,riverside ,educational ,monographs     
,edited by ,henry ,suzzallo ,president  
of the ,university of ,washington       
,seattle1 ,washington   ,,the           
,,recitation  by  ,,george ,,herbert    
,,betts1 ,ph4 ,d4  ,professor of        
,psychology ,cornell ,college1 ,iowa    
,houghton ,mifflin ,company ,boston ,new
 ,york ,chicago ,san ,francisco ,the    
,riverside ,press ,cambridge ,copyright1
 #aiaj1 by ,george ,herbert ,betts      
,copyright1 #aiaa1 by ,houghton ,mifflin
 ,company     ,,contents                
,,editor',s ,,introduction  ,i4    ,,the
 ,,purposes ,,of ,,the ,,recitation     
,,ii4   ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,the       
,,recitation  ,,iii4  ,,the ,,art ,,of  
,,questioning  ,,iv4   ,,conditions     
,,necessary ,,to ,a ,,good ,,recitation 
,v4    ,,the ,,assignment ,,of ,,the    
,,lesson        ,,outline               
,,editor',s ,,introduction   ,teachers  
are not always clear as to what they    
mean when they speak of the recitation4 
,many different meanings are associated 

with the term4 ,some of these are       
suggestive but quite vague2 and others1 
although more definite1 are but partial 
truths that hinder as much as they help4
 ,it is not surprising that a confused  
usage of the term is current among      
teachers4  ,from one point of view1 the 
recitation is a recitation-period1 a    
segment of the daily time schedule4 ,in 
this sense it is an administrative unit1
 valuable in apportioning to each school
 subject its part of the time devoted to
 the curriculum4 ,thus1 we speak of five
 recitations in arithmetic1 three in    
music1 or two in drawing1 having in mind
 merely the number of times the class   
meets for instruction in a particular   
school study4 ,a recitation here means  
no more than a class-period1 a more or  
less arbitrary device for controlling   
the teacher's and pupils' distribution  
of energy among the various subjects    
taught4  ,from another point of view1   
the recitation is a form of educative   
activity rather than a mere time        

allotment4 ,in this sense the recitation
 is a process of instruction1 a mode of 
teaching1 wherein pupils and teacher1   
facing a common situation1 proceed      
toward a more or less conscious end4 ,it
 is a distinct movement in classroom    
experience1 so organized that a definite
 beginning1 progression1 and end are    
clearly distinguishable4 ,thus we speak 
of the method of the recitation1 the    
five formal steps of the recitation1 or 
the various types of recitation4 ,such a
 usage makes recitation synonymous with 
lesson4 ,indeed1 when we pass from      
general pedagogical discussion to a     
detailed treatment of special methods of
 teaching1 we usually abandon the term  
recitation and use the word lesson4     
,although there is always some notion of
 a time-period in the curriculum in our 
idea of a lesson1 yet the term lesson is
 more intimately connected with the     
thought of a teaching exercise in which 
ideas are developed and fixed in memory4
 ,it is through the lesson or recitation

 that pupils and teachers influence one 
another's thought and action2 and when  
this condition exists1 there is always  
educative activity4  ,these two ways of 
thinking of the recitation1 one         
primarily administrative and the other  
primarily educative1 need to be somewhat
 sharply differentiated in our thinking4
 ,however closely related they are in   
actual schoolroom work1 however greatly 
they influence each other in practice1  
they require a theoretic separation4    
,only by this method can we avoid some  
of the error and confusion current in   
teaching theory and practice4 ,a single 
instance will suffice to show the value 
of the distinction4  ,no one of us would
 deliberately assume that the teaching  
process required for the instruction of 
a child would just cover the twenty1    
thirty1 or forty minutes allotted to the
 class-period1 day after day and year   
after year1 regardless of the subject   
presented or the child taught4 ,yet this
 is precisely the sort of assumption    

that is implied throughout a            
considerable portion of our current     
discussion of the teaching process4 ,we 
talk about a developmental-lesson or a  
review-recitation in1 say1 geography1 as
 though it began and ended with the     
recitation-period of the day4 ,the daily
 lesson-plans we demand of              
apprentice-teachers in training-schools 
are largely built upon this basis4  ,of 
course the fact that one must begin a   
theme at a given moment and close at a  
similar arbitrary point affects the     
teacher's procedure somewhat4 ,he will  
always have to attack the problem anew  
at ten o'clock and pull together the    
loose ends of discussion at ten-thirty1 
if these happen to be the limits of time
 assigned him4 ,but who will be bold    
enough to assert that the psychological 
movement for the development and        
solution of the particular problem at   
hand will always be exactly thirty      
minutes long8 ,it is possible1 and quite
 probable1 that the typical movements in

