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,transcriber's ,note                    
,special characters3 ,this ,,utf-#h text
 file uses the following                
special characters3                     
,if these do not display1 you may prefer
 to use the ,,html version      which   
provides mouse-hovers for the more      
unusual characters1 or      the         
,,iso-#hhei-a text which transliterates 
them4                                   
,printer errors3 ,obvious typographical 
errors in the original         have been
 corrected in this version1 and full    
details of the         corrections can  
be found in the ,,html version of this  
ebook4          ,however1 the           
inconsistent spelling of                
,ottawa_/,ottowa1 and the               
inconsistent use of comma or full-stop  
as thousands separators       has been  
left as in the original4 ,the value     
given for the            eccentricity of
 ,uranus may also be a printer error4   

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,,outlines                              
,,of                       ,a           
,,mechanical ,,theory ,,of ,,storms1    
,,containing                      ,,the 
,,true ,,law ,,of ,,lunar ,,influence1  
,,with             ,,practical          
,,instructions ,,to ,,the ,,navigator1  
,,to ,,enable                 ,,him     
,,approximately ,,to ,,calculate ,,the  
,,coming                     ,,changes  
,,of ,,the ,,wind ,,and ,,weather1      
,,for ,,any ,,given ,,day1 ,,and ,,for  
,,any ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,ocean4        
,,by ,t4 ,,bassnett4                    
,,new ,,york3                           
,d4 ,,appleton  ,,company1              
#cdf  #cdh ,,broadway1                  
,,and #af ,,little ,,britain1 ,,london4 
#ahed4           ,entered1 according to 
,act of ,congress1 in the year #ahec1 by
                               ,t4      
,,bassnett1        ,in the ,clerk's     
,office of the ,southern ,district of   

,new ,york4     ,,contents4   ,,section 
,,first4  ,present ,state of the        
,science of ,meteorology--,primordial   
,condition of the   ,solar              
,system--,theory of ,gravitation the    
great key of ,nature--,bessell's        
doubts of its perfect adequacy--the     
,newtonian ,vacuum3 its                 
difficulties--,nature of the element    
called ,ether--,the ,medium of ,space   
and the ,electric ,fluid--,ponderosity  
of ,matter--,dynamical law of           
,equilibrium--,specific heat and its    
relation to space--,a ,plenum not       
opposed to ,gravitation--,the medium of 
space in motion--,formation of          
,vortices--,a new principle             
developed--,elements of the             
problem--,hutton's   theory of the      
production of rain--,indications of     
change and the   cause--,action of the  
,ethereal ,current--,physical process of
 ,atmospheric                           
,derangement--,redfield's theory of     
,storms3 its difficulties--,all storms  

are of brief duration and limited       
extent4                           #ac   
,,section ,,second4  ,mechanical action 
of the ,moon--,the ,moon's mass--,axis  
of the ,terral   ,vortex affected by the
 ,moon3 its inclination and position3   
its   displacement--,an example of the  
principle--,corrections                 
necessary--,milwaukie storm--,new ,york 
storm--,ottawa storm--,liverpool        
storm--,names and recurring order of the
 storm-producing agents--,record   of   
the weather--,second ,new ,york storm4  
#eh   ,,section ,,third4  ,lunar        
influence rejected by the               
learned--,their conclusions not         
valid--,modifying causes in accordance  
with these principles--,years and       
seasons vary in character--,superficial 
temperature of different   ,planets--,no
 storms on the planet ,mars--,rotation  
the cause of ,ocean and   ,atmospheric  
,currents--,pressure of the atmosphere  
and its regular and   irregular         
variations--,terrestrial                

,magnetism--,internal ,constitution of  
the ,globe--,magnetic variations--,cause
 of these variations--,magnetic         
storms--,aurora ,borealis3 its          
altitude--,earthquakes2 their possible  
connection with ,storms4                
#aja   ,,section ,,fourth4  ,the solar  
spots--,law of periodicity compared with
 the theory--,existence   of another    
planet beyond ,neptune probable--,masses
 of the ,sun and   ,planet yet          
uncertain--,the ,law of ,gravitation not
 above   suspicion--,proofs of          
this--,the full of the ,moon--,density  
of the   ,ethereal ,medium3 its law in  
the ,solar ,vortex--,bode's law of the  
planetary distances--,law of planetary  
density--,law connecting the   present  
and former diameters of the             
planets--,disturbing action of the      
,ether--,kepler's third law not rigidly 
exact--,inconsistencies of              
,astronomers--,nature of light and      
heat--,distinction between light and    
heat4                                   

#adg   ,,section ,,fifth4               
,comets--,their small                   
inclinations--,their motions chiefly    
direct--,comet of   #aggj and           
#ahdd--;,cause of acceleration in the   
case of ,encke--,anomalous   motions of 
the comet of #ahdc--;,change of diameter
 at different   distances of a comet    
from the sun--,cause of this            
change--,nature of the                  
nebulosity--,formation of the           
tail--,compound nature of a comet's     
light--motion and direction of a comet's
 tail--,phenomena presented by   the    
great comet of ,halley--,mass of a      
comet--,the ,zodial light--,nebulous    
stars--,shooting stars--,periodic       
showers--,periodicity doubtful--,cause  
of the apparent periodicity--,cause for 
being more numerous in ,autumn   than in
 ,spring4                               
#ahg   ,,section ,,sixth4  ,state of the
 polar ice since #ahde--,sir ,john      
,franklin's track--,probable   existence
 of islands north of ,behring's         

,straits--,possibility of   subsisting  
in the ,arctic islands--,news from the  
,investigator--,necessity of searching  
in a higher latitude than the           
,investigator visited--,franklin's      
misfortunes due to ,scientific          
,errors--,relative levels of the        
,atlantic and ,pacific ,oceans--,the    
,arctic   seas more accessible in a few 
years--,conclusion4                     
#bcc     ,,preface4   ,on presenting to 
the public a work of this novel         
character1 overstepping1 as it does1 the
 barriers erected by modern systems to  
the further progress of knowledge1 a few
 words of explanation may not be        
inappropriate4 ,early imbued with a     
desire to understand the causes of      
natural phenomena1 the author devoured  
with avidity the interpretations        
contained in the elementary works of    
orthodox science1 until reason and      
observation rendered him dissatisfied   
with the repast4 ,to him it appeared    
that there was an evident tendency in   

scholastic instruction1 to make the     
knowledge of nature inaccessible to the 
many1 that the world might be made more 
dependent on the few2 while many of the 
established principles1 on which the    
learned rested1 seemed to be at variance
 with the simplicity and consistency of 
truth4 ,thus situated1 he ventured to   
think for himself1 and looking back on  
the history of the past1 and finding so 
many cases in which the philosophy of   
to-day was supplanted by a different    
system on the morrow1 he was led to     
suspect the possibility of future       
revolutions1 and was thus determined to 
be no longer embarrassed by previous    
systems1 nor deterred by opinions       
however learned1 which conflicted with a
 rational recognition of the mechanical 
nature of all physical phenomena4  ,the 
science of meteorology1 to which the    
following pages are devoted1 is1 and    
always has been1 a confessedly complex  
subject2 and on this account1 any       
suggestions and facts which observation 

gleans1--no matter how humble the source
 may be1 should not be denied a hearing 
by those professedly engaged in the     
pursuit of truth4 ,step by step1 the    
author became more and more confirmed in
 his doubts of the soundness of many    
modern theories2 and in #ahch he had    
attained a position which enabled him to
 allege in the public prints of the day1
 that there did exist certain erroneous 
dogmas in the schools1 which stood in   
the way of a fuller development of the  
causes of many meteorological phenomena4
 ,this annunciation was made in general 
terms1 and no notice was taken of it4   
,subsequently1 he forwarded to the      
,british ,association of ,science1 then 
convened at ,birmingham1 a communication
 of similar tenor2 and at a later date  
still1 a more particular statement of   
the advantages of his discoveries to the
 navigator and agriculturist1 was sent  
to the ,british admiralty4 ,the first of
 these communications was treated with  
silent contempt2 the last elicited some 

unimportant reply4 ,in #ahdd a memorial 
was presented to ,congress1 accompanied 
with a certified copy of predictions of 
the weather1 written several weeks      
before the event1 and attested in due   
form by two impartial witnesses2 but    
neither did this result in any inquiry  
as to its truth4 ,during the time since 
elapsed1 he has been engaged in pursuits
 which prevented him from pressing the  
subject elsewhere1 until the spring of  
#ahec1 he brought his theory under the  
notice of the ,smithsonian ,institution4
 ,this led to a correspondence between  
himself and the gentlemanly ,secretary  
of the ,institution1 whose doubts of the
 truth of his allegations were expressed
 with kindness1 and whose courtesy was  
in strange contrast with the conduct of 
others4 ,in the communications which he 
forwarded to that ,institution1 he gave 
a detailed statement of the difficulties
 he had met with1 and expressed the hope
 that an ,institution1 created for the  
purpose of increasing and diffusing     

knowledge1 would feel justified in      
lending the influence of its name to    
facilitate the completion of a theory   
which was yet undeniably imperfect4 ,in 
view of this1 a test was proposed4#a    
,give us1 for example1 a prediction of  
the weather for one month in each season
 of the year #ahed1 for the ,city of    
,washington4 ,this test the author      
refused1 for the reason that he did not 
consider it necessary to wait so long2  
but he informed the ,secretary of the   
,institution1 that he would prepare an  
outline of his theory1 which would      
enable him to decide upon the merits of 
the discoveries claimed4 ,this outline  
is contained in the following pages4    
,during the summer of #ahec he called   
upon ,professor ,henry1 then at         
,chicago1 with his manuscript2 but a    
sudden indisposition prevented that     
gentleman from having it read4 ,he1     
however1 strongly recommended its       
publication from such impressions he    
then received4#b ,this the author had   

resolved on1 from a sense of duty to the
 world at large1 although the promise   
was rather of prospective loss than of  
present benefit4 ,the peculiar form     
under which the theory appears1 is1     
therefore1 a result of the circumstances
 above stated1 and of the author's      
present inability to enter into the     
minute details of a subject1 which      
embraces in its range the whole visible 
creation4  ,in extending the theory to  
other phenomena1 he has only fearlessly 
followed out the same principles which  
have conducted him to a knowledge of a  
disturbing cause1 to which atmospheric  
storms owe their origin1 and in doing so
 he has conferred with no one4 ,for     
whatever of merit or of blame may       
therefore justly attach to these views1 
he alone is responsible4 ,if he has     
charged the scientific with             
inconsistency1 or with sometimes        
forgetting that the truth of their      
unnecessarily abstruse investigations   
depends on the truth of the data1 he at 

least is conscientious2 for he is too   
well aware that to provoke an           
unfavorable verdict by contending       
against such fearful odds1 is not the   
surest way to either wealth or fame1 or 
even to an acknowledgment of at least   
the mite1 which he cannot but feel that 
he has contributed to the treasury of   
knowledge4 ,that the scientific         
organisations of the day do tend to curb
 the aberrations of a fanciful          
philosophy1 cannot be denied2 but at the
 same time there is engendered such a   
slavish subordination as checks the     
originality of thought1 and destroys    
that perfect freedom from the trammels  
of system1 so necessary to success in   
the pursuit of truth4 ,of such an       
influence the author explicitly asserts 
his entire independence4  ,in thus      
introducing his theory1 the reader is   
forewarned that he will not find it     
dressed in the fascinating garb of the  
popular literature of the day1 whose    
chief characteristic is to promise much 

when possessing little4 ,it is1 however1
 a plant of the author's own raising1   
unpropped1 unpruned1 with none of the   
delicate tendrils or graceful festoons  
of the trellissed vine2 yet he flatters 
himself that its roots are watered by   
the springs of truth1 and hopes that he 
who is in quest of that1 will not find1 
amidst its many clusters1 any fruit to  
set his teeth on edge4   ,,footnotes3   
#a ,extract from a letter from          
,professor ,henry4  #b ,this gentleman  
kindly offered to contribute from his   
own private means1 to forward the       
publication1 but he could do nothing    
officially without submitting the       
manuscript to three different censors4  
,he who claims a new discovery1 will    
seldom be satisfied to have it judged by
 men who are engaged in the same        
investigations1 however pure and        
honorable they may be4 ,is this         
,institution adopting the best plan of  
aiding truth1 in its struggles against  
error8 ,should any man sit as judge in  

his own trial8 ,if there had been a     
powerful ,institution to stand between  
,galileo and the scientific of his day1 
his doctrines would not have been       
condemned1 and the world would have been
 fifty years more in advance4           
,,mechanical ,,theory ,,of ,,storms4    
,,section ,,first4   ,,present ,,state  
,,of ,,meteorology4  ,the present state 
of the science of which we are about to 
treat1 cannot be better defined than in 
the words of the celebrated ,humboldt1  
who has devoted a long life to the      
investigation of this department of     
,physics4 ,he says3 ,the processes of   
the absorption of light1 the liberation 
of heat1 and the variations in the      
elastic and electric tension1 and in the
 hygrometric condition of the vast arial
 ocean1 are all so intimately connected 
together1 that each individual          
meteorological process is modified by   
the action of all the others4 ,the      
complicated nature of these disturbing  
causes1 increases the difficulty of     

giving a full explanation of these      
involved meteorological phenomena2 and  
likewise limits1 or wholly precludes the
 possibility of that predetermination of
 atmospheric changes1 which would be so 
important for horticulture1 agriculture1
 and navigation1 no less than for the   
comfort and enjoyment of life4 ,those   
who place the value of meteorology in   
this problematic species of prediction1 
rather than in the knowledge of the     
phenomena themselves1 are firmly        
convinced that this branch of science1  
on account of which so many expeditions 
to distant mountainous regions have been
 undertaken1 has not made any very      
considerable progress for centuries     
past4 ,the confidence which they refuse 
to the physicist they yield to changes  
of the moon1 and to certain days marked 
in the calender by the superstition of a
 by-gone age4  ,the charge thus         
skilfully repelled1 contains1 however1  
much truth2 there has been no adequate  
return of the vast amount of labor and  

expense thus far devoted to this branch 
of knowledge4 ,and it is not wonderful  
that the popular mind should expect a   
result which is so much in accordance   
with the wants of mankind4 ,who is there
 whose happiness1 and health1 and       
comfort1 and safety1 and prosperity1 may
 not be more or less affected by        
reducing to law1 the apparently         
irregular fluctuations of the weather1  
and the predetermination of the storm8  
,to do this would be the crowning       
triumph of the age2 and the present     
theory has pioneered the way for its    
speedy accomplishment4   ,,original     
,,condition ,,of ,,the ,,earth4  ,that  
the present order of things had a       
beginning1 is taught by every analogy   
around us1 and as we have the glaring   
fact forced upon us1 that our globe has 
experienced a far higher temperature on 
its surface than obtains at present1 and
 moreover1 as it is demonstrated beyond 
a cavil1 that the interior is now of far
 higher temperature than is due to solar

 radiation1 we are justified in         
concluding1 not only that the condition 
of the interior of our globe is that of 
fusion1 but that its original           
temperature was far higher than at      
present2 so that the inference is       
allowable that there has been a time    
when the whole globe was perhaps in this
 state4 ,but why should we stop here8   
,there are three states of matter1 the  
solid1 the fluid1 and the gaseous2 and  
with this passing glance at the         
question1 we will jump at once to the   
theory of ,la ,place1--that not only our
 own globe1 but the whole solar system1 
has been once in the nebulous state4    
,in justice to himself1 the author ought
 to remark1 that he had reasoned his way
 up to this starting point1 before even 
the name of ,la ,place had reached his  
ears4 ,he makes the remark in order to  
disclaim any desire to appropriate that 
which belongs to another2 as he may     
innocently speak of things hereafter1   
the idea of which has occurred to       

others4 ,it is not his intention here to
 say a word pro or con on the nebular   
hypothesis2 it is sufficient to allude  
to the facts1 that the direction of     
rotation and of revolution is the same  
for all the planets and satellites of   
our system2 and that the planes on which
 these motions are performed1 are nearly
 coincident4 ,that this concordance is  
due to one common cause1 no one         
acquainted with the theory of           
probabilities will pretend to deny4     
,,great ,,object ,,of ,,la ,,place4     
,the science of ,astronomy occupies a   
pre-eminent rank in the physical circle1
 not only on account of that dignity    
conferred upon it in the most remote    
antiquity1 or as being the grand        
starting point--the earliest born of    
science--from whence we must contemplate
 the visible creation1 if we would      
reduce its numerous details into one    
harmonious whole2 but also on account of
 its practical fruits1 of the value of  
which modern commerce is an instance4   

,accordingly we will glance at its past 
history4 ,in the earliest ages there was
 no doubt a rational view entertained of
 the movements of the planets in space4 
,from the ,chaldeans to the ,arabs1 a   
belief prevailed1 that space was filled 
with a pure ethereal fluid1 whose       
existence probably did not rest on any  
more solid foundation than analogy or   
tradition4 ,one hundred years after     
,copernicus had given to the world the  
true arrangements of our planetary      
system1 ,descartes advanced his theory  
of vortices in the ethereal medium1 in  
which the planets were borne in orbits  
around the sun1 and the satellites      
around their primaries4 ,this idea      
retained its ground with various        
additions1 until the ,geometry of       
,newton reconciled the laws of ,kepler  
with the existence of a power pertaining
 to matter1 varying inversely as the    
squares of the distances1 to which power
 he showed the weight of terrestrial    
bodies was owing1 and also the          

revolution of the moon about the earth4 
,since ,newton's day1 those deviations  
from the strict wording of ,kepler's    
laws1 have been referred to the same    
law1 and the avowed object of the author
 of the ,mechanique ,celeste1 was to    
bring all the great phenomena of nature 
within the grasp of analysis1 by        
referring them to one single principle1 
and one simple law4 ,and in his         
,introduction to the ,theory of the     
,moon1 he remarks3 ,hence it            
incontestibly follows1 that the law of  
gravitation is the sole cause of the    
lunar inequalities4   ,,bessel',s       
,,opinion4  ,however beautiful the      
conception1 it must be admitted that in 
its  priori aspect1 it was not in       
accordance with human experience and    
analogy to anticipate a successful      
issue4 ,in nature law re-acts upon law1 
and change induces change1 through an   
almost endless chain of consequences2   
and it might be asked1 why a simple law 
of matter should thus be exempt from the

 common lot8 ,why1 in a word1 there     
should be no intrinsic difference in    
matter1 by which the gravitation of     
similar or dissimilar substances should 
be affected8 ,but experiment has        
detected no such differences2 a globe of
 lead and a globe of wood1 of equal     
weight1 attract contiguous bodies with  
equal force4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 
that if there be such differences1 human
 means are not yet refined enough to    
detect them4 ,was the issue successful  
then8 ,generally speaking1 we may say   
yes4 ,but where there is a discrepancy  
between theory and observation1 however 
small that may be1 it shows there is    
still something wanting2 and a high     
authority 7,professor ,bessel7 says in  
relation to this3 ,but ,i think that the
 certainty that the theory based upon   
this law1 perfectly explains all the    
observations1 is not correctly inferred4
 ,we will not here enumerate the cases  
to which suspicion might be directed1   
neither will we more than just allude to

 the fact1 that the ,theory of ,newton  
requires a vacuum1 in order that the    
planetary motions may be mathematically 
exact1 and permanent in their stability4
   ,a ,,vacuum ,,required ,,by ,,modern 
,,systems4  ,whatever may be the        
practical belief of the learned1 their  
fundamental principles forbid the avowal
 of a plenum1 although the undulatory   
theory of light renders a plenum        
necessary1 and is so far virtually      
recognized by them1 and a correction for
 resistance is applied to the ,comet of 
,encke4 ,yet there has been no attempt  
made to reconcile these opposing        
principles1 other than by supposing that
 the celestial regions are filled with  
an extremely rare and elastic fluid4    
,that no definite view has been agreed  
on1 is not denied1 and ,sir ,john       
,herschel speculates on the reality of a
 resisting medium1 by suggesting        
questions that will ultimately have to  
be considered1 as3 ,what is the law of  
density of the resisting medium which   

surrounds the sun8 ,is it in rest or in 
motion8 ,if the latter1 in what         
direction does it move8 ,in these       
queries he still clings to the idea of  
,encke1 that the resistance is confined 
to the neighborhood of the sun and      
planets1 like a ponderable fluid4 ,but  
the most profound analyst the world has 
ever boasted1 speaks less cautiously1   
7,poisson ,rech47 ,it is difficult to   
attribute1 as is usually done1 the      
incandescence of arolites to friction   
against the molecules of the atmosphere1
 at an elevation above the earth where  
the density of the air is almost null4  
,may we not suppose that the electric   
fluid1 in a neutral condition1 forms a  
kind of atmosphere1 extending far beyond
 the mass of our atmosphere1 yet subject
 to terrestrial attraction1 yet         
physically imponderable1 and1           
consequently1 following our globe in its
 motion8 ,the incandescence of arolites 
must1 therefore1 be owing to friction   
against the molecules of the electric   

fluid which forms an atmosphere around  
the globe4 ,according to this view1 some
 force keeps it there1 yet it is not    
ponderable4 ,as it is of limited extent1
 this is not the medium whose           
undulations brings to light the         
existence of the stars2 neither is      
,encke's1 nor ,herschel's1 nor any other
 resisting medium4 ,where shall we find 
the present established principles of   
science8 ,if we grant the ,newtonians a 
plenum1 they still cling to attraction  
of all matter in some shape4 ,if we     
confine them to a vacuum1 they will     
virtually deny it4 ,is not this solemn  
trifling8 ,how much more noble would it 
be to exhibit a little more tolerance1  
seeing that they themselves know not    
what to believe8 ,we do not offer these 
remarks as argument1 but merely as      
indications of that course of reasoning 
by which we conclude that the upholders 
of the present systems of science are   
not entitled to any other ground than   
the pure ,newtonian basis of an         

interplanetary vacuum4   ,,difficulties 
,,of ,,this ,,view4  ,this1 then1 is the
 state of the case3 ,matter attracts    
matter directly as the mass1 and        
inversely as the squares of the         
distances4 ,this law is derived from the
 planetary motions2 space is1           
consequently1 a void2 and1 therefore1   
the power which gives mechanical        
momentum to matter1 is transferred from 
one end of creation to the other1       
without any physical medium to convey   
the impulse4 ,at the present day the    
doctrines of ,descartes are considered  
absurd2 yet here is an absurdity of a   
far deeper dye1 without we resort to the
 miraculous1 which at once obliterates  
the connection between cause and effect1
 which it is the peculiar province of   
physical science to develop4 ,let us    
take another view4 ,the present doctrine
 of light teaches that light is an      
undulation of an elastic medium         
necessarily filling all space2 and this 
branch of science probably rests on     

higher and surer grounds than any other4
 ,every test applied to it by the       
refinements of modern skill1 strengthens
 its claims4 ,here then the ,newtonian  
vacuum is no longer a void4 ,if we get  
over this difficulty1 by attributing to 
this medium a degree of tenuity almost  
spiritual1 we shall run upon ,scylla    
while endeavoring to shun ,charybdis4   
,light and heat come bound together from
 the sun1 by the same path1 and with the
 same velocity4 ,heat is therefore due  
also to an excitement of this attenuated
 medium4 ,yet this heat puts our        
atmosphere in motion1 impels onward the 
waves of the sea1 wafts our ships to    
distant climes1 grinds our corn1 and in 
various ways does the work of man4 ,if  
we expose a mass of metal to the sun's  
rays for a single hour the temperature  
will be raised4 ,to do the same by an   
artificial fire1 would consume fuel1 and
 this fuel would generate the strength  
or force of a horse4 ,estimate1         
therefore1 the amount of force received 

from the sun in a single day for the    
whole globe1 and we shall find that     
nothing but a material medium will      
suffice to convey this force4  ,let us  
appeal to analogy4 ,the undulations of  
our atmosphere produce sound2 that is1  
convey to the ear a part of a mechanical
 force imparted to a solid body--a bell 
for instance4 ,let us suppose this force
 to equal one pound4 ,on account of the 
elasticity of the bell1 the whole of the
 force is not instantaneously imparted  
to the surrounding air2 but the denser  
the air the sooner it loses its motion4 
,in a dense fluid like water1 the motion
 is imparted quickly1 and the sound is  
not a ring but a click4 ,if we diminish 
the density of the air1 the loss of     
motion is retarded2 so that we might    
conceive it possible1 provided the bell 
could be suspended in a perfect vacuum1 
without a mechanical tie1 and there was 
no friction to overcome from the        
rigidity of its particles1 that the bell
 would vibrate forever1 although its    

sound could never reach the ear4 ,we    
see1 therefore1 that the mechanical     
effect in a given time1 is owing to the 
density of the medium4 ,but can we      
resort to such an analogy8 ,every       
discovery in the science confirms more  
and more the analogy between the motions
 of air and the medium of space2 the    
angle of reflexion and incidence follows
 the same law in both2 the law of       
radiation and interference2 and if      
experiments were instituted1 there can  
be but little doubt that sound has also 
got its spectrum4   ,,ether             
,,imponderable4  ,the medium of space1  
therefore1 is capable of conveying a    
mechanical force from one body to       
another2 it therefore possesses inertia4
 ,does it also possess gravity8 ,if we  
forsake not the principles of science1  
it is but right that we expect science  
shall abide by her own principles4      
,condensation in every elastic medium is
 as the compressing power1 according to 
all experiments4 ,in the case of our    

atmosphere under the law of gravitation1
 the density of air1 7supposing it to be
 infinitely expansible17 at a height    
only of ten semidiameters of the earth  
above its surface1 would have only a    
density equal to the density of one     
cubic inch of such air we breathe1 if   
that cubic inch was to be expanded so as
 to fill a globular space whose centre  
should be the earth1 and whose surface  
should take inside the whole visible    
creation4 ,such a medium could convey no
 mechanical force from the sun1 and     
therefore the medium of space cannot be 
ponderable4 ,simple as the argument is1 
it is unassailable4   ,,electric ,,fluid
 ,,the ,,medium ,,of ,,space4  ,let us  
take yet another view4 ,all experiments 
prove that the phenomenon we call       
electricity1 is owing to a disturbance  
of the equilibrium or natural condition 
of a highly elastic fluid4 ,in certain  
conditions of the atmosphere1 this fluid
 is accumulated in the region of the    
clouds1 and by its tension is enabled to

 force a passage through opposing       
obstacles1 in order to restore the      
equilibrium4 ,by experiment it is found 
that dry dense air opposes the greatest 
obstacle to its escape4 ,as the air is  
rarefied1 this obstacle diminishes2     
until in a vacuum the transmission may  
be considered instantaneous4 ,there     
ought to be1 therefore1 a greater escape
 of electricity from the clouds upwards 
than downwards2 and1 if space be void1  
or only filled with an extremely        
attenuated matter1 the electricity of   
the earth1 considered as an elastic     
fluid without ponderosity1 7and no law  
of condensation from the law of gravity 
in harmony with its other attributes1   
will allow us to consider it otherwise17
 would long since have left the earth4  
,the same objection applies in the case 
of the galvanic and magnetic fluids4 ,if
 we entertain the idea that electricity 
is a mere disturbance of natural        
condition1 wherein two fluids are       
united1 and that an excess of one is    

necessarily attended by deficiency in   
the other1 we depart from the first rule
 of philosophy1 which teaches us to     
admit no greater number of causes than  
are sufficient to explain the           
phenomenon4 ,for we fearlessly assert   
that not a single fact exists in        
electrical science1 which can be        
explained better on ,dufoy's theory than
 on ,franklin's2 and the former         
objections would still apply4           
,,newtonian ,,gravity4  ,but what is    
gravity8 ,according to ,newton3 ,hc est 
qualitas omnium in quibus experimenta   
instituere licet1 et propterea per ,reg4
 #c de universes affirmanda est4 ,vide  
,prin4 ,lib4 ,ter4 ,cor4 #b4 ,prop4 vi4 
,now the other primary qualities of     
matter are unaffected by circumstances4 
,the inertia of a particle of matter is 
the same at ,jupiter as on the earth1 so
 also is its extension2 but not so with 
gravity4 ,it depends on other matter1   
and on its distance from it2 and may be 
less or greater at different times1 and 

in different places4 ,it is1 therefore1 
not philosophical to say that all matter
 is necessarily ponderous1 inasmuch as  
it is a virtue not residing in itself   
alone1 but needs the existence of other 
matter to call it into action4 ,if an   
atom were isolated in space it would    
have no weight4 ,if influenced by other 
matter1 there must be some physical     
medium to convey the influence1 or      
gravity is not in accordance with the   
laws of force and motion4 ,which horn of
 the dilemma shall we take8 ,let us     
first admit that there is a principle of
 gravitation1 affecting all planetary or
 atomic matter1 and that there exists a 
highly elastic medium1 pervading all    
space1 conveying to us the light of the 
most distant stars1 and that this medium
 is not affected by gravity4 ,in this   
summary way1 therefore1 we have arrived 
at the pivot on which this theory turns4
  ,the prominent feature of the theory1 
therefore1 is the necessity it will show
 for the existence of an all-pervading  

medium1 and that it possesses inertia   
without ponderosity4 ,that electricity  
is nothing more than the effects of the 
condensation and rarefaction of this    
medium by force4 ,that it also pervades 
all atomic matter1 whose motions        
necessarily move the medium2 and1       
consequently1 that there can be no      
motion without some degree of           
electricity4 ,that no change can take   
place in bodies either by chemical      
decomposition1 by increase or decrease  
of temperature1 by friction or contact1 
without in some measure exciting        
electricity or motion of the ether4     
,that galvanism and magnetism are but   
ethereal currents without condensation1 
induced by peculiar superficial and     
internal molecular arrangement of the   
particles of certain substances4 ,that  
light and heat are effects of the       
vibrations of atoms1 propagated through 
this universal medium from body to body4
 ,that the atomic motion of heat can be 
produced by the motion of translation or

 momentum of bodies in the gross1 that  
is1 by friction1 by compression1 c42 and
 can be reconverted into momentum at our
 pleasure4 ,hence the latent heat or    
specific atomic motion of combustibles1 
originally derived from the sun1 is     
transferred to atoms1 which are capable 
of being inclosed in cylinders1 so as to
 make use of their force of expansion1  
which is thus converted into momentum   
available for all the wants of man4     
,,gravity ,,mechanical4  ,when we come  
to a full examination of this theory1 we
 shall further reason that this ether so
 far from being of that quasi spiritual 
nature which astronomers would have us  
believe1 is a fearfully energetic fluid1
 possessing considerable inertia and    
elasticity2 that its law of condensation
 is that of all other fluids1 that is1  
as the compressing force directly2 and  
that its effects are simply a product of
 matter and motion4 ,we will next       
endeavor to prove that the gravity of   
planetary matter could not exist without

 this ethereal medium1 by showing that  
it is an effect produced by the         
interference of opposing waves1 whereby 
a body is prevented from radiating into 
space its own atomic motion1 from the   
side opposite which another body is     
placed1 as much as on the opposite side1
 and consequently it is propelled by its
 own motion towards the other body4 ,and
 this effect following the simple law of
 inertia and radiation1 is directly as  
the mass1 and inversely as the squares  
of the distances4   ,,great ,,principle 
,,of ,,dynamics4  ,one great principle  
to be kept in view in this              
investigation1 is that which teaches    
that the product of matter1 angular     
velocity1 and distance from the centre  
of motion1 must ever be a constant      
quality in every balanced system4 ,yet  
this principle does not seem to be      
observed in the case of the planets4 ,we
 will1 however1 endeavor to show that it
 is rigidly observed4 ,and we will      
extend the principle further1 and       

contend that all the phenomena of nature
 are consequences of the constant       
tendency of matter to conform to this   
principle of equilibrium1 when suffering
 temporary derangement from the         
operation of other laws4 ,that          
throughout the system of nature1 equal  
spaces possess equal force4 ,that what  
we call temperature1 is nothing more    
than the motion of equilibrium or atomic
 momentum of space2 or1 in other words1 
that if all space were fluid1 and in a  
state of equilibrium1 the product of    
each atom of equal volume1 by its motion
 would be a constant quality4 ,from this
 it would seem to follow1 that the      
specific heat of bodies should be       
inversely as their atomic weights2 and  
this does1 no doubt1 approximately      
obtain as was proved by ,dulong and     
,petit1 for metallic substances1 more   
recently by ,regnault1 and has since    
been extended by ,garnier to other      
substances4 ,but it is to the gaseous   
state that we must look for confirmation

 of the principle that equal spaces     
possess equal power2 and in doing so1 it
 will be necessary to bear in mind1 that
 the ether also is affected by          
temperature4   ,,specific ,,heat4  ,it  
has been contended by some that the     
medium which conveys the impression of  
light through transparent1 bodies1 is   
necessarily more dense within the body  
than without2 but according to this     
theory the converse is true4 ,a ray of  
light is a mechanical impulse1          
propagated through an elastic medium1   
and1 like a wave in water1 tends to the 
side of least resistance4 ,within a     
refracting body the ether is rarefied1  
not only by the proximity of the atoms  
of the body 7or its density71 but also  
by the motions of those atoms2 so that  
if two simple gases of different        
specific gravity be made equal in       
density by compression1 their refraction
 will be approximately as their specific
 heats4 ,in the case of solids and      
liquids1 or even compound gases1 there  

is a continual absorption of motion to  
produce the cohesion of composition and 
aggregation4 ,and the specific heats of 
compound gases will be found greater    
than those of simple gases1 in          
proportion to the loss of volume by     
combination1 ceteris paribus4 ,if       
impenetrability be a law of matter1 the 
more a portion of atomic matter is      
condensed1 the less ether will be found 
in the same space4 ,the same is also    
true when the natural density or        
specific gravity of a gas is greater    
than that of another4 ,and the lighter  
the gas1 the more will this circumstance
 vitiate the experiments to determine   
its specific heat4 ,there is1 therefore1
 this great source of fallacy in such   
experiments1 viz43 that the ether       
permeates all fluids and solids1 and    
that its specific heat probably far     
exceeds that of all other matter4 ,this 
is a fundamental position of the theory1
 in support of which we will introduce a
 fact announced by ,m4 ,v4 ,regnault1   

which was published in the ,comptes     
,rendus of the ,french ,academy for     
,april1 #ahec4 ,he says3 ,in the course 
of my researches ,i have encountered1   
indeed1 at every step1 anomalies which  
appeared to me inexplicable1 in         
accordance with the theories formally   
recognized4 ,for the sake of            
illustration ,i will quote one instance3
 #ast1 a mass of gas1 under a pressure  
of ten atmospheres1 is contained in a   
space which is suddenly doubled2 the    
pressure falls to five atmospheres4     
#b;d4 ,two reservoirs of equal capacity 
are placed in a calorimeter2 the one is 
filled with a gas1 under a pressure of  
ten atmospheres2 the second is perfectly
 empty4 ,in these two experiments1 the  
initial and final conditions of the gas 
are the same2 but this identity of      
condition is accompanied by calorific   
results which are very different2 for   
while in the former experiment there is 
a reduction of temperature1 in the      
second the calorimeter does not indicate

 the slightest alteration of            
temperature4 ,this experiment tends to  
confirm the theory4 ,in the first       
experiment1 the sudden doubling of the  
space causes the ether also to expand1  
inasmuch as the sides of the vessel     
prevent the instantaneous passage of the
 external ether4 ,in the second1 both   
vessels are full1 one of ether1 and the 
other of air mixed with ether2 so that  
there is no actual expansion of the     
space1 and consequently no derangement  
of the quantity of motion in that space4
   ,,law ,,of ,,specific ,,heat4  ,from 
this view it is evident that the        
specific heat of elastic fluids can only
 be considered as approximately         
determined4 ,if equal spaces possess    
equal momenta1 and the ethereal or tomic
 matter be inversely as the weight of   
the atomic matter in the same space1 it 
follows that the product of the specific
 gravities and specific heats of the    
simple gases should be constant2 or that
 the specific heats should be inversely 

as the specific gravities1--taking pound
 for pound in determining those specific
 heats4 ,if we test the matter by the   
data now afforded1 it is best to obey   
the injunction1 ,in medio tutissimus    
ibis4 ,in the following table1 the first
 column are the values obtained by      
,regnault2 in the second1 the former    
values2 and in the third1 the mean of   
the two4    ,gases4           ,reg4     
specific heats4   ,former specific      
heats4   ,mean4   ,atmospheric air1     
4#bcg                  4#bfg            
4#beb   ,oxygen1                  4#bah 
4#bcf              4#bbg   ,nitrogen1   
4#bdd                  4#bge            
4#bfj   ,hydrogen1               #c4dje 
#c4bid             #c4cej  ,the specific
 gravities of these gases1 according to 
the best tables in our possession1 are3 
,specific gravities4      ,mean4        
,products4   ,atmospheric air1          
#a4jjjj            4#beb        4#beb   
,oxygen1                 #a4aaaa        
4#bbg        4#beb   ,nitrogen1         

#j4igbb            4#bfj        4#beb   
,hydrogen1               #j4jgde        
#c4cej        4#bdi  ,as might be       
expected1 there is a greater discrepancy
 in the case of hydrogen4  ,if we test  
the principle by the vapor of water1 we 
must consider that it is composed of two
 volumes of hydrogen and one volume of  
oxygen1 and that one volume disappears2 
or that one-third of the whole atomic   
motion is consumed by the interference  
of the vibrations of the ether1         
necessary to unite the atoms1 and form  
an atom of water4 ,we must therefore    
form this product from its specific     
gravity and two-thirds of its specific  
heat4 ,on no one subject in chemistry   
has there been so much labor expended1  
as in determining the specific heat of  
watery vapor4 ,in relation to this1     
,regnault observes3 ,it is important to 
remark that an immense number of        
experiments have been made1 to find the 
specific heat of steam1 and that it is  
about one-half of what it was thought to

 be4 ,he gives its value 4#dge2 but this
 is vitiated still1 by the              
non-recognition of the specific heat of 
the ether4 ,former experiments give     
4#hdg4 ,perhaps ,regnault's numbers are 
entitled to the most weight4 ,instead of
 taking the mean1 therefore1 we will    
give double weight to his results2 so   
that we get 4#fjj for the specific heat 
of vapor1 and as its specific gravity is
 4#fbe1 the product 4#djj  4#fbe is     
4#bej1 the same as for hydrogen4 ,little
 importance1 however1 should be attached
 to such coincidences1 owing to the     
uncertainty of the numbers4 ,if our     
position be correct1 the specific heat  
of hydrogen should be #aj times greater 
than of oxygen4 ,the atomic weights are 
as #a to #h1 while their volumes are as 
#b to #a2 therefore1 for equal spaces1  
the matter is as #a to #af4 ,calling the
 specific heat #aj to #a1 and taking the
 amount due to half the space1 the      
product becomes as #h to #af2 but in the
 rarer gas there is #h times as much    

ethereal momentum or matter1 which1     
added to the atomic matter1 renders the 
spaces equal4#c ,regnault's results give
 a ratio of specific heats  #a to       
#c4dje_/4bae  #a to #ae4f4   ,,the      
,,golden ,,mean4  ,the history of       
science proves how few have practically 
respected the adage of the ancients1    
which we have chosen for our motto2     
words which ought to be written in      
letters of gold in every language under 
the sun4 ,descartes1 by considering the 
mechanical impulse of the ether         
sufficient to explain the planetary     
motions1 failed to detect the force of  
gravity in the heavens4 ,newton1 on the 
other hand1 feeling that his law was    
sufficient to explain them1 and         
requiring a vacuum for its mathematical 
accuracy1 rejected the notion of an     
ethereal medium4 ,his successors1       
following too closely in his footsteps1 
and forgetting the golden law1 have     
forced themselves into a position by no 
means enviable4 ,the short-period comet 

has driven them to a resisting medium1  
which1 while according to ,encke's      
hypothesis of increasing density around 
the sun1 it explains the anomalies of   
one periodical comet1 requires a        
different law of density for another1   
and a negative resistance for a third4  
,,outlines ,,of ,,the ,,problem4  ,from 
the position we now occupy1 we can see  
the outlines of the problem before us1  
viz43 ,to reconcile the existence of an 
ethereal medium with the law of         
gravitation1 and to show the harmony    
between them4 ,we shall thus occupy the 
middle ground1 and endeavor to be just  
to the genius of ,descartes1 without    
detracting from the glory of ,newton1 by
 demonstrating the reality of the       
,cartesian vortices1 and by showing that
 the ether is not affected by           
gravitation1 but on the other hand is   
least dense in the centre of our system4
 ,but what 7it may be asked7 has this to
 do with the theory of storms8 ,much    
every way4 ,and we may so far anticipate

 our subject as to assert that every    
phenomenon in meteorology where force is
 concerned1 is dependent on the motions 
of the great sea of electric fluid which
 surrounds us1 in connection with its   
great specific1 caloric4 ,if we are     
chargeable with overweening pretensions1
 let it be attributed to the fact that  
for the last fifteen years we have      
treated the weather as an astronomical  
phenomenon1 calculated by simple formul1
 and that the evidence of its truth has 
been almost daily presented to us1 so as
 to render it by this time one of the   
most familiar and palpable of all the   
great fundamental laws of nature4 ,true1
 we have neither had means nor leisure  
to render the theory as perfect as we   
might have done1 the reason of which we 
have already communicated4   ,,motions  
,,of ,,the ,,stars4  ,in investigating  
the question now before us1 we shall    
first take the case of an ethereal      
vortex without any reference to the     
ponderable bodies which it contains1    

considering the ether to possess only   
inertia4 ,if there be a vortex around   
the sun1 it is of finite extent2 for if 
the ether be co-extensive with space1   
and the stars likewise suns with        
surrounding vortices1 the solar vortex  
cannot be infinite4 ,that there is an   
activity in the heavens which the mere  
law of attraction is incompetent to     
account for1 is an admitted fact4 ,the  
proper motions of the fixed stars have  
occupied the attention of the greatest  
names in astronomy1 and motions have    
been detected1 which according to the   
theory of gravity1 requires the         
admission of invisible masses of matter 
in their neighborhood1 compared with    
which the stars themselves are          
insignificant4 ,but this is not the only
 difficulty4 ,no law of arrangement in  
the stars can exist that will save the  
,stellar system from ultimate           
destruction4 ,the case assumed by ,sir  
,john ,herschel1 of a cluster1 wherein  
the periods shall be equal1 cannot be   

made to fulfil the conditions of being  
very numerous1 without infringing the   
other condition--the non-intersection of
 their orbits2 while the outside stars  
would have to obey another law of       
gravitation1 and consequently would be  
still more liable to derangement from   
their ever-changing distances from each 
other1 and from those next outside2 in  
brief1 the stability of those stars     
composing the cluster would necessarily 
depend on the existence of outside      
stars1 and plenty of them4 ,but those   
outside stars would follow the common   
law of gravity1 and must ultimately     
bring ruin on the whole4 ,we know such  
clusters do exist in the heavens1 and   
that the law of gravity alone must bring
 destruction upon them4 ,this is a case 
wherein modern science has been         
instrumental in drawing a veil over the 
fair proportions of nature4 ,that such  
collections of stars are not designed   
thus to derange the order of nature1    
proves  priori1 that some other         

conservative principle must exist2 that 
the medium of space must contain many   
vortices--eddies1 as it were1 in the    
great ethereal ocean1 whose currents are
 sweeping along the whole body of stars4
 ,we shall consider1 7as a faint        
shadowing of the glorious empire of     
,omnipotence17 that the whole infinite  
extent of space is full of motion and   
power to its farthest verge2 and it may 
be an allowable stretch of the          
imagination to conceive that the whole  
comprises one infinite cylindrical      
vortex1 whose axis is the only thing in 
the universe in a state of absolute     
unchangeableness4   ,,vorticose         
,,motion4  ,let us for a moment admit   
the idea of an infinite ocean of fluid  
matter1 having inertia without gravity1 
and rotating around an infinite axis1 in
 this case there is nothing to          
counteract the effect of the centrifugal
 force4 ,the elasticity of the medium   
would only oppose resistance in a vortex
 of finite diameter4 ,where it is       

infinite1 each cylindrical layer is     
urged outward by its own motion1 and    
impelled also by those behind4 ,the     
result would be that all the fluid would
 at last have left the axis1 around     
which would exist an absolute and       
eternal void2 into which neither sound1 
nor light1 nor aught material1 could    
enter4 ,the case of a finite vortex is  
very different4 ,however great the      
velocity of rotation1 and the tendency  
of the central parts to recede from the 
axis1 there would be an inward current  
down either pole1 and meeting at the    
equatorial plane to be thence deflected 
in radii4 ,but this radiation would be  
general from every part of the axis1 and
 would be kept up as long as the        
rotation continued1 if the polar        
currents can supply the drain of the    
radial stream1 that is1 if the axis of  
the vortex is not too long for the      
velocity of rotation and the elasticity 
of the ether1 there will be no          
derangement of the density1 only a      

tendency4 ,and in this case the periodic
 times of the parts of the vortex will  
be directly as the distances from the   
axis1 and the absolute velocities will  
be equal4   ,,formation ,,of ,,vortices4
  ,there is reason to suspect that      
,newton looked at this question with a  
jaundiced eye4 ,to do it justice1 we    
must consider the planetary matter in a 
vortex1 as the exponent of its motion1  
and not as originating or directing it4 
,if planetary matter becomes involved in
 any vortex1 it introduces the law of   
gravitation1 which counteracts the      
expulsive force of the radial stream1   
and is thus enabled to retain its       
position in the centre4 ,a predominating
 mass in the centre will1 by its        
influence1 retain other masses of matter
 at a distance from the centre1 even    
when exposed to the full power of the   
radial stream4 ,if the power of the     
central mass is harmoniously adjusted to
 the rotation of the vortex1 7and the   
co-existence of the phenomena is itself 

the proof that such an adjustment does  
obtain17 the two principles will not    
clash or interfere with each other4 ,or 
in other words1 that whatever might have
 been the initial condition of the solar
 vortex1 the ultimate condition was     
necessarily one of equilibrium1 or the  
system of the planets would not now     
exist4 ,with this view of its           
constitution1 we must consider that the 
periodic times of the planets           
approximately correspond to the times of
 the contiguous parts of the vortex4    
,consequently1 in the solar vortex1 the 
density of the ether is directly as the 
square roots of the distances from the  
axis4 ,this is not the place fully to   
enter into a discussion of the question1
 or to show that the position of each   
planet in the system is due to the      
outstanding1 uncompensated1 portion of  
the expulsive force of the radial       
stream1 modified by the density of the  
ether within the planets1 and also by   
their own densities1 diameters1         

inclinations of axis1 and periods of    
rotation4 ,that ,jupiter could not      
remain in the orbit of ,mercury1 nor    
,mercury in that of ,jupiter1 by merely 
exchanging periods and distances1 but   
that each planet can only be in         
equilibrio in its own orbit4 ,that any  
change in the eccentricities of the     
planetary orbits will neither increase  
nor diminish the action of the radial   
stream of the vortex1 and consequently  
will not interfere with the law of      
gravitation4 ,in relation to the        
numerous questions that will spring up  
from such a position1 it is sufficient  
here to say1 that it is believed all    
objections can be satisfactorily        
answered2 while1 by this light1 a long  
range of phenomena that have hitherto   
baffled the sagacity of the wise1 come  
out plainly1 and discover their         
parentage4  ,in cometary astronomy we   
shall find much to substantiate these   
views4 ,the anomalies in their motions1 
the discrepancies in their periods1     

calculated from different sets of       
observations1 their nebulosities and    
appendages1 will all receive a          
satisfactory solution2 and these lawless
 wanderers of the deep be placed in a   
more interesting light4   ,,test ,,of ,a
 ,,theory4  ,it has been remarked that  
the best evidence of the truth of a     
theory1 is its ability to refer to some 
general principle1 the greatest number  
of relevant phenomena1 that1 like the   
component masses of the chiselled arch1 
they may mutually bind and strengthen   
each other4 ,this we claim to be the    
characteristic of this theory4 ,at the  
outset it was not intended to allude to 
more than was actually necessary to give
 an outline of the theory1 and to       
introduce the main question1 yet        
untouched4 ,we have exhibited the stones
 of which the arch is composed2 but they
 may be pasteboard1--for the reader has 
not handled them4 ,we will now produce  
the keystone1 and put it in its place4  
,this he shall handle and weigh4 ,he    

will find it hard1--a block of granite1 
cut from the quarry of observed facts1  
and far too heavy to be held in its     
place by a mere pasteboard structure4   
,,enunciation ,,of ,,the ,,theory4      
,quitting1 therefore1 the region of the 
planets1 we will come down to the       
surface of our own globe1 to seek for   
some more palpable evidence of the truth
 of the following propositions3  #ast4  
,that space is filled with an elastic   
fluid1 possessing inertia without       
weight4  #b;d4 ,that the parts of this  
fluid in the solar system circulate1    
after the manner of a vortex1 with a    
direct motion4  #c;d4 ,that there are   
also secondary vortices1 in which the   
planets are placed4  #dth4 ,that the    
earth is also placed in a vortex of the 
ethereal medium4  #eth4 ,that the       
satellites are passively carried around 
their primaries1 with the ethereal      
current1 and have no rotation relative  
to the ether1 and therefore they always 
present the same face to their          

primaries1 and have no vortex4  ,the    
consideration of these propositions     
involves many others1 many difficulties1
 many apparent anomalies and            
contradictions1 which should bespeak for
 such a theory1--the offspring of       
observation1 without the aid afforded by
 the knowledge of others1 and of toil   
without leisure1--a large share of      
indulgence4 ,with this we will close    
these preliminary remarks1 and present  
our theory of the physical cause which  
disturbs the equilibrium of our         
atmosphere1 and which appears the       
principal agent in the production of    
storms1 in the following words3  ,the   
dynamical axis of the terral vortex     
passes through the centre of gravity of 
the earth and moon1 and is continually  
circulating over the earth's surface in 
both hemispheres1 in a spiral1--its     
latitude and longitude1 at any          
particular time1 being dependent1--     
#ast4 ,on the relative mass of the moon4
  #b;d4 ,on the inclination of the axis 

of the vortex to the earth's axis4      
#c;d4 ,on the longitude of the ascending
 node of the vortex on the lunar orbit4 
#dth4 ,on the longitude of the ascending
 node of the lunar orbit on the         
ecliptic4  #eth4 ,on the eccentricity of
 the lunar orbit at the time4  #fth4 ,on
 the longitude of the perigee of the    
lunar orbit at the time4  #gth4 ,on the 
moon's true anomaly at the time4        
,,mass ,,of ,,the ,,moon4  ,those       
elements which represent the moon's     
distance and motion are accurately      
known1 and may be taken from the        
,nautical ,almanac1 being all embodied  
in the moon's parallax or semi-diameter1
 and in the declination and right       
ascension2 but for the most important   
element1--the moon's mass1 we in vain   
look to astronomy4 ,in fact1 it may be  
averred that the importance attached to 
astronomical authority1 concerning the  
mass of the moon1 has caused more       
trouble than any other question of the  
whole theory1 until we trusted          

implicitly to the theory itself to      
determine it4 ,the determination of     
three unknown elements1 viz43 the moon's
 mass1 the inclination of the axis of   
the vortex1 and the right ascension of  
that axis1 is a more difficult problem  
than at first sight appears1 owing to   
the nature of the phenomena1 which      
affords the only clue for its solution4 
,there are six principal vortices ever  
in operation on the surface of the      
earth1 and their disturbing influence   
extends from #bjj to #djj miles4 ,to    
find the precise centre1 by one observer
 confined to one place1 is difficult2   
and to separate them1 so as to be fully 
assured that you have the right one1 is 
perhaps still more so4 ,happily this    
tedious labor is accomplished1 and we   
are able with confidence to give the    
following important elements1 as very   
close approximations to the truth3      
,mass of the moon                       
#a_/gb4c   ,obliquity of the axis of the
 vortex   #ae to  #cb variable4   ,right

 ascension of ditto              #bej to
 #bij variable4  ,it must be borne in   
mind that we are now discussing the main
 or central vortex of the earth2 but    
before applying them to the calculation1
 we will explain the modus operandi1    
waiving for the present the             
consideration of the law of density in  
the ,terral vortex4 ,it is evident at   
first sight that if the periodic times  
of the parts of the vortex contiguous to
 the moon1 are equal to the moon's      
period approximately1 that the velocity 
of the ether is greater at the surface  
of the earth than the velocity of that  
surface4 ,now1 we have before argued    
that the ether possesses inertia1 it    
therefore would under such circumstances
 exert some mechanical action4          
,consequently1 the arial envelope of our
 globe1 or its superior stratum1 is     
impelled eastward by convection#d of the
 more rapidly rotating ether4 ,and from 
the extreme tenuity of its upper layers1
 is probably forced into immense waves1 

which will observe to a certain degree1 
a general parallelism north and south4  
,,atmospheric ,,currents4  ,it is a     
well-known fact1 that the prevailing    
current of the atmosphere in high       
latitudes is from the westward4 ,the    
cause of this is ascribed by ,professor 
,dove to the transfer of the equatorial 
portions to a higher latitude1 by which 
the excess of its rotative velocity is  
made apparent1 by outstripping the      
slower moving surface in its progress   
eastward4 ,no doubt some effect is due  
to this1 but still a difficulty remains4
 ,let us follow this current4 ,the polar
 current reaches the surface on the     
borders of the trades with less rotative
 velocity than the surface1 and is1     
therefore1 met by the surface as a      
current partaking of both motions4 ,in  
the northern hemisphere it is north-east
 deflected to east as it approaches the 
southern trades4 ,by the same reasoning1
 coming from the north before it readies
 the surface1 it ought to be also a     

north-east wind above the lower westerly
 currents4 ,now it is an observed fact1 
that while in the latitude of ,new      
,york1 for instance1 the lower westerly 
winds are to the easterly1 as #c or #d  
to #a1 in the highest regions of        
observed clouds1 the ratio is much      
increased2 and according to our own     
observations in this place1#e we have   
never seen the highest cirrus clouds    
moving westward4 ,how then is this      
continual interchange kept up8          
,assuredly we cannot have a current from
 the poles without a contrary current to
 the poles4 ,if we go into the arctic   
circle1 we again find the westerly and  
northerly winds predominating4 ,if the  
current from the equator follows the    
surface1 the westerly winds ought to be 
south-west4 ,if it be above the surface 
wind1 then the surface wind is the polar
 current1 and ought to be north-east4   
,whereas1 from the testimony of all who 
have visited these regions1 the         
prevailing winds are north-west4 ,how   

can this be8  ,again1 it is proved that 
the upper current near the equator is   
also from the westward--as near due west
 as possible4 ,take the latitude of ,st 
,vincent4 ,the difference between the   
cosine of #ac and radius applied to the 
circumference1 is about #fjj miles1     
which would give #be miles per hour to  
the eastward1 in lat4 #ac4 ,but to do   
this1 it is necessary to transfer it    
suddenly from the equator2 for by a slow
 motion the easterly tendency would be  
lost4 ,give it #bd hours from the       
equator to lat4 #ac1 without any loss of
 easterly tendency1 and it comes to that
 latitude with a velocity of #ch miles  
per hour to the northward1 and only #be 
to the eastward2 we have1 therefore1 a  
wind from south-west by south4 ,yet it  
is known that in the tropics the highest
 visible clouds move from the westward4 
,but as no such case could occur as a   
transfer in twenty-four hours without   
loss1 and if we diminish the time1 the  
wind is still more southerly4           

