ! sign cut-"t symbol always indicates t a half-note has a beat4 ,d\ble cut-"t symbol may occasionally be f\nd indicat+ f\r-half measure b ?is is r>e4 ,! /ud5t w note t ! sign common-"t symbol is n a lett] ,c1 b an incomplete circle1 diff]5tiat+ two-beat 7imp]fect7 measure f ?ree-beat 7p]fect7 measure4 ,see ,app5dix ,a1 p4 #ajf4 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 page numb] miss+ 9 orig9al4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,tempo #ajd4 ,! ^w "t 9 musical nom5clature has be5 greatly abus$1 hav+ be5 us$ to indicate3 7#a7 ,rhy?m2 z ! "t 0 wrong4 7#b7 ,v>iety ( measure-signature2 z two-f\r "t4 7#c7 ,rate ( spe$2 z ! "t 0 too sl[4 ,to obviate ! confusion naturally result+ f ?is ?ree-fold & inexact use ( ! ^w1 _m tea*]s ( music are adopt+ c]ta9 *anges 9 t]m9ology z not$ 9 ,sections #aje1 #ajf1 & #ajg4 ,su* *anges may cause "s confusion at fir/1 b seem to be necess>y if our musical t]m9ology is to be at all exact4 #aje4 ,! fir/ ( ! *anges m5tion$ 9 ! above p>agraph is to sub/itute ! ^w rhy?m = ! ^w "t :5 correct+ mi/akes involv+ misplac$ acc5t1 etc4 ,e4g41 ,y\r rhy?m 9 ! ?ird measure ( ! l[] score 0 wrong1 in/ead ( ,y\r "t--0 wrong4 #ajf4 ,! second *ange m5tion$ w\ld elim9ate su* bl9d & mislead+ expressions z two-f\r "t1 ?ree-f\r "t1 f\r-f\r "t1 six-eight "t1 etc41 & sub/itute !re= su* self-explanatory designations z two-qu>t] measure1 ?ree-qu>t] measure1 f\r-qu>t] measure1 six-eigh? measure1 etc4 ,e4g41 ,! fir/ movem5t ( ! ,bee?ov5 ,sonata ,op4 #b1 ,no4 #c1 is 9 f\r-qu>t] measure4 #ajg4 ,! ?ird *ange ref]r$ to above w\ld sub/itute ! ^w tempo 7plural--tempi7 = ! ^w "t 9 all allusions to rate ( spe$4 ,e4g41 ,! s*]zo 0 play$ 9 v rapid tempo4 ,! ^w tempo has be5 us$ 9 ?is connection s long by pr(essional musicians t !re c be no possible objection to x on ! gr\nd ( its be+ a =eign ^w4 ,9 fact !re is a decid$ advantage 9 hav+ a ^w t is und]/ood 9 all c\ntries :]e mod]n music 7i4e41 civiliz$ music7 is p]=m$1 & j "h is f\nd ! pr9cipal reason = ! popul>ity ( ! ,italian language 9 musical t]m9ology4 ,s*umann1 ,mac,dowell & o!r well kn[n compos]s h tri$ to break d[n ?is popul>ity by us+ _! own respective v]nacul>s 9 bo? tempo & dynamic indications1 b 9 spite ( ^! attempts ! ,italian language is /ill q univ]sally us$ = ?is purpose1 & des]v$ly s1 = if we are to h a music notation t is univ]sal1 s t an ,am]ican is able to play music writt5 by a ,fr5*man or a ,g]man1 or a ,russian1 !n we ought also to h a c]ta9 numb] ( expressions ref]r+ to tempo1 etc41 :i* w be und]/ood by all1 i4e41 a music t]m9ology t is univ]sal4 ,! ,italian language 0 ! fir/ 9 ! field1 is ! mo/ univ]sally kn[n 9 ?is p>ticul> at ! pres5t "t1 & is entirely adequate4 ,x %\ld !re=e be reta9$ 9 use z a sort ( musical ,esp]anto4 #ajh4 ,!re are sev]al ways ( f9d+ ! correct tempo ( a composition3 #a4 ,f ! metronomic indication f\nd at ! beg9n+ ( _m compositions4 ,?us e4g41 ! m>k ,m4,m4 #ib 7,maelzel's ,metronome #ib7 means t if ! metronome 7ei!r ,maelzel's or "s o!r reliable make7 is set ) ! slid+ weight at ! figure #ib !re w be #ib clicks p] m9ute1 & !y w s]ve to indicate to ! play] or s+] ! rate at :i* ! beats 7or pulses7 %\ld foll[ "o ano!r4 ,?is is und\bt$ly ! mo/ accurate means ( det]m9+ tempi 9 spite ( slight inaccuracies 9 metronomes#be & ( ! mi/akes :i* compos]s !mselves (t5 make 9 giv+ metronomic indications4 ,footnote #be3 ,to te/ ! accuracy ( a metronome1 set ! weight at #fj & see if x beats seconds4 ,if x gives m ?an #fb or #fc or less ?an #eg or #eh clicks p] m9ute x w n be ( mu* s]vice 9 giv+ correct tempi & %\ld be tak5 to a jewell] to be regulat$4 #b4 ,ano!r means ( det]m9+ ! tempo ( a composition is to play x at diff]5t tempi & !n to *oose ! "o t feels "r = t p>ticul> piece ( music4 ,?is is p]haps ! be/ means ( gett+ at ! correct tempo b is op5 only to ! musician ( long exp]i5ce1 sure judgm5t1 & s\nd s*ol>%ip4 #c4 ,a ?ird me?od ( f9d+ tempi is ?r\gh ! int]pretation ( c]ta9 words us$ q univ]sally by compos]s to indicate ! approximate rate ( spe$ & ! g5]al mood ( compositions4 ,! difficulty ) ?is me?od is t "o c h>dly f9d two compos]s :o employ ! same ^w to indicate ! same tempo1 s t no absolute rate ( spe$ c be indicat$1 & 9 ! la/ analysis ! conductor or p]=m] mu/ fall back on ! second me?od cit$ above--i4e41 individual judgm5t4 #aji4 ,9 spite ( ! inexactness ( use 9 ! case ( expressions relat+ to tempo1 ^! expressions are nev]!less extremely useful 9 giv+ at lea/ a h9t ( :at 0 9 ! compos]'s m9d z he conceiv$ ! music t we are try+ to int]pret4 ,s9ce a numb] ( ! t]ms ov]lap 9 mean+1 & s9ce ! mean+ ( no s+le t]m is absolute1 ^! expressions relat+ to tempo are be/ /udi$ 9 gr\ps4 ,p]haps ! mo/ conv5i5t gr\p+ is z foll[s3 #a4 ,grave 7lit4 weighty1 s]i\s71 l>ghissimo1 adagissimo1 & l5tissimo--indicat+ ! v sl[e/ tempo us$ 9 r5d]+ music4 #b4 ,l>go1#bf adagio1#bg & l5to--indicat+ q a sl[ tempo4 ,footnote #bf3 ,l>go1 l>ghetto1 etc41 are d]ivatives ( ! ,lat9 ^w l>gus1 mean+ l>ge1 broad4 ,footnote #bg3 ,adagio means lit]ally at ease4 #c4 ,l>ghetto 7i4e41 a little l>go7 & adagietto 7a little adagio7--a sl[ tempo1 b n q s sl[ z l>go1 etc4 #d4 ,&ante 7go+1 or walk+1 z contra/$ ) runn+7 & &ant9o--indicat+ a mod]ately sl[ tempo4 ,&ant9o is n[ q univ]sally tak5 slightly fa/] ?an &ante1 9 spite ( ! fact t if &ante means go+1 & if ino is ! dim9utive end+1 !n &ant9o means go+ less1 i4e41 m sl[ly6 #e4 ,mod]ato--a mod]ate tempo4 #f4 ,allegro & allegretto#bh--;a mod]ately quick tempo1 allegretto be+ usually int]pret$ z mean+ a tempo some:at sl[] ?an allegro4 ,footnote #bh3 ,!re has be5 "s diff]5ce ( op9ion z to :i* ( ^! two t]ms indicates ! m rapid tempo3 an analysis tells u t if allegro means quick1 & if etto is ! dim9utive end+1 !n allegretto means a little quick--i4e41 sl[] ?an allegro4 ,^! two t]ms are1 h[ev]1 s closely alli$ 9 mean+ t a dispute ov] ! matt] is a m]e wa/e ( brea?4 ,! ^w allegro means lit]ally happy1 joy\s1 & ?is lit]al mean+ is /ill sometimes applicable1 b 9 ! majority ( in/ances ! t]m ref]s only to rate ( spe$4 #g4 ,vivo1 vivace1 7lit4 lively7--a tempo betwe5 allegro & pre/o4 #h4 ,pre/o1 pre/issimo1 vivacissimo1 & pre/issimo possibile--! mo/ rapid tempo possible4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,tempo 7,cont9u$7 #aaj4 ,innum]able comb9ations ( ! words def9$ 9 ,sec4 #aji ) "o ano!r & ) o!r words occur4 ,"s ( ^! comb9ations ) _! approximate mean+s foll[4 ,! mean+ ( any su* expression n f\nd 9 ! li/ may usually be arriv$ at by consult+ ! t]ms def9$ 9 p>agraph #aji & recall+ ! use ( c]ta9 auxili>y t]ms quot$ 9 ,*apt] ,,ix4 ,l>go assai--v sl[4 ,l>go di molto--v sl[4 ,l>go ma non troppo--sl[1 b n too sl[4 ,l>go un poco--sl[1 b n s sl[ z l>go4 7,cf4 l>ghetto47 ,l5tem5te--sl[ly4 ,l5t&o--) increas+ sl[ness4 ,tres l5tem5t--v sl[ly4 ,l5tissam5te--v sl[ly4 ,l5tissamam5te--v sl[ly4 ,l5to assai--v sl[ly4 ,l5to a capriccio--sl[ly b caprici\sly4 ,l5to di molto--v sl[ly4 ,&ante affettuoso--mod]ately sl[1 & ) t5d]ness & pa?os4 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,correct$ error affetuoso 9 orig9al4 ,&ante amabile--mod]ately sl[1 & lov+ly4 ,&ante cantabile--mod]ately sl[1 & 9 s++ /yle4 ,&ante grazioso--mod]ately sl[1 & gracefully4 ,&ante mae/oso--mod]ately sl[1 & maje/ically4 ,&ante con moto--slightly fa/] ?an &ante4 ,&ante 7ma7 non troppo--n too sl[ly4 ,&ante pa/orale--mod]ately sl[1 & 9 simple & unaffect$ /yle2 7lit4 rural1 pa/oral74 ,&ante quasi allegro--almo/ z rapid 9 tempo z allegro2 7lit4 an &ante 9 ! /yle ( allegro74 ,&ante so/5uto--mod]ately sl[ & su/a9$4 ,allegrissimo--mu* fa/] ?an allegro4 7,! sup]lative degree ( allegro47 ,allegro agitato--a mod]ately rapid tempo1 & 9 agitat$ /yle4 ,allegro appassionata--a mod]ately rapid tempo1 & 9 passionate /yle4 ,allegro assai 7v allegro7--fa/] ?an allegro4 ,allegro commodo--a conv5i5tly rapid tempo4 ,allegro con brio--an allegro play$ 9 brilliant /yle4 ,fa/] ?an allegro4 ,allegro con fuoco--an allegro play$ ) fire1 i4e41 ) extreme animation4 ,fa/] ?an allegro4 ,allegro con spirito--an allegro p]=m$ ) _s4 ,allegro con moto--fa/] ?an allegro4 ,allegro di bravura--an allegro p]=m$ 9 brilliant /yle1 i4e41 dem&+ great skill 9 execution4 ,allegro furioso 7furi\sly7--quick] ?an allegro2 v brilliant4 ,allegro giu/o--an allegro movem5t1 b 9 exact rhy?m4 ,allegro ma grazioso--an allegro play$ 9 graceful /yle4 ,allegro 7ma7 non tanto--an allegro movem5t1 b n too rapid4 ,allegro 7ma7 non troppo--an allegro movem5t1 b n too rapid4 ,allegro 7ma7 non pre/o--an allegro movem5t1 b n too rapid4 ,allegro mod]ato--sl[] ?an allegro4 ,allegro vivace--fa/] ?an allegro4 ,pre/o assai--z rapidly z possible4 ,pre/o 7ma7 non troppo--a pre/o movem5t1 b n too rapid4 #aaa4 ,!re are c]ta9 t]ms :i* indicate a modification ( ! normal tempo ( a movem5t1 ^! be+ divid$ into two classes1 7a7 ^? t]ms :i* indicate 9 g5]al a sl[] tempo1 & 7b7 ^? :i* indicate 9 g5]al a m rapid tempo4 ,! fur!r subdivisions ( ^! two classes are %[n bel[4 7a7 ,t]ms indicat+ a sl[] tempo4 #a4 ,t]ms indicat+ a gradual ret>d4 ,rit55te1 7rit471 rit5uto 7rit471 rit>d&o 7rit471 rall5t&o 7rall471 sl5t&o4 #b4 ,t]ms indicat+ a tempo :i* is to become def9itely sl[] at once4 ,piu l5to 7lit4 m sl[ly71 m5o mosso 7lit4 less movem5t74 #c4 ,t]ms indicat+ a sl[] tempo comb9$ ) an increase 9 p[]4 ,l>g&o1 all>g&o4 ,^! words are bo? d]iv$ f l>go1 mean+ l>ge1 broad4 7,= t]ms indicat+ bo? sl[] tempo & s(t] tone1 see page #ei1 ,sec4 #abg47 ,! /ud5t %\ld note ! diff]5ce betwe5 gr\ps #a & #b z giv5 above3 ! t]ms 9 gr\p #a indicate t ea* measure1 & ev5 ea* pulse 9 ! measure1 is a little sl[] ?an ! prec$+ "o1 :ile su* t]ms z piu l5to & m5o mosso indicate a rate ( spe$ becom+ in/antly sl[] & ext5d+ ov] an entire phrase or passage4 ,"s compos]s 7e4g41 ,bee?ov5 & ,c\p]97 h evid5tly _h ?is same di/9ction 9 m9d betwe5 rall5t&o & rit>d&o on ! "o h&1 & rit5uto & rit55te on ! o!r1 consid]+ ! =m] 7rall4 & rit47 to indicate a gradually slack5+ spe$1 & ! latt] 7rit5uto & rit55te7 to indicate a def9itely sl[] rate4 ,! majority ( compos]s d n h[ev] diff]5tiate betwe5 !m 9 ?is way1 & x w !re=e h>dly be wor? :ile = ! /ud5t to try to rememb] ! di/9ction4 7b7 ,t]ms indicat+ a m rapid tempo4 #a4 ,t]ms indicat+ a gradual accel]ation4 ,accel]&o1 affrett&o ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,correct$ misspell+ affret&o 9 orig9al 7?is t]m implies "s degree ( excitem5t also71 /r+5do1 poco a poco animato4 #b4 ,t]ms indicat+ a tempo :i* is to become def9itely fa/] at once4 ,piu allegro1 piu to/o1 piu mosso1 /retto1 un poco animato4 #aab4 ,aft] any modification 9 tempo 7ei!r fa/] or sl[]7 has be5 sugge/$ x is usual to indicate a return to ! normal rate by "s su* expression z a tempo 7lit4 9 "t71 a tempo primo 7lit4 9 ! fir/ "t71 tempo primo1 or tempo4 #aac4 ,tempo rubato 7or a tempo rubato7 means lit]ally 9 robb$ "t1 i4e41 duration tak5 f "o measure or beat & giv5 to ano!r1 b 9 mod]n practice ! t]m is q g5]ally appli$ to any irregul>ity ( rhy?m or tempo n def9itely indicat$ 9 ! score4 ,! t]ms ad libitum1 7ad lib471 a piac]e1 & a capriccio1 also indicate a modification ( ! tempo at ! w ( ! p]=m]4 ,ad libitum means at lib]ty2 a piac]e1 at pleasure2 & a capriccio1 at ! caprice 7( ! p]=m]74 #aad4 ,! t]m tempo giu/o is ! opposite ( tempo rubato 7& ( ! o!r t]ms def9$ 9 p>agraph #aac74 ,x means lit]ally 9 exact "t4 7,tempo giu/o is sometimes translat$ q rapidly1#bi b ?is is v unusual47 ,footnote #bi3 ,bussl]--,elem5ts ( ,notation & ,h>mony1 p4 #gf4 #aae4 ,l'i/esso tempo means--at ! same rate ( spe$4 ,e4g41 :5 a measure signature *anges f #b_/d to #f_/h ) a *ange 9 beat-note f a qu>t] to a dott$-qu>t]1 b ) ! same tempo c>ri$ ?r\gh ! entire movem5t4 #aaf4 ,t5uto 7t547 indicates t a tone or *ord is to be held to its full value4 ,?is ^w is sometimes us$ aft] a /accato passage to %[ t ! /accato effect is to be discont9u$1 b is (t5 us$ m]ely z a w>n+ n to slight a melody-tone--i4e41 to give x its full value4 #aag4 ,veloce means--swiftly1 & is appli$ to brilliant passages 7e4g41 cad5zas7 :i* are to be play$ z rapidly z possible )\t mu* reg>d = measure rhy?m4 ,! words rapidam5te1 brillante & volante 7fly+7 h ! same mean+ z veloce4 #aah4 ,! foll[+ expressions ref]r+ to tempo are also 9 common use b _c easily be classifi$ ) any ( ! gr\ps already def9$4 ,con moto--) motion2 i4e41 n too sl[4 ,pesante--sl[ly1 heavily4 ,doppio movim5to--twice z rapid z be=e4 ,tempo ord9>io--9 ord9>y tempo4 ,tempo commodo--9 conv5i5t tempo4 ,sempre l5to mal9conico assai--always sl[ly & 9 a v melan*oly /yle4 ,anim&o1 animato1 con anima--) animation4 ,agitato--agitat$4 #aai4 ,tempo di m>cia is giv5 by ,riemann 7,diction>y ( ,music1 p4 #ghc7 z equival5t to &ante1 ,m4,m4 #gb-hd4 ,! same writ] gives tempo di m5uetto z equival5t to allegretto1 & tempo di valso z equival5t to allegro mod]ato 7:i* he reg>ds z indicat+ a m rapid tempo ?an allegretto74 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,dynamics #abj4 ,! ^w dynamics 7cf4 dynamic--! opposite ( /atic7 z us$ 9 ! nom5clature ( music has to d ) ! v>i\s degrees ( p[] 7i4e41 ! comp>ative l\dness & s(tness7 ( tones4 ,z 9 ! case ( words ref]r+ to tempo1 ! expressions ref]r+ to dynamics are always relative1 nev] absolute2 x is possible to indicate t "o measure is to be l\d] ?an ano!r1 b x is n possible 7nor desirable7 to indicate exactly h[ l\d ei!r is to be4 ,?us dynamics1 p]haps ev5 m ?an tempo1 w be se5 to dep5d on ! ta/e ( ! p]=m] or conductor4 ,! foll[+ words ref]r+ to dynamics are 9 common use3 ,pianisissimo 7ppp7--z s(tly z possible4 7,x w be not$ t ?is is a sort ( hyp]-sup]lative ( piano47 ,pianissimo 7pp7--v s(tly4 7,! sup]lative ( piano47 ,piano 7p7--s(tly4 ,mezzo piano 7mp7--m$ium s(tly4 ,mezzo =te 7mf7--m$ium l\dly4 ,=te 7f7--l\dly 7lit4 /rong74 ,=tissimo 7ff7--v l\dly4 7,! sup]lative ( =te47 ,=tisissimo 7fff7--z l\dly z possible4 ,! lack ( a "o-^w comp>ative degree 9 ! case ( bo? piano & =te seems to necessitate ! hyp]-sup]lative degree z giv5 above1 b ! practice ( us+ f\r1 or ev5 five p's or f's is n desirable4 #aba4 ,! t]ms def9$ 9 ,sec4 #abj are (t5 comb9$ ) o!rs1 z e4g41 ,pianissimo possibile--z s(tly z possible4 ,piano assai--v s(tly4 ,=tissimo possibile--z l\dly z possible4 ,=te piano 7fp7--l\d1 foll[$ at once by s(t4 ,z 9 ! case ( t]ms relat+ to tempo1 ! mean+ ( _m o!r expressions relat+ to dynamics may easily be arriv$ at by recall+ ! li/ ( auxili>y t]ms quot$ "u ,sec4 #if4 #abb4 ,! t]ms s=z&o1 =z&o1 s=zato & =zato all indicate a /rong acc5t on a s+le tone or *ord4 ,^! words are abbreviat$ z foll[s3--sf1fz1 & sfz1 ! abbreviation be+ plac$ directly above 7sometimes bel[7 ! note or *ord affect$4 ,! signs v]tical acc5t symbol & horizontal acc5t symbol are also commonly us$ to indicate su* an acc5t4 ,9 int]pret+ ^! acc5t m>ks ! /ud5t mu/ be> 9 m9d aga9 ! fact t !y h a relative r ?an an absolute mean+3 ! m>k sf occurr+ 9 ! mid/ ( a piano passage w indicate a mu* mild] =m ( acc5t ?an w\ld ! same m>k occurr+ 9 ! mid/ ( a =te passage4 #abc4 ,! words r9=z&o & r9=zato 7abb4--r9f4 & rfz47 mean lit]ally re9=c$1 & are us$ to indicate a sudd5 increase 9 p[] usually ext5d+ ov] an entire phrase or passage in/ead ( apply+ only to a s+le tone or *ord z 9 ! case ( s=z&o1 etc4 #abd4 ,cresc5do 7abb4--cresc4 or cresc5do symbol7 means a gradual increase 9 p[]4 ,x w be not$ t ?is ^w does n mean l\d1 nor does x mean a sudd5 increase 9 p[] unless accompani$ by "s auxili>y t]m su* z subito1 or molto4 ,broadly speak+ !re are two v>ieties ( cresc5do3 7#a7 t 9 :i* ! same tone increases 9 p[] :ile be+ prolong$2 7#b7 t 9 :i* succe$+ tones are ea* s\nd$ m /rongly ?an ! prec$+ "o4 ,! fir/ v>iety is possible only on in/rum5ts giv+ =? a tone :i* c be v>i$ aft] x beg9s4 ,?us e4g41 ! human voice1 ! viol91 ! organ enclos$ 9 a swell box1 & c]ta9 w9d in/rum5ts1 are all capable ( s\nd+ a tone s(tly at fir/ & gradually increas+ ! volume until ! maximal po9t ( p[] has be5 rea*$4 ,b on ! piano1 organ n enclos$ 9 a swell-box1 kettle drum1 etc41 ! p[] ( ! tone _c be v>i$ aft] ! tone has once be5 s\nd$1 & a cresc5do effect is !re=e possible only 9 a passage1 9 r5d]+ :i* ea* succe$+ tone is /ruck m =cibly ?an its imm$iate pr$ecessor4 ,?is second v>iety ( cresc5do (f]s a means ( dramatic effect :i* may be employ$ mo/ /rik+ly1 z e4g41 :5 a long passage beg9s v s(tly & increases 9 p[] little by little until ! utmo/ res\rces ( ! in/rum5t or or*e/ra h be5 rea*$4 ,a notable example ( su* an effect is f\nd 9 ! transition f ! ?ird to ! f\r? movem5ts ( ! ,bee?ov5 ,fif? ,symphony4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 s=z&o1 r9=z&o1 & cresc5do %\ld n[ be not$3 s=z&o indicates t a s+le tone or *ord is to be l\d]2 r9=z&o1 t an entire passage is to be l\d]1 beg9n+ ) its fir/ tone2 b cresc5do indicates t !re is to be a gradual increase 9 p[]1 ?is increase sometimes occurr+ dur+ ! s\nd+ ( a s+le tone1 b m (t5 9 a passage4 #abe4 ,c]ta9 comb9ations ( ! ^w cresc5do ) o!r words are s common t !y %\ld be especially not$4 ,among ^! are3 ,cresc5do al =tissimo--keep on gradually increas+ 9 p[] until ! =tissimo 7or v l\d7 po9t has be5 rea*$4 ,cresc5do subito--increase 9 p[] sudd5ly 7or rapidly74 ,cresc5do poco a poco--increase 9 p[] v1 v gradually4 ,cresc5do poi dim9u5do--fir/ increase1 !n dim9i% ! tone4 ,cresc5do e dim9u5do--same z cresc4 poi dim4 ,cresc5do molto--increase 9 p[] v greatly4 ,cresc5do ed anim&o poco a poco--gr[+ gradually l\d] 9 tone & quick] 9 tempo4 ,cresc5do ed affrett&o--gradually l\d] & fa/]4 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,correct$ misspell+ affret&o 9 orig9al4 ,cresc5do poco a poco s9 al f9e--cresc5do gradually ev5 up to ! v end4 #abf4 ,decresc5do 7decresc4 or decresc5do symbol7 means a gradual dim9i%+ ( ! tone4 ,x is ! opposite ( cresc5do4 ,! ^w dim9u5do is synonym\s ) decresc5do4 ,decresc5do 7or dim9u5do7 al pianissimo means--decrease gradually 9 p[] until ! pianissimo 7or v s(t7 po9t is rea*$4 #abg4 ,a numb] ( t]ms ref]r+ to bo? s(t] tone & sl[] tempo are 9 use4 ,! mo/ common ( ^! are3--manc&o1 mori5te1#cj mor5do1 p]d5do 7f p]d]e--to lose71 p]d5dosi1 cal&o1 & smorz&o4#ca ,su* expressions are usually translat$--gradually dy+ away4 ,footnote #cj3 ,bo? mori5te & mor5do mean lit]ally--dy+4 ,footnote #ca3 ,f smorz>e 7,x47--to ext+ui%4 #abh4 ,9 piano music ! abbreviation ,p$4 indicates t ! damp] p$al 7! "o at ! "r7 is to be depress$1 :ile ! sign damp] release symbol %[s t x is to be releas$4 ,9 _m mod]n editions ?is depression & release ( ! damp] p$al are m accurately indicat$ by ! sign damp] symbol4 ,! t]m s5za sord9i is also occasionally f\nd 9 old editions1 indicat+ t ! damp] p$al is to be depress$1 :ile con sord9i %[s t x is to be releas$4 ,^! expressions are tak5 f a usage 9 music = /r+$ in/rum5ts1 9 :i* ! t]m con sord9i means t ! mute 7a small clamp ( metal1 ivory or h>dwood7 is to be affix$ to ! bridge1 ?is caus+ a modification 9 bo? p[] & quality ( ! tone4 ,! damp] on ! piano does n 9 any way correspond to ! mute ?us us$ on /r+$ in/rum5ts1 & ! t]ms above expla9$ z sometimes occurr+ 9 piano music are n to be recomm5d$1 ev5 ?\gh ,bee?ov5 us$ !m 9 ?is s5se 9 all 8 e>li] sonatas4 #abi4 ,! words una corda 7lit4--"o /r+7 indicate t ! s(t p$al 7! "o at ! left7 is to be depress$1 :ile ! words tre corde 7lit4 ?ree /r+s7 or tutte le corde 7all ! /r+s7 %[ t ! same p$al is to be releas$4 ,^! expressions ref] to ! fact t on gr& pianos ! s(t p$al :5 depress$ moves ! hamm]s to "o side s t in/ead ( /rik+ ?ree /r+s !y /rike only two 79 ! old] pianos only "o1 h5ce una corda71 all ?ree /r+s 7tre corde7 be+ /ruck aga9 aft] ! release ( ! p$al4 #acj4 ,o!r t]ms relat+ ei!r directly or indirectly to ! subject ( dynamics are3 ,con alcuna lic5za--) "s degree ( lic5se4 ,con amore--) t5d]ness4 ,con bravura--) boldness4 ,con cel]ita--) rapidity4 ,con delicato--) delicacy4 ,con en]gico--) en]gy4 ,con espressione--) expression4 ,con =za--) =ce4 ,con fuoco--) fire & passion4 ,con gr&' espressione--) great expression4 ,con grazia--) grace4 ,con mel9conia--) melan*oly4 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ar*aic =m ( mal9conia4 ,con passione--) passion4 ,con spirito--) _s4 ,con t5]ezza--) t5d]ness4 ,delicato--delicately4 ,dolce--sweetly1 g5tly4 ,dolcissimo--mo/ sweetly4 ,dolce e cantabile--g5tly & ) s++ tone4 ,dol5te ,doloroso pla9tively or sorr[fully4 ,espressivo--expressively4 ,gr&ioso--gr&ly1 pomp\sly4 ,grazioso--gracefully4 ,giocoso--humor\sly1 7cf4 jocose74 ,giojoso--joyfully1 7cf4 joy\s74 ,lacrim&o1 lacrimoso--sorr[fully4 ,legato--smoo?ly4 ,leggi]o--lightly4 ,leggi]issimo--mo/ lightly2 almo/ a /accato4 ,lus+&o--c>ess+ly1 coax+ly1 t5d]ly4 ,mae/a1 mae/oso--maje/ically4 ,m>tell&o1 m>tellato--/rongly acc5t$1 7lit4--hamm]$74 ,m>ziale--m>tial--w>-l4 ,me/o--p5sively4 ,mezzo voce--) half voice4 ,mi/]ioso--my/]i\sly4 ,p>l&o--well acc5t$ or enunciat$2 appli$ to melody play+4 7,! ^w p>l&o means lit]ally-speak+47 ,pa/orale--9 simple & unaffect$ /yle1 7lit4--pa/oral1 rural74 ,pomposo--pomp\sly4 ,precipitoso--precipit\sly4 ,recitativo--well enunciat$4 7,?is mean+ applies only 9 in/rum5tal music 9 :i* a melody is to /& out above ! accompanim5t4 ,= def4 ( recitative 9 vocal music1 see p4 #gh47 ,risoluto--firmly1 resolutely4 ,s*]z&o1 s*]zoso1 etc4--jok+ly4 ,^! t]ms are d]iv$ f ! ^w s*]zo mean+ a musical joke4 ,semplice--simply4 ,sempre m>catissimo--always well m>k$1 i4e41 /rongly acc5t$4 ,s5tim5to--) s5tim5t4 ,sol5ne--solemn4 ,sotto voce--9 subdu$ voice4 ,spiritoso--) _s4 ,/repitoso--precipit\sly4 ,tranquillo--tranquilly4 ,tri/am5te--sadly4 #aca4 ,_m o!r t]ms are enc\nt]$ :i* on _! face sometimes seem to be q =midable1 b :i* yield readily to analysis4 ,?us e4g41 cresc5do poco a poco al =te ed un po*ett9o accel]&o1 is se5 to mean m]ely--increase gradually to =te & accel]ate a v little bit4 ,a lib]al application ( common s5se w aid greatly 9 ! int]pretation ( su* expressions4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,t]ms ,,relat+ ,,to ,,=ms ,,& ,,/yles #acb4 ,a =m 9 music is a specific arrangem5t ( ! v>i\s p>ts ( a composition result+ 9 a /ructure s *>act]i/ic t x is easily recogniz$ by ! e>4 ,?us e4g41 al?