file which includes the original illustrations4 ,see #aicjb-;h4htm or #aicjb-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#a_/ i_/c_/j_/aicjb_/aicjb-;h_/#aicjb-;h4htm7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#a_/ i_/c_/j_/aicjb_/aicjb-;h4zip7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,transcriber's ,note3 ,inconsistent hyphenation in the original document has been preserved4 ,there are many unusual words in this document6 ,a number of obvious typographical errors have been corrected in this text4 ,for a complete list1 please see the end of this document4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,dinosaurs ,with ,special ,reference to the ,american ,museum ,collections by ,w4 ,d4 ,,matthew ,curator of ,vertebrate ,palontology 444 ',dragons of the prime ,that tare each other in their slime' ,illustration3 ,,skull ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,carnivorous ,,dinosaur ,,tyrannosaurus ,,in ,,the ,,american ,,museum4 ,new ,york ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history #aiae ,,dinosaurs4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,the ,age of ,reptiles4 ,its ,antiquity1 ,duration and ,significance in ,geological ,history4 #i ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,north ,america in the ,age of ,reptiles4 ,its ,geographic and ,climatic ,changes4 #af ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,kinds of ,dinosaurs4 ,common ,characters and ,differences between the various ,groups4 ,classification4 #be ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,the ,carnivorous ,dinosaurs--,allosaurus1 ,tyrannosaurus1 ,ornitholestes1 etc4 #cc ,,chapter ,v4 ,the ,amphibious ,dinosaurs--,brontosaurus1 ,diplodocus1 etc4 #fj ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,the ,beaked ,dinosaurs4 ,the ,iguanodonts--,iguanodon1 ,camptosaurus4 #ge ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,the ,beaked ,dinosaurs 7continued74 ,the ,duckbilled ,dinosaurs--,trachodon1 ,saurolophus4 #hb ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,the ,beaked ,dinosaurs 7continued74 ,the ,armored ,dinosaurs--,stegosaurus1 ,ankylosaurus4 #aja ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,the ,beaked ,dinosaurs 7concluded74 ,the ,horned ,dinosaurs--,triceratops1 etc4 #ajg ,,chapter ,x4 ,geographical ,distribution of ,dinosaurs4 #aad ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,collecting ,dinosaurs4 ,how and ,where they are ,found4 ,the ,first ,discovery of ,dinosaurs in the ,west4 ,the ,bone-,cabin ,quarry4 ,fossil ,hunting by ,boat in ,canada4 #aaf ,,preface4 ,this volume is in large part a reprint of various popular descriptions and notices in the ,american ,museum ,journal and elsewhere by ,professor ,henry ,fairfield ,osborn1 ,mr4 ,barnum ,brown1 and the writer4 ,there has been a considerable demand for these articles which are now mostly out of print4 ,in reprinting it seemed best to combine and supplement them so as to make a consecutive and intelligible account of the ,dinosaur collections in the ,museum4 ,the original notices are quoted verbatim2 for the remainder of the text the present writer is responsible4 ,professor ,s4,w4 ,williston of ,chicago ,university has kindly contributed a chapter--all too brief--describing the first discoveries of dinosaurs in the ,western formations that have since yielded so large a harvest4 ,the photographs of ,american ,museum specimens are by ,mr4 ,a4,e4 ,anderson2 the field photographs by various ,museum expeditions2 the restorations by ,mr4 ,charles ,r4 ,knight4 ,most of these illustrations have been published elsewhere by ,professor ,osborn1 ,mr4 ,brown and others4 ,the diagrams1 figs4 #a-i1 #bd1 #be1 #cg and #dj1 are my own4 ,w4 ,d4 ,m4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,reptiles4 ,,its ,,antiquity1 ,,duration ,,and ,,significance ,,in ,,geologic ,,history4 ,palontology deals with the ,history of ,life4 ,its time is measured in geologic epochs and periods1 in millions of years instead of centuries4 ,man1 by this measure1 is but a creature of yesterday--his forty centuries of civilization#a but a passing episode4 ,it is by no means easy for us to adjust our perspective to the immensely long spaces of time involved in geological evolution4 ,we are apt to think of all these extinct animals merely as prehistoric--to imagine them all living at the same time and contending with our cave-dwelling ancestors for the mastery of the earth4 ,in order to understand the place of the ,dinosaurs in world-history1 we must first get some idea of the length of geologic periods and the immense space of time separating one extinct fauna from another4 ,the ,age of ,man4 ,prehistoric time1 as it is commonly understood1 is the time when barbaric and savage tribes of men inhabited the world but before civilization began1 and earlier than the written records on which history is based4 ,this corresponds roughly to the ,pleistocene epoch of geology2 it is included along with the much shorter time during which civilization has existed1 in the latest and shortest of the geological periods1 the ,quaternary4 ,it was the age of the mammoth and the mastodon1 the megatherium and ,irish deer and of other quadrupeds large and small which are now extinct2 but most of its animals were the same species as now exist4 ,it was marked by the great episode of the ,ice ,age1 when considerable parts of the earth's surface were buried under immense accumulations of ice1 remnants of which are still with us in the icy covering of ,greenland and ,antarctica4 ,the ,age of ,mammals4 ,before this period was a very much longer one--at least thirty times as long--during which modern quadrupeds were slowly evolving from small and primitive ancestors into their present variety of form and size4 ,this is the ,tertiary ,period or ,age of ,mammals4 ,through this long period we can trace step by step the successive stages through which the ancestors of horses1 camels1 elephants1 rhinoceroses1 etc41 were gradually converted into their present form in adaptation to their various habits and environment4 ,and with them were slowly evolved various kinds of quadrupeds whose descendants do not now exist1 the ,titanotheres1 ,elotheres1 ,oreodonts1 etc41 extinct races which have not survived to our time4 ,man1 as such1 had not yet come into existence1 nor are we able to trace any direct and complete line of ancestry among the fossil species known to us2 but his collateral ancestors were represented by the fossil species of monkeys and lemurs of the ,tertiary period4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--,the ,later ,ages of ,geologic ,time4 ,the ,age of ,reptiles4 ,preceding the ,age of ,mammals lies a long vista of geologic periods of which the later ones are marked by the dominance of ,reptiles1 and are grouped together as the ,age of ,reptiles or ,mesozoic ,era4 ,this was the reign of the ,dinosaurs1 and in it we are introduced to a world of life so different from that of today that we might well imagine ourselves upon another planet4 ,none of the ordinary quadrupeds with which we are familiar then existed1 nor any related to nor resembling them4 ,but in their place were reptiles large and small1 carnivorous and herbivorous1 walking1 swimming and even flying4 ,crocodiles1 ,turtles and ,sea ,reptiles4 ,the ,crocodiles and ,turtles of the swamps were not so very different from their modern descendants2 there were also sea-crocodiles1 sea-turtles1 huge marine lizards 7,mosasaurs7 with flippers instead of feet2 and another group of great marine reptiles 7,plesiosaurs7 somewhat like sea-turtles but with long neck and toothed jaws and without any carapace4 ,these various kinds of sea-reptiles took the place of the great sea mammals of modern times 7which were evolved during the ,age of ,mammals72 of whales and dolphins1 seals and walruses1 and manatees4 ,pterodactyls4 ,the flying ,reptiles or ,pterosaurians1 partly took the place of birds1 and most of them were of small size4 ,strange bat-winged creatures1 the wing membrane stretched on the enormously elongated fourth finger1 they are of all extinct reptiles the least understood1 the most difficult to reconstruct and visualize as they were in life4 ,dinosaurs4 ,the land reptiles were chiefly ,dinosaurs1 a group which flourished throughout the ,age of ,reptiles and became extinct at its close4 ,dinosaur is a general term which covers as wide a variety in size and appearance as ,quadruped among modern animals4 ,and the ,dinosaurs in the ,age of ,reptiles occupied about the same place in nature as the larger quadrupeds do today4 ,they have been called the ,giant ,reptiles1 for those we know most about were gigantic in size1 but there were also numerous smaller kinds1 the smallest no larger than a cat4 ,all of them had short1 compact bodies1 long tails1 and long legs for a reptile1 and instead of crawling1 they walked or ran1 sometimes upon all fours1 more generally upon the hind limbs1 like ostriches1 the long tail balancing the weight of the body4 ,some modern lizards run this way on occasion1 especially if they are in a hurry4 ,but the bodies of lizards are too long and their limbs too small and slender for this to be the usual mode of progress1 as it seems to have been among the ,dinosaurs4 ,,animals ,,of ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,reptiles4 ,,land ,,reptiles4 ,,dinosaurs corresponding to the larger quadrupeds or land mammals of today4 ,,crocodiles1 ,,lizards ,,and ,,turtles still surviving4 ,,sea ,,reptiles4 ,,plesiosaurs corresponding to whales1 dolphins1 seals1 ,,ichthyosaurs etc41 or sea-mammals of today4 ,,mosasaurs ,,flying ,,reptiles ,,or ,,pterosaurs4 ,,birds ,,with ,,teeth 7scarce and little known74 ,,primitive ,,mammals of minute size 7scarce and little known74 ,,fishes and ,,invertebrates many of them of extinct races1 all more or less different from modern kinds4 ,fishes1 large and small1 were common in the seas and rivers of the ,age of ,reptiles but all of them were more or less different from modern kinds1 and many belonged to ancient races now rare or extinct4 ,the lower animals or ,invertebrates were also different from those of today1 although some would not be very noticeably so at first glance4 ,among molluscs1 the ,ammonites1 related to the modern ,pearly ,nautilus1 are an example of a race very numerous and varied during all the periods of the ,reptilian ,era1 but disappearing at its close1 leaving only a few collateral descendants in the squids1 cuttlefish and nautili of the modern seas4 ,the ,brachiopods were another group of molluscs1 or rather molluscoids for they were not true molluscs1 less abundant even then than in previous ages and now surviving only in a few rare and little known types such as the lamp-shell 7,terebratulina74 ,insects4 ,the ,insect life of the earlier part of the ,age of ,reptiles was notable for the absence of all the higher groups and orders1 especially those adapted to feed on flowers4 ,there were no butterflies or moths1 no bees or wasps or ants although there were plenty of dragonflies1 cockroaches1 bugs and beetles4 ,but in the latter part of this era1 all these higher orders appeared along with the flowering plants and trees4 ,plants4 ,the vegetation in the early part of the era was very different both from the gloomy forests of the more ancient ,coal ,era and from that which prevails today4 ,cycads1 ferns and fern-like plants1 coniferous trees1 especially related to the modern ,araucaria or ,norfolk ,island ,pine1 ,ginkgos still surviving in ,china1 and huge equisetae or horsetail rushes1 still surviving in ,south ,american swamps and with dwarfed relatives throughout the world1 were the dominant plant types of that era4 ,the flowering plants and deciduous trees had not appeared4 ,but in the latter half of the era these appeared in ever increasing multitudes1 displacing the lower types and relegating them to a subordinate position4 ,unlike the more rapidly changing higher animals these ancient ,mesozoic groups of plants have not wholly disappeared1 but still survive1 mostly in tropical and southern regions or as a scanty remnant in contrast with their once varied and dominant role4 ,there is every reason to believe that upon the appearance of these higher plants whose flower and fruit afforded a more concentrated and nourishing food1 depended largely the evolution of the higher animal life both vertebrate and insect1 of the ,cenozoic or modern era4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,the records of ,egypt and ,chaldaea extend back at least sixty centuries4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,north ,,america ,,in ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,reptiles4 ,,its ,,geographic ,,and ,,climatic ,,changes4 ,north ,america in the ,age of ,reptiles would have seemed almost as strange to our eyes in its geography as in its animals and plants4 ,the present outlines of its coast1 its mountains and valleys1 its rivers and lakes1 have mostly arisen since that time4 ,even the more ancient parts of the continent have been profoundly modified through the incessant work of rain and rivers and of the waves1 tending to wear down the land surfaces1 of volcanic outbursts building them up1 and of the more mysterious agencies which raise or depress vast stretches of mountain chains or even the whole area of a continent1 and which tend on the whole so far as we can see1 to restore or increase the relief of the continents1 as the action of the surface waters tends to bring them down to or beneath the sea level4 ,alternate ,overflow and ,emergence of ,continents4 ,in a broad way these agencies of elevation and of erosion have caused in their age-long struggle an alternation of periods of overflow and periods of continental emergence during geologic time4 ,during the periods of overflow1 great portions of the low-lying parts of the continents were submerged1 and formed extensive but comparatively shallow seas4 ,the mountains through long continued erosion were reduced to gentle and uniform slopes of comparatively slight elevation4 ,their materials were brought down by rivers to the sea-coast1 and distributed as sedimentary formations over the shallow interior seas or along the margins of the continents4 ,but this load of sediments1 transferred from the dry land to the ocean margins and shallow seas1 disturbed the balance of weight 7isostasy7 which normally keeps the continental platforms above the level of the ocean basins 7which as shown by gravity measurement are underlain by materials of higher specific gravity than the continents74 ,in due course of time1 when the strain became sufficient1 it was readjusted by earth movements of a slowness proportioned to their vastness4 ,these movements while tending upon the whole to raise the continents to or sometimes beyond their former relief1 did not reverse the action of erosion agencies in detail1 but often produced new lines or areas of high elevation4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--,north ,america in the ,later ,cretacic ,period4 ,map outlines after ,schuchert4 ,geologic ,periods4 ,a geologic period is the record of one of these immense and long continued movements of alternate submergence and elevation of the continents4 ,it begins1 therefore1 and ends with a time of emergence1 and includes a long era of submergence4 ,these epochs of elevation are accompanied by the development of cold climates at the poles1 and elsewhere of arid conditions in the interior of the continents4 ,the epochs of submergence are accompanied by a warm1 humid climate1 more or less uniform from the equator to the poles4 ,the earth has very recently1 in a geologic sense1 passed through an epoch of extreme continental elevation the maximum of which was marked by the ,ice ,age4 ,the continents are still emerged for the most part almost to the borders of the continental shelf which forms their maximum limit4 ,and in the icy covering of ,greenland and ,antarctica a considerable portion still remains of the great ice-sheets which at their maximum covered large parts of ,north ,america and ,europe4 ,we are now at the beginning of a long period of slow erosion and subsidence which1 if this interpretation of the geologic record be correct1 will in the course of time reduce the mountains to plains and submerge great parts of the lowlands beneath the ocean4 ,as compensation for the lesser extent of dry land we may look forward to a more genial and favorable climate in the reduced areas that remain above water4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--,relative ,length of ,ages of ,reptiles1 ,mammals and ,man4 ,length of ,geologic ,cycles4 ,but these vast cycles of geographic and climatic change will take millions of years to accomplish their course4 ,the brief span of human life1 or even the few centuries of recorded civilization are far too short to show any perceptible change in climate due to this cause4 ,the utmost stretch of a man's life will cover perhaps one-two hundred thousandth part of a geologic period4 ,the time elapsed since the dawn of civilization is less than a three-thousandth part4 ,of the days and hours of this geologic year1 our historic records cover but two or three minutes1 our individual lives but a fraction of a second4 ,we must not expect to find records of its changing seasons in human history1 still less to observe them personally4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--,relative ,length of ,prehistoric and ,historic ,time4 ,there are indeed minor cycles of climate within this great cycle4 ,the great ,ice ,age through which the earth has so recently passed was marked by alternations of severity and mildness of climate1 of advance and recession of the glaciers1 and within these smaller cycles are minor alternations whose effect upon the course of human history has been shown recently by ,professor ,huntington 7,the ,pulse of ,asia74 ,but the great cycles of the geologic periods are of a scope far too vast for their changes to be perceptible to us except through their influence upon the course of evolution4 ,the ,later ,cycles of ,geologic ,time4 ,the ,reptilian ,era opens with a period of extreme elevation1 which rivalled that of the ,glacial ,epoch and was similarly accompanied by extensive glaciation of which some traces are preserved to our day in characteristic glacial boulders1 ice scratches1 and till1 imbedded or inter-stratified in the strata of the ,permian age4 ,between these two extremes of continental emergence1 the ,permian and the ,pleistocene1 we can trace six cycles of alternate submergence and elevation1 as shown in the diagram 7,fig4 #e71 representing the proportion of ,north ,america which is known to have been above water during the six geologic periods that intervene4 ,from this diagram it will appear that the six cycles or periods were by no means equal in the amount of overflow or complete recovery of the drowned lands4 ,the ,cretacic period was marked by a much more extensive and long continued flooding2 the great plains west of the ,mississippi were mostly under water from the ,gulf of ,mexico to the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,the earlier overflows were neither so extensive nor so long continued4 ,the great uplift of the close of the ,cretacic regained permanently the great central region and united ,east and ,west1 and the overflows of the ,age of ,mammals were mostly limited to the ,south ,atlantic and ,gulf coasts4 ,sedimentary ,formations4 ,during the epochs of greatest overflow great marine formations were deposited over large areas of what is now dry land4 ,these were followed as the land rose to sea level by extensive marsh and delta formations1 and these in turn by scattered and fragmentary dry land deposits spread by rivers over their flood plains4 ,in the marine formations are found the fossil remains of the sea-animals of the period2 in the coast and delta formations are the remains of those which inhabited the marshes and forests of the coast regions2 while the animals of the dryland1 of plains and upland1 left their remains in the river-plain formations4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--;,geologic ,cycles and the ,land ,area of ,north ,america 7after ,schuchert74 ,these last1 however1 fragmentary and loose and overlying the rest1 were the first to be swept away by erosion during the periods of elevation2 and of such formations in the ,age of ,reptiles very little1 if anything1 seems to have been preserved to our day4 ,consequently we know very little about the upland animals of those times1 if as seems very probable1 they were more or less different from the animals of the coast-forests and swamps4 ,the river-plain deposits of the ,age of ,mammals on the other hand1 are still quite extensive1 especially those of its later epochs1 and afford a fairly complete record in some parts of the continent of the upland fauna of those regions4 ,occurrence of ,dinosaur ,bones4 ,dinosaur bones are found mostly in the great delta formations1 and since those were accumulated chiefly in the early stages of great continental elevations1 it follows that our acquaintance with ,dinosaurs is mostly limited to those living at certain epochs during the ,age of ,reptiles4 ,in point of fact so far as explorations have yet gone in this country1 the ,dinosaur fauna of the close of the ,jurassic and beginning of the ,comanchic and that of the later ,cretacic are the only ones we know much about4 ,the immense interval of time that preceded1 and the no less vast stretch of time that separated them1 is represented in the record of ,dinosaur history by a multitude of tracks and a few imperfect skeletons assigned to the close of the ,triassic period1 and by a few fragments from formations which may be intermediate in age between the ,jurassic-,comanchic and the late ,cretacic4 ,consequently we cannot expect to trace among the ,dinosaurs1 the gradual evolution of different races1 as we can do among the quadrupeds of the ,age of ,mammals4 ,imperfection of the ,geologic ,record4 ,the ,age of ,mammals in ,north ,america presents a moving picture of the successive stages in the evolution of modern quadrupeds2 the ,age of ,reptiles shows 7broadly considered7 two photographs representing the land vertebrates of two long distant periods1 as remote in time from each other as the later one is remote from the present day4 ,of the earlier stages in the evolution of the ,dinosaurs there are but a few imperfect sketches in this country2 in ,europe the picture is more complete4 ,in the course of time1 as exploration progresses1 we shall no doubt recover more complete records4 ,but probably we shall never have so complete a history of the terrestrial life of the ,age of ,reptiles as we have of the ,age of ,mammals4 ,the records are defective1 a large part of them destroyed or forever inaccessible4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,kinds ,,of ,,dinosaurs4 ,,common ,,characters ,,and ,,differences ,,between ,,the ,,various ,,groups4 ,in the preceding chapter we have attempted to point out the place in nature that the ,dinosaurs occupied and the conditions under which they lived4 ,they were the dominant land animals of their time1 just as the quadrupeds were during the ,age of ,mammals4 ,their sway endured for a long era1 estimated at nine millions of years1 and about three times as long as the period which has elapsed since their disappearance4 ,they survived vast changes in geography and climate1 and became extinct through a combination of causes not fully understood as yet2 probably the great changes in physical conditions at the end of the ,cretacic period1 and the development of mammals and birds1 more intelligent1 more active1 and better adapted to the new conditions of life1 were the most important factors