 instruction--development1 drill1       
examination1 practice1 and review--may  
occur within a single class-period1     
following fast upon the heels of each   
other as the situation may demand4 ,it  
is equally probable that in many cases  
any one of them may reach across several
 class-periods4 ,we need a more flexible
 way of thinking of the recitation and  
of the teaching activities involved in  
class-periods and of other              
administrative factors which condition  
the effectiveness of teaching4  ,such a 
clear1 flexible treatment of the        
recitation is offered in this volume4   
,we feel that it will be particularly   
welcome to the practical teacher since  
so many previous treatments of this     
subject have been formal or obscure4    
,combining the training of a            
psychologist with the experience of a   
class teacher1 ,professor ,betts has    
given us a lucid1 helpful1 and          
common-sense treatment of the recitation
 without falling into scientific        

technicality or pedagogical formalism4  
,i  ,,the ,,purposes ,,of ,,the         
,,recitation   ,the teacher has two     
great functions in the school2 one is   
that of organizing and managing1 the    
other1 that of teaching4  ,in the first 
capacity he forms the school into its   
proper divisions or classes1 arranges   
the programme of daily recitations and  
other exercises1 provides for calling   
and dismissing classes1 passing into and
 out of the room1 etc41 and controls the
 conduct of the pupils2 that is1 keeps  
order4  ,the organization and management
 of the school is of the highest        
importance1 and fundamental to          
everything else that goes on in the     
school4 ,a large proportion of the      
teachers who are looked upon as         
unsuccessful fail at this point4        
,probably at least two out of three who 
lose their positions are dropped from   
inability to organize and manage a      
school4 ,while this is true1 however1   
the organizing and managing of the      

school is wholly secondary2 it exists   
only that the teaching may go on4       
,teaching is1 after all1 the primary    
thing4 ,lacking good teaching1 no amount
 of good management or organization can 
redeem the school4   #a4 ,the teacher   
and the recitation  ,teaching goes on   
chiefly in what we call the recitation4 
,this is the teacher's point of contact 
with his pupils2 here he meets them face
 to face and mind to mind2 here he      
succeeds or fails in his function of    
teaching4  ,failure in teaching is      
harder to measure than failure in       
organization and management4 ,it quickly
 becomes noised abroad if the children  
are not well classified1 or if the      
teacher cannot keep order4 ,if the      
machinery of the school does not run    
smoothly1 its creaking soon attracts    
public attention1 and the skill of the  
teacher is at once called into question4
 ,but the teacher may be doing          
indifferent work in the recitation1 and 
the class hardly be aware of it and the 

patrons know nothing about it4 ,there is
 no definite measure for the amount of  
inspiration a teacher is giving daily to
 his pupils1 and no foot-rule with which
 to test the worth of his instruction in
 the recitation4  ,and it is this very  
fact that makes it so necessary that the
 teacher should study the principles of 
teaching as applied to the recitation4  
,the difficulty of accurately measuring 
failure in actual teaching tends to make
 us all careless at this point4 ,yet    
this is the very point above all others 
that is vital to the pupil4 ,inspiring  
teaching may compensate in large degree 
for poor management1 but nothing can    
make up to a pupil for dull and         
unskillful teaching4 ,if the recitations
 are for him a failure1 nothing else can
 make the school a success so far as he 
is concerned4  ,the ultimate measure of 
a teacher1 therefore1 is the measure    
taken before his class1 while he is     
conducting a recitation4   #b4 ,the     
necessity of having a clear aim  ,any   

discussion of the recitation should     
begin with its aims or purposes2 for    
upon aim or purpose everything else     
depends4 ,for example1 if you ask me the
 best method of conducting a recitation1
 ,i shall have to inquire before        
answering1 whether your purpose in this 
recitation is to discover what the      
pupils have prepared of the work        
assigned them2 or to introduce the class
 to a new subject1 such as percentage in
 arithmetic2 or to drill them1 as upon  
the multiplication table4 ,each of these
 purposes would demand a different      
method in the recitation4 ,again1 if    
your purpose is to show off a class     
before visitors1 you will need to use a 
very different method from what you will
 employ if your aim is to encourage the 
class in self-expression and            
independence in thinking4  ,there are   
three great purposes to be accomplished 
through the recitation3 testing1        
teaching1 and drilling4 ,these three    
aims may all be accomplished at times in

 the same recitation1 may even alternate
 with each other in successive          
questions1 but they are nevertheless    
wholly distinct from each other1 and    
require different methods for their     
accomplishment4 ,the skillful teacher   
will have one or the other of these     
three aims before him either consciously
 or unconsciously at each moment of the 
recitation1 and will know when he       
changes from one to the other and for   
what reason4 ,let us proceed to consider
 each of these aims somewhat more in    
detail4   #c4 ,testing as an aim in the 
recitation  ,testing deals with ground  
already covered1 with matter already    
learned1 or with powers already         
developed4 ,it concerns itself with the 
old1 instead of progressing into the    
new4 ,it seeks to find out what the     
child knows or what he can do of that   
which he has already been over in his   
work4 ,of course every new lesson or    
task attempted is in some measure a test
 of all that has preceded it1 but       

