,physiology & ,hygi5e = ,second>y ,s*ools by ,francis ,m4 ,walt]s1 ,a4,m4 ,edition #a1 7,novemb] #ae1 #bjje7 ,d4,c4 ,hea? & ,co4 - ,publi%]s ,orig9al copyright #aiji ,x is q possible to give in/ruction 9 ?is subject 9 su* a mann] z n only to conf] k :i* is useful 9 itself1 b to s]ve ! purpose ( a tra9+ 9 accurate obs]vation1 & 9 ! me?ods ( reason+ ( physical sci5ce4--,huxley4 ,,preface ,! aim 9 ! prep>ation ( ?is treatise on ! human body has be51 fir/1 to set =? 9 a tea*able mann] ! actual sci5ce ( physiology2 & second1 to pres5t ! facts ( hygi5e l>gely z appli$ physiology4 ,! view is held t "r liv+ consi/s 9 ! h>moni\s adju/m5t ( "o's habits to ! nature & plan ( ! body1 & t ! be/ prep>ation = su* liv+ is a correct und]/&+ ( ! physical self4 ,x is fur!r held t ! emphasiz+ ( physiology augm5ts 9 no small degree ! educative value ( ! subject1 great] opportunity be+ ?us af=d$ = ex]cise ( ! reason+ p[]s & = drill 9 ! modus op]&i ( natural =ces4 ,9 ! /udy ( physiology ! facts ( anatomy h a place1 b 9 an elem5t>y c\rse ^! %\ld be re/rict$ to su* z are necess>y = reveal+ ! g5]al /ructure ( ! body4 ,al?\gh no ef=t has be5 sp>$ to br+ ?is "w )9 ! compreh5sion ( ! pupil1 its success 9 ! classroom w dep5d l>gely ^u ! me?od ( h&l+ ! subject by ! tea*]4 ,x is recomm5d$1 !re=e1 t ! relations :i* ! diff]5t organs & processes su/a9 to ea* o!r1 & to ! body z a :ole1 be giv5 special prom95ce4 ,! pupil %\ld be impress$ ) ! ess5tial unity ( ! body & %\ld see 9 ! div]sity ( its activities ! s]v+ ( a common purpose4 ,9 creat+ su* an impression ! introductory p>agraphs at ! beg9n+ ( _m ( ! *apt]s & ! summ>ies ?r\gh\t ! book1 z well z ! g5]al arrangem5t ( ! subject-matt]1 w be f\nd helpful4 ,s9ce ! cu/om l>gely prevails ( tea*+ physiology 9 advance ( ! sci5ces ^u :i* x re/s--biology1 physics1 & *emi/ry--c>e %\ld be ex]cis$ to develop correct ideas ( ! pr9ciples & processes d]iv$ f ^! sci5ces4 ,too mu* latitude has be5 tak5 9 ! pa/ 9 ! use ( comp>isons & illu/rations drawn f ev]yday life4 ,to tea* t ! body is a h\se1 ma*9e1 or city2 t ! n]ves c>ry messages2 t ! purpose ( oxyg5 is to burn up wa/e2 t brea?+ is to purify ! blood1 etc41 may give ! pupil phrases :i* he c readily repeat1 b tea*+ ( ?is k9d does n give him correct ideas ( 8 body4 ,! me?od ( tea*+1 h[ev]1 t uses ! pupil's exp]i5ce z a basis ^u :i* to build has a value n to be ov]look$4 ,! fact t su* expressions z ^? quot$ above are s easily rememb]$ proves ! value ( connect+ new k ) ! pupil's exp]i5ce4 ,b ! inadequacy ( ?is exp]i5ce mu/ be recogniz$ & tak5 into acc\nt4 ,! concepts ( ! av]age pupil are entirely too indef9ite & limit$ to supply ! necess>y f\ndation = a sci5ce su* z physiology4 ,h]e9 lies ! great value ( exp]im5ts & obs]vations4 ,!y supplem5t ! pupil's exp]i5ce1 & increase bo? ! numb] & def9it5ess ( 8 concepts4 ,no degree ( success c be atta9$ if ?is phase ( ! /udy is omitt$4 ,! be/ results 9 physiology tea*+ are ( c\rse atta9$ :]e laboratory "w is c>ri$ on by ! pupils1 b :]e ?is _c be arrang$1 class exp]im5ts & obs]vations mu/ suffice4 ,! ,practical ,"w describ$ at ! close ( mo/ ( ! *apt]s is ma9ly = class purposes4 ,:ile ^! s]ve a necess>y "p 9 ! developm5t ( ! subject1 x is n ess5tial t all ( ! exp]im5ts & obs]vations be made1 ! int5tion be+ to provide = "s *oice on ! "p ( ! tea*]4 ,a note-book %\ld be kept by ! pupil4 ,to adapt ! book to z wide a range ( usefulness z possible1 m subject-matt] is introduc$ ?an is usually includ$ 9 an elem5t>y c\rse4 ,su* portions1 h[ev]1 z are uness5tial to a prop] und]/&+ ( ! body by ! pupil are set 9 small type1 to be us$ at ! discretion ( ! tea*]4 ,! use ( books ( ref]5ce is e>ne/ly recomm5d$4 ,= ?is purpose ! usual high s*ool texts may be employ$ to good advantage4 ,a few m advanc$ works %\ld1 h[ev]1 be frequ5tly consult$4 ,= ?is purpose ,m>t9's ,human ,body 7,advanc$ ,c\rse71 ,rettg]'s ,advanc$ ,lessons 9 ,physiology1 ,?ornton's ,human ,physiology1 ,huxley's ,lessons 9 ,elem5t>y ,physiology1 ,h[ell's ,a ,text-book ( ,physiology1 ,h\gh & ,s$gwick's ,hygi5e & ,sanitation1 & ,pyle's ,p]sonal ,hygi5e w be f\nd s]viceable4 ,9 ! prep>ation ( ?is "w valuable assi/ance has be5 r5d]$ by ,dr4 ,c4,n4 ,mc,allister1 ,dep>tm5t ( ,psy*ology1 & by ,pr(essor ,b4,m4 ,/igall1 ,dep>tm5t ( ,biology1 along ! l9es ( _! respective specialties1 & 9 a m g5]al way by ,presid5t ,w4,j4 ,hawk9s & o!rs ( ! ,w>r5sburg1 ,miss\ri1 ,/ate ,normal ,s*ool4 ,exp]t advice f ,pr(essor ,s4,d4 ,mag]s1 ,in/ructor 9 ,physiology & ,bact]iology1 ,/ate ,normal ,s*ool1 ,ypsilanti1 ,mi*igan1 has be5 especially helpful1 & _m practical sugge/ions f ! high s*ool tea*]s ( physiology ( ,kansas ,city1 ,miss\ri1 ,pr(essor ,c4,h4 ,n[l91 ,c5tral ,high ,s*ool1 ,dr4 ,john ,w4 ,scott1 ,we/port ,high ,s*ool1 & ,pr(essor ,a4,e4 ,%irl+1 ,manual ,tra9+ ,high ,s*ool1 all ( :om read bo? manuscript & pro(s1 h be5 incorporat$4 ,consid]able mat]ial = ! ,practical ,"w1 includ+ ! respiration exp]im5t 7page #aja7 & ! reaction "t exp]im5t 7page #cbc71 7 contribut$ by ,dr4 ,scott4 ,pr(essor ,n[l9's sugge/ions on subject-matt] & me?ods ( pres5tation des]ve special m5tion4 ,to ^! & _m o!rs ! au?or makes grateful ackn[l$gm5t4 ,f4,m4,w4 ,,miss\ri ,,/ate ,,normal ,,s*ool1 ,,second ,,di/rict1 ,may #a1 #aiji4 ,,cont5ts ,preface ,cont5ts ,,"p ,i3 ,,! ,,vital ,,processes ,,*apt] ,i - ,,introduction ,,*apt] ,,ii - ,,g5]al ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,body ,,*apt] ,,iii - ,,! ,,body ,,organization ,,*apt] ,,iv - ,,! ,,blood ,,*apt] ,v - ,,! ,,circulation ,,*apt] ,,vi - ,,! ,,lymph ,,& ,,its ,,movem5t ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,body ,,*apt] ,,vii - ,,respiration ,,*apt] ,,viii - ,,passage ,,( ,,oxyg5 ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,body ,,*apt] ,,ix - ,,foods ,,& ,,! ,,!ory ,,( ,,dige/ion ,,*apt] ,x - ,,organs ,,& ,,processes ,,( ,,dige/ion ,,*apt] ,,xi - ,,absorption1 ,,/orage1 ,,& ,,assimilation ,,*apt] ,,xii - ,,en]gy ,,supply ,,( ,,! ,,body ,,*apt] ,,xiii - ,,gl&s ,,& ,,! ,,"w ,,( ,,excretion ,,"p ,,ii3 ,,motion1 ,,coord9ation1 ,,& ,,s5sation ,,*apt] ,,xiv - ,,! ,,skeleton ,,*apt] ,,xv - ,,! ,,muscul> ,,sy/em ,,*apt] ,,xvi - ,,! ,,sk9 ,,*apt] ,,xvii - ,,/ructure ,,( ,,! ,,n]v\s ,,sy/em ,,*apt] ,,xviii - ,,physiology ,,( ,,! ,,n]v\s ,,sy/em ,,*apt] ,,xix - ,,hygi5e ,,( ,,! ,,n]v\s ,,sy/em ,,*apt] ,,xx - ,,production ,,( ,,s5sations ,,*apt] ,,xxi - ,,! ,,l>ynx ,,& ,,! ,,e> ,,*apt] ,,xxii - ,,! ,,eye ,,*apt] ,,xxiii - ,,! ,,g5]al ,,problem ,,( ,,keep+ ,,well ,,app5dix ,,index ,,physiology ,,& ,,hygi5e ,,"p ,i3 ,,! ,,vital ,,processes ,,*apt] ,i - ,,introduction ,to d]ive /r5g? equal to ! daily task2 to exp]i5ce ! advantages ( heal? & avoid ! pa91 inconv5i5ce1 & dang] ( disease2 to live out cont5t$ly & usefully ! natural span ( life3 ^! are problems t conc]n all p4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 b diff]5t phases ( "o great problem--! problem ( prop]ly manag+ or c>+ = ! body4 ,to supply k necess>y to ! solution ( ?is problem is ! *ief reason :y ! body is /udi$ 9 our public s*ools4 99,divisions ( ! ,subject499--,! body is /udi$ f ?ree /&po9ts3 /ructure1 use ( p>ts1 & c>e or managem5t4 ,?is causes ! ma9 subject to be consid]$ "u ?ree heads1 kn[n z anatomy1 physiology1 & hygi5e4 ,anatomy treats ( ! con/ruction ( ! body--! p>ts :i* compose x1 :at !y are l1 & :]e locat$4 ,its ma9 divisions are kn[n z gross anatomy & hi/ology4 ,gross anatomy treats ( ! l>g] /ructures ( ! body1 :ile hi/ology treats ( ! m9ute /ructures ( :i* ^! are compos$--p>ts too small to be se5 ) ! nak$ eye & :i* h to be /udi$ ) ! aid ( ! microscope4 ,physiology treats ( ! function1 or use1 ( ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! body--! "w :i* ! p>ts d & h[ !y d x--& ( _! relations to "o ano!r & to ! body z a :ole4 ,hygi5e treats ( ! prop] c>e or managem5t ( ! body4 ,9 a some:at n>r[] s5se x treats ( ! laws ( heal?4 ,hygi5e is said to be p]sonal1 :5 appli$ by ! individual to 8 own body2 dome/ic1 :5 appli$ to a small gr\p ( p1 z ! family2 & public1 or g5]al1 :5 appli$ to ! community z a :ole or to ! race4 99,! ,g5]al ,aim ( ,hygi5e499--,!re are _m s-call$ laws ( heal?1 & = ^! laws x is ess5tial 9 ! managem5t ( ! body to f9d a common basis4 ,?is basic law1 sugge/$ by ! nature ( ! body & conditions t affect its well-be+1 may be t]m$ ! ,law ( ,h>mony3 ,! mode ( liv+ mu/ h>monize ) ! plan ( ! body4 ,to live prop]ly "o mu/ supply ! conditions :i* 8 body1 on acc\nt ( its nature & plan1 requires4 ,on ! o!r h&1 he mu/ avoid ^? ?+s & conditions :i* are injuri\s1 i4e41 out ( h>mony ) ! body plan4 ,to secure ^! results1 x is necess>y to det]m9e :at is & :at is n 9 h>mony ) ! plan ( ! body1 & to f9d ! means ( apply+ ?is k to ! ev]yday problems ( liv+4 ,su* is ! g5]al aim ( hygi5e4 ,/at$ 9 o!r words3 ,hygi5e has = its g5]al aim ! br++ ab\t ( an ess5tial h>mony betwe5 ! body & ! ?+s & conditions t affect x47#a7 99,relation ( ,anatomy & ,physiology to ! ,/udy ( ,hygi5e499--,if ! *ief object 9 /udy+ ! body is t ( le>n+ h[ to manage or c>e = x1 & hygi5e supplies ?is in=mation1 :y mu/ we also /udy anatomy & physiology8 ,! answ] to ?is "q has already be5 9 "p sugge/$4 ,9 ord] to det]m9e :at ?+s & conditions are 9 h>mony ) ! plan ( ! body1 we mu/ "k :at t plan is4 ,?is k is obta9$ ?r\gh a /udy ( anatomy & physiology4 ,! k ga9$ ?r\gh ^! subjects also r5d]s ! /udy ( hygi5e m int]e/+ & valuable4 ,"o is enabl$ to see :y & h[ ob$i5ce to hygi5ic laws b5efits1 & disob$i5ce to !m injures1 ! body4 ,?is causes ! tea*+s ( hygi5e to be tak5 m s]i\sly & r5d]s !m m practical4 ,9 %ort1 anatomy & physiology supply a necess>y basis = ! /udy ( hygi5e4 99,advantages ( ,prop]ly ,manag+ ! ,body499--,"o result foll[+ ! mismanagem5t ( ! body is loss ( heal?4 ,b att5d+ ! loss ( heal? are o!r results :i* are equally s]i\s & f>-rea*+4 ,)\t good heal?1 p fail to accompli% _! aims & ambitions 9 life2 !y miss ! joy ( liv+2 !y lose _! ability to "w & become burd5s on _! fri5ds or society4 ,! prop] managem5t ( ! body means heal?1 & x also means ! capacity = "w & = enjoym5t4 ,n only %\ld "o seek to pres]ve 8 heal? f day to day1 b he %\ld s manage 8 body z to use 8 p[]s to ! be/ advantage & prolong z f> z possible ! p]iod dur+ :i* he may be a capable & useful citiz54 ,,*apt] ,,ii - ,,g5]al ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,body 99,ext]nal ,divisions499--,exam9$ f ! outside1 ! body pres5ts c]ta9 p>ts1 or divisions1 famili> to all4 ,! ma91 or c5tral1 portion is kn[n z ! trunk1 & to ?is are atta*$ ! head1 ! upp] extremities1 & ! l[] extremities4 ,^! 9 turn pres5t small] divisions :i* are also famili>4 ,! upp] "p ( ! trunk is kn[n z ! ?orax1 or *e/1 & ! l[] "p z ! abdom54 ,! portions ( ! trunk to :i* ! arms are atta*$ are ! %\ld]s1 & ^? to :i* ! legs are jo9$ are ! hips1 :ile ! c5tral re> portion betwe5 ! neck & ! hips is ! back4 ,! f+]s1 ! h&1 ! wri/1 ! =e>m1 ! elb[1 & ! upp] arm are ! ma9 divisions ( ea* ( ! upp] extremities4 ,! toes1 ! foot1 ! ankle1 ! l[] leg1 ! knee1 & ! ?igh are ! *ief divisions ( ea* ( ! l[] extremities4 ,! head1 :i* is jo9$ to ! trunk by ! neck1 has su* int]e/+ p>ts z ! eyes1 ! e>s1 ! nose1 ! jaws1 ! *eeks1 & ! m\?4 ,! entire body is inclos$ 9 a d\ble cov]+1 call$ ! sk91 :i* protects x 9 v>i\s ways4 99,! ,tissues499--,aft] exam9+ ! ext]nal features ( ! body1 we naturally inquire ab\t its int]nal /ructures4 ,^! are n s easily inve/igat$1 & mu* :i* is ( int]e/ to advanc$ /ud5ts mu/ be omitt$ f an elem5t>y c\rse4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 z a fir/ /ep 9 ?is /udy1 det]m9e :at k9ds ( mat]ials ent] into ! con/ruction ( ! body4 ,= ?is purpose ! body ( "s small animal %\ld be dissect$ & /udi$4 7,see obs]vation at close ( *apt]47 ,! diff]5t mat]ials f\nd by su* a dissection correspond closely to ! sub/ances1 call$ tissues1 :i* make up ! human body4 ,! ma9 tissues ( ! body1 z ord9>ily nam$1 are ! muscul> tissue1 ! osse\s tissue1 ! connective tissue1 ! n]v\s tissue1 ! adipose tissue1 ! c>tilag9\s tissue1 & ! epi!lial & gl&ul> tissue4 ,mo/ ( ^! pres5t diff]5t v>ieties1 mak+ all toge!r "s fifte5 diff]5t k9ds ( tissues t ent] into ! con/ruction ( ! body47#b7 99,g5]al ,purposes ( ! ,tissues499--,! tissues1 fir/ ( all1 =m ! body4 ,z a h\se is con/ruct$ ( wood1 /one1 pla/]1 iron1 & o!r build+ mat]ials1 s is ! body made up ( its v>i\s tissues4 ,= ?is reason ! tissues h be5 call$ ! build+ mat]ials ( ! body4 ,9 addition to =m+ ! body1 ! tissues supply ! means ?r\gh :i* its "w is c>ri$ on4 ,!y are ?us ! work+ mat]ials ( ! body4 ,9 s]v+ ?is purpose ! tissues play an active rle4 ,all ( !m mu/ p]=m ! activities ( gr[? & repair1 & c]ta9 ones 7! s-call$ active tissues7 mu/ d "w :i* b5efits ! body z a :ole4 99,purposes ( ! ,diff]5t ,tissues499--,9 ! con/ruction ( ! body & also 9 ! "w :i* x c>ries on1 ! diff]5t tissues are made to s]ve diff]5t purposes4 ,! osse\s tissue is ! *ief sub/ance 9 ! bony framework1 or skeleton1 :ile ! muscul> tissue produces ! diff]5t movem5ts ( ! body4 ,! connective tissue1 :i* is ev]y:]e abundant1 s]ves ! g5]al purpose ( connect+ ! diff]5t p>ts toge!r4 ,c>tilag9\s tissue =ms smoo? cov]+s ov] ! ends ( ! bones &1 9 addition to ?is1 supplies ! necess>y /iffness 9 organs l ! l>ynx & ! e>4 ,! n]v\s tissue controls ! body & br+s x into prop] relations ) its surr\nd+s1 :ile ! epi!lial tissue 7f\nd ^u ! body surfaces & 9 ! gl&s7 supplies x ) protective cov]+s & secretes liquids4 ,! adipose tissue 7fat7 prev5ts ! too rapid escape ( heat f ! body1 supplies x ) n\ri%m5t 9 "t ( ne$1 & =ms s(t pads = delicate organs l ! eyeball4 99,prop]ties ( ! ,tissues499--,if we inquire h[ ! tissues are able to s]ve su* widely diff]5t purposes1 we f9d ?is answ]4 ,! tissues diff] f "o ano!r bo? 9 composition & 9 /ructure &1 on ?is acc\nt1 diff] 9 _! prop]ties47#c7 ,_! diff]5t prop]ties enable !m to s]ve diff]5t purposes 9 ! body4 ,some:at z glass is adapt$ by its transp>5cy1 h>dness1 & t\ghness to ! use made ( x 9 w9d[s1 ! special prop]ties ( ! tissues adapt !m to ! k9ds ( s]vice :i* !y p]=m4 ,prop]ties t adapt tissues to _! "w 9 ! body are call$ ess5tial prop]ties4 ,! mo/ important ( ^! ess5tial prop]ties are z foll[s3 #a4 ,( osse\s tissue1 h>dness1 /iffness1 & t\ghness4 #b4 ,( muscul> tissue1 contractility & irritability4 #c4 ,( n]v\s tissue1 irritability & conductivity4 #d4 ,( c>tilag9\s tissue1 /iffness & ela/icity4 #e4 ,( connective tissue1 t\ghness & pliability4 #f4 ,( epi!lial tissue1 ability to resi/ ! action ( ext]nal =ces & p[] to secrete4 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #a--;,h& & =e>m1 %[+ ! gr\p+ ( muscul> & connective tissues 9 ! organ = grasp+4 99,tissue ,gr\ps499--,9 ! con/ruction ( ! body ! tissues are gr\p$ toge!r to =m its v>i\s divisions or p>ts4 ,a gr\p ( tissues :i* s]ves "s special purpose is kn[n z an organ4 ,! h&1 = example1 is an organ = grasp+ 7,fig4 #a74 ,:ile ! diff]5t organs ( ! body d n always conta9 ! same tissues1 & nev] conta9 !m 9 ! same proportions1 !y d conta9 su* tissues z _! "w requires & ^! h a special arrangem5t--"o adapt$ to ! "w :i* ! organs p]=m4 ,9 addition to =m+ ! organs1 ! tissues are also gr\p$ 9 su* a mann] z to provide supports = organs & to =m cavities 9 :i* organs are plac$4 ,! v>i\s cavities ( ! body are ( p>ticul> int]e/ & importance4 ,! ?ree l>ge/ ones are ! cranial cavity1 conta9+ ! bra92 ! ?oracic cavity1 conta9+ ! he>t & ! lungs2 & ! abdom9al cavity1 conta9+ ! /oma*1 ! liv]1 ! inte/9es1 & o!r important organs 7,fig4 #b74 ,small] cavities s]v+ diff]5t purposes are also f\nd4 ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #b--;,diagram ( a l5g?wise section ( ! body to %[ its l>ge cavities & ! organs :i* !y conta94 99,organs & ,sy/ems499--,! "w ( ! body is c>ri$ on by its v>i\s organs4 ,_m1 9 fact ! majority1 ( ^! organs s]ve m ?an "o purpose4 ,! tongue is us$ 9 talk+1 9 ma/icat+ ! food1 & 9 swall[+4 ,! nose s]ves at lea/ ?ree di/9ct purposes4 ,! m\?1 ! arms1 ! h&s1 ! feet1 ! legs1 ! liv]1 ! lungs1 & ! /oma* are also organs t s]ve m ?an "o purpose4 ,?is introduces ! pr9ciple ( economy into ! con/ruction ( ! body & dim9i%es ! numb] ( organs t w\ld o!rwise be requir$4 ,! v>i\s organs also comb9e ) "o ano!r 9 c>ry+ on ! "w ( ! body4 ,an illu/ration ( ?is is se5 9 ! dige/ion ( ! food--a process :i* requires ! comb9$ action ( ! m\?1 /oma*1 liv]1 inte/9es1 & o!r organs4 ,a numb] ( organs work+ toge!r = ! same purpose =m a sy/em4 ,! *ief sy/ems ( ! body are ! dige/ive sy/em1 ! circulatory sy/em1 ! respiratory sy/em1 ! muscul> sy/em1 & ! n]v\s sy/em4 99,! ,organ & its ,"w499--,a mo/ int]e/+ "q relat+ to ! "w ( ! organ is ?is3 ,does ! organ "w = its own b5efit or = ! b5efit ( ! body z a :ole8 ,does ! h&1 = example1 grasp = itself or 9 ord] t ! entire body may come into possession8 ,only slight /udy is suffici5t to reveal ! fact t ea* organ p]=ms a "w :i* b5efits ! body z a :ole4 ,9 o!r words1 j z ! organ itself is a "p ( ! body1 ! "w :i* x does is a "p ( ! necess>y "w :i* ! body has to d4 ,b 9 work+ = ! g5]al good1 or = ! body z a :ole1 ea* organ becomes a %>] 9 ! b5efits ( ! "w done by e o!r organ4 ,:ile ! h& receives only a little ( ! n\ri%m5t conta9$ 9 ! food :i* x places 9 ! m\? or ( ! heat f1 fuel :i* x places on ! fire1 x is aid$ & support$ by ! "w ( all ! o!r organs ( ! body--eyes1 feet1 bra91 he>t1 etc4 ,! h& does n & _c "w indep5d5tly ( ! o!r organs4 ,x is "o ( ! p>tn]s 9 a v close comb9ation :]e1 by do+ a p>ticul> "w1 x1 %>es 9 ! pr(its ( all4 ,:at is true ( ! h& is true ( e o!r organ ( ! body4 99,an ,organization499--,! relations :i* ! diff]5t organs su/a9 to ea* o!r & to ! body z a :ole sugge/ ! possibility ( classify+ ! body z an organization4 ,?is t]m is broadly appli$ to a v>iety ( comb9ations4 ,an organization is prop]ly def9$ z any gr\p ( individuals :i*1 9 work+ toge!r = a common purpose1 practices ! division ( labor4 ,?is def9ition w be bett] und]/ood by consid]+ a few famili> examples4 ,a baseball team is an organization4 ,! team is made up ( individual play]s4 ,^! "w toge!r = ! common purpose ( w9n+ games4 ,!y practice ! division ( labor 9 t ! diff]5t play]s d diff]5t ?+s--"o cat*+1 ano!r pit*+1 & s on4 ,a manufactur+ e/abli%m5t :i* employs sev]al workm5 may also be an organization4 ,! article manufactur$ provides ! common purpose t[>d :i* all /rive2 &1 9 ! assignm5t ( diff]5t k9ds ( "w to ! individual workm51 ! pr9ciple ( division ( labor is c>ri$ out4 ,= ! same reason a s*ool1 a railway sy/em1 an army1 & a political p>ty are organizations4 ,an organization ( a l[] ord] ( individuals ?an ^! human organizations is to be f\nd 9 a hive ( bees4 ,?is is made up ( ! individual bees1 & ^!1 9 c>ry+ on ! g5]al "w ( ! hive1 are kn[n to practice ! division ( labor4 99,is ! ,body an ,organization998--,if ! body is an organization1 x mu/ fulfill ! conditions ( ! def9ition4 ,x mu/ be made up ( sep>ate or individual p>ts4 ,^! mu/ "w toge!r = ! same g5]al purpose1 &1 9 ! accompli%m5t ( ?is purpose1 mu/ practice ! division ( labor4 ,t ! body practices ! division ( labor is se5 9 ! relat$ "w ( ! diff]5t organs4 ,t x is made up ( m9ute1 b individual1 p>ts w be %[n 9 ! *apt] foll[+4 ,t x c>ries on a g5]al "w :i* is accompli%$ ?r\gh ! comb9$ action ( its individual p>ts is reveal$ ?r\gh an ext5d$ /udy ( its v>i\s activities4 ,! body is an organization4 ,moreov]1 x is "o ( ! mo/ complex &1 at ! same "t1 mo/ p]fect ( ! organizations ( :i* we h k4 99,summ>y499--,view$ f ! outside1 ! body is se5 to be made up ( divisions :i* are m or less famili>4 ,view$ int]nally1 x is f\nd to consi/ ( diff]5t k9ds ( mat]ials1 call$ tissues4 ,! tissues are adapt$1 by _! prop]ties1 to diff]5t purposes bo? 9 ! con/ruction ( ! body & 9 c>ry+ on its "w4 ,! work+ p>ts ( ! body are call$ organs & ^! 9 _! "w comb9e to =m sy/ems4 ,! entire body1 on acc\nt ( ! me?od ( its con/ruction & ! "* ( its "w1 may be class$ z an organization4 99,ex]cises499--#a4 ,"n & locate ! *ief ext]nal divisions ( ! body4 #b4 ,:at tissues may be f\nd by dissect+ ! leg ( a *ick58 #c4 ,"n ! mo/ important prop]ties & ! mo/ important uses ( muscul> tissue1 osse\s tissue1 & connective tissue4 #d4 ,def9e an organ4 ,def9e a sy/em4 ,"n examples ( ea*4 #e4 ,"n ! *ief cavities ( ! body & ! organs :i* !y conta94 #f4 ,:at tissues are pres5t 9 ! h&8 ,h[ does ea* ( ^! aid 9 ! "w ( ! h&8 #g4 ,def9e an organization4 ,%[ t a railway sy/em1 an army1 & a s*ool are organizations4 #h4 ,:at is meant by ! phrase division ( labor8 ,9 :at mann] is ! division ( labor practic$ 9 a %oe or wat* factory8 ,:at are ! advantages8 #i4 ,:at are ! pro(s t ! body is an organization8 ,,practical ,,"w 99,obs]vation on ! ,tissues499--,exam9e ) c>e ! /ructures 9 ! entire leg ( a *ick51 squirrel1 rabbit1 or o!r small animal us$ = food4 ,obs]ve1 fir/ ( all1 ! ext]nal cov]+1 consi/+ ( cuticle & hair1 claws1 scales1 or fea!rs1 accord+ to ! specim54 ,^! are simil> 9 /ructure1 & !y =m ! epid]mis1 :i* is "o k9d ( epi!lial tissue4 ,) a %>p knife lay op5 ! sk9 & obs]ve t x is atta*$ to ! p>ts und]nea? by ?91 b t\gh1 ?reads & %ea?s4 ,^! repres5t a v>iety ( connective tissue4 ,! r$di% mat]ial :i* =ms ! great] portion ( ! specim5 is a v>iety ( muscul> tissue1 & its divisions are call$ muscles4 ,) a blunt in/rum5t1 sep>ate ! muscles1 by te>+ ap>t ! connective tissue b9d+ !m toge!r1 & f9d ! gli/5+ :ite /rips ( connective tissue 7t5dons7 :i* atta* !m to ! bones4 ,f9d ne> ! c5tral "p ( ! leg a s(t1 :ite cord 7a n]ve7 :i* repres5ts "o v>iety ( n]v\s tissue4 ,! bones1 :i* may n[ be exam9$1 =m ! osse\s tissue4 ,at ! ends ( ! bones w be f\nd a lay] ( smoo?1 :ite mat]ial :i* repres5ts "o k9d ( c>tilag9\s tissue4 ,! adipose1 or fatty1 tissue1 :i* is f\nd "u ! sk9 & betwe5 ! o!r tissues1 is easily recogniz$4 99,relation ( ! ,tissues to ! ,organs499--,obs]ve 9 ! specim5 j /udi$ ! relation ( ! diff]5t tissues to ! organ z a :ole 7reg>d+ ! leg z an organ71 i4e41 %[ h[ ea* ( ! tissues aids 9 ! "w :i* ! organ accompli%es4 ,%[ 9 p>ticul> h[ ! muscles supply ! foot ) motion1 by trac+ out ! t5dons t connect !m ) ! toes4 ,pull on ! diff]5t t5dons1 not+ ! effect ^u ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! foot4 ,,*apt] ,,iii - ,,! ,,body ,,organization ,:at is ! nature ( ! body organization8 ,:at are ! individual p>ts1 or units1 t make x up8 ,:at g5]al "w d ^! c>ry on & ^u :at basis d !y practice ! division ( labor8 ,! answ]s to ^! que/ions w sugge/ ! ma9 problems 9 ! /udy ( ! body4 ,fig4 #c ,fig4 #c--;,diagram %[+ ! relation ( ! cells & ! int]cellul> mat]ial4 ,c4 ,cells4 ,i4 ,int]cellul> mat]ial4 99,complex ,nature ( ! ,tissues499--,to ! unaid$ eye ! tissues h ! appe>ance ( simple /ructures4 ,! microscope1 h[ev]1 %[s j ! rev]se to be true4 ,:5 any "o ( ! tissues is suitably prep>$ & c>efully exam9$ ) ?is in/rum5t1 at lea/ two classes ( mat]ials c be made out4 ,"o ( ^! consi/s ( m9ute p>ticles1 call$ cells2 ! o!r is a sub/ance ly+ betwe5 ! cells1 kn[n z ! int]cellul> mat]ial 7,fig4 #c74 ,! cells & ! int]cellul> mat]ial1 ?\gh v>y+ 9 _! relative proportions1 are pres5t 9 all ! tissues4 99,! ,body a ,cell ,gr\p499--,! biologi/ has f\nd t ! bodies ( all liv+ ?+s1 plants z well z animals1 consi/ ei!r ( s+le cells or ( gr\ps ( cells4 ,! s+le cells live indep5d5tly ( "o ano!r1 b ! cells t =m gr\ps are atta*$ to1 & are m or less dep5d5t ^u1 "o ano!r4 ,9 ! fir/ condition are f\nd ! v l[e/ =ms ( life4 ,9 ! second1 life rea*es its greate/ developm5t4 ,! body ( man1 :i* repres5ts ! highe/ type ( life1 is recogniz$ z a gr\p ( cells4 ,9 ?is gr\p ea* cell is usually sep>ate & di/9ct f ! o!rs1 b is atta*$ to !m1 & is held 9 place by ! int]cellul> mat]ial4 99,protoplasm1 ! ,cell ,sub/ance499--,! cell is prop]ly reg>d$ z an organiz$ bit ( a peculi> mat]ial1 call$ protoplasm4 ,?is is a semi-liquid & some:at granul> sub/ance :i* resembles 9 appe>ance ! :ite ( a raw egg4 ,its true nature & composition are unkn[n1 because any attempt to analyze x kills x1 & dead protoplasm is ess5tially diff]5t f liv+ protoplasm4 ,x is kn[n1 h[ev]1 to be a highly complex sub/ance & to und]go *emical *ange readily4 ,x appe>s to be ! only k9d ( matt] ) :i* life is ev] associat$1 & = ?is reason protoplasm is call$ ! physical basis ( life4 ,its organization into sep>ate bits1 or cells1 is necess>y to ! life activities t take place )9 x4 99,/ructure ( ! ,cell499--,?\gh all portions ( ! cell are =m$ f ! protoplasm1 ?is ess5tial sub/ance diff]s bo? 9 /ructure & 9 function at diff]5t places 9 ! cell4 ,= ?is reason ! cell is look$ ^u z a complex body hav+ sev]al di/9ct p>ts4 ,at or ne> ! c5t] is a cle>1 r\nd$ body1 call$ ! nucleus4 ,?is plays "s "p 9 ! n\ri%m5t ( ! cell & also 9 ! =mation ( new cells4 ,if x be abs5t1 z is sometimes ! case1 ! cell is %ort-liv$ & unable to reproduce itself4 ,! v>iety ( protoplasm conta9$ 9 ! nucleus is call$ ! nucleoplasm4 ,fig4 #d ,fig4 #d--;,diagram ( a typical cell 7aft] ,wilson74 #a4 ,ma9 body4 #b4 ,nucleus4 #c4 ,attraction sph]e4 #d4 ,food p>ticles & wa/e4 #e4 ,cell-wall4 #f4 ,masses ( active mat]ial f\nd 9 c]ta9 cells1 call$ pla/ids4 ,surr\nd+ ! nucleus is ! ma9 body ( ! cell1 sometimes ref]r$ to z ! protoplasm4 ,s9ce ! protoplasm =ms all p>ts ( ! cell1 ?is sub/ance is m prop]ly call$ ! cytoplasm1 or cell plasm4 ,surr\nd+ & inclos+ ! cytoplasm1 9 _m cells1 is a ?9 out] lay]1 or membrane1 :i* af=ds m or less protection to ! cont5ts ( ! cell4 ,?is is usually ref]r$ to z ! cell-wall4 ,a f\r? "p ( ! cell is also describ$1 be+ call$ ! attraction sph]e4 ,?is is a small body ly+ ne> ! nucleus & cop]at+ ) t body 9 ! =mation ( new cells4 ,food p>ticles1 wa/es1 & o!r sub/ances may also be pres5t 9 ! cytoplasm4 ,! p>ts ( a typical cell are %[n 9 ,fig4 #d4 99,importance ( ! ,cells499--,! cells mu/ be reg>d$ z ! liv+1 work+ p>ts ( ! body4 ,!y are ! active ag5ts 9 all ( ! tissues1 enabl+ !m to s]ve _! v>i\s purposes4 ,work+ ?r\gh ! tissues1 !y build up ! body & c>ry on its diff]5t activities4 ,!y are recogniz$ on ?is acc\nt z ! units ( /ructure & ( function1 & are ! individuals 9 ! body organization4 ,among ! mo/ important & int]e/+ ( ! activities ( ! cells are ^? by :i* !y build up ! body1 or cause x to gr[4 99,h[ ! ,cells enable ! ,body to ,gr[499--,e cell is able to take new mat]ial into itself & to add ?is to ! protoplasm4 ,?is t5ds to increase ! am\nt ( ! protoplasm1 !reby caus+ ! cells to increase 9 size4 ,a g5]al increase 9 ! size ( ! cells has ! effect ( increas+ ! size ( ! entire body1 & ?is is "o way by :i* !y cause x to gr[4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a fix$ limit1 v>y+ ) diff]5t cells1 to ! size :i* !y atta91 & ?is is q l[4 7,! l>ge/ cells are sc>cely visible to ! nak$ eye47 ,any m>k$ increase 9 ! size ( ! body mu/1 !re=e1 be br\ght ab\t by o!r means4 ,su* a means is f\nd 9 ! =mation ( new cells1 or cell reproduction4 ,! new cells are always =m$ by & f ! old cells1 ! ess5tial process be+ kn[n z cell-division4 ,fig4 #e ,fig4 #e--,/eps 9 cell-division 7aft] ,wilson74 ,note t ! process beg9s ) ! division ( ! attraction sph]e1 !n involves ! nucleus1 & f9ally sep>ates ! ma9 body4 99,cell-,division499--,by divid+1 a s+le cell w1 on atta9+ its gr[?1 sep>ate into two or m new cells4 ,! process is q complex & is imp]fectly und]/ood4 ,x is kn[n1 h[ev]1 t ! act ( sep>ation is prec$$ by a s]ies ( *anges 9 :i* ! attraction sph]e & ! nucleus actively p>ticipate1 & t1 z a result ( ^! *anges1 ! cont5ts ( ! old cell are re>rang$ to =m ! new cells4 ,"s ( ! diff]5t /ages 9 ! process1 z !y h be5 /udi$ "u ! microscope1 are indicat$ 9 ,fig4 #e4 ,gradually1 ?r\gh ! =mation ( new cells & by ! gr[? ( ^! cells aft] !y h be5 =m$1 ! body atta9s its full size4 ,:5 gr[? is complete1 cell reproduction is suppos$ to cease except :]e ! tissues are injur$1 z 9 ! break+ ( a bone1 or :]e cells1 l ^? at ! surface ( ! sk91 are subject to we>4 ,!n new mat]ial cont9ues to be add$ to ! protoplasm ?r\gh\t life1 b 9 am\nt only suffici5t to replace t lo/ f ! protoplasm z wa/e4 ,fig4 #f ,fig4 #f--;,a tumbl] p>tly fill$ ) m>bles cov]$ ) wat]1 sugge/+ ! relations ( ! cells to ! lymph4 99,cell ,surr\nd+s499--,all cells are said to be aquatic4 ,?is means simply t !y require wat] = c>ry+ on _! v>i\s activities4 ,! cells1 9 ord] to live1 mu/ take 9 & give out mat]ials1 & wat] is necess>y to bo? processes4 ,x is also an ess5tial "p ( ! protoplasm4 ,depriv$ ( wat]1 cells become inactive & usually die4 ,aquatic surr\nd+s are provid$ = ! cells ( ! body ?r\gh a liquid kn[n z ! lymph1 :i* is di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! int]cellul> mat]ial 7,fig4 #f74 ,?is consi/s ( wat] conta9+ oxyg5 & food sub/ances 9 solution4 ,besides supply+ ^! to ! cells1 ! lymph also receives _! wa/es4 ,?r\gh ! lymph ! necess>y conditions = cell life are provid$ 9 ! body4 99,! ,g5]al ,"w ( ,cells499--,9 h&l+ ! mat]ials d]iv$ f ! lymph1 ! cells c>ry on ?ree well-def9$ processes1 kn[n z absorption1 assimilation1 & excretion4 ,absorption is ! process ( tak+ wat]1 food1 & oxyg5 into ! cells4 ,assimilation is a complex process :i* results 9 ! addition ( ! absorb$ mat]ials to ! protoplasm4 ,?r\gh assimilation ! protoplasm is built up or r5ew$4 ,excretion is ! ?r[+ (f ( su* wa/e mat]ials z h be5 =m$ 9 ! cells4 ,^! are pass$ into ! lymph & !nce to ! surface ( ! body4 ,absorption1 assimilation1 excretion1 & also reproduction are p]=m$ by all classes ( cells4 ,!y are1 on ?is acc\nt1 ref]r$ to z ! g5]al "w ( cells4 99,! ,special ,"w ( ,cells499--,9 addition to ! g5]al "w :i* all cells d 9 common1 ea* class ( cells 9 ! body is able to d "s p>ticul> k9d ( "w--a "w :i* ! o!rs _c d or :i* !y c d only to a limit$ ext5t4 ,?is is spok5 ( z ! special "w ( cells4 ,examples ( ! special "w ( cells are f\nd 9 ! production ( motion by muscle cells & 9 ! secretion ( liquids by gl& cells4 ,x may be not$ t :ile ! g5]al "w ( cells b5efits !m individually1 _! special "w b5efits ! body z a :ole4 ,ano!r example ( ! special "w ( cells is f\nd 9 ! ,fig4 #g ,fig4 #g--;,c>tilage cells1 surr\nd$ by ! int]cellul> mat]ial :i* !y h deposit$4 99,production ( ! ,int]cellul> ,mat]ial499--,?\gh mo/ ( ! cells ( ! body deposit to a slight ext5t ?is mat]ial1 ! great] "p ( x is produc$ by a s+le class ( cells f\nd 9 bone1 c>tilage1 & connective tissue4 ,c>tilage1 bone1 & connective tissue diff] greatly f ! o!r tissues 9 ! am\nt ( int]cellul> mat]ial :i* !y conta91 ! diff]5ce be+ due to ^! cells4 ,9 ! connective tissue !y deposit ! fibr\s mat]ial s important 9 hold+ ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! body toge!r4 ,9 ! c>tilage !y produce ! gri/ly sub/ance :i* =ms by f> its l>g] portion 7,fig4 #g74 ,9 ! bones !y deposit a mat]ial simil> to t 9 ! c>tilage1 except t ) x is mix$ a m9]al sub/ance :i* gives ! bones _! h>dness & /iffness47#d7 ,! int]cellul> mat]ial1 9 addition to connect+ ! cells1 supplies to c]ta9 tissues important prop]ties1 su* z ! ela/icity ( c>tilage & ! /iffness ( ! bones4 99,nature ( ! ,body ,organization499--,! division ( labor c>ri$ on by ! diff]5t organs1 z %[n 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 is 9 reality c>ri$ on by ! cells t =m ! organs4 ,to see t ?is is true we h only to obs]ve ! relation ( cells to tissues & ( tissues to organs4 ,! cells =m ! tissues & ! tissues =m ! organs4 ,?is arrangem5t enables ! special "w ( diff]5t k9ds ( cells to be comb9$ 9 ! "w ( ! organ z a :ole4 ,?is is se5 9 ! h& :i*1 9 grasp+1 uses motion suppli$ by ! muscle cells1 a controll+ influ5ce suppli$ by ! n]ve cells1 a framework suppli$ by ! bone cells1 & s on4 ,! cells supply ! basis = ! body organization &1 prop]ly speak+1 ! body is an organization ( cells7#e7 7,recall ! def9ition ( an organization1 page #aj47 ,9 ?is organization !re are to be obs]v$3 #a4 ,a def9ite arrangem5t ( ! cells to =m ! tissues4 ,a tissue is a gr\p ( l cells4 #b4 ,a def9ite arrangem5t ( ! tissues 9 ! organ4 ,ea* organ conta9s ! tissues ne$$ = its "w4 #c4 ,9 sev]al in/ances !re is a def9ite arrangem5t ( organs to =m sy/ems4 #d4 ,! body z a :ole is made up ( organs & sy/ems1 toge!r ) ! /ructures necess>y = _! support & protection4 ,!re n[ rema9s a fur!r "q = consid]ation4 ,:at is ! "o supreme end1 or purpose1 t[>d :i* all ! activities ( ! body organization are direct$8 ,?is purpose w naturally h "s relation to ! ma9t5ance1 or pres]vation1 ( ! cell gr\p :i* we call ! body4 99,! ,ma9t5ance ( ,life499--,! pres]vation ( any cell gr\p 9 its natural condition1 :e!r x be plant or animal1 is accompli%$ ?r\gh keep+ x alive4 ,if life ceases1 ! gr\p quickly dis9tegrates & its elem5ts become scatt]$1 a fact :i* is v]ifi$ ?r\gh ev]yday obs]vation4 ,?\gh ! nature ( life is unkn[n1 x may be look$ ^u z ! organiz] & pres]v] ( ! protoplasm4 ,b 9 pres]v+ ! protoplasm x also pres]ves ! entire cell gr\p1 or body4 ,life is ?us ! mo/ ess5tial condition ( ! body4 ,) life all portions ( ! body are conc]n$1 & t[>d its ma9t5ance all ! activities ( ! body organization are direct$4 99,! ,nutri5t ,fluid 9 its ,relations to ! ,cells499--,! ma9t5ance ( life )9 ! cells requires1 z we h se51 t !y be suppli$ ) wat]1 food1 & oxyg51 & t !y be reliev$ ( su* wa/es z !y =m4 ,?is d\ble purpose is accompli%$ ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( an int]nal nutri5t fluid1 a portion ( :i* has already be5 ref]r$ to z ! lymph4 ,n only does ?is fluid supply ! means = keep+ ! cells alive1 b1 ?r\gh ! cells1 x is also ! means ( pres]v+ ! life ( ! body z a :ole4 ,! cells1 h[ev]1 rapidly exhau/ ! nutri5t fluid4 ,!y take f x food & oxyg5 & !y put into x _! wa/es4 ,to prev5t its becom+ unfit = supply+ _! ne$s1 food & oxyg5 mu/ be cont9ually add$ to ?is fluid1 & wa/e mat]ials mu/ be cont9ually remov$4 ,?is is n an easy task4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ! prep>ation1 di/ribution1 & purification ( ! nutri5t fluid requires ! direct or indirect aid ( practically all p>ts ( ! body4 ,x supplies = ?is reason a broad basis = ! division ( labor on ! "p ( ! cells4 99,relation ( ! ,body to its ,environm5t499--,:ile life is directly dep5d5t ^u ! int]nal nutri5t fluid1 x is indirectly dep5d5t ^u ! physical surr\nd+s ( ! body4 ,h]e9 lies ! ne$ ( ! ext]nal organs--! feet & legs = mov+ ab\t1 ! h&s = h&l+ ?+s1 ! eyes = direct+ movem5ts1 etc4 ,t ! great ne$s ( ! body are suppli$ f its surr\nd+s are facts ( common exp]i5ce4 ,food1 %elt]1 air1 clo?+1 wat]1 & ! means ( protection are ext]nal to ! body & =m a "p ( its environm5t4 ,9 mak+ ! ?+s ab\t him contribute to 8 ne$s1 man enc\nt]s a problem :i* taxes all 8 p[]s4 ,only by toil & h>d%ip1 by ! sweat ( 8 br[1 has he be5 able to wre/ f 8 surr\nd+s ! means ( 8 su/5ance4 99,! ,ma9 ,physiological ,problems499--,! /udy ( ! body is ?us se5 to resolve itself naturally into ! consid]ation ( two ma9 problems3 #a4 ,t ( ma9ta9+ 9 ! body a nutri5t fluid = ! cells4 #b4 ,t ( br++ ! body into su* relations ) its surr\nd+s z w enable x to secure mat]ials = ! nutri5t fluid & satisfy its o!r ne$s4 ,! fir/ problem is int]nal & includes ! s-call$ vital processes1 kn[n z dige/ion1 circulation1 respiration1 & excretion4 ,! second problem is ext]nal1 z x 71 & includes ! "w ( ! ext]nal organs--! organs ( motion & ( locomotion & ! organs ( special s5se4 ,^! problems are closely relat$1 s9ce !y are ! two divisions ( ! "o problem ( ma9ta9+ life4 ,nei!r c be consid]$ indep5d5tly ( ! o!r4 ,9 ! *apt] foll[+ is tak5 up ! fir/ ( ^! problems4 99,summ>y499--,! individual p>ts1 or units1 t =m ! body organization are kn[n z cells4 ,^! consi/ ( m9ute b def9itely arrang$ portions ( protoplasm & are held toge!r by ! int]cellul> mat]ial4 ,!y build up ! body & c>ry on its diff]5t activities4 ,! tissues are gr\ps ( l cells4 ,by c]ta9 g5]al activities ! cells ma9ta9 _! exi/5ce 9 ! tissues & by ! ex]cise ( c]ta9 special activities !y adapt ! tissues to _! purposes 9 ! body4 ,! body1 z a cell organization1 has its activities direct$ "u normal conditions t[>d a s+le purpose--t ( ma9ta9+ life4 ,9 ! accompli%m5t ( ?is purpose a nutri5t fluid is provid$ = ! cells & prop] relations betwe5 ! body & its surr\nd+s are e/abli%$4 99,ex]cises499--#a4 ,if a tissue be comp>$ to a brick wall1 to :at d ! sep>ate bricks correspond8 ,to :at ! mort> betwe5 ! bricks8 #b4 ,draw an outl9e ( a typical cell1 locat+ & nam+ ! ma9 divisions4 #c4 ,h[ d ! cells enable ! body to gr[8 ,describe ! process ( cell-division4 #d4 ,h[ does ! g5]al "w ( cells diff] f _! special "w8 ,def9e absorption1 excretion1 & assimilation z appli$ to ! cells4 #e4 ,comp>e ! conditions surr\nd+ a "o-cell$ animal1 liv+ 9 wat]1 to ! conditions surr\nd+ ! cells 9 ! body4 #f4 ,:at is meant by ! t]m environm5t8 ,h[ does man's environm5t diff] f t ( a fi%8 #g4 ,:at is ! necessity = a nutri5t fluid 9 ! body8 #h4 ,:y is ! ma9t5ance ( life necess>ily ! *ief aim ( all ! activities ( ! body8 #i4 ,/ate ! two ma9 problems 9 ! /udy ( ! body4 ,,practical ,,"w 99,obs]vations499--#a4 ,make "s scrap+s f ! inside ( ! *eek ) a dull knife & mix ^! ) a little wat] on a glass slide4 ,place a cov]-glass on ! same & exam9e ) a comp\nd microscope4 ,! l>ge pale cells t c be se5 9 ?is way are a v>iety ( epi!lial cells4 #b4 ,m\nt 9 wat] on a glass slide "s ?9 slices ( c>tilage & exam9e fir/ ) a l[ & !n ) a high p[] ( microscope4 7,suitable slices may be cut1 ) a %>p razor1 f ! c>tilage f\nd at ! end ( ! rib ( a "y animal47 ,note ! small gr\ps ( cells surr\nd$ by1 & imb$d$ 91 ! int]cellul> mat]ial4 #c4 ,m\nt & exam9e ) ! microscope ?9 slices ( eld] pi?1 potato1 & ! /ems ( gr[+ plants4 ,make draw+s ( ! cells ?us obs]v$4 #d4 ,exam9e ) ! microscope a small piece ( ! fre%ly sl\gh$ (f epid]mis ( a frog's sk94 ,exam9e x fir/ 9 its natural condition1 & !n aft] soak+ = an h\r or two 9 a solution ( c>m9e4 ,make draw+s4 #e4 ,m\nt on a glass slide "s ( ! scum f\nd on /agnant wat] & exam9e x ) a comp\nd microscope4 ,note ! v>iety & relative size ( ! diff]5t ?+s mov+ ab\t4 ,! =ms mo/ frequ5tly se5 by su* an exam9ation are "o-cell$ plants4 ,_m ( ^! h ! p[] ( motion4 #f4 ,exam9e tissues ( ! body1 su* z n]v\s1 muscul>1 & gl&ul> tissues1 :i* h be5 suitably prep>$ & m\nt$ = microscopic /udy1 us+ l[ & high p[]s ( ! microscope4 ,make draw+s ( ! cells 9 ! diff]5t tissues ?us obs]v$4 ,,*apt] ,,iv - ,,! ,,blood ,two liquids ( simil> nature are f\nd 9 ! body1 kn[n z ! blood & ! lymph4 ,^! are closely relat$ 9 function & toge!r !y =m ! nutri5t fluid ref]r$ to 9 ! prec$+ *apt]4 ,! blood is ! m famili> ( ! two liquids1 & ! "o :i* c be/ be consid]$ at ?is "t4 99,! ,blood3 :]e ,f\nd499--,! blood occupies & moves ?r\gh a sy/em ( clos$ tubes1 kn[n z ! blood vessels4 ,by means ( ^! vessels ! blood is made to circulate ?r\gh all p>ts ( ! body1 b f !m x does n escape "u normal conditions4 ,?\gh provisions exi/ :]eby liquid mat]ials may bo? ent] & leave ! blood /ream1 x is only :5 ! blood vessels are cut or brok5 t ! blood1 z blood1 is able to escape f its inclosures4 99,physical ,prop]ties ( ! ,blood499--,exp]im5ts su* z ^? describ$ at ! close ( ?is *apt] reveal ! m important physical prop]ties ( ! blood4 ,x may be %[n to be heavi] & d5s] ?an wat]2 to h a fa9t odor & a slightly salty ta/e2 to h a bright r$ color :5 x conta9s oxyg5 & a d>k r$ color :5 oxyg5 is abs5t2 & to und]go1 :5 expos$ to c]ta9 conditions1 a *ange call$ coagulation4 ,^! prop]ties are all acc\nt$ = ?r\gh ! diff]5t mat]ials t ent] into ! =mation ( ! blood4 ,fig4 #h ,fig4 #h--;,blood corpuscles1 highly magnifi$4 ,a4 ,r$ corpuscles z !y appe> 9 dilut$ blood4 ,b4 ,arrangem5t ( r$ corpuscles 9 r[s betwe5 :i* are :ite corpuscles1 z may be se5 9 undilut$ blood4 ,c4 ,r$ corpuscles mu* enl>g$ to %[ ! =m4 99,composition ( ! ,blood499--,to ! nak$ eye ! blood appe>s z a ?ick b simple liquid2 b :5 exam9$ ) a comp\nd microscope1 x is se5 to be complex 9 nature1 consi/+ ( at lea/ two di/9ct portions4 ,"o ( ^! is a cle>1 transp>5t liquid2 :ile ! o!r is made up ( _m small1 r\nd bodies t float 9 ! liquid4 ,! liquid portion ( ! blood is call$ ! plasma2 ! small bodies are kn[n z corpuscles4 ,two v>ieties ( corpuscles are describ$--! r$ corpuscles & ! :ite corpuscles 7,fig4 #h74 ,o!r r\nd p>ticles1 small] ?an ! corpuscles1 may also be se5 "u favorable conditions4 ,^! latt] are kn[n z blood platelets4 99,r$ ,corpuscles499--,! r$ corpuscles are class$ z cells1 al?\gh1 z f\nd 9 ! blood ( man & ! o!r mammals 7,fig4 #i71 !y h no nuclei47#f7 ,ea* "o consi/s ( a little mass ( protoplasm1 call$ ! /roma1 :i* conta9s a sub/ance hav+ a r$ color1 kn[n z hemoglob94 ,! %ape ( ! r$ corpuscle is t ( a circul> disk ) concave sides4 ,x has a wid? ( ab\t #a_/cbjj ( an in* 7#g4i microns7#g77 & a ?ickness ( ab\t #a_/acjjj ( an in* 7#a4i microns74 ,! r$ corpuscles are exce$+ly num]\s1 !re be+ z _m z five millions 9 a small drop 7"o cubic millimet]7 ( heal?y blood4 ,b ! numb] v>ies some:at & is greatly dim9i%$ dur+ c]ta9 =ms ( disease4 ,fig4 #i ,fig4 #i--,r$ corpuscles f v>i\s animals4 ,^? f mammals are )\t nuclei1 :ile ^? f birds & cold-blood$ animals h nuclei4 ,x is ! function ( ! r$ corpuscles to s]ve z oxyg5 c>ri]s = ! cells4 ,!y take up oxyg5 at ! lungs & release x at ! cells 9 ! diff]5t tissues47#h7 ,! p]=mance ( ?is function dep5ds ^u ! hemoglob94 99,hemoglob9499--,?is sub/ance has ! rem>kable prop]ty ( =m+1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 a weak *emical union ) oxyg5 &1 :5 ! conditions are rev]s$1 ( sep>at+ f x4 ,x =ms ab\t n9e t5?s ( ! solid matt] ( ! r$ corpuscles & to x is due ! colors ( ! blood4 ,:5 unit$ ) ! oxyg5 x =ms a comp\nd1 call$ oxyhemoglob91 :i* has a bright r$ color2 ! hemoglob9 alone has a d>k r$ color4 ,^! colors are ! same z ^? ( ! blood z x takes on & gives (f oxyg54 ,! /roma1 :i* =ms only ab\t "o t5? ( ! solid matt] ( ! corpuscles1 s]ves z a contrivance = hold+ ! hemoglob94 ,! conditions :i* cause ! hemoglob9 to unite ) oxyg5 9 ! lungs & to sep>ate f x 9 ! tissues1 w be consid]$ lat] 7,*apt] ,,viii74 99,disappe>ance & ,orig9 ( ,r$ ,corpuscles499--,! r$ corpuscles1 be+ cells )\t nuclei1 are necess>ily %ort-liv$4 ,x has be5 e/imat$ t dur+ a p]iod ( "o to two mon?s1 all ! r$ corpuscles 9 ! body at a giv5 "t w h disappe>$ & _! places tak5 by new ones4 ,! orig9 ( new corpuscles1 h[ev]1 & ! mann] ( ridd+ ! blood ( old ones are problems t are n z yet fully solv$4 ,! removal ( ! products ( brok5 d[n corpuscles is suppos$ to take place bo? 9 ! liv] & 9 ! sple547#i7 ,reg>d+ ! orig9 ( ! r$ corpuscles1 ! evid5ce n[ seems conclusive t l>ge numb]s ( !m are =m$ 9 ! r$ m>r[ ( ! bones4 ,! r$ m>r[ is locat$ 9 :at is kn[n z ! spongy sub/ance ( ! bones 7,*apt] ,,xiv7 & consi/s1 to a l>ge ext5t1 ( cells some:at l ! r$ corpuscles1 b diff]+ f !m 9 hav+ nuclei4 ,^! appe> to be con/antly 9 a /ate ( reproduction4 ,! blood1 fl[+ ?r\gh ! m9ute cavities conta9+ ^! cells1 c>ries ^? t h be5 loos5$ out into ! blood /ream4 ,nuclei appe> 9 ! r$ corpuscles at ! "t ( _! =mation1 b ^! quickly sep>ate &1 accord+ to "s au?orities1 =m ! blood platelets4 99,:ite ,corpuscles499--,! :ite corpuscles1 or leucocytes1 are cells ( a g5]al sph]ical %ape1 ea* conta9+ "o1 two1 or m nuclei4 ,!y are mu* less num]\s ?an ! r$1 !re be+ on ! av]age only "o :ite corpuscle to ab\t e five hundr$ ( ! r$ ones4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! :ite corpuscles are l>g] ?an ! r$1 "o ( ! =m] be+ equal 9 volume to ab\t ?ree ( ! latt]4 ,fig4 #aj ,fig4 #aj--99;,escape ( :ite corpuscles f a small blood vessel99 7,hall74 ,at ,a ! conditions are normal1 b at ,b "s excitation 9 ! surr\nd+ tissue leads to a migration ( corpuscles4 #a1 #b1 & #c %[ diff]5t /ages ( ! passage4 ,! :ite corpuscles are f\nd1 :5 /udi$ "u favorable conditions1 to possess ! p[] ( *ang+ _! %ape &1 by ?is means1 ( mov+ f place to place4 ,?is prop]ty enables !m to p5etrate ! walls ( capill>ies & to pass ) ! lymph 9 betwe5 ! cells ( ! tissues4 ,! :ite corpuscles are1 !re=e1 n conf9$ to ! blood vessels1 z are ! r$ corpuscles1 b migrate ?r\gh ! int]cellul> spaces 7,fig4 #aj74 ,if any "p ( ! body becomes inflam$1 ! :ite corpuscles collect !re 9 l>ge numb]s2 &1 on break+ d[n1 !y =m mo/ ( ! :ite portion ( ! sore1 call$ ! pus4 ,new :ite corpuscles are =m$ f old ones1 by cell-division4 ,_! production may occur 9 almo/ any "p ( ! body1 b usually takes place 9 ! lymphatic gl&s 7,*apt] ,,vi7 & 9 ! sple51 :]e conditions = _! developm5t are especially favorable4 ,9 ^! places !y are f\nd 9 great abundance & 9 v>i\s /ages ( developm5t4 99,functions ( ,:ite ,corpuscles499--,! ma9 use ( ! :ite corpuscles appe>s to be t ( a de/roy] ( disease g]ms4 ,^! consi/ ( m9ute organisms t f9d _! way into ! body &1 by liv+ ^u ! tissues & fluids & by deposit+ tox9s 7poisons7 9 !m1 cause diff]5t =ms ( disease4 ,besides de/roy+ g]ms t may be pres5t 9 ! blood1 ! :ite corpuscles also leave ! blood & attack g]ms t h invad$ ! cells4 ,by =m+ a k9d ( wall ar\nd any =eign sub/ance1 su* z a spl9t]1 t has p5etrat$ ! sk91 !y are able to prev5t ! spread ( g]ms ?r\gh ! body4 ,9 a simil> mann] !y also prev5t ! g]ms f boils1 abscesses1 & sore places 9 g5]al f gett+ to & infect+ o!r p>ts ( ! body47#aj7 ,ano!r function ascrib$ to ! :ite corpuscles is t ( aid+ 9 ! coagulation ( ! blood 7page #ca72 & /ill ano!r1 ( aid+ 9 ! heal+ ( w\nds4 99,plasma499--,! plasma is a complex liquid1 be+ made up ( wat] & ( sub/ances dissolv$ 9 ! wat]4 ,! dissolv$ sub/ances consi/ ma9ly ( foods = ! cells & wa/es f ! cells4 #a4 ,! foods repres5t ! same classes ( mat]ials z are tak5 9 ! daily f>e1 i4e41 proteids1 c>bohydrates1 fats1 & salts 7,*apt] ,,ix74 ,?ree k9ds ( proteids are f\nd 9 ! plasma1 call$ s]um album91 s]um globul91 & fibr9og54 ,^! resemble1 9 a g5]al way1 ! :ite ( raw egg1 b diff] f ea* o!r 9 ! read9ess ) :i* !y coagulate4 ,fibr9og5 coagulates m readily ?an ! o!rs & is ! only "o t *anges 9 ! ord9>y coagulation ( ! blood4 ,! o!rs rema9 dissolv$ dur+ ?is process1 b are coagulat$ by *emical ag5ts & by heat4 ,:ile all ( ! proteids probably s]ve z food = ! cells1 ! fibr9og51 9 addition1 is a necess>y factor 9 ! coagulation ( ! blood 7page #ca74 ,! only repres5tative ( ! c>bohydrates 9 ! plasma is dextrose4 ,?is is a v>iety ( sug>1 be+ d]iv$ f />* & ! diff]5t sug>s t are eat54 ,! fat 9 ! plasma is 9 m9ute quantities & appe>s z f9e droplets--! =m 9 :i* x is f\nd 9 milk4 ,:ile sev]al m9]al salts are pres5t 9 small quantities 9 ! plasma1 sodium *loride1 or common salt1 is ! only "o f\nd 9 any consid]able am\nt4 ,! m9]al salts s]ve v>i\s purposes1 "o ( :i* is to cause ! proteids to dissolve 9 ! plasma4 #b4 ,! wa/es are =m$ at ! cells1 :5ce !y are pass$ by ! lymph into ! blood plasma4 ,!y are c>ri$ by ! blood until remov$ by ! organs ( excretion4 ,! two wa/e products f\nd 9 greate/ abundance 9 ! plasma are c>bon dioxide & urea4 ,! sub/ances dissolv$ 9 ! plasma =m ab\t #aj p] c5t ( ! :ole am\nt4 ,! rema9+ #ij p] c5t is wat]4 ,practically all ! con/itu5ts ( ! plasma1 except ! wa/es1 ent] ! blood f ! dige/ive organs4 99,purposes ( ,wat] 9 ! ,blood499--,n only is wat] ! mo/ abundant con/itu5t ( ! blood2 x is1 9 "s respects1 ! mo/ important4 ,x is ! liquefy+ portion ( ! blood1 hold+ 9 solution ! con/itu5ts ( ! plasma & float+ ! corpuscles4 ,depriv$ ( its wat]1 ! blood becomes a solid sub/ance4 ,?r\gh ! movem5ts ( ! blood ! wat] also s]ves ! purpose ( a transport+ ag5t 9 ! body4 ,! cells 9 all p>ts ( ! body require wat] & ?is is suppli$ to !m f ! blood4 ,wat] is pres5t 9 ! corpuscles z well z 9 ! plasma & =ms ab\t #hj p] c5t ( ! entire volume ( ! blood4 99,coagulation ( ! ,blood499--,if ! blood is expos$ to "s unnatural condition1 su* z occurs :5 x escapes f ! blood vessels1 x und]goes a peculi> *ange kn[n z coagulation47#aa7 ,9 ?is *ange ! corpuscles are collect$ into a solid mass1 kn[n z ! clot1 !reby sep>at+ f a liquid call$ ! s]um4 ,! s]um1 :i* is simil> 9 appe>ance to ! blood plasma1 diff]s f t liquid 9 "o important respect z expla9$ bel[4 99,causes ( ,coagulation499--,al?\gh coagulation affects all p>ts ( ! blood1 only "o ( its con/itu5ts is f\nd 9 reality to coagulate4 ,?is is ! fibr9og54 ,! =mation ( ! clot & ! sep>ation ( ! s]um is due almo/ entirely to ! action ( ?is sub/ance4 ,fibr9og5 is = ?is reason call$ ! coagulable con/itu5t ( ! blood4 ,9 ! plasma ! fibr9og5 is 9 a liquid =m2 b dur+ coagulation x *anges into a :ite1 /r+y solid1 call$ fibr94 ,?is appe>s 9 ! clot & is ! cause ( its =mation4 ,=m+ z a network ( exce$+ly f9e & v delicate ?reads 7,fig4 #aa7 ?r\gh\t ! mass ( blood t is coagulat+1 ! fibr9 fir/ entangles ! corpuscles & !n1 by contract+1 draws !m into ! solid mass or clot47#ab7 ,! contract+ ( ! fibr9 also squeezes out ! s]um4 ,?is liquid conta9s all ! con/itu5ts ( ! plasma except ! fibr9og54 ,fig4 #aa ,fig4 #aa--99;,fibr9 ?reads99 7aft] ,ranvi]74 ,^! by contract+ draw ! corpuscles toge!r & =m ! clot4 99,fibr9 ,f]m5t & ,calcium499--,mo/ difficult ( all to answ] h be5 ! que/ions3 ,:at causes ! blood to coagulate outside ( ! blood vessels & :at prev5ts its coagulation inside ( ^! vessels8 ,! be/ explanation (f]$ z yet ^u ?is po9t is z foll[s3 ,fibr9og5 does n ( itself *ange into fibr91 b is made to und]go ?is *ange by ! pres5ce ( ano!r sub/ance1 call$ fibr9 f]m5t4 ,?is sub/ance is n a regul> con/itu5t ( ! blood1 b is =m$ z occasion requires4 ,x is suppos$ to result f ! break+ d[n ( ! :ite corpuscles1 & p]haps also f ! blood platelets1 :5 ! blood is expos$ to unnatural conditions4 ,! =mation ( ! f]m5t leads 9 turn to ! *ang+ ( ! fibr9og5 into fibr94 ,ano!r sub/ance :i* is necess>y to ! process ( coagulation is ! elem5t calcium4 ,if comp\nds ( calcium are abs5t f ! blood1 coagulation does n take place4 ,^! are1 h[ev]1 regul> con/itu5ts ( heal?y blood4 ,:e!r ! pres5ce ( ! calcium is necess>y to ! =mation ( ! f]m5t or to ! action ( ! f]m5t ^u ! fibr9og5 is unkn[n4 99,purpose ( ,coagulation499--,! purpose ( coagulation is to *eck ! fl[ ( blood f w\nds4 ,! fact t ! blood is conta9$ 9 & kept fl[+ cont9u\sly ?r\gh a sy/em ( connect$ vessels causes x to escape rapidly f ! body :5ev] op5+s 9 ^! vessels are made4 ,clots =m at su* op5+s & close !m up1 /opp+ 9 ?is way ! fl[ t w\ld o!rwise g on indef9itely4 ,coagulation1 h[ev]1 does n /op ! fl[ ( blood f ! l>ge vessels4 ,f ^! ! blood runs ) too great =ce = ! clot to =m )9 ! w\nd4 99,"t ,requir$ = ,coagulation499--,! rate at :i* coagulation takes place v>ies greatly "u diff]5t conditions4 ,x is influ5c$ /rongly by temp]ature2 heat ha/5s & cold ret>ds ! process4 ,x may be prev5t$ entirely by l[]+ ! temp]ature ( ! blood to ne> ! freez+ po9t4 ,! pres5ce ( a =eign sub/ance increases ! rapidity ( coagulation1 & x has be5 obs]v$ t ble$+ f small w\nds is m quickly *eck$ by cov]+ !m ) l95 or cotton fib]s4 ,! fib]s 9 ?is case ha/5 ! process ( coagulation4 99,quantity ( ,blood499--,! quantity ( blood is e/imat$ to be ab\t "o ?irte5? ( ! entire weight ( ! body4 ,?is = ! av]age individual is an am\nt weigh+ ne>ly twelve p\nds & hav+ a volume ( ne>ly "o & "o half gallons4 ,ab\t #df p] c5t by volume ( ?is am\nt is made up ( corpuscles & #ed p] c5t ( plasma4 ,( ! plasma ab\t #aj p] c5t consi/s ( solids & #ij p] c5t ( wat]1 z already /at$4 99,functions ( ! ,blood499--,! blood is ! great c>ry+1 or di/ribut+1 ag5t 9 ! body4 ,?r\gh its movem5ts 7consid]$ 9 ! next *apt]7 x c>ries food & oxyg5 to ! cells & wa/e mat]ials f ! cells4 ,mu* ( ! blood may1 !re=e1 be reg>d$ z freight 9 ! process ( transportation4 ,! blood also c>ries1 or di/ributes1 heat4 ,tak+ up heat 9 ! w>m p>ts ( ! body1 x gives x (f at places hav+ a l[] temp]ature4 ,?is enables all p>ts ( ! body to keep at ab\t ! same temp]ature4 ,9 addition to s]v+ z a c>ri]1 ! blood has antiseptic prop]ties1 i4e41 x de/roys disease g]ms4 ,:ile ?is function is ma9ly due to ! :ite corpuscles1 x is due 9 "p to ! plasma47#ac7 ,?r\gh its coagulation1 ! blood also closes leaks 9 ! small blood vessels4 ,! blood is ?us se5 to be a liquid ( sev]al functions4 ,fig4 #ab ,fig4 #ab--99;,a balanc$ *ange99 9 wat]4 ,! level rema9s con/ant al?\gh ! wat] is cont9ually *ang+2 sugge/ive ( ! *anges 9 ! blood4 99,*anges 9 ! ,blood499--,9 p]=m+ its functions 9 ! body ! blood mu/ ( necessity und]go rapid & cont9u\s *ange4 ,! r$ corpuscles1 ^: *anges h already be5 not$1 appe> to be ! mo/ endur+ con/itu5ts ( ! blood4 ,! plasma is ! portion t *anges mo/ rapidly4 ,yet 9 spite ( ^! *anges ! quantity & "* ( ! blood rema9 practically con/ant47#ad7 ,?is is because !re is a balanc+ ( ! =ces t br+ ab\t ! *anges4 ,! addition ( v>i\s mat]ials to ! blood j equals ! )drawal ( ! same mat]ials f ! blood4 ,some:at z a vessel ( wat] 7,fig4 #ab7 hav+ an infl[ & an outfl[ :i* are equal 9 am\nt may keep always at ! same level1 ! balanc+ ( ! intake & outgo ( ! blood keeps its composition ab\t ! same f "t to "t4 99,hygi5e ( ! ,blood499--,! blood1 be+ a *angeable liquid1 is easily affect$ ?r\gh our habits ( liv+4 ,s9ce x may be affect$ = ill z well z = good1 "o %\ld cultivate ^? habits t are b5eficial & avoid ^? t are h>mful 9 _! effects4 ,mo/ ( ! hygi5e ( ! blood1 h[ev]1 is prop]ly includ$ 9 ! hygi5e ( ! organs t act ^u ! blood--a fact :i* makes x unnecess>y to treat ?is subject fully at ?is "t4 ,f a heal? /&po9t1 ! mo/ important con/itu5ts ( ! blood are1 p]haps1 ! corpuscles4 ,^! are usually suffici5t 9 numb] & vigor 9 ! blood ( ^? :o take pl5ty ( physical ex]cise1 accu/om !mselves to outdoor air & sunlight1 sleep suffici5tly1 & avoid ! use ( injuri\s drugs4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !y are defici5t 9 quantity & inf]ior 9 quality 9 ! bodies ( ^? :o pursue an opposite c\rse4 ,impurities n infrequ5tly f9d _! way into ! blood ?r\gh ! dige/ive organs4 ,"o %\ld eat :olesome1 well-cook$ food1 dr9k freely ( pure wat]1 & limit ! quantity ( food to :at c be prop]ly dige/$4 ,! natural purifi]s ( ! blood are ! organs ( excretion4 ,! sk9 is "o ( ^! & its p[] to ?r[ (f impurities dep5ds ^u its be+ clean & active4 99,effect ( ,drugs499--,c]ta9 drugs & m$ic9es1 includ+ alcohol & qu99e17#ae7 h rec5tly be5 %[n to de/roy ! :ite corpuscles4 ,! effect ( su* sub/ances1 if introduc$ 9 consid]able am\nt 9 ! body1 is to r5d] "o less able to )/& attacks ( disease4 ,_m pat5t m$ic9es are widely adv]tis$ = purify+ ! blood4 ,:ile ^! may possibly d good 9 p>ticul> cases1 ! habit ( doctor+ "o's self ) !m is op5 to s]i\s objection4 ,in/ead ( tak+ drugs & pat5t m$ic9es = purify+ ! blood1 "o %\ld /udy to live m hygi5ically4 ,we may safely rely ^u :olesome food1 pure wat]1 outdoor ex]cise & sunlight1 pl5ty ( sleep1 & a clean sk9 = keep+ ! blood 9 good condition4 ,if ^! natural rem$ies fail1 a physician %\ld be consult$4 99,summ>y499--,! blood is ! c>ry+ or transport+ ag5t ( ! body4 ,x consi/s 9 "p ( con/itu5ts1 su* z ! r$ corpuscles1 t enable x to c>ry diff]5t sub/ances2 & 9 "p ( ! mat]ials t are be+ c>ri$4 ,! latt]1 :i* include food & oxyg5 = ! cells & wa/es f ! cells1 may be class$ z freight4 ,c]ta9 con/itu5ts 9 ! blood de/roy disease g]ms1 & o!r con/itu5ts1 by coagulat+1 close small leaks 9 ! blood vessels4 ,al?\gh subject to rapid & cont9u\s *ange1 ! blood is able--by reason ( ! balanc+ ( mat]ials add$ to & )drawn f x--to rema9 ab\t ! same 9 quantity & composition4 ,ex]cises4--#a4 ,comp>e blood & wat] ) ref]5ce to weight1 d5sity1 color1 odor1 & complexity ( composition4 #b4 ,%[ by an outl9e ! diff]5t con/itu5ts ( ! blood4 #c4 ,comp>e ! r$ & :ite corpuscles ) ref]5ce to size1 %ape1 numb]1 orig91 & function4 #d4 ,"n "s use or purpose = ea* con/itu5t ( ! blood4 #e4 ,:at con/itu5ts ( ! blood may be reg>d$ z freight & :at z ag5ts = c>ry+ ?is freight8 #f4 ,aft] coagulation1 :at portions ( ! blood are f\nd 9 ! clot8 ,:at portions are f\nd 9 ! s]um8 #g4 ,:at purposes are s]v$ by wat] 9 ! blood8 #h4 ,%[ h[ ! blood1 ?\gh con/antly *ang+1 is kept ab\t ! same 9 quantity1 d5sity1 & composition4 #i4 ,9 ! lungs ! blood *anges f a d>k to a bright r$ color & 9 ! tissues x *anges back to d>k r$4 ,:at is ! cause ( ^! *anges8 #aj4 ,if ! oxyg5 & hemoglob9 =m$ a /rong in/ead ( a weak *emical union1 c\ld ! hemoglob9 !n act z an oxyg5 c>ri]8 ,:y8 #aa4 ,:at habits ( liv+ favor ! developm5t ( corpuscles 9 ! blood8 #ab4 ,:y w keep+ ! sk9 clean & active improve ! quality ( "o's blood8 ,,practical ,,"w 99,to demon/rate ! ,physical ,prop]ties ( ,blood99 7,optional74--,s9ce blood is ne$$ 9 consid]able quantity 9 ! foll[+ exp]im5ts1 x is be/ obta9$ f ! but*]4 ,to be sure ( secur+ ! blood 9 ! mann] desir$1 take to ! but*] ?ree good-siz$ bottles be>+ labels z foll[s3 99#a99 ,fill two ?irds full4 ,:ile ! blood is cool+1 /ir rapidly ) ! h& or a bun* ( swit*es to remove ! clot4 99#b99 ,fill two ?irds full & set aside )\t %ak+ or /irr+4 99#c99 ,fill two ?irds full & ?or\ghly mix ) ! liquid 9 ! bottle4 ,label #c mu/ be pa/$ on a bottle1 hav+ a tight-fitt+ /opp]1 :i* is fill$ "o fif? full ( a saturat$ solution ( ,epsom salts4 ,! purpose ( ! salts is to prev5t coagulation until ! blood is dilut$ ) wat] z 9 ! exp]im5ts :i* foll[4 99,exp]im5ts499--#a4 ,let "s ( ! defibr9at$ blood 7bottle #a7 fl[ 7n fall7 on ! surface ( wat] 9 a glass vessel4 ,does x rema9 on ! surface or s9k to ! bottom8 ,:at does ! exp]im5t %[ ) ref]5ce to ! relative weight ( blood & wat]8 #b4 ,fill a l>ge te/ tube or a small bottle "o f\r? full ( ! defibr9at$ blood & ?9 x by add+ an equal am\nt ( wat]4 ,!n place ! h& ov] ! m\? & %ake until ! blood is ?or\ghly mix$ ) ! air4 ,comp>e ) a portion ( ! blood n mix$ ) ! air1 not+ any diff]5ce 9 color4 ,:at sub/ance 9 ! air has act$ on ! blood to *ange its color8 #c4 ,fill ?ree tumbl]s ea* two ?irds full ( wat] & set !m 9 a w>m place4 ,p\r into "o ( ! tumbl]s1 & ?or\ghly mix ) ! wat]1 two tablespoonfuls ( ! blood conta9+ ! ,epsom salts4 ,aft] an int]val ( half an h\r add blood to ! second tumbl] 9 ! same mann]1 & aft] ano!r half h\r add blood to ! ?ird4 ,! wat] dilutes ! salts s t coagulation is no long] prev5t$4 ,j> ! vessel occasionally z coagulation proce$s2 & if ! clot is sl[ 9 =m+1 add a trace ( "s salt ( calcium 7calcium *loride74 ,aft] ! blood has be5 add$ to ! la/ tumbl] make a comp>ative /udy ( all4 ,note t coagulation beg9s 9 all p>ts ( ! liquid at ! same "t & t1 z ! process goes on1 ! clot %r9ks & is drawn t[>d ! c5t]4 #d4 ,place a clot f "o ( ! tumbl]s 9 exp]im5t #c 9 a l>ge vessel ( wat]4 ,?or\ghly wa%1 add+ fre% wat]1 until a :ite1 /r+y solid rema9s4 ,?is sub/ance is fibr94 #e4 ,exam9e ! coagulat$ blood obta9$ f ! but*] 7bottle #b74 ,obs]ve ! d>k c5tral mass 7! clot7 surr\nd$ by a cle> liquid 7! s]um74 ,sket* ! vessel & its cont5ts1 %[+ & nam+ ! p>ts into :i* ! blood sep>ates by coagulation4 99,to exam9e ! ,r$ ,corpuscles499--,blood = ?is purpose is easily obta9$ f ! f+]4 ,) a h&k]*ief1 wrap "o ( ! f+]s ( ! left h& f ! knuckle d[n to ! fir/ jo9t4 ,b5d ?is jo9t & give x a %>p prick ) ! po9t ( a /]iliz$ 'ne$le j above ! root ( ! nail4 ,pressure appli$ to ! "u side ( ! f+] w =ce pl5ty ( blood ?r\gh a v small op5+4 7,to prev5t any possibility ( blood poison+ ! ne$le %\ld be /]iliz$4 ,?is may be done by dipp+ x 9 alcohol or by hold+ x = an in/ant 9 a hot flame4 ,x is well also to wa% ! f+] ) soap & wat]1 or ) alcohol1 be=e ! op]ation47 ,place a small drop ( ! blood 9 ! middle ( a glass slide1 protect ! same ) a cov] glass1 & exam9e ) a comp\nd microscope4 ,at lea/ two specim5s %\ld be exam9$1 "o ( :i* %\ld be dilut$ ) a little saliva or a physiological salt solution47#af7 ,9 ! dilut$ specim5 ! r$ corpuscles appe> z amb]-color$1 circul>1 disk-%ap$ bodies4 ,9 ! undilut$ specim5 !y %[ a decid$ t5d5cy to arrange !mselves 9 r[s1 resembl+ r[s ( co9s4 7,s+ly1 ! corpuscles d n appe> r$ :5 highly magnifi$47 ,a few :ite corpuscles may g5]ally be f\nd among ! r$ ones 9 ! undilut$ specim54 ,^! become sep>at$ by ! =mation ( ! r$ corpuscles into r[s4 ,!y are easily recogniz$ by _! l>g] size & by _! silv]y appe>ance1 due to ! light %9+ ?r\gh !m4 99,to exam9e ,:ite ,corpuscles499--,obta9 f ! but*] a small piece ( ! neck sweetbread ( a calf4 ,press x betwe5 ! f+]s to squeeze out a :iti%1 semi-liquid sub/ance4 ,dilute ) physiological salt solution on a glass slide & exam9e ) a comp\nd microscope4 ,num]\s :ite corpuscles ( diff]5t k9ds & sizes w be f\nd4 ,make sket*es4 99,to prep>e ,models ( ,r$ ,corpuscles499--,sev]al models ( r$ corpuscles %\ld be prep>$ = ! use ( ! class4 ,clay & putty may be press$ into ! =m ( r$ corpuscles & all[$ to h>d51 & small models may be cut out ( blackbo>d crayon4 ,excell5t models c be mold$ f pla/] ( ,p>is z foll[s3 ,coat ! inside ( ! lid ( a bak+ p[d] c ) oil or vasel9e & fill x ev5 full ( a ?ick mixture ( pla/] ( ,p>is & wat]4 ,aft] ! pla/] has set1 remove x f ! lid & ) a pocket-knife r\nd (f ! edges & holl[ out ! sides until ! g5]al =m ( ! corpuscle is obta9$4 ,! models may be color$ r$ if x is desir$ to mat* ! color z well z ! =m ( ! corpuscle4 ,,*apt] ,v - ,,! ,,circulation ,a ,c>ri] mu/ move4 ,to enable ! blood to c>ry food & oxyg5 to ! cells & wa/e mat]ials f ! cells1 & also to di/ribute heat1 x is necess>y to keep x mov+1 or circulat+1 9 all p>ts ( ! body4 ,s closely relat$ to ! welf>e ( ! body is ! circulation7#ag7 ( ! blood1 t its /oppage = only a brief int]val ( "t results 9 dea?4 99,discov]y ( ! ,circulation499--,! discov]y ( ! circulation ( ! blood 0 made ab\t #afaf by an ,engli% physician nam$ ,h>vey4 ,9 #afai he ann\nc$ x 9 8 public lectures & 9 #afbh he publi%$ a treatise 9 ,lat9 on ! circulation4 ,! *ief argum5ts advanc$ 9 support ( 8 views 7 ! pres5ce ( valves 9 ! he>t & ve9s1 ! cont9u\s movem5t ( ! blood 9 ! same direction ?r\gh ! blood vessels1 & ! fact t ! blood comes f a cut art]y 9 jets1 or spurts1 t correspond to ! contractions ( ! he>t4 ,no o!r s+le discov]y ) ref]5ce to ! human body has prov$ ( su* great importance4 ,a k ( ! nature & purpose ( ! circulation 0 ! necess>y fir/ /ep 9 und]/&+ ! plan ( ! body & ! me?od ( ma9ta9+ life1 & physiology z a sci5ce dates f ! "t ( ,h>vey's discov]y4 99,organs ( ,circulation499--,! organs ( circulation1 or blood vessels1 are ( f\r k9ds1 nam$ ! he>t1 ! art]ies1 ! capill>ies1 & ! ve9s4 ,!y s]ve z contrivances bo? = hold+ ! blood & = keep+ x 9 motion ?r\gh ! body4 ,! he>t1 :i* is ! *ief organ = propell+ ! blood1 acts z a =ce pump1 :ile ! art]ies & ve9s s]ve z tubes = convey+ ! blood f place to place4 ,moreov]1 ! blood vessels are s connect$ t ! blood moves ?r\gh !m 9 a regul> ord]1 p]=m+ two well-def9$ circuits4 ,fig4 #ac ,fig4 #ac--99;,he>t99 9 position 9 ?oracic cavity4 ,dott$ l9es %[ posit9 ( diaphragm & ( m>g9s ( lungs4 99,! ,he>t499--,! human he>t1 r\ghly speak+1 is ab\t ! size ( ! cl5*$ fi/ ( ! individual own]4 ,x is situat$ v ne> ! c5t] ( ! ?oracic cavity & is almo/ completely surr\nd$ by ! lungs4 ,x is cone-%ap$ & is s susp5d$ t ! small end hangs d[nw>d1 =w>d1 & a little to ! left4 ,:5 f excitem5t1 or o!r cause1 "o becomes consci\s ( ! movem5ts ( ! he>t1 ^! appe> to be 9 ! left portion ( ! *e/1 a fact :i* acc\nts = ! errone\s impression t ! he>t is on ! left side4 ,! position ( ! he>t 9 ! cavity ( ! *e/ is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ac4 99,! ,p]ic>dium499--,surr\nd+ ! he>t is a protective cov]+1 call$ ! p]ic>dium4 ,?is consi/s ( a clos$ membran\s sac s arrang$ z to =m a d\ble cov]+ ar\nd ! he>t4 ,! he>t does n lie inside ( ! p]ic>dial sac1 z seems at fir/ glance to be ! case1 b its relation to ?is space is l t ( ! h& to ! inside ( an empty sack :i* is laid ar\nd x 7,fig4 #ad74 ,! inn] lay] ( ! p]ic>dium is closely atta*$ to ! he>t muscle1 =m+ = x an outside cov]+4 ,! out] lay] hangs loosely ar\nd ! he>t & is cont9u\s ) ! inn] lay] at ! top4 ,! out] lay] also connects at c]ta9 places ) ! membranes surr\nd+ ! lungs & is atta*$ bel[ to ! diaphragm4 ,betwe5 ! two lay]s ( ! p]ic>dium is secret$ a liquid :i* prev5ts friction f ! movem5ts ( ! he>t4 ,fig4 #ad ,fig4 #ad--99;,diagram ( section ( ! p]ic>dial sac991 he>t remov$4 ,a4 ,place occupi$ by ! he>t4 ,b4 ,space inside ( p]ic>dial sac4 a4 ,inn] lay] ( p]ic>dium & out] l9+ ( he>t4 b4 ,out] lay] ( p]ic>dium4 ,c4 ,cov]+ ( lung4 ,d4 ,diaphragm4 99,cavities ( ! ,he>t499--,! he>t is a holl[1 muscul> organ :i* has its int]ior divid$ by p>titions into f\r di/9ct cavities4 ,! ma9 p>tition ext5ds f top to bottom & divides ! he>t into two simil> portions1 nam$ f _! positions ! "r side & ! left side4 ,on ea* side are two cavities1 ! "o be+ directly above ! o!r4 ,! upp] cavities are call$ auricles & ! l[] ones v5tricles4 ,to di/+ui% ^! cavities fur!r1 !y are nam$ f _! positions ! "r auricle & ! left auricle1 & ! "r v5tricle & ! left v5tricle 7,fig4 #ae74 ,! auricles on ea* side communicate ) ! v5tricles bel[2 b aft] bir? !re is no communication betwe5 ! cavities on ! opposite sides ( ! he>t4 ,all ! cavities ( ! he>t are l9$ ) a smoo?1 delicate membrane1 call$ ! endoc>dium4 ,fig4 #ae ,fig4 #ae--99;,diagram %[+ plan ( ! he>t499 #a4 ,semilun> valves4 #b4 ,tricuspid valve4 #c4 ,mitral valve4 #d4 ,"r auricle4 #e4 ,left auricle4 #f4 ,"r v5tricle4 #g4 ,left v5tricle4 #h4 ,*ord t5d9e4 #i4 ,inf]ior v5a cava4 #aj4 ,sup]ior v5a cava4 #aa4 ,pulmon>y art]y4 #ab4 ,aorta4 #ac4 ,pulmon>y ve9s4 99,valves ( ! ,he>t499--,locat$ at suitable places 9 ! he>t are f\r gate-l contrivances1 call$ valves4 ,! purpose ( ^! is to give ! blood a def9ite direction 9 its movem5ts4 ,!y consi/ ( t\gh1 inela/ic %eets ( connective tissue1 & are s plac$ t pressure on "o side causes !m to come toge!r & %ut up ! passageway1 :ile pressure on ! opposite side causes !m to op54 ,a valve is f\nd at ! op5+ ( ea* auricle into ! v5tricle1 & at ! op5+ ( ea* v5tricle into ! art]y ) :i* x is connect$4 ,! valve betwe5 ! "r auricle & ! "r v5tricle is call$ ! tricuspid valve4 ,x is susp5d$ f a ?9 r+ ( connective tissue :i* surr\nds ! op5+1 & its free m>g9s ext5d into ! v5tricle 7,fig4 #af74 ,x consi/s ( ?ree p>ts1 z its "n implies1 :i* are ?r[n toge!r 9 clos+ ! op5+4 ,jo9$ to ! free edges ( ?is valve are _m small1 t5d9\s cords :i* connect at _! l[] ends ) muscul> pill>s 9 ! walls ( ! v5tricle4 ,^! are kn[n z ! *ord t5d9e1 or he>t t5dons4 ,_! purpose is to s]ve z valve /ops1 to prev5t ! valve f be+ ?r[n1 by ! =ce ( ! blood /ream1 back into ! auricle4 ,! mitral1 or bicuspid1 valve is susp5d$ ar\nd ! op5+ betwe5 ! left auricle & ! left v5tricle1 ) ! free m>g9s ext5d+ into ! v5tricle4 ,x is exactly simil> 9 /ructure & arrangem5t to ! tricuspid valve1 except t x is /rong] & is compos$ ( two p>ts in/ead ( ?ree4 ,fig4 #af ,fig4 #af--99,"r side ( he>t99 dissect$ to %[ cavities & valves4 ,b4 ,"r semilun> valve4 ,! tricuspid valve & ! *ord t5d9e %[n 9 ! v5tricle4 ,! "r semilun> valve is situat$ ar\nd ! op5+ ( ! "r v5tricle into ! pulmon>y art]y4 ,x consi/s ( ?ree pocket-%ap$ /rips ( connective tissue :i* hang loosely f ! walls :5 !re is no pressure f above2 b ^u receiv+ pressure1 ! pockets fill & project into ! op5+1 clos+ x completely 7,fig4 #af74 ,! left semilun> valve is ar\nd ! op5+ ( ! left v5tricle into ! aorta1 & is simil> 9 all respects to ! "r semilun> valve4 99,diff]5ces 9 ! ,p>ts ( ! ,he>t499--,m>k$ diff]5ces are f\nd 9 ! walls surr\nd+ ! diff]5t cavities ( ! he>t4 ,! walls ( ! v5tricles are mu* ?ick] & /rong] ?an ^? ( ! auricles1 :ile ! walls ( ! left v5tricle are two or ?ree times ?ick] ?an ^? ( ! "r4 ,a less m>k$ b simil> diff]5ce exi/s betwe5 ! auricles & also betwe5 ! valves on ! two sides ( ! he>t4 ,^! diff]5ces 9 /ructure are all acc\nt$ = by ! "w done by ! diff]5t portions ( ! he>t4 ,! great] ! "w1 ! heavi] ! /ructures t p]=m ! "w4 ,fig4 #ag ,fig4 #ag--99;,diagram ( ! circulation991 %[+ 9 g5]al ! "w done by ea* "p ( ! he>t4 ,! "r v5tricle =ces ! blood ?r\gh ! lungs & into ! left auricle4 ,! left v5tricle =ces blood ?r\gh all p>ts ( ! body & back to ! auricle4 ,! auricles =ce blood into ! v5tricles4 99,connection ) ,art]ies & ,ve9s499--,?\gh ! he>t is 9 communication ) all p>ts ( ! circulatory sy/em1 x makes actual connection ) only a few ( ! blood tubes4 ,^! ent] ! he>t at its upp] portion 7,fig4 #ae71 b connect ) its diff]5t cavities z foll[s3 #a4 ,) ! "r auricle1 ! sup]ior & ! inf]ior v5 cav & ! coron>y ve9s4 ,! sup]ior v5a cava receives blood f ! head & ! upp] extremities2 ! inf]ior v5a cava1 f ! trunk & ! l[] extremities2 & ! coron>y ve9s1 f ! he>t itself4 #b4 ,) ! left auricle1 ! f\r pulmon>y ve9s4 ,^! receive blood f ! lungs & empty x into ! left auricle4 #c4 ,) ! "r v5tricle1 ! pulmon>y art]y4 ,?is receives blood f ! he>t & by its bran*es di/ributes x to all p>ts ( ! lungs4 #d4 ,) ! left v5tricle1 ! aorta4 ,! aorta receives blood f ! he>t & ?r\gh its bran*es deliv]s x to all p>ts ( ! body4 99,h[ ! ,he>t does its ,"w499--,! he>t is a muscul> pump7#ah7 & does its "w ?r\gh ! contract+ & relax+ ( its walls4 ,dur+ contraction ! cavities are clos$ & ! blood is =c$ out ( !m4 ,dur+ relaxation ! cavities op5 & are refill$4 ,! valves direct ! fl[ ( ! blood1 be+ s arrang$ z to keep x mov+ always 9 ! same direction 7,fig4 #ag74 ,! he>t1 h[ev]1 is n a s+le or a simple pump1 b consi/s 9 reality ( f\r pumps :i* correspond to its diff]5t cavities4 ,^! connect ) ea* o!r & ) ! blood vessels ov] ! body 9 su* a mann] t ea* aids 9 ! g5]al movem5t ( ! blood4 ,fig4 #ah ,fig4 #ah--;,diagram illu/rat+ ! c>diac cycle4 99,"w ( ,auricles & ,v5tricles ,comp>$499--,9 ! "w ( ! he>t ! two auricles contract at ! same "t--_! contraction be+ foll[$ imm$iately by ! contraction ( bo? v5tricles4 ,aft] ! contraction ( ! v5tricles comes a p]iod ( re/1 or relaxation1 ab\t equal 9 "t to ! p]iod ( contraction ( bo? ! auricles & ! v5tricles47#ai7 ,on acc\nt ( ! "w :i* !y p]=m1 ! auricles h be5 call$ ! fe$ pumps ( ! he>t2 & ! v5tricles1 ! =ce pumps47#bj7 ,x is ! function ( ! auricles to collect ! blood f ! ve9s1 to let ?is run sl[ly into ! v5tricles :5 bo? ! auricles & v5tricles are relax$1 & f9ally1 by contract+1 to =ce an excess ( blood into ! v5tricles1 !reby di/5d+ _! walls4 ,! v5tricles1 hav+ 9 ?is way be5 fully *>g$ by ! auricles1 n[ contract & =ce _! cont5ts into ! l>ge art]ies4 99,s\nds ( ! ,he>t499--,two di/9ct s\nds are giv5 out by ! he>t z x pumps ! blood4 ,"o ( !m is a dull & r heavy s\nd1 :ile ! o!r is a %ort1 %>p s\nd4 ,! %ort s\nd foll[s quickly aft] ! dull s\nd & ! two are fairly imitat$ by ! words lbb1 dp4 ,:ile ! cause ( ! fir/ s\nd is n fully und]/ood1 mo/ au?orities believe x to be due to ! contraction ( ! he>t muscle & ! sudd5 t5sion on ! valve flaps4 ,! second s\nd is due to ! clos+ ( ! semilun> valves4 ,^! s\nds are easily he>d by plac+ an e> aga9/ ! *e/ wall4 ,!y are ( great value to ! physician 9 det]m9+ ! condition ( ! he>t4 99,art]ies & ,ve9s499--,^! =m two sy/ems ( tubes :i* rea* f ! he>t to all p>ts ( ! body4 ,! art]ies receive blood f ! he>t & di/ribute x to ! capill>ies4 ,! ve9s receive ! blood f ! capill>ies & return x to ! he>t4 ,! art]ies & ve9s are simil> 9 /ructure1 bo? hav+ ! =m ( tubes & bo? hav+ ?ree di/9ct lay]s1 or coats1 9 _! walls4 ,! correspond+ coats 9 ! art]ies & ve9s are made up ( simil> mat]ials1 z foll[s3 #a4 ,! inn] coat consi/s ( a delicate l9+ ( flat cells re/+ ^u a ?9 lay] ( connective tissue4 ,! inn] coat is cont9u\s ) ! l9+ ( ! he>t & provides a smoo? surface ov] :i* ! blood glides ) little friction4 #b4 ,! middle coat consi/s ma9ly ( non-/riat$1 or involunt>y1 muscul> fib]s4 ,?is coat is q ?9 9 ! ve9s1 b 9 ! art]ies x is r ?ick & /rong4 #c4 ,! out] coat is made up ( a v>iety ( connective tissue & is also mu* ?ick] & /rong] 9 ! art]ies ?an 9 ! ve9s4 ,fig4 #ai ,fig4 #ai--;,art]y dissect$ to %[ ! coats4 ,m>k$ diff]5ces exi/ betwe5 ! art]ies & ! ve9s1 & ^! vessels are readily di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r4 ,! walls ( ! art]ies are mu* ?ick] & heavi] ?an ^? ( ! ve9s 7,fig4 #ai74 ,z a result ^! tubes /& op5 :5 empty1 :]eas ! ve9s collapse4 ,! art]ies also are highly ela/ic1 :ile ! ve9s are b slightly ela/ic4 ,on ! o!r h&1 _m ( ! ve9s conta9 valves1 =m$ by folds 9 ! inn] coat 7,fig4 #bj71 :ile ! art]ies h no valves4 ,! blood fl[s m rapidly ?r\gh ! art]ies ?an ?r\gh ! ve9s1 ! diff]5ce be+ due to ! fact t ! sy/em ( ve9s has a great] capacity ?an ! sy/em ( art]ies4 ,fig4 #bj ,fig4 #bj--,ve9 split op5 to %[ ! valves4 99,:y ! ,art]ies are ,ela/ic499--,! ela/icity ( ! art]ies s]ves a tw(old purpose4 ,x keeps ! art]ies f bur/+ :5 ! blood is =c$ into !m f ! v5tricles1 & x is a means ( supply+ pressure to ! blood :ile ! v5tricles are 9 a condition ( relaxation4 ,! latt] purpose is accompli%$ z foll[s3 ,contraction ( ! v5tricles fills ! art]ies ov]full1 caus+ !m to swell out & make room = ! excess ( blood4 ,!n :ile ! v5tricles are re/+ & fill+1 ! /ret*$ art]ies press ^u ! blood to keep x fl[+ into ! capill>ies4 ,9 ?is way !y cause ! int]mitt5t fl[ f1 ! he>t to become a /eady /ream 9 ! capill>ies4 ,! swell+ ( ! art]ies at ea* contraction ( ! v5tricle is easily felt at c]ta9 places 9 ! body1 su* z ! wri/4 ,?is expansion1 kn[n z ! pulse1 is ! *ief means employ$ by ! physician 9 det]m9+ ! =ce & rapidity ( ! he>t's action4 99,purpose ( ! ,valves 9 ! ,ve9s499--,! valves 9 ! ve9s are n us$ = direct+ ! g5]al fl[ ( ! blood1 ! valves ( ! he>t be+ suffici5t = ?is purpose4 ,_! pres5ce is necess>y because ( ! pressure to :i* ! ve9s are subject$ 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! body4 ,! contraction ( a muscle w1 = example1 close ! small ve9s 9 its vic9ity & dim9i% ! capacity ( ! l>g] ones4 ,! natural t5d5cy ( su* pressure is to empty ! ve9s 9 two directions--"o 9 ! same direction z ! regul> movem5t ( ! blood1 b ! o!r 9 ! opposite direction4 ,! valves by clos+ cause ! contract+ muscle to pu% ! blood 9 "o direction only--t[>d ! he>t4 ,! valves 9 ! ve9s are1 !re=e1 an economical device = enabl+ v>iable pressure 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! body to assi/ 9 ! circulation4 ,ve9s l ! inf]ior v5a cava & ! ve9s ( ! bra91 :i* are n compress$ by movem5ts ( ! body1 d n h valves4 99,purposes ( ! ,muscul> ,coat499--,! muscul> coat1 :i* is ?ick] 9 ! art]ies ?an 9 ! ve9s & is m m>k$ 9 small art]ies ?an 9 l>ge ones1 s]ves two important purposes4 ,9 ! fir/ place x1 toge!r ) ! ela/ic tissue1 keeps ! capacity ( ! blood vessels equal to ! volume ( ! blood4 ,s9ce ! blood vessels are capable ( hold+ m blood ?an may be pres5t at a giv5 "t 9 ! body1 !re is a liability ( empty spaces occurr+ 9 ^! tubes4 ,su* spaces w\ld s]i\sly int]f]e ) ! circulation1 s9ce ! he>t pressure c\ld n !n rea* all p>ts ( ! blood /ream4 ,?is is prev5t$ by ! contract$ /ate1 or tone1 ( ! blood vessels1 due to ! muscul> coat4 ,9 ! second place1 ! muscul> coat s]ves ! purpose ( regulat+ ! am\nt ( blood :i* any giv5 organ or "p ( ! body receives4 ,?is x does by v>y+ ! calib] ( ! art]ies go+ to ! organ 9 "q4 ,to increase ! blood supply1 ! muscul> coat relaxes4 ,! art]ies are !n dilat$ by ! blood pressure f )9 s z to let ?r\gh a l>g] quantity ( blood4 ,to dim9i% ! supply1 ! muscle contracts1 mak+ ! calib] ( ! art]ies less1 s t less blood c fl[ to ?is "p ( ! body4 ,s9ce ! ne$ ( organs = blood v>ies ) _! activity1 ! muscul> coat s]ves 9 ?is way a v necess>y purpose4 ,fig4 #ba ,fig4 #ba--;,diagram ( network ( capill>ies betwe5 a v small art]y & a v small ve94 ,%ad+ indicates ! *ange ( color ( ! blood z x passes ?r\gh ! capill>ies4 ,s4 ,places betwe5 capill>ies occupi$ by ! cells4 99,capill>ies499--,! capill>ies consi/ ( a network ( m9ute blood vessels :i* connect ! t]m9ations ( ! smalle/ art]ies ) ! beg9n+s ( ! smalle/ ve9s 7,fig4 #ba74 ,!y h an av]age diamet] ( less ?an "o two-?\s&? ( an in* 7#ab 7 & an av]age l5g? ( less ?an "o tw5ty-fif? ( an in* 7#a millimet]74 ,_! walls consi/ ( a s+le coat :i* is cont9u\s ) ! l9+ ( ! art]ies & ve9s4 ,?is coat is =m$ ( a s+le lay] ( ?91 flat cells plac$ edge to edge 7,fig4 #bb74 ,) a few exceptions1 ! capill>ies are f\nd 9 great abundance 9 all p>ts ( ! body4 ,fig4 #bb ,fig4 #bb--99,surface ( capill>y99 highly magnifi$1 %[+ its coat ( ?9 cells plac$ edge to edge4 99,functions ( ! ,capill>ies499--,on acc\nt ( ! ?9ness ( _! walls1 ! capill>ies are able to s]ve a tw(old purpose 9 ! body3 #a4 ,!y admit mat]ials into ! blood vessels4 #b4 ,!y all[ mat]ials to pass f ! blood vessels to ! surr\nd+ tissues4 ,:5 x is rememb]$ t ! blood1 z blood1 does n escape f ! blood vessels "u normal conditions1 ! importance ( ! "w ( ! capill>ies is app>5t4 ,to s]ve its purpose z a c>ri]1 !re mu/ be places :]e ! blood c load up ) ! mat]ials :i* x is to c>ry1 & places also :]e ^! c be unload$4 ,su* places are suppli$ by ! capill>ies4 ,! capill>ies also s]ve ! purpose ( spread+ ! blood out & ( br++ x v ne> ! individual cells 9 all p>ts ( ! body 7,fig4 #ba74 99,functions ( ,art]ies & ,ve9s499--,:ile ! capill>ies provide ! means :]eby mat]ials may bo? ent] & leave ! blood1 ! art]ies & ve9s s]ve ! g5]al purpose ( pass+ ! blood f "o set ( capill>ies to ano!r4 ,s9ce pressure is necess>y = mov+ ! blood1 ^! tubes mu/ connect ) ! s\rce ( ! pressure1 :i* is ! he>t4 ,9 ! art]ies & ve9s ! blood nei!r receives nor gives up mat]ial1 b hav+ receiv$ or giv5 up mat]ial at "o set ( capill>ies1 x is !n pu%$ ?r\gh ^! tubes to :]e x c s]ve a simil> purpose 9 ano!r set ( capill>ies 7,fig4 #bc74 99,divisions ( ! ,circulation499--,man1 9 common ) all w>m-blood$ animals1 has a d\ble circulation1 a fact :i* expla9s ! d\ble /ructure ( 8 he>t4 ,! two divisions are kn[n z ! pulmon>y & ! sy/emic circulations4 ,by ! =m] ! blood passes f ! "r v5tricle ?r\gh ! lungs1 & is !n return$ to ! left auricle2 by ! latt] x passes f ! left v5tricle ?r\gh all p>ts ( ! body1 return+ to ! "r auricle4 ,! g5]al plan ( ! circulation is indicat$ 9 ,fig4 #bc4 ,all ! blood fl[s cont9u\sly ?r\gh bo? circulations & passes ! v>i\s p>ts 9 ! foll[+ ord]3 "r auricle1 tricuspid valve1 "r v5tricle1 "r semilun> valve1 pulmon>y art]y & its bran*es1 capill>ies ( ! lungs1 pulmon>y ve9s1 left auricle1 mitral valve1 left v5tricle1 left semilun> valve1 aorta & its bran*es1 sy/emic capill>ies1 ! small] ve9s1 sup]ior & inf]ior v5 cav1 & !n aga9 into ! "r auricle4 ,9 ! pulmon>y capill>ies ! blood gives up c>bon dioxide & receives oxyg51 *ang+ f a d>k r$ to a bright r$ color4 ,9 ! sy/emic capill>ies x gives up oxyg51 receives c>bon dioxide & o!r impurities1 & *anges back to a d>k r$ color4 ,9 addition to ! two ma9 divisions ( ! circulation1 special circuits are f\nd 9 v>i\s places4 ,su* a circuit 9 ! liv] is call$ ! portal circulation1 & ano!r 9 ! kidneys is t]m$ ! r5al circulation4 ,to "s ext5t ! blood supply to ! walls ( ! he>t is also outside ( ! g5]al movem5t2 x is call$ ! coron>y circulation4 ,fig4 #bc ,fig4 #bc--99;,g5]al s*eme ( ! circulation991 %[+ places :]e ! blood takes on & gives (f mat]ials4 #a4 ,body 9 g5]al4 #b4 ,lungs4 #c4 ,kidneys4 #d4 ,liv]4 #e4 ,organs ( dige/ion4 #f4 ,lymph ducts4 #g4 ,pulmon>y art]y4 #h4 ,aorta4 99,blood ,pressure & ,velocity499--,! blood1 9 ob$i5ce to physical laws1 passes cont9u\sly ?r\gh ! blood vessels1 mov+ always f a place ( great] to "o ( less pressure4 ,?r\gh ! contraction ( ! v5tricles1 a relatively high pressure is ma9ta9$ 9 ! art]ies ne>e/ ! he>t47#ba7 ,?is pressure dim9i%es rapidly 9 ! small art]ies1 becomes comp>atively slight 9 ! capill>ies1 & falls practically to no?+ 9 ! ve9s4 ,ne> ! he>t 9 ! sup]ior & inf]ior v5 cav1 ! pressure at int]vals is said to be negative4 ,?is means t ! blood f ^! ve9s is actually drawn into ! "r auricle by ! expansion ( ! *e/ walls 9 brea?+47#bb7 ,! velocity ( ! blood is greate/ 9 ! art]ies1 less 9 ! ve9s1 & mu* less 9 ! capill>ies ?an 9 ei!r ! art]ies or ! ve9s4 ,! sl[] fl[ ( ! blood ?r\gh ! capill>ies is acc\nt$ = by ! fact t _! unit$ area is _m times great] ?an t ( ! art]ies :i* supply1 or ! ve9s :i* relieve1 !m4 ,?is all[s ! same quantity ( blood1 fl[+ ?r\gh !m 9 a giv5 "t1 a wid] *annel & causes x to move m sl[ly4 ,! "t requir$ = a complete circulation is less ?an "o m9ute4 99,summ>y ( ,causes ( ,circulation499--,! *ief factor 9 ! circulation ( ! blood is1 ( c\rse1 ! he>t4 ,! v5tricles keep a pressure on ! blood :i* is suffici5t to =ce x ?r\gh all ! blood tubes & back to ! auricles4 ,! he>t is aid$ 9 its "w by ! ela/icity ( ! art]ies1 :i* keeps ! blood "u pressure :ile ! v5tricles are 9 a /ate ( relaxation4 ,x is also aid$ by ! muscles & ela/ic tissue 9 all ( ! blood vessels4 ,^!1 by keep+ ! blood vessels 9 a /ate ( tone1 or s contract$ t _! capacity j equals ! volume ( ! blood1 enable pressure f ! he>t to be transmitt$ to all p>ts ( ! blood /ream4 ,a fur!r aid to ! circulation is f\nd 9 ! valves 9 ! ve9s1 :i* enable muscul> contraction )9 ! body1 & v>iable pressure ^u its surface1 to drive ! blood t[>d ! he>t4 ,! he>t is also aid$ to "s ext5t by ! movem5ts ( ! *e/ walls 9 brea?+4 ,! organs ,( circulation are "u ! control ( ! n]v\s sy/em 7,*apt] ,,xviii74 ,,hygi5e ,,( ,,! ,,circulation 99,c>e ( ! ,he>t499--,! he>t1 consi/+ l>gely ( muscle1 is subject to ! laws ( muscul> ex]cise4 ,x may be injur$ by ov]-ex]tion1 b is /r5g!n$ by a mod]ate increase 9 its usual "w47#bc7 ,x may ev5 be subject$ to great ex]tion )\t dang]1 if x be tra9$ by gradually increas+ its "w4 ,su* tra9+1 by giv+ ! he>t "t to ga9 9 size & /r5g?1 prep>es x = tasks t c\ld n at fir/ be accompli%$4 ,9 tak+ up a new ex]cise requir+ consid]able ex]tion1 precautions %\ld be obs]v$ to prev5t an ov]/ra9 ( ! he>t4 ,! he>t ( ! amateur a?lete1 bicycli/1 or m\nta9 climb] is frequ5tly injur$ by attempt+ m ?an ! previ\s tra9+ w>rants4 ,! new "w %\ld be tak5 up gradually1 & feats requir+ a l>ge outlay ( physical en]gy %\ld be attempt$ only aft] long p]iods ( tra9+4 ,s9ce ! he>t is controll$ by ! n]v\s sy/em1 x frequ5tly becomes irregul> 9 its action ?r\gh conditions t exhau/ ! n]v\s en]gy4 ,palpitations ( ! he>t1 ! miss+ ( beats1 & pa9s 9 ! he>t region frequ5tly arise f ?is cause4 ,x is ?r\gh _! effect ^u ! n]v\s sy/em t worry1 ov]/udy1 undue excitem5t1 & dissipation cause di/urbances ( ! he>t4 ,9 all su* cases ! rem$y lies 9 ! removal ( ! cause4 ,! n]v\s sy/em %\ld also be ton$ up ?r\gh re/1 pl5ty ( sleep1 & mod]ate ex]cise 9 ! op5 air4 99,effect ( ,drugs499--,a numb] ( sub/ances class$ z drugs1 ma9ly by _! action on ! n]v\s sy/em1 produce undesirable effects ^u ! organs ( circulation4 ,un=tunately "s ( ^! are ext5sively us$1 alcohol be+ "o ( !m4 ,if tak5 9 any b small quantities1 alcohol is a di/urb+ factor 9 ! circulation4 ,x increases ! rate ( ! he>t beat & dilates ! capill>ies4 ,its effect ^u ! capill>ies is %[n by ! blood%ot eye & ! r$ nose ( ! h>d dr9k]4 ,ano!r bad effect f ! use ( mu* alcohol is ! weak5+ ( ! he>t ?r\gh ! accumulation ( fat ar\nd ?is organ & )9 ! he>t muscle4 ,! use ( alcohol also leads 9 _m cases to a h>d5+ ( ! walls ( ! art]ies1 su* z occurs 9 old age4 ,?is effect makes ! use ( alcohol especially dang]\s = ^? 