,meteorologists usually cite the falling
 of ashes at ,jamaica during the        
eruption of ,coseguina1 in ,guatamala1  
in ,february #ahce1 as coming from      
south-west1 whereas the true direction  
was about west south-west1 and the trade
 wind below was about north4 ,but do we 
deny that there is an interchange       
between the frigid and torrid zones8 ,by
 no means2 but we would show that the   
great controlling power is external to  
our atmosphere1 and that the relative   
velocities of the earth and the         
atmosphere is not alone adequate to     
account for it4 ,by this view the polar 
current is a north-west wind 7which is  
impossible by ,professor ,dove's        
theory71 or is carried eastward by      
electric convection4   ,,hutton',s      
,,theory4  ,whether we adopt the views  
of ,fourier or ,poullet1 as to the      
temperature of the planetary spaces1 it 
is certain that it is at least equal to1
 or less than1 the lowest temperature of
 our globe4 ,it is also a well-known    

fact1 that the capacity of air to hold  
vapor in solution1 increases in a higher
 ratio than the temperature1 so that the
 intermingling of saturated portions of 
air1 at different temperatures1 must    
necessarily be attended by precipitation
 of moisture4 ,this idea was advanced by
 ,doctor ,hutton1 and considered        
competent to account for the prominent  
meteorological phenomena1 until         
,professor ,espy broached a questionable
 principle1 7and which is rendered still
 more so by the late investigations of  
,regnault17 in opposition to ,hutton's  
theory4 ,that the theory is deficient1  
no one can gainsay4 ,that ,espy has     
rendered the question clearer1 is       
equally hazardous to assert4 ,hutton    
failed in showing a cause for such      
intermingling on a sufficient scale2    
while ,espy1 it may be suspected1 has   
misinterpreted facts1 and incautiously  
rejected the only element possessing the
 power of raising the storm4   ,,great  
,,specific ,,heat ,,of ,,the ,,ether4   

,whatever may be the degree of          
condensation or rarefaction in the      
terral vortex1 there must necessarily be
 a current down the pole or axis1 thence
 to be deflected along the equatorial   
plane of the vortex1 and this drain will
 be as perpetual as the rarefaction of  
the centre1 7caused by the centrifugal  
force of rotation17 which calls it      
forth4 ,it will now be perceived that   
the fluid of the vortex1 which we shall 
still term ether1 is neither more nor   
less than the electric fluid1--the      
mighty energising principle of          
space1--the source of motion1--the cause
 of magnetism1 galvanism1 light1 heat1  
gravity1 of the aurora1 the lightning1  
the zodiacal light1 of the tails and    
nebulosities of comets1 of the great    
currents of our atmosphere1 of the      
samiel1 the hurricane1 and the          
earthquake4 ,it will be perceived that  
we treat it as any other fluid1 in      
relation to its law of motion and       
condensation4 ,but we have no right to  

base our calculations on its resistance1
 by the analogies presented by          
ponderable or atomic matter4 ,atomic    
fluids1--even pure air1 may be          
considered viscid and tenacious when    
compared to an infinitely divisible     
fluid1 between whose particles 7if we   
may use the term7 no attraction of any  
kind exists4 ,no ponderable matter can  
come in close contact without feeling   
the influence of the gravitating force  
which1 at insensible distances1--such as
 the breadth of a wave of ether1 is     
increased in power1 and becomes a       
cohering and combining force4 ,we       
contend that this fluid is the only     
fluid of space2 when condensed it is    
positive1 and seeks to escape2 when     
rarefied it is negative1 and receives   
from the contiguous space a restoration 
of its power4 ,that it can give and     
receive1 from planetary matter1 what we 
call motion2 and consequently can affect
 the temperature of such matter1 and be 
in turn affected by it4 ,and finally    

that1 for its degree of inertia1 it     
exceeds in elasticity and specific heat 
all other matter4   ,,process ,,of      
,,derangement4  ,this premised1 we see  
that as the axis of the vortex traverses
 the surface of the earth1 there is a   
tendency to derange the electric state  
of the parts travelled over1 by bringing
 the atmosphere and surface of the earth
 under the rarefied centre of the       
vortex4 ,for it is not the ether of the 
atmosphere alone that is affected4 ,it  
is called forth from the earth itself1  
and partakes of the temperature of the  
crust1--carrying up into the upper      
regions the vapor-loaded atmosphere of  
the surface4 ,the weather now feels     
close and warm2 even in winter there is 
a balmy change in the feelings4 ,the    
atmosphere then fills with haze1 even to
 the highest regions of the clouds2 the 
clouds themselves are ill defined2      
generally the wind comes in at ,e4      
,s-,e41 or ,s41 getting very fresh by   
the time it chops round to ,w4 ,in from 

six to twelve hours from the time of the
 meridian passage1 in this latitude1 the
 ,big ,cumuli have formed1 and commenced
 their march eastward4 ,in summer time  
there is always thunder and lightning1  
when the passage is attended or followed
 by a storm4 ,in winter1 generally1 but 
not always4 ,in summer1 the diameter of 
the storm is contracted2 in winter1     
dilated2 in consequence of this1 summer 
is the best season to trace the vortices
 of the earth through their revolutions4
 ,let us now attend a little to the     
results4 ,the ether of the surface      
atmosphere partakes of the temperature  
of that atmosphere1 so also the ether of
 the earth's crust partakes of the      
temperature of the crust2 and its escape
 is rapid1 compared with the ascent of  
the air4 ,when it arrives at the colder 
layers of air above1 its temperature    
sinks1 and1 on account of the greater   
specific caloric1 it imparts a much     
higher temperature to those layers than 
is due to their position2 an elevation  

consequently takes place1--begetting a  
drain from below1 until the upper       
regions are loaded with a warm and      
vapory atmosphere4 ,if the action of the
 sun conspires at the same time to      
increase the effect1 the storm will be  
more violent4 ,in twelve hours after the
 meridian passage of the vortex1 the    
storm is brought under the parts of the 
ethereal atmosphere of the earth most   
remote from the axis2 a reaction now    
takes place2 the cold ether of space    
rushes in1 and1 on account of its great 
specific caloric1 it abstracts from the 
warm atmosphere more than pertains to   
the difference of temperature1 and there
 is a great condensation4 ,rain and hail
 may form in fearful quantities2 and    
when the equilibrium is restored1 the   
temperature will have fallen many       
degrees4  ,as it is important that we   
should have a clear view of the         
character of the ether1 we will revert  
to the principle we have advocated1     
viz43 that in equal spaces there are    

equal momenta4 ,what the ether wants in 
inertia1 is made up by its motion or    
specific heat1 considering in this case 
inertia to stand for weight when        
compared with ponderable matter2 so that
 to raise an equivalent amount of       
inertia of ether to the same temperature
 as atmospheric air1 will require as    
much more motion or specific heat as its
 matter is less4 ,and this we conceive  
to be a law of space in relation to all 
free or gaseous matter4 ,to apply it to 
solids would require a knowledge of the 
amount of force constituting the        
cohesion of the solid4   ,,influence    
,,of ,,diminished ,,pressure4  ,but     
there is another principle which        
modifies these effects4 ,we have already
 adverted to the action of the          
tangential current of the vortex forcing
 the outer layers of the atmosphere into
 waves4 ,these waves will be interfered 
with by the different vortices1         
sometimes being increased and sometimes 
diminished by them4#f ,if these waves   

are supposed very wide1 7which would be 
the case in the attenuated outside      
layers of the atmosphere17 the action of
 the vortex will be greater in its      
passage over a place1 which at the time 
corresponded to the depression point of 
the wave1 that is1 to the line of low   
barometer2 because here there would be  
less resistance to overcome in the      
passage of the ether from the surface of
 the earth into space2 so that we may   
conceive each vortex making a line of   
storms each day around the earth1       
separated by less disturbed intervals4  
,after the formation of the storm1 it of
 course has nothing to do with the      
vortex that produced it2 it travels in  
the general direction of the local      
atmosphere of the place--in             
intratropical latitudes westward1 in    
extratropical latitudes eastward4 ,if1  
therefore1 the disturbance forms at the 
place of observation1 there will        
probably be no storm2 but further       
eastward its action would be more       

apparent or violent4 ,it is impossible1 
of course1 to lay down any general      
description which shall meet every case4
 ,it is a knowledge that can only be    
acquired by observation1 and then is not
 readily or easily communicated4 ,there 
are many contingencies to be allowed    
for1 and many modifying causes to keep  
sight of1 to enter into which would only
 be tedious2 we shall1 therefore1       
confine ourselves to the prominent      
phenomena4   ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,polar
 ,,current4  ,we have seen how the      
passage of the axis of the vortex may   
derange the electric tension of the     
parts passed over2 but there is another 
mode of action not yet adverted to4     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #a  ,when the moon 
is at her perigee1 the axis of the      
vortex passes through the centre of     
gravity of the earth and moon at ,c1 and
 cuts off the segment ,,rr4 ,at the     
apogee1 on account of her greater       
distance1 and of her consequent power to
 push the earth out from the axis of the

 vortex ,,xx1 the segment ,r,r is only  
cut off by the axis2 and the angle which
 the axis makes with the surface will   
vary with the arcs ,,ar and ,a,r2 for   
these arcs will measure the inclination 
from the nature of the circle4 ,in      
passing from the perigee to the apogee  
the axis will pass over the latitudes   
intermediate between ,r and ,r in both  
hemispheres1 neither reaching to the    
equator ,e1 nor to the pole ,p4 ,let us 
now suppose a meridian of the earth1    
represented by the line ,,nrs1 ,n being 
north1 and ,s south1 and the surface of 
the atmosphere by ,n,s2 ,,xx still      
representing the axis of the vortex1    
ordinarily inclined #cd or #ce to the   
surface4 ,let us also conceive the      
rotation of the earth to cease1 7the    
action of the vortex remaining the      
same17 thus leaving the axis over a     
particular longitude4 ,if the ether     
possesses inertia1 there will be an     
actual scooping out of the upper        
portions1 driving them southward to a   

certain distance1 where the atmosphere  
will be piled up above the ordinary     
level4 ,there will1 therefore1 be a     
strong contrary current at the surface  
of the earth to restore the equilibrium1
 and if the action be violent1 the      
surface wind will be increased2 so that 
if it be considered tangential to the   
surface at ,s1 its own momentum will    
tend to make it leave the surface and   
mount up to ,t2 and in this way increase
 the action due to the ether4 ,now1     
although the axis is never stationary1  
but travels round the earth in less than
 twenty-five hours1 yet there is a      
tendency to this mode of action2 and it 
is even sometimes palpable to the       
observer when the axis has passed       
immediately to the northward2 for the   
pinnate shafts and branching plumes of  
the cirri often reach far to the south  
of the southern boundary of the storm4  
,these shafts are always longer when    
radiating from the northward than when  
proceeding from the southward4 ,the     

cause is understood by the above figure4
 ,at such a time1 after dark1 the       
auroral shafts will also be seen over   
the storm to the northward1 but will be 
invisible to those beneath4 ,there is   
this to be observed1 however1 that the  
visibility of the ethereal current 7or  
the aurora7 is more frequent when the   
passage of the vortex is not attended   
with any great commotion1 its free      
passage being perhaps obstructed by too 
dry an atmosphere2 hence it becomes more
 visible4 ,but it may be asserted that a
 great aurora is never seen except when 
a vortex is near1 and to the northward1 
and within a few hours of its passage   
over the meridian4 ,we have1 however1   
seen partial auroras to the south when  
none existed north1 and also cases when 
the radiation was from west1 but they   
are never as bright as in the north4    
,they are all due1 however1 to the same 
cause2 and we have frequently followed a
 vortex for three days to the northward1
 7that is1 seen the effects of its      

meridian passage17 at #gjj miles        
distance1 by the aurora1 and even by the
 lightning1 which proves plainly that   
the exterior layers of our atmosphere   
can reflect a flash of lightning1       
assisted by the horizontal refraction1  
otherwise the curvature of the earth    
would sink it ten miles below the       
horizon4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b       
,,limits ,,of ,,the ,,vortex4  ,the     
action of the polar current of the      
ether1 therefore1 tends to cause a      
depression of the barometer1 and an     
elevation to the northward and          
southward1 and there is a general set of
 the wind below to the point of greatest
 depression4 ,the action of the         
tangential current works the outer      
surface of the atmosphere into great    
ridges and hollows1 whose distances     
apart as well as actual dimensions1 are 
continually changing under the          
influences of causes not yet alluded to1
 and it is in the hollows where the     
action of the polar current will be     

principally expended4 ,luckily for the  
earth1 the axis of the vortex is never  
long in passing over any particular     
place4 ,in this latitude1 whose natural 
cosine is three-fourths1 the velocity   
westward is over #gjj miles per hour2   
but at its extreme limits north1 the    
motion is much slower1 and is repeated  
for two or three days in nearly the same
 latitude1 for then it begins to return 
to the south2 thus oscillating in about 
one sidereal period of the moon4 ,at its
 southern limit1 the vortex varies but  
slowly in latitude for the same time1   
but the velocity is much greater4 ,the  
extreme latitudes vary at different     
times with the eccentricity of the lunar
 orbit1 with the place or longitude of  
the perigee1 and with the longitude of  
the moon's ascending node1 but in no    
case can the central vortex reach within
 #e of the equator1 or higher than about
 #ge of latitude north or south4 ,hence 
there are no storms strictly speaking   
beyond #hhg of latitude2 although a     

storm may be raging close by1 at the    
turning point south1 and draw in a very 
strong gale from the northward with a   
clear sky above4 ,so also1 although     
rains and short squalls may be frequent 
in the vapor-loaded atmosphere of the   
equator1 yet the hurricane does not     
reach there1 owing to the adjustment of 
the mass and distance of the moon1 and  
the inclination of the axes of the      
vortices to the axis of the earth4 ,if  
the temperature of the upper limit or   
highest latitude of the vortex1 was     
equal to the temperature which obtains  
at its lowest limit1 and the daily      
extremes of the solar influence as      
great1 the hurricanes would be as       
violent at the one as the other1 and    
even more so on account of the smaller  
velocity4 ,but the deficiency of        
temperature and moisture1 7which last is
 all-important17 prevents the full      
development of the effect4 ,and even in 
the tropics1 the progress of the sun1 by
 its power in directing the great annual

 currents of the atmosphere1 only       
conspires in the summer and autumn      
months1 to bring an atmosphere in the   
track of the vortices1 possessing the   
full degree of moisture and deficiency  
of electric tension1 to produce the     
derangement necessary to call forth the 
hurricane in its greatest activity4     
,,routine ,,of ,a ,,storm4  ,the novelty
 and originality of this theory will    
perhaps justify us in dwelling a little 
longer on what observation has detected4
 ,the vortex 7and we are now speaking   
only of the central vortex7 does not    
derange every place alike1 but skips    
over large tracts of longitude in its   
progress westward4 ,we speak here of the
 immovable axis of the vortex as in     
motion2 in reality it is the rotation of
 the earth which brings every meridian  
under its influence in some latitude    
once every twenty-four hours4 ,the      
centre of greatest derangement forms the
 nucleus1 towards which the surface     
currents1 under certain restrictions1   

flow4 ,the strongest current will1      
however1 usually be from the south1 on  
account of the inclination of the axis  
of the vortex to the surface of the     
earth4#h ,these currents continuing     
onwards by their vires inerti1 according
 to the first law of motion1 assist     
somewhat in conveying the warm surface  
wind1 loaded with moisture1 into the    
region of cloud2 and the diminution of  
temperature causes the condensation of  
large masses of vapor1 according to     
,hutton's views2 and the partial vacuum 
thus produced1 causes a still greater   
intermingling4 ,but we have already     
shown that this is not the sole cause1  
nor is it ever more than partially      
accomplished4 ,the ether of the lower   
atmosphere1 and of the crust of the     
earth1 is disturbed1 and rushes towards 
the rarefied axis from the surface1 and 
with the temperature of the surface1    
thus conveying the surface atmosphere1  
in a measure1 along with it4 ,in the    
upper regions1 this ether 7or electric  

fluid7 cools down1 or parts with some of
 its heat1 to the air of those regions1 
and1 by its great specific caloric1     
necessarily and unduly increases the    
temperature of the air4 ,this1 by its   
expansion and ascension will cause a    
further influx from below1 until the    
upper atmosphere becomes loaded with    
vapor4 ,in twelve hours1 at least1 a    
reaction must take place1 as that part  
of the earth's surface is carried six or
 seven thousand miles from the axis1    
where the ether is more dense4 ,this in 
turn descends to the surface1 carrying  
with it the temperature of space1 at    
least #fj below zero2 a great           
condensation must follow2 local         
derangements of the electric equilibrium
 in the centre of large clouds1 when the
 condensation is active1 must now take  
place1 while partially nonconducting    
masses intervene1 to prevent an         
instantaneous restoration of the        
equilibrium1 until the derangement is   
sufficient to cause the necessary       

tension1 when all obstacles are rent    
asunder1 and the ether issues forth1    
clothed in the power and sublimity of   
the lightning4 ,it is a                 
fearfully-energetic fluid1 and1 when    
sufficiently disturbed1 competent to    
produce the most violent tornado1 or the
 most destructive earthquake4 ,that     
these two phenomena have simultaneously 
occurred1 seems well authenticated2 but 
the earthquake1 of course1 must be      
referred generally to derangements of   
the electric equilibrium of the earth's 
interior1 of which at present we know   
but little4  ,the day or morning        
previous to the passage of the vortex1  
is frequently very fine1 calm1 mild1 and
 sleepy weather1--commonly called a     
weather breeder4 ,after the storm has   
fully matured1 there is an approach of  
the clouds to the surface1 a reduction  
of the temperature above1 and the human 
body feels the change far more than is  
due to the fall of temperature4 ,this is
 owing to the cold ether requiring so   

much heat to raise its temperature to   
that of surrounding bodies1 or1 in other
 words1 is due to its great specific    
caloric4 ,in summer1 this falling of the
 upper layers in front of the storm is  
so apparent1 that every part is seen to 
expand under the eye by                 
perspective1--swelling1 and curling1 and
 writhing1 like the surface of water or 
oil when just commenced boiling4 ,the   
wind now partakes of the motion of the  
external ether1 and moves with the storm
 eastward 7in this latitude71 or from   
,n-,e4 to ,s-,e41 until the action      
ceases4   ,,conditions ,,necessary ,,to 
,,produce ,a ,,storm4  ,the vortex1 in  
its passage round the earth1 may only   
meet with a few localities favorable for
 producing a very violent storm2 but    
these nuclei will generally be connected
 by bands of cloudy atmosphere2 so that 
could we view them from the moon1 the   
earth would be belted like the planet   
,jupiter4 ,there is reason to suspect1  
also1 that there are variations in the  

energy of the ethereal motions1         
independent of the conditions of the    
earth and its atmosphere1 which affects 
even the radial stream of the sun4 ,for 
the zodiacal light1 which is caused by  
this radial stream1 is at times much    
more vivid than at others4 ,also in the 
case of the aurora1 on our own globe4   
,on this point there is much to say1 but
 here is not the place4 ,the conditions 
favorable for the production of a storm 
at the central passage of a vortex1 are 
a previous exemption from excitement    
ceteris paribus1 a high temperature and 
dew point1 a depression of the          
barometer1 and local accumulation of    
electric tension1 positive or negative2 
and these are influenced by the storms  
in other places controlling the arial   
currents1 and thus determining the      
atmosphere of the place4   ,,lateral    
,,vortices4  ,we have already alluded to
 the lateral vortices of the terral     
system4 ,we must now resort to a        
diagram4  ,in the following figure1 the 

arrows represent the ethereal current of
 the terral vortex2 the linear circle1  
the earth2 ,c the centre of gravity of  
the earth and moon1 and1 consequently1  
the central vortex or axis of the vortex
 of the earth1 ,i represents the        
position of the inner vortex1 and ,o    
that of the outer vortex4 ,these two    
last are eddies1 caused by the obstacle 
presented by the earth in being pushed  
out from the centre by the moon1 and are
 called lateral vortices4 ,there are1   
therefore1 two lateral vortices1 and one
 central1 in both hemispheres1 and by   
this simple arrangement is the earth    
watered1 and the atmospheric circulation
 produced4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c     
,,illustration ,,of ,,their ,,action4   
,if we place a globe in a vessel of     
water1 so that the vertex shall only    
just be covered1 and place the globe    
eccentrically in the vessel so that the 
centre of the vessel may not be too far 
from the outside of the globe1 and then 
impart an equable but slow motion to the

 water1 in the manner of a vortex2 by   
viewing the reflected light of the sky  
from the surface of the water above the 
globe1 we shall be able to trace a      
succession of dimples1 originating at ,i
 and ,o1 and passing off with the       
current1 and dying away4 ,the direction 
of the fluid in these little eddies1    
will be the same as the direction of the
 current in the main vortex4 ,if we     
displace the globe1 so as to remove it  
far from the centre of the vessel1 and  
impart the same motion1 the vortex ,i   
will be found at ,e1 and the direction  
of the current will be contrary to the  
direction of the fluid in the vessel4   
,in the case of the earth and moon1 the 
displacement can never change the       
position of the inner vortex much4 ,it  
will always be to the right hand of the 
central vortex in north latitudes1 and  
in consequence of the ether striking our
 globe in such a position1 the current  
that is deflected from its true path1 by
 the protuberance of the earth forcing  

it inside1 is prevented by the circular 
current of the parts nearer the axis of 
the vortex1 from passing off2 so that a 
vortex is formed1 and is more violent1  
ceteris paribus1 than the vortex at ,o4 
,,order ,,of ,,occurrence4  ,whether    
this mode of action has been correctly  
inferred1 matters little2 the lateral   
vortices follow the law of such a       
position4 ,the inner vortex always      
precedes the central from five to eight 
days1 when ascending in this latitude1  
and comes to the meridian after the     
moon4 ,the outer vortex1 on the         
contrary1 follows the central in its    
monthly round1 and comes to the meridian
 before the moon4 ,it will be readily   
understood that if the axes of these    
lateral vortices be produced through the
 earth1 they will pass through similar  
vortices in the opposite hemisphere2 but
 as the greatest latitude of the one1   
corresponds to the least latitude of the
 other1 the same calculation will not   
answer for both4 ,the same remark       

applies to the central vortex also4     
,thus there are six passages each month 
over latitude #da2 but as there are     
intervals of #c to #f between two       
consecutive passages of the same vortex1
 it may happen that an observer in the  
middle latitude1 would perhaps see      
nothing of their effects without looking
 for them4 ,generally speaking1 they are
 not only seen1 but felt4 ,the time of  
the passage of the outer vortex         
ascending1 corresponds so nearly 7in #ch
 of latitude7 at certain times1 with the
 passage of the central vortex          
descending1 that the two may be         
considered one if attention is not      
directed to it4 ,the orbits of these    
lateral vortices depend1 like that of   
the central vortex1 on the orbit of the 
moon for eccentricity1 but the          
longitudes of the perigee will not      
correspond with the longitude of the    
moon's perigee4 ,this follows from the  
theory4 ,as the elements of these orbits
 are only approximately determined1 we  

shall confine our calculations to the   
orbit of the central vortex4            
,,redfield',s ,,theory ,,of ,,storms4   
,it will now appear plainly to the      
reader1 that this theory of storms      
differs in every particular from the    
rival theories of ,redfield and ,espy1  
both as to the cause and the modus      
agendi4 ,it would appear at first sight1
 as if the discovery of these vortices  
would at once remedy the great defect in
 the theory of ,redfield1 viz43 that no 
adequate cause is assigned for the      
commencement and continuation of the    
vorticose motion1 in the great circular 
whirlwinds which compose a storm4 ,the  
facts1 however1 are adverse to such an  
application4 ,according to ,mr4         
,redfield1 the rotation of a circular   
storm in the northern hemisphere is from
 right to left1 and the reverse in the  
southern4 ,the author's attention has1  
of course1 been considerably directed to
 this point2 but in every case he has   
been unfortunate in finding in the      

clouds a rotation from left to right4   
,some cases are mentioned in the        
appended record of the weather4 ,he has 
also noticed many of those small        
whirlwinds on arid plains1 in ,egypt1 in
 ,mexico1 and in ,california1 which1 in 
the great majority of cases1 were also  
from left to right4 ,his opportunities1 
however1 have not extended to the       
southern hemisphere4 ,this theory has   
not1 however1 been formed on theoretic  
views1 but by looking nature in the face
 for years1 and following her           
indications4 ,accordingly1 we find that 
the changes of the wind in a storm      
forbid the adoption of the circular     
hypothesis4   ,,whirlwinds ,,very       
,,limited ,,in ,,diameter4  ,the theory1
 as extended by ,col4 ,reid1 rests on a 
simple rotation around a progressing    
centre1 and is found sometimes supported
 by evidence of the most violent action 
at the centre1 and sometimes by showing 
that the central portion is often in a  
state of calm4 ,we do not attempt to    

reconcile these views2 but would merely 
observe1 that an atmospheric vortex must
 be subject to the same dynamical laws  
as all other vortices2 and inasmuch as  
the medium cannot differ greatly in     
density1 from the centre to the         
circumference1 the periodic times of the
 parts of the vortex1 must be directly  
as their distances from the axis1 and   
consequently the absolute velocities    
must be equal4 ,if ,mr4 ,redfield       
resorts to a spirally inward current1 it
 would be a centripetal instead of a    
centrifugal current1 and therefore could
 not cause the barometer to fall1 which 
was the best feature of the theory in   
its primitive form4 ,the absolute       
velocity of the wind is the important   
element which most concerns us4 ,in the 
case of a tornado of a few yards in     
diameter1 there is no doubt a circular  
motion1 caused by the meeting of        
opposing currents2 but this may be      
considered a circle of a very small     
diameter4 ,the cause is due to a rapid  

escape of electric or ethereal matter1  
from the crust of the earth1 called     
forth by the progressing1 disturbed     
space above2 this involves the air1 and 
an ascending column in rotation begets  
the rush on all sides to that column in 
straight lines3 consequently1 the       
velocities will be inversely as the     
distances from the axis1 and the force  
of the current as the squares of the    
velocities4 ,on the circular theory1 no 
increase of velocity would be conferred 
by the approach of the centre1 and      
consequently no increase of power4      
,,objection ,,to ,,circular ,,storms4   
,another objection to the circular      
theory of storms1 is the uniformity of  
phase4 ,if that theory be true1 we see  
no reason why a person should not be    
sometimes on the northern side of the   
gale4 ,by referring to a diagram1 we    
perceive that on the northern side the  
changes of the wind pursue a contrary   
direction to what they do on the south1 
yet in nine cases out of ten1 each      

vessel meeting a hurricane will find the
 same changes of wind as are due to the 
southern side of the storm4 ,it is true1
 that if a vessel be to the northward of
 a great hurricane1 there will almost   
certainly be a north-east gale drawn in1
 and this might be set down as the outer
 limits of a circular storm4 ,but when  
the storm really begins1 the wind comes 
round south-east1 south1 south-west1    
ending at north-west1 and frequently is 
succeeded1 on the following day1 7if in 
middle latitude17 by a moderate breeze  
from the northward4 ,now1 if the        
north-east gale spoken of above1 was the
 outer limits of an atmospheric vortex1 
a vessel sailing west ought not to meet 
the hurricane1 as a north-east wind is  
indicative of being already on the west 
side1 or behind the storm4  ,again1 the 
characters of the winds1 and appearances
 at the different changes1 are opposed  
to the circular theory4 ,at a distance  
of fifty miles from the centre of a     
storm1 the wind which passes over a ship

 as a southerly wind1 will have made a  
rotation and a half1 with the hurricane 
velocity1 before the same wind can again
 pass the ship as a northerly wind1     
7supposing the progress eastward1 and   
the ship lying to17 that is1 the same   
wind which in another place was a south 
wind two hours before1 and after only   
going one degree north1 becomes a       
northerly wind1--changed in character   
and temperature1 as every seaman is well
 aware4 ,in a storm1 if the circular    
theory be true1 the character and       
temperature should be the same1 no      
matter from what point the wind is      
blowing4 ,this should be a conclusive   
argument4  ,mr4 ,espy has also changed  
his ground on the storms of the ,united 
,states2 he does not now contend that   
the winds blow inwards to a centre1 but 
to a line either directly or obliquely4 
,thus we see that while ,mr4 ,redfield  
concedes to ,mr4 ,espy a spirally inward
 current1 the latter also gives up a    
direct current to the centre1 to ,mr4   

,redfield4 ,this shows at least an      
approximation to the truth4  ,it is not 
necessary for the support of this       
theory1 that we should derive any       
materials from the ruins of others2 we  
shall therefore not avail ourselves of  
certain discrepant results1 which can be
 found in many of the storms cited by   
,colonel ,reid4 ,with respect to ,mr4   
,espy's cause of storms1 the experiments
 of ,regnault may be considered as      
decisive of the question3--#ast1 because
 the specific heat of vapor is so much  
less than ,espy assumed it to be2 and   
#b;d1 because the expansion of air in a 
free space does not suffer any change of
 volume by ascending1 except what is due
 to diminished pressure1 and the natural
 temperature of that elevation4         
,,indications ,,of ,a ,,storm4  ,in     
accordance with our theory1 the         
direction and force of the wind in a    
storm are due to ascending columns of   
air1 supplied from the upper portion of 
the atmospheric stratum beneath the     

clouds4 ,the commotion begins at the    
highest limits of the cirri1 and even at
 greater elevations4 ,hence1 the hazy   
appearance of the sky is a legitimate   
precursor of the coming gale4 ,as a     
general thing1 the wind will blow 7at   
the surface7 towards the centre of      
greatest commotion1 but it is too       
dependent on the ever-varying position  
and power of temporary nuclei of        
disturbance1 to be long steady1 except  
when the disturbance is so remote that  
its different centres of induction are1 
as it were1 merged into one common      
focus4 ,when a vortex is descending1 or 
passing from north to south1 and withal 
very energetic at the time1 the         
southerly wind 7which may always be     
considered the principal wind of the    
storm in this hemisphere7 may blow      
steadily towards the vortex for three or
 even four days4 ,when a vortex is      
ascending1 the induced northerly current
 will be comparatively moderate1 and be 
frequently checked by the southerly wind

 overblowing the storm1 and arriving the
 day before the vortex which produced   
it4  ,the important point for the       
navigator1 is to know the time of       
meridian passage of the vortex1 and its 
latitude at the time of the passage1 and
 then be guided by the indications of   
the weather and the state of barometer4 
,if it commences storming the day before
 the passage1 he may expect it much     
worse soon after the passage2 and again1
 if the weather looks bad when no vortex
 is near1 he may have a steady gale     
setting towards a storm1 but no storm   
until the arrival of a vortex4 ,again1  
if the barometer is low the day before  
the vortex passes1 there may be high    
barometer to the west1 and the passage  
be attended by no great commotion1 as it
 requires time for the storm to mature1 
and consequently its greatest violence  
will be to the east4 ,if at the ship the
 barometer is high1 the vortex may still
 produce a storm on a line of low       
barometer to the west1 and this line may

 reach the ship at the time of the      
passage4 ,in tropical climates the      
trouble must be looked for to the       
eastward2 as a storm1 once excited1 will
 travel westward with that stratum of   
atmosphere in which the great mass of   
vapor is lodged1 and in which1 of       
course1 the greatest derangement of     
electric tension is produced4  ,it will 
now be seen that we do not admit1 with  
,col4 ,reid1 that a storm continues in  
existence for a week together4 ,suppose 
a hurricane to originate in the         
,antilles at the southern limits of a   
vortex1 the hurricane would die away1   
according to our theory1 if the vortex  
did not come round again and take up the
 same nucleus of disturbance4 ,on the   
third day the vortex is found still     
further north1 and the apparent path of 
the hurricane becomes more curved4 ,in  
latitude #cj the vortex passes over #c  
or #e of latitude in a day2 and here    
being the latitude where the lower      
atmospheric current changes its course1 

the storm passes due north1 and         
afterwards north-east4 ,now1 each day of
 the series there is a distinct         
hurricane1 7caused by an increase of    
energy in a particular vortex1 as we    
have before hinted17 each one           
overlapping on the remains of the       
preceding2 but in each the same changes 
of the wind are gone through1 and the   
same general features preserved1 as if  
it were truly a progressive whirlwind1  
except that each vessel has the violent 
part of it1 as if she was in the        
southern half of the whirl4 ,the        
apparent regularity of the ,atlantic    
storms in direction1 as exhibited by    
,col4 ,reid1 are owing in a great degree
 to the course of the ,gulf ,stream1 in 
which a vortex1 in its successive       
passages in different latitudes1 finds  
more favorable conditions for the       
development of its power1 than in other 
parts of the same ocean2 thus showing   
the importance of regarding the         
established character of storms in each 

locality1 as determined by observation4 
,in this connection1 also1 we may       
remark1 that the meridians of greatest  
magnetic intensity are1 ceteris paribus1
 also the meridians of greatest         
atmospheric commotion4 ,the discovery of
 this fact is due to ,capt4 ,sabine4    
,the cause is explained by the theory4  
,as it is the author's intention to     
embody the practical application of this
 theory to navigation1 with the         
necessary rules and tables1 in a        
separate work1 sufficient has been said 
to familiarize the reader with the      
general idea of a cause external to the 
earth1 as the active motor in all       
atmospheric phenomena4 ,we will         
therefore only allude in a general way  
to the principal distinguishing feature 
of the theory4 ,we say1 then1 that the  
wind in a storm is not in rotation1 and 
it is a dangerous doctrine to teach the 
navigator4 ,we also assert as           
distinctly1 that the wind in a storm    
does not blow from all sides towards the

 centre1 which is just as dangerous to  
believe4 ,if it were wise to pin our    
faith to any ,procrustean formula1 we   
might endorse the following             
propositions3 ,that at the beginning of 
a storm the wind is from the equator    
towards the poles in every part of the  
storm2 that1 at a later date1 another   
current 7really a polar current         
deflected by convection7 sets in at     
right angles to the first one2 and that 
at the end of the storm there is only   
one wind blowing at right angles to the 
direction at the beginning4 ,outside the
 storm1 considered as a hundred1 or two 
or three hundred miles in diameter1     
there is1 under certain limitations1 a  
surface wind setting towards the general
 focus of motion and condensation1 and  
this surface wind will be strongest from
 the westward1 on account of the motion 
of the whole atmosphere in which these  
other motions are performed being to the
 eastward4#i ,the whole phenomenon is   
electrical or magnetic1 or              

electro-magnetic or ethereal1 whichever 
name pleases best4 ,the vortex1 by its  
action1 causes a current of induction   
below1 from the equator1 as may be      
understood by inspecting ,fig4 #b1 which
 in the northern hemisphere brings in a 
southerly current by convection3 the    
regular circular current1 however1      
finally penetrates below1 as soon as the
 process of induction has ceased2 and   
thus the polar current of the atmosphere
 at last overcomes the equatorial       
current in a furious squall1 which      
ceases by degrees1 and the equilibrium  
is restored4  ,every locality will have 
its peculiar features2 in each1 the     
prevailing wind will be at right angles 
to the magnetic meridian1 and the       
progress of the storm will tend to      
follow the magnetic parallel1 which is  
one reason why the ,atlantic and ,indian
 ,ocean storms have been mistaken for   
progressive whirlwinds4 ,when these     
views are developed in full1 the mariner
 can pretty certainly decide his        

position in the storm1 the direction of 
its progress1 and its probable duration4
   ,,footnotes3  #c ,the specific heat  
of the ether being a constant factor1 it
 may be divided out4  #d ,a term adopted
 by ,prof4 ,faraday to denote the mode  
in which bodies are carried along by an 
electrical current4  #e ,ottawa1 ,ill4  
#f ,the principal cause of these waves  
is1 no doubt1 due to the vortices1 and  
the eastern progress of the waves due to
 the rotating ether2 but1 at present1 it
 will not be necessary to separate these
 effects4  #g ,the inner vortex may     
reach as high as #hc when the moon's    
orbit is favorably situated4  #h ,the   
curvature of the earth is more than #aj 
miles in a distance of #cjj miles4  #i  
,in middle latitudes4     ,,section     
,,second4   ,,mechanical ,,action ,,of  
,,the ,,moon4  ,we will now proceed to  
give the method of determining the      
latitude of the axis of the vortex1 at  
the time of its passage over any given  
meridian1 and at any given time4 ,and   

afterwards we will give a brief abstract
 from the record of the weather1 for one
 sidereal period of the moon1 in order  
to compare the theory with observation4 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #d  ,in the above  
figure1 the circle ,,per represents the 
earth1 ,e the equator1 ,,pp the poles1  
,t the centre of the earth1 ,c the      
mechanical centre of the terral vortex1 
,m the moon1 ,,xx the axis of the       
vortex1 and ,a the point where the      
radius vector of the moon pierces the   
surface of the earth4 ,if we consider   
the axis of the vortex to be the axis of
 equilibrium in the system1 it is       
evident that ,,tc will be to ,,cm1 as   
the mass of the moon to the mass of the 
earth4 ,now1 if we take these masses    
respectively as #a to #gb4c1 and the    
moon's mean distance at #bch1fej miles1 
the mean value of ,,tc is equal to this 
number1 divided by the sum of these     
masses1--i4e4 the mean radius vector of 
the little orbit1 described by the      
earth's centre around the centre of     

gravity of the earth and moon1 is equal 
#bchfej_/7gb4ca7  #c1bef miles2 and at  
any other distance of the moon1 is equal
 to that distance1 divided by the same  
sum4 ,therefore1 by taking ,,ct in the  
inverse ratio of the mean semi-diameter 
of the moon to the true semi-diameter1  
we shall have the value of ,,ct at that 
time4 ,but ,,ta is to ,,tc as radius to 
the cosine of the arc ,,ar1 and ,,rr are
 the points on the earth's surface      
pierced by the axis of the vortex1      
supposing this axis coincident with the 
pole of the lunar orbit4 ,if this were  
so1 the calculation would be very short 
and simple2 and it will1 perhaps1       
facilitate the investigation1 by        
considering1 for the present1 that the  
two axes do coincide4  ,in order1 also1 
to simplify the question1 we will       
consider the earth a perfect sphere1    
having a diameter of #g1ijj miles1 equal
 to the actual polar diameter1 and      
therefore ,,ta is equal to #c1iej miles4
  ,in the spherical triangle given on   

next page1 we have given the point ,a1  
being the position of the moon in right 
ascension and declination in the        
heavens1 and considered as terrestrial  
latitude and longitude4  ,therefore1    
,,pa is equal to the complement of the  
moon's declination1 ,p being the pole of
 the earth1 and ,l being the pole of the
 lunar orbit2 ,,pl is equal to the      
obliquity of the lunar orbit1 with      
respect to the earth1 and is therefore  
given by finding the true inclination of
 the lunar orbit at the time1 equal     
,,el1 7,e being the pole of the         
ecliptic17 also the true longitude of   
the ascending node1 and the obliquity of
 the ecliptic ,,pe4 ,now1 as we are     
supposing the axis of the vortex        
parallel to the pole of the lunar orbit1
 and to pierce the earth's surface at   
,r1 ,,arl will evidently all be in the  
same plane2 and1 as in the case of ,a   
and ,l1 this plane passes through the   
earth's centre1 ,,arl must all lie in   
the same great circle4 ,having1         

therefore1 the right ascension of ,a1   
and the right ascension of ,l1 we have  
the angle ,p4 ,this gives us two sides1 
and the included angle1 to find the side
 ,,la4 ,but we have before found the arc
 ,,ar2 we therefore know ,,lr4 ,but in  
finding ,,la1 we found both the angles  
,l and ,a1 and therefore can find ,,pr1 
which is equal to the complement of the 
latitude sought4  ,illustration3 ,fig4  
#e  ,we have thus indicated briefly the 
simple process by which we could find   
the latitude of the axis of the central 
vortex1 supposing it to be always       
coincident with the pole of the lunar   
orbit4 ,the true problem is more        
complicated1 and the principal          
modifications1 indicated by the theory1 
are abundantly confirmed by observation4
 ,the determination of the inclination  
of the axis of the vortex1 its position 
in space at a given time1 and the law of
 its motion1 was a work of cheerless    
labor for a long time4 ,he that has been
 tantalized by hope for years1 and ever 

on the eve of realization1 has found the
 vision vanish1 can understand the      
feeling which proceeds from frequent    
disappointment in not finding that1     
whose existence is almost demonstrated2 
and more especially when the            
approximation differs but slightly from 
the actual phenomena4  ,the chief       
difficulty at the outset of these       
investigations1 arose from the          
conflicting authority of astronomers in 
relation to the mass of the moon4 ,we   
are too apt to confound the precision of
 the laws of nature1 with the perfection
 of human theories4 ,man observes the   
phenomena of the heavens1 and derives   
his means of predicting what will be1   
from what has been4 ,hence the motions  
of the heavenly bodies are known to     
within a trifling amount of the truth2  
but it does not follow that the true    
explanation is always given by theory4  
,if this were so1 the mass of the moon  
7for instance7 ought to be the same1    
whether deduced from the principle of   

gravitation or from some other source4  
,this is not so4 ,newton found it #a_/dj
 of that of the earth4 ,la ,place1 from 
a profound theoretical discussion of the
 tides1 gave it as #a_/eh4f1 while from 
other sources he found a necessity of   
diminishing it still more1 to #a_/fh1   
and finally as low as #a_/ge4 ,bailly1  
,herschel1 and others1 from the nutation
 of the earth's axis1 only found #a_/hj1
 and the ,baron ,lindenau deduced the   
mass from the same phenomenon #a_/hh4   
,in a very recent work by ,mr4 ,hind1 he
 uses this last value in certain        
computations1 and remarks1 that we shall
 not be very far wrong in considering it
 as #a_/hj of the mass of the earth4    
,this shows the uncertainty of the      
matter in #aheb4 ,if astronomy is so    
perfect as to determine the parallax of 
a fixed star1 which is almost always    
less than one second1 why is it that the
 mass of the moon is not more nearly    
approximated8 ,every two weeks the sun's
 longitude is affected by the position  

of the moon1 alternately increasing and 
diminishing it1 by a quantity depending 
solely upon the relative mass of the    
earth and moon1 and is a gross quantity 
compared to the parallax of a star4 ,so1
 also1 the horizontal parallax--the most
 palpable of all methods--taken by      
different observers at ,berlin1 and the 
,cape of ,good ,hope1 7a very           
respectable base line1 one would        
suppose17 makes the mass of the moon    
greater than its value derived from     
nutation2 the first giving about #a_/gj1
 the last about #a_/gd4b4 ,does not this
 declare that it is unsafe to depend too
 absolutely on the strict wording of the
 ,newtonian law of gravitation4 ,happily
 our theory furnishes us with the       
correct value of the moon's mass1       
written legibly on the surface of the   
earth2 and it comes out nearly what     
these two phenomena always gave it1     
viz43 #a_/gb4c of that of the earth4 ,in
 another place we shall inquire into the
 cause of the discrepancy as given by   

the nutation of the earth4   ,,motion   
,,of ,,the ,,axis ,,of ,,the ,,vortex4  
,if the axis of the terral vortex does  
not coincide with the axis of the lunar 
orbit1 we must derive this position from
 observation1 which can only be done by 
long and careful attention4 ,this       
difficulty is increased by the          
uncertainty about the mass of the moon1 
already alluded to1 and by the fact that
 there are three vortices in each       
hemisphere which pass over twice in each
 month1 and it is not always possible to
 decide by observation1 whether a vortex
 is ascending or descending1 or even to 
discriminate between them1 so as to be  
assured that this is the central        
descending1 and that the outer vortex   
ascending4 ,a better acquaintance1      
however1 with the phenomenon1 at last   
dissipates this uncertainty1 and the    
vortices are then found to pursue their 
course with that regularity which varies
 only according to law4 ,the position of
 the vortex 7the central vortex is the  

one under consideration7 then depends on
 the inclination of its axis to the axis
 of the earth1 and the right ascension  
of that axis at the given time4 ,for we 
shall see that an assumed immobility of 
the axis of the vortex1 would be in     
direct collision with the principles of 
the theory4  ,let the following figure  
represent a globe of wood of uniform    
density throughout4 ,let this globe be  
rotated round the axis4 ,it is evident  
that no change of position of the axis  
would be produced by the rotation4 ,if  
we add two equal masses of lead at m and
 m1 on opposite sides of the axis1 the  
globe is still in equilibrium1 as far as
 gravity is concerned1 and if perfectly 
spherical and homogeneous it might be   
suspended from its centre in any        
position1 or assume indifferently any   
position in a vessel of water4 ,if1     
however1 the globe is now put into a    
state of rapid rotation round the axis1 
and then allowed to float freely in the 
water1 we perceive that it is no longer 

in a state of equilibrium4 ,the mass m  
being more dense than its antagonist    
particle at n1 and having equal         
velocity1 its momentum is greater1 and  
it now tends continually to pull the    
pole from its perpendicular1 without    
affecting the position of the centre4   
,the same effect is produced by m1 and  
consequently the axis describes the     
surface of a double cone1 whose vertices
 are at the centre of the globe4 ,if    
these masses of lead had been placed at 
opposite sides of the axis on the       
equator of the globe1 no such motion    
would be produced2 for we are supposing 
the globe formed of a hard and          
unyielding material4 ,in the case of the
 ethereal vortex of the earth1 we must  
remember there are two different kinds  
of matter1--one ponderable1 the other   
not ponderable2 yet both subject to the 
same dynamical laws4 ,if we consider the
 axis of the terral vortex to coincide  
with the axis of the lunar orbit1 the   
moon and earth are placed in the        

equatorial plane of the vortex1 and     
consequently there can be no derangement
 of the equilibrium of the vortex by its
 own rotation4 ,but even in this case1  
seeing that the moon's orbit is inclined
 to the ecliptic1 the gravitating power 
of the sun is exerted on the moon1 and  
of necessity she must quit the          
equatorial plane of the vortex2 for the 
sun can exert no influence on the matter
 of the vortex by his attracting power4 
,the moment1 however1 the moon has left 
the equatorial plane of the vortex1 the 
principle of momentum comes into play1  
and a conical motion of the axis of the 
vortex is produced1 by its seeking to   
follow the moon in her monthly          
revolution4 ,this case is1 however1 very
 different to the illustration we gave4 
,the vortex is a fluid1 through which   
the moon freely wends her way1 passing  
through the equatorial plane of the     
vortex twice in each revolution4 ,these 
points constitute the moon's nodes on   
the plane of the vortex1 and1 from the  

principles laid down1 the force of the  
moon to disturb the equilibrium of the  
axis of the vortex1 vanishes at these   
points1 and attains a maximum #ij from  
them4 ,and the effect produced1 in      
passing from her ascending to her       
descending node1 is equal and contrary  
to the effect produced in passing from  
her descending to her ascending         
node1--reckoning these points on the    
plane of the vortex4  ,illustration3    
,fig4 #f   ,,inclination ,,of ,,the     
,,axis4  ,by whatever means the two     
planes first became permanently         
inclined1 we see that it is a necessary 
consequence of the admission of these   
principles1 not only that the axis of   
the vortex should be drawn aside by the 
momentum of the earth and moon1 ever    
striving1 as it were1 to maintain a     
dynamical balance in the system1 in     
accordance with the simple laws of      
motion1 and ever disturbed by the action
 of gravitation exerted on the grosser  
matter of the system2 but also1 that    

this axis should follow1 the axis of the
 lunar orbit1 at the same mean          
inclination1 during the complete        
revolution of the node4 ,the mean       
inclination of the two axes1 determined 
by observation1 is #b #de1 and the      
monthly equation1 at a maximum1 is about
 #ae1 being a plus correction in the    
northern hemisphere1 where the moon is  
between her descending and ascending    
node1 reckoned on the plane of the      
vortex1 and a minus correction1 when    
between her ascending and descending    
node4 ,and the mean longitude of the    
node will be the same as the true       
longitude of the moon's orbit node1--the
 maximum correction for the true        
longitude being only about #e 4         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #g  ,in the        
following figure1 ,p is the pole of the 
earth2 ,e the pole of the ecliptic2 ,l  
the pole of the lunar orbit2 ,v the mean
 position of the pole of the vortex at  
the time2 the angle ,,el the true       
longitude of the pole of the lunar      

orbit1 equal to the true longitude of   
the ascending node  #ij4 ,,vl is        
therefore the mean inclination  #b #de2 
and the little circle1 the orbit        
described by the pole of the vortex     
twice in each sidereal revolution of the
 moon4 ,the distance of the pole of the 
vortex from the mean position ,v1 may be
 approximately estimated1 by multiplying
 the maximum value #ae by the sine of   
twice the moon's distance from the node 
of the vortex1 or from its mean         
position1 viz43 the true longitude of   
the ascending node of the moon on the   
ecliptic4 ,from this we may calculate   
the true place of the node1 the true    
obliquity1 and the true inclination to  
the lunar orbit4 ,having indicated the  
necessity for this correction1 and its  
numerical coefficient1 we shall no      
longer embarrass the computation by such
 minuti1 but consider the mean          
inclination as the true inclination1 and
 the mean place of the node as the true 
place of the node1 and coincident with  

the ascending node of the moon's orbit  
on the ecliptic4   ,,position ,,of ,,the
 ,,axis ,,of ,,the ,,vortex4  ,it is now
 necessary to prove that the axis of the
 vortex will still pass through the     
centre of gravity of the earth and moon4
  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h  ,let ,,xx now
 represent the axis of the lunar orbit1 
and ,c the centre of gravity of the     
earth and moon1 ,x,x the axis of the    
vortex1 and ,,kcr the inclination of    
this axis4 ,then from    similarity  ,ct
 3  ,tt 33      ,cm     3      ,mm      
but      ,tt 3  ,mm 33 ,moon's mass 3   
,earth's mass4   ,that is     ,tt 3  ,mm
 33      ,,tc     3      ,,mc4          
,therefore the system is still balanced2
 and in no other point but the point ,c1
 can the intersection of the axes be    
made without destroying this balance4   
,it will be observed by inspecting the  
figure1 that the arc ,r,k is greater    
than the arc ,,rk4 ,that the first      
increases the arc ,,ar1 and the second  
diminishes that arc4 ,the arc ,r,k is a 

plus correction therefore1 and the      
smaller arc ,,rk a minus correction4 ,if
 the moon is between her descending and 
ascending node1 7taking now the node on 
the ecliptic17 the correction is        
negative1 and we take the smaller arc4  
,if the moon is between her ascending   
and descending node1 the correction is  
positive1 and we take the larger arc4   
,if the moon is #ij from the node1 the  
correction is a maximum4 ,if the moon is
 at the node1 the correction is null4   
,in all other positions it is as the    
sine of the moon's distance from the    
nodes4 ,we must now find the maximum    
value of these arcs of correction       
corresponding to the mean inclination of
 #b #de4  ,to do this we may reduce ,,tc
 to ,tt in the ratio of radius to cosine
 of the inclination1 and taking ,,ts for
 radius4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i  ,,tc 
,cos c4 7inclination #b #de7_/,r is     
equal the cosine of the arc ,,sk and    
,,sk  ,,as  ,,ak and ,,ak  ,,ar  ,r,k4  
,but from the nature of the circle1 arc 