\gh e fugue is diff]5t f all o!r fugues 9 actual mat]ial1 yet ! arrangem5t ( ! v>i\s p>ts is s *>act]i/ic t no "o :o kn[s ! fugue =m has any d\bt z to :at k9d ( a composition he is he>+ :5ev] a fugue is play$4 ,! ^w =m is !re=e se5 to be some:at synonym\s ) ! ^w plan z us$ 9 ar*itecture2 x is ! /ructure or design und]ly+ music4 ,examples ( =m are ! canon1 ! fugue1 ! sonata1 etc4 ,speak+ broadly we may say t =m 9 any art consi/s 9 ! plac+ toge!r ( c]ta9 p>ts 9 su* relations ( proportion & symmetry z to make a unifi$ :ole4 ,9 music ?is implies unity ( tonality & ( g5]al rhy?mic effect1 z well z unity 9 ! gr\p+ ( ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! "w 7phrases1 p]iods1 movem5ts7 s z to weld !m into "o :ole1 giv+ ! impression ( complet5ess to ! he>]4 #acc4 ,! primal basis ( =m is ! repetition ( "s *>act]i/ic effect1 & ! problem ( ! compos] is to br+ ab\t ^! repetitions 9 su* a way t ! e> w recognize !m z be+ ! same mat]ial & w nev]!less n gr[ we>y ( !m4 ,?is is accompli%$ by v>y+ ! mat]ial 7cf4 !matic developm5t71 by introduc+ contra/+ mat]ial1 & by *oice ( key4 #acd4 ,! /ud5t %\ld note at ! outset ( ?is topic ! diff]5ce 9 mean+ betwe5 ! t]ms =m & /yle3 ,a =m is a plan = build+ a c]ta9 def9ite k9d ( composition1 b a /yle is m]ely a mann] ( writ+4 ,?us e4g41 ! fugue is a =m--i4e41 x is a plan1 :i* al?\gh capable ( v>iation 9 details1 is yet c>ri$ out fairly def9itely 9 e case2 b c\nt]po9t is m]ely a /yle or mann] ( writ+ 7j z ,go?ic ar*itecture is a /yle ( build+71 :i* may be ca/ into any "o ( sev]al =ms4 #ace4 ,! mat]ial f\nd 9 ! foll[+ sections is an attempt to expla9 9 simple language c]ta9 t]ms relat+ to =ms & /yles :i* are 9 common use2 9 _m cases ! def9ition is too meagre to give any?+ b a v g5]al idea1 b x is hop$ t ! /ud5t w at lea/ be set to ?9k+ & t he w ev5tually be l$ to a m detail$ & s*ol>ly /udy ( ! subject4 7,! article ,=m & ! sep>ate articles "u ea* t]m "h def9$1 z f\nd 9 ,grove's ,diction>y1 are especially recomm5d$4 ,= examples ( ! v>i\s =ms describ$1 see also ,mason & ,surette--,! ,appreciation ( ,music1 ,supplem5t>y ,volume47 #acf4 ,9 a v g5]al way !re may be said to be two /yles ( musical composition1 ! monophonic 7or homophonic7--! "o-voic$--& ! polyphonic--! _m voic$4 ,! polyphonic#cb /yle ant$ates ! monophonic hi/orically4 ,footnote #cb3 ,polyphonic music fl\ri%$ f #ajjj ,a4,d4 to ab\t #agej ,a4,d41 ! culm9ation ( ! polyphonic p]iod be+ rea*$ 9 ! music ( ,johann ,seba/ian ,ba* 7#afhe-agej74 ,haydn1 ,moz>t1 ,bee?ov51 & ! lat] writ]s h us$ ! monophonic /yle m ?an ! polyphonic1 al?\gh a comb9ation ( ! two is (t5 f\nd1 z e4g41 9 ! lat] works ( ,bee?ov54 #acg4 ,9 monophonic music !re is "o voice :i* has a pron\nc$ melody1 ! o!r voices 7if pres5t7 support+ ?is melody z a h>monic 7& (t5 rhy?mic7 backgr\nd4 ,an example ( ?is is ! ord9>y hymn-tune ) its melody 9 ! highe/ "p1 & ) ?ree o!r voices =m+ a f\r-"p h>mony4 ,! sonata1 symphony1 op]a1 mod]n piano piece1 etc41 are also l>gely monophonic1 ?\gh polyphonic passages by way ( contra/ are (t5 to be f\nd4 #ach4 ,9 polyphonic music ea* voice is to a c]ta9 ext5t melodically int]e/+1 & ! h>mony is ! result ( comb9+ sev]al melodies 9 su* a way z to give a pleas+ effect1 in/ead ( treat+ a melody by add+ *ords z an accompanim5t or support4 ,c\nt]po9t1 canon1 r\nd1 fugue1 etc41 are all polyphonic 9 /yle4 ,! ^w contrapuntal is (t5 us$ synonym\sly ) polyphonic4 7,sections #aci to #adc relate especially to t]ms describ+ polyphonic music47 #aci4 ,c\nt]po9t is ! art ( add+ "o or m p>ts or melodies to a giv5 melody1 ! latt] be+ kn[n z ! cantus firmus1 or subject4 ,x may !re=e be broadly def9$ z ! art ( comb9+ melodies4 ,! ^w c\nt]po9t comes f ! ?ree words punctus contra punctum1 mean+ po9t aga9/ po9t4 ,! ^w po9t z "h us$ ref]s to ! punctus--"o ( ! neumae ( ! m$iaeval sy/em1 ^! neumae be+ ! imm$iate pr$ecessors ( mod]n notes4 ,bo? vocal & in/rum5tal music h be5 writt5 9 contrapuntal /yle4 ,! famili> two- & ?ree-"p inv5tions by ,ba* are excell5t examples ( in/rum5tal c\nt]po9t1 :ile su* *oruses z ^? 9 ,! ,messiah by ,h&el illu/rate ! highe/ type ( vocal c\nt]po9t4 #adj4 ,imitation is ! repetition by "o "p1 ( a subject or !me previ\sly introduc$ by ano!r "p4 ,if ! imitation is exact1 ! t]m /rict imitation is appli$1 b if only approximate1 !n ! t]m free imitation is us$ 9 ref]r+ to x4 ,! repetition ne$ n h ! exact pit*es ( ! subject 9 ord] to be /rict2 on ! contr>y ! imitation is usually at ! int]val ( an octave1 or a fif?1 or a second1 etc4 ,fig4 #eg %[s an example ( /rict imitation 9 :i* ! ?ird "p comes 9 an octave l[] ?an ! fir/ "p4 #ada4 ,a canon is a contrapuntal composition 9 ! /yle ( /rict imitation1 "o "p repeat+ exactly 7b at any int]val7 :at ano!r "p has play$ or sung4 ,! t]m canonic /yle is sometimes appli$ to music 9 :i* ! imitation is n exact4 ,an example ( ?ree-"p canon is giv5 9 ,fig4 #eg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,canon ,,9 ,,?ree ,,voices1 ,,9 ,,! ,,unison ,,& ,,octave ,fig4 #eg4 ,,moz>t ,! ^w canon means law1 & 0 appli$ to ?is p>ticul> =m ( composition because ! rules relat+ to its composition 7 inv>iable4 ,x is because ( ?is non-flexibility t ! canon is s little us$ z a =m at ! pres5t "t3 ! mod]n compos] dem&s a plan ( writ+ t is capable ( be+ v>i$ to su* an ext5t z to give him room = ! ex]cise ( 8 own p>ticul> individuality ( conception1 & ?is ! canon does n d4 ,= ?is same reason too ! fugue & ! sonata h successively gone out ( fa%ion & f ,s*umann d[n to ! pres5t "t compos]s h z x 7 creat$ _! own =ms1 ! difficulty 9 li/5+ aris+ f ! fact t no "o b ! compos] himself c\ld recognize ! =m z a =m because x _h n be5 adopt$ to a great en\gh ext5t by o!r compos]s to make x 9 any s5se univ]sal4 ,! result is t 9 mu* pres5t-day music x is v difficult = ! he>] to discov] any trace ( famili> design1 & ! impression made by su* music is 9 consequ5ce mu* less def9ite ?an t made by music ( ! classic s*ool4 ,x is probable t a reaction f ?is /ate ( affairs w come 9 ! ne> future1 = 9 any art x is necess>y t !re %\ld be at lea/ en\gh semblance ( /ructure to make ! art "w capable ( /&+ z a univ]sal ?+ r ?an z ! m]e tempor>y expression ( "s p>ticul> compos] or ( "s p]iod ( composition4 #adb4 ,! common s*ool r\nd is an example ( canon1 ea* voice repeat+ exactly :at ! fir/ voice has sung1 :ile ?is fir/ voice is go+ on ) its melody4 ,! r\nd is !re=e def9$ z a v>iety ( canon 9 :i* ! imitation is always 9 unison ) ! subject4 #adc4 ,! fugue 7,lat91 fuga flight7 is a =m ( contrapuntal composition 9 :i* ! imitation is always 9 ! dom9ant key1 i4e41 a fif? above or a f\r? bel[4 ,! imitation 7call$ ! answ]7 may be an exact repetition ( ! subject 7sometimes call$ ! "q71 b is usually n s4 ,! fugue diff]s f ! canon also 9 t ! subject is giv5 9 complete =m be=e ! answ] beg9s1 :ile 9 ! canon ! imitation beg9s :ile ! subject is /ill go+ on4 ,! fugue is n ne>ly s /rict 9 =m z ! canon & gives ! compos] mu* great] opportunity = express+ musical ideas4 ,a canon may be p]fect 9 =m & yet be v poor music2 ?is same /atem5t might ( c\rse be made ab\t any =m1 b is especially true 9 ! /rict] ones4 ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,t]ms ,,relat+ ,,to ,,=ms ,,& ,,/yles 7,cont9u$7 7,sections #add to #afj relate p>ticul>ly to t]ms us$ 9 descriptions ( monophonic music#cc47 ,footnote #cc3 ,!re is a v pron\nc$ disagreem5t among !ori/s z to :at t]ms are to be us$ 9 ref]r+ to c]ta9 =ms & p>ts ( =ms & x seems impossible to make a compromise t w satisfy ev5 a reasonable numb]4 ,9 ord] to make ! mat]ial 9 ?is *apt] consi/5t ) itself !re=e x has be5 ?\ght be/ by ! au?or to foll[ ! t]m9ology ( "s s+le recogniz$ "w on =m1 & ! g5]al plan ( monophonic =m "h giv5 is !re=e t ( ! volume call$ ,musical ,=m1 by ,bussl]-,cornell4 #add4 ,a phrase is a %ort musical ?\ght 7at lea/ two measures 9 l5g?7 clos+ ) ei!r a complete or an incomplete cad5ce4 ,! typical phrase is f\r measures long4 ,! two-measure phrase is (t5 call$ section4 ,! ^w phrase z us$ 9 music t]m9ology corresponds ) ! same ^w z us$ 9 language /udy4 #ade4 ,a p]iod is a little piece ( music typically eight measures long1 ei!r complete 9 itself or =m+ "o ( ! cle>ly def9$ divisions ( a l>g] =m4 ,! p]iod 7:5 complete 9 itself7 is ! smalle/ monophonic =m4 ,! ess5tial *>act]i/ic ( ! regul> p]iod is ! fact t x usually consi/s ( two balanc$ phrases 7(t5 call$ antec$5t & consequ5t or !sis & anti!sis71 ! fir/ phrase giv+ rise to ! feel+ ( incomplet5ess 7by means ( a cad5ce 9 ano!r key1 deceptive cad5ce1 etc417 ! second phrase giv+ ! effect ( complet5ess by means ( a def9ite cad5ce at ! close4 ,! second half ( ! p]iod is sometimes a lit]al repetition ( ! fir/ half1 9 all respects except ! cad5ce1 b 9 _m cases too x is a repetition ( only "o ( ! elem5ts--rhy?m1 int]vals1 or g5]al outl9e4 ,figs4 #eh & #ei %[ examples ( bo? types4 ,! pr9ciple almo/ inv>iably holds t ! simpl] ! music 7cf4 folk-tunes7 ! m obvi\s ! =m ( ! p]iod1 :ile ! m complex ! music1 ! less regul> ! p]iod4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,,moz>t ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,,s*ub]t #adf4 ,! prim>y =ms are built up by comb9+ two or m p]iods4 ,! small two-"p prim>y =m 7(t5 call$ song-=m or ,li$-=m7 consi/s ( two p]iods s plac$ t ! second con/itutes a consequ5t or anti!sis to ! fir/4 ,! second half ( ?is second p]iod is (t5 exactly ! same z ! second half ( ! fir/ p]iod1 ?us b9d+ ! two p]iods toge!r into absolute unity4 ,! !me ( ! *oral movem5t ( ! ,n9? ,symphony 7,bee?ov57 quot$ bel[ is a p]fect example ( ?is =m4 ,o!r examples are ,dr9k to ,me ,only ,) ,?9e ,eyes1 & ,! ,la/ ,rose ( ,summ]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,bee?ov5 ,! small ?ree-"p prim>y =m is l ! two-"p prim>y =m except t x has a section ( contra/+ mat]ial int]polat$ betwe5 ! two p]iods4 ,?is middle "p is usually an eight-measure phrase4 ,! l>ge two- & ?ree-"p prim>y =ms usually h sixte5-measure p]iods in/ead ( eight-measure ones1 b are o!rwise simil> 9 con/ruction4 ,^! v>i\s prim>y =ms are us$ 9 con/ruct+ _m v>ieties ( compositions1 among !m ! !me & v>iations1 ! polka1 ! waltz1 ! m>*1 etc41 z well z mo/ ( ! %ort] movem5ts 9 sonatas1 qu>tets1 etc4 ,!y are us$ 9 vocal music also1 b are less apt to be regul> "h because ! =m ( vocal music is l>gely dep5d5t ^u ! /ructure ( ! text4 #adg4 ,a !me is a fragm5t ( melody us$ z ! subject ( a fugue1 z ! basis ( ! developm5t section 9 sonata =m1 etc4 ,sometimes x is a complete tune 7(t5 9 p]iod =m71 on :i* v>iations are made1 z e4g41 9 ! famili> !me & v>iations4 #adh4 ,!matic developm5t consi/s 9 tak+ a %ort !me 7or sev]al %ort !mes7 & by means ( transposition1 int]val expansion & contraction1 rhy?mic augm5tation & dim9ution1 inv]sion1 tonality *anges1 etc41 build+ out ( x a l5g?y composition or section ( a composition4 ,fig4 #fj b1 c1 d1 e1 & f %[ h[ ! !me giv5 9 ,fig4 #fj 7a7 may be v>i$ 9 a few ( ^! ways4 ,!re are hundr$s ( o!r fa%ions 9 :i* ?is same !me might be v>i$ )\t de/roy+ its id5tity4 ,= o!r examples ( !matic developm5t see ! developm5t section ( ,sonata ,op4 #ca1 ,no4 #c1 z analyz$ 9 ,app5dix ,e4 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,correct$ error ,sec4 #c 9 orig9al4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,= fur!r illu/rations ( developm5t 9 ! case ( ?is same !me1 see--,*ri/iani--,! ,pr9ciples ( ,expression 9 ,pian(orte play+1 p4 #add1 ff4 f :i* ! =ego+ !mes h be5 adapt$4 #adi4 ,a rondo is an in/rum5tal composition 79 homophonic /yle7 9 :i* a c]ta9 !me appe>s sev]al times almo/ always 9 ! same =m 7i4e41 n !matically v>i$71 ! repetitions ( ?is !me be+ sep>at$ by contra/+ mat]ial4 ,! rondo is ! olde/ ( ! l>g] monophonic =ms & has be5 us$ 9 _m diff]5t ways1 b p]haps its mo/ *>act]i/ic con/ruction is z foll[s3 7#a7 ,pr9cipal subject2 7#b7 second subject 9 dom9ant key2 7#c7 pr9cipal subject2 7#d7 ?ird subject2 7#e7 fir/ subject aga92 7#f7 second subject1 9 tonic key2 7#g7 coda 7or end+74 ,! /ud5t %\ld note p>ticul>ly ! problem ( repetition & contra/ 7m5tion$ 9 ,sec4 #acd7 z "h work$ out1 z ! rondo 0 ! fir/ monophonic =m 9 :i* ?is matt] 0 at all satisfactorily solv$1 & its con/ruction is especially int]e/+ because x is readily se5 to be "o ( ! direct pr$ecessors ( ! highe/ =m ( all--! sonata4 ,examples ( rondos may be f\nd 9 any volume ( sonatas or sonat9as4 #aej4 ,a suite is a set ( in/rum5tal dances all 9 ! same or 9 ne>ly relat$ keys4 ,! fir/ dance is usually prec$$ by an introduction or prelude1 & ! v>i\s dances are s gr\p$ z to secure contra/ ( movem5t--a quick dance be+ usually foll[$ by a sl[] "o4 ,! suite is int]e/+ to /ud5ts ( ! developm5t ( music z be+ ! fir/ =m 9 sev]al movem5ts to be g5]ally adopt$ by compos]s4 ,x reta9$ its popul>ity f ! beg9n+ ( ! sev5te5? to ! end ( ! eighte5? c5turies1 be+ f9ally displac$ by ! sonata1 ^: imm$iate pr$ecessor x is ?us se5 to be4 ,! suite 0 =m]ly writt5 = solo in/rum5t only 7h>psi*ord1 clavi*ord1 piano7 b mod]n compos]s l ,dvovrak1 ,la*n]1 ,moszk[ski1 & o!rs h writt5 suites = full or*e/ra also4 #aea4 ,among ! dances commonly f\nd 9 suites are ! foll[+3 ,allem&e--duple or quadruple measure4 ,bol]o--triple measure4 ,b\ree--duple or quadruple measure4 ,*aconne--triple measure4 ,c\rante--a v old dance 9 triple measure4 ,cs>das--,hung>ian dance 9 duple or quadruple measure4 ,gavotte--quadruple measure4 ,gigue 7or jig7--duple measure4 ,haban]a--,spani% dance 9 triple measure4 ,m9uet--sl[ dance 9 triple measure4 ,mazurka--,poli% dance 9 triple measure4 ,polonaise--,poli% dance 9 triple measure4 ,rigaudon--lively dance 9 duple or triple measure4 ,s>ab&e--triple measure4 ,t>antella--swift ,italian dance 9 sextuple measure4 ,! allem&e is especially int]e/+ to /ud5ts ( music =m because ( its relation to ! sonata1 x be+ ! prototype ( ! sonata-allegro 7i4e41 ! fir/ movem5t ( ! sonata74 ,! s>ab&e & c\rante are likewise int]e/+ z ! prototypes ( ! second movem5t1 & ! b\ree1 m9uet1 etc41 = _! connection ) ! ?ird movem5t4 #aeb4 ,! s*]zo 7lit4 musical joke7 is a fanciful in/rum5tal composition4 ,x 0 us$ by ,bee?ov5 z ! ?ird movem5t ( ! sonata in/ead ( ! m limit$ m9uet1 b is also (t5 f\nd z an indep5d5t piece4 #aec4 ,a sonata is an in/rum5tal composition ( ?ree or m movem5ts 7usually f\r71 ! fir/ & la/ ( :i* are almo/ always 9 rapid tempo4 ,ea* ( ^! movem5ts is a piece ( music ) a unity ( its own1 b !y are all m]g$ toge!r 9 a l>g] :ole ) a broad und]ly+ unity ( l>g] scope4 ,! composition receives its "n f ! fact t its fir/ movem5t is ca/ 9 sonata-=m4 7,see ,sec4 #aeg = description ( sonata-=m47 ,:5 ! sonata has f\r movem5ts1 ^! are usually arrang$ z foll[s3 #a4 ,a quick movem5t 7allegro1 pre/o1 etc471 (t5 prec$$ by a sl[] introduction4 #b4 ,a sl[ movem5t 7l>go1 &ante1 adagio1 etc474 #c4 ,a m9uet or s*]zo1 (t5 ) a trio add$1 9 :i* case ! "p prec$+ ! trio is repeat$ aft] ! trio is play$4 #d4 ,a quick movem5t--! f9ale1 sometimes a rondo1 sometimes ano!r sonata-=m1 sometimes a !me ) v>iations4 ,^! movem5ts are all 9 closely relat$ keys1 b 9 a v>iety ( contra/+ rhy?ms4 #aed4 ,a trio is a sonata = ?ree in/rum5ts 7su* z piano1 viol91 & cello71 :ile a qu>tet is a sonata = f\r in/rum5ts1 ! mo/ common qu>tet comb9ation be+ z foll[s3 ,fir/ & second viol9s1 viola1 & violoncello4 ,! t]m *amb] music is (t5 appli$ to in/rum5tal music = trio1 qu>tet1 qu9tet1 & o!r simil> comb9ations :i* are suitable = a small room r ?an = a l>ge conc]t hall4 ,! words trio & qu>tet are also appli$ to vocal works = ?ree & f\r voices respectively1 ^! hav+ no relation :atsoev] to ! sonata z describ$ above4 ,! ^w trio is also appli$ to ! middle section ( m9uets1 s*]zas1 m>*es1 etc41 ! t]m orig9at+ 9 ! old usage ( writ+ ?is "p = ?ree in/rum5ts only4 #aee4 ,a conc]to is a sonata = a solo in/rum5t ) or*e/ral accompanim5t1 ! =m be+ usually some:at modifi$ s z to adapt x to a composition 9 :i* !re mu/ necess>ily be opportunity = a good deal ( te*nical display4 ,!re are usually b ?ree movem5ts 9 ! conc]to4 ,! great majority ( conc]tos are = piano & or*e/ra1 b examples ( conc]tos = viol91 cello1 flute1 oboe1 & o!r solo in/rum5ts 7all ) or*e/ral accompanim5t7 h also be5 writt54 ,a few mod]n compos]s h appli$ ! t]m conc]to to c]ta9 l>ge organ works 7) no or*e/ral accompanim5t1 ! composition be+ writt5 = j ! "o in/rum5t71 b ?is use ( ! ^w is s contr>y to ! accept$ def9ition t x is h>dly ju/ifiable4 ,:5 a conc]to is play$ on two pianos 7)\t or*e/ra71 ?is does n mean t !re is no or*e/ral "p1 b t !re is no or*e/ra to play x1 & s ! p>ts t %\ld be play$ by ! or*e/ral in/rum5ts h simply be5 arrang$ = a second piano 7sometimes organ74 #aef4 ,a symphony is a sonata = full or*e/ra4 ,9 g5]al its con/ruction is ! same z t ( ! sonata1 b x is usually ( mu* l>g] proportions & has 9 x mu* great] v>iety ( bo? tonal & rhy?mic mat]ial4 ,! symphony is g5]ally conc$$ to be ! highe/ type ( in/rum5tal music ev] evolv$4 ,! symphony 0 accept$ z a /&>d =m 9 ! "t ( ,haydn 7#agcb-ahji7 & 0 develop$ enorm\sly by ,haydn himself1 ,moz>t 7#agef-agia71 & ,bee?ov5 7#aggj-ahbg71 rea*+ p]haps its highe/ po9t 9 ! fam\s ,n9e ,symphonies ( ! la/-nam$ compos]4 ,lat] symphony writ]s ^: works are at pres5t be+ p]=m$ include ,s*umann1 ,ts*aik[sky1 & ,dvovrak4 ,! ^w symphony 0 =m]ly us$ synonym\sly ) ritornelle1 bo? words be+ appli$ to in/rum5tal int]ludes betwe5 p>ts ( vocal works1 b ?is usage has n[ entirely disappe>$4 #aeg4 ,sonata-=m 7sometimes call$ sonata-allegro7 is a plan = ! con/ruction ( in/rum5tal music 7sonatas1 qu>tets1 symphonies1 etc471 9 :i* ?ree r def9ite divisions always occur1 ! ?ird division be+ a m or less lit]al repetition ( ! fir/4 ,^! ?ree p>ts ( sonata-=m ) _! usual subdivisions are3 ,i4 ,,exposition 7#a7 ,pr9cipal !me 7or fir/ subject74 7#b7 ,l9k-episode 7or modulation gr\p74 7#c7 ,second>y !me 7or song gr\p71 always 9 a ne>ly relat$ key4 7#d7 ,clos+ gr\p4 7#e7 ,coda4 ,,ii4 ,,developm5t ,,section ,treat+ ! !mes introduc$ 9 ! exposition 9 an almo/ inf9ite v>iety ( fa%ions1 accord+ to ! pr9ciples ( !matic developm5t4 7,see ,sec4 #adh74 ,,iii4 ,,recapitulation 7,,or ,,reprise7 ,consi/+ ess5tially ( ! same subdivisions f\nd 9 ! exposition1 b diff]+ f ?is fir/ section 9 "o ess5tial po9t1 viz41 t in/ead ( /at+ ! second>y !me 9 a relat$ key1 ! entire recapitulation is 9 ! pr9cipal key4 ,?is ?ird section is always foll[$ by a coda 7:i* may ei!r be v %ort or q ext5d$71 br++ ! :ole movem5t to a m def9ite close4 ,! second "p ( sonata-=m 7! developm5t section7 is sometimes ! longe/ & mo/ intricate ( ! ?ree divisions1 & x is at ?is po9t t ! compos] has an opportunity ( display+ to ! full 8 orig9ality & inv5tive skill4 ,x is pr9cipally because ( ?is developm5t section t ! sonata is s f> sup]ior z a =m to its pr$ecessors4 ,= an analyz$ example ( sonata-=m1 see ,app5dix ,e4 ,! /ud5t is advis$ to take o!r sonatas & g ?r\gh ! fir/ movem5ts ) a view to f9d+ at lea/ ! ?ree ma9 divisions m5tion$ above4 ,9 "s cases ! =m w ( c\rse be s irregul> t all ! p>ts indicat$ _c be discov]$1 b ! g5]al outl9es ( ! s*eme w always be pres5t4 #aeh4 ,a sonat9a1 z its "n implies1 is a little sonata4 ,x diff]s f ! sonata prop] pr9cipally 9 hav+ little or no developm5t1 ! second section be+ ( slight importance z comp>$ ) ! correspond+ section ( a sonata4 ,a gr& sonata is l an ord9>y sonata 9 =m1 b is ( unusually l>ge dim5sions4 #aei4 ,program music is in/rum5tal music :i* is suppos$ to convey to ! li/5] an image or a succession ( images t w ar\se 9 him c]ta9 emotions :i* h be5 previ\sly ar\s$ 9 ! compos]'s m9d by "s sc5e1 ev5t1 or idea4 ,! clue to ! g5]al idea is usually giv5 at ! beg9n+ ( ! music 9 ! =m ( a poem or a %ort description ( ! ?