in their extinction4 ,the ,dinosaurs originated1 so far as we can judge1 as lizard-like reptiles with comparatively long limbs1 long tails1 five toes on each foot1 tipped with sharp claws1 and with a complete series of sharp pointed teeth4 ,it would seem probable that these ancestors were more or less bipedal1 and adapted to live on dry land4 ,they were probably much like the modern lizards in size1 appearance and habitat3#b ,from this ancestral type the ,dinosaurs evolved into a great variety of different kinds1 many of them of gigantic size1 some herbivorous1 some carnivorous2 some bipedal1 others quadrupedal2 many of them protected by various kinds of bony armor-plates1 or provided with horns or spines2 some with sharp claws1 others with blunted claws or hoofs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--,outline ,restorations of ,dinosaurs4 ,scale about nineteen feet to the inch4 ,these various kinds of ,dinosaurs are customarily grouped as follows3 ,i4 ,carnivorous ,dinosaurs or ,theropoda4 ,with sharp pointed teeth1 sharp claws2 bipedal1 with bird-like hind feet1 generally three-toed2#c the fore-limbs adapted for grasping or tearing1 but not for support of the body4 ,the head is large1 neck of moderate length1 body unarmored4 ,the principal ,dinosaurs of this group in ,america are ,allosaurus1 ,ornitholestes--,upper ,jurassic period4 ,tyrannosaurus1 ,deinodon1 ,albertosaurus1 ,ornithomimus--,upper ,cretacic period4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--,skulls of ,dinosaurs1 illustrating the principal types--,anchisaurus after ,marsh1 the others from ,american ,museum specimens4 ,,ii4 ,amphibious ,dinosaurs or ,sauropoda4 ,with blunt-pointed teeth and blunt claws1 quadrupedal1 with elephant-like limbs and feet1 long neck and small head4 ,unarmored4 ,principal dinosaurs of this group in ,america are ,brontosaurus1 ,diplodocus1 ,camarasaurus 7,morosaurus7 and ,brachiosaurus1 all of the ,upper ,jurassic and ,comanchic periods4 ,,iii4 ,beaked ,dinosaurs or ,predentates4 ,with a horny beak on the front of the jaw1 cutting or grinding teeth behind it4 ,all herbivorous1 with pelvis of peculiar type1 with hoofs instead of claws1 and many genera heavily armored4 ,mostly three short toes on the hind foot1 four or five on the fore foot4 ,this group comprises animals of very different proportions as follows3 #a4 ,iguanodonts4 ,bipedal1 unarmored1 with a single row of serrated cutting teeth1 three-toed hind feet4 ,upper ,jurassic1 ,comanchic and ,cretacic4 ,camptosaurus is the best known ,american genus4 #b4 ,trachodonts or ,duck-billed ,dinosaurs4 ,like the ,iguanodonts but with numerous rows of small teeth set close together to form a grinding surface4 ,cretacic period4 ,trachodon1 ,hadrosaurus1 ,claosaurus1 ,saurolophus1 ,corythosaurus1 etc4 #c4 ,stegosaurs or ,armored ,dinosaurs4 ,quadrupedal dinosaurs with elephantine feet1 short neck1 small head1 body and tail armored with massive bony plates and often with large bony spines4 ,teeth in a single row1 like those of ,iguanodonts4 ,stegosaurus of the ,upper ,jurassic1 ,ankylosaurus of the ,upper ,cretacic4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4--;,hind ,feet of ,dinosaurs1 to show the three chief types 7,theropoda1 ,orthopoda1 ,sauropoda74 #d4 ,ceratopsian or ,horned ,dinosaurs4 ,quadrupedal with elephantine feet1 short neck1 very large head enlarged by an enormous bony frill covering the neck1 with a pair of horns over the eyes and a single horn in front4 ,teeth in a single row1 but broadened out and adapted for grinding the food4 ,no body armor4 ,triceratops is the best known type4 ,monoclonius1 ,ceratops1 ,torosaurus and ,anchiceratops are also of this group4 ,all from the ,cretacic period4 ,classification of ,dinosaurs4 ,it is probable that the ,dinosaurs are not really a natural group or order of reptiles1 although they have been generally so considered4 ,the ,carnivorous and ,amphibious ,dinosaurs in spite of their diverse appearance and habits1 are rather nearly related1 while the ,beaked ,dinosaurs form a group apart1 and may be descendants of a different group of primitive reptiles4 ,these relations are most clearly seen in the construction of the pelvis 7see fig4 #i74 ,in the first two groups the pubis projects downward and forward as it does in the majority of reptiles1 and the ilium is a high rounded plate2 while in the others the pelvis is of a wholly different type1 strongly suggesting the pelvis of birds4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4--,pelves of ,dinosaurs illustrating the two chief types 7,saurischia1 ,ornithischia7 and their variations4 ,recent researches upon ,triassic dinosaurs1 especially by the distinguished ,german savants1 ,friedrich von ,huene1 ,otto ,jaekel and the late ,eberhard ,fraas1 and the discovery of more complete specimens of these animals1 also clear up the true relationships of these primitive dinosaurs which have mostly been referred hitherto to the ,theropoda or ,megalosaurians4 ,the following classification is somewhat more conservative than the arrangement recently proposed by von ,huene4 ,,order ,,saurischia ,seeley4 ,suborder ,coelurosauria von ,huene 7,compsognatha ,huxley1 ,symphypoda ,cope47 ,fam4 ,podokesaurid ,triassic1 ,connecticut4 ,hallopodid ,jurassic1 ,colorado4 ,coelurid ,jurassic and ,comanchic1 ,north ,america4 ,compsognathid ,jurassic1 ,europe4 ,suborder ,pachypodosauria von ,huene4 ,fam4 ,anchisaurid ,triassic1 ,north ,america and ,europe4 ,zanclodontid ,plateosaurid ,triassic1 ,europe499 ,suborder ,theropoda ,marsh 7,goniopoda ,cope7 ,fam4 ,megalosaurid ,jurassic and ,comanchic4 ,deinodontid ,cretacic4 ,ornithomimid ,cretacic1 ,north ,america4 ,suborder ,sauropoda ,marsh 7,opisthocoelia ,owen1 ,cetiosauria ,seeley47 ,fam4 ,cetiosaurid ,morosaurid ,jurassic and ,comanchic4 ,diplodocid ,order ,,ornithischia ,seeley 7,orthopoda ,cope1 ,predentata ,marsh47 ,suborder ,ornithopoda ,marsh 7,iguanodontia ,dollo7 ,fam4 ,nanosaurid ,jurassic1 ,colorado4 ,camptosaurid ,iguanodontid ,jurassic and ,comanchic4 ,trachodontid 7,hadrosaurid71 ,cretacic4 ,suborder ,stegosauria ,marsh4 ,fam4 ,scelidosaurid ,jurassic and ,comanchic4 ,stegosaurid ,ankylosaurid 7,nodosaurid71 ,cretacic4 ,suborder ,ceratopsia ,marsh4 ,fam4 ,ceratopsid ,cretacic4 99 ,regarded by ,dr4 von ,huene as ancestral respectively to the ,theropoda and ,sauropoda4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #b3 ,if some vast catastrophe should today blot out all the mammalian races including man1 and the birds1 but leave the lizards and other reptiles still surviving1 with the lower animals and plants1 we might well expect the lizards in the course of geologic periods to evolve into a great and varied land fauna like the ,dinosaurs of the ,mesozoic ,era4 ,footnote #c3 ,the ancestral types have four complete toes1 but in the true ,theropoda the inner digit is reduced to a small incomplete remnant1 its claw reversed and projecting at the back of the foot1 as in birds4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,carnivorous ,,dinosaurs1 ,,allosaurus1 ,,tyrannosaurus1 ,,ornitholestes1 ,,etc4 ,,sub-,,order ,,theropoda4 ,the sharp teeth1 compressed and serrated like a palaeolithic spear point1 and the powerful sharp-pointed curved claws on the feet1 prove the carnivorous habits of these dinosaurs4 ,the well-finished joints1 dense texture of the hollow bones and strongly marked muscle-scars indicate that they were active and powerful beasts of prey4 ,they range from small slender animals up to the gigantic ,tyrannosaurus equalling the modern elephant in bulk4 ,they were half lizard1 half bird in proportions1 combining the head1 the short neck and small fore limbs and long snaky tail of the lizard with the short1 compact body1 long powerful hind limbs and three-toed feet of the bird4 ,the skin was probably either naked or covered with horny scales as in lizards and snakes2 at all events it was not armor-plated as in the crocodile4#d ,they walked or ran upon the hind legs2 in many of them the fore limbs are quite unfitted for support of the body and must have been used solely in fighting or tearing their prey4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4--;,hind ,limb of ,allosaurus1 ,dr4 ,j4,l4 ,wortman standing to one side4 ,dr4 ,wortman is one of the most notable and successful collectors of fossil vertebrates and was in charge of the ,museum's field work in this department from #ahia-ahih4 ,the huge size of some of these ,mesozoic beasts of prey finds no parallel among their modern analogues4 ,it is only among marine animals that we find predaceous types of such gigantic size4 ,but among the carnivorous dinosaurs we fail to find any indications of aquatic or even amphibious habits4 ,they might indeed wade in the water1 but they could hardly be at home in it1 for they were clearly not good swimmers4 ,we must suppose that they were dry land animals or at most swamp dwellers4 ,dinosaur ,footprints4 ,the ancestors of the ,theropoda appear first in the ,triassic period1 already of large size1 but less completely bipedal than their successors4 ,incomplete skeletons have been found in the ,triassic formations of ,germany#e but in this country they are chiefly known from the famous fossil footprints 7or bird-tracks as they were at first thought to be71 found in the flagstone quarries at ,turner's ,falls on the ,connecticut ,river1 in the vicinity of ,boonton1 ,new ,jersey1 and elsewhere4 ,these tracks are the footprints of numerous kinds of dinosaurs1 large and small1 mostly of the carnivorous group1 which lived in that region in the earlier part of the ,age of ,reptiles1 and much has been learned from them as to the habits of the animals that made them4 ,the tracks ascribed to carnivorous dinosaurs run in series with narrow tread1 short or long steps1 here and there a light impression of tail or forefoot and occasionally the mark of the shank and pelvis when the animal settled back and squatted down to rest a moment4 ,the modern crocodiles when they lift the body off the ground1 waddle forward with the short limbs wide apart1 and even the lizards which run on their hind legs have a rather wide tread4 ,but these dinosaurs ran like birds1 setting one foot nearly in front of the other1 so that the prints of right and left feet are nearly in a straight line4 ,this was on account of their greater length of limb1 which made it easy for them to swing the foot directly underneath the body at each step like mammals and birds1 and thus maintain an even balance1 instead of wabbling from side to side as short legged animals are compelled to do4 ,of the animals that made these innumerable tracks the actual remains found thus far in this country are exceedingly scanty4 ,two or three incomplete skeletons of small kinds are in the ,yale ,museum1 of which ,anchisaurus is the best known4 ,megalosaurus4 ,fragmentary remains of this huge carnivorous dinosaur were found in ,england nearly a century ago1 and the descriptions by ,dean ,buckland and ,sir ,richard ,owen and the restorations due to the imaginative chisel of ,waterhouse ,hawkins1 have made it familiar to most ,english readers4 ,unfortunately it was1 and still remains1 very imperfectly known4 ,it was very closely related to the ,american ,allosaurus and unquestionably similar in appearance and habits4#f ,,allosaurus4 ,the following extract is from the ,american ,museum ,journal for ,january #aijh4g ,although smaller than its huge contemporary ,brontosaurus1 this animal is of gigantic proportions being #cd feet #b inches in length1 and #h feet #c inches high4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4--,,mounted ,,skeleton ,,of ,,allosaurus ,,in ,,the ,,american ,,museum4 ,after ,osborn ,history of the ,allosaurus ,skeleton4 ,this rare and finely preserved skeleton was collected by ,mr4 ,f4,f4 ,hubbell in ,october #ahgi1 in the ,como ,bluffs near ,medicine ,bow1 ,wyoming1 the richest locality in ,america for dinosaur skeletons1 and is a part of the great collection of fossil reptiles1 amphibians and fishes gathered together by the late ,professor ,e4,d4 ,cope1 and presented to the ,american ,museum in #ahii by ,president ,jesup4 ,shortly after the ,centennial ,exposition 7#ahgf7 it had been planned that ,professor ,cope's collection of fossils should form part of a great public museum in ,fairmount ,park1 ,philadelphia1 the city undertaking the cost of preparing and exhibiting the specimens1 an arrangement similar to that existing between the ,american ,museum and the ,city of ,new ,york4#h ,the plan1 however1 fell through1 and the greater part of this magnificent collection remained in storage in the basement of ,memorial ,hall in ,fairmount ,park1 for the next twenty years4 ,from time to time ,professor ,cope removed parts of the collection to his private museum in ,pine ,street1 for purposes of study and scientific description4 ,he seems1 however1 to have had no idea of the perfection and value of this specimen4 ,in #ahii when the collection was purchased from his executors by ,mr4 ,jesup1 the writer went to ,philadelphia under the instructions of ,professor ,osborn1 ,curator of ,fossil ,vertebrates1 to superintend the packing and removal to the ,american ,museum4 ,at that time the collection made by ,hubbell was still in ,memorial ,hall1 and the boxes were piled up just as they came in from the ,west1 never having been unpacked4 ,professor ,cope's assistant1 ,mr4 ,geismar1 informed the writer that ,hubbell's collection was mostly fragmentary and not of any great value4 ,mr4 ,hubbell's letters from the field unfortunately were not preserved1 but it is likely that they did not make clear what a splendid find he had made1 and as some of his earlier collections had been fragmentary and of no great interest1 the rest were supposed to be of the same kind4 ,when the ,cope ,collection was unpacked at the ,american ,museum1 this lot of boxes1 not thought likely to be of much interest1 was left until the last1 and not taken in hand until #aijb or #aijc4 ,but when this specimen was laid out1 it appeared that a treasure had come to light4 ,although collected by the crude methods of early days1 it consisted of the greater part of the skeleton of a single individual1 with the bones in wonderfully fine preservation1 considering that they had been buried for say eight million years4 ,they were dense black1 hard and uncrushed1 even better preserved and somewhat more complete than the two fine skeletons of ,allosaurus from ,bone-,cabin ,quarry1 the greatest treasures that this famous quarry had supplied4 ,the great carnivorous dinosaurs are much rarer than the herbivorous kinds1 and these three skeletons are the most complete that have ever been found4 ,in all the years of energetic exploration that the late ,professor ,marsh devoted to searching for dinosaurs in the ,jurassic and ,cretaceous formations of the ,west1 he did not obtain any skeletons of carnivorous kinds anywhere near as complete as these1 and their anatomy was in many respects unknown or conjectural4 ,by comparison of the three ,allosaurus skeletons with one another and with other specimens of carnivorous dinosaurs of smaller size in this and other museums1 particularly in the ,national ,museum and the ,kansas ,university ,museum1 we have been able to reconstruct the missing parts of the ,cope specimen with very little possibility of serious error4 ,evidence for ,combining and ,posing this ,mount4 ,an incomplete specimen of ,brontosaurus1 found by ,doctor ,wortman and ,professor ,w4,c4 ,knight of the ,american ,museum ,expedition of #ahig1 had furnished interesting data as to the food and habits of ,allosaurus1 which were confirmed by several other fragmentary specimens obtained later in the ,bone-,cabin ,quarry4 ,in this ,brontosaurus skeleton several of the bones1 especially the spines of the tail vertebrae1 when found in the rock1 looked as if they had been scored and bitten off1 as though by some carnivorous animal which had either attacked the ,brontosaurus when alive1 or had feasted upon the carcass4 ,when the ,allosaurus jaw was compared with these score marks1 it was found to fit them exactly1 the spacing of the scratches being the same as the spacing of the teeth4 ,moreover1 on taking out the ,brontosaurus vertebrae from the quarry1 a number of broken off teeth of ,allosaurus were found lying beside them4 ,as no other remains of ,allosaurus or any other animal were intermingled with the ,brontosaurus skeleton1 the most obvious explanation was that these teeth were broken off by an ,allosaurus while devouring the ,brontosaurus carcass4 ,many of the bones of other herbivorous dinosaurs found in the ,bone-,cabin ,quarry were similarly scored and bitten off1 and the teeth of ,allosaurus were also found close to them4 ,with these data at hand the original idea was conceived of combining these two skeletons1 both from the same formation and found within a few miles of each other1 to represent what must actually have happened to them in the remote ,jurassic period1 and mount the ,allosaurus skeleton standing over the remains of a ,brontosaurus in the attitude of feeding upon its carcass4 ,some modifications were made in the position to suit the exigencies of an open mount1 and to accommodate the pose to the particular action2 the head of the animal was lifted a little1 one hind foot planted upon the carcass1 while the other1 resting upon the ground bears most of the weight4 ,the fore feet1 used in these animals only for fighting or for tearing their prey1 not for support1 are given characteristic attitudes1 and the whole pose represents the ,allosaurus devouring the carcass and raising head and fore foot in a threatening manner as though to drive away intruders4 ,the balance of the various parts was carefully studied and adjusted under direction of the curator4 ,the preparation and mounting of the specimen were done by ,mr4 ,adam ,hermann1 head preparator1 and his assistants1 especially ,messrs4 ,falkenbach and ,lang4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4--,restoration of ,allosaurus by ,c4,r4 ,knight4 ,after ,osborn ,as now exhibited in the ,dinosaur ,hall1 this group gives to the imaginative observer a most vivid picture of a characteristic scene in that bygone age1 millions of years ago1 when reptiles were the lords of creation1 and ',nature1 red in tooth and claw' had lost none of her primitive savagery1 and the era of brute force and ferocity showed little sign of the gradual amelioration which was to come to pass in future ages through the predominance of superior intelligence4 ,appearance and ,habits of ,allosaurus4 ,a study of the mechanism of the ,allosaurus skeleton shows us in the first place that the animal is balanced on the hind limbs1 the long heavy tail making an adequate counterpoise for the short compact body and head4 ,the hind limbs are nine feet in length when extended1 about equal to the length of the body and neck1 and the bones are massively proportioned4 ,when the thigh bone is set in its normal position1 as indicated by the position of the scars and processes for attachment of the principal muscles 7see under ,brontosaurus for the method used to determine this71 the knee bends forward as in mammals and birds1 not outward as in most modern reptiles4 ,the articulations of the foot bones show that the animal rested upon the ends of the metapodials1 as birds and many mammals do1 not upon the sole of the foot like crocodiles or lizards4 ,the flat vertebral joints show that the short compact body was not as flexible as the longer body of crocodiles or lizards1 in which the articulations are of the ball and socket type showing that in them this region was very flexible4 ,the tail also shows a limited flexibility4 ,it could not be curled or thrown over the back1 but projected out behind the animal1 swinging from side to side or up and down as much as was needed for balance4 ,the curvature of the ribs shows that the body was narrow and deep1 unlike the broad flattened body of the crocodile or the less flattened but still broad body of the lizard4 ,the loose hung jaw1 articulated far back1 shows by the set of its muscles that it was capable of an enormous gape2 while in the skull there is evidence of a limited movement of the upper jaw on the cranial portion1 intended probably to assist in the swallowing of large objects1 like the double jointed jaw of a snake4 ,as to the nature of the skin we have no exact knowledge4 ,we may be sure that it had no bony armor like the crocodile1 for remains of any such armor could not fail to be preserved with the skeletons1 as it always is in fossil crocodiles or turtles4 ,perhaps it was scaly like the skin of lizards and snakes1 for the horny scales of the body are not preserved in fossil skeletons of these reptiles4 ,but if so we might expect from the analogy of the lizard that the scales of the head would be ossified and preserved in the fossil2 and there is nothing of this kind in the ,carnivorous ,dinosaurs4 ,we can exclude feathers from consideration1 for these dinosaurs have no affinities to birds1 and there is no evidence for feathers in any dinosaur4 ,probably the best evidence is that of the ,trachodon or duck-billed dinosaur although this animal was but distantly related to the ,allosaurus4 ,in ,trachodon 7see p4 #id71 we know that the skin bore neither feathers nor overlapping scales but had a curiously patterned mosaic of tiny polygonal plates and was thin and quite flexible4 ,some such type of skin as this1 in default of better evidence1 we may ascribe to the ,allosaurus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4--,view in the ,hell ,creek badlands in central ,montana1 where the ,tyrannosaurus skeleton was found4 ,as to its probable habits1 it is safe to infer 7see p4 #cc71 that it was predaceous1 active and powerful1 and adapted to terrestrial life4 ,its methods of attack and combat must have been more like those of modern reptiles than the more intelligent methods of the mammalian carnivore4 ,the brain cast of ,allosaurus indicates a brain of similar type and somewhat inferior grade to that of the modern crocodile or lizard1 and far below the bird or mammal in intelligence4 ,the keen sense of smell of the mammal1 the keen vision of the bird1 the highly developed reasoning power of both1 were absent in the dinosaur as in the lizard or crocodile4 ,we may imagine the ,allosaurus lying in wait1 watching his prey until its near approach stimulates him into a semi-instinctive activity2 then a sudden swift rush1 a fierce snap of the huge jaws and a savage attack with teeth and claws until the victim is torn in pieces or swallowed whole4 ,but the stealthy1 persistent tracking of the cat or weasel tribe1 the intelligent generalship of the wolf pack1 the well planned attack at the most vulnerable point in the prey1 characteristic of all the predaceous mammals1 would be quite impossible to the dinosaur4 ,by watching the habits of modern reptiles we may gain a much better idea of his capacities and limitations than if we judge only from the efficiency of his teeth and claws1 and forget the inferior intelligence that animated these terrible weapons4 ,,tyrannosaurus4 ,the ,tyrant ,saurian as ,professor ,osborn has named him1 was the climax of evolution of the giant flesh-eating dinosaurs4 ,it reached a length of forty-seven feet1 and in bulk must have equalled the mammoth or the mastodon or the largest living elephants4 ,the massive hind limbs1 supporting the whole weight of the body1 exceeded the limbs of the great proboscideans in bulk1 and in a standing position the animal was eighteen to twenty feet high1 as against twelve for the largest ,african elephants or the southern mammoth4 ,the head 7see frontispiece7 is #d feet #c inches long1 #c ft4 #d inches deep1 and #b ft4 #i inches wide2 the long deep powerful jaws