,draining for ,profit1 and ,draining for ,health by ,george ,e4 ,waring ,edition #a1 7,october #d1 #bjjf7 ,new ,york ,orange ,judd ,company1 #bde ,broadway4 ,entered according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #ahfg1 by ,,orange ,,judd ,,co4 ,at the ,clerk's ,office of the ,district ,court of the ,united ,states for this ,southern ,district of ,new-,york4 ,lovejoy ,son1 ,electrotypers and ,stereotypers4 #ae ,vandewater street ,n4,y4 ,in presenting this book to the public the writer desires to say that1 having in view the great importance of thorough work in land draining1 and believing it advisable to avoid every thing which might be construed into an approval of half-way measures1 he has purposely taken the most radical view of the whole subject1 and has endeavored to emphasize the necessity for the utmost thoroughness in all draining operations1 from the first staking of the lines to the final filling-in of the ditches4 ,that it is sometimes necessary1 because of limited means1 or limited time1 or for other good reasons1 to drain partially or imperfectly1 or with a view only to temporary results1 is freely acknowledged4 ,in these cases the occasion for less completeness in the work must determine the extent to which the directions herein laid down are to be disregarded2 but it is believed that1 even in such cases1 the principles on which those directions are founded should be always borne in mind4 ,,newport1 ,r4,i41 #ahfg4 ,,illustrations ,fig4 #a - ,a ,,dry ,,soil4 ,fig4 #b - ,a ,,wet ,,soil4 ,fig4 #c - ,a ,,drained ,,soil4 ,fig4 #d - ,,map ,,of ,,land1 ,,with ,,swamps1 ,,rocks1 ,,springs ,,and ,,trees4 ,,intended ,,to ,,represent ,a ,,field ,,of ,,ten ,,acres ,,before ,,draining4 ,fig4 #e - ,,map ,,with #ej-;,,foot ,,squares1 ,,and ,,contour ,,lines4 ,fig4 #f - ,,levelling ,,instrument4 ,fig4 #g - ,,levelling ,,rod4 ,fig4 #h - ,,map ,,with ,,contour ,,lines4 ,fig4 #i - ,,well',s ,,clinometer4 ,fig4 #aj - ,,stone ,,pit ,,to ,,connect ,,spring ,,with ,,drain4 ,fig4 #aa - ,,stone ,,and ,,tile ,,basin ,,for ,,spring ,,with ,,drain4 ,fig4 #ab - ,,line ,,of ,,saturation ,,between ,,drains4 ,fig4 #ac - ,,horse-,,shoe ,,tile4 ,fig4 #ad - ,,sole ,,tile4 ,fig4 #ae - ,,double-,,sole ,,tile4 ,fig4 #af - ,,round ,,tile ,,and ,,collar1 ,,and ,,the ,,same ,,as ,,laid4 ,fig4 #ai - ,,three ,,profiles ,,of ,,drains1 ,,with ,,different ,,inclinations4 ,fig4 #bj - ,,map ,,with ,,drains ,,and ,,contour ,,lines4 ,fig4 #ba - ,,profile ,,of ,,drain ,c4 ,fig4 #bb - ,,set ,,of ,,tools4 ,fig4 #bc - ,,outlet1 ,,secured ,,with ,,masonry ,,and ,,grating4 ,fig4 #bd - ,,silt-,,basin1 ,,built ,,to ,,the ,,surface4 ,fig4 #be - ,,finishing ,,spade4 ,fig4 #bf - ,,finishing ,,scoop4 ,fig4 #bg - ,,bracing ,,the ,,sides ,,in ,,soft ,,land4 ,fig4 #bh - ,,measuring ,,staff4 ,fig4 #bi - ,,boning ,,rod4 ,fig4 #cj - ,,position ,,of ,,workman ,,and ,,use ,,of ,,finishing ,,scoop4 ,fig4 #ca - ,,sighting ,,by ,,the ,,boning-,,rods4 ,fig4 #cb - ,,pick ,,for ,,dressing ,,and ,,preforating ,,tile4 ,fig4 #cc - ,,lateral ,,drain ,,entering ,,at ,,top4 ,fig4 #cd - ,,sectional ,,view ,,of ,,joint4 ,fig4 #ce - ,,square ,,brick ,,silt-,,basin4 ,fig4 #cf - ,,silt-,,basin ,,of ,,vitrified ,,pipe4 ,fig4 #cg - ,,tile ,,silt-,,basin4 ,fig4 #ch - ,,maul ,,for ,,ramming4 ,fig4 #ci - ,,board ,,scraper ,,for ,,filling ,,ditches4 ,fig4 #dj - ,,cross-,,section ,,of ,,ditch 7,,filled71 ,,with ,,furrow ,,at ,,each ,,side4 ,fig4 #da - ,,foot ,,pick4 ,fig4 #db - ,,pug-,,mill4 ,fig4 #dc - ,,plate ,,of ,,dies4 ,fig4 #dd - ,,cheap ,,wooden ,,machine4 ,fig4 #de - ,,mandril ,,for ,,carrying ,,tiles ,,from ,,machine4 ,fig4 #df - ,,clay-,,kiln4 ,fig4 #dg - ,,dyke ,,and ,,ditch4 ,fig4 #dh - ,,old ,,style ,,house ,,drainage ,,and ,,sewerage4 ,fig4 #di - ,,modern ,,house ,,drainage ,,and ,,sewerage4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,i4 - ,,land ,,to ,,be ,,drained ,,and ,,the ,,reasons ,,why4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 - ,,how ,,drains ,,act1 ,,and ,,how ,,they ,,affect ,,the ,,soil ,,chapter ,,iii4 - ,,how ,,to ,,go ,,to ,,work ,,to ,,lay ,,out ,a ,,system ,,of ,,drains4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 - ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,the ,,drains4 ,,chapter ,v4 - ,,how ,,to ,,take ,,care ,,of ,,drains ,,and ,,drained ,,land4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 - ,,what ,,draining ,,costs4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 - ,,will ,,it ,,pay8 ,,chapter ,,viii4 - ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,draining ,,tiles4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 - ,,the ,,reclaiming ,,of ,,salt ,,marshes4 ,,chapter ,x4 - ,,malarial ,,diseases4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 - ,,house ,,drainage ,,and ,,town ,,sewerage ,,in ,,their ,,relations ,,to ,,the ,,public ,,health4 ,,index ,,chapter ,i4 - ,,land ,,to ,,be ,,drained ,,and ,,the ,,reasons ,,why4 ,land which requires draining hangs out a sign of its condition1 more or less clear1 according to its circumstances1 but always unmistakable to the practiced eye4 ,sometimes it is the broad banner of standing water1 or dark1 wet streaks in plowed land1 when all should be dry and of even color2 sometimes only a fluttering rag of distress in curling corn1 or wide-cracking clay1 or feeble1 spindling1 shivering grain1 which has survived a precarious winter1 on the ice-stilts that have stretched its crown above a wet soil2 sometimes the quarantine flag of rank growth and dank miasmatic fogs4 ,to recognize these indications is the first office of the drainer2 the second1 to remove the causes from which they arise4 ,if a rule could be adopted which would cover the varied circumstances of different soils1 it would be somewhat as follows3 ,all lands1 of whatever texture or kind1 in which the spaces between the particles of soil are filled with water1 7whether from rain or from springs17 within less than four feet of the surface of the ground1 except during and immediately after heavy rains1 require draining4 ,of course1 the particles of the soil cannot be made dry1 nor should they be2 but1 although they should be moist themselves1 they should be surrounded with air1 not with water4 ,to illustrate this3 suppose that water be poured into a barrel filled with chips of wood until it runs over at the top4 ,the spaces between the chips will be filled with water1 and the chips themselves will absorb enough to become thoroughly wet2--this represents the worst condition of a wet soil4 ,if an opening be made at the bottom of the barrel1 the water which fills the spaces between the chips will be drawn off1 and its place will be taken by air1 while the chips themselves will remain wet from the water which they hold by absorption4 ,a drain at the bottom of a wet field draws away the water from the free spaces between its particles1 and its place is taken by air1 while the particles hold1 by attraction1 the moisture necessary to a healthy condition of the soil4 ,there are vast areas of land in this country which do not need draining4 ,the whole range of sands1 gravels1 light loams and moulds allow water to pass freely through them1 and are sufficiently drained by nature1 provided1 they are as open at the bottom as throughout the mass4 ,a sieve filled with gravel will drain perfectly2 a basin filled with the same gravel will not drain at all4 ,more than this1 a sieve filled with the stiffest clay1 if not puddled17#a7 will drain completely1 and so will heavy clay soils on porous and well drained subsoils4 ,money expended in draining such lands as do not require the operation is1 of course1 wasted2 and when there is doubt as to the requirement1 tests should be made before the outlay for so costly work is encountered4 ,there is1 on the other hand1 much land which only by thorough-draining can be rendered profitable for cultivation1 or healthful for residence1 and very much more1 described as ordinarily dry land1 which draining would greatly improve in both productive value and salubrity4 99,the ,surface ,indications99 of the necessity for draining are various4 ,those of actual swamps need no description2 those of land in cultivation are more or less evident at different seasons1 and require more or less care in their examination1 according to the circumstances under which they are manifested4 ,if a plowed field show1 over a part or the whole of its surface1 a constant appearance of dampness1 indicating that1 as fast as water is dried out from its upper parts1 more is forced up from below1 so that after a rain it is much longer than other lands in assuming the light color of dry earth1 it unmistakably needs draining4 ,a pit1 sunk to the depth of three or four feet in the earth1 may collect water at its bottom1 shortly after a rain2--this is a sure sign of the need of draining4 ,all tests of the condition of land as to water1--such as trial pits1 etc41--should be made1 when practicable1 during the wet spring weather1 or at a time when the springs and brooks are running full4 ,if there be much water in the soil1 even at such times1 it needs draining4 ,if the water of heavy rains stands for some time on the surface1 or if water collects in the furrow while plowing1 draining is necessary to bring the land to its full fertility4 ,other indications may be observed in dry weather2--wide cracks in the soil are caused by the drying of clays1 which1 by previous soaking1 have been pasted together2 the curling of corn often indicates that in its early growth it has been prevented1 by a wet subsoil1 from sending down its roots below the reach of the sun's heat1 where it would find1 even in the dryest weather1 sufficient moisture for a healthy growth2 any severe effect of drought1 except on poor sands and gravels1 may be presumed to result from the same cause2 and a certain wiryness of grass1 together with a mossy or mouldy appearance of the ground1 also indicate excessive moisture during some period of growth4 ,the effects of drought are1 of course1 sometimes manifested on soils which do not require draining1--such as those poor gravels1 which1 from sheer poverty1 do not enable plants to form vigorous and penetrating roots2 but any soil of ordinary richness1 which contains a fair amount of clay1 will withstand even a severe drought1 without great injury to its crop1 if it is thoroughly drained1 and is kept loose at its surface4 ,poor crops are1 when the cultivation of the soil is reasonably good1 caused either by inherent poverty of the land1 or by too great moisture during the season of early growth4 ,which of these causes has operated in a particular case may be easily known4 ,manure will correct the difficulty in the former case1 but in the latter there is no real remedy short of such a system of drainage as will thoroughly relieve the soil of its surplus water4 99,the ,sources of the ,water99 in the soil are various4 ,either it falls directly upon the land as rain2 rises into it from underlying springs2 or reaches it through1 or over1 adjacent land4 ,the rain water belongs to the field on which it falls1 and it would be an advantage if it could all be made to pass down through the first three or four feet of the soil1 and be removed from below4 ,every drop of it is freighted with fertilizing matters washed out from the air1 and in its descent through the ground1 these are given up for the use of plants2 and it performs other important work among the vegetable and mineral parts of the soil4 ,the spring water does not belong to the field1--not a drop of it1--and it ought not to be allowed to show itself within the reach of the roots of ordinary plants4 ,it has fallen on other land1 and1 presumably1 has there done its appointed work1 and ought not to be allowed to convert our soil into a mere outlet passage for its removal4 ,the ooze water1--that which soaks out from adjoining land1--is subject to all the objections which hold against spring water1 and should be rigidly excluded4 ,but the surface water which comes over the surface of higher ground in the vicinity1 should be allowed every opportunity1 which is consistent with good husbandry1 to work its slow course over our soil1--not to run in such streams as will cut away the surface1 nor in such quantities as to make the ground inconveniently wet1 but to spread itself in beneficent irrigation1 and to deposit the fertilizing matters which it contains1 then to descend through a well-drained subsoil1 to a free outlet4 ,from whatever source the water comes1 it cannot remain stagnant in any soil without permanent injury to its fertility4 99,the ,objection to too much ,water in the ,soil99 will be understood from the following explanation of the process of germination1 7sprouting17 and growth4 ,other grave reasons why it is injurious will be treated in their proper order4 ,the first growth of the embryo plant1 7in the seed17 is merely a change of form and position of the material which the seed itself contains4 ,it requires none of the elements of the soil1 and would1 under the same conditions1 take place as well in moist saw-dust as in the richest mold4 ,the conditions required are1 the exclusion of light2 a certain degree of heat2 and the presence of atmospheric air1 and moisture4 ,any material which1 without entirely excluding the air1 will shade the seed from the light1 yield the necessary amount of moisture1 and allow the accumulation of the requisite heat1 will favor the chemical changes which1 under these circumstances1 take place in the living seed4 ,in proportion as the heat is reduced by the chilling effect of evaporation1 and as atmospheric air is excluded1 will the germination of the seed be retarded2 and1 in case of complete saturation for a long time1 absolute decay will ensue1 and the germ will die4 ,the accompanying illustrations1 7,figures #a1 #b and #c17 from the ,minutes of ,information on ,drainage1 submitted by the ,general ,board of ,health to the ,british ,parliament in #aheb1 represent the different conditions of the soil as to moisture1 and the effect of these conditions on the germination of seeds4 ,the figures are thus explained by ,dr4 ,madden1 from whose lecture they are taken3 ,soil1 examined mechanically1 is found to consist entirely of particles of all shapes and sizes1 from stones and pebbles down to the finest powder2 and1 on account of their extreme irregularity of shape1 they cannot lie so close to one another as to prevent there being passages between them1 owing to which circumstance soil in the mass is always more or less porous4 ,if1 however1 we proceed to examine one of the smallest particles of which soil is made up1 we shall find that even this is not always solid1 but is much more frequently porous1 like soil in the mass4 ,a considerable proportion of this finely-divided part of soil1 the impalpable matter1 as it is generally called1 is found1 by the aid of the microscope1 to consist of broken down vegetable tissue1 so that when a small portion of the finest dust from a garden or field is placed under the microscope1 we have exhibited to us particles of every variety of shape and structure1 of which a certain part is evidently of vegetable origin4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a - ,a ,,dry ,,soil4 ,fig4 #a - ,a ,,dry ,,soil4 ,in these figures ,i have given a very rude representation of these particles2 and ,i must beg you particularly to remember that they are not meant to represent by any means accurately what the microscope exhibits1 but are only designed to serve as a plan by which to illustrate the mechanical properties of the soil4 ,on referring to ,fig4 #a1 we perceive that there are two distinct classes of pores1--first1 the large ones1 which exist between the particles of soil1 and second1 the very minute ones1 which occur in the particles themselves2 and you will at the same time notice that1 whereas all the larger pores1--those between the particles of soil1--communicate most freely with each other1 so that they form canals1 the small pores1 however freely they may communicate with one another in the interior of the particle in which they occur1 have no direct connection with the pores of the surrounding particles4 ,let us now1 therefore1 trace the effect of this arrangement4 ,in ,fig4 #a we perceive that these canals and pores are all empty1 the soil being perfectly dry2 and the canals communicating freely at the surface with the surrounding atmosphere1 the whole will of course be filled with air4 ,if in this condition a seed be placed in the soil1 at a1 you at once perceive that it is freely supplied with air1 but there is no moisture2 therefore1 when soil is perfectly dry1 a seed cannot grow4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b - ,a ,,wet ,,soil4 ,fig4 #b - ,a ,,wet ,,soil4 ,let us turn our attention now to ,fig4 #b4 ,here we perceive that both the pores and canals are no longer represented white1 but black1 this color being used to indicate water2 in this instance1 therefore1 water has taken the place of air1 or1 in other words1 the soil is very wet4 ,if we observe our seed a now1 we find it abundantly supplied with water1 but no air4 ,here again1 therefore1 germination cannot take place4 ,it may be well to state here that this can never occur exactly in nature1 because1 water having the power of dissolving air to a certain extent1 the seed a in ,fig4 #b is1 in fact1 supplied with a certain amount of this necessary substance2 and1 owing to this1 germination does take place1 although by no means under such advantageous circumstances as it would were the soil in a better condition4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c - ,a ,,drained ,,soil4 ,fig4 #c - ,a ,,drained ,,soil4 ,we pass on now to ,fig4 #c4 ,here we find a different state of matters4 ,the canals are open and freely supplied with air1 while the pores are filled with water2 and1 consequently1 you perceive that1 while the seed a has quite enough of air from the canals1 it can never be without moisture1 as every particle of soil which touches it is well supplied with this necessary ingredient4 ,this1 then1 is the proper condition of soil for germination1 and in fact for every period of the plant's development2 and this condition occurs when the soil is moist1 but not wet1--that is to say1 when it has the color and appearance of being well watered1 but when it is still capable of being crumbled to pieces by the hands1 without any of its particles adhering together in the familiar form of mud4 ,as plants grow under the same conditions1 as to soil1 that are necessary for the germination of seeds1 the foregoing explanation of the relation of water to the particles of the soil is perfectly applicable to the whole period of vegetable growth4 ,the soil1 to the entire depth occupied by roots1 which1 with most cultivated plants is1 in drained land1 from two to four feet1 or even more1 should be maintained1 as nearly as possible1 in the condition represented in ,fig4 #c1--that is1 the particles of soil should hold water by attraction1 7absorption17 and the spaces between the particles should be filled with air4 ,soils which require drainage are not in this condition4 ,when they are not saturated with water1 they are generally dried into lumps and clods1 which are almost as impenetrable by roots as so many stones4 ,the moisture which these clods contain is not available to plants1 and their surfaces are liable to be dried by the too free circulation of air among the wide fissures between them4 ,it is also worthy of incidental remark1 that the cracking of heavy soils1 shrinking by drought1 is attended by the tearing asunder of the smaller roots which may have penetrated them4 99,the ,injurious ,effects of ,standing ,water in the ,subsoil99 may be best explained in connection with the description of a soil which needs under-draining4 ,it would be tedious1 and superfluous1 to attempt to detail the various geological formations and conditions which make the soil unprofitably wet1 and render draining necessary4 ,nor1--as this work is intended as a hand-book for practical use1--is it deemed advisable to introduce the geological charts and sections1 which are so often employed to illustrate the various sources of under-ground water2 interesting as they are to students of the theories of agriculture1 and important as the study is1 their consideration here would consume space1 which it is desired to devote only to the reasons for1 and the practice of1 thorough-draining4 ,to one writing in advocacy of improvements1 of any kind1 there is always a temptation to throw a tub to the popular whale1 and to suggest some make-shift1 by which a certain advantage may be obtained at half-price4 ,it is proposed in this essay to resist that temptation1 and to adhere to the rule that whatever is worth doing1 is worth doing well1 in the belief that this rule applies in no other department of industry with more force than in the draining of land1 whether for agricultural or for sanitary improvement4 ,therefore1 it will not be recommended that draining be ever confined to the wettest lands only2 that1 in the pursuance of a penny-wisdom1 drains be constructed with stones1 or brush1 or boards2 that the antiquated horse-shoe tiles be used1 because they cost less money2 or that it will1 in any case1 be economical to make only such drains as are necessary to remove the water of large springs4 ,the doctrine herein advanced is1 that1 so far as draining is applied at all1 it should be done in the most thorough and complete manner1 and that it is better that1 in commencing this improvement1 a single field be really well drained1 than that the whole farm be half drained4 ,of course1 there are some farms which suffer from too much water1 which are not worth draining at present2 many more which1 at the present price of frontier lands1 are only worth relieving of the water which stands on the surface2 and not a few on which the quantity of stone to be removed suggests the propriety of making wide ditches1 in which to hide them1 7using the ditches1 incidentally1 as drains74 ,a hand-book of draining is not needed by the owners of these farms2 their operations are simple1 and they require no especial instruction for their performance4 ,this work is addressed especially to those who occupy lands of sufficient value1 from their proximity to market1 to make it cheaper to cultivate well1 than to buy more land for the sake of getting a larger return from poor cultivation4 ,wherever ,indian corn is worth fifty cents a bushel1 on the farm1 it will pay to thoroughly drain every acre of land which needs draining4 ,if1 from want of capital1 this cannot be done at once1 it is best to first drain a portion of the farm1 doing the work thoroughly well1 and to apply the return from the improvement to its extension over other portions afterward4 ,in pursuance of the foregoing declaration of principles1 it is left to the sagacity of the individual operator1 to decide when the full effect desired can be obtained1 on particular lands1 without applying the regular system of depth and distance1 which has been found sufficient for the worst cases4 ,the directions of this book will be confined to the treatment of land which demands thorough work4 ,such land is that which1 at some time during the period of vegetation1 contains stagnant water1 at least in its sub-soil1 within the reach of the roots of ordinary crops2 in which there is not a free outlet at the bottom for all the water which it receives from the heavens1 from adjoining land1 or from springs2 and which is more or less in the condition of standing in a great1 water-tight box1 with openings to let water in1 but with no means for its escape1 except by evaporation at the surface2 or1 having larger inlets than outlets1 and being at times water-logged1 at least in its lower parts4 ,the subsoil1 to a great extent1 consists of clay or other compact material1 which is not impervious1 in the sense in which india-rubber is impervious1 7else it could not have become wet17 but which is sufficiently so to prevent the free escape of water4 ,the surface soil is of a lighter or more open character1 in consequence of the cultivation which it has received1 or of the decayed vegetable matter and the roots which it contains4 ,in such land the subsoil is wet1--almost constantly wet1--and the falling rain1 finding only the surface soil in a condition to receive it1 soon fills this1 and often more than fills it1 and stands on the surface4 ,after the rain1 come wind and sun1 to dry off the standing water1--to dry out the free water in the surface soil1 and to drink up the water of the subsoil1 which is slowly drawn from below4 ,if no spring1 or ooze1 keep up the supply1 and if no more rain fall1 the subsoil may be dried to a considerable depth1 cracking and gaping open1 in wide fissures1 as the clay loses its water of absorption1 and shrinks4 ,after the surface soil has become sufficiently dry1 the land may be plowed1 seeds will germinate1 and plants will grow4 ,if there be not too much rain during the season1 nor too little1 the crop may be a fair one1--if the land be rich1 a very good one4 ,it is not impossible1 nor even very uncommon1 for such soils to produce largely1 but they are always precarious4 ,to the labor and expense of cultivation1 which fairly earn a secure return1 there is added the anxiety of chance2 success is greatly dependent on the weather1 and the weather may be bad3 ,heavy rains1 after planting1 may cause the seed to rot in the ground1 or to germinate imperfectly2 heavy rains during early growth may give an unnatural development1 or a feeble character to the plants2 later in the season1 the want of sufficient rain may cause the crop to be parched by drought1 for its roots1 disliking the clammy subsoil below1 will have extended within only a few inches of the surface1 and are subject1 almost1 to the direct action of the sun's heat2 in harvest time1 bad weather may delay the gathering until the crop is greatly injured1 and fall and spring work must often be put off because of wet4 ,the above is no fancy sketch4 ,every farmer who cultivates a retentive soil will confess1 that all of these inconveniences conspire1 in the same season1 to lessen his returns1 with very damaging frequency2 and nothing is more common than for him to qualify his calculations with the proviso1 if ,i have a good season4 ,he prepares his ground1 plants his seed1 cultivates the crop1 does his best1--thinks he does his best1 that is1--and trusts to ,providence to send him good weather4 ,such farming is attended with too much uncertainty1--with too much luck1--to be satisfactory2 yet1 so long as the soil remains in its undrained condition1 the element of luck will continue to play a very important part in its cultivation1 and bad luck will often play sad havoc with the year's accounts4 ,land of this character is usually kept in grass1 as long as it will bring paying crops1 and is1 not unfrequently1 only available for pasture2 but1 both for hay and for pasture1 it is still subject to the drawback of the uncertainty of the seasons1 and in the best seasons it produces far less than it might if well drained4 ,the effect of this condition of the soil on the health of animals living on it1 and on the health of persons living near it1 is extremely unfavorable2 the discussion of this branch of the question1 however1 is postponed to a later chapter4 ,thus far1 there have been considered only the effects of the undue moisture in the soil4 ,the manner in which these effects are produced will be examined1 in connection with the manner in which draining overcomes them1--reducing to the lowest possible proportion1 that uncertainty which always attaches to human enterprises1 and which is falsely supposed to belong especially to the cultivation of the soil4 ,why is it that the farmer believes1 why should any one believe1 in these modern days1 when the advancement of science has so simplified the industrial processes of the world1 and thrown its light into so many corners1 that the word mystery is hardly to be applied to any operation of nature1 save to that which depends on the always mysterious ,principle of ,life1--when the effect of any combination of physical circumstances may be foretold1 with almost unerring certainty1--why should we believe that the success of farming must1 after all1 depend mainly on chance8 ,that an intelligent man should submit the success of his own patient efforts to the operation of luck2 that he should deliberately bet his capital1 his toil1 and his experience on having a good season1 or a bad one1--this is not the least of the remaining mysteries4 ,some chance there must be in all things1--more in farming than in mechanics1 no doubt2 but it should be made to take the smallest possible place in our calculations1 by a careful avoidance of every condition which may place our crops at the mercy of that most uncertain of all things--the weather2 and especially should this be the case1 when the very means for lessening the element of chance in our calculations are the best means for increasing our crops1 even in the most favorable weather4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 - ,,how ,,drains ,,act1 ,,and ,,how ,,they ,,affect ,,the ,,soil ,for reasons which will appear1 in the course of this work1 the only sort of drain to which reference is here made is that which consists of a conduit of burned clay1 7tile17 placed at a considerable depth in the subsoil1 and enclosed in a compacted bed of the stiffest earth which can conveniently be found4 ,stone-drains1 brush-drains1 sod-drains1 mole-plow tracks1 and the various other devices for forming a conduit for the conveying away of the soakage-water of the land1 are not without the support of such arguments as are based on the expediency of make-shifts1 and are1 perhaps1 in rare cases1 advisable to be used2 but1 for the purposes of permanent improvement1 they are neither so good nor so economical as tile-drains4 ,the arguments of this book have reference to the latter1 7as the most perfect of all drains thus far invented17 though they will apply1 in a modified degree1 to all underground conduits1 so long as they remain free from obstructions4 ,concerning stone-drains1 attention may properly be called to the fact that1 7contrary to the general opinion of farmers17 they are very much more expensive than tile-drains4 ,so great is the cost of cutting the ditches to the much greater size required for stone than for tiles1 of handling the stones1 of placing them properly in the ditches1 and of covering them1 after they are laid1 with a suitable barrier to the rattling down of loose earth among them1 that1 as a mere question of first cost1 it is far cheaper to buy tiles than to use stones1 although these may lie on the surface of the field1 and only require to be placed in the trenches4 ,in addition to this1 the great liability of stone-drains to become obstructed in a few years1 and the certainty that tile-drains will1 practically1 last forever1 are conclusive arguments in favor of the use of the latter4 ,if the land is stony1 it must be cleared2 this is a proposition by itself1 but if the sole object is to make drains1 the best material should be used1 and this material is not stone4 ,a well laid tile-drain has the following essential characteristics3--#a4 ,it has a free outlet for the discharge of all water which may run through it4 #b4 ,it has openings1 at its joints1 sufficient for the admission of all the water which may rise to the level of its floor4 #c4 ,its floor is laid on a well regulated line of descent1 so that its current may maintain a flow of uniform1 or1 at least1 never decreasing rapidity1 throughout its entire length4 ,land which requires draining1 is that which1 at some time during the year1 7either from an accumulation of the rains which fall upon it1 from the lateral flow1 or soakage1 from adjoining land1 from springs which open within it1 or from a combination of two or all of these sources17 becomes filled with water1 that does not readily find a natural outlet1 but remains until removed by evaporation4 ,every considerable addition to its water wells up1 and soaks its very surface2 and that which is added after it is already brim full1 must flow off over the surface1 or lie in puddles upon it4 ,evaporation is a slow process1 and it becomes more and more slow as the level of the water recedes from the surface1 and is sheltered1 by the overlying earth1 from the action of sun and wind4 ,therefore1 at least during the periods of spring and fall preparation of the land1 during the early growth of plants1 and often even in midsummer1 the water-table1--the top of the water of saturation1--is within a few inches of the surface1 preventing the natural descent of roots1 and1 by reason of the small space to receive fresh rains1 causing an interruption of work for some days after each storm4 ,if such land is properly furnished with tile-drains1 7having a clear and sufficient outfall1 offering sufficient means of entrance to the water which reaches them1 and carrying it1 by a uniform or increasing descent1 to the outlet17 its water will be removed to nearly1 or quite1 the level of the floor of the drains1 and its water-table will be at the distance of some feet from the surface1 leaving the spaces between the particles of all of the soil above it filled with air instead of water4 ,the water below the drains stands at a level1 like any other water that is dammed up4 ,rain water falling on the soil will descend by its own weight to this level1 and the water will rise into the drains1 as it would flow over a dam1 until the proper level is again attained4 ,spring water entering from below1 and water oozing from the adjoining land1 will be removed in like manner1 and the usual condition of the soil1 above the water-table1 will be that represented in ,fig4 #c1 the condition which is best adapted to the growth of useful plants4 ,in the heaviest storms1 some water will flow over the surface of even the dryest beach-sand2 but1 in a well drained soil the water of ordinary rains will be at once absorbed1 will slowly descend toward the water-table1 and will be removed by the drains1 so rapidly1 even in heavy clays1 as to leave the ground fit for cultivation1 and in a condition for steady growth1 within a short time after the rain ceases4 ,it has been estimated that a drained soil has room between its particles for about one quarter of its bulk of water2--that is1 four inches of drained soil contains free space enough to receive a rain-fall one inch in depth1 and1 by the same token1 four feet of drained soil can receive twelve inches of rain1---more than is known to have ever fallen in twenty-four hours1 since the deluge1 and more than one quarter of the annual rain-fall in the ,united ,states4 ,as was stated in the previous chapter1 the water which reaches the soil may be considered under two heads3 #ast--,that which reaches its surface1 whether directly by rain1 or by the surface flow of adjoining land4 #b;d--,that which reaches it below the surface1 by springs and by soakage from the lower portions of adjoining land4 ,the first of these is beneficial1 because it contains fresh air1 carbonic acid1 ammonia1 nitric acid1 and heat1 obtained from the atmosphere2 and the flowage water contains1 in addition1 some of the finer or more soluble parts of the land over which it has passed4 ,the second1 is only so much dead water1 which has already given up1 to other soil1 all that ours could absorb from it1 and its effect is chilling and hurtful4 ,this being the case1 the only interest we can have in it1 is to keep it down from the surface1 and remove it as rapidly as possible4 ,the water of the first sort1 on the other hand1 should be arrested by every device within our reach4 ,if the land is steep1 the furrows in plowing should be run horizontally along the hill1 to prevent the escape of the water over the surface1 and to allow it to descend readily into the ground4 ,steep grass lands may have frequent1 small1 horizontal ditches for the same purpose4 ,if the soil is at all heavy1 it should not1 when wet1 be trampled by animals1 lest it be puddled1 and thus made less absorptive4 ,if in cultivation1 the surface should be kept loose and open1 ready to receive all of the rain and irrigation water that reaches it4 ,in descending through the soil1 this water1 in summer1 gives up heat which it received from the air and from the heated surface of the ground1 and thus raises the temperature of the lower soil4 ,the fertilizing matters which it has obtained from the air1--carbonic acid1 ammonia and nitric acid1--are extracted from it1 and held for the use of growing plants4 ,its fresh air1 and the air which follows the descent of the water-table1 carries oxygen to the organic and mineral parts of the soil1 and hastens the rust and decay by which these are prepared for the uses of vegetation4 ,the water itself supplies1 by means of their power of absorption1 the moisture which is needed by the particles of the soil2 and1 having performed its work1 it goes down to the level of the water below1 and1 swelling the tide above the brink of the dam1 sets the drains running1 until it is all removed4 ,in its descent through the ground1 this water clears the passages through which it flows1 leaving a better channel for the water of future rains1 so that1 in time1 the heaviest clays1 which will drain but imperfectly during the first one or two years1 will pass water1 to a depth of four or five feet1 almost as readily as the lighter loams4 ,now1 imagine the drains to be closed up1 leaving no outlet for the water1 save at the surface4 ,this amounts to a raising of the dam to that height1 and additions to the water will bring the water-table even with the top of the soil4 ,no provision being made for the removal of spring and soakage water1 this causes serious inconvenience1 and even the rain-fall1 finding no room in the soil for its reception1 can only lie upon1 or flow over1 the surface1--not yielding to the soil the fertilizing matters which it contains1 but1 on the contrary1 washing away some of its finer and looser parts4 ,the particles of the soil1 instead of being furnished1 by absorption1 with a healthful amount of moisture1 are made unduly wet2 and the spaces between them1 being filled with water1 no air can enter1 whereby the chemical processes by which the inert minerals1 and the roots and manure1 in the soil are prepared for the use of vegetation1 are greatly retarded4 ,instead of carrying the heat of the air1 and of the surface of the ground1 to the subsoil1 the rain only adds so much to the amount of water to be evaporated1 and increases1 by so much1 the chilling effect of evaporation4 ,instead of opening the spaces of the soil for the more free passage of water and air1 as is done by descending water1 that which ascends by evaporation at the surface brings up soluble matters1 which it leaves at the point where it becomes a vapor1 forming a crust that prevents the free entrance of air at those times when the soil is dry enough to afford it space for circulation4 ,instead of crumbling to the fine condition of a loam1 as it does1 when well drained1 by the descent of water through it1 heavy clay soil1 being rapidly dried by evaporation1 shrinks into hard masses1 separated by wide cracks4 ,in short1 in wet seasons1 on such land1 the crops will be greatly lessened1 or entirely destroyed1 and in dry seasons1 cultivation will always be much more laborious1 more hurried1 and less complete1 than if it were well drained4 ,the foregoing general statements1 concerning the action of water in drained1 and in undrained land1 and of the effects of its removal1 by gravitation1 and by evaporation1 are based on facts which have been developed by long practice1 and on a rational application of well know principles of science4 ,these facts and principles are worthy of examination1 and they are set forth below1 somewhat at length1 especially with reference to ,absorption and ,filtration2 ,evaporation2 ,temperature2 ,drought2 ,porosity or ,mellowness2 and ,chemical ,action4 ,,absorption ,,and ,,filtration4--,the process of under-draining is a process of absorption and filtration1 as distinguished from surface-flow and evaporation4 ,the completeness with which the latter are prevented1 and the former promoted1 is the measure of the completeness of the improvement4 ,if water lie on the surface of the ground until evaporated1 or if it flow off over the surface1 it will do harm2 if it soak away through the soil1 it will do good4 ,the rapidity and ease with which it is absorbed1 and1 therefore1 the extent to which under-draining is successful1 depend on the physical condition of the soil1 and on the manner in which its texture is affected by the drying action of sun and wind1 and by the downward passage of water through it4 ,in drying1 all soils1 except pure sands1 shrink1 and occupy less space than when they are saturated with water4 ,they shrink more or less1 according to their composition1 as will be seen by the following table of results obtained in the experiments of ,schuebler3 #a1jjj ,parts of ,will ,contract #a1jjj ,parts of ,will ,contract ,parts4 ,parts4 ,strong ,limey #ej4 ,pure ,clay #ahc4 ,soil ,heavy ,loam #fj4 ,peat #bjj4 ,brick ,maker's #he4 ,clay ,professor ,johnson estimates that peat and heavy clay shrink one-fifth of their bulk4 ,if soil be dried suddenly1 from a condition of extreme wetness1 it will be divided into large masses1 or clods1 separated by wide cracks4 ,a subsequent wetting of the clods1 which is not sufficient to expand it to its former condition1 will not entirely obliterate the cracks1 and the next drying will be followed by new fissures within the clods themselves2 and a frequent repetition of this process will make the network of fissures finer and finer1 until the whole mass of the soil is divided to a pulverulent condition4 ,this is the process which follows the complete draining of such lands as contain large proportions of clay or of peat4 ,it is retarded1 in proportion to the amount of the free water in the soil which is evaporated from the surface1 and in proportion to the trampling of the ground1 when very wet4 ,it is greatly facilitated by frost1 and especially by deep frost4 ,the fissures which are formed by this process are1 in time1 occupied by the roots of plants1 which remain and decay1 when the crop has been removed1 and which prevent the soil from ever again closing on itself so completely as before their penetration2 and each season's crop adds new roots to make the separation more complete and more universal2 but it is only after the water of saturation1 which occupies the lower soil for so large a part of the year1 has been removed by draining1 that roots can penetrate to any considerable depth1 and1 in fact1 the cracking of undrained soils1 in drying1 never extends beyond the separation into large masses1 because each heavy rain1 by saturating the soil and expanding it to its full capacity1 entirely obliterates the cracks and forms a solid mass1 in which the operation has to be commenced anew with the next drying4 ,mr4 ,gisborne1 in his capital essay on ,agricultural ,drainage1 which appeared in the ,quarterly ,review1 ,no4 ,,clxxi1 says3 ,we really thought that no one was so ignorant as not to be aware that clay lands always shrink and crack with drought1 and the stiffer the clay the greater the shrinking1 as brickmakers well know4 ,in the great drought1 #cf years ago1 we saw in a very retentive soil in the ,vale of ,belvoir1 cracks which it was not very pleasant to ride among4 ,this very summer1 on land which1 with reference to this very subject1 the owner stated to be impervious1 we put a walking stick three feet into a sun-crack1 without finding a bottom1 and the whole surface was what ,mr4 ,parkes1 not inappropriately1 calls a network of cracks4 ,when heavy rain comes upon a soil in this state1 of course the cracks fill1 the clay imbibes the water1 expands1 and the cracks are abolished4 ,but if there are four or five feet parallel drains in the land1 the water passes at once into them and is carried off4 ,in fact1 when heavy rain falls upon clay lands in this cracked state1 it passes off too quickly1 without adequate filtration4 ,into the fissures of the undrained soil the roots only penetrate to be perished by the cold and wet of the succeeding winter2 but in the drained soil the roots follow the threads of vegetable mold which have been washed into the cracks1 and get an abiding tenure4 ,earth worms follow either the roots or the mold4 ,permanent schisms are established in the clay1 and its whole character is changed4 ,an old farmer in a midland county began with #bj-;inch drains across the hill1 and1 without ever reading a word1 or1 we believe1 conversing with any one on the subject1 poked his way1 step by step1 to four or five feet drains1 in the line of steepest descent4 ,showing us his drains this spring1 he said3 ',they do better year by year2 the water gets a habit of coming to them '--a very correct statement of fact1 though not a very philosophical explanation4 ,alderman ,mechi1 of ,tiptree ,hall1 says3 ,filtration may be too sudden1 as is well enough shown by our hot sands and gravels2 but ,i apprehend no one will ever fear rendering strong clays too porous and manageable4 ,the object of draining is to impart to such soils the mellowness and dark color of self drained1 rich and friable soil4 ,that perfect drainage and cultivation will do this1 is a well known fact4 ,i know it in the case of my own garden4 ,how it does so ,i am not chemist enough to explain in detail2 but it is evident the effect is produced by the fibers of the growing crop intersecting every particle of the soil1 which they never could do before draining2 these1 with their excretions1 decompose on removal of the crop1 and are acted on by the alternating air and water1 which also decompose and change1 in a degree1 the inorganic substances of the soil4 ,thereby drained land1 which was1 before1 impervious to air and water1 and consequently unavailable to air and roots1 to worms1 or to vegetable or animal life1 becomes1 by drainage1 populated by both1 and is a great chemical laboratory1 as our own atmosphere is subject to all the changes produced by animated nature4 ,experience proves that the descent of water through the soil renders it more porous1 so that it is easier for the water falling afterward to pass down to the drains1 but no very satisfactory reason for this has been presented1 beyond that which is connected with the cracking of the soil4 ,the fact is well stated in the following extract from a letter to the ,country ,gentleman3 ,a simple experiment will convince any farmer that the best means of permanently deepening and mellowing the soil is by thorough drainage1 to afford a ready exit for all surplus moisture4 ,let him take in spring1 while wet1 a quantity of his hardest soil1--such as it is almost impossible to plow in summer1--such as presents a baked and brick-like character under the influence of drought1--and place it in a box or barrel1 open at the bottom1 and frequently during the season let him saturate it with water4 ,he will find it gradually becoming more and more porous and friable1--holding water less and less perfectly as the experiment proceeds1 and in the end it will attain a state best suited to the growth of plants from its deep and mellow character4 ,it is equally a fact that the ascent of water in the soil1 together with its evaporation at the surface1 has the effect of making the soil impervious to rains1 and of covering the land with a crust of hard1 dry earth1 which forms a barrier to the free entrance of air4 ,so far as the formation of crust is concerned1 it is doubtless due to the fact that the water in the soil holds in solution certain mineral matters1 which it deposits at the point of evaporation1 the collection of these finely divided matters serving to completely fill the spaces between the particles of soil at the surface1--pasting them together1 as it were4 ,how far below the surface this direct action extends1 cannot be definitely determined2 but the process being carried on for successive years1 accumulating a quantity of these fine particles1 each season1 they are1 by cultivation1 and by the action of heavy showers falling at a time when the soil is more or less dry1 distributed through a certain depth1 and ordinarily1 in all probability1 are most largely deposited at the top of the subsoil4 ,it is found in practice that the first foot in depth of retentive soils is more retentive than that which lies below4 ,if this opinion as to the cause of this greater imperviousness is correct1 it will be readily seen how water1 descending to the drains1 by carrying these soluble and finer parts downward and distributing them more equally through the whole1 should render the soil more porous4 ,another cause of the retention of water by the surface soil1 often a very serious one1 is the puddling which clayey lands undergo by working them1 or feeding cattle upon them1 when they are wet4 ,this is always injurious4 ,by draining1 land is made fit for working much earlier in the spring1 and is sooner ready for pasturing after a rain1 but1 no matter how thoroughly the draining has been done1 if there is much clay in the soil1 the effect of the improvement will be destroyed by plowing or trampling1 while very wet2 this impervious condition will be removed in time1 of course1 but while it lasts1 it places us as completely at the mercy of the weather as we were before a ditch was dug4 ,in connection with the use of the word impervious1 it should be understood that it is not used in its strict sense1 for no substance which can be wetted by water is really impervious and the most retentive soil will become wet4 ,gisborne states the case clearly when he says3 ,is your subsoil moister after the rains of mid-winter1 than it is after the drought of mid-summer8 ,if it is1 it will drain4 ,the proportion of the rain-fall which will filtrate through the soil to the level of the drains1 varies with the composition of the soil1 and with the effect that the draining has had upon them4 ,in a very loose1 gravelly1 or sandy soil1 which has a perfect outlet for water below1 all but the heaviest falls of rain will sink at once1 while on a heavy clay1 no matter how well it is drained1 the process of filtration will be much more slow1 and if the land be steeply inclined1 some of the water of ordinarily heavy rains must flow off over the surface1 unless1 by horizontal plowing1 or catch drains on the surface1 its flow be retarded until it has time to enter the soil4 ,the power of drained soils to hold water1 by absorption1 is very great4 ,a cubic foot of very dry soil1 of favorable character1 has been estimated to absorb within its particles1--holding no free water1 or water of drainage1--about one-half its bulk of water2 if this is true1 the amount required to moisten a dry soil1 four feet deep1 giving no excess to be drained away1 would amount to a rain fall of from #bj to #cj inches in depth4 ,if we consider1 in addition to this1 the amount of water drained away1 we shall see that the soil has sufficient capacity for the reception of all the rain water that falls upon it4 ,in connection with the question of absorption and filtration1 it is interesting to investigate the movements of water in the ground4 ,the natural tendency of water1 in the soil as well as out of it1 is to descend perpendicularly toward the center of the earth4 ,if it meet a flat layer of gravel lying upon clay1 and having a free outlet1 it will follow the course of the gravel1--laterally1--and find the outlet2 if it meet water which is dammed up in the soil1 and which has an outlet at a certain elevation1 as at the floor of a drain1 it will raise the general level of the water1 and force it out through the drain2 if it meet water which has no outlet1 it will raise its level until the soil is filled1 or until it accumulates sufficient pressure1 7head17 to force its way through the adjoining lands1 or until it finds an outlet at the surface4 ,the first two cases named represent the condition which it is desirable to obtain1 by either natural or artificial drainage2 the third case is the only one which makes drainage necessary4 ,it is a fixed rule that water1 descending in the soil1 will find the lowest outlet to which there exists a channel through which it can flow1 and that if1 after heavy rains1 it rise too near the surface of the ground1 the proper remedy is to tap it at a lower level1 and thus remove the water table to the proper distance from the surface4 ,this subject will be more fully treated in a future chapter1 in considering the question of the depth1 and the intervals1 at which drains should be placed4 99,evaporation499--,by evaporation is meant the process by which a liquid assumes the form of a gas or vapor1 or dries up4 ,water1 exposed to the air1 is constantly undergoing this change4 ,it is changed from the liquid form1 and becomes a vapor in the air4 ,water in the form of vapor occupies nearly #bjjj times the space that it filled as a liquid4 ,as the vapor at the time of its formation is of the same temperature with the water1 and1 from its highly expanded condition1 requires a great amount of heat to maintain it as vapor1 it follows that a given quantity of water contains1 in the vapory form1 many times as much heat as in the liquid form4 ,this heat is taken from surrounding substances1--from the ground and from the air1--which are thereby made much cooler4 ,for instance1 if a shower moisten the ground1 on a hot summer day1 the drying up of the water will cool both the ground and the air4 ,if we place a wet cloth on the head1 and hasten the evaporation of the water by fanning1 we cool the head2 if we wrap a wet napkin around a pitcher of water1 and place it in a current of air1 the water in the pitcher is made cooler1 by giving up its heat to the evaporating water of the napkin2 when we sprinkle water on the floor of a room1 its evaporation cools the air of the room4 ,so great is the effect of evaporation1 on the temperature of the soil1 that ,dr4 ,madden found that the soil of a drained field1 in which most of the water was removed from below1 was #f-a_/b ,far4 warmer than a similar soil undrained1 from which the water had to be removed by evaporation4 ,this difference of #f-a_/b is equal to a difference of elevation of #a1iej feet4 ,it has been found1 by experiments made in ,england1 that the average evaporation of water from wet soils is equal to a depth of two inches per month1 from ,may to ,august1 inclusive2 in ,america it must be very much greater than this in the summer months1 but this is surely enough for the purposes of illustration1 as two inches of water1 over an acre of land1 would weigh about two hundred tons4 ,the amount of heat required to evaporate this is immense1 and a very large part of it is taken from the soil1 which1 thereby1 becomes cooler1 and less favorable for a rapid growth4 ,it is usual to speak of heavy1 wet lands as being cold1 and it is now seen why they are so4 ,if none of the water which falls on a field is removed by drainage1 7natural or artificial17 and if none runs off from the surface1 the whole rain-fall of a year must be removed by evaporation1 and the cooling of the soil will be proportionately great4 ,the more completely we withdraw this water from the surface1 and carry it off in underground drains1 the more do we reduce the amount to be removed by evaporation4 ,in land which is well drained1 the amount evaporated1 even in summer1 will not be sufficient to so lower the temperature of the soil as to retard the growth of plants2 the small amount dried out of the particles of the soil1 7water of absorption17 will only keep it from being raised to too great a heat by the mid-summer sun4 ,an idea of the amount of heat lost to the soil1 in the evaporation of water1 may be formed