+ 9 ! m9d ( ! compos]1 b !re are _m examples 9 :i* !re is no clue :atsoev] except ! title ( ! composition4 ,program music repres5ts a mean betwe5 pure music 7cf4 ! piano sonata or ! /r+ qu>tet7 on ! "o h&1 & descriptive music 79 :i* actual imitations ( bird-calls1 :i/les1 ! bl[+ ( ! w9d1 ! gallop+ ( horses1 ! roll+ ( ?und]1 etc41 occur71 on ! o!r4 ,mo/ program music is writt5 = ! or*e/ra1 examples be+ ,liszt's ,! ,preludes1 ,/rauss' ,till ,eul5spiegel1 etc4 #afj4 ,a symphonic poem 7or tone poem7 is an or*e/ral composition ( l>ge dim5sions 7resembl+ ! symphony 9 size71 usually embody+ ! program idea4 ,x has no prescrib$ =m & seems inde$ to be (t5 *>act]iz$ by an almo/ total lack ( design1 b !re are also examples ( symphonic poems 9 :i* ! same !me runs ?r\gh\t ! entire composition1 be+ adapt$ at ! v>i\s po9ts at :i* x occurs to ! p>ticul> moods express$ by ! program at ^? po9ts4 ,! symphonic poem 0 inv5t$ by ,liszt 7#ahaa-ahhf7 & has s9ce be5 us$ ext5sively by ,/rauss1 ,sa9t-,sa5s & o!rs4 ,x came into exi/5ce z a "p ( ! g5]al movem5t :i* has caus$ ! fugue & ! sonata successively to g out ( fa%ion1 viz41 ! t5d5cy to inv5t =ms :i* w\ld n hamp] ! compos] 9 any way1 b w\ld leave him absolutely free to express 8 ideas 9 8 own individual way4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi ,,t]ms ,,relat+ ,,to ,,vocal ,,music #afa4 ,an an!m is a sacr$ *oral composition1 usually bas$ on ,biblical or liturgical#cd words4 ,x may or may n h an in/rum5tal accompanim5t1 & is usually writt5 9 f\r p>ts1 b may h five1 six1 eight1 or m4 ,footnote #cd3 ,a liturgy is a prescrib$ =m or me?od ( conduct+ a religi\s s]vice1 & ! p>ts sung 9 su* a s]vice 7z e4g41 ! holy communion1 baptism1 etc471 are ref]r$ to z ! musical liturgy4 ,! ^w an!m is d]iv$ f antifona 7or antiphona71 mean+ a psalm or hymn sung responsively1 i4e41 antiphonally1 by two *oirs1 or by *oir & congregation4 ,a full an!m is "o conta9+ no solo p>ts2 a solo an!m is "o 9 :i* ! solo "p is pr$om9ant ov] ! *orus1 :ile a v]se an!m is "o 9 :i* ! *orus p>ts alt]nate ) passages = conc]t$ solo voices 7i4e41 trios1 qu>tets1 etc474 #afb4 ,a capella 7sometimes spell$ cappella7 or alla capella music is "p-s++ 7ei!r sacr$ or secul>7 )\t accompanim5t4 ,?is t]m means lit]ally 9 *apel /yle1 & ref]s to ! fact t 9 ! e>ly days ( ! *ur* all s++ 0 unaccompani$4 #afc4 ,a motet is a sacr$ *oral composition 9 contrapuntal /yle4 ,x has no solo p>ts1 ?us correspond+ to ! madrigal 7q4v47 9 secul> music4 ,! motet is int5d$ = a capella p]=mance1 b is (t5 giv5 ) organ accompanim5t4 #afd4 ,a *oral is a hymn-tune ( ! ,g]man ,prote/ant ,*ur*4 ,x is usually h>moniz$ 9 f\r voices4 ,! *oral 7sometimes spell$ *orale7 is describ$ z hav+ a pla9 melody1 a /rong h>mony1 & a /ately rhy?m4 ,x diff]s f ! ord9>y ,engli% & ,am]ican hymn-tune 9 be+ usually sung at a mu* sl[] tempo1 & 9 hav+ a pause at ! end ( ea* l9e ( text4 #afe4 ,! mass is ! liturgy = ! celebration ( ! ,"l's ,supp] 9 ! s]vice ( ! ,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur*4 ,z us$ 9 ! t]m9ology ( music ! ^w ref]s to ! six hymns :i* are always includ$ :5 a compos] writes a musical mass1 & :i* =m ! basis ( ! celebration ( ! ,communion4#ce ,^! six hymns are z foll[s3 ,footnote #ce3 ,x %\ld be und]/ood t ?is /atem5t ref]s to ! s]vice call$ ! high mass only1 !re be+ no music at all 9 connection ) ! s-call$ l[ mass4 ,kyrie4 ,gloria 7includ+ ! ,gratias agimus1 ,qui tollis1 ,quoniam1 ,cum ,sancto ,spirito74 ,cr$o 7includ+ ! ,et ,inc>natus1 ,crucifixus1 & ,et ,resurrexit74 ,sanctus 7includ+ ! ,hosanna74 ,b5$ictus4 ,agnus ,dei 7includ+ ! ,dona nobis74 ,! requiem mass is ! mass = ! dead & diff]s consid]ably f ! ord9>y mass4 ,bo? regul> & requiem masses h be5 writt5 by _m ( ! great compos]s 7,ba*1 ,bee?ov51 ,v]di1 ,g\nod71 & 9 _m cases ^! masses are s complex t !y are n practicable = ! actual s]vice ( ! ,*ur*1 & are !re=e p]=m$ only by l>ge *oral societies1 z conc]t works4 #aff4 ,a cantata is a vocal composition = *orus & soloi/s1 ! text be+ ei!r sacr$ or secul>4 ,! accompanim5t may be writt5 = piano1 organ1 or or*e/ra4 ,:5 sacr$ 9 "* ! cantata diff]s f ! oratorio 9 be+ %ort] & less dramatic1 9 n usually hav+ def9ite *>act]s1 & 9 be+ writt5 = *ur* use1 :ile ! oratorio is int5d$ = conc]t p]=mance4 ,:5 secul> 9 subject ! cantata diff]s f ! op]a 9 n usually hav+ def9ite *>act]s1 & 9 be+ always r5d]$ )\t sc5]y or action4 ,examples ( ! sacr$ cantata are3 ,/a9]'s ,! ,crucifixion1 ,cl\gh-,leight]'s ,! ,righte\s ,bran*1 & ,gaul's ,! ,holy ,city4 ,examples ( ! secul> cantata are3 ,bru*'s ,arm5ius1 ,col]idge-,taylor's ,hiawa?a4 #afg4 ,an oratorio is a composition on a l>ge scale = *orus1 soloi/s1 & or*e/ra1 ! text usually deal+ ) "s religi\s subject4 ,! oratorio1 z not$ above1 is n int5d$ = ! *ur* s]vice1 b is writt5 = conc]t p]=mance4 #afh4 ,an op]a is a composition = vocal soloi/s1 *orus1 & or*e/ra1 ) *>act]s1 action1 sc5]y1 & dramatic movem5t4 ,x is a drama set to music4 ,gr& op]a is op]a ) a s]i\s plot1 9 :i* ev]y?+ is sung1 !re be+ no spok5 dialog at all4 ,op]a comique is a species ( op]a 9 :i* "p ( ! dialog is spok5 & "p sung4 ,op]a comique is n synonym\s ) comic op]a1 = ! plot ( op]a comique is z (t5 s]i\s z n4 ,9 fact ! entire di/9ction betwe5 ! t]ms gr& op]a & op]a comique is be+ brok5 d[n1 ! latt] t]m ref]r+ m]ely to op]as fir/ giv5 at ! ,op]a ,comique 9 ,p>is1 & ! =m] t]m to ^? giv5 at ! ,gr& ,op]a ,h\se 9 ! same city4 ,a comic op]a is a humor\s op]a1 ! plot provid+ _m amus+ situations & ! :ole end+ happily4 ,x corresponds ) ! com$y 9 lit]ature4 ,a light op]a is "o ) an exce$+ly trivial plot1 9 :i* songs1 dances1 & pretty sc5]y contribute to ! amusem5t ( ! audi5ce4 ,! music is lively1 b usually z trivial z ! plot4 ,! t]m music drama 0 us$ by ,wagn] 9 ref]r+ to 8 own op]as1 & is also sometimes appli$ to o!r mod]n op]as 9 :i* ! dramatic elem5t is suppos$ to pr$om9ate ov] ! musical4 #afi4 ,a libretto 7lit4--little book7 is ! ^w-text ( an op]a1 oratorio1 cantata1 or "s o!r simil> "w4 #agj4 ,recitative is a /yle ( vocal solo common to op]as1 oratorios1 & cantatas1 especially ^? writt5 "s "t ago4 ,its ma9 *>act]i/ic is t ! ^w-text is ( p>am\nt importance1 bo? rhy?m & tone-progression be+ gov]n$ by rhetorical r ?an by musical consid]ations4 ,recitative und\bt$ly orig9at$ 9 ! inton+ ( ! prie/ 9 ! rituali/ic s]vice ( ! ,*ur*1 b :5 appli$ to ! op]a x became an important means ( secur+ dramatic effects1 especially 9 situations 9 :i* ! action ( ! play mov$ along rapidly4 ,recitative is ?us se5 to be a species ( musical declamation4 ,9 ! e>ly examples ( recitative !re 0 sc>cely any accompanim5t1 (t5 only "o in/rum5t 7l ! cello7 be+ employ$ to play a sort ( obbligato melody3 :5 full *ords 7 play$ !y 7 n writt5 out 9 ! score1 b 7 m]ely indicat$ 9 a m or less g5]al way by c]ta9 signs & figures4 7,see ?or\gh-bass1 p4 #he1 ,sec4 #bjj47 ,b ab\t ! middle ( ! sev5te5? c5tury a slightly diff]5t /yle ( recitative 0 inv5t$1 & 9 ?is type ! or*e/ra 0 employ$ mu* m freely 9 ! accompanim5t1 especially 9 ! p>ts betwe5 ! phrases ( ! text1 b to "s ext5t also to support ! voice :ile s++4 ,?is new /yle 0 call$ recitativo /rom5to 7i4e41 accompani$ recitative71 :ile ! orig9al type 0 call$ recitativo secco 7i4e41 dry recitative74 ,dur+ ! la/ c5tury ! /yle ( recitative has be5 /ill fur!r develop$ by ,gluck & ,wagn]1 bo? ( :om us$ ! or*e/ra z an indep5d5t entity1 ) int]e/+ melodies1 h>monies & rhy?ms all its own1 :ile ! vocal "p is a sort ( obbligato to ?is accompanim5t4 ,b ev5 9 ?is late/ phase ( recitative1 x is ! ^w-text t decides ! /yle ( bo? melody & rhy?m 9 ! voice "p4 ,fig4 #fa %[s an example ( dry recitative1 tak5 f ,! ,messiah4 ,illu/ration3 ,,alto ,,voice4 ,be-hold6 a vir-g9 %all con-ceive1 & be> a son1 & %all call 8 "n ,em-man-u-el2 ,god ) u4 #aga4 ,aria is likewise a /yle ( vocal solo f\nd 9 op]as1 etc41 b its pr$om9at+ *>act]i/ic is diametrically oppos$ to t ( ! recitative4 ,9 ! aria ! ^w-text is usually entirely subord9ate to ! melody1 & ! latt] is (t5 v ornate1 conta9+ trills1 runs1 etc4 ,! r5dition ( ?is ornate /yle ( music is (t5 ref]r$ to z coloratura s++1 b x %\ld be not$ t n all arias are coloratura 9 /yle4 ,! famili> solos f ,! ,messiah--,rejoice ,greatly1 & ,! trumpet %all s\nd are good examples ( ! aria /yle4 #agb4 ,a li$ 7,g]4 song7 is a vocal solo 9 :i* ! text1 ! melody1 & ! accompanim5t contribute m or less equally to ! effect ( ! :ole4 ,/rictly speak+ ! ^w li$ means a poem to be sung1 & ?is mean+ w expla9 at once ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! li$ on ! "o h&1 & ! ,italian recitative & aria on ! o!r1 = 9 ! li$ ! text is ( great importance1 b ! music is also int]e/+1 :ile 9 ! recitative ! text 0 important b ! music v slight1 & 9 ! aria ! text 0 usually inconsequ5tial :ile ! music held ! c5t] ( int]e/4 ,! mo/ pron\nc$ *>act]i/ic ( ! li$ is ! fact t x usually portrays a s+le mood1 s5tim5t1 or picture1 ?us diff]+ f ! ballad1 :i* is n>rative 9 /yle4 ,x w be not$ t ?is s+le mood1 or s5tim5t1 or picture 0 orig9ally conceiv$ by ! poet :o wrote ! ^w-text1 & t ! compos] 9 writ+ music to ?is text has fir/ tri$ to get at ! ?\ght ( ! poet1 & has !n attempt$ to compose music :i* w\ld int5sify & make m vivid t ?\ght4 ,?is int5sification ( ! poet's ?\ght comes z (t5 ?r\gh ! rhy?m1 h>mony1 & dynamics ( ! accompanim5t z ?r\gh ! expressiv5ess ( ! voice "p4 ,! /yle ( song-writ+ 9 :i* ea* v]se is sung to ! same tune is call$ ! /rophe =m1 :ile t 9 :i* ea* v]se has a diff]5t melody is (t5 ref]r$ to z ! cont9u\s or ?r\gh-compos$ =m 7,g]4 dur*-componi]t74 #agc4 ,a ballad 0 orig9ally a %ort1 simple song1 ! words be+ 9 n>rative /yle1 i4e41 ! ^w-text tell+ a /ory4 ,9 ! e>li] ballads ea* v]se ( ! poem 0 usually sung to ! same tune 7/rophe =m71 b 9 ! art-ballad z develop$ by ,loewe & o!rs ! cont9u\s /yle ( composition is employ$1 ?is giv+ ! compos] great] opportunities ( mak+ vivid ?r\gh 8 music ! ev5ts describ$ by ! poem4 ,^! lat] ballads are 9 consequ5ce nei!r %ort nor simple b comp>e 9 /ructure ) ! li$ itself4 #agd4 ,a folk-song is a %ort song sung by & usually orig9at+ among ! common p4 ,its dom9ant *>act]i/ic is usually simplicity1 ?is apply+ to ^w-text1 melody1 & accompanim5t 7if !re is "o74 ,! text ( ! folk-song is usually bas$ on "s ev5t connect$ ) ord9>y life1 b !re are also _m examples 9 :i* hi/orical & leg5d>y happ5+s are dealt )4 ,auld ,lang ,syne1 & ,com9' ?ru ! ,rye1 are examples ( folk-songs4 ,!re has be5 "s diff]5ce ( op9ion z to :e!r a song1 ! compos] ( :i* is kn[n1 c ev] con/itute a real folk-song3 rec5t writ]s seem to be tak+ ! s5sible view ( ! matt]1 viz43 t if a song has ! *>act]i/ics ( a folk- r ?an an art-song1 & if x rema9s popul> = "s "t among ! common p1 !n x is j z mu* a folk-song :e!r ! compos] happ5s to be kn[n or n4 #age4 ,a madrigal is a secul> vocal composition hav+ f ?ree to eight p>ts4 ,x is 9 contrapuntal /yle1 l ! motet1 & is usually sung a capella4 #agf4 ,a glee is a vocal composition 9 ?ree or m p>ts1 be+ usually m simple 9 /yle ?an ! madrigal1 & sometimes hav+ m ?an "o movem5t4 ,! glee may be ei!r gay or sad 9 mood1 & seems to be a composition peculi> to ! ,engli% p4 #agg4 ,a "p-song is a composition = two or m voices1 7usually f\r7 to be sung a capella4 ,x is writt5 9 monophonic r ?an 9 polyphonic /yle1 ?us diff]+ f ! madrigal & glee4 ,morley's ,n[ is ! ,mon? ( ,may+ is an example ( ! "p-song1 z is also ,sullivan's ,o ,hu% ,!e1 ,my ,baby4 ,! t]m "p-song is (t5 loosely appli$ to glees1 madrigals1 etc4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii ,,rhy?m1 ,,melody1 ,,h>mony ,,& ,,int]vals #agh4 ,! f\r elem5ts commonly attribut$ to music 79 ! ord] ( _! developm5t7 are3 ,rhy?m1 ,melody1 ,h>mony1 & ,timbre 7or tone-color74 #agi4 ,rhy?m is ! regul> recurr5ce ( acc5t4 ,9 music x is m specifically ! regul> recurr5ce ( gr\ps ( acc5t$ & non-acc5t$ beats 7or pulses7--accord+ to "s specifi$ measure-sy/em4 ,s9ce rhy?m implies cont9uity1 !re mu/ usually be at lea/ two su* measure gr\ps 9 ord] to make musical rhy?m possible4 7,see p4 #dd1 ,sec4 #ig47 #ahj4 ,a melody is a succession ( s+le tones ( v>i\s pit*es s arrang$ t ! effect ( ! :ole w be unifi$1 coh]5t1 & pleas+ to ! e>4 ,! soprano "p ( hymn-tunes & o!r simple h>moniz$ compositions is (t5 ref]r$ to z ! melody4 #aha4 ,h>mony is ! sci5ce ( *ord con/ruction & comb9ation4 ,! t]m h>mony ref]s to tones s\nd+ simultane\sly1 i4e41 to *ords1 z diff]5tiat$ f tones s\nd+ consecutively1 z 9 melody4 ,! ^w h>mony may !re=e be appli$ to any gr\p ( tones ( diff]5t pit*es s\nd$ z a *ord1 al?\gh specifically we usually ref] to a succession ( su* *ords :5 we speak ( h>mony4 ,x is possible to use ! same comb9ation ( tones 9 ei!r melody or h>mony2 9 fact ^! two elem5ts z appli$ to mod]n music h develop$ toge!r & ! /yle ( pres5t-day melody is directly bas$ ^u ! developm5t t has rec5tly tak5 place 9 h>monic con/ruction4 ,h>mony 7z contra/$ ) c\nt]po9t7 fir/ began to be an important factor 9 music ab\t #afjj ,a4,d41 i4e41 at ! "t :5 op]a & oratorio came into exi/5ce1 :5 =m 0 e/abli%$1 & :5 our mod]n major & m9or scales 7 adopt$4 ,be=e ?is practically all music 0 compos$ on a contrapuntal basis4 #ahb4 ,timbre is t peculi> quality ( s\nd :i* enables "o to di/+ui% a tone produc$ by "o in/rum5t 7or voice7 f a tone produc$ by an equal numb] ( vibrations on ano!r in/rum5t4 ,! ^w timbre is synonym\s ) ! t]ms quality ( tone1 & tone quality 7,g]4--,klang-f>be71 ! excuse = us+ x be+ t x expresses adequately 9 "o ^w an idea t 9 our language takes at lea/ two3 ?is excuse w\ld disappe> 7& incid5tally a mu*-mispron\nc$ ^w w\ld be elim9at$7 if ! s+le ^w quality 7 to be adopt$ z ! equival5t ( timbre4 ,?us1 e4g41 ! soprano voice s++ c' has a quality diff]5t f ! contralto voice s++ ! same tone4 7,! rema9d] ( ?is *apt] & all ( ,*apt] ,,xviii deal ) t]ms commonly enc\nt]$ 9 ! /udy ( h>mony4 ,c\rses 9 ?is subject usually beg9 ) a /udy ( scales1 b s9ce ?is subject has already be5 some:at ext5sively treat$1 ?is *apt] w omit x1 & w beg9 ) ! next topic 9 h>mony /udy1 viz4--! int]val47 #ahc4 ,an int]val is ! relation ( two tones ) reg>d to pit*4 ,if ! two tones are s\nd$ simultane\sly ! result is an h>monic int]val1 b if s\nd$ consecutively ! result is a melodic int]val4 ,fig4 #fb repres5ts ! pit*es f' & a' z a h>monic int]val1 :ile ,fig4 #fc repres5ts ! same pit*es arrang$ z a melodic int]val4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fc4 #ahd4 ,9 classify+ int]vals two facts %\ld be con/antly kept 9 m9d3 7#a7 ,! numb] "n ( ! int]val 7?ird1 fif?1 six?1 etc471 is d]iv$ f ! ord] ( lett]s z f\nd 9 ! diatonic scale4 ,?us ! int]val ,c--,e is a ?ird because ,e is ! ?ird tone f ,c 7c\nt+ ,c z "o7 9 ! diatonic scale4 ,c--,g is a fif? because ,g is ! fif? tone above ,c 9 ! diatonic scale4 ,x %\ld be not$ h[ev] t ! same numb]-names apply ev5 ?\gh "o or bo? lett]s ( ! int]val are qualifi$ by %>ps1 flats1 etc4 ,?us e4g41 ,c--,g%>p is /ill a fif?1 z are also ,c%>p--,gflat & ,cflat--,g%>p4 7#b7 ,9 det]m9+ ! specific "n ( any int]val 7p]fect fif?1 major ?ird1 etc471 ! half-/ep & :ole-/ep 7(t5 ref]r$ to respectively z m9or second1 & major second7 are us$ z units ( measurem5t4 ,! half-/ep is usually def9$ z ! smalle/ usable int]val betwe5 two tones4 ,?us1 ,c--,c%>p is a half-/ep1 z are also ,b--,c1 ,f--,gflat1 etc4 ,a :ole-/ep consi/s ( two half-/eps4 ,c--,d is a :ole-/ep1 z are also ,bflat--,c1 ,e--,f%>p1 ,f%>p--,g%>p1 ,gflat--,aflat1 etc4 ,! expressions half-/ep & :ole-/ep are mu* to be pref]r$ to half-tone & :ole-tone1 z be+ m cle> & def9ite4 ,?us e4g41 ! s5t5ce ,! two tones are a half-/ep ap>t is mu* bett] ?an ,! two tones are a half-tone ap>t4 #ahe4 ,a prime is ! relation betwe5 two tones ^: pit*es are prop]ly repres5t$ by ! same degree ( ! /aff4 ,a p]fect prime is "o ^: tones h ! same pit*4 ,middle ,c s\nd$ by piano & viol9 at ! same "t w\ld (f] an example4 ,an augm5t$ prime is "o ^: second tone is "o half-/ep high] ?an ! fir/4 ,ex4 ,c--,c%>p4 #ahf4 ,a second is ! relation betwe5 two tones ^: pit*es are prop]ly repres5t$ by adjac5t degrees ( ! /aff4 7,! fir/ l9e & fir/ space are adjac5t degrees1 z are also ! ?ird l9e & f\r? space47 ,a m9or second is "o compris+ "o half-/ep4 ,ex4 ,b--,c4 ,a major second is "o compris+ two half-/eps4 ,ex4 ,b--,c%>p4 ,an augm5t$ second is "o compris+ ?ree half-/eps4 ,ex4 ,f--,g%>p4 #ahg4 ,a ?ird is an int]val compris+ two seconds4 ,a dim9i%$ ?ird has two m9or seconds 7i4e41 two half-/eps74 ,c--,ed\ble-flat4 ,a m9or ?ird has "o m9or & "o major second 7i4e41 ?ree half-/eps74 ,c--,eflat4 ,a major ?ird has two major seconds 7i4e41 f\r half-/eps74 ,c--,e4 #ahh4 ,a f\r? is an int]val compris+ ?ree seconds4 ,a dim9i%$ f\r? has two m9or & "o major second4 ,c%>p--,f4 ,a p]fect f\r? has "o m9or & two major seconds4 ,c--,f4 ,an augm5t$ f\r? 7tritone7 has ?ree major seconds4 ,c--,f%>p4 #ahi4 ,a fif? is an int]val compris+ f\r seconds4 ,a dim9i%$ fif? has two m9or & two major seconds4 ,c--,gflat4 ,a p]fect fif? has "o m9or & ?ree major seconds4 ,c--,g4 ,an augm5t$ fif? has f\r major seconds4 ,c--,g%>p4 #aij4 ,a six? is an int]val compris+ five seconds4 ,a m9or six? has two m9or & ?ree major seconds4 ,c--,aflat4 ,a major six? has "o m9or & f\r major seconds4 ,c--,a4 ,an augm5t$ six? has five major seconds4 ,c--,a%>p4 #aia4 ,a sev5? is an int]val compris+ six seconds4 ,a dim9i%$ sev5? has ?ree m9or & ?ree major seconds4 ,c--,bd\ble-flat4 ,a m9or sev5? has two m9or & f\r major seconds4 ,c--,bflat4 ,a major sev5? has "o m9or & five major seconds4 ,c--,b4 #aib4 ,an octave is an int]val compris+ sev5 seconds4 ,a dim9i%$ octave has ?ree m9or & f\r major seconds4 ,c--,cflat4 ,a p]fect octave has two m9or & five major seconds4 ,c--,c4 ,an augm5t$ octave has "o m9or & six major seconds4 ,c--,c%>p4 #aic4 ,a n9? is usually treat$ z a second1 a t5? z a ?ird1 etc4 ,! int]val ( two octaves is (t5 ref]r$ to z a fifte5?4 #aid4 ,if ! major diatonic scale be writt5 & ! int]val betwe5 ea* tone & ! key-tone not$1 x w be obs]v$ t ! int]vals are all ei!r major or p]fect4 ,see ,fig4 #fd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,9 ?is connection also x w be not$ t ! int]val next small] ?an major is always m9or1 :ile t next small] ?an p]fect or m9or is always dim9i%$3 b t ! int]val next l>g] ?an bo? major & p]fect is augm5t$4 #aie4 ,an int]val is said to be inv]t$ :5 ! tone orig9ally ! upp] becomes ! l[]4 ,?us ,c--,e1 a major ?ird1 inv]t$ becomes ,e--,c1 a m9or six?4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii ,,*ords1 ,,cad5ces1 ,,etc4 #aif4 ,a *ord is a comb9ation ( sev]al tones s\nd+ toge!r & be>+ an h>monic relation to ea* o!r4 ,! simple/ *ord is ! triad1 :i* consi/s ( a fundam5tal tone call$ ! root1 ) ! ?ird & fif? above x4 ,c--,e--,g is a triad1 z are also ,d--,f--,a1 ,f--,a--,c1 & ,g--,b--,d4 #aig4 ,triads are classifi$ z major1 m9or1 dim9i%$1 or augm5t$4 ,a major triad has a major ?ird & a p]fect fif?1 i4e41 x is a major ?ird ) a m9or ?ird on top ( x4 ,ex4 ,c--,e--,g4 ,a m9or triad has a m9or ?ird & a p]fect fif?1 i4e41 x is a m9or ?ird ) a major ?ird on top ( x4 ,ex4 ,c--,eflat--,g4 ,a dim9i%$ triad has a m9or ?ird & a dim9i%$ fif?1 i4e41 x is a m9or ?ird ) ano!r m9or ?ird on top ( x4 ,ex4 ,c--,eflat--,gflat4 ,an augm5t$ triad has a major ?ird & an augm5t$ fif?1 i4e41 x is a major ?ird ) ano!r major ?ird on top ( x4 ,ex4 ,c--,e--,g%>p4 #aih4 ,a triad may be built on any scale-tone1 b ^? on ,i1 ,,iv1 & ,v1 are us$ s mu* (t5] ?an ! o!rs t !y are (t5 call$ ! common *ords4 ,9 ref]r+ to triads ! ,roman num]als are us$ to %[ on :at scale-tone ! triad is bas$1 ! size ( ! num]al 7) o!r signs7 indicat+ ! k9d ( triad f\nd on ea* tone ( ! scale4 ,?us e4g41 ! l>ge ,i %[s t ! triad on ! fir/ tone 79 major7 is a major triad1 ! small ,,ii %[s t ! triad on ! second tone is m9or1 etc4 ,! foll[+ figure w make ?is cle>4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,! triads 9 ! m9or scale are z foll[s3 ,illu/ration #aii4 ,a triad is said to be 9 fundam5tal position :5 its root is ! l[e/ tone4 ,x is said to be 9 ! fir/ inv]sion :5 ! ?ird is ! l[e/ tone1 & 9 ! second inv]sion :5 ! fif? is ! l[e/ tone4 ,?us e4g41 9 ,fig4 #ff ! same *ord 7,c--,e--,g7 is arrang$ 9 ?ree diff]5t positions1 at 7a7 9 fundam5tal position1 at 7b7 9 ! fir/ inv]sion1 & at 7c7 9 ! second inv]sion4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ff4 #bjj4 ,:5 ! root is n ! bass note1 figures are sometimes us$ to %[ :at *ord is to be play$ or writt54 ,?us1 e4g41 ! figure #f ov] a bass note means t ! note giv5 is ! ?ird ( a *ord1 ! root be+ f\nd by go+ up a six? f ! bass note3 i4e41 ! *ord is to be s\nd$ 9 its fir/ inv]sion4 ,9 ! same way ! figures #f_/d indicate t ! note giv5 is ! fif? ( ! *ord1 ! root & fif? be+ f\nd by go+ up a six? & a f\r? f ! note giv52 i4e41 ! *ord is to be s\nd$ 9 its second inv]sion4 ,! use ( ^! & o!r simil> figures & signs is call$ figur$ bass 7or ?or\gh bass7 notation4 ,an example ( a figur$ bass is giv5 9 ,fig4 #fg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,?or\gh bass notation 0 =m]ly us$ ext5sively 9 writ+ accompanim5ts to vocal works1 ! accompani/ hav+ to int]pret ! notes & signs giv51 & !n to make up an int]e/+ accompanim5t z he w5t along4 ,mu* ( ,h&el's music 0 writt5 9 ?is way1 b 9 mod]n editions ( ^! works ! *ords h be5 pr9t$ 9 full & ! signs omitt$4 #bja4 ,a sev5? *ord consi/s ( a fundam5tal tone ) its ?ird1 fif?1 & sev5?4 ,! fif? is sometimes omitt$4 ,a n9? *ord consi/s ( a fundam5tal ) its ?ird1 fif?1 sev5?1 & n9?4 #bjb4 ,a cad5ce is ! close ( a musical phrase3 9 melody x ref]s to ! la/ two tones2 9 h>mony to ! la/ two *ords4 ,! ^w cad5ce is d]iv$ f cad]e1 a ,lat9 ^w mean+ to fall1 ! ref]5ce be+ to ! fall+ ( ! voice 7i4e41 ! dropp+ to ! normal pit*7 at ! close ( a s5t5ce4 #bjc4 ,! mo/ frequ5t cad5ce 9 h>mony is t involv+ ! *ord on ,i prec$$ by ! *ord on ,v4 ,because ( its directness ! cad5ce ,v--,i is call$ ! au!ntic cad5ce4 #bjd4 ,! mo/ satisfactory =m 7to ! e>7 ( ! au!ntic cad5ce is t 9 :i* ! highe/ voice 7! soprano7 ( ! f9al *ord is ! root ( t *ord4 ,:5 ! f9al *ord appe>s 9 ?is position ! cad5ce is call$ p]fect#cf