set with teeth from #c to #f inches long and an inch wide4 ,to this powerful armament was added the great sharp claws of the hind feet1 and probably the fore feet1 curved like those of eagles1 but six or eight inches in length4 ,during ten years explorations in the ,western ,cretaceous formations1 ,mr4 ,brown has secured for the ,museum three skeletons of this magnificent dinosaur1 incomplete1 but finely preserved4 ,the first1 found in #aijj1 included the jaws1 a large part of backbone and ribs1 and some limb bones4 ,the second included most of skull and jaws1 backbone1 ribs and pelvis and the hind limbs and feet1 but not tail4 ,the third consisted of a perfect skull and jaws1 the backbone1 ribs1 pelvis and nearly all of the tail1 but no limbs4 ,from these three specimens it has been possible to reconstruct the entire skeleton4 ,the exact construction of the fore feet is the only doubtful part4 ,the fore-limb is very small relatively to the huge size of the animal1 but probably was constructed much as in the ,allosaurus with two or three large curved claws1 the inner claw opposing the others4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4--,quarry from which the ,tyrannosaurus skeleton was taken4 ,american ,museum camp in foreground4 ,the missing parts of the two best skeletons have been restored1 and with the help of two small models of the skeleton1 a group has been made ready for mounting as the central piece of the proposed ,cretaceous ,dinosaur ,hall4 ,one of the skeletons is temporarily placed in the centre of the ,quaternary ,hall1 space for it in the present ,dinosaur ,hall being lacking4 ,following is ,professor ,osborn's description of the preparation of this group3#i ,the mounting of these two skeletons presents mechanical problems of very great difficulty4 ,the size and weight of the various parts are enormous4 ,the height of the head in the standing position reaches from #ah to #bj feet above the ground2 the knee joint alone reaches #f feet above the ground4 ,all the bones are massive2 the pelvis1 femur and skull are extremely heavy4 ,experience with ,brontosaurus and with other large dinosaurs proves that it is impossible to design a metallic frame in the right pose in advance of assembling the parts4 ,even a scale restoration model of the animal as a whole does not obviate the difficulty4 ,accordingly in preparing to mount ,tyrannosaurus for exhibition a new method has been adopted1 namely1 to prepare a scale model of every bone in the skeleton and mount this small skeleton with flexible joints and parts so that all studies and experiments as to pose can be made with the models4 ,this difficult and delicate undertaking was entrusted to ,mr4 ,erwin ,christman of the artistic staff of the ,department of ,vertebrate ,palaeontology of the ,museum1 who has prepared two very exact models to a one-sixth scale1 representing our two skeletons of ,tyrannosaurus rex1 which fortunately are of exactly the same size4 ,a series of three experiments by ,mr4 ,christman on the pose of ,tyrannosaurus1 under the direction of the author and ,curator ,matthew1 were not satisfactory4 ,the advice of ,mr4 ,raymond ,l4 ,ditmars1 ,curator of ,reptiles in the ,new ,york ,zoological ,park1 was sought and we thus obtained the fourth pose1 which is shown in the photographs published herewith4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4--,model of ,tyrannosaurus group for the ,cretaceous ,dinosaur ,hall4 ,the fourth pose or study1 for the proposed full sized mount1 is that of two reptiles of the same size attracted to the same prey4 ,one reptile is crouching over its prey 7which is represented by a portion of a skeleton74 ,the object of this depressed pose is to bring the perfectly preserved skull and pelvis very near the ground within easy reach of the visiting observer4 ,the second reptile is advancing1 and attains very nearly the full height of the animal4 ,the general effect of this group is the best that can be had and is very realistic1 particularly the crouching figure4 ,a fifth study will embody some further changes4 ,the upright figure is not well balanced and will be more effective with the feet closer together1 the legs straighter and the body more erect4 ,these reptiles have a series of strong abdominal ribs not shown in the models4 ,the fourth position places the pelvis in an almost impossible position as will be noted from the ischium and pubis4 ,the lateral view of this fourth pose represents the animals just prior to the convulsive single spring and tooth grip which distinguishes the combat of reptiles from that of all mammals1 according to ,mr4 ,ditmars4 ,the rear view of the standing skeleton displays the peculiarly avian structure of the iliac junction with the sacral plate1 characteristic of these very highly specialized dinosaurs1 also the marked reduction of the upper end of the median metatarsal bone1 which formerly was believed to be peculiar to ,ornithomimus4 ,this model of the group is on exhibition with the mounted skeleton4 ,as compared with its predecessor ,allosaurus1 the ,tyrannosaurus is much more massively proportioned throughout4 ,the skull is more solid1 the jaws much deeper and more powerful1 the fore limb much smaller1 the tail shorter1 the hind limb straighter and the foot bones more compacted so that the animal was more strictly digitigrade1 approaching the ostriches more closely in this particular4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4--,,skeleton ,,of ,,tyrannosaurus ,,in ,,comparison ,,with ,,human ,,skeleton4 ,this animal probably reached the maximum of size and of development of teeth and claws of which its type of animal mechanism was capable4 ,its bulk precluded quickness and agility4 ,it must have been designed to attack and prey upon the ponderous and slow moving ,horned and ,armored ,dinosaurs with which its remains are found1 and whose massive cuirass and weapons of defense are well matched with its teeth and claws4 ,the momentum of its huge body involved a seemingly slow and lumbering action1 an inertia of its movements1 difficult to start and difficult to shift or to stop4 ,such movements are widely different from the agile swiftness which we naturally associate with a beast of prey4 ,but an animal which exceeds an average elephant in bulk1 no matter what its habits1 is compelled by the laws of mechanics to the ponderous movements appropriate to its gigantic size4 ,these movements1 directed and controlled by a reptilian brain1 must needs be largely automatic and instinctive4 ,we cannot doubt indeed that the ,carnivorous ,dinosaurs developed1 along with their elaborately perfected mechanism for attack1 an equally elaborate series of instincts guiding their action to effective purpose2 and a complex series of automatic responses to the stimulus afforded by the sight and action of their prey might very well mimic intelligent pursuit and attack1 always with certain limits set by the inflexible character of such automatic adjustments4 ,but no animal as large as ,tyrannosaurus could leap or spring upon another1 and its slow stride quickening into a swift resistless rush1 might well end in unavoidable impalement upon the great horns of ,triceratops1 futile weapons against a small and active enemy1 but designed no doubt to meet just such attacks as these4 ,a true picture of these combats of titans of the ancient world we cannot draw2 perhaps we will never be able to reconstruct it4 ,but the above considerations may serve to show how widely it would differ from the pictures based upon any modern analogies4 ,one may well inquire why it is that no such gigantic carnivora have evolved among the mammalian land animals4 ,the largest predaceous quadrupeds living today are the lion and tiger4 ,the bears although some of them are much larger1 are not generally carnivorous1 except for the polar bear1 which is partly aquatic1 preying chiefly upon seals and fish4 ,there are indeed carnivorous whales of gigantic size1 but no very large land carnivore4 ,there were1 it is true1 during the ,tertiary and ,pleistocene1 lions and other carnivores considerably larger than the living species4 ,but none of them attained the size of their largest herbivorous contemporaries1 or even approached it4 ,among the dinosaurs on the other hand we find that--setting aside ,brontosaurus and its allies as aquatic--the predaceous kinds equalled or exceeded the largest of the herbivorous sorts4 ,the difference is striking1 and it does not seem likely that it is merely accidental4 ,the explanation lies probably in the fact that the large herbivorous mammals are much more intelligent and active1 and would be able to use their weapons of defense so as to defy the attacks of relatively slow moving giant beasts of prey1 as they do also the more active but less powerful assaults of smaller ones4 ,the elephant or the rhinoceros is in fact practically immune from the attacks of carnivora1 and would still be so were the carnivora to increase in size4 ,the large modern carnivora prey upon herbivores of medium or smaller size1 which they are active enough to surprise or run down4 ,carnivora of much larger size would be too slow and heavy in movements to catch small prey1 while the larger herbivores by intelligent use of their defensive weapons could still fend them off successfully4 ,in consequence giant carnivores would find no field for action in the ,cenozoic world1 and hence they have not been evolved4 ,but the giant herbivorous dinosaurs1 well armed or well defended though they were1 had not the intelligence to use those weapons effectively under all circumstances4 ,thus they might be successfully attacked1 at least sometimes1 by the powerful although slow moving ,megalosaurians4 ,the suggestion has also been made that these giant carnivores were carrion-eaters rather than truly predaceous4 ,the hypothesis can hardly be effectively supported nor attacked4 ,it is presented as a possible alternate4 ,albertosaurus4 ,closely allied to the ,tyrannosaurus but smaller1 about equal in size to ,allosaurus1 was the ,albertosaurus of the ,edmonton formation in ,canada4 ,it is somewhat older than the ,tyrannosaur although still of the late ,cretacic period1 and may have been ancestral to it4 ,a fine series of limbs and feet as also skull1 tail1 etc41 are in the ,museum's collections4 ,at or about this time carnivorous dinosaurs of slightly smaller size are known to have inhabited ,new ,jersey2 a fragmentary skeleton of one secured by ,professor ,cope in #ahfi was described as ,laelaps 7,dryptosaurus74#aj ,ornitholestes4 ,in contrast with the ,allosaurus and ,tyrannosaurus this skeleton represents the smaller and more agile carnivorous dinosaurs which preyed upon the lesser herbivorous reptiles of the period4 ,these little dinosaurs were probably common during all the ,age of ,reptiles1 much as the smaller quadrupeds are today1 but skulls or skeletons are rarely found in the formations known to us4 ,the ,anchisaurus1 ,podokesaurus and other genera of the ,triassic ,period have left innumerable tracks upon the sandy shales of the ,newark formation1 but only two or three skeletons are known4 ,a cast of one of them is exhibited here4 ,the original is preserved in the ,yale ,museum4 ,in the succeeding ,jurassic ,period we have the ,compsognathus1 smallest of known dinosaurs1 and this ,ornitholestes some six feet long4 ,a cast of the ,compsognathus skeleton is shown1 the original found in the lithographic limestone of ,solenhofen is preserved in the ,munich ,museum4 ,the ,ornitholestes is from the ,bone-,cabin ,quarry in ,wyoming4 ,the forefoot with its long slender digits is supposed to have been adapted for grasping an active and elusive prey1 and the name 7,ornitho-lestes bird-robber7 indicates that that prey may sometimes have been the primitive birds which were its contemporaries4 ,in the ,cretacic ,period1 there were also small and medium sized carnivorous dinosaurs1 contemporary with the gigantic kinds2 a complete skeleton of ,ornithomimus at the entrance to the ,dinosaur ,hall finely illustrates this group4 ,in appearance most of these small dinosaurs must have suggested long-legged bipedal lizards1 running and walking on their hind limbs1 with the long tail stretched out behind to balance the body4 ,from what we know of their tracks it seems that they walked or ran with a narrow treadway1 the footsteps almost in the middle line of progress4 ,they did not hop like perching birds1 nor did they waddle like most living reptiles4 ,occasionally the tail or fore feet touched the ground as they walked2 and when they sat down1 they rested on the end of the pubic bones and on the tail4 ,so much we can infer from the footprint impressions4 ,the general appearance is shown in the restorations of ,ornitholestes1 ,compsognathus and ,anchisaurus by ,charles ,knight4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4--,skeleton of ,ornitholestes a small carnivorous dinosaur of the ,jurassic period4 ,american ,museum ,no4 #fai4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4--,restoration of ,ornitholestes1 by ,c4,r4 ,knight under direction of ,professor ,osborn4 ,after ,osborn ,ornithomimus4 ,the skeleton of this animal from the ,cretacic of ,alberta was found by the ,museum expedition of #aiad4 ,it is exceptionally complete1 and has been mounted as a panel1 in position as it lay in the rock1 and with considerable parts of the original sandstone matrix still adherent4 ,the long slender limbs1 long neck1 small head and toothless jaws are all singularly bird-like1 and afford a striking contrast to the ,tyrannosaurus4 ,at the time of writing1 its adaptation and relationships have not yet been thoroughly investigated4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4--,,mounted ,,skeleton ,,of ,,brontosaurus ,,in ,,the ,,american ,,museum4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #d3 ,this is still doubtful in ,tyrannosaurus4 ,a number of very curious plates were found with one specimen in a quarry4 ,b4 ,brown1 #aiac4 ,footnote #e3 ,quite recently a series of more or less complete skeletons have been secured from the upper ,triassic 7,keuper7 near ,halberstadt in ,germany4 ,they are not true ,megalosaurians1 but primitive types 7,pachypodosauria7 ancestral to both these and the ,sauropoda4 ,probably many of the ,connecticut footprints were made by animals of this primitive group4 ,anchisaurus certainly belongs to it4 ,footnote #f3 ,it is evidently the dinosaur of ,sir ,conan ,doyle's ,lost ,world but the vivid description which the great ,english novelist gives of its appearance and habits1 based probably upon the ,hawkins restoration1 is not at all in accord with inferences from what is now known of these animals4 ,see p4 #dd4 ,footnote #g3 ,allosaurus1 a carnivorous ,dinosaur1 and its ,prey4 ,by ,w4,d4 ,matthew4 ,am4 ,mus4 ,nat4 ,hist4 ,jour4 ,vol4 viii1 pp4 #c-e1 pl4 #a4 ,footnote #h3 ,the cost of preparation is now defrayed by the ,museum4 ,footnote #i3 ,tyrannosaurus1 ,restoration and ,model of the ,skeleton4 ,by ,henry ,fairfield ,osborn4 ,bull4 ,amer4 ,mus4 ,nat4 ,hist41 #aiac1 vol4 xxxii1 art4 iv1 pp4 #ia-ib4 ,footnote #aj3 ,since these lines were written the ,museum has secured finely preserved skeletons of two or more kinds of ,carnivorous ,dinosaurs from the ,belly ,river formation in ,canada4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,amphibious ,,dinosaurs1 ,,brontosaurus1 ,,diplodocus1 ,,etc4 ,,sub-,,order ,,opisthocoelia 7,,cetiosauria ,,or ,,sauropoda74 ,these were the ,giant ,reptiles par-excellence1 for all of them were of enormous size1 and some were by far the largest of all four-footed animals1 exceeded in bulk only by the modern whales4 ,in contrast to the carnivorous dinosaurs these are quadrupedal1 with very small head1 blunt teeth1 long giraffe-like neck1 elephantine body and limbs1 long massive tail prolonged at the tip into a whip-lash as in the lizards4 ,like the elephant they have five short toes on each foot1 probably buried in life in a large soft pad1 but the inner digits bear large claws1 blunt like those of turtles1 one in the fore foot1 three in the hind foot4 ,to this group belong the ,brontosaurus and ,diplodocus1 the ,camarasaurus1 ,morosaurus and other less known kinds4 ,all of them lived during the late ,jurassic and ,comanchic 7,lower ,cretaceous7 and belong to the older of the two principal ,dinosaur faunas4 ,they were contemporaries of the ,allosaurus and ,megalosaurus1 the ,stegosaurus and ,iguanodon1 but unlike the ,carnivorous and ,beaked ,dinosaurs they became wholly extinct before the ,upper or true ,cretacic1 and left no relatives to take part in the final epoch of expansion and prosperity of the dinosaurian race at the close of the ,reptilian era4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4--,skeletons of ,brontosaurus 7above7 and ,diplodocus 7below7 in the ,american ,museum4 ,the parts preserved in these specimens are shaded4 ,scale1 #aj feet#a inch4 ,,brontosaurus4 ,the following description of the ,brontosaurus skeleton in the ,american ,museum was first published in the ,american ,museum ,journal of ,april1 #aije3aa ,the ,brontosaurus skeleton1 the principal feature of the hall1 is sixty-six feet eight inches long4 7,the weight of the animal when alive is estimated by ,w4,k4 ,gregory at #ch tons74 ,about one-third of the skeleton including the skull is restored in plaster modelled or cast from other incomplete skeletons4 ,the remaining two-thirds belong to one individual1 except for a part of the tail1 one shoulder-blade and one hind limb1 supplied from another skeleton of the same species4 ,the skeleton was discovered by ,mr4 ,walter ,granger of the ,museum expedition of #ahih1 about nine miles north of ,medicine ,bow1 ,wyoming4 ,it took the whole of the succeeding summer to extract it from the rock1 pack it1 and ship it to the ,museum4 ,nearly two years were consumed in removing the matrix1 piecing together and cementing the brittle and shattered petrified bone1 strengthening it so that it would bear handling1 and restoring the missing parts of the bones in tinted plaster4 ,the articulation and mounting of the skeleton and modelling of the missing bones took an even longer time1 so that it was not until ,february1 #aije1 that the ,brontosaurus was at last ready for exhibition4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4--;,excavating the ,brontosaurus skeleton4 ,the upper photograph shows the anterior ribs of one side still lying in position4 ,the backbone is being prepared for removal1 the sections each containing three vertebrae1 partly cased in plaster and burlap 7see chapter ,,xi47 ,the lower photograph shows a later stage of progress1 the blocks being undercut and nearly ready to turn over and incase the under side4 ,strips of wood have been pasted into each section to strengthen it4 ,it will appear1 therefore1 that the collection1 preparation and mounting of this gigantic fossil has been a task of extraordinary difficulty4 ,no museum has ever before attempted to mount so large a fossil skeleton1 and the great weight and fragile character of the bones made it necessary to devise especial methods to give each bone a rigid and complete support as otherwise it would soon break in pieces from its own weight4 ,the proper articulating of the bones and posing of the limbs were equally difficult problems1 for the ,amphibious ,dinosaurs1 to which this animal belongs1 disappeared from the earth long before the dawn of the ,age of ,mammals1 and their nearest relatives1 the living lizards1 crocodiles1 etc41 are so remote from them in either proportions or habits that they are unsatisfactory guides in determining how the bones were articulated and are of but little use in posing the limbs and other parts of the body in positions that they must have taken during life4 ,nor among the higher animals of modern times is there one which has any analogy in appearance or habits of life to those which we have been obliged by the study of the skeleton to ascribe to the ,brontosaurus4 ,as far as the backbone and ribs were concerned1 the articulating surfaces of the bones were a sufficient guide to enable us to pose this part of the skeleton properly4 ,the limb joints1 however1 are so imperfect that we could not in this way make sure of having the bones in a correct position4 ,the following method1 therefore1 was adopted4 ,a dissection and thorough study was made by the writer1 with the assistance of ,mr4 ,granger1 of the limbs of alligators and other reptiles1 and the position1 size and action of the principal muscles were carefully worked out4 ,then the corresponding bones of the ,brontosaurus were studied1 and the position and size of the corresponding muscles were worked out1 so far as they could be recognized from the scars and processes preserved on the bone4 ,the ,brontosaurus limbs were then provisionally articulated and posed1 and the position and size of each muscle were represented by a broad strip of paper extending from its origin to its insertion4 ,the action and play of the muscles on the limb of the ,brontosaurus could then be studied1 and the bones adjusted until a proper and mechanically correct pose was reached4 ,the limbs were then permanently mounted in these poses1 and the skeleton as it stands is believed to represent1 as nearly as study of the fossil enables us to know1 a characteristic position that the animal actually assumed during life4444 ,in proportions and appearance the ,brontosaurus was quite unlike any living animal4 ,it had a long thick tail like the lizards and crocodiles1 a long1 flexible neck like an ostrich1 a thick short1 slab-sided body and straight1 massive1 post-like limbs suggesting the elephant1 and a remarkably small head for the size of the beast4 ,the ribs1 limb-bones and tail-bones are exceptionally solid and heavy2 the vertebrae of the back and neck1 and the skull1 on the contrary are constructed so as to combine the minimum of weight with the large surface necessary for the attachment of the huge muscles1 the largest possible articulating surfaces1 and the necessary strength at all points of strain4 ,for this purpose they are constructed with an elaborate system of braces and buttresses of thin bony plates connecting the broad articulating surfaces and muscular attachments1 all the bone between these thin plates being hollowed into a complicated system of air-cavities4 ,this remarkable structure can be best seen in the unmounted skeleton of ,camarasaurus1 another ,amphibious ,dinosaur4 7,the scientific name ,camarasauruschambered lizard1 has reference to this peculiarity of construction47 ,the teeth of the ,brontosaurus indicate that it was an herbivorous animal1 feeding on soft vegetable food4 ,three opinions as to the habitat of ,amphibious ,dinosaurs have been held by scientific authorities4 ,the first1 advocated by ,professor ,owen1 who described the first specimens found sixty years ago 7#ahda-fj7 and supported especially by ,professor ,cope1 has been most generally adopted4 ,this regards the animals as spending their lives entirely in shallow water1 partly immersed1 wading about on the bottom1 or perhaps occasionally swimming1 but unable to emerge entirely upon dry land4#ab ,more recently1 ,professor ,osborn has advocated the view that they resorted occasionally to the land for egg laying or other purposes1 and still more recently the view has been taken by ,mr4 ,riggs and the late ,professor ,hatcher that they were chiefly terrestrial animals4 ,the writer inclines to the view of ,owen and ,cope1 whose unequalled knowledge of comparative anatomy renders their opinion on this doubtful question especially authoritative4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4--,,restoration ,,of ,,brontosaurus ,,by ,c4,r4 ,,knight1 ,,under ,,direction ,,of ,,professor ,,osborn4 ,after ,osborn ,the