9 advanc$ ye>s4 ,tobacco conta9s a drug1 call$ nicot9e1 :i* has a bad effect ^u ! he>t 9 at lea/ two ways3 #a4 ,:5 ! use ( tobacco is begun 9 e>ly life1 x int]f]es ) ! gr[? ( ! he>t1 lead+ to its weakness 9 ! adult4 #b4 ,:5 us$ 9 consid]able quantity1 by "y or old1 x causes a n]v\s condition bo? di/ress+ & dang]\s1 kn[n z tobacco he>t4 ,tea & c(fee conta9 a drug1 call$ caffe9e1 :i* acts ^u ! n]v\s sy/em & :i* may1 on ?is acc\nt1 int]f]e ) ! prop] control ( ! he>t4 ,9 "s individuals ! tak+ ( a v small am\nt ( ei!r tea or c(fee is suffici5t to cause irregul>ities 9 ! action ( ! he>t4 ,tea is consid]$ ! mild] ( ! two liquids & ! "o less liable to injure4 99,effect ( ,rheumatism499--,! disease :i* affects ! he>t m frequ5tly ?an any o!r is rheumatism4 ,?is attacks ! l9+ membrane1 or endoc>dium1 & causes1 n infrequ5tly1 a %r9kage ( ! he>t valves4 ,! he>t is ?us r5d]$ defective &1 to p]=m its function 9 ! body1 mu/ "w h>d] ?an if x 7 9 a normal condition4 ,rheumatic attacks ( ! he>t d mo/ h>m :5 !y occur 9 e>ly life--! p]iod :5 ! valves are ! mo/ easily affect$4 ,any t5d5cy t[>d rheumatism 9 *ildr5 has1 !re=e1 a s]i\s significance & %\ld receive ! att5tion ( ! physician4 ,any "o hav+ a defective he>t %\ld avoid all =ms ( ex]cise t dem& great ex]tion4 99,/r5g!n+ ( ! ,blood ,vessels499--,di/urbances ( ! circulation1 caus+ too mu* blood to be s5t to c]ta9 p>ts ( ! body & an insuffici5t am\nt to o!rs1 :5 result+ f slight causes1 are usually due to weakness ( ! walls ( ! blood vessels1 p>ticul>ly ( ! muscul> coat4 ,su* weakness is frequ5tly indicat$ by extreme s5sitiv5ess to heat or cold & by a t5d5cy to cat* cold4 ,f a heal? /&po9t ! pres]vation ( ! normal muscul> tone ( ! blood vessels is a problem ( great importance4 ,?\gh ! muscles ( ! blood vessels _c be ex]cis$ 9 ! same mann] z ! volunt>y muscles1 !y may be call$ actively into play ?r\gh all ! conditions t induce *anges 9 ! blood supply to diff]5t p>ts ( ! body4 ,! usual =ms ( physical ex]cise necessitate su* *anges & indirectly ex]cise ! muscul> coat4 ,! exposure ( ! body to cold = %ort int]vals1 because ( ! *anges 9 ! circulation :i* ?is induces1 also s]ves ! same purpose4 ,a cold ba? tak5 ) prop] precautions is b5eficial to ! circulation ( _m & s also is a brisk walk on a fro/y morn+4 ,bo? indirectly ex]cise & /r5g!n ! muscul> coat ( ! blood vessels4 ,on ! o!r h&1 too mu* "t sp5t indoors1 especially 9 ov]heat$ rooms1 leads to a weak5+ ( ! muscul> coat & %\ld be avoid$4 99,*eck+ ( ,fl[ ( ,blood f ,w\nds499--,! loss ( any consid]able quantity ( blood is su* a s]i\s matt] t e "o %\ld "k ! simpl] me?ods ( *eck+ its fl[ f w\nds4 ,9 small w\nds ! fl[ is easily *eck$ by b9d+ cotton or l95 fib] ov] ! place4 ,! absorb5t cotton1 sold 9 small packages at drug /ores1 is excell5t = ?is purpose & %\ld be kept 9 e home4 ,a simple me?od ( *eck+ noseble$ is t ( draw+ air ?r\gh ! ble$+ no/ril1 :ile ! o!r no/ril is compress$ ) ! f+]47#bd7 ,ano!r me?od is to press ) ! f+] 7or ins]t a small roll ( pap]7 "u ! lip aga9/ ! base ( ! nose4 7#be7 ,:]e ! ble$+ is p]si/5t1 ! no/ril %\ld be plugg$ ) a small roll ( clean cotton or pap]4 ,:5 ?is is done1 ! plug %\ld n be remov$ too soon because ( ! likelihood ( />t+ ! fl[ afre%4 ,9 deal+ ) l>ge w\nds ! s]vices ( a physician are indisp5sable4 ,b 9 wait+ = ! physician to arrive tempor>y aid mu/ be r5d]$4 ,! "o :o gives su* aid %\ld fir/ decide :e!r an art]y or a ve9 has be5 injur$4 ,?is is easily det]m9$ by ! nature ( ! blood /ream1 :i* is 9 jets1 or spurts1 f an art]y1 b fl[s /eadily f a ve94 ,if an art]y is injur$1 ! limb %\ld be tightly b&ag$ on ! side ( ! w\nd ne>e/ ! he>t2 if a ve91 on ! side f>!/ f ! he>t4 ,9 addition to ?is1 ! edges ( ! w\nd %\ld be clos$ & cov]$ ) cotton fib] & ! limb %\ld be plac$ on a support above ! level ( ! re/ ( ! body4 ,a l>ge h&k]*ief makes a conv5i5t b&age if prop]ly appli$4 ,?is %\ld be fold$ diagonally & a knot ti$ 9 ! middle4 ,opposite ends are !n ti$1 mak+ a loose-fitt+ loop ar\nd ! limb4 ,! knot is plac$ directly ov] ! blood vessel to be compress$ & a %ort /ick ins]t$ 9 ! loop4 ,! necess>y pressure is !n appli$ by twi/+ ! h&k]*ief ) ! /ick4 ,"t mu/ n be lo/1 h[ev]1 9 ! prep>ation ( a suitable b&age4 ,! blood vessel %\ld be compress$ ) ! f+]s :ile ! b&age is be+ prep>$4 99,summ>y499--,! blood1 to s]ve z a transport+ ag5t1 mu/ be kept cont9ually mov+ ?r\gh all p>ts ( ! body4 ,! blood vessels hold ! blood1 supply ! *annels & =ce necess>y = its circulation1 & provide conditions :i* enable mat]ials bo? to ent] & to leave ! blood /ream4 ,! he>t is ! *ief factor 9 propell+ ! blood1 al?\gh ! muscles & ! ela/ic tissue 9 ! walls ( ! art]ies & ! valves 9 ! ve9s are necess>y aids 9 ! process4 ,9 ! capill>ies ! blood takes on & gives (f mat]ials1 :ile ! art]ies & ve9s s]ve *iefly z tubes = convey+ ! blood f "o sy/em ( capill>ies to ano!r4 99,ex]cises499--#a4 ,( :at special value 9 ! /udy ( ! body 0 ! discov]y ( ! circulation ( ! blood8 #b4 ,/ate ! necessity = a circulat+ liquid 9 ! body4 #c4 ,%[ by a draw+ ! g5]al plan ( ! he>t1 locat+ & nam+ ! ess5tial p>ts4 ,%[ also ! connection ( ! l>ge blood vessels ) ! cavities ( ! he>t4 #d4 ,comp>e ! purpose s]v$ by ! *ord t5d9e to t s]v$ by door/ops 7! /rips aga9/ :i* ! door /rikes 9 clos+74 #e4 ,expla9 h[ ! he>t propels ! blood4 ,to :at class ( pumps does x belong8 ,:at special "w is p]=m$ by ea* ( its divisions8 #f4 ,def9e a valve4 ,( :at use are ! valves 9 ! he>t8 ,9 ! ve9s8 #g4 ,by :at means is pressure f contract+ muscles 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! body made to assi/ 9 ! circulation8 #h4 ,( :at advantage is ! ela/icity ( ! art]ies8 #i4 ,h[ is blood =c$ f ! capill>ies back to ! he>t8 #aj4 ,:y %\ld !re be a diff]5ce 9 /ructure betwe5 ! two sides ( ! he>t8 #aa4 ,foll[+ ,fig4 #bc1 trace ! blood ?r\gh a complete circulation1 nam+ all ! divisions ( ! sy/em 9 ! ord] ( ! fl[ ( ! blood4 #ab4 ,if ! p]iod ( re/ foll[+ ! p]iod ( contraction ( ! he>t be z long z ! p]iod ( contraction1 h[ _m h\rs is ! he>t able to re/ out ( e tw5ty-f\r8 #ac4 ,/ate ! functions ( ! capill>ies4 ,%[ h[ _! /ructure adapts !m to _! "w4 #ad4 ,:at k9d ( physical ex]cise t5ds to /r5g!n ! he>t8 ,:at =ms ( ex]cise t5d to injure x8 ,/ate ! effects ( alcohol & tobacco on ! he>t4 #ae4 ,h[ may rheumatism injure ! he>t8 #af4 ,give directions = *eck+ ! fl[ ( blood f small & f l>ge blood vessels4 ,,practical ,,"w ,9 %[+ ! relations ( ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! he>t1 a l>ge dissectible model is ( great s]vice 7,fig4 #bd74 ,inde$1 :]e ! "t ( ! class is limit$1 ! practical "w may be conf9$ to ! /udy ( ! he>t model1 diagrams ( ! he>t & ! circulation1 & a few simple exp]im5ts4 ,h[ev]1 :]e ! c\rse is m ext5d$1 ! dissection ( ! he>t ( "s animal z describ$ bel[ is /rongly advis$4 99,obs]vations on ! ,he>t499--,procure1 by ! assi/ance ( a but*]1 ! he>t ( a %eep1 calf1 or hog4 ,to insure ! specim5 aga9/ mutilation1 ! lungs & ! diaphragm mu/ be left atta*$ to ! he>t4 ,9 /udy+ ! diff]5t p>ts1 good results w be obta9$ by obs]v+ ! foll[+ ord]3 #a4 ,obs]ve ! connection ( ! he>t to ! lungs1 diaphragm1 & l>ge blood vessels4 ,inflate ! lungs & obs]ve ! position ( ! he>t ) ref]5ce to !m4 #b4 ,exam9e ! sac surr\nd+ ! he>t1 call$ ! p]ic>dium4 ,pi]ce its l[] portion & collect ! p]ic>dial fluid4 ,increase ! op5+ ?us made until x is l>ge en\gh to slip ! he>t out ?r\gh x4 ,!n slide back ! p]ic>dium until its connection ) ! l>ge blood vessels above ! he>t is f\nd4 ,obs]ve t a ?9 lay] ( x cont9ues d[n f ?is atta*m5t1 =m+ ! out] cov]+ ( ! he>t4 #c4 ,trace out = a %ort di/ance & /udy ! ve9s & art]ies connect$ ) ! he>t4 ,! art]ies are to be di/+ui%$ by _! ?ick walls4 ,! he>t may n[ be sev]$ f ! lungs by cutt+ ! l>ge blood vessels1 c>e be+ tak5 to leave a consid]able l5g? ( ea* "o atta*$ to ! he>t4 ,fig4 #bd ,fig4 #bd--,model = demon/rat+ ! he>t4 #d4 ,obs]ve ! outside ( ! he>t4 ,! ?ick1 l[] portion conta9s ! cavities call$ v5tricles2 ! ?91 upp]1 e>-%ap$ portions are ! auricles4 ,! ?ick] & d5s] side lies t[>d ! left ( ! animal's body & is call$ ! left side ( ! he>t2 ! o!r is ! "r side4 ,locate ! "r auricle & ! "r v5tricle2 ! left auricle & ! left v5tricle4 #e4 ,lay ! he>t on ! table ) ! front side up & ! apex po9t+ f ! op]ator4 ,?is places ! left side ( ! he>t to 8 left & ! "r side to 8 "r4 ,notice ! groove betwe5 ! v5tricles1 call$ ! int]-v5tricul> groove4 ,make an incision half an in* to ! "r ( ?is groove & cut t[>d ! base ( ! he>t until ! pulmon>y art]y is laid op54 ,!n1 foll[+ )9 half an in* ( ! groove1 cut d[n & ar\nd ! "r side ( ! he>t4 ,! wall ( ! "r v5tricle may n[ be rais$ & ! cavity expos$4 ,obs]ve ! ext5t ( ! cavity1 its %ape1 its l9+1 its columns ( muscles1 its half columns ( muscles1 its t5dons 7*ord t5d9e71 ! tricuspid valve f ! "u side1 etc4 ,also notice ! valve at ! beg9n+ ( ! pulmon>y art]y 7! "r semilun>7 & ! s9uses1 or depressions1 9 ! art]y imm$iately beh9d its divisions4 #f4 ,n[ cut ?r\gh ! middle ( ! loos5$ v5tricul> wall f ! apex to ! middle ( ! "r auricle1 lay+ x op5 = obs]vation4 ,obs]ve ! op5+s into ! auricle1 !re be+ "o ea* = ! v5a cava sup]ior1 ! v5a cava inf]ior1 & ! coron>y ve94 ,comp>e ! walls1 l9+1 %ape1 size1 etc41 ) ! v5tricle bel[4 #g4 ,cut (f ! end ( ! left v5tricle ab\t an in* above ! apex4 ,?is w %[ ! ext5sion ( ! cavity to ! apex2 x w also %[ ! ?ickness ( ! walls & ! %ape ( ! cavity4 ,split up ! v5tricul> wall f> en\gh to exam9e ! mitral valve & ! *ord t5d9e f ! l[] side4 #h4 ,make an incision 9 ! left auricle4 ,exam9e its inn] surface & f9d ! places ( entrance ( ! pulmon>y ve9s4 ,exam9e ! mitral valve f above4 ,comp>e ! two sides ( ! he>t1 "p = "p4 #i4 ,sep>ate ! aorta f ! o!r blood vessels & cut x entirely free f ! he>t1 c>e be+ tak5 to leave en\gh ( ! he>t atta*$ to ! art]y to insure ! semilun> valve's be+ left 9 good condition4 ,aft] ty+ or plugg+ up ! holes 9 ! sides ( ! art]y1 p\r wat] into ! small end & obs]ve ! clos+ ( ! semilun> valve4 ,repeat ! exp]im5t until ! action ( ! valve is und]/ood4 ,sket* ! art]y1 %[+ ! valve 9 a clos$ condition4 99,to illu/rate ! ,action ( a ,v5tricle499--,procure a syr+e bulb ) an op5+ at ea* end4 ,connect a rubb] tube ) ea* op5+1 lett+ ! tubes rea* into two tumbl]s conta9+ wat]4 ,by alt]nately compress+ & releas+ ! bulb1 wat] is pump$ f "o vessel into ! o!r4 ,! bulb may be tak5 to repres5t "o ( ! v5tricles4 ,:at action ( ! v5tricle is repres5t$ by compress+ ! bulb8 ,by releas+ ! pressure8 ,%[ by a sectional draw+ ! arrangem5t ( ! valves 9 ! syr+e bulb4 ,fig4 #be ,fig4 #be--;,illu/rat+ ela/icity ( art]ies4 99,to %[ ! ,advantage ( ! ,ela/icity ( ,art]ies499--,connect ! syr+e bulb us$ 9 ! la/ exp]im5t ) a rubb] tube ?ree or f\r feet 9 l5g? & hav+ r ?9 walls4 ,9 ! opposite end ( ! rubb] tube ins]t a %ort glass tube :i* has be5 drawn 7by heat+7 to a f9e po9t 7,fig4 #be74 ,pump wat] into ! rubb] tube1 obs]v+3 #a4 ,! swell+ ( ! tube 7pulse7 z ! wat] is =c$ into x4 7,?is is be/ obs]v$ by plac+ ! f+]s on ! tube47 #b4 ,! =c+ ( wat] f ! po9t$ tubs dur+ ! int]val :5 no pressure is be+ appli$ f ! bulb4 ,comp>e ) ! action ( ! art]ies :5 blood is =c$ into !m f ! v5tricles4 ,repeat ! exp]im5t1 us+ a long glass tube t]m9at+ 9 a po9t in/ead ( ! rubb] tube4 7,9 fitt+ ! glass tube to ! bulb use a v %ort rubb] tube47 ,obs]ve & acc\nt = ! diff]5ces 9 ! fl[ ( wat] ?r\gh ! inela/ic tube4 99,to %[ ! ,advantage ( ,valves 9 ! ,ve9s499--,atta* an op5 glass tube "o foot 9 l5g? to ea* end ( ! rubb] tube us$ 9 ! prec$+ exp]im5t & fill ) wat] 7by suck+7 to )9 ab\t six in*es ( ! end4 ,lay on ! table ) ! glass tubes secur$ 9 an upright position 7,fig4 #bf74 ,n[ compress ! tube ) ! h&1 not+ t ! wat] rises 9 bo? tubes1 be+ pu%$ 9 bo? directions4 ,?is effect is simil> to t produc$ on ! blood :5 a ve9 hav+ no valves is compress$4 ,fig4 #bf ,fig4 #bf4--99,simple app>atus99 = %[+ advantage ( valves 9 ve9s4 ,n[ imitate ! action ( a valve by clamp+ ! tube at "o po9t1 or by clos+ x by pressure f ! f+]1 & !n compress+ ) ! h& "s portion ( ! tube on ! table4 ,obs]ve 9 ?is in/ance t ! wat] is 99all99 pu%$ 9 ! same direction4 ,! movem5t ( ! wat] is n[ l ! effect produc$ on ! blood 9 ve9s hav+ valves :5 ! ve9s are compress$4 99,to %[ ! ,position ( ! ,valves 9 ! ,ve9s499--,ex]cise ! arm & h& = a mom5t to increase ! blood supply4 ,expose ! =e>m & exam9e ! ve9s on its surface4 ,) a f+]1 /roke "o ( ! ve9s t[>d ! he>t1 not+ t1 z ! blood is pu%$ along on "o side ( ! f+] ! blood foll[s on ! o!r side4 ,n[ /roke ! ve9 t[>d ! h&4 ,places are f\nd beyond :i* ! blood does n foll[ ! f+]4 ,^! m>k ! positions ( valves4 99,to %[ ,effect ( ,ex]cise ^u ! ,circulation499--#a4 ,) a f+] on ! pulse at ! wri/ or temple1 c\nt ! numb] ( he>t beats dur+ a p]iod ( "o m9ute "u ! foll[+ conditions3 7a7 :5 sitt+2 7b7 :5 /&+2 7c7 aft] active ex]cise1 z runn+4 ,:at relation1 if any1 d ^! obs]vations indicate betwe5 ! g5]al activity ( ! body & ! "w ( ! he>t8 #b4 ,comp>e ! size ( ! ve9s on ! backs ( ! h&s :5 !y are plac$ side by side on a table4 ,!n ex]cise briskly ! "r h& & arm1 cl5*+ & uncl5*+ ! fi/ & flex+ ! arm at ! elb[4 ,place ! h&s aga9 side by side &1 aft] wait+ a m9ute1 obs]ve ! increase 9 ! size ( ! ve9s 9 ! h& ex]cis$4 ,h[ is ?is acc\nt$ =8 99,to ,%[ ! ,effect ( ,gravity on ! ,circulation499--,hold "o h& high above ! head1 at ! same "t lett+ ! o!r h& hang loosely by ! side4 ,obs]ve ! diff]5ce 9 ! color ( ! h&s & ! degree to :i* ! l>ge ve9s are fill$4 ,repeat ! exp]im5t1 rev]s+ ! position ( ! h&s4 ,:at results are obs]v$8 ,9 :at p>ts ( ! body does gravity aid 9 ! return ( ! blood to ! he>t8 ,9 :at p>ts does x h9d]8 ,:]e fa9t+ is caus$ by lack ( blood 9 ! bra9 7! usual cause71 is x bett] to let ! pati5t lie d[n flat or to =ce him into a sitt+ po/ure8 99,to /udy ! ,circulation 9 a ,frog's ,foot99 7,optional74--,a comp\nd microscope is ne$$ 9 ?is /udy & = ext5d$ exam9ation x is be/ to de/roy ! frog's bra94 ,?is is done by ins]t+ "s blunt-po9t$ in/rum5t into ! skull cavity f ! neck & mov+ x ab\t4 ,a small frog1 on acc\nt ( ! ?9ness ( its webs1 gives ! be/ results4 ,x %\ld be atta*$ to a ?9 bo>d :i* has an op5+ 9 "o end ov] :i* ! web ( ! foot may be /ret*$4 ,?reads %\ld ext5d f two ( ! toes to p9s driv5 into ! bo>d to secure ! necess>y t5sion ( ! web1 & ! foot & l[] leg %\ld be kept moi/4 ,us+ a two-?irds-in* objective1 obs]ve ! bran*+ ( ! small art]ies into ! capill>ies & ! union ( ! capill>ies to =m ! small ve9s4 ,! appe>ance is truly wond]ful1 b all[ance mu/ be made = ! fact t ! motion ( ! blood is magnifi$1 z well z ! diff]5t /ructures1 & t x appe>s to move mu* fa/] ?an x really does4 ,) a /ill high] p[]1 ! movem5ts ( ! corpuscles ?r\gh ! capill>ies may be /udi$4 ,,note4--,to p]=m ?is exp]im5t )\t de/roy+ ! bra91 ! frog is fir/ c>efully wrapp$ ) /rips ( wet clo? & securely ti$ to ! bo>d4 ,! wrapp+1 :ile prev5t+ movem5ts ( ! frog1 mu/ n int]f]e ) ! circulation4 ,,*apt] ,,vi - ,,! ,,lymph ,,& ,,its ,,movem5t ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,body ,fig4 #bg ,fig4 #bg--99;,diagram %[+ position ( ! lymph99 ) ref]5ce to ! blood & ! cells4 ,! c5tral tube is a capill>y4 ,! arr[s indicate ! direction ( slight movem5ts 9 ! lymph4 ,! blood1 x w be rememb]$1 moves ev]y:]e ?r\gh ! body 9 a sy/em ( clos$ tubes4 ,^! keep x f com+ 9 contact ) any ( ! cells ( ! body except ^? l9+ ! tubes !mselves4 ,! capill>ies1 to be sure1 br+ ! blood v ne> ! cells ( ! diff]5t tissues2 /ill1 !re is ne$ ( a liquid to fill ! space betwe5 ! capill>ies & ! cells & to transf] mat]ials f "o to ! o!r4 ,! lymph occupies ?is position & does ?is "w4 ,! position ( ! lymph ) ref]5ce to ! capill>ies & ! cells is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bg4 99,orig9 ( ! ,lymph499--,! *ief s\rce ( ! lymph is ! plasma ( ! blood4 ,z be=e describ$1 ! walls ( ! capill>ies consi/ ( a s+le lay] ( flat cells plac$ edge to edge4 ,p>tly on acc\nt ( ! pressure ^u ! blood & p>tly on acc\nt ( ! natural t5d5cy ( liquids to pass ?r\gh animal membranes1 a consid]able portion ( ! plasma p5etrates ! ?9 walls & ent]s ! spaces occupi$ by ! lymph4 ,! cells !mselves also help to =m ! lymph1 s9ce ! wat] & wa/es leav+ ! cells add to its bulk4 ,^! mix ) ! plasma f ! blood1 =m+ ! resultant liquid :i* is ! lymph4 ,a consid]able am\nt ( ! mat]ial absorb$ f ! food canal also ent]s ! lymph tubes1 b ?is passes into ! blood be=e rea*+ ! cells4 99,composition & ,physical ,prop]ties ( ! ,lymph4997#bf7--;,z w\ld naturally be expect$1 ! composition ( ! lymph is simil> to t ( ! blood4 ,9 fact1 ne>ly all ! important con/itu5ts ( ! blood are f\nd 9 ! lymph1 b 9 diff]5t proportions4 ,food mat]ials = ! cells are pres5t 9 small] am\nts ?an 9 ! blood1 :ile impurities f ! cells are 9 l>g] am\nts4 ,z a rule ! r$ corpuscles are abs5t f ! lymph1 b ! :ite corpuscles are pres5t & 9 ab\t ! same numb]s z 9 ! blood4 ,! physical prop]ties ( ! lymph are also simil> to ^? ( ! blood4 ,l ! blood1 ! lymph is d5s] ?an wat] & also coagulates1 b x coagulates m sl[ly ?an does ! blood4 ,! mo/ noticeable diff]5ce betwe5 ^! liquids is t ( color1 ! lymph be+ colorless4 ,?is is due to ! abs5ce ( r$ corpuscles4 ,! quantity ( lymph is e/imat$ to be consid]ably great] ?an t ( ! blood4 99,lymph ,vessels499--,mo/ ( ! lymph lies 9 m9ute cavities surr\nd+ ! cells & 9 close relations ) ! capill>ies 7,figs4 #bg & #cj74 ,^! are call$ lymph spaces4 ,connect+ ) ! lymph spaces on ! "o h&1 & ) c]ta9 blood vessels on ! o!r1 is a sy/em ( tubes t return ! lymph to ! blood /ream4 ,! smalle/ ( ^!1 & ! ones 9 greate/ abundance1 are call$ lymphatics4 ,!y consi/ ( sl5d]1 ?9-wall$ tubes1 :i* resemble ve9s 9 /ructure1 &1 l ! ve9s1 h valves4 ,!y diff] f ve9s1 h[ev]1 9 be+ m uni=m 9 size & 9 hav+ ?9n] walls4 ,fig4 #bh ,fig4 #bh--99;,diagram ( dra9age sy/em = ! lymph499 #a4 ,?oracic duct4 #b4 ,"r lymphatic duct4 #c4 ,left subclavian ve94 #d4 ,"r subclavian ve94 #e4 ,sup]ior v5a cava4 #f4 ,lacteals4 #g4 ,lymphatic gl&s4 ,! small tubes connect+ ) ! lymph spaces 9 all p>ts ( ! body are ! lymphatics4 ,! lymphatics 9 diff]5t places gradually conv]ge t[>d1 & empty into1 ! two ma9 lymph tubes ( ! body4 ,! small] ( ^! tubes1 call$ ! "r lymphatic duct1 receives ! lymph f ! lymphatics 9 ! "r arm1 ! "r side ( ! head1 & ! region ( ! "r %\ld]4 ,x connects )1 & empties its cont5ts into1 ! "r subclavian ve9 at ! place :]e x is jo9$ by ! "r jugul> ve9 7,fig4 #bh74 ,! l>g] ( ! lymph tubes is call$ ! ?oracic duct4 ,?is receives lymph f all p>ts ( ! body n dra9$ by ! "r lymphatic duct1 & empties x into ! left subclavian ve94 ,connection is made ) ! subclavian ve9 on ! upp] side at ! place :]e x is jo9$ by ! left jugul> ve94 ,! ?oracic duct has a l5g? ( f sixte5 to eighte5 in*es1 & is ab\t z l>ge ar\nd z a goose quill4 ,! l[] end t]m9ates 9 an enl>gem5t 9 ! abdom9al cavity1 call$ ! receptacle ( ! *yle4 ,x is provid$ ) valves ?r\gh\t its c\rse1 9 addition to "o ( consid]able size :i* gu>ds ! op5+ into ! blood vessel4 ,! lymphatics :i* jo9 ! ?oracic duct f ! small inte/9e are call$ ! lacteals 7,fig4 #bh74 ,^! d n diff] 9 /ructure f ! lymphatics 9 o!r p>ts ( ! body1 b !y p]=m a special "w 9 absorb+ ! dige/$ fat 7,*apt] ,,xi74 99,lymphatic ,gl&s499--,! lymphatic gl&s1 sometimes call$ lymph nodes1 are small & some:at r\nd$ bodies situat$ along ! c\rse ( ! lymphatic tubes4 ,!y v>y 9 size1 "s ( !m be+ an in* or m 9 l5g?4 ,! lymph vessels g5]ally op5 into !m on "o side & leave !m on ! o!r 7,figs4 #bh & #cj74 ,!y are n gl&s 9 function1 b are s call$ because ( _! hav+ ! g5]al =m ( gl&s4 ,!y provide favorable conditions = ! developm5t ( :ite corpuscles 7page #bi74 ,!y also sep>ate h>mful g]ms & poison\s wa/es f ! lymph1 !reby prev5t+ _! entrance into ! blood4 99,relations ( ! ,lymph1 ! ,blood1 & ! ,cells499--,:ile ! blood is necess>y z a c>ry+1 or transport+1 ag5t 9 ! body1 ! lymph is necess>y = transf]r+ mat]ials f ! blood to ! cells & vice v]sa4 ,s]v+ z a physiological g betwe51 or m$ium ( ex*ange1 ! lymph enables ! blood to m9i/] to ! ne$s ( ! cells4 ,b ! lymph & ! blood1 ev]y?+ consid]$1 c h>dly be look$ ^u z two sep>ate & di/9ct liquids4 ,n only d !y supplem5t ea* o!r 9 _! "w & possess /rik+ simil>ities1 b ea* is made 9 its movem5ts to pass into ! vessels occupi$ by ! o!r1 s t !y are con/antly mix+ & m+l+4 ,= ^! & o!r reasons1 !y are m prop]ly reg>d$ z two divisions ( a s+le liquid--"o :i*1 by adapt+ itself to diff]5t purposes17#bg7 supplies all ! conditions ( a nutri5t fluid = ! cells4 99,movem5ts ( ! ,lymph499--,z comp>$ ) ! blood1 ! lymph mu/ be class$ z a quiet liquid4 ,b1 z already sugge/$1 x has c]ta9 movem5ts :i* are necess>y to ! purposes :i* x s]ves4 ,a c>eful /udy %[s x to h ?ree well-def9$ movem5ts z foll[s3 #a4 ,a movem5t f ! capill>ies t[>d ! cells4 #b4 ,a movem5t f ! cells t[>d ! capill>ies4 #c4 ,a movem5t ( ! entire body ( lymph f ! lymph spaces into ! lymphatics & along ^! *annels to ! ducts ?r\gh :i* x ent]s ! blood4 ,by ! fir/ movem5t ! cells receive _! n\ri%m5t4 ,by ! second & ?ird movem5ts ! lymph1 m or less lad5 ) impurities1 is return$ to ! blood /ream4 7,see ,figs4 #bh & #cj47 99,causes ( ! ,lymph ,movem5ts499--,let u consid] fir/ ! movem5t ?r\gh ! lymph tubes4 ,no pump1 l ! he>t1 is kn[n to be connect$ ) ^! tubes & to supply ! pressure necess>y = mov+ ! lymph4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 sev]al =ces t indirectly aid 9 its fl[4 ,! mo/ important ( ^! are z foll[s3 #a4 ,blood ,pressure at ! ,capill>ies4--,! plasma :i* is =c$ ?r\gh ! capill>y walls by pressure f ! he>t makes room = itself by pu%+ a portion ( ! lymph out ( ! lymph spaces4 ,?is 9 turn presses ^u ! lymph 9 ! tubes :i* x ent]s4 ,9 ?is way pressure f ! he>t is transmitt$ to ! lymph1 =c+ x to move4 #b4 ,v>iable ,pressure on ! ,walls ( ! ,lymph ,vessels4--,pressure ex]t$ on ! sides ( ! lymph tubes by contract+ muscles t5ds to close !m up & to pu% ! lymph pa/ ! valves1 :i*1 by clos+1 prev5t its return 7,fig4 #bi74 ,pressure at ! surface ( ! body1 provid$ t x is v>iable1 also =ces ! lymph along4 ,! valves 9 ! lymph vessels s]ve ! same purpose z ^? 9 ! ve9s4 ,fig4 #bi ,fig4 #bi--99;,diagram99 to %[ h[ ! muscles pump lymph4 ,a4 ,relax$ muscle beside :i* is a lymphatic tube4 ,b4 ,same muscle 9 /ate ( contraction4 #c4 ,! ,inspiratory ,=ce4--,:5 ! ?oracic cavity is enl>g$ 9 brea?+1 ! unbalanc$ atmosph]ic pressure is ex]t$ f all directions t[>ds ! ?oracic space4 ,?is n only causes ! air to fl[ into ! lungs 7,*apt] ,,vii71 b also causes a movem5t ( ! blood & lymph 9 su* ( _! tubes z ent] ?is cavity4 ,x w be not$ t bo? ( ! l>ge lymph ducts t]m9ate :]e _! cont5ts may be influ5c$ by ! respiratory movem5ts4 7,see ,practical ,"w47 99,:]e ! ,lymph ent]s ! ,blood499--,! fact t ! lymph is p\r$ into ! blood at b two places1 & ^! v close to ea* o!r1 requires a ^w ( explanation4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 x is impossible = ! lymph to fl[ into blood vessels at mo/ places on acc\nt ( ! blood pressure4 ,?is w\ld =ce ! blood into ! lymph vessels1 in/ead ( all[+ ! lymph to ent] ! blood4 ,! lymph c ent] only at "s place :]e ! blood pressure is less ?an ! pressure t moves ! lymph4 ,su* a place is f\nd 9 ! ?oracic cavity4 ,z already po9t$ out 7page #ed71 ! blood pressure 9 ! ve9s ent]+ ?is cavity becomes1 ) ea* expansion ( ! *e/1 negative1 i4e41 less ?an ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e on ! outside ( ! body4 ,?is1 z we h se51 aids 9 ! fl[ ( ! blood into ! "r auricle4 ,x also aids 9 ! passage ( lymph into ! blood vessels4 ,! lymph is said to be suck$ 91 :i* means t x is =c$ 9 by ! unbalanc$ pressure ( ! atmosph]e47#bh7 ,"s advantage is also ga9$ by ! lymph duct's ent]+ ! subclavian ve9 on ! upp] side & at its union ) ! jugul> ve94 ,ev]y?+ consid]$1 x is f\nd t ! lymph fl[s into ! blood vessels :]e x c be drawn 9 by ! movem5ts ( brea?+ & :]e x meets ) no opposition f ! blood /ream itself 7,fig4 #cj74 ,fig4 #cj ,fig4 #cj--99;,diagram99 %[+ g5]al movem5t ( lymph f ! place ( relatively high pressure at ! lymph spaces to ! place ( relatively l[ pressure 9 ! ?oracic cavity4 99,lymph ,movem5ts at ! ,cells499--,! d\ble movem5t ( ! lymph f ! capill>ies t[>d ! cells & f ! cells t[>d ! capill>ies is n entirely und]/ood4 ,blood pressure 9 ! capill>ies und\bt$ly has mu* to d 9 =c+ ! plasma ?r\gh ! capill>y walls1 b ?is t5ds to prev5t ! movem5t ( ! lymph 9 ! opposite direction4 ,movem5ts betwe5 ! blood & ! lymph are kn[n to take place 9 "p accord+ to a g5]al pr9ciple1 kn[n z osmosis1 or dialysis4 ,fig4 #ca ,fig4 #ca--99,vessel99 ) an upright membran\s p>tition = illu/rat+ osmosis4 99,osmosis499--,! t]m osmosis is us$ to designate ! passage ( liquids ?r\gh "s p>tition :i* sep>ates !m4 ,?us1 if a vessel ) an upright membran\s p>tition be fill$ on ! "o side ) pure wat] & on ! o!r ) wat] conta9+ salt1 an ex*ange ( mat]ials w take place ?r\gh ! membrane until ! same proportion ( salt exi/s on ! two sides 7,fig4 #ca74 ,! cause ( osmosis is ! motion ( ! molecules1 or m9ute p>ticles1 t make up ! liquid sub/ance4 ,if ! p>tition 7 n pres5t1 ?is motion w\ld simply cause a mix+ ( ! liquids4 99,conditions "u :i* ,osmosis occurs499--,osmosis may be %[n by suitable exp]im5ts 7see ,practical ,"w7 to take place "u ! foll[+ conditions3 #a4 ,! liquids on ! two sides ( ! p>tition mu/ be unlike ei!r 9 d5sity or 9 composition4 ,s9ce ! effect ( ! movem5t is to r$uce ! liquids to ! same condition1 a diff]5ce 9 d5sity causes ! fl[ to be great] f ! less d5se t[>d ! d5s] liquid1 ?an 9 ! opposite direction2 :ile a diff]5ce 9 composition causes ! sub/ances 9 solution to move f ! place ( great] abundance t[>d places ( less abundance4 #b4 ,! liquids mu/ be capable ( wett+1 or p5etrat+1 ! p>tition4 ,if b "o ( ! liquids p5etrates ! p>tition1 ! fl[ w be 9 b "o direction4 #c4 ,! liquids on ! two sides ( ! p>tition mu/ readily mix ) ea* o!r4 99,osmosis at ! ,cells499--,9 ! body osmosis takes place betwe5 ! blood & ! lymph & betwe5 ! lymph & ! cells1 ! movem5ts be+ ?r\gh ! capill>y walls & ! membranes inclos+ ! cells 7,fig4 #bg74 ,oxyg5 & food mat]ials1 :i* are f\nd 9 great abundance 9 ! blood1 are less abundant 9 ! lymph & /ill less abundant 9 ! cells4 ,accord+ to ! pr9ciple ( osmosis1 ! ma9 fl[ ( oxyg5 & food is f ! capill>ies t[>d ! cells4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! wa/es are mo/ abundant 9 ! cells :]e !y are =m$1 less abundant 9 ! lymph1 & lea/ abundant 9 ! blood4 ,h5ce ! wa/es fl[ f ! cells t[>d ! capill>ies4 99,solutions499--,nei!r ! blood plasma nor ! lymph1 z already %[n1 are simple liquids2 b !y consi/ ( wat] & diff]5t sub/ances dissolv$ 9 ! wat]4 ,!y belong to a class ( sub/ances call$ solutions4 ,! *ief po9t ( int]e/ ab\t sub/ances 9 solution is t !y are v f9ely divid$ & t _! little p>ticles are free to move ab\t 9 ! liquid t conta9s !m4 ,bo? ! motion & ! f9ely divid$ condition ( ! dissolv$ sub/ances are necess>y to ! process ( osmosis4 ,all sub/ances1 h[ev]1 t appe> to be 9 solution are n able to p5etrate membranes1 or take "p 9 osmosis4 99,k9ds ( ,solutions 9 ! ,body499--,! sub/ances 9 solution 9 ! body liquids are ( two g5]al k9ds kn[n z colloids & cry/alloids4 ,! cry/alloids are able to pass ?r\gh membran\s p>titions1 :ile ! colloids are n4 ,an example ( a colloid is f\nd 9 ! album9 ( an egg1 :i* is unable to p5etrate ! membrane :i* surr\nds x4 ,examples ( cry/alloids are f\nd 9 solutions ( salt & sug> 9 wat]4 ,! inability ( a colloid to p5etrate a membrane is due to ! fact t x does n =m a true solution4 ,its p>ticles 7molecules71 in/ead ( be+ completely sep>at$1 /ill cl+ toge!r1 =m+ little masses t are too l>ge to p5etrate ! membrane4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 x has ! appe>ance1 on be+ mix$ ) wat]1 ( be+ dissolv$1 x is call$ a colloidal solution4 ,! cry/alloid sub/ance1 on ! o!r h&1 completely sep>ates 9 ! wat] & =ms a true solution--"o :i* is able to p5etrate ! p>tition or membrane4 99,osmosis n a ,suffici5t ,cause499--,! passage ( mat]ials ?r\gh animal membranes1 accord+ to ! pr9ciple ( osmosis1 is limit$ to cry/alloid sub/ances4 ,b colloid sub/ances are also kn[n to pass ?r\gh ! v>i\s p>titions ( ! body4 ,an example ( su* is f\nd 9 ! proteids ( ! blood :i*1 z a colloidal solution1 pass ?r\gh ! capill>y walls to become a "p ( ! lymph4 ,p]haps ! be/ explanation (f]$ z yet = ?is passage is t ! colloidal sub/ances are *ang$ by ! cells l9+ ! capill>ies into sub/ances t =m true solutions & t aft] ! passage !y are *ang$ back aga9 to ! colloidal condition4 99,summ>y499--,betwe5 ! cells & ! capill>ies is a liquid1 kn[n z ! lymph1 :i* is simil> 9 composition & physical prop]ties to ! blood4 ,x consi/s *iefly ( escap$ plasma4 ,! vessels t conta9 x are connect$ ) ! sy/em = ! circulation ( ! blood4 ,by add+ new mat]ial to ! lymph & )draw+ wa/e mat]ial f x1 ! blood keeps ?is liquid 9 a suitable condition = supply+ ! ne$s ( ! cells4 ,supplem5t+ ea* o!r 9 all respects1 ! blood & ! lymph toge!r =m ! nutri5t cell fluid ( ! body4 ,! int]*ange ( mat]ial betwe5 ! blood & ! lymph1 & ! lymph & ! cells1 takes place 9 "p accord+ to ! pr9ciple ( osmosis4 99,ex]cises499--#a4 ,expla9 ! necessity = ! lymph 9 ! body4 #b4 ,comp>e lymph & wat] ) ref]5ce to d5sity1 color1 & complexity ( composition4 #c4 ,comp>e lymph & blood ) ref]5ce to color1 composition1 & movem5t ?r\gh ! body4 #d4 ,%[ h[ blood pressure 9 ! capill>ies causes a fl[ ( ! lymph4 #e4 ,%[ h[ contract+ muscles cause ! lymph to move4 ,comp>e ) ! effect ( muscul> contraction ^u ! blood 9 ! ve9s4 #f4 ,trace ! lymph 9 its fl[ f ! "r h& to :]e x ent]s ! blood2 f ! feet to :]e x ent]s ! blood4 #g4 ,:at conditions prevail at ! cells to cause a movem5t ( food & oxyg5 9 "o direction & ( wa/e mat]ials 9 ! opposite direction8 #h4 ,:at "p does wat] play 9 ! ex*anges at ! cells8 #i4 ,%[ t ! blood & ! lymph toge!r fulfill all ! requirem5ts ( a nutri5t cell fluid 9 ! body4 ,,practical ,,"w 99,to illu/rate ! ,effect ( ,brea?+ ^u ! ,fl[ ( ,lymph499--,tightly hold+ "o end ( a glass tube betwe5 ! lips1 let ! o!r end ext5d into wat] 9 a tumbl] on a table4 ,9 ?is position quickly inhale air ?r\gh ! no/rils1 not+ t ) ea* inhalation !re is a slight movem5t ( ! wat] up ! tube4 7,no suck+ action %\ld be ex]t$ by ! m\?47 ,apply to ! movem5ts 9 ! l>ge blood & lymph vessels ent]+ ! ?oracic cavity4 99,to illu/rate ,osmosis499--#a4 ,sep>ate ! %ell f ! l9+ membrane at "o end ( an egg1 ov] an area ab\t "o in* 9 diamet]4 ,to d ?is )\t injur+ ! membrane1 ! %ell mu/ fir/ be brok5 into small pieces & !n pick$ (f ) a pair ( =ceps1 or a small knife blade4 ,fit a small glass tube1 eight or t5 in*es long1 into ! o!r end s t x w p5etrate ! membrane & pass d[n into ! yolk4 ,securely fa/5 ! tube to ! %ell by melt+ beeswax ar\nd x1 & set ! egg 9 a small tumbl] p>tly fill$ ) wat]4 ,exam9e 9 ! c\rse ( half an h\r4 ,:at evid5ce n[ exi/s t ! wat] has pass$ ?r\gh ! membrane8 #b4 ,tie ov] ! l>ge end ( a ?i/le tube 7us$ by *emi/s7 a ?9 animal membrane1 su* z a piece ( ! p]ic>dium or a /rip ( ! membrane f ar\nd a sausage4 ,!n fill ! bulb & ! l[] end ( ! tube ) a conc5trat$ solution ( "s solid1 su* z sug>1 salt1 or copp] sulphate4 ,susp5d 9 a vessel ( wat] s t ! liquid :i* x conta9s is j on a level ) ! wat] 9 ! vessel4 ,exam9e f "t to "t1 look+ = evid5ce ( a movem5t 9 ea* direction ?r\gh ! membrane4 ,:y %\ld ! movem5t ( ! wat] into ! tube be great] ?an ! movem5t 9 ! opposite direction8 7,if ! ?i/le tube has a v sl5d] /em1 x is bett] to fill ! bulb be=e ty+ on ! membrane4 ,! op5+ 9 ! /em may be plugg$ dur+ ! process ( fill+47 ,fig4 #cb ,fig4 #cb--;,an osmosomet]4 ,,note4--,) a special piece ( app>atus1 kn[n z an osmosomet]1 ! pr9ciple ( osmosis may be m easily illu/rat$ ?an by ! me?od 9 ei!r ( ! above exp]im5ts 7,fig4 #cb74 ,?is app>atus may be obta9$ f supply h\ses4 ,,*apt] ,,vii - ,,respiration ,?r\gh ! movem5ts ( ! blood & ! lymph1 mat]ials ent]+ ! body are transport$ to ! cells1 & wa/es =m$ at ! cells are c>ri$ to ! organs :i* remove !m f ! body4 ,we are n[ to consid] ! passage ( mat]ials f outside ! body to ! cells & vice v]sa4 ,"o sub/ance :i* ! body con/antly ne$s is oxyg51 & "o :i* x is con/antly ?r[+ (f is c>bon dioxide4 ,bo? ( ^! are con/itu5ts ( 99,! ,atmosph]e499--,! atmosph]e1 or air1 completely surr\nds ! e>? z a k9d ( envelope1 & comes 9 contact ) ev]y?+ ^u its surface4 ,x is compos$ *iefly ( oxyg5 & nitrog517#bi7 b x also conta9s a small p] c5t ( o!r sub/ances1 su* z wat]-vapor1 c>bon dioxide1 & argon4 ,all ( ! regul> con/itu5ts ( ! atmosph]e are gases1 & ^!1 z comp>$ ) liquids & solids1 are v light4 ,nev]!less ! atmosph]e has weight &1 on ?is acc\nt1 ex]ts pressure ^u ev]y?+ on ! e>?4 ,at ! sea level1 its pressure is ne>ly fifte5 p\nds to ! squ>e in*4 ,! atmosph]e =ms an ess5tial "p ( "o's physical environm5t & s]ves v>i\s purposes4 ,! process by :i* gase\s mat]ials are made to pass betwe5 ! body & ! atmosph]e is kn[n z 99,respiration499--,z usually def9$1 respiration1 or brea?+1 consi/s ( two simple processes--t ( tak+ air into special contrivances 9 ! body1 call$ ! lungs1 & t ( expell+ air f ! lungs4 ,! fir/ process is kn[n z inspiration2 ! second z expiration4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 di/+ui% betwe5 respiration by ! lungs1 call$ ext]nal respiration1 & respiration by ! cells1 call$ int]nal respiration4 ,! purpose ( respiration is indicat$ by ! *anges t take place 9 ! air :ile x is 9 ! lungs4 ,air ent]+ ! lungs 9 ord9>y brea?+ p>ts ) ab\t five p] c5t ( itself 9 ! =m ( oxyg5 & receives ab\t f\r & "o half p] c5t ( c>bon dioxide1 consid]able wat]-vapor1 & a small am\nt ( o!r impurities4 ,^! *anges sugge/ a tw(old purpose = respiration3 #a4 ,to obta9 f ! atmosph]e ! supply ( oxyg5 ne$$ by ! body4 #b4 ,to transf] to ! atmosph]e c]ta9 mat]ials 7wa/es7 :i* mu/ be remov$ f ! body4 ,! *ief organs conc]n$ 9 ! "w ( respiration are 99,! ,lungs499--,! lungs consi/ ( two sac-l bodies susp5d$ 9 ! ?oracic cavity1 & occupy+ all ! space n tak5 up by ! he>t4 ,!y are n simple sacs1 h[ev]1 b are sep>at$ into num]\s divisions1 z foll[s3 #a4 ,! lung on ! "r side ( ! ?orax1 call$ ! "r lung1 is made up ( ?ree divisions1 or lobes1 & ! left lung is made up ( two lobes4 #b4 ,! lobes on ei!r side are sep>at$ into small] divisions1 call$ lobules 7,fig4 #cc74 ,ea* lobule receives a di/9ct division ( an air tube & has 9 itself ! /ructure ( a m9iature lung4 ,fig4 #cc ,fig4 #cc--99,lungs & air passages99 se5 f ! front4 ,! "r lung %[s ! lobes & _! divisions1 ! lobules4 ,! tissue ( ! left lung has be5 dissect$ away to %[ ! air tubes4 #c4 ,9 ! lobule ! air tube divides into a numb] ( small] tubes1 ea* end+ 9 a ?9-wall$ sac1 call$ an infundibulum4 ,! int]ior ( ! infundibulum is sep>at$ into _m small spaces1 kn[n z ! alveoli1 or air cells4 ,! lungs are rem>kable = _! lightness & delicacy ( /ructure47#cj7 ,!y consi/ *iefly ( ! tissues t =m _! sacs1 air tubes1 & blood vessels2 ! membranes t l9e _! inn] & out] surfaces2 & ! connective tissue t b9ds ^! p>ts toge!r4 ,all ^! tissues are m or less ela/ic4 ,! relation ( ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! lungs to ea* o!r & to ! outside atmosph]e w be se5 ?r\gh a /udy ( ! 99,air ,passages499--,! air passages consi/ ( a sy/em ( tubes :i* =m a cont9u\s passageway betwe5 ! outside atmosph]e & ! diff]5t divisions ( ! lungs4 ,! air passes ?r\gh !m z x ent]s & leaves ! lungs1 a fact :i* acc\nts = ! "n4 ,fig4 #cd ,fig4 #cd--99,model ( section ?r\gh ! head991 %[+ upp] air passages & o!r p>ts4 #a4 ,left no/ril4 #b4 ,ph>ynx4 #c4 ,tongue & cavity ( m\?4 #d4 ,l>ynx4 #e4 ,tra*ea4 #f4 ,esophagus4 ,! incom+ air fir/ ent]s ! no/rils4 ,^! consi/ ( two n>r[ passages ly+ side by side 9 ! nose1 & connect+ ) ! ph>ynx beh9d4 ,! l9+ ( ! no/rils1 call$ muc\s membrane is q ?ick1 & has its surface mu* ext5d$ by reason ( be+ spread ov] "s ?91 scroll-%ap$ bones t project into ! passage4 ,?is membrane is well suppli$ ) blood vessels & secretes a consid]able quantity ( liquid4 ,because ( ! nature & arrangem5t ( ! membrane1 ! no/rils are able to w>m & moi/5 ! incom+ air1 & to free x f du/ p>ticles1 prep>+ x1 9 ?is way1 = entrance into ! lungs 7,fig4 #cd74 ,! no/rils are sep>at$ f ! m\? by a ?9 lay] ( bone1 & back ( bo? ! m\? & ! no/rils is ! ph>ynx4 ,! ph>ynx & ! m\? s]ve z p>ts ( ! food canal1 z well z air passages1 & are describ$ 9 connection ) ! organs ( dige/ion 7,*apt] ,x74 ,air ent]+ ! ph>ynx1 ei!r by ! no/rils or by ! m\?1 passes ?r\gh x into ! l>ynx4 ,! l>ynx1 be+ ! special organ = ! production ( ! voice1 is describ$ lat] 7,*apt] ,,xxi74 ,! entrance into ! l>ynx is gu>d$ by a movable lid ( c>tilage1 call$ ! epiglottis1 :i* prev5ts food p>ticles & liquids1 on be+ swall[$1 f pass+ into ! l[] air tubes4 ,! relations ( ! no/rils1 m\?1 ph>ynx1 & l>ynx are %[n 9 ,fig4 #cd4 ,f ! l>ynx ! air ent]s ! tra*ea1 or w9dpipe4 ,?is is a /raight & ne>ly r\nd tube1 slightly less ?an an in* 9 diamet] & ab\t f\r & "o half in*es 9 l5g?4 ,its walls conta9 f sixte5 to tw5ty ,c-%ap$1 c>tilag9\s r+s1 "o above ! o!r & encircl+ ! tube4 ,^! incomplete r+s1 ) _! op5+s direct$ backw>d1 are held 9 place by ?9 lay]s ( connective & muscul> tissue4 ,at ! l[] end ! tra*ea divides into two bran*es1 call$ ! bron*i1 ea* ( :i* closely resembles x 9 /ructure4 ,ea* bron*us sep>ates into a numb] ( small] divisions1 call$ ! bron*ial tubes1 & ^! 9 turn divide into /ill small] bran*es1 kn[n z ! less] bron*ial tubes 7,fig4 #cc74 ,! less] bron*ial tubes1 & ! bran*es into :i* !y sep>ate1 are ! smalle/ ( ! air tubes4 ,"o ( ^! jo9s1 or exp&s into1 ea* ( ! m9ute lung sacs1 or infundibula4 ,muc\s membrane l9es all ( ! air passages4 99,g5]al ,condition ( ! ,air ,passages499--,"o necess>y condition = ! movem5t ( ! air into & f ! lungs is an unob/ruct$ passageway47#ca7 ,! air passages mu/ be kept op5 & free f ob/ructions4 ,!y are kept op5 by special contrivances f\nd 9 _! walls1 :i*1 by supply+ a degree ( /iffness1 cause ! tubes to keep _! =m4 ,9 ! tra*ea1 bron*i1 & l>g] bron*ial tubes1 ! /iffness is suppli$ by r+s ( c>tilage1 :ile 9 ! small] tubes ?is is replac$ by connective & muscul> tissue4 ,! walls ( ! l>ynx conta9 /rips & plates ( c>tilage2 :ile ! no/rils & ! ph>ynx are kept op5 by _! bony surr\nd+s4 ,fig4 #ce ,fig4 #ce--99;,ciliat$ epi!lial cells499 ,a4 ,two cells highly magnifi$4 c4 ,cilia1 n4 ,nucleus4 ,b4 ,diagram ( a small air tube %[+ ! l9+ ( cilia4 ,! air passages are kept clean by cells especially adapt$ to ?is purpose1 kn[n z ! ciliat$ epi!lial cells4 ,^! are sl5d]1 w$ge-%ap$ cells :i* h project+ f a free end _m small1 hair-l bodies1 call$ cilia 7,fig4 #ce74 ,!y l9e ! muc\s membrane 9 mo/ ( ! air passages1 & are s plac$ t ! cilia project into ! tubes4 ,"h !y keep up an inw>d & outw>d wave-l movem5t1 :i* is quick] & has great] =ce 9 ! outw>d direction4 ,by ?is means ! cilia are able to move small pieces ( =eign matt]1 su* z du/ p>ticles & bits ( p>tly dri$ mucus1 call$ phlegm1 to places :]e !y c be easily expell$ f ! lungs47#cb7 ,fig4 #cf ,fig4 #cf--99,t]m9al air sacs499 ,! two l>ge sacs are infundibula2 ! small divisions are alveoli4 7,enl>g$47 99,! ,alveoli499--,! alveoli1 or air cells1 are ! small divisions ( ! infundibula 7,fig4 #cf74 ,!y are ea* ab\t "o "o-hundr$? ( an in* 7#a_/d mm47 9 diamet]1 be+ =m$ by ! infold+ ( ! infundibul> wall4 ,?is wall1 :i* has = its framework a ?9 lay] ( ela/ic connective tissue1 supports a d5se network ( capill>ies 7,fig4 #cg71 & is l9$ by a s+le lay] ( cells plac$ edge to edge4 ,by ?is arrangem5t ! air )9 ! alveoli is br\ght v ne> a l>ge surface ( blood1 & ! ex*ange ( gases betwe5 ! air & ! blood is made possible4 ,x is at ! alveoli t ! oxyg5 passes f ! air into ! blood1 & ! c>bon dioxide passes f ! blood into ! air4 ,at no place 9 ! lungs1 h[ev]1 d ! air & ! blood come 9 direct contact4 ,_! ex*anges mu/ 9 all cases take place ?r\gh ! capill>y walls & ! lay] ( cells l9+ ! alveoli4 ,fig4 #cg ,fig4 #cg--99;,inn] lung surface 7magnifi$7991 ! blood vessels inject$ ) color+ matt]4 ,! small pits are alveoli1 & ! vessels 9 _! walls are *iefly capill>ies4 ,fig4 #ch ,fig4 #ch4--99;,diagram to %[ ! d\ble movem5t ( air & blood ?r\gh ! lungs499 ,! blood leaves ! he>t by ! pulmon>y art]y & returns by ! pulmon>y ve9s4 ,! air ent]s & leaves ! lungs by ! same sy/em ( tubes4 ,fig4 #ci ,fig4 #ci--99;,diagram to %[ air & blood movem5ts 9 a t]m9al air sac499 ,:ile ! air moves into & f ! space )9 ! sac1 ! blood circulates ?r\gh ! sac walls4 99,blood ,supply to ! ,lungs499--,to accompli% ! purposes ( respiration1 n only ! air1 b ! blood also1 mu/ be pass$ into & f ! lungs4 ,! *ief art]y convey+ blood to ! lungs is ! pulmon>y art]y4 ,?is />ts at ! "r v5tricle & by its bran*es conveys blood to ! capill>ies surr\nd+ ! alveoli 9 all p>ts ( ! lungs4 ,! bran*es ( ! pulmon>y art]y lie alongside (1 & divide simil>ly to1 ! bron*ial tubes4 ,at ! places :]e ! f9e/ divisions ( ! air tubes ent] ! infundibula1 ! little art]ies bran* into ! capill>ies t p5etrate ! infundibul> walls 7,figs4 #ch & #ci74 ,f ^! capill>ies ! blood is convey$ by ! pulmon>y ve9s to ! left auricle4 ,! lungs also receive blood f two 79 "s individuals ?ree7 small art]ies bran*+ f ! aorta1 kn[n z ! bron*ial art]ies4 ,^! convey to ! lungs blood t has already be5 suppli$ ) oxyg51 pass+ x into ! capill>ies 9 ! walls ( ! bron*i1 bron*ial tubes1 & l>ge blood vessels1 z well z ! connective tissue betwe5 ! lobes ( ! lungs4 ,?is blood leaves ! lungs p>tly by ! bron*ial ve9s & p>tly by ! pulmon>y ve9s4 ,no "p ( ! body is s well suppli$ ) blood z ! lungs4 ,fig4 #dj ,fig4 #dj--99,! pleur499 ,diagram %[+ ! g5]al =m ( ! pleural sacs z !y surr\nd ! lungs & l9e ! inn] surfaces ( ! *e/ 7o!r p>ts remov$74 ,a1 ,a'4 ,places occupi$ by ! lungs4 ,b1 ,b'4 ,slight space )9 ! pleural sacs conta9+ ! pleural secretion1 a1 a'4 ,out] lay] ( pleura & l9+ ( *e/ walls & upp] surface ( diaphragm4 b1 b'4 ,inn] lay] ( pleura & out] l9+ ( lungs4 ,c4 ,space occupi$ by ! he>t4 ,d4 ,diaphragm4 99,! ,pleura499--,! pleura is a ?91 smoo?1 ela/ic1 & t\gh membrane :i* cov]s ! outside ( ! lungs & l9es ! inside ( ! *e/ walls4 ,! cov]+ ( ea* lung is cont9u\s ) ! l9+ ( ! *e/ wall on its respective side & =ms ) x a clos$ sac by :i* ! lung is surr\nd$1 ! arrangem5t be+ simil> to t ( ! p]ic>dium4 ,prop]ly speak+1 !re are two pleur1 "o = ea* lung1 & ^!1 besides inclos+ ! lungs1 p>tition (f a middle space :i* is occupi$ by ! he>t 7,fig4 #dj74 ,!y also cov] ! upp] surface ( ! diaphragm1 f :i* !y deflect upw>d1 bl5d+ ) ! p]ic>dium4 ,a small am\nt ( liquid is secret$ by ! pleura1 :i* prev5ts friction z ! surfaces glide ov] ea* o!r 9 brea?+4 99,! ,?orax499--,! =ce requir$ = brea?+ is suppli$ by ! box-l portion ( ! body 9 :i* ! lungs are plac$4 ,?is is kn[n z ! ?orax1 or *e/1 & includes t "p ( ! trunk betwe5 ! neck & ! abdom54 ,! space :i* x incloses1 kn[n z ! ?oracic cavity1 is a v>iable space & ! walls surr\nd+ ?is space are air-tight4 ,a framework = ! ?orax is suppli$ by ! ribs :i* connect ) ! sp9al column beh9d & ) ! /]num1 or brea/-bone1 9 front4 ,!y =m jo9ts ) ! sp9al column1 b connect ) ! /]num by /rips ( c>tilage4 ,! ribs d n encircle ! cavity 9 a horizontal direction1 b slope d[nw>d f ! sp9al column bo? t[>d ! front & t[>d ! sides1 ?is be+ necess>y to ! s]vice :i* !y r5d] 9 brea?+4 99,h[ ,air is ,br\ght into & ,expell$ f ! ,lungs499--,! pr9ciple involv$ 9 brea?+ is t air fl[s f a place ( great] to a place ( less pressure4 ,! con/ruction ( ! ?orax & ! arrangem5t ( ! lungs )9 x provide = ! application ( ?is pr9ciple 9 a mo/ practical mann]4 ,! lungs are susp5d$ f ! upp] portion ( ! ?oracic cavity1 & ! tra*ea & ! upp] air passages provide ! only op5+ to ! outside atmosph]e4 ,air ent]+ ! ?orax mu/ on ?is acc\nt pass into ! lungs4 ,z ! ?orax is enl>g$ ! air 9 ! lungs exp&s1 & !re is produc$ )9 !m a place ( slightly less air pressure ?an t ( ! atmosph]e on ! outside ( ! body4 ,?is diff]5ce causes ! air to fl[ into ! lungs4 ,fig4 #da ,fig4 #da--99;,diagram illu/rat+ ! bell[s pr9ciple 9 brea?+499 ,a4 ,! human bell[s4 ,b4 ,! h& bell[s4 ,comp>e "p = "p4 ,:5 ! ?orax is dim9i%$ 9 size1 ! air )9 ! lungs is slightly compress$4 ,?is causes x to become d5s] & to ex]t on ?is acc\nt a pressure slightly great] ?an t ( ! atmosph]e on ! outside4 ,! air n[ fl[s out until ! equality ( ! pressure is aga9 re/or$4 ,?us ! ?orax1 by mak+ ! pressure )9 ! lungs fir/ slightly less & !n slightly great] ?an ! atmosph]ic pressure1 causes ! air to move into & out ( ! lungs4 ,brea?+ is well illu/rat$ by means ( ! common h& bell[s1 its action be+ simil> to t ( ! ?orax4 ,x w be obs]v$ t :5 ! sides are spread ap>t air fl[s into ! bell[s4 ,:5 !y are press$ toge!r ! air fl[s out4 ,if an air-tight sack 7 hung 9 ! bell[s ) its m\? atta*$ to ! project+ tube1 ! arrangem5t w\ld resemble closely ! g5]al plan ( ! brea?+ organs 7,fig4 #da74 ,"o respect1 h[ev]1 9 :i* ! bell[s diff]s f ! ?orax %\ld be not$4 ,! ?orax is nev] suffici5tly compress$ to drive out all ! air4 ,air is always pres5t 9 ! lungs4 ,?is keeps !m m or less di/5d$ & press$ aga9/ ! ?oracic walls4 99,h[ ! ,?oracic ,space is ,v>i$499--,"o means ( v>y+ ! size ( ! ?oracic cavity is ?r\gh ! movem5ts ( ! ribs & _! resultant effect ^u ! walls ( ! ?orax4 ,9 br++ ab\t ^! movem5ts ! foll[+ muscles are employ$3 #a4 ,! scal5i muscles1 ?ree 9 numb] on ea* side1 :i* connect at "o end ) ! v]tebr ( ! neck & at ! o!r ) ! fir/ & second ribs4 ,_! contraction slightly raises ! upp] portion ( ! ?orax4 #b4 ,! elevators ( ! ribs1 twelve 9 numb] on ea* side1 :i* are s di/ribut$ t ea* s+le muscle is atta*$1 at "o end1 to ! back portion ( a rib &1 at ! o!r1 to a projection ( ! v]tebra a few in*es above4 ,! effect ( _! contraction is to' elevate ! middle portion ( ! ribs & to turn !m outw>d or spread !m ap>t4 #c4 ,! int]co/al muscles1 :i* =m two ?9 lay]s betwe5 ! ribs1 kn[n z ! int]nal & ! ext]nal int]co/al muscles4 ,! ext]nal int]co/als are atta*$ betwe5 ! out] l[] m>g9 ( ! rib above & ! out] upp] m>g9 ( ! rib bel[1 & ext5d obliquely d[nw>d & =w>d4 ,! int]nal int]co/als are atta*$ betwe5 ! inn] m>g9s ( adjac5t ribs1 & !y ext5d obliquely d[nw>d & backw>d f ! front4 ,! contraction ( ! ext]nal int]co/al muscles raises ! ribs1 & ! contraction ( ! int]nal int]co/als t5ds to l[] !m4 ,fig4 #db ,fig4 #db--99,simple app>atus99 = illu/rat+ effect ( movem5ts ( ! ribs ^u ! ?oracic space2 /rips ( c>dbo>d held toge!r by p9s1 ! front "p be+ rais$ or l[]$ by ?reads mov+ ?r\gh atta*m5ts at #a & #b4 ,z ! front is rais$ ! space betwe5 ! uprights is increas$4 ,! front upright corresponds to ! brea/bone1 ! back "o to ! sp9al column1 ! connect+ /rips to ! ribs1 & ! ?reads to ! int]co/al muscles4 ,by slightly rais+ & spread+ ap>t ! ribs ! ?oracic space is increas$ 9 two directions--f front to back & f side to side4 ,l[]+ & conv]g+ ! ribs has1 ( c\rse1 ! opposite effect 7,fig4 #db74 ,except 9 =c$ expirations ! ribs are l[]$ & conv]g$ by _! own weight & by ! ela/ic reaction ( ! surr\nd+ p>ts4 99,! ,diaphragm499--,ano!r means ( v>y+ ! ?oracic space is f\nd 9 an organ kn[n z ! diaphragm4 ,?is is ! dome-%ap$1 movable p>tition :i* sep>ates ! ?oracic cavity f ! cavity ( ! abdom54 ,! edges ( ! diaphragm are firmly atta*$ to ! walls ( ! trunk1 & ! c5t] is support$ by ! p]ic>dium & ! pleura4 ,! out] m>g9 is muscul>1 b ! c5tral portion consi/s ( a /rong %eet ( connective tissue4 ,by ! contraction ( its muscles ! diaphragm is pull$ d[n1 !reby increas+ ! ?oracic cavity4 ,by rais+ ! diaphragm ! ?oracic cavity is dim9i%$4 ,! diaphragm1 h[ev]1 is n rais$ by ! contraction ( its own muscles1 b is pu%$ up by ! organs b5ea?4 ,by ! ela/ic reaction ( ! abdom9al walls 7aft] _! hav+ be5 pu%$ out by ! l[]+ ( ! diaphragm71 pressure is ex]t$ on ! organs ( ! abdom5 & ^! 9 turn press aga9/ ! diaphragm4 ,?is cr[ds x into ! ?oracic space4 ,9 =c$ expirations ! muscles 9 ! abdom9al walls contract to pu% up ! diaphragm4 99,int]*ange ( ,gases 9 ! ,lungs499--,dur+ ea* inspiration ! air f ! outside fills ! entire sy/em ( bron*ial tubes1 b ! alveoli are l>gely fill$1 at ! same "t1 by ! air :i* ! la/ expiratory ef=t has left 9 ! passages4 ,by ! action ( curr5ts & eddies & by ! rapid diffusion ( gas p>ticles1 ! air f ! outside mixes ) t 9 ! alveoli & comes 9 contact ) ! membran\s walls4 ,"h ! oxyg51 aft] be+ dissolv$ by ! moi/ure 9 ! membrane1 diffuses into ! blood4 ,! c>bon dioxide1 on ! o!r h&1 be+ 9 excess 9 ! blood1 diffuses t[>d ! air 9 ! alveoli4 ,! int]*ange ( gases at ! lungs1 h[ev]1 is n fully und]/ood1 & x is possible t o!r =ces ?an osmosis play a "p4 ,fig4 #dc ,fig4 #dc--99;,diagram99 illu/rat+ lung capacity4 99,capacity ( ! ,lungs499--,! air :i* passes into & f ! lungs 9 ord9>y brea?+1 call$ ! tidal air1 is b a small "p ( ! :ole am\nt ( air :i* ! lungs conta94 ,ev5 aft] a =c$ expiration ! lungs are almo/ half full2 ! air :i* rema9s is call$ ! residual air4 ,! air :i* is expell$ f ! lungs by a =c$ expiration1 less ! tidal air1 is call$ ! res]ve1 or supplem5tal1 air4 ,^! sev]al quantities are easily e/imat$4 7,see ,practical ,"w47 ,9 ! av]age individual ! total capacity ( ! lungs 7) ! *e/ 9 repose7 is ab\t "o gallon4 ,9 =c$ inspirations ?is capacity may be increas$ ab\t "o ?ird1 ! excess be+ kn[n z ! complem5tal air 7,fig4 #dc74 ,fig4 #dd ,fig4 #dd--99;,diagram99 illu/rat+ int]nal respiration & its dep5d5ce on ext]nal respiration4 7,modifi$ f ,hall47 7,see text47 99,int]nal1 or ,cell1 ,respiration499--,! oxyg5 :i* ent]s ! blood 9 ! lungs leaves x 9 ! tissues1 pass+ ?r\gh ! lymph into ! cells 7,fig4 #dd74 ,at ! same "t ! c>bon dioxide :i* is be+ =m$ at ! cells passes into ! blood4 ,an ex*ange ( gases is ?us tak+ place betwe5 ! cells & ! blood1 simil> to t tak+ place betwe5 ! blood & ! air4 ,?is ex*ange is kn[n z int]nal1 or cell1 respiration4 ,by int]nal respiration ! oxyg5 rea*es ! place :]e x is to s]ve its purpose1 & ! c>bon dioxide beg9s its movem5t t[>d ! ext]ior ( ! body4 ,?is brea?+ by ! cells is1 !re=e1 ! f9al & ess5tial act ( respiration4 ,brea?+ by ! lungs is simply ! means by :i* ! tak+ up ( oxyg5 & 99!99 giv+ (f ( c>bon dioxide by ! cells is made possible4 ,,hygi5e ,,( ,,respiratory ,,organs ,! liability ( ! lungs to attacks f su* dread diseases z consumption & pneumonia makes que/ions t\*+ _! hygi5e ( fir/ importance4 ,consumption does n z a rule attack s\nd lung tissue1 b usually has its beg9n+ 9 "s weak or enfeebl$ spot 9 ! lungs :i* has lo/ its p[] ( resi/ance4 ,?\gh consumption is n inh]it$1 z "s suppose1 lung weaknesses may be transmitt$ f p>5ts to *ildr54 ,?is1 toge!r ) ! fact1 n[ g5]ally recogniz$1 t consumption is contagi\s1 acc\nts = ! frequ5t appe>ance ( ?is disease 9 ! same family4 ,consumption z well z o!r respiratory affections c 9 ! majority ( cases be prev5t$1 & 9 _m cases cur$1 by an intellig5t obs]vation ( well-kn[n laws ( heal?4 99,brea! ?r\gh ! ,no/rils499--,pure air & pl5ty ( x is ! ma9 condition 9 ! hygi5e ( ! lungs4 ,"o necess>y provision = obta9+ pure air is t ( brea?+ ?r\gh ! no/rils4 ,air is ! c>ri] ( du/ p>ticles & n infrequ5tly ( disease g]ms47#cc7 ,p>tly ?r\gh ! small hairs 9 ! nose1 b ma9ly ?r\gh ! moi/ membrane t l9es ! passages1 ! no/rils s]ve z filt]s = remov+ ! m9ute solid p>ticles 7,fig4 #de74 ,:ile x is important t nose brea?+ be obs]v$ at all times1 x is especially important :5 "o is surr\nd$ by a du/y or smoky atmosph]e4 ,o!rwise ! small p>ticles t are brea!d 9 ?r\gh ! m\? may f9d a lodg+ place 9 ! lungs4 ,fig4 #de ,fig4 #de--99;,human air filt]499 ,diagram ( a section ?r\gh ! no/rils2 %[s project+ bones cov]$ ) moi/ membrane aga9/ :i* ! air is made to /rike by ! n>r[ passages4 #a4 ,air passages4 #b4 ,cavities 9 ! bones4 #c4 ,front l[] portion ( ! cranial cavity4 ,9 addition to remov+ du/ p>ticles & g]ms1 o!r purposes are s]v$ by brea?+ ?r\gh ! no/rils4 ,! w>m? & moi/ure :i* ! air receives 9 ?is way1 prep>e x = ent]+ ! lungs4 ,m\? brea?+1 on ! o!r h&1 looks bad & dur+ sleep causes snor+4 ,! habit ( nose brea?+ %\ld be e/abli%$ e>ly 9 life47#cd7 99,cultivate ,full ,brea?+499--,_m p1 :ile app>5tly tak+ 9 suffici5t air to supply _! ne$ = oxyg51 d n brea! deeply en\gh to freely v5tilate ! lungs4 ,%all[ brea?+1 z ?is is call$1 is objectionable because x fails to keep up a heal?y condition ( ! entire lung surface4 ,portions ( ! lungs to :i* air does n easily p5etrate fail to get ! fre% air & ex]cise :i* !y ne$4 ,z a consequ5ce1 !y become weak &1 by los+ _! p[] ( resi/ance1 become po9ts ( attack 9 diseases ( ! lungs47#ce7 ,! brea?+ ( ea* individual %\ld receive att5tion1 & :]e f "s cause x is n suffici5tly full & deep1 ! means %\ld be f\nd = rem$y+ ! defect4 99,causes ( ,%all[ ,brea?+499--,any?+ t imp$es ! free movem5t ( air into ! lungs t5ds to cause %all[ brea?+ ,a droop+ ( ! back or %\ld]s & a curv$ condition ( ! sp9al column1 su* z is caus$ by an improp] position 9 sitt+1 int]f]e ) ! free movem5ts ( ! ribs & are recogniz$ causes4 ,clo?+ also may imp$e ! respiratory movem5ts & lead to %all[ brea?+4 ,if too tight ar\nd ! *e/1 clo?+ int]f]es ) ! elevation ( ! ribs2 & if too tight ar\nd ! wai/1 x prev5ts ! depression ( ! diaphragm4 ,o!r causes ( %all[ brea?+ are f\nd 9 ! abs5ce ( vigor\s ex]cise1 9 ! lead+ ( an indoor & inactive life1 9 ob/ructions 9 ! no/rils & upp] ph>ynx1 & 9 ! lack ( att5tion to prop] me?ods ( brea?+4 ,to prev5t %all[ brea?+ "o %\ld h ! habit ( sitt+ & /&+ erect4 ,! clo?+ mu/ n be all[$ to int]f]e ) ! respiratory movem5ts4 ,! tak+ ( ex]cise suffici5tly vigor\s to cause deep & rapid brea?+ %\ld be a common practice & "o %\ld sp5d consid]able "t out ( doors4 ,if "o has a flat *e/ or r\nd %\ld]s1 he %\ld /rive by suitable ex]cises to ov]come ^! defects4 ,ob/ructions 9 ! no/rils or ph>ynx %\ld be remov$4 99,brea?+ ,ex]cises499--,9 ov]com+ ! habit ( %all[ brea?+ & 9 /r5g!n+ ! lungs g5]ally1 ! practic+ ( occasional deep brea?+ has be5 f\nd mo/ valuable & is widely recomm5d$4 ,) ! h&s on ! hips1 ! %\ld]s drawn back & d[n1 ! *e/ pu%$ upw>d & =w>d1 & ! *9 slightly depress$1 draw ! air sl[ly ?r\gh ! no/rils until ! lungs are completely full4 ,aft] hold+ ?is long en\gh to c\nt ?ree sl[ly1 expel x quickly f ! lungs4 ,avoid /ra9+4 ,to get ! b5efit ( pure air1 x is g5]ally bett] to practice deep brea?+ out ( doors or be=e an op5 w9d[4 ,by comb9+ deep brea?+ ) simple ex]cises ( ! arms1 %\ld]s1 & trunk mu* may be done t[>ds /raight5+ ! sp9e1 squ>+ ! %\ld]s1 & ov]com+ flatness ( ! *e/4 ,?\gh su* movem5ts are be/ c>ri$ on by ! aid ( a physical director1 "o c d mu* to help himself4 ,"o may safely proce$ on ! pr9ciple t slight de=mities ( ! *e/1 sp9e1 & %\ld]s are correct$ by ga9+ & keep+ ! natural positions1 & may employ any movem5ts :i* w loos5 up ! p>ts & br+ !m :]e !y naturally belong47#cf7 99,s]i\s ,nature ( ,colds499--,t _m cases ( consumption h _! beg9n+ 9 sev]e colds 7on ! lungs7 is n only a matt] ( popul> belief1 b ! judgm5t also ( physicians4 ,?\gh ! cold is a diff]5t affection f t ( consumption1 x may s l[] ! vitality ( ! body & weak5 ! lung surfaces t ! g]ms ( consumption f9d x easy to get a />t4 ,on ?is acc\nt a cold on ! *e/ :i* does n disappe> 9 a few days1 b :i* p]si/s1 caus+ m or less c\gh+ & pa9 9 ! lungs1 mu/ be giv5 s]i\s consid]ation47#cg7 ,! usual home rem$ies fail+ to give relief1 a physician %\ld be consult$4 ,x %\ld also be not$ t c]ta9 diseases ( a s]i\s nature 7pneumonia1 diph!ria1 measles1 etc47 h 9 _! beg9n+ ! appe>ance ( colds4 ,on ?is acc\nt x is wise n only to call a physician1 b to call him e>ly1 9 sev]e attacks ( ! lungs4 ,especially if ! attack be att5d$ by difficult brea?+1 fev]1 & a rapid pulse is ! case s]i\s & m$ical advice necess>y4 99,v5tilation499--,! process by :i* ! air 9 a room is kept fre% & pure is kn[n z v5tilation4 ,x is a d\ble process--t ( br++ fre% air into ! room & t ( gett+ rid ( air t has be5 r5d]$ impure by brea?+ 7#ch7 or by lamps4 ,outdoor air is usually ( a diff]5t temp]ature 7cold] 9 w9t]1 w>m] 9 summ]7 f t indoors1 & z a consequ5ce diff]s f x slightly 9 weight4 ,on acc\nt ( ?is diff]5ce1 suitable op5+s 9 ! walls ( build+s induce curr5ts :i* pass betwe5 ! rooms & ! outside atmosph]e ev5 :5 !re is no w9d4 ,9 w9t] c>e mu/ be tak5 to prev5t drafts & to avoid too great a loss ( heat f ! room4 ,a cold draft may ev5 cause m h>m to "o 9 delicate heal? ?an ! brea?+ ( air :i* is impure4 ,to v5tilate a room successfully ! problem ( prev5t+ drafts mu/ be consid]$ along ) t ( admitt+ ! fre% air4 ,fig4 #df ,fig4 #df--,w9d[ adju/$ = v5tilation )\t drafts4 ,! me?od ( v5tilation mu/ also be adapt$ to ! con/ruction ( ! build+1 ! plan ( heat+1 & ! condition ( ! wea!r4 ,specific directions _c be giv51 b ! foll[+ sugge/ions w be f\nd helpful 9 v5tilat+ rooms :]e ! air is n w>m$ be=e be+ admitt$3 #a4 ,introduce1 ! air ?r\gh _m small op5+s r ?an a few l>ge ones4 ,if ! w9d[s are us$ = ?is purpose1 raise ! l[] sa% & drop ! upp] "o slightly = sev]al w9d[s1 v>y+ ! wid? to suit ! conditions 7,fig4 #df74 ,by ?is means suffici5t air may be introduc$ )\t caus+ drafts4 #b4 ,introduce ! air at ! w>me/ portions ( ! room4 ,! air %\ld1 if possible1 be w>m$ be=e rea*+ ! occupants4 #c4 ,if ! w9d is bl[+1 v5tilate pr9cipally on ! %elt]$ side ( ! h\se4 ,ample provision %\ld be made = fre% air 9 sleep+ rooms1 & "h aga9 drafts mu/ be avoid$4 ,especially %\ld ! b$ be s plac$ t /rong air curr5ts d n pass ov] ! sleep]4 ,9 s*oolh\ses & halls = public ga!r+s ! means = effici5t v5tilation %\ld1 if possible1 be provid$ 9 ! g5]al plan ( con/ruction & me?od ( heat+4 ,fig4 #dg ,fig4 #dg--99;,artificial respiration99 z a laboratory exp]im5t4 ,expiration4 ,prone-po/ure me?od ( ,s*aff]4 99,artificial ,respiration499--,:5 natural brea?+ is tempor>ily susp5d$1 z 9 p>tial dr[n+1 or :5 "o has be5 ov]come by brea?+ "s poison\s gas1 ! sav+ ( life (t5 dep5ds ^u ! prompt application ( artificial respiration4 ,?is is accompli%$ by alt]nately compress+ & enl>g+ ! ?orax by means ( v>iable pressure on ! outside1 imitat+ ! natural process z ne>ly z possible4 ,foll[+ is ! me?od propos$ by ,pr(essor ,e4,a4 ,s*aff] ( ,engl&1 & call$ by him ! prone-po/ure me?od ( artificial respiration3 ,! pati5t is laid face d[nw>d ) an arm b5t "u ! head1 & int]mitt5t pressure appli$ v]tically ov] ! %orte/ ribs4 ,! pressure drives ! air f ! lungs1 bo? by compress+ ! l[] portions ( ! *e/ & by =c+ ! abdom9al cont5ts aga9/ ! diaphragm1 :ile ! ela/ic reaction ( ! p>ts causes fre% air to ent] 7,figs4 #dg & #dh74 ,! op]ator kneels or squats by ! side (1 or across ! pati5t1 places 8 h&s ov] ! l[e/ ribs & sw+s 8 body backw>d & =w>d s z to all[ 8 weight to fall v]tically on ! wri/s & !n to be remov$2 9 ?is way h>dly any muscul> ex]tion is requir$4444 ,! pressure is appli$ gradually & sl[ly1 occupy+ "s ?ree seconds2 x is !n )drawn dur+ two seconds & aga9 appli$2 & s on "s twelve times p] m9ute47#ci7 ,fig4 #dh ,fig4 #dh--;,artificial respiration4 ,inspiration4 ,! special advantages ( ! prone-po/ure me?od ov] o!rs t h be5 employ$ are3 ,i4 ,x may be appli$ by a s+le individual & =a long p]iod ( "t )\t exhau/ion4 #b4 ,x all[s ! mucus & wat] 79 case ( dr[n+7 to run out ( ! m\?1 & causes ! tongue to fall =w>d s z n to ob/ruct ! passageway4 #c4 ,x br+s a suffici5t am\nt ( air into ! lungs47#dj7 ,:ile apply+ artificial respiration1 ! heat ( ! body %\ld n be all[$ to escape any m ?an c possibly be help$4 ,9 case ( dr[n+1 ! pati5t %\ld be wrapp$ 9 dry blankets or clo?+1 :ile bottles ( hot wat] may be plac$ 9 contact ) ! body4 ,! circulation %\ld be /imulat$1 z may be done by rubb+ ! h&s1 feet1 or limbs 9 ! direction ( ! fl[ ( ! blood 9 ! ve9s4 99,tobacco ,smoke & ! ,air99 ,passages4--,smoke consi/s ( m9ute p>ticles ( unburnt c>bon1 or soot1 su* z collect 9 ! *imneys ( fireplaces & furnaces4 ,if mu* smoke is tak5 into ! lungs1 x irritates ! delicate l9+s & t5ds to clog !m up4 ,tobacco smoke also conta9s ! poison nicot9e1 :i* is absorb$ into ! blood4 ,= ^! reasons ! cig>ette us] :o inhales ! smoke does himself great h>m1 injur+ 8 n]v\s sy/em & lay+ ! f\ndation = diseases ( ! air passages4 ,! practice ( smok+ indoors is likewise objectionable1 s9ce e "o 9 a room conta9+ ! smoke is compell$ to brea! x4 99,alcohol & ,diseases ( ! ,lungs499--,pneumonia is a s]i\s disease ( ! lungs caus$ by g]ms4 ,! attacks occur z a result ( exposure1 especially :5 ! body is 9 a weak5$ condition4 ,a not$ au?ority /ates t alcoholism is p]haps ! mo/ pot5t pr$ispos+ cause ( pneumonia47#da7 ,a p]son addict$ to ! use ( alcohol is also less likely to recov] f ! disease ?an "o :o has avoid$ its use1 a result due 9 "p to ! weak5+ effect ( alcohol ^u ! he>t4 ,! conge/ion ( ! lungs 9 pneumonia makes x v difficult = ! he>t to =ce ! blood ?r\gh !m4 ,! weak5$ he>t ( ! drunk>d gives way "u ! task4 ,! /atem5t sometimes made t alcohol is b5eficial 9 pulmon>y tub]culosis is )\t f\ndation 9 fact4 ,on ! o!r h&1 alcoholism is a recogniz$ cause ( consumption4 ,"s au?orities claim t ?is disease is m frequ5t 9 heavy dr9k]s ?an 9 ^? ( temp]ate habits1 9 ! proportion ( ab\t ?ree to "o1 & t possibly half ( ! cases ( tub]culosis are traceable to alcoholism47#db7 99,! ,outdoor ,cure = ,lung ,diseases99--,among ! _m rem$ies propos$ = consumption & k9dr$ diseases1 none h prov$ m b5eficial1 accord+ to reports1 ?an ! s-call$ outdoor cure4 ,! p]son hav+ consumption is f$ pl5tifully ^u ! mo/ n\ri%+ food1 & is made to sp5d practically 8 entire "t1 includ+ ! sleep+ h\rs1 out ( doors4 ,n only is ?is done dur+ ! pleasant mon?s ( summ]1 b also dur+ ! w9t] :5 ! temp]ature is bel[ freez+4 ,sev]e exposure is prev5t$ by ov]head protection at night & by suffici5t clo?+ to keep ! body w>m4 ,! abundant supply ( pure1 cold air t\gh5s ! lungs & invigorates ! entire body1 !reby enabl+ x to ?r[ (f ! disease4 ,! success att5d+ ?is me?od ( treat+ consumptives sugge/s ! prop] mode ( /r5g!n+ lungs t are n diseas$1 b simply weak4 ,! p]son hav+ weak lungs %\ld sp5d z mu* "t z he conv5i5tly c out ( doors4 ,he %\ld provide ! mo/ ample v5tilation at night & h a sleep+ room to himself4 ,he %\ld practice deep brea?+ ex]cises & p>take ( a n\ri%+ diet4 ,:ile avoid+ prolong$ *ill+ & o!r conditions liable to induce colds1 he %\ld take advantage ( e opportunity ( expos+ himself fully & freely to ! outside atmosph]e4 99,summ>y499--,! purpose ( respiration is to br+ ab\t an ex*ange ( gases betwe5 ! body & ! atmosph]e4 ,! organs employ$ = ?is purpose1 call$ ! respiratory organs1 are adapt$ to h&l+ mat]ials 9 ! gase\s /ate1 & are op]at$ 9 accordance ) pr9ciples gov]n+ ! movem5ts ( ! atmosph]e4 ,by alt]nately increas+ & dim9i%+ ! ?oracic space1 air is made to pass betwe5 ! outside atmosph]e & ! int]ior ( ! lungs4 ,f9d+ its way into ! smalle/ divisions ( ! lungs1 call$ ! alveoli1 ! air comes v ne> a l>ge surface ( blood4 ,by ?is means ! c>bon dioxide diffuses out ( ! blood1 & ! free oxyg5 ent]s4 ,?r\gh ! comb9$ action ( ! organs ( respiration & ! organs t move ! blood & ! lymph1 ! cells 9 all p>ts ( ! body are enabl$ to ex*ange c]ta9 gase\s mat]ials ) ! outside atmosph]e4 ,fig4 #di ,fig4 #di--,model = demon/rat+ ! lungs4 99,ex]cises4--99#a4 ,h[ does air ent]+ ! lungs diff] 9 composition f air leav+ ! lungs8 ,:at purposes ( respiration are indicat$ by ^! diff]5ces8 #b4 ,"n ! divisions ( ! lungs4 #c4 ,trace air f ! outside atmosph]e into ! alveoli4 ,trace ! blood f ! "r v5tricle to ! alveoli & back aga9 to ! left auricle4 #d4 ,h[ does ! movem5t ( air into & f ! lungs diff] f t ( ! blood ?r\gh ! lungs ) respect to 7a7 ! direction ( ! motion4 7b7 ! causes ( ! motion1 & 7c7 ! tubes ?r\gh :i* ! motion takes place8 #e4 ,h[ are ! air passages kept clean & op58 #f4 ,describe ! pleura4 ,into :at divisions does x sep>ate ! ?oracic cavity8 #g4 ,describe & "n uses ( ! diaphragm4 #h4 ,if #cj cubic in*es ( air are pass$ into ! lungs at ea* inspiration & 4#je ( ?is is reta9$ z oxyg51 calculate ! numb] ( cubic feet ( oxyg5 consum$ ea* day1 if ! numb] ( inspirations be #ah p] m9ute4 #i4 ,f9d ! weight ( a day's supply ( oxyg51 z f\nd 9 ! above problem1 all[+ #a4c ounces z ! weight ( a cubic foot4 #aj4 ,make a /udy ( ! hygi5ic v5tilation ( ! s*oolroom4 #aa4 ,give advantages ( full brea?+ ov] %all[ brea?+4 #ab4 ,h[ may a flat *e/ & r\nd %\ld]s be a cause ( consumption8 ,h[ may ^! de=mities be correct$8 #ac4 ,give g5]al directions = apply+ artificial respiration4 ,,practical ,,"w ,exam9e a dissectible model ( ! *e/ & its cont5ts 7,fig4 #di74 ,note ! relative size ( ! two lungs & _! position ) ref]5ce to ! he>t & diaphragm4 ,comp>e ! side to side & v]tical diamet]s ( ! cavity4 ,trace ! air tubes f ! tra*ea to _! smalle/ divisions4 99,obs]vation ( ,lungs99 7,optional74--,secure f a but*] ! lungs ( a %eep1 calf1 or hog4 ,! w9dpipe & he>t %\ld be left atta*$ & ! specim5 kept 9 a moi/ condition until us$4 ,demon/rate ! tra*ea1 bron*i1 & ! bron*ial tubes1 & ! g5]al arrangem5t ( pulmon>y art]ies & ve9s4 ,exam9e ! pleura & %[ lightness ( lung tissue by float+ a piece on wat]4 99,to %[ ! ,*anges t ,air und]goes 9 ! ,lungs499--#a4 ,fill a qu>t j> ev5 full ( wat]4 ,place a piece ( c>dbo>d ov] its m\? & inv]t1 )\t spill+1 9 a pan ( wat]4 ,ins]t+ a tube "u ! j>1 bl[ into x air t has be5 held z long z possible 9 ! lungs4 ,:5 fill$ ) air1 remove ! j> f ! pan1 keep+ ! top well cov]$4 ,slipp+ ! cov] slightly to "o side1 ins]t a burn+ spl9t] & obs]ve t ! flame is ext+ui%$4 ,?is proves ! abs5ce ( suffici5t oxyg5 to support combu/ion4 ,p\r 9 a little limewat]7#dc7 & %ake to mix ) ! air4 ,! *ange ( ! limewat] to a milky :ite color proves ! pres5ce ( c>bon dioxide4 ,fig4 #ej ,fig4 #ej--99;,app>atus99 = %[+ *anges :i* air und]goes :ile 9 ! lungs4 #b4 ,! effects illu/rat$ 9 exp]im5t #a may be %[n 9 a some:at m /rik+ mann] z foll[s3 ,fill two bottles ( ! same size ea* "o f\r? full ( limewat] & fit ea* ) a two-hol$ rubb] /opp] 7,fig4 #ej74 ,fit into ea* /opp] "o %ort & "o long glass tube1 ! long tube ext5d+ bel[ ! limewat]4 ,connect ! %ort tube ( "o bottle & ! long tube ( ! o!r bottle ) a ,y-tube4 ,n[ brea! sl[ly ?ree or f\r times ?r\gh ! ,y-tube4 ,x w be f\nd t ! inspir$ air passes ?r\gh "o bottle & ! expir$ air ?r\gh ! o!r4 ,comp>e ! effect ^u ! limewat] 9 ! two bottles4 ,ins]t a small burn+ spl9t] into ! top ( ea* bottle & note result4 ,:at diff]5ces betwe5 inspir$ & expir$ air are ?us %[n8 #c4 ,bl[ ! brea? aga9/ a cold w9d[ pane4 ,note & acc\nt = ! collection ( moi/ure4 #d4 ,note ! temp]ature ( ! room z %[n by a !rmomet]4 ,n[ brea! sev]al times ^u ! bulb1 not+ ! rise 9 ! m]cury4 ,:at does ?is exp]im5t %[ ! body to be los+ ?r\gh ! brea?8 99,to %[ ,*anges 9 ! ,?oracic ,cavity499--#a4 ,to a y>d- or met]-/ick1 atta* two v]tical /rips1 ea* ab\t eight in*es long1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ea4 ,! piece at ! end %\ld be secur$ firmly 9 place by screws or nails4 ,! o!r %\ld be movable4 ,) ?is contrivance measure ! sidew>d & =w>d expansion ( a boy's ?orax4 ,take ! diamet] fir/ dur+ a complete inspiration & !n dur+ a complete expiration1 read+ ! diff]5ce4 ,comp>e ! =w>d ) ! sidew>d expansion4 ,fig4 #ea ,fig4 #ea--99;,app>atus99 = measur+ *e/ expansion4 #b4 ,) a tape-l9e take ! circumf]5ce ( ! *e/ :5 all ! air possible has be5 expell$ f ! lungs4 ,take x aga9 :5 ! lungs h be5 fully inflat$4 ,! diff]5ce is n[ read z ! *e/ expansion4 ,fig4 #eb ,fig4 #eb--99,simple app>atus99 = illu/rat+ ! action ( ! diaphragm4 99,to illu/rate ! ,action ( ! ,diaphragm499--,remove ! bottom f a l>ge bottle hav+ a small neck4 7,scrat* a deep m>k ) a file & hold on ! end ( ?is m>k a hot pok]4 ,:5 ! glass cracks1 lead ! crack ar\nd ! bottle by heat+ ab\t "o half in* 9 advance ( x47 ,place ! bottle 9 a l>ge glass j> fill$ two ?irds full ( wat] 7,fig4 #eb74 ,let ! space above ! wat] repres5t ! *e/ cavity & ! wat] surface repres5t ! diaphragm4 ,raise ! bottle1 not+ t ! wat] falls1 !reby increas+ ! space & caus+ air to ent]4 ,!n l[] ! bottle1 not+ ! opposite effect4 ,to %[ ! movem5t ( ! air 9 & out ( ! bottle1 hold ) ! h& 7or arrange a support =7 a burn+ spl9t] ov] ! m\? ( ! bottle4 99,to e/imate ! ,capacity ( ! ,lungs499--,brea?+ z naturally z possible1 expel ! air into a spiromet] 7lung te/]7 dur+ a p]iod1 say ( t5 respirations 7,fig4 #ec74 ,note ! total am\nt ( air exhal$ & ! numb] ( brea?s & calculate ! am\nt ( air exhal$ at ea* brea?4 ,?is is call$ ! tidal air4 ,fig4 #ec ,fig4 #ec--99;,app>atus99 7spiromet]7 = measur+ ! capacity ( ! lungs4 #b4 ,aft] an ord9>y inspiration empty ! lungs z completely z possible into ! spiromet]1 not+ ! quantity exhal$4 ,?is am\nt1 less ! tidal air1 is kn[n z ! res]ve air4 ,! air :i* is n[ left 9 ! lungs is call$ ! residual air4 ,on ! !ory t ?is is equal 9 am\nt to ! res]ve air1 calculate ! capacity ( ! lungs 9 an ord9>y inspiration4 #c4 ,n[ fill ! lungs to ! full expansion ( ! *e/ & empty !m z completely z possible into ! spiromet]1 not+ ! am\nt expell$4 ,?is1 less ! tidal air & ! res]ve air1 is call$ ! complem5tal air4 ,n[ calculate ! total capacity ( ! lungs4 ,,*apt] ,,viii - ,,passage ,,( ,,oxyg5 ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,body ,:at is ! nature ( oxyg58 ,:at is its purpose 9 ! body & h[ does x s]ve ?is purpose8 ,h[ is ! blood able to take x up at ! lungs & give x (f at ! cells8 ,:at becomes ( x aft] be+ us$8 ,^! are que/ions t\*+ ! ma9t5ance ( life & !y des]ve c>eful consid]ation4 99,nature ( ,oxyg5499--,to und]/& ! relation :i* oxyg5 su/a9s to ! body we mu/ acqua9t ourselves ) c]ta9 ( its *emical prop]ties4 ,x is an elem5t7#dd7 ( int5se aff9ity1 or comb9+ p[]1 & is "o ( ! mo/ active ( all *emical ag5ts4 ,x is able to comb9e ) mo/ ( ! o!r elem5ts to =m *emical comp\nds4 ,a famili> example ( its comb9+ action is f\nd 9 ord9>y combu/ion1 or burn+4 ,on acc\nt ( ! "p x plays 9 ?is process1 oxyg5 is call$ ! support] ( combu/ion2 b x supports combu/ion by ! simple me?od ( unit+4 ,! a%es t are left & ! invisible gases t escape into ! atmosph]e are ! comp\nds =m$ by ! unit+ process4 ,x ?us appe>s t oxyg51 9 common ) ! o!r elem5ts1 may exi/ 9 ei!r ( two =ms3 #a4 ,t 9 :i* x is 9 a free1 or uncomb9$1 condition--! =m 9 :i* x exi/s 9 ! atmosph]e4 #b4 ,t 9 :i* x is a "p ( comp\nds1 su* z ! comp\nds =m$ 9 combu/ion4 ,oxyg5 manife/s its activity to ! be/ advantage :5 x is 9 a free /ate1 or1 m accurately speak+1 :5 x is pass+ f ! free /ate into "o ( comb9ation4 ,x is sep>at$ f its comp\nds & br\ght aga9 into a free /ate by ov]com+ ) heat1 or "s o!r =ce1 ! aff9ity :i* causes x to unite4 99,h[ ,oxyg5 unites499--,! *emi/ believes oxyg51 z well z all o!r sub/ances1 to be made up ( exce$+ly small p>ticles1 call$ atoms4 ,! atoms d n exi/ s+ly 9 ei!r elem5ts or comp\nds1 b are unit$ ) ea* o!r to =m gr\ps ( atoms t are call$ molecules4 ,9 an elem5t ! molecules are made up ( "o k9d ( atoms1 b 9 a comp\nd ! molecules are made up ( z _m k9ds ( atoms z !re are elem5ts 9 ! comp\nd4 ,*anges 9 ! composition ( sub/ances 7call$ *emical *anges7 are due to re>rangem5ts ( ! atoms & ! =mation ( new molecules4 ,! atoms1 !re=e1 are ! units ( *emical comb9ation4 ,9 ! =mation ( new comp\nds !y unite1 & 9 ! break+ up ( exi/+ comp\nds !y sep>ate4 ,! unit+ ( oxyg5 is no exception to ?is g5]al law4 ,all ( its comb9ations are br\ght ab\t by ! unit+ ( its atoms4 ,9 ! burn+ ( c>bon1 = example1 ! atoms ( oxyg5 & ! atoms ( c>bon unite1 =m+ molecules ( ! comp\nd kn[n z c>bon dioxide4 ,! *emical =mula ( ?is comp\nd1 :i* is ,,co#b1 %[s ! proportion 9 :i* ! atoms unite--"o atom ( c>bon unit+ ) two atoms ( oxyg5 9 ea* ( ! molecules4 ,! aff9ity ( oxyg5 = o!r elem5ts1 & ! aff9ity ( o!r elem5ts = oxyg51 & = ea* o!r1 resides 9 _! atoms4 99,oxidation499--,! unit+ ( oxyg5 ) o!r elem5ts is t]m$ oxidation4 ,?is may take place sl[ly or rapidly1 ! two rates be+ designat$ z sl[ oxidation & rapid oxidation4 ,examples ( sl[ oxidation are f\nd 9 c]ta9 k9ds ( decay & 9 ! ru/+ ( iron4 ,combu/ion is an example ( rapid oxidation4 ,sl[ & rapid oxidation1 :ile diff]+ widely 9 _! effects ^u surr\nd+ objects1 are alike 9 t bo? produce heat & =m comp\nds ( oxyg54 ,9 sl[ oxidation1 h[ev]1 ! heat may come (f s gradually t x is n obs]v$4 99,movem5t ( ,oxyg5 ?r\gh ! ,body499--,oxyg5 has be5 %[n 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s to pass f ! lungs into ! blood & lat] to leave ! blood &1 pass+ ?r\gh ! lymph1 to ent] ! cells4 ,t oxyg5 does n become a p]man5t con/itu5t ( ! cells is %[n by ! con/ancy ( ! body weight4 ,ne>ly two p\nds ( oxyg5 p] day are kn[n to ent] ! cells ( ! av]age-siz$ p]son4 ,if ?is became a p]man5t "p ( ! cells1 ! body w\ld increase 9 weight f day to day4 ,s9ce ! body weight rema9s con/ant1 or ne>ly s1 we mu/ conclude t oxyg5 leaves ! body ab\t z fa/ z x ent]s4 ,oxyg5 ent]s ! body z a free elem5t4 ,! =m 9 :i* x leaves ! body w be und]/ood :5 we realize ! purpose :i* x s]ves & ! me?od by :i* x s]ves ?is purpose4 99,purpose ( ,oxyg5 9 ! ,body499--,! "q may be rais$3 ,is x possible = oxyg5 to s]ve a purpose 9 ! body )\t rema9+ 9 x8 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 dep5ds ^u :at ! purpose is4 ,t x is possible = oxyg5 to s]ve a purpose & at ! same "t pass on ?r\gh ! place :]e x s]ves t purpose1 is se5 by /udy+ ! combu/ion 9 an ord9>y /ove 7,fig4 #ed74 ,oxyg5 ent]s at ! draft & = ! mo/ "p passes out at ! flue1 b 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! /ove x unites )1 or oxidizes1 ! fuel1 caus+ ! combu/ion :i* produces ! heat4 ,fig4 #ed ,fig4 #ed--99;,coal /ove99 illu/rat+ rapid oxidation4 ,n[ x is f\nd t c]ta9 *emical processes1 ma9ly oxidations1 are tak+ place 9 ! body4 ,^! produce ! heat = keep+ x w>m & also supply o!r =ms ( en]gy17#de7 includ+ motion4 ,x is ! purpose ( oxyg5 to keep up ^! oxidations &1 by s do+1 to aid 9 supply+ ! body ) en]gy4 ,x s]ves ?is purpose 9 mu* ! same way t x supports combu/ion1 i4e41 by unit+ )1 or oxidiz+1 mat]ials d]iv$ f foods t are pres5t 9 ! cells4 99,does ,oxyg5 s]ve ,o!r ,purposes899--,x has be5 sugge/$ t oxyg5 may s]ve ! purpose ( oxidiz+1 or de/roy+1 sub/ances t are injuri\s & ( act+1 9 ?is way1 z a purify+ ag5t 9 ! body4 ,9 support ( ?is view is ! natural t5d5cy ( oxyg5 to unite ) sub/ances & ! well-kn[n fact t oxyg5 is an important natural ag5t 9 purify+ wat]4 ,x seems probable1 !re=e1 t x may to a slight ext5t s]ve ?is purpose 9 ! body4 ,x is probable also t oxyg5 aids ?r\gh its *emical activity 9 ! =mation ( comp\nds :i* are to become a "p ( ! cells4 ,bo? ( ^! uses1 h[ev]1 are ( m9or importance :5 comp>$ ) ! ma9 use ( oxyg51 :i* is t ( an aid 9 supply+ en]gy to ! body4 99,oxyg5 & ! ,ma9t5ance ( ,life499--,9 ! supply+ ( en]gy to ! body1 "o ( ! conditions necess>y to ! ma9t5ance ( life is provid$4 ,because oxyg5 is necess>y to ?is process1 & because dea? quickly results :5 ! supply ( x is cut (f1 oxyg5 is frequ5tly call$ ! support] ( life4 ,?is idea is mislead+1 = oxyg5 has no m to d ) ! ma9t5ance ( life ?an h ! food mat]ials ) :i* x unites4 ,life appe>s to be m dep5d5t ^u oxyg5 ?an ^u food1 simply because ! supply ( x 9 ! body at any "t is exce$+ly small4 ,be+ cont9ually surr\nd$ by an atmosph]e conta9+ free oxyg51 ! body dep5ds ^u ?is z a con/ant s\rce ( supply1 & does n /ore x up4 ,food1 on ! o!r h&1 is tak5 9 excess ( ! body's ne$s & /or$ 9 ! v>i\s tissues1 ! supply be+ suffici5t to la/ = sev]al days4 ,:5 ! supply ( ei!r oxyg5 or food is exhau/$ 9 ! body1 life mu/ cease4 99,! ,oxyg5 ,movem5t a ,necessity499--,s9ce free oxyg5 is requir$ = keep+ up ! *emical *anges 9 ! cells1 & s9ce x ceases to be free z soon z x goes into comb9ation1 its cont9u\s movem5t ?r\gh ! body is a necessity4 ,! oxyg5 comp\nds mu/ be remov$ z fa/ z =m$ 9 ord] to make room = m free oxyg54 ,?is movem5t has already be5 /udi$ 9 connection ) ! blood & ! organs ( respiration1 b ! consid]ation ( c]ta9 details has be5 def]r$ till n[4 ,by :at means & 9 :at =m is ! oxyg5 pass$ to & f ! cells8 99,passage ( ,oxyg5 ?r\gh ! ,blood499--,9 s]v+ its purpose at ! cells1 ! oxyg5 passes twice ?r\gh ! blood--once z x goes t[>d ! cells & aga9 z x passes f ! cells to ! ext]ior ( ! body3 ,passage t[>d ! ,cells4--,?is is effect$ ma9ly ?r\gh ! hemoglob9 ( ! r$ corpuscles4 ,at ! lungs ! oxyg5 & ! hemoglob9 =m a weak *emical comp\nd t breaks up & lib]ates ! oxyg5 :5 x rea*es ! capill>ies 9 ! tissues4 ,! sep>ation ( ! oxyg5 f ! hemoglob9 at ! tissues appe>s to be due to two causes3 fir/1 to ! weakness ( ! *emical attraction betwe5 ! atoms ( oxyg5 & ! atoms t make up ! hemoglob9 molecule2 & second1 to a diff]5ce 9 ! s-call$ oxyg5 pressure at ! lungs & at ! tissues47#df7 ,! attraction ( ! oxyg5 & ! hemoglob9 is suffici5t to cause !m to unite :]e ! oxyg5 pressure is m ?an "o half p\nd to ! squ>e in*1 b x is n suffici5tly /rong to cause !m to unite or to prev5t _! sep>ation1 if already unit$1 :]e ! oxyg5 pressure is less ?an "o half p\nd to ! squ>e in*4 ,! oxyg5 pressure at ! lungs1 :i* am\nts to ne>ly ?ree p\nds to ! squ>e in*1 easily causes ! oxyg5 & ! hemoglob9 to unite1 :ile ! almo/ complete abs5ce ( any oxyg5 pressure at ! tissues1 p]mits _! sep>ation4 ,! blood 9 its circulation con/antly fl[s f ! place ( high oxyg5 pressure at ! lungs to ! place ( l[ oxyg5 pressure at ! tissues &1 9 s do+1 loads up ) oxyg5 at "o place & unloads x at ! o!r 7,fig4 #ee74 ,passage f ! ,cells4--,s9ce oxyg5 leaves ! free /ate at ! cells & becomes a "p ( comp\nds1 we are able to trace x f ! body only by foll[+ ! c\rse ( ^! comp\nds4 ,?ree wa/e comp\nds ( importance are =m$ at ! cells--c>bon dioxide 7,,co#b71 wat] 7,h#b,o71 & urea 7,n#b;,h#d;,,co74 ,! fir/ is =m$ by ! union ( oxyg5 ) c>bon1 ! second by its union ) hydrog51 & ! ?ird by its union ) nitrog51 hydrog51 & c>bon4 ,^! comp\nds are c>ri$ by ! blood to ! organs ( excretion1 :]e !y are remov$ f ! body4 ,! wat] leaves ! body *iefly z a liquid1 ! urea z a solid dissolv$ 9 wat]1 & ! c>bon dioxide z a gas4 ,! passage ( c>bon dioxide ?r\gh ! blood requires special consid]ation4 ,fig4 #ee ,fig4 #ee--99;,diagram illu/rat+ movem5t1 ( oxyg5 & c>bon dioxide ?r\gh ! body99 7,s4,d4 ,mag]s74 ,ea* moves f a place ( relatively high to a place ( relatively l[ pressure4 7,see text47 99,passage ( ,c>bon ,dioxide ?r\gh ! ,blood499--,"p ( ! c>bon dioxide is dissolv$ 9 ! plasma ( ! blood1 & "p ( x is 9 weak *emical comb9ation ) sub/ances f\nd 9 ! plasma & 9 ! corpuscles4 ,its passage ?r\gh ! blood is acc\nt$ = 9 ! same way z ! passage ( ! oxyg54 ,its ability to dissolve 9 liquids & to ent] into *emical comb9ation v>ies z ! c>bon dioxide pressure7#dg7 ,?is 9 turn v>ies ) ! am\nt ( ! c>bon dioxide1 :i* is greate/ at ! cells 7:]e x is =m$71 less 9 ! blood1 & /ill less 9 ! lungs4 ,because ( ^! diff]5ces1 ! blood is able to take x up at ! cells & release x at ! lungs 7,fig4 #ee74 ,fig4 #ef ,fig4 #ef--99,soap bubble99 float+ 9 a vessel ( c>bon dioxide1 illu/rat+ ! diff]5ce 9 weight betwe5 air & c>bon dioxide gas4 99,prop]ties ( ,c>bon ,dioxide499--,c>bon dioxide is a colorless gas ) little or no odor4 ,x is class$ z a heavy gas1 be+ ab\t "o ?ird heavi] ?an air7#dh7 7,fig4 #ef74 ,x does n support combu/ion1 b on ! contr>y is us$ to "s ext5t to ext+ui% fires4 ,x is =m$ by ! oxidation ( c>bon 9 ! body1 & by ! combu/ion ( c>bon outside ( ! body4 ,x is also =m$ by ! decay ( animal & vegetable matt]4 ,f ^! s\rces x is cont9ually f9d+ its way into ! atmosph]e4 ,al?\gh n a poison\s gas1 c>bon dioxide may1 if x surr\nd ! body1 %ut out ! supply ( oxyg5 & cause dea?47#di7 99,f9al ,disposition ( ,c>bon ,dioxide499--,x is readily se5 t ! union ( c>bon & oxyg51 :i* is cont9ually remov+ oxyg5 f ! air & replac+ x ) c>bon dioxide1 t5ds to make ! :ole atmosph]e defici5t 9 ! "o & to h an excess ( ! o!r4 ,?is t5d5cy is c\nt]act$ ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( vegetation4 ,gre5 plants absorb ! c>bon dioxide f ! air1 decompose x1 build ! c>bon into comp\nds 7/>*1 etc47 t become a "p ( ! plant1 & return ! free oxyg5 to ! air 7,fig4 #eg74 ,9 do+ ?is1 !y n only pres]ve ! necess>y proportion ( oxyg5 & c>bon dioxide 9 ! atmosph]e1 b also put ! c>bon & oxyg5 9 su* a condition t !y c aga9 unite4 ,! =ce :i* enables ! plant cells to decompose ! c>bon dioxide is suppli$ by ! sunlight 7,*apt] ,,xii74 ,fig4 #eg ,fig4 #eg--99,"u surface99 ( a g]anium leaf %[+ brea?+ pores1 highly magnifi$ 7,o4,h474 99,summ>y499--,oxyg51 by unit+ ) mat]ials at ! cells1 keeps up a condition ( *emical activity 7oxidation7 9 ! body4 ,?is supplies heat & ! o!r =ms ( bodily en]gy4 ,ent]+ z a free elem5t1 oxyg5 leaves ! body z a "p ( ! wa/e comp\nds :i* x helps to =m4 ,! free oxyg5 is transport$ f ! lungs to ! cells by means ( ! hemoglob9 ( ! r$ corpuscles1 :ile ! comb9$ oxyg5 9 c>bon dioxide & o!r comp\nds f ! cells is c>ri$ ma9ly by ! plasma4 ,! limit$ supply ( free oxyg5 9 ! body at any "t makes necess>y its cont9u\s introduction into ! body4 99,ex]cises499--#a4 ,describe ! prop]ties ( oxyg54 ,h[ does x unite ) o!r elem5ts8 ,h[ does x support combu/ion8 #b4 ,/ate ! purpose ( oxyg5 9 ! body4 ,:at prop]ties enable x to fulfill ?is purpose8 #c4 ,:at is ! pro( t oxyg5 does n rema9 p]man5tly 9 ! body8 ,h[ does ! oxyg5 ent]+ ! body diff] f ! same oxyg5 z x leaves ! body8 #d4 ,:at is ! necessity = ! cont9u\s introduction ( oxyg5 into ! body1 :ile food is introduc$ only at int]vals8 #e4 ,h[ are ! r$ corpuscles able to take up & give (f oxyg58 ,h[ is ! plasma able to take up & give (f c>bon dioxide8 #f4 ,if ?irty cubic in*es ( air pass f ! lungs at ea* expiration & #d4e p] c5t ( ?is is c>bon dioxide1 calculate ! numb] ( cubic feet ( ! gas expell$ 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 e/imat+ ! numb] ( respirations at eighte5 p] m9ute4 #g4 ,:at is ! weight ( ?is volume ( c>bon dioxide1 if "o cubic foot weigh #a4gi ounces8 #h4 ,:at portion ( ?is weight is oxyg5 & :at c>bon1 ! ratio by weight ( c>bon to oxyg5 9 c>bon dioxide be+ twelve to ?irty-two8 #i4 ,:at is ! f9al disposition ( c>bon dioxide 9 ! atmosph]e8 ,,practical ,,"w 99,to %[ ! ,diff]5ce betwe5 ,free ,oxyg5 & ,oxyg5 9 ,comb9ation499--,exam9e "s cry/als ( potassium *lorate 7,k,cl,o#c74 ,!y conta9 oxyg5 9 comb9ation ) potassium & *lor9e4 ,place a few ( ^! 