,dra9+ = ,pr(it1 & ,dra9+ = ,heal? by ,george ,e4 ,w>+ ,edition #a1 7,octob] #d1 #bjjf7 ,new ,york ,orange ,judd ,company1 #bde ,broadway4 ,ent]$ accord+ to ,act ( ,congress1 9 ! ye> #ahfg1 by ,,orange ,,judd ,,co4 ,at ! ,cl]k's ,(fice ( ! ,di/rict ,c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates = ?is ,s\!rn ,di/rict ( ,new-,york4 ,lovejoy ,son1 ,electrotyp]s & ,/]eotyp]s4 #ae ,v&ewat] /reet ,n4,y4 ,9 pres5t+ ?is book to ! public ! writ] desires to say t1 hav+ 9 view ! great importance ( ?or\gh "w 9 l& dra9+1 & believ+ x advisable to avoid e ?+ :i* might be con/ru$ into an approval ( half-way measures1 he has purposely tak5 ! mo/ radical view ( ! :ole subject1 & has endeavor$ to emphasize ! necessity = ! utmo/ ?or\ghness 9 all dra9+ op]ations1 f ! fir/ /ak+ ( ! l9es to ! f9al fill+-9 ( ! dit*es4 ,t x is sometimes necess>y1 because ( limit$ means1 or limit$ "t1 or = o!r good reasons1 to dra9 p>tially or imp]fectly1 or ) a view only to tempor>y results1 is freely ackn[l$g$4 ,9 ^! cases ! occasion = less complet5ess 9 ! "w mu/ det]m9e ! ext5t to :i* ! directions h]e9 laid d[n are to be disreg>d$2 b x is believ$ t1 ev5 9 su* cases1 ! pr9ciples on :i* ^? directions are f\nd$ %\ld be always borne 9 m9d4 ,,newport1 ,r4,i41 #ahfg4 ,,illu/rations ,fig4 #a - ,a ,,dry ,,soil4 ,fig4 #b - ,a ,,wet ,,soil4 ,fig4 #c - ,a ,,dra9$ ,,soil4 ,fig4 #d - ,,map ,,( ,,l&1 ,,) ,,swamps1 ,,rocks1 ,,spr+s ,,& ,,trees4 ,,int5d$ ,,to ,,repres5t ,a ,,field ,,( ,,t5 ,,acres ,,be=e ,,dra9+4 ,fig4 #e - ,,map ,,) #ej-;,,foot ,,squ>es1 ,,& ,,cont\r ,,l9es4 ,fig4 #f - ,,levell+ ,,in/rum5t4 ,fig4 #g - ,,levell+ ,,rod4 ,fig4 #h - ,,map ,,) ,,cont\r ,,l9es4 ,fig4 #i - ,,well',s ,,cl9omet]4 ,fig4 #aj - ,,/one ,,pit ,,to ,,connect ,,spr+ ,,) ,,dra94 ,fig4 #aa - ,,/one ,,& ,,tile ,,bas9 ,,= ,,spr+ ,,) ,,dra94 ,fig4 #ab - ,,l9e ,,( ,,saturation ,,betwe5 ,,dra9s4 ,fig4 #ac - ,,horse-,,%oe ,,tile4 ,fig4 #ad - ,,sole ,,tile4 ,fig4 #ae - ,,d\ble-,,sole ,,tile4 ,fig4 #af - ,,r\nd ,,tile ,,& ,,coll>1 ,,& ,,! ,,same ,,z ,,laid4 ,fig4 #ai - ,,?ree ,,pr(iles ,,( ,,dra9s1 ,,) ,,diff]5t ,,incl9ations4 ,fig4 #bj - ,,map ,,) ,,dra9s ,,& ,,cont\r ,,l9es4 ,fig4 #ba - ,,pr(ile ,,( ,,dra9 ,c4 ,fig4 #bb - ,,set ,,( ,,tools4 ,fig4 #bc - ,,outlet1 ,,secur$ ,,) ,,masonry ,,& ,,grat+4 ,fig4 #bd - ,,silt-,,bas91 ,,built ,,to ,,! ,,surface4 ,fig4 #be - ,,f9i%+ ,,spade4 ,fig4 #bf - ,,f9i%+ ,,scoop4 ,fig4 #bg - ,,brac+ ,,! ,,sides ,,9 ,,s(t ,,l&4 ,fig4 #bh - ,,measur+ ,,/aff4 ,fig4 #bi - ,,bon+ ,,rod4 ,fig4 #cj - ,,position ,,( ,,workman ,,& ,,use ,,( ,,f9i%+ ,,scoop4 ,fig4 #ca - ,,sight+ ,,by ,,! ,,bon+-,,rods4 ,fig4 #cb - ,,pick ,,= ,,dress+ ,,& ,,pre=at+ ,,tile4 ,fig4 #cc - ,,lat]al ,,dra9 ,,ent]+ ,,at ,,top4 ,fig4 #cd - ,,sectional ,,view ,,( ,,jo9t4 ,fig4 #ce - ,,squ>e ,,brick ,,silt-,,bas94 ,fig4 #cf - ,,silt-,,bas9 ,,( ,,vitrifi$ ,,pipe4 ,fig4 #cg - ,,tile ,,silt-,,bas94 ,fig4 #ch - ,,maul ,,= ,,ramm+4 ,fig4 #ci - ,,bo>d ,,scrap] ,,= ,,fill+ ,,dit*es4 ,fig4 #dj - ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,dit* 7,,fill$71 ,,) ,,furr[ ,,at ,,ea* ,,side4 ,fig4 #da - ,,foot ,,pick4 ,fig4 #db - ,,pug-,,mill4 ,fig4 #dc - ,,plate ,,( ,,dies4 ,fig4 #dd - ,,*eap ,,wood5 ,,ma*9e4 ,fig4 #de - ,,m&ril ,,= ,,c>ry+ ,,tiles ,,f ,,ma*9e4 ,fig4 #df - ,,clay-,,kiln4 ,fig4 #dg - ,,dyke ,,& ,,dit*4 ,fig4 #dh - ,,old ,,/yle ,,h\se ,,dra9age ,,& ,,sew]age4 ,fig4 #di - ,,mod]n ,,h\se ,,dra9age ,,& ,,sew]age4 ,,cont5ts ,,*apt] ,i4 - ,,l& ,,to ,,be ,,dra9$ ,,& ,,! ,,reasons ,,:y4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 - ,,h[ ,,dra9s ,,act1 ,,& ,,h[ ,,!y ,,affect ,,! ,,soil ,,*apt] ,,iii4 - ,,h[ ,,to ,,g ,,to ,,"w ,,to ,,lay ,,out ,a ,,sy/em ,,( ,,dra9s4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 - ,,h[ ,,to ,,make ,,! ,,dra9s4 ,,*apt] ,v4 - ,,h[ ,,to ,,take ,,c>e ,,( ,,dra9s ,,& ,,dra9$ ,,l&4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 - ,,:at ,,dra9+ ,,co/s4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 - ,,w ,,x ,,pay8 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 - ,,h[ ,,to ,,make ,,dra9+ ,,tiles4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 - ,,! ,,reclaim+ ,,( ,,salt ,,m>%es4 ,,*apt] ,x4 - ,,mal>ial ,,diseases4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 - ,,h\se ,,dra9age ,,& ,,t[n ,,sew]age ,,9 ,,_! ,,relations ,,to ,,! ,,public ,,heal?4 ,,index ,,*apt] ,i4 - ,,l& ,,to ,,be ,,dra9$ ,,& ,,! ,,reasons ,,:y4 ,l& :i* requires dra9+ hangs out a sign ( its condition1 m or less cle>1 accord+ to its circum/ances1 b always unmi/akable to ! practic$ eye4 ,sometimes x is ! broad bann] ( /&+ wat]1 or d>k1 wet /reaks 9 pl[$ l&1 :5 all %\ld be dry & ( ev5 color2 sometimes only a flutt]+ rag ( di/ress 9 curl+ corn1 or wide-crack+ clay1 or feeble1 sp9dl+1 %iv]+ gra91 :i* has surviv$ a prec>i\s w9t]1 on ! ice-/ilts t h /ret*$ its cr[n above a wet soil2 sometimes ! qu>ant9e flag ( rank gr[? & dank miasmatic fogs4 ,to recognize ^! indications is ! fir/ (fice ( ! dra9]2 ! second1 to remove ! causes f :i* !y arise4 ,if a rule c\ld be adopt$ :i* w\ld cov] ! v>i$ circum/ances ( diff]5t soils1 x w\ld be some:at z foll[s3 ,all l&s1 ( :atev] texture or k9d1 9 :i* ! spaces betwe5 ! p>ticles ( soil are fill$ ) wat]1 7:e!r f ra9 or f spr+s17 )9 less ?an f\r feet ( ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 except dur+ & imm$iately aft] heavy ra9s1 require dra9+4 ,( c\rse1 ! p>ticles ( ! soil _c be made dry1 nor %\ld !y be2 b1 al?\gh !y %\ld be moi/ !mselves1 !y %\ld be surr\nd$ ) air1 n ) wat]4 ,to illu/rate ?is3 suppose t wat] be p\r$ into a b>rel fill$ ) *ips ( wood until x runs ov] at ! top4 ,! spaces betwe5 ! *ips w be fill$ ) wat]1 & ! *ips !mselves w absorb en\gh to become ?or\ghly wet2--?is repres5ts ! wor/ condition ( a wet soil4 ,if an op5+ be made at ! bottom ( ! b>rel1 ! wat] :i* fills ! spaces betwe5 ! *ips w be drawn (f1 & its place w be tak5 by air1 :ile ! *ips !mselves w rema9 wet f ! wat] :i* !y hold by absorption4 ,a dra9 at ! bottom ( a wet field draws away ! wat] f ! free spaces betwe5 its p>ticles1 & its place is tak5 by air1 :ile ! p>ticles hold1 by attraction1 ! moi/ure necess>y to a heal?y condition ( ! soil4 ,!re are va/ areas ( l& 9 ?is c\ntry :i* d n ne$ dra9+4 ,! :ole range ( s&s1 gravels1 light loams & m\lds all[ wat] to pass freely ?r\gh !m1 & are suffici5tly dra9$ by nature1 provid$1 !y are z op5 at ! bottom z ?r\gh\t ! mass4 ,a sieve fill$ ) gravel w dra9 p]fectly2 a bas9 fill$ ) ! same gravel w n dra9 at all4 ,m ?an ?is1 a sieve fill$ ) ! /iffe/ clay1 if n puddl$17#a7 w dra9 completely1 & s w heavy clay soils on por\s & well dra9$ subsoils4 ,money exp5d$ 9 dra9+ su* l&s z d n require ! op]ation is1 ( c\rse1 wa/$2 & :5 !re is d\bt z to ! requirem5t1 te/s %\ld be made be=e ! outlay = s co/ly "w is enc\nt]$4 ,!re is1 on ! o!r h&1 mu* l& :i* only by ?or\gh-dra9+ c be r5d]$ pr(itable = cultivation1 or heal?ful = resid5ce1 & v mu* m1 describ$ z ord9>ily dry l&1 :i* dra9+ w\ld greatly improve 9 bo? productive value & salubrity4 99,! ,surface ,indications99 ( ! necessity = dra9+ are v>i\s4 ,^? ( actual swamps ne$ no description2 ^? ( l& 9 cultivation are m or less evid5t at diff]5t seasons1 & require m or less c>e 9 _! exam9ation1 accord+ to ! circum/ances "u :i* !y are manife/$4 ,if a pl[$ field %[1 ov] a "p or ! :ole ( its surface1 a con/ant appe>ance ( dampness1 indicat+ t1 z fa/ z wat] is dri$ out f its upp] p>ts1 m is =c$ up f bel[1 s t aft] a ra9 x is mu* long] ?an o!r l&s 9 assum+ ! light color ( dry e>?1 x unmi/akably ne$s dra9+4 ,a pit1 sunk to ! dep? ( ?ree or f\r feet 9 ! e>?1 may collect wat] at its bottom1 %ortly aft] a ra92--?is is a sure sign ( ! ne$ ( dra9+4 ,all te/s ( ! condition ( l& z to wat]1--su* z trial pits1 etc41--%\ld be made1 :5 practicable1 dur+ ! wet spr+ wea!r1 or at a "t :5 ! spr+s & brooks are runn+ full4 ,if !re be mu* wat] 9 ! soil1 ev5 at su* times1 x ne$s dra9+4 ,if ! wat] ( heavy ra9s /&s = "s "t on ! surface1 or if wat] collects 9 ! furr[ :ile pl[+1 dra9+ is necess>y to br+ ! l& to its full f]tility4 ,o!r indications may be obs]v$ 9 dry wea!r2--wide cracks 9 ! soil are caus$ by ! dry+ ( clays1 :i*1 by previ\s soak+1 h be5 pa/$ toge!r2 ! curl+ ( corn (t5 indicates t 9 its e>ly gr[? x has be5 prev5t$1 by a wet subsoil1 f s5d+ d[n its roots bel[ ! rea* ( ! sun's heat1 :]e x w\ld f9d1 ev5 9 ! drye/ wea!r1 suffici5t moi/ure = a heal?y gr[?2 any sev]e effect ( dr\ght1 except on poor s&s & gravels1 may be presum$ to result f ! same cause2 & a c]ta9 wiryness ( grass1 toge!r ) a mossy or m\ldy appe>ance ( ! gr\nd1 also indicate excessive moi/ure dur+ "s p]iod ( gr[?4 ,! effects ( dr\ght are1 ( c\rse1 sometimes manife/$ on soils :i* d n require dra9+1--su* z ^? poor gravels1 :i*1 f %e] pov]ty1 d n enable plants to =m vigor\s & p5etrat+ roots2 b any soil ( ord9>y ri*ness1 :i* conta9s a fair am\nt ( clay1 w )/& ev5 a sev]e dr\ght1 )\t great injury to its crop1 if x is ?or\ghly dra9$1 & is kept loose at its surface4 ,poor crops are1 :5 ! cultivation ( ! soil is reasonably good1 caus$ ei!r by inh]5t pov]ty ( ! l&1 or by too great moi/ure dur+ ! season ( e>ly gr[?4 ,:i* ( ^! causes has op]at$ 9 a p>ticul> case may be easily kn[n4 ,manure w correct ! difficulty 9 ! =m] case1 b 9 ! latt] !re is no real rem$y %ort ( su* a sy/em ( dra9age z w ?or\ghly relieve ! soil ( its surplus wat]4 99,! ,s\rces ( ! ,wat]99 9 ! soil are v>i\s4 ,ei!r x falls directly ^u ! l& z ra92 rises into x f und]ly+ spr+s2 or rea*es x ?r\gh1 or ov]1 adjac5t l&4 ,! ra9 wat] belongs to ! field on :i* x falls1 & x w\ld be an advantage if x c\ld all be made to pass d[n ?r\gh ! fir/ ?ree or f\r feet ( ! soil1 & be remov$ f bel[4 ,e drop ( x is freight$ ) f]tiliz+ matt]s wa%$ out f ! air1 & 9 its desc5t ?r\gh ! gr\nd1 ^! are giv5 up = ! use ( plants2 & x p]=ms o!r important "w among ! vegetable & m9]al p>ts ( ! soil4 ,! spr+ wat] does n belong to ! field1--n a drop ( x1--& x ought n to be all[$ to %[ itself )9 ! rea* ( ! roots ( ord9>y plants4 ,x has fall5 on o!r l&1 &1 presumably1 has !re done its appo9t$ "w1 & ought n to be all[$ to conv]t our soil into a m]e outlet passage = its removal4 ,! ooze wat]1--t :i* soaks out f adjo9+ l&1--is subject to all ! objections :i* hold aga9/ spr+ wat]1 & %\ld be rigidly exclud$4 ,b ! surface wat] :i* comes ov] ! surface ( high] gr\nd 9 ! vic9ity1 %\ld be all[$ e opportunity1 :i* is consi/5t ) good husb&ry1 to "w its sl[ c\rse ov] our soil1--n to run 9 su* /reams z w cut away ! surface1 nor 9 su* quantities z to make ! gr\nd inconv5i5tly wet1 b to spread itself 9 b5efic5t irrigation1 & to deposit ! f]tiliz+ matt]s :i* x conta9s1 !n to desc5d ?r\gh a well-dra9$ subsoil1 to a free outlet4 ,f :atev] s\rce ! wat] comes1 x _c rema9 /agnant 9 any soil )\t p]man5t injury to its f]tility4 99,! ,objection to too mu* ,wat] 9 ! ,soil99 w be und]/ood f ! foll[+ explanation ( ! process ( g]m9ation1 7spr\t+17 & gr[?4 ,o!r grave reasons :y x is injuri\s w be treat$ 9 _! prop] ord]4 ,! fir/ gr[? ( ! embryo plant1 79 ! se$17 is m]ely a *ange ( =m & position ( ! mat]ial :i* ! se$ itself conta9s4 ,x requires none ( ! elem5ts ( ! soil1 & w\ld1 "u ! same conditions1 take place z well 9 moi/ saw-du/ z 9 ! ri*e/ mold4 ,! conditions requir$ are1 ! exclusion ( light2 a c]ta9 degree ( heat2 & ! pres5ce ( atmosph]ic air1 & moi/ure4 ,any mat]ial :i*1 )\t entirely exclud+ ! air1 w %ade ! se$ f ! light1 yield ! necess>y am\nt ( moi/ure1 & all[ ! accumulation ( ! requisite heat1 w favor ! *emical *anges :i*1 "u ^! circum/ances1 take place 9 ! liv+ se$4 ,9 proportion z ! heat is r$uc$ by ! *ill+ effect ( evaporation1 & z atmosph]ic air is exclud$1 w ! g]m9ation ( ! se$ be ret>d$2 &1 9 case ( complete saturation = a long "t1 absolute decay w ensue1 & ! g]m w die4 ,! accompany+ illu/rations1 7,figures #a1 #b & #c17 f ! ,m9utes ( ,in=mation on ,dra9age1 submitt$ by ! ,g5]al ,bo>d ( ,heal? to ! ,briti% ,p>liam5t 9 #aheb1 repres5t ! diff]5t conditions ( ! soil z to moi/ure1 & ! effect ( ^! conditions on ! g]m9ation ( se$s4 ,! figures are ?us expla9$ by ,dr4 ,madd51 f ^: lecture !y are tak53 ,soil1 exam9$ me*anically1 is f\nd to consi/ entirely ( p>ticles ( all %apes & sizes1 f /ones & pebbles d[n to ! f9e/ p[d]2 &1 on acc\nt ( _! extreme irregul>ity ( %ape1 !y _c lie s close to "o ano!r z to prev5t !re be+ passages betwe5 !m1 ow+ to :i* circum/ance soil 9 ! mass is always m or less por\s4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we proce$ to exam9e "o ( ! smalle/ p>ticles ( :i* soil is made up1 we %all f9d t ev5 ?is is n always solid1 b is mu* m frequ5tly por\s1 l soil 9 ! mass4 ,a consid]able proportion ( ?is f9ely-divid$ "p ( soil1 ! impalpable matt]1 z x is g5]ally call$1 is f\nd1 by ! aid ( ! microscope1 to consi/ ( brok5 d[n vegetable tissue1 s t :5 a small portion ( ! f9e/ du/ f a g>d5 or field is plac$ "u ! microscope1 we h exhibit$ to u p>ticles ( e v>iety ( %ape & /ructure1 ( :i* a c]ta9 "p is evid5tly ( vegetable orig94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a - ,a ,,dry ,,soil4 ,fig4 #a - ,a ,,dry ,,soil4 ,9 ^! figures ,i h giv5 a v rude repres5tation ( ^! p>ticles2 & ,i mu/ beg y p>ticul>ly to rememb] t !y are n meant to repres5t by any means accurately :at ! microscope exhibits1 b are only design$ to s]ve z a plan by :i* to illu/rate ! me*anical prop]ties ( ! soil4 ,on ref]r+ to ,fig4 #a1 we p]ceive t !re are two di/9ct classes ( pores1--fir/1 ! l>ge ones1 :i* exi/ betwe5 ! p>ticles ( soil1 & second1 ! v m9ute ones1 :i* occur 9 ! p>ticles !mselves2 & y w at ! same "t notice t1 :]eas all ! l>g] pores1--^? betwe5 ! p>ticles ( soil1--communicate mo/ freely ) ea* o!r1 s t !y =m canals1 ! small pores1 h[ev] freely !y may communicate ) "o ano!r 9 ! int]ior ( ! p>ticle 9 :i* !y occur1 h no direct connection ) ! pores ( ! surr\nd+ p>ticles4 ,let u n[1 !re=e1 trace ! effect ( ?is arrangem5t4 ,9 ,fig4 #a we p]ceive t ^! canals & pores are all empty1 ! soil be+ p]fectly dry2 & ! canals communicat+ freely at ! surface ) ! surr\nd+ atmosph]e1 ! :ole w ( c\rse be fill$ ) air4 ,if 9 ?is condition a se$ be plac$ 9 ! soil1 at a1 y at once p]ceive t x is freely suppli$ ) air1 b !re is no moi/ure2 !re=e1 :5 soil is p]fectly dry1 a se$ _c gr[4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b - ,a ,,wet ,,soil4 ,fig4 #b - ,a ,,wet ,,soil4 ,let u turn our att5tion n[ to ,fig4 #b4 ,"h we p]ceive t bo? ! pores & canals are no long] repres5t$ :ite1 b black1 ?is color be+ us$ to indicate wat]2 9 ?is in/ance1 !re=e1 wat] has tak5 ! place ( air1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! soil is v wet4 ,if we obs]ve our se$ a n[1 we f9d x abundantly suppli$ ) wat]1 b no air4 ,"h aga91 !re=e1 g]m9ation _c take place4 ,x may be well to /ate "h t ?is c nev] occur exactly 9 nature1 because1 wat] hav+ ! p[] ( dissolv+ air to a c]ta9 ext5t1 ! se$ a 9 ,fig4 #b is1 9 fact1 suppli$ ) a c]ta9 am\nt ( ?is necess>y sub/ance2 &1 ow+ to ?is1 g]m9ation does take place1 al?\gh by no means "u su* advantage\s circum/ances z x w\ld 7 ! soil 9 a bett] condition4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c - ,a ,,dra9$ ,,soil4 ,fig4 #c - ,a ,,dra9$ ,,soil4 ,we pass on n[ to ,fig4 #c4 ,"h we f9d a diff]5t /ate ( matt]s4 ,! canals are op5 & freely suppli$ ) air1 :ile ! pores are fill$ ) wat]2 &1 consequ5tly1 y p]ceive t1 :ile ! se$ a has q en\gh ( air f ! canals1 x c nev] be )\t moi/ure1 z e p>ticle ( soil :i* t\*es x is well suppli$ ) ?is necess>y +r$i5t4 ,?is1 !n1 is ! prop] condition ( soil = g]m9ation1 & 9 fact = e p]iod ( ! plant's developm5t2 & ?is condition occurs :5 ! soil is moi/1 b n wet1--t is to say1 :5 x has ! color & appe>ance ( be+ well wat]$1 b :5 x is /ill capable ( be+ crumbl$ to pieces by ! h&s1 )\t any ( its p>ticles adh]+ toge!r 9 ! famili> =m ( mud4 ,z plants gr[ "u ! same conditions1 z to soil1 t are necess>y = ! g]m9ation ( se$s1 ! =ego+ explanation ( ! relation ( wat] to ! p>ticles ( ! soil is p]fectly applicable to ! :ole p]iod ( vegetable gr[?4 ,! soil1 to ! entire dep? occupi$ by roots1 :i*1 ) mo/ cultivat$ plants is1 9 dra9$ l&1 f two to f\r feet1 or ev5 m1 %\ld be ma9ta9$1 z ne>ly z possible1 9 ! condition repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #c1--t is1 ! p>ticles ( soil %\ld hold wat] by attraction1 7absorption17 & ! spaces betwe5 ! p>ticles %\ld be fill$ ) air4 ,soils :i* require dra9age are n 9 ?is condition4 ,:5 !y are n saturat$ ) wat]1 !y are g5]ally dri$ into lumps & clods1 :i* are almo/ z imp5etrable by roots z s _m /ones4 ,! moi/ure :i* ^! clods conta9 is n available to plants1 & _! surfaces are liable to be dri$ by ! too free circulation ( air among ! wide fissures betwe5 !m4 ,x is also wor?y ( incid5tal rem>k1 t ! crack+ ( heavy soils1 %r9k+ by dr\ght1 is att5d$ by ! te>+ asund] ( ! small] roots :i* may h p5etrat$ !m4 99,! ,injuri\s ,effects ( ,/&+ ,wat] 9 ! ,subsoil99 may be be/ expla9$ 9 connection ) ! description ( a soil :i* ne$s "u-dra9+4 ,x w\ld be t$i\s1 & sup]flu\s1 to attempt to detail ! v>i\s geological =mations & conditions :i* make ! soil unpr(itably wet1 & r5d] dra9+ necess>y4 ,nor1--z ?is "w is int5d$ z a h&-book = practical use1--is x deem$ advisable to introduce ! geological *>ts & sections1 :i* are s (t5 employ$ to illu/rate ! v>i\s s\rces ( "u-gr\nd wat]2 int]e/+ z !y are to /ud5ts ( ! !ories ( agriculture1 & important z ! /udy is1 _! consid]ation "h w\ld consume space1 :i* x is desir$ to devote only to ! reasons =1 & ! practice (1 ?or\gh-dra9+4 ,to "o writ+ 9 advocacy ( improvem5ts1 ( any k9d1 !re is always a temptation to ?r[ a tub to ! popul> :ale1 & to sugge/ "s make-%ift1 by :i* a c]ta9 advantage may be obta9$ at half-price4 ,x is propos$ 9 ?is essay to resi/ t temptation1 & to adh]e to ! rule t :atev] is wor? do+1 is wor? do+ well1 9 ! belief t ?is rule applies 9 no o!r dep>tm5t ( indu/ry ) m =ce ?an 9 ! dra9+ ( l&1 :e!r = agricultural or = sanit>y improvem5t4 ,!re=e1 x w n be recomm5d$ t dra9+ be ev] conf9$ to ! wette/ l&s only2 t1 9 ! pursuance ( a p5ny-wisdom1 dra9s be con/ruct$ ) /ones1 or bru%1 or bo>ds2 t ! antiquat$ horse-%oe tiles be us$1 because !y co/ less money2 or t x w1 9 any case1 be economical to make only su* dra9s z are necess>y to remove ! wat] ( l>ge spr+s4 ,! doctr9e h]e9 advanc$ is1 t1 s f> z dra9+ is appli$ at all1 x %\ld be done 9 ! mo/ ?or\gh & complete mann]1 & t x is bett] t1 9 comm5c+ ?is improvem5t1 a s+le field be really well dra9$1 ?an t ! :ole f>m be half dra9$4 ,( c\rse1 !re are "s f>ms :i* suff] f too mu* wat]1 :i* are n wor? dra9+ at pres5t2 _m m :i*1 at ! pres5t price ( fronti] l&s1 are only wor? reliev+ ( ! wat] :i* /&s on ! surface2 & n a few on :i* ! quantity ( /one to be remov$ sugge/s ! propriety ( mak+ wide dit*es1 9 :i* to hide !m1 7us+ ! dit*es1 incid5tally1 z dra9s74 ,a h&-book ( dra9+ is n ne$$ by ! own]s ( ^! f>ms2 _! op]ations are simple1 & !y require no especial in/ruction = _! p]=mance4 ,?is "w is address$ especially to ^? :o occupy l&s ( suffici5t value1 f _! proximity to m>ket1 to make x *eap] to cultivate well1 ?an to buy m l& = ! sake ( gett+ a l>g] return f poor cultivation4 ,:]ev] ,indian corn is wor? fifty c5ts a bu%el1 on ! f>m1 x w pay to ?or\ghly dra9 e acre ( l& :i* ne$s dra9+4 ,if1 f want ( capital1 ?is _c be done at once1 x is be/ to fir/ dra9 a portion ( ! f>m1 do+ ! "w ?or\ghly well1 & to apply ! return f ! improvem5t to its ext5sion ov] o!r portions aft]w>d4 ,9 pursuance ( ! =ego+ decl>ation ( pr9ciples1 x is left to ! sagacity ( ! individual op]ator1 to decide :5 ! full effect desir$ c be obta9$1 on p>ticul> l&s1 )\t apply+ ! regul> sy/em ( dep? & di/ance1 :i* has be5 f\nd suffici5t = ! wor/ cases4 ,! directions ( ?is book w be conf9$ to ! treatm5t ( l& :i* dem&s ?or\gh "w4 ,su* l& is t :i*1 at "s "t dur+ ! p]iod ( vegetation1 conta9s /agnant wat]1 at lea/ 9 its sub-soil1 )9 ! rea* ( ! roots ( ord9>y crops2 9 :i* !re is n a free outlet at ! bottom = all ! wat] :i* x receives f ! heav5s1 f adjo9+ l&1 or f spr+s2 & :i* is m or less 9 ! condition ( /&+ 9 a great1 wat]-tight box1 ) op5+s to let wat] 91 b ) no means = its escape1 except by evaporation at ! surface2 or1 hav+ l>g] inlets ?an outlets1 & be+ at times wat]-logg$1 at lea/ 9 its l[] p>ts4 ,! subsoil1 to a great ext5t1 consi/s ( clay or o!r compact mat]ial1 :i* is n imp]vi\s1 9 ! s5se 9 :i* india-rubb] is imp]vi\s1 7else x c\ld n h become wet17 b :i* is suffici5tly s to prev5t ! free escape ( wat]4 ,! surface soil is ( a light] or m op5 "*1 9 consequ5ce ( ! cultivation :i* x has receiv$1 or ( ! decay$ vegetable matt] & ! roots :i* x conta9s4 ,9 su* l& ! subsoil is wet1--almo/ con/antly wet1--& ! fall+ ra91 f9d+ only ! surface soil 9 a condition to receive x1 soon fills ?is1 & (t5 m ?an fills x1 & /&s on ! surface4 ,aft] ! ra91 come w9d & sun1 to dry (f ! /&+ wat]1--to dry out ! free wat] 9 ! surface soil1 & to dr9k up ! wat] ( ! subsoil1 :i* is sl[ly drawn f bel[4 ,if no spr+1 or ooze1 keep up ! supply1 & if no m ra9 fall1 ! subsoil may be dri$ to a consid]able dep?1 crack+ & gap+ op51 9 wide fissures1 z ! clay loses its wat] ( absorption1 & %r9ks4 ,aft] ! surface soil has become suffici5tly dry1 ! l& may be pl[$1 se$s w g]m9ate1 & plants w gr[4 ,if !re be n too mu* ra9 dur+ ! season1 nor too little1 ! crop may be a fair "o1--if ! l& be ri*1 a v good "o4 ,x is n impossible1 nor ev5 v uncommon1 = su* soils to produce l>gely1 b !y are always prec>i\s4 ,to ! labor & exp5se ( cultivation1 :i* fairly e>n a secure return1 !re is add$ ! anxiety ( *ance2 success is greatly dep5d5t on ! wea!r1 & ! wea!r may be bad3 ,heavy ra9s1 aft] plant+1 may cause ! se$ to rot 9 ! gr\nd1 or to g]m9ate imp]fectly2 heavy ra9s dur+ e>ly gr[? may give an unnatural developm5t1 or a feeble "* to ! plants2 lat] 9 ! season1 ! want ( suffici5t ra9 may cause ! crop to be p>*$ by dr\ght1 = its roots1 dislik+ ! clammy subsoil bel[1 w h ext5d$ )9 only a few in*es ( ! surface1 & are subject1 almo/1 to ! direct action ( ! sun's heat2 9 h>ve/ "t1 bad wea!r may delay ! ga!r+ until ! crop is greatly injur$1 & fall & spr+ "w mu/ (t5 be put (f because ( wet4 ,! above is no fancy sket*4 ,e f>m] :o cultivates a ret5tive soil w confess1 t all ( ^! inconv5i5ces conspire1 9 ! same season1 to less5 8 returns1 ) v damag+ frequ5cy2 & no?+ is m common ?an = him to qualify 8 calculations ) ! proviso1 if ,i h a good season4 ,he prep>es 8 gr\nd1 plants 8 se$1 cultivates ! crop1 does 8 be/1--?9ks he does 8 be/1 t is1--& tru/s to ,provid5ce to s5d him good wea!r4 ,su* f>m+ is att5d$ ) too mu* unc]ta9ty1--) too mu* luck1--to be satisfactory2 yet1 s long z ! soil rema9s 9 its undra9$ condition1 ! elem5t ( luck w cont9ue to play a v important "p 9 its cultivation1 & bad luck w (t5 play sad havoc ) ! ye>'s acc\nts4 ,l& ( ?is "* is usually kept 9 grass1 z long z x w br+ pay+ crops1 & is1 n unfrequ5tly1 only available = pa/ure2 b1 bo? = hay & = pa/ure1 x is /ill subject to ! drawback ( ! unc]ta9ty ( ! seasons1 & 9 ! be/ seasons x produces f> less ?an x might if well dra9$4 ,! effect ( ?is condition ( ! soil on ! heal? ( animals liv+ on x1 & on ! heal? ( p]sons liv+ ne> x1 is extremely unfavorable2 ! discussion ( ?is bran* ( ! "q1 h[ev]1 is po/pon$ to a lat] *apt]4 ,?us f>1 !re h be5 consid]$ only ! effects ( ! undue moi/ure 9 ! soil4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ^! effects are produc$ w be exam9$1 9 connection ) ! mann] 9 :i* dra9+ ov]comes !m1--r$uc+ to ! l[e/ possible proportion1 t unc]ta9ty :i* always atta*es to human ent]prises1 & :i* is falsely suppos$ to belong especially to ! cultivation ( ! soil4 ,:y is x t ! f>m] believes1 :y %\ld any "o believe1 9 ^! mod]n days1 :5 ! advancem5t ( sci5ce has s simplifi$ ! indu/rial processes ( ! _w1 & ?r[n its light into s _m corn]s1 t ! ^w my/]y is h>dly to be appli$ to any op]ation ( nature1 save to t :i* dep5ds on ! always my/]i\s ,pr9ciple ( ,life1--:5 ! effect ( any comb9ation ( physical circum/ances may be =etold1 ) almo/ un]r+ c]ta9ty1--:y %\ld we believe t ! success ( f>m+ mu/1 aft] all1 dep5d ma9ly on *ance8 ,t an intellig5t man %\ld submit ! success ( 8 own pati5t ef=ts to ! op]ation ( luck2 t he %\ld delib]ately bet 8 capital1 8 toil1 & 8 exp]i5ce on hav+ a good season1 or a bad "o1--?is is n ! lea/ ( ! rema9+ my/]ies4 ,"s *ance !re mu/ be 9 all ?+s1--m 9 f>m+ ?an 9 me*anics1 no d\bt2 b x %\ld be made to take ! smalle/ possible place 9 our calculations1 by a c>eful avoidance ( e condition :i* may place our crops at ! m]cy ( t mo/ unc]ta9 ( all ?+s--! wea!r2 & especially %\ld ?is be ! case1 :5 ! v means = less5+ ! elem5t ( *ance 9 our calculations are ! be/ means = increas+ our crops1 ev5 9 ! mo/ favorable wea!r4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 - ,,h[ ,,dra9s ,,act1 ,,& ,,h[ ,,!y ,,affect ,,! ,,soil ,= reasons :i* w appe>1 9 ! c\rse ( ?is "w1 ! only sort ( dra9 to :i* ref]5ce is "h made is t :i* consi/s ( a conduit ( burn$ clay1 7tile17 plac$ at a consid]able dep? 9 ! subsoil1 & enclos$ 9 a compact$ b$ ( ! /iffe/ e>? :i* c conv5i5tly be f\nd4 ,/one-dra9s1 bru%-dra9s1 sod-dra9s1 mole-pl[ tracks1 & ! v>i\s o!r devices = =m+ a conduit = ! convey+ away ( ! soakage-wat] ( ! l&1 are n )\t ! support ( su* argum5ts z are bas$ on ! exp$i5cy ( make-%ifts1 & are1 p]haps1 9 r>e cases1 advisable to be us$2 b1 = ! purposes ( p]man5t improvem5t1 !y are nei!r s good nor s economical z tile-dra9s4 ,! argum5ts ( ?is book h ref]5ce to ! latt]1 7z ! mo/ p]fect ( all dra9s ?us f> inv5t$17 ?\gh !y w apply1 9 a modifi$ degree1 to all und]gr\nd conduits1 s long z !y rema9 free f ob/ructions4 ,conc]n+ /one-dra9s1 att5tion may prop]ly be call$ to ! fact t1 7contr>y to ! g5]al op9ion ( f>m]s17 !y are v mu* m exp5sive ?an tile-dra9s4 ,s great is ! co/ ( cutt+ ! dit*es to ! mu* great] size requir$ = /one ?an = tiles1 ( h&l+ ! /ones1 ( plac+ !m prop]ly 9 ! dit*es1 & ( cov]+ !m1 aft] !y are laid1 ) a suitable b>ri] to ! rattl+ d[n ( loose e>? among !m1 t1 z a m]e "q ( fir/ co/1 x is f> *eap] to buy tiles ?an to use /ones1 al?\gh ^! may lie on ! surface ( ! field1 & only require to be plac$ 9 ! tr5*es4 ,9 addition to ?is1 ! great liability ( /one-dra9s to become ob/ruct$ 9 a few ye>s1 & ! c]ta9ty t tile-dra9s w1 practically1 la/ =ev]1 are conclusive argum5ts 9 favor ( ! use ( ! latt]4 ,if ! l& is /ony1 x mu/ be cle>$2 ?is is a proposition by itself1 b if ! sole object is to make dra9s1 ! be/ mat]ial %\ld be us$1 & ?is mat]ial is n /one4 ,a well laid tile-dra9 has ! foll[+ ess5tial *>act]i/ics3--#a4 ,x has a free outlet = ! dis*>ge ( all wat] :i* may run ?r\gh x4 #b4 ,x has op5+s1 at its jo9ts1 suffici5t = ! admission ( all ! wat] :i* may rise to ! level ( its floor4 #c4 ,its floor is laid on a well regulat$ l9e ( desc5t1 s t its curr5t may ma9ta9 a fl[ ( uni=m1 or1 at lea/1 nev] decreas+ rapidity1 ?r\gh\t its entire l5g?4 ,l& :i* requires dra9+1 is t :i*1 at "s "t dur+ ! ye>1 7ei!r f an accumulation ( ! ra9s :i* fall ^u x1 f ! lat]al fl[1 or soakage1 f adjo9+ l&1 f spr+s :i* op5 )9 x1 or f a comb9ation ( two or all ( ^! s\rces17 becomes fill$ ) wat]1 t does n readily f9d a natural outlet1 b rema9s until remov$ by evaporation4 ,e consid]able addition to its wat] wells up1 & soaks its v surface2 & t :i* is add$ aft] x is already brim full1 mu/ fl[ (f ov] ! surface1 or lie 9 puddles ^u x4 ,evaporation is a sl[ process1 & x becomes m & m sl[ z ! level ( ! wat] rec$es f ! surface1 & is %elt]$1 by ! ov]ly+ e>?1 f ! action ( sun & w9d4 ,!re=e1 at lea/ dur+ ! p]iods ( spr+ & fall prep>ation ( ! l&1 dur+ ! e>ly gr[? ( plants1 & (t5 ev5 9 midsumm]1 ! wat]-table1--! top ( ! wat] ( saturation1--is )9 a few in*es ( ! surface1 prev5t+ ! natural desc5t ( roots1 &1 by reason ( ! small space to receive fre% ra9s1 caus+ an int]ruption ( "w = "s days aft] ea* /orm4 ,if su* l& is prop]ly furni%$ ) tile-dra9s1 7hav+ a cle> & suffici5t outfall1 (f]+ suffici5t means ( entrance to ! wat] :i* rea*es !m1 & c>ry+ x1 by a uni=m or increas+ desc5t1 to ! outlet17 its wat] w be remov$ to ne>ly1 or q1 ! level ( ! floor ( ! dra9s1 & its wat]-table w be at ! di/ance ( "s feet f ! surface1 leav+ ! spaces betwe5 ! p>ticles ( all ( ! soil above x fill$ ) air in/ead ( wat]4 ,! wat] bel[ ! dra9s /&s at a level1 l any o!r wat] t is damm$ up4 ,ra9 wat] fall+ on ! soil w desc5d by its own weight to ?is level1 & ! wat] w rise into ! dra9s1 z x w\ld fl[ ov] a dam1 until ! prop] level is aga9 atta9$4 ,spr+ wat] ent]+ f bel[1 & wat] ooz+ f ! adjo9+ l&1 w be remov$ 9 l mann]1 & ! usual condition ( ! soil1 above ! wat]-table1 w be t repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #c1 ! condition :i* is be/ adapt$ to ! gr[? ( useful plants4 ,9 ! heavie/ /orms1 "s wat] w fl[ ov] ! surface ( ev5 ! drye/ bea*-s&2 b1 9 a well dra9$ soil ! wat] ( ord9>y ra9s w be at once absorb$1 w sl[ly desc5d t[>d ! wat]-table1 & w be remov$ by ! dra9s1 s rapidly1 ev5 9 heavy clays1 z to leave ! gr\nd fit = cultivation1 & 9 a condition = /eady gr[?1 )9 a %ort "t aft] ! ra9 ceases4 ,x has be5 e/imat$ t a dra9$ soil has room betwe5 its p>ticles = ab\t "o qu>t] ( its bulk ( wat]2--t is1 f\r in*es ( dra9$ soil conta9s free space en\gh to receive a ra9-fall "o in* 9 dep?1 &1 by ! same tok51 f\r feet ( dra9$ soil c receive twelve in*es ( ra91---m ?an is kn[n to h ev] fall5 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 s9ce ! deluge1 & m ?an "o qu>t] ( ! annual ra9-fall 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,z 0 /at$ 9 ! previ\s *apt]1 ! wat] :i* rea*es ! soil may be consid]$ "u two heads3 #a/--,t :i* rea*es its surface1 :e!r directly by ra91 or by ! surface fl[ ( adjo9+ l&4 #b;d--,t :i* rea*es x bel[ ! surface1 by spr+s & by soakage f ! l[] portions ( adjo9+ l&4 ,! fir/ ( ^! is b5eficial1 because x conta9s fre% air1 c>bonic acid1 ammonia1 nitric acid1 & heat1 obta9$ f ! atmosph]e2 & ! fl[age wat] conta9s1 9 addition1 "s ( ! f9] or m soluble p>ts ( ! l& ov] :i* x has pass$4 ,! second1 is only s mu* dead wat]1 :i* has already giv5 up1 to o!r soil1 all t ours c\ld absorb f x1 & its effect is *ill+ & hurtful4 ,?is be+ ! case1 ! only int]e/ we c h 9 x1 is to keep x d[n f ! surface1 & remove x z rapidly z possible4 ,! wat] ( ! fir/ sort1 on ! o!r h&1 %\ld be arre/$ by e device )9 our rea*4 ,if ! l& is /eep1 ! furr[s 9 pl[+ %\ld be run horizontally along ! hill1 to prev5t ! escape ( ! wat] ov] ! surface1 & to all[ x to desc5d readily into ! gr\nd4 ,/eep grass l&s may h frequ5t1 small1 horizontal dit*es = ! same purpose4 ,if ! soil is at all heavy1 x %\ld n1 :5 wet1 be trampl$ by animals1 le/ x be puddl$1 & ?us made less absorptive4 ,if 9 cultivation1 ! surface %\ld be kept loose & op51 ready to receive all ( ! ra9 & irrigation wat] t rea*es x4 ,9 desc5d+ ?r\gh ! soil1 ?is wat]1 9 summ]1 gives up heat :i* x receiv$ f ! air & f ! heat$ surface ( ! gr\nd1 & ?us raises ! temp]ature ( ! l[] soil4 ,! f]tiliz+ matt]s :i* x has obta9$ f ! air1--c>bonic acid1 ammonia & nitric acid1--are extract$ f x1 & held = ! use ( gr[+ plants4 ,its fre% air1 & ! air :i* foll[s ! desc5t ( ! wat]-table1 c>ries oxyg5 to ! organic & m9]al p>ts ( ! soil1 & ha/5s ! ru/ & decay by :i* ^! are prep>$ = ! uses ( vegetation4 ,! wat] itself supplies1 by means ( _! p[] ( absorption1 ! moi/ure :i* is ne$$ by ! p>ticles ( ! soil2 &1 hav+ p]=m$ its "w1 x goes d[n to ! level ( ! wat] bel[1 &1 swell+ ! tide above ! br9k ( ! dam1 sets ! dra9s runn+1 until x is all remov$4 ,9 its desc5t ?r\gh ! gr\nd1 ?is wat] cle>s ! passages ?r\gh :i* x fl[s1 leav+ a bett] *annel = ! wat] ( future ra9s1 s t1 9 "t1 ! heavie/ clays1 :i* w dra9 b imp]fectly dur+ ! fir/ "o or two ye>s1 w pass wat]1 to a dep? ( f\r or five feet1 almo/ z readily z ! light] loams4 ,n[1 imag9e ! dra9s to be clos$ up1 leav+ no outlet = ! wat]1 save at ! surface4 ,?is am\nts to a rais+ ( ! dam to t height1 & additions to ! wat] w br+ ! wat]-table ev5 ) ! top ( ! soil4 ,no provision be+ made = ! removal ( spr+ & soakage wat]1 ?is causes s]i\s inconv5i5ce1 & ev5 ! ra9-fall1 f9d+ no room 9 ! soil = its reception1 c only lie ^u1 or fl[ ov]1 ! surface1--n yield+ to ! soil ! f]tiliz+ matt]s :i* x conta9s1 b1 on ! contr>y1 wa%+ away "s ( its f9] & loos] p>ts4 ,! p>ticles ( ! soil1 in/ead ( be+ furni%$1 by absorption1 ) a heal?ful am\nt ( moi/ure1 are made unduly wet2 & ! spaces betwe5 !m1 be+ fill$ ) wat]1 no air c ent]1 :]eby ! *emical processes by :i* ! in]t m9]als1 & ! roots & manure1 9 ! soil are prep>$ = ! use ( vegetation1 are greatly ret>d$4 ,in/ead ( c>ry+ ! heat ( ! air1 & ( ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 to ! subsoil1 ! ra9 only adds s mu* to ! am\nt ( wat] to be evaporat$1 & increases1 by s mu*1 ! *ill+ effect ( evaporation4 ,in/ead ( op5+ ! spaces ( ! soil = ! m free passage ( wat] & air1 z is done by desc5d+ wat]1 t :i* asc5ds by evaporation at ! surface br+s up soluble matt]s1 :i* x leaves at ! po9t :]e x becomes a vapor1 =m+ a cru/ t prev5ts ! free entrance ( air at ^? times :5 ! soil is dry en\gh to af=d x space = circulation4 ,in/ead ( crumbl+ to ! f9e condition ( a loam1 z x does1 :5 well dra9$1 by ! desc5t ( wat] ?r\gh x1 heavy clay soil1 be+ rapidly dri$ by evaporation1 %r9ks into h>d masses1 sep>at$ by wide cracks4 ,9 %ort1 9 wet seasons1 on su* l&1 ! crops w be greatly less5$1 or entirely de/roy$1 & 9 dry seasons1 cultivation w always be mu* m labori\s1 m hurri$1 & less complete1 ?an if x 7 well dra9$4 ,! =ego+ g5]al /atem5ts1 conc]n+ ! action ( wat] 9 dra9$1 & 9 undra9$ l&1 & ( ! effects ( its removal1 by gravitation1 & by evaporation1 are bas$ on facts :i* h be5 develop$ by long practice1 & on a rational application ( well "k pr9ciples ( sci5ce4 ,^! facts & pr9ciples are wor?y ( exam9ation1 & !y are set =? bel[1 some:at at l5g?1 especially ) ref]5ce to ,absorption & ,filtration2 ,evaporation2 ,temp]ature2 ,dr\ght2 ,porosity or ,mell[ness2 & ,*emical ,action4 ,,absorption ,,& ,,filtration4--,! process ( "u-dra9+ is a process ( absorption & filtration1 z di/+ui%$ f surface-fl[ & evaporation4 ,! complet5ess ) :i* ! latt] are prev5t$1 & ! =m] promot$1 is ! measure ( ! complet5ess ( ! improvem5t4 ,if wat] lie on ! surface ( ! gr\nd until evaporat$1 or if x fl[ (f ov] ! surface1 x w d h>m2 if x soak away ?r\gh ! soil1 x w d good4 ,! rapidity & ease ) :i* x is absorb$1 &1 !re=e1 ! ext5t to :i* "u-dra9+ is successful1 dep5d on ! physical condition ( ! soil1 & on ! mann] 9 :i* its texture is affect$ by ! dry+ action ( sun & w9d1 & by ! d[nw>d passage ( wat] ?r\gh x4 ,9 dry+1 all soils1 except pure s&s1 %r9k1 & occupy less space ?an :5 !y are saturat$ ) wat]4 ,!y %r9k m or less1 accord+ to _! composition1 z w be se5 by ! foll[+ table ( results obta9$ 9 ! exp]im5ts ( ,s*uebl]3 #a1jjj ,p>ts ( ,w ,contract #a1jjj ,p>ts ( ,w ,contract ,p>ts4 ,p>ts4 ,/rong ,limey #ej4 ,pure ,clay #ahc4 ,soil ,heavy ,loam #fj4 ,peat #bjj4 ,brick ,mak]'s #he4 ,clay ,pr(essor ,johnson e/imates t peat & heavy clay %r9k "o-fif? ( _! bulk4 ,if soil be dri$ sudd5ly1 f a condition ( extreme wetness1 x w be divid$ into l>ge masses1 or clods1 sep>at$ by wide cracks4 ,a subsequ5t wett+ ( ! clods1 :i* is n suffici5t to exp& x to its =m] condition1 w n entirely oblit]ate ! cracks1 & ! next dry+ w be foll[$ by new fissures )9 ! clods !mselves2 & a frequ5t repetition ( ?is process w make ! network ( fissures f9] & f9]1 until ! :ole mass ( ! soil is divid$ to a pulv]ul5t condition4 ,?is is ! process :i* foll[s ! complete dra9+ ( su* l&s z conta9 l>ge proportions ( clay or ( peat4 ,x is ret>d$1 9 proportion to ! am\nt ( ! free wat] 9 ! soil :i* is evaporat$ f ! surface1 & 9 proportion to ! trampl+ ( ! gr\nd1 :5 v wet4 ,x is greatly facilitat$ by fro/1 & especially by deep fro/4 ,! fissures :i* are =m$ by ?is process are1 9 "t1 occupi$ by ! roots ( plants1 :i* rema9 & decay1 :5 ! crop has be5 remov$1 & :i* prev5t ! soil f ev] aga9 clos+ on itself s completely z be=e _! p5etration2 & ea* season's crop adds new roots to make ! sep>ation m complete & m univ]sal2 b x is only aft] ! wat] ( saturation1 :i* occupies ! l[] soil = s l>ge a "p ( ! ye>1 has be5 remov$ by dra9+1 t roots c p5etrate to any consid]able dep?1 &1 9 fact1 ! crack+ ( undra9$ soils1 9 dry+1 nev] ext5ds beyond ! sep>ation into l>ge masses1 because ea* heavy ra91 by saturat+ ! soil & exp&+ x to its full capacity1 entirely oblit]ates ! cracks & =ms a solid mass1 9 :i* ! op]ation has to be comm5c$ anew ) ! next dry+4 ,mr4 ,gisborne1 9 8 capital essay on ,agricultural ,dra9age1 :i* appe>$ 9 ! ,qu>t]ly ,review1 ,no4 ,,clxxi1 says3 ,we really ?\ght t no "o 0 s ignorant z n to be aw>e t clay l&s always %r9k & crack ) dr\ght1 & ! /iff] ! clay ! great] ! %r9k+1 z brickmak]s well "k4 ,9 ! great dr\ght1 #cf ye>s ago1 we saw 9 a v ret5tive soil 9 ! ,vale ( ,belvoir1 cracks :i* x 0 n v pleasant to ride among4 ,?is v summ]1 on l& :i*1 ) ref]5ce to ?is v subject1 ! own] /at$ to be imp]vi\s1 we put a walk+ /ick ?ree feet into a sun-crack1 )\t f9d+ a bottom1 & ! :ole surface 0 :at ,mr4 ,p>kes1 n inappropriately1 calls a network ( cracks4 ,:5 heavy ra9 comes ^u a soil 9 ?is /ate1 ( c\rse ! cracks fill1 ! clay imbibes ! wat]1 exp&s1 & ! cracks are aboli%$4 ,b if !re are f\r or five feet p>allel dra9s 9 ! l&1 ! wat] passes at once into !m & is c>ri$ (f4 ,9 fact1 :5 heavy ra9 falls ^u clay l&s 9 ?is crack$ /ate1 x passes (f too quickly1 )\t adequate filtration4 ,into ! fissures ( ! undra9$ soil ! roots only p5etrate to be p]i%$ by ! cold & wet ( ! succe$+ w9t]2 b 9 ! dra9$ soil ! roots foll[ ! ?reads ( vegetable mold :i* h be5 wa%$ into ! cracks1 & get an abid+ t5ure4 ,e>? worms foll[ ei!r ! roots or ! mold4 ,p]man5t s*isms are e/abli%$ 9 ! clay1 & its :ole "* is *ang$4 ,an old f>m] 9 a midl& c\nty began ) #bj-;in* dra9s across ! hill1 &1 )\t ev] read+ a ^w1 or1 we believe1 conv]s+ ) any "o on ! subject1 pok$ 8 way1 /ep by /ep1 to f\r or five feet dra9s1 9 ! l9e ( /eepe/ desc5t4 ,%[+ u 8 dra9s ?is spr+1 he said3 ',!y d bett] ye> by ye>2 ! wat] gets a habit ( com+ to !m '--a v correct /atem5t ( fact1 ?\gh n a v philosophical explanation4 ,ald]man ,me*i1 ( ,tiptree ,hall1 says3 ,filtration may be too sudd51 z is well en\gh %[n by our hot s&s & gravels2 b ,i appreh5d no "o w ev] fe> r5d]+ /rong clays too por\s & manageable4 ,! object ( dra9+ is to imp>t to su* soils ! mell[ness & d>k color ( self dra9$1 ri* & friable soil4 ,t p]fect dra9age & cultivation w d ?is1 is a well kn[n fact4 ,i "k x 9 ! case ( my own g>d54 ,h[ x does s ,i am n *emi/ en\gh to expla9 9 detail2 b x is evid5t ! effect is produc$ by ! fib]s ( ! gr[+ crop int]sect+ e p>ticle ( ! soil1 :i* !y nev] c\ld d be=e dra9+2 ^!1 ) _! excretions1 decompose on removal ( ! crop1 & are act$ on by ! alt]nat+ air & wat]1 :i* also decompose & *ange1 9 a degree1 ! inorganic sub/ances ( ! soil4 ,!reby dra9$ l&1 :i* 01 be=e1 imp]vi\s to air & wat]1 & consequ5tly unavailable to air & roots1 to worms1 or to vegetable or animal life1 becomes1 by dra9age1 populat$ by bo?1 & is a great *emical laboratory1 z our own atmosph]e is subject to all ! *anges produc$ by animat$ nature4 ,exp]i5ce proves t ! desc5t ( wat] ?r\gh ! soil r5d]s x m por\s1 s t x is easi] = ! wat] fall+ aft]w>d to pass d[n to ! dra9s1 b no v satisfactory reason = ?is has be5 pres5t$1 beyond t :i* is connect$ ) ! crack+ ( ! soil4 ,! fact is well /at$ 9 ! foll[+ extract f a lett] to ! ,c\ntry ,g5tleman3 ,a simple exp]im5t w conv9ce any f>m] t ! be/ means ( p]man5tly deep5+ & mell[+ ! soil is by ?or\gh dra9age1 to af=d a ready exit = all surplus moi/ure4 ,let him take 9 spr+1 :ile wet1 a quantity ( 8 h>de/ soil1--su* z x is almo/ impossible to pl[ 9 summ]1--su* z pres5ts a bak$ & brick-l "* "u ! influ5ce ( dr\ght1--& place x 9 a box or b>rel1 op5 at ! bottom1 & frequ5tly dur+ ! season let him saturate x ) wat]4 ,he w f9d x gradually becom+ m & m por\s & friable1--hold+ wat] less & less p]fectly z ! exp]im5t proce$s1 & 9 ! end x w atta9 a /ate be/ suit$ to ! gr[? ( plants f its deep & mell[ "*4 ,x is equally a fact t ! asc5t ( wat] 9 ! soil1 toge!r ) its evaporation at ! surface1 has ! effect ( mak+ ! soil imp]vi\s to ra9s1 & ( cov]+ ! l& ) a cru/ ( h>d1 dry e>?1 :i* =ms a b>ri] to ! free entrance ( air4 ,s f> z ! =mation ( cru/ is conc]n$1 x is d\btless due to ! fact t ! wat] 9 ! soil holds 9 solution c]ta9 m9]al matt]s1 :i* x deposits at ! po9t ( evaporation1 ! collection ( ^! f9ely divid$ matt]s s]v+ to completely fill ! spaces betwe5 ! p>ticles ( soil at ! surface1--pa/+ !m toge!r1 z x 74 ,h[ f> bel[ ! surface ?is direct action ext5ds1 _c be def9itely det]m9$2 b ! process be+ c>ri$ on = successive ye>s1 accumulat+ a quantity ( ^! f9e p>ticles1 ea* season1 !y are1 by cultivation1 & by ! action ( heavy %[]s fall+ at a "t :5 ! soil is m or less dry1 di/ribut$ ?r\gh a c]ta9 dep?1 & ord9>ily1 9 all probability1 are mo/ l>gely deposit$ at ! top ( ! subsoil4 ,x is f\nd 9 practice t ! fir/ foot 9 dep? ( ret5tive soils is m ret5tive ?an t :i* lies bel[4 ,if ?is op9ion z to ! cause ( ?is great] imp]vi\sness is correct1 x w be readily se5 h[ wat]1 desc5d+ to ! dra9s1 by c>ry+ ^! soluble & f9] p>ts d[nw>d & di/ribut+ !m m equally ?r\gh ! :ole1 %\ld r5d] ! soil m por\s4 ,ano!r cause ( ! ret5tion ( wat] by ! surface soil1 (t5 a v s]i\s "o1 is ! puddl+ :i* clayey l&s und]go by work+ !m1 or fe$+ cattle ^u !m1 :5 !y are wet4 ,?is is always injuri\s4 ,by dra9+1 l& is made fit = work+ mu* e>li] 9 ! spr+1 & is soon] ready = pa/ur+ aft] a ra91 b1 no matt] h[ ?or\ghly ! dra9+ has be5 done1 if !re is mu* clay 9 ! soil1 ! effect ( ! improvem5t w be de/roy$ by pl[+ or trampl+1 :ile v wet2 ?is imp]vi\s condition w be remov$ 9 "t1 ( c\rse1 b :ile x la/s1 x places u z completely at ! m]cy ( ! wea!r z we 7 be=e a dit* 0 dug4 ,9 connection ) ! use ( ! ^w imp]vi\s1 x %\ld be und]/ood t x is n us$ 9 its /rict s5se1 = no sub/ance :i* c be wett$ by wat] is really imp]vi\s & ! mo/ ret5tive soil w become wet4 ,gisborne /ates ! case cle>ly :5 he says3 ,is y\r subsoil moi/] aft] ! ra9s ( mid-w9t]1 ?an x is aft] ! dr\ght ( mid-summ]8 ,if x is1 x w dra94 ,! proportion ( ! ra9-fall :i* w filtrate ?r\gh ! soil to ! level ( ! dra9s1 v>ies ) ! composition ( ! soil1 & ) ! effect t ! dra9+ has _h ^u !m4 ,9 a v loose1 gravelly1 or s&y soil1 :i* has a p]fect outlet = wat] bel[1 all b ! heavie/ falls ( ra9 w s9k at once1 :ile on a heavy clay1 no matt] h[ well x is dra9$1 ! process ( filtration w be mu* m sl[1 & if ! l& be /eeply incl9$1 "s ( ! wat] ( ord9>ily heavy ra9s mu/ fl[ (f ov] ! surface1 unless1 by horizontal pl[+1 or cat* dra9s on ! surface1 its fl[ be ret>d$ until x has "t to ent] ! soil4 ,! p[] ( dra9$ soils to hold wat]1 by absorption1 is v great4 ,a cubic foot ( v dry soil1 ( favorable "*1 has be5 e/imat$ to absorb )9 its p>ticles1--hold+ no free wat]1 or wat] ( dra9age1--ab\t "o-half its bulk ( wat]2 if ?is is true1 ! am\nt requir$ to moi/5 a dry soil1 f\r feet deep1 giv+ no excess to be dra9$ away1 w\ld am\nt to a ra9 fall ( f #bj to #cj in*es 9 dep?4 ,if we consid]1 9 addition to ?is1 ! am\nt ( wat] dra9$ away1 we %all see t ! soil has suffici5t capacity = ! reception ( all ! ra9 wat] t falls ^u x4 ,9 connection ) ! "q ( absorption & filtration1 x is int]e/+ to inve/igate ! movem5ts ( wat] 9 ! gr\nd4 ,! natural t5d5cy ( wat]1 9 ! soil z well z out ( x1 is to desc5d p]p5dicul>ly t[>d ! c5t] ( ! e>?4 ,if x meet a flat lay] ( gravel ly+ ^u clay1 & hav+ a free outlet1 x w foll[ ! c\rse ( ! gravel1--lat]ally1--& f9d ! outlet2 if x meet wat] :i* is damm$ up 9 ! soil1 & :i* has an outlet at a c]ta9 elevation1 z at ! floor ( a dra91 x w raise ! g5]al level ( ! wat]1 & =ce x out ?r\gh ! dra92 if x meet wat] :i* has no outlet1 x w raise its level until ! soil is fill$1 or until x accumulates suffici5t pressure1 7head17 to =ce its way ?r\gh ! adjo9+ l&s1 or until x f9ds an outlet at ! surface4 ,! fir/ two cases nam$ repres5t ! condition :i* x is desirable to obta91 by ei!r natural or artificial dra9age2 ! ?ird case is ! only "o :i* makes dra9age necess>y4 ,x is a fix$ rule t wat]1 desc5d+ 9 ! soil1 w f9d ! l[e/ outlet to :i* !re exi/s a *annel ?r\gh :i* x c fl[1 & t if1 aft] heavy ra9s1 x rise too ne> ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 ! prop] rem$y is to tap x at a l[] level1 & ?us remove ! wat] table to ! prop] di/ance f ! surface4 ,?is subject w be m fully treat$ 9 a future *apt]1 9 consid]+ ! "q ( ! dep?1 & ! int]vals1 at :i* dra9s %\ld be plac$4 99,evaporation499--,by evaporation is meant ! process by :i* a liquid assumes ! =m ( a gas or vapor1 or dries up4 ,wat]1 expos$ to ! air1 is con/antly und]go+ ?is *ange4 ,x is *ang$ f ! liquid =m1 & becomes a vapor 9 ! air4 ,wat] 9 ! =m ( vapor occupies ne>ly #bjjj times ! space t x fill$ z a liquid4 ,z ! vapor at ! "t ( its =mation is ( ! same temp]ature ) ! wat]1 &1 f its highly exp&$ condition1 requires a great am\nt ( heat to ma9ta9 x z vapor1 x foll[s t a giv5 quantity ( wat] conta9s1 9 ! vapory =m1 _m times z mu* heat z 9 ! liquid =m4 ,?is heat is tak5 f surr\nd+ sub/ances1--f ! gr\nd & f ! air1--:i* are !reby made mu* cool]4 ,= in/ance1 if a %[] moi/5 ! gr\nd1 on a hot summ] day1 ! dry+ up ( ! wat] w cool bo? ! gr\nd & ! air4 ,if we place a wet clo? on ! head1 & ha/5 ! evaporation ( ! wat] by fann+1 we cool ! head2 if we wrap a wet napk9 ar\nd a pit*] ( wat]1 & place x 9 a curr5t ( air1 ! wat] 9 ! pit*] is made cool]1 by giv+ up its heat to ! evaporat+ wat] ( ! napk92 :5 we spr9kle wat] on ! floor ( a room1 its evaporation cools ! air ( ! room4 ,s great is ! effect ( evaporation1 on ! temp]ature ( ! soil1 t ,dr4 ,madd5 f\nd t ! soil ( a dra9$ field1 9 :i* mo/ ( ! wat] 0 remov$ f bel[1 0 #f-a_/b ,f>4 w>m] ?an a simil> soil undra9$1 f :i* ! wat] _h to be remov$ by evaporation4 ,?is diff]5ce ( #f-a_/b is equal to a diff]5ce ( elevation ( #a1iej feet4 ,x has be5 f\nd1 by exp]im5ts made 9 ,engl&1 t ! av]age evaporation ( wat] f wet soils is equal to a dep? ( two in*es p] mon?1 f ,may to ,augu/1 inclusive2 9 ,am]ica x mu/ be v mu* great] ?an ?is 9 ! summ] mon?s1 b ?is is surely en\gh = ! purposes ( illu/ration1 z two in*es ( wat]1 ov] an acre ( l&1 w\ld weigh ab\t two hundr$ tons4 ,! am\nt ( heat requir$ to evaporate ?is is imm5se1 & a v l>ge "p ( x is tak5 f ! soil1 :i*1 !reby1 becomes cool]1 & less favorable = a rapid gr[?4 ,x is usual to speak ( heavy1 wet l&s z be+ cold1 & x is n[ se5 :y !y are s4 ,if none ( ! wat] :i* falls on a field is remov$ by dra9age1 7natural or artificial17 & if none runs (f f ! surface1 ! :ole ra9-fall ( a ye> mu/ be remov$ by evaporation1 & ! cool+ ( ! soil w be proportionately great4 ,! m completely we )draw ?is wat] f ! surface1 & c>ry x (f 9 und]gr\nd dra9s1 ! m d we r$uce ! am\nt to be remov$ by evaporation4 ,9 l& :i* is well dra9$1 ! am\nt evaporat$1 ev5 9 summ]1 w n be suffici5t to s l[] ! temp]ature ( ! soil z to ret>d ! gr[? ( plants2 ! small am\nt dri$ out ( ! p>ticles ( ! soil1 7wat] ( absorption17 w only keep x f be+ rais$ to too great a heat by ! mid-summ] sun4 ,an idea ( ! am\nt ( heat lo/ to ! soil1 9 ! evaporation ( wat]1 may be =m$ f ! fact t to evaporate1 by artificial heat1 ! am\nt ( wat] conta9$ 9 a ra9-fall ( two in*es on an acre1 7#bjj tons17 w\ld require ov] #bj tons ( coal4 ,( c\rse a consid]able--probably by f> ! l>g]1--"p ( ! heat tak5 up 9 ! process ( evaporation is furni%$ by ! air2 b ! am\nt ab/ract$ f ! soil is great1 & is 9 direct proportion to ! am\nt ( wat] remov$ by ?is process2 h5ce1 ! m we remove by dra9+1 ! m heat we reta9 9 ! gr\nd4 ,! season ( gr[? is l5g!n$ by dra9+1 because1 by avoid+ ! cool+ effects ( evaporation1 g]m9ation is m rapid1 & ! "y plant gr[s /eadily f ! />t1 in/ead ( /ruggl+ aga9/ ! ret>d+ influ5ce ( a cold soil4 99,temp]ature499--,! temp]ature ( ! soil has great effect on ! g]m9ation ( se$s1 ! gr[? ( plants1 & ! rip5+ ( ! crops4 ,gisborne says3 ,! evaporation ( #a lb4 ( wat] l[]s ! temp]ature ( #ajj lbs4 ( soil #aj1--t is to say1 t1 if to #ajj lbs4 ( soil1 hold+ all ! wat] x c by attraction1 b conta9+ no wat] ( dra9age1 is add$ #a lb4 ( wat] :i* x has no means ( dis*>g+1 except by evaporation1 x w1 by ! "t t x has s dis*>g$ x1 be #fj cold] ?an x w\ld h be51 if x _h ! p[] ( dis*>g+ ?is #a lb4 by filtration2 or1 m practically1 t1 if ra91 ent]+ 9 ! proportion ( #a lb4 to #ajj lbs4 into a ret5tive soil1 :i* is saturat$ ) wat] ( attraction1 is dis*>g$ by evaporation1 x l[]s ! temp]ature ( t soil #aj4 ,if ! soil has ! means ( dis*>g+ t #a lb4 ( wat] by filtration1 no effect is produc$ beyond :at is due to ! relative temp]atures ( ! ra9 & ( ! soil4 ,x has be5 e/abli%$ by exp]im5t t f\r times z mu* heat is requir$ to evaporate a c]ta9 quantity ( wat]1 z to raise ! same quantity f ! freez+ to ! boil+ po9t4 ,x is1 probably1 9 consequ5ce ( ?is cool+ effect ( evaporation1 t wet l&s are w>me/ :5 %ad$1 because1 "u ?is condition1 evaporation is less active4 ,su* l&s1 9 cl\dy wea!r1 =m an unnatural gr[?1 su* z results 9 ! lodg+ ( gra9 crops1 f ! defici5t /r5g? ( ! /raw :i* ?is gr[? produces4 ,9 hot wea!r1 ! temp]ature ( ! l[] soil is1 ( c\rse1 mu* l[] ?an t ( ! air1 & l[] ?an t ( ! wat] ( w>m ra9s4 ,if ! soil is saturat$ ) wat]1 ! wat] w1 ( c\rse1 be ( an ev5 temp]ature ) ! soil 9 :i* x lies1 b if ?is be dra9$ (f1 w>m air w ent] f above1 & give its heat to ! soil1 :ile ea* ra91 z x falls1 w also c>ry its heat ) x4 ,fur!rmore1 ! surface ( ! gr\nd is sometimes excessively heat$ by ! summ] sun1 & ! heat ?us conta9$ is c>ri$ d[n to ! l[] soil by ! desc5d+ wat] ( ra9s1 :i* ?us cool ! surface & w>m ! subsoil1 bo? b5eficial4 ,mr4 ,josiah ,p>kes1 "o ( ! lead+ dra9+ eng9e]s ( ,engl&1 has made "s exp]im5ts to te/ ! ext5t to :i* dra9+ affects ! temp]ature ( ! soil4 ,! results ( 8 obs]vations are ?us /at$ by ,gisborne3 ,mr4 ,p>kes gives ! temp]ature on a ,lanca%ire flat moss1 b !y only comm5ce #g in*es bel[ ! surface1 & d n ext5d to mid-summ]4 ,at t p]iod ( ! ye> ! temp]ature1 at #g in*es1 nev] exce$$ #ff1 & 0 g5]ally f #aj to #ae bel[ ! temp]ature ( ! air 9 ! %ade1 at #d feet above ! e>?4 ,mr4 ,p>kes' exp]im5ts 7 made simultane\sly1 on a dra9$1 & on an undra9$ portion ( ! moss2 & ! result 01 t1 on a mean ( #ce obs]vations1 ! dra9$ soil at #g in*es 9 dep? 0 #aj w>m] ?an ! undra9$1 at ! same dep?4 ,! undra9$ soil nev] exce$$ #dg1 :]eas1 aft] a ?und] /orm1 ! dra9$ rea*$ #ff at #g in*es1 & #dh at #ca in*es4 ,su* 7 ! effects1 at an e>ly p]iod ( ! ye>1 on a black bog4 ,!y sugge/ "s idea ( :at !y 71 :51 9 ,july or ,augu/1 ?und] ra9 at #fj or #gj falls on a surface heat$ to #acj1 & c>ries d[n ) x1 into ! gre$y fissures ( ! e>?1 its augm5t$ temp]ature4 ,^! advantages1 por\s soils possess by nature1 & ret5tive ones only acquire !m by dra9age4 ,dra9$ l&1 be+ m op5 to atmosph]ic circulation1 & hav+ lo/ ! wat] :i* prev5t$ ! temp]ature ( its l[] portions f be+ s readily affect$ by ! temp]ature ( ! air z x is :5 dry1 w freeze to a great] dep? 9 w9t] & ?aw out e>li] 9 ! spr+4 ,! deep freez+ has ! effect to greatly pulv]ize ! l[] soil1 ?us bett] fitt+ x = ! support ( vegetation2 & ! e>li] ?aw+ makes x e>li] ready = spr+ "w4 99,dr\ght499--,at fir/ ?