contrast between the massive structure of the limb-bones1 ribs and tail1 and the light construction of the backbone1 neck and skull1 suggests that the animal was amphibious1 living chiefly in shallow water1 where it could wade about on the bottom1 feeding upon the abundant vegetation of the coastal swamps and marshes1 and pretty much out of reach of the powerful and active ,carnivorous ,dinosaurs which were its principal enemies4 ,the water would buoy up the massive body and prevent its weight from pressing too heavily on the imperfect joints of the limb and foot bones1 which were covered during life with thick cartilage1 like the joints of whales1 sea-lizards and other aquatic animals4 ,if the full weight of the animal came on these imperfect joints the cartilage would yield and the ends of the bones would grind against each other1 thus preventing the limb from moving without tearing the joint to pieces4 ,the massive1 solid limb and foot bones weighted the limbs while immersed in water1 and served the same purpose as the lead in a diver's shoes1 enabling the ,brontosaurus to walk about firmly and securely under water4 ,on the other hand1 the joints of the neck and back are exceptionally broad1 well fitting and covered with a much thinner surface of cartilage4 ,the pressure was thus much better distributed over the joint1 and the full weight of the part of the animal above water 7reduced as it was by the cellular construction of the bones7 might be borne on these joints without the cartilage giving way4 ,looking at the mounted skeleton we may see that if a line be drawn from the hip joint to the shoulder-blade1 all the bones below this are massive1 all above 7including neck and head7 are lightly constructed4 ,this line may be taken to indicate the average water-line1 so to speak1 of this ,leviathan of the ,shallows4 ,the long neck would enable the animal1 however1 to wade to a considerable depth1 and it might forage for food either in the branches or the tops of trees1 or more probably1 among the soft succulent water-plants of the bottom4 ,the row of short spoon-shaped stubby teeth around the front of the mouth would serve to bite or pull off soft leaves and water-plants1 but the animal evidently could not masticate its food1 and must have swallowed it without chewing as do modern reptiles and birds4 ,the brain-case occupies only a small part of the back of the skull1 so that the brain must have been small even for a reptile1 and its organization 7as inferred from the form of the brain-case7 indicates a very low grade of intelligence4 ,much larger than the brain proper was the spinal cord1 especially in the region of the sacrum1 controlling most of the reflex and involuntary actions of the huge organism4 ,hence we can best regard the ,brontosaurus as a great1 slow-moving animal automaton1 a vast storehouse of organized matter directed chiefly or solely by instinct1 and to a very limited degree1 if at all1 by conscious intelligence4 ,its huge size and its imperfect organization1 compared with the great quadrupeds of today1 rendered its movements slow and clumsy2 its small and low brain shows that it must have been automatic1 instinctive and unintelligent4 ,composition of the ,brontosaurus ,skeleton4 ,the principal specimen1 ,no4 #dfj1 is from the ,nine ,mile ,crossing of the ,little ,medicine ,bow ,river1 ,wyoming4 ,it consists of the #eth1 #fth1 and #hth to #acth cervical vertebrae1 #ast to #ith dorsal and #crd to #aith caudal vertebrae1 all the ribs1 both coracoids1 parts of sacrum and ilia1 both ischia and pubes1 left femur and astragalus1 and part of left fibula4 ,the backbone and most of the neck of this specimen were found articulated together in the quarry1 the ribs of one side in position1 the remainder of the bones scattered around them1 and some of the tail bones weathered out on the surface4 ,from ,no4 #bbb1 found at ,como ,bluffs1 ,wyo41 were supplied the right scapula1 #ajth dorsal vertebra1 and right femur and tibia4 ,no4 #cci1 from ,bone-,cabin ,quarry1 ,wyoming1 supplied the #bjth to #djth caudal vertebrae1 ,no4 #eib1 from the same locality the metatarsals of the right hind foot2 and a few toe bones are supplied from other specimens4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4--,skull of ,diplodocus from ,bone-,cabin ,quarry1 north of ,medicine ,bow1 ,wyoming4 ,the remainder of the skeleton is modelled in plaster1 the scapula1 humerus1 radius and ulna from the skeleton in the ,yale ,museum1 the rest principally from specimens in our own collections4 ,the modelling of the skull is based partly upon specimens in the ,yale ,museum1 but principally upon the complete skull of ,morosaurus shown in another case4 ,mounted by ,a4 ,hermann1 completed ,feb4 #aj1 #aije4 ,diplodocus4 ,the ,diplodocus nearly equalled the ,brontosaurus in bulk and exceeded it in length4 ,a skeleton in the ,carnegie ,museum at ,pittsburgh measures #hg feet in total length2 although the mount is composed from several individuals these proportions are probably not far from correct4 ,the skull is smaller and differently shaped and the teeth are of quite different type4 ,in the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 a partial skeleton is exhibited in the wall case to the left of the entrance of the ,dinosaur ,hall1 and in an ,a-case near by are skulls of ,diplodocus and ,morosaurus and a model of the skull of ,brontosaurus4 ,the ,diplodocus skull is widely different from the other two in size and proportions and in the characters of teeth4 ,when the first remains of these amphibious ,dinosaurs were found in the ,oxford ,clays of ,england1 they were considered by ,richard ,owen to be related to the ,crocodiles1 and named ,opisthocoelia4 ,subsequently the finding of complete skeletons in this country led ,cope and ,marsh to place them with the true ,dinosaurs and the latter named them ,sauropoda4#ac ,remains of these animals have also been found in ,india1 in ,german ,east ,africa1 in ,madagascar1 and in ,south ,america1 so that they were evidently widely distributed4 ,in the ,northern world they survived until the ,comanchic or ,lower ,cretaceous ,period1 but in the southern continents they may have lived on into the ,upper ,cretaceous or true ,cretacic4 ,some of the remains recently found in ,german ,east ,africa indicate an animal exceeding either ,brontosaurus or ,diplodocus in bulk4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4--,the ,largest ,known ,dinosaur4 ,sketch reconstruction of ,brachiosaurus1 from specimens in the ,field ,museum in ,chicago1 and the ,natural ,history ,museum in ,berlin4 ,at the date of writing this handbook only preliminary accounts have been given of the marvellous finds made near ,tendaguru by the expedition from ,berlin4 ,from these it appears that in length of neck and fore limb this ,east ,african ,dinosaur greatly exceeded either ,brontosaurus or ,diplodocus4 ,the hinder parts of the skeleton however1 were relatively small4 ,the proportions and measurements given tally closely with the ,american ,brachiosaurus1 a gigantic sauropod whose incomplete remains are preserved in the ,field ,museum in ,chicago and to this genus the ,berlin authorities now refer their largest and finest skeleton4 ,if the ,berlin specimens are correctly referred to ,brachiosaurus they indicate an animal somewhat exceeding ,diplodocus or ,brontosaurus in total bulk but distinguished by much longer fore limbs and an immensely long neck--a giraffe-like wader adapted to take refuge in deeper waters1 more out of reach of the fierce carnivores of the land4#ad ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #aa3 ,the mounted ,skeleton of ,brontosaurus1 by ,w4,d4 ,matthew1 ,amer4 ,mus4 ,jour4 ,vol4 v1 pp4 #fc-gj1 figs4 #a-e4 ,footnote #ab3 ,professor ,williston makes the following criticism of this theory3 ,i cannot agree with this view--the animals must have laid their eggs upon land--for the reason that reptile eggs cannot hatch in water4 ,s4,w4,w4 ,but with deference to ,williston's high authority ,i may note that there is no evidence that the ,sauropoda were egg-laying reptiles4 ,they1 or some of them1 may have been viviparous like the ,ichthyosaurus4 ,footnote #ac3 ,european palaeontologists1 especially ,huxley and ,seeley in ,england1 had also recognized their true relationships1 and ,seeley's term ,cetiosauria has precedence over ,sauropoda1 although the latter is in common use4 ,footnote #ad3 ,it is of interest to observe that in this group of ,sauropoda1 the ,brachiosaurid1 the neural spines of the vertebrae are much simpler and narrower than in the ,brontosaurus and ,diplodocus4 ,the attachments were thus less extensive for the muscles of the back1 indicating that these muscles were less powerful4 ,this difference is correlated by ,professor ,williston with the longer fore limbs of the ,brachiosaurus1 as signifying that the animal was less able1 as indeed he had less need1 to rise up upon the hind limbs1 in comparison with ,diplodocus or ,brontosaurus in which the fore limbs were relatively short4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,beaked ,,dinosaurs4 ,,order ,,orthopoda 7,,ornithischia ,,or ,,predentata47 ,the peculiar feature of this group of ,dinosaurs is the horny beak or bill4 ,the bony core sutured to the front of the upper and lower jaws was covered in life by a horny sheath1 as in birds or turtles4 ,but this is not the only feature in which they came nearer to birds than do the other ,dinosaurs4 ,the pelvic or hip bones are much more bird-like in many respects1 especially the backward direction of the pubic bone1 the presence of a prepubis1 in the number of vertebrae cossified into a solid sacrum1 in the proportions of the ilium and so on4 ,various features in the anatomy of the head1 shoulder-blades and hind limbs are equally suggestive of birds1 and it seems probable that the earliest ancestors of the birds were very closely related to the ancestors of this group of ,dinosaurs4 ,but the ancestral birds became adapted to flying1 the ancestral ,predentates to terrestrial life1 and in their later development became as widely diversified in form and habits as the warm-blooded quadrupeds which succeeded them in the ,age of ,mammals4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4--,skulls of ,iguanodont and ,trachodont ,dinosaurs4 ,iguanodon and ,camptosaurus of the ,jurassic and ,comanchic2 ,kritosaurus and ,corythosaurus of the ,middle ,cretacic 7,belly ,river72 ,saurolophus of the late ,cretacic 7,edmonton72 ,trachodon of the latest ,cretacic 7,lance74 ,the ,iguanodon is ,european1 the others ,north ,american4 ,all #a_/be natural size4 ,these ,beaked ,dinosaurs were1 so far as we can tell1 all vegetarians4 ,unlike the birds1 they retained their teeth and in some cases converted them into a grinding apparatus which served the same purpose as the grinders of herbivorous quadrupeds4 ,it is interesting to observe the different way in which this result is attained4 ,in the mammals the teeth1 originally more complex in construction and fewer in number1 are converted into efficient grinders by infolding and elongation of the crown of each tooth so as to produce on the wearing surface a complex pattern of enamel ridges with softer dentine or cement intervening1 making a series of crests and hollows continually renewed during the wear of the tooth4 ,in the reptile the teeth1 originally simple in construction but more numerous and continually renewed as they wear down and fall out1#ae are banked up in several close packed rows1 the enamel borders and softer dentine giving a wearing surface of alternating crests and hollows continually renewed1 and reinforced from time to time1 by the addition of new rows of teeth to one side1 as the first formed rows wear down to the roots4 ,this is the best illustrated in the ,trachodon 7see fig4 #bg72 the other groups have not so perfect a mechanism4 ,a4 ,,the ,,iguanodonts3 ,,iguanodon1 ,,camptosaurus4 ,sub-,order ,ornithopoda or ,iguanodontia4 ,in the early days of geology1 about the middle of the nineteenth century1 bones and footprints of huge extinct reptiles were found in the rocks of the ,weald in south-eastern ,england4 ,they were described by ,mantell and ,owen and shown to pertain to an extinct group of reptiles which ,owen called the ,dinosauria4 ,so different were these bones from those of any modern reptiles that even the anatomical learning of the great ,english palaeontologist did not enable him to place them all correctly or reconstruct the true proportions of the animal to which they belonged4 ,with them were found associated the bones of the great carnivorous dinosaur ,megalosaurus2 and the weird reconstructions of these animals1 based by ,waterhouse ,hawkins upon the imperfect knowledge and erroneous ideas then prevailing1 must be familiar to many of the older readers of this handbook4 ,life size restorations of these and other extinct animals were erected in the grounds of the ,crystal ,palace at ,sydenham1 ,london1 and in ,central ,park1 ,new ,york4 ,those in ,london still exist1 so far as the writer is aware1 but the stern mandate of a former mayor of ,new ,york ordered the destruction of the ,central ,park models1 not indeed as incorrect scientifically1 but as inconsistent with the doctrines of revealed religion1 and they were accordingly broken up and thrown into the waters of the ,park lake4 ,small replicas of these early attempts at restoring dinosaurs may still be seen in some of the older museums in this country and abroad4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4--,,skeleton ,,of ,,camptosaurus1 ,,an ,,american ,,relative ,,of ,,the ,,iguanodon4 ,the real construction of the ,iguanodon was gradually built up by later discoveries1 and in #ahgg an extraordinary find in a coal mine at ,bernissart in ,belgium brought to light no less than seventeen skeletons more or less complete4 ,these were found in an ancient fissure filled with rocks of ,comanchic age1 traversing the ,carboniferous strata in which the coal seam lay1 and with them were skeletons of other extinct reptiles of smaller size4 ,the open fissure had evidently served as a trap into which these ancient giants had fallen1 and either killed by the fall or unable to escape from the pit1 their remains had been subsequently covered up by sediments and the pit filled in to remain sealed up until the present day4 ,these skeletons1 unique in their occurrence and manner of discovery1 are the pride of the ,brussels ,museum of ,natural ,history1 and1 together with the earlier discoveries1 have made the ,iguanodon the most familiar type of dinosaur to the people of ,england and ,western ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4--,teeth of the duck-billed dinosaur ,trachodon4 ,the dental magazine has been removed from the lower jaw and is seen to consist of several close-set rows of numerous small pencil-like teeth which are pushed up from beneath as they wear off at the grinding surface4 ,camptosaurus4 ,the ,american counterpart of the ,iguanodons of ,europe was the ,camptosaurus1 nearly related and generally similar in proportions but including mostly smaller species1 and lacking some of the peculiar features of the ,old ,world genus4 ,in the ,national ,museum at ,washington1 are mounted two skeletons of ,camptosaurus1 a large and a small species1 and in the ,american ,museum a skeleton of a small species4 ,it suggests a large kangaroo in size and proportions1 but the three-toed feet1 with hoof-like claws1 the reptilian skull1 loosely put together1 with lizard-like cheek teeth and turtle beak indicate a near relative of the great ,iguanodon4 ,thescelosaurus4 ,the ,iguanodont family survived until the close of the ,age of ,reptiles1 with no great change in proportions or characters4 ,its latest member is ,thescelosaurus1 a contemporary of ,triceratops4 ,partial skeletons of this animal are shown in the ,dinosaur ,hall2 a more complete one is in the ,national ,museum4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ae3 ,trachodont teeth never drop out1 they are completely consumed4 ,only in the ,iguanodonts and ,ceratopsia are they shed4--,b4 ,brown4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,beaked ,,dinosaurs 7,continued74 ,b4 ,,the ,,duck ,,billed ,,dinosaurs1--,,trachodon1 ,,saurolophus1 ,,etc4 ,sub-,order ,ornithopoda2 ,family ,trachodontid4 ,these animals of the ,upper ,cretaceous are probably descended from the ,iguanodonts of an older period4 ,but the long ages that intervened1 some millions of years1 have brought about various changes in the race1 not so much in general proportions as in altering the form and relations of various bones of skull and skeleton and perfecting their adaptation to a somewhat different habit of life1 so that they must be regarded as descendants perhaps1 but certainly rather distant relatives1 of the older group4 ,we know more about the ,trachodonts than any other dinosaurs4 ,for not only are the skeletons more frequently found articulated1 but parts of the skin are not uncommonly preserved with them1 and in one specimen at least1 so much of the skin is preserved that it may fairly be called a dinosaur mummy4 ,this specimen of ,trachodon is in the ,american ,museum1 and beside it are two fine mounted skeletons of the largest size4 ,there is also on exhibition a panel mount of a nearly related genus1 ,saurolophus the skeleton lying as it was found in the rock1 and a fine skeleton of a third genus ,corythosaurus with the skin partly preserved on both sides of the crushed and flattened body stands beside it4 ,in the ,tyrannosaurus group when completed will appear a fourth skeleton of the ,trachodon4 ,several skulls and incomplete skeletons on exhibition and other skeletons not yet prepared add to the ,museum collection of this group4 ,trachodon skeletons may also be found in the ,museums of ,new ,haven1 ,washington1 ,frankfurt-on-the-,main1 ,london and ,paris1 but nowhere a series comparable to that displayed at the ,american ,museum4 ,,the ,,trachodon ,,group4 ,the following description of the ,trachodon group is by ,mr4 ,barnum ,brown and first appeared in the ,american ,museum ,journal for ,april #aijh3af ,this group takes us back in imagination to the ,cretaceous period1 more than three millions of years ago1 when ,trachodonts were among the most numerous of the dinosaurs4 ,two members of the family are represented here as feeding in the marshes that characterized the period1 when one is startled by the approach of a carnivorous dinosaur1 ,tyrannosaurus1 their enemy1 and rises on tiptoe to look over the surrounding plants and determine the direction from which it is coming4 ,the other ,trachodon1 unaware of danger1 continues peacefully to crop the foliage4 ,perhaps the erect member of the group had already had unpleasant experiences with hostile beasts1 for a bone of its left foot bears three sharp gashes which were made by the teeth of some carnivorous dinosaur4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4--,mounted ,skeletons of ,trachodon in the ,american ,museum4 ,height of standing skeleton #af feet1 #aj inches4 ,by thus grouping the skeletons in lifelike attitudes1 the relation of the different bones can best be shown1 but these of course are only two of the attitudes commonly taken by the creatures during life4 ,mechanical and anatomical considerations1 especially the long straight shafts of the leg bones1 indicate that dinosaurs walked with their limbs straight under the body1 rather than in a crawling attitude with the belly close to the ground1 as is common among living reptiles4 ,trachodonts lived near the close of the ,age of ,reptiles in the ,upper ,cretaceous and had a wide geographical distribution1 their remains having been found in ,new ,jersey1 ,mississippi and ,alabama1 but more commonly in ,wyoming1 ,montana1 and the ,dakotas4 ,a suggestion of the great antiquity of these specimens is given by the fact that since the animals died layers of rock aggregating many thousand feet in vertical thickness have been deposited along the ,atlantic coast4 ,the bones of the erect specimen are but little crushed and a clear conception of the proportions of the animal can best be obtained from this specimen4 ,it will be seen that the ,trachodon was shaped somewhat like a kangaroo1 with short fore legs1 long hind legs1 and a long tail4 ,the fore limbs are reduced indeed to about one-sixth the size of the hind limbs and judging from the size and shape of the foot bones the front legs could not have borne much weight4 ,they were probably used in supporting the anterior portion of the body when the creature was feeding1 and in aiding it to recover an upright position4 ,the specimen represented as feeding is posed so that the fore legs carry very little of the weight of the body4 ,there are four toes on the front foot but the thumb is greatly reduced and the fifth digit or little finger1 is absent4 7,subsequent discoveries have shown that the arrangement of the digits made by ,marsh and followed in this skeleton is incorrect4 ,it is the first digit that is absent1 and the fifth is reduced47 ,the hind legs are massive and have three well developed toes ending in broad hoofs4 ,the pelvis is lightly constructed with bones elongated like those of birds4 ,the long deep compressed tail was particularly adapted for locomotion in the water4 ,it may also have served to balance the creature when standing erect on shore4 ,the broad expanded lip of bone known as the fourth trochanter1 on the inner posterior face of the femur or thigh bone was for the attachment of powerful tail muscles similar to those which enable the crocodile to move its tail from side to side with such dexterity4 ,this trochanter is absent from the thigh bones of land-inhabiting dinosaurs with short tails1 such as ,stegosaurus and ,triceratops4 ,the tail muscles were attached to the vertebrae by numerous rod-like tendons which are preserved in position as fossils on the erect skeleton4 ,trachodonts are thought to have been expert swimmers4 ,unlike other dinosaurs their remains are frequently found in rocks that were formed under sea water probably bordering the shores but nevertheless containing typical sea shells4 ,the elaborate dental apparatus is such as to show clearly that ,trachodonts were strictly herbivorous creatures4 ,the mouth was expanded to form a broad duck-like bill which during life was covered with a horny sheath1 as in birds and turtles4 ,each jaw is provided with from #de to #fj vertical and from #aj to #ad horizontal rows of teeth1 so that there were more than #bjjj teeth altogether in both jaws4 ,among living saurians1 or reptiles1 the small ,south ,american iguana ,amblyrhynchus may be compared in some respects with the ,trachodons notwithstanding the difference in size4 ,these modern saurians live in great numbers on the shores of the ,galapagos ,islands off the coast of ,chile4 ,they swim out to sea in shoals and feed exclusively on seaweed which grows on the bottom at some distance from shore4 ,the animal swims with perfect ease and quickness by a serpentine movement of its body and flattened tail1 its legs meanwhile being closely pressed to its side and motionless4 ,this is also the method of propulsion of crocodiles when swimming4 ,the carnivorous or flesh-eating dinosaurs that lived on land1 such as ,allosaurus and ,tyrannosaurus1 were protected from foes by their sharp biting teeth1 while the land-living herbivorous forms were provided with defensive horns1 as in ,triceratops1 sharp spines as in ,stegosaurus or were completely armored as in ,ankylosaurus4 ,trachodon was not provided with horns1 spines or plated armor1 but it was sufficiently protected from carnivorous land forms by being able to enter and remain in the water4 ,its skin was covered with small raised scales1 pentagonal in form on the body and