9 a small te/ tube & heat /rongly 9 a gas or alcohol flame4 ,! cry/als fir/ melt1 & ! liquid :i* !y =m soon appe>s to boil4 ,if a spl9t]1 hav+ a sp>k on ! end1 is n[ ins]t$ 9 ! tube1 x is k9dl$ into a flame4 ,?is %[s ! pres5ce ( free oxyg51 ! heat hav+ caus$ ! potassium *lorate to decompose4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 free & comb9$ oxyg5 may also be %[n by decompos+ o!r comp\nds ( oxyg51 su* z wat] & m]curic oxide4 99,prep>ation & ,prop]ties ( ,oxyg5499--,intimately mix #c grams 7#a_/b teaspoonful7 ( potassium *lorate ) half its bulk ( manganese dioxide1 & place ! mixture 9 a l>ge te/ tube4 ,close ! te/ tube ) a tight-fitt+ /opp] :i* be>s a glass tube ( suffici5t l5g? & ( ! "r %ape to convey ! escap+ gas to a small tr\gh or pan p>tly fill$ ) wat]1 on ! table4 ,fill f\r l>ge-m\!d bottles ) wat] &1 by cov]+ ) c>dbo>d1 inv]t ea* 9 ! tr\gh ( wat]4 ,arrange ! te/ tube conv5i5tly = heat+1 lett+ ! end ( ! glass tube t]m9ate "u ! m\? ( "o ( ! bottles 7,fig4 #eh74 ,us+ an alcohol lamp or a ,buns5 burn]1 heat ov] ! great] portion ( ! tube at fir/1 b gradually conc5trate ! flame ^u ! mixture4 ,d n heat too /rongly1 & :5 ! gas is com+ (f rapidly1 remove ! flame entirely1 putt+ x back z ! action sl[s d[n4 ,aft] all ! bottles h be5 fill$1 remove ! end ( ! glass tube f ! wat]1 b leave ! bottles ( oxyg5 inv]t$ 9 ! tr\gh until !y are to be us$4 ,on remov+ ! bottles f ! tr\gh1 keep ! tops cov]$ ) wet c>dbo>d4 ,fig4 #eh ,fig4 #eh--99;,app>atus99 = g5]at+ oxyg54 #a4 ,exam9e a bottle ( oxyg51 not+ its lack ( color4 ,ins]t a small burn+ spl9t] 9 ! upp] "p ( ! bottle & obs]ve ! *ange 9 ! rate ( burn+4 ,! air conta9s free oxyg51 b x is dilut$ ) nitrog54 ,comp>e ?is ) ! undilut$ oxyg5 9 ! bottle z to effect 9 caus+ ! spl9t] to burn4 #b4 ,9 a second bottle ( oxyg5 ins]t a spl9t] )\t ! flame1 b hav+ a small sp>k on ! end4 ,z soon z ! oxyg5 k9dles ! sp>k into a flame1 )draw f ! bottle & bl[ out ! flame1 b aga9 ins]t ! sp>k4 ,repeat ! exp]im5t z long z ! sp>k is k9dl$ by ! oxyg5 into a flame4 ,?is exp]im5t is usually p]=m$ z a te/ = undilut$ oxyg54 #c4 ,make a holl[ cavity 9 ! end ( a %ort piece ( crayon4 ,fa/5 a wire to ! crayon1 & fill ! cavity ) p[d]$ sulphur4 ,ignite ! sulphur 9 ! flame ( an alcohol lamp or ,buns5 burn]1 & l[] x into a bottle ( oxyg54 ,obs]ve ! *ange 9 ! rate ( burn+1 ! color ( ! flame1 & ! mat]ial =m$ 9 ! bottle by ! burn+4 ,! gas rema9+ 9 ! bottle is sulphur dioxide 7,,s#b71 =m$ by ! unit+ ( ! sulphur & ! oxyg54 #d4 ,b5d a small loop on ! end ( a piece ( picture wire4 ,heat ! loop 9 a flame & ins]t x 9 "s p[d]$ sulphur4 ,ignite ! melt$ sulphur :i* adh]es1 & ins]t x quickly 9 a bottle ( oxyg54 ,obs]ve ! d>k1 brittle mat]ial :i* is =m$ by ! burn+ ( ! iron4 ,x is a comp\nd ( ! iron ) oxyg51 simil> to iron ru/1 & =m$ by _! unit+4 99,prep>ation & ,prop]ties ( ,c>bon ,dioxide499--#a4 7a7 ,atta* a piece ( c>bon 7*>coal7 no l>g] ?an ! end ( ! ?umb to a piece ( wire4 ,ignite ! *>coal 9 a hot flame & l[] x into a vessel ( oxyg54 ,obs]ve its combu/ion1 lett+ x rema9 9 ! bottle until x ceases to burn4 ,note t ! burn+ has consum$ a "p ( ! c>bon & has us$ up ! free oxyg54 ,has any?+ be5 =m$ 9 _! /ead8 7b7 ,remove ! *>coal & add a little limewat]4 ,cov] ! bottle ) a piece ( c>dbo>d1 & br+ ! gas & ! limewat] 9 contact by %ak+4 ,note any *ange 9 ! color ( ! limewat]4 ,if x turns :ite1 ! pres5ce ( c>bon dioxide is prov$4 #b4 ,burn a spl9t] 9 a l>ge vessel ( air1 keep+ ! top cov]$4 ,add limewat] & %ake4 ,note & acc\nt = ! result4 #c4 ,place sev]al pieces ( m>ble 7lime/one7 9 a j> hold+ at lea/ half a gallon4 ,b>ely cov] ! m>ble ) wat]1 & !n add hydro*loric acid until a gas is rapidly evolv$4 ,?is gas is c>bon dioxide4 7a7 ,does x possess color8 7b7 ,ins]t a burn+ spl9t] to see if x supports combu/ion4 7c7 ,place a bottle ( oxyg5 by ! side ( ! vessel ( c>bon dioxide4 ,light a spl9t] & ext+ui% ! flame by l[]+ x into ! vessel ( c>bon dioxide4 ,)draw imm$iately1 & if a sp>k rema9s on ! spl9t]1 ?ru/ x into ! bottle ( oxyg54 ,!n ins]t ! relight$ spl9t] into ! c>bon dioxide4 ,repeat sev]al times1 k9dl+ ! flame 9 "o gas & ext+ui%+ x 9 ! o!r4 ,f9ally %[ t ! sp>k also may be ext+ui%$ by hold+ ! spl9t] a little long] 9 ! c>bon dioxide4 7d7 ,tip ! j> conta9+ ! c>bon dioxide ov] ! m\? ( a tumbl]1 z 9 p\r+ wat]1 ?\gh n f> en\gh to spill ! acid1 & !n ins]t a burn+ spl9t] 9 ! tumbl]4 ,acc\nt = ! result4 ,inf]5ce z to ! weight ( c>bon dioxide4 ,fig4 #ei ,fig4 #ei--99,simple app>atus99 = illu/rat+ passage ( oxyg5 ?r\gh ! body4 7e7 ,review exp]im5ts 7page #aja7 %[+ ! pres5ce ( c>bon dioxide 9 ! brea?4 99,to illu/rate ! ,g5]al ,movem5t ( ,oxyg5 ?r\gh ! ,body499--,into a glass tube1 six in*es 9 l5g? & op5 at bo? ends1 place sev]al small lumps ( *>coal 7,fig4 #ei74 ,fit into "o end ( ?is tube1 by means ( a /opp]1 a small] glass tube :i* is b5t at "r angles & :i* is made to pass ?r\gh a close-fitt+ /opp] to ! bottom ( a small bottle4 ,ano!r small tube is fitt$ into a second hole 9 ?is /opp]1 b t]m9at+ ne> ! top ( ! bottle1 & to ?is is connect$ a rubb] tube ab\t eighte5 in*es 9 l5g?4 ,! arrangem5t is n[ su* t by suck+ air f ! top ( ! bottle1 x is made to ent] at ! di/ant end ( ! tube conta9+ ! *>coal4 ,aft] fill+ ! bottle "o ?ird full ( limewat]1 heat ! tube conta9+ ! *>coal until x beg9s to gl[4 ,!n suck ! air ?r\gh ! app>atus 7z 9 smok+1 )\t draw+ x into ! lungs71 obs]v+ :at happ5s bo? 9 ! tube & 9 ! bottle4 ,:at are ! pro(s t ! oxyg51 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! tube1 unites ) ! c>bon1 =ms c>bon dioxide1 & lib]ates en]gy8 ,comp>e ! *anges :i* ! oxyg5 und]goes :ile pass+ ?r\gh ! tube ) ! *anges :i* x und]goes 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! body4 ,,*apt] ,,ix - ,,foods ,,& ,,! ,,!ory ,,( ,,dige/ion ,! body is con/antly 9 ne$ ( new mat]ial4 ,oxidation1 z %[n 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 rapidly de/roys sub/ances at ! cells1 & ^! h to be replac$4 ,^u ?is r5ewal dep5ds ! supply ( en]gy4 ,moreov]1 !re is f\nd to be an actual break+ d[n ( ! liv+ mat]ial1 or protoplasm1 9 ! body4 ,:ile ?is does n de/roy ! cells1 z is sometimes errone\sly /at$1 x r$uces ! quantity ( ! protoplasm & makes necess>y a process ( repair1 or rebuild+1 ( ! tissues4 ,?is also requires new mat]ial4 ,f9ally1 sub/ances1 su* z wat] & common salt1 are requir$ = ! aid :i* !y r5d] 9 ! g5]al "w ( ! body4 ,s9ce ^! are con/antly be+ lo/ 9 "o way or ano!r1 !y also mu/ be replac$4 ,^! diff]5t ne$s ( ! body = new mat]ials are suppli$ ?r\gh 99,! ,foods499--,foods are sub/ances t1 on be+ tak5 into ! heal?y body1 are ( assi/ance 9 c>ry+ on its "w4 ,?is def9ition prop]ly includes oxyg51 b ! t]m is usually limit$ to sub/ances introduc$ ?r\gh ! dige/ive organs4 ,z sugge/$ above1 foods s]ve at lea/ ?ree purposes3 #a4 ,!y1 ) oxyg51 supply ! body ) en]gy4 #b4 ,!y provide mat]ials = rebuild+ ! tissues4 #c4 ,!y supply mat]ials t aid directly or indirectly 9 ! g5]al "w ( ! body4 99,! ,simple ,foods1 or ,nutri5ts499--,f ! great v>iety ( ?+s t are eat51 x might appe> t _m diff]5t k9ds ( sub/ances are suitable = food4 ,:5 our v>i\s animal & vegetable foods are analyz$1 h[ev]1 !y are f\nd to be simil> 9 composition & to conta9 only "s five or six k9ds ( mat]ials t are ess5tially diff]5t4 ,:ile c]ta9 foods may conta9 only a s+le "o ( ^!1 mo/ ( ! foods are mixtures ( two or m4 ,^! few common mat]ials :i*1 9 diff]5t proportions1 =m ! diff]5t ?+s t are eat51 are v>i\sly ref]r$ to z simple foods1 food-/uffs1 & nutri5ts1 ! la/ "n be+ ! "o g5]ally pref]r$4 ,! diff]5t classes ( nutri5ts are z foll[s3 ,nutri5ts3 ,proteids 7,album9oids7 ,c>bohydrates ,fats ,m9]al salts ,wat] ,x is n[ necess>y to become some:at famili> ) ! diff]5t nutri5ts & ! purposes :i* !y s]ve 9 ! body4 99,proteids499--,! proteids are obta9$ 9 "p f ! animal & 9 "p f ! plant k+dom1 !re be+ sev]al v>ieties4 ,a well-kn[n v>iety1 call$ album91 is f\nd 9 ! :ite ( eggs & 9 ! plasma ( ! blood1 :ile ! muscles conta9 an abundance ( ano!r v>iety1 kn[n z myos94 ,*eese consi/s l>gely ( a k9d ( proteid1 call$ case91 :i* is also pres5t 9 milk1 b 9 a m dilut$ =m4 ,if a m\?ful ( :eat is *ew$ = "s "t1 mo/ ( x is dissolv$ & swall[$1 b !re rema9s 9 ! m\? a /icky1 gum-l sub/ance4 ,?is is glut51 a =m ( proteid :i* occurs 9 diff]5t gra9s4 ,aga91 c]ta9 vegetables1 z beans1 peas1 & peanuts1 are ri* 9 a k9d ( proteid :i* is call$ legum54 ,proteids are comp\nds ( c>bon1 hydrog51 oxyg51 nitrog51 & a small p] c5t ( sulphur4 ,c]ta9 ones 7! nucleo-proteids f gra9s7 also conta9 phosphorus4 ,all ( ! proteids are highly complex comp\nds & =m a mo/ important class ( nutri5ts4 99,purposes ( ,proteids499--,! *ief purpose ( proteids 9 ! body is to rebuild ! tissues4 ,n only d !y supply all ( ! ma9 elem5ts 9 ! tissues1 b !y are ( su* a nature *emically t !y are readily built into ! protoplasm4 ,!y are absolutely ess5tial to life1 no o!r nutri5ts be+ able to take _! place4 ,an animal depriv$ ( !m exhau/s ! proteids 9 its body & !n dies4 ,9 addition to rebuild+ ! tissues1 proteids may also be oxidiz$ to supply ! body ) en]gy4 99,album9oids99 =m a small class ( foods1 ( m9or importance1 :i* are simil> to proteids 9 composition1 b diff] f !m 9 be+ unable to rebuild ! tissues4 ,gelat91 a con/itu5t ( s\p & obta9$ f bones & connective tissue by boil+1 is ! be/ kn[n ( ! album9oid foods4 ,on acc\nt ( ! nitrog5 :i* !y conta91 proteids & album9oids are (t5 class$ toge!r z nitrog5\s foods4 99,c>bohydrates499--,:ile ! c>bohydrates are n s ess5tial to life z are ! proteids1 !y are ( v great value 9 ! body4 ,!y are compos$ ( c>bon1 hydrog51 & oxyg51 & are obta9$ ma9ly f plants4 ,!re are sev]al v>ieties ( c>bohydrates1 b !y are simil> 9 composition4 ,all ( ^? us$ z food to any great ext5t are />* & c]ta9 k9ds ( sug>4 99,/>*99 is ! c>bohydrate ( greate/ importance z a food1 & x is also ! "o f\nd 9 ! greate/ abundance4 ,all gre5 plants =m m or less />*1 & _m ( !m /ore x 9 _! leaves1 se$s1 or roots 7,fig4 #fj74 ,f ^! s\rces x is obta9$ z food4 ,glycog51 a sub/ance closely resembl+ />*1 is f\nd 9 ! body ( ! oy/]4 ,x is also =m$ 9 ! liv] & muscles ( ! high] animals1 be+ prep>$ f ! sug> ( ! blood1 & is /or$ by !m z res]ve food 7,*apt] ,,xi74 ,glycog5 is1 on ?is acc\nt1 call$ animal />*4 ,/>* on be+ eat5 is fir/ *ang$ to sug>1 aft] :i* x may be conv]t$ into glycog5 9 ! liv] & 9 ! muscles4 ,fig4 #fj ,fig4 #fj--99,/>* gra9s99 9 cells ( potato z !y appe> "u ! microscope4 7,see practical "w47 99,sug>s499--,!re are sev]al v>ieties ( sug>1 b ! important ones us$ z foods fall into "o or ! o!r ( two classes1 kn[n z d\ble sug>s 7disac*>ides7 & s+le sug>s 7monosac*>ides74 ,to ! fir/ class belong cane sug>1 f\nd 9 sug> cane & beets1 milk sug>1 f\nd 9 sweet milk1 & maltose1 a k9d ( sug> :i* is made f />* by ! action ( malt4 ,! important memb]s ( ! second class are grape sug>1 or dextrose1 & fruit sug>1 or levulose1 bo? ( :i* are f\nd 9 fruits & 9 honey4 ,! mo/ important ( all sug>s1 s f> z its use 9 ! body is conc]n$1 is dextrose4 ,to ?is =m all ! o!r sug>s1 & />* also1 are conv]t$ be=e !y are f9ally us$ 9 ! body4 ,! close *emical relation betwe5 ! diff]5t c>bohydrates makes su* a conv]sion easily possible4 99,fats499--,! fats us$ z foods belong to "o or ! o!r ( two classes1 kn[n z solid fats & oils4 ,! solid fats are d]iv$ *iefly f animals1 & ! oils are obta9$ mo/ly f plants4 ,butt]1 ! fat ( meats1 olive oil1 & ! oil ( nuts are ! fats ( greate/ importance z foods4 ,fats1 l ! c>bohydrates1 are compos$ ( c>bon1 hydrog51 & oxyg54 ,!y are r complex *emical comp\nds1 ?\gh n s complex z proteids4 ,s9ce nei!r fats nor c>bohydrates conta9 nitrog51 !y are frequ5tly class$ toge!r z non-nitrog5\s foods4 99,purpose ,s]v$ by ,c>bohydrates1 ,fats1 & ,album9oids499--,^! classes ( nutri5ts all s]ve ! common purpose ( supply+ en]gy4 ,by unit+ ) oxyg5 at ! cells1 !y supply heat & ! o!r =ms ( bodily =ce4 ,?is is p]haps _! only purpose47#ej7 ,proteids also s]ve ?is purpose1 b !y are n s well adapt$ to supply+ en]gy z are ! c>bohydrates & ! fats4 ,9 ! fir/ place !y d n completely oxidize & !re=e d n supply s mu* en]gy2 &1 9 ! second place1 !y =m wa/e products t are remov$ ) difficulty f ! body4 99,m9]al ,salts & _! ,uses499--,m9]al salts are f\nd 9 small quantities 9 all ( ! m common food mat]ials1 &1 z a rule1 f9d _! way into ! body unnotic$4 ,!y supply ! elem5ts :i* are f\nd 9 ! body 9 small quantities & s]ve a v>iety ( purposes47#ea7 ,calcium phosphate & calcium c>bonate are important con/itu5ts ( ! bones & tee?2 & ! salts conta9+ iron r5ew ! hemoglob9 ( ! blood4 ,o!rs p]=m important functions 9 ! vital processes4 ,! m9]al comp\nd ( greate/ importance p]haps is sodium *loride1 or common salt47#eb7 ,?is is a natural con/itu5t ( mo/ ( our foods1 & is also add$ to food 9 its prep>ation = ! table4 ,:5 x is )held f animals = a consid]able l5g? ( "t1 !y suff] int5sely & f9ally die4 ,x is necess>y 9 ! blood & lymph to keep _! con/itu5ts 9 solution1 & is ?\ght to play an important rle 9 ! *emical *anges ( ! cells4 ,x is con/antly leav+ ! body z a wa/e product & mu/ be con/antly suppli$ 9 small quantities 9 ! foods4 99,importance ( ,wat]499--,wat] f9ds its way into ! body z a pure liquid1 z a "p ( su* mixtures z c(fee1 *ocolate1 & milk1 & z a con/itu5t ( all our solid foods4 7,see table ( foods1 page #abf47 ,x is also =m$ 9 ! body by ! oxidation ( hydrog54 ,x passes ?r\gh ! body un*ang$1 & is con/antly be+ remov$ by all ! organs ( excretion4 ,?\gh wat] does n lib]ate en]gy 9 ! body nor build up ! tissues 9 ! s5se t o!r foods d1 x is z necess>y to ! ma9t5ance ( life z oxyg5 or proteids4 ,x occurs 9 all ! tissues1 & =ms ab\t #gj p] c5t ( ! entire weight ( ! body4 ,its pres5ce is necess>y = ! int]*ange ( mat]ials at ! cells & = keep+ ! tissues s(t & pliable4 ,z x ent]s ! body1 x c>ries dige/$ food sub/ances ) x1 & z x leaves x is load$ ) wa/es4 ,its *ief physiological "w1 :i* is t ( a transport] ( mat]ial1 dep5ds ^u its ability to dissolve sub/ances & to fl[ readily f place to place4 99,relative ,quantity ( ,nutri5ts ,ne$$499--,proteids1 c>bohydrates1 & fats are ! nutri5ts t supply mo/ ( ! body's n\ri%m5t4 ,! mo/ hygi5ic diet is ! "o :i* supplies ! proteids 9 suffici5t quantity to rebuild ! tissues & ! c>bohydrates & fats 9 ! "r am\nts to supply ! body ) en]gy4 ,mu* exp]im5t+ has be5 done ) a view to det]m9+ ^! proportions1 b ! results s f> are n entirely satisfactory4 ,accord+ to "s ( ! old] e/imates1 a p]son ( av]age size requires = 8 daily use five ounces ( proteid1 two & "o half ounces ( fat1 & fifte5 ounces ( c>bohydrate4 ,rec5t inve/igations ( ?is problem seem to %[ t ! body is z well1 if n bett]1 n\ri%$ by a mu* small] am\nt ( proteid--n m ?an two & "o half ounces 7#fj grams7 daily47#ec7 ,:ile !re is probably no necessity = ! heal?y individual's tak+ 8 proteid1 fat1 & c>bohydrate 9 exact proportions 7if ! proportions be/ suit$ to 8 body 7 kn[n71 ! fact ne$s to be emphasiz$ t proteids1 al?\gh absolutely necess>y1 %\ld =m b a small "p 7n ov] "o fif?7 ( ! daily bill ( f>e4 ,9 recognition ( ?is fact is involv$ a pr9ciple ( heal? & also "o ( economy4 ,! proteids1 especially ^? 9 meats1 are ! mo/ exp5sive ( ! nutri5ts1 :]eas ! c>bohydrates1 :i* %\ld =m ! great] bulk ( "o's food1 are ! lea/ exp5sive4 99,effects ( a ,"o-sid$ ,diet499--,! plan ( ! body is su* z to require a mix$ diet1 & all ( ! great classes ( nutri5ts are necess>y4 ,if "o c\ld subsi/ on any s+le class1 x w\ld be proteids1 = proteids are able bo? to rebuild tissue & to supply en]gy4 ,b if proteids are eat5 mu* 9 excess ( ! body's ne$ = rebuild+ ! tissues1 & ?is excess is oxidiz$ = supply+ en]gy1 a /ra9 is ?r[n ^u ! organs ( excretion1 because ( ! increase 9 ! wa/es4 ,n only is !re dang] ( ov]work+ c]ta9 ( ^! organs 7! liv] & kidneys71 b ! wa/es may l+] too long 9 ! body1 caus+ disord] & lay+ ! f\ndation = disease4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if an insuffici5t am\nt ( proteid is tak51 ! tissues are improp]ly n\ri%$1 & "o is unable to ex]t 8 usual /r5g?4 ,:at is true ( ! proteids is true1 ?\gh 9 a diff]5t way1 ( ! o!r great classes ( foods4 ,a diet :i* is lack+ 9 proteid1 c>bohydrate1 or fat1 or :i* has any "o ( !m 9 excess1 is n adapt$ to ! requirem5ts ( ! body4 99,composition ( ! ,food ,mat]ials499--,"o :o intellig5tly provides ! daily bill ( f>e mu/ h "s k ( ! nature & quantity ( ! nutri5ts pres5t 9 ! diff]5t mat]ials us$ z food4 ,?is in=mation is suppli$ by ! *emi/1 :o has made ext5sive analyses = ?is purpose4 ,results ( su* analyses are %[n 9 ,table #a 7page #abf71 :i* gives ! p]c5tage ( proteids1 fats1 c>bohydrates1 wat]1 & m9]al salts 9 ! edible portions ( ! m common ( our foods4 ,fig4 #fa ,fig4 #fa--,relative proportions ( diff]5t nutri5ts 9 well-kn[n foods4 99,food ,supply to ! ,table499--,! ma9 problem 9 supply+ ! daily bill ( f>e is t ( secur+ ?r\gh ! diff]5t food mat]ials ! requisite am\nts ( proteids1 c>bohydrates1 & fats4 ,9 ?is matt] a table %[+ ! composition ( foods c be us$ to great advantage4 ,consult+ ! table on page #abf1 x is se5 t l>ge p] c5ts ( proteids are suppli$ by lean meat1 eggs1 *eese1 beans1 peas1 peanuts1 & oatmeal1 :ile fat is 9 excess 9 fat meat1 butt]1 & nuts 7,fig4 #fa74 ,c>bohydrates are suppli$ 9 abundance by potatoes1 rice1 corn1 sug>1 & molasses4 ,! diff]5t c]eals also conta9 a l>ge p]c5tage ( c>bohydrates 9 ! =m ( />*4 ,,table ,i4 ,,! ,,composition ,,( ,,food ,,mat]ials7#ed7 ,food ,wat] ,solids ,proteid ,fat ,c>bohydrates ,m9]al ,heat ,mat]ials ,matt] ,value ( ,"o ,p\nd ,animal ,p] c5t ,p] c5t ,p] c5t ,p] c5t ,p] c5t ,p] c5t ,calories7#ee7 foods1 edible portion ,beef3 #fc4i #cf4a #ai4e #ae4f 444 #a #ajbj ,%\ld] ,rib #dh4a #ea4i #ae4d #ce4f 444 4#i #agij ,sirlo9 #fj #dj #ah4e #bj4e 444 #a #abaj ,r\nd #fh4b #ca4h #bj4e #aj4a 444 #a4b #hje ,veal3 #fh4h #ca4b #bj4b #i4h 444 444 #gij ,%\ld] ,mutton3 #fa4h #ch4b #ah4c #ai 444 4#i #aadj ,leg ,lo9 #di4c #ej4g #ae #ce 444 4#g #agee ,pork3 #ej4c #di4g #af #cb4h 444 4#i #afhj ,%\ld] ,ham1 #da4e #eh4e #af4g #ci4a 444 #b4g #aifj salt$1 smok$ ,fat1 #ab4a #hg4i 4#i #hb4h 444 #d4b #ceaj salt$ ,sausage3 #da4e #eh4h #ac4h #db4h 444 #b4b #bjfe ,pork ,bologna #fb4d #cg4f #ah4h #db4h 444 #c #ajae ,*ick5 #gb4b #bg4h #bd4d #a 444 #a4d #edj ,eggs #gc4h #bf4b #ad4i #aj4e 444 4#h #gba ,milk #hg #ac #c4f #d #d4g 4#g #cbe ,butt] #aj4e #hi 4#f #he 4#e 4#c #ceae ,*eese3 #cj4b #fi4h #bh4c #ce4e #a4h #d4b #bjgj ,full cream ,skim milk #da4c #eh4g #ch4d #f4h #f4i #d4f #aafe ,fi%3 #hb4f #ag4d #ae4h 4#e 444 #a4b #caj ,codfi% ,salmon #fc4f #cf4d #ba4f #ac4d 444 #a4d #ife ,oy/]s #hg4a #ab4i #f #a4b #c4g #b #bcj ,vegetable foods ,:eat #ab4e #hg4e #aa #a4a #gd4i 4#e #afde fl\r ,graham #ac4a #hf4i #aa4g #a4g #ga4g #a4h #afce fl\r 7:eat7 ,rye fl\r #ac4a #hf4i #f4g 4#h #gh4g 4#g #afbe ,buck:eat #ad4f #he4d #f4i #a4d #gf4a #a #afje fl\r ,oatmeal #g4f #ib4d #ae4a #g4a #fh4b #b #ahej ,cornmeal #ae #he #i4b #c4h #gj4f #a4d #afde ,rice #ab4d #hg4f #g4d 4#d #gi4d 4#d #afcj ,peas #ab4c #hg4g #bf4g #a4g #ef4d #b4i #aefe ,beans #ab4f #hg4d #bc4a #b #ei4b #c4a #afae ,potatoes #gh4i #ba4a #b4a 4#a #ag4i #a #cge ,tomatoes #ie4c #d4g 4#h 4#d #c4b 4#c #hj ,apples #hc4b #af4h 4#b 4#d #ae4i 4#c #cae ,sug>1 #b #ih 444 444 #ig4h 4#c #ahbj granulat$ ,:ite #cb4c #fg4g #h4b #a4g #ef4c 4#j #abhj bread 7:eat7 ,peanuts #i4b #ij4h #be4h #bd4d #ch4f #b #befj ,almonds #d4h #ie4b #ba #ag4c #ed4i #b #cjcj ,walnuts #b4e #ig4e #af4f #af4a #fc4d #a4d #cbhe 7,engli%7 ,v>iety 9 ! selection ( foods = ! table is an ess5tial feature1 b ?is %\ld n increase ei!r ! "w or ! exp5se ( supply+ ! meals4 ,ea* s+le meal c1 & %\ld1 be simple 9 itself &1 at ! same "t1 diff] suffici5tly f ! meal prec$+ & ! "o foll[+ to give ! necess>y v>iety 9 ! c\rse ( ! day4 ,! bill ( f>e %\ld1 ( c\rse1 include fruits 7= _! tonic effects7 & v small am\nts p]haps ( sub/ances :i* /imulate ! appetite1 su* z pepp]1 mu/>d1 etc41 kn[n z condim5ts4 99,purity ( ,food499--,! fact t _m ( ! food sub/ances are p]i%able makes x possible = !m to be eat5 9 a slightly decay$ condition4 ,su* sub/ances are decid$ly un:olesome 7"s conta9+ poisons7 & %\ld be promptly reject$4 ,n only d fre% meats1 fruits1 & vegetables ne$ c>eful inspection1 b cann$ & pres]v$ goods z well4 ,if cann$ foods are imp]fectly seal$ or if n ?or\ghly cook$ 9 ! cann+ process1 !y decay & ! acids :i* !y g5]ate act on ! metals l9+ ! cans1 =m+ poison\s comp\nds4 ,! cont5ts ( t9 cans %\ld = ?is reason be transf]r$ to o!r vessels z soon z op5$4 ,foods are also r5d]$ impure or weak5$ ?r\gh adult]ation1 ! wat]+ ( milk be+ a famili> example4 ,! manufacture ( jellies1 pres]ves1 sirups1 & v>i\s k9ds ( pickles & condim5ts has p]haps af=d$ ! l>ge/ field = adult]ations1 al?\gh x is possible to adult]ate ne>ly all ( ! lead+ articles ( food4 ,a long /ep 9 ! prev5tion ( food & drug adult]ation 0 tak5 9 ?is c\ntry by ! passage ( ! ,pure ,food ,law4 ,by =c+ manufactur]s ( foods & m$ic9es to /ate on pr9t$ labels ! composition ( _! products1 ?is law has made x possible = ! consum] to "k :at he is pur*as+ & putt+ into 8 body4 99,alcohol n a ,food499--,_m p 9 ?is & o!r c\ntries dr9k 9 diff]5t bev]ages1 su* z :isky1 be]1 w9e1 etc41 a v>y+ am\nt ( alcohol4 ,?is sub/ance has a tempor>y /imulat+ or excit+ effect1 & ! claim has be5 made t x s]ves z a food4 ,rec5tly x has be5 %[n t alcohol :5 introduc$ into ! body 9 small quantities & 9 a greatly dilut$ =m1 is ne>ly all oxidiz$1 yield+ en]gy z does fat or sug>4 ,if no h>mful effects att5d$ ! use ( alcohol1 x might on ?is acc\nt be class$ z a food4 ,b alcohol is kn[n to be h>mful to ! body4 ,:5 us$ 9 l>ge quantities1 x injures ne>ly all ( ! tissues1 & :5 tak5 habitually1 ev5 9 small doses1 x leads to ! =mation ( ! alcohol habit :i* is n[ recogniz$ & treat$ z a disease4 ,?is & o!r facts %[ t alcohol is n adapt$ to ! body plan ( tak+ on & us+ new mat]ial 7,*apt] ,,xi71 & no sub/ance lack+ 9 ?is respect c prop]ly be class$ z a food47#ef7 ,in/ead ( class+ alcohol z a food1 x %\ld be plac$ 9 t long li/ ( sub/ances :i* are introduc$ into ! body = special purposes & :i* are kn[n by ! g5]al "n ( 99,drugs499--,drugs act /rongly ^u ! body & t5d to br+ ab\t unusual & unnatural results4 ,_! use %\ld 9 no way be confus$ ) t ( foods4 ,if tak5 9 heal?1 !y t5d to di/urb ! physiological balance ( ! body by unduly increas+ or dim9i%+ ! action ( ! diff]5t organs4 ,9 disease :]e ?is balance is already di/urb$1 !y may be adm9i/]$ = _! c\nt]active effects1 b always "u ! advice & direction ( a physician4 ,kn[+ ! nature ( ! di/urbance :i* ! drug produces1 ! physician c adm9i/] x to advantage1 %\ld ! body be out ( physiological balance1 or diseas$4 ,n only are drugs ( no value 9 heal?1 b _! use is liable to d mu* h>m4 ,,nature ,,( ,,dige/ion ,be=e ! nutri5ts c be oxidiz$ at ! cells1 or built into ! protoplasm1 !y und]go a numb] ( *anges4 ,^! are necess>y = _! entrance into ! body1 = _! di/ribution by ! blood & ! lymph1 & = ! purposes :i* !y f9ally s]ve4 ,! fir/ ( ^! *anges is prep>atory to ! entrance ( ! nutri5ts & is kn[n z dige/ion4 ,! organs :i* br+ ab\t ?is *ange1 call$ dige/ive organs1 h a special con/ruction :i* adapts !m to _! "w4 ,x w assi/ mat]ially 9 und]/&+ ^! organs if we fir/ le>n some?+ ( ! nature ( ! "w :i* !y h to p]=m4 99,h[ ! ,nutri5ts get into ! ,body499--,! nature ( dige/ion is det]m9$ by ! conditions affect+ ! entrance ( nutri5ts into ! body4 ,food 9 ! /oma* & air 9 ! lungs1 al?\gh surr\nd$ by ! body1 are /ill outside ( :at is call$ ! body prop]4 ,to ga9 entrance into ! body prop]1 a sub/ance mu/ pass ?r\gh ! body wall4 ,?is consi/s ( ! sk9 on ! outside & ( ! muc\s l9+s ( ! air passages & o!r tubes & cavities :i* are connect$ ) ! ext]nal surface4 ,to get f ! dige/ive organs into ! blood1 ! nutri5ts mu/ pass ?r\gh ! muc\s membrane l9+ ^! organs & also ! walls ( blood or lymph vessels4 ,only liquid mat]ials c make ?is passage4 ,x is necess>y1 !re=e1 to r$uce to ! liquid /ate all nutri5ts n already 9 t condition4 ,?is r$uction to ! liquid /ate con/itutes ! dige/ive process4 99,h[ ,sub/ances are ,liquefi$499--,:ile ! r$uction ( solids to ! liquid /ate is accompli%$ 9 "s in/ances by heat+ !m until !y melt1 !y are m frequ5tly r$uc$ to ?is /ate by subject+ !m to ! action ( c]ta9 liquids1 call$ solv5ts4 ,?r\gh ! action ( ! solv5t ! m9ute p>ticles ( ! solid sep>ate f ea* o!r & disappe> f view4 7,%[n 9 dropp+ salt 9 wat]47 ,at ! same "t !y mix ) ! solv5t1 =m+ a solution1 f :i* !y sep>ate only ) great difficulty4 ,= ?is reason solids 9 solution c diffuse ?r\gh por\s p>titions along ) ! solv5ts 9 :i* !y are dissolv$ 7page #gc74 ,by dige/ion ! nutri5ts are r$uc$ to ! =m ( a solution4 ,! process is1 simply speak+1 "o ( dissolv+4 ,! liquid employ$ z ! dige/ive solv5t is wat]4 ,! diff]5t nutri5ts dissolve 9 wat]1 mix+ ) x to =m a solution :i* is !n pass$ into ! body prop]4 99,dige/ion n a ,simple ,process499--,dige/ion is by no means a simple process1 su*1 = in/ance1 z ! dissolv+ ( salt or sug> 9 wat]4 ,^!1 be+ soluble 9 wat]1 dissolve at once on be+ mix$ ) a suffici5t am\nt ( ?is liquid4 ,! majority ( ! nutri5ts1 h[ev]1 are insoluble 9 wat] & are unaffect$ by x :5 act+ alone4 ,fats1 />*1 & mo/ ( ! proteids d n dissolve 9 wat]4 ,be=e ^! c be dissolv$ !y h to be *ang$ *emically & conv]t$ into sub/ances t are soluble 9 wat]4 ,?is complicates ! process & prev5ts ! use ( wat] alone z ! dige/ive solv5t4 99,a ,simil> ,case499--,if a piece ( lime/one be plac$ 9 wat]1 x does n dissolve1 because x is insoluble 9 wat]4 ,if hydro*loric acid is n[ add$ to ! wat]1 ! lime/one is soon dissolv$ 7,fig4 #fb74 7,see ,practical ,"w47 ,x seems at fir/ ?\ght t ! acid dissolves ! lime/one1 b ?is is n ! case4 ,! acid produces a *emical *ange 9 ! lime/one 7calcium c>bonate7 & conv]ts x into a comp\nd 7calcium *loride7 t is soluble 9 wat]4 ,z fa/ z ?is is =m$ x is dissolv$ by ! wat]1 :i* is ! real solv5t 9 ! case4 ,! acid simply plays ! "p ( a *emical conv]t]4 ,fig4 #fb ,fig4 #fb--,! dissolv+ ( lime/one 9 wat] conta9+ acid1 sugge/+ ! d\ble action 9 ! dige/ion ( mo/ foods4 99,! ,dige/ive ,fluids499--,sev]al fluids--saliva1 ga/ric juice1 pancreatic juice1 bile1 & inte/9al juice--are employ$ 9 ! dige/ion ( ! food4 ,! composition ( ^! fluids is 9 keep+ ) ! nature ( ! dige/ive process4 ,:ile all ( !m h wat] = _! mo/ abundant con/itu5t1 !re are dissolv$ 9 ! wat] small am\nts ( active *emical ag5ts4 ,x is ! "w ( ^! ag5ts to conv]t ! insoluble nutri5ts into sub/ances t are soluble 9 wat]4 ,! dige/ive fluids are ?us able to act 9 a d\ble mann] on ! nutri5ts--to *ange !m *emically & to dissolve !m4 ,! *emical ag5ts :i* br+ ab\t ! *anges 9 ! nutri5ts are call$ enzymes1 or dige/ive f]m5ts4 99,foods ,class$ ) ,ref]5ce to ,dige/ive ,*anges499--,) ref]5ce to ! *anges :i* !y und]go dur+ dige/ion1 foods may be divid$ into ?ree classes z foll[s3 #a4 ,sub/ances already 9 ! liquid /ate & requir+ no dige/ive action4 ,wat] & solutions ( simple foods 9 wat] belong to ?is class4 ,milk & liquid fats1 or oils1 d n belong to ?is class4 #b4 ,solid foods soluble 9 wat]4 ,?is class includes common salt & sug>4 ,^! require no dige/ive action o!r ?an dissolv+ 9 wat]4 #c4 ,foods t are insoluble 9 wat]4 ,^! h fir/ to be *ang$ into soluble sub/ances1 aft] :i* !y are dissolv$4 99,summ>y499--,mat]ials call$ foods are introduc$ into ! body = rebuild+ ! tissues1 supply+ en]gy1 & aid+ 9 its g5]al "w4 ,only a few classes ( sub/ances1 viz41 proteids1 c>bohydrates1 fats1 wat]1 & "s m9]al comp\nds h all ! qualities ( foods & are suitable = introduction into ! body4 ,sub/ances kn[n z drugs1 :i* may be us$ z m$ic9es 9 disease1 %\ld be avoid$ 9 heal?4 ,be=e foods c be pass$ into ! body prop]1 !y mu/ be conv]t$ into ! liquid =m1 or dissolv$4 ,9 ?is process1 kn[n z dige/ion1 wat] is ! solv5t2 & c]ta9 *emical ag5ts1 call$ enzymes1 conv]t ! insoluble nutri5ts into sub/ances t are soluble 9 wat]4 99,ex]cises499--#a4 ,h[ does oxidation at ! cells make necess>y ! introduction ( new mat]ials into ! body8 #b4 ,:at diff]5t purposes are s]v$ by ! foods8 #c4 ,:at is a nutri5t8 ,"n ! important classes4 #d4 ,:at are food mat]ials8 ,f :at s\rces are !y obta9$8 #e4 ,"n ! diff]5t k9ds ( proteids2 ! diff]5t k9ds ( c>bohydrates4 ,:y are proteids call$ nitrog5\s foods & fats & c>bohydrates non-nitrog5\s foods8 #f4 ,%[ :y life _c be c>ri$ on )\t proteids2 )\t wat]4 #g4 ,:at p] c5ts ( proteid1 fat1 & c>bohydrate are f\nd 9 :eat fl\r1 oatmeal1 rice1 butt]1 potatoes1 r\nd beef1 eggs1 & peanuts8 #h4 ,/ate ! objection to a meal consi/+ ( beef1 eggs1 beans1 bread1 & butt]2 to "o consi/+ ( potatoes1 rice1 bread1 & butt]4 ,:i* is ! m objectionable ( ^! meals & :y8 #i4 ,/ate ! g5]al plan ( dige/ion4 #aj4 ,%[ t dige/ion is n a simple process l t ( dissolv+ salt 9 wat]4 ,,practical ,,"w 99,elem5ts suppli$ by ! ,foods499--,! foll[+ brief /udy w enable ! pupil to id5tify mo/ ( ! elem5ts pres5t 9 ! body & :i* h1 !re=e1 to be suppli$ by ! foods4 ,c>bon4--,exam9e pieces ( *>r$ wood1 coke1 or coal1 & also ! lead 9 lead p5cils4 ,%[ t ! *>r$ wood & ! coal w burn4 ,recall exp]im5t 7page #aad7 %[+ t c>bon 9 burn+ =ms c>bon dioxide4 ,hydrog54--,fill a te/ tube "o ?ird full ( /rong hydro*loric acid & drop into x sev]al small scraps ( z9c4 ,! gas :i* is evolv$ is hydrog54 ,:5 ! hydrog5 is com+ (f rapidly1 br+ a light$ spl9t] to ! m\? ( ! tube4 ,! gas %\ld burn4 ,hold a cold piece ( glass ov] ! flame & obs]ve ! deposit ( moi/ure4 ,hydrog5 9 burn+ =ms wat]4 ,ext+ui% ! flame by cov]+ ! top ( ! tube ) a piece ( c>dbo>d4 ,n[ let ! escap+ gas collect 9 a tumbl] inv]t$ ov] ! tube4 ,aft] hold+ ! tumbl] 9 ?is position = two or ?ree m9utes1 remove &1 keep+ inv]t$1 ?ru/ a light$ spl9t] into x4 7,! gas %\ld ei!r burn or explode47 ,:at does ?is exp]im5t %[ relative to ! weight ( hydrog5 z comp>$ ) t ( air8 ,nitrog54--,nitrog5 =ms ab\t f\r fif?s ( ! atmosph]e1 :]e1 l oxyg51 x exi/s 9 a free /ate4 ,x may be sep>at$ f ! oxyg5 ( an inclos$ portion ( air by caus+ t gas to unite ) phosphorus4 ,place a piece ( phosphorus ! size ( a pea 9 a depression 9 a flat piece ( cork4 7,h&le phosphorus ) wet f+]s or ) =ceps47 ,place ! cork on wat] & h ready a glass fruit j> hold+ n m ?an a qu>t4 ,ignite ! phosphorus ) a hot wire & inv]t ! j> ov] x1 pu%+ ! m\? bel[ ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,! phosphorus unit+ ) ! oxyg5 fills ! j> ) :ite fumes ( phosphoric oxide4 ,^! soon dissolve 9 ! wat]1 leav+ a cle> gas above4 ,?is is nitrog54 ,place a c>dbo>d "u ! m\? ( ! j> & turn x "r side up1 leav+ 9 ! wat] & keep+ ! top cov]$4 ,light a spl9t] &1 slipp+ ! cov] to "o side1 ?ru/ ! flame into ! j> ( nitrog51 not+ ! effect4 7,flame is ext+ui%$47 ,comp>e nitrog5 ) oxyg5 9 its relation to combu/ion4 ,:at purpose is s]v$ by ea* 9 ! atmosph]e8 ,oxyg54--,review exp]im5ts 7page #aad7 %[+ ! prop]ties ( oxyg54 ,phosphorus4--,exam9e a small piece ( phosphorus1 not+ t x has to be kept "u wat]4 ,lay a small piece on ! table & obs]ve ! t9y /ream ( :ite smoke ris+ f x1 =m$ by sl[ oxidation4 ,dissolve a piece z l>ge z a pea 9 a teaspoonful ( c>bon disulphide 9 a te/ tube1 p\r ?is on a piece ( por\s pap]1 & lay ! pap] on an iron support4 ,:5 ! c>bon disulphide evaporates ! phosphorus takes fire spontane\sly4 7,! heat f ! sl[ oxidation is suffici5t to ignite ! phosphorus 9 ! f9ely divid$ condition47 ,:at is ! mo/ /rik+ prop]ty ( phosphorus8 ,:at purpose does x s]ve 9 ! mat*8 ,sulphur4--,exam9e "s sulphur1 not+ its color & ! abs5ce ( odor or ta/e4 7,impure sulphur may h an odor & a ta/e47 ,burn a little sulphur 9 an iron spoon1 not+ t ! comp\nd :i* x =ms ) oxyg5 by burn+ has a decid$ odor4 ,o!r ,elem5ts4--,magnesium4 ,exam9e & burn a piece ( magnesium ribbon1 not+ ! :ite comp\nd ( magnesium oxide :i* is =m$4 ,iron4 ,exam9e pieces ( ! metal & also "s ( its comp\nds1 z f]r\s sulphate1 f]ric *loride1 & f]ric oxide or iron ru/4 ,sodium4 ,drop a piece ( ! metal on wat] & obs]ve results4 ,sodium decomposes wat]4 ,x has to be kept "u "s liquid1 su* z k]os5e1 :i* conta9s no oxyg54 7,x %\ld n be t\*$ except ) ! f+]s wet ) k]os5e47 ,*lor9e4 ,p\r /rong hydro*loric acid on a little manganese dioxide 9 a te/ tube1 & w>m g5tly ov] a l[ flame4 ,! escap+ gas is *lor9e4 ,avoid brea?+ mu* ( x4 99,composition ( ! ,nutri5ts499--,! simple/ way ( det]m9+ :at elem5ts make up ! diff]5t nutri5ts is by heat+ !m & /udy+ ! products ( decomposition1 z foll[s3 ,to %[ t ,c>bohydrates conta9 ,c>bon1 ,hydrog51 & ,oxyg54--,place "o half teaspoonful ( p[d]$ />* 9 a te/ tube & heat /rongly4 ,obs]ve t wat] cond5ses on ! sides ( ! tube & t a black1 *>r$ mass rema9s beh9d4 ,! black mass consi/s ma9ly ( c>bon4 ,! wat] is compos$ ( hydrog5 & oxyg54 ,^! ?ree elem5ts are ?us %[n to be pres5t 9 ! />*4 ,! exp]im5t may be repeat$1 us+ sug> in/ead ( />*4 ,to %[ t ,proteids conta9 ,c>bon1 ,hydrog51 ,oxyg51 ,nitrog51 & ,sulphur4--,place 9 a te/ tube "s f9ely divid$ proteid :i* has be5 ?or\ghly dri$ 7dri$ beef or ! lean ( h>d cur$ bacon74 ,heat /rongly 9 ! hood ( a *emical laboratory or "s o!r place :]e ! odors d n get into ! room4 ,fir/ hold 9 ! escap+ gases a wet /rip ( r$ litmus pap]4 ,?is w be turn$ blue1 %[+ ammonia 7,,nh#c7 to be escap+4 ,next hold 9 ! m\? ( ! tube a /rip ( a pap] wet ) a solution ( lead nitrate4 ,?is is turn$ black or br[n on acc\nt ( hydrog5 sulphide7,h#b,s7 :i* is be+ driv5 (f4 ,obs]ve also t wat] cond5ses 9 ! upp] "p ( ! tube & t a black1 *>r$ mass rema9s beh9d4 ,s9ce ! products ( decomposition 7,h#b,o1 ,,nh#c1 ,h#b,s1 & ! *>r$ mass7 conta9 hydrog51 oxyg51 nitrog51 sulphur1 & c>bon1 ^! elem5ts are ( c\rse pres5t 9 ! proteid te/$4 ,to %[ ! ,pres5ce ( ,m9]al ,matt]4--,burn a piece ( dry bread by hold+ x 9 a cle>1 hot flame1 & obs]ve ! a% t is left beh9d4 ,?is is ! m9]al matt] pres5t 9 ! bread4 99,te/s = ,nutri5ts499 ,proteids4--,cov] ! sub/ance to be te/$ ) /rong nitric acid & heat gradually to boil+4 ,if proteid is pres5t x turns yell[ & p>tly dissolves 9 ! acid1 =m+ a yell[ solution4 ,let cool & !n add ammonia4 ,! yell[ solid & ! solution are turn$ a deep orange color4 ,apply ?is te/ to foods conta9+ proteid su* z :ite ( egg1 *eese1 lean meat1 etc4 ,/>*4--7a7 ,place a small lump ( />* 9 "o f\r? ( a p9t ( wat] & heat gradually to boil+1 /irr+ well4 ,!n add en\gh wat] to =m a ?9 liquid & fill a te/ tube half full4 ,add to ?is a few drops ( a solution ( iod9e4 7,prep>e by dissolv+ a cry/al ( iod9e 9 #be cubic c5timet]s 7#a_/bj p9t7 ( a solution ( potassium iodide 9 wat] & add wat] to ?is until x is a light amb] color47 ,! />* solution is turn$ blue1 7b7 ,cut ) a razor a ?9 slice f a potato4 ,place ?is 9 a weak solution ( iod9e = a few m9utes & !n exam9e ) ! microscope1 us+ fir/ a l[ & !n a high p[]4 ,num]\s />* gra9s inclos$ 9 cellulose walls w be se5 7,fig4 #fj74 ,dextrose1 or ,grape ,sug>4--,place a solution ( ! sub/ance suppos$ to conta9 grape sug> 9 a te/ tube & add a few drops ( a dilute solution ( copp] sulphate4 ,!n add sodium hydroxide solution until ! precipitate :i* fir/ =ms is r$issolv$ & a cle> blue liquid obta9$4 ,heat ! upp] portion ( ! liquid sl[ly to ne> ! boil+ po9t4 ,a little bel[ ! boil+ po9t ! blue color disappe>s & a yell[-r$ precipitate is =m$4 ,if ! upp] lay] ( ! liquid is n[ boil$1 ! color deep5s & ?is may be contra/$ ) ! blue color bel[4 ,apply ?is te/ to ! sug> 9 rais9s & 9 honey4 ,fat4--,fat is recogniz$ by its effect on pap]1 mak+ a greasy /a9 :i* does n disappe> on heat+ & :i* r5d]s ! pap] transluc5t4 ,try butt]1 l>d1 or olive oil4 ,also %[ ! pres5ce ( fat 9 peanuts by cru%+ !m 9 a mort> & rubb+ ! p[d] on ?9 pap]4 ,if ! sub/ance to be te/$ conta9s b little fat1 ?is may be dissolv$ out ) e!r4 ,if a drop ( e!r conta9+ ! fat is plac$ on pap]1 x evaporates1 leav+ ! fat1 :i* !n =ms ! /a94 99,to %[ ! ,effect ( ,alcohol ^u ,proteid499--,place "s ( ! :ite ( a raw egg 9 a glass vessel & cov] x ) a small am\nt ( alcohol4 ,z ! album9 7proteid7 h>d5s1 or coagulates1 obs]ve t ! quantity ( cle> liquid increases4 ,?is is due to ! )drawal ( wat] f ! album9 by ! alcohol4 ,s9ce ! tissues are made up *iefly ( proteids1 a piece ( muscle or ( liv] may be us$ 9 ! exp]im5t1 in/ead ( ! egg1 ) simil> results4 99,to illu/rate ! ,dige/ive ,process499--,to a tumbl] two ?irds full ( wat] add a little salt4 ,/ir & obs]ve t ! salt is dissolv$4 ,ta/e ! solution to see t ! salt has n be5 *ang$ *emically4 ,n[ add a little p[d]$ lime/one to ! wat] & /ir z be=e4 ,obs]ve t ! lime/one does n dissolve4 ,!n add "s hydro*loric acid & obs]ve ! result4 ,/ate ! "p play$ by ! acid & by ! wat] 9 dissolv+ ! lime/one4 ,apply to ! dige/ion ( ! diff]5t classes ( foods4 ,,*apt] ,x - ,,organs ,,& ,,processes ,,( ,,dige/ion ,! organs ( dige/ion are adapt$ to ! "w ( dissolv+ ! foods by bo? _! /ructure & arrangem5t4 ,mo/ ( !m consi/ ei!r ( tubes or cavities & ^! are s connect$1 "o ) ! o!r1 z to =m a cont9u\s passageway entirely ?r\gh ! body4 ,?is passageway is kn[n z 99,! ,alim5t>y ,canal4 99--,! alim5t>y canal has a l5g? ( ab\t ?irty feet &1 :ile x beg9s at ! m\?1 all b ab\t eighte5 in*es ( x is f\nd 9 ! abdom9al cavity4 ,on acc\nt ( its l5g? x lies = ! mo/ "p 9 coils1 ! two l>ge/ ones be+ kn[n z ! small inte/9e & ! l>ge inte/9e4 ,connect$ ) ! alim5t>y canal are ! gl&s t supply ! liquids = act+ on ! food4 ,! divisions ( ! canal & mo/ ( ! gl&s t empty liquids into x are %[n 9 ,fig4 #fc & nam$ 9 ! table bel[3 ,table 99,coats ( ! ,alim5t>y ,canal499--,! walls ( ! alim5t>y canal1 except at ! m\?1 are di/9ct f ! surr\nd+ tissues & consi/ 9 mo/ places ( at lea/ ?ree lay]s1 or coats1 z foll[s3 ,fig4 #fc ,fig4 #fc--99;,diagram ( ! dige/ive sy/em499 #a4 ,m\?4 #b4 ,s(t palate4 #c4 ,ph>ynx4 #d4 ,p>otid gl&4 #e4 ,subl+ual gl&4 #f4 ,submaxill>y gl&4 #g4 ,esophagus4 #h4 ,/oma*4 #i4 ,pancreas4 #aj4 ,v]mi=m app5dix4 #aa4 ,ccum4 #ab4 ,asc5d+ colon4 #ac4 ,transv]se colon4 #ad4 ,desc5d+ colon4 #ae4 ,sigmoid flexure4 #af4 ,rectum4 #ag4 ,ileo-ccal valve4 #ah4 ,duct f liv] & pancreas4 #ai4 ,liv]4 ,diagram does n %[ comp>ative l5g? ( ! small inte/9e4 #a4 ,an inn] coat1 or l9+1 kn[n z ! muc\s membrane4 ,?is membrane is n conf9$ to ! alim5t>y canal1 b l9es1 z we h se51 ! diff]5t air passages4 ,x cov]s1 9 fact1 all ^? int]nal surfaces ( ! body t connect ) ! ext]nal surface4 ,x d]ives its "n f ! sub/ance :i* x secretes1 call$ mucus4 ,9 /ructure x resembles ! sk91 be+ cont9u\s ) ! sk9 :]e cavities op5 to ! surface4 ,x is made up ( two lay]s--a ?ick und]lay] :i* conta9s blood vessels1 n]ves1 & gl&s1 & a ?9 surface lay]1 call$ ! epi!lium4 ,! epi!lium1 l ! cuticle1 is )\t blood vessels1 n]ves1 or gl&s4 #b4 ,a middle coat1 :i* is muscul> & :i* =ms a cont9u\s lay] ?r\gh\t ! canal1 except at ! m\?4 7,"h its place is tak5 by ! /rong muscles ( ma/ication :i* are sep>ate & di/9ct f ea* o!r47 ,z a rule ! muscles ( ?is coat are involunt>y4 ,!y surr\nd ! canal z ?9 %eets & at mo/ places =m two di/9ct lay]s4 ,9 ! inn] lay] ! fib]s encircle ! canal1 b 9 ! out] lay] !y run longitud9ally1 or l5g?wise1 along ! canal47#eg7 #c4 ,an out] or s]\s coat1 :i* is limit$ to ^? portions ( ! canal t occupy ! abdom9al cavity4 ,?is coat is n f\nd above ! diaphragm4 ,x is a "p ( ! l9+ membrane ( ! cavity ( ! abdom51 call$ ,fig4 #fd ,fig4 #fd--99;,diagram ( ! p]itoneum499 #a4 ,transv]se colon4 #b4 ,duod5um4 #c4 ,small inte/9e4 #d4 ,pancreas4 99,! ,p]itoneum499--,! p]itoneum is to ! abdom9al cavity :at ! pleura is to ! ?oracic cavity4 ,x =ms ! out] cov]+ = ! alim5t>y canal & o!r abdom9al organs & supplies ! inn] l9+ ( ! cavity itself4 ,x is also ! means ( hold+ ^! organs 9 place1 "s ( !m be+ susp5d$ by x f ! abdom9al walls 7,fig4 #fd74 ,by ! secretion ( a small am\nt ( liquid1 x prev5ts friction ( ! p>ts ^u "o ano!r4 99,dige/ive ,gl&s499--,! gl&s :i* provide ! diff]5t fluids = act+ on ! foods d]ive _! con/itu5ts f ! blood4 ,!y are situat$ ei!r 9 ! muc\s membrane or at conv5i5t places outside ( ! canal & pass _! liquids into x by means ( small tubes1 call$ ducts4 ,9 ! canal ! food & ! dige/ive fluids come 9 direct contact--a condition :i* ! dissolv+ processes require4 ,ea* k9d ( fluid is secret$ by a special k9d ( gl& & is empti$ into ! canal at ! place :]e x is ne$$4 99,! ,dige/ive ,processes499--,dige/ion is accompli%$ by act+ ^u ! food 9 diff]5t ways1 z x is pass$ along ! canal1 ) ! f9al result ( r$uc+ x to ! =m ( a solution4 ,sev]al di/9ct processes are necess>y & !y occur 9 su* an ord] t ^? prec$+ are prep>atory to ^? t foll[4 ,^! processes are kn[n z ma/ication1 insalivation1 deglutition1 /oma* dige/ion1 & inte/9al dige/ion4 ,z ! diff]5t mat]ials become liquefi$ !y are transf]r$ to ! blood1 & sub/ances n r$uc$ to ! liquid /ate are pass$ on ?r\gh ! canal z wa/e4 ,! fir/ two ( ! dige/ive processes occur 9 99,! ,m\?499--,?is is an oval-%ap$ cavity situat$ at ! v beg9n+ ( ! canal4 ,x is surr\nd$ by ! lips 9 front1 by ! *eeks on ! sides1 by ! h>d palate above & ! s(t palate beh9d1 & by ! tissues ( ! l[] jaw bel[4 ,! muc\s membrane l9+ ! m\? is1 s(t & smoo?1 be+ cov]$ ) flat epi!lial cells4 ,! ext]nal op5+ ( ! m\? is gu>d$ by ! lips1 & ! s(t palate =ms a movable p>tition betwe5 ! m\? & ! ph>ynx4 ,9 a condition ( repose ! m\? space is practically fill$ by ! tee? & ! tongue1 b ! cavity may be enl>g$ & room provid$ = food by depress+ ! l[] jaw4 ,! m\? by its con/ruction is well adapt$ to c>ry+ on ! processes ( ma/ication & insalivation4 ,by ! fir/ process ! solid food is r$uc$1 by ! cutt+ & gr9d+ action ( ! tee?1 to a f9ely divid$ condition4 ,by ! second1 ! saliva becomes mix$ ) ! food & is made to act ^u x4 ,fig4 #fe ,fig4 #fe--99,! tee?499 ,a4 ,section ( a s+le mol>4 #a4 ,pulp4 #b4 ,d5t9e4 #c4 ,enamel4 #d4 ,cr[n4 #e4 ,neck4 #f4 ,root4 ,b4 ,tee? 9 position 9 l[] jaw4 #a4 ,incisors4 #b4 ,can9e4 #c4 ,biscuspids4 #d4 ,mol>s4 ,c4 ,upp] & l[] tee? on "o side4 #a4 ,incisors4 #b4 ,can9es4 #c4 ,biscuspids4 #d4 ,mol>s4 #e4 ,wisdom4 ,d4 ,upp] & l[] incisor1 to %[ glid+ contact4 99,accessory ,organs ( ! ,m\?499--,! "w ( ma/ication & insalivation is accompli%$ ?r\gh organs situat$ 9 & ar\nd ! m\? cavity4 ,^! comprise3 #a4 ,! ,tee?4--,! tee? are set 9 ! upp] & l[] jaws1 "o r[ directly ov] ! o!r1 ) _! h>d5$ surfaces fac+4 ,9 r$uc+ ! food1 ! tee? ( ! l[] jaw move aga9/ ^? ( ! upp]1 :ile ! food is held by ! tongue & *eeks betwe5 ! gr9d+ surfaces4 ,! front tee? are ?9 & *isel-%ap$4 ,!y d n meet s squ>ely z d ! back ones1 b _! edges glide ov] ea* o!r1 l ! blades ( scissors--a condition t adapts !m to cutt+ (f & sep>at+ ! food 7,d1 ,fig4 #fe74 ,! back tee? are broad & irregul>1 hav+ surfaces t are adapt$ to cru%+ & gr9d+4 ,ea* too? is compos$ ma9ly ( a bone-l sub/ance1 call$ d5t9e1 :i* surr\nds a c5tral space1 conta9+ blood vessels & n]ves1 kn[n z ! pulp cavity4 ,x is set 9 a depression 9 ! jaw :]e x is held firmly 9 place by a bony sub/ance1 kn[n z cem5t4 ,! "p ( ! too? expos$ above ! gum is ! cr[n1 ! "p surr\nd$ by ! gum is ! neck1 & ! "p :i* p5etrates into ! jaw is ! root 7,a1 ,fig4 #fe74 ,a h>d1 protective mat]ial1 call$ enamel1 cov]s ! expos$ surface ( ! too?4 ,! tee? :i* fir/ appe> are kn[n z ! tempor>y1 or milk1 tee? & are tw5ty 9 numb]1 t5 9 ea* jaw4 ,!y usually beg9 to appe> ab\t ! six? mon?1 & !y disappe> f ! m\? at int]vals f ! six? to ! ?irte5? ye>4 ,z !y leave1 tee? ( ! second1 or p]man5t1 set take _! place4 ,?is set has ?irty-two tee? ( f\r diff]5t k9ds arrang$ 9 ! two jaws z foll[s3 ,9 front1 above & bel[1 are f\r *isel-%ap$ tee?1 kn[n z ! incisors4 ,next to ^! on ei!r side is a too? long] & ?ick] ?an ! incisors1 call$ ! can9e4 ,back ( ^! are two %ort1 r\nd$ & d\ble po9t$ tee?1 ! bicuspids1 & back ( ! bicuspids are ?ree heavy tee? ) irregul> gr9d+ surfaces1 call$ ! mol>s 7,b & ,c1 ,fig4 #fe74 ,s9ce ! mol> f>!/ back 9 ea* jaw is usually n cut until maturity1 x is call$ a wisdom too?4 ,! mol>s are kn[n z ! sup]add$ p]man5t tee? because !y d n take ! place ( milk tee?1 b =m f>!r back z ! jaw gr[s 9 l5g?4 ,fig4 #ff ,fig4 #ff--99;,diagram99 %[+ directions ( muscul> fib]s 9 tongue4 #b4 ,! ,tongue4--,! tongue is a muscul> organ ^: fib]s ext5d ?r\gh x 9 sev]al directions 7,fig4 #ff74 ,its /ructure adapts x to a v>iety ( movem5ts4 ,dur+ ma/ication ! tongue transf]s ! food f "o "p ( ! m\? to ano!r1 &1 ) ! aid ( ! *eeks1 holds ! food betwe5 ! r[s ( tee?4 7,by an outw>d pressure f ! tongue & an inw>d pressure f ! *eek ! food is kept betwe5 ! gr9d+ surfaces47 ,! tongue has functions 9 addition to ^! & is a mo/ useful organ4 #c4 ,! ,muscles ( ,ma/ication4--,^! are atta*$ to ! l[] jaw & br+ ab\t its diff]5t movem5ts4 ,! masset] muscles1 :i* are ! heavy muscles 9 ! *eeks1 & ! temporal muscles1 locat$ 9 ! region ( ! temples1 raise ! l[] jaw & supply ! =ce = gr9d+ ! food4 ,small muscles situat$ bel[ ! *9 depress ! jaw & op5 ! m\?4 ,fig4 #fg ,fig4 #fg--99,saliv>y gl&s99 & ! ducts connect+ !m ) ! m\?4 #d4 ,! ,saliv>y ,gl&s4--,^! gl&s are situat$ 9 ! tissues surr\nd+ ! m\?1 & communicate ) x by means ( ducts 7,fig4 #fg74 ,!y secrete ! saliva4 ,! saliv>y gl&s are six 9 numb] & are arrang$ 9 ?ree pairs4 ,! l>ge/1 call$ ! p>otid gl&s1 lie1 "o on ei!r side1 9 front ( & bel[ ! e>s4 ,a duct f ea* gl& passes =w>d along ! *eek until x op5s 9 ! int]ior ( ! m\?1 opposite ! second mol> too? 9 ! upp] jaw4 ,next 9 size to ! p>otids are ! submaxill>y gl&s4 ,^! are locat$1 "o on ei!r side1 j bel[ & 9 front ( ! triangul> b5d 9 ! l[] jaw4 ,! smalle/ ( ! saliv>y gl&s are ! subl+ual4 ,!y are situat$ 9 ! floor ( ! m\?1 on ei!r side1 at ! front & base ( ! tongue4 ,ducts f ! submaxill>y & subl+ual gl&s op5 into ! m\? bel[ ! tip ( ! tongue4 99,! ,saliva & its ,uses499--,! saliva is a transp>5t & some:at slimy liquid :i* is slightly alkal9e4 ,x consi/s *iefly ( wat] 7ab\t #ii p] c5t71 b 9 ?is are dissolv$ c]ta9 salts & an active *emical ag5t1 or enzyme1 call$ ptyal91 :i* acts on ! />*4 ,! ptyal9 *anges />* into a =m ( sug> 7maltose71 :ile ! wat] 9 ! saliva dissolves ! soluble portions ( ! food4 ,9 addition to ?is ! saliva moi/5s & lubricates ! food :i* x does n dissolve1 & prep>es x 9 ?is way = its passage to ! /oma*4 ,! la/ is consid]$ ! mo/ important use ( ! saliva1 & dry sub/ances1 su* z crack]s1 :i* require a consid]able am\nt ( ?is liquid1 _c be eat5 rapidly )\t *ok+4 ,sl[ ma/ication favors ! secretion & action ( ! saliva4 99,deglutition499--,deglutition1 or swall[+1 is ! process by :i* food is transf]r$ f ! m\? to ! /oma*4 ,?\gh ?is is n1 /rictly speak+1 a dige/ive process1 x is1 nev]!less1 necess>y = ! fur!r dige/ion ( ! food4 ,ma/ication & insalivation1 :i* are l>gely me*anical1 prep>e ! food = c]ta9 *emical processes by :i* x is dissolv$4 ,! fir/ ( ^! occurs 9 ! /oma* & to ?is organ ! food is transf]r$ f ! m\?4 ,! *ief organs conc]n$ 9 deglutition are ! tongue1 ! ph>ynx1 & ! esophagus4 99,! ,ph>ynx99 is a r\nd & some:at cone-%ap$ cavity1 ab\t f\r & "o half in*es 9 l5g?1 :i* lies j back ( ! no/rils1 m\?1 & l>ynx4 ,x is rem>kable = its op5+s1 sev5 9 numb]1 by means ( :i* x communicates ) o!r cavities & tubes ( ! body4 ,"o ( ^! op5+s is into ! m\?1 "o into ! esophagus1 "o into ! l>ynx1 & "o into ea* ( ! no/rils1 :ile two small tubes 7! eu/a*ian7 pass f ! upp] "p ( ! ph>ynx to ! middle e>s4 ,! ph>ynx is ! "p ( ! food canal t is cross$ by ! passageway = ! air4 ,to keep ! food f pass+ out ( its natural *annel1 ! op5+s into ! air passages h to be c>efully gu>d$4 ,?is is accompli%$ ?r\gh ! s(t palate & epiglottis1 :i* are op]at$ some:at z valves4 ,! muscul> coat ( ! ph>ynx is made up ( a s]ies ( ov]lapp+ muscles :i*1 by _! contractions1 draw ! sides toge!r & dim9i% ! cavity4 ,! muc\s membrane l9+ ! ph>ynx is smoo?1 l t ( ! m\?1 be+ cov]$ ) a lay] ( flat epi!lial cells4 99,! ,esophagus991 or gullet1 is a tube eight or n9e in*es long1 connect+ ! ph>ynx ) ! /oma*4 ,x lies = ! mo/ "p 9 ! ?oracic cavity & consi/s *iefly ( a ?ick muc\s l9+ surr\nd$ by a heavy coat ( muscle4 ,! muscul> coat is compos$ ( two lay]s--an inn] lay] ^: fib]s encircle ! tube & an out] lay] ^: fib]s run l5g?wise4 99,/eps 9 ,deglutition499--,! process ( deglutition v>ies ) ! k9d ( food4 ,) bulky food x consi/s ( ?ree /eps1 or /ages1 z foll[s3 #a4 ,by ! contraction ( ! muscles ( ! *eeks1 ! food ball1 or bolus1 is press$ into ! c5t] ( ! m\? & ^u ! upp] surface ( ! tongue4 ,!n ! tongue1 by an upw>d & backw>d movem5t1 pu%es ! food "u ! s(t palate & into ! ph>ynx4 #b4 ,z ! food passes f ! m\?1 ! ph>ynx is drawn up to receive x4 ,at ! same "t ! s(t palate is pu%$ upw>d & backw>d1 clos+ ! op5+ into ! upp] ph>ynx1 :ile ! epiglottis is made to close ! op5+ into ! l>ynx4 ,by ?is means all communication betwe5 ! food canal & ! air passages is tempor>ily clos$4 ,! upp] muscles ( ! ph>ynx n[ contract ^u ! food1 =c+ x d[nw>d & into ! esophagus4 #c4 ,9 ! esophagus ! food is =c$ along by ! successive contractions ( muscles1 />t+ at ! upp] end ( ! tube1 until ! /oma* is rea*$4 ,swall[+ is d\btless aid$ to "s ext5t by ! =ce ( gravity4 ,t x is indep5d5t ( ?is =ce1 h[ev]1 is %[n by ! fact t "o may swall[ ) ! esophagus 9 a horizontal position1 z 9 ly+ d[n4 ,fig4 #fh ,fig4 #fh--99;,ga/ric ,gl&s499 ,a4 ,s+le gl& %[+ ! two k9ds ( secret+ cells & ! duct :]e ! gl& op5s on to ! surface4 ,b4 ,inn] surface ( /oma* magnifi$4 ,! small pits are ! op5+s f ! gl&s4 99,! ,/oma*499--,! /oma* is ! l>ge/ dilatation ( ! alim5t>y canal4 ,x is situat$ 9 ! abdom9al cavity1 imm$iately bel[ ! diaphragm1 ) ! l>g] portion t[>d ! left side4 ,its connection ) ! esophagus is kn[n z ! c>diac orifice & its op5+ into ! small inte/9e is call$ ! pyloric orifice4 ,x v>ies greatly 9 size 9 diff]5t individuals1 be+ on ! av]age f t5 to twelve in*es at its greate/ l5g?1 f f\r to five in*es at its greate/ wid?1 & hold+ f ?ree to five p9ts4 ,x has ! coats common to ! canal1 b ^! are modifi$ some:at to adapt !m to its "w4 ,! muc\s membrane ( ! /oma* is ?ick & highly develop$4 ,x conta9s great numb]s ( m9ute tube-%ap$ bodies1 kn[n z ! ga/ric gl&s 7,fig4 #fh74 ,^! are ( two g5]al k9ds & secrete l>ge quantities ( a liquid call$ ! ga/ric juice4 ,:5 ! /oma* is empty1 ! muc\s membrane is ?r[n into folds :i* run l5g?wise ov] ! inn] surface4 ,^! disappe>1 h[ev]1 :5 ! walls ( ! /oma* are di/5d$ ) food4 ,! muscul> coat consi/s ( ?ree sep>ate lay]s :i* are nam$1 f ! direction ( ! fib]s1 ! circul> lay]1 ! longitud9al lay]1 & ! oblique lay] 7,fig4 #fi74 ,! circul> lay] becomes q ?ick at ! pyloric orifice1 =m+ a di/9ct b& :i* s]ves z a valve4 ,fig4 #fi ,fig4 #fi--99,muscles ( ! /oma*99 7f ,morris' ,human ,anatomy74 ,! lay] ( ,longitud9al fib]s remov$4 ,! out] coat ( ! /oma*1 call$ ! s]\s coat1 is a cont9uation ( ! p]itoneum1 ! membrane l9+ ! abdom9al cavity4 99,/oma* ,dige/ion499--,9 ! /oma* beg9s ! def9ite "w ( dissolv+ ^? foods :i* are insoluble 9 wat]4 ,?is1 z already /at$1 is a d\ble process4 ,!re is fir/ a *emical action 9 :i* ! insoluble are *ang$ into soluble sub/ances1 & ?is is foll[$ imm$iately by ! dissolv+ action ( wat]4 ,! *ief sub/ances dige/$ 9 ! /oma* are ! proteids4 ,^!1 9 dissolv+1 are *ang$ into two soluble sub/ances1 kn[n z peptones & proteoses4 ,! dige/ion ( ! proteids is1 ( c\rse1 due to ! 99,ga/ric ,juice499--,! ga/ric juice is a ?91 colorless liquid compos$ ( ab\t #ii p] c5t ( wat] & ab\t #a p] c5t ( o!r sub/ances4 ,! latt] are dissolv$ 9 ! wat] & include1 besides sev]al salts1 ?ree active *emical ag5ts--hydro*loric acid1 peps91 & r5n94 ,peps9 is ! enzyme :i* acts ^u proteids1 b x is able to act only 9 an acid m$ium--a condition :i* is suppli$ by ! hydro*loric acid4 ,mix$ ) ! hydro*loric acid x conv]ts ! proteids into peptones & proteoses4 99,o!r ,effects ( ! ,ga/ric ,juice499--,9 addition to dige/+ proteids1 ! ga/ric juice br+s ab\t sev]al m9or effects1 z foll[s3 #a4 ,x *ecks1 aft] a "t1 ! dige/ion ( ! />* :i* 0 begun 9 ! m\? by ! saliva47#eh7 ,?is is due to ! pres5ce ( ! hydro*loric acid1 ! ptyal9 be+ unable to act 9 an acid m$ium4 #b4 ,:ile !re is no appreciable action on ! fat itself1 ! proteid lay]s t inclose ! fat p>ticles are dissolv$ away 7,fig4 #gi71 & ! fat is set free4 ,by ?is means ! fat is brok5 up & prep>$ = a special dige/ive action 9 ! small inte/9e4 #c4 ,dissolv$ album91 l t 9 milk1 is curd$1 or coagulat$1 9 ! /oma*4 ,?is action is due to ! r5n94 ,! curd$ mass is !n act$ ^u by ! peps9 & hydro*loric acid 9 ! same mann] z ! o!r proteids4 #d4 ,! hydro*loric acid acts on c]ta9 ( ! insoluble m9]al salts f\nd 9 ! foods & r$uces !m to a soluble condition4 #e4 ,x is also ! op9ion ( c]ta9 physiologi/s t cane sug> & maltose 7d\ble sug>s7 are conv]t$ by ! hydro*loric acid into dextrose & levulose 7s+le sug>s74 ,aft] a v>iable l5g? ( "t1 ! cont5ts ( ! /oma* is r$uc$ to a r uni=m & pulpy mass :i* is call$ *yme4 ,portions ( ?is are n[ pass$ at int]vals into ! small inte/9e4 99,muscul> ,action ( ! ,/oma*499--,! muscles 9 ! walls ( ! /oma* h = "o ( _! functions ! mix+ ( ! food ) ! ga/ric juice4 ,by alt]nately contract+ & relax+1 ! diff]5t lay]s ( muscle keep ! =m ( ! /oma* *ang+--a result :i* agitates & mixes its cont5ts4 ,?is action v>ies 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! organ1 be+ slight or entirely abs5t at ! c>diac end1 b q m>k$ at ! pyloric end4 ,ano!r purpose ( ! muscul> coat is to empty ! /oma* into ! small inte/9e4 ,dur+ ! great] "p ( ! dige/ive p]iod ! muscul> b& at ! pyloric orifice is contract$4 ,at int]vals1 h[ev]1 ?is b& relaxes1 p]mitt+ a "p ( ! cont5ts ( ! /oma* to be =c$ into ! small inte/9e4 ,aft] ! dis*>ge ! pyloric muscle aga9 contracts1 & s rema9s until ! "t arrives = ano!r dis*>ge4 ,9 addition to empty+ ! /oma* into ! small inte/9e1 ^! muscles also aid 9 empty+ ! organ upw>d & ?r\gh ! esophagus & m\?1 %\ld occasion require4 ,vomit+ 9 case ( poison+1 or if ! food = "s reason fails to dige/1 is a necess>y ?\gh unpleasant op]ation4 ,x is accompli%$ by ! contraction ( all ! muscles ( ! /oma*1 toge!r ) ! contraction ( ! walls ( ! abdom54 ,dur+ ^! contractions ! pyloric valve is clos$1 & ! muscles ( ! esophagus & ph>ynx are 9 a relax$ condition47#ei7 ,fig4 #gj ,fig4 #gj--99,passage f /oma*99 into small inte/9e4 ,illu/ration also %[s arrangem5t ( muc\s membrane 9 ! two organs4 ,d4 ,bile duct4 99,! ,small ,inte/9e499--,?is division ( ! alim5t>y canal consi/s ( a coil$ tube1 ab\t tw5ty-two feet 9 l5g?1 :i* occupies ! c5tral1 l[] portion ( ! abdom9al cavity 7,fig4 #ga74 ,at its upp] extremity x connects ) ! pyloric end ( ! /oma* 7,fig4 #gj71 & at its l[] end x jo9s ! l>ge inte/9e4 ,x av]ages a little ov] an in* 9 diamet]1 & gradually dim9i%es 9 size f ! /oma* to ! l>ge inte/9e4 ,! fir/ eight or t5 in*es =m a %ort curve1 kn[n z ! duod5um4 ,! upp] two fif?s ( ! rema9d] is call$ ! jejunum1 & ! l[] ?ree fif?s is kn[n z ! ileum4 ,! ileum jo9s t "p ( ! l>ge inte/9e kn[n z ! ccum1 & at _! place ( union is a m>k$ con/riction :i* prev5ts mat]ial f pass+ f ! l>ge into ! small inte/9e 7,fig4 #gc74 ,?is is kn[n z ! ileo-ccal valve4 ,! muc\s membrane ( ! small inte/9e is ri*ly suppli$ ) blood vessels & conta9s gl&s t secrete a dige/ive fluid kn[n z ! inte/9al juice4 ,! membrane is ?r[n into _m transv]se1 or circul>1 folds :i* increase its surface & also prev5t mat]ials f pass+ too rapidly ?r\gh ! inte/9e4 ,"o important respect 9 :i* ! small inte/9e diff]s f all o!r portions ( ! food canal is t its surface is cov]$ ) great numb]s ( m9ute elevations kn[n z ! villi4 ,! purpose ( ^! is to aid 9 ! absorption ( ! nutri5ts z !y become dissolv$ 7,*apt] ,,xi74 ,! muscul> coat ( ! small inte/9e is made up ( two di/9ct lay]s--! inn] lay] consi/+ ( circul> fib]s & ! out] ( longitud9al fib]s4 ,^! muscles keep ! food mat]ials mix$ ) ! juices ( ! small inte/9e1 b _! ma9 purpose is to =ce ! mat]ials und]go+ dige/ion ?r\gh ?is long & mu*-coil$ tube4 ,! out]1 or s]\s1 coat ( ! small inte/9e1 l t ( ! /oma*1 is an ext5sion f ! g5]al l9+ ( ! abdom9al cavity1 or p]itoneum4 ,9 fact1 ! inte/9e lies 9 a fold ( ! p]itoneum1 some:at z an arm 9 a sl+1 :ile ! p]itoneum1 by connect+ ) ! back wall ( ! abdom9al cavity1 holds ?is great coil ( dige/ive tub+ 9 place 7,fig4 #fd74 ,! portion ( ! p]itoneum :i* atta*es ! inte/9e to ! wall ( ! abdom5 is call$ ! mes5t]y4 ,mo/ ( ! liquid act+ on ! food 9 ! small inte/9e is suppli$ by two l>ge gl&s1 ! liv] & ! pancreas1 t connect ) x by ducts4 ,fig4 #ga ,fig4 #ga--99;,abdom9al cavity99 ) organs ( dige/ion 9 position4 99,! ,liv]99 is situat$ imm$iately bel[ ! diaphragm1 on ! "r side 7,figs4 #ga & #gb71 & is ! l>ge/ gl& 9 ! body4 ,x weighs ab\t f\r p\nds & is sep>at$ into two ma9 divisions1 or lobes4 ,x is complex 9 /ructure & diff]s f ! o!r gl&s 9 sev]al p>ticul>s4 ,x receives blood f two di/9ct s\rces--! portal ve9 & ! hepatic art]y4 ,! portal ve9 collects ! blood f ! /oma*1 inte/9es1 & sple51 & passes x to ! liv]4 ,?is blood is load$ ) food mat]ials1 b conta9s little or no oxyg54 ,! hepatic art]y1 :i* bran*es f ! aorta1 c>ries to ! liv] blood ri* 9 oxyg54 ,9 ! liv] ! portal ve9 & ! hepatic art]y divide & subdivide1 & f9ally empty _! blood into a s+le sy/em ( capill>ies surr\nd+ ! liv] cells4 ,^! capill>ies 9 turn empty into a s+le sy/em ( ve9s :i*1 unit+ to =m ! hepatic ve9s 7two or ?ree 9 numb]71 pass ! blood into ! inf]ior v5a cava 7,fig4 #gb74 ,fig4 #gb ,fig4 #gb--99,relations ( ! liv]499 ,diagram %[+ ! connection ( ! liv] ) ! l>ge blood vessels & ! food canal4 ,! liv] secretes daily f "o to two p\nds ( a liquid call$ bile4 ,a res]voir = ! bile is provid$ by a small1 membran\s sack1 call$ ! gall bladd]1 locat$ on ! und]side ( ! liv]4 ,! bile passes f ! gall bladd]1 & f ! "r & left lobes ( ! liv]1 by ?ree sep>ate ducts4 ,^! unite to =m a common tube :i*1 unit+ ) ! duct f ! pancreas1 empties into ! duod5um4 ,?\gh usually describ$ z a dige/ive gl&1 ! liv] has o!r functions ( equal or great] importance 7,*apt] ,,xiii74 99,! ,bile99 is a gold5 yell[ liquid1 hav+ a slightly alkal9e reaction & a v bitt] ta/e4 ,x consi/s1 on ! av]age1 ( ab\t #ig p] c5t ( wat] & #c p] c5t ( solids47#fj7 ,! solids include bile pigm5ts1 bile salts1 a sub/ance call$ *ole/]9e1 & m9]al salts4 ,! pigm5ts 7color+ matt]7 ( ! bile are d]iv$ f ! hemoglob9 ( brok5-d[n r$ corpuscles 7page #bg74 ,mu* ab\t ! composition ( ! bile is n und]/ood4 ,x is kn[n1 h[ev]1 to be necess>y to dige/ion1 its *ief use be+ to aid 9 ! dige/ion & absorption ( fats4 ,x is claim$ also t ! bile aids ! dige/ive processes 9 "s g5]al ways--c\nt]act+ ! acid ( ! ga/ric juice1 prev5t+ ! decomposition ( food 9 ! inte/9es1 & /imulat+ muscul> action 9 ! inte/9al walls4 ,no enzymes h be5 discov]$ 9 ! bile4 99,! ,pancreas99 is a tap]+ & some:at w$ge-%ap$ gl&1 & is s situat$ t its l>g] extremity1 or head1 is encircl$ by ! duod5um4 ,f "h ! m sl5d] portion ext5ds across ! abdom9al cavity ne>ly p>allel to & beh9d ! l[] "p ( ! /oma*4 ,x has a l5g? ( six or eight in*es & weighs f two to ?ree & "o half ounces4 ,its secretion1 ! pancreatic juice1 is empti$ into ! duod5um by a duct :i*1 z a rule1 unites ) ! duct f ! liv]4 99,! ,pancreatic ,juice99 is a colorless & r viscid liquid1 hav+ an alkal9e reaction4 ,x consi/s ( ab\t #ig4f p] c5t ( wat] & #b4d p] c5t ( solids4 ,! solids include m9]al salts 7! *ief ( :i* is sodium c>bonate7 & f\r diff]5t *emical ag5ts1 or enzymes1--tryps91 amylops91 /eaps91 & a milk-curd+ enzyme4 ,^! active con/itu5ts make ( ! pancreatic juice ! mo/ important ( ! dige/ive fluids4 ,x acts ) vigor on all ( ! nutri5ts insoluble 9 wat]1 produc+ ! foll[+ *anges3 #a4 ,x conv]ts ! />* into maltose1 complet+ ! "w begun by ! saliva4 ,?is action is due to ! amylops917#fa7 :i* is simil> to ptyal9 b is m vigor\s4 #b4 ,x *anges proteids into peptones & proteoses1 complet+ ! "w begun by ! ga/ric juice4 ,?is is accompli%$ by ! tryps91 :i* is simil> to1 b m active ?an1 ! peps94 #c4 ,x dige/s fat4 ,9 ?is "w ! active ag5t is ! /eaps94 ,! necessity ( a milk-curd+ enzyme1 some:at simil> to ! r5n9 ( ! ga/ric juice1 is n und]/ood4 99,dige/ion ( ,fat499--,sev]al !ories h be5 propos$ at diff]5t times reg>d+ ! dige/ion & absorption ( fat4 ,among ^!1 :at is kn[n z ! solution !ory seems to h ! greate/ am\nt ( evid5ce 9 its favor4 ,accord+ to ?is !ory1 ! fat1 "u ! influ5ce ( ! /eaps91 absorbs wat] & splits into two sub/ances1 recogniz$ z glyc]9e & fatty acid4 ,?is f9i%es ! process s f> z ! glyc]9e is conc]n$1 z ?is is soluble 9 wat]2 b ! fatty acid1 :i* 7f c]ta9 fats7 is insoluble 9 wat]17#fb7 requires fur!r treatm5t4 ,! fatty acid is n[ suppos$ to be act$ on 9 "o1 or bo?1 ( ! foll[+ ways3 #a4 ,to be dissolv$ z fatty acid by ! action ( ! bile 7s9ce bile is capable ( dissolv+ x "u c]ta9 conditions74 #b4 ,to be conv]t$ by ! sodium c>bonate into a =m ( soap :i* is soluble 9 wat]4 ,! emulsification ( fat is kn[n to occur 9 ! small inte/9e4 ,by ?is process ! fat is sep>at$ into m9ute p>ticles :i* are susp5d$ 9 wat]1 b n *ang$ *emically1 ! mixture be+ kn[n z an emulsion4 ,:ile ?is is believ$ by "s to be an actual process ( dige/ion1 ! advocates ( ! solution !ory claim t x is a process accompany+ & aid+ ! conv]sion ( fat into fatty acid & glyc]9e47#fc7 99,! ,inte/9al ,juice99 is a cle> liquid ) an alkal9e reaction1 conta9+ wat]1 m9]al salts1 & c]ta9 proteid sub/ances t may act z enzymes4 ,x assi/s 9 br++ ab\t an alkal9e condition 9 ! small inte/9e & aids 9 ! r$uction ( cane sug> & maltose to ! simple sug>s1 dextrose & levulose4 ,s9ce x is difficult to obta9 ?is liquid 9 suffici5t quantities = exp]im5t+1 its uses h n be5 fully det]m9$4 ,rec5t inve/igators1 h[ev]1 assign to x an important place 9 ! "w ( dige/ion4 99,"w ( ! ,small ,inte/9e499--,! small inte/9e is ! mo/ important division ( ! alim5t>y canal4 ,x s]ves z a receptacle = hold+ ! food :ile x is be+ act$ ^u2 x secretes ! inte/9al juice & mixes ! food ) ! dige/ive fluids2 x propels ! food t[>d ! l>ge inte/9e2 &1 9 addition to all ?is1 s]ves z an organ ( absorption4 ,dige/ion is practically f9i%$ 9 ! small inte/9e1 & a l>ge portion ( ! r$uc$ food is "h absorb$4 ,!re is always pres5t1 h[ev]1 a v>iable am\nt ( mat]ial t is n dige/$4 ,?is1 toge!r ) a consid]able volume ( liquid1 is pass$ into 99,! ,l>ge ,inte/9e499--,! l>ge inte/9e is a tube f five to six feet 9 l5g? & av]ag+ ab\t "o & "o half in*es 9 diamet]4 ,x beg9s at ! l[] "r side ( ! abdom9al cavity1 =ms a coil :i* almo/ completely surr\nds ! coil ( small inte/9e1 & f9ally t]m9ates at ! surface ( ! body 7,figs4 #b1 #ga & #gc74 ,x has ?ree divisions1 kn[n z ! ccum1 ! colon1 & ! rectum4 ,fig4 #gc ,fig4 #gc--99,passage f small into l>ge inte/9e499 ,at ! ileo-ccal valve is ! n>r[e/ con/riction ( ! food canal4 ,! ccum is ! p\*-l dilatation ( ! l>ge inte/9e :i* receives ! l[] end ( ! small inte/9e4 ,x measures ab\t two & "o half in*es 9 diamet] & has ext5d+ f "o side a %ort1 sl5d]1 & bl9d tube1 call$ ! v]mi=m app5dix4 ,?is /ructure s]ves no purpose 9 dige/ion1 b appe>s to be ! rudim5t ( an organ :i* may h s]v$ a purpose at "s remote p]iod 9 ! hi/ory ( ! human race4 ,! ccum gradually bl5ds into ! second division ( ! l>ge inte/9e1 call$ ! colon4 ,! colon consi/s ( f\r p>ts1 describ$ z ! asc5d+ colon1 ! transv]se colon1 ! desc5d+ colon1 & ! sigmoid flexure1 or sigmoid colon4 ,! fir/ ?ree divisions are nam$ f ! direction ( ! movem5t ( mat]ials ?r\gh !m & ! la/ f its %ape1 :i* is simil> to t ( ! ,greek lett] sigma 774 ,! rectum is ! la/ division ( ! l>ge inte/9e ,x is a ne>ly /raight tube1 f six to eight in*es 9 l5g?1 & connects ) ! ext]nal surface ( ! body4 ,! g5]al /ructure ( ! l>ge inte/9e is simil> to t ( ! small inte/9e1 &1 l ! small inte/9e1 x is held 9 place by ! p]itoneum4 ,x diff]s f ! small inte/9e1 h[ev]1 9 its l9+ ( muc\s membrane & 9 ! arrangem5t ( ! muscul> coat4 ,! muc\s membrane pres5ts a smoo? appe>ance & has no villi1 :ile ! longitud9al lay] ( ! muscul> coat is limit$ to ?ree n>r[ b&s t ext5d along ! great] l5g? ( ! tube 7,fig4 #gd74 ,^! b&s are %ort] ?an ! coats1 & draw ! l>ge inte/9e into a numb] ( %all[ p\*es1 by :i* x is readily di/+ui%$ f ! small inte/9e 7,fig4 #ga74 ,fig4 #gd ,fig4 #gd--99,section ( l>ge inte/9e991 %[+ ! coats4 #a4 ,s]\s coat4 #b4 ,circul> lay] ( muscle4 #c4 ,submuc\s coat4 #d4 ,muc\s membrane4 #e4 ,muscul> b&s ext5d+ l5g?wise ov] ! inte/9e4 99,"w ( ! ,l>ge ,inte/9e499--,! l>ge inte/9e s]ves z a receptacle = ! mat]ials f ! small inte/9e4 ,! dige/ive fluids f ! small inte/9e cont9ue _! action "h1 & ! dissolv$ mat]ials also cont9ue to be absorb$4 ,9 ^! respects ! "w ( ! l>ge inte/9e is simil> to t ( ! small inte/9e4 ,x does1 h[ev]1 a "w peculi> to itself 9 t x collects & reta9s undige/$ food p>ticles1 toge!r ) o!r wa/es1 & ejects !m p]iodically f ! canal4 99,"w ( ! ,alim5t>y ,muscles499--,! me*anical "p ( dige/ion is p]=m$ by ! muscles t encircle ! food canal4 ,_! uses1 :i* h already be5 m5tion$ 9 connection ) ! diff]5t organs ( dige/ion1 may be "h summ>iz$3 ,!y supply ! necess>y =ce = ma/icat+ ! food4 ,!y propel ! food ?r\gh ! canal4 ,!y mix ! food ) ! diff]5t juices4 ,at c]ta9 places !y p>tly or completely close ! passage until a dige/ive process is complet$4 ,!y may ev5 cause a rev]se movem5t ( ! food1 z 9 vomit+4 ,all ( ! alim5t>y muscles1 except ^? ar\nd ! m\?1 are involunt>y4 ,_! "w is ( ! greate/ importance4 99,o!r ,purposes ( ! ,dige/ive ,organs499--,! dige/ive organs s]ve o!r important purposes besides t ( dissolv+ ! foods4 ,!y provide favorable conditions = pass+ ! dissolv$ mat]ial into ! blood4 ,!y dispose ( su* portions ( ! foods z fail1 9 ! dige/ive processes1 to be r$uc$ to a liquid /ate4 ,a consid]able am\nt ( wa/e mat]ial is also sep>at$ f ! blood by ! gl&s ( dige/ion 7especially ! liv]71 & ?is is pass$ f ! body ) ! undige/$ portions ( food4 ,!n ! food canal 7/oma* 9 p>ticul>7 is a means ( hold+1 or /or+1 food :i* is await+ ! processes ( dige/ion4 ,consid]+ ! numb] ( ^! purposes1 ! dige/ive organs are rem>kably simple1 bo? 9 /ructure & 9 me?od ( op]ation4 ,,hygi5e ,,( ,,dige/ion ,_m ( ! ills to :i* fle% is heir are due to improp] me?ods ( tak+ food & are cur$ by obs]v+ ! simple rules ( eat+4 ,habit plays a l>ge "p 9 ! process & *ildr5 %\ld1 = ?is reason1 be taught e>ly to eat prop]ly4 ,s9ce ! majority ( ! dige/ive processes are involunt>y & ! food1 aft] be+ swall[$1 is practically beyond control1 c>eful att5tion mu/ be giv5 to ! prop] ma/ication ( ! food & to su* o!r phases ( dige/ion z are "u control4 99,necessity = ,?or\gh ,ma/ication499--,ma/ication prep>es ! food = ! dige/ive processes :i* foll[4 ,unless ! food has be5 prop]ly ma/icat$1 ! dige/ive fluids 9 ! /oma* & inte/9es _c act ^u x to ! be/ advantage4 ,:5 ! food is c>efully *ew$1 a l>g] p] c5t ( x is actually dige/$--a po9t ( importance :]e economy 9 ! use ( food ne$s to be practic$4 ,a fact n to be ov]look$ is t "o _c eat hurri$ly & practice ?or\gh ma/ication4 ,! food mu/ n be swall[$ 9 lumps1 b r$uc$ to a f9ely divid$ & pulpy mass4 ,?is requires "t4 ,! "o :o hurries ?r\gh ! meal is necess>ily compell$ to bolt 8 food4 ,?irty m9utes is n too long to give to a meal1 & a long] p]iod is ev5 bett]4 ,p]haps ! mo/ important result ( giv+ pl5ty ( "t to ! tak+ ( food is t ( /imulat+ ! dige/ive gl&s to a prop] degree ( activity4 ,t bo? ! saliv>y & ga/ric gl&s are excit$ by ! sight1 smell1 & ?\ght ( food &1 ?r\gh ta/e1 by ! pres5ce ( food 9 ! m\?1 has be5 fully demon/rat$4 ,food t is ?or\ghly ma/icat$ & reli%$ w receive m saliva & ga/ric juice1 & probably m ( o!r juices1 ?an if ha/ily *ew$ & swall[$4 ,?is has a mo/ important be>+ ^u ! effici5cy ( ! dige/ive processes4 99,ord] ( ,tak+ ,food499--,!re has be5 evolv$ ?r\gh exp]i5ce a r def9ite ord] ( tak+ food1 :i* our k ( ! process ( dige/ion seems to ju/ify4 ,! heavy foods 7proteids = ! mo/ "p7 are eat5 fir/2 aft] :i* are tak5 />*y foods & fats2 & ! meal is f9i%$ (f ) sweetmeats & pa/ry47#fd7 ,! sci5tific argum5ts = ?is ord] are ! foll[+3 #a4 ,by receiv+ ! fir/ ( ! ga/ric fl[ ! proteids c beg9 dige/+ )\t delay4 ,s9ce ^! are ! ma9 sub/ances act$ on 9 ! /oma*1 ! "t requir$ = _! dige/ion is %ort5$ by eat+ !m fir/4 #b4 ,sug>1 be+ ( ! nature ( pr$ige/$ />*1 quickly gets into ! blood & satisfies ! reli% = food4 ,! result ( tak+ sug> fir/ may be to cause "o to eat less ?an he ne$s & to dim9i% ! activity ( ! gl&s4 #c4 ,fat or grease1 if tak5 fir/1 t5ds to =m a coat+ ov] ! walls ( ! /oma* & ar\nd ! mat]ial to be dige/$4 ,?is prev5ts ! juices f gett+ to & mix+ ) ! foods ^u :i* !y are to act4 #d4 ,/>* foll[+ ! proteids1 = ! mo/ "p1 does n s quickly come 9 contact ) ! ga/ric juice4 ,?is enables ! ptyal9 ( ! saliva to cont9ue its action = a long] "t ?an if ! />* 7 eat5 fir/4 99,liquids dur+ ! ,meal499--,liquids z ord9>ily tak5 dur+ ! meal are objectionable4 ,!y t5d to dim9i% ! secretion ( ! saliva & to cause rapid eat+4 ,in/ead ( eat+ sl[ly & swall[+ ! food only s fa/ z ! gl&s c supply ! necess>y saliva1 ! liquid is us$ to wa% ! food d[n4 ,wat] or o!r dr9ks %\ld be tak5 aft] ! completion ( ! meal or :5 ! m\? is completely free f food4 ,ev5 !n x %\ld be tak5 9 small sips4 ,:ile ! tak+ ( a small am\nt ( wat] 9 ?is way does no h>m1 a l>ge volume has ! effect ( weak5+ ! ga/ric juice4 ,mo/ ( ! wat] ne$$ by ! body %\ld be tak5 betwe5 meals4 99,! ,/ate ( ,m9d99 has mu* to d ) ! prop] dige/ion ( ! food4 ,worry1 ang]1 fe>1 & o!r di/urb$ m5tal /ates are kn[n to *eck ! secretion ( fluids & to int]f]e ) ! dige/ive processes4 ,:ile ! cultivation ( *e]fulness is important = its g5]al hygi5ic effects1 x is ( especial value 9 relation to dige/ion4 ,int5se emotions1 ei!r dur+ or foll[+ ! meal1 %\ld if possible be avoid$4 ,! table is no place = settl+ difficulties or adm9i/]+ rebuke4 ,! conv]sation1 on ! o!r h&1 %\ld be elevat+ & joy giv+1 !reby induc+ a desirable reaction>y influ5ce ^u ! dige/ive processes4 99,c>e ( ! ,tee?499--,! natural tee? are indisp5sable = ! prop] ma/ication ( ! food4 ,( especial value are ! mol>s--! tee? t gr9d ! food4 ,! developm5t ( ! pr(ession ( d5ti/ry has made possible ! pres]vation ( ! tee?1 ev5 :5 naturally poor1 z long z "o has ne$ ( !m4 ,to pres]ve ! tee? !y mu/ be kept clean4 ,!y %\ld be wa%$ at lea/ once a day ) a s(t-bri/l$ bru%1 & small p>ticles ( food1 lodg$ betwe5 !m1 %\ld be remov$ ) a wood5 pick4 ,! bit+ ( h>d sub/ances1 su* z nuts1 %\ld be avoid$1 on acc\nt ( ! dang] ( break+ ! enamel1 al?\gh ! *ew+ ( t\gh sub/ances is consid]$ b5eficial4 ,decay$ places 9 ! tee? %\ld be promptly fill$ by ! d5ti/4 ,x is well1 ev5 :5 decay$ places are n kn[n to exi/1 to h ! tee? exam9$ occasionally 9 ord] to detect su* places be=e !y become l>ge4 ,on acc\nt ( ! exp5se1 pa91 & inconv5i5ce !re is a t5d5cy to put (f d5tal "w :i* "o kn[s ought to be done4 ,p]haps 9 no o!r in/ance is procra/9ation s surely puni%$4 ,! decay$ places become l>g] & new po9ts ( decay are />t$2 & ! pa91 inconv5i5ce1 & exp5se are increas$ proportionately4 99,! ,natural ,appetite99 %\ld be foll[$ ) ref]5ce to bo? ! k9d & ! am\nt ( food eat54 ,no sy/em ( k w ev] be devis$ :i* c replace ! appetite z an aid 9 ! tak+ ( food4 ,x is nature's means ( indicat+ ! ne$s ( ! body4 ,! natural appetite may be spoil$1 h[ev]1 by ov]eat+ & by ! use ( highly season$ foods1 or by indulg+ 9 /imulants dur+ ! meal4 ,x is spoil$ 9 *ildr5 by too free indulg5ce 9 sweetmeats4 ,by cultivat+ ! natural appetite & he$+ its sugge/ions1 "o has at 8 comm& an almo/ infallible guide 9 ! tak+ ( food4 99,prep>ation ( ,meals499--,! cook+ ( food s]ves ?ree important purposes4 ,x r5d]s ! food m dige/ible1 reliev+ ! organs ( unnecess>y "w2 x de/roys bact]ia t may be pres5t 9 ! food1 dim9i%+ ! likelihood ( introduc+ disease g]ms into ! body2 & x makes ! food m palatable1 !reby supply+ a necess>y /imulus to ! dige/ive gl&s4 ,:ile ! me?ods employ$ 9 ! prep>ation ( ! diff]5t foods h mu* to d ) ! ease ) :i* !y are dige/$ & ) _! n\ri%+ qualities1 ! scope ( our subject does n p]mit ( a consid]ation ( ^! me?ods4 99,quantity ( ,food499--,ov]eat+ & und]eat+ are bo? objectionable f a hygi5ic /&po9t4 ,ov]eat+1 by introduc+ an unnecess>y am\nt ( food into ! body1 ov]works ! organs ( dige/ion & also ! organs ( excretion4 ,x may also lead to ! accumulation ( burd5some fat & ( h>mful wa/es4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! tak+ ( too little food impov]i%es ! blood & weak5s ! entire body4 ,z a rule1 h[ev]1 m p eat too mu* ?an too little1 & to quit eat+ be=e ! appetite is fully satisfi$ is ) _m p]sons a necess>y precaution4 ,! p[] ( self-control1 valuable 9 all phases ( life1 is indisp5sable 9 ! avoidance ( ov]eat+4 99,frequ5cy ( ,tak+ ,food499--,eat+ betwe5 meals is manife/ly an unheal?ful practice4 ,! "q has also be5 rais$ z to :e!r ! common habit ( eat+ ?ree times a day is be/ suit$ to all classes ( p4 ,_m p ( weak dige/ive organs h be5 b5efit$ by ! plan ( two meals a day1 :ile o!rs adopt ! plan ( eat+ "o heavy meal & two light ones4 ,ei!r plan gives ! organs ( dige/ion m "t to re/ & dim9i%es ! liability ( ov]eat+4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ^? do+ heavy muscul> "w c h>dly d]ive ! en]gy :i* !y ne$ f less ?an ?ree good meals a day4 ,?\gh no def9ite rule c be laid d[n1 !re is involv$ a hygi5ic pr9ciple :i* all %\ld foll[3 ,meals %\ld n ov]lap4 ,! /oma* %\ld be free f food tak5 at a previ\s meal be=e m is introduc$ into x4 ,:5 ?is pr9ciple is n obs]v$1 mat]ial f]m5ts 9 ! /oma*1 caus+ indige/ion & o!r disord]s4 ,x %\ld be not$1 h[ev]1 t ! ov]lapp+ may be due to ov]eat+ z well z to eat+ too frequ5tly4 99,dang]s f ,impure ,food499--,food is frequ5tly ! c>ri] ( disease g]ms & = ?is reason requires close inspection 7page #abh74 ,typhoid fev]1 a mo/ dang]\s disease1 is usually contract$ ?r\gh ei!r impure food or impure wat] 7,*apt] ,,xxiii74 ,"o safegu>d aga9/ disease g]ms1 z /at$ above1 is ?or\gh cook+4 ,too mu* c>e _c be ex]cis$ ) ref]5ce to ! wat] = dr9k+ purposes4 ,wat] :i* is n p]fectly cle>1 :i* smells ( decay+ mat]ial1 or :i* =ms a s$im5t on /&+ is usually n fit to dr9k4 ,x c1 h[ev]1 be r5d]$ comp>atively h>mless by boil+4 ,! objections :i* _m p h to dr9k+ boil$ wat] are remov$ :5 x is boil$ ! day be=e x is us$1 s z to give x "t to cool1 settle1 & replace ! air driv5 (f by ! boil+4 99,c>e ( ! ,b[els499--,9 consid]+ ! hygi5e ( ! alim5t>y canal1 ! fact t x is us$ z a means ( sep>at+ ! impurities f ! body mu/ n be ov]look$4 ,frequ5tly1 ?r\gh lack ( ex]cise1 neglig5ce 9 evacuat+ ! b[els1 or o!r causes1 a weak5$ condition ( ! canal is induc$ :i* results 9 ! ret5tion ( impurities beyond ! "t :5 !y %\ld be dis*>g$4 ,?is is a great annoyance & at ! same "t a m5ace to ! heal?4 ,9 mo/ cases ?is condition c be reliev$1 & prev5t$ f recurr+1 by obs]v+ ! foll[+ habits3 #a4 ,h a regul> "t ea* day = evacuat+ ! b[els4 ,?is is a mo/ important factor 9 secur+ ! necess>y movem5ts4 #b4 ,dr9k a cup ( cold wat] on ris+ 9 ! morn+ & on retir+ at night4 #c4 ,eat g5]\sly ( fruits & o!r co>se foods1 su* z corn bread1 oatmeal1 hom9y1 cabbage1 etc4 #d4 ,practice p]si/5tly su* ex]cises z br+ ! abdom9al muscles into play4 ,^! ex]cises /r5g!n indirectly ! muscles ( ! canal4 #e4 ,avoid ov]work1 especially ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 99,alcohol & ,dige/ion499--,?\gh excit+ tempor>ily a great] fl[ ( ! dige/ive fluids1 alcoholic dr9ks tak5 9 any b v small quantities are consid]$ detrim5tal to ! "w ( dige/ion4 ,l>ge doses ret>d ! action ( enzymes1 inflame ! muc\s l9+ ( ! /oma*17#fe7 & br+ ab\t a diseas$ condition ( ! liv]4 ,x may be not$1 h[ev]1 t ! bad effects ( alcoholic bev]ages ^u ! /oma*1 ! liv]1 & ! body 9 g5]al are less pron\nc$ :5 ^! are tak5 z a "p ( ! regul> meals4 99,effects ( ,tea & ,c(fee499--,9 addition to ! /imulat+ ag5t caffe9e1 tea & c(fee conta9 a bitt]1 a/r+5t sub/ance1 kn[n z tann94 ,on acc\nt ( ! tann9 ^! bev]ages t5d to ret>d dige/ion & to irritate ! l9+ ( ! /oma*--effects t may be l>gely obviat$ by me?ods ( prep>+ tea & c(fee :i* dissolve little ( ! tann94 7,!y %\ld be made )\t cont9u$ boil+ or /eep+47 ,! caffe9e may d h>m ?r\gh its /imulat+ effect ^u ! n]v\s sy/em 7page #ef7 & ?r\gh ! introduction ( a special wa/e into ! body4 ,9 *emical composition caffe9e closely resembles a wa/e1 call$ uric acid1 & 9 ! body is conv]t$ into ?is sub/ance4 ,if "o is 9 a weak5$ condition1 ! uric acid may fail to be oxidiz$ to urea1 z occurs normally1 or to be ?r[n (f z uric acid4 ,9 ?is case x accumulates 9 ! body1 caus+ rheumatism & relat$ diseases4 ,x ?us happ5s t :ile "s p may use tea & c(fee )\t detrim5t1 o!rs are injur$ by !m4 99,summ>y499--,! ma9 /ructure 9 ! dige/ive sy/em is ! alim5t>y canal4 ,?is provides cavities :]e important dissolv+ processes take place1 & tubes = jo9+ ^! cavities1 :ile gl&s connect+ ) ! canal supply ! necess>y liquids = *ang+ & dissolv+ ! foods4 ,! g5]al plan ( dige/ion is t ( pass+ ! food ?r\gh ! canal1 beg9n+ ) ! m\?1 & ( act+ on x at v>i\s places1 ) ! f9al result ( r$uc+ mo/ ( x to ! liquid /ate4 ,! dige/ive fluids supply wat] :i* acts z a solv5t & c>ries ! active *emical ag5ts1 or enzymes1 t conv]t ! insoluble foods into sub/ances t are soluble4 ,! muscles 9 ! walls ( ! canal p]=m ! me*anical "w ( dige/ion1 :ile ! n]v\s sy/em controls & regulates ! activity ( ! v>i\s organs conc]n$ 9 ?is "w4 ,ex]cises4--#a4 ,/ate ! g5]al purpose ( dige/ion4 ,h[ does dige/$ food diff] f t n dige/$8 #b4 ,"n all ! divisions ( ! alim5t>y canal 9 ! ord] 9 :i* ! food passes ?r\gh !m4 #c4 ,:at o!r "w besides dige/ion is c>ri$ on by ! alim5t>y canal8 #d4 ,:at is ga9$ by ! ma/ication ( ! food8 ,:y %\ld ma/ication prec$e ! o!r processes ( dige/ion8 #e4 ,:at is ! "w ( ! tongue 9 dige/ion8 #f4 ,/ate ! purposes s]v$ by ! ga/ric juice4 #g4 ,give reasons = reg>d+ ! small inte/9e z ! mo/ important division ( ! food canal4 #h4 ,at :at places1 & by ! action ( :at liquids1 are fats1 proteids1 & />* dige/$8 #i4 ,:at enzymes are f\nd 9 ! pancreatic juice8 ,:at is ! dige/ive action ( ea*8 #aj4 ,describe ! "w p]=m$ by ! muscles ( ! /oma*1 ! m\?1 ! esophagus1 & ! small inte/9e4 #aa4 ,:at advantages are d]iv$ f ! use ( cook$ food8 #ab4 ,/ate ! advantages ( dr9k+ pure wat]4 #ac4 ,if all ! food t "o ne$s to take at a s+le meal c be ?or\ghly ma/icat$ 9 fifte5 m9utes1 :y is x bett] to sp5d a long] "t at ! table8 #ad4 ,:at is meant by ! ov]lapp+ ( meals8 ,:at bad results foll[8 ,h[ avoid$8 ,,practical ,,"w ,exam9e a dissectible model ( ! human abdom5 7,fig4 #ge71 not+ ! =m1 location1 & connection ( ! diff]5t organs4 ,f9d ! connection ( ! esophagus ) ! /oma*1 ( ! /oma* ) ! small inte/9e1 & ( ! small inte/9e ) ! l>ge inte/9e4 ,sket* a g5]al outl9e ( ! cavity1 & locate 9 ?is outl9e its *ief organs4 ,:]e x is desirable to le>n some?