,,rk  arc ,r,k  angle ,,rck  angle      
,r,,ck1 or equal to double the          
inclination2 and therefore1 by          
subtracting either arc from double the  
inclination1 we may get the other arc4  
,the maximum value of these arcs can1   
however1 be found by a simple           
proportion1 by saying2 as the arc ,,ar1 
plus the inclination1 is to the         
inclination1 so is the inclination to   
the difference between them2 and        
therefore1 the inclination1 plus half   
the difference1 is equal the greater    
arc1 and the inclination1 minus half the
 difference1 is equal the lesser2 the   
greater being positive1 and the lesser  
negative4  ,having found the arc ,,ar1  
and knowing the moon's distance from    
either node1 we must reduce these values
 of the arcs ,,rk and ,r,k just found1  
in the ratio of radius to the sine of   
that distance1 and apply it to the arc  
,,ar or ,a,r1 and we shall get the first
 correction equal to the arc ,,ak or    
,,ak4    ,call the arc ,,ar             

a           inclination             n   
distance from the node  d           arc 
,,ak                  k  and supposing  
the value of ,,ak be wanted for the     
northern hemisphere when the moon is    
between her descending and ascending    
node1 we have                    n      
-------                 a  n            
7n - ------- 7 sin d4                   
#b   k  a - ----------------------      
,r  ,if the moon is between her         
ascending and descending node1 then     
n                -------                
a  n           7n - ------- 7 sin d4    
#b   k  a  ----------------------       
,r  ,the computation will be shorter1   
however1 if we merely reduce the        
inclination to the sine of the distance 
from the node for the first correction  
of the arc ,,ar1 if we neglect the      
semi-monthly motion of the axis2 for    
this last correction diminishes the plus
 corrections1 and the first one         
increases it4 ,if1 therefore1 one is    
neglected1 it is better to neglect the  

other also2 especially as it might be   
deemed affectation to notice trifling   
inequalities in the present state of the
 elements of the question4  ,there is   
one inequality1 however1 which it will  
not do to neglect4 ,this arises from the
 displacement of the axis of the vortex4
   ,,displacement ,,of ,,the ,,axis4    
,we have represented the axis of the    
terral vortex as continually passing    
through the centre of gravity of the    
earth and moon4 ,now1 by following out  
the principles of the theory1 we shall  
see that this cannot be the case1 except
 when the moon is in quadrature with the
 sun4 ,to explain this3  ,illustration3 
,fig4 #aj  ,let the curve passing       
through ,c represent a portion of the   
orbit of the earth1 and ,s the sun4     
,from the principles laid down1 the     
density of the ethereal medium increases
 outward as the square roots of the     
distances from the sun4 ,now1 if we     
consider the circle whose centre is ,c  
to represent the whole terral vortex1 it

 must be that the medium composing it   
varies also in density at different     
distances from the sun1 and at the same 
time is rotating round the centre4 ,that
 half of the vortex which is exterior to
 the orbit of the earth1 being most     
dense1 has consequently most inertia1   
and if we conceive the centre of gravity
 of the earth and moon to be in the     
orbit 7as it must be7 at ,c1 there will 
not be dynamical balance in the terral  
system1 if the centre of the vortex is  
also found at ,c4 ,to preserve the      
equilibrium the centre of the vortex    
will necessarily come nearer the sun1   
and thus be found between ,t and ,c1 ,t 
representing the earth1 and  the moon1  
and ,c the centre of gravity of the two 
bodies4 ,if the moon is in opposition1  
the centre of the vortex will fall      
between the centre of gravity and the   
centre of the earth1 and have the       
apparent effect of diminishing the mass 
of the moon4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the
 moon is in conjunction1 the centre of  

the vortex will fall between the centre 
of gravity and the moon1 and have the   
apparent effect of increasing the mass  
of the moon4 ,if the moon is in         
quadrature1 the effect will be null4    
,the coefficient of this inequality is  
#ij1 and depends on the sun's distance  
from the moon4 ,when the moon is more   
than #ij from the sun1 this correction  
is positive1 and when less than #ij from
 the sun1 it is negative4 ,if we call   
this second correction ,c1 and the      
moon's distance from her quadratures ,q1
 we have the value of ,c  7#ij  sin     
,q7_/,r4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa      
,this correction1 however1 does not     
affect the inclination of the axis of   
the vortex1 as will be understood by the
 subjoined figure4 ,if the moon is in   
opposition1 the axis of the vortex will 
not pass through ,c1 but through ,c1 and
 ,,qq will be parallel to ,,kk4 ,if the 
moon is in conjunction1 the axis will be
 still parallel to ,,kk1 as represented 
by the dotted line qq4 ,the correction1 

therefore1 for displacement1 is equal to
 the arc ,,kq or ,kq1 and the correct   
position of the vortex on the surface of
 the earth at a given time will be at   
the points ,q or q and ,q or q1         
considering the earth as a sphere4      
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab  ,in the       
spherical triangle ,,apv1 ,p is the pole
 of the earth1 ,v the pole of the       
vortex1 ,a the point of the earth's     
surface pierced by the radius vector of 
the moon1 ,,aq is the corrected arc1 and
 ,,pv is the obliquity of the vortex4   
,now1 as the axis of the vortex is      
parallel to the pole ,v1 and the earth's
 centre1 and the line ,,ma also passes  
through the earth's centre1 consequently
 ,,aqv will all lie in the same great   
circle1 and as ,,pv is known1 and ,,pa  
is equal to the complement of the moon's
 declination at the time1 and the right1
 ascensions of ,a and ,v give the angle 
,p1 we have two sides and the included  
angle to find the rest1 ,,pq being the  
complement of the latitude sought4  ,we 

will now give an example of the         
application of these principles4        
,example4#aj ,required the latitude of  
the central vortex at the time of its   
meridian passage in longitude #hh #ej   
west1 ,july #b;d1 #ahec4  ,,central     
,,vortex ,,ascending4    ,greenwich time
 of passage           #b;d4 #c;h4 #am4  
,mean longitude of moon's node       #gh
 #bi   ,true                            
#gi  #cb   ,mean inclination of lunar   
orbit      #e   #i   ,true              
#e  #ac   ,obliquity of ecliptic        
#bc  #bg  #cb   ,mean inclination of    
vortex           #b  #de   #j  ,then in 
the spherical triangle ,,pev1    ,,pe   
is equal   #bc #bg #cb   ,,ev           
#g  #eh   #j   ,e             #ajj  #bh 
#j   ,p              #ah   #e   #g      
,,pv             #bf   #b  #cb  ,calling
 ,p the polar angle and ,,pv the        
obliquity of vortex4  ,illustration3    
,fig4 #ac  ,to find the arc ,,ar4  ,by  
combining the two proportions already   
given1 we have by logarithms3           

,m4,r4,v4 minor             #cbef  ,log4
     #c4eabfhc   ,m4,s4,d4 of moon      
#idj          #b4igcabh   ,p4,s4,d4 of  
earth          #ciej ,a4 ,c4            
#f4djcdjc   ,radius                     
#aj4jjjjjj   ,t4,s4,d4 of moon          
#hhe4e ,a4 ,c4   #g4jebhaa   ,log4      
,cosine arc ,,ar       #bh #eg #c       
#i4idbjbe                               
---------  ,as the only variable        
quantity in the above formula is the    
,true semi-diameter of the moon at the  
time1 we may add the ,constant logarithm
 #b4hhibad to the arithmetical          
complement of the logarithm of the true 
semi-diameter1 and we have in two lines 
the log4 cosine of the arc ,,ar4  ,we   
must now find the arc ,,rk equal at a   
maximum to #b #de4 ,the true longitude  
of the moon's node being #gi #cb1 and   
the moon's longitude1 per ,nautical     
,almanac1 being #eh #cj1 the distance   
from the node is #ba #b1 therefore1 the 
correction is               -#b #de  sin
 #ba #b   -arc ,,rk                     

---------------------  -#ei #ac         
,r  ,to find the correction for         
displacement4    ,true longitude of sun 
at date       #ajj #cj                  
of moon              #eh  #cj   ,moon's 
distance from quadrature      #dh   #j  
,as the moon is less than #ij from the  
sun this correction is also negative1 or
              -#ij  sin #dh   ,arc ,kq  
---------------  -#a #f #df4            
,r    ,arc ,,ar   #bh #eg  #c       ,,rk
  - #j #ci #ac       ,kq  - #a  #f #df  
,sum   #bf #ea  #d  corrected arc ,,aq4 
,we have now the necessary elements in  
the ,nautical ,almanac1 which we must   
reduce for the instant of the vortex    
passing the meridian in ,greenwich time4
                        ,july #b;d4     
,meridian passage1 local time1 at       
#i;h4 #em4 ,a4,m4                    in 
,greenwich time   #b;d4 #c;h4 #am4      
,right ascension           same time    
#ef #db #de   ,declination north        
#ah  #jj   #a   ,obliquity of the vortex
              #bf   #b  #cb   ,polar    

angle                          #ah   #e 
#g   ,arc ,,aq                          
#bf  #ea   #d  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad 
,,pa  #ag #ei #ei   ,p  #abh #cg #ch    
,,pv  #bf   #b  #cb     ,,va  #hi   #c  
#j     ,v   #dg  #ei  #dd   ,,vq  #fb   
#aa  #ef     ,a   #bj   #c  #db   ,,pq  
#dg  #ad  #bb     ,q   #bf  #bb  #ee    
,latitude of ,q on the sphere  #db #de  
#ch   ,,correction ,,for ,,protuberance4
  ,we have hitherto considered the earth
 a perfect sphere with a diameter of    
#g1ijj miles4 ,it is convenient to      
regard it thus1 and afterwards make the 
correction for protuberance4 ,we will   
now indicate the process for obtaining  
this correction by the aid of the       
following diagram4  ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #ae  ,let ,b bisect the chord ,,zz4    
,then1 by geometry1 the angle ,,fqy is  
equal to the angle ,,btf1 and the       
protuberance ,,fy is equal the sine of  
that angle1 making ,,qf radius4 ,this   
angle1 made by the axis of the vortex   
and the surface of the sphere1 is       

commonly between #cj and #dj1 according 
as the moon is near her apogee or       
perigee2 and the correction will be     
greatest when the angle is least1 as at 
the apogee4 ,at the equator1 the whole  
protuberance of the earth is about #ac  
miles4 ,multiply this by the cosine of  
the angle and divide by the sine1 and we
 shall get the value of the arc ,,qy for
 the equator4 ,for the smallest angle1  
when the correction is a maximum1 this  
correction will be about #bj of latitude
 at the equator2 for other latitudes it 
is diminished as the squares of the     
cosines of the latitude4 ,then add this 
amount to the latitude ,,eq1 equal the  
latitude ,,ey4 ,this1 however1 is only  
correct when the axis of the vortex is  
in the same plane as the axis of the    
earth2 it is1 therefore1 subject to a   
minus correction1 which can be found by 
saying1 as radius to cosine of obliquity
 so is the correction to a fourth--the  
difference of these corrections is the  
maximum minus correction1 and needs     

reducing in the ratio of radius to the  
cosine of the angle of the moon's       
distance from the node2 but as it can   
only amount to about #b at a maximum    
under the most favorable circumstances1 
it is not necessary to notice it4 ,the  
correction previously noticed is on the 
supposition that the earth is like a    
sphere having ,,tf for radius2 as it is 
a spheroid1 we must correct again4 ,from
 the evolute1 draw the line ,,sf1 and   
parallel to it1 draw ,,tw2 then ,,ew is 
the latitude of the point ,f on the     
surface of the spheroid4 ,this second   
correction is also a plus correction1   
subject to the same error as the first  
on account of the obliquity1 its maximum
 value for an angle of #cj is about #f1 
and is greatest in latitude #de2 for    
other latitudes1 it is equal #f         
sin7double the lat47_/,r4  ,the three   
principal corrections for protuberance  
may be estimated from the following     
table1 calculated for every #ae of      
latitude for an angle of #cj1 or when   

the correction is greatest4             
,latitude4    #ast ,corr4    #b;d ,corr4
     #c;d ,corr4      #j            #bj 
#j          - #b     #ae            #ai 
#c          - #a4e     #cj              
#ae          #e          - #a4e     #de 
#aj          #f          - #a4     #fj  
#e          #e          - #a     #gj    
#a          #c          - #j4e  ,we can 
now apply this correction to the        
latitude of the vortex just found3      
,latitude on the sphere           #db   
#de #ch n4   ,correction for            
protuberance         #ad  #bb           
----------   ,correct latitude          
#dc  #jj  #jj   ,,milwaukie ,,storm1    
,,july #b4  ,as this example was        
calculated about ten days before the    
actual date1 we have appended an extract
 from the ,milwaukie papers1 which is in
 the same longitude as ,ottawa1 in which
 place the calculation was made4 ,it is 
needless to remark that the latitude of 
,milwaukie corresponds to the calculated
 latitude of the centre of the vortex4  

,it is not intended1 however1 to convey 
the idea that the central line is always
 the most subject to the greatest       
violence--a storm may have several      
centres or nuclei of disturbance1 which 
are frequently waning and reviving as   
the storm progresses4 ,generally        
speaking1 however1 the greatest action  
is developed along the line previously  
passed over by the axis of the vortex4  
,,summit1 ,waukesha ,co41 ,wis41 ,july  
#d1 #ahec4      ,our town1 on ,saturday1
 the #b;d1 was visited by a terrible    
storm1     which will long be remembered
 by those who witnessed its effects and 
suffered from its fury4 ,it arose in the
 south-west1 and came     scowling in   
blackness1 sufficient to indicate its   
anger1 for the     space of eighty or a 
hundred rods in width1 covering our     
usually     quiet village2 and for      
nearly half an hour's duration1 the rain
 fell     in torrents1 the heavens      
blazed with the lightning's flashes1    
trees     fell and were uprooted by the 

fury of the blast1 fragments of gates   
and of buildings1 shingles1 roof-boards1
 rafters1 circled through     the air1  
the playthings of the wind--and         
buildings themselves were     moved     
entire from their foundations1 and      
deposited at different     distances    
from their original positions4 ,a barn1 
fifty-five feet     square on the       
ground1 owned by ,mr4 ,b4 ,r4 ,hinckley1
 is moved from its     position some ten
 feet to the eastward2 and a house1 some
 fifteen by     eighteen feet on the    
ground1 owned by the same person1       
fronting the     east1 was driven by the
 wind to the opposite side of the       
street1 and     now fronts nearly west2 
and what is most strange1 is that the   
grass1     in the route the house must  
have passed over1 stands straight as    
usual1 and gives no evidence that the   
building was pushed along on     the    
ground4 ,a lady running from a house    
unroofed by the storm1 took     an arial
 flight over two fences1 and finally    

caught against a tree1     which        
arrested her passage for a moment only1 
when1 giving way1 she     renewed her   
journey for a few rods1 and was set down
 unhurt in     ,mr4 ,o4 ,reed's wheat   
field1 where1 clinging to the growing   
grain1 she     remained till the gale   
went by4#aa  ,the weather at this place 
is briefly recorded in the accompanying 
abstract from the journal1 as well as in
 an extract from a note to ,professor   
,henry1 of the ,smithsonian             
,institution1 from a friend of the      
authors1 who has long occupied a high   
official station in ,illinois4 ,but such
 coincidences are of no value in        
deciding on the merits of such a theory1
 it must be tried before the tribunal of
 the world1 and applied to phenomena in 
other countries with success1 before its
 merits can be fully appreciated4 ,the  
accompanying record1 therefore1 is only 
given to show how these vortices render 
themselves apparent1 and what ought to  
be observed1 and also to exhibit the    

order of their recurrence and their     
positions at a given time4  ,extract of 
a note addressed to the ,secretary of   
the ,smithsonian ,institution1 by ,hon4 
,john ,dean ,caton1 on this subject4    
,as a striking instance of the          
remarkable coincidences confirmatory    
of these calculations1 ,i will state1   
that on ,friday1 the first of     ,july 
last1 this gentleman#ab stated that on  
the next day a storm     would pass     
north of us1 being central a little     
south of ,milwaukie1     and that he    
thought1 from the state of the          
atmosphere1 the storm     would be      
severe1 and that its greatest violence  
would be felt on the     afternoon or   
night of the next day4 ,at this time the
 weather was     fine1 without any      
indications of a storm1 so far as ,i    
could judge4     ,at noon on the        
following day he pointed out the        
indications of a     storm at the north 
and north-west1 consisting of a dark1   
hazy belt     in that direction1        

extending up a few degrees above the    
horizon1     although so indistinct as  
to have escaped my observation4 ,at five
     o'clock a violent storm visited us1
 which lasted half an hour1     although
 a clear sky was visible at the south   
the whole time4 ,on     ,monday morning 
,i learned1 from the telegraph office at
 ,chicago1 that     early on ,saturday  
afternoon communication with ,milwaukie 
had been     interrupted by atmospheric 
electricity1 and that the line had been 
broken by a storm4   ,,new ,,york       
,,storm4  ,after this was written1 the  
author discovered that the vortex was   
equally violent the day before at ,new  
,york1 ,july #ast1 #ahec4 ,an account of
 this storm follows4 ,the calculation   
has not been made1 but it is easy to    
perceive that the latitude of the       
vortex1 on ,july #ast1 must be very     
nearly that of ,new ,york--being in     
latitude #dc next day and ascending4    
,at a meeting of the ,american          
,association1 convened at ,cleveland1   

,professor ,loomis presented a long     
notice of the terrible hail storm in    
,new ,york on the #ast of ,july4 ,he    
traced its course1 and minutely examined
 all the phenomena relating to it1 from 
a mile and a half south-east of         
,paterson1 ,n4,j41 to the east side of  
,long ,island1 where it appeared nearly 
to have spent its force4 ,it passed over
 the village of ,aqueenac1 striking the 
,island of ,new ,york in the vicinity of
 the ,crystal ,palace4 ,it was not much 
more than half a mile wide4 ,the size of
 the hail-stones was almost incredibly  
large1 many of them being as large as a 
hen's egg1 and the ,professor saw       
several which he thought as large as his
 fist4 ,some of them weighed nearly half
 a pound4 ,the principal facts in       
relation to this storm were published at
 the time1 and need not be repeated4    
,the discussions arising among the      
members as to the origin and the size of
 these hail-stones1 and the phenomena of
 the storm1 were exceedingly            

interesting4 ,they were participated in 
by ,professors ,heustus and ,hosford1 of
 ,cambridge ,university1 ,professor     
,loomis1 and ,professors ,bache and     
,redfield4 ,the latter two gentlemen    
differ somewhat1 we should suppose      
radically1 in their meteorological      
theories1 and had some very sharp but   
very pleasant shooting between them4#ac 
,,central ,,vortex ,,descending4  ,we   
will now make the calculation for the   
central vortex descending1 for longitude
 #hh #ej west1 ,august #g1              
#ahec1--putting down the necessary      
elements for the time of the meridian   
passage in order3    ,meridian passage  
in local time at              #b;h4     
#bem4 ,p4,m4                  in        
,greenwich time             #g;d4 #h;h4 
#ahm4   ,mass of the moon #a_/ab4c ,m4  
,r4 ,v4 minor         #c1bef miles4     
,obliquity of the vortex1 same time     
#bf   #e   #j   ,polar angle of         
#ag   #da   #dg   ,true longitude of    
moon's node                #gh   #db    

#j       inclination of orbit           
#e    #e    #j       longitude of the   
sun                   #ace   #bj    #j  
,moon's longitude                       
#afi   #dd    #j         distance from  
node                    #ia    #b    #j 
distance from quadrature                
#ee   #cf    #j         true            
semi-diameter                           
#idc         right ascension            
#agb   #cj    #j         declination    
north                      #h   #db     
#bj   ,constant logarithm               
#b4hhibad   ,arith4 comp4 of log4 of    
#idc    #g4jbedhh   ,log4 cos4 arc4 ,,ar
              #i4iadgjb      #cd  #dd   
#dh                          #ast4      
correction1      #b   #de    #j         
#b;d4   correction1   -   #a   #ad   #ae
                                        
--------------         ,corrected arc   
,,aq                      #cf   #ae     
#cc                        ,,pa         
#ha  #ag  #dj                           
,,pv           #bf    #e    #j          

,p           #aae   #aa   #dg           
,v            #fc   #cd   #bf           
,a            #bc   #bh   #bd           
,,av           #ib   #dh   #ci          
,q            #ca   #cb   #ah           
,complement of lat4  ,,pq           #dh 
#di  #da   ,the latitude is therefore   
for     the earth1 as a sphere          
#da   #aj   #ah   ,correction for       
protuberance        #j   #af    #j      
------------   ,true latitude of centre 
#da   #bf   #ah north4                  
------------   ,latitude of ,ottowa     
#da   #bj    #j                         
------------   ,vortex passed           
#f   #ah north of ,ottowa4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #af  ,as this was  
nearly a central passage1 and as the    
influence was less extensive than usual1
 on account of great atmospheric        
pressure with a low dew point1 the      
central disturbance could the more      
readily be located1 and was certainly to
 the north1 and but a few miles4 ,the   
following is from the record of the     

weather3  ,august #fth4 ,very fine and  
clear all day2 wind from ,s4-,w42 a     
light breeze2 #h ,p4,m4 frequent flashes
 of lightning in the northern sky2 #aj  
,p4,m4 a low bank of dense clouds in    
north1 fringed with cirri1 visible      
during the flash of the lightning2 #ab  
,p4,m4 same continues4  #gth4 ,very line
 and clear morning2 wind ,s4-,w4        
moderate2 noon1 clouds accumulating in  
the northern half of the sky2 wind      
fresher ,s4-,w42 #c ,p4,m4 a clap of    
thunder overhead1 and black cumuli in   
west1 north1 and east2 #d ,p4,m4 much   
thunder1 and scattered showers2 six     
miles west rained very heavily2 #f      
,p4,m4 the heavy clouds passing over to 
the south2 #aj ,p4,m4 clear again in    
north4  ,august #hth4 ,clear all day2   
wind the same 7,s4-,w472 a hazy bank    
visible all along on southern horizon4  
,this was not a storm1 in the ordinary  
acceptation of the term2 but the same   
cause1 under other circumstances1 would 
have produced one2 and let it be borne  

in mind1 that although the moon is the  
chief disturbing cause1 and the passages
 of the vortices are the periods of     
greatest commotion in both settled and  
unsettled weather1 still the sun is     
powerful in predisposing the            
circumstances1 whether favorable or     
unfavorable2 and as there is no periodic
 connection between the passage of a    
vortex and the concurrence of the great 
atmospheric waves1 it will1 of course1  
happen only occasionally that all the   
circumstances will conspire to make a   
storm4 ,there are also other modifying  
causes1 to which we have not yet        
alluded1 which influence the storms at  
different seasons of the                
year1--exaggerating their activity in   
some latitudes1 and diminishing it in   
other latitudes4 ,in this latitude1 the 
months of ,may1 ,june1 and ,july are    
marked by more energetic action than    
,august1 ,september1 and ,october4 ,the 
activity of one vortex also1 in one     
place1 seems to modify the activity of  

another vortex in another place4 ,but   
the great question to decide is3 ,do    
these vortices really exist8 ,do they   
follow each other in the order indicated
 by the theory8 ,do they pass from south
 to north1 and from north to south1 at  
the times indicated by the theory8 ,do  
they obey1 in their monthly revolutions1
 a mathematical law connecting them with
 the motions of the moon8 ,we answer    
emphatically1 ,yes6 ,and the            
non-discovery of these facts1 is one of 
the most humiliating features of the    
present age4   ,,ottowa ,,storm1        
,,december #bb1 #aheb4  ,to show that   
the same calculations are applicable for
 other times1 we will make the          
calculation for the centre ascending1   
for the #bb;d ,december1 #aheb1 taking  
the following elements3    ,moon's mer4 
passage1 ,dec4 #bb;d        #ae;h4 #afm4
 ,g4 time4         right ascension1 same
 time    #ea  #eg         declination   
north             #ae   #db         true
 ,s4 ,diameter              #hhf4f      

distance from node            #cg       
quadrature      #eb                     
--------   ,which gives the arc ,,ar    
#bi   #e   #ast correction              
-#a  #ea   #b;d                         
#a  #aa                                 
--------   ,corrected arc ,,aq          
#bh  #be                                
--------  ,and the latitude at the time 
of the meridian passage  #db north1 or  
about forty miles north of ,ottawa4     
,abstract from the record3--  #ad;,dec4 
#bast1 #aheb4 ,wind ,n4-,e41 fine       
weather4  ,dec4 #bb;d4 ,thick1 hazy     
morning1 wind east1 much lighter in     
,s4-,e4 than in ,n4-,w42 #h ,a4,m41 a   
clear arch in ,s4-,e4 getting more to   
south2 noon1 very black in ,w4 ,n4-,w42 
above1 a broken layer of cir4 cumulus1  
the sun visible sometimes through the   
waves2 wind round to ,s4-,e41 and       
fresher2 getting thicker all day2 #aj   
,p4,m41 wind south1 strong2 thunder1    
lightning1 and heavy rain all night1    
with strong squalls from south4  ,dec4  

#bc;d4 ,wind ,s4-,w41 moderate1 drizzly 
day2 #aj ,p4,m41 wind west1 and getting 
clearer4  ,the next day the vortex      
passed the latitude of ,montreal 7the   
moon being on the meridian about #aj    
,p4,m47   ,,magnetic ,,storm1 ,,december
 #bc1 #aheb4  ,in the ,july number of   
,vol4 ,,xvi4 of ,silliman's ,journal1 we
 find certain notices of the weather in 
#aheb1 by ,charles ,smallwood1 of ,st4  
,martins1 nine miles east of ,montreal4 
,he mentions two remarkable electrical  
storms 7which7 occurred on the #bc;d and
 #cast of ,december1 7in which7 sparks  
#e_/dj of an inch were constantly       
passing from the conductor to the       
discharger for several hours each day4  
,at #aj ,p4,m4 7#bc;d7 the vortex passed
 over ,montreal1 and again descending on
 the #cast ,north1 and was visible at   
,ottowa on the morning of the #ast of   
,january1 with southerly wind setting   
towards it4 ,on the #bith of ,december1 
,mr4 ,smallwood records a low auroral   
arch1 sky clear4 ,on the #bjth1 the     

vortex was #e to the northward of       
,montreal1 and the aurora was           
consequently low--the brightest auroras 
being when the vortex is immediately    
north without storm1 or one day to the  
northward1 although we have seen it very
 low when the vortex was three days to  
the north1 and no other vortex near4    
,,liverpool ,,storm4  ,on the night of  
the #bdth of ,december1 the same central
 vortex ascending passed between ,cape  
,clear and ,liverpool4  ,on the #beth1  
at midnight1 the vortex passed to the   
north of ,liverpool3 its northerly      
progress being very slow1 being confined
 for three days between the parallel of 
,liverpool and its extreme northern     
limit in latitude about #eg4 ,the       
accompanying account of the weather will
 show the result of a long-continued    
disturbance near the same latitude3     
,the ,baltic1 three days out from       
,liverpool1 encountered the vortex on   
the night of the #bc;d4 ,on the morning 
of the #beth1 very early1 the gale      

commenced at ,liverpool1 and did much   
damage4 ,on the #bfth1 the vortex       
attained its northern limit2 but we have
 not been able to procure any account of
 its effects to the northward of        
,liverpool1 although there can be but   
little doubt that it was violent on the 
coast of ,scotland on the #bfth2 for the
 next day 7#bgth7 the vortex having made
 the turn1 was near the latitude of     
,liverpool1 and caused a tremendous     
storm1 thus showing a continued state of
 activity for several days1 or a        
peculiarly favorable local atmosphere in
 those parts4 ,it is very probable1     
also1 that there was a conjunction of   
the central and inner vortex on the     
#bgth4 ,the inner vortex precedes the   
central in passing latitude #da2 but as 
the mean radius of its orbit is less    
than that of the central1 it attains to 
a higher latitude1 and has1             
consequently1 to cross the path of the  
central1 in order again to precede it   
descending in latitude #da4 ,as a very  

trifling change in the elements of the  
problem will cause great changes in the 
positions of the vortices on the surface
 of the earth1 it cannot now be asserted
 that such a conjunction did positively 
occur at that time2 but1 it maybe       
suspected1 that a double disturbance    
would produce a greater commotion1 or1  
in other words1 a more violent1 storm4  
,it is on this account1 combined with   
other auxiliary causes1 that the        
vicinity of ,cape ,horn is so           
proverbially stormy1 as well as for the 
low standard of the barometer in that   
latitude1 it is the stationary point of 
the vortices in ordinary positions of   
the nodes and perigee of the moon4 ,we  
have already alluded to the fact1 that  
none of the vortices scarcely ever pass 
much beyond latitude #hj1 and then only 
under favorable circumstances1 so that  
we ought to infer1 that gales in high   
latitudes should set from the poles     
towards the storms in lower latitudes4  
,this is1 no doubt1 the fact1 but1      

nevertheless1 a hard southerly blow may 
possibly occur in high northern         
latitudes1 if a storm should be raging  
very violently in a lower latitude on   
the opposite side of the pole1 the      
distance across the circle of #hj being 
only about #a1djj miles4 ,as the        
different vortices have a different     
limit in latitude every year1 the       
determination of this turning point is  
obviously of great practical utility1 as
 the fact may yet be connected with     
other phenomena1 so as to give us the   
probable character of the polar ice at  
any assigned time4 ,on this point we    
have more to say4   ,,passages ,,of     
,,all ,,the ,,vortices4  ,our remarks   
have hitherto been confined to the      
central vortex4 ,we shall now show from 
the record1 that the other vortices are 
as effective in deranging the           
equilibrium of our atmosphere4 ,in the  
following table we have given the       
passages of the different vortices1     
which will serve as their true positions

 within moderate limits1 to calculate   
from1 for all future time4   ,,passages 
,,of ,,the ,,central ,,and ,,lateral    
,,vortices1 ,,observed ,,in ,,june ,,and
 ,,july1 #ahec1 ,,in ,,latitude #da #bj 
,,north4  ,i signifying ,inner2 ,o1     
outer2 ,c1 central2 ,a1 ascending2 ,d1  
descending4                             
,order4,vortex4  ,date4   ,meridian     
,passage4 ,calculated latitude          
,passage4            and ,remarks4      
#ast   ,i4 ,a4  ,june #bb   #g ,a4,m4   
south   ,centre4 ,about #dj4            
#bc   #h ,a4,m4   north   ,warsaw4      
,storm4            #b;d    ,o4 ,d4      
#bg   #j noon   north                   
#bh   #a ,a4,m4   south   ,see record4  
#c;d    ,c4 ,a4  ,july  #a   #i ,a4,m4  
south                                   
#b  #aj ,a4,m4   north   ,lat4 #dc4     
,storm4          #dth   ,i4 ,d4         
#g   #e ,p4,m4   north                  
#h   #f ,p4,m4   south   ,lat4 ,new     
,york4 ,storm4     #eth   ,c4 ,d4       
#ab   #e ,p4,m4   north   ,aurora4      

#ac   #f ,p4,m4   south   ,stormy1 very4
             #fth   ,o4 ,a4       #ad   
#aj ,a4,m4   south                      
#ae  #aa ,a4,m4   north   ,see ,record4 
,the intervals between the ascending and
 descending passages of the different   
vortices1 are    ,between ,i4 ,a4 and   
,i4 ,d4 from #aa to #ad days4           
,o4 ,a4    ,o4 ,d4     #aj   #ab        
,c4 ,a4    ,c4 ,d4      #i   #aa     and
 the effect is greatest when the vortex 
comes to the meridian before the sun1   
and least when after the sun2 in which  
case the full effect is not developed1  
sometimes until the following day4  ,a  
brief abstract from a journal of the    
weather for one sidereal period of the  
moon1 in #ahec4  ,june #bast4 ,fine     
clear morning 7,s4 fresh7#ae3 noon very 
warm #hh2 #d ,p4,m4 plumous cirri in    
south2 ends clear4  #bb;d4 ,hazy morning
 7,s4 very fresh7 arch of cirrus in     
west2 #b ,p4,m41 black in ,w4-,n4-,w42  
#c ,p4,m41 overcast and rainy2 #d       
,p4,m41 a heavy gust from south2 #d4cj  

,p4,m41 blowing furiously 7,s4 by ,w472 
#e ,p4,m41 tremendous squall1 uprooting 
trees and scattering chimneys2 #f       
,p4,m41 more moderate 7,w47  #bc;d4     
,clearing up 7,n4-,w472 #h ,a4,m41 quite
 clear2 #aa ,a4,m41 bands of mottled    
cirri pointing ,n4-,e4 and ,s4-,w42 ends
 cold 7,w4 ,n4-,w472 the cirri seem to  
rotate from left to right1 or with the  
sun4  #bdth4 ,fine clear cool day1      
begins and ends 7,n4-,w47  #beth4 ,clear
 morning 7,n4-,w1 light72 #b ,p4,m4     
7,e47 calm2 tufts of tangled cirri in   
north intermixed with radiating streaks1
 all passing eastward2 ends clear4      
#bfth4 ,hazy morning 7,s4-,e7 cloudy2   
noon1 a heavy windy looking bank in     
north 7,s4 fresh71 with dense cirrus    
fringe above on its upper edge2 clear in
 ,s4  #bgth4 ,clear1 warm1 7,w472 bank  
in north2 noon bank covered all the     
northern sky1 and fresh breeze2 #aj     
,p4,m41 a few flashes to the northward4 
#bhth4 ,uniform dense cirro-stratus1    
7,s4 fresh72 noon showers all round2 #b 

,p4,m41 a heavy squall of wind1 with    
thunder and rain 7,s4-,w4 to ,n4-,w472  
#h ,p4,m41 a line of heavy cumuli in    
south2 #h4cj ,p4,m41 a very bright and  
high cumulus in ,s4-,w41 protruding     
through a layer of dark stratus2 #h4ej  
,p4,m41 the cloud bearing ,e4 by ,s41   
with three rays of electric light4#af   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag  ,june #bith4  
,a stationary stratus over all1 7,s4-,w4
 light72 clear at night1 but distant    
lightning in ,s4  #cjth4 ,stratus clouds
 7,n4-,e4 almost calm72 #h ,a4,m41      
raining gently2 #c ,p4,m41 stratus      
passing off to ,s2 #h ,p4,m41 clear1    
pleasant4  ,july #ast4 ,fine and clear2 
#h ,a4,m41 cirrus in sheets1 curls1     
wisps1 and gauzy wreathes1 with patches 
beneath of darker shade1 all nearly     
motionless2 close and warm 7,n4-,e472 a 
long1 low bank of haze in ,s41 with one 
large cumulus in ,s4-,w41 but very      
distant4  ,july #b;d4 ,at #e ,a4,m41    
overcast generally with hazy clouds and 
fog of prismatic shades1 chiefly        

greenish-yellow2 #g ,a4,m41 7,s4-,s4-,e4
 freshening17 thick in ,w2 #h ,a4,m41   
7,s4 fresh7 much cirrus1 thick and      
gloomy2 #i ,a4,m41 a clap of thunder1   
and clouds hurrying to ,n42 a reddish   
haze all around2 at noon the margin of a
 line of yellowish-red cumuli just      
visible above a gloomy-looking bank of  
haze in ,n4-,n4-,w41 7,s4 very fresh27  
warm1 #hf2 more cumuli in ,n4-,w4--the  
whole line of cumuli ,n4 are separated  
from the clouds south by a clear space4 
,these clouds are borne rapidly past the
 zenith1 but never get into the clear   
space--they seem to melt or to be turned
 off ,n4-,e4 ,the cumuli in ,n4 and     
,n4-,w41 slowly spreading ,e4 and ,s42  
#c ,p4,m41 the bank hidden by small     
cumuli2 #d ,p4,m41 very thick in north1 
magnificent cumuli visible sometimes    
through the breaks1 and beyond them a   
dark1 watery back-ground1 7,s4 strong72 
#d4cj ,p4,m41 wind round to ,n4-,w4 in a
 severe squall2 #e ,p4,m41 heavy rain1  
with thunder1 c4--all this time there is

 a bright sky in the south visible      
through the rain #ae high2 #g ,p4,m41   
clearing1 7,s4-,w4 mod47  ,july #c;d4   
,very fine and clear1 7,n4-,w472 noon1 a
 line of large cumuli in ,n41 and dark  
lines of stratus below1 the cumuli      
moving eastward2 #f ,p4,m41 their       
altitude #b #dj4 ,velocity #a per       
minute2 #i ,p4,m41 much lightning in the
 bank north4#ag  ,july #dth4 #f ,a4,m41 
a line of small cumulo-stratus1         
extending east and west1 with a clear   
horizon north and south #aj high4 ,this 
band#ah seems to have been thrown off by
 the central yesterday1 as it moves     
slowly south1 preserving its            
parallelism1 although the clouds        
composing it move eastward4 ,fine and   
cool all day--7,n4-,w4 mod47--,lightning
 in ,n4  ,july #eth4 ,cloudy 7,n4 almost
 calm71 thick in ,e41 clear in ,w42 same
 all day4  #fth4 ,fine and clear 7,e4   
light72 small cumuli at noon2 clear     
night4  #gth4 ,warm 7,s4 ,e4 light72    
cirrus bank ,n4 ,w42 noon 7,s47         

thickening in ,n42 #f ,p4,m41 hazy but  
fine2 #h ,p4,m41 lightning in ,n42 #aj  
,p4,m41 the lightning shows a heavy line
 of cumuli along the northern horizon2  
calm and very dark and incessant        
lightning in ,n4  #hth4 ,last night     
after midnight commencing raining1      
slowly and steadily1 but leaving a line 
of lighter sky south2 much lightning all
 night1 but little thunder4  #hth4 #f   
,a4,m4 ,very low scud 7#ejj feet high7  
driving south1 still calm below1 7,n4   
light72 #aj ,a4,m41 clearing a little2 a
 bank north with cirrus spreading south2
 same all day2 #i ,p4,m41 wind          
freshening 7,n4 stormy72 heavy cumuli   
visible in ,s42 #aj4cj ,p4,m41 quite    
clear1 but a dense watery haze obscuring
 the stars2 #ab ,p4,m41 again overcast3 
much lightning in ,s4 and ,n4-,w4  #ith4
 ,last night 7#b ,a4,m4 of #ith7 squall 
from ,n4-,w4 very black2 #d ,a4,m41     
still raining and blowing hard1 the sky 
a perfect blaze1 but very few flashes   
reach the ground2 #g ,a4,m41 raining    

hard2 #h ,a4,m4 7,n4-,w4 strong72 a     
constant roll of thunder2 noon          
7,n4-,e472 #b ,p4,m4 7,n472 #d ,p4,m4   
clearing2 #h ,p4,m41 a line of heavy    
cumuli in ,s41 but clear in ,n-,w41 ,n41
 and ,n4-,e4#ai   ,,new ,,york ,,storm1 
,,july #h1 #ahec4  ,at #e o'clock       
,friday afternoon1 a terrible storm of  
rain1 hail1 and lightning1 rose suddenly
 from the north-west1 and passed over   
the upper part of the city and          
neighborhood4 ,it was quite moderate in 
the lower part of the town1 and probably
 scarcely felt on ,staten ,island4 ,the 
whole affair lasted not more than a     
quarter of an hour1 yet the results were
 most disastrous1 as will be seen by the
 following accounts from our reporters3 
,happening to be in the neighborhood of 
the ,palace about #e o'clock ,friday    
evening1 we sought shelter under its    
ample roof from an impending thunder    
storm1 of very threatening appearance1  
rapidly approaching from the west4 ,we  
had scarcely passed the northern        

entrance1 and reached the gallery by the
 nearest flight of steps1 when the      
torrent--it was not rain1 but an        
avalanche of water--struck the building2
 the gutters were filled on the windward
 side in a moment1 and poured over an   
almost unbroken sheet of water1 which   
was driven through the ,venetian blind  
ventilators1 into and half way across   
the north-west gallery1 and also through
 the upper ventilators1 falling upon the
 main floor of the north transept4      
,workmen hastened to close the blinds1  
but that did not prevent the deluge4    
,the tinning of the dome being          
unfinished1 the water1 of course1 came  
down in showers all over the centre4    
,many workmen were engaged on the dome  
when the shower struck it2 several of   
them1 in their haste to escape such     
dangerous proximity to the terrific     
lightning1 came down single ropes1 hand 
over hand4 ,large number of workmen were
 engaged all over the exterior1 and such
 a scampering will rarely be witnessed  

but once in a lifetime4 ,it was found   
impossible to close a north window1 used
 for ingress and egress of workmen upon 
the rod1 and the water came in1 in      
almost solid columns4 ,for a time the   
water was nearly two inches deep on the 
gallery floor1 and poured down the      
stairs in miniature cascades4  ,a great 
number of boxes1 bales1 and packages of 
goods lay upon the main floor1 among    
which the water poured down from the    
edge of the gallery floor in destructive
 quantities2 ,fortunately but few goods 
were opened1 and were upon the tables1  
or the damage would have been           
irreparable4 ,as it is1 we fear some of 
the goods are injured4 ,in the height of
 the storm1 the centre portion of the   
fanlight over the western entrance burst
 in1 and several single lights were     
broken1 by staging or otherwise4  ,about
 ten minutes after the storm burst1 the 
most terrific hailstorm we ever saw     
began to rattle1 like discharges of     
musketry1 upon the tin roof and glass   

sides4 ,some of the masses of ice were  
as large as hen's eggs4 ,there were     
probably a thousand excited workmen in  
the building1 and a good many exhibitors
 and visitors1 among whom there were    
some twenty ladies1 some of whom        
appeared a good deal alarmed at the     
awful din4 ,a portion of the frame-work 
of the addition next to #db;d street1   
went down with a terrible crash1 and a  
part of the brick wall of the           
engine-house on the opposite side of the
 street1 was blown over1 crushing two or
 three shanties1 fortunately without any
 other injury than driving the occupants
 out into the storm4 ,but an awful scene
 occurred on the north side of #dc;d    
street1 directly opposite the ,latting  
,tower4 ,here two large unfinished frame
 buildings were blown1 or rather1 we    
should judge from appearances1 were     
crushed down into a mass of ruins1 such 
as may be imagined by supposing a great 
weight had fallen1 with a circular1     
grinding motion1 upon the first fine    

fabrics4 ,one of them was partly sided1 
and had the rafters up1 but no roof2 the
 other was sided and rooted with tin1   
and was being plastered4 ,we were told  
it was three stories high1 #ej by #ih   
feet4  ,we reached the ruins among the  
first1 after the burst of the storm     
subsided a little4 ,the scene was such  
as we pray ,god we may never witness    
again4 ,a small portion of the roof and 
upper part of the front of the building 
stood or rather partly hung over the    
side-walk4 ,the chamber and lower floor 
of the front rooms lay flat together4   
,the sides were standing4 ,in the rear  
all were down4 ,in this building1       
besides the workmen1 there were numerous
 laborers who had taken shelter under   
its roof when the storm drove them      
hurriedly from their work4 ,how so many 
persons escaped death is truly          
wonderful4 ,it can only be accounted for
 by supposing that they had a moment's  
warning1 and rushed into the street4    
,the first alarm was from the tearing   

off a portion of the tin roof1 which was
 carried high over another building1 and
 fell in the street4 ,a horse and cart  
barely escaped being buried under this4 
,it seems the frame of the other        
building came down with a deafening     
crash at the same time1 confusing       
instead of warning those in danger4 ,at 
any rate1 before they could escape1 they
 were buried in a mass of timber1 and   
three of them instantly killed1 and four
 or five dangerously wounded2 and others
 slightly bruised and badly frightened4 
,several would have perished but for    
timely assistance to extricate them4 ,in
 this they were greatly assisted by     
,jacob ,steinant1 boss carpenter of the 
,tower1 who with his men rushed to the  
rescue1 notwithstanding the pouring down
 torrents4  ,in ,williamsburgh1 the     
storm lasted about fifteen minutes1     
doing an incalculable amount of damage  
to dwellings1 foliage1 c4 ,hailstones   
came down in sizes from that of a       
hickory-nut to a large apple1 some with 

such force as to drive them through the 
cloth awnings4  ,the storm passed over  
,brooklyn lightly1 in comparison with   
the effects across the ,williamsburgh   
line4 ,on ,flushing avenue1 beyond the  
,naval ,hospital1 a number of trees were
 uprooted1 and the window-panes of the  
houses shattered4 ,on the corner of     
,fulton and ,portland avenues1 three    
buildings were unroofed1 and the walls  
of the houses were sprung to the        
foundation4  ,on ,spencer street1 a new 
frame building was levelled with the    
ground4 ,along ,myrtle1 ,classon1 and   
other streets and avenues of ,east      
,brooklyn1 many of the shade trees were 
uprooted1 and the windows smashed4 ,in  
,jay street1 two trees were struck by   
lightning1 but no other damage ensued4  
,several schooners at the foot of ,jay  
street were forced from their moorings1 
but were soon after secured4 ,a small   
frame house in ,spencer street1 just put
 under roof1 was prostrated to the      
ground4  ,we understand that a large    

barn filled with hay1 situated on the   
road between ,bushwick and ,flushing1   
was struck by lightning and destroyed   
with its contents1 embracing several    
head of live stock4#bj  ,july #ajth1 #c 
,a4,m4 ,overcast and much lightning in  
south 7,n4 mod472 #g ,a4,m41 clear      
except in south2 #f ,p4,m4 7,e472 #aj   
,p4,m41 lightning south2 #aa ,p4,m41    
auroral rays long but faint1 converging 
to a point between ,epsilon ,virginis   
and ,denebola1 in west2 low down in west
 thick with haze2 on the north the rays 
converged to a point still lower2       
lightning still visible in south4 ,this 
is an aurora in the west4  #aath4 ,fine 
clear morning 7,n4-,e472 same all day2  
no lightning visible to-night1 but a    
bank of clouds low down in south1 #b    
high1 and streaks of dark stratus below 
the upper margin4  #abth4 ,fine and     
clear 7,n4-,e472 noon1 a well defined   
arch in ,s4-,w41 rising slowly2 the bank
 yellowish1 with prismatic shades of    
greenish yellow on its borders4 ,this is

 the ,o4 ,a4 ,at #f ,p4,m41 the bank    
spreading to the northward4 ,at #i      
,p4,m41 thick bank of haze in north1    
with bright auroral margin2 one heavy   
pyramid of light passed through         
,cassiopa1 travelling westward #a per   
minute4 ,this moves to the other side of
 the pole1 but not more inclined towards
 it than is due to prospective1 if the  
shaft is very long2 #aa4aj ,p4,m41 saw a
 mass of light more diffuse due east1   
reaching to ,markab1 then on the prime  
vertical4 ,it appears evident this is   
seen in profile1 as it inclines         
downwards at an angle of #aj or #ab from
 the perpendicular4 ,it does not seem   
very distant4 #ab ,p4,m41 the aurora    
still bright1 but the brightest part is 
now west of the pole1 before it was     
east4  #acth1 #f ,a4,m4 ,clear1 east and
 north2 bank of cirrus in ,n4-,w41 i4e41
 from ,n4-,n4-,e4 to ,w4 by ,s42        
irregular branches of cirrus clouds1    
reaching almost to south-eastern        
horizon2 wind changed 7,s4-,e4 fresh72  

#h ,a4,m41 the sky a perfect picture2   
heavy regular shafts of dense cirrus    
radiating all around1 and diverging from
 a thick nucleus in north-west1 the     
spaces between being of clear blue sky4 
,the shafts are rotating from north to  
south1 the nucleus advancing eastward4  
,appearance of the central vortex       
descending at #h ,a4,m41 ,july #acth1   
#ahec3  ,in ,fig4 #ah1 the circle       
represents the whole sky from the zenith
 to the horizon1 yet it can convey but a
 very faint idea of the regularity and  
vividness of this display4 ,the         
reflected image of the sky was received 
from a vessel of turbid water1 which    
will be found better than a mirror1 when
 the wind will permit4  ,illustration3  
,fig4 #ah  ,at noon 7same day7 getting  
thicker 7,s4-,e4 very fresh72 #f ,p4,m41
 moon on meridian1 a prismatic gloom in 
south1 and very thick stratus of all    
shades2 #i ,p4,m41 very gloomy2 wind    
stronger 7,s4-,e473 #aj ,p4,m41 very    
black in south1 and overcast generally4 

#adth4 ,last night about #ab ,p4,m4     
commenced raining2 #c ,a4,m41 rained    
steadily2 #g ,a4,m41 same weather2 #h4bj
 ,a4,m41 a line of low storm-cloud1 or  
seud1 showing very sharp and white on   
the dark back ground all along the      
southern sky4 ,this line continues until
 noon about #aj at the highest1 showing 
the northern boundary of the storm to   
the southward2 #h ,p4,m41 same bank     
visible1 although in rapid motion       
eastward2 same time clear overhead1 with
 cirrus fringe pointing north from the  
bank2 much lightning in south 7,w4      
fresh72 so ends4  #aeth4 ,last night a  
black squall from ,n4-,w4 passed south  
without rain2 at #c ,a4,m4 clear above1 
but very black in south 7calm below all 
the time72 #i ,a4,m41 the bank in south 
again throwing off rays of cirri in a   
well-defined arch1 whose vortex is      
south3 these pass east1 but continue to 
form and preserve their linear direction
 to the north2 no lightning in south    
to-night4  #afth4 ,clear all day1       

without a stain1 and calm4  #agth4 ,fine
 and clear 7,n4-,e4 light72 #f ,p4,m41  
calm4  #ahth4 ,fair and cloudy 7,n4-,e4 
light72 #f ,p4,m41 calm4  #aith4 ,fine  
and clear 7,n4 fresh72 ,i4 ,v4 visible  
in ,s4-,w4  #bjth4 #h ,a4,m41 bank in   
,n4-,w4 with beautiful cirrus           
radiations2 #aj ,a4,m41 getting thick   
with dense plates of cream-colored      
cirrus visible through the breaks2      
gloomy looking all day 7,n4-,e4         
light74#ba  ,appearance of the ,inner   
,vortex at #h ,a4,m41 ,july #bjth1      
#ahec1 including the whole sky4 7,see   
,fig4 #ai47  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai   
,this was a different passage of the    
,inner ,vortex ascending as compared    
with the same #bh days before4 ,at that 
date 7,june #bb7 it did great damage in 
the central parts of ,illinois4 ,still  
this last passage was very palpable--the
 clouds were very irregularly           
assorted--plates of cirrus above and    
beneath cumulus--various kinds of cirrus
 clouds1 and that peculiar prismatic    

haze which is a common sign of the      
passage of a vortex4 ,the appearance    
depicted above is a very common1        
although a very evanescent appearance4  
,when the sky appears of a clear blue   
through the cirri1 there will be        
generally fresh gales without any great 
electrical derangement2 but if the clear
 spaces are hazy1 gradually thickening  
towards the nucleus1 a storm may be     
expected4 ,any one who wishes to        
understand the indications of the       
clouds1 must watch them closely for many
 years1 before he can place much        
reliance upon them4 ,but we shall again 
advert to this point4  ,we have now     
passed through one sidereal period of   
the moon4 ,we might continue the record1
 but it would be tedious4 ,the passages 
of these vortices vary in violence at   
different times1 as we might expect2 but
 they never cease to circulate1 and     
never will as long as the moon remains a
 satellite to the earth2 and if we take 
the passage of any of these vortices1   

and add thereto the time of one sidereal
 period of the moon1 we get             
approximately the time of the next      
passage4 ,when the elements of the lunar
 orbit tend to accelerate the passages1 
they may come in #bf days2 and when to  
retard1 in #bh days2 and these are about
 the limits of the theory4  ,having     
begun and ended this record of the      
weather with the passage of the ,inner  
vortex ascending1 it may not be amiss to
 notice one more1 7the ,august passage17
 as it offers a peculiarity not often so
 distinctly marked4 ,we have alluded to 
the greater force of the storms when the
 passage of the vortex corresponds to   
the passage of the line of low barometer
 or the depression point of a great     
atmospheric wave1 which is also due to  
the action of the ether4 ,in consequence
 of these waves passing from west to    
east1 the storm will only be violent    
when formed a little to the westward4   
,if the storm forms to the eastward1 we 
neither see it nor feel it1 as it       

requires time to develop its strength1  
and always in this latitude travels     
eastward2 so that storms may generally  
be said to come from the west1 although 
the exciting cause travels from east to 
west4 ,in the case now alluded to1 the  
weather indicated a high barometer1 and 
the storm formed immediately to the     
eastward1 even showing a distinct       
circular outline4 ,we subjoin a         
description4  ,august #aeth4 ,clear     
morning 7,n4-,e471 a bank of cumuli in  
south3 noon quite cloudy in ,s4 and     
clear in north4 7,n4-,e47  #afth4 ,clear
 morning 7,n4-,e472 #c ,p4,m41 getting  
very black in ,e4 and ,s4-,e41 very     
clear to the westward2 #d ,p4,m41 much  
thunder and lightning in east1 and      
evidently raining hard2 #e ,p4,m41 a    
violent squall from east for #aj        
minutes2 tore up several trees2 #f      
,p4,m41 the storm passing eastward1     
clear in west all this time2 #f4cj      
,p4,m41 the storm forming a regular     
arch1 the vertex being in ,s4-,e42 the  

arch of hazy cirrus and heavy cumulus   
much lower in ,s4-,e41 wind still       
moderate from east2 #aj ,p4,m41 clear   
all around1 but lightning in ,s4-,e4 and
 ,e4  #agth4 ,fine clear morning 7,w472 
noon1 scattered cumuli in north2 #f     
,p4,m41 a beautifully regular arch of   
dense cumuli and cirrus margin in       
,n4-,e41 with a constant glimmer of     
lightning2 #g ,p4,m41 very clear to the 
west1 and north-west1 and south2 along  
the northern horizon a line of high     
peaked cumuli terminating in            
,n4-,n4-,w42 a continued roll of distant
 thunder in the circular bank in        
,n4-,e41 and not a moment's cessation to
 the lightning2 the electric excitement 
advancing westward along the lines of   
cumuli2 the cirrus haze also rising and 
passing towards ,s4-,w42 #h ,p4,m41 the 
sky alive with lightning1 the cirrus now
 reaches the zenith2 no streaks of      
lightning coming to the earth2 they seem
 to radiate from the heaviest mass of   
cumuli1 and spread slowly 7sufficiently 

so to follow them7 in innumerable fibres
 over the cloudy cirrus portion of the  
sky2 every flash seems to originate in  
the same cloud2 #h4cj ,p4,m41 one       
branching flash covered the whole       
north-eastern half of the sky1 no       
leafless tree of the forest could show  
so many branches2 #i4cj ,p4,m41 all     
passed to ,s4-,w4 without rain1 leaving 
behind a large cumulus1 as if it lagged 
behind4 ,from this cumulus a straight   
line of lightning shot up #aj above the 
cloud into a perfectly clear sky1 and   
terminated abruptly without branching4  
,we have been thus particular in giving 
these details1 as this was a clear case 
confirming the principles advanced1 that
 the vortices do not form a continuous  
line of disturbance1 in their daily     
passage around the earth4 ,it shows also
 that the barometer1 in connection with 
these principles1 will be a far more    
useful instrument than it has yet proved
 itself1 for practical service as an    
indicator of the weather4   ,,footnotes3