tail1 where they were largest1 with smaller reticulations over the joints but never overlapping as in snakes or fishes4 ,a ,trachodon skeleton was recently found with an impression of the skin surrounding the vertebrae which is so well preserved that it gives even the contour of the tail as is shown in the illustration 7fig4 #cb74 ,during the existence of the ,trachodonts the climate of the northern part of ,north ,america was much warmer than it is at present1 the plant remains indicating a climate for ,wyoming and ,montana similar to what now prevails in ,southern ,california4 ,palm leaves resembling the palmetto of ,florida are frequently found in the same rocks with these skeletons4 ,here occur also such1 at present1 widely separated trees as the gingko now native of ,china1 and the ,sequoia now native of the ,pacific ,coast4 ,fruits and leaves of the fig tree are also common1 but most abundant among the plant remains are the ,equisetae or horsetail rushes1 some species of which possibly supplied the ,trachodons with food4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4--,restoration of the ,duck-billed ,dinosaur ,trachodon4 ,this restoration1 made by ,mr4 ,knight under supervision of ,professor ,osborn1 embodies the latest evidence as to the structure and characteristic poses of these animals1 the character of the skin and their probable habits and environment4 ,after ,osborn ,impressions of the more common plants found in the rocks of this period with sections of the tree trunks showing the woody structure will be have been introduced into the group as the ground on which the skeletons stand4 ,in the rivers and bayous of that remote period there also lived many kinds of ,unios or fresh-water clams1 and other shells1 the casts of which are frequently found with ,trachodon bones4 ,the fossil trunk of a coniferous tree was found in ,wyoming1 which was filled with groups of wood-living shells similar to the living ,teredo4 ,these also will be introduced in the ground-work4 ,the skeleton mounted in a feeding posture was one of the principal specimens in the ,cope ,collection1 which1 through the generosity of the late ,president ,jesup1 was purchased and given to the ,american ,museum4 ,it was found near the ,moreau ,river1 north of the ,black ,hills1 ,south ,dakota1 in #ahhb1 by ,dr4 ,j4,l4 ,wortman and ,mr4 ,r4,s4 ,hill1 collectors for ,professor ,cope4 ,the erect skeleton came from ,crooked ,creek1 central ,montana1 and was found by a ranchman1 ,mr4 ,oscar ,hunter1 while riding through the bad lands with a companion in #aijd4 ,the specimen was partly exposed1 with backbone and ribs united in position4 ,the parts that were weathered out are much lighter in color than the other bones4 ,their large size caused some discussion between the ranchmen and to settle the question1 ,mr4 ,hunter dismounted and kicked off all the tops of the vertebrae and rib-heads above ground1 thereby proving by their brittle nature that they were stone and not buffalo bones as the other man contended4 ,the proof was certainly conclusive1 but it was extremely exasperating to the subsequent collectors4 ,another ranchman1 ,mr4 ,alfred ,sensiba1 heard of the find and knowing that it was valuable 'traded' ,mr4 ,hunter a six-shooter for his interest in it4 ,the specimen was purchased from ,messrs4 ,sensiba ,brothers and excavated by the ,american ,museum in #aijf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4--,,the ,,dinosaur ,,mummy4 ,,skeleton ,,of ,a ,,trachodon ,,preserving ,,the ,,skin ,,impressions ,,over ,a ,,large ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,body4 ,after ,osborn ,,the ,,dinosaur ,,mummy4 ,we all believe that the ,dinosaurs existed4 ,but to realize it is not so easy4 ,even with the help of the mounted skeletons and restorations1 they are somewhat unreal and shadowy beings in the minds of most of us4 ,but this dinosaur mummy sprawling on his back and covered with shrunken skin--a real specimen1 not restored in any part--brings home the reality of this ancient world even as the mummy of an ancient ,egyptian brings home to us the reality of the world of the ,pharaohs4 ,the description of this unique skeleton by ,professor ,henry ,fairfield ,osborn first appeared in the ,museum ,journal for ,january #aiaa4ag ,two years ago 7#aijh7 through the ,jesup ,fund1 the ,museum came into possession of a most unique specimen discovered in ,august #aijh1 by the veteran fossil hunter ,charles ,h4 ,sternberg of ,kansas4 ,it is a large herbivorous dinosaur of the closing period of the ,age of ,reptiles and is known to palaeontologists as ,trachodon or more popularly as the 'duck-billed dinosaur4' ,the skeleton or hard parts of these very remarkable animals had been known for over forty years1 and a few specimens of the epidermal covering1 but it was not until the discovery of the ,sternberg specimen that a complete knowledge of the outer covering of these dinosaurs was gained4 ,it appears probable that in a number of cases these priceless skin impressions were mostly destroyed in removing the fossil specimens from their surroundings because the explorers were not expecting to find anything of the kind4 ,altogether seven specimens have been discovered in which these delicate skin impressions were partly preserved1 but the ',trachodon mummy' far surpasses all the others1 as it yields a nearly complete picture of the outer covering4 ,the reason the ,sternberg specimen 7,trachodon annectens7 may be known as a dinosaur 'mummy' is that in all the parts of the animal which are preserved 7i4e4 all except the hind limbs and the tail71 the epidermis is shrunken around the limbs1 tightly drawn along the bony surfaces1 and contracted like a great curtain below the chest area4 ,this condition of the epidermis suggests the following theory of the deposition and preservation of this wonderful specimen1 namely3 that after dying a natural death the animal was not attacked or preyed upon by its enemies1 and the body lay exposed to the sun entirely undisturbed for a long time1 perhaps upon a broad sand flat of a stream in the low-water stage2 the muscles and viscera thus became completely dehydrated1 or desiccated by the action of the sun1 the epidermis shrank around the limbs1 was tightly drawn down along all the bony surfaces1 and became hardened and leathery1 on the abdominal surfaces the epidermis was certainly drawn within the body cavity1 while it was thrown into creases and folds along the sides of the body owing to the shrinkage of the tissues within4 ,at the termination of a possible low-water season during which these processes of desiccation took place1 the 'mummy' may have been caught in a sudden flood1 carried down the stream and rapidly buried in a bed of fine river sand intermingled with sufficient elements of clay to take a perfect cast or mold of all the epidermal markings before any of the epidermal tissues had time to soften under the solvent action of the water4 ,in this way the markings were indicated with absolute distinctness1 444 the visitor will be able by the use of the hand glass to study even the finer details of the pattern1 although of course there is no trace either of the epidermis itself1 which has entirely disappeared1 or of the pigmentation or coloring1 if such existed4 ,although attaining a height of fifteen to sixteen feet the trachodons were not covered with scales or a bony protecting armature1 but with dermal tubercles of relatively small size1 which varied in shape and arrangement in different species1 and not improbably associated with this varied epidermal pattern there was a varied color pattern4 ,the theory of a color pattern is based chiefly upon the fact that the larger tubercles concentrate and become more numerous on all those portions of the body exposed to the sun1 that is1 on the outer surfaces of the fore and hind limbs1 and appear to increase also along the sides of the body and to be more concentrated on the back4 ,on the less exposed areas1 the under side of the body and the inner sides of the limbs1 the smaller tubercles are more numerous1 the larger tubercles being reduced to small irregularly arranged patches4 ,from analogy with existing lizards and snakes we may suppose1 therefore1 that the trachodons presented a darker appearance when seen from the back and a lighter appearance when seen from the front4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4--,the ,dinosaur ,mummy4 ,detail of skin of under side of body4 ,after ,osborn ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4--,skin impression from the tail of a ,trachodon4 ,the impressions appear to have been left by horny scutes or scales1 not overlapping like the scales on the body of most modern reptiles1 but more like the scutes on the head of a lizard4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4--,skull of ,gila ,monster 7,heloderma71 for comparison of surface with skin impressions of ,trachodon4 ,enlarged to #d_/c4 ,the thin character of the epidermis as revealed by this specimen favors also the theory that these animals spent a large part of their time in the water1 which theory is strengthened by the fact that the diminutive fore limb terminates not in claws or hoofs1 but in a broad extension of the skin1 reaching beyond the fingers and forming a kind of paddle4#ah ,the marginal web which connects all the fingers with each other1 together with the fact that the lower side of the fore limb is as delicate in its epidermal structure as the upper1 certainly tends to support the theory of the swimming rather than the walking or terrestrial function of this fore paddle as indicated in the accompanying preliminary restoration that was made by ,charles ,r4 ,knight working under the writer's direction4 ,one is drawn in the conventional bipedal or standing posture while the other is in a quadrupedal pose or walking position1 sustaining or balancing the fore part of the body on a muddy surface with its fore feet4 ,in the distant water a large number of animals are disporting themselves4 ,the designation of these animals as the 'duck-billed' dinosaurs in reference to the broadening of the beak1 has long been considered in connection with the theory of aquatic habitat4 ,the conversion of the fore limb into a sort of paddle1 as evidenced by the ,sternberg specimen1 strengthens this theory4 ,this truly wonderful specimen1 therefore1 nearly doubles our previous insight into the habits and life of a very remarkable group of reptiles4 ,saurolophus1 ,corythosaurus4 ,in the latest ,cretaceous formation1 the ,lance or ,triceratops beds1 all the duck-billed dinosaurs are much alike1 and are referred to the single genus ,trachodon4 ,in somewhat older formations of the ,cretacic period there were several different kinds4 ,saurolophus has a high bony spine rising from the top of the skull2 in ,corythosaurus there is a thin high crest like the crown of a cassowary on top of the skull1 and the muzzle is short and small giving a very peculiar aspect to the head4 ,complete skeletons of these two genera are exhibited in the ,dinosaur ,hall2 the ,corythosaurus is worthy of careful study1 as the skin of the body1 hind limbs and tail1 the ossified tendons1 and even the impressions of the muscular tissues in parts of the body and tail1 are more or less clearly indicated4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4--,,skeleton ,,of ,,saurolophus1 ,,from ,,upper ,,cretacic ,,of ,,alberta4 ,after ,brown ,these ,duck-billed ,dinosaurs probably ranged all over ,north ,america and the northerly portions of the ,old ,world during the later ,cretacic4 ,fragmentary remains have been found in ,new ,jersey and southward along the ,atlantic coast4 ,a partial skeleton was described many years ago by ,leidy under the name of ,hadrosaurus and restored and mounted in the museum of the ,philadelphia ,academy of ,sciences4 ,telmatosaurus of the ,gosau formation in ,austria also belongs to this group1 and fragmentary remains have been found in the upper ,cretacic of ,belgium1 ,england and ,france4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #af3 ,brown1 ,barnum4 ,the ,trachodon ,group4 ,amer4 ,mus4 ,jour4 ,vol4 viii1 pp4 #ea-ef1 plate and #c text figs41 #aijh4 ,footnote #ag3 ,osborn1 ,henry ,fairfield1 ,dinosaur ,mummy ,amer4 ,mus4 ,jour4 ,vol4 xi1 pp4 #g-aa1 illustrated1 ,jan4 #aiaa4 ,footnote #ah3 ,there is some doubt whether this was really the condition during life4 ,w4,d4,m4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,beaked ,,dinosaurs 7,continued47 ,c4 ,,the ,,armored ,,dinosaurs--,,stegosaurus1 ,,ankylosaurus4 ,sub-,order ,stegosauria4 ,this group of dinosaurs is most remarkable for the massive bony armor plates1 crests or spines covering the body and tail4 ,they were more or less completely quadrupedal instead of bipedal1 with straight post-like limbs and short rounded hoofed feet adapted to support the weight of the massive body and heavy armature4 ,although so different superficially from the bird-footed biped ,iguanodonts they are evidently related to them1 for the teeth are similar1 and the horny beak1 the construction of the pelvis1 the three-toed hind foot and four-toed front foot all betray relationship4 ,from what we know of them it seems probable that they evolved from ,iguanodont ancestors1 developing the bony armor as a protection against the attacks of carnivorous dinosaurs1 and modifying the proportions of limbs and feet to enable them to support its weight4 ,they were evidently herbivorous and some of them of gigantic size4 ,smaller kinds with less massive armor have been found in ,europe but the largest and most extraordinary members of this strange race are from ,north ,america4 ,,stegosaurus4 ,this extraordinary reptile equalled the ,allosaurus in size1 and bore along the crest of the back a double row of enormous bony plates projecting upward and somewhat outward alternately to one side and the other4 ,the largest of these plates situated just back of the pelvis were over two feet high1 two and a half long1 thinning out from a base four inches thick4 ,the tail was armed with four or more stout spines two feet long and five or six inches thick at the base4 ,in the neck region and probably elsewhere the skin had numerous small bony nodules and some larger ones imbedded in its substance or protecting its surface4 ,the head was absurdly small for so huge an animal1 and the stiff thick tail projected backward but was not long enough to reach the ground4 ,the hind limbs are very long and straight1 the fore limbs relatively short1 and the short high arched back and extremely deep and compressed body served to exaggerate the height and prominence of the great plates4 ,the surface of these plates1 covered with a network of blood-vessels1 shows that they bore a covering of thick horny skin during life1 which probably projected as a ridge beyond their edges and still further increased their size4 ,the spines of the tail1 also1 were probably cased in horn4 ,this extraordinary animal was a contemporary of the ,brontosaurus and ,allosaurus1 and its discovery was one of the great achievements of the late ,professor ,marsh4 ,the skeletons which he described are mounted in the ,yale and ,national ,museums4 ,another skeleton was found in the famous ,bone-,cabin ,quarry1 near ,medicine ,bow1 ,wyoming1 by the ,american ,museum ,expedition of #aija4 ,this skeleton1 at present withdrawn from lack of space1 will be mounted in the ,jurassic ,dinosaur ,hall in the new wing now under construction4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4--,skull and lower jaw of ,armored ,dinosaur ,ankylosaurus1 from ,upper ,cretacic 7,edmonton formation7 of ,alberta4 ,left side view4 ,after ,brown ,,ankylosaurus4 ,related to ,stegosaurus1 equally huge1 but very different in proportions and character of its armor was the ,ankylosaurus of the late ,cretacic4 ,this animal1 a contemporary of the ,tyrannosaurus and duck-billed dinosaurs was more effectively though less grotesquely armored than its more ancient relative4 ,the body is covered with massive bony plates set close together and lying flat over the surface from head to tip of tail4 ,while the stegosaur's body was narrow and compressed1 in this animal it is exceptionally broad and the wide spreading ribs are cossified with the vertebrae1 making a very solid support for the transverse rows of armor plates4 ,the head is broad triangular1 flat topped and solidly armored1 the plates consolidated with the surface of the skull and overhanging sides and front1 the nostrils and eyes overhung by plates and bosses of bone2 and the tail ended in a blunt heavy club of massive plates consolidated to each other and to the tip of the tail vertebrae4 ,the legs were short1 massive and straight1 ending probably in elephant-like feet4 ,the animal has well been called the most ponderous animated citadel the world has ever seen and we may suppose that when it tucked in its legs and settled down on the surface it would be proof even against the attacks of the terrible ,tyrannosaur4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4--;,ankylosaurus1 top view of skull in fig4 #ce4 ,after ,brown ,this marvellous animal was made known to science by the discoveries of the ,museum parties in ,montana and ,alberta under ,barnum ,brown4 ,fragmentary remains of smaller relatives had been discovered by earlier explorers but nothing that gave any adequate notion of its character or gigantic size4 ,from a partial skeleton discovered in the ,hell ,creek beds of ,montana1 and others in the ,edmonton and ,belly ,river formations of the ,red ,deer ,river1 ,alberta1 it has been possible to reconstruct the entire skeleton of the animal1 save for the feet1 and to locate and arrange most of the armor plates exactly4 ,a skeleton mount from these specimens will shortly be constructed for the ,cretaceous ,dinosaur ,hall4 ,scelidosaurus1 ,polacanthus1 etc4 ,various armored dinosaurs1 of smaller size and less heavily plated1 have been described from the ,jurassic1 ,comanchic and ,cretacic formations of ,europe4 ,the best known are ,scelidosaurus of the ,lower ,jurassic of ,england1 and ,polacanthus of the ,comanchic 7,wealden74 ,stegopelta of the ,cretaceous of ,wyoming is more nearly related to ,ankylosaurus4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,beaked ,,dinosaurs 7,concluded47 ,d4 ,,the ,,horned ,,dinosaurs1 ,,triceratops1 ,,etc4 ,sub-,order ,ceratopsia4 ,in #ahhg ,professor ,marsh published a brief notice of what he supposed to be a fossil bison horn found near ,denver1 ,colorado4 ,two years later the explorations of the lamented ,john ,b4 ,hatcher in ,wyoming and ,montana resulted in the unexpected discovery that this horn belonged not to a bison but to a gigantic horned reptile1 and that it belonged not in the geological yesterday as at first thought1 but in the far back ,cretacic1 millions of years ago4 ,for ,mr4 ,hatcher found complete skulls1 and later secured skeletons1 clearly of the ,dinosaurian group1 but representing a race of dinosaurs whose existence1 or at least their extraordinary character1 had been quite unsuspected4 ,it appeared indeed that certain teeth and skeleton bones previously discovered by ,professor ,cope were related to this new type of dinosaur1 but the fragments known to the ,philadelphia professor gave him no idea of what the animal was like1 although with his usual acumen he had discerned that they differed from any animal known to science and registered them as new under the names of ,agathaumas #ahgc and ,monoclonius #ahgf4 ,professor ,marsh re-named his supposed bison ,ceratops 7i4e4 horned face7 and gave to the closely related skulls discovered by ,mr4 ,hatcher the name of ,triceratops 7i4e4 three horned face71 while to the whole group he gave the name of ,ceratopsia4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4--,skulls of ,horned ,dinosaurs4 ,the lower row1 ,ceratops1 ,styracosaurus1 ,monoclonius1 are from the ,middle ,cretacic 7,belly ,river formation7 of ,alberta2 ,anchiceratops is from the ,upper ,cretacic 7,edmonton formation7 of ,alberta2 ,triceratops and ,torosaurus from the uppermost ,cretacic 7,lance formation7 of ,wyoming4 ,these were the first of a long series of discoveries which through scientific and popular descriptions have made the ,horned ,dinosaurs familiar to the world4 ,most of them are still very imperfectly known1 and of their evolution and earlier history we know very little as yet4 ,but we can form a fairly correct idea of their general appearance and habits and of the part they played in the world of the late ,cretacic4 ,so far as known they were limited to ,north ,america4 ,the most striking feature of the ,horned ,dinosaurs is the gigantic skull1 armed with a pair of horns over the orbits and a median horn on the nasal bones in front1 and with a great bony crest projecting at the back and sides4 ,in some species the skull with its bony frill attains a length of seven or even eight feet and about three feet width2 the usual length is five or six feet and the width about three4 ,in the best known genus1 ,triceratops1 the paired horns are long and stout and the front horn quite short or almost absent1 while in ,monoclonius these proportions are reversed1 the front horn being long while the paired horns are rudimentary4 ,the teeth are in a single row but are broadened out into a wide grinding surface4 ,the animal was quadrupedal1 with short massive limbs and rounded elephantine feet tipped with hoofs1 three in the hind foot1 four in the fore foot1 a short massive tail that could hardly reach the ground1 a short broad-barrelled body and a short neck completely hidden on top and sides by the overhanging bony frill of the skull4 ,in many respects these animals are suggestive far more than any other dinosaurs1 of the great quadrupeds of ,tertiary and modern times1 rhinoceroses1 hippopotami1 titanotheres and elephants1 as in the horns they suggest the bison4 ,for this reason although less gigantic than the ,brontosaurus or ,tyrannosaurus1 less grotesque perhaps1 than the ,stegosaurus1 they are more interesting than any other dinosaurs4 ,while thus departing far from the earlier type of the beaked dinosaurs 7the ,iguanodonts7 they are evidently descended from them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4--,skull of ,triceratops from the ,lance formation in ,wyoming1 one-eighteenth natural size4 ,the length of the horns is #b feet1 #i-a_/b inches4 ,the rostral bone or beak1 and the lower jaw1 are lacking2 in the illustration on the cover they have been restored in outline4 ,this fine skull was discovered by ,george ,m4 ,sternberg1 and purchased for the ,museum by ,mr4 ,charles ,lanier in #aiji4 ,,triceratops4 ,this is the best known of the ,horned ,dinosaurs1 as various skulls and partial skeletons have been found from which it has been possible to reconstruct the entire animal4 ,there is a mounted skeleton in the ,national ,museum1 another will shortly be mounted in the ,american ,museum1 and there are skulls in several ,american and ,european museums4 ,triceratops exceeded the largest rhinoceroses in bulk1 equalling a fairly large elephant1 but with much shorter legs4 ,the great horns over the eyes projected forward or partly upward2 in one of our skulls they are #cc-a_/b inches long4 ,during life they were probably covered with horn increasing the length by six inches or perhaps a foot4 ,the ball-like condyle for articulation of the neck lies far underneath1 at the base of the frill1 almost in the middle of the skull4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4--,skull of ,monoclonius1 a horned dinosaur from the ,cretacic 7,belly ,river formation7 of ,alberta4 ,one-fifteenth natural size4 ,the horns over the eyes are rudimentary1 and the nasal horn large1 reversing the proportions in ,triceratops4 ,monoclonius1 ,ceratops1 etc4 ,the ,triceratops and another equally gigantic ,horned ,dinosaur1 ,torosaurus1 were the last survivors of their race4 ,in somewhat older formations of ,cretacic age are found remains of smaller kinds1 some of them ancestors of these latest survivors1 others collaterally related4 ,none of these have the bony frill completely roofing over the neck as it does in ,triceratops4 ,there is always a central spine projecting backwards and widening out at the top to the bony margin of the frill which sweeps around on each side to join bony plates that project from the sides of the skull top4 ,this encloses an open space or fenestra1 so that the neck was not completely protected above4 ,sometimes the margin of the frill is plain1 at other times it carries a number of great spikes1 like a gigantic ,horned ,lizard 7,phrynosoma74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4--,outline sketch restoration of ,triceratops1 from the mounted skeleton in the ,national ,museum4 ,in ,ceratops the horns over the eyes are large and the nasal horn small4 ,in ,monoclonius the nasal horn is large and those over the eyes are rudimentary4 ,the great variety of species that has been found in recent years shows that these ,horned ,dinosaurs were a numerous and varied race of which as yet we know only a few4 ,of their evolution we have little direct knowledge1 but probably they are descended from the ,iguanodonts and ,camptosaurs of the ,comanchic1 and their quadrupedal gait1 huge heads1 short tails and other peculiarities are secondary specializations1 their ancestors being bipedal1 long-tailed1 small headed and hornless4 ,the fine skulls of ,triceratops1 ,monoclonius1 ,ceratops and ,anchiceratops in the ,museum collections illustrate the variety of these remarkable animals4 ,complete skeletons of the first two genera are being prepared for mounting and exhibition4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,geographical ,,distribution ,,of ,,dinosaurs4 ,remains of ,dinosaurs have been found in all the continents1 but chiefly in ,europe and ,north ,america4 ,explorations in other parts of the world have not as yet been sufficient to show whether or not each continent developed especial kinds peculiar to it1 nor to afford any reliable evidence as to whether the relations of the continents were different during the ,mesozoic4 ,thus far1 the ,carnivorous group seems most widespread1 for it alone has been found in ,australia4 ,the ,sauropods or ,amphibious ,dinosaurs have been found in ,europe1 ,north ,america1 ,india1 ,madagascar1 ,patagonia1 and ,africa1 sufficient to show that their distribution was world wide with the possible exception of ,australia1 and probable exception of most oceanic islands 7few of the modern oceanic islands existed at that time although there may well have been many others no longer extant74 ,the ,beaked ,dinosaurs are more limited in their distribution1 for none of them so far as at present known reached ,australia or ,south ,america4 ,but in the present stage of discovery it would be rash to conclude that they were surely limited to the regions where they have been discovered4 ,it is not wholly clear as yet whether the ,dinosaurian fauna that flourished at the end of the ,jurassic in the north survived to the ,upper ,cretacic in the southern continents1 but present evidence points that way1 and indicates that the girdle of ocean which during the ,cretacic depression encircled the northern world1 formed a barrier which the ,cretacic dinosaurian fauna never succeeded in crossing4 ,the earlier groups of ,beaked ,dinosaurs are found in both ,europe and ,america1 and in the ,cretacic the ,duck-billed and ,armored groups are represented in both regions4 ,the ,horned ,dinosaurs1 however1 are known with certainty only from ,north ,america4 ,while most of the important fossil specimens in this country have been found in the ,west1 more fragmentary remains have been found on the ,atlantic sea-board1 and it is probable that they ranged all over the intervening region1 wherever they found an environment suited to their particular needs4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,collecting ,,dinosaurs4 ,,how ,,and ,,where ,,they ,,are ,,found4 ,the visitor who is introduced to the dinosaurs through the medium of books and pictures or of the skeletons exhibited in the great museums1 finds it hard--well nigh impossible--to realize their existence4 ,however willing he may be to accept on faith the reconstructions of the skeletons1 the restorations of the animals and their supposed environment1 it yet remains to him somewhat of a fairy-tale1 a fanciful imaginative world peopled with ogres and dragons and belonging to the unreal once upon a time which has no connection with the ever present workaday world in which we live4 ,birds and squirrels1 rabbits and foxes belong to this real world because he has seen them in his walks through the woods2 even elephants and rhinoceroses1 though his acquaintance be limited to menagerie specimens1 seem fairly real--although one recalls the farmer's comment on first seeing a giraffe in the ,zoological park3 ,there aint no sich animal4 ,but dinosaurs--one easily realizes the state of mind that prompts the inquiry so often made by visitors to the ,dinosaur ,hall3--they make these out of plaster1 don't they8 ,so far as is consistent with good taste1 the aim of the ,american ,museum has been to enable the visitor to see for himself how much of plaster reconstruction there is to each skeleton1 and to explain in the labels what the basis was for the reconstructed parts4 ,how ,they are ,found4 ,but to the collector these extinct animals are real enough4 ,as he journeys over the western plains he sees the various living inhabitants thereof1 birds and beasts1 as well as men1 pursuing their various modes of life2 here and there he comes across the scattered skeletons or bones of modern animals lying strewn upon the surface of the ground or half buried in the soil of a cut bank4 ,in the shales or sandstones that underlie the soil he finds the objects of his search1 skeletons or bones of extinct animals1 similarly disposed1 but buried in rock instead of soft soil1 and exposed in caons and gullies cut through the solid rock4 ,each rock formation1 he knows by precept and experience1 carries its own peculiar fauna1 its animals are different from those of the formation above and from those in the formation below4 ,days and weeks he may spend in fruitless search following along the outcrop of the formation1 through rugged badlands1 along steep caon walls1 around isolated points or buttes1 without finding more than a few fragments1 but spurred on by vivid interest and the rainbow prospect of some new or rare find4 ,finally perhaps1 after innumerable disappointments1 a trail of fragments leads up to a really promising prospect4 ,a cautious investigation indicates that an articulated skeleton is buried at this point1 and that not too much of it has gone out and rolled in weathered fragments down the slope4 ,for the tedious and delicate process of disinterring the skeleton from the rock he will need to keep ever in mind the form and relations of each bone1 the picture of the skeleton as it may have been when buried4 ,the heavy ledges above are removed with pick and shovel1 often with help of dynamite and a team and scraper4 ,as he gets nearer to the stratum in which the bones lie the work must be more and more careful4 ,a false blow with pick or chisel might destroy irreparably some important bony structure4 ,bit by bit he traces out the position and lay of the bones1 working now mostly with awl and whisk-broom1 uncovering the more massive portions1 blocking out the delicate bones in the rock1 soaking the exposed surfaces repeatedly with thin gum 7mucilage7 or shellac1 channeling around and between the bones until they stand out on little pedestals above the quarry floor4 ,then1 after the gum or shellac has dried thoroughly and hardened the soft parts1 and the surfaces of bone exposed are further protected by pasting on a layer of tissue paper1 it is ready for the plaster jacket4 ,this consists of strips of burlap dipped in plaster-of-paris and pasted over the surface of each block until top and sides1 all but the pedestal on which it rests1 are completely cased in1 the strips being pressed and kneaded close to the surface of the block as they are laid on4 ,when this jacket sets and dries the block is rigid and stiff enough to lift and turn over2 the remains of the pedestal are trimmed off and the under surface is plastered like the rest4 ,with large blocks it is often necessary to paste into the jacket1 on upper or both sides1 boards1 scantling or sticks of wood to secure additional rigidity4 ,for should the block rack1 or become shattered inside1 even though no fragments were lost1 the specimen would be more or less completely ruined4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4--;,a ,dinosaur skeleton1 prospected and ready for encasing in plaster bandages and removal in blocks4 7,corythosaurus1 ,red ,deer ,river1 ,alberta47 ,the next stage will be packing in boxes with straw1 hay or other materials1 hauling to the railway and shipment to ,new ,york4 ,arrived at the ,museum1 the boxes are unpacked1 each block laid out on a table1 the upper side of its plaster jacket softened with water and cut away1 and the preparation of the bone begins4 ,always it is more or less cracked and broken up1 but the fragments lie in their natural relations4 ,each piece must be lifted out1 thoroughly cleaned from rock and dirt1 and the fractured surfaces cemented together again4 ,parts of bones1 especially the interior1 are often rotted into dust while the harder outer surface is still preserved4 ,the dust must be scraped out1 the interior filled with a plaster cement1 and the surface pieces re-set in position4 ,very often a steel rod is set into the plaster filling the interior of a bone1 to secure additional strength4 ,after this preparation is completed1 each part being soaked repeatedly with shellac until it will absorb no more1 the bones can be handled and laid out for study or exhibition4 ,then1 if they are to be mounted for a fossil skeleton1 comes the work of restoring the missing parts4 ,for this a plaster composition is used4 ,where only parts of one side are missing the corresponding parts of the other side are used for model2 where both sides are missing1 other individuals or nearly related species may serve as a guide4 ,but it is seldom wise to attempt restoration of a skeleton unless at least two-thirds of it is present2 composite skeletons made up of the remains of several or many individuals1 have been attempted1 but they are dangerous experiments in animals so imperfectly known as are most of the dinosaurs4 ,there is too much risk of including bones that pertain to other species or genera1 and of introducing thereby into the restoration a more or less erroneous concept of the animal which it represents4 ,the same criticism applies to an overly large amount of plaster restoration4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4--;,bone-,cabin ,draw on ,little ,medicine ,river north of ,medicine ,bow1 ,wyoming4 ,the location of the quarry is indicated by the stack of crated specimens on the left1 and close to it the low sod-covered shack where the collecting party lived4 ,beyond the draw lies the flat rolling surface of the ,laramie ,plains and on the southern horizon the ,medicine ,bow ,range with ,elk ,mountain at the center4 ,in some instances the missing parts of a skeleton are not restored1 because1 even though but a small part be gone1 we have no good evidence to guide in its reconstruction4 ,this gives an imperfect and sometimes misleading concept of what the whole skeleton was like1 but it is better than restoring it erroneously4 ,usually with the more imperfect skeletons1 a skull1 a limb or some other characteristic parts may be placed on exhibition but the remainder of the specimen is stored in the study collections4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4--;,american ,museum party at ,bone-,cabin ,quarry1 #ahii4 ,seated1 left to right ,walter ,granger1 ,professor ,h4,f4 ,osborn1 ,dr4 ,w4,d4 ,matthew2 standing1 ,f4 ,schneider1 ,prof4 ,r4,s4 ,lull1 ,albert ,thomson1 ,peter ,kaison4 ,where ,they are ,found4 ,the chief dinosaur localities in this country are along the flanks of the ,rocky ,mountains and the plains to the eastward1 from ,canada to ,texas4 ,not that dinosaurs were any more abundant there than elsewhere4 ,they probably ranged all over ,north ,america1 and different kinds inhabited other continents as well4 ,but in the ,east and the ,middle ,west1 the conditions were not favorable for preserving their remains1 except in a few localities4 ,formations of this age are less extensive1 especially those of the delta and coast-swamps which the dinosaurs frequented4 ,and where they do occur1 they are largely covered by vegetation and cannot be explored to advantage4 ,in the arid ,western regions these formations girdle the ,rockies and outlying mountain chains for two-thousand miles from north to south1 and are extensively exposed in great escarpments1 river caons and badland areas1 bare of soil and vegetation and affording an immense stretch of exposed rock for the explorer4 ,much of this area indeed is desert1 too far away from water to be profitably searched under present conditions1 or too far away from railroads to allow of transportation of the finds at a reasonable expense4 ,fossils are much more common in certain parts of the region1 and these localities have mostly been explored more or less thoroughly4 ,but the field is far from being exhausted4 ,new localities have been found and old localities re-explored in recent years1 yielding specimens equal to or better than any heretofore discovered4 ,and as the railroad and the automobile render new regions accessible1 and the erosion of the formations by wind and rain brings new specimens to the surface1 we may look forward to new discoveries for many years to come4 ,in other continents1 except in ,europe1 there has been but little exploration for dinosaurs4 ,enough is known to assure us that they will yield faun no less extensive and remarkable than our own4 ,we are in fact only beginning to appreciate the vast extent and variety of these records of a past world4 ,in a preceding chapter it was shown that the chief formations in which dinosaur remains have been found belong to the end of the ,jurassic and the end of the ,cretacic periods4 ,the ,jurassic dinosaur formations skirt the ,rockies and outlying mountain ranges but are often turned up on edge and poorly exposed1 or barren of fossils4 ,the richest collecting ground is in the ,laramie ,plains1 between the ,rockies and the ,laramie range in south-central ,wyoming1 but important finds have also been made in ,colorado and ,utah4 ,the ,cretaceous ,dinosaur formations extend somewhat further out on the plains to the eastward1 and the best collecting regions thus far explored are in eastern ,wyoming1 central ,montana and in ,alberta1 ,canada4 ,,the ,,first ,,discovery ,,of ,,dinosaurs ,,in ,,the ,,west4 ,by ,prof4 ,s4,w4 ,williston4 ,most great discoveries are due rather to a state of mind1 if ,i may use such an expression1 than to accident4 ,the discovery of the immense dinosaur deposits in the ,rocky ,mountains in ,march1 #ahgg1 may truthfully be called great1 for nothing in paleontology has equalled it1 and that it was made by three observers simultaneously can not be called purely an accident4 ,these discoverers were ,mr4 ,o4 ,lucas1 then a school teacher1 later clergyman2 ,professor ,arthur ,lakes1 then a teacher in the ,school of ,mines at ,golden1 ,colorado2 and ,mr4 ,william ,reed1 then a section foreman of the ,union ,pacific ,railroad at ,como1 ,wyoming1 later the curator of paleontology of the ,university of ,wyoming--even as ,i write this1 comes the notice of his death1--the last4 ,i knew them all1 and the last two were long intimate friends4 ,in the autumn of #ahgh ,i wrote the following3#ai ,the history of their discovery 7the dinosaurs7 is both interesting and remarkable4 ,for years the beds containing them had been studied by geologists of experience1 under the surveys of ,hayden and ,king1 but1 with the possible exception of the half of a caudal vertebra1 obtained by ,hayden and described by ,leidy as a species of ,poikilopleuron1 not a single fragment had been recognized4 ,this is all the more remarkable from the fact that in several of the localities ,i have observed acres literally strewn with fragments of bones1 many of them extremely characteristic and so large as to have taxed the strength of a strong man to lift them4 ,three of the localities known to me are in the immediate vicinity1 if not upon the actual townsites of thriving villages1 and for years numerous fragments have been collected by 7or for7 tourists and exhibited as fossil wood4 ,the quantities hitherto obtained1 though apparently so vast1 are wholly unimportant in comparison with those awaiting the researches of geologists throughout the ,rocky ,mountain region4 ,i doubt not that many hundreds of tons will eventually be exhumed4 ,rather a startling prophecy to make within eighteen months of their discovery1 but it was hardly exaggerated4 ,it is impossible to say which of these three observers actually made the first discovery of ,jurassic dinosaurs2 whatever doubt there is is in favor of ,mr4 ,reed4 ,professor ,lakes1 accompanied by his friend ,mr4 ,e4,l4 ,beckwith1 an engineer1 was1 one day in ,march1 #ahgg1 hunting along the hogback in the vicinity of ,morrison1 ,colorado1 for fossil leaves in the ,dakota ,cretaceous sandstone which caps the ridge1 when he saw a large block of sandstone with an enormous vertebra partly imbedded in it4 ,he discussed the nature of the fossil with his friend 7so he told me7 and finally concluded that it was a fossil bone4 ,he had recently come from ,england and had heard of ,professor ,phillips' discoveries of similar dinosaurs there4 ,he knew of ,professor ,marsh of ,yale from his recent discoveries of toothed birds in the chalk of ,kansas1 and reported the find to him4 ,as a result1 the specimen1 rock and all1 was shipped to him by express at ten cents a pound6 ,and ,professor ,marsh immediately announced the discovery of ,titanosaurus 7,atlantosaurus7 immanis1 a huge dinosaur having a probable length of one hundred and fifteen feet and unknown height4 ,and ,professor ,lakes was immediately set at work in the ,morrison quarry near by1 whence comes the accepted name of these dinosaur beds in the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,professor ,lakes once showed me the exact spot where he found his first specimen4 ,mr4 ,lucas1 teaching his first term of a country school that spring in ,garden ,park near ,caon ,city1 as an amateur botanist was interested in the plants of the vicinity4 ,rambling through the adjacent hills in search of them1 in ,march1 #ahgg1 he stumbled upon some fragments of fossil bones in a little ravine not far from the famous quarry later worked for ,professor ,marsh4 ,he recognized them as fossils and they greatly excited1 not only his curiosity1 but the curiosity of the neighbors4 ,he had heard of the late ,professor ,cope and sent some of the bones to him1 who promptly labelled them ,camarasaurus supremus4 ,the announcement of these discoveries promptly brought ,mr4 ,david ,baldwin1 ,professor ,marsh's collector in ,new ,mexico1 to the scene4 ,only a few months previously he had discovered fossil bones in the red beds of ,new ,mexico1 the since famous ,permian deposits4 ,he naturally explored the same beds at ,caon ,city1 immediately below the dinosaur deposits1 and soon found the still very problematical ,hallopus skeleton1 at their very top1 a specimen which after nearly forty years remains unique of its kind4 ,a few years earlier ,professor ,marsh1 on his way east from the ,tertiary deposits of western ,wyoming1 had stopped at ,como1 ,wyoming1 to observe the strange salamanders1 or fish with legs as they were widely known1 so abundant in the lake at that place1 about whose transformations he later wrote a paper1 perhaps the only one on modern vertebrates that he ever published4 ,while he was there ,mr4 ,carlin1 the station agent1 showed him some fossil bone fragments1 so ,mr4 ,reed told me1 that they had picked up in the vicinity1 and about which ,professor ,marsh made some comments4 ,but he was so engrossed with the other discoveries he was then making that he did not follow up the suggestion4 ,had he done so the discovery of the ,jurassic ,dinosaurs would have been made five years earlier4 ,mr4 ,reed1 tramping over the famous ,como hills after game--he had been a professional hunter of game for the construction camps of the ,union ,pacific ,railroad--in the winter and spring of #ahgg1 observed some fossil bones just south of the railway station that excited his curiosity4 ,but he and ,mr4 ,carlin did not make their discovery known to ,professor ,marsh till the following autumn1 and then under assumed names1 fearing that they would be robbed of their discovery4 ,i was sent to ,como in ,november of #ahgg from ,caon ,city4 ,i got off the train at the station after midnight1 and enquired for the nearest hotel--7the station comprised two houses only71 and where ,i could find ,messrs4 ,smith and ,robinson4 ,i was told that the section house was the only hotel in the place and that these gentlemen lived in the country and that there was no regular bus-line yet running to their ranch4 ,a freshly opened box of cigars1 however1 helped clear up things1 and ,i joined ,mr4 ,reed the next day in opening ,quarry ,no4 #a of the ,como hills4 ,inasmuch as the mercury in the thermometer during the next two months seldom reached zero--upward ,i mean--the opening of this famous deposit was made under difficulties4 ,that so much head cheese1 as we called it1 was shipped to ,professor ,marsh was more the fault of the weather and his importunities than our carelessness4 ,however1 we found some of the types of dinosaurs that have since become famous4 ,i joined ,professor ,lakes at the ,morrison quarry in early ,september of #ahgg1 and helped dig out some of the bones of ,atlantosaurus4 ,a few weeks later ,i was sent to ,caon ,city to help ,professor ,mudge1 my old teacher1 and ,mr4 ,felch1 who had begun work there in the famous ,marsh ,quarry4 ,it was here that we found the type of ,diplodocus4 ,the hind leg1 pelvis and much of the tail of this specimen lay in very orderly arrangement in the sandstone near the edge of the quarry1 but the bones were broken into innumerable pieces4 ,after consultation we decided that they were too much broken to be worth saving--and so most of them went over into the dump4 ,sacrilege1 doubtless1 the modern collector will say1 but we did not know much about the modern methods of collecting in those days1 and moreover we were in too much of a hurry to get the new discoveries to ,yale ,college to take much pains with them4 ,i did observe that the caudal vertebrae had very peculiar chevrons1 unlike others that ,i had seen1 and so ,i attempted to save some samples of them by pasting them up with thick layers of paper4 ,had we only known of plaster-of-paris and burlap the whole specimen might easily have been saved4 ,later1 when ,i reached ,new ,haven1 ,i took off the paper and called ,professor ,marsh's attention to the strange chevrons4 ,and ,diplodocus was the result4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4--,the first dinosaur specimen found at ,bone-,cabin ,quarry4 ,hind limb of ,diplodocus4 ,my own connection with the discoveries of these old dinosaurs continued only through the following summer1 in ,wyoming1 when we added the first mammals from the hills immediately back of the station1 