+ ( ! actual /ructure ( ! dige/ive organs1 ! dissection ( ! abdom5 ( "s small animal is necess>y4 ,on acc\nt ( unpleasant features likely to be associat$ ) su* a dissection1 h[ev]1 ?is "w is n recomm5d$ = immature pupils4 ,fig4 #ge ,fig4 #ge--,model = demon/rat+ ! abdom5 & its cont5ts4 99,dissection ( ! ,abdom5499 7,optional7--,= individual /udy1 or = a small class1 a half-gr[n cat is p]haps ! be/ available mat]ial4 ,x %\ld be kill$ ) *lor(orm1 & !n /ret*$1 back d[nw>d1 on a bo>d1 ! feet be+ secur$ to hold x 9 place4 ,! tea*] %\ld make a prelim9>y exam9ation ( ! abdom5 to see t x is 9 a fit condition = class /udy4 ,if ! bladd] is unnaturally di/5d$1 its cont5ts may be =c$ out by slight pressure4 ,! foll[+ mat]ials w be ne$$ dur+ ! dissection1 & %\ld be kept ne> at h&3 a %>p knife ) a good po9t1 a pair ( heavy scissors1 a vessel ( wat]1 "s cotton or a damp sponge1 & "s f9e cord4 ,dur+ ! dissection ! specim5 %\ld be kept z clean z possible1 & any escap+ blood %\ld be mopp$ up ) ! cotton or ! sponge4 ,! dissection is be/ c>ri$ out by obs]v+ ! foll[+ ord]3 #a4 ,cut ?r\gh ! abdom9al wall 9 ! c5t] ( ! triangul> space :]e ! ribs conv]ge4 ,f "h cut a slit d[nw>d to ! l[] portion ( ! abdom51 & sidew>d z f> z conv5i5t4 ,tack ! loos5$ abdom9al walls to ! bo>d1 & proce$ to /udy ! expos$ p>ts4 ,obs]ve ! muscles 9 ! abdom9al walls1 & ! fold ( ! p]itoneum :i* =ms an apron-l cov]+ ov] ! inte/9es4 #b4 ,obs]ve ! position ( ! /oma*1 liv]1 sple51 & inte/9es1 & !n1 by pu%+ ! inte/9es to "o side1 f9d ! kidneys & ! bladd]4 #c4 ,/udy ! liv] ) ref]5ce to its location1 size1 %ape1 & color4 ,on ! "u side1 f9d ! gall bladd]1 f :i* a small tube leads to ! small inte/9e4 ,obs]ve ! portal ve9 z x passes into ! liv]4 ,z ! liv] is fill$ ) blood1 nei!r x nor its connect+ blood vessels %\ld be cut at ?is "t4 #d4 ,trace out ! cont9uity ( ! canal4 ,f9d ! esophagus :]e x p5etrates ! diaphragm & jo9s ! /oma*4 ,f9d next ! union ( ! /oma* ) ! small inte/9e4 ,!n1 by c>efully foll[+ ! coils ( ! small inte/9e1 discov] its union ) ! l>ge inte/9e4 #e4 ,)9 ! fir/ coil ( ! small inte/9e1 z x leaves ! /oma*1 f9d ! pancreas4 ,note its color1 size1 & bran*es4 ,f9d its connection ) ! small inte/9e4 #f4 ,beg9n+ at ! cut portion ( ! abdom9al wall1 lift ! ?9 l9+ ( ! p]itoneum & c>efully foll[ x t[>d ! back & c5tral portion ( ! abdom54 ,obs]ve :e!r x ext5ds back ( or 9 front ( ! kidneys1 ! aorta1 & ! inf]ior v5a cava4 ,f9d :]e x leaves ! wall z a d\ble membrane1 ! mes5t]y1 :i* surr\nds & holds 9 place ! l>ge & small inte/9es4 ,sket* a coil ( ! inte/9e1 %[+ ! mes5t]y4 #g4 ,f9d 9 ! c5t] ( ! coils ( small inte/9e a long1 sl5d] body hav+ ! appe>ance ( a gl&4 ,?is is ! beg9n+ ( ! ?oracic duct & is call$ ! receptacle ( ! *yle4 ,f ?is ! ?oracic duct rapidly n>r[s until x =ms a t9y tube difficult to trace 9 a small animal4 #h4 ,cut away ab\t two in*es ( ! small inte/9e f ! rema9d]1 hav+ fir/ ti$ ! tube on ! two sides ( ! section remov$4 ,split x op5 = a "p ( its l5g?1 & wa% out its cont5ts4 ,obs]ve its coats4 ,place x 9 a %all[ vessel conta9+ wat]1 & exam9e ! muc\s membrane ) a l5s to f9d ! villi4 ,make a draw+ ( ?is section1 %[+ ! coats4 #i4 ,/udy ! connection ( ! small inte/9e ) ! l>ge4 ,split !m op5 at ! place ( union1 wa% out ! cont5ts1 & exam9e ! ileo-ccal valve4 #aj4 ,obs]ve ! size1 %ape1 & position ( ! kidneys4 ,d !y lie 9 front ( or back ( ! p]itoneum8 ,d !y lie exactly opposite ea* o!r8 ,note ! connection ( ea* kidney ) ! aorta & ! inf]ior v5a cava by ! r5al art]y & ! r5al ve94 ,f9d a sl5d] tube1 ! uret]1 runn+ f ea* kidney to ! bladd]4 ,d ! uret]s connect ) ! top or ) ! base ( ! bladd]8 ,%[ by a sket* ! connection ( ! kidneys ) ! l>ge blood vessels & ! bladd]4 99,to demon/rate ! ,tee?499--,procure f ! d5ti/ a collection ( diff]5t k9ds ( tee?1 bo? s\nd & decay$4 7a7 ,exam9e ext]nal surfaces ( diff]5t k9ds ( tee?1 not+ g5]al %ape1 cutt+ or gr9d+ surfaces1 etc4 ,make a draw+ ( an incisor & also ( a mol>4 7b7 ,aft] soak+ "s ( ! tee? = a c\ple ( days 9 w>m wat] saw "o ( !m 9 two l5g?wise1 & ano!r 9 two crosswise1 & smoo? ! cut surfaces ) f9e em]y or s& pap]4 ,exam9e bo? k9ds ( sections1 not+ arrangem5t & ext5t ( d5t9e1 enamel1 & pulp4 ,make draw+s4 7c7 ,exam9e a decay$ too?4 ,:i* sub/ance ( ! too? appe>s to decay mo/ readily8 ,:y is x necess>y to cut away a "p ( ! too? be=e fill+8 7d7 ,te/ ! effect ( acids ^u ! tee? by leav+ a too? ov] night 9 a mixture ( "o "p hydro*loric acid to f\r p>ts wat]1 & by leav+ a second too? = a c\ple ( days 9 /rong v9eg>4 ,exam9e ! tee? expos$ to ! action ( acids1 not+ results4 99,to %[ ! ,importance ( ,ma/ication499--,fill two tumbl]s ea* half full ( wat]4 ,into "o put a lump ( rock salt4 ,into ! o!r place an equal am\nt ( salt t has be5 f9ely pulv]iz$4 ,:i* dissolves fir/ & :y8 99,to illu/rate ,acid & ,alkal9e ,reactions499--,to a tumbl] half full ( wat] add a teaspoonful ( hydro*loric or o!r acid1 z v9eg>4 ,to a second tumbl] half full ( wat] add an equal am\nt ( cook+ soda4 ,ta/e ea* liquid1 not+ ! s\r ta/e ( ! acid1 & ! alkal9e ta/e ( ! soda4 ,hold a piece ( r$ litmus pap] 9 ! soda solution1 not+ t x is turn$ blue4 ,!n hold a piece ( blue litmus pap] 9 ! acid solution1 not+ t x is turn$ r$4 ,add acid to ! soda solution1 & soda to ! acid solution1 until ! conditions are rev]s$1 te/+ ) ! r$ & blue litmus pap]s4 ,hold1 = a m9ute or long]1 a n>r[ /rip ( r$ litmus pap] 9 ! m\?1 not+ any *ange 9 ! color ( ! pap]4 ,repeat1 us+ blue litmus pap]4 ,:at effect1 if any1 has ! saliva ^u ! color ( ! pap]s8 ,has ! m\? an acid or an alkal9e reaction8 99,to %[ ! ,action ( ,saliva on ,/>*499--#a 7,optional74 ,prep>e />* pa/e by mix+ half a teaspoonful ( />* 9 half a p9t ( wat] & heat+ ! mixture to boil+4 ,place "s ( ?is 9 a te/ tube & ?9 x by add+ m wat]4 ,!n add a small drop ( iod9e solution 7page #acf7 to ! solution ( />*4 ,x %\ld turn a deep blue color4 ,?is is ! te/ = />*4 ,n[ collect f ! m\?1 9 a clean te/ tube1 two or ?ree teaspoonfuls ( saliva4 ,add portions ( ?is to small am\nts ( fre% />* solution 9 two te/ tubes4 ,let ! tubes /& = five or t5 m9utes surr\nd$ by wat] hav+ ab\t ! temp]ature ( ! body4 ,te/ = *anges t h occurr$ z foll[s3 7a7 ,to "o tube add a little ( ! iod9e solution4 ,if x does n turn blue1 x %[s t ! />* has be5 conv]t$ into "s o!r sub/ance by ! saliva1 7b7 ,to ! o!r tube add a few drops ( a v dilute solution ( copp] sulphate4 ,!n add sodium 7or potassium7 hydroxide1 a few drops at a "t1 until ! precipitate :i* fir/ =ms dissolves & turns a deep blue4 ,!n gradually heat ! upp] portion ( ! liquid to boil+4 ,if x turns an orange or yell[i% r$ color1 ! pres5ce ( a =m ( sug> 7maltose or dextrose7 is prov$4 ,see page #acf4 #b4 ,hold "s p[d]$ />* 9 ! m\? until x completely dissolves & obs]ve t x gradually acquires a sweeti% ta/e4 ,?is %[s ! *ange ( />* into sug>4 99,to illu/rate ! ,action ( ! ,ga/ric ,juice499--,add to a tumbl] two ?irds full ( wat] z mu* scale peps9 7obta9$ f a drug /ore7 z w /ay on ! end ( ! l>ge blade ( a p5knife4 ,!n add en\gh hydro*loric acid to give a slightly s\r ta/e4 ,place 9 ! artificial ga/ric juice ?us prep>$ "s boil$ :ite ( egg :i* has be5 f9ely divid$ by press+ x ?r\gh a piece ( wire gauze4 ,also drop 9 a s+le l>ge lump4 ,keep 9 a w>m place 7ab\t ! temp]ature ( ! body7 = sev]al h\rs or a day1 exam9+ f "t to "t4 ,:at is ! g5]al effect ( ! artificial ga/ric juice ^u ! egg8 99,to illu/rate ,effect ( ,alcohol ^u ,ga/ric ,dige/ion499--,prep>e a tumbl] half full ( artificial ga/ric juice z 9 ! above exp]im5t1 & add #aj cubic c5timet]s ( ?is to ea* ( six clean te/ tubes be>+ labels4 ,to five ( ! tubes add alcohol f a burette z foll[s3 7#a7 4#e c4c41 7#b7 #a c4c41 7#c7 #a4e c4c41 7#d7 #b c4c41 & 7#e7 #c c4c41 leav+ "o tube )\t alcohol4 ,n[ add to ea* tube ab\t #a_/d gram ( f9ely divid$ :ite ( egg f ! exp]im5t above1 & place all ( ! tubes 9 a beak] half full ( wat]4 ,keep ! wat] a little above ! temp]ature ( ! body = sev]al h\rs1 exam9+ ! tubes at int]vals to note ! progress ( dige/ion4 ,inf]5ces4 ,,*apt] ,,xi - ,,absorption1 ,,/orage1 ,,& ,,assimilation ,! dissolv$ nutri5ts1 to rea* ! cells1 mu/ be transf]r$ f ! alim5t>y canal to ! blood /ream4 ,?is process is kn[n z absorption4 ,9 g5]al1 absorption means ! p5etration ( a liquid into ! pores ( a solid1 & takes place accord+ to ! simple laws ( molecul> movem5ts4 ,! absorption ( food is1 h[ev]1 n a simple process1 & ! passage takes place ?r\gh an active 7liv+7 membrane4 ,ano!r diff]5ce is t c]ta9 foods und]go *emical *ange :ile be+ absorb$4 99,small ,inte/9e z an ,organ ( ,absorption499--,:ile absorption may occur to a great] or less ext5t along ! entire l5g? ( ! alim5t>y canal1 mo/ ( x takes place at ! small inte/9e4 ,its great l5g?1 its small diamet]1 & its num]\s blood vessels all adapt ! small inte/9e to ! "w ( absorption4 ,! transv]se folds 9 ! muc\s membrane1 by ret>d+ ! food 9 its passage & by increas+ ! absorb+ surface1 also aid 9 ! process4 ,b ( greate/ importance are ! m9ute elevations t cov] ! surface ( ! muc\s membrane1 kn[n z 99,! ,villi499--,ea* s+le elevation1 or villus1 has a l5g? ( ab\t "o fiftie? ( an in* & a diamet] ab\t half z great 7,a1 ,fig4 #gf71 & conta9s ! foll[+ ess5tial p>ts3 #a4 ,an out] lay] ( epi!lial cells1 re/+ ^u a connective tissue support4 #b4 ,a small lymph tube1 call$ a lacteal1 :i* occupies ! c5t] ( ! villus & connects at ! base ) o!r lymph tubes1 also call$ lacteals 7,b1 ,fig4 #gf74 #c4 ,a network ( capill>ies4 ,! villi are /ructures especially adapt$ to ! "w ( absorption1 & !y are f\nd only 9 ! small inte/9e4 ,! muc\s membrane 9 all p>ts ( ! canal1 h[ev]1 is capable ( tak+ up "s ( ! dige/$ mat]ials4 ,fig4 #gf ,fig4 #gf--99,! villi499 ,a4 ,diagram ( a small section ( muc\s membrane ( small inte/9e4 #a4 ,villi4 #b4 ,small gl&s1 call$ crypts4 ,b4 ,diagram %[+ /ructure ( villi4 #a4 ,small art]y4 #b4 ,lacteal4 #c4 ,villus %[+ t]m9ation ( ! lacteal4 #d4 ,villus %[+ capill>ies4 #e4 ,villus %[+ bo? ! lacteal & ! capill>ies4 #f4 ,small ve94 #g4 ,lay] ( epi!lial cells4 99,"w ( ,capill>ies & ,lacteals499--,! capill>ies & lacteals act z receiv]s ( mat]ial z x passes ?r\gh ! lay] ( epi!lial cells cov]+ ! muc\s membrane4 ,! lacteals take up ! dige/$ fats17#ff7 & ! capill>ies receive all ! o!r k9ds ( nutri5ts4 ,^! vessels d n1 ( c\rse1 reta9 ! absorb$ mat]ials1 b pass !m on4 ,_! f9al de/9ation is ! g5]al circulation1 :i* !y rea* by two well-def9$ *annels1 or r\tes4 99,r\tes to ! ,circulation499--,! two r\tes f ! place ( absorption to ! g5]al circulation are z foll[s3 #a4 ,r\te tak5 by ! ,fat4--,! fat is convey$ by ! lacteals f ! villi to ! receptacle ( ! *yle4 ,at ?is place x m+les ) ! lymph f ! l[] p>ts ( ! body1 & ) x passes ?r\gh ! ?oracic duct to ! left subclavian ve94 ,"h x ent]s ! g5]al circulation4 ,?us1 to rea* ! g5]al circulation1 ! fat has to pass ?r\gh ! villi1 ! lacteals1 ! receptacle ( ! *yle1 & ! ?oracic duct 7,fig4 #gg74 ,its passage ?r\gh ^! places1 l ! movem5ts 9 all lymph vessels1 is sl[1 & x is only gradually admitt$ to ! blood /ream4 ,fig4 #gg ,fig4 #gg--99;,diagram ( r\tes99 f food canal to g5]al circulation4 ,see text4 #b4 ,r\te ( ,all ! ,nutri5ts except ,fat4--,wat] & salts & ! dige/$ proteids & c>bohydrates1 9 pass+ into ! capill>ies1 mix !re ) ! blood4 ,b ?is blood1 in/ead ( fl[+ directly to ! he>t1 is pass$ ?r\gh ! portal ve9 to ! liv]1 :]e x ent]s a second set ( capill>ies & is br\ght v ne> ! liv] cells4 ,f ! liv] x is pass$ ?r\gh ! hepatic ve9s into ! inf]ior v5a cava1 & by ^! x is empti$ into ! "r auricle4 ,?is r\te !n includes ! capill>ies 9 ! muc\s membrane ( ! /oma* & inte/9es1 ! bran*es ( ! portal ve91 ! portal ve9 prop]1 ! liv]1 & ! hepatic ve9s 7,fig4 #gg74 ,9 pass+ ?r\gh ! liv]1 a l>ge portion ( ! food mat]ial is tempor>ily reta9$ = a purpose & 9 a mann] to be describ$ lat] 7page #agg74 99,absorption ,*anges499--,dur+ dige/ion ! insoluble foods are conv]t$ into c]ta9 soluble mat]ials1 su* z peptones1 maltose1 & glyc]9e1--! conv]sion be+ necess>y to _! solution4 ,a natural supposition is t ^! mat]ials ent] & become a "p ( ! blood1 b exam9ation %[s !m to be abs5t f ?is liquid4 7,see ,composition ( ! ,blood1 page #cj47 ,!re are pres5t 9 ! blood1 h[ev]1 sub/ances closely relat$ to ! peptones1 maltose1 glyc]9e1 etc42 sub/ances :i* h 9 fact be5 =m$ f !m4 ,dur+ _! transf] f ! food canal1 ! dissolv$ nutri5ts und]go *anges1 giv+ rise to ! mat]ials 9 ! blood4 ,?us are ! s]um album9 & s]um globul9 ( ! blood d]iv$ f ! peptones & proteoses2 ! dextrose1 f ! maltose & o!r =ms ( sug>2 & ! fat droplets1 f ! glyc]9e1 fatty acid1 & soluble soap4 ,:ile consid]able d\bt exi/s z to ! cause ( ^! *anges & z to ! places also :]e "s ( !m occur1 _! purpose is q app>5t4 ,! mat]ials =m+ ! dissolv$ foods1 al?\gh adapt$ to absorption1 are n suit$ to ! ne$s ( ! body1 & if introduc$ 9 ?is =m are likely to int]f]e ) its "w47#fg7 ,!y are *ang$1 !re=e1 into ! =ms :i* ! body c use4 99,a ,second ,purpose ( ,dige/ion499--,comp>+ ! dige/ive *anges ) ^? ( absorption1 x is f\nd t !y are ( a directly opposite nature2 t :ile dige/ion is a process ( te>+ d[n1 or sep>at+1--"o :i* r$uces ! food to a m f9ely divid$ condition--!re is 9 absorption a process ( build+ up4 ,f ! comp>atively simple comp\nds =m$ by dige/ion1 !re are =m$ dur+ absorption ! m complex comp\nds ( ! blood4 ,! "o exception is dextrose1 :i* is a simple sug>2 b ev5 ?is is comb9$ 9 ! liv] & ! muscles to =m ! m complex comp\nd kn[n z glycog54 7,see ,me?ods ( ,/orage1 bel[47 ,^! facts h sugge/$ a second purpose ( dige/ion--t ( r$uc+ foods to =ms suffici5tly simple to enable ! body to con/ruct out ( !m ! m complex mat]ials t x ne$s4 ,evid5ce t dige/ion s]ves su* a purpose is f\nd 9 ! fact t bo? proteids & c>bohydrates are r$uc$ to a simpl] =m ?an is necess>y = dissolv+ !m47#fh7 99,! ,/orage ( ,nutrim5t499--,= "s "t aft] ! tak+ ( a meal1 food mat]ials are be+ absorb$ m rapidly ?an !y c be us$ by ! cells4 ,foll[+ ?is is an int]val :5 ! body is tak+ no food1 b dur+ :i* ! cells mu/ be suppli$ ) n\ri%m5t4 ,x also happ5s t ! total am\nt ( food absorb$ dur+ a long int]val may be 9 excess ( ! ne$s ( ! cells dur+ t "t2 & x is always possible1 z 9 disease1 t ! quantity absorb$ is n equal to t consum$4 ,to provide aga9/ em]g5cies1 & to keep up a uni=m supply ( food to ! cells1 x is necess>y t ! body /ore up nutri5ts 9 excess ( its ne$s4 99,me?ods ( ,/orage499--,! g5]al plan ( /orage v>ies ) ! diff]5t nutri5ts z foll[s3 #a4 ,! c>bohydrates are /or$ 9 ! =m ( glycog54 ,?is1 z already /at$ 7page #abj71 is a sub/ance closely resembl+ />*4 ,x is /or$ 9 ! cells ( bo? ! liv] & ! muscles1 b ma9ly 9 ! liv] 7,fig4 #gh74 ,x is a *ief function ( ! liv] to collect ! excess ( dextrose f ! blood pass+ ?r\gh x1 & to conv]t x into glycog51 :i* x !n /ores )9 its cells4 ,x does n1 h[ev]1 sep>ate all ( ! dextrose f ! blood1 a small am\nt be+ left = supply+ ! imm$iate ne$s ( ! tissues4 ,z ?is is us$1 ! glycog5 9 ! liv] is *ang$ back to dextrose &1 dissolv+1 aga9 f9ds its way into ! blood4 ,9 ?is way1 ! am\nt ( dextrose 9 ! blood is kept practically con/ant4 ,! c>bohydrates are /or$ also by conv]t+ !m into fat4 ,fig4 #gh ,fig4 #gh--99,liv] cells99 :]e is /or$ ! glycog54 ,c4 ,capill>ies4 ,fig4 #gi ,fig4 #gi--99,/or$-up fat499 ,! figure %[s f\r connective tissue cells conta9+ small p>ticles ( fat4 #a4 ,nucleus4 #b4 ,protoplasm4 #c4 ,fat4 #d4 ,connective tissue fib]s4 #b4 ,! fat is /or$ = ! mo/ "p 9 ! connective tissue4 ,c]ta9 ( ! connective tissue cells h ! prop]ty ( tak+ fat f ! blood & ( deposit+ x )9 _! inclos+ membranes 7,fig4 #gi74 ,:5 ?is is done to excess1 & ! cells become fill$ ) fat1 !y =m ! s-call$ adipose tissue4 ,mo/ ( ?is tissue is f\nd "u ! sk91 betwe5 ! muscles1 & among ! organs occupy+ ! abdom9al cavity4 ,if "o readily takes on fat1 x may also collect 9 ! connective tissue ar\nd ! he>t4 ,! /or$-up fat is r$issolv$ z ne$$1 & ent]s ! blood1 :]e x aga9 becomes available to ! active cells4 #c4 ,! proteids =m a "p ( all ! tissues1 & = ?is reason are /or$ 9 l>g] quantities ?an any ( ! o!r food sub/ances4 ,! l>ge am\nt ( proteid f\nd 9 ! blood may also be look$ ^u z /orage mat]ial4 ,! proteids 9 ! v>i\s tissues are spok5 ( z tissue proteids1 & ^? 9 ! blood z circulat+ proteids4 ,! proteids ( ! tissues s]ve ! d\ble purpose ( =m+ a work+ "p ( ! cell protoplasm1 & ( supply+ res]ve food mat]ial4 ,t !y are available = supply+ en]gy1 & are prop]ly reg>d$ z /orage mat]ial1 is %[n by ! rapid loss ( proteid 9 />v+ animals4 ,:5 ! proteids are eat5 9 excess ( ! body's ne$ = rebuild+ ! tissues1 !y are suppos$ to be brok5 up 9 su* a mann] z to =m glycog5 & fat1 :i* may !n be /or$ 9 ways already describ$4 99,g5]al ,facts ,relat+ to ,/orage499--,! =m into :i* ! food is conv]t$ = /orage 9 ! body is t ( solids--! =m t takes up ! lea/ am\nt ( space4 ,^! solids are ( su* a nature t !y c be *ang$ back into _! =m] condition &1 by dissolv+1 rent] ! blood4 ,only en]gy-yield+ foods are /or$4 ,wat] & salts1 ?\gh !y may be absorb$ 9 excess ( ! ne$s ( ! body1 are n conv]t$ into o!r sub/ances & /or$ away4 ,oxyg51 z already /at$ 7page #ajh71 is n /or$4 ,! int]val ( /orage may be long or %ort1 dep5d+ ^u ! ne$s ( ! body4 ,9 ! consumption ( /or$ mat]ial ! glycog5 is us$ fir/1 !n z a rule ! fat1 & la/ ( all ! proteids4 99,/orage 9 ! ,food ,canal499--,n until ?ree or f\r h\rs h elaps$ are all ! nutri5ts1 eat5 at a s+le meal1 dige/$ & pass$ into ! body prop]4 ,! undige/$ food is held 9 res]ve1 await+ dige/ion1 & is only gradually absorb$ z ?is process takes place4 ,x may prop]ly1 on ?is acc\nt1 be reg>d$ z /or$ mat]ial4 ,t su* /orage is ( advantage is %[n by ! obs]v$ fact t sub/ances :i* dige/ quickly 7sug>1 dextr91 pr$ige/$ foods1 etc47 d n supply ! ne$s ( ! body s well z d sub/ances :i*1 l />* & proteids1 dige/ sl[ly4 ,ev5 sub/ances dige/+ q sl[ly 7greasy foods & pa/ry71 s9ce !y c be /or$ long] 9 ! food canal1 may be ( real advantage :]e1 f h>d "w or exposure1 ! body requires a l>ge supply ( en]gy = "s "t4 ,^! /ay by ! labor]1 giv+ him /r5g? aft] ! m easily dige/$ foods h be5 us$ up4 ,/orage by ! food canal is limit$ *iefly to ! /oma*4 99,regulation ( ! ,food ,supply to ! ,cells499--,! /orage ( food mat]ials is made to s]ve a second purpose 9 ! plan ( ! body :i* is ev5 m important ?an t ( supply+ n\ri%m5t to ! cells dur+ ! int]vals :5 no food is be+ tak54 ,x is l>gely ! means :]eby ! rate ( supply ( mat]ials to ! cells is regulat$4 ,! cells obta9 _! mat]ials f ! lymph1 & ! lymph is suppli$ f ! blood4 ,%\ld food sub/ances1 su* z sug>1 increase 9 ! blood beyond a l[ p] c5t1 !y are conv]t$ into a =m1 l glycog51 9 :i* !y are held 9 res]ve1 or1 = ! "t be+1 plac$ beyond ! rea* ( ! cells4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! supply is r$uc$1 ! /or$-up mat]ials rent] ! blood & aga9 become available to ! cells4 ,by ?is means _! rate ( supply to ! cells is practically con/ant4 ,we are n[ 9 a position to und]/& :y c>bohydrates1 fats1 & proteids are s well adapt$ to ! ne$s ( ! body1 :ile o!r sub/ances1 l alcohol1 :i* may also lib]ate en]gy1 prove injuri\s4 ,x is because foods are ( su* a *emical nature t !y are adapt$ 9 all respects to ! body plan ( tak+ up & us+ mat]ials1 :ile ! o!r sub/ances are lack+ 9 "s p>ticul>4 ,fig4 #hj ,fig4 #hj--99;,diagrams illu/rat+ ! relation ( nutri5ts99 & ! non-relation ( ^! to alcohol4 ,a4 ,int]-relation & conv]tibility ( proteids1 fats1 & c>bohydrates 7aft] ,hall74 ,b4 ,diagram %[+ disposition ( alcohol if ?is sub/ance is tak5 9 quantity correspond+ to t ( ! nutri5ts 7,f4,m4,w474 ,! alcohol ?r[n (f z wa/e is unoxidiz$ & yields no en]gy4 99,:y ,alcohol is n a ,food499--,if ! passage ( alcohol ?r\gh ! body is foll[$1 x is se51 9 ! fir/ place1 t x is a simple liquid & und]goes no dige/ive *ange2 & 9 ! second place1 t x is rapidly absorb$ f ! /oma* 9 bo? weak & conc5trat$ solutions4 ,?is introduces x quickly into ! blood1 & once !re1 x diffuses rapidly into ! lymph & !n into ! cells4 ,s9ce ! body _c /ore alcohol or conv]t x into "s nutri5t t c be /or$ 7,fig4 #hj71 !re is no way ( regulat+ ! am\nt t %all be pres5t 9 ! blood1 or ( supply+ x to ! cells z _! ne$s require4 ,!y mu/ take x 9 excess ( _! ne$s1 reg>dless ( ! effect1 at lea/ until ! organs ( excretion c ?r[ (f ! surplus z wa/e4 ,comp>$ ) proteid1 c>bohydrates1 or fats1 alcohol is an unmanageable sub/ance 9 ! body4 ,attempt+ to use x z a food is z fooli% z try+ to burn gasol5e or k]os5e 9 an ord9>y wood /ove4 ,x may be done to a limit$ ext5t1 b is an exce$+ly haz>d\s exp]im5t4 ,n be+ adapt$ to ! body me?od ( us+ mat]ials1 alcohol _c be class$ z a food4 99,assimilation499--,dige/ion1 absorption1 circulation1 & /orage ( foods are ! processes t f9ally make !m available to ! cells 9 ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! body4 ,!re /ill rema9s ano!r process = ^! mat]ials to und]go be=e !y s]ve _! f9al purposes4 ,?is la/ process1 kn[n z assimilation1 is ! appropriation ( ! food mat]ial by ! cell protoplasm4 ,9 a s5se ! /orage ( fat by connective tissue cells & ( glycog5 by ! liv] cells is assimilation4 ,! t]m is limit$1 h[ev]1 to ! disposition ( mat]ial ) ref]5ce to its f9al use4 ,:e!r all ! mat]ials us$ by ! cells actually become a "p ( ! protoplasm is n kn[n4 ,x is kn[n1 h[ev]1 t ! cells are ! places :]e mo/ ( ! oxidations ( ! body occur & t mat]ials tak+ "p 9 ^! oxidations mu/1 at lea/1 come 9 close contact ) ! protoplasm4 ,assimilation1 !n1 is ! la/ ev5t 9 a s]ies ( processes by :i* oxyg51 food mat]ials1 & cell protoplasm are br\ght into close & active relations4 ,! /eps lead+ up to assimilation are %[n 9 ,table ,,ii4 ,,table ,,ii4 ,,! ,,passage ,,( ,,mat]ials ,,to ,,! ,,cells ,,mat]ials ,,dige/ion ,,absorption ,,r\te ,,to ,,/orage ,,condition ,,! ,,g5]al ,,9 ,,! ,,circulation ,,blood ,proteids ,*ang$ ,9 pass+ ,?r\gh ! ,become a ,z proteids into into ! portal ve9 "p ( ! 9 proteoses capill>ies1 to ! protoplasm colloidal & ! liv] & ( all ! solution4 peptones by proteoses f !re cells4 ! action & ?r\gh ! ( ! peptones hepatic ga/ric & *ange into ve9s into pancreatic ! ! juices4 proteids ( inf]ior ! blood4 v5a cava4 ,fat ,*ang$ ,9 pass+ ,?r\gh ! ,z fat 9 ,*iefly z into fatty into ! lacteals to ! cells m9ute oil acid1 lacteals1 ! ( droplets4 glyc]9e1 ! ?oracic collective & glyc]9e duct1 by tissue4 soluable unites ) :i* x is soap by ! ! soluable empti$ bile & soap & into ! pancreatic fatty acid left juice4 to =m ! subclavian oil droplets ve94 ( ! blood4 ,/>* ,r$uc$ to ,ent]s ! ,?r\gh ! ,z glycog5 ,z dextrose "s ( ! capill>ies portal *iefly by 9 diff]5t z dextrose4 ve91 ! liv]1 solution4 =ms ( liv]1 b to "s sug>1 z hepatic ext5t by maltose1 ve9s1 into muscle dextrose1 inf]ior cells4 etc4 v5a cava4 ,wat] ,und]goes ,tak5 up by ,bo? ,is n ,z ! no *ange4 bo? ! r\tes1 b /or$ 9 wat] :i* lacteals & mo/ly by ! s5se s]ves z a capill>ies1 way ( ! t en]gy c>ri] ( b to ! liv]4 foods are4 all ! great] o!r ext5t by con/itu5ts ! ( ! capil>ies4 blood4 ,common salt ,und]goes ,tak5 up by ,by way ( ,n /or$4 ,9 solution4 no *ange4 ! portal capill>ies ve91 )\t liv]1 & und]go+ hepatic app>5t ve9s into *ange4 inf]ior v5a cava4 ,oxyg5 ,tak5 up by ,already 9 ,is n ,unit$ ) ! ! g5]al /or$4 ! capill>ies circulation4 hemoglob9 at ! & to a lungs4 small ext5t 9 solution 9 ! plasma4 99,tissue ,enzymes499--,! important "p play$ by enzymes 9 ! dige/ion ( ! food has sugge/$ o!r uses = !m 9 ! body4 ,x has be5 rec5tly %[n t _m ( ! *emical *anges 9 ! tissues are 9 all probability due to ! pres5ce ( enzymes4 ,an illu/ration ( :at a tissue enzyme may d is se5 9 ! *anges :i* fat und]goes4 ,9 ord] = ! body to use up its res]ve fat1 x mu/ be transf]r$ f ! connective tissue cells1 :]e x is /or$1 to ! cells ( ! active tissues :]e x is to be us$4 ,?is requires t x be r$uc$ to ! =m ( a solution & t x rent] ! blood4 ,9 o!r words1 x mu/ be r$ige/$4 ,= br++ ab\t ^! *anges a sub/ance id5tical 9 function ) ! /eaps9 ( ! pancreatic juice has be5 %[n to exi/ 9 sev]al ( ! tissues4 ,al?\gh ?is subject is /ill "u inve/igation1 x may be /at$ ) c]ta9ty t !re are pres5t 9 ! tissues1 enzymes t *ange dextrose to glycog5 & vice v]sa1 t break d[n & build up ! proteids1 & t aid 9 ! oxidations at ! cells4 ,! necessity = su* enzymes is q app>5t4 99,summ>y499--,! dige/$ nutri5ts are tak5 up by ! capill>ies & ! lymph vessels & transf]r$ by two r\tes to ! circulation4 ,9 pass+ f ! alim5t>y canal into ! circulation ! m important ( ! foods und]go *anges :i* adapt !m to ! ne$s ( ! body4 ,s9ce mat]ials are absorb$ m rapidly ?an !y are us$1 means are provid$ = /or+ !m & = supply+ !m to ! cells z _! ne$s require4 ,capability ( /orage is an ess5tial quality ( en]gy-yield+ foods2 & sub/ances1 su* z alcohol1 :i* lack ?is quality are n adapt$ to ! ne$s ( ! body4 ,= caus+ ! *emical *anges t occur 9 ! /orage ( foods1 z well z ! oxidations at ! cells1 ! pres5ce ( active ag5ts1 or enzymes1 is necess>y4 99,ex]cises499--#a4 ,9 :at respects does ! absorption ( food mat]ials f ! alim5t>y canal diff] f ! absorption ( a simple liquid by a solid8 #b4 ,9 :at diff]5t ways is ! small inte/9e especially adapt$ to ! "w ( absorption8 #c4 ,:at are ! p>ts ( a villus8 ,:at are ! lacteals8 ,acc\nt = ! "n4 #d4 ,:at "p is play$ by ! capill>ies & ! lacteals 9 ! "w ( absorption8 ,h[ does _! "w diff]8 #e4 ,:at *anges1 if any1 take place 9 wat]1 common salt1 fat1 proteids1 & c>bohydrates dur+ absorption8 #f4 ,:at d\ble purpose is s]v$ by ! processes ( dige/ion8 #g4 ,trace ! passage ( proteids1 fats1 & c>bohydrates f ! small inte/9e into ! g5]al circulation4 #h4 ,:at is ! necessity = /or+ nutri5ts 9 ! body8 ,:y is x n also necess>y to /ore up oxyg58 #i4 ,9 :at =m & at :at places is ea* ( ! pr9cipal nutri5ts /or$8 #aj4 ,h[ is ! rate ( supply ( food to ! cells regulat$8 ,:y is ! body unable to regulate ! supply ( alcohol to ! cells :5 ?is sub/ance is tak58 #aa4 ,expla9 ,fig4 #hj1 page #aha4 ,:at becomes ( ! alcohol if ?is is tak5 9 any b v small quantities8 #ab4 ,/ate ! g5]al purpose ( enzymes 9 ! body4 ,"n ! enzymes f\nd 9 ea* ( ! dige/ive fluids4 ,:at ones are f\nd 9 ! tissues8 ,,practical ,,"w ,illu/rate ! ord9>y mean+ ( ! t]m absorption by br++ ! end ( a piece ( crayon 9 contact ) wat]1 or a piece ( blott+ pap] 9 contact ) ink1 not+ ! passage ( ! liquid into ! crayon or ! pap]4 ,%[ h[ absorption f ! food canal diff]s f ?is k9d ( absorption4 ,%[ by a diagram simil> to ,fig4 #gg ! two r\tes by :i* ! foods pass f ! alim5t>y canal into ! blood /ream4 ,,*apt] ,,xii - ,,en]gy ,,supply ,,( ,,! ,,body ,if "o /ops tak+ food1 x becomes difficult aft] a "t = him to move ab\t & to keep w>m4 ,^! results %[ t food has "s relation to ! en]gy ( ! body1 = motion & heat are =ms ( en]gy4 ,! relation ( oxyg5 to ! supply ( en]gy has already be5 discuss$ 7,*apt] ,,viii74 ,we are n[ to inquire m fully into ! en]gy supply ( ! body1 & to consid] ^? conditions :i* make necess>y ! introduction ( bo? food & oxyg5 = ?is purpose4 99,k9ds ( ,bodily ,en]gy499--,! heal?y body has at any "t a consid]able am\nt ( pot5tial1 or res]ve1 en]gy1--en]gy :i* x is n us+ at ! "t1 b :i* x is able to use z its ne$s require4 ,:5 put to use1 ?is en]gy is conv]t$ into su* =ms ( k9etic en]gy7#fi7 z are indicat$ by ! diff]5t k9ds ( bodily p[]4 ,^! are z foll[s3 #a4 ,p[] ( ,motion4--,! body c move itself f place to place & x c give motion to ?+s ab\t x4 #b4 ,heat ,p[]4--,! body keeps itself w>m & is able to communicate w>m? to its surr\nd+s4 #c4 ,n]v\s ,p[]4--,?r\gh ! n]v\s sy/em ! body ex]cises ! p[] ( control ov] its diff]5t p>ts4 ,z motion1 heat1 & n]v\s p[] ! body uses mo/ ( its en]gy4 99,! ,s\rce ( ,bodily ,en]gy499--,z already indicat$1 ! en]gy ( ! body is suppli$ ?r\gh ! food & ! oxyg54 ,^! conta9 en]gy 9 ! pot5tial =m1 :i* becomes k9etic 7active7 ?r\gh _! unit+ ) ea* o!r 9 ! body4 ,some:at z ! p[] ( ! /eam eng9e is d]iv$ f ! combu/ion ( fuel 9 ! furnaces1 ! en]gy ( ! body is suppli$ ?r\gh ! oxidations at ! cells4 ,h[ ! food & oxyg5 come to possess en]gy is se5 by a /udy ( ! g5]al me?ods by :i* en]gy is /or$ up & us$4 ,fig4 #ha ,fig4 #ha--99,simple device99 = /or+ en]gy ?r\gh gravity4 99,simple ,me?ods ( ,/or+ ,en]gy499--,en]gy is /or$ by conv]t+ ! k9etic into ! pot5tial =m4 ,two ( ! simple/ ways ( do+ ?is are ! foll[+3 #a4 ,/or+ ( ,en]gy ?r\gh ,gravity4--,on acc\nt ( ! attraction betwe5 ! e>? & all bodies ^u ! e>?1 ! m]e lift+ ( a weight puts x 9 a position :]e gravity c cause x to move 7,fig4 #ha74 ,z a consequ5ce ! rais+ ( bodies above ! e>?'s surface is a means ( /or+ en]gy--! en]gy rema9+ /or$ until ! bodies fall4 ,z !y fall1 ! /or$-up 7pot5tial7 en]gy becomes k9etic & c be made to d "w4 #b4 ,/or+ ( ,en]gy ?r\gh ,ela/icity4--,en]gy is /or$ also by do+ "w 9 opposition to ela/icity1 z 9 b5d+ a b[ or 9 w9d+ a clock spr+4 ,! b5d+1 twi/+1 /ret*+1 or compress+ ( ela/ic sub/ances puts !m 9 a condition ( /ra9 :i* causes !m to ex]t a pressure 7call$ ela/ic =ce7 t t5ds to re/ore !m to _! =m] condition4 ,en]gy /or$ by ?is means becomes active z ! di/ort$ or compress$ sub/ance returns to its =m] %ape or volume4 ,^! simple me?ods ( /or+ en]gy w s]ve to illu/rate ! g5]al pr9ciples ^u :i* su* /orage dep5ds3 #a4 ,to /ore en]gy1 en]gy mu/ be exp5d$1 or "w done4 #b4 ,! "w mu/ be aga9/ "s =ce1 su* z gravity or ela/icity1 :i* c undo ! "w1 i4e41 br+ ab\t an effect opposite to t ( ! "w4 #c4 ,! /or$ en]gy becomes active 7k9etic7 z ! =ce ?r\gh :i* ! en]gy 0 /or$ undoes ! "w1 or puts ! sub/ance ^u :i* ! "w 0 done into its =m] condition 7gravity caus+ bodies to fall1 etc474 ,^! pr9ciples are fur!r illu/rat$ by ! 99,/or+ ( ,en]gy ?r\gh ,*emical ,means499--,a good example ( /or+ en]gy by *emical means is t ( decompos+ wat] ) electricity4 ,if a curr5t ( electricity is pass$ ?r\gh acidulat$ wat] 9 a suitable app>atus 7,fig4 #hb71 ! wat] sep>ates into its compon5t gases1 oxyg5 & hydrog54 ,^! gases n[ h p[] 7en]gy7 :i* !y did n possess be=e !y 7 sep>at$4 ,! hydrog5 w burn 9 ! oxyg51 giv+ heat2 & if ! two gases are mix$ 9 ! "r proportions & !n ignit$1 !y explode ) viol5ce4 ,?is en]gy 0 d]iv$ f ! electricity4 ,x 0 /or$ by decompos+ ! wat]4 ,fig4 #hb ,fig4 #hb--99,/or+ en]gy by *emical means499 ,app>atus = decompos+ wat] ) electricity4 ,en]gy is /or$ by *emical means by caus+ x to d "w 9 opposition to ! =ce ( *emism1 or *emical aff9ity4 ,in/ead ( *ang+ ! =m ( bodies or mov+ !m aga9/ gravity1 x ov]comes ! =ce t causes atoms to unite & to hold toge!r aft] !y h unit$4 ,s9ce 9 mo/ cases ! atoms on sep>at+ f any giv5 comb9ation unite at once to =m o!r comb9ations1 we may say t en]gy is /or$ :5 /rong *emical comb9ations are brok5 up & weak ones =m$4 ,en]gy /or$ by ?is means becomes active :5 ! atoms ( weak comb9ations unite to =m comb9ations t are /rong47#gj7 99,h[ ,plants /ore ! ,sun's ,en]gy499--,! e>?'s supply ( en]gy comes f ! sun4 ,:ile mu* ( ?is1 aft] w>m+ & light+ ! e>?'s surface1 is lo/ by radiation1 a portion ( x is /or$ up & reta9$4 ,! sun's en]gy is /or$ bo? ?r\gh ! =ce ( gravity7#ga7 & by *emical means1 ! latt] be+ ! m important ( ! two me?ods4 ,plants supply ! means = /or+ x *emically 7,fig4 #hc74 ,att5tion has already be5 call$ to ! fact 7page #aab7 t gr[+ plants are cont9ually tak+ c>bon dioxide into _! leaves f ! air4 ,?is !y decompose1 add+ ! c>bon to comp\nds 9 _! tissues & return+ ! oxyg5 to ! air4 ,x is f\nd1 h[ev]1 t ?is process does n occur unless ! plants are expos$ to sunlight4 ,! sunlight supplies ! en]gy = ov]com+ ! attraction betwe5 ! atoms ( oxyg5 & ! atoms ( c>bon1 :ile ! plant itself s]ves z ! in/rum5t ?r\gh :i* ! sunlight acts4 ,! en]gy = decompos+ ! c>bon dioxide !n comes f ! sun1 & ?r\gh ! decomposition ( ! c>bon dioxide ! sun's en]gy is /or$--becomes pot5tial4 ,x rema9s /or$ until ! c>bon ( ! plant aga9 unites ) ! oxyg5 ( ! air1 z 9 combu/ion4 ,fig4 #hc ,fig4 #hc--99,nature's device99 = /or+ en]gy f ! sun4 ,see text4 99,! ,sun's ,en]gy 9 ,food & ,oxyg5499--,food is d]iv$ directly or indirectly f plants & su/a9s ! same relation to ! oxyg5 ( ! air z d ! plants !mselves4 7,! elem5ts 9 ! food h an attraction = ! oxyg51 b are sep>at$ *emically f x47 ,on acc\nt ( ?is relation !y h pot5tial en]gy--! en]gy d]iv$ ?r\gh ! plant f ! sun4 ,:5 a p]son eats ! food & brea!s ! oxyg51 ?is en]gy becomes ! possession ( ! body4 ,x is !n conv]t$ into k9etic en]gy z ! ne$s ( ! body require4 ,fig4 #hd ,fig4 #hd--99,simple app>atus99 = illu/rat+ trans=mation ( en]gy4 ,pot5tial en]gy is conv]t$ into heat & heat into motion4 99,f ! ,sun to ! ,cells499--,x ?us appe>s t ! body comes into possession ( en]gy1 & is able to use x1 ?r\gh a s]ies ( transf]5ces & trans=mations t c be trac$ back to ! sun47#gb7 ,com+ to ! e>? z k9etic en]gy1 x is trans=m$ into pot5tial en]gy & /or$ 9 ! comp\nds ( plants & 9 ! oxyg5 ( ! air4 ,?r\gh ! food & ! oxyg5 ! pot5tial en]gy is transf]r$ to ! cells ( ! body4 ,!n by ! unit+ ( ! food & ! oxyg5 at ! cells 7oxidation71 ! pot5tial becomes k9etic en]gy & is us$ by ! body 9 do+ its "w4 ,! phrase ,*ild ( ! ,sun has sometimes be5 appli$ to man to express 8 dep5d5ce ^u ! sun = 8 supply ( en]gy4 99,:y ,oxyg5 & ,food are ,bo? ,necess>y499--,! necessity = introduc+ bo? oxyg5 & food into ! body = ! purpose ( supply+ en]gy is n[ app>5t4 ,! en]gy :i* is us$ 9 ! body is n ! en]gy ( food alone4 ,nor is x ! en]gy ( oxyg5 alone4 ,x belongs to bo?4 ,x is due to _! attraction = ea* o!r & _! condition ( sep>ation4 ,x _c1 !re=e1 become k9etic except ?r\gh _! union4 ,to introduce "o ( ^! sub/ances into ! body )\t ! o!r1 w\ld nei!r introduce ! en]gy nor set x free4 ,!y mu/ bo? be introduc$ into ! body & !re caus$ to unite4 99,bodily ,control ( ,en]gy499--,a fact ( importance 9 ! supply ( en]gy to ! body is t ! rate ( trans=mation 7*ang+ ( pot5tial to k9etic7 is j suffici5t = its ne$s4 ,x is easily se5 t too rapid or too sl[ a rate w\ld prove injuri\s4 ,! oxidations at ! cells are1 !re=e1 "u su* control t ! quantity ( k9etic en]gy suppli$ to ! body z a :ole1 & to ! diff]5t organs1 is proportional to ! "w t is done4 ,?is is atta9$1 9 "p at lea/1 ?r\gh ! ability ( ! body to /ore up ! food mat]ials & hold !m 9 res]ve until !y are to be oxidiz$ 7page #ahj74 99,animal ,heat & ,motion499--,mo/ ( ! body's en]gy is exp5d$ z heat 9 keep+ w>m4 ,x is e/imat$ t z mu* z five six?s ( ! :ole am\nt is us$ 9 ?is way4 ,! proportion1 h[ev]1 v>ies ) diff]5t p]sons & is n con/ant 9 ! same individual dur+ diff]5t seasons ( ! ye>4 ,?is heat is us$ 9 keep+ ! body at t temp]ature :i* is be/ suit$ to c>ry+ on ! vital processes4 ,all p>ts ( ! body1 ?r\gh oxidation1 furni% heat4 ,active organs1 h[ev]1 su* z ! muscles1 ! bra91 & ! gl&s 7especially ! liv]71 furni% ! l>g] %>e4 ,! blood 9 its circulation s]ves z a heat di/ribut] = ! body & keeps ! temp]ature ab\t ! same 9 all its p>ts 7page #cc74 ,next to ! production ( heat1 9 ! consumption ( ! body's en]gy1 is ! production ( motion4 ,?is topic w be consid]$ 9 ! /udy ( ! muscul> sy/em 7,*apt] ,,xv74 99,"s ,que/ions ( ,hygi5e499--,! heat-produc+ capacity ( ! body su/a9s a v important relation to ! g5]al heal?4 ,a sudd5 *ill may result 9 a numb] ( d]angem5ts & is suppos$ to be a pr$ispos+ cause ( colds4 ,"o's capacity = produc+ heat may be s l[ t he is unable to respond to a sudd5 dem& = heat1 z 9 go+ f a w>m room into a cold "o4 ,z a consequ5ce1 ! body is unable to protect itself aga9/ unavoidable exposures4 ,impairm5t ( ! heat-produc+ capacity is br\ght ab\t 9 _m ways4 ,sev]al diseases d ?is directly1 or indirectly1 to q an ext5t4 ,9 heal? too great c>e 9 protect+ ! body f cold is ! mo/ pot5t cause ( its impairm5t4 ,/ay+ 9 rooms heat$ above a temp]ature ( #gj ,f41 we>+ clo?+ unnecess>ily heavy1 & sleep+ "u an excess ( b$ clo!s1 all dim9i% ! p[] ( ! body to produce heat4 ,!y accu/om x to produc+ only a small am\nt1 s t x does n receive suffici5t ( :at might be call$ heat-produc+ ex]cise4 ,lack ( physical ex]cise 9 ! op5 air1 z well z too mu* "t sp5t 9 poorly light$ & v5tilat$ rooms1 t5ds also to r$uce "o's ability to produce heat4 ,moreov]1 s9ce mo/ ( ! heat ( ! body comes f ! union ( oxyg5 & food mat]ials at ! cells1 a lack ( ei!r ( ^! w int]f]e ) ! production ( heat4 99,results ( ,exhau/ion499--,?r\gh ov]work1 or excesses 9 pleasurable pursuits1 "o may make great] dem&s ^u ! en]gy ( 8 body ?an x c prop]ly supply4 ,! result+ condition1 kn[n z exhau/ion1 is n only a matt] ( tempor>y inconv5i5ce1 b may ?r\gh repetition lead to a s]i\s impairm5t ( ! heal?4 ,x %\ld be not$1 9 ?is connection1 t ! en]gy ( ! body is sp5t 9 two g5]al ways3 fir/1 9 c>ry+ on ! vital processes2 & second1 9 ! p]=mance ( volunt>y activities4 ,s9ce1 9 all cases1 !re is a limit to "o's en]gy1 x is easily possible to exp5d s mu* 9 ! volunt>y activities t ! am\nt left is n suffici5t = ! vital processes4 ,?is leads to v>i\s di/urbances &1 among o!r ?+s1 r5d]s ! body less able to supply itself ) en]gy4 99,! ,problem ( ,increas+ ,"o's ,en]gy499--,s9ce ! en]gy supply is kept up ?r\gh ! food & ! oxyg51 x might be inf]r$ t ! introduction ( ^! sub/ances into ! body 9 l>g] am\nts w\ld increase ! en]gy at "o's disposal4 ,?is does n necess>ily foll[4 ,oxidation at ! cells is prec$$ by dige/ion1 absorption1 circulation1 & assimilation4 ,x is foll[$ & influ5c$ by ! removal ( wa/es f ! body4 ,a c>eful /udy ( ! problem leads to ! conclusion t :ile ! en]gy supply to ! body does dep5d ^u ! introduction ( ! prop] am\nts ( food & oxyg51 x also dep5ds ^u ! effici5cy ( ! vital processes4 ,! maximum am\nt ( en]gy may1 !re=e1 be expect$ :5 ! body is 9 a condition ( p]fect heal?4 ,h5ce1 "o desir+ to increase ! am\nt ( 8 en]gy mu/ give att5tion to all ^? conditions t improve ! heal?4 99,effect ( ,/imulants on ! ,en]gy ,supply499--,9 ! ef=t to get out ( ! body z mu* z possible ( "w or ( pleasure1 v>i\s /imulants1 su* z alcohol1 tobacco1 & /rong tea & c(fee1 h be5 us$4 ,?\gh ^! h ! effect ( giv+ a tempor>y feel+ ( /r5g? & ( enabl+ ! individual 9 "s in/ances to accompli% results :i* he c\ld n o!rwise h br\ght ab\t1 ! g5]al effect ( _! use is to less51 r ?an to increase1 ! sum total ( bodily p[]4 ,! /ud5t1 = example1 :o dr9ks /rong c(fee 9 ord] to /udy late at night is able to comm& less en]gy on ! day foll[+4 ,:ile enabl+ him to draw ^u 8 res]ve ( n]v\s p[] = ! "t be+1 ! c(fee deprives him ( sleep & ne$$ re/4 ,! dang] ( /imulants1 s f> z en]gy is conc]n$1 is ?is3 !y t5d to exhau/ ! bodily res]ve s t !re is n suffici5t left = prop]ly runn+ ! vital processes4 ,evid5ces ( _! weak5+ effect are f\nd 9 ! feel+ ( discom=t & lassitude :i* result :5 /imulants to :i* ! body has become accu/om$ are )drawn4 ,n until "o gets back 8 bodily res]ve is he able to "w normally & effectively4 ,increase 9 bodily en]gy comes ?r\gh heal? & n ?r\gh ! use ( /imulants4 99,summ>y499--,! body requires a cont9u\s supply ( en]gy4 ,to obta9 ?is supply1 mat]ials possess+ pot5tial1 or /or$-up1 en]gy are introduc$ into x4 ,! free oxyg5 ( ! air & ! sub/ances kn[n z foods1 on acc\nt ( ! *emical relations :i* !y su/a9 to ea* o!r1 conta9 pot5tial en]gy & are utiliz$ = supply+ ! body4 ,s long z ! foods are n oxidiz$1 ! en]gy rema9s 9 ! pot5tial =m1 b 9 ! process ( oxidation ! pot5tial en]gy is *ang$ to k9etic en]gy & made to d ! "w ( ! body4 99,ex]cises499--#a4 ,9 :at diff]5t ways does ! body use en]gy8 #b4 ,%[ t a /one ly+ aga9/ ! e>? has no en]gy1 :ile ! same /one above ! e>? has en]gy4 #c4 ,h[ does pot5tial en]gy diff] f k9etic en]gy8 #d4 ,:at k9d ( en]gy is possess$ by a b5t b[8 ,by a revolv+ :eel8 ,by a coil$ spr+8 ,by ! w9d8 ,by gunp[d]8 #e4 ,h[ does decompos+ wat] ) electricity /ore en]gy8 #f4 ,acc\nt = ! en]gy possess$ by ! oxyg5 ( ! air & food sub/ances4 #g4 ,trace ! en]gy supply ( ! body back to ! sun4 #h4 ,:y mu/ bo? oxyg5 & food be introduc$ into ! body 9 ord] to supply x ) en]gy8 #i4 ,h[ may ov]work & ov]ex]cise dim9i% ! en]gy supply ( ! body8 #aj4 ,h[ may "o increase ! am\nt ( 8 en]gy8 ,,practical ,,"w 99,sugge/$ ,exp]im5ts499--#a4 ,! *ange ( k9etic into pot5tial en]gy may be %[n by /ret*+ a piece ( rubb]1 by lift+ a weight1 & by sep>at+ ! armature f a magnet4 #b4 ,! *ange ( pot5tial into k9etic en]gy may be %[n by lett+ weights fall to ! gr\nd1 by releas+ ! end ( a piece ( /ret*$ rubb]1 & by burn+ sub/ances4 #c4 ,! *ange ( "o =m ( k9etic en]gy to ano!r may be illu/rat$ by rubb+ toge!r two pieces ( wood until !y are heat$1 by r++ a bell1 & by caus+ motion 9 air or 9 wat] by heat+ !m4 ,if suitable app>atus is at h&1 ! trans=mation ( electrical en]gy into heat1 light1 s\nd1 & me*anical motion c easily be %[n4 #d4 ,a weight connect$ by a cord ) "s small ma*9e & made to run x1 w help ! pupil to grasp ! g5]al pr9ciples 9 ! /orage ( en]gy ?r\gh gravity4 ,a vessel ( wat] on a high support f :i* ! wat] is siphon$ on to a small wat] :eel w s]ve ! same purpose4 #e4 ,! /or+ ( en]gy by *emical means may be illu/rat$ by decompos+ potassium *lorate ) heat or by decompos+ wat] by means ( a curr5t ( electricity4 #f4 ,/udy ! transf] ( en]gy f ! body to surr\nd+ objects1 z 9 mov+ sub/ances & lift+ weights4 ,fill a half gallon j> two ?irds full ( wat] & c>efully take ! temp]ature ) a *emical !rmomet]4 ,hold ! h& 9 ! wat] = f\r or five m9utes & take ! temp]ature aga94 ,inf]5ce4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii - ,,gl&s ,,& ,,! ,,"w ,,( ,,excretion ,9 our /udy s f> we h be5 conc]n$ ma9ly ) ! introduction ( mat]ials into ! body4 ,we are n[ to consid] ! removal ( mat]ials f ! body4 ,! /ructures mo/ directly conc]n$ 9 ?is "w are kn[n z 99,gl&s499--,z g5]ally und]/ood1 gl&s are organs t prep>e special liquids 9 ! body & p\r !m out ^u free surfaces4 ,^! liquids1 kn[n z secretions1 are us$ = protect+ expos$ p>ts1 lubricat+ surfaces t rub aga9/ ea* o!r1 dige/+ food1 & = o!r purposes4 ,!y diff] widely 9 prop]ties z well z 9 function1 b are all alike 9 be+ compos$ *iefly ( wat]4 ,! wat]1 9 addition to be+ necess>y to ! "w ( p>ticul> fluids1 s]ves 9 all cases z a c>ri] ( solid sub/ances :i* are dissolv$ 9 x4 99,g5]al ,/ructure ( ,gl&s499--,:ile ! v>i\s gl&s diff] greatly 9 size1 =m1 & purpose1 !y pres5t /rik+ simil>ities 9 /ructure4 ,all gl&s conta9 ! foll[+ p>ts3 #a4 ,gl&1 or secret+1 cells4 ,^! are specializ$ cells = ! "w ( secretion & are ! active ag5ts 9 ! "w ( ! gl&4 ,!y are usually cubical 9 %ape4 #b4 ,a basem5t membrane4 ,?is is a ?91 connective tissue support ^u :i* ! secret+ cells re/4 #c4 ,a network ( capill>y & lymph vessels4 ,^! p5etrate ! tissues imm$iately b5ea? ! secret+ cells4 #d4 ,a sy/em ( n]ve fib]s :i* t]m9ate 9 ! secret+ cells & 9 ! walls ( ! blood vessels pass+ to ! gl&s4 ,^! /ructures--secret+ cells1 basem5t membrane1 capill>y & lymph vessels1 & n]ve fib]s--=m ! ess5tial p>ts ( all gl&s4 ,! capill>ies & ! lymph vessels supply ! secret+ cells ) fluid1 & ! n]ves control _! activities4 99,k9ds ( ,gl&s499--,gl&s diff] f "o ano!r *iefly 9 ! arrangem5t ( _! ess5tial p>ts47#gc7 ,! mo/ common plan is t ( arrang+ ! p>ts ar\nd a c5tral cavity =m$ by ! fold+ or pitt+ ( an expos$ surface4 ,_m su* gl&s are f\nd 9 ! muc\s membrane1 especially t l9+ ! alim5t>y canal1 & are mo/ num]\s 9 ! /oma*1 :]e !y supply ! ga/ric juice4 ,if ^! gl&s h ! g5]al =m ( tubes1 !y are call$ tubul> gl&s2 if sac-l 9 %ape1 !y are call$ saccul> gl&s4 ,bo? ! tubul> & ! saccul> gl&s may1 by bran*+1 =m a great numb] ( simil> divisions :i* are connect$ ) "o ano!r1 & :i* communicate by a common op5+ ) ! place :]e ! secretion is us$4 ,?is =ms a comp\nd gl& :i*1 dep5d+ on ! /ructure ( ! m9ute p>ts1 may be ei!r a comp\nd tubul> or a comp\nd saccul> gl&4 ,! l>g] ( ! comp\nd saccul> gl&s are also call$ racemose gl&s1 on acc\nt ( _! hav+ ! g5]al =m ( a clu/]1 or raceme1 simil> to t ( a bun* ( grapes4 ,! g5]al /ructure ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( gl&s is %[n 9 ,fig4 #he4 ,fig4 #he ,fig4 #he--99;,diagram illu/rat+ evolution ( gl&s499 ,a4 ,simple secret+ surface4 #a4 ,gl& cells4 #b4 ,basem5t membrane4 #c4 ,blood vessel4 #d4 ,n]ve4 ,b4 ,simple tubul> gl&4 ,c4 ,simple saccul> gl&4 ,d4 ,comp\nd tubul> gl&4 ,e4 ,comp\nd saccul> gl&4 ,f4 ,a comp\nd racemose gl& ) duct pass+ to a free surface4 ,g4 ,relation ( food canal to diff]5t =ms ( gl&s4 ,! s]\s coat has a secret+ surface4 99,nature ( ! ,secretory ,process499--,at "o "t ! gl& 0 reg>d$ m]ely z a k9d ( filt] :i* sep>at$ f ! blood ! +r$i5ts f\nd 9 its secretions4 ,rec5t /udy1 h[ev]1 ( sev]al facts relat+ to secretion has l$ to important modifications ( ?is view4 ,! secretions ( _m gl&s are kn[n to conta9 sub/ances t are n f\nd 9 ! blood1 or1 if pres5t1 are !re 9 exce$+ly small am\nts4 ,!n aga9 ! cells ( c]ta9 gl&s h be5 f\nd to und]go m>k$ *anges dur+ ! process ( secretion4 ,if1 = example1 ! cells ( ! pancreas be exam9$ aft] a p]iod ( re/1 !y are f\nd to conta9 small granul> bodies4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if !y are exam9$ aft] a p]iod ( activity1 ! granules h disappe>$ & ! cells !mselves h become small] 7,fig4 #hf74 ,! granules h no d\bt be5 us$ up 9 =m+ ! secretion4 ,^! & o!r facts h l$ to ! conclusion t secretion is1 9 "p1 ! sep>ation ( mat]ials )\t *ange f ! blood1 &1 9 "p1 a process by :i* special sub/ances are prep>$ & add$ to ! secretion4 ,accord+ to ?is view ! gl& plays ! d\ble rle ( a filt]+ app>atus & ( a manufactur+ organ4 ,fig4 #hf ,fig4 #hf--99,secret+ cells f ! pancreas99 7aft] ,langley74 ,a4 ,aft] a p]iod ( re/4 ,b4 ,aft] a %ort p]iod ( activity4 ,c4 ,aft] a p]iod ( prolong$ activity4 ,9 ,a & ,b ! nuclei are conceal$ by ! granules t accumulate dur+ ! re/+ p]iod4 99,k9ds ( ,secretion499--,9 a g5]al way all ! liquids produc$ by gl&s may be consid]$ z belong+ to "o or ! o!r ( two classes1 kn[n z ! useful & ! useless secretions4 ,to ! fir/ class belong all ! secretions t s]ve "s purpose 9 ! body1 :ile ! second includes all ^? liquids t are sep>at$ z wa/e f ! blood4 ,! fir/ are usually call$ true secretions1 or secretions prop]1 :ile ! second are call$ excretions4 ,! mo/ important gl&s produc+ liquids ( ! fir/ class are ^? ( dige/ion 7,*apt] ,x74 99,excretory ,"w ( ,gl&s499--,! process ( remov+ wa/es f ! body is call$ excretion4 ,:ile 9 !ory excretion may be reg>d$ z a di/9ct physiological act1 x is1 9 fact1 leav+ out ! "w ( ! lungs1 b a phase ( ! "w ( gl&s4 ,f ! cells :]e !y are =m$1 ! wa/e mat]ials pass into ! lymph & f ! lymph !y f9d _! way into ! blood4 ,!y are remov$ f ! blood by gl&s & !n pass$ to ! ext]ior ( ! body4 99,! ,necessity = ,excretion99 is f\nd 9 ! results att5d+ oxidation & o!r *emical *anges at ! cells 7page #ajg74 ,?r\gh ^! *anges l>ge quantities ( mat]ials are produc$ t c no long] take any "p 9 ! vital processes4 ,!y correspond to ! a%es & gases ( ord9>y combu/ion & =m wa/es t mu/ be remov$4 ,! mo/ important ( ^! sub/ances1 z already not$ 7page #aaj71 are c>bon dioxide1 wat]1 & urea47#gd7 ,a numb] ( m9]al salts are also to be includ$ ) ! wa/e mat]ials4 ,"s ( ^! are =m$ 9 ! body1 :ile o!rs1 l common salt1 ent] z a "p ( ! food4 ,!y are solids1 b1 l ! urea1 leave ! body dissolv$ 9 wat]4 ,wa/e products1 if left 9 ! body1 int]f]e ) its "w 7"s (1 !m be+ poisons71 & if all[$ to accumulate1 cause dea?4 ,_! removal1 !re=e1 is z important z ! introduction ( food & oxyg5 into ! body4 ,! mo/ important ( ! excretory gl&s are 99,! ,kidneys499--,! kidneys are two bean-%ap$ gl&s1 situat$ 9 ! back & upp] portion ( ! abdom9al cavity1 "o on ea* side ( ! sp9al column4 ,!y weigh f f\r to six ounces ea*1 & lie betwe5 ! abdom9al wall & ! p]itoneum4 ,two l>ge art]ies f ! aorta1 call$ ! r5al art]ies1 supply !m ) blood1 & !y are connect$ ) ! inf]ior v5a cava by ! r5al ve9s4 ,!y remove f ! blood an exce$+ly complex liquid1 call$ ! ur9e1 ! pr9cipal con/itu5ts ( :i* are wat]1 salts ( diff]5t k9ds1 color+ matt]1 & urea4 ,! kidneys pass _! secretion by two sl5d] tubes1 ! uret]s1 to a res]voir call$ ! bladd] 7,fig4 #hg74 ,fig4 #hg ,fig4 #hg--99,relations ( ! kidneys499 7,back view47 #a4 ,! kidneys4 #b4 ,uret]s4 #c4 ,bladd]4 #d4 ,aorta4 #e4 ,inf]ior v5a cava4 #f4 ,r5al art]ies4 #g4 ,r5al ve9s4 99,/ructure ( ! ,kidneys499--,ea* kidney is a comp\nd tubul> gl& & is compos$ *iefly ( ! p>ts conc]n$ 9 secretion4 ,! uret] s]ves z a duct = remov+ ! secretion1 :ile ! blood supplies ! mat]ials f :i* ! secretion is =m$4 ,on mak+ a longitud9al section ( ! kidney1 ! upp] end ( ! uret] is f\nd to exp& into a bas9-l enl>gem5t :i* is emb$d$ 9 ! concave side ( ! kidney4 ,! cavity )9 ?is enl>gem5t is call$ ! pelvis ( ! kidney1 & into x project a numb] ( cone-%ap$ elevations f ! kidney sub/ance1 call$ ! pyramids 7,fig4 #hh74 ,f ! summits ( ! pyramids ext5d great numb]s ( v small tubes :i*1 by bran*+1 p5etrate to all p>ts ( ! kidneys4 ,^! are ! ur9if]\s tubules1 & !y h _! beg9n+s at ! out] m>g9 ( ! kidney 9 _m small1 r\nd$ bodies call$ ! ,malpighian capsules 7,a1 ,fig4 #hh74 ,ea* capsule incloses a clu/] ( loop$ capill>ies & connects ) a s+le tubule 7,fig4 #hi74 ,f ! capsule ! tubule ext5ds t[>d ! concave side ( ! kidney &1 aft] unit+ ) simil> tubules f o!r p>ts1 f9ally t]m9ates at ! pyramid4 ,betwe5 its orig9 & t]m9ation1 h[ev]1 are sev]al convolutions & "o or m loops or turns4 ,aft] pass+ a di/ance _m times great] ?an f ! surface to ! c5t] ( ! kidney1 ! tubule empties its cont5ts into ! exp&$ portion ( ! uret]4 ,fig4 #hh ,fig4 #hh--99,sectional view ( kidney499 #a4 ,out] portion or cortex4 #b4 ,m$ull>y portion4 #c4 ,pyramids4 #d4 ,pelvis4 #e4 ,uret]4 ,a4 ,small section enl>g$ to %[ ! tubules & _! connection ) ! capsules4 ,fig4 #hi ,fig4 #hi--99,malpighian capsule99 highly magnifi$ 7,l&ois74 a4 ,small art]y ent]+ capsule & =m+ clu/] ( capill>ies )94 e4 ,small ve9 leav+ capsule & bran*+ into c1 a second set ( capill>ies1 h4 ,beg9n+ ( ur9if]\s tubule4 ,! ur9if]\s tubules are l9$ ) secret+ cells4 ,^! diff] greatly at diff]5t places1 b !y all re/ ^u a basem5t membrane & are well suppli$ ) capill>ies4 ,^! cells provide "o means ( sep>at+ wa/es f ! blood 7,fig4 #ij74 ,fig4 #ij ,fig4 #ij--99;,diagram illu/rat+ r5al circulation499 #a4 ,bran* f r5al art]y4 #b4 ,bran* f r5al ve94 #c4 ,small art]y bran*es1 "o ( :i* ent]s a ,malpighian capsule 7#e74 #f4 ,small ve9 leav+ ! capsule & bran*+ into ! capill>ies 7#g7 :i* surr\nd ! ur9if]\s tubules4 #d4 ,small ve9s :i* receive blood f ! second set ( capill>ies4 #h4 ,tubule %[+ l9+ ( secret+ cells4 99,blood ,supply to ! ,kidneys499--,! me?od by :i* ! kidneys d _! "w is sugge/$ by ! way 9 :i* ! blood circulates ?r\gh !m4 ,! r5al art]y ent]+ ea* kidney divides into f\r bran*es & ^! s5d small] divisions to all p>ts ( ! kidney4 ,at ! out] m>g9 ( ! kidney1 call$ ! cortex1 ! blood is pass$ ?r\gh two sets ( capill>ies4 ,! fir/ =ms ! clu/]s 9 ! ,malpighian capsules & receives ! blood directly f ! smalle/ art]ies4 ,! second =ms a network ar\nd ! ur9if]\s tubules & receives ! blood :i* has pass$ f ! capill>y clu/]s into a sy/em ( small ve9s 7,fig4 #ij74 ,f ! la/ set ( capill>ies ! blood is pass$ into ve9s :i* leave ! kidneys :]e ! art]y bran*es ent]1 unit+ !re to =m ! ma9 r5al ve9s4 99,"w ( ! ,kidneys499--,:y %\ld ! blood pass ?r\gh two sy/ems ( capill>ies 9 ! kidneys8 ,?is is because ! sep>ation ( wa/e is done 9 "p by ! ,malpighian capsules & 9 "p by ! ur9if]\s tubules4 ,wat] & salts are remov$ *iefly at ! capsules1 :ile ! rema9+ solid con/itu5ts ( ! ur9e pass ?r\gh ! secret+ cells t l9e ! tubules4 ,x 0 =m]ly believ$ t ! kidneys obta9$ _! secretion by a process ( filtration f ! blood1 b ?is belief has be5 gradually modifi$4 ,! prevail+ view n[ is t ! processes ( filtration & secretion are bo? c>ri$ on by ! kidneys1--t ! capill>y clu/]s 9 ! ,malpighian bodies s]ve z delicate filt]s = ! sep>ation ( wat] & salts1 :ile ! secret+ cells ( ! tubules sep>ate sub/ances by ! process ( secretion4 ,on acc\nt ( ! l>ge volume ( blood pass+ ?r\gh ! kidneys ?is liquid is /ill a bright r$ color z x fl[s into ! r5al ve9s 7,fig4 #ij74 ,! kidney cells require oxyg51 b ! am\nt :i* !y remove f ! blood is n suffici5t to affect its color noticeably4 ,! blood 9 ! r5al ve9s1 hav+ giv5 up mo/ ( its impurities & /ill reta9+ its oxyg51 is consid]$ ! pure/ blood 9 ! body4 99,urea99 is ! mo/ abundant solid con/itu5t ( ! ur9e & is ! *ief wa/e product aris+ f ! oxidation ( nitrog5\s sub/ances 9 ! body4 ,al?\gh secret$ by ! cells l9+ ! ur9if]\s tubules1 x is n =m$ 9 ! kidneys4 ,! secret+ cells simply sep>ate x f ! blood :]e x already exi/s4 ,! muscles also h be5 sugge/$ z a likely s\rce ( urea1 = "h ! proteids are brok5 d[n 9 l>ge/ quantities2 b ! muscles produce little if any urea4 ,its production has be5 f\nd to be ! "w ( ! liv]4 ,9 ! muscul> tissue1 & 9 ! o!r tissues z well1 ! proteids are r$uc$ to a l[] ord] ( comp\nds1 su* z ! comp\nds ( ammonia1 :i* pass into ! blood & are !n tak5 up by ! liv]4 ,by ! action ( ! liv] cells ^! are conv]t$ into urea & ?is is turn$ back into ! blood4 ,f ! blood ! urea is sep>at$ by ! secret+ cells ( ! kidneys4 99,"w ( ! ,liv]499--,! liv]1 already describ$ z an organ ( dige/ion 7page #aeb71 assi/s 9 ! "w ( excretion bo? by *ang+ wa/e nitrog5\s comp\nds into urea & by remov+ f ! blood ! wa/es f\nd 9 ! bile4 ,:ile ! *ief "w ( ! liv] is p]haps n t ( excretion1 its functions may "h be summ>iz$4 ,! liv] is1 fir/ ( all1 a manufactur+ organ1 produc+1 z we h se51 ?ree di/9ct products--bile1 glycog51 & urea4 ,on acc\nt ( ! nature ( ! urea & ! bile1 ! liv] is prop]ly class$ z an excretory organ2 b 9 ! =mation ( ! glycog5 x plays ! "p ( a /orage organ4 ,!n1 on acc\nt ( ! use made ( ! bile aft] x is pass$ into ! food canal1 ! liv] is also class$ z a dige/ive organ4 ,^! diff]5t functions make ( ! liv] an organ ( ! fir/ importance4 99,excretory ,"w ( ! ,food ,canal499--,! gl&s connect$ ) ! food canal1 o!r ?an ! liv]1 :ile secret+ liquids t aid 9 dige/ion1 also sep>ate wa/e mat]ials f ! blood4 ,^! are pass$ into ! canal1 :5ce !y leave ! body ) ! undige/$ portions ( ! food & ! wa/e f ! liv]4 ,?\gh ! nature & quantity ( ! mat]ials remov$ by ^! gl&s h n be5 fully det]m9$1 rec5t inve/igations h t5d$ to enhance ! importance atta*$ to ?is mode ( excretion4 99,! ,p]spiratory ,gl&s499--,! p]spiratory1 or sweat1 gl&s are locat$ 9 ! sk94 ,!y belong to ! type ( simple tubul> gl&s & are v num]\s ov] ! entire surface ( ! body4 ,a typical sweat gl& consi/s ( a tube :i*1 />t+ at ! surface ( ! cuticle1 p5etrates to ! "u portion ( ! true sk9 & !re =ms a ball-%ap$ coil4 ,! coil$ extremity1 :i* =ms ! secret+ portion1 is l9$ ) secret+ cells & surr\nd$ by a network ( capill>ies4 ,! portion ( ! tube pass+ f ! coil to ! surface s]ves z a duct 7,figs4 #ia & #aba74 ,fig4 #ia ,fig4 #ia--99;,diagram ( section ?r\gh a sweat gl&499 a4 ,out] lay] ( sk9 or cuticle4 b4 ,d]mis or true sk94 d1 e4 ,sections ( ! tube =m+ ! coil$ portion ( ! gl&4 c4 ,duct pass+ to ! surface4 ,! o!r /ructures ( ! sk9 n %[n4 ,! sweat gl&s secrete a ?91 colorless fluid1 call$ p]spiration1 or sweat4 ,?is consi/s *iefly ( wat]1 b conta9s a small p] c5t ( salts & ( urea4 ,! excretory "w ( ^! gl&s seems n to be s great z 0 =m]ly suppos$1 b !y supplem5t 9 a practical way ! "w ( ! kidneys &1 dur+ diseases ( ^! organs1 %[ an increase 9 excretory function to a m>k$ degree4 ,! p]spiration also aids 9 ! regulation ( ! temp]ature ( ! body 7,*apt] ,,xvi74 99,excretory ,"w ( ! ,lungs499--,:ile ! lungs _c be reg>d$ z gl&s1 !y d a "w 9 ! removal ( wa/e f ! body :i* mu/ be consid]$ 9 ! g5]al process ( excretion4 ,!y are especially adapt$ to ! removal ( gase\s sub/ances f ! blood1 & x is ?r\gh !m t mo/ ( ! c>bon dioxide leaves ! body4 ,! lungs remove also a consid]able quantity ( wat]4 ,?is is ( c\rse 9 ! gase\s =m1 be+ kn[n z wat] vapor4 99,ductless ,gl&s & ,int]nal ,secretion499--,midway 9 function betwe5 ! gl&s t secrete useful liquids & ^? t remove wa/e mat]ials f ! blood is a class ( bodies1 f\nd at v>i\s places1 kn[n z ! ductless gl&s4 ,!y are s nam$ f _! hav+ ! g5]al =m ( gl&s & f ! fact t !y h no ext]nal op5+s or ducts4 ,!y prep>e special mat]ials :i* are pass$ into ! blood & :i* are suppos$ to ex]t "s b5eficial effect ei!r ^u ! blood or ^u ! tissues ?r\gh :i* ! blood circulates4 ,! mo/ important ( ! ductless gl&s are ! ?yroid gl&1 locat$ 9 ! neck2 ! supr>5al bodies1 situat$ "o j ov] ea* kidney2 & ! ?ymus gl&1 a tempor>y gl& 9 ! upp] "p ( ! *e/4 ,! sple5 & ! lymphatic gl&s 7page #fh7 are also class$ ) ! ductless gl&s4 ,! liv]1 ! pancreas1 & 7accord+ to "s au?orities7 ! kidneys1 9 addition to _! ext]nal secretions1 produce mat]ials t pass into ! blood4 ,!y p]=m 9 ?is way a function l t ( ! ductless gl&s4 ,! "w ( gl&s 9 prep>+ sub/ances t ent] ! blood is kn[n z int]nal secretion4 99,quantity ( ,excretory ,products499--,if ! weight ( ! normal body be tak5 at int]vals1 aft] gr[? has be5 atta9$1 !re w be f\nd to be practically no ga9 or loss f "t to "t4 ,?is %[s t mat]ials are leav+ ! body z fa/ z !y ent] & t ! tissues are be+ torn d[n z fa/ z !y are built up4 ,x also %[s t sub/ances d n rema9 9 ! body p]man5tly1 b only s long p]haps z is necess>y = !m to give up _! en]gy1 or s]ve "s additional purpose 9 ! ev] *ang+ protoplasm4 ,! excretory organs !n remove f ! body a quantity ( mat]ial t is equal 9 weight to ! mat]ials absorb$ by ! organs ( dige/ion & respiration4 ,?is is e/imat$ = ! av]age individual to be ab\t five p\nds daily4 ,! passage ( wa/e f ! body is summ>iz$ 9 ,table ,,iii4 ,,table ,,iii4 ,,! ,,passage ,,( ,,wa/e ,,mat]ials ,,f ,,! ,,body ,mat]ials ,/ate ,h[ ,=m$ ,condition 9 ,h[ ,remov$ 9 ! ,body ! ,blood f ! ,blood ,c>bon ,gas ,by ! ,dissolv$ 9 ,sep>at$ dioxide oxidation ( ! plasma f ! ! c>bon & 9 loose blood at ! ( proteids1 comb9ation alveoli ( c>bohydrates1 ) salts ! lungs & fats4 9 ! & !n blood4 =c$ ?r\gh ! air passages into ! atmosph]e4 ,urea ,solid ,by ! ,dissolv$ 9 ,remov$ by oxidation 9 ! plasma4 ! ! liv] ( ur9if]\s nitrog5\s tubules ( comp\nds4 ! kidneys & to a small ext5t by ! p]spiratory gl&s4 ,wat] ,liquid ,by ! ,z wat]4 ,remov$ by oxidation ( all ! ! hydrog5 organs ( ( proteids1 excretion1 c>bohydrates1 b 9 ! & fats4 l>ge/ ,am\nt =m$ quantities 9 ! body is by ! small4 kidneys & ! sk94 ,salts ,solid ,dissolv$ 9 ,by ! ! plasma4 kidneys1 liv]1 & sk94 ,,hygi5e ,! sep>ation ( wa/es f ! body has su* a close relation to ! heal? t all conditions affect+ x %\ld receive ! mo/ c>eful att5tion4 ,_! ret5tion beyond ! "t :5 !y %\ld be dis*>g$ und\bt$ly does h>m & is ! cause ( _m bodily disord]s4 99,value ( ,wat]499--,z a rule ! "w ( excretion is aid$ by dr9k+ freely ( pure wat]4 ,z wat] is ! natural dissolv] & transport] ( mat]ials 9 ! body1 x is g5]ally conc$$ by hygi5i/s & physicians t ! tak+ ( pl5ty ( wat] is a heal?ful practice4 ,p d n z a rule dr9k a suffici5t am\nt ( wat]1 ab\t ?ree p9ts p] day be+ requir$ by ! av]age adult1 9 addition to t conta9$ 9 ! food4 ,mo/ ( ! wat] %\ld1 ( c\rse1 be tak5 betwe5 meals1 al?\gh ! sipp+ ( a small am\nt dur+ meals does n int]f]e ) dige/ion4 ,z /at$ else:]e1 ! tak+ ( a cup ( wat] on retir+ at night & aga9 on ris+ 9 ! morn+ is v g5]ally recomm5d$4 99,protection ( ,kidneys & ,liv]499--,! kidneys & liv] are closely relat$ 9 _! "w & 9 _m in/ances are injur$ or b5efit$ by ! same causes4 ,bo?1 z already /at$ 7page #abd71 are liable to injury f an excess ( proteid food1 especially meats1 & also by a condition ( inactivity ( ! b[els 7page #aff74 ,! free use ( alcohol also has an injuri\s effect on bo? ( ^! organs47#ge7 ,on ! o!r h&1 increas+ ! activity ( ! sk9 has a b5eficial effect ^u !m1 especially ! kidneys4 ,ex]cise & ba?+1 :i* t5d to make ! sk9 m active1 are valuable aids bo? 9 ridd+ ! body ( impurities & 9 less5+ ! "w ( ! o!r excretory organs4 ,"o hav+ a disease ( ! kidneys1 h[ev]1 ne$s to ex]cise great c>e 9 ba?+ on acc\nt ( ! bad results :i* foll[ gett+ *ill$4 99,special ,c>e aft] ,c]ta9 ,diseases499--,c]ta9 diseases1 z measles1 diph!ria1 sc>let fev]1 & typhoid fev]1 sometimes h ! effect ( weak5+ ! kidneys 7& o!r vital organs7 & ( />t+ disease 9 !m4 ,:5 ?is occurs x is usually ! result ( exposure or ( ov]-ex]tion :ile ! body is 9 a weak5$ condition4 ,sev]e *ill+ at su* a "t1 by driv+ blood f ! surface to ! p>ts )91 (t5 causes inflammation ( ! kidneys4 ,on recov]+ f any wa/+ disease "o %\ld ex]cise great caution bo? 9 resum+ 8 regul> "w & 9 expos+ 8 body to wet or cold4 99,misund]/ood ,symptoms499--,pa9s 9 ! small ( ! back1 an increase 9 ! secretions ( ! kidneys1 & a s$im5t 9 ! ur9e v naturally sugge/ "s disord] ( ! kidneys4 ,x is a fact1 h[ev]1 t ^! symptoms h little or no relation to ! /ate ( ! kidneys & may occur :5 ! kidneys are 9 a p]fectly heal?y condition4 ,! kidneys are n locat$ 9 ! small ( ! back1 b above ?is place1 s t pa9s 9 ?is region are evid5tly n f ! kidneys1 :ile ! increase 9 ! fl[ ( ! ur9e may arise f a numb] ( causes1 "o ( :i* is an increase ( c]ta9 wa/e products pass$ into ! blood4 ,! symptoms ref]r$ to are frequ5tly ! results ( n]v\s exhau/ion1 result+ f ov]/udy1 worry1 eye /ra91 or "s o!r condition t ov]taxes ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,:5 ?is is ! case1 relief is obta9$ ?r\gh re/+ ! n]ves4 ,actual disease ( ! kidneys c only be det]m9$ ?r\gh a *emical & microscopic exam9ation ( ! ur9e4 ,to resort to "s pat5t m$ic9e = kidney tr\ble )\t kn[+ t su* tr\ble exi/s1 z is sometimes done1 is bo? fooli% & unhygi5ic4 99,alcoholic ,bev]ages & ! ,elim9ation ( ,wa/e499--,caus+ z x does su* s]i\s diseases z cirrhosis ( ! liv] & ,bright's disease ( ! kidneys 7footnote1 page #baj71 alcohol w greatly int]f]e 9 ?is way ) ! elim9ation ( wa/e4 ,!re is also evid5ce to ! effect t x int]f]es ) wa/e elim9ation be=e ! /age is rea*$ ( caus+ disease ( ^! organs4 ,rese>*es h %[n t alcohol increases ! am\nt ( uric acid 9 ! body & decreases ! am\nt ( urea f\nd 9 ! ur9e4 ,! conclusion to be drawn is t alcohol int]f]es 9 "s way ) ! *ange ( ! h>mful uric acid into ! comp>atively h>mless urea--an int]f]5ce :i* 9 "s in/ances results 9 great h>m4 ,x has also be5 %[n t malt$ liquors1 su* z be] & ale1 conta9 sub/ances :i*1 l ! caffe9 ( tea & c(fee 7page #afg71 are readily conv]t$ into uric acid47#gf7 ,w9es conta9 acids :i* may also act injuri\sly4 ,! h>m :i* su* sub/ances d is1 ( c\rse1 additional to t caus$ by ! alcohol4 99,summ>y499--,z a result ( ! oxidations & o!r *anges at ! cells1 sub/ances are produc$ t c no long] s]ve a purpose 9 ! body4 ,!y are ( ! nature ( wa/e1 & _! cont9u\s removal f ! body is z necess>y to ! ma9t5ance ( life z ! introduction ( food & oxyg54 ,! organs ^: "w x is to remove ! wa/e1 except+ ! lungs1 are gl&s2 & ! mat]ial :i* !y remove are ( ! nature ( secretions4 ,f ! cells1 ! wa/e passes ?r\gh ! lymph 9 ! blood4 ,f ! blood x is sep>at$ by ! excretory organs & pass$ to ! ext]ior ( ! body4 99,ex]cises499--#a4 ,:at g5]al purposes are s]v$ by ! gl&s 9 ! body8 #b4 ,:at are ! p>ts common to all gl&s8 ,:at purpose is s]v$ by ea* ( ^! p>ts8 #c4 ,h[ d tubul> gl&s diff] 9 /ructure f saccul> gl&s8 ,:at is a racemose gl&8 ,:y s call$8 #d4 ,describe ! nature ( ! secretory process4 #e4 ,:at conditions r5d] necess>y ! =mation ( wa/e mat]ials 9 ! body8 ,:y mu/ ^! be remov$8 #f4 ,h[ d ! wa/e mat]ials get f ! cells to ! organs ( excretion8 #g4 ,%[ by a draw+ ! connections ( ! kidneys ) ! l>ge blood vessels & ! bladd]4 ,"n p>ts ( draw+4 #h4 ,9 :at d ! ur9if]\s tubes h _! beg9n+8 ,9 :at d !y t]m9ate8 ,) :at are !y l9$8 #i4 ,:y %\ld ! blood pass ?r\gh two sets ( capill>ies 9 ! kidneys8 #aj4 ,bright's disease ( ! kidneys affects ! ur9if]\s tubes & int]f]es ) _! "w4 ,:at impurity is !n left 9 ! blood8 #aa4 ,trace wat] & salts f ! ,malpighian capsules to ! bladd]1 nam+ p>ts ?r\gh :i* !y pass4 #ab4 ,trace c>bon dioxide f ! cells to ! outside atmosph]e4 #ac4 ,h[ does ! quantity ( mat]ial introduc$ into ! body comp>e ) t :i* is remov$ by ! organs ( excretion8 #ad4 ,"n two ways ( less5+ ! "w ( ! kidneys4 #ae4 ,:y is ! dr9k+ ( pl5ty ( pure wat] a heal?ful practice8 ,,practical ,,"w 99,to sugge/ ! ,d\ble ,"w ( ,gl&s499--,prep>e a simple filt] by fitt+ a piece ( por\s pap] into a glass funnel4 ,?r\gh ?is pass pure wat] & also wat] hav+ salt dissolv$ 9 x & conta9+ "s s$im5t1 z s&4 ,! wat] & ! dissolv$ salt pass ?r\gh1 :ile ! s$im5t rema9s on ! filt]4 ,n[ sub/itute a fre% piece ( pap] 9 ! funnel & drop on its surface a little solid color+ matt]1 su* z co*9eal4 ,aga9 pass ! liquid ?r\gh ! funnel4 ,?is "t x comes ?r\gh color$1 ! color be+ add$ by ! filt]4 ,comp>e ! filt] & mat]ials filt]$ to ! gl& & ! mat]ials conc]n$ 9 secretion 7blood1 ! liquid secret$1 sub/ances add$ by ! gl&1 etc474 ,fig4 #ib ,fig4 #ib--99,! physiological s*eme499 ,diagram sugge/+ ! ess5tial relation ( ! bodily activities4 ,see ,summ>y ( ,"p ,i1 page #bae1 & ,summ>y ( ,"p ,,ii1 page #dac4 ,,summ>y ,,( ,,"p ,i ,! body is an organization ( diff]5t k9ds ( cells2 x gr[s ?r\gh ! gr[? & reproduction ( ^! cells2 & its life z a :ole is ma9ta9$ by provid+ su* conditions z w enable ! cells to keep alive4 ,( *ief importance 9 ! "w ( ! body is a nutri5t fluid :i* supplies ! cells ) food & oxyg5 & relieves !m ( wa/e4 ,a mov+ portion ( ?is fluid1 call$ ! blood1 s]ves z a transport+ ag5t1 :ile ano!r portion1 call$ ! lymph1 passes ! mat]ials betwe5 ! blood & ! cells4 ,?r\gh _! effects ^u ! blood & ! lymph1 ! organs ( circulation1 respiration1 dige/ion1 & excretion m9i/] 9 diff]5t ways to ! cells1 & aid 9 ! ma9t5ance ( life4 ,by _! comb9$ action two di/9ct movem5ts are kept up 9 ! body1 z foll[s3 #a4 ,an inw>d movem5t :i* c>ries mat]ials f ! outside ( ! body t[>d ! cells4 #b4 ,an outw>d movem5t :i* c>ries mat]ials f ! cells to ! outside ( ! body4 ,pass+ inw>d are ! oxyg5 & food mat]ials 9 a condition to unite ) ea* o!r & !reby *ange _! pot5tial into k9etic en]gy4 ,pass+ outw>d are ! oxyg5 & ! elem5ts t =m$ ! food mat]ials aft] hav+ unit$ at ! cells & lib]at$ _! en]gy4 ,z a f9al & all-important result1 !re is kept up a cont9u\s s]ies ( *emical *anges 9 ! cells4 ,^! lib]ate ! en]gy1 provide special sub/ances ne$$ by ! cells1 & pres]ve ! life ( ! body 7,fig4 #ib74 ,9 ! *apt]s :i* foll[1 we are to consid] ! problem ( adju/+ ! body to & ( br++ x into prop] relations ) its surr\nd+s4 ,,"p ,,ii3 ,,motion1 ,,coord9ation1 ,,& ,,s5sation ,,*apt] ,,xiv - ,,! ,,skeleton ,"o necess>y means ( e/abli%+ prop] relations betwe5 ! body & its surr\nd+s is motion47#gg7 ,n only c ! body move itself f place to place1 b x is able to move surr\nd+ objects z well4 ,9 ! production ( motion ?ree important sy/ems are employ$--! muscul> sy/em1 ! n]v\s sy/em1 & a sy/em ( me*anical devices :i* are f\nd ma9ly 9 ! skeleton4 ,! muscul> sy/em supplies ! en]gy = op]at+ ! me*anical devices1 :ile ! n]v\s sy/em controls ! movem5ts47#gh7 ,al?\gh ! skeleton s]ves o!r purposes1 su* z giv+ %ape to ! body & protect+ c]ta9 organs1 its ma9 use is t ( an aid 9 ! production ( motion4 99,skeleton ,tissues499--,! tissues employ$ 9 ! con/ruction ( ! skeleton are ! osse\s1 ! c>tilag9\s1 & ! connective tissues4 ,^! are kn[n z ! support+ tissues ( ! body4 ,!y =m ! bones1 supply ! ela/ic pads at ! ends ( ! bones1 & furni% /rong b&s1 call$ ligam5ts1 = fa/5+ ! bones toge!r4 ,! skeleton =ms ab\t #af p] c5t ( ! weight ( ! body4 ,its tissues1 be+ ( a m durable nature ?an ! re/ ( ! body1 d n s readily decay4 ,especially is ?is true ( ! osse\s tissue1 :i* may be pres]v$ indef9itely1 aft] removal f ! body1 by simply keep+ x dry4 99,! ,bones499--,! sep>ate units1 or p>ts1 ( :i* ! skeleton is con/ruct$ are call$ bones4 ,!y are ! h>d /ructures t c be felt 9 all p>ts ( ! body1 & !y comprise ne>ly ! entire am\nt ( mat]ial f\nd 9 ! prep>$ skeleton4 ,z usually e/imat$1 ! bones are #bjh 9 numb]4 ,!y v>y greatly 9 size & %ape 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! body4 99,composition & ,prop]ties ( ,bones499--,! mo/ noticeable & important prop]ties ( ! bones are ^? ( h>dness1 /iffness1 & t\ghness4 ,^u ^! prop]ties ! uses ( ! bones dep5d4 ,^! prop]ties may1 9 turn1 be %[n to dep5d ^u ! pres5ce 9 osse\s tissue ( two ess5tially diff]5t k9ds ( sub/ance1 kn[n z ! animal matt] & ! m9]al matt]4 ,if a bone is soak$ 9 an acid1 ! m9]al matt] is dissolv$ out1 & z a result x loses its prop]ties ( h>dness & /iffness4 7,see ,practical ,"w47 ,?is is because ! m9]al matt] supplies ^! prop]ties1 be+ compos$ ( sub/ances :i* are h>d & closely resemble c]ta9 k9ds ( rock4 ,! *ief mat]ials =m+ ! m9]al matt] are calcium phosphate & calcium c>bonate4 ,on ! o!r h&1 burn+ a bone de/roys ! animal matt]4 ,:5 ?is is done ! bone loses its t\ghness1 & becomes q brittle4 ,! prop]ty ( t\ghness is1 !re=e1 suppli$ by ! animal matt]4 ,?is consi/s ma9ly ( a sub/ance call$ osse91 :i* may be dissolv$ out ( ! bones by boil+ !m4 ,sep>at$ f ! bones x is kn[n z gelat9e4 ,! blood vessels & n]ves 9 ! bones1 & ! protoplasm ( ! bone cells1 are also c\nt$ 9 ) ! animal matt]4 ,fig4 #ic ,fig4 #ic--99,section ( a long bone99 7tibia71 %[+ ! gross /ructure4 ,if a dry bone f a full-gr[n1 b n old1 animal be weigh$ be=e & aft] be+ burn$1 x is f\nd to lose ab\t "o ?ird ( its weight4 ,f ?is we may conclude t ab\t "o ?ird ( ! bone by weight is animal matt] & two ?irds is m9]al matt]4 ,?is proportion1 h[ev]1 v>ies ) age1 ! m9]al matt] increas+ ) advance ( ye>s4 99,gross ,/ructure ( ,bones499--,! gross /ructure ( ! bones is be/ le>n$ by /udy+ bo? dry & fre% specim5s4 7,see ,practical ,"w47 ,! ends ( ! bones are capp$ by a lay] ( smoo?1 ela/ic c>tilage1 :ile all ! rema9+ surface is cov]$ by a r d5se %ea? ( connective tissue1 call$ ! p]io/eum4 ,usually ! c5tral "p ( ! long bones is holl[1 be+ fill$ ) a fatty sub/ance kn[n z ! yell[ m>r[4 ,ar\nd ! m>r[ cavity ! bone is v d5se & compact1 b mo/ ( ! mat]ial =m+ ! ends is por\s & spongy4 ,^! mat]ials are usually ref]r$ to z ! compact sub/ance & ! cancell\s1 or spongy1 sub/ance ( ! bones 7,fig4 #ic74 ,! arrangem5t ( ! compact & spongy sub/ance v>ies ) ! diff]5t bones4 ,9 ! %ort bones 7wri/ & ankle bones1 v]tebr1 etc47 & also 9 ! flat bones 7skull bones1 ribs1 %\ld] blades1 etc47 !re is no cavity = ! yell[ m>r[1 all ( ! int]ior space be+ fill$ ) ! spongy sub/ance4 ,! r$ m>r[1 relations ( :i* to ! r$ corpuscles ( ! blood h already be5 not$ 7page #bg71 occupies ! m9ute spaces 9 ! spongy sub/ance4 ,fig4 #id ,fig4 #id--99;,cross section ( bone %[+ m9ute /ructure499 ,magnifi$4 #a4 ,surface lay] ( bone4 #b4 ,deep] portion4 #c4 ,hav]sian canals f :i* pass ! canaliculi4 #d4 ,a lacuna4 ,obs]ve arrangem5t ( lacun at surface & 9 deep] portion4 99,m9ute ,/ructure ( ,bone499--,a microscopic exam9ation ( a ?9 slice ( bone tak5 f ! compact sub/ance %[s ?is to be por\s z well z ! spongy sub/ance4 ,two k9ds ( small *annels are f\nd runn+ ?r\gh x 9 diff]5t directions1 kn[n z ! ,hav]sian canals & ! canaliculi 7,fig4 #id74 ,^! s]ve ! g5]al purpose ( di/ribut+ n\ri%m5t ?r\gh ! bone4 ,! ,hav]sian canals are l>g] ?an ! canaliculi & conta9 small n]ves & blood vessels1 *iefly capill>ies 7,fig4 #ie74 ,!y ext5d l5g?wise ?r\gh ! bone4 ,! canaliculi are *annels = convey+ lymph4 ,!y pass out f ! ,hav]sian canals at "r angles1 go+ to all portions ( ! compact sub/ance except a ?9 lay] at ! surface4 ,9 ! surface lay] ( ! bone ! canaliculi are 9 communication ) ! p]io/eum4 ,fig4 #ie ,fig4 #ie--99,section %[+ ,hav]sian canal & cont5ts991 highly magnifi$ 7aft] ,s*f]74 #a4 ,art]ial capill>y4 #b4 ,v5\s capill>y4 #c4 ,n]ve fib]s4 #d4 ,lymph vessel4 99,! ,bone ,cells499--,surr\nd+ ! ,hav]sian canals are ?9 lay]s ( bone sub/ance call$ ! lam91 & )9 ^! are great numb]s ( irregul> bodies1 kn[n z ! lacun4 ,! walls ( ! lacun are h>d & d5se1 b )9 ea* is an op5 space4 ,9 ?is lies a flatt5$ body1 hav+ a nucleus1 :i* is recogniz$ z ! bone cell1 or ! bone corpuscle 7,fig4 #if74 ,x appe>s to be ! "w ( ! bone cells to deposit m9]al matt] 9 ! walls surr\nd+ !m & 9 ?is way to supply ! prop]ties ( h>dness & /iffness to ! bones4 ,! canaliculi connect ) ! lacun 9 all p>ts ( ! bone1 caus+ !m to appe> "u ! microscope l s _m burs fa/5$ toge!r by _! project+ sp9es 7,fig4 #id74 ,fig4 #if ,fig4 #if--99;,bone cell99 remov$ f ! lacuna & v highly magnifi$4 7,f ,qua9's ,anatomy47 99,h[ ! ,bone ,cells are ,n\ri%$499--,! bone cells1 l all ! o!r cells ( ! body1 are n\ri%$ by ! lymph t escapes f ! blood4 ,?is passes ?r\gh ! canaliculi to ! cells 9 ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! bone1 z foll[s3 #a4 ,! cells 9 ! surface lay] ( ! bone receive lymph f ! capill>ies 9 ! p]io/eum47#gi7 ,x gets to !m ?r\gh ! %ort canaliculi t run out to ! surface4 #b4 ,! cells )9 ! int]ior ( ! bone receive _! n\ri%m5t f ! small blood vessels 9 ! ,hav]sian canals4 ,lymph f ^! vessels is convey$ to ! cells ?r\gh ! canaliculi t connect ) ! ,hav]sian canals4 99,plan & ,purpose ( ! ,skeleton499--,! framework ( ! body is su* z to adapt x to a movable /ructure4 ,obvi\sly ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! body _c be secur$ to a f\ndation1 z are ^? ( a /ation>y build+1 b mu/ be arrang$ aft] a plan t is conducive to motion4 ,a mov+ /ructure1 z a wagon or a bicycle1 has )9 x "s /rong c5tral "p to :i* ! rema9d] is jo9$4 ,! same is true ( ! skeleton4 ,t "p to :i* ! o!rs are atta*$ is a long1 bony axis1 kn[n z ! sp9al column4 ,c]ta9 p>ts1 z ! ribs & ! skull1 are atta*$ directly to ! sp9al column1 :ile o!rs are atta*$ indirectly to x4 ,! arrangem5t ( all ! p>ts is su* t ! sp9al column is made ! c5tral1 coh]+ portion ( ! skeleton & also ( ! :ole body4 ,besides ! g5]al arrangem5t ( ! p>ts ( ! skeleton1 !re is su* a gr\p+ ( ! bones 9 ea* ( its ma9 divisions z w enable !m to s]ve def9ite purposes4 ,9 mo/ places !y =m me*anical devices = supply+ special movem5ts1 & 9 c]ta9 places !y provide = ! support or protection ( important organs4 ,9 mo/ cases !re is a def9ite comb9ation ( diff]5t bones1 =m+ :at is call$ ! bone gr\p4 ,fig4 #ig ,fig4 #ig--,! human skeleton4 99,bone ,gr\ps499--,on acc\nt ( ! close relation betwe5 ! bones ( ! same gr\p1 !y _c pr(itably be /udi$ z individual bones1 b ea* mu/ be consid]$ z a "p ( ! gr\p to :i* x belongs4 ,by fir/ mak+ out ! relation ( a giv5 bone to its gr\p1 its value to ! :ole body c be det]m9$4 ,! mo/ important ( ! gr\ps ( bones are z foll[s3 #a4 ,! ,sp9al ,column4--,?is gr\p consi/s ( tw5ty-f\r simil>ly %ap$ bones1 plac$ "o above ! o!r1 call$ ! v]tebr1 & two bones f\nd bel[ ! v]tebr1 kn[n z ! sacrum & ! coccyx 7,fig4 #ih74 ,^! tw5ty-six bones supply ! c5tral axis ( ! body1 support ! head & upp] extremities1 & inclose & protect ! sp9al cord4 ,fig4 #ih ,fig4 #ih--,! sp9al column4 ,! upp] sev5 v]tebr =m ! neck & are call$ ! c]vical v]tebr4 ,!y are small] & h great] fre$om ( motion ?an ! o!rs4 ,! fir/ & second c]vical v]tebr1 kn[n z ! atlas & ! axis1 are specially modifi$ to =m a support = ! head & provide = its movem5ts4 ,! head re/s ^u ! atlas1 =m+ ) x a h+e jo9t 7us$ 9 nodd+ to indicate yes72 & ! atlas turns ^u an upw>d projection ( ! axis =m+ a pivot jo9t 7us$ 9 %ak+ ! head to indicate no74 ,! next twelve v]tebr1 9 ord] bel[ ! c]vical1 are kn[n z ! ?oracic v]tebr4 ,!y =m ! back "p ( ! framework ( ! ?orax & h little fre$om ( motion4 ,! five v]tebr bel[ ! ?oracic are kn[n z ! lumb> v]tebr4 ,^! bones are l>ge & /rong & admit ( consid]able motion4 ,bel[ ! la/ lumb> v]tebra is a w$ge-%ap$ bone :i* has ! appe>ance ( five v]tebr fus$ toge!r4 ,?is bone1 kn[n z ! sacrum1 connects ) ! l>ge bones :i* =m ! pelvic girdle4 ,atta*$ to ! l[] end ( ! sacrum is a gr\p ( f two to f\r small v]tebr1 m or less fus$1 call$ ! coccyx4 ,fig4 #ii ,fig4 #ii--99,two views ( a lumb> v]tebra499 ,a4 ,f above4 ,b4 ,f ! side4 #a4 ,body4 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e4 ,projections f ! neural ar*4 99,! ,jo9+ ( ! ,v]tebr499--,a typical v]tebra consi/s ( a heavy1 disk-%ap$ portion 9 front1 call$ ! body1 :i* is connect$ ) a r+-l portion beh9d1 call$ ! neural ar*4 ,! body & ! neural ar* toge!r encircle a r\nd op5+ :i* is a "p ( ! canal t conta9s ! sp9al cord 7,fig4 #ii74 ,f ! neural ar* are sev5 bony projections1 or processes1 ?ree ( :i* s]ve = ! atta*m5t ( muscles & ligam5ts1 :ile ! o!r f\r1 two above & two bel[1 are = ! int]lock+ ( ! v]tebr ) ea* o!r4 ,! sep>ate v]tebr are jo9$ toge!r 9 ! sp9al column1 z foll[s3 a4 ,betwe5 ! bodies ( adjac5t v]tebr are disks ( ela/ic c>tilage4 ,ea* disk is ab\t "o f\r? ( an in* ?ick & is gr[n tight onto ! face ( ! v]tebra above & also onto ! face ( ! v]tebra bel[4 ,by means ( ^! disks a v close connection is secur$ betwe5 ! v]tebr on ! front side ( ! column4 b4 ,on ! back ( ! column1 ! d[nw>d projections f ! neural ar* ( ea* v]tebra above fit into depressions f\nd 9 ! neural ar* ( ! v]tebra bel[4 ,?is int]lock+ ( ! v]tebr1 :i* is mo/ m>k$ 9 ! lumb> region1 /r5g!ns greatly ! back portion ( ! column4 c4 ,to fur!r secure "o bone ^u ! o!r1 num]\s ligam5ts pass f v]tebra to v]tebra on all sides ( ! column4 #b4 ,! ,skull4--,! skull is =m$ by ! close union ( tw5ty-two irregul> bones4 ,^! fall naturally into two subgr\ps--! cranium & ! face 7,fig4 #ajj74 ,! cranium consi/s ( eight ?91 curv$ bones :i* inclose ! space1 call$ ! cranial cavity1 t holds ! bra94 ,! face gr\p1 consi/+ ( f\rte5 bones1 provides cavities & supports = ! diff]5t organs ( ! face1 & supplies a movable "p 7! inf]ior maxill>y7 :i*1 ) ! bones above 7sup]ior maxill>y71 =ms ! ma*9e = ma/icat+ ! food4 ,fig4 #ajj ,fig4 #ajj--99,! skull 7,huxley7499 ,! illu/ration %[s mo/ ( ! bones ( ! skull4 #c4 ,! ,?orax4--,?is gr\p conta9s tw5ty-f\r bones ( simil> =m1 call$ ribs1 & a /raight flat bone1 call$ ! /]num1 or brea/bone 7,fig4 #aja74 ,! ribs connect ) ! sp9al column beh9d1 & all b ! two l[e/ ones connect ) ! /]num 9 front1 &1 by s do+1 inclose ! ?oracic cavity4 ,z already /at$ 7page #he71 ! bones ( ! ?orax =m a me*anical device1 or ma*9e1 = brea?+4 ,! ribs are s arrang$ t ! volume ( ! ?orax is increas$ by elevat+ !m & dim9i%$ by depress+ !m1 enabl+ ! air to be =c$ into & out ( ! lungs4 ,fig4 #aja ,fig4 #aja--99;,bone gr\ps ( trunk499 #d4 ,! ,%\ld] & ,pelvic ,girdles4--,^! gr\ps =m two bony supports--"o at ! upp] & ! o!r at ! l[] portion ( ! trunk--:i* s]ve = ! atta*m5t ( ! arms & legs 7,fig4 #aja74 ,! %\ld] girdle is =m$ by f\r bones--two clavicles1 or coll> bones1 & two scapul1 or %\ld] blades4 ,! clavicle on ei!r side connects ) ! upp] end ( ! /]num & s]ves z a brace = ! %\ld]1 :ile ! scapula =ms a socket = ! hum]us 7! l>ge bone ( ! arm7 & supplies _m places = ! atta*m5t ( muscles4 ,! pelvic girdle consi/s ( two l>ge bones ( irregul> %ape1 call$ ! innom9ate bones4 ,!y connect beh9d ) ! sacrum & 9 front !y connect1 ?r\gh a small pad ( c>tilage1 ) ea* o!r4 ,on ! inside ( ! girdle is a smoo?1 bas9-%ap$ support = ! cont5ts ( ! abdom51 b on ! outside ! bones are r\gh & irregul> & provide _m places = ! atta*m5t ( muscles & ligam5ts4 ,ea* innom9ate bone has a deep1 r\nd socket into :i* ! end ( ! femur 7! long bone ( ! leg7 accurately fits4 #e4 ,! ,arm & ,h& ,gr\ps4--,a long bone1 ! hum]us1 connects ! arm ) ! %\ld] & gives =m to ! upp] arm4 ,9 ! =e>m are two bones1 ! radius & ! ulna1 :i* connect at "o end ) ! hum]us & at ! o!r ) ! bones ( ! wri/ 7,fig4 #ajb74 ,fig4 #ajb ,fig4 #ajb--99;,bone gr\ps ( arm & leg499 ,a gr\p ( eight small1 r\nd bones is f\nd 9 ! wri/1 kn[n z ! c>pal bones4 ,^! are arrang$ 9 two r[s & are movable ^u "o ano!r4 ,five /raight bones1 ! metac>pals1 connect ) ! wri/ bones & =m ! framework = ! palm ( ! h&4 ,atta*$ to ! metac>pals are ! bones ( ! f+]s & ?umb4 ,^! =m an int]e/+ gr\p ( f\rte5 bones1 call$ ! phalanges ( ! f+]s 7,fig4 #ajb74 ,! bones ( ! h& provide a me*anical device1 or ma*9e1 = grasp+1 & ! arm s]ves z a device = mov+ ?is grasp+ ma*9e f place to place4 ,! "w ( ! arm1 9 ?is respect1 is n unlike t ( a revolv+ crane ^u ! end ( :i* is a grab-hook4 ,! h& )\t ! arm to move x ab\t w\ld be ( little use4 #f4 ,! ,leg & ,foot ,gr\ps4--,^! correspond 9 =m & arrangem5t to ! bones ( ! arm & h&4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 ! leg & foot are us$ = purposes diff]5t f ^? ( ! arm & h&1 c]ta9 diff]5ces 9 /ructure are to be f\nd4 ,! patella1 or kneepan1 has no correspond+ bone 9 ! arm2 & ! c>pus1 or ankle1 :i* corresponds to ! wri/1 conta9s sev5 in/ead ( eight bones4 ,! bones ( ! foot & toes are ! same 9 numb] z ^? ( ! h& & f+]s1 b !y diff] greatly 9 size & =m & h less fre$om ( motion4 ,! femur1 :i* gives =m to ! ?igh1 is ! longe/ bone ( ! body4 ,! tibia1 or %9 bone1 & ! fibula1 ! sl5d] bone by its side1 give =m to ! l[] "p ( ! leg 7,fig4 #ajb74 ,! legs are me*anical devices 7walk+ ma*9es7 = mov+ ! body f place to place4 ,! feet s]ve bo? z supports = ! body & z lev]s = pu%+ ! body =w>d4 ,by _! atta*m5t to ! legs !y may be plac$ 9 all necess>y positions = support+ & mov+ ! body4 ,! diff]5t bone gr\ps are %[n 9 ,fig4 #ig & nam$ 9 ,table ,,iv4 99,adaptation to ,special ,ne$s499--,:5 any s+le bone is /udi$ 9 its relation to ! o!r memb]s ( ! gr\p to :i* x belongs or ) p>ticul> ref]5ce to its purpose 9 ! body1 its adaptation to "s special place or use is at once app>5t4 ,ea* bone s]ves "s special purpose1 & to ?is purpose x is adapt$ by its =m & /ructure4 ,long bones1 l ! hum]us & femur1 are suit$ to giv+ /r5g?1 =m1 & /iffness to c]ta9 p>ts1 :ile irregul> bones1 l ! v]tebr & ! pelvic bones1 are fitt$ = support+ & protect+ organs4 ,o!rs1 l ! wri/ & e> bones1 make possible a peculi> k9d ( motion1 & /ill o!rs1 l ! ribs1 are adapt$ to m ?an "o purpose4 ,! va/ diff]5ces 9 %ape1 size1 /ructure1 & surface among ! v>i\s bones are b ! conditions t adapt !m to p>ticul> =ms ( s]vice 9 ! body4 ,,table ,,iv - ,,! ,,pr9cipal ,,bones ,,& ,,_! ,,gr\p+ ,,9 ,,! ,,body ,i4 ,,axial ,,skeleton ,a4 ,skull1 #bh4 #a4 ,cranium1 #h4 a4 ,frontal1 =ehead #a b4 ,p>ietal #b c4 ,temporal1 temple #b d4 ,occipital #a e4 ,sph5oid #a f4 ,e?moid #a #b4 ,face1 #ad4 a4 ,inf]ior maxill>y #a b4 ,sup]ior maxill>y #b c4 ,palat9e1 palate #b d4 ,nasal bones #b e4 ,vom] #a f4 ,inf]ior turb9at$ #b g4 ,la*rymal #b h4 ,mal>1 *eek bones #b #c4 ,bones ( ! ,e>s1 #f4 a4 ,malleus #b b4 ,incus #b c4 ,/apes #b ,b4 ,sp9al ,column1 #bf4 #a4 ,c]vical1 or neck1 v]tebr #g #b4 ,dorsal1 or ?oracic1 v]tebr #ab #c4 ,lumb> v]tebr #e #d4 ,sacrum #a #e4 ,coccyx #a ,c4 ,?orax1 #be4 #a4 ,ribs #bd #b4 ,/]num #a ,d4 ,hyoid1 #a 7at base ( tongue74 ,,ii4 ,,app5dicul> ,,skeleton ,a4 ,%\ld] girdle #d4 #a4 ,clavicle1 coll>bone4 #b #b4 ,scapula1 %\ld] blade #b ,b4 ,upp] extremities1 #fj4 #a4 ,hum]us #b #b4 ,radius #b #c4 ,ulna #b #d4 ,c>pal1 wri/ bones #af #e4 ,metac>pal #aj #f4 ,phalanges ( f+]s #bh ,c4 ,pelvic girdle1 #b4 #a4 ,os9nom9atum #b ,d4 ,l[] extremities1 #fj4 #a4 ,femur1 ?igh bone #b #b4 ,tibia1 %9 bone #b #c4 ,fibula #b #d4 ,patella1 kneepan #b #e4 ,t>sal1 ankle bones #ad #f4 ,metat>sal1 in/ep bones #aj #g4 ,phalanges ( toes #bh ,,articulations ,any place 9 ! body :]e two or m bones meet is call$ an articulation1 or jo9t4 ,at ! place ( meet+ ! bones are firmly atta*$ to ea* o!r1 !reby secur+ ! necess>y coh]5ce ( ! skeleton4 ,! l>ge numb] ( bones1 & consequ5tly ( articulations1 are necess>y = ! diff]5t movem5ts ( ! body & also on acc\nt ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! skeleton develops1 or gr[s4 ,articulations are class$ ) ref]5ce to _! fre$om ( motion1 z movable1 slightly movable1 & immovable articulations4 ,mo/ ( ! immovable articulations are f\nd 9 ! skull4 ,"h irregul>1 too?