,alex ,guzman for the realization of the figured bass in ,figure #fg1 and to ,bunji ,hisamori and the ,classical ,midi ,connection 7http3_/_/www4classicalmidiconnection4co m7 for the ,,midi sequence of the ,beethoven ,sonata ,op4 #ca1 ,no4 #c4 which includes the original illustrations and also audio files to which the reader can listen4 ,see #aidii-;h4htm or #aidii-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#a_/ i_/d_/i_/aidii_/aidii-;h_/#aidii-;h4htm7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#a_/ i_/d_/i_/aidii_/aidii-;h4zip7 ,transcriber's note3 ,in this e-text1 a superscript is indicated by a carat 77 and a subscript by a single underscore 774 ,italics are indicated by two underscores1 e4g4 larghetto4 ,the ,czech r 7with its diacritical7 is represented by vr1 e4g4 ,dvovrak4 ,,music ,,notation ,,and ,,terminology by ,,karl ,w4 ,,gehrkens1 ,a4,m4 ,associate ,professor of ,school ,music ,oberlin ,conservatory of ,music ,illustration3 publisher logo ,the ,a4 ,s4 ,barnes ,company ,new ,york #aiad ,copyright1 #aiad1 by ,the ,a4 ,s4 ,barnes ,company ,,preface ,the study of music notation and terminology by classes in conservatories and in music departments of colleges and normal schools is a comparative innovation1 one reason for the non-existence of such courses in the past being the lack of a suitable text-book1 in which might be found in related groups clear and accurate definitions of the really essential terms4 ,but with the constantly increasing interest in music study 7both private and in the public schools71 and with the present persistent demand that music teaching shall become more systematic and therefore more efficient in turning out a more intelligent class of pupils1 it has become increasingly necessary to establish courses in which the prospective teacher of music 7after having had considerable experience with music itself7 might acquire a concise and accurate knowledge of a fairly large number of terms1 most of which he has probably already encountered as a student1 and many of which he knows the general meaning of1 but none of which he perhaps knows accurately enough to enable him to impart his knowledge clearly and economically to others4 ,to meet the need of a text-book for this purpose in his own classes the author has been for several years gathering material from all available sources1 and it is hoped that the arrangement of this material in related groups as here presented will serve to give the student not only some insight into the present meaning of a goodly number of terms1 but will also enable him to see more clearly why certain terms have the meaning which at present attaches to them4 ,to this latter end the derivations of many of the terms are given in connection with their definition4 ,the aim has not been to present an exhaustive list1 and the selection of terms has of course been influenced largely by the author's own individual experience1 hence many teachers will probably feel that important terms have been omitted that should have been included4 ,for this state of affairs no apology is offered except that it would probably be impossible to write a book on this subject which would satisfy everyone in either the selection or actual definition of terms4 ,in formulating the definitions themselves an attempt has been made to use such words as note1 tone1 et cetera with at least a fair degree of accuracy1 and while the attitude of the author on this point may be criticized as being puristic and pedantic1 it is nevertheless his opinion that the next generation of music students and teachers will be profited by a more accurate use of certain terms that have been inaccurately used for so long that the present generation has to a large extent lost sight of the fact that the use is inaccurate4 ,the author is well aware of the fact that reform is a matter of growth rather than of edict1 but he is also of the belief that before reform can actually begin to come1 the need of reform must be felt by a fairly large number of actively interested persons4 ,it is precisely because so few musicians realize the need of any change in music terminology that the changes recommended by committees who have given the matter careful thought are so slow in being adopted4 ,it is hoped that some few points at which reform in the terminology of music is necessary may be brought to the attention of a few additional musicians thru this volume1 and that the cause may thus be helped in some slight degree4 ,it is suggested that in using the book for class-room purposes the teacher emphasize not only the definition and derivation of all terms studied1 but the spelling and pronunciation as well4 ,for this latter purpose a pronouncing index has been appended4 ,it is impossible to give credit to all sources from which ideas have been drawn1 but especial mention should be made of the eminently clear and beautifully worded definitions compiled by ,professor ,waldo ,s4 ,pratt or the ,century ,dictionary1 and the exceedingly valuable articles on an almost all-inclusive range of topics found in the new edition of ,grove's ,dictionary4 ,especial thanks for valuable suggestions as to the arrangement of the material1 etc41 are also due to ,dr4 ,raymond ,h4 ,stetson1 ,professor of ,psychology1 ,oberlin ,college2 ,arthur ,e4 ,heacox1 ,professor of ,theory1 ,oberlin ,conservatory of ,music2 and ,charles ,i4 ,rice1 ,supervisor of ,music1 ,worcester1 ,mass41 as well as to various members of the ,music ,teachers' ,national ,association who have offered valuable advice along certain specific lines4 ,k4,w4,g4 ,,oberlin ,,conservatory ,,of ,,music1 ,june1 #aiac ,,contents ,,chapter ,i4--,some ,principles of ,correct ,notation #a #a4 ,note4 #b1 #c4 ,rules for turning stems4 #d4 ,use of cross-stroke4 #e4 ,rest4 #f4 ,g ,clef4 #g4 ,f ,clef and ,c ,clef4 #h4 ,sharp and double-sharp4 #i4 ,flat1 double-flat and natural4 #aj4 ,tie4 #aa4 ,dot after a note4 ,,chapter ,,ii4--,symbols of ,music ,defined #e #ab4 ,staff and ,great ,staff4 #ac4 ,leger ,lines4 #ad4 ,staff degrees4 #ae4 ,clef4 #af4 ,treble and bass ,clefs4 #ag4 ,movable ,c ,clef4 #ah4 ,sharp4 #ai4 ,flat4 #bj4 ,double-sharp and double-flat4 ,,chapter ,,iii4--,symbols of ,music ,defined 7continued7 #h #ba4 ,natural #bb1 #bc4 ,key-signature2 how determine whether a major or minor key4 #bd1 #be4 ,accidentals2 with tie across bar4 #bf4 ,rules concerning altered staff degrees4 #bg4 ,enharmonic4 #bh4 ,notes2 pitch and length of tones4 #bi4 ,rests4 #cj4 ,lists of notes and rests4 #ca4 ,english names for4 #cb4 ,less common forms4 #cc4 ,whole rest1 peculiar use of4 #cd4 ,bar4 #ce4 ,double-bar4 ,,chapter ,,iv4--,abbreviations1 ,signs1 etc4 #ac #cf-dj4 ,signs for repetition4 #da4 ,continuation4 #db4 ,rest4 #dc4 ,pause4 #dd4 ,hold4 #de-dg4 ,alteration of ,pitch4 #dh4 ,octave names4 ,,chapter ,v4--,abbreviations1 ,signs1 etc4 7continued7 #ag #di-ea4 ,dots after notes4 #eb4 ,dots over or under notes4 #ec4 ,dash over note4 #ed4 ,tie4 #ee4 ,slur4 #ef4 ,slur or tie with dots4 #eg4 ,dash over note4 #eh4 ,dash and dot over note4 #ei4 ,accent marks4 #fj4 m4d41 m4g41 etc4 #fa4 ,arpeggio4 #fb4 ,messa di voce4 #fc4 ,violin bow signs4 ,,chapter ,,vi4--,embellishments #bb #fd4 ,definition and kinds4 #fe4 ,trill4 #ff-fh4 ,mordent4 #fi-gb4 ,turn4 #gc1 #gd4 ,appoggiatura4 #ge4 ,acciaccatura4 ,,chapter ,,vii4--,scales #bg #gf4 ,definition1 and old forms4 #gg4 ,origin4 #gh4 ,key4 #gi4 ,three general classes4 #hj4 ,diatonic1 defined4 #ha4 ,major diatonic4 #hb4 ,tetrachords4 #hc4 ,the fifteen positions4 ,,chapter ,,viii4--,scales 7continued7 #cc #hd4 ,minor diatonic4 #he4 ,original form4 #hf4 ,harmonic minor4 #hg4 ,melodic minor4 #hh4 ,eleven positions4 #hi4 ,relative minor4 #ij4 ,tonic minor4 #ia4 ,diatonic scale names4 #ib4 ,syllable-names4 #ic4 ,chromatic scale4 #id4 ,nine positions4 #ie4 ,whole-step scale4 ,,chapter ,,ix4--,auxiliary ,words and ,endings #db ,,chapter ,x4--,measure #dd #ig4 ,definition4--,two essential characteristics4 ,rhythm vers measure4 #ih4 ,syncopation4 #ii4 ,simple and compound measures4 #ajj4 ,commonest varieties4 #aja4 ,other varieties4 #ajb4 ,rare varieties4 #ajc4 ,the signs1 ,c and cut-time symbol4 ,,chapter ,,xi4--,tempo #dh #ajd4 ,misuses of the word time4 #aje-ajg4 ,how to correct these3 by substituting rhythm1 measure1 and tempo4 #ajh4 ,three ways of finding the correct tempo4 #aji4 ,a convenient grouping of tempo-terms4 ,,chapter ,,xii4--,tempo 7continued7 #eb #aaj-aai4 ,tempo-terms4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4--,dynamics #ef #abj-aca4 ,terms relating to dynamics4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4--,terms ,relating to ,forms and ,styles #fb #acb4 ,definition of form4 #acc4 ,basis of form4 #acd4 ,difference between form and style4 #ace4 ,introductory4 #acf4 ,two styles4 #acg4 ,monophonic music4 #ach4 ,polyphonic music4 #aci4 ,counterpoint4 #adj4 ,imitation4 #ada4 ,canon4 #adb4 ,school round4 #adc4 ,fugue4 ,,chapter ,,xv4--,terms ,relating to ,forms and ,styles 7continued7 #fg #add4 ,phrase-section4 #ade4 ,period4 ,antecedent4 ,consequent4 #adf4 ,primary forms4 #adg4 ,theme4 #adh4 ,thematic development4 #adi4 ,rondo4 #aej4 ,suite4 #aea4 ,dances in suite4 #aeb4 ,scherzo4 #aec4 ,sonata4 #aed4 ,trio4 ,quartet4 ,chamber ,music4 #aee4 ,concerto4 #aef4 ,symphony4 #aeg4 ,sonata-form4 #aeh4 ,sonatina4 ,grand ,sonata4 #aei4 ,program music4 #afj4 ,symphonic or tone poem4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4--,terms ,relating to ,vocal ,music #gf #afa4 ,anthem4 #afb4 ,a capella4 #afc4 ,motet4 #afd4 ,choral4 #afe4 ,mass4 #aff4 ,cantata4 #afg4 ,oratorio4 #afh4 ,opera4 #afi4 ,libretto4 #agj4 ,recitative4 #aga4 ,aria4 #agb4 ,lied4 #agc4 ,ballad4 #agd4 ,folk-song4 #age4 ,madrigal4 #agf4 ,glee4 #agg4 ,part-song4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4--,rhythm1 ,melody1 ,harmony and ,intervals #hb #agh4 ,the four elements of music4 #agi4 ,rhythm4 #ahj4 ,melody4 #aha4 ,harmony4 #ahb4 ,timbre4 #ahc4 ,interval--harmonic and melodic4 #ahd4 ,number name and specific name4 #ahe4 ,prime4 #ahf4 ,second4 #ahg4 ,third4 #ahh4 ,fourth4 #ahi4 ,fifth4 #aij4 ,sixth4 #aia4 ,seventh4 #aib4 ,octave4 #aic4 ,ninth4 #aid4 ,major1 minor1 perfect1 diminished and augmented intervals4 #aie4 ,inverted intervals4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4--,chords1 ,cadences1 etc4 #hg #aif4 ,chord4 ,triad4 ,root4 #aig4 ,major1 minor1 diminished1 augmented triads4 #aih4 ,the ,common chords4 #aii4 ,fundamental position4 ,first inversion4 ,second inversion4 #bjj4 ,figured bass4 #bja4 ,seventh-chord4 ,ninth chord4 #bjb4 ,cadence4 #bjc4 ,authentic cadence4 #bjd4 ,perfect authentic4 ,imperfect authentic4 #bje4 ,plagal cadence4 #bjf4 ,half-cadence4 #bjg4 ,deceptive cadence4 #bjh4 ,sequence4 #bji4 ,modulation1 harmonic and melodic3 ,dominant ,seventh4 #baj4 ,suspension4 #baa4 ,retardation4 #bab4 ,anticipation4 #bac4 ,pedal point4 #bad4 ,close and open position4 #bae4 ,transposition4 ,,chapter ,,xix4--,miscellaneous ,terms #ie ,,chapter ,,xx4--,miscellaneous ,terms 7continued7 #ih ,,appendix ,a4--,the ,history of ,music ,notation #aja ,,appendix ,b4--,musical ,instruments #aab #a4 ,two classes4 #b4 ,piano4 #c1 #d4 ,organ1 reed and pipe4 #e4 ,instruments used for ensemble playing4 #f4 ,band4 #g4 ,orchestra4 #h4 ,the stringed instruments4 #i4 ,wood-wind4 #aj4 ,brass4 #aa4 ,percussion4 #ab4 ,proportion of instruments1 in an orchestra4 #ac4 ,books recommended4 #ad4 ,violin4 #ae4 ,viola4 #af4 ,violoncello4 #ag4 ,double-bass4 #ah4 ,flute4 #ai4 ,piccolo4 #bj4 ,oboe family4 #ba4 ,clarinet and bass clarinet2 saxophone4 #bb4 ,french horn4 #bc4 ,trumpet4 #bd4 ,cornet4 #be4 ,trombone4 #bf4 ,tuba4 #bg4 ,kettle-drum4 #bh4 ,harp4 ,,appendix ,c4--,acoustics #aca #a4 ,definition4 #b4 ,sound1 production of4 #c4 ,sound1 transmission of4 #d4 ,rate of travel4 #e4 ,intensification of4 #f4 ,classification of4 #g4 ,tones1 properties of4 #h4 ,pitch4 #i4 ,intensity4 #aj4 ,quality4 #aa4 ,overtones4 #ab4 ,equal temperament4 #ac4 ,standards of pitch4 ,,appendix ,d4--,terminology ,reform #aci ,,appendix ,e4--,analysis of ,beethoven ,sonata1 ,op4 #ca1 ,no4 #c #adi ,,pronouncing ,,index #aei ,,chapter ,i ,,some ,,principles ,,of ,,correct ,,notation #a4 ,the note 7from nota--,latin--a mark or sign7 consists of either one1 two1 or three parts1 7,illustration7 these being referred to respectively as head1 stem1 and hook4 ,the hook is often called tail or cross-stroke4 ,the stem appears on the right side of the head when turned up1 but on the left side when turned down4#a ,illustration ,the hook is always on the right side4#b ,illustration ,footnote #a3 ,it should be noted at the outset that this statement regarding the down-turned stem on the left side of the note-head1 and also a number of similar principles here cited1 refer more specifically to music as it appears on the printed page4 ,in the case of hand-copied music the down-turned stem appears on the right side of the note1 thus note symbol4 ,this is done because of greater facility in writing1 and for the same reason other slight modifications of the notation here recommended may sometimes be encountered4 ,in dealing with children it is best usually to follow as closely as possible the principles according to which printed music is notated1 in order to avoid those non-satisfying and often embarrassing explanations of differences which will otherwise be unavoidable4 ,footnote #b3 ,an exception to this rule occurs in the case of notes of unequal value stroked together1 when the hook appears on the left side1 thus ,illustration4 ,in writing music with pen the head and hook are best made with a heavy pressure on the pen point1 but in writing at the board they are most easily made by using a piece of chalk about an inch long1 turned on its side4 #b4 ,when only one part 7or voice7 is written on the staff1 the following rules for turning stems apply3 7#a7 ,if the note-head is below the third line1 the stem must turn up4 7#b7 ,if the note-head is above the third line the stem must turn down4 7#c7 ,if the note-head is on the third line the stem is turned either up or down with due regard to the symmetrical appearance of the measure in which the note occurs4 ,the following examples will illustrate these points4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 #c4 ,when two parts are written on the same staff1 the stems of the upper part all turn up1 and those of the lower part turn down1 in order that the parts may be clearly distinguished4 7,fig4 #b47 ,but in music for piano and other instruments on which complete chords can be sounded by one performer and also in simple1 four-part vocal music in which all voices have approximately the same rhythm1 several notes often have one stem in common as in ,fig4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 #d4 ,notes of small denomination 7eighths and smaller7 are often written in groups of two or more1 all stems in the group being then connected by one cross-stroke4 ,in such a case all the stems must of course be turned the same way1 the direction being determined by the position of the majority of note-heads in the group4 ,notes thus stroked may be of the same or of different denomination4 ,see ,fig4 #d4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,in vocal music notes are never thus stroked when a syllable is given to each note4 7,see p4 #ai1 ,sec4 #ee1 ,c47 #e4 ,rests1 like notes1 are best made with a heavy pen stroke or by using a piece of chalk on its side4 7,see note under ,sec4 #a47 ,the double-whole rest1 whole rest1 and half rest occupy the third space unless for the sake of clearness in writing two parts on the same staff they are written higher or lower4 ,the rests of smaller denomination may be placed at any point on the staff1 the hooks being always placed on the spaces4 ,the hook of the eighth rest is usually placed on the third space4 ,rests are sometimes dotted1 but are never tied4 #f4 ,the ,g clef should be begun at the second line rather than below the staff4 ,experiments have shown clearly that beginners learn to make it most easily in this way1 and the process may be further simplified by dividing it into two parts1 thus1 ,illustration4 ,the descending stroke crosses the ascending curve at or near the fourth line4 ,the circular part of the curve occupies approximately the first and second spaces4 #g4 ,the ,f clef is made either thus1 bass clef symbol1 or thus1 old bass clef symbol1 the dots being placed one on either side of the fourth line of the staff1 which is the particular point that the clef marks4 ,the ,c clef has also two forms1 ,c clef symbol and tenor clef symbol4 #h4 ,the sharp is made with two light vertical strokes1 and two heavy slanting ones1 the slant of the latter being upward from left to right1 sharp4 ,the sharp should never be made thus1 ,illustration4 ,the double sharp is made either thus double-sharp symbol or old double-sharp symbol1 the first form being at present the more common4 #i4 ,the flat is best made by a down stroke retraced part way up1 the curve being made without lifting pen from paper4 ,the double flat consists of two flats1#c flatflat4 ,the natural or cancel is made in two strokes1 down-right and right-down1 thus ,illustration4 ,footnote #c3 ,it is to be hoped that the figure for the double-flat suggested by ,mattheson 7who also suggested the ,st4 ,andrew's cross 7symbol7 for the double-sharp7 may some time be readopted4 ,this figure was the ,greek letter ,b1 made thus1 ,greek3 b1 and its use would make our notation one degree more uniform than it is at present4 #aj4 ,the tie usually connects the heads of notes1 thus tie symbol4 #aa4 ,the dot after a note always appears on a space1 whether the note-head is on a line or space4 7,see ,fig4 #e47 ,in the case of a dot after a note on a line1 the dot usually appears on the space above that line if the next note is higher in position and on the space below it if the following note is lower4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,note4--,correct notation must be made a habit rather than a theory1 and in order to form the habit of writing correctly1 drill is necessary4 ,this may perhaps be best secured by asking students to write 7at the board or on ruled paper7 from verbal dictation1 thus3 ,teacher says1 ,key of ,bflat1 three-quarter measure3 ,first measure1 ,,do a quarter note1 ,,re a quarter1 and ,,mi a quarter4 ,second measure1 ,,sol a quarter1 ,,la a quarter1 and ,,sol a quarter4 ,third measure1 ,,la1 ,,ti1 ,,do1 ,,re1 ,,mi1 eighths1 stroked in pairs4 ,fourth measure1 high ,,do a dotted half4 ,pupils respond by writing the exercise dictated1 after which mistakes in the turning of stems1 etc41 are corrected4 ,the pitch names may be dictated instead of the syllables if desired1 and still further practice may be provided by asking that the exercise be transposed to other keys4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,symbols ,,of ,,music ,,defined #ab4 ,a staff is a collection of parallel lines1 together with the spaces belonging to them4 ,the modern staff has five lines and six spaces1 these being ordinarily referred to as first line1 second line1 third line1 fourth line1 and fifth line 7beginning with the lowest72 and space below 7i4e41 space below the first line71 first space1 second space1 third space1 fourth space1 and space above4 ,the definition and discussion above refer more specifically to one of the portions of the great staff1 the latter term being often applied to the combination of treble and bass staffs 7with one leger line between7 so commonly used in piano music1 etc4 #ac4 ,the extent of the staff may be increased either above or below by the addition of short lines called leger lines1#d and notes may be written on either these lines or on the spaces above and below them4 ,footnote #d3 ,the word leger is derived from the ,french word ,,leger1 meaning light1 and this use of the word refers to the fact that the leger lines1 being added by hand1 are lighter--i4e41 less solid in color--than the printed lines of the staff itself4 #ad4 ,the lines and spaces constituting the staff 7including leger lines if any7 are often referred to as staff degrees1 i4e41 each separate line and space is considered to be a degree of the staff4 ,the tones of a scale are also sometimes referred to as degrees of the scale4 #ae4 ,a clef#e is a sign placed on the staff to designate what pitches are to be represented by its lines and spaces4 ,thus1 e4g41 the ,g clef shows us not only that the second line of the staff represents ,g1 but that the first line represents ,e1 the first space ,f1 etc4 ,the ,f clef similarly shows us that the fifth line of the bass staff represents the first ,a below middle ,c1 the fourth line the first ,f below middle ,c1 etc4 ,footnote #e3 ,the word clef is derived from ,,clavis--a key--the reference being to the fact that the clef unlocks or makes clear the meaning of the staff1 as a key to a puzzle enables us to solve the puzzle4 ,the student should note that these clefs are merely modified forms of the letters ,g and ,f1 which 7among others7 were used to designate the pitches represented by certain lines when staff notation was first inaugurated4 ,for a fuller discussion of this matter see ,appendix ,a1 p4 #aja4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,corrected error ,appendix ,i in original4 #af4 ,when the ,g clef is used the staff is usually referred to as the treble staff1 and when the ,f clef is used1 as the bass staff4 ,such expressions as singing from the treble clef1 or singing in the treble clef1 and singing in the bass clef are still frequently heard1 but are preferably replaced by singing from the treble staff1 and singing from the bass staff4 ,fig4 #f shows the permanent names of lines and spaces when the ,g and ,f clefs are used4#f ,footnote #f3 ,the ,germans use the same pitch designations as we do with two exceptions1 viz41 our ,b is called by them ,h1 and our ,bflat is called ,b4 ,the scale of ,c therefore reads3 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,g1 ,a1 ,h1 ,c2 the scale of ,f reads ,f1 ,g1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f4 ,the signatures are in all cases written exactly as we write them4 ,in ,france and ,italy where the fixed ,,do system is in vogue1 pitches are usually referred to by the syllable names2 e4g41 ,c is referred to as ,,do 7or ,,ut71 ,d as ,,re1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 #ag4 ,the movable ,c clef ,c clef symbol or tenor clef symbol1 formerly in very common use1 is now utilized for only two purposes1 viz41 7#a7 in music written for certain orchestral instruments 7cello1 viola1 etc47 of extended range1 in order to avoid having to use too many leger lines2 and 7#b7 for indicating the tenor part in vocal music4 ,this latter usage seems also to be disappearing however1 and the tenor part is commonly written on the treble staff1 it being understood that the tones are to be sung an octave lower than the notes would indicate4 ,the ,c clef as used in its various positions is shown in ,figs4 #g1 #h1 and #i4 ,it will be noted that in each case the line on which the clef is placed represents middle ,c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,soprano clef4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,alto clef4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,tenor clef4 #ah4 ,a sharp is a character which causes the degree of the staff with which it is associated to represent a pitch one half-step higher than it otherwise would4 ,thus in ,fig4 #aj 7a7 the fifth line and first space represent the pitch ,f1 but in ,fig4 #aj 7b7 these same staff degrees represent an entirely different tone--,fsharp4 ,the student should note that the sharp does not then raise anything2 it merely causes a staff degree to represent a higher tone than it otherwise would4 ,there is just as much difference between ,f and ,fsharp as between ,b and ,c1 and yet one would never think of referring to ,c as ,b raised6 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 #ai4 ,a flat is a character that causes the degree of the staff with which it is associated to represent a tone one half-step lower than it otherwise would4 7,see note under ,sec4 #ah and apply the same discussion here47 #bj4 ,a double-sharp causes the staff degree on which it is placed to represent a pitch one whole-step higher than it would without any sharp4 ,similarly1 a double-flat causes the staff degree on which it is placed to represent a pitch one whole-step lower than it would without any flat4 ,double-sharps and double-flats are generally used on staff degrees that have already been sharped or flatted1 therefore their practical effect is to cause staff degrees to represent pitches respectively a half-step higher and a half-step lower than would be represented by those same degrees in their diatonic condition4 ,thus in ,fig4 #aj 7b7 the first space in its diatonic condition#g represents ,f-sharp1 and the double-sharp on this degree would cause it to represent a pitch one-half step higher than ,f-sharp1 i4e41 ,f-double-sharp4 ,footnote #g3 ,the expression diatonic condition as here used refers to the staff after the signature has been placed upon it1 in other words after the staff has been prepared to represent the pitches of the diatonic scale4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,symbols ,,of ,,music ,,defined 7,continued7 #ba4 ,the natural#h 7sometimes called cancel7 annuls the effect of previous sharps1 flats1 double-sharps1 and double-flats1 within the measure in which it occurs4 ,after a double-sharp or double-flat the combination of a natural with a sharp1 or a natural with a flat is often found3 in this case only one sharp or flat is annulled4 7,sometimes also the single sharp or flat will be found by itself1 cancelling the double-sharp or double-flat74 ,the natural is often used when a composition changes key1 as in ,fig4 #aa1 where a change from ,e to ,g is shown4 ,footnote #h3 ,it has already been noted 7p4 #f1 ,note7 that in the ,german scale our b-flat is called b1 and our b is called ,h4 ,from this difference in terminology has grown up the custom of using the ,h 7now made natural7 to show that any staff-degree is in natural condition1 i4e41 not sharped or flatted4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 #bb4 ,the group of sharps or flats 7or absence of them7 at the beginning of a staff partially indicates the key in which the composition is written4 ,they are called collectively the key-signature4 #bc4 ,the same key-signature may stand for either one of two keys1 the major key1 or its relative minor1 hence in order to determine in what key a melody is one must note whether the tones are grouped about the major tonic ,,do or the minor tonic ,,la4 ,in a harmonized composition it is almost always possible to determine the key by referring to the last bass note2 if the final chord is clearly the ,,do chord the composition is in the major key1 but if this final chord is clearly the ,,la chord then it is almost certain that the entire composition is in the minor key4 ,thus if a final chord appears as that in ,fig4 #ab the composition is clearly in ,g major1 while if it appears as in ,fig4 #ac1 it is just as surely in ,e minor4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 #bd4 ,sharps1 flats1 naturals1 double-sharps and double-flats1 occurring in the course of the composition 7i4e41 after the key signature7 are called accidentals1 whether they actually cause a staff degree to represent a different pitch as in ,fig4 #ad or simply make clear a notation about which there might otherwise be some doubt as in ,fig4 #ae1 measure two4 ,the effect of such accidentals terminates at the bar4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 #be4 ,in the case of a tie across a bar an accidental remains in force until the combined value of the tied notes expires4 ,in ,fig4 #af first measure1 third beat1 an accidental sharp makes the third space represent the pitch ,c sharp4 ,by virtue of the tie across the bar the third space continues to represent ,c sharp thru the first beat of the second measure1 but for the remainder of the measure the third space will represent ,c unless the sharp is repeated as in ,fig4 #ag4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 #bf4 ,the following rules for making staff degrees represent pitches different from those of the diatonic scale will be found useful by the beginner in the study of music notation4 ,these rules are quoted from ,the ,worcester ,musical ,manual1 by ,charles ,i4 ,rice4 #a4 ,to sharp a natural degree1 use a sharp4 ,fig4 #ah4 #b4 ,to sharp a sharped degree1 use a double sharp4 ,fig4 #ai4 #c4 ,to sharp a flatted degree1 use a natural4 ,fig4 #bj4 #d4 ,to flat a natural degree1 use a flat4 ,fig4 #ba4 #e4 ,to flat a flatted degree1 use a double flat4 ,fig4 #bb4 #f4 ,to flat a sharped degree1 use a natural4 ,fig4 #bc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 #bg4 ,when two different notations represent the same pitch1 the word enharmonic is applied4 ,thus we may say that ,f sharp and ,g flat 7on keyboard instruments at least7 are enharmonically the same4 ,this word enharmonic is used in such expressions as enharmonic change1 enharmonic keys1 enharmonic interval1 enharmonic modulation1 enharmonic relation1 etc41 and in all such combinations it has the same meaning1 viz4--a change in notation but no change in the pitch represented4 #bh4 ,a note is a character expressing relative duration1 which when placed on a staff indicates that a certain tone is to be sounded for a certain relative length of time4 ,the pitch of the tone to be sounded is shown by the position of the note on the staff1 while the length of time it is to be prolonged is shown by the shape of the note4 ,thus e4g41 a half-note on the second line of the treble staff indicates that a specific pitch 7g'7 is to be played or sung for a period of time twice as long as would be indicated by a quarter-note in the same composition4 #bi4 ,a rest is a character which indicates a rhythmic silence of a certain relative length4 #cj4 ,the notes and rests in common use are as follows3 symbol ,whole-note4 ,an open note-head without stem4 symbol ,half-note4 ,an open note-head with stem4 symbol ,quarter-note4 ,a closed note-head with stem4 symbol ,eighth-note4 ,a closed note-head with stem and one hook4 symbol ,sixteenth-note4 ,a closed note-head with stem and two hooks4 symbol ,thirty-second-note4 ,a closed note-head with stem and three hooks4 symbol ,whole-rest4 symbol ,half-rest4 symbol ,quarter-rest4 symbol ,eighth-rest4 symbol ,sixteenth-rest4 symbol ,thirty-second-rest4 #ca4 ,the ,english names for these notes are3 ,whole-note--semi-breve4 ,half-note--minim4 ,quarter-note--crotchet4 ,eighth-note--quaver4 ,sixteenth-note--semi-quaver4 ,thirty-second-note--demi-semi-quaver4 ,the corresponding rests are referred to by the same system of nomenclature3 e4g41 semi-breve rest1 etc4 #cb4 ,sixty-fourth and one-hundred-and-twenty-eighth-notes are occasionally found1 but are not in common use4 ,the double-whole-note 7breve71 made breve symbol or old breve symbol1 is still used1 especially in ,english music1 which frequently employs the half-note as the beat-unit4 ,thus in four-half measure the breve would be necessary to indicate a tone having four beats4 #cc4 ,the whole-rest has a peculiarity of usage not common to any of the other duration symbols1 viz41 that it is often employed as a measure-rest1 filling an entire measure of beats1 no matter what the measure-signature may be4 ,thus1 not only in four-quarter-measure1 but in two-quarter1 three-quarter1 six-eighth1 and other varieties1 the whole-rest fills the entire measure1 having a value sometimes greater1 sometimes less than the corresponding whole-note4 ,because of this peculiarity of usage the whole-rest is termed ,takt-pausa 7measure-rest7 by the ,germans4 #cd4 ,a bar is a vertical line across the staff1 dividing it into measures4 ,the word bar is often used synonymously with measure by orchestral conductors and others2 thus1 begin at the fourteenth bar after ,j4 ,this use of the word1 although popular1 is incorrect4 #ce4 ,a double-bar consists of two vertical lines across the staff1 at least one of the two being a heavy line4 ,the double bar marks the end of a division1 movement1 or entire composition4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,abbreviations1 ,,signs1 ,,etc4 #cf4 ,a double bar 7or single heavy bar7 with either two or four dots indicates that a section is to be repeated4 ,if the repeat marks occur at only one point the entire preceding part is to be repeated1 but if the marks occur twice 7the first time at the right of the bar but the second time at the left71 only the section thus enclosed by the marks is to be repeated4 ,illustration #cg4 ,sometimes a different cadence 7or ending7 is to be used for the repetition1 and this is indicated as in ,fig4 #bd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 #ch4 ,the ,italian word bis is occasionally used to indicate that a certain passage or section is to be repeated4 ,this use is becoming obsolete4 #ci4 ,the words da capo 7,d4,c47 mean literally from the head1 i4e41 repeat from the beginning4 ,the words dal segno 7,d4,s47 indicate a repetition from the sign 7segno symbol or segno symbol7 instead of from the beginning4 ,in the case of both ,d4,c4 and ,d4,s4 the word fine 7meaning literally the end7 is ordinarily used to designate the point at which the repeated section is to terminate4 ,the fermata 7fermata symbol7 was formerly in common use for this same purpose1 but is seldom so