,illustration3 ,,velasquez4 ,,head ,,of ,,aesop1 ,,madrid4 ,a ,,text-,,book ,,of ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,painting ,,by ,,john ,c4 ,,van ,,dyke1 ,l4,h4,d4 ,,professor ,,of ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,art ,,in ,,rutgers ,,college ,,and ,,author ,,of ,,art ,,for ,,art',s ,,sake1 ,,the ,,meaning ,,of ,,pictures1 ,,etc4 ,,longmans1 ,,green1 ,,and ,,co4 #ia ,,and #ic ,,fifth ,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york ,,london1 ,,bombay1 ,,and ,,calcutta #aiji ,,copyright1 #ahid1 ,,by ,,longmans1 ,,green1 ,,and ,,co4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,preface4 ,the object of this series of text-books is to provide concise teachable histories of art for class-room use in schools and colleges4 ,the limited time given to the study of art in the average educational institution has not only dictated the condensed style of the volumes1 but has limited their scope of matter to the general features of art history4 ,archaeological discussions on special subjects and aesthetic theories have been avoided4 ,the main facts of history as settled by the best authorities are given4 ,if the reader choose to enter into particulars the bibliography cited at the head of each chapter will be found helpful4 ,illustrations have been introduced as sight-help to the text1 and1 to avoid repetition1 abbreviations have been used wherever practicable4 ,the enumeration of the principal extant works of an artist1 school1 or period1 and where they may be found1 which follows each chapter1 may be serviceable not only as a summary of individual or school achievement1 but for reference by travelling students in ,europe4 ,this volume on painting1 the first of the series1 omits mention of such work in ,arabic1 ,indian1 ,chinese1 and ,persian art as may come properly under the head of ,ornament--a subject proposed for separate treatment hereafter4 ,in treating of individual painters it has been thought best to give a short critical estimate of the man and his rank among the painters of his time rather than the detailed facts of his life4 ,students who wish accounts of the lives of the painters should use ,vasari1 ,larousse1 and the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica in connection with this text-book4 ,acknowledgments are made to the respective publishers of ,woltmann and ,woermann's ,history of ,painting1 and the fine series of art histories by ,perrot and ,chipiez1 for permission to reproduce some few illustrations from these publications4 ,,john ,c4 ,,van ,,dyke4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,general ,,bibliography ,,introduction ,,chapter ,i4 ,,egyptian ,,painting ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,chaldaeo-,,assyrian1 ,,persian1 ,,phoenician1 ,,cypriote1 ,,and ,,asia ,,minor ,,painting ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,greek1 ,,etruscan1 ,,and ,,roman ,,painting ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,italian ,,painting--,,early ,,christian ,,and ,,mediaeval ,,period1 #bjj-abej ,,chapter ,v4 ,,italian ,,painting--,,gothic ,,period1 #abej-adjj ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,italian ,,painting--,,early ,,renaissance1 #adjj-aejj ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,italian ,,painting--,,early ,,renaissance1 #adjj-aejj1 ,continued ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,italian ,,painting--,,high ,,renaissance1 #aejj-afjj ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,italian ,,painting--,,high ,,renaissance1 #aejj-afjj1 ,continued ,,chapter ,x4 ,,italian ,,painting--,,high ,,renaissance1 #aejj-afjj1 ,continued ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,italian ,,painting--,,the ,,decadence ,,and ,,modern ,,work1 #afjj-ahid ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,french ,,painting--,,sixteenth1 ,,seventeenth1 ,,and ,,eighteenth ,,centuries ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,french ,,painting--,,nineteenth ,,century ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,french ,,painting--,,nineteenth ,,century1 ,continued ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,spanish ,,painting ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,flemish ,,painting ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,dutch ,,painting ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,german ,,painting ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,british ,,painting ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,american ,,painting ,,postscript ,,index 99 99 99 99 99 ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,velasquez1 ,head of ,a,esop1 ,madrid ,frontispiece #a ,hunting in the ,marshes1 ,tomb of ,ti1 ,saccarah #b ,portrait of ,queen ,taia #c ,offerings to the ,dead4 ,wall painting #d ,vignette on ,papyrus #e ,enamelled ,brick1 ,nimroud #f ,khorsabad #g ,wild ,ass4 ,bas-relief #h ,lions ,frieze1 ,susa #i ,painted ,head from ,edessa #aj ,cypriote ,vase ,decoration #aa ,attic ,grave ,painting #ab ,muse of ,cortona #ac ,odyssey ,landscape #ad ,amphore1 ,lower ,italy #ae ,ritual ,scene1 ,palatine ,wall painting #af ,portrait1 ,fayoum1 ,graf ,collection #ag ,chamber in ,catacombs1 with wall decorations #ah ,catacomb ,fresco1 ,s4 ,cecilia #ai ,christ as ,good ,shepherd1 ,ravenna mosaic #bj ,christ and ,saints1 fresco1 ,s4 ,generosa #ba ,ezekiel before the ,lord4 ,,ms4 illumination #bb ,giotto1 ,flight into ,egypt1 ,arena ,chap4 #bc ,orcagna1 ,paradise 7detail71 ,s4 ,m4 ,novella #bd ,lorenzetti1 ,peace 7detail71 ,sienna #be ,fra ,angelico1 ,angel1 ,uffizi #bf ,fra ,filippo1 ,madonna1 ,uffizi #bg ,botticelli1 ,coronation of ,madonna1 ,uffizi #bh ,ghirlandajo1 ,visitation1 ,louvre #bi ,francesca1 ,duke of ,urbino1 ,uffizi #cj ,signorelli1 ,the ,curse 7detail71 ,orvieto #ca ,perugino1 ,madonna1 ,saints1 and ,angels1 ,louvre #cb ,school of ,francia1 ,madonna1 ,louvre #cc ,mantegna1 ,gonzaga ,family ,group1 ,mantua #cd ,b4 ,vivarini1 ,madonna and ,child1 ,turin #ce ,giovanni ,bellini1 ,madonna1 ,venice ,acad4 #cf ,carpaccio1 ,presentation 7detail71 ,venice ,acad4 #cg ,antonello da ,messina1 ,unknown ,man1 ,louvre #ch ,fra ,bartolommeo1 ,descent from ,cross1 ,pitti #ci ,andrea del ,sarto1 ,madonna of ,st4 ,francis1 ,uffizi #dj ,michael ,angelo1 ,athlete1 ,sistine ,chap41 ,rome #da ,raphael1 ,la ,belle ,jardiniere1 ,louvre #db ,giulio ,romano1 ,apollo and ,muses1 ,pitti #dc ,leonardo da ,vinci1 ,mona ,lisa1 ,louvre #dd ,luini1 ,daughter of ,herodias1 ,uffizi #de ,sodoma1 ,ecstasy of ,st4 ,catherine1 ,sienna #df ,correggio1 ,marriage of ,st4 ,catherine1 ,louvre #dg ,giorgione1 ,ordeal of ,moses1 ,uffizi #dh ,titian1 ,venus ,equipping ,cupid1 ,borghese1 ,rome #di ,tintoretto1 ,mercury and ,graces1 ,ducal ,pal41 ,venice #ej ,veronese1 ,venice ,enthroned1 ,ducal ,pal41 ,venice #ea ,lotto1 ,three ,ages1 ,pitti #eb ,bronzino1 ,christ in ,limbo1 ,uffizi #ec ,baroccio1 ,annunciation #ed ,annibale ,caracci1 ,entombment of ,christ1 ,louvre #ee ,caravaggio1 ,the ,card ,players1 ,dresden #ef ,poussin1 ,et in ,arcadia ,ego1 ,louvre #eg ,claude ,lorrain1 ,flight into ,egypt1 ,dresden #eh ,watteau1 ,gilles1 ,louvre #ei ,boucher1 ,pastoral1 ,louvre #fj ,david1 ,the ,sabines1 ,louvre #fa ,ingres1 ,oedipus and ,sphinx1 ,louvre #fb ,delacroix1 ,massacre of ,scio1 ,louvre #fc ,gerome1 ,pollice ,verso #fd ,corot1 ,landscape #fe ,rousseau1 ,charcoal ,burner's ,hut1 ,fuller ,collection #ff ,millet1 ,the ,gleaners1 ,louvre #fg ,cabanel1 ,phaedra #fh ,meissonier1 ,napoleon in #ahad #fi ,sanchez-,coello1 ,daughter of ,philip ,,ii41 ,madrid #gj ,murillo1 ,st4 ,anthony of ,padua1 ,dresden #ga ,ribera1 ,st4 ,agnes1 ,dresden #gb ,fortuny1 ,spanish ,marriage #gc ,madrazo1 ,unmasked #gd ,van ,eycks1 ,st4 ,bavon ,altar-piece1 ,berlin #ge ,memling 7871 ,st4 ,lawrence1 ,nat4 ,gal41 ,lon4 #gf ,massys1 ,head of ,virgin1 ,antwerp #gg ,rubens1 ,portrait of ,young ,woman #gh ,van ,dyck1 ,portrait of ,cornelius van der ,geest #gi ,teniers the ,younger1 ,prodigal ,son1 ,louvre #hj ,alfred ,stevens1 ,on the ,beach #ha ,hals1 ,portrait of a ,lady #hb ,rembrandt1 ,head of a ,woman1 ,nat4 ,gal41 ,lon4 #hc ,ruisdael1 ,landscape #hd ,hobbema1 ,the ,water ,wheel1 ,amsterdam ,mus4 #he ,israels1 ,alone in the ,world #hf ,mauve1 ,sheep #hg ,lochner1 ,sts4 ,john1 ,catharine1 ,matthew1 ,london #hh ,wolgemut1 ,crucifixion1 ,munich #hi ,duerer1 ,praying ,virgin1 ,augsburg #ij ,holbein1 ,portrait1 ,hague ,mus4 #ia ,piloty1 ,wise and ,foolish ,virgins #ib ,leibl1 ,in ,church #ic ,menzel1 ,a ,reader #id ,hogarth1 ,shortly after ,marriage1 ,nat4 ,gal41 ,lon4 #ie ,reynolds1 ,countess ,spencer and ,lord ,althorp #if ,gainsborough1 ,blue ,boy #ig ,constable1 ,corn ,field1 ,nat4 ,gal41 ,lon4 #ih ,turner1 ,fighting ,temeraire1 ,nat4 ,gal41 ,lon4 #ii ,burne-,jones1 ,flamma ,vestalis #ajj ,leighton1 ,helen of ,troy #aja ,watts1 ,love and ,death #ajb ,west1 ,peter ,denying ,christ1 ,hampton ,court #ajc ,gilbert ,stuart1 ,washington1 ,boston ,mus4 #ajd ,hunt1 ,lute ,player #aje ,eastman ,johnson1 ,churning #ajf ,inness1 ,landscape #ajg ,winslow ,homer1 ,undertow #ajh ,whistler1 ,the ,white ,girl #aji ,sargent1 ,carnation ,lily1 ,lily ,rose #aaj ,chase1 ,alice1 ,art ,institute1 ,chicago 99 99 99 99 99 ,,general ,,bibliography4 7,this includes the leading accessible works that treat of painting in general4 ,for works on special periods or schools1 see the bibliographical references at the head of each chapter4 ,for bibliography of individual painters consult1 under proper names1 ,champlin and ,perkins's ,cyclopedia1 as given below47 ,champlin and ,perkins1 ,cyclopedia of ,painters and ,paintings1 ,new ,york4 ,adeline1 ,lexique des ,termes d',art4 ,gazette des ,beaux ,arts1 ,paris4 ,larousse1 ,grand ,dictionnaire ,universel1 ,paris4 ,l',art1 ,revue hebdomadaire illustree1 ,paris4 ,bryan1 ,dictionary of ,painters4 ,new edition4 ,brockhaus1 ,conversations-,lexikon4 ,meyer1 ,allgemeines ,kuenstler-,lexikon1 ,berlin4 ,muther1 ,history of ,modern ,painting4 ,agincourt1 ,history of ,art by its ,monuments4 ,bayet1 ,precis d',histoire de l',art4 ,blanc1 ,histoire des ,peintres de toutes les ,ecoles4 ,eastlake1 ,materials for a ,history of ,oil ,painting4 ,luebke1 ,history of ,art1 trans4 by ,clarence ,cook4 ,reber1 ,history of ,ancient ,art4 ,reber1 ,history of ,mediaeval ,art4 ,schnasse1 ,geschichte der ,bildenden ,kuenste4 ,girard1 ,la ,peinture ,antique4 ,viardot1 ,history of the ,painters of all ,schools4 ,williamson 7,ed471 ,handbooks of ,great ,masters4 ,woltmann and ,woermann1 ,history of ,painting4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,history ,,of ,,painting4 ,,introduction4 ,the origin of painting is unknown4 ,the first important records of this art are met with in ,egypt2 but before the ,egyptian civilization the men of the early ages probably used color in ornamentation and decoration1 and they certainly scratched the outlines of men and animals upon bone and slate4 ,traces of this rude primitive work still remain to us on the pottery1 weapons1 and stone implements of the cave-dwellers4 ,but while indicating the awakening of intelligence in early man1 they can be reckoned with as art only in a slight archaeological way4 ,they show inclination rather than accomplishment--a wish to ornament or to represent1 with only a crude knowledge of how to go about it4 ,the first aim of this primitive painting was undoubtedly decoration--the using of colored forms for color and form only1 as shown in the pottery designs or cross-hatchings on stone knives or spear-heads4 ,the second1 and perhaps later aim1 was by imitating the shapes and colors of men1 animals1 and the like1 to convey an idea of the proportions and characters of such things4 ,an outline of a cave-bear or a mammoth was perhaps the cave-dweller's way of telling his fellows what monsters he had slain4 ,we may assume that it was pictorial record1 primitive picture-written history4 ,this early method of conveying an idea is1 in intent1 substantially the same as the later hieroglyphic writing and historical painting of the ,egyptians4 ,the difference between them is merely one of development4 ,thus there is an indication in the art of ,primitive ,man of the two great departments of painting existent to-day4 #a4 ,,decorative ,,painting4 #b4 ,,expressive ,,painting4 ,pure ,decorative ,painting is not usually expressive of ideas other than those of rhythmical line and harmonious color4 ,it is not our subject4 ,this volume treats of ,expressive ,painting2 but in dealing with that it should be borne in mind that ,expressive ,painting has always a more or less decorative effect accompanying it1 and that must be spoken of incidentally4 ,we shall presently see the intermingling of both kinds of painting in the art of ancient ,egypt--our first inquiry4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,egyptian ,,painting4 ,,books ,,recommended3 ,brugsch1 ,history of ,egypt under the ,pharaohs2 ,budge1 ,dwellers on the ,nile2 ,duncker1 ,history of ,antiquity2 ,egypt ,exploration ,fund ,memoirs2 ,ely1 ,manual of ,archaeology2 ,lepsius1 ,denkmaler aus ,aegypten und ,aethiopen2 ,maspero1 ,life in ,ancient ,egypt and ,assyria2 ,maspero1 ,guide du ,visiteur au ,musee de ,boulaq2 ,maspero1 ,egyptian ,archaeology2 ,perrot and ,chipiez1 ,history of ,art in ,ancient ,egypt2 ,wilkinson1 ,manners and ,customs of the ,ancient ,egyptians4 ,,land ,,and ,,people3 ,egypt1 as ,herodotus has said1 is the gift of the ,nile1 one of the latest of the earth's geological formations1 and yet one of the earliest countries to be settled and dominated by man4 ,it consists now1 as in the ancient days1 of the valley of the ,nile1 bounded on the east by the ,arabian mountains and on the west by the ,libyan desert4 ,well-watered and fertile1 it was doubtless at first a pastoral and agricultural country2 then1 by its riverine traffic1 a commercial country1 and finally1 by conquest1 a land enriched with the spoils of warfare4 ,its earliest records show a strongly established monarchy4 ,dynasties of kings called ,pharaohs succeeded one another by birth or conquest4 ,the king made the laws1 judged the people1 declared war1 and was monarch supreme4 ,next to him in rank came the priests1 who were not only in the service of religion but in that of the state1 as counsellors1 secretaries1 and the like4 ,the common people1 with true ,oriental lack of individuality1 depending blindly on leaders1 were little more than the servants of the upper classes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,hunting ,,in ,,the ,,marshes4 ,,tomb ,,of ,,ti1 ,,saccarah4 7,,from ,,perrot ,,and ,,chipiez47 ,the ,egyptian religion existing in the earliest days was a worship of the personified elements of nature4 ,each element had its particular controlling god1 worshipped as such4 ,later on in ,egyptian history the number of gods was increased1 and each city had its trinity of godlike protectors symbolized by the propylaea of the temples4 ,future life was a certainty1 provided that the ,ka1 or spirit1 did not fall a prey to ,typhon1 the ,god of ,evil1 during the long wait in the tomb for the judgment-day4 ,the belief that the spirit rested in the body until finally transported to the aaln fields 7the ,islands of the ,blest1 afterward adopted by the ,greeks7 was one reason for the careful preservation of the body by mummifying processes4 ,life itself was not more important than death4 ,hence the imposing ceremonies of the funeral and burial1 the elaborate richness of the tomb and its wall paintings4 ,perhaps the first ,egyptian art arose through religious observance1 and certainly the first known to us was sepulchral4 ,,art ,,motives3 ,the centre of the ,egyptian system was the monarch and his supposed relatives1 the gods4 ,they arrogated to themselves the chief thought of life1 and the aim of the great bulk of the art was to glorify monarchy or deity4 ,the massive buildings1 still standing to-day in ruins1 were built as the dwelling-places of kings or the sanctuaries of gods4 ,the towers symbolized deity1 the sculptures and paintings recited the functional duties of presiding spirits1 or the ,pharaoh's looks and acts4 ,almost everything about the public buildings in painting and sculpture was symbolic illustration1 picture-written history--written with a chisel and brush1 written large that all might read4 ,there was no other safe way of preserving record4 ,there were no books2 the papyrus sheet1 used extensively1 was frail1 and the ,egyptians evidently wished their buildings1 carvings1 and paintings to last into eternity4 ,so they wrought in and upon stone4 ,the same hieroglyphic character of their papyrus writings appeared cut and colored on the palace walls1 and above them and beside them the pictures ran as vignettes explanatory of the text4 ,in a less ostentatious way the tombs perpetuated history in a similar manner1 reciting the domestic scenes from the life of the individual1 as the temples and palaces the religious and monarchical scenes4 ,in one form or another it was all record of ,egyptian life1 but this was not the only motive of their painting4 ,the temples and palaces1 designed to shut out light and heat1 were long squares of heavy stone1 gloomy as the cave from which their plan may have originated4 ,carving and color were used to brighten and enliven the interior4 ,the battles1 the judgment scenes1 the ,pharaoh playing at draughts with his wives1 the religious rites and ceremonies1 were all given with brilliant arbitrary color1 surrounded oftentimes by bordering bands of green1 yellow1 and blue4 ,color showed everywhere from floor to ceiling4 ,even the explanatory hieroglyphic texts ran in colors1 lining the walls and winding around the cylinders of stone4 ,the lotus capitals1 the frieze and architrave1 all glowed with bright hues1 and often the roof ceiling was painted in blue and studded with golden stars4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,portrait ,,of ,,queen ,,taia4 7,,from ,,perrot ,,and ,,chipiez47 ,all this shows a decorative motive in ,egyptian painting1 and how constantly this was kept in view may be seen at times in the arrangement of the different scenes1 the large ones being placed in the middle of the wall and the smaller ones going at the top and bottom1 to act as a frieze and dado4 ,there were1 then1 two leading motives for ,egyptian painting2 7#a7 ,history1 monarchical1 religious1 or domestic2 and 7#b7 ,decoration4 ,,technical ,,methods3 ,man in the early stages of civilization comprehends objects more by line than by color or light4 ,the figure is not studied in itself1 but in its sun-shadow or silhouette4 ,the ,egyptian hieroglyph represented objects by outlines or arbitrary marks and conveyed a simple meaning without circumlocution4 ,the ,egyptian painting was substantially an enlargement of the hieroglyph4 ,there was no attempt to place objects in the setting which they hold in nature4 ,perspective and light-and-shade were disregarded4 ,objects1 of whatever nature1 were shown in flat profile4 ,in the human figure the shoulders were square1 the hips slight1 the legs and arms long1 the feet and hands flat4 ,the head1 legs1 and arms were shown in profile1 while the chest and eye were twisted to show the flat front view4 ,there are only one or two full-faced figures among the remains of ,egyptian painting4 ,after the outline was drawn the enclosed space was filled in with plain color4 ,in the absence of high light1 or composed groups1 prominence was given to an important figure1 like that of the king1 by making it much larger than the other figures4 ,this may be seen in any of the battle-pieces of ,rameses ,,ii41 in which the monarch in his chariot is a giant where his followers are mere pygmies4 ,in the absence of perspective1 receding figures of men or of horses were given by multiplied outlines of legs1 or heads1 placed before1 or after1 or raised above one another4 ,flat water was represented by zigzag lines1 placed as it were upon a map1 one tree symbolized a forest1 and one fortification a town4 ,these outline drawings were not realistic in any exact sense4 ,the face was generally expressionless1 the figure1 evidently done from memory or pattern1 did not reveal anatomical structure1 but was nevertheless graceful1 and in the representation of animals the sense of motion was often given with much truth4 ,the color was usually an attempt at nature1 though at times arbitrary or symbolic1 as in the case of certain gods rendered with blue1 yellow1 or green skins4 ,the backgrounds were always of flat color1 arbitrary in hue1 and decorative only4 ,the only composition was a balance by numbers1 and the processional scenes rose tier upon tier above one another in long panels4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,,offerings ,,to ,,the ,,dead1 ,,wall ,,painting1 ,,eighteenth ,,dynasty4 7,,from ,,perrot ,,and ,,chipiez47 ,such work would seem almost ludicrous did we not keep in mind its reason for existence4 ,it was1 first1 symbolic story-telling art1 and secondly1 architectural decoration4 ,as a story-teller it was effective because of its simplicity and directness4 ,as decoration1 the repeated expressionless face and figure1 the arbitrary color1 the absence of perspective were not inappropriate then nor are they now4 ,egyptian painting never was free from the decorative motive4 ,wall painting was little more than an adjunct of architecture1 and probably grew out of sculpture4 ,the early statues were colored1 and on the wall the chisel1 like the flint of ,primitive ,man1 cut the outline of the figure4 ,at first only this cut was filled with color1 producing what has been called the koil-anaglyphic4 ,in the final stage the line was made by drawing with chalk or coal on prepared stucco1 and the color1 mixed with gum-water 7a kind of distemper71 was applied to the whole enclosed space4 ,substantially the same method of painting was used upon other materials1 such as wood1 mummy cartonnage1 papyrus2 and in all its thousands of years of existence ,egyptian painting never advanced upon or varied to any extent this one method of work4 ,,historic ,,periods3 ,egyptian art may be traced back as far as the ,third or ,fourth ,memphitic dynasty of kings4 ,the date is uncertain1 but it is somewhere near #c1ejj ,b4,c4 ,the seat of empire1 at that time1 was located at ,memphis in ,lower ,egypt1 and it is among the remains of this ,memphitic ,period that the earliest and best painting is found4 ,in fact1 all ,egyptian art1 literature1 language1 civilization1 seem at their highest point of perfection in the period farthest removed from us4 ,in that earliest age the finest portrait busts were cut1 and the painting1 found chiefly in the tombs and on the mummy-cases1 was the attempted realistic with not a little of spirited individuality4 ,the figure was rather short and squat1 the face a little squarer than the conventional type afterward adopted1 the action better1 and the positions1 attitudes1 and gestures more truthful to local characteristics4 ,the domestic scenes--hunting1 fishing1 tilling1 grazing--were all shown in the one flat1 planeless1 shadowless method of representation1 but with better drawing and color and more variety than appeared later on4 ,still1 more or less conventional types were used1 even in this early time1 and continued to be used all through ,egyptian history4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,,vignette ,,on ,,papyrus1 ,,louvre4 7,,from ,,perrot ,,and ,,chipiez47 ,the ,memphitic ,period comes down to the eleventh dynasty4 ,in the fifteenth dynasty comes the invasion of the so-called ,hyksos1 or ,shepherd ,kings4 ,little is known of the ,hyksos1 and1 in painting1 the next stage is the ,theban ,period1 which1 culminated in ,thebes1 in ,upper ,egypt1 with ,rameses ,,ii41 of the nineteenth dynasty4 ,painting had then changed somewhat both in subject and character4 ,the time was one of great temple and palace building1 and1 though the painting of genre subjects in tombs and sepulchres continued1 the general body of art became more monumental and subservient to architecture4 ,painting was put to work on temple and palace-walls1 depicting processional scenes1 either religious or monarchical1 and vast in extent4 ,the figure1 too1 changed slightly4 ,it became longer1 slighter1 with a pronounced nose1 thick lips1 and long eye4 ,from constant repetition1 rather than any set rule or canon1 this figure grew conventional1 and was reproduced as a type in a mechanical and unvarying manner for hundreds of years4 ,it was1 in fact1 only a variation from the original ,egyptian type seen in the tombs of the earliest dynasties4 ,there was a great quantity of art produced during the ,theban ,period1 and of a graceful1 decorative character1 but it was rather monotonous by repetition and filled with established mannerisms4 ,the ,egyptian really never was a free worker1 never an artist expressing himself2 but1 for his day1 a skilled mechanic following time-honored example4 ,in the ,saitic ,period the seat of empire was once more in ,lower ,egypt1 and art had visibly declined with the waning power of the country4 ,all spontaneity seemed to have passed out of it1 it was repetition of repetition by poor workmen1 and the simplicity and purity of the technic were corrupted by foreign influences4 ,with the ,alexandrian epoch ,egyptian art came in contact with ,greek methods1 and grew imitative of the new art1 to the detriment of its own native character4 ,eventually it was entirely lost in the art of the ,greco-,roman world4 ,it was never other than conventional1 produced by a method almost as unvarying as that of the hieroglyphic writing1 and in this very respect characteristic and reflective of the unchanging ,orientals4 ,technically it had its shortcomings1 but it conveyed the proper information to its beholders and was serviceable and graceful decoration for ,egyptian days4 ,,extant ,,paintings3 ,the temples1 palaces1 and tombs of ,egypt still reveal ,egyptian painting in almost as perfect a state as when originally executed2 the ,ghizeh ,museum has many fine examples2 and there are numerous examples in the museums at ,turin1 ,paris1 ,berlin1 ,london1 ,new ,york1 and ,boston4 ,an interesting collection belongs to the ,new ,york ,historical ,society1 and some of the latest finds of the ,egypt ,exploration ,fund are in the ,boston ,museum4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,chaldaeo-,,assyrian ,,painting4 ,,books ,,recommended3 ,babelon1 ,manual of ,oriental ,antiquities2 ,botta1 ,monument de ,ninive2 ,budge1 ,babylonian ,life and ,history2 ,duncker1 ,history of ,antiquity2 ,layard1 ,nineveh and its ,remains2 ,layard1 ,discoveries ,among ,ruins of ,nineveh and ,babylon2 ,lenormant1 ,manual of the ,ancient ,history of the ,east2 ,loftus1 ,travels in ,chaldaea and ,susiana2 ,maspero1 ,life in ,ancient ,egypt and ,assyria2 ,perrot and ,chipiez1 ,history of ,art in ,chaldaea and ,assyria2 ,place1 ,ninive et l',assyrie2 ,sayce1 ,assyria3 ,its ,palaces1 ,priests1 and ,people4 ,,tigris-,,euphrates ,,civilization3 ,in many respects the civilization along the ,tigris-,euphrates was like that along the ,nile4 ,both valleys were settled by primitive peoples1 who grew rapidly by virtue of favorable climate and soil1 and eventually developed into great nations headed by kings absolute in power4 ,the king was the state in ,egypt1 and in ,assyria the monarch was even more dominant and absolute4 ,for the ,pharaohs shared architecture1 painting1 and sculpture with the gods2 but the ,sargonids seem to have arrogated the most of these things to themselves alone4 ,religion was perhaps as real in ,assyria as in ,egypt1 but it was less apparent in art4 ,certain genii1 called gods or demons1 appear in the bas-reliefs1 but it is not yet settled whether they represent gods or merely legendary heroes or monsters of fable4 ,there was no great demonstration of religion by form and color1 as in ,egypt4 ,the ,assyrians were ,semites1 and religion with them was more a matter of the spirit than the senses--an image in the mind rather than an image in metal or stone4 ,the temple was not eloquent with the actions and deeds of the gods1 and even the tomb1 that fruitful source of art in ,egypt1 was in ,chaldaea undecorated and in ,assyria unknown4 ,no one knows what the ,assyrians did with their dead1 unless they carried them back to the fatherland of the race1 the ,persian ,gulf region1 as the native tribes of ,mesopotamia do to this day4 ,,art ,,motives3 ,as in ,egypt1 there were two motives for art--illustration and decoration4 ,religion1 as we have seen1 hardly obtained at all4 ,the king attracted the greatest attention4 ,the countless bas-reliefs1 cut on soft stone slabs1 were pages from the history of the monarch in peace and war1 in council1 in the chase1 or in processional rites4 ,beside him and around him his officers came in for a share of the background glory4 ,occasionally the common people had representations of their lives and their pursuits1 but the main subject of all the valley art was the king and his doings4 ,sculpture and painting were largely illustrations accompanying a history written in the ever-present cuneiform characters4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,,enamelled ,,brick4 ,,nimroud4 7,,from ,,perrot ,,and ,,chipiez47 ,but1 while serving as history1 like the picture-writings of the ,egyptians1 this illustration was likewise decoration1 and was designed with that end in view4 ,rows upon rows of partly colored bas-reliefs were arranged like a dado along the palace-wall1 and above them wall-paintings1 or glazed tiles in patterns1 carried out the color scheme4 ,almost all of the color has now disappeared1 but it must have been brilliant at one time1 and was doubtless in harmony with the architecture4 ,both painting and sculpture were subordinate to and dependent upon architecture4 ,palace-building was the chief pursuit1 and the other arts were called in mainly as adjuncts--ornamental records of the king who built4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,,enamelled ,,brick4 ,,khorsabad4 7,,from ,,perrot ,,and ,,chipiez47 ,,the ,,type1 ,,form1 ,,color3 ,there were only two distinct faces in ,assyrian art--one with and one without a beard4 ,neither of them was a portrait except as attributes or inscriptions designated4 ,the type was unendingly repeated4 ,women appeared in only one or two isolated cases1 and even these are doubtful4 ,the warrior1 a strong1 coarse-membered1 heavily muscled creation1 with a heavy1 expressionless1 ,semitic face1 appeared everywhere4 ,the figure was placed in profile1 with eye and bust twisted to show the front view1 and the long feet projected one beyond the other1 as in the ,nile pictures4 ,this was the ,assyrian ideal of strength1 dignity1 and majesty1 established probably in the early ages1 and repeated for centuries with few characteristic variations4 ,the figure was usually given in motion1 walking1 or riding1 and had little of that grace seen in ,egyptian painting1 but in its place a great deal of rude strength4 ,in modelling1 the human form was not so knowingly rendered as the animal4 ,the long ,eastern clothing probably prevented the close study of the figure4 ,this failure in anatomical exactness was balanced in part by minute details in the dress and accessories1 productive of a rich ornamental effect4 ,hard stone was not found in the ,mesopotamian regions4 ,temples were built of burnt brick1 bas-reliefs were made upon alabaster slabs and heightened by coloring1 and painting was largely upon tiles1 with mineral paints1 afterward glazed by fire4 ,these glazed brick or tiles1 with figured designs1 were fixed upon the walls1 arches1 and archivolts by bitumen mortar1 and made up the first mosaics of which we have record4 ,there was a further painting upon plaster in distemper1 of which some few traces remain4 ,it did not differ in design from the bas-reliefs or the tile mosaics4 ,the subjects used were the ,assyrian type1 shown somewhat slighter in painting than in sculpture1 animals1 birds1 and other objects2 but they were obviously not attempts at nature4 ,the color was arbitrary1 not natural1 and there was little perspective1 light-and-shade1 or relief4 ,heavy outline bands of color appeared about the object1 and the prevailing hues were yellow and blue4 ,there was perhaps less symbolism and more direct representation in ,assyria than in ,egypt4 ,there was also more feeling for perspective and space1 as shown in such objects as water and in the mountain landscapes of the late bas-reliefs2 but1 in the main1 there was no advance upon ,egypt4 ,there was a difference which was not necessarily a development4 ,painting1 as we know the art to-day1 was not practised in ,chaldaea-,assyria4 ,it was never free from a servitude to architecture and sculpture2 it was hampered by conventionalities2 and the painter was more artisan than artist1 having little freedom or individuality4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,,wild ,,ass4 ,,bas-,,relief1 ,,british ,,museum4 7,,from ,,perrot ,,and ,,chipiez47 ,,historic ,,periods3 ,chaldaea1 of unknown antiquity1 with ,babylon its capital1 is accounted the oldest nation in the ,tigris-,euphrates valley1 and1 so far as is known1 it was an original nation producing an original art4 ,its sculpture 7especially in the ,tello heads71 and presumably its painting1 were more realistic and individual than any other in the valley4 ,assyria coming later1 and the heir of ,chaldaea1 was the ,second ,empire3 ,there are two distinct periods of this ,second ,empire1 the first lasting from #a1djj ,b4,c41 down to about #ijj ,b4,c41 and in art showing a great profusion of bas-reliefs4 ,the second closed about #fbe ,b4,c41 and in art produced much glazed-tile work and a more elaborate sculpture and painting4 ,after this the ,chaldaean provinces gained the ascendency again1 and ,babylon1 under ,nebuchadnezzar1 became the first city of ,asia4 ,but the new ,babylon did not last long4 ,it fell before ,cyrus and the ,persians #ecf ,b4,c4 ,again1 as in ,egypt1 the earliest art appears the purest and the simplest1 and the years of ,chaldaeo-,assyrian history known to us carry a record of change rather than of progress in art4 ,,art ,,remains3 ,the most valuable collections of ,chaldaeo-,assyrian art are to be found in the ,louvre and the ,british ,museum4 ,the other large museums of ,europe have collections in this department1 but all of them combined are little compared with the treasures that still lie buried in the mounds of the ,tigris-,euphrates valley4 ,excavations have been made at ,mugheir1 ,warka1 ,khorsabad1 ,kouyunjik1 and elsewhere1 but many difficulties have thus far rendered systematic work impossible4 ,the complete history of ,chaldaeo-,assyria and its art has yet to be written4 ,,persian ,,painting4 ,,books ,,recommended3 ,as before cited1 ,babelon1 ,duncker1 ,lenormant1 ,ely2 ,dieulafoy1 ,l',art ,antique de la ,perse2 ,flandin et ,coste1 ,voyage en ,perse2 ,justi1 ,geschichte des alten ,persiens2 ,perrot and ,chipiez1 ,history of ,art in ,persia4 ,,history ,,and ,,art ,,motives3 ,the ,medes and ,persians were the natural inheritors of ,assyrian civilization1 but they did not improve their birthright4 ,the ,medes soon lost their power4 ,cyrus conquered them1 and established the powerful ,persian monarchy upheld for two hundred years by ,cambyses1 ,darius1 and ,xerxes4 ,substantially the same conditions surrounded the ,persians as the ,assyrians--that is1 so far as art production was concerned4 ,their conceptions of life were similar1 and their use of art was for historic illustration of kingly doings and ornamental embellishment of kingly palaces4 ,both sculpture and painting were accessories of architecture4 ,of ,median art nothing remains4 ,the ,persians left the record1 but it was not wholly of their own invention1 nor was it very extensive or brilliant4 ,it had little originality about it1 and was really only an echo of ,assyria4 ,the sculptors and painters copied their ,assyrian predecessors1 repeating at ,persepolis what had been better told at ,nineveh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,,lions' ,,frieze1 ,,susa4 7,,from ,,perrot ,,and ,,chipiez47 ,,types ,,and ,,technic3 ,the same subjects1 types1 and technical methods in bas-relief1 tile1 and painting on plaster were followed under ,darius as under ,shalmanezer4 ,but the imitation was not so good as the original4 ,the warrior1 the winged monsters1 the animals all lost something of their air of brutal defiance and their strength of modelling4 ,heroes still walked in procession along the bas-reliefs and glazed tiles1 but the figure was smaller1 more effeminate1 the hair and beard were not so long1 the drapery fell in slightly indicated folds at times1 and there was a profusion of ornamental detail4 ,some of this detail and some modifications in the figure showed the influence of foreign nations other than the ,greek2 but1 in the main1 ,persian art followed in the footsteps of ,assyrian art4 ,it was the last reflection of ,mesopotamian splendor4 ,for with the conquest of ,persia by ,alexander the book of expressive art in that valley was closed1 and1 under ,islam1 it remains closed to this day4 ,,art ,,remains3 ,persian painting is something about which little is known because little remains4 ,the ,louvre contains some reconstructed friezes made in mosaics of stamped brick and square tile1 showing figures of lions and a number of archers4 ,the coloring is particularly rich1 and may give some idea of ,persian pigments4 ,aside from the chief museums of ,europe the bulk of ,persian art is still seen half-buried in the ruins of ,persepolis and elsewhere4 ,,phoenician1 ,,cypriote1 ,,and ,,asia ,,minor ,,painting4 ,,books ,,recommended3 ,as before cited1 ,babelon1 ,duncker1 ,ely1 ,girard1 ,lenormant2 ,cesnola1 ,cyprus2 ,cesnola1 ,cypriote ,antiquities in ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art2 ,kenrick1 ,phoenicia2 ,movers1 ,die ,phonizier2 ,perrot and ,chipiez1 ,history of ,art in ,phoenicia and ,cyprus2 ,perrot and ,chipiez1 ,history of ,art in ,sardinia1 ,judea1 ,syria and ,asia ,minor2 ,perrot and ,chipiez1 ,history of ,art in ,phrygia1 ,lydia1 etc42 ,renan1 ,mission de ,phenicie4 ,,the ,,trading ,,nations3 ,the coast-lying nations of the ,eastern ,mediterranean were hardly original or creative nations in a large sense4 ,they were at different times the conquered dependencies of ,egypt1 ,assyria1 ,persia1 ,greece1 and their lands were but bridges over which armies passed from east to west or from west to east4 ,located on the ,mediterranean between the great civilizations of antiquity they naturally adapted themselves to circumstances1 and became the middlemen1 the brokers1 traders1 and carriers of the ancient world4 ,their lands were not favorable to agriculture1 but their sea-coasts rendered commerce easy and lucrative4 ,they made a kingdom of the sea1 and their means of livelihood were gathered from it4 ,there is no record that the ,egyptians ever traversed the ,mediterranean1 the ,assyrians were not sailors1 the ,greeks had not yet arisen1 and so probably ,phoenicia and her neighbors had matters their own way4 ,colonies and trading stations were established at ,cyprus1 ,carthage1 ,sardinia1 the ,greek islands1 and the ,greek mainland1 and not only ,eastern goods but ,eastern ideas were thus carried to the ,west4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,,painted ,,head ,,from ,,edessa4 7,,from ,,perrot ,,and ,,chipiez47 ,politically1 socially1 and religiously these small middle nations were inconsequential4 ,they simply adapted their politics or faith to the nation that for the time had them under its heel4 ,what semi-original religion they possessed was an amalgamation of the religions of other nations1 and their gods of bronze1 terra-cotta1 and enamel were irreverently sold in the market like any other produce4 ,,art ,,motives ,,and ,,methods3 ,building1 carving1 and painting were practised among the coastwise nations1 but upon no such extensive scale as in either ,egypt or ,assyria4 ,the mere fact that they were people of the sea rather than of the land precluded extensive or concentrated development4 ,politically ,phoenicia was divided among five cities1 and her artistic strength was distributed in a similar manner4 ,such art as was produced showed the religious and decorative motives1 and in its spiritless materialistic make-up1 the commercial motive4 ,it was at the best a hybrid1 mongrel art1 borrowed from many sources and distributed to many points of the compass4 ,at one time it had a strong ,assyrian cast1 at another an ,egyptian cast1 and after ,greece arose it accepted a retroactive influence from there4 ,it is impossible to characterize the ,phoenician type1 and even the ,cypriote type1 though more pronounced1 varies so with the different influences that it has no very striking individuality4 ,technically both the ,phoenician and ,cypriote were fair workmen in bronze and stone1 and doubtless taught many technical methods to the early ,greeks1 besides making known to them those deities afterward adopted under the names of ,aphrodite1 ,adonis1 and ,heracles1 and familiarizing them with the art forms of ,egypt and ,assyria4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,,cypriote ,,vase ,,decoration4 7,,from ,,perrot ,,and ,,chipiez47 ,as for painting1 there was undoubtedly figured decoration upon walls of stone and plaster1 but there is not enough left to us from all the small nations like ,phoenicia1 ,judea1 ,cyprus1 and the kingdoms of ,asia ,minor1 put together1 to patch up a disjointed history4 ,the first lands to meet the spoiler1 their very ruins have perished4 ,all that there is of painting comes to us in broken potteries and color traces on statuary4 ,the remains of sculpture and architecture are of course better preserved4 ,none of this intermediate art holds much rank by virtue of its inherent worth4 ,it is its influence upon the ,west--the ideas1 subjects1 and methods it imparted to the ,greeks--that gives it importance in art history4 ,,art ,,remains3 ,in painting chiefly the vases in the ,metropolitan ,museum1 ,new ,york1 the ,louvre1 ,british and ,berlin ,museums4 ,these give a poor and incomplete idea of the painting in ,asia ,minor1 ,phoenicia and her colonies4 ,the terra-cottas1 figurines in bronze1 and sculptures can be studied to more advantage4 ,the best collection of ,cypriote antiquities is in the ,metropolitan ,museum1 ,new ,york4 ,a new collection of ,judaic art has been recently opened in the ,louvre4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,greek ,,painting4 ,,books ,,recommended3 ,baumeister1 ,denkmaeler des klassischen ,altertums--article ,malerei2 ,birch1 ,history of ,ancient ,pottery2 ,brunn1 ,geschichte der griechischen ,kuenstler2 ,collignon1 ,mythologie figuree de la ,grece2 ,collignon1 ,manuel d',archaeologie ,grecque2 ,cros et ,henry1 ,l',encaustique et les autres procedes de ,peinture chez les ,anciens2 ,girard1 ,la ,peinture ,antique2 ,murray1 ,handbook of ,greek ,archaeology2 ,overbeck1 ,antiken ,schriftquellen zur geschichte der bildenen ,kunste bie den ,griechen2 ,perrot and ,chipiez1 ,history of ,art in ,greece2 ,woerman1 ,die ,landschaft in der ,kunst der antiken ,volker2 see also books on ,etruscan and ,roman painting4 ,,greece ,,and ,,the ,,greeks3 ,the origin of the ,greek race is not positively known4 ,it is reasonably supposed that the early settlers in ,greece came from the region of ,asia ,minor1 either across the ,hellespont or the sea1 and populated the ,greek islands and the mainland4 ,when this was done has been matter of much conjecture4 ,the early history is lost1 but art remains show that in the period before ,homer the ,greeks were an established race with habits and customs distinctly individual4 ,egyptian and ,asiatic influences are apparent in their art at this early time1 but there is1 nevertheless1 the mark of a race peculiarly apart from all the races of the older world4 ,the development of the ,greek people was probably helped by favorable climate and soil1 by commerce and conquest1 by republican institutions and political faith1 by freedom of mind and of body2 but all these together are not sufficient to account for the keenness of intellect1 the purity of taste1 and the skill in accomplishment which showed in every branch of ,greek life4 ,the cause lies deeper in the fundamental make-up of the ,greek mind1 and its eternal aspiration toward mental1 moral1 and physical ideals4 ,perfect mind1 perfect body1 perfect conduct in this world were sought-for ideals4 ,the ,greeks aspired to completeness4 ,the course of education and race development trained them physically as athletes and warriors1 mentally as philosophers1 law-makers1 poets1 artists1 morally as heroes whose lives and actions emulated those of the gods1 and were almost perfect for this world4 ,,art ,,motives3 ,neither the monarchy nor the priesthood commanded the services of the artist in ,greece1 as in ,assyria and ,egypt4 ,there was no monarch in an oriental sense1 and the chosen leaders of the ,greeks never1 until the late days1 arrogated art to themselves4 ,it was something for all the people4 ,in religion there was a pantheon of gods established and worshipped from the earliest ages1 but these gods were more like epitomes of ,greek ideals than spiritual beings4 ,they were the personified virtues of the ,greeks1 exemplars of perfect living2 and in worshipping them the ,greek was really worshipping order1 conduct1 repose1 dignity1 perfect life4 ,the gods and heroes1 as types of moral and physical qualities1 were continually represented in an allegorical or legendary manner4 ,athene represented noble warfare1 ,zeus was majestic dignity and power1 ,aphrodite love1 ,phoebus song1 ,nike triumph1 and all the lesser gods1 nymphs1 and fauns stood for beauties of nature or of life4 ,the great bulk of ,greek architecture1 sculpture1 and painting was put forth to honor these gods or heroes1 and by so doing the artist repeated the national ideals and honored himself4 ,the first motive of ,greek art1 then1 was to praise ,hellas and the ,hellenic view of life4 ,in part it was a religious motive1 but with little of that spiritual significance and belief which ruled in ,egypt1 and later on in ,italy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--;,,attic ,,grave ,,painting4 7,,from ,,baumeister47 ,a second and ever-present motive in ,greek painting was decoration4 ,this appears in the tomb pottery of the earliest ages1 and was carried on down to the latest times4 ,vase painting1 wall painting1 tablet and sculpture painting were all done with a decorative motive in view4 ,even the easel or panel pictures had some decorative effect about them1 though they were primarily intended to convey ideas other than those of form and color4 ,,subjects ,,and ,,methods3 ,the gods and heroes1 their lives and adventures1 formed the early subjects of ,greek painting4 ,certain themes taken from the ,iliad and the ,odyssey were as frequently shown as1 afterward1 the ,annunciations in ,italian painting4 ,the traditional subjects1 the ,centaurs and ,lapiths1 the ,amazon war1 ,theseus and ,ariadne1 ,perseus and ,andromeda1 were frequently depicted4 ,humanity and actual ,greek life came in for its share4 ,single figures1 still-life1 genre1 caricature1 all were shown1 and as painting neared the ,alexandrian age a semi-realistic portraiture came into vogue4 ,the materials employed by the ,greeks and their methods of work are somewhat difficult to ascertain1 because there are few ,greek pictures1 except those on the vases1 left to us4 ,from the confusing accounts of the ancient writers1 the vases1 some ,greek slabs in ,italy1 and the ,roman paintings imitative of the ,greek1 we may gain a general idea4 ,the early ,greek work was largely devoted to pottery and tomb decoration1 in which much in manner and method was borrowed from ,asia1 ,phoenicia1 and ,egypt4 ,later on1 painting appeared in flat outline on stone or terra-cotta slabs1 sometimes representing processional scenes1 as in ,egypt1 and doubtless done in a hybrid fresco-work similar to the ,egyptian method4 ,wall paintings were done in fresco and distemper1 probably upon the walls themselves1 and also upon panels afterward let into the wall4 ,encaustic painting 7color mixed with wax upon the panel and fused with a hot spatula7 came in with the ,sikyonian school4 ,it is possible that the oil medium and canvas were known1 but not probable that either was ever used extensively4 ,there is no doubt about the ,greeks being expert draughtsmen1 though this does not appear until late in history4 ,they knew the outlines well1 and drew them with force and grace4 ,that they modelled in strong relief is more questionable4 ,light-and-shade was certainly employed in the figure1 but not in any modern way4 ,perspective in both figures and landscape was used2 but the landscape was at first symbolic and rarely got beyond a decorative background for the figure4 ,greek composition we know little about1 but may infer that it was largely a series of balances1 a symmetrical adjustment of objects to fill a given space with not very much freedom allowed to the artist4 ,in atmosphere1 sunlight1 color1 and those peculiarly sensuous charms that belong to painting1 there is no reason to believe that the ,greeks approached the moderns4 ,their interest was chiefly centred in the human figure4 ,landscape1 with its many beauties1 was reserved for modern hands to disclose4 ,color was used in abundance1 without doubt1 but it was probably limited to the leading hues1 with little of that refinement or delicacy known in painting to-day4 ,,art ,,history3 ,for the history of ,greek painting we have to rely upon the words of ,aristotle1 ,plutarch1 ,pliny1 ,quintilian1 ,lucian1 ,cicero1 ,pausanias4 ,their accounts appear to be partly substantiated by the vase paintings1 and such few slabs and ,roman frescos as remain to us4 ,there is no consecutive narrative4 ,the story of painting originating from a girl seeing the wall-silhouette of her lover and filling it in with color1 and the conjecture of painting having developed from embroidery work1 have neither of them a foundation in fact4 ,the earliest settlers of ,greece probably learned painting from the ,phoenicians1 and employed it1 after the ,egyptian1 ,assyrian1 and ,phoenician manner1 on pottery1 terra-cotta slabs1 and rude sculpture4 ,it developed slower than sculpture perhaps2 but were there anything of importance left to judge from1 we should probably find that it developed in much the same manner as sculpture4 ,down to #ejj ,b4,c4 there was little more than outline filled in with flat monochromatic paint and with a decorative effect similar1 perhaps1 to that of the vase paintings4 ,after that date come the more important names of artists mentioned by the ancient writers4 ,it is difficult to assign these artists to certain periods or schools1 owing to the insufficient knowledge we have about them4 ,the following classifications and assignments may1 therefore1 in some instances1 be questioned4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,,muse ,,of ,,cortona1 ,,cortona ,,museum4 ,,older ,,attic ,,school3 ,the first painter of rank was ,polygnotus 7fl4 #dge-dee ,b4,c471 sometimes called the founder of ,greek painting1 because perhaps he was one of the first important painters in ,greece proper4 ,he seems to have been a good outline draughtsman1 producing figures in profile1 with little attempt at relief1 perspective1 or light-and-shade4 ,his colors were local tones1 but probably more like nature and more varied than anything in ,egyptian painting4 ,landscapes1 buildings1 and the like1 were given in a symbolic manner4 ,portraiture was a generalization1 and in figure compositions the names of the principal characters were written near them for purposes of identification4 ,the most important works of ,polygnotus were the wall paintings for the ,assembly ,room of the ,knidians at ,delphi4 ,the subjects related to the ,trojan ,war and the adventures of ,ulysses4 ,opposed to this flat1 unrelieved style was the work of a follower1 ,agatharchos of ,samos 7fl4 end of fifth century ,b4,c474 ,he was a scene-painter1 and by the necessities of his craft was led toward nature4 ,stage effect required a study of perspective1 variation of light1 and a knowledge of the laws of optics4 ,the slight outline drawing of his predecessor was probably superseded by effective masses to create illusion4 ,this was a distinct advance toward nature4 ,apollodorus 7fl4 end of fifth century ,b4,c47 applied the principles of ,agatharchos to figures4 ,according to ,plutarch1 he was the first to discover variation in the shade of colors1 and1 according to ,pliny1 the first master to paint objects as they appeared in nature4 ,he had the title of skiagraphos 7shadow-painter71 and possibly gave a semi-natural background with perspective4 ,this was an improvement1 but not a perfection4 ,it is not likely that the backgrounds were other than conventional settings for the figure4 ,even these were not at once accepted by the painters of the period1 but were turned to profit in the hands of the followers4 ,after the ,peloponnesian ,wars the art of painting seems to have flourished elsewhere than in ,athens1 owing to the ,athenian loss of supremacy4 ,other schools sprang up in various districts1 and one to call for considerable mention by the ancient writers was the ,,ionian ,,school1 which in reality had existed from the sixth century4 ,the painters of this school advanced upon the work of ,apollodorus as regards realistic effect4 ,zeuxis1 whose fame was at its height during the ,peloponnesian ,wars1 seems to have regarded art as a matter of illusion1 if one may judge by the stories told of his work4 ,the tale of his painting a bunch of grapes so like reality that the birds came to peck at them proves either that the painter's motive was deception1 or that the narrator of the tale picked out the deceptive part of his picture for admiration4 ,he painted many subjects1 like ,helen1 ,penelope1 and many genre pieces on panel4 ,quintilian says he originated light-and-shade1 an achievement credited by ,plutarch to ,apollodorus4 ,it is probable that he advanced light-and-shade4 ,in illusion he seems to have been outdone by a rival1 ,parrhasios of ,ephesus4 ,zeuxis deceived the birds with painted grapes1 but ,parrhasios deceived ,zeuxis with a painted curtain4 ,there must have been knowledge of color1 modelling1 and relief to have produced such an illusion1 but the aim was petty and unworthy of the skill4 ,there was evidently an advance technically1 but some decline in the true spirit of art4 ,parrhasios finally suffered defeat at the hands of ,timanthes of ,kythnos1 by a ,contest between ,ajax and ,ulysses for the ,arms of ,achilles4 ,timanthes's famous work was the ,sacrifice of ,iphigenia1 of which there is a supposed ,pompeian copy4 ,,sikyonian ,,school3 ,this school seems to have sprung up after the ,peloponnesian ,wars1 and was perhaps founded by ,eupompos1 a contemporary of ,parrhasios4 ,his pupil ,pamphilos brought the school to maturity4 ,he apparently reacted from the deception motive of ,zeuxis and ,parrhasios1 and taught academic methods of drawing1 composing1 and painting4 ,he was also credited with bringing into use the encaustic method of painting1 though it was probably known before his time4 ,his pupil1 ,pausias1 possessed some freedom of creation in genre and still-life subjects4 ,pliny says he had great technical skill1 as shown in the foreshortening of a black ox by variations of the black tones1 and he obtained some fame by a figure of ,methe 7,intoxication7 drinking from a glass1 the face being seen through the glass4 ,again the motives seem trifling1 but again advancing technical power is shown4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,,odyssey ,,landscape1 ,,vatican4 7,,from ,,woltmann ,,and ,,woermann47 ,,theban-,,attic ,,school3 ,this was the fourth school of ,greek painting4 ,nikomachus 7fl4 about #cfj ,b4,c471 a facile painter1 was at its head4 ,his pupil1 ,aristides1 painted pathetic scenes1 and was perhaps as remarkable for teaching art to the celebrated ,euphranor 7fl4 #cfj ,b4,c47 as for his own productions4 ,euphranor had great versatility in the arts1 and in painting was renowned for his pictures of the ,olympian gods at ,athens4 ,his successor1 ,nikias 7fl4 #cdj-cjj ,b4,c471 was a contemporary of ,praxiteles1 the sculptor1 and was possibly influenced by him in the painting of female figures4 ,he was a technician of ability in composition1 light-and-shade1 and relief1 and was praised for the roundness of his figures4 ,he also did some tinting of sculpture1 and is said to have tinted some of the works of ,praxiteles4 ,,late ,,painters3 ,contemporary with and following these last-named artists were some celebrated painters who really belong to the beginning of the ,hellenistic ,period 7#cbc ,b4,c474 ,at their head was ,apelles1 the painter of ,philip and ,alexander1 and the climax of ,greek painting4 ,he painted many gods1 heroes1 and allegories1 with much gracefulness1 as ,pliny puts it4 ,the ,italian ,botticelli1 seventeen hundred years after him1 tried to reproduce his celebrated ,calumny1 from ,lucian's description of it4 ,his chief works were his ,aphrodite ,anadyomene1 carried to ,rome by ,augustus1 and the portrait of ,alexander with the ,thunder-bolt4 ,he was undoubtedly a superior man technically4 ,protogenes rivalled him1 if we are to believe ,petronius1 by the foam on a dog's mouth and the wonder in the eye of a startled pheasant4 ,aetion1 the painter of ,alexander's ,marriage to ,roxana1 was not able to turn the aim of painting from this deceptive illusion4 ,after ,alexander1 painting passed still further into the imitative and the theatrical1 and when not grandiloquent was infinitely little over cobbler-shops and huckster-stalls4 ,landscape for purposes of decorative composition1 and floor painting1 done in mosaic1 came in during the time of the ,diadochi4 ,there were no great names in the latter days1 and such painters as still flourished passed on to ,rome1 there to produce copies of the works of their predecessors4 ,it is hard to reconcile the unworthy motive attributed to ,greek painting by the ancient writers with the high aim of ,greek sculpture4 ,it is easier to think 7and it is more probable7 that the writers knew very little about art1 and that they missed the spirit of ,greek painting in admiring its insignificant details4 ,that painting technically was at a high point of perfection as regards the figure1 even the imitative ,roman works indicate1 and it can hardly be doubted that in spirit it was at one time equally strong4 ,,extant ,,remains3 ,there are few wall or panel pictures of ,greek times in existence4 ,four slabs of stone in the ,naples ,museum1 with red outline drawings of ,theseus1 ,silenos1 and some figures with masks1 are probably ,greek work from which the color has scaled4 ,a number of ,roman copies of ,greek frescos and mosaics are in the ,vatican1 ,capitoline1 and ,naples ,museums4 ,all these pieces show an imitation of late ,hellenistic art--not the best period of ,greek development4 ,,the ,,vases3 ,the history of ,greek painting in its remains