testing needs to be much more definite  
and specific than this4  ,the testing   
discussed here must not be confused with
 what we sometimes call tests1 but which
 really are examinations1 given at more 
or less infrequent intervals4 ,testing  
may and should be carried on in the     
regular daily recitations by questions  
and answers either oral or written1     
bearing on matter previously assigned2  
by discussions of topics of the lesson  
assigned2 or by requiring new work      
involving the knowledge or power gained 
in the past work which is being tested4 
,the following are some of the principal
 things which we should test in the     
recitation3--  a4 ,the preparation of   
the lesson assigned4--,the preparation  
of every lesson assigned should be      
tested in some definite way4 ,this is of
 the utmost importance1 especially in   
all elementary grades4 ,we are all so   
constituted mentally that we have a     
tendency to grow careless in assigned   
tasks if their performance is not       

strictly required of us4 ,no matter how 
careful may be the assignment of the    
lesson1 and no matter how much the      
teacher may urge upon the class at the  
time of the assignment that they prepare
 the lesson well1 the pupils must be    
held responsible for this preparation   
day by day1 without fail1 if we are to  
insure their mastery of it4  ,nor is it 
enough to inquire1 ,how many understand 
this lesson8 or ,how many got all the   
examples8 ,it is the teacher's business 
to test thoroughly for himself the      
pupil's mastery of the lesson or the    
knowledge or power required for the     
examples1 in some definite and concrete 
way4 ,it will not suffice to take the   
pupil's judgment of his own preparation 
and mastery1 for many will allow a hazy 
or doubtful point to go by unexplained  
rather than confess before teacher and  
class their lack of study or inability  
to grasp the topic4 ,further1 pupils    
seldom have the standards of mastery    
which enable them to judge what         

constitutes an adequate grasp of the    
subject4  b4 ,the pupil's knowledge and 
his methods of study4--,entirely aside  
from the question of the preparation of 
the lesson assigned1 the teacher must   
constantly test the pupil's knowledge in
 order that he may know how and what    
next to teach him2 for no maxim of      
teaching is better established than that
 we should proceed from the known to the
 related unknown4 ,and this is only     
another way of saying that we should    
build all new knowledge upon the        
foundation of knowledge already         
mastered4  ,to illustrate3 ,pupils must 
have a thorough mastery and ready       
knowledge of addition1 subtraction1     
multiplication1 and division before we  
can proceed to teach them measurements  
or fractions4 ,and without doubt much   
time is wasted in attempting to teach   
these subjects without a ready command  
of the fundamental operations4 ,further1
 pupils must know well both common and  
decimal fractions before they can       

proceed to percentage4 ,they must know  
and be able to recognize readily the    
different parts of speech before they   
can analyze sentences in grammar4  ,but 
not less important than what the pupil  
knows is how he knows the thing2 that   
is1 what are his methods of study and   
learning4 ,the pupil in a history class 
may be able to recite whole pages of the
 text almost verbatim1 but when         
questioned as to the meaning of the     
events and facts show very little       
knowledge about them4 ,a student        
confessed to her teacher that she had   
committed all her geometry lessons to   
memory instead of reasoning them out4   
,she could in this way satisfy a        
careless teacher who did not take the   
trouble to inquire how the pupil had    
prepared her lessons1 but she knew      
little or no geometry4  ,the mind has   
what may be called three different      
levels4 ,the first is the sensory level1
 represented by the phrase in at one ear
 and out of the other4 ,every one has   

experienced reading a page when the mind
 would wander and only the eyes follow  
the lines on down to the bottom of the  
page1 nothing remaining as to the       
meaning of the text4 ,it is easy to     
glance a lesson over just before        
reciting1 and have it stick in the      
memory only long enough to serve the    
purposes of the recitation4 ,things     
learned in this way are not permanently 
serviceable and really constitute no    
part of an education4  ,the second level
 of the mind may be called the memory   
level4 ,matter which enters the mind    
only to this depth may be retained for a
 considerable time but is little        
understood and hence of small value4    
,all rules and definitions committed    
without knowing their meaning or seeing 
their application1 and all lessons      
learned merely to recite without a      
reasonable grasp of their meaning1 sink 
only as deep as the memory level4  ,the 
third and deepest level is that of the  
understanding4 ,matter which permeates  

down through the sensory and memory     
levels1 getting thoroughly into the     
understanding level1 is not only        
remembered but is understood and        
applied1 and therefore becomes of real  
service in our education4 ,of course it 
is clear that the ideal in teaching     
should be to lead our pupils so to learn
 that most of what enters their memory  
shall also be mastered by their         
understanding4  ,therefore1 in the      
recitation we should test not alone to  
see what the pupil knows1 but also to   
see how he knows it2 not only to find   
out whether he can recite1 but also what
 are his methods of learning4 ,we should
 discover not alone whether the facts   
learned have entered the memory1 but    
whether they have sunk down into the    
understanding1 so that they can be used 
in the acquisition of further education4
  c4 ,the pupil's points of failure and 
the cause thereof4--,every teacher has  
been surprised many times to discover   
weak places in the pupil's work when    