au!ntic1 & :5 ! ?ird or fif? ( ! *ord appe> 9 ! soprano1 ! cad5ce is call$ imp]fect au!ntic4 ,fig4 #fh %[s ! *ord ,g--,b--,d cad5c+ to ,c--,e--,g 9 ?ree diff]5t ways4 ,! fir/ "o 7a7 is call$ a p]fect au!ntic cad5ce1 b ! la/ two 7c7 & 7d7 are imp]fect au!ntic4 ,footnote #cf3 ,_m !ori/s 7includ+ ,dur& 9 8 monum5tal ,treatise on ,h>mony7 consid] ! ,v--,i cad5ce to be ! only "o :i* may legitimately be call$ p]fect1 b ! majority ( writ]s seem to take ! view t ei!r au!ntic or plagal cad5ce may be ei!r p]fect or imp]fect1 dep5d+ ^u ! soprano tone1 z not$ above4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fh4 #bje4 ,a plagal cad5ce is "o 9 :i* ! tonic *ord is prec$$ by ! sub-dom9ant *ord 7,,iv--,i74 ,! plagal cad5ce 7sometimes call$ ! *ur* cad5ce1 or am5 cad5ce71 l ! au!ntic1 is describ$ z be+ p]fect :5 ! soprano ( ! tonic *ord is ! root ( t *ord1 & imp]fect :5 ! soprano ( ! f9al *ord is ! ?ird or fif? ( t *ord4 ,fig4 #fi %[s ! *ord ,f--,a--,c cad5c+ to ,c--,e--,g 9 ?ree ways4 ,! fir/ "o 7a7 is call$ a p]fect plagal cad5ce1 ! la/ two are imp]fect plagal4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fi4 #bjf4 ,a half-cad5ce occurs :5 ! dom9ant *ord is us$ z ! f9al *ord ( a phrase1 & is imm$iately prec$$ by ! tonic *ord4 ,?is =m is us$ to give v>iety 9 ! c\rse ( a composition1 b is n available at ! end because x does n give a def9ite close 9 ! tonic key4 ,fig4 #gj %[s ! use ( ! half-cad5ce at ! close ( su* a phrase4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,,ba* #bjg4 ,a deceptive cad5ce is ! progression ( ! dom9ant *ord to "s o!r *ord ?an ! tonic1 ! ^w deceptive imply+ t ! e> expects to he> ,v resolve to ,i & is deceiv$ :5 x does n d s4 ,! mo/ common =m ( deceptive cad5ce is t 9 :i* ,v 7or ,v#g7 resolves to ,,vi4 ,x is us$ to give v>iety1 b z 9 ! case ( ! half-cad5ce1 is n available at ! end ( a composition4 ,fig4 #ga gives an example4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,,wm4 ,,ma!r #bjh4 ,a sequ5ce is a succession ( simil> h>monic progressions1 ^! result+ f a typical or symmetrical movem5t ( ! bass "p4 ,see ,fig4 #gb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,! ^w sequ5ce is also appli$ to a succession ( simil> melodic progressions1 z 9 ,fig4 #gc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gc4 #bji4 ,modulation is a *ange ( key )\t any break 9 ! cont9uity ( *ords or melody tones4 ,h>monic modulations are usually effect$ ?r\gh ! m$ium ( a *ord1 "s or all ( ^: tones are common to bo? keys4 ,examples ( bo? h>monic & melodic modulations are %[n 9 ,figs4 #gd & #ge4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gd4 ,! *ord mo/ frequ5tly us$ 9 modulat+ is ! dom9ant sev5?1 i4e41 a sev5? *ord 7see ,sec4 #bja7 on ! dom9ant tone ( ! key4 ,9 ! key ( ,c ?is *ord is ,g--,b--,d--,f2 9 ! key ( ,d x is ,a--,c%>p--,e--,g2 9 ! key ( ,aflat x is ,eflat--,g--,bflat--,dflat1 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ge4 #baj4 ,a susp5sion is ! tempor>y sub/itution ( a tone a degree high] ?an ! regul> *ord-tone1 ?is tempor>y tone be+ lat] replac$ by ! regul> *ord-tone4 ,see ,fig4 #gf 7a74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gf4 #baa4 ,a ret>dation is ! tempor>y sub/itution ( a tone a degree l[] ?an ! regul> tone1 ?is tone 7z 9 ! case ( ! susp5sion7 be+ lat] replac$ by ! regul> *ord tone4 ,see ,fig4 #gg 7a74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gg4 ,! regul> *ord tone to :i* bo? susp5sion & ret>dation resolve is call$ ! tone ( resolution4 #bab4 ,! anticipation is a *ord-tone introduc$ j be=e ! re/ ( ! *ord to :i* x belongs is s\nd$4 ,see ,fig4 #gh 7a74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gh4 #bac4 ,a p$al po9t 7or organ po9t7 is a tone su/a9$ ?r\gh a succession ( h>monic progressions1 to ! *ords ( "s ( :i* x usually belongs4 ,! t]m p$al po9t orig9at$ 9 organ play+1 7:]e ! foot on a p$al c su/a9 a tone :ile ! h&s are play+ a succession ( h>monies71 b z n[ us$ x may be appli$ to any k9d ( music4 ,! dom9ant & tonic are ! tones mo/ (t5 us$ 9 ?is way4 ,see ,fig4 #gi4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gi4 ,,s*umann #bad4 ,:5 ! upp] ?ree voices ( a f\r-voice composition are writt5 close toge!r 7! soprano & t5or nev] appe>+ m ?an an octave ap>t71 ! t]m close position is appli$4 ,b :5 ! upp] voices are n writt5 close toge!r1 ! t]m op5 position is appli$4 #bae4 ,by transposition is meant play+1 s++1 or writ+ a piece ( music 9 "s o!r key ?an ! orig9al4 ,?us e4g41 if a song writt5 9 ! key ( ,g is too high 9 range = a soloi/1 ! accompani/ sometimes transposes x to a l[] key 7z ,f or ,e71 ?us caus+ all tones to s\nd a second or a ?ird l[] ?an !y did :5 ! same song 0 play$ 9 ! orig9al key4 ,,*apt] ,,xix ,,miscellane\s ,,t]ms ,a battuta--) ! beat2 9 /rict rhy?m4 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,correct$ error battua 9 orig9al4 ,a quatre ma9s--= f\r h&s4 ,accompagnam5to--! accompanim5t4 ,all'unisono--9 unison4 ,alla breve--#b_/b measure4 ,! t]m alla breve is also sometimes us$ z a tempo indication1 to %[ a rate ( spe$ s great t a half-note has a beat1 i4e41 only two beats 9 a measure--h5ce twice z fa/ z be=e4 ,alla capella--usually ! same z a capella 7see p4 #gf1 ,sec4 #afb7 b sometimes us$ 9 ! same s5se z alla breve4 ,alla m>cia--9 m>* /yle4 ,alla z+>a--9 gypsy /yle4 ,alt--see 9 alt4 ,alto--! l[e/ female voice4 ,range approximately g-e''4 ,! ^w alto is d]iv$ f ! ,lat9 ^w altus1 mean+ high1 ! t]m be+ =m]ly appli$ to ! highe/ male voice1 :i* orig9ally sang 7& /ill does s 9 _m male *oirs7 ! alto "p4 ,animato come sopra--9 animat$ /yle z above4 ,antiphony 7antiphonal7--! responsive s++ ( two *oirs1 usually "o at ei!r end ( ! *ur*1 or at ei!r side ( ! *ancel4 ,arabesque--an in/rum5tal composition 9 light1 some:at fanta/ic /yle4 ,! t]m arabesque is d]iv$ f ! ^w ,arabian1 & 0 orig9ally appli$ to a /yle ( decoration4 ,arioso--9 ! /yle ( an air or song1 i4e41 a fl[+1 vocal /yle4 ,attacca--attack ! next division )\t any pause4 ,attacca subito--same z attacca4 ,attacca subito il segu5te--attack at once t :i* foll[s4 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,9 la/ #c entries1 correct$ misspell+ attaca 9 orig9al4 ,attack--! promptness or firmness ) :i* a phrase is begun4 ,bagpipe--,a ,scot* in/rum5t on :i* ! tone is produc$ by a comb9ation ( bell[s & re$s4 ,its *>act]i/ic effect is ! cont9u\s s\nd+ ( a l[ tone 7sometimes sev]al tones7 :ile ! melody is be+ play$ on ! high] re$s4 ,b>c>ole 7or b>c>olle7--a boat song4 ,also appli$ to a vocal or in/rum5tal composition 9 ! /yle ( ! gondoli]'s boat song4 ,b>itone 7or b>ytone7--! male voice hav+ a range betwe5 t ( ! t5or & t ( ! bass4 ,approximate range ,g-g'4 ,bass--! l[e/ male voice4 ,approximate range ,e-e'4 ,basso--same z bass4 ,b]ceuse--a cradle song4 ,b9>y =m--a =m 9 two p>ts4 ,b9>y measure--a measure hav+ two beats4 ,bis--twice4 ,us$ to indicate a repetition4 7,r>e47 ,brace--! sign us$ to jo9 sev]al /affs1 %[+ t all tones repres5t$ on ^! /affs are to be p]=m$ toge!r4 ,! t]m is (t5 us$ also 9 ref]r+ to ! music writt5 on /affs s jo9$2 z--,beg9 ) ! upp] brace4 ,brok5 *ord--a *ord ^: tones are n all s\nd$ simultane\sly1 z e4g41 9 an accompanim5t gr\p4 ,brok5 octave--an octave ^: tones are s\nd$ "o at a "t in/ead ( simultane\sly4 ,cacophony--h>%1 discordant1 unpleasant1 especially incorrect comb9ations ( tones4 ,! opposite ( euphony4 ,cad5za--,a brilliant passage1 usually 9 an in/rum5tal composition1 introduc$ j be=e ! close ( a movem5t4 ,! cad5za 0 =m]ly improvis$ by ! p]=m]1 7?us giv+ an opportunity ( display+ 8 te*nical skill71 b s9ce ,bee?ov51 compos]s h usually writt5 _! own cad5zas4 ,cantabile--9 a s++ /yle4 ,cant&o--same z cantabile4 ,canto--! highe/ voice "p2 i4e41 ! soprano "p4 ,note ! d]ivation ( canto1 cantabile1 etc41 f ! ,lat9 ^w cantus1 mean+ a song4 ,c>ol--a hymn ( joyful praise1 usually sung 9 connection ) ,ea/] or ,*ri/mas fe/ivities4 ,! ^w c>ol meant orig9ally a dance1 h5ce ! happy "* ( songs ( ?is type4 ,cat*--a r\nd set to humor\s words4 ,*romatic 7n\n7--a t]m some:at loosely appli$ to any tone n belong+ to ! key z indicat$ by ! signature4 ,_m tea*]s are replac+ ! ^w *romatic 9 ?is s5se ) ! t]m int]m$iate tone1 ?is t]m be+ applicable :e!r ! =eign tone is actually us$ = ornam5tal purposes z a *romatic1 or to effect a modulation4 ,?us e4g41 ,f%>p is ! int]m$iate tone betwe5 ,f & ,g 9 ! key ( ,c4 ,clavi*ord--an in/rum5t ) keys1 resembl+ ! squ>e piano 9 appe>ance4 ,! tone 0 produc$ by =c+ w$ge-%ap$ pieces ( metal aga9/ ! /r+s1 ?us sett+ !m 9 vibration4 ,! clavi*ord 0 "o ( ! imm$iate pr$ecessors ( ! piano1 mu* ( ! music writt5 by ,ba* be+ compos$ = x1 al?\gh ?is music is n[ play$ on ! mod]n piano4 ,colla voce--) ! voice3 i4e41 play ! accompanim5t accord+ to ! soloi/'s p]=mance r ?an /rictly accord+ to ! rhy?m indicat$ 9 ! score4 ,colla p>te--same z colla voce4 ,coloratura--florid passages 9 s++4 ,also appli$ to ! /yle ( s++ employ$ 9 r5d]+ su* passages4 7,see p4 #gf1 ,sec4 #aga47 ,consonance--,a comb9ation ( tones agreeable to ! e> & requir+ no resolution to o!r tone-comb9ations 9 ord] to give ! effect ( f9ality4 ,! major triad ,c--,e--,g is an example ( a consonant *ord4 ,contralto--same z alto4 ,con v>iazioni--) v>iations4 ,direct--a sign 7direct symbol7 plac$ at ! end ( ! la/ /aff on a page1 to indicate :at ! fir/ note on ! next page is go+ to be4 ,?is sign is n[ practically obsolete4 ,dirge--a fun]al *ant4 ,! dirge is nam$ f ! fir/ ^w ( a *ant us$ 9 ! (fice = ! dead1 :i* beg9s--,dirige ,dom9e1 ,deus meus1 9 conspectu tuo viam meam 7,direct1 ,o ,"l1 ,my ,god1 my way 9 ,?y sight74 ,discord--an ugly1 unh>moni\s comb9ation ( tones4 ,dissonance--a h>monic comb9ation ( tones giv+ rise to ! feel+ ( incomplet5ess or unre/1 & !re=e requir+ resolution to "s o!r comb9ation :i* has an agreeable or f9al feel+4 7cf4 consonance47 ,! dim9i%$ triad ,c--,eflat--,gflat is an example ( a dissonant *ord4 ,divisi--divid$4 ,an indication %[+ t ! fir/ viol9s1 or ! sopranos1 or any o!r body ( p]=m]s ord9>ily s\nd+ 9 unison are n[ to divide into two or m p>ts4 ,duet--a composition = two p]=m]s4 7,f ! ,x4 ^w due--two47 ,ecole--a s*ool or /yle ( composition or p]=mance4 ,etude--a /udy4 ,also an in/rum5tal composition 9 ! /yle ( a /udy1 b int5d$ = arti/ic p]=mance4 ,euphony--agreeable tone comb9ations2 ! opposite ( cacophony4 7,f ! ,greek ^w mean+ well-s\nd+47 ,facile--easy4 ,fanf>e--a trumpet call4 ,fantasia--,an in/rum5tal composition n bas$ on any regul> =m4 ,fiasco--a complete failure or breakd[n4 ,?is use ( ! ^w fiasco 7:i* means 9 ,italian a flask1 or bottle7 is said to h ref]5ce to ! bur/+ ( a bottle1 ! complete ru9 ( ! bottle be+ comp>$ ) ! complete failure ( a p]=mance4 ,gamut--all ! tones ( a scale4 ,gliss&o--play+ a scale on ! keybo>d by draw+ ! f+] along ov] ! keys1 ?us depress+ !m 9 v rapid succession4 ,! ^w is d]iv$ f ! ,fr5* ^w gliss]--to glide4 ,h>psi*ord--"o ( ! imm$iate pr$ecessors ( ! piano4 ,humoresque--a caprici\s1 fanta/ic composition4 7,cf4 fantasia47 ,idyl--a %ort1 romantic piece ( music 9 simple & unaffect$ /yle4 ,9 alt--pit*es 9 ! fir/ octave above ! treble /aff4 ,?us e4g41 ,c 9 alt is ! ,c repres5t$ by ! second add$ l9e above ! treble /aff4 ,9 altissimo--pit*es 9 ! octave above ! alt octave4 ,in/rum5tation--see or*e/ration4 ,int]lude--a %ort movem5t betwe5 two l>g] movem5ts4 ,loco--place2 i4e41 play z writt54 7,see p4 #ae1 ,sec4 #df47 ,lunga trillo--a long trill4 ,,*apt] ,,xx ,,miscellane\s ,,t]ms 7,cont9u$7 ,lyric--a %ort1 song-l poem ( simple "*4 ,also appli$ to in/rum5tal pieces ( l "*4 ,maggiore--major4 ,m>cato il canto--! melody well m>k$2 i4e41 subdue ! accompanim5t s t ! melody may /& out /rongly4 ,melos--melody4 ,?is ^w melos is also appli$ to ! peculi> /yle ( vocal solo f\nd 9 ,wagn]'s music dramas4 ,see recitative 7p4 #ge1 ,sec4 #agj74 ,melliflu\s--pleas+2 pleasant s\nd+4 ,m5uetto1 m5uet--same z m9uet4 7,see p4 #fh1 ,sec4 #aea47 ,mezzo soprano--a woman's voice ( soprano quality1 b ( some:at l[] compass ?an ! soprano voice4 ,range approximately b to g''4 ,m9ore--m9or4 ,nocturne 7sometimes spell$ nocturn1 notturna1 nokturne1 etc47--a night piece2 a quiet1 melodi\s1 some:at s5tim5tal composition1 usually = piano solo4 ,nuance--delicate %ad+2 subtle v>iations 9 tempo & dynamics :i* make ! r5dition ( music m expressive4 ,obbligato 7sometimes incorrectly spell$ obligato7--an accessory melody accompany+ h>moniz$ music1 7usually vocal music74 ,! ^w obbligato 7,x4 b\nd1 or oblig$7 ref]s to ! fact t ?is is usually a melody ( indep5d5t value1 s important t x _c be omitt$ 9 a complete p]=mance4 ,(f]tory 7sometimes spell$ (f]toire1 or (f]torium7--a piece ( music play$ or sung dur+ ! tak+ up ( ! (f]+ 9 ! *ur* s]vice4 ,! ^w is (t5 appli$ by compos]s to any %ort1 simple piece ( music 7usually = organ7 t is suitable = ! above purpose4 ,opus--"w2 us$ by compos]s to designate ! ord] 9 :i* _! compositions 7 writt51 z e4g41 ,bee?ov51 ,op4 #b1 ,no4 #a4 ,or*e/ration--! art ( writ+ = ! or*e/ra1 ?is imply+ an intimate k ( ! range1 quality1 & possibilities ( all ! or*e/ral in/rum5ts4 ,ossia--or else2 us$ mo/ (t5 to call ! att5tion ( ! p]=m] to a simpl] passage t may be sub/itut$ = ! orig9al "o by a play] ^: skill is n equal to ! task he is attempt+ to p]=m4 ,ov]ture--7f ov]t--op57--an in/rum5tal prelude to an op]a or oratorio4 ,! old] ov]tures 7 indep5d5t compositions & bore no p>ticul> relation to ! "w :i* 0 to foll[1 b 9 mod]n music 7cf4 ,wagn]1 ,/rauss1 etc471 ! ov]ture introduces ! pr9cipal !mes t are to occur 9 ! "w itself1 & ! introduction ?us becomes an integral "p ( ! "w z a :ole4 ,! ^w ov]ture is sometimes appli$ to indep5d5t or*e/ral compositions t h no connection ) vocal works1 z ! ,hebrides ,ov]ture by ,m5delssohn4 ,pizzicato--pluck$4 ,a t]m f\nd 9 music = /r+$ in/rum5ts1 & indicat+ t = ! mom5t ! b[ is n to be us$1 ! tone be+ secur$ by pluck+ ! /r+4 ,polacca--a ,poli% dance 9 ?ree-qu>t] measure4 ,polonaise--same z polacca4 ,po/lude--7lit4 aft]-play7--an organ composition to be play$ at ! close ( a *ur* s]vice4 ,prelude--7lit4 be=e-play7--an in/rum5tal composition to be play$ at ! beg9n+ ( a *ur* s]vice1 or be=e "s l>g] "w 7op]a1 etc474 ,! t]m is also appli$ to indep5d5t piano compositions ( some:at indef9ite =m4 7,cf4 preludes by ,*op91 ,ra*man9(f1 etc47 ,pri]e--a pray]2 a t]m (t5 appli$ 7especially by ,fr5* compos]s7 to a quiet1 devotional composition = organ4 ,qu9tole1 qu9tuplet--a gr\p ( five notes to be p]=m$ 9 ! "t ord9>ily giv5 to f\r notes ( ! same value4 ,!re is only "o acc5t 9 ! gr\p1 ?is occurr+ ( c\rse on ! fir/ ( ! five tones4 ,religioso1 religiosam5te--9 a devotional /yle4 ,requiem--! mass = ! dead 9 ! ,roman ,ca?olic s]vice4 ,x is s call$ f its fir/ ^w requiem :i* means re/4 7,see p4 #gg1 ,sec4 #afe47 ,rhapsody--an irregul> in/rum5tal composition ( ! nature ( an improvisation4 ,a t]m fir/ appli$ by ,liszt to a s]ies ( piano pieces bas$ on gypsy !mes4 ,ribattuta--a device 9 in/rum5tal music :]eby a two-note phrase is gradually accel]at$1 ev5 to ! ext5t ( becom+ a trill4 7,see ,app5dix ,e1 p4 #aej1 = an example47 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,correct$ misspell+ ,ribbatua 9 orig9al4 ,ritornello1 ritornelle--a %ort in/rum5tal prelude1 int]lude1 or po/lude1 9 a vocal composition1 z e4g41 9 an op]atic aria or *orus4 ,s*ottis*e--a dance 9 two-qu>t] measure1 some?+ l ! polka4 ,sec1 secco--dry1 unornam5t$3 appli$ to a /yle ( op]a recitative 7see p4 #ge1 ,sec4 #agj71 & also to "s p>ticul> *ord 9 an in/rum5tal composition :i* is to be s\nd$ & almo/ in/antly dropp$4 ,score--a t]m us$ 9 two s5ses3 #a4 ,to designate "s p>ticul> po9t to :i* tea*] or conductor wi%es to call att5tion2 z e4g41 ,beg9 ) ! l[] score1 ?ird measure4 ,! ^w brace is also frequ5tly us$ 9 ?is s5se4 #b4 ,to ref] to all ! p>ts ( a composition t are to be p]=m$ simultane\sly1 :5 !y h be5 assembl$ on a s+le page = use by a *orus or or*e/ral conductor4 ,! t]m vocal score usually means all *orus p>ts toge!r ) an accompanim5t arrang$ = piano or organ1 :ile ! t]ms full score & or*e/ral score ref] to a complete assemblage ( all p>ts1 ea* be+ pr9t$ on a sep>ate /aff1 b all /affs be+ brac$ & b>r$ toge!r4 ,s5za replica1 s5za repetizione--)\t repetition2 a t]m us$ 9 connection ) su* indications z ,d4,c41 ,d4,s41 etc41 :i* (t5 call = ! repetition ( "s l>ge division ( a composition1 ! t]m s5za replica indicat+ t ! small] repeats includ$ )9 ! l>g] division are n to be obs]v$ ! second "t4 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,correct$ misspell+ s5za repetitione 9 orig9al4 ,s]5ade1 s]5ata--an ev5+ song4 ,sextet--a composition = six voices or in/rum5ts4 ,sextuplet--a gr\p ( six notes to be p]=m$ 9 ! "t ord9>ily giv5 to f\r ( ! same value4 ,! sextuplet diff]s f a pair ( triplets 9 hav+ b "o acc5t4 ,simile1 similit]--! same2 indicat+ t ! same g5]al effect is to be cont9u$4 ,solfeggio1 solfege--a vocal ex]cise sung ei!r on simple v[els or on arbitr>y syllables conta9+ ^! simple v[el s\nds4 ,its purpose is to develop tone quality & flexibility4 ,^! t]ms are also (t5 appli$ to classes 9 sight-s++ :i* use ! sol-fa syllables4 ,sopra--above4 ,soprano--! highe/ female voice4 ,range approximately b--c'''4 ,so/5uto--su/a9$ or connect$2 ! opposite ( /accato4 ,sotto--"u4 ,e4g41 sotto voce--"u ! voice1 i4e41 ) subdu$ tone4 ,solmization--sight-s++ by syllable4 ,/accato--deta*$2 ! opposite ( legato4 ,subito--sudd5ly4 ,t5or--! highe/ male voice4 ,range approximately d--c''4 ,t5uto--7f t5eo1 to hold7--a direction signify+ t ! tones are to be prolong$ to ! full value indicat$ by ! notes4 ,toccata--a brilliant composition = piano or organ1 usually *>act]iz$ by mu* rapid /accato play+4 ,triplet--a gr\p ( ?ree tones1 to be p]=m$ 9 ! "t ord9>ily giv5 to two ( ! same value4 ,! fir/ tone ( ! triplet is always slightly acc5t$4 ,tutti--7d]iv$ f totus1 toti1 ,lat9--all7--a direction signify+ t all p]=m]s are to take "p4 ,also us$ occasionally to ref] to a passage :]e all p]=m]s d take "p4 ,,app5dix ,a ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,music ,,notation ,_m conflict+ /atem5ts h be5 made reg>d+ ! hi/ory & developm5t ( music writ+1 & ! /ud5t :o is seek+ light on ?is subject is (t5 at a loss to det]m9e :at actually did happ5 9 ! rise ( our mod]n sy/em ( writ+ music4 ,we h "o writ] = example ass]t+ t /aff notation 0 begun by draw+ a s+le r$ l9e across ! page1 ?is l9e repres5t+ ! pit* f 7f\r? l9e1 bass /aff71 ! neumae 7! pr$ecessors ( our mod]n notes7 /&+ ei!r = ?is pit* f1 or = a high] or l[] pit*1 accord+ to _! position on ! l9e1 or above or bel[ x4 ,ano!r l9e1 cont9ues ?is writ]1 ?is "t ( yell[ color1 0 soon add$ above ! r$ "o1 & ?is l9e 0 to repres5t c' 7middle ,c74 ,soon ! colors ( ^! l9es 7 omitt$ & ! lett]s ,f & ,c 7 plac$ at ! beg9n+ ( ea* ( !m4 ,f ?is arose our ,f & ,c clefs1 :i* prec$$ ! ,g clef by "s c5turies4#cg ,footnote #cg3 ,elson--,music ,diction>y1 article1 ,notation4 ,ano!r writ]#ch gives a some:at diff]5t explanation1 /at+ t ! /aff sy/em ) ! use ( clefs came ab\t ?r\gh writ+ a lett] 7,c or ,f7 9 ! m>g9 ( ! manuscript & draw+ a l9e f ?is lett] to ! neume :i* 0 to repres5t ! tone = :i* ?is p>ticul> lett] /ood4 ,footnote #ch3 ,godd>d--,! ,rise ( ,music1 p4 #agg4 ,a ?ird writ]#ci ass]ts t because ! alphabetical notation 0 n suitable = record+ melodies because ( its inconv5i5ce 9 sight-s++ po9ts 7 plac$ at def9ite di/ances above ! words & above & bel[ "o ano!r4 ,9 ?is sy/em 444 ev]y?+ dep5d$ on ! accuracy ) :i* ! po9ts 7 int]sp]s$1 & ! scribes1 z a guide to ! eye1 began to scrat* a /raight l9e across ! page to indicate ! position ( "o p>ticul> scale degree f :i* all ! o!rs c\ld be %[n by ! relative di/ances ( _! po9ts4 ,b ?is 0 n f\nd suffici5tly def9ite & ! scrat*$ l9e 0 !re=e color$ r$ & a second l9e 0 add$1 color$ yell[1 indicat+ ! int]val ( a fif? above ! fir/4 ,footnote #ci3 ,williams 9 ,grove's ,diction>y1 article1 ,notation4 ,x w be not$ t all ?ree writ]s agree t a c]ta9 ?+ happ5$1 b z 9 ! case ( ! f\r ,gospels 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t1 n all ! writ]s agree on details & x is difficult to det]m9e :i* acc\nt is mo/ ne>ly accurate 9 detail z well z 9 g5]al /atem5t4 ,communication 0 mu* sl[] a ?\s& ye>s ago ?an n[ & ideas ab\t new me?ods ( do+ ?