is traced with some accuracy in the decorative figures upon the vases4 ,the first ware--dating before the seventh century ,b4,c4--seems free from oriental influences in its designs4 ,the vase is reddish1 the decoration is in tiers1 bands1 or zig-zags1 usually in black or brown1 without the human figure4 ,the second kind of ware dates from about the middle of the seventh century4 ,it shows meander1 wave1 and other designs1 and is called the geometrical style4 ,later on animals1 rosettes1 and vegetation appear that show ,assyrian influence4 ,the decoration is profuse and the rude human figure subordinate to it4 ,the design is in black or dark-brown1 on a cream-colored slip4 ,the third kind of ware is the archaic or strong style4 ,it dates from #ejj ,b4,c4 to the ,peloponnesian ,wars1 and is marked by black figures upon a yellow or red ground4 ,white and purple are also used to define flesh1 hair1 and white objects4 ,the figure is stiff1 the action awkward1 the composition is freer than before1 but still conventional4 ,the subjects are the gods1 demi-gods1 and heroes in scenes from their lives and adventures4 ,the fourth kind of ware dates down into the ,hellenistic age and shows red figures surrounded by a black ground4 ,the figure1 the drawing1 the composition are better than at any other period and suggest a high excellence in other forms of ,greek painting4 ,after ,alexander1 vase painting seems to have shared the fate of wall and panel painting4 ,there was a striving for effect1 with ornateness and extravagance1 and finally the art passed out entirely4 ,there was an establishment founded in ,southern ,italy which imitated the ,greek and produced the ,apulian ware1 but the ,romans gave little encouragement to vase painting1 and about #fe ,b4,c4 it disappeared4 ,almost all the museums of the world have collections of ,greek vases4 ,the ,british1 ,berlin1 and ,paris collections are perhaps as complete as any4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,,amphore1 ,,lower ,,italy4 ,,etruscan ,,and ,,roman ,,painting4 ,,books ,,recommended3 ,see ,bibliography of ,greek ,painting and also ,dennis1 ,cities and ,cemeteries of ,etruria2 ,graul1 ,die ,portratgemalde aus den ,grabstatten des ,faiyum2 ,helbig1 ,die ,wandgemalde ,campaniens2 ,helbig1 ,untersuchungen uber die ,campanische ,wandmalerei2 ,mau1 ,geschichte der ,decorativen ,wandmalerei in ,pompeii2 ,martha1 ,l',archeologie ,etrusque et ,romaine4 ,,etruscan ,,painting3 ,painting in ,etruria has not a great deal of interest for us just here4 ,it was largely decorative and sepulchral in motive1 and was employed in the painting of tombs1 and upon vases and other objects placed in the tombs4 ,it had a native way of expressing itself1 which at first was neither ,greek nor ,oriental1 and yet a reminder of both4 ,technically it was not well done4 ,before #ejj ,b4,c4 it was almost childish in the drawing4 ,after that date the figures were better1 though short and squat4 ,those on the vases usually show outline drawing filled in with dull browns and yellows4 ,finally there was a mingling of ,etruscan with ,greek elements1 and an imitation of ,greek methods4 ,it was at best a hybrid art1 but of some importance from an archaeological point of view4 ,,roman ,,painting3 ,roman art is an appendix to the art history of ,greece4 ,it originated little in painting1 and was content to perpetuate the traditions of ,greece in an imitative way4 ,what was worse1 it copied the degeneracy of ,greece by following the degenerate ,hellenistic paintings4 ,in motive and method it was substantially the same work as that of the ,greeks under the ,diadochi4 ,the subjects1 again1 were often taken from ,greek story1 though there were ,roman historical scenes1 genre pieces1 and many portraits4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,,ritual ,,scene1 ,,palatine ,,wall ,,painting4 7,,from ,,woltmann ,,and ,,woermann47 ,in the beginning of the ,empire tablet or panel painting was rather abandoned in favor of mural decoration4 ,that is to say1 figures or groups were painted in fresco on the wall and then surrounded by geometrical1 floral1 or architectural designs to give the effect of a panel let into the wall4 ,thus painting assumed a more decorative nature4 ,vitruvius says in effect that in the early days nature was followed in these wall paintings1 but later on they became ornate and overdone1 showing many unsupported architectural facades and impossible decorative framings4 ,this can be traced in the ,roman and ,pompeian frescos4 ,there were four kinds of these wall paintings4 7#a47 ,those that covered all the walls of a room and did away with dado1 frieze1 and the like1 such as figures with large landscape backgrounds showing villas and trees4 7#b47 ,small paintings separated or framed by pilasters4 7#c47 ,panel pictures let into the wall or painted with that effect4 7#d47 ,single figures with architectural backgrounds4 ,the single figures were usually the best4 ,they had grace of line and motion and all the truth to nature that decoration required4 ,some of the backgrounds were flat tints of red or black against which the figure was placed4 ,in the larger pieces the composition was rather rambling and disjointed1 and the color harsh4 ,in light-and-shade and relief they probably followed the ,greek example4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,,portrait-,,head4 7,,from ,,fayoum1 ,,graf ,,col47 ,,roman ,,painters3 ,during the first five centuries ,rome was between the influences of ,etruria and ,greece4 ,the first paintings in ,rome of which there is record were done in the ,temple of ,ceres by the ,greek artists of ,lower ,italy1 ,gorgasos and ,damophilos 7fl4 #dic ,b4,c474 ,they were doubtless somewhat like the vase paintings--profile work1 without light1 shade1 or perspective4 ,at the time and after ,alexander ,greek influence held sway4 ,fabius ,pictor 7fl4 about #cjj ,b4,c47 is one of the celebrated names in historical painting1 and later on ,pacuvius1 ,metrodorus1 and ,serapion are mentioned4 ,in the last century of the ,republic1 ,sopolis1 ,dionysius1 and ,antiochus ,gabinius excelled in portraiture4 ,ancient painting really ends for us with the destruction of ,pompeii 7#gi ,a4,d471 though after that there were interesting portraits produced1 especially those found in the ,fayoum 7,egypt74#a ,footnote #a3 ,see ,scribner's ,magazine1 vol4 v41 p4 #bai1 ,new ,series4 ,,extant ,,remains3 ,the frescos that are left to us to-day are largely the work of mechanical decorators rather than creative artists4 ,they are to be seen in ,rome1 in the ,baths of ,titus1 the ,vatican1 ,livia's ,villa1 ,farnesina1 ,rospigliosi1 and ,barberini ,palaces1 ,baths of ,caracalla1 ,capitoline and ,lateran ,museums1 in the houses of excavated ,pompeii1 and the ,naples ,museum4 ,besides these there are examples of ,roman fresco and distemper in the ,louvre and other ,european ,museums4 ,examples of ,etruscan painting are to be seen in the ,vatican1 ,cortona1 the ,louvre1 the ,british ,museum and elsewhere4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,italian ,,painting4 ,,early ,,christian ,,and ,,mediaeval ,,period4 #bjj-abej4 ,,books ,,recommended3 ,bayet1 ,l',art ,byzantin2 ,bennett1 ,christian ,archaeology2 ,bosio1 ,la ,roma ,sotterranea2 ,burckhardt1 ,the ,cicerone1 an ,art ,guide to ,painting in ,italy1 ed4 by ,crowe2 ,crowe and ,cavalcaselle1 ,new ,history of ,painting in ,italy2 ,de ,rossi1 ,la ,roma ,sotterranea ,cristiana2 ,de ,rossi1 ,bullettino di ,archeologia ,cristiana2 ,didron1 ,christian ,iconography2 ,eastlake 7,kuegler's71 ,handbook of ,painting--,the ,italian ,schools2 ,garrucci1 ,storia dell' ,arte ,cristiana2 ,gerspach1 ,la ,mosaique2 ,lafenestre1 ,la ,peinture ,italienne2 ,lanzi1 ,history of ,painting in ,italy2 ,lecoy de la ,marche1 ,les ,manuscrits et la ,miniature2 ,lindsay1 ,sketches of the ,history of ,christian ,art2 ,martigny1 ,dictionnaire des ,antiques ,chretiennes2 ,perate1 ,l',archeologie ,chretienne2 ,reber1 ,history of ,mediaeval ,art2 ,rio1 ,poetry of ,christian ,art2 ,lethaby1 ,medieval ,art2 ,smith and ,cheetham1 ,dictionary of ,christian ,antiquities4 ,,rise ,,of ,,christianity3 ,out of the decaying civilization of ,rome sprang into life that remarkable growth known as ,christianity4 ,it was not welcomed by the ,romans4 ,it was scoffed at1 scourged1 persecuted1 and1 at one time1 nearly exterminated4 ,but its vitality was stronger than that of its persecutor1 and when ,rome declined1 ,christianity utilized the things that were ,roman1 while striving to live for ideas that were ,christian4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--;,,chamber ,,in ,,catacombs1 ,,showing ,,wall ,,decoration4 ,there was no revolt1 no sudden change4 ,the ,christian idea made haste slowly1 and at the start it was weighed down with many paganisms4 ,the ,christians themselves in all save religious faith1 were ,romans1 and inherited ,roman tastes1 manners1 and methods4 ,but the ,roman world1 with all its classicism and learning1 was dying4 ,the decline socially and intellectually was with the ,christians as well as the ,romans4 ,there was good reason for it4 ,the times were out of joint1 and almost everything was disorganized1 worn out1 decadent4 ,the military life of the ,empire had begun to give way to the monastic and feudal life of the ,church4 ,quarrels and wars between the powers kept life at fever heat4 ,in the fifth century came the inpouring of the ,goths and ,huns1 and with them the sacking and plunder of the land4 ,misery and squalor1 with intellectual blackness1 succeeded4 ,art1 science1 literature1 and learning degenerated to mere shadows of their former selves1 and a semi-barbarism reigned for five centuries4 ,during all this dark period ,christian painting struggled on in a feeble way1 seeking to express itself4 ,it started ,roman in form1 method1 and even1 at times1 in subject2 it ended ,christian1 but not without a long period of gradual transition1 during which it was influenced from many sources and underwent many changes4 ,,art ,,motives3 ,as in the ancient world1 there were two principal motives for painting in early ,christian times--religion and decoration4 ,religion was the chief motive1 but ,christianity was a very different religion from that of the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,the ,hellenistic faith was a worship of nature1 a glorification of humanity1 an exaltation of physical and moral perfections4 ,it dealt with the material and the tangible1 and ,greek art appealed directly to the sensuous and earthly nature of mankind4 ,the ,hebraic faith or ,christianity was just the opposite of this4 ,it decried the human1 the flesh1 and the worldly4 ,it would have nothing to do with the beauty of this earth4 ,its hopes were centred upon the life hereafter4 ,the teaching of ,christ was the humility and the abasement of the human in favor of the spiritual and the divine4 ,where ,hellenism appealed to the senses1 ,hebraism appealed to the spirit4 ,in art the fine athletic figure1 or1 for that matter1 any figure1 was an abomination4 ,the early ,church fathers opposed it4 ,it was forbidden by the ,mosaic decalogue and savored of idolatry4 ,but what should take its place in art8 ,how could the new ,christian ideas be expressed without form8 ,symbolism came in1 but it was insufficient4 ,a party in the ,church rose up in favor of more direct representation4 ,art should be used as an engine of the ,church to teach the ,bible to those who could not read4 ,this argument held good1 and notwithstanding the opposition of the ,iconoclastic party painting grew in favor4 ,it lent itself to teaching and came under ecclesiastical domination4 ,as it left the nature of the classic world and loosened its grasp on things tangible it became feeble and decrepit in its form4 ,while it grew in sentiment and religious fervor it lost in bodily vigor and technical ability4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,,catacomb ,,fresco4 ,,crypt ,,of ,s4 ,,cecilia4 ,,third ,,century4 ,for many centuries the religious motive held strong1 and art was the servant of the ,church4 ,it taught the ,bible truths1 but it also embellished and adorned the interiors of the churches4 ,all the frescos1 mosaics1 and altar-pieces had a decorative motive in their coloring and setting4 ,the church building was a house of refuge for the oppressed1 and it was made attractive not only in its lines and proportions but in its ornamentation4 ,hence the two motives of the early work--religious teaching and decoration4 ,,subjects ,,and ,,technical ,,methods3 ,there was no distinct ,judaic or ,christian type used in the very early art4 ,the painters took their models directly from the ,roman frescos and marbles4 ,it was the classic figure and the classic costume1 and those who produced the painting of the early period were the degenerate painters of the classic world4 ,the figure was rather short and squat1 coarse in the joints1 hands1 and feet1 and almost expressionless in the face4 ,christian life at that time was passion-strung1 but the faces in art do not show it1 for the reason that the ,roman frescos were the painter's model1 not the people of the ,christian community about him4 ,there was nothing like a realistic presentation at this time4 ,the type alone was given4 ,in the drawing it was not so good as that shown in the ,roman and ,pompeian frescos4 ,there was a mechanism about its production1 a copying by unskilled hands1 a negligence or an ignorance of form that showed everywhere4 ,the coloring1 again1 was a conventional scheme of flat tints in reddish-browns and bluish-greens1 with heavy outline bands of brown4 ,there was little perspective or background1 and the figures in panels were separated by vines1 leaves1 or other ornamental division lines4 ,some relief was given to the figure by the brown outlines4 ,light-and-shade was not well rendered1 and composition was formal4 ,the great part of this early work was done in fresco after the ,roman formula1 and was executed on the walls of the ,catacombs4 ,other forms of art showed in the gilded glasses1 in manuscript illumination1 and1 later1 in the mosaics4 ,technically the work begins to decline from the beginning in proportion as painting was removed from the knowledge of the ancient world4 ,about the fifth century the figure grew heavy and stiff4 ,a new type began to show itself4 ,the ,roman toga was exchanged for the long liturgical garment which hid the proportions of the body1 the lines grew hard and dark1 a golden nimbus appeared about the head1 and the patriarchal in appearance came into art4 ,the youthful ,orphic face of ,christ changed to a solemn visage1 with large1 round eyes1 saint-like beard1 and melancholy air4 ,the classic qualities were fast disappearing4 ,eastern types and elements were being introduced through ,byzantium4 ,oriental ornamentation1 gold embossing1 rich color were doing away with form1 perspective1 light-and-shade1 and background4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,,christ ,,as ,,good ,,shepherd4 ,,mosaic1 ,,ravenna1 ,,fifth ,,century4 ,the color was rich and the mechanical workmanship fair for the time1 but the figure had become paralytic4 ,it shrouded itself in a sack-like brocaded gown1 had no feet at times1 and instead of standing on the ground hung in the air4 ,facial expression ran to contorted features1 holiness became moroseness1 and sadness sulkiness4 ,the flesh was brown1 the shadows green-tinted1 giving an unhealthy look to the faces4 ,add to this the gold ground 7a ,persian inheritance71 the gilded high lights1 the absence of perspective1 and the composing of groups so that the figures looked piled one upon another instead of receding1 and we have the style of painting that prevailed in ,byzantium and ,italy from about the ninth to the thirteenth century4 ,nothing of a technical nature was in its favor except the rich coloring and the mechanical adroitness of the fitting4 ,,early ,,christian ,,painting3 ,the earliest ,christian painting appeared on the walls of the ,catacombs in ,rome4 ,these were decorated with panels and within the panels were representations of trailing vines1 leaves1 fruits1 flowers1 with birds and little genii or cupids4 ,it was painting similar to the ,roman work1 and had no ,christian significance though in a ,christian place4 ,not long after1 however1 the desire to express something of the faith began to show itself in a symbolic way4 ,the cups and the vases became marked with the fish1 because the ,greek spelling of the word icthus gave the initials of the ,christian confession of faith4 ,the paintings of the shepherd bearing a sheep symbolized ,christ and his flock2 the anchor meant the ,christian hope2 the phoenix immortality2 the ship the ,church2 the cock watchfulness1 and so on4 ,and at this time the decorations began to have a double meaning4 ,the vine came to represent the ,i am the vine and the birds grew longer wings and became doves1 symbolizing pure ,christian souls4 ,it has been said this form of art came about through fear of persecution1 that the ,christians hid their ideas in symbols because open representation would be followed by violence and desecration4 ,such was hardly the case4 ,the emperors persecuted the living1 but the dead and their sepulchres were exempt from sacrilege by ,roman law4 ,they probably used the symbol because they feared the ,roman figure and knew no other form to take its place4 ,but symbolism did not supply the popular need2 it was impossible to originate an entirely new figure2 so the painters went back and borrowed the old ,roman form4 ,christ appeared as a beardless youth in ,phrygian costume1 the ,virgin ,mary was a ,roman matron1 and the ,apostles looked like ,roman senators wearing the toga4 ,classic story was also borrowed to illustrate ,bible truth4 ,hermes carrying the sheep was the ,good ,shepherd1 ,psyche discovering ,cupid was the curiosity of ,eve1 ,ulysses closing his ears to the ,sirens was the ,christian resisting the tempter4 ,the pagan ,orpheus charming the animals of the wood was finally adopted as a symbol1 or perhaps an ideal likeness of ,christ4 ,then followed more direct representation in classic form and manner1 the ,old ,testament prefiguring and emphasizing the ,new4 ,jonah appeared cast into the sea and cast by the whale on dry land again as a symbol of the ,new ,testament resurrection1 and also as a representation of the actual occurrence4 ,moses striking the rock symbolized life eternal1 and ,david slaying ,goliath was ,christ victorious4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--;,,christ ,,and ,,saints4 ,,fresco4 ,s4 ,,generosa1 ,,seventh ,,century 7874 ,the chronology of the ,catacombs painting is very much mixed1 but it is quite certain there was degeneracy from the start4 ,the cause was neglect of form1 neglect of art as art1 mechanical copying instead of nature study1 and finally1 the predominance of the religious idea over the forms of nature4 ,with ,constantine ,christianity was recognized as the national religion4 ,christian art came out of the ,catacombs and began to show itself in illuminations1 mosaics1 and church decorations4 ,notwithstanding it was now free from restraint it did not improve4 ,church traditions prevailed1 sentiment bordered upon sentimentality1 and the technic of painting passed from bad to worse4 ,the decline continued during the sixth and seventh centuries1 owing somewhat perhaps to the influence of ,byzantium and the introduction into ,italy of ,eastern types and elements4 ,in the eighth century the ,iconoclastic controversy broke out again in fury with the edict of ,leo the ,isaurian4 ,this controversy was a renewal of the old quarrel in the ,church about the use of pictures and images4 ,some wished them for instruction in the ,word2 others decried them as leading to idolatry4 ,it was a long quarrel of over a hundred years' duration1 and a deadly one for art4 ,when it ended1 the artists were ordered to follow the traditions1 not to make any new creations1 and not to model any figure in the round4 ,the nature element in art was quite dead at that time1 and the order resulted only in diverting the course of painting toward the unrestricted miniatures and manuscripts4 ,the native ,italian art was crushed for a time by this new ecclesiastical burden4 ,it did not entirely disappear1 but it gave way to the stronger1 though equally restricted art that had been encroaching upon it for a long time--the art of ,byzantium4 ,,byzantine ,,painting3 ,constantinople was rebuilt and rechristened by ,constantine1 a ,christian emperor1 in the year #cbh ,a4,d4 ,it became a stronghold of ,christian traditions1 manners1 customs1 art4 ,but it was not quite the same civilization as that of ,rome and the ,west4 ,it was bordered on the south and east by oriental influences1 and much of ,eastern thought1 method1 and glamour found its way into the ,christian community4 ,the artists fought this influence1 stickling a long time for the severer classicism of ancient ,greece4 ,for when ,rome fell the traditions of the ,old ,world centred around ,constantinople4 ,but classic form was ever being encroached upon by oriental richness of material and color4 ,the struggle was a long but hopeless one4 ,as in ,italy1 form failed century by century4 ,when1 in the eighth century1 the ,iconoclastic controversy cut away the little ,greek existing in it1 the oriental ornament was about all that remained4 ,there was no chance for painting to rise under the prevailing conditions4 ,free artistic creation was denied the artist4 ,an advocate of painting at the ,second ,nicene ,council declared that3 ,it is not the invention of the painter that creates the picture1 but an inviolable law of the ,catholic ,church4 ,it is not the painter but the holy fathers who have to invent and dictate4 ,to them manifestly belongs the composition1 to the painter only the execution4 ,painting was in a strait-jacket4 ,it had to follow precedent and copy what had gone before in old ,byzantine patterns4 ,both in ,italy and in ,byzantium the creative artist had passed away in favor of the skilled artisan--the repeater of time-honored forms or colors4 ,the workmanship was good for the time1 and the coloring and ornamental borders made a rich setting1 but the real life of art had gone4 ,a long period of heavy1 morose1 almost formless art1 eloquent of mediaeval darkness and ignorance1 followed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--;,,ezekiel ,,before ,,the ,,lord4 ,,ms4 ,,illumination4 ,,paris1 ,,ninth ,,century4 ,it is strange that such an art should be adopted by foreign nations1 and yet it was4 ,its bloody crucifixions and morbid madonnas were well fitted to the dark view of life held during the ,middle ,ages1 and its influence was wide-spread and of long duration4 ,it affected ,french and ,german art1 it ruled at the ,north1 and in the ,east it lives even to this day4 ,that it strongly affected ,italy is a very apparent fact4 ,just when it first began to show its influence there is matter of dispute4 ,it probably gained a foothold at ,ravenna in the sixth century1 when that province became a part of the empire of ,justinian4 ,later it permeated ,rome1 ,sicily1 and ,naples at the south1 and ,venice at the north4 ,with the decline of the early ,christian art of ,italy this richer1 and in many ways more acceptable1 ,byzantine art came in1 and1 with ,italian modifications1 usurped the field4 ,it did not literally crush out the native ,italian art1 but practically it superseded it1 or held it in check1 from the ninth to the twelfth century4 ,after that the corrupted ,italian art once more came to the front4 ,,early ,,christian ,,and ,,byzantine ,,remains3 ,the best examples of ,early ,christian painting are still to be seen in the ,catacombs at ,rome4 ,mosaics in the early churches of ,rome1 ,ravenna1 ,naples1 ,venice1 ,constantinople4 ,sculptures1 ivories1 and glasses in the ,lateran1 ,ravenna1 and ,vatican museums4 ,illuminations in ,vatican and ,paris libraries4 ,almost all the museums of ,europe1 those of the ,vatican and ,naples particularly1 have some examples of ,byzantine work4 ,the older altar-pieces of the early ,italian churches date back to the mediaeval period and show ,byzantine influence4 ,the altar-pieces of the ,greek and ,russian churches show the same influence even in modern work4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,italian ,,painting4 ,,gothic ,,period4 #abej-adjj4 ,,books ,,recommended3 ,as before1 ,burckhardt1 ,crowe and ,cavalcaselle1 ,eastlake1 ,lafenestre1 ,lanzi1 ,lindsay1 ,reber2 also ,burton1 ,catalogue of ,pictures in the ,national ,gallery1 ,london 7unabridged edition72 ,cartier1 ,vie de ,fra ,angelico2 ,foerster1 ,leben und ,werke des ,fra ,angelico2 ,habich1 ,vade ,mecum pour la ,peinture ,italienne des ,anciens ,maitres2 ,lacroix1 ,les ,arts au ,moyen-,age et a la ,epoque de la ,renaissance2 ,mantz1 ,les ,chefs-d'oeuvre de la ,peinture ,italienne2 ,morelli1 ,italian ,masters in ,german ,galleries2 ,morelli1 ,italian ,masters1 ,critical ,studies in their ,works2 ,rumohr1 ,italienische ,forschungen2 ,selincourt1 ,giotto2 ,stillman1 ,old ,italian ,masters2 ,vasari1 ,lives of the ,most ,eminent ,painters2 consult also ,general ,bibliography 7p4 xv74 ,,signs ,,of ,,the ,,awakening3 ,it would seem at first as though nothing but self-destruction could come to that struggling1 praying1 throat-cutting population that terrorized ,italy during the ,mediaeval ,period4 ,the people were ignorant1 the rulers treacherous1 the passions strong1 and yet out of the ,dark ,ages came light4 ,in the thirteenth century the light grew brighter1 but the internal dissensions did not cease4 ,the ,hohenstaufen power was broken1 the imperial rule in ,italy was crushed4 ,pope and emperor no longer warred each other1 but the cries of ,guelf and ,ghibelline had not died out4 ,throughout the entire ,romanesque and ,gothic periods 7#ajjj-adjj7 ,italy was torn by political wars1 though the free cities1 through their leagues of protection and their commerce1 were prosperous4 ,a commercial rivalry sprang up among the cities4 ,trade with the ,east1 manufactures1 banking1 all flourished2 and even the philosophies1 with law1 science1 and literature1 began to be studied4 ,the spirit of learning showed itself in the founding of schools and universities4 ,dante1 ,petrarch1 and ,boccaccio1 reflecting respectively religion1 classic learning1 and the inclination toward nature1 lived and gave indication of the trend of thought4 ,finally the arts1 architecture1 sculpture1 painting1 began to stir and take upon themselves new appearances4 ,,subjects ,,and ,,methods3 ,in painting1 though there were some portraits and allegorical scenes produced during the ,gothic period1 the chief theme was ,bible story4 ,the ,church was the patron1 and art was only the servant1 as it had been from the beginning4 ,it was the instructor and consoler of the faithful1 a means whereby the ,church made converts1 and an adornment of wall and altar4 ,it had not entirely escaped from symbolism4 ,it was still the portrayal of things for what they meant1 rather than for what they looked4 ,there was no such thing then as art for art's sake4 ,it was art for religion's sake4 ,the demand for painting increased1 and its subjects multiplied with the establishment at this time of the two powerful orders of ,dominican and ,franciscan monks4 ,the first exacted from the painters more learned and instructive work2 the second wished for the crucifixions1 the martyrdoms1 the dramatic deaths1 wherewith to move people by emotional appeal4 ,to offset this the ultra-religious character of painting was encroached upon somewhat by the growth of the painters' guilds1 and art production largely passing into the hands of laymen4 ,in consequence painting produced many themes1 but1 as yet1 only after the ,byzantine style4 ,the painter was more of a workman than an artist4 ,the ,church had more use for his fingers than for his creative ability4 ,it was his business to transcribe what had gone before4 ,this he did1 but not without signs here and there of uneasiness and discontent with the pattern4 ,there was an inclination toward something truer to nature1 but1 as yet1 no great realization of it4 ,the study of nature came in very slowly1 and painting was not positive in statement until the time of ,giotto and ,lorenzetti4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--;,,giotto1 ,,flight ,,into ,,egypt4 ,,arena ,,chap4 ,,padua4 ,the best paintings during the ,gothic period were executed upon the walls of the churches in fresco4 ,the prepared color was laid on wet plaster1 and allowed to soak in4 ,the small altar and panel pictures were painted in distemper1 the gold ground and many ,byzantine features being retained by most of the painters1 though discarded by some few4 ,,changes ,,in ,,the ,,type1 ,,etc43 ,the advance of ,italian art in the ,gothic age was an advance through the development of the imposed ,byzantine pattern4 ,it was not a revolt or a starting out anew on a wholly original path4 ,when people began to stir intellectually the artists found that the old ,byzantine model did not look like nature4 ,they began1 not by rejecting it1 but by improving it1 giving it slight movements here and there1 turning the head1 throwing out a hand1 or shifting the folds of drapery4 ,the ,eastern type was still seen in the long pathetic face1 oblique eyes1 green flesh tints1 stiff robes1 thin fingers1 and absence of feet2 but the painters now began to modify and enliven it4 ,more realistic ,italian faces were introduced1 architectural and landscape backgrounds encroached upon the ,byzantine gold grounds1 even portraiture was taken up4 ,this looks very much like realism1 but we must not lay too much stress upon it4 ,the painters were taking notes of natural appearances4 ,it showed in features like the hands1 feet1 and drapery2 but the anatomy of the body had not yet been studied1 and there is no reason to believe their study of the face was more than casual1 nor their portraits more than records from memory4 ,no one painter began this movement4 ,the whole artistic region of ,italy was at that time ready for the advance4 ,that all the painters moved at about the same pace1 and continued to move at that pace down to the fifteenth century1 that they all based themselves upon ,byzantine teaching1 and that they all had a similar style of working is proved by the great difficulty in attributing their existing pictures to certain masters1 or even certain schools4 ,there are plenty of pictures in ,italy to-day that might be attributed to either ,florence or ,sienna1 ,giotto or ,lorenzetti1 or some other master2 because though each master and each school had slight peculiarities1 yet they all had a common origin in the art traditions of the time4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,,orcagna1 ,,paradise 7,,detail74 ,s4 ,m4 ,,novella1 ,,florence4 ,,florentine ,,school3 ,cimabue 7#abdj8-acjb87 seems the most notable instance in early times of a ,byzantine-educated painter who improved upon the traditions4 ,he has been called the father of ,italian painting1 but ,italian painting had no father4 ,cimabue was simply a man of more originality and ability than his contemporaries1 and departed further from the art teachings of the time without decidedly opposing them4 ,he retained the ,byzantine pattern1 but loosened the lines of drapery somewhat1 turned the head to one side1 infused the figure with a little appearance of life4 ,his contemporaries elsewhere in ,italy were doing the same thing1 and none of them was any more than a link in the progressive chain4 ,cimabue's pupil1 ,giotto 7#abff8-accg71 was a great improver on all his predecessors because he was a man of extraordinary genius4 ,he would have been great in any time1 and yet he was not great enough to throw off wholly the ,byzantine traditions4 ,he tried to do it4 ,he studied nature in a general way1 changed the type of face somewhat by making the jaw squarer1 and gave it expression and nobility4 ,to the figure he gave more motion1 dramatic gesture1 life4 ,the drapery was cast in broader1 simpler masses1 with some regard for line1 and the form and movement of the body were somewhat emphasized through it4 ,in methods ,giotto was more knowing1 but not essentially different from his contemporaries2 his subjects were from the common stock of religious story2 but his imaginative force and invention were his own4 ,bound by the conventionalities of his time he could still create a work of nobility and power4 ,he came too early for the highest achievement4 ,he had genius1 feeling1 fancy1 almost everything except accurate knowledge of the laws of nature and art4 ,his art was the best of its time1 but it still lacked1 nor did that of his immediate followers go much beyond it technically4 ,taddeo ,gaddi 7#acjj8-acff87 was ,giotto's chief pupil1 a painter of much feeling1 but lacking in the large elements of construction and in the dramatic force of his master4 ,agnolo ,gaddi 7#accc8-acif871 ,antonio ,veneziano 7#acab8-achh871 ,giovanni da ,milano 7fl4 #acff71 ,andrea da ,firenze 7fl4 #acgg71 were all followers of the ,giotto methods1 and were so similar in their styles that their works are often confused and erroneously attributed4 ,giottino 7#acbd8-aceg87 was a supposed imitator of ,giotto1 of whom little is known4 ,orcagna 7#acbi8-acgf87 still further advanced the ,giottesque type and method4 ,he gathered up and united in himself all the art teachings of his time4 ,in working out problems of form and in delicacy and charm of expression he went beyond his predecessors4 ,he was a many-sided genius1 knowing not only in a matter of natural appearance1 but in color problems1 in perspective1 shadows1 and light4 ,his art was further along toward the ,renaissance than that of any other ,giottesque4 ,he almost changed the character of painting1 and yet did not live near enough to the fifteenth century to accomplish it completely4 ,spinello ,aretino 7#accb8-adaj87 was the last of the great ,giotto followers4 ,he carried out the teachings of the school in technical features1 such as composition1 drawing1 and relief by color rather than by light1 but he lacked the creative power of ,giotto4 ,in fact1 none of the ,giottesque can be said to have improved upon the master1 taking him as a whole4 ,toward the beginning of the fifteenth century the school rather declined4 ,,siennese ,,school3 ,the art teachings and traditions of the past seemed deeper rooted at ,sienna than at ,florence4 ,nor was there so much attempt to shake them off as at ,florence4 ,giotto broke the immobility of the ,byzantine model by showing the draped figure in action4 ,so also did the ,siennese to some extent1 but they cared more for the expression of the spiritual than the beauty of the natural4 ,the ,florentines were robust1 resolute1 even a little coarse at times2 the ,siennese were more refined and sentimental4 ,their fancy ran to sweetness of face rather than to bodily vigor4 ,again1 their art was more ornate1 richer in costume1 color1 and detail than ,florentine art2 but it was also more finical and narrow in scope4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--;,a4 ,,lorenzetti4 ,,peace 7,,detail74 ,,town-,,hall1 ,,sienna4 ,there was little advance upon ,byzantinism in the work of ,guido da ,sienna 7fl4 #abge74 ,even ,duccio 7#abfj8----871 the real founder of the ,siennese school1 retained ,byzantine methods and adopted the school subjects1 but he perfected details of form1 such as the hands and feet1 and while retaining the long ,byzantine face1 gave it a melancholy tenderness of expression4 ,he possessed no dramatic force1 but had a refined workmanship for his time--a workmanship perhaps better1 all told1 than that of his ,florentine contemporary1 ,cimabue4 ,simone di ,martino 7#abhc8-acdd87 changed the type somewhat by rounding the form4 ,his drawing was not always correct1 but in color he was good and in detail exact and minute4 ,he probably profited somewhat by the example of ,giotto4 ,the ,siennese who came the nearest to ,giotto's excellence were the brothers ,ambrogio 7fl4 #acdb7 and ,pietro 7fl4 #acej7 ,lorenzetti4 ,there is little known about them except that they worked together in a similar manner4 ,the most of their work has perished1 but what remains shows an intellectual grasp equal to any of the age4 ,the ,sienna frescos by ,ambrogio ,lorenzetti are strong in facial character1 and some of the figures1 like that of the white-robed ,peace1 are beautiful in their flow of line4 ,lippo ,memmi 78-#acef71 ,bartolo di ,fredi 7#accj-adaj71 and ,taddeo di ,bartolo 7#acfb-adbb71 were other painters of the school4 ,the late men rather carried detail to excess1 and the school grew conventional instead of advancing4 ,,transition ,,painters3 ,several painters1 ,starnina 7#aced-adac71 ,gentile da ,fabriano 7#acfj8-addj871 ,fra ,angelico 7#achg-adee71 have been put down in art history as the makers of the transition from ,gothic to ,renaissance painting4 ,they hardly deserve the title4 ,there was no transition4 ,the development went on1 and these painters1 coming late in the fourteenth century and living into the fifteenth1 simply showed the changing style1 the advance in the study of nature and the technic of art4 ,starnina's work gave strong evidence of the study of form1 but it was no such work as ,masaccio's4 ,there is always a little of the past in the present1 and these painters showed traces of ,byzantinism in details of the face and figure1 in coloring1 and in gold embossing4 ,gentile had all that nicety of finish and richness of detail and color characteristic of the ,siennese4 ,being closer to the ,renaissance than his predecessors he was more of a nature student4 ,he was the first man to show the effect of sunlight in landscape1 the first one to put a gold sun in the sky4 ,he never1 however1 outgrew ,gothic methods and really belongs in the fourteenth century4 ,this is true of ,fra ,angelico4 ,though he lived far into the ,early ,renaissance he did not change his style and manner of work in conformity with the work of others about him4 ,he was the last inheritor of the ,giottesque traditions4 ,religious sentiment was the strong feature of his art4 ,he was behind ,giotto and ,lorenzetti in power and in imagination1 and behind ,orcagna as a painter4 ,he knew little of light1 shade1 perspective1 and color1 and in characterization was feeble1 except in some late work4 ,one face or type answered him for all classes of people--a sweet1 fair face1 full of divine tenderness4 ,his art had enough nature in it to express his meanings1 but little more4 ,he was pre-eminently a devout painter1 and really the last of the great religionists in painting4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--;,,fra ,,angelico4 ,,angel 7,,detail74 ,,uffizi4 ,the other regions of ,italy had not at this time developed schools of painting of sufficient consequence to mention4 ,,principal ,,works3 ,,florentines--,cimabue1 ,madonnas ,s4 ,m4 ,novella and ,acad4 ,florence1 frescos ,upper ,church of ,assisi 7872 ,giotto1 frescos ,upper and ,lower churches ,assisi1 best work ,arena chapel ,padua1 ,bardi and ,peruzzi chapels ,s4 ,croce1 injured frescos ,bargello ,florence2 ,taddeo ,gaddi1 frescos entrance wall ,baroncelli chapel ,s4 ,croce1 ,spanish chapel ,s4 ,m4 ,novella 7designed by ,gaddi 78772 ,agnolo ,gaddi frescos in choir ,s4 ,croce1 ,s4 ,jacopo tra ,fossi ,florence1 panel pictures ,florence ,acad42 ,giovanni da ,milano1 ,bewailing of ,christ ,florence ,acad41 ,virgin enthroned ,prato ,gal41 altar-piece ,uffizi ,gal41 frescos ,s4 ,croce ,florence2 ,antonio ,veneziano1 frescos in ceiling of ,spanish chapel1 ,s4 ,m4 ,novella1 ,campo ,santo ,pisa2 ,orcagna1 altar-piece ,last ,judgment and ,paradise ,strozzi chapel ,s4 ,m4 ,novella1 ,s4 ,zenobio ,duomo1 ,saints ,medici chapel ,s4 ,croce1 ,descent of ,holy ,spirit ,badia ,florence1 altar-piece ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon42 ,spinello ,aretino1 ,life of ,st4 ,benedict ,s4 ,miniato al ,monte near ,florence1 ,annunciation ,convent degl' ,innocenti ,arezzo1 frescos ,campo ,santo ,pisa1 ,coronation ,florence ,acad41 ,barbarossa frescos ,palazzo ,publico ,sienna2 ,andrea da ,firenze1 ,church ,militant1 ,calvary1 ,crucifixion ,spanish chapel1 ,upper series of ,life of ,s4 ,raniera ,campo ,santo ,pisa4 ,,siennese--,guido da ,sienna1 ,madonna ,s4 ,domenico ,sienna2 ,duccio1 panels ,duomo and ,acad4 ,sienna1 ,madonna ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon42 ,simone di ,martino1 frescos ,palazzo ,pubblico1 ,sienna1 altar-piece and panels ,seminario ,vescovile1 ,pisa ,gal41 altar-piece and ,madonna ,opera del ,duomo ,orvieto2 ,lippo ,memmi1 frescos ,palazzo del ,podesta ,s4 ,gemignano1 ,annunciation ,uffizi ,florence2 ,bartolo di ,fredi1 altar-pieces ,acad4 ,sienna1 ,s4 ,francesco ,montalcino2 ,taddeo di ,bartolo1 ,palazzo ,pubblico ,sienna1 ,duomo1 ,s4 ,gemignano1 ,s4 ,francesco ,pisa2 ,ambrogio ,lorenzetti1 frescos ,palazzo ,pubblico ,sienna1 ,triumph of ,death 7with ,pietro ,lorenzetti7 ,campo ,santo ,pisa1 ,st4 ,francis frescos ,lower ,church ,assisi1 ,s4 ,francesco and ,s4 ,agostino ,sienna1 ,annunciation ,sienna ,acad41 ,presentation ,florence ,acad42 ,pietro ,lorenzetti1 ,virgin ,s4 ,ansano1 altar-pieces ,duomo ,sienna1 ,parish ,church of ,arezzo 7worked with his brother ,ambrogio74 ,,transition ,,painters3 ,starnina1 frescos ,duomo ,prato 7completed by pupil72 ,gentile da ,fabriano1 ,adoration ,florence ,acad41 ,coronation ,brera ,milan1 ,madonna ,duomo ,orvieto2 ,fra ,angelico1 ,coronation and many small panels ,uffizi1 many pieces ,life of ,christ ,florence ,acad41 other pieces ,s4 ,marco ,florence1 ,last ,judgment ,duomo1 ,orvieto4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,italian ,,painting4 ,,early ,,renaissance4 #adjj-aejj4 ,,books ,,recommended3 ,as before1 ,burckhardt1 ,crowe and ,cavalcaselle1 ,eastlake1 ,lafenestre1 ,lanzi1 ,habich1 ,lacroix1 ,mantz1 ,morelli1 ,burton1 ,rumohr1 ,stillman1 ,vasari2 also ,crowe and ,cavalcaselle1 ,history of ,painting in ,north ,italy2 ,berenson1 ,florentine ,painters of ,renaissance2 ,berenson1 ,venetian ,painters of ,renaissance2 ,berenson1 ,central ,italian ,painters of ,renaissance2 ,study and ,criticism of ,italian ,art2 ,boschini1 ,la ,carta del ,navegar2 ,calvi1 ,memorie della ,vita ed opere di ,francesco ,raibolini2 ,cibo1 ,niccolo ,alunno e la scuola ,umbra2 ,citadella1 ,notizie relative a ,ferrara2 ,cruttwell1 ,verrocchio2 ,cruttwell1 ,pollaiuolo2 ,morelli1 ,anonimo1 ,notizie2 ,mezzanotte1 ,commentario della ,vita di ,pietro ,vanucci2 ,mundler1 ,essai d'une ,analyse critique de la ,notice des tableaux ,italiens au ,louvre2 ,muntz1 ,les ,precurseurs de la ,renaissance2 ,muntz1 ,la ,renaissance en ,italie et en ,france2 ,patch1 ,life of ,masaccio2 ,hill1 ,pisanello1 ,publications of the ,arundel ,society2 ,richter1 ,italian ,art in ,national ,gallery1 ,london2 ,ridolfi1 ,le ,meraviglie dell' ,arte2 ,rosini1 ,storia della ,pittura ,italiana2 ,schnaase1 ,geschichte der bildenden ,kunste2 ,symonds1 ,renaissance in ,italy--the ,fine ,arts2 ,vischer1 ,lucas ,signorelli und die ,italienische ,renaissance2 ,waagen1 ,art ,treasures2 ,waagen1 ,andrea ,mantegna und ,luca ,signorelli 7in ,raumer's ,taschenbuch1 7#ahej772 ,zanetti1 ,della ,pittura ,veneziana4 ,,the ,,italian ,,mind3 ,there is no way of explaining the ,italian fondness for form and color other than by considering the necessities of the people and the artistic character of the ,italian mind4 ,art in all its phases was not only an adornment but a necessity of ,christian civilization4 ,the ,church taught people by sculpture1 mosaic1 miniature1 and fresco4 ,it was an object-teaching1 a grasping of ideas by forms seen in the mind1 not a presenting of abstract ideas as in literature4 ,printing was not known4 ,there were few manuscripts1 and the majority of people could not read4 ,ideas came to them for centuries through form and color1 until at last the ,italian mind took on a plastic and pictorial character4 ,it saw things in symbolic figures1 and when the ,renaissance came and art took the lead as one of its strongest expressions1 painting was but the color-thought and form-language of the people4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--;,,fra ,,filippo4 ,,madonna4 ,,uffizi4 ,and these people1 by reason of their peculiar education1 were an exacting people1 knowing what was good and demanding it from the artists4 ,every ,italian was1 in a way1 an art critic1 because every church in ,italy was an art school4 ,the artists may have led the people1 but the people spurred on the artists1 and so the ,italian mind went on developing and unfolding until at last it produced the great art of the ,renaissance4 ,,the ,,awakening3 ,the ,italian civilization of the fourteenth century was made up of many impulses and inclinations1 none of them very strongly defined4 ,there was a feeling about in the dark1 a groping toward the light1 but the leaders stumbled often on the road4 ,there was good reason for it4 ,the knowledge of the ancient world lay buried under the ruins of ,rome4 ,the ,italians had to learn it all over again1 almost without a precedent1 almost without a preceptor4 ,with the fifteenth century the horizon began to brighten4 ,the ,early ,renaissance was begun4 ,it was not a revolt1 a reaction1 or a starting out on a new path4 ,it was a development of the ,gothic period2 and the three inclinations of the ,gothic period--religion1 the desire for classic knowledge1 and the study of nature--were carried into the art of the time with greater realization4 ,the inference must not be made that because nature and the antique came to be studied in ,early ,renaissance times that therefore religion was neglected4 ,it was not4 ,it still held strong1 and though with the ,renaissance there came about a strange mingling of crime and corruption1 aestheticism and immorality1 yet the ,church was never abandoned for an hour4 ,when enlightenment came1 people began to doubt the spiritual power of the ,papacy4 ,they did not cringe to it so servilely as before4 ,religion was not violently embraced as in the ,middle ,ages1 but there was no revolt4 ,the ,church held the power and was still the patron of art4 ,the painter's subjects extended over nature1 the antique1 the fable1 allegory1 history1 portraiture2 but the religious subject was not neglected4 ,fully three-quarters of all the fifteenth-century painting was done for the ,church1 at her command1 and for her purposes4 ,but art was not so wholly pietistic as in the ,gothic age4 ,the study of nature and the antique materialized painting somewhat4 ,the outside world drew the painter's eyes1 and the beauty of the religious subject and its sentiment were somewhat slurred for the beauty of natural appearances4 ,there was some loss of religious power1 but religion had much to lose4 ,in the fifteenth century it was still dominant4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--;,,botticelli4 ,,coronation ,,of ,,madonna4 ,,uffizi4 ,,knowledge ,,of ,,the ,,antique ,,and ,,nature3 ,the revival of antique learning came about in real earnest during this period4 ,the scholars set themselves the task of restoring the polite learning of ancient ,greece1 studying coins and marbles1 collecting manuscripts1 founding libraries and schools of philosophy4 ,the wealthy nobles1 ,palla ,strozzi1 the ,albizzi1 the ,medici1 and the ,dukes of ,urbino1 encouraged it4 ,in #addj the ,greek was taught in five cities4 ,immediately afterward1 with ,constantinople falling into the hands of the ,turks1 came an influx of ,greek scholars into ,italy4 ,then followed the invention of printing and the age of discovery on land and sea4 ,not the antique alone but the natural were being pried into by the spirit of inquiry4 ,botany1 geology1 astronomy1 chemistry1 medicine1 anatomy1 law1 literature--nothing seemed to escape the keen eye of the time4 ,knowledge was being accumulated from every source1 and the arts were all reflecting it4 ,the influence of the newly discovered classic marbles upon painting was not so great as is usually supposed4 ,the painters studied them1 but did not imitate them4 ,occasionally in such men as ,botticelli and ,mantegna we see a following of sculpturesque example--a taking of details and even of whole figures--but the general effect of the antique marbles was to impress the painters with the idea that nature was at the bottom of it all4 ,they turned to the earth not only to study form and feature1 but to learn perspective1 light1 shadow1 color--in short1 the technical features of art4 ,true1 religion was the chief subject1 but nature and the antique were used to give it setting4 ,all the fifteenth-century painting shows nature study1 force1 character1 sincerity2 but it does not show elegance1 grace1 or the full complement of color4 ,the ,early ,renaissance was the promise of great things2 the ,high ,renaissance was the fulfilment4 ,,florentine ,,school3 ,the ,florentines were draughtsmen more than colorists4 ,the chief medium was fresco on the walls of buildings1 and architectural necessities often dictated the form of compositions4 ,distemper in easel pictures was likewise used1 and oil-painting1 though known1 was not extensively employed until the last quarter of the century4 ,in technical knowledge and intellectual grasp ,florence was at this time the leader and drew to her many artists from neighboring schools4 ,masaccio 7#adja8-adbh87 was the first great nature student of the ,early ,renaissance1 though his master1 ,masolino 7#achc-addg71 had given proof positive of severe nature study in bits of modelling1 in drapery1 and in portrait heads4 ,masaccio1 however1 seems the first to have gone into it thoroughly and to have grasped nature as a whole4 ,his mastery of form1 his plastic composition1 his free1 broad folds of drapery1 and his knowledge of light and perspective1 all placed him in the front rank of fifteenth-century painters4 ,though an exact student he was not a literalist4 ,he had a large artistic sense1 a breadth of view1 and a comprehension of nature as a mass that ,michael ,angelo and ,raphael did not disdain to follow4 ,he was not a pietist1 and there was no great religious feeling in his work4 ,dignified truthful appearance was his creed1 and in this he was possibly influenced by ,donatello the sculptor4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--;,,ghirlandajo4 ,,the ,,visitation4 ,,louvre4 ,he came early in the century and died early1 but his contemporaries did not continue the advance from where he carried it4 ,there was wavering all along the line4 ,some from lack of genius could not equal him1 others took up nature with indecision1 and others clung fondly to the gold-embossed ornaments and gilded halos of the past4 ,paolo ,uccello 7#acig8-adge71 ,andrea ,castagno 7#acij-adeg71 ,benozzo ,gozzoli 7#adbj8-adig871 ,baldovinetti 7#adbg-adii71 ,antonio del ,pollajuolo 7#adbf-adih71 ,cosimo ,rosselli 7#adci-aejg71 can hardly be looked upon as improvements upon the young leader4 ,the first real successor of ,masaccio was his contemporary1 and possibly his pupil1 the monk ,fra ,filippo ,lippi 7#adjf-adfi74 ,he was a master of color and light-and-shade for his time1 though in composition and command of line he did not reach up to ,masaccio4 ,he was among the first of the painters to take the individual faces of those about him as models for his sacred characters1 and clothe them in contemporary costume4 ,piety is not very pronounced in any of his works1 though he is not without imagination and feeling1 and there is in his women a charm of sweetness4 ,his tendency was to materialize the sacred characters4 ,with ,filippino 7#adeg8-aejd71 ,botticelli 7#addf-aeaj71 and ,ghirlandajo 7#addi-adid7 we find a degree of imagination1 culture1 and independence not surpassed by any of the ,early ,florentines4 ,filippino modelled his art upon that of his father1 ,fra ,filippo1 and was influenced by ,botticelli4 ,he was the weakest of the trio1 without being by any means a weak man4 ,on the contrary1 he was an artist of fine ability1 much charm and tenderness1 and considerable style1 but not a great deal of original force1 though occasionally doing forceful things4 ,purity in his type and graceful sentiment in pose and feature seem more characteristic of his work4 ,botticelli1 even1 was not so remarkable for his strength as for his culture1 and an individual way of looking at things4 ,he was a pupil of ,fra ,filippo1 a man imbued with the religious feeling of ,dante and ,savonarola1 a learned student of the antique and one of the first to take subjects from it1 a severe nature student1 and a painter of much technical skill4 ,religion1 classicism1 and nature all met in his work1 but the mingling was not perfect4 ,religious feeling and melancholy warped it4 ,his willowy figures1 delicate and refined in drawing1 are more passionate than powerful1 more individual than comprehensive1 but they are nevertheless very attractive in their tenderness and grace4 ,without being so original or so attractive an artist as ,botticelli1 his contemporary1 ,ghirlandajo1 was a stronger one4 ,his strength came more from assimilation than from invention4 ,he combined in his work all the art learning of his time4 ,he drew well1 handled drapery simply and beautifully1 was a good composer1 and1 for ,florence1 a good colorist4 ,in addition1 his temperament was robust1 his style dignified1 even grand1 and his execution wonderfully free4 ,he was the most important of the fifteenth-century technicians1 without having any peculiar distinction or originality1 and in spite of being rather prosaic at times4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--;,,francesca4 ,,duke ,,of ,,urbino4 ,,uffizi4 ,verrocchio 7#adce-adhh7 was more of a sculptor than a painter1 but in his studio were three celebrated pupils--,perugino1 ,leonardo da ,vinci1 and ,lorenzo di ,credi--who were half-way between the ,early and the ,high ,renaissance4 ,only one of them1 ,leonardo1 can be classed among the ,high ,renaissance men4 ,perugino belongs to the ,umbrian school1 and ,lorenzo di ,credi 7#adej-aecg71 though ,florentine1 never outgrew the fifteenth century4 ,he was a pure painter1 with much feeling1 but weak at times4 ,his drawing was good1 but his painting lacked force1 and he was too pallid in flesh color4 ,there is much detail1 study1 and considerable grace about his work1 but little of strength4 ,piero di ,cosimo 7#adfb-aeba7 was fond of mythological and classical studies1 was somewhat fantastic in composition1 pleasant in color1 and rather distinguished in landscape backgrounds4 ,his work strikes one as eccentric1 and eccentricity was the strong characteristic of the man4 ,,umbrian ,,and ,,perugian ,,schools3 ,at the beginning of the fifteenth century the old ,siennese school founded by ,duccio and the ,lorenzetti was in a state of decline4 ,it had been remarkable for intense sentiment1 and just what effect this sentiment of the old ,siennese school had upon the painters of the neighboring ,umbrian school of the early fifteenth century is a matter of speculation with historians4 ,it must have had some1 though the early painters1 like ,ottaviano ,nelli1 do not show it4 ,that which afterward became known as the ,umbrian sentiment probably first appeared in the work of ,niccolo da ,foligno 7#adcj8-aejb71 who was probably a pupil of ,benozzo ,gozzoli1 who was1 in turn1 a pupil of ,fra ,angelico4 ,that would indicate ,florentine influence1 but there were many influences at work in this upper-valley country4 ,sentiment had been prevalent enough all through ,central ,italian painting during the ,gothic age--more so at ,sienna than elsewhere4 ,with the ,renaissance ,florence rather forsook sentiment for precision of forms and equilibrium of groups2 but the ,umbrian towns being more provincial1 held fast to their sentiment1 their detail1 and their gold ornamentation4 ,their influence upon ,florence was slight1 but the influence of ,florence upon them was considerable4 ,the larger city drew the provincials its way to learn the new methods4 ,the result was a group of ,umbro-,florentine painters1 combining some up-country sentiment with ,florentine technic4 ,gentile da ,fabriano1 ,niccolo da ,foligno1 ,bonfiglio 7#adbe8-adif871 and ,fiorenzo di ,lorenzo 7#addd8-aebj7 were of this mixed character4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--,,signorelli4 ,,the ,,curse 7,,detail74 ,,orvieto4 ,the most positive in methods among the early men was ,piero della ,francesca 7#adbj8-adib74 ,umbrian born1 but ,florentine trained1 he became more scientific than sentimental1 and excelled as a craftsman4 ,he knew drawing1 perspective1 atmosphere1 light-and-shade in a way that rather foreshadowed ,leonardo da ,vinci4 ,from working in the ,umbrian country his influence upon his fellow-,umbrians was large4 ,it showed directly in ,signorelli 7#adda8-aebc71 whose master he was1 and whose style he probably formed4 ,signorelli was ,umbrian born1 like ,piero1 but there was not much of the ,umbrian sentiment about him4 ,he was a draughtsman and threw his strength in line1 producing athletic1 square-shouldered figures in violent action1 with complicated foreshortenings quite astonishing4 ,the most daring man of his time1 he was a master in anatomy1 composition1 motion4 ,there was nothing select about his type1 and nothing charming about his painting4 ,his color was hot and coarse1 his lights lurid1 his shadows brick red4 ,he was1 however1 a master-draughtsman1 and a man of large conceptions and great strength4 ,melozzo da ,forli 7#adch-adid71 of whom little is known1 was another pupil of ,piero1 and ,giovanni ,santi 7#adce8-adid71 the father of ,raphael1 was probably influenced by both of these last named4 ,the true descent of the ,umbrian sentiment was through ,foligno and ,bonfiglio to ,perugino 7#addf-aebd74 ,signorelli and ,perugino seem opposed to each other in their art4 ,the first was the forerunner of ,michael ,angelo1 the second was the master of ,raphael2 and the difference between ,michael ,angelo and ,raphael was1 in a less varied degree1 the difference between ,signorelli and ,perugino4 ,the one showed ,florentine line1 the other ,umbrian sentiment and color4 ,it is in ,perugino that we find the old religious feeling4 ,fervor1 tenderness1 and devotion1 with soft eyes1 delicate features1 and pathetic looks characterized his art4 ,the figure was slight1 graceful1 and in pose sentimentally inclined to one side4 ,the head was almost affectedly placed on the shoulders1 and the round olive face was full of wistful tenderness4 ,this ,perugino type1 used in all his paintings1 is well described by ,taine as a body belonging to the ,renaissance containing a soul that belonged to the ,middle ,ages4 ,the sentiment was more purely human1 however1 than in such a painter1 for instance1 as ,fra ,angelico4 ,religion still held with ,perugino and the ,umbrians1 but even with them it was becoming materialized by the beauty of the world about them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,,perugino4 ,,madonna1 ,,saints1 ,,and ,,angels4 ,,louvre4 ,as a technician ,perugino was excellent4 ,there was no dramatic fire and fury about