and the types of some of the smaller dinosaurs1 and when we explored the vicinity for other deposits1 on ,rock ,creek and in the ,freeze ,out ,mountains4 ,how many tons of these fossils have since been dug up from these deposits in the ,rocky ,mountains is beyond computation4 ,my prophecy of hundreds of tons has been fulfilled2 and they are preserved in many museums of the world4 ,s4,w4 ,,williston4 ,,the ,,dinosaurs ,,of ,,the ,,bone-,,cabin ,,quarry4#bj ,by ,henry ,fairfield ,osborn4 ,one is often asked the questions3 ,how do you find fossils8 ,how do you know where to look for them8 ,one of the charms of the fossil-hunter's life is the variety1 the element of certainty combined with the gambling element of chance4 ,like the prospector for gold1 the fossil-hunter may pass suddenly from the extreme of dejection to the extreme of elation4 ,luck comes in a great variety of ways3 sometimes as the result of prolonged and deliberate scientific search in a region which is known to be fossiliferous2 sometimes in such a prosaic manner as the digging of a well4 ,among discoveries of a highly suggestive1 almost romantic kind1 perhaps none is more remarkable than the one ,i shall now describe4 ,discovery of the ,great ,dinosaur ,quarry4 ,in central ,wyoming1 at the head of a draw1 or small valley1 not far from the ,medicine ,bow ,river1 lies the ruin of a small and unique building1 which marks the site of the greatest find of extinct animals made in a single locality in any part of the world4 ,the fortunate fossil-hunter who stumbled on this site was ,mr4 ,walter ,granger of the ,american ,museum expedition of #ahig4 ,in the spring of #ahih1 as ,i approached the hillock on which the ruin stands1 ,i observed1 among the beautiful flowers1 the blooming cacti1 and the dwarf bushes of the desert1 what were apparently numbers of dark-brown boulders4 ,on closer examination1 it proved that there is really not a single rock1 hardly even a pebble1 on this hillock2 all these apparent boulders are ponderous fossils which have slowly accumulated or washed out on the surface from a great dinosaur bed beneath4 ,a ,mexican sheep-herder had collected some of these petrified bones for the foundations of his cabin1 the first ever built of such strange materials4 ,the excavation of a promising outcrop was almost immediately rewarded by finding a thigh-bone nearly six feet in length which sloped downward into the earth1 running into the lower leg and finally into the foot1 with all the respective parts lying in the natural position as in life4 ,this proved to be the previously unknown hind limb of the great dinosaur ,diplodocus4 ,in this manner the ,bone-,cabin ,quarry was discovered and christened4 ,the total contents of the quarry are represented in the diagram 7not reprinted47 ,it has given us1 by dint of six successive years of hard work1 the materials for an almost complete revival of the life of the ,laramie region as it was in the days of the dinosaurs4 ,by the aid of workmen of every degree of skill1 by grace of the accumulated wisdom of the nineteenth century1 by the constructive imagination1 by the aid of the sculptor and the artist1 we can summon these living forms and the living environment from the vasty deep of the past4 ,the ,famous ,como ,bluffs4 ,the circumstances leading up to our discovery serve to introduce the story4 ,from #ahij to #ahig we had been steadily delving into the history of the ,age of ,mammals1 in deposits dating from two hundred thousand to three million years back1 as we rudely estimate geological time4 ,in the course of seven years such substantial progress had been made that ,i decided to push into the history of the ,age of ,reptiles also1 and1 following the pioneers1 ,marsh and ,cope1 to begin exploration in the period which at once marks the dawn of mammalian life and the climax of the evolution of the great amphibious dinosaurs4 ,in the spring of #ahig we accordingly began exploration in the heart of the ,laramie ,plains1 on the ,como ,bluffs4 ,on arrival1 we found numbers of massive bones strewn along the base of these bluffs1 tumbled from their stratum above1 too weather-worn to attract collectors1 and serving only to remind one of the time when these animals--the greatest1 by far1 that nature has ever produced on land--were monarchs of the world4 ,aroused from sleep on a clear evening in camp by the heavy rumble of a passing ,union ,pacific freight-train#ba1 ,i shall never forget my meditations on the contrast between the imaginary picture of the great ,age of ,dinosaurs1 fertile in cycads and in a wonderful variety of reptiles1 and the present age of steam1 of heavy locomotives toiling through the semi-arid and partly desert ,laramie ,plains4 ,so many animals had already been removed from these bluffs that we were not very sanguine of finding more2 but after a fortnight our prospecting was rewarded by finding parts of skeletons of the long-limbed dinosaur ,diplodocus and of the heavy-limbed dinosaur ,brontosaurus4 ,the whole summer was occupied in taking these animals out for shipment to the ,east1 the so-called plaster method of removal being applied with the greatest success4 ,briefly1 this is a surgical device applied on a large scale for the setting of the much-fractured bones of a fossilized skeleton4 ,it consists in setting great blocks of the skeleton1 stone and all1 in a firm capsule of plaster subsequently reinforced by great splints of wood1 firmly drawn together with wet rawhide4 ,the object is to keep all the fragments and splinters of bone together until it can reach the skilful hands of the museum preparator4 ,the ,rock ,waves ,connecting the ,bluffs and the ,quarry4 ,the ,como ,bluffs are about ten miles south of the ,bone-,cabin ,quarry2 between them is a broad stretch of the ,laramie ,plains4 ,the exposed bone layer in the two localities is of the same age1 and originally was a continuous level stratum which may be designated as the dinosaur beds2 but this stratum1 disturbed and crowded by the uplifting of the not far-distant ,laramie range of mountains and the ,freeze ,out ,hills1 was thrown into a number of great folds or rock waves4 ,large portions1 especially of the upfolds1 or anticlines1 of the waves1 have been subsequently removed by erosion2 the edges of these upfolds have been exposed1 thus weathering out their fossilized contents1 while downfolds are still buried beneath the earth for the explorers of coming centuries4 ,therefore1 as one rides across the country to-day from the bluffs to the quarry1 startling the intensely modern fauna1 the prong-horn antelopes1 jack-rabbits1 and sage-chickens1 he is passing over a vast graveyard which has been profoundly folded and otherwise shaken up and disturbed4 ,sometimes one finds the bone layer removed entirely1 sometimes horizontal1 sometimes oblique1 and again dipping directly into the heart of the earth4 ,this layer 7dinosaur beds7 is not more than two hundred and seventy-four feet in thickness1 and is altogether of fresh-water origin2 but as a proof of the oscillations of the earth-level both before and after this great thin sheet of fresh-water rock was so widely spread1 there are evidences of the previous invasion of the sea 7ichthyosaur beds7 and of the subsequent invasion of the sea 7mosasaur beds7 in the whole ,rocky ,mountain region4 ,in traveling through the ,west1 when once one has grasped the idea of continental oscillation1 or submergence and emergence of the land1 of the sequence of the marine and fresh-water deposits in laying down these pages of earth-history1 he will know exactly where to look for this wonderful layer-bed of the giant dinosaurs2 he will find that1 owing to the uplift of various mountain-ranges1 it outcrops along the entire eastern face of the ,rockies1 around the ,black ,hills1 and in all parts of the ,laramie ,plains2 it yields dinosaur bones everywhere1 but by no means so profusely or so perfectly as in the two famous localities we are describing4 ,how the ,skeletons ,lie in the ,bluffs and ,quarry4 ,at the bluffs single animals lie from twenty to one hundred feet apart2 one rarely finds a whole skeleton1 such as that of ,marsh's ,brontosaurus excelsus1 the finest specimen ever secured here1 which is now one of the treasures of the ,yale museum4 ,more frequently a half or a third of a skeleton lies together4 ,in the ,bone-,cabin ,quarry1 on the other hand1 we came across a veritable ,noah's-ark deposit1 a perfect museum of all the animals of the period4 ,here are the largest of the giant dinosaurs closely mingled with the remains of the smaller but powerful carnivorous dinosaurs which preyed upon them1 also those of the slow and heavy-moving armored dinosaurs of the period1 as well as of the lightest and most bird-like of the dinosaurs4 ,finely rounded1 complete limbs from eight to ten feet in length are found1 especially those of the carnivorous dinosaurs1 perfect even to the sharply pointed and recurved tips of their toes4 ,other limbs and bones are so crushed and distorted by pressure that it is not worth while removing them4 ,sixteen series of vertebr were found strung together2 among these were eight long strings of tail-bones4 ,the occurrence of these tails is less surprising when we come to study the important and varied functions of the tail in these animals1 and the consequent connection of the tail-bones by means of stout tendons and ligaments which held them together for a long period after death4 ,skulls are fragile and rare in the quarry1 because in every one of these big skeletons there were no fewer than ninety distinct bones which exceeded the head in size1 the excess in most cases being enormous4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4--;,,collecting ,,dinosaurs ,,at ,,bone-,,cabin ,,quarry4 a4 ,the overlying soil and rocks are loosened with a pick and removed with team and scraper down to the fossil layer4 b4 ,the fossil layer is carefully prospected with small tools1 chisels1 awls and whisk brooms exposing the bones as they lie in the rocks4 c4 ,the blocks containing the fossils are channelled around1 plastered over top and sides1 undercut and carefully turned over and the under side trimmed and plastered4 d4 ,the blocks are then packed in boxes or crates with hay or any other available packing material4 e4 ,boxes are loaded on wagons and hauled across country to the railroad4 f4 ,boxes are finally loaded on cars and shipped through to ,new ,york ,city4 ,the bluffs appear to represent the region of an ancient shoreline1 such conditions as we have depicted in the restoration of ,brontosaurus 7fig4 #bb7--the sloping banks of a muddy estuary or of a lagoon1 either bare tidal flats or covered with vegetation4 ,evidently the dinosaurs were buried at or near the spot where they perished4 ,the ,bone-,cabin ,quarry deposit represents entirely different conditions4 ,the theory that it is the accumulation of a flood is1 in my opinion1 improbable1 because a flood would tend to bring entire skeletons down together1 distribute them widely1 and bury them rapidly4 ,a more likely theory is that this was the area of an old river-bar1 which in its shallow waters arrested the more or less decomposed and scattered carcasses which had slowly drifted down-stream toward it1 including a great variety of dinosaurs1 crocodiles1 and turtles1 collected from many points up-stream4 ,thus were brought together the animals of a whole region1 a fact which vastly enhances the interest of this deposit4 ,the ,giant ,herbivorous ,dinosaurs4 ,by far the most imposing of these animals are those which may be popularly designated as the great or giant dinosaurs4 ,the name1 derived from deinos terrible1 and sauros lizard1 refers to the fact that they appeared externally like enormous lizards1 with very long limbs1 necks1 and tails4 ,they were actually remotely related to the tuatera lizard of ,new ,zealand1 and still more remotely to the true lizards4 ,no land animals have ever approached these giant dinosaurs in size1 and naturally the first point of interest is the architecture of the skeleton4 ,the backbone is indeed a marvel4 ,the fitness of the construction consists1 like that of the ,american truss-bridge1 in attaining the maximum of strength with the minimum of weight4 ,it is brought about by dispensing with every cubic millimeter of bone which can be spared without weakening the vertebr for the various stresses and strains to which they were subjected1 and these must have been tremendous in an animal from sixty to seventy feet in length4 ,the bodies of the vertebr are of hour-glass shape1 with great lateral and interior cavities2 the arches are constructed on the ,t-iron principle of the modern bridge-builder1 the back spines are tubular1 the interior is spongy1 these devices being employed in great variety1 and constituting a mechanical triumph of size1 lightness1 and strength combined4 ,comparing a great chambered dinosaurian 7,camarasaurus7 vertebra 7see above7 with the weight per cubic inch of an ostrich vertebra1 we reach the astonishing conclusion that it weighed only twenty-one pounds1 or half the weight of a whale vertebra of the same bulk4 ,the skeleton of a whale seventy-four feet in length has recently been found by ,mr4 ,f4,a4 ,lucas of the ,brooklyn ,museum to weigh seventeen thousand nine hundred and twenty pounds4 ,the skeleton of a dinosaur of the same length may be roughly estimated as not exceeding ten thousand pounds4 ,proofs of ,rapid ,movements on ,land4 ,lightness of skeleton is a walking or running or flying adaptation1 and not at all a swimming one2 a swimming animal needs gravity in its skeleton1 because sufficient buoyancy in the water is always afforded by the lungs and soft tissues of the body4 ,the extraordinary lightness of these dinosaur vertebr may therefore be put forward as proof of supreme fitness for the propulsion of an enormous frame during occasional incursions upon land#bb4 ,there are additional facts which point to land progression1 such as the point in the tail where the flexible structure suddenly becomes rigid1 as shown in the diagram of vertebr below2 the component joints are so solid and flattened on the lower surface that they seem to demonstrate fitness to support partly the body in a tripodal position like that of a kangaroo4 ,i have therefore hazarded the view that even some of these enormous dinosaurs were capable of raising themselves on their hind limbs1 lightly resting on the middle portion of the tail4 ,in such a position the animal would have been capable not only of browsing among the higher branches of trees1 but of defending itself against the carnivorous dinosaurs by using its relatively short but heavy front limbs to ward off attacks4 ,there are also indications of aquatic habits in some of the giant dinosaurs which render it probable that a considerable part of their life was led in the water4 ,one of these indications is the backward position of the nostrils4 ,many1 but not all1 water-living mammals and reptiles have the nostrils on top of the head1 in order to breathe more readily when the head is partly immersed4 ,another fact of note1 although perhaps less conclusive1 is the fitness of the tail for use while moving about in the water1 if not in rapid swimming4 ,the great tail1 measuring from twenty-eight to thirty feet1 was one of the most remarkable structures in these animals1 and undoubtedly served a great variety of purposes1 propelling while in the water1 balancing and supporting and defending while on land4 ,in ,diplodocus it was most perfectly developed from its muscular base to its delicate and whip-like tip1 perhaps for all these functions4 ,the ,three ,kinds of ,giant ,dinosaurs4 ,it is very remarkable that three distinct kinds of these great dinosaurs lived at the same time in the same general region1 as proved by the fact that their remains are freely commingled in the quarry4 ,what were the differences in food and habits1 in structure and in gait1 which prevented that direct and active competition between like types in the struggle for existence which in the course of nature always leads to the extermination of one or the other type8 ,in the last three years we have discovered very considerable differences of structure which make it appear that these animals1 while of the same or nearly the same linear dimensions1 did not enter into direct competition either for food or for territory4 ,the dinosaur named ,diplodocus by ,marsh is the most completely known of the three4 ,our very first discovery in the ,bone-,cabin ,quarry gave us the hint that ,diplodocus was distinguished by relatively long1 slender limbs1 and that it may be popularly known as the long-limbed dinosaur4 ,the great skeleton found in the ,como ,bluffs enabled me to restore for the first time the posterior half of one of these animals estimated as sixty feet in length1 the hips and tail especially being in a perfect state of preservation4 ,a larger animal1 nearer seventy feet in length1 including the anterior half of the body1 and still more complete1 was discovered about ten miles north of the quarry1 and is now in the ,carnegie ,museum in ,pittsburg4 ,combined1 these two animals have furnished a complete knowledge of the great bony frame4 ,the head is only two feet long1 and is1 therefore1 small out of all proportion to the great body4 ,the neck measures twenty-one feet four inches1 and is by far the longest and largest neck known in any animal living or extinct4 ,the back is relatively very short1 measuring ten feet eight inches4 ,the vertebr of the hip measure two feet and three inches4 ,the tail measures from thirty-two to forty feet4 ,we thus obtain1 as a moderate estimate of the total length of the animal1 sixty-eight to seventy feet4 ,the restored skeleton1 published by ,mr4 ,j4,b4 ,hatcher in ,july1 #aija1 and partly embodying our results1 gave to science the first really accurate knowledge of the length of these animals1 which hitherto had been greatly overestimated4 ,the highest point in the body was above the hips2 here in fact1 was the center of power and motion1 because1 as observed above1 the tail fairly balanced the anterior part of the body4 ,the restoration by ,mr4 ,knight is drawn from a very careful model made under my direction1 in which the proportions of the animal are precisely estimated4 ,it is1 ,i think1 accurate--for a restoration--as well as interesting and up-to-date4 ,these restorations are the working hypotheses of our science2 they express the present state of our knowledge1 and1 being subject to modification by future discoveries1 are liable to constant change4 ,by contrast1 the second type of giant dinosaur1 the ,brontosaurus1 or thunder saurian of ,marsh1 as shown in the restoration 7fig4 #bb71 was far more massive in structure and relatively shorter in body4 ,five more or less complete skeletons are now to be seen in the ,yale1 ,american1 ,carnegie1 and ,field ,columbian museums4 ,in #ahih we discovered in the bluffs1 about three miles west of the ,bone-,cabin ,quarry1 the largest of these animals which has yet been found2 it was worked out with great care and is now being restored and mounted complete in the ,american ,museum4 ,the thigh-bone is enormous1 measuring five feet eight inches in length1 and is relatively of greater mass than that of ,diplodocus4 ,the neck1 chest1 hips1 and tail are correspondingly massive4 ,the neck is relatively shorter1 however1 measuring eighteen feet1 while in ,diplodocus it measures over twenty-one feet4 ,the total length of this massive specimen is estimated at sixty-three feet1 or from six to eight feet less than the largest long-limbed dinosaur4 ,the height of the skeleton at the hips is fifteen feet4 ,there is less direct evidence that the thunder saurian had the power of raising its fore quarters in the air than in the case of the light-limbed saurian1 because no bend or supporting point in the tail has been distinctly observed4 ,the third type of giant dinosaur is the less completely known chambered saurian1 the ,camarasaurus of ,cope or ,morosaurus of ,marsh1 an animal more quadrupedal in gait or walking more habitually on all fours1 like the great ,cetiosaurus1 or whale saurian1 discovered near ,oxford1 ,england4 ,with its shorter tail and heavier fore limbs1 it is still less probable that this animal had the power of raising the anterior part of its body from the ground4 ,of a related type1 perhaps1 is the largest dinosaur ever found2 this is the ,brachiosaurus1 limb-bones of which were discovered in central ,colorado in #aija and are now preserved in the ,field ,columbian ,museum of ,chicago4 ,its thigh-bone is six feet eight inches in length1 and its upper arm-bone1 or humerus1 is even slightly longer4 ,feeding ,habits of the ,giant ,dinosaurs4 ,we still have to solve one of the most perplexing problems of fossil physiology2 how did the very small head1 provided with light jaws1 slender and spoon-shaped teeth confined to the anterior region1 suffice to provide food for these monsters8 ,i have advanced the idea that the food of ,diplodocus consisted of some very abundant and nutritious species of water-plant2 that the clawed feet were used in uprooting such plants1 while the delicate anterior teeth were employed only for drawing them out of the water2 that the plants were drawn down the throat in large quantities without mastication1 since there were no grinding or back teeth whatever in this animal4 ,unfortunately for this theory1 it is now found that the front feet were not provided with many claws1 there being only a single claw on the inner side4 ,nevertheless by some such means as this1 these enormous animals could have obtained sufficient food in the water to support their great bulk4 ,the ,carnivorous ,dinosaurs4 ,mingling with the larger bones in the quarry are the more or less perfect remains of swamp turtles1 of dwarf crocodiles1 of the entirely different group of plated dinosaurs1 or ,stegosauria1 but especially of two entirely distinct kinds of large and small flesh-eating dinosaurs4 ,the latter rounded out and gave variety to the dinosaur society1 and there is no doubt that they served the savage but useful purpose1 rendered familiar by the doctrine of ,malthus1 of checking overpopulation4 ,these fierce animals had the same remote ancestry as the giant dinosaurs1 but had gradually acquired entirely different habits and appearance4 ,far inferior in size1 they were superior in agility1 exclusively bipedal1 with very long1 powerful hind limbs1 upon which they advanced by running or springing1 and with short fore limbs1 the exact uses of which are difficult to ascertain4 ,both hands and feet were provided with powerful tearing claws4 ,on the hind foot is the back claw1 so characteristic of the birds1 which during the ,triassic period left its faint impression almost everywhere in the famous ,connecticut valley imprints of these animals4 ,that the fore limb and hand were of some distinct use is proved by the enormous size of the thumb-claw2 while the hand may not have conveyed food to the mouth1 it may have served to seize and tear the prey4 ,as to the actual pose in feeding1 there can be little doubt as to its general similarity to that of the ,raptores among the birds1 as suggested to me by ,dr4 ,wortman 7see fig4 #aj72 one of the hind feet rested on the prey1 the other upon the ground1 the body being further balanced or supported by the vertebr of the tail4 ,the animal was thus in a position to apply its teeth and exert all the power of its very powerful arched back in tearing off its food4 ,that the gristle of the bone or cartilage was very palatable is attested not only by the toothmarks upon these bones1 but by many similar markings found in the ,bone-,cabin ,quarry4 ,the ,bird-,catching ,dinosaur4 ,of all the bird-like dinosaurs which have been discovered1 none possesses