-l projections f ! diff]5t bones enable !m to int]lock ) "o ano!r1 :ile !y are held firmly toge!r by a ?9 lay] ( connective tissue4 ,! wavy l9es =m$ by articulations ( ?is k9d are call$ sutures 7,fig4 #ajj74 ,! be/ examples ( jo9ts t are slightly1 b n freely1 movable are f\nd 9 ! front ( ! sp9al column4 ,! c>tilag9\s pads betwe5 ! v]tebr p]mit1 by _! ela/icity1 ( a slight b5d+ ( ! column 9 diff]5t directions4 ,^! movem5ts are caus$1 n by "o bone glid+ ov] ano!r1 b by compressions & ext5sions ( ! c>tilage4 ,betwe5 ! v]tebr 9 ! back ( ! sp9al column1 h[ev]1 !re is a slight movem5t ( ! bone surfaces ^u "o ano!r4 99,/ructure ( ! ,movable ,jo9ts499--,by f> ! mo/ num]\s & important ( ! jo9ts are ^? t are freely movable4 ,su* jo9ts are /rongly con/ruct$ & endure great /ra9 )\t dislocation1 & yet _! p>ts move ov] ea* o!r easily & )\t friction4 ,! ends ( ! bones are usually enl>g$ & h specially =m$ projections or depressions :i* fit into correspond+ depressions or elevations on ! bones ) :i* !y articulate4 ,9 addition to ?is ! articul> surfaces are q smoo? & d5se1 hav+ no ,hav]sian canals1 & !y are cov]$ ) a lay] ( c>tilage4 ,/rong ligam5ts pass f "o bone to ! o!r to hold ea* 9 its place 7,a1 ,fig4 #ajc74 ,"s ( ^! consi/ simply ( b&s1 connect+ ! jo9t on its diff]5t sides1 :ile o!rs =m cont9u\s %ea?s ar\nd ! jo9t4 ,fig4 #ajc ,fig4 #ajc--99,outside & inside view ( knee jo9t499 #a4 ,t5dons4 #b4 ,ligam5ts4 #c4 ,c>tilage4 #d4 ,space conta9+ synovial fluid4 ,?is space is l9$1 except ^u ! articul> surfaces1 by ! synovial membrane4 ,! int]ior ( ! jo9t1 except :]e ! bone surfaces rub ^u ea* o!r1 is cov]$ ) a s]\s l9+1 call$ ! synovial membrane 7,b1 ,fig4 #ajc74 ,?is secretes a ?ick1 viscid liquid1 ! synovial fluid1 :i* prev5ts friction4 ,! synovial membrane does n cov] ! ends ( ! bones1 b passes ar\nd ! jo9t & connects ) ! bones at _! edges s z to =m a clos$ sac 9 :i* ! fluid is reta9$4 99,k9ds ( ,movable ,jo9ts4--99,! diff]5t k9ds ( movable jo9ts are ! ball & socket jo9t1 ! h+e jo9t1 ! pivot jo9t1 ! condyloid jo9t1 & ! glid+ jo9t4 ,^! are con/ruct$ & admit ( motion1 z foll[s3 #a4 ,9 ! ball & socket jo9t ! ball-%ap$ end ( "o bone fits into a cup-%ap$ cavity 9 ano!r bone1 call$ ! socket4 ,! be/ examples ( su* jo9ts are f\nd at ! hips & %\ld]s4 ,! ball & socket jo9t admits ( motion 9 all directions4 #b4 ,9 ! h+e jo9t ! bones are groov$ & fit toge!r aft] ! mann] ( a h+e4 ,h+e jo9ts are f\nd at ! elb[s & knees & also 9 ! f+]s4 ,! h+e jo9t gives motion 9 b two directions--=w>d & backw>d4 #c4 ,a pivot jo9t is =m$ by ! fitt+ ( a pivot-l projection ( "o bone into a r+-l receptacle ( a second bone1 s t "o1 or ! o!r1 is free to turn4 ,a good example ( ! pivot jo9t is f\nd at ! elb[1 :]e ! radius turns ^u ! hum]us4 ,ano!r example is ! articulation ( ! atlas ) ! axis v]tebra z already not$4 ,! pivot jo9t admits ( motion ar\nd an axis4 #d4 ,! condyloid jo9t is =m$ by ! fitt+ ( ! ovoid 7egg-%ap$7 end ( "o bone into an elliptical cavity ( a second bone4 ,examples ( condyloid jo9ts are f\nd at ! knuckles & :]e ! wri/ bones articulate ) ! radius & ulna4 ,!y move easily 9 two directions1 l h+e jo9ts1 & slightly 9 o!r directions4 #e4 ,glid+ jo9ts are =m$ by ! articulation ( pla9 7almo/ flat7 surfaces4 ,examples ( glid+ jo9ts are f\nd 9 ! articulations betwe5 ! bones ( ! wri/ & ^? ( ! ankle4 ,!y are ! simple/ ( ! movable jo9ts & are =m$ by "o bone glid+1 or slipp+1 ^u ! surface ( ano!r4 99,! ,ma*9]y ( ! ,body499--,a ma*9e is a contrivance = direct+ en]gy 9 do+ "w4 ,a sew+ ma*9e1 = example1 s directs ! en]gy ( ! foot t x is made to sew4 ,?r\gh its con/ruction ! ma*9e is able to produce j t =m ( motion ne$$ = its "w1 & no o!r =ms1 s t en]gy is n wa/$ 9 ! production ( useless motion4 ,! places 9 ma*9es :]e p>ts rub or turn ^u ea* o!r are call$ be>+s1 & extra precautions are tak5 9 ! con/ruction & c>e ( ! be>+s to prev5t friction4 ,! body _c prop]ly be comp>$ to any s+le ma*9e1 b mu/ be look$ ^u z a complex organization :i* employs a numb] ( diff]5t k9ds ( ma*9es 9 c>ry+ on its "w4 ,! majority ( ^! ma*9es are f\nd 9 ! skeleton4 ,! bones are ! p>ts t are mov$1 & ! jo9ts s]ve z be>+s4 ,connect$ ) ! bones are ! muscles t supply en]gy1 & atta*$ to ! muscles are ! n]ves t control ! motion4 ,o!r p>ts also are requir$ = r5d]+ ! ma*9es ( ! body effective 9 do+ "w4 ,^! are suppli$ by ! tissues connect$ ) ! bones & ! muscles4 ,,hygi5e ,,( ,,! ,,skeleton ,( *ief conc]n 9 ! hygi5e ( ! skeleton is ! prop] adju/m5t ( its p>ts4 ,! effici5cy ( any ( ! body ma*9es is impair$ by lack ( prop] adju/m5t4 ,n only ?is1 b because ( ! fact t ! skeleton =ms ! gr\ndwork ( ! :ole body--muscles1 blood vessels1 n]ves1 ev]y?+ 9 fact1 be+ arrang$ ) ref]5ce to x--any lack ( prop] adju/m5t ( ! bones int]f]es g5]ally ) ! arrangem5t & "w ( tissues & organs4 ,! displac$ bones may ev5 compress blood vessels & n]ves & int]f]e1 9 ?is way1 ) ! n\ri%m5t & control ( organs remote f ! places :]e ! displacem5ts occur4 ,= ^! reasons ! prop] adju/m5t ( ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! skeleton supplies "o ( ! ess5tial conditions = pres]v+ ! heal?4 99,hygi5ic ,importance ( ! ,sp9al ,column499--,:at has be5 said ab\t ! adju/m5t ( ! skeleton 9 g5]al applies ) p>ticul> =ce to ! sp9al column4 ,! sp9al column s]ves bo? z ! c5tral axis ( ! body & z ! conta9] ( ! sp9al cord4 ,?irty-"o pairs ( n]ves pass betwe5 ! v]tebr to connect ! sp9al cord ) diff]5t p>ts ( ! body1 & two important art]ies 7! v]tebral7 pass ?r\gh a s]ies ( small op5+s 9 ! bones ( ! neck to rea* ! bra94 ,unnatural curves ( ! sp9e ?r[ diff]5t p>ts ( ! body out ( _! natural positions1 dim9i% ! ?oracic & abdom9al cavities1 &1 accord+ to ! belief ( c]ta9 physicians1 compress ! n]ves t pass f ! cord to o!r p>ts ( ! body4 ,slightly misplac$ v]tebr 9 ! neck1 by compress+ ! v]tebral art]ies1 may also int]f]e ) ! supply ( blood ,fig4 #ajd ,fig4 #ajd--;,a t5d5cy t[>d sp9al curvature 7aft] ,mo%]7 ,fig4 #aje ,fig4 #aje--;,effect on sp9al column ( improp] position 9 writ+4 7,f ,pyle's ,p]sonal ,hygi5e47 99,h[ ! ,skeleton becomes ,de=m$99--,we are accu/om$ to look ^u ! skeleton z a rigid framework :i* c get out ( its natural =m only ?r\gh sev]e /ra9 or by viol5ce4 ,?is view is f> f be+ correct4 ,on acc\nt ( _! necess>y fre$om ( motion1 ! bones1 especially ^? ( ! sp9al column1 are easily slipp$ f _! normal positions2 & :]e improp] attitudes are frequ5tly assum$1 or cont9u$ ?r\gh long p]iods ( "t1 ! skeleton gradually becomes de=m$ 7,fig4 #ajd74 ,= example1 ! habit ( always sleep+ on ! same side ) a high pill[ may develop a bad crook 9 ! neck2 & ! ugly curves1 assum$ s frequ5tly 9 writ+ 7#hj7 7,fig4 #aje71 & also 9 /&+1 :5 ! weight is %ift$ too mu* on "o foot1 may become p]man5t4 ,!n ! habit ( recl9+ 9 a *air ) ! hips re/+ on ! front ( ! seat (t5 de=ms ! back & causes a droop+ ( ! %\ld]s4 ,9 fact1 slight displacem5ts ( ! v]tebr come ab\t s easily ?r\gh incorrect positions1 t !y may almo/ be said to occur ( !mselves :]e active measures are n tak5 to pres]ve ! natural =m ( ! body4 ,! v few p :o h p]fectly =m$ bodies %[ to :at an ext5t has be5 ov]look$ an ess5tial law ( hygi5e4 99,prev5tion ( ,skeletal ,de=mities499--,^? de=mities ( ! skeleton t are acquir$ ?r\gh improp] positions are prev5t$ by giv+ suffici5t att5tion to ! positions assum$ 9 sitt+1 /&+1 & sleep+1 & also to ! po/ure 9 v>i\s k9ds ( "w4 ,9 sitt+ ! trunk %\ld be erect & ! hips %\ld t\* ! back ( ! *air4 ,"o %\ld n l\nge 9 ! ord9>y *air4 ,9 /&+ ! body %\ld be erect1 ! %\ld]s back & d[n1 ! *e/ pu%$ slightly up & =w>d1 & ! *9 slightly depress$1 :ile ! weight %\ld1 z a rule1 re/ ab\t equally on ! two feet4 ,! habit ( lean+ aga9/ "s object :5 /&+ 7! pupil 9 recit+ (t5 leans on 8 desk7 %\ld be avoid$4 ,9 sleep+ ! pill[ %\ld be ( ! "r ?ickness to support ! head on a level ) ! sp9al column & %\ld n be too s(t4 ,if "o sleeps on 8 back1 no pill[ is requir$4 ,x is be/ n to acquire ! habit ( sleep+ always on ! same side4 ,:]e "o is compell$ by 8 "w to assume h>mful positions1 ^! %\ld be correct$ by prop] ex]cises1 & by cultivat+ oppos+ positions dur+ ! leisure h\rs4 ,mu* is to be accompli%$ ?r\gh ^? =ms ( physical ex]cise :i* develop ! muscles ^: "w x is to keep ! body 9 an upright position4 99,s*ool ,furniture499--,x has long be5 obs]v$ t s*ool *ildr5 are m subject to curvature ( ! sp9e & o!r de=mities ( ! skeleton ?an ! *ildr5 :o d n att5d s*ool4 ,:ile ?is is due l>gely to faulty positions assum$ by ! pupils at _! "w1 x has be5 sugge/$ t ! s*ool furniture may be 9 "p to blame = ^! positions4 ,inve/igations ( ?is problem h %[n t mo/ ( ! s*ool desks & seats 9 use 9 our public s*ools are unhygi5ically con/ruct$1 9 t !y =ce pupils into unnatural positions4 ,s*ool seats %\ld support ! pupil 9 a natural position1 bo? 9 ! use ( 8 books & 9 writ+1 & !re are _m argum5ts 9 favor ( ! s-call$ adju/able s*ool furniture4 ,fig4 #ajf %[s ! seat & desk design$ by ! ,bo/on1 ,mass41 ,s*oolh\se ,commission aft] mu* /udy & exp]im5t+ & us$ 9 ! ,bo/on s*ools4 ,?is furniture1 :i* provides a seat adju/able = height1 hav+ a back re/ also adju/able = height1 & a desk :i* is likewise provid$ ) a v]tical adju/m5t1 supplies all ess5tial hygi5ic requirem5ts4 ,x is to be hop$ t s*ool furniture ( ?is "* may 9 ! ne> future come into g5]al use4 ,fig4 #ajf ,fig4 #ajf--;,adju/able seat & desk us$ 9 s*ools ( ,bo/on1 ,mass4 99,correction ( ,skeletal ,de=mities499--,x is1 ( c\rse1 easi] to prev5t de=mities ( ! skeleton by giv+ att5tion to prop] positions1 ?an to correct !m aft] !y h occurr$4 ,x %\ld also be not$ t sev]e de=mities _c be correct$ by ! individual = himself1 b ^! mu/ come "u ! treatm5t ( speciali/s 9 ?is l9e ( m$ical "w4 ,9 mild cases ( sp9al curvature1 droop+ ( ! head1 & r\nd %\ld]s1 ! individual c b5efit 8 condition4 ,by work+ to sub/itute a correct attitude = ! faulty "o17#ha7 he c by p]si/5ce br+ ab\t m>k$ improvem5ts4 ,x is bett]1 h[ev]1 to h ! advice & aid ( a physical director1 :]e ?is is possible4 ,x %\ld also be borne 9 m9d t ! correction ( skeletal de=mities requires ef=t ?r\gh a long p]iod ( "t1 especially :]e ! de=mities are pron\nc$2 & "o lack+ ! w p[] to p]si/ w n secure all ! results :i* he seeks4 99,sett+ ,up ,ex]cises499--,! spl5did c>riage ( /ud5ts f milit>y s*ools %[s :at may be accompli%$ 9 secur+ erectness ( =m :]e prop] att5tion is giv5 to ?is matt]4 ,! milit>y /ud5t gets 8 f9e =m p>tly ?r\gh 8 ex]cises 9 h&l+ arms1 b ma9ly ?r\gh 8 s-call$ sett+ up drill4 ,z a sugge/ion to "o desir+ to improve ! =m ( 8 body1 a modification ( ! usual sett+ up drill is "h giv53 #a4 ,/&+ erect1 ) ! heels toge!r1 ! feet at an angle ( #de1 & h&s at ! sides1 br+ ! arms to a horizontal position 9 front1 little f+]s t\*+ & nails d[n4 ,f ?is position raise ! h&s /raight ov] ! head1 br++ ! palms gradually toge!r4 ,!n ) a backw>d sweep+ movem5t1 return ! h&s aga9 to ! sides4 ,repeat sev]al times4 #b4 ,) ! feet z 9 ! above ex]cise1 br+ ! h&s & ! arms to a level ) ! %\ld]s1 palms d[n1 elb[s b5t1 middle f+]s ( ! two h&s t\*+1 & ! ext5d$ ?umbs t\*+ ! *e/4 ,keep+ ! palms d[n & ! arms on a level ) ! %\ld]s1 ext5d ! h&s z f> sidew>d & backw>d z possible1 return+ ea* "t to ! fir/ position4 ,z ! h&s move out1 inhale deeply 7?r\gh ! nose71 & z !y are br\ght back1 exhale quickly 7?r\gh ! m\?74 ,repeat sev]al times4 #c4 ,) ! arms at ! sides & ! feet side by side & t\*+1 br+ ! h&s 9 a circul> movem5t to a v]tical position ov] ! head1 & lock ! ?umbs4 ,keep+ ! knees /raight & ! ?umbs lock$1 b5d =w>d1 lett+ ! h&s t\* ! gr\nd if possible1 & !n br+ ! body & h&s aga9 to ! v]tical position4 ,!n by a backw>d sweep+ movem5t1 return ! h&s aga9 to ! sides4 ,repeat4 ,:ile ^! ex]cises may be practic$ :5ev] conv5i5t1 x is be/ to set ap>t "s special "t ea* day = !m1 z on retir+ at night or on ris+ 9 ! morn+4 99,hygi5ic ,footwe>499--,a necess>y aid to erectness ( position 9 /&+ & walk+ is a prop]ly fitt+ %oe4 ,heels t are too high tilt ! body unnaturally =w>d1 & %oes t cause any k9d ( discom=t 9 walk+ lead to unnatural positions 9 ord] to protect ! feet4 ,%oes %\ld fit snugly1 be+ nei!r too l>ge nor too small4 ,_m %oes1 h[ev]1 are unhygi5ically con/ruct$1 & no attempt %\ld be made to we> !m4 ,c]ta9ly is ?is true ( /yles t approa* ! ,fr5* heel or ! too?pick toe 7,fig4 #ajg74 ,h[ev]1 _m /yles ( %oes are manufactur$ t are bo? hygi5ic & neat fitt+4 ,rubb] heels1 on acc\nt ( _! ela/icity1 are to be pref]r$ to ^? made ( lea!r4 ,fig4 #ajg ,fig4 #ajg--;,heels & toes ( unhygi5ic & ( hygi5ic footwe>4 99,! ,skeleton 9 ,*ildhood & ,old ,age499--,c]ta9 peculi>ities are f\nd to exi/ 9 ! bones ( *ildr5 & ( old p :i* call = special c>e ( ! skeleton dur+ ! fir/ & la/ p]iods ( life4 ,! bones ( *ildr5 are s(t1 lack+ m9]al matt]1 & are liable to become b5t ,= ?is reason1 *ildr5 :o are enc\rag$ to walk at too e>ly an age may b5d ! ?igh bones1 caus+ ! too famili> b[-legs4 ,^! bones may also be b5t by hav+ *ildr5 sit on b5*es & *airs :i* are too high = ! feet to rea* ! floor1 & :i* d n provide supports = ! feet4 ,:olesome food1 fre% air1 sunlight1 & ex]cise are also necess>y to ! prop] developm5t ( ! bones ( *ildr54 ,:]e ^! natural conditions are lack+1 z 9 ! cr[d$ di/ricts ( cities1 *ildr5 (t5 suff] f a disease kn[n z rickets1 on acc\nt ( :i* _! bones are unnaturally s(t & easily b5t4 ,on acc\nt ( ! accumulation ( m9]al matt]1 ! bones ( eld]ly p become brittle & are easily brok51 & f lack ( vigor ( ! bone cells !y heal sl[ly aft] su* injuries occur4 ,?is makes ! break+ ( a bone by an ag$ p]son a s]i\s matt]4 ,old p %\ld1 z f> z possible1 avoid liabilities to falls1 su* z go+ rapidly up & d[n /airs1 or walk+ on icy sidewalks1 & %\ld use ! utmo/ c>e 9 gett+ ab\t4 ,9 old p also ! c>tilage betwe5 ! bones s(t5s1 increas+ ! liability ( gett+ mis%ap$4 ,special att5tion1 !re=e1 %\ld be giv5 to erectness ( =m1 & to su* ex]cises z t5d to pres]ve ! natural %ape ( ! body4 99,treatm5t ( ,fractures499--,a fractur$ bone always requires ! aid ( a surgeon1 & no "t %\ld be lo/ 9 secur+ 8 s]vices4 ,9 ! meantime ! pati5t %\ld be put 9 a com=table position1 & ! brok5 limb support$ above ! re/ ( ! body4 ,?\gh ! break+ ( a bone is n1 z a rule1 a s]i\s mi%ap1 x is necess>y t ! v be/ skill be employ$ 9 sett+ x4 ,any failure to br+ ! ends ( ! brok5 bone into _! normal relations p]man5tly de=ms ! limb & int]f]es ) its use4 99,dislocations & ,spra9s499--,dislocations1 if !y be ( ! l>g] jo9ts1 also require ! aid ( ! surgeon 9 _! r$uction & sometimes 9 _! subsequ5t treatm5t4 ,simple dislocations ( ! f+] jo9ts1 h[ev]1 may be r$uc$ by pull+ ! p>ts until ! bones c be slipp$ into position4 ,a spra91 :i* is an ov]/ra9$ condition ( ! ligam5ts surr\nd+ a jo9t1 frequ5tly requires v c>eful treatm5t4 ,:5 ! spra9 is at all s]i\s1 a physician %\ld be call$4 ,because ( ! limit$ supply ( blood to ! ligam5ts1 !y are sl[ to heal1 & ! temptation to use ! jo9t be=e x is fully recov]$ is always great4 ,massage7#hb7 judici\sly appli$ to a spra9$ jo9t1 by br++ ab\t a m rapid *ange 9 ! blood & ! lymph1 is b5eficial bo? 9 reliev+ ! pa91 & 9 ha/5+ recov]y4 99,summ>y499--,! skeleton1 or framework ( ! body1 is a /ructure :i* is movable z a :ole & 9 mo/ ( its p>ts4 ,x pres]ves ! =m ( ! body1 protects important organs1 & supplies ! me*anical devices1 or ma*9es1 ^u :i* ! muscles act 9 ! production ( motion4 ,! skeleton is adapt$ to its purposes ?r\gh ! numb] & prop]ties ( ! bones1 & ?r\gh ! c>tilage & connective tissue associat$ ) ! bones4 ,! places :]e ! diff]5t bones connect "o ) ano!r are kn[n z jo9ts1 & mo/ ( ^! admit ( motion4 ,! pres]vation ( ! natural =m ( ! skeleton is necess>y1 bo? = its prop] action & = ! heal? ( ! body4 99,ex]cises499--#a4 ,/ate ! ma9 purpose ( ! skeleton4 ,:at is ! necessity = s _m bones 9 its con/ruction8 #b4 ,h[ may ! p] c5t ( animal & ( m9]al matt] 9 a bone be det]m9$8 #c4 ,:at prop]ties are giv5 ! bones by ! animal matt]8 ,:at by ! m9]al matt]8 #d4 ,locate ! bone cells4 ,:at is _! special function8 #e4 ,/ate ! plan by :i* n\ri%m5t is suppli$ to ! bone cells 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! bone4 #f4 ,give ! uses ( ! p]io/eum4 #g4 ,/ate ! purpose ( ! ,hav]sian canals4 ,( ! canaliculi4 #h4 ,give functions ( ! sp9al column4 #i4 ,"n ! diff]5t mat]ials us$ 9 ! con/ruction ( a jo9t & ! purpose s]v$ by ea*4 #aj4 ,"n f\r me*anical devices1 or ma*9es1 f\nd 9 ! skeleton & /ate ! purpose s]v$ by ea*4 #aa4 ,"n "o or m ( ! body ma*9es n locat$ 9 ! skeleton4 #ab4 ,( :at advantage is ! peculi> %ape ( ! l[] jaw8 ,( ! ribs8 ,( ! bones ( ! pelvic girdle8 #ac4 ,/ate ! importance ( pres]v+ ! natural =m ( ! skeleton4 ,h[ are unnatural curves produc$ 9 ! sp9al column8 #ad4 ,h[ may slight de=mities ( ! skeleton be correct$8 #ae4 ,:at diff]5t sy/ems are employ$ 9 ! body 9 ! production ( motion8 ,:at is ! special function ( ea*8 ,,practical ,,"w ,to obta9 cle> ideas ( ! =m & functions ( ! bones1 a c>eful exam9ation ( a prep>$ & m\nt$ skeleton is necess>y4 ,_m ( ! bones1 h[ev]1 may be locat$ & _! g5]al =m made out f ! liv+ body4 ,bones ( ! l[] animals may also be /udi$ to advantage4 99,exp]im5ts to %[ ! ,composition ( ,bone499--#a4 ,exam9e a sl5d] bone1 l t 9 a *ick5's leg4 ,note t x resi/s b5d+ & is difficult to break4 ,note also t x is ela/ic--t1 :5 slightly b5t1 x w spr+ back4 #b4 ,soak su* a bone ov] night 9 a mixture ( "o "p hydro*loric acid & f\r p>ts wat]4 ,!n asc]ta9 by b5d+1 /ret*+1 & twi/+ :at prop]ties ! bone has lo/4 ,! acid has dissolv$ out ! m9]al matt]4 #c4 ,burn a small piece ( bone 9 a cle> gas flame1 or on a b$ ( coals1 until x ceases to blaze & turns a :ite color4 ,c ! bone n[ be b5t or twi/$8 ,:at prop]ties has x lo/ & :at reta9$8 ,:at sub/ance has be5 remov$ f ! bone by burn+8 99,obs]vation on ! ,gross ,/ructure ( ,bone499--#a4 ,procure a long1 dry bone4 7,"o t has la9 out 9 ! field until x has blea*$ w answ] ! purpose excell5tly47 ,te/ its h>dness1 /r5g?1 & /iffness4 ,saw x 9 two a ?ird ( ! di/ance f "o end1 & saw ! %ort] piece 9 two l5g?wise4 ,comp>e ! /ructure at diff]5t places4 ,f9d r\gh elevations on ! outside = ! atta*m5t ( muscles1 & small op5+s into ! bone = ! entrance ( blood vessels & n]ves4 ,make draw+s to repres5t ! sections4 #b4 ,procure a fre% bone f ! but*] %op4 ,note ! diff]5ce betwe5 x & ! dry bone4 ,exam9e ! mat]ials surr\nd+ ! sides & cov]+ ! ends ( ! bone4 ,saw ?r\gh ! enl>g$ portion at ! end & exam9e ! r$ m>r[4 ,saw ?r\gh ! middle ( ! bone & obs]ve ! yell[ m>r[4 99,to %[ ! ,m9ute ,/ructure ( ! ,bone499--,prep>e a section ( bone = microscopic /udy z foll[s3 ,) a jewel]'s saw cut z ?9 a slice z possible4 ,place ?is ^u a good-siz$ :et/one1 n hav+ too mu* grit1 & keep+ x wet rub x "u ! f+]1 or a piece ( lea!r1 until x is ?9 en\gh to let ! light %9e ?r\gh4 ,! section may !n be wa%$ & exam9$ ) ! microscope4 ,if ! specim5 is to be pres]v$ = future /udy1 x may be m\nt$ 9 ! usual way1 b ) h>d balsam4 ,prep>e & /udy bo? transv]se & longitud9al sections1 mak+ draw+s4 ,! sections %\ld be prep>$ f bones t are ?or\ghly dry b :i* h n begun to decay4 99,to %[ ! ,/ructure ( a ,jo9t499--,procure f a but*] ! jo9t ( "s small animal 7hog or %eep74 ,cut x op5 & locate ! c>tilage1 synovial membrane1 & ligam5ts4 ,obs]ve ! %ape & surface ( ! rubb+ p>ts & ! /r5g? ( ! ligam5ts4 ,,*apt] ,,xv - ,,! ,,muscul> ,,sy/em ,z already /at$1 ! skeleton1 ! n]v\s sy/em1 & ! muscul> sy/em are conc]n$ 9 ! production ( motion4 ,! skeleton & ! n]v\s sy/em1 h[ev]1 s]ve o!r purposes 9 ! body1 :ile ! muscul> sy/em is devot$ exclusively to ! production ( motion4 ,= ?is reason x is look$ ^u z ! special motor sy/em4 ,! muscul> tissue is ! mo/ abundant ( all ! tissues1 =m+ ab\t #da p] c5t ( ! weight ( ! body4 99,prop]ties ( ,muscles499--,! ability ( muscul> tissue to produce motion dep5ds prim>ily ^u two prop]ties--! prop]ty ( irritability & ! prop]ty ( contractility4 ,irritability is t prop]ty ( a sub/ance :i* enables x to respond to a /imulus1 or to act :5 act$ ^u4 ,contractility is ! prop]ty :i* enables ! muscle :5 /imulat$ to draw up1 !reby becom+ %ort] & ?ick] 7a condition call$ contraction71 & :5 ! /imulation ceases1 to return to its =m] condition 7( relaxation74 ,! prop]ty ( contractility enables ! muscles to produce motion4 ,irritability is a condition necess>y to _! control 9 ! body4 99,k9ds ( ,muscul> ,tissue499--,?ree k9ds ( muscul> tissue are f\nd 9 ! body4 ,^! are kn[n z ! /riat$1 or /rip$1 muscul> tissue2 ! non-/riat$1 or pla91 muscul> tissue2 & ! muscul> tissue ( ! he>t4 ,^! are made up ( diff]5t k9ds ( muscle cells & act 9 diff]5t ways to cause motion4 ,! /riat$ muscul> tissue f> exce$s ! o!rs 9 am\nt & =ms all ^? muscles t c be felt f ! surface ( ! body4 ,! non-/riat$ muscle is f\nd 9 ! walls ( ! food canal1 blood vessels1 air passages1 & o!r tubes ( ! body2 :ile ! muscul> tissue ( ! he>t is conf9$ entirely to t organ4 99,/riat$ ,muscle ,cells499--,! cells ( ! /riat$ muscles are sl5d]1 ?read-l /ructures1 hav+ an av]age l5g? ( #a-a_/b in*es 7#ce millimet]s7 & a diamet] ( ab\t #a_/djj ( an in* 7#fj 74 ,because ( _! great l5g? !y are call$ fib]s1 or fib] cells4 ,!y are m>k$ by a numb] ( d>k1 transv]se b&s1 or /ripes1 call$ /riations17#hc7 :i* seem to divide !m into a numb] ( sections1 or disks 7,fig4 #ajh74 ,a ?9 sac-l cov]+1 call$ ! s>colemma1 surr\nds ! entire cell & j b5ea? ?is are a numb] ( nuclei47#hd7 ,fig4 #ajh ,fig4 #ajh--99;,a /riat$ muscle cell99 highly magnifi$1 %[+ /riations & nuclei4 ,atta*$ to ! cell is ! t]m9ation ( a n]ve fib]4 ,)9 ! s>colemma are m9ute fibrils & a semiliquid sub/ance1 call$ ! s>coplasm4 ,at ea* end ! cell tap]s to a po9t f :i* ! s>colemma appe>s to cont9ue z a f9e ?read1 & ?is1 by atta*+ itself to ! inclos+ %ea?1 holds ! cell 9 place4 ,mo/ ( ! muscle cells receive1 at "s portion ( _! l5g?1 ! t]m9ation ( a n]ve fib]4 ,?is p5etrates ! s>colemma & spreads out ^u a k9d ( disk1 hav+ sev]al nuclei1 kn[n z ! end plate4 99,! ,muscle-organ499--,we mu/ di/+ui% betwe5 ! t]m muscle z appli$ to ! muscul> tissue & ! t]m z appli$ to a work+ gr\p ( muscul> tissue1 :i* is an organ4 ,9 ! muscle1 or muscle-organ1 is f\nd a def9ite gr\p+ ( muscle fib]s su* z w enable a l>ge numb] ( !m to act toge!r 9 ! production ( ! same movem5t4 ,an exam9ation ( "o ( ! /riat$ muscles %[s ! individual fib]s to lie p>allel 9 small bundles1 ea* bundle be+ surr\nd$ by a ?9 lay] ( connective tissue4 7,see ,practical ,"w47 ,^! small bundles are b\nd into l>g] ones by ?ick] %ea?s & ^! 9 turn may be b\nd into bundles ( /ill l>g] size 7,fig4 #aji74 ,! %ea?s surr\nd+ ! fib] bundles are connect$ ) "o ano!r & also ) ! out] cov]+ ( ! muscle1 kn[n z ,fig4 #aji ,fig4 #aji--99;,diagram99 ( a section ( a muscle1 %[+ ! p]imysium & ! bundles ( fib] cells4 ,fig4 #aaj ,fig4 #aaj--99;,a muscle-organ 9 position499 ,! t5dons connect at "o end ) ! bones & at ! o!r end ) ! fib] cells & p]imysium4 7,see text47 99,! ,p]imysium499--,! plan ( ! muscle-organ is reveal$ ?r\gh a /udy ( ! p]imysium4 ,?is is n limit$ to ! surface ( ! muscle1 z ! "n sugge/s1 b prop]ly includes ! %ea?s t surr\nd ! bundles ( fib]s4 ,fur!rmore1 ! surface p]imysium & t )9 ! muscle are bo? cont9u\s ) ! /rong1 :ite cords1 call$ t5dons1 t connect ! muscles ) ! bones4 ,by unit+ ) ! bone at "o end & bl5d+ ) ! p]imysium & fib] bundles at ! o!r1 ! t5don =ms a v secure atta*m5t = ! muscle4 ,! p]imysium & ! t5don are ?us ! means ?r\gh :i* ! fib] cells 9 any muscle-organ are made to pull toge!r ^u ! same "p ( ! body 7,fig4 #aaj74 99,purpose ( ,/riat$ ,muscles499--,! /riat$ muscles1 by _! atta*m5ts to ! bones1 supply motion to all ! me*anical devices1 or ma*9es1 locat$ 9 ! skeleton4 ,?r\gh !m ! body is mov$ f place to place & all ! ext]nal organs are suppli$ ) su* motion z !y require4 ,because ( ! atta*m5t ( ! /riat$ muscles to ! skeleton1 & _! action ^u x1 !y are call$ skeletal muscles4 ,z mo/ ( !m are "u ! control ( ! w1 !y are also call$ volunt>y muscles4 ,!y are ( special value 9 adapt+ ! body to its surr\nd+s4 99,/ructure ( ! ,non-/riat$ ,muscles499--,! cells ( ! non-/riat$ muscles diff] f ^? ( ! /riat$ muscles 9 be+ decid$ly sp9dle-%ap$ & 9 hav+ b a s+le well-def9$ nucleus 7,fig4 #aaa74 ,fur!rmore1 !y h no /riations1 & _! connection ) ! n]ve fib]s is less m>k$4 ,!y are also mu* small] ?an ! /riat$ cells1 be+ less ?an "o "o-hundr$? ( an in* 9 l5g? & "o ?ree-?\s&? ( an in* 9 diamet]4 ,9 ! =mation ( ! non-/riat$ muscles1 ! cells are atta*$ to "o ano!r by a k9d ( muscle cem5t to =m ?9 %eets or sl5d] bundles4 ,^! diff] f ! /riat$ muscles 9 sev]al p>ticul>s4 ,!y are ( a pale1 :iti% color1 & !y h no t5dons4 ,in/ead ( be+ atta*$ to ! bones1 !y usually =m a di/9ct lay] 9 ! walls ( small cavities or ( tubes 7,fig4 #aaa74 ,s9ce !y are controll$ by ! "p ( ! n]v\s sy/em :i* acts indep5d5tly ( ! w1 !y are said to be involunt>y4 ,!y contract & relax sl[ly4 ,fig4 #aaa ,fig4 #aaa--99,non-/riat$ muscle cells499 ,a4 ,cross section ( small art]y magnifi$1 %[+ 7#a7 ! lay] ( non-/riat$ cells4 ,b4 ,?ree non-/riat$ cells highly magnifi$4 99,"w ( ! ,non-/riat$ ,muscles499--,! "w ( ! non-/riat$ muscles1 bo? 9 purpose & 9 me?od1 is radically diff]5t f t ( ! /riat$4 ,!y d n *ange ! position ( p>ts ( ! body1 z d ! /riat$ muscles1 b !y alt] ! size & %ape ( ! p>ts :i* !y surr\nd4 ,_! purpose1 z a rule1 is to move1 or control ! movem5t (1 mat]ials )9 cavities & tubes1 & !y d ?is by means ( ! pressure :i* !y ex]t4 ,examples ( _! action h already be5 /udi$ 9 ! propulsion ( ! food ?r\gh ! alim5t>y canal & 9 ! regulation ( ! fl[ ( blood ?r\gh ! art]ies 7pages #aei & #di74 ,:ile !y d n contract s quickly1 nor ) su* great =ce z ! /riat$ muscles1 _! "w is m closely relat$ to ! vital processes4 99,/ructure ( ! ,he>t ,muscle499--,! cells ( ! he>t comb9e ! /ructure & prop]ties ( ! /riat$ & ! non-/riat$ muscle cells1 & =m an int]m$iate type betwe5 ! two4 ,!y are cross-/rip$ l ! /riat$ cells1 & are ne>ly z wide1 b are r %ort 7,fig4 #aab74 ,ea* cell has a well-def9$ nucleus1 b ! s>colemma is abs5t4 ,!y are plac$ end to end to =m fib]s1 & _m ( ! cells h bran*es by :i* !y are unit$ to ! cells 9 neighbor+ fib]s4 ,9 ?is way !y int]lace m or less ) ea* o!r1 b are also cem5t$ toge!r4 ,!y contract quickly & ) great =ce1 b are n "u control ( ! w4 ,muscul> tissue ( ?is v>iety seems excell5tly adapt$ to ! "w ( ! he>t4 ,fig4 #aab ,fig4 #aab--99,muscle cells f ! he>t991 highly magnifi$ 7aft] ,s*f]74 99,! ,muscul> ,/imulus499--,! inactive1 or re/+1 condition ( a muscle is t ( relaxation4 ,x does "w ?r\gh contract+4 ,x becomes active1 or contracts1 only :5 x is be+ act$ ^u by "s =ce outside ( itself1 & x relaxes aga9 :5 ?is =ce is )drawn4 ,any k9d ( =ce :i*1 by act+ on muscles1 causes !m to contract1 is call$ a muscul> /imulus4 ,electricity1 *emicals ( diff]5t k9ds1 & me*anical =ce may be s appli$ to ! muscles z to cause !m to contract4 ,^! are artificial /imuli4 ,s f> z kn[n1 muscles are /imulat$ naturally 9 b "o way4 ,?is is ?r\gh ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,! n]v\s sy/em supplies a /imulus call$ ! n]v\s impulse1 :i* rea*es ! muscles by ! n]ves1 caus+ !m to contract4 ,by means ( n]v\s impulses1 all ( ! muscles 7bo? volunt>y & involunt>y7 are made to contract z ! ne$s ( ! body = motion require4 99,en]gy ,trans=mation 9 ! ,muscle499--,! muscle s]ves z a k9d ( eng9e1 do+ "w by ! trans=mation ( pot5tial into k9etic en]gy4 ,evid5ces ( ?is are f\nd 9 ! *anges t accompany contraction4 ,c>eful /udy %[s t dur+ any p]iod ( contraction oxyg5 & food mat]ials are consum$1 wa/e products1 su* z c>bon dioxide1 are produc$1 & heat is lib]at$4 ,fur!rmore1 ! blood supply to ! muscle is su* t ! mat]ials = provid+ en]gy may be c>ri$ rapidly to x & ! products ( oxidation z rapidly remov$4 ,blood vessels p5etrate ! muscles 9 all directions & ! capill>ies lie v ne> ! individual cells 7,fig4 #aac74 ,provision is made also1 ?r\gh ! n]v\s sy/em1 = increas+ ! blood supply :5 ! muscle is at "w4 ,f ^! facts1 z well z f ! great =ce ) :i* ! muscle contracts1 "o mu/ conclude t ! muscle is a trans=m] ( en]gy--t )9 its protoplasm1 *emical *anges take place :]eby ! pot5tial en]gy ( oxyg5 & food is conv]t$ into ! k9etic en]gy ( motion4 ,fig4 #aac ,fig4 #aac--99;,capill>ies99 ( muscles4 99,plan ( ,us+ ,muscul> ,=ce499--,two difficulties h to be ov]come 9 ! us+ ( muscul> =ce 9 ! body4 ,! fir/ ( ^! is due to ! fact t ! muscles ex]t _! =ce only :5 !y contract4 ,!y c pull b n pu%4 ,h5ce1 9 ord] to br+ ab\t ! oppos+ movem5ts7#he7 ( ! body1 ea* muscle mu/ "w aga9/ "s =ce t produces a result directly opposite to t :i* ! muscle produces4 ,"s ( ! muscles 7^? ( brea?+7 "w aga9/ ! ela/icity ( c]ta9 p>ts ( ! body2 o!rs 7^? t hold ! body 9 an upright position71 to "s ext5t aga9/ gravity2 & o!rs 7! non-/riat$ muscle 9 art]ies71 aga9/ pressure4 ,b 9 mo/ cases1 muscles "w aga9/ muscles4 ,fig4 #aad ,fig4 #aad--99,! muscle pair99 t op]ates ! =e>m4 ,= names ( ^! muscles1 see ,fig4 #aai4 ,! /riat$1 or skeletal1 muscles are ne>ly all arrang$ aft] ! la/-nam$ plan4 ,z a rule a pair ( muscles is s plac$1 ) ref]5ce to a jo9t1 t "o moves ! "p 9 "o direction1 & ! o!r moves x 9 ! opposite direction4 ,f ! k9ds ( motion :i* ! v>i\s muscle pairs produce1 !y are classifi$ z foll[s3 #a4 ,flexors & ,ext5sors4--,! flexor muscles b5d & ! ext5sors /raight5 jo9ts 7,fig4 #aad74 #b4 ,adductors & ,abductors4--,! adductors draw ! limbs into positions p>allel ) ! axis ( ! body & ! abductors draw !m away4 #c4 ,rotators 7two k9ds74--,! rotators are atta*$ ab\t pivot jo9ts & br+ ab\t twi/+ movem5ts4 #d4 ,radiat+ & ,sph9ct] ,muscles4 --,! radiat+ muscles op5 & ! sph9ct] muscles close ! natural op5+s ( ! body1 su* z ! m\?4 ,! pupil %\ld locate examples ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( muscle pairs 9 8 own body4 99,ex*ange ( ,muscul> ,=ce = ,motion499--,! second difficulty to be ov]come 9 ! use ( muscul> =ce 9 ! body is due to ! fact t ! muscles contract ?r\gh %ort di/ances1 :ile x is necess>y = mo/ ( !m to move portions ( ! body ?r\gh long di/ances4 ,x may be easily %[n t ! longe/ muscles ( ! body d n %ort5 m ?an ?ree or f\r in*es dur+ contraction4 ,to br+ ab\t ! requir$ movem5ts ( ! body1 :i* 9 "s in/ances am\nt to f\r or five feet1 requires t a l>ge proportion ( ! muscul> =ce be ex*ang$ = motion4 ,! ma*9es ( ! skeleton1 :ile provid+ = motion 9 def9ite directions1 also provide ! means :]eby /rong =ces1 act+ ?r\gh %ort di/ances1 are made to produce movem5ts ( less =ce1 ?r\gh long di/ances4 ,! me*anical device employ$ = ?is purpose is kn[n z 99,! ,lev]499--,! lev] may be describ$ z a /iff b> :i* turns ab\t a fix$ po9t ( support1 call$ ! fulcrum4 ,! =ce appli$ to ! b> to make x turn is call$ ! p[]1 & t :i* is lift$ or mov$ is t]m$ ! weight4 ,! weight1 ! p[]1 & ! fulcrum may occupy diff]5t positions along ! b> & ?is gives rise to ! ?ree k9ds ( lev]s1 kn[n z lev]s ( ! fir/ class1 ! second class1 & ! ?ird class 7,fig4 #aae74 ,9 lev]s ( ! fir/ class ! fulcrum occupies a position some:]e betwe5 ! p[] & ! weight4 ,9 ! second class ! weight is betwe5 ! fulcrum & ! p[]4 ,9 ! ?ird class ! p[] is betwe5 ! fulcrum & ! weight4 ,fig4 #aae ,fig4 #aae--99;,classes ( lev]s4 ,i499 ,two lev]s ( fir/ class %[+ fulcrums 9 diff]5t positions4 ,,ii4 ,lev] ( second class4 ,,iii4 ,lev] ( ?ird class4 ,f4 ,fulcrum4 ,p4 ,p[]4 ,w4 ,weight4 a4 ,p[]-arm4 b4 ,weight-arm4 99,application to ! ,body499--,9 ! body ! bones s]ve z lev]s2 ! turn+ po9ts1 or fulcrums1 are f\nd at ! jo9ts2 ! muscles supply ! p[]2 & p>ts ( ! body1 or ?+s to be lift$1 s]ve z weights4 ,= ^! lev]s to increase ! motion ( ! muscles1 x is necess>y t ! muscles be atta*$ to ! bones ne> ! jo9ts1 & t ! p>ts to be mov$ be locat$ at "s di/ance f ! jo9ts4 ,9 o!r words ! 7muscle7 p[]-arm mu/ be %ort] ?an ! 7body7 weight-arm47#hf7 ,exam9+ ,fig4 #aaf1 x is se5 t ! di/ances mov$ by ! p[] & weight v>y z _! respective di/ances f ! fulcrum4 ,t is to say1 if ! weight is twice z f> f ! fulcrum z ! p[]1 x w move ?r\gh twice ! di/ance1 & if ?ree times z f>1 ?r\gh ?ree times ! di/ance4 ,?us ! muscles1 by act+ ?r\gh %ort di/ances 7on ! %ort arms ( lev]s71 are able to move portions ( ! body 7locat$ on ! long arms7 ?r\gh long di/ances4 ,c all ?ree classes ( lev]s be us$ 9 ?is way 9 ! body8 ,fig4 #aaf ,fig4 #aaf--99,motion produc+ lev]s499 ,diagrams %[ relative di/ances mov$ by ! p[] & weight 9 lev]s hav+ ! p[] ne>] ! fulcrum ?an is ! weight4 ,f4 ,fulcrum4 ,p1 ,p'4 ,p[]4 ,w1 ,w'4 ,weight4 99,classes ( ,lev]s f\nd 9 ! ,body499--,practically all ( ! lev]s ( ! body belong ei!r to ! fir/ class or ! ?ird class4 ,9 bo? ( ^! ! muscle p[] c be appli$ to ! %ort arm ( ! lev]1 !reby mov+ ! body weight ?r\gh a long] di/ance ?an ! muscle contracts 7,fig4 #aaf74 ,9 ! lev]s ( ! second class1 h[ev]1 ! weight occupies ?is position1 be+ situat$ betwe5 ! p[] & fulcrum 7,fig4 #aag74 ,! weight1 !re=e1 _c move f>!r ?an ! p[] 9 ?is lev]4 ,x mu/ always move a %ort] di/ance4 ,:ile su* a lev] is ( great advantage 9 lift+ heavy weights outside ( ! body1 x _c be us$ = increas+ ! motion ( ! muscles4 ,= ?is reason no well-def9$ lev]s ( ! second class are pres5t 9 ! body47#hg7 ,fig4 #aag ,fig4 #aag--99,weight lift+ lev]s499 ,diagrams %[ relative di/ances mov$ by ! p[] & weight 9 lev]s hav+ ! weight ne>] ! fulcrum ?an is ! p[]4 ,f4 ,fulcrum4 ,p1 ,p'4 ,p[]4 ,w1 ,w'4 ,weight4 ,fig4 #aah ,fig4 #aah--99;,diagram ( ! foot lev]499 ,f4 ,fulcrum at ankle jo9t4 ,w4 ,body weight express$ z pressure aga9/ ! e>?4 ,:ile ! muscle p[] acts ?r\gh ! di/ance ab1 ! fulcrum support 7body7 is =c$ ?r\gh ! di/ance ,,fe4 99,loss ( ,muscul> ,=ce499--,us+ a small spr+ balance = measur+ ! p[]1 a light /ick = a lev]1 & a small piece ( metal = a weight1 & arrang+ ^! to repres5t "s lev] ( ! body 7z ! =e>m71 x is easily %[n t ! ga9 9 motion causes a correspond+ loss 9 muscul> p[]4 7,see ,practical ,"w47 ,if1 = example1 ! balance is atta*$ two in*es f ! fulcrum & ! weight twelve in*es1 ! pull on ! balance is f\nd to be six times great] ?an ! weight t is be+ lift$4 ,if o!r positions are tri$1 x is f\nd t ! p[] ex]t$ 9 ea* case is z _m times great] ?an ! weight z ! weight-arm is times long] ?an ! p[]-arm4 ,apply+ ?is pr9ciple to ! lev]s ( ! body1 x is se5 t ! ga9 9 motion is at ! exp5se ( muscul> =ce1 or1 z we say1 muscul> =ce is ex*ang$ = motion4 ,?is ex*ange is greatly to ! advantage ( ! body2 = :ile ! ability to lift heavy weights is important1 ! ability to move portions ( ! body rapidly & ?r\gh long di/ances is mu* m to be desir$4 99,important ,muscles499--,!re are ab\t five hundr$ sep>ate muscles 9 ! body4 ,^! v>y 9 size1 %ape1 & plan ( atta*m5t1 to suit _! special "w4 ,"s ( ^? t are prom95t en\gh to be felt at ! surface are z foll[s3 ,( ! head3 ,! temporal1 9 ! temple1 & ! masset]1 9 ! *eek4 ,^! muscles are atta*$ to ! l[] jaw & are ! *ief muscles ( ma/ication4 ,( ! neck3 ,! /]no-ma/oids1 :i* pass betwe5 ! ma/oid processes1 back ( ! e>s1 & ! upp] end ( ! /]num4 ,!y assi/ 9 turn+ ! head & may be felt at ! sides ( ! neck 7,fig4 #aai74 ,( ! upp] arm3 ,! biceps on ! front side1 ! triceps beh9d1 & ! deltoid at ! upp] "p ( ! arm beyond ! projection ( ! %\ld]4 ,fig4 #aai ,fig4 #aai--;,back & front views ( important muscles4 ,( ! =e>m3 ,! flexors ( ! f+]s1 on ! front side1 & ! ext5sors ( ! f+]s1 on ! back ( ! =e>m 7,fig4 #aai74 ,( ! h&3 ,! adductor pollicis betwe5 ! ?umb & ! palm4 ,( ! trunk3 ,! pectoralis major1 betwe5 ! upp] front "p ( ! ?orax & ! %\ld]2 ! trapezius1 betwe5 ! back ( ! %\ld]s & ! sp9e2 ! rectus abdom9is1 pass+ ov] ! abdom5 f above d[nw>d2 & ! erector sp91 f\nd 9 ! small ( ! back4 ,( ! hips3 ,! glut5s maximus1 fa/5$ betwe5 ! l[] back "p ( ! hips & ! upp] "p ( ! femur4 ,( ! upp] "p ( ! leg3 ,! rectus femoris1 ! l>ge muscle on ! front ( ! leg :i* connects at ! l[] end ) ! kneepan4 ,( ! l[] leg3 ,! tibialis anticus on ! front side1 ext]ior to ! tibia1 & ! ga/rocnemius1 ! l>ge muscle 9 ! calf ( ! leg4 ,?is is ! l>ge/ muscle ( ! body1 & is connect$ ) ! heel bone by ! t5don ( ,a*illes 7,fig4 #aai74 ,! use ( ^! muscles is1 9 mo/ in/ances1 easily det]m9$ by obs]v+ ! results ( _! contraction4 ,,hygi5e ,,( ,,! ,,muscles ,! hygi5e ( ! muscles is almo/ express$ by ! "o ^w ex]cise4 ,x is a matt] ( ev]yday k t ! muscles are develop$ & /r5g!n$ by use1 & t !y become weak1 s(t1 & flabby by disuse4 ,! effects ( ex]cise are1 h[ev]1 n limit$ to ! l>ge muscles atta*$ to ! skeleton1 b are app>5t also ^u ! involunt>y muscles1 ^: "w is s closely relat$ to ! vital processes4 ,:ile x is true t ex]cise _c be appli$ directly to ! involunt>y muscles1 x is also true t ex]cise ( ! volunt>y muscles causes a great] activity on ! "p ( ^? t are involunt>y & is indirectly a means ( ex]cis+ !m4 99,ex]cise & ,heal?499--,9 addition to its effects ^u ! muscles !mselves1 ex]cise is recogniz$ z "o ( ! mo/ fundam5tal factors 9 ! pres]vation ( ! heal?4 ,practically e process ( ! body is /imulat$ & ! body z a :ole invigorat$ by ex]cise prop]ly tak54 ,on ! o!r h&1 a lack ( ex]cise has an effect ^u ! entire body some:at simil> to t obs]v$ ^u a s+le muscle4 ,x becomes weak1 lacks en]gy1 & 9 _m in/ances actually loses weight :5 ex]cise is omitt$4 ,?is %[s ex]cise to supply an actual ne$ & to be 9 h>mony ) ! nature & plan ( ! body4 99,h[ ,ex]cise b5efits ! ,body499--,9 acc\nt+ = ! heal?ful effects ( ex]cise1 x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t ! body is ess5tially a motion-produc+ /ructure4 ,fur!rmore1 its plan is su* t ! movem5ts ( its diff]5t p>ts aid indirectly ! vital processes4 ,! /ud5t w recall in/ances ( su* aid1 z1 = example1 ! assi/ance r5d]$ by muscul> contractions 9 ! circulation ( ! blood & lymph1 due to ! valves 9 ve9s & lymph vessels1 & ! assi/ance r5d]$ by abdom9al movem5ts 9 ! propulsion ( mat]ials ?r\gh ! food canal4 ,a fact n z yet br\ght out1 h[ev]1 is t ex]cise /imulates nutritive *anges 9 ! cells1 !reby imp>t+ to !m new vigor & vitality4 ,:ile ?is effect ( ex]cise _c be fully acc\nt$ =1 two conditions t und\bt$ly influ5ce x are ! foll[+3 #a4 ,ex]cise causes ! blood to circulate m rapidly4 #b4 ,ex]cise increases ! movem5t ( ! lymph ?r\gh ! lymph vessels4 ,! increase 9 ! fl[ ( ! blood & ! lymph causes *anges to take place m rapidly 9 ! liquids ar\nd ! cells1 !reby increas+ ! supply ( food & oxyg51 & ha/5+ ! removal ( wa/e4 99,"o %\ld plan = ,ex]cise499--,s9ce ex]cise is dem&$ by ! nature & plan ( ! body1 to neglect x is a s]i\s matt]4 ,p d n purposely omit ex]cise1 b f lack ( "t or f its int]f]5ce ) ! daily r\t9e ( duties1 ! ne$$ am\nt is frequ5tly n tak54 ,especially is ?is true ( /ud5ts & o!rs :o foll[ s$5t>y occupations4 ,p ( ?is class %\ld plan = ex]cise z !y plan = ! o!r great ne$s ( ! body--food1 sleep1 clo?+1 etc4 ,x is only by mak+ a suffici5t am\nt ( muscul> "w or play a regul> "p ( ! daily program t ! ne$s ( ! body = ex]cise are adequately suppli$4 99,am\nt & ,k9d ( ,ex]cise499--,! am\nt ( ex]cise requir$ v>ies greatly ) diff]5t individuals1 & def9ite recomm5dations _c be made4 ,= ea* individual also ! am\nt %\ld v>y ) ! physical condition & ! o!r dem&s made ^u ! en]gy4 ,"o 9 heal? %\ld ex]cise suffici5tly to keep ! muscles firm to ! t\* & ! body 9 a vigor\s condition4 ,( ! _m =ms ( ex]cise f :i* "o may *oose1 ! "q is aga9 "o ( individual adaptability & conv5i5ce4 ,:ile ! diff]5t =ms ( ex]cise v>y 9 _! effects & may be made to s]ve diff]5t purposes1 ! consid]ation ( ^! is beyond ! scope ( an elem5t>y text4 ,z a rule "o w n g f> wrong by foll[+ 8 incl9ations1 obs]v+ ( c\rse ! conditions "u :i* ex]cise is tak5 to ! be/ advantage4 99,g5]al ,rules = ,heal?ful ,ex]cise499--,t ex]cise may secure ! be/ results f ! /&po9t ( heal?1 a numb] ( conditions %\ld be obs]v$3 #a4 ,x %\ld n be excessive or c>ri$ to ! po9t ( exhau/ion4 ,sev]e physical ex]cise is de/ructive to bo? muscul> & n]v\s tissues4 #b4 ,x %\ld1 if possible1 be ( an int]e/+ nature & tak5 9 ! op5 air4 #c4 ,x %\ld be c\nt]-active1 t is1 call+ into play ^? p>ts ( ! body t h n be5 us$ dur+ ! regul> "w47#hh7 #d4 ,x %\ld be direct$ t[>d ! weak r ?an t[>d ! /rong p>ts ( ! body4 #e4 ,:5 "o is already tir$ f /udy1 or o!r "w1 x %\ld be tak5 ) mod]ation or omitt$ = ! "t be+4 7,= ex]cise ( ! he>t muscle & ! muscul> coat ( ! blood vessels see pages #ee & #eg47 99,massage499--,9 lieu ( ex]cise tak5 9 ! usual way1 simil> effects are sometimes obta9$ by a sy/ematic rubb+1 press+1 /rok+1 or knead+ ( ! sk9 & ! muscles by "o tra9$ 9 ! art4 ,?is process1 kn[n z massage1 may be g5tle or vigor\s & is subject to a v>iety ( modifications4 ,massage is appli$ :5 "o is unable to take ex]cise1 on acc\nt ( disease or accid5t1 & also 9 ! treatm5t ( c]ta9 bodily disord]s4 ,a weak ankle1 wri/1 or o!r "p ( ! body1 or ev5 a bruise1 may be greatly b5efit$ by massage4 ,! fl[ ( blood & lymph is /imulat$1 caus+ new mat]ials to be pass$ to ! affect$ p>ts & wa/e mat]ials to be remov$4 ,massage1 h[ev]1 %\ld nev] be appli$ to a boil1 or o!r infect$ sore4 ,! effect 9 ?is case w\ld be to spread ! infection & increase ! tr\ble4 99,summ>y499--,motion is provid$ = 9 ! body ma9ly ?r\gh ! muscle cells4 ,^! are gr\p$ into work+ p>ts1 call$ muscles1 :i* 9 turn are atta*$ to ! movable p>ts ( ! body4 ,! /riat$ muscles1 z a rule1 are atta*$ to ! me*anical devices f\nd 9 ! skeleton1 & br+ ab\t ! volunt>y1 movem5ts4 ,! non-/riat$ muscles surr\nd ! p>ts on :i* !y act1 & produce involunt>y movem5ts4 ,bo?1 h[ev]1 are "u ! control ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,to br+ ab\t ! oppos+ movem5ts ( ! body1 ! /riat$ muscles are arrang$ 9 pairs2 & to increase _! motion1 ! bones are us$ z lev]s4 ,physical ex]cise is necess>y bo? = ! developm5t ( ! muscles & = ! heal? & vigor ( ! entire body4 99,ex]cises499--#a4 ,comp>e ! /riat$ & non-/riat$ muscles ) ref]5ce to /ructure1 location1 & me?od ( "w4 #b4 ,9 :at respects is ! muscul> tissue ( ! he>t l ! /riat$1 & 9 :at respects l ! non-/riat$1 muscul> tissue8 #c4 ,if muscles c\ld pu% z well z pull1 w\ld s _m be ne$$ 9 ! body8 ,:y8 #d4 ,locate muscles t "w to "s ext5t aga9/ ela/icity & gravity4 #e4 ,locate five muscles t act z flexors2 five t act z ext5sors2 two t act z adductors2 & two z abductors4 ,locate sph9ct] & radiat+ muscles4 #f4 ,by :at means does ! n]v\s sy/em control ! muscles8 #g4 ,give pro(s ( ! *ange ( pot5tial into k9etic en]gy dur+ muscul> contraction4 #h4 ,def9e ! ess5tial prop]ties ( muscul> tissue & /ate ! purpose s]v$ by ea*4 #i4 ,describe a lev]4 ,= :at g5]al purpose are lev]s us$ 9 ! body8 ,:at o!r purpose d !y s]ve outside ( ! body8 #aj4 ,:y are lev]s ( ! second class n adapt$ to ! "w ( ! body8 #aa4 ,"n ! class ( lev] us$ 9 b5d+ ! elb[2 9 /raight5+ ! elb[2 9 rais+ ! knee2 9 elevat+ ! toes2 & 9 bit+4 ,:y is "o able to bite h>d] ) ! back tee? ?an ) ! front ones :5 ! same muscles are us$ 9 bo? cases8 #ab4 ,measure ! di/ance f ! middle ( ! palm ( ! h& to ! c5t] ( ! elb[ jo9t4 ,f9d ! atta*m5t ( ! t5don ( ! biceps muscle to ! radius & measure its di/ance to ! c5t] ( ! elb[ jo9t4 ,f ^! di/ances calculate ! =ce ) :i* ! biceps contracts 9 ord] to support a weight ( t5 p\nds on ! palm ( ! h&4 #ac4 ,h[ does ex]cise b5efit ! heal?8 ,h[ does a %ort walk cle> ! bra9 & enable "o to /udy to bett] advantage8 #ad4 ,:5 ex]cis]s tak5 = its effects ^u ! heal?1 :at conditions %\ld be obs]v$8 ,,practical ,,"w ,! r$di% muscle f\nd 9 a piece ( beef is a good example ( /riat$ muscle4 ,! cle> r+ surr\nd+ ! inte/9e ( a cat 7%[n by cross section7 & ! out] portion ( ! prep>ation f ! c['s /oma*1 sold at ! but*] %op "u ! "n ( tripe1 are good examples ( non-/riat$ muscul> tissue4 ,! he>t ( any animal1 ( c\rse1 %[s ! he>t muscle4 99,to %[ ! ,/ructure ( ,/riat$ ,muscle499--,boil a t\gh piece ( beef1 z a cut f ! neck1 until ! connective tissue has ?or\ghly s(t5$4 ,!n ) "s po9t$ in/rum5t1 sep>ate ! ma9 piece into its fib] bundles & ^! 9 turn into _! smalle/ divisions4 ,! smalle/ divisions obta9able are ! muscle cells or fib]s4 99,to %[ ,/riat$ ,fib]s499--,place a small muscle f ! leg ( a frog 9 a fifty-p]-c5t solution ( alcohol & leave x !re = half a day or long]4 ,!n cov] ) wat] on a glass slide1 & ) a c\ple ( f9e ne$les tease out ! small muscle ?reads4 ,protect ) a cov] glass & exam9e ) a microscope1 fir/ ) a l[ & !n ) a high p[]4 ,! /riations1 s>colemma1 & sometimes ! nuclei & n]ve plates1 may be di/+ui%$ 9 su* a prep>ation4 99,to %[ ,non-/riat$ ,cells499--,place a clean section ( ! small inte/9e ( a cat 9 a mixture ( "o "p ( nitric acid & f\r p>ts ( wat] & leave = f\r or five h\rs4 ,?or\ghly wa% out ! acid ) wat] & sep>ate ! muscul> lay] f ! muc\s membrane4 ,cov] a small portion ( ! muscle ) wat] on a glass slide & tease out1 ) ne$les1 until x is z f9ely divid$ z possible4 ,exam9e ) a microscope1 fir/ ) a l[ & !n ) a high p[]4 ,! cells appe> z v f9e1 sp9dle-%ap$ bodies4 99,to illu/rate ,muscul> ,/imulus & ,contraction499--,sep>ate ! muscles at ! back ( ! ?igh ( a frog :i* has j be5 kill$ & draw ! l>ge sciatic n]ve to ! surface4 ,cut ?is z high up z possible &1 ) a %>p knife & a small pair ( scissors1 dissect x out to ! knee4 ,n[ cut out entirely ! l>ge muscle ( ! calf ( ! leg 7! ga/rocnemius71 b leave atta*$ to x ! n]ve1 ! l[] t5don1 & ! bones ( ! knee4 ,m\nt on an upright support1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #abj1 & fa/5 ! t5don to a lev] bel[ by a ?read or small wire hook3 ,fig4 #abj ,fig4 #abj--99;,app>atus99 = demon/rat+ prop]ties ( muscles4 #a4 ,lay ! n]ve ov] ! ends ( ! wires f a small batt]y :i* are atta*$ to ! support at ,a1 & arrange a second break 9 ! circuit at ,b4 ,at ?is place ! batt]y circuit is made & brok5 ei!r by a telegraph key or by simply t\*+ & sep>at+ ! wires4 ,note t ! muscle gives a s+le contraction1 or twit*1 bo? :5 ! curr5t is made & :5 x is brok54 #b4 ,remove ! curr5t & p9* ! end ( ! n]ve1 not+ ! result4 ,) v f9e wires1 connect ! batt]y directly to ! ends ( ! muscle4 ,/imulate by mak+ & break+ ! curr5t z be=e4 ,9 ?is exp]im5t ! muscle cells are /imulat$ by ! direct action ( ! curr5t & n by ! curr5t act+ on ! n]ve4 #c4 ,) ! wires atta*$ to ei!r ! muscle or ! n]ve1 make & break ! curr5t 9 rapid succession4 ,?is causes ! muscle to ent] into a second contraction be=e x has relax$ f ! fir/1 & if ! %ocks foll[ 9 rapid succession1 to cont9ue 9 ! contract$ /ate4 ,?is condition1 :i* repres5ts ! me?od ( contraction ( ! muscles 9 ! body1 is call$ tetanus4 ,,note4--,9 ^! exp]im5ts a twit*+ ( ! muscle is frequ5tly obs]v$ :5 no /imulus is be+ appli$4 ,?is is due to ! dry+ out ( ! n]ve & is prev5t$ by keep+ x wet ) a physiological salt solution4 7,see footnote1 page #ch47 99,to %[ ! ,action ( ,lev]s499--,) a light b /iff wood5 b>1 a spr+ balance1 & a w$ge-%ap$ fulcrum1 %[3 #a4 ,! position ( ! weight1 ! fulcrum1 & ! p[] 9 ! diff]5t classes ( lev]s1 & also ! weight-arm & ! p[]-arm 9 ea* case4 #b4 ,! direction mov$ by ! p[] & ! weight respectively 9 ! use ( ! diff]5t classes ( lev]s4 #c4 ,t :5 ! p[]-arm & weight-arm are equal1 ! p[] equals ! weight & moves ?r\gh ! same di/ance4 #d4 ,t :5 ! p[]-arm is long] ?an ! weight-arm1 ! weight is great]1 b moves ?r\gh a %ort] di/ance ?an ! p[]4 #e4 ,t :5 ! weight-arm is long] ?an ! p[]-arm1 ! p[] is great] & moves ?r\gh a %ort] di/ance ?an ! weight4 99,to %[ ! ,loss ( ,p[] 9 ! ,use ( ! ,body ,lev]s499--,con/ruct a frame simil> to1 b l>g] ?an1 t %[n 9 ,fig4 #abj1 7ab\t #ab in*es high71 & hang a small spr+ balance 7#bej grams capacity7 at ! place :]e ! muscle is atta*$4 ,fa/5 ! end ( a lev] to ! upright piece1 at a po9t on a level ) ! end ( ! balance hook4 7,! nail or screw us$ = ?is purpose mu/ pass loosely ?r\gh ! lev]1 & s]ve z a pivot ^u :i* x c turn47 ,! lev] %\ld consi/ ( a light piece ( wood1 & %\ld h a l5g? at lea/ ?ree times z great z ! di/ance f ! hook to ! turn+ po9t4 ,connect ! balance hook ) ! lev] by a ?read or /r+1 & !n hang ^u x a small body ( kn[n weight4 ,note ! am\nt ( =ce ex]t$ at ! balance 9 ord] to support ! weight at diff]5t places on ! lev]4 ,at :at po9t is ! =ce j equal to ! weight8 ,:]e is x twice z great8 ,:]e ?ree times8 ,%[ t ! =ce requir$ to support ! weight increases proportionally z ! weight-arm & z ! di/ance ?r\gh :i* ! weight may be mov$ by ! lev]4 ,apply to ! action ( ! biceps muscle 9 lift+ weights on ! =e>m4 99,a ,/udy ( ! ,action ( ! ,biceps ,muscle499--,place ! f+]s ^u ! t5don ( ! biceps :]e x connects ) ! radius ( ! =e>m4 ,) ! =e>m re/+ ^u ! table1 note t ! t5don is some:at loose & flaccid1 b t ) ! slighte/ ef=t to raise ! =e>m x quickly tight5s4 ,n[ transf] ! f+]s to ! body ( ! muscle1 & sweep ! =e>m ?r\gh two or ?ree complete movem5ts1 not+ ! *anges 9 ! l5g? & ?ickness ( ! muscle4 ,lay ! =e>m aga9 on ! table1 back ( h& d[n1 & place a heavy weight 7a flatiron or a hamm]7 ^u ! h&4 ,note ! ef=t requir$ to raise ! weight1 & !n %ift x along ! arm4 ,obs]ve t ! ne>] x approa*es ! elb[ ! light] x seems4 ,acc\nt = ! diff]5ce 9 ! ef=t requir$ to raise ! weight at diff]5t places4 ,does ! ef=t v>y z ! di/ance f ! t5don8 ,,*apt] ,,xvi - ,,! ,,sk9 ,protective cov]+s are f\nd at all ! expos$ surfaces ( ! body4 ,^! v>y consid]ably at diff]5t places1 ea* be+ adapt$ to ! conditions "u :i* x s]ves4 ,! mo/ important ones are ! sk91 :i* cov]s ! entire ext]nal surface ( ! body2 ! muc\s membrane1 :i* l9es all ! cavities t communicate by op5+s ) ! ext]nal surface2 & ! s]\s membrane1 :i*1 includ+ ! synovial membranes1 l9es all ! clos$ cavities ( ! body4 ,9 addition to ! protection :i* x af=ds1 ! sk9 is "o ( ! means by :i* ! body is br\ght into prop] relations ) its surr\nd+s4 ,x is because ( ?is function t we take up ! /udy ( ! sk9 at ?is "t4 99,! ,sk999 is "o ( ! mo/ complex /ructures ( ! body1 & s]ves sev]al di/9ct purposes4 ,x is e/imat$ to h an area ( f #ad to #af squ>e feet1 & to h a ?ickness :i* v>ies f less ?an "o eigh? to m ?an "o f\r? ( an in*4 ,x is ?icke/ on ! palms ( ! h&s & ! soles ( ! feet1 ! places :]e x is mo/ subject to we>4 ,x is made up ( two di/9ct lay]s--an out] lay] call$ ! epid]mis1 or cuticle1 & an inn] lay] call$ ! d]mis1 or cutis v]a 7,fig4 #aba74 99,! ,d]mis499--,?is is ! ?ick] & heavi] ( ! two lay]s1 & is made up *iefly ( connective tissue4 ,! network ( t\gh fib]s :i* ?is tissue supplies1 =ms ! ess5tial body ( ! d]mis & gives to x its p[] ( resi/ance4 ,x is on acc\nt ( ! connective tissue t ! sk9s ( animals c be conv]t$ into lea!r by tann+4 ,a v>iety ( /ructures1 includ+ blood & lymph vessels1 oil & p]spiratory gl&s1 hair follicles1 & n]ves1 are f\nd emb$d$ 9 ! connective tissue 7,fig4 #abb74 ,^! aid 9 diff]5t ways 9 ! "w ( ! sk94 ,fig4 #aba ,fig4 #aba--99,section ( sk999 magnifi$1 a1 b4 ,epid]mis1 b4 ,pigm5t lay]4 c4 ,papill1 d4 ,d]mis4 e4 ,fatty tissue4 f1 g1 h4 ,sweat gl& & duct4 i1 k4 ,hair & follicle4 l4 ,oil gl&4 ,on ! out] surface ( ! d]mis are num]\s elevations1 call$ papill4 ,^! av]age ab\t "o "o-hundr$? ( an in* 9 height1 & "o two hundr$ & fiftie? ( an in* 9 diamet]4 ,!y are mo/ num]\s on ! palms ( ! h&s1 ! soles ( ! feet1 & ! "u surfaces ( ! f+]s & toes4 ,at ^! places !y are l>g] ?an 9 o!r p>ts ( ! body1 & are closely gr\p$1 =m+ ! p>allel curv$ ridges :i* cov] ! surfaces4 ,ea* papilla conta9s a loop ( capill>ies & a small n]ve1 & _m ( !m are cr[n$ ) t\* corpuscles 7page #cdb74 ,fig4 #abb ,fig4 #abb--99;,diagram99 ( section ( sk9 %[+ its diff]5t /ructures4 99,! ,epid]mis99 is mu* ?9n] ?an ! d]mis4 ,x is made up ( sev]al lay]s ( cells :i* are flat & scale-l at ! surface1 b are r\nd$ 9 =m :]e ! epid]mis jo9s ! d]mis4 ,! epid]mis has ! appe>ance ( be+ m\ld$ onto ! d]mis1 fill+ up ! depressions betwe5 ! papill & hav+ correspond+ irregul>ities 7,fig4 #aba74 ,no blood vessels are f\nd 9 ! epid]mis1 its n\ri%m5t be+ d]iv$ f ! lymph :i* rea*es x f ! d]mis4 ,only ! "p next to ! d]mis is made up ( liv+ cells4 ,^! are active1 h[ev]1 9 ! =mation ( new cells1 :i* take ! place ( ^? t are worn (f at ! surface4 ,"s ( ! cells belong+ to ! inn] lay] ( epid]mis conta9 pigm5t granules1 :i* give ! sk9 its color 7,fig4 #aba74 ,! epid]mis conta9s no n]ves & is !re=e non-s5sitive4 ,! hair & ! nails are important modifications ( ! epid]mis4 99,a ,hair99 is a sl5d] cyl9d]1 =m$ by ! union ( epid]mal cells1 :i* gr[s f a k9d ( pit 9 ! d]mis1 call$ ! hair follicle4 ,! oval & some:at enl>g$ "p ( ! hair )9 ! follicle is call$ ! root1 or bulb1 & ! uni=m cyl9d] beyond ! follicle is call$ ! %aft4 ,connect$ ) ! sides ( ! follicles are ! oil1 or sebace\s1 gl&s 7,figs4 #aba & #abb74 ,^! secrete an oily liquid :i* keeps ! hair & cuticle s(t & pliable4 ,atta*$ to ! inn] ends ( ! follicles are small1 involunt>y muscles ^: contractions cause ! r\gh5$ condition ( ! sk9 t occurs on exposure to cold4 99,a ,nail99 is a t\gh & r horny plate ( epid]mal tissue :i* gr[s f a depression 9 ! d]mis1 call$ ! matrix4 ,! back "p ( ! nail is kn[n z ! root1 ! middle convex portion z ! body1 & ! front m>g9 z ! free edge 7,fig4 #abc74 ,mat]ial = ! gr[? ( ! nail is d]iv$ f ! matrix1 :i* is l9$ ) active epid]mal cells & is ri*ly suppli$ ) blood vessels4 ,cells add$ to ! root cause ! nail to gr[ 9 l5g? 7=w>d7 & cells add$ to ! "u surface cause x to gr[ 9 ?ickness4 ,! cuticle adh]es to ! nail ar\nd its entire circumf]5ce s t ! cov]+ ov] ! d]mis is complete4 ,fig4 #abc ,fig4 #abc--99,section ( end ( f+]99 %[+ nail 9 position4 99,functions ( ! ,sk9499--,! *ief function ( ! sk9 is t ( protection4 ,x is able to protect ! body on acc\nt ( ! t\gh connective tissue 9 ! d]mis1 ! non-s5sitive cells ( ! epid]mis1 & also by ! t\* corpuscles & _! connect+ n]ve fib]s4 ,?is protection is ( at lea/ ?ree k9ds1 z foll[s3 #a4 ,f me*anical injuries su* z might result f contact ) h>d1 r\gh1 or %>p objects4 ,! ma9 quality ne$$ = resi/+ me*anical injuries is t\ghness1 & ?is is suppli$ bo? by ! epid]mis & by ! connective tissue ( ! d]mis4 #b4 ,f *emical injuries caus$ by contact ) v>i\s *emical ag5ts1 z acids1 alkalies1 & ! oxyg5 ( ! air4 ,! epid]mis1 be+ ( su* a nature z to resi/ to a consid]able ext5t ! action ( *emical ag5ts1 af=ds protection f ^! sub/ances4 7#hi7 #c4 ,f disease g]ms :i* are ev]y:]e pres5t4 ,! epid]mis is ! ma9 protective ag5t aga9/ attacks ( g]ms1 b %\ld ! epid]mis be brok51 !y meet ) fur!r resi/ance f ! fluids ( ! d]mis & ! :ite corpuscles ( ! blood4 #d4 ,f an excessive evaporation ( liquid f ! surface ( ! body4 ,9 ! p]=mance ( ?is function1 ! sk9 is an important means ( keep+ ! tissues s(t & ! blood & lymph f becom+ too conc5trat$4 99,o!r ,functions ( ! ,sk9499--,?r\gh ! p]spiratory gl&s ! sk9 is an organ ( excretion4 ,:ile ! secretion f a s+le gl& is small1 ! wa/e t leaves ! body ?r\gh all ( ! p]spiratory gl&s is consid]able 7#ij7 7page #bjf74 ,by means ( ! n]ves t]m9at+ 9 ! t\* corpuscles1 ! sk9 s]ves z ! organ ( t\*1 or feel+ 7,*apt] ,,xx74 ,to a slight ext5t also ! sk9 may absorb liquid sub/ances1 ^! be+ tak5 up by ! blood & lymph vessels1 & p]=m a respiratory function1 ?r[+ (f c>bon dioxide4 ,b ! mo/ important function ( ! sk91 9 addition to protection1 is t ( s]v+ z 99,an ,organ ( ,adaptation499--,=m+1 z x does1 ! b\nd>y betwe5 ! body & its physical environm5t1 ! sk9 is p]haps ! mo/ important ag5t ?r\gh :i* ! body is adapt$ to its imm$iate surr\nd+s4 ,evid5ce ( ?is is f\nd 9 ! great v>iety ( influ5ces :i* are able to affect ! body ?r\gh _! action ^u ! n]ves 9 ! sk91 & 9 ! *anges :i* ! epid]mis und]goes on exposure4 ,! latt] function is especially m>k$ 9 ! l[] animals1 ! cov]+s ( epid]mal tissue 7hair1 scales1 fea!rs1 etc47 adapt+ ea* species to ! physical conditions "u :i* x lives4 ,9 man ! mo/ /rik+ example ( adaptation ?r\gh ! sk9 is se5 9 ! v>iations 9 ! quantity ( blood circulat+ ?r\gh x1 correspond+ to ! *anges 9 ! temp]ature outside ( ! body4 ,^! v>iations are ( great importance1 hav+ to d ) ! 99,ma9t5ance ( ! ,normal ,temp]ature499--,x is necess>y to ! cont9uance ( life t ! temp]ature ( ! body be kept at a ne>ly uni=m degree1 call$ ! normal temp]ature1 :i* is ab\t #ih4f ,f4 ,! ma9t5ance ( ! normal temp]ature dep5ds ma9ly ^u f\r conditions3 ! *emical *anges at ! cells1 ! circulation ( ! blood1 ! n]v\s sy/em1 & ! sk94 ,! *emical *anges produce ! heat1 ! blood 9 its circulation di/ributes ! heat ov] ! body1 & ! n]v\s sy/em controls ! heat-produc+ & di/ribut+ processes 7page #cbj74 ,! sk9 is ! *ief means by :i* ! body gets rid ( an excess ( heat &1 by s do+1 avoids ov]heat+4 7#ia7 99,h[ ! ,sk9 cools ! ,body499--,! sk9 is a means ( ridd+ ! body ( an excess ( heat 9 at lea/ two ways3 #a4 ,by ! conduction & radiation ( heat f its surface z f a /ove4 ,?is goes on all ! "t1 b v>ies ) ! am\nt ( heat br\ght to ! surface by ! blood4 #b4 ,by ! evaporation ( ! p]spiration4 ,x is a well-e/abli%$ & easily demon/rat$ pr9ciple t liquids 9 evaporat+ use up heat47,see ,practical ,"w47 ,x is also a matt] ( ev]yday exp]i5ce t ! p]spiration has a cool+ effect ^u ! body & t its fl[ increases ) ! am\nt ( heat to be gott5 rid (4 ,! quantity ( p]spiration secret$1 & ( heat dispos$ ( ?r\gh its evaporation1 also v>ies ) ! am\nt ( blood circulat+ ?r\gh ! sk94 99,temp]ature ,regulation by ! ,sk9499--,v>iations 9 ! quantity ( blood circulat+ ?r\gh ! sk9 enable ?is organ to ?r[ (f j ! "r am\nt ( heat = keep+ ! body at ! normal temp]ature4 ,if x is necess>y = ! body to rid itself ( an excess ( heat1 ! quantity ( blood circulat+ 9 ! sk9 is increas$4 ,?is br+s ! blood ne> ! surface1 :]e m heat c be radiat$ & :]e x may cause an increase 9 ! p]spiration4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! body is 9 dang] ( los+ too mu* heat1 ! circulation dim9i%es 9 ! sk9 & increases 9 ! int]nal organs4 ,?is /ops ! rapid loss ( heat f ! surface4 ,! sk9 9 ?is "w is ( c\rse made to coop]ate ) o!r p>ts ( ! body4 ,t x is n ! only organ conc]n$ 9 regulat+ ! escape ( heat is se5 9 ! results t foll[ s5sations ei!r ( *ill9ess or ( heat at ! surface4 99,effects ( ,heat & ,cold ,s5sations499--,s5sations1 or feel+s1 ( heat & cold are made possible ?r\gh ! n]ves :i* connect ! bra9 ) ! temp]ature corpuscles1 f\nd 9 ! sk9 7page #cdc74 ,z ! w>m blood rec$es f ! sk91 a s5sation ( cold is felt1 b :5 ! blood returns1 !re is aga9 ! feel+ ( w>m?4 ,! s5sation ( cold prompts "o to seek a w>m] place1 or to put on m clo?+2 :ile ! s5sation ( heat1 if x be oppressive1 leads to activities ( an opposite k9d4 ,prompt$ 9 ?is way by ! s5sations f ! sk91 "o volunt>ily supplies ! ext]nal conditions1 su* z clo?+ & heat1 t affect ! body temp]ature4 99,alcohol & ! ,regulation ( ,temp]ature499--,alcohol1 ?r\gh its effect ^u ! n]v\s sy/em1 int]f]es s]i\sly ) ! regulation ( ! body temp]ature4 ,by dilat+ ! capill>ies1 x increases ! circulation 9 ! sk9 & leads to an undue loss ( heat4 ,at ! same "t ! excess ( blood 9 ! sk9 causes a feel+ ( w>m? :i* has l$ to ! errone\s belief t alcohol is a heat produc]4 ,if tak5 on a cold day1 x deceives "o ab\t 8 true condition & leads to a wa/+ ( heat :5 x %\ld be c>efully economiz$4 ,n only is alcohol ( no value 9 ma9ta9+ ! body temp]ature1 b if tak5 dur+ sev]e exposure to cold1 x becomes a m5ace to life itself4 ,arctic1 explor]s & o!rs expos$ to sev]e cold h f\nd t !y )/& cold f> bett] :5 no alcohol at all is us$47#ib7 ,,hygi5e ,,( ,,! ,,sk9 ,mu* ( ! hygi5e ( ! sk9 is includ$ 9 ! problems ( keep+ x w>m & clean4 ,x is kept w>m by clo?+2 ba?+ is ! me?od ( keep+ x clean4 99,clo?+99 %\ld be w>m & loose-fitt+4 ,wool5 fabrics are to be pref]r$ 9 w9t] to cotton because1 be+ poor] conductors ( heat1 !y af=d bett] protection f ! cold4 ,b wool fails to absorb ! p]spiration rapidly f ! sk9 & to pass x to ! outside :]e x is evaporat$4 ,?is1 toge!r ) its t5d5cy to irritate1 makes wool5 clo?+ some:at objectionable = we>+ next to ! sk94 ,?is objection1 h[ev]1 is obviat$ by wool5 und]we> :i* is l9$ by a ?9 weav+ ( cotton4 99,ba?+499--,! solid mat]ial f ! p]spiration1 :i* is left on ! sk91 toge!r ) ! oil f ! oil gl&s & ! dirt f ! outside1 t5ds to close up ! pores & develop (f5sive odors4 ,keep+ ! sk9 clean is1 = ^! reasons1 necess>y f bo? a heal? & a social /&po9t4 ,:ile "o %\ld always keep clean1 ! frequ5cy ( ! ba? w dep5d ^u ! season1 ! occupation ( ! individual1 & ! nature & am\nt ( ! p]spiration4 ,z to ! k9d ( ba? to be tak5 & ! precautions to be obs]v$1 no specific rules c be laid d[n4 ,^! mu/ be det]m9$ by ! facilities at h& & by ! heal? & natural vigor ( ! ba!r4 ,sev]e *ill+ ( ! body %\ld be avoid$1 especially by ^? 9 delicate heal?4 ,if a hot ba? is tak51 "o %\ld da% cold wat] ov] ! body on f9i%+4 ,"o %\ld !n quickly dry & rub ! body ) a co>se t[el4 ,! da% ( cold wat] closes ! pores ( ! sk9 & less5s ! liability ( tak+ cold4 99,! ,tonic ,ba?499--,! cold ba? has be5 f\nd to h a b5eficial effect ^u ! g5]al heal? beyond its effect ^u ! sk94 ,:5 tak5 ) c>e z to ! l5g? ( "t & ! degree ( cold1 decid$ tonic effects are obs]v$ on ! circulation & on ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,! rapid *anges ( temp]ature vigor\sly ex]cise ! non-/riat$ muscles ( ! blood vessels 7page #eg7 & ! n]ves controll+ !m4 ,! irritability ( ! n]v\s sy/em 9 g5]al is also less5$4 ,= ?is reason ! cold ba? is "o ( ! be/ means ( keep+ bo? m9d & body 9 good condition dur+ ! w>m mon?s4 ,spong+ (f ! body ) cold or tepid wat] be=e retir+ is also an excell5t aid 9 secur+ s\nd sleep dur+ ! hot summ] nights4 ,dang] f ! cold ba? arises ?r\gh ! %ock to ! n]v\s sy/em & ! loss ( heat f ! body4 ,x is avoid$ by us+ wat] ^: temp]ature is n too l[ & by limit+ ! "t sp5t 9 ! ba?4 ,a brisk rubb+ ) a co>se t[el %\ld always foll[ ! cold ba?4 ,p pa/ middle age are1 z a rule1 n b5efit$ by ! cold ba?2 & ^? 9 delicate heal?1 especially if incl9$ t[>d rheumatism1 are likely to be affect$ injuri\sly by x4 99,c>e ( ! ,complexion499--,a good complexion is a natural accompanim5t ( good heal? & dep5ds prim>ily ^u two conditions--a cle> sk9 & an active circulation ( ! blood ?r\gh x4 ,cle>ness ( ! sk9 dep5ds l>gely ^u ! elim9ation ( wa/e mat]ial f ! body1 & :]e ! solid wa/es are n effectively remov$ ?r\gh ! natural *annels 7! liv]1 kidneys1 & b[els71 blot*es1 sall[ness ( ! sk91 & sk9 eruptions are likely to result4 ,9 seek+ to cle> ! complexion1 att5tion mu/ be giv5 to all ^? ag5cies t favor ! elim9ation ( wa/e1 & especially %\ld !re be a free & ?or\gh evacuation ( ! b[els ea* day4 ,! g5]al heal? %\ld also be look$ aft]1 att5tion be+ giv5 to ex]cise1 fre% air1 prop] food17#ic7 suffici5t sleep1 etc4 ,ba?+ is ! *ief means employ$ = increas+ ! circulation 9 ! sk91 al?\gh ex]cise :i* is suffici5tly vigor\s to cause "o to p]spire freely is a valuable aid4 ,a daily ba? ( w>m or hot wat]1 f9i%$ (f ) a da% ( cold1 foll[$ by a ?or\gh rubb+ ( ! entire surface1 & ?is by a knead+ ( ! sk9 ) ! ?umbs & f+]s1 w 9 mo/ cases br+ ab\t ! desir$ results4 ,a little olive oil1 ?or\ghly work$ into ! sk9 dur+ ! knead+ process1 is b5eficial :]e "o lacks fle% or :]e ! sk9 is dry & ?94 ,! olive oil is also b5eficial :]e ! ba?s are exhau/+ or r5d] "o susceptible to cold4 ,9 rubb+ & knead+1 ! sk9 %\ld n be bruis$ or irritat$4 ,! mu* adv]tis$ complexion beautifi]s :i* are appli$ directly to ! face frequ5tly h ! effect ( clogg+ ! pores & ( caus+ eruptions ( ! sk94 ,on ! o!r h&1 c]ta9 au?orities /ate t ! cold cream prep>ations may be ( advantage 9 giv+ ! sk9 a desir$ s(tness1 & t :5 judici\sly us$ 7! face be+ cleans$ aft] ea* application7 !y d no h>m4 ,( ! diff]5t k9ds ( face p[d] ^? prep>$ f rice are consid]$ ! lea/ injuri\s4 99,treatm5t ( ,sk9 ,w\nds499--,sk9 w\nds :i* may n be s]i\s 9 !mselves frequ5tly become s ?r\gh gett+ infect$ ) g]ms4 ,blood poison+ (t5 results f su* infections1 "o ( ! wor/ =ms be+ tetanus1 or lockjaw4 ,a w\nd %\ld be kept clean1 & if x %[s signs ( infection1 x %\ld be wa%$ ) "s antiseptic solution4 ,or1 x may be cleans$ ) pure w>m wat] & !n cov]$ ) "s antiseptic o9tm5t17#id7 ( :i* !re are a numb] on ! m>ket4 ,a weak solution ( c>bolic acid 7"o "p acid to tw5ty-five p>ts ( wat]7 makes an excell5t antiseptic wa%4 ,x may be us$ n only = cleans+ w\nds1 b also 9 c\nt]act+ ! poison\s effects t foll[ ! bites ( insects4 ,a w\nd result+ f ! bite ( an animal 7cat or dog71 ev5 ?\gh slight1 %\ld receive m s]i\s att5tion1 & z soon z possible aft] ! occurr5ce4 ,su* w\nds %\ld be caut]iz$1 & = ?is purpose pure c>bolic1 acid 7undilut$ ) wat]7 may be us$4 ,a wood5 too?pick is dipp$ into ! acid & ?is is work$ ab\t 9 ! w\nd4 ,! acid is !n wa%$ out ) w>m wat]4 ,a deep w\nd f a ru/y nail or a ?orn %\ld be treat$ 9 ! same mann] & %\ld be kept op51 n be+ all[$ to heal at ! surface fir/4 ,if "o has reason to believe he has be5 bitt5 by a mad dog1 ! w\nd %\ld be caut]iz$ z above1 & a physician %\ld be summon$ at once4 ,deep w\nds f explosives1 or o!r causes1 %\ld also receive ! att5tion ( ! physician4 ,_m cases ( lockjaw result e ye> f w\nds inflict$ by ! toy pi/ols1 firecrack]s1 etc41 us$ 9 our ,f\r? ( ,july celebrations4 ,^! are due to ! emb$d+ 9 ! sk9 or fle% ( small solid p>ticles on :i* are lockjaw g]ms4 ,w\nds ( ?is nature %\ld1 ( c\rse1 receive ! att5tion ( ! physician4 99,c>e ( ! ,nails499--,relief f a blood bli/] "u ! nail is secur$ by bor+ a small hole ?r\gh ! nail ) ! %>p po9t ( a /]iliz$ p5knife 7page #ch74 ,?is simple bit ( surg]y n only relieves ! pa91 b is frequ5tly ! only means ( sav+ ! nail4 ,+r[n toe nails are reliev$ by scrap+ a broad /rip 9 ! middle ( ! nail until v ?94 ,?is relieves ! pressure1 prev5t+ ! sides ( ! nail f be+ =c$ into ! toe4 ,:ile ! f+] nails %\ld be trimm$ 9 a curve1 correspond+ to ! end ( ! f+]1 x is recomm5d$ t ! toe nails be cut /raight across 7,fig4 #abd71 z ?is me?od dim9i%es ! pressure f ! %oe & keeps ! nails f +r[+4 ,%oes t p9* ! toes %\ld1 ( c\rse1 n be worn 7page #bch74 ,fig4 #abd ,fig4 #abd--,prop] me?od ( trimm+ nails ( toes4 99,c>e ( ! ,hair499--,occasional wa%+ ( ! hair is b5eficial1 b too mu* wett+ causes decay ( ! hair roots1 :i* leads to its fall+ out4 ,! wor/ enemy ( ! hair is d&ruff4 ,a me?od ( remov+ d&ruff :i* is highly recomm5d$ is t ( rubb+ olive oil into ! scalp & lat] ( remov+ ?is ) a cleans+ %ampoo4 ,! olive oil is plac$ on ! scalp ) a m$ic9e dropp] & ?or\ghly rubb$ 9 ) ! f+]s4 ,aft] ?ree or f\r h\rs ! hair is wa%$ ) soap & wat] 7any good toilet soap w d7 & r9s$ ) pure wat]4 ,! hair is !n dri$1 ! surplus wat] be+ remov$ ) a co>se t[el4 ,:]e ! d&ruff is v tr\blesome1 ?is treatm5t may be giv5 once or twice a week2 b 9 mild cases once a mon? is suffici5t4 ,massage ( ! scalp1 by increas+ ! circulation at ! hair roots1 is b5eficial1 b irritation by a f9e-too? comb1 a /iff hair bru%1 or by o!r means %\ld be avoid$4 ,frequ5t bru%+ & comb+1 h[ev]1 are necess>y bo? = ! good appe>ance ( ! hair & = spread+ ! oil secret$ by ! gl&s at ! hair roots4 99,summ>y499--,! sk9 =ms ! ext]nal cov]+ ( ! body & also s]ves additional purposes4 ,x is a mo/ important ag5cy 9 adapt+ ! body to its physical surr\nd+s1 z %[n by ! "p :i* x plays 9 ! regulation ( ! body temp]ature4 ,! sk9 %\ld be kept clean & active1 & sk9 w\nds1 ev5 ?\gh small1 %\ld be gu>d$ aga9/ infection4 99,ex]cises499--#a4 ,"n an example ( ea* ( ! protective cov]+s ( ! body4 #b4 ,comp>e ! d]mis & ! epid]mis ) ref]5ce to ?ickness1 composition1 & function4 #c4 ,to :at is ! color ( ! sk9 due8 ,h[ is ! color ( ! sk9 affect$ by ! sunlight8 #d4 ,:at modifications ( ! epid]mis are f\nd on our bodies8 ,:at are f\nd on ! body ( a *ick58 #e4 ,:at diff]5t k9ds ( protection are provid$ by ! sk98 #f4 ,h[ does ! p]spiration cool ! body8 #g4 ,:at *ange occurs 9 ! circulation 9 ! sk9 :5 ! body is becom+ too cold8 ,:5 becom+ too w>m8 ,:at is ! purpose ( ^! *anges8 #h4 ,h[ does alcohol cause "o to feel w>m :5 he may be los+ too mu* ( 8 heat8 #i4 ,:at precaution %\ld be obs]v$ by "o 9 poor heal?1 9 tak+ a ba?8 #aj4 ,h[ may ! cold ba? be a means ( improv+ ! g5]al heal?8 ,,practical ,,"w 99,obs]vations on ! ,sk9 & its ,app5dages499--,exam9e ! palm ( ! h& ) a l5s4 ,note ! small ridges :i* correspond to ! r[s ( papill b5ea? ! cuticle4 ,9 ^! f9d small pits1 :i* are ! op5+s ( ! sweat gl&s4 #b4 ,exam9e ! epid]mis on ! back ( ! h& & palm4 ,at :i* place is x ?icke/ & mo/ resi/+8 ,is x ( uni=m ?ickness ov] ! palm8 ,try pick+ x ) a p9 at ! ?icke/ place1 not+ if pa9 is felt4 ,inf]5ce8 #c4 ,exam9e a f+] nail4 ,is ! free edge or ! root ! ?icke/8 ,trim closely ! ?umb nail & ! nail ( ! middle f+] ( "o h& & try to pick up a p91 or o!r m9ute object1 f a smoo?1 h>d surface4 ,! result indicates :at use ( ! nails8 ,sugge/ o!r uses4 #d4 ,exam9e ) a microscope "u a l[ p[] hairs f a v>iety ( animals1 z ! horse1 dog1 cat1 etc41 not+ peculi>ities ( =m & surface4 99,to illu/rate ,cool+ ,effects ( ,evaporation499--#a4 ,wet ! back ( ! h& & move x ?r\gh ! air to ha/5 evaporation4 ,obs]ve t1 z ! h& dries1 a s5sation ( cold is felt4 ,repeat ! exp]im5t1 us+ e!r1 alcohol1 or gasol5e in/ead ( ! wat]1 not+ ! diff]5ces 9 results4 ,^! liquids evaporate fa/] ?an wat]4 #b4 ,wet ! bulb ( a !rmomet] ) alcohol or wat]4 ,move x ?r\gh ! air to ha/5 evaporation4 ,note & acc\nt = ! fall ( ! m]cury4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii - ,,/ructure ,,( ,,! ,,n]v\s ,,sy/em 99,cord9ation & ,adju/m5t499--,if we consid] = a mom5t ! movem5ts ( ! body1 we _c fail to note ! cop]ation ( organs1 "o ) ano!r4 ,9 ! simple act ( :ittl+ a /ick "o h& holds ! /ick & ! o!r ! knife1 :ile ! movem5ts ( ea* h& are su* z to aid 9 ! :ittl+ process4 ,examples ( cop]ation are also f\nd 9 ! tak+ ( food1 9 walk+1 & 9 ! p]=mance ( diff]5t k9ds ( "w4 ,n only is cop]ation f\nd among ! ext]nal organs1 b our /udy ( ! vital processes has %[n t ! pr9ciple ( cop]ation is c>ri$ out by ! int]nal organs z well4 ,! fact t all ! activities ( ! body are direct$ t[>d a common purpose makes ! cop]ation ( its p>ts a necessity4 ,! t]m cord9ation is employ$ to express ?is cop]ation1 or work+ toge!r1 ( ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! body4 ,a fur!r /udy ( ! movem5ts ( ! body %[s t _m ( !m h p>ticul> ref]5ce to ?+s outside ( x4 ,9 go+ ab\t "o naturally avoids ob/ructions1 & if any?+ is 9 ! way he walks ar\nd or /eps ov] x4 ,some:at z a delicate in/rum5t 7! microscope = example7 is alt]$ or adju/$1 9 ord] to adapt x to its "w1 ! p>ts ( ! body1 & ! body z a :ole1 h to be adju/$ to _! surr\nd+s4 ,?is is se5 9 ! attitude assum$ 9 sitt+ & 9 /&+1 9 ! position ( ! h&s = diff]5t k9ds ( "w1 9 ! v>iations ( ! circulation ( ! blood 9 ! sk91 & 9 ! movem5ts = protect+ ! body47#ie7 99,"w ( ! ,n]v\s ,sy/em499--,h[ are ! diff]5t activities ( ! body controll$ & cord9at$8 ,h[ is ! body adju/$ to its surr\nd+s8 ,! answ] is f\nd 9 ! /udy ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,briefly speak+1 ! n]v\s sy/em controls1 cord9ates1 & adju/s ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! body by fulfill+ two conditions3 #a4 ,x provides a complete sy/em ( connections ?r\gh\t ! body1 !reby br++ all p>ts into communication4 #b4 ,x supplies a means ( controll+ action 7! s-call$ impulse7 :i* x passes along ! n]v\s connections f "o "p ( ! body to ano!r4 ,! pres5t *apt] deals ) ! fir/ ( ^! conditions2 ! *apt] foll[+1 ) ! second4 99,! ,n]ve ,skeleton499--,if all ! o!r tissues are remov$1 leav+ only ! n]v\s tissue1 a complete skeleton outl9e ( ! body /ill rema9s4 ,?is n]ve skeleton1 z x has be5 call$1 has ! g5]al =m ( ! framework ( bones1 b diff]s f x greatly 9 ! f95ess ( its /ructures & ! ext5t to :i* x repres5ts e portion ( ! body4 ,an exam9ation ( a n]ve skeleton1 or a diagram ( "o 7,fig4 #abe71 %[s ! ma9 /ructures ( ! n]v\s sy/em & _! connection ) ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! body4 ,correspond+ to ! skull & ! sp9al column is a c5tral n]v\s axis1 made up ( two p>ts1 ! bra9 & ! sp9al cord4 ,f ?is c5tral axis :ite1 cord-l bodies em]ge & pass to diff]5t p>ts ( ! body4 ,^! are call$ n]ve trunks1 & ! small] bran*es into :i* !y divide are call$ n]ves4 ,! n]ves also und]go division until !y t]m9ate z f9e ?read-l /ructures 9 all p>ts ( ! body4 ,! di/ribution ( n]ve t]m9ations1 h[ev]1 is n uni=m1 z might be suppos$1 b ! sk9 & important organs l ! he>t1 /oma*1 & muscles are ! m abundantly suppli$4 ,on _m ( ! n]ves are small r\nd$ masses1 call$ ganglia1 & f _m ( ^! small n]ves also em]ge4 ,at c]ta9 places ! n]ves & ganglia are s num]\s z to =m a k9d ( network1 kn[n z a plexus4 ,fig4 #abe ,fig4 #abe--99;,diagram ( n]ve skeleton499 ,! illu/ration %[s ! ext5t & g5]al arrangem5t ( ! n]v\s tissue4 ,a4 ,bra94 ,b4 ,sp9al cord4 ,n4 ,n]ve trunks & n]ves4 ,g4 ,ganglia4 ,x is ?r\gh ^! /ructures--bra9 & sp9al cord1 n]ve trunks & n]ves1 ganglia & n]ve t]m9ations--t connections are e/abli%$ betwe5 all p>ts ( ! body1 b m especially betwe5 ! surface ( ! body & ! organs )94 99,! ,neurons1 or ,n]ve ,cells499--,:ile a ha/y exam9ation ( ! n]ve skeleton is suffici5t to %[ ! connection ( ! n]v\s sy/em ) all p>ts ( ! body1 no am\nt ( /udy ( its gross /ructures reveals ! nature ( its connections or sugge/s its me?od ( op]ation4 ,insight into ! real nature ( ! n]v\s sy/em is obta9$ only ?r\gh a /udy ( its m9ute /ructural elem5ts4 ,^!1 in/ead ( be+ call$ cells1 z 9 ! case ( ! o!r tissues1 are call$ neurons4 ,! use ( ?is t]m1 in/ead ( ! simpl] "o ( n]ve cell1 is ! result ( rec5t advances 9 our k ( ! n]v\s sy/em47#if7 ,fig4 #abf ,fig4 #abf--99;,diagram ( a mon-axonic neuron99 7greatly enl>g$ except z to l5g?74 ,! c5tral ?read 9 ! axon is ! axis cyl9d]4 ,! neurons are 9 all respects cells4 ,!y diff] widely1 h[ev]1 f all ! o!r cells ( ! body & are1 9 "s respects1 ! mo/ rem>kable ( all cells4 ,!y are *>act]iz$ by m9ute ext5sions1 or prolongations1 :i* 9 "s in/ances ext5d to great di/ances4 ,?\gh ! neurons 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! body diff] greatly 9 =m & size f ^? 9 o!r p>ts ( ! body1 mo/ ( !m may be includ$ 9 "o or ! o!r ( two classes1 kn[n z mon-axonic neurons & di-axonic neurons4 99,mon-axonic ,neurons499--,neurons ( ?is class consi/ ( ?ree di/9ct p>ts1 kn[n z ! cell-body1 ! d5drites1 & ! axon 7,fig4 #abf74 ,! cell-body has 9 itself ! =m ( a complete cell & 0 at "o "t s describ$4 ,x consi/s ( a r\nd$ mass ( protoplasm1 conta9+ a well-def9$ nucleus4 ,! protoplasm is simil> to t ( o!r cells1 b is *>act]iz$ by ! pres5ce ( _m small granules & has a slightly grayi% color4 ,! d5drites are %ort ext5sions f ! cell-body4 ,!y bran* some:at z ! roots ( a tree & =m 9 _m in/ances a complex network ( t9y rootlets4 ,_! protoplasm1 l t ( ! cell-body1 is m or less granul>4 ,! d5drites increase greatly ! surface ( ! cell-body1 to :i* !y are relat$ 9 function4 ,! axon1 or n]ve fib]1 is a long1 sl5d] ext5sion f ! cell-body1 :i* connects ) "s organ or tissue4 ,x 0 at "o "t describ$ z a di/9ct n]v\s elem5t1 b lat] /udy has %[n x to be an outgr[? f ! cell-body4 ,! mon-axonic neurons are s call$ f _! hav+ b a s+le axon4 99,di-axonic ,neurons499--,neurons belong+ to ?is class h ea* a well-def9$ cell-body & two axons1 b no p>ts j l ! d5drites ( mon-axonic neurons4 ,! cell-body is smoo? & r\nd$1 & its axons ext5d f x 9 opposite directions 7,fig4 #abg74 ,fig4 #abg ,fig4 #abg--99;,diagram ( a di-axonic neuron499 ,! diagram %[s only ! conduct+ portion ( ! axon1 or axis cyl9d]4 99,/ructure ( ! ,axon499--,! axon1 or n]ve fib]1 has practically ! same /ructure 9 bo? classes ( neurons1 be+ compos$ 9 mo/ cases ( ?ree di/9ct p>ts4 ,9 ! c5t]1 & runn+ ! entire l5g? ( ! axon1 is a ?read-l body1 call$ ! axis cyl9d] 7,fig4 #abf74 ,! axis cyl9d] is pres5t 9 all axons & is ! "p ess5tial to _! "w4 ,x may be consid]$ z an ext5sion ( ! protoplasm f ! cell-body4 ,surr\nd+ ! axis cyl9d] is a ?ick1 :iti%-look+ lay]1 kn[n z ! m$ull>y %ea?1 & ar\nd ?is is a ?9 cov]+1 call$ ! primitive %ea?1 or neurilemma4 ,! m$ull>y %ea? & ! primitive %ea? are n1 /rictly speak+1 p>ts ( ! n]ve cell1 b appe> to be gr[?s t h =m$ ar\nd x4 ,c]ta9 ( ! axons h no primitive %ea? & o!rs are )\t a m$ull>y %ea?47#ig7 99,=m & ,l5g? ( ,axons499--,:]e ! axons t]m9ate !y usually sep>ate into a numb] ( small divisions1 !reby increas+ ! numb] ( _! connections4 ,c]ta9 axons are also obs]v$ to give (f bran*es be=e ! place ( t]m9ation is rea*$ 7,fig4 #aca74 ,^! collat]al bran*es1 by di/ribut+ !mselves 9 a mann] simil> to ! ma9 fib]1 greatly ext5d ! influ5ce ( a s+le neuron4 ,9 ! matt] ( l5g?1 great v>iation is f\nd among ! axons 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! body4 ,9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! bra91 = example1 are fib]s n m ?an "o "o-hundr$? ( an in* 9 l5g?1 :ile ! axons t pass all ! way f ! sp9al cord to ! toes h a l5g? ( m ?an ?ree feet4 ,betwe5 ^! extremes practically all v>iations 9 l5g? are f\nd4 99,arrangem5ts ( ! ,neurons499--,n[h]e 9 ! body d ! neurons exi/ s+ly1 b !y are ev]y:]e connect$ ) ea* o!r to =m ! diff]5t /ructures obs]v$ 9 ! n]ve skeleton4 ,two g5]al plans ( connection are to be obs]v$1 kn[n z ! anatomical & ! physiological1 or1 m simply speak+1 z ! side-by-side & end-to-end plans4 ,! side-by-side plan is se5 9 t disposition ( ! neurons :i* enables !m to =m ! n]ves & ! ganglia1 z well z ! bra9 & sp9al cord4 ,! end-to-end connections are necess>y to ! "w :i* ! neurons d4 99,side-by-side ,connections499--,on sep>at+ ! ganglia & n]ves into _! f9e/ divisions1 x is f\nd t ! n]ves consi/ ( axons1 :ile ! ganglia are made up ma9ly ( cell-bodies & d5drites4 ,! axons lie side by side 9 ! n]ve1 be+ surr\nd$ by ! same protective cov]+s1 :ile ! cell-bodies =m a r\nd$ mass or clu/]1 :i* is ! ganglion 7,fig4 #abh74 ,b ! axons1 9 ord] to connect ) ! cell-bodies1 mu/ t]m9ate )9 ! ganglion1 s t !y too =m a "p ( x4 ,to "s ext5t1 also1 axons pass ?r\gh ganglia ) :i* !y make no connection4 ,! neurons 9 ! bra9 & sp9al cord also lie side by side1 b _! arrangem5t is m complex ?an t 9 ! n]ves & ganglia4 ,fig4 #abh ,fig4 #abh--99;,diagrams illu/rat+ arrangem5t ( neurons499 ,a1 ,b4 ,ganglia & %ort segm5ts ( n]ves4 #a4 ,ganglion4 #b4 ,n]ve4 ,9 ! ganglion ( ,a are end-to-end connections ( diff]5t neurons2 9 ! ganglion ( ,b are ! cell-bodies ( di-axonic neurons4 ,c4 ,section ( a n]ve trunk4 #a4 ,ep9eurium consi/+ *iefly ( connective tissue4 #b4 ,bundles ( n]ve fib]s4 #c4 ,cov]+ ( fib] bundle1 or p]9eurium4 #d4 ,small art]y & ve94 ,! side-by-side arrangem5t ( ! neurons %[s cle>ly ! /ructure ( ! ganglia & n]ves4 ,! n]ve is se5 to be a bundle ( axons1 or n]ve fib]s1 held toge!r by connective tissue1 :ile ! ganglion is little m ?an a clu/] ( cell-bodies4 ,_! connection is necess>ily v close1 = ! same gr\p ( neurons w =m1 ) _! axons1 ! n]ve1 &1 ) _! cell-bodies1 ! ganglion 7,fig4 #abh74 99,end-to-end ,connections499--,^! consi/ ( loose end-to-end unions ( ! fib] bran*es ( c]ta9 neurons ) ! d5drites ( o!r neurons4 ,! purpose ( su* connections is to provide ! means ( communication betwe5 diff]5t p>ts ( ! body4 ,!re appe>s to be no actual unit+ ( ! fib] bran*es ) ! d5drites1 b !y come into relations suffici5tly close to e/abli% conduction pa?ways1 & ^! ext5d ?r\gh\t ! body 7,fig4 #abi74 ,!y connect all p>ts ( ! body ) ! bra9 & sp9al cord1 :ile connections )9 ! bra9 & cord br+ ! p>ts into communication ) ea* o!r4 ,fig4 #abi ,fig4 #abi--99;,diagram ( a n]ve pa?99 />t+ at ! sk91 ext5d+ ?r\gh ! sp9al cord1 & pass+ out to muscles4 ,a division ( ?is pa? also rea*es ! bra94 99,nature ( ! ,n]v\s ,sy/em499--,! n]v\s sy/em repres5ts ! sum total ( ! neurons 9 ! body4 ,9 "s respects x may be comp>$ to ! mod]n telephone sy/em4 ,! neurons1 l ! electric wires1 connect diff]5t places ) a c5tral /ation 7! bra9 & sp9al cord71 & ?r\gh ! c5tral /ation connections are e/abli%$ betwe5 ! diff]5t places 9 ! sy/em4 ,z ! sep>ate wires are mass$ toge!r to =m cables1 ! neurons are mass$ to =m ! gross /ructures ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,! n]v\s sy/em1 h[ev]1 is s radically diff]5t f any?+ f\nd outside ( ! animal body t no comp>ison c give an adequate idea ( x4 ,we n[ pass to a /udy ( ! gross /ructures obs]v$ 9 ! n]ve skeleton4 99,divisions ( ! ,n]v\s ,sy/em499--,:ile all ( ! n]v\s /ructures are v closely bl5d$1 =m+ "o complete sy/em = ! entire body1 ?is sy/em pres5ts diff]5t divisions :i* may1 = conv5i5ce1 be /udi$ sep>ately4 ,z physiologi/s h become bett] acqua9t$ ) ! human n]v\s sy/em1 diff]5t s*emes ( classification h be5 propos$4 ,! foll[+ outl9e1 bas$ ^u ! location ( ! diff]5t p>ts1 pres5ts p]haps ! simple/ view ( ! entire gr\p ( n]v\s /ructures3 ,table 99,! ,c5tral ,division499--,?is division ( ! n]v\s sy/em lies )9 ! cranial & sp9al cavities1 & consi/s ( ! bra9 & ! sp9al cord4 ,! bra9 occupy+ ! cranial cavity & ! sp9al cord 9 ! sp9al cavity connect ) ea* o!r ?r\gh ! l>ge op5+ at ! base ( ! skull to =m "o cont9u\s /ructure4 ,! bra9 & cord are ! mo/ complicat$ portions ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 & ! ones mo/ difficult to und]/&4 ,fig4 #acj ,fig4 #acj--99;,diagram ( divisions ( bra9499 99,! ,bra9499--,! bra91 :i* is ! l>ge/ mass ( n]v\s tissue 9 ! body1 weighs 9 ! av]age siz$ man ab\t #ej ounces1 & 9 ! av]age siz$ woman ab\t #dd ounces47#ih7 ,x may be r\ghly divid$ into ?ree p>ts1 :i* are nam$ f _! positions 79 l[] animals7 ! =ebra91 ! midbra91 & ! h9dbra9 7,fig4 #acj74 ,! =ebra9 consi/s almo/ entirely ( a s+le "p1 kn[n z 99,! ,c]ebrum499--,! c]ebrum comprises ab\t sev5 eigh?s ( ! entire bra91 & occupies all ! front1 middle1 back1 & upp] portions ( ! cranial cavity1 spread+ ov] & conceal+1 to a l>ge ext5t1 ! p>ts b5ea?4 ,! surface lay] ( ! c]ebrum is call$ ! cortex4 ,?is is made up l>gely ( cell-bodies1 & has a grayi% appe>ance47#ii7 ,! cortex is greatly increas$ 9 area by ! pres5ce ev]y:]e ( ridge-l convolutions1 betwe5 :i* are deep b n>r[ depressions1 call$ fissures4 ,! int]ior ( ! c]ebrum consi/s ma9ly ( n]ve fib]s1 or axons1 :i* give x a :iti% appe>ance4 ,^! fib]s connect ) ! cell-bodies 9 ! cortex 7,fig4 #aca74 ,! c]ebrum is a d\ble organ1 consi/+ ( two simil> divisions1 call$ ! c]ebral hemisph]es4 ,^! are sep>at$ by a deep groove1 ext5d+ f ! front to ! back ( ! bra91 kn[n z ! m$ian fissure4 ,! hemisph]es1 h[ev]1 are closely connect$ by a great b& ( und]ly+ n]ve fib]s1 call$ ! corpus callosum4 ,fig4 #aca ,fig4 #aca--99,microscope draw+99 ( a neuron f c]ebral cortex4 a4 ,%ort segm5t ( ! axis cyl9d] ) collat]al bran*es4 ,at ! base ( ! c]ebrum ?ree l>ge masses ( cell-bodies are to be f\nd4 ,"o ( ^!1 a d\ble mass1 occupies a c5tral position betwe5 ! hemisph]es1 & is call$ ! optic ?alami4 ,! o!r two occupy front c5tral positions at ! base ( ei!r hemisph]e1 & are kn[n z ! corpora /riata1 or ! /riate bodies4 99,! ,midbra999 is a %ort1 r\nd$1 & compact body t lies imm$iately b5ea? ! c]ebrum1 & connects x ) ! h9dbra94 ,on acc\nt ( ! great size ( ! c]ebrum1 ! midbra9 is entirely conceal$ f view :5 ! o!r p>ts occupy _! normal positions4 ,h[ev]1 if ! c]ebrum is pull$ away f ! h9dbra91 x is br\ght into view some:at z 9 ,fig4 #acj4 ,! midbra9 c>ries ^u its back & upp] surface f\r small r\nd$ masses ( cell-bodies1 call$ ! corpora quadrigem9a4 ,! upp] two ( ^! bodies are connect$ ) ! eyes2 ! l[] two appe> to h "s connection ) ! organs ( he>+4 ,on ! front & "u surface1 ! midbra9 sep>ates slightly z if to =m two pill>s1 :i* are call$ ! crura c]ebri1 or c]ebral p$uncles4 ,^! conta9 ! great bundles ( n]ve fib]s t connect ! c]ebrum ) ! p>ts ( ! n]v\s sy/em bel[4 99,! ,h9dbra999 lies b5ea? ! back portion ( ! c]ebrum1 & occupies ! enl>gem5t at ! base ( ! skull4 ,x =ms ab\t "o eigh? ( ! entire bra91 & is compos$ ( ?ree p>ts--! c]ebellum1 ! pons1 & ! bulb4 99,! ,c]ebellum99 is a flat & some:at triangul> /ructure ) its upp] surface fitt+ into ! triangul> "u surface ( ! back ( ! c]ebrum4 ,x is divid$ into ?ree lobes--a c5tral lobe & two lat]al lobes--& weighs ab\t two & "o half ounces4 ,9 its g5]al =m & appe>ance1 z well z 9 ! arrangem5t ( its cell-bodies & axons1 ! c]ebellum resembles ! c]ebrum4 ,x diff]s f ! c]ebrum1 h[ev]1 9 be+ m compact1 & 9 hav+ its surface cov]$ ) n>r[1 transv]se ridges in/ead ( ! irregul> & broad] convolutions 7,fig4 #acb74 99,! ,pons991 or pons ,v>olii1 nam$ f its suppos$ resemblance to a bridge1 is situat$ 9 front ( ! c]ebellum1 & is readily recogniz$ z a circul> expansion :i* ext5ds =w>d f t body4 ,x consi/s l>gely ( b&s ( n]ve fib]s1 betwe5 :i* are sev]al small masses ( cell-bodies4 ,! fib]s connect ) diff]5t p>ts ( ! c]ebellum & ) p>ts above4 ,fig4 #acb ,fig4 #acb--99;,human bra999 view$ f bel[4 ,c4 ,c]ebrum4 ,cb4 ,c]ebellum4 ,m4 ,midbra94 ,p4 ,pons4 ,b4 ,bulb4 ,i-,,xii4 ,cranial n]ves4 99,! ,bulb991 or m$ulla oblongata1 is1 prop]ly speak+1 an enl>gem5t ( ! sp9al cord )9 ! cranial cavity4 ,x is some:at triangul> 9 %ape1 & lies imm$iately bel[ ! c]ebellum4 ,x conta9s important clu/]s ( cell-bodies1 z well z ! n]ve fib]s t pass f ! sp9al cord to ! bra94 99,! ,sp9al ,cord499--,?is division ( ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em is ab\t sev5te5 in*es 9 l5g? & two ?irds ( an in* 9 diamet]4 ,x does n ext5d ! entire l5g? ( ! sp9al cavity1 z might be suppos$1 b t]m9ates at ! l[] m>g9 ( ! fir/ lumb> v]tebra47#ajj7 ,x connects at ! upp] end ) ! bulb1 & t]m9ates at ! l[] extremity 9 a numb] ( l>ge n]ve roots1 :i* are cont9u\s ) ! n]ves ( ! hips & legs 7,fig4 #acc74 ,two deep fissures1 "o 9 front & ! o!r at ! back1 ext5d ! entire l5g? ( ! cord1 & sep>ate x into two simil> divisions4 ,^! are connect$1 h[ev]1 along _! entire l5g? by a c5tral b& consi/+ ( bo? gray & :ite matt]4 ,fig4 #acc ,fig4 #acc--99,sp9al cord991 %[+ on "o side ! n]ves & ganglia ) :i* x is closely relat$ 9 function4 ,a4 ,bulb4 ,b4 ,c]vical enl>gem5t4 ,c4 ,lumb> enl>gem5t4 ,d4 ,t]m9ation ( cord4 ,e4 ,n]ve roots t occupy ! sp9al cavity bel[ ! cord4 ,p4 ,pons4 ,d4,g4 ,dorsal root ganglia4 ,s4,g4 ,sympa!tic ganglia4 ,n4 ,n]ve trunks to upp] & l[] extremities4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! neurons ( ! sp9al cord is j ! rev]se ( t 9 ! c]ebrum--! c5t] be+ occupi$ by a d\ble column ( cell-bodies1 :i* give x a grayi% appe>ance1 :ile ! fib]s occupy ! out] portion ( ! cord1 giv+ x a :iti% appe>ance4 ,! sp9al cord is n uni=m 9 ?ickness1 b tap]s slightly1 ?