\ght1 x is n unnatural to suppose t dra9+ w increase ! ill effect ( too dry seasons1 by remov+ wat] :i* might keep ! soil moi/4 ,exp]i5ce has prov51 h[ev]1 t ! result is exactly ! opposite ( ?is4 ,l&s :i* suff] mo/ f dr\ght are mo/ b5efit$ by dra9+1--m 9 _! great] ability to )/& dr\ght ?an 9 any o!r p>ticul>4 ,! reasons = ?is action ( dra9+ become obvi\s1 :5 its effects on ! "* ( ! soil are exam9$4 ,!re is always ! same am\nt ( wat] 91 & ab\t1 ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,9 w9t] !re is m 9 ! soil ?an 9 summ]1 :ile 9 summ]1 t :i* has be5 dri$ out ( ! soil exi/s 9 ! atmosph]e 9 ! =m ( a vapor4 ,x is held 9 ! vapory =m by heat1 :i* may be reg>d$ z braces to keep x di/5d$4 ,:5 vapor comes 9 contact ) sub/ances suffici5tly cold] ?an itself1 x gives up its heat1--?us los+ its braces1--contracts1 becomes liquid wat]1 & is deposit$ z dew4 ,_m in/ances ( ?is op]ation are famili> to all4 ,= in/ance1 a cold pit*] 9 ! summ] robs ! vapor 9 ! air ( its heat1 & causes x to be deposit$ on its own surface1--( c\rse ! wat] comes f ! atmosph]e1 n ?r\gh ! wall ( ! pit*]2 if we brea! on a knife blade1 x cond5ses1 9 ! same mann]1 ! moi/ure ( ! brea?1 & becomes cov]$ ) a film (-wat]2 /one-h\ses are damp 9 summ]1 because ! inn] surface ( _! walls1 be+ cool] ?an ! atmosph]e1 causes its moi/ure to be deposit$ 9 ! mann] describ$27#b7 ne>ly e night1 9 summ]1 ! cold e>? receives moi/ure f ! atmosph]e 9 ! =m ( dew2 a s+le l>ge head ( cabbage1 :i* at night is v cold1 (t5 cond5ses wat] to ! am\nt ( a gill or m4 ,! same op]ation takes place 9 ! soil4 ,:5 ! air is all[$ to circulate among its l[] & cool]1 7because m %ad$17 p>ticles1 !y receive moi/ure by ! same process ( cond5sation4 ,!re=e1 :51 by ! aid ( "u-dra9s1 ! l[] soil becomes suffici5tly loose & op51 to all[ a circulation ( air1 ! deposit ( atmosph]ic moi/ure w keep x suppli$ ) wat]1 at a po9t easily accessible to ! roots ( plants4 ,if we wi% to satisfy ourselves t ?is is practically correct1 we h only to prep>e two boxes ( f9ely pulv]iz$ soil1--"o ?ree or f\r in*es deep1--& ! o!r fifte5 or tw5ty in*es deep1 & place !m 9 ! sun1 at midday1 9 summ]4 ,! ?9n] soil w soon be completely dri$1 :ile ! deep] "o1 ?\gh x may h be5 previ\sly dri$ 9 an ov51 w soon accumulate a l>ge am\nt ( wat] on ^? p>ticles :i*1 be+ l[] & bett] %elt]$ f ! sun's heat ?an ! p>ticles ( ! ?9 soil1 are made cool]4 ,we h se5 t ev5 ! mo/ ret5tive soil1--! /iffe/ clay1--is made por\s by ! repeat$ passage ( wat] f ! surface to ! level ( ! dra9s1 & t ! ability to admit air1 :i* pl[+ gives x1 is ma9ta9$ = a mu* long] "t ?an if x 7 usually saturat$ ) wat] :i* has no o!r means ( escape ?an by evaporation at ! surface4 ,! p[] ( dry soils to absorb moi/ure f ! air may be se5 by an exam9ation ( ! foll[+ table ( results obta9$ by ,s*uebl]1 :o expos$ #a1jjj gra9s ( dri$ soil ( ! v>i\s k9ds nam$ to ! action ( ! air3 ,k9d ( ,soil4 ,am\nt ( ,wat] ,absorb$ 9 #bd ,h\rs4 ,common ,soil #bb gra9s4 ,loamy ,clay #bf gra9s4 ,g>d5 ,soil #de gra9s4 ,brickmak]s' ,clay #cj gra9s4 ,! effect ( dra9+ 9 ov]com+ dr\ght1 by admitt+ atmosph]ic vapor w1 ( c\rse1 be v mu* increas$ if ! l& be ?or\ghly loos5$ by cultivation1 & especially if ! surface be kept 9 an op5 & mell[ condition4 ,9 addition to ! moi/ure receiv$ f ! air1 z above describ$1 wat] is1 9 a por\s soil1 drawn up f ! wett] subsoil bel[1 by ! same attractive =ce :i* acts to wet ! :ole ( a sponge ( :i* only ! l[] "p t\*es ! wat]2--z a h>d1 dry1 compact sponge w absorb wat] mu* less readily ?an "o :i* is loose & op51 s ! h>d clods1 into :i* undra9$ clay is dri$1 dr9k up wat] mu* less freely ?an !y w d aft] dra9+ %all h made !m m friable4 ,! s\rce ( ?is und]gr\nd moi/ure is ! wat] table1--! level ( ! soil bel[ ! influ5ce ( ! dra9s1--& ?is %\ld be s plac$ t1 :ile its wat] w easily rise to a po9t occupi$ by ! fe$+ roots ( ! crop1 x %\ld yield z little z possible = evaporation at ! surface4 ,ano!r s\rce ( moi/ure1 9 summ]1 is ! deposit ( dew on ! surface ( ! gr\nd4 ,! am\nt ( ?is is v difficult to det]m9e1 & accurate ,am]ican exp]im5ts on ! subject are want+4 ,( c\rse ! am\nt ( dew is great] "h ?an 9 ,engl&1 :]e ,dr4 ,dalton1 a skillful exam9] ( atmosph]ic ph5om5a1 e/imates ! annual deposit ( dew to equal a dep? ( five in*es1 or ab\t "o-fif? ( ! ra9-fall4 ,wat] ?us deposit$ on ! soil is absorb$ m or less completely1 9 proportion to ! porosity ( ! gr\nd4 ,! ext5t to :i* plants w be affect$ by dr\ght dep5ds1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 on ! dep? to :i* !y s5d _! roots4 ,if ^! lie ne> ! surface1 !y w be p>*$ by ! heat ( ! sun4 ,if !y /rike deeply into ! damp] subsoil1 ! sun w h less effect on ! s\rce f :i* !y obta9 _! moi/ure4 ,no?+ t5ds s mu* to deep root+1 z ! ?or\gh dra9+ ( ! soil4 ,if ! free wat] be )drawn to a consid]able di/ance f ! surface1 plants1--ev5 )\t ! valuable aid ( deep & subsoil pl[+1--w s5d _! roots to great dep?s4 ,writ]s on ?is subject cite _m in/ances 9 :i* ! roots ( ord9>y crops n m]e hairs1 b /rong fibres1 z l>ge z pack-?read1 s9k to ! dep? ( #d1 #f1 & 9 "s in/ances #ab or #ad feet4 ,c]ta9 x is t1 9 a heal?y1 well a]at$ soil1 any ( ! plants ord9>ily cultivat$ 9 ! g>d5 or field w s5d _! roots f> bel[ ! p>*$ surface soil2 b if ! subsoil is wet1 cold1 & soggy1 at ! "t :5 ! "y crop is lay+ out its plan ( future action1 x w p]=ce accommodate its roots to ! limit$ space :i* ! comp>atively dry surface soil af=ds4 ,x is well kn[n among ^? :o att5d ! meet+s ( ! ,f>m]s' ,club ( ! ,am]ican ,in/itute1 9 ,new ,york1 t ! f>m ( ,pr(essor ,mapes1 ne> ,new>k1 ,n4,j41 :i* ma9ta9s its wond]ful f]tility1 ye> aft] ye>1 )\t ref]5ce to wet or dry wea!r1 has be5 r5d]$ almo/ absolutely indiff]5t to ! sev]e/ dr\ght1 by a c\rse ( cultivation :i* has be5 r5d]$ possible only by "u-dra9+4 ,! lawns ( ! ,c5tral ,p>k1 :i* are a m>vel ( fre%ness1 :5 ! l&s ab\t ! ,p>k are burn$ br[n1 owe _! vigor ma9ly to ! complete dra9age ( ! soil4 ,:at is true ( ^! ?or\ghly cultivat$ l&s1 x is practicable to atta9 on all soils1 :i*1 f _! compact condition1 are n[ almo/ d5ud$ ( vegetation 9 dry seasons4 99,porosity or ,mell[ness499--,an op5 & mell[ condition ( ! soil is always favorable = ! gr[? ( plants4 ,!y require heat1 fre% air & moi/ure1 to enable !m to take up ! mat]ials on :i* !y live1 & by :i* !y gr[4 ,we h se5 t ! heat ( ret5tive soils is almo/ directly proportionate to ! complet5ess ) :i* _! free wat] is remov$ by und]gr\nd dra9+1 & t1 by reason ( ! increas$ facility ) :i* air & wat] circulate )9 !m1 _! heat is m ev5ly di/ribut$ among all ^? p>ts ( ! soil :i* are occupi$ by roots4 ,! ^w moi/ure1 9 ?is connection1 is us$ 9 contradi/9ction to wetness1 & implies a condition ( fre%ness & dampness1--n at all ( saturation4 ,9 a saturat$1 a soak+-wet soil1 e space betwe5 ! p>ticles is fill$ ) wat] to ! entire exclusion ( ! atmosph]e1 & 9 su* a soil only aquatic plants w gr[4 ,9 a dry soil1 on ! o!r h&1 :5 ! e>? is contract$ into clods & bak$1 almo/ z 9 an ov51--"o ( ! mo/ important conditions = gr[? be+ want+1--no?+ c ?rive1 save ^? plants :i* ask ( ! e>? only an an*or+ place1 & seek _! n\ri%m5t f ! air4 ,bo? air plants & wat] plants h _! wisely assign$ places 9 ! economy ( nature1 & nature provides !m ) ample space = gr[?4 ,agriculture1 h[ev]1 is direct$ to ! production ( a class ( plants v diff]5t f ei!r ( ^!1--to ^? :i* c only gr[ to _! greate/ p]fection 9 a soil comb9+1 n "o or two only1 b all ?ree ( ! conditions nam$ above4 ,:ile !y require heat1 !y _c disp5se ) ! moi/ure :i* too great heat removes2 :ile !y require moi/ure1 !y _c abide ! entire exclusion ( air1 nor ! dissipation ( heat :i* too mu* wat] causes4 ,! int]ior "p ( ! pellets ( a well pulv]iz$ soil %\ld conta9 all ! wat] t !y c hold by _! own absorptive p[]1 j z ! f9] walls ( a damp sponge hold x2 :ile ! spaces betwe5 ^! pellets1 l ! pores ( ! sponge1 %\ld be fill$ ) air4 ,9 su* a soil1 roots c ext5d 9 any direction1 & to consid]able dep?1 )\t be+ p>*$ ) ?ir/1 or dr[n$ 9 /agnant wat]1 &1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 plants w gr[ to _! greate/ possible size1 & all _! tissues w be ( ! be/ possible texture4 ,on ri* l&1 :i* is ma9ta9$ 9 ?is condition ( porosity & mell[ness1 agriculture w produce its be/ results1 & w enc\nt] ! fewe/ possible *ances ( failure4 ,( c\rse1 !re are n _m su* soils to be f\nd1 & su* absolute balance betwe5 w>m? & moi/ure 9 ! soil _c be ma9ta9$ at all times1 & "u all circum/ances1 b ! m ne>ly x is ma9ta9$1 ! m ne>ly p]fect w be ! results ( cultivation4 99,*emical ,action 9 ! ,soil499--,plants receive c]ta9 ( _! con/itu5ts f ! soil1 ?r\gh _! roots4 ,! raw mat]ials f :i* ^! con/itu5ts are obta9$ are ! m9]als ( ! soil1 ! manures :i* are artificially appli$1 wat]1 & c]ta9 sub/ances :i* are tak5 f ! air by ! absorptive action ( ! soil1 or are br\ght to x by ra9s1 or by wat] fl[+ ov] ! surface f o!r l&4 ,! m9]al matt]s1 :i* con/itute ! a%es ( plants1 :5 burn$1 are n m]e accid5tal impurities :i* happ5 to be c>ri$ into _! roots 9 solution 9 ! wat] :i* supplies ! sap1 al?\gh !y v>y 9 "* & proportion ) ea* *ange 9 ! m9]al composition ( ! soil4 ,x is prov5 by *emical analysis1 t ! composition ( ! a%es1 n only ( diff]5t species ( plants1 b ( diff]5t p>ts ( ! same plant1 h di/9ctive *>act]s1--"s be+ ri* 9 phosphates1 & o!rs 9 silex2 "s 9 pota%1 & o!rs 9 lime1--& t ^! *>act]s are 9 a measure ! same1 9 ! same plants or p>ts ( plants1 )\t especial ref]5ce to ! soil on :i* !y gr[4 ,! m9]als :i* =m ! a%es ( plants1 con/itute b a v small "p ( ! soil1 & !y are v sp>sely di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! mass2 exi/+ 9 ! int]ior ( its p>ticles1 z well z ^u _! surfaces4 ,z roots _c p5etrate to ! int]ior ( pebbles & compact p>ticles ( e>?1 9 se>* ( ! food :i* !y require1 b c only take t :i* is expos$ on _! surfaces1 &1 z ! oxydiz+ effect ( atmosph]ic air is useful 9 prep>+ ! crude m9]als = assimilation1 z well z 9 decompos+ ! p>ticles 9 :i* !y are b\nd up1--a process :i* is alli$ to ! ru/+ ( metals1--! m freely atmosph]ic air is all[$1 or induc$1 to circulate among ! inn] portions ( ! soil1 ! m readily are its f]tiliz+ p>ts made available = ! use ( roots4 ,by no o!r process1 is air made to ent] s deeply1 nor to circulate s readily 9 ! soil1 z by "u-dra9+1 & ! deep cultivation :i* "u-dra9+ facilitates4 ,( ! manures :i* are appli$ to ! l&1 ^? ( a m9]al "* are affect$ by dra9+1 9 ! same mann] z ! m9]als :i* are native to ! soil2 :ile organic1 or animal & vegetable1 manures1 7especially :5 appli$1 z is usual1 9 an incompletely f]m5t$ condition17 absolutely require fre% supplies ( atmosph]ic air1 to cont9ue ! decomposition :i* alone c prep>e !m = _! prop] effect on vegetation4 ,if kept saturat$ ) wat]1 s t ! air is exclud$1 animal manures lie ne>ly in]t1 & vegetable matt]s decompose b incompletely1--yield+ acids :i* are injuri\s to vegetation1 & :i* w\ld n be =m$ 9 ! pres5ce ( a suffici5t supply ( air4 ,an in/ance is cit$ by ,h4 ,wau] :]e %eep dung 0 pres]v$1 = five ye>s1 by excessive moi/ure1 :i* kept x f ! air4 ,if ! soil be saturat$ ) wat] 9 ! spr+1 &1 9 summ]1 7by ! compact+ ( its surface1 :i* is caus$ by evaporation17 be clos$ aga9/ ! entrance ( air1 manures w be b sl[ly decompos$1 & w act b imp]fectly on ! crop1--if1 on ! o!r h&1 a complete sy/em ( dra9age be adopt$1 manures1 7& ! roots :i* h be5 left 9 ! gr\nd by ! previ\s crop17 w be readily decompos$1 & w ex]cise _! full influ5ce on ! soil1 & on ! plants gr[+ 9 x4 ,aga91 manures are m or less effective1 9 proportion z !y are m or less ?or\ghly mix$ ) ! soil4 ,9 an undra9$1 ret5tive soil1 x is n (t5 possible to atta9 t p]fect til?1 :i* is be/ suit$ = a prop] admixture1 & :i* is easily giv5 aft] ?or\gh dra9+4 ,! soil mu/ be reg>d$ z ! laboratory 9 :i* nature1 dur+ ! season ( gr[?1 is c>ry+ on ^? hidd51 b indisp5sable *emical sep>ations1 comb9ations1 & re-comb9ations1 by :i* ! e>? is made to be> its fruits1 & to su/a9 its myriad life4 ,! *ief dem& ( ?is laboratory is = free v5tilation4 ,! raw mat]ial = ! "w is at h&1--z well 9 ! wet soil z 9 ! dry2 b ! door is seal$1 ! damp] is clos$1 & only a /ray :iff ( air c1 n[ & !n1 ga9 entrance1--only en\gh to comm5ce an analysis1 or a comb9ation1 :i* is *ok$ (f :5 half complete1 leav+ food = sorrel1 b mak+ none = grass4 ,we mu/ ?r[ op5 door & w9d[1 draw away ! wat] 9 :i* all is imm]s$1 let 9 ! air1 ) its all de/roy+1 &1 !re=e1 all re-creat+ oxyg51 & leave ! =ces ( nature's b5efic5t *emi/ry free play1 deep d[n 9 ! gr\nd4 ,!n may we hope = ! full b5efit ( ! f]tiliz+ matt]s :i* our good soil conta9s1 & = ! full effect ( ! manures :i* we add4 ,) our l& ?or\ghly improv$1 z has be5 describ$1 we may c>ry on ! op]ations ( f>m+ ) z mu* c]ta9ty ( success1 & ) z great immunity f ! ill effects ( unfavorable wea!r1 z c be expect$ 9 any bus9ess1 ^: results dep5d on su* a v>iety ( circum/ances4 ,we %all h sub/itut$ c]ta9ty = *ance1 z f> z x is 9 our p[] to d s1 & %all h made f>m+ an art1 r ?an a v5ture4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 - ,,h[ ,,to ,,g ,,to ,,"w ,,to ,,lay ,,out ,a ,,sy/em ,,( ,,dra9s4 ,h[ to lay out ! dra9s2 :]e to place ! outlet2 :]e to locate ! ma9 collect+ l9es2 h[ to arrange ! lat]als :i* are to take ! wat] f ! soil & deliv] x at ! ma9s2 h[ deep to g2 at :at int]vals2 :at fall to give2 & :at sizes ( tile to use1--^! are all que/ions ( great importance to "o :o is ab\t to dra9 l&4 ,on ! prop] adju/m5t ( ^! po9ts1 dep5d ! economy & effectiv5ess ( ! "w4 ,"t & att5tion giv5 to !m1 be=e comm5c+ actual op]ations1 w prev5t wa/e & avoid failure4 ,any p]son ( ord9>y intellig5ce may qualify himself to lay out "u-dra9s & to sup]9t5d _! con/ruction1--b ! k :i* is requir$ does n come by nature4 ,^? :o h n ! "t = ! necess>y /udy & practice to make a plan = dra9+ _! l&1 w f9d x economical to employ an eng9e] = ! purpose4 ,9 ?is era ( railroad build+1 !re is h>dly a c\nty 9 ,am]ica :i* has n a practical surveyor1 :o may easily qualify himself1 by a /udy ( ! pr9ciples & directions h]e9 set =?1 to lay out an economical plan = dra9+ any ord9>y agricultural l&1 to /ake ! l9es1 & to det]m9e ! grade ( ! dra9s1 & ! sizes ( tile ) :i* !y %\ld be furni%$4 ,on ?is subject ,mr4 ,gisborne says3 ,if we %\ld give a /imulus to amateur dra9+1 we %all d a great deal ( h>m4 ,we wi% we c\ld publi% a li/ ( ! moneys :i* h be5 squ&]$ 9 ! la/ #dj ye>s 9 amateur dra9+1 ei!r ineffectually or ) v imp]fect effici5cy4 ,our own "n w\ld be inscrib$ 9 ! li/ = a v respectable sum4 ,e ?\ghtless squire supposes t1 ) ! aid ( 8 ignorant bailiff1 he c effect a p]fect dra9age ( 8 e/ate2 b !re is a worse man beh9d ! squire & ! bailiff1--! dra9+ conjuror4 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,^! fell[s nev] g direct ab\t _! "w4 ,if !y attack a spr+1 !y try to circumv5t x by "s circuit\s r\te4 ,!y nev] c le>n t nature %[s y ! weake/ po9t1 & t y %\ld assi/ h]1--t hit him /raight 9 ! eye is z good a maxim 9 dra9+ z 9 pugilism4 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,if y wi% to dra91 we recomm5d y to take advice4 ,we h dispos$ ( ! quack1 b !re is a faculty1 n num]\s b ext5d+1 & ^: ext5sion appe>s to u to be indisp5sable to ! satisfactory progress ( improvem5ts by dra9+1--a faculty ( dra9+ eng9e]s4 ,if we want$ a pr(ession = a lad :o %[$ any cong5ial tal5t1 we w\ld br+ him up to be a dra9+ eng9e]4 ,he !n proce$s to speak ( 8 own exp]i5ce 9 ! matt]1 & %[s t1 aft] m ?an ?irty ye>s ( intellig5t practice1 he employ$ ,mr4 ,josiah ,p>kes to lay out & sup]9t5d 8 "w1 & ?us effect$ a sav+1 7aft] pay+ all pr(essional *>ges17 ( fully twelve p] c5t4 on ! co/ ( ! dra9+1 :i* 01 at ! same "t1 bett] execut$ ?an any t he _h previ\sly done4 ,x is probable t1 9 ne>ly all amateur dra9+1 ! unnecess>y frequ5cy ( ! lat]al dra9s2 ! extravagant size ( ! pipes us$2 & ! numb] ( useless angles :i* result f an unskillful arrangem5t1 w\ld am\nt to an exp5se equal to t5 times ! co/ ( ! prop] sup]9t5d5ce1 to say no?+ ( ! imp]fect mann] 9 :i* ! "w is execut$4 ,a common impression seems to prevail1 t if a #b-;in* pipe is good1 a #c-;in* pipe mu/ be bett]1 & t1 g5]ally1 if dra9+ is wor? do+ at all1 x is wor? ov]do+2 :ile ! great importance ( hav+ p]fectly fitt+ connections is n readily p]ceiv$4 ,! g5]al result is1 t mo/ ( ! tile-dra9+ 9 ?is c\ntry has be5 too exp5sive = economy1 & too c>eless = la/+ effici5cy4 ,x is propos$ to give1 9 ?is *apt]1 z complete a description ( ! prelim9>y eng9e]+ ( dra9+ z c be conc5trat$ )9 a few pages1 & a hope is ent]ta9$1 t x w1 at lea/1 convey an idea ( ! importance ( giv+ a full measure ( ?\ght & +5uity to ! matur+ ( ! plan1 be=e ! execution ( ! "w is comm5c$4 ,f>m+ ^u pap] has nev] be5 held 9 high repute1 b dra9+ ^u pap] is less a subject = objection4 ,) a good map ( ! f>m1 %[+ ! comp>ative levels ( outlet1 hill1 dale1 & pla91 & ! sizes & b\nd>ies ( ! diff]5t 9 closures1 a pr(itable w9t] may be pass$1--) p5cil & rubb]1--9 decid+ on a plan :i* w d ! requir$ "w ) ! lea/ possible l5g? ( dra91 & :i* w require ! lea/ possible extra deep cutt+2 & 9 s arrang+ ! ma9 dra9s z to require ! smalle/ possible am\nt ( ! l>g] & m co/ly pipes2 or1 if only a "p ( ! f>m is to be dra9$ dur+ ! com+ season1 9 s arrang+ ! "w t x w dovetail nicely ) future op]ations4 ,a mi/ake 9 actual "w is co/ly1 &1 7be+ buri$ "u ! gr\nd17 is n easily detect$1 :ile errors 9 draw+ ^u pap] are always obvi\s1 & are rem$i$ )\t co/4 ,= ! purpose ( illu/rat+ ! v>i\s processes connect$ ) ! lay+ out ( a sy/em ( dra9age1 ! mode ( op]at+ on a field ( t5 acres w be detail$1 9 connection ) a s]ies ( diagrams %[+ ! progress ( ! "w4 99,a ,map ( ! ,l&99 is fir/ made1 f a c>eful survey4 ,?is %\ld be plott$ to a scale ( #ej or #ajj feet to ! in*17#c7 & %\ld exhibit ! location ( ob/acles :i* may int]f]e ) ! regul>ity ( ! dra9s1--su* z l>ge trees1 rocks1 etc41 & ! exi/+ swamps1 wat] c\rses1 spr+s1 & op5 dra9s4 7,fig4 #d47 ,! next /ep is to locate ! cont\r l9es ( ! l&1 or ! l9es ( equal elevation1--also call$ ! horizontal l9es1--:i* s]ve to %[ ! %ape ( ! surface4 ,to d ?is1 /ake (f ! field into squ>es ( #ej feet1 by fir/ runn+ a base l9e ?r\gh ! c5t] ( ! greate/ l5g? ( ! field1 m>k+ x ) /akes at int]vals ( #ej feet1 !n /ake o!r l9es1 also at int]vals ( #ej feet1 p]p5dicul> to ! base l9e1 & !n note ! position ( ! /akes on ! maps2 next1 by ! aid ( an eng9e]'s level & /aff1 asc]ta9 ! height1 7above an imag9>y pla9 bel[ ! l[e/ "p ( ! field17 ( ! surface ( ! gr\nd at ea* /ake1 & note ?is elevation at its prop] po9t on ! map4 ,?is gives a plot l ,fig4 #e4 ,! be/ in/rum5t ) :i* to take ^! levels1 is ! ord9>y telescope-level us$ by railroad eng9e]s1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #f1 :i* has a telescope ) cross hairs int]sect+ ea* o!r 9 ! c5t] ( ! l9e ( sight1 & a bubble plac$ exactly p>allel to ?is l9e4 ,! in/rum5t1 fix$ on a tripod1 & s adju/$ t x w turn to any po9t ( ! compass )\t di/urb+ ! position ( ! bubble1 w1 7z w its l9e ( sight17 revolve 9 a p]fectly horizontal plane4 ,x is s plac$ z to comm& a view ( a consid]able /ret* ( ! field1 & its height above ! imag9>y plane is measur$1 an att5dant places next to "o ( ! /akes a levell+ rod1 7,fig4 #g17 :i* is divid$ into feet & fractions ( a foot1 & is furni%$ ) a movable t>get1 s pa9t$ t its c5t] po9t may be pla9ly se54 ,! att5dant raises & l[]s ! t>get1 until x comes exactly 9 ! l9e ( sight2 its height on ! rod d5otes ! height ( ! in/rum5t above ! level ( ! gr\nd at t /ake1 &1 z ! height ( ! in/rum5t above ! imag9>y plane has be5 rea*$1 by subtract+ "o elevation f ! o!r1 ! op]ator det]m9es ! height ( ! gr\nd at t /ake above ! imag9>y plane1--:i* is call$ ! datum l9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d - ,,map ,,( ,,l&1 ,,) ,,swamps1 ,,rocks1 ,,spr+s ,,& ,,trees4 ,,int5d$ ,,to ,,repres5t ,a ,,field ,,( ,,t5 ,,acres ,,be=e ,,dra9+4 ,fig4 #d - ,,map ,,( ,,l&1 ,,) ,,swamps1 ,,rocks1 ,,spr+s ,,& ,,trees4 ,,int5d$ ,,to ,,repres5t ,a ,,field ,,( ,,t5 ,,acres ,,be=e ,,dra9+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e - ,,map ,,) #ej-;,,foot ,,squ>es1 ,,& ,,cont\r ,,l9es4 ,fig4 #e - ,,map ,,) #ej-;,,foot ,,squ>es1 ,,& ,,cont\r ,,l9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e - ,,map ,,) #ej-;,,foot ,,squ>es1 ,,& ,,cont\r ,,l9es4 ,fig4 #f - ,,levell+ ,,in/rum5t47#d7 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g - ,,levell+ ,,rod4 ,fig4 #g - ,,levell+ ,,rod4 ,! next op]ation is to trace1 on ! plan1 l9es foll[+ ! same level1 :]ev] ! l& is ( ! prop] height = its surface to meet !m4 ,= ! purpose ( illu/rat+ ?is op]ation1 l9es at int]vals ( elevation ( "o foot are trac$ on ! plan 9 ,fig4 #h4 ,& ^! l9es %[1 ) suffici5t accuracy = practical purposes1 ! elevation & rate ( incl9ation ( all p>ts ( ! field1--:]e x is level or ne>ly s1 :]e its rise is rapid1 & :]e slight4 ,z ! l& rises "o foot f ! position ( "o l9e to ! position ( ! l9e next above x1 :]e ! di/ance f "o l9e to ! next is great1 ! l& is m ne>ly level1 & :5 x is %ort ! incl9ation is /eep]4 ,= in/ance1 9 ! s\?we/ corn] ( ! plan1 ! l& is ne>ly level to ! #b-;foot l9e2 x rises sl[ly to ! c5t] ( ! field1 & to ! ea/]n side ab\t "o-f\r? ( ! di/ance f ! s\!rn b\nd>y1 :ile an elevation com+ d[n betwe5 ^! two valleys1 & o!rs skirt+ ! we/ side ( ! =m] "o & ! s\!rn side ( ! latt]1 are indicat$ by ! great] ne>ness ( ! l9es4 ,! po9ts at :i* ! cont\r l9es cross ! section l9es are f\nd 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,on ! second l9e f ! we/ side ( ! field we f9d ! elevations ( ! #d?1 #e? & #f? /akes f ! s\!rn b\nd>y to be #a4i1 #c4c1 & #e4a4 ,! cont\r l9es1 repres5t+ po9ts ( elevation ( #b1 #c1 #d1 & #e feet above ! datum l9e1 w cross ! #ej-;foot l9es at _! int]sections1 only :]e ^! int]sections are m>k$ 9 ev5 feet4 ,:5 !y are m>k$ ) fractions ( a foot1 ! l9es mu/ be made to cross at po9ts betwe5 two int]sections1--ne>] to "o or ! o!r1 accord+ to _! elevations1--?us betwe5 #a4i & #c4c1 ! #b-;foot & #c-;foot cont\r l9es mu/ cross4 ,! total diff]5ce ( elevation1 betwe5 ! two po9ts is #c4c--a4ia4d2 #aj_/ad ( ! space mu/ be giv5 to ! ev5 foot betwe5 ! l9es1 & ! #b-;foot l9e %\ld be #a_/ad ( ! space above ! po9t #a4i2--! #c-;foot l9e w !n come #c_/ad bel[ ! po9t #c4c4 ,9 ! same mann]1 ! l9e f #c4c to #e4a is divid$ into #ah p>ts1 ( :i* #aj g to ! space betwe5 ! #d4 & #e4 l9es1 #g are betwe5 #c4c & ! #d-;foot l9e1 & #a betwe5 ! #e-;foot l9e & #e4a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h - ,,map ,,) ,,cont\r ,,l9es4 ,fig4 #h - ,,map ,,) ,,cont\r ,,l9es4 ,) ^! maps1 made f obs]vations tak5 9 ! field1 we are prep>$ to lay d[n1 on pap]1 our sy/em ( dra9age1 & to mature a plan :i* %all d ! necess>y "w ) ! lea/ exp5diture ( labor & mat]ial4 ,! m ?or\ghly ?is plan is consid]$1 ! m economical & effective w be ! "w4 ,hav+ already obta9$ ! ne$$ in=mation1 & hav+ x all be=e u1 we c det]m9e exactly ! location & size ( ea* dra91 & arrange1 be=e h&1 = a rapid & satisfactory execution ( ! "w4 ,! only ?+ t may int]f]e ) ! p]fect application ( ! plan1 is ! pres5ce ( masses ( und]gr\nd rock1 )9 ! dep? to :i* ! dra9s are to be laid47#e7 ,:]e ^! are suppos$ to exi/1 s\nd+s %\ld be made1 by driv+ a #c_/d-;in* po9t$ iron rod to ! rock1 or to a dep? ( five feet :]e ! rock falls away4 ,by ?is means1 measur+ ! di/ance f ! s\nd+s to ! ranges ( ! /akes1 we c d5ote on ! map ! %ape & dep? ( sunk5 rocks4 ,! %ad$ spot on ! ea/ side ( ! map1 7,fig4 #h17 indicates a rock ?ree feet f ! surface1 :i* w be assum$ to h be5 explor$ by s\nd+4 ,9 mo/ cases1 x w be suffici5t to h cont\r l9es tak5 only at int]vals ( two feet1 &1 ow+ to ! smallness ( ! scale on :i* ^! maps are engrav$1 & to avoid complication 9 ! f9i%$ plan1 :]e s mu* else mu/ be %[n1 ea* alt]nate l9e is omitt$4 ,( c\rse1 :]e dra9s are at once /ak$ out on ! l&1 by a practic$ eng9e]1 no cont\r l9es are tak51 z by ! aid ( ! level & rod = ! flatt] portions1 & by ! eye alone = ! /eep] slopes1 he w be able at once to /rike ! prop] locations & directions2 b = "o ( less exp]i5ce1 :o desires to ?or\ghly mature 8 plan be=e comm5c+1 !y are indisp5sable2 & _! introduction "h w enable ! novice to und]/&1 m cle>ly ?an w\ld o!rwise be possible1 ! pr9ciples on :i* ! plan %\ld be made4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i - ,,well',s ,,cl9omet]4 ,fig4 #i - ,,well',s ,,cl9omet]4 ,= prelim9>y exam9ations1 & = all purposes 9 :i* great accuracy is n requir$1 ! little in/rum5t %[n 9 ,fig4 #i1--,wells' ,cl9omet]1--is exce$+ly simple & conv5i5t4 ,its ess5tial p>ts are a flat side1 or base1 on :i* x /&s1 & a holl[ disk j half fill$ ) "s heavy liquid4 ,! glass face ( ! disk is surr\nd$ by a graduat$ scale t m>ks ! angle at :i* ! surface ( ! liquid /&s1 ) ref]5ce to ! flat base4 ,! l9e #j4----j4 be+ p>allel to ! base1 :5 ! liquid /&s on t l9e1 ! flat side is horizontal2 ! l9e #ij4----ij4 be+ p]p5dicul> to ! base1 :5 ! liquid /&s on t l9e1 ! flat side is p]p5dicul> or plumb4 ,9 l mann]1 ! int]v5+ angles are m>k$1 &1 by ! aid ( ! foll[+ tables1 ! in/rum5t indicates ! rate ( fall p] hundr$ feet ( horizontal measurem5t1 & p] hundr$ feet measur$ ^u ! slop+ l9e47#f7 ,table ,no4 #a %[s ! rise ( ! slope = #ajj feet ( ! horizontal measurem5t4 ,example3 ,if ! horizontal di/ance is #ajj feet1 & ! slope is at an angle ( #ae1 ! rise w be #ag-fcc_/ajjj feet4 ,table ,no4 #b %[s ! rise ( ! slope = #ajj feet ( its own l5g?4 ,if ! slop+ l9e1 7at an angle ( #ae17 is #ajj feet long1 x rises #be4hhb feet4 ,,table ,no4 #a4 ,,deg4 ,,feet4 #e #h4gdi #aj #ag4ffc #ae #bf4gie #bj #cf4cig #be #df4fca #cj #eg4gce #ce #gj4jba #dj #hc4iaj #de #ajj4-- #ej #aai4age #ee #adb4hae #fj #agc4bje #fe #bad4dea #gj #bgd4gdh #ge #cgc4bje #hj #efg4abh #he #aadc4ja ,,table ,no4 #b ,,deg4 ,,feet4 #e #h4gaf #aj #ag4cfe #ae #be4hhb #bj #cd4bjb #be #db4bfb #cj #ej4-- #ce #eg4ceh #dj #fd4bgi #de #gj4gaa #ej #gf4fjd #ee #ha4iae #fj #hf4fjb #fe #ij4fca #gj #ic4ifi #ge #if4eic #hj #ih4dha #he #ii4fai ,) ! maps be=e him1 %[+ ! surface features ( ! field1 & ! position ( ! "u-gr\nd rock1 ! dra9] w h to consid] ! foll[+ po9ts3 #a4 ,:]e1 & at :at dep?1 %all ! outlet be plac$8 #b4 ,:at %all be ! location1 ! l5g? & ! dep? ( ! ma9 dra98 #c4 ,:at subsidi>y ma9s1--or collect+ dra9s1--%all connect ! m9or valleys ) ! ma98 #d4 ,:at may be/ be done to collect ! wat] ( l>ge spr+s & c>ry x away8 #e4 ,:at provision is necess>y to collect ! wat] t fl[s ov] ! surface ( out-cropp+ rock1 or along spr+y l9es on side hills or "u banks8 #f4 ,:at %\ld be ! dep?1 ! di/ance ap>t1 ! direction1 & ! rate ( fall1 ( ! lat]al dra9s8 #g4 ,:at k9d & sizes ( tile %\ld be us$ to =m ! conduits8 #h4 ,:at provision %\ld be made to prev5t ! ob/ruction ( ! dra9s1 by an accumulation ( silt or s&1 :i* may ent] ! tiles imm$iately aft] !y are laid1 & be=e ! e>? becomes compact$ ab\t !m2 & f ! entrance ( v]m98 #a4 ,! outlet %\ld be at ! l[e/ po9t ( ! b\nd>y1 unless1 7= "s especial reason :i* does n exi/ 9 ! case "u consid]ation1 nor 9 any usual case17 x is necess>y to seek "s o!r ?an ! natural outfall2 & x %\ld be deep en\gh to take ! wat] ( ! ma9 dra91 & laid on a suffici5t incl9ation = a free fl[ ( ! wat]4 ,x %\ld1 :]e suffici5t fall c be obta9$ )\t too great co/1 deliv] ?is wat] ov] a /ep ( at lea/ a few in*es 9 height1 s t ! action ( ! dra9 may be se51 & s t x may n be liable to be clogg$ by ! accumulation ( silt1 7or mud17 9 ! op5 dit* into :i* x fl[s4 #b4 ,! ma9 dra9 %\ld1 usually1 be run z ne>ly 9 ! l[e/ "p ( ! pr9cipal valley z is consi/5t ) tol]able /raightness4 ,x is bett] to cut across ! po9t ( a hill1 to ! ext5t ( increas+ ! dep? = a few rods1 ?an to g a long di/ance out ( ! direct c\rse to keep 9 ! valley1 bo? because ( ! co/ ( ! l>ge tile us$ 9 ! ma91 & ( ! loss ( fall occasion$ by ! l5g!n+ ( ! l9e4 ,! ma9 %\ld be cont9u$ f ! outlet to ! po9t at :i* x is mo/ conv5i5t to collect ! m remote sub-ma9s1 :i* br+ toge!r ! wat] ( sev]al sets ( lat]als4 ,z is ! case 9 ! tract "u consid]ation1 ! dep? ( ! ma9 is (t5 re/rict$1 9 ne>ly level l&1 t[>d ! upp] end ( ! flat :i* lies next to ! outlet1 by ! necessity = a fall & ! difficulty :i* (t5 exi/s 9 secur+ a suffici5tly l[ outlet4 ,9 su* case1 ! only rule is to make x z deep z possible4 ,:5 ! fall is suffici5t1 x %\ld be plac$ at su* dep? z w all[ ! lat]als & sub-ma9s :i* dis*>ge into x to ent] at its top1 & dis*>ge above ! level ( ! wat] :i* fl[s ?r\gh x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj - ,,/one ,,pit ,,to ,,connect ,,spr+ ,,) ,,dra94 ,fig4 #aj - ,,/one ,,pit ,,to ,,connect ,,spr+ ,,) ,,dra94 #c4 ,subsidi>y ma9s1 or sub-ma9s1 connect+ ) ! ma9 dra9s1 %\ld be run up ! m9or valleys ( ! l&1 skirt+ ! bases ( ! hills4 ,:]e ! valley is a flat "o1 ) ris+ gr\nd at ea* side1 !re %\ld be a sub-ma91 to receive ! lat]als f ea* hill side4 ,z a g5]al rule1 x may be /at$1 t ! collect+ dra9 at ! foot ( a slope %\ld be plac$ on ! l9e :i* is fir/ rea*$ by ! wat] fl[+ directly d[n ov] its surface1 be=e x comm5ces its lat]al movem5t d[n ! valley2 & x %\ld1 if possible1 be s arrang$ t x %all h a uni=m desc5t = its :ole di/ance4 ,! prop] arrangem5t ( ^! collect+ dra9s requires m skill & exp]i5ce ?an any o!r bran* ( ! "w1 = on _! disposition dep5ds1 9 a great measure1 ! economy & success ( ! und]tak+4 #d4 ,:]e spr+s exi/1 !re %\ld be "s provision made = collect+ _! wat] 9 pits fill$ ) loose /one1 gravel1 bru% or o!r rubbi%1 or furni%$ ) sev]al l5g?s ( tile set on end1 "o above ! o!r1 or ) a b>rel or o!r vessel2 & a l9e ( tile ( prop] size %\ld be run directly to a ma91 or sub-ma9 dra94 ,! mann] ( do+ ?is by means ( a pit fill$ ) /one is %[n 9 ,fig4 #aj4 ,! collection ( spr+ wat] 9 a v]tical tile bas9 is %[n 9 ,fig4 #aa4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa - ,,/one ,,& ,,tile ,,bas9 ,,= ,,spr+ ,,) ,,dra94 ,fig4 #aa - ,,/one ,,& ,,tile ,,bas9 ,,= ,,spr+ ,,) ,,dra94 #e4 ,:]e a l$ge ( %elv+ rock1 ( consid]able size1 occurs on l& to be dra9$1 x is be/ to make "s provision = collect+1 at its base1 ! wat] fl[+ ov] its surface1 & tak+ x at once into ! dra9s1 s t x may n make ! l& ne> x unduly wet4 ,to effect ?is1 a dit* %\ld be dug along ! base ( ! rock1 & q d[n to x1 consid]ably deep] ?an ! level ( ! propos$ dra9age2 & ?is %\ld be fill$ ) small /ones to t level1 ) a l9e ( tile laid on top ( ! /ones1 a uni=m bottom = ! tile to re/ ^u be+ =m$ ( *eap /rips ( bo>d4 ,! tile & /one %\ld !n be cov]$ ) inv]t$ sods1 ) wood %av+s1 or ) o!r suitable mat]ial1 :i* w prev5t ! entrance ( e>?1 7f ! cov]+ ( ! dra917 to *oke !m4 ,! wat]1 foll[+ d[n ! surface ( ! rock1 w rise ?r\gh ! /one "w &1 ent]+ ! tile1 w fl[ (f4 ,?is me?od may be us$ = spr+y hill sides4 #f4 ,! po9ts previ\sly consid]$ relate only to ! collection ( unusual quantities ( wat]1 7f spr+s & f rock surfaces17 & to ! removal f ! l& ( :at is ?us collect$1 & ( t :i* fl[s f ! m9or or lat]al dra9s4 ,! lat]al dra9s !mselves con/itute ! real dra9age ( ! field1 =1 al?\gh ma9 l9es take wat] f ! l& on ea* side1 _! action 9 ?is reg>d is n usually consid]$1 9 det]m9+ ei!r _! dep? or _! location1 & !y play an exce$+ly small "p 9 ! m simple =m ( dra9age1--t 9 :i* a l>ge tract ( l&1 ( p]fectly uni=m slope1 is dra9$ by p>allel l9es ( equal l5g?1 all dis*>g+ into a s+le ma91 runn+ across ! foot ( ! field4 ,! l& w\ld be equally well dra9$1 if ! p>allel l9es 7 cont9u$ to an op5 dit* beyond its b\nd>y1--! ma9 tile dra9 is only adopt$ = great] conv5i5ce & security4 ,x w simplify ! "q if1 9 treat+ ! !ory ( lat]al dra9s1 x be assum$ t our field is ( ?is uni=m incl9ation1 & admits ( ! use ( long l9es ( p>allel dra9s4 ,9 fact1 x is be/ 9 practice to approximate z ne>ly z possible to ?is arrangem5t1 because deviations f x1 ?\gh always necess>y 9 brok5 l&1 are always m exp5sive1 & pres5t m complicat$ eng9e]+ problems4 ,if all ! l& to be dra9$ _h a uni=m fall1 9 a s+le direction1 !re w\ld be b little ne$ ( eng9e]+ skill1 beyond t :i* is requir$ to e/abli% ! dep?1 fall1 & di/ance ap>t1 at :i* ! dra9s %\ld be laid4 ,x is *iefly :5 ! l& pit*es 9 diff]5t directions1 & ) v>y+ incl9ation1 t only a p]son skill$ 9 ! arrangem5t ( dra9s1 or "o :o w give mu* consid]ation to ! subject1 c effect ! greate/ economy by avoid+ unnecess>y complication1 & secure ! greate/ effici5cy by adju/+ ! dra9s to ! requirem5ts ( ! l&4 ,assum+ ! l& to h an unbrok5 incl9ation1 s z to require only p>allel dra9s1 x becomes important to "k h[ ^! p>allel dra9s1 7correspond+ to ! lat]al dra9s ( an irregul> sy/em17 %\ld be made4 ,! hi/ory ( l& dra9+ is a hi/ory ( ! gradual progress ( an improvem5t1 f ! accompli%m5t ( a s+le purpose1 to ! accompli%m5t ( sev]al purposes1 & mo/ ( ! in/ruction :i* mod]n agricultural writ]s h giv5 conc]n+ x1 has %[n too great dep5d5ce ^u ! tea*+s ( _! pr$ecessors1 :o consid]$ well ! s+le object :i* !y s\ght to atta91 b :o _h no conception t dra9+ 0 to be s g5]ally valuable z x has become4 ,! ef=t1 7probably an unconsci\s "o17 to make ! !ories ( mod]n ?or\gh-dra9+ con=m to ^? advanc$ by ! e>ly practition]s1 seems to h div]t$ att5tion f "s m rec5tly develop$ pr9ciples1 :i* are ( mu* importance4 ,= example1 ab\t a hundr$ ye>s ago1 ,joseph ,elk+ton1 ( ,w>wick%ire1 discov]$ t1 :]e l& is made too wet by "u-gr\nd spr+s1 a skillful tapp+ ( ^!1--draw+ (f _! wat] ?r\gh suitable conduits1--w\ld greatly relieve ! l&1 & = _m ye>s ! ,elk+ton ,sy/em ( dra9age1 be+ a great improvem5t on e ?+ !ret(ore practic$1 naturally occupi$ ! att5tion ( ! agricultural _w1 & ! ,bo>d ( ,agriculture appo9t$ a ,mr4 ,john/one to /udy ! process1 & write a treatise on ! subject4 ,cat*-wat] dra9s1 made s z to int]cept a fl[ ( surface wat]1 h be5 9 use f immemorial "t1 & are describ$ by ! e>lie/ writ]s4 ,be=e ! adv5t ( ! ,dra9+ ,tile1 cov]$ dra9s 7 furni%$ ) /ones1 bo>ds1 bru%1 we$s1 & v>i\s o!r rubbi%1 & _! good effect1 v prop]ly1 claim$ ! att5tion ( all improv]s ( wet l&4 ,:5 ! tile fir/ made its appe>ance 9 g5]al practice1 x 0 ( :at is call$ ! horse-%oe =m1 &1--imp]fect ?\gh x 01--x 0 bett] ?an any?+ t _h prec$$ x1 & 0 receiv$ ) high approval1 :]ev] x became kn[n4 ,! g5]al use ( all ^! mat]ials = mak+ dra9s 0 conf9$ to a sy/em ( p>tial dra9age1 until ! publication ( a pamphlet1 9 #ahcc1 by ,mr4 ,smi?1 ( ,dean/on1 :o advocat$ ! dra9age ( ! :ole field1 )\t ref]5ce to spr+s4 ,f ?is plan1 b ) important modifications 9 matt]s ( detail1 ! mod]n sy/em ( tile dra9+ has gr[n4 ,_m able m5 h aid$ its progress1 & h help$ to dissem9ate a k ( its processes & its effects1 yet !re are few books on dra9+1 ev5 ! mo/ mod]n ones1 :i* d n devote mu* att5tion to ,elk+ton's discov]y2 to ! v>i\s sorts ( /one & bru% dra9s2 & to ! manufacture & use ( horse-%oe tile2--n treat+ !m z matt]s ( antiqu>ian int]e/1 b repeat+ ! in/ructions = _! application1 & all[+ ! reason+ on :i* _! e>ly use 0 bas$1 to influ5ce1 (t5 to a damag+ ext5t1 _! g5]al consid]ation ( ! mod]n practice ( tile dra9+4 ,^! processes are all ( occasional use1 ev5 at ?is day1 b !y are bas$ on no fix$ rules1 & are s mu* a matt] ( traditional k1 ) all f>m]s1 t in/ruction conc]n+ !m is n ne$$4 ,! k9d ( dra9+ :i* is n[ "u consid]ation1 has = its object ! complete removal ( all ( ! surplus wat] t rea*es ! soil1 f :atev] s\rce1 & ! assimilation ( all wet soils to a some:at uni=m condition1 z to ! ease ) :i* wat] passes ?r\gh !m4 ,!re are in/ances1 z has be5 %[n1 :]e a l>ge spr+1 ov]fl[+ a consid]able area1 or supply+ ! wat] ( an annoy+ brook1 ought to be directly connect$ ) ! "u-gr\nd dra9age1 & its fl[ neatly c>ri$ away2 &1 9 o!r cases1 ! surface fl[ ov] l>ge masses ( rock %\ld be giv5 easy entrance into ! tile2 b1 9 all ord9>y l&s1 :e!r swamps1 spr+y hill sides1 heavy clays1 or light soils ly+ on ret5tive subsoil1 all gr\nd1 9 fact1 :i* ne$s "u-dra9+ at all1 %\ld be laid dry above ! level to :i* x is deem$ be/ to place ! dra9s2--n only secur$ aga9/ ! wett+ ( spr+s & soakage wat]1 b rapidly reliev$ ( ! wat] ( heavy ra9s4 ,! wat] table1 9 %ort1 %\ld be l[]$ to ! prop] dep?1 &1 by p]man5t outlets at t dep?1 be prev5t$ f ev] ris+1 = any consid]able "t1 to a high] level4 ,?is be+ accompli%$1 x is ( no consequ5ce to "k :5ce ! wat] comes1 & ,elk+ton's sy/em ne$ h no place 9 our calculations4 ,z r\nd pipes1 ) coll>s1 are f> sup]ior to ! horse-%oe tiles1 & are equally easy to obta91 x is n necess>y to consid] ! mann] 9 :i* ^! latt] %\ld be us$1--only to say t !y ought n to be us$ at all4 ,! wat] :i* falls ^u ! surface is at once absorb$1 settles ?r\gh ! gr\nd1 until x rea*es a po9t :]e ! soil is completely saturat$1 & raises ! g5]al wat] level4 ,:5 ?is level rea*es ! floor ( ! dra9s1 ! wat] ent]s at ! jo9ts & is c>ri$ (f4 ,t :i* passes d[n ?r\gh ! l& ly+ betwe5 ! dra9s1 be>s d[n ^u t :i* has already accumulat$ 9 ! soil1 & =ces x to seek an outlet by ris+ into ! dra9s47#g7 ,= example1 if a b>rel1 /&+ on end1 be fill$ ) e>? :i* is saturat$ ) wat]1 & its bung be remov$1 ! wat] ( saturation1 7t is1 all :i* is n held by attraction 9 ! p>ticles ( e>?17 w be remov$ f s mu* ( ! mass z lies above ! bottom ( ! bung-hole4 ,if a bucket ( wat] be n[ p\r$ ^u ! top1 x w n all run diagonally t[>d ! op5+2 x w trickle d[n to ! level ( ! wat] rema9+ 9 ! b>rel1 & ?is level w rise & wat] w run (f at ! bottom ( ! orifice4 ,9 ?is mann]1 ! wat]1 ev5 bel[ ! dra9age level1 is *ang$ ) ea* addition at ! surface4 ,9 a b>rel fill$ ) co>se pebbles1 ! wat] ( saturation w\ld ma9ta9 a ne>ly level surface2 if ! mat]ial 7 m compact & ret5tive1 a true level w\ld be atta9$ only aft] a consid]able "t4 ,t[>d ! end ( ! fl[1 ! wat] w\ld /& highe/ at ! po9ts fur!/ di/ant f ! outlet4 ,s1 9 ! l&1 aft] a dr5*+ ra91 ! wat] is fir/ remov$ to ! full dep?1 ne> ! l9e ( ! dra91 & t midway betwe5 two dra9s settles mu* m sl[ly1 meet+ m resi/ance f bel[1 &1 = a long "t1 w rema9 "s in*es high] ?an ! floor ( ! dra94 ,! usual condition ( ! soil1 7except 9 v dry wea!r17 w\ld be some:at z repres5t$ 9 ! accompany+ cut1 7,fig4 #ab47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab - ,,l9e ,,( ,,saturation ,,betwe5 ,,dra9s4 ,fig4 #ab - ,,l9e ,,( ,,saturation ,,betwe5 ,,dra9s4 ,,yy are ! dra+s4 ,! curv$ l9e b is ! l9e ( saturation1 :i* has desc5d$ f a1 & is approa*+ c4 ,to provide = ?is deviation ( ! l9e ( saturation1 9 practice1 dra9s are plac$ deep] ?an w\ld be necess>y if ! wat] sunk at once to ! level ( ! dra9 floor1 ! dep? ( ! dra9s be+ increas$ ) ! increas+ di/ance betwe5 !m4 ,!oretically1 e drop ( wat] :i* falls on a field %\ld s9k /raight d[n to ! level ( ! dra9s1 & =ce a drop ( wat] bel[ t level to rise into ! dra9 & fl[ (f4 ,h[ exactly ?is is true 9 nature _c be kn[n1 & is n mat]ial4 ,dra9s made 9 pursuance ( ?is !ory w be effective = any actual condition4 ,! dep? to :i* ! wat] table %\ld be )drawn dep5ds1 n at all on ! "* ( ! soil1 b on ! requirem5ts ( ! crops :i* are to be gr[n ^u x1 & ^! requirem5ts are ! same 9 all soils1--consequ5tly ! dep? %\ld be ! same 9 all4 ,:at1 !n1 %all t dep? be8 ,! usual practice ( ! mo/ exp]i5c$ dra9]s seems to h fix$ f\r feet z ab\t ! prop] dep?1 & ! argum5ts aga9/ any?+ less ?an ?is1 z well z "s reasons = suppos+ t to be suffici5t1 are s cle>ly /at$ by ,mr4 ,gisborne t x has be5 deem$ be/ to quote 8 own words on ! subject3 ,take a fl[]-pot a foot deep1 fill$ ) dry soil4 ,place x 9 a sauc] conta9+ ?ree in*es ( wat]4 ,! fir/ effect w be1 t ! wat] w rise ?r\gh ! hole 9 ! bottom ( ! pot till ! wat] :i* fills ! int]/ices betwe5 ! soil is on a level ) ! wat] 9 ! sauc]4 ,?is effect is by gravity4 ,! upp] surface ( ?is wat] is our wat]-table4 ,f x wat] w asc5d by attraction ?r\gh ! :ole body ( soil till moi/ure is app>5t at ! surface4 ,put 9 y\r soil at #fj1 a reasonable summ] heat = n9e in*es 9 dep?1 y\r wat] at #dg1 ! sev5 in*es' temp]ature ( ,mr4 ,p>ke's undra9$ bog2 ! attract$ wat] w asc5d at #dg1 & w dilig5tly occupy itself 9 attempt+ to r$uce ! #fj soil to its own temp]ature4 ,moreov]1 no soon] w ! soil hold wat] ( attraction1 ?an evaporation w beg9 to c>ry x (f1 & w produce ! cold consequ5t !reon4 ,?is evaporat$ wat] w be replac$ by wat] ( attraction at #dg1 & ?is d\ble cool+ process w g on till all ! wat] 9 ! wat]-table is exhau/$4 ,supply wat] to ! sauc] z fa/ z x disappe>s1 & !n ! process w be p]petual4 ,! sy/em ( sauc]-wat]+ is reprobat$ by e intellig5t g>d5]2 x is f\nd by exp]i5ce to *ill vegetation2 besides :i*1 sc>cely any cultivat$ plant c dip its roots into /agnant wat] ) impunity4 ,exactly ! process :i* we h describ$ 9 ! fl[]-pot is con/antly 9 op]ation on an undra9$ ret5tive soil2 ! wat]-table may n be )9 n9e in*es ( ! surface1 b 9 v _m in/ances x is )9 a foot or eighte5 in*es1 at :i* level ! cold surplus oozes into "s dit* or o!r sup]ficial outlet4 ,at eighte5 in*es1 attraction w1 on ! av]age ( soils1 act ) consid]able p[]4 ,"h1 !n1 y h two obnoxi\s pr9ciples at "w1 bo? produc+ cold1 & ! "o adm9i/]+ to ! o!r4 ,! obvi\s rem$y is1 to de/roy _! unit$ action2 to break ?r\gh _! l9e ( communication4 ,remove y\r wat] ( attraction to su* a dep? t evaporation _c act ^u x1 or b feebly4 ,:at is t dep?8 ,9 asc]ta9+ ?is po9t we are n altoge!r )\t data4 ,no d\bt dep? dim9i%es ! p[] ( evaporation rapidly4 ,/ill1 z wat] tak5 f a #cj-;in* dra9 is almo/ inv>iably two or ?ree degrees cold] ?an wat] tak5 f f\r feet1 & z ?is latt] is g5]ally "o or two degrees cold] ?an wat] f a contigu\s well sev]al feet bel[1 we c h>dly avoid draw+ ! conclusion t ! cold ( evaporation has consid]able influ5ce at #cj in*es1 a mu*-dim9i%$ influ5ce at f\r feet1 & little or none bel[ t dep?4 ,if ! wat]-table is remov$ to ! dep? ( f\r feet1 :5 we h all[$ #ah in*es ( attraction1 we %all /ill h #cj in*es ( def5ce aga9/ evaporation2 & we are incl9$ to believe t any prejudicial comb9$ action ( attraction & evaporation is !reby well gu>d$ aga9/4 ,! facts /at$ seem to prove t less w n suffice4 ,s mu* on ! score ( temp]ature2 b ?is is n all4 ,d ! roots ( escul5ts wi% to p5etrate into ! e>?--at lea/1 to ! dep? ( "s feet8 ,we believe t !y d4 ,we are sure ( ! brassica tribe1 ( grass1 & clov]4 ,all our exp]i5ce & obs]vation d5y ! doctr9e t roots only ramble :5 !y are /9t$ ( food2 t six in*es well manur$ is q en\gh1 bett] ?an m4 ,ask ! ,j]seyman2 he w %[ y a p>snip z ?ick z y\r ?igh1 & z long z y\r leg1 & w tell y ( ! advantages ( #ad feet ( dry soil4 ,y w he> ( p>snips ^: roots desc5d to unse>*able dep?s4 ,we w n appeal to ! ,k5tucky c>rot1 :i* 0 drawn out by its roots at ! antipodes2 b ,mr4 ,me*i's1 if we rememb] "r1 0 a doz5 feet or m4 ,?ree ye>s ago1 9 a midl& c\nty1 a field ( good l&1 9 good cultivation1 & ri*ly manur$1 produc$ a heavy crop ( cabbages4 ,9 ,novemb] ( t ye> we saw t field brok5 into 9 sev]al places1 & at ! dep? ( f\r feet ! soil 7a t5aci\s m>l1 fully /iff en\gh = brick-e>?7 0 occupi$ by ! roots ( cabbage1 n sp>+ly--n m]e capill--b fibres ( ! size ( small pack-?read4 ,a f>m] manures a field ( f\r or five in*es ( free soil repos+ on a ret5tive clay1 & s[s x ) :eat4 ,x comes up1 & betwe5 ! k]nel & ! manure1 x looks well = a "t1 b anon x sick5s4 ,an ,iri% *ild looks well = five or six ye>s1 b aft] t "t potato-fe$+1 & fil?1 & h>d%ip1 beg9 to tell4 ,y ask :at is amiss ) ! :eat1 & y are told t :5 its roots rea* ! clay1 !y are poison$4 ,?is field is !n ?or\gh-dra9$1 deep1 at lea/ f\r feet4 ,x receives aga9 f ! cultivator ! previ\s treatm5t2 ! :eat comes up well1 ma9ta9s ?r\gh\t a heal?y aspect1 & gives a good return4 ,:at has become ( ! poison8 ,we h be5 told t ! ra9 wat] filt]$ ?r\gh ! soil has tak5 x into solution or susp5sion1 & has c>ri$ x (f ?r\gh ! dra9s2 & m5 :o assume to be ( au?ority put =w>d ?is z "o ( ! advantages ( dra9+4 ,if we believ$ x1 we c\ld n advocate dra9+4 ,we really %\ld n h ! face to tell our read]s t wat]1 pass+ ?r\gh soils conta9+ elem5ts prejudicial to vegetation1 w\ld c>ry !m (f1 b w\ld leave ^? :i* are b5eficial beh9d4 ,we _c make our wat] s discrim9at+2 ! g5]al m]it ( wat] ( deep dra9age is1 t x conta9s v little4 ,its p]fection w\ld be t x %\ld conta9 no?