  #aj ,for convenience to those wishing 
to verify the calculation of these      
triangles1 we have put down each side   
and angle as found4 ,also1 as an aid to 
the navigator4  #aa ,daily ,wisconsin1  
,july #g4  #ab ,the author4  #ac        
,chicago ,democrat4  #ad ,this was also 
calculated before the event4  #ae ,the  
letters in a parenthesis signify the    
direction of the wind4  #af ,giving this
 cloud the average velocity of thirty   
miles per hour1 its altitude was        
determined by the sextant at twelve     
miles1 and we think under-estimated4    
,while measuring1 the author's attention
 was drawn to the fact1 that although it
 appeared equally dense above and below1
 yet its middle part was the brightest1 
and as there was only a faint glimmer of
 twilight in the ,n4-,w41 he concluded  
that the cloud was self-luminous2 for   
when the smallest stars were visible1 it
 glowed about as bright as the milky-way
 in ,sagittarius4 ,occasionally the     
whole cloud was lit up internally by the

 lightning1 and about this time it sent 
off three rays3 one horizontally1       
westward1 which was the faintest2 one   
about ,n4-,w41 towards ,jupiter1 and the
 brightest of the three2 and another    
towards the north4 ,these were not      
cirrus streaks1 but veritable streams of
 electric matter1 and had a very decided
 rotation from left to right1 and       
continued visible about twenty minutes1 
as represented above4  #ag ,this day the
 central vortex passed in about latitude
 #dg ,n4--the southern margin cannot be 
nearer than #bej miles1 throwing off the
 #dj for the horizontal refraction1     
would give eight miles of altitude above
 a tangential plane4 ,then another seven
 miles1 for curvature1 will give an     
altitude of fifteen miles for the       
cumuli4 ,the height of these            
thunder-clouds has been much            
under-estimated4 ,they seem to rise in  
unbroken folds to a height of ten and   
twelve miles frequently2 from the data  
afforded by the theory1 we believe they 

will be found much higher               
sometimes--even as much as sixteen      
miles4  #ah ,these parallel bands1 and  
bands lying east and west1 are frequent 
in fine weather between two vortices4   
,sailors consider them a sign of settled
 weather4 ,after dark there was         
frequently seen along the northern      
horizon flashes of lightning in a       
perfectly clear sky4 ,but they were both
 faint and low1 not reaching more than  
#d or #e above the horizon4 ,after      
sunset there were very distinct rays    
proceeding from the sun1 but they were  
shorter than on the evening of the #c;d4
 ,these are caused by the tops of the   
great cumuli of the storm1 when sunk    
below the horizon1 intercepting the     
sun's rays1 which still shine on the    
upper atmosphere4 ,the gradation was    
very marked1 and accorded with the      
different distances of the central      
vortex on the #c;d and #dth--although1  
on the #dth1 the nearest distance must  
have been over four hundred miles to the

 southern boundary of the storm4  #ai   
,it is worthy of notice here1 that ,new 
,york1 which only differs by about #dj  
miles of latitude and #hjj in longitude1
 had the storm earlier1 near the time of
 the passage1 as appears by the appended
 account of it4 ,this proves1 that a    
storm affects a particular latitude     
simultaneously1 or approximately so4 ,if
 this had to travel eastward to reach   
,new ,york1 it would have been the #ajth
 instead of the #hth4 ,the principal    
trouble was1 however1 in the early part 
of the evening of the #hth1 to the south
 of ,ottawa1 where the strong wind was  
drawn in from the northward4 ,if a      
vortex passes from north to south1      
leaving the observer between the        
passages1 there must1 nearly always1 be 
a winding up squall from the north to   
clear away the vapory atmosphere4  #bj  
,from the ,new ,york ,tribune1 ,july #i1
 #ahec4  #ba ,these pages are now in the
 compositors' hands1 7,nov4 #bast17 and 
up to the last moment the ,author has   

observed carefully in ,new ,york the    
passages of these vortices4 ,october    
#bdth1 in the inner vortex descending   
produced a violent storm on the coast1  
and much damage ensued4 ,november #gth1 
the same vortex ascending was also      
severe4 ,and on ,november #acth1 early1 
the passage of the central vortex       
ascending1 caused a flood in            
,connecticut of a very disastrous       
nature4 ,would it not pay the insurance 
offices to patronize such investigations
 in view of such palpable facts as      
these8     ,,section ,,third4           
,,objections ,,to ,,lunar ,,influence4  
,we have now presented a theory of the  
weather1 which accounts for many        
prominent phenomena1 a few of which we  
shall enumerate4 ,it is an observed     
fact1 that in all great storms          
electrical action is more or less       
violent1 and that without this element  
it seems impossible to explain the      
velocity of the wind in the tornado1 its
 limited track1 and the formation of    

large masses of ice or hail in the upper
 regions of the atmosphere4 ,it is also 
an observed fact1 that the barometer is 
in continued motion1 which can only be  
legitimately referred to a change in the
 weight of the atmospheric column4 ,this
 we have explained as due to atmospheric
 waves1 caused by the greater velocity  
of rotation of the external ether1 as   
well as to the action of the three great
 vortices4 ,these causes1 however1 only 
partially produce the effect--the       
greater portion of the daily            
oscillations is produced by the action  
of the great radial stream of the solar 
vortex1 as we shall presently explain4  
,it is an observed fact1 that1 although 
the storm is frequently violent1        
according to the depression of the      
barometer1 it is not always so4         
,according to the theory1 the storm will
 be violent1 ceteris paribus1 on a line 
of low barometer1 but may still be      
violent1 when the contrary obtains4     
,another fact is the disturbance of the 

magnetic needle during a storm4 ,storms 
are also preceded generally by a rise in
 the thermometer1 and succeeded by a    
fall2 also by a fall in the barometer1  
and succeded by a rise4 ,it is also well
 known1 that hurricanes are unknown at  
the equator1 and probably at the poles  
also4 ,at all events1 they are rare in  
lat4 #hj1 and1 according to ,capt4      
,scoresby1 storms are there frequently  
raging to the south1 while above1 there 
is clear sky and fine weather1 with a   
stiff breeze from the northward4 ,the   
greater violence of storms in those     
regions where the magnetic intensity is 
greater in the same latitude1 the       
probable connection of peculiarities in 
the electric state of the atmosphere    
with earthquakes1 and the indications of
 the latter afforded by the magnet2 the 
preponderance of westerly winds at a    
great elevation in every latitude on the
 globe visited by man2 and the frequent 
superposition of warm layers of air     
above cold ones at those elevations1 are

 all facts worthy of note4 ,and the     
connection of cirrus clouds with storms1
 as well as with the aurora1 indicates  
that the producing cause is external to 
the atmosphere1 and gradually penetrates
 below4 ,the theory fully explains this1
 and is confirmed by the fantastic      
wreathings and rapid formation of these 
clouds in straight lines of a hundred   
miles and upwards4 ,but time would fail 
us in pointing out a tithe of the       
phenomena1 traceable to the same cause1 
which keeps our atmosphere in a         
perpetual state of change1 and we shall 
only advert to one more peculiarity of  
the theory4 ,it places meteorology on a 
mathematical basis1 and explains why it 
is that a storm may be raging at one    
place1 while in another1 not very       
remote1 the weather may be fine1 and yet
 be dependent on the position of the    
moon4  ,that the moon has exerted an    
influence on the weather has been the   
popular creed from time immemorial2 but1
 ignorant of the mode in which this     

influence was exerted1 men have often   
been found who have fostered the popular
 belief for their own vanity or         
advantage2 and1 on the other hand1      
philosophers have assailed it more by   
ridicule than by argument1 as a relic of
 a barbarian age4 ,not so with all2 for 
we believe we are not wrong in stating1 
that the celebrated ,olbers compared the
 moon's positions with the weather for  
fifty years1 before he gave his verdict 
against it4 ,he found the average amount
 of rain at the perigee about equal to  
the amount at the apogee1 as much at the
 full as at the change1 and no          
difference at the quadratures4 ,but this
 fact does not throw a feather in the   
scale by which this theory is weighed4  
,popular opinions1 of remote origin1    
have almost always some foundation in   
fact1 and it is not much more wise to   
reject them1 than to receive them4 ,the 
,baron ,von ,humboldt--a man possessing 
that rare ingredient of learning1 a     
practical common sense--observes3 ,that 

arrogant spirit of incredulity which    
rejects facts1 without attempting to    
investigate them1 is1 in some cases1    
more injurious than an unquestioning    
credulity4#bb ,if a popular belief or   
prejudice be absurd1 its traditional    
preservation for a thousand years or    
more may very well account for the      
absurdity4  ,the present system of      
astronomy still retains the motley      
garniture of the celestial sphere1 as   
handed down from the most remote        
antiquity2 and granting that ages of    
ignorance and superstition have involved
 the history of the different           
constellations in a chaos of            
contradictory traditions1 there is no   
doubt at the foundation some seeds of   
truth which may even yet emerge from the
 rubbish of fable1 and bear fruit most  
precious4 ,that the zodial#bc signs are 
significant records of something worthy 
of being preserved1 is prejudice to     
deny2 and we must be allowed to regard  
the ,gorgons and ,hydras of the skies as

 interesting problems yet unsolved1 as  
well as to consider that the belief in  
lunar influence is a fragment of a true 
system of natural philosophy which has  
become more and more debased in         
postdiluvian times4 ,amongst those who  
have not summarily ignored the influence
 of the moon1 is ,toaldo1 a ,spanish    
physicist1 who endeavored to show the   
connection between the recurrence of    
warm and cold seasons1 and the          
semi-revolution of the lunar nodes and  
apogee1 and proposed six of those       
periods1 or about fifty-four years1 as  
the cycle in which the changes of the   
weather would run through their course4 
,according to the present theory1 it is 
not likely such a cycle will ever be    
discovered4 ,there are too many secular1
 as well as periodic influences         
combining1 to produce the effect2 and   
the times are too incommensurable4      
,lately1 ,mr4 ,glaisher has presented a 
paper to the ,royal ,society1 giving    
about fourteen years from observation4  

,others have lately attempted to connect
 the changes of the seasons with the    
solar spots1 as well as with the        
variations of the magnetism of the      
earth1 but without any marked result4   
,it may1 however1 be urged1 that if the 
sidereal period of the moon be          
approximately a cycle of change1 it     
would have been detected long ago4 ,one 
reason why this has been so long        
concealed1 is the high latitude of the  
observers4 ,spain1 ,italy1 and ,turkey1 
are better situated than other ,european
 countries2 but the scientific nations  
lie further north2 and from these the   
law has gone forth to regulate more     
southern lands4 ,in the ,united ,states1
 particularly in the great plains of the
 west1 the weather can be better        
compared2 not only on account of the    
latitude being more favorable1 but also 
on account of the greater magnetic      
intensity of the western hemisphere4    
,it must also be remembered that there  
are in latitude #dj1 five or six        

distinct passages of the disturbing     
cause in one sidereal period of the     
moon4 ,if two of these periods are drawn
 closer together by the change of the   
elements1 the interval between two      
others must necessarily be increased4   
,besides1 the effect produced is not    
always the same1 for reasons already    
adverted to4 ,one vortex may be more    
violent one month1 or for a few days in 
one month1 while another may be more    
active the next4 ,it may also happen    
that for several successive passages1   
the passage shall be central in one     
latitude1 while two or three degrees    
north or south1 another place shall be  
passed by4 ,in different months and in  
different years1 as well as in different
 seasons of the year1 the energy of the 
ether may be augmented or diminished4   
,but it may be said1 that1 supposing the
 theory true1 if its indications are so 
uncertain1 it is of little value4 ,by no
 means4 ,it is true there are many      
things to be inquired into2 but it is a 

great thing in this science to be able  
to take the first step in the right     
direction1--to find even the key of the 
portal4 ,it is a great stride to be able
 to say1 a storm may happen at such a   
time1 but cannot happen at another2 that
 a storm1 when raging1 will go in this  
direction1 rather than in that2 that it 
will be central here1 and less violent  
yonder2 and when we consider its bearing
 on astronomical and other science1 it  
is difficult to exaggerate its value to 
the world at large4  ,again1 it may be  
said that rain1 and cloudy days1 and    
fresh breezes1 and even strong winds1   
sometimes occur1 when the vortices do   
not pass centrally4 ,this is true2 yet  
only indicating that where the vortices 
are central1 an unusual disturbance is  
taking place4 ,but there is another     
cause1 which was purposely omitted in   
considering the prominent features of   
the theory1 in order not to encumber the
 question with secondary influences4 ,by
 referring to ,fig4 #c1 section #a1 we  

see that the lateral vortices of the    
globe are continually passing off to the
 southward1 in the northern hemisphere1 
in a succession of dimples1 and         
continually reforming4 ,we will now     
represent this mode of action in        
profile1 as it actually occurs in the   
illustration we have used4  ,the vortex 
passing off from ,o1 7,fig4 #bj17       
although it does not actually reach the 
surface of the atmosphere1 affects the  
equilibrium of the ether1 and1 for a    
short distance from the parent vortex1  
may cause an ascensional movement of the
 air4 ,if to this is conjoined a        
northerly wind from the vortex1 a band  
of clouds will be produced1 and perhaps 
rain2 but violent storms never occur in 
the intervals1 except as a steady gale1 
caused by the violence of a distant     
storm4 ,thus1 it will frequently be     
noticed that these vortices are flanked 
by bands of clouds1 which pass          
southward1 although the individual      
clouds may be moving eastward4 ,hence1  

instead of disproving the theory1 they  
offer strong evidence of its truth2 and 
could we view the earth from the moon   
with a telescope1 we should no doubt see
 her beautifully belted4  ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #bj  ,but it may be again asked1 
why should not the weather be the same  
generally1 in the same latitude1 if this
 theory be true8 ,if the earth were a   
globe of level land1 or altogether of   
water1 no doubt it would be similar2 but
 it must be remembered1 that both land  
and water are very unequally            
distributed3 that the land is of varying
 extent and elevation--here a vast      
plain1 far removed from the ocean1 and  
there a mountain chain1 interposing a   
barrier to the free course of the       
atmospheric currents2 sometimes         
penetrating in full width into the      
frigid zone1 and again dwindling to a   
few miles under the equator4 ,one very  
important distinction is also to be     
remarked1 in the superficial area of the
 different zones1 reckoning from the    

equator1 and taking the hemisphere as   
#ajj parts3    ,frigid    zone   #h     
parts4   ,temperate      #eb            
,torrid         #dj     ,for as the time
 of rotation in every latitude is the   
same1 the area to be disturbed in the   
same time1 is less in high latitudes1   
and there a greater similarity will     
obtain1 ceteris paribus4 ,in lower      
latitudes1 where both land and water    
stretch away for thousands of miles1 it 
is not wonderful that great differences 
should exist in the electrical and      
hygrometric state of the air4  ,the     
summer of many countries is always      
dry--,california for instance4 ,in      
winter1 in the same country1 the rains  
are apparently incessant4 ,this of      
course depends on the power of the sun1 
in diverting the great annual currents  
of the atmosphere4 ,as long as the dry  
north-west trade sets down the coast of 
,california1 the circumstances are not  
favorable for giving full development to
 the action of the vortices4 ,when the  

trade wind ceases1 and the prevailing   
winds come from the south1 loaded with  
vapor1 the vortices produce storms of   
any magnitude2 but 7and we speak from   
two years' observation7 the passages of 
the vortices are as distinctly marked   
there in winter time1 as they are in the
 eastern ,states2 and in summer time1   
also1 they are very perceptible4 ,the   
same remark applies to ,mediterranean   
countries1 particularly to ,syria and   
,asia ,minor2 although the author's     
opportunity for observing lasted only   
from ,april to ,december1 during one    
season4 ,if we are told it never rains  
on the coast of ,peru1 or in ,upper     
,egypt1 it does not seriously militate  
against the theory4 ,the cause is local1
 and the ,samiel and the sand storm of  
the desert1 is but another phase of the 
question1 explicable on the same general
 principles4 ,from the preceding remarks
 it will be seen1 that in order to      
foretell the character of particular    
days1 a previous knowledge of the       

weather at that particular place1 and   
for some considerable time1 is          
requisite2 and hence the difficulty of  
laying down general rules1 until the    
theory is more fully understood4        
,,modifying ,,causes4  ,we now come to  
the causes which are auxiliary and      
interfering4 ,it is natural that we     
should regard the sun as the first and  
most influential of these causes1 as    
being the source of that variation in   
the temperature of the globe1 which     
alternately clothes the colder regions  
in snow and verdure4 ,the heat of the   
sun undoubtedly causes the ether of the 
lower atmosphere to ascend1 not by      
diminution of its specific gravity2 for 
it has no ponderosity2 but precisely by 
increase of tension1 due to increase of 
motion4 ,this aids the ascensional      
movement of the air1 and therefore1 when
 a vortex is in conjunction with the    
sun1 its action is increased--the       
greatest effect being produced when the 
vortex comes to the meridian a little   

before the sun4 ,this has a tendency to 
make the period of action to appear     
dependent on the phases of the moon1    
which being the most palpable of all the
 moon's variations1 has been naturally  
regarded by mankind as the true cause of
 the changes of the weather4 ,thus      
,virgil in his ,georgics1 speaking of   
the moon's influence and its signs3     
,sin ortu in quarto 7,namque is         
certissimus auctor7     ,pura1 nec      
obtusis per clum cornibus ibit2         
,totus et ille dies1 et qui nascentur ab
 illo1     ,exactum ad mensem1 pluvi    
ventisque carebunt4  ,hence1 also1 in   
the present day we hear sailors speak of
 the full and change1 or the quartering 
of the moon1 in connection with a gale  
at sea2 thus showing1 at least1 their   
faith in the influence of the           
phenomenon4 ,yet it is actually the     
case1 at certain times1 that in about   
latitude #dj and #da1 the storms appear 
about a week apart4  ,there is some     
reason1 also1 to suspect1 that there is 

a difference of temperature on opposite 
sides of the sun4 ,as the synodical     
rotation is nearly identical with the   
siderent period of the moon1 this would 
require about forty-four years to run   
its course1 so as to bring the phenomena
 to exact coincidence again4 ,since     
these observations were made1 it is     
understood that ,sig4 ,secchi has       
determined that the equatorial regions  
of the sun are hotter than his polar    
regions4 ,it may be owing to this fact1 
that we have inferred a necessity for a 
change1 whose period is a multiple of   
the sun's synodical rotation1 but it is 
worthy of examination by those who      
possess the necessary conveniences4     
,another period which must influence the
 character of different years1 depends  
on the conjunction of the perigee of the
 lunar orbit with the node4 ,taking the 
mean direct motion of the moon's        
perigee1 and the mean retrograde motion 
of the node1 we find that it takes six  
years and one day nearly from           

conjunction to conjunction4 ,now1 from  
the principles laid down1 it follows1   
that when the perigee of the orbit is   
due north1 and the ascending node in    
,aries1 that the vortices of the earth  
will attain their greatest north        
latitude2 and when these conditions are 
reversed1 the vortices will reach their 
highest limit in the lowest latitude4   
,this will materially affect the        
temperature of the polar regions4 ,in   
the following table1 we have calculated 
the times of the conjunctions of the    
apogee and pole of the orbit1 taking the
 mean motions4 ,it may be convenient to 
refer to by-and-bye1 remembering that   
when the conjunction takes place due    
south1 the vortices reach the highest1  
but when due north1 the vortices in the 
northern hemisphere have their lowest   
upper limit3    ,,conjunction ,,of      
,,apogee ,,and ,,pole ,,of ,,orbit4#bd  
,year4    ,month and ,day4   ,longitude4
   #ahjd1     ,april #ahth1        #bbj 
#ahaj1          #agth1        #ajd      

#ahaf1          #afth1        #cdh      
#ahbb1          #aeth1        #bcb      
#ahbh1          #adth1        #aaf      
#ahcd1          #abth1        #cfj      
#ahdj1          #aath1        #bdd      
#ahdf1          #ajth1        #abh      
#aheb1           #ith1         #ab      
#aheh1           #hth1        #bee      
#ahfd1           #gth1        #aci      
#ahgj1           #fth1         #bc      
#ahgf1           #eth1        #bfg  ,by 
this we see that the vortices have never
 attained their highest limit during the
 present century1 but that in #aheh     
their range will be in a tolerable high 
latitude1 and still higher in           
#ahgf--neglecting the eccentricity of   
the orbit4  ,a very potent influence is 
also due to the heliocentric longitude  
of the sun1 in determining the character
 of any given year4 ,let us explain3    
,the moon's inertia forces the earth    
from the mechanical centre of the terral
 system1 but is never able to force her 
clear from the central axis4 ,with the  

sun it is different4 ,he possesses many 
satellites 7planets74 ,jupiter alone1   
from his great mass and distance1 is    
able to displace the whole body of the  
sun4 ,if other planets conspire at the  
same side1 the centre of the sun may be 
displaced a million of miles from the   
mechanical centre of the solar system4  
,considering this centre1 therefore1 as 
the centre of an imaginary sun1 from    
which heliocentric longitudes are       
reckoned1 the longitude of the real sun 
will vary with the positions of the     
great planets of the system4 ,now1      
although this systematic longitude will 
not be exactly similar to the           
heliocentric longitude reckoned from the
 sun's centre1 yet1 for the purposes    
intended1 it will correspond            
sufficiently1 and we shall speak of the 
longitude of the sun as if we reckoned  
heliocentric longitudes from the        
mechanical centre of the system4 ,when  
we come to consider the solar spots1 we 
shall enter into this more fully4 ,in   

the following diagram we shall be able  
to perceive a cause for variation of    
seasons in a given year1 as well as for 
the general character of that year4     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba  ,let ,s       
represent the centre of the sun1 and the
 circle a vertical section of the sun1  
cutting2 through the centre1--,,sj being
 in the equatorial plane of the vortex1 
of which ,,zz represents the axis4 ,as  
the ether descends the poles or axis at 
,z1 it is met by the current down the   
opposite pole1 and is thence deflected  
in radii along the equatorial plane to  
,j4 ,but on the side ,s1 the ether is   
opposed by the body of the sun2 its     
direction is consequently changed1 and  
cross currents are produced1 assuming it
 as a principle1 that the ethereal fluid
 is permeable by other currents of      
similar matter1 and that it tends always
 to move in right lines4 ,this granted1 
it is evident that1 in passing the sun1 
the quick moving ether forms a conical  
shell1 7the sun being at the apex17 so  

that the strongest current of ether is  
in this conical shell1 or at the surface
 of this conical space4 ,as the plane of
 the ecliptic is not much inclined to   
the sun's equator1 and this last        
probably not much inclined to the plane 
of the vortex1 should the earth have the
 same heliocentric longitude at the     
time1 7or nearly the same17 she would be
 in an eddy1 as respects the radial     
stream1 and be protected from its full  
force by the body of the sun4  ,now1 the
 ether comes down the axis with the     
temperature of space1 and may possibly  
derive a little additional temperature  
in passing over the body of the sun2 so 
that in this position the earth is      
protected from the chilling influence of
 the radial stream1 by being protected  
by the body of the sun4 ,and although1  
from the immense velocity of the ether1 
it cannot derive much additional        
temperature1 there may still be an      
appreciable difference1 due to this     
cause4  ,it is the chilling influence of

 the ethereal stream which originated   
the idea among philosophers1 of         
frigorific impressions1 darted from a   
clear sky4 ,in some years the sun will  
be nearly in the centre of the system2  
in other years the axis of the vortex   
will not come near the sun4 ,and as the 
sun's longitude may vary through the    
entire circle1 it may happen that the   
earth's longitude shall coincide in     
winter or summer1 or spring or autumn4  
,when1 however1 the earth emerges from  
the protection of the sun1 and enters   
the conical shell1 considered as a space
 of considerable depth1 she will again  
be exposed to the full force of the     
radial stream1 rendered more active by  
the previous deflection1 and by the     
numerous cross currents pervading it2 so
 that a mild and calm winter may be     
succeeded by a cold and stormy spring4  
,the present season1 7#ahec7 the earth's
 longitude coincided with the sun's     
longitude in about #ace1 and            
consequently was in the conical space   

spoken of1 during ,february and ,march2 
but the radius vector of the sun's      
centre1 being then less than #cjj1jjj   
miles1 the protection was not as        
complete as it is sometimes4 ,still1 the
 general fineness of these months was   
remarkable2 yet in ,april and ,may1 when
 the earth became again exposed to the  
action of the solar stream1 the effect  
was to retard the spring1 and disappoint
 the prognostications of the            
weather-wise4 ,in applying these        
principles1 we must consider the effect 
in those latitudes which are more       
readily affected1--that is1 in the      
temperate zone1 midway between the two  
extreme zones of heat and cold4  ,in    
#ahcg and #ahch1 the longitude of the   
sun's centre corresponded with the      
earth's1 in ,august and ,september1 when
 there was neither rain nor electrical  
excitement2 and consequently those      
seasons were sickly over the whole      
country4 ,now1 there is another cause   
which renders the months of ,august1    

,september1 and ,october1 deficient in  
electrical energy1 and consequently more
 prone to be sickly4 ,if1 therefore1 the
 two causes unite their influence1 the  
autumnal months will be more sickly at  
those times4 ,this last cause1 however1 
only affects the northern latitudes in  
autumn1 and consequently1 ceteris       
paribus1 the autumnal months should not 
be so proverbially sickly in the        
southern hemisphere4 ,this is1 however1 
only suggestive4  ,again1 in #ahdc1 the 
winter was very mild in ,january and    
,february2 but in ,march it turned cold 
and stormy1 and continued through       
,april4 ,in this year the longitude of  
the sun was nearly the same as in       
#ahec1--the two longitudes of the earth 
and sun corresponding about the last of 
,january2 but in ,march1 the earth      
forsook the comparative calm produced by
 the sun's position1 and hence the      
greater cold4#be  ,thus it appears at   
every step we take1 that the different  
members of the solar system do indeed   

belong to the same family1 whose least  
motions have their influence on the     
rest4 ,who could have anticipated that  
the position of ,jupiter in his orbit   
had anything to do with the health of   
this remote planet1 or with the mildness
 of its seasons8 ,in this we have a clue
 to the origin of that astrological     
jargon about planetary aspects being    
propitious or malign4 ,philosophers are 
even yet too prone to wrap themselves in
 their mantle of academic lore1 and     
despise the knowledge of the ancients1  
while there is reason to believe that   
the world once possessed a true insight 
into the structure of the solar system4 
,as war became the occupation of        
mankind1 under the despotic rule of     
ambition1 so truth retired1 and         
ignorance seizing upon her treasures1   
has so mutilated and defaced them1 that 
their original beauty no longer appears4
 ,let us hope that the dawn of a better 
day is approaching4  ,there is yet      
another cause 7just alluded to7 which   

modifies the action of the vortices4    
,we have shown that1 if the periodic    
times of the planets are approximately  
equal to the periodic times of the      
contiguous parts of the solar vortex1   
the density of the ether is directly as 
the square roots of the distances from  
the centre4 ,as the earth is at her     
perihelion about the first of ,january1 
the density of the surrounding ether is 
then less than in other parts of the    
orbit2 consequently1 if we suppose that 
there is a continual tendency to        
equilibrium1 the ether of space must    
press inwards1 during the time between  
the perihelion and aphelion1 7i4e4 from 
,january to ,july17 lowering the        
temperature and increasing the          
electrical action of those months4 ,as  
the distance from the sun is most       
rapidly augmenting about the first of   
,april1 and the effective power of the  
sun's radiation is most rapidly         
increasing in ,may2 by combining the two
 we shall find1 that about the first of 

,may we shall have considerable         
electrical action1 and cold weather4    
,this explains also1 in part1 the       
prevalent tradition of certain days in  
,may being very cold4#bf ,when the earth
 leaves the aphelion1 a reaction takes  
place1 being most rapid in ,september4  
,there is then an escape of ether from  
the earth1 which keeps up the           
temperature1 and causes these months to 
be sickly1 from the negative electrical 
state of the atmosphere4 ,in the        
southern hemisphere1 the effects in the 
same season will be reversed1 which may 
partly account for the greater degree of
 cold in that hemisphere1 and for       
accelerating the approach of both summer
 and winter1 while in the north they    
were both retarded4  ,we must now advert
 to another cause1 which of all others  
is probably the most important1 at least
 to the other members of the solar      
system4  ,in every part of the solar    
vortex the ether is continually pressing
 outwards4 ,we are not now speaking of  

the radial stream1 but of the slower    
spiral motion of the ether around the   
axis of the vortex1 whose centrifugal   
force is bearing the whole body of the  
ether outwards1 thus rarefying the      
central parts1 and thus giving rise to  
the polar influx1 from which arises the 
radial stream4 ,this may be made more   
intelligible1 by reflecting that the    
polar current is comparatively dense    
ether1 and that the length of the axis  
of the vortex prevents this influx      
current coming in sufficient quantities 
to restore an equilibrium in the density
 of the medium4 ,yet1 what does come    
down the poles1 is distributed rapidly  
along the equatorial plane1 leaving the 
space still rarefied4 ,now we perceive1 
that in order for the radial stream to  
continue in action1 requires the whole  
medium of the vortex to be also moving  
outward2 it is therefore continually    
condensed as it proceeds4 ,this         
condensation necessarily converts much  
of the specific heat of the ether into  

sensible heat2 so that the temperature  
of the medium is continually increasing1
 as the distance from the sun increases4
  ,when we contemplate the solar system 
as the emanation of one ,great ,mind1 we
 naturally seek for evidence of the     
wisdom of a supreme intelligence in all 
the arrangements of that system4 ,but1  
however humbly and reverently we may    
speak of these arrangements1 we can     
scarcely avoid the wish1 that the       
planetary distances had been differently
 arranged1 if ,newton's doctrine be     
true1 that space is a vacuum1 and that  
the heat of a planet1 is inversely as   
the squares of the distances from the   
sun4 ,for1 to speak of the temperature  
of space1 except as dependent on this   
law1 is one of those many               
incomprehensible inconsistencies with   
which philosophers are chargeable4 ,if  
the ,newtonian philosophy is literally  
true1 space has no temperature1 and the 
surface heat of the planet ,neptune is  
nearly #a1jjj times less than on our own

 globe4 ,again1 on ,mercury it is seven 
times greater1 which heat would scorch  
and consume every organic substance on  
the earth1 and speedily envelope the    
boiling ocean in a shroud of impermeable
 vapor4 ,granting even that space may   
not be a vacuum1 and yet the law of     
gravitation be true1 we may still be    
allowed to consider both ,saturn and    
,uranus and ,neptune1 as inhospitable   
abodes for intelligent creatures2 and1  
seeing the immensity of room in the     
system1 there is no reason why these    
planets might not have been permitted to
 revolve nearer the great source of     
light and life and cheering emanations4 
,to suggest the resources of            
,omnipotence is no argument4 ,he has    
surrounded us with analogies which are  
seen1 by which we may attain a knowledge
 of those which are not seen2 and we    
have every reason to suppose that the   
great ,author of nature is not          
indifferent to the aspects under which  
his works reveal him unto his creatures4

 ,yet there is 7on the above hypothesis7
 an apparent want of harmony in the     
planetary distances2 and if frail       
mortality may be permitted to speak out1
 an explanation is needed to obviate    
this seeming anomaly in the economy of  
the world4 ,the more we learn of the    
physical arrangements of the universe1  
the more do they correspond with our    
experience of the nice adaptation of the
 means to the end which obtains in our  
own globe1 and we can only judge of     
other planets by the analogies around   
us4 ,here1 there1 are extremes of       
temperature it is true3 it is necessary 
there should be1 and we can see and     
understand the necessity in all such    
cases1 and how they conduce to the      
general average of good4 ,but1          
astronomers can give no reason why it is
 necessary that some planets of our     
system should be placed so remote that  
the sun is frittered down to a star1    
whose heatless light is but a mockery to
 those frigid realms4  ,now1 according  

to this theory1 the temperature of      
,neptune may be far more uniform and    
conducive to life than that of our own  
globe4 ,the chilling influence of the   
solar stream at that planet being nearly
 null1 and the temperature of the       
surrounding space far greater4 ,so also 
,mercury1 instead of being the burning  
planet of the schools1 may suffer the   
most from cold4  ,the planet ,mars is   
generally considered1 of all the members
 of the system1 most nearly to resemble 
our own world4 ,the telescope not only  
reveals seas and continents1 but the    
snowy circles round his poles1 which    
appear to increase and diminish1 as his 
winter is beginning or ending4 ,this    
planet's ecliptic is similar to our own 
in inclination or obliquity1 his        
distance1 also1 is far greater1 and his 
winter longer2 yet1 for all this1 his   
snow zones are less than on our own     
globe4 ,this anomalous fact has1 we     
believe1 never been noticed before2 but 
it is explicable on the theory1 and     

therefore confirms it4 ,mars has no     
satellite1 and therefore his centre will
 be coincident with the centre of the   
marsial vortex4 ,there will be no       
lateral vortices to derange his         
atmosphere1 and if the axis of his      
vortex coincides also with the axis of  
the planet1 the central vortex will be  
continually over the poles1 and there   
will be no storms on the planet ,mars4  
,a capital fact connected with this1 is 
the want of belts1 as in ,jupiter and   
,saturn2 for these planets have         
satellites1 and if they are not massive 
enough1 the belts may be produced by an 
obliquity in the axis of the ,jovial and
 ,saturnial vortices4 ,if ,mars had an  
aurora like the earth1 it is fair to    
presume the telescope would ere this    
have shown it4 ,he is1 therefore1 in    
equilibrium4 ,in applying this reasoning
 to the earth1 we perceive that a       
certain influence is due to the         
difference of temperature of the        
ethereal medium surrounding the earth1  

at perihelion and aphelion1 being least 
at the former1 and greatest at the      
latter4  ,as a modifying and interfering
 cause in the action of the vortices1 we
 must mention the great natural currents
 of the atmosphere1 due to the earth's  
rotation4  ,it is considered that the   
sun is the principal cause of these     
great currents4 ,by elevating the       
surface atmosphere of the equator1 a    
lateral current is induced from the     
north and south2 but on account of the  
enlarging circles of latitude1 their    
direction tends more from the north-east
 and south-east4 ,these currents are    
usually called the trades4 ,without     
disputing the correctness of this1 it   
may be doubted whether the whole effect 
is due to the sun4 ,as this principle   
affects the ocean likewise1 it is       
necessary to look into it2 and in order 
to simplify the question1 we will first 
suppose our globe covered entirely by   
the ocean1 without any protuberant land4
  ,let us assign a uniform depth of ten 

miles to this ocean4 ,in the ,fig4      
following1 the two circles will         
represent the surface and bottom of the 
ocean respectively4 ,the axis of        
rotation is thus represented by the line
 ,,pp4 ,let us consider two particles of
 water at m and n1 as feeling the       
influence of this rotation2 they will1  
of course1 be both urged towards the    
equator by the axifugal force4 ,now1    
every particle in the ocean being also  
urged by the same force1 it might be    
supposed that after a protuberant mass  
of water had accumulated at the equator 
,,ee1 the whole ocean would be in       
equilibrium4 ,this would not follow4    
,the particle at m is urged by a greater
 force than n2 consequently the particle
 at n is overborne by the pressure at m4
 ,considering both in the same          
direction1 yet the particle at n must   
give way1 and move in the opposite      
direction4 ,just as the heaviest scale  
of the balance bears up the lightest1   
although both gravitate towards the same

 point4 ,this is so self-evident that it
 would seem unnecessary to dwell upon   
it1 had not the scientific world decided
 that the rotation of the earth can     
cause no currents either in the         
atmosphere or in the ocean4             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb  ,the axifugal 
forces of the two particles m and n are 
directly as the lines ,mm and ,nn1 and  
if the gravitating forces were also as  
the radii ,tm and ,tn1 no motion would  
be produced4 ,admitting even the        
,newtonian law to be rigidly exact1 the 
earth cannot be considered a homogeneous
 globe1 but1 on the contrary1 the       
density of the central parts must be    
nearly thirty times greater than the    
density of the surface of the ocean4    
,the ratio of the gravitating forces of 
these two particles is1 therefore1 less 
than the ratio of their respective      
radii1 and the axifugal tendency of the 
particle at n is more than              
proportionally restrained by the central
 gravitation2 and hence m will move     

towards the equator1 and n towards the  
poles1 as represented in the ,fig4  ,it 
is on account of the overwhelming       
momentum of the surface waters of the   
,south ,pacific over the ,north1 that   
the ,pacific1 at ,panama1 stands six or 
seven feet higher than the ,atlantic4   
,we shall again allude to this          
interesting fact4  ,according to        
newspaper reports of a lecture1         
delivered in ,new ,york1 by ,lieut4     
,maury1 ,u4 ,s4 ,n41 this gentleman     
endeavors to explain the currents of the
 ocean1 by referring them to evaporation
 in the tropics4 ,the vapor leaves the  
salt of the water behind1 and thus1 by  
continual accumulation1 the specific    
gravity of the tropical waters is       
greater than that of the superficial    
waters nearer the poles2 the lighter    
water1 therefore1 passes towards the    
equator1 and the heavier water below1   
towards the poles4 ,if this be a correct
 statement of that gentleman's theory1  
fidelity to our standards compels us to 

question the soundness of the           
conclusion4 ,the mere fact of the       
surface water of the ocean being lighter
 than that of the bottom1 cannot on any 
known principles of science cause any   
movement of the surface waters towards  
the equator4 ,when such an acute and    
practical physicist is driven1 by the   
palpability of the fact that the polar  
waters are continually tending towards  
the equator1 to seek the cause in the   
tropical evaporation1 it shows that the 
dogma1 which teaches that rotation can  
produce no motion1 is unsound4  ,sir    
,john ,herschel1 in speaking of the     
solar spots1 says3 ,we may also observe 
that the tranquillity of the sun's      
polar1 as compared with his equatorial  
regions 7if his spots be really         
atmospheric71 cannot be accounted for by
 its rotation on its axis only1 but must
 arise from some cause external to the  
sun1 as we see the belts of ,jupiter and
 ,saturn and our trade winds arise from 
a cause external to these planets       

combining itself with their rotations1  
which alone 7and he lays an emphasis on 
the word7 can produce no motions when   
once the form of equilibrium is         
attained4  ,with respect to the origin  
of the solar spots1 we have no          
disposition to question the conclusion2 
but1 as regards the principle laid down1
 that rotation can produce no motions   
when once the form of equilibrium is    
attained1 we must unequivocally dispute 
it4 ,if our atmosphere were of uniform  
density1 the rotation of the earth would
 cause no current such as we have       
described2 with our atmosphere as it is1
 the result will be different4 ,the     
momenta of two portions of matter are   
the products of their inerti by their   
motions1 and1 in the present case1 we   
must take the inerti of equal spaces4 ,a
 cubic inch of air at the surface1 and  
at three miles above the surface1 is as 
#b to #a2 but their centrifugal velocity
 varies only as the radii of the        
respective spheres1 or as #acbj to      

#acba4 ,in the polar regions1 therefore1
 the momentum of the surface air        
preponderates1 and1 in this case1 the   
surface current is towards the equator1 
and the upper current towards the poles4
 ,when1 however1 the centrifugal        
velocity is considerably increased in a 
lower latitude1 and the curvature of the
 surface becomes more and more inclined 
to the direction of that resolved part  
of the centrifugal force1 which is      
always from the axis1 the surface layers
 will evince a tendency to leave the    
surface1 and an intermingling will then 
take place in the space between latitude
 #gj and #ej1 or in latitude #fj4 ,as   
this layer is continually urged on in   
the same direction by the surface layer 
of latitudes above #fj1 the upper layer 
now becomes a current setting towards   
the equator1 and1 consequently1 the back
 current occupies the surface4 ,now1    
considering that the rarefying action of
 the sun is elevating the air under the 
equator1 there must necessarily be an   

upper current from the equator to the   
poles2 so that if we conceive the two   
currents to meet about latitude #cj1    
there will be a second intermingling1   
and the current from the poles will     
again occupy the surface4 ,thus1 we     
regard a part of the effect of the      
trades to the rotation of the earth1    
which is the chief impelling power at   
the poles1 as the sun is at the equator2
 and the latitudes #fj and #cj will be  
marked by some especial phenomena of    
temperature1 and other meteorological   
features which do actually obtain4      
,these would be much more marked if the 
irregular configuration of land and sea1
 the existence of mountain chains1 and  
the different heating power of different
 latitudes1 owing to the unequal        
distribution of the land1 did not       
interfere2 and the currents of the air  
7disregarding the deflection east and   
west7 might then be represented by a    
treble link or loop1 whose nodes would  
vary but little from latitudes #cj and  

#fj4 ,as it is1 it has1 no doubt1 its   
influence1 although unimportant1 when   
compared with the disturbing action of  
the ethereal vortices4  ,there is       
another phenomenon due to the action of 
the radial stream1 which has given much 
trouble to the physicist1 and which has 
yet never been explained4 ,this is the  
horary oscillations of the atmospheric  
pressure which1 in some countries are so
 regular that the time of day may be    
ascertained by the height of the        
barometer4 ,according to ,humboldt1 the 
regularity of the ebb and flow in the   
torrid regions of ,america1 is          
undisturbed by storms or earthquake4 ,it
 is supposed that the maxima occur at #i
 ,a4,m4 and #aj ,p4,m41 and the minima  
at #d ,a4,m4 and #d ,p4,m4 ,from the    
morning minimum to the morning maximum  
is1 therefore1 five hours2 from the     
evening minimum to the evening maximum  
is #f hours2 from the evening maximum to
 the morning minimum is #e hours1 and   
from the morning maximum to the evening 

minimum is #g hours4 ,again1 these      
oscillations are greatest at the        
equator1 and diminish with the increase 
of latitude4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc  
,if we suppose the earth's axis         
perpendicular to the plane of the       
vortex1 and ,p the pole in the above    
figure1 and ,,sp the line joining the   
centre of the earth and sun1 ,m and m   
will represent the points in the earth's
 equator where it is midday and midnight
 respectively4 ,the solar stream        
penetrates the terral vortex2 and       
strikes the earth's atmosphere along the
 lines parallel to ,,sp4 ,the direct    
effect would be to pile up the          
atmosphere at ,n and n2 and therefore1  
were the earth at rest1 the maximum     
would be at #f ,a4,m4 and #f ,p4,m41 and
 the minimum at midday and midnight2 but
 the earth rotating from ,n towards ,m1 
carries along the accumulated           
atmosphere1 being more sluggish in its  
motions than the producing cause1 which 
cause is still exercised to force it    

back to ,n4 ,from this cause the maximum
 is now found at ,k4 ,for a like reason 
the minimum at ,m would be found at ,l1 
but on account of the motion of the     
earth being now in the same direction as
 the solar stream1 the minimum is found 
still more in advance at k2 so that1    
according to the theory1 the interval   
between the morning maximum and the     
evening maximum1 should be greater than 
the interval between the evening maximum
 and the morning maximum2 and so it is1 
the first being #ac hours and the last  
#aj hours4 ,the morning minimum should  
also be less marked than the evening    
minimum1 and this also is a fact4 ,the  
effect also should be greater in the    
tropics than in high latitudes1 which   
again also obtains2 being #a4cb ,french 
lines at the equator1 and only #j4ah at 
latitude #gj4 ,had the earth no         
obliquity1 the effect would be as the   
squares of the cosines of the latitude2 
but the ratio is diminished by the      
inclination of the axis4 ,but there are 

other variations of the barometer of    
longer period1 apparently depending on  
the phases of the moon1 but which cannot
 be reconciled to the attracting power  
of the moon as an atmospheric tide2 and 
,arago concluded that they were due to  
some special cause1 of which the nature 
and mode of action are unknown4 ,perhaps
 this theory will obviate the           
difficulty1 as although the central     
vortex comes to the meridian at the same
 time as the moon1 its effect will be   
different on the inferior meridian to   
what it is on the superior one2 whereas 
the moon's attraction should be the same
 on both4 ,that the passage of a vortex 
over or near a particular place should  
affect the barometer1 is too obvious to 
need explanation1 and therefore we may  
say that the theory will explain all    
those varieties both small and great1   
which have caused so much speculation   
for the last fifty years4               
,,terrestrial ,,magnetism4  ,in applying
 the theory to the magnetism of the     

earth1 we must bear in mind that the    
earth is probably magnetic by induction1
 and not in virtue of its own specific  
action4 ,the rotation of the surrounding
 ether1 and the consequent production of
 a radial stream1 calls the ether into  
motion within the earth's interior1 as  
well as on the surface2 but it does not 
follow that the ether shall also enter  
the earth at its poles and escape at its
 equator1 for the obliquity of the      
vortex would interfere with this result4
 ,it is sufficient that this does occur 
in the terral vortex immediately        
surrounding the earth4 ,from late       
experiments it is pretty well           
established that the axial direction of 
the needle1 7and of other bodies also17 
is due to peculiar internal arrangement 
in lamin or layers1 the existence of    
which is favorable to the passage of the
 magnetic current4  ,according to the   
experiments#bg of ,dr4 ,tyndal1 it is   
found that the magnetism of a body is   
strongest along the line of greatest    

density4 ,as1 therefore1 the lamin of   
bodies may be considered planes of      
pressure1 when these planes are         
suspended horizontally1 the directive   
force is greatest1 and the longest      
diameter of the body sets axial4 ,on the
 other hand1 when the body was suspended
 so that the lamin were vertical1 the   
longest diameter set equatorial4 ,now1  
we know that the crust of the earth is  
composed of lamin1 just as the piece of 
shale in ,doctor ,tyndal's experiments1 
and that these layers are disposed      
horizontally4 ,and whatever force       
originally arranged the land and water  
on our globe1 it is evident that the    
continents are longest from north to    
south1 and therefore correspond to the  
natural direction of the magnetic force4
  ,in consequence of the intrinsic      
difficulties of this question1 and the  
mystery yet attaching to it1 we may be  
permitted to enter a little more        
minutely into it1 and jointly consider  
other questions of interest1 that will  

enable us to refer the principal        
phenomena of terrestrial magnetism to   
our theory4  ,we have before adverted to
 the discrepancies in the earth's       
compression1 as determined by the       
pendulum1 and also to the uncertainty of
 the moon's mass1 as deduced from the   
nutation of the earth's axis4 ,it is    
also suspected that the southern        
hemisphere is more compressed than the  
northern2 and other phenomena also point
 out the inadequacy of the law of       
gravitation1 to account for the figure  
of the earth4  ,from the invariability  
of the axis of rotation1 we must        
conclude that whatever form is the true 
form1 it is one of equilibrium4 ,in     
casting our eyes over the map of the    
world1 we perceive that the surface is  
very unequally divided into land and    
sea2 and that the land is very unequally
 arranged1 both north and south1 and    
east and west4 ,if we compare the       
northern and southern hemisphere1 we    
find the land to the water about #c to  

#a4 ,if we take the ,pacific portion1   
and consider the north end of ,new      
,zealand as a centre1 we can describe a 
great circle taking in one half the     
globe1 which shall not include one-tenth
 of the whole land4 ,yet the average    
height of the remaining nine-tenths1    
above the level of the sea1 is nearly   
#a1jjj feet4 ,call this nine-tenths     
nearly equal to one-fourth of the whole 
surface1 and the protuberant land in the
 hemisphere1 opposite the ,south        
,pacific1 amounts to #a_/cj1jjj part of 
the whole mass of the earth1 or about   
#a_/gjj of the mass of the moon4 ,again1
 the mean density of the earth is about 
#e--water being unity1--and the mean    
density of the surface land is only     
about half this3 but three-fourths of   
the whole surface is water4 ,hence1 we  
see that the materials of the interior  
of the earth must be either metallic or 
very compressible4 ,to assign a metallic
 nucleus to the earth1 is repugnant to  
analogy2 and it is not rendered even    

probable by facts1 as we find volcanic  
emissions to contain no heavier elements
 than the sedimentary layers4 ,besides1 
there are indications of a gradual      
increase of density downwards1 such as  
would arise from the compressibility of 
the layers4 ,seeing1 therefore1 the     
equilibrium of the whole mass1 and the  
consequent hydrostatic balance of the   
land in the sea1--seeing also the small 
compressibility of the solid portions1  
and the great compressibility of the    
fluid1 the inference is legitimate that 
the whole is hydrostatically balanced1  
and that our globe is a globe of water1 
with an intermediate shell of land1     
specifically lighter than the fluid in  
which it is suspended4 ,where this shell
 is of great thickness1 it penetrates to
 greater depths1 and attains to greater 
elevations above the surface of the     
aqueous globe2 where it is less thick1  
it is found below the surface1 and forms
 the bottom of the upper ocean4 ,recent 
soundings give much greater depths to   

some parts of the ocean1 than the most  
elevated land upon the globe4 ,captain  
,denham1 of ,h4 ,b4 ,m4 ship ,herald1   
lately sounded in #cg south and #cg     
west1 and found bottom at #g1gjf        
fathoms1 or about nine ,english miles4  
,as the interior portions of our globe  
are totally unknown1 and the            
compressibility of water is well        
established1 it is just as sane to      
consider water the most abundant element
 of nature1 as solid land4 ,the great   
question to ask is1 whether there may   
not be other phenomena incompatible with
 this supposition8 ,it is plain that the
 permanency of terrestrial latitudes and
 longitudes would be unaffected by the  
conditions we have supposed4 ,would the 
precession of the equinoxes be also     
unaffected8 ,mr4 ,hopkins has entered   
into such an investigation1 and         
concludes3 ,upon the whole1 then1 we may
 venture to assert that the minimum     
thickness of the crust of the globe1    
which can be deemed consistent with the 

observed amount of precession1 cannot be
 less than one-fourth or one-fifth of   
the radius of the earth4 ,these         
investigations were made on the         
hypothesis of the interior fluidity     
being caused by the fusion of the       
central portions of a solid globe2 but  
it is evident that the analytical result
 would be the same if these central     
parts were water1 inclosed by an        
irregularly-spherical shell of land4    
,nor would the result be affected1 if we
 considered certain portions of the     
interior of this solid shell to be in a 
state of fusion1 as no doubt is the     
case4  ,may not the uncertainty of the  
mass of the moon1 be owing to the fact  
that this shell is not so rigidly       
compacted but that it may yield a little
 to external force1 and thus also       
account for the tides in the ,pacific   
groups1 rather obeying the centrifugal  
force due to the orbit velocity of the  
earth1 than the attraction of the moon8 
,since the days of ,hipparchus the      

sidereal day has not diminished by the  
hundredth part of a second2 and1        
consequently1 seeing that the           
contraction of the mass must be limited 
by the time of rotation1 it is inferred 
that the earth has not lost #a_/ejhth of
 one degree of heat since that time4    
,this conclusion1 sound as it is1 is    
scarcely credible1 when we reflect on   
the constant radiation into a space #fj 
below zero4 ,admit that the globe is a  
globe of water1 whose average           
temperature is the temperature it       
receives from the sun1 and the          
difficulty vanishes at once4 ,its       
diameter will be invariable1 and the    
only effect of the cooling of the solid 
parts will be to immerse them deeper in 
the water1 to change the relative level 
of the sea without changing its volume4 
,this is no puerile argument when       
rightly considered2 but there is another
 phenomenon which1 if fairly weighed1   
will also conduct us to the same views4 
,it is now a fact uncontroverted1 that  

the sea does actually change its level1 
or rather1 that the elevation of        
continents is not only apparent but     
real4 ,the whole coast of ,sweden and   
,finland is rising at the present day at
 the rate of four feet in a century1    
while on the south a contrary effect is 
produced4 ,various hypotheses have been 
formed concerning this interesting fact4
 ,yet from the indications of geology1  
it must have been an universal          
phenomenon in the early ages of the     
world1 in order to account for the      
emersion of sedimentary deposits from   
the fluid which deposited them4 ,may not
 internal fires be yet spreading1 and   
the continents expanding instead of     
contracting8 ,and may there not be an   
inequality in this process1 so as       
necessarily to immerse in one direction 
nearly as much as to elevate in another8
 ,one fact is certain1 the elements are 
scattering the materials of the land    
along its ,oceanic coasts1 which of     
itself must produce a very minute effect

 in disturbing the hydrostatic balance2 
but a more efficient agent is the       
earthquake and volcano4  ,the upheaving 
of tracts of land by earthquakes1 as on 
the coast of ,chili would thus be       
satisfactorily explained1 by attributing
 a certain resistance due to cohesion or
 friction preventing a gradual change of
 level1 but producing it suddenly by the
 jar of the earthquakes4 ,may we not    
inquire also1 whether the facility with 
which the earth seems moved by this     
destructive agent1 does not point to the
 same solution as the irregularity of   
the figure of the earth8  ,this is a    
subject on which it is allowable to     
speculate1 especially if any light can  
be thereby thrown on the still more     
mysterious source of terrestrial        
magnetism4 ,it is for such a purpose    
that we have permitted ourselves to     
digress from that subject4 ,in this     
connection we also may acknowledge our  
indebtedness to the sacred volume for   
the first germ of this theory of the    

weather4  ,believing in the authenticity
 of the ,mosaic history of the deluge1  
the author found it difficult to refer  
that event to other than natural causes1
 called into action by the operation of 
other causes1 and all simultaneous with 
the going forth of the fiat of          
,omnipotence4 ,thus reasoning1 he was   
led to regard the deluge as a physical  
phenomenon inviting solution1 and as a  
promising exponent to the climatology of
 the early world4 ,he looked upon the   
bow of promise1 as the autograph of the 
,creator1 the signature to a solemn     
bond1 upon which the eye of man had     
never before rested4 ,but if there was  
no rainbow before the deluge1 there was 
no rain2 and following up this clue1 he 
was not only enabled to solve the       
problem1 but also led to the true cause1
 which produces the principal commotions
 in our atmosphere4  ,science boasts of 
being the handmaid of religion2 yet     
there are names of note in her ranks who
 have labored rather to invest this     

phenomenon with the mantle of fable1 and
 to force it into collision with the    
records graven on the rocky pages of    
geognosy4 ,but the world is ever prone  
to be captivated by the brilliancy of   
misapplied talents1 instead of weighing 
merit by its zeal in reconciling the    
teachings of those things which are     
seen1 with those which are revealed4    
,if our globe be constituted as we      
suppose1 the land might experience      
repeated submersions1 without involving 
the necessity of any great departure    
from established laws4 ,and we might    
refer to the historical record of one of
 these1 with all the minute particulars 
as positive data1 imposing on us the    
necessity of admitting that the solid   
parts of the globe are hydrostatically  
balanced in the sea4 ,but1 modern       
science is not always correctly defined 
when called the pursuit of truth1 nor   
human learning the means of discovering 
it4  ,if we could divest ourselves of   
this prejudice1 we should have a ready  

solution of the difficulty presented by 
the earth having two north magnetic     
poles1 and probably two also in the     
south4 ,for1 by regarding the old and   
new continents as two distinct masses of
 land whose bases are separated by      
#f1jjj miles of water1 we recognize two 
great magnets1 dependent1 however1 for  
their magnetism1 on the rotation of the 
terral vortex4  ,this is no place to    
enter into a lengthy discussion of such 
a difficult subject as magnetism1 but we
 may be allowed to enter a protest      
against the current theory of           
electro-magnetism1 viz43 that a force is
 generated by a galvanic current at     
right angles to the producing cause1    
which is contrary to the fundamental    
principles of mechanics4 ,we may        
conceive that a current is induced from 
or to the surrounding space by the      
rarefaction or condensation attending   
the transmission of such a current along
 a wire1 and that rotation should       
follow1 just as a bent pipe full of     