greater similitude to the birds than the gem of the quarry1 the little animal about seven feet in length which we have named ,ornitholestes1 or the bird-catching dinosaur4 ,it was a marvel of speed1 agility1 and delicacy of construction4 ,externally its bones are simple and solid-looking1 but as a matter of fact they are mere shells1 the walls being hardly thicker than paper1 the entire interior of the bone having been removed by the action of the same marvelous law of adaptation which sculptured the vertebr of its huge contemporaries4 ,there is no evidence1 however1 that these hollow bones were filled with air from the lungs1 as in the case of the bones of birds4 ,the foot is bird-like2 the hand is still more so2 in fact1 no dinosaur hand has ever before been found which so closely mimics that of a bird in the great elongation of the first or index-finger1 in the abbreviation of the thumb and middle finger1 and in the reduction of the ring-finger4 ,these fingers1 with sharp claws1 were not strong enough for climbing1 and the only special fitness we have been able to imagine is that they were used for the grasping of a light and agile prey 7see figs4 #ag1 #ah47 ,another reason for the venture of designating this animal as the bird-catcher is that the ,jurassic birds 7not thus far discovered in ,america1 but known from the ,archopteryx of ,germany7 were not so active or such strong fliers as existing birds2 in fact1 they were not unlike the little dinosaur itself4 ,they were toothed1 long-tailed1 short-armed1 the body was feathered instead of scaled2 they rose slowly from the ground4 ,this renders it probable that they were the prey of the smaller pneumatic-built dinosaurs such as the present animal4 ,this hypothetical bird-catcher seems to have been designed to spring upon a delicately built prey1 the structure being the very antipode of that of the large carnivorous dinosaurs4 ,a difficulty in the bird-catching theory1 namely1 that the teeth are not as sharp as one would expect to find them in a flesh-eater1 is somewhat offset by the similarity of the teeth to those of the bird-eating monitor lizards 7,varanus71 which are not especially sharp4 ,the ,great ,yield of the ,quarry4 ,our explorations in the quarry began in the spring of #ahih1 and have continued ever since during favorable weather4 ,the total area explored at the close of the sixth year was seven thousand two hundred and fifty square feet4 ,not one of the twelve-foot squares into which the quarry was plotted lacked its covering of bones1 and in some cases the bones were two or three deep4 ,each year we have expected to come to the end of this great deposit1 but it still yields a large return1 although we have reason to believe that we have exhausted the richest portions4 ,we have taken up four hundred and eighty-three parts of animals1 some of which may belong to the same individuals4 ,these were packed in two hundred and seventy-five boxes1 representing a gross weight of nearly one hundred thousand pounds4 ,reckoning from the number of thigh-bones1 we reach1 as a rough estimate of the total1 seventy-three animals of the following kinds3 giant herbivorous dinosaurs1 #dd2 plated herbivorous dinosaurs1 or stegosaurs1 #c2 iguanodonts or smaller herbivorous dinosaurs1 #d2 large carnivorous dinosaurs1 #f2 small carnivorous dinosaurs1 #c2 crocodiles1 #d2 turtles1 #e4 ,but this represents only a part of the whole deposit1 which we know to be of twice the extent already explored1 and these figures do not include the bones which were partly washed out and used in the construction of the ,bone-,cabin4 ,the grand total would probably include parts of over one hundred giant dinosaurs4 ,the ,struggle for ,existence ,among the ,dinosaurs4 ,never in the whole history of the world as we now know it have there been such remarkable land scenes as were presented when the reign of these titanic reptiles was at its climax4 ,it was also the prevailing life-picture of ,england1 ,germany1 ,south ,america1 and ,india4 ,we can imagine herds of these creatures from fifty to eighty feet in length1 with limbs and gait analogous to those of gigantic elephants1 but with bodies extending through the long1 flexible1 and tapering necks into the diminutive heads1 and reaching back into the equally long and still more tapering tails4 ,the four or five varieties which existed together were each fitted to some special mode of life2 some living more exclusively on land1 others for longer periods in the water4 ,the competition for existence was not only with the great carnivorous dinosaurs1 but with other kinds of herbivorous dinosaurs 7the iguanodonts71 which had much smaller bodies to sustain and a much superior tooth mechanism for the taking of food4 ,the cutting off of this giant dinosaur dynasty was nearly if not quite simultaneous the world over4 ,the explanation which is deducible from similar catastrophes to other large types of animals is that a very large frame1 with a limited and specialized set of teeth fitted only to a certain special food1 is a dangerous combination of characters4 ,such a monster organism is no longer adaptable2 any serious change of conditions which would tend to eliminate the special food would also eliminate these great animals as a necessary consequence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4--;,badlands on the ,red ,deer ,river in ,alberta4 ,this region is the richest known collecting ground for cretacic dinosaurs4 ,there is an entirely different class of explanations1 however1 to be considered1 which are consistent both with the continued fitness of structure of the giant dinosaurs themselves and with the survival of their especial food2 such1 for example1 as the introduction of a new enemy more deadly even than the great carnivorous dinosaurs4 ,among such theories the most ingenious is that of the late ,professor ,cope1 who suggested that some of the small1 inoffensive1 and inconspicuous forms of ,jurassic mammals1 of the size of the shrew and the hedgehog1 contracted the habit of seeking out the nests of these dinosaurs1 gnawing through the shells of their eggs1 and thus destroying the young4 ,the appearance1 or evolution1 of any egg-destroying animals1 whether reptiles or mammals1 which could attack this great race at such a defenseless point would be rapidly followed by its extinction4 ,we must accordingly be on the alert for all possible theories of extinction2 and these theories themselves will fall under the universal principle of the survival of the fittest until we approximate or actually hit upon the truth4 ,,fossil ,,hunting ,,by ,,boat ,,in ,,canada4 ,by ,barnum ,brown4 ,how do you know where to look for fossils8 is a common question4 ,in general it may be answered that the surface of ,north ,america has been pretty well explored by government surveys and scientific expeditions and the geologic age of the larger areas determined4 ,most important in determining the geologic sequence of the earth's strata are the fossil remains of animal and plant life4 ,a grouping of distinct species of fossils correlated with stratigraphic characters in the rocks determines these subdivisions4 ,when a collection of fossils is desired to represent a certain period1 exploring parties are sent to these known areas4 ,sometimes however1 chance information leads up to most important discoveries1 such as resulted from the work of the past two seasons in ,alberta1 ,canada4 ,a visitor to the ,museum1 ,mr4 ,j4,l4 ,wagner1 while examining our mineral collections saw the large bones in the ,reptile ,hall and remarked to the ,curator of ,mineralogy that he had seen many similar bones near his ranch in the ,red ,deer ,caon of ,alberta4 ,after talking some time an invitation was extended to the writer to visit his home and prospect the caon4 ,accordingly in the fall of #aiji a preliminary trip was made to the locality4 ,from ,didsbury1 a little town north of ,calgary1 the writer drove eastward ninety miles to the ,red ,deer ,river through a portion of the newly opened grain belt of ,alberta1 destined in the near future to produce a large part of the world's bread4 ,near the railroad the land is mostly under cultivation and comfortable homes and bountiful grain fields testify to the rich nature of the soil4 ,a few miles eastward the brushland gives way to a level expanse of grass-covered prairie dotted here and there by large and small lakes probably of glacial origin4 ,mile after mile the road follows section lines and one is rarely out of sight of the house of some homesteader4 ,it is through this level farm land that the ,red ,deer ,river wends its way flowing through a caon far below the surface4 ,near ,wagner's ranch the caon was prospected and so many bones found that it appeared most desirable to do extended searching along the river4 ,usually fossils are found in bad lands1 where extensive areas are denuded of grass and the surface eroded into hills and ravines4 ,a camp is located near some spring or stream and collectors ride or walk over miles of these exposures in each direction till the region is thoroughly explored4 ,quite different are conditions on the ,red ,deer ,river4 ,cutting through the prairie land the river had formed a caon two to five hundred feet deep and rarely more than a mile wide at the top4 ,in places the walls are nearly perpendicular and the river winds in its narrow valley1 touching one side then crossing to the other so that it is impossible to follow up or down its course any great distance even on horseback4 ,it was evident that the most feasible way to work these banks was from a boat2 consequently in the summer of #aiaj our party proceeded to the town of ,red ,deer1 where the ,calgary-,edmonton railroad crosses the river4 ,there a flatboat1 twelve by thirty feet in dimension1 was constructed on lines similar to a western ferry boat1 having a carrying capacity of eight tons with a twenty-two foot oar at each end to direct its course4 ,the rapid current averaging about four miles per hour precluded any thought of going up stream in a large boat1 so it was constructed on lines sufficiently generous to form a living boat as well as to carry the season's collection of fossils4 ,supplied with a season's provisions1 lumber for boxes1 and plaster for encasing bones1 we began our fossil cruise down a caon which once echoed songs of the ,bois brul1 for this was at one time the fur territory of the great ,hudson ,bay ,company4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4--;,american ,museum ,expedition on the ,red ,deer ,river4 ,fossils secured along the banks were packed and loaded aboard the large scow and floated down the river to the railway station4 ,no more interesting or instructive journey has ever been taken by the writer4 ,high up on the plateau1 buildings and haystacks proclaim a well-settled country1 but habitations are rarely seen from the river and for miles we floated through picturesque solitude unbroken save by the roar of the rapids4 ,especially characteristic of this caon are the slides where the current setting against the bank has undermined it until a mountain of earth slips into the river1 in some cases almost choking its course4 ,a continual sorting thus goes on1 the finer material being carried away while the boulders are left as barriers forming slow moving reaches of calm water and stretches of rapids difficult to navigate during low water4 ,in one of these slides we found several small mammal jaws and teeth not known before from ,canada1 associated with fossil clam shells of ,eocene age4 ,the long midsummer days in latitude #eb gave many working hours1 but with frequent stops to prospect the banks we rarely floated more than twenty miles per day4 ,an occasional flock of ducks and geese were disturbed as our boat approached and bank beaver houses were frequently passed1 but few of the animals were seen during the daytime4 ,tying the boat to a tree at night we would go ashore to camp among the trees where after dinner pipes were smoked in the glow of a great camp fire4 ,only a fossil hunter or a desert traveler can fully appreciate the luxury of abundant wood and running water4 ,in the stillness of the night the underworld was alive and many little feet rustled the leaves where daylight disclosed no sound4 ,then the beaver and muskrat swam up to investigate this new intruder1 while from the tree-tops came the constant query1 ,who6 ,who6 ,for seventy miles the country is thickly wooded with pine and poplar1 the stately spruce trees silhouetted against the sky adding a charm to the ever changing scene4 ,nature has also been kind to the treeless regions beyond1 for underneath the fertile prairie1 veins of good lignite coal of varying thickness are successively cut by the river4 ,in many places these are worked in the river banks during winter4 ,one vein of excellent quality is eighteen feet thick1 although usually they are much thinner4 ,the government right has been taken to mine most of this coal outcropping along the river4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4--,locality of ,ankylosaurus skull in ,edmonton formation in ,red ,deer ,river4 ,the skull is in the rock just above the pick1 about the center of the photograph4 ,along the upper portion of the stream are banks of ,eocene age1 from which shells and mammal jaws were secured1 but near the town of ,content where the river bends southward1 a new series of rocks appeared and in these our search was rewarded by finding dinosaur bones similar to those seen at ,wagner's ranch4 ,specimens were found in increasing numbers as we continued our journey1 and progress down the river was necessarily much slower4 ,frequently the boat would be tied up a week or more at one camp while we searched the banks1 examining the cliffs layer by layer that no fossil might escape observation4 ,with the little dingey the opposite side of the river was reached so that both sides were covered at the same time from one camp4 ,as soon as a mile or more had been prospected or a new specimen secured1 the boat was dropped down to a new convenient anchorage4 ,box after box was added to the collection till scarcely a cubit's space remained unoccupied on board our fossil ark4 ,where prairie badlands are eroded in innumerable buttes and ravines it is always doubtful if one has seen all exposures1 so there was peculiar satisfaction in making a thorough search of these river banks knowing that few if any fossils had escaped observation4 ,on account of the heavy rainfall and frequent sliding of banks new fossils are exposed every season so that in a few years these same banks can again be explored profitably4 ,this river will become as classic hunting ground for reptile remains as the ,badlands of ,south ,dakota are for mammals4 ,although the summer days are long in this latitude the season is short and thousands of geese flying southward foretell the early winter4 ,where the temperature is not infrequently forty to sixty degrees below zero in winter1 it is difficult to think of a time when a warm climate could have prevailed1 yet such condition is indicated by the fossil plants4 ,when the weather became too cold to work with plaster1 the fossils were shipped from a branch railroad forty-five miles distant1 the camp material was stored for the winter and with block and tackle the big boat was hauled up on shore above the reach of high water4 ,in the summer of #aiaa the boat was recalked and again launched when we continued our search from the point at which work closed the previous year4 ,during the summer we were visited by the ,museum's ,president1 ,prof4 ,henry ,fairfield ,osborn1 and one of the ,trustees1 ,mr4 ,madison ,grant4 ,a canoeing trip1 one of great interest and pleasure1 was taken with our visitors covering two hundred and fifty miles down the river from the town of ,red ,deer1 during which valuable material was added to the collection and important geological data secured4 ,as a result of the ,canadian work the ,museum is enriched by a magnificent collection of ,cretaceous fossils some of which are new to science4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ai3 ,transactions ,kansas ,academy of ,science1 p4 #dc4 ,footnote #bj3 ,from ,fossil ,wonders of the ,west4 ,century ,magazine #aijd1 vol4 lxviii1 pp4 #fhj-fid4 ,reprinted by permission4 ,footnote #ba3 ,at this time the ,union ,pacific ,railroad directly passed the bluffs2 in the recent improvement of the grade the main line has been moved to the south4--,h4,f4,o4 ,footnote #bb3 ,a different interpretation of this contraction is given upon p4 #fh4 ,,references4 ,the published literature on this subject consists chiefly of technical descriptions and researches scattered through the files of numerous scientific journals in ,europe and ,america4 ,only the more important titles are cited in this list4 ,i have also listed the recently published text books which give the most authoritative treatment of the dinosaurs1 and two or three popular books dealing with fossil vertebrates4 ,students consulting these authorities should remember that great additions to scientific knowledge of dinosaurs have been made during the last two decades1 and much of the new evidence is as yet unpublished or undigested4 ,the views and conclusions presented in this handbook are based upon the study of the ,american ,museum collections as well as upon the authorities cited below4 ,,abel1 ,,othenius1 #aiab4 ,palaeobiologie der ,wirbelthiere4 ,schweitzer-bart'sche ,verlagsbuchh41 ,stuttgart4 ,,branca ,u4 ,,janensch1 #aiad4 ,wissenschaftliche ,ergebnisse der ,tendaguru ,expedition4 ,archiv4 f4 ,biontologie1 iii ,bd1 i ,heft4 ,,brown1 ,,barnum1 #aijb-aiad4 ,articles in ,bulletin of ,amer4 ,mus4 ,nat4 ,hist41 descriptive of new ,cretaceous ,dinosaurs4 ,,chamberlin ,,salisbury1 #aije-g4 ,geology1 vol4 i-iii4 7,henry ,holt ,co4 pub47 ,,cope1 ,e4,d41 #ahfh-ahie4 ,articles in ,hayden ,survey ,reports1 ,american ,naturalist1 ,proceedings and ,transactions of ,american ,philosophical ,society and elsewhere1 descriptive of various new or little known dinosaurs4 ,,dollo1 ,l41 ,sauriens de ,bernissart1 etc4 ,numerous articles chiefly in ,bulletin ,museum ,royale ,hist4 ,nat4 ,belg4 ,,gilmore1 ,c4,w41 #aiad4 ,osteology of the ,armored ,dinosauria in the ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum with ,special ,reference to the ,genus ,stegosaurus4 ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum1 ,bulletin ,no4 #hi1 pp4 #a-acf1 pll4 i-xxxvii4 ,,gilmore1 ,c4,w41 #aiji4 ,osteology of the ,jurassic ,reptile ,camptosaurus etc4 ,proc4 ,u4,s4 ,nat4 ,mus41 vol4 xxxvi1 pp4 #aig-ccb1 pl4 vi-xx4 ,,hatcher1 ,j4,b41 #aija4 ,diplodocus 7,marsh7 its ,osteology1 etc4 ,memoirs of the ,carnegie ,museum1 vol4 i1 pp4 #a-fc1 pll4 i-xiii4 ,,hatcher1 ,j4,b41 #aijc4 ,osteology of ,haplocanthosaurus4 ,mem4 ,carn4 ,mus41 vol4 ii1 pp4 #a-ge1 pll4 i-vi4 ,,hatcher1 ,,marsh ,,lull1 #aijg4 ,the ,ceratopsia4 ,u4,s4 ,geol4 ,survey ,monographs1 vol4 xlix1 pp4 i-xxx and #a-cjj1 pll4 i-li4 ,,hay1 ,o4,p41 #aijb4 ,bibliography of ,north ,american ,fossil ,vertebrata4 ,u4,s4 ,geol4 ,sur4 ,bull4 ,no4 #agi1 pp4 #a-hfh4 ,,hennig1 ,e41 #aiab4 ,am ,tendaguru4 ,,holland1 ,w4,j41 #aijf4 ,osteology of ,diplodocus4 ,mem4 ,carn4 ,mus41 vol4 ii1 pp4 #bbe-bfd1 pl4 xxiii-xxx4 ,,huene1 ,f4 ,,von1 #aije-f4 ,ueber die ,dinosaurier der aussereuropischen ,trias4 ,koken's ,geol4 u4 ,pal4 ,abh4 ,n4 ,f41 ,b'd4 viii1 s4 #ii-aed4 ,,huene1 ,f4 ,,von1 #aijg-h4 ,die ,dinosaurier der ,europischen ,triasformation4 ,geol4 u4 ,pal4 ,abh4 ,supplem4 ,bd4 pll4 i-cxi4 ,,huene1 ,f4 ,,von1 #aiad4 ,beitrge zur ,geschichte der ,archosaurier4 ,geol4 u4 ,pal4 ,abh4 ,n4 ,f41 ,b'd4 xiii1 pp4 #a-ec1 pll4 i-vii4 ,,huene1 ,f4 ,,von1 #aijc-aiad4 ,numerous minor contributions in ,anatom4 ,anzeig4 ,neues ,jahrb4 f4 min41 ,geol4 ,centralbl4 and other scientific journals4 ,,hutchinson1 ,,rev4 ,f4,n41 #aiaj4 ,extinct ,monsters and ,creatures of ,other ,days4 ,chapman ,hall1 ,london4 ,,huxley1 ,t4,h41 #ahei-ahgj4 ,articles1 chiefly in ,quarterly ,journal ,geol4 ,soc4 and ,geol4 ,magazine4 ,discussing the osteology and systematic relationships of various ,dinosaurs4 ,,jaekel1 ,o41 #aiac-ad4 ,ueber die ,wirbelthiere in den oberen ,trias von ,halberstadt4 ,palont4 ,zeitschr4 ,b'd4 i1 s4 #aee-bae1 taf4 iii-iv4 ,,knipe1 ,h4,r41 #aiab4 ,evolution in the ,past4 ,herbert ,daniel1 ,london4 ,,lambe1 ,,lawrence1 #aijb1 with ,h4,f4 ,osborn4 ,see ,osborn ,lambe4 ,,lambe1 ,,lawrence1 #aiac-d4 ,articles in ,ottawa ,naturalist descriptive of new ,cretacic ,dinosaurs4 ,,lucas1 ,f4,a41 #aija4 ,extinct ,animals4 ,republished by the ,american ,museum1 ,price #ce;c4 ,,lucas1 ,f4,a41 #aija4 ,the ,restoration of ,extinct ,animals1 ,smithsonian ,report for #aijj1 pp4 #dgi-dib1 pll4 i-viii4 ,,lull1 ,r4,s41 #aijd4 ,fossil ,footprints of the ,jura-,trias4 ,mem4 ,boston ,soc4 ,nat4 ,hist41 vol4 v1 pp4 #dfa-eeh4 ,,lull1 ,r4,s41 #aiaj4 ,dinosaurian ,distribution4 ,am4 ,journ4 ,sci41 vol4 xxix1 pp4 #a-ci2 ,the ,armor of ,stegosaurus1 ibid41 pp4 #bja-baj2 ,stegosaurus ungulatus1 ibid41 vol4 xxx1 pp4 #cfa-cgg4 ,,marsh1 ,o4,c41 #ahgg-ahif4 ,numerous articles in the ,american ,journal of ,science descriptive of new ,dinosaurs or announcing results of his studies on these fossils4 ,,marsh1 ,o4,c41 #ahif4 ,the ,dinosaurs of ,north ,america4 ,u4,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 #afth ,ann4 ,rep41 pt4 i1 pp4 #acc-dad1 pll4 i-lxxxv4 ,,nopsca1 #ahii1 #aijb1 #aijd4 ,dinosaurierreste aus ,siebenburgen 7,telmatosaurus1 etc474 ,denkschr4 math4-naturwiss4 ,kl4 ,kais4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,wien1 b'd4 lxviii1 lxxii1 lxxiv4 ,,nopsca1 #aijf4 ,zur ,kenntniss der ,genus ,streptospondylus4 ,beit4 zur ,pal4 ,oest-ung4 ,bd4 xix4 ,,nopsca1 ,f41 #aijb-aiaa4 ,various articles on ,european ,dinosaurs in ,geological ,magazine1 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,geol4 ,norm41 etc4 ,,osborn1 ,h4,f41 #ahii4 ,a ,skeleton of ,diplodocus1 ,mem4 ,am4 ,mus4 ,nat4 ,hist41 vol4 i1 pp4 #aia-bad1 pll4 xxiv-xxviii4 ,,osborn1 ,h4,f41 #aiab4 ,crania of ,tyrannosaurus and ,allosaurus2 ,integument of the ,iguanodont ,dinosaur ,trachodon1 ,mem4 ,am4 ,mus4 ,nat4 ,hist41 ,n4 ,s41 vol4 i1 pp4 #a-ed1 pll4 i-x4 ,,osborn1 ,h4,f41 #ahih-aiad4 ,articles in ,american ,museum ,bulletin1 descriptive of ,sauropoda1 ,ornitholestes1 ,allosaurus1 ,tyrannosaurus4 ,,osborn ,,lambe1 #aijb4 ,vertebrata of the ,mid-,cretaceous of the ,north-,west ,territory4 ,can4 ,geol4 ,survey ,publications ,quarto series1 vol4 iii4 ,,owen1 ,r41 #ahec-ahgg4 ,monographs on ,fossil ,reptilia4 ,palontographical ,society1 ,london4 ,,riggs1 ,e4,s41 #aija-d4 ,articles on ,sauropoda in ,field ,museum of ,nat4 ,hist4 ,publications1 ,geology4 ,,schuchert1 ,,chas41 #aiaj4 ,palogeography of ,north ,america4 ,bull4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,am41 vol4 xx1 pp4 #dbg-fjf1 pll4 #df-aja4 ,,str,,mer ,,von ,,reichenbach1 ,e41 #aiab4 ,lehrbuch der ,palontologie1 ii1 ,wirbelthiere 7,b4,g4 ,teubner1 ,leipzig u4 ,berlin47 ,,th,,venin1 ,a41 #aijg4 ,paleontologie de ,madagascar1 iv1 ,dinosaurs4 ,ann4 de ,palont1 t4 ii1 pp4 #aba-acf1 #b pll4 ,,woodward1 ,a4,s41 #ahih4 ,vertebrate ,palontology4 ,cambridge ,science ,manuals4 ,,zittel 7,broili u4 a4 rev47 #aiaa4 ,grundzuge der ,palontologie4 ,,zittel 7,,eastman transl471 #aijb4 ,textbook of ,palontology1 vol4 ii1 ,vertebrata 7except ,mammals74 ,macmillan ,co4 99 99 99 99 99 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,typographical errors corrected in text3 ,page #i3 ,palaeontology replaced with ,palontology ,page #cf3 familar replaced with familiar ,page #di3 ,palaeontology not replaced because it quotes another book4 ,page #ff3 pecularity replaced with peculiarity ,page #gj3 nust replaced with must ,page #abi3 consulation replaced with consultation ---------------------------------------- ----------------------