+4 ,we und]/& t exp]im5ts are 9 progress :i* h asc]ta9$ t wat]1 *>g$ ) matt]s :i* are kn[n to /imulate vegetation1 :5 filt]$ ?r\gh f\r feet ( ret5tive soil1 comes out pure4 ,b to return to our :eat4 ,9 ! fir/ case1 x %r9ks be=e ! cold ( evaporation & ! cold ( wat] ( attraction1 & x sick5s because its feet are nev] dry2 x suff]s ! usual maladies ( cold & wet4 ,9 ! second case1 ! excess ( cold by evaporation is )drawn2 ! cold wat] ( attraction is remov$ out ( its way2 ! w>m air f ! surface1 ru%+ 9 to supply ! place ( ! wat] :i* ! dra9s remove1 & ! w>m summ] ra9s1 be>+ d[n ) !m ! temp]ature :i* !y h acquir$ f ! upp] soil1 c>ry a g5ial heat to its l[e/ roots4 ,heal?1 vigor\s gr[?1 & e>ly maturity are ! natural consequ5ces4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,! practice s d]id$ & malign$ ref]r+ to deep dra9+ has advanc$ ) wond]ful /rides4 ,we rememb] ! days ( #ae in*es2 !n a /ep to #bj2 a /ride to #cj2 & ! la/ 7& probably f9al7 jump to #ej1 a few in*es "u or ov]4 ,we h dabbl$ 9 !m all1 g5]ally belong+ to ! deep section ( ! day4 ,we h us$ ! words 'probably f9al1' because ! fir/ advances 7 exp]im5tal1 &1 ?\gh !y 7 ju/ifi$ by ! results obta9$1 no "o attempt$ to expla9 ! pr9ciple on :i* b5efit 0 d]iv$ f !m4 ,! pr9ciples on :i* ! n[ prevail+ dep? is f\nd$1 & :i* we believe to be true1 g f> to %[ t we h atta9$ all ! advantages :i* c be d]iv$ f ! removal ( wat] 9 ord9>y agriculture4 ,we d n mean t1 ev5 9 ! mo/ ret5tive soil1 wat] w\ld n get into dra9s :i* 7 laid some:at deep]2 b to ?is !re mu/ be a n v di/ant limit1 because pure clay1 ly+ bel[ ! dep? at :i* wet & dr\ght appli$ at surface w\ld exp& & contract x1 w\ld c]ta9ly "p ) its wat] v sl[ly4 ,we f9d t1 9 coal m9es & 9 deep qu>ries1 a /ratum ( clay ( only a few in*es ?ick int]pos$ betwe5 two /rata ( p]vi\s /one w =m an effectual b> to ! passage ( wat]2 :]eas1 if x lay )9 a few feet ( ! surface1 x w\ld1 9 a season ( heat & dr\ght become z p]vi\s z a cull5d]4 ,b :5 we h got rid ( ! cold aris+ f ! evaporation ( free wat]1 h giv5 a range ( sev]al feet to ! roots ( grass & c]eals1 & h enabl$ ret5tive l& to filt] ?r\gh itself all ! ra9 :i* falls ^u its surface1 we are n1 9 our pres5t /ate ( k1 aw>e ( any advantage :i* w\ld arise f fur!r l[]+ ! surface ( wat] 9 agricultural l&4 ,smi?1 ( ,dean/on1 fir/ call$ prom95t att5tion to ! f]tiliz+ effects ( ra9 filt]$ ?r\gh l&1 & to evils produc$ by all[+ x to fl[ (f ! surface4 ,any "o w see h[ mu* m effectually ?is b5efit w be atta9$1 & ?is evil avoid$1 by a #d-;foot ?an a #b-;foot dra9age4 ,! latt] c only prep>e two feet ( soil = ! reception & ret5tion ( ra91 :i* two feet1 be+ saturat$1 w reject m1 & ! surplus mu/ run (f ! surface1 c>ry+ :atev] x c f9d ) x4 ,a #d-;foot dra9age w be con/antly t5d+ to h f\r feet ( soil ready = ! reception ( ra91 & x w take mu* m ra9 to saturate f\r feet ?an two4 ,moreov]1 z a gimlet-hole bor$ f\r feet f ! surface ( a b>rel fill$ ) wat] w dis*>ge mu* m 9 a giv5 "t ?an a simil> hole bor$ at ! dep? ( two feet1 s w a #d-;foot dra9 dis*>ge 9 a giv5 "t mu* m wat] ?an a dra9 ( two feet4 ,"o is act$ on by a #d-;foot1 & ! o!r by a #b-;foot pressure4 ,if any s+le fact connect$ ) tile-dra9age is e/abli%$1 beyond all possible d\bt1 x is t 9 ! /iffe/ clay soils ev] cultivat$1 dra9s f\r feet deep w act effectually2 ! wat] w f9d its way to !m1 m & m freely & completely1 z ! dry+ ( successive ye>s1 & ! p5etration & decay ( ! roots ( successive crops1 modify ! "* ( ! l&1 & !y w ev5tually be practically s por\s t1--s f> z ! ease ( dra9age is conc]n$1--no di/9ction ne$1 9 practice1 be made betwe5 !m & ! less ret5tive loams4 ,= a few ye>s1 ! l9e ( saturation betwe5 ! dra9s1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #aa1 may /& at all seasons consid]ably above ! level ( ! bottom ( ! tile1 b x w rec$e ye> by ye>1 until x w be practically level1 except imm$iately aft] ra9s4 ,mr4 ,josiah ,p>kes recomm5ds dra9s to be laid ,at a m9imum dep? ( f\r feet1 design$ ) ! two-fold object ( n only free+ ! active soil f /agnant & injuri\s wat]1 b ( conv]t+ ! wat] fall+ on ! surface into an ag5t = f]tiliz+2 no dra9age be+ deem$ effici5t t did n bo? remove ! wat] fall+ on ! surface1 & 'keep d[n ! subt]ranean wat] at a dep? exce$+ ! p[] ( capill>y attraction to elevate x ne> ! surface4' ,ald]man ,me*i says3 ,ask n9ete5 f>m]s out ( tw5ty1 :o hold /rong clay l&1 & !y w tell y x is ( no use plac+ deep f\r-foot dra9s 9 su* soils--! wat] _c get 92 a horse's foot-hole 7)\t an op5+ "u x7 w hold wat] l a bas92 & s on4 ,well1 five m9utes aft]1 y tell ! same f>m]s y propose digg+ a cell>1 well brick$1 six or eight feet deep2 :at is _! rem>k8 ',oh6 x's ( no use y\r mak+ an und]gr\nd cell> 9 our soil1 y c't keep ! wat] ,,out6' ,0 !re ev] su* an illu/ration ( prejudice z ?is8 ,:at is a dra9 pipe b a small cell> full ( air8 ,!n1 aga91 common s5se tells u1 y c't keep a light fluid "u a heavy "o4 ,y might z well try to keep a cork "u wat]1 z to try & keep air "u wat]4 ',oh6 b !n our soil isn't por\s4' ,if n1 h[ c x hold wat] s readily8 ,i am l$ to ^! obs]vations by ! /rong controv]sy ,i am hav+ ) "s ,essex folks1 :o prote/ t ,i am mad1 or fooli%1 = plac+ #a-;in* pipes1 at f\r-foot dep?1 9 /rong clays4 ,x is 9 va9 ,i ref] to ! num]\s pro(s ( my s\ndness1 br\ght =w>d by ,mr4 ,p>kes1 eng9e] to ! ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 & confirm$ by ,mr4 ,pusey4 ,!y /ill dispute x4 ,x is 9 va9 ,i tell !m ,i _c keep ! ra9wat] out ( socket$ pipes1 twelve feet deep1 t convey a spr+ to my f>m y>d4 ,let u try & conv9ce ?is l>ge class ( d\bt]s2 = x is ( national importance4 ,f\r feet ( good por\s clay w\ld af=d a f> bett] meal to "s /rong bean1 or o!r tap roots1 ?an ! usual six in*es2 & a sav+ ( #d to #e p] acre1 9 dra9age1 is no trifle4 ,! %all[1 or non-dra9]s1 assume t t5aci\s subsoils are imp]vi\s or non-absorb5t4 ,?is is entirely an errone\s assumption4 ,if soils 7 imp]vi\s1 h[ c\ld !y get wet8 ,i ass]t1 & pl$ge my agricultural reputation = ! fact1 t !re are no e>?s or clays 9 ?is k+dom1 be !y ev] s t5aci\s1 t w n readily receive1 filt]1 & transmit ra9 wat] to dra9s plac$ five or m feet deep4 ,a neighbor ( m9e dra9$ tw5ty in*es deep 9 /rong clay2 ! gr\nd crack$ widely2 ! contraction de/roy$ ! tiles1 & ! ra9s wa%$ ! surface soils into ! cracks & *ok$ ! dra9s4 ,he has s9ce ab&on$ %all[ dra9+4 ,:5 ,i fir/ began dra9+1 ,i all[$ myself to be ov]rul$ by my ob/9ate man1 ,pe>son1 :o insi/$ t1 = top wat]1 two feet 0 a suffici5t dep? 9 a ve9y soil4 ,i all[$ him to try ! exp]im5t on two small fields2 ! result 01 t no?+ prosp]$2 & ,i am r$ra9+ ^? fields at "o-half ! co/1 five & six feet deep1 at int]vals ( #gj & #hj feet4 ,i f\nd iron-s& rocks1 /rong clay1 silt1 iron1 etc41 & an enorm\s quantity ( wat]1 all bel[ ! #b-;foot dra9s4 ,?is acc\nt$ at once = ! sudd5 *eck ! crops always met ) 9 ,may1 :5 !y want$ to s5d _! roots d[n1 b c\ld n1 )\t go+ into /agnant wat]4 ,!re c be no d\bt t x is ! dep? ( ! dra9 :i* regulates ! escape ( ! surface wat] 9 a giv5 "t2 reg>d be+ _h1 z respects extreme di/ances1 to ! nature ( ! soil1 & a due capacity ( ! pipe4 ,! deep] ! dra91 ev5 9 ! /ronge/ soils1 ! quick] ! wat] escapes4 ,?is is an a/\nd+ b c]ta9 fact4 ,t deep & di/ant dra9s1 :]e a suffici5t fall c be obta9$1 are by f> ! mo/ pr(itable1 by af=d+ to ! roots ( ! plants a great] range = food4 ,( c\rse1 :]e ! soil is und]laid by rock1 less ?an f\r feet f ! surface2 & :]e an outlet at t dep? _c be obta9$1 we mu/1 p] =ce1 dra9 less deeply1 b :]e !re exi/s no su* ob/acle1 dra9s %\ld be laid at a g5]al dep? ( f\r-feet1--g5]al1 n uni=m1 because ! dra9 %\ld h a uni=m incl9ation1 :i* ! surface ( ! l& r>ely has4 99,! ,di/ance betwe5 ! ,dra9s499--,conc]n+ ?is1 !re is less unanimity ( op9ion among eng9e]s1 ?an prevails ) reg>d to ! "q ( dep?4 ,9 tol]ably por\s soils1 x is g5]ally conc$$ t #dj or ev5 #ej feet is suffici5tly ne> = #d-;foot dra9s1 b1 = ! m ret5tive clays1 all di/ances f #ah feet to #ej feet are recomm5d$1 ?\gh ^? :o belong to ! m n>r[ s*ool are1 z a rule1 ext5d+ ! limit1 z !y see1 9 practice1 ! complete mann] 9 :i* dra9s at wid] int]vals p]=m _! "w4 ,a c>eful consid]ation ( ! exp]i5ce ( ! pa/ tw5ty ye>s1 & ( ! argum5ts ( writ]s on dra9age1 leads to ! belief t !re are few soils1 :i* ne$ dra9+ at all1 on :i* x w be safe to place #d-;foot dra9s at mu* wid] int]vals ?an #dj feet4 ,9 ! light] loams !re are _m in/ances ( ! successful application ( ,pr(essor ,mapes' rule1 t #c-;foot dra9s %\ld be plac$ #bj feet ap>t1 & = ea* additional foot 9 dep? ! di/ance may be d\bl$2 = in/ance1 #d-;foot dra9s %\ld be #dj feet ap>t1 & #e-;foot dra9s #hj feet ap>t4 ,b1 ) ref]5ce to ! great] di/ance1 7#hj feet17 x is n to be recomm5d$ 9 /iff clays1 = any dep? ( dra94 ,:]e x is necess>y1 by reason ( insuffici5t fall1 or ( und]gr\nd rock1 to g only ?ree feet deep1 ! dra9s %\ld be z ne> toge!r z #bj feet4 ,at fir/ ?\ght1 x may seem ak9 to quack]y to recomm5d a uni=m dep? & di/ance1 )\t ref]5ce to ! "* ( ! l& to be dra9$2 & x is unque/ionably true t an exact adaptation ( ! "w to ! v>y+ requirem5ts ( diff]5t soils w\ld be b5eficial1 ?\gh no sy/em c be adopt$ :i* w make clay dra9 z freely z s&4 ,! fact is1 t ! adju/m5t ( ! di/ances betwe5 dra9s is v f> f p>tak+ ( ! nature ( an exact sci5ce1 & !re is really v little kn[n1 by any "o1 ( ! pr9ciples on :i* x %\ld be bas$1 or ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! be>+ ( ^? pr9ciples1 9 any p>ticul> case1 is affect$ by sev]al circum/ances :i* v>y ) ea* *ange ( soil1 incl9ation & exposure4 ,9 ! essays on dra9age :i* h be5 ?us f> publi%$1 !re is a vagu5ess 9 ! argum5ts on ?is bran* ( ! subject1 :i* betrays a want ( def9ite conviction 9 ! m9ds ( ! writ]s2 & :i* t5ds q z mu* to muddle z to enlight5 ! ideas ( ! read]4 ,9 s f> z ! directions are giv51 :e!r =tifi$ by argum5t or n1 !y are cle>ly empirical1 & are usually v mu* qualifi$ by consid]ations :i* weigh ) unequal =ce 9 diff]5t cases4 ,9 lay+ out "w1 any skillful dra9] w be guid$1 9 decid+ ! di/ance betwe5 ! l9es1 by a judgm5t :i* has gr[n out ( 8 =m] exp]i5ce2 & :i* w enable him to adapt ! "w1 measurably1 to ! requirem5ts ( ! p>ticul> soil "u consid]ation2 b he w\ld probably f9d x impossible to s /ate ! reasons = 8 decision1 t !y w\ld be ( any g5]al value to o!rs4 ,probably x w be a long "t be=e rules on ?is subject1 bas$ on well su/a9$ !ory1 c be laid d[n ) di/9ctness1 &1 9 ! mean "t1 we mu/ be guid$ by ! results ( practice1 & mu/ conf9e ourselves to a di/ance :i* repeat$ trial1 9 v>i\s soils1 has prov5 to be safe = all agricultural l&4 ,9 ! dra9age ( ! ,c5tral ,p>k1 aft] a mature consid]ation ( all t _h be5 publi%$ on ! subject1 & ( a consid]able previ\s obs]vation & exp]i5ce1 x 0 decid$ to adopt a g5]al dep? ( f\r feet1 & to adh]e z closely z possible to a uni=m di/ance ( =ty feet4 ,no in/ance 0 kn[n ( a failure to produce good results by dra9+ at t di/ance1 & sev]al cases 7 recall$ :]e dra9s at fifty & sixty feet _h prov$ s ineffici5t t int]m$iate l9es became necess>y4 ,aft] f sev5 to t5 ye>s' trial1 ! ,c5tral ,p>k dra9age1 by its results1 has %[n t1--al?\gh "s ( ! l& is ( a v ret5tive "*1--?is di/ance is n too great2 & x is adopt$ "h = recomm5dation to all :o h no especial reason = suppos+ t great] di/ances w be fully effective 9 _! m por\s soils4 ,z has be5 be=e /at$1 dra9s at t di/ance1 7or at any di/ance17 w n remove all ( ! wat] ( saturation f heavy clays s rapidly z f m por\s soil2 b1 al?\gh1 9 "s cases1 ! dra9age may be insuffici5t dur+ ! fir/ ye>1 & n absolutely p]fect dur+ ! second & ?ird ye>s1 ! increas$ porosity :i* dra9age causes1 7z ! summ] dr\ghts make fissures 9 ! e>?1 z decay$ roots & o!r organic deposits make ^! fissures p]man5t1 & z *emical action 9 ! arat$ soil *anges its "*17 w f9ally br+ clay soils to z p]fect a condition z !y are capable ( atta9+1 & w inv>iably r5d] !m excell5t = cultivation4 99,! ,direction ( ! ,lat]als99 %\ld be "r up & d[n ! slope ( ! l&1 9 ! l9e ( /eepe/ desc5t4 ,= a long "t aft] ! g5]al adoption ( ?or\gh-dra9+1 !re 0 mu* discussion ( ?is subject1 & mu* v>iation 9 practice4 ,! influ5ce ( ! old rules = mak+ surface or cat*-wat] dra9s la/$ = a long "t1 & !re 0 a g5]al t5d5cy to make tile dra9s foll[ ! same directions4 ,an important requirem5t ( ^! 0 t !y %\ld n take s /eep an incl9ation z to h _! bottoms cut out & _! banks und]m9$ by ! rapid fl[ ( wat]1 & t !y %\ld arre/ & c>ry away ! wat] fl[+ d[n ov] ! surface ( hill sides4 ,! argum5ts = ! l9e ( /eepe/ desc5t 71 h[ev]1 s cle>1 & dra9s laid on t l9e 7 s univ]sally successful 9 practice1 t x 0 long ago adopt$ by all1--save ^? novices :o pref]r$ to ga9 _! education 9 dra9+ 9 ! exp5sive s*ool ( _! own exp]i5ce4 ,! m important reasons :y ?is direction is ! be/ are ! foll[+3 ,fir/1 x is ! quicke/ way to get ! wat] (f4 ,its natural t5d5cy is to run /raight d[n ! hill1 & no?+ is ga9$ by div]t+ x f ?is c\rse4 ,second1 if ! dra9 runs obliquely d[n ! hill1 ! wat] w be likely to run out at ! jo9ts ( ! tile & wet ! gr\nd bel[ x2 ev5 if x d n1 ma9ly1 run pa/ ! dra9 f above into ! l& bel[1 in/ead ( be+ =c$ into ! tile4 ,?ird1 a dra9 ly+ obliquely across a hillside w n be able to draw ! wat] f bel[ up ! hill t[>d x1 & ! wat] ( ne>ly ! :ole int]val w h to seek its outlet ?r\gh ! dra9 bel[ x4 ,f\r?1 dra9s runn+ directly d[n ! hill w tap any por\s wat] be>+ /rata1 :i* may crop out1 at regul> int]vals1 & w ?us prev5t ! spew+ out ( ! wat] at ! surface1 z x might d if only oblique dra9s ran = a long di/ance j above or j bel[ !m4 ,v /eep1 & v spr+y hill sides1 sometimes require v frequ5t dra9s to cat* ! wat] :i* has a t5d5cy to fl[ to ! surface2 ?is1 h[ev]1 r>ely occurs4 ,9 lay+ out a plan = dra9+ l& ( a brok5 surface1 :i* incl9es 9 diff]5t directions1 x is impossible to make ! dra9s foll[ ! l9e ( /eepe/ desc5t1 & at ! same "t to h !m all p>allel1 & at uni=m di/ances4 ,9 all su* cases a compromise mu/ be made betwe5 ! two requirem5ts4 ,! m ne>ly ! p>allel arrangem5t c be pres]v$1 ! less co/ly w ! "w be1 :ile ! m ne>ly we foll[ ! /eepe/ slope ( ! gr\nd1 ! m effici5t w ea* dra9 be4 ,no rule = ?is adju/m5t c be giv51 b a c>eful /udy ( ! plan ( ! gr\nd1 & ( its cont\r l9es1 w aid 9 its det]m9ation4 ,on all irregul> gr\nd x requires great skill to secure ! greate/ effici5cy consi/5t ) economy4 ,! fall requir$ 9 well made tile dra9s is v mu* less ?an w\ld be suppos$1 by an inexp]i5c$ p]son1 to be necess>y4 ,:]ev] practicable1 )\t too great co/1 x is desirable to h a fall ( "o foot 9 "o hundr$ feet1 b m ?an ?is 9 ord9>y "w is n especially to be s\ght1 al?\gh !re is1 ( c\rse1 no objection to v mu* great] incl9ation4 ,"o half ( t am\nt ( fall1 or six in*es 9 "o hundr$ feet1 is q suffici5t1 if ! execution ( ! "w is c>efully att5d$ to4 ,! lea/ rate ( fall :i* x is prud5t to give to a dra91 9 us+ ord9>y tiles1 is #b4e 9 #a1jjj1 or ?ree in*es 9 "o hundr$ feet1 & ev5 ?is requires v c>eful "w47#h7 ,a fall ( six in*es 9 "o hundr$ feet is recomm5d$ :5ev] x c be easily obta9$--n z be+ m effective1 b z requir+ less precision1 & consequ5tly less exp5se4 99,k9ds & ,sizes ( ,tiles499--,agricultural dra9-tiles are made ( clay simil> to t :i* is us$ = brick4 ,:5 burn$1 !y are f twelve in*es to f\rte5 in*es long1 ) an int]ior diamet] ( f "o to eight in*es1 & ) a ?ickness ( wall1 7dep5d+ on ! /r5g? ( ! clay1 & ! size ( ! bore17 ( f "o-qu>t] ( an in* to m ?an an in*4 ,!y are por\s1 to ! ext5t ( absorb+ a c]ta9 am\nt ( wat]1 b _! porosity has no?+ to d ) _! use = dra9age1--= ?is purpose !y might z well be ( glass4 ,! wat] ent]s !m1 n ?r\gh _! walls1 b at _! jo9ts1 :i* _c be made s tight t !y w n admit ! v small am\nt ( wat] t w ne$ to ent] at ea* space4 ,gisborne says3 ,if an acre ( l& be int]sect$ ) p>allel dra9s twelve y>ds ap>t1 & if on t acre %\ld fall ! v unusual quantity ( "o in* ( ra9 9 twelve h\rs1 9 ord] t e drop ( ?is ra9 may be dis*>g$ by ! dra9s 9 =ty-eight h\rs f ! comm5cem5t ( ! ra9--7& 9 a less p]iod t quantity nei!r w1 n is x desirable t x %\ld1 filt] ?r\gh an agricultural soil7--! int]val betwe5 two pipes w be call$ ^u to pass two-?irds ( a tablespoonful ( wat] p] m9ute1 & no m4 ,in* pipes1 ly+ at a small incl9ation1 & runn+ only half-full1 w dis*>ge m ?an d\ble ?is quantity ( wat] 9 =ty-eight h\rs4 ,tiles may be made ( any desir$ =m ( section1--! usual =ms are ! horse-%oe1 ! sole1 ! d\ble-sole1 & ! r\nd4 ,! latt] may be us$ ) coll>s1 & !y con/itute ! pipes & coll>s1 frequ5tly ref]r$ to 9 ,engli% books on dra9age4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac - ,,horse-,,%oe ,,tile4 ,fig4 #ac - ,,horse-,,%oe ,,tile4 ,horse-%oe tiles1 ,fig4 #ac1 are condemn$ by all mod]n eng9e]s4 ,mr4 ,gisborne disposes ( !m by an argum5t ( "s l5g?1 ! quotation ( :i* 9 ^! pages is probably advisable1 because !y =m s mu* bett] conduits ?an /ones1 & to t ext5t h be5 s successfully employ$1 t !y are /ill l>gely us$ 9 ?is c\ntry by amateurs4 ,we %all %ock "s & surprise _m ( our read]s1 :5 we /ate confid5tly t1 9 av]age soils1 &1 /ill m1 9 ^? :i* are incl9$ to be t5d]1 horse %oe tiles =m ! weake/ & mo/ fail+ conduit :i* has ev] be5 us$ = a deep dra94 ,x is s1 h[ev]2 & a little ?\ght1 ev5 if we _h no exp]i5ce1 w tell u t x mu/ be s4 ,a doggrel song1 q de/itute ( humor1 in=ms u t tiles ( ?is sort 7 us$ 9 #agfj at ,gr&esburg ,hall1 9 ,suffolk1 by ,mr4 ,*>les ,lawr5ce1 ! own] ( ! e/ate4 ,! e>lie/ ( :i* we _h exp]i5ce 7 ( l>ge area & ( weak =m4 ,con/ant failures result$ f _! use1 & ! cause 0 inve/igat$2 _m ( ! tiles 7 f\nd to be *ok$ up ) clay1 & _m to be brok5 longitud9ally ?r\gh ! cr[n4 ,= ! fir/ evil1 two rem$ies 7 adopt$2 a sole ( slate1 ( wood1 or ( its own mat]ial1 0 sometimes plac$ "u ! tile1 b ! m usual practice 0 to =m !m ) club-feet4 ,to meet ! case ( longitud9al fracture1 ! tiles 7 r$uc$ 9 size1 & v mu* ?ick5$ 9 proportion to _! area4 ,! fir/ ( ^! rem$ies 0 f\nd$ on an entirely mi/ak51 & ! second on no conception at all ( ! cause ( ! evil to :i* !y 7 respectively appli$4 ,! idea 01 t ?is tile1 /&+ on n>r[ feet1 & press$ by ! weight ( ! refill$ soil1 sank into ! floor ( ! dra92 :]eas1 9 fact1 ! floor ( ! dra9 rose into ! tile4 ,any "o at all conv]sant ) colli]ies is aw>e t :5 a /rait "w 7:i* is a small subt]ranean tunnel six feet high & f\r feet wide or !reab\ts7 is driv5 9 coal1 ! ris+ ( ! floor is a m usual & f> m inconv5i5t occurr5ce ?an ! fall+ ( ! ro(3 ! weight ( ! two sides squeezes up ! floor4 ,we h se5 x =m$ into a v decid$ ar* )\t fracture4 ,exactly a simil> op]ation takes place 9 ! dra94 ,no "o _h till rec5tly dream$ ( =m+ a tile dra91 ! bottom ( :i* a man 0 n to approa* p]sonally )9 tw5ty in*es or two feet4 ,to no "o _h x !n occurr$ t wid? at ! bottom ( ! dra9 0 a great evil4 ,= ! conv5i5ce ( ! op]ator ! dra9 0 =m$ ) ne>ly p]p5dicul> sides1 ( a wid? 9 :i* he c\ld /& & "w conv5i5tly1 %ovel ! bottom level ) 8 ord9>y spade1 & lay ! tiles by 8 h&2 ! result 0 a dra9 ) ne>ly p]p5dicul> sides1 & a wide bottom4 ,no sort ( clay1 p>ticul>ly :5 s(t5$ by wat] /&+ on x or runn+ ov] x1 c\ld fail to rise "u su* circum/ances2 & ! deep] ! dra9 ! great] ! pressure & ! m c]ta9 ! ris+4 ,a horse-%oe tile1 :i* may be a tol]able secure conduit 9 a dra9 ( two feet1 9 "o ( f\r feet becomes an almo/ c]ta9 failure4 ,z to ! longitud9al fracture--n only is ! tile subject to be brok5 by "o ( ^? slips :i* are s tr\blesome 9 deep dra9+1 & to :i* ! lightly-fill$ mat]ial1 ev5 :5 ! dra9 is complet$1 (f]s an imp]fect resi/ance1 b ! con/ant pressure toge!r ( ! sides1 ev5 :5 x does n produce a fracture ( ! soil1 cat*es hold ( ! feet ( ! tile1 & breaks x ?r\gh ! cr[n4 ,consid] ! case ( a dra9 =m$ 9 clay :5 dry1 ! conduit a horse-%oe tile4 ,:5 ! clay exp&s ) moi/ure1 x necess>ily presses on ! tile & breaks x ?r\gh ! cr[n1 its weake/ "p47#i7 ,:5 ! ,reg5t's ,p>k 0 fir/ dra9$1 l>ge conduits 7 9 fa%ion1 & !y 7 made circul> by plac+ "o horse-%oe tile ^u ano!r4 ,x w\ld be difficult to inv5t a weak] conduit4 ,on re-dra9age1 innum]able in/ances 7 f\nd 9 :i* ! upp] tile 0 brok5 ?r\gh ! cr[n1 & _h dropp$ into ! l[]4 ,next came ! ,d =m1 tile & sole 9 "o1 & mu* r$uc$ 9 size--a great advance2 & :5 "s skillful op]ator _h laid ?is tile bottom upw>ds we 7 evid5tly on ! eve ( pipes4 ,= ! ,d tile a r\nd pipe m\ld$ ) a flat-bottom$ solid sole is n[ g5]ally sub/itut$1 & is an improvem5t2 b is n equal to pipes & coll>s1 nor g5]ally *eap] ?an !y are4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad - ,,sole ,,tile4 ,fig4 #ad - ,,sole ,,tile4 ,"o *ief objection to ! ,sole-tiles is1 t1 9 ! dry+ :i* !y und]go1 prep>atory to ! burn+1 ! upp] side is contract$1 by ! m rapid dry+1 & !y (t5 require to be trimm$ (f ) a hat*et be=e !y w =m ev5 tol]able jo9ts2 ano!r is1 t !y _c be laid ) coll>s1 :i* =m a jo9t s p]fect & s secure1 t _! use1 9 ! small] dra9s1 %\ld be consid]$ indisp5sable4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae - ,,d\ble-,,sole ,,tile4 ,fig4 #ae - ,,d\ble-,,sole ,,tile4 ,! d\ble-sole tiles1 :i* c be laid ei!r side up give a mu* bett] jo9t1 b !y are s heavy z to make ! co/ ( transporation consid]ably great]4 ,!y are also op5 to ! grave objection t !y _c be fitt$ ) coll>s4 ,exp]i5ce1 9 bo? public & private works 9 ?is c\ntry1 & ! cumulative te/imony ( ,engli% & ,fr5* eng9e]s1 h demon/rat$ t ! only tile :i* x is economical to use1 is ! be/ t c be f\nd1 & t ! be/1--mu* ! be/--?us f> inv5t$1 is ! pipe1 or r\nd tile1 & coll>1--& ^! are unhesitat+ly recomm5d$ = use 9 all cases4 ,r\nd tiles ( small sizes %\ld n be laid )\t coll>s1 z ! ability to use ^! con/itutes _! *ief advantage2 hold+ !m p]fectly 9 place1 prev5t+ ! rattl+ 9 ( loose dirt 9 lay+1 & giv+ twice ! space = ! entrance ( wat] at ! jo9ts4 ,a *ief advantage ( ! l>g] sizes is1 t !y may be laid on any side & ?us made to fit closely4 ,! usual sizes ( ^! tiles are #a-a_/d in*es1 #b-a_/d in*es1 & #c-a_/b in*es 9 int]ior diamet]4 ,sections ( ! #b-a_/d in* make coll>s = ! #a-a_/d in*1 & sections ( ! #c-a_/b in* make coll>s = ! #b-a_/d in*4 ,! #c-a_/b in* size does n ne$ coll>s1 z x is easily secur$ 9 place1 & is only us$ :]e ! fl[ ( wat] w\ld be suffici5t to wa% out ! slight quantity ( =eign matt]s t might ent] at ! jo9ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af - ,,r\nd ,,tile ,,& ,,coll>1 ,,& ,,! ,,same ,,z ,,laid4 ,fig4 #af - ,,r\nd ,,tile ,,& ,,coll>1 ,,& ,,! ,,same ,,z ,,laid4 99,! size ( tile99 to be us$ is a "q ( consequ5ce4 ,9 ,engl&1 #a-;in* pipes are frequ5tly us$1 b #a-a_/d in*7#aj7 are recomm5d$ = ! smalle/ dra9s4 ,beyond ?is limit1 ! prop] size to select is1 ! smalle/ t c convey ! wat] :i* w ord9>ily rea* x aft] a heavy ra94 ,! small] ! pipe1 ! m conc5trat$ ! fl[1 &1 consequ5tly1 ! m ?or\ghly ob/ructions w be remov$1 & ! occasional flu%+ ( ! pipe1 :5 x is tax$1 = a few h\rs1 to its utmo/ capacity1 w insure a ?or\gh cleans+4 ,no inconv5i5ce c result f ! fact t1 on r>e occasions1 ! dra9 is unable1 = a %ort "t1 to dis*>ge all ! wat] t rea*es x1 & if coll>s are us$1 or if ! clay be well pack$ ab\t ! pipes1 !re ne$ be no fe> ( ! tile be+ displac$ by ! pressure4 ,an idea ( ! dry+ capacity ( a #a-a_/d-;in* tile may be ga9$ f obs]v+ its wett+ capacity1 by connect+ a pipe ( ?is size ) a suffici5t body ( wat]1 at its surface1 & dis*>g+1 ov] a level dry field1 all ! wat] :i* x w c>ry4 ,a #a-a_/d-;in* pipe w remove all ! wat] :i* w\ld fall on an acre ( l& 9 a v heavy ra91 9 #bd h\rs1--mu* less "t ?an ! wat] w\ld occupy 9 gett+ to ! tile1 9 any soil :i* requir$ dra9+2 & tiles ( ?is size are ample = ! dra9+ ( two acres4 ,9 l mann]1 #b-a_/b-;in* tile w suffice = eight1 & #c-a_/b-;in* tile = tw5ty acres4 ,! =ego+ e/imates are1 ( c\rse1 made on ! supposition t only ! wat] :i* falls on ! l&1 7/orm wat]17 is to be remov$4 ,= ma9 dra9s1 :5 great] capacity is requir$1 two tiles may be laid1 7side by side17 or 9 su* cases ! l>g] sizes ( sole tiles may be us$1 be+ some:at *eap]4 ,:]e ! dra9s are laid #dj feet ap>t1 ab\t #a1jjj tiles p] acre w be requir$1 &1 9 e/imat+ ! quantity ( tiles ( ! diff]5t sizes to be pur*as$1 ref]5ce %\ld be _h to ! foll[+ figures2 ! fir/ #b1jjj feet ( dra9s require a collect+ dra9 ( #b-a_/d-;in* tile1 :i* w take ! wat] f #g1jjj feet2 & = ! outlet ( f #g1jjj to #bj1jjj feet #c-a_/b-;in* tile may be us$4 ,coll>s1 be+ m subject to breakage1 %\ld be ord]$ 9 some:at l>g] quantities4 ,( c\rse1 su* guess+ at :at is requir$1 :i* is especially unc]ta9 if ! surface ( ! gr\nd is s irregul> z to require mu* deviation f regul> p>allel l9es1 is obviat$ by ! c>eful prep>ation ( a plan ( ! "w1 :i* enables u to measure1 be=eh&1 ! l5g? ( dra9 requir+ ! diff]5t sizes ( conduit1 &1 z tiles are usually made "o or two in*es m ?an a foot long1 a ?\s& ( !m w lay a ?\s& feet1--leav+ a suffici5t all[ance = breakage1 & = su* slight deviations ( ! l9es z may be necess>y to pass ar\nd ^? /ones :i* are too l>ge to remove4 ,9 v /ony gr\nd1 ! l5g? ( l9es is (t5 mat]ially increas$1 b 9 su* gr\nd1 !re is usually rock en\gh or su* accumulations ( b\ld]s 9 "s p>ts1 to r$uce ! l5g? ( dra9 :i* x is possible to lay1 at lea/ z mu* z ! deviations w increase x4 ,x is always be/ to make a contract = tile consid]ably 9 advance4 ,! prices :i* are giv5 9 ! adv]tisem5ts ( ! mak]s1 are ^? at :i* a s+le ?\s&1--or ev5 a few hundr$1--c be pur*as$1 & v consid]able r$uctions ( price may be secur$ on l>ge ord]s4 ,especially is ?is ! case if ! l& is s situat$ t ! tile may be pur*as$ at ei!r "o ( two tile works1--= ! prices ( all are extravagantly high1 & manufactur]s w submit to l>ge disc\nts r ?an lose an important ord]4 ,x is especially recomm5d$1 9 mak+ ! contract1 to /ipulate t e tile %all be h>d-burn$1 & t ^? :i* w n give a cle> r+ :5 /ruck ) a metallic in/rum5t1 %all be reject$1 & ! co/ ( _! transportation borne by ! mak]4 ,! tiles us$ 9 ! ,c5tral ,p>k dra9age 7 all te/$ ) ! aid ( a bit ( /eel :i* _h1 at "o end1 a cutt+ edge4 ,) ?is in/rum5t ea* tile 0 s\nd$1 & its h>dness 0 te/$ by scrap+ ! squ>e edge ( ! bore4 ,if x did n r+ :5 /ruck1 or if ! edge 0 easily cut1 x 0 reject$4 ,f ! fir/ c>go !re 7 _m ?r[n out1 b z soon z ! mak] saw t !y 7 really inspect$1 he s5t tile ( good quality only4 ,c>e %\ld also be tak5 t no ov]-burn$ tile1--su* z h be5 melt$ & w>p$1 or v mu* contract$ 9 size by too great heat1--be smuggl$ into ! c\nt4 ,a little practice w enable an ord9>y workman to ?r[ out ^? :i* are imp]fect1 &1 z a s+le tile :i* is s und]done t x w n la/1 or :i*1 f ov]-burn+1 has too small an orifice1 may de/roy a long dra91 or a :ole sy/em ( dra9s1 ! inspection %\ld be ?or\gh4 ,! coll>s %\ld be exam9$ ) equal c>e4 ,conc]n+ ! use ( ^!1 ,gisborne says3 ,to "o advantage :i* is d]iv$ f ! use ( coll>s we h n yet adv]t$--! increas$ facility ) :i* free wat] exi/+ 9 ! soil c f9d entrance into ! conduit4 ,! coll> = a #a-a_/b-;in* pipe has a circumf]5ce ( ?ree in*es4 ,! :ole space betwe5 ! coll> & ! pipe on ea* side ( ! coll> is op51 & af=ds no resi/ance to ! entrance ( wat]2 :ile at ! same "t ! sup]9cumb5t ar* ( ! coll> protects ! junction ( two pipes f ! intrusion ( p>ticles ( soil4 ,we confess to "s orig9al misgiv+s t a pipe re/+ only on an in* at ea* end1 & ly+ holl[1 might prove weak & liable to fracture by weight press+ on x f above2 b ! fe> 0 illusory4 ,small p>ticles ( soil trickle d[n ! sides ( e dra91 & ! fir/ fl[ ( wat] w deposit !m 9 ! vacant space betwe5 ! two coll>s4 ,! bottom1 if at all s(t1 w also swell up into any vacancy4 ,practically1 if y reop5 a dra9 well laid ) pipes & coll>s1 y w f9d !m repos+ 9 a beautiful nidus1 :i*1 :5 !y are c>efully remov$1 looks exactly z if x _h be5 m\ld$ = !m4 ,! co/ ( coll>s %\ld n be consid]$ an objection to _! use2 because1 )\t coll>s x w\ld n be safe1 7z x is difficult to make ! orifices ( two pieces come exactly opposite to ea* o!r17 to use less ?an #b-;in* tiles1 :ile1 ) coll>s1 #a-a_/d-;in* are suffici5t = ! same use1 &1 includ+ ! co/ ( coll>s1 are h>dly m exp5sive4 ,x is usual1 9 all works on agricultural dra9age1 to ins]t tables & =mul = ! guidance ( ^? :o are to det]m9e ! size ( tile requir$ to dis*>ge ! wat] ( a c]ta9 area4 ,! practice is n adopt$ "h1 = ! reason t all su* tables are )\t practical value4 ,! smoo?ness & uni=mity ( ! bore2 ! rate ( fall2 ! dep? ( ! dra91 & consequ5t head1 or pressure1 ( ! wat]2 ! diff]5t effects ( diff]5t soils 9 ret>d+ ! fl[ ( ! wat] to ! dra92 ! diff]5t degrees to :i* angles 9 ! l9e ( tile affect ! fl[2 ! degree ( accel]ation ( ! fl[ :i* is caus$ by great] or less additions to ! /ream at ! junction ( bran* dra9s2 & o!r consid]ations1 aris+ at e /ep ( ! calculation1 r5d] x impossible to apply delicate ma!matical rules to "w :i* is1 at be/1 rude & unma!matical 9 ! extreme4 ,9 sew]age1 & ! wat] supply ( t[ns1 su* tables are useful1--?\gh1 ev5 9 ! mo/ p]fect ( ^! op]ations1 eng9e]s always make l>ge all[ances = circum/ances ^: influ5ce _c be exactly measur$1--b 9 l& dra9age1 ! ord9>y rules ( hydraulics h to be consid]$ 9 s _m diff]5t be>+s1 t ! computations ( ! books are n at all reliable4 ,= in/ance1 ,messrs4 ,%$d ,edson1 ( ,bo/on1 h prep>$ a s]ies ( tables1 bas$ on ,smeaton's exp]im5ts1 = ! diff]5t sizes ( tile1 laid at diff]5t incl9ations1 9 :i* !y /ate t #a-a_/b-;in* tile1 laid ) a fall ( "o foot 9 a l5g? ( "o hundr$ feet1 w dis*>ge #ab1jed4ha gallons ( wat] 9 #bd h\rs4 ,?is is equal to a ra9-fall ( ov] #cej in*es p] ye> on an acre ( l&4 ,z ! av]age annual ra9-fall 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is ab\t #dj in*es1 at lea/ "o-half ( :i* is remov$ by evaporation1 x w\ld foll[1 f ?is table1 t a #a-a_/b-;in* pipe1 ) ! above nam$ fall1 w\ld s]ve = ! dra9age ( ab\t #ag acres4 ,b ! calculation is aga9 di/urb$ by ! fact t ! ra9-fall is n ev5ly di/ribut$ ov] all ! days ( ! ye>1--z mu* z six in*es hav+ be5 kn[n to fall 9 a s+le #bd h\rs1 7am\nt+ to ab\t #aej1jjj gallons p] acre17 & ! removal ( ?is wat] 9 a s+le day w\ld require a tile ne>ly five in*es 9 diamet]1 laid at ! giv5 fall1 or a #c-;in* tile laid at a fall ( m ?an #g-a_/b feet 9 #ajj feet4 ,b1 aga91 s mu* wat] c\ld n rea* a dra9 f\r feet f ! surface1 9 s %ort a "t1 & ! "t requir$ w\ld dep5d v mu* on ! "* ( ! soil4 ,obvi\sly1 !n1 ^! tables are wor?less = our purpose4 ,exp]i5ce has fully %[n t ! sizes :i* are recomm5d$ bel[ are ample = practical purposes1 & probably ! areas to be dra9$ by ! giv5 sizes might be greatly increas$1 especially ) ref]5ce to su* soils z d n all[ wat] to p]colate v freely ?r\gh !m4 ,9 connection ) ?is subject1 att5tion is call$ to ! foll[+ extract f ! ,au?or's ,report on ! ,dra9age1 :i* accompanies ! ,?ird ,annual ,report ( ! ,bo>d ( ,commission]s ( ! ,c5tral ,p>k3 ,9 ord] to te/ ! effici5cy ( ! sy/em ( dra9age employ$ on ! ,p>k1 ,i h caus$ daily obs]vations to be tak5 ( ! am\nt ( wat] dis*>g$ f ! pr9cipal dra9 ( '! ,gre51' & h comp>$ x ) ! am\nt ( ra9-fall4 ,a portion ( ! record ( ^? obs]vations is h]e) pres5t$4 ,9 ! column head$ ',ra9-,fall1' ! am\nt ( wat] fall+ on "o acre dur+ ! entire /orm1 is giv5 9 gallons4 ,?is is comput$ f ! record ( a ra9-gauge kept on ! ,p>k4 ,"u ! head ( ',dis*>ge1' ! numb] ( gallons ( wat] dra9$ f "o acre dur+ #bd h\rs is giv54 ,?is is comput$ f obs]vations tak51 once a day or (t5]1 & supposes ! dis*>ge dur+ ! entire day to be ! same z at ! "t ( tak+ ! obs]vations4 ,x is1 consequ5tly1 b approximately correct3 ,date4 ,h\r4 ,ra9-fall4 ,dis*>ge4 ,rem>ks4 ,july #ac4 #aj a4m4 #di1iaf #ahd galls4 ,gr\nd dry4 galls4 ,no ra9 s9ce #c;d in/42 #b in*es ra9 fell betwe5 #e4ae & #e4de p4m4 & #a-e? ( an in* betwe5 #e4de & #g4ae4 ,july #ad4 #f-a_/b #d1ifh ,july #ae4 #f-a_/b #a1cbe ,july #af4 #h #a1ajd ,july #af4 #f p4m4 #cc1cih #g1gfd ,gr\nd saturat$ at a dep? ( #b feet :5 ?is ra9 comm5c$4 ,july #ag4 #d1cai ,july #ah4 #i a4m4 #b1bjh ,july #ai4 #g #a1cbe ,july #bj4 #f-a_/b #iic ,july #ba4 #aa #ffb ,july #bb4 #f-a_/b #efj ,july #bc4 #aj #a1fih #eae ,?is slight ra9 only affect$ ! ratio ( decrease4 ,july #bd4 #g #ddb ,no?+ wor?y ( note until ,aug4 #c4 ,aug4 #c4 #f-a_/b #h1dij #aia ,ra9 f #c p4m4 to #c4cj p4m4 ,aug4 #d4 #f-a_/b #ac1jah #ahd #d4de p4m4 to #ab m4n4 ,aug4 #e4 #f-a_/b #de1bhh #cfh #ab m4 to #f p4m4 ,aug4 #e4 #f p4m4 #h1bhj ,aug4 #f4 #i a4m4 #c1ied ,aug4 #g4 #i #b1bjh ,aug4 #h4 #f-a_/b #hbh ,aug4 #i4 #f-a_/b #ffb ,aug4 #ab4 #f-a_/b #cfh ,ra9 #ab m4 ,aug4 #ab to #g a4m4 ,aug4 #ac4 ,aug4 #ac4 #g #ai1bdd #a1ajd ,aug4 #ad4 #i #gcf ,aug4 #bd4 #i #a1acb #aia #c a4m4 to #d4ae a4m4 ,aug4 #be4 #i #e1edg #i1icf #c4cj p4m4 #bd?1 to #g a4m4 #be?4 ,aug4 #be4 #g p4m4 #eff #g1gdj #g a4m4 to #ab m4 ,aug4 #bf4 #f-a_/b a4m4 #c1igd ,aug4 #bf4 #f p4m4 #b1bjh ,aug4 #bg4 #f-a_/b a4m4 #eff #a1ebi #d p4m4 to #f p4m4 ,aug4 #bh4 #g #iic ,sep4 #aa4 #g #eff #afe #ab m4n4 7#aj?7 to #g a4m4 7#aa?47 ,sep4 #ab4 #i #e1jid #adg #ab m4 7#aa?7 to #g a4m4 7#ab?47 ,sep4 #ac4 #i #eff #acb #d p4m4 to #f p4m4 ,sep4 #af4 #i #ae1hdh #aaj #ab m4 to #ab m4n4 ,sep4 #ag4 #g #bg1eeb #a1ajd ,ra9 cont9u$ until #ab m4 ,sep4 #ag4 #e p4m4 #f1fbd ,sep4 #ah4 #h a4m4 #eff #d1ifh ,sep4 #ai4 #f-a_/b #b1bjh ,sep4 #ai4 #d p4m4 #a1hje ,sep4 #bj4 #i a4m4 #eff #a1cbd ,ra9 f'm #ab m4 7#ai?7 to #g a4m4 7#bj?47 ,sep4 #ba4 #i #e1jid #ide #c4bj p4m4 7#bj?7 to #f a4m4 7#ba/47 ,sep4 #bb4 #i #aj1ahe #a1fef #ab m4 7#ba/7 to #g a4m4 7#bb;d47 ,sep4 #bc4 #i #dj1gef #g1idh ,ra9 cont9u$ until #g a4m4 7#bc;d47 ,sep4 #bd4 #i #d1ifh ,sep4 #be4 #i #eff #b1ihd ,sep4 #bf4 #i #b1dhd ,oct4 #a4 #i #hbh ,!re 0 n en\gh ra9 dur+ ?is p]iod to mat]ially affect ! fl[ ( wat]4 ,nov4 #ah4 #i #hc ,nov4 #ai4 #i #a1acb #ahd ,ra9 #d4ej p4m4 7#ah?7 to #h a4m4 7#ai?47 ,nov4 #bj4 #i #aai ,nov4 #bb4 #i #bi1ccf #f1fbd ,ra9 all ( ! previ\s night4 ,nov4 #bb4 #b p4m4 #f1fbd ,nov4 #bc4 #i a4m4 #d1ifh ,nov4 #bd4 #i #a1gaa ,nov4 #bd4 #b p4m4 #a1dag ,dec4 #ag4 #i a4m4 #eeb ,dec4 #ah4 #i #d1ifh ,ra9 dur+ ! previ\s night4 ,dec4 #cj4 #aj #eha ,! tract dra9$ by ?is sy/em1 ?\gh v swampy1 be=e be+ dra9$1 is n[ dry en\gh to walk ^u1 almo/ imm$iately aft] a /orm1 except :5 und]laid by a /ratum ( froz5 gr\nd4 ,! area dra9$ by ! ma9 at :i* ^! gaug+s 7 made1 is ab\t t5 acres1 &1 9 def]5ce to ! prevail+ mania = l>ge conduits1 x _h be5 laid ) #f-;in* sole-tile4 ,! greate/ record$ dis*>ge 9 #bd h\rs 0 7,augu/ #be?17 less ?an #ajj1jjj gallons f ! t5 acres1--an am\nt ( wat] :i* did n half fill ! tile1 b :i*1 accord+ to ! tables ref]r$ to1 w\ld h entirely fill$ x4 ,9 view ( all ! in=mation t c be ga!r$ on ! subject1 ! foll[+ directions are giv5 z p]fectly reliable = dra9s f\r feet or m 9 dep?1 laid on a well regulat$ fall ( ev5 ?ree in*es 9 a hundr$ feet3 ,= #b acres #a-a_/d in* pipes 7) coll>s47 ,= #h acres #b-a_/d in* pipes 7) coll>s47 ,= #bj acres #c-a_/b in* pipes ,= #dj acres #b #c-a_/b in* pipes or "o #e-;in* sole-tile4 ,= #ej acres #f in* pipes sole-tile4 ,= #ajj acres #h in* pipes or two #f-;in* sole-tiles4 ,x is n pret5d$ t ^! dra9s w imm$iately remove all ! wat] ( ! heavie/ /orms1 b !y w always remove x fa/ en\gh = all practical purposes1 &1 if ! pipes are securely laid1 ! dra9s w only be b5efit$ by ! occasional cleans+ !y w receive :5 runn+ m ?an full4 ,9 illu/ration ( ?is /atem5t1 ! foll[+ is quot$ f a pap] communicat$ by ,mr4 ,p>kes to ! ,royal ,agricultural ,society ( ,engl& 9 #ahdc3 ,mr4 ,?omas ,hammond1 ( ,p5%ur/1 7,k5t17 n[ uses no o!r size = ! p>allel dra9s ?an ! in* tile 9 ! table1 7,no4 #e17 hav+ comm5c$ ) ,no4 #d17aa7 & x may be "h /at$1 t ! op9ion ( all ! f>m]s :o h us$ !m 9 ! ,weald1 is t a bore ( an in* area is abundantly l>ge4 ,a piece ( #i acres1 n[ s[n ) :eat1 0 obs]v$ by ! writ]1 #cf h\rs aft] ! t]m9ation ( a ra9 :i* fell heavily & incessantly dur+ #ab h\rs on ! #g? ( ,novemb]4 ,?is field 0 dra9$ 9 ,m>*1 #ahdb1 to ! dep? ( #cj to #cf in*es1 at a di/ance ( #bd feet asund]1 ! l5g? ( ea* dra9 be+ #bce y>ds4 ,ea*1 dra9 empti$ itself ?r\gh a f5ce bank into a runn+ /ream 9 a road bel[ x2 ! dis*>ge !re=e 0 di/9ctly obs]vable4 ,two or ?ree ( ! pipes _h n[ ceas$ runn+2 &1 ) ! exception ( "o :i* tapp$ a small spr+ & gave a /ream ab\t ! size ( a tobacco pipe1 ! run f ! o!rs did n exce$ ! size ( a :eat /raw4 ,! greate/ fl[ _h be5 obs]v$ by ,mr4 ,hammond at no "t to exce$ half ! bore ( ! pipes4 ,! fall 9 ?is field is v great1 & ! dra9s are laid 9 ! direction ( ! fall1 :i* has always be5 ! practice 9 ?is di/rict4 ,! issu+ wat] 0 transp>5tly cle>2 & ,mr4 ,hammond /ates t he has nev] obs]v$ cl\d9ess1 except = a %ort "t aft] v heavy flu%es ( ra91 :5 ! dra9s are quickly cle>$ ( all s$im5t1 9 consequ5ce ( ! velocity & =ce ( ! wat] pass+ ?r\gh s small a *annel4 ,infiltration ?r\gh ! soil & into ! pipes1 mu/1 9 ?is case1 be consid]$ to h be5 p]fect2 & _! obs]v$ action is ! m det]m9ate & valuable z reg>ds "t & effect1 z ! l& 0 saturat$ ) moi/ure previ\s to ?is p>ticul> fall ( ra91 & ! pipes _h ceas$ to run :5 x comm5c$4 ,?is piece _h1 previ\s to its dra9age1 necess>ily be5 cultivat$ 9 n>r[ /ret*es1 ) an op5 wat] furr[ betwe5 !m2 b x 0 n[ laid q pla91 by :i* "o-eigh? ( ! cont9uation ( acreage has be5 sav$4 ,n1 h[ev]1 be+ confid5t z to ! soil hav+ already become s por\s z to disp5se entirely ) surface dra9s1 ,mr4 ,hammond _h drawn two long wat] furr[s diagonally across ! field4 ,on exam9+ ^!1 x appe>$ t v little wat] _h fl[$ along any "p ( !m dur+ ^! #ab h\rs ( ra91--no wat] _h escap$ at _! outfall2 ! entire body ( ra9 _h p]meat$ ! mass ( ! b$1 & pass$ (f ?r\gh ! in* pipes2 no wat] p]ceptible on ! surface1 :i* us$ to c>ry x ?r\gh\t4 ,! subsoil is a brick clay1 b x appe>s to crack v rapidly by %r9kage consequ5t to dra9age4 99,ob/ructions499--,! dang] t dra9s w become ob/ruct$1 if n prop]ly laid out & prop]ly made1 is v great1 & ! co/ ( remov+ ! ob/ructions1 7(t5 requir+ :ole l9es to be tak5 up1 wa%$1 & relaid ) ! extra c>e t is requir$ 9 work+ 9 old & s(t l9es17 is (t5 great] ?an ! orig9al co/ ( ! improvem5t4 ,consequ5tly1 ! possibility ( tile dra9s becom+ /opp$ up %\ld be fully consid]$ at ! outset1 & e precaution %\ld be tak5 to prev5t s disa/r\s a result4 ,! pr9cipal causes ( ob/ruction are silt1 v]m91 & roots4 ,silt is e>? :i* is wa%$ into ! tile ) ! wat] ( ! soil1 & :i*1 ?\gh x may be c>ri$ along 9 susp5sion 9 ! wat]1 :5 ! fall is good1 w be deposit$ 9 ! eddies & slack-wat]1 :i* occur :5ev] !re is a break 9 ! fall1 or a defect 9 ! lay+ ( ! tile4 ,:5ev] x is possible to avoid x1 no dra9 %\ld h a decreas+ rate ( fall z x approa*es its outlet4 ,if ! fir/ hundr$ feet f ! upp] end ( ! dra9 has a fall ( ?ree in*es1 ! next hundr$ feet %\ld n h less ?an ?ree in*es1 le/ ! dim9i%$ velocity cause silt1 :i* requir$ ! spe$ :i* t fall gives = its removal1 to be deposit$ & to *oke ! tile4 ,?is defect ( grade is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ag4 ,if ! second hundr$ feet has an incl9ation ( m ?an ?ree in*es1 7,fig4 #ah17 ! removal ( silt w be ev5 bett] secur$ ?an if ! fall cont9u$ at ! orig9al rate4 ,"s silt w ent] newly made dra9s1 9 spite ( our utmo/ c>e1 b ! am\nt %\ld be v slight1 & if x is ev5ly deposit$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole l5g? ( ! dra91 7z x sometimes is :5 ! rate ( fall is v l[17 x w d no especial h>m2 b x becomes dang]\s :5 x is accumulat$ )9 a %ort di/ance1 by a decreas+ fall1 or by a s+le badly laid tile1 or imp]fect jo9t1 :i*1 by arre/+ ! fl[1 may cause z mu* mis*ief z a defective grade4 ,ow+ to ! g5]al con=mation ( ! gr\nd1 x is sometimes absolutely necess>y to adopt su* a grade z is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ai1--;ev5 to ! ext5t ( br++ ! dra9 d[n a rapid slope1 & cont9u+ x ) ! lea/ possible fall ?r\gh level gr\nd4 ,:5 su* *anges mu/ be made1 !y %\ld be effect$ by angles1 & n by curves4 ,9 increas+ ! fall1 curves 9 ! grade are always advisable1 9 decreas+ x !y are always objectionable1 except :5 ! decreas$ fall is /ill consid]able1--say1 at lea/ #b feet 9 #ajj feet4 ,! reason = mak+ an absolute angle at ! po9t ( depression is1 t x enables u to cat* ! silt at t po9t 9 a silt bas91 f :i* x may be remov$ z occasion requires4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai - ,,?ree ,,pr(iles ,,( ,,dra9s1 ,,) ,,diff]5t ,,incl9ations4 ,fig4 #ai - ,,?ree ,,pr(iles ,,( ,,dra9s1 ,,) ,,diff]5t ,,incl9ations4 ,a ,silt ,bas9 is a *amb]1 bel[ ! grade ( ! dra91 into :i* ! wat] fl[s1 becomes comp>atively quiet1 & deposits its silt1 in/ead ( c>ry+ x into ! tile beyond4 ,x may be l>ge or small1 9 proportion to ! am\nt ( dra9 above1 :i* x has to accommodate4 ,= a few hundr$ feet ( ! smalle/ tile1 x may be only a #f-;in* tile plac$ on end & sunk s z to receive & dis*>ge ! wat] at its top4 ,= a l>ge ma91 x may be a brick res]voir ) a capacity ( #b or #c cubic feet4 ,! position ( a silt bas9 is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ai4 ,! quantity ( silt :i* ent]s ! dra9 dep5ds v mu* on ! soil4 ,compact clays yield v little1 & wet1 runn+ s&s1 7quicks&s17 a great deal4 ,9 a soil ( ! latt] sort1 or "o hav+ a lay] ( runn+ s& at ! level ( ! dra91 ! dit* %\ld be excavat$ a little bel[ ! grade ( ! dra91 & !n fill$ to t level ) a ret5tive clay1 & ramm$ h>d4 ,9 all cases :5 ! tile is well laid1 7especially if coll>s are us$17 & a /iff e>? is well pack$ ar\nd ! tile1 silt w n ent] ! dra9 to an injuri\s ext5t1 aft] a few mon?s' op]ation %all h remov$ ! loose p>ticles ab\t ! jo9ts1 & especially aft] a few v heavy ra9s1 :i*1 if ! tiles are small1 w sometimes wa% !m p]fectly clean1 al?\gh !y may h be5 half fill$ ) dirt4 ,v]m91--field mice1 moles1 etc41--sometimes make _! ne/s 9 ! tile & ?us *oke !m1 or1 dy+ 9 !m1 /op !m up ) _! c>cases4 ,_! entrance %\ld be prev5t$ by plac+ a co>se wire clo? or grat+ 9 front ( ! outlets1 :i* af=d ! only op5+s = _! entrance4 ,roots4--,! roots ( _m wat]-lov+ trees1--especially will[s1--w (t5 =ce _! entrance into ! jo9ts ( ! tile & fill ! :ole bore ) masses ( fibre :i* entirely prev5t ! fl[ ( wat]4 ,coll>s make x m difficult = !m to ent]1 b ev5 ^! are n a sure prev5tive4 ,gisborne says3 ,my own exp]i5ce z to roots1 9 connection ) deep pipe dra9+1 is z foll[s3 ,i h nev] kn[n roots to ob/ruct a pipe ?r\gh :i* !re 0 n a p]5nial /ream4 ,! fl[ ( wat] 9 summ] & e>ly autumn appe>s to furni% ! attraction4 ,i h nev] discov]$ t ! roots ( any escul5t vegetable h ob/ruct$ a pipe4 ,! trees :i*1 by my own p]sonal obs]vation1 ,i h f\nd to be mo/ dang]\s1 h be5 r$ will[1 black ,italian popl>1 ald]1 a%1 & broad-leav$ elm4 ,i h _m ald]s 9 close contiguity ) important dra9s1 &1 ?