everything had seemingly been thoroughly
 learned4 ,with the best teaching these 
weak places will occasionally occur4 ,it
 is not less essential to know these    
points of failure than to know the      
foundations of knowledge which the pupil
 has already mastered4 ,for these weak  
spots must be remedied as we go along if
 the later work is to be successful4    
,very frequently classes are unable to  
proceed satisfactorily because of lack  
of thoroughness in the foundation work  
which precedes4 ,to know where a pupil  
is failing is the first requisite if we 
are to help him remedy his weakness4    
,but not only must the teacher know     
where the pupil is failing1 but also the
 cause of his failure4 ,only when we    
know this can we intelligently apply the
 remedy for the failure4 ,a physician   
friend of mine tells me that almost any 
quack can prescribe successfully for    
sickness if he has an expert at hand to 
diagnose the case and tell him what is  
the matter4 ,this is the hardest part of

 a physician's work and requires the    
most skill4 ,so it is with the teacher's
 work as well4 ,if we are sure that a   
certain boy is failing in his           
recitations because he is lazy1 it is   
not so difficult to devise a remedy to  
fit the case4 ,if we know that another  
is failing because the work is too      
advanced for his preparation1 we select 
a different remedy4 ,but in every case  
we must first know the cause of failure 
if we hope to prescribe a remedy certain
 to produce a cure4  ,some teachers     
prescribe for poorly learned lessons    
much after the patent medicine method4  
,a recent advertisement of one          
particular nostrum promises the cure of 
any one of thirty-seven different       
diseases4 ,surely with such a remedy as 
this at hand there will be no need to   
diagnose a case of sickness to find out 
what is the trouble4 ,all we need to do 
is to take the regulation dose4 ,and all
 patients will be treated just alike    
whatever their ailment4 ,this is the    

quack doctor's method as it is the quack
 teacher's4 ,if the teacher is          
unskillful or lazy the remedy for poor  
recitations usually is1 ,take the same  
lesson for to-morrow4 ,there is even no 
attempt to discover the cause of failure
 and no thought put on the question of  
how best to remedy the failure and      
prevent its recurrence4   #d4 ,teaching 
as an aim in the recitation  ,while     
testing deals with the old1--reviewing  
and fixing more firmly that which we    
have already learned1--teaching1 by     
using the old1 leads on to the new4 ,to 
educate means to lead out--to lead the  
child out from what he already has      
attained and mastered to new attainments
 and new mastery4 ,this is accomplished 
through teaching4 ,it is not enough1    
therefore1 to employ the recitation as a
 time for testing the class2 the        
recitation is also the teacher's        
opportunity to teach4 ,teaching as      
distinguished from testing becomes1     
therefore1 one of the great aims of the 

recitation4  ,teaching should accomplish
 the following objects in the           
recitation3--  a4 ,give the child an    
opportunity for self-expression4--,we   
learn to do by doing1 providing the     
doing is really ours4 ,if the doing     
holds our interest and thought nothing  
will serve to clear up faulty thinking  
and partly mastered knowledge like      
attempting to express it4 ,one really   
never fully knows a thing until he can  
so express it that others are caused to 
know it also4  ,further1 every person   
needs to cultivate the power of         
expression for its own sake4 ,expression
 consists not only of language1 but the 
work of the hand in the various arts and
 handicrafts1 bodily poise and carriage1
 facial expression1 gesture1 laughter1  
and any other means which the mind has  
of making itself known to others4 ,these
 various forms of expression are the    
only way we have of causing others to   
know what we think or feel4 ,and the    
world cares very little how much we may 

know or how deeply we may feel if we    
have not the power to express our       
thoughts and emotions4  ,the child      
should have1 therefore1 the fullest     
possible opportunity in the recitation  
for as many of these different kinds of 
expression as are suitable to the work  
of the recitation4 ,not only must the   
teacher be careful not to monopolize the
 time of the class himself1 but he must 
even lead the children out1 encouraging 
them to express in their own words or   
through their drawings and pictures1 or 
through maps they make or through the   
things they construct with their hands1 
or in any other way possible1 their own 
knowledge and thought4 ,the timid child 
who shrinks from reciting or going to   
the blackboard to draw or write needs   
encouragement and teaching especially4  
,the constant danger with all teachers  
is that of calling upon the unusually   
quick and bright pupil who is ready to  
recite1 thus giving him more than his   
share of training in expression and     

robbing thereby the more timid ones who 
need the practice4  b4 ,give help on    
difficult points4--,a complaint         
frequently heard in some schools1 and no
 doubt in some degree merited in all1   
is1 ,teacher will not help1 or1 ,teacher
 does not explain4 ,no matter how       
excellent the work being done by the    
class or how skillful the teaching1     
there will always be hard points in the 
lessons which need analysis or          
explanation4 ,this should usually be    
done when the lesson is assigned4 ,a    
teacher who knows both the              
subject-matter and the class thoroughly 
can estimate almost precisely where the 
class will have trouble with the lesson1
 or what important points will need     
especial emphasis4 ,and in the          
explanation and elaboration of these    
points is one of the best opportunities 
for good teaching4 ,the good teacher    
will help just enough1 but not too much2
 just enough so that the class will know
 how to go to work with the least loss  