\gh n uni=mly1 f ! upp] t[>d ! l[] end4 ,at ! places :]e ! n]ves f ! arms & legs ent] ! cord two enl>gem5ts are to be f\nd1 ! upp] be+ call$ ! c]vical & ! l[] ! lumb> enl>gem5t4 ,^!1 on acc\nt ( ! diff]5ce 9 l5g? betwe5 ! cord & ! sp9al cavity1 are above--! l[] "o consid]ably above--! places :]e ! limbs :i* !y supply jo9 ! trunk 7,fig4 #acc74 99,arrangem5t ( ! ,neurons ( ! ,bra9 & ,cord499--,! cell-bodies 9 ! bra9 & sp9al cord are collect$ into gr\ps1 & _! fib]s ext5d f ^! gr\ps to places t may be ne> or remote4 ,guid$ by ! :ite & gray colors ( ! n]v\s tissue1 & also by ! /ructures reveal$ by ! microscope1 physiologi/s h made out ?ree g5]al s*emes 9 ! gr\p+ ( cell-bodies1 z foll[s3 #a4 ,t ( surface di/ribution1 ! cell-bodies =m+ a ?9 b cont9u\s lay] ov] a giv5 surface4 ,?is is ! plan 9 ! c]ebrum & c]ebellum1 & "h are f\nd devices = increas+ ! surface3 ! c]ebrum hav+ convolutions1 ! c]ebellum transv]se ridges4 #b4 ,t ( collections ( cell-bodies into r\nd$ masses4 ,su* masses are f\nd 9 ! bulb1 ! pons1 ! midbra91 & ! base ( ! c]ebrum4 #c4 ,t ( arrangem5t 9 a cont9u\s column4 ,?is is ! plan 9 ! sp9al cord4 ,x matt]s n at :at place ! sp9al cord be cut1 a c5tral area ( gray matt]1 resembl+ 9 =m ! capital lett] ,h1 is always f\nd4 ,! fib]s connect+ ) ! cell-bodies 9 ! bra9 & sp9al cord are ga!r$ into bundles or tracts1 & ^! pass ?r\gh diff]5t p>ts some:at z foll[s3 #a4 ,9 ! c]ebrum !y ext5d 9 ?ree g5]al directions1 =m+ ?ree classes ( fib]s4 ,! fir/ connect diff]5t localities 9 ! same hemisph]e1 & are kn[n z association fib]s 7,a1 ,fig4 #acd74 ,! second make connection betwe5 ! two hemisph]es1 & =m ! corpus callosum4 ,^! are kn[n z commissural fib]s 7,c1 ,fig4 #acd74 ,! ?ird connect ! c]ebrum ) ! p>ts ( ! n]v\s sy/em bel[1 & are call$ projection fib]s 7,p1 ,fig4 #acd74 #b4 ,9 ! c]ebellum bo? association & commissural fib]s are f\nd4 ,b&s ( fib]s1 pass+ upw>d t[>d ! c]ebrum & d[nw>d t[>d ! cord1 connect ?is "p ( ! bra9 ) o!r p>ts ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,fig4 #acd ,fig4 #acd--99,semi-diagrammatic repres5tation ( a section ?r\gh ! "r c]ebral hemisph]e991 %[+ fib] tracts4 ,a4 ,association fib]s4 ,c4 ,commissural fib]s4 ,p4 ,projection fib]s4 ,! cell-bodies ) :i* ! fib] bundles connect are 9 ! surface lay] or cortex4 #c4 ,9 ! midbra91 bulb1 & sp9al cord fib]s are f\nd3 fir/1 t connect ^! p>ts ) ! c]ebrum7#aja7 & c]ebellum above2 second1 t pass into & become a "p ( ! n]ves ( ! body2 & ?ird1 t connect ! opposite sides ( ^! p>ts toge!r4 99,! ,p]iph]al ,division499--,! p]iph]al division ( ! n]v\s sy/em includes all ! n]v\s /ructures f\nd outside ( ! bra9 & sp9al cord4 ,^! consi/ ( ! cranial1 sp9al1 & sympa!tic n]ves1 & ( v>i\s small ganglia1 all ( :i* are closely connect$ ) ! c5tral sy/em4 99,sp9al ,n]ves & ,dorsal-root ,ganglia499--,! sp9al n]ves comprise a gr\p ( ?irty-"o pairs1 :i* connect ! sp9al cord ) diff]5t p>ts ( ! trunk1 ) ! upp]1 & ) ! l[] extremities4 ,ea* n]ve jo9s ! cord by two roots1 ^! be+ nam$ f _! positions ! v5tral1 or ant]ior1 root & ! dorsal1 or po/]ior1 root4 ,! two roots bl5d toge!r )9 ! sp9al cavity to =m a s+le n]ve trunk1 :i* passes out betwe5 ! v]tebr4 ,on ! dorsal root ( ea* sp9al n]ve is a small ganglion :i* is nam$1 f its position1 ! dorsal-root ganglion4 7,consult ,figs4 #acc & #ace1 & also ,fig4 #abe47 99,d\ble ,nature ( ,sp9al ,n]ves499--,*>les ,bell1 9 #ahaa1 made ! rem>kable discov]y t ea* sp9al n]ve is d\ble 9 function4 ,he f\nd ! portion connect+ ) ! cord by ! dorsal root to be conc]n$ 9 ! production ( feel+ & ! portion connect+ by ! v5tral root to be conc]n$ 9 ! production ( motion4 ,9 keep+ ) ^! functions1 ! two divisions ( ! n]ve are made up ( diff]5t k9ds ( fib]s1 z foll[s3 #a4 ,! dorsal-root divisions1 ( ! fib]s ( di-axonic neurons1 ! cell-bodies ( :i* =m ! dorsal-root ganglia 7,fig4 #ace74 #b4 ,! v5tral-root divisions1 ( ! fib]s ( mon-axonic neurons1 ! cell-bodies ( :i* are 9 ! gray matt] ( ! cord4 ,! fir/ convey impulses to ! cord & are call$ aff]5t neurons27#ajb7 ! second convey impulses f ! cord & are kn[n z eff]5t neurons4 ,?us1 by =m+ a "p ( ! n]ve pa?ways betwe5 ! sk9 & ! bra91 ! dorsal divisions ( ^! n]ves aid 9 ! production ( feel+2 & by complet+ pa?ways to ! muscles1 ! v5tral divisions aid 9 ! production ( motion 7,figs4 #abi1 #ace1 & #ada74 ,fig4 #ace ,fig4 #ace--99;,connection ( sp9al n]ves ) ! cord499 ,on ! "r is %[n a n]ve pa?way f ! sk9 to ! muscle4 ,a division ( ?is pa?way rea*es ! bra94 99,! ,cranial ,n]ves499--,f ! "u front surface ( ! bra91 twelve pairs ( n]ves em]ge & pass to ! head1 neck1 & upp] portions ( ! trunk4 ,^!1 ! cranial n]ves1 h names sugge/ive ( _! function or di/ribution &1 9 addition1 are giv5 numb]s :i* indicate ! ord] 9 :i* !y leave ! bra9 7,fig4 #acf74 ,unlike ! sp9al n]ves1 ! cranial n]ves pres5t great v>iety among !mselves1 sc>cely any two ( !m be+ alike 9 function or 9 _! connection ) diff]5t p>ts ( ! body4 ,sev]al ( !m h to d ) ! special s5ses1 & are = ?is reason v important4 ,!y connect ! bra9 ) ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! head1 neck1 & trunk1 z foll[s3 #a4 ,! fir/ pair 7olfactory n]ves2 n]ves ( smell2 aff]5t7 connect ) ! muc\s membrane ( ! no/rils 7,fig4 #acf74 #b4 ,! second pair 7optic n]ves2 n]ves ( sight2 aff]5t7 connect ) ! ret9a ( ! eyes4 #c4 ,! ?ird1 f\r?1 & six? pairs 7motores oculi2 control muscles ( ! eyes2 eff]5t7 connect ) ! int]nal & ext]nal muscles ( ! eyeballs 7,fig4 #acf74 ,fig4 #acf ,fig4 #acf--99;,diagram sugge/+ ! di/ribution & functions ( ! cranial n]ves99 7,colton74 ,see also ,fig4 #acb4 #d4 ,! fif? pair 7trigem9al n]ves2 n]ves ( feel+ to ! face1 ( ta/e to ! front ( ! tongue1 & ( control ( muscles ( ma/ication2 aff]5t & eff]5t7 connect ) ! sk9 ( ! face1 ! muc\s membrane ( ! m\?1 ! tee?1 & ! muscles ( ma/ication4 #e4 ,! sev5? pair 7facial n]ves2 control muscles t give ! facial expressions2 eff]5t7 connect ) ! muscles j b5ea? ! sk9 ( ! face4 #f4 ,! eigh? pair 7auditory n]ves2 n]ves ( he>+2 aff]5t7 connect ) ! int]nal e>4 #g4 ,! n9? pair 7glossoph>yngeal n]ves2 n]ves ( ta/e to back ( tongue & ( muscul> control ( ph>ynx2 aff]5t & eff]5t7 connect ) ! back surface ( ! tongue & ) ! muscles ( ! ph>ynx4 #h4 ,! t5? pair 7vagus1 or pneumoga/ric1 n]ves2 n]ves ( feel+ & ( muscul> control2 aff]5t & eff]5t7 connect ) ! he>t1 l>ynx1 lungs1 & /oma*4 ,!y h ! wide/ di/ribution ( any ( ! cranial n]ves4 #i4 ,! elev5? pair 7sp9al accessory n]ves2 control muscles ( neck2 eff]5t7 connect ) ! muscles ( ! neck4 #aj4 ,! twelf? pair 7hypoglossal n]ves2 control muscles ( ! tongue2 eff]5t7 connect ) ! muscles ( ! tongue4 99,sympa!tic ,ganglia & ,n]ves499--,! sympa!tic ganglia are f\nd 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! body1 & v>y 9 size f ^? :i* are half an in* 9 diamet] to ^? t are small] ?an ! heads ( p9s4 ,! l>ge/ & mo/ important ones are f\nd 9 two *a9s :i* lie 9 front1 & a little to ei!r side1 ( ! sp9al column1 & ext5d f ! neck to ! region ( ! pelvis 7,figs4 #abe & #acc74 ,! numb] ( ganglia 9 ea* ( ^! *a9s is ab\t tw5ty-f\r4 ,!y are connect$ on ei!r side by ! "r & left sympa!tic n]ves :i* ext5d v]tically f ganglion to ganglion4 ,9 addition to ! ganglia =m+ ^! *a9s1 important ones are f\nd 9 ! head 7outside ( ! cranial cavity7 & 9 ! plexuses ( ! ?orax & ! abdom54 ,! sympa!tic ganglia receive n]ves f ! c5tral division ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 b connect ) gl&s1 blood vessels1 & ! inte/9al walls ?r\gh fib]s f _! own cell-bodies4 ,"s ( ^! latt] fib]s jo9 ! sp9al n]ves1 & "s bl5d ) ea* o!r to =m small sympa!tic n]ves4 99,protection ( ,bra9 & ,sp9al ,cord499--,on acc\nt ( _! delicate /ructure1 ! bra9 & sp9al cord require ! mo/ complete protection4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !y are surr\nd$ by ! bones ( ! head & sp9al column2 ^! n only %ield !m f ! direct effects ( physical =ce1 b by _! peculi> con/ruction prev5t1 to a l>ge degree1 ! passage ( j>s & %ocks to ! p>ts )94 ,9 ! second place1 !y are surr\nd$ by ?ree sep>ate membranes1 z foll[s3 #a4 ,! dura1 or dura mat]1 a ?ick1 d5se1 & t\gh membrane :i* l9es ! bony cavities & =ms support+ p>titions4 #b4 ,! pia1 or pia mat]1 a ?91 delicate membrane1 conta9+ num]\s blood vessels1 t cov]s ! surface ( ! bra9 & cord4 #c4 ,! ara*noid1 a membrane ( loose texture1 t lies betwe5 ! dura & ! p94 ,f9ally1 )9 ! spaces ( ! ara*noid is a lymph-l liquid :i* completely envelops ! bra9 & ! cord1 & :i*1 by s]v+ z a wat]y cu%ion1 protects !m f j>s & %ocks4 ,?us ! bra9 & cord are directly %ield$ by bones1 by membranes1 & by ! liquid :i* surr\nds !m4 ,!y are also protect$ f j>s result+ f ! movem5ts ( ! body by ! g5]al ela/icity ( ! skeleton4 99,summ>y499--,! n]v\s sy/em e/abli%es connections betwe5 all p>ts ( ! body1 & provides a /imulus by means ( :i* !y are controll$4 ,x is made up ( a special =m ( cells1 call$ neurons4 ,! neurons =m ! diff]5t divisions ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 & also s]ve z ! active ag5ts 9 c>ry+ on its "w4 ,?r\gh a side-by-side me?od ( jo9+ !y =m ! n]ves1 ganglia1 sp9al cord1 & bra92 & by a me?od ( end-to-end jo9+ !y connect places remote f ea* o!r1 & provide = n]v\s movem5ts ?r\gh ! body4 ,! n]v\s sy/em1 may 9 "s respects be comp>$ to a complicat$ sy/em ( telephony1 9 :i* ! *a9s ( neurons correspond to ! wires1 & ! bra9 & sp9al cord to ! c5tral /ation4 ,ex]cises4--#a4 ,give ! mean+ ( ! t]m cord9ation4 ,supply illu/rations4 #b4 ,:at two g5]al conditions are suppli$ 9 ! body by ! n]v\s sy/em8 #c4 ,comp>e ! skeleton outl9e ( ! n]v\s sy/em ) ! bony skeleton4 #d4 ,sket* outl9es ( mon-axonic & di-axonic neurons4 #e4 ,give two diff]5ces betwe5 ! neurons & ! o!r cells ( ! body4 #f4 ,describe ! two g5]al me?ods ( connect+ neurons 9 ! body4 ,:at purpose is accompli%$ by ea* me?od8 #g4 ,"n & locate ! pr9cipal divisions ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 #h4 ,draw an outl9e ( ! bra9 7side view71 locat+ ea* ( its pr9cipal divisions4 #i4 ,if a p5cil 7 plac$ ov] ! e>1 :at portions ( ! bra9 w\ld be above x & :at bel[8 #aj4 ,describe briefly ! c]ebrum1 ! c]ebellum1 ! midbra91 ! pons1 & ! bulb4 #aa4 ,locate & describe ! cortex4 ,/ate purpose ( ! convolutions4 #ab4 ,/ate ! g5]al diff]5ces betwe5 ! cranial & ! sp9al n]ves4 #ac4 ,locate & give ! numb] ( ! dorsal-root ganglia4 ,locate & give ! approximate numb] ( ! sympa!tic ganglia4 #ad4 ,%[ h[ ! two portions ( ! sp9al n]ves are =m$--! "o f ! mon-axonic & ! o!r f ! di-axonic neurons4 #ae4 ,enum]ate ! diff]5t ag5cies ?r\gh :i* ! bra9 & sp9al cord are protect$4 #af4 ,:at cranial n]ves conta9 aff]5t fib]s8 ,:at ones conta9 eff]5t fib]s8 ,:at ones conta9 bo? aff]5t & eff]5t fib]s8 #ag4 ,9 :at respects is ! n]v\s sy/em simil> to a sy/em ( telephony8 ,9 :at respects is x diff]5t8 ,,practical ,,"w ,exam9e a model ( ! bra91 id5tify+ ! diff]5t divisions & not+ ! position & relative size ( ! diff]5t p>ts 7,fig4 #acg74 ,obs]ve ! convolutions ( ! c]ebrum & comp>e ^! ) ! p>allel ridges ( ! c]ebellum4 ,if ! model is dissectible1 /udy ! arrangem5t ( ! cell-bodies 7gray matt]7 & ! di/ribution ( ! fib] bundles 7:ite matt]74 ,note ! connection ( ! cranial n]ves ) ! "u side4 ,fig4 #acg ,fig4 #acg--,model = demon/rat+ ! bra9 7dissectible74 ,a prep>$ n]v\s sy/em ( a frog 7su* z may be obta9$ f supply h\ses7 %\ld also be exam9$4 ,obs]ve ! appe>ance & g5]al di/ribution ( ! n]ves & _! connection ) ! bra9 & sp9al cord4 ,if su* a prep>ation is n at h&1 "s small animal may be dissect$ to %[ ! ma9 divisions ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 z foll[s3 99,dissection ( ! ,n]v\s ,sy/em99 7by ! tea*]74--,= ?is purpose a half-gr[n cat is g5]ally ! be/ available mat]ial4 ,?is %\ld be kill$ ) *lor(orm & secur$ to a bo>d z 9 ! dissection ( ! abdom5 7page #afi74 ,op5 ! abdom9al cavity & remove ! cont5ts1 ty+ ! alim5t>y canal :]e x is cut1 & wa%+ out any blood :i* may escape4 ,dissect = ! n]v\s sy/em 9 ! foll[+ ord]3 #a4 ,cut away ! front ( ! *e/1 expos+ ! he>t & lungs4 ,f9d on ea* side ( ! he>t a n]ve :i* passes by ! side ( ! p]ic>dium to ! diaphragm4 ,^! n]ves assi/ 9 controll+ respiration & are call$ ! phr5ic n]ves4 ,f9d o!r n]ves go+ to diff]5t p>ts ( ! ?orax4 #b4 ,remove ! he>t & lungs4 ,f9d 9 ! back "p ( ! ?oracic cavity1 on ea* side ( ! sp9al column1 a numb] ( small knots ( n]v\s matt] jo9$ toge!r by a s+le n]ve4 ,^! are sympa!tic ganglia4 ,:]e ! neck jo9s ! ?orax1 f9d two sympa!tic ganglia mu* l>g] ?an ! o!rs4 #c4 ,cut away ! sk9 f ! %\ld] & upp] side ( ! =e leg4 ,by sep>at+ ! muscles & connective tissue :]e ! leg jo9s ! ?orax1 f9d sev]al n]ves ( consid]able size4 ,^! connect ) ea* o!r1 =m+ a network call$ ! bra*ial plexus4 ,f "h n]ves pass to ! ?orax & to ! =e leg4 #d4 ,f ! bra*ial plexus trace out ! n]ves :i* pass to diff]5t p>ts ( ! =e leg4 ,9 do+ ?is sep>ate ! muscles ) ! f+]s & use ! knife only :]e x is necess>y to expose ! n]ves4 ,note t "s ( ! bran*es pass into ! muscles1 :ile o!rs connect ) ! sk94 #e4 ,remove ! sk9 f ! upp] portion ( "o ( ! h9d legs & sep>ate ! muscles c>efully until a l>ge n]ve is f\nd4 ,?is is "o ( ! divisions ( ! sciatic n]ve4 ,c>efully trace x to ! sp9al cord1 cutt+ away ! bone :]e necess>y1 & f9d ! connections ( its bran*es ) ! cord4 ,!n trace x t[>d ! foot1 discov]+ its bran*es to diff]5t muscles & to ! sk94 #f4 ,unjo9t ! neck & remove ! head4 ,exam9e ! sp9al cord :]e expos$4 ,cut away ! bone suffici5tly to %[ ! connection betwe5 ! cord & "o ( ! sp9al n]ves4 ,on ! dorsal root ( "o ( ! n]ves f9d a small ganglion4 ,:at is x call$8 #g4 ,fa/5 ! head to a small bo>d & remove ! scalp4 ,saw ?r\gh ! skull bones 9 sev]al directions4 ,pry (f ! small pieces ( bones1 expos+ ! upp] surface ( ! bra94 ,/udy its membranes1 convolutions1 & divisions4 #h4 ,) a pair ( bone =ceps1 or nipp]s1 break away ! skull until ! entire bra9 c be remov$ f ! cavity4 ,exam9e ! diff]5t divisions1 not+ ! relative position & size ( ! p>ts4 #i4 ,) a %>p knife cut sections ?r\gh ! diff]5t p>ts1 %[+ ! positions ( ! gray matt] & ( ! :ite matt]4 ,,note4--,if ! entire class is to exam9e "o specim51 x is g5]ally bett] to h ! dissect+ done be=eh& & ! p>ts sep>at$ & tack$ to small bo>ds4 ,?is w p]mit ( individual exam9ation4 ,sket*es ( ! sciatic n]ve1 bra*ial plexus1 & ( sections ?r\gh ! bra9 & sp9al cord %\ld be made4 99,location ( ,n]ves 9 ! ,body499--,sev]al ( ! n]ves ( ! body lie suffici5tly ne> ! surface to be locat$ by pressure & are easily recogniz$ z s5sitive cords4 ,slight pressure f ! f+]s reveals ! pres5ce ( n]ves 9 ! grooves ( ! elb[ 7! crazy bone71 betwe5 ! muscles on ! inn] side ( ! arm ne> ! %\ld]1 & 9 ! holl[ "p ( ! leg back ( ! knee4 ,^! are all l>ge n]ves4 ,small n]ves may be locat$ 9 ! same mann] 9 ! face & neck4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii - ,,physiology ,,( ,,! ,,n]v\s ,,sy/em ,9 ! prec$+ *apt] 0 po9t$ out ! me?od by :i* ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! body are br\ght into communication by ! neurons or n]ve cells4 ,we are n[ to /udy ! means :]eby ! neurons are made to control & cord9ate ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! body & br+ ab\t ! necess>y adju/m5t ( ! body to its surr\nd+s4 ,?is "w ( ! neurons naturally has "s relation to _! prop]ties4 99,prop]ties ( ,neurons499--,! "w ( ! neurons seems to dep5d ma9ly ^u two prop]ties--! prop]ty ( irritability & ! prop]ty ( conductivity4 ,irritability 0 expla9$1 9 ! /udy ( ! muscles 7page #bdc71 z ! ability to respond to a /imulus4 ,x has ! same mean+ "h4 ,! neurons1 h[ev]1 respond m readily to /imuli ?an d ! muscles & are !re=e m irritable4 ,moreov]1 !y are /imulat$ by all ! =ces t induce muscul> contraction & by _m o!rs besides4 ,!y are by f> ! mo/ irritable portions ( ! body4 ,conductivity is ! prop]ty :i* enables ! effect ( a /imulus to be transf]r$ f "o "p ( a neuron to ano!r4 ,on acc\nt ( ?is prop]ty1 an excitation1 or di/urbance1 9 any "p ( a neuron is conduct$ or c>ri$ to all ! o!r p>ts4 ,?us a di/urbance at ! di/ant ends ( ! d5drites causes a movem5t t[>d ! cell-body &1 rea*+ ! cell-body1 ! di/urbance is pass$ ?r\gh x into ! axon4 ,?is movem5t ?r\gh ! neuron is call$ ! n]v\s impulse4 99,purpose ( ! ,impulse4 99--,?\gh ! nature ( ! n]v\s impulse is n und]/ood1 7#ajc7 its purpose is q app>5t4 ,x is ! means employ$ by ! n]v\s sy/em = controll+ & cord9at+ ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! body4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! neurons enables impulses to be />t$ 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 & ! prop]ty ( conductivity causes !m to be pass$ z /imuli to o!r p>ts4 ,?is enables excitation at "o place to br+ ab\t action at ano!r place4 ,act+ z /imuli1 ! impulses seem able to produce two di/9ct effects3 fir/1 to ?r[ re/+ organs into action & to increase ! activity ( organs already at "w2 & second1 to dim9i% ! rate1 or *eck entirely1 ! activity ( organs4 ,impulses produc+ ! fir/ effect are call$ excitant impulses2 ^? produc+ ! second effect1 inhibitory impulses4 99,functions ( ! ,p>ts ( ,neurons499--,! cell-body s]ves z a nutritive c5t] f :i* ! o!r p>ts d]ive n\ri%m5t4 ,pro( ( ?is is f\nd 9 ! fact t :5 any "p ( ! neuron is sep>at$ f ! cell-body1 x dies1 :ile ! cell-body & ! p>ts atta*$ to ! cell-body may cont9ue to live4 ,9 addition to ?is ! cell-body probably ren=ces ! n]v\s impulse4 ,! d5drites s]ve two purposes3 fir/1 !y ext5d ! surface ( ! cell-body1 !reby enabl+ x to absorb a great] am\nt ( n\ri%m5t f ! surr\nd+ lymph2 second1 !y act z receiv]s ( /imuli f o!r neurons4 ,! same impulse does n pass f "o neuron to ano!r4 ,an impulse 9 "o neuron1 h[ev]1 is able to excite ! neuron ) :i* x makes an end-to-end connection1 s t a s]ies ( impulses is produc$ along a giv5 n]ve pa? 7,fig4 #abi74 ,! special function ( ! axon is to transmit ! impulse4 ,by its l5g?1 /ructure1 & prop]ty ( conductivity x is especially adapt$ to ?is purpose4 ,! axis cyl9d]1 h[ev]1 is ! only "p ( ! axon conc]n$ 9 ! transmission4 ,! primitive %ea? & ! m$ull>y lay] protect ! axis cyl9d]1 &1 accord+ to "s au?orities1 s]ve to insulate x4 ,! m$ull>y %ea? may also aid 9 ! n\ri%m5t ( ! axis cyl9d]4 99,n]ve ,/imuli499--,:ile ! prop]ties ( irritability & conductivity supply a necess>y cause = ! production & transmission ( n]v\s impulses1 ^! alone are n suffici5t to acc\nt = _! orig94 ,an additional cause is necess>y--a =ce n f\nd 9 ! n]ve protoplasm1 b "o :i*1 by its action on ! protoplasm1 makes x produce ! impulse4 ,9 ?is respect1 ! neuron does n diff] ess5tially f ! cell ( a muscle4 ,j z ! muscle cell requires a /imulus to make x contract1 s does ! neuron require a /imulus to />t ! impulse4 ,h5ce1 9 acc\nt+ = ! activities ( ! body1 x is n suffici5t to say !y are caus$ by n]v\s impulses4 ,we mu/ also inve/igate ! n]ve /imuli--! means ?r\gh :i* ! n]v\s impulses are />t$4 ,mo/ ( ^! are f\nd outside ( ! body & are kn[n z ext]nal /imuli4 99,action ( ,ext]nal ,/imuli499--,9 ! arrangem5t ( ! n]v\s sy/em ! mo/ favorable conditions are provid$ = ! reception ( ext]nal /imuli4 ,n only d va/ numb]s ( neurons t]m9ate at ! surface ( ! body17#ajd7 b !y connect !re ) delicate /ructures1 call$ s5se organs4 ,! purpose ( ! s5se organs is to s5sitize 7make s5sitive7 ! t]m9ations ( ! neurons4 ,?is !y d by supply+ special /ructures ?r\gh :i* ! /imuli c act to ! be/ advantage ^u ! n]ve end+s4 ,moreov]1 !re are diff]5t k9ds ( s5se organs1 & ^! cause ! neurons to be s5sitive to diff]5t k9ds ( /imuli4 ,act+ ?r\gh ! s5se organs adapt$ = receiv+ !m1 light1 s\nd1 heat1 cold1 & odors all act z /imuli = />t+ impulses4 ,inde$1 ! arrangem5t is s complete t ! n]v\s sy/em is subject$ to ! action ( ext]nal /imuli 9 "s =m practically all ! "t4 ,! "w ( ! s5se organs is fur!r consid]$ 9 ,*apt]s ,,xx1 ,,xxi1 & ,,xxii4 99,h[ ,ext]nal ,/imuli act on ,int]nal ,organs499--,= /imulat+ ! neurons n connect$ ) ! body surface we are dep5d5t1 s f> z kn[n1 ^u ! n]v\s impulses4 ,an impulse />t$ by ! ext]nal /imulus goes only s f> z its neuron ext5ds4 ,b x s]ves z a /imulus = ! neuron ) :i* ! fir/ connects & />ts an impulse 9 ?is connect+ neuron1 ! po9t ( /imulation be+ :]e ! fib] t]m9ations ( ! fir/ neuron make connection ) ! d5drites ( ! second4 ,?is impulse 9 turn /imulates ! next neuron1 & s on1 produc+ a s]ies ( impulses along a giv5 n]ve pa?4 ,9 ?is way ! effect ( an ext]nal /imulus may rea* & br+ ab\t action 9 any "p ( ! body4 ,?is is 9 brief ! g5]al plan ( induc+ action 9 ! v>i\s organs ( ! body4 ,?is plan1 h[ev]1 is v>i$ accord+ to circum/ances1 & at lea/ ?ree well-def9$ =ms ( action are easily made out4 ,^! are kn[n z reflex action1 volunt>y action1 & second>y reflex action4 99,reflex ,action499--,:5 "s sudd5 or /rong /imulus acts ^u ! n]ve t]m9ations at ! surface ( ! body1 an imm$iate response is frequ5tly obs]v$ 9 "s quick movem5t4 ,! j]k+ away ( ! h& on accid5tally t\*+ a hot /ove1 ! w9k+ ( ! eyes on sudd5 exposure to dang]1 & ! quick movem5ts f slight electrical %ocks are famili> examples4 ,! explanation ( reflex action is t ext]nal /imuli />t impulses 9 neurons t]m9at+ at ! surface ( ! body & ^!1 9 turn1 excite impulses 9 neurons :i* pass f ! sp9al cord or bra9 to ! muscles 7,fig4 #ach74 ,s9ce !re is an app>5t turn+ back ( ! impulses by ! cord or bra91 ! result+ movem5ts are t]m$ reflex47#aje7 ,fig4 #ach ,fig4 #ach--99;,diagram illu/rat+ reflex action ( an ext]nal organ499 99,reflex ,action & ! ,m9d499--,if "o c>efully /udies ! reflex actions ( 8 own body1 he w f9d t !y occur at ! "t1 or ev5 a little be=e ! "t1 t he realizes :at has happ5$4 ,if a fea!r is br\ght 9 contact ) ! m s5sitive p>ts ( ! face ( a sleep+ p]son1 !re is a twit*+ ( ! sk9 & sometimes a movem5t ( ! h& to remove ! (f5d+ sub/ance4 ,surgeons op]at+ ^u pati5ts completely "u ! influ5ce ( *lor(orm1 & !re=e completely unconsci\s1 h obs]v$ /rong reflex actions4 ,^! & o!r simil> cases indicate cle>ly t reflex action occurs indep5d5tly ( ! m9d--t ! m9d nei!r causes nor controls x4 ,if a fur!r pro( ( ?is fact 7 ne$$1 x is suppli$ by exp]im5ts ^u c]ta9 ( ! l[] animals17#ajf7 :i* live = a :ile aft] ! removal ( ! bra94 ,^! exp]im5ts %[ t ! n]v\s impulses t produce reflex action ne$ only pass ?r\gh ! sp9al cord & d n rea* ! c]ebrum1 ! organ ( ! m9d4 99,! ,reflex ,action ,pa?way499--,by /udy ( ! impulses t produce any reflex action1 a r def9ite pa?way may be made out1 hav+ ! foll[+ divisions3 #a4 ,f ! surface ( ! body to ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em 7usually ! sp9al cord74 ,?is1 ! aff]5t division1 is made up ( di-axonic neurons1 & ^! h 79 ! case ( ! sp9al n]ves7 _! cell-bodies 9 ! dorsal root ganglia 7page #bie74 ,!y are act$ ^u by ext]nal /imuli1 :ile _! impulses 9 turn act on ! neurons 9 ! sp9al cord4 #b4 ,?r\gh ! c5tral sy/em 7sp9al cord or base ( bra974 ,?is1 ! int]m$iate division1 may be compos$ ( mon-axonic neurons1 or x may consi/ ( bran*es f ! aff]5t neurons4 ,9 ! case ( sep>ate neurons1 ^! are act$ ^u by impulses f ! aff]5t neurons1 :ile _! impulses s]ve 9 turn z /imuli to o!r neurons )9 ! cord 7,fig4 #abi74 #c4 ,f ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em to ! muscles4 ,?is1 ! eff]5t division1 is made up ( mon-axonic neurons4 ,mo/ ( ^! h _! cell-bodies 9 ! gray matt] ( ! cord1 :ile _! fib]s pass into ! sp9al n]ves by ! v5tral roots47#ajg7 ,!y may be /imulat$ by impulses ei!r f ! int]m$iate neurons1 or f bran*es ( ! aff]5t neurons4 ,_! impulses rea* & /imulate ! muscles4 99,reflex ,action 9 ,dige/ion499--,! fl[+ ( ! saliva1 :5 food is pres5t 9 ! m\?1 is an example ( reflex action4 ,9 ?is case1 h[ev]1 ! organ excit$ to activity is a gl& in/ead ( a muscle4 ,! food />ts ! impulses1 & ^!1 act+ ?r\gh ! bulb1 rea* & /imulate ! saliv>y gl&s4 ,9 a simil> mann] food excites ! gl&s t empty _! fluids into ! /oma* & inte/9es1 & /imulates ! muscul> coats ( ^! organs to d _! "p 9 ! dige/ive process4 ,to a consid]able ext5t1 neurons hav+ _! cell-bodies 9 ! sympa!tic ganglia are conc]n$ 9 ^! actions 7,fig4 #aci74 ,fig4 #aci ,fig4 #aci--;,diagram illu/rat+ reflex action 9 its relation to ! food canal4 ,! n]ve pa? 9 ?is case includes sympa!tic neurons4 99,reflex ,action 9 ! ,circulation ( ! ,blood499--,on sudd5 exposure to cold1 ! small art]ies go+ to ! sk9 quickly dim9i% 9 size1 *eck ! fl[ ( blood to ! surface1 & prev5t too great a loss ( heat4 ,9 ?is case1 impulses />t+ at ! surface ( ! body are transmitt$ to ! bulb & !n ?r\gh ! eff]5t neurons to ! muscles 9 ! walls ( ! art]ies4 ,9 a some:at simil> mann]1 heat leads to a relaxation ( ! art]ial walls & an increase 9 ! blood supply to ! sk94 ,o!r *anges 9 ! blood supply to diff]5t p>ts ( ! body are also ( ! nature ( reflex actions4 ,z 9 ! "w ( dige/ion1 neurons hav+ _! cell-bodies 9 ! sympa!tic ganglia aid 9 ! control ( ! circulation4 99,purposes ( ,reflex ,action499--,! examples ( reflex action s f> consid]$ illu/rate its two ma9 purposes--7#a7 protection1 & 7#b7 a means ( controll+ important processes4 ,! pupil has b to /udy c>efully ! reflex actions ( 8 own body = a p]iod1 say ( two or ?ree weeks1 9 ord] to be conv9c$ ( _! protective value4 ,he w obs]ve t portions ( 8 body h1 on exposure to dang]1 be5 mov$ to places ( safety1 :ile 9 "s in/ances1 l fall+1 8 entire body has be5 adju/$ to new conditions4 ,he w also f9d t reflex action is quick]1 & = t reason (f]s 9 "s cases bett] protection1 ?an movem5ts direct$ by ! m9d4 ,9 dige/ion & circulation are f\nd ! be/ examples ( ! control ( important processes ?r\gh reflex action4 99,volunt>y ,action499--,x is obs]v$ t reflex action1 9 ! s5se t x has s f> be5 consid]$1 is n ! usual mode ( action ( ! ext]nal organs1 b is1 in/ead1 a k9d ( em]g5cy action1 due to unusual conditions & excitation by /rong /imuli4 ,volunt>y actions1 on ! o!r h&1 repres5t ! ord9>y1 or normal1 action ( ^! organs4 ,!y comprise ! movem5ts ( ! body ( :i* we are consci\s & :i* are controll$ by ! m9d4 ,b :ile !y are ( a high] ord] ?an reflex actions & are "u intellig5t direction1 !y are br\ght ab\t 9 mu* ! same mann]4 99,volunt>y ,action ,pa?ways99 diff] 9 b "o ess5tial respect f ^? ( reflex action4 ,!y pass ?r\gh ! c]ebrum1 ! organ ( ! m9d 7,fig4 #adj74 ,?is is necess>y 9 ord] t ! m9d may control ! action4 ,f all portions ( ! body surface1 aff]5t pa?ways may be trac$ to ! c]ebrum2 & f ! c]ebrum eff]5t pa?ways ext5d to all ! volunt>y organs4 ,a complex sy/em ( int]m$iate neurons1 f\nd mo/ly 9 ! bra91 jo9 ! aff]5t ) ! eff]5t pa?ways4 ,! volunt>y pa?ways are n di/9ct f1 b include1 reflex pa?ways1 a fact :i* expla9s :y ! same ext]nal /imulus may excite bo? reflex & volunt>y action 7,fig4 #ada74 ,fig4 #adj ,fig4 #adj--99;,diagram ( a volunt>y action pa?way499 99,*oice 9 ,volunt>y ,action499--,9 reflex action a giv5 /imulus1 act+ 9 a c]ta9 way2 produces ea* "t ! same result4 ,?is is n ! case ) volunt>y action1 ! diff]5ce be+ due to ! m9d4 ,9 ^! actions ! ext]nal /imulus fir/ excites ! m9d1 & ! result+ m5tal processes--p]haps z memory ( previ\s exp]i5ces--supply a v>iety ( facts1 any ( :i* may act z /imuli to action4 ,be=e ! action takes place1 h[ev]1 "s "o fact mu/ be s+l$ out f among ! m5tal processes excit$4 ,?is fact becomes ! excit+ /imulus & leads to action4 ,x foll[s1 !re=e1 t ! action :i* f9ally occurs is n necess>ily ! result ( an imm$iate ext]nal /imulus1 b ( a select$ /imulus--"o :i* is ! result ( *oice4 ,fig4 #ada ,fig4 #ada--99;,diagram ( volunt>y action pa?ways99 includ+ reflex pa?ways4 ,n only does ! elem5t ( *oice ent] into ! selection ( ! prop] /imulus1 b x also ent]s into ! "t1 nature1 & int5sity ( ! action4 ,= ^! reasons x is frequ5tly impossible to trace volunt>y actions back to _! actual /imuli4 ,! pupil w recognize ! elem5t ( *oice 9 su* simple acts z pick+ up "s object f ! /reet1 comply+ ) a reque/1 & pur*as+ "s article f a /ore4 99,reflex & ,volunt>y ,action ,comp>$499--,c]ta9 lik5esses & diff]5ces1 already sugge/$ 9 ^! two =ms ( action1 may n[ be m fully po9t$ out4 ,reflex & volunt>y action are alike 9 t ! prim>y cause ( ea* is "s outside =ce or condition :i* has impress$ itself ^u ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,!y are also alike 9 ! g5]al direction tak5 by ! impulses 9 produc+ ! action4 ,! impulses are1 fir/1 f ! surface ( ! body to ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em2 second1 ?r\gh ! c5tral sy/em2 & ?ird1 f ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em to ! active tissues ( ! body4 ,_! *ief diff]5ces are to be f\nd1 fir/1 9 ! pa?ways foll[$ by ! impulses1 :i* are ?r\gh ! c]ebrum 7! organ ( ! m9d7 9 volunt>y action1 b 9 reflex action are only ?r\gh ! sp9al cord or ! l[] p>ts ( ! bra92 & second1 9 ! fact t volunt>y action is "u ! direction ( ! m9d1 :ile reflex action is n4 ,x w\ld seem1 !re=e1 t ! /atem5t sometimes made t volunt>y action is reflex action plus ! m9d is n f> f correct4 ,m9d1 h[ev]1 is ! important factor 9 ?is k9d ( action4 99,second>y ,reflex ,action499--,ev]yday exp]i5ce tea*es t any volunt>y action becomes easi] by repetition4 ,a giv5 act p]=m$ a numb] ( times "u consci\s direction e/abli%es a condition 9 ! n]v\s sy/em t enables x to occur )\t t direction & v mu* z reflex actions occur4 ,actions ( ?is k9d are kn[n z second>y reflex actions1 or z acquir$ reflexes4 ,walk+1 writ+1 & num]\s o!r movem5ts p]ta9+ to ! occupation :i* "o foll[s are examples ( su* reflexes4 ,^! activities are at fir/ entirely volunt>y1 b by repetition !y gradually become reflex1 requir+ only ! /imulus to />t !m4 ,! advantages to ! body ( its acquir$ reflexes are q app>5t4 ,! m9d does n h to att5d to ! selection & direction ( /imuli &1 to t ext5t1 is left free = o!r "w4 ,a good example ( ?is is f\nd 9 writ+1 :]e ! m9d app>5tly gives no he$ to ! movem5ts ( ! h& & is only conc]n$ 9 :at is be+ writt54 ,! /ud5t w easily supply o!r illu/rations ( ! advantages ( second>y reflex action4 ,! developm5t ( second>y reflexes probably consi/s 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( fix$ pa?ways = impulses ?r\gh ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,?r\gh ! bran*+ ( ! n]ve fib]s _m pa?ways are op5 to ! impulses4 ,b 9 repeat+ ! same k9d ( action ! impulses are guid$ into p>ticul> pa?s1 or *annels4 ,9 "t ^! pa?s become s well e/abli%$ t ! impulses fl[ along !m )\t consci\s direction & x is !n simply necess>y t "s /imulus />ts ! impulses4 ,by foll[+ ! e/abli%$ pa?ways1 ^! rea* ! "r de/9ation & produce ! desir$ result4 ,accord+ to ?is view1 second>y reflex action is b a high] phase ( ord9>y reflex action--a k9d ( reflex action1 ! conditions ( :i* h be5 e/abli%$ by ! m9d ?r\gh repetition4 7,see functions ( ! c]ebellum1 page #cag47 99,habits499--,p are obs]v$ to act diff]5tly :5 expos$ to ! same conditions1 or :5 act$ ^u by ! same /imuli4 ,?is is expla9$ by say+ !y h diff]5t habits4 ,by habits are meant c]ta9 g5]al modes ( action t h be5 acquir$ by repetition4 ,c]ta9 acts repeat$ aga9 & aga9 h e/abli%$ conditions 9 ! n]v\s sy/em :i* enable def9ite =ms ( action to be excit$1 some:at aft] ! mann] ( reflex action4 ,on acc\nt ( habits1 !re=e1 ! actions ( ! individual are m or less pr$ispos$4 ,:at he w d "u c]ta9 conditions may be =etold f 8 habits4 ,habits simply repres5t1 a high] ord] ( second>y reflexes--^? m closely associat$ ) ! m5tal life & "* ?an are ! l[] =ms4 ,habits1 9 common ) o!r =ms ( second>y reflex action1 s]ve ! important purpose ( economiz+ ! n]v\s en]gy4 ,h[ev]1 if p]nici\s habits are =m$ in/ead ( ^? t are useful1 !y are detrim5tal f bo? a moral & physical /&po9t4 ,y\? is recogniz$ z ! p]iod 9 :i* fundam5tal habits are =m$ & "* is l>gely det]m9$4 ,!re=e p>5ts & tea*]s d wisely :5 !y insi/ ^u ! =mation ( "r habits by ! "y4 99,functions ( ,divisions ( ! ,n]v\s ,sy/em499--,! relation%ip betwe5 ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! n]v\s sy/em is v close & "o "p does n "w indep5d5tly ( o!r p>ts4 ,at ! same "t ! g5]al "w ( ! n]v\s sy/em requires t its diff]5t divisions s]ve diff]5t purposes3 #a4 ,! p]iph]al divisions ( ! n]v\s sy/em are conc]n$ 9 ! transmission ( impulses betwe5 ! surface ( ! body & ! c5tral sy/em & betwe5 ! c5tral sy/em & ! active tissues4 ,! n]ves are ! c>ri]s ( ! impulses4 ,! ganglia conta9 ! cell-bodies :i* s]ve z nutritive c5t]s2 &1 9 ! case ( ! sympa!tic ganglia1 ^! cell-bodies are ! places :]e ! fib] t]m9ations ( "o neuron connect )1 & /imulate1 o!r neurons4 #b4 ,! gray matt] 9 ! sp9al cord1 bulb1 pons1 & midbra9 7?r\gh ! cell-bodies1 fib] t]m9ations1 & %ort neurons :i* !y conta97 completes ! reflex action pa?ways betwe5 ! surface ( ! body & ! volunt>y muscles1 & also betwe5 ! surface ( ! body & ! organs ( circulation & dige/ion4 #c4 ,! :ite matt] ( ! sp9al cord1 bulb1 pons1 & midbra9 7by means ( ! fib]s ( :i* !y are l>gely compos$7 =ms connections )1 & passes impulses betwe51 ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em4 #d4 ,! bulb1 because ( c]ta9 special reflex-action pa?ways complet$ ?r\gh x1 is ! portion ( ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em conc]n$ 9 ! control ( respiration1 circulation1 & ! secretion ( liquids4 99,"w ( ! ,sympa!tic ,ganglia & ,n]ves499--,! neurons :i* =m ^! ganglia aid 9 controll+ ! vital processes1 especially dige/ion & circulation4 ,^! neurons are controll$ = ! mo/ "p by fib]s f ! bulb & sp9al cord1 & _c = ?is reason be look$ ^u z =m+ an indep5d5t sy/em4 ,_! *ief purpose seems to be t ( spread+ ! influ5ce ( neurons f ! c5tral sy/em ov] a wid] area ?an !y w\ld o!rwise rea*4 ,= example1 a s+le neuron pass+ out f ! sp9al cord may1 by t]m9at+ 9 a sympa!tic ganglion1 /imulate a l>ge numb] ( neurons1 ea* ( :i* w 9 turn /imulate ! cells ( muscles or ( gl&s4 ,because ( ?is function1 ! sympa!tic neurons are sometimes call$ di/ribut+ neurons4 99,functions ( ! ,c]ebellum499--,ef=ts to discov] "s special function ( ! c]ebellum h be5 9 ! ma9 unsuccessful4 ,its removal f animals1 in/ead ( produc+ def9ite results1 usually int]f]es 9 a mild way ) a numb] ( activities4 ,! mo/ noticeable results are a g5]al weakness ( ! muscles & an inability on ! "p ( ! animal to balance itself4 ,?is & o!r facts1 includ+ ! mann] ( its connection ) o!r p>ts ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 h l$ to ! belief t ! c]ebellum is ! *ief organ = ! reflex cord9ation ( muscul> movem5ts1 especially ^? hav+ to d ) ! balanc+ ( ! body4 ,9 ?is connection x is subord9ate to & "u ! control ( ! c]ebrum4 ,( ! relations :i* ! c]ebellum su/a9s to ! c]ebrum & to ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! body1 ! foll[+ view is q g5]ally held3 ,9 ! developm5t ( second>y reflexes1 z already describ$1 conditions are e/abli%$ 9 ! c]ebellum1 su* t giv5 /imuli may act reflexively ?r\gh x & produce def9ite results 9 ! way ( muscul> contraction4 ,aft] ! e/abli%m5t ( ^! conditions1 aff]5t impulses f ! eyes1 e>s1 sk91 & o!r places1 "u ! g5]al direction ( ! c]ebrum1 may cause su* actions z ! balanc+ ( ! body1 walk+1 etc41 z well z ! delicate & v>i$ movem5ts ( ! h&4 ,?is view ( its functions makes ( ! c]ebellum ! great c5t] ( second>y reflex action4 99,functions ( ! ,c]ebrum499--,:ile ! "w ( ! c]ebrum is closely relat$ to t ( ! g5]al n]v\s sy/em1 x1 m ?an any o!r "p1 ex]cises functions peculi> to itself4 ,! c]ebrum is ! "p ( ! n]v\s sy/em ^u :i* our v>i$ exp]i5ces leave _! impressions & ?r\gh :i* ^! impressions are made to influ5ce ! movem5ts ( ! body4 ,b ! p[] to alt]1 po/pone1 or entirely inhibit1 n]v\s movem5ts is b a "p ( ! g5]al "w ascrib$ to ! c]ebrum z ! organ ( ! m9d4 ,num]\s exp]im5ts p]=m$ ^u ! l[] animals1 toge!r ) obs]vations on man1 %[ ! c]ebrum to be ! seat ( ! m5tal activities1 & to make possible1 9 "s way1 ! processes ( consci\sness1 memory1 volition1 imag9ation1 emotion1 ?\ght1 & s5sation4 99,localization ( ,c]ebral ,functions499--,_m exp]im5ts h be5 p]=m$ ) a view to det]m9+ :e!r ! entire c]ebrum is conc]n$ 9 ea* ( its sev]al activities or :e!r special functions belong to its diff]5t p>ts4 ,^! exp]im5ts h be5 made ^u ! l[] animals & ! results ?us obta9$ comp>$ ) obs]vations made ^u injur$ & imp]fectly develop$ bra9s 9 man4 ,! results h l$ to ! conclusion t c]ta9 =ms ( ! "w ( ! c]ebrum are localiz$ & t "s ( its p>ts are conc]n$ 9 processes diff]5t f ^? ( o!rs4 ,fig4 #adb ,fig4 #adb--99,location ( c]ebral functions499 ,diagram ( c]ebrum1 %[+ mo/ ( ! areas ^: functions are kn[n4 ,! "w ( locat+ ! functions ( diff]5t p>ts ( ! c]ebrum =ms "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ *apt]s 9 ! hi/ory ( bra9 physiology4 ,! portions hav+ to d ) sight1 volunt>y motion1 spee*1 & he>+ h be5 r accurately det]m9$1 :ile consid]able evid5ce z to ! location ( o!r functions has be5 secur$4 ,mu* ( ! c]ebral surface1 h[ev]1 is /ill undet]m9$ 7,fig4 #adb74 ,,n]v\s ,,control ,,( ,,important ,,processes 99,circulation ( ! ,blood499--#a4 ,control ( ! ,he>t4--,! ability to contract at regul> int]vals has be5 %[n to reside 9 ! he>t muscle4 ,among o!r pro(s is t furni%$ by cold-blood$ animals1 l ! frog1 ^: he>t rema9s active = q a :ile aft] its removal f ! body4 ,^! automatic contractions1 h[ev]1 are n suffici5t to meet all ! dem&s made ^u ! circulation4 ,! ne$s ( ! tissues = ! con/itu5ts ( ! blood v>y ) _! activity1 & x is !re=e necess>y to v>y frequ5tly ! =ce & rapidity ( ! he>t's contractions4 ,su* *anges ! he>t itself is unable to br+ ab\t4 ,= ! purpose ( controll+ ! rate & =ce ( its contractions1 ! he>t is connect$ ) ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em by two k9ds ( fib]s3 a4 ,fib]s t convey excitant impulses to ! he>t to quick5 its movem5ts4 b4 ,fib]s t convey inhibitory impulses to ! he>t to ret>d its movem5ts4 ,! cell-bodies ( ! excitant fib]s are f\nd 9 ! sympa!tic ganglia1 b fib]s f ! bulb connect ) & control !m4 ,! cell-bodies ( ! inhibitory fib]s are locat$ 9 ! bulb1 f :]e _! fib]s pass to ! he>t z a "p ( ! vagus n]ve4 ,9 addition to ! fib]s above m5tion$1 are ^? t convey impulses f ! he>t to ! bulb4 ,^! connect ) neurons t 9 turn connect ) blood vessels & ) !m act reflexively1 :5 ! he>t is likely to be ov]/ra9$1 to cause a dilation ( ! blood vessels4 ,?is less5s ! pressure :i* ! he>t mu/ ex]t to empty itself ( blood4 ,^! fib]s s]ve1 9 ?is way1 z a k9d ( safety valve = ! he>t4 #b4 ,control ( ,art]ies4--,*anges 9 ! rate & =ce ( ! he>t's contractions c be made to correspond only to ! g5]al ne$s ( ! body4 ,:5 ! blood supply to a p>ticul> organ is to be increas$ or dim9i%$1 ?is is accompli%$ ?r\gh ! muscul> coat 9 ! art]ies4 ,! connection ( ! art]ial muscle ) ! sympa!tic ganglia & ! me?od by :i* !y v>y ! fl[ ( blood to diff]5t organs has already be5 expla9$ 7pages #caa & #di71 s t only ! location ( ! controll+ neurons ne$ be not$ "h4 ,^!1 l ! controll+ neurons ( ! he>t1 h _! cell-bodies 9 ! bulb4 ,x ?us appe>s t ! entire control ( ! circulation is effect$ 9 a reflex mann] ?r\gh ! n]ve c5t]s 9 ! bulb4 ,^! c5t]s are /imulat$ by conditions t relate to ! movem5t ( ! blood ?r\gh ! body4 99,respiration499--,eff]5t fib]s connect ! diff]5t muscles ( respiration ) a clu/] ( cell-bodies 9 ! bulb1 call$ ! respiratory c5t]4 ,?is c5t] toge!r ) ! n]ves & muscles 9 "q =m an automatic1 or self-act+1 me*anism simil> 9 "s respects to t ( ! he>t4 ,?r\gh ! impulses pass+ f ! respiratory c5t] to ! muscles1 a rhy?mic action is ma9ta9$ suffici5t to satisfy ! usual ne$s ( ! body = oxyg54 ,! dem& ( ! body = oxyg51 h[ev]1 v>ies ) its activities1 & to su* v>iations ! respiratory c5t] alone is unable to respond4 ,! regulat+ factor 9 ! respiratory movem5ts has be5 f\nd to be ! condition ( ! blood ) ref]5ce to ! pres5ce ( oxyg5 & c>bon dioxide4 ,if ! blood conta9s mu* c>bon dioxide & little oxyg51 x acts z a /rong /imulus to ! respiratory c5t]1 caus+ x1 9 turn1 to /imulate ! respiratory muscles ) great] int5sity & frequ5cy4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! blood conta9s mu* oxyg5 & little c>bon dioxide1 x acts only z a mild /imulus4 ,?is expla9s h[ physical ex]cise increases ! brea?+1 s9ce ! muscles at "w consume m oxyg5 ?an :5 re/+ & give m c>bon dioxide & o!r wa/es to ! blood4 ,! respiratory c5t] is also connect$ by aff]5t n]ves ) ! muc\s membrane ( ! air passages4 ,irritation ( ! n]ve end+s 9 ?is membrane causes impulses to pass to ! c5t]1 & ?is leads1 by reflex action1 to su* modifications ( ! respiratory acts z sneez+ & c\gh+4 ,!re is also a connection betwe5 ! c]ebrum & ! respiratory c5t]4 ,?is is %[n by ! fact t "o c volunt>ily *ange ! rate & =ce ( ! respiratory movem5ts1 & fur!r by ! fact t emotions affect ! brea?+4 99,regulation ( ! ,body ,temp]ature499--,z expla9$ 9 ! /udy ( ! sk9 7page #bgj71 ! n]v\s sy/em regulates ! body temp]ature by controll+ ! circulation ( ! blood ?r\gh ! sk9 & ! int]nal organs4 ,?is is accompli%$ by /imulat+ 9 a reflex mann] ! muscles 9 ! walls ( c]ta9 art]ies4 ,to prev5t ! body f gett+ too hot1 muscles 9 ! art]ies go+ to ! sk9 relax1 !reby all[+ m blood to fl[ to ! surface1 :]e ! heat c be dispos$ ( ?r\gh radiation & ?r\gh ! evaporation ( ! p]spiration4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! body is 9 dang] ( los+ too mu* heat1 ! muscles 9 ! walls ( art]ies go+ to ! sk9 are made to contract & ^? to int]nal organs relax1 s t less blood fl[s to ! sk9 & m to ! int]nal organs4 ,9 ?is way ! n]v\s sy/em adju/s ! circulation to suit ! conditions ( temp]ature outside ( & )9 ! body &1 9 s do+1 ma9ta9s ! normal body temp]ature4 99,summ>y499--,! n]v\s sy/em is able to control1 cord9ate1 & adju/ ! diff]5t organs ( ! body ?r\gh its intimate connection ) all p>ts & ?r\gh a /imulus 7! n]v\s impulse7 :i* x supplies & transmits4 ,n]v\s impulses1 excit$ by ext]nal /imuli1 foll[ def9ite pa?s & cause activity 9 ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! body4 ,all su* pa?ways are ?r\gh ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em4 ,9 reflex action ! impulses are ma9ly ?r\gh ! sp9al cord1 b to "s ext5t ?r\gh ! bulb1 pons1 & midbra94 ,9 volunt>y action !y pass ?r\gh ! c]ebrum--a condition t leads to important modifications 9 ! results4 ,! c]ebrum1 9 addition to controll+ ! volunt>y movem5ts1 is able to e/abli% ! necess>y conditions = second>y reflex actions1 su* z walk+1 writ+1 etc4 ,al?\gh c]ta9 ( ! divisions ( ! n]v\s sy/em ex]cise special functions1 all p>ts ( x are closely relat$4 ,ex]cises4--#a4 ,give ! function ( ea* ( ! p>ts ( a neuron4 #b4 ,/ate ! purpose ( ! n]v\s impulse4 #c4 ,%[ t ! excit+ cause ( bodily action is outside ( ! n]v\s sy/em &1 to a l>ge ext5t1 outside ( ! body4 #d4 ,describe ! arrangem5t t enables /imuli outside ( ! body to cause action )9 ! body4 #e4 ,describe a reflex action & %[ h[ x is br\ght ab\t4 #f4 ,di/+ui% betwe5 aff]5t1 eff]5t1 & int]m$iate neurons4 #g4 ,draw diagrams %[+ ! impulse pa?ways 9 volunt>y & 9 reflex action4 #h4 ,:at purposes are s]v$ by ! sympa!tic neurons8 #i4 ,describe ! me?od ( control ( ! circulatory & dige/ive processes4 ,h[ d reflex actions protect ! body8 #aj4 ,comp>e volunt>y & reflex action4 ,9 :at s5se are all ! activities ( ! body reflex8 #aa4 ,9 :at s5se is walk+ volunt>y8 ,9 :at s5se is x reflex8 #ab4 ,h[ does second>y reflex action less5 ! "w ( ! n]v\s sy/em8 #ac4 ,/ate ! special functions ( ! n]ves1 ganglia1 sp9al cord1 bulb1 c]ebellum1 & c]ebrum4 #ad4 ,/ate ! importance ( ! =mation ( correct habits4 ,fig4 #adc ,fig4 #adc--,n]ve bo>d = demon/rat+ n]ve pa?ways4 ,,practical ,,"w 99,to demon/rate ,n]ve ,pa?ways499--,a smoo? bo>d1 #bx#f ft41 is pa9t$ black1 & ^u ?is is drawn 9 :ite a life-size outl9e ( ! body4 ,pieces ( cord ( diff]5t colors & l5g?s are knott$ to repres5t mon-axonic & di-axonic neurons4 ,^! are !n p9n$ or tack$ to ! bo>d 9 su* a mann] z to repres5t ! connections 9 ! diff]5t k9ds ( n]ve pa?ways4 ,fig4 #adc %[s su* a bo>d ) connections = a reflex action & a volunt>y action ( ! same muscle4 99,/udy ( ! ,knee ,j]k ,reflex499--,a boy is seat$ on a *air ) ! legs cross$4 ,) a small po9t] he is giv5 a light1 quick bl[ on ! upp] m>g9 ( ! patella at ! po9t ( connection ( ! t5don4 ,! /roke w usually be foll[$ by a reflex movem5t ( ! foot4 ,does ?is take place indep5d5tly ( ! m9d8 7,! "o ^u :om ! exp]im5t is be+ p]=m$ %\ld assume a relax$ condition & make no ef=t ei!r to cause or prev5t ! movem5t47 ,c ! movem5t be inhibit$ 7prev5t$78 ,repeat ! exp]im5t1 ef=t be+ made to prev5t ! movem5t1 b n by contract+ oppos+ muscles4 ,o!r reflex actions adapt$ to class /udy are ^? ( ! eyes1 su* z ! clos+ ( ! lids on mov+ objects ne> !m & ! dilat+ ( ! pupils :5 ! eyes are %ad$4 ,! involunt>y j]k+ ( ! head on br++ ! prongs ( a vibrat+ tun+ =k 9 contact ) ! end ( ! nose is also a reflex action :i* c be /udi$ to advantage4 99,to det]m9e ! ,reaction ,"t499--,h sev]al pupils jo9 h&s1 fac+ outw>ds1 mak+ a complete circle1 except+ "o gap4 ,give a signal by t\*+ ! h& ( "o pupil at ! end ( ! l9e4 ,let ?is pupil communicate ! signal1 by pressure ( ! o!r h&1 to ! next pupil & s on ar\nd1 hav+ ! la/ pupil raise ! free h& at close ( ! exp]im5t4 ,note c>efully ! "t1 pref]ably ) a /op wat*1 requir$ to complete ! exp]im5t & divide ?is by ! numb] ( pupils1 to get ! av]age reaction "t4 ,! exp]im5t may be repeat$ ) boys only & !n ) girls1 comp>+ _! av]age reaction "t4 99,reflex ,action ( ! ,saliv>y ,gl&s499--,place a small p9* ( salt ^u ! tongue & note ! fl[ ( saliva into ! m\?4 ,try o!r sub/ances1 z />*1 bits ( wood1 & sug>4 ,:at appe>s to be ! natural /imulus = ^! gl&s8 ,comp>e ) reflex actions ( ! muscles4 ,,*apt] ,,xix - ,,hygi5e ,,( ,,! ,,n]v\s ,,sy/em ,! f>-rea*+ effects & s]i\s nature ( disord]s ( ! n]v\s sy/em are suffici5t reasons = consid]+ c>efully ^? conditions t make or m> its effici5cy4 ,controll+ all ! activities ( ! body & affect+ ?r\gh its own condition ! welf>e ( all ! organs1 ! hygi5e ( ! n]v\s sy/em is1 9 a l>ge measure1 ! hygi5e ( ! entire body4 ,moreov]1 x is kn[n t "s ( our wor/ diseases1 includ+ p>alysis & insanity1 are disord]s ( ! n]v\s sy/em & are prev5t$ 9 _m in/ances by a prop] mode ( liv+4 99,! ,ma9 ,problem499--,_m ( our n]v\s disord]s are und\bt$ly due to ! age 9 :i* we live4 ,our mod]n civilization1 ) all its facilities = human advancem5t & enjoym5t1 ?r[s an extra /ra9 ^u ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,educational & social /&>ds are high] ?an ev] be=e & life 9 all its phases is m complex4 ,s9ce we c h>dly *ange ! conditions "u :i* we live1 & probably w\ld n if we c\ld1 we mu/ le>n to adapt or adju/ ourselves to !m s z to secure = ! n]v\s sy/em su* relief z x requires4 ,?is adju/m5t is sometimes difficult1 ev5 :5 ! actual ne$s ( ! n]v\s sy/em are kn[n4 ,! heal?ful action ( ! n]v\s sy/em requires1 on ! "o h&1 ex]cise1 b on ! o!r h&1 a c]ta9 condition ( quietude1 or poise--a /ate :i* is directly oppos$ to t ( re/lessness4 ,! conditions ( mod]n life seem able to =ce ^u ! n]v\s sy/em all ! ex]cise t x ne$s1 & m 7:e!r x be ( ! "r k9d or n71 s t ! ma9 problem ( to-day seems to be t ( cons]v+1 or economiz+1 ! n]v\s en]gy & ( prev5t+ n]v\s wa/e4 99,wa/eful ,=ms ( ,n]v\s ,activity499--,!re are )\t d\bt _m =ms ( activity t wa/e ! vital =ces ( ! body & lead to n]v\s exhau/ion4 ,take1 = example1 ! r common habit ( worry+ ov] ! trivial ?+s ( life4 ,c]ta9ly ! n]v\s en]gy sp5t 9 ?is way _c be us$ 9 do+ useful "w1 b mu/ be c\nt$ z s mu* loss to ! body4 ,"o :o w\ld use 8 n]v\s sy/em to ! be/ advantage mu/ f9d "s way ( prev5t+ wa/e ( ?is k9d47#ajh7 ,undue excitem5t1 z well z pleasurable dissipations1 also t5d t[>d n]v\s exhau/ion4 ,& :ile ! fact is recogniz$ t pleasurable activities supply a necess>y m5tal ex]cise1 ! limit ( heal?ful endurance mu/ be wat*$ & excesses ( all k9ds avoid$4 ,int5se emotional /ates are f\nd to be exhau/+ 9 ! extreme2 & ! suppression ( su* undesirable feel+s z ang]1 fe>1 jeal\sy1 & res5tm5t are ( imm5se value 9 ! hygi5e ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 99,! ,habit ( ,self-control499--,mu* ( ! ne$less wa/e ( n]v\s en]gy1 includ+ t ( worry+ ov] trivial matt]s1 may be prev5t$ ?r\gh ! ex]cise ( self-control4 ,f ! /&po9t ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 ! pres5t age diff]s f ! pa/ ma9ly 9 supply+ a great] numb] & v>iety ( n]ve /imuli4 ,self-control means ! ability to suppress activities t w\ld result f undesirable /imuli & to direct ! bodily activities into *annels t are pr(itable4 ,self-control1 !re=e1 is n only to be ex]cis$ on occasions ( great em]g5cy1 b 9 ! ev]yday affairs ( life z well4 ,x is ev5 m important t ! daily toil] at 8 task be able to keep ! petty annoyances ( life f act+ z irritants to 8 n]v\s sy/em ?an t he keep cool dur+ "s great calamity4 ,! habit ( self-control is acquir$ ma9ly ?r\gh ! p]si/5t ef=t to prev5t any & all k9ds ( petty annoyances f affect+ ! n]ves or ! temp]4 99,n]v\sness499--,self-control is mu* m easily practic$ by "s ?an by o!rs4 ,?is is due p>tly to habit1 b is also due to an actual diff]5ce 9 ! degree ( s5sitiv5ess1 or irritability1 ( ! n]v\s sy/ems ( diff]5t p4 ,"o ^: n]v\s sy/em t5ds to respond too readily to any & all k9ds ( /imuli is said to be n]v\s4 ,?is condition is 9 "s in/ances inh]it$1 b is 9 mo/ cases due to ! wa/eful exp5diture ( n]v\s en]gy or to ! action ( "s drug ^u ! body4 ,excess ( m5tal "w1 too mu* read+1 long-cont9u$ anxiety1 eye /ra91 & ! use ( tea1 c(fee1 alcohol1 tobacco1 or o!r drugs1 includ+ _m ( ^? tak5 z m$ic9es1 are kn[n to cause n]v\sness4 ,n]v\sness is n only a s\rce ( great annoyance1 bo? to "o's self & to o!rs1 b is a m5ace to ! g5]al heal?4 ,! fir/ /ep t[>d secur+ relief f su* a condition is ! removal ( ! cause4 ,! habits %\ld be inquir$ into & excesses ( all k9ds discont9u$4 ,9 "s in/ances x may be necess>y to h ! eyes exam9$ & glasses fitt$ by a compet5t oculi/47#aji7 ,! n]v\s en]gy %\ld be c>efully economiz$ & ! habit ( self-control dilig5tly cultivat$4 ,special ex]cises t h = _! purpose ! equaliz+ ( ! circulation & ! /r5g!n+ ( ! blood vessels ( ! neck & ! bra9 also h b5eficial effects4 99,n]v\s ,ov]/ra9499--,bo? m5tal & physical ov]work t5ds to weak5 ! n]v\s sy/em & to produce n]v\sness4 ,:]e h>d m5tal "w is long cont9u$1 or :]e x is c>ri$ on "u excitem5t1 a t5se n]v\s condition is develop$ :i* is decid$ly weak5+ 9 its effects4 ,! causes :i* lead to su* a condition1 & 9 fact ov]work ( all k9ds1 %\ld if possible be avoid$4 ,:]e ?is is n possible1 & 9 _m cases x is n1 ! p]iod ( ov]work %\ld be foll[$ by "o ( re/1 recreation1 & pl5ty ( sleep4 ,to ! ov]work$ 9 body or 9 m9d1 no?+ is m important f a hygi5ic1 z well z moral1 /&po9t1 ?an ! "r use ( ! "o re/ day 9 sev54 ,! be/ int]e/s ( our mod]n civilization require t ! ,sabba? be kept z a quiet1 re/-giv+ day4 99,di/urb$ ,circulation ( ! ,bra9499--,n]v\sness n infrequ5tly is accompani$ by an increase 9 ! circulation ( ! bra9 & disappe>s :5 ?is condition is reliev$4 ,?\gh m5tal "w & excitem5t t5d naturally to increase ! circulation 9 ! bra91 ?is %\ld subside ) re/ & relief f excitem5t4 ,:5 !re is a t5d5cy = ?is condition to become p]man5t1 ef=t %\ld be made look+ = relief4 ,increas+ ! circulation 9 ! l[] extremities by hot or cold foot ba?s1 or by mu* walk+1 is f\nd to be mo/ b5eficial4 ,special ex]cises ( ! muscles ( ! neck are also recomm5d$ z a means ( reliev+ ?is condition47#aaj7 99,hygi5ic ,value ( ,"w499--,)9 reasonable limits1 bo? m5tal & physical "w are conducive to ! vigor ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,?r\gh "w ! en]gies ( ! body f9d _! natural outlet1 & ?is prev5ts dissipation & ! =mation ( bad habits4 ,ev5 h>d "w does n injure ! n]v\s sy/em1 & sev]e m5tal ex]tion may be und]gone1 provid$ ! prop] hygi5ic conditions are obs]v$4 ,! n]v\s disord]s suff]$ by bra9 work]s are n1 z a rule1 due to ! "w :i* ! bra9 does1 b to violation ( ! laws ( heal?1 especially ! law ( ex]cise4 ,su* p]sons %\ld obs]ve ! g5]al laws ( hygi5e & especially %\ld !y practice daily ^? =ms ( physical ex]cise t t5d to c\nt]act ! effects ( m5tal "w4 99,physical ,ex]cise99 prop]ly tak5 is b5eficial to ! n]v\s sy/em ?r\gh bo? direct & indirect effects4 ,a l>ge proportion ( ! n]ve cells h = _! function ! production ( motion1 & ^! are call$ into play only ?r\gh muscul> activity4 ,!n1 z already sugge/$1 physical ex]cise c\nt]acts ! unpleasant effects ( m5tal "w4 ,h>d /udy causes an excess ( blood to be s5t to ! bra9 & a dim9i%$ am\nt to ! arms & to ! legs4 ,physical ex]cise r$i/ributes ! blood & equalizes ! circulation4 ,light ex]cise %\ld1 !re=e1 foll[ h>d /udy4 ,! /ud5t be=e retir+ at night is greatly aid$ 9 gett+ to sleep & is put 9 a bett] condition = ! next day's "w by t5 to fifte5 m9utes ( light gymna/ics4 ,a daily walk ( two or ?ree miles is also an excell5t means ( c\nt]act+ ! effects ( m5tal "w4 ,! bra9 work] %\ld1 h[ev]1 avoid viol5t ex]cise or ! c>ry+ ( any k9d ( ex]cise to exhau/ion4 99,sleep991 & pl5ty ( x1 is "o ( ! fir/ requirem5ts ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,x is dur+ sleep t ! exhau/$ bra9 cells are repl5i%$4 ,to %ort5 ! "t = sleep is to weak5 ! bra9 & to less5 its work+ =ce4 ,no "o %\ld attempt to get along ) less ?an eight h\rs ( sleep ea* day & mo/ p require m4 ,*ildr5 require m sleep ?an adults4 ,^? "u six ye>s %\ld h f elev5 to twelve h\rs ( sleep p] day4 ,*ildr5 betwe5 six & t5 ye>s %\ld h at lea/ t5 h\rs4 99,insomnia991 or sleeplessness1 on acc\nt ( its effects ^u ! n]v\s sy/em1 is to be reg>d$ z a s]i\s condition1 & hygi5ic means = reliev+ x %\ld be dilig5tly s\ght4 ,hav+ its cause 9 n]v\sness1 a di/urb$ circulation ( ! bra91 or "s =m ( n]v\s exhau/ion1 x is b5efit$ ?r\gh reliev+ ^! conditions & 9 ! mann] already describ$4 ,( c\rse ! ext]nal conditions = aid+ sleep %\ld n be ov]look$4 ,! b$ %\ld be com=table1 & ! room %\ld be cool1 well v5tilat$1 d>k1 & quiet4 ,! induc+ ( sleep by means ( drugs is a dang]\s practice & %\ld nev] be resort$ to except "u ! direction ( ! physician4 99,effects ( ,heat & ,cold499--,heat & cold bo? h _! effects ^u ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,heat increases ! n]v\s irritability1 :ile cold acts z a natural s$ative to ! n]ves4 ,a n]v\s p]son is made m n]v\s by an ov]heat$ atmosph]e1 b d]ives b5eficial effects f expos+ ! body freely to cold air & wat]4 ,! tonic cold ba? 7page #bgc71 if tak5 ) ! usual precautions1 c be us$ to good advantage 9 dim9i%+ n]v\sness4 ,! tak+ ( outdoor ex]cise 9 cold wea!r is1 = ! same reason1 an excell5t practice4 99,effect ( ,emotional ,/ates499--,we h already not$ ! effect ( c]ta9 emotional /ates ^u ! dige/ion ( ! food 7page #afb74 ,emotional /ates are also kn[n to int]f]e ) brea?+ & ) ! action ( ! he>t4 ,su* effects are expla9$ ?r\gh ! close relation ( ! m9d to ! "w ( ! n]v\s sy/em 9 g5]al4 ,:ile c]ta9 emotional /ates1 su* z fe>1 ang]1 melan*olia1 & ! impulse to worry1 int]f]e s]i\sly ) ! normal action ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 o!rs1 su* z cont5tm5t1 *e]fulness1 & joy1 are decid$ly b5eficial 9 _! effects4 ,h[ important1 !n1 is ! habit ( suppress+ ! /ates t are h>mful & ( cultivat+ ^? t are b5eficial4 ,f a hygi5ic1 z well z social1 /&po9t a *e]ful1 happy disposition is wor? all ! ef=t necess>y = its atta9m5t4 99,! ,n]v\s ,condition ( ,*ildr599 %\ld be a matt] ( deep conc]n on ! "p ( bo? p>5ts & tea*]s4 ,9 ! home1 z well z 9 ! s*ool1 ! *ild may be pu%$ until ! n]v\s sy/em receives p]man5t injury4 ,exhau/ion ( n]ve cells is produc$ ?r\gh too _m & too vivid impressions be+ made ^u ! immature bra94 ,! *ild %\ld be protect$ f undue excitem5t4 ,he %\ld h ! b5efit ( outdoor ex]cise & %\ld be e>ly inur$ to cold4 ,he %\ld be %ield$ f ! poison+ effects ( tea1 c(fee1 tobacco1 alcohol1 & o!r drugs4 ,he %\ld h impress$ ^u him ! habit ( self-control4 ,he %\ld n be indulg$ 9 fooli% caprices or :ims1 b %\ld be taught to be cont5t ) pla91 :olesome food & ) ! simple =ms ( enjoym5t4 99,influ5ces at ,s*ool499--,s*ool life is necess>ily a great /ra9 ^u ! *ild4 ,night /udy add$ to ! "w ( ! day makes a heavy burd5 = elem5t>y pupils to be>4 ,?\gh ! legal s*ool age is usually fix$ at six ye>s1 delicate *ildr5 %\ld be kept out ( s*ool until !y are sev5 or eight ye>s old1 provid$ !y h good homes4 ,9 addition to ! excitation incid5t to /udy+ & recit+ lessons1 conditions frequ5tly arise bo? 9 ! s*oolroom & ^u ! playgr\nd t create a feel+ ( fe> or dread 9 ! m9ds ( *ildr54 ,qu>rels & feuds among ! *ildr5 & ! bully+ ( big boys on ! playgr\nd may "w untold h>m4 ,all conditions t5d+ to develop fe>1 uneas9ess1 or undue excitem5t on ! "p ( *ildr5 %\ld receive ! att5tion ( ^? 9 au?ority4 99,excessive ,read+99 is a frequ5t cause ( injury to ! n]v\s sy/ems ( *ildr54 ,?is has a bad effect1 bo? on acc\nt ( too _m impressions be+ made ^u ! m9d & also on acc\nt ( ! /ra9 to ! eyes4 ,!n if ! read+ consi/s mo/ly ( light fiction1 ! m9d is direct$ away f ! really important ?+s ( life4 ,! read+ ( *ildr5 %\ld be ?\ghtfully controll$1 bo? z to quality & quantity4 ,excit+ /ories %\ld1 z a rule1 be exclud$1 b a ta/e = biography1 hi/orical & sci5tific writ+s1 & = ! great works ( lit]ature %\ld be cultivat$4 ,simple fairy tales :i* h a recogniz$ value 9 develop+ ! imag9ation ( ! *ild ne$ n be omitt$1 b x is ( vital importance t ! /ory-read+ habit be n =m$4 99,effects ( ,drugs499--,because ( its delicacy ( /ructure a numb] ( *emical comp\nds1 or drugs1 are able to produce injuri\s effects ^u ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,"s ( ^! are viol5t poisons1 :ile o!rs1 9 small quantities1 are mild 9 _! action4 ,c]ta9 drugs1 9 addition to _! imm$iate effects1 br+ ab\t *anges 9 ! n]v\s sy/em :i* cause an unnatural appetite1 or crav+1 t leads to _! cont9u$ use4 ,?is is ! case ) alcohol1 ! intoxicat+ sub/ance 9 ! usual saloon dr9ks1 & ) nicot9e1 ! /imulat+ drug 9 tobacco4 ,! same is also true ( morph9e1 *loral1 & sev]al o!r drugs us$ z m$ic9es4 ,! dang] ( becom+ a slave to "s useless & p]nici\s habit %\ld dissuade "o f ! use ( drugs except 9 cases ( positive em]g5cy4 99,alcohol & ! ,n]v\s ,sy/em499--,alcohol1 z already %[n1 injures practically all portions ( ! body2 b x has its wor/ effects ^u ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,?r\gh its action on ?is sy/em1 x int]f]es ) ! circulation ( ! blood1 produces a condition ( tempor>y insanity call$ intoxication1 weak5s ! w1 & ev5tually de?rones ! reason4 ,wor/ ( all1 x produces a condition ( *ronic poison+ :i* manife/s itself 9 an unnatural crav+1 & ?is causes x to be us$ by ! victim ev5 :5 he kn[s he is dr9k+ to 8 own de/ruction4 ,?\gh its use 9 small quantities does n1 z a rule1 produce su* m>k$ effects ^u ! n]v\s sy/em1 x develops ! crav+1 & ?is is apt 9 "t to lead to its use 9 l>g] quantities4 ,b ev5 if ?is does n occur1 ! practice is objectionable = its unhygi5ic effects 9 g5]al47#aaa7 ,tippl+ ) su* mild solutions ( alcohol z light w9e1 be]1 & h>d cid] is1 = ^! reasons1 a dang]\s pa/ime4 99,alcohol & ,crime499--,x is sometimes /at$ t no "o :o leaves alcohol alone w be injur$ by x4 ,?is is true only ( its direct effects2 n ( its indirect effects4 ,:5ev] a crime is committ$ somebody is injur$1 & alcohol is kn[n to be a *ief cause ( crime4 ,alcohol causes crime ?r\gh ! loss ( self-control1 se5 especially 9 intoxication1 & also because ( ! moros5ess & qu>relsom5ess :i* x developes 9 c]ta9 individuals4 ,indirectly x causes crime ?r\gh ! pov]ty :i* x eng5d]s & ?r\gh its influ5ce 9 br++ ab\t social conditions out ( :i* crime develops4 ,ev]y?+ consid]$1 ! free use ( alcohol is incompatible ) ! n]v\s heal? & moral tone ( a community4 99,nicot9e & ! ,n]v\s ,sy/em499--,nicot9e is an oily sub/ance :i* is extract$ f ! tobacco plant4 ,its action on ! n]v\s sy/em is 9 g5]al t ( a poison4 ,tak5 9 small quantities1 x is a mild /imulant &1 if ! doses are repeat$1 a habit is =m$ :i* is difficult to break4 ,tobacco is us$ ma9ly = ! /imulat+ effect ( ?is drug4 ,:ile n s s]i\s 9 its results z ! alcohol & o!r drug habits1 ! use ( tobacco is ( no b5efit1 is a cont9ual & useless exp5se1 &1 9 _m in/ances1 causes a d]angem5t ( ! heal?y action ( ! body47#aab7 ,) ! bad effects ( ! nicot9e mu/ be includ$ ^? ( que/ionable sub/ances add$ to ! tobacco by ! manufactur]1 ei!r = _! agreeable flavor or = adult]ation4 99,relation ( ,age to ! ,effects ( ,nicot9e499--,! use ( tobacco by ! "y is especially to be deplor$4 ,9 addition to ! h>mful effects obs]v$ 9 ^? ( mature ye>s1 nicot9e int]f]es ) ! normal developm5t ( ! body & lays1 9 _m in/ances1 ! f\ndation = physical & m5tal weakness 9 lat] life4 ,! cig>ette is decid$ly h>mful1 especially :5 inhalation is practic$1 its dead5+ effects be+ 9 "p due to ! wrapp]s1 "s ( :i* h be5 %[n to conta9 ars5ic & o!r poison\s drugs4 ,:ile dull+ ! intellect & weak5+ ! body1 cig>ette smok+ also t5ds to make crim9als ( boys47#aac7 ,p>5ts1 tea*]s1 s*ool (fic]s1 & all :o h ! good ( mank9d at he>t %\ld take e precaution1 includ+ t ( sett+ a good example1 to prev5t ! =mation ( ! tobacco habit by ^? ( immature ye>s4 99,habit v]sus ,self-control499--,! p[] ( self-control1 already emphasiz$ = its importance 9 ! economical exp5diture ( ! n]v\s en]gy1 is ( vital importance 9 its relation to ! habits ( ! body4 ,self-control is ! *ief safegu>d aga9/ ! =mation ( bad habits & is ! only means ( r$emption f su* habits aft] !y h once be5 =m$4 ,! p]si/5t cultivation ( ! p[] to control ! appetites & ! passions1 z well z all =ms ( activity :i* t5d to injure ! body or debase ! "*1 gives a tone to ! n]v\s sy/em :i* increases ! self-respect & raises ! individual to a high] plane ( life4 ,! wor/ habits c be brok5 & good ones =m$ 9 _! /ead1 if only !re is suffici5t det]m9ation to accompli% ^! results4 ,failure comes f n hav+ ! m9d ?or\ghly made up & f n hav+1 back ( ! desire to d bett]1 ! /rong w ( a righte\s det]m9ation4 99,effects ( ,ext]nal ,conditions499--,:ile ! inn] life & habits h mo/ to d ) ! hygi5e ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 a c]ta9 am\nt ( att5tion may prop]ly be giv5 to ^? conditions outside ( ! body :i* affect directly or indirectly ! /ate ( ?is sy/em4 ,noise1 disord]1 & confusion act z n]v\s irritants1 b quiet1 ord]1 & sy/em h ! opposite effect4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 mu* 9 ! managem5t ( ! (fice1 factory1 s*oolroom1 or home t has to d ) ! real hygi5e ( ! n]ves z well z ) ! effici5cy ( ! "w t is be+ done4 ,! suppression ( di/ract+ influ5ces n only enables ! m9d to be giv5 fully to ! "w 9 h&1 b actually prev5ts wa/e ( n]v\s en]gy4 ,al?\gh ! responsibility = secur+ ! be/ conditions = "w re/s prim>ily ) ^? 9 *>ge1 x is also true t ea* individual 9 e organization may contribute to ! ord] or disord] t prevails4 99,social ,relations499--,9 consid]+ ! ext]nal conditions t affect ! n]v\s sy/em1 ! fact mu/ n be ov]look$ t man is a social be+ & has to adju/ himself to an e/abli%$ social ord]4 ,8 relations to 8 fell[-m51 !re=e1 affect /rongly 8 n]v\s condition & !irs also4 ,= ?is reason ! be/ hygi5e ( ! n]v\s sy/em is bas$ ^u moral z well z physical "r liv+4 ,along ) ! p[] ( self-control & ! ma9t5ance ( a correct n]v\s poise1 !re %\ld be a prop] reg>d = ! welf>e ( o!rs4 ,on acc\nt ( ! ease ) :i* "o individual may di/urb ! n]v\s /ate ( ano!r1 ^? social =ms & cu/oms :i* t5d to e/abli% h>moni\s relations among m5 are truly hygi5ic 9 _! effects1 & may well be c>ri$ out 9 _s z well z 9 lett]4 ,x is also a fact t a giv5 m5tal /ate 9 "o p]son t5ds to excite a l /ate 9 ^? ) :om he associates4 ,h[ important1 !n1 t ea* & all cultivate1 z habits1 ! qualities ( *e]fulness1 k9dness1 & good-w1 in/ead ( ! opposite /ates ( m9d4 ,especially 9 ! family1 & o!r gr\ps ( closely associat$ individuals1 %\ld ! n]v\s effect ( "o memb] ^u ! o!rs be consid]$ & e ef=t made to secure & ma9ta9 h>moni\s relations4 99,! ,high ,ideal499--,ev]y?+ consid]$1 ! conditions mo/ favorable to ! heal?fulness ( ! n]v\s sy/em are 9 h>mony ) :at our greate/ tea*]s h po9t$ to z ! high] plane ( liv+4 ,on ?is acc\nt a true conception ( ! value & mean+ ( life is ( ! greate/ importance4 ,an ev] pres5t1 /rong desire to live a vigor\s1 b simple & noble1 life w sugge/ ! prop] c\rse to pursue :5 9 d\bt & w /imulate ! p[] ( self-control4 ,x w lead to ! /opp+ ( n]ve leaks & to ! ma9t5ance ( h>moni\s relations ) "o's fell[s4 ,x w cause "o to recoil f ! use ( alcohol & o!r n]ve poisons1 z f a deadly s]p5t1 see+ ! end 9 ! beg9n+1 & w be ! means ev5tually ( lead+ ! body into its greate/ accompli%m5ts4 99,summ>y499--,! n]v\s sy/em1 on acc\nt ( its delicate /ructure1 is liable to injury ?r\gh wrong me?ods ( us+ x & also ?r\gh ! introduction ( drugs1 or poisons1 into ! body4 ,!re are also f\nd 9 our me?ods ( liv+ & sy/ems ( education conditions t t5d to wa/e ! n]v\s en]gy4 ,to protect ! n]v\s sy/em f all ^! ?reat5$ dang]s requires1 among o!r ?+s1 ! p[] ( self-control4 ,?is enables ! individual to direct 8 life accord+ to 8 highe/ ideals & to free himself f habits kn[n to be injuri\s4 ,*ildr5 mu/ h _! n]v\s sy/ems safegu>d$ by p>5ts & tea*]s4 ,especially mu/ !y be kept f becom+ enslav$ to "s drug1 su* z alcohol or ! nicot9e ( tobacco4 99,ex]cises499--#a4 ,9 :at respect is ! hygi5e ( ! n]v\s sy/em ! hygi5e ( ! entire body8 #b4 ,( :at value 9 ! hygi5e ( ! n]v\s sy/em is ! p[] ( self-control8 ,h[ is ! habit ( self-control =m$8 #c4 ,"n sev]al =ms ( activity t wa/e ! n]v\s en]gy4 #d4 ,"n sev]al influ5ces t react unfavorably on ! n]v\s sy/ems ( *ildr54 #e4 ,h[ may too mu* read+ prove injuri\s to ! n]v\s sy/em8 #f4 ,:at =ms ( physical ex]cise are b5eficial to ! bra9 work]8 #g4 ,:y is ! use ( alcohol ev5 9 small quantities to be reg>d$ z a dang]\s practice8 #h4 ,"n sev]al causes ( n]v\sness4 #i4 ,:at are ! unansw]able argum5ts = prev5t+ ! use ( tobacco by ! "y8 #aj4 ,:y d cig>ettes h a m h>mful effect ^u ! body ?an o!r =ms ( tobacco8 #aa4 ,enum]ate conditions 9 ! s*oolroom t dissipate ! n]v\s en]gy ( pupils2 t economize x4 ,,*apt] ,,xx - ,,production ,,( ,,s5sations ,our /udy ( ! n]v\s sy/em has %[n t impulses aris+ at ! surface ( ! body are able1 ?r\gh connect+ neurons1 to br+ ab\t v>i\s activities4 ,mov+ along def9ite pa?ways1 !y induce motion 9 ! muscles1 & 9 ! gl&s ! secretion ( liquids4 ,x is n[ our purpose to consid] ! effect produc$ by aff]5t impulses ^u ! bra9 &1 ?r\gh ! bra91 ^u ! m9d47#aad7 ,?is effect is manife/$ 9 a v>iety ( simil> =ms1 kn[n z 99,! ,s5sations499--,s5sations con/itute ! l[e/ =ms ( m5tal activity4 ,r\ghly speak+1 !y are ! /ates ( m9d exp]i5c$ z ! direct result ( impulses rea*+ ! bra94 ,9 a s5se1 j z impulses pass+ to ! muscles cause motion1 impulses pass+ to ! bra9 cause s5sations4 ,! feel+ :i* results f ! h&'s t\*+ a table is a s5sation & s also is ! pa9 :i* is caus$ by an injury to ! body4 ,! m5tal action 9 ea* case is due to impulses pass+ to ! bra94 ,c>e mu/ be ex]cis$ by ! beg9n]1 h[ev]1 n to confuse s5sations ) ! n]v\s impulses1 on ! "o h&1 or ) second>y m5tal effects1 su* z emotion or imag9ation1 on ! o!r4 ,s5sations are prop]ly reg>d$ z ! fir/ consci\s effects ( ! aff]5t impulses & z ! beg9n+ /age 9 ! s]ies ( m5tal processes t may take place on acc\nt ( !m4 ,9 "s way1 n und]/ood1 ! m9d associates ! s5sation ) ! "p ( ! body f :i* ! impulses come4 ,pa91 = example1 is n felt at ! bra9 :]e ! s5sation is produc$1 b at ! place :]e ! injury occurs4 ,?is association1 by ! m9d1 ( ! s5sations ) diff]5t p>ts ( ! body1 is kn[n z localiz+ ! s5sation4 99,s5sation ,/imuli499--,:ile ! s5sations are dep5d5t ^u ! aff]5t impulses1 ! aff]5t impulses are 9 turn dep5d5t ^u causes outside ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,if ^! are remov$1 ! s5sations cease & !y d n />t up aga9 unless ! excit+ influ5ces are aga9 appli$4 ,any ag5cy1 su* z heat or pressure1 :i*1 by act+ on ! neurons ( ! body1 is able to produce a s5sation1 may be call$ a s5sation /imulus4 ,x has p]haps already be5 obs]v$ t ! /imuli t lead to volunt>y action1 z well z ^? t produce reflex action ( ! muscles1 cause s5sations at ! same "t4 ,f ?is we may conclude t s5sation /imuli are ! same 9 "* z ^? t excite motion4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x %\ld be not$ t s5sations are con/antly result+ f /imuli t are ( too mild a nature to cause motion4 99,classes ( ,s5sations499--,p]haps z _m z tw5ty di/9ct s5sations1 su* z pa91 hung]1 t\*1 etc41 are recogniz$4 ,if ^! are /udi$ ) ref]5ce to _! orig91 x w be se5 t "s ( !m result f ! action ( def9ite =ms ( /imuli ^u ! neurons t]m9at+ 9 s5se organs2 :ile ! o!rs1 z a rule1 arise f ! action ( indef9ite /imuli ^u neurons 9 p>ts ( ! body t d n possess s5se organs4 ,! memb]s ( ! fir/ class--& ^! include ! s5sations ( t\*1 temp]ature1 ta/e1 smell1 he>+1 & sight--are kn[n z ! special s5sations4 ,! o!rs1 includ+ ! s5sations ( pa91 hung]1 ?ir/1 nausea1 fatigue1 com=t1 discom=t1 & ^? ( disease1 are kn[n z organic1 or g5]al1 s5sations4 ,^! two classes ( s5sations diff] 9 _! purpose 9 ! body z well z 9 ! mann] ( _! orig94 99,purposes ( ,s5sations499--,any giv5 s5sation is relat$ to ! /imulus :i* excites x z an effect to a cause4 ,x />ts up or /ops1 increases 9 int5sity or dim9i%es1 accord+ to ! action ( ! excit+ /imulus4 ,z ! /imuli are outside ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 & 9 ! majority ( cases outside ( ! body1 ! s5sations indicate to ! m9d :at is tak+ place ei!r 9 ! body itself or 9 its surr\nd+s4 ,!y supply1 9 o!r words1 ! means ?r\gh :i* ! m9d acquires in=mation4 ,by means ( ! special s5sations1 a k ( ! physical surr\nd+s ( ! body is ga9$1 & ?r\gh ! organic s5sations ! ne$s ( ! body & ! /ate ( ! v>i\s organs are indicat$4 ,9 g5]al1 s5sations are made to s]ve two great purposes 9 ! body1 z foll[s3 #a4 ,!y provide ! necess>y conditions = intellig5t & purposeful action on ! "p ( ! body4 #b4 ,!y supply ! basis = ! high] m5tal activities1 z p]ception1 memory1 ?\ght1 imag9ation1 & emotion4 ,intellig5t action is impossible )\t a k bo? ( ! bodily organs & ( ! body's surr\nd+s4 ,protection & ! regulation ( ! "w ( an organ necessitate a k ( its condition1 :ile ! adapt+ & adju/+ ( ! body to its surr\nd+s require a k ( :at ^? surr\nd+s are4 ,! dep5d5ce ( all ! high] =ms ( m5tal activity ^u s5sations is recogniz$ by psy*ologi/s & is easily demon/rat$ by a /udy ( ! mann] 9 :i* we acquire k4 ,)\t s5sation !re c be no ?\ght4 99,/eps 9 ! ,production ( ,s5sations499--,! /eps 9 ! production ( s5sations are n ess5tially diff]5t f ^? 9 ! production ( reflex action4 ,fir/ ( all1 ext]nal /imuli act ^u ! fib] t]m9ations 9 ! s5se organs1 or else:]e1 />t+ impulses 9 ! neurons4 ,^! pass into ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em & !re excite neurons :i* 9 turn dis*>ge impulses into ! c]ebrum4 ,! result is to ar\se an activity ( ! m9d--a s5sation4 ,! /eps 9 ! production ( any special s5sation naturally involve ! foll[+ p>ts3 #a4 ,a s5se organ :]e ! t]m9ations ( ! neurons are act$ ^u by ! /imulus4 #b4 ,a *a9 ( neurons :i* connect ! s5se organ ) ! bra94 #c4 ,! "p ( ! c]ebrum :i* produces ! s5sation4 99,s5se ,organs499--,! s5se organs are n p>ts ( ! aff]5t neurons1 b are /ructures ( v>i\s k9ds1 9 :i* ! neurons t]m9ate4 ,_! function is to enable ! s5sation /imuli to />t ! impulses4 ,by direct+1 conc5trat+1 or controll+ ! /imuli1 ! s5se organs enable !m to act to ! be/ advantage ^u ! neurons4 ,:5 x is recogniz$ t su* widely diff]5t =ces z light waves1 s\nd waves1 heat1 pressure1 & odors are enabl$ by !m to /imulate neurons1 ! importance ( ^! organs becomes app>5t4 ,z w\ld naturally be inf]r$1 ! con/ruction ( any s5se organ has p>ticul> ref]5ce to ! nature ( ! /imulus :i* x is to receive4 ,?is is mo/ app>5t 9 ! s5se organs ( sight & he>+4 99,simple ,=ms ( ,s5se ,organs499--,! simple/ =m ( a s5se organ 7if su* x may be call$7 is "o f\nd among ! v>i\s tissues4 ,x consi/s ( ! t]m9al bran*es ( n]ve fib]s :i* spread ov] a small area ( cells1 z a network or plexus4 ,su* end+s are num]\s 9 ! sk9 & muscles4 ,next 9 ord] ( complexity are ! s-call$ end-bulbs4 ,^! consi/ ( r\nd$1 or elongat$1 connective tissue capsules1 )9 :i* ! n]ve fib]s t]m9ate4 ,on ! inside ! fib]s lose _! %ea?s & divide into bran*es1 :i* w9d ?r\gh ! capsule4 ,end-bulbs are abundant 9 ! l9+ membrane ( ! eye1 & are f\nd also 9 ! sk9 ( ! lips & 9 ! tissues ar\nd ! jo9ts4 ,slightly m complex ?an ! end-bulbs are ! t\* corpuscles4 ,^! are elongat$ bulb-l bodies1 hav+ a l5g? ( ab\t "o ?ree-hundr$? ( an in*1 & occupy+ ! papill ( ! sk9 7,fig4 #add74 ,!y are compos$ ma9ly ( connective tissue4 ,ea* corpuscle receives ! t]m9ation ( "o or m n]ve fib]s4 ,^!1 on ent]+1 lose ! m$ull>y %ea? & sep>ate into a numb] ( bran*es t p5etrate ! corpuscle 9 diff]5t directions4 ,fig4 #add ,fig4 #add--99;,a t\* corpuscle99 highly magnifi$4 7,see text47 ,! l>ge/ ( ! simple =ms ( s5se organs are bodies visible to ! nak$ eye & call$1 f _! discov]] ,pac9i1 ! ,pac9ian corpuscles4 ,!y lie along ! c\rse ( n]ves 9 _m p>ts ( ! body1 & h ! g5]al =m ( gra9s ( :eat4 7,see ,practical ,"w47 ,! ,pac9ian corpuscles are compos$ ( connective tissue arrang$ 9 sep>ate lay]s ar\nd a n>r[ c5tral cavity call$ ! core 7,fig4 #ade74 ,)9 ! core is ! t]m9ation ( a l>ge n]ve fib]4 ,^! corpuscles are f\nd 9 ! connective tissue b5ea? ! sk91 along t5dons1 ar\nd jo9ts1 & among ! organs ( ! abdom9al cavity4 ,fig4 #ade ,fig4 #ade--99,pac9ian corpuscle991 magnifi$4 ,a4 ,m$ullat$ n]ve fib]4 ,b4 ,axis cyl9d] t]m9at+ 9 small bulb at ,c4 ,d4 ,conc5tric lay]s ( connective tissue4 ,e4 ,inn] bulb4 ,! simple =ms ( s5se organs h a m or less g5]al di/ribution ov] ! body1 & are conc]n$ 9 ! production ( at lea/ ?ree special s5sations4 ,^! are t\*1 temp]ature1 & ! muscul> s5sation4 99,t\*991 or feel+1 is p]haps ! simple/ ( ! s5sations4 ,! s5se organs employ$ are ! t\* corpuscles1 & ! ext]nal /imulus is "s =m ( pressure or impact4 ,pressure appli$ to ! sk91 by act+ on ! fib] t]m9ations 9 ! corpuscles1 />ts ! impulses t give rise to ! s5sation4 ,! t\* corpuscles r5d] ! fib] t]m9ations s s5sitive t ! slighte/ pressure is able to ar\se s5sations ( t\*4 ,x is f\nd t a *ange ( pressure1 r ?an pressure t is con/ant1 is ! active /imulus4 ,t all p>ts ( ! sk9 are n equally s5sitive to pressure1 & t ! m9d does n int]pret equally well ! s5sations f diff]5t p>ts1 are facts easily demon/rat$ by exp]im5t4 7,see ,practical ,"w47 99,! ,temp]ature ,s5sation499--,temp]ature s5sations1 l ^? ( t\*1 are limit$ almo/ entirely to ! sk94 ,!y are ( two k9ds1 & are designat$ z heat s5sations & z cold s5sations4 ,:e!r ! s5se organs = temp]ature are diff]5t f ^? ( t\* is n kn[n4 ,x is kn[n1 h[ev]1 t ! same corpuscles d n respond alike to heat1 cold1 & pressure4 ,a ,*ange ( ,temp]ature1 r ?an any specific degree ( heat or cold1 is ! active temp]ature /imulus4 ,! s5sation ( w>m? is obta9$ :5 ! temp]ature ( ! sk9 is be+ rais$1 & ( cold :5 x is be+ l[]$4 ,?is expla9s :y 9 go+ into a hallway f a heat$ room "o receives a s5sation ( cold1 :ile 9 com+ into ! same hallway f ! outside air he receives a s5sation ( w>m?4 ,x is = ! same reason t we are able to di/+ui% only ! relative1 n ! actual1 temp]ature ( bodies4 99,muscul> ,s5sations499--,^! are s5sations produc$ by impulses aris+ at ! muscles4 ,su* impulses orig9ate at ! fib] t]m9ations :i* are f\nd 9 bo? ! muscles & _! t5dons4 ,by muscul> s5sations "o is consci\s ( ! location ( a contract+ muscle & ( ! degree ( its t5sion4 ,!y also make x possible to judge ( ! weight ( objects4 ,fig4 #adf ,fig4 #adf--99,s5se organs ( ta/e499 ,a4 ,map ( upp] surface ( tongue1 %[+ on ! left ! diff]5t k9ds ( papill1 & on ! "r ! areas ( ta/e 7aft] ,hall74 ,area s5sitive to bitt] 7----72 to acid 7444472 to salt 7--4--4--4--72 to sweet 7--------74 ,b4 ,section ?r\gh a papilla4 n4 ,small n]ve connect+ ) ta/e buds at d4 e4 ,epi!lium4 ,c4 ,s+le ta/e bud magnifi$4 n4 ,n]ve1 ! fib]s ( :i* t]m9ate betwe5 ! sp9dle-%ap$ cells a4 e4 ,epi!lial cells4 99,! ,s5sation ( ,ta/e499--,! s5se organs ( ta/e are f\nd *iefly 9 ! muc\s membrane cov]+ ! upp] surface ( ! tongue4 ,scatt]$ ov] ?is surface are a numb] ( r\nd$ elevations1 or l>ge papill 7,a1 ,fig4 #adf74 ,t[>d ! back ( ! tongue two r[s ( ^!1 l>g] ?an ! o!rs1 conv]ge to meet at an angle1 :]e is locat$ a papilla ( exceptional size4 ,surr\nd+ ea* papilla is a n>r[ depression1 )9 :i* are f\nd ! s5se organs ( ta/e 7,b1 ,fig4 #adf74 ,^! are call$1 f _! %ape1 ta/e buds1 & ea* bud conta9s a c5tral cavity :i* communicates ) ! surface by a small op5+--! gu/atory pore4 ,)9 ?is cavity are _m sl5d]1 sp9dle-%ap$ cells :i* t]m9ate 9 hair-l projections at ! end ne>e/ ! pore1 b 9 %ort fib]s at ! o!r end4 ,n]ve fib]s ent] at ! inn] ends ( ! buds & spread out betwe5 ! cells 7,c1 ,fig4 #adf74 ,^! fib]s pass to ! bra9 z p>ts ( two pairs ( n]ves--^? f ! front ( ! tongue jo9+ ! trigem9al n]ve1 & ^? f ! back ( ! tongue1 ! glossoph>yngeal n]ve4 ,! gu/at>y1 or ta/e /imulus1 is "s *emical or physical condition ( sub/ances :i* is manife/$ only :5 !y are 9 a liquid /ate4 ,= ?is reason only liquid sub/ances c be ta/$4 ,solids to be ta/$ mu/ fir/ be dissolv$4 ,! diff]5t ta/e s5sations are describ$ z bitt]1 sweet1 s\r1 & sal9e1 & 9 ! ord] nam$ are recogniz$ z ! ta/es ( qu99e1 sug>1 v9eg>1 & salt4 ,z to h[ ^! diff]5t ta/es are produc$1 little is kn[n4 ,flavors su* z vanilla & lemon1 & ! flavors ( meats & fruits1 are really smell$ & n ta/$4 ,ta/e s]ves two ma9 purposes3 x is an aid 9 ! selection ( food & x is a means ( /imulat+ ! dige/ive gl&s 7page #afa74 ,fig4 #adg ,fig4 #adg--99,s5se organ ( smell499 ,a4 ,di/ribution ( n]ves 9 out] wall ( nasal cavity4 #a4 ,turb9at$ bones4 #b4 ,bran* ( fif? pair ( n]ves4 #c4 ,bran*es ( olfactory n]ve4 #d4 ,olfactory bulb4 ,b4 ,diagram %[+ connection ( neurons conc]n$ 9 smell4 99,! ,s5sation ( ,smell499--,! s5se organs ( smell are f\nd 9 ! muc\s membrane l9+ ! upp] divisions ( ! nasal cavities4 ,"h are f\nd two k9ds ( cells 9 great abundance--column-%ap$ epi!lial cells & ! cells :i* are recogniz$ z ! s5se organs ( smell4 ,^! olfactory cells are sp9dle-%ap$1 hav+ at "o end a sl5d]1 ?read-l projection :i* rea*es ! surface1 & at ! o!r end a fib] :i* jo9s an olfactory n]ve 7,b1 ,fig4 #adg74 ,9 fact1 ! olfactory cells resemble closely ! cell-bodies ( neurons1 & are ?\ght to be su*4 ,! divisions ( ! olfactory n]ve pass ?r\gh _m small op5+s 9 ! e?moid bone to connect ) ! olfactory bulbs1 :i* 9 turn connect ) ! c]ebrum 7,a1 ,fig4 #adg74 99,! ,olfactory ,/imulus499--,only sub/ances 9 ! gase\s /ate c be smell$4 ,f ?is x is inf]r$ t ! /imulus is suppli$ by gas p>ticles4 ,solids & liquids are smell$ because ( ! gas p>ticles :i* sep>ate f !m4 ,! sub/ance :i* is smell$ mu/ be kept mov+ ?r\gh ! no/rils & made to come 9 direct contact ) ! olfactory cells4 ,!re is practically no limit to ! numb] ( di/9ct odors t may be recogniz$4 99,value ( ,smell499--,al?\gh ! s5se ( smell is n s acute 9 man z 9 "s ( ! l[] animals1 x is1 nev]!less1 a mo/ important & useful gift4 ,x is ! only s5se t responds to matt] 9 ! gase\s /ate1 & is1 = ?is reason1 ! only natural means ( detect+ h>mful con/itu5ts ( ! atmosph]e4 ,9 ?is connection x has be5 lik5$ to a s5t9el /&+ gu>d ov] ! air passages4 ,_m gases are1 h[ev]1 )\t odor1 & = ?is reason _c be detect$ by ! no/rils4 ,x is ( especial importance t gases :i* are likely to become mix$ ) ! air supply to ! body h odor1 ev5 ?