small holes at the lower end1 and       
immersed in water as a syphon1 will     
generate a vorticose motion in the      
water2 but mere juxtaposition1 without  
participation and communication with the
 general current1 is irrational1 and1   
therefore1 not true4  ,we have always   
regarded a magnetic needle as a part of 
the great natural magnet1 the earth2    
that its north pole actually points to  
the north1 and its south pole to the    
south2 and1 being free to move1 it is   
affected by the circular motion of the  
surrounding ether1 and by every motion  
by which the ether is directed4 ,if     
there was any attraction between the    
earth and the needle1 opposite poles    
would be presented1 but it is not       
so--the force is merely directive4      
,,magnetic ,,variations4  ,let us now   
see whether we cannot assign an adequate
 cause for the secular and periodic     
variations in the inclination and       
declination of the needle4 ,these have  
been generally referred to changes of   

temperature1 as in fact1 also1 the      
magnetism of the earth is sometimes     
ascribed to galvanic or electric        
currents1 called forth by a daily change
 of temperature4 ,our theory gives a    
totally different explanation of these  
variations4  ,in the northern           
hemisphere1 the north point of the      
needle moves from east to west in the   
morning from about #h ,a4,m4 to #a      
,p4,m41 and returns to its mean position
 about #aj ,p4,m4 ,it then passes over  
to the east1 and again returns to its   
mean position about #h or #i ,a4,m4 ,the
 analogy of this motion1 with the horary
 changes in the barometer1 indicate a   
common origin4 ,humboldt1 in the        
instructions he drew up for the         
,antarctic ,expedition under ,sir ,james
 ,ross1 says3 ,the phenomena of         
periodical variations depend manifestly 
on the action of solar heat1 operating  
probably through the medium of thermo   
electric currents induced on the earth's
 surface4 ,beyond this rude guess1      

however1 nothing is yet known of their  
physical cause4 ,it is even still a     
matter of speculation whether the solar 
influence be a principal or only a      
subordinate cause4 ,that the sun may    
exert a modifying influence on the      
phenomenon is not unlikely1 but that he 
cannot be the principal cause1 is       
evident from the following              
considerations4 ,these horary variations
 of the magnetic needle are as great at 
the bottom of deep mines far removed    
from solar influence1 as on the surface4
 ,they are as great1 ceteris paribus on 
a small island in the midst of the      
ocean1 as in the interior of continents1
 where the heating power of the surface 
is vastly greater4 ,they are extremely  
regular1 so that between the tropics1   
according to the sagacious ,humboldt1   
the time of the day may be known by the 
direction of the needle1 as well as by  
the height of the barometer4  ,but what 
is the cause of these variations8 ,this 
question is the most difficult of all   

physical problems1 and we shall only aim
 at indicating the causes which are yet 
perhaps too intricately involved to     
afford a positive numerical             
determination4 ,admitting the existence 
of two principal solid masses whose     
general direction is from south to      
north1 and that these masses are more   
susceptible of permeation by the        
ethereal fluid than the waters in which 
they are suspended1 we have a general   
solution of the position of the magnetic
 poles1 and of the isogonic1 isoclinic1 
and isodynamic lines4 ,considering1 too1
 that the southern poles of these masses
 are the points of ingress1 and the     
northern poles the points of egress1 it 
is easily understood that the ethereal  
medium having the temperature of space1 
will cause the southern hemisphere to be
 colder than the northern1 and also that
 the magnetic poles will be the poles of
 maximum cold1 and the centres respected
 by the isothermal and isogeothermal    
lines4  ,the general direction of the   

magnetism of the earth may be considered
 as the controlling influence1          
therefore1 in determining the position  
of the magnetic needle2 but there are   
other causes which1 to some extent1 will
 modify the result4 ,that half of the   
globe turned away from the sun will     
partake of the density of the ether at  
that distance1 which is greater than on 
the side next the sun2 the magnetic     
intensity ought1 therefore1 to be       
greater in the night than in the day4   
,the poles of the great terrestrial     
magnets1 or even the position of a      
magnetic needle on the surface1 are     
continually placed by the earth's       
rotation in a different relation to the 
axes of the terral vortex1 and the      
tangential current1 which is continually
 circulating around the globe1 has its  
inclination to a given meridian in a    
perpetual state of change4 ,if we       
conceive that there is a tendency to    
force the needle at right angles to this
 current1 we shall have an influence    

which varies during the day1 during the 
year1 and during the time occupied by a 
complete revolution of the node4 ,the   
principal effect1 however1 of the horary
 variation of the needle is due to the  
radial stream of the sun1 which not only
 penetrates the atmosphere1 but also the
 solid crust of the earth4 ,its         
principal influence is1 however1 an     
indirect influence1 as we shall endeavor
 to explain4  ,no fact in the science of
 electro-magnetism is1 perhaps1 better  
established than the disposition of an  
ethereal current to place itself at     
right angles to the magnetic meridian1  
and conversely1 when the current is not 
free to move1 to place the needle at    
right angles to the current4 ,now1 the  
terrestrial magnet or magnets1 may be   
considered to be surrounded by a body of
 ether in rotation1 which1 in the earth1
 on its surface1 and for some distance  
from the surface1 is made to conform to 
the general rule1 that is1 to circulate 
at right angles to the magnetic         

meridian4 ,outside this again1 the ether
 more and more conforms to the position 
of the axis of the vortex1 and this     
position varying1 it must exert some    
influence on the surface currents1 and1 
therefore1 change in some degree the    
position of the magnetic meridian4 ,the 
radial stream comes from the sun in     
parallel lines1 and strikes the globe   
and its superficial ethereal envelope   
just as we have shown its action on the 
atmosphere2 but in this last case the   
magnetic equator is not a great circle1 
neither can we suppose its effects to be
 an accumulation of a fluid which is    
imponderable at points #ij from the     
plane passing through the centre of the 
earth and sun1 and coincident with the  
plane of the central meridian1 and a    
depressing effect on that meridian4 ,its
 precise influence must be1 from the    
nature of the cause1 to deflect the     
circular current towards the poles1 in  
places less than #ij from the meridian1 
and a contrary effect must be produced  

in places greater than #ij from the     
meridian4 ,let us assume1 for argument's
 sake1 that the magnetic poles of the   
earth correspond to the poles of        
rotation1 the parallels of latitude     
will1 therefore1 represent the ethereal 
currents circulating around the globe4  
,now1 at sunrise1 the radial stream of  
the solar vortex is tangential to the   
surface1 and1 therefore1 can produce no 
change in these currents4 ,as the sun   
ascends say about #h or #i ,a4,m41 the  
radial stream striking only the surface 
of the earth perpendicularly in that    
place where the sun is vertical 7which  
we will suppose at the equator71 streams
 off on every side1 as the meridians do 
from the pole1 and the circles of       
latitude 7that is the ethereal currents7
 being parallel to the equator1 they are
 met by the radial stream obliquely1 and
 deflected towards either pole4 ,by this
 deflection they are no longer at right 
angles to the meridians4 ,but1 from the 
principle of reaction above noticed1 the

 magnetic meridians will place          
themselves at right angles to the       
current1 or1 in other words1 the        
magnetic pole will change its position  
on the surface of the earth with respect
 to that particular place4 ,but1 in     
other parts of the world1 the meridians 
are in opposite phases at the same      
instant of absolute time2 therefore1 the
 magnetic poles are not points1 but wide
 areas enclosing the magnetic poles of  
all the countries under the sun4 ,as    
this conforms to observation1 it is     
worthy our especial attention1 and may  
be understood by the subjoined figure1  
in which the oblique curves represent   
the course of the tangential current in 
the different positions of the sun1 the 
parallel lines representing the solar   
radial stream4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd
  ,as the sun gains altitude the action 
of the radial stream is at a greater and
 greater angle to the circular currents1
 and attains its maximum at noon1 still 
acting1 however1 after noon2 but seeing 

that the circular current possesses a   
force of re-action1 that is1 that the   
magnetism of the earth is ever striving 
to bring these currents to their natural
 direction1 an hour or two after noon1  
the currents tend again to the equator1 
and the maximum deflection is passed1   
and finally ceases a few hours after    
sunset4 ,now let us attend to what is   
going on on the opposite side of the    
world4 ,the radial stream passing over  
the polar regions1 now produces a       
contrary effect2 the ethereal atmosphere
 of the great magnet is accumulated on  
the farthest side from the sun1 by the  
action of the radial stream passing over
 the polar region1 the parallel currents
 are now bent towards the equator1 being
 at a maximum in places where it is an  
hour or two past midnight4 ,before they 
were concave to the equator1 and now    
they are convex2 the magnetic meridian  
is therefore deflected the contrary way 
to what it was in the day time1 by the  
same principle of reaction4 ,after the  

maximum1 say at #d ,a4,m41 the          
deflection gradually ceases1 and the    
magnetic meridian returns to its mean   
position at #h or #i ,a4,m4 ,these      
times1 however1 of maximum and minimum1 
must vary with the time of the year1 or 
with the declination of the sun1 with   
the position of the moon in her orbit1  
with the perigee of the orbit1 and with 
the place of the ascending node2 there  
are also minor influences which have an 
effect1 which present instrumental means
 cannot render appreciable4  ,what says 
observation8 ,the needle declines from  
its mean position in the whole northern 
hemisphere to the westward1 from about  
#h4cj ,a4,m41 until #a4cj ,p4,m42 it    
then gradually returns to its mean      
position by #aj ,a4,m4 ,after #aj       
,p4,m41 it passes over to the eastward1 
and attains its maximum deflection about
 three or four hours after midnight1 and
 is found again at its mean position    
about #i ,a4,m4 ,now1 this is precisely 
the direction of the deviation of the   

magnetic meridian1 the needle therefore 
only follows the meridian1 or still     
continues to point to the temporary     
magnetic pole4 ,and although we have    
assumed1 for the sake of simplicity1    
that the mean magnetic pole corresponds 
to the pole of rotation2 in truth there 
are two magnetic poles1 neither of which
 correspond2 yet still the general      
effect will be the same1 although the   
numerical verification will be rendered 
more difficult4  ,in the southern       
hemisphere the effect is the reverse1   
7this southern hemisphere1 however1 must
 be considered separated from the       
northern by the magnetic equator1 and   
not by the geographical one17 the needle
 declines to the eastward in the        
morning1 and goes through the same      
changes1 substituting east for west1 and
 west for east4 ,does observation decide
 this to be to be a fact also8 ,most    
decidedly it does2 and this alone may be
 considered a positive demonstration1   
that the theory which explains it is    

true4 ,the contrary deflection of the   
needle in the northern and southern     
hemisphere may be formally proclaimed as
 utterly beyond the reach of the common 
theory of magnetism to explain4 ,this   
difficulty arises from considering the  
needle as the disturbed body instead of 
the earth2 and also from the fact that  
the effect of solar heat must be common 
to needles in both hemispheres1 and act 
upon similar poles1 and consequently the
 deflection must be in the same         
direction4  ,but a still more capital   
feature is presented by the discovery of
 ,colonel ,sabine1 that the deflection  
is in contrary directions at the ,cape  
of ,good ,hope1 at the epoch of the two 
equinoxes4 ,this arises from the great  
angle made by the magnetic meridian at  
this place1 with the terrestrial        
meridian--the variation being by        
,barlow's tables1 #cj to the westward4  
,the sun varies in declination #dg      
throughout the year4 ,at the southern   
solstice1 therefore the radial stream   

strikes the circular current on the     
southern side1 and deflects it towards  
the equator1 rendering the declination  
to the westward in the morning2 but at  
the northern solstice the radial stream 
strikes the current on its northern     
side1 and the deflection is eastward in 
the morning4 ,and the vicinity of the   
,cape of ,good ,hope is1 perhaps1 the   
only part of the world where this       
anomaly will obtain2 as it is necessary 
not only that the declination shall be  
considerable1 but also that the latitude
 shall not be very great4  ,observation 
also determines that the amount of the  
horary variation increases with the     
latitude4 ,near the equator1 according  
to ,humboldt1 it scarcely amounts to    
three or four minutes1 whilst it is from
 thirteen to fourteen minutes in the    
middle of ,europe4 ,the theory explains 
this also2 for as the circles recede    
from the equator1 the angles made by    
their planes with the direction of the  
radial stream increases1 and hence the  

force of deflection is greater1 and the 
effect is proportioned to the cause4 ,we
 have also a satisfactory explanation of
 the fact that there has not yet been   
discovered a line of no variation of    
horary declination as we might          
reasonably anticipate from the fact that
 the declinations are in contrary       
directions in the northern and southern 
hemisphere4 ,this is owing to the       
ever-varying declination of the sun4    
,there would be such a line1 no doubt1  
if the axis of the earth were           
perpendicular to the plane of the orbit1
 and the magnetic pole coincided with   
the pole of rotation3 for then the      
equator would be such a line4           
,,magnetic ,,storms4  ,but there are    
also irregular fluctuations in the      
direction of the magnetic needle4 ,these
 depend on the moon1 and are caused by  
the passage of the vortices over or near
 to the place of observation4 ,the      
action of these vortices is proved to be
 of variable force1 whether arising from

 atmospheric conditions1 or due to an   
increased activity of the ethereal      
medium throughout the whole system1 is  
at present immaterial4 ,they do vary1   
and sometimes the passage of a vortex   
will deflect the needle a whole degree4 
,at other times1 there are magnetic     
storms extending over a great part of   
the earth's surface2 but there is reason
 to suppose1 that the extent of these   
storms has been over estimated4 ,thus1  
on the #beth of ,september1 #ahda1 a    
magnetic storm was observed in ,toronto1
 and at the same time there was one felt
 at the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,there is 
no great mystery in this4 ,if we suppose
 the axis of the central vortex1 for    
instance1 to have passed ,toronto in    
latitude #dc #cc north1 in ordinary     
positions of the moon1 in her orbit1 the
 southern portion of the axis would be  
in #cc or #cd south latitude1 and       
consequently would have passed near the 
,cape of ,good ,hope on the same night4 
,now1 we certainly could not expect the 

northern portion of the vortex to be    
intensely active1 without the southern  
portion being in the same state of      
activity4 ,that this is the true        
explanation is proved by magnetic storms
 in the same hemisphere being           
comparatively limited in extent2 as1    
according to ,gauss and ,weber1 magnetic
 storms which were simultaneously felt  
from ,sicily to ,upsala1 did not extend 
from ,upsala to ,alten4 ,still it would 
not be wonderful if they were felt over 
a vast area of thousands of miles as a  
consequence of great disturbance in the 
elasticity of the ether in the terral   
vortex2 as the solid earth must be      
permeable to all its motions1 and thus  
be explicable on the general principles 
we have advanced4  ,but besides these   
variations which we have mentioned1     
there are changes steadily going on1 by 
which the isodynamic1 isogonic and      
isoclinic lines are permanently         
displaced on the surface of our planet4 
,these must be attributed to changes of 

temperature in the interior of the      
globe1 and to the direction in the      
progress of subterranean fires1 which it
 may also be expected will change the   
isogeothermal lines4 ,but there are     
changes1 which although of long period1 
are yet periodic1 one of which is       
obviously due to the revolution of the  
lunar nodes in eighteen and a half      
years1 and the revolution of the apogee 
in nine years4 ,the first is continually
 changing the obliquity of the axis of  
the vortex1 and they both tend to limit 
the vortices in their extreme latitudes2
 but the planet ,jupiter has an indirect
 influence1 which is probably equal1 if 
not greater1 than the action of the     
moon1 in changing the magnetic          
declination4  ,from the investigations  
of ,lamont1 it would appear1 that the   
period of the variations of magnetic    
declination is about #aj years1 while1  
more recently1 ,r4 ,wolfe has suggested 
the connection between this variation   
and the solar spots1 and assigns a      

period of #aa4aa years1 and remarks1    
that it corresponds more exactly with   
the variations in magnetic declination  
than the period of #aj years established
 by ,lamont4 ,the magnetic variations   
accompany the solar spots1 not only in  
their regular changes1 but even in their
 minor irregularities3 this latter fact 
is itself sufficient to prove definitely
 the important relations between        
them4#bh  ,as the planet ,jupiter exerts
 the greatest influence on the sun1 in  
forcing the centre from the mechanical  
centre of the system1 the longitude of  
the sun will in a great measure depend  
on the position of this planet2 and1 in 
consequence1 the sun will generally     
revolve around this centre in a period  
nearly equal to the period of ,jupiter4 
,the sidereal period of ,jupiter is     
about twelve years1 but the action of   
the other planets tend to shorten this  
period 7at least1 that has been the     
effect for the last twenty or thirty    
years71 and bring it nearly to the      

period assigned by ,m4 ,wolfe to the    
variations in the magnetic declinations4
 ,as this has its influence on the      
radial stream1 and the radial stream on 
the declination1 we see at once the     
connection between them4 ,when we come  
to a consideration of the solar spots1  
we shall exhibit this influence more    
fully4   ,,aurora ,,borealis4  ,let us  
now examine another phenomenon4 ,the    
,aurora ,borealis has been generally    
considered to be in some way connected  
with the magnetism of the earth1 and    
with the position of the magnetic pole4 
,it is certain that the appearance of   
this meteor does affect the needle in a 
way not to be mistaken1 and 7although   
not invariably7 the vertex of the       
luminous arch will usually conform to   
the magnetic meridian4 ,yet 7and this is
 worthy of attention71 the observations 
made in the ,north ,polar               
,expeditions#bi appear to prove1 that in
 the immediate vicinity of the magnetic 
pole the development of light is not in 

the least degree more intense or        
frequent than at some distance from it4 
,in fact1 as the ,american magnetic pole
 is1 as stated1 in latitude #gc1 the    
central vortex will seldom reach so     
high1 and1 consequently1 the aurora     
ought at such times to be more frequent 
in a lower latitude4 ,in a late work by 
,m4 de la ,rive1 this gentleman         
expresses the opinion1 that the cause of
 the aurora is not due to a radiation of
 polar magnetism1 but to a purely       
electrical action4#cj ,his explanation1 
however1 is not so satisfactory as his  
opinion4 ,now1 we have examined numerous
 cases of auroral displays1 and never   
yet found one which could not be        
legitimately referred to the action of  
ethereal vortices4 ,generally1 the      
aurora will not be visible1 when the    
upper surface of the atmosphere of that 
latitude in which the vortex is known to
 be 7reckoning in the direction of the  
magnetic meridian7 is below the horizon1
 which shows that the brightest portion 

is in the atmosphere4 ,in latitude #da  
even1 it may show itself when the vortex
 is three days north1 more frequently   
when one or two days north2 but when the
 vortex passes centrally1 or south1 it  
rarely is seen1 and this is the only    
difficulty in explaining it by the      
theory4 ,but1 when we reflect that the  
ether shoots out in straight lines1 and 
at an angle corresponding to the        
magnetic dip1 we are at no loss to      
perceive the reason of this4 ,if each   
minute line composing the light were    
seen endwise1 it would be invisible2 if 
there were millions such in the same    
position1 they could add nothing to the 
general effect2 but1 when viewed        
sideways1 the case would be different1  
there would be a continued reduplication
 of ray upon ray1 until in the range of 
some hundreds of miles an effect might  
be produced amounting to any degree of  
intensity on record4 ,now1 this is the  
case when the aurora is immediately     
overhead1 it will be invisible to those 

below1 but may be seen by persons a     
hundred miles south2 so1 also1 when it  
is to the south1 it is too oblique to   
the line of vision to be seen1          
especially as all the rays to the       
northward of the observer can contribute
 nothing to increase the effect4 ,that  
it is of the nature of rays very much   
diffused1 can hardly be doubted2 and1   
therefore1 if only of a few miles in    
depth1 its impressions are too faint to 
be sensible4 ,by referring to the record
 of the weather in the second section of
 this work1 an auroral display will be  
found on ,july #abth1 the central vortex
 having passed a little to the northward
 the same evening1 and the next day     
passing south descending4 ,on that      
occasion the author saw an inclined     
column1 in profile1 due east1 and       
between himself and a line of bluffs and
 timber1 about eight miles distant2     
,and1 he has not any doubt that the mass
 of rays began where he stood4 ,as in a 
shower1 every drop1 passing through a   

conical surface1 whose axis passes      
through the sun and through the eye1    
contributes to form the apparently      
distant rainbow4  ,the altitude of this 
meteor has been much exaggerated1       
especially of those rings or luminous   
arches1 which are often detached        
completely from the luminous bank4 ,on  
the #bdth of ,may1 a bright aurora was  
visible at ,ottawa1 but the author's    
attention was engrossed by the most     
brilliant arch of light he had ever     
seen4 ,it was all the time south of the 
zenith1 and had no visible connection   
with the aurora north4 ,at #i hours1 #ei
 minutes1 #cj seconds mean solar time1  
,arcturus was in the exact centre of the
 band1 at which time it was very bright1
 and full #g wide4 ,at the same time1   
,prof4 ,g4,w4 ,wheeler observed the     
aurora in ,perryville1 in the ,state of 
,missouri1 only #a of longitude to the  
westward1 but did not see the arch4#ca  
,the difference of latitude between the 
two places being #c #cj1 and the        

weather1 as he states1 clear and still1 
there is only one reason why he did not 
see the arch3 it must have been too low1
 and had become merged in the bank of   
light4 ,at the time mentioned1 the      
altitude of ,arcturus was #fh #cj1 and1 
as ,prof4 ,wheeler assigns only #aj as  
the altitude of the bank1 the maximum   
elevation of the arch1 on the           
supposition of its composing a part of  
the bank1 was #dc miles4 ,at            
,perryville1 the bank and streamers had 
disappeared at #aj o'clock4 ,at ,ottawa1
 the arch or bow disappeared at #aj h4  
#e m41 differing only the fraction of a 
minute from the time at ,perryville2    
but1 the bank was still visible1 but low
 and faint1 the greatest altitude having
 been over #cj4 ,to show the rapid      
fluctuations in width and position of   
this bow1 we will add a few of the      
minutes taken at the time with great    
care1 in hopes some other observer had  
been equally precise4 ,when first seen1 
there were three luminous patches1 or   

elongated clouds of light2 one in ,leo1 
one in ,bootes1 and another in          
,ophinchus1 all in line4 ,this was about
 #i;h4 #aem4 ,the times following are   
correct to #cj seconds3     #i;h4 #dbm4 
#cjs4 ,bow complete2 south edge #b north
 of ,arcturus4     #i   #de   #cj       
,northern edge diffuse south2 edge      
bright1 and well                        
defined2 #aj wide in zenith2 north edge 
on ,alphacca4     #i   #dg   #cj        
,south edge #e north of ,arcturus2 north
 edge close to                  ,cor4   
,caroli4     #i   #ec   #cj   ,eastern  
half composed of four detached bands    
shingling over each other4         #eh  
#cj   ,arcturus on south2 bow narrower4 
#i   #ei   #cj   ,arcturus in the middle
 of the band2 very bright and           
regular in outline1 and widest at the   
zenith4    #aj    #j   #cj   ,arcturus  
on northern edge2 north side better     
defined                  than the       
southern4    #aj    #b    #j   ,arcturus
 #a north2 very bright4    #aj    #b    

#cj   ,gamma and ,delta ,leonis1        
northern edge4    #aj    #c             
,regulus on southern age2 getting faint4
    #aj    #e        ,fast fading away4 
#aj    #e   #cj   ,scarcely visible2    
bank in north faint4  ,this aurora was  
due to the inner vortex ascending1 whose
 period was at this time #bh days4      
,there are several circumstances to be  
observed in this case4 ,the bow         
brightened and faded simultaneously with
 the aurora1 and respected the vertex of
 the auroral bank1 being apparently     
concentric with it4 ,the bow1 therefore1
 depends on the same cause1 but differs 
from the aurora in being limited to the 
surface of the atmosphere in which the  
vortex has produced a wave to the       
southward of its central path1 as may be
 understood by inspecting ,fig4 #b1     
,sec4 #a1--the figure representing the  
polar current of the central vortex4 ,on
 the #bith of ,may1 #ahdj1cb the author 
saw a similar phenomenon1 at the same   
time of night1 and passing over the same

 stars southward until it reached within
 #e of ,jupiter and ,saturn1 to which it
 was parallel4 ,this atmospheric wave   
offers a greater resistance to the      
passage of the ether3 hence the light4  
,on this account it is1 also1 that when 
the passage of a vortex is attended by  
an auroral display there will be no     
thunder-storm4 ,there may be an increase
 of wind2 but the atmosphere at such    
times is too dry to make a violent      
storm1 and there is a silent restoration
 of the equilibrium1 by the ether       
passing through the dry atmosphere1     
without meeting any condensable vapor1  
and becoming luminous on account of the 
greater resistance of the air when      
unmixed with vapor4 ,we thus see also   
the connection between the aurora and   
the linear cirri1 and we have a         
triumphant explanation of the fact1 that
 when the observer is north of the      
northern limit of the vortices1 he sees 
the aurora to the south and not to the  
north2 for1 to see it to the northward1 

he would have to see it in the same     
latitude as it appears in the south1    
and1 consequently1 have to see across   
twice the complement of the latitude4   
,we thus see1 also1 why the temperature 
falls after an aurora2 for1 the passage 
of electricity in any shape1 must have  
this effect on account of the great     
specific caloric of this fluid4 ,we see1
 also1 why the aurora should be more    
frequent where the magnetic intensity is
 greatest and be consequently invisible 
at the equator1 and why the magnetic    
needle is so sensibly affected at the   
time of its occurrence4 ,we may1        
perhaps1 here be allowed to allude to   
another phenomenon connected with       
terrestrial magnetism and electricity4  
,,earthquakes4  ,the awful and          
destructive concussions which sometimes 
are produced at great depths beneath the
 surface of the soil1 would seem to     
indicate that no force but that of      
electricity is adequate to account for  
the almost instantaneous desolation of  

wide tracts of the earth's surface4 ,but
 we do not mean to say that the action  
of the terral vortices1 combined with   
the internal conditions of our planet1  
is the only cause2 although it is far   
from improbable that the same activity  
of the ether1 which generates through   
these vortices1 the full fury of the    
hurricane in the tropics1 may be        
simultaneously accompanied by a         
subterranean storm4 ,and physicists are 
too rash to reject the evidence on which
 the connection of the phenomena rests4 
,in the extract given by ,colonel ,reid1
 in his ,law of ,storms1 from ,sir      
,george ,rodney's official report of the
 great hurricane of #aghj1 it is stated1
 that1 ,nothing but an earthquake could 
have occasioned the foundations of the  
strongest buildings to be rent2 and ,i  
am convinced that the violence of the   
wind must have prevented the inhabitants
 from feeling the earthquake which      
certainly attended the storm4#cc ,again1
 in the ,savannah-la-,mar hurricane1    

which occurred the same year and month1 
the ,annual ,register1 published at     
,jamaica1 states1 that at the same time1
 a smart shock of an earthquake was     
felt4 ,the general serenity of          
equatorial regions is due to the fact   
that they are beyond the limit of the   
vortices1 as in ,peru1 where neither    
rain nor lightning nor storm is ever    
seen4 ,thunder and rain1 without storms1
 however1 are common in other tropical  
countries1 also out of the reach of the 
vortices4 ,but even in those parts1 7as 
the ,antilles17 lying in the track of   
these vortices1 the weather is not as   
frequently disturbed as in higher       
latitudes4 ,the storms of the ,antilles1
 when they do occur1 however1 are       
fearful beyond any conception1 showing  
the presence of some cause1 auxiliary to
 the ordinary disturbing action of the  
vortices1 which1 when simultaneously    
occurring1 adds tremendously to their   
force4  ,that earthquakes are preceded  
sometimes by a peculiar haziness and    

oppressiveness1 similar to that which   
sometimes precedes a storm1 is a current
 opinion in volcanic countries4 ,and    
,humboldt1 who doubts the connection1   
has to confess that sudden changes of   
weather have succeeded violent          
earthquakes1 and that during the great  
earthquake of ,cumana1 he found the     
inclination of the needle was diminished
 #dh4 ,he also mentions the simultaneous
 occurrence of shocks1 from earthquakes1
 and a clap of thunder1 and the         
agitation of the electrometer during the
 earthquake1 which lasted from the #b;d 
of ,april to the #agth of ,may1 #ahjh2  
but concluding that these indications   
presented by clouds1 by modifications of
 atmospheric electricity1 or by calms1  
cannot be regarded as generally or      
necessarily connected with earthquakes1 
since in ,peru1 ,canada1 and ,italy1    
earthquakes are observed1 along with the
 purest and clearest skies1 and with the
 freshest land and sea breezes4 ,but if 
no meteorological phenomena indicates   

the coming earthquake1 either on the    
morning of the shock or a few days      
previously1 the influence of certain    
periods of the year1 7the vernal and    
autumnal equinoxes17 the commencement of
 the rainy season in the tropics1 after 
long drought1 cannot be overlooked1 even
 though the genetic connection of       
meteorological processes1 with those    
going on in the interior of our globe1  
is still enveloped in obscurity4#cd  ,it
 is at the equinoxes that the earth     
changes her distances from the sun most 
rapidly1 and whether she is passing from
 her perihelion or from her aphelion1   
the density of the ether externally is  
changing in the subduplicate ratio of   
these distances and consequently at     
these times there will be the greatest  
disturbance of the electric equilibrium4
 ,how far our views of the internal     
structure of our globe1 7considered     
along a diameter as a solid crust1 then 
a fused mass separated from the lower   
ocean by another solid crust1 and       

separated from a similar arrangement on 
the opposite side by an interposed mass 
of water1 perhaps also possessing a     
solid nucleus17 may affect this         
question1 is difficult to say2 but that 
the agent is electric1 appears highly   
probable2 and very recently it has been 
discovered1 by ,m4 ,ratio ,menton1 that 
a piece of iron1 suspended by attraction
 to a magnet1 will fall on the approach 
of an earthquake2 thus indicating that  
the power of the magnet is temporarily  
weakened by the action of some          
disturbing force4   ,,footnotes3  #bb   
,hum4 ,cosmos1 art ,aerolites4  #bc ,we 
shall in all cases use this abbreviation
 for the extremely awkward word         
zodiacal4  #bd ,it is here assumed1 that
 all the vortices are at their apogee at
 the same time1 and1 consequently1 they 
lie in different longitudes1 but the    
central being between1 its position is  
taken for the average position of the   
three4  #be ,it is far from improbable  
that the effect produced in one zone of 

climate1 may be reversed in another1    
from the nature of the cause4  #bf ,that
 the #aath1 #abth1 and #acth of ,may    
should recede #b in temperature as      
determined by ,mdler from observations  
of #hf years1 at a time when the power  
of the sun so rapidly augments1 is      
strongly confirmatory of the theory4    
,see ,cosmos1 p4 #aba4  #bg ,plucker    
first discovered that a plate of        
tourmaline suspended with its axis      
vertical1 set axial4  #bh ,silliman's   
,journal for ,march and ,april1 #ahec4  
#bi ,humboldt1 ,cosmos p4 #aic1 ,london 
ed4  #cj ,see ,silliman's ,journal for  
,september1 #ahec4  #ca ,see ,silliman's
 ,journal for ,september1 #ahec4  #cb   
,this was the central vortex ascending4 
#cc ,reid's ,law of ,storms1 p4 #cej4   
#cd ,humboldt1 ,cosmos1 p4 #bjc4        
,,section ,,fourth4   ,,the ,,solar     
,,spots4  ,we have yet many phenomena to
 investigate by the aid of the theory1  
and we will develop them in that order  
which will best exhibit their mutual    

dependence4 ,the solar spots have long  
troubled astronomers1 and to this day no
 satisfactory solution of the question  
has been proposed2 but we shall not     
examine theories4 ,it is sufficient that
 we can explain them on the same general
 principles that we have applied to     
terrestrial phenomena4 ,there can be but
 little doubt about the existence of a  
solar atmosphere1 and1 reasoning from   
analogy1 the constituent elements of the
 sun must partake of the nature of other
 planetary matter4 ,that there are      
bodies in our system possessing the same
 elements as our earth1 is proved by the
 composition of meteoric masses1 which1 
whether they are independent bodies of  
the system1 or fragments of an exploded 
planet1 or projected from lunar         
volcanoes1 is of little consequence2    
they show that the same elements are    
distributed to other bodies of the      
system1 although not necessarily in the 
same proportions4 ,the gaseous matter of
 the sun's atmosphere may1 therefore1 be

 safely considered as vapors condensable
 by cold1 and the formation of vortices 
over the surface of this atmosphere1    
brings down the ether1 and causes it to 
intermingle with this atmosphere4 ,but1 
from the immensely rapid motion of the  
polar current of the solar vortex1 this 
ether may be considered to enter the    
atmosphere of the sun with the          
temperature of space4  ,sir ,john       
,herschel1 in commenting on the theory  
of ,mr4 ,redfield before the ,british   
,association1 convened at ,newcastle in 
#ahch1ce suggested an analogy to        
terrestrial hurricanes1 from a suspected
 rotation and progressive motion in     
these spots4 ,from their rapid          
formation1 change of shape1 and         
diameter1 this view is allowable1 and1  
taken in conjunction with the action of 
the ethereal currents1 will account for 
all the phenomena4 ,the nucleus of the  
spot is dense1 like the nucleus of a    
storm on the earth1 and surrounded by a 
penumbon precisely as our storms are    

fringed with lighter clouds1 permitting 
the light of the sun to penetrate4 ,and1
 it has been observed1 that these spots 
seem to follow one another in lines on  
the same parallel of solar latitude 7or 
nearly the same71 exactly as we have    
determined the action of the vortices on
 the surface of the earth from          
observation4 ,these spots are never     
found in very high latitudes--not much  
above #cj from the solar equator4 ,if we
 consider this equator to be but        
slightly inclined to the plane of the   
vortex1 this latitude would be the      
general position of the lateral solar   
vortices1 and1 in fact1 be confined     
principally to a belt on each side of   
the equator1 between #ae and #cj of     
solar latitude1 rather than at the      
equator itself4 ,this1 it is needless to
 say1 is actually the case4 ,but1 a more
 capital feature still has been more    
recently brought to light by            
observation1 although previously        
familiar to the author1 who1 in         

endeavoring to verify the theory1       
seriously injured his sight1 by         
observing with inadequate instrumental  
means4 ,this is the periodicity of the  
spots4  ,we have already observed1 that 
there is reason to suppose that the     
action of the inner vortex of the earth 
is probably greater than that of the    
outer vortex1 on account of the         
conflicting currents by which it is     
caused4 ,and the full development of    
this vortex requires1 that the central  
vortex or mechanical axis of the system 
shall be nearly tangential to the       
surface4 ,in this position1 the action  
of the central vortex is itself at a    
maximum2 and1 when the planets of the   
system are so arranged as to produce    
this result1 we may expect the greatest 
number of spots4 ,if the axis or central
 vortex approaches to coincidence with  
the axis of the sun1 the lateral        
vortices disappear1 and the central     
vortex being then perpendicular to the  
surface1 is rendered ineffective4 ,under

 these circumstances1 there will be no  
spots on the sun's disc4 ,when1 on the  
other hand1 all the planets conspire at 
the same side to force the sun out from 
the mechanical centre of the system1 the
 surface is too distant to be acted on  
by the central vortex1 and the lateral  
vortices are also thrown clear of the   
sun's surface1 on account of the greater
 velocity of the parts of the vortex1 in
 sweeping past the body of the sun4 ,in 
this case1 there will be but few spots4 
,the case in which the axis of the      
vortex coincides with the axis of the   
sun1 is much more transient than the    
first position1 and hence1 although the 
interval between the maxima will be     
tolerably uniform1 there will be an     
irregularity between a particular       
maximum1 and the preceding and          
subsequent minimum4  ,the following     
table exhibits the solar spots1 as      
determined by ,schwabe1 of ,dessau3     
,year of observation4   ,groups of spots
 observed4   ,number of days4           

#ahbf                      #aah         
#bgg           #ahbg                    
#afa                    #bgc            
#ahbh                      #bbe         
#bhb           #ahbi                    
#aii                    #bdd            
#ahcj                      #aij         
#bag           #ahca                    
#adi                    #bci            
#ahcb                       #hd         
#bgj           #ahcc                    
#cc                    #bfg             
#ahcd                       #ea         
#bgc           #ahce                    
#agc                    #bdd            
#ahcf                      #bgb         
#bjj           #ahcg                    
#ccc                    #afh            
#ahch                      #bhb         
#bjb           #ahci                    
#afb                    #bje            
#ahdj                      #aeb         
#bfc           #ahda                    
#ajb                    #bhc            
#ahdb                       #fh         

#cjg           #ahdc                    
#cd                    #cbd  ,previous  
to the publication of this table1 the   
author had inferred the necessity of    
admitting the existence of another      
planet in the solar system1 from the    
phenomenon of which we are speaking4 ,he
 found a sufficient correspondence      
between the minima of spots to confirm  
the explanation given by the theory1 and
 this was still more confirmed by the   
more exact determination of ,schwabe2   
yet there was a little discrepancy in   
the synchronous values of the ordinates1
 when the theory was graphically        
compared with the table4 ,previous to   
the discovery of ,neptune1 the theory   
corresponded much better than           
afterwards1 and as no doubt could be    
entertained that the anomalous movements
 of ,uranus were caused by an exterior  
planet1 he adopted the notion that there
 were two planets exterior to ,uranus1  
whose positions at the time were such1  
that their mechanical affects on the    

system were about equal and contrary4   
,consequently1 when ,neptune became     
known1 the existence of another planet  
seemed a conclusion necessary to adopt4 
,accordingly1 he calculated the         
heliocentric longitudes and true        
anomalies1 and the values of radius     
vector1 for all the planets during the  
present century1 but not having any     
planetary tables1 he contented himself  
with computing for the nearest degree of
 true anomaly1 and the nearest thousand 
miles of distance4 ,then by a           
composition and resolution of all the   
forces1 he deduced the radius vector of 
the sun1 and the longitude of his       
centre1 for each past year of the       
century4 ,it was in view of a little    
outstanding discrepancy in the times of 
the minima1 as determined by theory and 
observation1 that he was induced to     
consider as almost certain the existence
 of a theoretical planet1 whose         
longitude1 in #ahbh1 was about #ij1 and 
whose period is from the theory about   

double that of ,neptune4 ,and for       
convenience of computation and          
reference1 he has been in the habit of  
symbolizing it by a volcano4 ,the       
following table of the radii vectores of
 the sun1 and the longitude of his      
centre1 for the years designated in     
,schwabe's table1 is calculated from the
 following data for each planet3        
,long4 of   ,planets4    ,masses4       
,mean distances4  ,eccentricities4      
,perihelion4               #a_/afdh     
#did4hjj4jjj      #j4jdha           #aa 
#a_/ccaj       #ijg4afb4jjj      #j4jefa
           #hi              #a_/bcjjj   
#ahbd4bij4jjj      #j4jaff          #afg
              #a_/bjjjj                 
#bhed4jjj4jjj      #j4jjhh            #j
              #a_/bhjjj                 
#ddfd4jjj4jjj                           
,no4 of spots in     ,dates4      ,rad4 
vector4 ,sun's long4  ,ordinates4       
,schwabe's table4   ,jan4 #a1 #ahbf     
#ebh1jjj       #cbj          #hd        
#aah          #ahbg    #dhj1jjj         

#cci           #cf           #afa       
#ahbh    #dcb1jjj       #ceb         -  
#ab ,max4      #bbe ,max4          #ahbi
    #cig1jjj        #ch         -  #dg  
#aii          #ahcj    #heh1jjj         
#ga         -  #hf           #aij       
#ahca    #cbd1jjj       #ajd         -  
#abj           #adi          #ahcb      
#caa1jjj       #add         - #acc      
#hd          #ahcc    #cjj1jjj          
#ahc         - #add ,min4       #cc     
,min4          #ahcd    #cjg1jjj        
#bbj         - #acg            #ea      
#ahce    #cch1jjj       #bfc         -  
#ajf           #agc          #ahcf      
#chj1jjj       #cjb         -  #ee      
#bgb          #ahcg    #dai1jjj         
#ccg           #be ,max4      #ccc ,max4
          #ahch    #dhh1jjj         #c  
#dd           #bhb          #ahci       
#fea1jjj        #bi          #ajg       
#afb          #ahdj    #fcb1jjj         
#ea          #ahh           #aeb        
#ahda    #fhj1jjj        #hj            
#bcf           #ajb          #ahdb      

#gcj1jjj       #aje          #bhf       
#fh          #ahdc    #afj1jjj          
#abh          #cbb            #cd ,min4 
#ahdd    #ahh1jjj       #aeb            
#cci ,min4       #eb          #ahde     
#ggb1jjj       #agd          #cbh       
#aad          #ahdf    #gbh1jjj         
#aif          #bhd           #aeg       
#ahdg    #ffj1jjj       #bah            
#baf          #ahdh    #efc1jjj         
#bdj          #aai       ,observed4     
,max4          #ahdi    #ddg1jjj        
#bfa            #c ,max4          #ahej 
#cji1jjj       #bhc         - #ace      
#ahea    #agj1jjj       #cbc         -  
#bgd          #aheb     #ec1jjj         
#da         - #cia ,min4          #ahec 
#afg1jjj       #acc         - #bgg      
#ahed    #cae1jjj       #afj         -  
#abi          #ahee    #dge1jjj         
#ahc           #ca ,max4          #ahef 
#faa1jjj       #bjc          #afg       
#aheg    #gbj1jjj       #bbe            
#bgf  ,it is necessary to observe here1 
that the values of the numbers in       

,schwabe's table are the numbers for the
 whole year1 and1 therefore1 the #ast of
 ,july would have been a better date for
 the comparison2 but1 as the table was  
calculated before the author was        
cognizant of the fact1 and being        
somewhat tedious to calculate1 he has   
left it as it was1 viz41 for ,january   
#ast of each year4 ,hence1 the minimum  
for #ahdc appears as pertaining to      
#ahdd4 ,the number of spots ought to be 
inversely as the ordinates              
approximately--these last being derived 
from the ,radii ,vectores minus1 the    
semi-diameter of the sun  #ddd1jjj      
miles4  ,in passing judgment on this    
relation1 it must also be borne in mind1
 that the recognized masses of the      
planets cannot be the true masses1 if   
the theory be true4 ,both sun and       
planets are under-estimated1 yet1 as    
they are1 probably1 all to a certain    
degree proportionally undervalued1 it   
will not vitiate the above calculation  
much4  ,the spots being considered as   

solar storms1 they ought also to vary in
 number at different times of the year1 
according to the longitude of the earth 
and sun1 and from their transient       
character1 and the slow rotation of the 
sun1 they ought1 ceteris paribus1 to be 
more numerous when the producing vortex 
is over a visible portion of the sun's  
surface4  ,the difficulty of reconciling
 the solar spots1 and their periodicity 
to any known principle of physics1 ought
 to produce a more tolerant spirit      
amongst the scientific for speculations 
even which may afford the slightest     
promise of a solution1 although         
emanating from the humblest inquirer    
after truth4 ,the hypothesis of an      
undiscovered planet1 exterior to        
,neptune1 is of a nature to startle the 
cautions timidity of many2 but1 if the  
general theory be true1 this hypothesis 
becomes extremely probable4 ,we may not 
have located it exactly4 ,there may be  
even two such planets1 whose joint      
effect shall be equivalent to one in the

 position we have assigned4 ,there may  
even be a comet of great mass1 capable  
of producing an effect on the position  
of the sun's centre 7although it follows
 from the theory that comets have very  
little mass74 ,yet1 in view of all these
 suppositions1 there can be but little  
doubt that the solar spots are caused by
 the solar vortices1 and these last made
 effective on the sun by the positions  
of the great planets1 and1 therefore1 we
 have indicated a new method of         
determining the existence and position  
of all the planets exterior to ,neptune4
 ,on the supposition that there is only 
one more in the system1 from its deduced
 distance and mass1 it will appear only 
as a star of the eleventh magnitude1    
and1 consequently1 will only be         
recognizable by its motion1 which1 at   
the greatest1 will only be ten or eleven
 seconds per day4   ,,masses ,,of ,,the 
,,sun ,,and ,,planets4  ,we have alluded
 to the fact of the radial stream of the
 sun necessarily diminishing the sun's  

power1 and1 consequently1 diminishing   
his apparent mass4 ,the radial stream of
 all the planets will do the same1 so   
that each planet whose mass is derived  
from the periodic times of the          
satellites1 will also appear too small4 
,but1 there is also a great probability 
that some modification must be made in  
the wording of the ,newtonian law4 ,the 
experiments of ,newton on the pendulum1 
with every variety of substance1 was    
sufficient justification to entitle him 
to infer1 that inertia was as the weight
 of matter universally4 ,but1 there was 
one condition which could not be        
observed in experimenting on these      
substances1 viz41 the difference of     
temperature existing between the        
interior and surface of a planet4  ,we  
have already expressed the idea1 that   
the cause of gravity has no such        
mysterious origin as to transcend the   
power of man to determine it4 ,but that1
 on the contrary1 we are taught by every
 analogy around us1 as well as by divine

 precept1 to use the visible things of  
creation as stepping stones to the      
attainment of what is not so apparent4  
,that we have the volume of nature      
spread out in tempting characters1      
inviting us to read1 and1 assuredly1 it 
is not so spread in mockery of man's    
limited powers4 ,as science advances1   
strange things1 it is true1 are brought 
to light1 but the more rational the     
queries we propound1 in every case the  
more satisfactory are the answers4 ,it  
is only when man consults the oracle in 
irrational terms that the response is   
ambiguous4 ,alchemy1 with its unnatural 
transmutations1 has long since vanished 
before the increasing light4 ,why should
 not attraction also8 ,experience and   
experiment1 if men would only follow    
their indications1 are consistently     
enforcing the necessity of erasing these
 antiquated chimeras from the book of   
knowledge2 and inculcating the great    
truth1 that the physical universe owes  
all its endless variety to differences  

in the form1 size1 and density of       
planetary atoms in motion1 according to 
simple mechanical principles4 ,these1   
combined with the existence of an       
all-pervading medium filling space1     
between which and planetary matter no   
bond of union subsists1 other than that 
which arises from a continual           
interchange of motion1 are the materials
 from which the gems of nature are      
elaborated4 ,but1 simplicity of means is
 what philosophy has ever been reluctant
 to admit1 preferring rather the occult 
and obscure4  ,if action be equal to    
reaction1 and all nature be vibrating   
with motion1 these motions must         
necessarily interfere1 and some effect  
should be produced4 ,a body radiating   
its motion on every side into a physical
 medium1 produces waves4 ,these waves   
are a mechanical effect1 and the body   
parts with some of its motion in        
producing them2 but1 should another body
 be placed in juxtaposition1 having the 
same motion1 the opposing waves         

neutralize each other1 and the bodies   
lose no motion from their contiguous    
sides1 and1 therefore1 the reaction from
 the opposite sides acts as a propelling
 power1 and the bodies approach1 or tend
 to approach each other4 ,if one body be
 of double the inertia1 it moves only   
half as far as the first2 then1 seeing  
that this atomic motion is radiated1 the
 law of force must be directly as the   
mass1 and inversely as the squares of   
the distances4 ,there may be other      
atomic vibrations besides those which we
 call light1 heat1 and chemical action1 
yet the joint effect of all is          
infinitesimally small1 when we disregard
 the united attraction of all the atoms 
of which the earth is composed4 ,the    
attraction of the whole earth at the    
surface causes bodies to fall #af feet  
the first second of time2 but1 if two   
spheres of ice of one foot diameter1    
were placed in an infinite space1       
uninfluenced by other matter1 and only  
#af feet apart1 they would require      

nearly #aj1jjj years to fall together by
 virtue of their mutual attraction4 ,our
 conceptions1 or1 rather1 our           
misconceptions1 concerning the force of 
gravity1 arises from our forgetting that
 every pound of matter on the earth     
contributes its share of the force      
which1 in the aggregate1 is so powerful4
 ,hence1 the cause we have suggested1 is
 fully adequate to account for the      
phenomena4 ,whether the harmony of      
vibrations between two bodies may not   
have an influence in determining the    
amount of interference1 and1            
consequently1 produce some difference   
between the gravitating mass and its    
inertia1 is a question which1 no doubt1 
will ultimately be solved2 but this     
harmony of vibrations must depend1 in   
some degree1 on the atomic weight1      
temperature1 and intensity of atomic    
motion4  ,that a part of the mass of the
 earth is latent may be inferred from   
certain considerations3 #ast1 from the  
discrepancies existing in the results   

obtained for the earth's compression by 
the pendulum and by actual measurement2 
and1 #b;d1 from the irregularity of that
 compression in particular latitudes and
 longitudes4 ,the same may also be      
deduced from the different values of the
 moon's mass as derived from different  
phenomena1 dependent on the law of      
gravitation4 ,astronomers have hitherto 
covered themselves with the very        
convenient shield of errors of          
observation2 but1 the perfection of     
modern instruments now demand a better  
account of all outstanding              
discrepancies4 ,the world requires it of
 them4  ,the mass of the moon comes out 
much greater by our theory than nutation
 gives4 ,the mass deduced from the      
theory is only dependent on the relative
 inerti of the earth and moon4 ,that    
given by nutation depends on gravity4   
,if1 then1 a part of the mass be latent1
 nutation will give too small a value4  
,but1 in addition to this1 we are       
justified in doubting the strict wording

 of the ,newtonian law1 deriving our    
authority from the very foundation stone
 of the ,newtonian theory4  ,it is well 
known that ,newton suspected that the   
moon was retained in her orbit by the   
same force which is usually called      
weight upon the surface1 sixteen years  
before the fact was confirmed1 by       
finding a correspondence in the fall of 
the moon and the fall of bodies on the  
earth4 ,usually1 in all elementary      
works1 this problem is considered       
accurately solved4 ,having formed a     
different idea of the mechanism of      
nature1 this fact presented itself as a 
barrier beyond which it was impossible  
to pass1 until suspicions1 derived from 
other sources1 induced the author to    
inquire3 ,whether the phenomenon did    
exactly accord with the theory8 ,we are 
aware that it is easy to place the moon 
at such a distance1 that the result     
shall strictly correspond with the fact2
 but1 from the parallax1 as derived from
 observation 7and if this cannot be     

depended on certainly1 no magnitudes in 
astronomy can71 we find1 that the moon  
does not fall from the tangent of her   
orbit1 as much as the theory requires4  
,as this is of vital importance to the  
integrity of the theory we are          
advocating1 we have made the computation
 on ,newton's own data1 except such as  
were necessarily inaccurate at the time 
he wrote2 and we have done it           
arithmetically1 without logarithmic     
tables1 that1 if possible1 no error     
should creep in to vitiate the result4  
,we take the moon's elements from no    
less an authority than ,sir ,john       
,herschel1 as well as the value of the  
earth's diameter4    ,mass of the moon  
#a_/hj   ,mean distance in equatorial   
radii    #ei4ifdce   ,sidereal period in
 seconds           #bcfjeia  ,the       
vibrations of the pendulum give the     
force of gravity at the surface of the  
earth1 and it is found to vary in       
different latitudes4 ,the intensity in  
any place being as the squares of the   

number of vibrations in a given time4   
,this inequality depends on the         
centrifugal force of rotation1 and on   
the spheroidal figure of the earth due  
to that rotation4 ,at the equator the   
fall of a heavy body is found to be     
#af4jdebbc feet1 per second1 and in that
 latitude the squares of whose sine is 1
 it is #af4jfig feet4 ,the effect in    
this last-named latitude is the same as 
if the earth were a perfect sphere4     
,this does not1 however1 express the    
whole force of gravity1 as the rotation 
of the earth causes a centrifugal       
tendency which is a maximum at the      
equator1 and there amounts to #a_/bhi of
 the whole gravitating force4 ,in other 
latitudes it is diminished in the ratio 
of the squares of the cosines of the    
latitude2 it therefore becomes #a_/dcd  
in that latitude the square of whose    
sine is 4 ,hence the fall per second    
becomes #af4ajfg feet for the true      
gravitating force of the earth1 or for  
that force which retains the moon in her

 orbit4  ,the moon's mean distance is   
#ei4ifdce equatorial radii of the earth1
 which radius is1 according to ,sir     
,john ,herschel1 #bj4ibc4gac feet4 ,her 
mean distance as derived from the       
parallax is not to be considered the    
radius vector of the orbit1 inasmuch as 
the earth also describes a small orbit  
around the common centre of gravity of  
the earth and moon2 neither is radius   
vector to be considered as her distance 
from this common centre2 for the        
attracting power is in the centre of the
 earth4 ,but the mean distance of the   
moon moving around a movable centre1 is 
to the same mean distance when the      
centre of attraction is fixed1 as the   
sum of the masses of the two bodies1 to 
the first of two mean proportionals     
between this sum and the largest of the 
two bodies inversely4 7,vid4 ,prin4     
,prop4 #fj ,lib4 ,prim47 ,the ratio of  
the masses being as above #hj to #a the 
mean proportional sought is #hj4fff and 
in this ratio must the moon's mean      

distance be diminished to get the force 
of gravity at the moon4 ,therefore as   
#ha is to #hj4fff1 so is #ei4ifdce to   
#ei4gafeg for the moon's distance in    
equatorial radii of the earth4 ,multiply
 this last by #bj4ibc1gac to bring the  
semi-diameter of the lunar orbit into   
feet  #a4bdi4dib4cgc1 and this by       
#f4bhcahe1 the ratio of the             
circumference to the radius1 gives      
#g4hej4gia4gcf feet1 for the mean       
circumference of the lunar orbit4       
,further1 the mean sidereal period of   
the moon is #bcfjeia seconds and the    
#a_/bcfjeiath part of #g4hej4gia4gcf is 
the arc the moon describes in one second
  #ccbe4ggcha feet1 the square of which 
divided by the diameter of the orbit1   
gives the fall of the moon from the     
tangent or versed size of that arc4     
#aajfgga4cfhgffdd    ----------------   
#j4jjddbfajf feet4        #bdihihdgdf   
,this fraction is1 however1 too small1  
as the ablatitious action of the sun    
diminishes the attraction of the earth  