+s did n spread rapidly1 consequ5tly x is entirely possible t v>i\s m5 or gr\ps ( m5 9 v>i\s places work$ out a sy/em ( notation diff]+ some:at 9 details ( orig9 & developm5t b alike 9 f9al result4 ,! po9t is t ! developm5t ( musical k 7rise ( "p-writ+1 increas$ int]e/ 9 in/rum5tal music1 etc471 dem&$ a m exact sy/em ( notation ?an _h previ\sly exi/$1 j z ! developm5t ( sci5ce 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury necessitat$ a m accurate sci5tific nom5clature1 & 9 bo? cases ! ne$ gave rise to ! result z we h x to-day4 ,out ( ! *aos ( conflict+ /atem5ts reg>d+ ! developm5t ( music notation1 ! /ud5t may glean an outl9e-k ( ?ree fairly di/9ct p]iods or /ages1 ea* ( ^! /ages be+ intimately b\nd up ) ! developm5t ( music itself 9 t p]iod4 ,^! ?ree /ages are3 7#a7 ,! ,greek sy/em1 :i* us$ ! lett]s ( ! alphabet = repres5t+ fix$ pit*es4 7#b7 ,! p]iod ( ! neumae4 7#c7 ,! p]iod ( /aff notation4 ,( ! ,greek sy/em little is kn[n beyond ! fact t ! lett]s ( ! alphabet 7 us$ to repres5t pit*es4 ,?is me?od 0 probably accurate en\gh1 b x 0 cumb]some1 & did n af=d any means ( writ+ measur$ music nor did x give ! eye any opportunity ( grasp+ ! g5]al outl9e ( ! melody 9 its progression upw>d & d[nw>d1 z /aff notation does4 ,! ,greek sy/em seems to h be5 ab&on$ at "s "t prec$+ ! fif? c5tury4 ,at any rate x 0 ab\t ?is "t t c]ta9 acc5t m>ks began to be writt5 above ! text ( ! ,lat9 hymns ( ! *ur*1 ^! m>ks s]v+ to indicate 9 a g5]al way ! progress ( ! melody4 ,e4g41 an upw>d /roke ( ! p5 indicat$ a rise ( ! melody1 a d[nw>d /roke a fall1 etc4 ,9 ! c\rse ( two or ?ree c5turies ^! m>ks 7 add$ to & modifi$ q consid]ably1 & ! sy/em ( notation :i* ?us grew up 0 call$ neume notation1 ! ^w neume 7sometimes spell$ neuma1 or pneuma7 be+ ( ,greek orig9 & mean+ a nod or sign4 ,?is sy/em ( neumes 0 9 "s ways a retrogression f ! ,greek lett] sy/em1 = ! neumes indicat$ nei!r def9ite pit*es nor def9ite tone-l5g?s4 ,b x _h ?is advantage ov] ! ,greek sy/em1 t ! position ( ! signs on ! page indicat$ graphically to ! eye ! g5]al direction ( ! melody1 z well z giv+ at lea/ a h9t conc]n+ ! relative highness or l[ness ( ea* individual tone 7! s-call$ dia/ematic sy/em71 & ?is 0 a great aid to ! eye 9 s++1 j z ! relative highness & l[ness ( notes on ! mod]n /aff is ( great value 9 read+ music at ! pres5t "t4 ,?us al?\gh ! neumae did n enable "o to s+ a new melody at sight z our mod]n /aff notation does1 yet !y s]v$ v well to recall to ! eye ! g5]al outl9e ( a melody previ\sly le>n$ by e> & !re=e enabl$ ! s+] 7! sy/em 0 us$ = vocal music only7 to diff]5tiate betwe5 t p>ticul> melody & ! doz5s ( o!rs :i* he probably knew4 ,neume notation 0 us$ mo/ly 9 connection ) ! pla9-song melodies ( ! ,*ur*1 & s9ce ! words ( ^! *ants 7 sung z !y w\ld be pron\nc$ 9 read+1 ! defici5cy ( ! neume sy/em 9 n express+ def9ite duration values 0 n felt4 ,b lat] on ) ! rise ( s-call$ measur$ music 7cf4 inv5tion ( op]a1 developm5t ( indep5d5t in/rum5tal music1 etc471 ?is lack 0 se5 to be "o ( ! *ief disadvantages ( ! sy/em4 ,! elem5ts ( neume-writ+ z giv5 by ,riemann 9 8 ,diction>y ( ,music are3 7#a7 ,! signs = a s+le note3 ,virga 7,virgula7 & ,punctus 7,punctum74 7#b7 ,! sign = a ris+ int]val3 ,pes 7,podatus74 7#c7 ,! sign = a fall+ int]val3 ,cl9is 7,flexa74 7#d7 ,"s signs = special mann]s ( p]=mance3 ,tremula 7,bebung71 ,quilisma 7%ake71 ,plica 7turn71 etc4 ,! o!rs 7 ei!r synonyms ( ! above-nam$ or comb9ations ( !m4444 ,s9ce music 9 ! middle ages 0 always copi$ by h&1 x w readily be und]/ood t ^! neumae 7 n uni=m ei!r 9 %ape or size1 & t ea* writ] made use ( c]ta9 peculi>ities ( writ+1 :i*1 al?\gh p]fectly intelligible to himself1 c\ld n readily be int]pret$ by o!rs 7cf4 writ+ %or?&74 ,"h !n we obs]ve ! greate/ weakness ( ! neume sy/em--its lack ( uni=mity & its consequ5t inability accurately to express musical ideas = univ]sal int]pretation4 ,examples ( sev]al neumes are giv5 m]ely 9 ord] to give ! beg9n] a g5]al idea ( _! appe>ance4 ,virga virga symbol or virga symbol4 ,punctus punctus symbol or punctus symbol4 ,pes pes symbol or pes symbol4 ,cl9is cl9is symbol or cl9is symbol4 ,z music grew m & m complex1 & especially z writ+ 9 sev]al p>ts came into use 7cf4 rise ( organum1 descant1 & c\nt]po9t71 x became increas+ly difficult to express musical ideas on ! basis ( ! old notation1 & num]\s attempts 7 made to inv5t a m accurate & usable sy/em4 ,among ^! "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ 0 t 9 :i* ! words ( ! text 7 writt5 9 ! spaces betwe5 long1 p>allel l9es1 plac+ ! initial lett]s ( ! words tone & semi-tone at ! beg9n+ ( ! l9e to indicate ! scale int]val4 ,an example w make ?is cle>4 ,illu/ration ,?is indicat$ ! precise melodic int]val b did n give any idea ( ! rhy?m1 & ! natural acc5ts ( ! text 7 ! only guide ! s+] _h 9 ?is direction1 z 0 ! case 9 neume-notation & 9 e>ly /aff-notation also4 ,v>i\s o!r attempts to inv5t a m def9ite notation 7 made1 b all 7 sporadic1 & x 0 n until ! idea ( us+ ! l9es 7lat] l9es & spaces7 to repres5t def9ite pit*es1 & writ+ notes ( v>i\s %apes 7d]iv$ f ! neumae7 to indicate relative duration-values--x 0 only :5 ?is comb9ation ( two elem5ts 0 devis$ t any "o sy/em began to be univ]sally us$4 ,j h[ ! transition f neume to /aff notation 0 made no "o kn[s3 x 0 n done 9 a day nor 9 a ye> b 0 ! result ( a gradual process ( evolution & improvem5t4 ,nor is x probable t any "o man des]ves ! entire cr$it = ! inv5tion ( /aff notation1 al?\gh ?is feat is commonly attribut$ to an ,italian monk nam$ ,guido d',arezzo 7approximate dates #iie-ajej74 ,to ?is same monk we are indebt$1 h[ev]1 = ! inv5tion ( ! syllables 7,,ut1 ,,re1 ,,mi1 etc47 :i* 79 a some:at modifi$ =m7 are s widely us$ = sight-s++ purposes4 7,= a m detail$ acc\nt ( ! transition to /aff notation1 see ,grove1 op4 cit4 article notation47 ,x w n[ be readily se5 t our mod]n notation is ! result ( a comb9ation ( two prec$+ me?ods 7! ,greek lett]s1 & ! neumes7 toge!r ) a new elem5t--! /aff1 emphasiz+ ! idea t high] tones are writt5 high] on ! /aff ?an l[] ones4 ,! developm5t ( ! neumes into notes ( v>i\s %apes indicat+ relative "t values & ! division ( ! /aff into measures ) a def9ite measure signature at ! beg9n+ are natural developm5ts ( ! e>li] primitive idea4 ,9 ! sy/em ( musica m5surabilis or measur$ music :i* 0 inaugurat$ a little lat]1 ! virga 7:i* _h mean:ile develop$ into a squ>e-head$ neume7 0 adopt$ z ! longa or long note1 & ! punctus 9 two ( its =ms z breve & semi-breve 7%ort & half-%ort74 ,! longa is n[ ext9ct1 b ! mod]n =m ( ! breve is /ill us$ z ! d\ble-:ole-note1 & ! semi-breve is our mod]n :ole-note4 ,r$-color$ notes 7 sometimes us$ to indicate *anges 9 value & be=e long outl9e notes 7call$ empty notes7 came into use1 ^! be+ easi] to make ?an ! solid ones4 ,! transition f squ>e- & diamond-%ap$ notes to r\nd & oval ones also came ab\t because ( ! great] facility ) :i* ! latt] c\ld be writt51 & = ! same reason notes ( small d5om9ation 7 lat] ti$ toge!r or /rok$4 ,?is latt] usage began ab\t #agjj ,a4,d4 ,x is int]e/+ to f9d t :5 measur$ music 0 f9ally inaugurat$ !re 7 at fir/ b two measure-signatures1 viz4--! circle1 /&+ = ?ree-beat measure 7! s-call$ p]fect measure7 & ! semi-circle 7or brok5 circle7 :i* indicat$ two-beat measure4 ,occasionally ?ree-beat measure 0 indicat$ by ?ree v]tical /rokes at ! beg9n+ ( ! melody1 :ile two-beat measure 0 %[n by two su* /rokes4 ,^u ! basis ( ^! two v>ieties ( measure1 primitive 9 conception ?\gh !y may h be51 has be5 built nev]!less ! :ole sy/em n[ employ$1 & 9 ! la/ analysis all =ms ( measure n[ 9 use w be f\nd to be ( ei!r ! two-beat or ! ?ree-beat v>iety4 ,! circle has disappe>$ entirely z a measure-sign1 b ! brok5 circle /ill survives1 & f x are d]iv$ ! famili> signs common-"t symbol & cut-"t symbol1 :i* are sometimes errone\sly ref]r$ to z be+ ! initial lett] ( our ^w common 7z us$ 9 ! expression common "t74 ,! transition f ! old] /yle ( measure-signature to ! pres5t "o seems to h occurr$ dur+ ! c5tury foll[+ ! inv5tion ( op]a1 i4e41 f ab\t #afjj to ab\t #agjj ,a4,d4 ,! re/ came into use v soon aft] measur$ music began to be compos$ & we soon f9d re/s correspond+ ) ! v>i\s d5om9ations ( notes 9 use1 viz43 ,illu/ration ,! t]ms appli$ to ^! re/s v>y 9 diff]5t au?orities1 b x w be not$ t ! pausa1 semi-pausa1 & suspirum correspond respectively to ! d\ble-:ole-re/1 :ole-re/1 & half-re/ 9 use at pres5t4 ,! b> & d\ble b> may be developm5ts ( ! maxima re/ 7z "s writ]s sugge/7 b are probably also d]iv$ f ! practice ( draw+ a l9e v]tically ?r\gh ! v>i\s p>ts ( a score to %[ :i* notes belong$ toge!r1 ?us facilitat+ score read+4 ,! b> may occasionally be f\nd z e>ly z #aejj1 b 0 n employ$ univ]sally until #afej or lat]4 ,! numb] ( l9es us$ 9 ! /aff has v>i$ greatly s9ce ! "t ( ,guido1 !re hav+ be5 all ! way f f\r to fifte5 at v>i\s times & 9 v>i\s places1 7f\r be+ ! /&>d numb] = a long "t74 ,^! l9es 7:5 !re 7 q a numb] 9 ! /aff7 7 (t5 divid$ into gr\ps ( f\r by r$ l9es1 :i* 7 n !mselves us$ = notes4 ,^! r$ l9es 7 gradually omitt$ & ! /aff divid$ into sections by a space1 z 9 mod]n usage4 ,! numb] ( l9es 9 ea* section 0 *ang$ to five 79 "s cases six7 = ! sake ( hav+ a l>g] available range 9 ea* section4 ,! clefs at ! beg9n+ ( ! /affs are ( c\rse simply alt]$ =ms ( ! lett]s ,f1 ,c1 & ,g1 :i* 7 writt5 at fir/ by ,guido & o!rs to make ! old neume notation m def9ite4 ,! /accato sign seems n to h appe>$ until ab\t ! "t ( ,ba*1 ! legato sign be+ also inv5t$ at ab\t ! same "t4 ,! f]mata 0 fir/ us$ 9 imitative "p-writ+ to %[ :]e ea* "p 0 to /op1 b ) ! developm5t ( h>monic writ+ ! pres5t practice 0 inaugurat$4 ,leg] l9es came into use 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,%>ps & flats 7 inv5t$ because compos]s f\nd x necess>y to use o!r tones ?an ^? t c\ld be repres5t$ by ! /aff degrees 9 _! natural condition4 ,! hi/ory ( _! orig9 & developm5t is some:at complicat$ & _c be giv5 "h1 b x %\ld be not$ once m t x 0 ! ne$ ( express+ m ?an c\ld be express$ by ! old] symbols t call$ =? ! new] & m compreh5sive me?od4 ,! use ( %>ps & flats 9 key signatures grew up e>ly 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,9 ! e>li] signatures x 0 cu/om>y to duplicate %>ps or flats on /aff degrees hav+ ! same pit*-"n1 ?us3 ,illu/ration ,illu/ration4 7,! use ( ! ,g clef z "h %[n did n ( c\rse exi/ at t "t47 ,! d\ble-%>p & d\ble-flat became necess>y :5 equal temp]am5t 7mak+ possible ! use ( ! complete cycle ( keys7 0 adopt$4 ,?is 0 9 ! "t ( ,ba* 7#afhe-agej74 ,signs ( expression 7relat+ to tempo & dynamics7 date back at lea/ z f> z ! ye> #ajjj ,a4,d41 b ! mod]n t]ms us$ = ?is purpose did n appe> until "s ye>s aft] ! inv5tion ( op]a1 ! date giv5 by ,c4,f4,a4 ,williams 9 ,grove's ,diction>y be+ #afch4 ,^! words & signs ( expression 7 at fir/ us$ only 9 connection ) in/rum5tal music1 b 7 gradually appli$ to vocal music also4 ,o!r sy/ems ( notation h be5 inv5t$ f "t to "t 9 ! c\rse ( ! la/ two or ?ree c5turies1 b 9 mo/ cases !y h di$ ) _! inv5tors1 & 9 no case has any su* sy/em be5 accept$ ) any?+ ev5 approa*+ unanimity4 ,! tonic-sol-fa sy/em#dj is us$ q ext5sively 9 ,engl& = vocal music1 b has ga9$ little gr\nd any:]e else & ! *ances are t ! pres5t sy/em ( notation1 ) possibly slight additions & modifications1 w rema9 ! /&>d notation = "s "t to come 9 spite ( ! attacks t are p]iodically made ^u x on ! gr\nd ( cumb]som5ess1 difficulty 9 tea*+ *ildr51 etc4 ,! ma9 *>act]i/ics ( /aff notation may be summ$ up z foll[s3 ,footnote #dj3 ,! tonic-sol-fa sy/em repres5ts an attempt to inv5t a simpl] notation to be us$ by beg9n]s1 7especially 9 ! l[] grades ( ! public s*ools7 & by s+]s 9 *oral societies :o h nev] le>n$ to int]pret /aff notation & :o !re=e f9d "s simpl] s*eme ( notation necess>y if !y are to read music at all4 ,9 ?is sy/em ! syllables d1 re1 mi1 etc41 79 phonetic spell+7 are us$1 ! tone be+ arriv$ at 9 ea* case1 fir/ by means ( a firmly e/abli%$ s5se ( tonality1 & second by associat+ ea* diatonic tone ) "s univ]sally felt emotional feel+3 ?us d is ref]r$ to z ! /rong tone1 mi z ! calm "o1 & la z ! sad tone1 great emphasis be+ plac$ ^u d z ! c5t] ( ! major tonality1 & ^u la z ! c5t] ( ! m9or4 ,! sy/em is ?us se5 to h "o advantage ov] /aff notation1 viz43 t 9 pres5t+ x ! tea*] is compell$ to beg9 ) a pres5tation ( actual tones1 :ile 9 _m cases ! tea*] ( /aff notation beg9s by pres5t+ facts reg>d+ ! /aff & o!r symbols be=e ! pupil kn[s any?+ ab\t tone & rhy?m z su*4 ,! symbol = ea* diatonic tone is ! initial lett] ( ! syllable 7i4e41 d = d1 r = re1 etc471 ! key be+ indicat$ by a lett] at ! beg9n+ ( ! composition4 ,! duration-value ( tones is indicat$ by a sy/em ( b>s1 dots1 & spaces1 ! b> be+ us$ to indicate ! /ronge/ pulse ( ea* measure 7z 9 /aff notation7 ! beats be+ %[n by ! m>k3 a da% indicat+ ! cont9uation ( ! same tone ?r\gh ano!r beat4 ,if a beat has two tones ?is is indicat$ by writ+ ! two initial lett]s repres5t+ !m ) a 4 betwe5 !m4 ,a modulation is indicat$ by giv+ ! new key lett] & by pr9t+ ! syllable-initials f ! /&po9t ( bo? ! old & ! new d-position4 ,! figure ' above & to ! "r ( ! lett] indicates ! tone 9 ! octave above1 :ile ! same figure bel[ & to ! "r indicates ! octave bel[4 ,a blank space indicates a re/4 ,! tune ( ,my ,c\ntry1 ',tis ( ,!e1 z pr9t$ 9 tonic sol-fa notation bel[ w make ^! po9ts cle>4 ,key ,f d 3d 3r t#a 3-4d 3r m 3m 3f m 3-4r 3d r 3d 3t#a d 3-- 3-- s 3s 3s s 3-4f 3m f 3f 3f f 3-4m 3r m 3f4m 3r4d m 3-4f 3s l4f3m 3r d 3-- 3-- ,! advantages ( ! sy/em are 7#a7 ! /rong s5se ( key-feel+ ar\s$ & ! ease ) :i* modulations are felt2 & 7#b7 ! fact t x is necess>y to le>n to s+ 9 b "o key1 ?us mak+ sight-s++ a mu* simpl] matt]1 & transposition ! easie/ process imag9able4 ,b ^! are advantages f ! /&po9t ( ! vocali/ 7produc+ b "o tone at a "t7 only1 & d n apply to in/rum5tal music4 ,! s*eme w !re=e probably be always re/rict$ to vocal music & w h>dly come into v ext5sive use ev5 9 ?is field1 = ! tea*] ( music is f9d+ x p]fectly possible to improve me?ods ( pres5tation to su* an ext5t t le>n+ to s+ f ! /aff becomes a v simple matt] ev5 to ! "y *ild4 ,& ev5 ?\gh ?is 7 n true1 ! tonic-sol-fa w always be hamp]$ by ! fact t s9ce all lett]s are pr9t$ 9 a /raight horizontal l9e ! e> does n h ! assi/ance ( ! eye 9 appreciat+ ! rise & fall ( melody1 z is ! case 9 /aff notation4 #a4 ,pit*es repres5t$ by l9es & spaces ( a /aff1 ! high] ! l9e1 ! high] ! pit* repres5t$1 signs call$ clefs at ! beg9n+ ( ea* /aff mak+ cle> ! pit* names ( ! l9es & spaces4 #b4 ,duration values %[n by %apes ( notes4 #c4 ,acc5ts %[n by position ( notes on ! /aff ) reg>d to b>s1 i4e41 ! /ronge/ acc5t always falls j aft] ! b>1 & ! beat relatively lea/ acc5t$ is f\nd j be=e ! b>4 #d4 ,ext5t & description ( beat-gr\ps %[n by measure-signs4 #e4 ,key %[n by key signature plac$ at ! beg9n+ ( ea* /aff4 #f4 ,rate ( spe$1 dynamic *anges1 etc41 %[n by c]ta9 ,italian words 7allegro1 &ante1 etc471 ^: mean+ is z univ]sally und]/ood z /aff notation itself4 ,,app5dix ,b ,,musical ,,in/rum5ts #a4 ,broadly speak+1 musical in/rum5ts may be divid$ into two classes1 viz43 7#a7 ^? t h a keybo>d & are !re=e capable ( s\nd+ sev]al tones simultane\sly2 7#b7 ^? t 7z a rule7 s\nd only "o tone at a "t1 z ! viol9 & trumpet4 ,! piano is ( c\rse ! mo/ famili> example ( ! fir/ class1 & a brief description is !re=e giv54 ,! piano 0 inv5t$ ab\t two hundr$ ye>s ago by ,cri/(ori 7#afea-agca71 an ,italian4 ,x 0 an enorm\s improvem5t ov] ! types ( keybo>d in/rum5t t 7 9 use at t "t 7clavi*ord1 h>psi*ord1 sp9et1 virg9al7 & has result$ 9 an entirely diff]5t /yle ( composition4 ,see note on embelli%m5ts1 p4 #bf4 #b4 ,! mo/ *>act]i/ic ?+s ab\t ! piano z contra/$ ) its imm$iate pr$ecessors are3 7#a7 t on x ! l\dness & s(tness ( ! tone c be regulat$ by ! =ce ) :i* ! keys are /ruck 7h5ce ! "n pian(orte mean+ lit]ally ! s(t-l\d72 7#b7 ! fact t ! piano is capable ( su/a9+ tone to a mu* great] ext5t ?an its pr$ecessors4 ,9 o!r words ! tone cont9ues s\nd+ = "s little "t aft] ! key is /ruck1 :ile on ! e>li] in/rum5ts x /opp$ almo/ in/antly aft] be+ s\nd$4 ,! ess5tials ( ! piano me*anism are3 #a4 ,felt hamm]s controll$ by keys1 ea* hamm] /rik+ two or ?ree /r+s 7:i* are tun$ 9 unison7 & imm$iately reb\nd+ f ^! /r+s1 all[+ !m to vibrate z long z ! key is held d[n4 ,! me*anism t all[s ! hamm]s to reb\nd f ! /r+s & fall into position = ano!r bl[ is call$ ! escapem5t4 #b4 ,a damp] 7made ( s(t] felt7 press+ aga9/ ea* /r+ & prev5t+ x f vibrat+ until x is want$4 #c4 ,a keybo>d action t controls bo? hamm]s & damp]s1 caus+ ! damp] to leave ! /r+ at ! same in/ant t ! hamm] /rikes x4 #d4 ,a p$al 7damp] p$al7 controll+ all ( ! damp]s1 s t at any mom5t all ! /r+s may be releas$ s z to be free to vibrate4 ,o!r int]e/+ details are3 #a4 ,! /r+s are /ret*$ ov] a ?9 %eet ( wood call$ ! s\nd-bo>d4 ,?is aids greatly 9 int5sify+ ! tone4 #b4 ,! s(t p$al 7! "o at ! left7 9 an upright piano causes ! hamm]s to move up ne>] ! /r+s1 & ! %ort] sw+ ?us af=d$ causes a less viol5t bl[ & consequ5tly a s(t] tone4 ,9 ! gr& piano ?is same p$al %ifts ! me*anism to "o side s t ! hamm]s /rike only "o or two ( ! /r+s1 ?is result+ 9 a s(t] tone ( some:at modifi$ quality4 ,^! details reg>d+ ! me*anism ( ! piano c easily be v]ifi$ by remov+ ! front ( any ord9>y upright piano & obs]v+ :at takes place :5 ! keys are /ruck or ! p$als depress$4 #c4 ,!re are two famili> types ( organ 9 use at ! pres5t "t1 7#a7 ! re$ organ1 7#b7 ! pipe-organ4 ,! re$ organ is v simple 9 con/ruction1 ! tone be+ produc$ by ! vibration ( metal re$s 7fix$ 9 little cells71 ?r\gh :i* air is =c$ 7or suck$7 f ! bell[s1 ! latt] be+ usually work$ by ! feet ( ! play]4 ,m p[] may be secur$ ei!r by draw+ additional /ops1 ?us ?r[+ on m sets ( re$s1 or by op5+ ! knee swells :i* ei!r ?r[ on m re$s 7sometimes octave c\pl]s7 or else op5 a swell box 9 :i* "s ( ! re$s are enclos$1 ! tone be+ l\d] :5 ! box is op5 ?an :5 clos$4 ,m tone may also be secur$ by pump+ h>d]4 #d4 ,! ess5tial *>act]i/ic ( ! pipe-organ is a numb] ( sets or regi/]s ( pipes call$ /ops1 ea* set be+ capable 7usually7 ( s\nd+ ! entire *romatic scale ?r\gh a range ( five or six octaves4 ,?us = example :5 ! /op melodia is drawn 7by pull+ out a /op-knob or tilt+ a tablet71 "o set ( pipes only1 s\nds :5 ! keybo>d is play$ on3 b if ! /op flute is drawn ) melodia1 two pipes speak e "t a key is depress$4 ,?us if an organ has =ty speak+ /ops1 all runn+ ?r\gh ! entire keybo>d1 !n ea* "t "o key is depress$ =ty pipes w speak1 & if a *ord ( five tones is play$1 two hundr$ pipes w speak4 ,! object ( hav+ s _m pipes is n m]ely to make possible a v p[]ful tone1 b1 r1 to give great] v>iety ( tone-color4 ,! pipe-organ usually has a p$al keybo>d on :i* ! feet ( ! p]=m] play a bass "p1 ?is "p (t5 s\nd+ an octave 7or m7 l[] ?an ! notes indicate4 ,an eight-foot /op on ! organ produces tones ( ! same pit*es z ! piano :5 correspond+ keys are /ruck3 ,a f\r-foot /op s\nds tones an octave high] & a two-foot /op tones two octaves high]4 ,a sixte5-foot /op s\nds tones an octave l[] ?an ! piano1 & a ?irty-two foot /op1 tones two octaves l[]1 :ile "s organs h also a sixty-f\r foot /op :i* s\nds ?ree octaves l[]4 ,?is gives ! organ an exce$+ly wide range1 its compass be+ great] ?an t ( any o!r s+le in/rum5t1 & comp>able 9 bo? range ( pit*es & v>iety ( color only ) ! mod]n or*e/ra4 ,mod]n pipe-organs always h a numb] ( comb9ation p$als or pi/ons 7usually bo?71 by means ( :i* ! organi/ is enabl$ to ?r[ on a numb] ( /ops ) "o movem5t4 ,! selection & use ( suitable /ops1 c\pl]s1 comb9ations1 etc41 is call$ regi/ration4 #e4 ,! in/rum5ts m5tion$ at ! beg9n+ ( ?is app5dix z belong+ to ! second class are m famili> 9 connection ) ensemble play+1 be+ commonly associat$ ) ei!r b& or or*e/ra4 #f4 ,a b& is a company ( musicians all ( :om play ^u ei!r w9d or p]cussion in/rum5ts1 ! ma9 body ( tone be+ produc$ by ! brass & wood-w9d divisions4 ,s\sa's b& is usually made up 9 some:at ! foll[+ mann]3 #d flutes & piccolos1 #ab ,bflat cl>9ets1 #a ,eflat cl>9et1 #a alto cl>9et1 #a bass cl>9et1 #b oboes1 #b bassoons1 #b s>rusophones1 #d saxophones1 #d cornets1 #b trumpets1 #a soprano saxhorn 7fluegelhorn71 #d ,fr5* horns1 #d trombones1 #b contra-bass tubas1 #d tubas1 #a sn>e drum1 #a bass drum1 #b kettle drums1 cymbals1 triangle1 bells1 ca/anets1 xylophone1 etc4 #g4 ,an or*e/ra is a company ( musicians p]=m+ ^u /r+$ in/rum5ts z well z ^u w9d & p]cussion4 ,x is diff]5tiat$ f ! b& by ! fact t ! ma9 body ( tone is produc$ by ! /r+s4 ,!re are f\r classes ( in/rum5ts 9 ! or*e/ra1 viz41 /r+s1 wood-w9d1 brass 7w9d7 & p]cussion4 ,9 addition to ^! f\r classes1 !re is ! h>p1 :i* al?\gh a /r+$ in/rum5t1 does n belong 9 ! same gr\p z ! o!r /r+s because ! mann] ( produc+ ! tone is altoge!r diff]5t4 #h4 ,9 ! fir/ gr\p 7! /r+s7 are f\nd ! fir/ & second viol9s1 viola1 violoncello 7usually spell$ cello71 & d\ble-bass4 ,! fir/ & second viol9s are id5tical 9 e way 7b play diff]5t p>ts71 :ile ! o!r memb]s ( ! family m]ely repres5t l>g] examples ( ! same type ( in/rum5t4 #i4 ,9 ! second gr\p 7! wood-w9d7 are f\nd ! flute1 piccolo1 oboe1 bassoon1 ,engli% horn1 d\ble-bassoon1 cl>9et1 & bass cl>9et4 ,! ,engli% horn1 d\ble-bassoon1 bass cl>9et1 & piccolo are n call$ = 9 ! old] compositions1 h5ce are n always pres5t 9 ! or*e/ra4 #aj4 ,9 ! ?ird gr\p 7! brass *oir7 are f\nd ! ,fr5* horn1 7usually ref]r$ to z ! horn71 trumpet 7sometimes replac$ by ! cornet7 trombone1 & tuba4 #aa4 ,! f\r? gr\p 7p]cussion7 consi/s ( kettle drums1 bass drum1 cymbals1 sn>e drum1 triangle1 bells1 etc4 #ab4 ,9 an or*e/ra ( ab\t #ajj play]s ! proportion ( in/rum5ts is z ab\t z foll[s1 al?