of time and the greatest amount of      
energy2 not enough so that the lesson is
 already mastered for the class before  
they begin their study4  ,but it is     
necessary to help the class on the hard 
points not only in assigning the lesson1
 but also in the recitation4 ,the alert 
teacher will in almost every recitation 
discover some points which the class    
have failed to understand or master     
fully4 ,it is the overlooking of such   
half-mastered points as these that      
leaves weak places in the pupil's       
knowledge and brings trouble to him     
later on4 ,these weak points left       
unstrengthened in the recitation are the
 lazy teacher's greatest reproach2 the  
occasion of the unskillful teacher's    
greatest bungling2 and the inexperienced
 teacher's greatest danger points4  c4  
,bring in new points supplementing the  
text4--,while the lesson of the textbook
 should be followed in the main1 and    
most of the time devoted thereto1 yet   
nearly every lesson gives the wide-awake

 teacher opportunity to supplement the  
text with interesting material drawn    
from other sources4 ,this rightly done  
lends life and interest to the          
recitation1 broadens the child's        
knowledge1 and increases his respect for
 the teacher4 ,in this way many lessons 
in history1 geography1 literature--in   
fact1 in nearly all the studies1--can   
have their application shown1 and hence 
be made more real to the pupils4  d4    
,inspire the pupils to better efforts   
and higher ideals4--,the recitation is  
the teacher's mental point of contact   
with his pupils4 ,he meets them socially
 in a friendly way at intermissions and 
on the playground4 ,his moral character 
and personality are a model to the      
children at all times4 ,but it is       
chiefly in the recitation that the      
mental stimulus is given4 ,the teacher  
who is lifeless and uninspiring in the  
teaching of the recitation cannot but   
fail to inspire his school to a strong  
mental growth1 whatever else he may     

accomplish4  ,most pupils have powers   
far in excess of those they are using4  
,they only need to be inspired1 to be   
wakened up mentally by a teacher whose  
mind is alive and growing4 ,they need to
 be made hungry for education1 and this 
can be accomplished only by a teacher   
who is himself full of enthusiasm4      
,inspiration is caught1 not taught4  e4 
,lead pupils into good habits of        
study4--,it is probably not too much to 
say that one third or one half of the   
pupil's time is lost in school because  
of not knowing how to study4 ,over and  
over pupils say to the teacher1 ,i      
didn't know how to get this4 ,many times
 children labor hard over a lesson      
without mastering it1 simply because    
they do not know how to pick out and    
classify its principal points4 ,they    
work on what is to them a mere jumble1  
because they lack the power of analysis 
or have never been taught its use4      
,very early in school life the pupil    
should be taught to look for and make a 

list of the principal points in the     
lesson4 ,if the lesson starts with a    
,roman numeral ,i1 the child should be  
taught to look for ,,ii and ,,iii1 and  
to see how they are related to ,i4 ,an  
,arabic #a usually means that #b1 and   
perhaps #c and #d are to follow2 the    
letter a at the head of a paragraph     
should start the pupil to looking for b1
 c1 etc4 ,and if the text does not      
contain such numbering or lettering1 the
 pupil should be led to search for the  
main divisions and topics of the lesson 
for himself4  ,of course these          
principles will not apply to spelling   
lessons1 mere lists of sentences to be  
analyzed or problems to be solved1 but  
they do apply to almost every other type
 of lesson4 ,the best time to teach the 
child to make the kind of analysis      
suggested is when we are assigning the  
lesson4 ,we can then go over the text   
with the class1 helping them to select  
the chief points of the lesson until    
they themselves have learned this method

 of study4   #e4 ,drill as an aim in the
 recitation  ,there is a great          
difference between merely knowing a     
thing and knowing it so well that we can
 use it easily and with skill4 ,perhaps 
all of us know the alphabet backwards2  
yet if the order of the dictionary were 
reversed so that it would run from ,z to
 ,a1 we would for a time lack the skill 
we now have in quickly finding any      
desired words in the dictionary4        
,certain fundamentals in our education  
need to be so well learned that they are
 practically automatic1 and can hence be
 skillfully performed without thought or
 attention4 ,we must know our spelling  
in this way1 so that we do not have to  
stop and think how to spell each word4  
,in the same manner we must know the    
mechanics of reading1 that is1 the      
recognition and pronunciation of words1 
the meaning of punctuation marks1 etc42 
and similarly multiplication and the    
other fundamental operations in         
arithmetic4 ,pupils should come to know 