on the moon1 in the ratio of #agh       
#bi_/dj to #agg #bi_/dj4 ,so that we    
must increase the fall of the moon in   
the ratio of #gaa to #gae1 and hence the
 true fall of the moon from the tangent 
of her orbit becomes #j4jjdea feet per  
second4  ,we have found the fall of a   
body at the surface of the earth1       
considered as a sphere1 #af4ajfg feet   
per second1 and the force of gravity    
diminishes as the squares of the        
distances increases4 ,the polar diameter
 of the earth is set down as #ghii4agj  
miles1 and the equatorial diameter      
#gibe4fdh miles2 therefore1 the mean    
diameter is #giaf4ahi miles4#cf ,so     
that1 reckoning in mean radii of the    
earth1 the moon's distance is           
#ei4ghgibe1 which squared1 is equal to  
#cegd4eieigehjefbe4 ,at one mean radius 
distance1 that is1 at the surface1 the  
force of gravity1 or fall per second1 is
 as above1 #af4ajfg feet4 ,divide this  
by the square of the distance1 it is    
#af4ajfg_/cegd4eieigehjefbe  #j4jjdejeh 

feet for the force of gravity at the    
moon4 ,but1 from the preceding          
calculation1 it appears1 that the moon  
only falls #j4jjddeaj feet in a second1 
showing a deficiency of #a_/hb;d part of
 the principal force that retains the   
moon in her orbit1 being more than      
double the whole disturbing power of the
 sun1 which is only #a_/aghth of the    
earth's gravity at the moon2 yet1 on    
this #a_/aghth depends the revolution of
 the lunar apogee and nodes1 and all    
those variations which clothe the lunar 
theory with such formidable             
difficulties4 ,the moon's mass cannot be
 less than #a_/hj1 and if we consider it
 greater1 as it no doubt is1 the results
 obtained will be still more discrepant4
 ,much of this discrepancy is owing to  
the expulsive power of the radial stream
 of the terral vortex2 yet1 it may be   
suspected that the effect is too great  
to be attributed to this1 and1 for this 
reason1 we have suggested that the fused
 matter of the moon's centre may not    

gravitate with the same force as the    
exterior parts1 and thus contribute to  
increase the discrepancy4  ,as there    
must be a similar effect produced by the
 radial stream of every vortex1 the     
masses of all the planets will appear   
too small1 as derived from their        
gravitating force2 and the inertia of   
the sun will also be greater than his   
apparent mass2 and if1 in addition to   
this1 there be a portion of these masses
 latent1 we shall have an ample         
explanation of the connection between   
the planetary densities and distances4  
,we must therefore inquire what is the  
particular law of force which governs   
the radial stream of the solar vortex4  
,it will be necessary to enter into this
 question a little more in detail than  
our limits will justify2 but it is the  
resisting influence of the ether1 and   
its consequences1 which will appear to  
present a vulnerable point in the       
present theory1 and to be incompatible  
with the perfection of astronomical     

science4   ,,law ,,of ,,density ,,in    
,,solar ,,vortex4  ,reverting to the    
dynamical principle1 that the product of
 every particle of matter in a fluid    
vortex1 moving around a given axis1 by  
its distance from the centre and angular
 velocity1 must ever be a constant      
quantity1 it follows that if the        
ethereal medium be uniformly dense1 the 
periodic times of the parts of the      
vortex will be directly as the distances
 from the centre or axis2 but the       
angular velocities being inversely as   
the times1 the absolute velocities will 
be equal at all distances from the      
centre4  ,newton1 in examining the      
doctrine of the ,cartesian vortices1    
supposes the case of a globe in motion1 
gradually communicating that motion to  
the surrounding fluid1 and finds that   
the periodic times will be in the       
duplicate ratio of the distances from   
the centre of the globe4 ,he and his    
successors have always assumed that it  
was impossible for the principle of     

gravity to be true1 and a ,cartesian    
plenum also2 consequently1 the question 
has not been fairly treated4 ,it is true
 that ,descartes sought to explain the  
motions of the planets1 by the          
mechanical action of a fluid vortex     
solely2 and to ,newton belongs the      
glorious honor of determining1 the      
existence of a centripetal force1       
competent to explain these motions      
mathematically1 7but not physically17   
and rashly rejected an intelligible     
principle for a miraculous virtue4 ,if  
our theory be true1 the visible creation
 depends on the existence of both       
working together in harmony1 and that a 
physical medium is absolutely necessary 
to the existence of gravitation4  ,if   
space be filled with a fluid medium1    
analogy would teach us that it is in    
motion1 and that there must be          
inequalities in the direction and       
velocity of that motion1 and            
consequently there must be vortices4    
,and if we ascend into the history of   

the past1 we shall find ample testimony 
that the planetary matter now composing 
the members of the solar system1 was    
once one vast nebulous cloud of atoms1  
partaking of the vorticose motion of the
 fluid involving them4 ,whether the     
gradual accumulation of these atoms     
round a central nucleus from the        
surrounding space1 and thus having their
 tangential motion of translation       
converted into vorticose motion1 first  
produced the vortex in the ether2 or    
whether the vortex had previously       
existed1 in consequence of conflicting  
currents in the ether1 and the scattered
 atoms of space were drawn into the     
vortex by the polar current1 thus       
forming a nucleus at the centre1 as a   
necessary result of the eddy which would
 obtain there1 is of little consequence4
 ,the ultimate result would be the same4
 ,a nucleus1 once formed1 would give    
rise to a central force1 tending more   
and more to counteract the centripulsive
 power of the radial stream2 and in     

consequence of this continually         
increasing central power1 the heaviest  
atoms would be best enabled to withstand
 the radial stream1 while the lighter   
atoms might be carried away to the outer
 boundaries of the vortex1 to congregate
 at leisure1 and1 after the lapse of a  
thousand years1 to again face the radial
 stream in a more condensed mass1 and to
 force a passage to the very centre of  
the vortex1 in an almost parabolic      
curve4 ,that space is filled with       
isolated atoms or planetary dust1 is    
rendered very probable by a fact        
discovered by ,struve1 that there is a  
gradual extinction in the light of the  
stars1 amounting to a loss of #a_/ajg of
 the whole1 in the distance which       
separates ,sirius from the sun4         
,according to ,struve1 this can be      
accounted for1 by admitting as very     
probable that space is filled with an   
ether1 capable of intercepting in some  
degree the light4 ,is it not as probable
 that this extinction is due to         

planetary dust1 scattered through the   
pure ether1 whose vibrations convey the 
light1--the material atoms of future    
worlds1--the debris of dilapidated      
comets8 ,does not the ,scripture teach  
the same thing1 in asserting that the   
heavens are not clean8  ,the theory of  
vortices has had many staunch supporters
 amongst those deeply versed in the     
science of the schools4 ,the ,bernoullis
 proposed several ingenious hypothesis1 
to free the ,cartesian system from the  
objections urged against it1 viz43 that 
the velocities of the planets1 in       
accordance with the three great laws of 
,kepler1 cannot be made to correspond   
with the motion of a fluid vortex2 but  
they1 and all others1 gave the vantage  
ground to the defenders of the          
,newtonian philosophy1 by seeking to    
refer the principle of gravitation to   
conditions dependent on the density and 
vorticose motion of the ether4 ,when we 
admit that the ether is imponderable and
 yet material1 and planetary matter     

subject to the law of gravitation1 the  
objections urged against the theory of  
vortices become comparatively trivial1  
and we shall not stop to refute them1   
but proceed with the investigation1 and 
consider that the ether is the original 
source of the planetary motions and     
arrangements4  ,on the supposition that 
the ether is uniformly dense1 we have   
shown that the periodic times will be   
directly as the distances from the axis4
 ,if the density be inversely as the    
distances1 the periodic times will be   
equal4 ,if the density be inversely as  
the square roots of the distances1 the  
times will be directly in the same      
ratio4 ,the celebrated ,j4 ,bernoulli   
assumed this last ratio2 but seeking the
 source of motion in the rotating       
central globe1 he was led into a        
hypothesis at variance with analogy4    
,the ellipticity of the orbit1 according
 to this view1 was caused by the planet 
oscillating about a mean                
position1--sinking first into the dense 

ether1--then1 on account of superior    
buoyancy1 rising into too light a       
medium4 ,even if no other objection     
could be urged to this view1 the        
difficulty of explaining why the ether  
should be denser near the sun1 would    
still remain4 ,we might make other      
suppositions2 for whatever ratio of the 
distances we assume for the density of  
the medium1 the periodic times will be  
compounded of those distances and the   
assumed ratio4 ,seeing1 therefore1 that 
the periodic times of the planets       
observe the direct ses-plicate ratio of 
the distances1 and that it is consonant 
to all analogy to suppose the contiguous
 parts of the vortex to have the same   
ratio1 we find that the density of the  
ethereal medium in the solar vortex1 is 
directly as the square roots of the     
distances from the axis4  ,against this 
view1 it may be urged that if the       
inertia of the medium is so small1 as is
 supposed1 and its elasticity so great1 
there can be no condensation by         

centrifugal force of rotation4 ,it is   
true that when we say the ether is      
condensed by this force1 we speak       
incorrectly4 ,if in an infinite space of
 imponderable fluid a vortex is         
generated1 the central parts are        
rarefied1 and the exterior parts are    
unchanged4 ,but in all finite vortices  
there must be a limit1 outside of which 
the motion is null1 or perhaps contrary4
 ,in this case there may be a           
cylindrical ring1 where the medium will 
be somewhat denser than outside4 ,just  
as in water1 every little vortex is     
surrounded by a circular wave1 visible  
by reflection4 ,as the density of the   
planet ,neptune appears1 from present   
indications1 to be a little denser than 
,uranus1 and ,uranus is denser than     
,saturn1 we may conceive that there is  
such a wave in the solar vortex1 near   
which rides this last magnificent       
planet1 whose ring would thus be an     
appropriate emblem of the peculiar      
position occupied by ,saturn4 ,this may 

be the case1 although the probability   
is1 that the density of ,saturn is much 
greater than it appears1 as we shall    
presently explain4  ,in order to show   
that there is nothing extravagant in the
 supposition of the density of the ether
 being directly as the square roots of  
the distances from the axis1 we will    
take a fluid whose law of density is    
known1 and calculate the effect of the  
centrifugal force1 considered as a      
compressing power4 ,let us assume our   
atmosphere to be #dg miles high1 and the
 compressing power of the earth's       
gravity to be #bhi times greater than   
the centrifugal force of the equator1   
and the periodic time of rotation       
necessary to give a centrifugal force at
 the equator equal to the gravitating   
force to be #hc minutes4 ,now1          
considering the gravitating force to be 
uniform1 from the surface of the earth  
upwards1 and knowing from observation   
that at #ah1jjj feet above the surface1 
the density of the air is only 1 it     

follows1 7in accordance with the        
principle that the density is as the    
compressing force17 that at #dc miles   
high1 or #ah1jjj feet below the surface 
of the atmosphere1 the density is only  
#a_/hjjj part of the density at the     
surface of the earth4 ,let us take this 
density as being near the limit of      
expansion1 and conceive a hollow tube1  
reaching from the sun to the orbit of   
,neptune1 and that this end of the tube 
is closed1 and the end at the sun       
communicates with an inexhaustible      
reservoir of such an attenuated gas as  
composes the upper-layer of our         
atmosphere2 and further1 that the tube  
is infinitely strong to resist pressure1
 without offering resistance to the     
passage of the air within the tube2 then
 we say1 that1 if the air within the    
tube be continually acted on by a force 
equal to the mean centrifugal force of  
the solar vortex1 reckoning from the sun
 to the orbit of ,neptune1 the density  
of the air at that extremity of the     

tube1 would be greater than the density 
of a fluid formed by the compression of 
the ocean into one single drop4 ,for the
 centrifugal force of the vortex at     
#b1cjj1jjj miles from the centre of the 
sun1 is equal to gravity at the surface 
of the earth1 and taking the mean       
centrifugal force of the whole vortex as
 one-millionth of this last force2 so   
that at #c1ejj1jjj miles from the       
surface of the sun1 the density of the  
air in the tube 7supposing it obstructed
 at that distance7 would be double the  
density of the attenuated air in the    
reservoir4 ,and the air at the extremity
 of the tube reaching to the orbit of   
,neptune1 would be as much denser than  
the air we breathe1 as a number         
expressed by #bgc with #bci ciphers     
annexed1 is greater than unity4 ,this is
 on the supposition of infinite         
compressibility4 ,now1 in the solar     
vortex there is no physical barrier to  
oppose the passage of the ether from the
 centre to the circumference1 and the   

density of the ethereal ocean must be   
considered uniform1 except in the       
interior of the stellar vortices1 where 
it will be rarefied2 and the rarefaction
 will depend on the centrifugal force   
and the length of the axis of the       
vortex4 ,if this axis be very long1 and 
the centrifugal velocity very great1 the
 polar influx will not be sufficient1   
and the central parts will be rarefied4 
,we see1 therefore1 no reason why the   
density of the ether may not be three   
times greater at ,saturn than at the    
earth1 or as the square roots of the    
distances directly4   ,,bodes' ,,law    
,,of ,,planetary ,,distances4  ,thus1 in
 the solar vortex1 there will be two    
polar currents meeting at the sun1 and  
thence being deflected at right angles1 
in planes parallel to the central plane 
of the vortex1 and strongest in that    
central plane4 ,the velocity of         
expansion must1 therefore1 diminish from
 the divergence of the radii1 as the    
distances increase2 but in advancing    

along these planes1 the ether of the    
vortex is continually getting more      
dense1 which operate by absorption or   
condensation on the radial stream2 so   
that the velocity is still more         
diminished1 and this in the ratio of the
 square roots of the distances directly4
 ,by combining these two ratios1 we find
 that the velocity of the radial stream 
will be in the ses-plicate ratio of the 
distances inversely4 ,but the force of  
this stream is not as the velocity1 but 
as the square of the velocity4 ,the     
force of the radial stream is           
consequently as the cubes of the        
distances inversely1 from the axis of   
the vortex1 reckoned in the same plane4 
,if the ether1 however1 loses in        
velocity by the increasing density of   
the medium1 it becomes also more dense2 
therefore the true force of the radial  
stream will be as its density and the   
square of its velocity1 or directly as  
the square roots of the distances1 and  
inversely as the cubes of the distances1

 or as the #b4e power of the distances  
inversely4  ,if we consider the central 
plane of the vortex as coincident with  
the plane of the ecliptic1 and the      
planetary orbits1 also1 in the same     
plane2 and had the force of the radial  
stream been inversely as the square of  
the distances1 there could be no        
disturbance produced by the action of   
the radial stream4 ,it would only       
counteract the gravitation of the       
central body by a certain amount1 and   
would be exactly proportioned at all    
distances4 ,as it is1 there is an       
outstanding force as a disturbing force1
 which is in the inverse ratio of the   
square roots of the distances from the  
sun2 and to this is1 no doubt1 owing1 in
 part1 the fact1 that the planetary     
distances are arranged in the inverse   
order of their densities4  ,suppose two 
planets to have the same diameter to be 
placed in the same orbit1 they will only
 be in equilibrium when their densities 
are equal4 ,if their densities are      

unequal1 the lighter planet will        
continually enlarge its orbit1 until the
 force of the radial stream becomes     
proportional to the planets' resisting  
energy4 ,this1 however1 is on the       
hypothesis that the planets are not     
permeable by the radial stream1 which1  
perhaps1 is more consistent with analogy
 than with the reality4 ,and it is more 
probable that the mean atomic weight of 
a planet's elements tends more to fix   
the position of equilibrium for each4   
,under the law of gravity1 a planet may 
revolve at any distance from the sun1   
but if we superadd a centripulsive      
force1 whose law is not that of gravity1
 but yet in some inverse ratio of the   
distances1 and this force acts only     
superficially1 it would be possible to  
make up in volume what is wanted in     
density1 and a lighter planet might thus
 be found occupying the position of a   
dense planet4 ,so the planet ,jupiter1  
respecting only his resisting surface1  
is better able to withstand the force of

 the radial stream at the earth than the
 earth itself4 ,to understand this1 it  
is necessary to bear in mind1 that1 as  
far as planetary matter is concerned1   
the earth would revolve in ,jupiter's   
orbit in the same periodic time as      
,jupiter1 under the law of gravity3 but 
that1 in reality1 the whole of the      
gravitating force is not effective1 and 
that the equilibrium of a planet is due 
to a nice balance of interfering forces 
arising from the planet's physical      
peculiarities4 ,as in a refracting body1
 the density of the ether may be        
considered inversely as the refraction1 
and this as the atomic weight of the    
refracting material1 so1 also1 in a     
planet1 the density of the ether will be
 inversely in the same ratio of the     
density of the matter approximately4    
,hence1 the density of the ether within 
the planet ,jupiter is greater than that
 within the earth2 and1 on this ethereal
 matter1 the sun has no power to        
restrain it in its orbit1 so that the   

centrifugal momentum of ,jupiter would  
be relatively greater than the          
centrifugal momentum of the earth1 were 
it also in ,jupiter's orbit with the    
same periodic time4 ,hence1 to make an  
equilibrium1 the earth should revolve in
 a medium of less density1 that there   
may be the same proportion between the  
external ether1 and the ether within the
 earth1 as there is between the ether   
around ,jupiter and the ether within2 so
 that the centrifugal tendency of the   
dense ether at ,jupiter shall counteract
 the greater momentum of the dense ether
 within ,jupiter2 or1 that the lack of  
centrifugal momentum in the earth should
 be rendered equal to the centrifugal   
momentum of ,jupiter1 by the deficiency 
of the centrifugal momentum of the ether
 at the distance of the earth4  ,if     
then1 the diameters of all the planets  
were the same 7supposing the ether to   
act only superficially71 the densities  
would be as the distances inversely2#cg 
for the force due to the radial stream  

is as the square roots of the distance  
inversely1 and the force due to the     
momentum1 if the density of the ether   
within a planet be inversely as the     
square root of a planet's distance1 will
 also be inversely as the square roots  
of the distances approximately4 ,we     
offer these views1 however1 only as     
suggestions to others more competent to 
grapple with the question1 as promising 
a satisfactory solution of ,bode's      
empirical formula4  ,if there be a wave 
of denser ether cylindrically disposed  
around the vortex at the distance of    
,saturn1 or between ,saturn and ,uranus1
 we see why the law of densities and    
distances is not continuous4 ,for1 if   
the law of density changes1 it must be  
owing to such a ring or wave4 ,inside   
this wave1 the two forces will be       
inverse2 but outside1 one will be       
inverse1 and the other direct3 hence1   
there should also be a change in the law
 of distances4 ,as this change does not 
take place until we pass ,uranus1 it may

 be suspected that the great disparity  
in the density of ,saturn may be more   
apparent than real4 ,the density of a   
planet is the relation between its mass 
and volume or extension1 no matter what 
the form of the body may be4 ,from      
certain observations of ,sir ,wm4       
,herschel--the ,titan of practical      
astronomers--the figure of ,saturn was  
suspected to be that of a square figure1
 with the corners rounded off1 so as to 
leave both the equatorial and polar     
zones flatter than pertained to a true  
spheroidal figure4 ,the existence of an 
unbroken ring around ,saturn1 certainly 
attaches a peculiarity to this planet   
which prepares us to meet other         
departures from the usual order4 ,and   
when we reflect on the small density1   
and rapid rotation1 the formation of    
this ring1 and the figure suspected by  
,sir ,wm4 ,herschel1 it is neither      
impossible nor improbable1 that there   
may be a cylindrical vacant space       
surrounding the axis of ,saturn1 or at  

least1 that his solid parts may be      
cylindrical1 and his globular form be   
due to elastic gases and vapors1 which  
effectually conceal his polar openings4 
,and also1 by dilating and contracting  
at the poles1 in consequence of         
inclination to the radial stream1 7just 
as the earth's atmosphere is bulged out 
sufficiently to affect the barometer at 
certain hours every day17 give that     
peculiarity of form in certain positions
 of the planet in its orbit4 ,justice to
 ,sir ,wm4 ,herschel requires that his  
observations shall not be attributed to 
optical illusions4 ,this view1 however1 
which may be true in the case of        
,saturn1 would be absurd when applied to
 the earth1 as has been done within the 
present century4 ,from these            
considerations1 it is at least possible1
 that the density of ,saturn may be very
 little less1 or even greater than the  
density of ,uranus1 and be in harmony   
with the law of distances4  ,it is now  
apparently satisfactorily determined1   

that ,neptune is denser than ,uranus1   
and the law being changed1 we must look 
for transneptunean planets at distances 
corresponding with the new law of       
arrangement4 ,but there are other       
modifying causes which have an influence
 in fixing the precise position of      
equilibrium of a planet4 ,each planet of
 the system possessing rotation1 is     
surrounded by an ethereal vortex1 and   
each vortex has its own radial stream1  
the force of which in opposing the      
radial stream of the sun1 depends on the
 diameter and density of the planet1 on 
the velocity of rotation1 on the        
inclination of its axis1 and on the     
density of the ether at each particular 
vortex2 but the numerical verification  
of the position of each planet with the 
forces we have mentioned1 cannot be made
 in the present state of the question4  
,there is one fact worthy of note1 as   
bearing on the theory of vortices in    
connection with the rotation of the     
planets1 viz43 that observation has     

determined that the axial rotation and  
sidereal revolution of the secondaries1 
are identical2 thus showing that they   
are without vortices1 and are motionless
 relative to the ether of the vortex to 
which they belong4 ,we may also advert  
to the theory of ,doctor ,olbers1 that  
the asteroidal group1 are the fragments 
of a larger planet which once filled the
 vacancy between ,mars and ,jupiter4    
,although this idea is not generally    
received1 it is gathering strength every
 year by the discovery of other         
fragments1 whose number now amounts to  
twenty-six4 ,if the idea be just1 our   
theory offers an explanation of the     
great differences observable in the mean
 distances of these bodies1 and which   
would otherwise form a strong objection 
against the hypothesis4 ,for if these   
little planets be fragments1 there will 
be differences of density according as  
they belonged to the central or         
superficial parts of the quondam planet1
 and their mean distances must          

consequently vary also4  ,there are some
 other peculiarities connecting the     
distances and densities1 to which we    
shall devote a few words4 ,in the       
primordial state of the system1 when the
 nebulous masses agglomerated into      
spheres1 the diameter of these nebulous 
spheres would be determined by the      
relation existing between the rotation  
of the mass1 and the gravitating force  
at the centre2 for as long as the       
centrifugal force at the equator        
exceeded the gravitating force1 there   
would be a continual throwing off of    
matter from the equator1 as fast as it  
was brought from the poles1 until a     
balance was produced4 ,it is also       
extremely probable1 7especially if the  
elementary components of water are as   
abundant in other planets as we have    
reason to suppose them to be on the     
earth17 that the condensation of the    
gaseous planets into liquids and solids1
 was effected in a brief period of      
time1#ch leaving the lighter and more   

elastic substances as a nebulous        
atmosphere around globes of semi-fluid  
matter1 whose diameters have never been 
much increased by the subsequent        
condensation of their gaseous envelopes4
 ,the extent of these atmospheres being 
7in the way pointed out7 determined by  
the rotation1 their subsequent          
condensation has not therefore changed  
the original rotation of the central    
globe by any appreciable quantity4 ,the 
present rotation of the planets1 is     
therefore competent to determine the    
former diameters of the nebulous        
planets1 i4e41 the limit where the      
present central force would be balanced 
by the centrifugal force of rotation4   
,if we make the calculation for the     
planets1 and take for the unit of each  
planet its present diameter1 we shall   
find that they have condensed from their
 original nebulous state1 by a quantity 
dependent on the distance1 from the     
centre of the system2 and therefore on  
the original temperature of the nebulous

 mass at that particular distance4 ,let 
us make the calculation for ,jupiter and
 the earth1 and call the original       
nebulous planets the nucleus of the     
vortex4 ,we find the ,equatorial        
diameter of ,jupiter's nucleus in       
equatorial diameters of ,jupiter  #b4ba1
 and the equatorial diameter of the     
earth's nucleus1 in equatorial diameters
 of the earth  #f4ei4 ,now1 if we take  
the original temperature of the nebulous
 planets to be inversely1 as the squares
 of the distances from the sun1 and     
their volumes directly as the cubes of  
the diameters in the unit of each1 we   
find that these cubes are to each other1
 in the inverse ratio of the squares of 
the planet's distances2 for1    #b4ba 3 
#f4ei 33 #a 3 #e4b1  showing that both  
planets have condensed equally1 allowing
 for the difference of temperature at   
the beginning4 ,and we shall find1      
beginning at the sun1 that the diameters
 of the nebulous planets1 ceteris       
paribus1 diminish outwards1 giving for  

the nebulous sun a diameter of          
#af1jjj1jjj miles1#ci thus indicating   
his original great temperature4  ,that  
the original nebulous planets did rotate
 in the same time as they do at present1
 is proved by ,saturn's ring2 for if we 
make the calculation1 about twice the   
diameter of ,saturn4 ,now1 the diameter 
of the planet is about #hj1jjj miles1   
which will also be the semi-diameter of 
the nebulous planet2 and the middle of  
the outer ring has also a semi-diameter 
of #hj1jjj miles2 therefore1 the ring is
 the equatorial portion of the original 
nebulous planet1 and ought1 on this     
theory1 to rotate in the same time as   
,saturn4 ,according to ,sir ,john       
,herschel1 ,saturn rotates in #aj hours1
 #bi minutes1 and #ag seconds1 and the  
ring rotates in #aj hours1 #bi minutes1 
and #ag seconds3 yet this is not the    
periodic time of a satellite1 at the    
distance of the middle of the ring2     
neither ought the rings to rotate in the
 same time2 yet as far as observation   

can be trusted1 both the inner and outer
 ring do actually rotate in the same    
time4 ,the truth is1 the ring rotates   
too fast1 if we derive its centrifugal  
force from the analogy of its           
satellites2 but it is1 no doubt1 in     
equilibrium2 and the effective mass of  
,saturn on the satellites is less than  
the true mass1 in consequence of his    
radial stream being immensely increased 
by the additional force impressed on the
 ether1 by the centrifugal velocity of  
the ring4 ,if this be so1 the mass of   
,saturn1 derived from one of the inner  
satellites1 will be less than the same  
mass derived from the great satellite1  
whose orbit is considerably inclined4   
,the analogy we have mentioned1 between 
the diameters of the nebulous planets   
and their distances1 does not hold good 
in the case of ,saturn1 for the reason  
already assigned1 viz43 that the        
nebulous planet was probably not a      
globe1 but a cylindrical ring1 vacant   
around the axis1 as there is reason to  

suppose is the case at present4  ,and   
now we have to ask the question1 ,did   
the ether involved in the nebulous      
planets rotate in the same time8 ,this  
does not necessarily follow4 ,the ether 
will undoubtedly tend to move with      
increasing velocity to the very centre  
of motion1 obeying the great dynamical  
principle when unresisted4 ,if resisted1
 the law will perhaps be modified2 but  
in this case1 its motion of translation 
will be converted into atomic motion or 
heat1 according to the motion lost by   
the resistance of atomic matter4 ,this  
question has a bearing on many          
geological phenomena4 ,as regards the   
general effect1 however1 the present    
velocity of the ether circulating round 
the planets1 may be considered much     
greater than the velocities of the      
planets themselves4   ,,perturbations   
,,due ,,to ,,the ,,ether4  ,in these    
investigations it is necessary to bear  
in mind that the whole resisting power  
of the ether1 in disturbing the         

planetary movements1 is but small1 in   
comparison with gravitation4 ,we will1  
however1 show that1 in the case of the  
planets1 there is a compensation        
continually made by this resistance1    
which leaves but a very small           
outstanding balance as a disturbing     
power4 ,if we suppose all the planets to
 move in the central plane of the vortex
 in circular orbits1 and the force of   
the radial stream1 7or that portion     
which is not in accordance with the law 
of gravitation17 to be inversely as the 
square roots of the distances from the  
sun1 it is evident1 from what has been  
advanced1 that an equilibrium could     
still obtain1 by variations in the      
densities1 distances and diameter of the
 planets4 ,supposing1 again1 that the   
planets still move in the same plane1   
but in elliptical orbits1 and that they 
are in equilibrium at their mean        
distances1 under the influence or action
 of the tangential current1 the radial  
stream1 and the density of the ether2 we

 see that the force of the radial stream
 is too great at the perihelion1 and too
 small at the aphelion4 ,at the         
perihelion the planet is urged from the 
sun and at the aphelion towards the sun4
 ,the density and consequent momentum is
 also relatively too great at the       
perihelion1 which also urges the planet 
from the sun1 and at the aphelion1      
relatively too small1 which urges the   
planet towards sun2 and the law is the  
same in both cases1 being null at the   
mean distance of the planet1 at a       
maximum at the apsides2 it is1          
consequently1 as the cosine of the      
planet's eccentric anomaly at other     
distances1 and is positive or negative1 
according as the planet's distance is   
above or below the mean4  ,at the       
planet's mean distance1 the circular    
velocity of the vortex is equal to the  
circular velocity of the planet1 and1 at
 different distances1 is inversely in   
the sub-duplicate ratio of those        
distances4 ,but the circular velocity of

 a planet in the same orbit1 is in the  
simple ratio of the distances inversely4
 ,at the perihelion1 the planet         
therefore moves faster than the ether of
 the vortex1 and at the aphelion1       
slower2 and the difference is as the    
square roots of the distances2 but the  
force of resistance is as the square of 
the velocity1 and is therefore in the   
simple ratio of the distances1 as we    
have already found for the effect of the
 radial stream1 and centrifugal momentum
 of the internal ether4 ,at the         
perihelion this excess of tangential    
velocity creates a resistance1 which    
urges the planet towards the sun1 and at
 the aphelion1 the deficiency of        
tangential velocity urges the planet    
from the sun1--the maximum effect being 
at the apsides of the orbit1 and null at
 the mean distances4 ,in other positions
 it is1 therefore1 as the cosines of the
 eccentric anomaly1 as in the former    
case2 but in this last case it is an    
addititious force at the perihelion1 and

 an ablatitious force at the aphelion1  
whereas the first disturbing force was  
an ablatitious force at the perihelion1 
and an addititious force at the         
aphelion2 therefore1 as we must suppose 
the planet to be in equilibrium at its  
mean distance1 it is in equilibrium at  
all distances4 ,hence1 a planet moving  
in the central plane of the vortex1     
experiences no disturbance from the     
resistance of the ether4  ,as the       
eccentricities of the planetary orbits  
are continually changing under the      
influence of the law of gravitation1 we 
must inquire whether1 under these       
circumstances1 such a change would not  
produce a permanent derangement by a    
change in the mean force of the radial  
stream1 so as to increase or diminish   
the mean distance of the planet from the
 sun4 ,the law of force deduced from the
 theory for the radial stream is as the 
#b4e power of the distances inversely4  
,but1 by dividing this ratio1 we may    
make the investigation easier2 for it is

 equivalent to two forces1 one being as 
the squares of the distances1 and       
another as the square roots of the      
distances4 ,for the former force1 we    
find that in orbits having the same     
major axis the mean effect will be as   
the minor axis of the ellipse inversely1
 so that two planets moving in different
 orbits1 but at the same mean distance1 
experience a less or greater amount of  
centripulsive force from this radial    
stream1 according as their orbits are of
 less or greater eccentricity1 and this 
in the ratio of the minor axis4 ,on the 
other hand1 under the influence of a    
force acting centripulsively in the     
inverse ratio of the square roots of the
 distances1 we find the mean effect to  
be as the minor axis of the ellipse     
directly1 so that two planets in orbits 
of different eccentricity1 but having   
the same major axis1 experience a       
different amount from the action of this
 radial stream1 the least eccentric     
orbit being that which receives the     

greatest mean effect4 ,by combining     
these two results1 we get a ratio of    
equality2 and1 consequently1 the action 
of the radial stream will be the same   
for the same orbit1 whatever change may 
take place in the eccentricity1 and the 
mean distance of the planet will be     
unchanged4 ,a little consideration will 
also show that the effect of the        
centrifugal momentum due to the density 
of ether will also be the same by change
 of eccentricity2 for the positive will 
always balance the negative effect at   
the greatest and least distances of the 
planet4 ,the same remark applies to the 
effect of the tangential current1 so    
that no change can be produced in the   
major axes of the planetary orbits by   
change of eccentricity1 as an effect of 
the resistance of the ether4  ,we will  
now suppose a planet's orbit to be      
inclined to the central plane of the    
vortex1 and in this case1 also1 we find1
 that the action of the radial stream   
tends to increase the inclination in one

 quadrant as much as it diminishes it in
 the next quadrant1 so that no change of
 inclination will result4 ,but1 if the  
inclination of the orbit be changed by  
planetary perturbations1 the mean effect
 of the radial stream will also be      
changed1 and this will tell on the major
 axis of the orbit1 enlarging the orbit 
when the inclination diminishes1 and    
contracting it when it increases4 ,the  
change of inclination1 however1 must be 
referred to the central plane of the    
vortex4 ,notwithstanding the perfection 
of modern analysis1 it is confessed that
 the recession of the moon's nodes does 
yet differ from the theory by its #cejth
 part1 and a similar discrepancy is     
found for the advance of the perigee4#dj
 ,this theory is yet far too imperfect  
to say that the action of the ethereal  
medium will account for these           
discrepancies2 but it certainly wears a 
promising aspect1 worthy the notice of  
astronomers4 ,there are other minute    
discordancies between theory and        

observation in many astronomical        
phenomena1 which theory is competent to 
remove4 ,some of these we shall notice  
presently2 and1 it may be remarked1 that
 it is in those minute quantities which1
 in astronomy1 are usually attributed to
 errors of observation1 that this theory
 will eventually find the surest        
evidence of its truth4   ,,kepler',s    
,,third ,,law ,,only ,,approximately    
,,true4  ,but it may be asked3 ,if there
 be a modifying force in astronomy      
derived from another source than that of
 gravitation1 why is it that the        
elements of the various members of the  
system derived solely from gravitation  
should be so perfect8 ,to this it may be
 answered1 that although astronomers    
have endeavored to derive every movement
 in the heavens from that great         
principle1 they have but partially      
succeeded4 ,let us not surrender our    
right of examining ,nature to the       
authority of a great name1 nor call any 
man master1 either in moral or physical 

science4 ,it is well known that         
,kepler's law of the planetary distances
 and periods1 is a direct consequence of
 the ,newtonian ,law of gravitation1 and
 that the squares of the periodic times 
ought to be proportional to the cubes of
 the mean distances4 ,these times are   
given accurately by the planets         
themselves1 by the interval elapsing    
between two consecutive passages of the 
node1 and as in the case of the ancient 
planets we have observations for more   
than two thousand years past1 these     
times are known to the fraction of the  
second4 ,the determination of the       
distances however1 depends on the       
astronomer1 and a tyro in the science   
might suppose that these distances were 
actually measured2 and so they are      
roughly2 but the astronomer does not    
depend on his instruments1 he trusts to 
analogy1 and the mathematical perfection
 of a law1 which in the abstract is     
true2 but which he does not know is     
rigidly exact when applied to physical  

phenomena4 ,from the immense distance of
 the planets and the smallness of the   
earth1 man is unable to command a base  
line sufficiently long1 to make the     
horizontal parallax a sensible angle for
 the more distant planets2 and there are
 difficulties of no small magnitude to  
contend with1 with those that are the   
nearest4 ,in the occasional transit of  
,venus across the sun1 however1 he is   
presented with a means of measuring on  
an enlarged scale1 from which the       
distance of the sun is determined2 and  
by analogy the distance of all the      
planets4 ,even the parallax of the sun  
itself is only correct1 by supposing    
that the square of the periodic time of 
,venus is in the same proportion to the 
square of the periodic time of the earth
 as the cube of her distance is to the  
cube of the earth's distance4 ,our next 
nearest planet is ,mars1 and            
observations on this planet at its      
opposition to the sun1 invariably give a
 larger parallax for the sun--,venus    

giving #h4eggf while ,mars gives about  
#aj4 ,it is true that the first is      
obtained under more favorable           
circumstances2 but this does not prove  
the last to be incorrect4 ,it is well   
known that the ,british ,nautical       
,almanac contains a list of stars lying 
in the path of the planet ,mars about   
opposition1 7for the very purpose of    
obtaining a correct parallax17 that     
minute differences of declination may be
 detected by simultaneous observations  
in places having great differences of   
latitude4 ,yet strange to say1 the      
result is discredited when not          
conformable to the parallax given by    
,venus4 ,if then1 we cannot trust the   
parallax of ,mars1  fortiori1 how can we
 trust the parallax of ,jupiter1 and say
 that his mean distance exactly         
corresponds to his periodic time8 ,let  
us suppose1 for instance1 that the      
radius vector of ,jupiter fell short of 
that indicated by analogy by #aj1jjj    
miles1 we say that it would be extremely

 difficult1 nay1 utterly impossible1 to 
detect it by instrumental means4 ,let   
not astronomers1 therefore1 be too sure 
that there is not a modifying cause1    
independent of gravitation1 which they  
will yet have to recognize4 ,the moon's 
distance is about one-fourth of a       
million of miles1 and ,neptune's #bhed  
millions1 or in the ratio of #aj1jjj to 
#a2 yet even the moon's parallax is not 
trusted in determining her mass1 how    
then shall we determine the parallax of 
,neptune8 ,it is therefore possible that
 the effective action of the sun is in  
some small degree different1 on the     
different planets1 whether due to the   
action of the ether1 to the similarity  
or dissimilarity of material elements1  
to the temperature of the different     
bodies1 or to all combined1 is a        
question yet to be considered4  ,as     
another evidence of the necessity of    
modifying the strict wording of the     
,newtonian law1 it is found that the    
disturbing action of ,jupiter on        

different bodies1 gives different values
 for the mass of ,jupiter4 ,the mass    
deduced from ,jupiter's action on his   
satellites1 is different from that      
derived from the perturbations of       
,saturn1 and this last does not         
correspond with that given by ,juno3    
,vesta also gives a different mass from 
the comet of ,encke1 and both vary from 
the preceding values4#da  ,in the       
analytical investigation of planetary   
disturbances1 the disturbing force is   
usually divided into a radial and       
tangential force2 the first changing the
 law of gravitation1 to which law the   
elliptic form of the orbit is due4 ,the 
radial disturbing force1 therefore1     
being directed to or from the centre1   
can have no influence over the first law
 of ,kepler1 which teaches that the     
radius vector of each planet having the 
sun as the centre1 describes equal areas
 in equal times4 ,if the radial         
disturbing force be exterior to the     
disturbed body1 it will diminish the    

central force1 and cause a progressive  
motion in the aphelion point of the     
orbit4 ,in the case of the moon this    
motion is very rapid1 the apogee making 
an entire revolution in #cbcb days4     
,does this1 however1 correspond with the
 law of gravitation8 ,sir ,isaac        
,newton1 in calculating the effect of   
the sun's disturbing force on the motion
 of the moon's apogee1 candidly         
concludes thus3 ,idoque apsis summa     
singulis revolutionibus progrediendo    
conficit #a #ca #bh4 ,apsis lun est     
duplo velocior circiter4 ,as there was a
 necessity for reconciling this stubborn
 fact with the theory1 his followers    
have made up the deficiency by resorting
 to the tangential force1 or1 as        
,clairant proposed1 by continuing the   
approximations to terms of a higher     
order1 or to the square of the          
disturbing force4  ,now1 in a circular  
orbit1 this tangential force will       
alternately increase and diminish the   
velocity of the disturbed body1 without 

producing any permanent derangement1 the
 same result would obtain in an         
elliptical orbit1 if the position of the
 major axis were stationary4 ,in the    
case of the moon1 the apogee is caused  
to advance by the disturbing power of   
the radial force1 and1 consequently1 an 
exact compensation is not effected3     
there remains a small excess of velocity
 which geometers have considered        
equivalent to a doubling of the radial  
force1 and have thus obviated the       
difficulty4 ,to those not imbued with   
the profound penetration of the modern  
analyst1 there must ever appear a little
 inconsistency in this result4 ,the     
major axis of a planet's orbit depends  
solely on the velocity of the planet at 
a given distance from the sun1 and the  
tangential portion of the disturbance   
due to the sun1 and impressed upon the  
moon1 must necessarily increase and     
diminish alternately the velocity of the
 moon1 and interfere with the equable   
description of the areas4 ,if1 then1    

there be left outstanding a small excess
 of velocity over and above the         
elliptical velocity of the moon1 at the 
end of each synodical revolution1 in    
consequence of the motion impressed on  
the moon's apogee by the radial force1  
the legitimate effect would be a small  
enlargement of the lunar orbit every    
revolution in a rapidly-increasing      
ratio1 until the moon would at last be  
taken entirely away4 ,in the great      
inequality of ,jupiter and ,saturn1 this
 tangential force is not compensated at 
each revolution1 in consequence of      
continual changes in the configuration  
of the two planets at their heliocentric
 conjunctions1 with respect to the      
perihelion of their orbits1 and the near
 commensurability of their periods2 and 
the effect of the tangential force is1  
in this case1 legitimately impressed on 
the major axes of the orbits4 ,but why  
7we may ask7 should not this also be    
expended on the motion of the aphelion  
as well as in the case of the moon8     

,astronomy can make no distinctions     
between the orbit of a planet and the   
orbit of a satellite4 ,and1 we might    
also ask1 why the tangential resistance 
to the comet of ,encke should not also  
produce a retrograde motion in the      
apsides of the orbit1 instead of        
diminishing its period8 ,to the honor of
 ,newton1 be it remembered1 that he     
never resorted to an explanation of this
 phenomenon1 which would vitiate that   
fundamental proposition of his theory1  
in which the major axis of the orbit is 
shown to depend on the velocity at any  
given distance from the focus4  ,some   
cause1 however1 exists to double the    
motion of the apogee1 and that there is 
an outstanding excess of orbital        
velocity due to the tangential force1 is
 also true4 ,this excess may tell in the
 way proposed1 provided some other      
arrangement exists to prevent a         
permanent dilation of the lunar orbit2  
and this provision may be found in the  
increasing density of the ether1 which  

prevents the moon overstepping the      
bounds prescribed by her own density1   
and the force of the radial stream of   
the terral vortex4 ,in the case of      
,jupiter and ,saturn1 their mutual      
action is much less interfered with by  
change of density in the ether in the   
enlarged or contracted orbit1 and1      
consequently1 the effect is natural4    
,thus1 we have in the law of density of 
the ethereal medium a better safeguard  
to the stability of the dynamical       
balance of the system1 than in the      
profound and beautiful ,theorems of ,la 
,grange4 ,it will1 of course1 occur to  
every one1 that we are not to look for  
the same law in every vortex1 and it    
will1 therefore1 appear as if the       
satellites of ,jupiter1 whose theory is 
so well known1 should render apparent   
any deviation between their periodic    
times and the periodic times of the     
contiguous parts of the vortex1 which   
would obtain1 if the density of the     
ether in the ,jovian vortex were not as 

the square roots of the distances       
directly4 ,but1 we have shown how there 
can be a balance preserved1 if the      
tangential resistance of the vortex     
shall be equal and contrary at the      
different distances at which the        
satellites are placed2 that is1 if these
 two forces shall follow the same law4  
,these are matters1 however1 for future 
investigation4   ,,light ,,and ,,heat4  
,but will not the admission of a        
vorticose motion of the ethereal medium1
 affect the aberration of light8 ,it is 
well known that the question has been   
mooted1 whether the velocity of         
reflected light is the same as that of  
direct light4 ,the value of aberration  
having been considered #bj4be1 from the 
eclipses of ,jupiter's satellites1 while
 later determinations1 from observations
 on ,polaris1 give #bj4de4 ,it cannot be
 doubted that light1 in traversing the  
central parts of the solar vortex1 that 
is1 having to cross the whole orbit of  
the earth1 should pass this distance in 

a portion of time somewhat different to 
a similar distance outside the earth's  
orbit1 where the density is greater1 and
 consequently induce an error in the    
aberration1 determined by the eclipses  
of ,jupiter's satellites4 ,in the case  
of ,polaris1 the circumstances are more 
equal2 still1 a difference ought to be  
detected between the deduced aberration 
in summer and in winter1 as1 in the     
first case1 the light passes near the   
axis of the solar vortex1 where         
7according to the theory7 a change of   
density occurs4 ,this is an important   
practical question1 and the suggestion  
is worthy attention4 ,now1 the question 
occurs1 will light pass through the     
rarefied space with greater velocity    
than through the denser ether beyond8   
,from recent experiments1 first         
instituted by ,arago1 it is determined  
that light passes with less velocity    
through water than through air2 and one 
result of these experiments is the      
confirmation they give to the theory of 

,fresnel1 that the medium which conveys 
the action of light partly partakes of  
the motion of the refracting body4 ,this
 of itself is a strong confirmation of  
this theory of an ethereal medium4 ,it  
may also be remarked1 that every test   
applied to the phenomenon of light1 adds
 additional strength to the undulatory  
theory1 at the expense of the ,newtonian
 theory of emission4 ,as light occupies 
time in traversing space1 it must follow
 from the theory that it does not come  
from the radiant point exactly in       
straight lines1 inasmuch as the ether   
itself is in motion tangentially1--the  
velocity being in the sub-duplicate     
ratio of the distances from the sun     
inversely4  ,may not that singular      
phenomenon1--the projection of a star on
 the moon's disc1 at the time of an     
occultation1--be due to this curvature  
of the path of a ray of light1 by       
considering that the rays from the moon 
have less intensity1 but more mechanical
 momentum1 and consequently more power  

to keep a straight direction8 ,let us   
explain3 we have urged that light1 as   
well as heat1 is a mechanical effect of 
atomic motion1 propagated through an    
elastic medium2 that1 ceteris paribus1  
the product of matter by its motion is  
ever a constant quantity for equal      
spaces throughout the universe1--in a   
word1 that it is1 and must necessarily  
be1 a fundamental law of nature4 ,all   
departures from this law are            
consequences of accidental arrangements1
 which can only be considered of        
temporary duration4 ,our knowledge of   
planetary matter requires the admission 
of differences in the density1 form1 and
 size of ultimate atoms1 and1 according 
to the above law1 when the atoms are of 
uniform temperature or motion1 the      
product of the matter of each by its    
motion1 when reduced to the same space1 
will be constant4 ,the momentum of two  
different atoms1 therefore1 we will     
consider equal1 for the sake of         
illustration2 yet this momentum is made 

up of two different elements1--matter   
and motion4 ,let us exaggerate the      
difference1 and assign a ratio of #ajjj 
to #a4 ,suppose a ball of iron of #ajjj 
lbs41 resting upon a horizontal plane1  
should be struck by another ball of #a  
lb41 having a motion of #ajjj feet in a 
second1 and1 in a second case1 should be
 struck by a ball of #ajjj lbs41 having 
a velocity of #a foot per second1 the   
momentum of each ball is similar2 but   
experience proves that the motion       
impressed on the ball at rest is not    
similar2 the ponderous weight and slow  
motion is far more effective in         
displacing this ball1 for the reason    
that time is essential to the           
distribution of the motion4 ,if the body
 to be struck be small as1 for instance1
 a nail1 a greater motion and less      
matter is more effective than much      
matter and little motion4 ,hence1 we    
have a distinction applicable to the    
difference of momentum of luminous and  
calorific rays4 ,the velocity of a wave 

of sound through the atmosphere1 is the 
same for the deep-toned thunder and the 
shrillest whistle1--being dependent on  
the density of the medium1 and not on   
the source from which it emanates4 ,so  
it is in the ethereal medium4  ,this    
view is in accordance with the          
experiments of ,m4 ,delaroche and       
,melloni1 on the transmission of light  
and heat through diaphanous bodies--the 
more calorific rays feeling more and    
more the influence of thickness1 showing
 that more motion was imparted to the   
particles of the diaphanous substance by
 the rays possessing more material      
momentum1 and still more when the       
temperature of the radiating body was   
low1 evidently analogous to the         
illustration we have cited4 ,light may  
therefore be regarded as the effect of  
the vibration of atoms having little    
mass1 and as this mass increases1 the   
rays become more calorific1 and finally 
the calorific effect is the only        
evidence of their existence2 as towards 

the extreme red end of the spectrum they
 cease to be visible1 owing to their    
inability to impart their vibrations to 
the optic nerve4 ,this may also         
influence the law of gravitation4 ,in   
this we have also an explanation of the 
dispersion of light4 ,the rays          
proceeding from atoms of small mass     
having less material momentum1 are the  
most refrangible1 and those possessing  
greater material momentum1 are the least
 refrangible2 so that instead of        
presenting a difficulty in the          
undulatory theory of light1 this        
dispersion is a necessary consequence of
 its first principles4  ,it is inferred 
from the experiments cited1 and the     
facts ascertained by them1 viz43 that   
the velocity of light in water is less  
than its velocity in air2 that the      
density of the ether is greater in the  
first case2 but this by no means        
follows4 ,we have advocated the idea1   
that the ethereal medium is less dense  
within a refracting body than without4  

,we regard it as a fundamental          
principle4 ,taking the free ether of    
heaven2 the vibrations in the denser    
ether will no doubt be slowest2 but     
within a refracting body we must        
consider there is motion lost1 or light 
absorbed1 and the time of the           
transmission is thus increased4  ,there 
has been a phenomenon observed in       
transits of ,mercury and ,venus across  
the sun1 of which no explanation has    
been rendered by astronomers4 ,when     
these planets are visible on the solar  
disc1 they are seen surrounded by rings1
 as if the light was intercepted and    
increased alternately4 ,this is no doubt
 due to a small effect of interference1 
caused by change of velocity in passing 
through the rarefied nucleus of these   
planetary vortices1 near the body of the
 planet1 and through the denser ether   
beyond1 acting first as a concave1 and  
secondly as a convex refracting body2   
always considering that the ray will    
deviate towards the side of least       

insistence1 and thus interfere4  ,that  
heat is simply atomic motion1 and       
altogether mechanical1 is a doctrine    
which ought never to have been          
questioned4 ,the interest excited by the
 bold experiments of ,ericson1 has      
caused the scientific to suspect1 that  
heat can be converted into motion1 and  
motion into heat--a fact which the      
author has considered too palpable to   
deny for the last twenty years4 ,he has 
ever regarded matter and motion as the  
two great principles of nature1 ever    
inseparable1 yet variously combined2 and
 that without these two elements1 we    
could have no conception of anything    
existing4  ,it may be thought by some1  
who are afraid to follow truth up the   
rugged precipices of the hill of        
knowledge1 that this theory of an       
interplanetary plenum leads to          
materialism2 forgetting1 that ,he who   
made the world1 formed it of matter1 and
 pronounced it very good4 ,we may       
consider ethereal matter1 in one sense1 

purer than planetary matter1 because    
unaffected by chemical laws4 ,whether   
still purer matter exists1 it is not for
 us to aver or deny4 ,the ,scriptures   
teach us that there is a natural body   
and there is a spiritual body4 ,beyond  
this we know nothing4 ,we1 however1     
believe that the invisible world of     
matter1 can only be comprehended by the 
indications of that which is visible2   
yet while humbly endeavoring to connect 
by one common tie1 the various phenomena
 of matter and motion1 we protest       
against those doctrines which teach the 
eternal duration of the present order of
 things1 as being incompatible with the 
analogies of the past1 as well as with  
the revelations of the future4          
,,footnotes3  #ce ,silliman's ,journal1 
vol xxxv41 page #bhc4  #cf ,the real    
diameter of the earth in that latitude1 
whose sine is one-third1 is a little    
greater than this2 but the true mean is 
more favorable for the ,newtonian law4  
#cg ,this is1 perhaps1 the nearest ratio

 of the densities and distances4  #ch   
,this is an important consideration1 as 
bearing on the geology of the earth4    
#ci ,it is not as likely that the       
condensation of the sun was so sudden as
 that of the planets1 and therefore in  
this case this distance is only         
approximate4  #dj ,mechanique ,celeste4 
,theory of the ,moon4  #da ,mechanique  
,celeste4 ,masses of the planets4       
,,section ,,fifth4   ,,cometary         
,,phenomena4  ,the planetary            
arrangements of the solar system are all
  priori indications of the theory of   
vortices1 not only by the uniform       
direction of the motions1 the circular  
orbits in which these motions are       
performed1 the near coincidence of the  
planes of these orbits1 and the uniform 
direction of the rotation of the planets
 themselves2 but1 also1 by the law of   
densities and distances1 which we have  
already attempted to explain4 ,in the   
motions of comets we find no such       
agreement4 ,these bodies move in planes 

at all possible inclinations in orbits  
extremely eccentrical and without any   
general direction--as many moving       
contrary to the direction of the planets
 as in the opposite direction2 and when 
we consider their great volume1 and     
their want of mass1 it appears1 at first
 sight1 that comets do present a serious
 objection to the theory4 ,we shall     
point out1 however1 a number of facts   
which tend to invalidate this objection1
 and which will ultimately give the     
preponderance to the opposite argument4 
,every fact indicative of the nature of 
comets proves that the nuclei are masses
 of material gases1 similar1 perhaps 7at
 least in the case of the short-period  
comets71 to the elementary gases of our 
own planet1 and1 consequently1 these    
masses must be but small4 ,in the       
nascent state of the system1 the radial 
stream of the vortex would operate as a 
fan1 purging the planetary materials of 
the least ponderable atoms1 and1 as it  
were1 separating the wheat from the     

chaff4 ,it is thus we conceive that the 
average atomic density of each planet   
has been first determined by the radial 
stream1 and1 subsequently1 that the     
solidification of the nebulous planets  
has1 by their atomic density1 assigned  
to each its position in the system1 from
 the consequent relation which it       
established between the density of the  
ether within the planet1 and the density
 of the ether external to it1 so that1  
according to this view1 a single        
isolated atom of the same density as the
 mean atomic density of the earth could 
7ceteris paribus7 revolve in an orbit at
 the distance of the earth1 and in the  
same periodic time4 ,this1 however1 is  
only advanced by way of illustration4   
,the expulsive force of the radial      
stream would thus drive off this        
cometary dust to distances in some      
inverse ratio of the density of the     
atoms2 but1 a limit would ultimately be 
reached1 when gravitation would be      
relatively the strongest--the last force

 diminishing only as the squares of the 
distances1 and the first diminishing in 
the compound ratio of the squares and   
the square roots of the distances4 ,at  
the extreme verge of the system1 this   
cometary matter would accumulate1 and1  
by accumulation1 would still further    
gather up the scattered atoms--the      
sweepings of the inner space--and1 in   
this condensed form1 would again visit  
the sun in an extremely elongated       
ellipse4 ,it does not1 however1 follow1 
that all comets are composed of such    
unsubstantial materials4 ,there may be  
comets moving in parabolas1 or even in  
hyperbolas--bodies which may have been  
accumulating for ages in the unknown    
regions of space1 far removed from the  
sun and stars1 drifting on the mighty   
currents of the great ethereal ocean1   
and thus brought within the sphere of   
the sun's attraction2 and these bodies  
may have no analogy to the periodical   
comets of our system1 which last are    
those with which we are more immediately

 concerned4  ,the periodical comets     
known are clearly arranged into two     
distinct classes--one having a mean     
distance between ,saturn and ,uranus1   
with a period of about seventy-five     
years1 and another class1 whose mean    
distance assigns their position between 
the smaller planets and ,jupiter1 having
 periods of about six years4 ,these last
 may be considered the siftings of the  
smaller planets1 and the first the      
refuse of the ,saturnian system4 ,in    
this light we may look for comets having
 a mean distance corresponding to the   
intervals of the planets1 rather than to
 the distances of the planets           
themselves4 ,one remarkable fact1       
however1 to be observed in these bodies 
is1 that all their motions are in the   
same direction as the planets1 and1 with
 one exception1 there is no periodical  
comet positively known whose motion is  
retrograde4  ,the exception we have     
mentioned is the celebrated comet of    
,halley1 whose period is also about     

seventy-five years4 ,in reasoning on the
 resistance of the ether1 we must       
consider that the case can have very    
little analogy with the theory of       
projectiles in air2 nor can we estimate 
the inertia of an infinitely divisible  
fluid1 from its resisting influence on  
atomic matter1 by a comparison of the   
resistance of an atomic fluid on an     
atomic solid4 ,analogy will only justify
 comparisons of like with like4 ,the    
tangent of a comet's orbit1 also1 can   
only be tangential to the circular      
motion of the ether at and near         
perihelion1 which is a very small       
portion of its period of revolution4 ,as
 far as the tangential resistance is    
concerned1 therefore1 it matters little 
whether its motion be direct or         
retrograde4 ,if a retrograde comet1 of  
short period and small eccentricity1    
were discovered moving also near the    
central plane of the vortex1 it would   
present a very serious objection1 as    
being indicative of contrary motions in 

the nascent state of the system4 ,there 
is no such case known4 ,so1 also1 with  
the inclinations of the orbits2 if these
 be great1 it matters little whether the
 comet moves in one way or the other1 as
 far as the tangential current of the   
vortex is concerned4 ,yet1 when we      
consider the average inclination of the 
orbit1 and not of its plane1 we find    
that the major axes of nearly all known 
cometary orbits are very little inclined
 to the plane of the ecliptic4  ,in the 
following table of all the periodical   
comets known1 the inclination of the    
major axis of the orbit is calculated to
 the nearest degree2 but all cometary   
orbits with very few exceptions1 will be
 found to respect the ecliptic1 and     
never to deviate far from that plane3   
----------------------------------------
----------------------------            
,designations   ,periodic   ,inclination
  ,motion     ,planetary       of the   
,comets4   times4       of        in    
,orbit4  ,intervals4                    