employed at present4 ,d4,c4 7sin#i7 al fine means--repeat from the beginning to the word fine4 ,footnote #i3 ,the word sin is a contraction of the ,italian word sino1 meaning as far as or until2 in the term given above 7,sec4 #ci7 it is really superfluous as the word al includes in itself both preposition and article1 meaning to the4 ,d4,c4 al fermata symbol means--repeat to the fermata 7or hold74 ,d4,c4 senza repetizione1 or ,d4,c4 ma senza repetizione1 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,corrected misspelling repetitione both mean--repeat from the beginning1 but without observing other repeat marks during the repetition4 ,d4,c4 e poi la coda means--repeat the first section only to the mark coda symbol1 then skip to the coda4 7,see p4 #gd1 ,sec4 #aeg1 for discussion of coda74 #dj4 ,in certain cases where the repetition of characteristic figures can be indicated without causing confusion1 it is the practice of composers 7especially in orchestral music7 to make use of certain signs of repetition4 ,some of the commonest of these abbreviations are shown in the following examples4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,in ,fig4 #bh the repetition of an entire measure is called for4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 #da4 ,the word simile ,transcriber's ,note3 ,corrected error similie 7sometimes segue7 indicates that a certain effect previously begun is to be continued1 as e4g41 staccato playing1 pedalling1 style of bowing in violin music1 etc4 ,the word segue is also occasionally used to show that an accompaniment figure 7especially in orchestral music7 is to be continued4 #db4 ,when some part is to rest for two or more measures several methods of notation are possible4 ,a rest of two measures is usually indicated thus ,illustration4 ,three measures thus ,illustration4 ,four measures thus ,illustration4 ,rests of more than four measures are usually indicated in one of the following ways3 ,illustration4 ,sometimes the number of measures is written directly on the staff1 thus2 ,illustration4 #dc4 ,the letters ,g4,p4 7general pause1 or grosse pause71 the words lunga pausa1 or simply the word lunga1 are sometimes written over a rest to show that there is to be a prolonged pause or rest in all parts4 ,such expressions are found only in ensemble music1 i4e41 music in which several performers are engaged at the same time4 #dd4 ,the fermata or hold fermata symbol over a note or chord indicates that the tone is to be prolonged1 the duration of the prolongation depending upon the character of the music and the taste of the performer or conductor4 ,it has already been noted that the hold over a bar was formerly used to designate the end of the composition1 as the word fine is employed at present1 but this usage has practically disappeared and the hold over the bar now usually indicates a short rest between two sections of a composition4 #de4 ,the sign #hva444444 7an abbreviation of all'ottava1 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,corrected error al ottava in original4 literally at the octave7 above the staff1 indicates that all tones are to be sounded an octave higher than the notes would indicate4 ,when found below the staff the same sign serves to indicate that the tones are to be sounded an octave lower4 ,the term #hva bassa has also this latter signification4 #df4 ,sometimes the word loco 7in place7 is used to show that the part is no longer to be sounded an octave higher 7or lower71 but this is more often indicated by the termination of the dotted 7or wavy7 line4 #dg4 ,the sign ,col #h 7coll'ottava--with the octave7 shows that the tones an octave higher or lower are to be sounded with the tones indicated by the printed notes4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,corrected error col ottava in original4 #dh4 ,for the sake of definiteness in referring to pitches1 a particular name is applied to each octave1 and all pitches in the octave are referred to by means of a uniform nomenclature4 ,the following figure will make this system clear3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,thus e4g41 great ,g 7written simply ,g71 is the ,g represented by the first line of the bass staff4 ,small ,a 7written a71 is represented by the fifth line of the bass staff4 ,two-lined ,g1 7written #b-lined g symbol71 is represented by the space above the fifth line1 treble staff4 ,three-lined ,c1 7written #c-lined c symbol71 is represented by the second added line above the treble staff1 etc4 ,the one-lined octave may be described as the octave from middle ,c to the ,b represented by the third line of the treble staff1 and any tone within that octave is referred to as one-lined4 ,thus--one-lined ,d1 one-lined ,g1 etc4 ,in scientific works on acoustics1 etc41 the pitches in the sub octave 7or sub-contra octave as it is often called7 are referred to as ,c#b1 ,d#b1 ,e#b1 etc42 those in the contra octave as ,c#a1 ,d#a1 etc42 in the great octave1 as c#a1 d#a1 etc42 in the small octave as c#b1 d#b1 etc4 ,,chapter ,v ,,abbreviations1 ,,signs1 ,,etc41 7,continued7 #di4 ,a dot after a note shows that the value of the note is to be half again as great as it would be without the dot1 i4e41 the value is to be three-halves that of the original note4 ,illustration #ej4 ,when two dots follow the note the second dot adds half as much as the first dot has added1 i4e41 the entire value is seven-fourths that of the original note4 ,illustration #ea4 ,when three dots follow the note the third dot adds one-half the value added by the second1 i4e41 the entire value of the triple-dotted note is fifteen-eighths that of the original note4 ,illustration #eb4 ,a dot over or under a note is called the staccato mark and indicates that the tone is to be sounded and then instantly released4 ,illustration ,in music for organ and for some other instruments the staccato note is sometimes interpreted differently1 this depending on the character of the instrument4 ,on stringed instruments of the violin family the staccato effect is usually secured by a long1 rapid stroke of the bow for each tone2 in the case of harp and drum the hand is quickly brought in contact with the vibrating body1 thus stopping the tone instantly4 ,on the organ the tone is often prolonged to one-half the value of the printed note before the keys are released4 #ec4 ,the wedge-shaped dash over the note 7staccatissimo7 was formerly employed to indicate a tone still more detached than that indicated by the dot1 but this sign is really superfluous1 and is seldom used at present4 ,illustration #ed4 ,a tie is a curved line connecting the heads of two notes that call for the same tone4 ,it indicates that they are to be sounded as one tone having a duration equal to the combined value of both notes4 ,e4g41 a half-note tied to a quarter-note would indicate a tone equal in duration-length to that shown by a dotted half-note2 two half-notes tied would indicate a tone equal in duration to that shown by a whole-note4 7,see examples under ,sections #di1 #ej1 and #ea74 ,fig4 #cj illustrates the more common variety of tie1 while ,fig4 #ca shows an example of the enharmonic#aj tie4 ,footnote #aj3 ,for definition of enharmonic see p4 #aj1 ,sec4 #bg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 #ee4 ,the slur is used in so many different ways that it is impossible to give a general definition4 ,it consists of a curved line1 sometimes very short 7in which case it looks like the tie71 but sometimes very long1 connecting ten1 fifteen1 or more notes4 ,some of the more common uses of the slur are3 ,a4 ,to indicate legato 7sustained or connected7 tones1 as contrasted with staccato 7detached7 ones4 ,in violin music this implies playing all tones thus slurred in one bow2 in music for the voice and for wind instruments it implies singing or playing them in one breath4 ,b4 ,as a phrase-mark1 in the interpretation of which the first tone of the phrase is often accented slightly1 and the last one shortened in value4 ,this interpretation of the phrase is especially common when the phrase is short 7as in the two-note phrase71 and when the tones constituting the phrase are of short duration1 e4g41 the phrase given in ,fig4 #cb would be played approximately as written in ,fig4 #cc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,but if the notes are of greater value1 especially in slow tempi1 the slur merely indicates legato1 i4e41 sustained or connected rendition4 ,fig4 #cd illustrates such a case4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,this is a matter of such diverse usage that it is difficult to generalize regarding it4 ,the tendency seems at present to be in the direction of using the slur 7in instrumental music7 as a phrase-mark exclusively1 it being understood that unless there is some direction to the contrary1 the tones are to be performed in a connected manner4 ,c4 ,in vocal music1 to show that two or more tones are to be sung to one syllable of text4 ,see ,fig4 #ce4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,,mendelssohn 7,s4 ,paul7 re-mem-bers ,his chil-dren4 ,in notes of small denomination 7eighths and smaller7 this same thing is often indicated by stroking the stems together as in ,fig4 #cf4 ,this can only be done in cases where the natural grouping of notes in the measure will not be destroyed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ev-er and ev-er1 for ev-er and ,d4 ,to mark special note-groups 7triplets1 etc471 in which case the slur is accompanied by a figure indicating the number of notes in the group4 ,see ,fig4 #cg 7a7 ,the most common of these irregular note-groups is the triplet1 which consists of three notes to be performed in the time ordinarily given to two of the same value4 ,sometimes the triplet consists of only two notes as in ,fig4 #cg 7b74 ,in such a case the first two of the three notes composing the triplet are considered to be tied4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,when the triplet form is perfectly obvious1 the ,fig4 #c 7as well as the slur7 may be omitted4 ,other examples of irregular note-groups1 together with the names commonly applied1 follow4 ,illustration3 ,doublet4 ,quintuplet or ,quintolet4 ,sextuplet or ,sextolet4 ,septolet or ,septimole4 #ef4 ,the combination of slur or tie and dots over the notes indicates that the tones are to be somewhat detached1 but not sharply so4 ,illustration ,this effect is sometimes erroneously termed portamento 7lit4 carrying71 but this term is more properly reserved for an entirely different effect1 viz41 when a singer1 or player on a stringed instrument1 passes from a high tone to a low one 7or vice versa7 touching lightly on some or all of the diatonic tones between the two melody tones4 #eg4 ,the horizontal dash over a note ,illustration indicates that the tone is to be slightly accented1 and sustained4 ,this mark is also sometimes used after a staccato passage to show that the tones are no longer to be performed in detached fashion1 but are to be sustained4 ,this latter use is especially common in music for stringed instruments4 #eh4 ,the combination of dash and dot over a note ,illustration indicates that the tone is to be slightly accented and separated from its neighboring tones4 #ei4 ,accent marks are made in a variety of fashions4 ,the most common forms follow4 horizontal accent symbol vertical accent symbol sf fz4 ,all indicate that a certain tone or chord is to be differentiated from its neighboring tones or chords by receiving a certain relative amount of stress4 #fj4 ,in music for keyboard instruments it is sometimes necessary to indicate that a certain part is to be played by a certain hand4 ,the abbreviations r4h4 7right hand71 m4d4 7mano destra1 ,it471 and m4d4 7main droite1 ,fr471 designate that a passage or tone is to be played with the right hand1 while l4h4 7left hand71 m4s4 7mano sinistra1 ,it471 and m4g4 7main gauche1 ,fr471 show that the left hand is to be employed4 #fa4 ,the wavy line placed vertically beside a chord ,illustration indicates that the tones are to be sounded consecutively instead of simultaneously1 beginning with the lowest tone1 all tones being sustained until the duration-value of the chord has expired4 ,this is called arpeggio playing4 ,when the wavy line extends through the entire chord 7covering both staffs7 as in ,fig4 #ch1 all the tones of the chord are to be played one after another1 beginning with the lowest3 but if there is a separate wavy line for each staff as at ,fig4 #ci then the lowest tone represented on the upper staff is to be played simultaneously with the lowest tone represented on the bass staff4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,the word arpeggio 7plural arpeggi7 is a derivation of the ,italian word arpa 7meaning harp71 and from this word arpa and its corresponding verb arpeggiare 7to play on the harp7 are derived also a number of other terms commonly used in instrumental music4 ,among these are--arpeggiamento1 arpeggiando1 arpeggiato1 etc41 all of these terms referring to a harp style of performance1 the tones being sounded one after another in rapid succession instead of simultaneously as on the piano4 #fb4 ,the sign crescendo-decrescendo symbol over a note indicates that the tone is to be begun softly1 gradually increased in power1 and as gradually decreased again1 ending as softly as it began4 ,in vocal music this effect is called messa di voce4 #fc4 ,in music for stringed instruments of the violin family1 the sign down-bow symbol indicates down-bow and the sign up-bow symbol up-bow4 ,in cello music the down-bow sign is sometimes written cello down-bow symbol4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,embellishments #fd4 ,embellishments 7or graces7 7,fr4 agrements7 are ornamental tones1 either represented in full in the score or indicated by certain signs4 ,the following are the embellishments most commonly found3 ,trill 7or shake71 mordent1 inverted mordent 7or prall trill71 turn 7gruppetto71 inverted turn1 appoggiatura and acciaccatura4 ,usage varies greatly in the interpretation of the signs representing these embellishments and it is impossible to give examples of all the different forms4 ,the following definitions represent therefore only the most commonly found examples and the most generally accepted interpretations4 #fe4 ,the trill 7or shake7 consists of the rapid alternation of two tones to the full value of the printed note4 ,the lower of these two tones is represented by the printed note1 while the upper one is the next higher tone in the diatonic scale of the key in which the composition is written4 ,the interval between the two tones may therefore be either a half-step or a whole-step4 ,whether the trill is to begin with the principal tone 7represented by the printed note7 or with the one above is a matter of some dispute among theorists and performers1 but it may safely be said that the majority of modern writers on the subject would have it begin on the principal tone rather than on the tone above4 ,fig4 #dj4 ,when the principal note is preceded by a small note on the degree above1 it is of course understood that the trill begins on the tone above4 ,fig4 #da4 ,the trill is indicated by the sign trill symbol4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,the above examples would be termed perfect trills because they close with a turn4 ,by inference1 an imperfect trill is one closing without a turn4 #ff4 ,the mordent mordent symbol consists of three tones2 first the one represented by the printed note2 second the one next below it in the diatonic scale2 third the one represented by the printed note again4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4 #fg4 ,the double 7or long7 mordent has five tones 7sometimes seven7 instead of three1 the first two of the three tones of the regular mordent being repeated once or more4 7,see ,fig4 #dc47 ,in the case of both mordent and double-mordent the tones are sounded as quickly as possible1 the time taken by the embellishment being subtracted from the value of the principal note as printed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 #fh4 ,the inverted mordent inverted mordent symbol 7note the absence of the vertical line7 is like the mordent except that the tone below is replaced by the tone above in each case4 ,this ornament is sometimes called a transient shake because it is really only a part of the more elaborate grace called trill4 7,see ,fig4 #dd47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,the confusion at present attending the interpretation of the last two embellishments described1 might be largely obviated if the suggestion of a recent writer#aa to call the one the upward mordent1 and the other the downward mordent were to be universally adopted4 ,footnote #aa3 ,elson--,dictionary of ,music1 article mordent4 #fi4 ,the turn consists of four tones2 first1 the diatonic scale-tone above the principal tone2 second1 the principal tone itself2 third1 the tone below the principal tone2 and fourth1 the principal tone again4 ,when the sign 7turn symbol or fancy turn symbol7 occurs over a note of small value in rapid tempo 7,fig4 #de7 the turn consists of four tones of equal value2 but if it occurs over a note of greater value1 or in a slow tempo1 the tones are usually played quickly 7like the mordent71 and the fourth tone is then held until the time-value of the note has expired4 7,fig4 #df47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 #gj4 ,when the turn-sign is placed a little to the right of the note the principal tone is sounded first and held to almost its full time-value1 then the turn is played just before the next tone of the melody4 ,in this case the four tones are of equal length as in the first example4 7,see ,fig4 #dg47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,the student should note the difference between these two effects2 in the case of a turn over the note the turn comes at the beginning1 but in the case of the sign after the note the turn comes at the very end4 ,but in both cases the time taken by the embellishment is taken from the time-value of the principal note4 ,for further details see ,grove's ,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians1 ,vol4 ,v1 p4 #ahd4 ,also ,elson1 op4 cit4 p4 #bgd4 #ga4 ,sometimes an accidental occurs with the turn1 and in this case when written above the sign it refers to the highest tone of the turn1 but when written below1 to the lowest 7,fig4 #dh74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4 #gb4 ,in the inverted turn the order of tones is reversed1 the lowest one coming first1 the principal tone next1 the highest tone third1 and the principal tone again1 last4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4 #gc4 ,the appoggiatura 7lit4 leaning note7 consists of an ornamental tone introduced before a tone of a melody1 thus delaying the melody tone until the ornamental tone has been heard4 ,the time taken for this ornamental tone is taken from that of the melody tone4 ,the appoggiatura was formerly classified into long appoggiatura and short appoggiatura1 but modern writers seem to consider the term short appoggiatura to be synonymous with acciaccatura#ab1 and to avoid confusion the word acciaccatura will be used in this sense1 and defined under its own heading4 ,footnote #ab3 ,in organ music the acciaccatura is still taken to mean that the embellishing tone and the melody tone are to be sounded together1 the former being then instantly released1 while the latter is held to its full time-value4 #gd4 ,three rules for the interpretation of the appoggiatura are commonly cited1 viz43 7#a7 ,when it is possible to divide the principal tone into halves1 then the appoggiatura receives one-half the value of the printed note4 7,fig4 #ej47 7#b7 ,when the principal note is dotted 7division into halves being therefore not possible71 the appoggiatura receives two-thirds of the value4 7,fig4 #ea47 7#c7 ,when the principal note is tied to a note of smaller denomination the appoggiatura receives the value of the first of the two notes4 7,fig4 #eb47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4 #ge4 ,the acciaccatura 7or short appoggiatura7 is written like the appoggiatura except that it has a light stroke across its stem4 ,illustration ,it has no definite duration-value1 but is sounded as quickly as possible1 taking its time from that of the principal tone4 ,the appoggiatura is always accented1 but the acciaccatura never is1 the stress always falling on the melody tone4 7,see ,grove1 op4 cit4 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #if47 ,the use of embellishments is on the wane1 and the student of to-day needs the above information only to aid him in the interpretation of music written in previous centuries4 ,in the early days of instrumental music it was necessary to introduce graces of all sorts because the instruments in use were not capable of sustaining tone for any length of time2 but with the advent of the modern piano with its comparatively great sustaining power1 and also with the advent in vocal music of a new style of singing 7,german ,lieder singing as contrasted with ,italian coloratura singing71 ornamental tones were used less and less1 and when found now are usually written out in full in the score instead of being indicated by signs4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,scales #gf4 ,a scale 7from scala1 a ,latin word meaning ladder2 ,ger4 ,ton-leiter7 is an ascending or descending series of tones1 progressing according to some definite system1 and all bearing 7in the case of tonality scales at least7 a very intimate relation to the first tone--the key-tone or tonic4 7,see p4 #bh1 ,sec4 #gh2 also note #a at bottom of p4 #ch47 ,many different kinds of scales have existed in various musical eras1 the point of resemblance among them all being the fact that they have all more or less recognized the octave as the natural limit of the series4 ,the difference among the various scales has been in the selection of intervals between the scale-tones1 and1 consequently1 in the number of tones within the octave4 ,thus e4g41 in our major scale the intervals between the tones are all whole-steps except two 7which are half-steps71 and the result is a scale of eight tones 7including in this number both the key-tone and its octave73 but in the so-called pentatonic scale of the ,chinese and other older civilizations we find larger intervals 7e4g41 the step-and-a-half71 and consequently a smaller number of tones within the octave4 ,thus in the scale upon which many of the older ,scotch folk songs are based the intervals are arranged as follows3 #a whole #b whole #c step-and- #d whole #e step-and- #f step step a-half step a-half ,the result is a scale of six tones1 corresponding approximately with ,c--,d--,e--,g--,a--,c in our modern system4 ,the term pentatonic is thus seen to be a misnomer since the sixth tone is necessary for the completion of the series1 just as the eighth tone is essential in our diatonic scales4 ,the following ,chinese tune 7called ,jasmine7 is based on the pentatonic scale4 ,illustration #gg4 ,in studying the theory of the scale the student should bear in mind the fact that a scale is not an arbitrary series of tones which some one has invented1 and which others are required to make use of4 ,it is rather the result of accustoming the ear to certain melodic combinations 7which were originally hit upon by accident71 and finally analyzing and systematizing these combinations into a certain definite order or arrangement4 ,the application of this idea may be verified when it is recalled that most primitive peoples have invented melodies of some sort1 but that only in modern times1 and particularly since the development of instrumental music1 have these melodies been analyzed1 and the scale upon which they have been based1 discovered1 the inventors of the melodies being themselves wholly ignorant of the existence of such scales4 #gh4 ,a key is a number of tones grouping themselves naturally 7both melodically and harmonically7 about a central tone--the key tone4 ,the word tonality is often used synonymously with key in this sense4 ,the difference between key and scale is therefore this1 that while both key and scale employ the same tone material1 by key we mean the material in general1 without any particular order or arrangement in mind1 while by scale we mean the same tones1 but now arranged into a regular ascending or descending series4 ,it should be noted in this connection also that not all scales present an equally good opportunity of having their tones used as a basis for tonality or key-feeling3 neither the chromatic nor the whole-step scale possess the necessary characteristics for being used as tonality scales in the same sense that our major and minor scales are so used4 #gi4 ,there are three general classes of scales extant at the present time1 viz43 7#a7 ,diatonic2 7#b7 ,chromatic2 7#c7 ,whole-tone4#ac ,footnote #ac3 ,if strictly logical terminology is to be insisted upon the whole-tone scale should be called the whole-step scale4 #hj4 ,the word diatonic means through the tones 7i4e41 through the tones of the key71 and is applied to both major and minor scales of our modern tonality system4 ,in general a diatonic scale may be defined as one which proceeds by half-steps and whole-steps4 ,there is1 however1 one exception to this principle1 viz41 in the progression six to seven in the harmonic minor scale1 which is of course a step-and-a-half4 7,see p4 #cc1 ,sec4 #hf47 #ha4 ,a major diatonic scale is one in which the intervals between the tones are arranged as follows3 #a whole #b whole #c half #d whole #e whole #f whole #g half #h step step step step step step step ,in other words1 a major diatonic scale is one in which the intervals between three and four1 and between seven and eight are half-steps1 all the others being whole-steps4 ,a composition based on this scale is said to be written in the major mode1 or in a major key4 ,the major diatonic scale may begin on any one of the twelve pitches ,c1 ,csharp or ,dflat1 ,d1 ,dsharp or ,eflat1 ,e1 ,f1 ,fsharp or ,gflat1 ,g1 ,gsharp or ,aflat1 ,a1 ,asharp or ,bflat1 ,b1 but in each case it is the same scale because the intervals between its tones are the same4 ,we have then one major scale only1 but this scale may be written in many different positions1 and may be sung or played beginning on any one of a number of different pitches4 #hb4 ,it is interesting to note that the major scale consists of two identical series of four tones each2 i4e41 the first four tones of the scale are separated from one another by exactly the same intervals and these intervals appear in exactly the same order as in the case of the last four tones of the scale4 ,fig4 #ec will make this clear4 ,the first four tones of any diatonic scale 7major or minor7 are often referred to as the lower tetrachord#ad and the upper four tones as the upper tetrachord4 ,footnote #ad3 ,the word tetrachord means literally four strings and refers to the primitive instrument1 the four strings of which were so tuned that the lowest and the highest tones produced were a perfect fourth apart4 ,with the ,greeks the tetrachord was the unit of analysis as the octave is with us to-day1 and all ,greek scales are capable of division into two tetrachords1 the arrangement of the intervals between the tones in each tetrachord differentiating one scale from another1 but the tetrachords themselves always consisting of groups of four tones1 the highest being a perfect fourth above the lowest4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,it is interesting further to note that the upper tetrachord of any sharp scale is always used without change as the lower tetrachord of the next major scale involving sharps1 while the lower tetrachord of any flat scale is used as the upper tetrachord of the next flat scale4 ,see ,figs4 #ed and #ee4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4 #hc4 ,from the standpoint of staff notation the major scale may be written in fifteen different positions1 as follows3 ,illustration ,it will be observed that in the above series of scales those beginning on ,fsharp and ,gflat call for the same keys on the piano1 i4e41 while the notation is different1 the actual tones of the scale are the same4 ,the scales of ,csharp and ,dflat likewise employ the same tones4 ,when two scales thus employ the same tones but differ in notation they are said to be enharmonic1 7cf4 p4 #ch1 ,sec4 #ic47 ,note4--,the student is advised to adopt some uniform method of writing scales1 preferably the one followed in those given above1 the necessary sharps and flats appearing before the notes in the scale and then repeated collectively at the end as a signature4 ,he is also advised to repeat these scales and signatures over and over until absolute familiarity is attained4 ,e4g41 ,e--,fsharp--,gsharp--,a--,b--,csharp--, dsharp--,e2 signature1 four sharps1 ,f1 ,c1 ,g1 and ,d4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,scales 7,continued7 #hd4 ,the minor diatonic scale is used in several slightly different forms1 but the characteristic interval between the first and third tones 7which differentiates it from the major scale7 remains the same in every case4 ,this interval between the first and third tones consists of four half-steps in the major scale and of three half-steps in the minor scale and this difference in size has given rise to the designation major for the scale having the larger third1 and minor for the scale having the smaller one4 #he4 ,the original 7or primitive7 form of the minor scale has its tones arranged as follows4 #a whole #b half #c whole #d whole #e half #f whole #g whole #h step step step step step step step ,as its name implies1 this is the oldest of the three forms 7being derived from the old ,greek ,aeolian scale71 but because of the absence of a leading tone it is suitable for the simplest one-part music only1 and is therefore little used at present4 #hf4 ,the harmonic minor scale is like the primitive form except that it substitutes a tone one half-step higher for the seventh tone of the older 7i4e41 the primitive7 form4 ,this change was made because the development of writing music in several parts 7particularly harmonic part-writing7 made necessary a leading tone1 i4e41 a tone with a strong tendency to move on up to the key-tone as a closing point4 ,in order to secure a tone with such a strongly upward tendency the interval between seven and eight had to be reduced in size to a half-step4 ,it should be noted that this change in the seventh tone of the scale caused an interval of a step-and-a-half between the sixth and seventh tones of the scale4 #a whole #b half #c whole #d whole #e half #f step and #g half #h step step step step step a half step #hg4 ,the melodic minor scale substitutes a tone one half-step higher than six as well as one a half-step higher than seven1 but this change is made in the ascending scale only1 the descending scale being like the primitive form4 ,the higher sixth 7commonly referred to as the raised sixth7 was used to get rid of the unmelodic interval of a step-and-a-half#ae 7augmented second71 while the return to the primitive form in descending is made because the ascending form is too much like the tonic major scale4 ,footnote #ae3 ,the step-and-a-half 7augmented second7 is unmelodic because it is the same size as a minor third and the mind finds it difficult to take in as a second 7notes representing it being on adjacent staff-degrees7 an interval of the same size as a third4 #a whole #b half #c whole #d whole #e whole #f whole #g half #h step step step step step step step #g whole #f half #e whole #d whole #c half #b whole #a step step step step step step ,this form is used only to a very limited extent1 and then principally in vocal music1 the harmonic form being in almost universal use in spite of the augmented second4 #hh4 ,the minor scale in its various positions 7up to five sharps and five flats7 and in all three forms follows3 a composition based on any one of these forms 7or upon a mixture of them1 which often occurs7 is said to be in the minor mode4 ,it will be noted that the first four tones are alike in all three forms2 i4e41 the lower tetrachord in the minor scale is invariable no matter1 what may happen to the upper tetrachord4 ,the sign marks the step-and-a-half4 ,illustration ,note4--,the student is advised to recite the harmonic form of the minor scale as was suggested in the case of the major scale1 noting that the raised seventh does not affect the key-signature4 ,e4g41--,e--,fsharp--,g--,a--,b--,c--,ds harp--,e2 signature1 one sharp1 ,f4 #hi4 ,a minor scale having the same signature as a major scale is said to be its relative minor4 ,e4g41--e is the relative minor of ,g1 c of ,eflat1 d of ,f1 etc41 the small letter being used to refer to the minor key or scale1 while the capital letter indicates the major key or scale unless accompanied by the word minor4 ,relative keys are therefore defined as those having the same signature4 ,g and e are relative keys1 as are also ,a and fsharp1 etc4 #ij4 ,a minor scale beginning with the same tone as a major scale is referred to as its tonic minor4 ,thus1 e4g41 c with three flats in its signature is the tonic minor of ,c with all degrees in natural condition2 e with one sharp is the tonic minor of ,e with four sharps1 etc4 ,tonic keys are therefore those having the same key-tone4 #ia4 ,the eight tones of the diatonic scale 7both major and minor7 are often referred to by specific names1 as