these things so well that they are as   
automatic as speech1 or as walking1     
eating1 or any other of the many acts   
which do themselves4 ,if this degree of 
skill is not reached1 it means halting  
and inefficient work in all these lines 
farther on4 ,many are the children who  
are crippled in their work in history1  
geography1 and other studies because    
they cannot read well enough to         
understand the text4 ,many are          
struggling along in the more advanced   
parts of the arithmetic1 unable to      
master it because they are deficient in 
the fundamentals1 because they lack     
skill4 ,and many are wasting time trying
 to analyze sentences when they cannot  
recognize the different parts of speech4
  ,skill is efficiency in doing4 ,it is 
always a growth1 and never comes to us  
ready-made4 ,to be sure1 some pupils can
 develop skill much faster than others1 
but the point is1 that skill has to be  
developed4 ,skill is the result of      
repetition1 or practice1 that is1 of    

drill4  ,the following principles should
 guide in the use of drill in the       
recitation3  a4 ,drill should be        
employed wherever a high degree of skill
 is required4--,this applies to what    
have been called the tools of knowledge1
 or those things which are necessary in 
order to secure all other knowledge4    
,such are the three ,r's1 reading1      
7w7riting1 and 7a7rithmetic1 to which we
 may add spelling4 ,without a good      
foundation in these1 all other knowledge
 will be up-hill work1 if not wholly    
impossible4  b4 ,drill must be upon     
correct models1 and with alert interest 
and attention4--,mere repetition is not 
enough to secure skill4 ,what teacher   
has not been driven to her wits' ends to
 prevent the successive lines in the    
copy book from growing steadily worse as
 they increase in number from the copy  
on down the page6 ,surely drill with    
such a result would be long in arriving 
at skill4 ,such practice is not only    
wholly wasted1 but actually results in  

establishing false models and careless  
habits in the pupil's mind4 ,each line  
must be written with correct models in  
mind1 and with the effort to make it    
better than any preceding one1 if skill 
is to be the outcome4  ,much of the     
value of drill is often lost through    
lack of interest and attention4 ,the    
child lazily sing-songing the           
multiplication table may learn to say it
 as he would a verse of poetry1 and yet 
not know the separate combinations when 
he needs them in problems4 ,what he     
needs is drill upon the different       
combinations hit-and-miss1 and in simple
 problems1 rapidly and many times over1 
with sufficient variety and spice1 so   
that his interest and attention are     
always alert4 ,a certain boy persisted  
in saying have went instead of have     
gone4 ,finally his teacher said1        
,johnny1 you may stay to-night after    
school and write 'have gone' on the     
blackboard one hundred times4 ,then you 
will not miss it again4  ,johnny stayed 

after school and wrote have gone one    
hundred times as the teacher had        
directed4 ,when he had completed his    
task the teacher had gone to another    
part of the building4 ,before leaving   
for home ,johnny politely left this note
 on the teacher's desk3 ,dear ,teacher3 
,i have went home4 ,plenty of drill1 but
 it was not accompanied by interest and 
attention1 and hence left no effect4  c4
 ,drill must not stop short of a        
reasonable degree of efficiency1 or     
skill4--,most teachers would rather test
 or teach than drill4 ,others do not see
 the necessity of drill4 ,hence it      
happens that a large proportion of our  
pupils are not given practice or drill  
enough to arrive at even a fair degree  
of skill4 ,set ten pupils of the        
intermediate grades to adding up four   
columns of figures averaging a footing  
of #ajj to the column1 and you will     
probably have at least five different   
answers4 ,and so with many of the       
fundamentals in other branches as well4 

,we too often stop practice just short  
of efficiency1 and thereby waste both   
time and effort4  d4 ,drill must be     
governed by definite aims4--,probably   
drilling requires more planning and care
 on the part of the teacher than any    
other work of the recitation4 ,drill    
applied indiscriminately wastes time and
 kills interest4 ,to study a spelling   
lesson over fifteen times as some       
teachers require is folly4 ,every       
spelling list will contain some words   
which the pupil already knows4 ,he      
should put little or no drill on these1 
but only on the troublesome ones4 ,in   
learning and using the principal parts  
of verbs it is always the few that cause
 the difficulty4 ,he done it2 ,has the  
bell rang8 ,set down4 ,these and a few  
other forms are the ones which give the 
trouble2 they should receive the drill4 
,likewise in arithmetic1 there are      
certain combinations in the tables1 and 
certain operations in fractions1        
measurements1 etc41 which always make   

trouble4 ,they are the danger points1   
and upon these the practice should be   
put4  ,the teacher must aim1 therefore1 
to select the difficult and the         
important points and drill upon these   
until they are mastered1 being careful  
not to stop at the half-way house1 but  
steadily to go on until skill is        
obtained4 ,he must be resourceful in    
methods and devices which will relieve  
the monotony of repetition2 he must be  
persistent and patient1 insisting on the
 attainment of skill1 but realizing that
 it takes time to develop it2 he must   
possess a good pedagogical conscience   
which will be satisfied with nothing    
short of success in his aims4   #f4 ,a  
desirable balance among the three aims  
,the aims to be accomplished through the
 recitation are1 then1 testing1         
teaching1 and drilling4 ,these three    
aims may1 as said before1 all be carried
 on in the same recitation1 or they may 
come in different recitations1 as the   
needs of the subject require4 ,not      