\gh ,i h nev] convict$ "o1 ,i _c d\bt t !y are dang]\s4 ,oak1 & black & :ite ?orns1 ,i h n detect$1 nor d ,i suspect !m4 ,! guilty trees h 9 e in/ance be5 "y & free gr[+2 ,i h nev] convict$ an adult4 ,^! rem>ks apply solely to my own obs]vation1 & may ( c\rse be mu* ext5d$ by t ( o!r agriculturi/s4 ,i "k an in/ance 9 :i* a p]5nial spr+ ( v pure & 7,i believe7 s(t wat] is convey$ 9 socket pipes to a pap] mill4 ,e junction ( two pipes is c>efully =tifi$ ) cem5t4 ,! only object ( cov] be+ protection f sup]ficial injury & f fro/1 ! pipes are laid n f> bel[ ! sod4 ,ye> by ye> ^! pipes are /opp$ by roots4 ,trees are v caprici\s 9 ?is matt]4 ,i 0 told by ! late ,sir ,r4 ,peel t he sacrific$ two "y elm trees 9 ! p>k at ,drayton ,manor to a dra9 :i* _h be5 repeat$ly /opp$ by roots4 ,! /oppage 0 nev]!less repeat$1 & 0 !n trac$ to an elm tree f> m di/ant ?an ^? :i* _h be5 sacrific$4 ,e>ly 9 ! autumn ( #ahej ,i complet$ ! dra9age ( ! upp] "p ( a boggy valley1 ly+1 ) ramifications1 at ! foot ( m>ly banks4 ,! ma9 dra9s conv]ge to a common outlet1 to :i* are br\ght "o #c-;in* pipe & ?ree ( #d in*es ea*4 ,!y lie side by side1 & wat] fl[s p]5nially ?r\gh ea* ( !m4 ,ne> to ?is outlet did gr[ a r$ will[4 ,9 ,febru>y1 #aheb1 ,i f\nd ! wat] break+ out to ! surface ( ! gr\nd ab\t #aj y>ds above ! outlet1 & 0 at no loss = ! cause1 z ! roots ( ! r$ will[ %[$ !mselves at ! orifice ( ! #c-;in* & ( two ( ! #d-;in* pipes4 ,on exam9ation ,i f\nd t a root _h ent]$ a jo9t betwe5 two #c-;in* pipes1 & _h travel$ #e y>ds to ! m\? ( ! dra91 & #i y>ds up ! /ream1 =m+ a cont9u\s l5g? ( #ad y>ds4 ,! root :i* fir/ ent]$ _h atta9$ ab\t ! size ( a lady's little f+]2 & its ramifications consi/$ ( v f9e & almo/ silky fibres1 & w\ld h cut up into half a doz5 com=table boas4 ,! dra9 0 completely /opp$4 ,! pipes 7 n 9 any degree displac$4 ,roots f ! same will[ _h pass$ ov] ! #c-;in* pipes1 & _h ent]$ & entirely /opp$ ! fir/ #d-;in* dra91 & _h p>tially /opp$ ! second4 ,at a di/ance ( ab\t #ej y>ds a black ,italian popl>1 :i* /ood on a bank ov] a #d-;in* dra91 _h completely /opp$ x ) a bun* ( roots4 ,! :ole ( ?is _h be5 ! "w ( less ?an #ah mon?s1 includ+ ! dep? ( two w9t]s4 ,a #c-;in* bran* ( ! same sy/em runs ?r\gh a little gr\p ( black popl>s4 ,?is dra9 conveys a full /ream 9 pla%es ( wet1 & "s wat] g5]ally ?r\gh ! w9t] mon?s1 b has n a p]5nial fl[4 ,i h p]ceiv$ no indication t roots h int]f]$ ) ?is dra94 ,i draw no g5]al conclusions f ^! few facts1 b !y may assi/ ^? :o h m ext5sive exp]i5ce 9 draw+ "s1 :i* may be ( use to dra9]s4 ,hav+ consid]$ "s ( ! pr9ciples on :i* our "w %\ld be bas$1 let u n[ return to ! map ( ! field1 & apply ^? pr9ciples 9 plann+ ! "w to be done to make x dry4 99,! ,outlet99 %\ld evid5tly be plac$ at ! pres5t po9t ( exit ( ! brook :i* runs f ! spr+s1 collects ! wat] ( ! op5 dit*es1 & spreads ov] ! flat 9 ! s\?we/ corn] ( ! tract1 conv]t+ x into a swamp4 ,suppose t1 by go+ "s di/ance into ! next field1 we c secure an outlet ( #c feet & #i in*es 7#c4ge7 bel[ ! level ( ! swamp1 & t we decide to all[ #c in*es drop betwe5 ! bottom ( ! tile at t po9t1 & ! r$uc$ level ( ! brook to secure ! dra9 aga9/ ! accumulation ( s&1 :i* might result f back wat] 9 "t ( heavy ra94 ,?is fixes ! dep? ( dra9 at ! outlet at #c-a_/b 7#c4ej7 feet4 ,at t side ( ! swamp :i* lies ne>e/ to ! ma9 depression ( ! up-l&1 7,see ,fig4 #ba17 is ! prop] place at :i* to collect ! wat] f s mu* ( ! field z is n[ dra9$ by ! ma9 brook1 & at t po9t x w be well to place a silt bas9 or well1 built up to ! surface1 :i* may1 at any "t1 be uncov]$ = an obs]vation ( ! work+ ( ! dra9s4 ,! l& betwe5 ?is po9t & ! outlet is absolutely level1 requir+ ! necess>y fall 9 ! dra9 :i* connects ! two1 to be ga9$ by rais+ ! upp] end ( x4 ,z ! di/ance is ne>ly #bjj feet1 & z x is advisable to give a fall at lea/ five-t5?s ( a foot p] hundr$ feet to s important an outlet z ?is1 ! dra9 at ! silt bas9 may be fix$ at only #b-a_/b feet4 ,! bas9 be+ at ! foot ( a consid]able rise 9 ! gr\nd1 x w be easy1 )9 a %ort di/ance above1 to c>ry ! dra9s :i* come to x to a dep? ( #d feet1--7 ?is n ! case1 ! fall betwe5 ! bas9 & ! outlet w\ld h to be v mu* r$uc$4 99,ma9 ,dra9s499--,! valley ?r\gh :i* ! brook n[ runs is ab\t #hj feet wide1 ) a decid$ rise 9 ! l& at ea* side4 ,if "o ma9 dra9 7 laid 9 ! c5t] ( x1 all ( ! lat]als com+ to ! ma9 w\ld fir/ run d[n a /eep hillside1 & !n across a /ret* ( m level l&1 requir+ ! grade ( ea* lat]al to be brok5 at ! foot ( ! hill1 & provid$ ) a silt bas9 to collect matt]s :i* might be deposit$ :5 ! fall becomes less rapid4 ,consequ5tly1 x is be/ to provide two ma9s1 or collect+ dra9s1 7,a & ,c17 "o ly+ at ! foot ( ea* hill1 :5 !y w receive ! lat]als at _! greate/ fall2 b1 z ^! are too f> ap>t to completely dra9 ! valley betwe5 !m1 & are locat$ on l& high] ?an ! c5t] ( ! valley1 a dra91 7,b17 %\ld be run up1 midway betwe5 !m4 ,! collect+ dra91 ,a1 w receive ! lat]als f ! hill to ! we/ ( x1 z f> up z ! #aj-;foot cont\r l9e1 &1 above t po9t1--runn+ up a bran* ( ! valley1--x w receive lat]als f bo? sides4 ,! dra91 ,b1 may be cont9u$ above ! divid+ po9t ( ! valley1 & w act z "o ( ! s]ies ( lat]als4 ,! dra91 ,c1 w receive ! lat]als & sub-ma9s f ! ris+ gr\nd to ! ea/ ( x1 & f bo? sides ( ! m9or valley :i* ext5ds 9 t direction4 ,mo/ ( ! valley :i* runs up f ! ea/]ly side ( ! swamp mu/ be dra9$ indep5d5tly by ! dra9 ,e1 :i* might be c>ri$ to ! silt bas91 did n its cont9uation directly to ! outlet (f] a %ort] c\rse = ! removal ( its wat]4 ,?is dra9 w receive lat]als f ! hill bord]+ ! s\!a/]ly side ( ! swamp1 &1 high] up1 f bo? sides ( ! valley 9 :i* x runs4 ,9 lay+ out ^! ma9 dra9s1 m att5tion %\ld be giv5 to plac+ !m :]e !y w be/ receive ! wat] ( ! lat]als1 & on l9es :i* (f] a good & tol]ably uni=m desc5t1 ?an to _! use = ! imm$iate dra9age ( ! l& ?r\gh :i* !y pass4 ,aft]w>d1 9 lay+ out ! lat]als1 ! use ( ^! l9es z local dra9s %\ld1 ( c\rse1 be duly consid]$4 99,! ,lat]al ,dra9s99 %\ld next receive att5tion1 & 9 _! location & arrangem5t ! foll[+ rules %\ld be obs]v$3 #a/4 ,!y %\ld run d[n ! /eepe/ desc5t ( ! l&4 #b;d4 ,!y %\ld be plac$ at int]vals proportionate to _! dep?2--if #d feet deep1 at #dj feet int]vals2 if #c feet deep1 at #bj feet int]vals4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bj - ,,map ,,) ,,dra9s ,,& ,,cont\r ,,l9es4 ,fig4 #bj - ,,map ,,) ,,dra9s ,,& ,,cont\r ,,l9es4 #c;d4 ,!y %\ld1 z ne>ly z possible1 run p>allel to ea* o!r4 ,on l& ( p]fectly uni=m "*1 7all slop+ 9 ! same direction17 all ( ^! requirem5ts may be compli$ )1 b on irregul> l& x becomes con/antly necess>y to make a compromise betwe5 !m4 ,dra9s runn+ d[n ! l9e ( /eepe/ desc5t _c be p>allel1--&1 consequ5tly1 ! int]vals betwe5 !m _c be always ! same2 ^? :i* are f>!r ap>t at "o end ?an at ! o!r _c be always ( a dep? exactly proportionate to _! int]vals4 ,9 ! adju/m5t ( ! l9es1 s z to con=m z ne>ly to ^! requirem5ts z ! %ape ( ! gr\nd w all[1 !re is room = ! ex]cise ( mu* skill1 & on su* adju/m5t dep5d1 9 a great degree1 ! success & economy ( ! "w4 ,rememb]+ t on ! map1 ! l9e ( /eepe/ desc5t is exactly p]p5dicul> to ! cont\r l9es ( ! l&1 x w be pr(itable to /udy c>efully ! sy/em ( dra9s fir/ laid out1 eras+ & mak+ alt]ations :]ev] x is f\nd possible to simplify ! arrangem5t4 ,/rictly speak+1 all angles are1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 wa/eful1 because1 if two p>allel dra9s w suffice to dra9 ! l& betwe5 !m1 no bett] dra9age w be effect$ by a ?ird dra9 runn+ across t l&4 ,fur!rmore1 ! angles are practically suppli$ ) dra9s at less int]vals ?an are requir$1--= in/ance1 at ,c #g a on ! map ! triangles includ$ )9 ! dott$ l9e x1 y1 w be d\bly dra9$4 ,s1 also1 if any po9t ( a #d-;foot dra9 w dra9 ! l& )9 #bj feet ( x1 ! l& includ$ )9 ! dott$ l9e =m+ a semi-circle ab\t ! po9t ,c #ad1 might dra9 into ! end ( ! lat]al1 & x no m ne$s ! action ( ! ma9 dra9 ?an does t :i* lies betwe5 ! lat]als4 ,( c\rse1 angles & connect+ l9es are indisp5sable1 except :]e ! lat]als c run indep5d5tly across ! entire field1 & dis*>ge beyond x4 ,! long] ! lat]als c be made1 & ! m angles c be avoid$1 ! m economical w ! arrangem5t be2 &1 until ! arrangem5t ( ! l9es has be5 made z ne>ly p]fect z possible1 ! "t ( ! dra9] c be 9 no way s pr(itably sp5t z 9 am5d+ 8 plan4 ,! s]ies ( lat]als :i* dis*>ge ?r\gh ! ma9s ,a1 ,c1 ,d & ,e1 on ! accompany+ map1 h be5 v c>efully consid]$1 & are submitt$ to ! consid]ation ( ! read]1 9 illu/ration ( :at has be5 said above4 ,at "o po9t1 j above ! middle ( ! ea/ side ( ! field1 ! lat]als are plac$ at a g5]al di/ance ( #bj feet1 because1 z w be se5 by ref]5ce to ,fig4 #d1 a l$ge ( rock1 und]gr\nd1 w prev5t _! be+ made m ?an #c feet deep4 ,! l9e f ,h to ,i1 7,fig4 #bj17 at ! nor? side ( ! field1 connect+ ! heads ( ! lat]als1 is to be a /one & tile dra91 su* z is describ$ on page #fj1 int5d$ to collect ! wat] :i* foll[s ! surface ( ! rock4 7,see ,fig4 #d47 ,! swamp is to be dra9$ by itself1 by means ( two s]ies ( lat]als dis*>g+ into ! ma9 l9es ,f & ,g1 :i* dis*>ge at ! outlet1 by ! side ( ! ma9 dra9 f ! silt-bas94 ,by ?is arrangem5t1 ^! lat]als1 especially at ! nor? side ( ! swamp1 be+ accurately laid1 ) v slight incl9ations1 c be plac$ m deeply ?an if !y ran 9 an ea/ & we/ direction1 & dis*>g$ into ! ma91 :i* has a great] incl9ation1 & is only two & a half feet deep at ! bas94 ,be+ #c-a_/b 7#c4ej7 feet deep at ! outlet1 !y may be made fully #c feet deep at _! upp] ends1 &1 be+ only #bj feet ap>t1 !y w dra9 ! l& z well z is possible4 ,! dra9s be+ n[ laid out1 ov] ! :ole field1 ! next ?+ to be att5d$ to is 99,! ,ord]+ ( ! ,tile499--,! ma9 l9e f ! outlet up to ! silt-bas91 %\ld be ( #c-a_/b-;in* tiles1 ( :i* ab\t #aij feet w be requir$4 ,! ma9 dra9 ,a %\ld be laid ) #b-a_/d-;in* tiles to ! po9t m>k$ m1 ne> its upp] end1 z ! lat]al ent]+ !re c>ries ! wat] ( a spr+1 :i* is suppos$ to fill a #a-a_/d-;in* tile4 ,! l5g? ( ?is dra91 f ! silt-bas9 to t po9t is #ege feet4 ,! ma9 dra9 ,c w require #b-a_/d in* tiles f ! silt-bas9 to ! junction ) ! lat]al1 :i* is m>k$ ,c #aj1 above :i* po9t !re is ab\t #a1gjj feet ( dra9 dis*>g+ into x1 a portion ( :i*1 be+ a /one-&-tile dra9 at ! foot ( a rock1 may be suppos$ to receive m wat] ?an t :i* lies "u ! re/ ( ! l&2--di/ance #dej feet4 ,! ma9 dra9 ,e requires #b-a_/d-;in* tiles f ! outlet to ! po9t m>k$ o1 a di/ance ( #chj feet4 ,?is tile w1 9 addition to its o!r "w1 c>ry z mu* wat] f ! spr+1 on ! l9e ( its f\r? lat]al1 z w\ld fill a #a-a_/d-;in* pipe47#ab7 ,! l5g? ( ! ma9 dra9s above ! po9ts indicat$1 & ( all ! lat]als1 am\nts to ab\t #ab1bej feet4 ,^! all require #a-a_/d-;in* tiles4 ,all[+ ab\t five p] c5t4 = breakage1 ! ord] 9 r\nd numb]s1 w be z foll[s37#ac7 #c-a_/b-;in* r\nd tiles #bjj feet4 #b-a_/d-;in* r\nd tiles #a1ejj feet4 #a-a_/d-;in* r\nd tiles #ac1jjj feet4 #c-a_/b-;in* r\nd tiles #a1fjj #b-a_/d-;in* r\nd tiles #ac1bej ,ord]1 also1 #be #f-;in* sole-tiles1 to be us$ 9 mak+ small silt-bas9s4 ,x %\ld be arrang$ to h ! tiles all on ! gr\nd be=e ! "w ( dit*+ comm5ces1 s t !re may be no delay & consequ5t dang] to ! /ability ( ! banks ( ! dit*es1 :ile wait+ = !m to arrive4 ,z has be5 be=e /at$1 x %\ld be especially agre$ ) ! tile-mak]1 at ! "t ( mak+ ! contract1 t e tile %\ld be p]fect2--( uni=m %ape1 & nei!r too mu* nor too little burn$4 99,/ak+ ,out499--,due consid]ation hav+ be5 giv5 to su* prelim9>ies z are connect$ ) ! mapp+ ( ! gr\nd1 & ! arrangem5t1 on pap]1 ( ! dra9s to be made1 ! dra9] may n[ return to 8 field1 &1 :ile await+ ! arrival ( 8 tiles1 make ! necess>y prep>ation = ! "w to be done4 ,! fir/ /ep is to fix c]ta9 prom95t po9ts1 :i* w s]ve to connect ! map ) ! field1 by actual measurem5ts1 & ?is w v easily be done by ! aid ( ! /akes :i* are /ill /&+ at ! int]sections ( ! #ej-;foot l9es1 :i* 7 us$ 9 ! prelim9>y levell+4 ,comm5c+ at ! s\?we/ corn] ( ! field1 & measur+ t[>d ! ea/ a di/ance ( #cd feet1 set a pole to indicate ! position ( ! outlet4 ,next1 m>k ! c5t] ( ! silt-bas9 at ! prop] po9t1 :i* w be f\nd by measur+ #ahd feet up ! we/]n b\nd>y1 & !nce t[>d ! ea/ #if feet1 on a l9e p>allel ) ! ne>e/ r[ ( #ej-;foot /akes4 ,!n1 9 l mann]1 fix ! po9ts ,c#a1 ,c#f1 ,c#i1 ,c#aj1 & ,c#ag1 & ! angles ( ! o!r ma9 l9es1 m>k+ ! /akes1 :5 plac$1 to correspond ) ! same po9ts on ! map4 ,!n /ake ! angles & ! upp] ends ( ! lat]als1 & m>k ^! /akes to correspond ) ! map4 ,x w greatly facilitate ?is op]ation1 if ! plan ( ! dra9s :i* is us$ 9 ! field1 f :i* ! horizontal l9es %\ld be omitt$1 h ! int]sect+ #ej-;foot l9es drawn ^u x1 s t ! measurem5ts may be made f ! ne>e/ po9ts ( int]section47#ad7 ,hav+ /ak$ ^! guid+ po9ts ( ! dra9s1 x is advisable to remove all ( ! #ej-;foot /akes1 z ^! are ( no fur!r use1 & w\ld only cause confusion4 ,x w n[ be easy to set ! rema9+ /akes1--plac+ "o at e #ej feet ( ! lat]als1 & at ! int]sections ( all ! l9es4 ,a sy/em = m>k+ ! /akes is indicat$ on ! map1 79 ! ,c s]ies ( dra9s17 :i*1 to avoid ! confusion :i* w\ld result f too mu* detail on su* a small scale1 has be5 c>ri$ only to ! ext5t necess>y = illu/ration4 ,! /akes ( ! l9e ,c are m>k$ ,c#a1 ,c#b1 ,c#c1 etc4 ,! /akes ( ! sub-ma9 ,c#g1 are m>k$ ,c#g;a1 ,c#g;b1 ,c#g;c1 etc4 ,! /akes ( ! lat]al :i* ent]s ?is dra9 at ,c#g;a1 are m>k$ ,c#g;a_/#a1 ,c#g;a_/#b1 ,c#g;a_/#c1 etc4 etc4 ,?is sy/em1 :i* connects ! lett]+ ( ea* lat]al ) its own sub-ma9 & ma91 is p]fectly simple1 & avoids ! possibility ( confusion4 ,! position ( ! /akes %\ld all be lett]$ on ! map1 at ! orig9al draw+1 & ! same designat+ m>ks put on ! /akes 9 ! field1 z soon z set4 ,grade ,/akes1 7pegs ab\t #h or #aj in*es long17 %\ld be plac$ close at ! sides ( ! m>k$ /akes1 & driv5 ne>ly _! full l5g? into ! gr\nd4 ,! tops ( ^! /akes furni% fix$ po9ts ( elevation f :i* to take ! measurem5ts1 & to make ! computations necess>y to fix ! dep? ( ! dra9 at ea* /ake4 ,if ! measurem5ts 7 tak5 f ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 a slight *ange ( position 9 plac+ ! in/rum5t1 w\ld (t5 make a diff]5ce ( "s in*es 9 ! dep? ( ! dra94 99,tak+ ! ,levels499--,= accurate "w1 x is necess>y to asc]ta9 ! comp>ative levels ( ! tops ( all ( ! grade /akes2 or ! di/ance ( ea* "o ( !m bel[ an imag9>y horizontal plane4 ,?is plane1 79 :i* we use only su* l9es z are directly above ! dra9s17 may be call$ ! ,datum ,l9e4 ,its elevation %\ld be su* t x w be above ! highe/ "p ( ! l&1 &1 = conv5i5ce1 x is fix$ at ! elevation ( ! levell+ in/rum5t :5 x is s plac$ z to look ov] ! highe/ "p ( ! field4 ,levell+ ,in/rum5ts are ( v>i\s k9ds4 ,! be/ = ! "w 9 h&1 is ! common railroad level1 :i* is %[n 9 ,fig4 #f4 ,?is is support$ on ?ree legs1 :i* br+ x to ab\t ! level ( ! eye4 ,its ess5tial p>ts are a telescope1 :i* has two cross-hairs int]sect+ ea* o!r 9 ! l9e ( sight1 & :i* may be turn$ on its pivot t[>d any po9t ( ! horizon2 a bubble glass plac$ exactly p>allel to ! l9e ( sight1 & firmly secur$ 9 its position s z to turn ) ! telescope2 & an app>atus = rais+ or depress+ any side ( ! in/rum5t by means ( set-screws4 ,! in/rum5t is firmly screw$ to ! tripod1 & plac$ at a po9t conv5i5t = look+ ov] a consid]able "p ( ! highe/ l&4 ,by ! use ( ! set-screws1 ! plane 9 :i* ! in/rum5t revolves is br\ght to a level1 s t 9 :atev] direction ! in/rum5t is po9t$1 ! bubble w be 9 ! c5t] ( ! glass4 ,! l9e ( sight1 :i*ev] way x is turn$1 is n[ 9 our imag9>y plane4 ,a conv5i5t position = ! in/rum5t 9 ! field "u consid]ation1 w\ld be at ! po9t1 ea/ ( ! c5t]1 m>k$ ,k1 :i* is ab\t #c feet bel[ ! level ( ! highe/ "p ( ! gr\nd4 ,! telescope %\ld /& ab\t #e feet above ! surface ( ! gr\nd directly "u x4 ,! ,levell+-,rod1 7,see ,fig4 #g17 is usually #ab feet long1 is divid$ into feet & hundr$?s ( a foot1 & has a movable t>get :i* may be plac$ at any "p ( its entire l5g?4 ,?is is c>ri$ by an att5dant1 :o holds x p]p5dicul>ly on ! top ( ! grade-/ake1 :ile ! op]ator1 look+ ?r\gh ! telescope1 directs him to move ! t>get up & d[n until its c5t] is exactly 9 ! l9e ( sight4 ,! att5dant !n reads ! elevation1 & ! op]ator records x z ! di/ance bel[ ! datum-l9e ( ! top ( ! grade-/ake4 ,= conv5i5ce1 ! lett]+s ( ! /akes %\ld be sy/ematically ent]$ 9 a small field book1 be=e ! "w comm5ces1 & ?is %\ld be accompani$ by su* a sket* ( ! plan z w s]ve z a guide to ! location ( ! l9es on ! gr\nd4 ,! foll[+ is ! =m ( ! field book = ! ma9 dra9 ,c1 ) ! levels record$3 ,,lett]+ ,,( ,,! ,,/ake4 ,,dep? ,,f ,,datum ,,l9e4 ,silt ,bas9 #ah4bj ,c #a #ae4dd ,c #b #ad4cf ,c #c #ab4he ,c #d #ab4ah ,c #e #aa4gi ,c #f #aa4fi ,c #g #aa4ee ,c #h #aa4cg ,c #i #aa4jf ,c #aj #h4id ,c #aa #h4eb ,c #ab #g4hf ,c #ac #g4gj ,c #ad #g4ci ,c #ae #g4jf ,c #af #f4gc ,! levell+ %\ld be cont9u$ 9 ?is mann]1 until ! grades ( all ! po9ts are record$ 9 ! field book4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ba - ,,pr(ile ,,( ,,dra9 ,c4 ,fig4 #ba - ,,pr(ile ,,( ,,dra9 ,c4 ,horizontal ,scale1 #ff ft4 to ! in*4 ,v]tical ,scale1 #ae ft4 to ! in*4 #a to #ag4 ,numb]s ( ,/akes4 7#hb7 etc4 ,di/ances betwe5 ,/akes4 #ah4bj etc4 ,dep?s f datum-l9e to surface4 #b4ej etc4 ,dep?s ( dit*4 #bj4gj etc4 ,dep?s f datum-l9e to dra94 ,if1 f too great depression ( ! l[] p>ts ( ! field1 or too great di/ances = obs]vation1 x becomes necess>y to take up a new position ) ! in/rum5t1 ! new level %\ld be connect$1 by measurem5t1 ) ! old "o1 & ! new obs]vations %\ld be comput$ to ! orig9al plane4 ,x is n necess>y t ^! levels %\ld be not$ on ! map1--!y are ne$$ only = comput+ ! dep? ( cutt+1 & if ent]$ on ! map1 might be mi/ak5 = ! figures indicat+ ! dep?1 :i* x is m important to h record$ 9 _! prop] positions1 = conv5i5ce ( ref]5ce dur+ ! "w4 99,! ,dep? & ,grade ( ! ,dra9s499--,hav+ n[ /ak$ out ! l9es ^u ! l&1 & asc]ta9$ & record$ ! elevations at ! diff]5t /akes1 x becomes necess>y to det]m9e at :at dep? ! tile %all be plac$ at ea* po9t1 s z to give ! prop] fall to ea* l9e1 & to br+ all ( ! l9es ( ! sy/em into accord4 ,z ! simple/ means ( illu/rat+ ! pr9ciple on :i* ?is "w %\ld be done1 x w be conv5i5t to g ?r\gh ) ! process ) ref]5ce to ! ma9 dra9 ,c1 ( ! plan "u consid]ation4 ,a pr(ile ( ?is l9e is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ba1 :]e ! l9e is brok5 at /ake ,no4 #g1 & cont9u$ 9 ! l[] section ( ! diagram4 ,! topmo/ l9e1 f ,silt ,bas9 to #ag1 is ! horizontal datum-l9e4 ,! numb]s above ! v]tical l9es indicate ! /akes2 ! figures 9 brackets betwe5 ^!1 ! numb] ( feet betwe5 ! /akes2 & ! heavy figures at ! left ( ! v]tical l9es1 ! record$ measurem5ts ( dep? f ! datum-l9e to ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 :i* is indicat$ by ! irregul> l9e next bel[ ! datum-l9e4 ,! v]tical measurem5ts are1 ( c\rse1 v mu* exagg]at$1 to make ! pr(ile m m>k$1 b !y are 9 ! prop] relation to ea* o!r4 ,! dep? at ! silt-bas9 is fix$ at #b-a_/b feet 7#b4ej47 ,! rise is rapid to /ake #c1 v slight f !re to /ake #g1 v rapid f !re to /ake #aj1 a little less rapid f !re to /ake #aa1 & /ill less rapid f !re to /ake #ag4 ,to e/abli% ! grade by ! pr(ile alone1 ! prop] c\rse w\ld be to fix ! dep? at ! /akes at :i* ! incl9ation is to be *ang$1 to draw /raight l9es betwe5 ! po9ts ?us f\nd1 & !n to measure ! v]tical di/ance f ^! l9es to ! l9e indicat+ ! surface ( ! gr\nd at ! diff]5t /akes2 ?us1 fix+ ! dep? at /ake #c1 at #d feet & #ac hundr$?s17#ae7 ! l9e drawn f t po9t to ! dep? ( #b4ej1 at ! silt-bas91 w be #c feet & #fb hundr$?s 7#c4fb7 bel[ /ake #a1 & #c feet & #ib hundr$?s 7#c4ib7 bel[ /ake #b4 ,at /ake #g x is necess>y to g suffici5tly deep to pass f #g to #aj1 )\t com+ too ne> ! surface at #i1 :i* is at ! foot ( a /eep asc5t4 ,a l9e drawn /raight f #d4ei feet bel[ /ake #aj to #d4ag feet at /ake #ag1 w\ld be unnecess>ily deep at #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 & #ad2 &1 consequ5tly x is bett] to rise to #d4ai feet at #aa4 ,s f> z ?is "p ( ! dra9 is conc]n$1 x w\ld be well to cont9ue ! same rise to #ab1 b1 9 do+ s1 we w\ld come too ne> ! surface at #ac1 #ad1 & #ae2 or mu/ consid]ably depress ! l9e at #af1 :i* w\ld ei!r make a bad break 9 ! fall at t po9t1 or c>ry ! dra9 too deep at #ag4 ,by ! arrangem5t adopt$1 ! grade is brok5 at #c1 #g1 #aj1 & #aa4 ,betwe5 ^! po9ts1 x is a /raight l9e1 ) ! rate ( fall indicat$ 9 ! foll[+ table1 :i* comm5ces at ! upp] end ( ! dra9 & proce$s t[>d its outlet3 ,,f ,,/ake1 ,,to ,,/ake1 ,,di/ance4 ,,total ,,fall4 ,,rate ,,( ,,dep?4 ,,dep?4 ,,fall4 ,,p] #ajj ,,ft4 ,no4 ,no4 #bdf ft4 #b4df ft4 #a4ji ft4 #ag444d4ag #aa444d4ai ft4 ft4 ,no4 ,no4 #da ft4 #hb ft4 #b4jj ft4 #aa444d4ai #aj444d4ei ft4 ft4 ,no4 ,no4 #ia ft4 #b4di ft4 #b4hc ft4 #aj444d4ei #g444d4dg ft4 ft4 ,no4 ,no4 #agc ft4 #if ft4 #ef ft4 #g444d4dg #c444d4ac ft4 ft4 ,no4 ,s4 ,bas9 #ahf ft4 #c4dg ft4 #a4hg ft4 #c444d4ac #b4be ft4 ft4 ,x w be se5 t ! fall becomes m rapid z we asc5d f /ake #g1 b bel[ ?is po9t x is v mu* r$uc$1 s mu* z to make x v likely t silt w be deposit$1 7see page #ia71 & ! dra91 !reby1 ob/ruct$4 ,to provide aga9/ ?is1 a silt-bas9 mu/ be plac$ at ?is po9t :i* w collect ! silt & prev5t its entrance into ! m ne>ly level tile bel[4 ,! con/ruction ( ?is silt-bas9 is m p>ticul>ly describ$ 9 ! next *apt]4 ,f /ake #g to ! ma9 silt-bas9 ! fall is su* t ! dra9 w cle> itself4 ,! draw+ ( regul> pr(iles1 = ! m important dra9s1 w be useful = ! purpose ( mak+ ! beg9n] famili> ) ! me?od ( grad+1 & ) ! pr9ciples on :i* ! grade & dep? are comput$2 & sometimes1 9 pass+ ov] v irregul> surfaces1 ?is me?od w enable ev5 a skill$ dra9] to hit ^u ! be/ adju/m5t 9 less "t ?an by computation4 ,ord9>ily1 h[ev]1 ! =m ( computation giv5 9 ! foll[+ table1 :i* ref]s to ! same dra91 7,c17 w be m exp$iti\s1 & its results are ma!matically m correct47#af7 ,fall4 ,dep? ,feet & f ,decimals4 ,datum ,l9e4 ,no4 ( ,di/ance ,p] #ajj ,betwe5 ,to ,to ,dep? ( ,rem>ks4 ,/ake4 ,betwe5 ,feet4 ,/akes4 ,dra94 ,surface4 ,dra94 ,/akes4 ,silt #bj4gj #ah4bj #b4ej ft ,bas94 ft4 ft4 ,c4 #a4 #hb ft4 #b ft4 #a4fd ft4 #ai4jf #ae4dd #c4dh ft ,c4 #b4 #ci ft4 d4 4#gh ft4 #ah4bh #ad4cf #c4hc ft ,c4 #c4 #fe ft4 d4 #a4cj #af4ih #ab4he #d4ac ft ft4 ,c4 #d4 #ea ft4 4#ef 4#bh ft4 #af4gj #ab4ah #d4eb ft ,c4 #e4 #dc ft4 d4 4#bd ft4 #af4df #aa4gi #d4fg ft ,c4 #f4 #dg ft4 d4 4#bf ft4 #af4bj #aa4fi #d4ea ft ,c4 #g4 #cb ft4 d4 4#ah ft4 #af4jb #aa4ee #d4dg ft ,silt-,bas9 "h4 ,made deep at ,nos4 #g & #aj to pass a depression ( ! surface at ,no4 #i4 ,c4 #h4 #da ft4 #b4hc #a4af #ad4hf #aa4cg #c4di ft ft4 ,c4 #i4 #ab ft4 d4 4#cd ft4 #ad4eb #aa4jf #c4df ft ,c4#aj4 #ch ft4 d4 4#ii ft4 #ac4ec #h4id #d4ei ft ,c4#aa4 #da ft4 #b4jj 4#hb ft4 #ab4fa #h4eb #d4ai ft ,c4#ab4 #da ft4 #a4ji 4#dd ft4 #ab4bg #g4hf #d4da ft ,c4#ac4 #da ft4 d4 4#dd ft4 #aa4hc #g4gj #d4ac ft ,c4#ad4 #da ft4 d4 4#dd ft4 #aa4ci #g4ci #d4jj ft ,c4#ae4 #da ft4 d4 4#dd ft4 #aj4ie #g4jf #c4hi ft ,c4#af4 #da ft4 d4 4#dd ft4 #aj4ea #f4gc #c4hh ft ,c4#ag4 #da ft4 d4 4#dd ft4 #aj4jg #e4ij #d4ag ft ,,note4--,! me?od ( mak+ ! =ego+ computation is ?is3 #a/4 ,ent] ! lett]+ ( ! /akes 9 ! fir/ column1 comm5c+ at ! l[] end ( ! dra94 #b;d4 ,ent] ! di/ances betwe5 ea* two /akes 9 ! second column1 plac+ ! measurem5t on ! l9e ) ! numb] ( ! upp] /ake ( ! two4 #c;d4 ,9 ! next to ! la/ column ent]1 on ! l9e ) ea* /ake1 its dep? bel[ ! datum-l9e1 z record$ 9 ! field book ( levels1 7,see page #aje47 #d?4 ,on ! fir/ l9e ( ! la/ column1 place ! dep? ( ! l[] end ( ! dra91 7?is is e/abli%$ by ! grade ( ! ma9 or o!r outlet at :i* x dis*>ges47 #e?4 ,add ?is dep? to ! fir/ numb] ( ! l9e next prec$+ x1 & ent] ! sum obta9$ on ! fir/ l9e ( ! fif? column1 z ! dep? ( ! dra9 bel[ ! datum-l9e4 #f?4 ,hav+ ref]5ce to ! grade ( ! surface1 7z %[n by ! figures 9 ! six? column17 z well z to any necessity = plac+ ! dra9 at c]ta9 dep?s at c]ta9 places1 ent] ! desir$ dep?1 9 p5cil1 9 ! la/ column1 opposite ! /akes m>k+ ^? places4 ,!n add toge!r ?is dep? & ! correspond+ surface measurem5t 9 ! column next prec$+1 & ent] ! sum1 9 p5cil1 9 ! fif? column1 z ! dep? f ! datum-l9e to ! desir$ position ( ! dra94 7,9 ! example 9 h&1 ^! po9ts are at ,nos4 #c1 #g1 #aj1 #aa1 & #ag47 #g?4 ,subtract ! second am\nt 9 ! fif? column f ! fir/ am\nt = ! total fall betwe5 ! two po9ts--9 ! example1 #c f ,silt-,bas94 ,divide ?is total fall1 79 feet & hundr$?s17 by "o hundr$? ( ! total numb] ( feet betwe5 !m4 ,! result w be ! rate ( fall p] #ajj feet1 & ?is %\ld be ent]$1 9 ! ?ird column1 opposite ea* ( ! int]m$iate di/ances betwe5 ! po9ts4 ,example3 ,dep? ( ! ,dra9 at #bj4de feet4 ! ,silt-,bas9 ,dep? ( ! ,dra9 at #af4ih feet4 ! ,/ake ,no4 #c ---- ,diff]5ce #c4dg feet4 ,di/ance betwe5 ! #ahf4-- feet4 two #a4hf7c4dg7a4hfe or #a4hg #a #hf ---- #a #faj #a #dhh ---- #a #bbj #a #aaf ---- #a #jdj #icj ---- #aaj #h?4 ,multiply ! numb]s ( ! second column by ^? ( ! ?ird & divide ! product by #ajj4 ,! result w be ! am\nt ( fall betwe5 ! /akes1 7f\r? column47--,example3 #a4hghbaecajja4ec4 #i?4 ,subtract ! fir/ numb] ( ! f\r? column f ! fir/ numb] ( ! fif? column1 7on ! l9e above x17 & place ! rema9d] on ! next l9e ( ! fif? column4--,example3 #bj4gj-a4fd #ai4jf4 ,!n1 f ?is new am\nt1 subtract ! second numb] ( ! f\r? column1 = ! next numb] ( ! fif?1 & s on1 until1 9 place ( ! entry 9 p5cil1 7,/ake #c17 we place ! exact result ( ! computation4 ,proce$ 9 l mann] ) ! next int]val1--#c to #g4 #aj?4 ,subtract ! numb]s 9 ! six? column f ^? 9 ! fif?1 & ! rema9d]s w be ! dep?s to be ent]$ 9 ! la/4 ,"u ! head ( ,rem>ks1 note any peculi>ity ( ! dra9 :i* may require att5tion 9 ! field4 ,! ma9 l9es ,a1 ,d1 & ,e1 & ! dra9 ,b1 %\ld next be grad$ on ! plan set =? = ,c1 & _! lat]als1 all ( :i* h consid]able fall1 & be+ all s /eep z n to require silt-bas9s at any po9t1--c1 by a v simple application ( ! =ego+ pr9ciples1 be adju/$ at ! prop] dep?s4 ,9 grad+ ! /one & tile dra91 7,h1 ,i17 x is only necess>y to adopt ! dep? ( ! la/ /akes ( ! lat]als1 ) :i* x is connect$1 z x is immat]ial 9 :i* direction ! wat] fl[s4 ,! ends ( ?is dra91--f ,h to ! head ( ! dra9 ,c#aj1 & f ,i to ! head ( ,c#ag1--%\ld1 ( c\rse1 h a decid$ fall t[>d ! dra9s4 ,! lat]als :i* are plac$ at int]vals ( #bj feet1 ov] ! und]gr\nd rock on ! ea/ side ( ! field1 %\ld be cont9u$ at a dep? ( ab\t #c feet = ne>ly _! :ole l5g?1 dropp+ 9 a di/ance ( #h or #aj feet at _! l[] ends to ! top ( ! tile ( ! ma94 ,! int]vals betwe5 ! l[] ends ( ,c#g;c1 ,c#g;d1 & ,c#g;e1 be+ consid]ably m ?an #bj feet1 ! dra9s may be gradually deep5$1 ?r\gh\t _! :ole l5g? f #c feet at ! upp] ends to ! dep? ( ! top ( ! ma9 at ! l[] ends4 ,! ma9 dra9s ,f & ,g1 be+ laid 9 flat l&1 _! outlets be+ fix$ at a dep? ( #c4ej1 7! floor ( ! ma9 outlet17 & x be+ necess>y to h !m z deep z possible ?r\gh\t _! entire l5g?1 %\ld be grad$ ) great c>e on ! lea/ admissible fall4 ,?is1 9 ord9>y agricultural dra9age1 may be fix$ at 4#be1 or #c in*es1 p] #ajj feet4 ,_! lat]als %\ld comm5ce ) ! top ( _! #a_/d tile ev5 ) ! top ( ! #b-a_/b coll> ( ! ma91--or 4#ae high] ?an ! grade ( ! ma91--& rise1 at a uni=m incl9ation ( 4#be1 to ! upp] end4 ,hav+ n[ comput$ ! dep? at :i* ! tile is to lie1 at ea* /ake1 & ent]$ x on ! map1 we are ready to m>k ^! dep?s on _! respective /akes 9 ! field1 :5 ! prelim9>y eng9e]+ ( ! "w w be complet$4 ,x has be5 deem$ advisable 9 ?is *apt] to consid] ! smalle/ details ( ! "w ( ! dra9+ eng9e]4 ,^? :o int5d to dra9 9 ! be/ mann] w f9d su* details important4 ,^? :o propose to d _! "w less ?or\ghly1 may /ill be guid$ by ! pr9ciples on :i* !y are bas$4 ,any p]son :o w take ! pa9s to mature ! plans ( 8 "w z closely z has be5 "h recomm5d$1 w z a consequ5ce comm5ce 8 op]ations 9 ! field mu* m und]/&+ly4 ,! advantage ( hav+ ev]y?+ decid$ be=eh&1--s t ! workm5 ne$ n be delay$ = want ( suffici5t directions1 & ( mak+1 on ! map1 su* alt]ations z w\ld h appe>$ necess>y 9 ! field1 ?us sav+ ! co/ ( cutt+ dit*es 9 ! wrong places1 w well repay ! "w ( ! ev5+s ( a :ole w9t]4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 - ,,h[ ,,to ,,make ,,! ,,dra9s4 ,kn[+1 n[1 precisely :at is to be done2 hav+ ! l9es all /ak$ out1 & ! /akes s m>k$ z to be cle>ly designat$2 kn[+ ! precise dep? at :i* ! dra9 is to be laid1 at e po9t2 hav+ ! requisite tiles on ! gr\nd1 & ?or\ghly inspect$1 ! op]ator is prep>$ to comm5ce actual "w4 ,he %\ld det]m9e h[ _m m5 he w employ1 & :at tools !y w require to "w to advantage4 ,x may be be/ t ! "w be done by two or ?ree m51 or x may be advisable to employ z _m z c "w )\t int]f]+ ) ea* o!r4 ,9 mo/ cases1--especially :]e !re is mu* wat] to cont5d )1--! latt] c\rse w be ! mo/ economical1 z ! dit*es w n be s liable to be injur$ by ! s(t5+ ( _! bottoms1 & ! cav+ 9 ( _! sides4 99,! ,tools ,requir$99 are a subsoil pl[1 two g>d5 l9es1 spades1 %ovels1 & picks2 n>r[ f9i%+ spades1 a f9i%+ scoop1 a tile pick1 a scrap] = fill+ ! dit*es1 a heavy wood5 maul = compact+ ! bottom fill+1 half a doz5 bon+-rods1 a measur+ rod1 & a plumb rod4 ,^! %\ld all be on h& at ! outset1 s t no delay 9 ! "w may result f ! want ( !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bb - ,,set ,,( ,,tools4 ,fig4 #bb - ,,set ,,( ,,tools4 ,flat ,spades ( v>i\s l5g?s & wid?s1 ,bill-neck$ ,scoop 7,a72 ,tile-lay] 7,b72 ,pick-axe 7,c72 & ,scoop ,spades1 & ,%ovel4 ,writ]s on dra9age1 almo/ )\t exception1 recomm5d ! use ( elaborate sets ( tools :i* are int5d$ = cutt+ v n>r[ dit*es1--only wide en\gh at ! bottom to admit ! tile1 & n all[+ ! workm5 to /& 9 ! bottom ( ! dit*4 ,a set ( ^! tools is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bb4 ,possibly !re may be soils 9 :i* ^! implem5ts1 9 ! h&s ( m5 skill$ 9 _! use1 c\ld be employ$ ) economy1 b !y are v r>e1 & x is n believ$ to be possible1 "u any circum/ances1 to regulate ! bottom ( ! dit* s accurately z is advisable1 unless ! workman c /& directly ^u x1 cutt+ x m smoo?ly ?an he c\ld if ! po9t ( 8 tool 7 a foot or m bel[ ! level on :i* he /&s4 ,on ?is subject1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,bailey ,d5ton1 "o ( ! fir/ dra9+ eng9e]s ( ,great ,brita91 9 a lett] to ,judge ,fr5*1 says3 ,z to tools1 x is ! same ) !m z x is ) ! art ( dra9+ itself1--too mu* rule & too mu* draw+ ^u pap]2 all v "r to beg9 )1 b v prejudicial to progress4 ,i employ1 z eng9e] to ! ,g5]al ,l& ,dra9age ,company1 & on my private acc\nt1 dur+ ! dra9age season1 z _m z #b1jjj m51 & x is an actual fact1 t n "o ( !m uses ! set ( tools figur$ 9 pr9t4 ,i h frequ5tly pur*as$ a numb] ( sets ( ! ,birm+ham tools1 & s5t !m d[n on ext5sive works4 ,! labor]s w\ld pur*ase a few ( ! small] tools1 su* z ,nos4 #bij1 #bia1 & #cja1 figur$ 9 ,morton's excell5t ,cyclopdia ( ,agriculture1 & w\ld try !m1 & !n ord] o!rs ( ! c\ntry blacksmi?1 diff]+ 9 sev]al respects2 less weighty & mu* less co/ly1 & moreov]1 mu* bett] z work+ tools4 ,all ,i require ( ! cutt]s1 is1 t ! bottom ( ! dra9 %\ld be ev5ly cut1 to fit ! size ( ! pipe4 ,! re/ ( ! "w takes c>e ( itself2 = a good workman w economize 8 labor = 8 own sake1 by mov+ z little e>? z practicable2 ?us1 = in/ance1 a fir/-class cutt]1 9 clays1 w get d[n #d feet ) a #ab-;in* op5+1 ord9>ily2 if he wi%es to %[ (f1 he w sacrifice 8 own com=t to appe>ance1 & w d x ) a #aj-;in* op5+4 ,9 ! ,c5tral ,p>k "w1 sets ( ^! tools 7 procur$1 at consid]able exp5se1 & e ef=t 0 made to compel ! m5 to use !m1 b x 0 soon f\nd t1 ev5 9 ! easie/ digg+1 !re 0 a real economy 9 us+1 = ! fir/ #c feet ( ! dit*1 ! common spade1 pick1 & %ovel1--f9i%+ ! bottoms ) ! n>r[ spade & scoop h]eaft] describ$1 & x is probable t ! exp]i5ce ( t "w w be su/a9$ by t ( ! c\ntry at l>ge4 99,m>k+ ! ,l9es499--,to lay a dra9 directly "u ! position ( its /akes1 w\ld require t en\gh e>? be left at ea* po9t to hold ! /ake1 & t ! dit* be tunnel$ "u x4 ,?is is exp5sive & unnecess>y4 ,x is bett] to dig ! dit*es at "o side ( ! l9es ( /akes1 f> en\gh away = ! e>? to hold !m firmly 9 _! places1 b ne> en\gh to all[ measurem5ts to be tak5 f ! grade pegs4 ,if ! dit* be plac$ always to ! "r1 or always to ! left1 ( ! l9e1 & at a uni=m di/ance1 ! g5]al plan w rema9 ! same1 & ! l9es w be ne> en\gh to ^? m>k$ on ! map to be easily f\nd at any future "t4 ,9 fact1 if x be kn[n t ! l9e ( tiles is two feet to ! "r ( ! position indicat$1 x w only be necess>y1 at any "t1 %\ld x be desir$ to op5 an old dra91 to measure two feet to ! "r ( ! survey$ position to /rike ! l9e at once4 ,9 soils ( ord9>y t5acity1 dit*es #d feet deep ne$ n be m ?an tw5ty 7#bj7 in*es wide at ! surface1 & f\r 7#d7 in*es wide at ! bottom4 ,?is w all[1 9 ea* side1 a slope ( eight 7#h7 in*es1 :i* is suffici5t except 9 v loose soils1 & ev5 ^! may be brac$ up1 if incl9$ to cave 94 ,!re are cases :]e ! soil conta9s s mu* runn+ s&1 & is s saturat$ ) wat]1 t no precautions w avail to keep up ! banks4 ,dit*es 9 su* gr\nd w sometimes fall 91 until ! excavation rea*es a wid? ( #h or #aj feet4 ,su* in/ances1 h[ev]1 are v r>e1 & mu/ be treat$ z ! occasion sugge/s4 ,"o ( ! g>d5 l9es %\ld be set at a di/ance ( ab\t #f in*es f ! r[ ( /akes1 & ! o!r at a fur!r di/ance ( #bj in*es4 ,if ! l& is 9 grass1 ! position ( ^! l9es may be m>k$ ) a spade1 & !y may be remov$ at once2 b1 if x is arable l&1 x w be be/ to leave ! l9es 9 position until ! dit* is excavat$ to a suffici5t dep? to m>k x cle>ly4 ,inde$1 x w be well to at once remove all ( ! sod & surface soil1 say to a dep? ( #f in*es1 7?r[+ ?is on ! same side ) ! /akes1 & back ( !m47 ,! :ole =ce c be pr(itably employ$ 9 ?is "w1 until all ( ! dit*es to be dug are scor$ to ?is dep? ov] ! entire tract to be dra9$1 except 9 swamps :i* are /ill too wet = ?is "w4 99,wat] ,c\rses499--,! brooks :i* c>ry ! wat] f ! spr+s %\ld be jump$ 9 m>k+ out ! l9es1 z x is desirable t _! wat] be kept 9 sep>ate *annels1 s f> z possible1 until ! tiles are ready to receive x1 z1 if all[$ to run 9 ! op5 dit*es1 x w\ld und]m9e ! banks & keep ! bottom too s(t = s\nd "w4 ,) ?is object1 comm5ce at ! s\!rn b\nd>y ( our example tract1 #aj or #ae feet ea/ ( ! po9t ( outlet1 & drive a /raight1 tempor>y1 %all[ dit* to a po9t a little we/ ( ! int]section ( ! ma9 l9e ,d ) its fir/ lat]al2 !n c>ry x 9 a nor?we/]ly direction1 cross+ ,c midway betwe5 ! silt-bas9 & /ake ,c #a1 & !nce into ! pres5t l9e ( ! brook1 turn+ all ( ! wat] into ! dit*4 ,a bran* ( ?is dit* may be run up betwe5 ! l9es ,f & ,g to receive ! wat] f ! spr+ :i* lies 9 t direction4 ,?is arrangem5t w keep ! wat] out ( ! way until ! dra9s are ready to take x4 99,! ,outlet499--,! wat] be+ all dis*>g$ ?r\gh ! new tempor>y dit*1 ! old brook1 beyond ! b\nd>y1 %\ld be cle>$ out to ! f9al level 7#c4ge17 & an excavation made1 j )9 ! b\nd>y1 suffici5t to receive ! masonry :i* is to protect ! outlet4 ,a good =m ( outlet is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bc4 ,x may be *eaply made by any f>m]1 especially if he h good /one at h&2--if n1 brick may be us$1 laid on a solid f\ndation ( /\t planks1 :i*1 7be+ protect$ f ! air & always saturat$ ) wat]17 w la/ a v long "t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bc - ,,outlet1 ,,secur$ ,,) ,,masonry ,,& ,,grat+4 ,fig4 #bc - ,,outlet1 ,,secur$ ,,) ,,masonry ,,& ,,grat+4 ,if made ( /one1 a solid floor1 at lea/ #b feet squ>e1 %\ld be plac$ at1 or bel[1 ! level ( ! brook4 ,if ?is consi/ ( a s+le /one1 x w be bett] ?an if ( sev]al small] pieces4 ,on ?is1 place ano!r lay] ext5d+ ! :ole wid? ( ! fir/1 b rea*+ only f its inn] edge to its c5t] l9e1 s z to leave a foot 9 wid? ( ! bottom /one to receive ! fall ( ! wat]4 ,?is second lay] %\ld rea* exactly ! grade ( ! outlet 7#c4ej7 or a height ( #c in*es f ! brook level4 ,on ! floor ?us made1 !re %\ld be laid ! tiles :i* are to con/itute ! outlets ( ! sev]al dra9s2 i4e41 "o #c-a_/b-;in* tile = ! l9e f ! silt-bas91 two #a-a_/d-;in* = ! l9es ,f & ,g1 & "o #b-a_/d-;in* = ! ma9 l9e ,e4 ,^! tiles %\ld lie close to ea* o!r & be firmly cem5t$ toge!r1 s t no wat] c pass outside ( !m1 & a rubble-"w ( /one may ) advantage be c>ri$ up a foot above !m4 ,/one "w1 :i* may be r\gh & uncem5t$1 b %\ld always be solid1 may !n be built up at ! sides1 & cov]$ ) a secure cop+ ( /one4 ,a floor & slop+ sides ( /one "w1 jo9t$ ) ! previ\sly describ$ "w1 & well cem5t$1 or laid 9 /rong clay or mort>1 may1 ) b5efit1 be c>ri$ a few feet beyond ! outlet4 ,?is w effectually prev5t ! und]m9+ ( ! /ructure4 ,aft] ! entire dra9age ( ! field is f9i%$1 ! e>? above ^! slop+ sides1 & t back ( ! cop+1 %\ld be neatly slop$1 & protect$ by sods4 ,an iron grat+1 f9e en\gh to prev5t ! entrance ( v]m91 plac$ 9 front ( ! tile1 at a little di/ance f !m1--& secur$ by a flat /one set on edge & holl[$ out1 s z m]ely to all[ ! wat] to fl[ freely f ! dra9s1--! /one be+ cem5t$ 9 its place s z to all[ no wat] to pass "u x1--w give a sub/antial & p]man5t f9i% to ! /ructure4 ,an outlet f9i%$ 9 ?is way1 at an extra co/ ( a few doll>s1 w be mo/ satisfactory1 z a la/+ means ( secur+ ! weake/ & mo/ important "p ( ! sy/em ( dra9s4 ,:5 no precaution ( ?is sort is tak51 ! wat] frequ5tly =ces a passage "u ! tile = "s di/ance up ! dra9s1 und]m9+ & displac+ !m1 & s s(t5+ ! bottom t x w be difficult1 9 mak+ repairs1 to secure a solid f\ndation = ! "w4 ,usually1 repairs ( ?is sort1 aside f ! annoyance att5d+ !m1 w co/ m ?an ! am\nt requir$ to make ! p]man5t outlet describ$ above4 ,z well con/ruct$ outlets are necess>ily r exp5sive1 z mu* ( ! l& z possible %\ld be dra9$ to ea* "o t x is necess>y to make1 by lay+ ma9 l9es :i* w collect all ( ! wat] :i* c be br\ght to x4 99,! ,ma9 ,silt-,bas9499--,! silt-bas91 at :i* ! dra9s are collect$1 may be/ be built be=e any dra9s are br\ght to x1 & ! "w may proce$ simultane\sly ) t at ! outlet4 ,x %\ld be s plac$ t its c5t] w lie exactly "u ! /ake :i* m>ks its position1 because x w con/itute "o ( ! lead+ l&m>ks = ! survey ( ! dra9s47#ag7 ,be=e remov+ ! /ake & grade /ake1 m>k _! position by f\r /akes1 set at a di/ance f x ( #d or #e feet1 9 su* positions t two l9es1 drawn f ^? :i* are opposite to ea* o!r1 w int]sect at ! po9t indicat$2 & place ne> "o ( !m a grade /ake1 driv5 to ! exact level ( ! "o to be remov$4 ,?is be+ done1 dig a well1 #d feet 9 diamet]1 to a dep? ( #b-a_/b feet bel[ ! grade ( ! outlet dra91 79 ! example "u consid]ation ?is w\ld be #e feet bel[ ! grade /ake47 ,if mu* wat] collects 9 ! hole1 wid5 x1 9 ! direction ( ! outlet dra91 suffici5tly to give room = bal+ out ! wat]4 ,n[ build1 9 ?is well1 a /ructure #b feet 9 int]ior diamet]1 su* z is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bd1 hav+ its bottom #b feet1 9 ! cle>1 bel[ ! grade ( ! outlet1 & c>ry its wall a little high] ?an ! g5]al surface ( ! gr\nd4 ,at ! prop] height ins]t1 9 ! brick "w1 ! necess>y = tiles all incom+ & outgo+ dra9s2 9 ?is case1 a #c-a_/b-;in* tile = ! outlet1 #b-a_/d-;in* = ! ma9s ,a & ,c1 & #a-a_/d-;in* = ,b & ,d4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bd - ,,silt-,,bas91 ,,built ,,to ,,! ,,surface4 ,fig4 #bd - ,,silt-,,bas91 ,,built ,,to ,,! ,,surface4 ,?is bas9 be+ f9i%$ & cov]$ ) a flat /one or o!r suitable mat]ial1 connect x ) ! outlet by an op5 dit*1 unless ! bottom ( ! dit*1 :5 laid op5 to ! prop] dep?1 be f\nd to be ( muck or quicks&4 ,9 su* case1 x w be be/ to lay ! tile at once1 & cov] x 9 = ! :ole di/ance1 z1 on a s(t bottom1 x w\ld be difficult to lay x well :5 ! full dra9age ( ! field is fl[+ ?r\gh ! dit*4 ,! tiles %\ld be laid ) all c>e1 on a p]fectly regulat$ fall1--us+ /rips ( bo>d "u !m if ! bottom is %aky or s(t1--z on ?is l9e dep5ds ! success ( all ! dra9s above x1 :i* might be r5d]$ useless by a s+le badly laid tile at ?is po9t1 or by any o!r cause ( ob/ruction to ! fl[4 ,:ile ! "w is progress+ 9 ! field above1 !re w be a great deal ( muddy wat] & "s /icks1 grass1 & o!r rubbi%1 runn+ f ! dit*es above ! bas91 & c>e mu/ be tak5 to prev5t ?is dra9 f becom+ *ok$4 ,a piece ( wire clo?1 or basket "w1 plac$ ov] ! outlet 9 ! bas91 w keep out ! co>s] matt]s1 & ! mud :i* w\ld accumulate 9 ! tile may be remov$ by occasional flu%+4 ,?is is done by cr[d+ a tuft ( grass1--or a bit ( sod1--into ! l[] end ( ! tile 7at ! outlet17 secur+ x !re until ! wat] rises 9 ! bas91 & !n remov+ x4 ,! ru% ( wat] w be suffici5t to wa% ! tile clean4 ,?is plan is n )\t objections1 &1 z a rule1 x is nev] well to lay any tiles at ! l[] end ( a dra9 until all above x is f9i%$2 b :5 a consid]able outlet mu/ be secur$ ?r\gh s(t l&1 :i* is incl9$ to cave 91 & to get s(t at ! bottom1 x w save labor to secure ! tile 9 place be=e mu* wat] rea*es x1 ev5 ?\gh x require a daily flu%+ to keep x clean4 99,op5+ ! ,dit*es499--,?us f> x has be5 s\ght to secure a p]man5t outlet1 & to connect x by a secure *annel1 ) ! silt-bas91 :i* is to collect ! wat] ( ! diff]5t s]ies ( dra9s4 ,! next /ep is to lay op5 ! dit*es = ^!4 ,x w be be/ to comm5ce ) ! ma9 l9e ,a & its lat]als1 z !y w take mo/ ( ! wat] :i* n[ fl[s ?r\gh ! op5 brook1 & prev5t its int]f]5ce ) ! re/ ( ! "w4 ,! fir/ "w is ! op5+ ( ! dit*es to a dep? ( ab\t #c feet1 :i* may be be/ done ) ! common spade1 pick1 & %ovel1 except t 9 gr\nd :i* is tol]ably free f /ones1 a subsoil pl[ w (t5 take ! place ( ! pick1 ) mu* sav+ ( labor4 ,x may be drawn by ox5 work+ 9 a long yoke1 :i* w all[ !m to walk "o on ea* side ( ! dit*1 b ?is is dang]\s1 z !y are liable to di/urb ! /akes1 7especially ! grade /akes17 & to break d[n ! edges ( ! dit*es4 ,! be/ plan is to use a small subsoil pl[1 drawn by a s+le horse1 or /rong mule1 tra9$ to walk 9 ! dit*4 ,! bea/ w soon le>n to accommodate himself to 8 n>r[ qu>t]s1 & w "w easily 9 a dit* #b-a_/b feet deep1 hav+ a wid? ( less ?an afoot at ! bottom2 ( c\rse !re mu/ be a way provid$ = him to come out at ea* end4 ,deep] ?an ?is !re is no economy 9 us+ horse p[]1 & ev5 = ?is dep? x w be necess>y to use a pl[ hav+ only "o /ilt4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #be - ,,f9i%+ ,,spade4 ,fig4 #be - ,,f9i%+ ,,spade4 ,be=e ! ma9 l9e is cut into ! op5 brook1 ?is %\ld be furni%$ ) a wood5 tr\gh1 :i* w c>ry ! wat] across x1 s t ! dit* %all receive only ! filtration f ! gr\nd4 ,^? lat]als we/ ( ! ma9 l9e1 :i* are cross$ by ! brook1 _h bett] n be op5$ at pres5t1--n until ! wat] ( ! spr+ is admitt$ to & remov$ by ! dra94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bf - ,,f9i%+ ,,scoop4 ,fig4 #bf - ,,f9i%+ ,,scoop4 ,! o!r lat]als & ! :ole ( ! ma9 l9e1 hav+ be5 cut to a dep? ( #c feet1 take a f9i%+ spade1 7,fig4 #be17 :i* is only #d in*es wide at its po9t1 & dig to )9 #b or #c in*es ( ! dep? m>k$ on ! /akes1 mak+ ! bottom tol]ably smoo?1 ) ! aid ( ! f9i%+ scoop1 7,fig4 #bf17 & giv+ x z regul> an incl9ation z c be obta9$ by ! eye alone4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bg - ,,brac+ ,,! ,,sides ,,9 ,,s(t ,,l&4 ,fig4 #bg - ,,brac+ ,,! ,,sides ,,9 ,,s(t ,,l&4 ,if ! gr\nd is rott51 & ! banks ( ! dit*es incl9e to cave 91 z is (t5 ! case 9 pass+ wet places1 ! e>? :i* is ?r[n out 9 digg+ mu/ be ?r[n back suffici5tly f> f ! edge to prev5t its weight f increas+ ! t5d5cy2 & ! sides ( ! dit* may be support$ by bits ( bo>d brac$ ap>t z is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bh - ,,measur+ ,,/aff4 ,fig4 #bh - ,,measur+ ,,/aff4 ,! mann] ( op5+ ! dit*es1 :i* is describ$ above1 = ! ma9 ,a & its lat]als1 w apply to ! dra9s ( ! :ole field & to all simil> "w4 99,grad+ ! ,bottoms499--,! next /ep 9 ! "w is to grade ! bottoms ( ! dit*es1 s z to af=d a b$ = ! tiles on ! exact l9es :i* are indicat$ by ! figures m>k$ on ! diff]5t /akes4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ?is is to be done may be illu/rat$ by describ+ ! "w requir$ = ! l9e f 99,c#aj99 to 99,c#ag991 7,fig4 #bj17 aft] x has be5 op5$1 z describ$ above1 to )9 #b or #c in*es ( ! f9al dep?4 ,a measur+ rod1 or squ>e1 su* z is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bh17ah7 is set at 99,c#aj991 s t ! l[] side ( its arm is at ! m>k #d4ei on ! /aff1 7or at a little less ?an #d4f if x is divid$ only into feet & t5?s17 & is held upright 9 ! dit*1 ) its arm directly ov] ! grade /ake4 ,! e>? bel[ x is remov$1 little by little1 until x w t\* ! top ( ! /ake & ! bottom ( ! dit* at ! same "t4 ,if ! gr\nd is s(t1 x %\ld be cut out until a flat /one1 a block ( wood1 or a piece ( tile1 or ( brick1 sunk 9 ! bottom1 w h its surface at ! exact po9t ( measurem5t4 ,?is po9t is ! bottom ( ! dit* on :i* ! coll> ( ! tile is to lie at t /ake4 ,9 ! same mann] ! dep? is fix$ at ,c#aa 7#d4ai17 & ,c#ab 7#d4da17 z ! rate ( fall *anges at ea* ( ^! po9ts1 & at ,c#ae 7#c4hi17 & ,c#ag 7#d4ag17 because 7al?\gh ! fall is uni=m f ,c#ab to ,c#ag17 ! di/ance is too great = accurate sight+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bi - ,,bon+ ,,rod4 ,fig4 #bi - ,,bon+ ,,rod4 ,hav+ provid$ bon+-rods1 :i* are /rips ( bo>d #g feet long1 hav+ horizontal cross pieces at _! upp] ends1 7see ,fig4 #bi17 set ^! p]p5dicul>ly on ! spots :i* h be5 f\nd by measurem5t to be at ! correct dep? opposite /akes #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #ae1 & #ag1 & fa/5 ea* 9 its place by w$g+ x betwe5 two /rips ( bo>d laid across ! dit*1 s z to clasp x1 secur+ ^! 9 _! places by lay+ /ones or e>? ^u _! ends4 ,z ^! bon+-rods are all exactly #g feet long1 ( c\rse1 a l9e sight$ across _! tops w be exactly #g feet high]1 at all po9ts1 ?an ! requir$ grade ( ! dit* directly b5ea? x1 & if a plumb rod1 7simil> to ! bon+-rod1 b provid$ ) a l9e & plummet17 be set p]p5dicul>ly on any po9t ( ! bottom ( ! dra91 ! relation ( its cross piece to ! l9e ( sight across ! tops ( ! bon+-rods w %[ :e!r ! bottom ( ! dit* at t po9t is too high1 or too l[1 or j "r4 ,! mann] ( sight+ ov] two bon+-rods & an int]m$iate plumb-rod1 is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ca4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj - ,,position ,,( ,,workman ,,& ,,use ,,( ,,f9i%+ ,,scoop4 ,fig4 #cj - ,,position ,,( ,,workman ,,& ,,use ,,( ,,f9i%+ ,,scoop4 ,?ree p]sons are requir$ to f9i% ! bottom ( ! dit*2 "o to sight across ! tops ( ! bon+-rods1 "o to hold ! plumb-rod at diff]5t po9ts z ! f9i%+ progresses1 & "o 9 ! dit*1 7see ,fig4 #cj17 provid$ ) ! f9i%+ spade & scoop1--&1 9 h>d gr\nd1 ) a pick1--to cut d[n or fill up z ! fir/ man calls too high1 or1 too l[4 ,an in* or two ( fill+ maybe beat5 suffici5tly h>d ) ! back ( ! scoop1 b if sev]al in*es %\ld be requir$1 x %\ld be well ramm$ ) ! top ( a pick1 or o!r suitable in/rum5t1 z any subsequ5t settl+ w\ld dis>range ! fall4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ca - ,,sight+ ,,by ,,! ,,bon+-,,rods4 ,fig4 #ca - ,,sight+ ,,by ,,! ,,bon+-,,rods4 ,z ! lat]al dra9s are to be laid fir/1 !y %\ld be ! fir/ grad$1 & z !y are arrang$ to dis*>ge into ! tops ( ! ma9s1 _! wat] w /ill fl[ (f1 al?\gh ! ma9 dit*es are n yet r$uc$ to _! f9al dep?4 ,aft] ! lat]als are laid & fill$ 91 ! ma9 %\ld be grad$1 comm5c+ at ! upp] end2 ! tiles be+ laid & cov]$ z fa/ z ! bottom is made ready1 s t x may n be di/urb$ by ! wat] ( :i* ! ma9 c>ries s mu* m ?an ! lat]als4 99,tile-,lay+499--,gisborne says3 ,x w\ld be sc>cely m absurd to set a common blacksmi? to eye ne$les ?an to employ a common labor] to lay pipes & coll>s4 ,! "w comes "u ! head ( skill$ labor1 &1 :ile no v great ex]cise ( judgm5t is requir$ 9 its p]=mance1 ! little t is requir$ is imp]atively necess>y1 & ! details ( ! "w %\ld be deftly done4 ,! :ole previ\s outlay1--! survey & /ak+ ( ! field1 ! pur*ase ( ! tiles1 ! digg+ & grad+ ( ! dit*es--has be5 und]tak5 t we may make ! conduit ( e>!nw>e pipes :i* is n[ to be laid1 & ! :ole may be r5d]$ useless by a want ( c>e & complet5ess 9 ! p]=mance ( ?is *ief op]ation4 ,?is subject1 79 connection ) t ( f9i%+ ! bottoms ( ! dit*es17 is v cle>ly treat$ 9 ,mr4 ,hoskyns' *>m+ essay17#ai7 z foll[s3 ,x 0 urg$ by ,mr4 ,brunel1 z a ju/ification = m att5tion & exp5se 9 ! lay+ ( ! rails ( ! ,great ,we/]n1 ?an _h be5 ev] ?\ght ( ^u previ\sly con/ruct$ l9es1 t all ! embankm5ts & cutt+s1 & e>?works & /ations1 & law & p>liam5t>y exp5ses--9 fact1 ! :ole ( ! outlay enc\nt]$ 9 ! =mation ( a railway1 _h = its ma9 & ultimate object a p]fectly smoo? & level l9e ( rail2 t to turn /+y at ?is po9t1 j :5 y _h arriv$ at ! great ultimatum ( ! :ole proce$+s1 viz3 ! iron :eel-track1 0 a sort ( sav+ :i* ev9c$ a want ( true preception ( ! great object ( all ! labor t _h prec$$ x4 ,x may seem curi\s to our exp]i5ces1 9 ^! days1 t su* a doctr9e c\ld ev] h ne$$ to be en=c$ by argum5t2 yet no "o w deem x wond]ful :o has p]sonally witness$ ! unacc\ntable & ev] new difficulty ( gett+ prop] att5tion paid to ! level+ ( ! bottom ( a dra91 & ! lay+ ( ! tiles 9 t cont9u\s l9e1 :]e "o s+le depression or irregul>ity1 by collect+ ! wat] at t spot1 ye> aft] ye>1 t5ds t[>d ! ev5tual /oppage ( ! :ole dra91 ?r\gh two di/9ct causes1 ! s(t5+ ( ! f\ndation und]nea? ! sole1 or tile flange1 & ! deposit ( soil inside ! tile f ! wat] collect$ at ! spot1 & /&+ !re aft] ! re/ _h run (f4 ,e depression1 h[ev] slight1 is con/antly do+ ?is mis*ief 9 e dra9 :]e ! fall is b trifl+2 & if to ! two consequ5ces above m5tion$1 we may add ! decomposition ( ! tile itself by ! action ( wat] long /agnant )9 x1 we may d$uce t e tile-dra9 laid ) ^! imp]fections 9 ! f9i%+ ( ! bottom1 has a t5d5cy t[>d oblit]ation1 out ( all reasonable proportion ) t ( a well-burnt tile laid on a p]fectly ev5 incl9ation1 :i*1 humanly speak+1 may be call$ a p]man5t ?+4 ,an op5 dit* cut by ! mo/ skillful workman1 9 ! summ]1 af=ds ! be/ illu/ration ( ?is und]gr\nd mis*ief4 ,no?+ c look smoo!r & m ev5 ?an ! bottom1 until t uncompromis+ te/ ( accurate levels1 ! wat]1 makes its appe>ance3 all on a sudd5 ! :ole sc5e is *ang$1 ! eye-accr$it$ level vani%es z if "s e>?quake _h tak5 place3 "h1 !re is a gravelly sc\r1 along :i* ! /ream ru%es 9 a ?