follows3 #a4 ,tonic--the tone4 7,this refers to the fact that the tonic is the principal tone1 or generating tone of the key1 i4e41 it is the tone47 #b4 ,super-tonic--above the tone4 #c4 ,mediant--midway between tonic and dominant4 #d4 ,sub-dominant--the under dominant4 7,this name does not refer to the position of the tone under the dominant but to the fact that the fifth below the tonic is also a dominant tone--the under dominant--just as the fifth above is the upper dominant74 #e4 ,dominant--the governing tone4 7,from the ,latin word dominus meaning master47 #f4 ,super-dominant--above the dominant4 ,or ,sub-mediant--midway between tonic and sub-dominant4 #g4 ,leading tone--the tone which demands resolution to the tonic 7one-half step above it74 #h4 ,octave--the eighth tone4 #ib4 ,the syllables commonly applied to the various major and minor scales in teaching sight-singing are as follows3#af ,footnote #af3 ,these syllables are said to have been derived originally from the initial syllables of the ,hymn to ,saint ,john1 the music of which was a typical ,gregorian chant4 ,the application of these syllables to the scale tones will be made clear by reference to this hymn as given below4 ,it will be observed that this hymn provided syllables only for the six tones of the hexachord then recognized2 when the octave scale was adopted 7early in the sixteenth century7 the initial letters of the last line 7s and i7 were combined into a syllable for the seventh tone4 ,illustration3 ,ut que-ant lax-is ,re-so-na-re fi-bris ,mi-ra ges-to-rum ,fa-mu-li tu-o-rum ,sol-ve pol-lu-ti ,la-bi-i re-a-tum ,sanc-te ,jo-han-nes4 ,major--,,do1 ,,re1 ,,mi1 ,,fa1 ,,sol1 ,,la1 ,,ti1 ,,do4 ,minor#ag--original--,,la1 ,,ti1 ,,do1 ,,re1 ,,mi1 ,,fa1 ,,sol1 ,,la4 harmonic--,,la1 ,,ti1 ,,do1 ,,re1 ,,mi1 ,,fa1 ,,si1 ,,la4 melodic--,,la1 ,,ti1 ,,do1 ,,re1 ,,mi1 ,,fi1 ,,si1 ,,la1 ,,sol1 ,,fa1 ,,mi1 ,,re1 ,,do1 ,,ti1 ,,la4 ,footnote #ag3 ,a considerable number of teachers 7particularly those who did not learn to sing by syllable in childhood7 object to calling the tonic of the minor scale la1 insisting that both major and minor tonic should be called do4 ,according to this plan the syllables used in singing the harmonic minor scale would be3 ,,do1 ,,re1 ,,me1 ,,fa1 ,,sol1 ,,le1 ,,ti1 ,,do4 ,there is no particular basis for this theory1 for although all scales must of course begin with the key-tone or tonic1 this tonic may be referred to by any syllable which will serve as a basis for an association process enabling one to feel the force of the tone as a closing point--a home tone4 ,thus in the ,dorian mode the tonic would be ,,re1 in the ,phrygian1 ,,mi1 etc4 ,it is interesting to study the changes in both spelling and pronunciation that have occurred 7and are still occurring7 in these syllables4 ,the first one 7ut7 was changed to ,,do as early as the sixteenth century because of the difficulty of producing a good singing tone on ut4 ,for the same reason and also in order to avoid having two diatonic syllables with the same initial letter1 the tonic-sol-fa system 7invented in ,england about #ahab and systematized about #ahej7 changed ,,si to ,,ti and this change has been almost universally adopted by teachers of sight-singing in this country4 ,the more elaborate tonic-sol-fa spelling of the diatonic syllables 7,,doh1 ,,lah1 etc471 has not1 however1 been favorably received in this country and the tendency seems to be toward still further simplification rather than toward elaboration4 ,it is probable that further changes in both spelling and pronunciation will be made in the near future1 one such change that seems especially desirable being some other syllable than ,,re for the second tone of the major scale1 so that the present syllable may be reserved for flat-two1 thus providing a uniform vowel-sound for all intermediate tones of the descending chromatic scale1 as is already the case in the ascending form4 #ic4 ,the chromatic scale#ah is one which proceeds always by half-steps4 ,its intervals are therefore always equal no matter with what tone it begins4 ,since1 however1 we have 7from the standpoint of the piano keyboard7 five pairs of tones#ai which are enharmonically the same1 it may readily be seen that the chromatic scale might be notated in all sorts of fashions1 and this is in fact the real status of the matter1 there being no one method uniformly agreed upon by composers4 ,footnote #ah3 ,the student should differentiate between the so-called tonality scales like the major and minor1 the tones of which are actually used as a basis for key-feeling with the familiar experience of coming home to the tonic after a melodic or harmonic excursion1 and on the other hand the purely artificial and mechanical construction of the chromatic scale4 ,footnote #ai3 ,many other enharmonic notations are possible1 altho the five pairs of tones above referred to are the most common4 ,thus ,esharp and ,f are enharmonically the same1 as are also ,cflat and ,b1 ,csharp and ,bdouble-sharp1 etc4 ,parry 7,grove's ,dictionary1 article chromatic7 recommends writing the scale with such accidentals as can occur in chromatic chords without changing the key in which the passage occurs4 ,thus1 taking ,c as a type1 the first accidental will be ,dflat1 as the upper note of the minor ninth on the tonic2 the next will be ,eflat1 the minor third of the key2 the next ,fsharp1 the major third of the super-tonic--all of which can occur without causing modulation--and the remaining two will be ,aflat and ,bflat1 the minor sixth and seventh of the key4 ,according to this plan the chromatic scale beginning with ,c would be spelled--,c1 ,dflat1 ,d1 ,eflat1 ,e1 ,f1 ,fsharp1 ,g1 ,aflat1 ,a1 ,bflat1 ,b1 ,c--the form being the same both ascending and descending4 ,this is of course written exclusively from a harmonic standpoint and the advantage of such a form is its definiteness4 #id4 ,for sight-singing purposes the chromatic scale#bj is usually written by representing the intermediate tones in ascending by sharps1 7in some cases naturals and double-sharps71 and the intermediate tones in descending by flats 7sometimes naturals and double-flats74 ,the chromatic scale in nine different positions1 written from this standpoint1 follows1 and the syllables most commonly applied in sight-singing have also been added4 ,in the first two scales the student of harmony is asked to note that because of the very common practice of modulating to the dominant and sub-dominant keys1 the intermediate tones sharp#d and flat#g are quite universally used in both ascending and descending melody passages4 ,in other words the scales that follow would more nearly represent actual usage if in each case sharp#d 7,,fi7 were substituted for flat#e 7,,se7 in the descending scale2 and if flat#g 7,,te7 were substituted for sharp#f 7,,li7 in the ascending form4 ,footnote #bj3 ,the word chromatic means literally colored and was first applied to the intermediate tones because by using them the singer could get smoother and more diversely-shaded progressions1 i4e41 could get more color than by using only the diatonic tones4 ,composers were not long discovering the peculiar value of these additional tones and soon found that these same tones were exceedingly valuable also in modulating1 hence the two uses of intermediate tones at the present time--first1 to embellish a melody2 second1 to modulate to another key4 ,illustration ,note4--,in writing chromatic scales from this sight-singing standpoint the student is urged to adopt a three-step process2 first1 writing the major diatonic scale both ascending and descending2 second1 marking the half-steps2 third1 inserting accidental notes calling for the intermediate tones4 ,in the above chromatic scales these intermediate tones have been represented by black note-heads so as to differentiate them from the notes representing diatonic scale tones4 #ie4 ,the whole-step scale 7the third type mentioned in ,sec4 #gi7 is1 as its name implies1 a scale in which the intervals between the tones consist in every instance of whole-steps4 ,this reduces the number of tones in the scale to seven4 ,beginning with ,c the scale reads3 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,fsharp or ,gflat1 ,aflat1 ,bflat1 ,c4 ,this scale has been used somewhat extensively by the ultramodern ,french school of composition represented by ,debussy1 ,ravel1 and others1 but is not making any progress toward universal adoption4 ,the remarks of a recent ,english writer#ba on this subject may be interesting to the student who is puzzled by the apparent present-day tendencies of ,french music4 ,he says3 ,the student of some interesting modern developments will also speedily discover that the adoption of the so-called whole-tone scale as a basis of music is1 except upon a keyed instrument tuned to the compromise of equal temperament1 unnatural and impossible4 ,no player upon a stringed instrument can play the scale of whole-tones and arrive at an octave which is in tune with the starting note1 unless he deliberately changes one of the notes on the road and alters it while playing it4 ,the obvious result of the application of the whole-tone scale to an orchestra or a string quartet would be to force them to adopt the equal temperament of the pianoforte1 and play every interval except the octave out of tune4 ,when this modification had taken hold all music in the pure scale would be distorted and destroyed1 unless string players were to face the practically impossible drudgery of studying both the equal temperament and the pure scale from the start1 and were able to tackle either form at a moment's notice4 ,a thorough knowledge of the natural genesis of the scale of western nations will be the best antidote to fads founded upon ignorance of it4 ,it is a curious commentary upon this question that ,wagner1 in the opening of the third act of ,tristan 7bars #f to #aj71 experimented with the whole-tone scale and drew his pen through it1 as was to be expected from a composer whose every work proves the writer to have had the pure scale inbred in him4 ,footnote #ba3 ,stanford--,musical ,composition 7#aiaa7 p4 #ag4 ,there may be some difference of opinion among acousticians as to whether ,mr4 ,stanford is correct in his scientific assumptions regarding the difference between tempered and pure scales1#bb but even so1 there is a far more potent reason why the whole-step scale will probably never become popular as the major and minor scales now are1 viz41 the fact that it offers no possibility of inculcating tonality feeling1 which has always been the basis of even the simplest primitive music4 ,tonality scales give rise to a feeling of alternate periods of contraction and relaxation--an active tone 7or chord7 followed by a passive one1 but no such effect is possible in the whole-step scale1 and it seems suitable therefore only for that class of music whose outlines are purposely intended to be vague and indefinite--the impressionistic style of music writing4 ,footnote #bb3 ,recent tests in ,germany seem to prove conclusively that the tempered scale is the scale ordinarily employed by both vocalists and players on stringed instruments1 and that the ideal of and agitation for a pure 7i4e41 untempered7 scale in vocal and in string music is somewhat of a myth4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,auxiliary ,,words ,,and ,,endings #if4 ,being a list of articles1 adverbs1 conjunctions1 prepositions1 and endings1 often utilized in compounding terms relating to musical effects4 ,a--preposition--variously translated to1 at1 for1 by1 in1 with1 towards4 ,a cappella--in church style4 ,a capriccio--at the fancy of the performer4 ,a deux mains--for two hands4 ,a mezza voce--with half voice4 ,a la1 or alla--in the manner of4 ,alla marcia--in the style of a march4 ,assai--very1 or very much4 ,allegro assai--very fast4 ,ben--well4 ,ben marcato--well marked4 ,coi1 con1 col1 colla1 colle1 collo--with1 or with the4 ,con amore--with tenderness4 ,colla voce--with the voice4 ,come--as1 like4 ,come primo--as at first4 ,contra--against4 ,in compound words means an octave below4 ,da--from4 ,da ,capo--from the head4 ,di--by1 with1 of1 for4 ,di bravura--with daring4 ,di molto--exceedingly--very much4 ,allegro di molto--exceedingly rapid4 ,doppio--double4 ,doppio movimento--double movement4 ,e1 ed1 et--and4 ,cresc4 et accel4--louder and faster4 ,ensemble--together1 the opposite of solo4 ,il1 ,la1 l'1 le--the4 ,il basso--the bass4 ,l'istesso tempo--the same speed4 ,il piu--the most4 ,il piu forte possible--as loudly as possible4 ,issimo--,italian superlative ending4 ,forte--fortissimo4 ,ino1 etto--,italian diminutive endings4 ,andante--andantino4 ,poco--pochetto4 ,meno--less4 ,meno forte--less loud4 ,mente--the ending which changes a noun or adjective to an adverb4 ,largo largamente4 ,mezzo or mezza--half1 or medium4 ,mezzo forte--medium loud4 ,molto--much1 or very much4 ,molto cresc4--very much louder4 ,nel1 nella1 etc4--in the1 or at the4 ,nel battere--at the down beat4 ,non--not4 ,non tanto--not too much4 ,ossia--or else4 ,ossia piu facile--or else more easily4 ,per--for4 ,per il violino--for the violin4 ,peu--little4 ,un peu cresc4--a little increase in tone4 ,piu--more4 ,piu forte--more loudly4 ,poco--little4 ,poco a poco--little by little4 ,poi--then4 ,e poi la coda--and then the coda4 ,possibile--possible4 ,forte possibile--as loudly as possible4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,corrected error possible for ,italian possibile4 ,quasi--in the manner of4 ,allegro quasi andante--a fairly rapid movement1 yet in the style of an andante2 almost as slow as an andante4 ,sans--without4 ,sans pedales--without pedals4 ,sempre--always1 or continually4 ,sempre forte--a long passage to be played forte throughout its entirety4 ,senza--without4 ,senza accompagnamento--without accompaniment4 ,sino1 sin--as far as4 ,see p4 #ad1 note4 ,solo--alone4 ,opposite of ensemble4 ,sub--under or lower4 ,sub-dominant--the under dominant4 ,tanto--same as troppo1 q4v4 ,tre--three4 ,tre corde--three strings4 ,tres--very4 ,tres vivement--very lively4 ,troppo--too much4 ,non tanto allegro1 or non troppo allegro--not too fast4 ,una1 un1 uno--one1 or a4 ,una corda--one string4 ,un peu--a little4 ,a working knowledge of these auxiliary terms will aid the student greatly in arriving at the meaning of hundreds of terms without stopping to look up each individual one4 ,,chapter ,x ,,measure #ig4 ,from the standpoint of the eye1 a measure is that portion of the staff found between two bars1 7in certain cases this space may be less than a measure1 as e4g41 at the beginning and end of a movement72 but from the standpoint of the ear a single1 isolated measure is not possible1 and the term must therefore be defined in the plural form4 ,measures are similarly accented groups of evenly-spaced beats1 each group having at least one accented and one non-accented beat4 ,the strongest accent falls normally on the first beat in the measure4 ,two essential characteristics are involved in the ordinary musical measure3 7#a7 ,a group of even beats 7or pulses71 always felt1 though not always actually sounded1 one or more of these beats being stronger than the rest2 7#b7 ,certain rhythmic figures 7,illustration1 etc47 which form the actual musical content of these groups4 ,the student will note the essential difference between rhythm and measure4 ,rhythm is the regular recurrence of accent in a series of beats 7or pulses71 while measure is the grouping of these beats according to some specified system4 ,in listening to a piece of music1 two hearers ,a and ,b may feel the rhythm equally strongly1 but ,a may subjectively group the beats into--one1 two one1 two --etc41 while ,b feels the groups as--one1 two1 three1 four one1 two1 three1 four --etc4 ,rhythm is thus seen to be a fundamental thing1 inherent in the music itself1 while measure is to a certain extent at least an arbitrary grouping which musicians have adopted for practical purposes4 #ih4 ,in syncopation the normal system of accenting is temporarily suspended and the accented tone falls on the regularly unaccented part of the measure4 ,syncopation may therefore be defined as the temporary interruption of a normal series of accents1 i4e41 accenting a beat that is usually not accented4 ,thus e4g41 in ,fig4 #ef1 measure one has the regular system of accents normally found in four-quarter-measure1 7strong accent on one1 secondary accent on three72 but measure three has only one accent1 and it falls on the second beat4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4 #ii4 ,measures are usually classified as simple and compound4 ,a simple measure is one which has but a single accent1 i4e41 the measure cannot be divided into smaller constituent groups4 ,there are two main classes of simple measures1 two-beat measure1 and three-beat measure4 ,a compound measure is 7as its name implies7 one made up by combining two or more simple measures1 or by the elaboration of a single measure 7in slow tempo7 into several constituent groups4 ,the principal compound measures are four-beat and six-beat1 both being referred to as compound-duple measures4 ,five-beat1 seven-beat1 nine-beat1 and twelve-beat measures are also classified as compound measures4 ,an ,english writer#bc classifies measures as duple1 triple1 or quadruple1 specifying that a simple measure is one in which each beat is represented by a note whose value can be divided into halves 7,illustration etc47 and that a compound measure is one in which each beat is represented by a dotted-note1 whose value can be divided into three parts1 7,illustration74 ,there is thus seen to be considerable difference of opinion as to the meaning of the words simple and compound when applied in this connection1 the principal question at issue being whether four-beat measure is an individual variety1 or whether it is a variety compounded out of two-beat measures1 either by placing two of these in a group or by the elaboration of a single measure into a larger number of beats1 as is often necessary in slow tempi4 ,perhaps the easiest way out of the difficulty is to admit that both may be true--but in different compositions4 ,that is1 it is frequently impossible to tell whether a composition that is being listened to is in two-beat1 or in four-beat measure2 and yet it is sometimes possible so to discriminate4 ,since1 however1 one cannot in the majority of cases distinguish between two-beat and four-beat measures1 it will probably be best to leave the original classification intact and regard four-beat measure as a compound variety4 ,footnote #bc3 ,pearse--,rudiments of ,musical ,knowledge1 p4 #cg4 #ajj4 ,the commonest varieties of measure are3 #a4 ,duple 7sometimes called even measure1 or even time71 in which there are two beats1 the first one being accented4 ,examples of duple measure are #b_/d1 #b_/h1 #b_/b1 two-quarter1#bd two-eighth1 and two-half measure1 respectively4 ,footnote #bd3 ,for explanation of terminology1 see p4 #dh1 ,sec4 #ajf4 #b4 ,triple1 7the old perfect measure71 in which there are three beats1 the first one being accented1 the second and third unaccented4 ,examples are #c_/h1 #c_/d1 #c_/b1 three-eighth1 three-quarter1 and three-half measure1 respectively4 #c4 ,quadruple1 in which there are four beats1 the first and third being accented 7primary accent on one1 secondary accent on three71 the second and fourth unaccented4 7,see note above1 under ,sec4 #ii47 #d4 ,sextuple1 in which there are six beats1 the first and fourth being accented1 the others not4 ,in rapid tempi this is always taken as compound duple measure1 a dotted quarter note having a beat4 ,it will be noted that the two measures ,illustration are identical in effect with ,illustration4 #aja4 ,other varieties of measure sometimes found are #i_/h and #ab_/h1 but these are practically always taken as three-beat and four-beat measures respectively1 being equivalent to these if each group of three tones is thought of as a triplet4 ,illustration is identical in effect with ,illustration4 #ajb4 ,quintuple 7five-beat7 and septuple 7seven-beat7 measures are occasionally met with1 but these are rare and will always be sporadic4 ,the five-beat measure is taken as a combination of three and two1 or of two and three 7sometimes a mixture of both in the same composition71 while the seven-beat measure is taken in groups of four and three1 or of three and four4 #ajc4 ,the sign common-time symbol is usually understood to mean four-quarter measure1 and the sign cut-time symbol1 two-half measure1 but usage varies somewhat1 and the second sign is sometimes used to indicate four-half measure4 ,it may safely be said however that the sign cut-time symbol always indicates that a half-note has a beat4 ,double cut-time symbol may occasionally be found indicating four-half measure but this is rare4 ,the student will note that the sign common-time symbol is not a letter ,c1 but an incomplete circle1 differentiating two-beat 7imperfect7 measure from three-beat 7perfect7 measure4 ,see ,appendix ,a1 p4 #ajf4 ,transcriber's ,note3 page number missing in original4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,tempo #ajd4 ,the word time in musical nomenclature has been greatly abused1 having been used to indicate3 7#a7 ,rhythm2 as the time was wrong4 7#b7 ,variety of measure-signature2 as two-four time4 7#c7 ,rate of speed2 as the time was too slow4 ,to obviate the confusion naturally resulting from this three-fold and inexact use of the word1 many teachers of music are adopting certain changes in terminology as noted in ,sections #aje1 #ajf1 and #ajg4 ,such changes may cause some confusion at first1 but seem to be necessary if our musical terminology is to be at all exact4 #aje4 ,the first of the changes mentioned in the above paragraph is to substitute the word rhythm for the word time when correcting mistakes involving misplaced accent1 etc4 ,e4g41 ,your rhythm in the third measure of the lower score was wrong1 instead of ,your time--was wrong4 #ajf4 ,the second change mentioned would eliminate such blind and misleading expressions as two-four time1 three-four time1 four-four time1 six-eight time1 etc41 and substitute therefor such self-explanatory designations as two-quarter measure1 three-quarter measure1 four-quarter measure1 six-eighth measure1 etc4 ,e4g41 ,the first movement of the ,beethoven ,sonata ,op4 #b1 ,no4 #c1 is in four-quarter measure4 #ajg4 ,the third change referred to above would substitute the word tempo 7plural--tempi7 for the word time in all allusions to rate of speed4 ,e4g41 ,the scherzo was played in very rapid tempo4 ,the word tempo has been used in this connection so long by professional musicians that there can be no possible objection to it on the ground of its being a foreign word4 ,in fact there is a decided advantage in having a word that is understood in all countries where modern music 7i4e41 civilized music7 is performed1 and just here is found the principal reason for the popularity of the ,italian language in musical terminology4 ,schumann1 ,mac,dowell and other well known composers have tried to break down this popularity by using their own respective vernaculars in both tempo and dynamic indications1 but in spite of these attempts the ,italian language is still quite universally used for this purpose1 and deservedly so1 for if we are to have a music notation that is universal1 so that an ,american is able to play music written by a ,frenchman or a ,german1 or a ,russian1 then we ought also to have a certain number of expressions referring to tempo1 etc41 which will be understood by all1 i4e41 a music terminology that is universal4 ,the ,italian language was the first in the field1 is the most universally known in this particular at the present time1 and is entirely adequate4 ,it should therefore be retained in use as a sort of musical ,esperanto4 #ajh4 ,there are several ways of finding the correct tempo of a composition3 #a4 ,from the metronomic indication found at the beginning of many compositions4 ,thus e4g41 the mark ,m4,m4 #ib 7,maelzel's ,metronome #ib7 means that if the metronome 7either ,maelzel's or some other reliable make7 is set with the sliding weight at the figure #ib there will be #ib clicks per minute1 and they will serve to indicate to the player or singer the rate at which the beats 7or pulses7 should follow one another4 ,this is undoubtedly the most accurate means of determining tempi in spite of slight inaccuracies in metronomes#be and of the mistakes which composers themselves often make in giving metronomic indications4 ,footnote #be3 ,to test the accuracy of a metronome1 set the weight at #fj and see if it beats seconds4 ,if it gives more than #fb or #fc or less than #eg or #eh clicks per minute it will not be of much service in giving correct tempi and should be taken to a jeweller to be regulated4 #b4 ,another means of determining the tempo of a composition is to play it at different tempi and then to choose the one that feels right for that particular piece of music4 ,this is perhaps the best means of getting at the correct tempo but is open only to the musician of long experience1 sure judgment1 and sound scholarship4 #c4 ,a third method of finding tempi is through the interpretation of certain words used quite universally by composers to indicate the approximate rate of speed and the general mood of compositions4 ,the difficulty with this method is that one can hardly find two composers who employ the same word to indicate the same tempo1 so that no absolute rate of speed can be indicated1 and in the last analysis the conductor or performer must fall back on the second method cited above--i4e41 individual judgment4 #aji4 ,in spite of the inexactness of use in the case of expressions relating to tempo1 these expressions are nevertheless extremely useful in giving at least a hint of what was in the composer's mind as he conceived the music that we are trying to interpret4 ,since a number of the terms overlap in meaning1 and since the meaning of no single term is absolute1 these expressions relating to tempo are best studied in groups4 ,perhaps the most convenient grouping is as follows3 #a4 ,grave 7lit4 weighty1 serious71 larghissimo1 adagissimo1 and lentissimo--indicating the very slowest tempo used in rendering music4 #b4 ,largo1#bf adagio1#bg and lento--indicating quite a slow tempo4 ,footnote #bf3 ,largo1 larghetto1 etc41 are derivatives of the ,latin word largus1 meaning large1 broad4 ,footnote #bg3 ,adagio means literally at ease4 #c4 ,larghetto 7i4e41 a little largo7 and adagietto 7a little adagio7--a slow tempo1 but not quite so slow as largo1 etc4 #d4 ,andante 7going1 or walking1 as contrasted with running7 and andantino--indicating a moderately slow tempo4 ,andantino is now quite universally taken slightly faster than andante1 in spite of the fact that if andante means going1 and if ino is the diminutive ending1 then andantino means going less1 i4e41 more slowly6 #e4 ,moderato--a moderate tempo4 #f4 ,allegro and allegretto#bh--;a moderately quick tempo1 allegretto being usually interpreted as meaning a tempo somewhat slower than allegro4 ,footnote #bh3 ,there has been some difference of opinion as to which of these two terms indicates the more rapid tempo3 an analysis tells us that if allegro means quick1 and if etto is the diminutive ending1 then allegretto means a little quick--i4e41 slower than allegro4 ,these two terms are1 however1 so closely allied in meaning that a dispute over the matter is a mere waste of breath4 ,the word allegro means literally happy1 joyous1 and this literal meaning is still sometimes applicable1 but in the majority of instances the term refers only to rate of speed4 #g4 ,vivo1 vivace1 7lit4 lively7--a tempo between allegro and presto4 #h4 ,presto1 prestissimo1 vivacissimo1 and prestissimo possibile--the most rapid tempo possible4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,tempo 7,continued7 #aaj4 ,innumerable combinations of the words defined in ,sec4 #aji with one another and with other words occur4 ,some of these combinations with their approximate meanings follow4 ,the meaning of any such expression not found in the list may usually be arrived at by consulting the terms defined in paragraph #aji and recalling the use of certain auxiliary terms quoted in ,chapter ,,ix4 ,largo assai--very slow4 ,largo di molto--very slow4 ,largo ma non troppo--slow1 but not too slow4 ,largo un poco--slow1 but not so slow as largo4 7,cf4 larghetto47 ,lentemente--slowly4 ,lentando--with increasing slowness4 ,tres lentement--very slowly4 ,lentissamente--very slowly4 ,lentissamamente--very slowly4 ,lento assai--very slowly4 ,lento a capriccio--slowly but capriciously4 ,lento di molto--very slowly4 ,andante affettuoso--moderately slow1 and with tenderness and pathos4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,corrected error affetuoso in original4 ,andante amabile--moderately slow1 and lovingly4 ,andante cantabile--moderately slow1 and in singing style4 ,andante grazioso--moderately slow1 and gracefully4 ,andante maestoso--moderately slow1 and majestically4 ,andante con moto--slightly faster than andante4 ,andante 7ma7 non troppo--not too slowly4 ,andante pastorale--moderately slow1 and in simple and unaffected style2 7lit4 rural1 pastoral74 ,andante quasi allegro--almost as rapid in tempo as allegro2 7lit4 an andante in the style of allegro74 ,andante sostenuto--moderately slow and sustained4 ,allegrissimo--much faster than allegro4 7,the superlative degree of allegro47 ,allegro agitato--a moderately rapid tempo1 and in agitated style4 ,allegro appassionata--a moderately rapid tempo1 and in passionate style4 ,allegro assai 7very allegro7--faster than allegro4 ,allegro commodo--a conveniently rapid tempo4 ,allegro con brio--an allegro played in brilliant style4 ,faster than allegro4 ,allegro con fuoco--an allegro played with fire1 i4e41 with extreme animation4 ,faster than allegro4 ,allegro con spirito--an allegro performed with spirit4 ,allegro con moto--faster than allegro4 ,allegro di bravura--an allegro performed in brilliant style1 i4e41 demanding great skill in execution4 ,allegro furioso 7furiously7--quicker than allegro2 very brilliant4 ,allegro giusto--an allegro movement1 but in exact rhythm4 ,allegro ma grazioso--an allegro played in graceful style4 ,allegro 7ma7 non tanto--an allegro movement1 but not too rapid4 ,allegro 7ma7 non troppo--an allegro movement1 but not too rapid4 ,allegro 7ma7 non presto--an allegro movement1 but not too rapid4 ,allegro moderato--slower than allegro4 ,allegro vivace--faster than allegro4 ,presto assai--as rapidly as possible4 ,presto 7ma7 non troppo--a presto movement1 but not too rapid4 #aaa4 ,there are certain terms which indicate a modification of the normal tempo of a movement1 these being divided into two classes1 7a7 those terms which indicate in general a slower tempo1 and 7b7 those which indicate in general a more rapid tempo4 ,the further subdivisions of these two classes are shown below4 7a7 ,terms indicating a slower tempo4 #a4 ,terms indicating a gradual retard4 ,ritenente1 7rit471 ritenuto 7rit471 ritardando 7rit471 rallentando 7rall471 slentando4 #b4 ,terms indicating a tempo which is to become definitely slower at once4 ,piu lento 7lit4 more slowly71 meno mosso 7lit4 less movement74 #c4 ,terms indicating a slower tempo combined with an increase in power4 ,largando1 allargando4 ,these words are both derived from largo1 meaning large1 broad4 7,for terms indicating both slower tempo and softer tone1 see page #ei1 ,sec4 #abg47 ,the student should note the difference between groups #a and #b as given above3 the terms in group #a indicate that each measure1 and even each pulse in the measure1 is a little slower than the preceding one1 while such terms as piu lento and meno mosso indicate a rate of speed becoming instantly slower and extending over an entire phrase or passage4 ,some composers 7e4g41 ,beethoven and ,couperin7 have evidently had this same distinction in mind between rallentando and ritardando on the one hand1 and ritenuto and ritenente on the other1 considering the former 7rall4 and rit47 to indicate a gradually slackening speed1 and the latter 7ritenuto and ritenente7 to indicate a definitely slower rate4 ,the majority of composers do not however differentiate between them in this way1 and it will therefore hardly be worth while for the student to try to remember the distinction4 7b7 ,terms indicating a more rapid tempo4 #a4 ,terms indicating a gradual acceleration4 ,accelerando1 affrettando ,transcriber's ,note3 ,corrected misspelling affretando in original 7this term implies some degree of excitement also71 stringendo1 poco a poco animato4 #b4 ,terms indicating a tempo which is to become definitely faster at once4 ,piu allegro1 piu tosto1 piu mosso1 stretto1 un poco animato4 #aab4 ,after any modification in tempo 7either faster or slower7 has been suggested it is usual to indicate a return to the normal rate by some such expression as a tempo 7lit4 in time71 a tempo primo 7lit4 in the first time71 tempo primo1 or tempo4 #aac4 ,tempo rubato 7or a tempo rubato7 means literally in robbed time1 i4e41 duration taken from one measure or beat and given to another1 but in modern practice the term is quite generally applied to any irregularity of rhythm or tempo not definitely indicated in the score4 ,the terms ad libitum1 7ad lib471 a piacere1 and a capriccio1 also indicate a modification of the tempo at the will of the performer4 ,ad libitum means at liberty2 a piacere1 at