from the fact that to evaporate1 by artificial heat1 the amount of water contained in a rain-fall of two inches on an acre1 7#bjj tons17 would require over #bj tons of coal4 ,of course a considerable--probably by far the larger1--part of the heat taken up in the process of evaporation is furnished by the air2 but the amount abstracted from the soil is great1 and is in direct proportion to the amount of water removed by this process2 hence1 the more we remove by draining1 the more heat we retain in the ground4 ,the season of growth is lengthened by draining1 because1 by avoiding the cooling effects of evaporation1 germination is more rapid1 and the young plant grows steadily from the start1 instead of struggling against the retarding influence of a cold soil4 99,temperature499--,the temperature of the soil has great effect on the germination of seeds1 the growth of plants1 and the ripening of the crops4 ,gisborne says3 ,the evaporation of #a lb4 of water lowers the temperature of #ajj lbs4 of soil #aj1--that is to say1 that1 if to #ajj lbs4 of soil1 holding all the water it can by attraction1 but containing no water of drainage1 is added #a lb4 of water which it has no means of discharging1 except by evaporation1 it will1 by the time that it has so discharged it1 be #fj colder than it would have been1 if it had the power of discharging this #a lb4 by filtration2 or1 more practically1 that1 if rain1 entering in the proportion of #a lb4 to #ajj lbs4 into a retentive soil1 which is saturated with water of attraction1 is discharged by evaporation1 it lowers the temperature of that soil #aj4 ,if the soil has the means of discharging that #a lb4 of water by filtration1 no effect is produced beyond what is due to the relative temperatures of the rain and of the soil4 ,it has been established by experiment that four times as much heat is required to evaporate a certain quantity of water1 as to raise the same quantity from the freezing to the boiling point4 ,it is1 probably1 in consequence of this cooling effect of evaporation1 that wet lands are warmest when shaded1 because1 under this condition1 evaporation is less active4 ,such lands1 in cloudy weather1 form an unnatural growth1 such as results in the lodging of grain crops1 from the deficient strength of the straw which this growth produces4 ,in hot weather1 the temperature of the lower soil is1 of course1 much lower than that of the air1 and lower than that of the water of warm rains4 ,if the soil is saturated with water1 the water will1 of course1 be of an even temperature with the soil in which it lies1 but if this be drained off1 warm air will enter from above1 and give its heat to the soil1 while each rain1 as it falls1 will also carry its heat with it4 ,furthermore1 the surface of the ground is sometimes excessively heated by the summer sun1 and the heat thus contained is carried down to the lower soil by the descending water of rains1 which thus cool the surface and warm the subsoil1 both beneficial4 ,mr4 ,josiah ,parkes1 one of the leading draining engineers of ,england1 has made some experiments to test the extent to which draining affects the temperature of the soil4 ,the results of his observations are thus stated by ,gisborne3 ,mr4 ,parkes gives the temperature on a ,lancashire flat moss1 but they only commence #g inches below the surface1 and do not extend to mid-summer4 ,at that period of the year the temperature1 at #g inches1 never exceeded #ff1 and was generally from #aj to #ae below the temperature of the air in the shade1 at #d feet above the earth4 ,mr4 ,parkes' experiments were made simultaneously1 on a drained1 and on an undrained portion of the moss2 and the result was1 that1 on a mean of #ce observations1 the drained soil at #g inches in depth was #aj warmer than the undrained1 at the same depth4 ,the undrained soil never exceeded #dg1 whereas1 after a thunder storm1 the drained reached #ff at #g inches1 and #dh at #ca inches4 ,such were the effects1 at an early period of the year1 on a black bog4 ,they suggest some idea of what they were1 when1 in ,july or ,august1 thunder rain at #fj or #gj falls on a surface heated to #acj1 and carries down with it1 into the greedy fissures of the earth1 its augmented temperature4 ,these advantages1 porous soils possess by nature1 and retentive ones only acquire them by drainage4 ,drained land1 being more open to atmospheric circulation1 and having lost the water which prevented the temperature of its lower portions from being so readily affected by the temperature of the air as it is when dry1 will freeze to a greater depth in winter and thaw out earlier in the spring4 ,the deep freezing has the effect to greatly pulverize the lower soil1 thus better fitting it for the support of vegetation2 and the earlier thawing makes it earlier ready for spring work4 99,drought499--,at first thought1 it is not unnatural to suppose that draining will increase the ill effect of too dry seasons1 by removing water which might keep the soil moist4 ,experience has proven1 however1 that the result is exactly the opposite of this4 ,lands which suffer most from drought are most benefited by draining1--more in their greater ability to withstand drought than in any other particular4 ,the reasons for this action of draining become obvious1 when its effects on the character of the soil are examined4 ,there is always the same amount of water in1 and about1 the surface of the earth4 ,in winter there is more in the soil than in summer1 while in summer1 that which has been dried out of the soil exists in the atmosphere in the form of a vapor4 ,it is held in the vapory form by heat1 which may be regarded as braces to keep it distended4 ,when vapor comes in contact with substances sufficiently colder than itself1 it gives up its heat1--thus losing its braces1--contracts1 becomes liquid water1 and is deposited as dew4 ,many instances of this operation are familiar to all4 ,for instance1 a cold pitcher in the summer robs the vapor in the air of its heat1 and causes it to be deposited on its own surface1--of course the water comes from the atmosphere1 not through the wall of the pitcher2 if we breathe on a knife blade1 it condenses1 in the same manner1 the moisture of the breath1 and becomes covered with a film of-water2 stone-houses are damp in summer1 because the inner surface of their walls1 being cooler than the atmosphere1 causes its moisture to be deposited in the manner described27#b7 nearly every night1 in summer1 the cold earth receives moisture from the atmosphere in the form of dew2 a single large head of cabbage1 which at night is very cold1 often condenses water to the amount of a gill or more4 ,the same operation takes place in the soil4 ,when the air is allowed to circulate among its lower and cooler1 7because more shaded17 particles1 they receive moisture by the same process of condensation4 ,therefore1 when1 by the aid of under-drains1 the lower soil becomes sufficiently loose and open1 to allow a circulation of air1 the deposit of atmospheric moisture will keep it supplied with water1 at a point easily accessible to the roots of plants4 ,if we wish to satisfy ourselves that this is practically correct1 we have only to prepare two boxes of finely pulverized soil1--one three or four inches deep1--and the other fifteen or twenty inches deep1 and place them in the sun1 at midday1 in summer4 ,the thinner soil will soon be completely dried1 while the deeper one1 though it may have been previously dried in an oven1 will soon accumulate a large amount of water on those particles which1 being lower and better sheltered from the sun's heat than the particles of the thin soil1 are made cooler4 ,we have seen that even the most retentive soil1--the stiffest clay1--is made porous by the repeated passage of water from the surface to the level of the drains1 and that the ability to admit air1 which plowing gives it1 is maintained for a much longer time than if it were usually saturated with water which has no other means of escape than by evaporation at the surface4 ,the power of dry soils to absorb moisture from the air may be seen by an examination of the following table of results obtained by ,schuebler1 who exposed #a1jjj grains of dried soil of the various kinds named to the action of the air3 ,kind of ,soil4 ,amount of ,water ,absorbed in #bd ,hours4 ,common ,soil #bb grains4 ,loamy ,clay #bf grains4 ,garden ,soil #de grains4 ,brickmakers' ,clay #cj grains4 ,the effect of draining in overcoming drought1 by admitting atmospheric vapor will1 of course1 be very much increased if the land be thoroughly loosened by cultivation1 and especially if the surface be kept in an open and mellow condition4 ,in addition to the moisture received from the air1 as above described1 water is1 in a porous soil1 drawn up from the wetter subsoil below1 by the same attractive force which acts to wet the whole of a sponge of which only the lower part touches the water2--as a hard1 dry1 compact sponge will absorb water much less readily than one which is loose and open1 so the hard clods1 into which undrained clay is dried1 drink up water much less freely than they will do after draining shall have made them more friable4 ,the source of this underground moisture is the water table1--the level of the soil below the influence of the drains1--and this should be so placed that1 while its water will easily rise to a point occupied by the feeding roots of the crop1 it should yield as little as possible for evaporation at the surface4 ,another source of moisture1 in summer1 is the deposit of dew on the surface of the ground4 ,the amount of this is very difficult to determine1 and accurate ,american experiments on the subject are wanting4 ,of course the amount of dew is greater here than in ,england1 where ,dr4 ,dalton1 a skillful examiner of atmospheric phenomena1 estimates the annual deposit of dew to equal a depth of five inches1 or about one-fifth of the rain-fall4 ,water thus deposited on the soil is absorbed more or less completely1 in proportion to the porosity of the ground4 ,the extent to which plants will be affected by drought depends1 other things being equal1 on the depth to which they send their roots4 ,if these lie near the surface1 they will be parched by the heat of the sun4 ,if they strike deeply into the damper subsoil1 the sun will have less effect on the source from which they obtain their moisture4 ,nothing tends so much to deep rooting1 as the thorough draining of the soil4 ,if the free water be withdrawn to a considerable distance from the surface1 plants1--even without the valuable aid of deep and subsoil plowing1--will send their roots to great depths4 ,writers on this subject cite many instances in which the roots of ordinary crops not mere hairs1 but strong fibres1 as large as pack-thread1 sink to the depth of #d1 #f1 and in some instances #ab or #ad feet4 ,certain it is that1 in a healthy1 well aerated soil1 any of the plants ordinarily cultivated in the garden or field will send their roots far below the parched surface soil2 but if the subsoil is wet1 cold1 and soggy1 at the time when the young crop is laying out its plan of future action1 it will perforce accommodate its roots to the limited space which the comparatively dry surface soil affords4 ,it is well known among those who attend the meetings of the ,farmers' ,club of the ,american ,institute1 in ,new ,york1 that the farm of ,professor ,mapes1 near ,newark1 ,n4,j41 which maintains its wonderful fertility1 year after year1 without reference to wet or dry weather1 has been rendered almost absolutely indifferent to the severest drought1 by a course of cultivation which has been rendered possible only by under-draining4 ,the lawns of the ,central ,park1 which are a marvel of freshness1 when the lands about the ,park are burned brown1 owe their vigor mainly to the complete drainage of the soil4 ,what is true of these thoroughly cultivated lands1 it is practicable to attain on all soils1 which1 from their compact condition1 are now almost denuded of vegetation in dry seasons4 99,porosity or ,mellowness499--,an open and mellow condition of the soil is always favorable for the growth of plants4 ,they require heat1 fresh air and moisture1 to enable them to take up the materials on which they live1 and by which they grow4 ,we have seen that the heat of retentive soils is almost directly proportionate to the completeness with which their free water is removed by underground draining1 and that1 by reason of the increased facility with which air and water circulate within them1 their heat is more evenly distributed among all those parts of the soil which are occupied by roots4 ,the word moisture1 in this connection1 is used in contradistinction to wetness1 and implies a condition of freshness and dampness1--not at all of saturation4 ,in a saturated1 a soaking-wet soil1 every space between the particles is filled with water to the entire exclusion of the atmosphere1 and in such a soil only aquatic plants will grow4 ,in a dry soil1 on the other hand1 when the earth is contracted into clods and baked1 almost as in an oven1--one of the most important conditions for growth being wanting1--nothing can thrive1 save those plants which ask of the earth only an anchoring place1 and seek their nourishment from the air4 ,both air plants and water plants have their wisely assigned places in the economy of nature1 and nature provides them with ample space for growth4 ,agriculture1 however1 is directed to the production of a class of plants very different from either of these1--to those which can only grow to their greatest perfection in a soil combining1 not one or two only1 but all three of the conditions named above4 ,while they require heat1 they cannot dispense with the moisture which too great heat removes2 while they require moisture1 they cannot abide the entire exclusion of air1 nor the dissipation of heat which too much water causes4 ,the interior part of the pellets of a well pulverized soil should contain all the water that they can hold by their own absorptive power1 just as the finer walls of a damp sponge hold it2 while the spaces between these pellets1 like the pores of the sponge1 should be filled with air4 ,in such a soil1 roots can extend in any direction1 and to considerable depth1 without being parched with thirst1 or drowned in stagnant water1 and1 other things being equal1 plants will grow to their greatest possible size1 and all their tissues will be of the best possible texture4 ,on rich land1 which is maintained in this condition of porosity and mellowness1 agriculture will produce its best results1 and will encounter the fewest possible chances of failure4 ,of course1 there are not many such soils to be found1 and such absolute balance between warmth and moisture in the soil cannot be maintained at all times1 and under all circumstances1 but the more nearly it is maintained1 the more nearly perfect will be the results of cultivation4 99,chemical ,action in the ,soil499--,plants receive certain of their constituents from the soil1 through their roots4 ,the raw materials from which these constituents are obtained are the minerals of the soil1 the manures which are artificially applied1 water1 and certain substances which are taken from the air by the absorptive action of the soil1 or are brought to it by rains1 or by water flowing over the surface from other land4 ,the mineral matters1 which constitute the ashes of plants1 when burned1 are not mere accidental impurities which happen to be carried into their roots in solution in the water which supplies the sap1 although they vary in character and proportion with each change in the mineral composition of the soil4 ,it is proven by chemical analysis1 that the composition of the ashes1 not only of different species of plants1 but of different parts of the same plant1 have distinctive characters1--some being rich in phosphates1 and others in silex2 some in potash1 and others in lime1--and that these characters are in a measure the same1 in the same plants or parts of plants1 without especial reference to the soil on which they grow4 ,the minerals which form the ashes of plants1 constitute but a very small part of the soil1 and they are very sparsely distributed throughout the mass2 existing in the interior of its particles1 as well as upon their surfaces4 ,as roots cannot penetrate to the interior of pebbles and compact particles of earth1 in search of the food which they require1 but can only take that which is exposed on their surfaces1 and1 as the oxydizing effect of atmospheric air is useful in preparing the crude minerals for assimilation1 as well as in decomposing the particles in which they are bound up1--a process which is allied to the rusting of metals1--the more freely atmospheric air is allowed1 or induced1 to circulate among the inner portions of the soil1 the more readily are its fertilizing parts made available for the use of roots4 ,by no other process1 is air made to enter so deeply1 nor to circulate so readily in the soil1 as by under-draining1 and the deep cultivation which under-draining facilitates4 ,of the manures which are applied to the land1 those of a mineral character are affected by draining1 in the same manner as the minerals which are native to the soil2 while organic1 or animal and vegetable1 manures1 7especially when applied1 as is usual1 in an incompletely fermented condition17 absolutely require fresh supplies of atmospheric air1 to continue the decomposition which alone can prepare them for their proper effect on vegetation4 ,if kept saturated with water1 so that the air is excluded1 animal manures lie nearly inert1 and vegetable matters decompose but incompletely1--yielding acids which are injurious to vegetation1 and which would not be formed in the presence of a sufficient supply of air4 ,an instance is cited by ,h4 ,wauer where sheep dung was preserved1 for five years1 by excessive moisture1 which kept it from the air4 ,if the soil be saturated with water in the spring1 and1 in summer1 7by the compacting of its surface1 which is caused by evaporation17 be closed against the entrance of air1 manures will be but slowly decomposed1 and will act but imperfectly on the crop1--if1 on the other hand1 a complete system of drainage be adopted1 manures1 7and the roots which have been left in the ground by the previous crop17 will be readily decomposed1 and will exercise their full influence on the soil1 and on the plants growing in it4 ,again1 manures are more or less effective1 in proportion as they are more or less thoroughly mixed with the soil4 ,in an undrained1 retentive soil1 it is not often possible to attain that perfect tilth1 which is best suited for a proper admixture1 and which is easily given after thorough draining4 ,the soil must be regarded as the laboratory in which nature1 during the season of growth1 is carrying on those hidden1 but indispensable chemical separations1 combinations1 and re-combinations1 by which the earth is made to bear its fruits1 and to sustain its myriad life4 ,the chief demand of this laboratory is for free ventilation4 ,the raw material for the work is at hand1--as well in the wet soil as in the dry2 but the door is sealed1 the damper is closed1 and only a stray whiff of air can1 now and then1 gain entrance1--only enough to commence an analysis1 or a combination1 which is choked off when half complete1 leaving food for sorrel1 but making none for grass4 ,we must throw open door and window1 draw away the water in which all is immersed1 let in the air1 with its all destroying1 and1 therefore1 all re-creating oxygen1 and leave the forces of nature's beneficent chemistry free play1 deep down in the ground4 ,then may we hope for the full benefit of the fertilizing matters which our good soil contains1 and for the full effect of the manures which we add4 ,with our land thoroughly improved1 as has been described1 we may carry on the operations of farming with as much certainty of success1 and with as great immunity from the ill effects of unfavorable weather1 as can be expected in any business1 whose results depend on such a variety of circumstances4 ,we shall have substituted certainty for chance1 as far as it is in our power to do so1 and shall have made farming an art1 rather than a venture4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 - ,,how ,,to ,,go ,,to ,,work ,,to ,,lay ,,out ,a ,,system ,,of ,,drains4 ,how to lay out the drains2 where to place the outlet2 where to locate the main collecting lines2 how to arrange the laterals which are to take the water from the soil and deliver it at the mains2 how deep to go2 at what intervals2 what fall to give2 and what sizes of tile to use1--these are all questions of great importance to one who is about to drain land4 ,on the proper adjustment of these points1 depend the economy and effectiveness of the work4 ,time and attention given to them1 before commencing actual operations1 will prevent waste and avoid failure4 ,any person of ordinary intelligence may qualify himself to lay out under-drains and to superintend their construction1--but the knowledge which is required does not come by nature4 ,those who have not the time for the necessary study and practice to make a plan for draining their land1 will find it economical to employ an engineer for the purpose4 ,in this era of railroad building1 there is hardly a county in ,america which has not a practical surveyor1 who may easily qualify himself1 by a study of the principles and directions herein set forth1 to lay out an economical plan for draining any ordinary agricultural land1 to stake the lines1 and to determine the grade of the drains1 and the sizes of tile with which they should be furnished4 ,on this subject ,mr4 ,gisborne says3 ,if we should give a stimulus to amateur draining1 we shall do a great deal of harm4 ,we wish we could publish a list of the moneys which have been squandered in the last #dj years in amateur draining1 either ineffectually or with very imperfect efficiency4 ,our own name would be inscribed in the list for a very respectable sum4 ,every thoughtless squire supposes that1 with the aid of his ignorant bailiff1 he can effect a perfect drainage of his estate2 but there is a worse man behind the squire and the bailiff1--the draining conjuror4 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,these fellows never go direct about their work4 ,if they attack a spring1 they try to circumvent it by some circuitous route4 ,they never can learn that nature shows you the weakest point1 and that you should assist her1--that hit him straight in the eye is as good a maxim in draining as in pugilism4 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,if you wish to drain1 we recommend you to take advice4 ,we have disposed of the quack1 but there is a faculty1 not numerous but extending1 and whose extension appears to us to be indispensable to the satisfactory progress of improvements by draining1--a faculty of draining engineers4 ,if we wanted a profession for a lad who showed any congenial talent1 we would bring him up to be a draining engineer4 ,he then proceeds to speak of his own experience in the matter1 and shows that1 after more than thirty years of intelligent practice1 he employed ,mr4 ,josiah ,parkes to lay out and superintend his work1 and thus effected a saving1 7after paying all professional charges17 of fully twelve per cent4 on the cost of the draining1 which was1 at the same time1 better executed than any that he had previously done4 ,it is probable that1 in nearly all amateur draining1 the unnecessary frequency of the lateral drains2 the extravagant size of the pipes used2 and the number of useless angles which result from an unskillful arrangement1 would amount to an expense equal to ten times the cost of the proper superintendence1 to say nothing of the imperfect manner in which the work is executed4 ,a common impression seems to prevail1 that if a #b-;inch pipe is good1 a #c-;inch pipe must be better1 and that1 generally1 if draining is worth doing at all1 it is worth overdoing2 while the great importance of having perfectly fitting connections is not readily perceived4 ,the general result is1 that most of the tile-draining in this country has been too expensive for economy1 and too careless for lasting efficiency4 ,it is proposed to give1 in this chapter1 as complete a description of the preliminary engineering of draining as can be concentrated within a few pages1 and a hope is entertained1 that it will1 at least1 convey an idea of the importance of giving a full measure of thought and ingenuity to the maturing of the plan1 before the execution of the work is commenced4 ,farming upon paper has never been held in high repute1 but draining upon paper is less a subject for objection4 ,with a good map of the farm1 showing the comparative levels of outlet1 hill1 dale1 and plain1 and the sizes and boundaries of the different in closures1 a profitable winter may be passed1--with pencil and rubber1--in deciding on a plan which will do the required work with the least possible length of drain1 and which will require the least possible extra deep cutting2 and in so arranging the main drains as to require the smallest possible amount of the larger and more costly pipes2 or1 if only a part of the farm is to be drained during the coming season1 in so arranging the work that it will dovetail nicely with future operations4 ,a mistake in actual work is costly1 and1 7being buried under the ground17 is not easily detected1 while errors in drawing upon paper are always obvious1 and are remedied without cost4 ,for the purpose of illustrating the various processes connected with the laying out of a system of drainage1 the mode of operating on a field of ten acres will be detailed1 in connection with a series of diagrams showing the progress of the work4 99,a ,map of the ,land99 is first made1 from a careful survey4 ,this should be plotted to a scale of #ej or #ajj feet to the inch17#c7 and should exhibit the location of obstacles which may interfere with the regularity of the drains1--such as large trees1 rocks1 etc41 and the existing swamps1 water courses1 springs1 and open drains4 7,fig4 #d47 ,the next step is to locate the contour lines of the land1 or the lines of equal elevation1--also called the horizontal lines1--which serve to show the shape of the surface4 ,to do this1 stake off the field into squares of #ej feet1 by first running a base line through the center of the greatest length of the field1 marking it with stakes at intervals of #ej feet1 then stake other lines1 also at intervals of #ej feet1 perpendicular to the base line1 and then note the position of the stakes on the maps2 next1 by the aid of an engineer's level and staff1 ascertain the height1 7above an imaginary plain below the lowest part of the field17 of the surface of the ground at each stake1 and note this elevation at its proper point on the map4 ,this gives a plot like ,fig4 #e4 ,the best instrument with which to take these levels1 is the ordinary telescope-level used by railroad engineers1 shown in ,fig4 #f1 which has a telescope with cross hairs intersecting each other in the center of the line of sight1 and a bubble placed exactly parallel to this line4 ,the instrument1 fixed on a tripod1 and so adjusted that it will turn to any point of the compass without disturbing the position of the bubble1 will1 7as will its line of sight17 revolve in a perfectly horizontal plane4 ,it is so placed as to command a view of a considerable stretch of the field1 and its height above the imaginary plane is measured1 an attendant places next to one of the stakes a levelling rod1 7,fig4 #g17 which is divided into feet and fractions of a foot1 and is furnished with a movable target1 so painted that its center point may be plainly seen4 ,the attendant raises and lowers the target1 until it comes exactly in the line of sight2 its height on the rod denotes the height of the instrument above the level of the ground at that stake1 and1 as the height of the instrument above the imaginary plane has been reached1 by subtracting one elevation from the other1 the operator determines the height of the ground at that stake above the imaginary plane1--which is called the datum line4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d - ,,map ,,of ,,land1 ,,with ,,swamps1 ,,rocks1 ,,springs ,,and ,,trees4 ,,intended ,,to ,,represent ,a ,,field ,,of ,,ten ,,acres ,,before ,,draining4 ,fig4 #d - ,,map ,,of ,,land1 ,,with ,,swamps1 ,,rocks1 ,,springs ,,and ,,trees4 ,,intended ,,to ,,represent ,a ,,field ,,of ,,ten ,,acres ,,before ,,draining4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e - ,,map ,,with #ej-;,,foot ,,squares1 ,,and ,,contour ,,lines4 ,fig4 #e - ,,map ,,with #ej-;,,foot ,,squares1 ,,and ,,contour ,,lines4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e - ,,map ,,with #ej-;,,foot ,,squares1 ,,and ,,contour ,,lines4 ,fig4 #f - ,,levelling ,,instrument47#d7 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g - ,,levelling ,,rod4 ,fig4 #g - ,,levelling ,,rod4 ,the next operation is to trace1 on the plan1 lines following the same level1 wherever the land is of the proper height for its surface to meet them4 ,for the purpose of illustrating this operation1 lines at intervals of elevation of one foot are traced on the plan in ,fig4 #h4 ,and these lines show1 with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes1 the elevation and rate of inclination of all parts of the field1--where it is level or nearly so1 where its rise is rapid1 and where slight4 ,as the land rises one foot from the position of one line to the position of the line next above it1 where the distance from one line to the next is great1 the land is more nearly level1 and when it is short the inclination is steeper4 ,for instance1 in the southwest corner of the plan1 the land is nearly level to the #b-;foot line2 it rises slowly to the center of the field1 and to the eastern side about one-fourth of the distance from the southern boundary1 while an elevation coming down between these two valleys1 and others skirting the west side of the former one and the southern side of the latter1 are indicated by the greater nearness of the lines4 ,the points at which the contour lines cross the section lines are found in the following manner3 ,on the second line from the west side of the field we find the elevations of the #dth1 #eth and #fth stakes from the southern boundary to be #a4i1 #c4c1 and #e4a4 ,the contour lines1 representing points of elevation of #b1 #c1 #d1 and #e feet above the datum line1 will cross the #ej-;foot lines at their intersections1 only where these intersections are marked in even feet4 ,when they are marked with fractions of a foot1 the lines must be made to cross at points between two intersections1--nearer to one or the other1 according to their elevations1--thus between #a4i and #c4c1 the #b-;foot and #c-;foot contour lines must cross4 ,the total difference of elevation1 between the two points is #c4c--a4ia4d2 #aj_/ad of the space must be given to the even foot between the lines1 and the #b-;foot line should be #a_/ad of the space above the point #a4i2--the #c-;foot line will then come #c_/ad below the point #c4c4 ,in the same manner1 the line from #c4c to #e4a is divided into #ah parts1 of which #aj go to the space between the #d4 and #e4 lines1 #g are between #c4c and the #d-;foot line1 and #a between the #e-;foot line and #e4a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h - ,,map ,,with ,,contour ,,lines4 ,fig4 #h - ,,map ,,with ,,contour ,,lines4 ,with these maps1 made from observations taken in the field1 we are prepared to lay down1 on paper1 our system of drainage1 and to mature a plan which shall do the necessary work with the least expenditure of labor and material4 ,the more thoroughly this plan is considered1 the more economical and effective will be the work4 ,having already obtained the needed information1 and having it all before us1 we can determine exactly the location and size of each drain1 and arrange1 before hand1 for a rapid and satisfactory execution of the work4 ,the only thing that may interfere with the perfect application of the plan1 is the presence of masses of underground rock1 within the depth to which the drains are to be laid47#e7 ,where these are supposed to exist1 soundings should be made1 by driving a #c_/d-;inch pointed iron rod to the rock1 or to a depth of five feet where the rock falls away4 ,by this means1 measuring the distance from the soundings to the ranges of the stakes1 we can denote on the map the shape and depth of sunken rocks4 ,the shaded spot on the east side of the map1 7,fig4 #h17 indicates a rock three feet from the surface1 which will be assumed to have been explored by sounding4 ,in most cases1 it will be sufficient to have contour lines taken only at intervals of two feet1 and1 owing to the smallness of the scale on which these maps are engraved1 and to avoid complication in the finished plan1 where so much else must be shown1 each alternate line is omitted4 ,of course1 where drains are at once staked out on the land1 by a practiced engineer1 no contour lines are taken1 as by the aid of the level and rod for the flatter portions1 and by the eye alone for the steeper slopes1 he will be able at once to strike the proper locations and directions2 but for one of less experience1 who desires to thoroughly mature his plan before commencing1 they are indispensable2 and their introduction here will enable the novice to understand1 more clearly than would otherwise be possible1 the principles on which the plan should be made4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i - ,,well',s ,,clinometer4 ,fig4 #i - ,,well',s ,,clinometer4 ,for preliminary examinations1 and for all purposes in which great accuracy is not required1 the little instrument shown in ,fig4 #i1--,wells' ,clinometer1--is exceedingly simple and convenient4 ,its essential parts are a flat side1 or base1 on which it stands1 and a hollow disk just half filled with some heavy liquid4 ,the glass face of the disk is surrounded by a graduated scale that marks the angle at which the surface of the liquid stands1 with reference to the flat base4 ,the line #j4----j4 being parallel to the base1 when the liquid stands on that line1 the flat side is horizontal2 the line #ij4----ij4 being perpendicular to the base1 when the liquid stands on that line1 the flat side is perpendicular or plumb4 ,in like manner1 the intervening angles are marked1 and1 by the aid of the following tables1 the instrument indicates the rate of fall per hundred feet of horizontal measurement1 and per hundred feet measured upon the sloping line47#f7 ,table ,no4 #a shows the rise of the slope for #ajj feet of the horizontal measurement4 ,example3 ,if the horizontal distance is #ajj feet1 and the slope is at an angle of #ae1 the rise will be #ag-fcc_/ajjj feet4 ,table ,no4 #b shows the rise of the slope for #ajj feet of its own length4 ,if the sloping line1 7at an angle of #ae17 is #ajj feet long1 it rises #be4hhb feet4 ,,table ,no4 #a4 ,,deg4 ,,feet4 #e #h4gdi #aj #ag4ffc #ae #bf4gie #bj #cf4cig #be #df4fca #cj #eg4gce #ce #gj4jba #dj #hc4iaj #de #ajj4-- #ej #aai4age #ee #adb4hae #fj #agc4bje #fe #bad4dea #gj #bgd4gdh #ge #cgc4bje #hj #efg4abh #he #aadc4ja ,,table ,no4 #b ,,deg4 ,,feet4 #e #h4gaf #aj #ag4cfe #ae #be4hhb #bj #cd4bjb #be #db4bfb #cj #ej4-- #ce #eg4ceh #dj #fd4bgi #de #gj4gaa #ej #gf4fjd #ee #ha4iae #fj #hf4fjb #fe #ij4fca #gj #ic4ifi #ge #if4eic #hj #ih4dha #he #ii4fai ,with the maps before him1 showing the surface features of the field1 and the position of the under-ground rock1 the drainer will have to consider the following points3 #a4 ,where1 and at what depth1 shall the outlet be placed8 #b4 ,what shall be the location1 the length and the depth of the main drain8 #c4 ,what subsidiary mains1--or collecting drains1--shall connect the minor valleys with the main8 #d4 ,what may best be done to collect the water of large springs and carry it away8 #e4 ,what provision is necessary to collect the water that flows over the surface of out-cropping rock1 or along springy lines on side hills or under banks8 #f4 ,what should be the depth1 the distance apart1 the direction1 and the rate of fall1 of the lateral drains8 #g4 ,what kind and sizes of tile should be used to form the conduits8 #h4 ,what provision should be made to prevent the obstruction of the drains1 by an accumulation of silt or sand1 which may enter the tiles immediately after they are laid1 and before the earth becomes compacted about them2 and from the entrance of vermin8 #a4 ,the outlet should be at the lowest point of the boundary1 unless1 7for some especial reason which does not exist in the case under consideration1 nor in any usual case17 it is necessary to seek some other than the natural outfall2 and it should be deep enough to take the water of the main drain1 and laid on a sufficient inclination for a free flow of the water4 ,it should1 where sufficient fall can be obtained without too great cost1 deliver this water over a step of at least a few inches in height1 so that the action of the drain may be seen1 and so that it may not be liable to be clogged by the accumulation of silt1 7or mud17 in the open ditch into which it flows4 #b4 ,the main drain should1 usually1 be run as nearly in the lowest part of the principal valley as is consistent with tolerable straightness4 ,it is better to cut across the point of a hill1 to the extent of increasing the depth for a few rods1 than to go a long distance out of the direct course to keep in the valley1 both because of the cost of the large tile used in the main1 and of the loss of fall occasioned by the lengthening of the line4 ,the main should be continued from the outlet to the point at which it is most convenient to collect the more remote sub-mains1 which bring together the water of several sets of laterals4 ,as is the case in the tract under consideration1 the depth of the main is often restricted1 in nearly level land1 toward the upper end of the flat which lies next to the outlet1 by the necessity for a fall and the difficulty which often exists in securing a sufficiently low outlet4 ,in such case1 the only rule is to make it as deep as possible4 ,when the fall is sufficient1 it should be placed at such depth as will allow the laterals and sub-mains which discharge into it to enter at its top1 and discharge above the level of the water which flows through it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj - ,,stone ,,pit ,,to ,,connect ,,spring ,,with ,,drain4 ,fig4 #aj - ,,stone ,,pit ,,to ,,connect ,,spring ,,with ,,drain4 #c4 ,subsidiary mains1 or sub-mains1 connecting with the main drains1 should be run up the minor valleys of the land1 skirting the bases of the hills4 ,where the valley is a flat one1 with rising ground at each side1 there should be a sub-main1 to receive the laterals from each hill side4 ,as a general rule1 it may be stated1 that the collecting drain at the foot of a slope should be placed on the line which is first reached by the water flowing directly down over its surface1 before it commences its lateral movement down the valley2 and it should1 if possible1 be so arranged that it shall have a uniform descent for its whole distance4 ,the proper arrangement of these collecting drains requires more skill and experience than any other branch of the work1 for on their disposition depends1 in a great measure1 the economy and success of the undertaking4 #d4 ,where springs exist1 there should be some provision made for collecting their water in pits filled with loose stone1 gravel1 brush or other rubbish1 or furnished with several lengths of tile set on end1 one above the other1 or with a barrel or other vessel2 and a line of tile of proper size should be run directly to a main1 or sub-main drain4 ,the manner of doing this by means of a pit filled with stone is shown in ,fig4 #aj4 ,the collection of spring water in a vertical tile basin is shown in ,fig4 #aa4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa - ,,stone ,,and ,,tile ,,basin ,,for ,,spring ,,with ,,drain4 ,fig4 #aa - ,,stone ,,and ,,tile ,,basin ,,for ,,spring ,,with ,,drain4 #e4 ,where a ledge of shelving rock1 of considerable size1 occurs on land to be drained1 it is best to make some provision for collecting1 at its base1 the water flowing over its surface1 and taking it at once into the drains1 so that it may not make the land near it unduly wet4 ,to effect this1 a ditch should be dug along the base of the rock1 and quite down to it1 considerably deeper than the level of the proposed drainage2 and this should be filled with small stones to that level1 with a line of tile laid on top of the stones1 a uniform bottom for the tile to rest upon being formed of cheap strips of board4 ,the tile and stone should then be covered with inverted sods1 with wood shavings1 or with other suitable material1 which will prevent the entrance of earth1 7from the covering of the drain17 to choke them4 ,the water1 following down the surface of the rock1 will rise through the stone work and1 entering the tile1 will flow off4 ,this method may be used for springy hill sides4 #f4 ,the points previously considered relate only to the collection of unusual quantities of water1 7from springs and from rock surfaces17 and to the removal from the land of what is thus collected1 and of that which flows from the minor or lateral drains4 ,the lateral drains themselves constitute the real drainage of the field1 for1 although main lines take water from the land on each side1 their action in this regard is not usually considered1 in determining either their depth or their location1 and they play an exceedingly small part in the more simple form of drainage1--that in which a large tract of land1 of perfectly uniform slope1 is drained by parallel lines of equal length1 all discharging into a single main1 running across the foot of the field4 ,the land would be equally well drained1 if the parallel lines were continued to an open ditch beyond its boundary1--the main tile drain is only adopted for greater convenience and security4 ,it will simplify the question if1 in treating the theory of lateral drains1 it be assumed that our field is of this uniform inclination1 and admits of the use of long lines of parallel drains4 ,in fact1 it is best in practice to approximate as nearly as possible to this arrangement1 because deviations from it1 though always necessary in broken land1 are always more expensive1 and present more complicated engineering problems4 ,if all the land to be drained had a uniform fall1 in a single direction1 there would be but little need of engineering skill1 beyond that which is required to establish the depth1 fall1 and distance apart1 at which the drains should be laid4 ,it is chiefly when the land pitches in different directions1 and with varying inclination1 that only a person skilled in the arrangement of drains1 or one who will give much consideration to the subject1 can effect the greatest economy by avoiding unnecessary complication1 and secure the greatest efficiency by adjusting the drains to the requirements of the land4 ,assuming the land to have an unbroken inclination1 so as to require only parallel drains1 it becomes important to know how these parallel drains1 7corresponding to the lateral drains of an irregular system17 should be made4 ,the history of land draining is a history of the gradual progress of an improvement1 from the accomplishment of a single purpose1 to the accomplishment of several purposes1 and most of the instruction which modern agricultural writers have given concerning it1 has shown too great dependence upon the teachings of their predecessors1 who considered well the single object which they sought to attain1 but who had no conception that draining was to be so generally valuable as it has become4 ,the effort1 7probably an unconscious one17 to make the theories of modern thorough-draining conform to those advanced by the early practitioners1 seems to have diverted attention from some more recently developed principles1 which are of much importance4 ,for example1 about a hundred years ago1 ,joseph ,elkington1 of ,warwickshire1 discovered that1 where land is made too wet by under-ground springs1 a skillful tapping of these1--drawing off their water through suitable conduits1--would greatly relieve the land1 and for many years the ,elkington ,system of drainage1 being a great improvement on every thing theretofore practiced1 naturally occupied the attention of the agricultural world1 and the ,board of ,agriculture appointed a ,mr4 ,johnstone to study the process1 and write a treatise on the subject4 ,catch-water drains1 made so as to intercept a flow of surface water1 have been in use from immemorial time1 and are described by the earliest writers4 ,before the advent of the ,draining ,tile1 covered drains were furnished with stones1 boards1 brush1 weeds1 and various other rubbish1 and their good effect1 very properly1 claimed the attention of all improvers of wet land4 ,when the tile first made its appearance in general practice1 it was of what is called the horse-shoe form1 and1--imperfect though it was1--it was better than anything that had preceded it1 and was received with high approval1 wherever it became known4 ,the general use of all these materials for making drains was confined to a system of partial drainage1 until the publication of a pamphlet1 in #ahcc1 by ,mr4 ,smith1 of ,deanston1 who advocated the drainage of the whole field1 without reference to springs4 ,from this plan1 but with important modifications in matters of detail1 the modern system of tile draining has grown4 ,many able men have aided its progress1 and have helped to disseminate a knowledge of its processes and its effects1 yet there are few books on draining1 even the most modern ones1 which do not devote much attention to ,elkington's discovery2 to the various sorts of stone and brush drains2 and to the manufacture and use of horse-shoe tile2--not treating them as matters of antiquarian interest1 but repeating the instructions for their application1 and allowing the reasoning on which their early use was based1 to influence1 often to a damaging extent1 their general consideration of the modern practice of tile draining4 ,these processes are all of occasional use1 even at this day1 but they are based on no fixed rules1 and are so much a matter of traditional knowledge1 with all farmers1 that instruction concerning them is not needed4 ,the kind of draining which is now under consideration1 has for its object the complete removal of all of the surplus water that reaches the soil1 from whatever source1 and the assimilation of all wet soils to a somewhat uniform condition1 as to the ease with which water passes through them4 ,there are instances1 as has been shown1 where a large spring1 overflowing a considerable area1 or supplying the water of an annoying brook1 ought to be directly connected with the under-ground drainage1 and its flow neatly carried away2 and1 in other cases1 the surface flow over large masses of rock should be given easy entrance into the tile2 but1 in all ordinary lands1 whether swamps1 springy hill sides1 heavy clays1 or light soils lying on retentive subsoil1 all ground1 in fact1 which needs under-draining at all1 should be laid dry above the level to which it is deemed best to place the drains2--not only secured against the wetting of springs and soakage water1 but rapidly relieved of the water of heavy rains4 ,the water table1 in short1 should be lowered to the proper depth1 and1 by permanent outlets at that depth1 be prevented from ever rising1 for any considerable time1 to a higher level4 ,this being accomplished1 it is of no consequence to know whence the water comes1 and ,elkington's system need have no place in our calculations4 ,as round pipes1 with collars1 are far superior to the horse-shoe tiles1 and are equally easy to obtain1 it is not necessary to consider the manner in which these latter should be used1--only to say that they ought not to be used at all4 ,the water which falls upon the surface is at once absorbed1 settles through the ground1 until it reaches a point where the soil is completely saturated1 and raises the general water level4 ,when this level reaches the floor of the drains1 the water enters at the joints and is carried off4 ,that which passes down through the land lying between the drains1 bears down upon that which has already accumulated in the soil1 and forces it to seek an outlet by rising into the drains47#g7 ,for example1 if a barrel1 standing on end1 be filled with earth which is saturated with water1 and its bung be removed1 the water of saturation1 7that is1 all which is not held by attraction in the particles of earth17 will be removed from so much of the mass as lies above the bottom of the bung-hole4 ,if a bucket of water be now poured upon the top1 it will not all run diagonally toward the opening2 it will trickle down to the level of the water remaining in the barrel1 and this level will rise and water will run off at the bottom of the orifice4 ,in this manner1 the water1 even below the drainage level1 is changed with each addition at the surface4 ,in a barrel filled with coarse pebbles1 the water of saturation would maintain a nearly level surface2 if the material were more compact and retentive1 a true level would be attained only after a considerable time4 ,toward the end of the flow1 the water would stand highest at the points furthest distant from the outlet4 ,so1 in the land1 after a drenching rain1 the water is first removed to the full depth1 near the line of the drain1 and that midway between two drains settles much more slowly1 meeting more resistance from below1 and1 for a long time1 will remain some inches higher than the floor of the drain4 ,the usual condition of the soil1 7except in very dry weather17 would be somewhat as represented in the accompanying cut1 7,fig4 #ab47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab - ,,line ,,of ,,saturation ,,between ,,drains4 ,fig4 #ab - ,,line ,,of ,,saturation ,,between ,,drains4 ,,yy are the draings4 ,the curved line b is the line of saturation1 which has descended from a1 and is approaching c4 ,to provide for this deviation of the line of saturation1 in practice1 drains are placed deeper than would be necessary if the water sunk at once to the level of the drain floor1 the depth of the drains being increased with the increasing distance between them4 ,theoretically1 every drop of water which falls on a field should sink straight down to the level of the drains1 and force a drop of water below that level to rise into the drain and flow off4 ,how exactly this is true in nature cannot be known1 and is not material4 ,drains made in pursuance of this theory will be effective for any actual condition4 ,the depth to which the water table should be withdrawn depends1 not at all on the character of the soil1 but on the requirements of the crops which are to be grown upon it1 and these requirements are the same in all soils1--consequently the depth should be the same in all4 ,what1 then1 shall that depth be8 ,the usual practice of the most experienced drainers seems to have fixed four feet as about the proper depth1 and the arguments against anything less than this1 as well as some reasons for supposing that to be sufficient1 are so clearly stated by ,mr4 ,gisborne that it has been deemed best to quote his own words on the subject3 ,take a flower-pot a foot deep1 filled with dry soil4 ,place it in a saucer containing three inches of water4 ,the first effect will be1 that the water will rise through the hole in the bottom of the pot till the water which fills the interstices between the soil is on a level with the water in the saucer4 ,this effect is by gravity4 ,the upper surface of this water is our water-table4 ,from it water will ascend by attraction through the whole body of soil till moisture is apparent at the surface4 ,put in your soil at #fj1 a reasonable summer heat for nine inches in depth1 your water at #dg1 the seven inches' temperature of ,mr4 ,parke's undrained bog2 the attracted water will ascend at #dg1 and will diligently occupy itself in attempting to reduce the #fj soil to its own temperature4 ,moreover1 no sooner will the soil hold water of attraction1 than evaporation will begin to carry it off1 and will produce the cold consequent thereon4 ,this evaporated water will be replaced by water of attraction at #dg1 and this double cooling process will go on till all the water in the water-table is exhausted4 ,supply water to the saucer as fast as it disappears1 and then the process will be perpetual4 ,the system of saucer-watering is reprobated by every intelligent gardener2 it is found by experience to chill vegetation2 besides which1 scarcely any cultivated plant can dip its roots into stagnant water with impunity4 ,exactly the process which we have described in the flower-pot is constantly in operation on an undrained retentive soil2 the water-table may not be within nine inches of the surface1 but in very many instances it is within a foot or eighteen inches1 at which level the cold surplus oozes into some ditch or other superficial outlet4 ,at eighteen inches1 attraction will1 on the average of soils1 act with considerable power4 ,here1 then1 you have two obnoxious principles at work1 both producing cold1 and the one administering to the other4 ,the obvious remedy is1 to destroy their united action2 to break through their line of communication4 ,remove your water of attraction to such a depth that evaporation cannot act upon it1 or but feebly4 ,what is that depth8 ,in ascertaining this point we are not altogether without data4 ,no doubt depth diminishes the power of evaporation rapidly4 ,still1 as water taken from a #cj-;inch drain is almost invariably two or three degrees colder than water taken from four feet1 and as this latter is generally one or two degrees colder than water from a contiguous well several feet below1 we can hardly avoid drawing the conclusion that the cold of evaporation has considerable influence at #cj inches1 a much-diminished influence at four feet1 and little or none below that depth4 ,if the water-table is removed to the depth of four feet1 when we have allowed #ah inches of attraction1 we shall still have #cj inches of defence against evaporation2 and we are inclined to believe that any prejudicial combined action of attraction and evaporation is thereby well guarded against4 ,the facts stated seem to prove that less will not suffice4 ,so much on the score of temperature2 but this is not all4 ,do the roots of esculents wish to penetrate into the earth--at least1 to the depth of some feet8 ,we believe that they do4 ,we are sure of the brassica tribe1 of grass1 and clover4 ,all our experience and observation deny the doctrine that roots only ramble when they are stinted of food2 that six inches well manured is quite enough1 better than more4 ,ask the ,jerseyman2 he will show you a parsnip as thick as your thigh1 and as long as your leg1 and will tell you of the advantages of #ad feet of dry soil4 ,you will hear of parsnips whose roots descend to unsearchable depths4 ,we will not appeal to the ,kentucky carrot1 which was drawn out by its roots at the antipodes2 but ,mr4 ,mechi's1 if we remember right1 was a dozen feet or more4 ,three years ago1 in a midland county1 a field of good land1 in good cultivation1 and richly manured1 produced a heavy crop of cabbages4 ,in ,november of that year we saw that field broken into in several places1 and at the depth of four feet the soil 7a tenacious marl1 fully stiff enough for brick-earth7 was occupied by the roots of cabbage1 not sparingly--not mere capill--but fibres of the size of small pack-thread4 ,a farmer manures a field of four or five inches of free soil reposing on a retentive clay1 and sows it with