infrequently they may alternate with    
each other within a few moments4 ,in    
every case1 however1 the teacher should 
have clearly in mind which one of the   
three processes he is employing and why4
 ,not that the teacher must always stop 
to reason the matter out before he      
employs one or the other1 but that he   
should become so familiar with the      
nature and use of each that he almost   
unconsciously passes from one to the    
other as the need for it arises4  ,not  
many teachers are equally skilled in the
 use of testing1 teaching1 and drilling4
 ,some have a tendency to put most of   
the recitation time on testing whether  
the class have prepared the assignment1 
and devote but little time to teaching  
or drilling4 ,others love to teach1 but 
do not like to test or drill4 ,it is    
highly desirable that every teacher1    
young or old in experience1 should      
examine himself on this question and1 if
 he finds himself lacking in any one of 
the three1 carefully set to work to     

remedy the defect4 ,the ideal for us all
 to reach is equal skill in each of the 
three processes of the recitation1      
testing1 teaching1 and drilling4        
,,ii  ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,the         
,,recitation   #a4 ,method varies with  
aim  ,in the last chapter we discussed  
the aims or purposes of the recitation4 
,we now come to see how these aims      
affect the methods we employ4 ,for it is
 evident at the outset that the method  
we choose must depend on the aim sought 
in the recitation4 ,if we seek to-day to
 make the recitation chiefly a test of  
how well the lesson has been prepared1  
or how much of yesterday's work has been
 retained1 we will select a method      
suited for testing4 ,if we aim to       
introduce the class to the subject of   
percentage for the first time1 the      
method must be adapted to teaching4 ,if 
we wish to make the recitation a drill  
in the diacritical markings or the      
multiplication table1 the method must be
 still a different one4 ,in other words1

 the method must be planned to          
accomplish certain definite ends if the 
teaching is to be purposeful and        
effective4   #b4 ,fundamental principles
 of method  ,there are certain          
fundamental principles of method which  
underlie all teaching1 and which1       
therefore1 are to be sought in every    
recitation1 no matter what the special  
method used may chance to be4 ,the first
 of these principles may be stated as   
follows3--  a4 ,interest is the first   
requisite for attention and all mental  
activity4--,a recitation without        
interest is a dead recitation4 ,because 
it possesses no life it cannot lead to  
growth4 ,nothing can take the place of  
interest4 ,fear may drive to work for a 
time1 but it does not result in         
development4 ,only interest can bring   
all the powers and capacities of the    
child into play4 ,hence the teacher's   
first and greatest problem in the       
recitation is the problem of interest4  
,to secure interest he must use every   

resource at his command4 ,this does not 
mean that he is to bid for the          
children's interest with sensational    
methods and cheap devices4 ,this is not 
the way to secure true interest4 ,it    
means1 rather1 that he is to offer to   
the class subject-matter suited to their
 age and experience1 and presented in a 
way adapted to their capacity and       
understanding2 that he is to have all   
conditions surrounding the recitation as
 favorable as possible2 and that he is  
himself to be constantly a source of    
interest and enthusiasm4 ,if these      
conditions are all met the problem of   
interest will present few difficulties4 
b4 ,the natural mode of learning is to  
proceed from the known to the related   
unknown4--,this is a statement of what  
is known as the principle of            
apperception or the learning of the new 
by connecting it with the old already in
 the mind4 ,to make use of this         
principle it is necessary to freshen up 
what the pupil knows on a topic by      

asking him questions or otherwise       
causing him to think anew the facts     
previously learned that are related to  
what he is about to learn4 ,for example1
 when beginning the subject of          
percentage1 the subject of decimals     
should be reviewed1 since percentage is 
but an application of decimals and can  
most easily be learned and understood as
 such4 ,likewise in beginning the study 
of the ,civil ,war1 the question of     
slavery and that of the doctrine of     
states' rights should be reviewed1 since
 these are fundamental to an            
understanding of the causes of the war4 
,in similar manner we might apply the   
illustration to every branch of study1  
,indeed there is hardly a single        
recitation which should not start with a
 brief review or a few questions to     
freshen up in the minds of the pupils   
the points related to the coming lesson4
 ,not only will this insure that the    
lessons themselves shall be better      
understood1 but the entire subject will 

in this way come to possess a unity     
instead of consisting of a series of    
more or less disconnected lessons in the
 mind of the child4   #c4 ,the use of   
special forms of method  ,having stated 
these two general principles of method1 
we will now consider some of the special
 forms of method to be employed in the  
recitation4 ,in discussing these methods
 and comparing them it is not to be     
forgotten that attention and interest   
are dependent in large measure on change
 and variety4 ,the same method used day 
after day in the recitation palls upon a
 class and invites listlessness and     
inattention4 ,a teacher should never    
employ cheap or sensational devices in a
 recitation just to have something new1 
but neither should he work a good method
 to death by too constant use4   #d4    
,the question-and-answer method  ,the   
question-and-answer method is so        
familiar to every one that it requires  
no formal definition4 ,it is employed in
 all grades from the primary to the     