\gh ! odor be disagreeable4 ,! bad odors ( illum9at+ gas & ( v>i\s comp\nds ( ! *emical laboratory1 s9ce !y s]ve z dang] signals to put "o expos$ to !m on 8 gu>d1 are ( great protective value4 99,sight & ,he>+499--,! s5se organs ( sight & he>+ are highly complicat$ /ructures1 & w be consid]$ 9 ! *apt]s foll[+4 99,summ>y499--,s5sations are c]ta9 activities ( ! m9d t result f excitations )9 ! body or at its surface4 ,^! cause ! neurons to dis*>ge impulses :i* on rea*+ ! c]ebrum cause ! s5sations4 ,s5sations are necess>y = intellig5t & purposeful action & = acquir+ all k9ds ( k4 ,to enable ! /imuli to act to ! be/ advantage 9 />t+ ! impulses1 special devices1 call$ s5se organs1 are employ$4 ,^! receive ! t]m9ations ( ! neurons1 & by _! special /ructure enable ! mo/ delicate /imuli to />t impulses4 ,! simpl] =ms ( s5se organs are ^? ( t\*1 temp]ature1 ta/e1 & smell4 99,ex]cises499--#a4 ,comp>e s5sations & reflex actions ) ref]5ce to _! nature & cause4 ,give /eps 9 ! production ( ea*4 #b4 ,give examples ( s5sation /imuli4 ,/ate ! purpose ( s5se organs4 #c4 ,h[ d g5]al s5sations diff] f special s5sations8 #d4 ,( :at value is pa9 9 ! protection ( ! body8 #e4 ,%[ t s5sations lead to ! high] =ms ( m5tal activity1 su* z emotion & imag9ation4 #f4 ,( :at value to ! body is ! localiz+ ( ! s5sation8 #g4 ,:at k9ds ( s5se organs are f\nd 9 ! sk98 ,/ate ! purpose ( ea*4 #h4 ,?r\gh :at s5se av5ues is "o made aw>e ( solids1 ( liquids1 & ( gases8 #i4 ,( :at special protective value is ! s5se ( smell8 ,,practical ,,"w 99,to demon/rate ! ,pac9ian ,corpuscles499--,spread out ! mes5t]y f ! inte/9e ( a cat & hold x betwe5 ! eye & ! light3 ,pac9ian corpuscles w appe> z small transluc5t bodies hav+ ! g5]al =m ( gra9s ( :eat4 ,secure a portion ( ! mes5t]y ov] a circul> op5+ 9 a ?9 piece ( cork & exam9e x ) a microscope ( l[ p[]4 ,foll[ ! c\rse ( ! n]ve fib] to ! n]ve f :i* x bran*es4 99,to %[ ,relative ,s5sitiv5ess ( ,diff]5t ,p>ts ( ! ,sk9499--,hold+ a bri/le betwe5 ! f+]s1 br+ ! end 9 contact ) ! sk91 not+ ! am\nt ( pressure necess>y to cause a s5sation ( t\*4 ,te/ ! lips1 tongue1 tips ( f+]s1 & palm & back ( h&1 try+ diff]5t sizes ( bri/les4 ,has ! degree ( s5sitiv5ess any relation to ! ?ickness ( ! cuticle8 99,to %[ ,p]ceptive ,diff]5ces ( ,diff]5t ,portions ( ! ,sk9499--,place ! po9ts ( a pair ( divid]s on ! back ( ! h& ( "o :o looks 9 ! opposite direction4 ,is "o po9t felt or two8 ,repeat sev]al times1 *ang+ ! di/ance betwe5 ! po9ts until x is fully det]m9$ h[ ne> ! two po9ts mu/ be plac$ 9 ord] to be felt z "o4 ,9 l mann] te/ o!r p>ts ( ! body1 z ! tips ( ! f+]s & ! back ( ! neck4 ,comp>e results obta9$ at diff]5t places4 99,to locate ,w>m & ,cold ,s5sation ,spots499--,sl[ly & ev5ly draw a blunt-po9t$ piece ( metal ov] ! back ( ! neck4 ,if x be ( ! same temp]ature z ! sk91 only t\* s5sations w be exp]i5c$4 ,if x be a little cold] 7! temp]ature ( ! room7 s5sations ( cold w be felt at c]ta9 spots4 ,if slightly w>m] ?an ! body1 heat s5sation spots w be f\nd on o!r p>ts ( ! sk94 ,if ! heat & cold s5sation spots be m>k$ & te/$ f day to day !y w be f\nd to rema9 con/ant z to position4 ,inf]5ce4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi - ,,! ,,l>ynx ,,& ,,! ,,e> ,man is a social be+4 ,8 incl9ations are n to live alone1 b to be a "p ( t great human organization kn[n z society4 ,= m5 to "w toge!r1 to be mutually helpful "o to ano!r1 requires ! ability to ex*ange ideas & ?is 9 turn requires "s means ( communication47#aae7 ,"o means ( communication is f\nd 9 c]ta9 movem5ts ( ! atmosph]e1 kn[n z s\nd waves4 ,9 ! ex*ange ( ideas by ?is means !re are employ$ two ( ! mo/ int]e/+ divisions ( ! body--! l>ynx & ! e>4 ,! fir/ is an in/rum5t = ! production ( s\nd waves2 ! second is ! s5se organ :i* enables ! s\nd waves to act z /imuli to ! n]v\s sy/em4 99,nature ( ,s\nd ,waves499--,if "s sonor\s body1 z a bell1 be /ruck1 x is giv5 a quiv]+1 or vibratory1 motion4 ,?is is n conf9$ to ! bell1 b is imp>t$ to ! air & o!r sub/ances ) :i* ! bell comes 9 contact4 ,^! take up ! movem5ts & pass !m to objects m remote1 & !y 9 turn give !m to o!rs1 until a v consid]able di/ance is rea*$4 ,su* progressive vibrations are kn[n z waves1 &1 s9ce !y act z /imuli to ! organs ( he>+1 !y are call$ s\nd waves4 ,s\nd waves always orig9ate 9 vibrat+ bodies47#aaf7 ,!y are transmitt$ *iefly by ! air1 :i*1 because ( its lightness1 ela/icity1 & abundance1 readily takes up ! vibrations & spreads !m 9 all directions 7,fig4 #adh74 ,:ile ^! vibratory movem5ts ( ! atmosph]e are correctly classifi$ z waves1 !y be> little resemblance to ! waves on wat]4 ,in/ead ( be+ made ( cre/s & tr\ghs1 z are ! wat] waves1 ! s\nd waves consi/ ( alt]nat+ successions ( slightly cond5s$ & r>efi$ lay]s ( air4 ,!n1 :ile ! g5]al movem5t ( ! wat] waves is t ( ev] wid5+ circles ov] a surface1 ! s\nd waves spread z enl>g+ sph]ical %ells ?r\gh ! air4 ,9 s\nd waves1 z 9 all o!r waves1 h[ev]1 x is only ! =m ( ! wave t moves =w>d4 ,! individual p>ticles ( air t make up ! wave simply vibrate back & =?4 ,fig4 #adh ,fig4 #adh--;,diagram illu/rat+ ! spread+ ( s\nd waves ?r\gh air4 99,h[ ,s\nd ,waves act z ,/imuli499--,any s\nd wave repres5ts a small b def9ite am\nt ( en]gy1 ?is be+ a "p ( ! orig9al =ce t act$ on ! vibrat+ body to set x 9 motion4 ,! hamm]1 = in/ance1 9 /rik+ a bell imp>ts to x a measurable quantity ( en]gy1 :i* ! bell 9 turn imp>ts to ! air4 ,?is en]gy is 9 ! s\nd waves & is communicat$ to ! bodies aga9/ :i* !y /rike47#aag7 ,?\gh ! =ce ex]t$ by mo/ s\nd waves is1 inde$1 v slight1 x is suffici5t to enable !m to act z /imuli to ! n]v\s sy/em4 99,h[ ,s\nds ,diff]499--,?ree di/9ct effects are produc$ by s\nd waves ^u ! n]ves ( he>+1 & ?r\gh !m ^u ! m9d4 ,^! are kn[n z pit*1 int5sity1 & quality1 & !y are dep5d5t ^u ! vibrations ( ! s\nd-produc+ bodies4 ,pit*1 :i* has ref]5ce to ! height1 or degree ( %>pness1 ( tones1 is det]m9$ by ! rapidity ( ! vibrations ( ! vibrat+ body4 ,! m rapid ! vibrations1 ! high] ! pit*1 ! numb] ( vibrations d\bl+ = ea* musical int]val kn[n z ! octave4 ,int5sity is ! en]gy1 or =ce1 ( ! s\nd waves4 ,?is is recogniz$ by ! /r5g? ( ! s5sation & is express$ by ! t]m l\dness4 ,int5sity is gov]n$ ma9ly by ! wid? ( ! vibrations ( ! vibrat+ body1 & ! wid? dep5ds ^u ! =ce appli$ to ! body to make x vibrate4 ,quality is t peculi>ity ( s\nd t enables tones f diff]5t in/rum5ts to s\nd diff]5tly1 al?\gh !y may h ! same pit* & int5sity4 ,quality dep5ds ^u ! fact t mo/ tones are complex 9 nature & result f ! bl5d+ toge!r ( simple tones ( diff]5t pit*4 99,ren=cem5t ( ,s\nd ,waves499--,! s\nd vibrations f small bodies are n infrequ5tly ren=c$ by surr\nd+ conditions s t _! outgo+ waves rea* f>!r & are m effective ?an waves f l>g] bodies4 ,?is is true ( ! s\nd waves produc$ by mo/ musical in/rum5ts & also ^? produc$ by ! human l>ynx4 ,su* ren=cem5t is effect$ 9 two g5]al ways--by s\nd+ bo>ds & by inclos$ columns ( air4 ,/r+$ in/rum5ts--viol91 guit>1 piano1 etc4--employ s\nd+ bo>ds1 :ile w9d in/rum5ts1 z ! flute1 pipe organ1 & ! v>i\s k9ds ( horns1 employ air columns = ren=c+ _! vibrations4 ,9 ! use ( ! s\nd+ bo>d1 ! vibrations are communicat$ to a l>g] surface1 & 9 ! use ( ! air column ! vibrations are communicat$ to ! inclos$ air4 7,see ,practical ,"w47 99,value ( ,s\nd ,waves to ! ,body499--,f a physiological /&po9t1 ! value ( s\nd waves is n easily ov]e/imat$4 ,9 addition to ! use made ( !m 9 ! communication ( ideas1 !y s]ve ! purpose ( protect+ ! body1 & 9 ! sph]e ( music provide "o ( ! mo/ elevat+ =ms ( ent]ta9m5t4 ,s\nds f diff]5t animals1 z well z f inanimate objects1 may also be ! means ( supply+ ne$$ in=mation4 ,! exi/5ce ( two k9ds ( s\nd in/rum5ts 9 ! body--! "o = ! production1 ! o!r = ! detection1 ( s\nd--is c]ta9ly sugge/ive ( ! ability ( ! body to adju/ itself to1 & to make use (1 its physical environm5t4 ,bo? ! l>ynx & ! e> are con/ruct$ ) special ref]5ce to ! nature & prop]ties ( s\nd waves4 ,,! ,,l>ynx 99,! ,s\nd-produc+ ,me*anism ( ! ,body99 consi/s ( ! foll[+ p>ts3 #a4 ,delicately arrang$ bodies t are easily set 9 vibration4 #b4 ,an arrangem5t = supply+ ! necess>y =ce = mak+ ^! bodies vibrate4 #c4 ,contrivances = modify+ ! vibrat+ p>ts s z to produce *anges 9 pit* & int5sity4 #d4 ,p>ts t ren=ce ! vibrations4 #e4 ,organs by means ( :i* ! s\nds are conv]t$ into ! =ms ( spee*4 ,! c5tral organ 9 ?is complex me*anism is 99,! ,l>ynx499--,! l>ynx =ms a "p ( ! air passages1 be+ a %ort tube at ! upp] end ( ! tra*ea4 ,muc\s membrane l9es ! inside ( x & muscles cov] mo/ ( ! out] surface4 ,! framework is made ( c>tilage4 ,at ! top x is p>tly encircl$ by a small bone 7! hyoid71 & its op5+ into ! ph>ynx is gu>d$ by a flexible lid1 call$ ! epiglottis4 ,! c>tilage 9 its walls is 9 eight sep>ate pieces1 b ! great] portion ( ! /ructure is =m$ ( two pieces only4 ,^! are kn[n z ! ?yroid c>tilage & ! cricoid c>tilage 7,fig4 #adi74 ,bo? c be felt 9 ! ?roat--! ?yroid z ! projection kn[n z ,adam's apple1 & ! cricoid z a broad r+ j bel[4 ,fig4 #adi ,fig4 #adi--,! l>ynx4--,a4 ,outside view4 ,b4 ,v]tical section ?r\gh l>ynx1 %[+ inside4 #a4 ,?yroid c>tilage4 #b4 ,cricoid c>tilage4 #c4 ,tra*ea4 #d4 ,hyoid bone4 #e4 ,epiglottis4 #f4 ,vocal cord4 #g4 ,false vocal cord4 #h4 ,l9+ ( muc\s membrane4 ,! ?yroid c>tilage consi/s ( two ,v-%ap$ pieces1 "o on ei!r side ( ! l>ynx1 meet+ at _! po9ts 9 front1 & ea* t]m9at+ at ! back 9 an upw>d & a d[nw>d projection4 ,betwe5 ! back portions ( ! ?yroid is a space equal to ab\t "o ?ird ( ! circumf]5ce ( ! l>ynx4 ,?is is occupi$ by ! great] portion ( ! cricoid c>tilage4 ,?is c>tilage has ! g5]al %ape ( a signet r+ & is s plac$ t ! "p correspond+ to ! signet fits into ! ?yroid space1 :ile ! r+ portion encircles ! l>ynx j bel[ ! ?yroid4 ,muscles & connective tissue pass f ! ?yroid to ! cricoid c>tilage at all places1 save "o on ea* side1 :]e ! d[nw>d projections ( ! ?yroid =m h+e jo9ts ) ! cricoid4 ,^! jo9ts p]mit ( motion ( ei!r c>tilage ^u ! o!r4 ,at ! summit ( ! cricoid c>tilage1 on ea* side1 is a small piece ( triangul> %ape1 call$ ! aryt5oid c>tilage4 ,ea* aryt5oid is movable on ! cricoid & is connect$ ) "o end ( a vocal cord4 ,fig4 #aej ,fig4 #aej--99,vocal cords99 z se5 f above4 ,a4 ,9 produc+ s\nd1 ,b4 ,dur+ quiet brea?+4 99,! ,vocal ,cords99 are =m$ by two n>r[ /rips ( tissue :i*1 connect+ ) ! ?yroid c>tilage 9 front & ! aryt5oid c>tilages beh9d1 lie 9 folds ( ! muc\s membrane4 ,!y h ! g5]al appe>ance ( ridge-l projections f ! sides ( ! l>ynx1 b at _! edges !y are %>p & smoo?4 ,! op5 space betwe5 ! cords is call$ ! glottis4 ,:5 s\nd is n be+ produc$1 ! glottis is op5 & has a triangul> =m1 due to ! spread+ ap>t ( ! aryt5oid c>tilages & ! atta*$ cords4 ,b :5 s\nd is be+ produc$1 ! glottis is almo/ completely clos$ by ! cords4 ,above ! vocal cords1 & resembl+ !m 9 appe>ance1 are two o!r folds ( membrane1 call$ ! false vocal cords 7,b1 ,fig4 #adi74 ,! false cords d n produce s\nd1 b !y aid 9 ! clos+ ( ! glottis4 99,h[ ! ,voice is ,produc$499--,! voice is produc$ ?r\gh ! vibrations ( ! vocal cords4 ,a special set ( muscles draws ! aryt5oid c>tilages t[>d ea* o!r1 !reby br++ _! edges v ne> & p>allel to ea* o!r 9 ! passage4 ,at ! same "t o!r muscles act on ! ?yroid & cricoid c>tilages to sep>ate !m at ! top & give ! cords ! necess>y t5sion4 ,) ! glottis n[ almo/ clos$1 bla/s ( air f ! lungs /rike ! %>p edges ( ! cords & set !m 9 vibration 7,fig4 #aej74 ,! vocal cords d n vibrate z /r+s1 l ! /r+s ( a viol91 b some:at z re$s1 simil> to ! re$s ( a ,fr5* h>p or re$ organ4 ,! location ( ! vocal cords 9 ! air passages enables ! lungs & ! muscles ( respiration to aid 9 ! production ( ! voice4 ,x is _! function to supply ! necess>y =ce = sett+ ! cords 9 vibration4 ,! upp] air passages 7m\?1 no/rils1 & ph>ynx7 supply resonance *amb]s = ren=c+ ! vibrations f ! vocal cords1 !reby greatly increas+ _! int5sity4 ,9 ord9>y brea?+ ! vocal cords are 9 a relax$ condition aga9/ ! sides ( ! l>ynx & are n act$ ^u by ! air z x ent]s or leaves ! lungs4 99,pit* & ,int5sity ( ! ,voice499--,*anges 9 ! pit* ( ! voice are caus$ ma9ly by v>iations 9 ! t5sion ( ! cords1 due to ! movem5ts ( ! ?yroid & cricoid c>tilages ^u ea* o!r47#aah7 ,9 ! production ( tones ( v high pit*1 ! vibrat+ portions ( ! cords are ?\ght to be actually %ort5$ by _! m>g9s be+ drawn into contact at ! back4 ,?is raises ! pit* 9 ! same mann] z does ! %ort5+ ( ! vibrat+ portion ( a viol9 /r+4 ,! int5sity1 or l\dness1 ( ! voice is gov]n$ by ! =ce ) :i* ! air is expell$ f ! lungs4 ,! vibrations ( ! cords1 h[ev]1 are greatly ren=c$ by ! peculi> /ructure ( ! upp] air passages1 z /at$ above4 99,production ( ,spee*499--,! s\nds t =m our spee* or language are produc$ by modify+ ! vibrations f ! vocal cords4 ,?is is accompli%$ by m\?+ ! s\nds f ! l>ynx4 ,! di/9ct s\nds1 or words1 are usually complex 9 nature1 be+ made up ( two or m elem5t>y s\nds4 ,^! are class$ ei!r z v[els or consonants & are repres5t$ by ! diff]5t lett]s ( ! alphabet4 ,! v[el s\nds are made ) ! m\? op5 & are m ne>ly ! pure vibrations ( ! vocal cords4 ,! consonants are modifications ( ! vocal cord vibrations produc$ by ! tongue1 tee?1 lips1 & ?roat4 99,words & _! ,significance499--,9 ! developm5t ( language c]ta9 ideas h become associat$ ) c]ta9 s\nds s t ! he>+ ( ^! s\nds sugge/s ! ideas4 ,our words1 !re=e1 consi/ ( s _m s\nd signals1 ea* capable ( ar\s+ a def9ite idea 9 ! m9d4 ,to talk is to express ideas ?r\gh ^! signals1 & to li/5 is to assume an attitude ( m9d su* t ! signals may be int]pret$4 ,9 le>n+ a language1 bo? ! s\nds ( ! words & _! associat$ ideas are ma/]$1 ?is be+ necess>y to _! practical use 9 ex*ang+ ideas4 ,f spok5 language man has advanc$ to writt5 language1 s t ! sight ( ! writt5 or pr9t$ ^w also ar\ses 9 ! m9d ! associat$ idea4 ,,! ,,e> 99,! ,e>99 is ! s5se organ :i* enables s\nd waves to s act ^u aff]5t neurons z to excite impulses 9 !m4 ,! effect ^u ! m9d :i* ^! impulses produce is kn[n z ! s5sation ( he>+4 ,9 ! p]=mance ( its function ! e> receives & transmits s\nd waves & also conc5trates !m ^u a suitable exposure ( n]ve cells4 ,x includes ?ree p>ts--! ext]nal e>1 ! middle e>1 & ! int]nal e>4 99,ext]nal ,e>499--,! ext]nal e> consi/s ( ! "p on ! outside ( ! head call$ ! p9na1 or auricle1 & ! tube lead+ into ! middle e>1 call$ ! auditory canal 7,fig4 #aea74 ,! p9na by its peculi> %ape aids to "s ext5t ! entrance ( s\nd waves into ! auditory canal47#aai7 ,x consi/s *iefly ( c>tilage4 ,! auditory canal is a little m ?an an in* 9 l5g? & "o f\r? ( an in* 9 diamet]1 & is clos$ at its inn] end by a ?91 b important membrane1 call$ 99,! ,membrana ,tympani499--,?is membrane consi/s ( ?ree ?9 lay]s4 ,! out] lay] is cont9u\s ) ! l9+ ( ! auditory canal2 ! inn] is a "p ( ! l9+ ( ! middle e>2 & ! middle is a f9e lay] ( connective tissue4 ,be+ ?9 & delicately pois$1 ! membrana tympani is easily made to vibrate by ! s\nd waves t ent] ! auditory canal4 ,9 ?is way x s]ves z a receiv] ( s\nd waves f ! air4 ,x also protects ,fig4 #aea ,fig4 #aea--99;,diagram ( section ?r\gh ! e>991 %[+ relations ( its v>i\s p>ts4 7,see text47 99,! ,middle ,e>499--,! middle e>1 or tympanum17#abj7 consi/s ( an irregul> cavity 9 ! temporal bone :i* is l9$ ) muc\s membrane & fill$ ) air4 ,x is connect$ ) ! ph>ynx by a sl5d] canal call$ ! ,eu/a*ian tube4 ,ext5d+ across ! middle e> & connect+ ) ! membrana tympani on "o side1 & ) a membrane clos+ a small passage to ! int]nal e> on ! o!r1 is a t9y bridge =m$ ( ?ree small bones4 ,^! bones1 nam$ 9 _! ord] f ! membrana tympani1 are ! malleus1 ! incus1 & ! /apes 7,fig4 #aea74 ,:]e ! malleus jo9s ! membrane is a small muscle ^: contraction has ! effect ( tight5+ ! membrane4 ,! ,eu/a*ian tube admits air freely to ! middle e>1 provid+ 9 ?is way = an equality ( atmosph]ic pressure on ! two sides ( ! drum membrane4 ,! bridge ( bones & ! air 9 ! middle e> receive vibrations f ! membrana tympani & communicate !m to ! membrane ( ! int]nal e>4 99,purposes ( ! ,middle ,e>4 99--,! middle e> s]ves two important purposes4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x makes x possible = s\nd waves to set ! membrana tympani 9 vibration4 ,?is membrane c\ld n be made to vibrate by ! m delicate ( ! s\nd waves if x 7 /ret*$ ov] a bone1 or ov] "s ( ! s(t] tissues1 or ov] a liquid4 ,its vibration is made possible by ! pres5ce ( air on bo? sides1 & ?is condition is suppli$1 on ! inn] side1 by ! middle e>4 ,! ,eu/a*ian tube1 by provid+ = an equality ( pressure on ! two sides ( ! membrane1 also aids 9 ?is purpose4 ,9 ! second place1 ! middle e> provides a means = conc5trat+ ! =ce ( ! s\nd waves z !y pass f ! membrana tympani to ! int]nal e>4 ,?is conc5tration is effect$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 #a4 ,! bridge ( bones1 be+ pivot$ at "o po9t to ! walls ( ! middle e>1 =ms a lev] 9 :i* ! malleus is ! long arm1 & ! incus & /apes ! %ort arm1 _! ratio be+ ab\t t ( ?ree to two4 ,?is causes ! incus to move ?r\gh a %ort] di/ance1 b ) great] =ce ?an ! end ( ! malleus4 #b4 ,! area ( ! membrana tympani is ab\t tw5ty times z great z ! membrane ( ! int]nal e> :i* is act$ ^u by ! /apes4 ,! =ce f ! l>g] surface is1 !re=e1 conc5trat$ by ! bridge ( bones ^u ! small] surface4 ,by ! comb9ation ( ^! two devices1 ! waves /rik+ ^u ! membrane ( ! int]nal e> are r5d]$ "s ?irty times m effective ?an are ! same waves ent]+ ! auditory canal4 99,! ,int]nal ,e>991 or labyr9?1 occupies a s]ies ( irregul> *annels 9 ! petr\s process ( ! temporal bone47#aba7 ,x is v complicat$ 9 /ructure1 & at ! same "t is v small4 ,its greate/ l5g? is n m ?an ?ree f\r?s ( an in* & its greate/ diamet] n m ?an "o half ( an in*4 ,x is fill$ ) a liquid :i* at "o place is call$ ! p]ilymph1 & at ano!r place ! endolymph4 ,x is a d\ble organ1 be+ made up ( an out] portion :i* lies next to ! bone1 & :i* surr\nds an inn] portion ( ! same g5]al =m4 ,! out] portion is surr\nd$ by a membrane :i* s]ves z p]io/eum to ! bone &1 at ! same "t1 holds ! liquid belong+ to ?is "p1 call$ ! p]ilymph4 ,! inn] portion1 call$ ! membran\s labyr9?1 consi/s ess5tially ( a clos$ membran\s sac1 :i* is fill$ ) ! endolymph4 ,! auditory n]ve t]m9ates 9 ?is portion ( ! int]nal e>4 ,?ree di/9ct divisions ( ! labyr9? h be5 made out1 kn[n z ! ve/ibule1 ! semicircul> canals1 & ! co*lea 7,fig4 #aeb74 ,fig4 #aeb ,fig4 #aeb--99;,g5]al =m1 ( int]nal e>499 ,! illu/ration repres5ts ! /ructures ( ! int]nal e> surr\nd$ by a ?9 lay] ( bone4 #a4 ,ve/ibule4 #b4 ,co*lea4 #c4 ,semicircul> canals4 #d4 ,f5e/ra ovalis4 #e4 ,f5e/ra rotunda4 99,! ,ve/ibule99 =ms ! c5tral portion ( ! int]nal e> & is some:at oval 9 %ape4 ,x is 9 communication ) ! middle e> ?r\gh a small op5+ 9 ! bone1 call$ ! f5e/ra ovalis1 at :i* place x is sep>at$ f ! middle e> only by a ?9 membrane4 ,s\nd waves ent] ! liquids ( ! int]nal e> at ?is po9t1 ! foot ( ! /apes be+ atta*$ to ! membrane4 ,six o!r op5+s lead (f f ! ve/ibule at diff]5t places4 ,"o ( ^! ent]s ! co*lea4 ,! o!r five op5 into 99,! ,semicircul> ,canals499--,^! canals1 ?ree 9 numb]1 pass ?r\gh ! bone 9 ?ree diff]5t planes4 ,"o ext5ds 9 a horizontal direction & ! o!r two v]tically1 b ea* plane is at "r angles to ! o!r two4 ,bo? ends ( ea* canal connect ) ! ve/ibule1 ?\gh two ( !m jo9 by a common op5+4 ,! inn] membran\s labyr9? is cont9u\s ?r\gh ea* canal1 & is held 9 position by small /rips ( connective tissue4 ,! purpose ( ! semicircul> canals is n und]/ood4 ,x is kn[n1 h[ev]1 t !y are n us$ 9 he>+4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re is evid5ce to ! effect t !y act z equilibrium s5se organs1 excit+ s5sations necess>y = balanc+ ! body4 ,_! removal or injury1 :ile hav+ no effect ^u ! he>+1 does int]f]e ) ! ability to keep ! body 9 an upright position4 ,fig4 #aec ,fig4 #aec--;,diagram %[+ ! divisions ( co*le> canal4 99,! ,co*lea99 is ! "p ( ! int]nal e> directly conc]n$ 9 he>+4 ,x consi/s ( a coil$ tube :i* makes two & "o half turns ar\nd a c5tral axis & be>s a close resemblance to a snail %ell 7,figs4 #aea & #aeb74 ,x diff]s 9 plan f a snail %ell1 h[ev]1 9 t its int]ior space is divid$ into ?ree di/9ct *annels1 or canals4 ,^! lie side by side & are nam$1 f _! relations to o!r p>ts1 ! scala ve/ibula1 ! scala tympani1 & ! scala m$ia4 ,any v]tical section ( ! co*lea %[s all ?ree ( ^! *annels 7,fig4 #aec74 99,! ,scala ,ve/ibula & ! ,scala ,tympani99 appe> 9 cross section z ! l>g] ( ! canals4 ,! =m]1 s nam$ f its connection ) ! ve/ibule1 occupies ! upp] position 9 all p>ts ( ! coil4 ,! latt] lies bel[ at all places1 & is sep>at$ f ! *annels above p>tly by a m>g9 ( bone & p>tly by a membrane4 ,x receives its "n f its t]m9ation at ! tympanum1 or middle e>1 f :i* x is sep>at$ only by a ?9 membrane47#abb7 ,bo? ! scala ve/ibula & ! scala tympani belong to ! out] portion ( ! int]nal e> & are1 = ?is reason1 fill$ ) ! p]ilymph4 ,at _! upp] ends !y communicate ) ea* o!r by a small op5+1 mak+ by ?is means "o cont9u\s canal ?r\gh ! co*lea4 ,?is canal passes f ! ve/ibule to ! tympanum &1 9 s do+1 goes entirely ar\nd 99,! ,scala ,m$ia499--,?is division ( ! co*lea lies p>allel to & betwe5 ! o!r two divisions4 ,x is above ! scala tympani & bel[ ! scala ve/ibula1 & is sep>at$ f ea* by a membrane4 ,! scala m$ia belongs to ! membran\s portion ( ! int]nal e> & is1 !re=e1 fill$ ) ! endolymph4 ,x receives ! t]m9ations ( fib]s f ! auditory n]ve & may be reg>d$ z ! true s5se organ ( he>+4 ,! n]ve fib]s t]m9ate ^u ! membrane kn[n z ! basil> membrane1 :i* sep>ates x f ! scala tympani4 ,?is membrane ext5ds ! l5g? ( ! co*le> canals1 & is /ret*$ betwe5 a project+ %elf ( bone on "o side & ! out] wall ( ! co*lea on ! o!r4 ,x is cov]$ ) a lay] ( epi!lial cells1 "s ( :i* h small1 hair-l projections & are kn[n z ! hair cells4 ,above ! membrane1 & re/+ p>tly ^u x1 are two r[s ( rod-l bodies1 call$ ! rods ( ,corti4 ,^!1 by lean+ t[>d ea* o!r1 =m a k9d ( tunnel b5ea?4 ,!y are exce$+ly num]\s1 numb]+ m ?an #fjjj1 & =m a cont9u\s s]ies along ! m>g9 ( ! membrane4 ,fig4 #aed ,fig4 #aed--99;,diagram99 illu/rat+ passage ( s\nd waves ?r\gh ! e>4 99,h[ ,we ,he>499--,! s\nd waves :i* orig9ate 9 vibrat+ bodies are transmitt$ by ! air to ! ext]nal e>4 ,pass+ ?r\gh ! auditory canal1 ! waves /rike aga9/ ! membrana tympani1 sett+ x into vibration4 ,by ! bridge ( bones & ! air )9 ! middle e> ! vibrations are c>ri$ to & conc5trat$ ^u ! liquid 9 ! int]nal e> 7,fig4 #aed74 ,f "h ! vibrations pass ?r\gh ! *annels ( ! co*lea & set into vibration ! cont5ts ( ! scala m$ia & diff]5t portions ( ! basil> membrane4 ,?is s]ves z a /imulus to ! fib]s ( ! auditory n]ve1 caus+ !m to transmit impulses :i*1 on pass+ to ! bra91 produce ! s5sation ( he>+4 ,mu* ( ! peculi> /ructure ( ! co*lea is n und]/ood4 ,its m9ute size & its location 9 ! temporal bone make its /udy extremely difficult4 ,! connection ( ! scala ve/ibula ) ! scala tympani1 & ?is ) ! middle e>1 is necess>y = ! passage ( vibrations ?r\gh ! int]nal e>4 ,its liquids1 be+ practically incompressible & surr\nd$ on all sides by bones1 c\ld n o!rwise yield to ! movem5ts ( ! /apes4 7,see ,practical ,"w47 ,! rods ( ,corti are ?\ght to act z damp]s on ! basil> membrane1 to prev5t ! cont9uance ( vibrations :5 once !y are />t$4 99,detection ( ,pit*499--,! me?od ( detect+ tones ( diff]5t pit* is n und]/ood4 ,sev]al !ories h be5 advanc$ ) ref]5ce to its explanation1 "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ be+ t propos$ by ,helmholtz4 ,?is !ory is bas$ on our k ( sympa!tic vibrations4 ,! basil> membrane1 :ile cont9u\s ?r\gh\t1 may be reg>d$ z made up ( _m sep>ate cords ( diff]5t l5g?s /ret*$ side by side4 ,a tone ( a giv5 pit* w set into vibration only c]ta9 ( ^! cords1 :ile tones ( diff]5t pit* w set o!rs into vibration4 ,ano!r !ory is t ! basil> membrane responds to all k9ds ( vibrations & ! analysis ( s\nd takes place 9 ! bra94 ,a ?ird view is t ! filam5ts f ! hair cells1 r ?an ! basil> membrane1 respond to ! vibrations & 9 turn /imulate ! t]m9ations ( ! n]ve fib]s4 ,fig4 #aee ,fig4 #aee--99;,diagram99 %[+ h[ wax may plug ! auditory canal & cause deafness4 99,hygi5e ( ! ,e>499--,! e>1 be+ a delicate organ1 is frequ5tly injur$ by c>eless or r\gh treatm5t4 ,! removal ( ! e> wax by ! ins]tion ( po9t$ in/rum5ts has be5 f\nd to int]f]e ) ! natural me?od ( dis*>ge & to irritate ! membrane4 ,x %\ld nev] be practic$4 ,x is unnecess>y 9 ! heal?y e> ?us to cleanse ! auditory canal1 z ! wax is pass$ by a natural process to :]e x is easily remov$ by a damp clo?4 ,if ! natural process is ob/ruct$1 clean w>m wat] & a s(t l95 clo? may be employ$ 9 cleans+ ! canal1 )\t likelihood ( injury4 ,clean w>m wat] may also be introduc$ into ! auditory canal z a h>mless rem$y 9 reliev+ inflammation ( ! auditory canal & ( ! middle e>4 ,*ildr5's e>s are easily injur$1 & x goes )\t say+ t !y %\ld nev] be pull$ nor box$4 ,x frequ5tly happ5s t a mass ( wax collects 9 ! auditory canal & closes ! passage s completely z to cause deafness 7,fig4 #aee74 ,?is may come ab\t )\t pa9 & s gradually t "o does n ?9k ( seek+ m$ical aid4 ,su* masses are easily remov$ by ! physician1 ! he>+ be+ !n re/or$4 ,bo? = pa9ful di/urbances ( ! e> & = ! gradual loss ( he>+1 ! physician %\ld be consult$4 99,! ,he>+ ( ,s*ool ,*ildr5499--,s*ool *ildr5 n infrequ5tly h defective he>+ & = ?is reason are sl[ to le>n4 ,! he>+ is easily te/$ ) a wat*1 ! normal e> be+ able to he> ! wat* tick at a di/ance ( at lea/ two feet4 ,pupils ) defective he>+ %\ld1 ( c\rse1 h m$ical att5tion1 & 9 ! classroom %\ld be seat$ :]e !y c he> to ! be/ advantage4 99,summ>y499--,s\nd waves con/itute ! ext]nal /imuli = ! s5sation ( he>+4 ,!y consi/ ( progressive vibratory movem5ts ( ! air t orig9ate 9 vibrat+ bodies4 ,?r\gh ! l>ynx & ! e>1 s\nd waves are utiliz$ by ! body 9 diff]5t ways1 b *iefly z a means ( communication4 ,! l>ynx produces s\nd waves :i* are ren=c$ & modifi$ by ! air passages4 ,! e> supplies suitable conditions = ! action ( s\nd waves ^u n]ve cells4 ,bo? ! e> & ! l>ynx are con/ruct$ ) special ref]5ce to ! nature & prop]ties ( s\nd waves1 & !y illu/rate ! body's ability to adju/ itself to1 & to make use (1 its physical environm5t4 99,ex]cises499--#a4 ,= :at diff]5t purposes are s\nd waves employ$ 9 ! body8 #b4 ,h[ d s\nd waves orig9ate8 ,h[ are !y transmitt$8 ,h[ d !y diff] f ! waves on wat]8 #c4 ,h[ are s\nd waves able to act z n]ve /imuli8 #d4 ,describe two me?ods ( ren=c+ s\nd waves4 ,:i* me?od is employ$ 9 ! body8 #e4 ,"n all ! p>ts ( ! body t are directly or indirectly conc]n$ 9 ! production ( s\nd4 #f4 ,describe ! l>ynx4 #g4 ,describe ! condition ( ! vocal cords 9 speak+ & 9 ord9>y brea?+4 #h4 ,h[ are s\nds diff]+ 9 pit* & int5sity produc$ by ! l>ynx8 #i4 ,h[ is ! s\nd produc$ by ! vocal cords *ang$ into spee*8 #aj4 ,:at p>ts ( ! e> are conc]n$ 9 transmitt+ s\nd waves8 #aa4 ,give ! purposes ( ! middle e>4 #ab4 ,trace a s\nd wave f a bell to ! basil> membrane1 & trace ! impulse t x causes f !re to ! bra94 #ac4 ,give ! purpose ( ! ,eu/a*ian tubes2 ( ! rods ( ,corti2 ( ! semicircul> canals4 #ad4 ,give directions = ! prop] c>e ( ! e>4 ,,practical ,,"w 99,to illu/rate ! ,orig9 ( ,s\nd499--#a4 ,/rike a bell an easy bl[ & hold "s light sub/ance1 z a pi? ball atta*$ to a ?read1 aga9/ ! side1 not+ ! result4 #b4 ,s\nd a tun+ =k by /rik+ x aga9/ ! table4 ,te/ x = vibrations z above1 or by lett+ ! vibrat+ prongs t\* ! surface ( wat]4 #c4 ,pluck a /r+ ( a guit> or viol91 & f9d pro( t x is vibrat+ :ile giv+ out s\nd4 99,to %[ ! ,transmission ( ,s\nd499--#a4 ,vibrate a tun+ =k & press ! /em aga9/ a table or desk4 ,! vibrations :i* are ren=c$ 9 ?is way w be he>d 9 all p>ts ( ! room4 ,n[ press "o end ( a wood5 rod1 z a broom h&le1 aga9/ ! table1 & br+ ! /em ( ! vibrat+ =k aga9/ ! o!r end4 ,! vibrations n[ move d[n ! /ick to ! table1 f :5ce !y are communicat$ to ! air4 ,obs]ve t ! s\nd waves1 to rea* ! e>1 mu/ pass ?r\gh ! rod1 ! table1 & ! air4 #b4 ,fa/5 ! tun+ =k to a flat piece ( cork by press+ ! /em into a small hole 9 ! c5t]4 ,vibrate ! =k & let ! cork re/ on ! surface ( wat] 9 a half-fill$ tumbl] on ! table4 ,! s\nd w1 z be=e1 pass to ! table & !n to ! air4 ,obs]ve t 9 ?is case ! vibrations are transmitt$ by a liquid1 a solid1 & by ! air4 ,comp>e ?is action ) ! transmission ( s\nd waves by diff]5t portions ( ! e>4 99,to %[ ,effects ( ,s\nd ,waves499--#a4 ,place two l>ge tun+ =ks ( ! same pit*1 & m\nt$ on ?9 boxes = ren=c+ _! vibrations1 ne> ea* o!r on a table4 ,vibrate "o ( ! =ks = a mom5t & !n /op x by means ( ! h&4 ,obs]ve t ! o!r =k has be5 set 9 vibration4 7,?is exp]im5t does n "w ) =ks ( diff]5t pit*47 #b4 ,:ile hold+ a ?9 piece ( pap] aga9/ a comb ) ! op5 lips1 produce musical tones ) ! vocal cords4 ,^! w set ! pap] 9 vibration1 produc+ ! s-call$ comb music4 #c4 ,exam9e ! disk 9 a telephone :i* is set 9 vibration by ! voice4 ,obs]ve t x is a ?9 disk &1 l ! membrane ( ! e>1 has air on bo? sides ( x4 99,to %[ ! ,ren=cem5t ( ,s\nd499--#a4 ,vibrate a tun+ =k 9 ! air1 not+ ! feebl5ess ( ! tone produc$4 ,!n hold ! /em aga9/ a door or ! top ( a table1 not+ ! diff]5ce4 #b4 ,hold a vibrat+ tun+ =k ov] a tall j>1 or bottle1 & gradually add wat]4 ,if ! vessel is suffici5tly tall1 a dep? w be rea*$ :]e ! air 9 ! vessel ren=ces ! s\nd f ! =k4 #c4 ,hold a vibrat+ =k ov] ! m\? ( a small fruit j>1 p>tly cov]$ ) a piece ( c>dbo>d4 ,by v>y+ ! size ( ! op5+1 a position w be f\nd :]e ! s\nd is ren=c$4 ,if n successful at fir/1 try bottles & j>s ( diff]5t sizes4 99,to illu/rate ! ,mann] ( ,vibration ( ! ,liquid 9 ! ,int]nal ,e>499--,tie a piece ( d5tal rubb] ov] ! end ( a glass or wood5 tube ab\t half an in* 9 diamet] & six in*es 9 l5g?4 ,fill ! tube entirely full ( wat] &1 )\t spill+1 tie a piece ( ?9 rubb] tightly ov] ! o!r end4 ,hold+ ! tube horizontally1 press ! rubb] 9 at "o end & note t x is pu%$ out at ! o!r end4 ,make an imitation ( a vibration ) ! f+] aga9/ ! rubb] at "o end ( ! tube & note ! effect at ! o!r end4 ,to :at d ! tube & ! rubb] on ! ends ( ! tube correspond 9 ! int]nal e>8 ,fig4 #aef ,fig4 #aef--99,simple app>atus99 = demon/rat+ ! l>ynx4 99,to %[ ! ,plan ( ! ,l>ynx499--,cut f /iff pap] f\r pieces ( diff]5t %apes z indicat$ 9 ,fig4 #aef4 7,! piece to ! left %\ld h a l5g? ( ab\t six in*es1 ! o!rs proportionally l>ge47 ,! l>ge/ repres5ts ! ?yroid c>tilage1 ! next 9 size ! cricoid1 & ! two smalle/ ! aryt5oid c>tilages4 ,by means ( p9s1 or ?reads1 connect ^! ) ea* o!r accord+ to ! description ( ! l>ynx on page #bec4 ,) ?is simple model ! movem5ts ( ! diff]5t c>tilages & _! effect ^u ! vocal cords may be illu/rat$4 99,to %[ ! ,relation ( ! ,movem5ts ( ! ,vocal ,organs to ! ,production ( ,diff]5t ,s\nds499--#a4 ,lightly grasp ! l>ynx ) ! f+]s :ile talk+4 ,obs]ve ! *anges1 bo? 9 ! position & %ape ( ! l>ynx1 9 ! production ( s\nds ( diff]5t pit*4 #b4 ,obs]ve ! diff]5ce 9 ! action ( ! muscles ( respiration 9 ! production ( l\d & fa9t s\nds4 #c4 ,pron\nce sl[ly ! v[els1 ,a1 ,e1 ,i1 ,o1 ,u1 & ! consonants ,c1 ,f1 ,k1 ,m1 ,r1 ,s1 ,t1 & ,v1 not+ ! %ape ( ! m\?1 ! position ( ! tongue1 & ! action ( ! lips 9 ea* case4 99,to demon/rate ! ,e>499--,exam9e a dissectible model ( ! e>1 locat+ & nam+ ! diff]5t p>ts4 ,trace z f> z possible ! pa? ( ! s\nd waves & f9d ! t]m9ation ( ! auditory n]ve4 ,note also ! relative size ( ! p>ts1 & calculate ! numb] ( times ! model is l>g] ?an ! natural e>4 ,sugge/ion3 ,! greate/ diamet] ( ! int]nal e> is ab\t ?ree f\r?s ( an in*4 ,9 an ext5d$ c\rse x is a pr(itable ex]cise to dissect ! e> ( a %eep or calf1 obs]v+ ! auditory canal1 middle e>1 bridge ( bones1 & ! tympanic membrane ) atta*$ malleus & t5sor tympanic muscle4 ,pass a probe f ! nasal ph>ynx ?r\gh ! ,eu/a*ian tube into ! middle e>4 ,) bone =ceps or a f9e saw1 split op5 ! petr\s portion ( ! temporal bone & obs]ve ! co*lea & ! semicircul> canals4 ,by a c>eful dissection o!r p>ts ( int]e/ may also be %[n4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii - ,,! ,,eye ,sight is consid]$ ! mo/ important ( ! s5sations4 ,x is ! *ief means ( br++ ! body into prop] relations ) its surr\nd+s &1 ev5 m ?an ! s5sation ( he>+1 is an av5ue = ! reception ( ideas4 ,! s5se organs = ! production ( sight are ! eyes2 ! ext]nal /imulus is 99,light499--,light1 l s\nd1 consi/s ( c]ta9 vibrat+ movem5ts1 or waves4 ,!y diff] f s\nd waves1 h[ev]1 9 =m1 velocity1 & 9 me?od ( orig9 & transmission4 ,light waves are able to pass ?r\gh a vacuum1 ?us %[+ t !y are n dep5d5t ^u air = _! transmission4 ,!y are suppos$ to be transmitt$ by :at ! physici/ calls e!r--a highly ela/ic & exce$+ly ?9 sub/ance :i* fills all space & p5etrates all matt]4 ,z a rule1 light waves orig9ate 9 bodies t are highly heat$1 be+ />t$ by ! vibrations ( ! m9ute p>ticles ( matt]4 ,light is influ5c$ 9 its movem5ts by v>i\s conditions4 ,9 a sub/ance ( uni=m d5sity x moves ) an un*ang+ velocity & 9 a /raight l9e4 ,if x ent]s a less d5se1 or r>]1 sub/ance1 its velocity increases2 if "o m d5se1 its velocity dim9i%es2 & if x ent]s ei!r ! r>] or d5s] sub/ance 9 any direction o!r ?an p]p5dicul>ly1 x is b5t out ( its c\rse1 or refract$4 ,if x /rikes aga9/ a body ly+ 9 its c\rse1 x may be ?r[n (f 7reflect$71 or x may ent] ! body & ei!r be pass$ on ?r\gh 7transmitt$7 or absorb$ 7,fig4 #aeg74 ,light :i* is absorb$ is trans=m$ into heat4 99,k9ds ( ,reflection499--,waves ( light /rik+ aga9/ ! smoo? surface ( a mirror are ?r[n (f 9 def9ite directions1 dep5d+ on ! angle at :i* !y /rike4 7,illu/rate by hold+ a mirror 9 ! direct rays ( ! sun47 ,b light waves t /rike r\gh surfaces are reflect$ 9 practically all directions & app>5tly )\t ref]5ce to ! angle at :i* !y /rike4 7,illu/rate by plac+ a piece ( :ite pap] 9 ! direct rays ( ! sun4 ,x matt]s n f :at direction x is view$1 waves ( light /rike ! eye47 ,?is k9d ( reflection is call$ diffusion1 & x s]ves ! important purpose ( mak+ objects visible4 ,! light waves pass+ out 9 all directions f objects :i* h receiv$ light f ! sun1 or "s o!r lum9\s body1 enable !m to be se54 ,fig4 #aeg ,fig4 #aeg--99;,diagram illu/rat+ passage ( light waves499,on ! "r ! light is transmitt$ by ! glass1 reflect$ by ! mirror1 refract$ by ! prism1 & absorb$ by ! black clo?4 ,on ! left ! light f ! c&le =ms an image by pass+ ?r\gh a small hole 9 a c>dbo>d & fall+ ^u a scre54 99,=mation ( ,images499--,ano!r pr9ciple necess>y to see+ is t ( refraction4 ,refraction means ! b5d+1 or turn+1 ( light f a /raight c\rse4 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ effects ( refraction is ! =mation ( images ( objects1 su* z may be accompli%$ by light f !m pass+ 9 a c]ta9 mann] ?r\gh convex l5ses4 ,if1 = example1 a convex l5s be mov$ back & =? betwe5 a c&le & a scre5 9 a dimly light$ room1 a position w be f\nd :]e a picture ( ! c&le falls ^u ! scre54 ,?is picture1 call$ ! image1 results f ! refraction ( ! c&le light 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! l5s4 ,fig4 #aeh ,fig4 #aeh--99;,diagram illu/rat+ =mation ( images499 ,on ! "r ! image is =m$ by a d\ble convex l5s2 on ! left by ! l5ses ( ! eye4 ,! c&le flame repres5ts a lum9\s1 or light-giv+1 body2 b light passes f ! l>ge arr[ by reflection4 7,see text47 ,9 ord] to =m an image1 ! light waves spread+ out f ! object mu/ be br\ght toge!r1 or focus$4 ,focus+ means lit]ally ! br++ ( light to a po9t1 b x is evid5t 9 ! =mation ( an image t all ! waves are n br\ght to a s+le po9t4 ,if !y 71 !re w\ld be no image4 ,9 ! example ( ! c&le giv5 above1 ! explanation is z foll[s3 ,! light f ! c&le comes f a great numb] ( sep>ate & di/9ct po9ts 9 ! c&le flame4 ,! l5s1 by its peculi> %ape1 b5ds ! waves com+ f any s+le po9t s t !y are br\ght to a correspond+ po9t on ! scre54 ,fur!rmore1 ! po9ts ( focus$ light are made to occupy ! same relative positions on ! scre5 z ! po9ts f :i* !y emanate 9 ! c&le flame 7,fig4 #aeh74 ,?is is :y ! area ( light on ! scre5 has ! same =m z ! c&le1 or makes an image ( x4 ,! same explanation applies if1 in/ead ( ! lum9\s c&le1 a body t simply reflects light1 z a book1 is us$4 99,! ,problem ( ,see+499--,:at we call see+ is va/ly m ?an ! /imulation ( ! bra9 ?r\gh ! action ( light ^u aff]5t neurons4 ,x is ! p]ceiv+ ( all ! diff]5t ?+s t make up our surr\nd+s4 ,if "o looks t[>d ! cle> sky1 he receives a s5sation ( light1 b sees no object4 ,he may also get a s5sation ( light ) ! eyelids clos$1 if he turn ! eyes t[>d ! w9d[ or "s bright light4 ,b h[ diff]5t :5 ! light f v>i\s objects ent]s ! eyes4 ,!re is app>5tly no consci\sness ( light1 b in/ead a consci\sness ( ! size1 =m1 color1 & position ( ! objects4 ,see+ is p]ceiv+ objects4 ,/imulation by ! light waves is only ! means t[>d ?is end4 ,! *ief problem 9 ! /udy ( sight is t ( det]m9+ h[ light waves enable u to become consci\s ( objects4 99,s5se ,organs ( ,sight499--,! s5se organs ( sight consi/ ma9ly ( ! two eyeballs4 ,ea* ( ^! is locat$ 9 a cavity ( ! skull bones1 call$ ! orbit1 :]e x is held 9 position by suitable tissues & turn$ 9 diff]5t directions by a special set ( muscles4 ,a cup-%ap$ receptacle is provid$ )9 ! orbit1 by lay]s ( fat1 & a smoo? surface is suppli$ by a d\ble membrane t lies betwe5 ! fat & ! eyeball4 ,9 front ! eyeballs are provid$ ) movable cov]+s1 call$ ! eyelids4 ,^! are compos$ ( d5se lay]s ( connective tissue1 cov]$ on ! outside by ! sk9 & l9$ )9 by a s5sitive membrane1 call$ ! conjunctiva4 ,at ! base ( ! lids ! conjunctiva passes to ! eyeball & =ms a firmly atta*$ cov]+ ov] its front surface4 ,?is membrane prev5ts ! passage ( =eign mat]ials back ( ! eyeball1 & by its s5sitiv5ess /imulates ef=t = ! removal ( irritat+ sub/ances f b5ea? ! lids4 ,! eyela%es & ! eyebr[s are also a means ( protect+ ! eyeballs4 99,! ,eyeball991 or globe ( ! eye1 is a device = focus+ light ^u a s5sitiz$ n]v\s surface :i* x incloses & protects4 ,9 %ape x is ne>ly sph]ical1 be+ ab\t an in* 9 diamet] f "r to left & n9e t5?s ( an in* bo? 9 its v]tical diamet] & f front to back4 ,x has ! appe>ance ( hav+ be5 =m$ by ! union ( two sph]ical segm5ts ( diff]5t size4 ,! small] segm5t1 :i* =ms ab\t "o six? ( ! :ole1 is set ^u ! l>g] & =ms ! project+ transp>5t portion 9 front4 ,! walls ( ! eyeballs are made up ( ?ree sep>ate lay]s1 or coats--an out] coat1 a middle coat1 & an inn] coat 7,fig4 #aei74 ,fig4 #aei ,fig4 #aei--99;,diagram ( ! eyeball 9 position499 #a4 ,yell[ spot4 #b4 ,bl9d spot4 #c4 ,ret9a4 #d4 ,*oroid coat4 #e4 ,scl]otic coat4 #f4 ,cry/all9e l5s4 #g4 ,susp5sory ligam5t4 #h4 ,cili>y processes & cili>y muscle4 #i4 ,iris conta9+ ! pupil4 #aj4 ,cornea4 #aa4 ,lymph duct4 #ab4 ,conjunctiva4 #ac4 ,inf]ior & sup]ior recti muscles4 #ad4 ,optic n]ve4 #ae4 ,elevator muscle ( eyelid4 #af4 ,bone4 ,a4 ,po/]ior *amb] conta9+ ! vitre\s humor4 ,b4 ,ant]ior *amb] conta9+ ! aque\s humor4 99,! ,out] ,coat99 surr\nds ! entire globe ( ! eye & consi/s ( two p>ts--! scl]otic coat & ! cornea4 ,! scl]otic coat cov]s ! great] portion ( ! l>g] sph]ical segm5t & is recogniz$ 9 front z ! :ite ( ! eye4 ,x is compos$ ma9ly ( fibr\s connective tissue & is d5se1 opaque1 & t\gh4 ,x pres]ves ! =m ( ! eyeball & protects ! portions )94 ,x is pi]c$ at ! back by a small op5+ :i* admits ! optic n]ve1 & 9 front x becomes *ang$ into ! peculi> tissue t makes up ! cornea4 ,! cornea =ms ! transp>5t cov]+ ov] ! less] sph]ical segm5t ( ! eyeball1 %ad+ into ! scl]otic coat at its edges4 ,x has a complex /ructure1 consi/+ 9 ! ma9 ( a transp>5t =m ( connective tissue4 ,x s]ves ! purpose ( admitt+ light into ! eyeball4 99,! ,middle ,coat99 consi/s ( ?ree connect$ portions--! *oroid coat1 ! cili>y processes1 & ! iris4 ,^! surr\nd ! l>g] sph]ical segm5t4 ,all ?ree p>ts are ri* 9 blood vessels1 conta9+ ! blood supply to ! great] portion ( ! eyeball4 ,! *oroid coat lies imm$iately b5ea? ! scl]otic coat at all places except a small m>g9 t[>d ! front ( ! eyeball4 ,x is compos$ *iefly ( blood vessels & a delicate =m ( connective tissue t holds !m 9 place4 ,x conta9s num]\s pigm5t cells :i* give x a d>k appe>ance & s]ve to absorb surplus light4 ,ne> :]e ! scl]otic coat jo9s ! cornea1 ! *oroid coat sep>ates f ! out] wall &1 by fold+1 =ms _m slight projections into ! int]ior space4 ,^! are kn[n z ! cili>y processes4 ,! effect ( ^! folds is to collect a l>ge numb] ( capill>ies into a small space & to give ?is "p ( ! eyeball an extra supply ( blood4 ,betwe5 ! cili>y processes & ! scl]otic coat is a small muscle1 conta9+ bo? circul> & longitud9al fib]s1 call$ ! cili>y muscle4 ,! iris is a cont9uation ( ! *oroid coat across ! front ( ! eyeball4 ,x =ms a divid+ curta9 betwe5 ! two sph]ical segm5ts & gives ! color to ! eye4 ,at its c5t] is a circul> op5+1 call$ ! pupil1 :i* admits light to ! back ( ! eyeball4 ,by v>y+ ! size ( ! pupil1 ! iris is able to regulate ! am\nt ( light :i* passes ?r\gh & x employs = ?is purpose two sets ( muscul> fib]s4 ,"o set ( fib]s =ms a ?9 b& :i* encircles ! pupil & s]ves z a sph9ct] to dim9i% ! op5+4 ,oppos+ ?is are radiat+ fib]s :i* are atta*$ betwe5 ! inn] & out] m>g9s ( ! iris4 ,by _! contraction ! size ( ! op5+ is increas$4 ,bo? sets ( fib]s act reflexively & are /imulat$ by v>iations 9 ! light fall+ ^u ! ret9a4 ,fig4 #afj ,fig4 #afj--99;,diagram %[+ ma9 n]v\s elem5ts 9 ! ret9a499 ,light waves /imulate ! rods & cones at back surface ( ! ret9a1 />t+ impulses :i* excite ! ganglion cells at ! front surface4 ,fib]s f ! ganglion cells pass into ! optic n]ve4 99,! ,inn] ,coat1 or ,ret9a499--,?is is a delicate membrane conta9+ ! exp&$ t]m9ation ( ! optic n]ve4 ,x re/s ^u ! *oroid coat & spreads ov] ab\t two ?irds ( ! back surface ( ! eyeball4 ,al?\gh n m ?an "o fiftie? ( an in* 9 ?ickness1 x pres5ts a v complex /ructure1 ess5tially n]v\s1 & is made up ( sev]al di/9ct lay]s4 ,( *ief importance 9 ! out] lay] are ! cells :i* are act$ ^u directly by ! light & are nam$1 f _! %ape1 ! rods & cones4 ,9 contact ) ^!1 b occupy+ a sep>ate lay]1 are ! ends ( small aff]5t n]ve cells4 ,^! 9 turn communicate ) n]ve cells 9 a ?ird lay]1 kn[n z ! ganglion cells1 t s5d _! fib]s into ! optic n]ve 7,fig4 #afj74 ,9 ! c5t] ( ! ret9a is a slight oval depression hav+ a fa9t yell[i% color1 & call$1 on t acc\nt1 ! yell[ spot4 ,?is is ! "p ( ! ret9a :i* is mo/ s5sitive to light4 ,directly ov] ! place ( entrance ( ! optic n]ve is a small area f :i* ! rods & cones are abs5t & :i*1 !re=e1 is n s5sitive to light4 ,?is is call$ ! bl9d spot4 7,see ,practical ,"w47 99,! ,cry/all9e ,l5s499--,imm$iately back ( ! iris & t\*+ x is a transp>5t1 r\nd$ body1 call$ ! cry/all9e l5s4 ,?is is ab\t "o f\r? ( an in* ?ick & "o ?ird ( an in* ?r\gh its long diamet]1 & is m curv$ on ! back ?an on ! front surface4 ,x is inclos$ 9 a ?9 %ea?1 call$ ! membran\s capsule1 :i* connects ) a divid$ %ea? f ! sides ( ! eyeball1 call$ ! susp5sory ligam5t 7,fig4 #aei74 ,bo? ! l5s & ! capsule are highly ela/ic4 99,*amb]s & ,humors ( ! ,eyeball499--,! cry/all9e l5s toge!r ) ! susp5sory ligam5t & ! cili>y processes =m a p>tition across ! eyeball4 ,?is divides ! eye space into two sep>ate comp>tm5ts1 :i* are fill$ ) ! s-call$ humors ( ! eye4 ,! front cavity ( ! eyeball1 :i* is aga9 divid$ 9 "p by ! iris1 is fill$ ) ! aque\s humor4 ,?is is a cle>1 lymph-l liquid :i* conta9s an occasional :ite corpuscle4 ,x has a feeble motion & is sl[ly add$ to & )drawn f ! eye4 ,x is suppli$ ma9ly by ! blood vessels 9 ! cili>y processes & f9ds a place ( exit ?r\gh a small lymph duct at ! edge ( ! cornea 7,fig4 #aei74 ,! back portion ( ! eyeball is fill$ ) a s(t1 transp>5t1 jelly-l sub/ance1 call$ ! vitre\s humor4 ,x is 9 contact ) ! surface ( ! ret9a at ! back & ) ! atta*m5ts ( ! l5s 9 front1 be+ surr\nd$ by a ?9 cov]+ ( its own1 call$ ! hyaloid membrane4 ,! aque\s & vitre\s humors aid 9 keep+ ! eyeball 9 %ape & also 9 focus+4 99,h[ we see ,objects499--,to see an object at lea/ f\r ?+s mu/ happ53 #a4 ,light mu/ pass f ! object into ! eye4 ,objects _c be se5 :]e !re is no light or :]e1 = "s reason1 x is kept f ent]+ ! eye4 #b4 ,! light f ! object mu/ be focus$ 7made to =m an image7 on ! ret9a4 ,9 =m+ ! image1 an area ( ! ret9a is /imulat$ :i* corresponds to ! =m ( ! object4 #c4 ,impulses mu/ pass f ! ret9a to ! bra91 /imulat+ x to produce ! s5sations4 #d4 ,! s5sations mu/ be s int]pret$ by ! m9d z to give an impression ( ! object4 99,focus+ ,p[] ( ! ,eyeball499--,! eyeball is ess5tially a device = focus+ light4 ,all ( its transp>5t portions are directly conc]n$ 9 ?is "w1 & ! portions t are n transp>5t s]ve to protect & op]ate ^! p>ts & hold !m 9 place4 ,( *ief importance are ! cry/all9e l5s & ! cornea4 ,bo? ( ^! are l5ses4 ,! cornea ) its inclos$ liquid is a plano-convex l5s1 :ile ! cry/all9e l5s is d\ble convex47#abc7 ,because ( ! great diff]5ce 9 d5sity betwe5 ! air on ! outside & ! aque\s humor )91 ! cornea is ! m p[]ful ( ! two4 ,! cry/all9e l5s1 h[ev]1 p]=ms a special "w 9 focus+ :i* is ( great importance4 ,! iris also aids 9 focus+ s9ce x1 ?r\gh ! pupil1 regulates ! am\nt ( light ent]+ ! back *amb] ( ! eyeball & causes x to fall 9 ! c5t] ( ! cry/all9e l5s1 ! "p :i* focuses mo/ accurately4 ,fig4 #afa ,fig4 #afa--99;,diagram %[+ *anges 9 %ape ( cry/all9e l5s99 to adapt x to ne> & di/ant vision4 99,accommodation499--,a difficulty 9 focus+ arises f ! fact t ! degree ( div]g5ce ( ! light waves ent]+ ! eye f diff]5t objects1 v>ies accord+ to _! di/ance4 ,s9ce ! waves f any giv5 po9t on an object pass out 9 /raight l9es 9 all directions1 ! waves t ent] ! eye f di/ant objects are at a diff]5t angle f ^? t ent] f ne> objects4 ,9 reality waves f di/ant objects are practically p>allel1 :ile ^? f v ne> objects div]ge to a consid]able degree4 ,to adju/ ! eye to diff]5t di/ances requires "s *ange 9 ! focus+ p>ts t corresponds to ! diff]5ces 9 ! div]g5ce ( ! light4 ,?is *ange1 call$ accommodation1 occurs 9 ! cry/all9e l5s47#abd7 ,9 ! process ( accommodation1 *anges occur 9 ! %ape ( ! cry/all9e l5s1 z foll[s3 #a4 ,9 look+ f a di/ant to a ne> object1 ! l5s becomes m convex1 i4e41 r\nd] & ?ick] 7,fig4 #afa74 ,?is *ange is necess>y because ! great] div]g5ce ( ! light f ! ne> objects requires a great] conv]g+ p[] on ! "p ( ! l5s47#abe7 #b4 ,9 look+ f ne> to di/ant objects1 ! l5s becomes flatt] & ?9n] 7,fig4 #afa74 ,?is *ange is necess>y because ! less div]g5t waves f ! di/ant objects require less conv]g+ p[] on ! "p ( ! l5s4 ,! me?od employ$ 9 *ang+ ! %ape ( ! l5s is difficult to det]m9e & diff]5t !ories h be5 advanc$ to acc\nt = x4 ,! foll[+1 propos$ by ,helmholtz1 is ! !ory mo/ g5]ally accept$3 ,! l5s is held 9 place back ( ! pupil by ! susp5sory ligam5t4 ,?is is atta*$ at its inn] m>g9 to ! membran\s capsule1 & at its out] m>g9 to ! sides ( ! eyeball1 & entirely surr\nds ! l5s4 ,x is drawn p]fectly tight s t ! sides ( ! eyeball ex]t a cont9u\s t5sion1 or pull1 on ! membran\s capsule1 :i*1 9 its turn1 ex]ts pressure on ! sides ( ! l5s1 t5d+ to flatt5 x4 ,?is arrangem5t br+s ! ela/ic =ce ( ! eyeball into opposition to ! ela/ic =ce ( ! l5s4 ,! cili>y muscle plays betwe5 ^! oppos+ =ces 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,to ?ick5 ! l5s1 ! cili>y muscle contracts1 pull+ =w>d ! susp5sory ligam5t & releas+ its t5sion on ! membran\s capsule4 ,?is enables ! l5s to ?ick5 on acc\nt ( its own ela/ic =ce4 ,to flatt5 ! l5s1 ! cili>y muscle relaxes1 ! ela/ic =ce ( ! eyeball resumes its t5sion on ! susp5sory ligam5t1 & ! membran\s capsule resumes its pressure on ! sides ( ! l5s4 ,?is pressure1 ov]com+ ! ela/ic =ce ( ! l5s1 flatt5s x4 99,movem5ts ( ! ,eyeballs499--,9 ord] t ! light may ent] ! eyeballs to ! be/ advantage1 !y mu/ be mov$ 9 v>i\s directions4 ,^! movem5ts are br\ght ab\t ?r\gh ! action ( six small muscles atta*$ to ea* eyeball4 ,f\r ( ^!1 nam$1 f _! positions1 ! sup]ior1 inf]ior1 int]nal1 & ext]nal recti muscles1 are atta*$ at "o end to ! sides ( ! eyeball & at ! o!r end to ! back ( ! orbit 7,fig4 #afb74 ,^!1 9 ! ord] nam$1 turn ! eyes upw>d1 d[nw>d1 inw>d1 & outw>d4 ,! o!r two1 ! sup]ior & inf]ior oblique muscles1 aid 9 c]ta9 movem5ts ( ! recti muscles &1 9 addition1 s]ve to rotate ! eyes slightly4 ,! movem5ts ( ! eyeballs are simil> to ^? ( ball & socket jo9ts4 ,fig4 #afb ,fig4 #afb--99;,ext]ior muscles ( eyeball499 99,b9ocul> ,vision499--,9 addition to direct+ ! eyeballs s t light may ent] !m to ! be/ advantage f diff]5t objects1 ! muscles also enable two eyes to be us$ z "o4 ,:5ev] ! eyes are direct$ t[>d ! same object1 an image ( ?is object is =m$ on ! ret9a ( ea*4 ,d\ble vision is prev5t$ only by hav+ ! images fall on correspond+ places 9 ! two eyes4 ,?is is accompli%$ by ! muscles4 ,9 ea* act ( see+1 x becomes ! task ( ! sup]ior & inf]ior recti muscles to keep ! eyes 9 ! same plane1 & ( ! ext]nal & int]nal recti muscles to give j ! "r am\nt ( conv]g5ce4 ,if slight pressure is ex]t$ aga9/ "o ( ! eyes1 ! action ( ! muscles is int]f]$ ) &1 z a consequ5ce1 "o sees d\ble4 ,! advantages ( two eyes ov] "o 9 see+ lie 9 ! great] di/9ctness & broad] range ( vision & 9 ! great] correctness ( judgm5ts ( di/ance4 99,visual ,s5sations499--,! visual s5sations include ^? ( color & ^? ( a g5]al s5sibility to light4 ,pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( ^! types ( s5sation is f\nd 9 color bl9dness1 a defect :i* r5d]s ! individual unable to di/+ui% c]ta9 colors :5 he is /ill able to see objects4 ,color s5sations are ! results ( light waves ( diff]5t l5g?s act+ on ! ret9a4 ,:ile ! me?od by :i* waves ( "o l5g? produce "o k9d ( s5sation & ^? ( ano!r l5g? a diff]5t s5sation is n und]/ood1 ! cones appe> to be ! portions ( ! ret9a act$ on to produce ! color4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! rods are s5sitive to all wave l5g?s & give g5]al s5sibility to light4 99,visual ,p]ceptions499--,see+ is v l>gely ! m5tal int]pretation ( ! prim>y s5sations & ! conditions "u :i* !y occur4 ,= example1 our ability to see objects 9 _! natural positions :5 _! images are inv]t$ on ! ret9a is expla9$ by ! fact t we are n consci\s ( ! ret9al image1 b ( ! m9d's int]pretation ( x ?r\gh exp]i5ce4 ,exp]i5ce has also taught u to locate objects 9 ! direction t[>d :i* x is necess>y to turn ! eyes 9 ord] to see !m4 ,9 o!r words1 we see objects 9 ! direction f :i* ! light ent]s ! eyes4 ,t ! object is n always 9 t direction is %[n by ! image 9 ! mirror4 ,! app>5t size & =m ( objects are inf]5ces1 & !y are bas$ 9 "p ^u ! size & =m ( ! area ( ! ret9a /imulat$4 ,we judge ( di/ance by ! ef=t requir$ to conv]ge ! eyes ^u ! objects1 by ! am\nt ( div]g5ce ( ! waves ent]+ ! pupil1 & also by ! app>5t size ( ! object4 99,! ,la*rymal ,app>atus499--,see+ requires t ! light p5etrate to ! ret9a4 ,= ?is reason all ! /ructures 9 front ( ! ret9a are transp>5t4 ,"o ( ^! /ructures1 ! cornea1 on acc\nt ( its exposure to ! air1 is liable to become dry1 l ! sk91 & to lose its transp>5cy4 ,to pres]ve ! transp>5cy ( ! cornea1 & also to lubricate ! eyelids & aid 9 ! removal ( =eign bodies1 a secretion1 call$ te>s1 is con/antly suppli$4 ,fig4 #afc ,fig4 #afc--99;,diagram ( irrigat+ sy/em ( ! eye499 ,aft] wett+ ! eyeball ! te>s may also moi/5 ! air ent]+ ! lungs4 ,! la*rymal1 or te>1 gl&s are situat$ at ! upp] & out] m>g9s ( ! orbits4 ,!y h ! g5]al /ructure ( ! saliv>y gl&s & dis*>ge _! liquid by small ducts b5ea? ! upp] lids4 ,f "h ! te>s spread ov] ! surfaces ( ! eyeballs & f9d _! way 9 ea* eye to two small canals ^: op5+s may be se5 on ! edges ( ! lids ne> ! inn] corn] 7,fig4 #afc74 ,^! canals unite to =m ! nasal duct1 :i* conveys ! te>s to ! nasal cavity on ! same side ( ! nose4 ,:5 by evaporation ! eyeball becomes too dry1 ! lids close reflexively & spread a fre% lay] ( te>s ov] ! surface4 ,any excess is pass$ into ! no/rils1 :]e x aids 9 moi/5+ ! air ent]+ ! lungs4 ,,hygi5e ,,( ,,! ,,eye 99,defects 9 ,focus+499--,! delicacy & complexity ( ! s5se organs ( sight r5d] !m liable to a numb] ( imp]fections1 or defects1 ! mo/ frequ5t & important be+ ^? ( focus+4 ,su* defects n only result 9 ! imp]fect vision ( objects1 b !y ?r[ an extra /ra9 ^u ! n]v\s sy/em & may r5d] ! process ( see+ exce$+ly pa9ful4 ,a normal eye is able1 :5 relax$1 to focus light accurately f objects :i* are tw5ty feet or m away & to accommodate itself to objects z ne> z five in*es4 ,an eye is said to be myopic1 or %ort-sight$1 :5 x is unable to focus light waves f di/ant objects1 b c only di/+ui% ! objects :i* are ne> at h&4 ,9 su* an eye ! ball is too long = ! conv]g+ p[] ( ! l5ses1 & ! image is =m$ 9 front ( ! ret9a 7,c1 ,fig4 #afd74 ,fig4 #afd ,fig4 #afd--99;,diagrams illu/rat+ long-sight$ness & %ort-sight$ness991 & me?od ( rem$y+ ^! defects by l5ses4 ,a4 ,normal eye4 ,b4 ,long-sight$ eye4 ,c4 ,%ort-sight$ eye4 ,a long-sight$1 or hyp]metropic1 eye is "o :i* c focus light f di/ant objects1 b n f ne> objects4 ,9 su* an eye ! ball is too %ort = ! conv]g+ p[] ( ! l5ses & ! image t5ds to =m back ( ! ret9a 7,b1 ,fig4 #afd74 ,^! defects 9 focus+ are rem$i$ by we>+ glasses ) l5ses s %ap$ z to c\nt]act !m4 ,%ort-sight$ness is correct$ by concave l5ses & long-sight$ness by convex l5ses1 z %[n 9 diagrams above4 ,a/igmatism is ano!r defect 9 ! focus+ p[] ( ! eye4 ,9 a/igmatism ! p>ts ( ! eye fail to =m ! image 9 ! same plane1 s t all portions ( ! object d n appe> equally di/9ct4 ,c]ta9 p>ts ( x are indi/9ct1 or blurr$4 ,! cause is f\nd 9 "s diff]5ce 9 curvature ( ! surfaces ( ! cornea or cry/all9e l5s4 ,x is correct$ by l5ses s gr\nd z to correct ! p>ticul> defects pres5t 9 a giv5 eye4 ,:5ev] defects 9 focus+ are pres5t1 p>ticul>ly 9 a/igmatism1 extra "w is ?r[n on ! cili>y muscle z well z ! muscles t move ! eyeballs4 ,! result is frequ5tly to induce a condition1 kn[n z muscle weakness1 :i* r5d]s x difficult to use ! eyes4 ,ev5 aft] ! defect 9 focus+ has be5 rem$i$1 ! muscles recov] sl[ly & mu/ be us$ ) c>e4 ,= ?is reason glasses %\ld be fitt$ by a compet5t oculi/7#abf7 z soon z a defect is kn[n to exi/4 ,:5 "o is unduly n]v\s1 or suff]s f heada*e1 ! eyes %\ld be exam9$ = defects 9 focus+ 7page #cbf74 99,eye ,/ra9 & ,disease499--,! extra "w ?r[n ^u ! n]v\s sy/em ?r\gh see+ ) defective eyes1 especially 9 read+ & o!r close "w1 is n[ recogniz$ z an important cause ( disease4 ,?r\gh ! tax made ^u ! n]v\s sy/em by ! eyes1 !re may be left an insuffici5t am\nt ( n]v\s en]gy = ! prop] runn+ ( ! vital processes4 ,z a result !re is a decl9e ( ! heal?4 ,ample pro( t eye /ra9 int]f]es ) ! vital processes & causes ill heal?1 is f\nd 9 ! improvem5ts t result :51 by means ( glasses1 ?is is reliev$4 99,! ,eyes ( ,s*ool ,*ildr5499--,s*ool *ildr5 (t5 suff] f defects ( vision :i* r5d] close "w burd5some1 & cause heada*e1 g5]al n]v\sness1 & disease4 ,fur!rmore1 ! visual defects may be unkn[n bo? to !mselves & to _! p>5ts4 ,pupils %[+ indications ( eye-/ra9 %\ld be exam9$ by an oculi/1 & fitt$ ) glasses %\ld defects be discov]$47#abg7 ,! precaution1 adopt$ by _m s*ools1 ( hav+ ! eyes ( all *ildr5 exam9$ by a compet5t physician employ$ = ! purpose1 is mo/ excell5t & wor?y ( imitation4 99,read+ ,glasses499--,_m p ^: eyes are weak1 because slightly defective1 f9d great relief 9 ! use ( special glasses = read+ & o!r close "w4 ,by us+ su* glasses !y may po/pone ! "t :5 !y are compell$ to we> glasses con/antly4 ,x is 9 ! close "w t ! extra /ra9 comes ^u ! eyes1 & if ?is is reliev$1 "o c mu* bett] )/& ! "w ( di/ant vision4 ,! read+ glasses %\ld be fitt$ by a compet5t oculi/1 & us$ only = ! purpose = :i* !y are int5d$4 99,g5]al ,precautions 9 ! ,use ( ! ,eyes499--,if prop] c>e is ex]cis$ 9 ! use ( ! eyes1 _m ( _! common ailm5ts & defects may be avoid$4 ,any "o1 :e!r 8 eyes are weak or /rong1 w d well to obs]ve ! foll[+ precautions3 #a4 ,nev] read 9 light t is v int5se or v dim4 #b4 ,:5 ! eyes hurt f read+1 /op us+ !m4 #c4 ,nev] hold a book s t ! smoo? page reflects light into ! eyes4 ,! be/ way is to sit or /& s t ! light passes ov] ! %\ld] to ! book4 #d4 ,nev] /udy by a lamp t is n %ad$4 #e4 ,practice cleanl9ess 9 ! c>e ( ! eyes4 ,avoid rubb+ ! eyes ) ! f+]s unless sure ! f+]s are clean4 ,if ! eyes are weak1 use !m less & avoid1 if possible1 read+ by artificial light4 ,weak eyes are sometimes b5efit$ by ba?+ !m 9 w>m wat]1 or ) wat] conta9+ en\gh salt to make !m sm>t slightly4 ,boracic acid dissolv$ 9 wat] 7#dj gra9s to #d ounces ( di/ill$ wat]7 is also highly recomm5d$ z a wa% = weak eyes4 ,fig4 #afe ,fig4 #afe--99,me?od ( proc$ure 9 lift+ ! eyelid99 7,pyle74 99,removal ( ,=eign ,bodies f ! ,eyes499--,=eign bodies emb$d$ 9 ! eyeball %\ld be remov$ by ! oculi/ or physician4 ,small p>ticles ( du/ or c9d] may be remov$ )\t ! aid ( ! physician1 by ex]cis+ prop] c>e4 ,fir/ let ! te>s1 if possible1 wa% ! (f5d+ sub/ance to ! corn] ( ! eye1 or edge ( ! lid1 :]e x c be remov$ ) a s(t clo?4 ,if x /icks to ! ball or ! "u surface ( ! lid1 x w be necess>y to f9d :]e x is locat$1 & !n dislodge x f its position4 ,beg9 by exam9+ ! l[] lid4 ,pull x d[n suffici5tly to expose ! inn] surface1 &1 if ! =eign sub/ance be !re1 wipe x (f ) ! hem ( a clean h&k]*ief4 ,if x is n "u ! l[] lid1 x w be necess>y to fold back ! upp] lid4 ,! pati5t is told to look d[n1 ! edge ( ! lid & ! la%es are seiz$ ) ! =ef+] & ?umb ( ! "r h& 7,fig4 #afe71 & ! lid is drawn at fir/ d[nw>d & =w>d away f ! globe2 !n upw>d & backw>d ov] ! po9t ( ! ?umb or =ef+] ( ! left h&1 :i* is held /ation>y on ! lid1 & acts z a fulcrum47#abh7 ,! =eign body is n[ remov$ 9 ! same mann] z f ! l[] lid4 ,a l>ge l5s may be us$ to good advantage 9 f9d+ ! irritat+ sub/ance4 99,/rong ,*emicals 9 ! ,eyes499--,/ud5ts 9 ! laboratory frequ5tly1 ?r\gh accid5t1 get /rong *emicals1 z acids & bases1 9 ! eyes4 ,! fir/ ?+ to d 9 su* cases is quickly & ?or\ghly to flood ! eyes ) wat]4 ,any ( ! *emical :i* rema9s may !n be c\nt]act$ by ! prop] reag5t1 c>e be+ tak5 to use a v dilute solution4 ,to c\nt]act an acid1 use sodium bic>bonate 7cook+ soda71 & = bases use a v dilute solution ( acetic acid 7v9eg>74 ,to gu>d aga9/ gett+ ! c\nt]active ag5t too /rong = ! inflam$ eye1 x %\ld fir/ be tri$ on an eye t has n be5 injur$4 99,summ>y499--,! n]v\s impulses t cause ! s5sation ( sight are />t$ by light waves fall+ ^u a s5sitiz$ n]v\s surface1 call$ ! ret9a4 ,by means ( refractive ag5ts1 =m+ a "p ( ! eyeball 9 front ( ! ret9a1 light f diff]5t objects is focus$ & made to =m images ( ! objects ^u ! surface4 ,9 ?is way ! light is made to /imulate a portion ( ! ret9a correspond+ to ! =m ( ! object4 ,?is1 ! image me?od ( /imulation1 enables ! m9d to recognize objects & to locate !m 9 _! v>i\s positions4 ,:ile ! great] portion ( ! eyeball is conc]n$ 9 ! focus+ ( light1 ! cry/all9e l5s1 op]at$ by ! cili>y muscle1 s]ves z ! special in/rum5t ( accommodation4 ,muscles atta*$ to ! eyeballs turn !m 9 diff]5t directions1 & s adju/ !m ) ref]5ce to ea* o!r t d\ble vision is avoid$4 99,ex]cises499--#a4 ,"u :at conditions are light waves reflect$1 refract$1 & absorb$8 #b4 ,:y does ! body n ne$ a light-produc+ app>atus1 correspond+ to ! l>ynx 9 ! production ( s\nd8 #c4 ,h[ is ! light f a c&le made to =m an image8 #d4 ,:at diff]5t ?+s mu/ happ5 9 ord] t "o may see an object8 #e4 ,make a sectional draw+ ( ! eyeball1 locat+ & nam+ all ! p>ts4 #f4 ,( :at p>ts are ! out]1 middle1 & inn] coats ( ! eyeball made up8 #g4 ,:at portions ( ! eyeball reflect light8 ,:at absorb light8 ,:at transmit light8 ,:at refract light8 #h4 ,%[ h[ ! iris1 ! cry/all9e l5s1 ! ret9a1 ! cili>y muscle1 & ! cornea aid 9 see+4 #i4 ,trace a wave ( light f a visible object to ! ret9a4 #aj4 ,:y does n ! inv]t$ image on ! ret9a cause u to see objects upside d[n8 #aa4 ,:at *ange occurs 9 ! %ape ( ! cry/all9e l5s :5 we look f di/ant to ne> objects8 ,f ne> to di/ant objects8 ,:y are ^! *anges necess>y8 ,h[ are !y br\ght ab\t8 #ab4 ,h[ does ! me?od ( adju/m5t1 or accommodation1 ( ! eyeball diff] f t ( a telescope or a photograph]'s cam]a8 #ac4 ,) two eyes h[ are we kept f see+ d\ble8 #ad4 ,:at diff]5t purposes are s]v$ by ! te>s4 ,trace !m f ! la*rymal gl&s to ! no/rils4 #ae4 ,%[ h[ ! prop] l5ses rem$y %ort- & long-sight$ness4 #af4 ,describe ! conjunctiva & give its functions4 ,:y %\ld x be s s5sitive8 #ag4 ,h[ may eye /ra9 cause disease 9 p>ts ( ! body remote f ! eyes8 #ah4 ,h[ does image /imulation diff] f light /imulation 9 g5]al8 ,,practical ,,"w 99,to illu/rate ,simple ,prop]ties ( ,light499--#a4 ,heat an iron or plat9um wire 9 a cle> gas flame4 ,obs]ve t :5 a high temp]ature is rea*$ x gives out light or becomes lum9\s4 #b4 ,cov] "o h& ) a :ite & ! o!r ) a black piece ( clo?1 & hold bo? = a %ort "t 9 ! direct rays ( ! sun4 ,note & acc\nt = ! diff]5ce 9 temp]ature :i* is felt4 #c4 ,/& a book or a block ( wood by ! side ( an empty pan 9 ! sunlight1 s t ! end ( ! %ad[ falls on ! bottom ( ! pan4 ,m>k ! place :]e ! %ad[ t]m9ates & fill ! pan ) wat]4 ,acc\nt = ! %ad['s becom+ %ort]4 #d4 ,place a co9 9 ! c5t] ( an empty pan & let ! memb]s ( ! class /& :]e ! co9 is b>ely out ( sight ov] ! edges ( ! pan4 ,fill ! pan ) wat] & acc\nt = ! co9's com+ into view4 ,%[ by a draw+ h[ light1 9 pass+ f ! wat] into ! air1 is s b5t z to ent] ! eye4 #e4 ,) a convex l5s1 9 a d>k5$ room1 focus ! light f a c&le flame s t x falls on a :ite scre5 & =ms an image ( ! c&le4 ,obs]ve t ! image is inv]t$4 ,9 a well-light$ room focus ! light f a w9d[ ^u a :ite scre54 ,%[ t1 z ! di/ance f ! w9d[ to ! scre5 is *ang$1 ! position ( ! l5s mu/ also be *ang$4 7,accommodation47 #f4 ,hold a piece ( c>dbo>d1 ab\t eight in*es squ>e & hav+ a smoo?1 r\nd hole an eigh? ( an in* 9 diamet] 9 ! c5t]1 9 front ( a light$ c&le 9 a d>k5$ room4 ,back ( ! op5+ place a musl9 or pap] scre5 7,fig4 #aeg74 ,obs]ve t a dim image is =m$4 ,acc\nt = ! fact t x is inv]t$4 ,hold a l5s betwe5 ! c>dbo>d & ! scre5 s t ! light passes ?r\gh x also4 ,! image %\ld n[ appe> small] & m di/9ct4 ,fig4 #aff ,fig4 #aff--99;,diagram99 = prov+ pres5ce ( ! bl9d spot4 99,to prove ! ,pres5ce ( ! ,bl9d ,spot499--,close ! left eye & ) ! "r gaze /eadily at ! spot on ! left side ( ?is page 7,fig4 #aff74 ,!n />t+ ) ! book a foot or m f ! face1 move x sl[ly t[>d ! eye4 ,a place w be f\nd :]e ! spot on ! "r entirely disappe>s4 ,on br++ x ne>]1 h[ev]1 x is aga9 se54 ,z ! book is mov$ =w>d or backw>d1 ! position ( ! image ( ?is spot *anges on ! ret9a4 ,:5 ! spot _c be se51 x is because ! image falls on ! bl9d spot4 99,dissection ( ! ,eyeball499--,procure f ! but*] two or ?ree eyeballs obta9$ f cattle4 ,aft] sep>at+ ! fat1 connective tissue1 & muscle1 place !m 9 a %all[ vessel & cov] ) wat]4 ,ins]t ! blade ( a pair ( %>p scissors at ! junction ( ! scl]otic rotic coat ) ! cornea & cut f ?is po9t ne>ly ar\nd ! entire circumf]5ce ( ! eyeball1 pass+ ne> ! optic n]ve4 ,spread op5 9 ! wat] & id5tify ! diff]5t p>ts f ! description 9 ! text4 ,op5 ! second eyeball 9 wat] by cutt+ away ! cornea4 ,exam9e ! p>ts 9 front ( ! l5s4 ,fig4 #afg ,fig4 #afg--99,model99 = demon/rat+ ! eyeball4 99,to illu/rate ,accommodation499--,pa/e toge!r ! ends ( a /rip ( /iff writ+ pap] 7two by five in*es7 mak+ a r+ a little less ?an ?ree in*es 9 diamet]4 ,?is is to repres5t ! cry/all9e l5s4 ,n[ pa/e a piece ( ?9 pap] 7two by sev5 in*es7 ^u a second /rip ( ! same size1 leav+ an op5 place 9 ! middle = ! ins]tion ( ! pap] l5s4 ,a flexible piece ( c>dbo>d 7?ree by twelve in*es7 is n[ b5t into ! =m ( a half circle & to its ends are fa/5$ ! /rips ( pap] conta9+ ! r+4 ,make a small hole 9 ea* ( ! f\r corn]s ( ! b5t c>dbo>d4 ,?r\gh ^! holes pass two loops ( ?read1 or f9e /r+1 9 opposite directions1 lett+ ! ends hang loose f ! c>dbo>d4 ,:5 ev]y?+ is 9 position1 ! t5sion f ! c>dbo>d flatt5s ! pap] l5s1 :ile pull+ ! /r+s releases ?is t5sion & p]mits ! l5s to become m r\nd$4 ,) ?is simple device ! *anges 9 ! curvature ( ! l5s = ne> & di/ant vision are easily %[n4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii - ,,! ,,g5]al ,,problem ,,( ,,keep+ ,,well ,to cure 0 ! voice ( ! ,pa/3 to prev5t is ! div9e :isp]+ ( ,to-day4 ,z /at$ 9 ! introduction to our /udy1 ! fundam5tal law ( hygi5e is ! law ( h>mony3 ,habits ( liv+ mu/ h>monize ) ! plan ( ! body4 ,hav+ acqua9t$ ourselves ) ! plan ( ! body1 we may n[ review briefly ^? conditions t help or h9d] its v>i\s activities4 ,! hygi5e already pres5t$ 9 connection ) ! /udy ( ! v>i\s organs may be cond5s$ into g5]al rules1 or laws1 z foll[s3 #a4 ,( ex]cise3 ,ex]cise daily ! important gr\ps ( muscles4 #b4 ,( =m3 ,pres]ve ! natural =m ( ! body4 #c4 ,( en]gy3 ,obs]ve regul> p]iods ( re/ & ex]cise & avoid exhau/ion4 #d4 ,( nutrim5t3 ,eat mod]ately ( a well-cook$ & well-balanc$ diet & dr9k freely ( pure wat]4 #e4 ,( respiration3 ,brea! freely & deeply ( pure air & sp5d a "p ( ea* day out ( doors4 #f4 ,( n]v\s poise3 ,suppress wa/eful & useless =ms ( n]v\s activity1 avoid n]v\s /ra91 & practice *e]fulness4 #g4 ,( cleanl9ess3 ,keep ! body & its imm$iate surr\nd+s clean4 #h4 ,( re/ra9t3 ,ab/a9 f ! unnecess>y use ( drugs z well z f ! practice ( any =m ( activity kn[n to be h>mful to ! body4 #i4 ,( elim9ation3 ,obs]ve all ! conditions t favor ! regul> dis*>ge ( wa/e mat]ials f ! body4 ,ob$i5ce to ^! laws is ( va/ importance 9 ! prop] managem5t ( ! body4 ,!y %\ld1 inde$1 be s ?or\ghly impress$ ^u ! m9d z to become fix$ habits4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 o!r conditions t relate to ?is problem1 & x is to ^! t we n[ turn4 ,^! conditions h ref]5ce m specifically to 99,! ,prev5tion ( ,disease499--,:ile ! av]age l5g? ( life is n f> f ?irty-five ye>s1 ! l5g? ( "t :i* ! av]age individual is capable ( liv+ is1 accord+ to "s ( ! l[e/ e/imates1 n less ?an sev5ty ye>s4 ,?is diff]5ce is due to disease4 ,p d n1 z a rule1 die on acc\nt ( ! we>+ out ( ! body z se5 9 extreme old age1 b on acc\nt ( ! v>i\s ills to :i* fle% is heir4 ,x is true t _m p meet dea? by accid5t & n a few are kill$ 9 w>s1 b ^! numb]s are small 9 comp>ison ) ^? t die ( bodily disord]s4 ,! prev5tion ( disease is ! greate/ ( all human problems4 ,?\gh ! fight+ ( disease is left l>gely to ! physician1 mu* is to be ga9$ ?r\gh a m g5]al k ( its causes & ! me?ods ( its prev5tion4 99,causes ( ,disease499--,disease1 :i* is "s d]angem5t ( ! vital functions1 may be due to a v>iety ( causes4 ,"s ( ^! causes1 su* z h]$it>y defects1 are remote & beyond ! control ( ! individual4 ,o!rs are ! result ( neglig5ce 9 ! obs]vance ( well-recogniz$ hygi5ic laws4 ,o!rs /ill are ( ! nature ( influ5ces1 su* z climate1 ! h\se 9 :i* "o lives1 or "o's me?od ( ga9+ a livelihood1 t produce *anges 9 ! body1 imp]ceptible at ! "t1 b1 9 ! long run1 lay+ ! f\ndations ( disease4 ,& la/1 & mo/ pot5t1 are ! m9ute liv+ organisms1 call$ microbes or g]ms1 t f9d _! way into ! body4 ,al?\gh !re are two g5]al k9ds ( g]ms1 kn[n z bact]ia 7"o-cell$ plants7 & protozoa 7"o-cell$ animals71 mo/ ( our g]m diseases are caus$ by bact]ia4 99,effects ( ,g]ms499--,:ile !re are _m k9ds ( g]ms t h no ill effect ^u ! body & o!rs t are ?\ght to aid x 9 its "w1 !re are _m well-kn[n v>ieties t produce effects decid$ly h>mful4 ,!y ga9 an entrance ?r\gh ! lungs1 food canal1 or sk91 &1 liv+ ^u ! fluids & tissues1 multiply ) great rapidity until !y p]meate ! entire body4 ,n only d !y de/roy ! protoplasm1 b !y =m wa/e products1 call$ tox9s1 :i* act z poisons4 ,diseases caus$ by g]ms are kn[n z infecti\s1 or contagi\s1 diseases47#abi7 ,! li/ is a long "o & includes smallpox1 measles1 diph!ria1 sc>let fev]1 typhoid fev]1 tub]culosis1 la grippe1 mal>ia1 yell[ fev]1 & o!rs ( common occurr5ce4 ,9 addition to ! diseases t are well pron\nc$1 x is probable t g]ms are responsible also = c]ta9 bodily ailm5ts ( a mild] "*47#acj7 99,avoidance ( ,g]m ,diseases499--,! problem ( prev5t+ diseases caus$ by g]ms is an exce$+ly difficult "o & no solution = all diseases has yet be5 f\nd4 ,"o's *ances ( avoid+ su* diseases1 h[ev]1 may be greatly enhanc$3 #a4 ,by /r5g!n+ ! body ?r\gh hygi5ic liv+ s t x (f]s great] resi/ance to ! invasions ( g]ms4 #b4 ,by liv+ z f> z possible "u conditions t are unfavorable to g]m life4 #c4 ,by und]/&+ ! ag5cies ?r\gh :i* disease g]ms are spread f p]son to p]son4 99,conditions ,favorable & ,unfavorable = ,g]ms499--,conditions favorable = g]m life are suppli$ by animal & vegetable matt]1 moi/ure1 & a mod]ate degree ( w>m?4 ,h5ce disease g]ms may be kept alive 9 damp cell>s & places ( fil?4 ,ev5 liv+ rooms t are poorly light$ or v5tilat$ may h>bor !m4 ,wat] may1 if x conta9 a small p] c5t ( organic matt]1 support su* dang]\s g]ms z ^? ( typhoid fev]4 ,fre% air1 sunlight1 dryness1 cleanl9ess1 & a high temp]ature1 on ! o!r h&1 are de/ructive ( g]ms4 ,! g]ms 9 impure wat]1 z already not$ 7page #afe71 are de/roy$ by boil+4 99,h[ ,g]ms are ,spread499--,"s ( ! m common me?ods by :i* ! g]ms ( disease are spread1 & by s do+ f9d new victims1 are z foll[s3 #a4 ,by ,means ( ,foods4--,foods1 on acc\nt ( ! locality 9 :i* !y are produc$ or ! me?od ( ga!r+ or ( h&l+-!m1 may become contam9at$ ) g]ms1 :i* are !n transport$ ) ! foods to ! consum]4 #b4 ,by ,means ( ,du/4--,mat]ial conta9+ g]ms1 e4g41 dis*>ges f ! ?roat & lungs1 w on dry+ =m du/4 ,?is is lift$ ) o!r f9e p>ticles by ! air & may be c>ri$ q a di/ance4 ,! du/ f public halls & o!r places :]e p congregate is ! k9d mo/ likely to conta9 disease g]ms4 ,du/ %\ld be brea!d z little z possible & only ?r\gh ! no/rils4 ,:]e "o is compell$1 z 9 sweep+1 to brea! du/-lad5 air = "s "t1 he %\ld inhale ?r\gh a moi/5$ sponge1 or clo?1 ti$ 9 front ( ! no/rils4 #c4 ,by ,means ( ,dome/ic ,pets & ,diff]5t ,k9ds ( ,h\sehold ,v]m94--,g]ms /ick+ to ! bodies ( small animals are c>ri$ ab\t & may be easily communicat$ to p4 ,by ?is means1 rats1 mice1 b$bugs1 etc41 :]e su* exi/1 are frequ5tly ! means ( spread+ disease2 & p>ticul>ly dang]\s1 on ?is acc\nt1 is ! common h\se fly4 ,fe$+ z x does on fil? ( all k9ds1 x is easy = x to transf] ! bact]ia t may /ick to its body to ! food :i* is suppli$ to ! table4 ,! prop] scre5+ ( h\ses & ! de/ruction ( mat]ial 9 :i* flies may develop1 su* z ! refuse f /ables1 are necess>y precautions4 ,g]ms are spread also by ! clo?+ ( p1 by railroad & /eam%ip l9es1 by ! mails1 & by ! natural elem5ts4 ,9 fact1 any k9d ( c>ri]1 9 or ^u :i* g]ms c live1 may s]ve z a means ( spread+ ^? ( c]ta9 k9ds4 99,public ,sanitation499--,! g5]al conditions "u :i* g]ms may ?rive & "s ( ! means by :i* !y are scatt]$1 emphasize ! practical value ( measures :i* h = _! purpose ! mak+ ( "o's surr\nd+s m :olesome & hygi5ic4 ,su* measures may be direct$ bo? t[>d "o's imm$iate surr\nd+s--! home--& t[>d ! neighborhood1 t[n1 or city 9 :i* "o lives4 ,! hygi5ic conditions ( prim>y importance 9 e city or t[n are z foll[s3 #a4 ,an adequate public supply ( pure wat]4 #b4 ,an effici5t sy/em ( und]gr\nd pipes = ! removal ( sewage4 #c4 ,an effici5t sy/em = remov+ f ! /reets & alleys ev]y?+ ( ! nature ( wa/e4 #d4 ,prev5tion1 by en=cem5t ( ord9ances1 ( spitt+ ^u sidewalks & ! floors ( public halls & conveyances4 #e4 ,a hospital or sanit>ium 9 :i* p c be c>$ = :5 sick ) infecti\s diseases4 ,9 ! l>g] cities o!r hygi5ic measures dem& att5tion1 su* z provisions = p>ks & playgr\nds1 ! prop] h\s+ ( ! poor ( ! city1 & ! suppression ( ! smoke & du/ nuisances4 ,cr[d$ toge!r z p are 9 ! cities1 ! welf>e ( ea* individual dep5ds 9 a l>ge measure ^u ! welf>e ( all4 ,h5ce ! problems ( public sanitation are matt]s 9 :i* all are vitally conc]n$4 99,sanit>y ,conditions ( ! ,home499--,! home1 be+ ! fe$+ & re/+ place = ! entire family1 is ! mo/ important factor 9 "o's physical1 z well z moral1 environm5t4 ,= ?is reason !re is no place :]e c>eful att5tion to hygi5ic requirem5ts w yield bett] results4 ,mu* ( ! dang] f g]ms may be prev5t$ by in/itut+ & ma9ta9+ prop] sanit>y conditions 9 & ab\t ! home4 ,"o ( ! fir/ requisites ( ! home is a suitable location = ! h\se4 ,! h\se %\ld be built ^u gr\nd t is well dra9$1 & if natural dra9age be lack+1 artificial dra9age mu/ be suppli$4 ,x %\ld n be situat$ ne>] ?an a qu>t] ( a mile to any m>% or swamp &1 if s ne> z t1 x ought to be on ! side f :i* ! w9d usually bl[s4 ,a /one f\ndation %\ld be provid$1 & at lea/ eighte5 in*es ( v5tilat$ air space %\ld be left betwe5 ! gr\nd & ! floor4 ,ample provisions mu/ be made = pure air & sunlight 9 all ! rooms4 ,! cell>1 if "o is desir$1 ne$s to be con/ruct$ ) special c>e4 ,x %\ld be p]fectly dry & provid$ ) w9d[s = light & v5tilation4 ,adequate means mu/ also be provid$1 by sewage pipes & o!r me?ods1 = ! disposal ( all wa/e4 ,:]e dra9age pipes are provid$1 c>e mu/ be tak5 to prev5t ! entrance ( sew] gas into ! h\se & also ! passage ( mat]ial f ^! pipes into ! wat] supply4 ,! plac+ & connect+ ( sew] pipes %\ld1 ( c\rse1 be "u ! direction ( a plumb]4 99,! ,wat] ,supply499--,s9ce wat] readily takes up & holds ! impurities ) :i* x comes 9 contact1 x %\ld be expos$ z little z possible 9 ! process ( collect+4 ,:]e ci/]n wat] is us$1 c>e mu/ be tak5 to prev5t fil? f ! ro( 7,fig4 #afh71 wat] pipes1 or soil f gett+ into ! res]voir4 ,wat] %\ld be collect$ f ! ro( only aft] x has ra9$ long en\gh = ! ro( & pipes to h be5 ?or\ghly clean$4 ,! ci/]n %\ld h no leaks 7,fig4 #afi71 & ! top %\ld be tightly clos$ to prev5t ! entrance ( small animals & rubbi%4 ,fig4 #afh ,fig4 #afh--99;,contam9ation ( ci/]n wat]99 by birds ne/+ 9 ! gutt] tr\gh4 ,%all[ wells are to be condemn$1 z a rule1 because ( ! likelihood ( surface dra9age 7,fig4 #afi71 & wat] f spr+s %\ld1 = ! same reason1 be us$ ) caution4 ,deep wells t are kept clean usually may be reli$ on to furni% wat] free f organic impurities1 b su* wat] (t5 holds 9 solution s mu* ( m9]al impurities z to r5d] x unfit = dr9k+4 ,! pres5ce 9 wat] ( any consid]able quantity ( ! comp\nds ( iron or calcium makes x objectionable = regul> use4 ,fig4 #afi ,fig4 #afi--99,s\rces ( contam9ation ( ci/]n & well wat]499 ,illu/ration %[s liability ( contam9ation f surface dra9age & f entrance ( fil? at top4 99,hygi5ic ,h\sekeep+499--,h[ev] c>efully a h\se has be5 con/ruct$ f a sanit>y /&po9t1 ! con/ant c>e ( an intellig5t h\sekeep] is requir$ to keep x a heal?ful place 9 :i* to live4 ,daily clean+ & air+ ( all liv+ rooms are necess>y1 :ile su* places z ! kit*51 ! cell>1 & ! closets ne$ extra ?\ghtfulness &1 at times1 h>d "w4 ,moreov]1 ! problem is n all indoors4 ,! imm$iate premises mu/ be kept clean & sightly1 & all decay+ vegetable & animal matt] %\ld be remov$4 ,home sanitation consi/s1 n ( "o1 b ( _m1 problems1 all m or less complex4 ,none ( ^! c be slight$ or turn$ ov] to a novice4 99,de/ruction ( ,infecti\s ,mat]ial499--,at times ! h\sekeep+ has to be direct$ especially t[>d hygi5ic requirem5ts1 su* an occasion be+ ! sickness ( "o ( ! inmates ) "s contagi\s disease4 ,unless special precautions are tak51 ! disease w spread to o!r memb]s ( ! h\sehold & may rea* p 9 ! neighborhood4 ,n only mu/ great c>e be ex]cis$ t no?+ us$ 9 connection ) ! sick %all s]ve z a c>ri] ( disease1 b g]ms pass+ f ! pati5t %\ld1 z f> z possible1 be actually de/roy$4 ,all dis*>ges f ! body likely to conta9 bact]ia1 %\ld be burn$ or treat$ ) dis9fectants & buri$ deeply at a remote di/ance f ! wat] supply to ! h\se4 ,aft] recov]y all clo?+1 b$d+1 & furniture us$ 9 connection ) ! sick %\ld be dis9fect$ or burn$4 ,! room also 9 :i* ! sick 0 c>$ = %\ld be ?or\ghly dis9fect$ & clean$2 9 "s in/ances ! woodwork ought to be repa9t$ & ! walls repap]$ or calcim9$4 ,! purpose is1 ( c\rse1 to de/roy all g]ms & prev5t1 by ?is means1 a recurr5ce ( ! disease4 99,fumigation499--,to de/roy g]ms 9 ! air or adh]+ to ! walls ( rooms1 furniture1 clo?+1 etc41 fumigation is employ$4 ,?is is accompli%$ by saturat+ ! air ( rooms ) "s vapor or gas :i* w de/roy ! g]ms4 ,fumigation is q g5]ally employ$ 9 ! g5]al clean+ aft] ! pati5t leaves 8 room4 ,?is1 to be effective1 mu/ be ?or\gh4 ,=maldehyde is consid]$ ! be/ dis9fectant = ?is purpose1 & x %\ld be evaporat$ ) heat 9 ! proportion ( "o half p9t ( ! #dj p] c5t solution to #ajjj cu4 ft4 ( space4 ,s9ce =maldehyde is inflammable & easily boils ov]1 x has to be evaporat$ ) c>e4 ,x %\ld be boil$ 9 a tall vessel 7a t9 or copp] vessel :i* holds ab\t f\r times ! quantity to be evaporat$7 ov] a quick fire1 ! room be+ tightly clos$ 7op5+s ar\nd w9d[s & doors plugg$ ) cotton or clo?74 ,aft] ?ree or f\r h\rs ! room may be op5$ & ?or\ghly air$4 ,s9ce =maldehyde is mo/ disagreeable to brea!1 "o %\ld n attempt to occupy ! room until x is free f ! gas4 ,?is w require a day or m ( ?or\gh v5tilation4 99,facts ,relat+ to ! ,spread ( ,c]ta9 ,diseases499--,! problem ( prev5t+ disease 9 g5]al (t5 resolves itself into ! problem ( prev5t+ ! spread ( "s p>ticul> disease4 ,x is !n ( vital importance to "k ! special me?od by :i* ! g]ms ( ?is disease leave ! body ( ! pati5t & are convey$ to ! bodies ( o!rs4 ,"s ( ^! me?ods are novel 9 ! extreme1 & are n at all 9 accord ) prevail+ notions4 ,p>ticul>ly is ?is true ( t disease kn[n z 99,mal>ia1 or ,mal>ial ,fev]499--,?is disease1 s common 9 w>m climates & also preval5t to a l>ge ext5t 9 ! temp]ate zones1 is due to animal g]ms 7protozoa71 :i* attack & de/roy ! r$ corpuscles ( ! blood4 ,^! g]ms1 x is f\nd1 pass f mal>ial pati5ts to o!rs ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( a v>iety ( mosquitoes kn[n z ,anopheles4 ,9 suck+ ! blood ( a mal>ial pati5t1 ! mosquito fir/ infects h] own body47#aca7 ,9 ! body ( ! mosquito ! g]ms und]go an ess5tial /age ( _! developm5t1 aft] :i* !y are inject$ b5ea? ! sk9 ( :omsoev] ! mosquito fe$s ^u4 ,= ! spread+ ( mal>ia1 !n1 two conditions are necess>y3 fir/1 !re mu/ be p :o h ! disease2 & second1 !re mu/ be 9 ! neighborhood ! special v>iety ( mosquito t spreads ! disease4 ,if ei!r condition be lack+1 ! disease is n spread4 ,! mal>ial mosquito 7,anopheles7 may be di/+ui%$ f ! h>mless v>iety 7,culex7 by ! position :i* x assumes 9 re/+1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #agj4 ,fig4 #agj ,fig4 #agj--99,mosquitoes99 9 re/+ position4 7,f ,h[>d's ,mosquitoes47 ,on left ! mal>ial mosquito 7,anopheles72 on ! "r ! h>mless mosquito 7,culex74 99,rem$ies aga9/ ,mosquitoes499--,! natural me?od ( prev5t+ ! spread ( mal>ia is1 ( c\rse1 ! de/ruction ( mosquitoes4 ,?is is accompli%$ by dra9+ pools ( wat] :]e !y are likely to bre$1 & by cov]+ pools ( wat] t _c be dra9$ ) crude petroleum or k]os5e4 ,! k]os5e1 by de/roy+ ! l>vae1 prev5ts ! developm5t ( ! "y4 ,9 communities :]e su* measures h be5 dilig5tly c>ri$ out1 ! mosquito pe/ has be5 practically elim9at$4 ,o!r me?ods are also "u inve/igation1 su* z ! /ock+ ( %all[ bodies ( wat] ) v>ieties ( fi% t fe$ ^u ! mosquito l>vae4 ,fig4 #aga ,fig4 #aga--99,/egomyia991 ! yell[-fev] mosquito 7aft] ,h[>d74 99,yell[ ,fev]499--,?is sc\rge ( ! tropics is1 l mal>ia1 caus$ by animal g]ms4 ,x is also propagat$ 9 ! same mann] z mal>ia1 b by a diff]5t v>iety ( mosquito 7,/egomyia1 ,fig4 #aga74 ,! /amp+ out ( yell[ fev] 9 ,havana1 ! ,panama ,canal ,zone1 & o!r places1 ?r\gh ! de/ruction ( ?is v>iety ( mosquito1 af=ds ample pro( ( ! correctness ( ! mosquito !ory4 ,fig4 #agb ,fig4 #agb--99;,consumption g]ms99 f ! spit ( "o hav+ ! disease4 ,highly magnifi$ & /a9$4 7,hub]'s ,consumption & ,civilization47 99,consumption991 or tub]culosis ( ! lungs1 spok5 ( z ! :ite plague1 0 among ! fir/ diseases %[n to be due to bact]ia4 ,consumption is n[ recogniz$ z an infecti\s disease1 ?\gh n s readily communicat$ z "s o!r diseases4 ,sev]al me?ods are recogniz$ by :i* ! g]ms are pass$ f ! sick to ! well1 ! mo/ important be+ z foll[s3 #a4 ,by p]sonal contact ( ! sick ) ! well1 especially 9 kiss+4 #b4 ,by ! sputum1 or spit1 :i*1 if all[$ to dry1 is bl[n ab\t z du/ & brea!d into ! lungs7#acb7 7,fig4 #agb74 #c4 ,by means ( objects 7dr9k+ cups1 tablew>e1 etc47 t h be5 h&l$ by consumptives4 #d4 ,by infecti\s mat]ial associat$ ) h\ses or rooms 9 :i* consumptives h liv$4 ,^! me?ods ( spread+ consumption sugge/ ! necessity = ! greate/ c>e1 on ! "p ( bo? ! pati5t & ^? hav+ him 9 *>ge47#acc7 ,! mat]ial c\gh$ up f ! lungs & ?roat %\ld be collect$ on clo?s or pap] h&k]*iefs & aft]w>ds burn$4 ,! h\se :]e a consumptive has liv$ %\ld be dis9fect$1 repap]$ or calcim9$1 & ?or\ghly clean$ be=e x is aga9 occupi$4 ,! inside woodwork %\ld also be repa9t$4 ,! approa*es to ! h\se :]e ! pati5t may h expectorat$ %\ld be dis9fect$ & clean$4 ,s9ce ! g]ms are able to live 9 ! soil1 fre% lime or wood a%es %\ld be spread ar\nd ! door/eps & along ! walks4 99,typhoid ,fev]991 "o ( our mo/ dang]\s diseases1 is caus$ by g]ms 7bact]ia7 t ent] ! body ?r\gh ! food canal4 ,!y attack c]ta9 gl&s 9 ! walls ( ! small inte/9e1 :]e !y produce tox9s t pass ) ! g]ms to all p>ts ( ! body4 ,typhoid fev] g]ms spread f ^? hav+ ! disease to o!rs1 *iefly ?r\gh ! dis*>ges f ! b[els & ! kidneys4 ,! g]ms conta9$ 9 ^!1 if n de/roy$ by dis9fectants1 f9d _! way into ! soil1 or into sewage1 :]e !y may be pick$ up by wat] & widely di/ribut$4 ,f9d+ suitable places1 su* z ^? conta9+ decay+ mat]ial1 ! g]ms may rapidly increase 9 numb]1 & f ^! s\rces f9d _! way into ! bodies ( new victims4 ,!y are likely1 on acc\nt ( manures1 to get on vegetables2 on acc\nt ( uncleanly me?ods ( milk+1 to get into ! milk supply2 & f sew]age outlets1 to get into ! oy/]s t gr[ 9 bays & h>bors ne> seabo>d cities2 b !y are mo/ frequ5tly introduc$ into ! body ?r\gh ! dr9k+ ( impure wat]4 99,diph!ria991 also kn[n z membran\s cr\p1 is caus$ by g]ms t attack ! membranes ( ! ?roat4 ,?is mo/ dang]\s ( *ildr5's diseases is spread *iefly by dis*>ges f ! m\? & ?roat4 ,^! %\ld be collect$ on clo?s & burn$1 or r5d]$ h>mless ) dis9fectants4 ,! disease may be spread also by objects br\ght into contact ) ! m\?1 su* z cups1 toys1 p5cils1 etc4 ,*ildr5 are kn[n to h diph!ria g]ms 9 ! m\? = "s "t aft] recov]+ f ! disease1 & %\ld1 = ?is reason1 be kept away f o!r *ildr5 until pron\nc$ safe by ! physician4 ,! antitox9 me?od ( treat+ diph!ria has robb$ ?is disease ( mu* ( its t]ror1 yet x n infrequ5tly happ5s t ! physician is call$ too late to adm9i/] ?is rem$y to ! be/ advantage4 ,s9ce c]ta9 cases ( diph!ria are likely to be mi/ak5 = cr\p1 ! p>5t frequ5tly does n realize ! s]i\s condition ( ! *ild4 ,a cr\py c\gh t la/s ?r\gh ! day1 or a sore ?roat :i* %[s small :ite pat*es1 are indications ( diph!ria4 99,sc>let ,fev]1 ,measles1 ,*ick5 ,pox1 & ,smallpox991 on acc\nt ( ! eruptions ( ! sk9 :i* att5d !m1 are class$ z eruptive diseases4 ,z ! eruptions heal1 scales sep>ate f ! sk91 & ^! are suppos$ to be ! *ief means ( spread+ ! g]ms4 ,att5tion mu/ be giv5 to ! de/ruction ( ^! scales by burn+ or ?or\ghly dis9fect+ all objects1 su* z clo?