wheat4 ,it comes up1 and between the kernel and the manure1 it looks well for a time1 but anon it sickens4 ,an ,irish child looks well for five or six years1 but after that time potato-feeding1 and filth1 and hardship1 begin to tell4 ,you ask what is amiss with the wheat1 and you are told that when its roots reach the clay1 they are poisoned4 ,this field is then thorough-drained1 deep1 at least four feet4 ,it receives again from the cultivator the previous treatment2 the wheat comes up well1 maintains throughout a healthy aspect1 and gives a good return4 ,what has become of the poison8 ,we have been told that the rain water filtered through the soil has taken it into solution or suspension1 and has carried it off through the drains2 and men who assume to be of authority put forward this as one of the advantages of draining4 ,if we believed it1 we could not advocate draining4 ,we really should not have the face to tell our readers that water1 passing through soils containing elements prejudicial to vegetation1 would carry them off1 but would leave those which are beneficial behind4 ,we cannot make our water so discriminating2 the general merit of water of deep drainage is1 that it contains very little4 ,its perfection would be that it should contain nothing4 ,we understand that experiments are in progress which have ascertained that water1 charged with matters which are known to stimulate vegetation1 when filtered through four feet of retentive soil1 comes out pure4 ,but to return to our wheat4 ,in the first case1 it shrinks before the cold of evaporation and the cold of water of attraction1 and it sickens because its feet are never dry2 it suffers the usual maladies of cold and wet4 ,in the second case1 the excess of cold by evaporation is withdrawn2 the cold water of attraction is removed out of its way2 the warm air from the surface1 rushing in to supply the place of the water which the drains remove1 and the warm summer rains1 bearing down with them the temperature which they have acquired from the upper soil1 carry a genial heat to its lowest roots4 ,health1 vigorous growth1 and early maturity are the natural consequences4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,the practice so derided and maligned referring to deep draining has advanced with wonderful strides4 ,we remember the days of #ae inches2 then a step to #bj2 a stride to #cj2 and the last 7and probably final7 jump to #ej1 a few inches under or over4 ,we have dabbled in them all1 generally belonging to the deep section of the day4 ,we have used the words 'probably final1' because the first advances were experimental1 and1 though they were justified by the results obtained1 no one attempted to explain the principle on which benefit was derived from them4 ,the principles on which the now prevailing depth is founded1 and which we believe to be true1 go far to show that we have attained all the advantages which can be derived from the removal of water in ordinary agriculture4 ,we do not mean that1 even in the most retentive soil1 water would not get into drains which were laid somewhat deeper2 but to this there must be a not very distant limit1 because pure clay1 lying below the depth at which wet and drought applied at surface would expand and contract it1 would certainly part with its water very slowly4 ,we find that1 in coal mines and in deep quarries1 a stratum of clay of only a few inches thick interposed between two strata of pervious stone will form an effectual bar to the passage of water2 whereas1 if it lay within a few feet of the surface1 it would1 in a season of heat and drought become as pervious as a cullender4 ,but when we have got rid of the cold arising from the evaporation of free water1 have given a range of several feet to the roots of grass and cereals1 and have enabled retentive land to filter through itself all the rain which falls upon its surface1 we are not1 in our present state of knowledge1 aware of any advantage which would arise from further lowering the surface of water in agricultural land4 ,smith1 of ,deanston1 first called prominent attention to the fertilizing effects of rain filtered through land1 and to evils produced by allowing it to flow off the surface4 ,any one will see how much more effectually this benefit will be attained1 and this evil avoided1 by a #d-;foot than a #b-;foot drainage4 ,the latter can only prepare two feet of soil for the reception and retention of rain1 which two feet1 being saturated1 will reject more1 and the surplus must run off the surface1 carrying whatever it can find with it4 ,a #d-;foot drainage will be constantly tending to have four feet of soil ready for the reception of rain1 and it will take much more rain to saturate four feet than two4 ,moreover1 as a gimlet-hole bored four feet from the surface of a barrel filled with water will discharge much more in a given time than a similar hole bored at the depth of two feet1 so will a #d-;foot drain discharge in a given time much more water than a drain of two feet4 ,one is acted on by a #d-;foot1 and the other by a #b-;foot pressure4 ,if any single fact connected with tile-drainage is established1 beyond all possible doubt1 it is that in the stiffest clay soils ever cultivated1 drains four feet deep will act effectually2 the water will find its way to them1 more and more freely and completely1 as the drying of successive years1 and the penetration and decay of the roots of successive crops1 modify the character of the land1 and they will eventually be practically so porous that1--so far as the ease of drainage is concerned1--no distinction need1 in practice1 be made between them and the less retentive loams4 ,for a few years1 the line of saturation between the drains1 as shown in ,fig4 #aa1 may stand at all seasons considerably above the level of the bottom of the tile1 but it will recede year by year1 until it will be practically level1 except immediately after rains4 ,mr4 ,josiah ,parkes recommends drains to be laid ,at a minimum depth of four feet1 designed with the two-fold object of not only freeing the active soil from stagnant and injurious water1 but of converting the water falling on the surface into an agent for fertilizing2 no drainage being deemed efficient that did not both remove the water falling on the surface1 and 'keep down the subterranean water at a depth exceeding the power of capillary attraction to elevate it near the surface4' ,alderman ,mechi says3 ,ask nineteen farmers out of twenty1 who hold strong clay land1 and they will tell you it is of no use placing deep four-foot drains in such soils--the water cannot get in2 a horse's foot-hole 7without an opening under it7 will hold water like a basin2 and so on4 ,well1 five minutes after1 you tell the same farmers you propose digging a cellar1 well bricked1 six or eight feet deep2 what is their remark8 ',oh6 it's of no use your making an underground cellar in our soil1 you can't keep the water ,,out6' ,was there ever such an illustration of prejudice as this8 ,what is a drain pipe but a small cellar full of air8 ,then1 again1 common sense tells us1 you can't keep a light fluid under a heavy one4 ,you might as well try to keep a cork under water1 as to try and keep air under water4 ',oh6 but then our soil isn't porous4' ,if not1 how can it hold water so readily8 ,i am led to these observations by the strong controversy ,i am having with some ,essex folks1 who protest that ,i am mad1 or foolish1 for placing #a-;inch pipes1 at four-foot depth1 in strong clays4 ,it is in vain ,i refer to the numerous proofs of my soundness1 brought forward by ,mr4 ,parkes1 engineer to the ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 and confirmed by ,mr4 ,pusey4 ,they still dispute it4 ,it is in vain ,i tell them ,i cannot keep the rainwater out of socketed pipes1 twelve feet deep1 that convey a spring to my farm yard4 ,let us try and convince this large class of doubters2 for it is of national importance4 ,four feet of good porous clay would afford a far better meal to some strong bean1 or other tap roots1 than the usual six inches2 and a saving of #d to #e per acre1 in drainage1 is no trifle4 ,the shallow1 or non-drainers1 assume that tenacious subsoils are impervious or non-absorbent4 ,this is entirely an erroneous assumption4 ,if soils were impervious1 how could they get wet8 ,i assert1 and pledge my agricultural reputation for the fact1 that there are no earths or clays in this kingdom1 be they ever so tenacious1 that will not readily receive1 filter1 and transmit rain water to drains placed five or more feet deep4 ,a neighbor of mine drained twenty inches deep in strong clay2 the ground cracked widely2 the contraction destroyed the tiles1 and the rains washed the surface soils into the cracks and choked the drains4 ,he has since abandoned shallow draining4 ,when ,i first began draining1 ,i allowed myself to be overruled by my obstinate man1 ,pearson1 who insisted that1 for top water1 two feet was a sufficient depth in a veiny soil4 ,i allowed him to try the experiment on two small fields2 the result was1 that nothing prospered2 and ,i am redraining those fields at one-half the cost1 five and six feet deep1 at intervals of #gj and #hj feet4 ,i found iron-sand rocks1 strong clay1 silt1 iron1 etc41 and an enormous quantity of water1 all below the #b-;foot drains4 ,this accounted at once for the sudden check the crops always met with in ,may1 when they wanted to send their roots down1 but could not1 without going into stagnant water4 ,there can be no doubt that it is the depth of the drain which regulates the escape of the surface water in a given time2 regard being had1 as respects extreme distances1 to the nature of the soil1 and a due capacity of the pipe4 ,the deeper the drain1 even in the strongest soils1 the quicker the water escapes4 ,this is an astounding but certain fact4 ,that deep and distant drains1 where a sufficient fall can be obtained1 are by far the most profitable1 by affording to the roots of the plants a greater range for food4 ,of course1 where the soil is underlaid by rock1 less than four feet from the surface2 and where an outlet at that depth cannot be obtained1 we must1 per force1 drain less deeply1 but where there exists no such obstacle1 drains should be laid at a general depth of four-feet1--general1 not uniform1 because the drain should have a uniform inclination1 which the surface of the land rarely has4 99,the ,distance between the ,drains499--,concerning this1 there is less unanimity of opinion among engineers1 than prevails with regard to the question of depth4 ,in tolerably porous soils1 it is generally conceded that #dj or even #ej feet is sufficiently near for #d-;foot drains1 but1 for the more retentive clays1 all distances from #ah feet to #ej feet are recommended1 though those who belong to the more narrow school are1 as a rule1 extending the limit1 as they see1 in practice1 the complete manner in which drains at wider intervals perform their work4 ,a careful consideration of the experience of the past twenty years1 and of the arguments of writers on drainage1 leads to the belief that there are few soils1 which need draining at all1 on which it will be safe to place #d-;foot drains at much wider intervals than #dj feet4 ,in the lighter loams there are many instances of the successful application of ,professor ,mapes' rule1 that #c-;foot drains should be placed #bj feet apart1 and for each additional foot in depth the distance may be doubled2 for instance1 #d-;foot drains should be #dj feet apart1 and #e-;foot drains #hj feet apart4 ,but1 with reference to the greater distance1 7#hj feet17 it is not to be recommended in stiff clays1 for any depth of drain4 ,where it is necessary1 by reason of insufficient fall1 or of underground rock1 to go only three feet deep1 the drains should be as near together as #bj feet4 ,at first thought1 it may seem akin to quackery to recommend a uniform depth and distance1 without reference to the character of the land to be drained2 and it is unquestionably true that an exact adaptation of the work to the varying requirements of different soils would be beneficial1 though no system can be adopted which will make clay drain as freely as sand4 ,the fact is1 that the adjustment of the distances between drains is very far from partaking of the nature of an exact science1 and there is really very little known1 by any one1 of the principles on which it should be based1 or of the manner in which the bearing of those principles1 in any particular case1 is affected by several circumstances which vary with each change of soil1 inclination and exposure4 ,in the essays on drainage which have been thus far published1 there is a vagueness in the arguments on this branch of the subject1 which betrays a want of definite conviction in the minds of the writers2 and which tends quite as much to muddle as to enlighten the ideas of the reader4 ,in so far as the directions are given1 whether fortified by argument or not1 they are clearly empirical1 and are usually very much qualified by considerations which weigh with unequal force in different cases4 ,in laying out work1 any skillful drainer will be guided1 in deciding the distance between the lines1 by a judgment which has grown out of his former experience2 and which will enable him to adapt the work1 measurably1 to the requirements of the particular soil under consideration2 but he would probably find it impossible to so state the reasons for his decision1 that they would be of any general value to others4 ,probably it will be a long time before rules on this subject1 based on well sustained theory1 can be laid down with distinctness1 and1 in the mean time1 we must be guided by the results of practice1 and must confine ourselves to a distance which repeated trial1 in various soils1 has proven to be safe for all agricultural land4 ,in the drainage of the ,central ,park1 after a mature consideration of all that had been published on the subject1 and of a considerable previous observation and experience1 it was decided to adopt a general depth of four feet1 and to adhere as closely as possible to a uniform distance of forty feet4 ,no instance was known of a failure to produce good results by draining at that distance1 and several cases were recalled where drains at fifty and sixty feet had proved so inefficient that intermediate lines became necessary4 ,after from seven to ten years' trial1 the ,central ,park drainage1 by its results1 has shown that1--although some of the land is of a very retentive character1--this distance is not too great2 and it is adopted here for recommendation to all who have no especial reason for supposing that greater distances will be fully effective in their more porous soils4 ,as has been before stated1 drains at that distance1 7or at any distance17 will not remove all of the water of saturation from heavy clays so rapidly as from more porous soil2 but1 although1 in some cases1 the drainage may be insufficient during the first year1 and not absolutely perfect during the second and third years1 the increased porosity which drainage causes1 7as the summer droughts make fissures in the earth1 as decayed roots and other organic deposits make these fissures permanent1 and as chemical action in the arated soil changes its character17 will finally bring clay soils to as perfect a condition as they are capable of attaining1 and will invariably render them excellent for cultivation4 99,the ,direction of the ,laterals99 should be right up and down the slope of the land1 in the line of steepest descent4 ,for a long time after the general adoption of thorough-draining1 there was much discussion of this subject1 and much variation in practice4 ,the influence of the old rules for making surface or catch-water drains lasted for a long time1 and there was a general tendency to make tile drains follow the same directions4 ,an important requirement of these was that they should not take so steep an inclination as to have their bottoms cut out and their banks undermined by the rapid flow of water1 and that they should arrest and carry away the water flowing down over the surface of hill sides4 ,the arguments for the line of steepest descent were1 however1 so clear1 and drains laid on that line were so universally successful in practice1 that it was long ago adopted by all1--save those novices who preferred to gain their education in draining in the expensive school of their own experience4 ,the more important reasons why this direction is the best are the following3 ,first1 it is the quickest way to get the water off4 ,its natural tendency is to run straight down the hill1 and nothing is gained by diverting it from this course4 ,second1 if the drain runs obliquely down the hill1 the water will be likely to run out at the joints of the tile and wet the ground below it2 even if it do not1 mainly1 run past the drain from above into the land below1 instead of being forced into the tile4 ,third1 a drain lying obliquely across a hillside will not be able to draw the water from below up the hill toward it1 and the water of nearly the whole interval will have to seek its outlet through the drain below it4 ,fourth1 drains running directly down the hill will tap any porous water bearing strata1 which may crop out1 at regular intervals1 and will thus prevent the spewing out of the water at the surface1 as it might do if only oblique drains ran for a long distance just above or just below them4 ,very steep1 and very springy hill sides1 sometimes require very frequent drains to catch the water which has a tendency to flow to the surface2 this1 however1 rarely occurs4 ,in laying out a plan for draining land of a broken surface1 which inclines in different directions1 it is impossible to make the drains follow the line of steepest descent1 and at the same time to have them all parallel1 and at uniform distances4 ,in all such cases a compromise must be made between the two requirements4 ,the more nearly the parallel arrangement can be preserved1 the less costly will the work be1 while the more nearly we follow the steepest slope of the ground1 the more efficient will each drain be4 ,no rule for this adjustment can be given1 but a careful study of the plan of the ground1 and of its contour lines1 will aid in its determination4 ,on all irregular ground it requires great skill to secure the greatest efficiency consistent with economy4 ,the fall required in well made tile drains is very much less than would be supposed1 by an inexperienced person1 to be necessary4 ,wherever practicable1 without too great cost1 it is desirable to have a fall of one foot in one hundred feet1 but more than this in ordinary work is not especially to be sought1 although there is1 of course1 no objection to very much greater inclination4 ,one half of that amount of fall1 or six inches in one hundred feet1 is quite sufficient1 if the execution of the work is carefully attended to4 ,the least rate of fall which it is prudent to give to a drain1 in using ordinary tiles1 is #b4e in #a1jjj1 or three inches in one hundred feet1 and even this requires very careful work47#h7 ,a fall of six inches in one hundred feet is recommended whenever it can be easily obtained--not as being more effective1 but as requiring less precision1 and consequently less expense4 99,kinds and ,sizes of ,tiles499--,agricultural drain-tiles are made of clay similar to that which is used for brick4 ,when burned1 they are from twelve inches to fourteen inches long1 with an interior diameter of from one to eight inches1 and with a thickness of wall1 7depending on the strength of the clay1 and the size of the bore17 of from one-quarter of an inch to more than an inch4 ,they are porous1 to the extent of absorbing a certain amount of water1 but their porosity has nothing to do with their use for drainage1--for this purpose they might as well be of glass4 ,the water enters them1 not through their walls1 but at their joints1 which cannot be made so tight that they will not admit the very small amount of water that will need to enter at each space4 ,gisborne says3 ,if an acre of land be intersected with parallel drains twelve yards apart1 and if on that acre should fall the very unusual quantity of one inch of rain in twelve hours1 in order that every drop of this rain may be discharged by the drains in forty-eight hours from the commencement of the rain--7and in a less period that quantity neither will1 not is it desirable that it should1 filter through an agricultural soil7--the interval between two pipes will be called upon to pass two-thirds of a tablespoonful of water per minute1 and no more4 ,inch pipes1 lying at a small inclination1 and running only half-full1 will discharge more than double this quantity of water in forty-eight hours4 ,tiles may be made of any desired form of section1--the usual forms are the horse-shoe1 the sole1 the double-sole1 and the round4 ,the latter may be used with collars1 and they constitute the pipes and collars1 frequently referred to in ,english books on drainage4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac - ,,horse-,,shoe ,,tile4 ,fig4 #ac - ,,horse-,,shoe ,,tile4 ,horse-shoe tiles1 ,fig4 #ac1 are condemned by all modern engineers4 ,mr4 ,gisborne disposes of them by an argument of some length1 the quotation of which in these pages is probably advisable1 because they form so much better conduits than stones1 and to that extent have been so successfully employed1 that they are still largely used in this country by amateurs4 ,we shall shock some and surprise many of our readers1 when we state confidently that1 in average soils1 and1 still more1 in those which are inclined to be tender1 horse shoe tiles form the weakest and most failing conduit which has ever been used for a deep drain4 ,it is so1 however2 and a little thought1 even if we had no experience1 will tell us that it must be so4 ,a doggrel song1 quite destitute of humor1 informs us that tiles of this sort were used in #agfj at ,grandesburg ,hall1 in ,suffolk1 by ,mr4 ,charles ,lawrence1 the owner of the estate4 ,the earliest of which we had experience were of large area and of weak form4 ,constant failures resulted from their use1 and the cause was investigated2 many of the tiles were found to be choked up with clay1 and many to be broken longitudinally through the crown4 ,for the first evil1 two remedies were adopted2 a sole of slate1 of wood1 or of its own material1 was sometimes placed under the tile1 but the more usual practice was to form them with club-feet4 ,to meet the case of longitudinal fracture1 the tiles were reduced in size1 and very much thickened in proportion to their area4 ,the first of these remedies was founded on an entirely mistaken1 and the second on no conception at all of the cause of the evil to which they were respectively applied4 ,the idea was1 that this tile1 standing on narrow feet1 and pressed by the weight of the refilled soil1 sank into the floor of the drain2 whereas1 in fact1 the floor of the drain rose into the tile4 ,any one at all conversant with collieries is aware that when a strait work 7which is a small subterranean tunnel six feet high and four feet wide or thereabouts7 is driven in coal1 the rising of the floor is a more usual and far more inconvenient occurrence than the falling of the roof3 the weight of the two sides squeezes up the floor4 ,we have seen it formed into a very decided arch without fracture4 ,exactly a similar operation takes place in the drain4 ,no one had till recently dreamed of forming a tile drain1 the bottom of which a man was not to approach personally within twenty inches or two feet4 ,to no one had it then occurred that width at the bottom of the drain was a great evil4 ,for the convenience of the operator the drain was formed with nearly perpendicular sides1 of a width in which he could stand and work conveniently1 shovel the bottom level with his ordinary spade1 and lay the tiles by his hand2 the result was a drain with nearly perpendicular sides1 and a wide bottom4 ,no sort of clay1 particularly when softened by water standing on it or running over it1 could fail to rise under such circumstances2 and the deeper the drain the greater the pressure and the more certain the rising4 ,a horse-shoe tile1 which may be a tolerable secure conduit in a drain of two feet1 in one of four feet becomes an almost certain failure4 ,as to the longitudinal fracture--not only is the tile subject to be broken by one of those slips which are so troublesome in deep draining1 and to which the lightly-filled material1 even when the drain is completed1 offers an imperfect resistance1 but the constant pressure together of the sides1 even when it does not produce a fracture of the soil1 catches hold of the feet of the tile1 and breaks it through the crown4 ,consider the case of a drain formed in clay when dry1 the conduit a horse-shoe tile4 ,when the clay expands with moisture1 it necessarily presses on the tile and breaks it through the crown1 its weakest part47#i7 ,when the ,regent's ,park was first drained1 large conduits were in fashion1 and they were made circular by placing one horse-shoe tile upon another4 ,it would be difficult to invent a weaker conduit4 ,on re-drainage1 innumerable instances were found in which the upper tile was broken through the crown1 and had dropped into the lower4 ,next came the ,d form1 tile and sole in one1 and much reduced in size--a great advance2 and when some skillful operator had laid this tile bottom upwards we were evidently on the eve of pipes4 ,for the ,d tile a round pipe moulded with a flat-bottomed solid sole is now generally substituted1 and is an improvement2 but is not equal to pipes and collars1 nor generally cheaper than they are4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad - ,,sole ,,tile4 ,fig4 #ad - ,,sole ,,tile4 ,one chief objection to the ,sole-tiles is1 that1 in the drying which they undergo1 preparatory to the burning1 the upper side is contracted1 by the more rapid drying1 and they often require to be trimmed off with a hatchet before they will form even tolerable joints2 another is1 that they cannot be laid with collars1 which form a joint so perfect and so secure1 that their use1 in the smaller drains1 should be considered indispensable4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae - ,,double-,,sole ,,tile4 ,fig4 #ae - ,,double-,,sole ,,tile4 ,the double-sole tiles1 which can be laid either side up give a much better joint1 but they are so heavy as to make the cost of transporation considerably greater4 ,they are also open to the grave objection that they cannot be fitted with collars4 ,experience1 in both public and private works in this country1 and the cumulative testimony of ,english and ,french engineers1 have demonstrated that the only tile which it is economical to use1 is the best that can be found1 and that the best1--much the best--thus far invented1 is the pipe1 or round tile1 and collar1--and these are unhesitatingly recommended for use in all cases4 ,round tiles of small sizes should not be laid without collars1 as the ability to use these constitutes their chief advantage2 holding them perfectly in place1 preventing the rattling in of loose dirt in laying1 and giving twice the space for the entrance of water at the joints4 ,a chief advantage of the larger sizes is1 that they may be laid on any side and thus made to fit closely4 ,the usual sizes of these tiles are #a-a_/d inches1 #b-a_/d inches1 and #c-a_/b inches in interior diameter4 ,sections of the #b-a_/d inch make collars for the #a-a_/d inch1 and sections of the #c-a_/b inch make collars for the #b-a_/d inch4 ,the #c-a_/b inch size does not need collars1 as it is easily secured in place1 and is only used where the flow of water would be sufficient to wash out the slight quantity of foreign matters that might enter at the joints4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af - ,,round ,,tile ,,and ,,collar1 ,,and ,,the ,,same ,,as ,,laid4 ,fig4 #af - ,,round ,,tile ,,and ,,collar1 ,,and ,,the ,,same ,,as ,,laid4 99,the size of tile99 to be used is a question of consequence4 ,in ,england1 #a-;inch pipes are frequently used1 but #a-a_/d inch7#aj7 are recommended for the smallest drains4 ,beyond this limit1 the proper size to select is1 the smallest that can convey the water which will ordinarily reach it after a heavy rain4 ,the smaller the pipe1 the more concentrated the flow1 and1 consequently1 the more thoroughly obstructions will be removed1 and the occasional flushing of the pipe1 when it is taxed1 for a few hours1 to its utmost capacity1 will insure a thorough cleansing4 ,no inconvenience can result from the fact that1 on rare occasions1 the drain is unable1 for a short time1 to discharge all the water that reaches it1 and if collars are used1 or if the clay be well packed about the pipes1 there need be no fear of the tile being displaced by the pressure4 ,an idea of the drying capacity of a #a-a_/d-;inch tile may be gained from observing its wetting capacity1 by connecting a pipe of this size with a sufficient body of water1 at its surface1 and discharging1 over a level dry field1 all the water which it will carry4 ,a #a-a_/d-;inch pipe will remove all the water which would fall on an acre of land in a very heavy rain1 in #bd hours1--much less time than the water would occupy in getting to the tile1 in any soil which required draining2 and tiles of this size are ample for the draining of two acres4 ,in like manner1 #b-a_/b-;inch tile will suffice for eight1 and #c-a_/b-;inch tile for twenty acres4 ,the foregoing estimates are1 of course1 made on the supposition that only the water which falls on the land1 7storm water17 is to be removed4 ,for main drains1 when greater capacity is required1 two tiles may be laid1 7side by side17 or in such cases the larger sizes of sole tiles may be used1 being somewhat cheaper4 ,where the drains are laid #dj feet apart1 about #a1jjj tiles per acre will be required1 and1 in estimating the quantity of tiles of the different sizes to be purchased1 reference should be had to the following figures2 the first #b1jjj feet of drains require a collecting drain of #b-a_/d-;inch tile1 which will take the water from #g1jjj feet2 and for the outlet of from #g1jjj to #bj1jjj feet #c-a_/b-;inch tile may be used4 ,collars1 being more subject to breakage1 should be ordered in somewhat larger quantities4 ,of course1 such guessing at what is required1 which is especially uncertain if the surface of the ground is so irregular as to require much deviation from regular parallel lines1 is obviated by the careful preparation of a plan of the work1 which enables us to measure1 beforehand1 the length of drain requiring the different sizes of conduit1 and1 as tiles are usually made one or two inches more than a foot long1 a thousand of them will lay a thousand feet1--leaving a sufficient allowance for breakage1 and for such slight deviations of the lines as may be necessary to pass around those stones which are too large to remove4 ,in very stony ground1 the length of lines is often materially increased1 but in such ground1 there is usually rock enough or such accumulations of boulders in some parts1 to reduce the length of drain which it is possible to lay1 at least as much as the deviations will increase it4 ,it is always best to make a contract for tile considerably in advance4 ,the prices which are given in the advertisements of the makers1 are those at which a single thousand1--or even a few hundred1--can be purchased1 and very considerable reductions of price may be secured on large orders4 ,especially is this the case if the land is so situated that the tile may be purchased at either one of two tile works1--for the prices of all are extravagantly high1 and manufacturers will submit to large discounts rather than lose an important order4 ,it is especially recommended1 in making the contract1 to stipulate that every tile shall be hard-burned1 and that those which will not give a clear ring when struck with a metallic instrument1 shall be rejected1 and the cost of their transportation borne by the maker4 ,the tiles used in the ,central ,park drainage were all tested with the aid of a bit of steel which had1 at one end1 a cutting edge4 ,with this instrument each tile was sounded1 and its hardness was tested by scraping the square edge of the bore4 ,if it did not ring when struck1 or if the edge was easily cut1 it was rejected4 ,from the first cargo there were many thrown out1 but as soon as the maker saw that they were really inspected1 he sent tile of good quality only4 ,care should also be taken that no over-burned tile1--such as have been melted and warped1 or very much contracted in size by too great heat1--be smuggled into the count4 ,a little practice will enable an ordinary workman to throw out those which are imperfect1 and1 as a single tile which is so underdone that it will not last1 or which1 from over-burning1 has too small an orifice1 may destroy a long drain1 or a whole system of drains1 the inspection should be thorough4 ,the collars should be examined with equal care4 ,concerning the use of these1 ,gisborne says3 ,to one advantage which is derived from the use of collars we have not yet adverted--the increased facility with which free water existing in the soil can find entrance into the conduit4 ,the collar for a #a-a_/b-;inch pipe has a circumference of three inches4 ,the whole space between the collar and the pipe on each side of the collar is open1 and affords no resistance to the entrance of water2 while at the same time the superincumbent arch of the collar protects the junction of two pipes from the intrusion of particles of soil4 ,we confess to some original misgivings that a pipe resting only on an inch at each end1 and lying hollow1 might prove weak and liable to fracture by weight pressing on it from above2 but the fear was illusory4 ,small particles of soil trickle down the sides of every drain1 and the first flow of water will deposit them in the vacant space between the two collars4 ,the bottom1 if at all soft1 will also swell up into any vacancy4 ,practically1 if you reopen a drain well laid with pipes and collars1 you will find them reposing in a beautiful nidus1 which1 when they are carefully removed1 looks exactly as if it had been moulded for them4 ,the cost of collars should not be considered an objection to their use2 because1 without collars it would not be safe1 7as it is difficult to make the orifices of two pieces come exactly opposite to each other17 to use less than #b-;inch tiles1 while1 with collars1 #a-a_/d-;inch are sufficient for the same use1 and1 including the cost of collars1 are hardly more expensive4 ,it is usual1 in all works on agricultural drainage1 to insert tables and formul for the guidance of those who are to determine the size of tile required to discharge the water of a certain area4 ,the practice is not adopted here1 for the reason that all such tables are without practical value4 ,the smoothness and uniformity of the bore2 the rate of fall2 the depth of the drain1 and consequent head1 or pressure1 of the water2 the different effects of different soils in retarding the flow of the water to the drain2 the different degrees to which angles in the line of tile affect the flow2 the degree of acceleration of the flow which is caused by greater or less additions to the stream at the junction of branch drains2 and other considerations1 arising at every step of the calculation1 render it impossible to apply delicate mathematical rules to work which is1 at best1 rude and unmathematical in the extreme4 ,in sewerage1 and the water supply of towns1 such tables are useful1--though1 even in the most perfect of these operations1 engineers always make large allowances for circumstances whose influence cannot be exactly measured1--but in land drainage1 the ordinary rules of hydraulics have to be considered in so many different bearings1 that the computations of the books are not at all reliable4 ,for instance1 ,messrs4 ,shedd ,edson1 of ,boston1 have prepared a series of tables1 based on ,smeaton's experiments1 for the different sizes of tile1 laid at different inclinations1 in which they state that #a-a_/b-;inch tile1 laid with a fall of one foot in a length of one hundred feet1 will discharge #ab1jed4ha gallons of water in #bd hours4 ,this is equal to a rain-fall of over #cej inches per year on an acre of land4 ,as the average annual rain-fall in the ,united ,states is about #dj inches1 at least one-half of which is removed by evaporation1 it would follow1 from this table1 that a #a-a_/b-;inch pipe1 with the above named fall1 would serve for the drainage of about #ag acres4 ,but the calculation is again disturbed by the fact that the rain-fall is not evenly distributed over all the days of the year1--as much as six inches having been known to fall in a single #bd hours1 7amounting to about #aej1jjj gallons per acre17 and the removal of this water in a single day would require a tile nearly five inches in diameter1 laid at the given fall1 or a #c-;inch tile laid at a fall of more than #g-a_/b feet in #ajj feet4 ,but1 again1 so much water could not reach a drain four feet from the surface1 in so short a time1 and the time required would depend very much on the character of the soil4 ,obviously1 then1 these tables are worthless for our purpose4 ,experience has fully shown that the sizes which are recommended below are ample for practical purposes1 and probably the areas to be drained by the given sizes might be greatly increased1 especially with reference to such soils as do not allow water to percolate very freely through them4 ,in connection with this subject1 attention is called to the following extract from the ,author's ,report on the ,drainage1 which accompanies the ,third ,annual ,report of the ,board of ,commissioners of the ,central ,park3 ,in order to test the efficiency of the system of drainage employed on the ,park1 ,i have caused daily observations to be taken of the amount of water discharged from the principal drain of 'the ,green1' and have compared it with the amount of rain-fall4 ,a portion of the record of those observations is herewith presented4 ,in the column headed ',rain-,fall1' the amount of water falling on one acre during the entire storm1 is given in gallons4 ,this is computed from the record of a rain-gauge kept on the ,park4 ,under the head of ',discharge1' the number of gallons of water drained from one acre during #bd hours is given4 ,this is computed from observations taken1 once a day or oftener1 and supposes the discharge during the entire day to be the same as at the time of taking the observations4 ,it is1 consequently1 but approximately correct3 ,date4 ,hour4 ,rain-fall4 ,discharge4 ,remarks4 ,july #ac4 #aj a4m4 #di1iaf #ahd galls4 ,ground dry4 galls4 ,no rain since #c;d inst42 #b inches rain fell between #e4ae and #e4de p4m4 and #a-eth of an inch between #e4de and #g4ae4 ,july #ad4 #f-a_/b #d1ifh ,july #ae4 #f-a_/b #a1cbe ,july #af4 #h #a1ajd ,july #af4 #f p4m4 #cc1cih #g1gfd ,ground saturated at a depth of #b feet when this rain commenced4 ,july #ag4 #d1cai ,july #ah4 #i a4m4 #b1bjh ,july #ai4 #g #a1cbe ,july #bj4 #f-a_/b #iic ,july #ba4 #aa #ffb ,july #bb4 #f-a_/b #efj ,july #bc4 #aj #a1fih #eae ,this slight rain only affected the ratio of decrease4 ,july #bd4 #g #ddb ,nothing worthy of note until ,aug4 #c4 ,aug4 #c4 #f-a_/b #h1dij #aia ,rain from #c p4m4 to #c4cj p4m4 ,aug4 #d4 #f-a_/b #ac1jah #ahd #d4de p4m4 to #ab m4n4 ,aug4 #e4 #f-a_/b #de1bhh #cfh #ab m4 to #f p4m4 ,aug4 #e4 #f p4m4 #h1bhj ,aug4 #f4 #i a4m4 #c1ied ,aug4 #g4 #i #b1bjh ,aug4 #h4 #f-a_/b #hbh ,aug4 #i4 #f-a_/b #ffb ,aug4 #ab4 #f-a_/b #cfh ,rain #ab m4 ,aug4 #ab to #g a4m4 ,aug4 #ac4 ,aug4 #ac4 #g #ai1bdd #a1ajd ,aug4 #ad4 #i #gcf ,aug4 #bd4 #i #a1acb #aia #c a4m4 to #d4ae a4m4 ,aug4 #be4 #i #e1edg #i1icf #c4cj p4m4 #bdth1 to #g a4m4 #beth4 ,aug4 #be4 #g p4m4 #eff #g1gdj #g a4m4 to #ab m4 ,aug4 #bf4 #f-a_/b a4m4 #c1igd ,aug4 #bf4 #f p4m4 #b1bjh ,aug4 #bg4 #f-a_/b a4m4 #eff #a1ebi #d p4m4 to #f p4m4 ,aug4 #bh4 #g #iic ,sep4 #aa4 #g #eff #afe #ab m4n4 7#ajth7 to #g a4m4 7#aath47 ,sep4 #ab4 #i #e1jid #adg #ab m4 7#aath7 to #g a4m4 7#abth47 ,sep4 #ac4 #i #eff #acb #d p4m4 to #f p4m4 ,sep4 #af4 #i #ae1hdh #aaj #ab m4 to #ab m4n4 ,sep4 #ag4 #g #bg1eeb #a1ajd ,rain continued until #ab m4 ,sep4 #ag4 #e p4m4 #f1fbd ,sep4 #ah4 #h a4m4 #eff #d1ifh ,sep4 #ai4 #f-a_/b #b1bjh ,sep4 #ai4 #d p4m4 #a1hje ,sep4 #bj4 #i a4m4 #eff #a1cbd ,rain f'm #ab m4 7#aith7 to #g a4m4 7#bjth47 ,sep4 #ba4 #i #e1jid #ide #c4bj p4m4 7#bjth7 to #f a4m4 7#bast47 ,sep4 #bb4 #i #aj1ahe #a1fef #ab m4 7#bast7 to #g a4m4 7#bb;d47 ,sep4 #bc4 #i #dj1gef #g1idh ,rain continued until #g a4m4 7#bc;d47 ,sep4 #bd4 #i #d1ifh ,sep4 #be4 #i #eff #b1ihd ,sep4 #bf4 #i #b1dhd ,oct4 #a4 #i #hbh ,there was not enough rain during this period to materially affect the flow of water4 ,nov4 #ah4 #i #hc ,nov4 #ai4 #i #a1acb #ahd ,rain #d4ej p4m4 7#ahth7 to #h a4m4 7#aith47 ,nov4 #bj4 #i #aai ,nov4 #bb4 #i #bi1ccf #f1fbd ,rain all of the previous night4 ,nov4 #bb4 #b p4m4 #f1fbd ,nov4 #bc4 #i a4m4 #d1ifh ,nov4 #bd4 #i #a1gaa ,nov4 #bd4 #b p4m4 #a1dag ,dec4 #ag4 #i a4m4 #eeb ,dec4 #ah4 #i #d1ifh ,rain during the previous night4 ,dec4 #cj4 #aj #eha ,the tract drained by this system1 though very swampy1 before being drained1 is now dry enough to walk upon1 almost immediately after a storm1 except when underlaid by a stratum of frozen ground4 ,the area drained by the main at which these gaugings were made1 is about ten acres1 and1 in deference to the prevailing mania for large conduits1 it had been laid with #f-;inch sole-tile4 ,the greatest recorded discharge in #bd hours was 7,august #beth17 less than #ajj1jjj gallons from the ten acres1--an amount of water which did not half fill the tile1 but which1 according to the tables referred to1 would have entirely filled it4 ,in view of all the information that can be gathered on the subject1 the following directions are given as perfectly reliable for drains four feet or more in depth1 laid on a well regulated fall of even three inches in a hundred feet3 ,for #b acres #a-a_/d inch pipes 7with collars47 ,for #h acres #b-a_/d inch pipes 7with collars47 ,for #bj acres #c-a_/b inch pipes ,for #dj acres #b #c-a_/b inch pipes or one #e-;inch sole-tile4 ,for #ej acres #f inch pipes sole-tile4 ,for #ajj acres #h inch pipes or two #f-;inch sole-tiles4 ,it is not pretended that these drains will immediately remove all the water of the heaviest storms1 but they will always remove it fast enough for all practical purposes1 and1 if the pipes are securely laid1 the drains will only be benefited by the occasional cleansing they will receive when running more than full4 ,in illustration of this statement1 the following is quoted from a paper communicated by ,mr4 ,parkes to the ,royal ,agricultural ,society of ,england in #ahdc3 ,mr4 ,thomas ,hammond1 of ,penshurst1 7,kent17 now uses no other size for the parallel drains than the inch tile in the table1 7,no4 #e17 having commenced with ,no4 #d17aa7 and it may be here stated1 that the opinion of all the farmers who have used them in the ,weald1 is that a bore of an inch area is abundantly large4 ,a piece of #i acres1 now sown with wheat1 was observed by the writer1 #cf hours after the termination of a rain which fell heavily and incessantly during #ab hours on the #gth of ,november4 ,this field was drained in ,march1 #ahdb1 to the depth of #cj to #cf inches1 at a distance of #bd feet asunder1 the length of each drain being #bce yards4 ,each1 drain emptied itself through a fence bank into a running stream in a road below it2 the discharge therefore was distinctly observable4 ,two or three of the pipes had now ceased running2 and1 with the exception of one which tapped a small spring and gave a stream about the size of a tobacco pipe1 the run from the others did not exceed the size of a wheat straw4 ,the greatest flow had been observed by ,mr4 ,hammond at no time to exceed half the bore of the pipes4 ,the fall in this field is very great1 and the drains are laid in the direction of the fall1 which has always been the practice in this district4 ,the issuing water was transparently clear2 and ,mr4 ,hammond states that he has never observed cloudiness1 except for a short time after very heavy flushes of rain1 when the drains are quickly cleared of all sediment1 in consequence of the velocity and force of the water passing through so small a channel4 ,infiltration through the soil and into the pipes1 must1 in this case1 be considered to have been perfect2 and their observed action is the more determinate and valuable as regards time and effect1 as the land was saturated with moisture previous to this particular fall of rain1 and the pipes had ceased to run when it commenced4 ,this piece had1 previous to its drainage1 necessarily been cultivated in narrow stretches1 with an open water furrow between them2 but it was now laid quite plain1 by which one-eighth of the continuation of acreage has been saved4 ,not1 however1 being confident as to the soil having already become so porous as to dispense entirely with surface drains1 ,mr4 ,hammond had drawn two long water furrows diagonally across the field4 ,on examining these1 it appeared that very little water had flowed along any part of them during these #ab hours of rain1--no water had escaped at their outfall2 the entire body of rain had permeated the mass of the bed1 and passed off through the inch pipes2 no water perceptible on the surface1 which used to carry it throughout4 ,the subsoil is a brick clay1 but it appears to crack very rapidly by shrinkage consequent to drainage4 99,obstructions499--,the danger that drains will become obstructed1 if not properly laid out and properly made1 is very great1 and the cost of removing the obstructions1 7often requiring whole lines to be taken up1 washed1 and relaid with the extra care that is required in working in old and soft lines17 is often greater than the original cost of the improvement4 ,consequently1 the possibility of tile drains becoming stopped up should be fully considered at the outset1 and every precaution should be taken to prevent so disastrous a result4 ,the principal causes of obstruction are silt1 vermin1 and roots4 ,silt is earth which is washed into the tile with the water of the soil1 and which1 though it may be carried along in suspension in the water1 when the fall is good1 will be deposited in the eddies and slack-water1 which occur whenever there is a break in the fall1 or a defect in the laying of the tile4 ,whenever it is possible to avoid it1 no drain should have a decreasing rate of fall as it approaches its outlet4 ,if the first hundred feet from the upper end of the drain has a fall of three inches1 the next hundred feet should not have less than three inches1 lest the diminished velocity cause silt1 which required the speed which that fall gives for its removal1 to be deposited and to choke the tile4 ,this defect of grade is shown in ,fig4 #ag4 ,if the second hundred feet has an inclination of more than three inches1 7,fig4 #ah17 the removal of silt will be even better secured than if the fall continued at the original rate4 ,some silt will enter newly made drains1 in spite of our utmost care1 but the amount should be very slight1 and if it is evenly deposited throughout the whole length of the drain1 7as it sometimes is when the rate of fall is very low17 it will do no especial harm2 but it becomes dangerous when it is accumulated within a short distance1 by a decreasing fall1 or by a single badly laid tile1 or imperfect joint1 which1 by arresting the flow1 may cause as much mischief as a defective grade4 ,owing to the general conformation of the ground1 it is sometimes absolutely necessary to adopt such a grade as is shown in ,fig4 #ai1--;even to the extent of bringing the drain down a rapid slope1 and continuing it with the least possible fall through level ground4 ,when such changes must be made1 they should be effected by angles1 and not by curves4 ,in increasing the fall1 curves in the grade are always advisable1 in decreasing it they are always objectionable1 except when the decreased fall is still considerable1--say1 at least #b feet in #ajj feet4 ,the reason for making an absolute angle at the point of depression is1 that it enables us to catch the silt at that point in a silt basin1 from which it may be removed as occasion requires4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai - ,,three ,,profiles ,,of ,,drains1 ,,with ,,different ,,inclinations4 ,fig4 #ai - ,,three ,,profiles ,,of ,,drains1 ,,with ,,different ,,inclinations4 ,a ,silt ,basin is a chamber1 below the grade of the drain1 into which the water flows1 becomes comparatively quiet1 and deposits its silt1 instead of carrying it into the tile beyond4 ,it may be large or small1 in proportion to the amount of drain above1 which it has to accommodate4 ,for a few hundred feet of the smallest tile1 it may be only a #f-;inch tile placed on end and sunk so as to receive and discharge the water at its top4 ,for a large main1 it may be a brick reservoir with a capacity of #b or #c cubic feet4 ,the position of a silt basin is shown in ,fig4 #ai4 ,the quantity of silt which enters the drain depends very much on the soil4 ,compact clays yield very little1 and wet1 running sands1 7quicksands17 a great deal4 ,in a soil of the latter sort1 or one having a layer of running sand at the level of the drain1 the ditch should be excavated a little below the grade of the drain1 and then filled to that level with a retentive clay1 and rammed hard4 ,in all cases when the tile is well laid1 7especially if collars are used17 and a stiff earth is well packed around the tile1 silt will not enter the drain to an injurious extent1 after a few months' operation shall have removed the loose particles about the joints1 and especially after a few very heavy rains1 which1 if the tiles are small1 will sometimes wash them perfectly clean1 although they may have been half filled with dirt4 ,vermin1--field mice1 moles1 etc41--sometimes make their nests in the tile and thus choke them1 or1 dying in them1 stop them up with their carcases4 ,their entrance should be prevented by placing a coarse wire cloth or grating in front of the outlets1 which afford the only openings for their entrance4 ,roots4--,the roots of many water-loving trees1--especially willows1--will often force their entrance into the joints of the tile and fill the whole bore with masses of fibre which entirely prevent the flow of water4 ,collars make it more difficult for them to enter1 but even these are not a sure preventive4 ,gisborne says3 ,my own experience as to roots1 in connection with deep pipe draining1 is as follows3 ,i have never known roots to obstruct a pipe through which there was not a perennial stream4 ,the flow of water in summer and early autumn appears to furnish the attraction4 ,i have never discovered that the roots of any esculent vegetable have obstructed a pipe4 ,the trees which1 by my own personal observation1 ,i have found to be most dangerous1 have been red willow1 black ,italian poplar1 alder1 ash1 and broad-leaved elm4 ,i have many alders in close contiguity with important drains1 and1 though ,i have never convicted one1 ,i cannot doubt that they are dangerous4 ,oak1 and black and white thorns1 ,i have not detected1 nor do ,i suspect them4 ,the guilty trees have in every instance been young and free growing2 ,i have never convicted an adult4 ,these remarks apply solely to my own observation1 and may of course be much extended by that of other agriculturists4 ,i know an instance in which a perennial spring of very pure and 7,i believe7 soft water is conveyed in socket pipes to a paper mill4 ,every junction of two pipes is carefully fortified with cement4 ,the only object of cover being protection from superficial injury and from frost1 the pipes are laid not far below the sod4 ,year by year these pipes are stopped by roots4 ,trees are very capricious in this matter4 ,i was told by the late ,sir ,r4 ,peel that he sacrificed two young elm trees in the park at ,drayton ,manor to a drain which had been repeatedly stopped by roots4 ,the stoppage was nevertheless repeated1 and was then traced to an elm tree far more distant than those which had been sacrificed4 ,early in the autumn of #ahej ,i completed the drainage of the upper part of a boggy valley1 lying1 with ramifications1 at the foot of marly banks4 ,the main drains converge to a common outlet1 to which are brought one #c-;inch pipe and three of #d inches each4 ,they lie side by side1 and water flows perennially through each of them4 ,near to this outlet did grow a red willow4 ,in ,february1 #aheb1 ,i found the water breaking out to the surface of the ground about #aj yards above the outlet1 and was at no loss for the cause1 as the roots of the red willow showed themselves at the orifice of the #c-;inch and of two of the #d-;inch pipes4 ,on examination ,i found that a root had entered a joint between two #c-;inch pipes1 and had traveled #e yards to the mouth of the drain1 and #i yards up the stream1 forming a continuous length of #ad yards4 ,the root which first entered had attained about the size of a lady's little finger2 and its ramifications consisted of very fine and almost silky fibres1 and would have cut up into half a dozen comfortable boas4 ,the drain was completely stopped4 ,the pipes were not in any degree displaced4 ,roots from the same willow had passed over the #c-;inch pipes1 and had entered and entirely stopped the first #d-;inch drain1 and had partially stopped the second4 ,at a distance of about #ej yards a black ,italian poplar1 which stood on a bank over a #d-;inch drain1 had completely stopped it with a bunch of roots4 ,the whole of this had been the work of less than #ah months1 including the depth of two winters4 ,a #c-;inch branch of the same system runs through a little group of black poplars4 ,this drain conveys a full stream in plashes of wet1 and some water generally through the winter months1 but has not a perennial flow4 ,i have perceived no indication that roots have interfered with this drain4 ,i draw no general conclusions from these few facts1 but they may assist those who have more extensive experience in drawing some1 which may be of use to drainers4 ,having considered some of the principles on which our work should be based1 let us now return to the map of the field1 and apply those principles in planning the work to be done to make it dry4 99,the ,outlet99 should evidently be placed at the present point of exit of the brook which runs from the springs1 collects the water of the open ditches1 and spreads over the flat in the southwest corner of the tract1 converting it into a swamp4 ,suppose that1 by going some distance into the next field1 we can secure an outlet of #c feet and #i inches 7#c4ge7 below the level of the swamp1 and that we decide to allow #c inches drop between the bottom of the tile at that point1 and the reduced level of the brook to secure the drain against the accumulation of sand1 which might result from back water in time of heavy rain4 ,this fixes the depth of drain at the outlet at #c-a_/b 7#c4ej7 feet4 ,at that side of the swamp which lies nearest to the main depression of the up-land1 7,see ,fig4 #ba17 is the proper place at which to collect the water from so much of the field as is now drained by the main brook1 and at that point it will be well to place a silt basin or well1 built up to the surface1 which may1 at any time1 be uncovered for an observation of the working of the drains4 ,the land between this point and the outlet is absolutely level1 requiring the necessary fall in the drain which connects the two1 to be gained by raising the upper end of it4 ,as the distance is nearly #bjj feet1 and as it is advisable to give a fall at least five-tenths of a foot per hundred feet to so important an outlet as this1 the drain