\gh x v>ies some:at accord+ to ! ta/e ( ! conductor1 ! /yle ( composition to be p]=m$1 etc43 #ah fir/ viol9s1 #af second viol9s1 #ad violas1 #ab cellos1 #aj basses1 #a h>p1 #c flutes1 #a piccolo1 #c oboes1 #a ,engli% horn1 #c cl>9ets1 #a bass cl>9et1 #c bassoons1 #a contra 7or d\ble7 bassoon1 #d horns1 #b trumpets1 #c trombones1 #a tuba1 #c kettle drums1 #a bass drum1 #a sn>e drum1 #a ea* ( triangle1 cymbals1 bells1 & o!r in/rum5ts ( p]cussion1 sev]al ( :i* are (t5 manipulat$ by "o p]=m]4 #ac4 ,! cuts & brief descriptions "h add$ w give at lea/ a rudim5t>y idea ( ! appe>ance & possibilities ( ! in/rum5ts mo/ commonly us$ 9 b&s & or*e/ras4 ,= full] descriptions & p>ticul>s reg>d+ range1 quality1 etc41 ! /ud5t is ref]r$ to ,mason's ,! ,or*e/ral ,in/rum5ts & ,:at ,!y ,d1 ,lavignac's ,music & ,musicians1 & to ! v>i\s articles :i* describe ea* in/rum5t "u its own "n 9 ,grove's ,diction>y or 9 any good encyclopa$ia4 ,= /ill full] details "s "w on or*e/ration w h to be consult$4 #ad4 ,! viol9 has f\r /r+s1 tun$ ?us ,illu/ration3 g d' a' e''1 ^! mak+ available a range ( ab\t ?ree & "o-half octaves 7g--c''''74 ,?is range#da may be ext5d$ upw>d some:at fur!r by means ( h>monics1 ^! be+ produc$ by lightly t\*+ ! /r+ at c]ta9 po9ts 7:ile ! b[ is mov+ across x7 in/ead ( hold+ x d[n aga9/ ! f+]-bo>d4 ,! highe/ /r+ ( ! viol9 7viola & cello also7 is (t5 call$ ! *ant]elle because x is mo/ (t5 us$ = play+ ! melody4 ,! viol9 ord9>ily produces b "o tone at a "t1 b by /opp+ two /r+s simultane\sly & s draw+ ! b[ z to set bo? 9 vibration1 two tones may be produc$ at ! same "t1 :ile ?ree & f\r tones c be s\nd$ almo/ simultane\sly4 ,footnote #da3 ,! ranges not$ 9 connection ) ^! descriptions ( in/rum5ts are ord9>ily ! practical or*e/ral or b& ranges r ?an ^? :i* are possible 9 solo p]=mance4 ,illu/ration3 ,,viol94 ,l5g?1 #bc-a_/b in*es4 ,l5g? ( b[1 #bi-a_/b in*es4 ,! mute 7or sord9o7 is a small clamp made ( metal1 wood1 or ivory1 :i* :5 clipp$ to ! top ( ! bridge causes ! vibrations to be transmitt$ less freely to ! body ( ! viol91 giv+ rise to a tone modifi$ 9 quality1 & decreas$ 9 p[]4 ,= c]ta9 special effects ! play] is direct$ to pluck ! /r+ 7pizzicato71 ?is me?od ( play+ giv+ rise to a dry1 deta*$ tone in/ead ( ! smoo?1 fl[+ "o t is s *>act]i/ic ( ! viol9 z commonly play$4 ,viol9s 9 ! or*e/ra are divid$ into fir/s & seconds1 ! fir/ viol9s be+ always seat$ at ! left ( ! audi5ce & ! seconds at ! "r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,viola4 ,l5g?1 #bf 94 ,l5g? ( b[1 #bh4 #ae4 ,! viola has f\r /r+s1 also tun$ 9 fif?s1 ?us ,illu/ration3 c g d' a'4 ,! viola looks exactly l ! viol9 at a little di/ance1 & is really only a l>g] siz$ viol91 hav+ a range a fif? l[]4 ,its tone is n s incisive z t ( ! viol91 be+ r heavi]--m gloomy1 z x is (t5 describ$4 ,! viola is n s useful z ! viol9 z a solo in/rum5t because x is n capable ( produc+ s _m v>ieties ( color1 nev]!less x is invaluable = c]ta9 effects4 ,9 or*e/ral music x is ( c\rse "o ( ! mo/ valuable in/rum5ts = fill+ 9 ! h>mony4 ,! viola play]s are usually seat$ beh9d ! second viol9 play]s 9 ! or*e/ra4 ,illu/ration3 ,,violoncello4 ,l5g?1 #c ft4 #aj 94 ,l5g? ( b[1 #bh 94 #af4 ,! violoncello or cello 7sometimes call$ bass viol7 has f\r /r+s1 tun$ ?us3 ,illu/ration3 ,c ,g d a4 ,its range is ab\t ?ree & "o-half octaves 7f ,c to e'' or f''71 b 9 solo "w ?is range is sometimes ext5d$ mu* high]4 ,! cello is mu* m univ]sally us$ z a solo in/rum5t ?an ! viola & its tone is capable ( a mu* great] degree ( v>iation4 ,9 ! or*e/ra x plays ! bass ( ! /r+ qu>tet 7re9=c$ by ! d\ble-bass71 b is also (t5 us$ = solo passages4 ,con sord9o & pizzicato passages occur z (t5 = ! cello z = ! viol94 #ag4 ,! d\ble bass diff]s f ! o!r memb]s ( ! /r+ family 9 t x is tun$ 9 f\r?s in/ead ( 9 fif?s4 ,its f\r /r+s are tun$ z foll[s ,illu/ration3 ,,ee ,,aa ,d ,g ! entire range ( ! in/rum5t be+ f ,,ee to a4 ,9 music writt5 = d\ble-bass ! notes are always pr9t$ an octave high] ?an ! tones are to s\nd3 t is1 :5 ! bass-play] sees ! note ,illu/ration3 c he plays ,illu/ration3 ,c ?is be+ done to avoid leg] l9es4 ,! tone ( ! bass is mu* heavi] & ! in/rum5t itself is mu* m clumsy to h&le ?an ! o!r memb]s ( ! gr\p1 h5ce x is almo/ nev] us$ z a solo in/rum5t b x is invaluable = re9=c+ ! bass "p 9 or*e/ral music4 ,! mute is r>ely us$ on ! d\ble-bass1 b ! pizzicato effect is v common & ! bass pizzicato tone is mu* full] & ri*] ?an t ( any o!r /r+$ in/rum5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,d\ble-,,bass4 ,l5g?1 #f ft4 #f 94 ,l5g? ( b[1 #bc-a_/b 94 #ah4 ,! flute has a range ( ?ree octaves4 ,illu/ration3 c' c'''' ,x is us$ 9 bo? solo & or*e/ral play+ z well z 9 b&s4 ,! flute 0 =m]ly always made ( wood1 b is at pres5t (t5 made ( metal4 #ai4 ,! piccolo is a flute play+ an octave high] ?an ! "o describ$ above4 ,! notes are pr9t$ z = ! flute1 b ! play] und]/&s t ! tone is to s\nd an octave high]4 ,! piccolo is us$ widely 9 b& music & q (t5 9 or*e/ral music also1 b s9ce ! tone is s brilliant & p5etrat+ & is incapable ( any great v>iation1 x is n suitable = solo p]=mance4 ,illu/ration3 ,,oboe4 7hautboy47 ,l5g?1 #bd-a_/b 94 ,range b e'''4 ,,contra ,,bassoon4 7,d\ble bassoon47 ,l5g? #f ft4 ,range ab\t an octave l[] ?an bassoon1 b n all tones 9 ?is range are practicable4 ,,engli% ,,horn4 7,cor4 ,anglais47 ,l5g?1 #b ft4 #aa-a_/b 94 ,range e a''4 ,,piccolo4 ,l5g?1 #ac 94 7,note t ?is is approximately half ! l5g? ( ! flute47 ,,flute4 ,l5g?1 #bf-a_/b 94 ,,bassoon4 7fagotto47 ,l5g?1 #d ft4 #c-a_/b 94 ,range ,,bb-flat b-flat'4 #bj4 ,! next f\r in/rum5ts to be describ$ 7oboe1 bassoon1 ,engli% horn1 & contra bassoon7 are (t5 ref]r$ to z ! oboe family s9ce ! pr9ciple ( tone production & g5]al manipulation is ! same 9 all f\r4 ,! tone 9 ^! in/rum5ts is produc$ by ! vibration ( two v ?9 pieces ( cane1 :i* are call$ toge!r a d\ble-re$4 ,! oboe is especially valuable 9 ! or*e/ra z a solo in/rum5t1 & its ?91 nasal tones are sugge/ive ( ru/ic1 pa/oral simplicity1 bo? oboe & ,engli% horn be+ (t5 us$ by or*e/ral compos]s 9 passages int5d$ to express ! idea ( rural out-(-door life4 ,! ,engli% horn is also (t5 us$ 9 passages :]e ! idea ( melan*oly & suff]+ is to be convey$ to ! audi5ce4 ,9 a milit>y b& ! oboe corresponds to ! fir/ viol9 ( ! or*e/ra4 ,! bassoon & contra-bassoon are us$ mo/ly to provide a bass "p = ! h>mony ( ! wood-w9d gr\p1 b !y are also sometimes employ$ 7especially ! bassoon7 to depict comic or grotesque effects4 ,illu/ration3 ,,bass ,,cl>9et4 ,l5g?1 #c ft4 #c 94 ,range ,d to b-flat' ,illu/ration3 ,,cl>9et4 ,l5g? #bh 94 #ba4 ,! next two types ( in/rum5ts to be describ$ 7cl>9et & saxophone7 are alike 9 t ! tone is produc$ by ! vibration ( a s+le /rip ( cane 7call$ s+le re$7 :i* is held aga9/ ! l[] lip ( ! play]4 ,! cl>9et & bass cl>9et are made ( wood & are us$ 9 bo? b&s & or*e/ras1 b ! saxophone is usually made ( metal1 &1 ! tone be+ m /rid5t & p5etrat+1 ! in/rum5t is ord9>ily us$ only 9 comb9ation ) o!r w9d in/rum5ts1 i4e41 9 b&s4 ,s9ce ! f+]+ ( ! cl>9et is excessively difficult ! p]=m] c play 9 only c]ta9 keys on ! same in/rum5t1 h5ce to play 9 diff]5t keys cl>9ets 9 sev]al keys mu/ be provid$1 !re be+ usually ?ree 9 all4 ,! music is writt5 z ?\gh x 7 to be play$ 9 ! key ( ,c1 b ! tones produc$ are actually 9 o!r keys4 ,= ?is reason ! cl>9et is call$ a transpos+ in/rum5t4 ,! range ( ! cl>9et is ! greate/ possess$ by any ( ! w9d in/rum5ts1 t ( ! cl>9et 9 ,c be+ f ,illu/ration3 e to ,illu/ration3 g'''4 ,illu/ration3 ,,saxophones4 ,,soprano4 ,,alto4 ,l5g?1 #ae-c_/d 94 ,,t5or4 ,l5g?1 #b ft4 #g-a_/b 94 ,,bass4 ,l5g?1 #c ft4 #i 94 ,comb9$ range ,,aa to g-flat''' ,illu/ration3 ,,s>rusophone4 ,! s>rusophone is an in/rum5t ) a d\ble-re$4 ,x is made ( brass & exi/s 9 sev]al sizes1 ! only "o ev] us$ 9 ! or*e/ra be+ ! d\ble-bass s>rusophone1 :i* has approximately ! same range z ! d\ble-bassoon & is sometimes 7b r>ely7 made use ( 9 ! or*e/ra in/ead ( ! latt] in/rum5t4 ,! tone ( ! s>rusophone is some?+ l t ( ! bassoon4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fr5* ,,horn4 ,l5g?1 #bb-c_/d 94 #bb4 ,! ,fr5* horn 7(t5 call$ valve horn or simply horn7 really consi/s ( a long tube 7ab\t #af feet7 :i* is b5t into circul> =m = conv5i5ce 9 h&l+4 ,its range is f ,illu/ration3 ,,bb to ,illu/ration3 f''4 ,9 ! or*e/ra ,fr5* horns are us$ 9 pairs1 two ( ! play]s tak+ ! high] tones1 & two ! l[]4 ,! tone is int5sely mell[ b incapable ( any ext5sive v>iation1 b 9 spite ( ?is lack ( v>iety ! tone itself is s wond]fully beautiful t ! in/rum5t is "o ( ! mo/ useful 9 ! or*e/ra bo? 9 solo passages & to fill 9 ! h>mony4 ,! horn 7z well z ! trumpet & trombone7 diff]s f mo/ ( ! wood-w9d in/rum5ts 9 t its m\?piece conta9s no re$1 ! lips ( ! play] con/itut+ ! vibrat+ body z !y are /ret*$ across ! m\?piece & air is =c$ aga9/ !m4 ,! horn is us$ 9 b&s z well z 9 or*e/ras4 ,illu/ration3 ,,trumpet4 ,l5g?1 #bb-a_/b 94 #bc4 ,! range ( ! trumpet is ,illu/ration3 g b''1 ! typical tone be+ brilliant & r++4 ,x is us$ 9 bo? b& & or*e/ra1 play+ ! highe/ p>ts assign$ to ! brass *oir4 ,! trumpet is (t5 replac$ 9 bo? b& & or*e/ra by its less ref9$ c\s9 ! cornet because ( ! ease ) :i* ! latt] c be play$ z comp>$ ) ! trumpet1 & ! l>g] numb] ( play]s t are available 9 consequ5ce ( ?is ease ( execution4 #bd4 ,! cornet looks some?+ l ! trumpet1 b is n s slim & graceful 9 appe>ance4 ,its tube is only f\r & "o-half feet long1 z comp>$ ) a l5g? ( ab\t eight feet 9 ! trumpet1 & sixte5 feet 9 ! ,fr5* horn4 ,! range ( ! cornet 9 ,bflat is f ,illu/ration3 e to ,illu/ration3 b-flat''4 ,! tone is some:at commonplace z comp>$ ) ! trumpet1 b because ( its great agility 9 ! r5dition ( trills1 repeat$ tones1 etc41 x is univ]sally us$ 9 all sorts ( comb9ations1 ev5 7z not$ above7 tak+ ! place ( ! trumpet 9 _m small or*e/ras4 ,illu/ration3 ,,cornet4 ,l5g?1 #ac-c_/d 94 ,illu/ration3 ,,slide ,,trombone4 ,l5g?1 #c ft4 #i 94 ,range ( t5or trombone 7! size ord9>ily us$7 ,e to b-flat' #be4 ,! pit* s\nd$ by ! trombone is alt]$ by l5g!n+ or %ort5+ ! tube ( :i* ! in/rum5t is con/ruct$1 ?is be+ possible because ! l[] "p slides into ! upp] & c be pull$ out to increase ! total l5g? ( ! tube ?r\gh :i* ! air passes4 ,!re are usually ?ree trombones 9 ! or*e/ra1 ea* play+ a sep>ate "p1 & ! comb9ation ( ?is trio 7) ! tuba re9=c+ ! bass "p7 is maje/ic & ?rill+1 be+ p[]ful en\gh to dom9ate ! entire or*e/ra 9 ,=tissimo passages4 ,b ! trombones are useful 9 s(t passages also1 & _! tone :5 play+ pianissimo is ri*1 s]5e1 & sonor\s4 #bf4 ,! bass tuba is a memb] ( ! saxhorn family#db & supplies ! l[e/ "p ( ! brass *oir1 z ! d\ble-bass does 9 ! /r+ *oir4 ,x is us$ 9 bo? or*e/ra & b&1 be+ (t5 support$ 9 ! l>g] b&s by a /ill l[]-ton$ memb] ( ! same family--! contra-bass tuba4 ,! range ( ! tuba is f ,illu/ration3 ,,gg to ,illu/ration3 g'4 ,footnote #db3 ,! saxhorn 0 inv5t$ ab\t #ahdj by ,adolphe ,sax1 a ,fr5*man4 ,! saxophone is ! inv5tion ( ! same man4 ,illu/ration3 ,,bass ,,tuba4 ,l5g?1 #c ft4 #c 94 ,illu/ration3 ,,bass ,,drum4 ,diamet] ab\t #b-a_/b ft4 ,illu/ration3 ,,cymbals4 ,diamet]1 #ac-a_/d 94 #bg4 ,! kettle-drum is ! mo/ important memb] ( ! p]cussion family & is always us$ ei!r 9 pairs or 9 ?rees4 ,! size ( ^! in/rum5ts v>ies some:at ) ! make1 b :5 two drums are us$ ! diamet] is approximately t giv5 "u ! illu/ration4 ,! range ( a pair ( drums is "o octave ,illu/ration3 ,f f & :5 b two drums are us$ ! l>g] "o takes ! tones f ,f to ab\t ,c ( ?is range1 & ! small] takes ^? f ab\t ,bflat to ,f4 ,! mo/ common usage is to tune "o drum to ! tonic1 & ! o!r to ! dom9ant ( ! key 9 :i* ! composition is writt54 ,! pit* ( ! kettle-drum c be v>i$ by increas+ or less5+ ! t5sion ( ! head by means ( ?umb-screws :i* act on a metal r+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,kettle-,,drums4 ,diamet] ( ,head1 #bd-a_/b 94 & #bg-a_/b 94 ,! o!r important memb]s ( ! p]cussion family are %[n on ?is & ! foll[+ page1 _! use be+ s obvi\s z to require no detail$ explanation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,tamb\r9e4 ,diamet]1 #aj to #ab 94 ,illu/ration3 ,,bells4 7,fr4 c>illon2 ,g]4 ,glock5spiel47 ,illu/ration3 ,,side ,,drum4 ,diamet]1 ab\t #ae-a_/b 94 ,illu/ration3 ,,triangle4 ,height1 ab\t #h 94 #bh4 ,! h>p is "o ( ! olde/ ( in/rum5ts 7dat+ back ov] #fjjj ye>s71 b x is only 9 comp>atively rec5t ye>s t x has be5 us$ 9 ! symphony or*e/ra4 ,its range is f ,illu/ration3 ,,cc-flat to ,illu/ration3 f-flat'''4 ,illu/ration3 ,,h>p4 ,height1 #e ft4 #h 94 ,! mod]n d\ble-action h>p has =ty-six /r+s1 :i* are tun$ 9 half-/eps & :ole-/eps s z to s\nd ! scale ( ,cflat major4 ,x has a s]ies ( sev5 p$als ar\nd its base1 ea* p$al hav+ two not*es bel[ x1 into ei!r ( :i* ! p$al may be l[]$ & held fa/4 ,! fir/ p$al %ort5s ! ,fflat /r+ s t x n[ s\nds ,f1 7giv+ ! key ( ,gflat72 ! second "o %ort5s ! ,cflat /r+ s t x s\nds ,c 7giv+ ! key ( ,dflat72 ! ?ird p$al %ort5s ! ,gflat /r+ s t x s\nds ,g 7giv+ ! key ( ,aflat72 ! f\r? *anges ,dflat to ,d 7giv+ ! key ( ,eflat71 & s on until1 :5 all ! p$als are fix$ 9 _! fir/ not*es1 ! scale ( ,c is s\nd$ in/ead ( ,cflat z 0 ! case be=e any ( ! p$als 7 depress$4 ,b if ! fir/ p$al is n[ pu%$ d[n into ! second not* ! orig9al ,fflat /r+ is /ill fur!r %ort5$ & n[ s\nds ! pit* ,f%>p 7giv+ u ! key ( ,g71 & if all ! o!r p$als are likewise successively l[]$ to ! second not* we get 9 turn all ! %>p keys--,d1 ,a1 ,e1 ,b1 ,f%>p & ,c%>p1 ! la/-nam$ key be+ obta9$ z ! result ( hav+ all ! p$als fix$ 9 _! second not*es1 ?us mak+ all ! tones ( ! orig9al ,cflat scale a :ole-/ep high] s t !y n[ s\nd ! ,c%>p scale4 ,*ords ( n m ?an f\r tones = ea* h& may be play$ simultane\sly on ! h>p1 b arpeggio & scale passages are ! rule1 & are m successful ?an simultane\s *ords4 ,! notation ( h>p music is ess5tially l t ( piano music4 ,,app5dix ,c ,,ac\/ics ,,note3--,x is usually tak5 = grant$ t ! /ud5t ( music is famili> ) ! significance ( su* t]ms z ov]-tone1 equal temp]am5t1 etc41 & ) pr9ciples su* z t relat+ to ! relation betwe5 vibration rates & pit*es3 ! writ] has 9 8 own exp]i5ce f\nd1 h[ev]1 t mo/ /ud5ts are n at all famili> ) su* data1 & ?is app5dix is !re=e add$ 9 ! hope t a few facts at lea/ reg>d+ ! laws ( s\nd may be br\ght to ! att5tion ( "s :o w\ld o!rwise rema9 9 entire ignorance ( ! subject4 #a4 ,ac\/ics is ! sci5ce :i* deals ) s\nd & ! laws ( its production & transmission4 ,s9ce all s\nd is caus$ by vibration1 ac\/ics may be def9$ z ! sci5ce :i* treats ( ! ph5om5a ( s\nd-produc+ vibration4 #b4 ,all s\nd 7z /at$ above7 is produc$ by vibration ( "s sort3 /rike a tun+-=k aga9/ ! top ( a table & see ! vibrations :i* cause ! tone1 or1 if ! =k is a small "o & ! vibrations _c be se51 hold x aga9/ ! edge ( a %eet ( pap] & he> ! bl[s x /rikes2 or1 wat* "o ( ! l[e/ /r+s ( ! piano aft] /rik+ ! key a %>p bl[2 or1 look closely at ! heavi] /r+s ( ! viol9 7or bett] /ill1 ! cello7 & wat* !m oscillate rapidly to & fro z ! b[ moves across !m4 ,! vibrat+ body may be a /r+1 a ?9 piece ( wood1 a piece ( metal1 a membrane 7cf4 drum71 ! lips 7cf4 play+ ! cornet71 ! vocal cords1 etc4 ,(t5 x is a column ( air ^: vibrations give rise to ! tone1 ! re$ or o!r m$ium m]ely s]v+ to set ! air 9 vibration4 #c4 ,s\nd is transmitt$ ?r\gh ! air 9 some:at ?is fa%ion3 ! vibrat+ body 7a /r+ = example7 /rikes ! air-p>ticles 9 its imm$iate vic9ity1 & !y1 be+ 9 contact ) o!r su* air-p>ticles1 /rike ^! o!rs1 ! latt] 9 turn /rik+ yet o!rs1 & s on1 bo? a =w>d & backw>d movem5t be+ set up 7oscillation74 ,^! p>ticles lie s close toge!r t no movem5t at all c be detect$1 & x is only :5 ! di/urbance f9ally rea*es ! air-p>ticles t are 9 contact ) ! e>-drum t any effect is evid5t4 ,?is ph5om5on ( s\nd-transmission may p]haps be made m cle> by ! old illu/ration ( a s]ies ( eight billi>d balls 9 a r[ on a table3 if ! fir/ ball is tapp$ lightly1 /rik+ g5tly aga9/ ball numb] #b1 ! latt] 7z well z numb]s #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 & #g7 w n app>5tly move at all1 b ball numb] #h at ! o!r end w roll away4 ,! air-p>ticles act ^u ea* o!r 9 mu* ?is same fa%ion1 ! diff]5ce be+ t :5 !y are set 9 motion by a vibrat+ body a complete vibration backw>d & =w>d causes a simil> backw>d & =w>d movem5t ( ! p>ticles 7oscillation7 in/ead ( simply a =w>d j]k z 9 ! case ( ! billi>d balls4 ,ano!r way ( describ+ ! same process is ?is3 ! vibration ( "s body produces waves 9 ! air 7cf4 waves 9 ! ocean1 :i* c>ry wat] =w>d b d n !mselves move on cont9u\sly71 ^! waves spread out sph]ically 7i4e4 9 all directions7 & f9ally rea* ! e>1 :]e !y set ! e>-drum 9 vibration1 ?us s5d+ c]ta9 s\nd-/imuli to ! n]ves ( he>+ 9 ! inn] e>1 & ?us to ! bra94 ,an important ?+ to be not$ 9 connection ) s\nd-transmission is t s\nd w n travel 9 a vacuum3 "s k9d ( a m$ium is ess5tial = its transmission4 ,?is m$ium may be air1 wat]1 a b> ( iron or /eel1 ! e>?1 etc4 #d4 ,! rate at :i* s\nd travels ?r\gh ! air is ab\t #aajj feet p] second1 ! rapidity v>y+ some:at ) fluctuations 9 temp]ature & humidity4 ,9 wat] ! rate is mu* high] ?an 9 air 7ab\t f\r times z great7 :ile ! velocity ( s\nd ?r\gh o!r m$iums 7z e4g41 /eel7 is sometimes z mu* z sixte5 times z great z ?r\gh air4 #e4 ,s\nd1 l light1 may be int5sifi$ by a suitable reflect+ surface directly back ( ! vibrat+ body 7cf4 s\nd+ bo>d72 x may also be reflect$ by "s surface at a di/ance f its s\rce 9 su* a way t at a c]ta9 po9t 7! focus7 ! s\nd may be v cle>ly he>d1 b at o!r places1 ev5 ^? ne>] ! s\rce ( s\nd1 x c sc>cely be he>d at all4 ,if !re is su* a surface 9 an auditorium 7z (t5 occurs7 !re w be a c]ta9 po9t :]e ev]y?+ c be he>d v easily1 b 9 ! re/ ( ! room x may be v difficult to und]/& :at is be+ said or sung4 ,e*oes are caus$ by s\nd-reflection1 ! di/ance ( ! reflect+ surface f ! vibrat+ body det]m9+ ! numb] ( syllables t w be e*o$4 ,! ac\/ics ( an auditorium 7i4e41 its he>+ prop]ties7 dep5d ^u ! position & nature ( ! reflect+ surfaces & also ^u ! l5g? ( "t a s\nd p]si/s aft] ! vibrat+ body has /opp$4 ,if x p]si/s long] ?an #b-a_/d or #b-a_/c seconds ! room w n be suitable = musical p]=mances because ( ! mixture ( p]si/+ tones ) foll[+ ones1 ?is caus+ a blurr$ effect some:at l t obta9$ by play+ a s]ies ( unrelat$ *ords on ! piano :ile ! damp]-p$al is held d[n4 ,! duration ( ! rev]b]ation dep5ds ^u ! size & height ( ! room1 mat]ial ( floor & walls1 furniture1 size ( audi5ce1 etc4 #f4 ,s\nd may be classifi$ r\ghly into tones & noises al?\gh ! l9e ( cleavage is n always %>ply drawn4 ,if ,i ?r[ /ones at ! side ( a b>n1 s\nds are produc$1 b !y are caus$ by irregul> vibrations ( an irregul>ly con/ruct$ surface & are ref]r$ to z noise4 ,b if ,i tap ! head ( a kettle-drum1 a regul> s]ies ( vibrations is set up & ! result+ s\nd is ref]r$ to z tone4 ,9 g5]al ! mat]ial ( music consi/s ( tones1 b = special effects c]ta9 noises are also utiliz$ 7cf4 ca/anets1 etc474 #g4 ,musical tones h ?ree prop]ties1 viz43 #a4 ,pit*4 #b4 ,int5sity4 #c4 ,quality 7timbre74 ,by pit* is meant ! highness or l[ness ( tone4 ,x dep5ds ^u rate ( vibration4 ,if a body vibrates only #h or #aj times p] second no tone is he>d at all3 b if x vibrates regul>ly at ! rate ( #af or #ah p] second a tone ( v l[ pit* is he>d4 ,if x vibrates at ! rate ( #bd ! pit* is high]1 at #cj high] /ill1 at #bjj yet high]1 & :5 a rate ( ab\t #ch1jjj p] second has be5 rea*$ ! pit* is s high t mo/ e>s _c p]ceive x at all4 ,! highe/ tone t c ord9>ily be he>d is ! ,eflat f\r octaves high] ?an ! highe/ ,eflat ( ! piano4 ,! entire range ( s\nd humanly audible is !re=e ab\t elev5 octaves 7rates #af-ch1jjj71 b only ab\t eight ( ^! octaves are utiliz$ = musical purposes4 ,! tones ( ! piano 7) a range ( #g-a_/c octaves7 are produc$ by vibration rates approximately betwe5 #bg & #dbbd4 ,9 ! or*e/ra ! range is slightly m ext5d$1 ! rates be+ f #cc to #dgeb4 ,c]ta9 int]e/+ facts reg>d+ ! relation betwe5 vibration-rates & pit*es h be5 work$ out3 x has be5 discov]$ = in/ance t if ! numb] ( vibrations is d\bl$1 ! pit* ( ! result+ tone is an octave high]2 i4e41 if a /r+ vibrat+ at ! rate ( #bfa p] second gives rise to ! pit* c'1 !n a /r+ "o-half z long & vibrat+ twice z rapidly 7#ebb7 w give rise to ! pit* c''1 i4e41 an octave high] ?an c'4 ,9 ! same way x has be5 f\nd t if ! rate is multipli$ by #e_/d ! pit* ( ! tone w be a major ?ird high]2 if multipli$ by #c_/b1 a p]fect fif? high]1 etc4 ,^! laws are (t5 /at$ ?us3 ! ratio ( ! octave to ! fundam5tal is z two is to "o2 t ( ! major ?ird z five is to f\r2 t ( ! p]fect fif? z ?ree is to two1 & s on ?r\gh ! entire s]ies ( pit*es embrac$ )9 ! octave1 ! ratio be+ ( c\rse ! same = all octaves4 #i4 ,! int5sity 7l\dness or s(tness7 ( tones dep5ds ^u ! amplitude 7wid?7 ( ! vibrations1 a l\d] tone be+ ! result ( vibrations ( great] amplitude1 & vice v]sa4 ,?is may be v]ifi$ by pluck+ a long /r+ 7on cello or d\ble-bass7 & not+ t :5 pluck$ g5tly vibrations ( small amplitude are set up1 :ile a vigor\s pluck results 9 mu* wid] vibrations1 &1 consequ5tly1 9 a l\d] tone4 ,x %\ld be not$ t ! pit* ( ! tone is n affect$ by ! *ange 9 amplitude ( vibration4 ,! int5sity ( tones v>ies ) ! m$ium convey+ !m1 be+ usually l\d] at night because ! air is !n m ela/ic4 ,tone int5sity is also affect$ by sympa!tic vibrations set up 9 o!r bodies4 ,if two /r+s ( ! same l5g? are /ret*$ side by side & "o set 9 vibration s z to produce tone ! o!r w soon beg9 to vibrate also & ! comb9$ tone w be l\d] ?an if only "o /r+ produc$ x4 ,?is ph5om5on is ! basis ( :at is kn[n z resonance 7cf4 body ( viol91 resonance cavities ( nose & m\?1 s\nd+ bo>d ( piano1 etc474 #aj4 ,quality dep5ds ^u ! %ape 7or =m7 ( ! vibrations :i* give rise to ! tone4 ,a s]ies ( simple vibrations w cause a simple 7or colorless7 tone1 :ile complex vibrations 7giv+ rise to ov]tones ( v>i\s k9ds & 9 a v>iety ( proportions7 cause m individuali/ic peculi>ities ( quality4 ,quality is affect$ also by ! %ape & size ( ! resonance body4 7,cf4 la/ "p ( sec4 #i above47 #aa4 ,practically e musical tone really consi/s ( a comb9ation ( sev]al tones s\nd+ simultane\sly1 ! comb9$ effect ^u ! e> giv+ ! impression ( a s+le tone4 ,! mo/ important tone ( ! s]ies is ! fundam5tal1 :i* dom9ates ! comb9ation & gives ! pit*1 b ?is fundam5tal is practically always comb9$ ) a great] or less numb] ( fa9t & elusive att5d+ tones call$ ov]tones or h>monics4 ,! fir/ ( ^! ov]tones is ! octave above ! fundam5tal2 ! second is ! fif? above ?is octave2 ! ?ird1 two octaves above ! fundam5tal1 & s on ?r\gh ! s]ies z %[n 9 ! figure bel[4 ,! pres5ce ( ^! ov]tones is acc\nt$ = by ! fact t ! /r+ 7or o!r vibrat+ body7 does n m]ely vibrate 9 its entirety b has 9 addition to ! pr9cipal oscillation a numb] ( sectional movem5ts also4 ,?us x is easily prov$ t a /r+ vibrates 9 halves1 ?irds1 etc41 9 addition to ! pr9cipal vibration ( ! entire /r+1 & x is ! vibration ( ^! halves1 ?irds1 etc41 :i* gives rise to ! h>monics1 or upp] p>tials z !y are (t5 call$4 ,! figure %[s ,great ,c & its fir/ eight ov]tones4 ,a simil> s]ies might be work$ out f any o!r fundam5tal4 ,illu/ration3 7,,note3--,! ,bflat 9 ?is s]ies is approximate only47 ,x w be recall$ t 9 ! section 7#aj7 deal+ ) quality ! /atem5t 0 made t quality dep5ds ^u ! %ape ( ! vibrations2 x %\ld n[ be not$ t x is ! =m ( ^! vibrations t det]m9es ! nature & proportion ( ! ov]tones & h5ce ! quality4 ,?us e4g41 a tone t has too l>ge a proportion ( ! f\r? upp] p>tial 7i4e41 ! ?ird ( ! *ord7 w be re$y & some:at unpleasant4 ,?is is ! case ) _m voices t are ref]r$ to z nasal4 ,too great a proportion ( ov]tones is :at causes c]ta9 pianos to s\nd t9-panny4 ,! tone produc$ by a good tun+-=k is almo/ entirely free f ov]tones3 x has !re=e no di/9ctive quality & is said to be a simple tone4 ,! *>act]i/ic tone ( ! oboe on ! o!r h& has _m ov]tones & is !re=e highly individuali/ic3 ?is enables u to recognize ! tone ( ! in/rum5t ev5 ?