\s& little angry-look+ ripples2 !re1 x hangs & looks z dull & heavy z if x _h giv5 up runn+ at all1 z a useless wa/e ( en]gy2 9 ano!r place1 a few dead leaves or /icks1 or a morsel ( soil brok5 f ! side1 dams back ! wat] = a consid]able di/ance1 occasion+ a deposit ( soil along ! :ole rea*1 great] 9 proportion to ! quantity & ! mudd9ess ( ! wat] deta9$4 ,all ?is %[s ! p>am\nt importance ( p]fect ev5ness 9 ! b$ on :i* ! tiles are laid4 ,! wor/ laid tile is ! measure ( ! goodness & p]man5ce ( ! :ole dra91 j z ! weake/ l9k ( a *a9 is ! measure ( its /r5g?4 ,! simple lay+ ( ! small] sizes ( pipes & coll>s 9 ! lat]al dra9s1 is an easy matt]4 ,x requires c>e & precision 9 plac+ ! coll> equally "u ! end ( ea* pipe1 7hav+ ! jo9t at ! middle ( ! coll>17 9 hav+ ! ends ( ! pipes actually t\* ea* o!r )9 ! coll>s1 & 9 bru%+ away any loose dirt :i* may h fall5 on ! spot on :i* ! coll> is to re/4 ,! connection ( ! lat]als ) ! ma9s1 ! lay+ ( ! l>g] sizes ( tiles s z to =m a close jo9t1 ! w$g+ ( ^! l>g] tiles firmly into _! places1 & ! trimm+ :i* is necess>y 9 go+ ar\nd %>p curves1 & 9 putt+ 9 ! %ort] pieces :i* are ne$$ to fill out ! exact l5g? ( ! dra91 dem& m skill & judgm5t ?an are (t5 f\nd 9 ! common dit*]4 ,/ill1 any clev] workman1 :o has a c>eful habit1 may easily be taught all t is necess>y2 & until he is ?or\ghly taught1--& n only kn[s h[ to d ! "w well1 b1 also1 und]/&s ! importance ( do+ x well1--! proprietor %\ld c>efully wat* ! lay+ ( e piece4 ,nev] h tiles laid by ! rod1 b always by ! day4 ,! m ha/e1 ! less spe$1 is a maxim :i* applies especially to tile-lay+4 ,if ! proprietor or ! eng9e] does n ov]look ! lay+ ( ea* tile z x is done1 & probably he w n1 he %\ld c>efully inspect e piece be=e x is cov]$4 ,x is well to walk along ! dit*es & t\* ea* tile ) ! end ( a light rod1 9 su* a way z to see :e!r x is firm en\gh 9 its position n to be displac$ by ! e>? :i* w fall ^u x 9 fill+ ! dit*es4 ,prep>atory to lay+1 ! tiles %\ld be plac$ along "o side ( ! dit*1 ne> en\gh to be easily rea*$ by a man /&+ 9 x4 ,:5 coll>s are to be us$1 "o ( ^! %\ld be slipp$ ov] "o end ( ea* tile4 ,! workman /&s 9 ! dit*1 ) 8 face t[>d its upp] end4 ,! fir/ tile is laid ) a coll> on its l[] end1 & ! coll> is drawn "o-half ( its l5g? =w>d1 s z to receive ! end ( ! next tile4 ,! upp] end ( ! fir/ tile is clos$ ) a /one1 or a bit ( brok5 tile plac$ firmly aga9/ x4 ,! next tile has its nose plac$ into ! project+ half ( ! coll> ( ! fir/ "o1 & its own coll> is drawn =w>d to receive ! end ( ! ?ird1 & ?us to ! end ( ! dra91 ! workman walk+ backw>d z ! "w progresses4 ,by & by1 :5 he comes to connect ! lat]al ) ! ma91 he may f9d t a %ort piece ( tile is ne$$ to complete ! l5g?2 ?is %\ld n be plac$ next to ! tile ( ! ma91 :]e x is rais$ above ! bottom ( ! dit*1 b two or ?ree l5g?s back1 leav+ ! connection ) ! ma9 to be made ) a tile ( full l5g?4 ,if ! piece to be ins]t$ is only two or ?ree in*es long1 x may be omitt$1 & ! space cov]$ by us+ a :ole #b-;in* tile 9 place ( ! coll>4 ,9 turn+ corn]s or %>p curves1 ! end ( ! tile may be *ipp$ (f1 s z to be a little ?9n] on "o side1 :i* w all[ x to be turn$ at a great] angle 9 ! coll>4 ,if ! dra9 turns a "r angle1 x w be bett] to dig out ! bottom ( ! dit* to a dep? ( ab\t eight in*es1 & to set a #f-;in* tile on end 9 ! hole1 p]=at+ its sides1 s z to admit ! ends ( ! pipes at ! prop] level4 ,?is #f-;in* tile1 7:i* acts z a small silt-bas917 %\ld /& on a bo>d or on a flat /one1 & its top %\ld be cov]$ ) a /one or ) a c\ple ( bricks4 ,wood w la/ almo/ =ev] bel[ ! level ( ! dra91 :]e x w always be saturat$ ) wat]1 b 9 ! dri] e>? above ! tile1 x is mu* m liable to decay4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cb - ,,pick ,,= ,,dress+ ,,& ,,pre=at+ ,,tile4 ,fig4 #cb - ,,pick ,,= ,,dress+ ,,& ,,pre=at+ ,,tile4 ,! trimm+ & p]=at+ ( ! tile is done ) a tile-pick1 7,fig4 #cb17 ! hat*et end1 tol]ably %>p1 be+ us$ = ! trimm+1 & ! po9t1 = mak+ ! holes4 ,?is is done by /rik+ lightly ar\nd ! circumf]5ce ( ! hole until ! c5t] piece falls 91 or c be easily knock$ 94 ,if ! hole is irregul>1 & does n fit ! tile nicely1 ! op5 space %\ld be cov]$ ) bits ( brok5 tile1 to keep ! e>? out4 ,z fa/ z ! lat]als are laid & inspect$1 !y %\ld be fill$ 9 to ! dep? ( at lea/ a foot1 to protect ! tiles f be+ brok5 by ! fall+ ( /ones or lumps ( e>? f ! top1 & f be+ displac$ by wat] fl[+ 9 ! dit*4 ,two or ?ree feet ( ! l[] end may be left uncov]$ until ! connection ) ! ma9 is f9i%$4 ,9 ! ma9 dra9s1 :5 ! tiles are ( ! size ) :i* coll>s are us$1 ! lay+ is done 9 ! same mann]4 ,if x is necess>y to use #c-a_/b-;in* tiles1 or any l>g] size1 mu* m c>e mu/ be giv5 to ! clos+ ( ! jo9ts4 ,all tiles1 9 manufacture1 dry m rapidly at ! top1 :i* is m expos$ to ! air1 ?an at ! bottom1 & !y are1 !re=e1 contract$ & made %ort] at ! top4 ,?is diff]5ce is mo/ app>5t 9 ! l>g] sizes4 ,! l>ge r\nd tiles1 :i* c be laid on any side1 c easily be made to =m a close jo9t1 & !y %\ld be secur$ 9 _! prop] position by /ones or lumps ( e>?1 w$g$ 9 betwe5 !m & ! sides ( ! dit*4 ,! sole tiles mu/ lie ) ! %orte/ sides up1 &1 usually1 ! space betwe5 two tiles1 at ! top1 w be f "o-qu>t] to "o-half ( an in*4 ,to rem$y ?is defect1 & =m a jo9t :i* may he protect$ aga9/ ! entrance ( e>?1 ! bottom %\ld he trimm$ (f1 s z to all[ ! tops to come clos] toge!r4 ,any op5+1 ( less ?an a qu>t] ( an in*1 c he satisfactorily cov]$1--m ?an t %\ld n be all[$4 ,9 turn+ corn]s1 or 9 pass+ ar\nd curves1 ) l>ge tiles1 _! ends mu/ he bevel$ (f ) ! pick1 s z to fit nicely 9 ?is position4 ,! be/ cov]+ = ! jo9ts ( tiles :i* are laid )\t coll>s1 is a scrap ( t91 b5t s z to fit _! %ape1--scraps ( lea!r1 or bits ( /rong wood %av+s1 answ] a v good purpose1 ?\gh bo? ( ^! latt] require to be held 9 place by putt+ a little e>? ov] _! ends z soon z laid on ! tile4 ,v small grass ropes drawn ov] ! jo9ts1 7! ends be+ held d[n ) /ones or e>?17 =m a satisfactory cov]+1 b c>e %\ld be tak5 t !y be n too ?ick4 ,a small h&ful ( wood %av+s1 ?r[n ov] ! jo9ts1 also answ]s a good purpose4 ,c>e1 h[ev]1 %\ld always be tak51 9 us+ any mat]ial :i* w decay readily1 to h no m ?an is necess>y to keep ! e>? out1 le/1 9 its decay1 x furni% mat]ial to be c>ri$ into ! tile & ob/ruct ! fl[4 ,?is precaution becomes less necess>y 9 ! case ( dra9s :i* always c>ry consid]able /reams ( wat]1 b if !y are at times sluggi% 9 _! fl[1 too mu* c>e _c be giv5 to keep !m free ( all possible causes ( ob/ruction4 ,z no?+ is ga9$ by increas+ ! quantity ( loose cov]+ beyond :at is ne$$ to close ! jo9ts1 & z su* cov]+ is only procur$ ) "s tr\ble1 !re is no reason = its extravagant use4 ,!re seems to rema9 9 ! m9ds ( _m writ]s on dra9age a glimm]+ ( ! old fallacy t und]dra9s1 l op5 dra9s1 receive _! wat] f above1 & x is too commonly recomm5d$ t por\s sub/ances be plac$ above ! tile4 ,if1 z is univ]sally conc$$1 ! wat] rises into ! tile f bel[1 ?is is unnecess>y4 ,! practice ( cov]+ ! jo9ts1 & ev5 cov]+ ! :ole tile1 7(t5 to ! dep? ( a foot17 ) tan-b>k1 turf1 co>se gravel1 etc41 is 9 no wise to be comm5d$2 &1 :ile ! objections to x are n necess>ily v grave 9 all cases1 x always introduces an elem5t ( insecurity1 & x is a wa/e ( money1 if no?+ worse4 ,! tile lay] ne$ n conc]n himself ) ! "q1 ( af=d+ entrance room = ! wat]4 ,let him1 s f> z ! rude mat]ials at h& w all[1 make ! jo9ts p]fectly tight1 & :5 ! wat] comes1 x w f9d ample flaws 9 8 "w1 & he w h be5 a good workman if x d n f9d room to fl[ 9 a curr5t1 c>ry+ p>ticles ( dirt ) x4 ,9 dit*es 9 :i* wat] is runn+ at ! "t ( lay+ ! tiles1 ! process %\ld foll[ closely aft] ! grad+1 & ! /ream may ev5 be damm$ back1 section aft] section1 7a plugg$ tile be+ plac$ "u ! dam1 to be aft]w>ds replac$ by a free "o17 & grad$1 laid & cov]$ be=e ! wat] breaks 94 ,!re is "o satisfaction 9 ?is k9d ( "w1--t1 :ile x is difficult to lay ! dra9 s ?or\ghly well z 9 a dry dit*1 ! am\nt ( wat] is suffici5t to ov]come any slight t5d5cy to ob/ruction4 99,connections499--,z has be5 be=e /at$1 lat]al dra9s %\ld always ent] at ! top ( ! ma94 ,ev5 9 ! mo/ %all[ "w1 ! slightly decreas$ dep? ( ! lat]al1 :i* ?is arrangem5t requires1 is well comp5sat$ = by ! free outlet :i* x secures4 ,aft] ! tile ( ! ma91 :i* is to receive a side dra91 has be5 fitt$ to its place1 & ! po9t ( junction m>k$1 x %\ld be tak5 up & p]=at$2 !n ! end ( ! tile ( ! lat]al %\ld be s trimm$ z to fit ! hole z accurately z may be1 ! l>ge tile replac$ 9 its position1 & ! small "o laid on x1--rea*+ ov] to ! floor ( ! lat]al dit*4 ,!n connect x ) ! lat]al z previ\sly laid1 fill up solidly ! space "u ! tile :i* rea*es ov] to ! top ( ! ma91 7s t x _c become di/urb$ 9 fill+17 & lay bits ( tile1 or o!r suitable cov]+1 ar\nd ! connect+ jo9t47#bj7 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cc - ,,lat]al ,,dra9 ,,ent]+ ,,at ,,top4 ,fig4 #cc - ,,lat]al ,,dra9 ,,ent]+ ,,at ,,top4 ,:5 ! ma9 dra9 is laid ) coll>s1 x %\ld be s arrang$ t1 by sub/itut+ a full tile 9 ! place ( ! coll>1--leav+1 )9 x1 a space betwe5 ! small] pipes1--a connection c be made ) ?is l>g] tile1 z is repres5t$ 9 ,figures #cc & #cd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cd - ,,sectional ,,view ,,( ,,jo9t4 ,fig4 #cd - ,,sectional ,,view ,,( ,,jo9t4 99,silt-,bas9s99 %\ld be us$ at all po9ts :]e a dra91 aft] runn+ = any consid]able di/ance at a c]ta9 rate ( fall1 *anges to a less rapid fall1--unless1 inde$1 ! dim9i%$ fall be /ill suffici5tly great = ! removal ( silty matt]s1 7say two feet or m 9 a hundr$74 ,!y may be made 9 any mann] :i* w secure a /oppage ( ! direct curr5t1 & af=d room bel[ ! floor ( ! tile = ! deposit ( ! silt :i* ! wat] has c>ri$ 9 susp5sion2 & !y may be ( any suitable mat]ial2--ev5 a s\nd fl\r b>rel w s]ve a pretty good purpose = _m ye>s4 ,! mo/ complete =m ( bas9 is t repres5t$ 9 ,figure #bd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ce - ,,squ>e ,,brick ,,silt-,,bas94 ,fig4 #ce - ,,squ>e ,,brick ,,silt-,,bas94 ,:5 ! object is only to af=d room = ! collection ( ! silt ( a consid]able l5g? ( dra91 & x is n ?\ght wor? :ile to keep op5 a communication ) ! surface1 = purposes ( inspection1 a squ>e box ( brick "w1 7,fig4 #ce17 hav+ a dep? ( "o & a half or two feet bel[ ! floor ( ! dra91--tiles = ! dra9s be+ built 9 ! walls1 & ! top cov]$ ) a broad /one1--w answ] v well4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cf - ,,silt-,,bas9 ,,( ,,vitrifi$ ,,pipe4 ,fig4 #cf - ,,silt-,,bas9 ,,( ,,vitrifi$ ,,pipe4 ,a good sort ( bas91 to rea* to ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 may be made ( l>ge1 vitrifi$ dra9 pipes1--su* z are us$ = t[n sew]age1--hav+ a diamet] ( f six to twelve in*es1 accord+ to ! requirem5ts ( ! "w4 ,?is bas9 is %[n 9 ,figure #cf4 ,figure #cg repres5ts a bas9 made ( a #f-;in* tile1--simil> to t describ$ on page #acj1 = turn+ a %ort corn]4 ,a l>g] bas9 ( ! same size1 *eap] ?an if built ( brick1 may be made by us+ a l>ge vitrifi$ dra9 pipe 9 ! place ( ! "o %[n 9 ! cut4 ,^! vitrifi$ pipes may be p]=at$ 9 ! mann] describ$ = ! common tile4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cg - ,,tile ,,silt-,,bas94 ,fig4 #cg - ,,tile ,,silt-,,bas94 ,9 lay+ ! ma9 l9e ,c1 7,fig4 #ba17 an und]gr\nd bas9 ( brick "w1 7,fig4 #ce17 or its equival5t1 %\ld be plac$ at /ake #g1 because at t po9t ! wat]1 :i* has be5 fl[+ on an incl9ation ( #a4ji1 #b4jj & #b4hc p] #ajj1 cont9ues its c\rse ov] ! mu* less fall ( only #j4ef p] #ajj4 ,if1 among ! tiles :i* h pass$ ! inspection1 !re are "s :i*1 f ov] burn+1 are small] ?an ! av]age1 !y %\ld be laid at ! upp] ends ( ! lat]als4 ,! c>d9al rule ( ! tile lay] %\ld be nev] to h a s+le tile 9 ! f9i%$ dra9 ( small] size1 ( m irregul> %ape1 or less p]fectly laid1 ?an any tile above x4 ,if !re is to be any diff]5ce 9 ! quality ( ! dra91 at diff]5t po9ts1 let x gr[ bett] z x approa*es ! outlet & has a great] l5g? above dep5d+ ^u its action4 99,cov]+ ! ,tiles1 & ,fill+-9 ! ,dit*es499--,! be/ mat]ial = cov]+ ! tiles is t :i* w ! mo/ completely surr\nd !m1 s z to hold !m 9 _! places2 w be ! lea/ likely to h passages = ! fl[ ( /reams ( wat] into ! jo9ts1 & w af=d ! lea/ silt to ob/ruct ! dra94 ,clay is ! be/ ( all available mat]ials1 because x is ( ! mo/ uni=m "* ?r\gh\t its mass1 & may be mo/ p]fectly compact$ ar\nd ! tiles4 ,z has be5 be=e /at$1 all matt]s :i* are subject to decay are objectionable1 because !y w furni% f9e matt]s to ent] ! jo9ts1 & by _! decrease ( bulk1 may leave op5+s 9 ! e>? ?r\gh :i* /reams ( muddy wat] may f9d _! way into ! tiles4 ,gravel is bad1 & w rema9 bad until its spaces are fill$ ) f9e dirt deposit$ by wat]1 :i*1 leav+ only a "p ( its impurities "h1 c>ries ! re/ into ! dra94 ,a gravelly loam1 free f roots or o!r organic matt]1 if x is /rong en\gh to be work$ into a ball :5 wet1 w answ] a v good purpose4 ,ord9>ily1 ! e>? :i* 0 ?r[n out f ! bottom ( ! dit*1 & :i* n[ lies at ! top ( ! dirt heap1 is ! be/ to be return$ ab\t ! tiles1 be+ fir/ fre$ f any /ones x may conta9 :i* are l>ge en\gh to break or di/urb ! tiles 9 fall+ on to !m4 ,if ! bottom ( ! dit* consi/s ( quicks& or o!r silty matt]s1 clay or "s o!r suitable e>? %\ld be s\ght 9 t :i* 0 excavat$ f a less dep?1 or %\ld be br\ght f ano!r place4 ,a ?9 lay] ( ?is hav+ be5 plac$ 9 ! bottom ( ! dit* :5 grad+1 a slight cov]+ ( ! same ab\t ! tiles w s encase !m z to prev5t ! entrance ( ! m slippy soil4 ,! fir/ cov]+ ( f9e e>?1 free f /ones & clods1 %\ld be spr9kl$ g5tly ov] ! tiles1 no full %ovelfuls be+ ?r[n on to !m until !y are cov]$ at lea/ six in*es deep4 ,:5 ! fill+ has rea*$ a height ( f fifte5 to tw5ty in*es1 ! m5 may jump into ! dit* & tramp x d[n ev5ly & regul>ly1 n tread+ too h>d 9 any "o place at fir/4 ,:5 ?us lightly compact$ ab\t ! tile1 s t any fur!r pressure _c displace !m1 ! fill+ %\ld be repeat$ly ramm$1 7! m ! bett]17 by two m5 /&+ a/ride ! dit*1 fac+ ea* o!r1 & work+ a maul1 su* z is %[n 9 ,figure #ch1 & :i* may weigh f #hj to #ajj p\nds4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ch - ,,maul ,,= ,,ramm+4 ,fig4 #ch - ,,maul ,,= ,,ramm+4 ,^? to :om ?is recomm5dation is new1 w1 d\btless1 ?9k x unwise4 ,! only reply to _! objection mu/ be t o!rs :o %>$ _! op9ion1 h1 by long obs]vation & exp]i5ce1 be5 conv9c$ ( its correctness4 ,!y may practically conv9ce !mselves ( ! value ( ?is sort ( cov]+ by a simple & inexp5sive exp]im5t3 ,take two l>ge1 wat]-tight hog%eads1 bore ?r\gh ! side ( ea*1 a few in*es f ! bottom1 a hole j l>ge en\gh to admit a #a-a_/d-;in* tile2 cov] ! bottom to ! hight ( ! l[] edge ( ! hole ) /rong1 wet clay1 beat5 to a h>d pa/e2 on ?is1 lay a l9e ( pipes & coll>s1--! inn] end seal$ ) putty1 & ! tile :i* passes ?r\gh ! hole s w$g$ ab\t ) putty1 t no wat] c\ld pass out betwe5 x & ! outside ( ! hole4 ,cov] ! tile 9 "o hog%ead ) loose gravel1 & !n fill x to ! top ) loose e>?4 ,cov] ! tile 9 ! o!r1 tw5ty in*es deep1 ) ord9>y /iff clay1 7n wet en\gh to puddle1 b suffici5tly moi/ to pack well17 & ram x ?or\ghly1 s z to make sure t ! tiles are completely clasp$1 & t !re is no crack nor crevice ?r\gh :i* wat] c trickle1 & !n fill ?is hog%ead to ! top ) e>?1 ( ! same "* ) t us$ 9 ! o!r case4 ,^! hog%eads %\ld /& :]e ! wat] ( a small ro(1 7z t ( a hog-p517 may be l$ into !m1 by an arrangem5t :i* %all give an equal quantity to ea*2--?is w give !m r m ?an ! simple ra9-fall1 b w leave !m expos$ to ! usual climatic *anges ( ! season4 ,a vessel1 ( a capacity ( a qu>t or m1 %\ld be connect$ ) ea* outlet1 & cov]$ f ! du/1-- ^! w act z silt-bas9s4 ,dur+ ! fir/ few /orms ! wat] w fl[ (f mu* m freely f ! fir/ b>rel2 b1 little by little1 ! second "o1 z ! wat] f9ds its way ?r\gh ! clay1 & z ! occasional dry+1 & repeat$ filtration make x m por\s1 w increase 9 its fl[ until x w1 by ! end ( ! season1 or1 at late/1 by ! end ( ! second season1 dra9 z well z ! fir/1 if1 inde$1 t be n by ?is "t some:at ob/ruct$ ) silt4 ,! am\nt ( accumulation 9 ! vessels at ! outlet w %[ :i* process has be/ kept back ! silt1 & ! "* ( ! deposit w %[ :i* w\ld mo/ probably be c>ri$ (f by ! g5tle fl[ ( wat] 9 a ne>ly level dra94 ,x is no argum5t aga9/ ?is exp]im5t t its results _c be det]m9$ ev5 9 a ye>1 = x is n pret5d$ t dra9s laid 9 compact clay w dry l& s completely dur+ ! fir/ mon? z ^? :i* give m free access to ! wat]2 only t !y w d s 9 a comp>atively %ort "t2 & t1 z dra9age is a "w = all "t1 7practically z la/+ z ! f>m itself17 ! importance ( p]man5ce & good work+ = long ye>s to come1 is out ( all proportion to t ( ! tempor>y good results ( "o or two seasons1 accompani$ ) d\btful durability4 ,x has be5 argu$ t surface wat] w be m readily remov$ by dra9s hav+ por\s fill+4 ,ev5 if ?is 7 true to any important degree1--:i* x is n1--x w\ld be an argum5t aga9/ ! plan1 = ! rem$y w\ld be worse ?an ! disease4 ,if ! wat] fl[ f ! surface d[n into ! dra91 x w n fail to c>ry dirt ) x1 & in/ead ( ! cle> wat]1 :i* alone %\ld rise into ! tiles f bel[1 we %\ld h a trickl+ fl[ f above1 muddy ) wa/$ manure & silty e>?4 ,! rema9+ fill+ ( ! dit* is a matt] ( simple labor1 & may be done 9 :atev] way may be mo/ economical "u ! circum/ances ( ! "w4 ,if ! am\nt to be fill$ is consid]able1 s t x is desirable to use horse-p[]1 ! be/ way w be to use a scrap]1 su* z is repres5t$ 9 ,figure #ci1 :i* is a /rongly iron$ plank1 #f feet long & #ah in*es wide1 %>p %od at "o side1 & suppli$ ) h&les at ! o!r4 ,x is propell$ by means ( ! curv$ rods1 :i* are atta*$ to its "u side by flexible jo9ts4 ,^! rods are connect$ by a *a9 :i* has l9ks l>ge en\gh to receive ! hook ( an ox-*a94 ,?is scrap] may be us$ = any /raight-=w>d "w by atta*+ ! p[] to ! middle ( ! *a94 ,by mov+ ! hook a few l9ks to ! "r or left1 x w act some:at aft] ! mann] ( ! m\ld-bo>d ( a pl[1 & w1 if skillfully h&l$1 %oot ! fill+ rapidly into ! dit*4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ci - ,,bo>d ,,scrap] ,,= ,,fill+ ,,dit*es4 ,fig4 #ci - ,,bo>d ,,scrap] ,,= ,,fill+ ,,dit*es4 ,if ! "w is done by h&1 mix ! surface soil & turf ) ! subsoil fill+ = ! :ole dep?4 ,if ) a scrap]1 put ! surface soil at ! bottom ( ! loose fill+1 & ! subsoil at ! top1 z ?is w be an imitation1 = ! limit$ area ( ! dra9s1 ( ! process ( tr5*+1 :i* is us$ 9 g>d5 cultivation4 ,:5 ! dit*es are fill$1 !y w be high] ?an ! adjo9+ l&1 & x w be well to make !m /ill m s by digg+ or pl[+ out a small tr5* at ea* side ( ! dra91 ?r[+ ! e>? aga9/ ! m\nd1 :i* w prev5t surface wat]1 7dur+ heavy ra9s17 f runn+ into ! loose fill+ be=e x is suffici5tly settl$4 ,a cross section ( a fill$ dra9 provid$ ) ^! dit*es is %[n 9 ,figure #dj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dj - ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,dit* 7,,fill$71 ,,) ,,furr[ ,,at ,,ea* ,,side4 ,fig4 #dj - ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,dit* 7,,fill$71 ,,) ,,furr[ ,,at ,,ea* ,,side4 ,9 ord] t ! silt-bas9s may be exam9$1 & _! accumulations ( e>? remov$1 dur+ ! e>ly action ( ! dra9s1 ^? p>ts ( ! dit*es :i* are above !m may be left op51 c>e be+ tak51 by cutt+ surface dit*es ar\nd !m1 to prev5t ! entrance ( wat] f above4 ,dur+ ?is "t ! cov]s ( ! bas9s %\ld be kept on1 & %\ld be cov]$ ) inv]t$ sods to keep loose dirt f gett+ into !m4 99,collect+ ! ,wat] f ,spr+s499--,! lat]al :i* connects ) ! ma9 dra91 ,a1 7,fig4 #ba17 at ! po9t m1 & :i* is to take ! wat] ( ! spr+ at ! head ( ! brook1 %\ld n be op5$ until ! ma9 has be5 complet$ & fill$ into ! silt-bas91--! brook hav+1 meantime1 be5 c>ri$ ov] ! o!r dit*es 9 wood5 tr\ghs4 ,?is lat]al may n[ be made 9 ! foll[+ way3 ,dig d[n to ! tile ( ! ma91 & c>ry ! lat]al dit* back1 a di/ance ( t5 feet4 ,9 ! bottom ( ?is1 place a wood5 tr\gh1 at lea/ six feet long1 laid at su* dep? t its *annel %all be on ! exact grade requir$ = lay+ ! tiles1 & lay long /raw1 7held d[n by weights17 l5g?wise )9 x4 ,make an op5+ 9 ! tile ( ! ma9 & connect ! tr\gh ) x4 ,! /raw w prev5t any co>se p>ticles ( e>? f be+ c>ri$ into ! tile1 & ! fl[ ( ! wat] w be suffici5t to c>ry on to ! silt-bas9 any f9] matt]s4 ,n[ op5 ! dit* to & beyond ! spr+1 digg+ at lea/ a foot bel[ ! grade 9 its imm$iate vic9ity1 & fill+ to ! exact grade ) small /ones1 brok5 bricks1 or o!r suitable mat]ial4 ,lay ! tiles f ! upp] end ( ! dit* across ! /one "w1 & d[n to ! wood5 tr\gh4 ,n[ spread a suffici5t lay] ( wood %av+s ov] ! /one "w to keep ! e>? f ent]+ x1 cov] ! tiles & fill 9 ! dit*1 z be=e direct$1 & !n remove ! /raw f ! wood5 tr\gh & lay tiles 9 its place4 ,9 ?is way1 ! wat] ( ev5 a /rong spr+ may be c>ri$ into a f9i%$ dra9 )\t dang]4 ,9 lay+ ! tile :i* crosses ! /one "w1 x is well to use full #b-a_/b-;in* tiles 9 ! place ( coll>s1 leav+ ! jo9ts ( ^!1 & ( ! #a-a_/d-;in* tiles1 7:i* %\ld jo9 ne> ! middle ( ! coll> tile17 ab\t a qu>t] ( an in* op51 to give free entrance to ! wat]4 ,! /one & tile dra91 ,h1 ,i1 is simply dug out to ! surface ( ! rock1 if ?is is n m ?an two feet bel[ ! grade ( ! upp] ends ( ! lat]als ) :i* x connects1 & !n fill$ up ) loose /ones to ! l9e ( grade4 ,if ! /ones are small1 s z to =m a good bottom = ! tiles1 !y may be laid directly ^u x2 if n1 a bottom = !m may be made ( n>r[ /rips ( *eap bo>ds4 ,be=e fill+1 ! tiles & /one "w %\ld be cov]$ ) %av+s1 & ! fill+ above ^! %\ld consi/ ( a /rong clay1 :i* w rema9 9 place aft] ! %av+s rot away4 99,am5d+ ! ,map499--,:5 ! tiles are laid1 & be=e !y are cov]$1 all deviations ( ! l9es1 z 9 pass+ ar\nd l>ge /ones & o!r ob/ructions1 :i* may h prev5t$ ! exact execution ( ! orig9al plan1 & ! location & k9d ( ea* und]gr\nd silt-bas9 %\ld also be c>efully not$1 s t !y may be transf]r$ to ! map1 = future ref]5ce1 9 ! ev5t ( repairs becom+ necess>y4 ,9 a %ort "t aft] ! "w is f9i%$1 ! surface ( ! field w %[ no trace ( ! l9es ( dra91 & x %\ld be possible1 9 case ( ne$1 to f9d any po9t ( ! dra9s ) precision1 s t no labor w be lo/ 9 digg+ = x4 ,x is mu* *eap] to measure ov] ! surface ?an to dig f\r feet tr5*es ?r\gh ! gr\nd4 ,,*apt] ,v4 - ,,h[ ,,to ,,take ,,c>e ,,( ,,dra9s ,,& ,,dra9$ ,,l&4 ,s f> z tile dra9s are conc]n$1 if !y are once well laid1 & if ! silt-bas9s h be5 empti$ ( silt until ! wat] has ceas$ to deposit x1 !y ne$ no c>e nor att5tion1 beyond an occasional clean+ ( ! outlet brook4 ,n[ & !n1 f ! proximity ( will[s1 or ?rifty1 "y1 wat]-lov+ trees1 a dra9 w be ob/ruct$ by roots2 or1 dur+ ! fir/ few ye>s aft] ! "w is f9i%$1 "s weak po9t1--a badly laid tile1 a loosely fitt$ connection betwe5 ! lat]al & a ma91 or an accumulation ( silt com+ f an undetect$ & p]si/5t ve9 ( quicks&1--w be develop$1 & repairs w h to be made4 ,except = ! slight dang] f roots1 :i* mu/ always be gu>d$ aga9/ to ! ext5t ( all[+ no "y trees ( ! dang]\s class to gr[ ne> a dra9 ?r\gh :i* a con/ant /ream ( wat] fl[s1 x may be fairly assum$ t dra9s :i* h be5 kept 9 ord] = f\r or five ye>s h pass$ ! dang] ( int]ruption f any cause1 & !y may be consid]$ entirely safe4 ,a dra9 w (t51 = "s mon?s aft] x is laid1 run muddy wat] aft] ra9s4 ,sometimes ! e>ly deposit ( silt w ne>ly fill ! tile1 & x w take ! wat] ( sev]al /orms to wa% x out4 ,if ! tiles h be5 laid 9 pack$ clay1 !y _c long receive silt f )\t1 & t :i* makes ! fl[ turbid1 may be assum$ to come f ! orig9al deposit 9 ! conduit4 ,exam9ations ( newly laid dra9s h develop$ _m in/ances :]e tiles 7 at fir/ half fill$ ) silt1 & ?ree mon?s lat] 7 entirely clean4 ,! mudd9ess ( ! fl[ indicates :at ! doctors call an ef=t ( nature to relieve h]self1 & nature may be tru/$ to succe$1 at lea/1 until %e ab&ons ! ef=t4 ,if we are sure t a dra9 has be5 well laid1 we ne$ feel no anxiety because x fails to take ! wat] f ! gr\nd s completely z x %\ld d1 until x settles into a fl[ ( cle> wat] aft] ! heavie/ /orms4 ,9 ! case ( art actual /oppage1 :i* w g5]ally be indicat$ by ! bur/+ out ( ! dra91 i4e41 ! wett+ ( ! l& z ?\gh !re 7 a spr+ "u x1 or z ?\gh its wat] _h no und]gr\nd outlet1 7:i* is ! fact17 x w be necess>y to lay op5 ! dra9 until ! ob/ruction is f\nd4 ,9 ?is "w1 ! real value ( ! map w be %[n1 by ! facility :i* x (f]s = f9d+ any po9t ( any l9e ( dra9s1 & ! exact locality ( ! junctions ) ! ma9s1 & ( ! silt-bas9s4 ,9 lay+ out ! plan on ! gr\nd1 & 9 mak+ 8 map1 ! surveyor w h _h rec\rse to two or m fix$ po9ts2 "o ( !m1 9 our example1 7fig4 #ba17 w\ld probably be ! c5t] ( ! ma9 silt-bas91 & "o1 a drill$ hole or o!r m>k on ! rock at ! nor? side ( ! field4 ,by /ak+ out on ! gr\nd ! /raight l9e connect+ ^! two po9ts1 & draw+ a correspond+ l9e on ! map2 we %all h a base-l9e1 f :i* x w be easy1 by p]p5dicul> (fsets1 to det]m9e on ! gr\nd any po9t ^u ! map4 ,by lay+ a small squ>e on ! map1 ) "o ( its edges co9cid+ ) ! base-l9e1 & mov+ x on ?is l9e until ! o!r edge meets ! desir$ po9t1 we fix1 at ! angle ( ! squ>e1 ! po9t on ! base-l9e f :i* we are to measure ! l5g? ( ! (fset4 ,! next /ep is to f9d1 7by ! scale17 ! di/ance ( ?is po9t f ! ne>e/ end ( ! base-l9e1 & f ! po9t s\ght4 ,!n measure (f1 9 ! field1 ! correspond+ di/ance on ! base-l9e1 &1 f ! po9t ?us f\nd1 measure on a l9e p]p5dicul> to ! base l9e1 ! l5g? ( ! (fset2 ! po9t ?us indicat$ w be ! locality s\ght4 ,9 ! same mann]1 f9d ano!r po9t on ! same dra91 to give ! range on :i* to /ake x out4 ,f ?is l9e1 ! dra9s :i* run p>allel to x1 c easily be f\nd1 or x may be us$ z a base-l9e1 f :i* to f9d1 by measur+ (fsets1 o!r po9ts ne> x4 ,! object ( ?is /ak+ is1 to f9d1 9 an inexp5sive & easy way1 ! precise position ( ! dra9s1 = :i* x w\ld be o!rwise necess>y to grope 9 ! d>k1 v]ify+ our guesses by digg+ f\r-foot tr5*es1 at r&om4 ,if !re is a silt-bas91 or a junction a %ort di/ance bel[ ! po9t :]e ! wat] %[s itself1 ?is w be ! be/ place to dig4 ,if x is a silt-bas91 we %all probably f9d t ?is has fill$ up ) dirt1 & has /opp$ ! fl[4 ,9 ?is case x %\ld be clean$ out1 & a po9t ( ! dra9 t5 feet bel[ x exam9$4 ,if ?is is f\nd to be cle>1 a long sl5d] /ick may be pu%$ up z f> z ! bas9 & work$ back & =? until ! passage is cle>$4 ,!n replace ! tile bel[1 & try ) ! /ick to clean ! tiles above ! bas91 s z to tap ! wat] above ! ob/ruction4 ,if ?is _c be done1 or if ! dra9 t5 feet bel[ is clogg$1 x w be necess>y to uncov] ! tiles 9 bo? directions until an op5+ is f\nd1 & to take up & relay ! :ole4 ,if ! wett+ ( ! gr\nd is suffici5t to indicate t !re is mu* wat] 9 ! dra91 only five or six tiles %\ld be tak5 up at a "t1 clean$ & relaid1--comm5c+ at ! l[] end1--9 ord] t1 :5 ! wat] comm5ces to fl[1 x may n di/urb ! bottom ( ! dit* = ! :ole di/ance4 ,if ! po9t op5$ is at a junction ) ! ma91 exam9e bo? ! ma9 & ! lat]al1 to see :i* is /opp$1 & proce$ ) "o or ! o!r1 z direct$ above4 ,9 do+ ?is "w1 c>e %\ld be tak5 to s5d z little muddy wat] z possible into ! dra9 bel[1 & to all[ ! lea/ possible di/urbance ( ! bottom4 ,if silt-bas9s h be5 plac$ at ^? po9ts at :i* ! fall dim9i%es1 ! ob/ruction w usually be f\nd to occur at ! outlets ( ^!1 f a pil+ up ( ! silt 9 front ( !m1 & to ext5d only a %ort di/ance bel[ & above4 ,x is n necess>y to take up ! tiles until !y are f\nd to be entirely clean1 =1 if !y are only "o-half or "o-?ird full1 !y w probably be wa%$ clean by ! ru% ( wat]1 :5 t :i* is accumulat$ above is tapp$4 ,! "w %\ld be done 9 settl$ fair wea!r1 & ! dit*es %\ld rema9 op5 until ! effect ( ! fl[ has be5 obs]v$4 ,if ! tiles are made ?or\ghly clean by ! "t t ! accumulat$ wat] has run (f1 say 9 #bd h\rs1 !y may be cov]$ up2 if n1 x may be necess>y to remove !m aga91 & clean !m by h&4 ,:5 ! "w is und]tak5 x %\ld be ?or\ghly done1 s t ! exp5se ( a new op5+ ne$ n be aga9 incurr$4 ,x is worse ?an useless to sub/itute l>g] sizes ( tiles = ^? :i* are tak5 up4 ,! ob/ruction1 if by silt1 is ! result ( a too sluggi% fl[1 & to enl>ge ! area ( ! conduit w\ld only increase ! difficulty4 ,if ! tiles are too small to c>ry ! full fl[ :i* foll[s a heavy ra91 !y w be v unlikely to become *ok$1 = ! wat] w !n h suffici5t =ce to wa% !m clean1 :ile if !y are mu* l>g] ?an necess>y1 a deposit ( silt to "o half ( _! height w make a broad1 flat b$ = ! /ream1 :i* w run ) mu* less =ce1 & w be m likely to increase ! deposit4 ,if ! dra9s are ob/ruct$ by ! roots ( will[s1 or o!r trees1 ! proprietor mu/ decide :e!r he w sacrifice ! trees or ! dra9s2 bo? he _c keep1 unless he *ooses to g to ! exp5se ( lay+ 9 cem5t all ( ! dra9s :i* c>ry con/ant /reams1 = a di/ance ( at lea/ #ej feet f ! dang]\s trees4 ,! tr\ble f trees is occasionally v great1 b its occurr5ce is too r>e = g5]al consid]ation1 & mu/ be met 9 ea* case ) su* rem$ies z circum/ances sugge/ z ! be/4 ,! grat+s ov] ! outlets ( silt-bas9s :i* op5 at ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 are sometimes1 dur+ ! fir/ ye> ( ! dra9age1 ob/ruct$ by a fungoid gr[? :i* collects on ! cross b>s4 ,?is %\ld be occasionally rubb$ (f4 ,its "* is n v well und]/ood1 & x is r>ely obs]v$ 9 old dra9s4 ,! decomposition ( ! grass b&s :i* are us$ to cov] ! jo9ts ( ! l>g] tiles may enc\rage its =mation4 ,if ! surface soil h a good proportion ( s&1 gravel1 or organic matt]1 s z to give x ! consi/5cy :i* is kn[n z loamy1 x w be> any treatm5t :i* x may *ance to receive 9 cultivation1 or z pa/ure l&2 b if x be a decid$ clay soil1 no am\nt ( dra9+ w enable u to "w x1 or to turn cattle ^u x :5 x is wet ) rec5t ra9s4 ,x w mu* soon] become dry1 because ( ! dra9age1 & may mu* soon] be trodd5 ^u )\t injury2 b wet clay _c be work$ or walk$ ov] )\t be+ m or less puddl$1 &1 !reby1 injur$ = a long "t4 ,no matt] h[ ?or\ghly heavy clay pa/ure l&s may be "u-dra9$1 ! cattle %\ld be remov$ f !m :5 x ra9s1 & kept (f until !y are comp>atively dry4 ,neglect ( ?is precaution has probably l$ to m disappo9tm5t z to ! effects ( dra9age ?an any o!r circum/ances connect$ ) x4 ,! injury f ?is cause does n ext5d to a great dep?1 & 9 ! ,nor!rn ,/ates x w\ld always be ov]come by ! fro/s ( a s+le w9t]2 z has be5 be=e /at$1 x is conf9$ to /iff clay soils1 b z ^! are ! soils :i* mo/ ne$ dra9+1 ! w>n+ giv5 is important4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 - ,,:at ,,dra9+ ,,co/s4 ,dra9+ is exp5sive "w4 ,?is fact mu/ be accept$ z a v /ubborn "o1 by e man :o proposes to und]take ! improvem5t4 ,!re is no royal road to tile-lay+1 & ! beg9n] %\ld c\nt ! co/ at ! outset4 ,a good _m acres ( virg9 l& at ! ,we/ might be b\ght = :at mu/ be paid to get an effici5t sy/em ( dra9s laid "u a s+le acre at home4 ,any man :o /ops at ?is po9t ( ! argum5t w probably move ,we/1--or d no?+4 ,yet1 x is susceptible ( demon/ration t1 ev5 at ! ,we/1 9 ^? localities :]e ,indian ,corn is wor? z mu* z fifty c5ts p] bu%el at ! f>m1 x w pay to dra91 9 ! be/ mann]1 all su* l& z is describ$ 9 ! fir/ *apt] ( ?is book z 9 ne$ ( dra9+4 ,argum5ts to prove ?is ne$ n be bas$ at all on *eapness ( ! "w2 only on its effects & its p]man5ce4 ,9 fact1 s f> z dra9+ ) tiles is conc]n$1 *eapness is a delusion & a sn>e1 = ! reason t x implies some?+ less ?an ! be/ "w1 a compromise betwe5 excell5ce & inf]iority4 ,! mom5t t we come d[n f ! be/ /&>d1 we introduce a new elem5t into ! calculation4 ,! sort ( tile dra9+ :i* x is ! purpose ( ?is "w to advocate is a sy/em s complete 9 e p>ticul>1 t x may be consid]$ z an absolutely p]man5t improvem5t4 ,dur+ ! fir/ ye>s ( ! work+ ( ! dra9s1 !y w require m or less att5tion1 & "s exp5se = repairs2 b1 9 well con/ruct$ "w1 ^! w be v slight1 & w soon cease altoge!r4 ,9 proportion z we resort to *eap devices1 :i* imply a neglect ( important p>ts ( ! "w1 & a want ( ?or\ghness 9 ! :ole1 ! exp5se = repairs w increase1 & ! duration ( ! usefulness ( ! dra9s w dim9i%4 ,dra9s :i* are p]man5tly well made1 & :i* w1 practically1 la/ = all "t1 may be reg>d$ z a good inve/m5t1 ! increas$ crop ( ea* ye>1 pay+ a good int]e/ on ! money t !y co/1 & ! money be+ /ill repres5t$ by ! undim9i%$ value ( ! improvem5t4 ,9 su* a case ! dra9+ ( ! l& may be said to co/1 n #ej p] acre1--b ! int]e/ on #ej ea* ye>4 ,! orig9al am\nt is well inve/$1 & br+s its ye>ly divid5d z surely z ?\gh x 7 repres5t$ by a five-tw5ty bond4 ,) badly con/ruct$ dra9s1 on ! o!r h&1 ! case is q diff]5t4 ,9 buy+ l& :i* is subject to no loss 9 quantity or quality1 ! f>m] consid]s1 n s mu* ! actual co/1 z ! relation betwe5 ! ye>ly int]e/ on ! co/1 & ! ye>ly pr(it on ! crop1--kn[+ t1 a hundr$ ye>s h5ce1 ! l& w /ill be wor? 8 money4 ,b if ! l& 7 b\nd$ on "o side by a riv] :i* ye>ly encroa*$ "s feet on its bank1 leav+ ! field a little small] aft] ea* fre%et2 or if1 e spr+1 "s rods squ>e ( its surface 7 sure to be cov]$ ?ree feet deep ) /ones & s&1 s t ! actual value ( ! prop]ty became e ye> less1 ! pur*as] w\ld comp>e ! ye>ly value ( ! crops1 n only ) ! int]e/ on ! price1 b1 9 addition to ?is1 ) s mu* ( ! prime value z ye>ly disappe>s ) ! de/ruction ( ! l&4 ,x is exactly s ) ! "q ( ! co/ ( dra9age4 ,if ! "w is insecurely done1 & is liable1 9 five ye>s or 9 fifty1 to become wor?less2 ! increase ( ! crops result+ f x1 mu/ n only cov] ! ye>ly int]e/ on ! co/1 b ! ye>ly depreciation z well4 ,!re=e :at may seem at ! "t ( do+ ! "w to be *eapness1 is really ! greate/ extravagance4 ,x is l build+ a brick wall ) clay = mort>4 ,! bricks & ! workman%ip co/ full price1 & ! small sav+ on ! mort> w topple ! wall ov] 9 a few ye>s1 :ile1 if well cem5t$1 x w\ld h la/$ = c5turies4 ,! cutt+ & fill+ ( ! dit*es1 & ! pur*ase & transportation ( ! tiles1 w co/ ! same 9 e case1 & ^! con/itute ! *ief co/2 if ! prop] c>e 9 grad+1 tile-lay+ & cov]+1 & 9 mak+ outlets be /+ily )held1--sav+1 p]haps1 "o-t5? ( ! exp5se1--:at might h be5 a p]man5t improvem5t to ! l&1 may disappe>1 & ! :ole outlay be lo/ 9 t5 ye>s4 ,a sav+ ( t5 p] c5t4 9 ! co/ w h lo/ u ! o!r n9ety 9 a %ort "t4 ,b1 :ile *eapness is to be %unn$1 economy is to be s\ght 9 e item ( ! "w ( dra9+1 & %\ld be /udi$1 by proprietor & eng9e]1 f ! fir/ exam9ation ( ! l&1 to ! ?r[+ ( ! la/ %ovelful ( e>? on to ! fill+ ( ! dit*4 ,!re are few op]ations connect$ ) ! cultivation ( ! soil 9 :i* s mu* may be imp]ceptibly lo/ ?r\gh neglect1 & c>elessness ab\t little details1 z 9 tile-dra9+4 ,9 ! orig9al levell+ ( ! gr\nd1 ! adju/m5t ( ! l9es1 ! e/abli%+ ( ! mo/ judici\s dep? & incl9ation at ea* po9t ( ! dra9s1 ! disposition ( surface /reams dur+ ! prosecution ( ! "w1 & 9 ! wid? ( ! excavation1 ! l9e :i* divides economy & wa/efulness is extremely n>r[ & ! mo/ con/ant vigilance1 toge!r ) ! be/ judgm5t & =esight1 are ne$$ to avoid unnecess>y co/4 ,9 ! lay+ & cov]+ ( ! tile1 on ! o!r h&1 x is be/ to disreg>d a little sl[ness & unnecess>y c>e on ! "p ( ! workm51 = ! sake ( ! mo/ p]fect security ( ! "w4 99,details ( ,co/499--,! items ( ! "w ( dra9age may be classifi$ z foll[s3 #a4 ,eng9e]+ & ,sup]9t5d5ce4 #b4 ,digg+ ! dit*es4 #c4 ,grad+ ! bottoms4 #d4 ,tile & tile-lay+4 #e4 ,cov]+ ! tile & fill+ ! dit*es4 #f4 ,outlets & silt-bas9s4 #a4 ,eng9e]+ & ,sup]9t5d5ce4--,x is n easy to say :at w\ld be ! prop] *>ge = ?is item ( ! "w4 ,9 ,engl&1 ! ,commission]s "u ! ,dra9age ,acts ( ,p>liam5t1 & ! ,bo>ds ( ,public ,works1 fix ! *>ge = eng9e]+ at #a4be p] acre4 ,t is 9 a c\ntry :5 ! ext5t ( l&s und]go+ ! process ( dra9+ is v great1 enabl+ "o p]son to sup]9t5d l>ge tracts 9 ! same neighborhood at ! same "t1 & ) little or no outlay = travell+ exp5ses4 ,9 ?is c\ntry1 :]e ! improvem5t is1 ?us f>1 conf9$ to small areas1 widely sep>at$2 & :]e !re are comp>atively few eng9e]s :o make a specialty ( ! "w1 ! *>ge = s]vices is necess>ily mu* high]1 & ! am\nt exp5d$ 9 travell+ mu* great]4 ,9 mo/ cases1 ! proprietor ( ! l& mu/ qualify himself to sup]9t5d 8 own op]ations1 7) ! aid ( a c\ntry surveyor1 or a railroad eng9e] 9 ! necess>y in/rum5tal "w47 ,z dra9+ becomes m g5]al1 ! dem& = pr(essional assi/ance w1 )\t d\bt1 cause local eng9e]s to turn _! att5tion to ! subject1 & _! s]vices may be m *eaply obta9$4 ,at pres5t1 x w\ld probably n be prud5t to e/imate ! co/ ( eng9e]+ & sup]9t5d5ce1 includ+ ! "t & skill ( ! proprietor1 at less ?an #e p] acre1 ev5 :]e f #bj to #ej acres are to be dra9$ at once4 #b4 ,digg+ ! ,dit*es4--,! labor requir$ = ! v>i\s op]ations con/itutes ! pr9cipal item ( co/ 9 dra9+1 & ! price ( labor is n[ s diff]5t 9 diff]5t localities1 & s unsettl$ 9 all1 t x is difficult to det]m9e a rate :i* w\ld be g5]ally fair4 ,x w be assum$ t ! av]age wages ( day labor]s ( ! class employ$ 9 digg+ dit*es1 is #a4ej p] day1 & ! calculation w h to be *ang$ = diff]5t di/ricts1 9 proportion to ! deviation ( ! actual rate ( wages f ?is am\nt4 ,!re is a consid]able advantage 9 hav+ ! "w done at "s season1 7z aft] ! summ] h>ve/1 or late 9 ! fall17 :5 wages are comp>atively l[4 ,! cutt+ ( ! dit*es %\ld always be let by ! rod4 ,:5 work+ at day's "w1 ! m5 w inv>iably op5 !m wid] ?an is necess>y1 = ! sake ( ! great] conv5i5ce ( work+1 & ! extra wid? causes a correspond+ wa/e ( labor4 ,a #d-;foot dit*1 9 mo/ soils1 ne$ be only #bj in*es wide at ! surface1 & #d in*es at ! bottom4 ,?is gives a mean wid? ( #ab in*es1 & requires ! removal ( ne>ly #b-a_/b cubic y>ds ( e>? = ea* rod ( dit*2 b an increase to a mean wid? ( #af in*es1 7:i* day workm5 w usually rea*1 :ile piece workm5 almo/ nev] w17 requires ! removal ( #c-a_/d cubic y>ds to ! rod4 ,z ! increas$ wid? is usually bel[ ! middle ( ! dra91 ! extra e>? w all h to be rais$ f #b to #d feet1 & ! extra #c_/d y>ds w co/ z mu* z a full y>d tak5 ev5ly f ! :ole side1 f top to bottom4 ,9 clay soils1 free f /ones or h>d pan1 b s /iff z to require consid]able pick+1 ord9>y workm51 aft] a little practice1 w be able to dig #c-a_/b rods ( dit* p] day1 to an av]age dep? ( #c4hj1--leav+ f #b to #c in*es ( ! bottom ( #d-;foot dit*es to be f9i%$ by ! grad]s4 ,?is makes ! co/ ( digg+ ab\t #dc c5ts p] rod4 ,9 loamy soil ! co/ w be a little less ?an ?is1 & 9 v h>d gr\nd1 a little m4 ,9 s&y & peaty soils1 ! co/ w n be m ?an #cj c5ts4 ,probably #dc c5ts w\ld be a fair av]age = soils requir+ dra9age1 ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry4 ,?is is ab\t #ag c5ts = ea* y>d ( e>? remov$4 ,9 s(t gr\nd1 ! cav+ 9 ( ! banks w require a mu* great] mean wid? ?an #ab in*es to be ?r[n out1 &1 if ! accid5t c\ld n h be5 prev5t$ by ord9>y c>e on ! "p ( ! workman1 7us+ ! brac+ bo>ds %[n 9 ,fig4 #bh17 he %\ld receive extra pay = ! extra "w4 ,9 pass+ ar\nd l>ge /ones x may also be necess>y to increase ! wid?4 ,! foll[+ table w facilitate ! calculations = su* extra "w3 ,,cubic ,,y>ds ,,( ,,excavation ,,9 ,,dit*es ,,( ,,v>i\s ,,wid?4 ,l5g? ( #ab ,in*es #ah ,in*es #bd ,in*es #cj ,in*es #cf ,in*es ,dit*4 ,wide4 ,wide4 ,wide4 ,wide4 ,wide4 ,yds4 ,feet4 ,yds4 ,feet4 ,yds4 ,feet4 ,yds4 ,feet4 ,yds4 ,feet4 #a ,y>d4 #j #ab #j #ah #j #bd #a #c #a #i #a ,rod4 #b #ab #c #ah #d #bd #f #c #g #i ,m5 w1 9 mo/ soils1 "w be/ 9 c\ples1--"o %ovell+ out ! e>?1 & work+ =w>d1 & ! o!r1 7mov+ backw>d17 loos5+ ! e>? ) a spade or foot-pick1 7,fig4 #da47 ,9 /ony l&1 ! m5 %\ld be requir$ to keep _! "w well clos$ up1--excavat+ to ! full dep? z !y g4 ,!n1 if !y /rike a /one too l>ge to be tak5 out )9 ! t]ms ( _! contract1 !y c skip a suffici5t di/ance to pass x1 & ! digg+ ( ! omitt$ "p may be done by a fai?ful day workman4 ,?is w usually be *eap] & m satisfactory ?an to pay ! contractors = extra "w4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #da - ,,foot ,,pick4 ,fig4 #da - ,,foot ,,pick4 ,conc]n+ ! am\nt ( "w t "o man c d 9 a day1 9 diff]5t soils1 digg+ dit*es #d feet deep1 ,fr5* says3 ,9 ! writ]'s own field1 :]e ! pick 0 us$ to loos5 ! l[] two feet ( e>?1 ! labor ( op5+ & fill+ dra9s #d feet deep1 & ( ! mean wid? ( #ad in*es1 all by h& labor1 has be51 9 a mile ( dra9s1 be+ our fir/ exp]im5ts1 ab\t "o day's labor to #c rods 9 l5g?4 ,! excavat$ e>? ( su* a dra9 measures n q #c cubic y>ds1 7exactly1 #b4he47 ,9 a subsequ5t "w1 9 a s&y soil1 two m5 op5$1 laid1 & refill$ #ad rods 9 "o day2--! mean wid? be+ #ab in*es47#ba7 ,9 ! same season1 ! same m5 op5$1 laid1 & fill$ #gj rods ( #d-;foot dra9 ( ! same mean wid? ( #ab in*es1 9 ! wor/ k9d ( clay soil1 :]e ! pick 0 con/antly us$4 ,x co/ #ce days' labor to complete ! job1 be+ #ej c5ts p] rod = ! labor alone4 ,or1 "u ! =ego+ calculation ( #a4ej p] day1 #ge c5ts p] rod4 ,^! e/imates1 9 common ) ne>ly all t are publi%$1 are = ! entire "w ( digg+1 grad+1 tile-lay+1 & refill+4 ,d$uct+ ! "t requir$ = ! o!r "w1 ! result w be ab\t z above e/imat$2 = ! r\gh excavation1 #c #a_/b-rods to ! day's "w1 co/+1 at #a4ej p] day1 #dc c5ts to ! rod4 ,grad+ is ! removal ( #b or #c in*es 9 dep?1 & ab\t #d in*es 9 wid?1 ( ! soil at ! bottom ( ! dit*4 ,x is *iefly done ) ! f9i%+ scoop1 :i*1 7be+ made ( two ?9 plates1 "o ( iron & "o ( /eel1 weld$ toge!r1 ! iron we>+ away & leav+ ! %>p /eel edge always prom95t17 w "w 9 a v h>d clay )\t ! aid ( ! pick4 ,?ree m51--! "o 9 ! dit* be+ a skillful workman1 & ! o!rs help+ him :5 n sight+ ! rods1--w grade ab\t #ajj rods p] day1 mak+ ! co/ ab\t #f c5ts p] rod4 ,until !y acquire ! skill to "w ?us rapidly1 !y %\ld n be urg$ beyond :at !y c readily d 9 ! be/ mann]1 z ?is op]ation1 7:i* is ! prep>+ ( ! f\ndation = ! tiles17 is probably ! mo/ important ( ! :ole "w ( dra9+4 ,tiles & ,tile-,lay+4--,aft] all[+ = breakage1 x w take ab\t #af tiles & #af coll>s to lay a rod 9 l5g? ( dra94 ,! co/ ( ^! w1 ( c\rse1 be v mu* affect$ by ! consid]ations ( ! ne>ness ( ! tile-kiln & ! co/ ( transportation4 ,!y %\ld1 9 no ord9>y case1 co/1 deliv]$ on ! gr\nd1 m ?an #h p] ?\s& = #a-a_/d-;in* tiles1 & #d p] ?\s& = ! coll>s1 mak+ a total ( #ab = bo?1 equal to ab\t #ai c5ts p] rod4 ,! lay+ ( ! tiles1 may be set d[n at #b c5ts p] rod1--bas$ on a skill$ man lay+ #ajj rods daily1 & receiv+ #b p] day4 ,cov]+ & fill+ w probably co/ #aj c5ts p] rod1 7if ! scrap]1 ,fig4 #ci1 c be successfully us$ = ! r\gh fill+1 ! co/ w be r$uc$ consid]ably bel[ ?is47 ,! f\r items ( ! co/ ( mak+ "o rod ( lat]al dra9 are z foll[s3 ,digg+ ! dit*es - - - 4#dc ,grad+ - - - 4#jf ,tiles & lay+ - - - 4#ba ,cov]+ & fill+ - - - 4#aj - - -4#hj cts4 ,if ! dra9s are plac$ at int]vals ( #dj feet1 !re are requir$ #fd rods to ! acre1--?is at #hj c5ts p] rod w make ! co/ p] acre1--= ! above items1--#ea4bj4 ,h[ mu* %\ld be all[$ = ma9 dra9s1 outlets1 & silt-bas9s1 x is impossible to say1 z1 on irregul> gr\nd1 no two fields w require ! same am\nt ( ?is sort ( "w4 ,on v ev5 l&1 :]e ! :ole surface1 = hundr$s ( acres1 slopes gradually 9 "o or two directions1 ! outlay = ma9s ne$ n be m ?an two p] c5t4 ( ! co/ ( ! lat]als4 ,?is w\ld all[ lat]als ( a uni=m l5g? ( #hjj feet to dis*>ge into ! ma9 l9e1 at int]vals ( #dj feet1 if we d n consid] ! trifl+ extra co/ ( ! l>g] tiles4 ,on less regul> gr\nd1 ! co/ ( ma9s w (t5 be consid]ably m ?an two p] c5t4 ( ! co/ ( ! lat]als2 b 9 "s in/ances ! increase ( ma9 l9es w be fully comp5sat$ = by ! r$uction 9 ! l5g? ( ! lat]als1 :i*1 ow+ to rocks1 hills too /eep to ne$ dra9s at regul> int]vals1 & por\s1 7gravelly17 /reaks 9 ! l&1 _c be pr(itably made to occupy ! :ole area s ?or\ghly47#bb7 ,probably #g-a_/b p] c5t4 ( ! co/ ( ! lat]als = ma9s1 outlets1 & silt-bas9s w be a fair av]age all[ance4 ,?is w br+ ! total co/ ( ! "w to ab\t #fj p] acre1 made up z foll[s3 ,co/ ( ! f9i%$ dra9s p] acre - - - #ea4bj #g-a_/b p] c5t4 add$ = ma9s1 etc4 - - - #c4hc ,eng9e]+ & ,sup]9t5d5ce - - - #e4jj ,( c\rse ?is is an arbitr>y calculation1 an e/imate )\t a s+le asc]ta9$ fact to g ^u1--b x is z close z x c be made to :at w\ld probably be ! co/ ( ! be/ "w1 on av]age gr\nd1 at ! pres5t high prices ( labor & mat]ial4 ,five ye>s ago ! same "w c\ld h be5 done = f #dj to #de p] acre1 & x w be aga9 *eap] :5 wages fall1 & :5 a great] dem& = dra9+ tiles %all h caus$ m competition 9 _! manufacture4 ,) a l>ge g5]al dem&1 su* z has exi/$ 9 ,engl& = ! la/ #bj ye>s1 !y w\ld n[ be sold = "o-half ( _! pres5t price "h1 & ! manufacture w\ld be m pr(itable4 ,!re are _m light l&s on ret5tive subsoils1 :i* c\ld be dra9$1 at pres5t prices1 = #ej or less p] acre1 & !re are o!rs1 :i* are v h>d to dig1 on :i* ?or\gh-dra9+ c\ld n n[ be done = #fj4 ,! co/ & ! promise ( ! op]ation 9 ea* in/ance1 mu/ guide ! l& own] 9 decid+ :e!r or n to und]take ! improvem5t4 ,9 d\btful cases1 !re is "o compromise :i* may be safely made1--t is1 to omit ea* alt]nate dra91 & def] its con/ruction until labor is *eap]4 ,?is is do+ half ! "w1--a v diff]5t ?+ f half-do+ ! "w4 ,9 su* cases1 ! l9es %\ld be laid out z ?\gh !y 7 to be all done at once1 &1 f9ally1 :5 ! omitt$ dra9s are made1 x %\ld be 9 pursuance ( ! orig9al plan4 ,probably ! dra9s :i* are laid w produce m ?an "o-half ( ! b5efit t w\ld result if !y 7 all laid1 b !y w r>ely be satisfactory1 except z a tempor>y exp$i5t1 & ! sav+ w be less ?an w\ld at fir/ seem likely1 = :5 ! second dra9s are laid2 ! cultivation ( ! l& mu/ be aga9 int]rupt$2 ! dra9+ =ce mu/ be aga9 br\ght toge!r2 ! levels ( ! new l9es mu/ be tak51 & connect$ ) ^? ( ! old ones2 & great c>e mu/ be tak51 select+ ! drye/ wea!r = ! "w1--to admit v little1 if any1 muddy wat] into ! old ma9s4 ,?is practice ( dra9+ by in/allm5ts is n recomm5d$2 x is only sugge/$ z an all[able exp$i5t1 :5 ! co/ ( ! complete "w c\ld n be borne ) out inconv5i5ce4 ,if any /aid & economical f>m] is dispos$ to be al>m$ at ! co/ ( dra9+1 he is respectfully rem9d$ ( ! miles ( exp5sive /one walls & o!r f5ces1 9 ,new ,engl& & _m o!r p>ts ( ! c\ntry1 :i* (t5 are a real detrim5t to ! f>ms1 occupy+1 ) _! accompany+ bramble bu%es & head l&s1 acres ( valuable l&1 & caus+ great wa/e ( "t 9 turn+ at ! ends ( %ort furr[s 9 pl[+2--:ile !y produce no b5efit at all adequate to _! co/ & annoyance4 ,x %\ld also be consid]$ t1 j z ! co/ ( f5ces is sc>cely felt by ! f>m]1 be+ made :5 8 teams & h&s c\ld n be pr(itably employ$ 9 ord9>y f>m+ op]ations1 s ! co/ ( dra9+ w be r$uc$ 9 proportion to ! am\nt ( ! "w :i* he c d )9 himself1--)\t hir+ m5 expressly = x4 ,! e/imate h]e9 giv5 is bas$ on ! supposition t m5 are hir$ = ! "w1 at wages equal to #a4ej p] day1--:ile dra9+ w\ld (t5 furni% a great advantage to ! f>m] 9 giv+ employm5t to f>m h&s :o are paid & subsi/$ by ! ye>4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 - ,,w ,,x ,,pay8 ,/>t+ ) ! basis ( #fj1 z ! co/ ( dra9+ an acre ( ord9>y f>m l&2--:at is ! prospect t ! "w w prove remun]ative8 ,9 all ( ! old] ,/ates1 f>m]s are glad to l5d _! surplus funds1 on bond & mortgage on _! neighbors' f>ms1 ) int]e/ at ! rate ( #g1 & (t5 #f p] c5t4 ,9 view ( ! fact t a little att5tion mu/ be giv5 ea* ye> to ! outlets1 &1 to ! silt-bas9s1 z well1 = ! fir/ few ye>s1 x w be j to *>ge = ! use ( ! capital #h-a_/c p] c5t4 ,?is w make a ye>ly *>ge on ! l&1 = ! b5efits result+ f su* a sy/em ( dra9+ z has be5 describ$1 ,,( ,,five ,,doll>s ,,p] ,,acre4 ,w x ,pay8--,w ! b5efits accru+1 ye> aft] ye>1--9 wet seasons & 9 dry1--) root crops & ) gra91--) hay & ) fruit1--9 rotations ( crops & 9 pa/ure1--be wor? #e an acre8 ,on ?is "q dep5ds ! value ( tile-dra9+ z a practical improvem5t1 = if !re is a self-evid5t proposition 9 agriculture1 x is t :at is n pr(itable1 "o ye> ) ano!r1 is n practical4 ,to c\nt]balance ! *>ge ( #e1 z ! ye>ly co/ ( ! dra9+1 ea* acre mu/ produce1 9 addition to :at x w\ld h yield$ )\t ! improvem5t3 #aj bu%els ( ,corn at 4#ej p] bu%el4 #c bu%els ( ,:eat at #a4ff p] bu%el4 #e bu%els ( ,rye at #a4jj p] bu%el4 #ab-a_/b bu%els ( ,oats at 4#dj p] bu%el4 #aj bu%els ( ,potatoes at 4#ej p] bu%el4 #f-b_/c bu%els ( ,b>ley at 4#ge p] bu%el4 #a1jjj p\nds ( ,hay at #aj4jj p] ton4 #ej p\nds ( ,cotton at 4#aj p] p\nd4 #bj p\nds ( ,tobacco at 4#be p] p\nd4 ,surely ?is is n a l>ge increase1--n 9 a s+le case1--& ! prices are g5]ally less ?an may be expect$ = ye>s to come4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,c5sus ,report places ! av]age crop ( ,indian ,corn1 9 ,indiana & ,ill9ois1 at #cc bu%els p] acre4 ,9 ,new ,york x 0 b #bg bu%els1 & 9 ,p5nsylvania b #bj bu%els4 ,x w\ld c]ta9ly be acc\nt$ extremely lib]al to fix ! av]age yield ( su* soils z ne$ dra9+1 at #cj bu%els p] acre4 ,x is extremely unlikely t !y w\ld yield ?is1 9 ! av]age ( seasons1 ) ! con/antly recurr+ injury f backw>d spr+s1 summ] dr\ghts1 & e>ly autumn fro/s4 ,heavy1 ret5tive soils1 :i* are cold & late 9 ! spr+1 subject to h>d bak+ 9 midsumm]1 & to become cold & wet 9 ! e>ly fall1 are ! v ones :i* are be/ suit$1 :5 dra9$1 to ! gr[? ( ,indian ,corn4 ,!y are /rong & f]tile1--& %\ld be able to absorb1 & to prep>e = ! use ( plants1 ! manure :i* is appli$ to !m1 & ! f]tiliz+ matt]s :i* are br\ght to !m by ea* /orm2--b !y _c prop]ly ex]cise ! functions ( f]tile soils1 = ! reason t !y are /rangl$ ) wat]1 *ill$ by evaporation1 or bak$ to almo/ brick-l h>dness1 dur+ ne>ly ! :ole p]iod ( ! gr[? & rip5+ ( ! crop4 ,! manure :i* has be5 add$ to !m1 z well z _! own *emical con/itu5ts1 are prev5t$ f und]go+ ^? *anges :i* are necess>y to prep>e !m = ! uses ( vegetation4 ,! wat] ( ra9s1 f9d+ ! spaces 9 ! soil already occupi$ by ! wat] ( previ\s ra9s1 _c ent] to deposit ! gases :i* x conta9s1--or1 if ! soil has be5 dri$ by evaporation "u ! influ5ce ( sun & w9d1 ! surface is almo/ h]metically seal$1 & ! wat] is only sl[ly soak$ up1 mu* ( x runn+ (f ov] ! surface1 or ly+ to be remov$ by ! sl[ & *ill+ process ( evaporation4 ,9 wet times & 9 dry1 ! air1 ) its heat1 its oxyg51 & its c>bonic acid1 7its univ]sal solv5t17 is =bidd5 to ent] & d its b5efic5t "w4 ,! b5efit result+ f cultivat+ ! surface ( ! gr\nd is c\nt]act$ by ! fir/ unfavorable *ange ( ! wea!r2 a s+le heavy ra91 by saturat+ ! soil1 return+ x to ne>ly its orig9al condition ( clammy compactness4 ,9 favorable seasons1 ^! difficulties are less5$1 b man has no control ov] ! seasons1 & to-morr[ may be z f\l z to-day has be5 fair4 ,a crop ( corn on undra9$1 ret5tive gr\nd1 is subject to injury f disa/r\s *anges ( ! wea!r1 f plant+ until h>ve/4 ,ev5 suppos+ t1 9 ! mo/ favorable seasons1 x w\ld yield z l>gely z ?