pleasure2 and a capriccio1 at the caprice 7of the performer74 #aad4 ,the term tempo giusto is the opposite of tempo rubato 7and of the other terms defined in paragraph #aac74 ,it means literally in exact time4 7,tempo giusto is sometimes translated quite rapidly1#bi but this is very unusual47 ,footnote #bi3 ,bussler--,elements of ,notation and ,harmony1 p4 #gf4 #aae4 ,l'istesso tempo means--at the same rate of speed4 ,e4g41 when a measure signature changes from #b_/d to #f_/h with a change in beat-note from a quarter to a dotted-quarter1 but with the same tempo carried through the entire movement4 #aaf4 ,tenuto 7ten47 indicates that a tone or chord is to be held to its full value4 ,this word is sometimes used after a staccato passage to show that the staccato effect is to be discontinued1 but is often used merely as a warning not to slight a melody-tone--i4e41 to give it its full value4 #aag4 ,veloce means--swiftly1 and is applied to brilliant passages 7e4g41 cadenzas7 which are to be played as rapidly as possible without much regard for measure rhythm4 ,the words rapidamente1 brillante and volante 7flying7 have the same meaning as veloce4 #aah4 ,the following expressions referring to tempo are also in common use but cannot easily be classified with any of the groups already defined4 ,con moto--with motion2 i4e41 not too slow4 ,pesante--slowly1 heavily4 ,doppio movimento--twice as rapid as before4 ,tempo ordinario--in ordinary tempo4 ,tempo commodo--in convenient tempo4 ,sempre lento malinconico assai--always slowly and in a very melancholy style4 ,animando1 animato1 con anima--with animation4 ,agitato--agitated4 #aai4 ,tempo di marcia is given by ,riemann 7,dictionary of ,music1 p4 #ghc7 as equivalent to andante1 ,m4,m4 #gb-hd4 ,the same writer gives tempo di menuetto as equivalent to allegretto1 and tempo di valso as equivalent to allegro moderato 7which he regards as indicating a more rapid tempo than allegretto74 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,dynamics #abj4 ,the word dynamics 7cf4 dynamic--the opposite of static7 as used in the nomenclature of music has to do with the various degrees of power 7i4e41 the comparative loudness and softness7 of tones4 ,as in the case of words referring to tempo1 the expressions referring to dynamics are always relative1 never absolute2 it is possible to indicate that one measure is to be louder than another1 but it is not possible 7nor desirable7 to indicate exactly how loud either is to be4 ,thus dynamics1 perhaps even more than tempo1 will be seen to depend on the taste of the performer or conductor4 ,the following words referring to dynamics are in common use3 ,pianisissimo 7ppp7--as softly as possible4 7,it will be noted that this is a sort of hyper-superlative of piano47 ,pianissimo 7pp7--very softly4 7,the superlative of piano47 ,piano 7p7--softly4 ,mezzo piano 7mp7--medium softly4 ,mezzo forte 7mf7--medium loudly4 ,forte 7f7--loudly 7lit4 strong74 ,fortissimo 7ff7--very loudly4 7,the superlative of forte47 ,fortisissimo 7fff7--as loudly as possible4 ,the lack of a one-word comparative degree in the case of both piano and forte seems to necessitate the hyper-superlative degree as given above1 but the practice of using four1 or even five p's or f's is not desirable4 #aba4 ,the terms defined in ,sec4 #abj are often combined with others1 as e4g41 ,pianissimo possibile--as softly as possible4 ,piano assai--very softly4 ,fortissimo possibile--as loudly as possible4 ,forte piano 7fp7--loud1 followed at once by soft4 ,as in the case of terms relating to tempo1 the meaning of many other expressions relating to dynamics may easily be arrived at by recalling the list of auxiliary terms quoted under ,sec4 #if4 #abb4 ,the terms sforzando1 forzando1 sforzato and forzato all indicate a strong accent on a single tone or chord4 ,these words are abbreviated as follows3--sf1fz1 and sfz1 the abbreviation being placed directly above 7sometimes below7 the note or chord affected4 ,the signs vertical accent symbol and horizontal accent symbol are also commonly used to indicate such an accent4 ,in interpreting these accent marks the student must bear in mind again the fact that they have a relative rather than an absolute meaning3 the mark sf occurring in the midst of a piano passage will indicate a much milder form of accent than would the same mark occurring in the midst of a forte passage4 #abc4 ,the words rinforzando and rinforzato 7abb4--rinf4 and rfz47 mean literally reinforced1 and are used to indicate a sudden increase in power usually extending over an entire phrase or passage instead of applying only to a single tone or chord as in the case of sforzando1 etc4 #abd4 ,crescendo 7abb4--cresc4 or crescendo symbol7 means a gradual increase in power4 ,it will be noted that this word does not mean loud1 nor does it mean a sudden increase in power unless accompanied by some auxiliary term such as subito1 or molto4 ,broadly speaking there are two varieties of crescendo3 7#a7 that in which the same tone increases in power while being prolonged2 7#b7 that in which succeeding tones are each sounded more strongly than the preceding one4 ,the first variety is possible only on instruments giving forth a tone which can be varied after it begins4 ,thus e4g41 the human voice1 the violin1 the organ enclosed in a swell box1 and certain wind instruments1 are all capable of sounding a tone softly at first and gradually increasing the volume until the maximal point of power has been reached4 ,but on the piano1 organ not enclosed in a swell-box1 kettle drum1 etc41 the power of the tone cannot be varied after the tone has once been sounded1 and a crescendo effect is therefore possible only in a passage1 in rendering which each succeeding tone is struck more forcibly than its immediate predecessor4 ,this second variety of crescendo offers a means of dramatic effect which may be employed most strikingly1 as e4g41 when a long passage begins very softly and increases in power little by little until the utmost resources of the instrument or orchestra have been reached4 ,a notable example of such an effect is found in the transition from the third to the fourth movements of the ,beethoven ,fifth ,symphony4 ,the difference between sforzando1 rinforzando1 and crescendo should now be noted3 sforzando indicates that a single tone or chord is to be louder2 rinforzando1 that an entire passage is to be louder1 beginning with its first tone2 but crescendo indicates that there is to be a gradual increase in power1 this increase sometimes occurring during the sounding of a single tone1 but more often in a passage4 #abe4 ,certain combinations of the word crescendo with other words are so common that they should be especially noted4 ,among these are3 ,crescendo al fortissimo--keep on gradually increasing in power until the fortissimo 7or very loud7 point has been reached4 ,crescendo subito--increase in power suddenly 7or rapidly74 ,crescendo poco a poco--increase in power very1 very gradually4 ,crescendo poi diminuendo--first increase1 then diminish the tone4 ,crescendo e diminuendo--same as cresc4 poi dim4 ,crescendo molto--increase in power very greatly4 ,crescendo ed animando poco a poco--growing gradually louder in tone and quicker in tempo4 ,crescendo ed affrettando--gradually louder and faster4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,corrected misspelling affretando in original4 ,crescendo poco a poco sin al fine--crescendo gradually even up to the very end4 #abf4 ,decrescendo 7decresc4 or decrescendo symbol7 means a gradual diminishing of the tone4 ,it is the opposite of crescendo4 ,the word diminuendo is synonymous with decrescendo4 ,decrescendo 7or diminuendo7 al pianissimo means--decrease gradually in power until the pianissimo 7or very soft7 point is reached4 #abg4 ,a number of terms referring to both softer tone and slower tempo are in use4 ,the most common of these are3--mancando1 moriente1#cj morendo1 perdendo 7from perdere--to lose71 perdendosi1 calando1 and smorzando4#ca ,such expressions are usually translated--gradually dying away4 ,footnote #cj3 ,both moriente and morendo mean literally--dying4 ,footnote #ca3 ,from smorzare 7,it47--to extinguish4 #abh4 ,in piano music the abbreviation ,ped4 indicates that the damper pedal 7the one at the right7 is to be depressed1 while the sign damper release symbol shows that it is to be released4 ,in many modern editions this depression and release of the damper pedal are more accurately indicated by the sign damper symbol4 ,the term senza sordini is also occasionally found in old editions1 indicating that the damper pedal is to be depressed1 while con sordini shows that it is to be released4 ,these expressions are taken from a usage in music for stringed instruments1 in which the term con sordini means that the mute 7a small clamp of metal1 ivory or hardwood7 is to be affixed to the bridge1 this causing a modification in both power and quality of the tone4 ,the damper on the piano does not in any way correspond to the mute thus used on stringed instruments1 and the terms above explained as sometimes occurring in piano music are not to be recommended1 even though ,beethoven used them in this sense in all his earlier sonatas4 #abi4 ,the words una corda 7lit4--one string7 indicate that the soft pedal 7the one at the left7 is to be depressed1 while the words tre corde 7lit4 three strings7 or tutte le corde 7all the strings7 show that the same pedal is to be released4 ,these expressions refer to the fact that on grand pianos the soft pedal when depressed moves the hammers to one side so that instead of striking three strings they strike only two 7in the older pianos only one1 hence una corda71 all three strings 7tre corde7 being struck again after the release of the pedal4 #acj4 ,other terms relating either directly or indirectly to the subject of dynamics are3 ,con alcuna licenza--with some degree of license4 ,con amore--with tenderness4 ,con bravura--with boldness4 ,con celerita--with rapidity4 ,con delicato--with delicacy4 ,con energico--with energy4 ,con espressione--with expression4 ,con forza--with force4 ,con fuoco--with fire and passion4 ,con grand' espressione--with great expression4 ,con grazia--with grace4 ,con melinconia--with melancholy4 ,transcriber's ,note3 archaic form of malinconia4 ,con passione--with passion4 ,con spirito--with spirit4 ,con tenerezza--with tenderness4 ,delicato--delicately4 ,dolce--sweetly1 gently4 ,dolcissimo--most sweetly4 ,dolce e cantabile--gently and with singing tone4 ,dolente ,doloroso plaintively or sorrowfully4 ,espressivo--expressively4 ,grandioso--grandly1 pompously4 ,grazioso--gracefully4 ,giocoso--humorously1 7cf4 jocose74 ,giojoso--joyfully1 7cf4 joyous74 ,lacrimando1 lacrimoso--sorrowfully4 ,legato--smoothly4 ,leggiero--lightly4 ,leggierissimo--most lightly2 almost a staccato4 ,lusingando--caressingly1 coaxingly1 tenderly4 ,maesta1 maestoso--majestically4 ,martellando1 martellato--strongly accented1 7lit4--hammered74 ,marziale--martial--war-like4 ,mesto--pensively4 ,mezzo voce--with half voice4 ,misterioso--mysteriously4 ,parlando--well accented or enunciated2 applied to melody playing4 7,the word parlando means literally-speaking47 ,pastorale--in simple and unaffected style1 7lit4--pastoral1 rural74 ,pomposo--pompously4 ,precipitoso--precipitously4 ,recitativo--well enunciated4 7,this meaning applies only in instrumental music in which a melody is to stand out above the accompaniment4 ,for def4 of recitative in vocal music1 see p4 #gh47 ,risoluto--firmly1 resolutely4 ,scherzando1 scherzoso1 etc4--jokingly4 ,these terms are derived from the word scherzo meaning a musical joke4 ,semplice--simply4 ,sempre marcatissimo--always well marked1 i4e41 strongly accented4 ,sentimento--with sentiment4 ,solenne--solemn4 ,sotto voce--in subdued voice4 ,spiritoso--with spirit4 ,strepitoso--precipitously4 ,tranquillo--tranquilly4 ,tristamente--sadly4 #aca4 ,many other terms are encountered which on their face sometimes seem to be quite formidable1 but which yield readily to analysis4 ,thus e4g41 crescendo poco a poco al forte ed un pochettino accelerando1 is seen to mean merely--increase gradually to forte and accelerate a very little bit4 ,a liberal application of common sense will aid greatly in the interpretation of such expressions4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,terms ,,relating ,,to ,,forms ,,and ,,styles #acb4 ,a form in music is a specific arrangement of the various parts of a composition resulting in a structure so characteristic that it is easily recognized by the ear4 ,thus e4g41 although every fugue is different from all other fugues in actual material1 yet the arrangement of the various parts is so characteristic that no one who knows the fugue form has any doubt as to what kind of a composition he is hearing whenever a fugue is played4 ,the word form is therefore seen to be somewhat synonymous with the word plan as used in architecture2 it is the structure or design underlying music4 ,examples of form are the canon1 the fugue1 the sonata1 etc4 ,speaking broadly we may say that form in any art consists in the placing together of certain parts in such relations of proportion and symmetry as to make a unified whole4 ,in music this implies unity of tonality and of general rhythmic effect1 as well as unity in the grouping of the various parts of the work 7phrases1 periods1 movements7 so as to weld them into one whole1 giving the impression of completeness to the hearer4 #acc4 ,the primal basis of form is the repetition of some characteristic effect1 and the problem of the composer is to bring about these repetitions in such a way that the ear will recognize them as being the same material and will nevertheless not grow weary of them4 ,this is accomplished by varying the material 7cf4 thematic development71 by introducing contrasting material1 and by choice of key4 #acd4 ,the student should note at the outset of this topic the difference in meaning between the terms form and style3 ,a form is a plan for building a certain definite kind of composition1 but a style is merely a manner of writing4 ,thus e4g41 the fugue is a form--i4e41 it is a plan1 which although capable of variation in details1 is yet carried out fairly definitely in every case2 but counterpoint is merely a style or manner of writing 7just as ,gothic architecture is a style of building71 which may be cast into any one of several forms4 #ace4 ,the material found in the following sections is an attempt to explain in simple language certain terms relating to forms and styles which are in common use2 in many cases the definition is too meagre to give anything but a very general idea1 but it is hoped that the student will at least be set to thinking and that he will eventually be led to a more detailed and scholarly study of the subject4 7,the article ,form and the separate articles under each term here defined1 as found in ,grove's ,dictionary1 are especially recommended4 ,for examples of the various forms described1 see also ,mason and ,surette--,the ,appreciation of ,music1 ,supplementary ,volume47 #acf4 ,in a very general way there may be said to be two styles of musical composition1 the monophonic 7or homophonic7--the one-voiced--and the polyphonic--the many voiced4 ,the polyphonic#cb style antedates the monophonic historically4 ,footnote #cb3 ,polyphonic music flourished from #ajjj ,a4,d4 to about #agej ,a4,d41 the culmination of the polyphonic period being reached in the music of ,johann ,sebastian ,bach 7#afhe-agej74 ,haydn1 ,mozart1 ,beethoven1 and the later writers have used the monophonic style more than the polyphonic1 although a combination of the two is often found1 as e4g41 in the later works of ,beethoven4 #acg4 ,in monophonic music there is one voice which has a pronounced melody1 the other voices 7if present7 supporting this melody as a harmonic 7and often rhythmic7 background4 ,an example of this is the ordinary hymn-tune with its melody in the highest part1 and with three other voices forming a four-part harmony4 ,the sonata1 symphony1 opera1 modern piano piece1 etc41 are also largely monophonic1 though polyphonic passages by way of contrast are often to be found4 #ach4 ,in polyphonic music each voice is to a certain extent melodically interesting1 and the harmony is the result of combining several melodies in such a way as to give a pleasing effect1 instead of treating a melody by adding chords as an accompaniment or support4 ,counterpoint1 canon1 round1 fugue1 etc41 are all polyphonic in style4 ,the word contrapuntal is often used synonymously with polyphonic4 7,sections #aci to #adc relate especially to terms describing polyphonic music47 #aci4 ,counterpoint is the art of adding one or more parts or melodies to a given melody1 the latter being known as the cantus firmus1 or subject4 ,it may therefore be broadly defined as the art of combining melodies4 ,the word counterpoint comes from the three words punctus contra punctum1 meaning point against point4 ,the word point as here used refers to the punctus--one of the neumae of the mediaeval system1 these neumae being the immediate predecessors of modern notes4 ,both vocal and instrumental music have been written in contrapuntal style4 ,the familiar two- and three-part inventions by ,bach are excellent examples of instrumental counterpoint1 while such choruses as those in ,the ,messiah by ,handel illustrate the highest type of vocal counterpoint4 #adj4 ,imitation is the repetition by one part1 of a subject or theme previously introduced by another part4 ,if the imitation is exact1 the term strict imitation is applied1 but if only approximate1 then the term free imitation is used in referring to it4 ,the repetition need not have the exact pitches of the subject in order to be strict2 on the contrary the imitation is usually at the interval of an octave1 or a fifth1 or a second1 etc4 ,fig4 #eg shows an example of strict imitation in which the third part comes in an octave lower than the first part4 #ada4 ,a canon is a contrapuntal composition in the style of strict imitation1 one part repeating exactly 7but at any interval7 what another part has played or sung4 ,the term canonic style is sometimes applied to music in which the imitation is not exact4 ,an example of three-part canon is given in ,fig4 #eg4 ,illustration3 ,,canon ,,in ,,three ,,voices1 ,,in ,,the ,,unison ,,and ,,octave ,fig4 #eg4 ,,mozart ,the word canon means law1 and was applied to this particular form of composition because the rules relating to its composition were invariable4 ,it is because of this non-flexibility that the canon is so little used as a form at the present time3 the modern composer demands a plan of writing that is capable of being varied to such an extent as to give him room for the exercise of his own particular individuality of conception1 and this the canon does not do4 ,for this same reason too the fugue and the sonata have successively gone out of fashion and from ,schumann down to the present time composers have as it were created their own forms1 the difficulty in listening arising from the fact that no one but the composer himself could recognize the form as a form because it had not been adopted to a great enough extent by other composers to make it in any sense universal4 ,the result is that in much present-day music it is very difficult for the hearer to discover any trace of familiar design1 and the impression made by such music is in consequence much less definite than that made by music of the classic school4 ,it is probable that a reaction from this state of affairs will come in the near future1 for in any art it is necessary that there should be at least enough semblance of structure to make the art work capable of standing as a universal thing rather than as the mere temporary expression of some particular composer or of some period of composition4 #adb4 ,the common school round is an example of canon1 each voice repeating exactly what the first voice has sung1 while this first voice is going on with its melody4 ,the round is therefore defined as a variety of canon in which the imitation is always in unison with the subject4 #adc4 ,the fugue 7,latin1 fuga flight7 is a form of contrapuntal composition in which the imitation is always in the dominant key1 i4e41 a fifth above or a fourth below4 ,the imitation 7called the answer7 may be an exact repetition of the subject 7sometimes called the question71 but is usually not so4 ,the fugue differs from the canon also in that the subject is given in complete form before the answer begins1 while in the canon the imitation begins while the subject is still going on4 ,the fugue is not nearly so strict in form as the canon and gives the composer much greater opportunity for expressing musical ideas4 ,a canon may be perfect in form and yet be very poor music2 this same statement might of course be made about any form1 but is especially true in the stricter ones4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,terms ,,relating ,,to ,,forms ,,and ,,styles 7,continued7 7,sections #add to #afj relate particularly to terms used in descriptions of monophonic music#cc47 ,footnote #cc3 ,there is a very pronounced disagreement among theorists as to what terms are to be used in referring to certain forms and parts of forms and it seems impossible to make a compromise that will satisfy even a reasonable number4 ,in order to make the material in this chapter consistent with itself therefore it has been thought best by the author to follow the terminology of some single recognized work on form1 and the general plan of monophonic form here given is therefore that of the volume called ,musical ,form1 by ,bussler-,cornell4 #add4 ,a phrase is a short musical thought 7at least two measures in length7 closing with either a complete or an incomplete cadence4 ,the typical phrase is four measures long4 ,the two-measure phrase is often called section4 ,the word phrase as used in music terminology corresponds with the same word as used in language study4 #ade4 ,a period is a little piece of music typically eight measures long1 either complete in itself or forming one of the clearly defined divisions of a larger form4 ,the period 7when complete in itself7 is the smallest monophonic form4 ,the essential characteristic of the regular period is the fact that it usually consists of two balanced phrases 7often called antecedent and consequent or thesis and antithesis71 the first phrase giving rise to the feeling of incompleteness 7by means of a cadence in another key1 deceptive cadence1 etc417 the second phrase giving the effect of completeness by means of a definite cadence at the close4 ,the second half of the period is sometimes a literal repetition of the first half1 in all respects except the cadence1 but in many cases too it is a repetition of only one of the elements--rhythm1 intervals1 or general outline4 ,figs4 #eh and #ei show examples of both types4 ,the principle almost invariably holds that the simpler the music 7cf4 folk-tunes7 the more obvious the form of the period1 while the more complex the music1 the less regular the period4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,,mozart ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,,schubert #adf4 ,the primary forms are built up by combining two or more periods4 ,the small two-part primary form 7often called song-form or ,lied-form7 consists of two periods so placed that the second constitutes a consequent or antithesis to the first4 ,the second half of this second period is often exactly the same as the second half of the first period1 thus binding the two periods together into absolute unity4 ,the theme of the choral movement of the ,ninth ,symphony 7,beethoven7 quoted below is a perfect example of this form4 ,other examples are ,drink to ,me ,only ,with ,thine ,eyes1 and ,the ,last ,rose of ,summer4 ,illustration3 ,,beethoven ,the small three-part primary form is like the two-part primary form except that it has a section of contrasting material interpolated between the two periods4 ,this middle part is usually an eight-measure phrase4 ,the large two- and three-part primary forms usually have sixteen-measure periods instead of eight-measure ones1 but are otherwise similar in construction4 ,these various primary forms are used in constructing many varieties of compositions1 among them the theme and variations1 the polka1 the waltz1 the march1 etc41 as well as most of the shorter movements in sonatas1 quartets1 etc4 ,they are used in vocal music also1 but are less apt to be regular here because the form of vocal music is largely dependent upon the structure of the text4 #adg4 ,a theme is a fragment of melody used as the subject of a fugue1 as the basis of the development section in sonata form1 etc4 ,sometimes it is a complete tune 7often in period form71 on which variations are made1 as e4g41 in the familiar theme and variations4 #adh4 ,thematic development consists in taking a short theme 7or several short themes7 and by means of transposition1 interval expansion and contraction1 rhythmic augmentation and diminution1 inversion1 tonality changes1 etc41 building out of it a lengthy composition or section of a composition4 ,fig4 #fj b1 c1 d1 e1 and f show how the theme given in ,fig4 #fj 7a7 may be varied in a few of these ways4 ,there are hundreds of other fashions in which this same theme might be varied without destroying its identity4 ,for other examples of thematic development see the development section of ,sonata ,op4 #ca1 ,no4 #c1 as analyzed in ,appendix ,e4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,corrected error ,sec4 #c in original4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,for further illustrations of development in the case of this same theme1 see--,christiani--,the ,principles of ,expression in ,pianoforte playing1 p4 #add1 ff4 from which the foregoing themes have been adapted4 #adi4 ,a rondo is an instrumental composition 7in homophonic style7 in which a certain theme appears several times almost always in the same form 7i4e41 not thematically varied71 the repetitions of this theme being separated by contrasting material4 ,the rondo is the oldest of the larger monophonic forms and has been used in many different ways1 but perhaps its most characteristic construction is as follows3 7#a7 ,principal subject2 7#b7 second subject in dominant key2 7#c7 principal subject2 7#d7 third subject2 7#e7 first subject again2 7#f7 second subject1 in tonic key2 7#g7 coda 7or ending74 ,the student should note particularly the problem of repetition and contrast 7mentioned in ,sec4 #acd7 as here worked out1 as the rondo was the first monophonic form in which this matter was at all satisfactorily solved1 and its construction is especially interesting because it is readily seen to be one of the direct predecessors of the highest form of all--the sonata4 ,examples of rondos may be found in any volume of sonatas or sonatinas4 #aej4 ,a suite is a set of instrumental dances all in the same or in nearly related keys4 ,the first dance is usually preceded by an introduction or prelude1 and the various dances are so grouped as to secure contrast of movement--a quick dance being usually followed by a slower one4 ,the suite is interesting to students of the development of music as being the first form in several movements to be generally adopted by composers4 ,it retained its popularity from the beginning of the seventeenth to the end of the eighteenth centuries1 being finally displaced by the sonata1 whose immediate predecessor it is thus seen to be4 ,the suite was formerly written for solo instrument only 7harpsichord1 clavichord1 piano7 but modern composers like ,dvovrak1 ,lachner1 ,moszkowski1 and others have written suites for full orchestra also4 #aea4 ,among the dances commonly found in suites are the following3 ,allemande--duple or quadruple measure4 ,bolero--triple measure4 ,bouree--duple or quadruple measure4 ,chaconne--triple measure4 ,courante--a very old dance in triple measure4 ,csardas--,hungarian dance in duple or quadruple measure4 ,gavotte--quadruple measure4 ,gigue 7or jig7--duple measure4 ,habanera--,spanish dance in triple measure4 ,minuet--slow dance in triple measure4 ,mazurka--,polish dance in triple measure4 ,polonaise--,polish dance in triple measure4 ,rigaudon--lively dance in duple or triple measure4 ,sarabande--triple measure4 ,tarantella--swift ,italian dance in sextuple measure4 ,the allemande is especially interesting to students of music form because of its relation to the sonata1 it being the prototype of the sonata-allegro 7i4e41 the first movement of the sonata74 ,the sarabande and courante are likewise interesting as the prototypes of the second movement1 and the bouree1 minuet1 etc41 for their connection with the third movement4 #aeb4 ,the scherzo 7lit4 musical joke7 is a fanciful instrumental composition4 ,it was used by ,beethoven as the third movement of the sonata instead of the more limited minuet1 but is also often found as an independent piece4 #aec4 ,a sonata is an instrumental composition of three or more movements 7usually four71 the first and last of which are almost always in rapid tempo4 ,each of these movements is a piece of music with a unity of its own1 but they are all merged together in a larger whole with a broad underlying unity of larger scope4 ,the composition receives its name from the fact that its first movement is cast in sonata-form4 7,see ,sec4 #aeg for description of sonata-form47 ,when the sonata has four movements1 these are usually arranged as follows3 #a4 ,a quick movement 7allegro1 presto1 etc471 often preceded by a slower introduction4 #b4 ,a slow movement 7largo1 andante1 adagio1 etc474 #c4 ,a minuet or scherzo1 often with a trio added1 in which case the part preceding the trio is repeated after the trio is played4 #d4 ,a quick movement--the finale1 sometimes a rondo1 sometimes another sonata-form1 sometimes a theme with variations4 ,these movements are all in closely related keys1 but in a variety of contrasting rhythms4 #aed4 ,a trio is a sonata for three instruments 7such as piano1 violin1 and cello71 while a quartet is a sonata for four instruments1 the most common quartet combination being as follows3 ,first and second violins1 viola1 and violoncello4 ,the term chamber music is often applied to instrumental music for trio1 quartet1 quintet1 and other similar combinations which are suitable for a small room rather than for a large concert hall4 ,the words trio and quartet are also applied to vocal works for three and four voices respectively1 these having no relation whatsoever to the sonata as described above4 ,the word trio is also applied to the middle section of minuets1 scherzas1 marches1 etc41 the term originating in the old usage of writing this part for three instruments only4 #aee4 ,a concerto is a sonata for a solo instrument with orchestral accompaniment1 the form being usually somewhat modified so as to adapt it to a composition in which there must necessarily be opportunity for a good deal of technical display4 ,there are usually but three movements in the concerto4 ,the great majority of concertos are for piano and orchestra1 but examples of concertos for violin1 cello1 flute1 oboe1 and other solo instruments 7all with orchestral accompaniment7 have also been written4 ,a few modern composers have applied the term concerto to certain large organ works 7with no orchestral accompaniment1 the composition being written for just the one instrument71 but this use of the word is so contrary to the accepted definition that it is hardly justifiable4 ,when a concerto is played on two pianos 7without orchestra71 this does not mean that there is no orchestral part1 but that there is no orchestra to play it1 and so the parts that should be played by the orchestral instruments have simply been arranged for a second piano 7sometimes organ74 #aef4 ,a symphony is a sonata for full orchestra4 ,in general its construction is the same as that of the sonata1 but it is usually of much larger proportions and has in it much greater variety of both tonal and rhythmic material4 ,the symphony is generally conceded to be the highest type of instrumental music ever evolved4 ,the symphony was accepted as a standard form in the time of ,haydn 7#agcb-ahji7 and was developed enormously by ,haydn himself1 ,mozart 7#agef-agia71 and ,beethoven 7#aggj-ahbg71 reaching perhaps its highest point in the famous ,nine ,symphonies of the last-named composer4 ,later symphony writers whose works are at present being performed include ,schumann1 ,tschaikowsky1 and ,dvovrak4 ,the word symphony was formerly used synonymously with ritornelle1 both words being applied to instrumental interludes between parts of vocal works1 but this usage has now entirely disappeared4 #aeg4 ,sonata-form 7sometimes called sonata-allegro7 is a plan for the construction of instrumental music 7sonatas1 quartets1 symphonies1 etc471 in which three rather definite divisions always occur1 the third division being a more or less literal repetition of the first4 ,these three parts of sonata-form with their usual subdivisions are3 ,i4 ,,exposition 7#a7 ,principal theme 7or first subject74 7#b7 ,link-episode 7or modulation group74 7#c7 ,secondary theme 7or song group71 always in a nearly related key4 7#d7 ,closing group4 7#e7 ,coda4 ,,ii4 ,,development ,,section ,treating the themes introduced in the exposition in an almost infinite variety of fashions1 according to the principles of thematic development4 7,see ,sec4 #adh74 ,,iii4 ,,recapitulation 