at the silt basin may be fixed at only #b-a_/b feet4 ,the basin being at the foot of a considerable rise in the ground1 it will be easy1 within a short distance above1 to carry the drains which come to it to a depth of #d feet1--were this not the case1 the fall between the basin and the outlet would have to be very much reduced4 99,main ,drains499--,the valley through which the brook now runs is about #hj feet wide1 with a decided rise in the land at each side4 ,if one main drain were laid in the center of it1 all of the laterals coming to the main would first run down a steep hillside1 and then across a stretch of more level land1 requiring the grade of each lateral to be broken at the foot of the hill1 and provided with a silt basin to collect matters which might be deposited when the fall becomes less rapid4 ,consequently1 it is best to provide two mains1 or collecting drains1 7,a and ,c17 one lying at the foot of each hill1 when they will receive the laterals at their greatest fall2 but1 as these are too far apart to completely drain the valley between them1 and are located on land higher than the center of the valley1 a drain1 7,b17 should be run up1 midway between them4 ,the collecting drain1 ,a1 will receive the laterals from the hill to the west of it1 as far up as the #aj-;foot contour line1 and1 above that point1--running up a branch of the valley1--it will receive laterals from both sides4 ,the drain1 ,b1 may be continued above the dividing point of the valley1 and will act as one of the series of laterals4 ,the drain1 ,c1 will receive the laterals and sub-mains from the rising ground to the east of it1 and from both sides of the minor valley which extends in that direction4 ,most of the valley which runs up from the easterly side of the swamp must be drained independently by the drain ,e1 which might be carried to the silt basin1 did not its continuation directly to the outlet offer a shorter course for the removal of its water4 ,this drain will receive laterals from the hill bordering the southeasterly side of the swamp1 and1 higher up1 from both sides of the valley in which it runs4 ,in laying out these main drains1 more attention should be given to placing them where they will best receive the water of the laterals1 and on lines which offer a good and tolerably uniform descent1 than to their use for the immediate drainage of the land through which they pass4 ,afterward1 in laying out the laterals1 the use of these lines as local drains should1 of course1 be duly considered4 99,the ,lateral ,drains99 should next receive attention1 and in their location and arrangement the following rules should be observed3 #ast4 ,they should run down the steepest descent of the land4 #b;d4 ,they should be placed at intervals proportionate to their depth2--if #d feet deep1 at #dj feet intervals2 if #c feet deep1 at #bj feet intervals4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj - ,,map ,,with ,,drains ,,and ,,contour ,,lines4 ,fig4 #bj - ,,map ,,with ,,drains ,,and ,,contour ,,lines4 #c;d4 ,they should1 as nearly as possible1 run parallel to each other4 ,on land of perfectly uniform character1 7all sloping in the same direction17 all of these requirements may be complied with1 but on irregular land it becomes constantly necessary to make a compromise between them4 ,drains running down the line of steepest descent cannot be parallel1--and1 consequently1 the intervals between them cannot be always the same2 those which are farther apart at one end than at the other cannot be always of a depth exactly proportionate to their intervals4 ,in the adjustment of the lines1 so as to conform as nearly to these requirements as the shape of the ground will allow1 there is room for the exercise of much skill1 and on such adjustment depend1 in a great degree1 the success and economy of the work4 ,remembering that on the map1 the line of steepest descent is exactly perpendicular to the contour lines of the land1 it will be profitable to study carefully the system of drains first laid out1 erasing and making alterations wherever it is found possible to simplify the arrangement4 ,strictly speaking1 all angles are1 to a certain extent1 wasteful1 because1 if two parallel drains will suffice to drain the land between them1 no better drainage will be effected by a third drain running across that land4 ,furthermore1 the angles are practically supplied with drains at less intervals than are required1--for instance1 at ,c #g a on the map the triangles included within the dotted line x1 y1 will be doubly drained4 ,so1 also1 if any point of a #d-;foot drain will drain the land within #bj feet of it1 the land included within the dotted line forming a semi-circle about the point ,c #ad1 might drain into the end of the lateral1 and it no more needs the action of the main drain than does that which lies between the laterals4 ,of course1 angles and connecting lines are indispensable1 except where the laterals can run independently across the entire field1 and discharge beyond it4 ,the longer the laterals can be made1 and the more angles can be avoided1 the more economical will the arrangement be2 and1 until the arrangement of the lines has been made as nearly perfect as possible1 the time of the drainer can be in no way so profitably spent as in amending his plan4 ,the series of laterals which discharge through the mains ,a1 ,c1 ,d and ,e1 on the accompanying map1 have been very carefully considered1 and are submitted to the consideration of the reader1 in illustration of what has been said above4 ,at one point1 just above the middle of the east side of the field1 the laterals are placed at a general distance of #bj feet1 because1 as will be seen by reference to ,fig4 #d1 a ledge of rock1 underground1 will prevent their being made more than #c feet deep4 ,the line from ,h to ,i1 7,fig4 #bj17 at the north side of the field1 connecting the heads of the laterals1 is to be a stone and tile drain1 such as is described on page #fj1 intended to collect the water which follows the surface of the rock4 7,see ,fig4 #d47 ,the swamp is to be drained by itself1 by means of two series of laterals discharging into the main lines ,f and ,g1 which discharge at the outlet1 by the side of the main drain from the silt-basin4 ,by this arrangement1 these laterals1 especially at the north side of the swamp1 being accurately laid1 with very slight inclinations1 can be placed more deeply than if they ran in an east and west direction1 and discharged into the main1 which has a greater inclination1 and is only two and a half feet deep at the basin4 ,being #c-a_/b 7#c4ej7 feet deep at the outlet1 they may be made fully #c feet deep at their upper ends1 and1 being only #bj feet apart1 they will drain the land as well as is possible4 ,the drains being now laid out1 over the whole field1 the next thing to be attended to is 99,the ,ordering of the ,tile499--,the main line from the outlet up to the silt-basin1 should be of #c-a_/b-;inch tiles1 of which about #aij feet will be required4 ,the main drain ,a should be laid with #b-a_/d-;inch tiles to the point marked m1 near its upper end1 as the lateral entering there carries the water of a spring1 which is supposed to fill a #a-a_/d-;inch tile4 ,the length of this drain1 from the silt-basin to that point is #ege feet4 ,the main drain ,c will require #b-a_/d inch tiles from the silt-basin to the junction with the lateral1 which is marked ,c #aj1 above which point there is about #a1gjj feet of drain discharging into it1 a portion of which1 being a stone-and-tile drain at the foot of a rock1 may be supposed to receive more water than that which lies under the rest of the land2--distance #dej feet4 ,the main drain ,e requires #b-a_/d-;inch tiles from the outlet to the point marked o1 a distance of #chj feet4 ,this tile will1 in addition to its other work1 carry as much water from the spring1 on the line of its fourth lateral1 as would fill a #a-a_/d-;inch pipe47#ab7 ,the length of the main drains above the points indicated1 and of all the laterals1 amounts to about #ab1bej feet4 ,these all require #a-a_/d-;inch tiles4 ,allowing about five per cent4 for breakage1 the order in round numbers1 will be as follows37#ac7 #c-a_/b-;inch round tiles #bjj feet4 #b-a_/d-;inch round tiles #a1ejj feet4 #a-a_/d-;inch round tiles #ac1jjj feet4 #c-a_/b-;inch round tiles #a1fjj #b-a_/d-;inch round tiles #ac1bej ,order1 also1 #be #f-;inch sole-tiles1 to be used in making small silt-basins4 ,it should be arranged to have the tiles all on the ground before the work of ditching commences1 so that there may be no delay and consequent danger to the stability of the banks of the ditches1 while waiting for them to arrive4 ,as has been before stated1 it should be especially agreed with the tile-maker1 at the time of making the contract1 that every tile should be perfect2--of uniform shape1 and neither too much nor too little burned4 99,staking ,out499--,due consideration having been given to such preliminaries as are connected with the mapping of the ground1 and the arrangement1 on paper1 of the drains to be made1 the drainer may now return to his field1 and1 while awaiting the arrival of his tiles1 make the necessary preparation for the work to be done4 ,the first step is to fix certain prominent points1 which will serve to connect the map with the field1 by actual measurements1 and this will very easily be done by the aid of the stakes which are still standing at the intersections of the #ej-;foot lines1 which were used in the preliminary levelling4 ,commencing at the southwest corner of the field1 and measuring toward the east a distance of #cd feet1 set a pole to indicate the position of the outlet4 ,next1 mark the center of the silt-basin at the proper point1 which will be found by measuring #ahd feet up the western boundary1 and thence toward the east #if feet1 on a line parallel with the nearest row of #ej-;foot stakes4 ,then1 in like manner1 fix the points ,c#a1 ,c#f1 ,c#i1 ,c#aj1 and ,c#ag1 and the angles of the other main lines1 marking the stakes1 when placed1 to correspond with the same points on the map4 ,then stake the angles and the upper ends of the laterals1 and mark these stakes to correspond with the map4 ,it will greatly facilitate this operation1 if the plan of the drains which is used in the field1 from which the horizontal lines should be omitted1 have the intersecting #ej-;foot lines drawn upon it1 so that the measurements may be made from the nearest points of intersection47#ad7 ,having staked these guiding points of the drains1 it is advisable to remove all of the #ej-;foot stakes1 as these are of no further use1 and would only cause confusion4 ,it will now be easy to set the remaining stakes1--placing one at every #ej feet of the laterals1 and at the intersections of all the lines4 ,a system for marking the stakes is indicated on the map1 7in the ,c series of drains17 which1 to avoid the confusion which would result from too much detail on such a small scale1 has been carried only to the extent necessary for illustration4 ,the stakes of the line ,c are marked ,c#a1 ,c#b1 ,c#c1 etc4 ,the stakes of the sub-main ,c#g1 are marked ,c#g;a1 ,c#g;b1 ,c#g;c1 etc4 ,the stakes of the lateral which enters this drain at ,c#g;a1 are marked ,c#g;a_/#a1 ,c#g;a_/#b1 ,c#g;a_/#c1 etc4 etc4 ,this system1 which connects the lettering of each lateral with its own sub-main and main1 is perfectly simple1 and avoids the possibility of confusion4 ,the position of the stakes should all be lettered on the map1 at the original drawing1 and the same designating marks put on the stakes in the field1 as soon as set4 ,grade ,stakes1 7pegs about #h or #aj inches long17 should be placed close at the sides of the marked stakes1 and driven nearly their full length into the ground4 ,the tops of these stakes furnish fixed points of elevation from which to take the measurements1 and to make the computations necessary to fix the depth of the drain at each stake4 ,if the measurements were taken from the surface of the ground1 a slight change of position in placing the instrument1 would often make a difference of some inches in the depth of the drain4 99,taking the ,levels499--,for accurate work1 it is necessary to ascertain the comparative levels of the tops of all of the grade stakes2 or the distance of each one of them below an imaginary horizontal plane4 ,this plane1 7in which we use only such lines as are directly above the drains17 may be called the ,datum ,line4 ,its elevation should be such that it will be above the highest part of the land1 and1 for convenience1 it is fixed at the elevation of the levelling instrument when it is so placed as to look over the highest part of the field4 ,levelling ,instruments are of various kinds4 ,the best for the work in hand1 is the common railroad level1 which is shown in ,fig4 #f4 ,this is supported on three legs1 which bring it to about the level of the eye4 ,its essential parts are a telescope1 which has two cross-hairs intersecting each other in the line of sight1 and which may be turned on its pivot toward any point of the horizon2 a bubble glass placed exactly parallel to the line of sight1 and firmly secured in its position so as to turn with the telescope2 and an apparatus for raising or depressing any side of the instrument by means of set-screws4 ,the instrument is firmly screwed to the tripod1 and placed at a point convenient for looking over a considerable part of the highest land4 ,by the use of the set-screws1 the plane in which the instrument revolves is brought to a level1 so that in whatever direction the instrument is pointed1 the bubble will be in the center of the glass4 ,the line of sight1 whichever way it is turned1 is now in our imaginary plane4 ,a convenient position for the instrument in the field under consideration1 would be at the point1 east of the center1 marked ,k1 which is about #c feet below the level of the highest part of the ground4 ,the telescope should stand about #e feet above the surface of the ground directly under it4 ,the ,levelling-,rod1 7,see ,fig4 #g17 is usually #ab feet long1 is divided into feet and hundredths of a foot1 and has a movable target which may be placed at any part of its entire length4 ,this is carried by an attendant1 who holds it perpendicularly on the top of the grade-stake1 while the operator1 looking through the telescope1 directs him to move the target up and down until its center is exactly in the line of sight4 ,the attendant then reads the elevation1 and the operator records it as the distance below the datum-line of the top of the grade-stake4 ,for convenience1 the letterings of the stakes should be systematically entered in a small field book1 before the work commences1 and this should be accompanied by such a sketch of the plan as will serve as a guide to the location of the lines on the ground4 ,the following is the form of the field book for the main drain ,c1 with the levels recorded3 ,,lettering ,,of ,,the ,,stake4 ,,depth ,,from ,,datum ,,line4 ,silt ,basin #ah4bj ,c #a #ae4dd ,c #b #ad4cf ,c #c #ab4he ,c #d #ab4ah ,c #e #aa4gi ,c #f #aa4fi ,c #g #aa4ee ,c #h #aa4cg ,c #i #aa4jf ,c #aj #h4id ,c #aa #h4eb ,c #ab #g4hf ,c #ac #g4gj ,c #ad #g4ci ,c #ae #g4jf ,c #af #f4gc ,the levelling should be continued in this manner1 until the grades of all the points are recorded in the field book4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba - ,,profile ,,of ,,drain ,c4 ,fig4 #ba - ,,profile ,,of ,,drain ,c4 ,horizontal ,scale1 #ff ft4 to the inch4 ,vertical ,scale1 #ae ft4 to the inch4 #a to #ag4 ,numbers of ,stakes4 7#hb7 etc4 ,distances between ,stakes4 #ah4bj etc4 ,depths from datum-line to surface4 #b4ej etc4 ,depths of ditch4 #bj4gj etc4 ,depths from datum-line to drain4 ,if1 from too great depression of the lower parts of the field1 or too great distances for observation1 it becomes necessary to take up a new position with the instrument1 the new level should be connected1 by measurement1 with the old one1 and the new observations should be computed to the original plane4 ,it is not necessary that these levels should be noted on the map1--they are needed only for computing the depth of cutting1 and if entered on the map1 might be mistaken for the figures indicating the depth1 which it is more important to have recorded in their proper positions1 for convenience of reference during the work4 99,the ,depth and ,grade of the ,drains499--,having now staked out the lines upon the land1 and ascertained and recorded the elevations at the different stakes1 it becomes necessary to determine at what depth the tile shall be placed at each point1 so as to give the proper fall to each line1 and to bring all of the lines of the system into accord4 ,as the simplest means of illustrating the principle on which this work should be done1 it will be convenient to go through with the process with reference to the main drain ,c1 of the plan under consideration4 ,a profile of this line is shown in ,fig4 #ba1 where the line is broken at stake ,no4 #g1 and continued in the lower section of the diagram4 ,the topmost line1 from ,silt ,basin to #ag1 is the horizontal datum-line4 ,the numbers above the vertical lines indicate the stakes2 the figures in brackets between these1 the number of feet between the stakes2 and the heavy figures at the left of the vertical lines1 the recorded measurements of depth from the datum-line to the surface of the ground1 which is indicated by the irregular line next below the datum-line4 ,the vertical measurements are1 of course1 very much exaggerated1 to make the profile more marked1 but they are in the proper relation to each other4 ,the depth at the silt-basin is fixed at #b-a_/b feet 7#b4ej47 ,the rise is rapid to stake #c1 very slight from there to stake #g1 very rapid from there to stake #aj1 a little less rapid from there to stake #aa1 and still less rapid from there to stake #ag4 ,to establish the grade by the profile alone1 the proper course would be to fix the depth at the stakes at which the inclination is to be changed1 to draw straight lines between the points thus found1 and then to measure the vertical distance from these lines to the line indicating the surface of the ground at the different stakes2 thus1 fixing the depth at stake #c1 at #d feet and #ac hundredths17#ae7 the line drawn from that point to the depth of #b4ej1 at the silt-basin1 will be #c feet and #fb hundredths 7#c4fb7 below stake #a1 and #c feet and #ib hundredths 7#c4ib7 below stake #b4 ,at stake #g it is necessary to go sufficiently deep to pass from #g to #aj1 without coming too near the surface at #i1 which is at the foot of a steep ascent4 ,a line drawn straight from #d4ei feet below stake #aj to #d4ag feet at stake #ag1 would be unnecessarily deep at #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 and #ad2 and1 consequently it is better to rise to #d4ai feet at #aa4 ,so far as this part of the drain is concerned1 it would be well to continue the same rise to #ab1 but1 in doing so1 we would come too near the surface at #ac1 #ad1 and #ae2 or must considerably depress the line at #af1 which would either make a bad break in the fall at that point1 or carry the drain too deep at #ag4 ,by the arrangement adopted1 the grade is broken at #c1 #g1 #aj1 and #aa4 ,between these points1 it is a straight line1 with the rate of fall indicated in the following table1 which commences at the upper end of the drain and proceeds toward its outlet3 ,,from ,,stake1 ,,to ,,stake1 ,,distance4 ,,total ,,fall4 ,,rate ,,of ,,depth4 ,,depth4 ,,fall4 ,,per #ajj ,,ft4 ,no4 ,no4 #bdf ft4 #b4df ft4 #a4ji ft4 #ag444d4ag #aa444d4ai ft4 ft4 ,no4 ,no4 #da ft4 #hb ft4 #b4jj ft4 #aa444d4ai #aj444d4ei ft4 ft4 ,no4 ,no4 #ia ft4 #b4di ft4 #b4hc ft4 #aj444d4ei #g444d4dg ft4 ft4 ,no4 ,no4 #agc ft4 #if ft4 #ef ft4 #g444d4dg #c444d4ac ft4 ft4 ,no4 ,s4 ,basin #ahf ft4 #c4dg ft4 #a4hg ft4 #c444d4ac #b4be ft4 ft4 ,it will be seen that the fall becomes more rapid as we ascend from stake #g1 but below this point it is very much reduced1 so much as to make it very likely that silt will be deposited1 7see page #ia71 and the drain1 thereby1 obstructed4 ,to provide against this1 a silt-basin must be placed at this point which will collect the silt and prevent its entrance into the more nearly level tile below4 ,the construction of this silt-basin is more particularly described in the next chapter4 ,from stake #g to the main silt-basin the fall is such that the drain will clear itself4 ,the drawing of regular profiles1 for the more important drains1 will be useful for the purpose of making the beginner familiar with the method of grading1 and with the principles on which the grade and depth are computed2 and sometimes1 in passing over very irregular surfaces1 this method will enable even a skilled drainer to hit upon the best adjustment in less time than by computation4 ,ordinarily1 however1 the form of computation given in the following table1 which refers to the same drain1 7,c17 will be more expeditious1 and its results are mathematically more correct47#af7 ,fall4 ,depth ,feet and from ,decimals4 ,datum ,line4 ,no4 of ,distance ,per #ajj ,between ,to ,to ,depth of ,remarks4 ,stake4 ,between ,feet4 ,stakes4 ,drain4 ,surface4 ,drain4 ,stakes4 ,silt #bj4gj #ah4bj #b4ej ft ,basin4 ft4 ft4 ,c4 #a4 #hb ft4 #b ft4 #a4fd ft4 #ai4jf #ae4dd #c4dh ft ,c4 #b4 #ci ft4 do4 4#gh ft4 #ah4bh #ad4cf #c4hc ft ,c4 #c4 #fe ft4 do4 #a4cj #af4ih #ab4he #d4ac ft ft4 ,c4 #d4 #ea ft4 4#ef 4#bh ft4 #af4gj #ab4ah #d4eb ft ,c4 #e4 #dc ft4 do4 4#bd ft4 #af4df #aa4gi #d4fg ft ,c4 #f4 #dg ft4 do4 4#bf ft4 #af4bj #aa4fi #d4ea ft ,c4 #g4 #cb ft4 do4 4#ah ft4 #af4jb #aa4ee #d4dg ft ,silt-,basin here4 ,made deep at ,nos4 #g and #aj to pass a depression of the surface at ,no4 #i4 ,c4 #h4 #da ft4 #b4hc #a4af #ad4hf #aa4cg #c4di ft ft4 ,c4 #i4 #ab ft4 do4 4#cd ft4 #ad4eb #aa4jf #c4df ft ,c4#aj4 #ch ft4 do4 4#ii ft4 #ac4ec #h4id #d4ei ft ,c4#aa4 #da ft4 #b4jj 4#hb ft4 #ab4fa #h4eb #d4ai ft ,c4#ab4 #da ft4 #a4ji 4#dd ft4 #ab4bg #g4hf #d4da ft ,c4#ac4 #da ft4 do4 4#dd ft4 #aa4hc #g4gj #d4ac ft ,c4#ad4 #da ft4 do4 4#dd ft4 #aa4ci #g4ci #d4jj ft ,c4#ae4 #da ft4 do4 4#dd ft4 #aj4ie #g4jf #c4hi ft ,c4#af4 #da ft4 do4 4#dd ft4 #aj4ea #f4gc #c4hh ft ,c4#ag4 #da ft4 do4 4#dd ft4 #aj4jg #e4ij #d4ag ft ,,note4--,the method of making the foregoing computation is this3 #ast4 ,enter the lettering of the stakes in the first column1 commencing at the lower end of the drain4 #b;d4 ,enter the distances between each two stakes in the second column1 placing the measurement on the line with the number of the upper stake of the two4 #c;d4 ,in the next to the last column enter1 on the line with each stake1 its depth below the datum-line1 as recorded in the field book of levels1 7,see page #aje47 #dth4 ,on the first line of the last column1 place the depth of the lower end of the drain1 7this is established by the grade of the main or other outlet at which it discharges47 #eth4 ,add this depth to the first number of the line next preceding it1 and enter the sum obtained on the first line of the fifth column1 as the depth of the drain below the datum-line4 #fth4 ,having reference to the grade of the surface1 7as shown by the figures in the sixth column17 as well as to any necessity for placing the drain at certain depths at certain places1 enter the desired depth1 in pencil1 in the last column1 opposite the stakes marking those places4 ,then add together this depth and the corresponding surface measurement in the column next preceding1 and enter the sum1 in pencil1 in the fifth column1 as the depth from the datum-line to the desired position of the drain4 7,in the example in hand1 these points are at ,nos4 #c1 #g1 #aj1 #aa1 and #ag47 #gth4 ,subtract the second amount in the fifth column from the first amount for the total fall between the two points--in the example1 #c from ,silt-,basin4 ,divide this total fall1 7in feet and hundredths17 by one hundredth of the total number of feet between them4 ,the result will be the rate of fall per #ajj feet1 and this should be entered1 in the third column1 opposite each of the intermediate distances between the points4 ,example3 ,depth of the ,drain at #bj4de feet4 the ,silt-,basin ,depth of the ,drain at #af4ih feet4 the ,stake ,no4 #c ---- ,difference #c4dg feet4 ,distance between the #ahf4-- feet4 two #a4hf7c4dg7a4hfe or #a4hg #a #hf ---- #a #faj #a #dhh ---- #a #bbj #a #aaf ---- #a #jdj #icj ---- #aaj #hth4 ,multiply the numbers of the second column by those of the third and divide the product by #ajj4 ,the result will be the amount of fall between the stakes1 7fourth column47--,example3 #a4hghbaecajja4ec4 #ith4 ,subtract the first number of the fourth column from the first number of the fifth column1 7on the line above it17 and place the remainder on the next line of the fifth column4--,example3 #bj4gj-a4fd #ai4jf4 ,then1 from this new amount1 subtract the second number of the fourth column1 for the next number of the fifth1 and so on1 until1 in place of the entry in pencil1 7,stake #c17 we place the exact result of the computation4 ,proceed in like manner with the next interval1--#c to #g4 #ajth4 ,subtract the numbers in the sixth column from those in the fifth1 and the remainders will be the depths to be entered in the last4 ,under the head of ,remarks1 note any peculiarity of the drain which may require attention in the field4 ,the main lines ,a1 ,d1 and ,e1 and the drain ,b1 should next be graded on the plan set forth for ,c1 and their laterals1 all of which have considerable fall1 and being all so steep as not to require silt-basins at any point1--can1 by a very simple application of the foregoing principles1 be adjusted at the proper depths4 ,in grading the stone and tile drain1 7,h1 ,i17 it is only necessary to adopt the depth of the last stakes of the laterals1 with which it is connected1 as it is immaterial in which direction the water flows4 ,the ends of this drain1--from ,h to the head of the drain ,c#aj1 and from ,i to the head of ,c#ag1--should1 of course1 have a decided fall toward the drains4 ,the laterals which are placed at intervals of #bj feet1 over the underground rock on the east side of the field1 should be continued at a depth of about #c feet for nearly their whole length1 dropping in a distance of #h or #aj feet at their lower ends to the top of the tile of the main4 ,the intervals between the lower ends of ,c#g;c1 ,c#g;d1 and ,c#g;e1 being considerably more than #bj feet1 the drains may be gradually deepened1 throughout their whole length from #c feet at the upper ends to the depth of the top of the main at the lower ends4 ,the main drains ,f and ,g1 being laid in flat land1 their outlets being fixed at a depth of #c4ej1 7the floor of the main outlet17 and it being necessary to have them as deep as possible throughout their entire length1 should be graded with great care on the least admissible fall4 ,this1 in ordinary agricultural drainage1 may be fixed at 4#be1 or #c inches1 per #ajj feet4 ,their laterals should commence with the top of their #a_/d tile even with the top of the #b-a_/b collar of the main1--or 4#ae higher than the grade of the main1--and rise1 at a uniform inclination of 4#be1 to the upper end4 ,having now computed the depth at which the tile is to lie1 at each stake1 and entered it on the map1 we are ready to mark these depths on their respective stakes in the field1 when the preliminary engineering of the work will be completed4 ,it has been deemed advisable in this chapter to consider the smallest details of the work of the draining engineer4 ,those who intend to drain in the best manner will find such details important4 ,those who propose to do their work less thoroughly1 may still be guided by the principles on which they are based4 ,any person who will take the pains to mature the plans of his work as closely as has been here recommended1 will as a consequence commence his operations in the field much more understandingly4 ,the advantage of having everything decided beforehand1--so that the workmen need not be delayed for want of sufficient directions1 and of making1 on the map1 such alterations as would have appeared necessary in the field1 thus saving the cost of cutting ditches in the wrong places1 will well repay the work of the evenings of a whole winter4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 - ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,the ,,drains4 ,knowing1 now1 precisely what is to be done2 having the lines all staked out1 and the stakes so marked as to be clearly designated2 knowing the precise depth at which the drain is to be laid1 at every point2 having the requisite tiles on the ground1 and thoroughly inspected1 the operator is prepared to commence actual work4 ,he should determine how many men he will employ1 and what tools they will require to work to advantage4 ,it may be best that the work be done by two or three men1 or it may be advisable to employ as many as can work without interfering with each other4 ,in most cases1--especially where there is much water to contend with1--the latter course will be the most economical1 as the ditches will not be so liable to be injured by the softening of their bottoms1 and the caving in of their sides4 99,the ,tools ,required99 are a subsoil plow1 two garden lines1 spades1 shovels1 and picks2 narrow finishing spades1 a finishing scoop1 a tile pick1 a scraper for filling the ditches1 a heavy wooden maul for compacting the bottom filling1 half a dozen boning-rods1 a measuring rod1 and a plumb rod4 ,these should all be on hand at the outset1 so that no delay in the work may result from the want of them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb - ,,set ,,of ,,tools4 ,fig4 #bb - ,,set ,,of ,,tools4 ,flat ,spades of various lengths and widths1 ,bill-necked ,scoop 7,a72 ,tile-layer 7,b72 ,pick-axe 7,c72 and ,scoop ,spades1 and ,shovel4 ,writers on drainage1 almost without exception1 recommend the use of elaborate sets of tools which are intended for cutting very narrow ditches1--only wide enough at the bottom to admit the tile1 and not allowing the workmen to stand in the bottom of the ditch4 ,a set of these tools is shown in ,fig4 #bb4 ,possibly there may be soils in which these implements1 in the hands of men skilled in their use1 could be employed with economy1 but they are very rare1 and it is not believed to be possible1 under any circumstances1 to regulate the bottom of the ditch so accurately as is advisable1 unless the workman can stand directly upon it1 cutting it more smoothly than he could if the point of his tool were a foot or more below the level on which he stands4 ,on this subject1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,bailey ,denton1 one of the first draining engineers of ,great ,britain1 in a letter to ,judge ,french1 says3 ,as to tools1 it is the same with them as it is with the art of draining itself1--too much rule and too much drawing upon paper2 all very right to begin with1 but very prejudicial to progress4 ,i employ1 as engineer to the ,general ,land ,drainage ,company1 and on my private account1 during the drainage season1 as many as #b1jjj men1 and it is an actual fact1 that not one of them uses the set of tools figured in print4 ,i have frequently purchased a number of sets of the ,birmingham tools1 and sent them down on extensive works4 ,the laborers would purchase a few of the smaller tools1 such as ,nos4 #bij1 #bia1 and #cja1 figured in ,morton's excellent ,cyclopdia of ,agriculture1 and would try them1 and then order others of the country blacksmith1 differing in several respects2 less weighty and much less costly1 and moreover1 much better as working tools4 ,all ,i require of the cutters1 is1 that the bottom of the drain should be evenly cut1 to fit the size of the pipe4 ,the rest of the work takes care of itself2 for a good workman will economize his labor for his own sake1 by moving as little earth as practicable2 thus1 for instance1 a first-class cutter1 in clays1 will get down #d feet with a #ab-;inch opening1 ordinarily2 if he wishes to show off1 he will sacrifice his own comfort to appearance1 and will do it with a #aj-;inch opening4 ,in the ,central ,park work1 sets of these tools were procured1 at considerable expense1 and every effort was made to compel the men to use them1 but it was soon found that1 even in the easiest digging1 there was a real economy in using1 for the first #c feet of the ditch1 the common spade1 pick1 and shovel1--finishing the bottoms with the narrow spade and scoop hereafter described1 and it is probable that the experience of that work will be sustained by that of the country at large4 99,marking the ,lines499--,to lay a drain directly under the position of its stakes1 would require that enough earth be left at each point to hold the stake1 and that the ditch be tunneled under it4 ,this is expensive and unnecessary4 ,it is better to dig the ditches at one side of the lines of stakes1 far enough away for the earth to hold them firmly in their places1 but near enough to allow measurements to be taken from the grade pegs4 ,if the ditch be placed always to the right1 or always to the left1 of the line1 and at a uniform distance1 the general plan will remain the same1 and the lines will be near enough to those marked on the map to be easily found at any future time4 ,in fact1 if it be known that the line of tiles is two feet to the right of the position indicated1 it will only be necessary1 at any time1 should it be desired to open an old drain1 to measure two feet to the right of the surveyed position to strike the line at once4 ,in soils of ordinary tenacity1 ditches #d feet deep need not be more than twenty 7#bj7 inches wide at the surface1 and four 7#d7 inches wide at the bottom4 ,this will allow1 in each side1 a slope of eight 7#h7 inches1 which is sufficient except in very loose soils1 and even these may be braced up1 if inclined to cave in4 ,there are cases where the soil contains so much running sand1 and is so saturated with water1 that no precautions will avail to keep up the banks4 ,ditches in such ground will sometimes fall in1 until the excavation reaches a width of #h or #aj feet4 ,such instances1 however1 are very rare1 and must be treated as the occasion suggests4 ,one of the garden lines should be set at a distance of about #f inches from the row of stakes1 and the other at a further distance of #bj inches4 ,if the land is in grass1 the position of these lines may be marked with a spade1 and they may be removed at once2 but1 if it is arable land1 it will be best to leave the lines in position until the ditch is excavated to a sufficient depth to mark it clearly4 ,indeed1 it will be well to at once remove all of the sod and surface soil1 say to a depth of #f inches1 7throwing this on the same side with the stakes1 and back of them47 ,the whole force can be profitably employed in this work1 until all of the ditches to be dug are scored to this depth over the entire tract to be drained1 except in swamps which are still too wet for this work4 99,water ,courses499--,the brooks which carry the water from the springs should be jumped in marking out the lines1 as it is desirable that their water be kept in separate channels1 so far as possible1 until the tiles are ready to receive it1 as1 if allowed to run in the open ditches1 it would undermine the banks and keep the bottom too soft for sound work4 ,with this object1 commence at the southern boundary of our example tract1 #aj or #ae feet east of the point of outlet1 and drive a straight1 temporary1 shallow ditch to a point a little west of the intersection of the main line ,d with its first lateral2 then carry it in a northwesterly direction1 crossing ,c midway between the silt-basin and stake ,c #a1 and thence into the present line of the brook1 turning all of the water into the ditch4 ,a branch of this ditch may be run up between the lines ,f and ,g to receive the water from the spring which lies in that direction4 ,this arrangement will keep the water out of the way until the drains are ready to take it4 99,the ,outlet499--,the water being all discharged through the new temporary ditch1 the old brook1 beyond the boundary1 should be cleared out to the final level 7#c4ge17 and an excavation made1 just within the boundary1 sufficient to receive the masonry which is to protect the outlet4 ,a good form of outlet is shown in ,fig4 #bc4 ,it may be cheaply made by any farmer1 especially if he have good stone at hand2--if not1 brick may be used1 laid on a solid foundation of stout planks1 which1 7being protected from the air and always saturated with water17 will last a very long time4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc - ,,outlet1 ,,secured ,,with ,,masonry ,,and ,,grating4 ,fig4 #bc - ,,outlet1 ,,secured ,,with ,,masonry ,,and ,,grating4 ,if made of stone1 a solid floor1 at least #b feet square1 should be placed at1 or below1 the level of the brook4 ,if this consist of a single stone1 it will be better than if of several smaller pieces4 ,on this1 place another layer extending the whole width of the first1 but reaching only from its inner edge to its center line1 so as to leave a foot in width of the bottom stone to receive the fall of the water4 ,this second layer should reach exactly the grade of the outlet 7#c4ej7 or a height of #c inches from the brook level4 ,on the floor thus made1 there should be laid the tiles which are to constitute the outlets of the several drains2 i4e41 one #c-a_/b-;inch tile for the line from the silt-basin1 two #a-a_/d-;inch for the lines ,f and ,g1 and one #b-a_/d-;inch for the main line ,e4 ,these tiles should lie close to each other and be firmly cemented together1 so that no water can pass outside of them1 and a rubble-work of stone may with advantage be carried up a foot above them4 ,stone work1 which may be rough and uncemented1 but should always be solid1 may then be built up at the sides1 and covered with a secure coping of stone4 ,a floor and sloping sides of stone work1 jointed with the previously described work1 and well cemented1 or laid in strong clay or mortar1 may1 with benefit1 be carried a few feet beyond the outlet4 ,this will effectually prevent the undermining of the structure4 ,after the entire drainage of the field is finished1 the earth above these sloping sides1 and that back of the coping1 should be neatly sloped1 and protected by sods4 ,an iron grating1 fine enough to prevent the entrance of vermin1 placed in front of the tile1 at a little distance from them1--and secured by a flat stone set on edge and hollowed out1 so as merely to allow the water to flow freely from the drains1--the stone being cemented in its place so as to allow no water to pass under it1--will give a substantial and permanent finish to the structure4 ,an outlet finished in this way1 at an extra cost of a few dollars1 will be most satisfactory1 as a lasting means of securing the weakest and most important part of the system of drains4 ,when no precaution of this sort is taken1 the water frequently forces a passage under the tile for some distance up the drains1 undermining and displacing them1 and so softening the bottom that it will be difficult1 in making repairs1 to secure a solid foundation for the work4 ,usually1 repairs of this sort1 aside from the annoyance attending them1 will cost more than the amount required to make the permanent outlet described above4 ,as well constructed outlets are necessarily rather expensive1 as much of the land as possible should be drained to each one that it is necessary to make1 by laying main lines which will collect all of the water which can be brought to it4 99,the ,main ,silt-,basin499--,the silt-basin1 at which the drains are collected1 may best be built before any drains are brought to it1 and the work may proceed simultaneously with that at the outlet4 ,it should be so placed that its center will lie exactly under the stake which marks its position1 because it will constitute one of the leading landmarks for the survey of the drains47#ag7 ,before removing the stake and grade stake1 mark their position by four stakes1 set at a distance from it of #d or #e feet1 in such positions that two lines1 drawn from those which are opposite to each other1 will intersect at the point indicated2 and place near one of them a grade stake1 driven to the exact level of the one to be removed4 ,this being done1 dig a well1 #d feet in diameter1 to a depth of #b-a_/b feet below the grade of the outlet drain1 7in the example under consideration this would be #e feet below the grade stake47 ,if much water collects in the hole1 widen it1 in the direction of the outlet drain1 sufficiently to give room for baling out the water4 ,now build1 in this well1 a structure #b feet in interior diameter1 such as is shown in ,fig4 #bd1 having its bottom #b feet1 in the clear1 below the grade of the outlet1 and carry its wall a little higher than the general surface of the ground4 ,at the proper height insert1 in the brick work1 the necessary for tiles all incoming and outgoing drains2 in this case1 a #c-a_/b-;inch tile for the outlet1 #b-a_/d-;inch for the mains ,a and ,c1 and #a-a_/d-;inch for ,b and ,d4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd - ,,silt-,,basin1 ,,built ,,to ,,the ,,surface4 ,fig4 #bd - ,,silt-,,basin1 ,,built ,,to ,,the ,,surface4 ,this basin being finished and covered with a flat stone or other suitable material1 connect it with the outlet by an open ditch1 unless the bottom of the ditch1 when laid open to the proper depth1 be found to be of muck or quicksand4 ,in such case1 it will be best to lay the tile at once1 and cover it in for the whole distance1 as1 on a soft bottom1 it would be difficult to lay it well when the full drainage of the field is flowing through the ditch4 ,the tiles should be laid with all care1 on a perfectly regulated fall1--using strips of board under them if the bottom is shaky or soft1--as on this line depends the success of all the drains above it1 which might be rendered useless by a single badly laid tile at this point1 or by any other cause of obstruction to the flow4 ,while the work is progressing in the field above1 there will be a great deal of muddy water and some sticks1 grass1 and other rubbish1 running from the ditches above the basin1 and care must be taken to prevent this drain from becoming choked4 ,a piece of wire cloth1 or basket work1 placed over the outlet in the basin1 will keep out the coarser matters1 and the mud which would accumulate in the tile may be removed by occasional flushing4 ,this is done by crowding a tuft of grass1--or a bit of sod1--into the lower end of the tile 7at the outlet17 securing it there until the water rises in the basin1 and then removing it4 ,the rush of water will be sufficient to wash the tile clean4 ,this plan is not without objections1 and1 as a rule1 it is never well to lay any tiles at the lower end of a drain until all above it is finished2 but when a considerable outlet must be secured through soft land1 which is inclined to cave in1 and to get soft at the bottom1 it will save labor to secure the tile in place before much water reaches it1 even though it require a daily flushing to keep it clean4 99,opening the ,ditches499--,thus far it has been sought to secure a permanent outlet1 and to connect it by a secure channel1 with the silt-basin1 which is to collect the water of the different series of drains4 ,the next step is to lay open the ditches for these4 ,it will be best to commence with the main line ,a and its laterals1 as they will take most of the water which now flows through the open brook1 and prevent its interference with the rest of the work4 ,the first work is the opening of the ditches to a depth of about #c feet1 which may be best done with the common spade1 pick1 and shovel1 except that in ground which is tolerably free from stones1 a subsoil plow will often take the place of the pick1 with much saving of labor4 ,it may be drawn by oxen working in a long yoke1 which will allow them to walk one on each side of the ditch1 but this is dangerous1 as they are liable to disturb the stakes1 7especially the grade stakes17 and to break down the edges of the ditches4 ,the best plan is to use a small subsoil plow1 drawn by a single horse1 or strong mule1 trained to walk in the ditch4 ,the beast will soon learn to accommodate himself to his narrow quarters1 and will work easily in a ditch #b-a_/b feet deep1 having a width of less than afoot at the bottom2 of course there must be a way provided for him to come out at each end4 ,deeper than this there is no economy in using horse power1 and even for this depth it will be necessary to use a plow having only one stilt4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be - ,,finishing ,,spade4 ,fig4 #be - ,,finishing ,,spade4 ,before the main line is cut into the open brook1 this should be furnished with a wooden trough1 which will carry the water across it1 so that the ditch shall receive only the filtration from the ground4 ,those laterals west of the main line1 which are crossed by the brook1 had better not be opened at present1--not until the water of the spring is admitted to and removed by the drain4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf - ,,finishing ,,scoop4 ,fig4 #bf - ,,finishing ,,scoop4 ,the other laterals and the whole of the main line1 having been cut to a depth of #c feet1 take a finishing spade1 7,fig4 #be17 which is only #d inches wide at its point1 and dig to within #b or #c inches of the depth marked on the stakes1 making the bottom tolerably smooth1 with the aid of the finishing scoop1 7,fig4 #bf17 and giving it as regular an inclination as can be obtained by the eye alone4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg - ,,bracing ,,the ,,sides ,,in ,,soft ,,land4 ,fig4 #bg - ,,bracing ,,the ,,sides ,,in ,,soft ,,land4 ,if the ground is rotten1 and the banks of the ditches incline to cave in1 as is often the case in passing wet places1 the earth which is thrown out in digging must be thrown back sufficiently far from the edge to prevent its weight from increasing the tendency2 and the sides of the ditch may be supported by bits of board braced apart as is shown in ,fig4 #bg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh - ,,measuring ,,staff4 ,fig4 #bh - ,,measuring ,,staff4 ,the manner of opening the ditches1 which is described above1 for the main ,a and its laterals1 will apply to the drains of the whole field and to all similar work4 99,grading the ,bottoms499--,the next step in the work is to grade the bottoms of the ditches1 so as to afford a bed for the tiles on the exact lines which are indicated by the figures marked on the different stakes4 ,the manner in which this is to be done may be illustrated by describing the work required for the line from 99,c#aj99 to 99,c#ag991 7,fig4 #bj17 after it has been opened1 as described above1 to within #b or #c inches of the final depth4 ,a measuring rod1 or square1 such as is shown in ,fig4 #bh17ah7 is set at 99,c#aj991 so that the lower side of its arm is at the mark #d4ei on the staff1 7or at a little less than #d4f if it is divided only into feet and tenths17 and is held upright in the ditch1 with its arm directly over the grade stake4 ,the earth below it is removed1 little by little1 until it will touch the top of the stake and the bottom of the ditch at the same time4 ,if the ground is soft1 it should be cut out until a flat stone1 a block of wood1 or a piece of tile1 or of brick1 sunk in the bottom1 will have its surface at the exact point of measurement4 ,this point is the bottom of the ditch on which the collar of the tile is to lie at that stake4 ,in the same manner the depth is fixed at ,c#aa 7#d4ai17 and ,c#ab 7#d4da17 as the rate of fall changes at each of these points1 and at ,c#ae 7#c4hi17 and ,c#ag 7#d4ag17 because 7although the fall is uniform from ,c#ab to ,c#ag17 the distance is too great for accurate sighting4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi - ,,boning ,,rod4 ,fig4 #bi - ,,boning ,,rod4 ,having provided boning-rods1 which are strips of board #g feet long1 having horizontal cross pieces at their upper ends1 7see ,fig4 #bi17 set these perpendicularly on the spots which have been found by measurement to be at the correct depth opposite stakes #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #ae1 and #ag1 and fasten each in its place by wedging it between two strips of board laid across the ditch1 so as to clasp it1 securing these in their places by laying stones or earth upon their ends4 ,as these boning-rods are all exactly #g feet long1 of course1 a line sighted across their tops will be exactly #g feet higher1 at all points1 than the required grade of the ditch directly beneath it1 and if a plumb rod1 7similar to the boning-rod1 but provided with a line and plummet17 be set perpendicularly on any point of the bottom of the drain1 the relation of its cross piece to the line of sight across the tops of the boning-rods will show whether the bottom of the ditch at that point is too high1 or too low1 or just right4 ,the manner of sighting over two boning-rods and an intermediate plumb-rod1 is shown in ,fig4 #ca4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj - ,,position ,,of ,,workman ,,and ,,use ,,of ,,finishing ,,scoop4 ,fig4 #cj - ,,position ,,of ,,workman ,,and ,,use ,,of ,,finishing ,,scoop4 ,three persons are required to finish the bottom of the ditch2 one to sight across the tops of the boning-rods1 one to hold the plumb-rod at different points as the finishing progresses1 and one in the ditch1 7see ,fig4 #cj17 provided with the finishing spade and scoop1--and1 in hard ground1 with a pick1--to cut down or fill up as the first man calls too high1 or1 too low4 ,an inch or two of filling maybe beaten sufficiently hard with the back of the scoop1 but if several inches should be required1 it should be well rammed with the top of a pick1 or other suitable instrument1 as any subsequent settling would disarrange the fall4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca - ,,sighting ,,by ,,the ,,boning-,,rods4 ,fig4 #ca - ,,sighting ,,by ,,the ,,boning-,,rods4 ,as the lateral drains are to be laid first1 they should be the first graded1 and as they are arranged to discharge into the tops of the mains1 their water will still flow off1 although the main ditches are not yet reduced to their final depth4 ,after the laterals are laid and filled in1 the main should be graded1 commencing at the upper end2 the tiles being laid and covered as fast as the bottom is made ready1 so that it may not be disturbed by the water of which the main carries so much more than the laterals4 99,tile-,laying499--,gisborne says3 ,it would be scarcely more absurd to set a common blacksmith to eye needles than to employ a common laborer to lay pipes and collars4 ,the work comes under the head of skilled labor1 and1 while no very great exercise of judgment is required in its performance1 the little that is required is imperatively necessary1 and the details of the work should be deftly done4 ,the whole previous outlay1--the survey and staking of the field1 the purchase of the tiles1 the digging and grading of the ditches--has been undertaken that we may make the conduit of earthenware pipes which is now to be laid1 and the whole may be rendered useless by a want of care and completeness in the performance of this chief operation4 ,this subject1 7in connection with that of finishing the bottoms of the ditches17 is very clearly treated in ,mr4 ,hoskyns' charming essay17#ai7 as follows3 ,it was urged by ,mr4 ,brunel1 as a justification for more attention and expense in the laying of the rails of the ,great ,western1 than had been ever thought of upon previously constructed lines1 that all the embankments and cuttings1 and earthworks and stations1 and law and parliamentary expenses--in fact1 the whole of the outlay encountered in the formation of a railway1 had for its main and ultimate object a perfectly smooth and level line of rail2 that to turn stingy at this point1 just when you had arrived at the great ultimatum of the whole proceedings1 viz3 the iron wheel-track1 was a sort of saving which evinced a want of true preception of the great object of all the labor that had preceded it4 ,it may seem curious to our experiences1 in these days1 that such a doctrine could ever have needed to be enforced by argument2 yet no one will deem it wonderful who has personally witnessed the unaccountable and ever new difficulty of getting proper attention paid to the leveling of the bottom of a drain1 and the laying of the tiles in that continuous line1 where one single depression or irregularity1 by collecting the water at that spot1 year after year1 tends toward the eventual stoppage of the whole drain1 through two distinct causes1 the softening of the foundation underneath the sole1 or tile flange1 and the deposit of soil inside the tile from the water collected at the spot1 and standing there after the rest had run off4 ,every depression1 however slight1 is constantly doing this mischief in every drain where the fall is but trifling2 and if to the two consequences above mentioned1 we may add the decomposition of the tile itself by the action of water long stagnant within it1 we may deduce that every tile-drain laid with these imperfections in the finishing of the bottom1 has a tendency toward obliteration1 out of all reasonable proportion with that of a well-burnt tile laid on a perfectly even inclination1 which1 humanly speaking1 may be called a permanent thing4 ,an open ditch cut by the most skillful workman1 in the summer1 affords the best illustration of this underground mischief4 ,nothing can look smoother and more even than the bottom1 until that uncompromising test of accurate levels1 the water1 makes its appearance3 all on a sudden the whole scene is changed1 the eye-accredited level vanishes as if some earthquake had taken place3 here1 there is a gravelly scour1 along which the stream rushes in a thousand little angry-looking ripples2 there1 it hangs and looks as dull and heavy as if it had given up running at all1 as a useless waste of energy2 in another place1 a few dead leaves or sticks1 or a morsel of soil broken from the side1 dams back the water for a considerable distance1 occasioning a deposit of soil along the whole reach1 greater in proportion to the quantity and the muddiness of the water detained4 ,all this shows the paramount importance of perfect evenness in the bed on which the tiles are laid4 ,the worst laid tile is the measure of the goodness and permanence of the whole drain1 just as the weakest link of a chain is the measure of its strength4 ,the simple laying of the smaller sizes of pipes and collars in the lateral drains1 is an easy matter4 ,it requires care and precision in placing the collar equally under the end of each pipe1 7having the joint at the middle of the collar17 in having the ends of the pipes actually touch each other within the collars1 and in brushing away any loose dirt which may have fallen on the spot on which the collar is to rest4 ,the connection of the laterals with the mains1 the laying of the larger sizes of tiles so as to form a close joint1 the wedging of these larger tiles firmly into their places1 and the trimming which is necessary in going around sharp curves1 and in putting in the shorter pieces which are needed to fill out the exact length of the drain1 demand more skill and judgment than are often found in the common ditcher4 ,still1 any clever workman1 who has a careful habit1 may easily be taught all that is necessary2 and until he is thoroughly taught1--and not only knows how to do the work well1 but1 also1 understands the importance of doing it well1--the proprietor should carefully watch the laying of every piece4 ,never have tiles laid by the rod1 but always by the day4 ,the more haste1 the less speed1 is a maxim which applies especially to tile-laying4 ,if the proprietor or the