\gh we _c see ! play]4 ,su* a tone is said to be complex4 #ab4 ,! ma!matical ratio ref]r$ to on page #acd1 if /rictly c>ri$ out 9 tun+ a keybo>d in/rum5t w\ld cause ! half-/eps to v>y slightly 9 size1 & play+ 9 c]ta9 keys 7especially ^? hav+ a numb] ( %>ps or flats 9 ! signature7 w\ld !re=e s\nd out ( tune4 ,!re w\ld be _m o!r disadvantages 9 su* a sy/em1 notably ! inability to modulate freely to o!r keys1 & s9ce modulation is "o ( ! pr$om9ant & mo/ /rik+ *>act]i/ics ( mod]n music1 ?is w\ld con/itute a s]i\s b>ri] to advances 9 composition4 ,to obviate ^! disadvantages a sy/em ( equal temp]am5t 0 inv5t$ & has be5 9 univ]sal use s9ce ! "t ( ,ba* 7#afhe-agej7 :o 0 ! fir/ prom95t compos] to use x ext5sively4 ,equal temp]am5t means simply divid+ ! octave into twelve equal p>ts1 ?us caus+ all scales 7z play$ on keybo>d in/rum5ts at lea/7 to s\nd exactly alike4 ,to %[ ! practicability ( equal temp]am5t ,ba* wrote a s]ies ( #dh preludes & fugues1 two 9 ea* major & two 9 ea* m9or key4 ,he call$ ! collection ,! ,well-temp]$ ,clavi*ord4 #ac4 ,v>i\s /&>ds ( pit* h exi/$ at diff]5t times 9 ! la/ two c5turies1 & ev5 n[ !re is no absolute uni=mity al?\gh conditions are mu* bett] ?an !y 7 ev5 tw5ty-five ye>s ago4 ,sci5ti/s use :at is kn[n z ! sci5tific /&>d 7sometimes call$ ! philosophic /&>d71 viz41 #bef d\ble vibrations = middle ,c4 ,?is pit* is n 9 actual use = musical purposes1 b is reta9$ = !oretical purposes because ( its conv5i5ce ( computation 7be+ a p[] ( #b74 ,9 #ahhe a conf]5ce ( musicians at ,vi5na ratifi$ ! pit* giv+ ,middle ,c #bfa vibrations1 ?is hav+ be5 adopt$ by ! ,fr5* z _! (ficial pit* "s #bf ye>s be=e4 ,9 #ahia a conv5tion ( piano manufactur]s at ,philadelphia adopt$ ?is same pit* = ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & x has be5 9 practically univ]sal use ev] s9ce4 ,?is pit* 7giv+ ,middle ,c #bfa vibrations7 is kn[n z ,int]national ,pit*4 ,conc]t pit* is slightly high] ?an ,int]national1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! two v>y+ some:at1 b be+ almo/ always less ?an "o-half /ep4 ,?is high] pit* is /ill (t5 us$ by b&s & sometimes by or*e/ras to give great] brilliancy to ! w9d in/rum5ts4 ,,ref]5ces ,lavignac--,music & ,musicians1 pp4 #a-ff4 ,broadh\se--,! ,/ud5t's ,helmholz4 ,helmholtz--,s5sations ( ,tone4 ,hamilton--,s\nd & its ,relation to ,music4 ,,note3--,= a simple & illum9at+ treatm5t ( ! subject f ! /&po9t ( ! music /ud5t1 ! books by ,lavignac & ,hamilton are especially recomm5d$4 ,,app5dix ,d ,,t]m9ology ,,re=m ,a rec5t writ]#dc on vocal t]m9ology makes ! foll[+ /atem5t z an introduction to c]ta9 rem>ks advocat+ a m def9ite use ( t]ms relat+ to tone production by ! human voice3--,! correct use ( words is ! mo/ pot5t factor 9 ! developm5t ( ! ?9k]4 ,if ?is /atem5t has any basis ( fact :atsoev] to support x !n x mu/ be evid5t to ! m]e/ novice 9 musical "w t ! popul> use ( _m common t]ms by musicians is keep+ a good _m p f cle> & logical ?\ght 9 a field t ne$s accurate ?9k]s v badly6 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 x mu/ be pat5t to all t our pres5t t]m9ology is 9 _m respects nei!r correct nor logical1 & ! movem5t inaugurat$ by ! ,music ,section ( ! ,national ,education ,association "s ye>s ago to secure great] uni=mity 9 ! use & def9ition ( c]ta9 expressions %\ld !re=e n only comm& ! respect & comm5dation1 b ! active support ( all progressive tea*]s ( music4 ,footnote #dc3 ,floyd ,s4 ,muckey--,vocal ,t]m9ology1 ,! ,musician1 ,may1 #aiab1 p4 #ccg4 ,let x be not$ at ! outset t su* re=ms z are advocat$ by ! committee w nev] come into g5]al use :ile ! rank & file ( tea*]s ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry m]ely approve ! reports s c>efully compil$ & submitt$ ea* ye>3 ^! re=ms w become effective only z individual tea*]s make up _! m9ds t ! end to be atta9$ is wor? ! tr\ble ( be+ c>eful to use only correct t]m9ology e day = a mon?1 or ?ree mon?s1 or a ye>--:atev] l5g? ( "t may be necess>y 9 ord] to get ! new habits fix$ 9 m9d & muscle4 ,! ,t]m9ology ,committee 0 appo9t$ by ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,music ( ! ,n4,e4,a4 9 #aijf & made its fir/ report at ,los ,angeles 9 #aijg4 ,s9ce !n ! indefatigable *airman ( ! committee 7,mr4 ,*as4 ,i4 ,rice1 ( ,worce/]1 ,mass47 has contribut$ g5]\sly ( bo? "t & /r5g?1 & has by 8 annual reports to ! ,dep>tm5t set _m ( u to ?9k+ along c]ta9 new l9es1 & has caus$ "s ( u at any rate to adopt 9 our own tea*+ c]ta9 *anges ( t]m9ology :i* h enabl$ u to make our "w m effective4 ,9 8 fir/ report ,mr4 ,rice says3 ,any "o :o has obs]v$ ! tea*+ ( s*ool music 9 any consid]able numb] ( places 9 ?is c\ntry _c fail to h rem>k$ ! great div]sity ( /atem5t employ$ by diff]5t tea*]s reg>d+ ! facts :i* we are engag$ 9 tea*+1 & ! equal div]sity ( t]m9ology us$ 9 tea*+ ! symbols by :i* musicians seek to record ^! facts4 ,to ! tea*] ( exact sci5ces our picturesque use ( ! same t]m to describe two or m entirely diff]5t ?+s nev] ceases to be a m>vel4444 ,?\ghtful m5 & wom5 w become impress$ ) ! untru?fulness ( c]ta9 /atem5ts & little by little *ange _! practice4 ,o!rs w foll[1 influ5c$ by example4 ,! revolutioni/s w d]ide u = n mov+ fa/] :ile ! cons]vatives w be suspici\s ( any *ange4 ,at ?is meet+ 9 ,los ,angeles a li/ ( ?irte5 po9ts 0 recomm5d$ by ! committee & adopt$ by ! ,music ,dep>tm5t4 ,^! po9ts are giv5 9 ! ,n4,e4,a4 ,volume ( ,proce$+s = #aijg1 p4 #hge4 ,s9ce #aijg ! committee 7consi/+ ( ,*as4 ,i4 ,rice1 ,p4,c4 ,hayd51 ,w4,b4 ,k9ne>1 ,leo ,r4 ,lewis1 & ,con/ance ,b>l[-,smi?7 h ea* ye> select$ a numb] ( topics = discussion1 & h submitt$ valuable reports recomm5d+ ! adoption ( c]ta9 re=ms4 ,"s ( ! po9ts recomm5d$ h usually be5 reject$ by ! ,dep>tm5t1 b _m ( !m h be5 adopt$ & ! reports ( ! committee h set _m tea*]s ?9k+ & h made u all m c>eful 9 ! use & def9ition ( common t]ms4 ,a complete li/ ( all po9ts adopt$ by ! ,dep>tm5t s9ce #aijg has be5 made by ,mr4 ,rice = ,s*ool ,music1 & ?is li/ is "h repr9t$ f ! ,janu>y1 #aiac1 numb] ( t magaz9e4 ,,t]m9ology ,,adoptions1 #aijg-aiaj #a4 ,tone3 ,specific "n = a musical s\nd ( def9ite pit*4 ,use nei!r s\nd1 a g5]al t]m1 nor note1 a t]m ( notation4 #b4 ,int]val3 ,! pit* relation betwe5 two tones4 ,n prop]ly applicable to a s+le tone or scale degree4 ,example3 ,s+ ! fif? tone ( ! scale4 ,n s+ ! fif? int]val ( ! scale4 #c4 ,key3 ,tones 9 relation to a tonic4 ,example3 ,9 ! key ( ,g4 ,n 9 ! scale ( ,g4 ,scales1 major & m9or are compos$ ( a def9ite selection f ! _m tones ( ! key1 & all scales ext5d ?r\gh at lea/ "o octave ( pit*4 ,! *romatic scale utilizes all ! tones ( a key )9 ! octave4 #d4 ,natural3 ,n a suitable comp\nd to use 9 nam+ pit*es4 ,pit* names are ei!r simple3 ,b1 or comp\nd3 ,b %>p1 ,b d\ble-%>p1 ,b flat or ,b d\ble-flat1 & !re is no pit* nam$ ,b natural4 ,example3 ,pit* ,b1 n ,b natural4 ,,note3--,l4,r4,l4 ?9ks t ,b natural %\ld be ! "n :5 ! notation sugge/s x4 #e4 ,/ep1 ,half-/ep3 ,t]ms ( int]val measurem5t4 ,avoid tone1 semi-tone or half-tone4 ,major second & m9or second are int]val names4 ,example3 ,h[ l>ge are ! foll[+ int]vals8 7#a7 ,major second1 7#b7 m9or second1 7#c7 augm5t$ prime4 ,answ]3 7#a7 a /ep1 7#b7 a half-/ep1 7#c7 a half-/ep4 #f4 ,*romatic3 ,a tone ( ! key :i* is n a memb] ( its diatonic scale4 7,n4,b47 ,an accid5tal 7a notation sign7 is n a *romatic sign unless x makes a /aff-degree repres5t a *romatic tone4 #g4 ,major2 ,m9or3 ,major & ,m9or keys hav+ ! same signature %\ld be call$ relative major & m9or4 ,major & m9or keys hav+ ! same tonic1 b diff]5t signatures1 %\ld be call$ tonic major & m9or4 ,n p>allel major or m9or 9 ei!r case4 #h4 ,/aff3 ,five horizontal l9es & _! spaces4 ,/aff l9es are nam$ 7numb]$7 upw>d 9 ord]1 fir/ to fif?4 ,spaces3 ,space bel[1 fir/-second-?ird-f\r?-space1 & space above#dd4 7,six 9 all47 ,additional %ort l9es & _! %ort spaces numb]$ outw>d bo? ways f ! ma9 /aff1 viz3 l9e bel[1 second space bel[4 ,! b\nd>y ( ! /aff is always a space4 ,footnote #dd3 ,,note3--,n space bel[ ! /aff or space above ! /aff4 #i4 ,g ,clef1 ,f ,clef1 ,c ,clef3 ,^! clefs :5 plac$ ^u ! /aff1 give its degrees _! fir/1 or prim>y pit* mean+4 ,ea* makes ! degree x occupies repres5t a pit* ( its respective "n4 ,example3 ,! ,g clef makes ! second l9e repres5t ! pit* ,g4 ,avoid fixes ,g on4 ,! /aff ) clef 9 position repres5ts only pit*es hav+ simple or "o-^w names1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 etc4 #aj4 ,%>ps1 ,flats3 ,giv5 a /aff ) clef 9 position z 9 example above1 %>ps & flats make /aff degrees ^u :i* !y are plac$ repres5t pit*es a half-/ep high] or l[]4 ,^! pit*es h comp\nd or two-^w names4 ,example3 ,! second l9e /&s = ! pit* ,g 7simple "n74 ,%>p ! second l9e & x w /& = ! pit* ,g %>p4 7,comp\nd "n47 ,! ?ird l9e /&s = ! pit* ,b4 7,simple "n47 ,flat x1 & ! l9e w /& = ! pit* ,b flat4 7,comp\nd "n47 ,n4,b4 ,^! signs d n raise or l[] notes1 tones1 pit*es1 lett]s or /aff degrees4 #aa4 ,d\ble-%>p1 ,d\ble-flat3 ,giv5 a /aff ) ?ree or m degrees %>p$ 9 ! signature1 d\ble-%>ps are us$ 7subject to ! rules gov]n+ composition7 to make c]ta9 ( ^! degrees1 already %>p$1 repres5t pit*es "o half-/ep high] yet4 ,simil>ly1 :5 ?ree or m degrees are flatt$ 9 ! signature1 d\ble-flats are us$ to make c]ta9 degrees already flatt$1 repres5t pit*es "o half-/ep l[] yet4 ,examples3 ,to repres5t %>p #b 9 ! key ( ,b major1 d\ble-%>p ! ,c degree1 or 7equally good7 d\ble-%>p ! ?ird space 7,g clef74 ,to repres5t flat #f 9 ! key ( ,d flat major1 d\ble-flat ! ,b degree1 or 7equally good7 d\ble flat ! ?ird l9e 7,g clef74 ,d n say3 ,put a d\ble-%>p on #f or put a d\ble-%>p on ,c1 or indicate a high] or l[] pit* on a %>p$ or flatt$ degree4 #ab4 ,signature3 ,%>ps or flats us$ z signatures affect ! /aff degrees !y occupy & all octaves ( ! same4 ,example3 ,) signature ( f\r %>ps1 ! fir/ "o affects ! fif? l9e & ! fir/ space2 ! second1 ! ?ird space2 ! ?ird1 ! space above & ! second l9e2 ! f\r?1 ! f\r? l9e & ! space bel[4 ,d n say3 ,f & ,c are %>p$1 ti is %>p$1 ,b is flatt$1 fa is flatt$4 ,%>p5$ or flatt5$ are undesirable4 #ac4 ,brace3 ,! two or m /affs conta9+ p>ts to be s\nd$ toge!r2 also ! v]tical l9e or bracket connect+ su* /affs4 ,n l9e or score4 ,/aff is bett] ?an l9e = a s+le /aff1 & score is us$ mean+ ! book conta9+ an entire "w1 z vocal score1 or*e/ral score1 full score4 #ad4 ,notes3 ,notes are *>act]s design$ to repres5t relative duration4 ,:5 plac$ on /aff-degrees !y indicate pit*4 7,note ! diff]5ce betwe5 repres5t & indicate47 ,s+ :at ! note calls = means1 s+ a tone ( ! pit* repres5t$ by ! /aff degree occupi$ by ! note-head4 ,! answ] to ! "q3 ,:at is t note8 w\ld be half-note1 eigh?-note accord+ to ! d5om9ation ( ! note 9 "q1 :e!r x 0 on or (f ! /aff4 #ae4 ,measure-sign3 #d-d1 #b-d1 #f-h1 are measure-signs4 ,avoid "t signatures1 met]-signatures1 ! fraction1 "t-m>ks4 ,example3 ,:at is ! measure-sign8 7,c7 ,ans4 ,a brok5 circle4 ,:at is its mean+8 ,ans4 ,f\r-qu>t] measure4 7,n f\r-f\r "t1 f\r-f\r rhy?m1 f\r-f\r met]47 #af4 ,note ,plac+3 ,place a qu>t] note on ! f\r? l9e4 ,n put a qu>t] note on ,d4 #ag4 ,beat-,pulse3 ,a tone or re/ occurs on a c]ta9 beat or pulse ( a measure4 ,n on a c]ta9 c\nt4 #ah4 ,signature ,t]m9ology3 ,! "r h& %>p 9 ! signature is on ! /aff degree t repres5ts sev5 ( ! major scale4 ,n always on #g or ti4 #ai4 ,signature ,t]m9ology3 ,! "r h& flat 9 ! signature is on ! /aff degree t repres5ts f\r ( ! major scale4 ,n always on fa4 #bj4 ,rote1 ,note1 ,syllable3 ,s++ by rote means t ! s+] s+s some?+ le>n$ by e> )\t reg>d to notes4 ,s++ by note means t ! s+] is guid$ to ! correct pit* by visible notes4 ,s++ by syllable means t ! s+] s+s ! tones ( a song or "p to ! sol-fa syllables in/ead ( to words1 neutral v[els or ! hum4 ,s+ by note is n correct if ! direction means simply to s+ ! sol-fa syllables1 :e!r 9 sight read+1 rote s++1 or memory "w4 ,s+ by syllable w\ld be correct 9 ea* case4 ,,adoptions ,,( ,,! #aiaa ,,meet+ ,,at ,,san ,,francisco ,arabic num]als1 ei!r #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #i1 or #ab1 plac$ on ! /aff directly aft] ! signature & above ! ?ird l9e1 %[ ! numb] ( beats 9 a measure4 ,a note1 ei!r a qu>t] or a dott$ qu>t]1 plac$ 9 p>5!sis "u ! num]al1 repres5ts ! l5g? ( "o beat & is call$ ! beat-note4 ,! num]al & ! beat-note ?us gr\p$ con/itute ! measure-sign4 ,illu/rative /atem5ts cov]+ prop] t]m9ology3 ! tune ,am]ica is writt5 9 ?ree-qu>t] measure4 ,! *orus3 ,h[ lovely are ! ,mess5g]s is writt5 9 two-dott$ qu>t] measure4 ,! above =ms ( /atem5t 7 adopt$ at ,d5v] 9 #aiji1 & are recomm5d$ = g5]al use :5 speak+ ( music writt5 ) ! conv5tional measure-signs1 etc4 ,9 place (3 two-two "t1 ?ree-eight "t1 f\r-f\r "t1 say z above3 ,?is piece is writt5 9 two-half measure1 ?ree-eigh? measure1 f\r-qu>t] measure4 ,,m9or ,,scales ,primitive ,m9or 7asc5d+7 ,! m9or scale =m hav+ m9or six? & m9or sev5? above tonic to be call$ ,primitive ,m9or4 ,illu/rative examples4 ,a m9or3 a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 f1 g1 a2 ,c m9or3 c1 d1 e flat1 f1 g1 a flat1 b flat1 c4 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,suppli$ b flat miss+ f orig9al4 ,primitive ,m9or 7desc5d+7 ,same pit*es 9 rev]se ord]4 ,h>monic ,m9or 7asc5d+7 ,! m9or scale =m hav+ m9or six? & major sev5? above tonic to be call$ ,h>monic ,m9or4 ,illu/rative examples4 ,a m9or3 a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 f1 g %>p1 a2 ,c m9or3 c1 d1 e flat1 f1 g1 a flat1 b1 c4 ,h>monic ,m9or 7desc5d+7 ,same pit*es 9 rev]se ord]4 ,melodic ,m9or 7asc5d+7 ,! m9or scale =m hav+ major six? & major sev5? above tonic to be call$ ,melodic ,m9or4 ,illu/rative examples4 ,a m9or3 a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 f %>p1 g %>p1 a2 ,c m9or3 c1 d1 e flat1 f1 g1 a1 b1 c4 ,melodic ,m9or 7desc5d+7 ,same z ! ,primitive4 ,,adoptions ,,( ,,! #aiab ,,meet+ ,,at ,,*icago ,pulse & ,beat ,! ,committee f9ds t ! words3 ,pulse & ,beat are 9 g5]al use z synonym\s t]ms1 mean+ "o ( ! succession ( ?robs or impulses ( :i* we are consci\s :5 li/5+ to music4 ,ea* ( ^! pulses or beats has an exact po9t ( beg9n+1 a duration1 & an exact po9t ( end+1 ! latt] co9cid5t ) ! beg9n+ ( ! next pulse or beat4 ,:5 ?us us$1 bo? words are t]ms ( e>4 ,beat ,"o ( ^! words1 ,beat1 is also 9 univ]sal use1 mean+ "o ( a s]ies ( physical motions by means ( :i* a conductor holds 8 gr\p ( p]=m]s to a uni=m movem5t4 ,:5 ?us us$ x becomes a t]m ( eye4 ,! conductor's baton1 if x is to be au?oritative1 _c w&] ab\t ?r\gh ! :ole duration ( ! pulse b mu/ move quickly to a po9t ( comp>ative repose1 rema9+ until j be=e ! arrival ( ! next pulse :5 x aga9 makes a rapid sw+1 f9i%+ co9cid5tly ) ! initial tone 7or sil5ce7 ( ! new pulse4 ,?us x is practically ! end ( ! conductor's beat t m>ks ! beg9n+ ( ! pulse4 ,! ,committee is ( op9ion t ,beat might pref]ably be us$ z indicat+ ! outw>d sign4 ,beat-,note ,?is t]m beat-note is already 9 use 9 ano!r important connection 7see ,t]m9ology ,report1 #aiaa7 & ! ,committee recomm5ds t ^? us+ ! above t]ms %all say3 ,?is note is an on-!-beat note2 ?is "o is an aft]-!-beat note2 ?is "o a be=e-!-beat note4 ,,def9itions ,matt]s ( ,e> ,pulse3 ,! unit ( movem5t 9 music1 "o ( a s]ies ( regul>ly recurr+ ?robs or impulses4 ,measure3 ,a gr\p ( pulses4 ,pulse-,gr\p3 ,two or m tones gr\p$ )9 ! pulse4 ,matt]s ( ,eye ,beat3 ,"o ( a s]ies ( conv5tional movem5ts made by ! conductor4 ,?is might include any unconv5tional motion :i* s]v$ to m>k ! movem5t ( ! music1 :e!r made by conductor1 p]=m] or auditor4 ,beat-,note3 ,a note ( ! d5om9ation indicat$ by ! measure-sign z ! unit ( note-value 9 a giv5 measure4 ,example ,giv5 ! foll[+ measure-signs3 #b-d1 #b-b1 #b-h1 qu>t]1 half1 or eigh? notes1 respectively1 are beat-notes4 ,beat-,gr\p3 ,a gr\p ( notes or notes & re/s1 ( small] d5om9ation ?an ! beat-note :i* repres5ts a full beat f beg9n+ to end & is equal 9 value to ! beat-note4 7,a beat-gr\p may beg9 ) a re/47 ,on-!-,beat ,note 7or re/73 ,any note 7or re/7 rang+ 9 value f a full beat d[n1 :i* calls = musical action 7or inaction7 syn*ron\sly ) ! conductor's beat4 ,aft]-!-,beat ,note3 ,any note 9 a beat-gr\p :i* indicates t a tone is to be s\nd$ aft] ! beg9n+1 & be=e or at ! middle ( ! pulse4 ,be=e-!-,beat ,note3 ,any note 9 a beat-gr\p :i* indicates t a tone is to be s\nd$ aft] ! middle ( ! pulse4 ,to illu/rate t]m9ology & to diff]5tiate betwe5 ,pulse & ,beat z t]ms1 respectively ( e> & eye1 ! foll[+ is submitt$3 ,:5ev] a brief tone involves ! musical idea ( syncopation1 x may be reg>d$ z an aft]-!-pulse tone & ! note t calls = x z an aft]-!-beat note2 :5 x involves ! idea ( anticipation or prep>ation x may be reg>d$ z a be=e-!-pulse tone1 & ! note t calls = x1 z a be=e-!-beat note4 ,measure & ,met] ,:at is ! measure-sign8 ,:at is ! met]-signature8 ,^! two words are us$ synonym\sly1 & "o ( !m is unnecess>y4 ,! ,committee recomm5ds t ,measure be reta9$ & us$4 ,met] has its use 9 connection ) hymns4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! au?or does n f9d x possible at pres5t to agree ) all ! recomm5dations made 9 ! above report1 b ! summ>y is pr9t$ 9 full = ! sake ( complet5ess4 ,! ,music ,tea*]'s ,national ,association has also int]e/$ itself mildly 9 ! subject ( t]m9ology re=m1 & at its meet+ 9 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4,c41 9 #aijh1 ,pr(essor ,waldo ,s4 ,pratt gave 8 address z presid5t ( ! ,association on ! subject ,sy/em & ,precision 9 ,musical ,spee*4 ,?is address int]e/$ ! memb]s ( ! ,association to su* an ext5t t ,pr(essor ,pratt 0 ask$ to act z a committee ^: purpose x %\ld be to look into ! matt] ( re=ms necess>y 9 music t]m9ology & report at a lat] session4 ,9 #aiaj ,pr(essor ,pratt read a report 9 :i* he advocat$ ! idea ( mak+ "s *anges 9 music nom5clature1 b took ! gr\nd t ! subject is too compreh5sive to be ma/]$ 9 ! %ort "t t c be giv5 to x by a committee1 & t x is !re=e impossible to recomm5d specific *anges4 ,he also took occasion to rem>k t "o difficulty 9 ! :ole matt] ( t]m9ology is t _m t]ms & expressions are us$ colloquially & t su* use al?\gh usually n sci5tific1 is (t5 n di/9ctly h>mful & is n ( suffici5t importance to cause undue excitem5t on ! "p ( re=m]s4 ,quot+ f ! report at ?is po9t3--,a great deal ( confusion is m app>5t ?an real betwe5 note & tone1 betwe5 /ep & degree1 betwe5 key & tonality4 ,no practical h>m is done by speak+ ( ! fir/ note ( a piece :5 really fir/ tone w\ld be m accurate4 ,to say t a piece is writt5 9 ! key ( ,bflat is m conv5i5t ?an to say t x is writt5 9 ! tonality ( :i* ,bflat is ! tonic4 ,! tru? is t "s ( ! niceties ( expression ^u :i* insi/5ce is occasionally laid are m]ely fussy1 n because !y h n "s sort ( reason1 b because !y fail to take into acc\nt ! practical diff]5ce betwe5 colloquial or (f-h& spee* & ! diction ( a sci5tific treatise4 ,?is is said )\t =gett+ t colloquialism always ne$s wat*+ & t "s p =m ! habit ( be+ c>eless or positively unc\? z if x 7 a m>k ( high arti/ic g5ius4 ,pr(essor ,pratt's report is ?us se5 to be philosophic r ?an con/ructive1 & t]m9ology re=m w und\bt$ly make m imm$iate progress ?r\gh ! ef=ts ( ! ,n4,e4,a4 ,committee ) its specific recomm5dations 7ev5 ?