+1 b$d+1 etc41 t may s]ve z c>ri]s ( !m4 ,^? hav+ eruptive diseases %\ld be conf9$ to _! rooms z long z ! scales cont9ue to sep>ate f ! body4 99,vacc9ation499--,! me?od ( prev5t+ smallpox kn[n z vacc9ation1 :i* has be5 practic$ s9ce its discov]y 9 #agif by ,j5n]1 has always prov$ effective4 ,9 "s in/ances ! sore arm causes consid]able inconv5i5ce1 b ?is g5]ally results f neglect to cleanse ! arm ?or\ghly be=e apply+ ! virus1 or f contact ( ! sore ) ! clo?+ lat]4 ,! virus %\ld be appli$ by a physician & ! w\nd %\ld be protect$ aft] ! op]ation4 ,if discom=t is felt :5 x takes1 m$ical advice %\ld be s\ght4 99,isolation991 or qu>ant9+1 is a mo/ important me?od ( combat+ contagi\s diseases4 ,by remov+ ! sick f ! well _m outbreaks ( disease are quickly *eck$4 ,isolation ( individual pati5ts1 & sometimes ( infect$ neighborhoods1 is absolutely necess>y2 & :ile ?is works a h>d%ip to ! few1 x is frequ5tly ! only safegu>d ( ! _m4 ,! community1 on ! o!r h&1 %\ld make ample provision = ! c>e ( ! afflict$ 9 ! way ( hospitals1 or sanit>ia1 & if x is deem$ necess>y to remove p f _! homes1 !y %\ld n be subject$ to unnecess>y h>d%ip4 ,:]e "o is sick f "s contagi\s disease 9 ! home & !re is liability ( communicat+ x to ! o!r memb]s ( ! family1 room isolation %\ld be practic$4 ,infection _c spread ?r\gh solid walls1 & :]e ! doors1 & ! cracks ar\nd ! doors1 are kept completely clos$ & ! usual precautions are obs]v$ by ^? att5d+ ! pati5t1 ! o!r inmates ( ! h\se c be protect$ f ! disease4 99,! ,physician & ,8 ,"w499--,9 combat+ disease ! s]vices ( ! physician are a prime necessity4 ,! special k :i* he has at 8 comm& enables ! conflict to be c>ri$ on accord+ to sci5tific requirem5ts & va/ly increases ! *ances = recov]y4 ,he %\ld be call$ e>ly & 8 directions %\ld be c>efully foll[$4 ,ev]y?+1 h[ev]1 mu/ n be left to ! physician1 = recov]y dep5ds z mu* ^u prop] nurs+ & fe$+ z ^u ! drugs t are adm9i/]$4 ,( great importance is ! sav+ ( ! en]gy ( ! pati5t1 & to accompli% ?is visitors %\ld1 z a rule1 be exclud$ f ! sick room4 99,precautions 9 ,recov]y f ,disease499--,_m diseases1 if sev]e1 n only leave ! body 9 a weak5$ condition1 b may1 ?r\gh ! tox9s :i* ! g]ms deposit1 cause untold h>m if ! pati5t leaves 8 b$ or resumes 8 usual activities too soon4 ,especially is ?is true ( typhoid fev]17#acd7 diph!ria1 sc>let fev]1 & measles4 ,rheumatism & affections ( ! he>t1 lungs1 kidneys1 & o!r bodily organs frequ5tly foll[ ^! diseases1 z ! result ( slight exposure or ex]tion be=e ! body has suffici5tly recov]$ f ! effects ( ! tox9s4 ,to gu>d aga9/ su* results1 c]ta9 physicians require _! pati5ts to keep _! b$s = a week1 or long]1 aft] app>5t recov]y f diseases l typhoid fev]1 diph!ria1 & sc>let fev]4 99,relation ( ,vocation to ,disease499--,) a few exceptions1 ! pursuit ( "o's vocation1 or call+ 9 life1 does n supply ei!r ! quantity or ! k9d ( activity t is mo/ 9 h>mony ) ! plan ( ! body4 ,especially is ?is true ( "w t requires mo/ ( ! "t to be sp5t indoors1 or :i* ex]cises b a small portion ( ! body4 ,! effect ( su* vocations1 if n c\nt]act$1 is to weak5 c]ta9 organs1 !reby di/urb+ ! functional equilibrium ( ! body--a result t may be br\ght ab\t ei!r by ! ov]work ( p>ticul> organs or by lack ( ex]cise ( o!rs4 ,h]e9 lies ! explanation ( ! obs]v$ fact t p ( ! same call+ 9 life h simil> diseases4 99,a ,special ,problem = ! ,bra9 ,work]499--,f>!/ remov$ f ^? =ms ( activity :i* h>monize ) ! plan ( ! body1 & :i* !re=e are mo/ hygi5ic1 is t class ( work]s kn[n z ! pr(essional class1 or ! bra9 work]s4 ,?is class includes n only ! memb]s ( ! le>n$ pr(essions--law1 m$ic9e1 & ! m9i/ry--b a va/ army ( bus9ess m51 eng9e]s1 tea*]s1 /5ograph]s1 (fice cl]ks1 etc41 a class t is ev] increas+ z our civilization advances4 ,x is ?is class 9 p>ticul> t mu/ give att5tion to ^? conditions t indirectly1 b pr(\ndly1 influ5ce ! bodily well-be+ & mu/ seek to obviate if possible su* weaknesses z ! occupation induces4 99,! ,rem$y99 lies 9 two directions--t ( sp5d+ suffici5t "t away f "o's "w to all[ ! body to recov] its normal condition1 & t ( c\nt]act+ ! effect ( ! "w by special ex]cise or o!r means4 ,9 _m cases ! fir/ symptoms ( weakness indicate a suitable rem$y4 ,?us exhau/ion f ov]work sugge/s re/ & recreation4 ,! div]t+ ( too mu* blood f o!r p>ts ( ! body to ! bra9 sugge/s "s =m ( ex]cise :i* w equalize ! circulation4 ,if feebl5ess ( ! dige/ive organs is be+ induc$1 "s natural me?od ( increas+ ! blood supply to ^! organs is to be look$ =4 ,& effects aris+ f lack ( fre% air & sunlight are c\nt]act$ by sp5d+ m "t out ( doors4 99,ex]cise z a ,c\nt]active ,ag5t499--,9 c\nt]act+ t5d5cies to disease & 9 ! ma9t5ance ( ! functional equilibrium ( ! body1 no ag5t has yet be5 discov]$ ( great] importance ?an physical ex]cise1 :5 appli$ sy/ematically & p]si/5tly4 ,?is may consi/ ( ex]cises t call into play all ! muscles ( ! body1 or :i* are conc5trat$ ^u special p>ts4 ,:5 g5]al tonic effects are desir$1 ! ex]cise %\ld be well di/ribut$2 b :5 c\nt]active or rem$ial effects are want$1 x mu/ be appli$ *iefly to ! p>ts t are weak or t h n be5 call$ into action by ! regul> "w4 ,un=tunately1 heal? is sometimes confus$ ) physical /r5g? & ex]cise is direct$ t[>d ! /rong] p>ts ( ! body ) ! effect ( mak+ !m /ill /rong]4 ,n only is heal? n to be measur$ by ! p\nds t "o c lift or by "s gymna/ic feat t "o c p]=m1 b ! possession ( great muscul> p[] may1 if ! he>t & o!r vital organs be n proportionally /rong1 prove a m5ace to ! heal?4 ,?is be+ true1 "o hav+ 8 heal? prim>ily 9 view w use physical ex]cise1 9 "p at lea/1 z a means ( build+ up organs t are weak4 ,s9ce ! body1 l a *a91 c be no /rong] ?an its weake/ "p1 ?is is cle>ly ! logical me?od ( =tify+ x aga9/ disease4 99,value ( ,"w499--,al?\gh !re may exi/ 9 "o's vocation c]ta9 t5d5cies to disease1 x mu/ n be inf]r$ t "w 9 itself is detrim5tal to heal?4 ,heal? dem&s activity1 & ^? =ms ( activity t provide a regul> & sy/ematic outlet = "o's surplus en]gy & compel ! =mation ( correct habits ( eat+1 sleep+1 & recreat+ be/ s]ve ! purpose4 ,"w furni%es activity ( ?is k9d & s]ves also z a safegu>d aga9/ ! unheal?ful & immoral habits contract$ s (t5 f idl5ess4 ,ev5 physical ex]cise :i* has = its purpose ! ren=cem5t ( ! body aga9/ disease may frequ5tly consi/ ( useful "w )\t dim9i%+ its hygi5ic effects4 99,! ,m5tal ,attitude499--,:ile a prop] ?\ghtfulness & c>e = ! body is bo? desirable & necess>y1 x is also true t ov]-anxiety ab\t1 or an unnatural att5tion to1 ! ne$s ( ! body reacts unfavorably ^u ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,obs]vance ( ! laws ( heal?1 !re=e1 %\ld be natural & )\t special ef=t--a matt] ( habit4 ,! att5tion %\ld nev] be turn$ ) anxiety ^u any organ or process1 b ! m5tal attitude %\ld at all times be t ( confid5ce 9 ! p[] ( ! body organization to d its "w4 ,fe> & morbidity1 :i* are di/urb+ & p>alyz+ factors1 %\ld be supplant$ by c\rage1 *e]fulness1 & hopefulness4 ,let x be borne 9 m9d t hygi5ic liv+ requires no?+ m ?an ! application ( ! same intellig5ce & practical common s5se to ! c>e ( ! body t ! skillful me*anic applies to an effici5t1 b delicate1 ma*9e4 ,&1 j z 9 ! case ( ! ma*9e1 c>e ( ! body keeps its effici5cy at ! maximum & l5g!ns ! p]iod t x may be us$4 ,?is end & aim ( hygi5ic liv+ is be/ atta9$ by cultivat+ t attitude ( m9d t[>d ! body t avoids int]f]5ce 9 ! vital processes & p]mits ! natural appetites1 s5sations1 & desires to indicate v l>gely ! body's ne$s4 99,attitude t[>d ,habit-=m+ ,drugs499--,among ! diff]5t sub/ances introduc$ into ! body1 ei!r z foods or z m$ic9es1 are a numb] :i* h ! effect ( develop+ an artificial appetite or crav+ :i* leads to _! cont9u$ use4 ,s9ce ! effect ( su* sub/ances is usually h>mful & s9ce !y t5d to engraft !mselves ^u communities z social cu/oms1 !y pres5t a tw(old relation to ! g5]al problem ( keep+ well4 ,! individual may be injur$ ?r\gh ! p]sonal use :i* he makes ( !m1 or he may be injur$ ?r\gh ! effect :i* !y h ^u relatives or fri5ds or ^u society at l>ge4 ,s9ce our social environm5t is a factor 9 heal? little less important ?an our physical environm5t1 ! conditions t make = _! cont9uance %\ld be m g5]ally und]/ood4 99,h[ ,social ,ag5cies p]petuate ! ,use ( ,habit-=m+ ,drugs499--,:5 ! use ( "s habit-=m+ drug has ris5 to ! importance ( a g5]al cu/om1 a numb] ( conditions arise :i* t5d to cont9ue its use1 ev5 ?\gh ! fact may be q g5]ally kn[n t ! sub/ance does h>m4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ^? :o h =m$ ! habit suff] inconv5i5ce & di/ress :5 depriv$ ( its use4 ,9 ! second place1 a numb] ( p w h become int]e/$ 9 ! production & sale ( ! sub/ance1 & ^! w lose f9ancially if x is discont9u$4 ,9 ! ?ird place1 ^? ( ! ris+ g5]ation w1 f imitation or p]suasion1 be con/antly acquir+ ! habit be=e !y are suffici5tly mature to decide :at is be/ = !m4 ,?us may ! use ( a sub/ance mo/ h>mful1 su* z ! opium ( ! ,*9ese1 be indef9itely cont9u$--a species ( slav]y f :i* ! individual f9ds x h>d to escape4 ,su* is human nature & su* are ! =ces & influ5ces ( human society1 t ! free+ ( a p f ! bondage ( "s habit-=m+ drug _c be accompli%$ )\t /r5u\s & p]si/5t ef=t4 ,education1 p]suasion1 ! good example ( ab/a9]s1 & legal re/rictions mu/ be pitt$ aga9/ ! =ces t make = its cont9uance4 ,su* a /ruggle is n[ 9 progress 9 all civiliz$ c\ntries relative to ! use ( alcoholic bev]ages47#ace7 99,h[ ! ,use ( ,alcohol became a ,social ,cu/om499--,! g5]al use ( alcohol z a bev]age may be acc\nt$ = by ?ree facts4 ,alcohol is a habit-=m+ drug2 x has a /imulat+ effect :i* _m h f\nd agreeable2 & be+ a product ( ! f]m5tation ( fruit juices & o!r liquids conta9+ sug>1 x is easily obta9$4 ,?r\gh ! op]ation ( ^! causes ! human family became habituat$ v e>ly to ! use ( alcohol4 ,! w9e ( primitive man1 h[ev]1 did little h>m z comp>$ ) ! alcoholic liquors ( mod]n times4 ,x 0 a weak solution & on acc\nt ( ! crude me?ods ( manufacture & /orage c\ld only be produc$ 9 limit$ quantities4 ,p]haps ! wor/ effect ( its e>ly use 0 ! e/abli%m5t ( a g5]al belief 9 its p[] to b5efit1 s9ce ?is laid ! f\ndation = excess 9 its use :5 ! developm5ts ( a lat] p]iod made x possible4 ,dur+ ! elev5? c5tury ! me?od ( mak+ alcoholic dr9ks f />*-produc+ sub/ances1 su* z :eat1 b>ley1 & potatoes1 became q g5]ally kn[n1 & also ! me?od ( conc5trat+ !m by di/illation4 ,?is k made possible ! manufacture ( alcoholic dr9ks 9 l>ge quantities & 9 consid]able v>iety4 ,alcoholic indulg5ce 0 n[ no long] ! pa/ime ( ! few1 b ! privilege ( all4 ,its evil effects foll[$ z a matt] ( c\rse2 & z ^! became m & m app>5t1 !re began ! /ruggle to re/rict ! consumption ( alcohol :i* has cont9u$ ) v>y+ success to ! pres5t "t4 99,c\nts aga9/ ,alcohol499--,! /atem5ts f\nd 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ?is book relative to ! effects ( alcohol ^u ! body may "h be summ>iz$ z foll[s3-- #a4 ,alcohol has an injuri\s effect ^u ! :ite corpuscles ( ! blood & less5s ! p[] ( ! body to resi/ attacks ( disease 7pages #ce1 #ih74 #b4 ,alcohol injures ! he>t & ! blood vessels 7page #ef74 #c4 ,alcohol causes diseases ( ! liv] & kidneys & int]f]es ) ! dis*>ge ( wa/e ?r\gh ^! organs 7pages #baj1 #bab74 #d4 ,alcohol int]f]es s]i\sly ) ! regulation ( ! body temp]ature 7page #bga74 #e4 ,alcohol is "o ( ! wor/ enemies to ! n]v\s sy/em 7pages #cbf1 #ccb-ccd4 #ccf1 #ccg74 #f4 ,?r\gh its effect ^u ! n]v\s sy/em & ?r\gh its int]f]5ce ) ! production ( bodily en]gy 7page #aie71 alcohol greatly dim9i%es ! effici5cy ( ! individual4 #g4 ,! tak+ ( alcohol 9 am\nts t app>5tly d n h>m ! tissues is1 nev]!less1 liable to produce a habit :i* leads to its use 9 am\nts t are decid$ly h>mful4 99,alcohol & ! ,social ,environm5t499--,our social environm5t includes ! p ) :om we are directly or indirectly associat$4 ,! pres5ce 9 any community ( ^? :o are immoral1 ineffici5t1 or defective1 places a burd5 ^u ^? :o are m5tally & physically capable & r5d]s !m liable to results :i* are ! outgr[? ( weakness or vici\sness4 ,! fact t alcohol causes paup]ism1 crime1 & g5]al ineffici5cy1 !reby r5d]+ ! social environm5t less conducive to :at is be/ 9 life1 is pla9ly evid5t4 ,to realize h[ alcohol h>ms ! individual ?r\gh its effects ^u society 9 g5]al1 "o has only to take into acc\nt 8 dep5d5ce ^u society = intellectual & moral /imuli1 = indu/rial & economic opportunity1 = protection1 & = g5]al conditions t make = heal? & happ9ess4 ,z we /rive to improve our physical environm5t1 s %\ld we also /rive = ! bett]m5t ( social conditions4 99,indu/rial ,use ( ,alcohol499--,int]e/+ & in/ructive 9 ?is connection is ! fact t alcohol is1 aft] all1 a sub/ance capable ( r5d]+ great s]vice to humanity4 ,! injury :i* x causes is ! result ( its misuse4 ,?\gh unfit = introduction into ! human body1 except 9 ! mo/ gu>d$ mann]1 x is adapt$ to a great v>iety ( uses outside ( ! body4 ,a combu/ible sub/ance :i* is readily conv]tible into a gas1 x may be sub/itut$ = gasol9e 9 ! cook+ ( food1 light+ ( dwell+s1 & ! runn+ ( ma*9]y4 ,z a solv5t = gums1 res9s1 ess5tial oils1 etc41 x is us$ 9 ! prep>ation ( v>ni%es1 extracts1 p]fumes1 m$ic9es1 & num]\s o!r sub/ances ( ev]yday use4 ,?r\gh its *emical int]actions1 x is us$ 9 ! manufacture ( e!r1 *lor(orm1 explosives1 collodion1 celluloid1 dye/uffs1 & artificial silk4 ,9 fact1 alcohol is /at$ by "o au?ority to be1 next to wat]1 ! mo/ valuable liquid kn[n47#acf7 ,oppos$ to an ext5sive use ( alcohol = indu/rial purposes is ! gu>d :i* ! gov]nm5t mu/ keep ov] its manufacture on acc\nt ( its use 9 bev]ages4 ,?\gh alcohol may be pr(itably manufactur$ & sold at ?irty c5ts p] gallon1 ! gov]nm5t rev5ue /amp ( #b4jh p] gallon practically prohibits its use = _m purposes4 ,a /ep t[>d a wid] application to indu/rial purposes has be5 tak5 by ! law p]mitt+ ! sale ( s-call$ d5atur$7#acg7 alcohol )\t ! tax = rev5ue4 ,?is law has prov$ b5eficial to "s ext5t1 ?\gh ! practical solution ( ! problem is /ill remote4 99,nicot9e & ,social ,cu/om499--,! influ5ces :i* br\ght ab\t a g5]al use ( tobacco are simil> to1 ?\gh n id5tical )1 ^? t engraft$ alcohol ^u society4 ,! drug nicot9e is a habit-=m+ sub/ance & ! plant produc+ x is easily cultivat$47#ach7 ,its imm$iate effect ^u ! us] is g5]ally agreeable1 act+ z a /imulant to "s1 b hav+ a soo?+ effect ^u ! n]ves ( o!rs4 ,moreov]1 a /rong det]r+ factor 9 its use is lack+1 s9ce its h>mful effects are n readily disc]nible & by _m are avoid$ ?r\gh mod]ation 9 its use4 ,z ) alcohol1 tobacco is conv5i5tly us$ to promote sociability among m51 a fact :i* has mu* to d ) its v g5]al use4 ,if x c\ld be limit$ to social purposes1 x w\ld likely d little h>m1 b ! habit1 once />t$1 is cont9u$ )\t ref]5ce to sociability--a matt] ( selfi% indulg5ce4 ,9 fact1 "o effect ( tobacco is to cause ! us] to become less s5sitive to ! rights ( o!rs1 ?is be+ evid5c$ by smok]s :o d n hesitate to make rooms & public halls almo/ unbe>able to ^? unaccu/om$ to tobacco4 99,c\nts aga9/ ,nicot9e499--,! physiological objections to ! use ( tobacco1 z already /at$ 7pages #ef1 #ib1 #cbf1 #ccc1 #ccf71 are ! foll[+3-- #a4 ,! use ( tobacco be=e "o rea*es maturity /unts ! gr[?4 ,! boy :o uses x _c develop into s /rong & capable a man z he w\ld by leav+ x alone4 #b4 ,tobacco injures ! he>t4 #c4 ,tobacco injures ! air passages1 especially :5 inhalation is practic$4 #d4 ,tobacco injures ! n]v\s sy/em & by ?is means int]f]es 9 a g5]al way ) ! bodily processes4 ,= ! same reason x int]f]es ) m5tal & moral developm5t1 ! cig>ette be+ a *ief cause ( crim9al t5d5cies 9 boys4 #e4 ,9 "s cases tobacco injures ! vision4 #f4 ,! tobacco habit is exp5sive & is productive ( no good results4 99,tobacco & ! ,ris+ ,g5]ation499--,! problem ( limit+ ! use ( tobacco to ! po9t :]e x w\ld d slight h>m1 9 comp>ison to :at x n[ does1 w\ld be solv$ if ^? "u tw5ty ye>s ( age c\ld be kept f us+ x4 ,b few w\ld !n acquire ! habit1 & ^? :o did w\ld n be s s]i\sly injur$4 ,9 our own c\ntry x lies )9 ! prov9ce ( ! home & ! s*ool to br+ ab\t ?is result4 ,! fact t p>5ts use tobacco is no reason :y ! boys %\ld also indulge4 ,! decid$ diff]5ce 9 effects ^u ! "y & ^u ! mature makes ?is po9t v cle>4 ,laws protect+ boys f ! evil effects ( tobacco1 n only cig>ettes1 b o!r =ms z well1 are bo? j & necess>y4 99,social ,cu/om & ! ,caffe9e ,habit499--,by suitable processes a :ite1 cry/all9e solid1 easily soluble 9 wat]1 c be sep>at$ f ! leaves ( tea1 & f ! b]ry ( ! c(fee plant4 ,?is is ! drug caffe9e1 ! sub/ance :i* gives to tea & c(fee _! /imulat+ prop]ties1 b n _! agreeable flavors4 ,less injuri\s1 on ! :ole1 ?an ei!r alcohol or tobacco1 caffe9e has come into g5]al use 9 mu* ! same way z ^! sub/ances4 ,9 a s5se1 h[ev]1 caffe9e is m deceptive ?an ei!r alcohol or nicot9e1 because ! usual mode ( prep>+ tea & c(fee gives !m ! appe>ance ( real foods4 ,! h\sewife :o w\ld feel condemn$ 9 pur*as+ caffe9e put up z a drug someh[ feels ju/ifi$ :5 %e extracts x f plant products 9 ! regul> prep>ation ( ! meal4 99,c\nts aga9/ ,caffe9e499--,p ( vigor\s con/itutions & ( active outdoor habits are injur$ b slightly1 if at all1 by ei!r tea or c(fee :5 ^! are us$ 9 mod]ation4 ,z already /at$ 7pages #ef1 #afg1 #cbf1 #cbi71 !y d h>m :5 us$ to excess &1 9 special cases1 9 v small am\nts1 9 "o ( ! foll[+ ways3-- #a4 ,by /imulat+ ! n]v\s sy/em1 !reby caus+ n]v\sness & insomnia & int]f]+ ) vital organs4 #b4 ,by introduc+ a wa/e :i* =ms uric acid into ! body1 !reby ?r[+ an extra burd5 ^u ! organs ( elim9ation4 ,9 ?is connection x may also be /at$ t !re appe>s to be little1 if any1 real advantage to ! heal?y body f ! use ( ei!r tea or c(fee1 beyond t ( tempor>y /imulation & ! gratification ( an appetite artificially acquir$4 ,h5ce ! l>ge sums ( money exp5d$ = ^! sub/ances 9 ?is c\ntry yield no adequate returns4 99,caffe9e ,re/rictions ,necess>y499--,?\gh ) _m ! cup ( tea or c(fee at breakfa/ does no h>m1 b gives an add$ pleasure to ! meal1 !re is no "q b t ! use ( caffe9e bev]ages %\ld be greatly curtail$4 ,*ildr5 %\ld n be p]mitt$ to dr9k ei!r tea or c(fee4 ,bra9 work]s & indoor dwell]s g5]ally %\ld use ^! sub/ances v sp>+ly1 & p hav+ a t5d5cy to indige/ion1 n]v\sness1 con/ipation1 rheumatism1 or diseases ( ! he>t1 kidneys1 or liv] frequ5tly f9d x be/ to omit !m altoge!r4 99,caffe9e & ,s(t ,dr9ks499--,rec5tly ! practice has sprung up ( us+ caffe9e z a con/itu5t ( c]ta9 dr9ks suppli$ at ! soda-wat] f\nta9s4 ,su* dr9ks usually purport to be made f ! kola nut1 :i* conta9s caffe9e1 or to consi/ ( extracts f ! plants :i* yield cocoa & *ocolate1 :5 9 reality !y consi/ ( artificial mixtures to :i* caffe9e has be5 add$4 ,^? us+ ^! bev]ages are /imulat$ z !y w\ld be by tea or c(fee & soon acquire ! habit :i* makes !m regul> cu/om]s4 ,*ief h>m comes to ! *ildr5 :o frequ5t ! soda f\nta9s & to ^? :o1 on acc\nt ( con/itutional t5d5cies1 %\ld avoid caffe9e 9 all ( its =ms4 ,x is g5]ally und]/ood t ! s-call$ s(t dr9ks are h>mless4 ,if ?is reputation is to be ma9ta9$1 ^? conta9+ caffe9e mu/ be exclud$4 99,dang] f ,c]ta9 ,m$ic9al ,ag5ts499--,among ! mo/ valuable drugs us$ by ! physician 9 ! treatm5t ( disease are sev]al1 su* z morph9e1 *loral1 & coca9e1 :i* possess ! habit-=m+ *>act]i/ic4 ,sad inde$ are ! cases 9 :i* "s p]nici\s drug habit has be5 =m$ ?r\gh ! reckless adm9i/ration ( su* m$ic9es4 ,ev5 ! tak+ ( su* a drug z qu99e z a tonic t5ds to develop a dep5d5ce ^u /imulation :i* is equival5t to a habit4 ,9 ! same li/ come also ! drugs t are tak5 to relieve a frequ5tly recurr+ indisposition1 su* z heada*e4 ,! s-call$ heada*e p[d]s are mo/ h>mful 9 _! effects ^u ! n]v\s sy/em & %\ld be c>efully avoid$47#aci7 99,/imulants 9 ,heal? ,unnecess>y499--,/imulants h be5 aptly /yl$ ! :ips ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,! heal?y n]v\s sy/em1 h[ev]1 l ! well-dispos$ & well-f$ horse1 ne$s no :ip1 b is irritat$ & h>m$ ?r\gh its use4 ,ev5 9 p]iods ( weakness & depression1 /imulants are usually n call$ =1 b a m p]fect provision = hygi5ic ne$s4 ,re/1 relaxation1 sleep1 prop] food1 & avoidance ( irritation1 n /imulants1 are ! great re/or]s ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,a surplus ( n]v\s en]gy ga9$ ?r\gh natural means is m conducive to heal? & effective "w ?an any result t c possibly be secur$ ?r\gh drugs4 ,!n )al comes ! satisfaction ( kn[+ t "o has ! expression ( 8 real self 9 ! way 9 :i* he feels & 9 :at he accompli%es--n a :ipp$-up condition t mu/ be paid = by weakness or suff]+ lat] on4 99,summ>y499--,to solve ! problem ( keep+ well1 "o mu/ live ! life :i* is 9 close/ h>mony ) ! plan ( ! body4 ,su* a life1 because ( diff]5ces 9 physical organization1 z well z diff]5ces 9 environm5t & occupation1 _c be ! same = all4 ,all1 h[ev]1 may obs]ve ! conditions "u :i* ! body c be us$ )\t injur+ x & ! special hygi5ic laws relative to ! c>e ( diff]5t organs4 ,causes ( disease1 :e!r !y be 9 "o's environm5t1 vocation1 9 8 use ( foods or drugs1 or 9 8 mode ( recreation1 mu/ ei!r be avoid$ or c\nt]act$4 ,:ile ! problem is beset ) su* difficulties z lack ( suffici5t k1 inh]it$ weakness1 & "t & opportunity = do+ :at is kn[n to be be/ = ! body1 yet /udy & "w t h = _! aim ! pres]vation or improvem5t ( ! heal? are always wor? :ile4 ,heal? is its own rew>d4 ,! expression ( ! poet1 ,ea* morn to feel a fre% delight to wake to life1 ,to rise ) b\nd+ pulse to meet :ate'er ( "w1 ( c>e1 ( /rife1 day br+s to me1 sugge/s ! joy ( be+ well4 ,b ! ultimate realization ( "o's aims & ambitions 9 life & ! actual prolongation ( "o's p]iod ( usefulness are high] & m endur+ rew>ds4 99,ex]cises499--#a4 ,summ>ize ! diff]5t laws ( hygi5e4 ,^u :at "o fundam5tal law are ^! bas$8 #b4 ,/ate ! important diff]5ces betwe5 a condition ( heal? & "o ( disease4 #c4 ,9 :at g5]al ways may disease orig9ate 9 ! body8 #d4 ,describe a model sanit>y home4 ,) :at special hygi5ic problems has ! h\sekeep] to deal8 #e4 ,describe a me?od ( collect+ a :olesome supply ( ci/]n wat]4 ,/ate possible objections to well & spr+ wat]4 #f4 ,:at means may be employ$ 9 prev5t+ ! spread ( contagi\s diseases8 #g4 ,by :at means are mal>ia1 typhoid fev]1 diph!ria1 & tub]culosis spread f "o individual to ano!r8 #h4 ,:y are extra precautions necess>y 9 ! recov]y f c]ta9 diseases1 z typhoid fev]1 diph!ria1 & sc>let fev]8 #i4 ,h[ may "o's vocation become a cause ( disease8 ,:at conditions 9 ! life ( a /ud5t may1 if unc\nt]act$1 lead to poor heal?8 #aj4 ,( :at special value are ! p>ks & pleasure gr\nds 9 a city to ! heal? ( its inhabitants8 #aa4 ,discuss ! hygi5ic value ( "w4 #ab4 ,:at conditions lead to ! cont9uance ( habit-=m+ sub/ances aft] _! use has become g5]al8 #ac4 ,h[ is x possible = "o n us+ alcohol to be injur$ by ?is sub/ance8 #ad4 ,discuss ! effect ( alcoholic abuse ^u social environm5t4 #ae4 ,summ>ize ! rew>ds ( hygi5ic liv+4 ,,summ>y ,,( ,,"p ,,ii ,= ! ma9t5ance ( life ! ne$s ( ! cells mu/ be suppli$ & ! body z a :ole mu/ be br\ght into prop] relations ) its surr\nd+s4 ,! la/-nam$ condition requires t ! body be mov$ f place to place2 t its p>ts be controll$ & cord9at$2 & t x be adju/$ 9 its v>i\s activities to ext]nal physical conditions4 ,to accompli% ^! results !re are employ$3 #a4 ,! skeleton1 or bony framework1 :i* pres]ves ! =m ( ! body & supplies a numb] ( me*anical devices1 or ma*9es1 = caus+ a v>iety ( special movem5ts4 #b4 ,! muscul> sy/em1 :i* supplies ! en]gy necess>y = execut+ ! movem5ts ( ! body4 #c4 ,! n]v\s sy/em1 :i* 7a7 controls & cord9ates ! v>i\s activities & 7b7 provides = ! intellig5t adju/m5t ( ! body to its environm5t4 7,review ,summ>y ( ,"p ,i1 page #bae1 & consult ,fig4 #ib1 page #bad47 ,,app5dix 99,equipm5t499--,ne>ly all ( ! app>atus & mat]ials call$ = 9 ?is book may be f\nd 9 ! physical1 *emical1 & biological laboratories ( ! av]age high s*ool4 ,!re %\ld be ready1 h[ev]1 = frequ5t & conv5i5t use1 ! foll[+3 ,"o or m comp\nd microscopes ) two-?irds & "o-fif? in* objectives2 a set ( prep>$ & m\nt$ slides ( ! v>i\s tissues ( ! body2 a set ( dissect+ in/rum5ts1 includ+ bone =ceps2 a m\nt$ human skeleton & a manik9 or a set ( physiological *>ts2 a set ( simple *emical app>atus includ+ bottles1 flasks1 te/ tubes1 & evaporat+ di%es2 & a ,buns5 burn] or "s o!r means ( supply+ heat4 ,! few *emicals requir$ may be obta9$ f a drug /ore or f ! *emical laboratory4 ,access to a "w b5* hav+ a set ( c>p5t]'s tools w enable "o to prep>e _m simple pieces ( app>atus z !y are ne$$4 99,physiological ,*>ts99 are easily prep>$ by tea*]s or pupils by c>efully enl>g+ ! m important illu/rations f\nd 9 text-books or by work+ out orig9al sket*es & diagrams4 ,^!1 if drawn on heavy ,manila pap]1 may be hung on ! wall z ne$$ & pres]v$ indef9itely4 ,by ! use ( colors1 necess>y contra/s are drawn & emphasis plac$ on p>ts z desir$4 ,! au?or has = a numb] ( ye>s us$ su* home-made *>ts 9 8 tea*+ & has f\nd !m q satisfactory4 ,8 plan has be5 to draw on heavy ,manila pap]1 cut 9 sizes ( two by ?ree feet1 ! g5]al outl9e 9 p5cil & !n to m>k ov] ?is ) ! desir$ colors4 ,!re is ( c\rse an opportunity = produc+ results t are arti/ic z well z practical1 & if "o has "t & arti/ic skill1 bett] results c be obta9$4 ,_m ( ! cuts 9 ?is book are excell5tly suit$ to enl>gem5t &1 if prop]ly execut$1 w provide a good set = g5]al class purposes4 99,models499--,! use ( prep>$ models ( ! diff]5t bodily organs is /rongly urg$4 ,^! may be s us$ 9 elem5t>y c\rses z to obviate mu* ( ! dissections ^u l[] animals4 ,al?\gh ! actual tissues _c be s well portray$1 ! g5]al =m & con/ruction ( organs are mu* bett] %[n4 ,models well adapt$ to class or laboratory "w are easily obta9$ ?r\gh supply h\ses4 ,illu/rations ( sev]al ( ^! are %[n 9 connection ) ! ,practical ,"w4 ,,index ,abdom52 dissection (1 #afi4 ,abdom9al cavity1 #g1 #ach1 #aeb4 ,absorption1 #agc-ahf4 ,def9$1 #ah1 #agc4 ,accommodation1 #cgi4 ,to illu/rate1 #cia4 ,acid reactions1 #aga4 ,acquir$ reflexes1 #cad4 ,adipose tissue1 #e1 #agh4 ,aff]5t neurons1 #bif4 ,air1 #gf4 ,*anges x und]goes 9 lungs1 #aja4 ,complem5tal1 #hi1 #ajc4 ,res]ve1 #hi1 #ajc4 ,residual1 #hi1 #ajc4 ,tidal1 #hh1 #ajc4 ,air passages1 #hj4 ,album9oids1 #aai4 ,purpose s]v$ by1 #aba4 ,alcohol1 ,a cause ( crime1 #ccc4 ,effects on circulation1 #ee1 #ef4 ,effects on dige/ion1 #afg4 ,effects on en]gy supply1 #aie4 ,effects on respiratory organs1 #ih4 ,effects on social environm5t1 #dac4 ,effect on temp]ature regulation1 #bga4 ,effects on wa/e elim9ation1 #bab4 ,g5]al consid]ations1 #dab-dae4 ,alim5t>y canal1 coats (1 #ach4 ,alim5t>y muscles1 "w (1 #aei4 ,alkal9e reactions1 #aga4 ,alveoli1 #hb4 ,amylops91 #aee1 #aef4 ,anatomy1 def9$1 #a4 ,animal heat1 #aib4 ,anopheles1 #dja4 ,antiseptic o9tm5t1 #bge4 ,antitox91 #dje4 ,appetite1 natural1 #afc4 ,aque\s humor1 #cgg4 ,ara*noid1 #bii4 ,art]ies1 #dg4 ,bron*ial1 #hd4 ,functions (1 #ea4 ,pulmon>y1 #hd4 ,r5al1 #bjb4 ,to illu/rate ela/icity (1 #fb4 ,:y ela/ic1 #dh4 ,articulations1 #bcj-bcb4 ,k9ds (1 #bcj4 ,assimilation1 #ah1 #ahb4 ,a/igmatism1 #chd4 ,atlas1 #bbc4 ,atoms1 def9$1 #aje4 ,attraction sph]e1 #ae4 ,auditory canal1 #ceh4 ,auricles1 #db4 ,axis1 #bbc4 ,axis cyl9d]1 #bhd4 ,axon1 #bhc4 ,=m & l5g? (1 #bhd4 ,function (1 #cjf4 ,/ructure (1 #bhd4 ,bact]ia1 #cid4 ,ball-&-socket jo9t1 #bca4 ,basem5t membrane1 #aig4 ,basil> membrane1 #cfc4 ,ba?+1 #bgb1 #bgd4 ,biceps muscle1 action (1 #bfc4 ,bicuspids1 #adc4 ,bile1 #aed1 #aee4 ,b9ocul> vision1 #cha4 ,bl9d spot1 #cgg4 ,to prove pres5ce (1 #cij4 ,blood1 #bd-ci4 ,*anges 91 #cd4 ,*eck+ fl[ f w\nds1 #eh4 ,coagulation (1 #ca4 ,exp]im5ts )1 #cg-ci4 ,fl[ (1 h[ regulat$1 #ej4 ,functions (1 #cc4 ,hygi5e (1 #cd-cf4 ,physical prop]ties (1 #bd4 ,quantity (1 #cc4 ,supply to lungs1 #hb4 ,velocity (1 #ed4 ,:]e f\nd1 #bd4 ,blood platelets1 #be4 ,blood pressure1 #eb1 #gj4 ,blood pressure & velocity1 #eb4 ,blood vessels1 to /r5g!n1 #eg4 ,body1 organization (1 #ai4 ,bone gr\ps1 #bbc-bbi4 ,bones1 #baf-bdb4 ,adaptation (1 #bbh4 ,composition1 #bag4 ,gross /ructure (1 #bah4 ,m9ute /ructure (1 #bai4 ,obs]vation on gross /ructure1 #bda4 ,prop]ties (1 #bag4 ,table (1 #bbi4 ,to %[ composition (1 #bda4 ,to %[ m9ute /ructure (1 #bdb4 ,b[els1 rules = c>e (1 #aff4 ,bra*ial plexus1 #cjb4 ,bra91 #bhj1 #bhh-bia4 ,di/urb$ circulation1 #cbg4 ,protection (1 #bii4 ,bra9 work]s1 #djh4 ,brea?+1 see ,respiration4 ,causes ( %all[1 #ib4 ,illu/rat$1 #hg4 ,to prev5t %all[1 #ib4 ,brea?+ ex]cises1 #ic4 ,bron*us1 #hj4 ,bulb1 #bia4 ,ccum1 #aea1 #aeh4 ,calcium c>bonate1 #abb4 ,calcium phosphate1 #abb4 ,calorie1 def9$1 #abf4 ,cane sug>1 #abj4 ,can9es1 #adc4 ,capill>ies1 #ej1 #fd1 #bdi4 ,blood pressure at1 #gj4 ,functions (1 #ea4 ,"w (1 #agd4 ,c>bohydrates1 #aai1 #abe4 ,purpose s]v$ by1 #aba4 ,/orage (1 #agg4 ,te/s =1 #ace4 ,c>bon1 #acd4 ,c>bon dioxide1 ,f9al disposition (1 #aaa4 ,prep>ation1 #aae4 ,pressure1 #aaj4 ,prop]ties1 #aaj1 #aae4 ,c>diac cycle1 #df4 ,c>diac orifice1 #adg4 ,c>pals1 #bbg4 ,c>pus1 #bbh4 ,cell body1 #bhc4 ,functions (1 #cje4 ,cell-division1 #af4 ,cell nucleus1 #ad4 ,cell reproduction1 #af4 ,cell /ructure1 #ad4 ,cell surr\nd+s1 #ag4 ,cell wall1 #ae4 ,cells1 #ac-bc4 ,bone1 h[ n\ri%$1 #bbj4 ,ciliat$ epi!lial1 #ha4 ,food supply to1 #ahj4 ,g5]al "w (1 #ag4 ,importance (1 #ae4 ,passage ( mat]ials to1 #ahc4 ,relation to nutri5t fluid1 #bj4 ,specializ$1 #aig4 ,special "w (1 #ah4 ,/riat$ muscle1 #bdd4 ,c]ebellum1 #bij4 ,functions (1 #cag4 ,c]ebral functions1 localization (1 #cah4 ,c]ebral hemisph]es1 #bhi4 ,c]ebral p$uncles1 #bij4 ,c]ebrum1 #bhh4 ,functions (1 #cag4 ,*lor9e1 #ace4 ,*ole/]9e1 #aee4 ,*ord t5d9e1 #dc4 ,*oroid coat1 #cge4 ,*yme1 #aej4 ,cig>ettes1 #ccc4 ,cilia1 #ha4 ,to obs]ve1 #aja4 ,cili>y muscle1 #cge4 ,cili>y processes1 #cge4 ,circulation ( blood1 #dj-fd4 ,causes (1 #ed4 ,discov]y (1 by ,h>vey1 #dj4 ,divisions (1 #ea1 #eb4 ,effects ( ex]cise ^u1 #fc4 ,effects ( gravity ^u1 #fd4 ,9 a frog's foot1 #fd4 ,organs (1 #dj-ed4 ,r\tes to1 #agd4 ,coagulation1 ,causes (1 #ca4 ,purpose (1 #cb4 ,"t requir$ =1 #cc4 ,co*lea1 #cfb4 ,c(fee1 ,effects on complexion1 #bgd4 ,effects on dige/ion1 #afg4 ,effects on he>t1 #ef4 ,colds1 #aic4 ,s]i\s nature (1 #id4 ,to cure1 #id4 ,colon1 p>ts (1 #aeh4 ,complexion1 c>e (1 #bgc4 ,comp\nd1 def9$1 #ajd4 ,conduction pa?ways1 #bhf4 ,conductivity1 #cjd4 ,condyloid jo9t1 #bcb4 ,conjunctiva1 #cgc4 ,consumption1 see ,tub]culosis4 ,control ( art]ies1 #cai4 ,convolutions1 #bhi4 ,cord9ation1 def9$1 #bgi4 ,cornea1 #cge4 ,corpora quadrigem9a1 #bij4 ,corpora /riata1 #bhi4 ,corpus callosum1 #bhi1 #bic4 ,cortex1 #bhh1 #bid4 ,c\gh+1 #ha4 ,cranial cavity1 #g1 #bbe4 ,cranial n]ves1 #bif4 ,crura c]ebri1 #bij4 ,cry/all9e l5s1 #chj4 ,culex1 #djb4 ,cytoplasm1 #ae4 ,defects 9 focus+1 #chc4 ,de=mities ( skeleton1 #bcc-bcf4 ,correction (1 #bcf4 ,prev5tion (1 #bce4 ,deglutition1 #ade4 ,/eps 91 #adf4 ,d5drites1 #bhc1 #cjf4 ,d5t9e1 #adc4 ,d]mis1 #bfd4 ,dextrose1 #cj1 #abj1 #aej4 ,diaphragm1 #hh4 ,to illu/rate action (1 #ajb4 ,dia/ole1 #df4 ,diaxonic neuron1 #bhc4 ,diet1 "o-sid$1 #abd4 ,diffusion1 #cga4 ,dige/ion1 #acj-agb4 ,hygi5e (1 #afj4 ,nature (1 #acj4 ,n a simple process1 #aca4 ,( fat1 #aef4 ,purpose (1 #agg4 ,/oma*1 #adh4 ,dige/ive fluids1 #acb4 ,dige/ive organs1 #afj4 ,table (1 #ach4 ,dige/ive processes1 #acj1 #ada4 ,illu/rat$1 #acg4 ,diph!ria1 #id1 #dje4 ,c>e aft]1 #baa4 ,disac*>ides1 #abj4 ,disease1 #cib-dab4 ,causes (1 #cic4 ,eruptive1 #dje4 ,precautions 9 recov]y f1 #djg4 ,prev5tion (1 #cic4 ,dislocations1 #bci4 ,dorsal-root ganglia1 #bie4 ,drill1 sett+ up1 #bcg4 ,drugs1 effects (1 #ce1 #ee1 #abi1 #ccb4 ,duod5um1 #aea4 ,dura1 #bii4 ,e>1 #ceh4 ,hygi5e (1 #cfe4 ,to demon/rate1 #cfi4 ,e> drum1 #cei4 ,eff]5t neurons1 #bif4 ,elem5t1 def9$1 #ajd4 ,elevators ( ! ribs1 #hg4 ,emetics1 #aea4 ,emotional /ates1 effects (1 #ccj4 ,end bulbs1 #cdb4 ,endoc>dium1 #db4 ,endolymph1 #cfa4 ,end-plate1 #bdd4 ,end-to-end connections1 #bhf4 ,en]gy1 #ajg1 #ahf-aif4 ,bodily control (1 #aib4 ,f sun to cells1 #aia4 ,h[ plants /ore sun's1 #ahi4 ,increas+ "o's bodily1 #aid4 ,9 food & oxyg51 #aij4 ,k9ds (1 #ahf4 ,me?ods ( /or+1 #ahg1 #ahh4 ,trans=mation (1 9 muscle1 #bdh1 #bdi4 ,enzymes1 #acb1 #aee4 ,( ! tissues1 #ahd4 ,epid]mis1 #bfd1 #bff4 ,epiglottis1 #hj1 #ced4 ,epi!lium1 #aci4 ,eruptive diseases1 #dje4 ,esophagus1 #adf4 ,eu/a*ian tube1 #cei4 ,excessive read+1 #cca4 ,excitant impulse1 #cje4 ,excretion1 #aig-bac4 ,def9$1 #ah4 ,necessity =1 #bja4 ,ex]cise1 #bef1 #beg1 #cbh1 #dji4 ,g5]al rules =1 #bei4 ,results (1 #beg4 ,exhau/ion1 n]v\s1 #baa4 ,results (1 #aie4 ,ext]nal e>1 #ceh4 ,ext]nal /imuli1 action (1 #cjg4 ,eye1 #cgj-cia4 ,eyeball1 #cgc4 ,*amb]s (1 #cgg4 ,focus+ p[] (1 #cgh4 ,movem5ts (1 #cha4 ,eyelids1 #cgc4 ,eyes1 ,c>e (1 #chf4 ,removal ( =eign bodies f1 #chg1 ,/rong *emicals 91 #chh4 ,eye /ra91 #baa4 ,& disease1 #che4 ,fat1 #cj1 #adi1 #afb4 ,dige/ion (1 #aef4 ,emulsification (1 #aeg4 ,purpose s]v$ by1 #aba4 ,r\te tak5 by1 #age4 ,te/s =1 #acg4 ,:]e /or$1 #agh4 ,fatty acid1 #aef4 ,f5e/ra ovalis1 #cfa4 ,f5e/ra rotunda1 #cfc4 ,f]m5ts1 see ,enzymes4 ,fibr91 #ca4 ,fibr9 f]m5t1 #cb4 ,fibr9og51 #cj1 #ca4 ,fissures1 #bhi4 ,food1 #aag-acg4 ,advantages ( co>se1 #afg4 ,classes (1 #aah1 #aai4 ,composition (1 #abd4 ,dang]s f impure1 #afe4 ,def9$1 #aag4 ,elem5ts suppli$ by1 #acd4 ,excess ( proteid1 #bjh4 ,frequ5cy ( tak+1 #afe4 ,mat]ials1 table (1 #abf1 #abf4 ,nitrog5\s1 #aai4 ,ord] ( tak+1 #afa4 ,prep>ation (1 #afd4 ,purity (1 #abh4 ,quantity (1 #afd4 ,simple1 #aah4 ,v>iety1 #abh4 ,) ref]5ce to dige/ive *anges1 #acb4 ,foot lev]1 diagram (1 #bec4 ,foot-p\nd1 #aif4 ,foot-we>1 hygi5ic1 #bch4 ,fractures1 treatm5t (1 #bci4 ,fumigation1 #djj4 ,furniture1 s*ool1 #bcf4 ,gall bladd]1 #aed4 ,ganglia1 #bha4 ,dorsal-root1 #bie4 ,sympa!tic1 #bih4 ,ga/ric gl&s1 #adg4 ,ga/ric juice1 to illu/rate action (1 #agb4 ,gelat9e1 #bah4 ,g]m diseases1 avoidance (1 #cid4 ,g]ms1 #bi1 #cid1 #cie4 ,h[ spread1 #cie4 ,gl&s1 #aig-bac4 ,dige/ive1 #adj4 ,ductless1 #bjh4 ,excretory1 "w (1 #bja4 ,ga/ric1 #adg4 ,k9ds (1 #aig1 #aih4 ,lymphatic1 #fh1 #bjh4 ,p]spiratory1 #bjf4 ,saliv>y1 #add4 ,/ructure (1 #aig4 ,?ymus1 #bjh4 ,?yroid1 #bjh4 ,glid+ jo9t1 #bcb4 ,glottis1 #cee4 ,glycog51 #abj1 #agg4 ,grape sug>1 te/s =1 #abj1 #acf4 ,gross anatomy1 def9$1 #a4 ,gullet1 #adf4 ,gu/atory pore1 #cde4 ,gu/atory /imulus1 #cde4 ,habits1 #cae1 #ccd4 ,hair1 #bfg4 ,c>e (1 #bgf4 ,hair cells1 #cfc4 ,hair follicle1 #bfg4 ,hav]sian canals1 #bai4 ,he>+1 defective1 #cff4 ,he>t1 #da4 ,c>e (1 #ee4 ,connection ) art]ies & ve9s1 #de4 ,diff]5ce 9 p>ts (1 #dd4 ,h[ x does its "w1 #de4 ,obs]vations on1 #fj1 #fa1 #fb4 ,s\nds ( !1 #dg4 ,valves (1 #dc4 ,he>t muscle1 /ructure (1 #bdg4 ,heat & cold1 effects (1 #ccj4 ,hemoglob91 #bf4 ,hepatic art]y1 #aed4 ,hepatic ve9s1 #aed4 ,h9dbra91 #bij4 ,h+e jo9t1 #bca4 ,hi/ology1 def9$1 #a4 ,hum]us1 #bbg4 ,hyaloid membrane1 #cgh4 ,hydro*loric acid1 #adi1 #aej4 ,hydrog51 #acd4 ,hygi5e1 ,def9$1 #b4 ,g5]al aim (1 #b4 ,g5]al laws (1 #b1 #cib4 ,( dige/ion1 #afj4 ,( skeleton1 #bch4 ,relation ( physiology & anatomy to1 #c4 ,hygi5ic h\sekeep+1 #cii4 ,hypoglossal n]ves1 #bih4 ,ileo-ccal valve1 #aea4 ,ileum1 #aea4 ,images1 ,diagram illu/rat+1 #cgb4 ,=mation (1 #cga4 ,incisors1 #adc4 ,incus1 #cei4 ,infecti\s diseases1 #cid4 ,infundibula1 #hj1 #hd4 ,inhibitory impulse1 #cje4 ,insomnia1 #cbi4 ,inspiratory =ce1 #gj4 ,int]cellul> mat]ial1 production (1 #ac1 #ah4 ,int]nal e>1 #cfj4 ,inte/9al juice1 #aeb1 #aeg4 ,iris1 #cge4 ,iron1 #ace4 ,irritability1 #f1 #bdc1 #cjd4 ,isolation1 #djf4 ,jejunum1 #aea4 ,jo9ts1 #bcj-bcb1 #bdb4 ,kidneys1 #bja4 ,blood supply to1 #bjd4 ,cortex (1 #bjd4 ,inflammation (1 #baa4 ,pelvis (1 #bjb4 ,/ructure1 #bjb4 ,symptoms ( diseas$1 #baa4 ,"w (1 #bje4 ,knee j]k reflex1 #cbb4 ,la*rymal gl&s1 #chc4 ,lacteals1 "w (1 #agd4 ,lacun1 #bbj4 ,lam91 #bbj4 ,l>ge inte/9e1 #aeg4 ,division (1 #aeh4 ,"w (1 #aei4 ,l>ynx1 #hj1 #cec-ceg4 ,to %[ plan (1 #cfh4 ,lev]1 #bea4 ,application to ! body1 #bea4 ,classes (1 9 body1 #bea4 ,produc+ motion1 diagram (1 #beb4 ,to %[ action (1 #beb4 ,leucocytes1 #bg4 ,levulose1 #abj1 #aej4 ,life1 ma9t5ance (1 #bj4 ,light1 #cgj1 #cga4 ,simple prop]ties1 illu/rat$1 #chi4 ,light waves1 diagram illu/rat+ passage (1 #cgj4 ,lime wat]1 to prep>e1 #aja4 ,liv]1 #eb1 #aeb-aee1 #agh4 ,protection (1 #baj4 ,"w (1 #bjf4 ,lockjaw1 #bgf4 ,longsight$ness1 #chd4 ,lung capacity1 diagram illu/rat+1 #hi4 ,lung diseases1 out-door cure =1 #ih4 ,lungs1 #gg-ajc4 ,capacity (1 #hh4 ,*anges air und]goes 91 #aja4 ,excretory "w (1 #bjg4 ,int]*ange ( gases 91 #hh4 ,obs]vations (1 #ajj4 ,supply ( blood to1 #hb4 ,to e/imate capacity (1 #ajc4 ,weake/ portions (1 #ib4 ,lymph1 #fe-ge4 ,composition1 #ff4 ,movem5ts at ! cells1 #ga4 ,orig9 (1 #fe4 ,physical prop]ties1 #ff4 ,:]e x ent]s ! blood1 #gj4 ,lymph movem5ts1 causes (1 #fi4 ,lymph spaces1 #ff4 ,lymph vessels1 #ff4 ,v>iable pressure on ! walls (1 #gj4 ,magnesium1 #ace4 ,mal>ial fev]1 #dja4 ,malleus1 #cei4 ,malpighian capsules1 #bjc4 ,maltose1 #abj4 ,massage1 #bei4 ,ma/ication1 ,muscles (1 #add4 ,sl[1 #ade4 ,?or\gh1 #afj4 ,to %[ importance (1 #aga4 ,matrix1 #bfg4 ,measles1 #id4 ,c>e aft]1 #baa4 ,m$ian fissures1 #bhi4 ,m$ulla oblongata1 #bia4 ,m$ull>y %ea?1 #bhd4 ,membrana tympani1 #ceh4 ,membrane1 ,active1 #agc4 ,basem5t1 #aig4 ,basil>1 #cfc4 ,membran\s capsule1 #cgg4 ,membran\s labyr9?1 #cfa4 ,mes5t]y1 #aeb4 ,metac>pals1 #bbg4 ,midbra91 #bhi4 ,middle e>1 #cei4 ,purposes (1 #cfj4 ,milk sug>1 #abj4 ,m9]al salts1 #cj4 ,uses1 #aba4 ,mod]ate dr9k]s1 #ccc4 ,mol>s1 #adc4 ,molecules1 def9$1 #aje4 ,mon-axonic neuron1 diagram (1 #bhb4 ,mono-sac*>ides1 #abj4 ,mosquitoes1 #dja-djc4 ,rem$ies aga9/1 #djb4 ,m\?1 #ada4 ,movable jo9ts1 ,k9ds (1 #bca4 ,/ructure (1 #bcj4 ,muc\s membrane1 #hj1 #bfd4 ,mucus1 #aci4 ,muscle organ1 #bde4 ,muscles1 #bdc-bfc4 ,alim5t>y1 #ahi4 ,important1 #bed-bef4 ,int]co/al1 #hg4 ,( ma/ication1 #add4 ,prop]ties (1 #bdc4 ,muscul> =ce1 plan ( us+1 #bdi4 ,muscul> s5sations1 #cdd4 ,muscul> /imulus1 #bdh4 ,muscul> /imulus & contraction1 to illu/rate1 #bfa4 ,muscul> tissue1 k9ds (1 #bdc1 #bdd4 ,nails1 #bfg4 ,c>e (1 #bgf4 ,nasal duct1 #chc4 ,neck ex]cise1 #cbh4 ,n]ve cells1 #bha1 #bhb4 ,n]ve fib]s1 #bhb1 #bic1 #bid4 ,n]ve pa?1 diagram (1 #bhf4 ,n]ve pa?ways1 to demon/rate1 #cbb4 ,n]ves1 #bha4 ,n]ve skeleton1 #bhj4 ,diagram (1 #bha4 ,n]ve /imuli1 #cjf4 ,n]ve trunks1 #bha4 ,n]v\s activity1 wa/eful =ms (1 #cbe4 ,n]v\s control (1 ,body temp]ature1 #cbj4 ,circulation ( blood1 #cah4 ,respiration1 #cbj4 ,n]v\s en]gy1 economiz+ (1 #cae4 ,n]v\s impulse1 #bdh1 #cje4 ,n]v\sness1 #cbf4 ,n]v\s sy/em1 #bgi-ccg4 ,diagram (1 #bhg4 ,dissection (1 #cjb4 ,divisions (1 #bhg4 ,hygi5e (1 #cbd-ccg4 ,nature (1 #bhg4 ,physiology (1 #cjd-cbc4 ,"w (1 #bhj4 ,neural ar*1 #bbd4 ,neurilemma1 #bhd4 ,neurons1 #bha1 #bhb4 ,arrangem5t (1 #bhd1 #bic4 ,diagram1 illu/rat+1 #bhe4 ,prop]ties (1 #cjd4 ,nicot9e1 ,effects (1 #ccc4 ,relation ( age to effects1 #ccc4 ,nitrog51 #acd4 ,non-/riat$ cells1 to %[1 #bfa4 ,non-/riat$ muscles1 ,purpose (1 #bdf4 ,/ructure (1 #bdf4 ,"w (1 #bdg4 ,normal temp]ature1 #bfi4 ,noseble$1 #eh4 ,nucleoplasm1 #ad4 ,nutri5ts 7see ,foods71 ,composition (1 #ace4 ,relative quantity ne$$1 #abc4 ,r\tes tak5 by1 #age4 ,te/s =1 #acf4 ,nutrim5t1 /orage (1 #agg-ahj4 ,olfactory /imulus1 #cdg4 ,opson9s1 #cd4 ,optic ?alami1 #bhi4 ,orbit1 #cgc4 ,organ1 def9$1 #g4 ,organism1 def9$1 #ai4 ,organization1 def9$1 #aj4 ,osmosis1 #gb4 ,at ! cells1 #gb4 ,to illu/rate1 #ge4 ,osse91 #bah4 ,ov]/udy1 #baa4 ,oxidation1 def9$1 #ajf4 ,oxyg51 #ajd-aag4 ,comb9$1 #aje1 #aac4 ,free1 #aje1 #aac4 ,h[ x unites1 #aje4 ,ma9 uses (1 #ajh4 ,movem5t a necessity1 #ajf1 #ajh1 #aae4 ,movem5t 9 body1 #ajf1 #ajh1 #aae4 ,nature (1 #ajd4 ,passage (1 f cells1 #aaj4 ,passage (1 ?r\gh blood1 #aji4 ,passage (1 t[>d cells1 #aji4 ,prep>ation (1 #aac4 ,pressure1 #aji4 ,prop]ties (1 #aac4 ,purpose (1 9 ! body1 #ajf4 ,oxyhemoglob91 #bg4 ,pac9ian corpuscles1 #cdb1 #cdc4 ,to demon/rate1 #cdh4 ,pancreas1 #aee4 ,pancreatic juice1 #aee4 ,papill1 #bff4 ,pat5t m$ic9es1 #aff4 ,pelvic girdle1 #bbf4 ,peps91 #adi4 ,peptones1 #adi1 #agf4 ,p]ic>dium1 #da4 ,p]ilymph1 #cfa4 ,p]imysium1 #bde4 ,p]io/eum1 #bah4 ,p]itoneum1 #ahj4 ,p]spiration1 #bjg4 ,ph>ynx1 #ade4 ,op5+s into1 #ade1 #adf4 ,phosphorus1 #ace4 ,phr5ic n]ve1 #cjb4 ,physiological salt solution1 #ch4 ,physiology1 def9$1 #b4 ,pia1 #bii4 ,pigm5t granules1 #bff4 ,p9na1 #ceh4 ,pit*1 detection (1 #cfe4 ,pivot jo9t1 #bcb4 ,plasma1 #be1 #bi4 ,pleura1 #hd4 ,plexus1 #bha4 ,pneumonia1 #id4 ,pons1 #bij4 ,pons ,v>olii1 #bij4 ,portal ve91 #aed4 ,primitive %ea?1 #bhd4 ,proteids1 #afa4 ,circulat+1 #agi4 ,k9ds (1 #aah4 ,purposes (1 #aai4 ,suppli$ by1 #abe4 ,te/s =1 #ace1 #acf4 ,tissue1 #agi4 ,proteoses1 #adi1 #agf4 ,protoplasm1 #ad4 ,protozoa1 #cid4 ,ptyal91 #ade4 ,public sanitation1 #cif4 ,pulp cavity1 #adc4 ,pupil1 #cge4 ,pure food law1 #abh4 ,pus1 #bh1 #bi4 ,pyloric orifice1 #adg4 ,pyramids1 #bjb4 ,qu>ant9e1 #djf4 ,radius1 #bbg4 ,reaction "t1 to det]m9e1 #cbc4 ,read+ glasses1 #chf4 ,receptacle ( ! *yle1 #fh1 #agj4 ,rectum1 #aeh4 ,r$ corpuscles1 #be4 ,disappe>ance (1 #bg4 ,function (1 #bf4 ,orig9 (1 #bg4 ,to exam9e1 #ch4 ,to prep>e models (1 #ci4 ,r$ m>r[1 #bai4 ,ren=cem5t ( s\nd1 #ceb1 #cef1 #cfh4 ,reflection1 k9ds (1 #cga4 ,reflex action1 #cjh4 ,diagram illu/rat+1 #caj4 ,9 circulation ( blood1 #caa4 ,9 dige/ion1 #caj4 ,purposes (1 #caa4 ,reflex action & m9d1 #cjh4 ,reflex action pa?way1 #cji4 ,refraction1 #cga4 ,r5n91 #adi4 ,respiration1 #gf-ajc4 ,artificial1 #ig4 ,int]nal1 #hi4 ,lung1 #gf4 ,ret9a1 #cgf4 ,ret9itis1 #ccc4 ,rheumatism1 ,effects on ! he>t1 #ef4 ,sequel to o!r diseases1 #djg4 ,"r lymphatic duct1 #fg4 ,rods & cones1 #cgg4 ,rods ( ,corti1 #cfd4 ,sacrum1 #bbd4 ,saliva1 #ade4 ,composition (1 #ade4 ,uses (1 #ade4 ,to %[ action on />*1 #aga4 ,saliv>y gl&s1 #add4 ,k9ds (1 #add4 ,reflex action (1 #cbc4 ,sanitation1 def9$1 #b4 ,s>colemma1 #bdd4 ,s>coplasm1 #bdd4 ,scala m$ia1 #cfc4 ,scala tympani1 #cfc4 ,scala ve/ibula1 #cfc4 ,sc>let fev]1 c>e aft]1 #baa4 ,sciatic n]ve1 #cjb4 ,scl]otic coat1 #cgd4 ,second>y reflex action1 #cad4 ,secretions1 #aig4 ,k9ds (1 #bjj4 ,secretory process1 nature (1 #aii4 ,see+1 problem (1 #cgb4 ,self-control1 #cbf1 #ccd4 ,habit (1 #cbe4 ,semicircul> canals1 #cfb4 ,semilun> valves1 #dd4 ,s5sations1 #cch-cdi4 ,classes (1 #cci4 ,production (1 #cch1 #cdi4 ,purposes (1 #cdj4 ,special1 #cdj4 ,s5sations 7cont9u$74 ,/eps 9 production (1 #cda4 ,s5sation /imuli1 #cci4 ,s5se organs1 simple =ms (1 #cda1 #cdb ,s]\s coat1 #adj1 #adh4 ,s]\s membrane1 #bfd4 ,s]um album91 #cj4 ,s]um globul91 #cj4 ,%ortsight$ness1 #chd4 ,%\ld] girdle1 #bbf4 ,sight1 organs (1 #cgc4 ,sigmoid flexure1 #aeh4 ,simple life1 #daj4 ,skeleton1 #baf-bdc4 ,h[ de=m$1 #bcd4 ,hygi5e (1 #bcc4 ,plan (1 #bba4 ,purpose (1 #bba4 ,sk91 #bfd-bgg4 ,z regulator ( temp]ature1 #bgj4 ,exp]im5ts on1 #cdi4 ,functions (1 #bfg1 #bfh4 ,obs]vations on sk91 #bgh4 ,sk9 w\nds1 treatm5t (1 #bge4 ,skull1 #bbe4 ,sleep1 #cbi4 ,small inte/9e1 #aea4 ,muc\s membrane (1 #aea4 ,muscul> coat (1 #aeb4 ,z organ ( absorption1 #agc4 ,p>ts (1 #aea4 ,s]\s coat (1 #aeb4 ,"w (1 #aeg4 ,smell1 ,s5sation (1 #cdf4 ,value (1 #cdg4 ,sneez+1 #ha4 ,sodium1 #ace4 ,sodium c>bonate1 #aee4 ,sodium *loride1 #abb4 ,s(t palate1 #ada4 ,solution1 #aca4 ,k9ds (1 #gc4 ,solution !ory1 #aef4 ,solv5ts1 #aca4 ,s\nd1 ,to illu/rate orig9 (1 #cfg4 ,to %[ transmission (1 #cfg4 ,s\nd waves1 ,z /imuli1 #cca4 ,nature (1 #cej4 ,ren=cem5t (1 #ceb4 ,to %[ effects (1 #cfh4 ,value (1 #cec4 ,spee*1 production (1 #ceg4 ,sp9al column1 #bbc-bbe4 ,hygi5e (1 #bcc4 ,sp9al cord1 #bhj4 ,protection (1 #bii4 ,sp9al n]ves1 #bie4 ,d\ble nature (1 #bie4 ,spitt+1 #djc4 ,sple51 #bjh4 ,spra9s1 #bci1 #bdj4 ,/apes1 #cei4 ,/>*1 #afb4 ,action (1 on saliva1 #aga4 ,animal1 #abj4 ,te/s =1 #acf4 ,/eaps91 #aee1 #aef4 ,/egomyia1 #djc4 ,/]num1 #bbe4 ,/oma*1 #adg4 ,muc\s membrane (1 #adg4 ,muscul> action (1 #aej4 ,muscul> coat1 #adh4 ,s]\s coat1 #adh4 ,/orage ( nutrim5t1 #agg-agi4 ,/r5u\s life1 #daj4 ,/riat$ fib]s1 to %[1 #bfa4 ,/riat$ muscles1 to %[1 #bfa4 ,/roma1 #be4 ,sug>s1 k9ds1 #abj4 ,sulphur1 #ace4 ,supra-r5al bodies1 #bjh4 ,susp5sory ligam5t1 #cgg4 ,sutures1 #bcj4 ,sympa!tic ganglia & n]ves1 #bih4 ,"w (1 #caf4 ,synovial fluid1 #bca4 ,synovial membrane1 #bca4 ,sy/em1 def9$1 #bj4 ,sy/ole1 #df4 ,ta/e buds1 #cde4 ,tea1 ,effects on dige/ion1 #afg4 ,effects on he>t1 #ef4 ,te>s1 #chc4 ,tee?1 #adb4 ,c>e ( #afc4 ,k9ds (1 #adc4 ,temp]ature1 ,body1 #bjg4 ,corpuscles1 #bga1 #cde4 ,s5sation1 #cdc4 ,t5don ( ,a*illes1 #bef4 ,t5dons1 #bdf4 ,te/s = foods1 #acf1 #acg4 ,tetanus1 #bfb1 #bge4 ,?oracic cavity1 #g1 #he1 #ajj1 #ajb4 ,?oracic duct1 #fg1 #agj4 ,?orax1 #he4 ,bones (1 #bbe4 ,tissue enzymes1 #ahb4 ,tissues1 #d4 ,complex nature (1 #ac4 ,def9$1 #bj4 ,g5]al purposes (1 #e4 ,k9ds (1 #e1 #f4 ,obs]vations on1 #ab4 ,prop]ties (1 #f4 ,tobacco1 effect on he>t1 #ef4 ,tobacco he>t1 #ef1 #ccc4 ,tongue1 #adc4 ,tonic ba?1 #bgc4 ,t\*1 #cdc4 ,t\* corpuscles1 #cdb4 ,tox9s1 #cid4 ,tra*ea1 #hj4 ,tryps91 #aee1 #aef4 ,tub]culosis1 #ij1 #ib1 #id1 #ih4 ,h[ communicat$1 #djc4 ,outdoor treatm5t1 #ih4 ,to prev5t1 #djd4 ,tympanum1 #cei4 ,typhoid fev]1 #djd1 #djg4 ,ulna1 #bbg4 ,urea1 #aaj1 #bje1 #bjg1 #baj4 ,uret]s1 #agj4 ,ur9if]\s tubules1 #bjc4 ,vacc9ation1 #djf4 ,valves1 ,advantages (1 9 ve9s1 #di1 #fc4 ,mitral1 #dc4 ,position (1 9 ve9s1 #fc4 ,purposes (1 #di1 #fc4 ,tricuspid1 #dc4 ,ve9s1 #dg4 ,functions (1 #ea4 ,r5al1 #bjb4 ,v5tilation1 #id4 ,rules =1 #ie1 #if4 ,v5tricles1 #db4 ,to illu/rate action (1 #fb4 ,v]mi=m app5dix1 #aeh4 ,v]tebr1 #bbc-bbe4 ,int]lock+ (1 #bbe4 ,jo9+ (1 #bbd4 ,k9ds1 #bbc4 ,ve/ibule1 #cfa4 ,villi1 #aeb4 ,p>ts (1 #agc1 #agd4 ,visual p]ceptions1 #chb4 ,visual s5sations1 #chb4 ,vitre\s humor1 #cgh4 ,vocal cords1 #cee4 ,voice1 #cec-ceg4 ,h[ produc$1 #cef4 ,pit* & int5sity1 #cef4 ,volunt>y action1 #caa1 #cab4 ,volunt>y action pa?ways1 #cab4 ,vomit+1 #aea1 #aeb4 ,wa/e mat]ial1 passage f body1 #baj4 ,wa/es1 #cj4 ,wat]1 ,importance (1 #abc4 ,supply (1 #cih4 ,value (1 #baj4 ,wat]-vapor1 #bjh4 ,:ite corpuscles1 #bg1 #bh4 ,functions (1 #bi4 ,to exam9e1 #ci4 ,"w1 ,hygi5ic value (1 #cbh1 #dji4 ,worry1 #baa4 ,yell[ fev]1 #djc4 ,yell[ m>r[1 #bah4 ,yell[ spot1 #cgg4 ,,footnotes #a ,! body is affect$ by :at x does 7ex]cise1 "w1 sleep71 by ?+s tak5 into x 7food1 air1 drugs71 & by ?+s outside ( x 7! h\se 9 :i* "o lives1 climate1 etc474 ,t phase ( hygi5e :i* has = its object ! mak+ ( ! surr\nd+s ( ! body heal?ful is kn[n z sanitation4 #b ,:5 classifi$ accord+ to _! ess5tial /ructure1 ! tissues fall into f\r ma9 gr\ps3 epi!lial & gl&ul> tissue1 muscul> tissue1 n]v\s tissue1 & connective tissue4 ,accord+ to ?is sy/em ! osse\s1 c>tilag9\s1 & adipose tissues are class$ z v>ieties ( connective tissue4 ,see page #ah4 #c ,! prop]ties ( sub/ances are ! qualities or *>act]i/ics 7color1 weight1 etc47 by means ( :i* !y are recogniz$4 #d ,c]ta9 ( ^! cells also =m deposits ( fat1 giv+ rise to ! adipose1 or fatty1 tissue4 #e ,any organiz$ /ructure1 su* z ! body1 ^: p>ts are p]vad$ by a common life1 is kn[n z an organism4 ,! t]m organism is frequ5tly appli$ to ! body4 #f ,9 birds1 reptiles1 amphibians1 & fi%es ! r$ corpuscles h nuclei 7,fig4 #i74 #g ,! micron is ! unit ( microscopical measurem5ts4 ,x is equal to #a_/ajjj ( a millimet] & is indicat$ by ! symbol 4 #h ,! peculi> %ape ( ! r$ corpuscle has no d\bt "s relation to its "w4 ,its circul> =m is ( advantage 9 gett+ ?r\gh ! small blood vessels1 :ile its extreme ?9ness br+s all ( its cont5ts v ne> ! surface--a condition :i* aids ! hemoglob9 9 tak+ up oxyg54 ,if ! corpuscles 7 sph]ical 9 %ape1 "s ( ! hemoglob9 c\ld n1 on acc\nt ( ! di/ance f ! surface1 s readily unite ) ! oxyg54 #i ,! color+ matt] ( ! bile consi/s ( comp\nds =m$ by ! break+ d[n ( ! hemoglob92 ! sple5 conta9s _m l>ge cells t seem to h ! p[] fir/ ( engulf+ & lat] ( decompos+ r$ corpuscles4 ,a fur!r evid5ce t ! sple5 aids 9 ! removal ( worn-out corpuscles is f\nd 9 ! fact t dur+ diseases t cause a de/ruction ( ! r$ corpuscles1 su* z ! diff]5t =ms ( mal>ia1 ! sple5 becomes enl>g$4 #aj ,an infect$ "p ( ! body1 su* z a boil or abscess1 %\ld nev] be bruis$ or squeez$ until ! "t ( op5+4 ,pressure t5ds to break d[n ! wall ( :ite corpuscles & to spread ! infection4 ,pus f a sore conta9s g]ms & %\ld n1 on ?is acc\nt1 come 9 contact ) any "p ( ! sk94 7,see treatm5t ( sk9 w\nds1 ,*apt] ,,xvi47 #aa ,coagulation is n conf9$ to ! blood4 ,! :ite ( an egg coagulates :5 heat$ & :5 act$ ^u by c]ta9 *emicals1 & ! clabb]+ ( milk also is a coagulation4 #ab ,if ! blood be /irr$ or :ipp$ :ile x is coagulat+1 ! clot may be brok5 up & ! fibr9 sep>at$ z fa/ z x =ms4 ,! blood :i* !n rema9s consi/s ( s]um & corpuscles & w n coagulate4 ,x is kn[n z defibr9at$ blood4 #ac ,c]ta9 sub/ances1 call$ opson9s1 h rec5tly be5 %[n to exi/ 9 ! plasma1 t aid ! :ite corpuscles 9 _! "w ( de/roy+ g]ms4 ,! opson9s appe> to act 9 su* a mann] z to weak5 ! g]ms & make !m m susceptible to ! attacks ( ! :ite corpuscles4 #ad ,"s ( ! *anges 9 ! blood are v closely relat$ to our ev]yday habits & incl9ations4 ,= example1 a lack ( n\ri%m5t 9 ! blood causes hung] & ?is leads to ! tak+ ( food4 ,if ! fluids ( ! body become too d5se1 a feel+ ( ?ir/ is ar\s$ :i* prompts "o to dr9k wat]4 #ae ,met*nik(f1 ,! ,new ,hygi5e4 #af ,a physiological salt solution is prep>$ by dissolv+ 4#f ( a gram ( common salt 9 #ajj cc4 ( di/ill$ wat] or pure ci/]n wat]4 ,?is solution1 hav+ ! same d5sity z ! plasma ( ! blood1 does n act injuri\sly ^u ! corpuscles4 #ag ,! t]m circulation lit]ally means mov+ 9 a circle4 ,:ile ! blood does n move ?r\gh ! body 9 a circle1 ! t]m is ju/ifi$ by ! fact t ! blood fl[s out cont9ually f a s+le po9t1 ! he>t1 & to ?is po9t is cont9ually return+4 #ah ,! he>t at fir/ glance seems to be> little resemblance to ! pumps 9 common use4 ,:5 x is rememb]$1 h[ev]1 t any contrivance :i* moves a fluid by v>y+ ! size ( a cavity is a pump1 x is se5 t n only ! he>t1 b ! *e/ 9 brea?+ & also ! m\? 9 suck+ a liquid ?r\gh a tube1 are pumps 9 pr9ciple4 ,! ord9>y syr+e bulb illu/rates ! class ( pumps to :i* ! he>t belongs4 7,see ,practical ,"w47 #ai ,! contraction ( ! he>t is kn[n z ! sy/ole & its relaxation z ! dia/ole4 ,! sy/ole plus ! dia/ole =ms ! s-call$ c>diac cycle 7,fig4 #ah74 ,?is consi/s ( 7#a7 ! contraction ( ! auricles1 7#b7 ! contraction ( ! v5tricles1 & 7#c7 ! p]iod ( re/4 ,! he>t sy/ole includes ! contraction ( bo? ! auricles & ! v5tricles4 #bj ,m>t91 ,! ,human ,body4 #ba ,! pressure ma9ta9$ by ! left v5tricle has be5 e/imat$ to be ne>ly ?ree & "o half p\nds to ! squ>e in*--a pressure suffici5t to su/a9 a column ( wat] eight feet high4 ,! pressure ma9ta9$ by ! "r v5tricle is ab\t "o ?ird z great4 ,9 ma9ta9+ ?is pressure ! he>t does a "w equal to ab\t "o two-hundr$? ( a horse p[]4 #bb ,! location ( ! he>t 9 ! ?oracic cavity causes movem5ts ( ! *e/ walls to draw blood into ! "r auricle = ! same reason t !y draw air into ! lungs4 #bc ,active ex]cise ?r\gh %ort int]vals1 foll[$ by p]iods ( re/1 su* z ! ex]cise furni%$ by climb+ /airs1 or by %ort runs1 is consid]$ ! be/ means ( /r5g!n+ ! he>t4 #bd ,noseble$ 9 connection ) any k9d ( sev]e sickness %\ld receive prompt att5tion1 s9ce a consid]able loss ( blood :5 ! body is already weak may s]i\sly delay recov]y4 #be ,newton1 ,practical ,hygi5e4 #bf ,on acc\nt ( its position 9 ! body1 ! lymph is n easily collect$ = exam9ation4 ,/ill1 ne>ly e "o w recall "s exp]i5ce t has enabl$ him to see lymph4 ,! liquid 9 a wat] bli/] is lymph1 & s also is ! liquid :i* oozes f ! sk9 :5 x is scrap$ or slightly scrat*$4 ,swell+ 9 any "p ( ! body is due to ! accumulation ( lymph at t place4 #bg ,9 c]ta9 small animals ( ! l[e/ types a s+le liquid1 s]v+ z a m$ium ( ex*ange betwe5 ! cells & ! body surface1 supplies all ! ne$s ( ! organism4 ,9 l>g] animals1 h[ev]1 :]e mat]ials h to be mov$ f "o "p ( ! cell gr\p to ano!r1 a portion ( ! nutri5t fluid is us$ = purposes ( transportation4 ,?is is conf9$ 9 *annels :]e x is set 9 motion by suitable organs4 ,! portion :i* rema9s outside ( ! *annels !n transf]s mat]ial betwe5 ! cells1 on ! "o h&1 & ! mov+ liquid1 on ! o!r4 #bh ,surgeons 9 op5+ ve9s ne> ! ?oracic cavity h to be on _! gu>d to prev5t air f be+ suck$ into !m1 !reby caus+ dea?4 #bi ,oxyg5 =ms ab\t #ba p] c5t ( ! atmosph]e1 nitrog5 ab\t #gh p] c5t1 c>bon dioxide ab\t 4#jc p] c5t1 & ! rec5tly discov]$ elem5t argon ab\t #a p] c5t4 ,! oxyg5 is 9 a free1 or uncomb9$1 condition--! =m 9 :i* x c be us$ 9 ! body4 #cj ,! peculi> "w devolv+ ^u ! organs ( respiration necessitates a special plan ( con/ruction--"o adapt$ to ! prop]ties ( ! atmosph]e4 ,be+ conc]n$ 9 ! movem5t ( air1 a gase\s sub/ance1 !y w naturally h a /ructure diff]5t f ! organs ( circulation :i* move a liquid 7! blood74 ,all ! organs ( ! body are adapt$ by _! /ructure to ! "w :i* !y p]=m4 #ca ,9 ord9>y inspirations ! =ce t causes ! air to move ?r\gh ! passages is sc>cely an ounce to ! squ>e in*1 :ile 9 =c$ inspirations x does n exce$ half a p\nd4 ,on ?is acc\nt ! clos+ ( any ( ! air passages by pressure1 or by ! pres5ce ( =eign sub/ances1 w\ld keep ! air f rea*+ "s "p ( ! lungs4 #cb ,c\gh+1 :i* is a =ceful expulsion ( air1 has = its purpose ! ejection ( =eign sub/ances f ! ?roat & lungs4 ,sneez+1 on ! o!r h&1 has = its purpose ! cleans+ ( ! no/rils4 ,9 c\gh+1 ! air is expell$ ?r\gh ! m\?1 :ile 9 sneez+ x is expell$ ?r\gh ! no/rils4 #cc ,! am\nt ( du/ susp5d$ 9 :at we ord9>ily ?9k ( z pure air is %[n :5 a beam ( direct sunlight ent]s an o!rwise d>k5$ room4 #cd ,"s *ildr5 f9d x difficult to brea! ?r\gh ! no/rils on acc\nt ( gr[?s 7call$ ad5oids7 9 ! upp] ph>ynx4 ,su* *ildr5 %\ld h m$ical att5tion4 ,! removal ( ^! gr[?s n only improves ! me?od ( brea?+1 b 9 _m in/ances causes a m>k$ improvem5t 9 ! g5]al heal? & p]sonal appe>ance4 #ce ,! weake/ portions ( ! lungs appe> to be ! t9y lobes at ! top4 ,z !y occupy ! "p ( ! ?orax mo/ difficult to exp&1 air p5etrates !m mu* less freely ?an x does ! lobes bel[4 ,9 mo/ cases ( consumption 7"s au?orities give z high z eighty p] c5t71 ! upp] lobes are ! fir/ to be affect$4 ,flat *e/s & r\nd %\ld]s1 by increas+ ?is natural difficulty 9 brea?+1 h long be5 recogniz$ z causes :i* pr$ispose to consumption4 #cf ,! foll[+ ex]cise1 f ,dudley ,a4 ,s>g5t's ,heal?1 ,/r5g?1 & ,p[]1 w be f\nd mo/ b5eficial3 ,/& ) ! feet toge!r1 face d[nw>d1 arms ext5d$ d[nw>d1 & backs ( ! h&s t\*+4 ,raise ! h&s1 arms1 & elb[s1 keep+ ! backs ( ! h&s toge!r until !y pass ! *e/ & face4 ,!n cont9ue ! movem5t upw>d1 until ! h&s sep>ate above ! head ) ! face turn$ upw>d1 :5 !y %\ld be br\ght d[nw>d & outw>d 9 a l>ge circle to ! />t+ po9t4 ,beg9 to inhale z ! arms are rais$ & take 9 z mu* air z possible by ! "t ! h&s are above ! head1 !n all[ ! brea? to g out sl[ly z ! arms desc5d4 #cg ,colds may frequ5tly be brok5 up at _! beg9n+ by tak+ a prolong$ hot ba? & go+ to b$4 ,aft] gett+ a />t1 h[ev]1 !y run a c\rse ( a few days1 a week1 or long]1 dep5d+ ^u ! natural vigor ( ! individual & ! c>e :i* he gives 8 body dur+ ! "t4 ,9 ?r[+ (f a cold1 ! foll[+ sugge/ions w be f\nd helpful3 #a4 ,dress w>mly 7)\t ov]do+ x7 & avoid gett+ *ill$4 #b4 ,dim9i% ! usual am\nt ( "w & increase ! p]iod = sleep4 ,if v weak1 /ay 9 b$4 ,save ! en]gy = ?r[+ (f ! cold4 #c4 ,if able to be ab\t1 sp5d consid]able "t 9 light ex]cise out ( doors1 b avoid gett+ *ill$4 #d4 ,keep ! b[els active1 tak+ a ca?>tic if necess>y4 #e4 ,to relieve pa9 9 ! *e/1 apply a mu/>d pla/] or a flannel clo? moi/5$ ) "s irritat+ sub/ance1 su* z turp5t9e or a mixture ( equal p>ts ( k]os5e & l>d4 ,keep up a mild irritation until ! pa9 is reliev$1 b avoid bli/]+4 #ch ,n only d ! lungs remove oxyg5 f ! air & add c>bon dioxide to x1 b !y sep>ate f ! body consid]able moi/ure &1 accord+ to "s au?orities1 a small am\nt ( an impurity ref]r$ to z animal matt]4 ,odors also arise f ! sk91 tee?1 & clo?+ :i*1 if n dang]\s to ! heal?1 are (f5sive to ! no/rils4 ,if on go+ into a room su* odors are detect$1 ! v5tilation is n suffici5t4 ,?is is said to be a reliable te/4 #ci ,e4,a4 ,s*aff]1 ,artificial ,respiration 9 its ,physiologic ,aspects1 ,! ,j\rnal ( ! ,am]ican ,m$ical ,association1 ,septemb]1 #aijh4 #dj ,te/+ ! prone-po/ure me?od by suitable app>atus1 ,pr(essor ,s*aff] has f\nd x capable ( introduc+ m air p] m9ute into ! lungs ?an any ( ! o!r me?ods ( artificial respiration1 & m ev5 ?an is introduc$ by ord9>y brea?+4 #da ,osi]1 ,! ,pr9ciples & ,practice ( ,m$ic9e4 #db ,hub]1 ,consumption & ,civilization4 #dc ,to prep>e limewat] "s small lumps ( fre% lime 7ei!r slack$ or unslack$7 are add$ to a l>ge bottle ( wat] & ?or\ghly %ak54 ,?is is put aside until ! lime all settles to ! bottom & ! wat] above is p]fectly cle>4 ,?is is n[ ready = use & may be p\r$ (f z ne$$4 ,:5 ! supply is exhau/$ add m wat] & %ake aga94 #dd ,an elem5t is a s+le k9d ( matt]4 ,^? sub/ances are class$ z elem5ts :i* _c be sep>at$ into diff]5t k9ds ( matt]4 ,two or m elem5ts comb9$ 9 def9ite proportions by weight =m a comp\nd4 ,! elem5ts are few 9 numb]1 only ab\t eighty be+ kn[n4 ,comp\nds1 on ! o!r h&1 are exce$+ly num]\s4 #de ,! t]m en]gy1 z us$ "h1 has ! same g5]al mean+ z ! ^w p[]4 ,see ,*apt] ,,xii4 #df ,! oxyg5 pressure ( ! atmosph]e is t portion ( ! total atmosph]ic pressure :i* is due to ! weight ( ! oxyg54 ,s9ce oxyg5 comprises ab\t "o fif? ( ! atmosph]e1 ! pressure :i* x ex]ts is ab\t "o fif? ( ! total atmosph]ic pressure1 or1 at ! sea level1 ab\t ?ree p\nds to ! squ>e in* 7#ae x #a_/e #c74 ,?is is ! oxyg5 pressure ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! l[ oxyg5 pressure 9 ! tissues is due to its sc>city1 & ?is sc>city is due to its ent]+ into comb9ation at ! cells4 #dg ,see footnote on oxyg5 pressure1 page #aji4 #dh ,! impression prevails to "s ext5t t c>bon dioxide1 on acc\nt ( its weight1 settles out ( ! atmosph]e1 collect+ 9 old wells & at ! floor 9 cr[d$ rooms4 ,any su* settl+ ( ! c>bon dioxide is prev5t$ by ! rapid motion ( its molecules4 ,?is motion n only prev5ts a sep>ation ( c>bon dioxide & air aft] !y are mix$1 b causes !m to mix rapidly :5 !y are sep>at$1 if !y /ill h surface contact4 ,! c>bon dioxide f\nd 9 old wells is =m$ !re by decay+ vegetable or animal matt]4 ,9 rooms x is no m abundant at ! floor ?an 9 o!r p>ts4 #di ,on acc\nt ( ! =mation ( c>bon dioxide 9 places conta9+ decay+ mat]ial1 ! desc5t into an old well or o!r op5+ into ! e>? is (t5 a haz>d\s und]tak+4 ,be=e mak+ su* a desc5t ! air %\ld always be te/$ by l[]+ a light$ lant]n or c&le4 ,artificial respiration is ! only means ( re/or+ "o :o has be5 ov]come by ?is gas 7page #ig74 #ej ,:ile await+ oxidation at ! cells1 ! c>bohydrates & fats are /or$ up by ! body1 ! c>bohydrates z glycog5 & ! fats z "s =m ( fat4 ,9 ?is s5se !y are sometimes look$ ^u z s]v+ to build up c]ta9 ( ! tissues4 #ea ,! foll[+ table %[s ! ma9 elem5ts 9 ! body & _! relation to ! diff]5t nutri5ts3 ,nutri5t ,table #eb ,! rec5tly advanc$ !ory t ! molecules ( ! m9]al salts1 by dissolv+ 9 wat]1 sep>ate into small] divisions1 "p ( :i* are *>g$ ) positive electricity & "p ) negative electricity1 has sugge/$ sev]al possible uses = sodium *loride & o!r m9]al salts 9 ! body4 ,! sodium *loride 9 ! tissues is 9 su* conc5tration z to be practically all sep>at$ into its sodium & *lor9e p>ticles1 or ions4 ,x has rec5tly be5 %[n t ! sodium ions are necess>y = ! contraction ( ! muscles1 includ+ ! muscles ( ! he>t4 ,!re is also reason = believ+ t ! diff]5t ions may ent] into tempor>y comb9ation ) food p>ticles1 & 9 ?is way assi/ 9 ! processes ( nutrition4 #ec ,*itt5d51 ,! ,nutrition ( ,man4 #ed ,compil$ f diff]5t s\rces1 b ma9ly f ,atwat]'s ,foods3 ,nutritive ,value & ,co/1 publi%$ by ! ,u4,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture4 #ee ,! calorie is ! adopt$ heat unit4 ,z us$ 9 ?is table x may be def9$ z ! quantity ( heat requir$ to raise #a kilogram 7#b4b p\nds7 ( wat]1 #a degree c5tigrade4 ,! calories also %[ ! relative am\nt ( en]gy suppli$ by ! diff]5t foods4 #ef ,:ile alcohol _c be class$ z a food1 x is believ$ by "s au?orities to conta9 food value &1 9 ! h&s ( ! physician1 to be a sub/ance capable ( r5d]+ an actual s]vice 9 ! treatm5t ( c]ta9 diseases4 ,x might1 = example1 be us$ :]e "o's p[] ( dige/ion is greatly impair$1 s9ce alcohol requires no dige/ion4 ,b ^u ?is po9t !re is a decid$ diff]5ce ( op9ion4 ,c]ta9 x is t no "o %\ld attempt to use alcohol z food or m$ic9e except "u ! advice & direction ( 8 physician4 #eg ,a lay] ( connective tissue betwe5 ! muc\s membrane & ! muscul> coat is usually ref]r$ to z ! submuc\s coat4 ,?is conta9s num]\s blood vessels & n]ves & b9ds ! muscul> coat to ! muc\s membrane4 #eh ,! saliva may cont9ue to act = a consid]able "t aft] ! food ent]s ! /oma*4 ,c>eful exam9ation ( ! cont5ts ( ! fundus 7l>ge end ( ! /oma*7 by ,cannon & ,day has %[n t no inconsid]able am\nt ( saliv>y dige/ion occurs 9 ! /oma*4--,,fis*]1 ,! ,physiology ( ,alim5tation4 #ei ,p]haps ! simple/ me?od ( induc+ vomit+ is t ( ?ru/+ a f+] d[n ! ?roat4 ,to make ?is me?od effective ! f+] %\ld be held 9 ! ?roat until ! vomit+ beg9s4 ,an emetic1 su* z a glass ( lukew>m salt wat] conta9+ a teaspoonful ( mu/>d1 %\ld also be tak51 &1 9 ! case ( hav+ swall[$ poison1 ! vomit+ %\ld be repeat$ sev]al times4 ,x may ev5 be advantage\s to dr9k wat] & !n vomit x up 9 ord] to wa% out ! /oma*4 #fj ,hamm]/e91 ,text-book ( ,physiological ,*emi/ry4 #fa ,amylops9 is abs5t f ! pancreatic juice ( infants1 a condition :i* %[s t milk & n />* is _! natural food4 #fb ,! fact t butt] is m easily dige/$ ?an o!r fatty sub/ances is probably due to its consi/+ l>gely ( a k9d ( fat :i*1 on splitt+1 =ms a fatty acid 7butyric7 :i* is soluble 9 wat]4 #fc ,fis*]1 ,physiology ( ,alim5tation4 #fd ,beg9n+ ! meal ) a little s\p1 z is frequ5tly done1 may be ( slight advantage 9 /imulat+ ! dige/ive gl&s4 ,to s]ve ?is purpose1 h[ev]1 & n int]f]e ) ! meal prop]1 x %\ld conta9 little greasy or />*y mat]ial & %\ld be tak5 9 small am\nt4 #fe ,dr4 ,william ,beaumont1 an ,am]ican surgeon ( ! la/ c5tury1 made a s]ies ( obs]vations ^u a human /oma* 7t ( ,alexis ,/4 ,m>t97 hav+ an artificial op5+1 ! result ( a gun%ot w\nd4 ,mu* ( our k ( ! dige/ion ( diff]5t foods 0 obta9$ ?r\gh ^! obs]vations4 ,9 spite ( ! prote/s ( 8 physician1 ,/4 ,m>t9 w\ld occasionally indulge 9 /rong dr9k & always ) ! same result--! l9+ ( ! /oma* became mu* inflam$ & v s5sitive1 & ! natural processes ( dige/ion 7 tempor>ily susp5d$4 #ff ,! lacteals 7f ! ,lat9 lacteus1 milky7 are s call$ on acc\nt ( _! appe>ance1 :i* is :ite1 or milk-l1 due to ! fat droplets4 #fg ,peptones & proteoses1 :5 inject$ directly into ! blood1 are f\nd to act z poisons4 #fh ,! soluble d\ble sug>s 7maltose1 milk sug>1 & cane sug>7 are r$uc$ to ! simple sug>s 7dextrose & levulose74 ,fur!rmore ! action on ! proteids does n /op ) ! production ( peptones & proteoses1 b ^! 9 turn are /ill fur!r r$uc$4 #fi ,en]gy1 :i* is def9$ z ! ability to d "w1 or to cause motion1 exi/s 9 two g5]al types1 or =ms1 kn[n z k9etic en]gy & z pot5tial en]gy4 ,k9etic en]gy is en]gy at "w1 or en]gy 9 ! act ( produc+ motion2 :ile pot5tial en]gy is res]ve1 or /or$1 en]gy4 ,all mov+ bodies h k9etic en]gy1 & all /ation>y bodies :i* h )9 !m ! capability ( caus+ motion possess pot5tial en]gy4 ,a b5t b[1 a piece ( /ret*$ rubb]1 a susp5d$ weight1 ! wat] above a mill dam1 all h ! capability ( caus+ motion & all h pot5tial en]gy4 ,examples ( k9etic en]gy are f\nd 9 ! movem5ts ( ma*9]y1 9 /eam & electricity1 9 w9ds1 & 9 curr5ts ( wat]4 ,k9etic is ! active1 & pot5tial ! inactive1 =m ( en]gy4 #gj ,z ! atoms ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 t make up ! molecules ( wat] sep>ate1 !y unite ) atoms ( _! own k9d--! hydrog5 ) hydrog5 & ! oxyg5 ) oxyg5 atoms4 ,s9ce ^! comb9ations are weak] ?an ^? ( ! wat] molecules1 en]gy is requir$ to br+ ab\t ! *ange4 ,b :5 hydrog5 burns 9 ! oxyg51 ! *ange is f a weak] to a /rong] comb9ation4 ,! /or$-up en]gy is !n giv5 up or becomes active4 #ga ,9 ! evaporation ( wat]1 ! en]gy ( ! sun is /or$ ) ref]5ce to ! =ce ( gravity4 ,9 evaporat+1 wat] rises z a gas1 or vapor1 above ! e>?'s surface1 b on cond5s+ into a liquid1 x falls z ra94 ,x !n f9ds its way ?r\gh /reams back to ! ocean4 ,all wat] above ! sea level is 9 su* a position t gravity c act on x to cause motion1 & x possesses1 on ?is acc\nt1 pot5tial or /or$-up en]gy4 ,x is because ( ?is en]gy t rapids & wat]falls are su* important s\rces ( p[]4 #gb ,en]gy1 l matt]1 c nei!r be creat$ nor de/roy$4 ,x c1 h[ev]1 be transf]r$ f "o body to ano!r & trans=m$ f "o =m to ano!r =m4 ,:5ev] "w is done1 en]gy is transf]r$ f ! body do+ ! "w1 to ! body ^u :i* ! "w is done4 ,dur+ ?is process !re may1 or may n1 be a trans=mation ( en]gy4 ,9 turn+ a gr9d/one1 k9etic en]gy is pass$ to ! /one & us$ )\t trans=mation1 b 9 w9d+ a clock1 ! k9etic en]gy f ! h& is trans=m$ into pot5tial en]gy 9 ! clock spr+4 ,!n z ! clock runs d[n ?is is retrans=m$ into k9etic en]gy1 caus+ ! movem5ts ( ! :eels4 ,n only is k9etic trans=m$ into pot5tial en]gy & vice v]sa1 b ! diff]5t =ms ( k9etic en]gy 7heat1 light1 electricity1 s\nd1 & me*anical motion7 are readily trans=m$ ! "o into ! o!r4 ,) suitable devices1 me*anical motion c be *ang$ into heat1 s\nd1 or electricity2 heat into motion & light2 & electricity into all ! o!r =ms ( en]gy4 ,^! trans=mations are readily expla9$ by ! fact t ! diff]5t v>ieties ( k9etic en]gy are b diff]5t =ms ( motion 7,fig4 #hd74 #gc ,! simple/ arrangem5t ( ! p>ts ( a gl& is t :]e !y are spread ov] a pla9 surface4 ,?is arrangem5t is f\nd 9 s]\s membranes1 su* z ! pleura & p]itoneum4 ,^! membranes1 h[ev]1 are n call$ gl&s1 b secret+ surfaces4 #gd ,9 ! oxidations t occur 9 ! body x is n suppos$ t ! nutri5ts are imm$iately conv]t$ to c>bon dioxide1 wat]1 & urea4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is held t _! r$uction takes place gradually1 z ! r$uction ( sug> by f]m5tation1 & t ! wa/es leav+ ! body are b ! end products & %[ only ! f9al results4 #ge ,alcohol1 if us$ 9 consid]able quantity1 leads to cirrhosis ( ! liv] & ,bright's disease ( ! kidneys1 bo? v dang]\s diseases4 ,dr4 ,william ,osl] 9 8 treatise1 ,! ,practice ( ,m$ic9e1 /ates t alcohol is ! *ief cause ( cirrhosis ( ! liv]4 ,dr4 ,t4,n4 ,bog>t1 speciali/ 9 kidney diseases1 ass]ts t "o ?ird ( all ! cases ( ,bright's disease com+ "u 8 obs]vation are caus$ by alcohol4 #gf ,hall1 ,! ,pur9 ,bodies4 #gg ,review ,ma9 ,physiological ,problems1 page #ba4 #gh ,9 ! production ( motion 9 ! body1 z well z 9 ! production ( any k9d ( purposeful motion outside ( ! body1 ?ree conditions mu/ be fulfill$4 ,!re is requir$1 9 ! fir/ place1 a me*anical device or ma*9e :i* is s con/ruct$ z to produce a c]ta9 k9d ( motion4 ,9 ! second place1 en]gy is ne$$ to op]ate ?is device4 ,&1 f9ally1 !re mu/ be "s controll+ =ce1 by means ( :i* ! motion is made to accompli% def9ite results4 ,! driv+ ( a horse hit*$ to a wagon w illu/rate ^! conditions4 ,! wagon is ! me*anical device1 ! horse furni%es ! en]gy1 & ! driv] supplies ! controll+ =ce4 ,9 ?is1 z 9 mo/ cases1 ! ma*9]y1 ! s\rce ( en]gy1 & ! controll+ =ce are disconnect$ except :5 at "w2 b 9 ! body all ?ree occur toge!r 9 ! same /ructure4 #gi ,! dep5d5ce ( ! out] lay]s ( bone cells ^u ! p]io/eum = n\ri%m5t causes a de/ruction ( ?is membrane to affect s]i\sly ! bone b5ea?1 produc+ 9 _m in/ances a decay ( ! bone sub/ance4 #hj ,x has be5 claim$ t ! introduction ( v]tical writ+ has r$uc$ ! numb] ( cases ( sp9al curvature orig9at+ 9 ! s*oolroom1 & /ati/ics appe> to prove ! claim4 ,x is %[n1 on ! o!r h&1 t unnatural positions also are unnecess>y 9 ! slant+ sy/em ( writ+1 & t 9 ei!r sy/em ! pupil :o is p]mitt$ to d s is liable to assume an improp] position4 #ha ,lovett1 ,lat]al ,curvature ( ! ,sp9e & ,r\nd ,%\ld]s4 #hb ,see ,hygi5e ( ,muscles1 ,*apt] ,,xv4 #hc ,on acc\nt ( ! /riations ( ^! cells ! muscles :i* !y =m are call$ /riat$ muscles4 #hd ,! /riat$ muscle cells1 hav+ _m nuclei1 are said to be multi-nucleat$4 #he ,e movem5t 9 ! body has its oppos+ movem5t4 ,?is is necess>y bo? on acc\nt ( ! "w to be accompli%$ & = pres]v+ ! natural =m ( ! body4 #hf ,! di/ance f ! fulcrum to ! p[] is call$ ! p[]-arm & ! di/ance f ! fulcrum to ! weight is call$ ! weight-arm 7,fig4 #aae74 #hg ,! foot 9 lift+ ! body on tiptoe appe>s at fir/ ?\ght to be a lev] ( ! second class1 ! body be+ ! weight & ! toe s]v+ z ! fulcrum4 ,h[ev]1 if ! di/ance :i* ! body is rais$ is comp>$ ) ! di/ance :i* ! muscle %ort5s1 x is f\nd t ! suppos$ weight has mov$ f>!r ?an ! p[] 7,fig4 #aah74 ,x w also be not$ t ! muscle :i* furni%es ! p[] is atta*$ at its upp] end to ! weight4 ,^! facts %[ cle>ly t we are n "h deal+ ) a lev] ( ! second class4 ,! foot 9 ?is in/ance acts z a lev] ( ! fir/ class ) ! fulcrum at ! ankle jo9t & ! toe press+ aga9/ ! e>?1 :i* is ! actual weight4 ,s9ce ! e>? is immovable1 ! body is lift$ or pu%$ upw>d1 some:at z a fulcrum support is made to move :5 x is too weak to hold up ! weight t is be+ lift$4 ,9 o!r words1 we h ! same lev] action 9 ! foot 9 lift+ ! body z we h :5 "o lies face d[nw>d1 &1 b5d+ ! knee1 lifts "s object on ! toes4 #hh ,walk+ is consid]$ "o ( ! v be/ =ms ( c\nt]-active ex]cise = ! bra9 work] 7page #cbh74 #hi ,! epid]mis does n af=d complete protection aga9/ *emicals1 _m ( !m be+ able to de/roy x quickly4 ,! rule ( wa%+ ! sk9 imm$iately aft] contact ) /rong *emical ag5ts %\ld always be foll[$4 #ij ,r\gh calculations h plac$ ! numb] ( sweat gl&s on ! entire body at ab\t #b1jjj1jjj4 ,rettg]1 ,/udies 9 ,advanc$ ,physiology4 #ia ,heat also leaves ! body by ! lungs1 p>tly by ! respir$ air & p>tly ?r\gh ! evaporation ( moi/ure f ! lung surfaces4 ,respiration 9 "s animals1 z ! dog1 is ! *ief means ( cool+ ! body4 #ib ,! /ory is told ( "s woodsm5 :o 7 ov]tak5 by a sev]e sn[/orm & _h to sp5d ! night away f camp2 !y _h a bottle ( :isky1 &1 *ill$ to ! bone1 "s imbib$ freely :ile o!rs refus$ to dr9k4 ,^? :o drank soon felt com=table & w5t to sleep 9 _! improvis$ %elt]2 ^? :o did n dr9k felt v uncom=table ?r\gh\t ! night & c\ld get no sleep1 b 9 ! morn+ !y 7 alive & able to /ruggle back to camp1 :ile _! companions :o _h us$ alcohol 7 froz5 to dea?4444 ,?is1 if true1 0 ( c\rse an extreme case2 b x accords ) ! univ]sal exp]i5ce ( arctic travel]s & ( lumb]m5 & hunt]s 9 ! nor!rn woods1 t ! use ( alcohol dur+ exposure to cold1 al?\gh contribut+ greatly to "o's com=t = ! "t be+1 is g5]ally foll[$ by undesirable or dang]\s results4--,,h\gh ,,& ,,s$gwick3 ,! ,elem5ts ( ,hygi5e & ,sanitation4 #ic ,foods t are difficult to dige/1 or :i* cause di/urbances ( ! dige/ive organs 7a coat$ tongue be+ "o indication71 h a bad effect ^u ! sk94 ,x is 9 ?is way t ! use ( tea & c(fee by "s p induces a sall[ or muddy condition ( ! complexion4 #id ,a mo/ valuable antiseptic o9tm5t is prep>$ by ! druggi/ f ! foll[+ =mula3 ,lanol91 #be grams4 ,i*?yol1 #f grams4 ,yell[ vasel9e1 #bj grams4 ,?is is appli$ z a ?9 lay] on ! surface1 except 9 ! case ( boils or abscesses4 ,9 treat+ ^! a heavy lay] is spread ov] ! affect$ "p & !n cov]$ ) absorb5t cotton or a ?9 piece ( clean cotton clo?4 #ie ,9 a l>g] s5se adju/m5t includes all ^? activities by means ( :i* ! body is br\ght into prop] relations ) its environm5t1 includ+ ! *anges :i* ! body makes 9 its surr\nd+s to adapt !m to its purposes4 #if ,almo/ to ! pres5t "t1 physiologi/s h describ$ ! n]v\s sy/em z be+ made up ( two k9ds ( /ructural elem5ts :i* 7 call$ n]ve cells & n]ve fib]s4 ,! n]ve cells 7 suppos$ to =m ! ganglia & ! fib]s to =m ! n]ves4 ,rec5t inve/igators1 h[ev]1 employ+ new me?ods ( microscopic /udy1 h e/abli%$ ! fact t ! s-call$ n]ve cell & n]ve fib] are b two divisions ( ! same ?+ & t ! n]v\s sy/em is made up (1 n two1 b "o k9d ( /ructural elem5t4 ,! t]m neuron is us$ to d5ote ?is /ructural elem5t1 or complete n]ve cell4 #ig ,_m ( ! axons 9 ! bra9 & sp9al cord h no primitive %ea?4 ,axons )\t ! m$ull>y %ea? are f\nd 9 ! sympa!tic n]ves4 ,^! are kn[n z non-m$ullat$ axons & !y h a gray in/ead ( a :ite color4 #ih ,! diff]5ce 9 weight betwe5 ! bra9 ( man & t ( woman is due ma9ly to ! fact t man's body is1 z a rule1 consid]ably l>g] ?an t ( woman's4 #ii ,! n]v\s tissues pres5t1 at diff]5t places1 two colors--"o :ite1 & ! o!r a light gray4 ,great significance 0 =m]ly atta*$ to ^! colors1 because x 0 suppos$ t !y repres5t$ two ess5tially diff]5t k9ds ( n]v\s matt]4 ,x is n[ kn[n t ! protoplasm 9 all p>ts ( ! neuron prop]--cell-body1 axis cyl9d]1 & d5drites--has a grayi% color1 :ile ! cov]+s ( mo/ ( ! fib]s are :ite4 ,h5ce gray matt] 9 any "p ( ! n]v\s sy/em indicates ! pres5ce ( cell-bodies1 & :ite matt] ! pres5ce ( n]ve fib]s4 #ajj ,9 v e>ly life ! sp9al cord entirely fills ! sp9al cavity1 b z ! body develops ! cord gr[s less rapidly ?an ! sp9al column1 &1 z a consequ5ce1 sep>ates at ! l[] end f ! inclos+ bony column4 #aja ,fib]s pass+ betwe5 ! sp9al cord & ! c]ebrum cross to opposite sides--mo/ ( !m at ! bulb1 b _m )9 ! cord--s t ! "r side ( ! c]ebrum is connect$ ) ! left side ( ! body1 & vice v]sa4 ,?is acc\nts = ! obs]v$ fact t disease or accid5tal injury ( "o side ( ! c]ebrum causes loss ( motion or ( feel+ 9 ! opposite side ( ! body4 #ajb ,9 g5]al1 aff]5t neurons or fib]s are ^? t convey impulses t[>d ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em 7bra9 & cord71 :ile eff]5t neurons or fib]s are ^? t convey impulses f ! c5tral sy/em4 #ajc ,at diff]5t times ! n]v\s impulse has be5 reg>d$ z a curr5t ( electricity2 z a progressive *emical *ange1 lik5$ to t 9 a burn+ fuse2 z a me*anical vibration1 su* z may be pass$ ov] a /ret*$ rope2 & z a molecul> di/urbance accompani$ by an electrical dis*>ge4 ,! velocity ( ! n]v\s impulse1 :i* is only ab\t "o hundr$ feet p] second1 proves t x is n a curr5t ( electricity4 ,x takes place ) little or no exhau/ion ( ! cell protoplasm & consequ5tly is n due to *emical action4 ,& ! loose1 relax$ condition ( ! n]ves prev5ts _! transmission ( physical vibrations1 l ^? on a /ret*$ rope4 ,! view t ! impulse is a progressive molecul> di/urbance1 accompani$ by an electrical dis*>ge1 has mu* evid5ce 9 its favor1 b x has only rec5tly be5 propos$ & is likely to be modifi$ ^u full] inve/igation4 #ajd ,! surface ( ! body includes ! l9+s ( ! air passages1 food canal1 & c]ta9 cavities1 z well z ! ext]nal cov]+ or sk94 #aje ,d]iv$ f ! ,lat9 re1 back1 & flect]e1 to turn or b5d4 #ajf ,a frog f :i* ! bra9 has be5 remov$ is susp5d$ ) its feet d[nw>d & free to move4 ,if a toe is p9*$1 ! foot is drawn away1 & if dilute acid1 or a /rong solution ( salt1 is plac$ on ! t5d] sk91 ! feet are mov$ z if to take away ! irritat+ sub/ance4 ,?is ( c\rse %[s t reflex action c take place indep5d5tly ( ! bra94 ,n[ if ! sp9al cord is also de/roy$1 !re is no response :5 ! irritation ( ! sk9 is repeat$4 ,! animal rema9s p]fectly quiet1 because ! de/ruction ( ! cord has int]rupt$ ! reflex action pa?way4 ,?is %[s t "s "p ( ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em is necess>y to reflex action4 #ajg ,review description ( ! sp9al n]ves1 page #bie4 #ajh ,:]e a deep-seat$ cause = worry exi/s1 !re may be occasion = grave conc]n4 ,_m p h become insane ?r\gh cont9u$ worry ab\t "s "o ?+4 ,9 cases ( ?is k9d ! suff]] ne$s ! aid ( sympa!tic fri5ds1 & sometimes ( ! physician1 9 gett+ ! m9d away f ! excit+ cause4 ,a *ange ( sc5e1 a visit1 or "s new employm5t is frequ5tly recomm5d$1 :]e ! actual cause = ! worry _c be remov$4 #aji ,any "p ( ! body :i* is ov]work$ or :i* works at a disadvantage t5ds to di/urb1 m or less1 ! entire n]v\s sy/em & to produce n]v\sness4 ,especially is ?is true ( su* delicate & highly s5sitive /ructures z ! eyes4 ,if ! eyes d n focus prop]ly or if ! muscles t move ! eyeballs are out ( _! natural adju/m5t1 extra "w is ?r[n ^u ^! delicate p>ts4 ,"o ( ! fir/ & sometimes ! only indication ( eye /ra9 is t ( "s di/urbance ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,= ?is reason x is important to c>efully te/ ! eyes 9 det]m9+ ! cause ( n]v\sness 7page #che74 #aaj ,"o =m ( neck ex]cise recomm5d$ = ?is purpose is easily tak5 on retir+ at night4 ,ly+ flat on ! back1 )\t a pill[1 lift ! head sl[ly f ! b$ & let x z sl[ly settle back to ! level ( ! body4 ,repeat sev]al times1 ly+ on ! back1 & !n aga9 on ! face & aga9 on ea* side4 ,practice ^! ex]cises e night dur+ an int]val ( a mon? or until relief is secur$4 #aaa ,insurance /ati/ics %[ t habitual mod]ate dr9k]s d n live s long z ab/a9]s4 #aab ,organs v frequ5tly affect$ by tobacco are ! he>t & ! eyes4 ,x induces1 z already /at$ 7page #ef71 a dang]\s n]v\s d]angem5t call$ tobacco he>t1 & x causes a s]i\s disord] ( ! ret9a 7ret9itis7 :i* leads 9 "s in/ances to loss ( vision4 ,tobacco smoke also acts z an irritant to ! delicate l9+ ( ! eyes1 especially :5 ! tobacco is smok$ indoors4 #aac ,( #daag boys 9 ! ,ill9ois ,/ate ,re=matory1 #djjj us$ tobacco1 & ov] #cjjj 7 cig>ette smok]s4 ,dr4 ,hut*ison1 ( ! ,kansas ,/ate ,re=matory1 says3 ,us+ cig>ettes is ! cause ( ! d[nfall ( m ( ! inmates ( ?is in/itution ?an all o!r vici\s habits comb9$4 #aad ,! t]m m9d is us$ 9 ?is & prec$+ *apt]s 9 its popul>1 n te*nical1 s5se4 #aae ,! problem ( social adju/m5t is b a phase ( ! g5]al problem ( e/abli%+ prop] relations betwe5 ! body & its surr\nd+s4 #aaf ,a vibrat+ body is "o hav+ a to-&-fro movem5t1 l t ( a clock p5dulum or ! /r+ ( a viol9 on s\nd+4 ,bodies to give out s\nd waves mu/ vibrate rapidly1 mak+ n less ?an sixte5 vibrations p] second4 ,! upp] limit ( he>+ be+ ab\t #dj1jjj vibrations p] second1 c]ta9 bodies may ev5 vibrate too rapidly to be he>d4 #aag ,some:at z ! waves on a body ( wat] imp>t motion to ! /icks & we$s along ! %ore1 s\nd waves are able to cause bodies t are small or t are delicately pois$ to vibrate4 #aah ,"s idea ( h[ ! movem5ts ( ! c>tilages *ange ! t5sion ( ! cords may be obta9$ by hold+ ! f+]s on ! l>ynx1 betwe5 ! ?yroid & cricoid c>tilages1 & mak+ tones fir/ ( l[ & !n ( high pit*4 ,= ! high tones ! c>tilages are pull$ toge!r 9 front1 & = ! l[ tones !y sep>ate4 ,z !y pull toge!r 9 front1 !y ( c\rse sep>ate beh9d & above1 :]e ! cords are atta*$4 #aai ,x is only ! c5tral portion ( ! p9na t aids ! entrance ( s\nd into ! auditory canal4 ,if by accid5t ! out] portion ( ! p9na is remov$1 !re is no impairm5t ( ! he>+4 #abj ,! middle e> is also call$ ! e> drum1 &1 by ! same sy/em ( nam+1 ! membrana tympani is ref]r$ to z ! drum membrane4 #aba ,! inn] projection ( ! temporal bone is kn[n z ! petr\s process4 #abb ,a small op5+ 9 ! bone at ?is place is call$ ! f5e/ra rotunda4 #abc ,consult "s "w on physics on ! diff]5t k9ds ( l5ses & _! uses4 #abd ,) respect to its adju/m5ts ! eye does n diff] 9 pr9ciple f v>i\s o!r optical in/rum5ts1 su* z ! microscope1 telescope1 photograph]'s cam]a1 etc41 :i*1 9 _! use1 =m images ( objects4 ,^! all require "s adju/m5t ( _! p>ts1 call$ focus+1 :i* adapts !m to ! di/ance4 ,! eye's me?od ( focus+1 h[ev]1 diff]s f t ( mo/ optical in/rum5ts1 9 t ! adju/m5t is br\ght ab\t ?r\gh *anges 9 ! curvature ( a l5s4 #abe ,! conv]g+ p[] ( convex l5ses v>ies z ! curvature--! great] ! curvature1 ! great] ! conv]g+ p[]4 #abf ,an oculi/ is a physician :o specializes 9 diseases ( ! eye4 #abg ,"s ( ! m common symptoms ( eye /ra9 are n]v\sness1 heada*e1 insomnia1 irritations ( ! eyelids1 s5sitiv5ess to bright light1 & pa9 9 ! use ( ! eyes4 #abh ,pyle1 ,p]sonal ,hygi5e4 #abi ,an infecti\s disease is "o 9 :i* disease g]ms infect 7t is1 invade7 ! body f )\t4 ,among ! infecti\s diseases are "s t are q directly & quickly convey$ f p]son to p]son & to ^! ! t]m contagi\s is appli$4 ,=m]ly a %>p l9e 0 drawn betwe5 infection & contagion1 b to-day x is recogniz$ t no su* l9e exi/s4--,,h\gh ,,& ,,s$gwick1 ,! ,elem5ts ( ,hygi5e & ,sanitation4 #acj ,! arctic explor]1 ,nans51 /ates t dur+ all ! "t t 8 p>ty 0 expos$ to ! l[ temp]ature ( ! arctic region1 no "o 0 attack$ by a cold1 b on return+ to a w>m] climate !y 7 subject to colds z usual4 ,! diff]5ce he attributes to ! abs5ce ( g]ms 9 ! sev]e arctic climate4 ,!re seems to be no d\bt b t mo/ ( our common colds are due to attacks ( g]ms4 #aca ,an int]e/+ biological fact is t ! female ,anopheles1 & n ! male1 sucks ! blood ( animals & is ! cause ( ! spread+ ( mal>ia4 #acb ,! habit ( spitt+ ^u ! floors ( public build+s & /reet c>s1 & also ^u sidewalks1 is n[ recogniz$ z a mo/ dang]\s practice4 ,n only consumptives1 b p ) ?roat affections1 may d no end ( h>m 9 ! spread+ ( disease by c>elessness 9 ?is respect4 #acc ,= fur!r in=mation on ! c>e ( consumptives1 consult ,hub]'s ,consumption & ,civilization4 #acd ,z typhoid fev] is a disease ( ! small inte/9e1 great c>e mu/ be ex]cis$ 9 tak+ food & 9 ! bodily movem5ts4 ,solids greatly irritate ! diseas$ l9+ ( ! inte/9e1 & ! weak5$ walls may actually be brok5 ?r\gh by pressure result+ f mov+ ab\t4 #ace ,alcoholic bev]ages include all ! v>i\s k9ds ( dr9ks t owe _! /imulat+ prop]ties to a sub/ance1 e?yl alcohol 7,c#b;,h#e,,oh71 :i* is made f sug> by ! process ( f]m5tation4 ,!y include malt liquors1 su* z be] & ale1 :i* conta9 f ?ree to eight p] c5t ( alcohol2 w9es1 su* z cl>et1 hock1 %]ry1 & *ampagne1 :i* conta9 f five to tw5ty p] c5t ( alcohol2 & di/ill$ liquors1 su* z br&y1 :isky1 rum1 & g91 :i* conta9 f ?irty to sixty-five p] c5t ( alcohol4 ,alcoholic bev]ages all conta9 con/itu5ts o!r ?an alcohol1 ^! v>y+ ) ! mat]ials f :i* !y are made & ) ! processes ( manufacture4 ,! di/ill$ liquors are s call$ f ! fact t _! alcohol has be5 sep>at$ f ! f]m5t+ sub/ances by di/illation4 #acf ,duncan1 ,! ,*emi/ry ( ,comm]ce4 #acg ,alcohol is d5atur$ by add+ sub/ances to x su* z wood alcohol1 :i* r5d] its use z a bev]age impossible4 #ach ,! tobacco plant1 ,nicotiana tobacum1 is a native ( ,am]ica1 & ! use ( tobacco began ) ! ,am]ican ,indians4 ,x 0 tak5 back to ,europe by ! e>ly explor]s1 ,sir ,walt] ,raleigh be+ cr$it$ ) introduc+ x to ! nobility ( ,engl&4 #aci ,mo/ heada*es are ! result ei!r ( eye /ra9 or ( dige/ive di/urbances1 su* z indige/ion & con/ipation1 & are to be reliev$ ?r\gh ! "w ( ! oculi/ or ?r\gh att5tion to ! hygi5e ( ! dige/ive sy/em4