engineer does not overlook the laying of each tile as it is done1 and probably he will not1 he should carefully inspect every piece before it is covered4 ,it is well to walk along the ditches and touch each tile with the end of a light rod1 in such a way as to see whether it is firm enough in its position not to be displaced by the earth which will fall upon it in filling the ditches4 ,preparatory to laying1 the tiles should be placed along one side of the ditch1 near enough to be easily reached by a man standing in it4 ,when collars are to be used1 one of these should be slipped over one end of each tile4 ,the workman stands in the ditch1 with his face toward its upper end4 ,the first tile is laid with a collar on its lower end1 and the collar is drawn one-half of its length forward1 so as to receive the end of the next tile4 ,the upper end of the first tile is closed with a stone1 or a bit of broken tile placed firmly against it4 ,the next tile has its nose placed into the projecting half of the collar of the first one1 and its own collar is drawn forward to receive the end of the third1 and thus to the end of the drain1 the workman walking backward as the work progresses4 ,by and by1 when he comes to connect the lateral with the main1 he may find that a short piece of tile is needed to complete the length2 this should not be placed next to the tile of the main1 where it is raised above the bottom of the ditch1 but two or three lengths back1 leaving the connection with the main to be made with a tile of full length4 ,if the piece to be inserted is only two or three inches long1 it may be omitted1 and the space covered by using a whole #b-;inch tile in place of the collar4 ,in turning corners or sharp curves1 the end of the tile may be chipped off1 so as to be a little thinner on one side1 which will allow it to be turned at a greater angle in the collar4 ,if the drain turns a right angle1 it will be better to dig out the bottom of the ditch to a depth of about eight inches1 and to set a #f-;inch tile on end in the hole1 perforating its sides1 so as to admit the ends of the pipes at the proper level4 ,this #f-;inch tile1 7which acts as a small silt-basin17 should stand on a board or on a flat stone1 and its top should be covered with a stone or with a couple of bricks4 ,wood will last almost forever below the level of the drain1 where it will always be saturated with water1 but in the drier earth above the tile1 it is much more liable to decay4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb - ,,pick ,,for ,,dressing ,,and ,,preforating ,,tile4 ,fig4 #cb - ,,pick ,,for ,,dressing ,,and ,,preforating ,,tile4 ,the trimming and perforating of the tile is done with a tile-pick1 7,fig4 #cb17 the hatchet end1 tolerably sharp1 being used for the trimming1 and the point1 for making the holes4 ,this is done by striking lightly around the circumference of the hole until the center piece falls in1 or can be easily knocked in4 ,if the hole is irregular1 and does not fit the tile nicely1 the open space should be covered with bits of broken tile1 to keep the earth out4 ,as fast as the laterals are laid and inspected1 they should be filled in to the depth of at least a foot1 to protect the tiles from being broken by the falling of stones or lumps of earth from the top1 and from being displaced by water flowing in the ditch4 ,two or three feet of the lower end may be left uncovered until the connection with the main is finished4 ,in the main drains1 when the tiles are of the size with which collars are used1 the laying is done in the same manner4 ,if it is necessary to use #c-a_/b-;inch tiles1 or any larger size1 much more care must be given to the closing of the joints4 ,all tiles1 in manufacture1 dry more rapidly at the top1 which is more exposed to the air1 than at the bottom1 and they are1 therefore1 contracted and made shorter at the top4 ,this difference is most apparent in the larger sizes4 ,the large round tiles1 which can be laid on any side1 can easily be made to form a close joint1 and they should be secured in their proper position by stones or lumps of earth1 wedged in between them and the sides of the ditch4 ,the sole tiles must lie with the shortest sides up1 and1 usually1 the space between two tiles1 at the top1 will be from one-quarter to one-half of an inch4 ,to remedy this defect1 and form a joint which may he protected against the entrance of earth1 the bottom should he trimmed off1 so as to allow the tops to come closer together4 ,any opening1 of less than a quarter of an inch1 can he satisfactorily covered1--more than that should not be allowed4 ,in turning corners1 or in passing around curves1 with large tiles1 their ends must he beveled off with the pick1 so as to fit nicely in this position4 ,the best covering for the joints of tiles which are laid without collars1 is a scrap of tin1 bent so as to fit their shape1--scraps of leather1 or bits of strong wood shavings1 answer a very good purpose1 though both of these latter require to be held in place by putting a little earth over their ends as soon as laid on the tile4 ,very small grass ropes drawn over the joints1 7the ends being held down with stones or earth17 form a satisfactory covering1 but care should be taken that they be not too thick4 ,a small handful of wood shavings1 thrown over the joints1 also answers a good purpose4 ,care1 however1 should always be taken1 in using any material which will decay readily1 to have no more than is necessary to keep the earth out1 lest1 in its decay1 it furnish material to be carried into the tile and obstruct the flow4 ,this precaution becomes less necessary in the case of drains which always carry considerable streams of water1 but if they are at times sluggish in their flow1 too much care cannot be given to keep them free of all possible causes of obstruction4 ,as nothing is gained by increasing the quantity of loose covering beyond what is needed to close the joints1 and as such covering is only procured with some trouble1 there is no reason for its extravagant use4 ,there seems to remain in the minds of many writers on drainage a glimmering of the old fallacy that underdrains1 like open drains1 receive their water from above1 and it is too commonly recommended that porous substances be placed above the tile4 ,if1 as is universally conceded1 the water rises into the tile from below1 this is unnecessary4 ,the practice of covering the joints1 and even covering the whole tile1 7often to the depth of a foot17 with tan-bark1 turf1 coarse gravel1 etc41 is in no wise to be commended2 and1 while the objections to it are not necessarily very grave in all cases1 it always introduces an element of insecurity1 and it is a waste of money1 if nothing worse4 ,the tile layer need not concern himself with the question1 of affording entrance room for the water4 ,let him1 so far as the rude materials at hand will allow1 make the joints perfectly tight1 and when the water comes1 it will find ample flaws in his work1 and he will have been a good workman if it do not find room to flow in a current1 carrying particles of dirt with it4 ,in ditches in which water is running at the time of laying the tiles1 the process should follow closely after the grading1 and the stream may even be dammed back1 section after section1 7a plugged tile being placed under the dam1 to be afterwards replaced by a free one17 and graded1 laid and covered before the water breaks in4 ,there is one satisfaction in this kind of work1--that1 while it is difficult to lay the drain so thoroughly well as in a dry ditch1 the amount of water is sufficient to overcome any slight tendency to obstruction4 99,connections499--,as has been before stated1 lateral drains should always enter at the top of the main4 ,even in the most shallow work1 the slightly decreased depth of the lateral1 which this arrangement requires1 is well compensated for by the free outlet which it secures4 ,after the tile of the main1 which is to receive a side drain1 has been fitted to its place1 and the point of junction marked1 it should be taken up and perforated2 then the end of the tile of the lateral should be so trimmed as to fit the hole as accurately as may be1 the large tile replaced in its position1 and the small one laid on it1--reaching over to the floor of the lateral ditch4 ,then connect it with the lateral as previously laid1 fill up solidly the space under the tile which reaches over to the top of the main1 7so that it cannot become disturbed in filling17 and lay bits of tile1 or other suitable covering1 around the connecting joint47#bj7 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc - ,,lateral ,,drain ,,entering ,,at ,,top4 ,fig4 #cc - ,,lateral ,,drain ,,entering ,,at ,,top4 ,when the main drain is laid with collars1 it should be so arranged that1 by substituting a full tile in the place of the collar1--leaving1 within it1 a space between the smaller pipes1--a connection can be made with this larger tile1 as is represented in ,figures #cc and #cd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd - ,,sectional ,,view ,,of ,,joint4 ,fig4 #cd - ,,sectional ,,view ,,of ,,joint4 99,silt-,basins99 should be used at all points where a drain1 after running for any considerable distance at a certain rate of fall1 changes to a less rapid fall1--unless1 indeed1 the diminished fall be still sufficiently great for the removal of silty matters1 7say two feet or more in a hundred74 ,they may be made in any manner which will secure a stoppage of the direct current1 and afford room below the floor of the tile for the deposit of the silt which the water has carried in suspension2 and they may be of any suitable material2--even a sound flour barrel will serve a pretty good purpose for many years4 ,the most complete form of basin is that represented in ,figure #bd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce - ,,square ,,brick ,,silt-,,basin4 ,fig4 #ce - ,,square ,,brick ,,silt-,,basin4 ,when the object is only to afford room for the collection of the silt of a considerable length of drain1 and it is not thought worth while to keep open a communication with the surface1 for purposes of inspection1 a square box of brick work1 7,fig4 #ce17 having a depth of one and a half or two feet below the floor of the drain1--tiles for the drains being built in the walls1 and the top covered with a broad stone1--will answer very well4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf - ,,silt-,,basin ,,of ,,vitrified ,,pipe4 ,fig4 #cf - ,,silt-,,basin ,,of ,,vitrified ,,pipe4 ,a good sort of basin1 to reach to the surface of the ground1 may be made of large1 vitrified drain pipes1--such as are used for town sewerage1--having a diameter of from six to twelve inches1 according to the requirements of the work4 ,this basin is shown in ,figure #cf4 ,figure #cg represents a basin made of a #f-;inch tile1--similar to that described on page #acj1 for turning a short corner4 ,a larger basin of the same size1 cheaper than if built of brick1 may be made by using a large vitrified drain pipe in the place of the one shown in the cut4 ,these vitrified pipes may be perforated in the manner described for the common tile4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg - ,,tile ,,silt-,,basin4 ,fig4 #cg - ,,tile ,,silt-,,basin4 ,in laying the main line ,c1 7,fig4 #ba17 an underground basin of brick work1 7,fig4 #ce17 or its equivalent1 should be placed at stake #g1 because at that point the water1 which has been flowing on an inclination of #a4ji1 #b4jj and #b4hc per #ajj1 continues its course over the much less fall of only #j4ef per #ajj4 ,if1 among the tiles which have passed the inspection1 there are some which1 from over burning1 are smaller than the average1 they should be laid at the upper ends of the laterals4 ,the cardinal rule of the tile layer should be never to have a single tile in the finished drain of smaller size1 of more irregular shape1 or less perfectly laid1 than any tile above it4 ,if there is to be any difference in the quality of the drain1 at different points1 let it grow better as it approaches the outlet and has a greater length above depending upon its action4 99,covering the ,tiles1 and ,filling-in the ,ditches499--,the best material for covering the tiles is that which will the most completely surround them1 so as to hold them in their places2 will be the least likely to have passages for the flow of streams of water into the joints1 and will afford the least silt to obstruct the drain4 ,clay is the best of all available materials1 because it is of the most uniform character throughout its mass1 and may be most perfectly compacted around the tiles4 ,as has been before stated1 all matters which are subject to decay are objectionable1 because they will furnish fine matters to enter the joints1 and by their decrease of bulk1 may leave openings in the earth through which streams of muddy water may find their way into the tiles4 ,gravel is bad1 and will remain bad until its spaces are filled with fine dirt deposited by water1 which1 leaving only a part of its impurities here1 carries the rest into the drain4 ,a gravelly loam1 free from roots or other organic matter1 if it is strong enough to be worked into a ball when wet1 will answer a very good purpose4 ,ordinarily1 the earth which was thrown out from the bottom of the ditch1 and which now lies at the top of the dirt heap1 is the best to be returned about the tiles1 being first freed from any stones it may contain which are large enough to break or disturb the tiles in falling on to them4 ,if the bottom of the ditch consists of quicksand or other silty matters1 clay or some other suitable earth should be sought in that which was excavated from a less depth1 or should be brought from another place4 ,a thin layer of this having been placed in the bottom of the ditch when grading1 a slight covering of the same about the tiles will so encase them as to prevent the entrance of the more slippy soil4 ,the first covering of fine earth1 free from stones and clods1 should be sprinkled gently over the tiles1 no full shovelfuls being thrown on to them until they are covered at least six inches deep4 ,when the filling has reached a height of from fifteen to twenty inches1 the men may jump into the ditch and tramp it down evenly and regularly1 not treading too hard in any one place at first4 ,when thus lightly compacted about the tile1 so that any further pressure cannot displace them1 the filling should be repeatedly rammed1 7the more the better17 by two men standing astride the ditch1 facing each other1 and working a maul1 such as is shown in ,figure #ch1 and which may weigh from #hj to #ajj pounds4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch - ,,maul ,,for ,,ramming4 ,fig4 #ch - ,,maul ,,for ,,ramming4 ,those to whom this recommendation is new1 will1 doubtless1 think it unwise4 ,the only reply to their objection must be that others who shared their opinion1 have1 by long observation and experience1 been convinced of its correctness4 ,they may practically convince themselves of the value of this sort of covering by a simple and inexpensive experiment3 ,take two large1 water-tight hogsheads1 bore through the side of each1 a few inches from the bottom1 a hole just large enough to admit a #a-a_/d-;inch tile2 cover the bottom to the hight of the lower edge of the hole with strong1 wet clay1 beaten to a hard paste2 on this1 lay a line of pipes and collars1--the inner end sealed with putty1 and the tile which passes through the hole so wedged about with putty1 that no water could pass out between it and the outside of the hole4 ,cover the tile in one hogshead with loose gravel1 and then fill it to the top with loose earth4 ,cover the tile in the other1 twenty inches deep1 with ordinary stiff clay1 7not wet enough to puddle1 but sufficiently moist to pack well17 and ram it thoroughly1 so as to make sure that the tiles are completely clasped1 and that there is no crack nor crevice through which water can trickle1 and then fill this hogshead to the top with earth1 of the same character with that used in the other case4 ,these hogsheads should stand where the water of a small roof1 7as that of a hog-pen17 may be led into them1 by an arrangement which shall give an equal quantity to each2--this will give them rather more than the simple rain-fall1 but will leave them exposed to the usual climatic changes of the season4 ,a vessel1 of a capacity of a quart or more1 should be connected with each outlet1 and covered from the dust1-- these will act as silt-basins4 ,during the first few storms the water will flow off much more freely from the first barrel2 but1 little by little1 the second one1 as the water finds its way through the clay1 and as the occasional drying1 and repeated filtration make it more porous1 will increase in its flow until it will1 by the end of the season1 or1 at latest1 by the end of the second season1 drain as well as the first1 if1 indeed1 that be not by this time somewhat obstructed with silt4 ,the amount of accumulation in the vessels at the outlet will show which process has best kept back the silt1 and the character of the deposit will show which would most probably be carried off by the gentle flow of water in a nearly level drain4 ,it is no argument against this experiment that its results cannot be determined even in a year1 for it is not pretended that drains laid in compact clay will dry land so completely during the first month as those which give more free access to the water2 only that they will do so in a comparatively short time2 and that1 as drainage is a work for all time1 7practically as lasting as the farm itself17 the importance of permanence and good working for long years to come1 is out of all proportion to that of the temporary good results of one or two seasons1 accompanied with doubtful durability4 ,it has been argued that surface water will be more readily removed by drains having porous filling4 ,even if this were true to any important degree1--which it is not1--it would be an argument against the plan1 for the remedy would be worse than the disease4 ,if the water flow from the surface down into the drain1 it will not fail to carry dirt with it1 and instead of the clear water1 which alone should rise into the tiles from below1 we should have a trickling flow from above1 muddy with wasted manure and silty earth4 ,the remaining filling of the ditch is a matter of simple labor1 and may be done in whatever way may be most economical under the circumstances of the work4 ,if the amount to be filled is considerable1 so that it is desirable to use horse-power1 the best way will be to use a scraper1 such as is represented in ,figure #ci1 which is a strongly ironed plank1 #f feet long and #ah inches wide1 sharp shod at one side1 and supplied with handles at the other4 ,it is propelled by means of the curved rods1 which are attached to its under side by flexible joints4 ,these rods are connected by a chain which has links large enough to receive the hook of an ox-chain4 ,this scraper may be used for any straight-forward work by attaching the power to the middle of the chain4 ,by moving the hook a few links to the right or left1 it will act somewhat after the manner of the mould-board of a plow1 and will1 if skillfully handled1 shoot the filling rapidly into the ditch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci - ,,board ,,scraper ,,for ,,filling ,,ditches4 ,fig4 #ci - ,,board ,,scraper ,,for ,,filling ,,ditches4 ,if the work is done by hand1 mix the surface soil and turf with the subsoil filling for the whole depth4 ,if with a scraper1 put the surface soil at the bottom of the loose filling1 and the subsoil at the top1 as this will be an imitation1 for the limited area of the drains1 of the process of trenching1 which is used in garden cultivation4 ,when the ditches are filled1 they will be higher than the adjoining land1 and it will be well to make them still more so by digging or plowing out a small trench at each side of the drain1 throwing the earth against the mound1 which will prevent surface water1 7during heavy rains17 from running into the loose filling before it is sufficiently settled4 ,a cross section of a filled drain provided with these ditches is shown in ,figure #dj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj - ,,cross-,,section ,,of ,,ditch 7,,filled71 ,,with ,,furrow ,,at ,,each ,,side4 ,fig4 #dj - ,,cross-,,section ,,of ,,ditch 7,,filled71 ,,with ,,furrow ,,at ,,each ,,side4 ,in order that the silt-basins may be examined1 and their accumulations of earth removed1 during the early action of the drains1 those parts of the ditches which are above them may be left open1 care being taken1 by cutting surface ditches around them1 to prevent the entrance of water from above4 ,during this time the covers of the basins should be kept on1 and should be covered with inverted sods to keep loose dirt from getting into them4 99,collecting the ,water f ,springs499--,the lateral which connects with the main drain1 ,a1 7,fig4 #ba17 at the point m1 and which is to take the water of the spring at the head of the brook1 should not be opened until the main has been completed and filled into the silt-basin1--the brook having1 meantime1 been carried over the other ditches in wooden troughs4 ,this lateral may now be made in the following way3 ,dig down to the tile of the main1 and carry the lateral ditch back1 a distance of ten feet4 ,in the bottom of this1 place a wooden trough1 at least six feet long1 laid at such depth that its channel shall be on the exact grade required for laying the tiles1 and lay long straw1 7held down by weights17 lengthwise within it4 ,make an opening in the tile of the main and connect the trough with it4 ,the straw will prevent any coarse particles of earth from being carried into the tile1 and the flow of the water will be sufficient to carry on to the silt-basin any finer matters4 ,now open the ditch to and beyond the spring1 digging at least a foot below the grade in its immediate vicinity1 and filling to the exact grade with small stones1 broken bricks1 or other suitable material4 ,lay the tiles from the upper end of the ditch across the stone work1 and down to the wooden trough4 ,now spread a sufficient layer of wood shavings over the stone work to keep the earth from entering it1 cover the tiles and fill in the ditch1 as before directed1 and then remove the straw from the wooden trough and lay tiles in its place4 ,in this way1 the water of even a strong spring may be carried into a finished drain without danger4 ,in laying the tile which crosses the stone work1 it is well to use full #b-a_/b-;inch tiles in the place of collars1 leaving the joints of these1 and of the #a-a_/d-;inch tiles1 7which should join near the middle of the collar tile17 about a quarter of an inch open1 to give free entrance to the water4 ,the stone and tile drain1 ,h1 ,i1 is simply dug out to the surface of the rock1 if this is not more than two feet below the grade of the upper ends of the laterals with which it connects1 and then filled up with loose stones to the line of grade4 ,if the stones are small1 so as to form a good bottom for the tiles1 they may be laid directly upon it2 if not1 a bottom for them may be made of narrow strips of cheap boards4 ,before filling1 the tiles and stone work should be covered with shavings1 and the filling above these should consist of a strong clay1 which will remain in place after the shavings rot away4 99,amending the ,map499--,when the tiles are laid1 and before they are covered1 all deviations of the lines1 as in passing around large stones and other obstructions1 which may have prevented the exact execution of the original plan1 and the location and kind of each underground silt-basin should also be carefully noted1 so that they may be transferred to the map1 for future reference1 in the event of repairs becoming necessary4 ,in a short time after the work is finished1 the surface of the field will show no trace of the lines of drain1 and it should be possible1 in case of need1 to find any point of the drains with precision1 so that no labor will be lost in digging for it4 ,it is much cheaper to measure over the surface than to dig four feet trenches through the ground4 ,,chapter ,v4 - ,,how ,,to ,,take ,,care ,,of ,,drains ,,and ,,drained ,,land4 ,so far as tile drains are concerned1 if they are once well laid1 and if the silt-basins have been emptied of silt until the water has ceased to deposit it1 they need no care nor attention1 beyond an occasional cleaning of the outlet brook4 ,now and then1 from the proximity of willows1 or thrifty1 young1 water-loving trees1 a drain will be obstructed by roots2 or1 during the first few years after the work is finished1 some weak point1--a badly laid tile1 a loosely fitted connection between the lateral and a main1 or an accumulation of silt coming from an undetected and persistent vein of quicksand1--will be developed1 and repairs will have to be made4 ,except for the slight danger from roots1 which must always be guarded against to the extent of allowing no young trees of the dangerous class to grow near a drain through which a constant stream of water flows1 it may be fairly assumed that drains which have been kept in order for four or five years have passed the danger of interruption from any cause1 and they may be considered entirely safe4 ,a drain will often1 for some months after it is laid1 run muddy water after rains4 ,sometimes the early deposit of silt will nearly fill the tile1 and it will take the water of several storms to wash it out4 ,if the tiles have been laid in packed clay1 they cannot long receive silt from without1 and that which makes the flow turbid1 may be assumed to come from the original deposit in the conduit4 ,examinations of newly laid drains have developed many instances where tiles were at first half filled with silt1 and three months later were entirely clean4 ,the muddiness of the flow indicates what the doctors call an effort of nature to relieve herself1 and nature may be trusted to succeed1 at least1 until she abandons the effort4 ,if we are sure that a drain has been well laid1 we need feel no anxiety because it fails to take the water from the ground so completely as it should do1 until it settles into a flow of clear water after the heaviest storms4 ,in the case of art actual stoppage1 which will generally be indicated by the bursting out of the drain1 i4e41 the wetting of the land as though there were a spring under it1 or as though its water had no underground outlet1 7which is the fact17 it will be necessary to lay open the drain until the obstruction is found4 ,in this work1 the real value of the map will be shown1 by the facility which it offers for finding any point of any line of drains1 and the exact locality of the junctions with the mains1 and of the silt-basins4 ,in laying out the plan on the ground1 and in making his map1 the surveyor will have had recourse to two or more fixed points2 one of them1 in our example1 7fig4 #ba17 would probably be the center of the main silt-basin1 and one1 a drilled hole or other mark on the rock at the north side of the field4 ,by staking out on the ground the straight line connecting these two points1 and drawing a corresponding line on the map2 we shall have a base-line1 from which it will be easy1 by perpendicular offsets1 to determine on the ground any point upon the map4 ,by laying a small square on the map1 with one of its edges coinciding with the base-line1 and moving it on this line until the other edge meets the desired point1 we fix1 at the angle of the square1 the point on the base-line from which we are to measure the length of the offset4 ,the next step is to find1 7by the scale17 the distance of this point from the nearest end of the base-line1 and from the point sought4 ,then measure off1 in the field1 the corresponding distance on the base-line1 and1 from the point thus found1 measure on a line perpendicular to the base line1 the length of the offset2 the point thus indicated will be the locality sought4 ,in the same manner1 find another point on the same drain1 to give the range on which to stake it out4 ,from this line1 the drains which run parallel to it1 can easily be found1 or it may be used as a base-line1 from which to find1 by measuring offsets1 other points near it4 ,the object of this staking is1 to find1 in an inexpensive and easy way1 the precise position of the drains1 for which it would be otherwise necessary to grope in the dark1 verifying our guesses by digging four-foot trenches1 at random4 ,if there is a silt-basin1 or a junction a short distance below the point where the water shows itself1 this will be the best place to dig4 ,if it is a silt-basin1 we shall probably find that this has filled up with dirt1 and has stopped the flow4 ,in this case it should be cleaned out1 and a point of the drain ten feet below it examined4 ,if this is found to be clear1 a long slender stick may be pushed up as far as the basin and worked back and forth until the passage is cleared4 ,then replace the tile below1 and try with the stick to clean the tiles above the basin1 so as to tap the water above the obstruction4 ,if this cannot be done1 or if the drain ten feet below is clogged1 it will be necessary to uncover the tiles in both directions until an opening is found1 and to take up and relay the whole4 ,if the wetting of the ground is sufficient to indicate that there is much water in the drain1 only five or six tiles should be taken up at a time1 cleaned and relaid1--commencing at the lower end1--in order that1 when the water commences to flow1 it may not disturb the bottom of the ditch for the whole distance4 ,if the point opened is at a junction with the main1 examine both the main and the lateral1 to see which is stopped1 and proceed with one or the other1 as directed above4 ,in doing this work1 care should be taken to send as little muddy water as possible into the drain below1 and to allow the least possible disturbance of the bottom4 ,if silt-basins have been placed at those points at which the fall diminishes1 the obstruction will usually be found to occur at the outlets of these1 from a piling up of the silt in front of them1 and to extend only a short distance below and above4 ,it is not necessary to take up the tiles until they are found to be entirely clean1 for1 if they are only one-half or one-third full1 they will probably be washed clean by the rush of water1 when that which is accumulated above is tapped4 ,the work should be done in settled fair weather1 and the ditches should remain open until the effect of the flow has been observed4 ,if the tiles are made thoroughly clean by the time that the accumulated water has run off1 say in #bd hours1 they may be covered up2 if not1 it may be necessary to remove them again1 and clean them by hand4 ,when the work is undertaken it should be thoroughly done1 so that the expense of a new opening need not be again incurred4 ,it is worse than useless to substitute larger sizes of tiles for those which are taken up4 ,the obstruction1 if by silt1 is the result of a too sluggish flow1 and to enlarge the area of the conduit would only increase the difficulty4 ,if the tiles are too small to carry the full flow which follows a heavy rain1 they will be very unlikely to become choked1 for the water will then have sufficient force to wash them clean1 while if they are much larger than necessary1 a deposit of silt to one half of their height will make a broad1 flat bed for the stream1 which will run with much less force1 and will be more likely to increase the deposit4 ,if the drains are obstructed by the roots of willows1 or other trees1 the proprietor must decide whether he will sacrifice the trees or the drains2 both he cannot keep1 unless he chooses to go to the expense of laying in cement all of the drains which carry constant streams1 for a distance of at least #ej feet from the dangerous trees4 ,the trouble from trees is occasionally very great1 but its occurrence is too rare for general consideration1 and must be met in each case with such remedies as circumstances suggest as the best4 ,the gratings over the outlets of silt-basins which open at the surface of the ground1 are sometimes1 during the first year of the drainage1 obstructed by a fungoid growth which collects on the cross bars4 ,this should be occasionally rubbed off4 ,its character is not very well understood1 and it is rarely observed in old drains4 ,the decomposition of the grass bands which are used to cover the joints of the larger tiles may encourage its formation4 ,if the surface soil have a good proportion of sand1 gravel1 or organic matter1 so as to give it the consistency which is known as loamy1 it will bear any treatment which it may chance to receive in cultivation1 or as pasture land2 but if it be a decided clay soil1 no amount of draining will enable us to work it1 or to turn cattle upon it when it is wet with recent rains4 ,it will much sooner become dry1 because of the drainage1 and may much sooner be trodden upon without injury2 but wet clay cannot be worked or walked over without being more or less puddled1 and1 thereby1 injured for a long time4 ,no matter how thoroughly heavy clay pasture lands may be under-drained1 the cattle should be removed from them when it rains1 and kept off until they are comparatively dry4 ,neglect of this precaution has probably led to more disappointment as to the effects of drainage than any other circumstances connected with it4 ,the injury from this cause does not extend to a great depth1 and in the ,northern ,states it would always be overcome by the frosts of a single winter2 as has been before stated1 it is confined to stiff clay soils1 but as these are the soils which most need draining1 the warning given is important4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 - ,,what ,,draining ,,costs4 ,draining is expensive work4 ,this fact must be accepted as a very stubborn one1 by every man who proposes to undertake the improvement4 ,there is no royal road to tile-laying1 and the beginner should count the cost at the outset4 ,a good many acres of virgin land at the ,west might be bought for what must be paid to get an efficient system of drains laid under a single acre at home4 ,any man who stops at this point of the argument will probably move ,west1--or do nothing4 ,yet1 it is susceptible of demonstration that1 even at the ,west1 in those localities where ,indian ,corn is worth as much as fifty cents per bushel at the farm1 it will pay to drain1 in the best manner1 all such land as is described in the first chapter of this book as in need of draining4 ,arguments to prove this need not be based at all on cheapness of the work2 only on its effects and its permanence4 ,in fact1 so far as draining with tiles is concerned1 cheapness is a delusion and a snare1 for the reason that it implies something less than the best work1 a compromise between excellence and inferiority4 ,the moment that we come down from the best standard1 we introduce a new element into the calculation4 ,the sort of tile draining which it is the purpose of this work to advocate is a system so complete in every particular1 that it may be considered as an absolutely permanent improvement4 ,during the first years of the working of the drains1 they will require more or less attention1 and some expense for repairs2 but1 in well constructed work1 these will be very slight1 and will soon cease altogether4 ,in proportion as we resort to cheap devices1 which imply a neglect of important parts of the work1 and a want of thoroughness in the whole1 the expense for repairs will increase1 and the duration of the usefulness of the drains will diminish4 ,drains which are permanently well made1 and which will1 practically1 last for all time1 may be regarded as a good investment1 the increased crop of each year1 paying a good interest on the money that they cost1 and the money being still represented by the undiminished value of the improvement4 ,in such a case the draining of the land may be said to cost1 not #ej per acre1--but the interest on #ej each year4 ,the original amount is well invested1 and brings its yearly dividend as surely as though it were represented by a five-twenty bond4 ,with badly constructed drains1 on the other hand1 the case is quite different4 ,in buying land which is subject to no loss in quantity or quality1 the farmer considers1 not so much the actual cost1 as the relation between the yearly interest on the cost1 and the yearly profit on the crop1--knowing that1 a hundred years hence1 the land will still be worth his money4 ,but if the land were bounded on one side by a river which yearly encroached some feet on its bank1 leaving the field a little smaller after each freshet2 or if1 every spring1 some rods square of its surface were sure to be covered three feet deep with stones and sand1 so that the actual value of the property became every year less1 the purchaser would compare the yearly value of the crops1 not only with the interest on the price1 but1 in addition to this1 with so much of the prime value as yearly disappears with the destruction of the land4 ,it is exactly so with the question of the cost of drainage4 ,if the work is insecurely done1 and is liable1 in five years or in fifty1 to become worthless2 the increase of the crops resulting from it1 must not only cover the yearly interest on the cost1 but the yearly depreciation as well4 ,therefore what may seem at the time of doing the work to be cheapness1 is really the greatest extravagance4 ,it is like building a brick wall with clay for mortar4 ,the bricks and the workmanship cost full price1 and the small saving on the mortar will topple the wall over in a few years1 while1 if well cemented1 it would have lasted for centuries4 ,the cutting and filling of the ditches1 and the purchase and transportation of the tiles1 will cost the same in every case1 and these constitute the chief cost2 if the proper care in grading1 tile-laying and covering1 and in making outlets be stingily withheld1--saving1 perhaps1 one-tenth of the expense1--what might have been a permanent improvement to the land1 may disappear1 and the whole outlay be lost in ten years4 ,a saving of ten per cent4 in the cost will have lost us the other ninety in a short time4 ,but1 while cheapness is to be shunned1 economy is to be sought in every item of the work of draining1 and should be studied1 by proprietor and engineer1 from the first examination of the land1 to the throwing of the last shovelful of earth on to the filling of the ditch4 ,there are few operations connected with the cultivation of the soil in which so much may be imperceptibly lost through neglect1 and carelessness about little details1 as in tile-draining4 ,in the original levelling of the ground1 the adjustment of the lines1 the establishing of the most judicious depth and inclination at each point of the drains1 the disposition of surface streams during the prosecution of the work1 and in the width of the excavation1 the line which divides economy and wastefulness is extremely narrow and the most constant vigilance1 together with the best judgment and foresight1 are needed to avoid unnecessary cost4 ,in the laying and covering of the tile1 on the other hand1 it is best to disregard a little slowness and unnecessary care on the part of the workmen1 for the sake of the most perfect security of the work4 99,details of ,cost499--,the items of the work of drainage may be classified as follows3 #a4 ,engineering and ,superintendence4 #b4 ,digging the ditches4 #c4 ,grading the bottoms4 #d4 ,tile and tile-laying4 #e4 ,covering the tile and filling the ditches4 #f4 ,outlets and silt-basins4 #a4 ,engineering and ,superintendence4--,it is not easy to say what would be the proper charge for this item of the work4 ,in ,england1 the ,commissioners under the ,drainage ,acts of ,parliament1 and the ,boards of ,public ,works1 fix the charge for engineering at #a4be per acre4 ,that is in a country when the extent of lands undergoing the process of draining is very great1 enabling one person to superintend large tracts in the same neighborhood at the same time1 and with little or no outlay for travelling expenses4 ,in this country1 where the improvement is1 thus far1 confined to small areas1 widely separated2 and where there are comparatively few engineers who make a specialty of the work1 the charge for services is necessarily much higher1 and the amount expended in travelling much greater4 ,in most cases1 the proprietor of the land must qualify himself to superintend his own operations1 7with the aid of a country surveyor1 or a railroad engineer in the necessary instrumental work47 ,as draining becomes more general1 the demand for professional assistance will1 without doubt1 cause local engineers to turn their attention to the subject1 and their services may be more cheaply obtained4 ,at present1 it would probably not be prudent to estimate the cost of engineering and superintendence1 including the time and skill of the proprietor1 at less than #e per acre1 even where from #bj to #ej acres are to be drained at once4 #b4 ,digging the ,ditches4--,the labor required for the various operations constitutes the principal item of cost in draining1 and the price of labor is now so different in different localities1 and so unsettled in all1 that it is difficult to determine a rate which would be generally fair4 ,it will be assumed that the average wages of day laborers of the class employed in digging ditches1 is #a4ej per day1 and the calculation will have to be changed for different districts1 in proportion to the deviation of the actual rate of wages from this amount4 ,there is a considerable advantage in having the work done at some season1 7as after the summer harvest1 or late in the fall17 when wages are comparatively low4 ,the cutting of the ditches should always be let by the rod4 ,when working at day's work1 the men will invariably open them wider than is necessary1 for the sake of the greater convenience of working1 and the extra width causes a corresponding waste of labor4 ,a #d-;foot ditch1 in most soils1 need be only #bj inches wide at the surface1 and #d inches at the bottom4 ,this gives a mean width of #ab inches1 and requires the removal of nearly #b-a_/b cubic yards of earth for each rod of ditch2 but an increase to a mean width of #af inches1 7which day workmen will usually reach1 while piece workmen almost never will17 requires the removal of #c-a_/d cubic yards to the rod4 ,as the increased width is usually below the middle of the drain1 the extra earth will all have to be raised from #b to #d feet1 and the extra #c_/d yards will cost as much as a full yard taken evenly from the whole side1 from top to bottom4 ,in clay soils1 free from stones or hard pan1 but so stiff as to require considerable picking1 ordinary workmen1 after a little practice1 will be able to dig #c-a_/b rods of ditch per day1 to an average depth of #c4hj1--leaving from #b to #c inches of the bottom of #d-;foot ditches to be finished by the graders4 ,this makes the cost of digging about #dc cents per rod4 ,in loamy soil the cost will be a little less than this1 and in very hard ground1 a little more4 ,in sandy and peaty soils1 the cost will not be more than #cj cents4 ,probably #dc cents would be a fair average for soils requiring drainage1 throughout the country4 ,this is about #ag cents for each yard of earth removed4 ,in soft ground1 the caving in of the banks will require a much greater mean width than #ab inches to be thrown out1 and1 if the accident could not have been prevented by ordinary care on the part of the workman1 7using the bracing boards shown in ,fig4 #bh17 he should receive extra pay for the extra work4 ,in passing around large stones it may also be necessary to increase the width4 ,the following table will facilitate the calculations for such extra work3 ,,cubic ,,yards ,,of ,,excavation ,,in ,,ditches ,,of ,,various ,,width4 ,length of #ab ,inches #ah ,inches #bd ,inches #cj ,inches #cf ,inches ,ditch4 ,wide4 ,wide4 ,wide4 ,wide4 ,wide4 ,yds4 ,feet4 ,yds4 ,feet4 ,yds4 ,feet4 ,yds4 ,feet4 ,yds4 ,feet4 #a ,yard4 #j #ab #j #ah #j #bd #a #c #a #i #a ,rod4 #b #ab #c #ah #d #bd #f #c #g #i ,men will1 in most soils1 work best in couples1--one shovelling out the earth1 and working forward1 and the other1 7moving backward17 loosening the earth with a spade or foot-pick1 7,fig4 #da47 ,in stony land1 the men should be required to keep their work well closed up1--excavating to the full depth as they go4 ,then1 if they strike a stone too large to be taken out within the terms of their contract1 they can skip a sufficient distance to pass it1 and the digging of the omitted part may be done by a faithful day workman4 ,this will usually be cheaper and more satisfactory than to pay the contractors for extra work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da - ,,foot ,,pick4 ,fig4 #da - ,,foot ,,pick4 ,concerning the amount of work that one man can do in a day1 in different soils1 digging ditches #d feet deep1 ,french says3 ,in the writer's own field1 where the pick was used to loosen the lower two feet of earth1 the labor of opening and filling drains #d feet deep1 and of the mean width of #ad inches1 all by hand labor1 has been1 in a mile of drains1 being our first experiments1 about one day's labor to #c rods in length4 ,the excavated earth of such a drain measures not quite #c cubic yards1 7exactly1 #b4he47 ,in a subsequent work1 in a sandy soil1 two men opened1 laid1 and refilled #ad rods in one day2--the mean width being #ab inches47#ba7 ,in the same season1 the same men opened1 laid1 and filled #gj rods of #d-;foot drain of the same mean width of #ab inches1 in the worst kind of clay soil1 where the pick was constantly used4 ,it cost #ce days' labor to complete the job1 being #ej cents per rod for the labor alone4 ,or1 under the foregoing calculation of #a4ej per day1 #ge cents per rod4 ,these estimates1 in common with nearly all that are published1 are for the entire work of digging1 grading1 tile-laying1 and refilling4 ,deducting the time required for the other work1 the result will be about as above estimated2 for the rough excavation1 #c #a_/b-rods to the day's work1 costing1 at #a4ej per day1 #dc cents to the rod4 ,grading is the removal of #b or #c inches in depth1 and about #d inches in width1 of the soil at the bottom of the ditch4 ,it is chiefly done with the finishing scoop1 which1 7being made of two thin plates1 one of iron and one of steel1 welded together1 the iron wearing away and leaving the sharp steel edge always prominent17 will work in a very hard clay without the aid of the pick4 ,three men1--the one in the ditch being a skillful workman1 and the others helping him when not sighting the rods1--will grade about #ajj rods per day1 making the cost about #f cents per rod4 ,until they acquire the skill to work thus rapidly1 they should not be urged beyond what they can readily do in the best manner1 as this operation1 7which is the preparing of the foundation for the tiles17 is probably the most important of the whole work of draining4 ,tiles and ,tile-,laying4--,after allowing for breakage1 it will take about #af tiles and #af collars to lay a rod in length of drain4 ,the cost of these will1 of course1 be very much affected by the considerations of the nearness of the tile-kiln and the cost of transportation4 ,they should1 in no ordinary case1 cost1 delivered on the ground1 more than #h per thousand for #a-a_/d-;inch tiles1 and #d per thousand for the collars1 making a total of #ab for both1 equal to about #ai cents per rod4 ,the laying of the tiles1 may be set down at #b cents per rod1--based on a skilled man laying #ajj rods daily1 and receiving #b per day4 ,covering and filling will probably cost #aj cents per rod1 7if the scraper1 ,fig4 #ci1 can be successfully used for the rough filling1 the cost will be reduced considerably below this47 ,the four items of the cost of making one rod of lateral drain are as follows3 ,digging the ditches - - - 4#dc ,grading - - - 4#jf ,tiles and laying - - - 4#ba ,covering and filling - - - 4#aj - - -4#hj cts4 ,if the drains are placed at intervals of #dj feet1 there are required #fd rods to the acre1--this at #hj cents per rod will make the cost per acre1--for the above items1--#ea4bj4 ,how much should be allowed for main drains1 outlets1 and silt-basins1 it is impossible to say1 as1 on irregular ground1 no two fields will require the same amount of this sort of work4 ,on very even land1 where the whole surface1 for hundreds of acres1 slopes gradually in one or two directions1 the outlay for mains need not be more than two per cent4 of the cost of the laterals4 ,this would allow laterals of a uniform length of #hjj feet to discharge into the main line1 at intervals of #dj feet1 if we do not consider the trifling extra cost of the larger tiles4 ,on less regular ground1 the cost of mains will often be considerably more than two per cent4 of the cost of the laterals2 but in some instances the increase of main lines will be fully compensated for by the reduction in the length of the laterals1 which1 owing to rocks1 hills too steep to need drains at regular intervals1 and porous1 7gravelly17 streaks in the land1 cannot be profitably made to occupy the whole area so thoroughly47#bb7 ,probably #g-a_/b per cent4 of the cost of the laterals for mains1 outlets1 and silt-basins will be a fair average allowance4 ,this will bring the total cost of the work to about #fj per acre1 made up as follows3 ,cost of the finished drains per acre - - - #ea4bj #g-a_/b per cent4 added for mains1 etc4 - - - #c4hc ,engineering and ,superintendence - - - #e4jj ,of course this is an arbitrary calculation1 an estimate without a single ascertained fact to go upon1--but it is as close as it can be made to what would probably be the cost of the best work1 on average ground1 at the present high prices of labor and material4 ,five years ago the same work could have been done for from #dj to #de per acre1 and it will be again cheaper when wages fall1 and when a greater demand for draining tiles shall have caused more competition in their manufacture4 ,with a large general demand1 such as has existed in ,england for the last #bj years1 they would now be sold for one-half of their present price here1 and the manufacture would be more profitable4 ,there are many light lands on retentive subsoils1 which could be drained1 at present prices1 for #ej or less per acre1 and there are others1 which are very hard to dig1 on which thorough-draining could not now be done for #fj4 ,the cost and the promise of the operation in each instance1 must guide the land owner in deciding whether or not to undertake the improvement4 ,in doubtful cases1 there is one compromise which may be safely made1--that is1 to omit each alternate drain1 and defer its construction until labor is cheaper4 ,this is doing half the work1--a very different thing from half-doing the work4 ,in such cases1 the lines should be laid out as though they were to be all done at once1 and1 finally1 when the omitted drains are made1 it should be in pursuance of the original plan4 ,probably the drains which are laid will produce more than one-half of the benefit that would result if they were all laid1 but they will rarely be satisfactory1 except as a temporary expedient1 and the saving will be less than would at first seem likely1 for when the second drains are laid2 the cultivation of the land must be again interrupted2 the draining force must be again brought together2 the levels of the new lines must be taken1 and connected with those of the old ones2 and great care must be taken1 selecting the dryest weather for the work1--to admit very little1 if any1 muddy water into the old mains4 ,this practice of draining by installments is not recommended2 it is only suggested as an allowable expedient1 when the cost of the complete work could not be borne with out inconvenience4 ,if any staid and economical farmer is disposed to be alarmed at the cost of draining1 he is respectfully reminded of the miles of expensive stone walls and other fences1 in ,new ,england and many other parts of the country1 which often are a real detriment to the farms1 occupying1 with their accompanying bramble bushes and head lands1 acres of valuable land1 and causing great waste of time in turning at the ends of short furrows in plowing2--while they produce no benefit at all adequate to their cost and annoyance4 ,it should also be considered that1 just as the cost of fences is scarcely felt by the farmer1 being made when his teams and hands could not be profitably employed in ordinary farming operations1 so the cost of draining will be reduced in proportion to the amount of the work which he can do within himself1--without hiring men expressly for it4 ,the estimate herein given is based on the supposition that men are hired for the work1 at wages equal to #a4ej per day1--while draining would often furnish a great advantage to the farmer in giving employment to farm hands who are paid and subsisted by the year4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 - ,,will ,,it ,,pay8 ,starting with the basis of #fj1 as the cost of draining an acre of ordinary farm land2--what is the prospect that the work will prove remunerative8 ,in all of the older ,states1 farmers are glad to lend their surplus funds1 on bond and mortgage on their neighbors' farms1 with interest at the rate of #g1 and often #f per cent4 ,in view of the fact that a little attention must be given each year to the outlets1 and1 to the silt-basins1 as well1 for the first few years1 it will be just to charge for the use of the capital #h-a_/c per cent4 ,this will make a yearly charge on the land1 for the benefits resulting from such a system of draining as has been described1 ,,of ,,five ,,dollars ,,per ,,acre4 ,will it ,pay8--,will the benefits accruing1 year after year1--in wet seasons and in dry1--with root crops and with grain1--with hay and with fruit1--in rotations of crops and in pasture1--be worth #e an acre8 ,on this question depends the value of tile-draining as a practical improvement1 for if there is a self-evident proposition in agriculture1 it is that what is not profitable1 one year with another1 is not practical4 ,to counterbalance the charge of #e1 as the yearly cost of the draining1 each acre must produce1 in addition to what it would have yielded without the improvement3 #aj bushels of ,corn at 4#ej per bushel4 #c bushels of ,wheat at #a4ff per bushel4 #e bushels of ,rye at #a4jj per bushel4 #ab-a_/b bushels of ,oats at 4#dj per bushel4 #aj bushels of ,potatoes at 4#ej per bushel4 #f-b_/c bushels of ,barley at 4#ge per bushel4 #a1jjj pounds of ,hay at #aj4jj per ton4 #ej pounds of ,cotton at 4#aj per pound4 #bj pounds of ,tobacco at 4#be per pound4 ,surely this is not a large increase1--not in a single case1--and the prices are generally less than may be expected for years to come4 ,the ,united ,states ,census ,report places the average crop of ,indian ,corn1 in ,indiana and ,illinois1 at #cc bushels per acre4 ,in ,new ,york it was but #bg bushels1 and in ,pennsylvania but #bj bushels4 ,it would certainly be accounted extremely liberal to fix the average yield of such soils as need draining1 at #cj bushels per acre4 ,it is extremely unlikely that they would yield this1 in the average of seasons1 with the constantly recurring injury from backward springs1 summer droughts1 and early autumn frosts4 ,heavy1 retentive soils1 which are cold and late in the spring1 subject to hard baking in midsummer1 and to become cold and wet in the early fall1 are the very ones which are best suited1 when drained1 to the growth of ,indian ,corn4 ,they are strong and fertile1--and should be able to absorb1 and to prepare for the use of plants1 the manure which is applied to them1 and the fertilizing matters