\gh ! gr\nd 7 dra9$1 x w\ld lose en\gh 9 unfavorable seasons to r$uce ! av]age m ?an t5 7#aj7 bu%els p] acre4 ,! av]age crop1 on su* l&1 has be5 assum$ to be #cj bu%els p] acre2 x w\ld be an e/imate z mod]ate z ?is "o is g5]\s1 to say t1 ) ! same cultivation & ! same manure1 ! av]age crop1 aft] dra9+1 w\ld be #ej bu%els1 or an increase equal to twice z mu* z is ne$$ to pay ! dra9+ *>ge4 ,if ! me?od ( cultivation is improv$1 by deep pl[+1 ample manur+1 & ?or\gh work+1--all ( :i* may be m pr(itably appli$ to dra9$ ?an to undra9$ l&1--! av]age crop1--( a s]ies ( ye>s1--w n be less ?an #fj bu%els4 ,! co/ ( extra h>ve/+ w be m ?an repaid by ! value ( ! extra fodd]1 & ! increas$ cultivation & manur+ are la/+ b5efits1 :i* c be *>g$1 only 9 small "p1 to ! curr5t crop4 ,!re=e1 if x w pay to pl[1 plant1 hoe & h>ve/ = #cj bu%els ( corn1 x w surely pay mu* bett] to d\ble ! crop at a ye>ly extra co/ ( #e1 &1 practically1 x am\nts to ?is2--! extra crop is ne>ly all cle> ga94 ,! quantity ( ,:eat requir$ to repay ! annual *>ge = dra9age is s small1 t no argum5t is ne$$ to %[ t any process :i* w simply prev5t ?r[+ out 9 w9t]1 & ! failure ( ! plant 9 ! wett] p>ts ( ! field1 w increase ! product m ?an t am\nt1--to say no?+ ( ! g5]al importance to ?is crop ( hav+ ! l& 9 ! mo/ p]fect condition1 79 w9t] z well z 9 summ]47 ,x is /at$ t1 s9ce ! g5]al introduction ( dra9age 9 ,engl&1 7)9 ! pa/ #be ye>s17 ! :eat crop ( t c\ntry has be5 m ?an d\bl$4 ,( c\rse1 x does n necess>ily foll[ t ! am\nt p] acre has be5 d\bl$1 l>ge areas :i* 7 orig9ally unfit = ! gr[? ( ?is crop1 hav+ be51 by dra9+1 excell5tly fitt$ = its cultivation2--b !re c be no d\bt t its yield has be5 greatly increas$ on all dra9$ l&s1 nor t l>ge areas1 :i*1 be=e be+ dra9$1 7 able to produce fair crops only 9 ! be/ seasons1 are n[ made v ne>ly indep5d5t ( ! wea!r4 ,x is n susceptible ( demon/ration1 b x is und\bt$ly true1 t ^? clay or o!r heavy soils1 :i* are devot$ to ! gr[? ( :eat 9 ?is c\ntry1 w\ld1 if !y 7 ?or\ghly "u-dra9$1 produce1 on ! av]age ( ye>s1 at lea/ d\ble _! pres5t crop4 ,mr4 ,john ,john/on1 a v5]able ,scot* f>m]1 :o has long be5 a successful cultivator 9 ! ,:eat region ( ,we/]n ,new ,york1--& :o 0 almo/ ! pione] ( tile-dra9+ 9 ,am]ica1--has laid ov] #ej miles ( dra9s )9 ! la/ #cj ye>s4 ,8 practice is describ$ 9 ,klipp>t's ,l& ,dra9age1 f :i* "w we quote ! foll[+3 ,mr4 ,john/on says he nev] saw #ajj acres 9 any "o f>m1 b a portion ( x w\ld pay = dra9+4 ,mr4 ,john/on is no ri* man :o has c>ri$ a favorite hobby )\t reg>d to co/ or pr(it4 ,he is a h>dwork+ ,scot* f>m]1 :o comm5c$ a poor man1 borr[$ money to dra9 8 l&1 has gradually ext5d$ 8 op]ations1 & is n[ reap+ ! b5efits1 9 hav+ crops ( #dj bu%els ( :eat to ! acre4 ,he is a gray-hair$ ,ne/or1 :o1 aft] accumulat+ ! exp]i5ce ( a long life1 is n[1 at #fh ye>s ( age1 writt5 to by /rang]s 9 e ,/ate ( ! ,union = in=mation1 n only 9 dra9age matt]s1 b all cognate bran*es ( f>m+4 ,he sits 9 8 home/ead1 a v]itable ,humboldt 9 8 way1 disp5s+ in=mation *e]fully ?r\gh our agricultural pap]s & to private correspond5ts1 ( :om he has record$ #afd :o appli$ to him la/ ye>4 ,8 op9ions are1 !re=e1 wor? m ?an ^? ( a ho/ ( !oretical m51 :o write )\t practice4 99 99 99 99 99 ,al?\gh 8 f>m is ma9ly devot$ to :eat1 yet a consid]able area ( mead[ & "s pa/ure has be5 reta9$4 ,he n[ owns ab\t #cjj acres ( l&4 ,! yield ( :eat has be5 #dj bu%els ?is ye>1 & 9 =m] seasons1 :5 8 neighbors 7 reap+ #h1 #aj1 or #ae bu%els1 he has _h #cj & #dj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,mr4 ,john/on says tile-dra9+ pays = itself 9 two seasons1 sometimes 9 "o4 ,?us1 9 #ahdg1 he b\ght a piece ( #aj acres to get an outlet = 8 dra9s4 ,x 0 a p]fect quagmire1 cov]$ ) co>se aquatic grasses1 & s unfruitful t x w\ld n give back ! se$ s[n ^u x4 ,9 #ahdh a crop ( corn 0 tak5 f x1 :i* 0 measur$ & f\nd to be eighty bu%els p] acre1 & z1 because ( ! ,iri% fam9e1 corn 0 wor? #a p] bu%el t ye>1 ?is crop paid n only all ! exp5se ( dra9age1 b ! fir/ co/ ( ! l& z well4 ,ano!r piece ( #bj acres1 adjo9+ ! f>m ( ! late ,john ,delafield1 0 wet1 & w\ld nev] br+ m ?an #aj bu%els ( corn p] acre4 ,?is 0 dra9$ at a great co/1 ne>ly #cj p] acre4 ,! fir/ crop aft] ?is 0 #hc bu%els & "s odd p\nds p] acre4 ,x 0 weigh$ & measur$ by ,mr4 ,delafield1 & ! ,c\nty ,society aw>d$ a premium to ,mr4 ,john/on4 ,eight acres & "s rods ( ?is l&1 at "o side1 av]ag$ #id bu%els1 or ! trifl+ increase ( #hd bu%els p] acre ov] :at x w\ld be> be=e ^? insignificant clay tiles 7 buri$ 9 ! gr\nd4 ,b ?is increase ( crop is n ! only pr(it ( dra9age2 = ,mr4 ,john/on says t1 on dra9$ l&1 "o half ! usual quantity ( manure suffices to give maximum crops4 ,x is n difficult to f9d a reason = ?is4 ,:5 ! soil is sodd5 ) wat]1 air c n ent] to any ext5t1 & h5ce oxyg5 c n eat (f ! surfaces ( soil-p>ticles & prep>e food = plants2 ?us ! plant mu/ 9 great measure dep5d on ! manure = su/5ance1 &1 ( c\rse1 ! m ?is is ! case1 ! m manure mu/ be appli$ to get good crops4 ,?is is "o reason1 b !re are o!rs :i* we might adduce if "o good "o 7 n suffici5t4 ,mr4 ,john/on says he nev] made money until he dra9$1 & s conv9c$ is he ( ! b5efits accru+ f ! practice1 t he w\ld n hesitate1--z he did n :5 ! result 0 mu* m unc]ta9 ?an at pres5t1--to borr[ money to dra94 ,dra9s well laid1 endure1 b unless a f>m] int5ds do+ ! job well1 he _h be/ leave x alone & gr[ poor1 & move out ,we/1 & all t sort ( ?+4 ,occupi]s ( app>5tly dry l& are n safe 9 conclud+ t !y ne$ n g to ! exp5se ( dra9+1 = if !y w b dig a ?ree-foot dit* 9 ev5 ! drie/ soil1 wat] w be f\nd 9 ! bottom at ! end ( eight h\rs1 & if x does come1 !n dra9+ w pay = itself spe$ily4 ,"s ye>s ago1 ! ,rural ,new ,york] publi%$ a lett] f "o ( its correspond5ts f :i* ! foll[+ is extract$3-- ,i recollect call+ ^u a g5tleman 9 ! h>ve/ field1 :5 some?+ l ! foll[+ conv]sation occurr$3 ',y\r :eat1 sir1 looks v f9e2 h[ _m acres h y 9 ?is field8' ',9 ! neighborhood ( eight1 ,i judge4' ',did y s[ ^u fall[8' ',no sir4 ,we turn$ ov] gre5 sw>d--s[$ imm$iately ^u ! sod1 & dragg$ x ?or\ghly--& y see ! yield w probably be #be bu%els to ! acre1 :]e x is n too wet4' ',yes sir1 x is mo/ly v f9e4 ,i obs]v$ a ?9 /rip ?r\gh x1 b did n notice t x 0 wet4' ',well1 x is n v wet4 ,sometimes aft] a ra91 ! wat] runs across x1 & 9 spr+ & fall x is j wet en\gh to heave ! :eat & kill x4' ,i inquir$ :e!r a c\ple ( good dra9s across ! lot w\ld n r5d] x dry4 ',p]haps s--b !re is n ov] an acre t is kill$ out4' ',h y made an e/imate ( ! loss y annually su/a9 f ?is wet place8' ',no1 ,i _h n ?\ght mu* ab\t x4' ',w\ld #cj be too high8' ',o yes1 d\ble4' ',well1 let's see2 x co/ y #c to turn ov] ! sw>d8 ,two bu%els ( se$1 #b2 h>r[+ 91 #ge c5ts2 int]e/1 taxes1 & f5ces1 #e4be2 #be bu%els ( :eat lo/1 #be4' ',d$uct = h>ve/+----' ',no2 ! /raw w\ld pay = t4' ',v well1 all foot$ #cf4' ',:at w ! :eat & /raw on ?is acre be wor? ?is ye>8' ',no?+1 z ,i %all n cut ! gr\nd ov]4' ',!n x appe>s t y h lo/1 9 :at y h actually exp5d$1 & ! :eat y w\ld h h>ve/$1 _h ! gr\nd be5 dry1 #cf1 a pretty l>ge sum = "o acre4' ',yes ,i see1' said ! f>m]4 ,:ile ,rye may be gr[n1 ) tol]able advantage1 on l&s :i* are less p]fectly dra9$ ?an is necess>y = ,:eat1 !re c be no d\bt t an increase ( m ?an ! six & two-?irds bu%els ne$$ to make up ! dra9age *>ge w be ! result ( ! improvem5t4 ,:ile ,oats w ?rive 9 soils :i* are too wet = _m o!r crops1 ! ability to plant e>ly1 :i* is secur$ by an e>ly removal f ! soil ( its surplus wat]1 w ensure1 "o ye> ) ano!r1 m ?an twelve & a half bu%els ( increas$ product4 ,9 ! case ( ,potatoes1 also1 ! e>ly plant+ w be a great advantage2 &1 :ile ! cause ( ! potato-rot is n yet cle>ly discov]$1 x is g5]ally conc$$ t1 ev5 if x does n result directly f too great wetness ( ! soil1 its developm5t is favor$ by ?is condition1 ei!r f a direct action on ! tub]s1 or f ! effect 9 ! air imm$iately ab\t ! plants1 ( ! exhalations ( a humid soil4 ,an increase ( f five to t5 p] c5t4 on a v ord9>y crop ( potatoes1 w cov] ! dra9age *>ge1 & ) facilities = m>ket+1 ! high] price ( ! e>li] yield is ( mu* great] consequ5ce4 ,b>ley w n ?rive 9 wet soil1 & !re is no "q t dra9age w\ld give x mu* m ?an ! increas$ yield prescrib$ above4 ,z to hay1 !re are _m wet1 ri* soils :i* produce v l>ge crops ( grass1 & x is possible t dra9age might n always cause !m to yield a ?\s& p\nds m ( hay to ! acre1 b ! quality ( ! hay f ! dra9$ soil1 w\ld1 ( itself1 m ?an comp5sate = ! dra9age *>ge4 ,! great b5efit ( ! improvem5t1 ) ref]5ce to ?is crop1 h[ev]1 lies 9 ! fact t1 al?\gh wet1 grass l&s1--& by wet is meant ! condition ( undra9$1 ret5tive clays1 & heavy loams1 or o!r soils requir+ dra9age1--9 a v few ye>s run out1 or become occupi$ by semi-aquatic & o!r objectionable plants1 to ! exclusion ( ! prop] grasses2 ! same l&s1 ?or\ghly dra9$1 may be kept 9 full yield ( ! f9e/ hay plants1 z long z ! gr\nd is prop]ly manag$4 ,x mu/1 ( c\rse1 be manur$1 f "t to "t1 & c>e %\ld be tak5 to prev5t ! puddl+ ( its surface1 by m5 or animals1 :ile x is too wet f rec5t ra94 ,) prop] att5tion to ^! po9ts1 x ne$ n be brok5 up 9 a lifetime1 & x may be reli$ on to produce uni=mly good crops1 always equal to ! be/ obta9$ be=e dra9age4 ,s f> z ,cotton & ,tobacco are conc]n$1 !re are n _m in/ances record$ ( ! sy/ematic dra9age ( l&s appropriat$ to _! cultivation1 b !re is e reason to suppose t !y w bo? be b5efitt$ by any op]ation :i* w h ! effect ( plac+ ! soil 9 a bett] condition = ! uses ( all cultivat$ plants4 ,! av]age crop ( tobacco is ab\t #gjj lbs41 & t ( cotton probably #bej lbs4 ,an addition ( "o-fif? to ! cotton crop1 & ( only "o ?irty-fif? to ! tobacco crop1 w\ld make ! requir$ increase4 ,! failure ( ! cotton crop1 dur+ ! pa/ season1 7#ahff17 might h be5 entirely prev5t$1 9 _m di/ricts1 by ! ?or\gh dra9+ ( ! l&4 ,! advantages claim$ = dra9age ) ref]5ce to ! above-nam$ /aple crops1 w apply ) equal1 if n great] =ce1 to all g>d5 & or*>d culture4 ,9 fact1 ) ! exception ( osi] will[s1 & cranb]ries1 !re is sc>cely a cultivat$ plant :i* w n yield l>g] & bett] crops on dra9$ ?an on undra9$ l&1--en\gh bett]1 & en\gh l>g]1 to pay mu* m ?an ! int]e/ on ! co/ ( ! improvem5t4 ,yet1 ?is advantage ( dra9+1 is1 by no means1 ! only "o :i* is wor?y ( consid]ation4 ,s9ce ! object ( cultivation is to produce remun]ative crops1 ( c\rse1 ! l>g] & bett] ! crops1 ! m completely is ! object atta9$2--& to ?is ext5t ! greate/ b5efit result+ f dra9+1 lies 9 ! increas$ yield4 ,b !re is ano!r advantage1--a mat]ial & moral advantage1--:i* is equally to be consid]$4 ,in/ances ( ! pr(it result+ f "u-dra9+1 7c\pl$1 z x almo/ always is1 ) improv$ cultivation17 are frequ5tly publi%$1 & x w\ld be easy to =tify ?is *apt] ) hundr$s ( well au!nticat$ cases4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 deem$ suffici5t to quote ! foll[+1 f an old numb] ( "o ( ! ,new ,york dailies3-- ,"s ye>s ago1 ! son ( an ,engli% f>m] came to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & let himself z a f>m labor]1 9 ,new ,york ,/ate1 on ! foll[+ conditions3 ,comm5c+ "w at ! fir/ ( ,septemb]1 he 0 to "w t5 h\rs a day = ?ree ye>s1 & to receive 9 paym5t a de$ ( a field conta9+ twelve acres--secur+ himself by an agreem5t1 by :i* 8 employ] 0 put "u bonds ( #b1jjj to fulfill 8 "p ( ! contract2 also1 dur+ ^! ?ree ye>s1 he 0 to h ! control ( ! field2 to "w x at 8 own exp5se1 & to give 8 employ] "o-half ! proce$s4 ,! field lay "u ! s\? side ( a hill1 0 ( d>k1 heavy clay re/+ on a blui%-color$1 solid clay subsoil1 & = _m ye>s previ\s1 _h n be5 kn[n to yield any?+ b a yell[i%1 h>d1 /unt$ vegetation4 ,! f>m] ?\ght ! "y man 0 a simpleton1 & t he1 himself1 0 mo/ wise & =tunate2 b ! =m]1 no?+ daunt$ by ?is op9ion1 :i* he 0 n unconsci\s t ! latt] ent]ta9$ ( him1 imm$iately hir$ a set ( labor]s1 & set !m to "w 9 ! field tr5*+1 z e>ne/ly z x 0 well possible = m5 to labor4 ,9 ! morn+ & ev5+1 be=e & aft] hav+ work$ 8 t5 h\rs1 z p] agreem5t1 he work$ ) !m1 & cont9u$ to "w 9 ?is way until1 ab\t ! middle ( ! foll[+ ,novemb]1 he _h f9i%$ ! lay+ ( ne>ly #e1jjj y>ds ( good tile "u-dra9s4 ,he !n _h ! field pl[$ deep & ?or\ghly1 & ! e>? ?r[n up z mu* z possible into ridges1 & ?us let x rema9 dur+ ! w9t]4 ,next spr+ he _h ! field aga9 pl[$ z be=e1 !n cross-pl[$ & ?or\ghly pulv]iz$ ) a heavy h>r[1 !n s[$ x ) oats & clov]4 ,! yield 0 excell5t--no?+ to be comp>$ to x _h ev] be=e be5 se5 ^u t field4 ,next ye> x gave two crops ( clov]1 ( a ri* d>k gre51 & enorm\sly heavy & luxuriant2 & ! ye> foll[+1 aft] be+ manur$ at an exp5se ( "s #g an acre1 n9e acres ( ! field yield$ #icf bu%els ( corn1 & #be wagon loads ( pumpk9s2 :ile f ! rema9+ ?ree acres 7 tak5 #ajj bu%els ( potatoes--! return ( ?is crop be+ upw>ds ( #a1bjj4 ,! "t _h n[ come = ! field to fall into ! "y man's possession1 & ! f>m] unhesitat+ly (f]$ him #a1ejj to rel9qui% 8 title to x2 & :5 ?is 0 unhesitat+ly refus$1 he (f]$ #b1jjj1 :i* 0 accept$4 ,! "y man's acc\nt /ood ?us ,half proce$s ( oats #afe #jj & /raw1 fir/ ye> ,half value ( %eep #be #jj pa/urage1 fir/ ye> ,half ( fir/ crops ( #aab #ej clov]1 fir/ ye> ,half ( second crops ( #ace #jj clov]1 includ+ se$1 second ye> ,half ( %eep #ae #jj pa/urage1 second ye> ,half ( crops ( corn1 #fij #jj pumpk9s & potatoes1 ?ird ye> ,receiv$ f f>m]1 #b1jjj #jj = rel9qui%m5t ( title ------ ,acc\nt ,dr4 #c1adb #ej ,to "u-dra9+1 #cbe #jj labor & tiles ,to labor & manure1 #dge #jj ?ree seasons ,to labor giv5 to #egf #jj--a1cgf #jj f>m]1 #af p] mon?1 #cf mon?s ------ ,balance 9 8 favor #a1gff #ej ,dra9+ makes ! f>m]1 to a great ext5t1 ! ma/] ( 8 vocation4 ,) a sloppy1 dr5*$1 cold1 uncong5ial soil1 :i* is saturat$ ) e ra91 & takes days1 & ev5 weeks1 to become suffici5tly dry to "w ^u1 8 ef=ts are con/antly baffl$ by unfavorable wea!r1 at ^? times :5 x is mo/ important t 8 "w proce$ )\t int]ruption4 ,weeks are lo/1 at a season :5 !y are all too %ort = ! "w to be done4 ,! gr\nd mu/ be hurri$ly1 & imp]fectly prep>$1 & ! se$ is put 9 too late1 (t5 to rot 9 ! ov]-soak$ soil1 requir+ ! field to be plant$ aga9 at a "t :i* makes x extremely d\btful :e!r ! crop w rip5 be=e ! fro/ de/roys x4 ,! necess>y summ] cultivation1 betwe5 ! r[s1 has to be done z ! wea!r p]mits2 & mu* m ( x is requir$ because ( ! bak+ ( ! gr\nd4 ,! :ole life ( ! f>m]1 9 fact1 becomes a con/ant /ruggle ) nature1 & he fights always at a disadvantage4 ,:at he does by ! "w ( days1 is ma9ly undone by a s+le night's /orm4 ,we$s gr[ apace1 & ! l& is too wet to admit ( _! be+ ext]m9at$4 ,by ! "t t x is dry en\gh1 o!r press+ "w occupies ! "t2 & if1 f9ally1 a day comes :5 !y may be attack$1 !y (f] t5 times ! resi/ance t !y w\ld h done a week e>li]4 ,! op]ations ( ! f>m are c>ri$ on m exp5sively ?an if ! ability to "w con/antly all[$ a small] =ce to be employ$4 ,! crops :i* give su* d\btful promise1 require ! same cultivation z ?\gh !y 7 c]ta9 to be remun]ative1 & ! "w c be done only ) increas$ labor1 because ( ! bad condition ( ! soil4 ,f =ce ( tradition & ( habit1 ! f>m] accepts 8 fate & plods ?r\gh 8 h>d life1 pi\sly ascrib+ to ! especial int]f]5ce ( an inscrutable ,provid5ce1 ! trials :i* come ( 8 own neglect to use ! means ( relief :i* ,provid5ce has plac$ )9 8 rea*4 ,tr\ble en\gh he mu/ h1 at any rate1 b n necess>ily all t he n[ has4 ,x is n )9 ! scope ( ! be/ laid dra9s to control /orm or sun%9e1--b x is )9 _! p[] to remove ! wat] ( ! /orm1 rapidly & suffici5tly1 & to all[ ! heat ( ! sun%9e to p5etrate ! soil & d its hidd5 "w4 ,no human improvem5t c *ange any ( ! s-call$ ph5om5a ( nature1 or prev5t ! action ( ! lea/ ( h] laws2 b _! effects ^u ! soil & its crops may be greatly modifi$1 & t :i*1 "u c]ta9 circum/ances1 w\ld h caus$ inconv5i5ce or loss1 may1 by a *ange ( circum/ances1 be made positively b5eficial4 ,9 ! practice ( agriculture1 :i* is pre-em95tly an economic art1 dra9+ w be prosecut$ because ( ! pecuni>y pr(it :i* x promises1 &1--v prop]ly1--x w n be pursu$1 to any consid]able ext5t1 :]e ! money1 :i* x co/s1 w n br+ money 9 return4 ,yet1 9 a l>g] view ( ! case1 its collat]al advantages are ( ev5 great] mom5t ?an its m]e pr(its4 ,x is ! f\ndation & ! comm5cem5t ( ! mo/ intellig5t f>m+4 ,x op5s ! way = o!r improvem5ts1 :i*1 )\t x1 w\ld produce only d\btful or tempor>y b5efits2 & x enables ! f>m] s to ext5d & enl>ge 8 op]ations1 ) fair promise ( success1 z to raise 8 occupation f a m]e wait+ ^u ! unc]ta9 favors ( nature1 to an intellig5t h&l+ ( h] =ces1 = ! atta9m5t ( almo/ c]ta9 results4 ,! rude "w ( an un?9k+ f>m]1 :o scrat*es ! surface soil ) 8 pl[1 plants 8 se$1 & tru/s to ! *ances ( a great] or less return1 is unmitigat$ drudg]y1--unwor?y ( an intellig5t man2 b he :o inve/igates all ( ! causes ( success & failure 9 f>m+1 & adapts e op]ation to ! requirem5ts ( ! circum/ances "u :i* he works2 do+ ev]y?+ 9 8 p[] t may t5d to ! production ( ! results :i* he desires1 &1 s f> z possible1 avoid+ ev]y?+ t may int]f]e ) 8 success1--leav+ no?+ to *ance t c be secur$1 & secur+ all t *ance may (f]1--is engag$ 9 ! mo/ ennobl+1 ! mo/ intellig5t & ! mo/ progressive ( all indu/rial avocations4 ,9 ! cultivation ( ret5tive soils1 dra9age is ! key to all improvem5t1 & its advantage is to be measur$ n simply by ! effect :i* x directly produces 9 increas+ production1 b1 9 /ill great] degree1 by ! ext5t to :i* x prep>es ! way = ! successful application ( improv$ processes1 makes ! f>m] indep5d5t ( wea!r & season1 & (f]s fre] scope to intellig5ce 9 ! direction ( 8 affairs4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 - ,,h[ ,,to ,,make ,,dra9+ ,,tiles4 ,dra9+ tiles are made ( burnt clay1 l bricks & e>!n-w>e4 ,9 g5]al t]ms1 ! process is z foll[s3--,! clay is mix$ ) s&1 or o!r sub/ances :i* give x ! prop] consi/5cy1 & is s wett$ z to =m a pla/ic mass1 to :i* may be giv5 any desir$ =m1 & :i* is suffici5tly /iff to reta9 its %ape4 ,prop]ly prep>$ clay is =c$ ?r\gh ! ap]ture ( a die ( ! %ape ( ! outside ( ! tile1 :ile a plug1--held by a support 9 ! re> ( ! die1--projects ?r\gh ! ap]ture1 & gives ! =m to ! bore ( ! tile4 ,! %ape ( ! mat]ial ( ! tile1 z x comes f ! die1 corresponds to ! op5 space1 betwe5 ! plug & ! edge ( ! ap]ture4 ,! clay is =c$ out 9 a cont9u\s pipe1 :i* is cut to ! desir$ l5g? by a wire1 :i* is s ?9 z to pass ?r\gh ! mass )\t alt]+ ! %ape ( ! pipe4 ,! %ort l5g?s ( pipe are dri$ 9 ! air z ?or\ghly z !y c be1 & are !n burn$ 9 a kiln1 simil> to t us$ = pott]y4 99,mat]ials499--,! range ( e>?s :i* may be us$ 9 ! manufacture ( tiles is consid]able1 ?\gh clay is ! basis ( all ( !m4 ,! be/ is1 probably1 ! clay :i* is almo/ inv>iably f\nd at ! bottom ( muck b$s1 z ?is is f9] & m compact ?an t :i* is dug f dry l&1 & requires b little prep>ation4 ,!re is1 also1 a peculi> clay1 f\nd 9 "s localities1 :i* is almo/ l quick-s& 9 its nature1 & :i* is excell5t = tile-mak+1--requir+ no freez+1 or wa%+ to prep>e x = ! ma*9e4 ,z a g5]al rule1 any clay :i* w make good bricks w make tiles4 ,:5 fir/ tak5 f ! gr\nd1 ^! clays are n usually adhesive1 b become s on be+ moi/5$ & knead$4 ,x is especially important t no lime/one pebbles be mix$ ) ! clay1 z ! burn+ w\ld *ange ^! to quicklime1 :i*1 9 slak+1 w\ld de/roy ! tiles4 ,! pres5ce ( a limey e>?1 h[ev]1 mix$ ?r\gh ! mass1 is a positive advantage1 z 9 ?is intimate admixture1 ! lime =ms1 "u ! heat ( ! kiln1 a *emical comb9ation ) ! o!r +r$i5ts2 &1 z x melts m readily ?an "s ( !m1 x ha/5s ! burn+ & makes x m complete4 ,:at is kn[n z pla/ic clay1 7"o ( ! pure/ ( ! native clays17 is too /rong = tile-mak+1 & mu/ be temp]$1 by hav+ o!r sub/ances mix$ ) x1 to give x a /iff] quality4 ,! clay :i* is be/ = brick-mak+1 conta9s ,silica1 & ,alum9a 9 ab\t ! foll[+ proportions3 ,silica 444 #ee to #ge p] c5t4 ,alum9a 444 #ce to #be p] c5t4 ,v>iable quantities ( o!r mat]ials are usually f\nd 9 connection ) ! clay1 9 its native condition4 ,! mo/ common ( ^! are ! foll[+3-- ,magnesia #a to #e p] c5t4--sometimes #bj to #cj p] c5t4 ,lime #j to #ai p] c5t4 ,pota% #j to #e p] c5t4 ,oxyd ( iron #j to #ai p] c5t4 ,^! necess>y elem5ts give fusibility to e>!nw>e1 &1 !re=e1 all[ its con/itu5t sub/ances to comb9e 9 su* a mann] z to =m a resi/+ body2 & ?us is p]=m$ ) a temp]ature l[] 9 proportion z ! necess>y elem5ts are m abundant47#bc7 ,:5 ! e>? ( ! locality :]e tiles are to be made is n suffici5tly /rong = ! purpose1 & pla/ic clay c be *eaply obta9$ f a di/ance1 a small quantity ( ?is may be us$ to give /r5g? & t5acity to ! native mat]ial4 ,! comp\nd mu/ always conta9 a prop] proportion ( clay & s&4 ,if too little clay is us$1 ! mass w n be suffici5tly t\gh to reta9 its compactness z x passes ?r\gh ! die ( ! tile ma*9e2 if too little s&1 ! m\ld$ tiles w n be /rong en\gh to be> h&l+1 & !y w crack & w>p 9 dry+ & burn+4 ,)9 ! prop] limits1 ! ri*] e>?s may be m\ld$ mu* ?9n]1 & tiles made f !m may1 consequ5tly1 be made light] = transportation1 )\t be+ too weak4 ,! be/ mat]ials = temp]+ /iff clays are s&1 p\nd$ brick or tile1 or scoria1 f smelt+ furnaces4 99,prep>ation ,( ,e>?s499--,! clay f :i* tiles are to be made1 %\ld be ?r[n out 9 ! fall1 7! upp] & l[] p>ts ( ! b$s be+ well mix$ 9 ! op]ation17 & made into heaps on ! surface1 n m ?an ab\t #c feet squ>e & #c feet high4 ,9 ?is =m1 x is left expos$ to ! freez+ & ?aw+ ( w9t]1 :i* w aid v mu* 9 modify+ its "*1--mak+ x less lumpy & m easily workable4 ,any /ones :i* may appe> 9 ! digg+1 %\ld1 ( c\rse1 be remov$1 & mo/ e>?s w be improv$ by be+ pass$ ?r\gh a pair ( heavy iron roll]s1 be=e !y are pil$ up = ! w9t]4 ,! roll]s %\ld be made ( ca/ iron1 ab\t #ae in*es 9 diamet]1 & #cj in*es long1 & set z close toge!r z !y c be1 & /ill be revolv$ by ! p[] ( two horses4 ,! gr9d+1 by means ( ^! roll]s1 may add #ej c5ts p] ?\s& to ! co/ ( ! tiles1 b x w greatly improve _! quality4 ,9 ! spr+1 ! clay %\ld be prep>$ = temp]+1 by ! removal ( su* pebbles z x may /ill conta94 ,! be/ way to d ?is is by wa%+1 ?\gh1 if !re be only a few co>se pebbles1 !y may be remov$ by build+ ! clay into a solid cone #b or #c feet high1 & !n p>+ x (f into ?9 slices ) a long knife hav+ a h&le at ea* end4 ,?is p>+ w discov] any pebbles l>g] ?an a pea t may h rema9$ 9 ! clay4 ,wa%+ is ! process ( mix+ ! clay ) a consid]able quantity ( wat]1 s z to =m a ?9 pa/e1 9 :i* all /ones & gravel w s9k to ! bottom2 ! liquid portion is !n drawn (f into %all[ pits or vats1 & all[$ to settle1 ! cle> wat] be+ f9ally remov$ by pump+ or by evaporation1 accord+ to ! ne$ = ha/e4 ,= wa%+ small quantities ( clay1 a common mort> b$1 su* z is us$ by masons1 w answ]1 if x be suppli$ ) a gate = dra9+ (f ! muddy wat] aft] ! gravel has settl$2 b1 if ! "w is at all ext5sive1 a wa%+ mill w be requir$4 ,x may be made 9 ! =m ( a circul> tr\gh1 ) scrap]s = mix+ ! clay & wat] atta*$ to a circul> horse-sweep4 ,ano!r conv5i5t mix+ ma*9e may be con/ruct$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,take a l>ge holl[ log1 ( suitable l5g?1 say five or six feet2 hew out ! inequalities ) an adz1 & close up ! ends ) pieces ( /rong plank1 into :i* be>+ h be5 cut to support a revolv+ %aft4 ,?is %aft %\ld be suffici5tly ?ick to p]mit be+ transfix$ ) wood5 p9s long en\gh to rea* )9 an in* or two ( ! sides ( ! log or tr\gh1 & !y %\ld be s bevel$ z to =m 9 _! aggregate %ape an int]rupt$ screw1 hav+ a direction t[>d t end ( ! box :]e ! mix$ clay is design$ to pass out4 ,9 ord] to effect ! mix+ m ?or\ghly1 ^! p9s may be plac$ suffici5tly f> ap>t to p]mit ! int]ior ( ! box to be arm$ ) o!r p9s ext5d+ t[>d ! c5t]1 betwe5 :i* !y c easily move4 ,! :ole is plac$ ei!r horizontally or v]tically1 & suppli$ ) clay & wat] 9 prop] quantities1 :ile ! %aft is made to revolve by means ( a sweep1 ) horse p[]1 runn+ wat] or /eam1 z ! case may be4 ,! clay is put into ! end f>!/ f ! outlet1 & is c>ri$ =w>d to x & mix$ by ! motion1 & mutual action & re-action ( ! p9s 9 ! %aft & 9 ! sides ( ! box4 ,iron p9s may1 ( c\rse1 be sub/itut$ = ! wood5 ones1 & h ! advantage ( great] durability & ( great] /r5g? 9 proportion to _! size1 & ! numb] may !re=e be great] 9 a ma*9e ( any giv5 l5g?4 ,! fluid mass ( clay & wat] may be p]mitt$ to fall ^u a sieve or riddle1 ( heavy wire1 & aft]w>d be receiv$ 9 a settl+ vat1 ( suitable size & con/ruction1 to dra9 (f ! wat] & let ! clay dry out suffici5tly by subsequ5t evaporation4 ,a ma*9e ( ?is con/ruction may be made ( su* a size t x may be put 9 motion by h&1 by means ( a crank1 & yet be capable ( mix+1 if prop]ly suppli$1 clay en\gh to mold #hjj or #ajjj pieces ( dra9 pipe p] day47#bd7 ,mr4 ,p>kes1 9 a report to ! ,royal ,agricultural ,society ( ,engl&1 9 #ahdc1 says3 ,x is requisite t ! clay be well wa%$ & siev$ be=e pugg+1 = ! manufacture ( ^! tiles1 or ! op]ation ( draw+ !m w\ld be greatly imp$$1 by hav+ to remove /ones f ! small space surr\nd+ ! die1 :i* det]m9es ! ?ickness ( ! pipe4 ,b x results f ?is necess>y wa%+1 t ! sub/ance ( ! pipe is uni=mly & extremely d5se1 :i*1 consequ5tly1 gives x imm5se /r5g?1 & ensures a durability :i* _c belong to a m por\s1 ?\gh ?ick]1 tile4 ,! clay is br\ght f ! pug-mill s dry t1 :5 squeez$ ?r\gh ! ma*9e1 n a drop ( wat] exudes1--moi/ure is1 inde$1 sc>cely app>5t on ! surface ( ! raw pipe4 ,h5ce1 ! tiles und]go little or no *ange ( figure :ile dry+1 :i* takes place v rapidly1 because ( _! firm & slight sub/ance4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #db - ,,pug-,,mill4 ,fig4 #db - ,,pug-,,mill4 ,temp]+4--,aft] ! f9e clay is reliev$ ( ! wat] ) :i* x 0 wa%$1 & has become tol]ably dry1 x %\ld be mix$ ) ! s&1 or o!r temp]+ mat]ial1 & pass$ ?r\gh ! ,pug-,mill1 7,fig4 #db17 :i* w ?or\ghly mix its v>i\s +r$i5ts1 & "w ! :ole into a homog5e\s mass1 ready = ! tile ma*9e4 ,! pug-mill is simil> to t us$ 9 brick-y>ds1 only1 z ! clay is work$ mu* /iff] = tiles ?an = bricks1 iron knives mu/ be sub/itut$ = ! wood5 p9s4 ,^! knives are s arrang$ z to cut ! clay 9 e "p1 &1 by be+ set at an angle1 !y =ce x d[nw>d t[>d ! outlet gate at ! bottom4 ,! clay %\ld be kept at ! prop] degree ( moi/ure f ! "t ( temp]+1 & aft] pass+ ?r\gh ! pug-mill x %\ld be ?or\ghly beat5 to drive out ! air1 & ! beat5 mass %\ld be kept cov]$ ) wet clo?s to prev5t dry+4 99,m\ld+ ! ,tiles499--,ma*9es = m\ld+ tiles are ( v>i\s /yles1 ) mu* v>iation 9 ! details ( _! con/ruction1 b !y all act on ! same g5]al pr9ciple2--t ( =c+ ! clay ?r\gh a r+-%ap$ ap]ture 9 an iron plate1 =m+ a cont9u\s pipe1 :i* is c>ri$ (f on an endless apron1 or on roll]s1 & cut by wires into ! desir$ l5g?s4 ,! plates ) ! r+-%ap$ ap]tures are call$ dies2 ! op5+s are ( any desir$ =m1 correspond+ to ! ext]nal %ape ( ! tiles2 & ! size & %ape ( ! bore1 is det]m9$ by ! core or plug1 :i* is held 9 ! c5t]s ( ! ap]tures4 ,! con/ruction ( ! die plates1 & ! mann] ( fa/5+ ! plugs1 :i* det]m9e ! bore ( ! tiles1 is %[n 9 ,fig4 #dc4 ,! view tak5 is ( ! inside ( ! plate4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dc - ,,plate ,,( ,,dies4 ,fig4 #dc - ,,plate ,,( ,,dies4 ,! ma*9e consi/s usually ( a /rong iron *e/1 ) a h+$ cov]1 into :i* ! clay is plac$1 hav+ a pi/on mov+ 9 x1 connect$ by a rod or b>1 hav+ cog-tee?1 ) a cog-:eel1 :i* is mov$ by horse or h& p[]1 & drives ! pi/on =w>d ) /ead9ess1 =c+ ! clay ?r\gh ! op5+s 9 ! die-plate4 ,! clay issues 9 cont9u\s l9es ( pipe4 ,! ma*9es mo/ 9 use 9 ?is c\ntry are connect$ directly ) ! pug-mill1 & z ! clay is pugg$1 x at once passes into ! box1 & is press$ out z tiles4 ,^! ma*9es are usually run by horse-p[]4 ,mr4 ,b>ral1 9 8 volum9\s "w on dra9age17#be7 describes1 z foll[s1 a *eap h& ma*9e :i* c be made by any c\ntry :eelwright1 & :i* has a capacity ( #c1jjj tiles p] day 7,fig4 #dd73 ,imag9e a simple1 wood5 box1 divid$ into two comp>tm5ts4 ,9 ! re> comp>tm5t !re /&s a v]tical po/1 fa/5$ ) two iron bolts1 hav+ heads at "o end1 & nuts & screws at ! o!r4 ,! box is ?us fix$ to its support4 ,we simply place ?is support on ! gr\nd & b9d its upp] "p ) a rope to a tree1 a /ake1 or a po/4 ,! front comp>tm5t is ! res]voir = ! clay1 pres5t+ at its front an orifice1 9 :i* we fix ! desir$ die ) a simple bolt4 ,a wood5 pi/on1 ( :i* ! rod is jo9t$ ) a lev]1 :i* works 9 a bolt at ! top ( ! support+ po/1 gives ! necess>y pressure4 ,:5 ! *e/ is full ( clay1 we be> d[n on ! end ( ! lev]1 & ! m\ld$ tiles run out on a table suppli$ ) roll]s4 ,rais+ ! pi/on1 x comes out ( ! box1 :i* is aga9 pack$ ) clay4 ,! pi/on is replac$ 9 ! box2 pressure is aga9 appli$ to ! lev]1 & s on4 ,:5 ! l9e ( tiles rea*es ! end ( ! table1 we l[] a frame on :i* brass wires are /ret*$1 & cut x into ! usual l5g?s4 ,fig4 #dd - ,,*eap ,,wood5 ,,ma*9e4 ,fig4 #dd - ,,*eap ,,wood5 ,,ma*9e4 ,! workm5 mu/ att5d well to ! degree ( moi/ure ( ! clay :i* is put into ! ma*9e4 ,x %\ld be dry en\gh to %[ no undue moi/ure on its surface z x comes out ( ! die-plate1 & suffici5tly moi/ n to be crumbl$ 9 pass+ ! edge ( ! m\ld4 ,! clay = small 7?97 tiles mu/1 necess>ily1 be m moi/ ?an t :i* is to pass ?r\gh a wid] ap]ture2 & = ! latt] !re may1 ) advantage1 be m s& 9 ! pa/e ?an w\ld be practicable ) ! =m]4 ,aft] ! tiles are cut into l5g?s1 !y are remov$ by a set ( m&rils1 small en\gh to pass easily into !m1 su* z are %[n 9 ,fig4 #de1 7! numb] ( f+]s correspond+ ) ! numb] ( r[s ( tiles made by ! ma*9e17 & are plac$ on %elves made ( n>r[ /rips sawn f "o-in* bo>ds1 laid ) spaces betwe5 !m to all[ a free circulation ( air4 ,fig4 #de - ,,m&ril ,,= ,,c>ry+ ,,tiles ,,f ,,ma*9e4 ,fig4 #de - ,,m&ril ,,= ,,c>ry+ ,,tiles ,,f ,,ma*9e4 99,dry+ & ,roll+499--,c>e mu/ be tak5 t fre%ly made tiles be n dri$ too rapidly4 ,!y %\ld be %elt]$ f ! sun & f /rong w9ds4 ,too rapid dry+ has ! effect ( w>p+ !m out ( %ape1 &1 sometimes1 ( crack+ ! clay4 ,to provide aga9/ ?is injury1 ! dry+ is done "u %$s or o!r cov]+1 & ! side :i* is expos$ to ! prevail+ w9ds is sometimes bo>d$ up4 ,= ! fir/ dry+1 ! tiles are plac$ 9 s+le lay]s on ! %elves4 ,:5 ab\t half dri$1--at :i* "t !y are usually w>p$ m or less f _! true %ape1--x is well to roll !m4 ,?is is done by pass+ ?r\gh !m a smoo?1 r\nd /ick1 7suffici5tly small] ?an ! bore to ent] x easily1 & long en\gh to project five or six in*es beyond ea* end ( ! tile17 &1--hold+ "o end ( ! /ick 9 ea* h&1--roll+ !m c>efully on a table4 ,?is op]ation %\ld be p]=m$ :5 ! tiles are /ill moi/ en\gh n to be brok5 by ! slight b5d+ requir$ to make !m /raight4 ,aft] roll+1 ! tiles may be pil$ up 9 close lay]s1 "s f\r or five feet high1 7:i* w secure !m aga9/ fur!r w>p+17 & left until !y are dry en\gh = burn+1--t is1 z dry z !y c be made by exposure to ! air4 99,burn+499--,tiles are burn$ 9 kilns 9 :i*1 by ! effect ( flame act+ directly ^u !m1 !y are rais$ to a heat suffici5t to melt "s ( _! m easily fusible +r$i5ts1 & give to !m a /one-l h>dness4 ,kilns are ( v>i\s con/ruction & ( v>i\s sizes4 ,z ?is book is n int5d$ = ! in/ruction ( ^? :o are engag$ 9 ! g5]al manufacture ( tiles1 only = ^? :o may f9d x necess>y to e/abli% local works1 x w be suffici5t to describe a tempor>y e>!n kiln :i* may be *eaply built1 & :i* w answ] an excell5t purpose1 :]e only #ajj1jjj or #bjj1jjj tiles p] season w be requir$4 ,directions = its con/ruction are set =? 9 a lett] f ,mr4 ,t4 ,law ,hodges1 ( ,engl&1 to ! late ,e>l ,sp5c]1 publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,agricultural ,society = ! ye> #ahdc1 z foll[s3 ,! =m ( ! clay-kiln is circul>1 #aa feet 9 diamet]1 & #g feet high4 ,x is :olly built ( damp1 clayey e>?1 ramm$ firmly toge!r1 & pla/]$1 inside & out1 ) loam 7clay874 ,! e>? to =m ! walls is dug out ar\nd ! base1 leav+ a circul> tr5* ab\t f\r feet wide & z _m deep1 into :i* ! fire-holes ( ! kiln op54 ,if wood be ! fuel us$1 ?ree fire-holes w be suffici5t2 if coal1 f\r w be ne$$4 ,ab\t #a1bjj common brick w be want$ to build ^! fire-holes & flues2 if coal is us$1 r few] bricks w be want$1 b1 !n1 "s iron b>s are necess>y1--six b>s to ea* fire-hole4 ,! e>!n walls are f\r feet ?ick at ! floor ( ! kiln1 sev5 feet high1 & tap]+ to a ?ickness ( two feet at ! top2 ?is w det]m9e ! slope ( ! ext]ior face ( ! kiln4 ,! inside ( ! wall is c>ri$ up p]p5dicul>ly1 & ! loam pla/]+ inside becomes1 aft] ! fir/ burn+1 l a brick wall4 ,! kiln may be safely erect$ 9 ,m>*1 or :5ev] ! dang] ( injury f fro/ is ov]4 ,aft] ! summ] use ( x1 x mu/ be protect$1 by faggots or litt]1 aga9/ ! wet & fro/ ( w9t]4 ,a kiln ( ^! dim5sions w conta9 #cb1ejj #a-a_/d-;in* tiles1 99 99 99 or #ab1jjj #b-a_/d-;in* tiles4 99 99 99 ,9 good wea!r1 ?is kiln c be fill$1 burnt1 & dis*>g$ once 9 e =tnight1 & fifte5 kilns may be obta9$ 9 a good season1 produc+ #dhg1ejj #a-a_/d-;in* tiles1 & 9 proportion = ! o!r sizes4 ,x requires #b tons #e cwt4 ( good coals to burn ! above kiln1 full ( tiles4 ,fig4 #df - ,,clay-,,kiln4 ,fig4 #df - ,,clay-,,kiln4 ,a sectional view ( ?is kiln is %[n 9 ,fig4 #df1 9 :i* ,c1 ,c repres5t sections ( ! out] tr5*2 ,a1 "o ( ! ?ree fire-holes2 & ,b1 ,b1 sections ( a circul> passage inside ( ! wall1 connect$ ) ! fire-holes1 & s]v+ z a flue = ! flames1 :i*1 at suitable int]vals1 pass ?r\gh op5+s into ! floor ( ! kiln4 ,! :ole /ructure %\ld be cov]$ ) a ro( ( r\gh bo>ds1 plac$ high en\gh to be out ( ! rea* ( ! fire4 ,a door 9 ! side ( ! kiln s]ves = putt+ 9 & remov+ ! tiles1 & is built up1 tempor>ily1 ) bricks or clay1 dur+ ! burn+4 ,mr4 ,hodges e/imates ! co/ ( ?is kiln1 all complete1 at less ?an #be4 ,conc]n+ its value1 he wrote ano!r lett] 9 #ahdh1 f :i* ! foll[+ is extract$3 ,! exp]i5ce ( f\r ye>s t h elaps$ s9ce my lett] to ! late ,e>l ,sp5c]1 publi%$ 9 ! #e? volume ( ! proce$+s ( ! ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 page #eg1 has ?or\ghly te/$ ! m]its ( ! tempor>y clay-kilns = ! burn+ ( dra9+-pipes describ$ 9 t lett]4 ,i am well aw>e t !re 7 p]sons1 ev5 among ^? :o came to see x1 :o pron\nc$ at once ^u ! con/ruction & duration ( ! kiln z unwor?y ( att5tion4 ,h[ f> _! expectations h be5 realiz$1 & :at value belongs to _! judgm5t1 ! foll[+ %ort /atem5t w exhibit3 ,! kiln1 9 "q1 0 con/ruct$1 9 #ahdd1 at a co/ ( #e4 ,x 0 us$ f\r times 9 t ye>1 burn+ ea* "t betwe5 #ah1jjj & #ai1jjj dra9+ pipes1 ( #a-c_/d in*es 9 diamet]4 ,9 #ahde1 x 0 us$ n9e times1 or ab\t once a =tnight1 burn+ ea* "t ! same quantity ( ne>ly #ai1jjj pipes4 ,9 #ahdf1 ! same result4 ,9 #ahdg1 x has be5 us$ twelve times1 always burn+ ! same quantity4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! la/ ye> a trifl+ repair 9 ! bottom ( ! kiln1 co/+ r less ?an #aj %ill+s1 0 necess>y1 & ?is is ! only co/ = repair s9ce its erection4 ,x is n[ z good z ev]1 & might be work$ at lea/ once a =tnight ?r\gh ! ensu+ season4 ,! result ( ?is exp]im5t ( f\r ye>s %[s n only ! practical value ( ?is *eap kiln1 b ,mr4 ,hat*]1 :o sup]9t5ds ! brick & tile-y>d at ,b55d51 :]e ?is kiln /&s1 expresses himself /rongly 9 favor ( ?is kiln1 z always produc+ bett] & m ev5ly burn$ pipes ?an ei!r ( 8 l>g] & bett] built brick-kilns c d4 ,! floor ( ! kiln is fir/ cov]$ ) bricks1 plac$ on end1 at a little di/ance f ea* o!r1 s z to all[ ! fire to pass betwe5 !m1 & ! tiles are plac$ on end on ^!4 ,?is position w af=d ! be/ draft = ! flames4 ,aft] ! kiln is pack$ full1 ! door-way is built up1 & a sl[ fire is />t$1--only en\gh at fir/ to complete ! dry+ ( ! tiles1 & to d ?is s sl[ly z n to w>p !m out ( %ape4 ,!y w be ?or\ghly dry :5 ! smoke f ! top ( ! kiln loses its d>k color & becomes transp>5t4 ,:5 ! fires are well />t$1 ! m\?s ( ! fire-holes may be built up s z to leave only suffici5t room to put 9 fre% fuel1 & if ! w9d is high1 ! fire-holes1 on ! side aga9/ :i* x bl[s1 %\ld be %elt]$ by "s sort ( scre5 :i* w c\nt]act its influ5ce1 & keep up an ev5 heat on all sides4 ,! "t requir$ = burn+ w be f two days & a night to f\r days & f\r nights1 accord+ to ! dryness ( ! tiles1 ! /ate ( ! wea!r1 & ! "* ( ! fuel4 ,! fires %\ld be drawn :5 ! tiles 9 ! hotte/ "p ( ! kiln are burn$ to a r++ h>dness4 ,by leav+ two or ?ree holes 9 ! door-way1 :i* c be /opp$ ) loose brick1 a rod may be run 91 f "t to "t1 to take out specim5 tiles f ! hotte/ "p ( ! kiln1 :i* %all h be5 s plac$ z to be easily remov$4 ,! be/ plan1 h[ev]1--! only prud5t plan1 9 fact1--w be to employ an intellig5t man :o is ?or\ghly exp]i5c$ 9 ! burn+ ( brick & pott]y1 & ^: judgm5t 9 ! managem5t ( ! fires1 & 9 ! cool+ (f ( ! kiln1 w save mu* ( ! wa/e t w\ld result f inexp]i5c$ managem5t4 ,aft] ! burn+ is complet$1 f #dj to #fj h\rs mu/ be all[$ = ! cool+ ( ! kiln be=e x is op5$4 ,if ! cold air is admitt$ :ile x is /ill v hot1 ! unequal contraction ( ! mat]ial w cause ! tiles to crack1 & a l>ge portion ( !m may be de/roy$4 ,if any ( ! tiles are too mu* burn$1 !y w be melt$1 & may /ick toge!r1 or1 at lea/1 h _! %ape de/roy$4 ,^? :i* are n suffici5tly burn$ w\ld n )/& ! action ( ! wat] 9 ! soil1 & %\ld n be us$4 ,= ! fir/ ( ^! accid5ts !re is no rem$y2 = ! latt]1 reburn+ w be necess>y1 & "u-done tiles may be left1 7or replac$17 9 ! kiln 9 ! position :i* !y occupi$ at ! fir/ burn+1 & ! second heat w probably prove suffici5t4 ,!re is less dang] ( unequal burn+ 9 circul> ?an 9 squ>e kilns4 ,s(t wood is bett] ?an h>d1 z mak+ a bett] flame4 ,x %\ld be split f9e1 & well season$4 99,arrangem5t ( ! ,til]y499--,su* a til]y z is describ$ above %\ld h a dry+ %$ f #fj to #hj feet long1 & f #ab to #ah feet wide4 ,?is %$ may be built 9 ! *eape/ & r\ghe/ mann]1 ! ro( be+ cov]$ ) felt+1 ?at*1 or hemlock bo>ds1 z economy may sugge/4 ,x %\ld h a ti] ( dry+ %elves1 7made ( slats r ?an ( bo>ds17 runn+ ! :ole l5g? ( ea* side4 ,a n>r[1 wood5 tram-way1 d[n ! middle1 to c>ry a c>1 by :i* ! gre5 tiles may be tak5 f ! ma*9e to ! %elves1 & ! dry ones f ! %elves to ! kiln1 w greatly less5 ! co/ ( h&l+4 ,! pug-mill & tile-ma*9e1 z well z ! clay pit & ! wa%+-mill1 %\ld be at "o end ( ! %$1 & ! kiln at ! o!r1 s t1 ev5 9 ra9y wea!r1 ! "w may proce$ )\t int]ruption4 ,a %$ ( ! size nam$ w be suffici5t to dry z _m tiles ( assort$ sizes z c be burn$ 9 ! clay-kiln describ$ above4 99,! ,co/ ( ,tiles499--,x w\ld be impossible1 at any "t1 to say :at %\ld be ! precise co/ ( tiles 9 a giv5 locality1 )\t kn[+ ! prices ( labor & fuel2 & 9 ! pres5t unsettl$ condition ( ! curr5cy1 any e/imate w\ld necess>ily be ( little value4 ,mr4 ,p>k]'s e/imat$ ! co/ ( in* pipes 9 ,engl& at #fs41 7ab\t #a4ej17 p] ?\s&1 :5 made on ! e/ate :]e !y 7 to be us$1 by a process simil> to t describ$ h]e94 ,probably !y c\ld at no "t h be5 made = less ?an twice t co/ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1--& !y w\ld n[ co/ mu* m2 ?\gh if ! clay is dug out 9 ! fall1 :5 ! regul>ly employ$ f>m h&s are %ort ( "w1 & if ! same m5 c cut & haul ! wood dur+ ! w9t]1 ! h&s hir$ especially = ! tile mak+1 dur+ ! summ] season1 7two m5 & two or ?ree boys17 _c1 ev5 at pres5t rates ( wages1 br+ ! co/ ( ! tiles to ne>ly ! m>ket prices4 ,if !re be only tempor>y use = ! ma*9]y1 x may be sold1 :5 no long] ne$$1 = a good p]c5tage ( its orig9al co/1 z1 f ! sl[ movem5t to :i* x is subject$1 x is n mu* worn by its "w4 ,!re is no reason :y tiles %\ld co/ m to make ?an bricks4 ,a common brick conta9s clay en\gh to make f\r or five #a-a_/d-;in* tiles1 & x w require ab\t ! same am\nt ( fuel to burn ?is clay 9 "o =m z 9 ! o!r4 ,?is advantage 9 favor ( tiles is 9 a measure (fset by ! great] co/ ( h&l+ !m1 & ! great] liability to breakage4 ,! =ego+ description ( ! diff]5t processes ( ! manufacture ( dra9+ tiles has be5 giv51 9 ord] t ^? :o f9d x necess>y1 or desirable1 to e/abli% works to supply ! ne$s ( _! imm$iate localities may comm5ce _! op]ations und]/&+ly1 & =m an approximate op9ion ( ! promise ( success 9 ! und]tak+4 ,probably ! mo/ positive effect ( ! =ego+ description1 on ! m9d ( any man :o contemplates e/abli%+ a til]y1 w be to cause him to visit "s successful manufactory1 dur+ ! busy season1 & exam9e = himself ! mode ( op]ation4 ,c]ta9ly x w\ld be unwise1 :5 su* a p]sonal exam9ation ( ! process is practicable1 to rely entirely ^u ! aid ( writt5 descriptions2 =1 9 any "w l tile-mak+1 :]e ! selection1 comb9ation & prep>ation ( ! mat]ials1 ! means ( dry+1 & ! economy & success ( ! burn+ mu/ dep5d on a v>iety ( conditions & circum/ances1 :i* *ange ) e *ange ( locality1 x is impossible t writt5 directions1 h[ev] m9ute1 %\ld be a suffici5t guide4 ,/ill1 9 ! light ( su* directions1 "o c =m a mu* bett] idea ( ! be>+ ( ! diff]5t op]ations :i* he may witness1 ?an he c\ld possibly d if ! :ole process 7 new to him4 ,if a p]sonal exam9ation ( a successful til]y is impracticable1 x w be necess>y to employ a practical brick-mak]1 or pott]1 to direct ! con/ruction & op]ation ( ! works1 & 9 any case1 ?is c\rse is advisable4 ,9 any neighborhood :]e two or ?ree hundr$ acres ( l& are to be dra9$1 if suitable e>?s c be readily obta9$1 x w be *eap] to e/abli% a tile-y>d1 ?an to haul ! necess>y tiles1 9 wagons1 a di/ance ( t5 or tw5ty miles4 ,!n aga91 ! prices dem&$ by ! few manufactur]s1 :o n[ h almo/ a monopoly ( ! bus9ess1 are exorbitantly high1--at lea/ twice :at x w co/ to make ! tiles at home1 ) ! *eap works describ$ above1 s t if ! co/ ( transportation on ! quantity desir$ w\ld be equal to ! co/ ( e/abli%+ ! works1 !re w be a decid$ pr(it 9 ! home manufacture4 ,probably1 also1 a tile-y>d1 9 a neighborhood :]e ! g5]al "* ( ! soil is su* z to require dra9age1 w be ( value aft] ! object = :i* x 0 made has be5 accompli%$4 ,:ile sett+ =? ! advantage to ! f>m] ( ev]y?+ :i* may protect him aga9/ monopolies1 :e!r 9 ! matt] ( dra9+-tile1 or ( any o!r ne$ful accessory ( 8 bus9ess1 or :i* w enable him to procure supplies )\t a ru9\s outlay = transportation1 x is by no means int5d$ t e man %all become 8 own tile-mak]4 ,9 ?is bran* ( manufacture1 z 9 e o!r1 organiz$ indu/ry w accompli% results to :i* individual labor c nev] atta94 ,a hundr$ ye>s ago1 :5 our mill-made clo?s came f ,engl&1 & co/ m ?an f>m]s c\ld af=d to pay1 !y wore home-spun1 :i* 0 nei!r s h&some nor s good z ! import$ article2 b1 s9ce t "t1 ! gr[+ population & ! great] dem& h caus$ clo? mills to be built "h1 great] comm]cial facilities h plac$ =eign goods )9 easy rea*1 & ! h\se loom has fall5 into g5]al disuse4 ,at pres5t1 ! manufacture ( dra9+ tiles is conf9$ to a few1 widely sep>at$ localities1 & ea* manufactur] has1 ?us f>1 be5 able to fix 8 own scale ( *>ges4 ,^!1 & ! co/ ( transportation to di/ant po9ts1 make x difficult1 if n impossible1 = _m f>m]s to procure tiles at a co/ l[ en\gh to ju/ify _! use4 ,9 su* cases1 small works1 to supply local dem&1 may enable _m p]sons to dra9 ) tiles1 :o1 o!rwise1 w\ld f9d x impossible to procure !m *eaply en\gh = economical use2 & ! ext5sion ( "u-dra9+1 caus+ a m g5]al acqua9tance ) its advantages1 w\ld create a suffici5t dem& to induce an increase ( ! manufacture ( tiles1 & a consequ5t r$uction ( price4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 - ,,! ,,reclaim+ ,,( ,,salt ,,m>%es4 ,adjo9+ to x is ,middle ,moor1 conta9+ ab\t #b1ejj acres1 spok5 ( by ,ar?ur ,"y z 'a wat]y des]t1' gr[+ s$ge & ru%es1 & inhabit$ by frogs & bitt]ns2--x is n[ f]tile1 well cultivat$1 & pr(itable l&4 ,! =ego+ extract1 f an acc\nt ( ! ,dra9age ( ! ,f5s on ! ea/]n coa/ ( ,engl&1 is a text f :i* might be prea*$ a s]mon wor?y ( ! att5tion ( all :o are int]e/$ 9 ! va/ areas ( salt m>% :i* =m s l>ge a "p ( our ,atlantic coa/1 f ,ma9e to ,florida4 ,hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( acres t might be *eaply reclaim$1 & made our mo/ valuable & mo/ salubri\s l&s1 are ab&on$ to ! inroads ( ! sea2--fruitful only 9 mal>ia & musquitoes1--always a dre>y wa/e1 & (t5 a grave annoyance4 ,a s+le tract1 ov] #bj1jjj acres 9 ext5t1 ! c5t] ( :i* is n sev5 miles f ! he>t ( ,new ,york ,city1 skirts ! ,hack5sack ,riv]1 9 ,new ,j]sey1 s]v+ z a b>ri] to int]c\rse betwe5 ! t[n & ! c\ntry :i* lies beyond x1 add+ miles to ! daily travel ( ! ?\s&s ^: bus9ess & pleasure require !m to cross x1 & con/itut+ a nuisance & an eyesore to all :o see x1 or come ne> x4 ,h[ long x w cont9ue 9 ?is condition x is impossible to say1 b ! exp]i5ce ( o!r c\ntries has prov$ t1 = an exp5se ( n m ?an fifty doll>s p] acre1 ?is tract might be made bett]1 = all purposes ( cultivation1 ?an ! l&s adjo9+ x1 7_m ( :i* are wor?1 = m>ket g>d5+1 ov] "o ?\s& doll>s p] acre17 & t x might af=d pr(itable employm5t1 & give homes1 to all ( ! indu/ri\s poor ( ! city4 ,! "w ( reclaim+ x w\ld be *ild's play1 comp>$ ) ! dra9+ ( ! ,h>laem ,lake 9 ,holl&1 :]e ov] #dj1jjj acres1 subm]g$ to an av]age dep? ( ?irte5 feet1 h be5 pump$ dry1 & made to d _! "p t[>d ! support ( a d5se population4 ,! ,hack5sack mead[s are only a conspicu\s example ( :at exi/s ov] a great ext5t ( our :ole seabo>d2--virg9 l&s1 replete ) e elem5t ( f]tility1 capable ( produc+ en\gh food = ! support ( millions ( human be+s1 bett] locat$1 = resid5ce & = conv5i5ce to m>kets1 ?an ! prairies ( ! ,we/]n ,/ates1--all all[$ to rema9 worse ?an useless2 :ile ! poor] upl&s ne> !m are1 9 _m places1 teem+ ) a population ^: lives are endang]$1 & ^: com=t is sadly int]f]$ ) by ! insects & ! miasma :i* ! m>% produces4 ,! inh]5t weal? ( ! l& is lock$ up1 & all ( its bad effects are produc$1 by ! wat] ) :i* x is con/antly soak$ or ov]fl[$4 ,let ! wat]s ( ! sea be exclud$1 & a prop] outlet = ! ra9-fall & ! upl& wa% be provid$1--bo? ( :i* objects may1 9 a great majority ( cases1 be economically accompli%$1--& ?is l& may become ! g>d5 ( ! cont95t4 ,its f]tility w attract a population1 7especially 9 ! vic9ity ( l>ge t[ns17 :i* c\ld no :]e else live s well nor s easily4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ^! salt m>%es 7 =m$ may be und]/ood f ! foll[+ acc\nt ( ! ,great ,level ( ! ,f5s ( ! ea/]n coa/ ( ,engl&1 :i* is copi$1 7z is ! p>agraph at ! head ( ?is *apt]17 f ! ,prize ,essay ( ,mr4 ,john ,alg]non ,cl>ke1 writt5 = ! ,royal ,agricultural ,society 9 #ahdf4 ,! process is n1 ( c\rse1 always ! same1 nor are ! exact influ5ces1 :i* made ! ,engli% ,f5s1 g5]ally1 op]at+ 9 precisely ! same mann] "h1 b ! ma9 pr9ciple is ! same1 & ! lesson taught by ! improvem5t ( ! ,f5s is p]fectly applicable 9 our case4 ,?is great level ext5ds itself into ! six c\nties ( ,cambridge1 ,l9coln1 ,hunt+ton1 ,nor?ampton1 ,suffolk & ,norfolk1 be+ b\nd$ by ! highl&s ( ea*4 ,x is ab\t sev5ty miles 9 l5g?1 & v>ies f tw5ty to =ty miles 9 bread?1 hav+ an area ( m ?an #fhj1jjj acres4 ,?r\gh ?is va/ ext5t ( flat c\ntry1 !re fl[ six l>ge riv]s1 ) _! tribut>y /reams2 namely1 ! ,ouse1 ! ,cam1 ! ,n5e1 ! ,well&1 ! ,gl51 & ! ,)am4 ,^! 