,major ,axes                            
----------------------------------------
----------------------------   ,encke   
#ahah  #c years4        #a      ,direct 
,mars  ,ceres4                          
----------------------------------------
----------------------------   ,de ,vico
   #ahad                  #b            
,direct                    ,fayo        
#ahdc                  #d       ,direct 
,ceres        ,de ,avrest #ahea    ,from
          #a       ,direct              
,brorsen   #ahdf    five          #g    
,direct        and         ,messier     
#agff    to            #j       ,direct 
,clausen   #agdc    six           #j    
,direct      ,jupiter4      ,pigott     
#aghc    or            #d       ,direct 
,pous      #ahai    seven         #c    
,direct                    ,biela       
#ahbf    years4        #i       ,direct 
,blaupain  #ahai                  #b    
,direct                    ,lexell      
#aggj                  #a       ,direct 
----------------------------------------

----------------------------   ,pous    
#ahab                 #ag       ,direct 
,olbers    #ahaf    about        #dj    
,direct      ,saturn        ,de ,vico   
#ahdf    #ge           #ac       ,direct
        and         ,brorsen   #ahdg    
years4       #ab       ,direct          
,uranus4       ,westphal  #aheb         
#ba       ,direct                       
,halley    #afhb                 #af    
,retrograde                             
----------------------------------------
----------------------------  ,from     
which it appears1 that the objection    
arising from the great inclination of   
the planes of these orbits is much less 
important than at first it appears to   
be4  ,regarding then1 that a comet's    
mean distance depends on its mean atomic
 density1 as in the case of the planets1
 the undue enlargement of their orbits  
by planetary perturbations is           
inadmissible4 ,in #aggj ,messier        
discovered a comet which approached     
nearer the earth than any comet known1  

and it was found to move in a small     
ellipse with a period of five and a half
 years2 but although repeatedly sought  
for1 it was the opinion of many1 that it
 has never been since seen4 ,the cause  
of this seeming anomaly is found by     
astronomers in the disturbing power of  
,jupiter1--near which planet the comet  
must have passed in #aggi1 but the comet
 was not seen in #aggf before it passed 
near ,jupiter1 although a very close    
search was kept up about this time4 ,now
 there are two suppositions in reference
 to this body3 the comet either moved in
 a larger orbit previous to #agfg1 and  
was then caused by ,jupiter to diminish 
its velocity sufficiently to give it a  
period of five and a half years1 and    
that after perihelion it recovered a    
portion of its velocity in endeavoring  
to get back into its natural orbit2 or  
if moving in the natural orbit in #aggj1
 and by passing near ,jupiter in #aggi  
this orbit was deranged1 the comet will 
ultimately return to that mean distance 

although not necessarily having elements
 even approximating those of #aggj4 ,in 
#ahdd1 ,september #aeth1 the author     
discovered a comet in the constellation 
,cetus1 7the same previously discovered 
by ,de ,vico at ,home17 and from        
positions estimated with the naked eye  
approximately determined the form of its
 orbit and its periodic time to be very 
similar to the lost comet of #aggj4     
,these conclusions were published in a  
western paper in ,october #ahdd1 on     
which occasion he expressed the         
conviction1 that this was no other than 
the comet of #aggj4 ,as the question    
bore strongly on his theory he paid the 
greater attention to it1 and had1       
previously to this time1 often searched 
in hopes of finding that very comet4    
,since then1 ,m4 ,le ,verrier has       
examined the question of identity and   
given his decision against it2 but the  
author is still sanguine that the comet 
of #ahdd is the same as that of #aggj1  
once more settled at its natural        

distance from the sun4 ,this comet      
returns to its perihelion on the #fth of
 ,august1 #ahee1 according to ,dr4      
,brnnow1 when1 it is hoped1 the question
 of identity will be reconsidered with  
reference to the author's principles2   
and1 that when astronomers become       
satisfied of this1 they will do him the 
justice of acknowledging that he was the
 first who gave publicity to the fact1  
that the ,lost ,comet was found4  ,that 
comets do experience a resistance1 is   
undeniable2 but not in the way          
astronomers suppose1 if these views be  
correct4 ,the investigations of         
,professor ,encke1 of ,berlin1 on the   
comet which bears his name1 has         
determined the necessity of a           
correction1 which has been applied for  
several returns with apparent success4  
,but there is this peculiarity about it1
 which adds strength to our theory3 ,the
 ,constant of ,resistance requires a    
change after perihelion4 ,the necessity 
for this change shows the action of the 

radial stream4 ,from the law of this    
force1 7reckoning on the central plane  
of the vortex17 there is an outstanding 
portion1 acting as a disturbing power1  
in the sub-duplicate ratio of the       
distances inversely4 ,if we only        
consider the mean or average effect in  
orbits nearly circular1 this force may  
be considered as an ablatitious force at
 all distances below the mean1          
counterbalanced by an opposite effect at
 all distances above the mean4 ,but when
 the orbits become very eccentrical1 we 
must consider this force as momentarily 
affecting a comet's velocity1           
diminishing it as it approaches the     
perihelion1 and increasing it when      
leaving the perihelion4 ,a resolution of
 this force is also requisite for the   
comet's distance above the central plane
 of the vortex1 and a correction1       
likewise1 for the intensity of the force
 estimated in that plane4 ,there is also
 a correction necessary for the         
perihelion distance1 and another for the

 tangential current2 but we are only    
considering here the general effect4 ,by
 diminishing the comet's proper velocity
 in its orbit1 if we consider the       
attraction of the sun to remain the     
same1 the general effect may be 7for    
this depends on the tangential portion  
of the resolved force preponderating7   
that the absolute velocity will be      
increased1 and the periodic time        
shortened2 but after passing the        
perihelion1 with the velocity of a      
smaller orbit1 there is also superadded 
to this already undue velocity1 the     
expulsive power of the radial stream1   
adding additional velocity to the comet2
 the orbit is therefore enlarged1 and   
the periodic time increased4 ,hence the 
necessity of changing the ,constant of  
,resistance after perihelion1 and this  
will generally be found necessary in all
 cometary orbits1 if this theory be     
true4 ,but this question is one which   
may be emphatically called the most     
difficult of dynamical problems1 and it 

may be long before it is fully          
understood4  ,according to the          
calculations of ,professor ,encke1 the  
comet's period is accelerated about #b  
hours1 #cj minutes1 at each return1     
which he considers due to a resisting   
medium4 ,may it not rather be owing to  
the change of inclination of the major  
axis of the orbit1 to the central plane 
of the vortex8 ,suppose the inclination 
of the plane of the orbit to remain     
unchanged1 and the eccentricity of the  
orbit also1 if the longitude of the     
perihelion coincides with that of either
 node1 the major axis of the orbit lies 
in the ecliptic1 and the comet then     
experiences the greatest mean effect    
from the radial stream2 its mean        
distance is then1 ceteris paribus1 the  
greatest4 ,when the angle between the   
perihelion and the nearest node         
increases1 the mean force of the radial 
stream is diminished1 and the mean      
distance is diminished also4 ,when the  
angle is #ij1 the effect is least1 and  

the mean distance least4 ,this is       
supposing the ecliptic the central plane
 of the vortex4 ,when ,encke's formula  
was applied to ,biela's comet1 it was   
inadequate to account for a tenth part  
of the acceleration2 and although ,biela
 moves in a much denser medium1 and is  
of less dense materials1 even this taken
 into account will not satisfy the      
observations1--making no other change in
 ,encke's formula4 ,we must therefore   
attribute it to changes in the elements 
of the orbits of these comets4 ,now1 the
 effect of resistance should also have  
been noticed1 as an acceleration of     
,halley's comet in #ahce1 yet the period
 was prolonged4 ,to show1 that our      
theory of the cause of these anomalies  
corresponds with facts1 we subjoin the  
elements in the following tables1 taken 
from ,mr4 ,hind's catalogue3  ,,the     
,,elements ,,of ,,encke',s ,,comet4     
,date of     ,longitude of   ,longitude 
of   ,difference of   ,perihelion4      
,perihelion4    nearest ,node           

,longitude4     #ahbb       #aeg #aa #dd
   #aed #be  #i     #b #df #ce     #ahbe
       #aeg  #ad  #ca    #aed  #bg  #cj 
#b  #dg   #a     #ahbi       #aeg  #ag  
#ec    #aed  #bi  #cb      #b  #dh  #ba 
#ahcbdb   #aeg  #ba   #a    #aed  #cb   
#i      #b  #da  #eb     #ahce          
#aeg  #bc  #bi    #aed  #cd  #ei      #b
  #dh  #cj     #ahch       #aeg  #bg    
#d    #aed  #cf  #da      #b  #ej  #bc  
#ahdb       #aeg  #bi  #bg    #aed  #ci 
#aj      #b  #ej  #ag     #ahde         
#aeg  #dd  #ba    #aed  #ai  #cc      #c
  #bd  #dh     #ahdh       #aeg  #dg    
#h    #aed  #bb  #ab      #c  #bd  #ef  
#aheb       #aeg  #ea   #b    #aed  #bc 
#ba      #c  #bg  #da  ,in this we see a
 regular increase of the angle1 which   
ought to be attended with a small       
acceleration of the comet2 but the      
change of inclination of the orbit ought
 also to be taken into consideration1 to
 get the mean distance of the comet     
above the plane of the vortex1 and1 by  
this1 the mean force of the radial      

stream4  ,in the following table1 the   
same comparison is made for ,biela's    
comet3--  ,,elements ,,of ,,biela',s    
,,comet4     ,date of     ,longitude of 
,longitude of    ,difference of         
,perihelion4  ,perihelion4    nearest   
,node4    ,longitude4     #aggb         
#aaj #ad #ed    #gd  #j  #a     #cf #ad 
#ec     #ahjf       #aji  #cb  #bc      
#ga  #ae  #ae      #ch  #ag   #h        
#ahbf       #aji  #de  #ej     #ga  #bh 
#ab      #ch  #ag  #chdc     #ahcb      
#aaj  #ee  #ee     #fh  #ae  #cf        
#da  #de  #ai     #ahdf       #aji   #b 
#bj     #fe  #ed  #ci      #dc   #g  #da
  ,between #ahcb and #ahdf1 the increase
 of the angle is twice as great for     
,biela as for ,encke1 and the angle     
itself throws the major axis of ,biela  
#aj above the ecliptic1 whereas the     
angle made by ,encke's major axis1 is   
only about #a2 the cosine of the first  
angle1 diminishes much faster therefore1
 and consequently the same difference of
 longitude between the perihelion and   

node1 will cause a greater acceleration 
of ,biela2 and according to ,prof4      
,encke's theory1 ,biela would require a 
resisting medium twenty-five times      
greater than the comet of ,encke to     
reconcile observation with the theory4  
,halley's comet can scarcely be         
considered to have had an orbit with    
perfect elements before #ahce4 ,if they 
were known accurately for #agei1 we     
should no doubt find1 that the angle    
between the node and perihelion         
diminished in the interval between #agej
 and #ahce1 as according to the         
calculations of ,m4 ,rosenberg1 the     
comet was six days behind its time--a   
fact fatal to the common ideas of a     
resisting medium2 but this amount of    
error must be received as only          
approximate4  ,no comet that has        
revisited the sun1 has given astronomers
 more trouble than the great comet of   
#ahdc4 ,various orbits have been tried1 
elliptical1 parabolic and hyperbolic2   
yet none will accord with all the       

observations4 ,the day before this comet
 was seen in ,europe and the ,united    
,states1 it was seen close to the body  
of the sun at ,conception1 in ,south    
,america2 yet this observation1 combined
 with those following1 would give an    
orbital velocity due to a very moderate 
mean distance4 ,subsequent observations 
best accorded with a hyperbolic orbit2  
and it was in view of this anomaly1 that
 the late ,sears ,c4 ,walker considered 
that the comet came into collision with 
the sun in an elliptical orbit1 and its 
debris passed off again in a hyperbola4 
,that a concussion would not add to its 
velocity is certain1 and the departure  
in a hyperbolic orbit would be contrary 
to the law of gravitation4 ,this        
principle is thus stated by             
,newton3--,in parabola velocitas ubiquo 
equalis est velocitati corporis         
revolventis in circulo ad dimidiam      
distantiam2 in ellipsi minor est in     
hyperbola major4 7,vid4 ,prin4 ,lib4 #a4
 ,prop4 #f ,cor4 #g47  ,but as regards  

the fact1 it is probable that ,mr4      
,walker's views are correct1 so far as  
the change from an ellipse to an        
hyperbola is considered4 ,the           
,conception observation cannot be       
summarily set aside1 and ,professor     
,peirce acknowledges1 that ,if it was   
made with anything of the accuracy which
 might be expected from ,captain ,ray1  
it exhibits a decided anomaly in the    
nature of the forces to which the comet 
was subjected during its perihelion     
passage4 ,the comet came up to the sun  
almost in a straight line against the   
full force of the radial stream2 its    
velocity must therefore necessarily have
 been diminished4 ,after its perihelion1
 its path was directly from the sun1 and
 an undue velocity would be kept up by  
the auxiliary force impressed upon it by
 the same radial stream2 and hence1 the 
later observations give orbits much     
larger than the early ones1 and there   
can be no chance of identifying this    
comet with any of its former            

appearances1 even should its orbit be   
elliptical4 ,this unexpected            
confirmation of the theory by the       
observation of ,capt4 ,ray1 cannot      
easily be surmounted4  ,we must now     
endeavor to explain the physical        
peculiarities of comets1 in accordance  
with the principles laid down4 ,the most
 prominent phenomenon of this class is  
the change of diameter of the visible   
nebulosity4 ,it is a most singular      
circumstance1 but well established as a 
fact1 that a comet contracts in its     
dimensions on approaching the sun1 and  
expands on leaving it4 ,in #ahbi1       
accurate measures were taken on         
different days1 of the diameter of      
,encke's comet1 and again in #ahch4 ,the
 comet of #afah was also observed by    
,kepler with this very object1 and also 
the comet of #ahjg2 but without         
multiplying instances1 it may be        
asserted that it is one of those facts  
in cometary phenomena1 to which there   
are no exceptions4 ,according to all    

analogy1 the very reverse of this ought 
to obtain4 ,if a comet is chiefly       
vaporous1 7as this change of volume     
would seem to indicate17 its approach to
 the sun ought to be attended by a      
corresponding expansion by increase of  
temperature4 ,when the contrary is      
observed1 and invariably so1 it ought to
 be regarded as an index of the         
existence of other forces besides       
gravitation1 increasing rapidly in the  
neighborhood of the sun2 for the        
disturbing power of the sun's attraction
 would be to enlarge the diameter of a  
comet in proportion to its proximity4   
,now1 the force of the radial stream1 as
 we have shown1 is as the #b4eth power  
of the distances inversely4 ,if this    
alternate contraction and expansion be  
due to the action of this force1 there  
ought to be an approximate              
correspondence of the law of the effect 
with the law of the cause4 ,arago1 in   
speaking of the comet of #ahbi1 states1 
that between the #bhth of ,october and  

the #bdth of ,december1 the volume of   
the comet was reduced as #afjjj to #a1  
the change of distance in the meantime  
only varying about #c to #a4 ,to account
 for this1 a memoir was published on the
 subject by ,m4 ,valz1 in which he      
supposes an atmosphere around the sun1  
whose condensation increases rapidly    
from superincumbent pressure2 so that   
the deeper the comet penetrates into    
this atmosphere the greater will be the 
pressure1 and the less the volume4 ,in  
this it is evident1 that the ponderous  
nature of a resisting medium is not yet 
banished from the schools4 ,in          
commenting on this memoir1 ,arago justly
 observes1 that there would be no       
difficulty in this if it could be       
admitted that the exterior envelope of  
the nebulosity were not permeable to the
 ether2 but this difficulty seems       
insurmountable1 and merits our sincere  
regret2 for ,m4 ,valz's ingenious       
hypothesis has laid down the law of     
variation of the bulk of the nebulosity1

 as well for the short-period comet as  
for that of #afah1 with a truly         
wonderful exactness4 ,now1 if we make   
the calculation1 we shall find that the 
diameter of the nebulosity of a comet is
 inversely as the force of the radial   
stream4 ,this force is inversely as the 
#b4e power of the distances from the    
axis1 and not from the sun3 it will1    
therefore1 be in the inverse ratio of   
the cosine of the comet's heliocentric  
latitude to radius1 and to this ratio   
the comet's distance ought to be        
reduced4 ,but1 this will only be correct
 for the same plane or for equal        
distances above the ecliptic plane1     
considering this last as approximately  
the central plane of the vortex4 ,from  
the principles already advanced1 the    
radial stream is far more powerful on   
the central plane than in more remote   
planes2 therefore1 if a comet1 by       
increase of latitude1 approaches near   
the axis1 thus receiving a larger amount
 of force from the radial stream in that

 plane than pertains to its actual      
distance from the sun1 it will also     
receive a less amount of force in that  
plane than it would in the central plane
 at the same distance from the axis4    
,now1 we do not know the difference of  
force at different elevations above the 
central plane of the vortex2 but as the 
two differences due to elevation are    
contrary in their effects and tend to   
neutralize each other1 we shall make the
 calculation as if the distances were   
truly reckoned from the centre of the   
sun4  ,the following table is extracted 
from ,arago's tract on ,comets1 and     
represents the variations of the        
diameter of ,encke's comet at different 
distances from the sun1--the radius of  
the orbis magnus being taken as unity4  
,times of observation1   ,distances of  
the        ,real diameters              
#ahbh4          comet from the sun4  in 
radii of the earth4        ,oct4 #bh    
#a4dfag                 #gi4d           
,nov4  #g                #a4cbag        

#fd4h        ,nov4 #cj                  
#j4iffh                 #bi4h           
,dec4  #g                #j4hdgc        
#ai4i        ,dec4 #ad                  
#j4gbhe                 #aa4c           
,dec4 #bd                #j4fdai        
#c4a  ,in order the better to compare   
the diameters with the force1 we will   
reduce them by making the first numbers 
equal4    ,distances4     ,diameters4   
,the #b4eth power      ,reduced         
of the ,distances4   ,diameters4        
#a4dfag            #gi4d                
#b4eh             #b4eh   #a4cbag       
#fd4h            #b4aj             #b4aj
   #j4iffh            #bi4h             
#j4ib             #j4ig   #j4hdgc       
#ai4i            #j4ff             #j4fe
   #j4gbhe            #aa4c             
#j4de             #j4cg   #j4edai       
#c4a            #j4ba             #j4aj 
,this is a very close approximation1    
when we consider the difficulty of      
micrometric measurement1 and the fact1  
that as the comet gets nearer to the    

sun1 as at the last date of the table1  
the diameter is more than proportionally
 diminished by the fainter nebulosity   
becoming invisible4 ,but1 there may be a
 reality in the discrepancy apparent at 
the last date1 as the comet was then    
very near the plane of the ecliptic1 and
 was1 consequently1 exposed to the more 
violent action of the radial stream4    
,to attempt to explain the modus agendi 
is1 perhaps1 premature4 ,our principal  
aim is to pioneer the way into the      
labyrinth1 and it is sufficient to      
connect this seeming anomaly with the   
same general law we have deduced from   
other phenomena4 ,still1 an explanation 
may be given in strict accordance with  
the general principles of the theory4   
,admitting the nucleus of a comet to be 
gaseous1 there is no difficulty about   
the solution4 ,according to ,sir ,john  
,herschel1 stars of the smallest        
magnitude remain distinctly visible1    
though covered by what appears the      
densest portion of their substances2 and

 since it is an observed fact1 that the 
large comets which have presented the   
appearance of a nucleus1 have yet       
exhibited no phases1 though we cannot   
doubt that they shine by the reflected  
solar light1 it follows that even these 
can only be regarded as great masses of 
thin vapor4 ,that comets shine solely by
 reflected solar light1 is a position   
that we shall presently question2 but   
that they are masses of vapor is too    
evident to dispute4 ,according to the   
same authority quoted above1 ,if the    
earth were reduced to the one thousandth
 part of its actual mass1 its coercive  
power over the atmosphere would be      
diminished in the same proportion1 and  
in consequence the latter would expand  
to a thousand times its actual bulk4 ,if
 this were so1 and comets composed of   
the elementary gases1 some of them would
 have very respectable masses1 as the   
nuclei are frequently not more than     
#e1jjj miles in diameter1 and           
consequently it becomes important to    

examine the principle4 ,from all        
experiments the density of an elastic   
fluid is directly as the compressing    
force2 and if a cylinder reached to the 
top of our atmosphere1 compressed by the
 gravitation of the earth1 considered   
equal at each end of the cylinder1 it   
would represent the actual compressing  
force to which it owes its density4 ,if 
the gravitation of the earth were       
diminished one thousand times this      
atmospheric column would expand one     
thousand times1#dd 7taking no account of
 the decrease of gravitation by increase
 of distance27 so that the diameter of  
the arial globe would be increased to   
#ajh1jjj miles1 taking the atmosphere at
 #ej miles4 ,but the mere increasing the
 bulk of the atmosphere #ajjj times     
would increase the diameter to little   
more than double4 ,even giving the      
correct expansion1 a comet's mass must  
be much greater than is generally       
supposed1 or the diameters of the nuclei
 would be greater if composed of any gas

 lighter than atmospheric air4  ,it is  
very improbable that a comet is composed
 of only one elementary gas1 and if of  
many1 their specific gravities will     
vary2 the lighter1 of course1 occupying 
the exterior layers4 ,with such a small 
mass1 therefore1 the upper portion of   
its atmosphere must be very attenuated4 
,now let us remember that the density of
 the ether at a comet's aphelion1 is    
greater than at the perihelion1 in the  
direct ratio of the square roots of the 
distances from the sun nearly4 ,at the  
aphelion the comet lingers through half 
his period1 giving ample time for the   
nucleus to be permeated by ether        
proportionally dense with the           
surrounding ether of the vortex at that 
distance4 ,thus situated1 the comet     
descends to its perihelion1 getting     
faster and faster into a medium far less
 dense1 and there must consequently be  
an escape from the nucleus1 or in common
 parlance1 the comet is positively      
electric4 ,this escaping ether1 in      

passing through the attenuated layers   
composing the surface of the nucleus1   
impels the lighter atoms of cometic dust
 further from the centre1 and as for as 
this doubly attenuated atmosphere of    
isolated particles extends1 so far will 
the escaping ether be rendered luminous4
 ,it may be objected here1 that a       
contrary effect ought to be produced    
when the comet is forsaking1 its        
perihelion2 but the objection is        
premature1 as the heat received from the
 sun will have the same effect in       
increasing the elasticity1 as change of 
density1 and the comet will probably    
part with its internal ether as long as 
it is visible to the earth2 and not     
fully regain it perhaps1 until after it 
arrives at its aphelion4 ,suppose that  
we admit that a comet continues to      
expand in the same ratio for all        
distances1 as is laid down for the comet
 of ,encke when near its perihelion2 it 
would follow1 that the comet of #ahaa1  
would have a diameter at its aphelion of

 fifty millions of millions of miles1   
that is1 its outside would extend one   
thousand times further from the sun1 at 
the opposite side to that occupied by   
the centre of the comet1 than the       
distance of the comet's centre from the 
sun1 at its enormous aphelion distance4 
,such an absurdity shows us that there  
is a limit of expansion due to natural  
causes1 and that if there were no radial
 stream the volume of a comet would be  
greatest when nearest the sun4  ,but    
while the comet is shortening its       
distance and hastening to the sun in the
 form of a huge globular mass of diffuse
 light1 it is continually encountering  
another force1 increasing in a far more 
rapid ratio than the law of gravitation4
 ,at great distances from the sun1 the  
force of the radial stream was          
insufficient to detach any portion of   
the comet's atmosphere2 presently1      
however1 the globular form is changed to
 an ellipsoid1 the radial stream begins 
to strip the comet of that doubly       

attenuated atmosphere of which we have  
spoken1 and the diameter of the comet is
 diminished1 merely because the         
luminosity of the escaping ether is     
terminated at the limit of that         
atmosphere4 ,meanwhile the mass of the  
comet has suffered only an infinitely   
small diminution2 but if the perihelion 
distance be small1 the force may become 
powerful enough to detach the heavier   
particles of the nucleus1 and thus a    
comet may suffer in mass by this        
denudating process4 ,we regard1         
therefore1 the nucleus of a comet to    
represent the mass of the comet and the 
coma1 as auroral rays passing through a 
very attenuated envelope of detached    
particles4 ,the individual gravitating  
force of these particles to the comet's 
centre1 may be therefore considered as  
inversely as the squares of the         
distances1 and directly as the density  
of the particles2 and this density will1
 according to analogical reasoning1 be  
as the distances or square roots of the 

distances2--grant the last ratio1 and   
the gravitating force of the particles  
composing the exterior envelope of a    
comet1 becomes inversely as the #b4eth  
power of the distances from the comet's 
centre4#de ,this being the law of the   
radial stream1 it follows1 of course1   
that a comet's diameter is inversely as 
the force of the radial stream4 ,it     
must1 however1 be borne in mind1 that we
 are speaking of the atomic density1 and
 not of density by compression2 for this
 cometary dust1 which renders luminous  
the escaping ether of the nucleus1 must 
be far too much diffused to merit the   
name of an elastic fluid4 ,may not the  
concentric rings1 which were so         
conspicuous in the comet of #ahaa1 be   
owing to differences in the gravitating 
forces of such particles1 sifted1 as it 
were1 and thus arranged1 according to   
some ratio of the distances1 by the     
centripulsive force of the electric     
coma1 leaving vacant intervals1 through 
which the ether passed without becoming 

luminous8 ,this at least is the         
explanation given by our theory4 ,we    
may1 indeed1 consider it possible that  
the escaping ether1 when very intense1  
might be rendered luminous by passing   
into the surrounding ether1 and1 as it  
became more diffused by radiation1 at   
last become invisible4 ,in this case1 as
 the law of radiation is as the squares 
of the distances from the centre        
inversely1 the rays would be more and   
more bent at right angles1 or apparently
 shortened1 as the power of the radial  
stream increased1 and the apparent      
diameters of the coma would be          
diminished faster than the ratio of the 
#b4eth power of the distances4 ,but     
whichever view we adopt1 the diameter   
would again increase in the same ratio  
on leaving the sun1 if we make allowance
 for increase of temperature1 as well as
 for diminution of density1 for the     
ordinary distance of a comet's          
visibility4 ,we1 however1 regard the    
change of diameter1 as due to both these

 nodes of action1 as best agreeing with 
the indications afforded by their tails4
  ,from the preceding remarks1 it       
results that the density of the         
particles producing the nebulous        
envelope of a comet1 renders the        
variations of diameter only approximate 
to the law of the radial stream2 a      
comet's own electric energy1 or the     
intensity of the escaping ether1 may    
also modify this expression1 and many   
other causes may be suggested4 ,that the
 radial stream is the cause1 in the way 
we have pointed out1 is proved by the   
positions of the major axis of the      
short-period comet1 making frequently   
nearly a right angle with the radius    
vector of the orbit in #ahbh4 ,a soap   
bubble gently blown aside1 without      
detaching it from the pipe1 will afford 
a good illustration of the mode1 and a  
confirmation of the cause4 ,the angles  
measured by ,struve1 reckoned from the  
radius vector1 prolonged towards the    
sun1 are subjoined3    ,november #g     

#ii4g    ,december #g       #aed4j      
,november #cj      #ade 4#c    ,december
 #ad      #adi 4#d  ,at this last date1 
the comet was getting pretty close to   
the sun4 ,when the angle was greater1 as
 on ,november #gth1 the comet appeared  
to make almost a right angle with the   
radius vector2 and in this position of  
the earth and comet1 the longer axis of 
the elliptical comet was directed to the
 axis of the vortex1 as may be verified 
by experiment4 ,at the later dates1 the 
comet was more rapidly descending1 and1 
at the same time1 the axis of the comet 
was getting more directed towards the   
earth2 so that the angle increased      
between this axis and the radius vector1
 and consequently became more coincident
 with it4 ,we have now to consider the  
luminous appendage of a comet1 commonly 
called a tail4  ,the various theories   
hitherto proposed to account for this   
appendage are liable to grave           
objections4 ,that it is not refracted   
light needs not a word of comment4      

,newton supposes the tail to partake of 
the nature of vapor1 rising from the sun
 by its extreme levity1 as smoke in a   
chimney1 and rendered visible by the    
reflected light of the sun4 ,but1 how   
vapor should rise towards opposition in 
a vacuum1 is utterly inexplicable4 ,in  
speaking of the greater number of comets
 near the sun than on the opposite side1
 he observes3 ,hinc etiam manifestum est
 quod cli resistenti destituuntur4#df   
,and again1 in another place1 speaking  
of the tail moving with the same        
velocity of the comet1 he says3 ,et hinc
 rursus colligitur spatia clestia vi    
resistendi destitui2 utpote in quibus   
non solum solida planetarum et cometarum
 corpora1 sed etiam rarissimi candarum  
vapores motus suos velocissimos liberrim
 peragunt ac diutissim conservant4 ,on  
what principle1 therefore1 ,newton      
relied to cause the vapors to ascend1   
does not appear4 ,hydrogen rises in our 
atmosphere because specifically lighter4
 ,if there were no atmosphere1 hydrogen 

would not rise1 but merely expand on all
 sides4 ,but1 a comet's tail shoots off 
into space in a straight line of one    
hundred millions of miles1 and          
frequently as much as ten millions of   
miles in a single day1 as in the case of
 the comet of #ahdc4 ,sir ,john         
,herschel observes1 that no rational or 
even plausible account has yet been     
rendered of those immensely luminous    
appendages which they bear about with   
them1 and which are known as their      
tails4 ,yet1 he believes1 and           
astronomers generally believe1 that a   
comet shines by reflected light4 ,this  
theory of reflexion is the incubus which
 clogs the question with such formidable
 difficulties2 for1 it follows1 that the
 reflecting matter must come from the   
comet4 ,but1 what wonderful elements    
must a comet be made of1 to project     
themselves into space with such immense 
velocity1 and in such enormous          
quantities as to exceed in volume the   
body from which they emanate many       

millions of times4 ,this theory may be1 
therefore1 safely rejected4  ,from what 
we have already advanced concerning the 
coma or nebulosity of the comet1 we pass
 by an easy path to an explanation of   
the tail4 ,in the short-period comets1  
the density of the elementary atoms is  
too great to be detached in the gross   
from the nucleus1 or1 rather1 the       
density of the atoms composing the      
nucleus is too great to permit the      
radiating stream of the comet carrying  
them to a sufficient distance to be     
detached by the radial stream of the    
sun4 ,hence1 these comets exhibit but   
very little tails4 ,we may also         
conceive1 that the continual siftings   
which the nucleus undergoes at each     
successive perihelion passage1 have left
 but little of those lighter elements in
 comets whose mean distances are so     
small4 ,yet1 again1 if by any chance the
 eccentricity is increased1 there are   
two causes--the density of the ether1   
and the heat of the sun--which may make 

a comet assume quite an imposing        
appearance when apparently reduced to   
the comparatively passive state above   
mentioned4  ,according to our theory1   
then1 the coma of a comet is due to the 
elasticity of the ethereal medium within
 the nucleus1 caused both by the        
diminished pressure of the external     
ether near the sun1 and also by the     
increased temperature acting on the     
nucleus1 and thus on the involved ether4
 ,the tail1 on the contrary1 is caused  
by the lighter particles of the comet's 
attenuated atmosphere being blown off by
 the electric blast of the radial stream
 of the solar vortex1 in sufficient     
quantities to render its passage        
visible4 ,it is not1 therefore1         
reflected light1 but an ethereal stream 
rendered luminous by this detached      
matter still held in check by the       
gravitating force of the sun1 whose     
centre each particle still respects1 and
 endeavors to describe such an orbit as 
results from its own atomic density1 and

 the resultant action of both the acting
 forces4 ,from the law of density of the
 ether1 the coma ought to be brightest  
and the radiating stream of the comet's 
nucleus strongest on the side of least  
pressure3 from this cause1 and the fact 
that the body of the comet affords a    
certain protection to the particles     
immediately behind it1 there will be an 
interval between the comet and the tail 
less luminous1 as is almost invariably  
observed4 ,we thus have an explanation  
of the fact noticed by ,sir ,john       
,herschel1 that the structure of a      
comet1 as seen in section in the        
direction of its length1 must be that of
 a hollow envelope of a parabolic form1 
enclosing near its vertex the nucleus or
 head4 ,we have1 also1 a satisfactory   
explanation of the rapid formation of   
the tail2 of its being wider and fainter
 at its extremity2 of its occasional    
curvature2 and of its greater length    
after perihelion than before4 ,but1 more
 especially may we point to the         

explanation which this theory gives of  
the fact1 that1 ceteris paribus1 the    
long-period comets1 when their          
perihelion distances are small1 have    
tails of such exaggerated dimensions4   
,a comet1 whose mean distance is        
considerable1 is supposed by the theory 
to be composed of elements less dense1  
and1 during its long sojourn at its     
aphelion1 it may be also supposed that  
it there receives continual accessions  
to its volume from the diffused siftings
 of the system1 and from the scattered  
debris of other comets4 ,on approaching 
the perihelion1 the rapidity of the     
change in the density of the ether in a 
given time1 depends on the eccentricity 
of the orbit1 and so does the change of 
temperature2 so that1 from both causes1 
both the length of the tail and the     
brilliancy of the comet measurably      
depends on the magnitude of the period  
and of the eccentricity4  ,if the nuclei
 of comets be gaseous as we suppose1 and
 that the smallest stars are visible    

through them1 it is an outrage on common
 sense1 to refer that light1 which      
renders a comet visible at noon-day1    
within six minutes of space of the sun  
itself1 to the reflected light of the   
sun4 ,when a small star has been seen   
through the nucleus of a comet1 without 
any perceptible diminution of light1 it 
indicates perfect transparency2 but     
there can be no reflection from a       
perfectly transparent body1 and         
therefore1 a comet does not shine by    
reflected light4 ,it is true that ,arago
 discovered traces of polarized light in
 the comet of #ahai1 and also in more   
recent comets1 but they are mere traces1
 and ,arago himself admits1 that they do
 not permit the conclusion decidedly    
that these stars shine only with a      
borrowed light4 ,but it still does not  
follow that a comet 7even if independent
 of reflected light7 is in an           
incandescent state4 ,the auroral light  
is not polarized1 nor any other electric
 light1 neither is it owing to a state  

of incandescence1 yet it is luminous4   
,the intense light of a comet at        
perihelion is analogous to the charcoal 
points of a galvanic battery1 caused by 
a rapid current of ether from the       
nucleus1 and assisted by the radial     
stream of the vortex4 ,this will account
 for the phenomenon in all its shades of
 intensity1 as well as for the absence  
of any perceptible phase4 ,it will also 
account for the non-combustion of such  
comets as those of the years #afhj and  
#ahdc4 ,we shall also be at no loss to  
understand1 why there is no refraction  
when a ray of light from a star passes  
through the nebulosity of a comet2 and  
if1 as we may reasonably suppose1 the   
gaseous matter composing the nucleus be 
very attenuated1 instruments are yet too
 imperfect to determine whether these   
also have any refracting power4 ,on this
 point1 however1 it is safest to suspend
 our judgment1 as there may be comets   
not belonging to our system1 with even  
liquid or solid nuclei1 or of matter    

widely different to those elements      
composing the members of the solar      
system4  ,in addition to what has been  
already advanced on this subject of a   
comet's light1 we may appeal to the     
well-known fact that the visibility of a
 comet is not reciprocally as the       
squares of the distances from the earth 
and sun as it ought to be1 if shining by
 reflected light4 ,in ,mr4 ,hind's late 
work on comets1 the fact is stated that 
,dr4 ,olbers found that the comet of    
#aghj attained its greatest brightness  
on the #hth of ,november1 thirteen days 
subsequent to its discovery1 whereas    
according to the law of reflected light1
 it should have become gradually fainter
 from the day of its discovery2 and     
supposing the comet self-luminous1 the  
intensity of light should have increased
 each day until ,november #bfth2 yet in 
the interval between the #hth and #bfth 
of that month1 it grew rapidly less4    
,now this theory teaches1 that a comet  
is neither self-luminous nor dependent  

on the sun1 but on its distance from the
 axis of the vortex1 and a certain      
amount of elapsed time from the         
perihelion1 varying somewhat in each    
particular case4 ,this fact is therefore
 a very strong argument in favor of our 
theory4  ,amidst the many anomalous     
peculiarities of comets1 it has been    
noticed that a short tail is sometimes  
seen at right angles to the principal   
tail1 and in a few cases pointing       
directly towards the sun4 ,much of this 
may be owing to perspective1 but        
granting the reality of the fact1 it is 
still explicable on the same general    
principles4  ,in speaking of the        
modifying causes which influence the    
weather1 we mentioned the effect due to 
the position of the sun with respect to 
the axis of the vortex4 ,this will be   
found to have a sensible effect on the  
action of the radial stream4 ,the       
natural direction of a comet's electric 
stream is towards the axis of the       
vortex1 and in the central plane of the 

vortex it will be also towards the sun4 
,but this stream is met by the stronger 
radial stream from the axis1 and as ,mr4
 ,hind describes it1 is driven backward 
in two streams passing on either side of
 the head1 and ultimately blending into 
one to form the tail4 ,now1 if the body 
of the sun be situated between the comet
 and the axis of the vortex1 it will    
shield the comet from the action of the 
radial stream1 and thus a tail may      
really point towards the sun4  ,in #agdd
 a brilliant comet exhibited six        
distinct tails spread out like a fan1   
some seven days after its perihelion    
passage2 its distance from the sun at   
the time not being more than a third of 
the earth's distance4 ,the comet was    
then rapidly approaching the plane of   
the ecliptic1 and if we make the        
calculation for the position of the sun1
 we shall find that the body of the sun 
was on the same side of the axis of the 
vortex as the comet1 and that the comet 
was then situated at the boundaries of  

the conical space1 enclosed by the      
radial stream in its deflected passage  
round the body of the sun4 ,in this     
position there are numerous cross       
currents of the stream1 and hence the   
phenomenon in question4 ,as this fact   
rests on the testimony of one           
individual1 and is an occurrence never  
recorded before or since1 many are      
disposed to doubt the fact1 yet our     
theory explains even this peculiarity1  
and shows that there is no necessity for
 impugning the statement of ,cheseaux4  
,another unexplained phenomenon is the  
corruscation of the tail4 ,it has been  
attempted to explode this fact also1 by 
referring it to conditions of our own   
atmosphere2 and it is generally         
considered the argument of ,olbers1     
founded on the great length of the tail 
and the velocity of light1 is sufficient
 to prove that these corruscations are  
not actually in the tail4 ,now1 it is   
undoubtedly true1 that as light travels 
less than two hundred thousand miles in 

a second1 and a comet's tail is         
frequently one hundred millions long1 it
 is impossible to see an instantaneous  
motion along the whole line of the tail2
 but granting that there are such       
flickerings in the tail as are described
 by so many1 it must necessarily be1    
that these flickerings will be visible4 
,it would be wonderful indeed1 if a     
series of waves passing from the comet  
to the extremity of the tail1 should    
have their phases so exactly harmonizing
 with their respective distances as to  
produce a uniform steady light from a   
light in rapid motion4 ,the argument1   
therefore1 proves too much1 and as it is
 in the very nature of electric light   
thus to corruscate1 as we see frequently
 in the northern lights1 we must be     
permitted still to believe that not only
 the tails1 but also the heads of comets
 do really corruscate as described4     
,with respect to the direction of the   
tail1 astronomers have been forced to   
abandon the antiquated notion1 that the 

tail always pointed directly from the   
sun2 yet they still pertinaciously cling
 to the idea1 that although this is not 
always the case1 the tail only deviates 
from this direction in the plane of the 
orbit4 ,as this is a most important     
question1 it is necessary formally to   
protest against such a conclusion4 ,if  
the earth should happen to be in the    
plane of the comet's orbit and the tail 
appears in that plane1 it must of course
 be in that plane really2 but if the    
earth is not in the plane of the comet's
 orbit1 the tail is not necessarily in  
the same plane1 whatever its apparent   
direction may indicate4 ,it is true     
there is a tendency of every particle of
 the tail1 moving under the restraining 
influence of the sun's attraction1 to   
continue in the plane of the orbit2 and 
in certain positions there is no oblique
 action arising from the force of the   
radial stream to cause it to deviate    
from that plane2 yet in other positions 
of the comet1 the action of the radial  

stream may be oblique1 forcing it out of
 that plane1 and still such a direction 
might be assigned to it as to make it   
conform4 ,in the comet of #ahdc1 ,p4    
,smythe observed a forked tail #be long 
on ,march #c;d1 and from the end of the 
forked tail1 and from its north side1 a 
streamer diverged at an angle of #f or  
#g to the north4 ,as this was contrary  
to the direction of the curvature1 if   
the tail had been curved1 it could only 
arise from a portion being driven off by
 the radial stream1 or bent towards the 
plane of the ecliptic4 ,the curvature   
observed by others at a later date1 was 
concave to the south4 ,towards the      
middle and close of ,march1 the tail    
became straight1 and with the above     
exception1 might be considered to move  
in the plane of the orbit4  ,the        
celebrated comet of ,halley1 as observed
 by ,dr4 ,bessel in #ahce1 showed that a
 more or less well-defined tuft of rays 
emanated from that part of the nucleus  
which was turned towards the sun2 and   

the rays being bent backward formed a   
part of the tail4 ,the nucleus1 with its
 emanations1 presented the appearance of
 a burning rocket1 the end of which was 
turned sideways by the force of the     
wind4 ,and1 ,bessel concludes3 ,that the
 cone of light issuing from the comet   
deviated considerably both to the right 
and left of the true direction of the   
sun1 but that it always returned to that
 direction1 and passed over to the      
opposite side2 so that the cone of      
light1 and the body of the comet from   
whence it emanated1 experienced a       
rotatory1 or1 rather1 a vibrating motion
 in the plane of the orbit4 ,it is      
impossible that ,bessel should here mean
 that this motion was certainly in the  
plane of the orbit2 for the orbit was   
then viewed sideways1 and he had no     
means of ascertaining the fact4 ,his    
meaning must be that it was apparently  
in the plane of the orbit4 ,if a plane  
be made to pass through the earth1 the  
comet1 and the sun1 the tail might be   

placed in any position in that plane1   
and yet appear to be at the intersection
 of the two2 that is1 in the plane of   
the comet's orbit4 ,the vibration of the
 tail1 in this case1 is another strong  
proof of the correctness of our theory4 
,to make it more intelligible1 we shall 
resort to a diagram4  ,in the following 
diagram1 the comet's orbit1 represented 
by the dotted line1 is drawn on the     
plane of the ecliptic2 it is1 therefore1
 necessary to bear in mind1 that it is  
tilted up from the line of nodes ,,sn1  
at an angle of #ag #de4 ,the position of
 the comet1 ,october #ith1 is at ,c1    
approaching its perihelion2 that of the 
earth at the same time at ,t2 while ,s  
represents the sun1 and ,,sq the line of
 equinoxes4 ,now1 from a cause already  
explained1 the tail always tends to lay 
behind the comet1 in the direction      
indicated by the lower tail in the      
diagram at #a1 and1 if produced1 would  
pass to the left of the sun1 as seen    
from the earth3 the force of the radial 

stream1 however1 will not allow this    
lagging of the tail1 and it is          
straightened out by this force2 but1    
being directed to the axis of the       
vortex1 and not to the sun1 it is not   
really in the plane of the orbit1 but is
 seen in the direction of the upper tail
 depicted in the diagram at #c1 and1 if 
produced1 would pass to the right of the
 sun1 as seen from ,t4 ,now1 there is an
 intermediate position of the tail1 in  
which it will appear in the prolongation
 of the radius vector ,,sc2 this        
position is represented by the middle or
 central tail of the comet at #b1 yet   
this is not in the plane of the orbit1  
it only appears to be1 as may be readily
 understood by remembering that the     
earth at this time is under this plane1 
and the comet is seen at a considerable 
elevation above the plane of the        
ecliptic4 ,when the comet's tail becomes
 directed to the axis of the vortex1 or 
in the apparent position of ,no4 #c1 the
 comet1 rapidly careering on its way to 

the sun1 again leaves the tail behind1  
and again it is strengthened out by the 
radial stream oscillating about the mean
 position at #b1 as observed by ,bessel4
 ,from this1 it appears1 that there is  
no necessity to make confusion worse    
confounded1 by resorting to polar       
forces1 which are about as intelligible 
as the foundations of the pillars of    
,atlas4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be  ,it  
may be objected that the continued      
action of the radial stream with that   
velocity we have contended for1 ought to
 keep the tail invariably directed from 
the axis of the vortex2 but1 where there
 are two forces or tendencies1 as in    
this case1 analogy would teach us that a
 certain degree of oscillation is a     
necessary result4 ,there may1 also1 be  
slight and transient changes in the     
direction of the radial stream4 ,in the 
hurricane there are short and fitful    
blasts inclined to the general direction
 of the wind1 which must arise from the 
inertia of the moving mass of           

atmosphere1 causing temporary           
condensations and rarefactions4 ,be this
 as it may1 we have assigned a cause    
which satisfies the phenomenon1 without 
coming into collision with a single     
principle of celestial mechanics4       
,prof4 ,struve compared the tail of this
 comet to a flame1 or ray of fire shot  
out from the nucleus1 as from some      
engine of artillery1 and driven on one  
side by the wind4 ,at the same time1 he 
saw a second emanation nearly in the    
opposite direction4 ,this last might    
arise from a momentary fluctuation in   
the relative intensities of the electric
 radiation of the comet1 and of the     
radial stream1 owing to the probable    
irregularities just alluded to4 ,such   
and kindred phenomena are utterly       
inexplicable1 without we adopt the      
theory we are advocating4 ,one other    
feature1 and we will leave the subject4 
,from our explanation of the solar      
spots1 we inferred the existence of     
another large planet in the system4     

,might not the same effect be produced  
by a comet8 ,or may there not be so many
 comets1 whose great elongation1        
combined with even a moderate mass1 may 
render it impossible to calculate the   
position of the sun with respect to the 
central axis of the vortex1--always     
considering this last as the axis of    
equilibrium8 ,in a general way1 we might
 say that the very number of comets in  
all directions and all distances1 would 
tend to neutralize each other's effects2
 but we are not under this necessity4 ,a
 comet1 moving in a parabola1 does not  
belong to the system or to the rotating 
vortex2 and the periodic comets1 if of  
gaseous elements1 7as seems so          
probable17 must1 from the size of their 
nuclei1 which the theory considers the  
only part constituting their mass1 have 
far less mass than the very smallest of 
the asteroids1 and consequently could   
have very little effect on the          
mechanical balance of the vortex1 even  
if elongated as far as the orbit of     