which are brought to them by each storm2--but they cannot properly exercise the functions of fertile soils1 for the reason that they are strangled with water1 chilled by evaporation1 or baked to almost brick-like hardness1 during nearly the whole period of the growth and ripening of the crop4 ,the manure which has been added to them1 as well as their own chemical constituents1 are prevented from undergoing those changes which are necessary to prepare them for the uses of vegetation4 ,the water of rains1 finding the spaces in the soil already occupied by the water of previous rains1 cannot enter to deposit the gases which it contains1--or1 if the soil has been dried by evaporation under the influence of sun and wind1 the surface is almost hermetically sealed1 and the water is only slowly soaked up1 much of it running off over the surface1 or lying to be removed by the slow and chilling process of evaporation4 ,in wet times and in dry1 the air1 with its heat1 its oxygen1 and its carbonic acid1 7its universal solvent17 is forbidden to enter and do its beneficent work4 ,the benefit resulting from cultivating the surface of the ground is counteracted by the first unfavorable change of the weather2 a single heavy rain1 by saturating the soil1 returning it to nearly its original condition of clammy compactness4 ,in favorable seasons1 these difficulties are lessened1 but man has no control over the seasons1 and to-morrow may be as foul as to-day has been fair4 ,a crop of corn on undrained1 retentive ground1 is subject to injury from disastrous changes of the weather1 from planting until harvest4 ,even supposing that1 in the most favorable seasons1 it would yield as largely as though the ground were drained1 it would lose enough in unfavorable seasons to reduce the average more than ten 7#aj7 bushels per acre4 ,the average crop1 on such land1 has been assumed to be #cj bushels per acre2 it would be an estimate as moderate as this one is generous1 to say that1 with the same cultivation and the same manure1 the average crop1 after draining1 would be #ej bushels1 or an increase equal to twice as much as is needed to pay the draining charge4 ,if the method of cultivation is improved1 by deep plowing1 ample manuring1 and thorough working1--all of which may be more profitably applied to drained than to undrained land1--the average crop1--of a series of years1--will not be less than #fj bushels4 ,the cost of extra harvesting will be more than repaid by the value of the extra fodder1 and the increased cultivation and manuring are lasting benefits1 which can be charged1 only in small part1 to the current crop4 ,therefore1 if it will pay to plow1 plant1 hoe and harvest for #cj bushels of corn1 it will surely pay much better to double the crop at a yearly extra cost of #e1 and1 practically1 it amounts to this2--the extra crop is nearly all clear gain4 ,the quantity of ,wheat required to repay the annual charge for drainage is so small1 that no argument is needed to show that any process which will simply prevent throwing out in winter1 and the failure of the plant in the wetter parts of the field1 will increase the product more than that amount1--to say nothing of the general importance to this crop of having the land in the most perfect condition1 7in winter as well as in summer47 ,it is stated that1 since the general introduction of drainage in ,england1 7within the past #be years17 the wheat crop of that country has been more than doubled4 ,of course1 it does not necessarily follow that the amount per acre has been doubled1 large areas which were originally unfit for the growth of this crop1 having been1 by draining1 excellently fitted for its cultivation2--but there can be no doubt that its yield has been greatly increased on all drained lands1 nor that large areas1 which1 before being drained1 were able to produce fair crops only in the best seasons1 are now made very nearly independent of the weather4 ,it is not susceptible of demonstration1 but it is undoubtedly true1 that those clay or other heavy soils1 which are devoted to the growth of wheat in this country1 would1 if they were thoroughly under-drained1 produce1 on the average of years1 at least double their present crop4 ,mr4 ,john ,johnston1 a venerable ,scotch farmer1 who has long been a successful cultivator in the ,wheat region of ,western ,new ,york1--and who was almost the pioneer of tile-draining in ,america1--has laid over #ej miles of drains within the last #cj years4 ,his practice is described in ,klippart's ,land ,drainage1 from which work we quote the following3 ,mr4 ,johnston says he never saw #ajj acres in any one farm1 but a portion of it would pay for draining4 ,mr4 ,johnston is no rich man who has carried a favorite hobby without regard to cost or profit4 ,he is a hardworking ,scotch farmer1 who commenced a poor man1 borrowed money to drain his land1 has gradually extended his operations1 and is now reaping the benefits1 in having crops of #dj bushels of wheat to the acre4 ,he is a gray-haired ,nestor1 who1 after accumulating the experience of a long life1 is now1 at #fh years of age1 written to by strangers in every ,state of the ,union for information1 not only in drainage matters1 but all cognate branches of farming4 ,he sits in his homestead1 a veritable ,humboldt in his way1 dispensing information cheerfully through our agricultural papers and to private correspondents1 of whom he has recorded #afd who applied to him last year4 ,his opinions are1 therefore1 worth more than those of a host of theoretical men1 who write without practice4 99 99 99 99 99 ,although his farm is mainly devoted to wheat1 yet a considerable area of meadow and some pasture has been retained4 ,he now owns about #cjj acres of land4 ,the yield of wheat has been #dj bushels this year1 and in former seasons1 when his neighbors were reaping #h1 #aj1 or #ae bushels1 he has had #cj and #dj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,mr4 ,johnston says tile-draining pays for itself in two seasons1 sometimes in one4 ,thus1 in #ahdg1 he bought a piece of #aj acres to get an outlet for his drains4 ,it was a perfect quagmire1 covered with coarse aquatic grasses1 and so unfruitful that it would not give back the seed sown upon it4 ,in #ahdh a crop of corn was taken from it1 which was measured and found to be eighty bushels per acre1 and as1 because of the ,irish famine1 corn was worth #a per bushel that year1 this crop paid not only all the expense of drainage1 but the first cost of the land as well4 ,another piece of #bj acres1 adjoining the farm of the late ,john ,delafield1 was wet1 and would never bring more than #aj bushels of corn per acre4 ,this was drained at a great cost1 nearly #cj per acre4 ,the first crop after this was #hc bushels and some odd pounds per acre4 ,it was weighed and measured by ,mr4 ,delafield1 and the ,county ,society awarded a premium to ,mr4 ,johnston4 ,eight acres and some rods of this land1 at one side1 averaged #id bushels1 or the trifling increase of #hd bushels per acre over what it would bear before those insignificant clay tiles were buried in the ground4 ,but this increase of crop is not the only profit of drainage2 for ,mr4 ,johnston says that1 on drained land1 one half the usual quantity of manure suffices to give maximum crops4 ,it is not difficult to find a reason for this4 ,when the soil is sodden with water1 air can not enter to any extent1 and hence oxygen can not eat off the surfaces of soil-particles and prepare food for plants2 thus the plant must in great measure depend on the manure for sustenance1 and1 of course1 the more this is the case1 the more manure must be applied to get good crops4 ,this is one reason1 but there are others which we might adduce if one good one were not sufficient4 ,mr4 ,johnston says he never made money until he drained1 and so convinced is he of the benefits accruing from the practice1 that he would not hesitate1--as he did not when the result was much more uncertain than at present1--to borrow money to drain4 ,drains well laid1 endure1 but unless a farmer intends doing the job well1 he had best leave it alone and grow poor1 and move out ,west1 and all that sort of thing4 ,occupiers of apparently dry land are not safe in concluding that they need not go to the expense of draining1 for if they will but dig a three-foot ditch in even the driest soil1 water will be found in the bottom at the end of eight hours1 and if it does come1 then draining will pay for itself speedily4 ,some years ago1 the ,rural ,new ,yorker published a letter from one of its correspondents from which the following is extracted3-- ,i recollect calling upon a gentleman in the harvest field1 when something like the following conversation occurred3 ',your wheat1 sir1 looks very fine2 how many acres have you in this field8' ',in the neighborhood of eight1 ,i judge4' ',did you sow upon fallow8' ',no sir4 ,we turned over green sward--sowed immediately upon the sod1 and dragged it thoroughly--and you see the yield will probably be #be bushels to the acre1 where it is not too wet4' ',yes sir1 it is mostly very fine4 ,i observed a thin strip through it1 but did not notice that it was wet4' ',well1 it is not very wet4 ,sometimes after a rain1 the water runs across it1 and in spring and fall it is just wet enough to heave the wheat and kill it4' ,i inquired whether a couple of good drains across the lot would not render it dry4 ',perhaps so--but there is not over an acre that is killed out4' ',have you made an estimate of the loss you annually sustain from this wet place8' ',no1 ,i had not thought much about it4' ',would #cj be too high8' ',o yes1 double4' ',well1 let's see2 it cost you #c to turn over the sward8 ,two bushels of seed1 #b2 harrowing in1 #ge cents2 interest1 taxes1 and fences1 #e4be2 #be bushels of wheat lost1 #be4' ',deduct for harvesting----' ',no2 the straw would pay for that4' ',very well1 all footed #cf4' ',what will the wheat and straw on this acre be worth this year8' ',nothing1 as ,i shall not cut the ground over4' ',then it appears that you have lost1 in what you have actually expended1 and the wheat you would have harvested1 had the ground been dry1 #cf1 a pretty large sum for one acre4' ',yes ,i see1' said the farmer4 ,while ,rye may be grown1 with tolerable advantage1 on lands which are less perfectly drained than is necessary for ,wheat1 there can be no doubt that an increase of more than the six and two-thirds bushels needed to make up the drainage charge will be the result of the improvement4 ,while ,oats will thrive in soils which are too wet for many other crops1 the ability to plant early1 which is secured by an early removal from the soil of its surplus water1 will ensure1 one year with another1 more than twelve and a half bushels of increased product4 ,in the case of ,potatoes1 also1 the early planting will be a great advantage2 and1 while the cause of the potato-rot is not yet clearly discovered1 it is generally conceded that1 even if it does not result directly from too great wetness of the soil1 its development is favored by this condition1 either from a direct action on the tubers1 or from the effect in the air immediately about the plants1 of the exhalations of a humid soil4 ,an increase of from five to ten per cent4 on a very ordinary crop of potatoes1 will cover the drainage charge1 and with facilities for marketing1 the higher price of the earlier yield is of much greater consequence4 ,barley will not thrive in wet soil1 and there is no question that drainage would give it much more than the increased yield prescribed above4 ,as to hay1 there are many wet1 rich soils which produce very large crops of grass1 and it is possible that drainage might not always cause them to yield a thousand pounds more of hay to the acre1 but the quality of the hay from the drained soil1 would1 of itself1 more than compensate for the drainage charge4 ,the great benefit of the improvement1 with reference to this crop1 however1 lies in the fact that1 although wet1 grass lands1--and by wet is meant the condition of undrained1 retentive clays1 and heavy loams1 or other soils requiring drainage1--in a very few years run out1 or become occupied by semi-aquatic and other objectionable plants1 to the exclusion of the proper grasses2 the same lands1 thoroughly drained1 may be kept in full yield of the finest hay plants1 as long as the ground is properly managed4 ,it must1 of course1 be manured1 from time to time1 and care should be taken to prevent the puddling of its surface1 by men or animals1 while it is too wet from recent rain4 ,with proper attention to these points1 it need not be broken up in a lifetime1 and it may be relied on to produce uniformly good crops1 always equal to the best obtained before drainage4 ,so far as ,cotton and ,tobacco are concerned1 there are not many instances recorded of the systematic drainage of lands appropriated to their cultivation1 but there is every reason to suppose that they will both be benefitted by any operation which will have the effect of placing the soil in a better condition for the uses of all cultivated plants4 ,the average crop of tobacco is about #gjj lbs41 and that of cotton probably #bej lbs4 ,an addition of one-fifth to the cotton crop1 and of only one thirty-fifth to the tobacco crop1 would make the required increase4 ,the failure of the cotton crop1 during the past season1 7#ahff17 might have been entirely prevented1 in many districts1 by the thorough draining of the land4 ,the advantages claimed for drainage with reference to the above-named staple crops1 will apply with equal1 if not greater force1 to all garden and orchard culture4 ,in fact1 with the exception of osier willows1 and cranberries1 there is scarcely a cultivated plant which will not yield larger and better crops on drained than on undrained land1--enough better1 and enough larger1 to pay much more than the interest on the cost of the improvement4 ,yet1 this advantage of draining1 is1 by no means1 the only one which is worthy of consideration4 ,since the object of cultivation is to produce remunerative crops1 of course1 the larger and better the crops1 the more completely is the object attained2--and to this extent the greatest benefit resulting from draining1 lies in the increased yield4 ,but there is another advantage1--a material and moral advantage1--which is equally to be considered4 ,instances of the profit resulting from under-draining1 7coupled1 as it almost always is1 with improved cultivation17 are frequently published1 and it would be easy to fortify this chapter with hundreds of well authenticated cases4 ,it is1 however1 deemed sufficient to quote the following1 from an old number of one of the ,new ,york dailies3-- ,some years ago1 the son of an ,english farmer came to the ,united ,states1 and let himself as a farm laborer1 in ,new ,york ,state1 on the following conditions3 ,commencing work at the first of ,september1 he was to work ten hours a day for three years1 and to receive in payment a deed of a field containing twelve acres--securing himself by an agreement1 by which his employer was put under bonds of #b1jjj to fulfill his part of the contract2 also1 during these three years1 he was to have the control of the field2 to work it at his own expense1 and to give his employer one-half the proceeds4 ,the field lay under the south side of a hill1 was of dark1 heavy clay resting on a bluish-colored1 solid clay subsoil1 and for many years previous1 had not been known to yield anything but a yellowish1 hard1 stunted vegetation4 ,the farmer thought the young man was a simpleton1 and that he1 himself1 was most wise and fortunate2 but the former1 nothing daunted by this opinion1 which he was not unconscious that the latter entertained of him1 immediately hired a set of laborers1 and set them to work in the field trenching1 as earnestly as it was well possible for men to labor4 ,in the morning and evening1 before and after having worked his ten hours1 as per agreement1 he worked with them1 and continued to work in this way until1 about the middle of the following ,november1 he had finished the laying of nearly #e1jjj yards of good tile under-drains4 ,he then had the field plowed deep and thoroughly1 and the earth thrown up as much as possible into ridges1 and thus let it remain during the winter4 ,next spring he had the field again plowed as before1 then cross-plowed and thoroughly pulverized with a heavy harrow1 then sowed it with oats and clover4 ,the yield was excellent--nothing to be compared to it had ever before been seen upon that field4 ,next year it gave two crops of clover1 of a rich dark green1 and enormously heavy and luxuriant2 and the year following1 after being manured at an expense of some #g an acre1 nine acres of the field yielded #icf bushels of corn1 and #be wagon loads of pumpkins2 while from the remaining three acres were taken #ajj bushels of potatoes--the return of this crop being upwards of #a1bjj4 ,the time had now come for the field to fall into the young man's possession1 and the farmer unhesitatingly offered him #a1ejj to relinquish his title to it2 and when this was unhesitatingly refused1 he offered #b1jjj1 which was accepted4 ,the young man's account stood thus ,half proceeds of oats #afe #jj and straw1 first year ,half value of sheep #be #jj pasturage1 first year ,half of first crops of #aab #ej clover1 first year ,half of second crops of #ace #jj clover1 including seed1 second year ,half of sheep #ae #jj pasturage1 second year ,half of crops of corn1 #fij #jj pumpkins and potatoes1 third year ,received from farmer1 #b1jjj #jj for relinquishment of title ------ ,account ,dr4 #c1adb #ej ,to under-draining1 #cbe #jj labor and tiles ,to labor and manure1 #dge #jj three seasons ,to labor given to #egf #jj--a1cgf #jj farmer1 #af per month1 #cf months ------ ,balance in his favor #a1gff #ej ,draining makes the farmer1 to a great extent1 the master of his vocation4 ,with a sloppy1 drenched1 cold1 uncongenial soil1 which is saturated with every rain1 and takes days1 and even weeks1 to become sufficiently dry to work upon1 his efforts are constantly baffled by unfavorable weather1 at those times when it is most important that his work proceed without interruption4 ,weeks are lost1 at a season when they are all too short for the work to be done4 ,the ground must be hurriedly1 and imperfectly prepared1 and the seed is put in too late1 often to rot in the over-soaked soil1 requiring the field to be planted again at a time which makes it extremely doubtful whether the crop will ripen before the frost destroys it4 ,the necessary summer cultivation1 between the rows1 has to be done as the weather permits2 and much more of it is required because of the baking of the ground4 ,the whole life of the farmer1 in fact1 becomes a constant struggle with nature1 and he fights always at a disadvantage4 ,what he does by the work of days1 is mainly undone by a single night's storm4 ,weeds grow apace1 and the land is too wet to admit of their being exterminated4 ,by the time that it is dry enough1 other pressing work occupies the time2 and if1 finally1 a day comes when they may be attacked1 they offer ten times the resistance that they would have done a week earlier4 ,the operations of the farm are carried on more expensively than if the ability to work constantly allowed a smaller force to be employed4 ,the crops which give such doubtful promise1 require the same cultivation as though they were certain to be remunerative1 and the work can be done only with increased labor1 because of the bad condition of the soil4 ,from force of tradition and of habit1 the farmer accepts his fate and plods through his hard life1 piously ascribing to the especial interference of an inscrutable ,providence1 the trials which come of his own neglect to use the means of relief which ,providence has placed within his reach4 ,trouble enough he must have1 at any rate1 but not necessarily all that he now has4 ,it is not within the scope of the best laid drains to control storm or sunshine1--but it is within their power to remove the water of the storm1 rapidly and sufficiently1 and to allow the heat of the sunshine to penetrate the soil and do its hidden work4 ,no human improvement can change any of the so-called phenomena of nature1 or prevent the action of the least of her laws2 but their effects upon the soil and its crops may be greatly modified1 and that which1 under certain circumstances1 would have caused inconvenience or loss1 may1 by a change of circumstances1 be made positively beneficial4 ,in the practice of agriculture1 which is pre-eminently an economic art1 draining will be prosecuted because of the pecuniary profit which it promises1 and1--very properly1--it will not be pursued1 to any considerable extent1 where the money1 which it costs1 will not bring money in return4 ,yet1 in a larger view of the case1 its collateral advantages are of even greater moment than its mere profits4 ,it is the foundation and the commencement of the most intelligent farming4 ,it opens the way for other improvements1 which1 without it1 would produce only doubtful or temporary benefits2 and it enables the farmer so to extend and enlarge his operations1 with fair promise of success1 as to raise his occupation from a mere waiting upon the uncertain favors of nature1 to an intelligent handling of her forces1 for the attainment of almost certain results4 ,the rude work of an unthinking farmer1 who scratches the surface soil with his plow1 plants his seed1 and trusts to the chances of a greater or less return1 is unmitigated drudgery1--unworthy of an intelligent man2 but he who investigates all of the causes of success and failure in farming1 and adapts every operation to the requirements of the circumstances under which he works2 doing everything in his power that may tend to the production of the results which he desires1 and1 so far as possible1 avoiding everything that may interfere with his success1--leaving nothing to chance that can be secured1 and securing all that chance may offer1--is engaged in the most ennobling1 the most intelligent and the most progressive of all industrial avocations4 ,in the cultivation of retentive soils1 drainage is the key to all improvement1 and its advantage is to be measured not simply by the effect which it directly produces in increasing production1 but1 in still greater degree1 by the extent to which it prepares the way for the successful application of improved processes1 makes the farmer independent of weather and season1 and offers freer scope to intelligence in the direction of his affairs4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 - ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,draining ,,tiles4 ,draining tiles are made of burnt clay1 like bricks and earthen-ware4 ,in general terms1 the process is as follows3--,the clay is mixed with sand1 or other substances which give it the proper consistency1 and is so wetted as to form a plastic mass1 to which may be given any desired form1 and which is sufficiently stiff to retain its shape4 ,properly prepared clay is forced through the aperture of a die of the shape of the outside of the tile1 while a plug1--held by a support in the rear of the die1--projects through the aperture1 and gives the form to the bore of the tile4 ,the shape of the material of the tile1 as it comes from the die1 corresponds to the open space1 between the plug and the edge of the aperture4 ,the clay is forced out in a continuous pipe1 which is cut to the desired length by a wire1 which is so thin as to pass through the mass without altering the shape of the pipe4 ,the short lengths of pipe are dried in the air as thoroughly as they can be1 and are then burned in a kiln1 similar to that used for pottery4 99,materials499--,the range of earths which may be used in the manufacture of tiles is considerable1 though clay is the basis of all of them4 ,the best is1 probably1 the clay which is almost invariably found at the bottom of muck beds1 as this is finer and more compact than that which is dug from dry land1 and requires but little preparation4 ,there is1 also1 a peculiar clay1 found in some localities1 which is almost like quick-sand in its nature1 and which is excellent for tile-making1--requiring no freezing1 or washing to prepare it for the machine4 ,as a general rule1 any clay which will make good bricks will make tiles4 ,when first taken from the ground1 these clays are not usually adhesive1 but become so on being moistened and kneaded4 ,it is especially important that no limestone pebbles be mixed with the clay1 as the burning would change these to quicklime1 which1 in slaking1 would destroy the tiles4 ,the presence of a limey earth1 however1 mixed through the mass1 is a positive advantage1 as in this intimate admixture1 the lime forms1 under the heat of the kiln1 a chemical combination with the other ingredients2 and1 as it melts more readily than some of them1 it hastens the burning and makes it more complete4 ,what is known as plastic clay1 7one of the purest of the native clays17 is too strong for tile-making1 and must be tempered1 by having other substances mixed with it1 to give it a stiffer quality4 ,the clay which is best for brick-making1 contains ,silica1 and ,alumina in about the following proportions3 ,silica 444 #ee to #ge per cent4 ,alumina 444 #ce to #be per cent4 ,variable quantities of other materials are usually found in connection with the clay1 in its native condition4 ,the most common of these are the following3-- ,magnesia #a to #e per cent4--sometimes #bj to #cj per cent4 ,lime #j to #ai per cent4 ,potash #j to #e per cent4 ,oxyd of iron #j to #ai per cent4 ,these necessary elements give fusibility to earthenware1 and1 therefore1 allow its constituent substances to combine in such a manner as to form a resisting body2 and thus is performed with a temperature lower in proportion as the necessary elements are more abundant47#bc7 ,when the earth of the locality where tiles are to be made is not sufficiently strong for the purpose1 and plastic clay can be cheaply obtained from a distance1 a small quantity of this may be used to give strength and tenacity to the native material4 ,the compound must always contain a proper proportion of clay and sand4 ,if too little clay is used1 the mass will not be sufficiently tough to retain its compactness as it passes through the die of the tile machine2 if too little sand1 the moulded tiles will not be strong enough to bear handling1 and they will crack and warp in drying and burning4 ,within the proper limits1 the richer earths may be moulded much thinner1 and tiles made from them may1 consequently1 be made lighter for transportation1 without being too weak4 ,the best materials for tempering stiff clays are sand1 pounded brick or tile1 or scoria1 from smelting furnaces4 99,preparation ,of ,earths499--,the clay from which tiles are to be made1 should be thrown out in the fall1 7the upper and lower parts of the beds being well mixed in the operation17 and made into heaps on the surface1 not more than about #c feet square and #c feet high4 ,in this form1 it is left exposed to the freezing and thawing of winter1 which will aid very much in modifying its character1--making it less lumpy and more easily workable4 ,any stones which may appear in the digging1 should1 of course1 be removed1 and most earths will be improved by being passed through a pair of heavy iron rollers1 before they are piled up for the winter4 ,the rollers should be made of cast iron1 about #ae inches in diameter1 and #cj inches long1 and set as close together as they can be1 and still be revolved by the power of two horses4 ,the grinding1 by means of these rollers1 may add #ej cents per thousand to the cost of the tiles1 but it will greatly improve their quality4 ,in the spring1 the clay should be prepared for tempering1 by the removal of such pebbles as it may still contain4 ,the best way to do this is by washing1 though1 if there be only a few coarse pebbles1 they may be removed by building the clay into a solid cone #b or #c feet high1 and then paring it off into thin slices with a long knife having a handle at each end4 ,this paring will discover any pebbles larger than a pea that may have remained in the clay4 ,washing is the process of mixing the clay with a considerable quantity of water1 so as to form a thin paste1 in which all stones and gravel will sink to the bottom2 the liquid portion is then drawn off into shallow pits or vats1 and allowed to settle1 the clear water being finally removed by pumping or by evaporation1 according to the need for haste4 ,for washing small quantities of clay1 a common mortar bed1 such as is used by masons1 will answer1 if it be supplied with a gate for draining off the muddy water after the gravel has settled2 but1 if the work is at all extensive1 a washing mill will be required4 ,it may be made in the form of a circular trough1 with scrapers for mixing the clay and water attached to a circular horse-sweep4 ,another convenient mixing machine may be constructed in the following manner3 ,take a large hollow log1 of suitable length1 say five or six feet2 hew out the inequalities with an adz1 and close up the ends with pieces of strong plank1 into which bearing have been cut to support a revolving shaft4 ,this shaft should be sufficiently thick to permit being transfixed with wooden pins long enough to reach within an inch or two of the sides of the log or trough1 and they should be so beveled as to form in their aggregate shape an interrupted screw1 having a direction toward that end of the box where the mixed clay is designed to pass out4 ,in order to effect the mixing more thoroughly1 these pins may be placed sufficiently far apart to permit the interior of the box to be armed with other pins extending toward the center1 between which they can easily move4 ,the whole is placed either horizontally or vertically1 and supplied with clay and water in proper quantities1 while the shaft is made to revolve by means of a sweep1 with horse power1 running water or steam1 as the case may be4 ,the clay is put into the end farthest from the outlet1 and is carried forward to it and mixed by the motion1 and mutual action and re-action of the pins in the shaft and in the sides of the box4 ,iron pins may1 of course1 be substituted for the wooden ones1 and have the advantage of greater durability and of greater strength in proportion to their size1 and the number may therefore be greater in a machine of any given length4 ,the fluid mass of clay and water may be permitted to fall upon a sieve or riddle1 of heavy wire1 and afterward be received in a settling vat1 of suitable size and construction1 to drain off the water and let the clay dry out sufficiently by subsequent evaporation4 ,a machine of this construction may be made of such a size that it may be put in motion by hand1 by means of a crank1 and yet be capable of mixing1 if properly supplied1 clay enough to mold #hjj or #ajjj pieces of drain pipe per day47#bd7 ,mr4 ,parkes1 in a report to the ,royal ,agricultural ,society of ,england1 in #ahdc1 says3 ,it is requisite that the clay be well washed and sieved before pugging1 for the manufacture of these tiles1 or the operation of drawing them would be greatly impeded1 by having to remove stones from the small space surrounding the die1 which determines the thickness of the pipe4 ,but it results from this necessary washing1 that the substance of the pipe is uniformly and extremely dense1 which1 consequently1 gives it immense strength1 and ensures a durability which cannot belong to a more porous1 though thicker1 tile4 ,the clay is brought from the pug-mill so dry that1 when squeezed through the machine1 not a drop of water exudes1--moisture is1 indeed1 scarcely apparent on the surface of the raw pipe4 ,hence1 the tiles undergo little or no change of figure while drying1 which takes place very rapidly1 because of their firm and slight substance4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db - ,,pug-,,mill4 ,fig4 #db - ,,pug-,,mill4 ,tempering4--,after the fine clay is relieved of the water with which it was washed1 and has become tolerably dry1 it should be mixed with the sand1 or other tempering material1 and passed through the ,pug-,mill1 7,fig4 #db17 which will thoroughly mix its various ingredients1 and work the whole into a homogeneous mass1 ready for the tile machine4 ,the pug-mill is similar to that used in brick-yards1 only1 as the clay is worked much stiffer for tiles than for bricks1 iron knives must be substituted for the wooden pins4 ,these knives are so arranged as to cut the clay in every part1 and1 by being set at an angle1 they force it downward toward the outlet gate at the bottom4 ,the clay should be kept at the proper degree of moisture from the time of tempering1 and after passing through the pug-mill it should be thoroughly beaten to drive out the air1 and the beaten mass should be kept covered with wet cloths to prevent drying4 99,moulding the ,tiles499--,machines for moulding tiles are of various styles1 with much variation in the details of their construction1 but they all act on the same general principle2--that of forcing the clay through a ring-shaped aperture in an iron plate1 forming a continuous pipe1 which is carried off on an endless apron1 or on rollers1 and cut by wires into the desired lengths4 ,the plates with the ring-shaped apertures are called dies2 the openings are of any desired form1 corresponding to the external shape of the tiles2 and the size and shape of the bore1 is determined by the core or plug1 which is held in the centers of the apertures4 ,the construction of the die plates1 and the manner of fastening the plugs1 which determine the bore of the tiles1 is shown in ,fig4 #dc4 ,the view taken is of the inside of the plate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc - ,,plate ,,of ,,dies4 ,fig4 #dc - ,,plate ,,of ,,dies4 ,the machine consists usually of a strong iron chest1 with a hinged cover1 into which the clay is placed1 having a piston moving in it1 connected by a rod or bar1 having cog-teeth1 with a cog-wheel1 which is moved by horse or hand power1 and drives the piston forward with steadiness1 forcing the clay through the openings in the die-plate4 ,the clay issues in continuous lines of pipe4 ,the machines most in use in this country are connected directly with the pug-mill1 and as the clay is pugged1 it at once passes into the box1 and is pressed out as tiles4 ,these machines are usually run by horse-power4 ,mr4 ,barral1 in his voluminous work on drainage17#be7 describes1 as follows1 a cheap hand machine which can be made by any country wheelwright1 and which has a capacity of #c1jjj tiles per day 7,fig4 #dd73 ,imagine a simple1 wooden box1 divided into two compartments4 ,in the rear compartment there stands a vertical post1 fastened with two iron bolts1 having heads at one end1 and nuts and screws at the other4 ,the box is thus fixed to its support4 ,we simply place this support on the ground and bind its upper part with a rope to a tree1 a stake1 or a post4 ,the front compartment is the reservoir for the clay1 presenting at its front an orifice1 in which we fix the desired die with a simple bolt4 ,a wooden piston1 of which the rod is jointed with a lever1 which works in a bolt at the top of the supporting post1 gives the necessary pressure4 ,when the chest is full of clay1 we bear down on the end of the lever1 and the moulded tiles run out on a table supplied with rollers4 ,raising the piston1 it comes out of the box1 which is again packed with clay4 ,the piston is replaced in the box2 pressure is again applied to the lever1 and so on4 ,when the line of tiles reaches the end of the table1 we lower a frame on which brass wires are stretched1 and cut it into the usual lengths4 ,fig4 #dd - ,,cheap ,,wooden ,,machine4 ,fig4 #dd - ,,cheap ,,wooden ,,machine4 ,the workmen must attend well to the degree of moisture of the clay which is put into the machine4 ,it should be dry enough to show no undue moisture on its surface as it comes out of the die-plate1 and sufficiently moist not to be crumbled in passing the edge of the mould4 ,the clay for small 7thin7 tiles must1 necessarily1 be more moist than that which is to pass through a wider aperture2 and for the latter there may1 with advantage1 be more sand in the paste than would be practicable with the former4 ,after the tiles are cut into lengths1 they are removed by a set of mandrils1 small enough to pass easily into them1 such as are shown in ,fig4 #de1 7the number of fingers corresponding with the number of rows of tiles made by the machine17 and are placed on shelves made of narrow strips sawn from one-inch boards1 laid with spaces between them to allow a free circulation of air4 ,fig4 #de - ,,mandril ,,for ,,carrying ,,tiles ,,from ,,machine4 ,fig4 #de - ,,mandril ,,for ,,carrying ,,tiles ,,from ,,machine4 99,drying and ,rolling499--,care must be taken that freshly made tiles be not dried too rapidly4 ,they should be sheltered from the sun and from strong winds4 ,too rapid drying has the effect of warping them out of shape1 and1 sometimes1 of cracking the clay4 ,to provide against this injury1 the drying is done under sheds or other covering1 and the side which is exposed to the prevailing winds is sometimes boarded up4 ,for the first drying1 the tiles are placed in single layers on the shelves4 ,when about half dried1--at which time they are usually warped more or less from their true shape1--it is well to roll them4 ,this is done by passing through them a smooth1 round stick1 7sufficiently smaller than the bore to enter it easily1 and long enough to project five or six inches beyond each end of the tile17 and1--holding one end of the stick in each hand1--rolling them carefully on a table4 ,this operation should be performed when the tiles are still moist enough not to be broken by the slight bending required to make them straight4 ,after rolling1 the tiles may be piled up in close layers1 some four or five feet high1 7which will secure them against further warping17 and left until they are dry enough for burning1--that is1 as dry as they can be made by exposure to the air4 99,burning499--,tiles are burned in kilns in which1 by the effect of flame acting directly upon them1 they are raised to a heat sufficient to melt some of their more easily fusible ingredients1 and give to them a stone-like hardness4 ,kilns are of various construction and of various sizes4 ,as this book is not intended for the instruction of those who are engaged in the general manufacture of tiles1 only for those who may find it necessary to establish local works1 it will be sufficient to describe a temporary earthen kiln which may be cheaply built1 and which will answer an excellent purpose1 where only #ajj1jjj or #bjj1jjj tiles per season will be required4 ,directions for its construction are set forth in a letter from ,mr4 ,t4 ,law ,hodges1 of ,england1 to the late ,earl ,spencer1 published in the ,journal of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society for the year #ahdc1 as follows3 ,the form of the clay-kiln is circular1 #aa feet in diameter1 and #g feet high4 ,it is wholly built of damp1 clayey earth1 rammed firmly together1 and plastered1 inside and out1 with loam 7clay874 ,the earth to form the walls is dug out around the base1 leaving a circular trench about four feet wide and as many deep1 into which the fire-holes of the kiln open4 ,if wood be the fuel used1 three fire-holes will be sufficient2 if coal1 four will be needed4 ,about #a1bjj common brick will be wanted to build these fire-holes and flues2 if coal is used1 rather fewer bricks will be wanted1 but1 then1 some iron bars are necessary1--six bars to each fire-hole4 ,the earthen walls are four feet thick at the floor of the kiln1 seven feet high1 and tapering to a thickness of two feet at the top2 this will determine the slope of the exterior face of the kiln4 ,the inside of the wall is carried up perpendicularly1 and the loam plastering inside becomes1 after the first burning1 like a brick wall4 ,the kiln may be safely erected in ,march1 or whenever the danger of injury from frost is over4 ,after the summer use of it1 it must be protected1 by faggots or litter1 against the wet and frost of winter4 ,a kiln of these dimensions will contain #cb1ejj #a-a_/d-;inch tiles1 99 99 99 or #ab1jjj #b-a_/d-;inch tiles4 99 99 99 ,in good weather1 this kiln can be filled1 burnt1 and discharged once in every fortnight1 and fifteen kilns may be obtained in a good season1 producing #dhg1ejj #a-a_/d-;inch tiles1 and in proportion for the other sizes4 ,it requires #b tons #e cwt4 of good coals to burn the above kiln1 full of tiles4 ,fig4 #df - ,,clay-,,kiln4 ,fig4 #df - ,,clay-,,kiln4 ,a sectional view of this kiln is shown in ,fig4 #df1 in which ,c1 ,c represent sections of the outer trench2 ,a1 one of the three fire-holes2 and ,b1 ,b1 sections of a circular passage inside of the wall1 connected with the fire-holes1 and serving as a flue for the flames1 which1 at suitable intervals1 pass through openings into the floor of the kiln4 ,the whole structure should be covered with a roof of rough boards1 placed high enough to be out of the reach of the fire4 ,a door in the side of the kiln serves for putting in and removing the tiles1 and is built up1 temporarily1 with bricks or clay1 during the burning4 ,mr4 ,hodges estimates the cost of this kiln1 all complete1 at less than #be4 ,concerning its value1 he wrote another letter in #ahdh1 from which the following is extracted3 ,the experience of four years that have elapsed since my letter to the late ,earl ,spencer1 published in the #eth volume of the proceedings of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 page #eg1 has thoroughly tested the merits of the temporary clay-kilns for the burning of draining-pipes described in that letter4 ,i am well aware that there were persons1 even among those who came to see it1 who pronounced at once upon the construction and duration of the kiln as unworthy of attention4 ,how far their expectations have been realized1 and what value belongs to their judgment1 the following short statement will exhibit3 ,the kiln1 in question1 was constructed1 in #ahdd1 at a cost of #e4 ,it was used four times in that year1 burning each time between #ah1jjj and #ai1jjj draining pipes1 of #a-c_/d inches in diameter4 ,in #ahde1 it was used nine times1 or about once a fortnight1 burning each time the same quantity of nearly #ai1jjj pipes4 ,in #ahdf1 the same result4 ,in #ahdg1 it has been used twelve times1 always burning the same quantity4 ,in the course of the last year a trifling repair in the bottom of the kiln1 costing rather less than #aj shillings1 was necessary1 and this is the only cost for repair since its erection4 ,it is now as good as ever1 and might be worked at least once a fortnight through the ensuing season4 ,the result of this experiment of four years shows not only the practical value of this cheap kiln1 but ,mr4 ,hatcher1 who superintends the brick and tile-yard at ,benenden1 where this kiln stands1 expresses himself strongly in favor of this kiln1 as always producing better and more evenly burned pipes than either of his larger and better built brick-kilns can do4 ,the floor of the kiln is first covered with bricks1 placed on end1 at a little distance from each other1 so as to allow the fire to pass between them1 and the tiles are placed on end on these4 ,this position will afford the best draft for the flames4 ,after the kiln is packed full1 the door-way is built up1 and a slow fire is started1--only enough at first to complete the drying of the tiles1 and to do this so slowly as not to warp them out of shape4 ,they will be thoroughly dry when the smoke from the top of the kiln loses its dark color and becomes transparent4 ,when the fires are well started1 the mouths of the fire-holes may be built up so as to leave only sufficient room to put in fresh fuel1 and if the wind is high1 the fire-holes1 on the side against which it blows1 should be sheltered by some sort of screen which will counteract its influence1 and keep up an even heat on all sides4 ,the time required for burning will be from two days and a night to four days and four nights1 according to the dryness of the tiles1 the state of the weather1 and the character of the fuel4 ,the fires should be drawn when the tiles in the hottest part of the kiln are burned to a ringing hardness4 ,by leaving two or three holes in the door-way1 which can be stopped with loose brick1 a rod may be run in1 from time to time1 to take out specimen tiles from the hottest part of the kiln1 which shall have been so placed as to be easily removed4 ,the best plan1 however1--the only prudent plan1 in fact1--will be to employ an intelligent man who is thoroughly experienced in the burning of brick and pottery1 and whose judgment in the management of the fires1 and in the cooling off of the kiln1 will save much of the waste that would result from inexperienced management4 ,after the burning is completed1 from #dj to #fj hours must be allowed for the cooling of the kiln before it is opened4 ,if the cold air is admitted while it is still very hot1 the unequal contraction of the material will cause the tiles to crack1 and a large portion of them may be destroyed4 ,if any of the tiles are too much burned1 they will be melted1 and may stick together1 or1 at least1 have their shape destroyed4 ,those which are not sufficiently burned would not withstand the action of the water in the soil1 and should not be used4 ,for the first of these accidents there is no remedy2 for the latter1 reburning will be necessary1 and under-done tiles may be left1 7or replaced17 in the kiln in the position which they occupied at the first burning1 and the second heat will probably prove sufficient4 ,there is less danger of unequal burning in circular than in square kilns4 ,soft wood is better than hard1 as making a better flame4 ,it should be split fine1 and well seasoned4 99,arrangement of the ,tilery499--,such a tilery as is described above should have a drying shed from #fj to #hj feet long1 and from #ab to #ah feet wide4 ,this shed may be built in the cheapest and roughest manner1 the roof being covered with felting1 thatch1 or hemlock boards1 as economy may suggest4 ,it should have a tier of drying shelves1 7made of slats rather than of boards17 running the whole length of each side4 ,a narrow1 wooden tram-way1 down the middle1 to carry a car1 by which the green tiles may be taken from the machine to the shelves1 and the dry ones from the shelves to the kiln1 will greatly lessen the cost of handling4 ,the pug-mill and tile-machine1 as well as the clay pit and the washing-mill1 should be at one end of the shed1 and the kiln at the other1 so that1 even in rainy weather1 the work may proceed without interruption4 ,a shed of the size named will be sufficient to dry as many tiles of assorted sizes as can be burned in the clay-kiln described above4 99,the ,cost of ,tiles499--,it would be impossible1 at any time1 to say what should be the precise cost of tiles in a given locality1 without knowing the prices of labor and fuel2 and in the present unsettled condition of the currency1 any estimate would necessarily be of little value4 ,mr4 ,parker's estimated the cost of inch pipes in ,england at #fs41 7about #a4ej17 per thousand1 when made on the estate where they were to be used1 by a process similar to that described herein4 ,probably they could at no time have been made for less than twice that cost in the ,united ,states1--and they would now cost much more2 though if the clay is dug out in the fall1 when the regularly employed farm hands are short of work1 and if the same men can cut and haul the wood during the winter1 the hands hired especially for the tile making1 during the summer season1 7two men and two or three boys17 cannot1 even at present rates of wages1 bring the cost of the tiles to nearly the market prices4 ,if there be only temporary use for the machinery1 it may be sold1 when no longer needed1 for a good percentage of its original cost1 as1 from the slow movement to which it is subjected1 it is not much worn by its work4 ,there is no reason why tiles should cost more to make than bricks4 ,a common brick contains clay enough to make four or five #a-a_/d-;inch tiles1 and it will require about the same amount of fuel to burn this clay in one form as in the other4 ,this advantage in favor of tiles is in a measure offset by the greater cost of handling them1 and the greater liability to breakage4 ,the foregoing description of the different processes of the manufacture of draining tiles has been given1 in order that those who find it necessary1 or desirable1 to establish works to supply the needs of their immediate localities may commence their operations understandingly1 and form an approximate opinion of the promise of success in the undertaking4 ,probably the most positive effect of the foregoing description1 on the mind of any man who contemplates establishing a tilery1 will be to cause him to visit some successful manufactory1 during the busy season1 and examine for himself the mode of operation4 ,certainly it would be unwise1 when such a personal examination of the process is practicable1 to rely entirely upon the aid of written descriptions2 for1 in any work like tile-making1 where the selection1 combination and preparation of the materials1 the means of drying1 and the economy and success of the burning must depend on a variety of conditions and circumstances1 which change with every change of locality1 it is impossible that written directions1 however minute1 should be a sufficient guide4 ,still1 in the light of such directions1 one can form a much better idea of the bearing of the different operations which he may witness1 than he could possibly do if the whole process were new to him4 ,if a personal examination of a successful tilery is impracticable1 it will be necessary to employ a practical brick-maker1 or potter1 to direct the construction and operation of the works1 and in any case1 this course is advisable4 ,in any neighborhood where two or three hundred acres of land are to be drained1 if suitable earths can be readily obtained1 it will be cheaper to establish a tile-yard1 than to haul the necessary tiles1 in wagons1 a distance of ten or twenty miles4 ,then again1 the prices demanded by the few manufacturers1 who now have almost a monopoly of the business1 are exorbitantly high1--at least twice what it will cost to make the tiles at home1 with the cheap works described above1 so that if the cost of transportation on the quantity desired would be equal to the cost of establishing the works1 there will be a decided profit in the home manufacture4 ,probably1 also1 a tile-yard1 in a neighborhood where the general character of the soil is such as to require drainage1 will be of value after the object for which it was made has been accomplished4 ,while setting forth the advantage to the farmer of everything which may protect him against monopolies1 whether in the matter of draining-tile1 or of any other needful accessory of his business1 or which will enable him to procure supplies without a ruinous outlay for transportation1 it is by no means intended that every man shall become his own tile-maker4 ,in this branch of manufacture1 as in every other1 organized industry will accomplish results to which individual labor can never attain4 ,a hundred years ago1 when our mill-made cloths came from ,england1 and cost more than farmers could afford to pay1 they wore home-spun1 which was neither so handsome nor so good as the imported article2 but1 since that time1 the growing population and the greater demand have caused cloth mills to be built here1 greater commercial facilities have placed foreign goods within easy reach1 and the house loom has fallen into general disuse4 ,at present1 the manufacture of draining tiles is confined to a few1 widely separated localities1 and each manufacturer has1 thus far1 been able to fix his own scale of charges4 ,these1 and the cost of transportation to distant points1 make it difficult1 if not impossible1 for many farmers to procure tiles at a cost low enough to justify their use4 ,in such cases1 small works1 to supply local demand1 may enable many persons to drain with tiles1 who1 otherwise1 would find it impossible to procure them cheaply enough for economical use2 and the extension of under-draining1 causing a more general acquaintance with its advantages1 would create a sufficient demand to induce an increase of the manufacture of tiles1 and a consequent reduction of price4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 - ,,the ,,reclaiming ,,of ,,salt ,,marshes4 ,adjoining to it is ,middle ,moor1 containing about #b1ejj acres1 spoken of by ,arthur ,young as 'a watery desert1' growing sedge and rushes1 and inhabited by frogs and bitterns2--it is now fertile1 well cultivated1 and profitable land4 ,the foregoing extract1 from an account of the ,drainage of the ,fens on the eastern coast of ,england1 is a text from which might be preached a sermon worthy of the attention of all who are interested in the vast areas of salt marsh which form so large a part of our ,atlantic coast1 from ,maine to ,florida4 ,hundreds of thousands of acres that might be cheaply reclaimed1 and made our most valuable and most salubrious lands1 are abandoned to the inroads of the sea2--fruitful only in malaria and musquitoes1--always a dreary waste1 and often a grave annoyance4 ,a single tract1 over #bj1jjj acres in extent1 the center of which is not seven miles from the heart of ,new ,york ,city1 skirts the ,hackensack ,river1 in ,new ,jersey1 serving as a barrier to intercourse between the town and the country which lies beyond it1 adding miles to the daily travel of the thousands whose business and pleasure require them to cross it1 and constituting a nuisance and an eyesore to all who see it1 or come near it4 ,how long it will continue in this condition it is impossible to say1 but the experience of other countries has proved that1 for an expense of not more than fifty dollars per acre1 this tract might be made better1 for all purposes of cultivation1 than the lands adjoining it1 7many of which are worth1 for market gardening1 over one thousand dollars per acre17 and that it might afford profitable employment1 and give homes1 to all of the industrious poor of the city4 ,the work of reclaiming it would be child's play1 compared with the draining of the ,harlaem ,lake in ,holland1 where over #dj1jjj acres1 submerged to an average depth of thirteen feet1 have been pumped dry1 and made to do their part toward the support of a dense population4 ,the ,hackensack meadows are only a conspicuous example of what exists over a great extent of our whole seaboard2--virgin lands1 replete with every element of fertility1 capable of producing enough food for the support of millions of human beings1 better located1 for residence and for convenience to markets1 than the prairies of the ,western ,states1--all allowed to remain worse than useless2 while the poorer uplands near them are1 in many places1 teeming with a population whose lives are endangered1 and whose comfort is sadly interfered with by the insects and the miasma which the marsh produces4 ,the inherent wealth of the land is locked up1 and all of its bad effects are produced1 by the water with which it is constantly soaked or overflowed4 ,let the waters of the sea be excluded1 and a proper outlet for the rain-fall and the upland wash be provided1--both of which objects may1 in a great majority of cases1 be economically accomplished1--and this land may become the garden of the continent4 ,its fertility will attract a population1 7especially in the vicinity of large towns17 which could no where else live so well nor so easily4 ,the manner in which these salt marshes were formed may be understood from