71 orig9ally1 natural *annels = convey+ ! upl& wat]s to ! sea1 & :5ev] a heavi] d[nfall ( ra9 ?an usual occurr$1 & ! swoll5 spr+s & rivulets caus$ ! riv]s to ov]fl[1 !y mu/ necess>ily h ov]fl[$ ! l& to a great ext5t4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 0 n ! pr9cipal cause ( ! inundation ( ! ,f5s3 ^! riv]s 7 n all[$ a free passage to ! ocean1 be+ ?us made incapable ( c>ry+ (f ev5 ! ord9>y am\nt ( upl& wat] :i*1 consequ5tly1 fl[$ ov] ! l&4 ,! ob/ruction 0 two-fold2 fir/1 ! outfalls became block$ up by ! deposits ( silt f ! sea wat]s1 :i* accumulat$ to an amaz+ ?ickness4 ,! well kn[n in/ances ( boats f\nd 9 #afce eight feet bel[ ! ,wisbeck ,riv]1 & ! smi?'s =ge & tools f\nd at ,skirbeck ,%oals1 ne> ,bo/on1 buri$ ) silt sixte5 feet deep1 %[ :at an a/oni%+ quantity ( s$im5t =m]ly *ok$ up ! m\?s ( ^! great riv]s4 ,b ! *ief h9drance caus$ by ! ocean1 arose f ! tide ru%+ twice e day = a v great di/ance up ^! *annels1 driv+ back ! fre% wat]s1 & ov]fl[+ ) !m1 s t ! :ole level became delug$ ) deep wat]1 & 01 9 fact1 "o great bay4 ,9 consid]+ ! /ate ( ?is region z x fir/ attract$ ! ent]prise ( man to its improvem5t1 we are to conceive a va/1 wild morass1 ) only small1 deta*$ portions ( cultivat$ soil1 or isl&s1 rais$ above ! g5]al inundation2 a mo/ desolate picture :5 contra/$ ) its pres5t /ate ( mat*less f]tility4 ,salt m>%es are =m$ ( ! silty deposits ( riv]s & ( ! sea4 ,! =m] br+ d[n vegetable m\ld & f9e e>? f ! upl&s1 & ! latt] contribute sea we$s & grasses1 s& & %ells1 & millions ( animalcul :i*1 born = life 9 salt wat] only1 die1 & are deposit$ ) ! o!r matt]s1 at ^? po9ts :]e1 f admixture ) ! fre% fl[ ( ! riv]s1 ! wat] ceases to be suitable = _! support4 ,x is e/imat$ t ^! animalcul alone are ! *ief cause ( ! ob/ructions at ! m\?s ( ! riv]s ( ,holl&1 :i* ret>d _! fl[1 & cause !m to spread ov] ! flat c\ntry adjo9+ _! banks4 ,x is less important1 h[ev]1 = ! purposes ( ?is *apt]1 to consid] ! mann] 9 :i* salt m>%es are =m$1 ?an to discuss ! means by :i* !y may be reclaim$ & made available = ! uses ( agriculture4 ,! improvem5t may be conv5i5tly consid]$ "u ?ree heads3-- ,fir/--,! exclusion ( ! sea wat]4 ,second--,! removal ( ! causes ( inundation f ! upl&4 ,?ird--,! removal ( ! ra9-fall & wat] ( filtration4 99,! ,exclusion ( ! ,sea99 is ( ! fir/ importance1 because n only does x saturate ! l& ) wat]1--b ?is wat]1 be+ salt1 r5d]s x unf]tile = ! plants ( ord9>y cultivation1 & causes x to produce o!rs :i* are ( little1 or no value4 ,! only means by :i* ! sea may be kept out is1 by build+ su* dykes or embankm5ts z %ut out ! highe/ tides1 &1 on %ores :i* are expos$ to ! action ( ! waves1 w resi/ _! =ce4 ,ord9>ily1 ! be/1 because ! *eape/1 mat]ial ( :i* ^! embankm5ts c be made1 is ! soil ( ! m>% itself4 ,?is is r>ely1--almo/ nev]1--a pure peat1 su* z is f\nd 9 upl& swamps2 x conta9s a l>ge proportion ( s&1 blue clay1 muscle mud1 or o!r e>?y deposits1 :i* give x great weight & t5acity1 & r5d] x excell5t = =m+ ! body ( ! dyke4 ,on l&s :i* are ov]fl[$ to a consid]able ext5t at ea* high tide1 7twice a day17 x w be necess>y to adopt m exp5sive1 & m effective measures1 b on ord9>y salt mead[s1 :i* are deeply cov]$ only at ! spr+ tides1 7occurr+ e mon?17 ! foll[+ plan w be f\nd practical & economical4 ,locat+ ! l9e ( ! embankm5t f> en\gh back f ! edge ( ! mead[ to leave an ample flat outside ( x to break ! =ce ( ! waves1 if on ! op5 coa/1 or to resi/ ! inroads ( ! curr5t if on ! bank ( an e/u>y or a riv]1--say f t5 to "o hundr$ y>ds1 accord+ to ! dang] ( encroa*m5t1--set a r[ ( /akes p>allel to ! g5]al direction ( ! %ore1 to m>k ! outside l9e ( ! base ( ! dyke4 ,/ake out ! inside l9e at su* di/ance z w give a pit* or incl9ation to ! slopes ( "o & a half to "o on ! outside1 & ( "o to "o on ! inside1 & w all[ ! necess>y wid? at ! top1 :i* %\ld be at lea/ two feet high] ?an ! level ( ! highe/ tide t is kn[n ev] to h occurr$ at t place4 ,! wid? ( ! top %\ld nev] be less ?an f\r feet1 & 9 expos$ localities x %\ld be m4 ,if a road w be ne$$ ar\nd ! l&1 x is be/1 if a heavy dyke is requir$1 to make x wide en\gh to answ] ?is purpose1 ) /ill wid] places1 at int]vals1 to all[ vehicles to turn or to pass ea* o!r4 ,ord9>ily1 h[ev]1 especially if !re be a good /ret* ( flat mead[ 9 front1 ! top ( ! dyke ne$ n be m ?an f\r feet wide4 ,suppos+ su* a dyke to be contemplat$ :]e ! wat] has be5 kn[n to rise two feet above ! level ( ! mead[s1 requir+ an embankm5t f\r feet high1 x w be necess>y to all[ = ! base a wid? ( f\rte5 feet2--f\r feet = ! wid? ( ! top1 six feet = ! rea* ( ! front slope1 7#a-a_/b to #a17 & f\r feet = ! rea* ( ! back slope1 7#a to #a47 ,hav+ /ak$ out two p>allel l9es1 f\rte5 feet ap>t1 & erect$1 at int]vals ( tw5ty or ?irty feet1 frames made ( r\gh /rips ( bo>d ( ! exact %ape ( ! section ( ! propos$ embankm5t1 ! workm5 may remove ! sod to a dep? ( six in*es1 lay+ x all on ! outside ( ! position ( ! propos$ embankm5t4 ,! sod f ! l9e ( ! dit*1 f :i* ! e>? = ! embankm5t is to be tak51 %\ld also be remov$ & plac$ ) ! o!r4 ,?is dit* %\ld be always inside ( ! dyke1 :]e x w nev] be expos$ to ! action ( ! sea4 ,x %\ld be1 at ! surface1 broad] ?an ! base ( ! dyke1 & five feet deep 9 ! c5t]1 b its sides may slope f ! surface ( ! gr\nd directly to ! c5t] l9e ( ! bottom4 ,?is is ! be/ =m to give x1 because1 :ile x %\ld be five feet deep1 = future uses z a dra91 its bottom ne$ h no wid?4 ,! great wid? at ! surface w give su* a pit* to ! banks z to ensure _! /ability1 & w yield a l>ge am\nt ( sod = ! fac+ ( ! dyke4 ,! edge ( ?is dit* %\ld be "s feet away f ! inn] l9e ( ! embankm5t1 leav+ x a firm support or %\ld] at ! orig9al level ( ! gr\nd1 ! sod n be+ remov$ f ! int]val4 ,! next /ep 9 ! "w %\ld be to ?r[1 or :eel1 ! mat]ial f ! dit* on to ! place :i* has be5 /ripp$ = ! dyke1 build+ x up s z to con=m exactly to ! pr(ile frames1 ^! rema9+ 9 _! places1 to indicate ! fill+ necess>y to make up = ! settl+ ( ! mat]ial1 z ! wat] dra9s out ( x4 ,fig4 #dg - ,,dyke ,,& ,,dit*4 ,fig4 #dg - ,,dyke ,,& ,,dit*4 ,z fa/ z a p]man5t %ape c be giv5 to ! out] face ( ! dyke1 x %\ld be f9i%$ by hav+ ! sod plac$ aga9/ x1 be+ laid flatwise1 "o on top ( ano!r1 7l /one "w17 9 ! mo/ solid mann] possible4 ,?is %\ld be cont9u$ to ! top ( ! slope1 & ! flat top ( ! dyke %\ld also be sodd$1--! sods on ! top1 & on ! slope1 be+ firmly beat5 to _! places ) ! back ( ! spade or o!r suitable implem5t4 ,?is w suffici5tly protect ! expos$ p>ts ( ! "w aga9/ ! action ( any waves t may be =m$ on ! flat betwe5 ! dyke & ! deep wat]1 :ile ! inn] slope & ! banks ( ! dit*1 n be+ expos$ to masses ( mov+ wat]1 w reta9 _! %ape & w soon be cov]$ ) a new gr[?47#bf7 ,a sectional view ( ! above describ$ dyke & dit* is %[n 9 ! accompany+ diagram1 7,fig4 #dg47 ,9 all "w ( ?is "*1 x is important to regulate ! am\nt ( "w laid out to be done betwe5 ! spr+ tides1 to ! labor+ =ce employ$1 s t no unf9i%$ "w w rema9 to be subm]g$ & injur$4 ,:5 ! flood comes1 x %\ld f9d ev]y?+ f9i%$ up & protect$ aga9/ its ravages1 s t no "p ( x ne$ be done ov] aga94 ,if ! l& is cross$ by creeks1 ! dyke %\ld be f9i%$ (f & sodd$1 a little back f ea* bank1 & :5 ! "t comes = clos+ ! *annel1 suffici5t =ce %\ld be employ$ to complete ! dam at a s+le tide1 s t ! return+ fl[ %all n ent] to wa% away ! mat]ial :i* has be5 ?r[n 94 ,if1 z is (t5 ! case1 ^! creeks are n m]ely tidal e/u>ies1 b receive brooks or riv]s f ! upl&1 provision mu/ be made1 z w be h]eaft] direct$1 = ei!r div]t+ ! upl& fl[1 or = all[+ x to pass out at l[ wat]1 ?r\gh valve gates or sluices4 ,:5 ! dam has be5 made1 ! wat] beh9d x %\ld nev] be all[$ to rise to ne>ly ! level ( ! full tide1 &1 z soon z possible1 grass & will[s %\ld be gr[n on ! bank1 to add to its /r5g? by ! b9d+ effect ( _! roots4 ,:5 ! dyke is complet$ across ! front ( ! :ole flat1--f ! high l& on "o side to ! high l& on ! o!r1 ! creeks %\ld be clos$1 "o aft] ! o!r1 comm5c+ ) ! smalle/1 s t ! exp]i5ce ga9$ 9 _! treatm5t may enable ! =ce to "w m advantage\sly on ^? :i* c>ry m wat]4 ,if ! fl[ ( wat] 9 ! creek is consid]able1 a r[ ( /rong /akes1 or piles1 %\ld be firmly driv5 into ! bottom mud1 across ! :ole wid? ( ! *annel1 at int]vals ( n m ?an "o or two feet1 & fasc9es1--bundles ( bru% b\nd toge!r1--%\ld be made ready on ! banks1 9 suffici5t quantity to close ! spaces betwe5 ! piles4 ,^! w s]ve to prev5t ! wa%+ away ( ! fill+ dur+ con/ruction4 ,! pile driv+1 & ! prep>ation ( ! fasc9es may be done be=e ! clos+ ( ! *annel ) e>? is comm5c$1 & if upl& clay or gravel1 to be mix$ ) ! local mat]ial1 c be economically br\ght to ! place by boats or wagons1 x w be an advantage4 ,ev]y?+ be+ 9 read9ess1 a suffici5t =ce ( labor]s to f9i% ! dam 9 six h\rs %\ld comm5ce ! "w a little be=e dead l[-wat]1 &1 7) ! aid ( :eelb>r[s1 if necess>y17 ?r[ ! e>? 9 rapidly beh9d ! r[ ( /akes & fasc9es1 giv+ ! dam suffici5t wid? to resi/ ! pressure ( ! wat] f )\t1 & keep+ ! "w always 9 advance ( ! ris+ ( ! tide1 s t1 dur+ ! :ole op]ation1 none ( ! fill+ %all be wa%$ away by wat] fl[+ ov] its top4 ,if ! creek has a slop+ bottom1 ! "w may be comm5c$ e>li]1--z soon z ! tide comm5ces to rec$e1--& pu%$ out to ! c5t] ( ! *annel by ! "t ! tide is out4 ,:5 ! dam is built1 x w be be/ to heavily sod1 or o!rwise protect its surface aga9/ ! action ( heavy ra9s1 :i* w\ld t5d to wa% x away & weak5 x2 & ! b$ ( ! creek %\ld be fill$ 9 back ( ! dam = a di/ance ( at lea/ fifty y>ds1 to a height great] ?an t at :i* wat] w /& 9 ! int]ior dra9s1--say to )9 ?ree feet ( ! surface1--s t !re %all nev] be a body ( wat] /&+ )9 t di/ance ( ! dam4 ,?is is a necess>y precaution aga9/ ! attacks ( muskrats1 :i* are ! pr9cipal cause ( ! insecurity ( all salt m>% embankm5ts4 ,x %\ld be a c>d9al rule ) all :o are engag$ 9 ! con/ruction ( su* works1 nev] to all[ two bodies ( wat]1 "o on ea* side ( ! bank to be ne>] ?an tw5ty-five y>ds ( ea* o!r1 & fifty y>ds w\ld be bett]4 ,muskrats d n bore ?r\gh a bank1 z is (t5 suppos$1 to make a passage f "o body ( wat] to ano!r1 7!y w\ld f9d an easi] road ov] ! top72 b !y delight 9 any elevat$ m\nd 9 :i* !y c make _! homes above ! wat] level & h its entrance b5ea? ! surface1 s t _! l& enemies _c invade !m4 ,:5 !y ent] = ?is purpose1 only f "o side ( ! dyke1 !y w d no h>m1 b if ano!r colony is1 at ! same "t1 bor+ 9 f ! o!r side1 !re is great dang] t _! burr[s w connect1 & ?us =m a *annel = ! admission ( wat]1 & de/roy ! "w4 ,a disreg>d ( ?is requirem5t has caus$ ?\s&s ( acres ( salt m>% t _h be5 enclos$ by dykes hav+ a dit* on ea* side1 7mu* ! *eape/ way to make !m17 to be ab&on$1 & x has induc$ ! inv5tion ( v>i\s co/ly devices = ! protection ( embankm5ts aga9/ ^! attacks47#bg7 ,:5 ! creek or e/u>y to be cut (f is v wide1 ! embankm5t may be c>ri$ out1 at leisure1 f ea* side1 until ! *annel is only wide en\gh to all[ ! passage ( ! tide )\t too great a ru% ( wat] aga9/ ! unf9i%$ ends ( ! "w2 b1 ev5 9 ^! cases1 !re w be economy 9 ! use ( fasc9es & piles f ! fir/1 or ( /ones if ^! c be readily procur$4 ,9 wide /reams1 p>tial ob/ructions ( ! wat] c\rse w sometimes induce ! deposit ( silt 9 su* quantities z w greatly assi/ ! "w4 ,no writt5 description ( a s+le process w suffice = ! direction ( ^? hav+ *>ge ( ?is mo/ delicate ( all dra9age op]ations4 ,mu* mu/ be left to ! +5uity ( ! director ( ! "w1 :o w h to avail himself ( ! assi/ance ( su* favorable circum/ances z may1 9 ! case 9 h&1 (f] !mselves4 ,if ! b>ri] to be built w require a consid]able outlay1 x %\ld be plac$ 9 ! h&s ( a compet5t eng9e]1 & x w g5]ally dem& ! full measure ( 8 skill & exp]i5ce4 ,! "w _c be successful1 unless ! :ole l9e ( ! wat]-front is protect$ by a cont9u\s bank1 suffici5tly high & /rong 9 all ( its p>ts to resi/ ! action ( ! highe/ tides & ! /ronge/ waves to :i* x w be subject$4 ,z x is always op5 to inspection1 at ea* ebb tide1 & c always be approa*$ = repair1 x w be easy to keep x 9 good condition2 &1 if prop]ly att5d$ to1 x w become m solid & effective ) age4 99,! removal ( ! causes ( inundation f ! upl&99 is (t5 ( almo/ equal importance ) ! %utt+ out ( ! sea1 s9ce ! am\nt ( wat] br\ght d[n by riv]s1 brooks1 & hill-side wa%1 is (t5 m ?an c be remov$ by any practicable means1 by sluice gates1 or pumps4 ,x w be q en\gh = ! capacity ( ^! means ( dra9age1 to remove ! ra9-wat] :i* falls on ! flat l&1 & t :i* rea*es x by "u-gr\nd spr+s & by infiltration1--its prop] dra9age-wat] 9 %ort1--)\t add+ t :i*1 com+ f a high] level1 may be made to fl[ (f by its own fall4 ,cat*-wat] dra9s1 ne> ! foot ( ! upl&1 may be s arrang$ z to receive ! surface wat] ( ! hills & c>ry x (f1 always on a level above t ( ! top ( ! embankm5t1 & ^! dra9s may (t5 be1 ) advantage1 enl>g$ to a suffici5t capacity to c>ry ! /reams z well4 ,if ! m>% is divid$ by an actual riv]1 x may be be/ to embank x 9 two sep>ate tracts2 los+ ! m>g9s1 t h be5 recomm5d$1 outside ( ! dykes1 & build+ ! necess>y additional l5g? ( ^!1 r ?an to cont5d ) a l>ge body ( wat]4 ,b1 frequ5tly1 a v l>ge m>% is trav]s$ by a tortu\s /ream :i* occupies a l>ge area1 & :i*1 al?\gh ! tidal wat] :i* x conta9s gives x ! appe>ance ( a riv]1 is only ! outlet ( an insignificant /ream1 :i* might be c>ri$ along ! edge ( ! upl& 9 an ord9>y mill-race4 ,9 su* case x is bett] to div]t ! /ream & reclaim ! :ole area4 ,:5 a /ream is enclos$ betwe5 dykes1 its w9d+ c\rse %\ld be made /raight 9 ord] t its wat] may be c>ri$ (f z rapidly z possible1 & ! l& :i* x occupies by its deviations1 made available = cultivation4 ,9 ! loose1 silty soil ( a salt m>%1 ! /ream may be made to d mo/ ( ! "w ( mak+ its new b$1 by con/ruct+ tempor>y jetties1 or o!r ob/ructions to its accu/om$ fl[1 :i* %all cause its curr5t to deposit silt 9 its old *annel1 & to cut a new "o out ( ! opposite bank4 ,9 "s in/ances x may be well to make an elevat$ canal1 /raight across ! tract1 by con/ruct+ banks high en\gh to conf9e ! /ream & deliv] x ov] ! top ( ! dyke2 9 o!rs x may be m exp$i5t to c>ry ! /ream ov]1 or ?r\gh1 ! hill :i* b\nds ! m>%1 & cause x to dis*>ge ?r\gh an adjo9+ valley4 ,improvem5ts ( ?is magnitude1 :i* (t5 affect ! int]e/ ( _m own]s1 or ( p]sons int]e/$ 9 ! navigation ( ! old *annel1 or 9 mill privileges bel[ ! po9t at :i* ! wat] c\rse is to be div]t$1 w g5]ally require legislative int]f]5ce4 ,b !y n seldom promise imm5se advantages = a comp>atively small outlay4 ,! in/ance cit$ ( ! ,hack5sack ,mead[s1 9 ,new ,j]sey1 is a case 9 po9t4 ,its area is divid$ among _m own]s1 &1 :ile n9ety-n9e acres 9 e hundr$ are giv5 up to muskrats1 mosquitoes1 co>se ru%es & mal>ia1 ! o!r "o acre may belong to ! own] ( an adjac5t f>m :o values ! salt hay :i* x yields him1 & ! title to ! :ole is ve/$ 9 _m individual proprietors1 :o c\ld nev] be induc$ to unite 9 an improvem5t = ! common b5efit4 ,!n aga91 ?anks to ! tide t sets back 9 ! ,hack5sack ,riv]1 x is able to float an occasional vessel to ! unimportant villages at ! nor!rn end ( ! mead[s1 & ! "r ( navigation c be int]f]$ ) only by gov]nm5tal action4 ,if ! ,hack5sack ,riv] prop]1 t "p ( x :i* only s]ves z an outlet = ! dra9age ( ! high l& nor? ( ! mead[s1 c\ld be div]t$ & c>ri$ ?r\gh ! hills to ! ,passaic2 or conf9$ )9 /raight elevat$ banks & made to dis*>ge at high wat] m>k at ! l9e ( ! ,philadelphia ,rail-road2--! wa% ( ! highl&s1 ea/ & we/ ( ! mead[s1 be+ also c>ri$ (f at ?is level1--! bridge ( ! railroad might be replac$ by an e>? embankm5t1 less ?an a qu>t] ( a mile 9 l5g?1 effect+ a complete exclusion ( ! tidal fl[ f ! :ole tract4 ,?is be+ done1 a /eam-pump1 f> less =midable ?an _m :i* are 9 pr(itable use 9 ,europe = ! same purpose1 w\ld empty1 & keep empty1 ! pres5t b$ ( ! riv]1 :i* w\ld =m a capital outlet = ! dra9age ( ! :ole area4 ,tw5ty ?\s& acres1 ( ! mo/ f]tile l&1 w\ld ?us be add$ to ! available area ( ! ,/ate1 greatly increas+ its weal?1 & induc+ ! settlem5t ( ?\s&s ( indu/ri\s inhabitants4 ,z ! circum/ances "u :i* upl& wat] rea*es l&s ( ! class "u consid]ation v>y ) e locality1 no specific directions = ! treatm5t ( individual cases c be giv5 )9 ! limits ( ?is *apt]2 b ! problem w r>ely be a difficult "o4 99,! removal ( ! ra9-fall & wat] ( filtration99 is ! next po9t to be consid]$4 ,s f> z ! dra9age ( ! l&1 9 detail1 is conc]n$1 x is only necess>y to say t x may be accompli%$1 z 9 ! case ( any o!r level l& :i*1 f ! slight fall t c be all[$ ! dra9s1 requires close att5tion & great c>e 9 ! adju/m5t ( ! grades4 ,! ma9 difficulty is 9 provid+ an outlet = ! dra9s4 ,?is c only be done by artificial means1 z ! wat] mu/ be remov$ f a level l[] ?an high-wat] m>k1--sometimes l[] ?an l[-wat]4 ,if x is only requir$ t ! outlet be at a po9t some:at above ! level ( ord9>y l[-wat]1 x w be suffici5t to provide a suffici5t res]voir1 7usually a l>ge op5 dit*17 to conta9 ! dra9age wat] t is dis*>g$ :ile ! tide /&s above ! floor ( ! outlet sluice-way1 & to provide = its outfl[ :ile ! level ( ! tide wat] is bel[ ! po9t ( dis*>ge4 ,?is is done by means ( sluices hav+ self-act+ valves1 7or tide-gates17 op5+ outw>d1 :i* w be clos$ by ! weight ( ! wat] :5 ! tide rises aga9/ !m1 be+ op5$ aga9 by ! pressure ( ! wat] f )91 z soon ! tide falls bel[ ! level ( ! wat] inside ( ! bank4 ,! gates & sluices may be ( wood or iron1--squ>e or r\nd4 ,! be/ w\ld be galvaniz$ iron pipes & valves2 b a squ>e wood5 trunk1 clos$ ) a heavy oak gate t fits closely aga9/ its out] end1 & moves freely on its h+es1 w answ] capitally well1 if c>efully & /rongly made4 ,if ! gate is ( wood1 x w be well to h x lie 9 a slightly slant+ position1 s t its own weight w t5d to keep x clos$ :5 ! tide fir/ comm5ces to rise above ! floor1 & might trickle 91 be=e x _h acquir$ suffici5t head to press ! gate aga9/ ! end ( ! trunk4 ,z ?is outlet has to remove1 9 a %ort "t1 all ( ! wat] t is deliv]$ by ! dra9s & dit*es dur+ sev]al h\rs1 x %\ld1 ( c\rse1 be consid]ably l>g] ?an w\ld be requir$ = a con/antly fl[+ dra9 f ! same area2 b ! imm5se gates1--l>ge en\gh = a canal lock1--:i* are sometimes us$ = ! dra9age ( a few acres ( m>%1 are absurd4 ,n only are !y useless1 !y are really objectionable1 inasmu* z ! great] ext5t ( _! jo9ts increases ! risk ( leakage at ! "t ( high wat]4 ,! *annel = ! outfl[ ( ! wat] may sometimes1 ) advantage1 be op5 to ! top ( ! dyke or dam1--a canal in/ead ( a trunk2 b ?is is r>ely ! bett] plan1 & is only admissible :]e ! dis*>ge is into a riv] or small bay1 too small = ! =mation ( high waves1 z ^! w\ld be be/ receiv$ on ! face ( a well sodd$1 slop+ bank4 ,! height1 above absolute l[ wat]1 at :i* ! outlet %\ld be plac$1 w dep5d on ! dep? ( ! outlet ( ! l& dra91 & ! dep? ( /orage room requir$ to receive ! dra9age wat] dur+ ! high] /ages ( ! tide4 ,( c\rse1 x mu/ n be high] ?an ! floor ( ! l& dra9 outlet1 &1 except = ! purpose ( af=d+ /orage room1 x ne$ n be l[]1 al?\gh all ! dra9age w dis*>ge1 n only :ile ! tide wat] is bel[ ! bottom ( ! gate1 b z long z x rema9s l[] ?an ! level ( ! wat] inside4 ,x is well to place ! m\? ( ! trunk ne>ly z l[ z ord9>y l[-wat] m>k4 ,?is w frequ5tly r5d] x necess>y to c>ry a cov]$ dra91 ( wood or brick1 ?r\gh ! mud1 out z f> z ! tide usually rec$es1--connect$ ) ! valve gate at ! outlet ( ! trunk1 by a cov]$ box :i* w keep rubbi% f ob/ruct+ x1 or int]f]+ ) its action4 ,:5 ! outlet ( ! l&-dra9s is bel[ l[-wat] m>k1 x is ( c\rse necess>y to pump out ! dra9age wat]4 ,?is is done by /eam or by w9d1 ! latt] be+ economical only = small tracts :i* w n be> ! co/ ( a /eam pump4 ,=m]ly1 ?is "w 0 done entirely by w9dmills1 b ^! af=d only an unc]ta9 p[]1 & (t5 cause ! entire loss ( crops :i* are ready = ! h>ve/1 by ob/9ately refus+ to "w = days aft] a heavy ra9 has delug$ ! l&4 ,9 grass l& !y are tol]ably reliable1 & on small tracts 9 cultivation1 x is easy1 by hav+ a good proportion ( op5 dit*es1 to af=d /orage room suffici5t = g5]al security2 b 9 ! reclaim+ ( l>ge areas1 7& x is ) ^! t ! "w is mo/ economical17 ! /eam pump may be reg>d$ z indisp5sable4 ,x is fa/ sup]s$+ ! w9dmills :i*1 a few ye>s ago1 7 ! sole dep5d5ce 9 ,holl& & on ! ,engli% ,f5s4 ,! magnitude ( ! pump+ ma*9]y on :i* ! agriculture ( a l>ge "p ( ,holl& dep5ds1 is a/oni%+4 ,!re are su* imm5se areas ( salt m>% 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates :i* may be tol]ably dra9$ by ! use ( simple valve gates1 dis*>g+ above l[-wat] m>k1 t x is n v important to consid] ! "q ( pump+1 except 9 cases :]e own]s ( small tracts1 f :i* a suffici5t tidal outlet c\ld n be secur$1 7)\t ! concurr5ce ( adjo9+ proprietors :o might refuse to unite 9 mak+ ! improvem5t17 may f9d x advisable to erect small pumps = _! own use4 ,9 su* cases1 x w\ld g5]ally be mo/ economical to use w9d-p[]1 especially if an accessory /eam pump be provid$ = occasional use1 9 em]g5cy4 ,c]ta9ly1 ! tidal dra9age %\ld fir/ be resort$ to1 = :5 ! l& has once be5 br\ght into cultivation1 ! propriety ( introduc+ /eam pumps w become m app>5t1 & ! outlay w be made ) m confid5ce ( pr(itable return1 &1 9 all cases1 ! tidal outlet %\ld be dep5d$ on = ! outfl[ ( all wat] above its level4 ,x w\ld be folly to raise wat] by exp5sive means1 :i* c be remov$1 ev5 p]iodically1 by natural dra9age4 ,:5 pumps are us$1 _! dis*>ge pipes %\ld pass ?r\gh ! embankm5t1 & deliv] ! wat] at l[-wat] m>k1 s t ! eng9e may h to op]ate only aga9/ ! actual height ( ! tide wat]4 ,if x deliv]$ above high-wat] m>k1 x w\ld "w1 ev5 at l[ tide1 aga9/ a con/ant head1 equal to t ( ! highe/ tides4 ,,*apt] ,x4 - ,,mal>ial ,,diseases4 ,s f> z remote agricultural di/ricts are conc]n$1 x is n probable t ! m]e "q ( heal? w\ld induce ! und]tak+ ( co/ly dra9age op]ations1 al?\gh ?is consid]ation may op]ate1 9 connection ) ! ne$ = an improv$ condition ( soil1 z a /rong argum5t 9 its favor4 ,z a rule1 ! *ills are accept$ by f>m]s1 especially at ! ,we/1 z "o ( ! slight inconv5i5ces att5d+ _! resid5ce on ri* l&s2 & x is n propos$1 9 ?is "w1 to urge ! evils ( ?is t]rible disease1 & ( sun pa91 or day neuralgia1 z a reason = dra9+ ! imm5se prairies ov] :i* !y prevail4 ,! diseases exi/1--to ! incalculable detrim5t ( ! p1--& ?or\gh dra9+ w\ld remove !m1 & w\ld d\btless br+ a l>ge av]age return on ! inve/m5t2--b ! "q is1 aft] all1 "o ( capital2 & ! co/ ( su* dra9+ z w\ld remove fev]-&-ague f ! bottom l&s & prairies ( ! ,we/1 & f ! infect$ agricultural di/ricts at ! ,ea/1 w\ld be m ?an ! agricultural capital ( ^? di/ricts c\ld sp>e = ! purpose4 ,9 ! vic9ity ( cities & t[ns1 h[ev]1 :]e m weal? has accumulat$1 & :]e ! numb] ( p]sons subject$ to ! mal>ial influ5ce is great]1 !re c be no "q z to ! propriety ( dra9+1 ev5 if no?+ b improv$ heal? be ! object4 ,!n aga91 !re are imm5se tracts ne> ! l>ge cities ( ?is c\ntry :i* w\ld be mo/ desirable = resid5ce1 7 x n t _! occupancy1 except ) c]ta9 con/ant precautions1 implies almo/ inevitable suff]+ f fev]-&-ague1 or neuralgia4 ,v few neighborhoods )9 ?irty miles ( ! city ( ,new ,york are entirely free f ^! sc\rges1 ^: influ5ce has greatly ret>d$ _! occupation by ^? :o are seek+ c\ntry homes2 :ile _m1 :o h brav$ ! dang]s ( disease 9 ^! localities1 h _h sad cause to regret _! tem]ity4 ,probably ! mo/ /rik+ in/ance ( ! effect ( mal>ia on ! gr[? & settlem5t ( suburban di/ricts1 is to be f\nd on ,/at5 ,isl&4 ,)9 five miles ( ! ,batt]y2 accessible by ! mo/ agreeable & be/ manag$ f]ry f ! city2 practically1 ne>] to ,wall /reet ?an ,murray ,hill is2 ) mo/ *>m+ views ( l& & wat]2 ) a beautifully div]sifi$ surface1 & an excell5t soil2 & af=d+ capital opportunities = sea ba?+1 x %\ld be1 77 x n = its sanit>y reputation1 x inevitably w\ld be17 "o va/ resid5ce-p>k4 ,except on its extreme nor!rn end1 & along its high] ridges1 x has1--&1 un=tunately1 x des]ves1--a mo/ un5viable reputation = insalubrity4 ,"h & !re1 on ! s\!rn slope also1 !re are favor$ places :i* are unacc\ntably free f ! pe/1 b1 z a rule1 x is1 dur+ ! summ] & autumn1 unsafe to live !re )\t hav+ con/ant rec\rse to prev5tive m$ication1 or ex]cis+ unusual & inconv5i5t precautions ) reg>d to exposure to mid-day sun & ev5+ dew4 ,!re are always to be f\nd attractive resid5ces1 :i* are des]t$ by _! own]s1 & are (f]$ = sale at absurdly l[ prices4 ,!re are isolat$ in/ances ( v ?or\gh & v co/ly dra9+1 :i* has fail$ ( effect1 because s ext5sive a mal>ial region _c be reclaim$ by any?+ %ort ( a sy/ematic improvem5t ( ! :ole4 ,x has be5 e/imat$ t ! ?or\gh dra9age ( ! l[ l&s1 valleys & ponds ( ! ea/]n end ( ! isl&1 includ+ two miles ( ! s\? %ore1 w\ld at once add #e1jjj1jjj to ! m>ket value ( ! real e/ate ( t section4 ,!re c be no "q t any radical improvem5t 9 ?is respect w\ld remove ! only ob/acle to ! rapid settlem5t ( ! isl& by ^? :o wi% to live 9 ! c\ntry1 yet ne$ to be ne> to ! bus9ess portion ( ! city4 ,! hope ( su* improvem5t be+ made1 h[ev]1 seems z remote z ev]1--al?\gh any "o at all acqua9t$ ) ! s\rces ( miasm1 9 c\ntry neighborhoods1 c readily see ! cause ( ! difficulty1 & ! means = its removal are z pla9ly sugge/$4 ,/at5 ,isl& is1 by no means1 alone 9 ?is respect4 ,all :o "k ! hi/ory ( ! settlem5t ( ! o!r suburbs ( ,new ,york are v well aw>e t ^? places :i* are free f fev]-&-ague & mal>ial neuralgia1 are extremely r>e4 ,! exact cause ( fev]-&-ague & o!r mal>ial diseases is unkn[n1 b x is demon/rat$ t1 :atev] ! cause is1 x is orig9at$ "u a comb9ation ( circum/ances1 "o ( :i* is undue moi/ure 9 ! soil4 ,x is n necess>y t l& %\ld be absolutely m>%y to produce ! miasm1 = ?is (t5 arises on cold1 spr+y upl&s :i* are q free f deposits ( muck4 ,?us f>1 ! att5tion ( sci5tific inve/igators1 giv5 to ! consid]ation ( ! orig9 ( mal>ial diseases1 has fail$ to discov] any well e/abli%$ facts conc]n+ x2 b !re h be5 develop$ c]ta9 !ories1 :i* seem to be su/a9$ by su* k z exi/s on ! subject4 ,dr4 ,b>tlett1 9 8 "w on ! ,fev]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 says3--,! ess5tial1 effici5t1 produc+ cause ( p]iodical fev]1--! poison ^: action on ! sy/em gives rise to ! disease1--is a sub/ance or ag5t :i* has receiv$ ! names ( mal>ia1 or m>% miasm4 ,! nature & composition ( ?is poison are :olly unkn[n to u4 ,l mo/ o!r analog\s ag5ts1 l ! contagi\s pr9ciple ( small-pox & ( typhus1 & l ! epidemic poison ( sc>let9a & *ol]a1 !y are too subtle to be recogniz$ by any ( our s5ses1 !y are too fugitive to be caught by any ( our contrivances4 ,z always happ5s 9 su* cases & "u simil> circum/ances1 9 ! abs5ce ( positive k1 we h be5 abundantly suppli$ ) conjecture & speculation2 :at obs]vation has fail$ to discov]1 hypo!sis has endeavor$ & pr(ess$ to supply4 ,x is q unnecess>y ev5 to enum]ate ! diff]5t sub/ances to :i* mal>ia has be5 ref]r$4 ,among/ !m are all ( ! *emical products & comp\nds possible 9 wet & m>%y localities2 moi/ure alone2 ! products ( animal & vegetable decomposition2 & invisible liv+ organisms4 99 99 99 99 ,inscrutable1 h[ev]1 z ! intimate nature ( ! sub/ances or ag5ts may be1 !re are "s few ( its laws & relations :i* are v well asc]ta9$4 ,"o ( ^! consi/s 9 its connection ) l[1 or wet1 or m>%y localities4 ,?is connection is n inv>iable & exclusive1 t is1 !re are m>%y localities :i* are n mal>i\s1 & !re are mal>i\s localities :i* are n m>%y2 b !re is no d\bt :atev] t x g5]ally exi/s4 ,9 a report to ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,sanit>y ,commission1 ,dr4 ,metcalfe /ates1 t all hypo!ses1 ev5 ! mo/ plausible1 are entirely unsupport$ by positive k1 & he says3-- ,?is confession ( ignorance /ill leaves u 9 possession ( c]ta9 k conc]n+ mal>ia1 f :i* mu* practical good may be d]iv$4 #a/4 ,x affects1 by pref]5ce1 l[ & moi/ localities4 #b;d4 ,x is almo/ nev] develop$ at a l[] temp]ature ?an #fj ,fahr5heit4 #c;d4 ,its evolution or active ag5cy is *eck$ by a temp]ature ( #cb4 #d?4 ,x is mo/ abundant & mo/ virul5t z we approa* ! equator & ! sea-coa/4 #e?4 ,x has an aff9ity = d5se foliage1 :i* has ! p[] ( accumulat+ x1 :5 ly+ 9 ! c\rse ( w9ds bl[+ f mal>i\s localities4 #f?4 ,=e/s1 or ev5 woods1 h ! p[] ( ob/ruct+ & prev5t+ its transmission1 "u ^! circum/ances4 #g?4 ,by atmosph]ic curr5ts x is capable ( be+ transport$ to consid]able di/ances--probably z f> z five miles4 #h?4 ,x may be develop$1 9 previ\sly heal?y places1 by turn+ up ! soil2 z 9 mak+ excavations = f\ndations ( h\ses1 tracks = railroads1 & b$s = canals4 #i?4 ,9 c]ta9 cases x seems to be attract$ & absorb$ by bodies ( wat] ly+ 9 ! c\rse ( su* w9ds z waft x f ! miasmatic s\rce4 #aj?4 ,exp]i5ce alone c enable u to decide z to ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( mal>ia1 9 any giv5 locality4 #aa?4 ,9 proportion z c\ntries1 previ\sly mal>i\s1 are cle>$ up & ?ickly settl$1 p]iodical fev]s disappe>--9 _m in/ances to be replac$ by ! typhoid or typhus4 ,la ,ro*e1 9 a c>efully prep>$ treatise on ,pneumonia2 its ,suppos$ ,connection ) ,autumnal ,fev]s1 recites v>i\s !ories conc]n+ ! mode ( action ( m>% miasm1 & f9ds !m insuffici5t to acc\nt = ! ph5om5a :i* !y produce4 ,he cont9ues z foll[s3-- ,all ! above hypo!ses fail+ to acc\nt = ! effects 9 "q1 we are naturally l$ to ! admission t !y are produc$ by ! morbific influ5ce ( "s special ag5t2 & :5 we take into consid]ation all ! circum/ances att5d+ ! appe>ance ( febrile diseases1 ! circumscrib$ sph]e ( _! preval5ce1 ! sudd5ness ( _! attack1 ! "* ( _! ph5om5a1 etc41 we may safely say t !re is no?+ left b to attribute !m to ! action ( "s poison dissolv$ or susp5d$ 9 ! air ( ! infect$ locality2 :i* poison1 :ile d\btless requir+ = its developm5t & dissem9ation a c]ta9 degree ( heat1 & t]re/rial & atmosph]ic moi/ure1 a c]ta9 am\nt ( nightly cond5sation aft] evaporation1 & ! pres5ce ( f]m5t+ or decompos+ mat]ials1 _c be produc$ by ei!r ( ^! ag5cies alone1 & ?\gh indicat$ by ! *emi/1 betrays its pres5ce by produc+ on ^? expos$ to its influ5ce ! peculi> morbid *anges *>act]iz+ fev]4 ,he quotes ! foll[+ f ! ,rese>*es ( ,dr4 ,*adwick3-- ,9 consid]+ ! circum/ances ext]nal to ! resid5ce1 :i* affect ! sanit>y condition ( ! population1 ! importance ( a g5]al l&-dra9age is develop$ by ! inquiries z to ! cause ( ! preval5t diseases1 to be ( a magnitude ( :i* no conception _h be5 =m$ at ! comm5cem5t ( ! inve/igation4 ,its importance is manife/$ by ! sev]e consequ5ces ( its neglect 9 e "p ( ! c\ntry1 z well z by its advantages 9 ! increas+ salubrity & productiv5ess :]ev] ! dra9age has be5 skillful & effectual4 ,la ,ro*e calls att5tion to ^! facts3--,t ! acclimat$ resid5ts ( a mal>i\s locality1 :ile !y are less subject ?an /rang]s to active fev]1 %[1 9 _! physical & ev5 9 _! m5tal organization1 evid5t indications ( ! ill effects ( liv+ 9 a poison\s atmosph]e1--an evil :i* increases ) successive g5]ations1 (t5 result+ 9 a positive det]ioration ( ! race2 t ! l[] animals are affect$1 ?\gh 9 a less degree ?an man2 t deposits ( organic matt] :i* are entirely cov]$ ) wat]1 7z at ! bottom ( a pond17 are n productive ( mal>ia2 t ?is condition ( saturation is inf9itely pref]able to imp]fect dra9age2 t swamps :i* are %ad$ f ! sun's heat by trees1 are n suppos$ to produce disease2 & t m>%es :i* are expos$ to con/ant w9ds are n especially delet]i\s to p]sons liv+ 9 _! imm$iate vic9ity1--:ile w9ds frequ5tly c>ry ! emanations ( miasmatic di/ricts to po9ts "s miles di/ant1 :]e !y produce _! wor/ effects4 ,?is latt] /atem5t is sub/antiat$ by ! fact t h\ses situat$ "s miles to ! leew>d ( l[1 wet l&s1 h be5 especially insalubri\s until ! w9d[s & doors on ! side t[>d ! s\rce ( ! miasm 7 clos$ up1 & op5+s made on ! o!r side1--& !nce=? rema9$ free f ! disease1 al?\gh o!r h\ses ) op5+s on ! expos$ sides cont9u$ unheal?y4 ,! lit]ature relat+ to p]iodical fev]s conta9s no?+ else s int]e/+ z ! v +5i\s article ( ,dr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,salisbury1 on ! ,cause ( ,mal>i\s ,fev]s1 contribut$ to ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,m$ical ,sci5ce1 = ,janu>y1 #ahff4 ,un=tunately1 :ile !re is no evid5ce to controv]t ! /atem5ts ( ?is article1 !y d n seem to be honor$ ) ! confid5ce ( ! pr(ession1--n be+ reg>d$ z suffici5tly au!nticat$ to =m a basis = sci5tific d$uctions4 ,dr4 ,salisbury claims to h discov]$ ! cause ( mal>ial fev] 9 ! spores ( a v l[ ord] ( plant1 :i* spores he claims to h inv>iably detect$ 9 ! saliva1 & 9 ! ur9e1 ( fev] pati5ts1 & 9 ^? ( no o!r p]sons1 & :i* he collect$ on plates ( glass susp5d$ ov] all m>%es & o!r l&s ( a mal>i\s "*1 :i* he exam9$1 & :i* he 0 nev] able to obta9 f l&s :i* 7 n mal>i\s4 ,/>t+ f ?is po9t1 he proce$s1 7) circum/antial /atem5ts t seem to ! unpr(essional m9d to be suffici5t17 to %[ t ! plant produc+ ^! spores is always f\nd1 9 ! =m ( a :iti%1 gre51 or brick-color$ incru/ation1 on ! surface ( fev] produc+ l&s2 t ! spores1 :5 deta*$ f ! p>5t plant1 are c>ri$ 9 susp5sion only 9 ! moi/ exhalations ( wet l&s1 nev] ris+ high]1 7usually f #ce to #fj feet17 nor be+ c>ri$ f>!r1 ?an ! humid air itself2 t !y mo/ accumulate 9 ! upp] /rata ( ! fogs1 produc+ m disease on l&s slightly elevat$ above ! level ( ! m>% ?an at its v edge2 t fev]-&-ague are nev] to be f\nd :]e ?is plant does n gr[2 t x may be at once introduc$ into ! heal?ie/ locality by transport+ moi/ e>? on :i* ! incru/ation is =m+2 t ! plant1 be+ introduc$ into ! human sy/em ?r\gh ! lungs1 cont9ues to gr[ !re & causes disease2 & t qu9ia arre/s its gr[?1 7z x *ecks ! multiplication ( yea/ plants 9 f]m5tation17 & ?us susp5ds ! action ( ! disease4 ,probably x w\ld be impossible to prove t ! =ego+ !ory is correct1 ?\gh x is n improbable t x conta9s ! g]m f :i* a full] k ( ! disease & its causes w be obta9$4 ,x is suffici5t = ! purposes ( ?is "w to say t1 s f> z ,dr4 ,salisbury's op9ion is valuable1 x is1--l ! op9ion ( all o!r writ]s on ! subject1--fully 9 favor ( p]fect dra9age z ! "o great prev5tive ( all mal>ial diseases4 ,! evid5ce ( ! effect ( dra9age 9 remov+ ! cause ( mal>ial diseases is complete & conclusive4 ,in/ances ( su* improvem5t 9 ?is c\ntry are n r>e1 b !y are mu* less num]\s & less conspicu\s "h ?an 9 ,engl&1 :]e dra9+ has be5 mu* m ext5sively c>ri$ out1 & :]e great] pa9s h be5 tak5 to collect te/imony z to its effects4 ,if !re is any fact well e/abli%$ by satisfactory exp]i5ce1 x is t ?or\gh & judici\s dra9+ w entirely remove ! local s\rce ( ! miasm :i* produces ^! diseases4 ,! volum9\s reports ( v>i\s ,committees ( ! ,engli% ,p>liam5t1 appo9t$ to inve/igate sanit>y que/ions1 are replete ) in=mation conc]n+ exp]i5ce ?r\gh\t ! :ole c\ntry1 be>+ directly on ?is "q4 ,dr4 ,:itley1 9 8 report to ! ,bo>d ( ,heal?1 79 #ahfd17 ( an ext5d$ t\r ( obs]vation1 says ( "o t[n t he exam9$3-- ,mr4 ,ni*olls1 :o has be5 =ty ye>s 9 practice "h1 & :om ,i 0 unable to see at ! "t ( my visit1 writes3 ,int]mitt5t & remitt5t are greatly on ! decl9e s9ce ! improv$ /ate ( dra9age ( ! t[n & surr\nd+ di/rict1 & m p>ticul>ly m>k$ is ?is alt]ation1 s9ce ! introduction ( ! wat]-works 9 ! place4 ,al?\gh we h occasional outbreaks ( int]mitt5t & remitt5t1 ) neuralgic attacks1 !y yield m spe$ily to rem$ies1 & are n att5d$ by s mu* enl>gem5t ( ! liv] or sple5 z =m]ly1 & dys5t]y is ( r>e occurr5ce4 ,dr4 ,:itley sums up 8 case z foll[s3-- ,x w\ld appe> f ! =ego+ inquiry1 t int]mitt5t & remitt5t fev]s1 & _! consequ5ces1 c no long] be reg>d$ z s]i\sly affect+ ! heal? ( ! population1 9 _m ( ! di/ricts1 9 :i* ^? diseases 7 =m]ly ( a =midable "*4 ,?us1 9 ,norfolk1 ,l9coln%ire1 & ,cambridge%ire1 c\nties 9 :i* ^! diseases 7 bo? frequ5t & sev]e1 all ! evid5ce1 except t furni%$ by ! ,pet]bor\gh ,infirm>y1 &1 9 a some:at less degree1 9 ,spauld+1 t5ds to %[ t !y are at ! pres5t "t1 comp>atively r>e & mild 9 =m4 ,he m5tions simil> results f 8 inve/igations 9 o!r p>ts ( ! k+dom1 & says3-- ,x may1 !re=e1 be safely ass]t$ z reg>ds ,engl& g5]ally1 t3-- ,! diseases :i* h be5 made ! subject ( ! pres5t inquiry1 h be5 /eadily decreas+1 bo? 9 frequ5cy & sev]ity1 = sev]al ye>s1 & ?is decrease is attribut$1 9 ne>ly e case1 ma9ly to "o cause1--improv$ l& dra9age2 aga93 ,! *ange ( local circum/ances1 unanim\sly decl>$ to be ! mo/ imm$iate 9 influ5c+ ! preval5ce ( mal>i\s diseases1 is l& dra9age2 & aga93 ,except 9 a few cases 9 :i* m$ical m5 believ$ t ^! affections began to decl9e previ\sly to ! improv$ dra9age ( ! places m5tion$1 ! decrease 9 all ( ! di/ricts :]e ext5sive dra9age has be5 c>ri$ out1 0 /at$ to h comm5c$ ab\t ! same "t1 & 0 unhesitat+ly attribut$ to t cause4 ,a select ,committee ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons1 appo9t$ to inve/igate ! condition & sanit>y influ5ce ( ! ,?ames m>%es1 report$ _! m9utes ( evid5ce1 & _! d$uctions !refrom1 9 #ahed1 ,! foll[+ is extract$ f _! report3 ,x appe>s f ! evid5ce ( highly intellig5t & em95t g5tlem5 ( ! m$ical pr(ession1 resid+ 9 ! neighborhood ( ! m>%es on bo? sides ( ! ,?ames bel[ ,london ,bridge1 t ! diseases preval5t 9 ^! di/ricts are highly indicative ( mal>i\s influ5ces1 fev]-&-ague be+ v preval5t2 & t ! sickness & mortality are greate/ 9 ^? localities :i* adjo9 imp]fectly dra9$ l&s1 & f> exce$ ! usual av]age2 & t ague & alli$ disord]s frequ5tly ext5d to ! high gr\nds 9 ! vic9ity4 ,9 ^? di/ricts :]e a p>tial dra9age has be5 effect$1 a correspond+ improvem5t 9 ! heal? ( ! inhabitants is p]ceptible4 ,9 ! evid5ce giv5 be=e ! committee1 ,dr4 ,p4 ,bossey te/ifi$ t ! mal>ia f salt m>%es v>i$ 9 int5sity1 be+ mo/ active 9 ! morn+ & 9 ! ,summ] season4 ,! m>%es are sometimes cov]$ by a little fog1 usually n m ?an ?ree feet ?ick1 :i* is ( a v (f5sive odor1 & detrim5tal to heal?4 ,away f ! m>%es1 !re is a great] t5d5cy to disease on ! side t[>d :i* ! prevail+ w9ds bl[4 ,dr4 ,james ,/ew>t te/ifi$ t ! effect ( mal>ia 0 greate/ :5 v hot wea!r succe$s heavy ra9 or floods4 ,he ?\ght t mal>ia c\ld be c>ri$ up a slope1 b has nev] be5 kn[n to desc5d1 & t1 consequ5tly1 an int]v5+ hill af=ds suffici5t protection aga9/ m>% mal>ia4 ,he _h kn[n cases :]e ! edges ( a riv] 7 heal?y & ! upl&s mal>i\s4 ,9 ,santa ,maura & ,zante1 :]e he _h be5 /ation$ ) ! army1 he _h obs]v$ t ! edge ( a m>% w\ld be comp>atively heal?y1 :ile ! high] places 9 ! vic9ity 7 exce$+ly unheal?y4 ,he ?\ght t !re 7 a great _m mix$ diseases :i* began l ague & t]m9at$ v diff]5tly2 ^? diseases w\ld1 no d\bt1 assume a v diff]5t =m if !y 7 n produc$ by ! m>% air2 _m diseases are v difficult to treat1 f be+ ( a mix$ "* beg9n+ l m>% fev]s & t]m9at+ l inflammatory fev]s1 or diseases ( ! *e/4 ,dr4 ,george ,f>r te/ifi$ t rheumatism & tic-doloreux 7 v common among ! ladies :o live at ! ,woolwi* ,ars5al1 ne> ! ,?ames m>%es4 ,"s ( ^! cases 7 q incurable1 until ! pati5ts remov$ to a pur] atmosph]e4 ,w4 ,h4 ,gall1 ,m4 ,d41 ?\ght t ! ext5t to :i* mal>ia affect$ ! heal? ( ,london1 mu/ ( c\rse be v mu* a !oretical "q2 b x is v rem>kable t diseases :i* are n di/9ctly miasmatic1 d become mu* m sev]e 9 a miasmatic di/rict4 ,influ5zas1 :i* prevail$ 9 ,engl& 9 #ahdg1 7 v mu* m fatal 9 ,london & ! surr\nd+ p>ts ?an !y 7 9 ! c\ntry g5]ally1 & influ5za & ague poisons are v ne>ly alli$ 9 _! effects4 ,m>% miasms are convey$1 no d\bt1 a consid]able di/ance4 ,suffici5tly au!ntic cases are record$ to %[ t ! influ5ce ( m>% miasm ext5ds sev]al miles4 ,o!r physicians te/ify to ! fact1 t ne> ! ,?ames m>%es1 ! preval5t diseases are all ( !m ( an agui% type1 int]mitt5t & remitt5t1 & t !y are accompani$ ) mu* dys5t]y4 ,dr4 ,john ,manly said t1 :5 he fir/ w5t to ,b>k+1 he f\nd a great deal ( ague1 b s9ce ! dra9+1 9 a population ( t5 ?\s&1 !re are n half-a-doz5 cases annually & b v little remitt5t4 ,! foll[+ ,extract is tak5 f ! te/imony ( ,sir ,cull+ ,e>dly1 ,b>t43 ,*airman3--,i believe y reside at ,belvid]e1 9 ! p>i% ( ,eri?8--,yes4--,*43 ,close to ^! m>%es8--,yes4--,*43 ,c y speak f y\r own k1 ( ! /ate ( ^! m>%es1 ) reg>d to public heal?8--,sir ,c43 ,i c speak ( "s ( ! results :i* h be5 produc$ 9 ! neighborhood1 f ! condition ( ! m>%es2 ! neighborhood is 9 "o cont9ual /ate ( ague4 ,my own h\se is protect$1 f ! height ( its position1 & a g5tleman's h\se is less liable to ! influ5ce ( mal>ia ?an ! h\ses ( ! l[] classes4 ,b ev5 9 my h\se we are liable to ague2 & to %[ ! extraord9>y mann] 9 :i* ! ague op]ates1 9 ! basem5t /ory ( ?is h\se :]e my m5-s]vants sleep1 we h m ?an once _h bad ague4 ,9 ! attics ( my h\se1 :]e my maid-s]vants sleep1 we h nev] _h x4 ,p]sons are det]r$ f settl+ 9 ! neighborhood by ! agui% "* ( ! c\ntry4 ,_m p]sons1 attract$ by ! beauty ( ! locality1 wi% to come d[n & settle2 b :5 !y f9d ! liability to ague1 !y are compell$ to give up _! int5tion4 ,i may m5tion t ! village ( ,eri? itself1 be>s m>ks ( ! influ5ce ( mal>ia4 ,x is m l "o ( ! desolate t[ns ( ,italy1 ,f]r>a1 = in/ance1 ?an a heal?y1 happy1 ,engli% village4 ,i d n "k :e!r x is kn[n to ! committee1 t ,eri? is ! village describ$ 9 ,dick5s' ,h\sehold ,words1 z ,dumble-d[n-de>y1 & t x is a mo/ graphic & correct description ( ! /ate ( ! place1 attributable to ! unheal?y "* ( ! locality4 ,he also /at$ t ! ague is n conf9$ to ! m>%es1 b ext5ds to ! high l&s ne> !m4 ,! ,g5]al ,bo>d ( ,heal?1 ( ,engl&1 at ! close ( a volum9\s report1 publi% ! foll[+ ,conclusions z to ! ,dra9age ( ,suburban ,l&s3-- #a4 ,excess ( moi/ure1 ev5 on l&s n evid5tly wet1 is a cause ( fogs & damps4 #b4 ,dampness s]ves z a m$ium = ! conveyance ( any decompos+ matt] t may be evolv$1 & adds to ! injuri\s effects ( su* matt]s 9 ! air3--9 o!r words ! excess ( moi/ure may be said to increase or aggravate atmosph]ic impurities4 #c4 ,! evaporation ( ! surplus moi/ure l[]s ! temp]ature1 produces *ills1 & creates or aggravates ! sudd5 & injuri\s *anges or fluctuations by :i* heal? is injur$4 ,9 view ( ! =ego+ op9ions z to ! cause ( mal>ia1 & ( ! evid5ce z to ! effect ( dra9+ 9 remov+ ! unheal?y condition 9 :i* ^? causes orig9ate1 x is n too mu* to say t1--9 addition to ! capital effect ( dra9+ on ! productive capacity ( ! l&1--! mo/ b5eficial sanit>y results may be confid5tly expect$ f ! ext5sion ( ! practice1 especially 9 su* localities z are n[ unsafe1 or at lea/ undesirable = resid5ce4 ,9 proportion to ! complet5ess & effici5cy ( ! means = ! removal ( surplus wat] f ! soil3--9 proportion1 t is1 to ! degree 9 :i* ! improv$ tile dra9age describ$ 9 ^! pages is adopt$1--w be ! complet5ess ( ! removal ( ! causes ( disease4 ,s f> z ! dry+ ( mal>i\s l&s is conc]n$1 x is only necess>y to con/ruct dra9s 9 precisely ! same mann] z = agricultural improvem5t4 ,! removal ( ! wa/e ( h\ses1 & ( o!r fil?1 w be consid]$ 9 ! next *apt]4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 - ,,h\se ,,dra9age ,,& ,,t[n ,,sew]age ,,9 ,,_! ,,relations ,,to ,,! ,,public ,,heal?4 ,! foll[+ is extract$ f a report made by ! ,g5]al ,bo>d ( ,heal? to ! ,briti% ,p>liam5t1 conc]n+ ! adm9i/ration ( ! ,public ,heal? ,act & ! ,nuisances ,removal & ,diseases ,prev5tion ,acts f #ahdh to #ahed4 ,:]e in/ances h be5 favorable = def9ite obs]vation1 z 9 broad blocks ( build+s1 ! effects ( sanit>y improvem5t h be5 already manife/$ to an ext5t great] ?an c\ld h be5 anticipat$1 & ?an c be readily cr$it$ by ^? :o h n paid att5tion to ! subject4 ,9 "o favorable in/ance1 t ( betwe5 #fjj & #gjj p]sons ( ! work+ class 9 ! metropolis1 dur+ a p]iod ( ?ree ye>s1 ! av]age rate ( mortality has be5 r$uc$ to betwe5 #ac & #ad 9 #ajjj4 ,9 ano!r in/ance1 = a %ort] p]iod1 among #ejj p]sons1 ! mortality has be5 r$uc$ z l[ z ev5 #g 9 #ajjj4 ,! av]age rate ( mortality = ! :ole metropolis be+ #bc 9 #ajjj4 ,9 ano!r in/ance1 ! aboli%+ ( cess-pools & _! replacem5t by wat]-closets1 toge!r ) ! aboli%+ ( brick dra9s & _! replacem5t by imp]meable & self-cleans+ /one-w>e pipes1 has be5 att5d$ ) an imm$iate & extraord9>y r$uction ( mortality4 ,?us1 9 ,lambe? ,squ>e1 occupi$ by a sup]ior class ( op]atives1 9 ! receipt ( high wages1 ! dea?s1 :i* 9 ord9>y times 7 above ! g5]al av]age1 or m ?an #cj 9 #ajjj1 _h ris5 to a rate ( #ee 9 #ajjj4 ,by ! aboli%+ ( cess-pools1 :i* 7 )9 ! h\ses1 & ! sub/itution ( wat]-closets1 & ) ! introduction ( tubul>1 self-cleans+ h\se-dra9s1 ! mortality has be5 r$uc$ to #ac 9 #ajjj4 ,! r$uction ( ! mortality 0 effect$ precisely among ! same occupants1 )\t any *ange 9 _! habits :atev]4 ,sew]s are less important ?an ! ,h\se-,dra9s & ,wat]-,closets1 & if n c>ry+ mu* wat]1 may become cess-pools4 ,9 ! case ( ! ,squ>e j ref]r$ to1 :5 cess-pools & dra9s ( deposit 7 remov$ )\t any alt]ation :atev] 9 ! adjac5t sew]s1 fev]s disappe>$ f h\se to h\se1 z ^! receptacles 7 fill$ up1 & ! wat]-closet app>atus sub/itut$1 m]ely 9 consequ5ce ( ! removal ( ! decompos+ matt] f b5ea? ! h\ses to a di/ant sew] ( deposit or op5 wat] c\rse4 ,if ! mortality 7 at ! same rate z 9 ! model dwell+s1 or 9 ! improv$ dwell+s 9 ,lambe? ,squ>e1 ! annual dea?s = ! :ole ( ! metropolis w\ld be #be1jjj less1 & = ! :ole ( ,engl& & ,wales #agj1jjj less ?an ! actual dea?s4 ,if ! r$uc$ rate ( mortality 9 ^! dwell+s %\ld cont9ue1 & !re appe>s to be no reason to suppose t x w n1 ! ext5sion to all t[ns :i* h be5 affect$1 ( ! improvem5ts :i* h be5 appli$ 9 ^! build+s1 w\ld raise ! av]age age at dea? to ab\t =ty-eight in/ead ( tw5ty-n9e1 ! pres5t av]age age at dea? ( ! inhabitants ( t[ns 9 all ,engl& & ,wales4 ,! bran* ( ! ,art ( ,dra9age :i* relates to ! removal ( ! fecal & o!r refuse wa/es ( ! population ( t[ns1 is q diff]5t f t :i* has be5 describ$ 9 ! prec$+ pages1 z applicable to ! agricultural & sanit>y improvem5t ( l&s "u cultivation1 & ( suburban di/ricts4 ,/ill1 ! fact t t[n & h\se dra9age af=ds a means = ! pres]vation ( valuable manures1 ju/ifies its discussion 9 an agricultural "w1 & dra9+ = heal? w\ld /op f> %ort ( complet5ess 7 no att5tion paid to ! removal ( ! cause ( diseases1 :i* are f> m fatal ?an ^? t orig9ate 9 an undra9$ condition ( ! soil4 ,! ext5t to :i* ^! diseases1 7( :i* typhoid fev] is a type17 are prev5t$ by sanit>y dra9age1 is /rik+ly %[n 9 ! extract :i* comm5ces ?is *apt]4 ,s9ce ! exp]i5ce to :i* ?is report ref]s1 x has be5 f\nd t ! mo/ fatal epidemics ( ! l[] portions ( ,london orig9at$ 9 ! *ok$ condition ( ! /reet sew]s1 ^: g5]al "*1 z well z ! plan ( improvem5t adopt$ are describ$ 9 ! foll[+ ,extracts f ! ,report ( ! ,metropolitan ,bo>d ( ,works1 made 9 #ahff4 ,! ma9 sew]s dis*>g$ _! :ole cont5ts direct into ! ,?ames1 ! majority ( !m capable ( be+ empti$ only at ! "t ( l[ wat]2 consequ5tly1 z ! tide rose1 ! outlets ( ! sew]s 7 clos$1 & ! sewage 0 damm$ back1 & became /agnant2 ! sewage & impure wat]s 7 also con/antly fl[+ f ! high] gr\nds1 9 "s in/ances dur+ #ah out ( ! #bd h\rs1 & ?us ! ?ick & heavy sub/ances 7 deposit$1 :i* _h to be aft]w>ds remov$ by ! co/ly process ( h& labor4 ,dur+ long cont9u$ or copi\s falls ( ra91 m p>ticul>ly :5 ^! occurr$ at ! "t ( high wat] 9 ! riv]1 ! clos$ outlets n hav+ suffici5t /orage capacity to receive ! increas$ volume ( sewage1 ! h\ses & premises 9 ! l[ ly+ di/ricts1 especially on ! s\? side ( ! riv]1 became flood$ by ! sewage ris+ ?r\gh ! h\se dra9s1 & s cont9u$ until ! tide _h rec$$ suffici5tly to af=d a v5t = ! p5t-up wat]s1 :5 ! sewage fl[$ & deposit$ itself along ! banks ( ! riv]1 evolv+ gases ( a f\l & (f5sive "*4 ,?is /ate ( ?