7,,or ,,reprise7 ,consisting essentially of the same subdivisions found in the exposition1 but differing from this first section in one essential point1 viz41 that instead of stating the secondary theme in a related key1 the entire recapitulation is in the principal key4 ,this third section is always followed by a coda 7which may either be very short or quite extended71 bringing the whole movement to a more definite close4 ,the second part of sonata-form 7the development section7 is sometimes the longest and most intricate of the three divisions1 and it is at this point that the composer has an opportunity of displaying to the full his originality and inventive skill4 ,it is principally because of this development section that the sonata is so far superior as a form to its predecessors4 ,for an analyzed example of sonata-form1 see ,appendix ,e4 ,the student is advised to take other sonatas and go through the first movements with a view to finding at least the three main divisions mentioned above4 ,in some cases the form will of course be so irregular that all the parts indicated cannot be discovered1 but the general outlines of the scheme will always be present4 #aeh4 ,a sonatina1 as its name implies1 is a little sonata4 ,it differs from the sonata proper principally in having little or no development1 the second section being of slight importance as compared with the corresponding section of a sonata4 ,a grand sonata is like an ordinary sonata in form1 but is of unusually large dimensions4 #aei4 ,program music is instrumental music which is supposed to convey to the listener an image or a succession of images that will arouse in him certain emotions which have been previously aroused in the composer's mind by some scene1 event1 or idea4 ,the clue to the general idea is usually given at the beginning of the music in the form of a poem or a short description of the thing in the mind of the composer1 but there are many examples in which there is no clue whatsoever except the title of the composition4 ,program music represents a mean between pure music 7cf4 the piano sonata or the string quartet7 on the one hand1 and descriptive music 7in which actual imitations of bird-calls1 whistles1 the blowing of the wind1 the galloping of horses1 the rolling of thunder1 etc41 occur71 on the other4 ,most program music is written for the orchestra1 examples being ,liszt's ,the ,preludes1 ,strauss' ,till ,eulenspiegel1 etc4 #afj4 ,a symphonic poem 7or tone poem7 is an orchestral composition of large dimensions 7resembling the symphony in size71 usually embodying the program idea4 ,it has no prescribed form and seems indeed to be often characterized by an almost total lack of design1 but there are also examples of symphonic poems in which the same theme runs throughout the entire composition1 being adapted at the various points at which it occurs to the particular moods expressed by the program at those points4 ,the symphonic poem was invented by ,liszt 7#ahaa-ahhf7 and has since been used extensively by ,strauss1 ,saint-,saens and others4 ,it came into existence as a part of the general movement which has caused the fugue and the sonata successively to go out of fashion1 viz41 the tendency to invent forms which would not hamper the composer in any way1 but would leave him absolutely free to express his ideas in his own individual way4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,terms ,,relating ,,to ,,vocal ,,music #afa4 ,an anthem is a sacred choral composition1 usually based on ,biblical or liturgical#cd words4 ,it may or may not have an instrumental accompaniment1 and is usually written in four parts1 but may have five1 six1 eight1 or more4 ,footnote #cd3 ,a liturgy is a prescribed form or method of conducting a religious service1 and the parts sung in such a service 7as e4g41 the holy communion1 baptism1 etc471 are referred to as the musical liturgy4 ,the word anthem is derived from antifona 7or antiphona71 meaning a psalm or hymn sung responsively1 i4e41 antiphonally1 by two choirs1 or by choir and congregation4 ,a full anthem is one containing no solo parts2 a solo anthem is one in which the solo part is predominant over the chorus1 while a verse anthem is one in which the chorus parts alternate with passages for concerted solo voices 7i4e41 trios1 quartets1 etc474 #afb4 ,a capella 7sometimes spelled cappella7 or alla capella music is part-singing 7either sacred or secular7 without accompaniment4 ,this term means literally in chapel style1 and refers to the fact that in the early days of the church all singing was unaccompanied4 #afc4 ,a motet is a sacred choral composition in contrapuntal style4 ,it has no solo parts1 thus corresponding to the madrigal 7q4v47 in secular music4 ,the motet is intended for a capella performance1 but is often given with organ accompaniment4 #afd4 ,a choral is a hymn-tune of the ,german ,protestant ,church4 ,it is usually harmonized in four voices4 ,the choral 7sometimes spelled chorale7 is described as having a plain melody1 a strong harmony1 and a stately rhythm4 ,it differs from the ordinary ,english and ,american hymn-tune in being usually sung at a much slower tempo1 and in having a pause at the end of each line of text4 #afe4 ,the mass is the liturgy for the celebration of the ,lord's ,supper in the service of the ,roman ,catholic ,church4 ,as used in the terminology of music the word refers to the six hymns which are always included when a composer writes a musical mass1 and which form the basis of the celebration of the ,communion4#ce ,these six hymns are as follows3 ,footnote #ce3 ,it should be understood that this statement refers to the service called the high mass only1 there being no music at all in connection with the so-called low mass4 ,kyrie4 ,gloria 7including the ,gratias agimus1 ,qui tollis1 ,quoniam1 ,cum ,sancto ,spirito74 ,credo 7including the ,et ,incarnatus1 ,crucifixus1 and ,et ,resurrexit74 ,sanctus 7including the ,hosanna74 ,benedictus4 ,agnus ,dei 7including the ,dona nobis74 ,the requiem mass is the mass for the dead and differs considerably from the ordinary mass4 ,both regular and requiem masses have been written by many of the great composers 7,bach1 ,beethoven1 ,verdi1 ,gounod71 and in many cases these masses are so complex that they are not practicable for the actual service of the ,church1 and are therefore performed only by large choral societies1 as concert works4 #aff4 ,a cantata is a vocal composition for chorus and soloists1 the text being either sacred or secular4 ,the accompaniment may be written for piano1 organ1 or orchestra4 ,when sacred in character the cantata differs from the oratorio in being shorter and less dramatic1 in not usually having definite characters1 and in being written for church use1 while the oratorio is intended for concert performance4 ,when secular in subject the cantata differs from the opera in not usually having definite characters1 and in being always rendered without scenery or action4 ,examples of the sacred cantata are3 ,stainer's ,the ,crucifixion1 ,clough-,leighter's ,the ,righteous ,branch1 and ,gaul's ,the ,holy ,city4 ,examples of the secular cantata are3 ,bruch's ,armenius1 ,coleridge-,taylor's ,hiawatha4 #afg4 ,an oratorio is a composition on a large scale for chorus1 soloists1 and orchestra1 the text usually dealing with some religious subject4 ,the oratorio1 as noted above1 is not intended for the church service1 but is written for concert performance4 #afh4 ,an opera is a composition for vocal soloists1 chorus1 and orchestra1 with characters1 action1 scenery1 and dramatic movement4 ,it is a drama set to music4 ,grand opera is opera with a serious plot1 in which everything is sung1 there being no spoken dialog at all4 ,opera comique is a species of opera in which part of the dialog is spoken and part sung4 ,opera comique is not synonymous with comic opera1 for the plot of opera comique is as often serious as not4 ,in fact the entire distinction between the terms grand opera and opera comique is being broken down1 the latter term referring merely to operas first given at the ,opera ,comique in ,paris1 and the former term to those given at the ,grand ,opera ,house in the same city4 ,a comic opera is a humorous opera1 the plot providing many amusing situations and the whole ending happily4 ,it corresponds with the comedy in literature4 ,a light opera is one with an exceedingly trivial plot1 in which songs1 dances1 and pretty scenery contribute to the amusement of the audience4 ,the music is lively1 but usually as trivial as the plot4 ,the term music drama was used by ,wagner in referring to his own operas1 and is also sometimes applied to other modern operas in which the dramatic element is supposed to predominate over the musical4 #afi4 ,a libretto 7lit4--little book7 is the word-text of an opera1 oratorio1 cantata1 or some other similar work4 #agj4 ,recitative is a style of vocal solo common to operas1 oratorios1 and cantatas1 especially those written some time ago4 ,its main characteristic is that the word-text is of paramount importance1 both rhythm and tone-progression being governed by rhetorical rather than by musical considerations4 ,recitative undoubtedly originated in the intoning of the priest in the ritualistic service of the ,church1 but when applied to the opera it became an important means of securing dramatic effects1 especially in situations in which the action of the play moved along rapidly4 ,recitative is thus seen to be a species of musical declamation4 ,in the early examples of recitative there was scarcely any accompaniment1 often only one instrument 7like the cello7 being employed to play a sort of obbligato melody3 when full chords were played they were not written out in the score1 but were merely indicated in a more or less general way by certain signs and figures4 7,see thorough-bass1 p4 #he1 ,sec4 #bjj47 ,but about the middle of the seventeenth century a slightly different style of recitative was invented1 and in this type the orchestra was employed much more freely in the accompaniment1 especially in the parts between the phrases of the text1 but to some extent also to support the voice while singing4 ,this new style was called recitativo stromento 7i4e41 accompanied recitative71 while the original type was called recitativo secco 7i4e41 dry recitative74 ,during the last century the style of recitative has been still further developed by ,gluck and ,wagner1 both of whom used the orchestra as an independent entity1 with interesting melodies1 harmonies and rhythms all its own1 while the vocal part is a sort of obbligato to this accompaniment4 ,but even in this latest phase of recitative1 it is the word-text that decides the style of both melody and rhythm in the voice part4 ,fig4 #fa shows an example of dry recitative1 taken from ,the ,messiah4 ,illustration3 ,,alto ,,voice4 ,be-hold6 a vir-gin shall con-ceive1 and bear a son1 and shall call his name ,em-man-u-el2 ,god with us4 #aga4 ,aria is likewise a style of vocal solo found in operas1 etc41 but its predominating characteristic is diametrically opposed to that of the recitative4 ,in the aria the word-text is usually entirely subordinate to the melody1 and the latter is often very ornate1 containing trills1 runs1 etc4 ,the rendition of this ornate style of music is often referred to as coloratura singing1 but it should be noted that not all arias are coloratura in style4 ,the familiar solos from ,the ,messiah--,rejoice ,greatly1 and ,the trumpet shall sound are good examples of the aria style4 #agb4 ,a lied 7,ger4 song7 is a vocal solo in which the text1 the melody1 and the accompaniment contribute more or less equally to the effect of the whole4 ,strictly speaking the word lied means a poem to be sung1 and this meaning will explain at once the difference between the lied on the one hand1 and the ,italian recitative and aria on the other1 for in the lied the text is of great importance1 but the music is also interesting1 while in the recitative the text was important but the music very slight1 and in the aria the text was usually inconsequential while the music held the center of interest4 ,the most pronounced characteristic of the lied is the fact that it usually portrays a single mood1 sentiment1 or picture1 thus differing from the ballad1 which is narrative in style4 ,it will be noted that this single mood1 or sentiment1 or picture was originally conceived by the poet who wrote the word-text1 and that the composer in writing music to this text has first tried to get at the thought of the poet1 and has then attempted to compose music which would intensify and make more vivid that thought4 ,this intensification of the poet's thought comes as often through the rhythm1 harmony1 and dynamics of the accompaniment as through the expressiveness of the voice part4 ,the style of song-writing in which each verse is sung to the same tune is called the strophe form1 while that in which each verse has a different melody is often referred to as the continuous or through-composed form 7,ger4 durch-componiert74 #agc4 ,a ballad was originally a short1 simple song1 the words being in narrative style1 i4e41 the word-text telling a story4 ,in the earlier ballads each verse of the poem was usually sung to the same tune 7strophe form71 but in the art-ballad as developed by ,loewe and others the continuous style of composition is employed1 this giving the composer greater opportunities of making vivid through his music the events described by the poem4 ,these later ballads are in consequence neither short nor simple but compare in structure with the lied itself4 #agd4 ,a folk-song is a short song sung by and usually originating among the common people4 ,its dominant characteristic is usually simplicity1 this applying to word-text1 melody1 and accompaniment 7if there is one74 ,the text of the folk-song is usually based on some event connected with ordinary life1 but there are also many examples in which historical and legendary happenings are dealt with4 ,auld ,lang ,syne1 and ,comin' thru the ,rye1 are examples of folk-songs4 ,there has been some difference of opinion as to whether a song1 the composer of which is known1 can ever constitute a real folk-song3 recent writers seem to be taking the sensible view of the matter1 viz43 that if a song has the characteristics of a folk- rather than an art-song1 and if it remains popular for some time among the common people1 then it is just as much a folk-song whether the composer happens to be known or not4 #age4 ,a madrigal is a secular vocal composition having from three to eight parts4 ,it is in contrapuntal style1 like the motet1 and is usually sung a capella4 #agf4 ,a glee is a vocal composition in three or more parts1 being usually more simple in style than the madrigal1 and sometimes having more than one movement4 ,the glee may be either gay or sad in mood1 and seems to be a composition peculiar to the ,english people4 #agg4 ,a part-song is a composition for two or more voices1 7usually four7 to be sung a capella4 ,it is written in monophonic rather than in polyphonic style1 thus differing from the madrigal and glee4 ,morley's ,now is the ,month of ,maying is an example of the part-song1 as is also ,sullivan's ,o ,hush ,thee1 ,my ,baby4 ,the term part-song is often loosely applied to glees1 madrigals1 etc4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,rhythm1 ,,melody1 ,,harmony ,,and ,,intervals #agh4 ,the four elements commonly attributed to music 7in the order of their development7 are3 ,rhythm1 ,melody1 ,harmony1 and ,timbre 7or tone-color74 #agi4 ,rhythm is the regular recurrence of accent4 ,in music it is more specifically the regular recurrence of groups of accented and non-accented beats 7or pulses7--according to some specified measure-system4 ,since rhythm implies continuity1 there must usually be at least two such measure groups in order to make musical rhythm possible4 7,see p4 #dd1 ,sec4 #ig47 #ahj4 ,a melody is a succession of single tones of various pitches so arranged that the effect of the whole will be unified1 coherent1 and pleasing to the ear4 ,the soprano part of hymn-tunes and other simple harmonized compositions is often referred to as the melody4 #aha4 ,harmony is the science of chord construction and combination4 ,the term harmony refers to tones sounding simultaneously1 i4e41 to chords1 as differentiated from tones sounding consecutively1 as in melody4 ,the word harmony may therefore be applied to any group of tones of different pitches sounded as a chord1 although specifically we usually refer to a succession of such chords when we speak of harmony4 ,it is possible to use the same combination of tones in either melody or harmony2 in fact these two elements as applied to modern music have developed together and the style of present-day melody is directly based upon the development that has recently taken place in harmonic construction4 ,harmony 7as contrasted with counterpoint7 first began to be an important factor in music about #afjj ,a4,d41 i4e41 at the time when opera and oratorio came into existence1 when form was established1 and when our modern major and minor scales were adopted4 ,before this practically all music was composed on a contrapuntal basis4 #ahb4 ,timbre is that peculiar quality of sound which enables one to distinguish a tone produced by one instrument 7or voice7 from a tone produced by an equal number of vibrations on another instrument4 ,the word timbre is synonymous with the terms quality of tone1 and tone quality 7,ger4--,klang-farbe71 the excuse for using it being that it expresses adequately in one word an idea that in our language takes at least two3 this excuse would disappear 7and incidentally a much-mispronounced word would be eliminated7 if the single word quality were to be adopted as the equivalent of timbre4 ,thus1 e4g41 the soprano voice singing c' has a quality different from the contralto voice singing the same tone4 7,the remainder of this chapter and all of ,chapter ,,xviii deal with terms commonly encountered in the study of harmony4 ,courses in this subject usually begin with a study of scales1 but since this subject has already been somewhat extensively treated1 this chapter will omit it1 and will begin with the next topic in harmony study1 viz4--the interval47 #ahc4 ,an interval is the relation of two tones with regard to pitch4 ,if the two tones are sounded simultaneously the result is an harmonic interval1 but if sounded consecutively the result is a melodic interval4 ,fig4 #fb represents the pitches f' and a' as a harmonic interval1 while ,fig4 #fc represents the same pitches arranged as a melodic interval4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4 #ahd4 ,in classifying intervals two facts should be constantly kept in mind3 7#a7 ,the number name of the interval 7third1 fifth1 sixth1 etc471 is derived from the order of letters as found in the diatonic scale4 ,thus the interval ,c--,e is a third because ,e is the third tone from ,c 7counting ,c as one7 in the diatonic scale4 ,c--,g is a fifth because ,g is the fifth tone above ,c in the diatonic scale4 ,it should be noted however that the same number-names apply even though one or both letters of the interval are qualified by sharps1 flats1 etc4 ,thus e4g41 ,c--,gsharp is still a fifth1 as are also ,csharp--,gflat and ,cflat--,gsharp4 7#b7 ,in determining the specific name of any interval 7perfect fifth1 major third1 etc471 the half-step and whole-step 7often referred to respectively as minor second1 and major second7 are used as units of measurement4 ,the half-step is usually defined as the smallest usable interval between two tones4 ,thus1 ,c--,csharp is a half-step1 as are also ,b--,c1 ,f--,gflat1 etc4 ,a whole-step consists of two half-steps4 ,c--,d is a whole-step1 as are also ,bflat--,c1 ,e--,fsharp1 ,fsharp--,gsharp1 ,gflat--,aflat1 etc4 ,the expressions half-step and whole-step are much to be preferred to half-tone and whole-tone1 as being more clear and definite4 ,thus e4g41 the sentence ,the two tones are a half-step apart is much better than ,the two tones are a half-tone apart4 #ahe4 ,a prime is the relation between two tones whose pitches are properly represented by the same degree of the staff4 ,a perfect prime is one whose tones have the same pitch4 ,middle ,c sounded by piano and violin at the same time would offer an example4 ,an augmented prime is one whose second tone is one half-step higher than the first4 ,ex4 ,c--,csharp4 #ahf4 ,a second is the relation between two tones whose pitches are properly represented by adjacent degrees of the staff4 7,the first line and first space are adjacent degrees1 as are also the third line and fourth space47 ,a minor second is one comprising one half-step4 ,ex4 ,b--,c4 ,a major second is one comprising two half-steps4 ,ex4 ,b--,csharp4 ,an augmented second is one comprising three half-steps4 ,ex4 ,f--,gsharp4 #ahg4 ,a third is an interval comprising two seconds4 ,a diminished third has two minor seconds 7i4e41 two half-steps74 ,c--,edouble-flat4 ,a minor third has one minor and one major second 7i4e41 three half-steps74 ,c--,eflat4 ,a major third has two major seconds 7i4e41 four half-steps74 ,c--,e4 #ahh4 ,a fourth is an interval comprising three seconds4 ,a diminished fourth has two minor and one major second4 ,csharp--,f4 ,a perfect fourth has one minor and two major seconds4 ,c--,f4 ,an augmented fourth 7tritone7 has three major seconds4 ,c--,fsharp4 #ahi4 ,a fifth is an interval comprising four seconds4 ,a diminished fifth has two minor and two major seconds4 ,c--,gflat4 ,a perfect fifth has one minor and three major seconds4 ,c--,g4 ,an augmented fifth has four major seconds4 ,c--,gsharp4 #aij4 ,a sixth is an interval comprising five seconds4 ,a minor sixth has two minor and three major seconds4 ,c--,aflat4 ,a major sixth has one minor and four major seconds4 ,c--,a4 ,an augmented sixth has five major seconds4 ,c--,asharp4 #aia4 ,a seventh is an interval comprising six seconds4 ,a diminished seventh has three minor and three major seconds4 ,c--,bdouble-flat4 ,a minor seventh has two minor and four major seconds4 ,c--,bflat4 ,a major seventh has one minor and five major seconds4 ,c--,b4 #aib4 ,an octave is an interval comprising seven seconds4 ,a diminished octave has three minor and four major seconds4 ,c--,cflat4 ,a perfect octave has two minor and five major seconds4 ,c--,c4 ,an augmented octave has one minor and six major seconds4 ,c--,csharp4 #aic4 ,a ninth is usually treated as a second1 a tenth as a third1 etc4 ,the interval of two octaves is often referred to as a fifteenth4 #aid4 ,if the major diatonic scale be written and the interval between each tone and the key-tone noted1 it will be observed that the intervals are all either major or perfect4 ,see ,fig4 #fd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,in this connection also it will be noted that the interval next smaller than major is always minor1 while that next smaller than perfect or minor is always diminished3 but that the interval next larger than both major and perfect is augmented4 #aie4 ,an interval is said to be inverted when the tone originally the upper becomes the lower4 ,thus ,c--,e1 a major third1 inverted becomes ,e--,c1 a minor sixth4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,chords1 ,,cadences1 ,,etc4 #aif4 ,a chord is a combination of several tones sounding together and bearing an harmonic relation to each other4 ,the simplest chord is the triad1 which consists of a fundamental tone called the root1 with the third and fifth above it4 ,c--,e--,g is a triad1 as are also ,d--,f--,a1 ,f--,a--,c1 and ,g--,b--,d4 #aig4 ,triads are classified as major1 minor1 diminished1 or augmented4 ,a major triad has a major third and a perfect fifth1 i4e41 it is a major third with a minor third on top of it4 ,ex4 ,c--,e--,g4 ,a minor triad has a minor third and a perfect fifth1 i4e41 it is a minor third with a major third on top of it4 ,ex4 ,c--,eflat--,g4 ,a diminished triad has a minor third and a diminished fifth1 i4e41 it is a minor third with another minor third on top of it4 ,ex4 ,c--,eflat--,gflat4 ,an augmented triad has a major third and an augmented fifth1 i4e41 it is a major third with another major third on top of it4 ,ex4 ,c--,e--,gsharp4 #aih4 ,a triad may be built on any scale-tone1 but those on ,i1 ,,iv1 and ,v1 are used so much oftener than the others that they are often called the common chords4 ,in referring to triads the ,roman numerals are used to show on what scale-tone the triad is based1 the size of the numeral 7with other signs7 indicating the kind of triad found on each tone of the scale4 ,thus e4g41 the large ,i shows that the triad on the first tone 7in major7 is a major triad1 the small ,,ii shows that the triad on the second tone is minor1 etc4 ,the following figure will make this clear4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,the triads in the minor scale are as follows3 ,illustration #aii4 ,a triad is said to be in fundamental position when its root is the lowest tone4 ,it is said to be in the first inversion when the third is the lowest tone1 and in the second inversion when the fifth is the lowest tone4 ,thus e4g41 in ,fig4 #ff the same chord 7,c--,e--,g7 is arranged in three different positions1 at 7a7 in fundamental position1 at 7b7 in the first inversion1 and at 7c7 in the second inversion4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4 #bjj4 ,when the root is not the bass note1 figures are sometimes used to show what chord is to be played or written4 ,thus1 e4g41 the figure #f over a bass note means that the note given is the third of a chord1 the root being found by going up a sixth from the bass note3 i4e41 the chord is to be sounded in its first inversion4 ,in the same way the figures #f_/d indicate that the note given is the fifth of the chord1 the root and fifth being found by going up a sixth and a fourth from the note given2 i4e41 the chord is to be sounded in its second inversion4 ,the use of these and other similar figures and signs is called figured bass 7or thorough bass7 notation4 ,an example of a figured bass is given in ,fig4 #fg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,thorough bass notation was formerly used extensively in writing accompaniments to vocal works1 the accompanist having to interpret the notes and signs given1 and then to make up an interesting accompaniment as he went along4 ,much of ,handel's music was written in this way1 but in modern editions of these works the chords have been printed in full and the signs omitted4 #bja4 ,a seventh chord consists of a fundamental tone with its third1 fifth1 and seventh4 ,the fifth is sometimes omitted4 ,a ninth chord consists of a fundamental with its third1 fifth1 seventh1 and ninth4 #bjb4 ,a cadence is the close of a musical phrase3 in melody it refers to the last two tones2 in harmony to the last two chords4 ,the word cadence is derived from cadere1 a ,latin word meaning to fall1 the reference being to the falling of the voice 7i4e41 the dropping to the normal pitch7 at the close of a sentence4 #bjc4 ,the most frequent cadence in harmony is that involving the chord on ,i preceded by the chord on ,v4 ,because of its directness the cadence ,v--,i is called the authentic cadence4 #bjd4 ,the most satisfactory form 7to the ear7 of the authentic cadence is that in which the highest voice 7the soprano7 of the final chord is the root of that chord4 ,when the final chord appears in this position the cadence is called perfect#cf authentic1 and when the third or fifth of the chord appear in the soprano1 the cadence is called imperfect authentic4 ,fig4 #fh shows the chord ,g--,b--,d cadencing to ,c--,e--,g in three different ways4 ,the first one 7a7 is called a perfect authentic cadence1 but the last two 7c7 and 7d7 are imperfect authentic4 ,footnote #cf3 ,many theorists 7including ,durand in his monumental ,treatise on ,harmony7 consider the ,v--,i cadence to be the only one which may legitimately be called perfect1 but the majority of writers seem to take the view that either authentic or plagal cadence may be either perfect or imperfect1 depending upon the soprano tone1 as noted above4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4 #bje4 ,a plagal cadence is one in which the tonic chord is preceded by the sub-dominant chord 7,,iv--,i74 ,the plagal cadence 7sometimes called the church cadence1 or amen cadence71 like the authentic1 is described as being perfect when the soprano of the tonic chord is the root of that chord1 and imperfect when the soprano of the final chord is the third or fifth of that chord4 ,fig4 #fi shows the chord ,f--,a--,c cadencing to ,c--,e--,g in three ways4 ,the first one 7a7 is called a perfect plagal cadence1 the last two are imperfect plagal4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4 #bjf4 ,a half-cadence occurs when the dominant chord is used as the final chord of a phrase1 and is immediately preceded by the tonic chord4 ,this form is used to give variety in the course of a composition1 but is not available at the end because it does not give a definite close in the tonic key4 ,fig4 #gj shows the use of the half-cadence at the close of such a phrase4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,,bach #bjg4 ,a deceptive cadence is the progression of the dominant chord to some other chord than the tonic1 the word deceptive implying that the ear expects to hear ,v resolve to ,i and is deceived when it does not do so4 ,the most common form of deceptive cadence is that in which ,v 7or ,v#g7 resolves to ,,vi4 ,it is used to give variety1 but as in the case of the half-cadence1 is not available at the end of a composition4 ,fig4 #ga gives an example4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,,wm4 ,,mather #bjh4 ,a sequence is a succession of similar harmonic progressions1 these resulting from a typical or symmetrical movement of the bass part4 ,see ,fig4 #gb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,the word sequence is also applied to a succession of similar melodic progressions1 as in ,fig4 #gc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4 #bji4 ,modulation is a change of key without any break in the continuity of chords or melody tones4 ,harmonic modulations are usually effected through the medium of a chord1 some or all of whose tones are common to both keys4 ,examples of both harmonic and melodic modulations are shown in ,figs4 #gd and #ge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4 ,the chord most frequently used in modulating is the dominant seventh1 i4e41 a seventh chord 7see ,sec4 #bja7 on the dominant tone of the key4 ,in the key of ,c this chord is ,g--,b--,d--,f2 in the key of ,d it is ,a--,csharp--,e--,g2 in the key of ,aflat it is ,eflat--,g--,bflat--,dflat1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4 #baj4 ,a suspension is the temporary substitution of a tone a degree higher than the regular chord-tone1 this temporary tone being later replaced by the regular chord-tone4 ,see ,fig4 #gf 7a74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4 #baa4 ,a retardation is the temporary substitution of a tone a degree lower than the regular tone1 this tone 7as in the case of the suspension7 being later replaced by the regular chord tone4 ,see ,fig4 #gg 7a74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4 ,the regular chord tone to which both suspension and retardation resolve is called the tone of resolution4 #bab4 ,the anticipation is a chord-tone introduced just before the rest of the chord to which it belongs is sounded4 ,see ,fig4 #gh 7a74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4 #bac4 ,a pedal point 7or organ point7 is a tone sustained through a succession of harmonic progressions1 to the chords of some of which it usually belongs4 ,the term pedal point originated in organ playing1 7where the foot on a pedal can sustain a tone while the hands are playing a succession of harmonies71 but as now used it may be applied to any kind of music4 ,the dominant and tonic are the tones most often used in this way4 ,see ,fig4 #gi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4 ,,schumann #bad4 ,when the upper three voices of a four-voice composition are written close together 7the soprano and tenor never appearing more than an octave apart71 the term close position is applied4 ,but when the upper voices are not written close together1 the term open position is applied4 #bae4 ,by transposition is meant playing1 singing1 or writing a piece of music in some other key than the original4 ,thus e4g41 if a song written in the key of ,g is too high in range for a soloist1 the accompanist sometimes transposes it to a lower key 7as ,f or ,e71 thus causing all tones to sound a second or a third lower than they did when the same song was played in the original key4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,miscellaneous ,,terms ,a battuta--with the beat2 in strict rhythm4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,corrected error battua in original4 ,a quatre mains--for four hands4 ,accompagnamento--the accompaniment4 ,all'unisono--in unison4 ,alla breve--#b_/b measure4 ,the term alla breve is also sometimes used as a tempo indication1 to show a rate of speed so great that a half-note has a beat1 i4e41 only two beats in a measure--hence twice as fast as before4 ,alla capella--usually the same as a capella 7see p4 #gf1 ,sec4 #afb7 but sometimes used in the same sense as alla breve4 ,alla marcia--in march style4 ,alla zingara--in gypsy style4 ,alt--see in alt4 ,alto--the lowest female voice4 ,range approximately g-e''4 ,the word alto is derived from the ,latin word altus1 meaning high1 the term being formerly applied to the highest male voice1 which originally sang 7and still does so in many male choirs7 the alto part4 ,animato come sopra--in animated style as above4 ,antiphony 7antiphonal7--the responsive singing of two choirs1 usually one at either end of the church1 or at either side of the chancel4 ,arabesque--an instrumental composition in light1 somewhat fantastic style4 ,the term arabesque is derived from the word ,arabian1 and was originally applied to a style of decoration4 ,arioso--in the style of an air or song1 i4e41 a flowing1 vocal style4 ,attacca--attack the next division without any pause4 ,attacca subito--same as attacca4 ,attacca subito il seguente--attack at once that which follows4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,in last #c entries1 corrected misspelling attaca in original4 ,attack--the promptness or firmness with which a phrase is begun4 ,bagpipe--,a ,scotch instrument on which the tone is produced by a combination of bellows and reeds4 ,its characteristic effect is the continuous sounding of a low tone 7sometimes several tones7 while the melody is being played on the higher reeds4 ,barcarole 7or barcarolle7--a boat song4 ,also applied to a vocal or instrumental composition in the style of the gondolier's boat song4 ,baritone 7or barytone7--the male voice having a range between that of the tenor and that of the bass4 ,approximate range ,g-g'4 ,bass--the lowest male voice4 ,approximate range ,e-e'4 ,basso--same as bass4 ,berceuse--a cradle song4 ,binary form--a form in two parts4 ,binary measure--a measure having two beats4 ,bis--twice4 ,used to indicate a repetition4 7,rare47 ,brace--the sign used to join several staffs1 showing that all tones represented on these staffs are to be performed together4 ,the term is often used also in referring to the music written on staffs so joined2 as--,begin with the upper brace4 ,broken chord--a chord whose tones are not all sounded simultaneously1 as e4g41 in an accompaniment group4 ,broken octave--an octave whose tones are sounded one at a time instead of simultaneously4 ,cacophony--harsh1 discordant1 unpleasant1 especially incorrect combinations of tones4 ,the opposite of euphony4 ,cadenza--,a brilliant passage1 usually in an instrumental composition1 introduced just before the close of a movement4 ,the cadenza was formerly improvised by the performer1 7thus giving an opportunity of displaying his technical skill71 but since ,beethoven1 composers have usually written their own cadenzas4 ,cantabile--in a singing style4 ,cantando--same as cantabile4 ,canto--the highest voice part2 i4e41 the soprano part4 ,note the derivation of canto1 cantabile1 etc41 from the ,latin word cantus1 meaning a song4 ,carol--a hymn of joyful praise1 usually sung in connection with ,easter or ,christmas festivities4 ,the word carol meant originally a dance1 hence the happy character of songs of this type4 ,catch--a round set to humorous words4 ,chromatic 7noun7--a term somewhat loosely applied to any tone not belonging to the key as indicated by the signature4 ,many teachers are replacing the word chromatic in this sense with the term intermediate tone1 this term being applicable whether the foreign tone is actually used for ornamental purposes as a chromatic1 or to effect a modulation4 ,thus e4g41 ,fsharp is the intermediate tone between ,f and ,g in the key of ,c4 ,clavichord--an instrument with keys1 resembling the square piano in appearance4 ,the tone was produced by forcing wedge-shaped pieces of metal against the strings1 thus setting them in vibration4 ,the clavichord was one of the immediate predecessors of the piano1 much of the music written by ,bach being composed for it1 although this music is now played on the modern piano4 ,colla voce--with the voice3 i4e41 play the accompaniment according to the soloist's performance rather than strictly according to the rhythm indicated in the score4 ,colla parte--same as colla voce4 ,coloratura--florid passages in singing4 ,also applied to the style of singing employed in rendering such passages4 7,see p4 #gf1 ,sec4 #aga47 ,consonance--,a combination of tones agreeable to the ear and requiring no resolution to other tone-combinations in order to give the effect of finality4 ,the major triad ,c--,e--,g is an example of a consonant chord4 ,contralto--same as alto4 ,con variazioni--with variations4 ,direct--a sign 7direct symbol7 placed at the end of the last staff on a page1 to indicate what the first note on the next page is going to be4 ,this sign is now practically obsolete4 ,dirge--a funeral chant4 ,the dirge is named from the first word of a chant used in the office for the dead1 which begins--,dirige ,domine1 ,deus meus1 in conspectu tuo viam meam 7,direct1 ,o ,lord1 ,my ,god1 my way in ,thy sight74 ,discord--an ugly1 unharmonious combination of tones4 ,dissonance--a harmonic combination of tones giving rise to the feeling of incompleteness or unrest1 and therefore requiring resolution to some other combination which has an agreeable or final feeling4 7cf4 consonance47 ,the diminished triad ,c--,eflat--,gflat is an example of a dissonant chord4 ,divisi--divided4 ,an indication showing that the first violins1 or the sopranos1 or any other body of performers ordinarily sounding in unison are now to divide into two or more parts4 ,duet--a composition for two performers4 7,from the ,it4 word due--two47 ,ecole--a school or style of composition or performance4 ,etude--a study4 ,also an instrumental composition in the style of a study1 but intended for artistic performance4 ,euphony--agreeable tone combinations2 the opposite of cacophony4 7,from the ,greek word meaning well-sounding47 ,facile--easy4 ,fanfare--a trumpet call4 ,fantasia--,an instrumental composition not based on any regular form4 ,fiasco--a complete failure or breakdown4 ,this use of the word fiasco 7which means in ,italian a flask1 or bottle7 is said to have reference to the bursting of a bottle1 the complete ruin of the bottle being compared with the complete failure of a performance4 ,gamut--all the tones of a scale4 ,glissando--playing a scale on the keyboard by drawing the finger along over the keys1 thus depressing them in very rapid succession4 ,the word is derived from the ,french word glisser--to glide4 ,harpsichord--one of the immediate predecessors of the piano4 ,humoresque--a capricious1 fantastic composition4 7,cf4 fantasia47 ,idyl--a short1 romantic piece of music in simple and unaffected style4 ,in alt--pitches in the first octave above the treble staff4 ,thus e4g41 ,c in alt is the ,c represented by the second added line above the treble staff4 ,in altissimo--pitches in the octave above the alt octave4 ,instrumentation--see orchestration4 ,interlude--a short movement between two larger movements4 ,loco--place2 i4e41 play as written4 7,see p4 #ae1 ,sec4 #df47 ,lunga trillo--a long trill4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,miscellaneous ,,terms 7,continued7 ,lyric--a short1 song-like poem of simple character4 ,also applied to instrumental pieces of like character4 ,maggiore--major4 ,marcato il canto--the melody well marked2 i4e41 subdue the accompaniment so that the melody may stand out strongly4 ,melos--melody4 ,this word melos is also applied to the peculiar style of vocal solo found in ,wagner's music dramas4 ,see recitative 7p4 #ge1 ,sec4 #agj74 ,mellifluous--pleasing2 pleasant sounding4 ,menuetto1 menuet--same as minuet4 7,see p4 #fh1 ,sec4 #aea47 ,mezzo soprano--a woman's voice of soprano quality1 but of somewhat lower compass than the soprano voice4 ,range approximately b to g''4 ,minore--minor4 ,nocturne 7sometimes spelled nocturn1 notturna1 nokturne1 etc47--a night piece2 a quiet1 melodious1 somewhat sentimental composition1 usually for piano solo4 ,nuance--delicate shading2 subtle variations in tempo and dynamics which make the rendition of music more expressive4 ,obbligato 7sometimes incorrectly spelled obligato7--an accessory melody accompanying harmonized music1 7usually vocal music74 ,the word obbligato 7,it4 bound1 or obliged7 refers to the fact that this is usually a melody of independent value1 so important that it cannot be omitted in a complete performance4 ,offertory 7sometimes spelled offertoire1 or offertorium7--a piece of music played or sung during the taking up of the offering in the church service4 ,the word is often applied by composers to any short1 simple piece of music 7usually for organ7 that is suitable for the above purpose4 ,opus--work2 used by composers to designate the order in which their compositions were written1 as e4g41 ,beethoven1 ,op4 #b1 ,no4 #a4 ,orchestration--the art of writing for the orchestra1 this implying an intimate knowledge of the range1 quality1 and possibilities of all the orchestral instruments4 ,ossia--or else2 used most often to call the attention of the performer to a simpler passage that may be substituted for the original one by a player whose skill is not equal to the task he is attempting to perform4 ,overture--7from overt--open7--an instrumental prelude to an opera or oratorio4 ,the older overtures were independent compositions and bore no particular relation to the work which was to follow1 but in modern music 7cf4 ,wagner1 ,strauss1 etc471 the overture introduces the principal themes that are to occur in the work itself1 and the introduction thus becomes an integral part of the work as a whole4 ,the word overture is sometimes applied to independent orchestral compositions that have no connection with vocal works1 as the ,hebrides ,overture by ,mendelssohn4 ,pizzicato--plucked4 ,a term found in music for stringed instruments1 and indicating that for the moment the bow is not to be used1 the tone being secured by plucking the string4 ,polacca--a ,polish dance in three-quarter measure4 ,polonaise--same as polacca4 ,postlude--7lit4 after-play7--an organ composition to be played at the close of a church service4 ,prelude--7lit4 before-play7--an instrumental composition to be played at the beginning of a church service1 or before some larger work 7opera1 etc474 ,the term is also applied to independent piano compositions of somewhat indefinite form4 7,cf4 preludes by ,chopin1 ,rachmaninoff1 etc47 ,priere--a prayer2 a term often applied 7especially by ,french composers7 to a quiet1 devotional composition for organ4 ,quintole1 quintuplet--a group of five notes to be performed in the time ordinarily given to four notes of the same value4 ,there is only one accent in the group1 this occurring of course on the first of the five tones4 ,religioso1 religiosamente--in a devotional style4 ,requiem--the mass for the dead in the ,roman ,catholic service4 ,it is so called from its first word requiem which means rest4 7,see p4 #gg1 ,sec4 #afe47 ,rhapsody--an irregular instrumental composition of the nature of an improvisation4 ,a term first applied by ,liszt to a series of piano pieces based on gypsy themes4 ,ribattuta--a device in instrumental music whereby a two-note phrase is gradually accelerated1 even to the extent of becoming a trill4 7,see ,appendix ,e1 p4 #aej1 for an example47 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,corrected misspelling ,ribbatua in original4 ,ritornello1 ritornelle--a short instrumental prelude1 interlude1 or postlude1 in a vocal composition1 as e4g41 in an operatic aria or chorus4 ,schottische--a dance in two-quarter measure1 something like the polka4 ,sec1 secco--dry1 unornamented3 applied to a style of opera recitative 7see p4 #ge1 ,sec4 #agj71 and also to some particular chord in an instrumental composition which is to be sounded and almost instantly dropped4 ,score--a term used in two senses3 #a4 ,to designate some particular point to which teacher or conductor wishes to call attention2 as e4g41 ,begin with the lower score1 third measure4 ,the word brace is also frequently used in this sense4 #b4 ,to refer to all the parts of a composition that are to be performed simultaneously1 when they have been assembled on a single page for use by a chorus or orchestral conductor4 ,the term vocal score usually means all chorus parts together with an accompaniment arranged for piano or organ1 while the terms full score and orchestral score refer to a complete assemblage of all parts1 each being printed on a separate staff1 but all staffs being braced and barred together4 ,senza replica1 senza repetizione--without repetition2 a term used in connection with such indications as ,d4,c41 ,d4,s41 etc41 which often call for the repetition of some large division of a composition1 the term senza replica indicating that the smaller repeats included within the larger division are not to be observed the second time4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,corrected misspelling senza repetitione in original4 ,serenade1 serenata--an evening song4 ,sextet--a composition for six voices or instruments4 ,sextuplet--a group of six notes to be performed in the time ordinarily given to four of the same value4 ,the sextuplet differs from a pair of triplets in having but one accent4 ,simile1 similiter--the same2 indicating that the same general effect is to be continued4 ,solfeggio1 solfege--a vocal exercise sung either on simple vowels or on arbitrary syllables containing these simple vowel sounds4 ,its purpose is to develop tone quality and flexibility4 ,these terms are also often applied to classes in sight-singing which use the sol-fa syllables4 ,sopra--above4 ,soprano--the highest female voice4 ,range approximately b--c'''4 ,sostenuto--sustained or connected2 the opposite of staccato4 ,sotto--under4 ,e4g41 sotto voce--under the voice1 i4e41 with subdued tone4 ,solmization--sight-singing by syllable4 ,staccato--detached2 the opposite of legato4 ,subito--suddenly4 ,tenor--the highest male voice4 ,range approximately d--c''4 ,tenuto--7from teneo1 to hold7--a direction signifying that the tones are to be prolonged to the full value indicated by the notes4 ,toccata--a brilliant composition for piano or organ1 usually characterized by much rapid staccato playing4 ,triplet--a group of three tones1 to be performed in the time ordinarily given to two of the same value4 ,the first tone of the triplet is always slightly accented4 ,tutti--7derived from totus1 toti1 ,latin--all7--a direction signifying that all performers are to take part4 ,also used occasionally to refer to a passage where all performers do take part4 ,,appendix ,a ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,music ,,notation ,many conflicting statements have been made regarding the history and development of music writing1 and the student who is seeking light on this subject is often at a loss to determine what actually did happen in the rise of our modern system of writing music4 ,we have one writer for example asserting that staff notation was begun by drawing a single red line across the page1 this line representing the pitch f 7fourth line1 bass staff71 the neumae 7the predecessors of our modern notes7 standing either for this pitch f1 or for a higher or lower pitch1 according to their position on the line1 or above or below it4 ,another line1 continues this writer1 this time of yellow color1 was soon added above the red one1 and this line was to represent c' 7middle ,c74 ,soon the colors of these lines were omitted and the letters ,f and ,c were placed at the beginning of each of them4 ,from this arose our ,f and ,c clefs1 which preceded the ,g clef by some centuries4#cg ,footnote #cg3 ,elson--,music ,dictionary1 article1 ,notation4 ,another writer#ch gives a somewhat different explanation1 stating that the staff system with the use of clefs came about through writing a letter 7,c or ,f7 in the margin of the manuscript and drawing a line from this letter to the neume which was to represent the tone for which this particular letter stood4 ,footnote #ch3 ,goddard--,the ,rise of ,music1 p4 #agg4 ,a third writer#ci asserts that because the alphabetical notation was not suitable for recording melodies because of its inconvenience in sight-singing points were placed at definite distances above the words and above and below one another4 ,in this system 444 everything depended on the accuracy with which the points were interspersed1 and the scribes1 as a guide to the eye1 began to scratch a straight line across the page to indicate the position of one particular scale degree from which all the others could be shown by the relative distances of their points4 ,but this was not found sufficiently definite and the scratched line was therefore colored red and a second line was added1 colored yellow1 indicating the interval of a fifth above the first4 ,footnote #ci3 ,williams in ,grove's ,dictionary1 article1 ,notation4 ,it will be noted that all three writers agree that a certain thing happened1 but as in the case of the four ,gospels in the ,new ,testament1 not all the writers agree on details and it is difficult to determine which account is most nearly accurate in detail as well as in general statement4 ,communication was much slower a thousand years ago than now and ideas about new methods of doing things did not spread rapidly1 consequently it is entirely possible that various men or groups of men in various places worked out a system of notation differing somewhat in details of origin and development but alike in final result4 ,the point is that the development of musical knowledge 7rise of part-writing1 increased interest in instrumental music1 etc471 demanded a more exact system of notation than had previously existed1 just as the development of science in the nineteenth century necessitated a more accurate scientific nomenclature1 and in both cases the need gave rise to the result as we have it to-day4 ,out of the chaos of conflicting statements regarding the development of music notation1 the student may glean an outline-knowledge of three fairly distinct periods or stages1 each of these stages being intimately bound up with the development of music itself in that period4 ,these three stages are3 7#a7 ,the ,greek system1 which used the letters of the alphabet for representing fixed pitches4 7#b7 ,the period of the neumae4 7#c7 ,the period of staff notation4 ,of the ,greek system little is known beyond the fact that the letters of the alphabet were used to represent pitches4 ,this method was probably accurate enough1 but it was cumbersome1 and did not afford any means of writing measured music nor did it give the eye any opportunity of grasping the general outline of the melody in its progression upward and downward1 as staff notation does4 ,the ,greek system seems to have been abandoned at some time preceding the fifth century4 ,at any rate it was about this time that certain accent marks began to be written above the text of the ,latin hymns of the church1 these marks serving to indicate in a general way the progress of the melody4 ,e4g41 an upward stroke of the pen indicated a rise of the melody1 a downward stroke a fall1 etc4 ,in the course of two or three centuries these marks were added to and modified quite considerably1 and the system of notation which thus grew up was called neume notation1 the word neume 7sometimes spelled neuma1 or pneuma7 being of ,greek origin and meaning a nod or sign4 ,this system of neumes was in some ways a retrogression from the ,greek letter system1 for the neumes indicated neither definite pitches nor definite tone-lengths4 ,but it had this advantage over the ,greek system1 that the position of the signs on the page indicated graphically to the eye the general direction of the melody1 as well as giving at least a hint concerning the relative highness or lowness of each individual tone 7the so-called diastematic system71 and this was a great aid to the eye in singing1 just as the relative highness and lowness of notes on the modern staff is of great value in reading music at the present time4 ,thus although the neumae did not enable one to sing a new melody at sight as our modern staff notation does1 yet they served very well to recall to the eye the general outline of a melody previously learned by ear and therefore enabled the singer 7the system was used for vocal music only7 to differentiate between that particular melody and the dozens of others which he probably knew4 ,neume notation was used mostly in connection with the plain-song melodies of the ,church1 and since the words of these chants were sung as they would be pronounced in reading1 the deficiency of the neume system in not expressing definite duration values was not felt4 ,but later on with the rise of so-called measured music 7cf4 invention of opera1 development of independent instrumental music1 etc471 this lack was seen to be one of the chief disadvantages of the system4 ,the elements of neume-writing as given by ,riemann in his ,dictionary of ,music are3 7#a7 ,the signs for a single note3 ,virga 7,virgula7 and ,punctus 7,punctum74 7#b7 ,the sign for a rising interval3 ,pes 7,podatus74 7#c7 ,the sign for a falling interval3 ,clinis 7,flexa74 7#d7 ,some signs for special manners of performance3 ,tremula 7,bebung71 ,quilisma 7shake71 ,plica 7turn71 etc4 ,the others were either synonyms of the above-named or combinations of them4444 ,since music in the middle ages was always copied by hand1 it will readily be understood that these neumae were not uniform either in shape or size1 and that each writer made use of certain peculiarities of writing1 which1 although perfectly intelligible to himself1 could not readily be interpreted by others 7cf4 writing shorthand74 ,here then we observe the greatest weakness of the neume system--its lack of uniformity and its consequent inability accurately to express musical ideas for universal interpretation4 ,examples of several neumes are given merely in order to give the beginner a general idea of their appearance4 ,virga virga symbol or virga symbol4 ,punctus punctus symbol or punctus symbol4 ,pes pes symbol or pes symbol4 ,clinis clinis symbol or clinis symbol4 ,as music grew more and more complex1 and especially as writing in several parts came into use 7cf4 rise of organum1 descant1 and counterpoint71 it became increasingly difficult to express musical ideas on the basis of the old notation1 and numerous attempts were made to invent a more accurate and usable system4 ,among these one of the most interesting was that in which the words of the text were written in the spaces between long1 parallel lines1 placing the initial letters of the words tone and semi-tone at the beginning of the line to indicate the scale interval4 ,an example will make this clear4 ,illustration ,this indicated the precise melodic interval but did not give any idea of the rhythm1 and the natural accents of the text were the only guide the singer had in this direction1 as was the case in neume-notation and in early staff-notation also4 ,various other attempts to invent a more definite notation were made1 but all were sporadic1 and it was not until the idea of using the lines 7later lines and spaces7 to represent definite pitches1 and writing notes of various shapes 7derived from the neumae7 to indicate relative duration-values--it was only when this combination of two elements was devised that any one system began to be universally used4 ,just how the transition from neume to staff notation was made no one knows3 it was not done in a day nor in a year but was the result of a gradual process of evolution and improvement4 ,nor is it probable that any one man deserves the entire credit for the invention of staff notation1 although this feat is commonly attributed to an ,italian monk named ,guido d',arezzo 7approximate dates #iie-ajej74 ,to this same monk we are indebted1 however1 for the invention of the syllables 7,,ut1 ,,re1 ,,mi1 etc47 which 7in a somewhat modified form7 are so widely used for sight-singing purposes4 7,for a more detailed account of the transition to staff notation1 see ,grove1 op4 cit4 article notation47 ,it will now be readily seen that our modern notation is the result of a combination of two preceding methods 7the ,greek letters1 and the neumes7 together with a new element--the staff1 emphasizing the idea that higher tones are written higher on the staff than lower ones4 ,the development of the neumes into notes of various shapes indicating relative time values and the division of the staff into measures with a definite measure signature at the beginning are natural developments of the earlier primitive idea4 ,in the system of musica mensurabilis or measured music which was inaugurated a little later1 the virga 7which had meanwhile developed into a square-headed neume7 was adopted as the longa or long note1 and the punctus in two of its forms as breve and semi-breve 7short and half-short74 ,the longa is now extinct1 but the modern form of the breve is still used as the double-whole-note1 and the semi-breve is our modern whole-note4 ,red-colored notes were sometimes used to indicate changes in value and before long outline notes 7called empty notes7 came into use1 these being easier to make than the solid ones4 ,the transition from square- and diamond-shaped notes to round and oval ones also came about because of the greater facility with which the latter could be written1 and for the same reason notes of small denomination were later tied together or stroked4 ,this latter usage began about #agjj ,a4,d4 ,it is interesting to find that when measured music was finally inaugurated there were at first but two measure-signatures1 viz4--the circle1 standing for three-beat measure 7the so-called perfect measure7 and the semi-circle 7or broken circle7 which indicated two-beat measure4 ,occasionally three-beat measure was indicated by three vertical strokes at the beginning of the melody1 while two-beat measure was shown by two such strokes4 ,upon the basis of these two varieties of measure1 primitive in conception though they may have been1 has been built nevertheless the whole system now employed1 and in the last analysis all forms of measure now in use will be found to be of either the two-beat or the three-beat variety4 ,the circle has disappeared entirely as a measure-sign1 but the broken circle still survives1 and from it are derived the familiar signs common-time symbol and cut-time symbol1 which are sometimes erroneously referred to as being the initial letter of our word common 7as used in the expression common time74 ,the transition from the older style of measure-signature to the present one seems to have occurred during the century following the invention of opera1 i4e41 from about #afjj to about #agjj ,a4,d4 ,the rest came into use very soon after measured music began to be composed and we soon find rests corresponding with the various denominations of notes in use1 viz43 ,illustration ,the terms applied to these rests vary in different authorities1 but it will be noted that the pausa1 semi-pausa1 and suspirum correspond respectively to the double-whole-rest1 whole-rest1 and half-rest in use at present4 ,the bar and double bar may be developments of the maxima rest 7as some writers suggest7 but are probably also derived from the practice of drawing a line vertically through the various parts of a score to show which notes belonged together1 thus facilitating score reading4 ,the bar may occasionally be found as early as #aejj1 but was not employed universally until #afej or later4 ,the number of lines used in the staff has varied greatly since the time of ,guido1 there having been all the way from four to fifteen at various times and in various places1 7four being the standard number for a long time74 ,these lines 7when there were quite a number in the staff7 were often divided into groups of four by red lines1 which were not themselves used for notes4 ,these red lines were gradually omitted and the staff divided into sections by a space1 as in modern usage4 ,the number of lines in each section was changed to five 7in some cases six7 for the sake of having a larger available range in each section4 ,the clefs at the beginning of the staffs are of course simply altered forms of the letters ,f1 ,c1 and ,g1 which were written at first by ,guido and others to make the old neume notation more definite4 ,the staccato sign seems not to have appeared until about the time of ,bach1 the legato sign being also invented at about the same time4 ,the fermata was first used in imitative part-writing to show where each part was to stop1 but with the development of harmonic writing the present practice was inaugurated4 ,leger lines came into use in the seventeenth century4 ,sharps and flats were invented because composers found it necessary to use other tones than those that could be represented by the staff degrees in their natural condition4 ,the history of their origin and development is somewhat complicated and cannot be given here1 but it should be noted once more that it was the need of expressing more than could be expressed by the older symbols that called forth the newer and more comprehensive method4 ,the use of sharps and flats in key signatures grew up early in the seventeenth century4 ,in the earlier signatures it was customary to duplicate sharps or flats on staff degrees having the same pitch-name1 thus3 ,illustration ,illustration4 7,the use of the ,g clef as here shown did not of course exist at that time47 ,the double-sharp and double-flat became necessary when equal temperament 7making possible the use of the complete cycle of keys7 was adopted4 ,this was in the time of ,bach 7#afhe-agej74 ,signs of expression 7relating to tempo and dynamics7 date back at least as far as the year #ajjj ,a4,d41 but the modern terms used for this purpose did not appear until some years after the invention of opera1 the date given by ,c4,f4,a4 ,williams in ,grove's ,dictionary being #afch4 ,these words and signs of expression were at first used only in connection with instrumental music1 but were gradually applied to vocal music also4 ,other systems of notation have been invented from time to time in the course of the last two or three centuries1 but in most cases they have died with their inventors1 and in no case has any such system been accepted with anything even approaching unanimity4 ,the tonic-sol-fa system#dj is used quite extensively in ,england for vocal music1 but has gained little ground anywhere else and the chances are that the present system of notation1 with possibly slight additions and modifications1 will remain the standard notation for some time to come in spite of the attacks that are periodically made upon it on the ground of cumbersomeness1 difficulty in teaching children1 etc4 ,the main characteristics of staff notation may be summed up as follows3 ,footnote #dj3 ,the tonic-sol-fa system represents an attempt to invent a simpler notation to be used by beginners1 7especially in the lower grades of the public schools7 and by singers in choral societies who have never learned to interpret staff notation and who therefore find some simpler scheme of notation necessary if they are to read music at all4 ,in this system the syllables do1 re1 mi1 etc41 7in phonetic spelling7 are used1 the tone being arrived at in each case1 first by means of a firmly established sense of tonality1 and second by associating each diatonic tone with some universally felt emotional feeling3 thus do is referred to as the strong tone1 mi as the calm one1 and la as the sad tone1 great emphasis being placed upon do as the center of the major tonality1 and upon la as the center of the minor4 ,the system is thus seen to have one advantage over staff notation1 viz43 that in presenting it the teacher is compelled to begin with a presentation of actual tones1 while in many cases the teacher of staff notation begins by presenting facts regarding the staff and other symbols before the pupil knows anything about tone and rhythm as such4 ,the symbol for each diatonic tone is the initial letter of the syllable 7i4e41 d for do1 r for re1 etc471 the key being indicated by a letter at the beginning of the composition4 ,the duration-value of tones is indicated by a system of bars1 dots1 and spaces1 the bar being used to indicate the strongest pulse of each measure 7as in staff notation7 the beats being shown by the mark3 a dash indicating the continuation of the same tone through another beat4 ,if a beat has two tones this is indicated by writing the two initial letters representing them with a 4 between them4 ,a modulation is indicated by giving the new key letter and by printing the syllable-initials from the standpoint of both the old and the new do-position4 ,the figure ' above and to the right of the letter indicates the tone in the octave above1 while the same figure below and to the right indicates the octave below4 ,a blank space indicates a rest4 ,the tune of ,my ,country1 ',tis of ,thee1 as printed in tonic sol-fa notation below will make these points clear4 ,key ,f d 3d 3r t#a 3-4d 3r m 3m 3f m 3-4r 3d r 3d 3t#a d 3-- 3-- s 3s 3s s 3-4f 3m f 3f 3f f 3-4m 3r m 3f4m 3r4d m 3-4f 3s l4f3m 3r d 3-- 3-- ,the advantages of the system are 7#a7 the strong sense of key-feeling aroused and the ease with which modulations are felt2 and 7#b7 the fact that it is necessary to learn to sing in but one key1 thus making sight-singing a much simpler matter1 and transposition the easiest process imaginable4 ,but these are advantages from the standpoint of the vocalist 7producing but one tone at a time7 only1 and do not apply to instrumental music4 ,the