the following account of the ,great ,level of the ,fens of the eastern coast of ,england1 which is copied1 7as is the paragraph at the head of this chapter17 from the ,prize ,essay of ,mr4 ,john ,algernon ,clarke1 written for the ,royal ,agricultural ,society in #ahdf4 ,the process is not1 of course1 always the same1 nor are the exact influences1 which made the ,english ,fens1 generally1 operating in precisely the same manner here1 but the main principle is the same1 and the lesson taught by the improvement of the ,fens is perfectly applicable in our case4 ,this great level extends itself into the six counties of ,cambridge1 ,lincoln1 ,huntington1 ,northampton1 ,suffolk and ,norfolk1 being bounded by the highlands of each4 ,it is about seventy miles in length1 and varies from twenty to forty miles in breadth1 having an area of more than #fhj1jjj acres4 ,through this vast extent of flat country1 there flow six large rivers1 with their tributary streams2 namely1 the ,ouse1 the ,cam1 the ,nene1 the ,welland1 the ,glen1 and the ,witham4 ,these were1 originally1 natural channels for conveying the upland waters to the sea1 and whenever a heavier downfall of rain than usual occurred1 and the swollen springs and rivulets caused the rivers to overflow1 they must necessarily have overflowed the land to a great extent4 ,this1 however1 was not the principal cause of the inundation of the ,fens3 these rivers were not allowed a free passage to the ocean1 being thus made incapable of carrying off even the ordinary amount of upland water which1 consequently1 flowed over the land4 ,the obstruction was two-fold2 first1 the outfalls became blocked up by the deposits of silt from the sea waters1 which accumulated to an amazing thickness4 ,the well known instances of boats found in #afce eight feet below the ,wisbeck ,river1 and the smith's forge and tools found at ,skirbeck ,shoals1 near ,boston1 buried with silt sixteen feet deep1 show what an astonishing quantity of sediment formerly choked up the mouths of these great rivers4 ,but the chief hindrance caused by the ocean1 arose from the tide rushing twice every day for a very great distance up these channels1 driving back the fresh waters1 and overflowing with them1 so that the whole level became deluged with deep water1 and was1 in fact1 one great bay4 ,in considering the state of this region as it first attracted the enterprise of man to its improvement1 we are to conceive a vast1 wild morass1 with only small1 detached portions of cultivated soil1 or islands1 raised above the general inundation2 a most desolate picture when contrasted with its present state of matchless fertility4 ,salt marshes are formed of the silty deposits of rivers and of the sea4 ,the former bring down vegetable mould and fine earth from the uplands1 and the latter contribute sea weeds and grasses1 sand and shells1 and millions of animalcul which1 born for life in salt water only1 die1 and are deposited with the other matters1 at those points where1 from admixture with the fresh flow of the rivers1 the water ceases to be suitable for their support4 ,it is estimated that these animalcul alone are the chief cause of the obstructions at the mouths of the rivers of ,holland1 which retard their flow1 and cause them to spread over the flat country adjoining their banks4 ,it is less important1 however1 for the purposes of this chapter1 to consider the manner in which salt marshes are formed1 than to discuss the means by which they may be reclaimed and made available for the uses of agriculture4 ,the improvement may be conveniently considered under three heads3-- ,first--,the exclusion of the sea water4 ,second--,the removal of the causes of inundation from the upland4 ,third--,the removal of the rain-fall and water of filtration4 99,the ,exclusion of the ,sea99 is of the first importance1 because not only does it saturate the land with water1--but this water1 being salt1 renders it unfertile for the plants of ordinary cultivation1 and causes it to produce others which are of little1 or no value4 ,the only means by which the sea may be kept out is1 by building such dykes or embankments as shut out the highest tides1 and1 on shores which are exposed to the action of the waves1 will resist their force4 ,ordinarily1 the best1 because the cheapest1 material of which these embankments can be made1 is the soil of the marsh itself4 ,this is rarely1--almost never1--a pure peat1 such as is found in upland swamps2 it contains a large proportion of sand1 blue clay1 muscle mud1 or other earthy deposits1 which give it great weight and tenacity1 and render it excellent for forming the body of the dyke4 ,on lands which are overflowed to a considerable extent at each high tide1 7twice a day17 it will be necessary to adopt more expensive1 and more effective measures1 but on ordinary salt meadows1 which are deeply covered only at the spring tides1 7occurring every month17 the following plan will be found practical and economical4 ,locating the line of the embankment far enough back from the edge of the meadow to leave an ample flat outside of it to break the force of the waves1 if on the open coast1 or to resist the inroads of the current if on the bank of an estuary or a river1--say from ten to one hundred yards1 according to the danger of encroachment1--set a row of stakes parallel to the general direction of the shore1 to mark the outside line of the base of the dyke4 ,stake out the inside line at such distance as will give a pitch or inclination to the slopes of one and a half to one on the outside1 and of one to one on the inside1 and will allow the necessary width at the top1 which should be at least two feet higher than the level of the highest tide that is known ever to have occurred at that place4 ,the width of the top should never be less than four feet1 and in exposed localities it should be more4 ,if a road will be needed around the land1 it is best1 if a heavy dyke is required1 to make it wide enough to answer this purpose1 with still wider places1 at intervals1 to allow vehicles to turn or to pass each other4 ,ordinarily1 however1 especially if there be a good stretch of flat meadow in front1 the top of the dyke need not be more than four feet wide4 ,supposing such a dyke to be contemplated where the water has been known to rise two feet above the level of the meadows1 requiring an embankment four feet high1 it will be necessary to allow for the base a width of fourteen feet2--four feet for the width of the top1 six feet for the reach of the front slope1 7#a-a_/b to #a17 and four feet for the reach of the back slope1 7#a to #a47 ,having staked out two parallel lines1 fourteen feet apart1 and erected1 at intervals of twenty or thirty feet1 frames made of rough strips of board of the exact shape of the section of the proposed embankment1 the workmen may remove the sod to a depth of six inches1 laying it all on the outside of the position of the proposed embankment4 ,the sod from the line of the ditch1 from which the earth for the embankment is to be taken1 should also be removed and placed with the other4 ,this ditch should be always inside of the dyke1 where it will never be exposed to the action of the sea4 ,it should be1 at the surface1 broader than the base of the dyke1 and five feet deep in the center1 but its sides may slope from the surface of the ground directly to the center line of the bottom4 ,this is the best form to give it1 because1 while it should be five feet deep1 for future uses as a drain1 its bottom need have no width4 ,the great width at the surface will give such a pitch to the banks as to ensure their stability1 and will yield a large amount of sod for the facing of the dyke4 ,the edge of this ditch should be some feet away from the inner line of the embankment1 leaving it a firm support or shoulder at the original level of the ground1 the sod not being removed from the interval4 ,the next step in the work should be to throw1 or wheel1 the material from the ditch on to the place which has been stripped for the dyke1 building it up so as to conform exactly to the profile frames1 these remaining in their places1 to indicate the filling necessary to make up for the settling of the material1 as the water drains out of it4 ,fig4 #dg - ,,dyke ,,and ,,ditch4 ,fig4 #dg - ,,dyke ,,and ,,ditch4 ,as fast as a permanent shape can be given to the outer face of the dyke1 it should be finished by having the sod placed against it1 being laid flatwise1 one on top of another1 7like stone work17 in the most solid manner possible4 ,this should be continued to the top of the slope1 and the flat top of the dyke should also be sodded1--the sods on the top1 and on the slope1 being firmly beaten to their places with the back of the spade or other suitable implement4 ,this will sufficiently protect the exposed parts of the work against the action of any waves that may be formed on the flat between the dyke and the deep water1 while the inner slope and the banks of the ditch1 not being exposed to masses of moving water1 will retain their shape and will soon be covered with a new growth47#bf7 ,a sectional view of the above described dyke and ditch is shown in the accompanying diagram1 7,fig4 #dg47 ,in all work of this character1 it is important to regulate the amount of work laid out to be done between the spring tides1 to the laboring force employed1 so that no unfinished work will remain to be submerged and injured4 ,when the flood comes1 it should find everything finished up and protected against its ravages1 so that no part of it need be done over again4 ,if the land is crossed by creeks1 the dyke should be finished off and sodded1 a little back from each bank1 and when the time comes for closing the channel1 sufficient force should be employed to complete the dam at a single tide1 so that the returning flow shall not enter to wash away the material which has been thrown in4 ,if1 as is often the case1 these creeks are not merely tidal estuaries1 but receive brooks or rivers from the upland1 provision must be made1 as will be hereafter directed1 for either diverting the upland flow1 or for allowing it to pass out at low water1 through valve gates or sluices4 ,when the dam has been made1 the water behind it should never be allowed to rise to nearly the level of the full tide1 and1 as soon as possible1 grass and willows should be grown on the bank1 to add to its strength by the binding effect of their roots4 ,when the dyke is completed across the front of the whole flat1--from the high land on one side to the high land on the other1 the creeks should be closed1 one after the other1 commencing with the smallest1 so that the experience gained in their treatment may enable the force to work more advantageously on those which carry more water4 ,if the flow of water in the creek is considerable1 a row of strong stakes1 or piles1 should be firmly driven into the bottom mud1 across the whole width of the channel1 at intervals of not more than one or two feet1 and fascines1--bundles of brush bound together1--should be made ready on the banks1 in sufficient quantity to close the spaces between the piles4 ,these will serve to prevent the washing away of the filling during construction4 ,the pile driving1 and the preparation of the fascines may be done before the closing of the channel with earth is commenced1 and if upland clay or gravel1 to be mixed with the local material1 can be economically brought to the place by boats or wagons1 it will be an advantage4 ,everything being in readiness1 a sufficient force of laborers to finish the dam in six hours should commence the work a little before dead low-water1 and1 7with the aid of wheelbarrows1 if necessary17 throw the earth in rapidly behind the row of stakes and fascines1 giving the dam sufficient width to resist the pressure of the water from without1 and keeping the work always in advance of the rising of the tide1 so that1 during the whole operation1 none of the filling shall be washed away by water flowing over its top4 ,if the creek has a sloping bottom1 the work may be commenced earlier1--as soon as the tide commences to recede1--and pushed out to the center of the channel by the time the tide is out4 ,when the dam is built1 it will be best to heavily sod1 or otherwise protect its surface against the action of heavy rains1 which would tend to wash it away and weaken it2 and the bed of the creek should be filled in back of the dam for a distance of at least fifty yards1 to a height greater than that at which water will stand in the interior drains1--say to within three feet of the surface1--so that there shall never be a body of water standing within that distance of the dam4 ,this is a necessary precaution against the attacks of muskrats1 which are the principal cause of the insecurity of all salt marsh embankments4 ,it should be a cardinal rule with all who are engaged in the construction of such works1 never to allow two bodies of water1 one on each side of the bank to be nearer than twenty-five yards of each other1 and fifty yards would be better4 ,muskrats do not bore through a bank1 as is often supposed1 to make a passage from one body of water to another1 7they would find an easier road over the top72 but they delight in any elevated mound in which they can make their homes above the water level and have its entrance beneath the surface1 so that their land enemies cannot invade them4 ,when they enter for this purpose1 only from one side of the dyke1 they will do no harm1 but if another colony is1 at the same time1 boring in from the other side1 there is great danger that their burrows will connect1 and thus form a channel for the admission of water1 and destroy the work4 ,a disregard of this requirement has caused thousands of acres of salt marsh that had been enclosed by dykes having a ditch on each side1 7much the cheapest way to make them17 to be abandoned1 and it has induced the invention of various costly devices for the protection of embankments against these attacks47#bg7 ,when the creek or estuary to be cut off is very wide1 the embankment may be carried out1 at leisure1 from each side1 until the channel is only wide enough to allow the passage of the tide without too great a rush of water against the unfinished ends of the work2 but1 even in these cases1 there will be economy in the use of fascines and piles from the first1 or of stones if these can be readily procured4 ,in wide streams1 partial obstructions of the water course will sometimes induce the deposit of silt in such quantities as will greatly assist the work4 ,no written description of a single process will suffice for the direction of those having charge of this most delicate of all drainage operations4 ,much must be left to the ingenuity of the director of the work1 who will have to avail himself of the assistance of such favorable circumstances as may1 in the case in hand1 offer themselves4 ,if the barrier to be built will require a considerable outlay1 it should be placed in the hands of a competent engineer1 and it will generally demand the full measure of his skill and experience4 ,the work cannot be successful1 unless the whole line of the water-front is protected by a continuous bank1 sufficiently high and strong in all of its parts to resist the action of the highest tides and the strongest waves to which it will be subjected4 ,as it is always open to inspection1 at each ebb tide1 and can always be approached for repair1 it will be easy to keep it in good condition2 and1 if properly attended to1 it will become more solid and effective with age4 99,the removal of the causes of inundation from the upland99 is often of almost equal importance with the shutting out of the sea1 since the amount of water brought down by rivers1 brooks1 and hill-side wash1 is often more than can be removed by any practicable means1 by sluice gates1 or pumps4 ,it will be quite enough for the capacity of these means of drainage1 to remove the rain-water which falls on the flat land1 and that which reaches it by under-ground springs and by infiltration1--its proper drainage-water in short1--without adding that which1 coming from a higher level1 may be made to flow off by its own fall4 ,catch-water drains1 near the foot of the upland1 may be so arranged as to receive the surface water of the hills and carry it off1 always on a level above that of the top of the embankment1 and these drains may often be1 with advantage1 enlarged to a sufficient capacity to carry the streams as well4 ,if the marsh is divided by an actual river1 it may be best to embank it in two separate tracts2 losing the margins1 that have been recommended1 outside of the dykes1 and building the necessary additional length of these1 rather than to contend with a large body of water4 ,but1 frequently1 a very large marsh is traversed by a tortuous stream which occupies a large area1 and which1 although the tidal water which it contains gives it the appearance of a river1 is only the outlet of an insignificant stream1 which might be carried along the edge of the upland in an ordinary mill-race4 ,in such case it is better to divert the stream and reclaim the whole area4 ,when a stream is enclosed between dykes1 its winding course should be made straight in order that its water may be carried off as rapidly as possible1 and the land which it occupies by its deviations1 made available for cultivation4 ,in the loose1 silty soil of a salt marsh1 the stream may be made to do most of the work of making its new bed1 by constructing temporary jetties1 or other obstructions to its accustomed flow1 which shall cause its current to deposit silt in its old channel1 and to cut a new one out of the opposite bank4 ,in some instances it may be well to make an elevated canal1 straight across the tract1 by constructing banks high enough to confine the stream and deliver it over the top of the dyke2 in others it may be more expedient to carry the stream over1 or through1 the hill which bounds the marsh1 and cause it to discharge through an adjoining valley4 ,improvements of this magnitude1 which often affect the interest of many owners1 or of persons interested in the navigation of the old channel1 or in mill privileges below the point at which the water course is to be diverted1 will generally require legislative interference4 ,but they not seldom promise immense advantages for a comparatively small outlay4 ,the instance cited of the ,hackensack ,meadows1 in ,new ,jersey1 is a case in point4 ,its area is divided among many owners1 and1 while ninety-nine acres in every hundred are given up to muskrats1 mosquitoes1 coarse rushes and malaria1 the other one acre may belong to the owner of an adjacent farm who values the salt hay which it yields him1 and the title to the whole is vested in many individual proprietors1 who could never be induced to unite in an improvement for the common benefit4 ,then again1 thanks to the tide that sets back in the ,hackensack ,river1 it is able to float an occasional vessel to the unimportant villages at the northern end of the meadows1 and the right of navigation can be interfered with only by governmental action4 ,if the ,hackensack ,river proper1 that part of it which only serves as an outlet for the drainage of the high land north of the meadows1 could be diverted and carried through the hills to the ,passaic2 or confined within straight elevated banks and made to discharge at high water mark at the line of the ,philadelphia ,rail-road2--the wash of the highlands1 east and west of the meadows1 being also carried off at this level1--the bridge of the railroad might be replaced by an earth embankment1 less than a quarter of a mile in length1 effecting a complete exclusion of the tidal flow from the whole tract4 ,this being done1 a steam-pump1 far less formidable than many which are in profitable use in ,europe for the same purpose1 would empty1 and keep empty1 the present bed of the river1 which would form a capital outlet for the drainage of the whole area4 ,twenty thousand acres1 of the most fertile land1 would thus be added to the available area of the ,state1 greatly increasing its wealth1 and inducing the settlement of thousands of industrious inhabitants4 ,as the circumstances under which upland water reaches lands of the class under consideration vary with every locality1 no specific directions for the treatment of individual cases can be given within the limits of this chapter2 but the problem will rarely be a difficult one4 99,the removal of the rain-fall and water of filtration99 is the next point to be considered4 ,so far as the drainage of the land1 in detail1 is concerned1 it is only necessary to say that it may be accomplished1 as in the case of any other level land which1 from the slight fall that can be allowed the drains1 requires close attention and great care in the adjustment of the grades4 ,the main difficulty is in providing an outlet for the drains4 ,this can only be done by artificial means1 as the water must be removed from a level lower than high-water mark1--sometimes lower than low-water4 ,if it is only required that the outlet be at a point somewhat above the level of ordinary low-water1 it will be sufficient to provide a sufficient reservoir1 7usually a large open ditch17 to contain the drainage water that is discharged while the tide stands above the floor of the outlet sluice-way1 and to provide for its outflow while the level of the tide water is below the point of discharge4 ,this is done by means of sluices having self-acting valves1 7or tide-gates17 opening outward1 which will be closed by the weight of the water when the tide rises against them1 being opened again by the pressure of the water from within1 as soon the tide falls below the level of the water inside of the bank4 ,the gates and sluices may be of wood or iron1--square or round4 ,the best would be galvanized iron pipes and valves2 but a square wooden trunk1 closed with a heavy oak gate that fits closely against its outer end1 and moves freely on its hinges1 will answer capitally well1 if carefully and strongly made4 ,if the gate is of wood1 it will be well to have it lie in a slightly slanting position1 so that its own weight will tend to keep it closed when the tide first commences to rise above the floor1 and might trickle in1 before it had acquired sufficient head to press the gate against the end of the trunk4 ,as this outlet has to remove1 in a short time1 all of the water that is delivered by the drains and ditches during several hours1 it should1 of course1 be considerably larger than would be required for a constantly flowing drain from the same area2 but the immense gates1--large enough for a canal lock1--which are sometimes used for the drainage of a few acres of marsh1 are absurd4 ,not only are they useless1 they are really objectionable1 inasmuch as the greater extent of their joints increases the risk of leakage at the time of high water4 ,the channel for the outflow of the water may sometimes1 with advantage1 be open to the top of the dyke or dam1--a canal instead of a trunk2 but this is rarely the better plan1 and is only admissible where the discharge is into a river or small bay1 too small for the formation of high waves1 as these would be best received on the face of a well sodded1 sloping bank4 ,the height1 above absolute low water1 at which the outlet should be placed1 will depend on the depth of the outlet of the land drain1 and the depth of storage room required to receive the drainage water during the higher stages of the tide4 ,of course1 it must not be higher than the floor of the land drain outlet1 and1 except for the purpose of affording storage room1 it need not be lower1 although all the drainage will discharge1 not only while the tide water is below the bottom of the gate1 but as long as it remains lower than the level of the water inside4 ,it is well to place the mouth of the trunk nearly as low as ordinary low-water mark4 ,this will frequently render it necessary to carry a covered drain1 of wood or brick1 through the mud1 out as far as the tide usually recedes1--connected with the valve gate at the outlet of the trunk1 by a covered box which will keep rubbish from obstructing it1 or interfering with its action4 ,when the outlet of the land-drains is below low-water mark1 it is of course necessary to pump out the drainage water4 ,this is done by steam or by wind1 the latter being economical only for small tracts which will not bear the cost of a steam pump4 ,formerly1 this work was done entirely by windmills1 but these afford only an uncertain power1 and often cause the entire loss of crops which are ready for the harvest1 by obstinately refusing to work for days after a heavy rain has deluged the land4 ,in grass land they are tolerably reliable1 and on small tracts in cultivation1 it is easy1 by having a good proportion of open ditches1 to afford storage room sufficient for general security2 but in the reclaiming of large areas1 7and it is with these that the work is most economical17 the steam pump may be regarded as indispensable4 ,it is fast superseding the windmills which1 a few years ago1 were the sole dependence in ,holland and on the ,english ,fens4 ,the magnitude of the pumping machinery on which the agriculture of a large part of ,holland depends1 is astonishing4 ,there are such immense areas of salt marsh in the ,united ,states which may be tolerably drained by the use of simple valve gates1 discharging above low-water mark1 that it is not very important to consider the question of pumping1 except in cases where owners of small tracts1 from which a sufficient tidal outlet could not be secured1 7without the concurrence of adjoining proprietors who might refuse to unite in making the improvement17 may find it advisable to erect small pumps for their own use4 ,in such cases1 it would generally be most economical to use wind-power1 especially if an accessory steam pump be provided for occasional use1 in emergency4 ,certainly1 the tidal drainage should first be resorted to1 for when the land has once been brought into cultivation1 the propriety of introducing steam pumps will become more apparent1 and the outlay will be made with more confidence of profitable return1 and1 in all cases1 the tidal outlet should be depended on for the outflow of all water above its level4 ,it would be folly to raise water by expensive means1 which can be removed1 even periodically1 by natural drainage4 ,when pumps are used1 their discharge pipes should pass through the embankment1 and deliver the water at low-water mark1 so that the engine may have to operate only against the actual height of the tide water4 ,if it delivered above high-water mark1 it would work1 even at low tide1 against a constant head1 equal to that of the highest tides4 ,,chapter ,x4 - ,,malarial ,,diseases4 ,so far as remote agricultural districts are concerned1 it is not probable that the mere question of health would induce the undertaking of costly drainage operations1 although this consideration may operate1 in connection with the need for an improved condition of soil1 as a strong argument in its favor4 ,as a rule1 the chills are accepted by farmers1 especially at the ,west1 as one of the slight inconveniences attending their residence on rich lands2 and it is not proposed1 in this work1 to urge the evils of this terrible disease1 and of sun pain1 or day neuralgia1 as a reason for draining the immense prairies over which they prevail4 ,the diseases exist1--to the incalculable detriment of the people1--and thorough draining would remove them1 and would doubtless bring a large average return on the investment2--but the question is1 after all1 one of capital2 and the cost of such draining as would remove fever-and-ague from the bottom lands and prairies of the ,west1 and from the infected agricultural districts at the ,east1 would be more than the agricultural capital of those districts could spare for the purpose4 ,in the vicinity of cities and towns1 however1 where more wealth has accumulated1 and where the number of persons subjected to the malarial influence is greater1 there can be no question as to the propriety of draining1 even if nothing but improved health be the object4 ,then again1 there are immense tracts near the large cities of this country which would be most desirable for residence1 were it not that their occupancy1 except with certain constant precautions1 implies almost inevitable suffering from fever-and-ague1 or neuralgia4 ,very few neighborhoods within thirty miles of the city of ,new ,york are entirely free from these scourges1 whose influence has greatly retarded their occupation by those who are seeking country homes2 while many1 who have braved the dangers of disease in these localities1 have had sad cause to regret their temerity4 ,probably the most striking instance of the effect of malaria on the growth and settlement of suburban districts1 is to be found on ,staten ,island4 ,within five miles of the ,battery2 accessible by the most agreeable and best managed ferry from the city2 practically1 nearer to ,wall street than ,murray ,hill is2 with most charming views of land and water2 with a beautifully diversified surface1 and an excellent soil2 and affording capital opportunities for sea bathing1 it should be1 7were it not for its sanitary reputation1 it inevitably would be17 one vast residence-park4 ,except on its extreme northern end1 and along its higher ridges1 it has1--and1 unfortunately1 it deserves1--a most unenviable reputation for insalubrity4 ,here and there1 on the southern slope also1 there are favored places which are unaccountably free from the pest1 but1 as a rule1 it is1 during the summer and autumn1 unsafe to live there without having constant recourse to preventive medication1 or exercising unusual and inconvenient precautions with regard to exposure to mid-day sun and evening dew4 ,there are always to be found attractive residences1 which are deserted by their owners1 and are offered for sale at absurdly low prices4 ,there are isolated instances of very thorough and very costly draining1 which has failed of effect1 because so extensive a malarial region cannot be reclaimed by anything short of a systematic improvement of the whole4 ,it has been estimated that the thorough drainage of the low lands1 valleys and ponds of the eastern end of the island1 including two miles of the south shore1 would at once add #e1jjj1jjj to the market value of the real estate of that section4 ,there can be no question that any radical improvement in this respect would remove the only obstacle to the rapid settlement of the island by those who wish to live in the country1 yet need to be near to the business portion of the city4 ,the hope of such improvement being made1 however1 seems as remote as ever1--although any one at all acquainted with the sources of miasm1 in country neighborhoods1 can readily see the cause of the difficulty1 and the means for its removal are as plainly suggested4 ,staten ,island is1 by no means1 alone in this respect4 ,all who know the history of the settlement of the other suburbs of ,new ,york are very well aware that those places which are free from fever-and-ague and malarial neuralgia1 are extremely rare4 ,the exact cause of fever-and-ague and other malarial diseases is unknown1 but it is demonstrated that1 whatever the cause is1 it is originated under a combination of circumstances1 one of which is undue moisture in the soil4 ,it is not necessary that land should be absolutely marshy to produce the miasm1 for this often arises on cold1 springy uplands which are quite free from deposits of muck4 ,thus far1 the attention of scientific investigators1 given to the consideration of the origin of malarial diseases1 has failed to discover any well established facts concerning it2 but there have been developed certain theories1 which seem to be sustained by such knowledge as exists on the subject4 ,dr4 ,bartlett1 in his work on the ,fevers of the ,united ,states1 says3--,the essential1 efficient1 producing cause of periodical fever1--the poison whose action on the system gives rise to the disease1--is a substance or agent which has received the names of malaria1 or marsh miasm4 ,the nature and composition of this poison are wholly unknown to us4 ,like most other analogous agents1 like the contagious principle of small-pox and of typhus1 and like the epidemic poison of scarletina and cholera1 they are too subtle to be recognized by any of our senses1 they are too fugitive to be caught by any of our contrivances4 ,as always happens in such cases and under similar circumstances1 in the absence of positive knowledge1 we have been abundantly supplied with conjecture and speculation2 what observation has failed to discover1 hypothesis has endeavored and professed to supply4 ,it is quite unnecessary even to enumerate the different substances to which malaria has been referred4 ,amongst them are all of the chemical products and compounds possible in wet and marshy localities2 moisture alone2 the products of animal and vegetable decomposition2 and invisible living organisms4 99 99 99 99 ,inscrutable1 however1 as the intimate nature of the substances or agents may be1 there are some few of its laws and relations which are very well ascertained4 ,one of these consists in its connection with low1 or wet1 or marshy localities4 ,this connection is not invariable and exclusive1 that is1 there are marshy localities which are not malarious1 and there are malarious localities which are not marshy2 but there is no doubt whatever that it generally exists4 ,in a report to the ,united ,states ,sanitary ,commission1 ,dr4 ,metcalfe states1 that all hypotheses1 even the most plausible1 are entirely unsupported by positive knowledge1 and he says3-- ,this confession of ignorance still leaves us in possession of certain knowledge concerning malaria1 from which much practical good may be derived4 #ast4 ,it affects1 by preference1 low and moist localities4 #b;d4 ,it is almost never developed at a lower temperature than #fj ,fahrenheit4 #c;d4 ,its evolution or active agency is checked by a temperature of #cb4 #dth4 ,it is most abundant and most virulent as we approach the equator and the sea-coast4 #eth4 ,it has an affinity for dense foliage1 which has the power of accumulating it1 when lying in the course of winds blowing from malarious localities4 #fth4 ,forests1 or even woods1 have the power of obstructing and preventing its transmission1 under these circumstances4 #gth4 ,by atmospheric currents it is capable of being transported to considerable distances--probably as far as five miles4 #hth4 ,it may be developed1 in previously healthy places1 by turning up the soil2 as in making excavations for foundations of houses1 tracks for railroads1 and beds for canals4 #ith4 ,in certain cases it seems to be attracted and absorbed by bodies of water lying in the course of such winds as waft it from the miasmatic source4 #ajth4 ,experience alone can enable us to decide as to the presence or absence of malaria1 in any given locality4 #aath4 ,in proportion as countries1 previously malarious1 are cleared up and thickly settled1 periodical fevers disappear--in many instances to be replaced by the typhoid or typhus4 ,la ,roche1 in a carefully prepared treatise on ,pneumonia2 its ,supposed ,connection with ,autumnal ,fevers1 recites various theories concerning the mode of action of marsh miasm1 and finds them insufficient to account for the phenomena which they produce4 ,he continues as follows3-- ,all the above hypotheses failing to account for the effects in question1 we are naturally led to the admission that they are produced by the morbific influence of some special agent2 and when we take into consideration all the circumstances attending the appearance of febrile diseases1 the circumscribed sphere of their prevalence1 the suddenness of their attack1 the character of their phenomena1 etc41 we may safely say that there is nothing left but to attribute them to the action of some poison dissolved or suspended in the air of the infected locality2 which poison1 while doubtless requiring for its development and dissemination a certain degree of heat1 and terrestrial and atmospheric moisture1 a certain amount of nightly condensation after evaporation1 and the presence of fermenting or decomposing materials1 cannot be produced by either of these agencies alone1 and though indicated by the chemist1 betrays its presence by producing on those exposed to its influence the peculiar morbid changes characterizing fever4 ,he quotes the following from the ,researches of ,dr4 ,chadwick3-- ,in considering the circumstances external to the residence1 which affect the sanitary condition of the population1 the importance of a general land-drainage is developed by the inquiries as to the cause of the prevalent diseases1 to be of a magnitude of which no conception had been formed at the commencement of the investigation4 ,its importance is manifested by the severe consequences of its neglect in every part of the country1 as well as by its advantages in the increasing salubrity and productiveness wherever the drainage has been skillful and effectual4 ,la ,roche calls attention to these facts3--,that the acclimated residents of a malarious locality1 while they are less subject than strangers to active fever1 show1 in their physical and even in their mental organization1 evident indications of the ill effects of living in a poisonous atmosphere1--an evil which increases with successive generations1 often resulting in a positive deterioration of the race2 that the lower animals are affected1 though in a less degree than man2 that deposits of organic matter which are entirely covered with water1 7as at the bottom of a pond17 are not productive of malaria2 that this condition of saturation is infinitely preferable to imperfect drainage2 that swamps which are shaded from the sun's heat by trees1 are not supposed to produce disease2 and that marshes which are exposed to constant winds are not especially deleterious to persons living in their immediate vicinity1--while winds frequently carry the emanations of miasmatic districts to points some miles distant1 where they produce their worst effects4 ,this latter statement is substantiated by the fact that houses situated some miles to the leeward of low1 wet lands1 have been especially insalubrious until the windows and doors on the side toward the source of the miasm were closed up1 and openings made on the other side1--and thenceforth remained free from the disease1 although other houses with openings on the exposed sides continued unhealthy4 ,the literature relating to periodical fevers contains nothing else so interesting as the very ingenious article of ,dr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,salisbury1 on the ,cause of ,malarious ,fevers1 contributed to the ,american ,journal of ,medical ,science1 for ,january1 #ahff4 ,unfortunately1 while there is no evidence to controvert the statements of this article1 they do not seem to be honored with the confidence of the profession1--not being regarded as sufficiently authenticated to form a basis for scientific deductions4 ,dr4 ,salisbury claims to have discovered the cause of malarial fever in the spores of a very low order of plant1 which spores he claims to have invariably detected in the saliva1 and in the urine1 of fever patients1 and in those of no other persons1 and which he collected on plates of glass suspended over all marshes and other lands of a malarious character1 which he examined1 and which he was never able to obtain from lands which were not malarious4 ,starting from this point1 he proceeds1 7with circumstantial statements that seem to the unprofessional mind to be sufficient17 to show that the plant producing these spores is always found1 in the form of a whitish1 green1 or brick-colored incrustation1 on the surface of fever producing lands2 that the spores1 when detached from the parent plant1 are carried in suspension only in the moist exhalations of wet lands1 never rising higher1 7usually from #ce to #fj feet17 nor being carried farther1 than the humid air itself2 that they most accumulate in the upper strata of the fogs1 producing more disease on lands slightly elevated above the level of the marsh than at its very edge2 that fever-and-ague are never to be found where this plant does not grow2 that it may be at once introduced into the healthiest locality by transporting moist earth on which the incrustation is forming2 that the plant1 being introduced into the human system through the lungs1 continues to grow there and causes disease2 and that quinia arrests its growth1 7as it checks the multiplication of yeast plants in fermentation17 and thus suspends the action of the disease4 ,probably it would be impossible to prove that the foregoing theory is correct1 though it is not improbable that it contains the germ from which a fuller knowledge of the disease and its causes will be obtained4 ,it is sufficient for the purposes of this work to say that1 so far as ,dr4 ,salisbury's opinion is valuable1 it is1--like the opinion of all other writers on the subject1--fully in favor of perfect drainage as the one great preventive of all malarial diseases4 ,the evidence of the effect of drainage in removing the cause of malarial diseases is complete and conclusive4 ,instances of such improvement in this country are not rare1 but they are much less numerous and less conspicuous here than in ,england1 where draining has been much more extensively carried out1 and where greater pains have been taken to collect testimony as to its effects4 ,if there is any fact well established by satisfactory experience1 it is that thorough and judicious draining will entirely remove the local source of the miasm which produces these diseases4 ,the voluminous reports of various ,committees of the ,english ,parliament1 appointed to investigate sanitary questions1 are replete with information concerning experience throughout the whole country1 bearing directly on this question4 ,dr4 ,whitley1 in his report to the ,board of ,health1 7in #ahfd17 of an extended tour of observation1 says of one town that he examined3-- ,mr4 ,nicholls1 who has been forty years in practice here1 and whom ,i was unable to see at the time of my visit1 writes3 ,intermittent and remittent are greatly on the decline since the improved state of drainage of the town and surrounding district1 and more particularly marked is this alteration1 since the introduction of the water-works in the place4 ,although we have occasional outbreaks of intermittent and remittent1 with neuralgic attacks1 they yield more speedily to remedies1 and are not attended by so much enlargement of the liver or spleen as formerly1 and dysentery is of rare occurrence4 ,dr4 ,whitley sums up his case as follows3-- ,it would appear from the foregoing inquiry1 that intermittent and remittent fevers1 and their consequences1 can no longer be regarded as seriously affecting the health of the population1 in many of the districts1 in which those diseases were formerly of a formidable character4 ,thus1 in ,norfolk1 ,lincolnshire1 and ,cambridgeshire1 counties in which these diseases were both frequent and severe1 all the evidence1 except that furnished by the ,peterborough ,infirmary1 and1 in a somewhat less degree1 in ,spaulding1 tends to show that they are at the present time1 comparatively rare and mild in form4 ,he mentions similar results from his investigations in other parts of the kingdom1 and says3-- ,it may1 therefore1 be safely asserted as regards ,england generally1 that3-- ,the diseases which have been made the subject of the present inquiry1 have been steadily decreasing1 both in frequency and severity1 for several years1 and this decrease is attributed1 in nearly every case1 mainly to one cause1--improved land drainage2 again3 ,the change of local circumstances1 unanimously declared to be the most immediate in influencing the prevalence of malarious diseases1 is land drainage2 and again3 ,except in a few cases in which medical men believed that these affections began to decline previously to the improved drainage of the places mentioned1 the decrease in all of the districts where extensive drainage has been carried out1 was stated to have commenced about the same time1 and was unhesitatingly attributed to that cause4 ,a select ,committee of the ,house of ,commons1 appointed to investigate the condition and sanitary influence of the ,thames marshes1 reported their minutes of evidence1 and their deductions therefrom1 in #ahed1 ,the following is extracted from their report3 ,it appears from the evidence of highly intelligent and eminent gentlemen of the medical profession1 residing in the neighborhood of the marshes on both sides of the ,thames below ,london ,bridge1 that the diseases prevalent in these districts are highly indicative of malarious influences1 fever-and-ague being very prevalent2 and that the sickness and mortality are greatest in those localities which adjoin imperfectly drained lands1 and far exceed the usual average2 and that ague and allied disorders frequently extend to the high grounds in the vicinity4 ,in those districts where a partial drainage has been effected1 a corresponding improvement in the health of the inhabitants is perceptible4 ,in the evidence given before the committee1 ,dr4 ,p4 ,bossey testified that the malaria from salt marshes varied in intensity1 being most active in the morning and in the ,summer season4 ,the marshes are sometimes covered by a little fog1 usually not more than three feet thick1 which is of a very offensive odor1 and detrimental to health4 ,away from the marshes1 there is a greater tendency to disease on the side toward which the prevailing winds blow4 ,dr4 ,james ,stewart testified that the effect of malaria was greatest when very hot weather succeeds heavy rain or floods4 ,he thought that malaria could be carried up a slope1 but has never been known to descend1 and that1 consequently1 an intervening hill affords sufficient protection against marsh malaria4 ,he had known cases where the edges of a river were healthy and the uplands malarious4 ,in ,santa ,maura and ,zante1 where he had been stationed with the army1 he had observed that the edge of a marsh would be comparatively healthy1 while the higher places in the vicinity were exceedingly unhealthy4 ,he thought that there were a great many mixed diseases which began like ague and terminated very differently2 those diseases would1 no doubt1 assume a very different form if they were not produced by the marsh air2 many diseases are very difficult to treat1 from being of a mixed character beginning like marsh fevers and terminating like inflammatory fevers1 or diseases of the chest4 ,dr4 ,george ,farr testified that rheumatism and tic-doloreux were very common among the ladies who live at the ,woolwich ,arsenal1 near the ,thames marshes4 ,some of these cases were quite incurable1 until the patients removed to a purer atmosphere4 ,w4 ,h4 ,gall1 ,m4 ,d41 thought that the extent to which malaria affected the health of ,london1 must of course be very much a theoretical question2 but it is very remarkable that diseases which are not distinctly miasmatic1 do become much more severe in a miasmatic district4 ,influenzas1 which prevailed in ,england in #ahdg1 were very much more fatal in ,london and the surrounding parts than they were in the country generally1 and influenza and ague poisons are very nearly allied in their effects4 ,marsh miasms are conveyed1 no doubt1 a considerable distance4 ,sufficiently authentic cases are recorded to show that the influence of marsh miasm extends several miles4 ,other physicians testify to the fact1 that near the ,thames marshes1 the prevalent diseases are all of them of an aguish type1 intermittent and remittent1 and that they are accompanied with much dysentery4 ,dr4 ,john ,manly said that1 when he first went to ,barking1 he found a great deal of ague1 but since the draining1 in a population of ten thousand1 there are not half-a-dozen cases annually and but very little remittent4 ,the following ,extract is taken from the testimony of ,sir ,culling ,eardly1 ,bart43 ,chairman3--,i believe you reside at ,belvidere1 in the parish of ,erith8--,yes4--,ch43 ,close to these marshes8--,yes4--,ch43 ,can you speak from your own knowledge1 of the state of these marshes1 with regard to public health8--,sir ,c43 ,i can speak of some of the results which have been produced in the neighborhood1 from the condition of the marshes2 the neighborhood is in one continual state of ague4 ,my own house is protected1 from the height of its position1 and a gentleman's house is less liable to the influence of malaria than the houses of the lower classes4 ,but even in my house we are liable to ague2 and to show the extraordinary manner in which the ague operates1 in the basement story of this house where my men-servants sleep1 we have more than once had bad ague4 ,in the attics of my house1 where my maid-servants sleep1 we have never had it4 ,persons are deterred from settling in the neighborhood by the aguish character of the country4 ,many persons1 attracted by the beauty of the locality1 wish to come down and settle2 but when they find the liability to ague1 they are compelled to give up their intention4 ,i may mention that the village of ,erith itself1 bears marks of the influence of malaria4 ,it is more like one of the desolate towns of ,italy1 ,ferrara1 for instance1 than a healthy1 happy1 ,english village4 ,i do not know whether it is known to the committee1 that ,erith is the village described in ,dickens' ,household ,words1 as ,dumble-down-deary1 and that it is a most graphic and correct description of the state of the place1 attributable to the unhealthy character of the locality4 ,he also stated that the ague is not confined to the marshes1 but extends to the high lands near them4 ,the ,general ,board of ,health1 of ,england1 at the close of a voluminous report1 publish the following ,conclusions as to the ,drainage of ,suburban ,lands3-- #a4 ,excess of moisture1 even on lands not evidently wet1 is a cause of fogs and damps4 #b4 ,dampness serves as a medium for the conveyance of any decomposing matter that may be evolved1 and adds to the injurious effects of such matters in the air3--in other words the excess of moisture may be said to increase or aggravate atmospheric impurities4 #c4 ,the evaporation of the surplus moisture lowers the temperature1 produces chills1 and creates or aggravates the sudden and injurious changes or fluctuations by which health is injured4 ,in view of the foregoing opinions as to the cause of malaria1 and of the evidence as to the effect of draining in removing the unhealthy condition in which those causes originate1 it is not too much to say that1--in addition to the capital effect of draining on the productive capacity of the land1--the most beneficial sanitary results may be confidently expected from the extension of the practice1 especially in such localities as are now unsafe1 or at least undesirable for residence4 ,in proportion to the completeness and efficiency of the means for the removal of surplus water from the soil3--in proportion1 that is1 to the degree in which the improved tile drainage described in these pages is adopted1--will be the completeness of the removal of the causes of disease4 ,so far as the drying of malarious lands is concerned1 it is only necessary to construct drains in precisely the same manner as for agricultural improvement4 ,the removal of the waste of houses1 and of other filth1 will be considered in the next chapter4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 - ,,house ,,drainage ,,and ,,town ,,sewerage ,,in ,,their ,,relations ,,to ,,the ,,public ,,health4 ,the following is extracted from a report made by the ,general ,board of ,health to the ,british ,parliament1 concerning the administration of the ,public ,health ,act and the ,nuisances ,removal and ,diseases ,prevention ,acts from #ahdh to #ahed4 ,where instances have been favorable for definite observation1 as in broad blocks of buildings1 the effects of sanitary improvement have been already manifested to an extent greater than could have been anticipated1 and than can be readily credited by those who have not paid attention to the subject4 ,in one favorable instance1 that of between #fjj and #gjj persons of the working class in the metropolis1 during a period of three years1 the average rate of mortality has been reduced to between #ac and #ad in #ajjj4 ,in another instance1 for a shorter period1 among #ejj persons1 the mortality has been reduced as low as even #g in #ajjj4 ,the average rate of mortality for the whole metropolis being #bc in #ajjj4 ,in another instance1 the abolishing of cess-pools and their replacement by water-closets1 together with the abolishing of brick drains and their replacement by impermeable and self-cleansing stone-ware pipes1 has been attended with an immediate and extraordinary reduction of mortality4 ,thus1 in ,lambeth ,square1 occupied by a superior class of operatives1 in the receipt of high wages1 the deaths1 which in ordinary times were above the general average1 or more than #cj in #ajjj1 had risen to a rate of #ee in #ajjj4 ,by the abolishing of cess-pools1 which were within the houses1 and the substitution of water-closets1 and with the introduction of tubular1 self-cleansing house-drains1 the mortality has been reduced to #ac in #ajjj4 ,the reduction of the mortality was effected precisely among the same occupants1 without any change in their habits whatever4 ,sewers are less important than the ,house-,drains and ,water-,closets1 and if not carrying much water1 may become cess-pools4 ,in the case of the ,square just referred to1 when cess-pools and drains of deposit were removed without any alteration whatever in the adjacent sewers1 fevers disappeared from house to house1 as these receptacles were filled up1 and the water-closet apparatus substituted1 merely in consequence of the removal of the decomposing matter from beneath the houses to a distant sewer of deposit or open water course4 ,if the mortality were at the same rate as in the model dwellings1 or in the improved dwellings in ,lambeth ,square1 the annual deaths for the whole of the metropolis would be #be1jjj less1 and for the whole of ,england and ,wales #agj1jjj less than the actual deaths4 ,if the reduced rate of mortality in these dwellings should continue1 and there appears to be no reason to suppose that it will not1 the extension to all towns which have been affected1 of the improvements which have been applied in these buildings1 would raise the average age at death to about forty-eight instead of twenty-nine1 the present average age at death of the inhabitants of towns in all ,england and ,wales4 ,the branch of the ,art of ,drainage which relates to the removal of the fecal and other refuse wastes of the population of towns1 is quite different from that which has been described in the preceding pages1 as applicable to the agricultural and sanitary improvement of lands under cultivation1 and of suburban districts4 ,still1 the fact that town and house drainage affords a means for the preservation of valuable manures1 justifies its discussion in an agricultural work1 and draining for health would stop far short of completeness were no attention paid to the removal of the cause of diseases1 which are far more fatal than those that originate in an undrained condition of the soil4 ,the extent to which these diseases1 7of which typhoid fever is a type17 are prevented by sanitary drainage1 is strikingly shown in the extract which commences this chapter4 ,since the experience to which this report refers1 it has been found that the most fatal epidemics of the lower portions of ,london originated in the choked condition of the street sewers1 whose general character1 as well as the plan of improvement adopted are