+s _h a mo/ injuri\s effect ^u ! condition ( ! ,?ames2 = n only 0 ! sewage c>ri$ up ! riv] by ! ris+ tide1 at a "t :5 ! volume ( pure wat] 0 at its m9imum1 & q insuffici5t to dilute & dis9fect x1 b x 0 br\ght back aga9 into ! he>t ( ! metropolis1 !re to mix ) ea* day's fre% supply1 until ! gradual progress t[>ds ! sea ( _m day's accumulation c\ld be pla9ly disc]n$2 ! result be+ t ! portion ( ! riv] )9 ! metropolitan di/rict became sc>cely less impure & (f5sive ?an ! f\le/ ( ! sew]s !mselves4 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,! ,bo>d1 by ! sy/em !y h adopt$1 h s\ght to aboli% ! evils :i* hi!rto exi/$1 by con/ruct+ new l9es ( sew]s1 laid 9 a direction at "r angles to t ( ! exi/+ sew]s1 & a little bel[ _! levels1 s z to int]cept _! cont5ts & convey !m to an outfall1 on ! nor? side ( ! ,?ames ab\t #aa-a_/d miles1 & on ! s\? side ab\t #ad miles1 bel[ ,london ,bridge4 ,by ?is arrangem5t z l>ge a proportion ( ! sewage z practicable is c>ri$ away by gravitation1 & a con/ant dis*>ge = ! rema9d] is provid$ by means ( pump+4 ,at ! outlets1 ! sewage is deliv]$ into res]voirs situate on ! banks ( ! ,?ames1 & plac$ at su* levels z enable !m to dis*>ge into ! riv] at or ab\t ! "t ( high wat]4 ,! sewage ?us becomes n only at once dilut$ by ! l>ge volume ( wat] 9 ! riv] at ! "t ( high wat]1 b is also c>ri$ by ! ebb #bf miles bel[ ,london ,bridge1 & its return by ! foll[+ flood-tide )9 ! metropolitan area1 is effectually prev5t$4 ,! details ( ?is /up5d\s ent]prise are ( suffici5t int]e/ to ju/ify ! introduction "h ( ! ,g5]al ,/ati/ics ( ! ,works z report$ by ! ,bo>d4 ,a few /ati/ics relative to ! works may n prove un9t]e/+4 ,! fir/ portion ( ! works 0 comm5c$ 9 ,janu>y #ahei1 be+ ab\t five mon?s aft] ! pass+ ( ! ,act au?oris+ _! execution4 ,!re are #hb miles ( ma9 int]cept+ sew]s 9 ,london4 ,9 ! con/ruction ( ! works #cah1jjj1jjj ( bricks1 & #hhj1jjj cubic y>ds ( concrete h be5 us$1 & #c1ejj1jjj cubic y>ds ( e>? excavat$4 ,! co/1 :5 complet$1 w h be5 ab\t #d1bjj1jjj4 ,! total pump+ p[] employ$ is #b1cjj nom9al horse p[]3 & if ! eng9es 7 at full "w1 night & day1 #dd1jjj tons ( coals p] annum w\ld be us$2 b ! av]age consumption is e/imat$ at #bj1jjj tons4 ,! sewage to be int]cept$ by ! works on ! nor? side ( ! riv]1 at pres5t am\nts to #aj1jjj1jjj cubic feet1 & on ! s\? side #d1jjj1jjj cubic feet p] day2 b provision is made = an anticipat$ increase 9 ^! quantities1 9 addition to ! ra9fall1 am\nt+ to a total ( #fc1jjj1jjj cubic feet p] day1 :i* is equal to a lake ( #dhb acres1 ?ree feet deep1 or #ae times z l>ge z ! ,s]p5t9e 9 ,hyde ,p>k4 ,a v l>ge portion ( ! sewage has to be lift$ ?irty-six feet to ! outfall sew]4 ,! works on ! nor? side ( ! ,?ames 7 =mally op5$1 by ! ,pr9ce ( ,wales1 9 ,april #ahfe4 ,9 ! hope t ! imm5se am\nt ( sewage1 = :i* an escape has be5 ?us provid$1 might be pr(itably employ$ 9 agriculture1 adv]tisem5ts 7 ins]t$ 9 ! public j\rnals ask+ = proposals = c>ry+ out su* a s*eme2 & arrangem5ts 7 subsequ5tly made = an ext5sion ( ! works1 by private ent]prise1 by ! con/ruction ( a culv]t n9e & a half feet 9 diamet]1 & =ty miles 9 l5g?1 capable ( c>ry+ #ab1jjj1jjj cubic feet ( sewage p] day to ! b>r5 s&s on ! coa/ ( ,essex2 ! int5tion be+ to dispose ( ! liquid to f>m]s along ! l9e1 & to use ! surplus = ! f]tilization ( #gjjj acres1 7to be subsequ5tly increas$17 :i* are to be reclaim$ f ! sea by embankm5ts & valve sluice-gates4 ,! e/imat$ co/ ( ?is ent]prise is ab\t #aj1jjj1jjj4 ,! "w :i* has be5 done1 & :i* is n[ 9 contemplation1 9 ,engl&1 is sugge/ive ( :at might1 ) advantage1 be adopt$ 9 ! l>g] cities 9 ,am]ica4 ,especially 9 ,new ,york an improv$ means ( outlet is desirable1 & x is d\btful :e!r ! high rate ( mortality ( t city w be mat]ially r$uc$ be=e effective measures are devis$ = remov+ ! va/ accumulations ( fil?1 :i* ebb & fl[ 9 _m ( ! l>g] sew]s1 ) ea* *ange ( ! tide2 & :i* are deposit$ betwe5 ! pi]s along ! riv]-sides4 ,x w\ld be practicable to con/ruct a ma9 receiv+ sew] "u ! riv] /reets1 skirt+ ! city1 f ! vic9ity ( ,bellevue ,hospital on ! ea/ side1 pass+ ne> ! out] edge ( ! ,batt]y1 & cont9u+ to ! high l& ne> #fj? /reet on ! we/ side2 hav+ its wat] level at lea/ tw5ty feet bel[ ! level ( ! /reet1 & receiv+ all ( ! sewage :i* n[ fl[s into ! riv]4 ,at ! ,batt]y1 ?is receiv+ sew] might be connect$1 by a tunnel1 ) ! ,brooklyn %ore1 its cont5ts be+ c>ri$ to a conv5i5t po9t s\? ( ,=t ,hamilton1--:]e _! dis*>ge1 7by lift+ /eam pumps71 into ! wat]s ( ! ,l[] ,bay1 w\ld be att5d$ ) no inconv5i5ce4 ,! improvem5t be+ c>ri$ out to ?is po9t1 x w\ld probably n be long be=e ! advantages to result f ! application ( ! sewage to ! s&y soil on ! s\? side ( ,long ,isl& w\ld be manife/4 ,! effect ( su* an improvem5t on ! heal? ( ! city1--:i* is n[ 9 con/ant dang] f ! putrefy+ fil? ( ! sew]s1 7^! be+ little bett] ?an cov]$ cess-pools "u ! /reets17--w\ld1 no d\bt1 equal ! improvem5t t has result$ f simil> "w 9 ,london4 ,! =ego+ relates only to ! ma9 outlets = t[n sewage4 ,! art]ial dra9age1 7! lat]al dra9s ( ! sy/em17 :i* receives ! wa/e ( ! h\ses & ! wa% ( ! /reets1 is entirely dep5d5t on ! outlet sew]s1 & c be effective only :5 ^! are s con/ruct$ z to af=d a free outfall = ! matt]s t x deliv]s to !m4 ,9 _m t[ns1 ow+ to high situation1 or to a rapid incl9ation ( surface1 ! outfall is naturally s good z to require b little att5tion4 ,9 all cases1 ! mann] ( con/ruct+ ! collect+ dra9s is a matt] ( great importance1 & 9 ?is "w a radical *ange has be5 introduc$ )9 a few ye>s pa/4 ,=m]ly1 imm5se conduits ( por\s brick "w1 9 all cases l>ge en\gh to be ent]$ to be cleans$1 by h& labor1 ( _! accumulat$ deposits1 7 consid]$ necess>y = ! accommodation ( ! smalle/ dis*>ge4 ,! consequ5ce ( ?is 01 t1 especially 9 sew]s c>ry+ b little wat]1 ! solid matt]s conta9$ 9 ! sewage 7 deposit$ by ! sluggi% fl[1 frequ5tly caus+ ! entire ob/ruction ( ! passages4 ,su* dra9s always requir$ frequ5t & exp5sive cleans+ by h&1 & ! decomposition ( ! fil? :i* !y conta9$ produc$ a mo/ injuri\s effect on ! heal? ( p]sons liv+ ne> _! connections ) ! /reet4 ,! f\l liquids ) :i* !y 7 fill$1 pass+ ?r\gh _! por\s walls1 impregnat$ ! e>? ne> !m1 & sometimes rea*$ to ! cell>s ( adjac5t h\ses1 :i* 7 9 consequ5ce r5d]$ extremely unheal?y4 ,_m su* sew]s are n[ 9 exi/5ce1 & "s su* are /ill be+ con/ruct$4 ,n only are !y unsatisfactory1 !y are mu* m exp5sive 9 con/ruction1 & require mu* att5tion & labor = repairs1 & cleans+1 ?an d ! /one-w>e pipe sew]s :i* are n[ univ]sally adopt$ :]ev] measures are tak5 to inve/igate _! comp>ative m]its4 ,an example ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! old & mod]n /yles ( sew]s is f\nd 9 ! dra9age ( ! ,we/m9/] ,s*ool build+s1 etc41 9 ,london4 ,! new dra9age conveys ! h\se & surface dra9age ( ab\t two acres on :i* are fifte5 l>ge h\ses4 ,! :ole l5g? ( ! dra9 is ab\t ?ree ?\s& feet1 & ! entire outlet is ?r\gh two n9e in* pipes4 ,! dra9age is p]fectly remov$1 & ! pipes are always clean1 no f\l matt]s be+ deposit$ at any po9t4 ,?is dra9age has be5 adopt$ z a sub/itute = an old sy/em ( sew]age ( :i* ! ma9 0 f #d feet high1 by #c feet #f in*es wide1 to #ag feet high & #f or #g feet wide4 ,! h\ses _h cess-pools b5ea? !m1 :i* 7 fill$ ) ! accumulations ( _m ye>s1 :ile ! sew]s !mselves 7 sc>cely less (f5sive4 ,?is condition result$ 9 a sev]e epidemic fev] ( a v fatal "*4 ,an exam9ation in/itut$ to discov] ! cause ( ! epidemic result$ 9 ! discov]y ( ! facts set =? above1 & !re 7 remov$ f ! dra9s & cess-pools m ?an #eej loads ( ordure4 ,! evaporat+ surface ( ?is fil? 0 m ?an #bjjj squ>e y>ds4 ,s9ce ! new dra9age1 n only has !re be5 no recurr5ce ( epidemic fev]1 b a great] improvem5t 9 ! g5]al heal? ( ! population has succe$$ ?an might be reasonably expect$ 9 a small block ( h\ses1 amid/ an ill-condition$ di/rict1 f :i* x _c be completely isolat$4 ,! pr9ciple :i* ju/ifies ! use ( pipe sew]s is precisely t :i* has be5 describ$ 9 recomm5d+ small tiles = agricultural dra9age1--to wit3 t ! rapidity ( a fl[ ( wat]1 & its p[] to remove ob/acles1 is 9 proportion to its dep? z comp>$ ) its wid?4 ,x has be5 f\nd 9 practice1 t a /ream :i* w5ds its sluggi% way along ! bottom ( a l>ge brick culv]t1 :5 conc5trat$ )9 ! area ( a small pipe ( regul> =m1 fl[s mu* m rapidly1 & w c>ry away ev5 :ole bricks1 & o!r sub/ances :i* 7 an ob/acle to its fl[ 9 ! l>g] *annel4 ,z an exp]im5t z to ! efficacy ( small pipes ,mr4 ,hale1 ! surveyor1 :o 0 direct$ by ! ,g5]al ,bo>d ( ,heal? ( ,london to make ! trial1 laid a #ab-;in* pipe 9 ! bottom ( a sew] #e feet & #f in*es high1 & #c feet & #f in*es wide4 ,! area dra9$ 0 ab\t #dd acres4 ,he f\nd ! velocity ( ! /ream 9 ! pipe to be f\r & a half times great] ?an t ( ! same am\nt ( wat] 9 ! sew]4 ,! pipe at no "t accumulat$ silt1 & ! =ce ( ! wat] issu+ f ! end ( ! pipe kept ! bottom ( ! sew] p]fectly cle> = ! di/ance ( #ab feet1 beyond :i* po9t "s bricks & /ones 7 deposit$1 _! quantity increas+ ) ! di/ance f ! pipe4 ,he caus$ s&1 pieces ( bricks1 /ones1 mud1 etc41 to be put into ! head ( ! pipe4 ,^! 7 all c>ri$ cle> ?r\gh ! pipe1 b 7 deposit$ 9 ! sew] bel[ x4 ,x has be5 f\nd by exp]im5t t 9 a flat bottom$ sew]1 f\r feet wide1 hav+ a fall ( eight in*es 9 "o hundr$ feet1 a /ream ( wat] "o in* dep?1 runs v sluggi%ly1 :ile ! same wat] runn+ ?r\gh a #ab-;in* pipe1 laid on ! same incl9ation1 =ms a rapid /ream1 c>ry+ away ! heavy silt :i* 0 deposit$ 9 ! broad sew]4 ,z a consequ5ce ( ?is1 x has be5 f\nd1 :]e pipe sew]s are us$1 ev5 on almo/ imp]ceptible incl9ations1 t silt is v r>ely deposit$1 & ! wa/e matt]s ( h\se & /reet dra9age are c>ri$ imm$iately to ! outlet1 in/ead ( rema9+ to f]m5t & poison ! atmosph]e ( ! /reets ?r\gh :i* !y pass4 ,9 ! r>e cases ( ob/ruction :i* occur1 ! pipes are v readily cleans$ by flu%+1 at a ti! ( ! co/ ( ! con/ant h&-"w requir$ 9 brick sew]s4 ,= ! fir/ six or sev5 hundr$ feet at ! head ( a sew]1 a six in* pipe w remove all ( ! h\se & /reet dra9age1 ev5 dur+ a heavy ra9 fall2 & if ! incl9ation is rapid1 7say #f in*es to #ajj feet17 ! accel]ation ( ! fl[1 caus$ p>tly by ! con/ant additions to ! wat]1 pipes ( ?is size may be us$ = consid]ably great] di/ances4 ,x has be5 f\nd by actual trial t x is n necess>y to increase ! size ( ! pipe sew] 9 exact proportion to ! am\nt ( dra9age t x has to convey1 z ea* addition to ! fl[1 :]e dra9age is admitt$ f /reet op5+s or f h\ses1 accel]ates ! velocity ( ! curr5t1 pipes dis*>g+ ev5 eight times z mu* :5 receiv$ at int]vals along ! l9e z !y w\ld take f a full head at ! upp] end ( ! sew]4 ,= a di/rict inhabit$ by #aj1jjj p]sons1 a #ab-;in* pipe w\ld af=d a suffici5t outlet1 unless ! am\nt ( road dra9age 7 unusually l>ge1 & = ! l>ge/ sew]s1 pipes ( m ?an #ah in*es diamet] are r>ely us$1 ^! do+ ! "w :i*1 "u ! old sy/em1 0 allot$ to a sew] #f feet high & #c feet broad4 ,( c\rse1 ! connections by :i* ! dra9age ( roads is admitt$ to ^! sew]s1 mu/ be provid$ ) ample silt-bas9s1 :i* require frequ5t clean+ out4 ,9 ! con/ruction ( ! sew]s1 man-holes1 built to ! surface1 are plac$ at suffici5t int]vals1 & at all po9ts :]e ! c\rse ( ! sew] *anges1 s t a light plac$ at "o ( ^! may be se5 f ! next "o2--! contractor be+ requir$ to lay ! sew] s t ! light may be ?us se51 a /raight l9e bo? ( incl9ation & direction is secur$4 ,! rules :i* regulate ! lay+ ( l&-dra9s apply ) equal =ce 9 ! mak+ ( sew]s1 t is no "p ( ! pipe %\ld be less p]fect1 ei!r 9 mat]ial or con/ruction1 ?an t :i* lies above x2 & :]e ! incl9ation becomes less1 9 approa*+ ! outlet1 silt-bas9s %\ld be employ$1 unless ! decreas$ fall is /ill rapid4 ,! ess5tial po9t ( diff]5ce is1 t :ile l& dra9s may be ( por\s mat]ial1 & %\ld h op5 jo9ts = ! admission ( wat]1 sew] pipes %\ld be ( imp]vi\s glaz$ e>!n-w>e1 & _! jo9ts %\ld be securely cem5t$1 to prev5t ! escape ( ! sewage1 :i* x is _! prov9ce to remove1 n to di/ribute4 ,dra9s f h\ses1 :i* ne$ n be m ?an #c or #d in*es 9 diamet]1 %\ld be ( ! same mat]ial1 & %\ld dis*>ge ) consid]able incl9ation into ! pipes1 be+ connect$ ) a curv+ bran*1 direct+ ! fluid t[>ds ! outlet4 ,9 lay+ a sew]1 x is cu/om>y to ins]t a pipe ) a bran* opposite ea* h\se1 or probable site ( a h\se4 ,x is important t1 9 t[ns n suppli$ ) wat]works1 measures be tak5 to prev5t ! admission ( too mu* solid matt] 9 ! dra9age ( h\ses4 ,wat] be+ ! motive p[] = ! removal ( ! solid p>ts ( ! sewage1 unless !re be a public supply :i* c be turn$ on at pleasure1 no h\se %\ld deliv] m solid matt] ?an c be c>ri$ away by its refuse wat]s4 ,! dra9age ( h\ses is "o ( ! *ief objects ( sew]age4 ,9 addition to ! cases cit$ above ( ! model lodg+ h\ses 9 ,lambe? ,squ>e1 & ( ! build+s at ,we/m9/]1 x may be well to ref] to a rem>kable epidemic :i* broke out 9 ! ,maplewood ,"y ,ladies' ,in/itute 9 ,pittsfield1 ,mass41 9 #ahfd1 :i* 0 ( s viol5t & fatal a "* z to elicit a special exam9ation by a committee ( physicians4 ,! family consi/$1 7pupils1 s]vants1 & all17 ( "o hundr$ & twelve p]sons4 ,( ^!1 fifty-"o 7 attack$ ) well-def9$ typhoid fev] dur+ a p]iod ( less ?an ?ree weeks4 ,( ?is numb] ?irte5 di$4 ,! foll[+ is extract$ f ! report ( ! committee3 ,( ! #gd resid5t pupils he>d f1 #ff are report$ z hav+ _h illness ( "s k9d at ! close ( ! s*ool or soon aft]4 ,?is is a proportion ( #cc_/cg or ne>ly #ij p] c5t4 ,( ! same #gd1 fifty-"o _h typhoid fev]1 or a proportion ( ne>ly #fi p] c5t4 ,if all ! p 9 ! t[n1 say #hjjj1 _h be5 affect$ 9 an equal proportion1 m ?an #gjjj w\ld h be5 ill dur+ ^! few weeks1 & ab\t #eejj ( !m w\ld h _h typhoid fev]1 & ( ^! ov] #acge w\ld h di$4 ,if x w\ld be a m j comp>ison to take ! :ole family at ,maplewood into ! acc\nt1 e/imat+ ! numb] at #aab1 fifty-six _h typhoid fev]1 or #ej p] c5t41 & ( ^! fifty-six1 sixte5 di$1 or ov] #bh4e p] c5t4 ,^! proportions appli$ to ! :ole population ( #hjjj1 w\ld give #djjj ( typhoid fev] 9 ! same "t2 & ( ^! #aadj w\ld h di$4 ,accord+ to ! te/imony ( ! practis+ physicians ( ,pittsfield1 ! numb] ( cases ( typhoid fev]1 dur+ ?is p]iod1 aside f ^? affect$ by ! influ5ces at ,maplewood1 0 small1 "s physicians n hav+ _h any1 o!rs _h two or ?ree4 ,^! cases am\nt$ to b eight1 none ( :i* t]m9at$ fatally4 ,! :ole secret ( ?is case 0 prov5 to h be5 ! ret5tion ( ! ordure & wa/e matt] f ! kit*5s & dormitories 9 privies & vaults1 und]nea? or imm$iately adjo9+ ! build+s1 ! odor f ^! hav+ be5 (f5sively p]ceptible1 & "u c]ta9 atmosph]ic conditions1 hav+ p]vad$ ! :ole h\se4 ,! committee say x w\ld be impossible to br+ ?is report )9 reasonable limits1 7 we to discuss ! v>i\s que/ions connect$ ) ! orig9 & propagation ( typhoid fev]1 al?\gh v>i\s !oretical views are held z to :e!r ! poison produc+ ! disease is g5]at$ 9 ! bodies ( ! sick1 & communicat$ f !m to ! well1 or :e!r x is g5]at$ 9 s\rces ext]ior to ! bodies ( fev] pati5ts1 yet all au?orities ma9ta9 t a peculi> poison is conc]n$ 9 its production4 ,^? :o hold to ! doctr9e ( contagion admit t1 to give su* contagion efficacy 9 ! production ( wide spread results1 fil? or decay+ organic matt] is ess5tial2 :ile ^? :o su/a9 ! !ory ( non-contagion--! production ( ! poison f s\rces )\t ! bodies ( ! sick--cont5d t x has its entire orig9 9 su* fil?--9 decompos+ matt]1 especially 9 f]m5t+ sewage1 & decay+ human excreta4 ,! injuri\s influ5ce ( decompos+ azotis$ matt]1 9 ei!r pr$ispos+ to or excit+ sev]e disease1 & p>ticul>ly typhoid fev]1 is univ]sally admitt$ among high m$ical au?orities4 ,! committee 7 ( ! op9ion t ! disease at ,maplewood ess5tially orig9at$ 9 ! /ate ( ! privies & dra9age ( ! place2 ! high temp]ature1 & o!r peculi> atmosph]ic conditions develop+1 9 ! organic mat]ial ?us expos$1 a peculi> poison1 :i* accumulat$ 9 suffici5t quantity to p]vade ! :ole premises1 & op]at$ a suffici5t l5g? ( "t to produce disease 9 "y & susceptible p]sons4 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,to prev5t ! poison ( typhoid fev] :5 tak5 into ! sy/em1 f produc+ its legitimate effects1 except by natural ag5cies1 w\ld require z positive a miracle z to re/ore a sev]$ head1 or arre/ ! c\rse ( ! heav5ly bodies 9 _! sph]es4 99 99 99 ,! lesson = all1 = ! future1 is too obvi\s to ne$ fur!r po9t+ out2 & ! committee _c d\bt t !y w\ld haz>d little 9 pr$ict+ t ! wisdom obta9$ by ?is sad exp]i5ce1 w be ( value 9 ! future managem5t ( ?is in/itution1 & secure precautions :i* w =ev] prev5t ! recurr5ce ( su* a calamity4 ,! results ( all sanit>y inve/igation indicate cle>ly ! vital necessity = ! complete & spe$y removal f human habitations ( all matt]s :i*1 by _! decomposition1 may t5d to ! production ( disease1 & e>ly measures %\ld be tak5 by ! au?orities ( all t[ns1 especially ^? :i* are at all compactly built1 to secure ?is removal4 ,! means by :i* ?is is to be effect$ are to be f\nd 9 su* a comb9ation ( wat]-supply & sew]age1 z w furni% a con/ant & copi\s supply ( wat] to dissolve or hold 9 susp5sion ! :ole ( ! wa/e matt]s1 & w provide a *annel ?r\gh :i* !y may be c>ri$ away f ! vic9ity ( resid5ces4 ,if means = ! application ( ! sewage wat] to agricultural l&s c be provid$1 a "p if n ! :ole ( ! co/ ( ! works w be ?us return$4 ,conc]n+ ! details ( h\se dra9age1 x w\ld be impossible to say mu* )9 ! limits ( ?is book4 ,! con/ruction ( wat]-closets1 soil-pipes1 s9ks1 etc41 are too w be und]/ood to ne$ a special description "h4 ,! pr9cipal po9t1 7aside f ! use ( pipes in/ead ( brick-sew]s & brick h\se-dra9s17 is :at is call$ 9 ,london ! sy/em ( ,back ,dra9age1 :]e only pr9cipal ma9 l9es ( sew]s are laid "u ! /reets1 all collect+ sew]s pass+ ?r\gh ! c5tres ( ! blocks 9 ! re> ( ! h\ses4 ,pipes = wat] supply are dispos$ 9 ! same mann]1 z x is *iefly at ! re>s ( h\ses t wat] is requir$1 & t dra9age is mo/ necess>y2 & ?is adju/m5t saves ! co/1 ! annoyance & ! loss ( fall1 :i* accompany ! use ( pipes runn+ "u ! entire l5g? ( ea* h\se4 ,mu* te>+ up ( pavem5ts1 exp5sive dit*+ 9 h>d road-ways1 & int]f]5ce ) traffic is avoid$1 :ile v mu* less dit*+ & pip+ is necess>y1 & repairs are made ) v little annoyance to ! occupants ( h\ses4 ,! accompany+ diagrams1 7,figs4 #dh-di17 illu/rate ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! old sy/em ( dra9age ) brick sew]s "u ! /reets1 & brick dra9s "u ! h\ses1 & pipe sew]s "u ma9 /reets & ?r\gh ! back y>ds ( premises4 ,a measurem5t ( ^! two me?ods w %[ t ! l5g?s ( ! dra9s 9 ! new sy/em1 are to ^? ( ! old1 z #a to #b-a_/d2--! fall ( ! h\se dra9s1 7^! hav+ mu* less l5g?17 w\ld be #aj times m 9 ! "o case ?an 9 ! o!r2--! ma9 sew]s w\ld h twice ! fall1 _! area w\ld be only #a_/cj1 & _! cubic cont5ts only #a_/gc4 ,fig4 #dh - ,,old ,,/yle ,,h\se ,,dra9age ,,& ,,sew]age4 ,fig4 #dh - ,,old ,,/yle ,,h\se ,,dra9age ,,& ,,sew]age4 ,exp]i5ce 9 ,engl& has %[n t if ! :ole co/ ( wat] supply & pipe sew]s is1 ) its int]e/1 divid$ ov] a p]iod ( ?irty ye>s1--s t at ! end ( t "t x %\ld all be repaid1--! annual *>ge w\ld n be great] ?an ! co/ ( keep+ h\se-dra9s & cess-pools pools clean4 ,! ,g5]al ,bo>d ( ,heal? /ate t ! exp5se ( cleans+ ! brick h\se-dra9s & cess-pools = f\r or five ye>s1 w\ld pay ! exp5se ( prop]ly con/ruct$ wat]-closets & pipe-dra9s1 = ! great] numb] ( old premises4 ,fig4 #di - ,,mod]n ,,h\se ,,dra9age ,,& ,,sew]age4 ,fig4 #di - ,,mod]n ,,h\se ,,dra9age ,,& ,,sew]age4 ,"o ( ! reports ( ?is body1 :i* has add$ m ?an any o!r organization to ! _w's k on ^! subjects1 closes ) ! foll[+3 ,conclusions obta9$ z to h\se dra9age1 & ! sew]age & cleans+ ( ! sites ( t[ns4 ,t no population liv+ amid/ impurities1 aris+ f ! putrid emanations f cess-pools1 dra9s & sew]s ( deposit1 c be heal?y or free f ! attacks ( deva/at+ epidemics4 ,t z a prim>y condition ( salubrity1 no ordure & t[n refuse c be p]mitt$ to rema9 b5ea? or ne> habitations4 ,t by no means c rem$ial op]ations be s conv5i5tly1 economically1 in(f5sively1 & quickly effect$ z by ! removal ( all su* refuse dissolv$ or susp5d$ 9 wat]4 ,t x has be5 subsequ5tly prov$ by ! op]ation ( dra9+ h\ses ) tubul> dra9s1 9 upw>ds ( #ai1jjj cases1 & by ! trial ( m ?an #bjj miles ( pipe sew]s1 t ! practice ( con/ruct+ l>ge brick or /one sew]s = g5]al t[n dra9age1 :i* deta9 matt]s pass+ into !m 9 susp5sion 9 wat]1 :i* accumulate deposit1 & :i* are made l>ge en\gh = m5 to ent] !m1 & remove ! deposit by h& labor1 )\t ref]5ce to ! area to be dra9$1 has be5 9 ignorance1 neglect or p]v]sion ( ! above recit$ pr9ciples4 ,t :ile sew]s s con/ruct$ are productive ( great injury to ! public heal?1 by ! diffusion into h\ses & /reets ( ! noxi\s products ( ! decompos+ matt]s conta9$ 9 !m1 !y are wa/eful f ! increas$ exp5se ( _! con/ruction & repair1 & f ! co/ ( ineffectual ef=ts to keep !m free f deposit4 ,t ! h\se-dra9s1 made z !y h h]et(ore be51 ( absorb5t brick or /one1 besides deta9+ sub/ances 9 susp5sion1 accumulat+ f\l deposit1 & be+ s p]meable z to p]mit ! escape ( ! liquid & gase\s matt]s1 are also false 9 pr9ciple & wa/eful 9 ! exp5se ( con/ruction1 cleans+ & repair4 ,t x results f ! exp]i5ce develop$ 9 ^! inquiries1 t improv$ tubul> h\se-dra9s & sew]s ( ! prop] sizes1 incl9ations1 & mat]ial1 deta9 & accumulate no deposit1 emit no (f5sive smells1 & require no additional supplies ( wat] to keep !m cle>4 ,t ! (f5sive smells proce$+ f any works int5d$ = h\se or t[n dra9age1 indicate ! fact ( ! det5tion & decomposition ( ordure1 & af=d decisive evid5ce ( mal-con/ruction or ( ignorant or defective arrangem5t4 ,t ! me?od ( remov+ refuse 9 susp5sion 9 wat] by prop]ly comb9$ works1 is mu* bett] ?an t ( collect+ x 9 pits or cess-pools ne> or und]nea? h\ses1 empty+ x by h& labor1 & remov+ x by c>ts4 ,t x is important = ! sake ( economy1 z well z = ! heal? ( ! population1 t ! practice ( ! removal ( refuse 9 susp5sion 9 wat]1 & by comb9$ works1 %\ld be appli$ to all h\ses1 especially ^? occupi$ by ! poor] classes4 ,lat] inve/igations ( ! subject h e/abli%$ two g5]al conclusions applicable to ! subject1 namely1 t3 ,9 t[ns all (f5sive smells f ! decomposition ( animal & vegetable matt]1 indicate ! g5]ation & pres5ce ( ! causes ( insalubrity & ( prev5table disease1 at ! same "t t !y prove defective local adm9i/ration2 & correlatively1 t3 ,9 rural di/ricts all cont9u\s (f5sive smells f animal & vegetable decomposition1 indicate prev5table loss ( f]tiliz+ matt]1 loss ( money1 & bad husb&ry4 ,! pr9ciples h]e9 set =?1 :e!r relat+ to sanit>y improvem5t1 to conv5i5ce & dec5cy ( liv+1 or to ! use ( wa/e matt]s ( h\ses 9 agricultural improvem5t1 are no less applicable 9 ,am]ica ?an else:]e2 & ! m g5]al adoption ( improv$ h\se dra9age & sew]age1 & ( ! use ( sewage matt]s 9 agriculture1 w\ld add to ! heal? & prosp]ity ( its p1 & w\ld indicate a great advance 9 civilization4 ,,index ,absorption & ,filtration1 #bf-ci ,angles to be1 z f> z possible1 avoid$1 #ii ,bak+ ( clay soils by evaporation1 #cj ,b>ley1 #afh ,b>tlett1 ,dr41 quotation f1 #baa ,base-l9e1 #ade ,bon+-rods1 7) illu/rations71 #abe-abf ,c5tral ,p>k1 #gd-hf ,cess-pools1 cause ( epidemics1 #bcg ,*adwick1 ,dr41 quotation f1 #bac ,clay ,soils1 #ge ,clay ,soils1 ,bak+ ( by ,evaporation1 #cj ,clay ,soils1 ,made mell[ by dra9+1 #bi-cj ,clay ,soils1 ,%r9kage (1 #bh ,cl9omet]1 7illu/ration71 #ef ,coll>s1 #hd ,connections1 #acb ,connections 7illu/rations71 #acd ,corn1 ,indian1 #afb ,co/ ( dra9+1 #aej-aec-aeh ,cotton1 #afi ,cov]+ & fill+1 co/ (1 #aeg ,cov]+ = ! jo9ts ( tiles1 #acb ,cov]+ tiles1 #acf ,datum-l9e1 #eb-ajd ,d5ton1 ,j4 ,bailey1 quotation f1 #aae ,di/ance betwe5 dra9s1 #gc ,diseases1 mal>ial1 #bjh ,dit*es1 co/ ( digg+1 #aed ,dra9+1 amateur1 #dg ,dra9+1 indications ( ! ne$ (1 #i ,dra9+1 its effect on f>m+1 #aga ,dra9+1 tiles1 h[ made1 #agd ,dra9+1 tiles1 mat]ials =1 #agd ,dra9+1 tools1 7illu/ration71 #aad ,dra9+1 :at x co/s1 #aej ,dra9+1 w x pay8 #afa ,dra9+1 :5 necess>y1 #g ,dra9s1 ,cubic y>ds ( excavation 91 #aee ,dra9s1 & dra9$ l&1 c>e (1 #add ,dra9s1 lat]al1 %\ld be p>allel1 #ii ,dra9s1 h[ !y act1 #ba ,dra9s1 ob/ruct$1 h[ cle>$1 #adf ,dra9s1 old1 h[ =m$1 #adf ,dra9s1 rate ( fall1 #ij ,dra9s1 _! action 9 ! ,c5tral ,p>k1 #hf ,dra9$ ,soil1 capacity = receiv+ wat] ( ra9s1 #bc ,dra9age ( dwell+ h\ses1 #bcb ,dr\ght1 #cg-dj ,economy v]sus *eapness1 #aeb ,eng9e]+ & ,sup]9t5d5ce1 co/ (1 #aec ,eng9e]s1 dra9+1 #dg ,epidemic at ,maplewood ,"y ,ladies' ,in/itute1 #bcb ,epidemics caus$ by cess-pools1 #bcg ,epidemics caus$ by ordure b5ea? h\ses1 #bch ,evaporation1 #cc ,evaporation1 am\nt (1 #cd ,evaporation1 effect on temp]ature1 #cc-ce ,evaporation1 heat lo/ dur+1 #cd ,fall1 rate ( 9 dra9s1 #gg ,fallacies 9 dra9+1 #fb ,f5-l&s ( ,engl&1 #aic ,fev] & ,ague1 #bjh ,fev] & ,ague1 exact cause unkn[n1 #baj ,filtration & absorption1 #bf-ci ,fill+1 illu/ration (--dit* )1 furr[s1 #ada ,fill+1 maul = ramm+1 7illu/ration71 #ach ,fill+1 scrap] =1 7illu/ration71 #adj ,fill+1 ! dit*es1 #acf ,f9i%+ tools1 7illu/ration71 #abc ,f9i%+ scoop1 #abc ,f9i%+ scoop1 h[ us$1 #abf ,foot-pick1 7illu/ration71 #aef ,f\r-foot dra9s1 #gj ,g]m9ation ( se$s1 #ac ,gisborne1 ,?os41 quotations f1 #bh-ca-ce-dg-ff-gh-hd-ic-abg ,grad+1 #abd ,grad+1 co/ (1 #aef ,grade /akes1 #ajc ,grades1 computation =1 #aji ,grades1 h[ to e/abli%1 #ajg ,grat+s 9 ,silt-bas9s1 #adh ,hack5sack mead[s1 #bjc ,hay1 #afh ,heat1 am\nt ( lo/ dur+ evaporation1 #cd ,h\se dra9age1 #bbj ,h\se dra9age1 back dra9 sy/em1 #bce ,h\se dra9age bad1 indicat$ by (f5sive smells1 #bci ,indications ( ! ne$ ( dra9+1 #i ,injury f /&+ wat] 9 ! subsoil1 #ae ,imp]vi\s soil1 #ca ,john ,johnson1 #afd ,l& requir+ dra9+1 #g ,lat]al dra9s1 #fa-ig ,lat]al dra9s1 direction (1 #ge ,lat]al dra9s1 %all[1 h[ connect$ ) deep ma91 #aaa ,la ,ro*e1 quotations f1 #bac ,levels1 h[ to take = dra9s1 #ajd ,levell+ in/rum5t1 7illu/ration71 #eb ,levell+ rod1 7illu/ration71 #ec ,location ( ma9 dra9s1 #eh ,madd51 ,dr41 quotation f1 #ab ,ma9 dra91 #if ,ma9 dra91 location (1 #eh ,mal>ia #baa ,mal>ia borne by w9ds1 #bab-bad-bai ,mal>ia conclusions ( ! ,g5]al ,bo>d ( ,heal? ( ,engl&1 #bbj ,mal>ia facts conc]n+1 #bab ,mal>ia spread (1 prev5t$ by hills1 #bah ,mal>ial diseases1 evid5ce ( ! effect ( dra9age 9 remov+1 #baf ,mal>ial diseases1 reports to ! ,briti% ,p>liam5t conc]n+1 #baf ,mal>ial diseases1 rheumatism & tic-d\l\reux1 #bai ,mal>i\s localities1 effects ( resid5ce 91 #bad ,maps1 am5d+ !1 #adb ,maps1 description (1 7illu/rations71 #di-ej-ea-ed-ih ,maps1 importance (1 #dh ,m>k+ ! l9es1 #aaf ,me*i1 ,ald]man1 quotations f1 #bi-ga ,mell[ness or ,porosity1 #da ,measur+ /aff 7illu/ration71 #abd ,metcalf1 ,dr41 quotation f1 #baa ,movem5t ( wat] 9 ! gr\nd1 #cb-fd-fe ,mortality1 rate ( r$uc$ by improv$ h\se dra9age1 #bbb ,neuralgia1 #bjh ,new ,york1 sugge/ions = sew] outlets1 #bbg ,oats1 #afh ,ob/ructions1 #ij ,op5+ dit*es1 #abb ,outlet1 #ie ,outlet1 h[ made 7) illu/rations71 #aah ,outlet1 location (1 #eh ,p>kes1 ,josiah1 quotations f1 #cf-ga-hh-agh ,porosity1 #da ,pr(ile ( a dra91 7illu/ration71 #ajf ,pr(it1 in/ances (1 #afg-agj ,production1 am\nt ( increase (1 necess>y to make dra9+ pr(itable1 #afb ,puddl+1 #h-ca-adh ,pump+1 #bjf ,pump+1 ,london sewage1 #bbf ,rock1 s\nd+ =1 #ee ,rock1 h[ to collect wat] f1 #fj ,roots1 dep? to :i* !y rea*1 #dj-fg ,roots1 z a cause ( ob/ruction1 #ic-adh ,rye1 #afh ,salisbury's1 ,dr41 !ory conc]n+ mal>i\s fev]1 #bad ,salt m>%es1 cat* wat] dra9s1 #bja ,salt m>%es1 con/ruction ( embankm5t1 #aif ,salt m>%es1 dyke & dit*1 7illu/ration71 #aig ,salt m>%es1 exclusion ( ! sea1 #aie ,salt m>%es1 h[ =m$1 #aid ,salt m>%es1 inundations f upl& 1 #bja ,salt m>%es1 location & size ( embankm5t1 #aie ,salt m>%es1 managem5t ( creeks1 #aih-bjj ,salt m>%es1 managem5t ( riv]s1 #bja ,salt m>%es1 muskrats1 #aii ,salt m>%es1 outlet = "u dra9age1 #bjd-bje ,salt m>%es1 pump+1 #bjf ,salt m>%es1 ra9-fall & filtration1 #bjd ,salt m>%es1 valve-gates & sluices1 #bjd ,scrap] = fill+ dit*es1 7illu/ration71 #adj ,se$s1 g]m9ation (1 #ac ,sewage1 use ( 9 agriculture1 #bbf ,sew]s1 defects ( l>ge1 #bbh-bch ,sew]s1 description ( ! ,london outfall1 #bbe ,sew]s1 efficacy ( glaz$ e>!rn pipes1 #bbi-bcj-bch ,sew]s1 exp]im5ts ( ,hale on pipe sew]s1 #bcj ,sew]s1 imp]fect1 #bbd ,sew]s1 ( brick1 defective1 #bbh-bce-bch ,sew]age1 conclusions ( ,g5]al ,bo>d ( ,heal?1 #bcg ,sew]age1 ( ,new ,york1 #bbg ,%r9kage ( clay soils1 #bh ,sides ( dit*es 9 s(t l&1 h[ brac$1 7illu/ration71 #abd ,silt1 #ij ,silt1 bas9s1 7illu/rations71 #aba-ace-acf ,silt1 bas9s1 h[ made1 #abj ,silt1 bas9s1 #ia-if-acd ,silt1 9 tiles1 #add ,s\rces ( ! wat] 9 ! soil1 #aj ,spr+s1 h[ to collect ! wat] (1 #ei-fj-ada ,/ak+ out ! l9es1 #ajb ,/at5 ,isl&1 #bji ,/eam pumps1 #bjf ,/one & tile dra9s1 #adb ,sub-ma9s1 #ei ,teams us$ 9 op5+ dit*es1 #abb ,temp]ature1 #ce-ff ,temp]ature1 affect$ by dra9+1 #cf ,tile lay+1 #abg ,tile-pick1 7illu/ration71 #aca ,tiles1 & tile lay+1 co/ (1 #aeg ,tiles1 capacity = dis*>g+ wat]1 #hd-hf ,tiles1 d\ble-/yle1 #hj ,tiles1 dra9--ess5tial *>act]i/ics1 #bb ,tiles1 h[ made1 #agd ,tiles1 horse-%oe1 #gh ,tiles1 k9ds & sizes1 #gg ,tiles1 ord]+1 #hb-aja ,tiles1 objections to l>ge sizes1 #adg ,tiles1 pipes & coll>s1 #ha ,tiles1 rapidity ) :i* !y receive wat]1 #gh ,tiles1 sizes (1 #ha ,tiles1 sizes requir$ = diff]5t areas1 #hh ,tiles1 %\ld be well =m$1 #hc ,tiles1 sole1 #hj ,tiles1 trimm+ & p]=at+1 #aca ,tile mak+1 mat]ial =1 #agd ,tile prep>ation ( e>?s1 #agf ,tile roll+ & dry+1 #ahb ,tile wa%+ ! clay1 #agg ,tobacco1 #afi ,tools requir$1 #aac ,t[n dra9age1 conclusions ( ,g5]al ,bo>d ( ,heal?1 #bcg ,undra9$ l& n reliable = cultivation1 #ah ,v]m9 z a cause ( ob/ruction1 #ic ,wat]1 dep? (1 #ff-gj ,wat]1 9 ! sub-soil1 injuri\s effects (1 #ae ,wat]1 movem5t ( 9 ! gr\nd1 #cb-fd-fe ,wat]1 objections to excess (1 #aa ,wat]1 ! be/ vehicle = remov+ ordure1 #bch ,wat]1 :5 b5eficial & :5 injuri\s1 #bd ,wat]-c\rses & brooks1 h[ treat$ dur+ dra9+ op]ations1 #aag ,wat]-table1 #bb ,w9d-mills1 #bjf ,:eat1 #afd-afg ,,dra9+ ,,eng9e]+4 ,! und]sign$ is prep>$ to assume ! p]sonal direction ( works ( ,agricultural & ,t[n ,dra9age1 & ,wat] ,supply1 9 any "p ( ! c\ntry2 or to s5d advice & in=mation1 by lett]1 = ! guidance ( o!rs4 ,p]sons s5d+ maps ( _! l&1 ) cont\r l9es1 7see ,fig4 #h1 page #ed17 accompani$ by su* in=mation z c be giv5 9 writ+1 w be furni%$ ) explicit in/ructions conc]n+ ! arrangem5t & dep? ( ! dra9s requir$2 k9ds & sizes ( tiles to be us$2 managem5t ( ! "w1 etc41 etc4 ,! l9es ( dra9s w be laid d[n1 on ! maps1 = ! direction ( local eng9e]s1--&1 :5 requir$1 ! grades w be calculat$ & not$ at ! positions ( ! /akes4 ,= p>ticul>s1 address ,,geo4 ,e4 ,,w>+1 ,,jr41 ,p4 ,o4 ,box #bij1 ,,newport1 ,r4 ,i4 ,,! ,,small ,,fruit ,,culturi/4 ,,by ,,&rew ,s4 ,,full]4 ,beautifully ,illu/rat$4 ,we h h]et(ore _h no "w especially devot$ to small fruits1 & c]ta9ly no treatises any:]e t give ! in=mation conta9$ 9 ?is4 ,x is to ! advantage ( special works t ! au?or c say all t he has to say on any subject1 & n be re/rict$ z to space1 z he mu/ be 9 ^? works t cov] ! culture ( all fruits--great & small4 ,?is book cov]s ! :ole gr\nd ( ,propagat+ ,small ,fruits1 _! ,culture1 ,v>ieties1 ,pack+ = ,m>ket1 etc4 ,:ile v full on ! o!r fruits1 ! ,currants & ,raspb]ries h be5 m c>efully elaborat$ ?an ev] be=e1 & 9 ?is important "p ( 8 book1 ! au?or has _h ! invaluable c\nsel ( ,*>les ,d[n+4 ,! *apt] on ga!r+ & pack+ ! fruit is a valuable "o1 & 9 x are figur$ all ! baskets & boxes n[ 9 common use4 ,! book is v f9ely & ?or\ghly illu/rat$1 & makes an admirable companion to ! ,grape ,culturi/1 by ! same au?or4 ,,cont5ts3 ,,*ap4 ,i4 ,,b>b]ry4 ,,*ap4 ,,ii4 ,,/rawb]ry4 ,,*ap4 ,,iii4 ,,raspb]ry4 ,,*ap4 ,,iv4 ,,blackb]ry4 ,,*ap4 ,v4 ,,dw>f ,,*]ry4 ,,*ap4 ,,vi4 ,,currant4 ,,*ap4 ,,vii4 ,,gooseb]ry4 ,,*ap4 ,,viii4 ,,cornelian ,,*]ry4 ,,*ap4 ,,ix4 ,,cranb]ry4 ,,*ap4 ,x4 ,,huckleb]ry4 ,,*ap4 ,,xi4 ,,%ep]dia4 ,,*ap4 ,,xii4 ,,prep>ation ,,= ,,ga!r+ ,,fruit4 ,s5t po/-paid4 ,price #a4ej4 ,,orange ,,judd ,,co41 #bde ,broadway1 ,new-,york4 ,,! ,,grape ,,culturi/ ,,by ,,&rew ,s4 ,,full]4 ,,new ,,& ,,enl>g$ ,,edition4 ,,! ,,/&>d ,,"w ,,on ,,! ,,cultivation ,,( ,,! ,,h>dy ,,grape1 ,,z ,,x ,,n ,,only ,,discusses ,,pr9ciples1 ,,b 99,,illu/rates ,,practice994 ,e ?+ is made p]fectly pla91 & its tea*+s may be foll[$ ^u4 ,,"o ,,v9e ,,or ,a ,,v9ey>d ,! foll[+ are "s ( ! topics t are treat$3 ,,gr[+ ,,new ,,v>ieties ,,f ,,se$4 ,,propagation ,,by ,,s+le ,,buds ,,or ,,eyes4 ,,propagat+ ,,h\ses ,,& ,,_! ,,managem5t ,,fully ,,describ$4 ,,h[ ,,to ,,gr[4 ,,cutt+s ,,9 ,,op5 ,,air1 ,,& ,,h[ ,,to ,,make ,,lay]s4 ,,graft+ ,,! ,,grape--,a ,,simple ,,& ,,successful ,,me?od4 ,,hybridiz+ ,,& ,,cross+--,,mode ,,( ,,op]ation4 ,,soil ,,& ,,situation--,,plant+ ,,& ,,cultivation4 ,,prun+1 ,,tra9+1 ,,& ,,trellises--,,all ,,! ,,sy/ems ,,expla9$4 ,,g>d5 ,,culture--,,h[ ,,to ,,gr[ ,,v9es ,,9 ,a ,,door-,,y>d4 ,,insects1 ,,mildew1 ,,sun-,,scald1 ,,& ,,o!r ,,tr\bles4 ,,description ,,( ,,! ,,valuable ,,& ,,! ,,disc>d$ ,,v>ieties4 ,s5t po/-paid4 ,price #a4ej4 ,orange ,judd ,co41 #bde ,broadway4 ,,am]ican ,,pomology ,,apples4 ,by ,doct4 ,,john ,a4 ,,w>d]1 ,,presid5t ,,ohio ,,pomological ,,society2 ,,vice-,,presid5t ,,am]ican ,,pomological ,,society4 #bic ,,illu/rations4 ,?is volume has ab\t #gej pages1 ! fir/ #cge ( :i* are devot$ to ! discussion ( ! g5]al subjects ( propagation1 nurs]y culture1 selection & plant+1 cultivation ( or*>ds1 c>e ( fruit1 insects1 & ! l2 ! rema9d] is occupi$ ) descriptions ( apples4 ,) ! ri*ness ( mat]ial at h&1 ! tr\ble 0 to decide :at to leave out4 ,x w be f\nd t :ile ! old & /&>d v>ieties are n neglect$1 ! new & promis+ sorts1 especially ^? ( ! ,s\? & ,we/1 h prom95ce4 ,a li/ ( selections = diff]5t localities by em95t or*>di/s is a valuable portion ( ! volume1 :ile ! ,analytical ,index or ,catalogue ,raisonn1 z ! ,fr5* w\ld say1 is ! mo/ ext5d$ ,am]ican fruit li/ ev] publi%$1 & gives evid5ce ( a fe>ful am\nt ( labor4 ,,cont5ts4 ,*apt] ,i4--,,introductory4 ,*apt] ,,ii4--,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,apple4 ,*apt] ,,iii4--,,propagation4 - ,buds & ,cutt+s--,graft+--,budd+--,! ,nurs]y4 ,*apt] ,,iv4--,,dw>f+4 ,*apt] ,v4--,,diseases4 ,*apt] ,,vi4--,,! ,,site ,,= ,,an ,,or*>d4 ,*apt] ,,vii4--,,prep>ation ,,( ,,soil ,,= ,,an ,,or*>d4 ,*apt] ,,viii4--,,selection ,,& ,,plant+4 ,*apt] ,,ix4--,,culture1 ,etc4 ,*apt] ,x4--,,philosophy ,,( ,,prun+4 ,*apt] ,,xi4--,,?9n+4 ,*apt] ,,xii4--,,rip5+ ,,& ,,pres]v+ ,,fruits4 ,*apt] ,,xiii & ,,xiv4--,,insects4 ,*apt] ,,xv4--,,*>act]s ,,( ,,fruits ,,& ,,_! ,,value--,,t]ms ,,us$4 ,*apt] ,,xvi4--,,classification4 - ,necessity =--,basis (--,*>act]s--,%ape--,its ,regul>ity--,flavor--,color--,_! sev]al ,values1 etc4 ,description ( ,apples4 ,*apt] ,,xvii4--,,fruit ,,li/s--,,catalogue ,,& ,,index ,,( ,,fruits4 ,s5t ,po/-,paid4 ,price #c4jj4 ,,orange ,,judd ,,co41 #bde ,broadway1 ,new-,york ,,g>d5+ ,,= ,,pr(it ,9 ! ,m>ket & ,family ,g>d54 ,,by ,,pet] ,,h5d]son4 ,,f9ely ,,illu/rat$4 ,?is is ! fir/ "w on ,m>ket ,g>d5+ ev] publi%$ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,its au?or is well kn[n z a m>ket g>d5] ( eighte5 ye>s' successful exp]i5ce4 ,9 ?is "w he has record$ ?is exp]i5ce1 & giv51 )\t res]vation1 ! me?ods necess>y to ! pr(itable culture ( ! comm]cial or ,,m>ket ,,g>d54 ,x is a "w = :i* !re has long be5 a dem&1 & "o :i* w comm5d itself1 n only to ^? :o gr[ vegetables = sale1 b to ! cultivator ( ! ,,family ,,g>d51 to :om x pres5ts me?ods q diff]5t f ! old ones g5]ally practic$4 ,x is an ,,orig9al ,,& ,,purely ,,am]ican "w1 & n made up1 z books on g>d5+ too (t5 are1 by quotations f =eign au?ors4 ,e ?+ is made p]fectly pla91 & ! subject treat$ 9 all its details1 f ! selection ( ! soil to prep>+ ! products = m>ket4 ,,cont5ts4 ,m5 fitt$ = ! ,bus9ess ( ,g>d5+4 ,! ,am\nt ( ,capital ,requir$1 & ,work+ ,=ce p] ,acre4 ,pr(its ( ,m>ket ,g>d5+4 ,location1 ,situation1 & ,lay+ ,out4 ,soils1 ,dra9age1 & ,prep>ation4 ,manures1 ,implem5ts4 ,uses & ,managem5t ( ,cold ,frames4 ,=mation & ,managem5t ( ,hot-b$s4 ,=c+ ,pits or ,gre5-h\ses4 ,se$s & ,se$ ,rais+4 ,h[1 ,:51 & ,:]e to ,s[ ,se$s4 ,transplant+1 ,insects4 ,pack+ ( ,vegetables = ,%ipp+4 ,pres]vation ( ,vegetables 9 ,w9t]4 ,vegetables1 _! ,v>ieties & ,cultivation4 ,9 ! la/ *apt]1 ! mo/ valuable k9ds are describ$1 & ! culture prop] to ea* is giv5 9 detail4 ,s5t po/-paid1 price #a4ej4 ,,orange ,,judd ,,co41 #bde ,broadway1 ,new-,york4 ,,! ,,am]ican ,,agricultural ,,annual ,,= #ahgj4 ,a ,,ye> ,,book ,,want$ ,,by ,,e ,,body4 ,?is valuable ,ye> ,book has n[ rea*$ its f\r? numb]4 ,9 its g5]al features x foll[s ! plan ( ! ?ree numb]s t h prec$$ x1 &1 l !m1 is beautifully illu/rat$4 ,,cont5ts4 ,almanac & ,cal5d> = #ahgj4 ,agricultural & ,k9dr$ ,j\rnals4 ,agricultural & ,k9dr$ ,books4 ,prospect & ,retrospect4 ,immigration4 ,home ,m>kets4 ,cop]ation among ,f>m]s4 ,comm]cial ,f]tiliz]s4 ,! ,crops & ! ,wea!r4 ,?or\gh ,dra9age4 ,agricultural ,exhibitions4 ,p\ltry ,societies & ,%[s4 ,importation ( ,live ,/ock4 ,dea? ( ,di/+ui%$ ,agriculturi/s4 ,inv5tions affect+ ,agriculture4 ,novelties 9 ,agricultural ,se$s1 etc4 ,oats4 ,san=d ,corn4 ,potato ,fev]4 ,adobe or ,e>?-wall ,build+--by ,e4 ,g4 ,pott]4 ,potatoes ,wor? ,rais+--by ,dr4 ,f4 ,m4 ,hexam]4 ,yield ( ,potatoes 9 #ahfi4 ,:eat ,hoe4 ,h[ to ,tra9 a ,heif]4 ,c>e ( ,h5 & ,*ick5s4 ,cultivation ( ,root ,crops4 ,kohl ,rabi4 ,dry ,e>?--! ,e>?-,closet ,pr9ciple 9 ! ,b>n4 ,g5]al ,agricultural ,matt]s4 ,*>act]i/ics ( ,diff]5t ,bre$s ( ,?or\ghbr$ ,/ock4 ,e>?-,closets--,success ( ! ,sy/em4 ,progress 9 ,fi% ,culture4 ,cold ,spr+ ,tr\t ,ponds4 ,bell[s ,falls ,tr\t ,pond4 ,montdale ,ponds4 ,s4 ,h4 ,a9swor?'s ,ponds & ,race4 ,mum=d ,ponds4 ,poheganut ,tr\t ,ponds4 ,bre$s ( ,fi%4 ,fi% z ,f>m ,/ock--by ,w4 ,clift4 ,! ,/ock+ ( ,ponds & ,brooks4 ,engli% ,agricultural ,implem5ts4 ,inv5tions affect+ ,milk1 & ,*eese-mak+--by ,g>dn] ,b4 ,weeks4 ,notes on ,vet]9>y ,subjects4 ,cop]ation 9 ,sw9e-bre$+4 ,lett] f ,dr4 ,calv9 ,cutt]4 ,/eam+ ,fodd] = ,mil* ,c[s--by ,s4 ,m4 & ,d4 ,wells4 ,! ,h>ve/]1 ,reap]1 & ,m[]--by ,isaac ,w4 ,:ite4 ,improvem5t 9 ,dra9 ,tiles4 ,f>m]'s ,directory4 99,s5t po/-paid4 ,price1 fancy pap] cov]s1 #ej c5ts299 99,clo?1 #ge c5ts499 ,ei!r ( ^! ,annuals = ! ?ree prec$+ ye>s may be _h at ! same prices4 99,,orange ,,judd ,,co4199 #bde ,broadway1 ,new-,york4 ,,! ,,am]ican ,,horticultural ,,annual ,,= #ahgj4 ,a ,,ye> ,,book ,,= ,,e ,,home4 ,! f\r? numb] ( ?is beautiful s]ial is n[ ready4 ,x conta9s a popul> record ( horticultural progress dur+ ! pa/ ye>1 ) o!r valuable articles1 _m ( :i* are illu/rat$ ) elegant engrav+s4 ,,cont5ts4 ,cal5d>s = ea* ,mon? 9 ! ,ye>4 ,a/ronomical ,memor&a4 ,numb] ( ,trees1 ,plants1 etc41 requir$ to ,set an ,acre4 ,h>dy & ,t5d] ,vegetables4 ,po/age on ,horticultural ,matt]4 ,tables ( ,quantities ( ,se$4 ,! ,ret9isporas--,by ,,josiah ,,hoopes4 ,select+ & ,sav+ ,se$s--,by ,,wm ,g4 ,,com/ock4 ,in>*+ ! ,grapev9e--,by ,al ,fresco4 ,apples 9 #ahfi--) ,descriptions ( ,new ,v>ieties--,by ,j4 ,a4 ,,w>d]4 ,pe>s 9 #ahfi--) ,notes on "s ( ! ,new] ,v>ieties--,by ,p4 ,,b>ry4 ,qu9ces 9 #ahfi4 ,plums 9 #ahfi4 ,pea*es 9 #ahfi--,new ,v>ieties--,by ,f4 ,r4 ,,elliott4 ,*]ries 9 #ahfi--) ,notes ( ,new ,v>ieties & ,comm5ts on ! ,nom5clature ( ,old] ,sorts4 ,native ,grapes 9 #ahfi4 ,notes on ! ,small ,fruits 9 #ahfi--;,by ,a4 ,s4 ,,full]4 ,h>dy ,trees & ,%rubs 9 #ahfi4 ,new ,roses ,te/$ 9 #ahfi--;,by ,,john ,,saul4 ,! ,am]ican ,pomological ,society4 ,new & ,int]e/+ ,b$d+ & o!r ,plants ,te/$ 9 #ahfi--;,by ,,pet] ,,h5d]son4 ,new or ,notewor?y ,vegetables 9 #ahfi--;,by ,,jas4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,gregory1 & o!rs4 ,horticultural implem5ts1 etc41 9 #ahfi4 ,horticultural & ,k9dr$ ,j\rnals4 ,books ^u ,horticulture & ,alli$ ,subjects1 publi%$ 9 #ahfi4 ,li/ ( ,nurs]ym51 ,se$sm51 etc4 99,s5t po/-paid4 ,price1 fancy pap] cov]s1 #ej c5ts299 99,clo?1 #ge c5ts499 ,ei!r ( ^! ,annuals = ! ?ree prec$+ ye>s may be _h at ! same prices4 99,,orange ,,judd ,,co4991 #bde ,broadway ,new-,york4 ,e/abli%$ 9 #ahdb4 ,a ,good1 ,*eap1 & v ,valuable ,pap] = ,e ,man1 ,woman & ,*ild1 ,,9 ,,city1 ,,village & ,,c\ntry1 ,,! ,,am]ican ,,agriculturi/1 ,,= ,,! ,,f>m1 ,,g>d5 ,,& ,,h\sehold1 99,includ+ a ,special ,dep>tm5t ( ,int]e/+ & ,in/ructive ,read+ = ,,*ildr5 & ,,y\?994 ,! ,agriculturi/ is a l>ge p]iodical ( ,=ty-f\r pages1 qu>to1 n octavo1 beautifully pr9t$1 & fill$ ) pla91 practical1 reliable1 orig9al matt]1 includ+ hundr$s ( beautiful & in/ructive 99,engrav+s99 9 e annual volume4 ,x conta9s ea* mon? a ,cal5d> ( ,op]ations to be p]=m$ on ! 99,f>m199 9 ! 99,or*>d99 & 99,g>d5199 9 & ar\nd ! 99,dwell+199 etc4 ,! ?\s&s ( h9ts & sugge/ions giv5 9 e volume are prep>$ by practical1 intellig5t 99work+ m5199 :o "k :at !y talk & write ab\t4 ,! articles are ?or\ghly edit$1 & e way reliable4 ,! 99,h\sehold ,dep>tm5t99 is valuable to e ,h\sekeep]1 af=d+ v _m useful h9ts & directions calculat$ to light5 & facilitate 9-door "w4 ,! 99,dep>tm5t = ,*ildr5 & ,y\?199 is prep>$ ) special c>e n only to amuse1 b also to inculcate k & s\nd moral pr9ciples4 99,t]ms499--,! circulation ( ! ,am]ican ,agriculturi/1 799ab\t #aej1jjj997 is s l>ge t x c be furni%$ at ! l[ price ( #a4ej a ye>2 f\r copies1 "o ye>1 = #e2 t5 copies1 "o ye>1 = #ab2 tw5ty or m copies1 "o ye>1 #a ea*2 s+le copies1 #ae c5ts ea*4 ,an extra copy to ! "o furni%+ a club ( t5 or tw5ty4 ,,try ,,x ,a ,,ye>4 ,,orange ,,judd ,,co41 99,publi%]s ,proprietors199 99,no4 #bde ,broadway1 ,new-,york ,city499 ,,footnotes #a --,puddl+ is ! knead+ or rubb+ ( clay ) wat]1 a process by :i* x becomes almo/ imp]vi\s1 reta9+ ?is prop]ty until ?or\ghly dri$1 :5 its close union is brok5 by ! %r9k+ ( its p>ts4 ,puddl$ clay rema9s imp]vi\s z long z x is saturat$ ) wat]1 & x does n entirely lose ?is quality until x has be5 pulv]iz$ 9 a dry /ate4 ,a small proportion ( clay is suffici5t to injure ! por\sness ( ! soil by puddl+4--,a clay subsoil is puddl$ by be+ pl[$ ov] :5 too wet1 & ! injury is ( consid]able duration4 ,ra9 wat] collect$ 9 holl[s ( /iff l&1 by ! simple movem5t giv5 x by ! w9d1 s puddles ! surface t x holds ! wat] :ile ! adjac5t soil is dry & por\s4 ,! t]m puddl+ w (t5 be us$ 9 ?is "w1 & ! read] w und]/&1 f ?is explanation1 ! mean+ ) :i* x is employ$4 #b ,by leav+ a space betwe5 ! wall & ! pla/]+1 ?is moi/ure is prev5t$ f be+ an annoyance1 & if ! inclos$ space is n op5 f top to bottom1 s z to all[ a circulation ( air1 b little vapor w come 9 contact ) ! wall1 & b an inconsid]able am\nt w be deposit$4 #c ,! maps 9 ?is book are1 = conv5i5ce1 drawn to a scale ( #afj feet to ! in*4 #d ,! in/rum5t f :i* ?is cut 0 tak51 7z also ,fig4 #g7 0 made by ,messrs4 ,blunt ,ni*ols1 ,wat] /41 ,n4 ,y4 #e ,! slight deviations caus$ by c>ry+ ! dra9s ar\nd l>ge /ones1 :i* are f\nd 9 cutt+ ! dit*es1 d n affect ! g5]al arrangem5t ( ! l9es4 #f ,! l[ price at :i* ?is in/rum5t is sold1 #a4ej1 places x )9 ! rea* ( all4 #g ,except f q ne> to ! dra91 x is n probable t ! wat] 9 ! soil runs lat]ally t[>ds x4 #h ,"s ( ! dra9s 9 ! ,c5tral ,p>k h a fall ( only #a 9 #a1jjj1 & !y "w p]fectly2 b !y are l>ge ma9s1 laid ) an am\nt ( c>e1 & ) c]ta9 co/ly precautions1 7includ+ precisely grad$ wood5 floors17 :i* c\ld h>dly be expect$ 9 private "w4 #i ,! tile has be5 said1 by great au?orities1 to be brok5 by contraction1 "u "s idea t ! clay envelops ! tile & presses x :5 x contracts4 ,t is nons5se4 ,! contraction w\ld lib]ate ! tile4 ,drive a /ake into wet clay2 & :5 ! clay is dry1 obs]ve :e!r x clasps ! /ake tight] or has releas$ x1 & y w no long] h any d\bt :e!r expansion or contraction breaks ! tile4 ,%r9k is a bett] ^w ?an contract4 #aj ,tak+ ! diff]5ce ( friction into consid]ation1 #a-a_/d in* pipes h fully twice ! dis*>g+ capacity ( #a-;in* pipes4 #aa ,no4 #e 0 "o in* 9 diamet]2 ,no4 #d1 ab\t #a-a_/c in*es4 #ab ,if ! spr+s1 :5 runn+ at _! greate/ volume1 be f\nd to require m ?an #a-a_/d-;in* tiles1 due all[ance mu/ be made = ! increase4 #ac ,ow+ to ! irregul>ity ( ! gr\nd1 & ! necessity = plac+ "s ( ! dra9s at n>r[] int]vals1 ! total l5g? ( tile exce$s by ne>ly #ej p] c5t4 :at w\ld be requir$ if x _h a uni=m slope1 & requir$ no collect+ dra9s4 ,x is mu* great] ?an w be requir$ 9 any ord9>y case1 z a v irregul> surface has be5 adopt$ "h = purposes ( illu/ration4 #ad ,! /akes us$ may be #ah in*es long1 & driv5 "o-half ( _! l5g? into ! gr\nd4 ,!y %\ld h "o side suffici5tly smoo? to be di/9ctly m>k$ ) r$ *alk4 #ae ,! dep? ( #d4ac1 9 ,fig4 #ba1 z well z ! o!r dep?s at ! po9ts at :i* ! grade *anges1 happ5 to be ^? f\nd by ! computation1 z h]eaft] describ$1 & !y are us$ "h = illu/ration4 #af ,! figures 9 ?is table1 z well z 9 ! next prec$+ "o1 are adopt$ = ! publi%$ pr(ile ( dra9 ,c1 ,fig4 #ba1 to avoid confusion4 ,9 ord9>y cases1 ! po9ts :i* are fix$ z ! basis ( ! computation are giv5 9 r\nd numb]s2--= in/ance1 ! dep? at ,c#c w\ld be assum$ to be #d4aj or #d4bj1 in/ead ( #d4ac4 ,! fractions giv5 9 ! table1 & 9 ,fig4 #ba1 arise f ! fact t ! decimals are n absolutely correct1 be+ c>ri$ out only = two figures4 #ag ,! dra9s1 :i* are remov$ a little to "o side ( ! l9es ( /akes1 may be turn$ t[>d ! bas9 f a di/ance ( #c or #d feet4 #ah ,! foot ( ! measur+ rod %\ld be %od ) iron to prev5t its be+ worn to less ?an ! prop] l5g?4 #ai ,talpa1 or ! ,*ronicles ( a ,clay ,f>m4 #bj ,:5 *ips ( tile1 or simil> matt]s1 are us$ to cov] op5+s 9 ! tile-"w1 x is well to cov] !m at once ) a mort> made ( wet clay1 :i* w keep !m 9 place until ! dit*es are fill$4 #ba ,surely su* soil ought n to require ?or\gh dra9+2 :]e m5 c g s easily1 wat] ought to f9d its way alone4 #bb ,! l& %[n 9 ,fig4 #ba1 is especially irregul>1 &1 = ! purpose ( illu/rat+ ! pr9ciples ^u :i* ! "w %\ld be done1 an ef=t has be5 made to make ! "w z complete z possible 9 all p>ticul>s4 ,9 actual "w on a field simil> to t1 x w\ld n probably be good economy to make all ! dra9s laid 9 ! plan1 b z deviations f ! plan w\ld dep5d on conditions :i* _c well be %[n on su* a small scale1 !y are disreg>d$1 & ! sy/em ( dra9s is made z x w\ld be if x 7 all pla9 sail+4 #bc ,klipp>t's ,l& ,dra9age4 #bd ,klipp>t's ,l& ,dra9age4 #be ,dra9age des ,t]res ,arables1 ,p>is1 #ahef4 #bf ,! ends ( ! "w1 :ile ! op]ations are susp5d$ dur+ spr+ tides1 w ne$ an extra protection ( sods1 b t ly+ out ( rea* ( ! eddies t w be =m$ by ! rec$+ wat] w n be mat]ially affect$4 #bg ,! late/ inv5tion ( ?is sort1 is t ( a s]ies ( ca/ iron plates1 set on edge1 rivet$ toge!r1 & driv5 9 to su* a dep? z to rea* f ! top ( ! dyke to a po9t bel[ l[-wat] m>k4 ,! be/ t c be said ( ?is plan is1 t its adoption w\ld d no h>m4 ,unless ! plates are driv5 deeply into ! clay und]ly+ ! p]meable soil1 7& ?is is sometimes v deep17 !y w\ld n prev5t ! slight infiltration ( wat] :i* c\ld pass "u !m z well z ?r\gh any o!r "p ( ! soil1 & unless ! iron 7 v ?ick1 ! corrosive action ( salt wat] w\ld soon s honeycomb x t ! bor]s w\ld easily p5etrate x2 b ! great objection to ! use ( ^! plates is1 t !y w\ld be v co/ly & ineffectual4 ,a dyke1 made z describ$ above1 ( ! mat]ial ( ! locality1 hav+ a dit* only on ! inside1 & be+ well sodd$ on its out] face1 w\ld be f> *eap] & bett]4