him4 ,the composition was simple1 with graceful figures in repose4 ,the coloring was rich1 and there were many brilliant effects obtained by the use of oils4 ,he was among the first of his school to use that medium4 ,his friend and fellow-worker1 ,pinturricchio 7#aded-aeac71 did not use oils1 but was a superior man in fresco4 ,in type and sentiment he was rather like ,perugino1 in composition a little extravagant and huddled1 in landscape backgrounds quite original and inventive4 ,he never was a serious rival of ,perugino1 though a more varied and interesting painter4 ,perugino's best pupil1 after ,raphael1 was ,lo ,spagna 78-#aecj871 who followed his master's style until the ,high ,renaissance1 when he became a follower of ,raphael4 ,,schools ,,of ,,ferrara ,,and ,,bologna3 ,the painters of ,ferrara1 in the fifteenth century1 seemed to have relied upon ,padua for their teaching4 ,the best of the early men was ,cosimo ,tura 7#adcj-adie71 who showed the ,paduan influence of ,squarcione in anatomical insistences1 coarse joints1 infinite detail1 and fantastic ornamentation4 ,he was probably the founder of the school in which ,francesco ,cossa 7fl4 #adce-adhj71 a naif and strong1 if somewhat morbid painter1 ,ercole di ,giulio ,grandi 7fl4 #adfe-aece71 and ,lorenzo ,costa 7#adfj8-aece7 were the principal masters4 ,cossa and ,grandi1 it seems1 afterward removed to ,bologna1 and it was probably their move that induced ,lorenzo ,costa to follow them4 ,in that way the ,ferrarese school became somewhat complicated with the ,bolognese school1 and is confused in its history to this day4 ,costa was not unlikely the real founder1 or1 at the least1 the strongest influencer of the ,bolognese school4 ,he was a painter of a rugged1 manly type1 afterward tempered by ,southern influences to softness and sentiment4 ,this was the result of ,paduan methods meeting at ,bologna with ,umbrian sentiment4 ,the ,perugino type and influence had found its way to ,bologna1 and showed in the work of ,francia 7#adej-aeah71 a contemporary and fellow-worker with ,costa4 ,though trained as a goldsmith1 and learning painting in a different school1 ,francia1 as regards his sentiment1 belongs in the same category with ,perugino4 ,even his subjects1 types1 and treatment were1 at times1 more ,umbrian than ,bolognese4 ,he was not so profound in feeling as ,perugino1 but at times he appeared loftier in conception4 ,his color was usually rich1 his drawing a little sharp at first1 as showing the goldsmith's hand1 the surfaces smooth1 the detail elaborate4 ,later on1 his work had a ,raphaelesque tinge1 showing perhaps the influence of that rising master4 ,it is probable that ,francia at first was influenced by ,costa's methods1 and it is quite certain that he in turn influenced ,costa in the matter of refined drawing and sentiment1 though ,costa always adhered to a certain detail and ornament coming from the north1 and a landscape background that is peculiar to himself1 and yet reminds one of ,pinturricchio's landscapes4 ,these two men1 ,francia and ,costa1 were the ,perugino and ,pinturricchio of the ,ferrara-,bolognese school1 and the most important painters in that school4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,,school ,,of ,,francia4 ,,madonna ,,and ,,child4 ,,louvre4 ,,the ,,lombard ,,school3 ,the designation of the ,lombard school is rather a vague one in the history of painting1 and is used by historians to cover a number of isolated schools or men in the ,lombardy region4 ,in the fifteenth century these schools counted for little either in men or in works4 ,the principal activity was about ,milan1 which drew painters from ,brescia1 ,vincenza1 and elsewhere to form what is known as the ,milanese school4 ,vincenzo ,foppa 7fl4 #adee-adib71 of ,brescia1 and afterward at ,milan1 was probably the founder of this ,milanese school4 ,his painting is of rather a harsh1 exacting nature1 and points to the influence of ,padua1 at which place he perhaps got his early art training4 ,borgognone 7#adej-aebc7 is set down as his pupil1 a painter of much sentiment and spiritual feeling4 ,the school was afterward greatly influenced by the example of ,leonardo da ,vinci1 as will be shown further on4 ,,principal ,,works3 ,,florentines--,masaccio1 frescos in ,brancacci ,chapel ,carmine ,florence 7the series completed by ,filippino72 ,masolino1 frescos ,church and ,baptistery ,castiglione d' ,olona2 ,paolo ,uccello1 frescos ,s4 ,m4 ,novella1 equestrian portrait ,duomo ,florence1 battle-pieces in ,louvre and ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon42 ,andrea ,castagno1 heroes and sibyls ,uffizi1 altar-piece ,acad4 ,florence1 equestrian portrait ,duomo ,florence2 ,benozzo ,gozzoli1 ,francesco ,montefalco1 ,magi ,ricardi palace ,florence1 frescos ,campo ,santo ,pisa2 ,baldovinetti1 ,portico of the ,annunziata ,florence1 altar-pieces ,uffizi2 ,antonio ,pollajuolo1 ,hercules ,uffizi1 ,st4 ,sebastian ,pitti and ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon42 ,cosimo ,rosselli1 frescos ,s4 ,ambrogio ,florence1 ,sistine ,chapel ,rome1 ,madonna ,uffizi2 ,fra ,filippo1 frescos ,cathedral ,prato1 altar-pieces ,florence ,acad41 ,uffizi1 ,pitti and ,berlin ,gals41 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon42 ,filippino1 frescos ,carmine ,florence1 ,caraffa ,chapel ,minerva ,rome1 ,s4 ,m4 ,novella and ,acad4 ,florence1 ,s4 ,domenico ,bologna1 easel pictures in ,pitti1 ,uffizi1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,berlin ,mus41 ,old ,pinacothek ,munich2 ,botticelli1 frescos ,sistine ,chapel ,rome1 ,spring and ,coronation ,florence ,acad41 ,venus1 ,calumny1 ,madonnas ,uffizi1 ,pitti1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,louvre1 etc42 ,ghirlandajo1 frescos ,sistine ,chapel ,rome1 ,s4 ,trinita ,florence1 ,s4 ,m4 ,novella1 ,palazzo ,vecchio1 altar-pieces ,uffizi and ,acad4 ,florence1 ,visitation ,louvre2 ,verrocchio1 ,baptism of ,christ ,acad4 ,florence2 ,lorenzo di ,credi1 ,nativity ,acad4 ,florence1 ,madonnas ,louvre and ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,holy ,family ,borghese ,gal4 ,rome2 ,piero di ,cosimo1 ,perseus and ,andromeda ,uffizi1 ,procris ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,venus and ,mars ,berlin ,gal4 ,,umbrians--,ottaviano ,nelli1 altar-piece ,s4 ,m4 ,nuovo ,gubbio1 ,st4 ,augustine legends ,s4 ,agostino ,gubbio2 ,niccolo da ,foligno1 altar-piece ,s4 ,niccolo ,foligno2 ,bonfigli1 frescos ,palazzo ,communale1 altar-pieces ,acad4 ,perugia2 ,fiorenzo di ,lorenzo1 many pictures ,acad4 ,perugia1 ,madonna ,berlin ,gal42 ,piero della ,francesca1 frescos ,communita and ,hospital ,borgo ,san ,sepolcro1 ,san ,francesco ,arezzo1 ,chapel of the ,relicts ,rimini1 portraits ,uffizi1 pictures ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon42 ,signorelli1 frescos ,cathedral ,orvieto1 ,sistine ,rome1 ,palazzo ,petrucci ,sienna1 altar-pieces ,arezzo1 ,cortona1 ,perugia1 pictures ,pitti1 ,uffizi1 ,berlin1 ,louvre1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon42 ,melozzo da ,forli1 angels ,st4 ,peter's ,rome1 frescos ,vatican1 pictures ,berlin and ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon42 ,giovanni ,santi1 ,annunciation ,milan1 ,pieta ,urbino1 ,madonnas ,berlin1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,s4 ,croce ,fano2 ,perugino1 frescos ,sistine ,rome1 ,crucifixion ,s4 ,m4 ,maddalena ,florence1 ,sala del ,cambio ,perugia1 altar-pieces ,pitti1 ,fano1 ,cremona1 many pictures in ,european galleries2 ,pinturricchio1 frescos ,s4 ,m4 del ,popolo1 ,appartamento ,borgo ,vatican1 ,bufolini ,chapel ,aracoeli ,rome1 ,duomo ,library ,sienna1 altar-pieces ,perugia and ,sienna ,acads41 ,pitti1 ,louvre2 ,lo ,spagna1 ,madonna ,lower ,church ,assisi1 frescos at ,spoleto1 ,turin1 ,perugia1 ,assisi4 ,,ferrarese ,,and ,,bolognese--,cosimo ,tura1 altar-pieces ,berlin ,mus41 ,bergamo1 ,museo ,correr ,venice1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon42 ,francesco ,cossa1 altar-pieces ,s4 ,petronio and ,acad4 ,bologna1 ,dresden ,gal42 ,grandi1 ,st4 ,george ,corsini ,pal4 ,rome1 several canvases ,constabili ,collection ,ferrara2 ,lorenzo ,costa1 frescos ,s4 ,giacomo ,maggiore1 altar-pieces ,s4 ,petronio1 ,s4 ,giovanni in ,monte and ,acad4 ,bologna1 also ,louvre1 ,berlin1 and ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon42 ,francia1 altar-pieces ,s4 ,giacomo ,maggiore1 ,s4 ,martino ,maggiore1 and many altar-pieces in ,acad4 ,bologna1 ,annunciation ,brera ,milan1 ,rose ,garden ,munich1 ,pieta ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,scappi ,portrait ,uffizi1 ,baptism ,dresden4 ,,lombards--,foppa1 altar-pieces ,s4 ,maria di ,castello ,savona1 ,borromeo ,col4 ,milan1 ,carmine ,brescia1 panels ,brera ,milan2 ,borgognone1 altar-pieces ,certosa of ,pavia1 ,church of ,melegnano1 ,s4 ,ambrogio1 ,ambrosian ,lib41 ,brera ,milan1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,italian ,,painting4 ,,early ,,renaissance--#adjj-aejj--;,,continued4 ,,books ,,recommended3 ,those on ,italian art before mentioned2 also consult the ,general ,bibliography 7page xv47 ,,paduan ,,school3 ,it was at ,padua in the north that the influence of the classic marbles made itself strongly apparent4 ,umbria remained true to the religious sentiment1 ,florence engaged itself largely with nature study and technical problems1 introducing here and there draperies and poses that showed knowledge of ancient sculpture1 but at ,padua much of the classic in drapery1 figures1 and architecture seems to have been taken directly from the rediscovered antique or the modern bronze4 ,the early men of the school were hardly great enough to call for mention4 ,during the fourteenth century there was some ,giotto influence felt--that painter having been at ,padua working in the ,arena ,chapel4 ,later on there was a slight influence from ,gentile da ,fabriano and his fellow-worker ,vittore ,pisano1 of ,verona4 ,but these influences seem to have died out and the real direction of the school in the early fifteenth century was given by ,francesco ,squarcione 7#acid-adgd74 ,he was an enlightened man1 a student1 a collector and an admirer of ancient sculpture1 and though no great painter himself he taught an anatomical statuesque art1 based on ancient marbles and nature1 to many pupils4 ,squarcione's work has perished1 but his teaching was reflected in the work of his great pupil ,andrea ,mantegna 7#adca-aejf74 ,yet ,mantegna never received the full complement of his knowledge from ,squarcione4 ,he was of an observing nature and probably studied ,paolo ,uccello and ,fra ,filippo1 some of whose works were then in ,paduan edifices4 ,he gained color knowledge from the ,venetian ,bellinis1 who lived at ,padua at one time and who were connected with ,mantegna by marriage4 ,but the sculpturesque side of his art came from ,squarcione1 from a study of the antique1 and from a deeper study of ,donatello1 whose bronzes to this day are to be seen within and without the ,paduan ,duomo of ,s4 ,antonio4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,,mantegna4 ,,gonzaga ,,family ,,group 7,,detail74 ,,mantua4 ,the sculpturesque is characteristic of ,mantegna's work4 ,his people are hard1 rigid at times1 immovable human beings1 not so much turned to stone as turned to bronze--the bronze of ,donatello4 ,there is little sense of motion about them4 ,the figure is sharp and harsh1 the drapery1 evidently studied from sculpture1 is liney1 and the archaeology is often more scientific than artistic4 ,mantegna was not1 however1 entirely devoted to the sculpturesque4 ,he was one of the severest nature students of the ,early ,renaissance1 knew about nature1 and carried it out in more exacting detail than was perhaps well for his art4 ,in addition he was a master of light-and-shade1 understood composition1 space1 color1 atmosphere1 and was as scientific in perspective as ,piero della ,francesca4 ,there is stiffness in his figures but nevertheless great truth and character4 ,the forms are noble1 even grand1 and for invention and imagination they were never1 in his time1 carried further or higher4 ,he was little of a sentimentalist or an emotionalist1 not much of a brush man or a colorist1 but as a draughtsman1 a creator of noble forms1 a man of power1 he stood second to none in the century4 ,of ,squarcione's other pupils ,pizzolo 7fl4 #adgj7 was the most promising1 but died early4 ,marco ,zoppo 7#addj-adih7 seems to have followed the ,paduan formula of hardness1 dryness1 and exacting detail4 ,he was possibly influenced by ,cosimo ,tura1 and in turn influenced somewhat the ,ferrara-,bolognese school4 ,mantegna1 however1 was the greatest of the school1 and his influence was far-reaching4 ,it affected the school of ,venice in matters of drawing1 beside influencing the ,lombard and ,veronese schools in their beginnings4 ,,schools ,,of ,,verona ,,and ,,vicenza3 ,artistically ,verona belonged with the ,venetian provinces1 because it was largely an echo of ,venice except at the very start4 ,vittore ,pisano 7#achj-adef71 called ,pisanello1 was the earliest painter of note1 but he was not distinctly ,veronese in his art4 ,he was medallist and painter both1 worked with ,gentile da ,fabriano in the ,ducal ,palace at ,venice and elsewhere1 and his art seems to have an affinity with that of his companion4 ,liberale da ,verona 7#adea-aecf87 was at first a miniaturist1 but afterward developed a larger style based on a following of ,mantegna's work1 with some ,venetian influences showing in the coloring and backgrounds4 ,francesco ,bonsignori 7#adee-aeai7 was of the ,verona school1 but established himself later at ,mantua and was under the ,mantegna influence4 ,his style at first was rather severe1 but he afterward developed much ability in portraiture1 historical work1 animals1 and architectural features4 ,francesco ,caroto 7#adgj-aedf71 a pupil of ,liberale1 really belongs to the next century--the ,high ,renaissance--but his early works show his education in ,veronese and ,paduan methods4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--;,b4 ,,vivarini4 ,,madonna ,,and ,,child4 ,,turin4 ,in the school of ,vicenza the only master of much note in this ,early ,renaissance time was ,bartolommeo ,montagna 7#adej8-aebc71 a painter in both oil and fresco of much severity and at times grandeur of style4 ,in drawing he was influenced by ,mantegna1 in composition and coloring he showed a study of ,giovanni ,bellini and ,carpaccio4 ,,venetian ,,life ,,and ,,art3 ,the conditions of art production in ,venice during the ,early ,renaissance were quite different from those in ,florence or ,umbria4 ,by the disposition of her people ,venice was not a learned or devout city4 ,religion1 though the chief subject1 was not the chief spirit of ,venetian art4 ,christianity was accepted by the ,venetians1 but with no fevered enthusiasm4 ,the ,church was strong enough there to defy the ,papacy at one time1 and yet religion with the people was perhaps more of a civic function or a duty than a spiritual worship4 ,it was sincere in its way1 and the early painters painted its subjects with honesty1 but the ,venetians were much too proud and worldly minded to take anything very seriously except their own splendor and their own power4 ,again1 the ,venetians were not humanists or students of the revived classic4 ,they housed manuscripts1 harbored exiled humanists1 received the influx of ,greek scholars after the fall of ,constantinople1 and later the celebrated ,aldine press was established in ,venice2 but1 for all that1 classic learning was not the fancy of the ,venetians4 ,they made no quarrel over the relative merits of ,plato and ,aristotle1 dug up no classic marbles1 had no revival of learning in a ,florentine sense4 ,they were merchant princes1 winning wealth by commerce and expending it lavishly in beautifying their island home4 ,not to attain great learning1 but to revel in great splendor1 seems to have been their aim4 ,life in the sovereign city of the sea was a worthy existence in itself4 ,and her geographical and political position aided her prosperity4 ,unlike ,florence she was not torn by contending princes within and foreign foes without--at least not to her harm4 ,she had her wars1 but they were generally on distant seas4 ,popery1 ,paganism1 ,despotism1 all the convulsions of ,renaissance life threatened but harmed her not4 ,free and independent1 her kingdom was the sea1 and her livelihood commerce1 not agriculture4 ,the worldly spirit of the ,venetian people brought about a worldly and luxurious art4 ,nothing in the disposition or education of the ,venetians called for the severe or the intellectual4 ,the demand was for rich decoration that would please the senses without stimulating the intellect or firing the imagination to any great extent4 ,line and form were not so well suited to them as color--the most sensuous of all mediums4 ,color prevailed through ,venetian art from the very beginning1 and was its distinctive characteristic4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--;,,giovanni ,,bellini4 ,,madonna ,,of ,,ss4 ,,george ,,and ,,paul4 ,,venice ,,acad4 ,where this love of color came from is matter of speculation4 ,some say out of ,venetian skies and waters1 and1 doubtless1 these had something to do with the ,venetian color-sense2 but ,venice in its color was also an example of the effect of commerce on art4 ,she was a trader with the ,east from her infancy--not ,constantinople and the ,byzantine ,east alone1 but back of these the old ,mohammedan ,east1 which for a thousand years has cast its art in colors rather than in forms4 ,it was ,eastern ornament in mosaics1 stuffs1 porcelains1 variegated marbles1 brought by ship to ,venice and located in ,s4 ,marco1 in ,murano1 and in ,torcello1 that first gave the color-impulse to the ,venetians4 ,if ,florence was the heir of ,rome and its austere classicism1 ,venice was the heir of ,constantinople and its color-charm4 ,the two great color spots in ,italy at this day are ,venice and ,ravenna1 commercial footholds of the ,byzantines in ,mediaeval and ,renaissance days4 ,it may be concluded without error that ,venice derived her color-sense and much of her luxurious and material view of life from the ,east4 ,,the ,,early ,,venetian ,,painters3 ,painting began at ,venice with the fabrication of mosaics and ornamental altar-pieces of rich gold stucco-work4 ,the ,greek manner--that is1 the ,byzantine--was practised early in the fifteenth century by ,jacobello del ,fiore and ,semitecolo1 but it did not last long4 ,instead of lingering for a hundred years1 as at ,florence1 it died a natural death in the first half of the fifteenth century4 ,gentile da ,fabriano1 who was at ,venice about #adbj1 painting in the ,ducal ,palace with ,pisano as his assistant1 may have brought this about4 ,he taught there in ,venice1 was the master of ,jacopo ,bellini1 and if not the teacher then the influencer of the ,vivarinis of ,murano4 ,there were two of the ,vivarinis in the early times1 so far as can be made out1 ,antonio ,vivarini 78-#adgj7 and ,bartolommeo ,vivarini 7fl4 #adej-adii71 who worked with ,johannes ,alemannus1 a painter of supposed ,german birth and training4 ,they all signed themselves from ,murano 7an outlying ,venetian island71 where they were producing church altars and ornaments with some ,paduan influence showing in their work4 ,they made up the ,muranese school1 though this school was not strongly marked apart either in characteristics or subjects from the ,venetian school1 of which it was1 in fact1 a part4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--;,,carpaccio4 ,,presentation 7,,detail74 ,,venice ,,acad4 ,bartolommeo was the best of the group1 and contended long time in rivalry with the ,bellinis at ,venice1 but toward #adgj he fell away and died comparatively forgotten4 ,luigi ,vivarini 7fl4 #adfa-aejc7 was the latest of this family1 and with his death the history of the ,muranese merges into the ,venetian school proper1 except as it continues to appear in some pupils and followers4 ,of these latter ,carlo ,crivelli 7#adcj8adic87 was the only one of much mark4 ,he apparently gathered his art from many sources--ornament and color from the ,vivarini1 a lean and withered type from the early ,paduans under ,squarcione1 architecture from ,mantegna1 and a rather repulsive sentiment from the same school4 ,his faces were contorted and sulky1 his hands and feet stringy1 his drawing rather bad2 but he had a transparent color1 beautiful ornamentation and not a little tragic power4 ,venetian art practically dates from the ,bellinis4 ,they did not begin where the ,vivarini left off4 ,the two families of painters seem to have started about the same time1 worked along together from like inspirations1 and in somewhat of a similar manner as regards the early men4 ,jacopo ,bellini 7#adjj8-adfd87 was the pupil of ,gentile da ,fabriano1 and a painter of considerable rank4 ,his son1 ,gentile ,bellini 7#adbf8-aejg71 was likewise a painter of ability1 and an extremely interesting one on account of his ,venetian subjects painted with much open-air effect and knowledge of light and atmosphere4 ,the younger son1 ,giovanni ,bellini 7#adbh8-aeaf71 was the greatest of the family and the true founder of the ,venetian school4 ,about the middle of the fifteenth century the ,bellini family lived at ,padua and came in contact with the classic-realistic art of ,mantegna4 ,in fact1 ,mantegna married ,giovanni ,bellini's sister1 and there was a mingling of family as well as of art4 ,there was an influence upon ,mantegna of ,venetian color1 and upon the ,bellinis of ,paduan line4 ,the latter showed in ,giovanni ,bellini's early work1 which was rather hard1 angular in drapery1 and anatomical in the joints1 hands1 and feet2 but as the century drew to a close this melted away into the growing splendor of ,venetian color4 ,giovanni ,bellini lived into the sixteenth century1 but never quite attained the rank of a ,high ,renaissance painter4 ,he had religious feeling1 earnestness1 honesty1 simplicity1 character1 force1 knowledge2 but not the full complement of brilliancy and painter's power4 ,he went beyond all his contemporaries in technical strength and color-harmony1 and was in fact the epoch-making man of early ,venice4 ,some of his pictures1 like the ,s4 ,zaccaria ,madonna1 will compare favorably with any work of any age1 and his landscape backgrounds 7see the ,st4 ,peter ,martyr in the ,national ,gallery1 ,london7 were rather wonderful for the period in which they were produced4 ,of ,bellini's contemporaries and followers there were many1 and as a school there was a similarity of style1 subject1 and color-treatment carrying through them all1 with individual peculiarities in each painter4 ,after ,giovanni ,bellini comes ,carpaccio 78-#aebb871 a younger contemporary1 about whose history little is known4 ,he worked with ,gentile ,bellini1 and was undoubtedly influenced by ,giovanni ,bellini4 ,in subject he was more romantic and chivalric than religious1 though painting a number of altar-pieces4 ,the legend was his delight1 and his great success1 as the ,st4 ,ursula and ,st4 ,george pictures in ,venice still indicate4 ,he was remarkable for his knowledge of architecture1 costumes1 and ,oriental settings1 put forth in a realistic way1 with much invention and technical ability in the handling of landscape1 perspective1 light1 and color4 ,there is a truthfulness of appearance--an out-of-doors feeling--about his work that is quite captivating4 ,in addition1 the spirit of his art was earnestness1 honesty1 and sincerity1 and even the awkward bits of drawing which occasionally appeared in his work served to add to the general naive effect of the whole4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,,antonello ,,da ,,messina4 ,,unknown ,,man4 ,,louvre4 ,cima da ,conegliano 7#adfj8-aeag87 was probably a pupil of ,giovanni ,bellini1 with some ,carpaccio influence about him4 ,he was the best of the immediate followers1 none of whom came up to the master4 ,they were trammelled somewhat by being educated in distemper work1 and then midway in their careers changing to the oil medium1 that medium having been introduced into ,venice by ,antonello da ,messina in #adgc4 ,cima's subjects were largely half-length madonnas1 given with strong qualities of light-and-shade and color4 ,he was not a great originator1 though a man of ability4 ,catena 78-#aeca7 had a wide reputation in his day1 but it came more from a smooth finish and pretty accessories than from creative power4 ,he imitated ,bellini's style so well that a number of his pictures pass for works by the master even to this day4 ,later he followed ,giorgione and ,carpaccio4 ,a man possessed of knowledge1 he seemed to have no original propelling purpose behind him4 ,that was largely the make-up of the other men of the school1 ,basaiti 7#adij-aeba871 ,previtali 7#adgj8-aebe871 ,bissolo 7#adfdaebh71 ,rondinelli 7#addj8-aejj871 ,diana 78-#aejj871 ,mansueti 7fl4 #aejj74 ,antonello da ,messina 7#addd8-adic71 though ,sicilian born1 is properly classed with the ,venetian school4 ,he obtained a knowledge of ,flemish methods probably from ,flemish painters or pictures in ,italy 7he never was a pupil of ,jan van ,eyck1 as ,vasari relates1 and probably never saw ,flanders71 and introduced the use of oil as a medium in the ,venetian school4 ,his early work was ,flemish in character1 and was very accurate and minute4 ,his late work showed the influence of the ,bellinis4 ,his counter-influence upon ,venetian portraiture has never been quite justly estimated4 ,that fine1 exact1 yet powerful work1 of which the ,doge ,loredano by ,bellini1 in the ,national ,gallery1 ,london1 is a type1 was perhaps brought about by an amalgamation of ,flemish and ,venetian methods1 and ,antonello was perhaps the means of bringing it about4 ,he was an excellent1 if precise1 portrait-painter4 ,,principal ,,works3 ,,paduans--,andrea ,mantegna1 ,eremitani ,padua1 ,madonna of ,s4 ,xeno ,verona1 ,st4 ,sebastian ,vienna ,mus41 ,st4 ,george ,venice ,acad41 ,camera di ,sposi ,castello di ,corte ,mantua1 ,madonna and ,allegories ,louvre1 ,scipio ,summer ,autumn ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon42 ,pizzoli 7with ,mantegna71 ,eremitani ,padua2 ,marco ,zoppo frescos ,casa ,colonna ,bologna1 ,madonna ,berlin ,gal4 ,,veronese ,,and ,,vicentine ,,painters--,vittore ,pisano1 ,st4 ,anthony and ,george ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,st4 ,george ,s4 ,anastasia ,verona2 ,liberale da ,verona1 miniatures ,duomo ,sienna1 ,st4 ,sebastian ,brera ,milan1 ,madonna ,berlin ,mus41 other works ,duomo and ,gal4 ,verona2 ,bonsignori1 ,s4 ,bernardino and ,gal4 ,verona1 ,mantua1 and ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon42 ,caroto1 ,in ,s4 ,tommaso1 ,s4 ,giorgio1 ,s4 ,caterina and ,gal4 ,verona1 ,dresden and ,frankfort ,gals42 ,montagna1 ,madonnas ,brera1 ,venice ,acad41 ,bergamo1 ,berlin1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,louvre4 ,,venetians--,jacobello del ,fiore and ,semitecolo1 all attributions doubtful2 ,antonio ,vivarini and ,johannes ,alemannus1 together altar-pieces ,venice ,acad41 ,s4 ,zaccaria ,venice2 ,antonio alone1 ,adoration of ,kings ,berlin ,gal42 ,bartolommeo ,vivarini1 ,madonna ,bologna ,gal4 7with ,antonio71 altar-pieces ,,ss4 ,giovanni e ,paolo1 ,frari1 ,venice2 ,luigi ,vivarini1 ,madonna ,berlin ,gal41 ,frari and ,acad4 ,venice2 ,carlo ,crivelli1 ,madonnas and altar-pieces ,brera1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,lateran1 ,berlin ,gals42 ,jacopo ,bellini1 ,crucifixion ,verona ,gal41 ,sketch-book ,brit4 ,mus42 ,gentile ,bellini1 ,organ ,doors ,s4 ,marco1 ,procession and ,miracle of ,cross ,acad4 ,venice1 ,st4 ,mark ,brera2 ,giovanni ,bellini1 many pictures in ,european galleries1 ,acad41 ,frari1 ,s4 ,zaccaria ,,ss4 ,giovanni e ,paolo ,venice2 ,carpaccio1 ,presentation and ,ursula pictures ,acad41 ,st4 ,george and ,st4 ,jerome ,s4 ,giorgio da ,schiavone ,venice1 ,st4 ,stephen ,berlin ,gal42 ,cima1 altar-pieces ,s4 ,maria dell ,orte1 ,s4 ,giovanni in ,bragora1 ,acad4 ,venice1 ,louvre1 ,berlin1 ,dresden1 ,munich1 ,vienna1 and other galleries2 ,catena1 ,altar-pieces ,s4 ,simeone1 ,s4 ,m4 ,mater ,domini1 ,,ss4 ,giovanni e ,paolo1 ,acad4 ,venice1 ,dresden1 and in ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon4 7the ,warrior and ,horse attributed to ,school of ,bellini72 ,basaiti1 ,venice ,acad4 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,vienna1 and ,berlin ,gals42 ,previtali1 altar-pieces ,s4 ,spirito ,bergamo1 ,brera1 ,berlin1 and ,dresden ,gals41 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,venice ,acad42 ,bissolo1 ,resurrection ,berlin ,gal41 ,s4 ,caterina ,venice ,acad42 ,rondinelli1 two pictures ,palazzo ,doria ,rome1 ,holy ,family 7,no4 #f7 ,louvre 7attributed to ,giovanni ,bellini72 ,diana1 ,altar-pieces ,venice ,acad42 ,mansueti1 large pictures ,venice ,acad42 ,antonella da ,messina1 ,portraits ,louvre1 ,berlin and ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,crucifixion ,antwerp ,mus4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,italian ,,painting4 ,,the ,,high ,,renaissance--#aejj-afjj4 ,,books ,,recommended3 ,those on ,italian art before mentioned1 and also1 ,berenson1 ,lorenzo ,lotto2 ,clement1 ,michel ,ange1 ,l4 da ,vinci1 ,raphael2 ,crowe and ,cavalcaselle1 ,titian2 same authors1 ,raphael2 ,grimm1 ,michael ,angelo2 ,gronau1 ,titian2 ,holroyd1 ,michael ,angelo2 ,meyer1 ,correggio2 ,moore1 ,correggio2 ,muntz1 ,leonardo da ,vinci2 ,passavant1 ,raphael2 ,pater1 ,studies in ,history of ,renaissance2 ,phillips1 ,titian2 ,reumont1 ,andrea del ,sarto2 ,ricci1 ,correggio2 ,richter1 ,leonardo di ,vinci2 ,ridolfi1 ,vita di ,paolo ,cagliari ,veronese2 ,springer1 ,rafael und ,michel ,angelo2 ,symonds1 ,michael ,angelo2 ,taine1 ,italy--,florence and ,venice4 ,,the ,,highest ,,development3 ,the word ,renaissance has a broader meaning than its strict etymology would imply4 ,it was a new birth1 but something more than the revival of ,greek learning and the study of nature entered into it4 ,it was the grand consummation of ,italian intelligence in many departments--the arrival at maturity of the ,christian trained mind tempered by the philosophy of ,greece1 and the knowledge of the actual world4 ,fully aroused at last1 the ,italian intellect became inquisitive1 inventive1 scientific1 skeptical--yes1 treacherous1 immoral1 polluted4 ,it questioned all things1 doubted where it pleased1 saturated itself with crime1 corruption1 and sensuality1 yet bowed at the shrine of the beautiful and knelt at the altar of ,christianity4 ,it is an illustration of the contradictions that may exist when the intellectual1 the religious1 and the moral are brought together1 with the intellectual in predominance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,,fra ,,bartolommeo4 ,,descent ,,from ,,cross4 ,,pitti4 ,and that keen ,renaissance intellect made swift progress4 ,it remodelled the philosophy of ,greece1 and used its literature as a mould for its own4 ,it developed ,roman law and introduced modern science4 ,the world without and the world within were rediscovered4 ,land and sea1 starry sky and planetary system1 were fixed upon the chart4 ,man himself1 the animals1 the planets1 organic and inorganic life1 the small things of the earth gave up their secrets4 ,inventions utilized all classes of products1 commerce flourished1 free cities were builded1 universities arose1 learning spread itself on the pages of newly invented books of print1 and1 perhaps1 greatest of all1 the arts arose on strong wings of life to the very highest altitude4 ,for the moral side of the ,renaissance intellect it had its tastes and refinements1 as shown in its high quality of art2 but it also had its polluting and degrading features1 as shown in its political and social life4 ,religion was visibly weakening though the ecclesiastical still held strong4 ,people were forgetting the faith of the early days1 and taking up with the material things about them4 ,they were glorifying the human and exalting the natural4 ,the story of ,greece was being repeated in ,italy4 ,and out of this new worship came jewels of rarity and beauty1 but out of it also came faithlessness1 corruption1 vice4 ,strictly speaking1 the ,renaissance had been accomplished before the year #aejj1 but so great was its impetus that1 in the arts at least1 it extended half-way through the sixteenth century4 ,then it began to fail through exhaustion4 ,,motives ,,and ,,methods3 ,the religious subject still held with the painters1 but this subject in ,high-,renaissance days did not carry with it the religious feeling as in ,gothic days4 ,art had grown to be something else than a teacher of the ,bible4 ,in the painter's hands it had come to mean beauty for its own sake--a picture beautiful for its form and color1 regardless of its theme4 ,this was the teaching of antique art1 and the study of nature but increased the belief4 ,a new love had arisen in the outer and visible world1 and when the ,church called for altar-pieces the painters painted their new love1 christened it with a religious title1 and handed it forth in the name of the old4 ,thus art began to free itself from ,church domination and to live as an independent beauty4 ,the general motive1 then1 of painting during the ,high ,renaissance1 though apparently religious from the subject1 and in many cases still religious in feeling1 was largely to show the beauty of form or color1 in which religion1 the antique1 and the natural came in as modifying elements4 ,in technical methods1 though extensive work was still done in fresco1 especially at ,florence and ,rome1 yet the bulk of ,high-,renaissance painting was in oils upon panel and canvas4 ,at ,venice even the decorative wall paintings were upon canvas1 afterward inserted in wall or ceiling4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--;,,andrea ,,del ,,sarto4 ,,madonna ,,of ,,st4 ,,francis4 ,,uffizi4 ,,the ,,florentines ,,and ,,romans3 ,there was a severity and austerity about the ,florentine art1 even at its climax4 ,it was never too sensuous and luxurious1 but rather exact and intellectual4 ,the ,florentines were fond of lustreless fresco1 architectural composition1 towering or sweeping lines1 rather sharp color as compared with the ,venetians1 and theological1 classical1 even literary and allegorical subjects4 ,probably this was largely due to the classic bias of the painters and the intellectual and social influences of ,florence and ,rome4 ,line and composition were means of expressing abstract thought better than color1 though some of the ,florentines employed both line and color knowingly4 ,this was the case with ,fra ,bartolommeo 7#adge-aeag71 a monk of ,san ,marco1 who was a transition painter from the fifteenth to the sixteenth century4 ,he was a religionist1 a follower of ,savonarola1 and a man of soul who thought to do work of a religious character and feeling2 but he was also a fine painter1 excelling in composition1 drawing1 drapery1 color4 ,the painter's element in his work1 its material and earthly beauty1 rather detracted from its spiritual significance4 ,he opposed the sensuous and the nude1 and yet about the only nude he ever painted--a ,st4 ,sebastian for ,san ,marco--had so much of the earthly about it that people forgot the suffering saint in admiring the fine body1 and the picture had to be removed from the convent4 ,in such ways religion in art was gradually undermined1 not alone by naturalism and classicism but by art itself4 ,painting brought into life by religion no sooner reached maturity than it led people away from religion by pointing out sensuous beauties in the type rather than religious beauties in the symbol4 ,fra ,bartolommeo was among the last of the pietists in art4 ,he had no great imagination1 but some feeling and a fine color-sense for ,florence4 ,naturally he was influenced somewhat by the great ones about him1 learning perspective from ,raphael1 grandeur from ,michael ,angelo1 and contours from ,leonardo da ,vinci4 ,he worked in collaboration with ,albertinelli 7#adgd-aeae71 a skilled artist and a fellow-pupil with ,bartolommeo in the workshop of ,cosimo ,rosselli4 ,their work is so much alike that it is often difficult to distinguish the painters apart4 ,albertinelli was not so devout as his companion1 but he painted the religious subject with feeling1 as his ,visitation in the ,uffizi indicates4 ,among the followers of ,bartolommeo and ,albertinelli were ,fra ,paolino 7#adijaedg71 ,bugiardini 7#adge-aeed71 ,granacci 7#adgg-aedc71 who showed many influences1 and ,ridolfo ,ghirlandajo 7#adhc-aefa74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,,michael ,,angelo4 ,,athlete4 ,,sistine1 ,,rome4 ,andrea del ,sarto 7#adhf-aeca7 was a ,florentine pure and simple--a painter for the ,church producing many madonnas and altar-pieces1 and yet possessed of little religious feeling or depth4 ,he was a painter more than a pietist1 and was called by his townsmen the faultless painter4 ,so he was as regards the technical features of his art4 ,he was the best brushman and colorist of the ,florentine school4 ,dealing largely with the material side his craftsmanship was excellent and his pictures exuberant with life and color1 but his madonnas and saints were decidedly of the earth--handsome ,florentine models garbed as sacred characters--well-drawn and easily painted1 with little devotional feeling about them4 ,he was influenced by other painters to some extent4 ,masaccio1 ,ghirlandajo1 and ,michael ,angelo were his models in drawing2 ,leonardo and ,bartolommeo in contours2 while in warmth of color1 brush-work1 atmospheric and landscape effects he was quite by himself4 ,he had a large number of pupils and followers1 but most of them deserted him later on to follow ,michael ,angelo4 ,pontormo 7#adic-aeeh7 and ,franciabigio 7#adhb-aebe7 were among the best of them4 ,michael ,angelo 7#adgd-aefd7 has been called the ,prophet of the ,renaissance1 and perhaps deserves the title1 since he was more of the ,old ,testament than the ,new--more of the austere and imperious than the loving or the forgiving4 ,there was no sentimental feature about his art4 ,his conception was intellectual1 highly imaginative1 mysterious1 at times disordered and turbulent in its strength4 ,he came the nearest to the sublime of any painter in history through the sole attribute of power4 ,he had no tenderness nor any winning charm4 ,he did not win1 but rather commanded4 ,everything he saw or felt was studied for the strength that was in it4 ,religion1 ,old-,testament history1 the antique1 humanity1 all turned in his hands into symbolic forms of power1 put forth apparently in the white heat of passion1 and at times in defiance of every rule and tradition of art4 ,personal feeling was very apparent in his work1 and in this he was as far removed as possible from the ,greeks1 and nearer to what one would call to-day a romanticist4 ,there was little of the objective about him4 ,he was not an imitator of facts but a creator of forms and ideas4 ,his art was a reflection of himself--a self-sufficient man1 positive1 creative1 standing alone1 a law unto himself4 ,technically he was more of a sculptor than a painter4 ,he said so himself when ,julius commanded him to paint the ,sistine ceiling1 and he told the truth4 ,he was a magnificent draughtsman1 and drew magnificent sculpturesque figures on the ,sistine vault4 ,that was about all his achievement with the brush4 ,in color1 light1 air1 perspective--in all those features peculiar to the painter--he was behind his contemporaries4 ,composition he knew a great deal about1 and in drawing he had the most positive1 far-reaching command of line of any painter of any time4 ,it was in drawing that he showed his power4 ,even this is severe and harsh at times1 and then again filled with a grace that is majestic and in scope universal1 as witness the ,creation of ,adam in the ,sistine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,,raphael4 ,,la ,,belle ,,jardiniere4 ,,louvre4 ,he came out of ,florence1 a pupil of ,ghirlandajo1 with a school feeling for line1 stimulated by the frescos of ,masaccio and ,signorelli4 ,at an early age he declared himself1 and hewed a path of his own through art1 sweeping along with him many of the slighter painters of his age4 ,long-lived he saw his contemporaries die about him and ,humanism end in bloodshed with the coming of the ,jesuits2 but alone1 gloomy1 resolute1 steadfast to his belief1 he held his way1 the last great representative of ,florentine art1 the first great representative of individualism in art4 ,with him and after him came many followers who strove to imitate his terrible style1 but they did not succeed any too well4 ,the most of these followers find classification under the ,mannerists of the ,decadence4 ,of those who were immediate pupils of ,michael ,angelo1 or carried out his designs1 ,daniele da ,volterra 7#aeji-aeff7 was one of the most satisfactory4 ,his chief work1 the ,descent from the ,cross1 was considered by ,poussin as one of the three great pictures of the world4 ,it is sometimes said to have been designed by ,michael ,angelo1 but that is only a conjecture4 ,it has much action and life in it1 but is somewhat affected in pose and gesture1 and ,volterra's work generally was deficient in real energy of conception and execution4 ,marcello ,venusti 7#aeae-aehe87 painted directly from ,michael ,angelo's designs in a delicate and precise way1 probably imbibed from his master1 ,perino del ,vaga1 and from association with ,venetians like ,sebastiano del ,piombo 7#adhe-aedg74 ,this last-named painter was born in ,venice and trained under ,bellini and ,giorgione1 inheriting the color and light-and-shade qualities of the ,venetians2 but later on he went to ,rome and came under the influence of ,michael ,angelo and ,raphael4 ,he tried1 under ,michael ,angelo's inspiration it is said1 to unite the ,florentine grandeur of line with the ,venetian coloring1 and thus outdo ,raphael4 ,it was not wholly successful1 though resulting in an excellent quality of art4 ,as a portrait-painter he was above reproach4 ,his early works were rather free in impasto1 the late ones smooth and shiny1 in imitation of ,raphael4 ,raphael ,sanzio 7#adhc-aebj7 was more ,greek in method than any of the great ,renaissance painters4 ,in subject he was not more classic than others of his time2 he painted all subjects4 ,in thought he was not particularly classic2 he was chiefly intellectual1 with a leaning toward the sensuous that was half-pagan4 ,it was in method and expression more than elsewhere that he showed the ,greek spirit4 ,he aimed at the ideal and the universal1 independent1 so far as possible1 of the individual1 and sought by a union of all elements to produce perfect harmony4 ,the ,harmonist of the ,renaissance is his title4 ,and this harmony extended to a blending of thought1 form1 and expression1 heightening or modifying every element until they ran together with such rhythm that it could not be seen where one left off and another began4 ,he was the very opposite of ,michael ,angelo4 ,the art of the latter was an expression of individual power and was purely subjective4 ,raphael's art was largely a unity of objective beauties1 with the personal element as much in abeyance as was possible for his time4 ,his education was a cultivation of every grace of mind and hand4 ,he assimilated freely whatever he found to be good in the art about him4 ,a pupil of ,perugino originally1 he levied upon features of excellence in ,masaccio1 ,fra ,bartolommeo1 ,leonardo1 ,michael ,angelo4 ,from the first he got tenderness1 from the second drawing1 from the third color and composition1 from the fourth charm1 from the fifth force4 ,like an eclectic ,greek he drew from all sources1 and then blended and united these features in a peculiar style of his own and stamped them with his peculiar ,raphaelesque stamp4 ,in subject ,raphael was religious and mythological1 but he was imbued with neither of these so far as the initial spirit was concerned4 ,he looked at all subjects in a calm1 intellectual1 artistic way4 ,even the celebrated ,sistine ,madonna is more intellectual than pietistic1 a ,christian ,minerva ruling rather than helping to save the world4 ,the same spirit ruled him in classic and theological themes4 ,he did not feel them keenly or execute them passionately--at least there is no indication of it in his work4 ,the doing so would have destroyed unity1 symmetry1 repose4 ,the theme was ever held in check by a regard for proportion and rhythm4 ,to keep all artistic elements in perfect equilibrium1 allowing no one to predominate1 seemed the mainspring of his action1 and in doing this he created that harmony which his admirers sometimes refer to as pure beauty4 ,for his period and school he was rather remarkable technically4 ,he excelled in everything except brush-work1 which was never brought to maturity in either ,florence or ,rome4 ,even in color he was fine for ,florence1 though not equal to the ,venetians4 ,in composition1 modelling1 line1 even in texture painting 7see his portraits7 he was a man of accomplishment2 while in grace1 purity1 serenity1 loftiness he was the ,florentine leader easily first4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4--;,,giulio ,,romano4 ,,apollo ,,and ,,muses4 ,,pitti4 ,the influence of ,raphael's example was largely felt throughout ,central ,italy1 and even at the north1 resulting in many imitators and followers1 who tried to produce ,raphaelesque effects4 ,their efforts were usually successful in precipitating charm into sweetness and sentiment into sentimentality4 ,francesco ,penni 7#adhh8-aebh7 seems to have been content to work under ,raphael with some ability4 ,giulio ,romano 7#adib-aedf7 was the strongest of the pupils1 and became the founder and leader of the ,roman school1 which had considerable influence upon the painters of the ,decadence4 ,he adopted the classic subject and tried to adopt ,raphael's style1 but he was not completely successful4 ,raphael's refinement in ,giulio's hands became exaggerated coarseness4 ,he was a good draughtsman1 but rather hot as a colorist1 and a composer of violent1 restless1 and1 at times1 contorted groups4 ,he was a prolific painter1 but his work tended toward the baroque style1 and had a bad influence on the succeeding schools4 ,primaticcio 7#aejd-aegj7 was one of his followers1 and had much to do with the founding of the school of ,fontainebleau in ,france4 ,giovanni da ,udine 7#adhg-aefd71 a ,venetian trained painter1 became a follower of ,raphael1 his only originality showing in decorative designs4 ,perino del ,vaga 7#aejj-aedg7 was of the same cast of mind4 ,andrea ,sabbatini 7#adhj8-aede7 carried ,raphael's types and methods to the south of ,italy1 and some artists at ,bologna1 and in ,umbria1 like ,innocenza da ,imola 7#adid-aeej871 and ,timoteo di ,viti 7#adfg-aebc71 adopted the ,raphael type and method to the detriment of what native talent they may have possessed1 though about ,timoteo there is some doubt whether he adopted ,raphael's type1 or ,raphael his type4 ,,principal ,,works3 ,,florentines--,fra ,bartolommeo1 ,descent from the ,cross ,salvator ,mundi ,st4 ,mark ,pitti1 ,madonnas and ,prophets ,uffizi1 other pictures ,florence ,acad41 ,louvre1 ,vienna ,gal42 ,albertinelli1 ,visitation ,uffizi1 ,christ ,magdalene ,madonna ,louvre1 ,trinity ,madonna ,florence ,acad41 ,annunciation ,munich ,gal42 ,fra ,paolino1 works at ,san ,spirito ,sienna1 ,s4 ,domenico and ,s4 ,paolo ,pistoia1 ,madonna ,florence ,acad42 ,bugiardini1 ,madonna ,uffizi1 ,st4 ,catherine ,s4 ,m4 ,novella ,florence1 ,nativity ,berlin1 ,st4 ,catherine ,bologna ,gal42 ,granacci1 altar-pieces ,uffizi1 ,pitti1 ,acad4 ,florence1 ,berlin and ,munich ,gals42 ,ridolfo ,ghirlandajo1 ,s4 ,zenobio pictures ,uffizi1 also ,louvre and ,berlin ,gal42 ,andrea del ,sarto1 many pictures in ,uffizi and ,pitti1 ,louvre1 ,berlin1 ,dresden1 ,madrid1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 frescos ,s4 ,annunziata and the ,scalzo ,florence2 ,pontormo1 frescos ,annunziata ,florence1 ,visitation and ,madonna ,louvre1 portrait ,berlin ,gal41 ,supper at ,emmaus ,florence ,acad41 other works ,uffizi2 ,franciabigio1 frescos courts of the ,servi and ,scalzo ,florence1 ,bathsheba ,dresden ,gal41 many portraits in ,louvre1 ,pitti1 ,berlin ,gal42 ,michael ,angelo1 frescos ,sistine ,rome1 ,holy ,family ,uffizi2 ,daniele da ,volterra1 frescos ,hist4 of ,cross ,trinita de' ,monti ,rome1 ,innocents ,uffizi2 ,venusti1 frescos ,castel ,san ,angelo1 ,s4 ,spirito ,rome1 ,annunciation ,st4 ,john ,lateran ,rome2 ,sebastiano del ,piombo1 ,lazarus ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,pieta ,viterbo1 ,fornarina ,uffizi 7ascribed to ,raphael7 ,fornarina and ,christ ,bearing ,cross ,berlin and ,dresden ,gals41 ,agatha ,pitti1 ,visitation ,louvre1 portrait ,doria ,gal4 ,rome2 ,raphael1 ,marriage of ,virgin ,brera1 ,madonna and ,vision of ,knight ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,madonnas ,st4 ,michael and ,st4 ,george ,louvre1 many ,madonnas and portraits in ,uffizi1 ,pitti1 ,munich1 ,vienna1 ,st4 ,petersburgh1 ,madrid ,gals41 ,sistine ,madonna ,dresden1 chief frescos ,vatican ,rome4 ,,romans3 ,giulio ,romano1 frescos ,sala di ,constantino ,vatican ,rome 7with ,francesco ,penni after ,raphael71 ,palazzo del ,te ,mantua1 ,st4 ,stephen1 ,s4 ,stefano ,genoa1 ,holy ,family ,dresden ,gal41 other works in ,louvre1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,pitti1 ,uffizi2 ,primaticcio1 works attributed to him doubtful--,scipio ,louvre1 ,lady at ,toilet and ,venus ,musee de ,cluny2 ,giovanni da ,udine1 decorations1 arabesques and grotesques in ,vatican ,loggia2 ,perino del ,vaga1 ,hist4 of ,joshua and ,david ,vatican 7with ,raphael71 frescos ,trinita de' ,monti and ,castel ,s4 ,angelo ,rome1 ,creation of ,eve ,s4 ,marcello ,rome2 ,sabbatini1 ,adoration ,naples ,mus41 altar-pieces in ,naples and ,salerno churches2 ,innocenza da ,imola1 works in ,bologna1 ,berlin and ,munich ,gals42 ,timoteo di ,viti1 ,church of the ,pace ,rome 7after ,raphael71 madonnas and ,magdalene ,brera1 ,acad4 of ,st4 ,luke ,rome1 ,bologna ,gal41 ,s4 ,domenico ,urbino1 ,gubbio ,cathedral4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,italian ,,painting4 ,,the ,,high ,,renaissance1 #aejj-afjj4--;,,continued4 ,,books ,,recommended3 ,the works on ,italian art before mentioned and consult also the ,general ,bibliography 7p4 xv47 ,,leonardo ,,da ,,vinci ,,and ,,the ,,milanese3 ,the third person in the great ,florentine trinity of painters was ,leonardo da ,vinci 7#adeb-aeai71 the other two being ,michael ,angelo and ,raphael4 ,he greatly influenced the school of ,milan1 and has usually been classed with the ,milanese1 yet he was educated in ,florence1 in the workshop of ,verrocchio1 and was so universal in thought and methods that he hardly belongs to any school4 ,he has been named a realist1 an idealist1 a magician1 a wizard1 a dreamer1 and finally a scientist1 by different writers1 yet he was none of these things while being all of them--a full-rounded1 universal man1 learned in many departments and excelling in whatever he undertook4 ,he had the scientific and experimental way of looking at things4 ,that is perhaps to be regretted1 since it resulted in his experimenting with everything and completing little of anything4 ,his different tastes and pursuits pulled him different ways1 and his knowledge made him sceptical of his own powers4 ,he pondered and thought how to reach up higher1 how to penetrate deeper1 how to realize more comprehensively1 and in the end he gave up in despair4 ,he could not fulfil his ideal of the head of ,christ nor the head of ,mona ,lisa1 and after years of labor he left them unfinished4 ,the problem of human life1 the spirit1 the world engrossed him1 and all his creations seem impregnated with the psychological1 the mystical1 the unattainable1 the hidden4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,,leonardo ,,da ,,vinci4 ,,mona ,,lisa4 ,,louvre4 ,he was no religionist1 though painting the religious subject with feeling2 he was not in any sense a classicist1 nor had he any care for the antique marbles1 which he considered a study of nature at second-hand4 ,he was more in love with physical life without being an enthusiast over it4 ,his regard for contours1 rhythm of line1 blend of light with shade1 study of atmosphere1 perspective1 trees1 animals1 humanity1 show that though he examined nature scientifically1 he pictured it aesthetically4 ,in his types there is much sweetness of soul1 charm of disposition1 dignity of mien1 even grandeur and majesty of presence4 ,his people we would like to know better4 ,they are full of life1 intelligence1 sympathy2 they have fascination of manner1 winsomeness of mood1 grace of bearing4 ,we see this in his best-known work--the ,mona ,lisa of the ,louvre4 ,it has much allurement of personal presence1 with a depth and abundance of soul altogether charming4 ,technically1 ,leonardo was not a handler of the brush superior in any way to his ,florentine contemporaries4 ,he knew all the methods and mediums of the time1 and did much to establish oil-painting among the ,florentines1 but he was never a painter like ,titian1 or even ,correggio or ,andrea del ,sarto4 ,a splendid draughtsman1 a man of invention1 imagination1 grace1 elegance1 and power1 he nevertheless carried more by mental penetration and aesthetic sense than by his technical skill4 ,he was one of the great men of the ,renaissance1 and deservedly holds a place in the front rank4 ,though ,leonardo's accomplishment seems slight because of the little that is left to us1 yet he had a great following not only among the ,florentines but at ,milan1 where ,vincenza ,foppa had started a school in the ,early ,renaissance time4 ,leonardo was there for fourteen years1 and his artistic personality influenced many painters to adopt his type and methods4 ,bernardino ,luini 7#adge8-aecb87 was the most prominent of the disciples4 ,he cultivated ,leonardo's sentiment1 style1 subjects1 and composition in his middle period1 but later on developed independence and originality4 ,he came at a period of art when that earnestness of characterization which marked the early men was giving way to gracefulness of recitation1 and that was the chief feature of his art4 ,for that matter gracefulness and pathetic sweetness of mood1 with purity of line and warmth of color characterized all the ,milanese painters4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--,,luini4 ,,daughter ,,of ,,herodias ,,with ,,head ,,of ,,john ,,the ,,baptist4 ,,uffizi4 ,the more prominent lights of the school were ,salaino 7fl4 #adie-aeah71 of whose work nothing authentic exists1 ,boltraffio 7#adfg-aeaf71 a painter of limitations but of much refinement and purity1 and ,marco da ,oggiono 7#adgj8-aecj7 a close follower of ,leonardo4 ,solario 7#adeh8-aeae87 probably became acquainted early with the ,flemish mode of working practised by ,antonello da ,messina1 but he afterward came under ,leonardo's spell at ,milan4 ,he was a careful1 refined painter1 possessed of feeling and tenderness1 producing pictures with enamelled surfaces and much detail4 ,gianpietrino 7fl4 #aebj-aedj7 and ,cesare da ,sesto 7#adgg-aebc87 were also of the ,milanese school1 the latter afterward falling under the ,raphael influence4 ,gaudenzio ,ferrara 7#adha8-aedg871 an exceptionally brilliant colorist and a painter of much distinction1 was under ,leonardo's influence at one time1 and with the teachings of that master he mingled a little of ,raphael in the type of face4 ,he was an uneven painter1 often excessive in sentiment1 but at his best one of the most charming of the northern painters4 ,,sodoma ,,and ,,the ,,siennese3 ,sienna1 alive in the fourteenth century to all that was stirring in art1 in the fifteenth century was in complete eclipse1 no painters of consequence emanating from there or being established there4 ,in the sixteenth century there was a revival of art because of a northern painter settling there and building up a new school4 ,this painter was ,sodoma 7#adgg8-aedi74 ,he was one of the best pupils of ,leonardo da ,vinci1 a master of the human figure1 handling it with much grace and charm of expression1 but not so successful with groups or studied compositions1 wherein he was inclined to huddle and over-crowd space4 ,he was afterward led off by the brilliant success of ,raphael1 and adopted something of that master's style4 ,his best work was done in fresco1 though he did some easel pictures that have darkened very much through time4 ,he was a friend of ,raphael1 and his portrait appears beside ,raphael's in the latter painter's celebrated ,school of ,athens4 ,the pupils and followers of the ,siennese ,school were not men of great strength4 ,pacchiarotta 7#adgd-aedj871 ,girolamo della ,pacchia 7#adgg-aece71 ,peruzzi 7#adha-aecf71 a half-,lombard half-,umbrian painter of ability1 and ,beccafumi 7#adhf-aeea7 were the principal lights4 ,the influence of the school was slight4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4--,,sodoma4 ,,ecstasy ,,of ,,st4 ,,catherine4 ,,sienna4 ,,ferrara ,,and ,,bolognese ,,schools3 ,the painters of these schools during the sixteenth century have usually been classed among the followers and imitators of ,raphael1 but not without some injustice4 ,the influence of ,raphael was great throughout ,central ,italy1 and the ,ferrarese and ,bolognese felt it1 but not to the extinction of their native thought and methods4 ,moreover1 there was some influence in color coming from the ,venetian school1 but again not to the entire extinction of ,ferrarese individuality4 ,dosso ,dossi 7#adgi8-aeda71 at ,ferrara1 a pupil of ,lorenzo ,costa1 was the chief painter of the time1 and he showed more of ,giorgione in color and light-and-shade than anyone else1 yet he never abandoned the yellows1 greens1 and reds peculiar to ,ferrara1 and both he and ,garofolo were strikingly original in their background landscapes4 ,garofolo 7#adha-aeei7 was a pupil of ,panetti and ,costa1 who made several visits to ,rome and there fell in love with ,raphael's work1 which showed in a fondness for the sweep and flow of line1 in the type of face adopted1 and in the calmness of his many easel pictures4 ,he was not so dramatic a painter as ,dosso1 and in addition he had certain mannerisms or earmarks1 such as sootiness in his flesh tints and brightness in his yellows and greens1 with dulness in his reds4 ,he was always ,ferrarese in his landscapes and in the main characteristics of his technic4 ,mazzolino 7#adgh8-aebh87 was another of the school1 probably a pupil of ,panetti4 ,he was an elaborate painter1 fond of architectural backgrounds and glowing colors enlivened with gold in the high lights4 ,bagnacavallo 7#adhd-aedb7 was a pupil of ,francia at ,bologna1 but with much of ,dosso and ,ferrara about him4 ,he1 in common with ,imola1 already mentioned1 was indebted to the art of ,raphael4 ,,correggio ,,at ,,parma3 ,in ,correggio 7#adid8-aecd7 all the ,boccaccio nature of the ,renaissance came to the surface4 ,it was indicated in ,andrea del ,sarto--this nature-worship--but ,correggio was the consummation4 ,he was the ,faun of the ,renaissance1 the painter with whom the beauty of the human as distinguished