,neptune4 ,did we know the influence of 
cold in limiting the expansibility of   
the elementary gases1 we might          
approximately determine the mass of a   
comet1 from the size of its nucleus2 but
 this is a problem that has never yet   
been solved2 and astronomers ought to   
avail themselves of every indication    
which promises to realize this great    
desideratum4 ,the grand comet of #aeef  
is now probably approaching1 and1 from  
recent investigations1 it appears that  
it will arrive at its perihelion in     
#aheh1--subject to an error either way  
of about two years4 ,an opportunity may 
thus be presented of determining the    
mass of one of the largest comets on    
record1 which may not again occur4 ,this
 arises from the possible appulse of the
 comet to the planet ,pallas1 whose     
mass1 being so small1 would more        
sensibly be disturbed by such an appulse
 than the earth4 ,as the inclinations   
and ascending nodes of the two orbits   
approximately coincide1 and as ,pallas  

will be near the comet's path1 on the   
approach of the latter to the sun1 at   
the beginning of the year #aheg1 should 
the comet become visible about that     
time1 a very close appulse is possible4 
,it is not unlikely1 also1 that if the  
elements of ,pallas were so far         
perfected as to afford reliable         
indications1 that the near approach of  
the comet might thus be heralded in     
advance1 and lead to an earlier         
detection of its presence4 ,would it not
 be a worthy contribution to science1   
for some one possessing the necessary   
leisure1 to give an ephemeris of the    
planet for that epoch2 as a very slight 
change in ,mr4 ,hind's elements of the  
comet1 would cause an actual            
intersection of the two orbits in about 
heliocentric longitude #aec8 ,the       
subsequent nodal passage of ,pallas will
 take place near opposition1 and be very
 favorably situated for determining the 
instant of its passage2 and1 of all the 
elements1 this would be more likely to  

be affected than any other4#dg   ,,the  
,,zodial ,,light4  ,a phenomenon1 akin  
to that which we have just been         
considering1 is presented by that great 
cone of diffused light which accompanies
 the sun1 and which in tropical climes  
displays a brilliancy seldom witnessed  
in high latitudes1 on account of its    
greater deviation from the              
perpendicular4 ,sir ,john ,herschel     
conjectures that it may be no other than
 the denser part of that medium1 which1 
as we have reason to believe1 resists   
the motion1 of comets1--loaded1 perhaps1
 with the actual materials of the tails 
of millions of those bodies1 of which   
they have been stripped in their        
successive perihelion passages1 and     
which may be slowly subsiding into the  
sun4 ,if these materials have been      
stripped1 it is due to some force2 and  
the same force would scarcely permit    
them to subside into the sun4 ,once     
stripped1 these portions must be borne  
outwards1 by the radial stream1 to the  

outer verge of the system4 ,still1 there
 are1 no doubt1 denser particles of     
matter1 of the average atomic density of
 ,mercury and ,venus1 which can maintain
 their ground against the radial stream1
 and continue to circulate near the     
central plane of the vortex1 in all that
 space between the earth and the sun4   
,but if the zodial light be the denser  
part of that medium1 which astronomers  
now generally recognize as a resisting  
medium1 how happens it that it should be
 confined to the plane of the ecliptic8 
,why should it not be a globular        
atmosphere8 ,here1 again1 our theory    
steps in with a triumphant explanation2 
for while it permits the accumulation of
 such particles around the equatorial   
plane of the sun1 it allows no          
resting-place very far removed from this
 plane4 ,the zodial light1 therefore1 is
 not the resisting medium1 but the      
passage of the radial stream through a  
diffuse nebula of atoms1 brought down   
the poles of the vortex by the polar    

current1 and held in check along the    
central plane by gravitation4  ,if these
 atoms partook of the velocity of the   
ether1 they would not be luminous2 but  
being held back by gravitation1 they are
 opposed to the radial stream1 and hence
 the light4  ,many stars are also       
nebulous4 ,in some cases we see the     
nebulosity edgewise1 or along the       
equatorial planes of the stellar        
vortices2 in others we look down the    
poles1 and the nebulosities are         
circular1 and there is an endless       
variety in the shape and intensity of   
this light4 ,but the universe seems full
 of motion1 and we are not justified in 
supposing1 because a star shows no such 
light1 that it is without rotation4 ,the
 parallax of the nearest star is only   
one second1 the whole lenticular mass of
 light which surrounds our sun would    
therefore only subtend an angle of a    
single second at the nearest fixed star4
 ,seeing its extreme faintness1         
therefore1 the effulgence of the star   

would render it totally invisible1      
provided that it could traverse the vast
 immensity of intervening space1 without
 feeling the influence of that          
extinction1 which ,struve has proved    
does actually diminish the number of    
visible stars4  ,corruscations and      
flickerings have also been noticed in   
the zodial light1 and as usual1 the     
learned have suggested atmospheric      
conditions as the cause1 instead of     
trusting to the evidence of their own   
senses4 ,how prone is philosophy to     
cling to that which is enveloped in the 
mist of uncertainty1 rather than embrace
 the too simple indications of nature4  
,as if ,god had only intended her       
glories to be revealed to a favored few1
 and not to mankind at large4 ,blessed  
will be the day when all will appreciate
 their own powers and privileges1 and no
 longer regard the oracles which emanate
 from a professional priesthood1 whose  
dicta have so often tended to darken the
 simple counsels of truth6 ,to set the  

question of pulsations in the zodial    
light1 as well as in the tails of       
comets1 at rest1 only requires          
previously concerted observations1 in   
places not very widely apart2 for it is 
scarcely possible1 that atmospheric     
conditions should produce simultaneous  
pulsations in two distant places4 ,if   
the pulsations are found to be          
simultaneous1 they are real2 if not     
simultaneous1 they may depend on such   
conditions2 but from the nature of the  
cause1 we should look for them as much  
in the zodial light1 as in the aurora   
borealis1 regarding the different       
intensities4  ,there is also reason to  
suspect that the northern side is always
 the brightest1 both in spring and      
autumn4 ,on the morning of ,october     
#dth1 #ahec1 the light was very vivid   
and well defined1 its northern margin   
grazing ,regulus and terminating at     
,mars1 which was also to the north of   
it4 ,now1 although the northern side was
 the brightest1 the great mass of light 

was to the south of the ecliptic1 as far
 down as the cone shape was preserved2  
but at #aj from the horizon1 a still    
brighter mass protruded from the cone   
towards the north1 which was all north  
of the ecliptic1 and of an irregular    
form1 extending along the horizon4 ,the 
time was #d ,a4,m41 and consequently was
 not due to any crepuscular light4 ,an  
explanation of the general fact of the  
brightest light being always on the     
north side1 is given in the present     
section1 in connection with another     
phenomenon4 ,if1 as some suppose1 the   
light does not reach to the sun1 the    
annulus must at least fill all the space
 between ,venus and the earth1 but it is
 far more in accordance with facts as   
well as with our theory1 to suppose it  
increases in density to the body of the 
sun4  ,observations made at the         
observatory of the ,british             
,association1 detected1 in #ahej1 sudden
 brightenings of the light1 altogether  
different from pulsations4 ,the theory  

would refer these to that fitful        
irregularity in the momentary intensity 
of the radial stream1 which gives the   
flickering and tremulous motion to      
comets' tails4 ,but1 the steady         
variations in the intensity of this     
light must be due to other causes4 ,the 
longitude of the sun will here come in  
as a modifying cause2 for the           
obstruction caused by the body of the   
sun1 when displaced from the axis of the
 vortex1 must necessarily exercise an   
influence on the force and direction of 
the radial stream4 ,a sudden influx of  
cometary matter down the poles of the   
vortex1 in more than usual quantities1  
will also tend to brighten and enlarge  
the zodial light2 and1 in this last     
cause1 we have an explanation not only  
of ancient obscurations of the solar    
light1 but1 also1 of those              
phosphorescent mists1 such as occurred  
in #agdc and #ahca1 rendering moonless  
nights so light that the smallest print 
could be read at midnight4  ,in total   

eclipses of the sun1 the denser portion 
of the zodial light is visible as a     
brilliant corona2 but1 on such          
occasions1 the brightest stars only are 
to be seen1 and1 consequently1 the      
fainter portions of the light must be   
invisible4 ,hind mentions as many as ten
 stars visible in the total eclipse of  
#ahdb4 ,according to the same authority1
 the color of the corona was like       
tarnished silver1 and rays of light     
diverged in every direction1 and        
appeared shining through the light of   
the corona in the total eclipse of      
#ahea4 ,in this year on the day of the  
eclipse 7,july #bhth71 the longitude of 
the sun was about #cdj1 and1 therefore1 
the body of the sun obstructed the      
radial stream as seen from the earth on 
the right side2 but1 in #ahdb1 the      
longitude of the sun was1 according to  
our table1 about #aaf1 the sun's centre 
then being #gjj1jjj miles from the axis 
of the vortex1 and on the opposite side 
with respect to the earth2 the position 

was1 therefore1 not so favorable for the
 appearance of these rays which1 in many
 cases1 have given the appearance of a  
whirling motion to the corona4  ,at this
 date1 ,july #gth1 #ahdb1 the corona1   
according to ,prof4 ,airy1 possibly had 
a somewhat radial appearance1 but not   
sufficiently marked to interfere with   
the general annular structure4 ,mr4     
,baily1 on the contrary1 says1 the      
corona had the appearance of brilliant  
rays2 and1 at ,milan1 long jets of light
 were particularly noticed4 ,there can  
be no doubt but that the passage of the 
radial stream past the outer margin of  
the moon must also give rise to the same
 phenomena as when passing the sun1 and 
in this we have an explanation of the   
fact1 that1 previous to the moment of   
first contact1 an appearance resembling 
a faintly-illuminated limb of the moon1 
has been perceived near the body of the 
sun2 as well as of those flashes of     
light which have been observed in the   
lunar disc as the eclipse advances4 ,one

 important fact1 worthy of note1 is1    
that these luminous streaks are more    
nearly parallel than is due to a        
radiation from the centre4 ,these       
streaks have1 also1 been seen bent at   
right angles at the middle of their     
height1 as a flame is by means of a     
blowpipe1 precisely analogous to        
cometary rays being driven backwards to 
form the tail1 as already described1    
thus indicating a common origin4 ,if the
 moon had an atmosphere1 we should1 no  
doubt1 see a greater display2 but1      
having no rotating vortex to protect her
 from the radial stream1 her atmosphere 
must have been long since stripped off1 
leaving her exposed to the withering    
winter blast of the great stream of the 
solar vortex4 ,in this connection1 we   
may also allude to the appearance of the
 moon when totally eclipsed4 ,instead of
 disappearing at these times1 she       
sometimes shines bright enough to reveal
 her smallest spots4 ,this has been     
generally referred to the refraction of 

the earth's atmosphere bending inwards  
the solar rays4 ,may it not be owing to 
the brilliancy of the solar corona1     
which1 in #ahdb1 was described as so    
intense that the eye was scarcely able  
to support it8 ,this is a far more      
palpable cause for the production of    
this phenomenon1 but of which           
astronomers cannot avail themselves1 as 
long as they are uncertain of the origin
 of this corona4   ,,shooting ,,stars4  
,the continual influx of cosmical matter
 into the heart of the vortex in        
ever-varying quantities1 and speedily   
dispersed along the central plane1      
according to its density1 must          
necessarily give rise to another        
phenomenon to which we have not yet     
alluded4 ,scarcely a night passes       
without exhibiting this phenomena in    
some degree1 and it is generally        
supposed that the hourly average of     
shooting stars is from five to ten1     
taking the whole year round4 ,the matter
 composing these meteors we regard as   

identical with that mass of diffused    
atoms which forms a stratum conforming  
to the central plane of the vortex1 and 
whose partial resistance to the radial  
stream occasions that luminosity which  
we call the zodial light4 ,these atoms  
may coalesce into spherical             
aggregations1 either as elastic gas1 or 
as planetary dust1 and1 passing outward 
on the radial stream1 will occasionally 
become involved in the vortex of our own
 globe2 and being drawn inwards by the  
polar current1 and acted on by the      
earth's gravity1 be impelled with great 
velocity through the rarefied air of the
 upper atmosphere4 ,that meteors are    
more abundant about the time of meridian
 passage of a vortex 7or1 perhaps1 more 
correctly speaking1 from six to twelve  
hours afterwards1 when the current of   
restoration penetrates the atmosphere71 
well accords with the author's          
observations4 ,it is about this time    
that high winds may be looked for1      
according to the theory2 and it has ever

 been a popular opinion1 that these     
meteors are a sign of windy weather4    
,even in ,virgil's time1 the same belief
 prevailed1 as a passage in his         
,georgics would seem to indicate4       
,sape etiam stellas1 vento impendente1  
videbis     ,prcipites clo labi2        
noctisque per umbram     ,flammarum     
longos  tergo albescere tractus2        
,virgil was a close observer of nature1 
and commences a storm with the wind at  
south1 ,quo signo caderent ,austri2 just
 as we have represented the usual course
 when these vortices pass near the      
observer's latitude4 ,it is also a      
well-known fact1 that after a display of
 meteors1 7and we are now speaking of   
ordinary displays1 and not of the great 
showers17 the temperature falls         
considerably4 ,it is not uncommon also1 
that meteors are more abundant during an
 auroral display1 as they ought to be by
 the theory4 ,we must1 however1 exempt  
from this influence those solid meteors 
which sometimes come into collision with

 the earth1 and afterwards grace the    
cabinets of the curious4 ,these bodies  
may be considered microscopic planets1  
moving in stated orbits with planetary  
velocity1 and bear strongly on the      
explosive theory of ,olbers1 as fully   
detailed by ,sir ,david ,brewster4  ,it 
is a very remarkable fact1 first noticed
 by ,olbers1 that no fossil meteoric    
stones have yet been discovered4 ,if    
this fact be coupled with the hypothesis
 advanced by ,olbers1 in reference to   
the origin of the asteroidal group1 we  
should have to date that tremendous     
catastrophe since the deposition of our 
tertiary formations1 and therefore it   
might possibly be subsequent to the     
introduction of the present race into   
the world4 ,may not some of the         
legendary myths of the ancient world as 
mystified by the ,greeks1 have for a    
foundation the disappearance of a former
 great planet from the system8 ,the idea
 of the existence of seven planets is   
one of the oldest records of antiquity2 

but the earth of course would not be    
counted one1 and therefore in after     
times1 the sun was included to make up  
the number2 just as the signs of the    
,zodiac have been explained in          
accordance with the seasons of far later
 times than we can possibly assign for  
the invention of this division of the   
heavens4 ,let those who have the        
leisure1 try how far the contraction and
 dilation of the asteroidal orbits1 to  
some average mean distance1 will restore
 them to a common intersection or node1 
as the point of divergence of the       
different fragments4 ,the question is   
interesting in many of its aspects1 and 
may yet be satisfactorily answered4     
,the composition of arolites may also be
 taken as indications of the common     
origin and elementary texture of the    
planets1 whether they are independently 
formed or have originally pertained to a
 former planet2 for no hypothesis of    
telluric or selenic origin yet advanced1
 can stand against the weight of        

evidence against it4 ,their fragmentary 
character rather favors the views of    
,sir ,david ,brewster1 and when we      
consider that they have been revolving  
for thousands of years with planetary   
velocity1 and in very eccentric orbits1 
through the ether of space1 continually 
scathed by the electric blast of the    
radial stream1 their rounded angles1 and
 black glossy crust of an apparently    
fused envelope1 may be accounted for1   
without difficulty1 from the            
non-vitrified appearance of the         
interior4 ,the composition of arolites  
as far as known1 embrace nearly         
one-third of all known simple substances
 according to ,humboldt1 and are as     
follows3 iron1 nickel1 cobalt1          
manganese1 chromium1 copper1 arsenic1   
zinc1 potash1 soda1 sulphur1 phosphorus1
 and carbon4  ,the theory we have thus  
given of the common occurrence of       
shooting stars1 will render a           
satisfactory general account of their   
sporadic appearance2 but there are other

 phenomena of greater interest1 viz43   
the occasional recurrence of swarms of  
such meteors1 which defy all numerical  
estimates1 being more like a fiery rain 
than anything they can be compared to4  
,the most interesting feature of this   
phenomena1 is the apparent periodicity  
of their return4 ,in the following table
 we have set down the most remarkable   
epochs mentioned by ,humboldt1 7and no  
man has devoted more attention to the   
subject17 as worthy of notice3    ,about
 ,april      #bb to #be        ,july    
#ag to #bf        ,august      #i to #aa
        ,november   #ab to #ad          
,november   #bg to #bi        ,december 
#f to #ab  ,besides these1 he mentions  
two showers1 from ,arabian authority1 in
 ,october2 one in ,october1 observed in 
,bohemia2 one observed by himself1 in   
the ,pacific1 on ,march #ae2 one        
,february #d1 just preceding the        
terrible earthquake of ,riobamba1 in    
#agig4 ,the ,chinese annals also contain
 many showers of stars1 before the      

present era commenced4 ,some were in    
,march1 more in ,july1 and others in    
different months4 ,how1 then1 in view of
 these numerous dates1 can we attach so 
much importance to the periodicity of   
these showers8 ,the great shower of     
#ahcc1 in the ,united ,states1 on the   
#abth and #acth of ,november1 brought to
 mind the great shower at ,cumana1      
observed by ,humboldt and ,bonpland just
 thirty-three years before1 to a day2   
and it must be confessed that more than 
ordinary displays have been seen on this
 date4 ,yet1 on the strength of this1   
every meteoric shower is supposed to be 
periodical1 and has resulted in a theory
 which becomes more complicated as the  
phenomenon is more observed1 and can    
never lead to any useful and practical  
results4 ,to cite the numerous instances
 of discrepant results1 would only      
encumber this brief notice with facts   
neither interesting to the general      
reader1 nor convincing to those who hold
 a contrary opinion4 ,the author of     

these pages has watched for many years1 
and1 in view of all the facts1 has      
concluded that the doctrine of          
periodicity 7as held by present         
meteorologists7 is not tenable4 ,the    
celebrated ,august shower failed1 also1 
this year1 at least in this place1 as   
for four hours each night1 on the #ith1 
#ajth1 and #aath1 there were fewer      
bright meteors than at the close of     
,july4  ,professor ,olmsted1 who has    
paid considerable attention to the      
subject1 has indeed attempted to connect
 the great ,november shower with the    
zodial light1 which last he considers a 
nebulous body1 of an elongated form1    
whose external portions1 at this time of
 the year1 lie across the earth's path4 
7,see ,silliman's ,journal for #ahcg1   
vol4 xxxiii4 ,no4 #b1 p4 #cib47 ,he even
 gives its periods1 7about six months17 
the aphelion of the orbit being near the
 earth's orbit1 and the perihelion      
within ,mercury's4 ,in this way he      
attempts to explain both phenomena2 but 

as the zodial light is seen unchanged   
all the year round in tropical          
latitudes1 it is not the kind of body   
supposed by ,olmsted1 and the theory    
adds nothing to our knowledge4 ,others  
have imagined rings of nebulous matter1 
in which all the separate parts are     
moving in the same orbit around the sun1
 with a retrograde motion1 and this1    
with some modifications1 is the current 
theory of the day4 ,the principal       
arguments rested on1 for the support of 
this view1 are derived from the great   
shower of #ahcc1 in which a common      
radiant point was observed1 and         
confirmed subsequently by the radiant of
 other years1 in the same month of      
,november4 ,as this point is almost     
tangential to the earth's orbit at this 
season1 the earth meets the nebulous    
ring moving in the contrary direction1  
and thus confers on these meteors the   
necessary velocity that is thought to be
 demanded by observation4  ,now1 our    
theory gives a totally different        

explanation of the phenomenon4 ,we      
contend that a retrograde motion of such
 a nebulous mass1 is subversive of our  
whole theory2 and we must be permitted  
to examine certain points1 hitherto     
disregarded by those entertaining       
antagonist views4 ,it is supposed that  
the meteors in #ahcc fell for eight or  
nine hours4 ,the orbital velocity of the
 earth is more than #a1jjj miles per    
minute1 and the orbital velocity of the 
nebulous zone must have had a similar   
velocity4 ,during the nine hours of     
meteoric display1 therefore1 the earth  
traversed #ejj1jjj miles of her orbit1  
which would give #a1jjj1jjj miles for   
the depth of the nebulous stratum4 ,but 
if of such vast extent1 how happened it 
that the only part of the earth in which
 these were visible in great density1   
was the ,united ,states1 or a space     
embraced between the latitudes of #ej   
and #bj north1 and the longitudes #fj   
and #ajj west1 7and these are the widest
 limits17 comprising only #a_/dj of the 

surface of the globe8 ,to a calm        
inquirer1 this difficulty seems         
insurmountable4 ,the author was then in 
the ,mediterranean1 on deck the greatest
 part of the night1--the weather fine1  
and nothing unusual visible in the      
heavens2 from other sources he has also 
derived similar information4 ,yet1 were 
the earth then passing through a stratum
 of meteors #a1jjj1jjj miles in extent1 
it is utterly inconceivable that other  
portions of the earth escaped4 ,much    
stress is also laid on the fact that    
these meteors in #ahcc1 passed from east
 to west generally1 as they ought to do1
 if tangential to the earth in her      
orbit2 but on the same phenomenon       
occurring in #agii1 when the earth was  
in precisely the same part of her orbit1
 ,humboldt says distinctly1 the         
direction 7of the meteors7 was very     
regular from north to south4 ,how could 
this possibly happen1 and at the same   
time be moving tangentially to the      
orbit8  ,there is also another fact of  

importance not duly weighed in forming  
such a theory4 ,in #ahcc the meteors    
evidently differed in velocity2 one     
class1 consisting of luminous points1   
passed like a shower of fire with great 
velocity to the westward1 another class 
were like large fire-balls with luminous
 trains moving with less rapidity1 while
 a third class consisted of nebulous    
patches which remained stationary for a 
long time1 and frequently emitting large
 streams of light4 ,these last1 at      
least1 do not deport themselves as      
planetary bodies moving #b1jjj miles per
 minute4 ,but the fact still remains1   
that unusual displays have occurred     
about the #abth and #adth of ,november2 
and also as a general thing when there  
are no unusual displays1 the meteors are
 more abundant about this time4 ,let us 
try if we can reconcile these facts with
 the theory of vortices4  ,we will first
 confine our remarks to the increased   
number of meteors about ,november #abth 
and #adth4 ,the cosmical matter         

composing the zodial light1 or at least 
the lighter parts of it1 is continually 
driven outwards by the radial stream1   
just as the matter of a comet's tail is 
stripped from the nucleus4 ,this matter 
becomes involved in the terral vortex by
 descending the poles1 and is again     
passed out along the equatorial plane4  
,the form of the zodial light1 as seen  
edgewise1 gives a lenticular form for   
the stratum of planetary particles      
composing it1 and its central plane has 
been considered as coinciding with the  
plane of the sun's equator4 ,at the     
orbit of the earth1 this lenticular     
space is narrowed to a very thin        
stratum1 but undoubtedly reaches beyond 
the earth's orbit with a rapidly        
diminishing density4 ,as the axis of the
 sun is inclined about #g to the        
ecliptic1 and the ascending node is in  
the #bjth degree of ,gemini1 the earth  
can only pass through the plane of the  
sun's equator about the #abth of        
,december and the #abth of ,june4 ,if1  

therefore1 the central plane of the     
vortex coincides with the plane of the  
sun's equator1 meteors ought to be more 
numerous about the dates above          
mentioned4 ,but the observed times are  
on ,november #abth and #acth4 ,now1 from
 actual measurements1 a computation has 
been made by ,m4 ,houzeau1 that the     
elements of the zodial light are        
materially different from those of the  
sun's equator4 ,he fixes the node of the
 light 7according to ,mr4 ,hind7 in #b  
heliocentric longitude1 subject to an   
uncertainty of #ab or #ac1 and its      
inclination to the plane of the         
ecliptic1 #c #ce1 subject to an         
uncertainty of about #b4 ,the truth is1 
astronomers have argued the coincidence 
of the two planes from considerations   
connecting the zodial light with the    
sun's equator1 as if it were a solar    
atmosphere2 but such an atmosphere is   
impossible1 and it is high time such    
measures should be taken as will lead to
 some certain conclusion4 ,if in the    

present state of the question1 we were  
to take the mean1 we should find the    
node in about longitude #dj1 which is   
the position of the earth on ,november  
#b;d4 ,but in the absence of            
measurements1 we will assume1 for the   
sake of argument1 that the ascending    
node of the central plane of the vortex 
was1 in #ahcc1 in #ej heliocentric      
longitude1 and consequently the earth   
was passing through the meteoric stratum
 or central plane of the zodial light1  
on the night of ,november #abth4 ,the   
opposite period of the year is ,may     
#abth--a date1 it is true1 on which no  
great shower of stars is recorded1 but  
sporadic meteors are very plentiful at  
that time1 and what is more important to
 observe is1 that the #aath1 #abth1 and 
#acth of ,may1 are the three noted cold 
days which we have before mentioned4    
,thus truly indicating that the earth is
 then in or near the central plane of   
the vortex along which the radial stream
 is at its maximum of power at any given

 distance from the axis4  ,but the      
question occurs1 does the node of this  
plane remain stationary1 and is there no
 variation of the inclination of the    
axis of the solar vortex8 ,we have found
 from observation1 that the axis of the 
terral vortex is continually oscillating
 about a mean position by the action of 
the moon2 and reasoning from this       
analogy1 and the constant tendency of a 
material vortex to preserve a dynamical 
balance1 the same tendency must obtain  
in the solar vortex under the action of 
the great planets1 whose orbits do not  
coincide with the central plane of the  
vortex4 ,the ascending node of          
,jupiter's orbit is in longitude #ih1   
,saturn's #aab1 ,uranus' #gb1 ,neptune's
 #aca2 so that this plane does not      
correspond with the plane of greatest   
inertia discovered by ,la ,place1 and   
from the non-coincidence of these planes
 with the central plane of the vortex1  
must produce the same oscillation in the
 axis of the solar vortex1 as the moon  

does in the terral vortex1 but to what  
amount1 observation can alone determine4
 ,jupiter and ,saturn will of course    
exert the greatest influence1 and when  
these two planets are in conjunction1   
the ascending node of the central plane 
of the vortex will vary in longitude    
perhaps sufficiently to bring the       
meteoric maximum at the ascending node  
into ,october on the one hand1 and to   
the close of ,november on the other1 and
 at the descending node to ,april #beth 
on the one hand1 and the close of ,may  
on the other4  ,the great showers of    
stars which have been recorded1 must be 
therefore considered as an accidental   
exaggeration of a perennial phenomenon1 
attaining its maximum when the earth    
passes through the central plane of the 
vortex1 whose ascending node in #ahcc we
 will suppose was in longitude #ej4     
,this theory will therefore account for 
those great showers which have occurred 
about the #bdth of ,april1 as well as   
those occurring in ,october and         

,november2 for it is far more consonant 
to all analogy1 to suppose the influx of
 planetary atoms into the solar vortex  
to be in irregular1 than in regular     
quantities4 ,yet1 whether in the one    
case or in the other1 the matter will   
pass along the central plane of the     
vortex1 either diffusely scattered or in
 denser clouds1 and will be encountered 
by the earth when near the nodes more   
frequently than at other times4 ,the    
phenomenon of #ahcc1 may then be        
attributed to the earth encountering an 
unformed comet on the #abth of          
,november2 but we must reflect1 that the
 medium of the vortex is also in motion1
 and the cometary matter drifting along 
with it2 and that this motion           
corresponds with the earth's motion4 ,by
 becoming involved in the terral vortex1
 it will in a measure be carried along  
with the earth in her orbit as a        
temporary occupant of the terral vortex4
 ,but we are here met with the objection
 that the radiant being nearly          

stationary amongst the stars1           
demonstrated conclusively1 that the     
source of these meteors did not partake 
of the earth's motion4 ,there is no     
difficulty in this4 ,we suppose as a    
general thing1 that the meteors         
descended to the surface of our         
atmosphere down the axis of the vortex  
7at least in the greatest numbers71 and 
the geocentric longitude of this axis   
was nearly the same during the whole    
time of the display4 ,we say nearly1 for
 the motion of the moon in her orbit in 
nine hours1 would change the longitude  
of the axis three or four degrees1 and  
this is about the change in the position
 of the radiant noted at the time4 ,this
 objection1 therefore1 falls to the     
ground2 for the axis of the vortex1     
although carried along with the earth in
 her orbit1 was unaffected by the       
earth's rotation1 and would therefore   
appear nearly as stationary in the      
heavens as ,gamma ,leonis4 ,but it is   
again urged1 that the moon was near     

conjunction with the sun1 and           
consequently the central vortex was on  
the opposite side of the globe4 ,this is
 true2 but the outer vortex must have   
been near the meridian about three hours
 after midnight1 or about the time when 
the radiant was vertical and the display
 the greatest4 ,when the axis was to the
 eastward1 the stars would shoot        
westward1 when on the meridian1 they    
would pass in all directions1 but       
principally to the south1 on account of 
the inclination of the axis of the      
vortex2 but this would only be true for 
places situated to the southward of the 
central latitude4 ,during the great     
shower of stars seen by ,humboldt1 in   
,cumana1 the direction was to the south 
uniformly4 ,now1 the latitude of ,cumana
 is above #aj north1 yet still too low  
for the general limits of the vortices2 
but from the same inclination of the    
axis 7from #cj to #cf to the surface71  
the meteors would pass far south of the 
limit1 and might even reach to the      

equator4 ,the latitude of the outer     
vortex ascending on ,november #abth1    
must have been near the line of greatest
 display1 from the position of the moon 
at the time4 ,we thus see why the       
phenomenon was limited to so small a    
fraction of the earth's surface2 why    
these meteors should be intermingled    
with nebulous patches stationary in the 
heavens for an hour together1 and why1  
notwithstanding these facts1 they were  
independent of the earth's rotation4    
,we have yet another objection to       
answer1 viz43 the planetary velocity of 
some of these bodies4 ,let us be        
understood4 ,the velocity of a solid    
arolite is due to gravitation1 and is   
planetary1 on the other hand1 voluminous
 collections of cometary dust united by 
accident1 and remaining so by mere      
inertia1 are borne passively on the     
ethereal currents with electric         
velocity1 and probably never penetrate  
far1 even into the attenuated           
atmosphere1 which may be supposed 7from 

the facts connected with the aurora7 to 
extend far above the denser stratum     
which refracts and reflects light1 and  
from which the assigned limits of our   
atmosphere have been derived4  ,it is   
generally considered that sporadic      
meteors are more numerous in the summer 
and autumn than in the winter and       
spring1 and we have1 likewise1 in the   
tenth of ,august1 a date which          
corresponds to many great displays and  
meteoric showers1 both in recent and    
remote times4 ,this would seem to       
vitiate our theory2 for we cannot       
suppose that there are two central      
planes in the vortex intersecting the   
ecliptic in longitude #cbj and #ej4 ,we 
must remember1 however1 that as these   
great displays are accidental1 and as   
the stratum composing the zodial light  
is manifestly of sufficient thickness to
 envelope the whole orbit of the earth1 
that it does not necessarily follow that
 the dense portions to which meteoric   
showers are due1 should be always       

confined to the central plane of the    
vortex4 ,and1 besides1 we have similar  
displays recorded in other months1 which
 invalidates the theory of a            
regularly-recurring phenomenon4 ,we     
shall1 therefore1 only aim at explaining
 why meteors are generally more abundant
 in summer and autumn than in the       
opposite seasons4  ,the axis of the     
solar vortex1 considered as cylindrical1
 must be admitted to run out to a great 
depth on either side from the sun1 and  
reach far into that unoccupied space    
intervening between our system and the  
nearest fixed stars1 and from these     
opposite points the solar vortex is     
supplied with that stream of ether which
 passes down either pole to restore a   
partial equilibrium in the density of   
the ether of the vortex1 rarefied by    
centrifugal force4 ,as certain portions 
of the heavens are crowded with stars1  
and other parts comparatively vacant1 we
 may expect a similar inequality in the 
distribution of that cometic dust1 which

 causes a certain amount of extinction  
in the light of the stars1 and1         
therefore1 seeing that the two          
extremities of the axis of the solar    
vortex are so widely separated1 it would
 not be wonderful if different          
quantities of such matter were brought  
down into the vortex from these         
extremities4  ,from recent observations 
made by ,h4 ,r4 ,birt1 at the           
observatory of the ,british             
,association1 it would appear that the  
brightest portion of the zodial light is
 always north of the ecliptic4 ,others  
have also remarked the same1 and if we  
couple this fact with the suggestion    
just made1 we are justified in          
suspecting that a greater quantity of   
cometic dust comes down the northern    
pole of the vortex than down the        
southern4 ,this matter1 in passing      
outward1 does not1 of course1           
immediately attain to the central plane 
of the vortex1 but is more thickly      
distributed along a plane parallel to   

this plane4 ,and the same will be       
observed by that matter coming down the 
southern pole2 it will be1 in a certain 
degree1 retained in a plane south of the
 central plane1 but still parallel with 
it4 ,this would account for the greater 
brightness of the northern side of the  
zodial light4 ,it would1 also1 account  
for the greater frequency of meteors in 
summer and autumn than in the opposite  
seasons4 ,from ,may to ,november the    
earth is above the central plane of the 
vortex1 and1 consequently1 on the       
northern side2 but after passing the    
node in ,november1 she is on the under  
or southern side1 and the meteors are   
less frequent4 ,with this general       
explanation we shall close4 ,if what we 
have advanced be an approximation to the
 truth1 the theory itself affords ample 
indications of what observations are    
requisite to prove or disprove it2 and1 
on this account1 a theory is of great   
benefit1 as suggestive of many questions
 and combinations of facts which        

otherwise might never be thought of4    
,we have thus taken a cursory glance at 
the prominent physical phenomena of the 
world1 and attempted to link them       
together in the bonds of one            
all-pervading principle4 ,we have       
fearlessly taken a new path1 and claim  
originality for the whole1 disclaiming  
all intention of retailing second-hand  
wares1 or of compiling an ingenious     
theory from heterogeneous scraps4 ,if it
 be true1 or if it be partially true1   
let those professionally engaged in such
 pursuits enter the wide field of       
investigation we have discovered for    
them2 for if the whole theory be true1  
it only shows in a clearer light that   
the great work which has been fancied so
 near completion is scarcely yet begun2 
while the prospect of an ultimate and   
final completion of the temple which so 
many zealous votaries are erecting1 is  
rendered mournfully hopeless by the     
contemplation of what yet remains to be 
performed4  ,,footnotes3  #db ,the orbit

 this year was determined under very    
unfavorable circumstances4  #dc         
,according to other tables1 this angle  
would be much greater than is given in  
,mr4 ,hind's catalogue4  #dd ,prin4     
,prop4 xx ,lib4 ,sec4  #de ,with        
reference to the resisting power of the 
atoms4  #df ,prin4 ,lib4 ,tor4 ,prop1   
xxxix41 also ,prop1 xli4  #dg ,in making
 this suggestion1 the author is well    
aware that ,ephemerides of the four     
chief asteroids have been given annually
 in the ,greenwich ,nautical ,almanac2  
but for the object proposed they are    
utterly useless4 ,will any astronomer   
contend that these ,ephemerides are true
 to ten seconds of arc8 ,if not1 they   
are useless for the purpose suggested   
above1 and the theory wants revision4   
,and it is evident that any objection   
against its practicability1 founded on  
the uncertainty of the number of the    
asteroids themselves1 as has already    
been urged in answer to this suggestion1
 is an evidence that the objector       

weighed the subject in the scales of his
 imagination only4     ,,section        
,,sixth4   ,,the ,,polar ,,ice4  ,we    
shall conclude these pages by again     
referring to our theory of the weather1 
in connection with an event which every 
friend of humanity and every lover of   
natural science is bound deeply to      
deplore4  ,from the present position of 
the lunar nodes and apogee1 the vortices
 of our earth do not ascend into very   
high latitudes4 ,now1 according to the  
principles laid down1 the frequency of  
storms tends to lower the temperature in
 the warm regions of the earth1 and to  
elevate it in the polar regions4 ,let us
 suppose the northern limit of the      
vortices to be in latitude #gj4 ,there  
will be1 in this case1 a greater        
prevalence of northerly winds within    
this circle of latitude1 to supply the  
drain to the southward1 and the back    
currents by passing above will descend  
at the pole1 partaking of the           
temperature due to that elevation4 ,the 

character of the arctic seasons may     
therefore be considered as partly       
dependent on the average direction of   
the wind4 ,suppose again1 the extreme   
limits of the vortices to be about      
latitude #hj1 the relative areas of the 
two circles are as #d to #a2 so that in 
this last case the exclusive range of   
the northerly winds is limited to       
one-fourth of the first area4 ,south of 
#hj the wind will frequently come from  
the south1 and by mixing with the local 
atmosphere of that latitude1 will tend  
to ameliorate the small area to the     
northward4 ,and the greater atmospheric 
commotion when confined to such a small 
circle of latitude1 must assist         
materially to break up the polar ice2   
which would tend still more to equalize 
the temperature4  ,by referring to our  
table1 we see that the mean conjunction 
of the pole of the lunar orbit and the  
moon's apogee1 was in longitude #abh on 
,april #aj1 #ahdf1 and let it be        
remembered that when the conjunction    

takes place due south or in longitude   
#bgj1 the vortices attain their greatest
 latitude north4 ,when1 on the contrary1
 the conjunction takes place due north  
or in longitude #ij1dh the northern     
limits of the vortices are then in the  
lowest latitude possible4  ,sir ,john   
,franklin sailed in ,may #ahde1 and was 
certainly at the entrance of ,wellington
 sound1 near latitude #ge1 ,april #c;d1 
#ahdf1 as the dates on the graves       
testify4 ,that season1 according to the 
theory1 was a cold one2 for the vortices
 could not reach so far to the northward
 in that year1 and consequently there   
were no storms1 properly speaking4 ,it  
would probably be late in the summer of 
#ahdf1 before the expedition was        
liberated1 and as the prevailing winds  
would be from the northward1 he would   
have little choice1 but to stand to the 
westward if the state of the ice        
permitted4 ,in his instructions he was  
to use every effort to penetrate to the 
southward and westward of ,cape ,walker1

 and he probably conformed to them under
 the circumstances1 and passed the      
winter in the ice1 in that neighborhood4
 ,and in #ahdg we do not anticipate1    
from the theory1 that he would make much
 progress westward4  ,in #ahdh1 ,sir    
,james ,ross was sent out with the first
 relief-ship2 but was not able to reach 
the entrance of ,wellington channel     
because of compact ice from there to    
,leopold ,island4 ,this was about the   
beginning of ,september--a time when the
 northern channels are usually the most 
open4 ,on the #aath1 they ran the ships 
into ,port ,leopold1 and the next day   
the ice shut them in for the winter4    
,from the character of the season1 we   
may infer that if ,franklin did not     
enter ,wellington channel in #ahdg1 as  
is most probable1 neither did he in     
#ahdh4 ,perhaps he was not able to get  
his ships far to the westward1 as we    
infer from the theory4 ,still1 as the   
time was not very protracted1 he would  
wait patiently another season and       

husband his resources4  ,in #ahdi1 ,sir 
,james ,ross cut his ships clear of the 
ice ,august #bhth1 and crossed over to  
,wellington channel1 where he found the 
land-ice still fast1 showing that this  
season was also a bad one in accordance 
with the theory4 ,on the #ast of        
,september he met the first gale of     
wind1 at which time the ,inner ,vortex  
was at its extreme north latitude1 and  
rapidly extending its limits by the     
motion of the perigee4  ,this vortex    
describes a smaller orbit than either   
the central or the outer vortex1 and    
consequently reaches into higher        
latitudes4 ,but the time was badly      
chosen1 as the whole series of years    
since ,franklin left has been           
unfavorable for the early rupture of the
 ice4 ,sir ,james ,ross having been     
drifted out of ,lancaster sound by the  
gale1 finally bore up for ,england      
towards the close of ,september #ahdi4  
,the same year1 the ,north ,star with   
additional supplies was working up      

,baffin's bay2 but on account of the    
unusual quantities of ice1 and the      
frosts which glued the floes together1  
she was unable to force a passage       
through the middle ice1 and wintered on 
the east side of ,baffin's bay1 in      
latitude #gf #cc--;her thermometer      
marking #fd below zero1 as the coldest  
of the winter4 ,in #ahej1 the perigee of
 the moon attained its northern limit1  
but the position of the node was bad2   
still this year and #ahea1 were the best
 of the series4 ,the ,north ,star       
succeeded in getting out of the ice on  
the #ast of ,august--a very early date  
for that high latitude--and on the #hth 
had crossed over to ,possession bay2 but
 being prevented by the land-ice1 she   
bore up for ,pond bay and there landed  
the provisions4 ,the same year 7#ahej7  
several vessels entered ,lancaster      
sound4 ,sir ,john ,ross also reached    
,melville ,island2 from which it is     
evident that this season was far better 
than any preceding4 ,according to       

,captain ,penny1 this year a floe of ice
 at least two years old1 filled         
,wellington strait2 but was diminished  
in breadth at a subsequent visit4 ,he   
also saw a boundless open sea from the  
western entrance of ,wellington strait2 
but of course the ships could not reach 
it1 for the floe before mentioned4      
,following the indications of the       
theory1 we consider it almost certain   
that ,franklin went to the westward and 
not through ,wellington channel2 that he
 made but slow progress until #ahej1    
when finding the sea more open to the   
northward1 and attributing it more to   
local influences than to any change in  
the season1 he considered it a better   
course to extricate the expedition1 by  
pushing on towards ,behring's straits   
than to attempt the frozen channels he  
had already passed through4 ,but the    
seasons again getting worse after #ahej1
 he was again arrested in the polar     
basin by the ice and islands off the    
northern coast of ,america4  ,regarding 

the old and new continents as in reality
 a connected body of land1 with a polar 
depression1 we may expect that the great
 range of ,american mountains is        
continued in a straight line1 from the  
mouth of the ,mc,kenzie river1 obliquely
 across the ,polar sea1 and connects    
with the ,ural2 and that along the axis 
of the chain1 protuberant masses will   
emerge above the sea level1 constituting
 an archipelago of islands1 from ,nova  
,zembla to the ,mc,kenzie2 and that     
these islands1 causing an accumulation  
of ice1 and arresting its general       
tendency to the southward1 is the       
barrier which ,sir ,john ,franklin was  
finally stopped by1 in a situation where
 he could neither advance nor return4   
,with the map before us1 and the data   
afforded by former voyages1 and guided  
by these theoretical views1 respecting  
the prevailing direction of the winds   
and the character of the seasons1 we    
should locate ,sir ,john ,franklin near 
latitude #hj1 and longitude #ade1 in    

#ahea2 and as the seasons would         
afterwards become more severe1 we may   
consider that he has not been since able
 to change his locality1 and dare not   
desert his ships4  ,no mere stranger can
 feel a deeper interest than the author1
 in view of the hard fortunes of these  
hardy explorers1 and he would not       
lightly advance such opinions1 did he   
not suppose they were in some degree    
reliable4 ,in #ahcb1 he himself crossed 
the ,atlantic1 for the purpose of       
offering himself to the ,geographical   
,society of ,london1 intending to be    
landed as far northward as possible1    
with a single companion1#di from which  
point he purposed to follow the coast   
line on foot1 with cautious discretion  
as to seasons1 confident that1 with arms
 and ammunition1 he could support       
himself for many years4 ,it has always  
been a grave error in all these northern
 land expeditions1 that they have been  
too unwieldy1 too much encumbered with  
the comforts and luxuries of            

civilization at the outset1 and too much
 loaded with a philosophical            
paraphernalia1 for a pioneering         
survey1--and cherishing too fondly the  
idea that the wide shores of the ,arctic
 sea could be explored in a single      
season4 ,had the ,british government    
established a few posts in the ,arctic  
regions in the beginning1--one1 for     
instance1 in ,lancaster sound1 another  
in ,behring's ,straits1 and a third near
 the mouth of the ,coppermine1          
volunteers of sufficient scientific     
attainments might have been procured1 to
 banish themselves to these inhospitable
 regions for a term of years1 if assured
 of triennial supplies2 and in this way1
 by summer boat-parties and winter      
expeditions1 over land or ice1 the      
explorations could have been gradually  
extended1 and a greater knowledge of the
 polar regions might have been acquired1
 with an immense saving both of life and
 money4 ,in #ahcb the author's plan was 
deranged1 by finding that ,captain ,back

 was about setting out in quest of      
,ross1 who had then been some four years
 absent4 ,this officer had all his party
 engaged when the author waited upon him
 in ,liverpool1 and no notice was taken 
of a modified plan which he forwarded to
 the ,society at his suggestion4 ,it was
 therefore abandoned4  ,the above fact  
is alluded to1 in order to show the     
author's sincerity in expressing his    
belief that1 with a previous preparation
 of mind and body for a sojourn in those
 frigid climes1 a sufficient subsistence
 may be derived from the country itself4
 ,advantage must1 of course1 be taken of
 the times of abundance1 and due        
preparation made for the season of      
scarcity4 ,averaging the extremes1 there
 is little doubt but that both land1 and
 air1 and water1 afford an abundance of 
food for man in the ,arctic zone1 and   
that1 when spurred by necessity1 it is  
within his power to obtain it4 ,we ought
 not therefore to despond1 or give up   
efforts to rescue those who have well   

earned the sympathy of the world1 by    
what they must have already suffered4   
,these northern seas will yet be        
explored4 ,the very difficulty of       
accomplishing it1 will itself give it a 
charm1 which in this restless age will  
operate with increasing power4 ,and     
should efforts now be relaxed1 and in   
some future time the evidence be brought
 to light that some of the party yet    
existed1 long after all efforts to      
rescue them had been abandoned1 the fact
 would be a dark spot on the escutcheon 
of ,england1 which time could not erase4
  ,since these pages were written1      
accounts have been received from        
,captain ,mc,clure1 of ,h4 ,m4 ship     
,investigator1 which fully confirm the  
preceding remarks on the character of   
the seasons in the ,arctic circle2 and1 
more recently1 despatches have been     
received from the discovery-ship1       
,amphytrite1 in relation to the past    
season in ,behring's straits1 which also
 confirms the theory4  ,the             

,investigator 7now supposed to be frozen
 up in lat4 #gd #e ,n41 and long #aag   
#ed ,w41--the last despatch being dated 
,april #aj1 #ahec7 passed round the     
northern shores of ,america into the    
channels communicating with ,lancaster  
sound1 in #ahej1 but was unable to      
extricate herself in #aheb1 and1        
probably1 yet remains in the harbor she 
made in the winter of #ahea1 in the     
position above named4 ,no trace of ,sir 
,john ,franklin's expedition was1       
however1 found1 and1 indeed1 according  
to our theory1 the ,investigator was not
 on the most promising ground4 ,we      
contend that ,franklin has penetrated   
the pack of apparently perennial ice1   
which is continually pressing to the    
southward1 and blocking up the passages 
between the northern islands1 or        
skirting the coast line of the          
continent2 which pack has since         
increased1 and effectually stopped all  
egress from the open central portions of
 the polar sea4 ,if ,sir ,john ,franklin

 is ever heard from1 this pack must be  
penetrated1 and a powerful steamer ought
 to be sent immediately by the ,british 
government1 to be ready in ,behring's   
straits early enough to take advantage  
of the first openings1 and make a bold  
push due north1 so as to get as speedily
 as possible into the open waters to the
 north of the pack4  ,if the author     
could make himself heard at ,washington1
 he would also urge the government to   
lose no time in following our own       
expedition under ,dr4 ,kane1 who1 if he 
finds a clear entrance from ,smith's    
sound into the ,arctic sea1 may be      
induced to push on1 and endeavor to make
 his way through the pack towards       
,behring's straits1 and thus fall into  
the same snare as ,franklin4 ,according 
to the theory1 the higher the passage   
into the ,arctic sea1 the less will it  
be incumbered with ice1 and1            
consequently1 ,smith's sound is the best
 both to enter and return by2 and had   
the author not already smarted enough by

 having his professions derided1 he     
would have submitted these views to the 
patrons of that expedition before it    
sailed4  ,the scientific world is1 in   
reality1 chargeable with the disastrous 
results of ,franklin's expedition4 ,the 
polar basin is hemmed in by the coast   
line of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america1 in
 about latitude #gj north1 for the      
greatest part of the entire             
circumference4 ,and this coast line1 and
 the islands adjacent1 will cause the   
polar ice to accumulate and form a      
frozen belt along these shores1 in      
consequence of the constant tendency of 
the earth's rotation to press the ice to
 the southward4 ,the fact that an open  
passage exists between this belt and the
 shore in summer time1 is no objection1 
as the tides1 river currents1 and warm  
land breezes1 may very well explain     
this4 ,the learned have insisted1 and do
 yet insist1 that the earth's rotation  
can produce no motions in the ,arctic   
sea1 and1 under this delusion1 ,franklin

 has passed into the comparatively open 
waters inside the pack1 perhaps has lost
 his ships2 yet it is very possible that
 the party may have escaped1 and derived
 a subsistence from the more genial     
waters of the central portion of that   
ocean unto this day4  ,we have already  
alluded to the difference of level      
between the ,atlantic and ,pacific      
waters4 ,it is well known that the      
currents in the ,spitzbergen and        
,greenland seas is to the southward1 and
 that ,parry1 in his attempt to reach   
the pole1 was foiled by this very       
current1 frequently setting him back in 
twenty-four hours more than his party   
could travel in the same time over the  
ice4 ,through ,baffin's and ,hudson's   
bay the northern waters are also        
continually bearing their frozen freight
 southward4 ,we are1 therefore1 entitled
 to ask1 what supplies this immense     
drain8 ,behring's straits are only about
 sixty miles wide1 and twenty-five      
fathoms deep2 the supply1 therefore1    

through this channel is totally         
inadequate1 yet there is no other       
channel into the ,arctic sea where the  
current is inward4 ,we have already     
explained the reason why the current    
through ,behring's straits is an        
exception to the general rule1 yet still
 confirming the principle by referring  
it to the configuration of the land     
enclosing the ,pacific ocean4 ,the whole
 south ,pacific lies open to the pole1  
and the inertia of the immense mass of  
mobile waters pressing northward1 and   
continually contracted by the form of   
the ,american and ,asiatic coasts1 is   
not balanced by a contrary impulse of   
the waters of the north ,pacific1       
inasmuch as this ocean becomes narrower 
as it extends northward1 and the only   
passage to the frozen ocean is through  
the narrow straits of ,behring4 ,the    
axifugal force of rotation due to the   
northern waters is1 therefore1 overborne
 by the vast preponderance due to the   
southern waters1 and1 hence1 the        

northern ,pacific may be considered as  
relatively at a higher level1 and there 
will be a current northward through     
,behring's straits1 as we find it4 ,the 
same cause accumulates the waters under 
the equator1 thus giving a higher level 
to the ,pacific than to the ,atlantic at
 the isthmus of ,panama1 where the      
difference of level is found by actual  
measurement to be five or six feet4     
,this fact has never before been        
explained2 but the cause is too obvious 
to admit of question4  ,that the sea is 
deeper than was formerly admitted1 is   
now fully confirmed4 ,we have before    
alluded to the results obtained by      
,captain ,denham1 of ,h4 ,m4 ship       
,herald1 who found bottom at #g1gjf     
fathoms1 or about nine ,english miles4  
,now1 whether that spherical shell1     
which we have contended to be the true  
form of the solid earth1 be continuous  
and entire2 or1 whether it may not be   
wanting in localities of limited extent 
where the ocean would be absolutely     

unfathomable1 we know not2 but if such  
be the internal constitution of our     
globe1 there will be1 no doubt1 many    
channels of communication between the   
internal and external ocean1 and1 as a  
consequence of the earth's rotation1 the
 axifugal current of the ,arctic sea may
 be supplied by an upward current from  
the interior of the globe2 and this     
current may have a higher temperature   
than the surface waters of that sea1 and
 thus the middle portions may1 in truth1
 remain open the whole year round1 and  
be teeming with animal life4 ,according 
to ,captain ,penny's observations in    
#ahej1 whales and other northern animals
 existed to the westward1 where he saw  
the open sea stretch out without a bound
 before him4  ,it has been a question   
mooted by some1 that ,franklin's ships  
might be overtaken1 at an early stage of
 the voyage1 by a storm1 and foundered  
amidst the ice4 ,the theory would give a
 negative answer to this question4      
,stiff gales may prevail far to the     

north when the vortices do not reach so 
high2 but no storm1 properly speaking1  
will be found far beyond their northern 
limit4 ,after the coming winter 7#ahec71
 the vortices will gradually penetrate  
farther and farther to the northward1   
and the years #aheg1 #aheh1 and #ahei1  
will be highly favorable for northern   
discovery1 accompanied1 however1 with   
the necessary draw-back of tempestuous  
weather4   ,,footnotes3  #dh ,the reader
 will of course understand these as     
celestial longitudes1 and the latitudes 
as terrestrial4  #di ,mr4 ,william      
,mc,donald1 of ,canada4                 
,,conclusion4   ,our theory has thus    
extended itself beyond those limits     
which we at first had drawn1 and our    
apology must consist in the necessity   
existing for reconciling the most       
remarkable phenomena of meteorology to  
its principles4 ,yet1 after all1 what   
has been said is but an outline of what 
remains1 but this outline is a part of  
our theory of the weather1 and it could 

not well do without its aid4 ,in some   
points we may not have correctly        
interpreted facts2 but the facts remain4
 ,the numerical elements of the theory  
may also be in error--we know not2 but  
we think that they are as perfect as the
 many contingencies on which they depend
 will permit4 ,what is certain however1 
is of ample value to compensate for     
trivial errors4 ,we have hitherto       
experienced but little courtesy from    
those intrusted with the keys of        
knowledge1 and cannot consequently      
anticipate a very lenient verdict4 ,but 
we now tell them before the world1 that 
they have a duty to perform1 and an     
examination to make1 and a decision to  
come to1 whether these things are so4   
,our theory may be called an ingenious  
speculation1 but ,,we ,,challenge ,,the 
,,scientific ,,to ,,prove               
,,it--,,nothing ,,else4 ,the theory     
furnishes them with tests of daily      
occurrence1 to prove or to disprove it4 
,by such a trial we are willing to be   

judged2 but let it be conducted in the  
spirit recommended in the opening       
address before the ,american            
,association for the ,advancement of    
,science1 to expose all false           
developments1 and to do it generously   
and without prejudice2 and to remember1 
that the temple of science belongs to no
 country or clime4 ,it is the world's   
temple1 and all men are free of its     
communion4 ,let its beauty not be marred
 by writing names upon its walls4#ej    
,the great objection1 of friction and   
resistance of an all-pervading medium1  
which will be urged against it1 we      
regard as rather the offspring of a     
bewildered imagination1 than of         
scientific induction4 ,we can discover  
no such consequences as final ruin to   
our system through its agency2 but even 
if such were discovered1 we may answer1 
that nature nowhere tells us that her   
arrangements are eternal2 but rather1   
that decay is stamped with the seal of  
the ,almighty on every created thing4   

,change may be one of the great laws of 
matter and motion1 and yet matter and   
motion be indestructible4 ,the earth was
 called into existence for a specific   
object1 and when that object is         
accomplished1 we are assured that       
another change awaits her4 ,but when    
earth1 and sun1 and planets1 are again  
redissolved into their primitive state1 
their atoms will still float on the     
ever-rolling billows of the great       
ethereal ocean1 to be again cast up1 on 
the shore of time1 whenever it pleaseth 
,him to say1 ,let there be light4       
,,footnotes3  #ej ,prof4 ,pierce's      
,address1 #ahec4     ,,appendix4        
,since the author's arrival in ,new     
,york for the purpose of publishing his 
outlines1 the third and fourth volume of
 the ,cosmos has been placed in his     
hands1 containing the latest            
uranological discoveries and            
speculations4 ,it is now more than      
twenty years since he began to          
investigate the subject he has treated  

of1 and fifteen since he first announced
 to the world1 that he had satisfactory 
evidence of his theory being true4      
,luckily1 perhaps1 he has been cut off  
from the great streams of knowledge2 and
 he may confess that it was with        
pardonable feelings of gratification    
that he discovered in #ahec1 by the     
acquisition of the two first volumes of 
the ,cosmos1 that the philosophic mind  
of ,humboldt had also pondered deeply on
 the planetary peculiarities of size1   
density1 distance1 inclination of axes  
and eccentricities of orbits1 without   
eliciting any satisfactory relations4   
,from the tenor of the third and fourth 
volume of this learned summary of       
scientific knowledge1 it is evident that
 the question of a medium filling space 
is more and more occupying the learned  
world2 but the author is unable to      
discover any consistent theory          
respecting it4 ,the increasing interest 
attaching to it1 however1 is evidently  
preparing the world for some radical    

change in preconceived views4 ,the      
explanation given by this present theory
 to many prominent phenomena1 is so     
totally contrary to that of the learned 
world1 as to leave it untouched by      
anything yet advanced4 ,what the fifth  
volume of the ,cosmos will contain1 is  
not yet known in this country1 neither  
has the author been favored with any    
glimpse of the progress of science as   
developed before the ,british           
,association2 he supposes1 however1 that
 he yet stands alone in the position he 
has defined4  ,as a question of         
practical importance1 the reader will   
find in the work cited1 the various     
opinions of the temperature of space4   
,both ,fourier and ,poisson regard this 
as the result of radiated heat from the 
sun and all the stars1 minus the        
quantity lost by absorption in          
traversing the regions of space filled  
with ether4#ea ,but why should we regard
 the stars as the source of all motions8
 ,why cannot physicists admit the idea  

of an infinite space filled 7if we may  
use the expression7 with an infinite    
medium1 possessing an unchangeable mean 
temperature long before the formation of
 a single star4 ,a star equal to our sun
 at the distance of ,sirius1 would give 
about one million of million times less 
heat than our present sun1 which is only
 able to give an average temperature to 
the whole globe--about twenty degrees   
above freezing--then let us remember    
that there are only about fifty stars of
 the first and second magnitude1 which  
give more light 7and by analogy heat    
also7 than all the rest of the stars    
visible4 ,such labored theories as this 
of ,poisson's is a lamentable instance  
of the aberrations of human wisdom4  ,we
 would also call the reader's attention 
to a late conclusion of ,professor      
,dove1 viz43 ,that differences of       
temperature in different longitudes     
frequently exist on the same parallel of
 latitude1 or1 in other words1 are      
laterally disposed4 ,this may be thought

 adverse to the theory1 but it should be
 borne in mind that the annual mean     
temperature of the whole parallel of    
latitude should be taken when comparing 
the temperatures of different years4    
,another fact cited in the ,cosmos      
apparently adverse to the theory1 is the
 idea entertained by ,sir ,john         
,herschel1 that the full-moon dissipates
 the clouds4 ,this question has been    
fully examined by ,professor ,loomis    
before the ,american ,association1 and  
he concludes that there is not the      
slightest foundation for the            
assertion--taking as data the ,greenwich
 observations themselves4   ,,footnotes3
  #ea ,see ,cosmos1 p4 #da1 vol4 ,,iii4