\gh ^! are sometimes admitt$ly fussy7 ?an ?r\gh ! policy ( ! ,m4,t4,n4,a4 ( wait+ = "s "o to get "t to take up ! subject 9 a s*ol>ly way4 ,nev]!less ! philosophic view is sometimes badly ne$$1 especially :5 ! _s ( re=m becomes too rabid & atta*es too great importance to trifles4 ,a judici\s int]m+l+ ( ! two committees 9 a s]ies ( jo9t meet+s w\ld und\bt$ly result 9 mutual helpfulness1 & possibly also 9 a m tangible & conv9c+ /atem5t ( pr9ciples ?an has yet be5 =mulat$ by ei!r4 ,,app5dix ,e ,sonata ,op4 #ca1 ,no4 #c by ,bee?ov5 ,analysis by ,,ar?ur ,e4 ,,heacox1 ,ob]l9 ,cons]vatory ( ,music ,fir/ ,subject #ag measures1 ,eflat major1 z foll[s3 #h meas4 pres5tation1 "o meas4 l9k1 #h meas4 repetition oct4 high]4 ,rhy?mic elem5ts are ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 all pres5t$ 9 fir/ #h meas4 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,! analysis is pres5t$ z notations on ! musical score ( ! sonata4 ,please see ! ,,html v]sion ( ?is e-text to view ! score ) ! notations & to li/5 to a ,,midi v]sion4 ,illu/ration3 ,sonata ,op4 #ca1 ,no4 #c ,,index eh a z 9 face2 ah a z 9 f>2 * * z 9 *air2 f9al eh e z 9 met4 ,a 7ah71 #ie ,a battuta 7ah-baht-too'-tah71 #ie ,a capella 7cah-pel'-lah71 #gf ,a capriccio 7cah-prit*'-eo71 #ed ,accel]&o 7aht-*eh-leh-rahn'-d71 #ed ,acc5t$ tones1 #bj ,acc5t m>ks1 #bj ,acc5t 9 measures1 #dd ,acciaccatura 7aht-*eea-cah-too'-ra71 #be1 #bf ,accid5tals1 #i ,accompagnam5to 7ahc-com-pahn-yah-m5'-to71 #ie ,ac\/ics 7ah-k['-/ics71 def41 #aca ( auditoriums1 #acc ,adagietto 7ah-dah-jee-et'-to71 #ej ,adagio 7ah-dah'-jee-o71 #ej ,a deux ma9s 7doo-mahng71 #db ,ad libitum1 #ed ,affrett&o 7ahf-fret-tahn'-d71 #ed ,agitato 7ah-jee-tah'-to71 #ee ,agrem5ts 7ah-greh-mahng71 #bb ,a la or alla 7ahl'-lah71 #db ,alla breve 7breh'-veh71 #ie ,alla m>cia 7m>'-*ee-ah71 #ie ,all>g&o 7ahl-lahr-gahn'-d71 #ec ,alla z+>a 7tse5-gah'-rah71 #ie ,allegretto 7ahl-leh-gret'-to71 #ea ,allegrissimo1 #eb ,allegro 7ahl-leh'-gro71 #ej ,allegro agitato 7ah-jee-tah'-to71 #eb ,allegro appassionata 7-ah'-tah71 #eb ,allegro assai 7ahs-sah'-ee71 #eb ,allegro commodo 7kom-mo'-d71 #eb ,allegro con brio 7bree'-o71 #eb ,allegro con fuoco 7foo-o'-ko71 #ec ,allegro con moto 7mo'-to71 #ec ,allegro con spirito 7spee'-ree-to71 #ec ,allegro di bravura 7dee brah-voo'-rah71 #ec ,allegro di molto 7mohl'-to71 #ec ,allegro furioso 7foo-ree-o'-s71 #ec ,allegro giu/o 7jew-/o71 #ec ,allegro ma grazioso 7mah grah-tsi-o'-s71 #ec ,allegro 7ma7 non tanto 7tahn'-to71 #ec ,allegro 7ma7 non troppo 7trop'-po71 #ec ,allegro mod]ato 7mod-e-rah'-to71 #ec ,allegro quasi &ante 7quah-see ahn-dahn'-teh71 #ec ,allegro vivace 7vee-vah'-*eh71 #ec ,allem&e 7al-mahnd71 #ga ,all'unisono 7oo-nee-s'-no71 #ie ,all'ottava 7ot-tah'-vah71 #ae ,alt 7ahlt71 #ie ,alto 7ahl-to71 #ie ,a mezza voce 7met'-zah-vo'-*eh71 #db ,amore 7ah-mo'-reh71 #db1 #ei ,&ante 7ahn-dahn'-teh71 #ej ,&ante affettuoso 7ahf-fet-too-o'-s71 #eb ,&ante amabile 7ah-mah'-bee-leh71 #eb ,&ante cantabile 7cahn-tah'-bee-leh71 #eb ,&ante con moto 7mo'-to71 #eb ,&ante grazioso 7grah-tsi-o'-s71 #eb ,&ante mae/oso 7mah-es-to'-s71 #eb ,&ante 7ma7 non troppo 7mah non trop'-po71 #eb ,&ante pa/orale 7pahs-to-rah'-leh71 #eb ,&ante quasi allegro 7quah-see ahl-leh'-gro71 #eb ,&ante so/5uto 7sos-teh-noo'-to71 #eb ,anim&o 7ah-nee-mahn'-d71 #ee ,animato 7ah-nee-mah'-to71 #ee ,animato come sopra 7co-meh s'-prah71 #ee ,&ant9o 7ahn-dahn-tee'-no71 #ej ,antec$5t1 #fg ,an!m1 #gf ,anticipation1 #ic ,antiphony 7an-tif'-o-ny71 #ie ,anti!sis 7an-ti?'-71 #fg ,a piac]e 7pee-ah-*eh'-reh71 #ed ,appoggiatura 7ap-pod-jea-too'-rah71 def41 #be ,a quatre ma9s 7kahtr-mahng71 #ie ,arabesque1 #ie ,aria 7ah'-ree-ah71 #gi ,arioso 7ah-ree-o'-s71 #ie ,arpeggi&o 7ar-p$-jee-ahn'-d71 #ba ,arpeggiato 7-ah'-to71 #ba ,arpeggi5to 7-en'-to71 #ba ,arpeggio 7ar-p$'-jee-o71 #ba ,art-ballad1 #hj ,assai 7ahs-sah'-ee71 #db ,a tempo1 #ed ,a tempo primo 7pree'-mo71 #ed ,a tempo rubato 7roo-bah'-to71 #ed ,attacca 7aht-tah'-kah71 #ie ,attacca subito 7soo'-bee-to71 #ie ,attacca subito il segu5te 7eel seg-w5'-teh71 #ie ,attack1 #ie ,bagpipe1 #ie ,ballad1 #hj ,b&1 #aae ,b>1 def4 & use1 #ab d\ble1 #ab ,b>c>ole 7b>'-cah-rohl71 #ie ,b>itone1 #ie ,bass1 #ie ,bass cl>9et1 #aba ,basso 7bahs'-s71 #ie ,bassoon1 #aba ,bass /aff1 #f ,bass tuba1 #abe ,bass viol1 #aah ,b5 7behn71 #db ,b5 m>cato 7mahr-kah'-to71 #db ,b]ceuse 7behr-soos'71 #ie ,b9>y =m1 #ie ,b9>y measure1 #ie ,bis 7bees71 #if ,bol]o 7bo-leh'-ro71 #ga ,b\rree 7boo-reh'71 #ga ,brace1 #if ,brass in/rum5ts1 #aaf ,brillante 7breel-ahn'-teh71 #ee ,brok5 *ord1 #if ,brok5 octave1 #if ,cacophony 7kak-('-o-ny71 #if ,cad5ce1 #hi ,cad5za1 #if ,cal&o 7kah-lahn'-d71 #ei ,cancel1 #c1 #h ,cantabile 7kahn-tah'-bee-leh71 #if ,cant&o 7kakn-tahn'-d71 #if ,canto 7kahn'-to71 #if ,cantus firmus1 #fd ,canon1 #fd ,cantata 7kahn-tah'-tah71 #gg ,c>ol1 #if ,cat*1 #if ,c clef #c1 #f ,cello 7*el'-lo71 #aah ,*aconne 7%ah-con'71 #ga ,*amb] music1 #gb ,*ant]elle 7%ong-tah-rel'71 #aag ,*9ese scale1 #bg ,*oral1 #gf ,*ords def4 & l&s1 #hg inv]sions (1 #hh common1 #hg sev5?1 #hi dom9ant sev5?1 #ib ,*romatic1 #if ,*romatic scale1 #ch ,cl>9et1 #aba ,classes ( in/rum5ts 9 or*e/ra1 #aae ,clavi*ord1 #if ,clefs1 #c1 #e ,close position1 #id ,coda1 #gj ,coi 7co'-ee71 #db ,col1 #db ,colla1 #db ,colla p>te 7p>'-teh71 #if ,colla voce 7vo'-*eh71 #if ,colle1 #db ,collo1 #db ,coloratura s++1 #gi1 #if ,coll'ottava 7ot-tah'-vah71 #ae ,comb9ation p$als1 #aae ,come 7koh'-meh71 #db ,come primo 7pree'-mo71 #db ,common *ords1 #hg ,comp\nd measure1 #de ,comp\nd duple measure1 #de ,con1 #db ,con alcuna lic5za 7ahl-koo'-nah lee-*5'-tsah71 #ei ,con amore 7ah-mo'-reh71 #db1 #ei ,con anima 7ah'-nee-mah71 #ee ,con bravura 7brah-voo'-rah71 #ei ,con cel]ita 7*e-leh'-ree-tah71 #ei ,conc]to 7con-*]'-to71 #gb ,conc]t pit*1 #ach ,con delicato 7deh-lee-cah'-to71 #ei ,con en]gico 7en-er-jee'-ko71 #ei ,con espressione 7es-pres-see-o'-neh71 #ei ,con =za 7=t'-za71 #fj ,con fuoco 7foo-o'-ko71 #fj ,con gr&' espressione 7grahnd' es-pres-see-o'-neh71 #fj ,con grazia 7grahts-yah71 #fj ,con mel9conia 7or mal9conia7 7-le5-ko'-ne-eh71 #fj ,con moto1 #ee ,con passione 7pas-se-o'-neh71 #fj ,consequ5t1 #fg ,consonance1 #if ,con spirito 7spe'-ree-to71 #fj ,con t5]ezza 7teh-neh-ret'-za71 #fj ,cont9u\s =m1 #hj ,contra1 #db ,contra bass tuba1 #abf ,contra octave1 #af ,contralto1 #if ,con v>iazione 7vah-ri-ah-tsi-o'-neh71 #if ,cornet1 #abd ,c\nt]po9t1 def41 #fd1 #fb1 #hb ,c\rante 7koo-rahnt'71 #ga ,cresc5do 7kre-%5'-d71 #eg ,cresc5do al =tissimo1 #eh ,cresc5do ed affrett&o 7ahf-fret-tahn'-d71 #eh ,cresc5do ed anim&o poco a poco 7ah-ni-mahn'-d71 #eh ,cresc5do e dim9u5do 7eh de-me-noo-en'-d71 #eh ,cresc5do molto 7mohl'-to71 #eh ,cresc5do poco a poco1 #eh ,cresc5do poco a poco s9 al f9e 7se5 ahl fee'-neh71 #eh ,cresc5do poi dim9u5do 7po'-ee dee-mee-noo-en'-d71 #eh ,cresc5do subito 7soo'-bee-to71 #eh ,cross-/roke1 #a1 #b ,cs>das 7ts>'-dahs71 #ga ,da 7dah71 #db ,da capo 7kah'-po71 #ac ,dal segno 7sehn'-yo71 #ac ,dances1 #ga ,da% ov] note1 #ag1 #bj ,decresc5do 7deh-kreh-%5'-d71 #eh ,decresc5do al pianissimo 7ahl pee-ahn-is'-si-mo71 #eh ,degrees ( /aff1 #e ,delicato 7deh-lee-kah'-to71 #fj ,descriptive music1 #gd ,di 7dee71 #db ,diatonic condition1 #g ,diatonic scale1 #bh ,di bravura 7brah-voo'-rah71 #db ,dim9u5do 7dee-mee-noo-en'-d71 #eh ,di molto 7mohl'-to71 #db ,direct1 #if ,dirge1 #ig ,discord1 #ig ,dissonance 7dis'71 #ig ,divisi 7di-ve'-ze71 #ig ,dolce 7dohl'-*eh71 #fj ,dolce e cantabile 7eh kahn-tah'-bee-leh71 #fj ,dolcissimo 7dohl-*is'-see-mo71 #fj ,dol5te 7d-l5'-teh71 #fj ,dom9ant1 #cf ,dom9ant ,sev5?1 #ib ,doloroso 7d-lo-ro'-s71 #fj ,doppio 7dop'-pee-o71 #db ,doppio movim5to 7mo-vi-m5'-to71 #ee ,dot--:]e plac$1 #c uses (1 #ag ) slur or tie1 #bj ) da%1 #bj ,d\ble b>1 #ab ,d\ble bass1 #aah ,d\ble bassoon1 #aba ,d\ble flat1 #c1 #g ,d\ble mord5t1 #bc ,d\ble %>p1 #c1 #g ,d\blet1 #bj ,duet1 #ig ,duple measure1 #df ,dynamics1 #ef ,e 7eh71 #db ,ecole 7eh'-kole71 #ig ,ed1 #db ,eight-foot /op1 #aad ,elem5ts ( music1 #hb ,embelli%m5ts1 #bb ,engli% names = notes1 #aa ,engli% horn1 #aba ,enh>monic1 def41 #aj ,enh>monic scale1 #cb ,enh>monic tie1 #ah ,ensemble 7ong-sombl71 #db ,equal temp]am5t1 #acg ,e poi la coda 7eh-po'-ee71 #ad ,espressivo 7ehs-pres-see'-vo71 #fj ,et1 #db ,etto1 #db ,etude1 #ig ,euphony 7yu'-fo-ny71 #ig ,ev5 measure1 #df ,facile 7fah-*ee'-leh71 #ig ,fanf>e 7fahn'-fehr71 #ig ,fantasia 7fahn-tah-ze'-ah71 #ig ,f ,clef1 #c1 #e1 #f ,f]mata 7fehr-mah'-ta71 #ad1 #ae ,fiasco 7fe-ahs'-ko71 #ig ,figur$ bass1 #hi ,f9e 7fee'-neh71 #ac ,five-l9$ octave1 #af ,flat1 #c1 #g ,flute1 #aai ,folk-song1 #ha ,=m1 def41 #fb b9>y1 #ie ,=te 7='-teh71 #ef ,=te piano 7pee-ah'-no71 #ef ,=te possibile 7pos-see'-bee-leh71 #dc ,=tissimo1 #ef ,=tissimo possibile 7pos-see-bee-leh71 #ef ,=tisissimo1 #ef ,=z&o 7=-tsahn'-d71 #eg ,=zato 7=-tsah'-to71 #eg ,f\r-foot /op1 #aad ,f\r-l9$ octave1 #af ,free imitation1 #fd ,fr5* horn1 #abc ,fr5* pit* designations1 #f ,fugue1 #ff ,fundam5tal1 #ace ,gamut 7gam'-ut71 #ig ,gavotte 7gah-vot'71 #ga ,g ,clef1 #c1 #e1 #f ,g5]al pause1 #ae ,g]man pit* designation1 #f ,gigue 7zheeg71 #ga ,giocoso 7jee-o-ko'-s71 #fj ,giojoso 7jee-o-yo'-s71 #fj ,glee1 #ha ,gliss&o 7glis-sahn'-d71 #ig ,graces1 #bb ,gr&ioso 7grahn-dee-o'-s71 #fj ,gr& sonata1 #gd ,grave 7grah'-veh71 #ej ,grazioso 7grah-tsi-o'-s71 #fj ,great octave1 #af ,great /aff1 #e ,grosse pause 7gros-seh pah-oo'-za7 or 7gros-seh p[-zeh71 #ae ,gruppetto 7groo-pet'-to71 #bb ,haban]a 7hah-bah-neh'-rah71 #ga ,half-/ep1 #hc ,h>monic m9or scale1 #cc ,h>monics1 #acf ,h>monics on viol91 #aag ,h>mony1 #hb ,h>p1 #abi ,h>psi*ord1 #ig ,head ( note1 #a ,hold1 #ae ,homophonic /yle1 #fc ,hook1 #a ,humoresque 7hoo-mo-resk'71 #ig ,hymn to ,/4 ,john1 #cg ,idyl1 #ig ,il 7eel71 #db ,il basso 7bahs'-s71 #db ,il piu 7pee'-oo71 #db ,il piu =te possibile 7pos-see'-bee-leh71 #db ,imitation1 #fd ,imp]fect trill1 #bc ,9 alt 79 ahlt71 #ig ,9 altissimo 7ahl-tis'-si-mo71 #ig ,ino 7ee'-no71 #db ,in/rum5tation1 #ig ,in/rum5ts1 classification (1 #aab ,int5sity ( tones1 #ace ,int]lude1 #ig ,int]m$iate tones1 #ch see ,*romatic1 p4 #if ,int]national pit*1 #ach ,int]val1 def41 #hc enh>monic1 #aj h>monic1 #hc melodic1 #hc names (1 #hc ,inv]sion1 9 !matic developm5t1 #fi ,inv]sions ( *ords1 #hh ,inv]t$ mord5t1 #bc ,inv]t$ turn1 #be ,issimo1 #db ,kettle-drum1 #abf ,key1 def41 #bh signature1 #h enh>monic keys1 #aj key-tone1 #bg1 #bh h[ diff]5t f scale1 #bh ,l1 #db ,la 7lah71 #db ,lacrim&o 7lah-kri-mahn'-d71 #fj ,lacrimoso 7lah-kri-mo'-s71 #fj ,l>gam5te 7l>-gah-m5'-teh71 #db ,l>g&o 7l>-gahn'-d71 #ec ,l>ghetto 7l>-get'-to71 #ej ,l>go1 #ej ,l>go assai 7ahs-sah'-ee71 #eb ,l>go di molto 7de mohl'-to71 #eb ,l>go ma non troppo 7mah non trop'-po71 #eb ,l>go un poco 7oon po'-co71 #eb ,le 7leh71 #db ,lead+ tone1 #cc1 #cf ,legato 7leh-gah'-to71 #ah1 #fj ,leg] l9es1 #e ,leggi]issimo 7l$-jah-ris'-si-mo71 #fj ,leggi]o 7l$-jee'-ro71 #fj ,l5t&o 7l5-tahn'-d71 #eb ,l5tem5te 7l5-tah-m5'-teh71 #eb ,l5tissimam5te 7-m5'-teh71 #eb ,l5tissam5te 7-m5'-teh71 #eb ,l5to1 #ej ,l5to a capriccio 7ah-cah-preet'-*ee-o71 #eb ,l5to assai 7ahs-sah'-ee71 #eb ,l5to di molto 7de mohl'-to71 #eb ,libretto 7lee-bret'-to71 #gh ,li$ 7le$71 #hj ,l'i/esso tempo 7lis-tes'-s71 #db1 #ee ,loco1 #ae1 #ig ,long appoggiatura 7ap-pod-jea-too'-rah71 #be ,l[] tetra*ord1 #bi ,lunga pausa 7loong-ah p['-zeh7 or 7loon-gah pah-oo'-za71 #ae ,lunga trillo1 #ig ,lus+&o 7loos-9-gahn'-d71 #fj ,lyric1 #ih ,madrigal 7mad'-ri-gal71 #ha ,mae/a 7mah'-es-tah71 #fj ,mae/oso 7mah-es-to'-s71 #fj ,maggiore 7mahd-jo'-reh71 #ih ,ma9 droite 7mahng droa71 #bj ,ma9 gau*e 7mahng g[%71 #bj ,major key1 #h ,major scale1 def41 #bi positions1 #cj orig9 ( "n1 #cc ,manc&o 7mahn-kahn'-d71 #ei ,mano de/ra 7mah'-no dehs'-trah71 #bj ,mano s9i/ra 7si-nees'-trah71 #bj ,m>cato il canto 7m>-kah'-to eel kahn'-to71 #ih ,m>tell&o 7m>-tel-lahn'-d71 #ei ,m>tellato 7m>-tel-lah'-to71 #ei ,m>ziale 7m>t-se-ah'-leh71 #ei ,mass1 #gg ,mazurka 7mah-zoor'-ka71 #ga ,measure1 def41 #dd h[ diff]s f b>1 #ab h[ diff]s f rhy?m1 #dd syncopation 91 #dd simple & comp\nd1 #de duple or ev51 #df triple or p]fect1 #df quadruple1 #df sextuple1 #df comp\nd duple1 #df signature1 #dh b9>y1 #ie ,m$iant1 #cf ,melliflu\s 7mel-lif'-loo-u71 #ih ,melodic m9or scales1 #cd ,melody1 #hb ,melos 7meh'-los71 #ih ,m5o 7meh'-no71 #db ,m5o mosso 7mos'-s71 #ec ,m5te 7m5'-teh71 #db ,m5uet 7meh-noo-eh'71 #ih ,m5uetto 7meh-noo-et'-to71 #ih ,messa di voce 7mes'-sa dee vo'-*eh71 #ba ,me/o 7mehs'-to71 #fj ,metronome1 #di ,mezza 7m$'-zah71 #db ,mezzo 7m$'-zo71 #db ,mezzo =te 7='-teh71 #db1 #ef ,mezzo piano 7pe-ah'-no71 #ef ,mezzo soprano 7s-prah'-no71 #ih ,mezzo voce 7vo'-*eh71 #fj ,m9or key1 #h ,m9ore 7me-no'-reh71 #ih ,m9or scale1 def41 #cc positions1 #cd ,m9uet1 #ga ,mi/]ioso 7mis-teh-ri-o'-s71 #fj ,mod]ato 7mod-e-rah'-to71 #ea ,modulation1 def41 #ib enh>monic1 #aj ,molto 7mohl'-to71 #db ,molto cresc5do 7kre-%5'-d71 #db ,monophonic /yle1 #fc1 #fg ,mord5t1 #bb1 #bc ,mor5do 7mo-r5'-d71 #ei ,mori5te 7mo-ri-en'-teh71 #ei ,motet 7mo-tet'71 #gf ,movable ,c ,clef1 #f ,mute1 #aag ,natural1 #c1 #h ,natural condition ( /aff-degrees1 #h ,nel1 #db ,nel batt]e 7baht-teh'-reh71 #db ,nella1 #db ,neumae 7neoo'-mee71 #ajd ,nocturne1 #ih ,non 7non71 #db ,non tanto 7tahn'-to71 #db ,non tanto allegro 7ahl-leh'-gro71 #ec ,non troppo allegro 7trop'-po71 #ec ,notation1 hi/ory ( music1 #aja ,notes1 def41 #aj k9ds (1 #aa ,engli% names =1 #aa dott$1 #ag /accato1 #ag irregul> note-gr\ps1 #ai p>ts (1 #a h[ made1 #a ,nuance 7noo-angs71 #ih ,obbligato 7ob-blee-gah'-to71 #ih ,oboe 7o'-bo71 #aba ,octave1 def41 #cf ,octaves1 names (1 #af ,(f]tory1 #ih ,"o-l9$ octave1 #af ,op5 position1 #id ,op]a1 #gh ,opus1 #ih ,oratorio1 #gg ,or*e/ra1 #aae ,or*e/ration1 #ih ,organ1 re$1 #aac pipe1 #aad po9t1 #ih ,orig9al m9or scale1 #cc ,orig9 ( scale1 #bh ,ossia 7os'-see-ah71 #db1 #ih ,ossia piu facile 7pe-oo' fah-*ee'-leh71 #db ,ov]tones1 #acf ,ov]ture1 #ih ,p>l&o 7p>-lahn'-d71 #fj ,"p song1 #ha ,pa/orale 7pas-to-rah'-leh71 #fj ,p$al po9t1 #ic ,p5tatonic scale1 #bg ,p] 7pehr71 #db ,p]cussion in/rum5ts1 #aaf ,p]d5do 7pehr-d5'-d71 #ei ,p]d5dosi 7pehr-d5-d'-see71 #ei ,p]fect measure1 #df ,p]fect trill1 #bc ,p] il viol9o 7eel ve-o-le'-no71 #db ,p]iod1 #fg ,pesante 7peh-sahn'-teh71 #ee ,peu 7peuh71 #db ,phrase1 #fg ,phrase m>k1 #ah ,pianissimo 7pee-ahn-is'-si-mo71 #ef ,pianissimo possibile 7pos-see'-bee'-leh71 #ef ,pianisissimo 7pee-ahn-is-is'-si-mo71 #ef ,piano 7pee-ah'-no71 #ef ,piano assai 7ahs-sah'-ee71 #ef ,piano1 description (1 #aab ,piccolo 7pik'-ko-lo71 #aai ,pipe organ1 #aad ,pit*1 def41 #acd pit* names1 #f /&>ds (1 #acg conc]t pit*1 #ach int]national pit*1 #ach ,piu 7pe-oo'71 #db ,piu allegro 7ahl-leh'-gro71 #ed ,piu =te 7='-teh71 #db ,piu l5to1 #ec ,piu mosso 7mos'-s71 #ed ,piu to/o 7tos'-to71 #ed ,pizzicato 7pits-e-kah'-to71 #ii1 #aag ,po*etto 7po-ket'-to71 see ino1 #db ,poco1 #dc ,poco a poco anim&o 7ah-nee-mahn'-d71 #ed ,poi 7po' ee71 #db ,polacca 7po-lahk'-kah71 #ii ,polka1 #fi ,polonaise 7pol-o-nez'71 #ga1 #ii ,polyphonic /yle1 #fd ,pomposo 7pom-po'-s71 #fj ,portam5to 7por'-tah-m5'-to71 #bj ,position1 op5 & close1 #id ,possibile 7pos-see'-bee-leh71 #dc ,po/lude1 #ii ,prall trill1 #bb ,precipitoso 7preh-*e-pi-to'-s71 #fj ,prelude1 #ii ,pre/issimo 7pres-tis'-see-mo71 #ea ,pre/issimo possibile 7pos-see'-bee-leh71 #ea ,pre/o1 #ea ,pre/o assai 7ahs-sah'-ee71 #ec ,pre/o 7ma7 non troppo 7mah non trop'-po71 #ec ,pri]e 7pre-ehr'71 #ii ,prim>y =ms1 #fh ,primitive m9or scale1 #cc ,program music1 #gd ,pure music1 #gd ,pure scale1 #dj ,quadruple measure1 #df ,quality1 #acf ,qu>tet1 #gb ,quasi 7quah'-see71 #dc ,qu9tole 7kw9'-to-leh71 #ii ,qu9tolet1 #bj ,qu9tuplet1 #bj1 #ii ,rais$ six?1 #cd ,rall5t&o 7rahl-l5-tahn'-d71 #ec ,rapidam5te 7rah-pid-a-m5'-teh71 #ee ,rate ( spe$1 ( s\nd1 #acb ,recitative 7res-i-tah-teev'71 #gh ,recitativo 7reh-*ee-ta-tee'-vo71 #fj ,re$ organ1 #aac ,relative m9or1 #h1 #ce ,religioso 7reh-lee-jo'-s71 #ii ,repetition & contra/1 #fb1 #gj ,requiem 7re'-kwi-em71 #ii ,re/s1 def41 #aj rules = mak+1 #b k9ds (1 #aa peculi> use (1 #aa sev]al measures (1 #ad ,ret>dation1 #ic ,rhapsody1 #ii ,rhy?m1 def41 #hb elem5t ( music1 #hb h[ diff]s f measure1 #dd correct use ( ^w1 #dh ,rhy?mic augm5tation1 #fi ,rhy?mic dim9ution1 #fi ,rhy?mic figures1 #dd ,ribattuta 7re-baht-too'-tah71 #ii ,rigaudon 7rig'-o-don71 #ga ,r9=z&o 7r9-=-tsahn'-d71 #eg ,r9=zato 7r9-=-tsah'-to71 #eg ,risoluto 7ree-s-loo'-to71 #fj ,rit>d&o 7ree-t>-dahn'-d71 #ec ,rit55te 7ree-t5-en'-teh71 #ec ,rit5uto 7ree-t5-oo'-to71 #ec ,ritornelle 7ree-tor-nell'71 #ii ,ritornello 7ree-tor-nel'-lo71 #ii ,rondo1 #gj1 #ga ,rules3 ,= writ+ music1 #a1 #b ,= turn+ /ems1 #a1 #b ,= alt]$ /aff degrees1 #aj ,= embelli%m5ts1 #bb-bf ,= repeats1 #ac1 #ad ,= writ+ *romatic scale1 #ch ,sans 7sahng71 #dc ,sans p$ales 7peh-da-leh71 #dc ,s>ab&e 7s>-ah-bahn'-deh71 #ga ,s>rusophone 7s>-reoos-o-fohn'71 #abc ,saxhorn1 p4 #abe 7footnote7 ,saxophone1 #aba ,scales1 def41 #bg orig91 #bh h[ diff]5t f keys1 #bh positions (3 major1 #cj m9or1 #cd *romatic1 #ch tones (1 call$1 #e1 #cf1 #cg ,*9ese1 #bg ,scot*1 #bg ,s*]z&o 7skehr-tsahn'-d71 #fj ,s*]zo 7skehr'-tso71 #ga1 #gb ,s*]zoso 7skehr-tzo'-s71 #fj ,s*ool-r\nd1 #ff ,s*ottis*e 7%ot'-ti%71 #ii ,score1 #ii ,scot* scale1 #bg ,sec 7sek71 #ii ,secco 7sek'-ko71 #ii ,section1 #fg ,segue 7sehg'-weh71 #ad ,semplice 7sem-plee'-*eh71 #fj ,sempre 7sem'-preh71 #dc ,sempre =te 7='-teh71 #dc ,sempre l5to mal9conico assai 7mah-le5-ko'-ni-ko ahs-sah'-ee71 #ee ,sempre m>catissimo 7m>-kah-tis'-si-mo71 #fj ,s5tim5to 7s5-tee-m5'-to71 #fj ,s5za 7s5-tza71 #db ,s5za accompagnam5to 7ahc-com-pahn-yah-m5'-toh71 #db ,s5za repetizione 7reh-peh-titz-e-o'-neh71 #ad1 #ii ,s5za replica 7reh'-ple-kah71 #ii ,septimole1 #bj ,septolet1 #bj ,sequ5ce1 #ia ,s]5ade1 #ii ,s]5ata 7seh-re-nah'-tah71 #ii ,sev5? *ord1 #hi ,sextet1 #ii ,sextolet1 #bj ,sextuple measure1 #df ,sextuplet1 #bj1 #ajj ,s=z&o 7s=tz-ahn'-d71 #eg ,s=zato 7s=tz-ah'-to71 #eg ,%ake1 #bb ,%>p1 #c1 #g ,%ort appoggiatura 7ap-pod-jea-too-rah71 #be ,simile 7see'-mee-leh71 #ad1 #ajj ,similit] 7see-mil'-i-t]71 #ajj ,simple measure1 #de ,simple tone1 #acg ,s9 7se571 #dc ,s9 al f9e 7ahl-fee'-neh71 #ad ,s9o 7see'-no71 #dc ,sixte5-foot /op1 #aad ,sixty-f\r-foot /op1 #aad ,sl5t&o 7sl5-tahn'-d71 #ec ,slur1 #ah ,small octave1 #af ,smorz&o 7smor-tzahn'-d71 #ei ,sol5ne 7s-l5'-neh71 #ei ,solfege 7sul-fezh'71 #ajj ,solfeggio 7sol-f$'-jo71 #ajj ,solmization1 #ajj ,solo1 #dc ,sonata 7s-nah'-tah71 #ga ,sonata allegro 7ahl-leh'-gro71 #gc ,sonata =m1 #gc ,sonat9a 7s-na-tee'-nah71 #gd ,song =m1 #fh ,sopra 7s'-prah71 #ajj ,soprano 7s-prah'-no71 #ajj ,sord9o 7sor-dee'-no71 #aag ,so/5uto 7sos-teh-noo'-to71 #ajj ,sotto 7sot'-to71 #ajj ,sotto voce 7vo'-*eh71 #ei ,s\nd1 ,app4 ,c1 #aca ,production (1 #aca ,transmission (1 #aca ,rate ( travel (1 #aca ,int5sification (1 #acc ,reflection (1 #acc ,classification (1 #acc ,spiritoso 7spee-ree-to'-s71 #fj ,/accatissimo 7/ahk-kah-tis'-si-mo71 #ag ,/accato 7/ahk-kah'-to71 #ag1 #bj1 #ajj ,/aff1 #e ,/aff degrees1 #e ,/&>ds ( pit*1 #acg ,/ems1 #a ,/ep1 half & :ole1 #hc ,/repitoso 7/reh-pee-to'-s71 #fa ,/retto 7/ret'-to71 #ed ,/rict imitation1 #fd ,/r+$ in/rum5ts1 #aae ,/r+5do 7/r9-j5'-d71 #ed ,/rok+ notes1 #b ,/rophe =m 7/ro'-feh71 #hj ,/yles1 k9ds (1 #fc h[ diff] f =ms1 #fb ,sub1 #dc ,sub-dom9ant1 #cf ,subject1 #fd ,subito 7soo-bee'-to71 #ajj ,sub-m$iant1 #cf ,sub-octave1 #af ,suite 7sweet71 #gj ,sup]-dom9ant1 #cf ,sup]-tonic1 #cf ,susp5sion1 #ib ,swell-box1 #aad ,syllables = sight-s++1 #cg ,symphonic poem1 #ge ,symphony1 def41 #gc ,syncopation1 #dd ,tail ( note1 #a ,takt pausa 7tahkt p['-zeh or pah-oo'-za71 #aa ,tanto 7tahn'-to71 #dc ,t>antella 7tah-rahn-tel'-lah71 #ga ,temp]$ scales1 #acg ,tempo1 #dh-ej ,tempo commodo 7ko-mo'-d71 #ee ,tempo di m>cia 7de m>'-*ee-ah71 #ee ,tempo di m5uetto 7meh-noo-et'-to71 #ee ,tempo di valso 7vahl'-s71 #ee ,tempo giu/o 7jew-/o71 #ed ,tempo ord9>io 7or-dee-nah'-ree-o71 #ee ,tempo primo 7pree'-mo71 #ed ,tempo rubato 7roo-bah'-to71 #ed ,t5or1 #ajj ,t5uto 7teh-noo'-to71 #ee1 #ajj ,t]m9ology ,re=ms1 ,app4 ,d41 p4 #aci ,tetra*ords 9 scales1 #bi ,!matic developm5t1 #fi ,!me1 #fi ,!me & v>iations1 #fi ,!sis1 #fg ,?irty-two-foot /op1 #aad ,?or\gh-bass1 #hi ,?ree-l9$ octave1 #af ,?r\gh-compos$ =m1 #hj ,tie1 #ah ,timbre 7tambr71 #hb ,"t1 wrong uses ( ^w1 #dh ,toccata 7tok-kah'-tah71 #ajj ,tonality scale1 #bg1 #bh1 #ch ,tone1 h[ repres5t$1 #aj ornam5tal tone1 #bb key-tone1 #bg ( resolution1 #ic ,tone-poem1 #ge ,tonic1 #cf ,tonic m9or1 #cf ,tranquillo 7trahn-quil'-lo71 #fa ,transposition1 #id ,tre 7treh71 #dc ,treble /aff1 #f ,tre corde 7kor'-deh71 #dc1 #ei ,tres 7treh71 #dc ,tres l5tem5t 7lahng-te-mahng71 #eb ,tres vivem5t 7ve'-veh-mahng71 #db ,triad1 def41 #hg1 #hh ,trill1 #bb ,trio1 #gb ,triple measure1 #df ,triplet1 #ai1 #ajj ,tri/am5te 7tris-tah-m5'-teh71 #fa ,trombone1 #abe ,troppo 7trop'-po71 #dc ,trumpet1 #abd ,tuba1 #abe ,turn1 #bd1 #be ,tutte le corde 7toot'-teh leh kor'-deh71 #ei ,tutti 7toot'-tee71 #ajj ,two-foot /op1 #aad ,two-l9$ octave1 #af ,un 7oon71 #dc ,una 7oo'-nah71 #dc ,una corda1 #dc1 #ei ,uno 7oo'-no71 #dc ,un peu 7oon peuh71 #dc ,un peu cresc5do 7kre-%5'-d71 #dc ,un poco animate 7ah-ni-mah-'to71 #ed ,untemp]$ scale1 #dj ,upp] p>tials1 #acf ,upp] tetra*ord1 #bi ,veloce 7veh-lo'-*eh71 #ee ,viola 7vee-o'-lah71 #aag ,viol91 #aag ,violoncello 7vee-o-lohn-*el'-lo71 #aah ,vivo 7vee'-vo71 #ea ,vivace 7vee-vah'-*eh71 #ea ,vivacissimo 7vee-vah-*is'-see-mo71 #ea ,vocal music1 #gf ,volante 7vo-lahn'-teh71 #ee ,waltz1 #fh ,:ole-/ep1 #hc ,:ole-/ep scale1 #bh1 #dj ,wood-w9d in/rum5ts1 #aae