from the religious and the classic showed at its very strongest4 ,free animal spirits1 laughing madonnas1 raving nymphs1 excited children of the wood1 and angels of the sky pass and repass through his pictures in an atmosphere of pure sensuousness4 ,they appeal to us not religiously1 not historically1 not intellectually1 but sensuously and artistically through their rhythmic lines1 their palpitating flesh1 their beauty of color1 and in the light and atmosphere that surround them4 ,he was less of a religionist than ,andrea del ,sarto4 ,religion in art was losing ground in his day1 and the liberality and worldliness of its teachers appeared clearly enough in the decorations of the ,convent of ,st4 ,paul at ,parma1 where ,correggio was allowed to paint mythological ,dianas and ,cupids in the place of saints and madonnas4 ,true enough1 he painted the religious subject very often1 but with the same spirit of life and joyousness as profane subjects4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df--;,,correggio4 ,,marriage ,,of ,,st4 ,,catherine ,,and ,,christ4 ,,louvre4 ,the classic subject seemed more appropriate to his spirit1 and yet he knew and probably cared less about it than the religious subject4 ,his ,dianas and ,ledas are only so in name4 ,they have little of the ,hellenic spirit about them1 and for the sterner1 heroic phases of classicism--the lofty1 the grand--,correggio never essayed them4 ,the things of this earth and the sweetness thereof seemed ever his aim4 ,women and children were beautiful to him in the same way that flowers and trees and skies and sunsets were beautiful4 ,they were revelations of grace1 charm1 tenderness1 light1 shade1 color4 ,simply to exist and be glad in the sunlight was sweetness to ,correggio4 ,he would have no ,sibylesque mystery1 no prophetic austerity1 no solemnity1 no great intellectuality4 ,he was no leader of a tragic chorus4 ,the dramatic1 the forceful1 the powerful1 were foreign to his mood4 ,he was a singer of lyrics and pastorals1 a lover of the material beauty about him1 and it is because he passed by the pietistic1 the classic1 the literary1 and showed the beauty of physical life as an art motive that he is called the ,faun of the ,renaissance4 ,the appellation is not inappropriate4 ,how or why he came to take this course would be hard to determine4 ,it was reflective of the times2 but ,correggio1 so far as history tells us1 had little to do with the movements and people of his age4 ,he was born and lived and died near ,parma1 and is sometimes classed among the ,bologna-,ferrara painters1 but the reasons for the classification are not too strong4 ,his education1 masters1 and influences are all shadowy and indefinite4 ,he seems1 from his drawing and composition1 to have known something of ,mantegna at ,mantua2 from his coloring something of ,dosso and ,garofolo1 especially in his straw-yellows2 from his early types and faces something of ,costa and ,francia1 and his contours and light-and-shade indicate a knowledge of ,leonardo's work4 ,but there is no positive certainty that he saw the work of any of these men4 ,his drawing was faulty at times1 but not obtrusively so2 his color and brush-work rich1 vivacious1 spirited2 his light brilliant1 warm1 penetrating2 his contours melting1 graceful2 his atmosphere omnipresent1 enveloping4 ,in composition he rather pushed aside line in favor of light and color4 ,it was his technical peculiarity that he centralized his light and surrounded it by darks as a foil4 ,and in this very feature he was one of the first men in ,renaissance ,italy to paint a picture for the purpose of weaving a scheme of lights and darks through a tapestry of rich colors4 ,that is art for art's sake1 and that1 as will be seen further on1 was the picture motive of the great ,venetians4 ,correggio's immediate pupils and followers1 like those of ,raphael and ,andrea del ,sarto1 did him small honor4 ,as was usually the case in ,renaissance art-history they caught at the method and lost the spirit of the master4 ,his son1 ,pomponio ,allegri 7#aeba-aeic871 was a painter of some mark without being in the front rank4 ,michelangelo ,anselmi 7#adia-aeed871 though not a pupil1 was an indifferent imitator of ,correggio4 ,parmigianino 7#aejd-aedj71 a mannered painter of some brilliancy1 and of excellence in portraits1 was perhaps the best of the immediate followers4 ,it was not until after ,correggio's death1 and with the painters of the ,decadence1 that his work was seriously taken up and followed4 ,,principal ,,works3 ,,milanese--,leonardo da ,vinci1 ,last ,supper ,s4 ,m4 delle ,grazie ,milan 7in ruins71 ,mona ,lisa1 ,madonna with ,st4 ,anne 7badly damaged7 ,louvre1 ,adoration 7unfinished7 ,uffizi1 ,angel at left in ,verrocchio's ,baptism ,florence ,acad42 ,luini1 frescos ,monastero ,maggiore1 #ga fragments in ,brera ,milan1 ,church of the ,pilgrims ,sarrona1 ,s4 ,m4 degli ,angeli ,lugano1 altar-pieces ,duomo ,como1 ,ambrosian ,library ,milan1 ,brera1 ,uffizi1 ,louvre1 ,madrid1 ,st4 ,petersburgh1 and other galleries2 ,beltraffio1 ,madonna ,louvre1 ,barbara ,berlin ,gal41 ,madonna ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 fresco ,convent of ,s4 ,onofrio ,rome 7ascribed to ,da ,vinci72 ,marco da ,oggiono1 ,archangels and other works ,brera1 ,holy ,family ,madonna ,louvre2 ,solario1 ,ecce ,homo ,repose ,poldi-,pezzoli ,gal4 ,milan1 ,holy ,family ,brera1 ,madonna ,portrait ,louvre1 ,portraits ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,assumption ,certosa of ,pavia2 ,giampietrino1 ,magdalene ,brera1 ,madonna ,s4 ,sepolcro ,milan1 ,magdalene and ,catherine ,berlin ,gal42 ,cesare da ,sesto1 ,madonna ,brera1 ,magi ,naples ,mus42 ,gaudenzio ,ferrara1 frescos ,church of ,pilgrims ,saronna1 other pictures in ,brera1 ,turin ,gal41 ,s4 ,gaudenzio ,novara1 ,s4 ,celso ,milan4 ,,siennese--,sodoma1 frescos ,convent of ,st4 ,anne near ,pienza1 ,benedictine ,convent of ,mont' ,oliveto ,maggiore1 ,alexander and ,roxana ,villa ,farnesina ,rome1 ,s4 ,bernardino ,palazzo ,pubblico1 ,s4 ,domenico ,sienna1 pictures ,uffizi1 ,brera1 ,munich1 ,vienna ,gals42 ,pacchiarotto1 ,ascension ,visitation ,sienna ,gal42 ,girolamo del ,pacchia1 frescos 7#c7 ,s4 ,bernardino1 altar-pieces ,s4 ,spirito and ,sienna ,acad41 ,munich and ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon42 ,peruzzi1 fresco ,fontegiuste ,sienna1 ,s4 ,onofrio1 ,s4 ,m4 della ,pace ,rome2 ,beccafumi1 ,st4 ,catherine ,saints ,sienna ,acad41 frescos ,s4 ,bernardino ,hospital and ,s4 ,martino ,sienna1 ,palazzo ,doria ,rome1 ,pitti1 ,berlin1 ,munich ,gals4 ,,ferrarese ,,and ,,bolognese--,dosso ,dossi1 many works ,ferrara ,modena ,gals41 ,duomo ,s4 ,pietro ,modena1 ,brera1 ,borghese1 ,doria1 ,berlin1 ,dresden1 ,vienna1 ,gals42 ,garofolo1 many works ,ferrara churches and ,gal41 ,borghese1 ,campigdoglio1 ,louvre1 ,berlin1 ,dresden1 ,munich1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon42 ,mazzolino1 ,ferrara1 ,berlin1 ,dresden1 ,louvre1 ,doria1 ,borghese1 ,pitti1 ,uffizi1 and ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon42 ,bagnacavallo1 ,misericordia and ,gal4 ,bologna1 ,louvre1 ,berlin1 ,dresden ,gals4 ,,parmese--,correggio1 frescos ,convent of ,s4 ,paolo1 ,s4 ,giovanni ,evangelista1 ,duomo ,parma1 altar-pieces ,dresden 7#d71 ,parma ,gals41 ,louvre1 mythological pictures ,antiope ,louvre1 ,danae ,borghese1 ,leda ,jupiter and ,io ,berlin1 ,venus ,mercury and ,cupid ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,ganymede ,vienna ,gal42 ,pomponio ,allegri1 frescos ,capella del ,popolo ,parma2 ,anselmi1 frescos ,s4 ,giovanni ,evangelista1 altar-pieces ,madonna della ,steccata1 ,duomo1 ,gal4 ,parma1 ,louvre2 ,parmigianino1 frescos ,moses ,steccata1 ,s4 ,giovanni ,parma1 altar-pieces ,santa ,margherita1 ,bologna ,gal41 ,madonna ,pitti1 portraits ,uffizi1 ,vienna1 ,naples ,mus41 other works ,dresden1 ,vienna1 and ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,italian ,,painting4 ,,the ,,high ,,renaissance4 #aejj-afjj4 7,continued47 ,,books ,,recommended3 ,the works on ,italian art before mentioned and also consult ,general ,bibliography1 7page xv474 ,,the ,,venetian ,,school3 ,it was at ,venice and with the ,venetian painters of the sixteenth century that a new art-motive was finally and fully adopted4 ,this art-motive was not religion4 ,for though the religious subject was still largely used1 the religious or pietistic belief was not with the ,venetians any more than with ,correggio4 ,it was not a classic1 antique1 realistic1 or naturalistic motive4 ,the ,venetians were interested in all phases of nature1 and they were students of nature1 but not students of truth for truth's sake4 ,what they sought1 primarily1 was the light and shade on a nude shoulder1 the delicate contours of a form1 the flow and fall of silk or brocade1 the richness of a robe1 a scheme of color or of light1 the character of a face1 the majesty of a figure4 ,they were seeking effects of line1 light1 color--mere sensuous and pictorial effects1 in which religion and classicism played secondary parts4 ,they believed in art for art's sake2 that painting was a creation1 not an illustration2 that it should exist by its pictorial beauties1 not by its subject or story4 ,no matter what their subjects1 they invariably painted them so as to show the beauties they prized the highest4 ,the ,venetian conception was less austere1 grand1 intellectual1 than pictorial1 sensuous1 concerning the beautiful as it appealed to the eye4 ,and this was not a slight or unworthy conception4 ,true it dealt with the fulness of material life1 but regarded as it was by the ,venetians--a thing full-rounded1 complete1 harmonious1 splendid--it became a great ideal of existence4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--;,,giorgione7874 ,,ordeal ,,of ,,moses4 ,,uffizi4 ,in technical expression color was the note of all the school1 with hardly an exception4 ,this in itself would seem to imply a lightness of spirit1 for color is somehow associated in the popular mind with decorative gayety2 but nothing could be further removed from the ,venetian school than triviality4 ,color was taken up with the greatest seriousness1 and handled in such masses and with such dignified power that while it pleased it also awed the spectator4 ,without having quite the severity of line1 some of the ,venetian chromatic schemes rise in sublimity almost to the ,sistine modellings of ,michael ,angelo4 ,we do not feel this so much in ,giovanni ,bellini1 fine in color as he was4 ,he came too early for the full splendor1 but he left many pupils who completed what he had inaugurated4 ,,the ,,great ,,venetians3 ,the most positive in influence upon his contemporaries of all the great ,venetians was ,giorgione 7#adgg8-aeaa74 ,he died young1 and what few pictures by him are left to us have been so torn to pieces by historical criticism that at times one begins to doubt if there ever was such a painter4 ,his different styles have been confused1 and his pictures in consequence thereof attributed to followers instead of to the master4 ,painters change their styles1 but seldom their original bent of mind4 ,with ,giorgione there was a lyric feeling as shown in music4 ,the voluptuous swell of line1 the melting tone of color1 the sharp dash of light1 the undercurrent of atmosphere1 all mingled for him into radiant melody4 ,he sought pure pictorial beauty and found it in everything of nature4 ,he had little grasp of the purely intellectual1 and the religious was something he dealt with in no strong devotional way4 ,the fete1 the concert1 the fable1 the legend1 with a landscape setting1 made a stronger appeal to him4 ,more of a recorder than a thinker he was not the less a leader showing the way into that new ,arcadian grove of pleasure whose inhabitants thought not of creeds and faiths and histories and literatures1 but were content to lead the life that was sweet in its glow and warmth of color1 its light1 its shadows1 its bending trees1 and arching skies4 ,a strong full-blooded race1 sober-minded1 dignified1 rationally happy with their lot1 ,giorgione portrayed them with an art infinite in variety and consummate in skill4 ,their least features under his brush seemed to glow like jewels4 ,the sheen of armor and rich robe1 a bare forearm1 a nude back1 or loosened hair--mere morsels of color and light--all took on a new beauty4 ,even landscape with him became more significant4 ,his master1 ,bellini1 had been realistic enough in the details of trees and hills1 but ,giorgione grasped the meaning of landscape as an entirety1 and rendered it with poetic breadth4 ,technically he adopted the oil medium brought to ,venice by ,antonello da ,messina1 introducing scumbling and glazing to obtain brilliancy and depth of color4 ,of light-and-shade he was a master1 and in atmosphere excellent4 ,he1 in common with all the ,venetians1 is sometimes said to be lacking in drawing1 but that is the result of a misunderstanding4 ,the ,venetians never cared to accent line1 choosing rather to model in masses of light and shadow and color4 ,giorgione was a superior man with the brush1 but not quite up to his contemporary ,titian4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,,titian4 ,,venus ,,equipping ,,cupid4 ,,borghese ,,pal41 ,,rome4 ,that is not surprising1 for ,titian 7#adgg-aegf7 was the painter easily first in the whole range of ,italian art4 ,he was the first man in the history of painting to handle a brush with freedom1 vigor1 and gusto4 ,and ,titian's brush-work was probably the least part of his genius4 ,calm in mood1 dignified1 and often majestic in conception1 learned beyond all others in his craft1 he mingled thought1 feeling1 color1 brush-work into one grand and glowing whole4 ,he emphasized nothing1 yet elevated everything4 ,in pure intellectual thought he was not so strong as ,raphael4 ,he never sought to make painting a vehicle for theological1 literary1 or classical ideas4 ,his tale was largely of humanity under a religious or classical name1 but a noble1 majestic humanity4 ,in his art dignified senators1 stern doges1 and solemn ecclesiastics mingle with open-eyed madonnas1 winning ,ariadnes1 and youthful ,bacchuses4 ,men and women they are truly1 but the very noblest of the ,italian race1 the mountain race of the ,cadore country--proud1 active1 glowing with life2 the sea race of ,venice--worldly wise1 full of character1 luxurious in power4 ,in himself he was an epitome of all the excellences of painting4 ,he was everything1 the sum of ,venetian skill1 the crowning genius of ,renaissance art4 ,he had force1 power1 invention1 imagination1 point of view2 he had the infinite knowledge of nature and the infinite mastery of art4 ,in addition1 ,fortune smiled upon him as upon a favorite child4 ,trained in mind and hand he lived for ninety-nine years and worked unceasingly up to a few months of his death4 ,his genius was great and his accomplishment equally so4 ,he was celebrated and independent at thirty-five1 though before that he showed something of the influence of ,giorgione4 ,after the death of ,giorgione and his master1 ,bellini1 ,titian was the leader in ,venice to the end of his long life1 and though having few scholars of importance his influence was spread through all ,north ,italian painting4 ,taking him for all in all1 perhaps it is not too much to say that he was the greatest painter known to history4 ,if it were possible to describe that greatness in one word1 that word would be universality4 ,he saw and painted that which was universal in its truth4 ,the local and particular1 the small and the accidental1 were passed over for those great truths which belong to all the world of life4 ,in this respect he was a veritable ,shakespeare1 with all the calmness and repose of one who overlooked the world from a lofty height4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,,tintoretto4 ,,mercury ,,and ,,graces4 ,,ducal ,,pal41 ,,venice4 ,the restfulness and easy strength of ,titian were not characteristics of his follower ,tintoretto 7#aeah-aeib74 ,he was violent1 headlong1 impulsive1 more impetuous than ,michael ,angelo1 and in some respects a strong reminder of him4 ,he had not ,michael ,angelo's austerity1 and there was more clash and tumult and fire about him1 but he had a command of line like the ,florentine1 and a way of hurling things1 as seen in the ,fall of the ,damned1 that reminds one of the ,last ,judgment of the ,sistine4 ,it was his aim to combine the line of ,michael ,angelo and the color of ,titian2 but without reaching up to either of his models he produced a powerful amalgam of his own4 ,he was one of the very great artists of the world1 and the most rapid workman in the whole ,renaissance period4 ,there are to-day1 after centuries of decay1 fire1 theft1 and repainting1 yards upon yards of ,tintoretto's canvases rotting upon the walls of the ,venetian churches4 ,he produced an enormous amount of work1 and1 what is to be regretted1 much of it was contract work or experimental sketching4 ,this has given his art a rather bad name1 but judged by his best works in the ,ducal ,palace and the ,academy at ,venice1 he will not be found lacking4 ,even in his masterpiece 7,the ,miracle of the ,slave7 he is ,il ,furioso1 as they used to call him2 but his thunderbolt style is held in check by wonderful grace1 strength of modelling1 superb contrasts of light with shade1 and a coloring of flesh and robes not unworthy of the very greatest4 ,he was a man who worked in the white heat of passion1 with much imagination and invention4 ,as a technician he sought difficulties rather than avoided them4 ,there is some antagonism between form and color1 but ,tintoretto tried to reconcile them4 ,the result was sometimes clashing1 but no one could have done better with them than he did4 ,he was a fine draughtsman1 a good colorist1 and a master of light4 ,as a brushman he was a superior man1 but not equal to ,titian4 ,paolo ,veronese 7#aebh-aehh71 the fourth great ,venetian1 did not follow the line direction set by ,tintoretto1 but carried out the original color-leaning of the school4 ,he came a little later than ,tintoretto1 and his art was a reflection of the advancing ,renaissance1 wherein simplicity was destined to lose itself in complexity1 grandeur1 and display4 ,paolo came on the very crest of the ,renaissance wave1 when art1 risen to its greatest height1 was gleaming in that transparent splendor that precedes the fall4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,p4 ,,veronese4 ,,venice ,,enthroned4 ,,ducal ,,pal41 ,,venice4 ,the great bulk of his work had a large decorative motive behind it4 ,almost all of the late ,venetian work was of that character4 ,hence it was brilliant in color1 elaborate in subject1 and grand in scale4 ,splendid robes1 hangings1 furniture1 architecture1 jewels1 armor1 appeared everywhere1 and not in flat1 lustreless hues1 but with that brilliancy which they possess in nature4 ,drapery gave way to clothing1 and texture-painting was introduced even in the largest canvases4 ,scenes from ,scripture and legend turned into grand pageants of ,venetian glory1 and the facial expression of the characters rather passed out in favor of telling masses of color to be seen at a distance upon wall or ceiling4 ,it was pomp and glory carried to the highest pitch1 but with all seriousness of mood and truthfulness in art4 ,it was beyond ,titian in variety1 richness1 ornament1 facility2 but it was perhaps below ,titian in sentiment1 sobriety1 and depth of insight4 ,titian1 with all his sensuous beauty1 did appeal to the higher intelligence1 while ,paolo and his companions appealed more positively to the eye by luxurious color-setting and magnificence of invention4 ,the decadence came after ,paolo1 but not with him4 ,his art was the most gorgeous of the ,venetian school1 and by many is ranked the highest of all1 but perhaps it is better to say it was the height4 ,those who came after brought about the decline by striving to imitate his splendor1 and thereby falling into extravagance4 ,these are the four great ,venetians--the men of first rank4 ,beside them and around them were many other painters1 placed in the second rank1 who in any other time or city would have held first place4 ,palma il ,vecchio 7#adhj8-aebh7 was so excellent in many ways that it seems unjust to speak of him as a secondary painter4 ,he was not1 however1 a great original mind1 though in many respects a perfect painter4 ,he was influenced by ,bellini at first1 and then by ,giorgione4 ,in subject there was nothing dramatic about him1 and he carries chiefly by his portrayal of quiet1 dignified1 and beautiful ,venetians under the names of saints and holy families4 ,the ,st4 ,barbara is an example of this1 and one of the most majestic figures in all painting4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,,lotto4 ,,three ,,ages4 ,,pitti4 ,palma's friend and fellow-worker1 ,lorenzo ,lotto 7#adhj8-aeef87 came from the school of the ,bellini1 and at different times was under the influence of several ,venetian painters--,palma1 ,giorgione1 ,titian--without obliterating a sensitive individuality of his own4 ,he was a somewhat mannered but very charming painter1 and in portraits can hardly be classed below ,titian4 ,rocco ,marconi 7fl4 #aeje-aebj7 was another ,bellini-educated painter1 showing the influence of ,palma and even of ,paris ,bordone4 ,in color and landscape he was excellent4 ,pordenone 7#adhc-aedj7 rather followed after ,giorgione1 and unsuccessfully competed with ,titian4 ,he was inclined to exaggeration in dramatic composition1 but was a painter of undeniable power4 ,cariani 7#adhj-aeda7 was another ,giorgione follower4 ,bonifazio ,pitati probably came from a ,veronese family4 ,he showed the influence of ,palma1 and was rather deficient in drawing1 though exceedingly brilliant and rich in coloring4 ,this latter may be said for ,paris ,bordone 7#adie-aegj71 a painter of ,titian's school1 gorgeous in color1 but often lacking in truth of form4 ,his portraits are very fine4 ,another painter family1 the ,bassani--there were six of them1 of whom ,jacopo ,bassano 7#aeaj-aeib7 and his son ,francesco ,bassano 7#aeej-aeia71 were the most noted--formed themselves after ,venetian masters1 and were rather remarkable for violent contrasts of light and dark1 genre treatment of sacred subjects1 and still-life and animal painting4 ,,painting ,,in ,,venetian ,,territories3 ,venetian painting was not confined to ,venice1 but extended through all the ,venetian territories in ,renaissance times1 and those who lived away from the city were1 in their art1 decidedly ,venetian1 though possessing local characteristics4 ,at ,brescia ,savoldo 7#adhj8-aedh71 a rather superficial painter1 fond of weird lights and sheeny draperies1 and ,romanino 7#adhe8-aeff71 a follower of ,giorgione1 good in composition but unequal and careless in execution1 were the earliest of the ,high ,renaissance men4 ,moretto 7#adih8-aeee7 was the strongest and most original1 a man of individuality and power1 remarkable technically for his delicacy and unity of color under a veil of silvery tone4 ,in composition he was dignified and noble1 and in brush-work simple and direct4 ,one of the great painters of the time1 he seemed to stand more apart from ,venetian influence than any other on ,venetian territory4 ,he left one remarkable pupil1 ,moroni 7fl4 #aedi-aegh7 whose portraits are to-day the gems of several galleries1 and greatly admired for their modern spirit and treatment4 ,at ,verona ,caroto and ,girolamo dai ,libri 7#adgd-aeee71 though living into the sixteenth century were more allied to the art of the fifteenth century4 ,torbido 7#adhf8-aedf87 was a vacillating painter1 influenced by ,liberale da ,verona1 ,giorgione1 ,bonifazio ,veronese1 and later1 even by ,giulio ,romano4 ,cavazzola 7#adhf-aebb7 was more original1 and a man of talent4 ,there were numbers of other painters scattered all through the ,venetian provinces at this time1 but they were not of the first1 or even the second rank1 and hence call for no mention here4 ,,principal ,,works3 ,giorgione1 ,fete ,rustique ,louvre1 ,sleeping ,venus ,dresden1 altar-piece ,castelfranco1 ,ordeal of ,moses ,judgment of ,solomon ,knight of ,malta ,uffizi2 ,titian1 ,sacred and ,profane ,love ,borghese1 ,tribute ,money ,dresden1 ,annunciation ,s4 ,rocco1 ,pesaro ,madonna ,frari ,venice1 ,entombment ,man with ,glove ,louvre1 ,bacchus ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,charles ,v4 ,madrid1 ,danae ,naples1 many other works in almost every ,european gallery2 ,tintoretto1 many works in ,venetian churches1 ,salute ,,ss4 ,giovanni e ,paolo ,s4 ,maria dell' ,orto ,scuola and ,church of ,s4 ,rocco ,ducal ,palace ,venice ,acad4 7best work ,miracle of ,slave72 ,paolo ,veronese1 many ,pictures in ,s4 ,sebastiano ,ducal ,palace ,academy ,venice1 ,pitti1 ,uffizi1 ,brera1 ,capitoline and ,borghese ,galleries ,rome1 ,turin1 ,dresden1 ,vienna1 ,louvre1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon42 ,palma il ,vecchio1 ,jacob and ,rachel ,three ,sisters ,dresden1 ,barbara ,s4 ,m4 ,formosa ,venice1 other altar-pieces ,venice ,acad41 ,colonna ,palace ,rome1 ,brera1 ,naples ,mus41 ,vienna1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon42 ,lotto1 ,three ,ages ,pitti1 ,portraits ,brera1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 altar-pieces ,,ss4 ,giovanni e ,paolo ,venice and churches at ,bergamo1 ,treviso1 ,recanti1 also ,uffizi1 ,vienna1 ,madrid ,gals42 ,marconi1 ,descent ,venice ,acad41 altar-pieces ,s4 ,giorgio ,maggiore ,,ss4 ,giovanni e ,paolo ,venice2 ,pordenone1 ,s4 ,lorenzo ,madonna ,venice ,acad41 ,salome ,doria ,st4 ,george ,quirinale ,rome1 other works ,madrid1 ,dresden1 ,st4 ,petersburg1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon42 ,bonifazio1 ,st4 ,john1 ,st4 ,joseph1 etc4 ,ambrosian ,library ,milan 7attributed to ,giorgione71 ,holy ,family ,colonna ,pal4 ,rome1 ,ducal ,pal41 ,pitti1 ,dresden ,gals42 ,supper at ,emmaus ,brera1 other works ,venice ,acad42 ,paris ,bordone1 ,fisherman and ,doge1 ,venice ,acad41 ,madonna ,casa ,tadini ,lovere1 portraits in ,uffizi1 ,pitti1 ,louvre1 ,munich1 ,vienna1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,brignola ,pal4 ,genoa2 ,jacopo ,bassano1 altar-pieces in ,bassano churches1 also ,ducal ,pal4 ,venice1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,uffizi1 ,naples ,mus42 ,francesco ,bassano1 large pictures ,ducal ,pal41 ,st4 ,catherine ,pitti1 ,sabines ,turin1 ,adoration and ,christ in ,temple ,dresden1 ,adoration and ,last ,supper ,madrid2 ,savoldo1 altar-pieces ,brera1 ,s4 ,niccolo ,treviso1 ,uffizi1 ,turin ,gal41 ,s4 ,giobbe ,venice1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon42 ,romanino1 altar-pieces ,s4 ,francesco ,brescia1 ,berlin ,gal41 ,s4 ,giovanni ,evangelista ,brescia1 ,duomo ,cremona1 ,padua1 and ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon42 ,moretto1 altar-pieces ,brera1 ,staedel ,mus41 ,s4 ,m4 della ,pieta ,venice1 ,vienna1 ,berlin1 ,louvre1 ,pitti1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon42 ,moroni1 portraits ,bergamo ,gal41 ,uffizi1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,berlin1 ,dresden1 ,madrid2 ,girolamo dai ,libri1 ,madonna ,berlin1 ,conception ,s4 ,paolo ,verona1 ,virgin ,verona ,gal41 ,s4 ,giorgio ,maggiore ,verona1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon42 ,torbido1 frescos ,duomo1 altar-pieces ,s4 ,zeno and ,s4 ,eufemia ,verona2 ,cavazzola1 altar-pieces1 ,verona ,gal4 and ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,italian ,,painting4 ,,the ,,decadence ,,and ,,modern ,,work4 #afjj-ahid4 ,,books ,,recommended3 ,as before1 also ,general ,bibliography1 7page xv472 ,calvi1 ,notizie della vita e delle opere di ,gio4 ,francesco ,barbiera2 ,malvasia1 ,felsina ,pittrice2 ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds1 ,discourses2 ,symonds1 ,renaissance in ,italy--,the ,catholic ,reaction2 ,willard1 ,modern ,italian ,art4 ,,the ,,decline3 ,an art movement in history seems like a wave that rises to a height1 then breaks1 falls1 and parts of it are caught up from beneath to help form the strength of a new advance4 ,in ,italy ,christianity was the propelling force of the wave4 ,in the ,early ,renaissance1 the antique1 and the study of nature came in as additions4 ,at ,venice in the ,high ,renaissance the art-for-art's-sake motive made the crest of light and color4 ,the highest point was reached then1 and there was nothing that could follow but the breaking and the scattering of the wave4 ,this took place in ,central ,italy after #aedj1 in ,venice after #aeij4 ,art had typified in form1 thought1 and expression everything of which the ,italian race was capable4 ,it had perfected all the graces and elegancies of line and color1 and adorned them with a superlative splendor4 ,there was nothing more to do4 ,the idea was completed1 the motive power had served its purpose1 and that store of race-impulse which seems necessary to the making of every great art was exhausted4 ,for the men that came after ,michael ,angelo and ,tintoretto there was nothing4 ,all that they could do was to repeat what others had said1 or to recombine the old thoughts and forms4 ,this led inevitably to imitation1 over-refinement of style1 and conscious study of beauty1 resulting in mannerism and affectation4 ,such qualities marked the art of those painters who came in the latter part of the sixteenth century and the first of the seventeenth4 ,they were unfortunate men in the time of their birth4 ,no painter could have been great in the seventeenth century of ,italy4 ,art lay prone upon its face under ,jesuit rule1 and the late men were left upon the barren sands by the receding wave of the ,renaissance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--;,,bronzino4 ,,christ ,,in ,,limbo4 ,,uffizi4 ,,art ,,motives ,,and ,,subjects3 ,as before1 the chief subject of the art of the ,decadence was religion1 with many heads and busts of the ,madonna1 though nature and the classic still played their parts4 ,after the ,reformation at the ,north the ,church in ,italy started the ,counter-,reformation4 ,one of the chief means employed by this ,catholic reaction was the embellishment of church worship1 and painting on a large scale1 on panel rather than in fresco1 was demanded for decorative purposes4 ,but the religious motive had passed out1 though its subject was retained1 and the pictorial motive had reached its climax at ,venice4 ,the faith of the one and the taste and skill of the other were not attainable by the late men1 and1 while consciously striving to achieve them1 they fell into exaggerated sentiment and technical weakness4 ,it seems perfectly apparent in their works that they had nothing of their own to say1 and that they were trying to say over again what ,michael ,angelo1 ,correggio1 and ,titian had said before them much better4 ,there were earnest men and good painters among them1 but they could produce only the empty form of art4 ,the spirit had fled4 ,,the ,,mannerists3 ,immediately after the ,high ,renaissance leaders of ,florence and ,rome came the imitators and exaggerators of their styles4 ,they produced large1 crowded compositions1 with a hasty facility of the brush and striking effects of light4 ,seeking the grand they overshot the temperate4 ,their elegance was affected1 their sentiment forced1 their brilliancy superficial glitter4 ,when they thought to be ideal they lost themselves in incomprehensible allegories2 when they thought to be real they grew prosaic in detail4 ,these men are known in art history as the ,mannerists1 and the men whose works they imitated were chiefly ,raphael1 ,michael ,angelo1 and ,correggio4 ,there were many of them1 and some of them have already been spoken of as the followers of ,michael ,angelo4 ,agnolo ,bronzino 7#aejb8-aegb7 was a pupil of ,pontormo1 and an imitator of ,michael ,angelo1 painting in rather heavy colors with a thin brush4 ,his characters were large1 but never quite free from weakness1 except in portraiture1 where he appeared at his best4 ,vasari 7#aeaa-aegd7--the same ,vasari who wrote the lives of the painters--had versatility and facility1 but his superficial imitations of ,michael ,angelo were too grandiose in conception and too palpably false in modelling4 ,salviati 7#aeaj-aefc7 was a friend of ,vasari1 a painter of about the same cast of mind and hand as ,vasari1 and ,federigo ,zucchero 7#aedc-afji7 belongs with him in producing things muscularly big but intellectually small4 ,baroccio 7#aebh-afab71 though classed among the ,mannerists as an imitator of ,correggio and ,raphael1 was really one of the strong men of the late times4 ,there was affectation and sentimentality about his work1 a prettiness of face1 rosy flesh tints1 and a general lightness of color1 but he was a superior brushman1 a good colorist1 and1 at times1 a man of earnestness and power4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--;,,baroccio4 ,,annunciation4 ,,the ,,eclectics3 ,after the ,mannerists came the ,eclectics of ,bologna1 led by the ,caracci1 who1 about #aehe1 sought to revive art4 ,they started out to correct the faults of the ,mannerists1 and yet their own art was based more on the art of their great predecessors than on nature4 ,they thought to make a union of ,renaissance excellences by combining ,michael ,angelo's line1 ,titian's color1 ,correggio's light-and-shade and ,raphael's symmetry and grace4 ,the attempt was praiseworthy for the time1 but hardly successful4 ,they caught the lines and lights and colors of the great men1 but they overlooked the fact that the excellence of the imitated lay largely in their inimitable individualities1 which could not be combined4 ,the ,eclectic work was done with intelligence1 but their system was against them and their baroque age was against them4 ,midway in their career the ,caracci themselves modified their eclecticism and placed more reliance upon nature4 ,but their pupils paid little heed to the modification4 ,there were five of the ,caracci1 but three of them--,ludovico 7#aeee-afai71 ,agostino 7#aeeg-afjb71 and ,annibale 7#aefj-afji7--led the school1 and of these ,annibale was the most distinguished4 ,they had many pupils1 and their influence was widely spread over ,italy4 ,in ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds's day they were ranked with ,raphael1 but at the present time criticism places them where they belong--painters of the ,decadence with little originality or spontaneity in their art1 though much technical skill4 ,domenichino 7#aeha-afda7 was the strongest of the pupils4 ,his ,st4 ,jerome was rated by ,poussin as one of the three great paintings of the world1 but it never deserved such rank4 ,it is powerfully composed1 but poor in coloring and handling4 ,the painter had great repute in his time1 and was one of the best of the seventeenth century men4 ,guido ,reni 7#aege-afdb7 was a painter of many gifts and accomplishments1 combined with many weaknesses4 ,his works are well composed and painted1 but excessive in sentiment and overdone in pathos4 ,albani 7#aegh-affj7 ran to elegance and a porcelain-like prettiness4 ,guercino 7#aeia-afff7 was originally of the ,eclectic ,school at ,bologna1 but later took up with the methods of the ,naturalists at ,naples4 ,he was a painter of far more than the average ability4 ,sassoferrato 7#afje-afhe7 and ,carlo ,dolci 7#afaf-afhf7 were so super-saturated with sentimentality that often their skill as painters is overlooked or forgotten4 ,in spirit they were about the weakest of the century4 ,there were other eclectic schools started throughout ,italy--at ,milan1 ,cremona1 ,ferrara--but they produced little worth recording4 ,at ,rome certain painters like ,cristofano ,allori 7#aegg-afba71 an exceptionally strong man for the time1 ,berrettini 7#aeif-affi71 and ,maratta 7#afbe-agac71 manufactured a facile kind of painting from what was attractive in the various schools1 but it was never other than meretricious work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--;,,annibale ,,caracci4 ,,entombment ,,of ,,christ4 ,,louvre4 ,,the ,,naturalists3 ,contemporary with the ,eclectics sprang up the ,neapolitan school of the ,naturalists1 led by ,caravaggio 7#aefi-afji7 and his pupils4 ,these schools opposed each other1 and yet influenced each other4 ,especially was this true with the later men1 who took what was best in both schools4 ,the ,naturalists were1 perhaps1 more firmly based upon nature than the ,bolognese ,eclectics4 ,their aim was to take nature as they found it1 and yet1 in conformity with the extravagance of the age1 they depicted extravagant nature4 ,caravaggio thought to represent sacred scenes more truthfully by taking his models from the harsh street life about him and giving types of saints and apostles from ,neapolitan brawlers and bandits4 ,it was a brutal1 coarse representation1 rather fierce in mood and impetuous in action1 yet not without a good deal of tragic power4 ,his subjects were rather dismal or morose1 but there was knowledge in the drawing of them1 some good color and brush-work and a peculiar darkness of shadow masses 7originally gained from ,giorgione71 that stood as an ear-mark of his whole school4 ,from the continuous use of black shadows the school got the name of the ,darklings1 by which they are still known4 ,giordano 7#afcb-agje71 a painter of prodigious facility and invention1 ,salvator ,rosa 7#afae-afgc71 best known as one of the early painters of landscape1 and ,ribera1 a ,spanish painter1 were the principal pupils4 ,,the ,,late ,,venetians3 ,the ,decadence at ,venice1 like the ,renaissance1 came later than at ,florence1 but after the death of ,tintoretto mannerisms and the imitation of the great men did away with originality4 ,there was still much color left1 and fine ceiling decorations were done1 but the nobility and calm splendor of ,titian's days had passed4 ,palma il ,giovine 7#aedd-afbh7 with a hasty brush produced imitations of ,tintoretto with some grace and force1 and in remarkable quantity4 ,he and ,tintoretto were the most rapid and productive painters of the century2 but ,palma's was not good in spirit1 though quite dashing in technic4 ,padovanino 7#aeij-afej7 was more of a ,titian follower1 but1 like all the other painters of the time1 he was proficient with the brush and lacking in the stronger mental elements4 ,the last great ,italian painter was ,tiepolo 7#afif-aggj71 and he was really great beyond his age4 ,with an art founded on ,paolo ,veronese1 he produced decorative ceilings and panels of high quality1 with wonderful invention1 a limpid brush1 and a light flaky color peculiarly appropriate to the walls of churches and palaces4 ,he was1 especially in easel pictures1 a brilliant1 vivacious brushman1 full of dash and spirit1 tempered by a large knowledge of what was true and pictorial4 ,some of his best pictures are still in ,venice1 and modern painters are unstinted in their praise of them4 ,he left a son1 ,domenico ,tiepolo 7#agbf-agie71 who followed his methods4 ,in the late days of ,venetian painting1 ,canaletto 7#afig-agfh7 and ,guardi 7#agab-agic7 achieved reputation by painting ,venetian canals and architecture with much color effect4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--;,,caravaggio4 ,,the ,,card ,,players4 ,,dresden4 ,,nineteenth-,,century ,,painting ,,in ,,italy3 ,there is little in the art of ,italy during the present century that shows a positive national spirit4 ,it has been leaning on the rest of ,europe for many years1 and the best that the living painters show is largely an echo of ,dusseldorf1 ,munich1 or ,paris4 ,the revived classicism of ,david in ,france affected nineteenth-century painting in ,italy somewhat4 ,then it was swayed by ,cornelius and ,overbeck from ,germany4 ,morelli 7#ahbf-b7 shows this latter influence1 though one of the most important of the living men4#c ,in the #ahfj's ,mariano ,fortuny1 a ,spaniard at ,rome1 led the younger element in the glittering and the sparkling1 and this style mingled with much that is more strikingly ,parisian than ,italian1 may be found in the works of painters like ,michetti1 ,de ,nittis 7#ahdf-ahhd71 ,favretto1 ,tito1 ,nono1 ,simonetti1 and others4 ,footnote #b3 ,died1 #aija4 ,footnote #c3 ,see ,scribner's ,magazine1 ,neapolitan ,art1 ,dec41 #ahij1 ,feb41 #ahia4 ,of recent days the impressionistic view of light and color has had its influence2 but the ,italian work at its best is below that of ,france4 ,segantini#d was one of the most promising of the younger men in subjects that have an archaic air about them4 ,boldini1 though ,italian born and originally following ,fortuny's example1 is really more ,parisian than anything else4 ,he is an artist of much power and technical strength in genre subjects and portraits4 ,the newer men are ,fragiocomo1 ,fattori1 ,mancini1 ,marchetti4 ,footnote #d3 ,died1 #ahii4 ,,principal ,,works3 ,,mannerists--,agnolo ,bronzino1 ,christ in ,limbo and many portraits in ,uffizi and ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon42 ,vasari1 many pictures in galleries at ,arezzo1 ,bologna1 ,berlin1 ,munich1 ,louvre1 ,madrid2 ,salviati1 ,charity ,christ ,uffizi1 ,patience ,pitti1 ,st4 ,thomas ,louvre1 ,love and ,psyche ,berlin2 ,federigo ,zucchero1 ,duomo ,florence1 ,ducal ,palace ,venice1 ,allegories ,uffizi1 ,calumny ,hampton ,court2 ,baroccio1 ,pardon of ,st4 ,francis ,urbino1 ,annunciation ,loreto1 several pictures in ,uffizi1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,louvre1 ,dresden ,gal4 ,,eclectics--,ludovico ,caracci1 ,cathedral frescos ,bologna1 thirteen pictures ,bologna ,gal42 ,agostino ,caracci1 frescos 7with ,annibale7 ,farnese ,pal4 ,rome1 altar-pieces ,bologna ,gal42 ,annibale ,carracci1 frescos 7with ,agostino7 ,farnese ,pal4 ,rome1 other pictures ,bologna ,gal41 ,uffizi1 ,naples ,mus41 ,dresden1 ,berlin1 ,louvre1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon42 ,domenichino1 ,st4 ,jerome ,vatican1 ,s4 ,pietro in ,vincoli1 ,diana ,borghese1 ,bologna1 ,pitti1 ,louvre1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon42 ,guido ,reni1 frescos ,aurora ,rospigliosi ,pal4 ,rome1 many pictures ,bologna1 ,borghese ,gal41 ,pitti1 ,uffizi1 ,brera1 ,naples1 ,louvre1 and other galleries of ,europe2 ,albani1 ,guercino1 ,sassoferrato1 and ,carlo ,dolci1 works in almost every ,european gallery1 especially ,bologna2 ,cristofano ,allori1 ,judith ,pitti1 also pictures in ,uffizi2 ,berrettini and ,maratta1 many examples in ,italian galleries1 also ,louvre4 ,,naturalists--,caravaggio1 ,entombment ,vatican1 many other works in ,pitti1 ,uffizi1 ,naples1 ,louvre1 ,dresden1 ,st4 ,petersburg2 ,giordano1 ,judgment of ,paris ,berlin1 many pictures in ,dresden and ,italian galleries2 ,salvator ,rosa1 best marine in ,pitti1 other works ,uffizi1 ,brera1 ,naples1 ,madrid galleries and ,colonna1 ,corsini1 ,doria1 ,chigi ,palaces ,rome4 ,,late ,,venetians--,palma il ,giovine1 ,ducal ,palace ,venice1 ,cassel1 ,dresden1 ,munich1 ,madrid1 ,naples1 ,vienna galleries2 ,padovanino1 ,marriage in ,cana ,kneeling ,angel and other works ,venice ,acad41 ,carmina ,venice1 also galleries of ,louvre1 ,uffizi1 ,borghese1 ,dresden1 ,london2 ,tiepolo1 large fresco ,villa ,pisani ,stra1 ,palazzo ,labia ,scuola ,carmina1 ,venice1 ,villa ,valmarana1 and at ,wurtzburg1 easel pictures ,venice ,acad41 ,louvre1 ,berlin1 ,madrid2 ,canaletto and ,guardi1 many pictures in ,european galleries4 ,,modern ,,italians#e--,morelli1 ,madonna ,royal chap4 ,castiglione1 ,assumption ,royal chap4 ,naples2 ,michetti1 ,the ,vow ,nat4 ,gal4 ,rome2 ,de ,nittis1 ,place du ,carrousel ,luxembourg ,paris2 ,boldini1 ,gossips ,met4 ,mus4 ,new ,york4 ,footnote #e3 ,only works in public places are given4 ,those in private hands change too often for record here4 ,for detailed list of works see ,champlin and ,perkins1 ,cyclopedia of ,painters and ,paintings4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,french ,,painting4 ,,sixteenth1 ,,seventeenth1 ,,and ,,eighteenth-,,century ,,painting4 ,,books ,,recommended3 ,amorini1 ,vita del celebre pittore ,francesco ,primaticcio2 ,berger1 ,histoire de l',ecole ,francaise de ,peinture au ,,xviime ,siecle2 ,bland1 ,les ,peintres des fetes galantes1 ,watteau1 ,boucher1 et al42 ,curmer1 ,l',o,euvre de ,jean ,fouquet2 ,delaborde1 ,etudes sur les ,beaux ,arts en ,france et en ,italie2 ,didot1 ,etudes sur ,jean ,cousin2 ,dimier1 ,french ,painting in ,,xvi ,century2 ,dumont1 ,antoine ,watteau2 ,dussieux1 ,nouvelles ,recherches sur la ,vie de ,e4 ,lesueur2 ,genevay1 ,le ,style ,louis ,,xiv41 ,charles ,le ,brun2 ,goncourt1 ,l',art du ,,xviiime ,siecle2 ,guibel1 ,eloge de ,nicolas ,poussin2 ,guiffrey1 ,la ,famille de ,jean ,cousin2 ,laborde1 ,la ,renaissance des ,arts a la ,cour de ,france2 ,lagrange1 ,j4 ,vernet et la ,peinture au ,,xviiime ,siecle2 ,lecoy de la ,marche1 ,le ,roi ,rene2 ,mantz1 ,francois ,boucher2 ,michiels1 ,etudes sur l',art ,flamand dans l'est et le midi de la ,france2 ,muntz1 ,la ,renaissance en ,italie et en ,france2 ,palustre1 ,la ,renaissance en ,france2 ,pattison1 ,renaissance of ,art in ,france2 ,pattison1 ,claude ,lorrain2 ,poillon1 ,nicolas ,poussin2 ,stranahan1 ,history of ,french ,painting4 ,,early ,,french ,,art3 ,painting in ,france did not1 as in ,italy1 spring directly from ,christianity1 though it dealt with the religious subject4 ,from the beginning a decorative motive--the strong feature of ,french art--appears as the chief motive of painting4 ,this showed itself largely in church ornament1 garments1 tapestries1 miniatures1 and illuminations4 ,mural paintings were produced during the fifth century1 probably in imitation of ,italian or ,roman example4 ,under ,charlemagne1 in the eighth century1 ,byzantine influences were at work4 ,in the eleventh1 twelfth1 and thirteenth centuries much stained-glass work appeared1 and also many missal paintings and furniture decorations4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4--,,poussin4 ,,et ,,in ,,arcadia ,,ego4 ,,louvre4 ,in the fifteenth century ,rene of ,anjou 7#adjh-adhj71 king and painter1 gave an impetus to art which he perhaps originally received from ,italy4 ,his work showed some ,italian influence mingled with a great deal of ,flemish precision1 and corresponded for ,france to the early ,renaissance work of ,italy1 though by no means so advanced4 ,contemporary with ,rene was ,jean ,fouquet 7#adae8-adhj87 an illuminator and portrait-painter1 one of the earliest in ,french history4 ,he was an artist of some original characteristics and produced an art detailed and exact in its realism4 ,jean ,pereal 78-#aebh87 and ,jean ,bourdichon 7#adeg8-aeba87 with ,fouquet's pupils and sons1 formed a school at ,tours which afterward came to show some ,italian influence4 ,the native workmen at ,paris--they sprang up from illuminators to painters in all probability--showed more of the ,flemish influence4 ,neither of the schools of the fifteenth century reflected much life or thought1 but what there was of it was native to the soil1 though their methods were influenced from without4 ,,sixteenth-,,century ,,painting3 ,during this century ,francis ,i41 at ,fontainebleau1 seems to have encouraged two schools of painting1 one the native ,french and the other an imported ,italian1 which afterward took to itself the name of the ,school of ,fontainebleau4 ,of the native artists the ,clouets were the most conspicuous4 ,they were of ,flemish origin1 and followed ,flemish methods both in technic and mediums4 ,there were four of them1 of whom ,jean 7#adhe8-aeda87 and ,francois 7#aejj8-aegb87 were the most noteworthy4 ,they painted many portraits1 and ,francois' work1 bearing some resemblance to that of ,holbein1 it has been doubtfully said that he was a pupil of that painter4 ,all of their work was remarkable for detail and closely followed facts4 ,the ,italian importation came about largely through the travels of ,francis ,i4 in ,italy4 ,he invited to ,fontainebleau ,leonardo da ,vinci1 ,andrea del ,sarto1 ,il ,rosso1 ,primaticcio1 and ,niccolo dell' ,abbate4 ,these painters rather superseded and greatly influenced the ,french painters4 ,the result was an ,italianized school of ,french art which ruled in ,france for many years4 ,primaticcio was probably the greatest of the influencers1 remaining as he did for thirty years in ,france4 ,the native painters1 ,jean ,cousin 7#aejj8-aehi7 and ,toussaint du ,breuil 7#aefa-afjb7 followed his style1 and in the next century the painters were even more servile imitators of ,italy--imitating not the best models either1 but the ,mannerists1 the ,eclectics1 and the ,roman painters of the ,decadence4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--;,,claude ,,lorrain4 ,,flight ,,into ,,egypt4 ,,dresden4 ,,seventeenth-,,century ,,painting3 ,this was a century of great development and production in ,france1 the time of the founding of the ,french ,academy of ,painting and ,sculpture1 and the formation of many picture collections4 ,in the first part of the century the ,flemish and native tendencies existed1 but they were overawed1 outnumbered by the ,italian4 ,not even ,rubens's painting for ,marie de' ,medici1 in the palace of the ,luxembourg1 could stem the tide of ,italy4 ,the ,french painters flocked to ,rome to study the art of their great predecessors and were led astray by the flashy elegance of the late ,italians4 ,among the earliest of this century was ,freminet 7#aefg-afai74 ,he was first taught by his father and ,jean ,cousin1 but afterward spent fifteen years in ,italy studying ,parmigianino and ,michael ,angelo4 ,his work had something of the ,mannerist style about it and was overwrought and exaggerated4 ,in shadows he seemed to have borrowed from ,caravaggio4 ,vouet 7#aeij-afdi7 was a student in ,italy of ,veronese's painting and afterward of ,guido ,reni and ,caravaggio4 ,he was a mediocre artist1 but had a great vogue in ,france and left many celebrated pupils4 ,by all odds the best painter of this time was ,nicolas ,poussin 7#aeic-affe74 ,he lived almost all of his life in ,italy1 and might be put down as an ,italian of the ,decadence4 ,he was well versed in classical archaeology1 and had much of the classic taste and feeling prevalent at that time in the ,roman school of ,giulio ,romano4 ,his work showed great intelligence and had an elevated grandiloquent style about it that was impressive4 ,it reflected nothing ,french1 and had little more root in present human sympathy than any of the other painting of the time1 but it was better done4 ,the drawing was correct if severe1 the composition agreeable if formal1 the coloring variegated if violent4 ,many of his pictures have now changed for the worse in coloring owing to the dissipation of surface pigments4 ,he was the founder of the classic and academic in ,french art1 and in influence was the most important man of the century4 ,he was especially strong in the heroic landscape1 and in this branch helped form the style of his brother-in-law1 ,gaspard 7,dughet7 ,poussin 7#afac-afge74 ,the landscape painter of the period1 however1 was ,claude ,lorrain 7#afjj-afhb74 ,he differed from ,poussin in making his pictures depend more strictly upon landscape than upon figures4 ,with both painters1 the trees1 mountains1 valleys1 buildings1 figures1 were of the grand classic variety4 ,hills and plains1 sylvan groves1 flowing streams1 peopled harbors1 ,ionic and ,corinthian temples1 ,roman aqueducts1 mythological groups1 were the materials used1 and the object of their use was to show the ideal dwelling-place of man--the former ,garden of the ,gods4 ,panoramic and slightly theatrical at times1 ,claude's work was not without its poetic side1 shrewd knowledge1 and skilful execution4 ,he was a leader in landscape1 the man who first painted real golden sunlight and shed its light upon earth4 ,there is a soft summer's-day drowsiness1 a golden haze of atmosphere1 a feeling of composure and restfulness about his pictures that are attractive4 ,like ,poussin he depended much upon long sweeping lines in composition1 and upon effects of linear perspective4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh--,,watteau4 ,,gilles4 ,,louvre4 ,,court ,,painting3 ,when ,louis ,,xiv4 came to the throne painting took on a decided character1 but it was hardly national or race character4 ,the popular idea1 if the people had an idea1 did not obtain4 ,there was no motive springing from the ,french except an inclination to follow ,italy2 and in ,italy all the great art-motives were dead4 ,in method the ,french painters followed the late ,italians1 and imitated an imitation2 in matter they bowed to the dictates of the court and reflected the king's mock-heroic spirit4 ,echoing the fashion of the day1 painting became pompous1 theatrical1 grandiloquent--a mass of vapid vanity utterly lacking in sincerity and truth4 ,lebrun 7#afai-afij71 painter in ordinary to the king1 directed substantially all the painting of the reign4 ,he aimed at pleasing royalty with flattering allusions to ,caesarism and extravagant personifications of the king as a classic conqueror4 ,his art had neither truth1 nor genius1 nor great skill1 and so sought to startle by subject or size4 ,enormous canvases of ,alexander's triumphs1 in allusion to those of the great ,louis1 were turned out to order1 and ,versailles to this day is tapestried with battle-pieces in which ,louis is always victor4 ,considering the amount of work done1 ,lebrun showed great fecundity and industry1 but none of it has much more than a mechanical ingenuity about it4 ,it was rather original in composition1 but poor in drawing1 lighting1 and coloring2 and its example upon the painters of the time was pernicious4 ,his contemporary1 ,le ,sueur 7#afaf-afee71 was a more sympathetic and sincere painter1 if not a much better technician4 ,both were pupils of ,vouet1 but ,le ,sueur's art was religious in subject1 while ,lebrun's was military and monarchical4 ,le ,sueur had a feeling for his theme1 but was a weak painter1 inclined to the sentimental1 thin in coloring1 and not at all certain in his drawing4 ,french allusions to him as the ,french ,raphael show more national complacency than correctness4 ,sebastian ,bourdon 7#afaf-afga7 was another painter of history1 but a little out of the ,lebrun circle4 ,he was not1 however1 free from the influence of ,italy1 where he spent three years studying color more than drawing4 ,this shows in his works1 most of which are lacking in form4 ,contemporary with these men was a group of portrait-painters who gained celebrity perhaps as much by their subjects as by their own powers4 ,they were facile flatterers given over to the pomps of the reign and mirroring all its absurdities of fashion4 ,their work has a graceful1 smooth appearance1 and1 for its time1 it was undoubtedly excellent portraiture4 ,even to this day it has qualities of drawing and coloring to commend it1 and at times one meets with exceptionally good work4 ,the leaders among these portrait-painters were ,philip de ,champaigne 7#afjb-afgd71 the best of his time2 ,pierre ,mignard 7#afaj8-afie71 a pupil of ,vouet1 who studied in ,rome and afterward returned to ,france to become the successful rival of ,lebrun2 ,largilliere 7#afef-agdf7 and ,rigaud 7#afei-agdc74 ,,eighteenth-,,century ,,painting3 ,the painting of ,louis ,,xiv4's time was continued into the eighteenth century for some fifteen years or more with little change4 ,with the advent of ,louis ,,xv4 art took upon itself another character1 and one that reflected perfectly the moral1 social1 and political ,france of the eighteenth century4 ,the first ,louis clamored for glory1 the second ,louis revelled in gayety1 frivolity1 and sensuality4 ,this was the difference between both monarchs and both arts4 ,the gay and the coquettish in painting had already been introduced by the ,regent1 himself a dilettante in art1 and when ,louis ,,xv4 came to the throne it passed from the gay to the insipid1 the flippant1 even the erotic4 ,shepherds and shepherdesses dressed in court silks and satins with cottony sheep beside them posed in stage-set ,arcadias1 pretty gods and goddesses reclined indolently upon gossamer clouds1 and court gallants lounged under artificial trees by artificial ponds making love to pretty soubrettes from the theatre4 ,yet1 in spite of the lack of moral and intellectual elevation1 in spite of frivolity and make-believe1 this art was infinitely better than the pompous imitation of foreign example set up by ,louis ,,xiv4 ,it was more spontaneous1 more original1 more ,french4 ,the influence of ,italy began to fail1 and the painters began to mirror ,french life4 ,it was largely court life1 lively1 vivacious1 licentious1 but in that very respect characteristic of the time4 ,moreover1 there was another quality about it that showed ,french taste at its best--the decorative quality4 ,it can hardly be supposed that the fairy creations of the age were intended to represent actual nature4 ,they were designed to ornament hall and boudoir1 and in pure decorative delicacy of design1 lightness of touch1 color charm1 they have never been excelled4 ,the serious spirit was lacking1 but the gayety of line and color was well given4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--;,,boucher4 ,,pastoral4 ,,louvre4 ,watteau 7#afhd-agba7 was the one chiefly responsible for the coquette and soubrette of ,french art1 and ,watteau was1 practically speaking1 the first ,french painter4 ,his subjects were trifling bits of fashionable love-making1 scenes from the opera1 fetes1 balls1 and the like4 ,all his characters played at life in parks and groves that never grew1 and most of his color was beautifully unreal2 but for all that the work was original1 decorative1 and charming4 ,moreover1 ,watteau was a brushman1 and introduced not only a new spirit and new subject into art1 but a new method4 ,the epic treatment of the ,italians was laid aside in favor of a genre treatment1 and instead of line and flat surface ,watteau introduced color and cleverly laid pigment4 ,he was a brilliant painter2 not a great man in thought or imagination1 but one of fancy1 delicacy1 and skill4 ,unfortunately he set a bad example by his gay subjects1 and those who came after him carried his gayety and lightness of spirit into exaggeration4 ,watteau's best pupils were ,lancret 7#afij-agdc7 and ,pater 7#afie-agcf71 who painted in his style with fair results4 ,after these men came ,van ,loo 7#agje-agfe7 and ,boucher 7#agjc-aggj71 who turned ,watteau's charming fetes1 showing the costumes and manners of the ,regency1 into flippant extravagance4 ,not only was the moral tone and intellectual stamina of their art far below that of ,watteau1 but their workmanship grew defective4 ,both men possessed a remarkable facility of the hand and a keen decorative color-sense2 but after a time both became stereotyped and mannered4 ,drawing and modelling were neglected1 light was wholly conventional1 and landscape turned into a piece of embroidered background with a ,dresden china-tapestry effect about it4 ,as decoration the general effect was often excellent1 as a serious expression of life it was very weak1 as an intellectual or moral force it was worse than worthless4 ,fragonard 7#agcb-ahjf7 followed in a similar style1 but was a more knowing man1 clever in color1 and a much freer and better brushman4 ,a few painters in the time