described in the following ,extracts from the ,report of the ,metropolitan ,board of ,works1 made in #ahff4 ,the main sewers discharged their whole contents direct into the ,thames1 the majority of them capable of being emptied only at the time of low water2 consequently1 as the tide rose1 the outlets of the sewers were closed1 and the sewage was dammed back1 and became stagnant2 the sewage and impure waters were also constantly flowing from the higher grounds1 in some instances during #ah out of the #bd hours1 and thus the thick and heavy substances were deposited1 which had to be afterwards removed by the costly process of hand labor4 ,during long continued or copious falls of rain1 more particularly when these occurred at the time of high water in the river1 the closed outlets not having sufficient storage capacity to receive the increased volume of sewage1 the houses and premises in the low lying districts1 especially on the south side of the river1 became flooded by the sewage rising through the house drains1 and so continued until the tide had receded sufficiently to afford a vent for the pent-up waters1 when the sewage flowed and deposited itself along the banks of the river1 evolving gases of a foul and offensive character4 ,this state of things had a most injurious effect upon the condition of the ,thames2 for not only was the sewage carried up the river by the rising tide1 at a time when the volume of pure water was at its minimum1 and quite insufficient to dilute and disinfect it1 but it was brought back again into the heart of the metropolis1 there to mix with each day's fresh supply1 until the gradual progress towards the sea of many day's accumulation could be plainly discerned2 the result being that the portion of the river within the metropolitan district became scarcely less impure and offensive than the foulest of the sewers themselves4 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,board1 by the system they have adopted1 have sought to abolish the evils which hitherto existed1 by constructing new lines of sewers1 laid in a direction at right angles to that of the existing sewers1 and a little below their levels1 so as to intercept their contents and convey them to an outfall1 on the north side of the ,thames about #aa-a_/d miles1 and on the south side about #ad miles1 below ,london ,bridge4 ,by this arrangement as large a proportion of the sewage as practicable is carried away by gravitation1 and a constant discharge for the remainder is provided by means of pumping4 ,at the outlets1 the sewage is delivered into reservoirs situate on the banks of the ,thames1 and placed at such levels as enable them to discharge into the river at or about the time of high water4 ,the sewage thus becomes not only at once diluted by the large volume of water in the river at the time of high water1 but is also carried by the ebb #bf miles below ,london ,bridge1 and its return by the following flood-tide within the metropolitan area1 is effectually prevented4 ,the details of this stupendous enterprise are of sufficient interest to justify the introduction here of the ,general ,statistics of the ,works as reported by the ,board4 ,a few statistics relative to the works may not prove uninteresting4 ,the first portion of the works was commenced in ,january #ahei1 being about five months after the passing of the ,act authorising their execution4 ,there are #hb miles of main intercepting sewers in ,london4 ,in the construction of the works #cah1jjj1jjj of bricks1 and #hhj1jjj cubic yards of concrete have been used1 and #c1ejj1jjj cubic yards of earth excavated4 ,the cost1 when completed1 will have been about #d1bjj1jjj4 ,the total pumping power employed is #b1cjj nominal horse power3 and if the engines were at full work1 night and day1 #dd1jjj tons of coals per annum would be used2 but the average consumption is estimated at #bj1jjj tons4 ,the sewage to be intercepted by the works on the north side of the river1 at present amounts to #aj1jjj1jjj cubic feet1 and on the south side #d1jjj1jjj cubic feet per day2 but provision is made for an anticipated increase in these quantities1 in addition to the rainfall1 amounting to a total of #fc1jjj1jjj cubic feet per day1 which is equal to a lake of #dhb acres1 three feet deep1 or #ae times as large as the ,serpentine in ,hyde ,park4 ,a very large portion of the sewage has to be lifted thirty-six feet to the outfall sewer4 ,the works on the north side of the ,thames were formally opened1 by the ,prince of ,wales1 in ,april #ahfe4 ,in the hope that the immense amount of sewage1 for which an escape has been thus provided1 might be profitably employed in agriculture1 advertisements were inserted in the public journals asking for proposals for carrying out such a scheme2 and arrangements were subsequently made for an extension of the works1 by private enterprise1 by the construction of a culvert nine and a half feet in diameter1 and forty miles in length1 capable of carrying #ab1jjj1jjj cubic feet of sewage per day to the barren sands on the coast of ,essex2 the intention being to dispose of the liquid to farmers along the line1 and to use the surplus for the fertilization of #gjjj acres1 7to be subsequently increased17 which are to be reclaimed from the sea by embankments and valve sluice-gates4 ,the estimated cost of this enterprise is about #aj1jjj1jjj4 ,the work which has been done1 and which is now in contemplation1 in ,england1 is suggestive of what might1 with advantage1 be adopted in the larger cities in ,america4 ,especially in ,new ,york an improved means of outlet is desirable1 and it is doubtful whether the high rate of mortality of that city will be materially reduced before effective measures are devised for removing the vast accumulations of filth1 which ebb and flow in many of the larger sewers1 with each change of the tide2 and which are deposited between the piers along the river-sides4 ,it would be practicable to construct a main receiving sewer under the river streets1 skirting the city1 from the vicinity of ,bellevue ,hospital on the east side1 passing near the outer edge of the ,battery1 and continuing to the high land near #fjth street on the west side2 having its water level at least twenty feet below the level of the street1 and receiving all of the sewage which now flows into the river4 ,at the ,battery1 this receiving sewer might be connected1 by a tunnel1 with the ,brooklyn shore1 its contents being carried to a convenient point south of ,fort ,hamilton1--where their discharge1 7by lifting steam pumps71 into the waters of the ,lower ,bay1 would be attended with no inconvenience4 ,the improvement being carried out to this point1 it would probably not be long before the advantages to result from the application of the sewage to the sandy soil on the south side of ,long ,island would be manifest4 ,the effect of such an improvement on the health of the city1--which is now in constant danger from the putrefying filth of the sewers1 7these being little better than covered cess-pools under the streets17--would1 no doubt1 equal the improvement that has resulted from similar work in ,london4 ,the foregoing relates only to the main outlets for town sewage4 ,the arterial drainage1 7the lateral drains of the system17 which receives the waste of the houses and the wash of the streets1 is entirely dependent on the outlet sewers1 and can be effective only when these are so constructed as to afford a free outfall for the matters that it delivers to them4 ,in many towns1 owing to high situation1 or to a rapid inclination of surface1 the outfall is naturally so good as to require but little attention4 ,in all cases1 the manner of constructing the collecting drains is a matter of great importance1 and in this work a radical change has been introduced within a few years past4 ,formerly1 immense conduits of porous brick work1 in all cases large enough to be entered to be cleansed1 by hand labor1 of their accumulated deposits1 were considered necessary for the accommodation of the smallest discharge4 ,the consequence of this was1 that1 especially in sewers carrying but little water1 the solid matters contained in the sewage were deposited by the sluggish flow1 frequently causing the entire obstruction of the passages4 ,such drains always required frequent and expensive cleansing by hand1 and the decomposition of the filth which they contained produced a most injurious effect on the health of persons living near their connections with the street4 ,the foul liquids with which they were filled1 passing through their porous walls1 impregnated the earth near them1 and sometimes reached to the cellars of adjacent houses1 which were in consequence rendered extremely unhealthy4 ,many such sewers are now in existence1 and some such are still being constructed4 ,not only are they unsatisfactory1 they are much more expensive in construction1 and require much attention and labor for repairs1 and cleansing1 than do the stone-ware pipe sewers which are now universally adopted wherever measures are taken to investigate their comparative merits4 ,an example of the difference between the old and modern styles of sewers is found in the drainage of the ,westminster ,school buildings1 etc41 in ,london4 ,the new drainage conveys the house and surface drainage of about two acres on which are fifteen large houses4 ,the whole length of the drain is about three thousand feet1 and the entire outlet is through two nine inch pipes4 ,the drainage is perfectly removed1 and the pipes are always clean1 no foul matters being deposited at any point4 ,this drainage has been adopted as a substitute for an old system of sewerage of which the main was from #d feet high1 by #c feet #f inches wide1 to #ag feet high and #f or #g feet wide4 ,the houses had cess-pools beneath them1 which were filled with the accumulations of many years1 while the sewers themselves were scarcely less offensive4 ,this condition resulted in a severe epidemic fever of a very fatal character4 ,an examination instituted to discover the cause of the epidemic resulted in the discovery of the facts set forth above1 and there were removed from the drains and cess-pools more than #eej loads of ordure4 ,the evaporating surface of this filth was more than #bjjj square yards4 ,since the new drainage1 not only has there been no recurrence of epidemic fever1 but a greater improvement in the general health of the population has succeeded than might be reasonably expected in a small block of houses1 amidst an ill-conditioned district1 from which it cannot be completely isolated4 ,the principle which justifies the use of pipe sewers is precisely that which has been described in recommending small tiles for agricultural drainage1--to wit3 that the rapidity of a flow of water1 and its power to remove obstacles1 is in proportion to its depth as compared with its width4 ,it has been found in practice1 that a stream which wends its sluggish way along the bottom of a large brick culvert1 when concentrated within the area of a small pipe of regular form1 flows much more rapidly1 and will carry away even whole bricks1 and other substances which were an obstacle to its flow in the larger channel4 ,as an experiment as to the efficacy of small pipes ,mr4 ,hale1 the surveyor1 who was directed by the ,general ,board of ,health of ,london to make the trial1 laid a #ab-;inch pipe in the bottom of a sewer #e feet and #f inches high1 and #c feet and #f inches wide4 ,the area drained was about #dd acres4 ,he found the velocity of the stream in the pipe to be four and a half times greater than that of the same amount of water in the sewer4 ,the pipe at no time accumulated silt1 and the force of the water issuing from the end of the pipe kept the bottom of the sewer perfectly clear for the distance of #ab feet1 beyond which point some bricks and stones were deposited1 their quantity increasing with the distance from the pipe4 ,he caused sand1 pieces of bricks1 stones1 mud1 etc41 to be put into the head of the pipe4 ,these were all carried clear through the pipe1 but were deposited in the sewer below it4 ,it has been found by experiment that in a flat bottomed sewer1 four feet wide1 having a fall of eight inches in one hundred feet1 a stream of water one inch depth1 runs very sluggishly1 while the same water running through a #ab-;inch pipe1 laid on the same inclination1 forms a rapid stream1 carrying away the heavy silt which was deposited in the broad sewer4 ,as a consequence of this1 it has been found1 where pipe sewers are used1 even on almost imperceptible inclinations1 that silt is very rarely deposited1 and the waste matters of house and street drainage are carried immediately to the outlet1 instead of remaining to ferment and poison the atmosphere of the streets through which they pass4 ,in the rare cases of obstruction which occur1 the pipes are very readily cleansed by flushing1 at a tithe of the cost of the constant hand-work required in brick sewers4 ,for the first six or seven hundred feet at the head of a sewer1 a six inch pipe will remove all of the house and street drainage1 even during a heavy rain fall2 and if the inclination is rapid1 7say #f inches to #ajj feet17 the acceleration of the flow1 caused partly by the constant additions to the water1 pipes of this size may be used for considerably greater distances4 ,it has been found by actual trial that it is not necessary to increase the size of the pipe sewer in exact proportion to the amount of drainage that it has to convey1 as each addition to the flow1 where drainage is admitted from street openings or from houses1 accelerates the velocity of the current1 pipes discharging even eight times as much when received at intervals along the line as they would take from a full head at the upper end of the sewer4 ,for a district inhabited by #aj1jjj persons1 a #ab-;inch pipe would afford a sufficient outlet1 unless the amount of road drainage were unusually large1 and for the largest sewers1 pipes of more than #ah inches diameter are rarely used1 these doing the work which1 under the old system1 was alloted to a sewer #f feet high and #c feet broad4 ,of course1 the connections by which the drainage of roads is admitted to these sewers1 must be provided with ample silt-basins1 which require frequent cleaning out4 ,in the construction of the sewers1 man-holes1 built to the surface1 are placed at sufficient intervals1 and at all points where the course of the sewer changes1 so that a light placed at one of these may be seen from the next one2--the contractor being required to lay the sewer so that the light may be thus seen1 a straight line both of inclination and direction is secured4 ,the rules which regulate the laying of land-drains apply with equal force in the making of sewers1 that is no part of the pipe should be less perfect1 either in material or construction1 than that which lies above it2 and where the inclination becomes less1 in approaching the outlet1 silt-basins should be employed1 unless the decreased fall is still rapid4 ,the essential point of difference is1 that while land drains may be of porous material1 and should have open joints for the admission of water1 sewer pipes should be of impervious glazed earthen-ware1 and their joints should be securely cemented1 to prevent the escape of the sewage1 which it is their province to remove1 not to distribute4 ,drains from houses1 which need not be more than #c or #d inches in diameter1 should be of the same material1 and should discharge with considerable inclination into the pipes1 being connected with a curving branch1 directing the fluid towards the outlet4 ,in laying a sewer1 it is customary to insert a pipe with a branch opposite each house1 or probable site of a house4 ,it is important that1 in towns not supplied with waterworks1 measures be taken to prevent the admission of too much solid matter in the drainage of houses4 ,water being the motive power for the removal of the solid parts of the sewage1 unless there be a public supply which can be turned on at pleasure1 no house should deliver more solid matter than can be carried away by its refuse waters4 ,the drainage of houses is one of the chief objects of sewerage4 ,in addition to the cases cited above of the model lodging houses in ,lambeth ,square1 and of the buildings at ,westminster1 it may be well to refer to a remarkable epidemic which broke out in the ,maplewood ,young ,ladies' ,institute in ,pittsfield1 ,mass41 in #ahfd1 which was of so violent and fatal a character as to elicit a special examination by a committee of physicians4 ,the family consisted1 7pupils1 servants1 and all17 of one hundred and twelve persons4 ,of these1 fifty-one were attacked with well-defined typhoid fever during a period of less than three weeks4 ,of this number thirteen died4 ,the following is extracted from the report of the committee3 ,of the #gd resident pupils heard from1 #ff are reported as having had illness of some kind at the close of the school or soon after4 ,this is a proportion of #cc_/cg or nearly #ij per cent4 ,of the same #gd1 fifty-one had typhoid fever1 or a proportion of nearly #fi per cent4 ,if all the people in the town1 say #hjjj1 had been affected in an equal proportion1 more than #gjjj would have been ill during these few weeks1 and about #eejj of them would have had typhoid fever1 and of these over #acge would have died4 ,if it would be a more just comparison to take the whole family at ,maplewood into the account1 estimating the number at #aab1 fifty-six had typhoid fever1 or #ej per cent41 and of these fifty-six1 sixteen died1 or over #bh4e per cent4 ,these proportions applied to the whole population of #hjjj1 would give #djjj of typhoid fever in the same time2 and of these #aadj would have died4 ,according to the testimony of the practising physicians of ,pittsfield1 the number of cases of typhoid fever1 during this period1 aside from those affected by the influences at ,maplewood1 was small1 some physicians not having had any1 others had two or three4 ,these cases amounted to but eight1 none of which terminated fatally4 ,the whole secret of this case was proven to have been the retention of the ordure and waste matter from the kitchens and dormitories in privies and vaults1 underneath or immediately adjoining the buildings1 the odor from these having been offensively perceptible1 and under certain atmospheric conditions1 having pervaded the whole house4 ,the committee say it would be impossible to bring this report within reasonable limits1 were we to discuss the various questions connected with the origin and propagation of typhoid fever1 although various theoretical views are held as to whether the poison producing the disease is generated in the bodies of the sick1 and communicated from them to the well1 or whether it is generated in sources exterior to the bodies of fever patients1 yet all authorities maintain that a peculiar poison is concerned in its production4 ,those who hold to the doctrine of contagion admit that1 to give such contagion efficacy in the production of wide spread results1 filth or decaying organic matter is essential2 while those who sustain the theory of non-contagion--the production of the poison from sources without the bodies of the sick--contend that it has its entire origin in such filth--in decomposing matter1 especially in fermenting sewage1 and decaying human excreta4 ,the injurious influence of decomposing azotised matter1 in either predisposing to or exciting severe disease1 and particularly typhoid fever1 is universally admitted among high medical authorities4 ,the committee were of the opinion that the disease at ,maplewood essentially originated in the state of the privies and drainage of the place2 the high temperature1 and other peculiar atmospheric conditions developing1 in the organic material thus exposed1 a peculiar poison1 which accumulated in sufficient quantity to pervade the whole premises1 and operated a sufficient length of time to produce disease in young and susceptible persons4 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,to prevent the poison of typhoid fever when taken into the system1 from producing its legitimate effects1 except by natural agencies1 would require as positive a miracle as to restore a severed head1 or arrest the course of the heavenly bodies in their spheres4 99 99 99 ,the lesson for all1 for the future1 is too obvious to need further pointing out2 and the committee cannot doubt that they would hazard little in predicting that the wisdom obtained by this sad experience1 will be of value in the future management of this institution1 and secure precautions which will forever prevent the recurrence of such a calamity4 ,the results of all sanitary investigation indicate clearly the vital necessity for the complete and speedy removal from human habitations of all matters which1 by their decomposition1 may tend to the production of disease1 and early measures should be taken by the authorities of all towns1 especially those which are at all compactly built1 to secure this removal4 ,the means by which this is to be effected are to be found in such a combination of water-supply and sewerage1 as will furnish a constant and copious supply of water to dissolve or hold in suspension the whole of the waste matters1 and will provide a channel through which they may be carried away from the vicinity of residences4 ,if means for the application of the sewage water to agricultural lands can be provided1 a part if not the whole of the cost of the works will be thus returned4 ,concerning the details of house drainage1 it would be impossible to say much within the limits of this book4 ,the construction of water-closets1 soil-pipes1 sinks1 etc41 are too will be understood to need a special description here4 ,the principal point1 7aside from the use of pipes instead of brick-sewers and brick house-drains17 is what is called in ,london the system of ,back ,drainage1 where only principal main lines of sewers are laid under the streets1 all collecting sewers passing through the centres of the blocks in the rear of the houses4 ,pipes for water supply are disposed in the same manner1 as it is chiefly at the rears of houses that water is required1 and that drainage is most necessary2 and this adjustment saves the cost1 the annoyance and the loss of fall1 which accompany the use of pipes running under the entire length of each house4 ,much tearing up of pavements1 expensive ditching in hard road-ways1 and interference with traffic is avoided1 while very much less ditching and piping is necessary1 and repairs are made with very little annoyance to the occupants of houses4 ,the accompanying diagrams1 7,figs4 #dh-di17 illustrate the difference between the old system of drainage with brick sewers under the streets1 and brick drains under the houses1 and pipe sewers under main streets and through the back yards of premises4 ,a measurement of these two methods will show that the lengths of the drains in the new system1 are to those of the old1 as #a to #b-a_/d2--the fall of the house drains1 7these having much less length17 would be #aj times more in the one case than in the other2--the main sewers would have twice the fall1 their area would be only #a_/cj1 and their cubic contents only #a_/gc4 ,fig4 #dh - ,,old ,,style ,,house ,,drainage ,,and ,,sewerage4 ,fig4 #dh - ,,old ,,style ,,house ,,drainage ,,and ,,sewerage4 ,experience in ,england has shown that if the whole cost of water supply and pipe sewers is1 with its interest1 divided over a period of thirty years1--so that at the end of that time it should all be repaid1--the annual charge would not be greater than the cost of keeping house-drains and cess-pools pools clean4 ,the ,general ,board of ,health state that the expense of cleansing the brick house-drains and cess-pools for four or five years1 would pay the expense of properly constructed water-closets and pipe-drains1 for the greater number of old premises4 ,fig4 #di - ,,modern ,,house ,,drainage ,,and ,,sewerage4 ,fig4 #di - ,,modern ,,house ,,drainage ,,and ,,sewerage4 ,one of the reports of this body1 which has added more than any other organization to the world's knowledge on these subjects1 closes with the following3 ,conclusions obtained as to house drainage1 and the sewerage and cleansing of the sites of towns4 ,that no population living amidst impurities1 arising from the putrid emanations from cess-pools1 drains and sewers of deposit1 can be healthy or free from the attacks of devastating epidemics4 ,that as a primary condition of salubrity1 no ordure and town refuse can be permitted to remain beneath or near habitations4 ,that by no means can remedial operations be so conveniently1 economically1 inoffensively1 and quickly effected as by the removal of all such refuse dissolved or suspended in water4 ,that it has been subsequently proved by the operation of draining houses with tubular drains1 in upwards of #ai1jjj cases1 and by the trial of more than #bjj miles of pipe sewers1 that the practice of constructing large brick or stone sewers for general town drainage1 which detain matters passing into them in suspension in water1 which accumulate deposit1 and which are made large enough for men to enter them1 and remove the deposit by hand labor1 without reference to the area to be drained1 has been in ignorance1 neglect or perversion of the above recited principles4 ,that while sewers so constructed are productive of great injury to the public health1 by the diffusion into houses and streets of the noxious products of the decomposing matters contained in them1 they are wasteful from the increased expense of their construction and repair1 and from the cost of ineffectual efforts to keep them free from deposit4 ,that the house-drains1 made as they have heretofore been1 of absorbent brick or stone1 besides detaining substances in suspension1 accumulating foul deposit1 and being so permeable as to permit the escape of the liquid and gaseous matters1 are also false in principle and wasteful in the expense of construction1 cleansing and repair4 ,that it results from the experience developed in these inquiries1 that improved tubular house-drains and sewers of the proper sizes1 inclinations1 and material1 detain and accumulate no deposit1 emit no offensive smells1 and require no additional supplies of water to keep them clear4 ,that the offensive smells proceeding from any works intended for house or town drainage1 indicate the fact of the detention and decomposition of ordure1 and afford decisive evidence of mal-construction or of ignorant or defective arrangement4 ,that the method of removing refuse in suspension in water by properly combined works1 is much better than that of collecting it in pits or cess-pools near or underneath houses1 emptying it by hand labor1 and removing it by carts4 ,that it is important for the sake of economy1 as well as for the health of the population1 that the practice of the removal of refuse in suspension in water1 and by combined works1 should be applied to all houses1 especially those occupied by the poorer classes4 ,later investigations of the subject have established two general conclusions applicable to the subject1 namely1 that3 ,in towns all offensive smells from the decomposition of animal and vegetable matter1 indicate the generation and presence of the causes of insalubrity and of preventable disease1 at the same time that they prove defective local administration2 and correlatively1 that3 ,in rural districts all continuous offensive smells from animal and vegetable decomposition1 indicate preventable loss of fertilizing matter1 loss of money1 and bad husbandry4 ,the principles herein set forth1 whether relating to sanitary improvement1 to convenience and decency of living1 or to the use of waste matters of houses in agricultural improvement1 are no less applicable in ,america than elsewhere2 and the more general adoption of improved house drainage and sewerage1 and of the use of sewage matters in agriculture1 would add to the health and prosperity of its people1 and would indicate a great advance in civilization4 ,,index ,absorption and ,filtration1 #bf-ci ,angles to be1 as far as possible1 avoided1 #ii ,baking of clay soils by evaporation1 #cj ,barley1 #afh ,bartlett1 ,dr41 quotation from1 #baa ,base-line1 #ade ,boning-rods1 7with illustrations71 #abe-abf ,central ,park1 #gd-hf ,cess-pools1 cause of epidemics1 #bcg ,chadwick1 ,dr41 quotation from1 #bac ,clay ,soils1 #ge ,clay ,soils1 ,baking of by ,evaporation1 #cj ,clay ,soils1 ,made mellow by draining1 #bi-cj ,clay ,soils1 ,shrinkage of1 #bh ,clinometer1 7illustration71 #ef ,collars1 #hd ,connections1 #acb ,connections 7illustrations71 #acd ,corn1 ,indian1 #afb ,cost of draining1 #aej-aec-aeh ,cotton1 #afi ,covering and filling1 cost of1 #aeg ,covering for the joints of tiles1 #acb ,covering tiles1 #acf ,datum-line1 #eb-ajd ,denton1 ,j4 ,bailey1 quotation from1 #aae ,distance between drains1 #gc ,diseases1 malarial1 #bjh ,ditches1 cost of digging1 #aed ,draining1 amateur1 #dg ,draining1 indications of the need of1 #i ,draining1 its effect on farming1 #aga ,draining1 tiles1 how made1 #agd ,draining1 tiles1 materials for1 #agd ,draining1 tools1 7illustration71 #aad ,draining1 what it costs1 #aej ,draining1 will it pay8 #afa ,draining1 when necessary1 #g ,drains1 ,cubic yards of excavation in1 #aee ,drains1 and drained land1 care of1 #add ,drains1 lateral1 should be parallel1 #ii ,drains1 how they act1 #ba ,drains1 obstructed1 how cleared1 #adf ,drains1 old1 how formed1 #adf ,drains1 rate of fall1 #ij ,drains1 their action in the ,central ,park1 #hf ,drained ,soil1 capacity for receiving water of rains1 #bc ,drainage of dwelling houses1 #bcb ,drought1 #cg-dj ,economy versus cheapness1 #aeb ,engineering and ,superintendence1 cost of1 #aec ,engineers1 draining1 #dg ,epidemic at ,maplewood ,young ,ladies' ,institute1 #bcb ,epidemics caused by cess-pools1 #bcg ,epidemics caused by ordure beneath houses1 #bch ,evaporation1 #cc ,evaporation1 amount of1 #cd ,evaporation1 effect on temperature1 #cc-ce ,evaporation1 heat lost during1 #cd ,fall1 rate of in drains1 #gg ,fallacies in draining1 #fb ,fen-lands of ,england1 #aic ,fever and ,ague1 #bjh ,fever and ,ague1 exact cause unknown1 #baj ,filtration and absorption1 #bf-ci ,filling1 illustration of--ditch with1 furrows1 #ada ,filling1 maul for ramming1 7illustration71 #ach ,filling1 scraper for1 7illustration71 #adj ,filling1 the ditches1 #acf ,finishing tools1 7illustration71 #abc ,finishing scoop1 #abc ,finishing scoop1 how used1 #abf ,foot-pick1 7illustration71 #aef ,four-foot drains1 #gj ,germination of seeds1 #ac ,gisborne1 ,thos41 quotations from1 #bh-ca-ce-dg-ff-gh-hd-ic-abg ,grading1 #abd ,grading1 cost of1 #aef ,grade stakes1 #ajc ,grades1 computation for1 #aji ,grades1 how to establish1 #ajg ,gratings in ,silt-basins1 #adh ,hackensack meadows1 #bjc ,hay1 #afh ,heat1 amount of lost during evaporation1 #cd ,house drainage1 #bbj ,house drainage1 back drain system1 #bce ,house drainage bad1 indicated by offensive smells1 #bci ,indications of the need of draining1 #i ,injury from standing water in the subsoil1 #ae ,impervious soil1 #ca ,john ,johnson1 #afd ,land requiring draining1 #g ,lateral drains1 #fa-ig ,lateral drains1 direction of1 #ge ,lateral drains1 shallow1 how connected with deep main1 #aaa ,la ,roche1 quotations from1 #bac ,levels1 how to take for drains1 #ajd ,levelling instrument1 7illustration71 #eb ,levelling rod1 7illustration71 #ec ,location of main drains1 #eh ,madden1 ,dr41 quotation from1 #ab ,main drain1 #if ,main drain1 location of1 #eh ,malaria #baa ,malaria borne by winds1 #bab-bad-bai ,malaria conclusions of the ,general ,board of ,health of ,england1 #bbj ,malaria facts concerning1 #bab ,malaria spread of1 prevented by hills1 #bah ,malarial diseases1 evidence of the effect of drainage in removing1 #baf ,malarial diseases1 reports to the ,british ,parliament concerning1 #baf ,malarial diseases1 rheumatism and tic-douloureux1 #bai ,malarious localities1 effects of residence in1 #bad ,maps1 amending the1 #adb ,maps1 description of1 7illustrations71 #di-ej-ea-ed-ih ,maps1 importance of1 #dh ,marking the lines1 #aaf ,mechi1 ,alderman1 quotations from1 #bi-ga ,mellowness or ,porosity1 #da ,measuring staff 7illustration71 #abd ,metcalf1 ,dr41 quotation from1 #baa ,movement of water in the ground1 #cb-fd-fe ,mortality1 rate of reduced by improved house drainage1 #bbb ,neuralgia1 #bjh ,new ,york1 suggestions for sewer outlets1 #bbg ,oats1 #afh ,obstructions1 #ij ,opening ditches1 #abb ,outlet1 #ie ,outlet1 how made 7with illustrations71 #aah ,outlet1 location of1 #eh ,parkes1 ,josiah1 quotations from1 #cf-ga-hh-agh ,porosity1 #da ,profile of a drain1 7illustration71 #ajf ,profit1 instances of1 #afg-agj ,production1 amount of increase of1 necessary to make draining profitable1 #afb ,puddling1 #h-ca-adh ,pumping1 #bjf ,pumping1 ,london sewage1 #bbf ,rock1 sounding for1 #ee ,rock1 how to collect water from1 #fj ,roots1 depth to which they reach1 #dj-fg ,roots1 as a cause of obstruction1 #ic-adh ,rye1 #afh ,salisbury's1 ,dr41 theory concerning malarious fever1 #bad ,salt marshes1 catch water drains1 #bja ,salt marshes1 construction of embankment1 #aif ,salt marshes1 dyke and ditch1 7illustration71 #aig ,salt marshes1 exclusion of the sea1 #aie ,salt marshes1 how formed1 #aid ,salt marshes1 inundations from upland 1 #bja ,salt marshes1 location and size of embankment1 #aie ,salt marshes1 management of creeks1 #aih-bjj ,salt marshes1 management of rivers1 #bja ,salt marshes1 muskrats1 #aii ,salt marshes1 outlet for under drainage1 #bjd-bje ,salt marshes1 pumping1 #bjf ,salt marshes1 rain-fall and filtration1 #bjd ,salt marshes1 valve-gates and sluices1 #bjd ,scraper for filling ditches1 7illustration71 #adj ,seeds1 germination of1 #ac ,sewage1 use of in agriculture1 #bbf ,sewers1 defects of large1 #bbh-bch ,sewers1 description of the ,london outfall1 #bbe ,sewers1 efficacy of glazed earthern pipes1 #bbi-bcj-bch ,sewers1 experiments of ,hale on pipe sewers1 #bcj ,sewers1 imperfect1 #bbd ,sewers1 of brick1 defective1 #bbh-bce-bch ,sewerage1 conclusions of ,general ,board of ,health1 #bcg ,sewerage1 of ,new ,york1 #bbg ,shrinkage of clay soils1 #bh ,sides of ditches in soft land1 how braced1 7illustration71 #abd ,silt1 #ij ,silt1 basins1 7illustrations71 #aba-ace-acf ,silt1 basins1 how made1 #abj ,silt1 basins1 #ia-if-acd ,silt1 in tiles1 #add ,sources of the water in the soil1 #aj ,springs1 how to collect the water of1 #ei-fj-ada ,staking out the lines1 #ajb ,staten ,island1 #bji ,steam pumps1 #bjf ,stone and tile drains1 #adb ,sub-mains1 #ei ,teams used in opening ditches1 #abb ,temperature1 #ce-ff ,temperature1 affected by draining1 #cf ,tile laying1 #abg ,tile-pick1 7illustration71 #aca ,tiles1 and tile laying1 cost of1 #aeg ,tiles1 capacity for discharging water1 #hd-hf ,tiles1 double-style1 #hj ,tiles1 drain--essential characteristics1 #bb ,tiles1 how made1 #agd ,tiles1 horse-shoe1 #gh ,tiles1 kinds and sizes1 #gg ,tiles1 ordering1 #hb-aja ,tiles1 objections to large sizes1 #adg ,tiles1 pipes and collars1 #ha ,tiles1 rapidity with which they receive water1 #gh ,tiles1 sizes of1 #ha ,tiles1 sizes required for different areas1 #hh ,tiles1 should be well formed1 #hc ,tiles1 sole1 #hj ,tiles1 trimming and perforating1 #aca ,tile making1 material for1 #agd ,tile preparation of earths1 #agf ,tile rolling and drying1 #ahb ,tile washing the clay1 #agg ,tobacco1 #afi ,tools required1 #aac ,town drainage1 conclusions of ,general ,board of ,health1 #bcg ,undrained land not reliable for cultivation1 #ah ,vermin as a cause of obstruction1 #ic ,water1 depth of1 #ff-gj ,water1 in the sub-soil1 injurious effects of1 #ae ,water1 movement of in the ground1 #cb-fd-fe ,water1 objections to excess of1 #aa ,water1 the best vehicle for removing ordure1 #bch ,water1 when beneficial and when injurious1 #bd ,water-courses and brooks1 how treated during draining operations1 #aag ,water-table1 #bb ,wind-mills1 #bjf ,wheat1 #afd-afg ,,draining ,,engineering4 ,the undersigned is prepared to assume the personal direction of works of ,agricultural and ,town ,drainage1 and ,water ,supply1 in any part of the country2 or to send advice and information1 by letter1 for the guidance of others4 ,persons sending maps of their land1 with contour lines1 7see ,fig4 #h1 page #ed17 accompanied by such information as can be given in writing1 will be furnished with explicit instructions concerning the arrangement and depth of the drains required2 kinds and sizes of tiles to be used2 management of the work1 etc41 etc4 ,the lines of drains will be laid down1 on the maps1 for the direction of local engineers1--and1 when required1 the grades will be calculated and noted at the positions of the stakes4 ,for particulars1 address ,,geo4 ,e4 ,,waring1 ,,jr41 ,p4 ,o4 ,box #bij1 ,,newport1 ,r4 ,i4 ,,the ,,small ,,fruit ,,culturist4 ,,by ,,andrew ,s4 ,,fuller4 ,beautifully ,illustrated4 ,we have heretofore had no work especially devoted to small fruits1 and certainly no treatises anywhere that give the information contained in this4 ,it is to the advantage of special works that the author can say all that he has to say on any subject1 and not be restricted as to space1 as he must be in those works that cover the culture of all fruits--great and small4 ,this book covers the whole ground of ,propagating ,small ,fruits1 their ,culture1 ,varieties1 ,packing for ,market1 etc4 ,while very full on the other fruits1 the ,currants and ,raspberries have been more carefully elaborated than ever before1 and in this important part of his book1 the author has had the invaluable counsel of ,charles ,downing4 ,the chapter on gathering and packing the fruit is a valuable one1 and in it are figured all the baskets and boxes now in common use4 ,the book is very finely and thoroughly illustrated1 and makes an admirable companion to the ,grape ,culturist1 by the same author4 ,,contents3 ,,chap4 ,i4 ,,barberry4 ,,chap4 ,,ii4 ,,strawberry4 ,,chap4 ,,iii4 ,,raspberry4 ,,chap4 ,,iv4 ,,blackberry4 ,,chap4 ,v4 ,,dwarf ,,cherry4 ,,chap4 ,,vi4 ,,currant4 ,,chap4 ,,vii4 ,,gooseberry4 ,,chap4 ,,viii4 ,,cornelian ,,cherry4 ,,chap4 ,,ix4 ,,cranberry4 ,,chap4 ,x4 ,,huckleberry4 ,,chap4 ,,xi4 ,,sheperdia4 ,,chap4 ,,xii4 ,,preparation ,,for ,,gathering ,,fruit4 ,sent post-paid4 ,price #a4ej4 ,,orange ,,judd ,,co41 #bde ,broadway1 ,new-,york4 ,,the ,,grape ,,culturist ,,by ,,andrew ,s4 ,,fuller4 ,,new ,,and ,,enlarged ,,edition4 ,,the ,,standard ,,work ,,on ,,the ,,cultivation ,,of ,,the ,,hardy ,,grape1 ,,as ,,it ,,not ,,only ,,discusses ,,principles1 ,,but 99,,illustrates ,,practice994 ,every thing is made perfectly plain1 and its teachings may be followed upon4 ,,one ,,vine ,,or ,a ,,vineyard ,the following are some of the topics that are treated3 ,,growing ,,new ,,varieties ,,from ,,seed4 ,,propagation ,,by ,,single ,,buds ,,or ,,eyes4 ,,propagating ,,houses ,,and ,,their ,,management ,,fully ,,described4 ,,how ,,to ,,grow4 ,,cuttings ,,in ,,open ,,air1 ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,layers4 ,,grafting ,,the ,,grape--,a ,,simple ,,and ,,successful ,,method4 ,,hybridizing ,,and ,,crossing--,,mode ,,of ,,operation4 ,,soil ,,and ,,situation--,,planting ,,and ,,cultivation4 ,,pruning1 ,,training1 ,,and ,,trellises--,,all ,,the ,,systems ,,explained4 ,,garden ,,culture--,,how ,,to ,,grow ,,vines ,,in ,a ,,door-,,yard4 ,,insects1 ,,mildew1 ,,sun-,,scald1 ,,and ,,other ,,troubles4 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,valuable ,,and ,,the ,,discarded ,,varieties4 ,sent post-paid4 ,price #a4ej4 ,orange ,judd ,co41 #bde ,broadway4 ,,american ,,pomology ,,apples4 ,by ,doct4 ,,john ,a4 ,,warder1 ,,president ,,ohio ,,pomological ,,society2 ,,vice-,,president ,,american ,,pomological ,,society4 #bic ,,illustrations4 ,this volume has about #gej pages1 the first #cge of which are devoted to the discussion of the general subjects of propagation1 nursery culture1 selection and planting1 cultivation of orchards1 care of fruit1 insects1 and the like2 the remainder is occupied with descriptions of apples4 ,with the richness of material at hand1 the trouble was to decide what to leave out4 ,it will be found that while the old and standard varieties are not neglected1 the new and promising sorts1 especially those of the ,south and ,west1 have prominence4 ,a list of selections for different localities by eminent orchardists is a valuable portion of the volume1 while the ,analytical ,index or ,catalogue ,raisonn1 as the ,french would say1 is the most extended ,american fruit list ever published1 and gives evidence of a fearful amount of labor4 ,,contents4 ,chapter ,i4--,,introductory4 ,chapter ,,ii4--,,history ,,of ,,the ,,apple4 ,chapter ,,iii4--,,propagation4 - ,buds and ,cuttings--,grafting--,budding--,the ,nursery4 ,chapter ,,iv4--,,dwarfing4 ,chapter ,v4--,,diseases4 ,chapter ,,vi4--,,the ,,site ,,for ,,an ,,orchard4 ,chapter ,,vii4--,,preparation ,,of ,,soil ,,for ,,an ,,orchard4 ,chapter ,,viii4--,,selection ,,and ,,planting4 ,chapter ,,ix4--,,culture1 ,etc4 ,chapter ,x4--,,philosophy ,,of ,,pruning4 ,chapter ,,xi4--,,thinning4 ,chapter ,,xii4--,,ripening ,,and ,,preserving ,,fruits4 ,chapter ,,xiii and ,,xiv4--,,insects4 ,chapter ,,xv4--,,characters ,,of ,,fruits ,,and ,,their ,,value--,,terms ,,used4 ,chapter ,,xvi4--,,classification4 - ,necessity for--,basis of--,characters--,shape--,its ,regularity--,flavor--,color--,their several ,values1 etc4 ,description of ,apples4 ,chapter ,,xvii4--,,fruit ,,lists--,,catalogue ,,and ,,index ,,of ,,fruits4 ,sent ,post-,paid4 ,price #c4jj4 ,,orange ,,judd ,,co41 #bde ,broadway1 ,new-,york ,,gardening ,,for ,,profit ,in the ,market and ,family ,garden4 ,,by ,,peter ,,henderson4 ,,finely ,,illustrated4 ,this is the first work on ,market ,gardening ever published in this country4 ,its author is well known as a market gardener of eighteen years' successful experience4 ,in this work he has recorded this experience1 and given1 without reservation1 the methods necessary to the profitable culture of the commercial or ,,market ,,garden4 ,it is a work for which there has long been a demand1 and one which will commend itself1 not only to those who grow vegetables for sale1 but to the cultivator of the ,,family ,,garden1 to whom it presents methods quite different from the old ones generally practiced4 ,it is an ,,original ,,and ,,purely ,,american work1 and not made up1 as books on gardening too often are1 by quotations from foreign authors4 ,every thing is made perfectly plain1 and the subject treated in all its details1 from the selection of the soil to preparing the products for market4 ,,contents4 ,men fitted for the ,business of ,gardening4 ,the ,amount of ,capital ,required1 and ,working ,force per ,acre4 ,profits of ,market ,gardening4 ,location1 ,situation1 and ,laying ,out4 ,soils1 ,drainage1 and ,preparation4 ,manures1 ,implements4 ,uses and ,management of ,cold ,frames4 ,formation and ,management of ,hot-beds4 ,forcing ,pits or ,green-houses4 ,seeds and ,seed ,raising4 ,how1 ,when1 and ,where to ,sow ,seeds4 ,transplanting1 ,insects4 ,packing of ,vegetables for ,shipping4 ,preservation of ,vegetables in ,winter4 ,vegetables1 their ,varieties and ,cultivation4 ,in the last chapter1 the most valuable kinds are described1 and the culture proper to each is given in detail4 ,sent post-paid1 price #a4ej4 ,,orange ,,judd ,,co41 #bde ,broadway1 ,new-,york4 ,,the ,,american ,,agricultural ,,annual ,,for #ahgj4 ,a ,,year ,,book ,,wanted ,,by ,,every ,,body4 ,this valuable ,year ,book has now reached its fourth number4 ,in its general features it follows the plan of the three numbers that have preceded it1 and1 like them1 is beautifully illustrated4 ,,contents4 ,almanac and ,calendar for #ahgj4 ,agricultural and ,kindred ,journals4 ,agricultural and ,kindred ,books4 ,prospect and ,retrospect4 ,immigration4 ,home ,markets4 ,coperation among ,farmers4 ,commercial ,fertilizers4 ,the ,crops and the ,weather4 ,thorough ,drainage4 ,agricultural ,exhibitions4 ,poultry ,societies and ,shows4 ,importation of ,live ,stock4 ,death of ,distinguished ,agriculturists4 ,inventions affecting ,agriculture4 ,novelties in ,agricultural ,seeds1 etc4 ,oats4 ,sanford ,corn4 ,potato ,fever4 ,adobe or ,earth-wall ,building--by ,e4 ,g4 ,potter4 ,potatoes ,worth ,raising--by ,dr4 ,f4 ,m4 ,hexamer4 ,yield of ,potatoes in #ahfi4 ,wheat ,hoe4 ,how to ,train a ,heifer4 ,care of ,hen and ,chickens4 ,cultivation of ,root ,crops4 ,kohl ,rabi4 ,dry ,earth--the ,earth-,closet ,principle in the ,barn4 ,general ,agricultural ,matters4 ,characteristics of ,different ,breeds of ,thoroughbred ,stock4 ,earth-,closets--,success of the ,system4 ,progress in ,fish ,culture4 ,cold ,spring ,trout ,ponds4 ,bellows ,falls ,trout ,pond4 ,montdale ,ponds4 ,s4 ,h4 ,ainsworth's ,ponds and ,race4 ,mumford ,ponds4 ,poheganut ,trout ,ponds4 ,breeds of ,fish4 ,fish as ,farm ,stock--by ,w4 ,clift4 ,the ,stocking of ,ponds and ,brooks4 ,english ,agricultural ,implements4 ,inventions affecting ,milk1 and ,cheese-making--by ,gardner ,b4 ,weeks4 ,notes on ,veterinary ,subjects4 ,coperation in ,swine-breeding4 ,letter from ,dr4 ,calvin ,cutter4 ,steaming ,fodder for ,milch ,cows--by ,s4 ,m4 and ,d4 ,wells4 ,the ,harvester1 ,reaper1 and ,mower--by ,isaac ,w4 ,white4 ,improvement in ,drain ,tiles4 ,farmer's ,directory4 99,sent post-paid4 ,price1 fancy paper covers1 #ej cents299 99,cloth1 #ge cents499 ,either of these ,annuals for the three preceding years may be had at the same prices4 99,,orange ,,judd ,,co4199 #bde ,broadway1 ,new-,york4 ,,the ,,american ,,horticultural ,,annual ,,for #ahgj4 ,a ,,year ,,book ,,for ,,every ,,home4 ,the fourth number of this beautiful serial is now ready4 ,it contains a popular record of horticultural progress during the past year1 with other valuable articles1 many of which are illustrated with elegant engravings4 ,,contents4 ,calendars for each ,month in the ,year4 ,astronomical ,memoranda4 ,number of ,trees1 ,plants1 etc41 required to ,set an ,acre4 ,hardy and ,tender ,vegetables4 ,postage on ,horticultural ,matter4 ,tables of ,quantities of ,seed4 ,the ,retinisporas--,by ,,josiah ,,hoopes4 ,selecting and ,saving ,seeds--,by ,,wm ,g4 ,,comstock4 ,inarching the ,grapevine--,by ,al ,fresco4 ,apples in #ahfi--with ,descriptions of ,new ,varieties--,by ,j4 ,a4 ,,warder4 ,pears in #ahfi--with ,notes on some of the ,newer ,varieties--,by ,p4 ,,barry4 ,quinces in #ahfi4 ,plums in #ahfi4 ,peaches in #ahfi--,new ,varieties--,by ,f4 ,r4 ,,elliott4 ,cherries in #ahfi--with ,notes of ,new ,varieties and ,comments on the ,nomenclature of ,older ,sorts4 ,native ,grapes in #ahfi4 ,notes on the ,small ,fruits in #ahfi--;,by ,a4 ,s4 ,,fuller4 ,hardy ,trees and ,shrubs in #ahfi4 ,new ,roses ,tested in #ahfi--;,by ,,john ,,saul4 ,the ,american ,pomological ,society4 ,new and ,interesting ,bedding and other ,plants ,tested in #ahfi--;,by ,,peter ,,henderson4 ,new or ,noteworthy ,vegetables in #ahfi--;,by ,,jas4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,gregory1 and others4 ,horticultural implements1 etc41 in #ahfi4 ,horticultural and ,kindred ,journals4 ,books upon ,horticulture and ,allied ,subjects1 published in #ahfi4 ,list of ,nurserymen1 ,seedsmen1 etc4 99,sent post-paid4 ,price1 fancy paper covers1 #ej cents299 99,cloth1 #ge cents499 ,either of these ,annuals for the three preceding years may be had at the same prices4 99,,orange ,,judd ,,co4991 #bde ,broadway ,new-,york4 ,established in #ahdb4 ,a ,good1 ,cheap1 and very ,valuable ,paper for ,every ,man1 ,woman and ,child1 ,,in ,,city1 ,,village and ,,country1 ,,the ,,american ,,agriculturist1 ,,for ,,the ,,farm1 ,,garden ,,and ,,household1 99,including a ,special ,department of ,interesting and ,instructive ,reading for ,,children and ,,youth994 ,the ,agriculturist is a large periodical of ,forty-four pages1 quarto1 not octavo1 beautifully printed1 and filled with plain1 practical1 reliable1 original matter1 including hundreds of beautiful and instructive 99,engravings99 in every annual volume4 ,it contains each month a ,calendar of ,operations to be performed on the 99,farm199 in the 99,orchard99 and 99,garden199 in and around the 99,dwelling199 etc4 ,the thousands of hints and suggestions given in every volume are prepared by practical1 intelligent 99working men199 who know what they talk and write about4 ,the articles are thoroughly edited1 and every way reliable4 ,the 99,household ,department99 is valuable to every ,housekeeper1 affording very many useful hints and directions calculated to lighten and facilitate in-door work4 ,the 99,department for ,children and ,youth199 is prepared with special care not only to amuse1 but also to inculcate knowledge and sound moral principles4 99,terms499--,the circulation of the ,american ,agriculturist1 799about #aej1jjj997 is so large that it can be furnished at the low price of #a4ej a year2 four copies1 one year1 for #e2 ten copies1 one year1 for #ab2 twenty or more copies1 one year1 #a each2 single copies1 #ae cents each4 ,an extra copy to the one furnishing a club of ten or twenty4 ,,try ,,it ,a ,,year4 ,,orange ,,judd ,,co41 99,publishers ,proprietors199 99,no4 #bde ,broadway1 ,new-,york ,city499 ,,footnotes #a --,puddling is the kneading or rubbing of clay with water1 a process by which it becomes almost impervious1 retaining this property until thoroughly dried1 when its close union is broken by the shrinking of its parts4 ,puddled clay remains impervious as long as it is saturated with water1 and it does not entirely lose this quality until it has been pulverized in a dry state4 ,a small proportion of clay is sufficient to injure the porousness of the soil by puddling4--,a clay subsoil is puddled by being plowed over when too wet1 and the injury is of considerable duration4 ,rain water collected in hollows of stiff land1 by the simple movement given it by the wind1 so puddles the surface that it holds the water while the adjacent soil is dry and porous4 ,the term puddling will often be used in this work1 and the reader will understand1 from this explanation1 the meaning with which it is employed4 #b ,by leaving a space between the wall and the plastering1 this moisture is prevented from being an annoyance1 and if the inclosed space is not open from top to bottom1 so as to allow a circulation of air1 but little vapor will come in contact with the wall1 and but an inconsiderable amount will be deposited4 #c ,the maps in this book are1 for convenience1 drawn to a scale of #afj feet to the inch4 #d ,the instrument from which this cut was taken1 7as also ,fig4 #g7 was made by ,messrs4 ,blunt ,nichols1 ,water st41 ,n4 ,y4 #e ,the slight deviations caused by carrying the drains around large stones1 which are found in cutting the ditches1 do not affect the general arrangement of the lines4 #f ,the low price at which this instrument is sold1 #a4ej1 places it within the reach of all4 #g ,except from quite near to the drain1 it is not probable that the water in the soil runs laterally towards it4 #h ,some of the drains in the ,central ,park have a fall of only #a in #a1jjj1 and they work perfectly2 but they are large mains1 laid with an amount of care1 and with certain costly precautions1 7including precisely graded wooden floors17 which could hardly be expected in private work4 #i ,the tile has been said1 by great authorities1 to be broken by contraction1 under some idea that the clay envelops the tile and presses it when it contracts4 ,that is nonsense4 ,the contraction would liberate the tile4 ,drive a stake into wet clay2 and when the clay is dry1 observe whether it clasps the stake tighter or has released it1 and you will no longer have any doubt whether expansion or contraction breaks the tile4 ,shrink is a better word than contract4 #aj ,taking the difference of friction into consideration1 #a-a_/d inch pipes have fully twice the discharging capacity of #a-;inch pipes4 #aa ,no4 #e was one inch in diameter2 ,no4 #d1 about #a-a_/c inches4 #ab ,if the springs1 when running at their greatest volume1 be found to require more than #a-a_/d-;inch tiles1 due allowance must be made for the increase4 #ac ,owing to the irregularity of the ground1 and the necessity for placing some of the drains at narrower intervals1 the total length of tile exceeds by nearly #ej per cent4 what would be required if it had a uniform slope1 and required no collecting drains4 ,it is much greater than will be required in any ordinary case1 as a very irregular surface has been adopted here for purposes of illustration4 #ad ,the stakes used may be #ah inches long1 and driven one-half of their length into the ground4 ,they should have one side sufficiently smooth to be distinctly marked with red chalk4 #ae ,the depth of #d4ac1 in ,fig4 #ba1 as well as the other depths at the points at which the grade changes1 happen to be those found by the computation1 as hereafter described1 and they are used here for illustration4 #af ,the figures in this table1 as well as in the next preceding one1 are adopted for the published profile of drain ,c1 ,fig4 #ba1 to avoid confusion4 ,in ordinary cases1 the points which are fixed as the basis of the computation are given in round numbers2--for instance1 the depth at ,c#c would be assumed to be #d4aj or #d4bj1 instead of #d4ac4 ,the fractions given in the table1 and in ,fig4 #ba1 arise from the fact that the decimals are not absolutely correct1 being carried out only for two figures4 #ag ,the drains1 which are removed a little to one side of the lines of stakes1 may be turned toward the basin from a distance of #c or #d feet4 #ah ,the foot of the measuring rod should be shod with iron to prevent its being worn to less than the proper length4 #ai ,talpa1 or the ,chronicles of a ,clay ,farm4 #bj ,when chips of tile1 or similar matters1 are used to cover openings in the tile-work1 it is well to cover them at once with a mortar made of wet clay1 which will keep them in place until the ditches are filled4 #ba ,surely such soil ought not to require thorough draining2 where men can go so easily1 water ought to find its way alone4 #bb ,the land shown in ,fig4 #ba1 is especially irregular1 and1 for the purpose of illustrating the principles upon which the work should be done1 an effort has been made to make the work as complete as possible in all particulars4 ,in actual work on a field similar to that1 it would not probably be good economy to make all the drains laid in the plan1 but as deviations from the plan would depend on conditions which cannot well be shown on such a small scale1 they are disregarded1 and the system of drains is made as it would be if it were all plain sailing4 #bc ,klippart's ,land ,drainage4 #bd ,klippart's ,land ,drainage4 #be ,drainage des ,terres ,arables1 ,paris1 #ahef4 #bf ,the ends of the work1 while the operations are suspended during spring tides1 will need an extra protection of sods1 but that lying out of reach of the eddies that will be formed by the receding water will not be materially affected4 #bg ,the latest invention of this sort1 is that of a series of cast iron plates1 set on edge1 riveted together1 and driven in to such a depth as to reach from the top of the dyke to a point below low-water mark4 ,the best that can be said of this plan is1 that its adoption would do no harm4 ,unless the plates are driven deeply into the clay underlying the permeable soil1 7and this is sometimes very deep17 they would not prevent the slight infiltration of water which could pass under them as well as through any other part of the soil1 and unless the iron were very thick1 the corrosive action of salt water would soon so honeycomb it that the borers would easily penetrate it2 but the great objection to the use of these plates is1 that they would be very costly and ineffectual4 ,a dyke1 made as described above1 of the material of the locality1 having a ditch only on the inside1 and being well sodded on its outer face1 would be far cheaper and better4