scheme will therefore probably be always restricted to vocal music and will hardly come into very extensive use even in this field1 for the teacher of music is finding it perfectly possible to improve methods of presentation to such an extent that learning to sing from the staff becomes a very simple matter even to the young child4 ,and even though this were not true1 the tonic-sol-fa will always be hampered by the fact that since all letters are printed in a straight horizontal line the ear does not have the assistance of the eye in appreciating the rise and fall of melody1 as is the case in staff notation4 #a4 ,pitches represented by lines and spaces of a staff1 the higher the line1 the higher the pitch represented1 signs called clefs at the beginning of each staff making clear the pitch names of the lines and spaces4 #b4 ,duration values shown by shapes of notes4 #c4 ,accents shown by position of notes on the staff with regard to bars1 i4e41 the strongest accent always falls just after the bar1 and the beat relatively least accented is found just before the bar4 #d4 ,extent and description of beat-groups shown by measure-signs4 #e4 ,key shown by key signature placed at the beginning of each staff4 #f4 ,rate of speed1 dynamic changes1 etc41 shown by certain ,italian words 7allegro1 andante1 etc471 whose meaning is as universally understood as staff notation itself4 ,,appendix ,b ,,musical ,,instruments #a4 ,broadly speaking1 musical instruments may be divided into two classes1 viz43 7#a7 those that have a keyboard and are therefore capable of sounding several tones simultaneously2 7#b7 those that 7as a rule7 sound only one tone at a time1 as the violin and trumpet4 ,the piano is of course the most familiar example of the first class1 and a brief description is therefore given4 ,the piano was invented about two hundred years ago by ,cristofori 7#afea-agca71 an ,italian4 ,it was an enormous improvement over the types of keyboard instrument that were in use at that time 7clavichord1 harpsichord1 spinet1 virginal7 and has resulted in an entirely different style of composition4 ,see note on embellishments1 p4 #bf4 #b4 ,the most characteristic things about the piano as contrasted with its immediate predecessors are3 7#a7 that on it the loudness and softness of the tone can be regulated by the force with which the keys are struck 7hence the name pianoforte meaning literally the soft-loud72 7#b7 the fact that the piano is capable of sustaining tone to a much greater extent than its predecessors4 ,in other words the tone continues sounding for some little time after the key is struck1 while on the earlier instruments it stopped almost instantly after being sounded4 ,the essentials of the piano mechanism are3 #a4 ,felt hammers controlled by keys1 each hammer striking two or three strings 7which are tuned in unison7 and immediately rebounding from these strings1 allowing them to vibrate as long as the key is held down4 ,the mechanism that allows the hammers to rebound from the strings and fall into position for another blow is called the escapement4 #b4 ,a damper 7made of softer felt7 pressing against each string and preventing it from vibrating until it is wanted4 #c4 ,a keyboard action that controls both hammers and dampers1 causing the damper to leave the string at the same instant that the hammer strikes it4 #d4 ,a pedal 7damper pedal7 controlling all of the dampers1 so that at any moment all the strings may be released so as to be free to vibrate4 ,other interesting details are3 #a4 ,the strings are stretched over a thin sheet of wood called the sound-board4 ,this aids greatly in intensifying the tone4 #b4 ,the soft pedal 7the one at the left7 in an upright piano causes the hammers to move up nearer the strings1 and the shorter swing thus afforded causes a less violent blow and consequently a softer tone4 ,in the grand piano this same pedal shifts the mechanism to one side so that the hammers strike only one or two of the strings1 this resulting in a softer tone of somewhat modified quality4 ,these details regarding the mechanism of the piano can easily be verified by removing the front of any ordinary upright piano and observing what takes place when the keys are struck or the pedals depressed4 #c4 ,there are two familiar types of organ in use at the present time1 7#a7 the reed organ1 7#b7 the pipe-organ4 ,the reed organ is very simple in construction1 the tone being produced by the vibration of metal reeds 7fixed in little cells71 through which air is forced 7or sucked7 from the bellows1 the latter being usually worked by the feet of the player4 ,more power may be secured either by drawing additional stops1 thus throwing on more sets of reeds1 or by opening the knee swells which either throw on more reeds 7sometimes octave couplers7 or else open a swell box in which some of the reeds are enclosed1 the tone being louder when the box is open than when closed4 ,more tone may also be secured by pumping harder4 #d4 ,the essential characteristic of the pipe-organ is a number of sets or registers of pipes called stops1 each set being capable 7usually7 of sounding the entire chromatic scale through a range of five or six octaves4 ,thus for example when the stop melodia is drawn 7by pulling out a stop-knob or tilting a tablet71 one set of pipes only1 sounds when the keyboard is played on3 but if the stop flute is drawn with melodia1 two pipes speak every time a key is depressed4 ,thus if an organ has forty speaking stops1 all running through the entire keyboard1 then each time one key is depressed forty pipes will speak1 and if a chord of five tones is played1 two hundred pipes will speak4 ,the object of having so many pipes is not merely to make possible a very powerful tone1 but1 rather1 to give greater variety of tone-color4 ,the pipe-organ usually has a pedal keyboard on which the feet of the performer play a bass part1 this part often sounding an octave 7or more7 lower than the notes indicate4 ,an eight-foot stop on the organ produces tones of the same pitches as the piano when corresponding keys are struck3 ,a four-foot stop sounds tones an octave higher and a two-foot stop tones two octaves higher4 ,a sixteen-foot stop sounds tones an octave lower than the piano1 and a thirty-two foot stop1 tones two octaves lower1 while some organs have also a sixty-four foot stop which sounds three octaves lower4 ,this gives the organ an exceedingly wide range1 its compass being greater than that of any other single instrument1 and comparable in both range of pitches and variety of color only with the modern orchestra4 ,modern pipe-organs always have a number of combination pedals or pistons 7usually both71 by means of which the organist is enabled to throw on a number of stops with one movement4 ,the selection and use of suitable stops1 couplers1 combinations1 etc41 is called registration4 #e4 ,the instruments mentioned at the beginning of this appendix as belonging to the second class are more familiar in connection with ensemble playing1 being commonly associated with either band or orchestra4 #f4 ,a band is a company of musicians all of whom play upon either wind or percussion instruments1 the main body of tone being produced by the brass and wood-wind divisions4 ,sousa's band is usually made up in somewhat the following manner3 #d flutes and piccolos1 #ab ,bflat clarinets1 #a ,eflat clarinet1 #a alto clarinet1 #a bass clarinet1 #b oboes1 #b bassoons1 #b sarrusophones1 #d saxophones1 #d cornets1 #b trumpets1 #a soprano saxhorn 7fluegelhorn71 #d ,french horns1 #d trombones1 #b contra-bass tubas1 #d tubas1 #a snare drum1 #a bass drum1 #b kettle drums1 cymbals1 triangle1 bells1 castanets1 xylophone1 etc4 #g4 ,an orchestra is a company of musicians performing upon stringed instruments as well as upon wind and percussion4 ,it is differentiated from the band by the fact that the main body of tone is produced by the strings4 ,there are four classes of instruments in the orchestra1 viz41 strings1 wood-wind1 brass 7wind7 and percussion4 ,in addition to these four classes1 there is the harp1 which although a stringed instrument1 does not belong in the same group as the other strings because the manner of producing the tone is altogether different4 #h4 ,in the first group 7the strings7 are found the first and second violins1 viola1 violoncello 7usually spelled cello71 and double-bass4 ,the first and second violins are identical in every way 7but play different parts71 while the other members of the family merely represent larger examples of the same type of instrument4 #i4 ,in the second group 7the wood-wind7 are found the flute1 piccolo1 oboe1 bassoon1 ,english horn1 double-bassoon1 clarinet1 and bass clarinet4 ,the ,english horn1 double-bassoon1 bass clarinet1 and piccolo are not called for in the older compositions1 hence are not always present in the orchestra4 #aj4 ,in the third group 7the brass choir7 are found the ,french horn1 7usually referred to as the horn71 trumpet 7sometimes replaced by the cornet7 trombone1 and tuba4 #aa4 ,the fourth group 7percussion7 consists of kettle drums1 bass drum1 cymbals1 snare drum1 triangle1 bells1 etc4 #ab4 ,in an orchestra of about #ajj players the proportion of instruments is as about as follows1 although it varies somewhat according to the taste of the conductor1 the style of composition to be performed1 etc43 #ah first violins1 #af second violins1 #ad violas1 #ab cellos1 #aj basses1 #a harp1 #c flutes1 #a piccolo1 #c oboes1 #a ,english horn1 #c clarinets1 #a bass clarinet1 #c bassoons1 #a contra 7or double7 bassoon1 #d horns1 #b trumpets1 #c trombones1 #a tuba1 #c kettle drums1 #a bass drum1 #a snare drum1 #a each of triangle1 cymbals1 bells1 and other instruments of percussion1 several of which are often manipulated by one performer4 #ac4 ,the cuts and brief descriptions here added will give at least a rudimentary idea of the appearance and possibilities of the instruments most commonly used in bands and orchestras4 ,for fuller descriptions and particulars regarding range1 quality1 etc41 the student is referred to ,mason's ,the ,orchestral ,instruments and ,what ,they ,do1 ,lavignac's ,music and ,musicians1 and to the various articles which describe each instrument under its own name in ,grove's ,dictionary or in any good encyclopaedia4 ,for still fuller details some work on orchestration will have to be consulted4 #ad4 ,the violin has four strings1 tuned thus ,illustration3 g d' a' e''1 these making available a range of about three and one-half octaves 7g--c''''74 ,this range#da may be extended upward somewhat further by means of harmonics1 these being produced by lightly touching the string at certain points 7while the bow is moving across it7 instead of holding it down against the finger-board4 ,the highest string of the violin 7viola and cello also7 is often called the chanterelle because it is most often used for playing the melody4 ,the violin ordinarily produces but one tone at a time1 but by stopping two strings simultaneously and so drawing the bow as to set both in vibration1 two tones may be produced at the same time1 while three and four tones can be sounded almost simultaneously4 ,footnote #da3 ,the ranges noted in connection with these descriptions of instruments are ordinarily the practical orchestral or band ranges rather than those which are possible in solo performance4 ,illustration3 ,,violin4 ,length1 #bc-a_/b inches4 ,length of bow1 #bi-a_/b inches4 ,the mute 7or sordino7 is a small clamp made of metal1 wood1 or ivory1 which when clipped to the top of the bridge causes the vibrations to be transmitted less freely to the body of the violin1 giving rise to a tone modified in quality1 and decreased in power4 ,for certain special effects the player is directed to pluck the string 7pizzicato71 this method of playing giving rise to a dry1 detached tone instead of the smooth1 flowing one that is so characteristic of the violin as commonly played4 ,violins in the orchestra are divided into firsts and seconds1 the first violins being always seated at the left of the audience and the seconds at the right4 ,illustration3 ,,viola4 ,length1 #bf in4 ,length of bow1 #bh4 #ae4 ,the viola has four strings1 also tuned in fifths1 thus ,illustration3 c g d' a'4 ,the viola looks exactly like the violin at a little distance1 and is really only a larger sized violin1 having a range a fifth lower4 ,its tone is not so incisive as that of the violin1 being rather heavier--more gloomy1 as it is often described4 ,the viola is not so useful as the violin as a solo instrument because it is not capable of producing so many varieties of color1 nevertheless it is invaluable for certain effects4 ,in orchestral music it is of course one of the most valuable instruments for filling in the harmony4 ,the viola players are usually seated behind the second violin players in the orchestra4 ,illustration3 ,,violoncello4 ,length1 #c ft4 #aj in4 ,length of bow1 #bh in4 #af4 ,the violoncello or cello 7sometimes called bass viol7 has four strings1 tuned thus3 ,illustration3 ,c ,g d a4 ,its range is about three and one-half octaves 7from ,c to e'' or f''71 but in solo work this range is sometimes extended much higher4 ,the cello is much more universally used as a solo instrument than the viola and its tone is capable of a much greater degree of variation4 ,in the orchestra it plays the bass of the string quartet 7reinforced by the double-bass71 but is also often used for solo passages4 ,con sordino and pizzicato passages occur as often for the cello as for the violin4 #ag4 ,the double bass differs from the other members of the string family in that it is tuned in fourths instead of in fifths4 ,its four strings are tuned as follows ,illustration3 ,,ee ,,aa ,d ,g the entire range of the instrument being from ,,ee to a4 ,in music written for double-bass the notes are always printed an octave higher than the tones are to sound3 that is1 when the bass-player sees the note ,illustration3 c he plays ,illustration3 ,c this being done to avoid leger lines4 ,the tone of the bass is much heavier and the instrument itself is much more clumsy to handle than the other members of the group1 hence it is almost never used as a solo instrument but it is invaluable for reinforcing the bass part in orchestral music4 ,the mute is rarely used on the double-bass1 but the pizzicato effect is very common and the bass pizzicato tone is much fuller and richer than that of any other stringed instrument4 ,illustration3 ,,double-,,bass4 ,length1 #f ft4 #f in4 ,length of bow1 #bc-a_/b in4 #ah4 ,the flute has a range of three octaves4 ,illustration3 c' c'''' ,it is used in both solo and orchestral playing as well as in bands4 ,the flute was formerly always made of wood1 but is at present often made of metal4 #ai4 ,the piccolo is a flute playing an octave higher than the one described above4 ,the notes are printed as for the flute1 but the player understands that the tone is to sound an octave higher4 ,the piccolo is used widely in band music and quite often in orchestral music also1 but since the tone is so brilliant and penetrating and is incapable of any great variation1 it is not suitable for solo performance4 ,illustration3 ,,oboe4 7hautboy47 ,length1 #bd-a_/b in4 ,range b e'''4 ,,contra ,,bassoon4 7,double bassoon47 ,length #f ft4 ,range about an octave lower than bassoon1 but not all tones in this range are practicable4 ,,english ,,horn4 7,cor4 ,anglais47 ,length1 #b ft4 #aa-a_/b in4 ,range e a''4 ,,piccolo4 ,length1 #ac in4 7,note that this is approximately half the length of the flute47 ,,flute4 ,length1 #bf-a_/b in4 ,,bassoon4 7fagotto47 ,length1 #d ft4 #c-a_/b in4 ,range ,,bb-flat b-flat'4 #bj4 ,the next four instruments to be described 7oboe1 bassoon1 ,english horn1 and contra bassoon7 are often referred to as the oboe family since the principle of tone production and general manipulation is the same in all four4 ,the tone in these instruments is produced by the vibration of two very thin pieces of cane1 which are called together a double-reed4 ,the oboe is especially valuable in the orchestra as a solo instrument1 and its thin1 nasal tones are suggestive of rustic1 pastoral simplicity1 both oboe and ,english horn being often used by orchestral composers in passages intended to express the idea of rural out-of-door life4 ,the ,english horn is also often used in passages where the idea of melancholy and suffering is to be conveyed to the audience4 ,in a military band the oboe corresponds to the first violin of the orchestra4 ,the bassoon and contra-bassoon are used mostly to provide a bass part for the harmony of the wood-wind group1 but they are also sometimes employed 7especially the bassoon7 to depict comic or grotesque effects4 ,illustration3 ,,bass ,,clarinet4 ,length1 #c ft4 #c in4 ,range ,d to b-flat' ,illustration3 ,,clarinet4 ,length #bh in4 #ba4 ,the next two types of instruments to be described 7clarinet and saxophone7 are alike in that the tone is produced by the vibration of a single strip of cane 7called single reed7 which is held against the lower lip of the player4 ,the clarinet and bass clarinet are made of wood and are used in both bands and orchestras1 but the saxophone is usually made of metal1 and1 the tone being more strident and penetrating1 the instrument is ordinarily used only in combination with other wind instruments1 i4e41 in bands4 ,since the fingering of the clarinet is excessively difficult the performer can play in only certain keys on the same instrument1 hence to play in different keys clarinets in several keys must be provided1 there being usually three in all4 ,the music is written as though it were to be played in the key of ,c1 but the tones produced are actually in other keys4 ,for this reason the clarinet is called a transposing instrument4 ,the range of the clarinet is the greatest possessed by any of the wind instruments1 that of the clarinet in ,c being from ,illustration3 e to ,illustration3 g'''4 ,illustration3 ,,saxophones4 ,,soprano4 ,,alto4 ,length1 #ae-c_/d in4 ,,tenor4 ,length1 #b ft4 #g-a_/b in4 ,,bass4 ,length1 #c ft4 #i in4 ,combined range ,,aa to g-flat''' ,illustration3 ,,sarrusophone4 ,the sarrusophone is an instrument with a double-reed4 ,it is made of brass and exists in several sizes1 the only one ever used in the orchestra being the double-bass sarrusophone1 which has approximately the same range as the double-bassoon and is sometimes 7but rarely7 made use of in the orchestra instead of the latter instrument4 ,the tone of the sarrusophone is something like that of the bassoon4 ,illustration3 ,,french ,,horn4 ,length1 #bb-c_/d in4 #bb4 ,the ,french horn 7often called valve horn or simply horn7 really consists of a long tube 7about #af feet7 which is bent into circular form for convenience in handling4 ,its range is from ,illustration3 ,,bb to ,illustration3 f''4 ,in the orchestra ,french horns are used in pairs1 two of the players taking the higher tones1 and two the lower4 ,the tone is intensely mellow but incapable of any extensive variation1 but in spite of this lack of variety the tone itself is so wonderfully beautiful that the instrument is one of the most useful in the orchestra both in solo passages and to fill in the harmony4 ,the horn 7as well as the trumpet and trombone7 differs from most of the wood-wind instruments in that its mouthpiece contains no reed1 the lips of the player constituting the vibrating body as they are stretched across the mouthpiece and air is forced against them4 ,the horn is used in bands as well as in orchestras4 ,illustration3 ,,trumpet4 ,length1 #bb-a_/b in4 #bc4 ,the range of the trumpet is ,illustration3 g b''1 the typical tone being brilliant and ringing4 ,it is used in both band and orchestra1 playing the highest parts assigned to the brass choir4 ,the trumpet is often replaced in both band and orchestra by its less refined cousin the cornet because of the ease with which the latter can be played as compared with the trumpet1 and the larger number of players that are available in consequence of this ease of execution4 #bd4 ,the cornet looks something like the trumpet1 but is not so slim and graceful in appearance4 ,its tube is only four and one-half feet long1 as compared with a length of about eight feet in the trumpet1 and sixteen feet in the ,french horn4 ,the range of the cornet in ,bflat is from ,illustration3 e to ,illustration3 b-flat''4 ,the tone is somewhat commonplace as compared with the trumpet1 but because of its great agility in the rendition of trills1 repeated tones1 etc41 it is universally used in all sorts of combinations1 even 7as noted above7 taking the place of the trumpet in many small orchestras4 ,illustration3 ,,cornet4 ,length1 #ac-c_/d in4 ,illustration3 ,,slide ,,trombone4 ,length1 #c ft4 #i in4 ,range of tenor trombone 7the size ordinarily used7 ,e to b-flat' #be4 ,the pitch sounded by the trombone is altered by lengthening or shortening the tube of which the instrument is constructed1 this being possible because the lower part slides into the upper and can be pulled out to increase the total length of the tube through which the air passes4 ,there are usually three trombones in the orchestra1 each playing a separate part1 and the combination of this trio 7with the tuba reinforcing the bass part7 is majestic and thrilling1 being powerful enough to dominate the entire orchestra in ,fortissimo passages4 ,but the trombones are useful in soft passages also1 and their tone when playing pianissimo is rich1 serene1 and sonorous4 #bf4 ,the bass tuba is a member of the saxhorn family#db and supplies the lowest part of the brass choir1 as the double-bass does in the string choir4 ,it is used in both orchestra and band1 being often supported in the larger bands by a still lower-toned member of the same family--the contra-bass tuba4 ,the range of the tuba is from ,illustration3 ,,gg to ,illustration3 g'4 ,footnote #db3 ,the saxhorn was invented about #ahdj by ,adolphe ,sax1 a ,frenchman4 ,the saxophone is the invention of the same man4 ,illustration3 ,,bass ,,tuba4 ,length1 #c ft4 #c in4 ,illustration3 ,,bass ,,drum4 ,diameter about #b-a_/b ft4 ,illustration3 ,,cymbals4 ,diameter1 #ac-a_/d in4 #bg4 ,the kettle-drum is the most important member of the percussion family and is always used either in pairs or in threes4 ,the size of these instruments varies somewhat with the make1 but when two drums are used the diameter is approximately that given under the illustration4 ,the range of a pair of drums is one octave ,illustration3 ,f f and when but two drums are used the larger one takes the tones from ,f to about ,c of this range1 and the smaller takes those from about ,bflat to ,f4 ,the most common usage is to tune one drum to the tonic1 and the other to the dominant of the key in which the composition is written4 ,the pitch of the kettle-drum can be varied by increasing or lessening the tension of the head by means of thumb-screws which act on a metal ring4 ,illustration3 ,,kettle-,,drums4 ,diameter of ,head1 #bd-a_/b in4 and #bg-a_/b in4 ,the other important members of the percussion family are shown on this and the following page1 their use being so obvious as to require no detailed explanation4 ,illustration3 ,,tambourine4 ,diameter1 #aj to #ab in4 ,illustration3 ,,bells4 7,fr4 carillon2 ,ger4 ,glockenspiel47 ,illustration3 ,,side ,,drum4 ,diameter1 about #ae-a_/b in4 ,illustration3 ,,triangle4 ,height1 about #h in4 #bh4 ,the harp is one of the oldest of instruments 7dating back over #fjjj years71 but it is only in comparatively recent years that it has been used in the symphony orchestra4 ,its range is from ,illustration3 ,,cc-flat to ,illustration3 f-flat'''4 ,illustration3 ,,harp4 ,height1 #e ft4 #h in4 ,the modern double-action harp has forty-six strings1 which are tuned in half-steps and whole-steps so as to sound the scale of ,cflat major4 ,it has a series of seven pedals around its base1 each pedal having two notches below it1 into either of which the pedal may be lowered and held fast4 ,the first pedal shortens the ,fflat string so that it now sounds ,f1 7giving the key of ,gflat72 the second one shortens the ,cflat string so that it sounds ,c 7giving the key of ,dflat72 the third pedal shortens the ,gflat string so that it sounds ,g 7giving the key of ,aflat72 the fourth changes ,dflat to ,d 7giving the key of ,eflat71 and so on until1 when all the pedals are fixed in their first notches1 the scale of ,c is sounded instead of ,cflat as was the case before any of the pedals were depressed4 ,but if the first pedal is now pushed down into the second notch the original ,fflat string is still further shortened and now sounds the pitch ,fsharp 7giving us the key of ,g71 and if all the other pedals are likewise successively lowered to the second notch we get in turn all the sharp keys--,d1 ,a1 ,e1 ,b1 ,fsharp and ,csharp1 the last-named key being obtained as the result of having all the pedals fixed in their second notches1 thus making all the tones of the original ,cflat scale a whole-step higher so that they now sound the ,csharp scale4 ,chords of not more than four tones for each hand may be played simultaneously on the harp1 but arpeggio and scale passages are the rule1 and are more successful than simultaneous chords4 ,the notation of harp music is essentially like that of piano music4 ,,appendix ,c ,,acoustics ,,note3--,it is usually taken for granted that the student of music is familiar with the significance of such terms as over-tone1 equal temperament1 etc41 and with principles such as that relating to the relation between vibration rates and pitches3 the writer has in his own experience found1 however1 that most students are not at all familiar with such data1 and this appendix is therefore added in the hope that a few facts at least regarding the laws of sound may be brought to the attention of some who would otherwise remain in entire ignorance of the subject4 #a4 ,acoustics is the science which deals with sound and the laws of its production and transmission4 ,since all sound is caused by vibration1 acoustics may be defined as the science which treats of the phenomena of sound-producing vibration4 #b4 ,all sound 7as stated above7 is produced by vibration of some sort3 strike a tuning-fork against the top of a table and see the vibrations which cause the tone1 or1 if the fork is a small one and the vibrations cannot be seen1 hold it against the edge of a sheet of paper and hear the blows it strikes2 or1 watch one of the lowest strings of the piano after striking the key a sharp blow2 or1 look closely at the heavier strings of the violin 7or better still1 the cello7 and watch them oscillate rapidly to and fro as the bow moves across them4 ,the vibrating body may be a string1 a thin piece of wood1 a piece of metal1 a membrane 7cf4 drum71 the lips 7cf4 playing the cornet71 the vocal cords1 etc4 ,often it is a column of air whose vibrations give rise to the tone1 the reed or other medium merely serving to set the air in vibration4 #c4 ,sound is transmitted through the air in somewhat this fashion3 the vibrating body 7a string for example7 strikes the air-particles in its immediate vicinity1 and they1 being in contact with other such air-particles1 strike these others1 the latter in turn striking yet others1 and so on1 both a forward and backward movement being set up 7oscillation74 ,these particles lie so close together that no movement at all can be detected1 and it is only when the disturbance finally reaches the air-particles that are in contact with the ear-drum that any effect is evident4 ,this phenomenon of sound-transmission may perhaps be made more clear by the old illustration of a series of eight billiard balls in a row on a table3 if the first ball is tapped lightly1 striking gently against ball number #b1 the latter 7as well as numbers #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 and #g7 will not apparently move at all1 but ball number #h at the other end will roll away4 ,the air-particles act upon each other in much this same fashion1 the difference being that when they are set in motion by a vibrating body a complete vibration backward and forward causes a similar backward and forward movement of the particles 7oscillation7 instead of simply a forward jerk as in the case of the billiard balls4 ,another way of describing the same process is this3 the vibration of some body produces waves in the air 7cf4 waves in the ocean1 which carry water forward but do not themselves move on continuously71 these waves spread out spherically 7i4e4 in all directions7 and finally reach the ear1 where they set the ear-drum in vibration1 thus sending certain sound-stimuli to the nerves of hearing in the inner ear1 and thus to the brain4 ,an important thing to be noted in connection with sound-transmission is that sound will not travel in a vacuum3 some kind of a medium is essential for its transmission4 ,this medium may be air1 water1 a bar of iron or steel1 the earth1 etc4 #d4 ,the rate at which sound travels through the air is about #aajj feet per second1 the rapidity varying somewhat with fluctuations in temperature and humidity4 ,in water the rate is much higher than in air 7about four times as great7 while the velocity of sound through other mediums 7as e4g41 steel7 is sometimes as much as sixteen times as great as through air4 #e4 ,sound1 like light1 may be intensified by a suitable reflecting surface directly back of the vibrating body 7cf4 sounding board72 it may also be reflected by some surface at a distance from its source in such a way that at a certain point 7the focus7 the sound may be very clearly heard1 but at other places1 even those nearer the source of sound1 it can scarcely be heard at all4 ,if there is such a surface in an auditorium 7as often occurs7 there will be a certain point where everything can be heard very easily1 but in the rest of the room it may be very difficult to understand what is being said or sung4 ,echoes are caused by sound-reflection1 the distance of the reflecting surface from the vibrating body determining the number of syllables that will be echoed4 ,the acoustics of an auditorium 7i4e41 its hearing properties7 depend upon the position and nature of the reflecting surfaces and also upon the length of time a sound persists after the vibrating body has stopped4 ,if it persists longer than #b-a_/d or #b-a_/c seconds the room will not be suitable for musical performances because of the mixture of persisting tones with following ones1 this causing a blurred effect somewhat like that obtained by playing a series of unrelated chords on the piano while the damper-pedal is held down4 ,the duration of the reverberation depends upon the size and height of the room1 material of floor and walls1 furniture1 size of audience1 etc4 #f4 ,sound may be classified roughly into tones and noises although the line of cleavage is not always sharply drawn4 ,if ,i throw stones at the side of a barn1 sounds are produced1 but they are caused by irregular vibrations of an irregularly constructed surface and are referred to as noise4 ,but if ,i tap the head of a kettle-drum1 a regular series of vibrations is set up and the resulting sound is referred to as tone4 ,in general the material of music consists of tones1 but for special effects certain noises are also utilized 7cf4 castanets1 etc474 #g4 ,musical tones have three properties1 viz43 #a4 ,pitch4 #b4 ,intensity4 #c4 ,quality 7timbre74 ,by pitch is meant the highness or lowness of tone4 ,it depends upon rate of vibration4 ,if a body vibrates only #h or #aj times per second no tone is heard at all3 but if it vibrates regularly at the rate of #af or #ah per second a tone of very low pitch is heard4 ,if it vibrates at the rate of #bd the pitch is higher1 at #cj higher still1 at #bjj yet higher1 and when a rate of about #ch1jjj per second has been reached the pitch is so high that most ears cannot perceive it at all4 ,the highest tone that can ordinarily be heard is the ,eflat four octaves higher than the highest ,eflat of the piano4 ,the entire range of sound humanly audible is therefore about eleven octaves 7rates #af-ch1jjj71 but only about eight of these octaves are utilized for musical purposes4 ,the tones of the piano 7with a range of #g-a_/c octaves7 are produced by vibration rates approximately between #bg and #dbbd4 ,in the orchestra the range is slightly more extended1 the rates being from #cc to #dgeb4 ,certain interesting facts regarding the relation between vibration-rates and pitches have been worked out3 it has been discovered for instance that if the number of vibrations is doubled1 the pitch of the resulting tone is an octave higher2 i4e41 if a string vibrating at the rate of #bfa per second gives rise to the pitch c'1 then a string one-half as long and vibrating twice as rapidly 7#ebb7 will give rise to the pitch c''1 i4e41 an octave higher than c'4 ,in the same way it has been found that if the rate is multiplied by #e_/d the pitch of the tone will be a major third higher2 if multiplied by #c_/b1 a perfect fifth higher1 etc4 ,these laws are often stated thus3 the ratio of the octave to the fundamental is as two is to one2 that of the major third as five is to four2 that of the perfect fifth as three is to two1 and so on through the entire series of pitches embraced within the octave1 the ratio being of course the same for all octaves4 #i4 ,the intensity 7loudness or softness7 of tones depends upon the amplitude 7width7 of the vibrations1 a louder tone being the result of vibrations of greater amplitude1 and vice versa4 ,this may