of ,louis ,,xv4 remained apparently unaffected by the court influence1 and stand in conspicuous isolation4 ,claude ,joseph ,vernet 7#agab-aghi7 was a landscape and marine painter of some repute in his time4 ,he had a sense of the pictorial1 but not a remarkable sense of the truthful in nature4 ,chardin 7#afii-aggi7 and ,greuze 7#agbe-ahje71 clung to portrayals of humble life and sought to popularize the genre subject4 ,chardin was not appreciated by the masses4 ,his frank realism1 his absolute sincerity of purpose1 his play of light and its effect upon color1 and his charming handling of textures were comparatively unnoticed4 ,yet as a colorist he may be ranked second to none in ,french art1 and in freshness of handling his work is a model for present-day painters4 ,diderot early recognized ,chardin's excellence1 and many artists since his day have admired his pictures2 but he is not now a well-known or popular painter4 ,the populace fancies ,greuze and his sentimental heads of young girls4 ,they have a prettiness about them that is attractive1 but as art they lack in force1 and in workmanship they are too smooth1 finical1 and thin in handling4 ,,principal ,,works3 ,all of these ,french painters are best represented in the collections of the ,louvre4 ,some of the other galleries1 like the ,dresden1 ,berlin1 and ,national at ,london1 have examples of their work2 but the masterpieces are with the ,french people in the ,louvre and in the other municipal galleries of ,france4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,french ,,painting4 ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century4 ,,books ,,recommended3 ,as before1 ,stranahan1 et al42 also ,balliere1 ,henri ,regnault2 ,blanc1 ,les ,artistes de mon ,temps2 ,blanc1 ,histoire des ,peintres francais au ,,xixme ,siecle2 ,blanc1 ,ingres et son ,o,euvre2 ,bigot1 ,peintres francais contemporains2 ,breton1 ,la ,vie d'un ,artiste 7,english ,translation72 ,brownell1 ,french ,art2 ,burty1 ,maitres et ,petit-,maitres2 ,chesneau1 ,peinture francaise au ,,xixme ,siecle2 ,clement1 ,etudes sur les ,beaux ,arts en ,france2 ,clement1 ,prudhon2 ,delaborde1 ,o,euvre de ,paul ,delaroche2 ,delecluze1 ,jacques ,louis ,david1 son ,ecole1 et son ,temps2 ,duret1 ,les ,peintres francais en #ahfg2 ,gautier1 ,l',art ,moderne2 ,gautier1 ,romanticisme2 ,gonse1 ,eugene ,fromentin2 ,hamerton1 ,contemporary ,french ,painting2 ,hamerton1 ,painting in ,france after the ,decline of ,classicism2 ,henley1 ,memorial ,catalogue of ,french and ,dutch ,loan ,collection 7#ahhf72 ,henriet1 ,charles ,daubigny et son ,o,euvre2 ,lenormant1 ,les ,artistes ,contemporains2 ,lenormant1 ,ary ,scheffer2 ,merson1 ,ingres1 sa ,vie et son ,o,euvre2 ,moreau1 ,decamps et son ,o,euvre2 ,planche1 ,etudes sur l',ecole francaise2 ,robaut et ,chesneau1 ,l' ,o,euvre complet d',eugene ,delacroix2 ,sensier1 ,theodore ,rousseau2 ,sensier1 ,life and ,works of ,j4 ,f4 ,millet2 ,silvestre1 ,histoire des ,artistes vivants et etrangers2 ,strahan1 ,modern ,french ,art2 ,thore1 ,l',art ,contemporain2 ,theuriet1 ,jules ,bastien-,lepage2 ,van ,dyke1 ,modern ,french ,masters4 ,,the ,,revolutionary ,,time3 ,in considering this century's art in ,europe1 it must be remembered that a great social and intellectual change has taken place since the days of the ,medici4 ,the power so long pent up in ,italy during the ,renaissance finally broke and scattered itself upon the western nations2 societies and states were torn down and rebuilded1 political1 social1 and religious ideas shifted into new garbs2 the old order passed away4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--;,,david4 ,,the ,,sabines4 ,,louvre4 ,religion as an art-motive1 or even as an art-subject1 ceased to obtain anywhere4 ,the ,church failed as an art-patron1 and the walls of cloister and cathedral furnished no new ,bible readings to the unlettered4 ,painting1 from being a necessity of life1 passed into a luxury1 and the king1 the state1 or the private collector became the patron4 ,nature and actual life were about the only sources left from which original art could draw its materials4 ,these have been freely used1 but not so much in a national as in an individual manner4 ,the tendency to-day is not to put forth a universal conception but an individual belief4 ,individualism--the same quality that appeared so strongly in ,michael ,angelo's art--has become a keynote in modern work4 ,it is not the only kind of art that has been shown in this century1 nor is nature the only theme from which art has been derived4 ,we must remember and consider the influence of the past upon modern men1 and the attempts to restore the classic beauty of the ,greek1 ,roman1 and ,italian1 which practically ruled ,french painting in the first part of this century4 ,,french ,,classicism ,,of ,,david3 ,this was a revival of ,greek form in art1 founded on the belief expressed by ,winckelmann1 that beauty lay in form1 and was best shown by the ancient ,greeks4 ,it was the objective view of art which saw beauty in the external and tolerated no individuality in the artist except that which was shown in technical skill4 ,it was little more than an imitation of the ,greek and ,roman marbles as types1 with insistence upon perfect form1 correct drawing1 and balanced composition4 ,in theme and spirit it was pseudo-heroic1 the incidents of ,greek and ,roman history forming the chief subjects1 and in method it rather despised color1 light-and-shade1 and natural surroundings4 ,it was elevated1 lofty1 ideal in aspiration1 but coldly unsympathetic because lacking in contemporary interest2 and1 though correct enough in classic form1 was lacking in the classic spirit4 ,like all reanimated art1 it was derivative as regards its forms and lacking in spontaneity4 ,the reason for the existence of ,greek art died with its civilization1 and those1 like the ,french classicists1 who sought to revive it1 brought a copy of the past into the present1 expecting the world to accept it4 ,there was some social1 and perhaps artistic1 reason1 however1 for the revival of the classic in the ,french art of the late eighteenth century4 ,it was a revolt1 and at that time revolts were popular4 ,the art of ,boucher and ,van ,loo had become quite unbearable4 ,it was flippant1 careless1 licentious4 ,it had no seriousness or dignity about it4 ,moreover1 it smacked of the ,bourbon monarchy1 which people had come to hate4 ,classicism was severe1 elevated1 respectable at least1 and had the air of the heroic republic about it4 ,it was a return to a sterner view of life1 with the martial spirit behind it as an impetus1 and it had a great vogue4 ,for many years during the ,revolution1 the ,consulate1 and the ,empire1 classicism was accepted by the sovereigns and the ,institute of ,france1 and to this day it lives in a modified form in that semi-classic work known as academic art4 ,,the ,,classic ,,school3 ,vien 7#agaf-ahji7 was the first painter to protest against the art of ,boucher and ,van ,loo by advocating more nobility of form and a closer study of nature4 ,he was1 however1 more devoted to the antique forms he had studied in ,rome than to nature4 ,in subject and line his tendency was classic1 with a leaning toward the ,italians of the ,decadence4 ,he lacked the force to carry out a complete reform in painting1 but his pupil ,david 7#agdh-ahbe7 accomplished what he had begun4 ,it was ,david who established the reign of classicism1 and by native power became the leader4 ,the time was appropriate1 the ,revolution called for pictures of ,romulus1 ,brutus and ,achilles1 and ,napoleon encouraged the military theme4 ,david had studied the marbles at ,rome1 and he used them largely for models1 reproducing scenes from ,greek and ,roman life in an elevated and sculpturesque style1 with much archaeological knowledge and a great deal of skill4 ,in color1 relief1 sentiment1 individuality1 his painting was lacking4 ,he despised all that4 ,the rhythm of line1 the sweep of composed groups1 the heroic subject and the heroic treatment1 made up his art4 ,it was thoroughly objective1 and what contemporary interest it possessed lay largely in the martial spirit then prevalent4 ,of course it was upheld by the ,institute1 and it really set the pace for ,french painting for nearly half a century4 ,when ,david was called upon to paint ,napoleonic pictures he painted them under protest1 and yet these1 with his portraits1 constitute his best work4 ,in portraiture he was uncommonly strong at times4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--;,,ingres4 ,,oedipus ,,and ,,sphinx4 ,,louvre4 ,after the ,restoration ,david1 who had been a revolutionist1 and then an adherent of ,napoleon1 was sent into exile2 but the influence he had left and the school he had established were carried on by his contemporaries and pupils4 ,of the former ,regnault 7#aged-ahbi71 ,vincent 7#agdf-ahaf71 and ,prudhon 7#ageh-ahbc7 were the most conspicuous4 ,the last one was considered as out of the classic circle1 but so far as making his art depend upon drawing and composition1 he was a genuine classicist4 ,his subjects1 instead of being heroic1 inclined to the mythological and the allegorical4 ,in ,italy he had been a student of the ,renaissance painters1 and from them borrowed a method of shadow gradation that rendered his figures misty and phantom-like4 ,they possessed an ease of movement sometimes called ,prudhonesque grace1 and in composition were well placed and effective4 ,of ,david's pupils there were many4 ,only a few of them1 however1 had pronounced ability1 and even these carried ,david's methods into the theatrical4 ,girodet 7#agff-ahbd7 was a draughtsman of considerable power1 but with poor taste in color and little repose in composition4 ,most of his work was exaggeration and strained effect4 ,lethiere 7#agfj-ahcb7 and ,guerin 7#aggd-ahcc71 pupils of ,regnault1 were painters akin to ,girodet1 but inferior to him4 ,gerard 7#aggj-ahcg7 was a weak ,david follower1 who gained some celebrity by painting portraits of celebrated men and women4 ,the two pupils of ,david who brought him the most credit were ,ingres 7#aghj-ahfg7 and ,gros 7#agga-ahce74 ,ingres was a cold1 persevering man1 whose principles had been well settled by ,david early in life1 and were adhered to with conviction by the pupil to the last4 ,he modified the classic subject somewhat1 studied ,raphael and the ,italians1 and reintroduced the single figure into art 7the ,source1 and the ,odalisque1 for example74 ,for color he had no fancy4 ,in nature all is form1 he used to say4 ,painting he thought not an independent art1 but a development of sculpture4 ,to consider emotion1 color1 or light as the equal of form was monstrous1 and to compare ,rembrandt with ,raphael was blasphemy4 ,to this belief he clung to the end1 faithfully reproducing the human figure1 and it is not to be wondered at that eventually he became a learned draughtsman4 ,his single figures and his portraits show him to the best advantage4 ,he had a strong grasp of modelling and an artistic sense of the beauty and dignity of line not excelled by any artist of this century4 ,and to him more than any other painter is due the cultured draughtsmanship which is to-day the just pride of the ,french school4 ,gros was a more vacillating man1 and by reason of forsaking the classic subject for ,napoleonic battle-pieces1 he unconsciously led the way toward romanticism4 ,he excelled as a draughtsman1 but when he came to paint the ,field of ,eylau and the ,pest of ,jaffa he mingled color1 light1 air1 movement1 action1 sacrificing classic composition and repose to reality4 ,this was heresy from the ,davidian point of view1 and ,david eventually convinced him of it4 ,gros returned to the classic theme and treatment1 but soon after was so reviled by the changing criticism of the time that he committed suicide in the ,seine4 ,his art1 however1 was the beginning of romanticism4 ,the landscape painting of this time was rather academic and unsympathetic4 ,it was a continuation of the ,claude-,poussin tradition1 and in its insistence upon line1 grandeur of space1 and imposing trees and mountains1 was a fit companion to the classic figure-piece4 ,it had little basis in nature1 and little in color or feeling to commend it4 ,watelet 7#aghj-ahff71 ,bertin 7#agge-ahdb71 ,michallon 7#agif-ahbb71 and ,aligny 7#agih-ahga71 were its exponents4 ,a few painters seemed to stand apart from the contemporary influences4 ,madame ,vigee-,lebrun 7#agee-ahdb71 a successful portrait-painter of nobility1 and ,horace ,vernet 7#aghi-ahfc71 a popular battle-painter1 many of whose works are to be seen at ,versailles1 were of this class4 ,,romanticism3 ,the movement in ,french painting which began about #ahbb and took the name of ,romanticism was but a part of the storm-and-stress feeling that swept ,germany1 ,england1 and ,france at the beginning of this century1 appearing first in literature and afterward in art4 ,it had its origin in a discontent with the present1 a passionate yearning for the unattainable1 an intensity of sentiment1 gloomy melancholy imaginings1 and a desire to express the inexpressible4 ,it was emphatically subjective1 self-conscious1 a mood of mind or feeling4 ,in this respect it was diametrically opposed to the academic and the classic4 ,in ,french painting it came forward in opposition to the classicism of ,david4 ,people had begun to weary of ,greek and ,roman heroes and their deeds1 of impersonal line-bounded statuesque art4 ,there was a demand for something more representative1 spontaneous1 expressive of the intense feeling of the time4 ,the very gist of romanticism was passion4 ,freedom to express itself in what form it would was a condition of its existence4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--;,,delacroix4 ,,massacre ,,of ,,scio4 ,,louvre4 ,the classic subject was abandoned by the romanticists for dramatic scenes of mediaeval and modern times4 ,the romantic hero and heroine in scenes of horror1 perils by land and sea1 flame and fury1 love and anguish1 came upon the boards4 ,much of this was illustration of history1 the novel1 and poetry1 especially the poetry of ,goethe1 ,byron1 and ,scott4 ,line was slurred in favor of color1 symmetrical composition gave way to wild disordered groups in headlong action1 and atmospheres1 skies1 and lights were twisted and distorted to convey the sentiment of the story4 ,it was thus1 more by suggestion than realization1 that romanticism sought to give the poetic sentiment of life4 ,its position toward classicism was antagonistic1 a rebound1 a flying to the other extreme4 ,one virtually said that beauty was in the ,greek form1 the other that it was in the painter's emotional nature4 ,the disagreement was violent1 and out of it grew the so-called romantic quarrel of the #ahbj's4 ,,leaders ,,of ,,romanticism3 ,symptoms of the coming movement were apparent long before any open revolt4 ,gros had made innovations on the classic in his battle-pieces1 but the first positive dissent from classic teachings was made in the ,salon of #ahai by ,gericault 7#agia-ahbd7 with his ,raft of the ,medusa4 ,it represented the starving1 the dead1 and the dying of the ,medusa's crew on a raft in mid-ocean4 ,the subject was not classic4 ,it was literary1 romantic1 dramatic1 almost theatric in its seizing of the critical moment4 ,its theme was restless1 harrowing1 horrible4 ,it met with instant opposition from the old men and applause from the young men4 ,it was the trumpet-note of the revolt1 but ,gericault did not live long enough to become the leader of romanticism4 ,that position fell to his contemporary and fellow-pupil1 ,delacroix 7#agii-ahfc74 ,it was in #ahbb that ,delacroix's first ,salon picture 7the ,dante and ,virgil7 appeared4 ,a strange1 ghost-like scene from ,dante's ,inferno1 the black atmosphere of the nether world1 weird faces1 weird colors1 weird flames1 and a modelling of the figures by patches of color almost savage as compared to the tinted drawing of classicism4 ,delacroix's youth saved the picture from condemnation1 but it was different with his ,massacre of ,scio two years later4 ,this was decried by the classicists1 and even ,gros called it the massacre of art4 ,the painter was accused of establishing the worship of the ugly1 he was no draughtsman1 had no selection1 no severity1 nothing but brutality4 ,but ,delacroix was as obstinate as ,ingres1 and declared that the whole world could not prevent him from seeing and painting things in his own way4 ,it was thus the quarrel started1 the young men siding with ,delacroix1 the older men following ,david and ,ingres4 ,in himself ,delacroix embodied all that was best and strongest in the romantic movement4 ,his painting was intended to convey a romantic mood of mind by combinations of color1 light1 air1 and the like4 ,in subject it was tragic and passionate1 like the poetry of ,hugo1 ,byron1 and ,scott4 ,the figures were usually given with anguish-wrung brows1 wild eyes1 dishevelled hair1 and impetuous1 contorted action4 ,the painter never cared for technical details1 seeking always to gain the effect of the whole rather than the exactness of the part4 ,he purposely slurred drawing at times1 and was opposed to formal composition4 ,in color he was superior1 though somewhat violent at times1 and in brush-work he was often labored and patchy4 ,his strength lay in imagination displayed in color and in action4 ,the quarrel between classicism and romanticism lasted some years1 with neither side victorious4 ,delacroix won recognition for his view of art1 but did not crush the belief in form which was to come to the surface again4 ,he fought almost alone4 ,many painters rallied around him1 but they added little strength to the new movement4 ,deveria 7#ahje-ahfe7 and ,champmartin 7#agig-ahhc7 were highly thought of at first1 but they rapidly degenerated4 ,sigalon 7#aghh-ahcg71 ,cogniet 7#agid-ahhj71 ,robert-,fleury 7#agig-71 and ,boulanger 7#ahjf-ahfg71 were romanticists1 but achieved more as teachers than as painters4 ,delaroche 7#agig-ahef7 was an eclectic--in fact1 founded a school of that name--thinking to take what was best from both parties4 ,inventing nothing1 he profited by all invented4 ,he employed the romantic subject and color1 but adhered to classic drawing4 ,his composition was good1 his costume careful in detail1 his brush-work smooth1 and his story-telling capacity excellent4 ,all these qualities made him a popular painter1 but not an original or powerful one4 ,ary ,scheffer 7#agig-aheh7 was an illustrator of ,goethe and ,byron1 frail in both sentiment and color1 a painter who started as a romanticist1 but afterward developed line under ,ingres4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--;,,gerome4 ,,pollice ,,verso4 ,,the ,,orientalists3 ,in both literature and painting one phase of romanticism showed itself in a love for the life1 the light1 the color of the ,orient4 ,from ,paris ,decamps 7#ahjc-ahfj7 was the first painter to visit the ,east and paint ,eastern life4 ,he was a genre painter more than a figure painter1 giving naturalistic street scenes in ,turkey and ,asia ,minor1 courts1 and interiors1 with great feeling for air1 warmth of color1 and light4 ,at about the same time ,marilhat 7#ahaa-ahdg7 was in ,egypt picturing the life of that country in a similar manner2 and later1 ,fromentin 7#ahbj-ahgf71 painter and writer1 following ,delacroix1 went to ,algiers and portrayed there ,arab life with fast-flying horses1 the desert air1 sky1 light1 and color4 ,theodore ,frere and ,ziem belong further on in the century1 but were no less exponents of romanticism in the ,east4 ,fifteen years after the starting of romanticism the movement had materially subsided4 ,it had never been a school in the sense of having rules and laws of art4 ,liberty of thought and perfect freedom for individual expression were all it advocated4 ,as a result there was no unity1 for there was nothing to unite upon2 and with every painter painting as he pleased1 regardless of law1 extravagance was inevitable4 ,this was the case1 and when the next generation came in romanticism began to be ridiculed for its excesses4 ,a reaction started in favor of more line and academic training4 ,this was first shown by the students of ,delaroche1 though there were a number of movements at the time1 all of them leading away from romanticism4 ,a recoil from too much color in favor of more form was inevitable1 but romanticism was not to perish entirely4 ,its influence was to go on1 and to appear in the work of later men4 ,,eclectics ,,and ,,transitional ,,painters3 ,after ,ingres his follower ,flandrin 7#ahji-ahfd7 was the most considerable draughtsman of the time4 ,he was not classic but religious in subject1 and is sometimes called the religious painter of ,france4 ,he had a delicate beauty of line and a fine feeling for form1 but never was strong in color1 brush-work1 or sentiment4 ,his best work appears in his very fine portraits4 ,gleyre 7#ahjf-ahgd7 was a man of classic methods1 but romantic tastes1 who modified the heroic into the idyllic and mythologic4 ,he was a sentimental day-dreamer1 with a touch of melancholy about the vanished past1 appearing in ,arcadian fancies1 pretty nymphs1 and idealized memories of youth4 ,in execution he was not at all romantic4 ,his color was pale1 his drawing delicate1 and his lighting misty and uncertain4 ,it was the etherealized classic method1 and this method he transmitted to a little band of painters called the ,,new-,,greeks1 who1 in point of time1 belong much further along in the century1 but in their art are with ,gleyre4 ,their work never rose above the idyllic and the graceful1 and calls for no special mention4 ,hamon 7#ahba-ahgd7 and ,aubert 7#ahbd-7 belonged to the band1 and ,gerome 7#ahbd-f7 was at one time its leader1 but he afterward emerged from it to a higher place in ,french art1 where he will find mention hereafter4 ,footnote #f3 ,died1 #aijd4 ,couture 7#ahae-ahgi7 stood quite by himself1 a mingling of several influences4 ,his chief picture1 ,the ,romans of the ,decadence1 is classic in subject1 romantic in sentiment 7and this very largely expressed by warmth of color71 and rather realistic in natural appearance4 ,he was an eclectic in a way1 and yet seems to stand as the forerunner of a large body of artists who find classification hereafter under the title of the ,semi-,classicists4 ,,principal ,,works3 ,all the painters mentioned in this chapter are best represented in the ,louvre at ,paris1 at ,versailles1 and in the museums of the chief ,french cities4 ,some works of the late or living men may be found in the ,luxembourg1 where pictures bought by the state are kept for ten years after the painter's death1 and then are either sent to the ,louvre or to the other municipal galleries of ,france4 ,some pictures by these men are also to be seen in the ,metropolitan ,museum1 ,new ,york1 the ,boston ,museum1 and the ,chicago ,art ,institute4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,french ,,painting4 ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century 7,continued74 ,,books ,,recommended3 ,the books before mentioned1 consult also ,general ,bibliography1 7page xv47 ,,the ,,landscape ,,painters3 ,the influence of either the classic or romantic example may be traced in almost all of the ,french painting of this century4 ,the opposed teachings find representatives in new men1 and under different names the modified dispute goes on--the dispute of the academic versus the individual1 the art of form and line versus the art of sentiment and color4 ,with the classicism of ,david not only the figure but the landscape setting of it1 took on an ideal heroic character4 ,trees and hills and rivers became supernaturally grand and impressive4 ,everything was elevated by method to produce an imaginary ,arcadia fit for the deities of the classic world4 ,the result was that nature and the humanity of the painter passed out in favor of school formula and academic traditions4 ,when romanticism came in this was changed1 but nature falsified in another direction4 ,landscape was given an interest in human affairs1 and made to look gay or sad1 peaceful or turbulent1 as the day went well or ill with the hero of the story portrayed4 ,it was1 however1 truer to the actual than the classic1 more studied in the parts1 more united in the whole4 ,about the year #ahcj the influence of romanticism began to show in a new landscape art4 ,that is to say1 the emotional impulse springing from romanticism combined with the study of the old ,dutch landscapists1 and the ,english contemporary painters1 ,constable and ,bonington1 set a large number of painters to the close study of nature and ultimately developed what has been vaguely called the ,,fontainebleau-,,barbizon ,,school3 ,this whole school was primarily devoted to showing the sentiment of color and light4 ,it took nature just as it found it in the forest of ,fontainebleau1 on the plain of ,barbizon1 and elsewhere1 and treated it with a poetic feeling for light1 shadow1 atmosphere1 color1 that resulted in the best landscape painting yet known to us4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--;,,corot4 ,,landscape4 ,corot 7#agif-ahge7 though classically trained under ,bertin1 and though somewhat apart from the other men in his life1 belongs with this group4 ,he was a man whose artistic life was filled with the beauty of light and air4 ,these he painted with great singleness of aim and great poetic charm4 ,most of his work is in a light silvery key of color1 usually slight in composition1 simple in masses of light and dark1 and very broadly but knowingly handled with the brush4 ,he began painting by using the minute brush1 but changed it later on for a freer style which recorded only the great omnipresent truths and suppressed the small ones4 ,he has never had a superior in producing the permeating light of morning and evening4 ,for this alone1 if for no other excellence1 he deservedly holds high rank4 ,rousseau 7#ahab-ahfg7 was one of the foremost of the recognized leaders1 and probably the most learned landscapist of this century4 ,a man of many moods and methods he produced in variety with rare versatility4 ,much of his work was experimental1 but at his best he had a majestic conception of nature1 a sense of its power and permanence1 its volume and mass1 that often resulted in the highest quality of pictorial poetry4 ,in color he was rich and usually warm1 in technic firm and individual1 in sentiment at times quite sublime4 ,at first he painted broadly and won friends among the artists and sneers from the public2 then in his middle style he painted in detail1 and had a period of popular success2 in his late style he went back to the broad manner1 and died amid quarrels and vexations of spirits4 ,his long-time friend and companion1 ,jules ,dupre 7#ahab-ahhi71 hardly reached up to him1 though a strong painter in landscape and marine4 ,he was a good but not great colorist1 and1 technically1 his brush was broad enough but sometimes heavy4 ,his late work is inferior in sentiment and labored in handling4 ,diaz 7#ahjh-ahgf7 was allied to ,rousseau in aim and method1 though not so sure nor so powerful a painter4 ,he had fancy and variety in creation that sometimes ran to license1 and in color he was clear and brilliant4 ,never very well trained1 his drawing is often indifferent and his light distorted1 but these are more than atoned for by delicacy and poetic charm4 ,at times he painted with much power4 ,daubigny 7#ahag-ahgh7 seemed more like ,corot in his charm of style and love of atmosphere and light than any of the others4 ,he was fond of the banks of the ,seine and the ,marne at twilight1 with evening atmospheres and dark trees standing in silent ranks against the warm sky4 ,he was also fond of the gray day along the coast1 and even the sea attracted him not a little4 ,he was a painter of high abilities1 and in treatment strongly individual1 even distinguished1 by his simplicity and directness4 ,unity of the whole1 grasp of the mass entire1 was his technical aim1 and this he sought to get not so much by line as by color-tones of varying value4 ,in this respect he seemed a connecting link between ,corot and the present-day impressionists4 ,michel 7#agfc-ahdb71 ,huet 7#ahjd-ahfi71 ,chintreuil 7#ahad-ahgc71 and ,francais 7#ahad-7 were all allied in point of view with this group of landscape painters1 and among the late men who have carried out their beliefs are ,cazin1#g ,yon1#h ,damoye1 ,pointelin1 ,harpignies and ,pelouse#i seem a little more inclined to the realistic than the poetic view1 though producing work of much virility and intelligence4 ,footnote #g3 ,died1 #aija4 ,footnote #h3 ,died1 #ahig4 ,footnote #i3 ,died1 #ahij4 ,contemporary and associated with the ,fontainebleau painters were a number of men who won high distinction as ,,painters ,,of ,,animals3 ,troyon 7#ahaj-ahfe7 was the most prominent among them4 ,his work shows the same sentiment of light and color as the ,fontainebleau landscapists1 and with it there is much keen insight into animal life4 ,as a technician he was rather hard at first1 and he never was a correct draughtsman1 but he had a way of giving the character of the objects he portrayed which is the very essence of truth4 ,he did many landscapes with and without cattle4 ,his best pupil was ,van ,marcke 7#ahbg-ahij71 who followed his methods but never possessed the feeling of his master4 ,jacque 7#ahac-aj7 is also of the ,fontainebleau-,barbizon group1 and is justly celebrated for his paintings and etchings of sheep4 ,the poetry of the school is his1 and technically he is fine in color at times1 if often rather dark in illumination4 ,like ,troyon he knows his subject well1 and can show the nature of sheep with true feeling4 ,rosa ,bonheur 7#ahbb-aa7 and her brother1 ,auguste ,bonheur 7#ahbd-ahhd71 have both dealt with animal life1 but never with that fine artistic feeling which would warrant their popularity4 ,their work is correct enough1 but prosaic and commonplace in spirit4 ,they do not belong in the same group with ,troyon and ,rousseau4 ,footnote #aj3 ,died1 #ahid4 ,footnote #aa3 ,died1 #ahii4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,,rousseau1 ,,charcoal ,,burners' ,,hut4 ,,fuller ,,collection4 ,,the ,,peasant ,,painters3 ,allied again in feeling and sentiment with the ,fontainebleau landscapists were some celebrated painters of peasant life1 chief among whom stood ,millet 7#ahad-ahge71 of ,barbizon4 ,the pictorial inclination of ,millet was early grounded by a study of ,delacroix1 the master romanticist1 and his work is an expression of romanticism modified by an individual study of nature and applied to peasant life4 ,he was peasant born1 living and dying at ,barbizon1 sympathizing with his class1 and painting them with great poetic force and simplicity4 ,his sentiment sometimes has a literary bias1 as in his far-famed but indifferent ,angelus1 but usually it is strictly pictorial and has to do with the beauty of light1 air1 color1 motion1 life1 as shown in ,the ,sower or ,the ,gleaners4 ,technically he was not strong as a draughtsman or a brushman1 but he had a large feeling for form1 great simplicity in line1 keen perception of the relations of light and dark1 and at times an excellent color-sense4 ,he was virtually the discoverer of the peasant as an art subject1 and for this1 as for his original point of view and artistic feeling1 he is ranked as one of the foremost artists of the century4 ,jules ,breton 7#ahbg-71 though painting little besides the peasantry1 is no ,millet follower1 for he started painting peasant scenes at about the same time as ,millet4 ,his affinities were with the ,new-,greeks early in life1 and ever since he has inclined toward the academic in style1 though handling the rustic subject4 ,he is a good technician1 except in his late work2 but as an original thinker1 as a pictorial poet1 he does not show the intensity or profundity of ,millet4 ,the followers of the ,millet-,breton tradition are many4 ,the blue-frocked and sabot-shod peasantry have appeared in salon and gallery for twenty years and more1 but with not very good results4 ,the imitators1 as usual1 have caught at the subject and missed the spirit4 ,billet and ,legros1 contemporaries of ,millet1 still living1 and ,lerolle1 a man of present-day note1 are perhaps the most considerable of the painters of rural subjects to-day4 ,,the ,,semi-,,classicists3 ,it must not be inferred that the classic influence of ,david and ,ingres disappeared from view with the coming of the romanticists1 the ,fontainebleau landscapists1 and the ,barbizon painters4 ,on the contrary1 side by side with these men1 and opposed to them1 were the believers in line and academic formulas of the beautiful4 ,the whole tendency of academic art in ,france was against ,delacroix1 ,rousseau1 and ,millet4 ,during their lives they were regarded as heretics in art and without the pale of the ,academy4 ,their art1 however1 combined with nature study and the realism of ,courbet1 succeeded in modifying the severe classicism of ,ingres into what has been called semi-classicism4 ,it consists in the elevated1 heroic1 or historical theme1 academic form well drawn1 some show of bright colors1 smoothness of brush-work1 and precision and nicety of detail4 ,in treatment it attempts the realistic1 but in spirit it is usually stilted1 cold1 unsympathetic4 ,cabanel 7#ahbc-ahhi7 and ,bouguereau 7#ahbe-aije7 have both represented semi-classic art well4 ,they are justly ranked as famous draughtsmen and good portrait-painters1 but their work always has about it the stamp of the academy machine1 a something done to order1 knowing and exact1 but lacking in the personal element4 ,it is a weakness of the academic method that it virtually banishes the individuality of eye and hand in favor of school formulas4 ,cabanel and ,bouguereau have painted many incidents of classic and historic story1 but with never a dash of enthusiasm or a suggestion of the great qualities of painting4 ,their drawing has been as thorough as could be asked for1 but their colorings have been harsh and their brushes cold and thin4 ,gerome 7#ahbd-ab7 is a man of classic training and inclination1 but his versatility hardly allows him to be classified anywhere4 ,he was first a leader of the ,new-,greeks1 painting delicate mythological subjects2 then a historical painter1 showing deaths of ,caesar and the like2 then an ,orientalist1 giving scenes from ,cairo and ,constantinople2 then a genre painter1 depicting contemporary subjects in the many lands through which he has travelled4 ,whatever he has done shows semi-classic drawing1 ethnological and archaeological knowledge1 ,parisian technic1 and exact detail4 ,his travels have not changed his precise scientific point of view4 ,he is a true academician at bottom1 but a more versatile and cultured painter than either ,cabanel or ,bouguereau4 ,he draws well1 sometimes uses color well1 and is an excellent painter of textures4 ,a man of great learning in many departments he is no painter to be sneered at1 and yet not a painter to make the pulse beat faster or to arouse the aesthetic emotions4 ,his work is impersonal1 objective fact1 showing a brilliant exterior but inwardly devoid of feeling4 ,footnote #ab3 ,died1 #aijd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--,,millet4 ,,the ,,gleaners4 ,,louvre4 ,paul ,baudry 7#ahbh-ahhf71 though a disciple of line1 was not precisely a semi-classicist1 and perhaps for that reason was superior to any of the academic painters of his time4 ,he was a follower of the old masters in ,rome more than the ,ecole des ,beaux ,arts4 ,his subjects1 aside from many splendid portraits1 were almost all classical1 allegorical1 or mythological4 ,he was a fine draughtsman1 and1 what is more remarkable in conjunction therewith1 a fine colorist4 ,he was hardly a great originator1 and had not passion1 dramatic force1 or much sentiment1 except such as may be found in his delicate coloring and rhythm of line4 ,nevertheless he was an artist to be admired for his purity of purpose and breadth of accomplishment4 ,his chief work is to be seen in the ,opera at ,paris4 ,puvis de ,chavannes 7#ahbd-ac7 is quite a different style of painter1 and is remarkable for fine delicate tones of color which hold their place well on wall or ceiling1 and for a certain grandeur of composition4 ,in his desire to revive the monumental painting of the ,renaissance he has met with much praise and much blame4 ,he is an artist of sincerity and learning1 and as a wall-painter has no superior in contemporary ,france4 ,footnote #ac3 ,died1 #ahih4 ,hebert 7#ahag-aijh71 an early painter of academic tendencies1 and ,henner 7#ahbi-71 fond of form and yet a brushman with an idyllic feeling for light and color in dark surroundings1 are painters who may come under the semi-classic grouping4 ,lefebvre 7#ahcd-7 is probably the most pronounced in academic methods among the present men1 a draughtsman of ability4 ,,portrait ,,and ,,figure ,,painters3 ,under this heading may be included those painters who stand by themselves1 showing no positive preference for either the classic or romantic followings4 ,bonnat 7#ahcc-7 has painted all kinds of subjects--genre1 figure1 and historical pieces--but is perhaps best known as a portrait-painter4 ,he has done forcible work4 ,some of it indeed is astonishing in its realistic modelling--the accentuation of light and shadow often causing the figures to advance unnaturally4 ,from this feature and from his detail he has been known for years as a realist4 ,his anatomical ,christ on the ,cross and mural paintings in the ,pantheon are examples4 ,as a portrait-painter he is acceptable1 if at times a little raw in color4 ,another portrait-painter of celebrity is ,carolus-,duran 7#ahcg-74 ,he is rather startling at times in his portrayal of robes and draperies1 has a facility of the brush that is frequently deceptive1 and in color is sometimes vivid4 ,he has had great success as a teacher1 and is1 all told1 a painter of high rank4 ,delaunay 7#ahbh-ahib7 in late years painted little besides portraits1 and was one of the conservatives of ,french art4 ,laurens 7#ahch-7 has been more of a historical painter than the others1 and has dealt largely with death scenes4 ,he is often spoken of as the painter of the dead1 a man of sound training and excellent technical power4 ,regnault 7#ahdc-ahga7 was a figure and genre painter with much feeling for oriental light and color1 who unfortunately was killed in battle at twenty-seven years of age4 ,he was an artist of promise1 and has left several notable canvases4 ,among the younger men who portray the historical subject in an elevated style mention should be made of ,cormon 7#ahde-71 ,benjamin-,constant 7#ahde-ad71 and ,rochegrosse4 ,as painters of portraits ,aman-,jean and ,carriere#ae have long held rank1 and each succeeding ,salon brings new portraitists to the front4 ,footnote #ad3 ,died1 #aijb4 ,footnote #ae3 ,died1 #aijf4 ,,the ,,realists3 ,about the time of the appearance of ,millet1 say #ahdh1 there also came to the front a man who scorned both classicism and romanticism1 and maintained that the only model and subject of art should be nature4 ,this man1 ,courbet 7#ahai-ahgh71 really gave a third tendency to the art of this century in ,france1 and his influence undoubtedly had much to do with modifying both the classic and romantic tendencies4 ,courbet was a man of arrogant1 dogmatic disposition1 and was quite heartily detested during his life1 but that he was a painter of great ability few will deny4 ,his theory was the abolition of both sentiment and academic law1 and the taking of nature just as it was1 with all its beauties and all its deformities4 ,this1 too1 was his practice to a certain extent4 ,his art is material1 and yet at times lofty in conception even to the sublime4 ,and while he believed in realism he did not believe in petty detail1 but rather in the great truths of nature4 ,these he saw with a discerning eye and portrayed with a masterful brush4 ,he believed in what he saw only1 and had more the observing than the reflective or emotional disposition4 ,as a technician he was coarse but superbly strong1 handling sky1 earth1 air1 with the ease and power of one well trained in his craft4 ,his subjects were many--the peasantry of ,france1 landscape1 and the sea holding prominent places--and his influence1 though not direct because he had no pupils of consequence1 has been most potent with the late men4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--;,,cabanel4 ,,phaedra4 ,the young painter of to-day who does things in a realistic way is frequently met with in ,french art4 ,l'hermitte 7#ahdd-71 ,julien ,dupre 7#ahea-71 and others have handled the peasant subject with skill1 after the ,millet-,courbet initiative2 and ,bastien-,lepage 7#ahdh-ahhd7 excited a good deal of admiration in his lifetime for the truth and evident sincerity of his art4 ,bastien's point of view was realistic enough1 but somewhat material4 ,he never handled the large composition with success1 but in small pieces and in portraits he was quite above criticism4 ,his following among the young men was considerable1 and the so-called impressionists have ranked him among their disciples or leaders4 ,,painters ,,of ,,military ,,scenes1 ,,genre1 ,,etc43 ,the art of ,meissonier 7#ahae-ahia71 while extremely realistic in modern detail1 probably originated from a study of the seventeenth-century ,dutchmen like ,terburg and ,metsu4 ,it does not portray low life1 but rather the half-aristocratic--the scholar1 the cavalier1 the gentleman of leisure4 ,this is done on a small scale with microscopic nicety1 and really more in the historical than the genre spirit4 ,single figures and interiors were his preference1 but he also painted a cycle of ,napoleonic battle-pictures with much force4 ,there is little or no sentiment about his work--little more than in that of ,gerome4 ,his success lay in exact technical accomplishment4 ,he drew well1 painted well1 and at times was a superior colorist4 ,his art is more admired by the public than by the painters2 but even the latter do not fail to praise his skill of hand4 ,he was a great craftsman in the infinitely little4 ,as a great artist his rank is still open to question4 ,the genre painting of fashionable life has been carried out by many followers of ,meissonier1 whose names need not be mentioned since they have not improved upon their forerunner4 ,toulmouche 7#ahbi-71 ,leloir 7#ahdc-ahhd71 ,vibert 7#ahdj-71 ,bargue 78-#ahhc71 and others1 though somewhat different from ,meissonier1 belong among those painters of genre who love detail1 costumes1 stories1 and pretty faces4 ,among the painters of military genre mention should be made of ,de ,neuville 7#ahcf-ahhe71 ,berne-,bellecour 7#ahch-71 ,detaille 7#ahdh-71 and ,aime-,morot 7#ahej-71 all of them painters of merit4 ,quite a different style of painting--half figure-piece half genre--is to be found in the work of ,ribot 7#ahbc-71 a strong painter1 remarkable for his apposition of high flesh lights with deep shadows1 after the manner of ,ribera1 the ,spanish painter4 ,roybet 7#ahdj-7 is fond of rich stuffs and tapestries with velvet-clad characters in interiors1 out of which he makes good color effects4 ,bonvin 7#ahag-ahhg7 and ,mettling have painted the interior with small figures1 copper-kettles1 and other still-life that have given brilliancy to their pictures4 ,as a still-life painter ,vollon 7#ahcc-7 has never had a superior4 ,his fruits1 flowers1 armors1 even his small marines and harbor pieces1 are painted with one of the surest brushes of this century4 ,he is called the painter's painter1 and is a man of great force in handling color1 and in large realistic effect4 ,dantan and ,friant have both produced canvases showing figures in interiors4 ,a number of excellent genre painters have been claimed by the impressionists as belonging to their brotherhood4 ,there is little to warrant the claim1 except the adoption to some extent of the modern ideas of illumination and flat painting4 ,dagnan-,bouveret 7#aheb-7 is one of these men1 a good draughtsman1 and a finished clean painter who by his recent use of high color finds himself occasionally looked upon as an impressionist4 ,as a matter of fact he is one of the most conservative of the moderns--a man of feeling and imagination1 and a fine technician4 ,fantin-,latour 7#ahcf-aijd7 is half romantic1 half allegorical in subject1 and in treatment oftentimes designedly vague and shadowy1 more suggestive than realistic4 ,duez 7#ahdc-7 and ,gervex 7#ahdh-7 are perhaps nearer to impressionism in their works than the others1 but they are not at all advance advocates of this latest phase of art4 ,in addition there are ,cottet and ,henri ,martin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--,,meissonier4 ,,napoleon ,,in #ahad4 ,,the ,,impressionists3 ,the name is a misnomer4 ,every painter is an impressionist in so far as he records his impressions1 and all art is impressionistic4 ,what ,manet 7#ahcc-ahhc71 the leader of the original movement1 meant to say was that nature should not be painted as it actually is1 but as it impresses the painter4 ,he and his few followers tried to change the name to ,independents1 but the original name has clung to them and been mistakenly fastened to a present band of landscape painters who are seeking effects of light and air and should be called luminists if it is necessary for them to be named at all4 ,manet was extravagant in method and disposed toward low life for a subject1 which has always militated against his popularity2 but he was a very important man for his technical discoveries regarding the relations of light and shadow1 the flat appearance of nature1 the exact value of color tones4 ,some of his works1 like ,the ,boy with a ,sword and ,the ,toreador ,dead1 are excellent pieces of painting4 ,the higher imaginative qualities of art ,manet made no great effort at attaining4 ,degas stands quite by himself1 strong in effects of motion1 especially with race-horses1 fine in color1 and a delightful brushman in such subjects as ballet-girls and scenes from the theatre4 ,besnard is one of the best of the present men4 ,he deals with the figure1 and is usually concerned with the problem of harmonizing color under conflicting lights1 such as twilight and lamplight4 ,beraud and ,raffaelli are exceedingly clever in street scenes and character pieces2 ,pissarro#af handles the peasantry in high color2 ,brown 7#ahbi-ahij71 the race-horse1 and ,renoir1 the middle class of social life4 ,caillebotte1 ,roll1 ,forain1 and ,miss ,cassatt1 an ,american1 are also classed with the impressionists4 ,footnote #af3 ,died1 #aijc4 ,,impressionist ,,landscape ,,painters3 ,of recent years there has been a disposition to change the key of light in landscape painting1 to get nearer the truth of nature in the height of light and in the height of shadows4 ,in doing this ,claude ,monet1 the present leader of the movement1 has done away with the dark brown or black shadow and substituted the light-colored shadow1 which is nearer the actual truth of nature4 ,in trying to raise the pitch of light he has not been quite so successful1 though accomplishing something4 ,his method is to use pure prismatic colors on the principle that color is light in a decomposed form1 and that its proper juxtaposition on canvas will recompose into pure light again4 ,hence the use of light shadows and bright colors4 ,the aim of these modern men is chiefly to gain the effect of light and air4 ,they do not apparently care for subject1 detail1 or composition4 ,at present their work is in the experimental stage1 but from the way in which it is being accepted and followed by the painters of to-day we may be sure the movement is of considerable importance4 ,there will probably be a reaction in favor of more form and solidity than the present men give1 but the high key of light will be retained4 ,there are so many painters following these modern methods1 not only in ,france but all over the world1 that a list of their names would be impossible4 ,in ,france ,sisley with ,monet are the two important landscapists4 ,in marines ,boudin and ,montenard should be mentioned4 ,,principal ,,works3 ,the modern ,french painters are seen to advantage in the ,louvre1 ,luxembourg1 ,pantheon1 ,sorbonne1 and the municipal galleries of ,france4 ,also ,metropolitan ,museum ,new ,york1 ,chicago ,art ,institute1 ,boston ,museum1 and many private collections in ,france and ,america4 ,consult for works in public or private hands1 ,champlin and ,perkins1 ,cyclopedia of ,painters and ,paintings1 under names of artists4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,spanish ,,painting4 ,,books ,,recommended3 ,bermudez1 ,diccionario de las ,bellas ,artes en ,espana2 ,davillier1 ,memoire de ,velasquez2 ,davillier1 ,fortuny2 ,eusebi1 ,los ,differentes ,escuelas de ,pintura2 ,ford1 ,handbook of ,spain2 ,head1 ,history of ,spanish and ,french ,schools of ,painting2 ,justi1 ,velasquez and his ,times2 ,lefort1 ,velasquez2 ,lefort1 ,francisco ,goya2 ,lefort1 ,murillo et son ,ecole2 ,lefort1 ,la ,peinture ,espagnole2 ,palomino de ,castro y ,velasco1 ,vidas de los ,pintores y ,estatuarios ,eminentes ,espanoles2 ,passavant1 ,die ,christliche ,kunst in ,spanien2 ,plon1 ,les ,maitres ,italiens au ,service de la ,maison d',autriche2 ,stevenson1 ,velasquez2 ,stirling1 ,annals of the ,artists of ,spain2 ,stirling1 ,velasquez and his ,works2 ,tubino1 ,el ,arte y los ,artistas contemporaneos en la ,peninsula2 ,tubino1 ,murillo2 ,viardot1 ,notices sur les ,principaux ,peintres de l',espagne2 ,yriarte1 ,goya1 sa ,biographie1 etc4 ,,spanish ,,art ,,motives3 ,what may have been the early art of ,spain we are at a loss to conjecture4 ,the reigns of the ,moor1 the ,iconoclast1 and1 finally1 the ,inquisitor1 have left little that dates before the fourteenth century4 ,the miniatures and sacred relics treasured in the churches and said to be of the apostolic period1 show the traces of a much later date and a foreign origin4 ,even when we come down to the fifteenth century and meet with art produced in ,spain1 we have a following of ,italy or the ,netherlands4 ,in methods and technic it was derivative more than original1 though almost from the beginning peculiarly ,spanish in spirit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--,,sanchez ,,coello4 ,,clara ,,eugenia1 ,,daughter ,,of ,,philip ,,ii4 ,,madrid4 ,that spirit was a dark and savage one1 a something that cringed under the lash of the ,church1 bowed before the ,inquisition1 and played the executioner with the paint-brush4 ,the bulk of ,spanish art was ,church art1 done under ecclesiastical domination1 and done in form without question or protest4 ,the religious subject ruled4 ,true enough1 there was portraiture of nobility1 and under ,philip and ,velasquez a half-monarchical art of military scenes and genre2 but this was not the bent of ,spanish painting as a whole4 ,even in late days1 when ,velasquez was reflecting the haughty court1 ,murillo was more widely and nationally reflecting the believing provinces and the ,church faith of the people4 ,it is safe to say1 in a general way1 that the ,church was responsible for ,spanish art1 and that religion was its chief motive4 ,there was no revived antique1 little of the nude or the pagan1 little of consequence in landscape1 little1 until ,velasquez's time1 of the real and the actual4 ,an ascetic view of life1 faith1 and the hereafter prevailed4 ,the pietistic1 the fervent1 and the devout were not so conspicuous as the morose1 the ghastly1 and the horrible4 ,the saints and martyrs1 the crucifixions and violent deaths1 were eloquent of the torture-chamber4 ,it was more ecclesiasticism by blood and violence than ,christianity by peace and love4 ,and ,spain welcomed this4 ,for of all the children of the ,church she was the most faithful to rule1 crushing out heresy with an iron hand1 gaining strength from the ,catholic reaction1 and upholding the ,jesuits and the ,inquisition4 ,,methods ,,of ,,painting3 ,spanish art worthy of mention did not appear until the fifteenth century4 ,at that time ,spain was in close relations with the ,netherlands1 and ,flemish painting was somewhat followed4 ,how much the methods of the ,van ,eycks influenced ,spain would be hard to determine1 especially as these ,northern methods were mixed with influences coming from ,italy4 ,finally1 the ,italian example prevailed by reason of ,spanish students in ,italy and ,italian painters in ,spain4 ,florentine line1 ,venetian color1 and ,neapolitan light-and-shade ruled almost everywhere1 and it was not until the time of ,velasquez--the period just before the eighteenth-century decline--that distinctly ,spanish methods1 founded on nature1 really came forcibly to the front4 ,,spanish ,,schools ,,of ,,painting3 ,there is difficulty in classifying these schools of painting because our present knowledge of them is limited4 ,isolated somewhat from the rest of ,europe1 the ,spanish painters have never been critically studied as the ,italians have been1 and what is at present known about the schools must be accepted subject to critical revision hereafter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--,,murillo4 ,,st4 ,,anthony ,,of ,,padua4 ,,berlin4 ,the earliest school seems to have been made up from a gathering of artists at ,toledo1 who limned1 carved1 and gilded in the cathedral2 but this school was not of long duration4 ,it was merged into the ,castilian school1 which1 after the building of ,madrid1 made its home in that capital and drew its forces from the towns of ,toledo1 ,valladolid1 and ,badajoz4 ,the ,andalusian school1 which rose about the middle of the sixteenth century1 was made up from the local schools of ,seville1 ,cordova1 and ,granada4 ,the ,valencian school1 to the southeast1 rose about the same time1 and was finally merged into the ,andalusian4 ,the ,aragonese school1 to the east1 was small and of no great consequence1 though existing in a feeble way to the end of the seventeenth century4 ,the painters of these schools are not very strongly marked apart by methods or school traditions1 and perhaps the divisions would better be looked upon as more geographical than otherwise4 ,none of the schools really began before the sixteenth century1 though there are names of artists and some extant pictures before that date1 and with the seventeenth century all art in ,spain seems to have centred about ,madrid4 ,spanish painting started into life concurrently with the rise to prominence of ,spain as a political kingdom4 ,what1 if any1 direct effect the maritime discoveries1 the conquests of ,granada and ,naples1 the growth of literature1 and the decline of ,italy1 may have had upon ,spanish painting can only be conjectured2 but certainly the sudden advance of the nation politically and socially was paralleled by the advance of its art4 ,,the ,,castilian ,,school3 ,this school probably had no so-called founder4 ,it was a growth from early art traditions at ,toledo1 and afterward became the chief school of the kingdom owing to the patronage of ,philip ,,ii4 and ,philip ,,iv4 at ,madrid4 ,the first painter of importance in the school seems to have been ,antonio ,rincon 7#addf8-aejj874 ,he is sometimes spoken of as the father of ,spanish painting1 and as having studied in ,italy with ,castagno and ,ghirlandajo1 but there is little foundation for either statement4 ,he painted chiefly at ,toledo1 painted portraits of ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 and had some skill in hard drawing4 ,berruguete 7#adhj8-aefa7 studied with ,michael ,angelo1 and is supposed to have helped him in the ,vatican4 ,he afterward returned to ,spain1 painted many altar-pieces1 and was patronized as painter1 sculptor1 and architect by ,charles ,v4 and ,philip ,,ii4 ,he was probably the first to introduce pure ,italian methods into ,spain1 with some coldness and dryness of coloring and handling4 ,becerra 7#aebj8-aegj7 was born in ,andalusia1 but worked in ,castile1 and was a man of ,italian training similar to ,berruguete4 ,he was an exceptional man1 perhaps1 in his use of mythological themes and nude figures4 ,there is not a great deal known about ,morales 7#aeji8-aehf71 called the ,divine1 except that he was allied to the ,castilian school1 and painted devotional heads of ,christ with the crown of thorns1 and many afflicted and weeping madonnas4 ,there was ,florentine drawing in his work1 great regard for finish1 and something of ,correggio's softness in shadows pitched in a browner key4 ,his sentiment was rather exaggerated4 ,sanchez-,coello 7#aeac8-aeij7 was painter and courtier to ,philip ,,ii41 and achieved reputation as a portrait-painter1 though also doing some altar-pieces4 ,it is doubtful whether he ever studied in ,italy1 but in ,spain he was for a time with ,antonio ,moro1 and probably learned from him something of rich costumes1 ermines1 embroideries1 and jewels1 for which his portraits were remarkable4 ,navarette 7#aebf8-aegi71 called ,el ,mudo 7the dumb one71 certainly was in ,italy for something like twenty years1 and was there a disciple of ,titian1 from whom he doubtless learned much of color and the free flow of draperies4 ,he was one of the best of the middle-period painters4 ,theotocopuli 7#aedh8-afbe71 called ,el ,greco 7the ,greek71 was another ,venetian-influenced painter1 with enough ,spanish originality about him to make most of his pictures striking in color and drawing4 ,tristan 7#aehf-afdj7 was his best follower4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--,,ribera4 ,,st4 ,,agnes4 ,,dresden4 ,velasquez 7#aeii-affj7 is the greatest name in the history of ,spanish painting4 ,with him ,spanish art took upon itself a decidedly naturalistic and national stamp4 ,before his time ,italy had been freely imitated2 but though ,velasquez himself was in ,italy for quite a long time1 and intimately acquainted with great ,italian art1 he never seemed to have been led away from his own individual way of seeing and doing4 ,he was a pupil of ,herrera1 afterward with ,pacheco1 and learned much from ,ribera and ,tristan1 but more from a direct study of nature than from all the others4 ,he was in a broad sense a realist--a man who recorded the material and the actual without emendation or transposition4 ,he has never been surpassed in giving the solidity and substance of form and the placing of objects in atmosphere4 ,and this1 not in a small1 finical way1 but with a breadth of view and of treatment which are to-day the despair of painters4 ,there was nothing of the ethereal1 the spiritual1 the pietistic1 or the pathetic about him4 ,he never for a moment left the firm basis of reality4 ,standing upon earth he recorded the truths of the earth1 but in their largest1 fullest1 most universal forms4 ,technically his was a master-hand1 doing all things with ease1 giving exact relations of colors and lights1 and placing everything so perfectly that no addition or alteration is thought of4 ,with the brush he was light1 easy1 sure4 ,the surface looks as though touched once1 no more4 ,it is the perfection of handling through its simplicity and certainty1 and has not the slightest trace of affectation or mannerism4 ,he was one of the few ,spanish painters who were enabled to shake off the yoke of the ,church4 ,few of his canvases are religious in subject4 ,under royal patronage he passed almost all of his life in painting portraits of the royal family1 ministers of state1 and great dignitaries4 ,as a portrait-painter he is more widely known than as a figure-painter4 ,nevertheless he did many canvases like ,the ,tapestry ,weavers and ,the ,surrender at ,breda1 which attest his remarkable genius in that field2 and even in landscape1 in genre1 in animal painting1 he was a very superior man4 ,in fact ,velasquez is one of the few great painters in ,european history for whom there is nothing but praise4 ,he was the full-rounded complete painter1 intensely individual and self-assertive1 and yet in his art recording in a broad way the ,spanish type and life4 ,he was the climax of ,spanish painting1 and after him there was a rather swift decline1 as had been the case in the ,italian schools4 ,mazo 7#afaj8-affg71 pupil and son-in-law of ,velasquez1 was one of his most facile imitators1 and ,carreno de ,miranda 7#afad-afhe7 was influenced by ,velasquez1 and for a time his assistant4 ,the ,castilian school may be said to have closed with these late men and with ,claudio ,coello 7#afce8-afic71 a painter with a style founded on ,titian and ,rubens1 whose best work was of extraordinary power4 ,spanish painting went out with ,spanish power1 and only isolated men of small rank remained4 ,,andalusian ,,school3 ,this school came into existence about the middle of the sixteenth century4 ,its chief centre was at ,seville1 and its chief patron the ,church rather than the king4 ,vargas 7#aejb-aefh7 was probably the real founder of the school1 though ,de ,castro 7fl4 #aded7 and others preceded him4 ,vargas was a man of much reputation and ability in his time1 and introduced ,italian methods and elegance into the ,andalusian school after twenty odd years of residence in ,italy4 ,he is said to have studied under ,perino del ,vaga1 and there is some sweetness of face and grace of form about his work that point that way1 though his composition suggests ,correggio4 ,most of his frescos have perished2 some of his canvases are still in existence4 ,cespedes 7#aech8-afjh7 is little known through extant works1 but he achieved fame in many departments during his life1 and is said to have been in ,italy under ,florentine influence4 ,his coloring was rather cold1 and his drawing large and flat4 ,the best early painter of the school was ,roelas 7#aeeh8-afbe71 the inspirer of ,murillo and the master of ,zurbaran4 ,he is supposed to have studied at ,venice1 because of his rich1 glowing color4 ,most of his works are religious and are found chiefly at ,seville4 ,he was greatly patronized by the ,jesuits4 ,pacheco 7#aega-afed7 was more of a pedant than a painter1 a man of rule1 who to-day might be written down an academician4 ,his drawing was hard1 and perhaps the best reason for his being remembered is that he was one of the masters and the father-in-law of ,velasquez4 ,his rival1 ,herrera the ,elder 7#aegf8-afef7 was a stronger man--in fact1 the most original artist of his school4 ,he struck off by himself and created a bold realism with a broad brush that anticipated ,velasquez--in fact1 ,velasquez was under him for a time4 ,the pure ,spanish school in ,andalusia1 as distinct from ,italian imitation1 may be said to have started with ,herrera4 ,it was further advanced by another independent painter1 ,zurbaran 7#aeih-affb71 a pupil of ,roelas4 ,he was a painter of the emaciated monk in ecstasy1 and many other rather dismal religious subjects expressive of tortured rapture4 ,from using a rather dark shadow he acquired the name of the ,spanish ,caravaggio4 ,he had a good deal of ,caravaggio's strength1 together with a depth and breadth of color suggestive of the ,venetians4 ,cano 7#afja-affg71 though he never was in ,italy1 had the name of the ,spanish ,michael ,angelo1 probably because he was sculptor1 painter1 and architect4 ,his painting was rather sharp in line and statuesque in pose1 with a coloring somewhat like that of ,van ,dyck4 ,it was eclectic rather than original work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--;,,fortuny4 ,,spanish ,,marriage4 ,murillo 7#afah-afhb7 is generally placed at the head of the ,andalusian school1 as ,velasquez at the head of the ,castilian4 ,there is good reason for it1 for though ,murillo was not the great painter he was sometime supposed1 yet he was not the weak man his modern critics would make him out4 ,a religious painter largely1 though doing some genre subjects like his beggar-boy groups1 he sought for religious fervor and found1 only too often1 sentimentality4 ,his madonnas are usually after the ,carlo ,dolci pattern1 though never so excessive in sentiment4 ,this was not the case with his earlier works1 mostly of humble life1 which were painted in rather a hard1 positive manner4 ,later on he became misty1 veiled in light and effeminate in outline1 though still holding grace4 ,his color varied with his early and later styles4 ,it was usually gay and a little thin4 ,while basing his work on nature like ,velasquez1 he never had the supreme poise of that master1 either mentally or technically2 howbeit he was an excellent painter1 who perhaps justly holds second place in ,spanish art4 ,,school ,,of ,,valencia3 ,this school rose contemporary with the ,andalusian school1 into which it was finally merged after the importance of ,madrid had been established4 ,it was largely modelled upon ,italian painting1 as indeed were all the schools of ,spain at the start4 ,juan de ,joanes 7#aejg8-aegi7 apparently was its founder1 a man who painted a good portrait1 but in other respects was only a fair imitator of ,raphael1 whom he had studied at ,rome4 ,a stronger man was ,francisco de ,ribalta 7#aeej8-afbh71 who was for a time in ,italy under the ,caracci1 and learned from them free draughtsmanship and elaborate composition4 ,he was also fond of ,sebastiano del ,piombo1 and in his best works 7at ,valencia7 reflected him4 ,ribalta gave an early training to ,ribera 7#aehh-afef71 who was the most important man of this school4 ,in reality ,ribera was more ,italian than ,valencian1 for he spent the greater part of his life in ,italy1 where he was called ,lo ,spagnoletto1 and was greatly influenced by ,caravaggio4 ,he was a ,spaniard in the horrible subjects that he chose1 but in coarse strength of line1 heaviness of shadows1 harsh handling of the brush1 he was a true ,neapolitan ,darkling4 ,a pronounced mannerist he was no less a man of strength1 and even in his shadow-saturated colors a painter with the color instinct4 ,in ,italy his influence in the time of the ,decadence was wide-spread1 and in ,spain his ,italian pupil1 ,giordano1 introduced his methods for late imitation4 ,there were no other men of much rank in the ,valencian school1 and1 as has been said1 the school was eventually merged in ,andalusian painting4 ,,eighteenth ,,and ,,nineteenth-,,century ,,painting ,,in ,,spain3 ,almost directly after the passing of ,velasquez and ,murillo ,spanish art failed4 ,the eighteenth-century1 as in ,italy1 was quite barren of any considerable art until near its close4 ,then ,goya 7#agdf-ahbh7 seems to have made a partial restoration of painting4 ,he was a man of peculiarly ,spanish turn of mind1 fond of the brutal and the bloody1 picturing inquisition scenes1 bull-fights1 battle pieces1 and revelling in caricature1 sarcasm1 and ridicule4 ,his imagination was grotesque and horrible1 but as a painter his art was based on the natural1 and was exceedingly strong4 ,in brush-work he followed ,velasquez2 in a peculiar forcing of contrasts in light and dark he was apparently quite himself1 though possibly influenced by ,ribera's work4 ,his best work shows in his portraits and etchings4 ,after ,goya's death ,spanish art1 such as it was1 rather followed ,france1 with the extravagant classicism of ,david as a model4 ,what was produced may be seen to this day in the ,madrid ,museum4 ,it does not call for mention here4 ,about the beginning of the #ahfj's ,spanish painting made a new advance with ,mariano ,fortuny 7#ahch-ahgd74 ,in his early years he worked at historical painting1 but later on he went to ,algiers and ,rome1 finding his true vent in a bright sparkling painting of genre subjects1 oriental scenes1 streets1 interiors1 single figures1 and the like4 ,he excelled in color1 sunlight effects1 and particularly in a vivacious facile handling of the brush4 ,his work is brilliant1 and in his late productions often spotty from excessive use of points of light in high color4 ,he was a technician of much brilliancy and originality1 his work exciting great admiration in his day1 and leading the younger painters of ,spain into that ornate handling visible in their works at the present time4 ,many of these latter1 from association with art and artists in ,paris1 have adopted ,french methods1 and hardly show such a thing as ,spanish nationality4 ,fortuny's brother-in-law1 ,madrazo 7#ahda-71 is an example of a ,spanish painter turned ,french in his methods--a facile and brilliant portrait-painter4 ,zamacois 7#ahdb-ahga7 died early1 but with a reputation as a successful portrayer of seventeenth-century subjects a little after the style of ,meissonier and not unlike ,gerome4 ,he was a good colorist and an excellent painter of textures4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--,,madrazo1 ,,unmasked4 ,the historical scene of ,mediaeval or ,renaissance times1 pageants and fetes with rich costume1 fine architecture and vivid effects of color1 are characteristic of a number of the modern ,spaniards--,villegas1 ,pradilla1 ,alvarez4 ,as a general thing their canvases are a little flashy1 likely to please at first sight but grow wearisome after a time4 ,palmaroli has a style that resembles a mixture of ,fortuny and ,meissonier2 and some other painters1 like ,luis ,jiminez ,aranda1 ,sorolla1 ,zuloaga1 ,anglada1 ,garcia y ,remos1 ,vierge1 ,roman ,ribera1 and ,domingo1 have done excellent work4 ,in landscape and ,venetian scenes ,rico leads among the ,spaniards with a vivacity and brightness not always seen to good advantage in his late canvases4 ,,principal ,,works3 ,generally speaking1 ,spanish art cannot be seen to advantage outside of ,spain4 ,both its ancient and modern masterpieces are at ,madrid1 ,seville1 ,toledo1 and elsewhere4 ,the ,royal ,gallery at ,madrid has the most and the best examples4 ,,castilian ,,school--,rincon1 altar-piece church of ,robleda de ,chavilla2 ,berruguete1 altar-pieces ,saragossa1 ,valladolid1 ,madrid1 ,toledo2 ,morales1 ,madrid and ,louvre2 ,sanchez-,coello1 ,madrid and ,brussels ,mus42 ,navarette1 ,escorial1 ,madrid1 ,st4 ,petersburg2 ,theotocopuli1 ,cathedral and ,s4 ,tome ,toledo1 ,madrid ,mus42 ,velasquez1 best works in ,madrid ,mus41 ,escorial1 ,salamanca1 ,montpensier ,gals41 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,infanta ,marguerita ,louvre1 ,borro portrait 787 ,berlin1 ,innocent ,x4 ,doria ,rome2 ,mazo1 landscapes ,madrid ,mus42 ,carreno de ,miranda1 ,madrid ,mus42 ,claudio ,coello1 ,escorial1 ,madrid1 ,brussels1 ,berlin1 and ,munich ,mus4 ,,andalusian ,,school--,vargas1 ,seville ,cathedral2 ,cespedes1 ,cordova ,cathedral2 ,roelas1 ,s4 ,isidore ,cathedral1 ,museum ,seville2 ,pacheco1 ,madrid ,mus42 ,herrera1 ,seville ,cathedral and ,mus4 and ,archbishop's ,palace1 ,dresden ,mus42 ,zurbaran1 ,seville ,cathedral and ,mus4 ,madrid1 ,dresden1 ,louvre1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon42 ,cano1 ,madrid1 ,seville ,mus4 and ,cathedral1 ,berlin1 ,dresden1 ,munich2 ,murillo1 best pictures in ,madrid ,mus4 and ,acad4 of ,s4 ,fernando ,madrid1 ,seville ,mus4 ,hospital and ,capuchin ,church1 ,louvre1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,dresden1 ,munich1 ,hermitage4 ,,valencian ,,school--,juan de ,joanes1 ,madrid ,mus41 ,cathedral ,valencia1 ,hermitage2 ,ribalta1 ,madrid and ,valencian ,mus41 ,hermitage2 ,ribera1 ,louvre1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,dresden1 ,naples1 ,hermitage1 and other ,european museums1 chief works at ,madrid4 ,,modern ,,men ,,and ,,their ,,works--,goya1 ,madrid ,mus41 ,acad4 of ,s4 ,fernando1 ,valencian ,cathedral and ,mus41 two portraits in ,louvre4 ,the works of the contemporary painters are largely in private hands where reference to them is of little use to the average student4 ,thirty ,fortunys are in the collection of ,william ,h4 ,stewart in ,paris4 ,his best work1 ,the ,spanish ,marriage1 belongs to ,madame de ,cassin1 in ,paris4 ,examples of ,villegas1 ,madrazo1 ,rico1 ,domingo1 and others1 in the ,vanderbilt ,gallery1 ,metropolitan ,mus41 ,new ,york2 ,boston1 ,chicago1 and ,philadelphia ,mus4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,flemish ,,painting4 ,,books ,,recommended3 ,busscher1 ,recherches sur les ,peintres ,gantois2 ,crowe and ,cavalcaselle1 ,early ,flemish ,painters2 ,cust1 ,van ,dyck2 ,dehaisnes1 ,l',art dans la ,flandre2 ,du ,jardin1 ,l'art ,flamand2 ,eisenmann1 ,the ,brothers ,van ,eyck2 ,fetis1 ,les ,artistes ,belges a l',etranger2 ,fromentin1 ,old ,masters of ,belgium and ,holland2 ,gerrits1 ,rubens zyn ,tyd1 etc42 ,guiffrey1 ,van ,dyck2 ,hasselt1 ,histoire de ,rubens2 7,waagen's7 ,kuegler1 ,handbook of ,painting--,german1 ,flemish1 and ,dutch ,schools2 ,lemonnier1 ,histoire des ,arts en ,belgique2 ,mantz1 ,adrien ,brouwer2 ,michel1 ,rubens2 ,michiels1 ,rubens en l',ecole d',anvers2 ,michiels1 ,histoire de la ,peinture ,flamande2 ,stevenson1 ,rubens2 ,van den ,branden1 ,geschiedenis der ,antwerpsche ,schilderschool2 ,van ,mander1 ,le ,livre des ,peintres2 ,waagen1 ,uber ,hubert und ,jan ,van ,eyck2 ,waagen1 ,peter ,paul ,rubens2 ,wauters1 ,rogier van der ,weyden2 ,wauters1 ,la ,peinture ,flamande2 ,weale1 ,hans ,memling 7,arundel ,soc472 ,weale1 ,notes sur ,jean ,van ,eyck4 ,,the ,,flemish ,,people3 ,individually and nationally the ,flemings were strugglers against adverse circumstances from the beginning4 ,a realistic race with practical ideas1 a people rather warm of impulse and free in habits1 they combined some ,german sentiment with ,french liveliness and gayety4 ,the solidarity of the nation was not accomplished until after #ache1 when the ,dukes of ,burgundy began to extend their power over the ,low ,countries4 ,then the ,flemish people became strong enough to defy both ,germany and ,france1 and wealthy enough1 through their commerce with ,spain1 ,italy1 and ,france to encourage art not only at the ,ducal court but in the churches1 and among the citizens of the various towns4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--,,van ,,eycks4 ,,st4 ,,bavon ,,altar-,,piece 7,,wing74 ,,berlin4 ,,flemish ,,subjects ,,and ,,methods3 ,as in all the countries of ,europe1 the early ,flemish painting pictured ,christian subjects primarily4 ,the great bulk of it was church altar-pieces1 though side by side with this was an admirable portraiture1 some knowledge of landscape1 and some exposition of allegorical subjects4 ,in means and methods it was quite original4 ,the early history is lost1 but if ,flemish painting was beholden to the painting of any other nation1 it was to the miniature painting of ,france4 ,there is1 however1 no positive record of this4 ,the ,flemings seem to have begun by themselves1 and pictured the life about them in their own way4 ,they were apparently not influenced at first by ,italy4 ,there were no antique influences1 no excavated marbles to copy1 no ,byzantine traditions left to follow4 ,at first their art was exact and minute in detail1 but not well grasped in the mass4 ,the compositions were huddled1 the landscapes pure but finical1 the figures inclined to slimness1 awkwardness1 and angularity in the lines of form or drapery1 and uncertain in action4 ,to offset this there was a positive realism in textures1 perspective1 color1 tone1 light1 and atmosphere4 ,the effect of the whole was odd and strained1 but the effect of the part was to convince one that the ,flemish painters were excellent craftsmen in detail1 skilled with the brush1 and shrewd observers of nature in a purely picturesque way4 ,to the ,flemish painters of the fifteenth century belongs1 not the invention of oil-painting1 for it was known before their time1 but its acceptable application in picture-making4 ,they applied oil with color to produce brilliancy and warmth of effect1 to insure firmness and body in the work1 and to carry out textural effects in stuffs1 marbles1 metals1 and the like4 ,so far as we know there never was much use of distemper1 or fresco-work upon the walls of buildings4 ,the oil medium came into vogue when the miniatures and illuminations of the early days had expanded into panel pictures4 ,the size of the miniature was increased1 but the minute method of finishing was not laid aside4 ,some time afterward painting with oil upon canvas was adopted4 ,,school ,,of ,,bruges3 ,painting in ,flanders starts abruptly with the fifteenth century4 ,what there was before that time more than miniatures and illuminations is not known4 ,time and the ,iconoclasts have left no remains of consequence4 ,flemish art for us begins with ,hubert van ,eyck 78-#adbf7 and his younger brother ,jan van ,eyck 78-#addj74 ,the elder brother is supposed to have been the better painter1 because the most celebrated work of the brothers--the ,st4 ,bavon altar-piece1 parts of which are in ,ghent1 ,brussels1 and ,berlin--bears the inscription that ,hubert began it and ,jan finished it4 ,hubert was no doubt an excellent painter1 but his pictures are few and there is much discussion whether he or ,jan painted them4 ,for historical purposes ,flemish art was begun1 and almost completed1 by ,jan van ,eyck4 ,he had all the attributes of the early men1 and was one of the most perfect of ,flemish painters4 ,he painted real forms and real life1 gave them a setting in true perspective and light1 and put in background landscapes with a truthful if minute regard for the facts4 ,his figures in action had some awkwardness1 they were small of head1 slim of body1 and sometimes stumbled2 but his modelling of faces1 his rendering of textures in cloth1 metal1 stone1 and the like1 his delicate yet firm facture were all rather remarkable for his time4 ,none of this early ,flemish art has the grandeur of ,italian composition1 but in realistic detail1 in landscape1 architecture1 figure1 and dress1 in pathos1 sincerity1 and sentiment it is unsurpassed by any fifteenth-century art4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--,,memling 7874 ,,st4 ,,lawrence 7,,detail74 ,,nat4 ,,gal41 ,,london4 ,little is known of the personal history of either of the ,van ,eycks4 ,they left an influence and had many followers1 but whether these were direct pupils or not is an open question4 ,peter ,cristus 7#adjj8-adgb7 was perhaps a pupil of ,jan1 though more likely a follower of his methods in color and general technic4 ,roger van der ,weyden 7#adjj8-adfd71 whether a pupil of the ,van ,eycks or a rival1 produced a similar style of art4 ,his first master was an obscure ,robert ,campin4 ,he was afterward at ,bruges1 and from there went to ,brussels and founded a school of his own called the ,,school ,,of ,,brabant3 ,he was more emotional and dramatic than ,jan van ,eyck1 giving much excited action and pathetic expression to his figures in scenes from the passion of ,christ4 ,he had not ,van ,eyck's skill1 nor his detail1 nor his color4 ,more of a draughtsman than a colorist1 he was angular in figure and drapery1 but had honesty1 pathos1 and sincerity1 and was very charming in bright background landscapes4 ,though spending some time in ,italy1 he was never influenced by ,italian art4 ,he was always ,flemish in type1 subject1 and method1 a trifle repulsive at first through angularity and emotional exaggeration1 but a man to be studied4 ,by ,van der ,goes 7#adcj8-adhb7 there are but few good examples1 the chief one being an altar-piece in the ,uffizi at ,florence4 ,it is angular in drawing but full of character1 and in beauty of detail and ornamentation is a remarkable picture4 ,he probably followed ,van der ,weyden1 as did also ,justus van ,ghent 7last half of fifteenth century74 ,contemporary with these men ,dierick ,bouts 7#adaj-adge7 established a school at ,haarlem4 ,he was ,dutch by birth1 but after #adej settled in ,louvain1 and in his art belongs to the ,flemish school4 ,he was influenced by ,van der ,weyden1 and shows it in his detail of hands and melancholy face1 though he differed from him in dramatic action and in type4 ,his figure was awkward1 his color warm and rich1 and in landscape backgrounds he greatly advanced the painting of the time4 ,memling 7#adbe8-adie871 one of the greatest of the school1 is another man about whose life little is known4 ,he was probably associated with ,van der ,weyden in some way4 ,his art is founded on the ,van ,eyck school1 and is remarkable for sincerity1 purity1 and frankness of attitude4 ,as a religious painter1 he was perhaps beyond all his contemporaries in tenderness and pathos4 ,in portraiture he was exceedingly strong in characterization1 and in his figures very graceful4 ,his flesh painting was excellent1 but in textures or landscape work he was not remarkable4 ,his best followers were ,van der ,meire 7#adbg8-adgd87 and ,gheeraert ,david 7#adej8-aebc74 ,the latter was famous for the fine1 broad landscapes in the backgrounds of his pictures1 said1 however1 by critics to have been painted by ,joachim ,patinir4 ,he was realistically horrible in many subjects1 and though a close recorder of detail he was much broader than any of his predecessors4 ,,flemish ,,schools ,,of ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century3 ,in this century ,flemish painting became rather widely diffused4 ,the schools of ,bruges and ,ghent gave place to the schools in the large commercial cities like ,antwerp and ,brussels1 and the commercial relations between the ,low ,countries and ,italy finally led to the dissipation of national characteristics in art and the imitation of the ,italian ,renaissance painters4 ,there is no sharp line of demarcation between those painters who clung to ,flemish methods and those who adopted ,italian methods4 ,the change was gradual4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,,massys4 ,,head ,,of ,,virgin4 ,,antwerp4 ,quentin ,massys 7#adfj8-aecj7 and ,mostert 7#adgd-aeef871 a ,dutchman by birth1 but1 like ,bouts1 ,flemish by influence1 were among the last of the ,gothic painters in ,flanders1 and yet they began the introduction of ,italian features in their painting4 ,massys led in architectural backgrounds1 and from that the ,italian example spread to subjects1 figures1 methods1 until the indigenous ,flemish art became a thing of the past4 ,massys was1 at ,antwerp1 the most important painter of his day1 following the old ,flemish methods with many improvements4 ,his work was detailed1 and yet executed with a broader1 freer brush than formerly1 and with more variety in color1 modelling1 expression of character4 ,he increased figures to almost life-size1 giving them greater importance than landscape or architecture4 ,the type was still lean and angular1 and often contorted with emotion4 ,his ,money-,changers and ,misers 7many of them painted by his son7 were a genre of his own4 ,with him closed the ,gothic school1 and with him began the ,,antwerp ,,school1 the pupils of which went to ,italy1 and eventually became ,italianized4 ,mabuse 7#adgj8-aeda7 was the first to go4 ,his early work shows the influence of ,massys and ,david4 ,he was good in composition1 color1 and brush-work1 but lacked in originality1 as did all the imitators of ,italy4 ,franz ,floris 7#aeah8-aegj7 was a man of talent1 much admired in his time1 because he brought back reminiscences of ,michael ,angelo to ,antwerp4 ,his influence was fatal upon his followers1 of whom there were many1 like the ,franckens and ,de ,vos4 ,italy and ,roman methods1 models1 architecture1 subjects1 began to rule everywhere4 ,from ,brussels ,barent van ,orley 7#adia8-aedb7 left early for ,italy1 and became essentially ,italian1 though retaining some ,flemish color4 ,he painted in oil1 tempera1 and for glass1 and is supposed to have gained his brilliant colors by using a gilt ground4 ,his early works remind one of ,david4 ,cocxie 7#adii-aeib71 the ,flemish ,raphael1 was but an indifferent imitator of the ,italian ,raphael4 ,at ,liege the ,romanists1 so called1 began with ,lambert ,lombard 7#aeje-aeff71 of whose work nothing authentic remains except drawings4 ,at ,bruges ,peeter ,pourbus 7#aeaj8-aehd7 was about the last one of the good portrait-painters of the time4 ,another excellent portrait-painter1 a pupil of ,scorel1 was ,antonio ,moro 7#aeab8-aegh874 ,he had much dignity1 force1 and elaborateness of costume1 and stood quite by himself4 ,there were other painters of the time who were born or trained in ,flanders1 and yet became so naturalized in other countries that in their work they do not belong to ,flanders4 ,neuchatel 7#aebg8-aeij871 ,geldorp 7#aeec-afaf871 ,calvaert 7#aedj8-afai71 ,spranger 7#aedf-afbg871 and others1 were of this group4 ,among all the strugglers in ,italian imitation only a few landscapists held out for the ,flemish view4 ,paul ,bril 7#aeed-afbf7 was the first of them4 ,he went to ,italy1 but instead of following the methods taught there1 he taught ,italians his own view of landscape4 ,his work was a little dry and formal1 but graceful in composition1 and good in light and color4 ,the ,brueghels--there were three of them--also stood out for ,flemish landscape1 introducing it nominally as a background for small figures1 but in reality for the beauty of the landscape itself4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--,,rubens4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,young ,,woman4 ,,hermitage1 ,,st4 ,,petersburgh4 ,,seventeenth-,,century ,,painting3 ,this was the great century of ,flemish painting1 though the painting was not entirely ,flemish in method or thought4 ,the influence of ,italy had done away with the early simplicity1 purity1 and religious pathos of the ,van ,eycks4 ,during the sixteenth century everything had run to bald imitation of ,renaissance methods4 ,then came a new master-genius1 ,rubens 7#aegg-afdj71 who formed a new art founded in method upon ,italy1 yet distinctly northern in character4 ,rubens chose all subjects for his brush1 but the religious altar-piece probably occupied him as much as any4 ,to this he gave little of ,gothic sentiment1 but everything of ,renaissance splendor4 ,his art was more material than spiritual1 more brilliant and startling in sensuous qualities1 such as line and color1 than charming by facial expression or tender feeling4 ,something of the ,paolo ,veronese cast of mind1 he conceived things largely1 and painted them proportionately--large ,titanic types1 broad schemes and masses of color1 great sweeping lines of beauty4 ,one value of this largeness was its ability to hold at a distance upon wall or altar4 ,hence1 when seen to-day1 close at hand1 in museums1 people are apt to think ,rubens's art coarse and gross4 ,there is no prettiness about his type4 ,it is not effeminate or sentimental1 but rather robust1 full of life and animal spirits1 full of blood1 bone1 and muscle--of majestic dignity1 grace1 and power1 and glowing with splendor of color4 ,in imagination1 in conception of art purely as art1 and not as a mere vehicle to convey religious or mythological ideas1 in mental grasp of the pictorial world1 ,rubens stands with ,titian and ,velasquez in the very front rank of painters4 ,as a technician1 he was unexcelled4 ,a master of composition1 modelling1 and drawing1 a master of light1 and a color-harmonist of the rarest ability1 he1 in addition1 possessed the most certain1 adroit1 and facile hand that ever handled a paint-brush4 ,nothing could be more sure than the touch of ,rubens1 nothing more easy and masterful4 ,he was trained in both mind and eye1 a genius by birth and by education1 a painter who saw keenly1 and was able to realize what he saw with certainty4 ,well-born1 ennobled by royalty1 successful in both court and studio1 ,rubens lived brilliantly and his life was a series of triumphs4 ,he painted enormous canvases1 and the number of pictures1 altar-pieces1 mythological decorations1 landscapes1 portraits scattered throughout the galleries of ,europe1 and attributed to him1 is simply amazing4 ,he was undoubtedly helped in many of his canvases by his pupils1 but the works painted by his own hand make a world of art in themselves4 ,he was the greatest painter of the ,north1 a full-rounded1 complete genius1 comparable to ,titian in his universality4 ,his precursors and masters1 ,van ,noort 7#aefb-afda7 and ,vaenius 7#aeeh-afbi71 gave no strong indication of the greatness of ,ruben's art1 and his many pupils1 though echoing his methods1 never rose to his height in mental or artistic grasp4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--,,van ,,dyck4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,cornelius ,,van ,,der ,,geest4 ,,nat4 ,,gal4 ,,london4 ,van ,dyck 7#aeii-afda7 was his principal pupil4 ,he followed ,rubens closely at first1 though in a slighter manner technically1 and with a cooler coloring4 ,after visiting ,italy he took up with the warmth of ,titian4 ,later1 in ,england1 he became careless and less certain4 ,his rank is given him not for his figure-pieces4 ,they were not always successful1 lacking as they did in imagination and originality1 though done with force4 ,his best work was his portraiture1 for which he became famous1 painting nobility in every country of ,europe in which he visited4 ,at his best he was a portrait-painter of great power1 but not to be placed in the same rank with ,titian1 ,rubens1 ,rembrandt1 and ,velasquez4 ,his characters are gracefully posed1 and appear to be aristocratic4 ,there is a noble distinction about them1 and yet even this has the feeling of being somewhat affected4 ,the serene complacency of his lords and ladies finally became almost a mannerism with him1 though never a disagreeable one4 ,he died early1 a painter of mark1 but not the greatest portrait-painter of the world1 as is sometimes said of him4 ,there were a number of ,rubens's pupils1 like ,diepenbeeck 7#aeif-afge71 who learned from their master a certain brush facility1 but were not sufficiently original to make deep impressions4 ,when ,rubens died the best painter left in ,belgium was ,jordaens 7#aeic-afgh74 ,he was a pupil of ,van ,noort1 but submitted to the ,rubens influence and followed in ,rubens's style1 though more florid in coloring and grosser in types4 ,he painted all sorts of subjects1 but was seen at his best in mythological scenes with groups of drunken satyrs and bacchants1 surrounded by a close-placed landscape4 ,he was the most independent and original of the followers1 of whom there was a host4 ,crayer 7#aehb-affi71 ,janssens 7#aege-afcb71 ,zegers 7#aeia-afea71 ,rombouts 7#aeig-afcg71 were the prominent ones4 ,they all took an influence more or less pronounced from ,rubens4 ,cornelius de ,vos 7#aehe-afea7 was a more independent man--a realistic portrait-painter of much ability4 ,snyders 7#aegi-afeg71 and ,fyt 7#afji8-affa71 devoted their brushes to the painting of still-life1 game1 fruits1 flowers1 landscape--,snyders often in collaboration with ,rubens himself4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--,,teniers ,,the ,,younger4 ,,prodigal ,,son4 ,,louvre4 ,living at the same time with these half-,italianized painters1 and continuing later in the century1 there was another group of painters in the ,low ,countries who were emphatically of the soil1 believing in themselves and their own country and picturing scenes from commonplace life in a manner quite their own4 ,these were the ,little ,masters1 the genre painters1 of whom there was even a stronger representation appearing contemporaneously in ,holland4 ,in ,belgium there were not so many nor such talented men1 but some of them were very interesting in their work as in their subjects4 ,teniers the ,younger 7#afaj-afij7 was among the first of them to picture peasant1 burgher1 alewife1 and nobleman in all scenes and places4 ,nothing escaped him as a subject1 and yet his best work was shown in the handling of low life in taverns4 ,there is coarse wit in his work1 but it is atoned for by good color and easy handling4 ,he was influenced by ,rubens1 though decidedly different from him in many respects4 ,brouwer 7#afjf8-afch7 has often been catalogued with the ,holland school1 but he really belongs with ,teniers1 in ,belgium4 ,he died early1 but left a number of pictures remarkable for their fine fat quality and their beautiful color4 ,he was not a man of ,italian imagination1 but a painter of low life1 with coarse humor and not too much good taste1 yet a superb technician and vastly beyond many of his little ,dutch contemporaries at the ,north4 ,teniers and ,brouwer led a school and had many followers4 ,in a slightly different vein was ,gonzales ,coques 7#afah-afhd71 who is generally seen to advantage in pictures of interiors with family groups4 ,in subject he was more refined than the other genre painters1 and was influenced to some extent by ,van ,dyck4 ,as a colorist he held rank1 and his portraiture 7rarely seen7 was excellent4 ,at this time there were also many painters of landscape1 marine1 battles1 still-life--in fact ,belgium was alive with painters--but none of them was sufficiently great to call for individual mention4 ,most of them were followers of either ,holland or ,italy1 and the gist of their work will be spoken of hereafter under ,dutch painting4 ,,eighteenth-,,century ,,painting ,,in ,,belgium3 ,decline had set in before the seventeenth century ended4 ,belgium was torn by wars1 her commerce flagged1 her art-spirit seemed burned out4 ,a long line of petty painters followed whose works call for silence4 ,one man alone seemed to stand out like a star by comparison with his contemporaries1 ,verhagen 7#agbh-ahaa71 a portrait-painter of talent4 ,,nineteenth-,,century ,,painting ,,in ,,belgium3 ,during this century ,belgium has been so closely related to ,france that the influence of the larger country has been quite apparent upon the art of the smaller4 ,in #ahaf ,david1 the leader of the ,french classic school1 sent into exile by the ,restoration1 settled at ,brussels1 and immediately drew around him many pupils4 ,his influence was felt at once1 and ,francois ,navez 7#aghg-ahfi7 was the chief one among his pupils to establish the revived classic art in ,belgium4 ,in #ahcj1 with ,belgian independence and almost concurrently with the romantic movement in ,france1 there began a romantic movement in ,belgium with ,wappers 7#ahjc-ahgd74 ,his art was founded substantially on ,rubens2 but1 like the ,paris romanticists1 he chose the dramatic subject of the times and treated it more for color than for line4 ,he drew a number of followers to himself1 but the movement was not more lasting than in ,france4 ,wiertz 7#ahjf-ahfe71 whose collection of works is to be seen in ,brussels1 was a partial exposition of romanticism mixed with a what-not of eccentricity entirely his own4 ,later on came a comparatively new man1 ,louis ,gallait 7#ahaj-871 who held in ,brussels substantially the same position that ,delaroche did in ,paris4 ,his art was eclectic and never strong1 though he had many pupils at ,brussels1 and started there a rivalry to ,wappers at ,antwerp4 ,leys 7#ahae-ahfi7 holds a rather unique position in ,belgian art by reason of his affectation4 ,he at first followed ,pieter de ,hooghe and other early painters4 ,then1 after a study of the old ,german painters like ,cranach1 he developed an archaic style1 producing a ,gothic quaintness of line and composition1 mingled with old ,flemish coloring4 ,the result was something popular1 but not original or far-reaching1 though technically well done4 ,his chief pupil was ,alma ,tadema 7#ahcf-71 alive to-day in ,london1 and belonging to no school in particular4 ,he is a technician of ability1 mannered in composition and subject1 and somewhat perfunctory in execution4 ,his work is very popular with those who enjoy minute detail and smooth texture-painting4 ,in #ahea the influence of the ,french realism of ,courbet began to be felt at ,brussels1 and since then ,belgian art has followed closely the art movements at ,paris4 ,men like ,alfred ,stevens 7#ahbh-71 a pupil of ,navez1 are really more ,french than ,belgian4 ,stevens is one of the best of the moderns1 a painter of power in fashionable or high-life genre1 and a colorist of the first rank in modern art4 ,among the recent painters but a few can be mentioned4 ,willems 7#ahbc-71 a weak painter of fashionable genre2 ,verboeckhoven 7#agii-ahha71 a vastly over-estimated animal painter2 ,clays 7#ahai-71 an excellent marine painter2 ,boulanger1 a landscapist2 ,wauters 7#ahdf-71 a history1 and portrait-painter2 ,jan van ,beers and ,robie4 ,the new men are ,claus1 ,buysse1 ,frederic1 ,khnopff1 ,lempoels4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--;,,alfred ,,stevens4 ,,on ,,the ,,beach4 ,,principal ,,works3--,hubert van ,eyck1 ,adoration of the ,lamb 7with ,jan van ,eyck7 ,st4 ,bavon ,ghent 7wings at ,brussels and ,berlin supposed to be by ,jan1 the rest by ,hubert72 ,jan van ,eyck1 as above1 also ,arnolfini portraits ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,virgin and ,donor ,louvre1 ,madonna ,staedel ,mus41 ,man with ,pinks ,berlin1 ,triumph of ,church ,madrid2 ,van der ,weyden1 a number of pictures in ,brussels and ,antwerp ,mus41 also at ,staedel ,mus41 ,berlin1 ,munich1 ,vienna2 ,cristus1 ,berlin1 ,staedel ,mus41 ,hermitage1 ,madrid2 ,justus van ,ghent1 ,last ,supper ,urbino ,gal42 ,bouts1 ,st4 ,peter ,louvain1 ,munich1 ,berlin1 ,brussels1 ,vienna2 ,memling1 ,brussels ,mus4 and ,bruges ,acad41 and ,hospital ,antwerp1 ,turin1 ,uffizi1 ,munich1 ,vienna2 ,van der ,meire1 triptych ,st4 ,bavon ,ghent2 ,ghaeraert ,david1 ,bruges1 ,berlin1 ,rouen1 ,munich4 ,massys1 ,brussels1 ,antwerp1 ,berlin1 ,st4 ,petersburg2 best works ,deposition in ,antwerp ,gal4 and ,merchant and ,wife ,louvre2 ,mostert1 altar-piece ,notre ,dame ,bruges2 ,mabuse1 ,madonnas ,palermo1 ,milan ,cathedral1 ,prague1 other works ,vienna1 ,berlin1 ,munich1 ,antwerp2 ,floris1 ,antwerp1 ,amsterdam1 ,brussels1 ,berlin1 ,munich1 ,vienna2 ,barent van ,orley1 altar-pieces ,church of the ,saviour ,antwerp1 and ,brussels ,mus42 ,cocxie1 ,antwerp1 ,brussels1 and ,madrid ,mus42 ,pourbus1 ,bruges1 ,brussels1 ,vienna ,mus42 ,moro1 portraits ,madrid1 ,vienna1 ,hague1 ,brussels1 ,cassel1 ,louvre1 ,st4 ,petersburg ,mus42 ,bril1 landscapes ,madrid1 ,louvre1 ,dresden1 ,berlin ,mus42 the landscapes of the three ,breughels are to be seen in most of the museums of ,europe1 especially at ,munich1 ,dresden1 and ,madrid4 ,rubens1 many works1 #ic in ,munich1 #ce in ,dresden1 #ae at ,cassel1 #af at ,berlin1 #ad in ,london1 #ij in ,vienna1 #ff in ,madrid1 #ed in ,paris1 #fc at ,st4 ,petersburg 7as given by ,wauters71 best works at ,antwerp1 ,vienna1 ,munich1 and ,madrid2 ,van ,noort1 ,antwerp1 ,brussels ,mus41 ,ghent and ,antwerp ,cathedrals2 ,van ,dyck1 ,windsor ,castle1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 #da in ,munich1 #ai in ,dresden1 #ae in ,cassel1 #ac in ,berlin1 #fg in ,vienna1 #ba in ,madrid1 #bd in ,paris1 and #ch in ,st4 ,petersburg 7,wauters71 best examples in ,vienna1 ,louvre1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon42 and ,madrid1 good example in ,met4 ,mus4 ,n4 ,y42 ,diepenbeeck1 ,antwerp ,churches and ,mus41 ,berlin1 ,vienna1 ,munich1 ,frankfort2 ,jordaens1 ,brussels1 ,antwerp1 ,munich1 ,vienna1 ,cassel1 ,madrid1 ,paris2 ,crayer1 ,brussels1 ,munich1 ,vienna2 ,janssens1 ,antwerp ,mus41 ,st4 ,bavon ,ghent1 ,brussels and ,cologne ,mus42 ,zegers1 ,cathedral ,ghent1 ,notre ,dame ,bruges1 ,antwerp ,mus42 ,rombouts1 ,mus4 and ,cathedral ,ghent1 ,antwerp ,mus41 ,beguin ,convent ,mechlin1 ,hospital of ,st4 ,john ,bruges2 ,de ,vos1 ,cathedral and ,mus4 ,antwerp1 ,munich1 ,oldenburg1 ,berlin ,mus42 ,snyders1 ,munich1 ,dresden1 ,vienna1 ,madrid1 ,paris1 ,st4 ,petersburg2 ,fyt1 ,munich1 ,dresden1 ,cassel1 ,berlin1 ,vienna1 ,madrid1 ,paris2 ,teniers the ,younger1 #bi pictures in ,munich1 #bd in ,dresden1 #h in ,berlin1 #ai in ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 #cc in ,vienna1 #eb in ,madrid1 #cd in ,louvre1 #dj in ,st4 ,petersburg 7,wauters72 ,brauwer1 #ai in ,munich1 #f in ,dresden1 #d in ,berlin1 #e in ,paris1 #e in ,st4 ,petersburgh 7,wauters72 ,coques1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,amsterdam1 ,berlin1 ,munich ,mus4 ,verhagen1 ,antwerp1 ,brussels1 ,ghent1 and ,vienna ,mus42 ,navez1 ,ghent1 ,antwerp1 and ,amsterdam ,mus41 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,berlin2 ,wappers1 ,amsterdam1 ,brussels1 ,versailles ,mus42 ,wiertz1 in ,wiertz ,gal4 ,brussels2 ,gallait1 ,liege1 ,versailles1 ,tournay1 ,brussels1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,berlin2 ,leys1 ,amsterdam ,mus41 ,new ,pinacothek1 ,munich1 ,brussels1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,berlin1 ,antwerp ,mus4 and ,city ,hall2 ,alfred ,stevens1 ,marseilles1 ,brussels1 frescos ,royal ,pal4 ,brussels2 ,willems1 ,brussels ,mus4 and ,foder ,mus4 ,amsterdam1 ,met4 ,mus4 ,n4 ,y42 ,verboeckhoven1 ,amsterdam1 ,foder1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,berlin1 ,new ,pinacothek1 ,brussels1 ,ghent1 ,met4 ,mus4 ,n4 ,y42 ,clays1 ,ghent ,mus42 ,wauters1 ,brussels1 ,liege ,mus42 ,van ,beers1 ,burial of ,charles the ,good ,amsterdam ,mus4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,dutch ,,painting4 ,,books ,,recommended3 ,as before ,fromentin1 7,waagen's7 ,kuegler2 ,amand-,durand1 ,o,euvre de ,rembrandt2 ,archief voor ,nederlandsche ,kunst-geschiedenis2 ,blanc1 ,o,euvre de ,rembrandt2 ,bode1 ,franz ,hals und seine ,schule2 ,bode1 ,studien zur ,geschichte der ,hollandischen ,malerei2 ,bode1 ,adriaan van ,ostade2 ,brown1 ,rembrandt2 ,burger 7,th4 ,thore71 ,les ,musees de la ,hollande2 ,havard1 ,la ,peinture ,hollandaise2 ,michel1 ,rembrandt2 ,michel1 ,gerard ,terburg et sa ,famille2 ,mantz1 ,adrien ,brouwer2 ,rooses1 ,dutch ,painters of the ,nineteenth ,century2 ,rooses1 ,rubens2 ,schmidt1 ,das ,leben des ,malers ,adriaen ,brouwer2 ,van der ,willigen1 ,les ,artistes de ,harlem2 ,van ,mander1 ,leven der ,nederlandsche en ,hoogduitsche ,schilders2 ,vosmaer1 ,rembrandt1 sa ,vie et ses ,o,euvres2 ,westrheene1 ,jan ,steen1 ,etude sur l',art en ,hollande2 ,van ,dyke1 ,old ,dutch and ,flemish ,masters4 ,,the ,,dutch ,,people ,,and ,,their ,,art3 ,though ,holland produced a somewhat different quality of art from ,flanders and ,belgium1 yet in many respects the people at the north were not very different from those at the south of the ,netherlands4 ,they were perhaps less versatile1 less volatile1 less like the ,french and more like the ,germans4 ,fond of homely joys and the quiet peace of town and domestic life1 the ,dutch were matter-of-fact in all things1 sturdy1 honest1 coarse at times1 sufficient unto themselves1 and caring little for what other people did4 ,just so with their painters4 ,they were realistic at times to grotesqueness4 ,little troubled with fine poetic frenzies they painted their own lives in street1 town-hall1 tavern1 and kitchen1 conscious that it was good because true to themselves4 ,at first ,dutch art was influenced1 even confounded1 with that of ,flanders4 ,the ,van ,eycks led the way1 and painters like ,bouts and others1 though ,dutch by birth1 became ,flemish by adoption in their art at least4 ,when the ,flemish painters fell to copying ,italy some of the ,dutch followed them1 but with no great enthusiasm4 ,suddenly1 at the beginning of the seventeenth century1 when ,holland had gained political independence1 ,dutch art struck off by itself1 became original1 became famous4 ,it pictured native life with verve1 skill1 keenness of insight1 and fine pictorial view4 ,limited it was2 it never soared like ,italian art1 never became universal or world-embracing4 ,it was distinct1 individual1 national1 something that spoke for ,holland1 but little beyond it4 ,in subject there were few historical canvases such as the ,italians and ,french produced4 ,the nearest approach to them were the paintings of shooting companies1 or groups of burghers and syndics1 and these were merely elaborations and enlargements of the portrait which the ,dutch loved best of all4 ,as a whole their subjects were single figures or small groups in interiors1 quiet scenes1 family conferences1 smokers1 card-players1 drinkers1 landscapes1 still-life1 architectural pieces4 ,when they undertook the large canvas with many figures1 they were often unsatisfactory4 ,even ,rembrandt was so4 ,the chief medium was oil1 used upon panel or canvas4 ,fresco was probably used in the early days1 but the climate was too damp for it and it was abandoned4 ,it was perhaps the dampness of the northern climate that led to the adaptation of the oil medium1 something the ,van ,eycks are credited with inaugurating4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--;,,hals4 ,,portrait ,,of ,a ,,lady4 ,,the ,,early ,,painting3 ,the early work has1 for the great part1 perished through time and the fierceness with which the ,iconoclastic warfare was waged4 ,that which remains to-day is closely allied in method and style to ,flemish painting under the ,van ,eycks4 ,ouwater is one of the earliest names that appears1 and perhaps for that reason he has been called the founder of the school4 ,he was remarked in his time for the excellent painting of background landscapes2 but there is little authentic by him left to us from which we may form an opinion4#ag ,geertjen van ,st4 ,jan 7about #adge7 was evidently a pupil of his1 and from him there are two wings of an altar in the ,vienna ,gallery1 supposed to be genuine4 ,bouts and ,mostert have been spoken of under the ,flemish school4 ,bosch 7#adfj8-aeaf7 was a man of some individuality who produced fantastic purgatories that were popular in their time and are known to-day through engravings4 ,engelbrechsten 7#adfh-aecc7 was ,dutch by birth and in his art1 and yet probably got his inspiration from the ,van ,eyck school4 ,the works attributed to him are doubtful1 though two in the ,leyden ,gallery seem to be authentic4 ,he was the master of ,lucas van ,leyden 7#adid-aecc71 the leading artist of the early period4 ,lucas van ,leyden was a personal friend of ,albrecht ,duerer1 the ,german painter1 and in his art he was not unlike him4 ,a man with a singularly lean type1 a little awkward in composition1 brilliant in color1 and warm in tone1 he was1 despite his archaic-looking work1 an artist of much ability and originality4 ,at first he was inclined toward ,flemish methods1 with an exaggerated realism in facial expression4 ,in his middle period he was distinctly ,dutch1 but in his later days he came under ,italian influence1 and with a weakening effect upon his art4 ,taking his work as a whole1 it was the strongest of all the early ,dutch painters4 ,footnote #ag3 ,a ,raising of ,lazarus is in the ,berlin ,gallery4 ,,sixteenth ,,century3 ,this century was a period of ,italian imitation1 probably superinduced by the action of the ,flemings at ,antwerp4 ,the movement was somewhat like the ,flemish one1 but not so extensive or so productive4 ,there was hardly a painter of rank in ,holland during the whole century4 ,scorel 7#adie-aefb7 was the leader1 and he probably got his first liking for ,italian art through ,mabuse at ,antwerp4 ,he afterward went to ,italy1 studied ,raphael and ,michael ,angelo1 and returned to ,utrecht to open a school and introduce ,italian art into ,holland4 ,a large number of pupils followed him1 but their work was lacking in true originality4 ,heemskerck 7#adih-aegd7 and ,cornelis van ,haarlem 7#aefb-afch71 with ,steenwyck 7#aeej8-afjd71 were some of the more important men of the century1 but none of them was above a common average4 ,,seventeenth ,,century3 ,beginning with the first quarter of this century came the great art of the ,dutch people1 founded on themselves and rooted in their native character4 ,italian methods were abandoned1 and the ,dutch told the story of their own lives in their own manner1 with truth1 vigor1 and skill4 ,there were so many painters in ,holland during this period that it will be necessary to divide them into groups and mention only the prominent names4 ,,portrait ,,and ,,figure ,,painters3 ,the real inaugurators of ,dutch portraiture were ,mierevelt1 ,hals1 ,ravesteyn1 and ,de ,keyser4 ,mierevelt 7#aefg-afda7 was one of the earliest1 a prolific painter1 fond of the aristocratic sitter1 and indulging in a great deal of elegance in his accessories of dress and the like4 ,he had a slight1 smooth brush1 much detail1 and a profusion of color4 ,quite the reverse of him was ,franz ,hals 7#aehd8-afff71 one of the most remarkable painters of portraits with which history acquaints us4 ,in giving the sense of life and personal physical presence1 he was unexcelled by any one4 ,what he saw he could portray with the most telling reality4 ,in drawing and modelling he was usually good2 in coloring he was excellent1 though in his late work sombre2 in brush-handling he was one of the great masters4 ,strong1 virile1 yet easy and facile1 he seemed to produce without effort4 ,his brush was very broad in its sweep1 very sure1 very true4 ,occasionally in his late painting facility ran to the ineffectual1 but usually he was certainty itself4 ,his best work was in portraiture1 and the most important of this is to be seen at ,haarlem1 where he died after a rather careless life4 ,as a painter1 pure and simple1 he is almost to be ranked beside ,velasquez2 as a poet1 a thinker1 a man of lofty imagination1 his work gives us little enlightenment except in so far as it shows a fine feeling for masses of color and problems of light4 ,though excellent portrait-painters1 ,ravesteyn 7#aegb8-afeg7 and ,de ,keyser 7#aeif8-afgi7 do not provoke enthusiasm4 ,they were quiet1 conservative1 dignified1 painting civic guards and societies with a knowing brush and lively color1 giving the truth of physiognomy1 but not with that verve of the artist so conspicuous in ,hals1 nor with that unity of the group so essential in the making of a picture4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--,,rembrandt4 ,,head ,,of ,,woman4 ,,nat4 ,,gal4 ,,london4 ,the next man in chronological order is ,rembrandt 7#afjg8-affi71 the greatest painter in ,dutch art4 ,he was a pupil of ,swanenburch and ,lastman1 but his great knowledge of nature and his craft came largely from the direct study of the model4 ,settled at ,amsterdam1 he quickly rose to fame1 had a large following of pupils1 and his influence was felt through all ,dutch painting4 ,the portrait was emphatically his strongest work4 ,the many-figured group he was not always successful in composing or lighting4 ,his method of work rather fitted him for the portrait and unfitted him for the large historical piece4 ,he built up the importance of certain features by dragging down all other features4 ,this was largely shown in his handling of illumination4 ,strong in a few high lights on cheek1 chin1 or white linen1 the rest of the picture was submerged in shadow1 under which color was unmercifully sacrificed4 ,this was not the best method for a large1 many-figured piece1 but was singularly well suited to the portrait4 ,it produced strength by contrast4 ,forced it was undoubtedly1 and not always true to nature1 yet nevertheless most potent in ,rembrandt's hands4 ,he was an arbitrary though perfect master of light-and-shade1 and unusually effective in luminous and transparent shadows4 ,in color he was again arbitrary but forcible and harmonious4 ,in brush-work he was at times labored1 but almost always effective4 ,mentally he was a man keen to observe1 assimilate1 and express his impressions in a few simple truths4 ,his conception was localized with his own people and time 7he never built up the imaginary or followed ,italy71 and yet into types taken from the streets and shops of ,amsterdam he infused the very largest humanity through his inherent sympathy with man4 ,dramatic1 even tragic1 he was2 yet this was not so apparent in vehement action as in passionate expression4 ,he had a powerful way of striking universal truths through the human face1 the turned head1 bent body1 or outstretched hand4 ,his people have character1 dignity1 and a pervading feeling that they are the great types of the ,dutch race--people of substantial physique1 slow in thought and impulse1 yet capable of feeling1 comprehending1 enjoying1 suffering4 ,his landscapes1 again1 were a synthesis of all landscapes1 a grouping of the great truths of light1 air1 shadow1 space4 ,whatever he turned his hand to was treated with that breadth of view that overlooked the little and grasped the great4 ,he painted many subjects4 ,his earliest work dates from #afbg1 and is a little hard and sharp in detail and cold in coloring4 ,after #afed he grew broader in handling and warmer in tone1 running to golden browns1 and1 toward the end of his career1 to rather hot tones4 ,his life was embittered by many misfortunes1 but these never seem to have affected his art except to deepen it4 ,he painted on to the last1 convinced that his own view was the true one1 and producing works that rank second to none in the history of painting4 ,rembrandt's influence upon ,dutch art was far-reaching1 and appeared immediately in the works of his many pupils4 ,they all followed his methods of handling light-and-shade1 but no one of them ever equalled him1 though they produced work of much merit4 ,bol 7#afaa-afhj7 was chiefly a portrait-painter1 with a pervading yellow tone and some pallor of flesh-coloring--a man of ability who mistakenly followed ,rubens in the latter part of his life4 ,flinck 7#afae-affj7 at one time followed ,rembrandt so closely that his work has passed for that of the master2 but latterly he1 too1 came under ,flemish influence4 ,next to ,eeckhout he was probably the nearest to ,rembrandt in methods of all the pupils4 ,eeckhout 7#afba-afgd7 was really a ,rembrandt imitator1 but his hand was weak and his color hot4 ,maes 7#afcb-afic7 was the most successful manager of light after the school formula1 and succeeded very well with warmth and richness of color1 especially with his reds4 ,the other ,rembrandt pupils and followers were ,poorter 7fl4 #afce-afdc71 ,victoors 7#afbj8-afgb871 ,koninck 7#afai-afhh71 ,fabritius 7#afbd-afed71 and ,backer 7#afjh8-afea74 ,van der ,helst 7#afab8-afgj7 stands apart from this school1 and seems to have followed more the portrait style of ,de ,keyser4 ,he was a realistic1 precise painter1 with much excellence of modelling in head and hands1 and with fine carriage and dignity in the figure4 ,in composition he hardly held his characters in group owing to a sacrifice of values1 and in color he was often spotty1 and lacking in the unity of mass4 ,,the ,,genre ,,painters3 ,this heading embraces those who may be called the ,little ,dutchmen1 because of the small scale of their pictures and their genre subjects4 ,gerard ,dou 7#afac-afge7 is indicative of the class without fully representing it4 ,he was a pupil of ,rembrandt1 but his work gave little report of this4 ,it was smaller1 more delicate in detail1 more petty in conception4 ,he was a man great in little things1 one who wasted strength on the minutiae of dress1 or table-cloth1 or the texture of furniture without grasping the mass or color significance of the whole scene4 ,there was infinite detail about his work1 and that gave it popularity2 but as art it held1 and holds to-day1 little higher place than the work of ,metsu 7#afcj-affg71 ,van ,mieris 7#afce-afha71 ,netscher 7#afci-afhd71 or ,schalcken 7#afdc-agjf71 all of whom produced the interior piece with figures elaborate in accidental effects4 ,van ,ostade 7#afaj-afhe71 though dealing with the small canvas1 and portraying peasant life with perhaps unnecessary coarseness1 was a much stronger painter than the men just mentioned4 ,he was the favorite pupil of ,hals and the master of ,jan ,steen4 ,with little delicacy in choice of subject he had much delicacy in color1 taste in arrangement1 and skill in handling4 ,his brush was precise but not finical4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--;,j4 ,,van ,,ruisdael4 ,,landscape4 ,by far the best painter among all the ,little ,dutchmen was ,terburg 7#afag8-afha71 a painter of interiors1 small portraits1 conversation pictures1 and the like4 ,though of diminutive scale his work has the largeness of view characteristic of genius1 and the skilled technic of a thorough craftsman4 ,terburg was a travelled man1 visiting ,italy1 where he studied ,titian1 returning to ,holland to study ,rembrandt1 finally at ,madrid studying ,velasquez4 ,he was a painter of much culture1 and the keynote of his art is refinement4 ,quiet and dignified he carried taste through all branches of his art4 ,in subject he was rather elevated1 in color subdued with broken tones1 in composition simple1 in brush-work sure1 vivacious1 and yet unobtrusive4 ,selection in his characters was followed by reserve in using them4 ,detail was not very apparent4 ,a few people with some accessory objects were all that he required to make a picture4 ,perhaps his best qualities appear in a number of small portraits remarkable for their distinction and aristocratic grace4 ,steen 7#afbf8-afgi7 was almost the opposite of ,terburg1 a man of sarcastic flings and coarse humor who satirized his own time with little reserve4 ,he developed under ,hals and ,van ,ostade1 favoring the latter in his interiors1 family scenes1 and drunken debauches4 ,he was a master of physiognomy1 and depicted it with rare if rather unpleasant truth4 ,if he had little refinement in his themes he certainly handled them as a painter with delicacy4 ,at his best his many figured groups were exceedingly well composed1 his color was of good quality 7with a fondness for yellows71 and his brush was as limpid and graceful as though painting angels instead of ,dutch boors4 ,he was really one of the fine brushmen of ,holland1 a man greatly admired by ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds1 and many an artist since2 but not a man of high intellectual pitch as compared with ,terburg1 for instance4 ,pieter de ,hooghe 7#afcb8-afha7 was a painter of purely pictorial effects1 beginning and ending a picture in a scheme of color1 atmosphere1 clever composition1 and above all the play of light-and-shade4 ,he was one of the early masters of full sunlight1 painting it falling across a court-yard or streaming through a window with marvellous truth and poetry4 ,his subjects were commonplace enough4 ,an interior with a figure or two in the middle distance1 and a passage-way leading into a lighted background were sufficient for him4 ,these formed a skeleton which he clothed in a half-tone shadow1 pierced with warm yellow light1 enriched with rare colors1 usually garnet reds and deep yellows repeated in the different planes1 and surrounded with a subtle pervading atmosphere4 ,as a brushman he was easy but not distinguished1 and often his drawing was not correct2 but in the placing of color masses and in composing by color and light he was a master of the first rank4 ,little is known about his life4 ,he probably formed himself on ,fabritius or ,rembrandt at second-hand1 but little trace of the latter is apparent in his work4 ,he seems not to have achieved much fame until late years1 and then rather in ,england than in his own country4 ,jan van der ,meer of ,delft 7#afcb-afge71 one of the most charming of all the genre painters1 was allied to ,de ,hooghe in his pictorial point of view and interior subjects4 ,unfortunately there is little left to us of this master1 but the few extant examples serve to show him a painter of rare qualities in light1 in color1 and in atmosphere4 ,he was a remarkable man for his handling of blues1 reds1 and yellows2 and in the tonic relations of a picture he was a master second to no one4 ,fabritius is supposed to have influenced him4 ,,the ,,landscape ,,painters3 ,the painters of the ,netherlands were probably the first1 beginning with ,bril1 to paint landscape for its own sake1 and as a picture motive in itself4 ,before them it had been used as a background for the figure1 and was so used by many of the ,dutchmen themselves4 ,it has been said that these landscape-painters were also the first ones to paint landscape realistically1 but that is true only in part4 ,they studied natural forms1 as did1 indeed1 ,bellini in the ,venetian school2 they learned something of perspective1 air1 tree anatomy1 and the appearance of water2 but no ,dutch painter of landscape in the seventeenth century grasped the full color of ,holland or painted its many varied lights4 ,they indulged in a meagre conventional palette of grays1 greens1 and browns1 whereas ,holland is full of brilliant hues4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--;,,hobbema4 ,,the ,,water-,,wheel4 ,,amsterdam ,,mus4 ,van ,goyen 7#aeif-afef7 was one of the earliest of the seventeenth-century landscapists4 ,in subject he was fond of the ,dutch bays1 harbors1 rivers1 and canals with shipping1 windmills1 and houses4 ,his sky line was generally given low1 his water silvery1 and his sky misty and luminous with bursts of white light4 ,in color he was subdued1 and in perspective quite cunning at times4 ,salomon van ,ruisdael 7#afjj8-afgj7 was his follower1 if not his pupil4 ,he had the same sobriety of color as his master1 and was a mannered and prosaic painter in details1 such as leaves and tree-branches4 ,in composition he was good1 but his art had only a slight basis upon reality1 though it looks to be realistic at first sight4 ,he had a formula for doing landscape which he varied only in a slight way1 and this conventionality ran through all his work4 ,molyn 7#afjj8-affa7 was a painter who showed limited truth to nature in flat and hilly landscapes1 transparent skies1 and warm coloring4 ,his extant works are few in number4 ,wynants 7#afae8-afgi87 was more of a realist in natural appearance than any of the others1 a man who evidently studied directly from nature in details of vegetation1 plants1 trees1 roads1 grasses1 and the like4 ,most of the figures and animals in his landscapes were painted by other hands4 ,he himself was a pure landscape-painter1 excelling in light and aerial perspective1 but not remarkable in color4 ,van der ,neer 7#afjc-afgg7 and ,everdingen 7#afba8-afge7 were two other contemporary painters of merit4 ,the best landscapist following the first men of the century was ,jacob van ,ruisdael 7#afbe8-afhb71 the nephew of ,salomon van ,ruisdael4 ,he is put down1 with perhaps unnecessary emphasis1 as the greatest landscape-painter of the ,dutch school4 ,he was undoubtedly the equal of any of his time1 though not so near to nature1 perhaps1 as ,hobbema4 ,he was a man of imagination1 who at first pictured the ,dutch country about ,haarlem1 and afterward took up with the romantic landscape of ,van ,everdingen4 ,this landscape bears a resemblance to the ,norwegian country1 abounding1 as it does1 in mountains1 heavy dark woods1 and rushing torrents4 ,there is considerable poetry in its composition1 its gloomy skies1 and darkened lights4 ,it is mournful1 suggestive1 wild1 usually unpeopled4 ,there was much of the methodical in its putting together1 and in color it was cold1 and limited to a few tones4 ,many of ,ruisdael's works have darkened through time4 ,little is known about the painter's life except that he was not appreciated in his own time and died in the almshouse4 ,hobbema 7#afch8-agji7 was probably the pupil of ,jacob van ,ruisdael1 and ranks with him1 if not above him1 in seventeenth-century landscape painting4 ,ruisdael hardly ever painted sunlight1 whereas ,hobbema rather affected it in quiet wood-scenes or roadways with little pools of water and a mill4 ,he was a freer man with the brush than ,ruisdael1 and knew more about the natural appearance of trees1 skies1 and lights2 but1 like his master1 his view of nature found no favor in his own land4 ,most of his work is in ,england1 where it had not a little to do with influencing such painters as ,constable and others at the beginning of the nineteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4--;,,israels4 ,,alone ,,in ,,the ,,world4 ,,landscape ,,with ,,cattle3 ,here we meet with ,wouverman 7#afai-affh71 a painter of horses1 cavalry1 battles1 and riding parties placed in landscape4 ,his landscape is bright and his horses are spirited in action4 ,there is some mannerism apparent in his reiterated concentration of light on a white horse1 and some repetition in his canvases1 of which there are many2 but on the whole he was an interesting1 if smooth and neat painter4 ,paul ,potter 7#afbe-afed7 hardly merited his great repute4 ,he was a harsh1 exact recorder of facts1 often tin-like or woodeny in his cattle1 and not in any way remarkable in his landscapes1 least of all in their composition4 ,the ,young ,bull at the ,hague is an ambitious piece of drawing1 but is not successful in color1 light1 or ensemble4 ,it is a brittle work all through1 and not nearly so good as some smaller things in the ,national ,gallery ,london1 and in the ,louvre4 ,adrien van de ,velde 7#afce8-afgb7 was short-lived1 like ,potter1 but managed to do a prodigious amount of work1 showing cattle and figures in landscape with much technical ability and good feeling4 ,he was particularly good in composition and the subtle gradation of neutral tints4 ,a little of the ,italian influence appeared in his work1 and with the men who came with him and after him the ,italian imitation became very pronounced4 ,aelbert ,cuyp 7#afbj-afia7 was a many-sided painter1 adopting at various times different styles1 but was enough of a genius to be himself always4 ,he is best known to us1 perhaps1 by his yellow sunlight effects along rivers1 with cattle in the foreground1 though he painted still-life1 and even portraits and marines4 ,in composing a group he was knowing1 recording natural effects with power2 in light and atmosphere he was one of the best of his time1 and in texture and color refined1 and frequently brilliant4 ,both 7#afaj-afej871 ,berchem 7#afbj-afhc71 ,du ,jardin 7#afbb8-afgh71 followed the ,italian tradition of ,claude ,lorrain1 producing semi-classic landscapes1 never very convincing in their originality4 ,van der ,heyden 7#afcg-agab71 should be mentioned as an excellent1 if minute1 painter of architecture with remarkable atmospheric effects4 ,,marine ,,and ,,still-,,life ,,painters3 ,there were two pre-eminent marine painters in this seventeenth century1 ,willem van de ,velde 7#afcc-agjg7 and ,backhuisen 7#afca-agjh74 ,the sea was not an unusual subject with the ,dutch landscapists4 ,van ,goyen1 ,simon de ,vlieger 7#afja8-affj871 ,cuyp1 ,willem van de ,velde the ,elder 7#afaa8-afic71 all employed it2 but it was ,van de ,velde the ,younger who really stood at the head of the marine painters4 ,he knew his subject thoroughly1 having been well grounded in it by his father and ,de ,vlieger1 so that the painting of the ,dutch fleets and harbors was a part of his nature4 ,he preferred the quiet haven to the open sea4 ,smooth water1 calm skies1 silvery light1 and boats lying listlessly at anchor with drooping sails1 made up his usual subject4 ,the color was almost always in a key of silver and gray1 very charming in its harmony and serenity1 but a little thin4 ,both he and his father went to ,england and entered the service of the ,english king1 and thereafter did ,english fleets rather than ,dutch ones4 ,backhuisen was quite the reverse of ,van de ,velde in preferring the tempest to the calm of the sea4 ,he also used more brilliant and varied colors1 but he was not so happy in harmony as ,van de ,velde4 ,there was often dryness in his handling1 and something too much of the theatrical in his wrecks on rocky shores4 ,the still-life painters of ,holland were all of them rather petty in their emphasis of details such as figures on table-covers1 water-drops on flowers1 and fur on rabbits4 ,it was labored work with little of the art spirit about it1 except as the composition showed good masses4 ,a number of these painters gained celebrity in their day by their microscopic labor over fruits1 flowers1 and the like1 but they have no great rank at the present time4 ,jan van ,heem 7#afjj8afhd87 was perhaps the best painter of flowers among them4 ,van ,huysum 7#afhb-agdi7 succeeded with the same subject beyond his deserts4 ,hondecoeter 7#afcf-afie7 was a unique painter of poultry2 ,weenix 7#afdj-agai7 and ,van ,aelst 7#afbj-afgi71 of dead game2 ,kalf 7#afcj8-afic71 of pots1 pans1 dishes1 and vegetables4 ,,eighteenth ,,century3 ,this was a period of decadence during which there was no originality worth speaking about among the ,dutch painters4 ,realism in minute features was carried to the extreme1 and imitation of the early men took the place of invention4 ,everything was prettified and elaborated until there was a porcelain smoothness and a photographic exactness inconsistent with true art4 ,adriaan van der ,werff 7#afei-agbb71 and ,philip van ,dyck 7#afhc-agec7 with their ideal inanities are typical of the century's art4 ,there was nothing to commend it4 ,the lowest point of affectation had been reached4 ,,nineteenth ,,century3 ,the ,dutch painters1 unlike the ,belgians1 have almost always been true to their own traditions and their own country4 ,even in decadence the most of them feebly followed their own painters rather than those of ,italy and ,france1 and in the early nineteenth century they were not affected by the ,french classicism of ,david4 ,later on there came into vogue an art that had some affinity with that of ,millet and ,courbet in ,france4 ,it was the ,dutch version of modern sentiment about the laboring classes1 founded on the modern life of ,holland1 yet in reality a continuation of the style or genre practised by the early ,dutchmen4 ,israels 7#ahbd-7 is a revival or a survival of ,rembrandtesque methods with a sentiment and feeling akin to the ,french ,millet4 ,he deals almost exclusively with peasant life1 showing fisher-folk and the like in their cottage interiors1 at the table1 or before the fire1 with good effects of light1 atmosphere1 and much pathos4 ,technically he is rather labored and heavy in handling1 but usually effective with sombre color in giving the unity of a scene4 ,artz 7#ahcg-ahij7 considered himself in measure a follower of ,israels1 though he never studied under him4 ,his pictures in subject are like those of ,israels1 but without the depth of the latter4 ,blommers 7#ahde-7 is another peasant painter who follows ,israels at a distance1 and ,neuhuys 7#ahdd-7 shows a similar style of work4 ,bosboom 7#ahag-ahia7 excelled in representing interiors1 showing1 with much pictorial effect1 the light1 color1 shadow1 and feeling of space and air in large cathedrals4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--,,mauve4 ,,sheep4 ,the brothers ,maris have made a distinct impression on modern ,dutch art1 and1 strange enough1 each in a different way from the others4 ,james ,maris 7#ahcg-7 studied at ,paris1 and is remarkable for fine1 vigorous views of canals1 towns1 and landscapes4 ,he is broad in handling1 rather bleak in coloring1 and excels in fine luminous skies and voyaging clouds4 ,matthew ,maris 7#ahce-71 ,parisian trained like his brother1 lives in ,london1 where little is seen of his work4 ,he paints for himself and his friends1 and is rather melancholy and mystical in his art4 ,he is a recorder of visions and dreams rather than the substantial things of the earth1 but always with richness of color and a fine decorative feeling4 ,willem ,maris 7#ahci-71 sometimes called the ,silvery ,maris1 is a portrayer of cattle and landscape in warm sunlight and haze with a charm of color and tone often suggestive of ,corot4 ,jongkind 7#ahai-ahia7 stands by himself1 ,mesdag 7#ahca-7 is a fine painter of marines and sea-shores1 and ,mauve 7#ahch-ahhh71 a cattle and sheep painter1 with nice sentiment and tonality1 whose renown is just now somewhat disproportionate to his artistic ability4 ,in addition there are ,kever1 ,poggenbeek1 ,bastert1 ,baur1 ,breitner1 ,witsen1 ,haverman1 ,weissenbruch4 ,,extant ,,works3 ,generally speaking the best examples of the ,dutch schools are still to be seen in the local museums of ,holland1 especially the ,amsterdam and ,hague ,mus42 ,bosch1 ,madrid1 ,antwerp1 ,brussels ,mus42 ,lucas van ,leyden1 ,antwerp1 ,leyden1 ,munich ,mus42 ,scorel1 ,amsterdam1 ,rotterdam1 ,haarlem ,mus42 ,heemskerck1 ,haarlem1 ,hague1 ,berlin1 ,cassel1 ,dresden2 ,steenwyck1 ,amsterdam1 ,hague1 ,brussels2 ,cornelis van ,haarlem1 ,amsterdam1 ,haarlem1 ,brunswick4 ,,portrait ,,and ,,figure ,,painters--,mierevelt1 ,hague1 ,amsterdam1 ,rotterdam1 ,brunswick1 ,dresden1 ,copenhagen2 ,hals1 best works to be seen at ,haarlem1 others at ,amsterdam1 ,brussels1 ,hague1 ,berlin1 ,cassel1 ,louvre1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,met4 ,mus4 ,new ,york1 ,art ,institute ,chicago2 ,rembrandt1 ,amsterdam1 ,hermitage1 ,louvre1 ,munich1 ,berlin1 ,dresden1 ,madrid1 ,london2 ,bol1 ,amsterdam1 ,hague1 ,dresden1 ,louvre2 ,flinck1 ,amsterdam1 ,hague1 ,berlin2 ,eeckhout1 ,amsterdam1 ,brunswick1 ,berlin1 ,munich2 ,maes1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,rotterdam1 ,amsterdam1 ,hague1 ,brussels2 ,poorter1 ,amsterdam1 ,brussels1 ,dresden2 ,victoors1 ,amsterdam1 ,copenhagen1 ,brunswick1 ,dresden2 ,fabritius1 ,rotterdam1 ,amsterdam1 ,berlin2 ,van der ,helst1 best works at ,amsterdam ,mus4 ,,genre ,,painters--,examples of ,dou1 ,metsu1 ,van ,mieris1 ,netscher1 ,schalcken1 ,van ,ostade1 are to be seen in almost all the galleries of ,europe1 especially the ,dutch1 ,belgian1 ,german1 and ,french galleries2 ,terburg1 ,amsterdam1 ,louvre1 ,dresden1 ,berlin 7fine portraits72 ,steen1 ,amsterdam1 ,louvre1 ,rotterdam1 ,hague1 ,berlin1 ,cassel1 ,dresden1 ,vienna2 ,de ,hooghe1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,louvre1 ,amsterdam1 ,hermitage2 ,van der ,meer of ,delft1 ,louvre1 ,hague1 ,amsterdam1 ,berlin1 ,dresden1 ,met4 ,mus4 ,new ,york4 ,,landscape ,,painters--,van ,goyen1 ,amsterdam1 ,fitz-,william ,mus4 ,cambridge1 ,louvre1 ,brussels1 ,cassel1 ,dresden1 ,berlin2 ,salomon van ,ruisdael1 ,amsterdam1 ,brussels1 ,berlin1 ,dresden1 ,munich2 ,van der ,neer1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,louvre1 ,brussels1 ,amsterdam1 ,berlin1 ,dresden2 ,everdingen1 ,amsterdam1 ,berlin1 ,louvre1 ,brunswick1 ,dresden1 ,munich1 ,frankfort2 ,jacob van ,ruisdael1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,louvre1 ,amsterdam1 ,berlin1 ,dresden2 ,hobbema1 best works in ,england1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,amsterdam1 ,rotterdam1 ,dresden2 ,wouvermans1 many works1 best at ,amsterdam1 ,cassel1 ,louvre2 ,potter1 ,amsterdam1 ,hague1 ,louvre1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon42 ,van de ,velde1 ,amsterdam1 ,hague1 ,cassel1 ,dresden1 ,frankfort1 ,munich1 ,louvre2 ,cuyp1 ,amsterdam1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,louvre1 ,munich1 ,dresden2 examples of ,both1 ,berchem1 ,du ,jardin1 and ,van der ,heyden1 in almost all of the ,dutch and ,german galleries1 besides the ,louvre and ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon4 ,,marine ,,painters--,willem van de ,velde ,elder and ,younger1 ,backhuisen1 ,vlieger1 together with the flower and fruit painters like ,huysum1 ,hondecoeter1 ,weenix1 have all been prolific workers1 and almost every ,european gallery1 especially those at ,london1 ,amsterdam1 and in ,germany1 have examples of their works2 ,van der ,werff and ,philip van ,dyck are seen at their best at ,dresden4 ,the best works of the modern men are in private collections1 many in the ,united ,states1 some examples of them in the ,amsterdam and ,hague ,museums4 ,also some examples of the old ,dutch masters in ,new ,york ,hist4 ,society ,library1 ,yale ,school of ,fine ,arts1 ,met4 ,mus4 ,new ,york1 ,boston ,mus41 and ,chicago ,institute4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,german ,,painting4 ,,books ,,recommended3 ,colvin1 ,a4 ,durer1 his ,teachers1 his ,rivals1 and his ,scholars2 ,eye1 ,leben und ,werke ,albrecht ,durers2 ,foerster1 ,peter von ,cornelius2 ,foerster1 ,geschichte der ,deutschen ,kunst2 ,keane1 ,early ,teutonic1 ,italian1 and ,french ,painters2 ,kuegler1 ,handbook to ,german and ,netherland ,schools1 trans4 by ,crowe2 ,merlo1 ,die ,meister der altkolnischer ,malerschule2 ,moore1 ,albert ,durer2 ,pecht1 ,deutsche ,kunstler des ,neunzehnten ,jahrhunderts2 ,reber1 ,geschichte der neueren ,deutschen ,kunst2 ,riegel1 ,deutsche ,kunststudien2 ,rosenberg1 ,die ,berliner ,malerschule2 ,rosenberg1 ,sebald und ,barthel ,beham2 ,rumohr1 ,hans ,holbein der ,jungere2 ,sandrart1 ,teutsche ,akademie der ,edlen ,bau1 ,bild-und ,malerey-,kunste2 ,schuchardt1 ,lucas ,cranach's ,leben2 ,thausig1 ,albert ,durer1 ,his ,life and ,works2 ,waagen1 ,kunstwerke und ,kunstler in ,deutschland2 ,e4 aus'm ,weerth1 ,wandmalereien des ,mittelalters in den ,rheinlanden2 ,wessely1 ,adolph ,menzel2 ,woltmann1 ,holbein and his ,time2 ,woltmann1 ,geschichte der ,deutschen ,kunst im ,elsass2 ,wurtzbach1 ,martin ,schongauer4 ,,early ,,german ,,painting3 ,the ,teutonic lands1 like almost all of the countries of ,europe1 received their first art impulse from ,christianity through ,italy4 ,the centre of the faith was at ,rome1 and from there the influence in art spread west and north1 and in each land it was modified by local peculiarities of type and temperament4 ,in ,germany1 even in the early days1 though ,christianity was the theme of early illuminations1 miniatures1 and the like1 and though there was a traditional form reaching back to ,italy and ,byzantium1 yet under it was the ,teutonic type--the material1 awkward1 rather coarse ,germanic point of view4 ,the wish to realize native surroundings was apparent from the beginning4 ,it is probable that the earliest painting in ,germany took the form of illuminations4 ,at what date it first appeared is unknown4 ,in wall-painting a poor quality of work was executed in the churches as early as the ninth century1 and probably earlier4 ,the oldest now extant are those at ,oberzell1 dating back to the last part of the tenth century4 ,better examples are seen in the ,lower ,church of ,schwarzrheindorf1 of the twelfth century1 and still better in the choir and transept of the ,brunswick cathedral1 ascribed to the early thirteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--,,lochner4 ,,sts4 ,,john1 ,,catherine1 ,,and ,,matthew4 ,,nat4 ,,gal4 ,,london4 ,all of these works have an archaic appearance about them1 but they are better in composition and drawing than the productions of ,italy and ,byzantium at that time4 ,it is likely that all the ,german churches at this time were decorated1 but most of the paintings have been destroyed4 ,the usual method was to cover the walls and wooden ceilings with blue grounds1 and upon these to place figures surrounded by architectural ornaments4 ,stained glass was also used extensively4 ,panel painting seems to have come into existence before the thirteenth century 7whether developed from miniature or wall-painting is unknown71 and was used for altar decorations4 ,the panels were done in tempera with figures in light colors upon gold grounds4 ,the spirituality of the age with a mingling of northern sentiment appeared in the figure4 ,this figure was at times graceful1 and again awkward and archaic1 according to the place of production and the influence of either ,france or ,italy4 ,the oldest panels extant are from the ,wiesenkirche at ,soest1 now in the ,berlin ,museum4 ,they do not date before the thirteenth century4 ,,fourteenth ,,and ,,fifteenth ,,centuries3 ,in the fourteenth century the influence of ,france began to show strongly in willowy figures1 long flowing draperies1 and sentimental poses4 ,the artists along the ,rhine showed this more than those in the provinces to the east1 where a ruder if freer art appeared4 ,the best panel-painting of the time was done at ,cologne1 where we meet with the name of the first painter1 ,meister ,wilhelm1 and where a school was established usually known as the ,,school ,,of ,,cologne3 ,this school probably got its sentimental inclination1 shown in slight forms and tender expression1 from ,france1 but derived much of its technic from the ,netherlands4 ,stephen ,lochner1 or ,meister ,stephen1 7fl4 #adej7 leaned toward the ,flemish methods1 and in his celebrated picture1 the ,madonna of the ,rose ,garden1 in the ,cologne ,museum1 there is an indication of this2 but there is also an individuality showing the growth of ,german independence in painting4 ,the figures of his ,dombild have little manliness or power1 but considerable grace1 pathos1 and religious feeling4 ,they are not abstract types but the spiritualized people of the country in native costumes1 with much gold1 jewelry1 and armor4 ,gold was used instead of a landscape background1 and the foreground was spattered with flowers and leaves4 ,the outlines are rather hard1 and none of the aerial perspective of the ,flemings is given4 ,after a time ,french sentiment was still further encroached upon by ,flemish realism1 as shown in the works of the ,master of the ,lyversberg ,passion 7fl4 about #adfc-adhj71 to be seen in the ,cologne ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--,,wolgemut4 ,,crucifixion4 ,,munich4 ,,bohemian ,,school3 ,it was not on the ,lower ,rhine alone that ,german painting was practised4 ,the ,bohemian school1 located near ,prague1 flourished for a short time in the fourteenth century1 under ,charles ,,iv41 with ,theodorich of ,prague 7fl4 #acdh-acgh71 ,wurmser1 and ,kunz1 as the chief masters4 ,their art was quite the reverse of the ,cologne painters4 ,it was heavy1 clumsy1 bony1 awkward4 ,if more original it was less graceful1 not so pathetic1 not so religious4 ,sentiment was slurred through a harsh attempt at realism1 and the religious subject met with something of a check in the romantic mediaeval chivalric theme1 painted quite as often on the castle wall as the scriptural theme on the church wall4 ,after the close of the fourteenth century wall-painting began to die out in favor of panel pictures4 ,,nuremberg ,,school3 ,half-way between the sentiment of ,cologne and the realism of ,prague stood the early school of ,nuremberg1 with no known painter at its head4 ,its chief work1 the ,imhof altar-piece1 shows1 however1 that the ,nuremberg masters of the early and middle fifteenth century were between eastern and western influences4 ,they inclined to the graceful swaying figure1 following more the sculpture of the time than the ,cologne type4 ,,fifteenth ,,and ,,sixteenth ,,centuries3 ,german art1 if begun in the fourteenth century1 hardly showed any depth or breadth until the fifteenth century1 and no real individual strength until the sixteenth century4 ,it lagged behind the other countries of ,europe and produced the cramped archaic altar-piece4 ,then when printing was invented the painter-engraver came into existence4 ,he was a man who painted panels1 but found his largest audience through the circulation of engravings4 ,the two kinds of arts being produced by the one man led to much detailed line work with the brush4 ,engraving is an influence to be borne in mind in examining the painting of this period4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--;,d,ue,r,e,r4 ,,praying ,,virgin4 ,,augsburg4 ,,franconian ,,school3 ,nuremberg was the centre of this school1 and its most famous early master was ,wolgemut 7#adcd-aeai71 though ,plydenwurff is the first-named painter4 ,after the latter's death ,wolgemut married his widow and became the head of the school4 ,his paintings were chiefly altar-pieces1 in which the figures were rather lank and narrow-shouldered1 with sharp outlines1 indicative perhaps of the influence of wood-engraving1 in which he was much interested4 ,there was1 however1 in his work an advance in characterization1 nobility of expression1 and quiet dignity1 and it was his good fortune to be the master of one of the most thoroughly original painters of all the ,german schools--,albrecht ,duerer 7#adga-aebh74 ,with ,duerer and ,holbein ,german art reached its apogee in the first half of the sixteenth century1 yet their work was not different in spirit from that of their predecessors4 ,painting simply developed and became forceful and expressive technically without abandoning its early character4 ,there is in ,duerer a naive awkwardness of figure1 some angularity of line1 strain of pose1 and in composition oftentimes huddling and overloading of the scene with details4 ,there is not that largeness which seemed native to his ,italian contemporaries4 ,he was hampered by that ,german exactness1 which found its best expression in engraving1 and which1 though unsuited to painting1 nevertheless crept into it4 ,within these limitations ,duerer produced the typical art of ,germany in the ,renaissance time--an art more attractive for the charm and beauty of its parts than for its unity1 or its general impression4 ,duerer was a travelled man1 visited ,italy and the ,netherlands1 and1 though he always remained a ,german in art1 yet he picked up some ,italian methods from ,bellini and ,mantegna that are faintly apparent in some of his works4 ,in subject he was almost exclusively religious1 painting the altar-piece with infinite care upon wooden panel1 canvas1 or parchment4 ,he never worked in fresco1 preferring oil and tempera4 ,in drawing he was often harsh and faulty1 in draperies cramped at times1 and then1 again1 as in the ,apostle panels at ,munich1 very broad1 and effective4 ,many of his pictures show a hard1 dry brush1 and a few1 again1 are so free and mellow that they look as though done by another hand4 ,he was usually minute in detail1 especially in such features as hair1 cloth1 flesh4 ,his portraits were uneven and not his best productions4 ,he was too close a scrutinizer of the part and not enough of an observer of the whole for good portraiture4 ,indeed1 that is the criticism to be made upon all his work4 ,he was an exquisite realist of certain features1 but not always of the ensemble4 ,nevertheless he holds first rank in the ,german art of the ,renaissance1 not only on account of his technical ability1 but also because of his imagination1 sincerity1 and striking originality4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--;,,holbein ,,the ,,younger4 ,,portrait4 ,,hague ,,mus4 ,duerer's influence was wide-spread throughout ,germany1 especially in engraving1 of which he was a master4 ,in painting ,schaeufelin 7#adij8-aedj87 was probably his apprentice1 and in his work followed the master so closely that many of his works have been attributed to ,duerer4 ,this is true in measure of ,hans ,baldung 7#adgf8-aeeb874 ,hans von ,kulmbach 78-#aebb7 was a painter of more than ordinary importance1 brilliant in coloring1 a follower of ,duerer1 who was inclined toward ,italian methods1 an inclination that afterward developed all through ,german art4 ,following ,duerer's formulas came a large number of so-called ,little ,masters 7from the size of their engraved plates71 who were more engravers than painters4 ,among the more important of those who were painters as well as engravers were ,altdorfer 7#adhj8-aech71 a rival rather than an imitator of ,duerer2 ,barthel ,beham 7#aejb-aedj71 ,sebald ,beham 7#aejj-aeej71 ,pencz 7#aejj8-aeej71 ,aldegrever 7#aejb-aeeh71 and ,bink 7#adij8-aefi874 ,,swabian ,,school3 ,this school includes a number of painters who were located at different places1 like ,colmar and ,ulm1 and later on it included the ,holbeins at ,augsburg1 who were really the consummation of the school4 ,in the fifteenth century one of the early leaders was ,martin ,schoengauer 7#addf8-adhh71 at ,colmar4 ,he is supposed to have been a pupil of ,roger ,van der ,weyden1 of the ,flemish school1 and is better known by his engravings than his paintings1 none of the latter being positively authenticated4 ,he was thoroughly ,german in his type and treatment1 though1 perhaps1 indebted to the ,flemings for his coloring4 ,there was some angularity in his figures and draperies1 and a tendency to get nearer nature and further away from the ecclesiastical and ascetic conception in all that he did4 ,at ,ulm a local school came into existence with ,zeitblom 7fl4 #adhd-aeag71 who was probably a pupil of ,schuechlin4 ,he had neither ,schoengauer's force nor his fancy1 but was a simple1 straightforward painter of one rather strong type4 ,his drawing was not good1 except in the draperies1 but he was quite remarkable for the solidity and substance of his painting1 considering the age he lived in was given to hard1 thin brush-work4 ,schaffner 7fl4 #aejj-aece7 was another ,ulm painter1 a junior to ,zeitblom1 of whom little is known1 save from a few pictures graceful and free in composition4 ,a recently discovered man1 ,bernard ,strigel 7#adfa8-aebh87 seems to have been excellent in portraiture4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--,,piloty4 ,,wise ,,and ,,foolish ,,virgins4 ,at ,augsburg there was still another school1 which came into prominence in the sixteenth century with ,burkmair and the ,holbeins4 ,it was only a part of the ,swabian school1 a concentration of artistic force about ,augsburg1 which1 toward the close of the fifteenth century1 had come into competition with ,nuremberg1 and rather outranked it in splendor4 ,it was at ,augsburg that the ,renaissance art in ,germany showed in more restful composition1 less angularity1 better modelling and painting1 and more sense of the ensemble of a picture4 ,hans ,burkmair 7#adgc-aeca7 was the founder of the school1 a pupil of ,schoengauer1 later influenced by ,duerer1 and finally showing the influence of ,italian art4 ,he was not1 like ,duerer1 a religious painter1 though doing religious subjects4 ,he was more concerned with worldly appearance1 of which he had a large knowledge1 as may be seen from his illustrations for engraving4 ,as a painter he was a rather fine colorist1 indulging in the fantastic of architecture but with good taste1 crude in drawing but forceful1 and at times giving excellent effects of motion4 ,he was rounder1 fuller1 calmer in composition than ,duerer1 but never so strong an artist4 ,next to ,burkmair comes the celebrated ,holbein family4 ,there were four of them all told1 but only two of them1 ,hans the ,elder and ,hans the ,younger1 need be mentioned4 ,holbein the ,elder 7#adfj8-aebd71 after ,burkmair1 was the best painter of his time and school without being in himself a great artist4 ,schoengauer was at first his guide1 though he soon submitted to some ,flemish and ,cologne influence1 and later on followed ,italian form and method in composition to some extent4 ,he was a good draughtsman1 and very clever at catching realistic points of physiognomy--a gift he left his son ,hans4 ,in addition he had some feeling for architecture and ornament1 and in handling was a bit hard1 and oftentimes careless4 ,the best half of his life fell in the latter part of the fifteenth century1 and he never achieved the free painter's quality of his son4 ,hans ,holbein the ,younger 7#adig-aedc7 holds1 with ,duerer1 the high place in ,german art4 ,he was a more mature painter than ,duerer1 coming as he did a quarter of a century later4 ,he was the ,renaissance artist of ,germany1 whereas ,duerer always had a little of the ,gothic clinging to him4 ,the two men were widely different in their points of view and in their work4 ,duerer was an idealist seeking after a type1 a religious painter1 a painter of panels with the spirit of an engraver4 ,holbein was emphatically a realist finding material in the actual life about him1 a designer of cartoons and large wall paintings in something of the ,italian spirit1 a man who painted religious themes but with little spiritual significance4 ,it is probable that he got his first instruction from his father and from ,burkmair4 ,he was an infant prodigy1 developed early1 saw much foreign art1 and showed a number of tendencies in his work4 ,in composition and drawing he appeared at times to be following ,mantegna and the northern ,italians2 in brush-work he resembled the ,flemings1 especially ,massys2 yet he was never an imitator of either ,italian or ,flemish painting4 ,decidedly a self-sufficient and an observing man1 he travelled in ,italy and the ,netherlands1 and spent much of his life in ,england1 where he met with great success at court as a portrait-painter4 ,from seeing much he assimilated much1 yet always remained ,german1 changing his style but little as he grew older4 ,his wall paintings have perished1 but the drawings from them are preserved and show him as an artist of much invention4 ,he is now known chiefly by his portraits1 of which there are many of great excellence4 ,his facility in grasping physiognomy and realizing character1 the quiet dignity of his composition1 his firm modelling1 clear outline1 harmonious coloring1 excellent detail1 and easy solid painting1 all place him in the front rank of great painters4 ,that he was not always bound down to literal facts may be seen in his many designs for wood-engravings4 ,his portrait of ,hubert ,morett1 in the ,dresden ,gallery1 shows his art to advantage1 and there are many portraits by him of great spirit in ,england1 in the ,louvre1 and elsewhere4 ,,saxon ,,school3 ,lucas ,cranach 7#adgb-aeec7 was a ,franconian master1 who settled in ,saxony and was successively court-painter to three ,electors and the leader of a small local school there4 ,he1 perhaps1 studied under ,gruenewald1 but was so positive a character that he showed no strong school influence4 ,his work was fantastic1 odd in conception and execution1 sometimes ludicrous1 and always archaic-looking4 ,his type was rather strained in proportions1 not always well drawn1 but graceful even when not truthful4 ,this type was carried into all his works1 and finally became a mannerism with him4 ,in subject he was religious1 mythological1 romantic1 pastoral1 with a preference for the nude figure4 ,in coloring he was at first golden1 then brown1 and finally cold and sombre4 ,the lack of aerial perspective and shadow masses gave his work a queer look1 and he was never much of a brushman4 ,his pictures were typical of the time and country1 and for that and for their strong individuality they are ranked among the most interesting paintings of the ,german school4 ,perhaps his most satisfactory works are his portraits4 ,lucas ,cranach the ,younger 7#aeae-aehf7 was the best of the elder ,cranach's pupils4 ,many of his pictures are attributed to his father4 ,he followed the elder closely1 but was a weaker man1 with a smoother brush and a more rosy color4 ,though there were many pupils the school did not go beyond the ,cranach family4 ,it began with the father and died with the son4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--,,leibl4 ,,in ,,church4 ,,seventeenth ,,and ,,eighteenth ,,centuries3 ,these were unrelieved centuries of decline in ,german painting4 ,after ,duerer1 ,holbein1 and ,cranach had passed there came about a senseless imitation of ,italy1 combined with an equally senseless imitation of detail in nature that produced nothing worthy of the name of original or genuine art4 ,it is not probable that the ,reformation had any more to do with this than with the decline in ,italy4 ,it was a period of barrenness in both countries4 ,the ,italian imitators in ,germany were chiefly ,rottenhammer 7#aefd-afbc71 and ,elzheimer 7#aegd8-afbj74 ,after them came the representative of the other extreme in ,denner 7#afhe-agdi71 who thought to be great in portraiture by the minute imitation of hair1 freckles1 and three-days'-old beard--a petty and unworthy realism which excited some curiosity but never held rank as art4 ,mengs 7#agbh-aggi7 sought for the sublime through eclecticism1 but never reached it4 ,his work1 though academic and correct1 is lacking in spirit and originality4 ,angelica ,kauffman 7#agda-ahjg7 succeeded in pleasing her inartistic age with the simply pretty1 while ,carstens 7#aged-agih7 was a conscientious if mistaken student of the great ,italians--a man of some severity in form and of academic inclinations4 ,,nineteenth ,,century3 ,in the first part of this century there started in ,germany a so-called revival of art led by ,overbeck 7#aghi-ahfi71 ,cornelius 7#aghc-ahfg71 ,veit 7#agic-ahgg71 and ,schadow 7#aghi-ahfb71 but like many another revival of art it did not amount to much4 ,the attempt to revive the past is usually a failure4 ,the forms are caught1 but the spirit is lost4 ,the nineteenth-century attempt in ,germany was brought about by the study of monumental painting in ,italy1 and the taking up of the religious spirit in a pre-,raphaelite manner4 ,something also of ,german romanticism was its inspiration4 ,overbeck remained in ,rome1 but the others1 after some time in ,italy1 returned to ,germany1 diffused their teaching1 and really formed a new epoch in ,german painting4 ,a modern art began with ambitions and subjects entirely disproportionate to its skill4 ,the monumental1 the ideal1 the classic1 the exalted1 were spread over enormous spaces1 but there was no reason for such work in the contemporary ,german life1 and nothing to warrant its appearance save that its better had appeared in ,italy during the ,renaissance4 ,cornelius after his return became the head of the ,,munich ,,school and painted pictures of the heroes of the classic and the ,christian world upon a large scale4 ,nothing but their size and good intention ever brought them into notice1 for their form and coloring were both commonplace4 ,schnorr 7#agid-ahgb7 followed in the same style with the ,niebelungen ,lied1 ,charlemagne1 and ,barbarossa for subjects4 ,kaulbach 7#ahje-ahgd7 was a pupil of ,cornelius1 and had some ability but little taste1 and not enough originality to produce great art4 ,piloty 7#ahbf-ahhf7 was more realistic1 more of a painter and ranks as one of the best of the early ,munich masters4 ,after him ,munich art became genre-like in subject1 with greater attention given to truthful representation in light1 color1 texture4 ,to-day there are a large number of painters in the school who are remarkable for realistic detail4 ,,dusseldorf ,,school3 ,after #ahbf this school came into prominence under the guidance of ,schadow4 ,it did not fancy monumental painting so much as the common easel picture1 with the sentimental1 the dramatic1 or the romantic subject4 ,it was no better in either form or color than the ,munich school1 in fact not so good1 though there were painters who emanated from it who had ability4 ,at ,berlin the inclination was to follow the methods and ideas held at ,dusseldorf4 ,the whole academic tendency of modern painting in ,germany and ,austria for the past fifty years has not been favorable to the best kind of pictorial art4 ,there is a disposition on the part of artists to tell stories1 to encroach upon the sentiment of literature1 to paint with a dry brush in harsh unsympathetic colors1 to ignore relations of light-and-shade1 and to slur beauties of form4 ,the subject seems to count for more than the truth of representation1 or the individuality of view4 ,from time to time artists of much ability have appeared1 but these form an exception rather than a rule4 ,the men to-day who are the great artists of ,germany are less followers of the ,german tradition than individuals each working in a style peculiar to himself4 ,a few only of them call for mention4 ,menzel 7#ahae-aije7 is easily first1 a painter of group pictures1 a good colorist1 and a powerful pen-and-ink draughtsman2 ,lenbach 7#ahcf-aijd71 a forceful portraitist2 ,uhde 7#ahdh-71 a portrayer of scriptural scenes in modern costumes with much sincerity1 good color1 and light2 ,leibl 7#ahdd-aijj71 an artist with something of the ,holbein touch and realism2 ,thoma1 a ,frankfort painter of decorative friezes and panels2 ,liebermann1 ,gotthardt ,kuehl1 ,franz ,stuck1 ,max ,klinger1 ,greiner1 ,truebner1 ,bartels1 ,keller4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--,,menzel4 ,a ,,reader4 ,aside from these men there are several notable painters with ,german affinities1 like ,makart 7#ahdj-ahhd71 an ,austrian1 who possessed good technical qualities and indulged in a profusion of color2 ,munkacsy 7#ahdf-aijj71 a ,hungarian1 who is perhaps more ,parisian than ,german in technic1 and ,boecklin 7#ahbg-aija71 a ,swiss1 who is quite by himself in fantastic and grotesque subjects1 a weird and uncanny imagination1 and a brilliant prismatic coloring4 ,,principal ,,works3 ,,bohemian ,,school--,theoderich of ,prague1 ,karlstein chap4 and ,university ,library ,prague1 ,vienna ,mus42 ,wurmser1 same places4 ,,franconian ,,school--,wolgemut1 ,aschaffenburg1 ,munich1 ,nuremberg1 ,cassel ,mus42 ,duerer1 ,crucifixion ,dresden1 ,trinity ,vienna ,mus41 other works ,munich1 ,nuremberg1 ,madrid ,mus42 ,schaeufelin1 ,basle1 ,bamberg1 ,cassel1 ,munich1 ,nuremberg1 ,nordlingen ,mus41 and ,ulm ,cathedral2 ,baldung1 ,aschaffenburg1 ,basle1 ,berlin1 ,kunsthalle ,carlsruhe1 ,freiburg ,cathedral2 ,kulmbach1 ,munich1 ,nuremberg1 ,oldenburg2 ,altdorfer and the ,little ,masters are seen in the ,augsburg1 ,nuremberg1 ,berlin1 ,munich and ,fuerstenberg ,mus4 ,,swabian ,,school--,schoengauer1 attributed pictures ,colmar ,mus42 ,zeitblom1 ,augsburg1 ,berlin1 ,carlsruhe1 ,munich1 ,nuremberg1 ,simaringen ,mus42 ,schaffner1 ,munich1 ,schliessheim1 ,nuremberg1 ,ulm ,cathedral2 ,strigel1 ,berlin1 ,carlsruhe1 ,munich1 ,nuremberg2 ,burkmair1 ,augsburg1 ,berlin1 ,munich1 ,maurice chap4 ,nuremberg2 ,holbein the ,elder1 ,augsburg1 ,nuremberg1 ,basle1 ,staedel ,mus41 ,frankfort2 ,holbein the ,younger1 ,basle1 ,carlsruhe1 ,darmstadt1 ,dresden1 ,berlin1 ,louvre1 ,windsor ,castle1 ,vienna ,mus4 ,,saxon ,,school--,cranach1 ,bamberg ,cathedral and ,gallery1 ,munich1 ,vienna1 ,dresden1 ,berlin1 ,stuttgart1 ,cassel2 ,cranach the ,younger1 ,stadtkirche ,wittenberg1 ,leipsic1 ,vienna1 ,nuremberg ,mus4 ,,seventeenth ,,and ,,eighteenth-,,century ,,painters3 ,rottenhammer1 ,louvre1 ,berlin1 ,munich1 ,schliessheim1 ,vienna1 ,kunsthalle ,hamburg2 ,elzheimer1 ,stadel1 ,brunswick1 ,louvre1 ,munich1 ,berlin1 ,dresden2 ,denner1 ,kunsthalle ,hamburg1 ,berlin1 ,brunswick1 ,dresden1 ,vienna1 ,munich2 ,mengs1 ,madrid1 ,vienna1 ,dresden1 ,munich1 ,st4 ,petersburg2 ,angelica ,kauffman1 ,vienna1 ,hermitage1 ,turin1 ,dresden1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,lon41 ,phila4 ,acad4 ,,nineteenth-,,century ,,painters3 ,overbeck1 frescos in ,s4 ,maria degli ,angeli ,assisi1 ,villa ,massimo ,rome1 ,carlsruhe1 ,new ,pinacothek1 ,munich1 ,staedel ,mus41 ,dusseldorf2 ,cornelius1 frescos ,glyptothek and ,ludwigkirche ,munich1 ,casa ,zuccaro ,rome1 ,royal ,cemetery ,berlin2 ,veit1 frescos ,villa ,bartholdi ,rome1 ,staedel1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,berlin2 ,schadow1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,berlin1 ,antwerp1 ,staedel1 ,munich ,mus41 frescos ,villa ,bartholdi ,rome2 ,schnorr1 ,dresden1 ,cologne1 ,carlsruhe1 ,new ,pinacothek ,munich1 ,staedel ,mus42 ,kaulbach1 wall paintings ,berlin ,mus41 ,raczynski ,gal4 ,berlin1 ,new ,pinacothek ,munich1 ,stuttgart1 ,phila4 ,acad42 ,piloty1 best pictures in the ,new ,pinacothek and ,maximilianeum ,munich1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,berlin2 ,menzel1 ,nat4 ,gal41 ,raczynski ,mus4 ,berlin1 ,breslau ,mus42 ,lenbach1 ,nat4 ,gal4 ,berlin1 ,new ,pinacothek ,munich1 ,kunsthalle ,hamburg1 ,zuerich ,gal42 ,uhde1 ,leipsic ,mus42 ,leibl1 ,dresden ,mus4 ,the contemporary paintings have not as yet found their way1 to any extent1 into public museums1 but may be seen in the expositions at ,berlin and ,munich from year to year4 ,makart has one work in the ,metropolitan ,mus41 ,n4 ,y41 as has also ,munkacsy2 other works by them and by ,boecklin may be seen in the ,nat4 ,gal4 ,berlin4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,british ,,painting4 ,,books ,,recommended3 ,armstrong1 ,sir ,henry ,raeburn2 ,armstrong1 ,gainsborough2 ,armstrong1 ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds2 ,burton1 ,catalogue of ,pictures in ,national ,gallery2 ,chesneau1 ,la ,peinture ,anglaise2 ,cook1 ,art in ,england2 ,cunningham1 ,lives of the most ,eminent ,british ,artists2 ,dobson1 ,life of ,hogarth2 ,gilchrist1 ,life of ,etty2 ,gilchrist1 ,life of ,blake2 ,hamerton1 ,life of ,turner2 ,henderson1 ,constable2 ,hunt1 ,the ,pre-,raphaelite ,brotherhood 7,contemporary ,review1 ,vol4 #di72 ,leslie1 ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds2 ,leslie1 ,life of ,constable2 ,martin and ,newbery1 ,glasgow ,school of ,painting2 ,mc,kay1 ,scottish ,school of ,painting2 ,monkhouse1 ,british ,contemporary ,artists2 ,redgrave1 ,dictionary of ,artists of the ,english ,school2 ,romney1 ,life of ,george ,romney2 ,rossetti1 ,fine ,art1 chiefly ,contemporary2 ,ruskin1 ,pre-,raphaelitism2 ,ruskin1 ,art of ,england2 ,sandby1 ,history of ,royal ,academy of ,arts2 ,william ,bell ,scott1 ,autobiography2 ,scott1 ,british ,landscape ,painters2 ,stephens1 ,catalogue of ,prints and ,drawings in the ,british ,museum2 ,swinburne1 ,william ,blake2 ,temple1 ,painting in the ,queen's ,reign2 ,van ,dyke1 ,old ,english ,masters2 ,wedmore1 ,studies in ,english ,art2 ,wilmot-,buxton1 ,english ,painters2 ,wright1 ,life of ,richard ,wilson4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #id4--;,,hogarth4 ,,shortly ,,after ,,marriage4 ,,nat4 ,,gal4 ,,london4 ,,british ,,painting3 ,it may be premised in a general way1 that the ,british painters have never possessed the pictorial cast of mind in the sense that the ,italians1 the ,french1 or the ,dutch have possessed it4 ,painting1 as a purely pictorial arrangement of line and color1 has been somewhat foreign to their conception4 ,whether this failure to appreciate painting as painting is the result of geographical position1 isolation1 race temperament1 or mental disposition1 would be hard to determine4 ,it is quite certain that from time immemorable the ,english people have not been lacking in the appreciation of beauty2 but beauty has appealed to them1 not so much through the eye in painting and sculpture1 as through the ear in poetry and literature4 ,they have been thinkers1 reasoners1 moralists1 rather than observers and artists in color4 ,images have been brought to their minds by words rather than by forms4 ,english poetry has existed since the days of ,arthur and the ,round ,table1 but ,english painting is of comparatively modern origin1 and it is not wonderful that the original leaning of the people toward literature and its sentiment should find its way into pictorial representation4 ,as a result one may say in a very general way that ,english painting is more illustrative than creative4 ,it endeavors to record things that might be more pertinently and completely told in poetry1 romance1 or history4 ,the conception of large art--creative work of the ,rubens-,titian type--has not been given to the ,english painters1 save in exceptional cases4 ,their success has been in portraiture and landscape1 and this largely by reason of following the model4 ,,early ,,painting3 ,the earliest decorative art appeared in ,ireland4 ,it was probably first planted there by missionaries from ,italy1 and it reached its height in the seventh century4 ,in the ninth and tenth centuries missal illumination of a ,byzantine cast1 with local modifications1 began to show4 ,this lasted1 in a feeble way1 until the fifteenth century1 when work of a ,flemish and ,french nature took its place4 ,in the ,middle ,ages there were wall paintings and church decorations in ,england1 as elsewhere in ,europe1 but these have now perished1 except some fragments in ,kempley ,church1 ,gloucestershire1 and ,chaldon ,church1 ,surrey4 ,these are supposed to date back to the twelfth century1 and there are some remains of painting in ,westminster ,abbey that are said to be of thirteenth and fourteenth-century origin4 ,from the fifteenth to the eighteenth century the ,english people depended largely upon foreign painters who came and lived in ,england4 ,mabuse1 ,moro1 ,holbein1 ,rubens1 ,van ,dyck1 ,lely1 ,kneller--all were there at different times1 in the service of royalty1 and influencing such local ,english painters as then lived4 ,the outcome of missal illumination and ,holbein's example produced in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries a local school of miniature-painters of much interest1 but painting proper did not begin to rise in ,england until the beginning of the eighteenth century--that century so dead in art over all the rest of ,europe4 ,,figure ,,and ,,portrait ,,painters3 ,aside from a few inconsequential precursors the first ,english artist of note was ,hogarth 7#afig-agfd74 ,he was an illustrator1 a moralist1 and a satirist as well as a painter4 ,to point a moral upon canvas by depicting the vices of his time was his avowed aim1 but in doing so he did not lose sight of pictorial beauty4 ,charm of color1 the painter's taste in arrangement1 light1 air1 setting1 were his in a remarkable degree4 ,he was not successful in large compositions1 but in small pictures like those of the ,rake's ,progress he was excellent4 ,an early man1 a rigid stickler for the representation1 a keen observer of physiognomy1 a satirist with a sense of the absurd1 he was often warped in his art by the necessities of his subject and was sometimes hard and dry in method1 but in his best work he was quite a perfect painter4 ,he was the first of the ,english school1 and perhaps the most original of that school4 ,this is quite as true of his technic as of his point of view4 ,both were of his own creation4 ,his subjects have been talked about a great deal in the past2 but his painting is not to this day valued as it should be4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--,,reynolds4 ,,countess ,,spencer ,,and ,,lord ,,althorp4 ,the next man to be mentioned1 one of the most considerable of all the ,english school1 is ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds 7#agbc-agib74 ,he was a pupil of ,hudson1 but owed his art to many sources4 ,besides the influence of ,van ,dyck he was for some years in ,italy1 a diligent student of the great ,italians1 especially the ,venetians1 ,correggio1 and the ,bolognese ,eclectics4 ,sir ,joshua was inclined to be eclectic himself1 and from ,italy he brought back a formula of art which1 modified by his own individuality1 answered him for the rest of his life4 ,he was not a man of very lofty imagination or great invention4 ,a few figure-pieces1 after the ,titian initiative1 came from his studio1 but his reputation rests upon his many portraits4 ,in portraiture he was often beyond criticism1 giving the realistic representation with dignity1 an elevated spirit1 and a suave brush4 ,even here he was more impressive by his broad truth of facts than by his artistic feeling4 ,he was not a painter who could do things enthusiastically or excite enthusiasm in the spectator4 ,there was too much of rule and precedent1 too much regard for the traditions1 for him to do anything strikingly original4 ,his brush-work and composition were more learned than individual1 and his color1 though usually good1 was oftentimes conventional in contrasts4 ,taking him for all in all he was a very cultivated painter1 a man to be respected and admired1 but he had not quite the original spirit that we meet with in ,gainsborough4 ,reynolds was well-grounded in ,venetian color1 ,bolognese composition1 ,parmese light-and-shade1 and paid them the homage of assimilation2 but if ,gainsborough 7#agbg-aghh7 had such school knowledge he positively disregarded it4 ,he disliked all conventionalities and formulas4 ,with a natural taste for form and color1 and with a large decorative sense1 he went directly to nature1 and took from her the materials which he fashioned into art after his own peculiar manner4 ,his celebrated ,blue ,boy was his protest against the conventional rule of ,reynolds that a composition should be warm in color and light4 ,all through his work we meet with departures from academic ways4 ,by dint of native force and grace he made rules unto himself4 ,some of them were not entirely successful1 and in drawing he might have profited by school training2 but he was of a peculiar poetic temperament1 with a dash of melancholy about him1 and preferred to work in his own way4 ,in portraiture his color was rather cold2 in landscape much warmer4 ,his brush-work was as odd as himself1 but usually effective1 and his accessories in figure-painting were little more than decorative after-thoughts4 ,both in portraiture and landscape he was one of the most original and most ,english of all the ,english painters--a man not yet entirely appreciated1 though from the first ranked among the foremost in ,english art4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #if4--;,,gainsborough4 ,,blue ,,boy4 ,romney 7#agcd-ahjb71 a pupil of ,steele1 was often quite as masterful a portrait-painter as either ,reynolds or ,gainsborough4 ,he was never an artist elaborate in composition1 and his best works are bust-portraits with a plain background4 ,these he did with much dash and vivacity of manner4 ,his women1 particularly1 are fine in life-like pose and winsomeness of mood4 ,he was a very cunning observer1 and knew how to arrange for grace of line and charm of color4 ,after ,romney came ,beechey 7#agec-ahci71 ,raeburn 7#agef-ahbc71 ,opie 7#agfa-ahjg71 and ,john ,hoppner 7#agei-ahaj74 ,then followed ,lawrence 7#agfi-ahcj71 a mixture of vivacious style and rather meretricious method4 ,he was the most celebrated painter of his time1 largely because he painted nobility to look more noble and grace to look more gracious4 ,fond of fine types1 garments1 draperies1 colors1 he was always seeking the sparkling rather than the true1 and forcing artificial effects for the sake of startling one rather than stating facts simply and frankly4 ,he was facile with the brush1 clever in line and color1 brilliant to the last degree1 but lacking in that simplicity of view and method which marks the great mind4 ,his composition was rather fine in its decorative effect1 and1 though his lights were often faulty when compared with nature1 they were no less telling from the stand-point of picture-making4 ,he is much admired by artists to-day1 and1 as a technician1 he certainly had more than average ability4 ,he was hardly an artist like ,reynolds or ,gainsborough1 but among the mediocre painters of his day he shone like a star4 ,it is not worth while to say much about his contemporaries4 ,etty 7#aghg-ahdi7 was one of the best of the figure men1 but his ,greek types and classic aspirations grow wearisome on acquaintance2 and ,sir ,charles ,eastlake 7#agic-ahfe71 though a learned man in art and doing great service to painting as a writer1 never was a painter of importance4 ,william ,blake 7#ageg-ahbg7 was hardly a painter at all1 though he drew and colored the strange figures of his fancy and cannot be passed over in any history of ,english art4 ,he was perhaps the most imaginative artist of ,english birth1 though that imagination was often disordered and almost incoherent4 ,he was not a correct draughtsman1 a man with no great color-sense1 and a workman without technical training2 and yet1 in spite of all this1 he drew some figures that are almost sublime in their sweep of power4 ,his decorative sense in filling space with lines is well shown in his illustrations to the ,book of ,job4 ,in grace of form and feeling of motion he was excellent4 ,weird and uncanny in thought1 delving into the unknown1 he opened a world of mystery1 peopled with a strange ,apocalyptic race1 whose writhing1 flowing bodies are the epitome of graceful grandeur4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--;,,constable4 ,,corn ,,field4 ,,nat4 ,,gal4 ,,london4 ,,genre-,,painters3 ,from ,blake to ,morland 7#agfc-ahjd7 is a step across space from heaven to earth4 ,morland was a realist of ,english country life1 horses at tavern-doors1 cattle1 pigs4 ,his life was not the most correct1 but his art in truthfulness of representation1 simplicity of painting1 richness of color and light1 was often of a fine quality4 ,as a skilful technician he stood quite alone in his time1 and seemed to show more affinity with the ,dutch genre-painters than his own countrymen4 ,his works are much prized to-day1 and were so during the painter's life4 ,sir ,david ,wilkie 7#aghe-ahda7 was also somewhat like the ,dutch in subject1 a genre-painter1 fond of the village fete and depicting it with careful detail1 a limpid brush1 and good textural effects4 ,in #ahbe he travelled abroad1 was gone some years1 was impressed by ,velasquez1 ,correggio1 and ,rembrandt1 and completely changed his style4 ,he then became a portrait and historical painter4 ,he never outlived the nervous constraint that shows in all his pictures1 and his brush1 though facile within limits1 was never free or bold as compared with a ,dutchman like ,steen4 ,in technical methods ,landseer 7#ahjb-ahgc71 the painter of animals1 was somewhat like him4 ,that is to say1 they both had a method of painting surfaces and rendering textures that was more smart than powerful4 ,there is little solidity or depth to the brush-work of either1 though both are impressive to the spectator at first sight4 ,landseer knew the habits and the anatomy of animals very well1 but he never had an appreciation of the brute in the animal1 such as we see in the pictures of ,velasquez or the bronzes of ,barye4 ,the ,landseer animal has too much sentiment about it4 ,the dogs1 for instance1 are generally given those emotions pertinent to humanity1 and which are only exceptionally true of the canine race4 ,this very feature--the tendency to humanize the brute and make it tell a story--accounts in large measure for the popularity of ,landseer's art4 ,the work is perhaps correct enough1 but the aim of it is somewhat afield from pure painting4 ,it illustrates the literary rather than the pictorial4 ,following ,wilkie the most distinguished painter was ,mulready 7#aghf-ahfc71 whose pictures of village boys are well known through engravings4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--,,turner4 ,,fighting ,,temeraire4 ,,nat4 ,,gal4 ,,london4 ,,the ,,landscape ,,painters3 ,in landscape the ,english have had something