be verified by plucking a long string 7on cello or double-bass7 and noting that when plucked gently vibrations of small amplitude are set up1 while a vigorous pluck results in much wider vibrations1 and1 consequently1 in a louder tone4 ,it should be noted that the pitch of the tone is not affected by the change in amplitude of vibration4 ,the intensity of tones varies with the medium conveying them1 being usually louder at night because the air is then more elastic4 ,tone intensity is also affected by sympathetic vibrations set up in other bodies4 ,if two strings of the same length are stretched side by side and one set in vibration so as to produce tone the other will soon begin to vibrate also and the combined tone will be louder than if only one string produced it4 ,this phenomenon is the basis of what is known as resonance 7cf4 body of violin1 resonance cavities of nose and mouth1 sounding board of piano1 etc474 #aj4 ,quality depends upon the shape 7or form7 of the vibrations which give rise to the tone4 ,a series of simple vibrations will cause a simple 7or colorless7 tone1 while complex vibrations 7giving rise to overtones of various kinds and in a variety of proportions7 cause more individualistic peculiarities of quality4 ,quality is affected also by the shape and size of the resonance body4 7,cf4 last part of sec4 #i above47 #aa4 ,practically every musical tone really consists of a combination of several tones sounding simultaneously1 the combined effect upon the ear giving the impression of a single tone4 ,the most important tone of the series is the fundamental1 which dominates the combination and gives the pitch1 but this fundamental is practically always combined with a greater or less number of faint and elusive attending tones called overtones or harmonics4 ,the first of these overtones is the octave above the fundamental2 the second is the fifth above this octave2 the third1 two octaves above the fundamental1 and so on through the series as shown in the figure below4 ,the presence of these overtones is accounted for by the fact that the string 7or other vibrating body7 does not merely vibrate in its entirety but has in addition to the principal oscillation a number of sectional movements also4 ,thus it is easily proved that a string vibrates in halves1 thirds1 etc41 in addition to the principal vibration of the entire string1 and it is the vibration of these halves1 thirds1 etc41 which gives rise to the harmonics1 or upper partials as they are often called4 ,the figure shows ,great ,c and its first eight overtones4 ,a similar series might be worked out from any other fundamental4 ,illustration3 7,,note3--,the ,bflat in this series is approximate only47 ,it will be recalled that in the section 7#aj7 dealing with quality the statement was made that quality depends upon the shape of the vibrations2 it should now be noted that it is the form of these vibrations that determines the nature and proportion of the overtones and hence the quality4 ,thus e4g41 a tone that has too large a proportion of the fourth upper partial 7i4e41 the third of the chord7 will be reedy and somewhat unpleasant4 ,this is the case with many voices that are referred to as nasal4 ,too great a proportion of overtones is what causes certain pianos to sound tin-panny4 ,the tone produced by a good tuning-fork is almost entirely free from overtones3 it has therefore no distinctive quality and is said to be a simple tone4 ,the characteristic tone of the oboe on the other hand has many overtones and is therefore highly individualistic3 this enables us to recognize the tone of the instrument even though we cannot see the player4 ,such a tone is said to be complex4 #ab4 ,the mathematical ratio referred to on page #acd1 if strictly carried out in tuning a keyboard instrument would cause the half-steps to vary slightly in size1 and playing in certain keys 7especially those having a number of sharps or flats in the signature7 would therefore sound out of tune4 ,there would be many other disadvantages in such a system1 notably the inability to modulate freely to other keys1 and since modulation is one of the predominant and most striking characteristics of modern music1 this would constitute a serious barrier to advances in composition4 ,to obviate these disadvantages a system of equal temperament was invented and has been in universal use since the time of ,bach 7#afhe-agej7 who was the first prominent composer to use it extensively4 ,equal temperament means simply dividing the octave into twelve equal parts1 thus causing all scales 7as played on keyboard instruments at least7 to sound exactly alike4 ,to show the practicability of equal temperament ,bach wrote a series of #dh preludes and fugues1 two in each major and two in each minor key4 ,he called the collection ,the ,well-tempered ,clavichord4 #ac4 ,various standards of pitch have existed at different times in the last two centuries1 and even now there is no absolute uniformity although conditions are much better than they were even twenty-five years ago4 ,scientists use what is known as the scientific standard 7sometimes called the philosophic standard71 viz41 #bef double vibrations for middle ,c4 ,this pitch is not in actual use for musical purposes1 but is retained for theoretical purposes because of its convenience of computation 7being a power of #b74 ,in #ahhe a conference of musicians at ,vienna ratified the pitch giving ,middle ,c #bfa vibrations1 this having been adopted by the ,french as their official pitch some #bf years before4 ,in #ahia a convention of piano manufacturers at ,philadelphia adopted this same pitch for the ,united ,states1 and it has been in practically universal use ever since4 ,this pitch 7giving ,middle ,c #bfa vibrations7 is known as ,international ,pitch4 ,concert pitch is slightly higher than ,international1 the difference between the two varying somewhat1 but being almost always less than one-half step4 ,this higher pitch is still often used by bands and sometimes by orchestras to give greater brilliancy to the wind instruments4 ,,references ,lavignac--,music and ,musicians1 pp4 #a-ff4 ,broadhouse--,the ,student's ,helmholz4 ,helmholtz--,sensations of ,tone4 ,hamilton--,sound and its ,relation to ,music4 ,,note3--,for a simple and illuminating treatment of the subject from the standpoint of the music student1 the books by ,lavignac and ,hamilton are especially recommended4 ,,appendix ,d ,,terminology ,,reform ,a recent writer#dc on vocal terminology makes the following statement as an introduction to certain remarks advocating a more definite use of terms relating to tone production by the human voice3--,the correct use of words is the most potent factor in the development of the thinker4 ,if this statement has any basis of fact whatsoever to support it then it must be evident to the merest novice in musical work that the popular use of many common terms by musicians is keeping a good many people from clear and logical thought in a field that needs accurate thinkers very badly6 ,however this may be1 it must be patent to all that our present terminology is in many respects neither correct nor logical1 and the movement inaugurated by the ,music ,section of the ,national ,education ,association some years ago to secure greater uniformity in the use and definition of certain expressions should therefore not only command the respect and commendation1 but the active support of all progressive teachers of music4 ,footnote #dc3 ,floyd ,s4 ,muckey--,vocal ,terminology1 ,the ,musician1 ,may1 #aiab1 p4 #ccg4 ,let it be noted at the outset that such reforms as are advocated by the committee will never come into general use while the rank and file of teachers throughout the country merely approve the reports so carefully compiled and submitted each year3 these reforms will become effective only as individual teachers make up their minds that the end to be attained is worth the trouble of being careful to use only correct terminology every day for a month1 or three months1 or a year--whatever length of time may be necessary in order to get the new habits fixed in mind and muscle4 ,the ,terminology ,committee was appointed by the ,department of ,music of the ,n4,e4,a4 in #aijf and made its first report at ,los ,angeles in #aijg4 ,since then the indefatigable chairman of the committee 7,mr4 ,chas4 ,i4 ,rice1 of ,worcester1 ,mass47 has contributed generously of both time and strength1 and has by his annual reports to the ,department set many of us to thinking along certain new lines1 and has caused some of us at any rate to adopt in our own teaching certain changes of terminology which have enabled us to make our work more effective4 ,in his first report ,mr4 ,rice says3 ,any one who has observed the teaching of school music in any considerable number of places in this country cannot fail to have remarked the great diversity of statement employed by different teachers regarding the facts which we are engaged in teaching1 and the equal diversity of terminology used in teaching the symbols by which musicians seek to record these facts4 ,to the teacher of exact sciences our picturesque use of the same term to describe two or more entirely different things never ceases to be a marvel4444 ,thoughtful men and women will become impressed with the untruthfulness of certain statements and little by little change their practice4 ,others will follow1 influenced by example4 ,the revolutionists will deride us for not moving faster while the conservatives will be suspicious of any change4 ,at this meeting in ,los ,angeles a list of thirteen points was recommended by the committee and adopted by the ,music ,department4 ,these points are given in the ,n4,e4,a4 ,volume of ,proceedings for #aijg1 p4 #hge4 ,since #aijg the committee 7consisting of ,chas4 ,i4 ,rice1 ,p4,c4 ,hayden1 ,w4,b4 ,kinnear1 ,leo ,r4 ,lewis1 and ,constance ,barlow-,smith7 have each year selected a number of topics for discussion1 and have submitted valuable reports recommending the adoption of certain reforms4 ,some of the points recommended have usually been rejected by the ,department1 but many of them have been adopted and the reports of the committee have set many teachers thinking and have made us all more careful in the use and definition of common terms4 ,a complete list of all points adopted by the ,department since #aijg has been made by ,mr4 ,rice for ,school ,music1 and this list is here reprinted from the ,january1 #aiac1 number of that magazine4 ,,terminology ,,adoptions1 #aijg-aiaj #a4 ,tone3 ,specific name for a musical sound of definite pitch4 ,use neither sound1 a general term1 nor note1 a term of notation4 #b4 ,interval3 ,the pitch relation between two tones4 ,not properly applicable to a single tone or scale degree4 ,example3 ,sing the fifth tone of the scale4 ,not sing the fifth interval of the scale4 #c4 ,key3 ,tones in relation to a tonic4 ,example3 ,in the key of ,g4 ,not in the scale of ,g4 ,scales1 major and minor are composed of a definite selection from the many tones of the key1 and all scales extend through at least one octave of pitch4 ,the chromatic scale utilizes all the tones of a key within the octave4 #d4 ,natural3 ,not a suitable compound to use in naming pitches4 ,pitch names are either simple3 ,b1 or compound3 ,b sharp1 ,b double-sharp1 ,b flat or ,b double-flat1 and there is no pitch named ,b natural4 ,example3 ,pitch ,b1 not ,b natural4 ,,note3--,l4,r4,l4 thinks that ,b natural should be the name when the notation suggests it4 #e4 ,step1 ,half-step3 ,terms of interval measurement4 ,avoid tone1 semi-tone or half-tone4 ,major second and minor second are interval names4 ,example3 ,how large are the following intervals8 7#a7 ,major second1 7#b7 minor second1 7#c7 augmented prime4 ,answer3 7#a7 a step1 7#b7 a half-step1 7#c7 a half-step4 #f4 ,chromatic3 ,a tone of the key which is not a member of its diatonic scale4 7,n4,b47 ,an accidental 7a notation sign7 is not a chromatic sign unless it makes a staff-degree represent a chromatic tone4 #g4 ,major2 ,minor3 ,major and ,minor keys having the same signature should be called relative major and minor4 ,major and minor keys having the same tonic1 but different signatures1 should be called tonic major and minor4 ,not parallel major or minor in either case4 #h4 ,staff3 ,five horizontal lines and their spaces4 ,staff lines are named 7numbered7 upward in order1 first to fifth4 ,spaces3 ,space below1 first-second-third-fourth-space1 and space above#dd4 7,six in all47 ,additional short lines and their short spaces numbered outward both ways from the main staff1 viz3 line below1 second space below4 ,the boundary of the staff is always a space4 ,footnote #dd3 ,,note3--,not space below the staff or space above the staff4 #i4 ,g ,clef1 ,f ,clef1 ,c ,clef3 ,these clefs when placed upon the staff1 give its degrees their first1 or primary pitch meaning4 ,each makes the degree it occupies represent a pitch of its respective name4 ,example3 ,the ,g clef makes the second line represent the pitch ,g4 ,avoid fixes ,g on4 ,the staff with clef in position represents only pitches having simple or one-word names1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 etc4 #aj4 ,sharps1 ,flats3 ,given a staff with clef in position as in example above1 sharps and flats make staff degrees upon which they are placed represent pitches a half-step higher or lower4 ,these pitches have compound or two-word names4 ,example3 ,the second line stands for the pitch ,g 7simple name74 ,sharp the second line and it will stand for the pitch ,g sharp4 7,compound name47 ,the third line stands for the pitch ,b4 7,simple name47 ,flat it1 and the line will stand for the pitch ,b flat4 7,compound name47 ,n4,b4 ,these signs do not raise or lower notes1 tones1 pitches1 letters or staff degrees4 #aa4 ,double-sharp1 ,double-flat3 ,given a staff with three or more degrees sharped in the signature1 double-sharps are used 7subject to the rules governing composition7 to make certain of these degrees1 already sharped1 represent pitches one half-step higher yet4 ,similarly1 when three or more degrees are flatted in the signature1 double-flats are used to make certain degrees already flatted1 represent pitches one half-step lower yet4 ,examples3 ,to represent sharp #b in the key of ,b major1 double-sharp the ,c degree1 or 7equally good7 double-sharp the third space 7,g clef74 ,to represent flat #f in the key of ,d flat major1 double-flat the ,b degree1 or 7equally good7 double flat the third line 7,g clef74 ,do not say3 ,put a double-sharp on #f or put a double-sharp on ,c1 or indicate a higher or lower pitch on a sharped or flatted degree4 #ab4 ,signature3 ,sharps or flats used as signatures affect the staff degrees they occupy and all octaves of the same4 ,example3 ,with signature of four sharps1 the first one affects the fifth line and the first space2 the second1 the third space2 the third1 the space above and the second line2 the fourth1 the fourth line and the space below4 ,do not say3 ,f and ,c are sharped1 ti is sharped1 ,b is flatted1 fa is flatted4 ,sharpened or flattened are undesirable4 #ac4 ,brace3 ,the two or more staffs containing parts to be sounded together2 also the vertical line or bracket connecting such staffs4 ,not line or score4 ,staff is better than line for a single staff1 and score is used meaning the book containing an entire work1 as vocal score1 orchestral score1 full score4 #ad4 ,notes3 ,notes are characters designed to represent relative duration4 ,when placed on staff-degrees they indicate pitch4 7,note the difference between represent and indicate47 ,sing what the note calls for means1 sing a tone of the pitch represented by the staff degree occupied by the note-head4 ,the answer to the question3 ,what is that note8 would be half-note1 eighth-note according to the denomination of the note in question1 whether it was on or off the staff4 #ae4 ,measure-sign3 #d-d1 #b-d1 #f-h1 are measure-signs4 ,avoid time signatures1 meter-signatures1 the fraction1 time-marks4 ,example3 ,what is the measure-sign8 7,c7 ,ans4 ,a broken circle4 ,what is its meaning8 ,ans4 ,four-quarter measure4 7,not four-four time1 four-four rhythm1 four-four meter47 #af4 ,note ,placing3 ,place a quarter note on the fourth line4 ,not put a quarter note on ,d4 #ag4 ,beat-,pulse3 ,a tone or rest occurs on a certain beat or pulse of a measure4 ,not on a certain count4 #ah4 ,signature ,terminology3 ,the right hand sharp in the signature is on the staff degree that represents seven of the major scale4 ,not always on #g or ti4 #ai4 ,signature ,terminology3 ,the right hand flat in the signature is on the staff degree that represents four of the major scale4 ,not always on fa4 #bj4 ,rote1 ,note1 ,syllable3 ,singing by rote means that the singer sings something learned by ear without regard to notes4 ,singing by note means that the singer is guided to the correct pitch by visible notes4 ,singing by syllable means that the singer sings the tones of a song or part to the sol-fa syllables instead of to words1 neutral vowels or the hum4 ,sing by note is not correct if the direction means simply to sing the sol-fa syllables1 whether in sight reading1 rote singing1 or memory work4 ,sing by syllable would be correct in each case4 ,,adoptions ,,of ,,the #aiaa ,,meeting ,,at ,,san ,,francisco ,arabic numerals1 either #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #i1 or #ab1 placed on the staff directly after the signature and above the third line1 show the number of beats in a measure4 ,a note1 either a quarter or a dotted quarter1 placed in parenthesis under the numeral1 represents the length of one beat and is called the beat-note4 ,the numeral and the beat-note thus grouped constitute the measure-sign4 ,illustrative statements covering proper terminology3 the tune ,america is written in three-quarter measure4 ,the chorus3 ,how lovely are the ,messengers is written in two-dotted quarter measure4 ,the above forms of statement were adopted at ,denver in #aiji1 and are recommended for general use when speaking of music written with the conventional measure-signs1 etc4 ,in place of3 two-two time1 three-eight time1 four-four time1 say as above3 ,this piece is written in two-half measure1 three-eighth measure1 four-quarter measure4 ,,minor ,,scales ,primitive ,minor 7ascending7 ,the minor scale form having minor sixth and minor seventh above tonic to be called ,primitive ,minor4 ,illustrative examples4 ,a minor3 a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 f1 g1 a2 ,c minor3 c1 d1 e flat1 f1 g1 a flat1 b flat1 c4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,supplied b flat missing from original4 ,primitive ,minor 7descending7 ,same pitches in reverse order4 ,harmonic ,minor 7ascending7 ,the minor scale form having minor sixth and major seventh above tonic to be called ,harmonic ,minor4 ,illustrative examples4 ,a minor3 a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 f1 g sharp1 a2 ,c minor3 c1 d1 e flat1 f1 g1 a flat1 b1 c4 ,harmonic ,minor 7descending7 ,same pitches in reverse order4 ,melodic ,minor 7ascending7 ,the minor scale form having major sixth and major seventh above tonic to be called ,melodic ,minor4 ,illustrative examples4 ,a minor3 a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 f sharp1 g sharp1 a2 ,c minor3 c1 d1 e flat1 f1 g1 a1 b1 c4 ,melodic ,minor 7descending7 ,same as the ,primitive4 ,,adoptions ,,of ,,the #aiab ,,meeting ,,at ,,chicago ,pulse and ,beat ,the ,committee finds that the words3 ,pulse and ,beat are in general use as synonymous terms1 meaning one of the succession of throbs or impulses of which we are conscious when listening to music4 ,each of these pulses or beats has an exact point of beginning1 a duration1 and an exact point of ending1 the latter coincident with the beginning of the next pulse or beat4 ,when thus used1 both words are terms of ear4 ,beat ,one of these words1 ,beat1 is also in universal use1 meaning one of a series of physical motions by means of which a conductor holds his group of performers to a uniform movement4 ,when thus used it becomes a term of eye4 ,the conductor's baton1 if it is to be authoritative1 cannot wander about through the whole duration of the pulse but must move quickly to a point of comparative repose1 remaining until just before the arrival of the next pulse when it again makes a rapid swing1 finishing coincidently with the initial tone 7or silence7 of the new pulse4 ,thus it is practically the end of the conductor's beat that marks the beginning of the pulse4 ,the ,committee is of opinion that ,beat might preferably be used as indicating the outward sign4 ,beat-,note ,this term beat-note is already in use in another important connection 7see ,terminology ,report1 #aiaa7 and the ,committee recommends that those using the above terms shall say3 ,this note is an on-the-beat note2 this one is an after-the-beat note2 this one a before-the-beat note4 ,,definitions ,matters of ,ear ,pulse3 ,the unit of movement in music1 one of a series of regularly recurring throbs or impulses4 ,measure3 ,a group of pulses4 ,pulse-,group3 ,two or more tones grouped within the pulse4 ,matters of ,eye ,beat3 ,one of a series of conventional movements made by the conductor4 ,this might include any unconventional motion which served to mark the movement of the music1 whether made by conductor1 performer or auditor4 ,beat-,note3 ,a note of the denomination indicated by the measure-sign as the unit of note-value in a given measure4 ,example ,given the following measure-signs3 #b-d1 #b-b1 #b-h1 quarter1 half1 or eighth notes1 respectively1 are beat-notes4 ,beat-,group3 ,a group of notes or notes and rests1 of smaller denomination than the beat-note which represents a full beat from beginning to end and is equal in value to the beat-note4 7,a beat-group may begin with a rest47 ,on-the-,beat ,note 7or rest73 ,any note 7or rest7 ranging in value from a full beat down1 which calls for musical action 7or inaction7 synchronously with the conductor's beat4 ,after-the-,beat ,note3 ,any note in a beat-group which indicates that a tone is to be sounded after the beginning1 and before or at the middle of the pulse4 ,before-the-,beat ,note3 ,any note in a beat-group which indicates that a tone is to be sounded after the middle of the pulse4 ,to illustrate terminology and to differentiate between ,pulse and ,beat as terms1 respectively of ear and eye1 the following is submitted3 ,whenever a brief tone involves the musical idea of syncopation1 it may be regarded as an after-the-pulse tone and the note that calls for it as an after-the-beat note2 when it involves the idea of anticipation or preparation it may be regarded as a before-the-pulse tone1 and the note that calls for it1 as a before-the-beat note4 ,measure and ,meter ,what is the measure-sign8 ,what is the meter-signature8 ,these two words are used synonymously1 and one of them is unnecessary4 ,the ,committee recommends that ,measure be retained and used4 ,meter has its use in connection with hymns4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the author does not find it possible at present to agree with all the recommendations made in the above report1 but the summary is printed in full for the sake of completeness4 ,the ,music ,teacher's ,national ,association has also interested itself mildly in the subject of terminology reform1 and at its meeting in ,washington1 ,d4,c41 in #aijh1 ,professor ,waldo ,s4 ,pratt gave his address as president of the ,association on the subject ,system and ,precision in ,musical ,speech4 ,this address interested the members of the ,association to such an extent that ,professor ,pratt was asked to act as a committee whose purpose it should be to look into the matter of reforms necessary in music terminology and report at a later session4 ,in #aiaj ,professor ,pratt read a report in which he advocated the idea of making some changes in music nomenclature1 but took the ground that the subject is too comprehensive to be mastered in the short time that can be given to it by a committee1 and that it is therefore impossible to recommend specific changes4 ,he also took occasion to remark that one difficulty in the whole matter of terminology is that many terms and expressions are used colloquially and that such use although usually not scientific1 is often not distinctly harmful and is not of sufficient importance to cause undue excitement on the part of reformers4 ,quoting from the report at this point3--,a great deal of confusion is more apparent than real between note and tone1 between step and degree1 between key and tonality4 ,no practical harm is done by speaking of the first note of a piece when really first tone would be more accurate4 ,to say that a piece is written in the key of ,bflat is more convenient than to say that it is written in the tonality of which ,bflat is the tonic4 ,the truth is that some of the niceties of expression upon which insistence is occasionally laid are merely fussy1 not because they have not some sort of reason1 but because they fail to take into account the practical difference between colloquial or off-hand speech and the diction of a scientific treatise4 ,this is said without forgetting that colloquialism always needs watching and that some people form the habit of being careless or positively uncouth as if it were a mark of high artistic genius4 ,professor ,pratt's report is thus seen to be philosophic rather than constructive1 and terminology reform will undoubtedly make more immediate progress through the efforts of the ,n4,e4,a4 ,committee with its specific recommendations 7even though these are sometimes admittedly fussy7 than through the policy of the ,m4,t4,n4,a4 of waiting for some one to get time to take up the subject in a scholarly way4 ,nevertheless the philosophic view is sometimes badly needed1 especially when the spirit of reform becomes too rabid and attaches too great importance to trifles4 ,a judicious intermingling of the two committees in a series of joint meetings would undoubtedly result in mutual helpfulness1 and possibly also in a more tangible and convincing statement of principles than has yet been formulated by either4 ,,appendix ,e ,sonata ,op4 #ca1 ,no4 #c by ,beethoven ,analysis by ,,arthur ,e4 ,,heacox1 ,oberlin ,conservatory of ,music ,first ,subject #ag measures1 ,eflat major1 as follows3 #h meas4 presentation1 one meas4 link1 #h meas4 repetition oct4 higher4 ,rhythmic elements are ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 all presented in first #h meas4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,the analysis is presented as notations on the musical score of the sonata4 ,please see the ,,html version of this e-text to view the score with the notations and to listen to a ,,midi version4 ,illustration3 ,sonata ,op4 #ca1 ,no4 #c ,,index eh a as in face2 ah a as in far2 ch ch as in chair2 final eh e as in met4 ,a 7ah71 #ie ,a battuta 7ah-baht-too'-tah71 #ie ,a capella 7cah-pel'-lah71 #gf ,a capriccio 7cah-pritch'-eo71 #ed ,accelerando 7aht-cheh-leh-rahn'-do71 #ed ,accented tones1 #bj ,accent marks1 #bj ,accent in measures1 #dd ,acciaccatura 7aht-cheea-cah-too'-ra71 #be1 #bf ,accidentals1 #i ,accompagnamento 7ahc-com-pahn-yah-men'-to71 #ie ,acoustics 7ah-kow'-stics71 def41 #aca of auditoriums1 #acc ,adagietto 7ah-dah-jee-et'-to71 #ej ,adagio 7ah-dah'-jee-o71 #ej ,a deux mains 7doo-mahng71 #db ,ad libitum1 #ed ,affrettando 7ahf-fret-tahn'-do71 #ed ,agitato 7ah-jee-tah'-to71 #ee ,agrements 7ah-greh-mahng71 #bb ,a la or alla 7ahl'-lah71 #db ,alla breve 7breh'-veh71 #ie ,alla marcia 7mar'-chee-ah71 #ie ,allargando 7ahl-lahr-gahn'-do71 #ec ,alla zingara 7tseen-gah'-rah71 #ie ,allegretto 7ahl-leh-gret'-to71 #ea ,allegrissimo1 #eb ,allegro 7ahl-leh'-gro71 #ej ,allegro agitato 7ah-jee-tah'-to71 #eb ,allegro appassionata 7-ah'-tah71 #eb ,allegro assai 7ahs-sah'-ee71 #eb ,allegro commodo 7kom-mo'-do71 #eb ,allegro con brio 7bree'-o71 #eb ,allegro con fuoco 7foo-o'-ko71 #ec ,allegro con moto 7mo'-to71 #ec ,allegro con spirito 7spee'-ree-to71 #ec ,allegro di bravura 7dee brah-voo'-rah71 #ec ,allegro di molto 7mohl'-to71 #ec ,allegro furioso 7foo-ree-o'-so71 #ec ,allegro giusto 7jew-sto71 #ec ,allegro ma grazioso 7mah grah-tsi-o'-so71 #ec ,allegro 7ma7 non tanto 7tahn'-to71 #ec ,allegro 7ma7 non troppo 7trop'-po71 #ec ,allegro moderato 7mod-e-rah'-to71 #ec ,allegro quasi andante 7quah-see ahn-dahn'-teh71 #ec ,allegro vivace 7vee-vah'-cheh71 #ec ,allemande 7al-mahnd71 #ga ,all'unisono 7oo-nee-so'-no71 #ie ,all'ottava 7ot-tah'-vah71 #ae ,alt 7ahlt71 #ie ,alto 7ahl-to71 #ie ,a mezza voce 7met'-zah-vo'-cheh71 #db ,amore 7ah-mo'-reh71 #db1 #ei ,andante 7ahn-dahn'-teh71 #ej ,andante affettuoso 7ahf-fet-too-o'-so71 #eb ,andante amabile 7ah-mah'-bee-leh71 #eb ,andante cantabile 7cahn-tah'-bee-leh71 #eb ,andante con moto 7mo'-to71 #eb ,andante grazioso 7grah-tsi-o'-so71 #eb ,andante maestoso 7mah-es-to'-so71 #eb ,andante 7ma7 non troppo 7mah non trop'-po71 #eb ,andante pastorale 7pahs-to-rah'-leh71 #eb ,andante quasi allegro 7quah-see ahl-leh'-gro71 #eb ,andante sostenuto 7sos-teh-noo'-to71 #eb ,animando 7ah-nee-mahn'-do71 #ee ,animato 7ah-nee-mah'-to71 #ee ,animato come sopra 7co-meh so'-prah71 #ee ,andantino 7ahn-dahn-tee'-no71 #ej ,antecedent1 #fg ,anthem1 #gf ,anticipation1 #ic ,antiphony 7an-tif'-o-ny71 #ie ,antithesis 7an-tith'-71 #fg ,a piacere 7pee-ah-cheh'-reh71 #ed ,appoggiatura 7ap-pod-jea-too'-rah71 def41 #be ,a quatre mains 7kahtr-mahng71 #ie ,arabesque1 #ie ,aria 7ah'-ree-ah71 #gi ,arioso 7ah-ree-o'-so71 #ie ,arpeggiando 7ar-ped-jee-ahn'-do71 #ba ,arpeggiato 7-ah'-to71 #ba ,arpeggiento 7-en'-to71 #ba ,arpeggio 7ar-ped'-jee-o71 #ba ,art-ballad1 #hj ,assai 7ahs-sah'-ee71 #db ,a tempo1 #ed ,a tempo primo 7pree'-mo71 #ed ,a tempo rubato 7roo-bah'-to71 #ed ,attacca 7aht-tah'-kah71 #ie ,attacca subito 7soo'-bee-to71 #ie ,attacca subito il seguente 7eel seg-wen'-teh71 #ie ,attack1 #ie ,bagpipe1 #ie ,ballad1 #hj ,band1 #aae ,bar1 def4 and use1 #ab double1 #ab ,barcarole 7bar'-cah-rohl71 #ie ,baritone1 #ie ,bass1 #ie ,bass clarinet1 #aba ,basso 7bahs'-so71 #ie ,bassoon1 #aba ,bass staff1 #f ,bass tuba1 #abe ,bass viol1 #aah ,ben 7behn71 #db ,ben marcato 7mahr-kah'-to71 #db ,berceuse 7behr-soos'71 #ie ,binary form1 #ie ,binary measure1 #ie ,bis 7bees71 #if ,bolero 7bo-leh'-ro71 #ga ,bourree 7boo-reh'71 #ga ,brace1 #if ,brass instruments1 #aaf ,brillante 7breel-ahn'-teh71 #ee ,broken chord1 #if ,broken octave1 #if ,cacophony 7kak-of'-o-ny71 #if ,cadence1 #hi ,cadenza1 #if ,calando 7kah-lahn'-do71 #ei ,cancel1 #c1 #h ,cantabile 7kahn-tah'-bee-leh71 #if ,cantando 7kakn-tahn'-do71 #if ,canto 7kahn'-to71 #if ,cantus firmus1 #fd ,canon1 #fd ,cantata 7kahn-tah'-tah71 #gg ,carol1 #if ,catch1 #if ,c clef #c1 #f ,cello 7chel'-lo71 #aah ,chaconne 7shah-con'71 #ga ,chamber music1 #gb ,chanterelle 7shong-tah-rel'71 #aag ,chinese scale1 #bg ,choral1 #gf ,chords def4 and lands1 #hg inversions of1 #hh common1 #hg seventh1 #hi dominant seventh1 #ib ,chromatic1 #if ,chromatic scale1 #ch ,clarinet1 #aba ,classes of instruments in orchestra1 #aae ,clavichord1 #if ,clefs1 #c1 #e ,close position1 #id ,coda1 #gj ,coi 7co'-ee71 #db ,col1 #db ,colla1 #db ,colla parte 7par'-teh71 #if ,colla voce 7vo'-cheh71 #if ,colle1 #db ,collo1 #db ,coloratura singing1 #gi1 #if ,coll'ottava 7ot-tah'-vah71 #ae ,combination pedals1 #aae ,come 7koh'-meh71 #db ,come primo 7pree'-mo71 #db ,common chords1 #hg ,compound measure1 #de ,compound duple measure1 #de ,con1 #db ,con alcuna licenza 7ahl-koo'-nah lee-chen'-tsah71 #ei ,con amore 7ah-mo'-reh71 #db1 #ei ,con anima 7ah'-nee-mah71 #ee ,con bravura 7brah-voo'-rah71 #ei ,con celerita 7che-leh'-ree-tah71 #ei ,concerto 7con-cher'-to71 #gb ,concert pitch1 #ach ,con delicato 7deh-lee-cah'-to71 #ei ,con energico 7en-er-jee'-ko71 #ei ,con espressione 7es-pres-see-o'-neh71 #ei ,con forza 7fort'-za71 #fj ,con fuoco 7foo-o'-ko71 #fj ,con grand' espressione 7grahnd' es-pres-see-o'-neh71 #fj ,con grazia 7grahts-yah71 #fj ,con melinconia 7or malinconia7 7-leen-ko'-ne-eh71 #fj ,con moto1 #ee ,con passione 7pas-se-o'-neh71 #fj ,consequent1 #fg ,consonance1 #if ,con spirito 7spe'-ree-to71 #fj ,con tenerezza 7teh-neh-ret'-za71 #fj ,continuous form1 #hj ,contra1 #db ,contra bass tuba1 #abf ,contra octave1 #af ,contralto1 #if ,con variazione 7vah-ri-ah-tsi-o'-neh71 #if ,cornet1 #abd ,counterpoint1 def41 #fd1 #fb1 #hb ,courante 7koo-rahnt'71 #ga ,crescendo 7kre-shen'-do71 #eg ,crescendo al fortissimo1 #eh ,crescendo ed affrettando 7ahf-fret-tahn'-do71 #eh ,crescendo ed animando poco a poco 7ah-ni-mahn'-do71 #eh ,crescendo e diminuendo 7eh de-me-noo-en'-do71 #eh ,crescendo molto 7mohl'-to71 #eh ,crescendo poco a poco1 #eh ,crescendo poco a poco sin al fine 7seen ahl fee'-neh71 #eh ,crescendo poi diminuendo 7po'-ee dee-mee-noo-en'-do71 #eh ,crescendo subito 7soo'-bee-to71 #eh ,cross-stroke1 #a1 #b ,csardas 7tsar'-dahs71 #ga ,da 7dah71 #db ,da capo 7kah'-po71 #ac ,dal segno 7sehn'-yo71 #ac ,dances1 #ga ,dash over note1 #ag1 #bj ,decrescendo 7deh-kreh-shen'-do71 #eh ,decrescendo al pianissimo 7ahl pee-ahn-is'-si-mo71 #eh ,degrees of staff1 #e ,delicato 7deh-lee-kah'-to71 #fj ,descriptive music1 #gd ,di 7dee71 #db ,diatonic condition1 #g ,diatonic scale1 #bh ,di bravura 7brah-voo'-rah71 #db ,diminuendo 7dee-mee-noo-en'-do71 #eh ,di molto 7mohl'-to71 #db ,direct1 #if ,dirge1 #ig ,discord1 #ig ,dissonance 7dis'71 #ig ,divisi 7di-ve'-ze71 #ig ,dolce 7dohl'-cheh71 #fj ,dolce e cantabile 7eh kahn-tah'-bee-leh71 #fj ,dolcissimo 7dohl-chis'-see-mo71 #fj ,dolente 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