to say peculiarly their own4 ,it has not always been well said1 the coloring is often hot1 the brush-work brittle1 the attention to detail inconsistent with the large view of nature1 yet such as it is it shows the ,english point of view and is valuable on that account4 ,richard ,wilson 7#agac-aghb7 was the first landscapist of importance1 though he was not so ,english in view as some others to follow4 ,in fact1 ,wilson was nurtured on ,claude ,lorrain and ,joseph ,vernet and instead of painting the realistic ,english landscape he painted the pseudo-,italian landscape4 ,he began working in portraiture under the tutorship of ,wright1 and achieved some success in this department2 but in #agdi he went to ,italy and devoted himself wholly to landscapes4 ,these were of the classic type and somewhat conventional4 ,the composition was usually a dark foreground with trees or buildings to right and left1 an opening in the middle distance leading into the background1 and a broad expanse of sunset sky4 ,in the foreground he usually introduced a few figures for romantic or classic association4 ,considerable elevation of theme and spirit marks most of his pictures4 ,there was good workmanship about the skies and the light1 and an attentive study of nature was shown throughout4 ,his canvases did not meet with much success at the time they were painted4 ,in more modern days ,wilson has been ranked as the true founder of landscape in ,england1 and one of the most sincere of ,english painters4 ,,the ,,norwich ,,school3 ,old ,crome 7#agfi-ahba71 though influenced to some extent by ,wilson and the ,dutch painters1 was an original talent1 painting ,english scenery with much simplicity and considerable power4 ,he was sometimes rasping with his brush1 and had a small method of recording details combined with mannerisms of drawing and composition1 and yet gave an out-of-doors feeling in light and air that was astonishing4 ,his large trees have truth of mass and accuracy of drawing1 and his foregrounds are painted with solidity4 ,he was a keen student of nature1 and drew about him a number of landscape painters at ,norwich1 who formed the ,norwich ,school4 ,crome was its leader1 and the school made its influence felt upon ,english landscape painting4 ,cotman 7#aghb-ahdb7 was the best painter of the group after ,crome1 a man who depicted landscape and harbor scenes in a style that recalls ,girtin and ,turner4 ,the most complete1 full-rounded landscapist in ,england was ,john ,constable 7#aggf-ahcg74 ,his foreign bias1 such as it was1 came from a study of the ,dutch masters4 ,there were two sources from which the ,english landscapists drew4 ,those who were inclined to the ideal1 men like ,wilson1 ,calcott 7#aggi-ahdd71 and ,turner1 drew from the ,italian of ,poussin and ,claude2 those who were content to do nature in her real dress1 men like ,gainsborough and ,constable1 drew from the ,dutch of ,hobbema and his contemporaries4 ,a certain sombreness of color and manner of composition show in ,constable that may be attributed to ,holland2 but these were slight features as compared with the originality of the man4 ,he was a close student of nature who painted what he saw in ,english country life1 especially about ,hampstead1 and painted it with a knowledge and an artistic sensitiveness never surpassed in ,england4 ,the rural feeling was strong with him1 and his evident pleasure in simple scenes is readily communicated to the spectator4 ,there is no attempt at the grand or the heroic4 ,he never cared much for mountains or water1 but was fond of cultivated uplands1 trees1 bowling clouds1 and torn skies4 ,bursts of sunlight1 storms1 atmospheres1 all pleased him4 ,with detail he was little concerned4 ,he saw landscape in large patches of form and color1 and so painted it4 ,his handling was broad and solid1 and at times a little heavy4 ,his light was often forced by sharp contrast with shadows1 and often his pictures appear spotty from isolated glitters of light strewn here and there4 ,in color he helped eliminate the brown landscape and substituted in its place the green and blue of nature4 ,in atmosphere he was excellent4 ,his influence upon ,english art was impressive1 and in #ahbd the exhibition at ,paris of his ,hay ,wain1 together with some work by ,bonington and ,fielding had a decided effect upon the then rising landscape school of ,france4 ,the ,french realized that nature lay at the bottom of ,constable's art1 and they profited1 not by imitating ,constable1 but by studying his nature model4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--;,,burne ,,jones4 ,,flamma ,,vestalis4 ,bonington 7#ahja-ahbh7 died young1 and though of ,english parents his training was essentially ,french1 and he really belonged to the ,french school1 an associate of ,delacroix4 ,his study of the ,venetians turned his talent toward warm coloring1 in which he excelled4 ,in landscape his broad handling was somewhat related to that of ,constable1 and from the fact of their works appearing together in the ,salon of #ahbd they are often spoken of as influencers of the modern ,french landscape painters4 ,turner 7#agge-ahea7 is the best known name in ,english art4 ,his celebrity is somewhat disproportionate to his real merits1 though it is impossible to deny his great ability4 ,he was a man learned in all the forms of nature and schooled in all the formulas of art2 yet he was not a profound lover of nature nor a faithful recorder of what things he saw in nature1 except in his early days4 ,in the bulk of his work he shows the traditions of ,claude1 with additions of his own4 ,his taste was classic 7he possessed all the knowledge and the belongings of the historical landscape71 and he delighted in great stretches of country broken by sea-shores1 rivers1 high mountains1 fine buildings1 and illumined by blazing sunlight and gorgeous skies4 ,his composition was at times grotesque in imagination2 his light was usually bewildering in intensity and often unrelieved by shadows of sufficient depth2 his tone was sometimes faulty2 and in color he was not always harmonious1 but inclined to be capricious1 uneven1 showing fondness for arbitrary schemes of color4 ,the object of his work seems to have been to dazzle1 to impress with a wilderness of lines and hues1 to overawe by imposing scale and grandeur4 ,his paintings are impressive1 decoratively splendid1 but they often smack of the stage1 and are more frequently grandiloquent than grand4 ,his early works1 especially in water-colors1 where he shows himself a follower of ,girtin1 are much better than his later canvases in oil1 many of which have changed color4 ,the water-colors are carefully done1 subdued in color1 and true in light4 ,from #ahjb1 or thereabouts1 to #ahcj was his second period1 in which ,italian composition and much color were used4 ,the last twenty years of his life he inclined to the bizarre1 and turned his canvases into almost incoherent color masses4 ,he had an artistic feeling for composition1 linear perspective1 and the sweep of horizon lines2 skies and hills he knew and drew with power2 color he comprehended only as decoration2 and light he distorted for effect4 ,yet with all his shortcomings ,turner was an artist to be respected and admired4 ,he knew his craft1 in fact1 knew it so well that he relied too much on artificial effects1 drew away from the model of nature1 and finally passed into the extravagant4 ,,the ,,water-,,colorists3 ,about the beginning of this century a school of water-colorists1 founded originally by ,cozens 7#ageb-agii7 and ,girtin 7#agge-ahjb71 came into prominence and developed ,english art in a new direction4 ,it began to show with a new force the transparency of skies1 the luminosity of shadows1 the delicacy and grace of clouds1 the brilliancy of light and color4 ,cozens and ,blake were primitives in the use of the medium1 but ,stothard 7#agee-ahcd7 employed it with much sentiment1 charm1 and plein-air effect4 ,turner was quite a master of it1 and his most permanent work was done with it4 ,later on1 when he rather abandoned form to follow color1 he also abandoned water-color for oils4 ,fielding 7#aghg-ahdi7 used water-color effectively in giving large feeling for space and air1 and also for fogs and mists2 ,prout 7#aghc-aheb7 employed it in architectural drawings of the principal cathedrals of ,europe2 and ,cox 7#aghc-ahei71 ,dewint 7#aghd-ahdi71 ,hunt 7#agij-ahfd71 ,cattermole 7#ahjj-ahfh71 ,lewis 7#ahje-ahgf71 men whose names only can be mentioned1 all won recognition with this medium4 ,water-color drawing is to-day said to be a department of art that expresses the ,english pictorial feeling better than any other1 though this is not an undisputed statement4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4--,,leighton4 ,,helen ,,of ,,troy4 ,perhaps the most important movement in ,english painting of recent times was that which took the name of ,,pre-,,raphaelitism3 ,it was started about #ahdg1 primarily by ,rossetti 7#ahbh-ahhb71 ,holman ,hunt 7#ahbg-71 and ,sir ,john ,millais 7#ahbi-ahif71 associated with several sculptors and poets1 seven in all4 ,it was an emulation of the sincerity1 the loving care1 and the scrupulous exactness in truth that characterized the ,italian painters before ,raphael4 ,its advocates1 including ,mr4 ,ruskin the critic1 maintained that after ,raphael came that fatal facility in art which seeking grace of composition lost truth of fact1 and that the proper course for modern painters was to return to the sincerity and veracity of the early masters4 ,hence the name pre-,raphaelitism1 and the signatures on their early pictures1 ,p4 ,r4 ,b41 pre-,raphaelite ,brother4 ,to this attempt to gain the true regardless of the sensuous1 was added a morbidity of thought mingled with mysticism1 a moral and religious pose1 and a studied simplicity4 ,some of the painters of the ,brotherhood went even so far as following the habits of the early ,italians1 seeking retirement from the world and carrying with them a ,gothic earnestness of air4 ,there is no doubt about the sincerity that entered into this movement4 ,it was an honest effort to gain the true1 the good1 and as a result1 the beautiful2 but it was no less a striven-after honesty and an imitated earnestness4 ,the ,brotherhood did not last for long1 the members drifted from each other and began to paint each after his own style1 and pre-,raphaelitism passed away as it had arisen1 though not without leaving a powerful stamp on ,english art1 especially in decoration4 ,rossetti1 an ,italian by birth though ,english by adoption1 was the type of the ,brotherhood4 ,he was more of a poet than a painter1 took most of his subjects from ,dante1 and painted as he wrote1 in a mystical romantic spirit4 ,he was always of a retiring disposition and never exhibited publicly after he was twenty-eight years of age4 ,as a draughtsman he was awkward in line and not always true in modelling4 ,in color he was superior to his associates and had considerable decorative feeling4 ,the shortcoming of his art1 as with that of the others of the ,brotherhood1 was that in seeking truth of detail he lost truth of ensemble4 ,this is perhaps better exemplified in the works of ,holman ,hunt4 ,he has spent infinite pains in getting the truth of detail in his pictures1 has travelled in the ,east and painted types1 costumes1 and scenery in ,palestine to gain the historic truths of his ,scriptural scenes2 but all that he has produced has been little more than a survey1 a report1 a record of the facts4 ,he has not made a picture4 ,the insistence upon every detail has isolated all the facts and left them isolated in the picture4 ,in seeking the minute truths he has overlooked the great truths of light1 air1 and setting4 ,his color has always been crude1 his values or relations not well preserved1 and his brush-work hard and tortured4 ,millais showed some of this disjointed effect in his early work when he was a member of the ,brotherhood4 ,he did not hold to his early convictions however1 and soon abandoned the pre-,raphaelite methods for a more conventional style4 ,he has painted some remarkable portraits and some excellent figure pieces1 and to-day holds high rank in ,english art2 but he is an uneven painter1 often doing weak1 harshly-colored work4 ,moreover1 the ,english tendency to tell stories with the paint-brush finds in ,millais a faithful upholder4 ,at his best he is a strong painter4 ,madox ,brown 7#ahba-ahic7 never joined the ,brotherhood1 though his leaning was toward its principles4 ,he had considerable dramatic power1 with which he illustrated historic scenes1 and among contemporary artists stood well4 ,the most decided influence of pre-,raphaelitism shows in ,burne-,jones 7#ahcc-71 a pupil of ,rossetti1 and perhaps the most original painter now living#ah of the ,english school4 ,from ,rossetti he got mysticism1 sentiment1 poetry1 and from association with ,swinburne and ,william ,morris1 the poets1 something of the literary in art1 which he has put forth with artistic effect4 ,he has not followed the ,brotherhood in its pursuit of absolute truth of fact1 but has used facts for decorative effect in line and color4 ,his ability to fill a given space gracefully1 shows with fine results in his pictures1 as in his stained-glass designs4 ,he is a good draughtsman and a rather rich colorist1 but in brush-work somewhat labored1 stippled1 and unique in dryness4 ,he is a man of much imagination1 and his conceptions1 though illustrative of literature1 do not suffer thereby1 because his treatment does not sacrifice the artistic4 ,he has been the butt of considerable shallow laughter from time to time1 like many another man of power4 ,albert ,moore 7#ahdj-ahic71 a graceful painter of a decorative ideal type1 rather follows the ,rossetti-,burne-,jones example1 and is an illustration of the influence of pre-,raphaelitism4 ,footnote #ah3 ,died #ahih4 ,,other ,,figure ,,and ,,portrait ,,painters3 ,among the contemporary painters ,sir ,frederick ,leighton 7#ahcj-ahif71 ,president of the ,royal ,academy1 is ranked as a fine academic draughtsman1 but not a man with the color-sense or the brushman's quality in his work4 ,watts 7#ahah-aijd7 is perhaps an inferior technician1 and in color is often sombre and dirty2 but he is a man of much imagination1 occasionally rises to grandeur in conception1 and has painted some superb portraits1 notably the one of ,walter ,crane4 ,orchardson 7#ahce-7 is more of a painter1 pure and simple1 than any of his contemporaries1 and is a knowing if somewhat mannered colorist4 ,erskine ,nicol 7#ahbe-71 ,faed#ai 7#ahbf-71 ,calderon 7#ahcc-71 ,boughton 7#ahcd-aije71 ,frederick ,walker 7#ahdj-ahge71 ,stanhope ,forbes1 ,stott of ,oldham and in portraiture ,holl 7#ahde-ahij7 and ,herkomer may be mentioned4 ,footnote #ai3 ,died #aijj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aja4--,,watts4 ,,love ,,and ,,death4 ,,landscape ,,and ,,marine ,,painters3 ,in the department of landscape there are many painters in ,england of contemporary importance4 ,vicat ,cole 7#ahcc-ahic7 had considerable exaggerated reputation as a depicter of sunsets and twilights2 ,cecil ,lawson 7#ahea-ahhb7 gave promise of great accomplishment1 and lived long enough to do some excellent work in the style of the ,french ,rousseau1 mingled with an influence from ,gainsborough2 ,alfred ,parsons is a little hard and precise in his work1 but one of the best of the living men2 and ,w4 ,l4 ,wyllie is a painter of more than average merit4 ,in marines ,hook 7#ahai-7 belongs to the older school1 and is not entirely satisfactory4 ,the most modern and the best sea-painter in ,england is ,henry ,moore 7#ahca-ahie71 a man who paints well and gives the large feeling of the ocean with fine color qualities4 ,some other men of mark are ,clausen1 ,brangwyn1 ,ouless1 ,steer1 ,bell1 ,swan1 ,mc,taggart1 ,sir ,george ,reid4 ,,modern ,,scotch ,,school3 ,there is at the present time a school of art in ,scotland that seems to have little or no affinity with the contemporary school of ,england4 ,its painters are more akin to the ,dutch and the ,french1 and in their coloring resemble1 in depth and quality1 the work of ,delacroix4 ,much of their art is far enough removed from the actual appearance of nature1 but it is strong in the sentiment of color and in decorative effect4 ,the school is represented by such men as ,james ,guthrie1 ,e4 ,a4 ,walton1 ,james ,hamilton1 ,george ,henry1 ,e4 ,a4 ,hornel1 ,lavery1 ,melville1 ,crawhall1 ,roche1 ,lawson1 ,mc,bride1 ,morton1 ,reid ,murray1 ,spence1 ,paterson4 ,,principal ,,works3 ,english art cannot be seen to advantage1 outside of ,england4 ,in the ,metropolitan ,museum1 ,n4 ,y41 and in private collections like that of ,mr4 ,william ,h4 ,fuller in ,new ,york1#bj there are some good examples of the older men--,reynolds1 ,constable1 ,gainsborough1 and their contemporaries4 ,in the ,louvre there are some indifferent ,constables and some good ,boningtons4 ,in ,england the best collection is in the ,national ,gallery4 ,next to this the ,south ,kensington ,museum for ,constable sketches4 ,elsewhere the ,glasgow1 ,edinburgh1 ,liverpool1 ,windsor galleries1 and the private collections of the late ,sir ,richard ,wallace1 the ,duke of ,westminster1 and others4 ,turner is well represented in the ,national ,gallery1 though his oils have suffered through time and the use of fugitive pigments4 ,for the living men1 their work may be seen in the yearly exhibitions at the ,royal ,academy and elsewhere4 ,there are comparatively few ,english pictures in ,america4 ,footnote #bj3 ,dispersed1 #ahih4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,american ,,painting4 ,,books ,,recommended3 ,american ,art ,review2 ,amory1 ,life of ,copley2 ,the ,art ,review2 ,benjamin1 ,contemporary ,art in ,america2 ,century ,magazine2 ,caffin1 ,american ,painters2 ,clement and ,hutton1 ,artists of the ,nineteenth ,century2 ,cummings1 ,historic ,annals of the ,national ,academy of ,design2 ,downes1 ,boston ,painters 7in ,atlantic ,monthly ,vol4 #fb72 ,dunlap1 ,arts of ,design in ,united ,states2 ,flagg1 ,life and ,letters of ,washington ,allston2 ,galt1 ,life of ,west2 ,isham1 ,history of ,american ,painting2 ,knowlton1 ,w4 ,m4 ,hunt2 ,lester1 ,the ,artists of ,america2 ,mason1 ,life and ,works of ,gilbert ,stuart2 ,perkins1 ,copley2 ,scribner's ,magazine2 ,sheldon1 ,american ,painters2 ,tuckerman1 ,book of the ,artists2 ,van ,dyke1 ,art for ,art's ,sake2 ,van ,rensselaer1 ,six ,portraits2 ,ware1 ,lectures on ,allston2 ,white1 ,a ,sketch of ,chester ,a4 ,harding4 ,,american ,,art3 ,it is hardly possible to predicate much about the environment as it affects art in ,america4 ,the result of the climate1 the temperament1 and the mixture of nations in the production or non-production of painting in ,america cannot be accurately computed at this early stage of history4 ,one thing only is certain1 and that is1 that the building of a new commonwealth out of primeval nature does not call for the production of art in the early periods of development4 ,the first centuries in the history of ,america were devoted to securing the necessities of life1 the energies of the time were of a practical nature1 and art as an indigenous product was hardly known4 ,after the ,revolution1 and indeed before it1 a hybrid portraiture1 largely borrowed from ,england1 began to appear1 and after #ahbe there was an attempt at landscape painting2 but painting as an art worthy of very serious consideration1 came in only with the sudden growth in wealth and taste following the ,war of the ,rebellion and the ,centennial ,exhibition of #ahgf4 ,the best of ,american art dates from about #ahgh1 though during the earlier years there were painters of note who cannot be passed over unmentioned4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4--,,west4 ,,peter ,,denying ,,christ4 ,,hampton ,,ct4 ,,the ,,early ,,painters3 ,the limner1 or the man who could draw and color a portrait1 seems to have existed very early in ,american history4 ,smibert 7#afhd-agea71 a ,scotch painter1 who settled in ,boston1 and ,watson 7#afhe8-agfh71 another ,scotchman1 who settled in ,new ,jersey1 were of this class--men capable of giving a likeness1 but little more4 ,they were followed by ,english painters of even less consequence4 ,then came ,copley 7#agcg-ahae7 and ,west 7#agch-ahbj71 with whom painting in ,america really began4 ,they were good men for their time1 but it must be borne in mind that the times for art were not at all favorable4 ,west was a man about whom all the infant prodigy tales have been told1 but he never grew to be a great artist4 ,he was ambitious beyond his power1 indulged in theatrical composition1 was hot in color1 and never was at ease in handling the brush4 ,most of his life was passed in ,england1 where he had a vogue1 was elected ,president of the ,royal ,academy1 and became practically a ,british painter4 ,copley was more of an ,american than ,west1 and more of a painter4 ,some of his portraits are exceptionally fine1 and his figure pieces1 like ,charles ,i4 demanding the ,five ,members of ,house of ,commons are excellent in color and composition4 ,c4 ,w4 ,peale 7#agda-ahbg71 a pupil of both ,copley and ,west1 was perhaps more fortunate in having celebrated characters like ,washington for sitters than in his art4 ,trumbull 7#agef-ahdc7 preserved on canvas the ,revolutionary history of ,america and1 all told1 did it very well4 ,some of his compositions1 portraits1 and miniature heads in the ,yale ,art ,school at ,new ,haven are drawn and painted in a masterful manner and are as valuable for their art as for the incidents which they portray4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4--;,,gilbert ,,stuart4 ,,washington 7,,unfinished74 ,,boston ,,mus4 ,gilbert ,stuart 7#agee-ahbh7 was the best portrait-painter of all the early men1 and his work holds very high rank even in the schools of to-day4 ,he was one of the first in ,american art-history to show skilful accuracy of the brush1 a good knowledge of color1 and some artistic sense of dignity and carriage in the sitter4 ,he was not always a good draughtsman1 and he had a manner of laying on pure colors without blending them that sometimes produced sharpness in modelling2 but as a general rule he painted a portrait with force and with truth4 ,he was a pupil of ,alexander1 a ,scotchman1 and afterward an assistant to ,west4 ,he settled in ,boston1 and during his life painted most of the great men of his time1 including ,washington4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4--,w4 ,m4 ,,hunt4 ,,lute ,,player4 ,vanderlyn 7#aggf-aheb7 met with adversity all his life long1 and perhaps never expressed himself fully4 ,he was a pupil of ,stuart1 studied in ,paris and ,italy1 and his associations with ,aaron ,burr made him quite as famous as his pictures4 ,washington ,allston 7#aggi-ahdc7 was a painter whom the ,bostonians have ranked high in their art-history1 but he hardly deserved such position4 ,intellectually he was a man of lofty and poetic aspirations1 but as an artist he never had the painter's sense or the painter's skill4 ,he was an aspiration rather than a consummation4 ,he cherished notions about ideals1 dealt in imaginative allegories1 and failed to observe the pictorial character of the world about him4 ,as a result of this1 and poor artistic training1 his art had too little basis on nature1 though it was very often satisfactory as decoration4 ,rembrandt ,peale 7#aghg-ahfj71 like his father1 was a painter of ,washington portraits of mediocre quality4 ,jarvis 7#aghj-ahcd7 and ,sully 7#aghc-ahgb7 were both ,british born1 but their work belongs here in ,america1 where most of their days were spent4 ,sully could paint a very good portrait occasionally1 though he always inclined toward the weak and the sentimental1 especially in his portraits of women4 ,leslie 7#agid-ahei7 and ,newton 7#agie-ahce7 were ,americans1 but1 like ,west and ,copley1 they belong in their art more to ,england than to ,america4 ,in all the early ,american painting the ,british influence may be traced1 with sometimes an inclination to follow ,italy in large compositions4 ,,the ,,middle ,,period in ,american art dates from #ahbe to about #ahgh4 ,during that time1 something distinctly ,american began to appear in the landscape work of ,doughty 7#agic-ahef7 and ,thomas ,cole 7#ahja-ahdh74 ,both men were substantially self-taught1 though ,cole received some instruction from a portrait-painter named ,stein4 ,cole during his life was famous for his ,hudson ,river landscapes1 and for two series of pictures called ,the ,voyage of ,life and ,the ,course of ,empire4 ,the latter were really epic poems upon canvas1 done with much blare of color and literary explanation in the title4 ,his best work was in pure landscape1 which he pictured with considerable accuracy in drawing1 though it was faulty in lighting and gaudy in coloring4 ,brilliant autumn scenes were his favorite subjects4 ,his work had the merit of originality and1 moreover1 it must be remembered that ,cole was one of the beginners in ,american landscape art4 ,durand 7#agif-ahhf7 was an engraver until #ahce1 when he began painting portraits1 and afterward developed landscape with considerable power4 ,he was usually simple in subject and realistic in treatment1 with not so much insistence upon brilliant color as some of his contemporaries4 ,kensett 7#ahah-ahgb7 was a follower in landscape of the so-called ,hudson ,river ,school of ,cole and others1 though he studied seven years in ,europe4 ,his color was rather warm1 his air hazy1 and the general effect of his landscape that of a dreamy autumn day with poetic suggestions4 ,f4 ,e4 ,church 7#ahbf-;,a7 was a pupil of ,cole1 and has followed him in seeking the grand and the startling in mountain scenery4 ,with ,church should be mentioned a number of artists--,hubbard 7#ahag-ahhh71 ,hill 7#ahbi-17 ,bierstadt 7#ahcj-71ba ,thomas ,moran 7#ahcg-7--who have achieved reputation by canvases of the ,rocky ,mountains and other expansive scenes4 ,some other painters of smaller canvases belong in point of time1 and also in spirit1 with the ,hudson ,river landscapists--painters1 too1 of considerable merit1 as ,david ,johnson 7#ahbg-71 ,bristol 7#ahbf-71 ,sandford ,gifford 7#ahbc-ahhj71 ,mc,entee 7#ahbh-ahia71 and ,whittredge 7#ahbj-71 the last two very good portrayers of autumn scenes2 ,a4 ,h4 ,wyant 7#ahcf-ahib71 one of the best and strongest of the ,american landscapists2 ,bradford 7#ahcj-ahib7 and ,w4 ,t4 ,richards 7#ahcc-71 the marine-painters4 ,footnote #ba3 ,died1 #aijj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aje4--;,,eastman ,,johnson4 ,,churning4 ,,portrait1 ,,history1 ,,and ,,genre-,,painters3 ,contemporary with the early landscapists were a number of figure-painters1 most of them self-taught1 or taught badly by foreign or native artists1 and yet men who produced creditable work4 ,chester ,harding 7#agib-ahff7 was one of the early portrait-painters of this century who achieved enough celebrity in ,boston to be the subject of what was called the ,harding craze4 ,elliott 7#ahab-ahfh7 was a pupil of ,trumbull1 and a man of considerable reputation1 as was also ,inman 7#ahja-ahdf71 a portrait and genre-painter with a smooth1 detailed brush4 ,page 7#ahaa-ahhe71 ,baker 7#ahba-ahhj71 ,huntington 7#ahaf-71 the third ,president of the ,academy of ,design2 ,healy 7#ahjh-bb71 a portrait-painter of more than average excellence2 ,mount 7#ahjg-ahfh71 one of the earliest of ,american genre-painters1 were all men of note in this middle period4 ,footnote #bb3 ,died #ahid4 ,leutze 7#ahaf-ahfh7 was a ,german by birth but an ,american by adoption1 who painted many large historical scenes of the ,american ,revolution1 such as ,washington ,crossing the ,delaware1 besides many scenes taken from ,european history4 ,he was a pupil of ,lessing at ,dusseldorf1 and had something to do with introducing ,dusseldorf methods into ,america4 ,he was a painter of ability1 if at times hot in color and dry in handling4 ,occasionally he did a fine portrait1 like the ,seward in the ,union ,league ,club1 ,new ,york4 ,during this period1 in addition to the influence of ,dusseldorf and ,rome upon ,american art1 there came the influence of ,french art with ,hicks 7#ahbc-ahij7 and ,hunt 7#ahbd-ahgi71 both of them pupils of ,couture at ,paris1 and ,hunt also of ,millet at ,barbizon4 ,hunt was the real introducer of ,millet and the ,barbizon-,fontainebleau artists to the ,american people4 ,in #ahee he established himself at ,boston1 had a large number of pupils1 and met with great success as a teacher4 ,he was a painter of ability1 but perhaps his greatest influence was as a teacher and an instructor in what was good art as distinguished from what was false and meretricious4 ,he certainly was the first painter in ,america who taught catholicity of taste1 truth and sincerity in art1 and art in the artist rather than in the subject4 ,contemporary with ,hunt lived ,george ,fuller 7#ahbb-ahhd71 a unique man in ,american art for the sentiment he conveyed in his pictures by means of color and atmosphere4 ,though never proficient in the grammar of art he managed by blendings of color to suggest certain sentiments regarding light and air that have been rightly esteemed poetic4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4--;,,inness4 ,,landscape4 ,,the ,,third ,,period in ,american art began immediately after the ,centennial ,exhibition at ,philadelphia in #ahgf4 ,undoubtedly the display of art1 both foreign and domestic1 at that time1 together with the national prosperity and great growth of the ,united ,states had much to do with stimulating activity in painting4 ,many young men at the beginning of this period went to ,europe to study in the studios at ,munich1 and later on at ,paris4 ,before #ahhj some of them had returned to the ,united ,states1 bringing with them knowledge of the technical side of art1 which they immediately began to give out to many pupils4 ,gradually the influence of the young men from ,munich and ,paris spread4 ,the ,art ,students' ,league1 founded in #ahge1 was incorporated in #ahgh1 and the ,society of ,american ,artists was established in the same year4 ,societies and painters began to spring up all over the country1 and as a result there is in the ,united ,states to-day an artist body technically as well trained and in spirit as progressive as in almost any country of ,europe4 ,the late influence shown in painting has been largely a ,french influence1 and the ,american artists have been accused from time to time of echoing ,french methods4 ,the accusation is true in part4 ,paris is the centre of all art-teaching to-day1 and the ,americans1 in common with the ,european nations1 accept ,french methods1 not because they are ,french1 but because they are the best extant4 ,in subjects and motives1 however1 the ,american school is as original as any school can be in this cosmopolitan age4 ,,portrait1 ,,figure1 ,,and ,,genre ,,painters 7#ahgh-ahid73 ,it must not be inferred that the painters now prominent in ,american art are all young men schooled since #ahgf4 ,on the contrary1 some of the best of them are men past middle life who began painting long before #ahgf1 and have by dint of observation and prolonged study continued with the modern spirit4 ,for example1 ,winslow ,homer 7#ahcf-7 is one of the strongest and most original of all the ,american artists1 a man who never had the advantage of the highest technical training1 yet possesses a feeling for color1 a dash and verve in execution1 an originality in subject1 and an individuality of conception that are unsurpassed4 ,eastman ,johnson 7#ahbd-7 is one of the older portrait and figure-painters who stands among the younger generations without jostling1 because he has in measure kept himself informed with modern thought and method4 ,he is a good1 conservative painter1 possessed of taste1 judgment1 and technical ability4 ,elihu ,vedder 7#ahcf-7 is more of a draughtsman than a brushman4 ,his color-sense is not acute nor his handling free1 but he has an imagination which1 if somewhat more literary than pictorial1 is nevertheless very effective4 ,john ,la ,farge 7#ahce-7 and ,albert ,ryder 7#ahdg-7 are both colorists1 and ,la ,farge in artistic feeling is a man of much power4 ,almost all of his pictures have fine decorative quality in line and color and are thoroughly pictorial4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4--,,winslow ,,homer4 ,,undertow4 ,the young men1 so-called1 though some of them are now on toward middle life1 are perhaps more facile in brush-work and better trained draughtsmen than those we have just mentioned4 ,they have cultivated vivacity of style and cleverness in statement1 frequently at the expense of the larger qualities of art4 ,sargent 7#ahef-7 is1 perhaps1 the most considerable portrait-painter now living1 a man of unbounded resources technically and fine natural abilities4 ,he is draughtsman1 colorist1 brushman--in fact1 almost everything in art that can be cultivated4 ,his taste is not yet mature1 and he is just now given to dashing effects that are more clever than permanent2 but that he is a master in portraiture has already been abundantly demonstrated4 ,chase 7#ahdi-7 is also an exceptionally good portrait painter1 and he handles the genre subject with brilliant color and a swift1 sure brush4 ,in brush-work he is exceedingly clever1 and is an excellent technician in almost every respect4 ,not always profound in matter he generally manages to be entertaining in method4 ,blum 7#aheg-7 is well known to magazine readers through many black-and-white illustrations4 ,he is also a painter of genre subjects taken from many lands1 and handles his brush with brilliancy and force4 ,dewing 7#ahea-7 is a painter with a refined sense not only in form but in color4 ,his pictures are usually small1 but exquisite in delicacy and decorative charm4 ,thayer 7#ahdi-7 is fond of large canvases1 a man of earnestness1 sincerity1 and imagination1 but not a good draughtsman1 not a good colorist1 and a rather clumsy brushman4 ,he has1 however1 something to say1 and in a large sense is an artist of uncommon ability4 ,kenyon ,cox 7#ahef-7 is a draughtsman1 with a strong command of line and taste in its arrangement4 ,he is not a strong colorist1 though in recent work he has shown a new departure in this feature that promises well4 ,he renders the nude with power1 and is fond of the allegorical subject4 ,the number of good portrait-painters at present working in ,america is quite large1 and mention can be made of but a few in addition to those already spoken of--,lockwood1 ,mc,lure ,hamilton1 ,tarbell1 ,beckwith1 ,benson1 ,vinton4 ,in figure and genre-painting the list of really good painters could be drawn out indefinitely1 and again mention must be confined to a few only1 like ,simmons1 ,shirlaw1 ,smedley1 ,brush1 ,millet1 ,hassam1 ,reid1 ,wiles1 ,mowbray1 ,reinhart1 ,blashfield1 ,metcalf1 ,low1 ,c4 ,y4 ,turner1 ,henri4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4--,,whistler4 ,,white ,,girl4 ,most of the men whose names are given above are resident in ,america2 but1 in addition1 there is a large contingent of young men1 ,american born but resident abroad1 who can hardly be claimed by the ,american school1 and yet belong to it as much as to any school4 ,they are cosmopolitan in their art1 and reside in ,paris1 ,munich1 ,london1 or elsewhere1 as the spirit moves them4 ,sargent1 the portrait-painter1 really belongs to this group1 as does also ,whistler 7#ahcd-bc71 one of the most artistic of all the moderns4 ,whistler was long resident in ,london1 but has now removed to ,paris4 ,he belongs to no school1 and such art as he produces is peculiarly his own1 save a leaven of influences from ,velasquez and the ,japanese4 ,his art is the perfection of delicacy1 both in color and in line4 ,apparently very sketchy1 it is in reality the maximum of effect with the minimum of display4 ,it has the pictorial charm of mystery and suggestiveness1 and the technical effect of light1 air1 and space4 ,there is nothing better produced in modern painting than his present work1 and in earlier years he painted portraits like that of his mother1 which are justly ranked as great art4 ,e4 ,a4 ,abbey 7#aheb-7 is better known by his pen-and-ink work than by his paintings1 howbeit he has done good work in color4 ,he is resident in ,england4 ,footnote #bc3 ,died1 #aijc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aji4--,,sargent4 ,,carnation ,,lily1 ,,lily ,,rose4 ,in ,paris there are many ,american-born painters1 who really belong more with the ,french school than the ,american4 ,bridgman is an example1 and ,dannat1 ,alexander ,harrison1 ,hitchcock1 ,mc,ewen1 ,melchers1 ,pearce1 ,julius ,stewart1 ,weeks 7#ahdi-aijc71 ,j4 ,w4 ,alexander1 ,walter ,gay1 ,sergeant ,kendall have nothing distinctly ,american about their art4 ,it is semi-cosmopolitan with a leaning toward ,french methods4 ,there are also some ,american-born painters at ,munich1 like ,c4 ,f4 ,ulrich2 ,shannon is in ,london and ,coleman in ,italy4 ,,landscape ,,and ,,marine ,,painters1 #ahgh-ahid3 ,in the department of landscape ,america has had since #ahbe something distinctly national1 and has at this day4 ,in recent years the impressionist plein-air school of ,france has influenced many painters1 and the prismatic landscape is quite as frequently seen in ,american exhibitions as in the ,paris salons2 but ,american landscape art rather dates ahead of ,french impressionism4 ,the strongest landscapist of our times1 ,george ,inness 7#ahbe-bd71 is not a young man except in his artistic aspirations4 ,his style has undergone many changes1 yet still remains distinctly individual4 ,he has always been an experimenter and an uneven painter1 at times doing work of wonderful force1 and then again falling into weakness4 ,the solidity of nature1 the mass and bulk of landscape1 he has shown with a power second to none4 ,he is fond of the sentiment of nature's light1 air1 and color1 and has put it forth more in his later than in his earlier canvases4 ,at his best1 he is one of the first of the ,american landscapists4 ,among his contemporaries ,wyant 7already mentioned71 ,swain ,gifford1#be ,colman1 ,gay1 ,shurtleff1 have all done excellent work uninfluenced by foreign schools of to-day4 ,homer ,martin's#bf landscapes1 from their breadth of treatment1 are popularly considered rather indifferent work1 but in reality they are excellent in color and poetic feeling4 ,footnote #bd3 ,died #ahid4 ,footnote #be3 ,died #aije4 ,footnote #bf3 ,died #ahig4 ,the young men again1 in landscape as in the figure1 are working in the modern spirit1 though in substance they are based on the traditions of the older ,american landscape school4 ,there has been much achievement1 and there is still greater promise in such landscapists as ,tryon1 ,platt1 ,murphy1 ,dearth1 ,crane1 ,dewey1 ,coffin1 ,horatio ,walker1 ,jonas ,lie4 ,among those who favor the so-called impressionistic view are ,weir1 ,twachtman1 and ,robinson1#bg three landscape-painters of undeniable power4 ,in marines ,gedney ,bunce has portrayed many ,venetian scenes of charming color-tone1 and ,de ,haas#bh has long been known as a sea-painter of some power4 ,quartley1 who died young1 was brilliant in color and broadly realistic4 ,the present marine-painters are ,maynard1 ,snell1 ,rehn1 ,butler1 ,chapman4 ,footnote #bg3 ,died #ahif4 ,footnote #bh3 ,died #ahie4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4--;,,chase4 ,,alice4 ,,principal ,,works3 ,the works of the early ,american painters are to be seen principally in the ,boston ,museum of ,fine ,arts1 the ,athenaeum1 ,boston ,mus41 ,mass4 ,hist4 ,soc41 ,harvard ,college1 ,redwood ,library1 ,newport1 ,metropolitan ,mus41 ,lenox and ,hist4 ,soc4 ,libraries1 the ,city ,hall1 ,century ,club1 ,chamber of ,commerce1 ,national ,acad4 of ,design1 ,n4 ,y4 ,in ,new ,haven1 at ,yale ,school of ,fine ,arts1 in ,philadelphia at ,penna4 ,acad4 of ,fine ,arts1 in ,rochester ,powers's ,art ,gal41 in ,washington ,corcoran ,gal4 and the ,capitol4 ,the works of the younger men are seen in the exhibitions held from year to year at the ,academy of ,design1 the ,society of ,american ,artists1 ,n4 ,y41 in ,philadelphia1 ,chicago1 ,boston1 and elsewhere throughout the country4 ,some of their works belong to permanent institutions like the ,metropolitan ,mus41 the ,pennsylvania ,acad41 the ,art ,institute of ,chicago1 but there is no public collection of pictures that represents ,american art as a whole4 ,mr4 ,t4 ,b4 ,clarke1 of ,new ,york1 had perhaps as complete a collection of paintings by contemporary ,american artists as anyone4 ,,postscript4 ,,scattering ,,schools ,,and ,,influences ,,in ,,art4 ,in this brief history of painting it has been necessary to omit some countries and some painters that have not seemed to be directly connected with the progress or development of painting in the western world4 ,the arts of ,china and ,japan1 while well worthy of careful chronicling1 are somewhat removed from the arts of the other nations and from our study4 ,moreover1 they are so positively decorative that they should be treated under the head of ,decoration1 though it is not to be denied that they are also realistically expressive4 ,portugal has had some history in the art of painting1 but it is slight and so bound up with ,spanish and ,flemish influences that its men do not stand out as a distinct school4 ,this is true in measure of ,russian painting4 ,the early influences with it were ,byzantine through the ,greek ,church4 ,in late years what has been produced favors the ,parisian or ,german schools4 ,in ,denmark and ,scandinavia there has recently come to the front a remarkable school of high-light painters1 based on ,parisian methods1 that threatens to outrival ,paris itself4 ,the work of such men as ,kroeyer1 ,zorn1 ,petersen1 ,liljefors1 ,thaulow1 ,bjoerck1 ,thegerstroem1 is as startling in its realism as it is brilliant in its color4 ,the pictures in the ,scandinavian section of the ,paris ,exposition of #ahhi were a revelation of new strength from the ,north1 and this has been somewhat increased by the ,scandinavian pictures at the ,world's ,fair in #ahic4 ,it is impossible to predict what will be the outcome of this northern art1 nor what will be the result of the recent movement here in ,america4 ,all that can be said is that the tide seems to be setting westward and northward1 though ,paris has been the centre of art for many years1 and will doubtless continue to be the centre for many years to come4 ,,index4 7,for additions to ,index see page #bhi47 ,abbate1 ,niccolo dell'1 #acd4 ,abbey1 ,edwin ,a41 #bga4 ,aelst1 ,willem ,van1 #bai4 ,aetion1 #cj4 ,agatharchos1 #bg4 ,aime-,morot1 ,nicolas1 #afg4 ,albani1 ,francesco1 #abf1 #aca4 ,albertinelli1 ,mariotto1 #ij1 #ig4 ,alemannus1 ,johannes 7da ,murano71 #gi1 #hd4 ,aldegrever1 ,heinrich1 #bca4 ,alexander1 ,john1 #bfb4 ,alexander1 ,j4 ,w41 #bgb4 ,aligny1 ,claude ,francois1 #adi4 ,allegri1 ,pomponio1 #ajh1 #aji4 ,allori1 ,cristofano1 #abg1 #aca4 ,allston1 ,washington1 #bfc4 ,alma-,tadema1 ,laurenz1 #aii1 #bjb4 ,altdorfer1 ,albrecht1 #bca1 #bci4 ,alvarez1 ,don ,luis1 #ahd4 ,aman-,jean1 ,e41 #afe4 ,andrea da ,firenze1 #eb1 #ef4 ,angelico1 ,fra ,giovanni1 #ed1 #ee1 #ef1 #fe1 #fg4 ,anselmi1 ,michelangelo1 #ajh1 #aji4 ,antiochus ,gabinius1 #ce4 ,antonio ,veneziano1 #eb1 #ef4 ,apelles1 #cj4 ,apollodorus1 #bg1 #bh4 ,aranda1 ,luis ,jiminez1 #ahe4 ,aretino1 ,spinello1 #ec1 #ef4 ,aristides1 #bi4 ,artz1 ,d4 ,a4 ,c41 #bbj4 ,aubert1 ,ernest ,jean1 #aee4 ,backer1 ,jacob1 #baj4 ,backhuisen1 ,ludolf1 #bah1 #bbb4 ,bagnacavallo1 ,bartolommeo ,ramenghi1 #aje1 #aji4 ,baker1 ,george ,a41 #bff4 ,baldovinetti1 ,alessio1 #fc1 #ga4 ,baldung1 ,hans1 #bcj1 #bci4 ,bargue1 ,charles1 #afg4 ,baroccio1 ,federigo1 #abe1 #acj4 ,bartolo1 ,taddeo di1 #ed1 #ef4 ,bartolommeo1 ,fra 7,baccio della ,porta71 #ij1 #ib1 #ie1 #ig4 ,basaiti1 ,marco1 #hc1 #he4 ,bassano1 ,francesco1 #aai-aba4 ,bassano1 ,jacopo1 #aai-aba4 ,bastert1 ,n41 #bba4 ,bastien-,lepage1 ,jules1 #aff4 ,baudry1 ,paul1 #afc4 ,beccafumi1 ,domenico1 #ajc1 #ajh4 ,becerra1 ,gaspar1 #agg1 #ahe4 ,beckwith1 ,j4 ,carroll1 #bgj4 ,beechey1 ,sir ,william1 #bdf4 ,beham1 ,barthel1 #bca4 ,beham1 ,sebald1 #bca4 ,bellini1 ,gentile1 #ha1 #he1 #id4 ,bellini1 ,giovanni1 #gd1 #gg1 #ha1 #hb1 #hc1 #he1 #aab-aae1 #bad1 #bbi4 ,bellini1 ,jacopo1 #gi1 #ha1 #he4 ,boltraffio1 ,giovanni ,antonio1 #ajb4 ,benjamin-,constant1 ,jean ,joseph1 #afe4 ,benson1 ,frank ,w41 #bgj4 ,beraud1 ,jean1 #agj4 ,berchem1 ,claas ,pietersz1 #bag1 #bbb4 ,berne-,bellecour1 ,etienne ,prosper1 #afg4 ,berrettini1 ,pietro 7il ,cortona71 #abg1 #aca4 ,berruguete1 ,alonzo1 #agf1 #ahe4 ,bertin1 ,jean ,victor1 #adi1 #aeg4 ,besnard1 ,paul ,albert1 #agj4 ,bierstadt1 ,albert1 #bfe4 ,billet1 ,pierre1 #afa4 ,bink1 ,jakob1 #bca4 ,bissolo1 ,pier ,francesco1 #hc1 #he4 ,bjoerck1 ,o41 #bgf4 ,blake1 ,william1 #bdg1 #bed4 ,blashfield1 ,edwin ,h41 #bgj4 ,blommers1 ,b4 ,j41 #bbj4 ,blum1 ,robert1 #bgj4 ,boecklin1 ,arnold1 #bch1 #bdj4 ,bol1 ,ferdinand1 #baj1 #bba4 ,boldini1 ,giuseppe1 #acj1 #aca4 ,bonfiglio1 ,benedetto1 #ff1 #fg1 #gb4 ,bonheur1 ,auguste1 #afj4 ,bonheur1 ,rosa1 #afj4 ,bonifazio ,pitati1 #aai-aba4 ,bonington1 ,richard ,parkes1 #aeg1 #beb4 ,bonnat1 ,leon1 #afd4 ,bonsignori1 ,francesco1 #gf1 #hd4 ,bonvin1 ,francois1 #afh4 ,bordone1 ,paris1 #aai1 #aba4 ,borgognone1 ,ambrogio1 #ga1 #gb4 ,bosboom1 ,j41 #bbj4 ,bosch1 ,hieronymus1 #bje1 #bba4 ,both1 ,jan1 #bag1 #bbb4 ,botticelli1 ,sandro1 #fa1 #fc1 #ga4 ,boucher1 ,francois1 #ada1 #ade1 #adf4 ,boudin1 ,eugene1 #aga4 ,boughton1 ,george ,h41 #beh4 ,bouguereau1 ,w4 ,adolphe1 #afb1 #afc4 ,boulanger1 ,hippolyte1 #bjj4 ,boulanger1 ,louis1 #aec4 ,bourdichon1 ,jean1 #acc4 ,bourdon1 ,sebastien1 #ach4 ,bouts1 ,dierich1 #aij1 #aia1 #bja1 #bje4 ,bradford1 ,william1 #bfe4 ,breton1 ,jules ,adolphe1 #afa4 ,breughel1 #aic1 #bja4 ,bridgman1 ,frederick ,a41 #bgb4 ,bril1 ,paul1 #aic1 #bja1 #bad1 #bbb4 ,bristol1 ,john ,b41 #bfe4 ,bronzino 7,agnolo di ,cosimo71 il1 #abd1 #aca4 ,brouwer1 ,adriaan1 #aih1 #bjb4 ,brown1 ,ford ,madox1 #beg4 ,brown1 ,john ,lewis1 #agj1 ,brush1 ,george ,d4 ,f41 #bgj4 ,bugiardini1 ,giuliano di ,piero1 #ia1 #ig4 ,bunce1 ,w4 ,gedney1 #bgc4 ,burkmair1 ,hans1 #bcb1 #bcc1 #bci4 ,burne-,jones1 ,sir ,edward1 #beg4 ,butler1 ,howard ,russell1 #bgd4 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,vittore 7,pisanello71 #gc1 #ge1 #gi1 #hd4 ,pissarro1 ,camille1 #agj4 ,pizzolo1 ,niccolo1 #ge1 #hd4 ,platt1 ,charles ,a41 #bgc4 ,plydenwurff1 ,wilhelm1 #bbh4 ,poggenbeek1 ,george1 #bba4 ,pointelin1 #aei4 ,pollajuolo1 ,antonio del1 #fc1 #ga4 ,polygnotus1 #bf4 ,pontormo1 ,jacopo 7,carrucci71 #ib1 #ig1 #abd4 ,poorter1 ,willem de1 #baj1 #bba4 ,pordenone1 ,giovanni ,ant41 #aai1 #aba4 ,potter1 ,paul1 #baf1 #bbb4 ,pourbus1 ,peeter1 #aib1 #bja4 ,poussin1 ,gaspard 7,dughet71 #acf4 ,poussin1 ,nicolas1 #abf1 #acf1 #acg1 #aej1 #bea4 ,pradilla1 ,francisco1 #ahd4 ,previtali1 ,andrea1 #hc1 #he4 ,primaticcio1 ,francesco1 #ig1 #ih1 #acd4 ,protogenes1 #cj4 ,prout1 ,samuel1 #bed4 ,prudhon1 ,pierre ,paul1 #adg4 ,puvis de ,chavannes1 ,pierre1 #afd4 ,,quartley1 ,arthur1 #bgd4 ,,raeburn1 ,sir ,henry1 #bdf4 ,raffaelli1 ,jean ,francois1 #agj4 ,raphael ,sanzio1 #fb1 #fg1 #ij1 #id1 #ih1 #ii1 #ajc1 #abd1 #abe1 #adi1 #ahb1 #aib1 #bjf1 #bee4 ,ravesteyn1 ,jan van1 #bjg1 #bba4 ,regnault1 ,henri1 #afe4 ,regnault1 ,jean ,baptiste1 #adg1 #adh4 ,rehn1 ,f4 ,k4 ,m41 #bgd4 ,reid1 ,robert1 #bgj4 ,reid-,murray1 ,j41 #bei4 ,reinhart1 ,charles ,s41 #bgj4 ,rembrandt van ,ryn1 #adh1 #aif1 #bjd1 #bjg-bac1 #bba1 #bdi4 ,rene of ,anjou1 #acc4 ,renoir1 #agj4 ,reynolds1 ,sir ,joshua1 #bab1 #bdd-bdg4 ,ribalta1 ,francisco de1 #ahb1 #ahe4 ,ribera1 ,roman1 #ahe4 ,ribera 7,lo ,spagnoletto71 ,jose di1 #abh1 #afh1 #agh1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #ahe4 ,ribot1 ,augustin ,theodule1 #afh4 ,richards1 ,william ,t41 #bfe4 ,rico1 ,martin1 #ahe4 ,rigaud1 ,hyacinthe1 #aci4 ,rincon1 ,antonio1 #agf1 #ahe4 ,robert-,fleury1 ,joseph ,nicolas1 #aec4 ,robie1 ,jean1 #bjj4 ,robinson1 ,theodore1 #bgc4 ,roche1 ,alex41 #bei4 ,rochegrosse1 ,georges1 #afe4 ,roelas1 ,juan de las1 #ahj1 #aha1 #ahe4 ,roll1 ,alfred ,philippe1 #agj4 ,romanino1 ,girolamo ,bresciano1 #abj1 #aba4 ,rombouts1 ,theodoor1 #aif1 #bja4 ,romney1 ,george1 #bdf4 ,rondinelli1 ,niccolo1 #hd1 #he4 ,rosa1 ,salvator1 #abh1 #aca4 ,rosselli1 ,cosimo1 #fc1 #ga1 #ij4 ,rossetti1 ,gabriel ,charles 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,strigel1 ,bernard1 #bcb1 #bci4 ,stothard1 ,thomas1 #bed4 ,stott of ,oldham1 #beh4 ,stuart1 ,gilbert1 #bfb1 #bfc4 ,stuck1 ,franz1 #bch4 ,sully1 ,thomas1 #bfc1 #bfd4 ,swanenburch1 ,jakob ,isaaks van1 #bjg4 ,,tarbell1 ,edmund ,c41 #bgj4 ,teniers 7the ,younger71 ,david1 #aig1 #bjb4 ,terburg1 ,gerard1 #afg1 #bab1 #bba4 ,thaulow1 ,fritz1 #bgf4 ,thayer1 ,abbott ,h41 #bgj4 ,thegerstroem1 ,r41 #bgf4 ,theodorich of ,prague1 #bbg1 #bci4 ,theotocopuli1 ,domenico1 #agg1 #ahe4 ,thoma1 ,hans1 #bch4 ,tiepolo1 ,giovanni ,battista1 #abh1 #aca4 ,tiepolo1 ,giovanni ,domenico1 #abi1 #aca4 ,timanthes1 #bh4 ,tintoretto 7,jacopo ,robusti71 il1 #aae-aag1 #aba1 #abc1 #abh4 ,titian 7,tiziano ,vecelli71 #aja1 #aac-aba1 #abd1 #abe1 #abh1 #agg1 #agi1 #aid1 #aif1 #bab1 #bde4 ,tito1 ,ettore1 #acj4 ,torbido1 ,francisco 7il ,moro71 #abj1 #aba4 ,toulmouche1 ,auguste1 #afg4 ,tristan1 ,luis1 #agg1 #agh1 #ahe4 ,troyon1 ,constant1 #aei1 #afj4 ,trumbull1 ,john1 #bfb1 #bfe4 ,tryon1 ,dwight ,w41 #bgc4 ,tura1 ,cosimo1 #fi1 #gb1 #ge4 ,turner1 ,c4 ,y41 #bgj4 ,turner1 ,joseph ,mallord ,william1 #bea1 #bec1 #bed4 ,twachtman1 ,john ,h41 #bgc4 ,,uccello1 ,paolo1 #fc1 #ga1 #gd4 ,uhde1 ,fritz von1 #bch1 #bdj4 ,ulrich1 ,charles ,f41 #bgb4 ,,vaenius1 ,otho1 #aie1 #bja4 ,van ,beers1 ,jan1 #bjj1 #bjb4 ,vanderlyn1 ,john1 #bfc4 ,van ,dyck1 ,sir ,anthony1 #aha1 #aie1 #aih1 #bja1 #bdc1 #bdd4 ,van ,dyck1 ,philip1 #bai1 #bbb4 ,van ,loo1 ,jean ,baptiste1 #ada1 #ade1 #adf4 ,van ,marcke1 ,emil1 #aei4 ,vargas1 ,luis de1 #ahj1 #ahe4 ,vasari1 ,giorgio1 #abd1 #acj ,vedder1 ,elihu1 #bfh4 ,veit1 ,philipp1 #bcf1 #bci4 ,velasquez1 ,diego ,rodriguez de ,silva y1 #agc1 #agd1 #agg-ahe1 #aid1 #aif1 #bjg1 #bab1 #bdi1 #bga4 ,velde1 ,adrien van de1 #baf1 #bbb4 ,velde 7the ,elder71 ,willem van de1 #bah1 #bbb4 ,velde 7the ,younger71 ,willem van de1 #bah1 #bbb4 ,venusti1 ,marcello1 #id1 #ih4 ,verboeckhoven1 ,eugene ,joseph1 #bjj1 #bjb4 ,verhagen1 ,pierre ,joseph1 #aih1 #bjb4 ,vernet1 ,claude ,joseph1 #adb1 #bej4 ,vernet1 ,emile ,jean ,horace1 #adi4 ,veronese1 ,paolo 7,caliari71 #aaf-aba1 #abi1 #acf1 #aid4 ,verrocchio1 ,andrea del1 #fd1 #ga1 #ii4 ,vibert1 ,jehan ,georges1 #afg4 ,victoors1 ,jan1 #baj1 #bba4 ,vien1 ,joseph ,marie1 #adf4 ,villegas1 ,jose1 #ahd1 #ahe4 ,vincent1 ,francois ,andre1 #adg4 ,vinci4 ,see ,leonardo4 ,vinton1 ,f4 ,p41 #bgj4 ,viti1 ,timoteo di1 #ig1 #ih4 ,vivarini1 ,antonio 7da ,murano71 #gi1 #hd4 ,vivarini1 ,bartolommeo 7da ,murano71 #gi1 #hd4 ,vivarini1 ,luigi or ,alvise1 #hj1 #he4 ,vlieger1 ,simon de1 #bah1 #bbb4 ,vollon1 ,antoine1 #afh4 ,volterra1 ,daniele 7,ricciarelli7 da1 #id1 #ig4 ,vos1 ,cornelis de1 #aif1 #bja4 ,vos1 ,marten de1 #aib4 ,vouet1 ,simon1 #acf1 #aci4 ,,walker1 ,frederick1 #beh4 ,walker1 ,horatio1 #bgc4 ,walton1 ,e4 ,a41 #bei4 ,wappers1 ,baron ,gustavus1 #aii1 #bjb4 ,watelet1 ,louis ,etienne1 #adi4 ,watson1 ,john1 #bfa4 ,watteau1 ,antoine1 #adj1 #ada4 ,watts1 ,george ,frederick1 #beh4 ,wauters1 ,emile1 #bjj4 ,weeks1 ,edwin ,l41 #bgb4 ,weenix1 ,jan1 #bai1 #bbb4 ,weir1 ,j4 ,alden1 #bgj1 #bgc4 ,werff1 ,adriaan van der1 #bai1 #bbb4 ,west1 ,benjamin1 #bfa1 #bfb1 #bfd4 ,weyden1 ,roger van der1 #ahi1 #aij1 #bja1 #bca4 ,whistler1 ,james ,a4 ,mc,neill1 #bga4 ,whittredge1 ,worthington1 #bfe4 ,wiertz1 ,antoine ,joseph1 #aii1 #bjb4 ,wiles1 ,irving ,r41 #bgj4 ,wilkie1 ,sir ,david1 #bdi4 ,willems1 ,florent1 #bjj1 #bjb4 ,wilson1 ,richard1 #bej1 #bea4 ,wolgemut1 ,michael1 #bbh1 #bci4 ,wouverman1 ,philips1 #baf1 #bbb4 ,wright1 ,joseph1 #bej4 ,wurmser1 ,nicolaus1 #bbg1 #bci4 ,wyant1 ,alexander ,h41 #bfe1 #bgc4 ,wyllie1 ,w4 ,l41 #bei ,wynants1 ,jan1 #bae1 #bbb4 ,yon1 ,edmund ,charles1 #aei4 ,zamacois1 ,eduardo1 #ahd1 #ahe4 ,zegers1 ,daniel1 #aif1 #bja4 ,ziem1 #aed4 ,zeitblom1 ,bartholomaeus1 #bca1 #bci4 ,zeuxis1 #bg4 ,zoppo1 ,marco1 #ge1 #hd4 ,zorn1 ,anders1 #bgf4 ,zucchero1 ,federigo1 #abe1 #acj4 ,zuloaga1 ,ignacio1 #ahe4 ,zurbaran1 ,francisco de1 #ahj1 #aha1 #ahe4 ,,additions ,,to ,,index4 ,anglada1 #ahe4 ,bartels1 #bch4 ,baur1 #bba4 ,bell1 #bei4 ,brangwyn1 #bei4 ,breitner1 #bba4 ,buysse1 #bjj4 ,cariani1 #aai4 ,claus1 #bjj4 ,clausen1 #bei4 ,fattori1 #acj4 ,fragiacomo1 #acj4 ,frederic1 #bjj4 ,garcia y ,remos1 #ahe4 ,greiner1 #bch4 ,haverman1 #bba4 ,henri1 ,robert1 #bgj4 ,keller1 #bch4 ,khnopff1 #bjj4 ,lempoels1 #bjj4 ,lie1 ,jonas1 #bgc4 ,mc,taggart1 #bei4 ,mancini1 #acj4 ,marchetti1 #acj4 ,ouless1 #bei4 ,reid1 ,sir ,george1 #bei4 ,steer1 #bei4 ,swan1 #bei4 ,truebner1 #bch4 ,vierge1 #ahe4 ,weissenbruch1 #bba4 ,witsen1 #bba4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,college ,,histories ,,of ,,art ,,edited ,,by ,,john ,c4 ,,van ,,dyke1 ,l4,h4,d4 ,,professor ,,of ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,art ,,in ,,rutgers ,,college ,,history ,,of ,,painting ,by ,,john ,c4 ,,van ,,dyke1 the ,editor of the ,series4 ,with ,frontispiece and #aaj ,illustrations1 ,bibliographies1 and ,index4 ,crown #hvo1 #a4ej4 ,,history ,,of ,,architecture ,by ,,alfred ,d4 ,f4 ,,hamlin1 ,a4,m41 ,adjunct ,professor of ,architecture1 ,columbia ,college1 ,new ,york4 ,with ,frontispiece and #bbi ,illustrations and ,diagrams1 ,bibliographies1 ,glossary1 ,index of ,architects1 and a ,general ,index4 ,crown #hvo1 #b4jj4 ,,history ,,of ,,sculpture ,by ,,allan ,,marquand1 ,ph4,d41 ,l4,h4,d41 and ,,arthur ,l4 ,,frothingham1 ,jr41 ,ph4,d41 ,professors of ,archaeology and the ,history of ,art in ,princeton ,university4 ,with ,frontispiece and #aab ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 #a4ej4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,history of ,architecture4 ,by ,a4 ,d4 ,f4 ,hamlin1 ,a4,m4 ,adjunct ,professor of ,architecture in the ,school of ,mines1 ,columbia ,college4 ,with ,frontispiece and #bbi ,illustrations and ,diagrams1 ,bibliographies1 ,glossary1 ,index of ,architects1 and a ,general ,index4 ,crown #hvo1 pp4 xx-#dec1 #b4jj4 ,the text of this book is very valuable because of the singularly intelligent view taken of each separate epoch4444 ,the book is extremely well furnished with bibliographies1 lists of monuments which are excellent4444 ,if any reasonable part of the contents of this book can be got into the heads of those who study it1 they will have excellent ideas about architecture and the beginnings of a sound knowledge of it4--,,the ,,nation1 ,,new ,,york4 ,a manual that will be invaluable to the student1 while it will give to the general reader a sufficiently full outline for the purposes of the development of the various schools of architecture4 ,what makes it of special value is the large number of ground plans of typical buildings and the sketches of bits of detail of columns1 arches1 windows and doorways4 ,each chapter is prefaced by a list of books recommended1 and each ends with a list of monuments4 ,the illustrations are numerous and well executed4--,,san ,,francisco ,,chronicle4 ,probably presents more comprehensively and at the same time concisely1 the various periods and styles of architecture1 with a characterization of the most important works of each period and style1 than any other published work4444 ,the volume fills a gap in architectural literature which has long existed4--,,advertiser1 ,,boston4 ,a neatly published work1 adapted to the use either of student or general reader4 ,as a text-book it is a concise and orderly setting forth of the main principles of architecture followed by the different schools4 ,the life history of each period is brief yet thorough4444 ,the treatment is broad and not over-critical4 ,the chief facts are so grouped that the student can easily grasp them4 ,the plan-drawings are clear cut and serve their purpose admirably4 ,the half-tone illustrations are modern in selection and treatment4 ,the style is clear1 easy and pleasing4 ,the entire production shows a studious and orderly mind4 ,a new and pleasing characteristic is the absence of all discussion on disputed points4 ,in its unity1 clearness and simplicity lie its charm and interest4--,,notre ,,dame ,,scholastic1 ,,notre ,,dame1 ,,ind4 ,this is a very thorough and compendious history of the art of architecture from the earliest times down to the present4444 ,the work is elaborately illustrated with a great host of examples1 pictures1 diagrams1 etc4 ,it is intended to be used as a school text-book1 and is very conveniently arranged for this purpose1 with suitable headings in bold-faced type1 and a copious index4 ,teachers and students will find it a capital thing for the purpose4--,,picayune1 ,,new ,,orleans4 ,a ,history of ,sculpture1 ,,by ,,allan ,,marquand1 ,ph4 ,d41 ,l4 ,h4 ,d4 ,,and ,,arthur ,l4 ,,frothingham1 ,jr41 ,ph4 ,d4 ,professors of ,archaeology and the ,history of ,art in ,princeton ,university4 ,with ,frontispiece and #aac ,illustrations in half-tone in the text1 ,bibliographies1 ,addresses for ,photographs and ,casts1 etc4 ,crown #hvo1 #cac pages1 #a4ej4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,henry ,w4 ,,kent1 ,curator of the ,seater ,museum1 ,watkins1 ,n4 ,y4 ,like the other works in this series of yours1 it is simply invaluable1 filling a long-felt want4 ,the bibliographies and lists will be keenly appreciated by all who work with a class of students4 ,,charles ,h4 ,,moore1 ,harvard ,university4 ,the illustrations are especially good1 avoiding the excessively black background which produce harsh contrasts and injure the outlines of so many half-tone prints4 ,j4 ,m4 ,,hoppin1 ,yale ,university4 ,these names are sufficient guarantee for the excellence of the book and its fitness for the object it was designed for4 ,i was especially interested in the chapter on ,renaissance ,sculpture in ,italy4 ,,critic1 ,new ,york4 ,this history is a model of condensation4444 ,each period is treated in full1 with descriptions of its general characteristics and its individual developments under various conditions1 physical1 political1 religious and the like4444 ,a general history of sculpture has never before been written in ,english--never in any language in convenient text-book form4 ,this publication1 then1 should meet with an enthusiastic reception among students and amateurs of art1 not so much1 however1 because it is the only book of its kind1 as for its intrinsic merit and attractive form4 ,,outlook1 ,new ,york4 ,a concise survey of the history of sculpture is something needed everywhere4444 ,a good feature of this book--and one which should be imitated--is the list indicating where casts and photographs may best be obtained4 ,of course such a volume is amply indexed4 ,,notre ,,dame ,,scholastic1 ,notre ,dame1 ,ind4 ,the work is orderly1 the style lucid and easy4 ,the illustrations1 numbering over a hundred1 are sharply cut and well selected4 ,besides a general bibliography1 there is placed at the end of each period of style a special list to which the student may refer1 should he wish to pursue more fully any particular school4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,longmans1 ,,green ,,co41 ,publishers1 #ia #ic ,fifth ,avenue1 ,,new ,,york4