university1 and it is adapted alike to  
testing1 teaching1 and drilling4  ,this 
method admits of wide modification to   
suit it to specific uses4 ,the questions
 asked may require but a short and      
simple answer1 such as can be given by a
 primary pupil4 ,they may also require a
 long and complex answer which will test
 the powers of the most advanced        
student4 ,the questions may be detailed 
and searching1 covering every point of  
the lesson1 as when we are testing      
preparation4 ,they may deal only with   
certain related truths1 as when we      
develop a new subject intentionally by  
questions and answers4 ,or they may     
select only the most important points   
upon which the class needs drill4  a4   
,when and where to employ the           
question-and-answer method4--,the       
question-and-answer method is           
particularly adapted to the lower       
grades1 in which the children have not  
yet developed the ability to recite     
independently on long topics4 ,this     

method allows the teacher to encourage  
and draw out the child by what is really
 a conversation between the two1 the    
teacher asking simple questions and the 
child responding to them4 ,in more      
advanced grades the questions may be so 
arranged as to require longer and more  
complex answers1 and thus lead up to the
 topical method of reciting4  ,the      
question-and-answer method is also      
suitable to employ at the beginning of a
 recitation to recall to the minds of   
the class previous lessons to which the 
lesson of the day is related4 ,there is 
hardly one recitation in a hundred that 
does not require an introduction of this
 kind4 ,the only true method in teaching
 is to build the new knowledge on the   
related old knowledge which is already  
in the mind4 ,this is what is meant in  
pedagogy by proceeding from the known to
 the related unknown4 ,and the known    
must always be fresh and immediately    
present to the mind4 ,hence the         
necessity for the introductory review4  

,this method is also serviceable in     
reviewing former lessons4 ,by the use of
 well-selected questions a large number 
of important points already passed over 
can be brought before the class in a    
short time4  ,on the whole1 it is       
probable that we do not review          
frequently enough in our recitation     
work4 ,we review a subject when we have 
finished the text upon it1 or before    
examination time1 but this is not       
enough4 ,careful psychological tests    
have shown that the mind forgets within 
the first three days a large proportion 
of what it will finally fail to retain4 
,further1 there is great economy in     
catching up a fading fact before it gets
 wholly away from us4 ,this would       
suggest the constant use of the         
question-and-answer method to fix more  
firmly the important points in ground we
 have already passed over4  ,one of the 
most important uses of this method is   
found in inductive teaching4 ,the famous
 ,socratic method was simply the        

question-and-answer method applied by   
,socrates to teaching new truths4 ,this 
noted teacher would1 by a series of     
skillful questions calculated to call   
forth what the pupil already knew1 lead 
him on to new knowledge without actually
 telling the youth anything himself4    
,and this is the very height of good    
teaching--the goal toward which we all  
should strive4  ,it is a safe maxim     
never to tell a child what one can lead 
him by questioning to see for himself4  
,to illustrate3 ,suppose an elementary  
arithmetic class already know thoroughly
 how to find the area of a rectangle by 
multiplying its base by its altitude1   
and that we are now ready to teach them 
how to find the area of a triangle4 ,let
 us see whether we can lead them to     
develop the rule instead of learning it 
out of the text2 that is1 we will       
proceed inductively4 ,first draw a      
rectangle #d by #f on the board4        
,q4 ,what do we call this figure8       
,a4 ,a rectangle4       ,q4 ,how shall  

we find its area8       ,a4 ,multiply   
its base #d by its altitude #f2 the area
 is #bd4       ,q4 ,now ,i draw a line  
diagonally across the rectangle2 how    
many figures are there8       ,a4 ,two4 
7,teacher here gives new word triangle  
and explains      it47       ,q4 ,how do
 the base and altitude of the triangles 
compare      with the base and altitude 
of the rectangle8       ,a4 ,they are   
the same4       ,q4 ,how do the two     
triangles compare in area8       ,a4    
,they are equal2 each is half of the    
rectangle4       ,q4 ,then1 if each is  
half of the rectangle1 what must be the 
area of one of the triangles8       ,a4 
,the area of each triangle is #ab1 for  
the area of the      rectangle is #bd1  
and the area of each triangle is half   
that      of the rectangle4       ,q4   
,then1 how may we find the area of a    
triangle8       ,a4 ,multiply the base  
by the altitude and take one half the   
product4  ,of course the teacher may    
have to supplement questions like the   

above by others to assist the child in  
arriving at the desired answer1 but the 
method is the same in any case4 ,the    
inductive method is the child's natural 
way of learning1 and should be applied  
to nearly all school branches4 ,too many
 teachers have children learn rules and 
definitions which mean little or nothing
 to them4 ,this is not only discouraging
 to the child and a serious waste of    
time1 but it develops bad habits of     
study by making the pupil think he is   
learning something when he is not4 ,only
 when the fact or process learned is    
understood is it true knowledge4 ,the   
inductive method begins with what the   
child already knows and1 step by step1  
leads him to understand the new truths4 
,it comes last to the rule or definition
 after the meaning is clearly seen4  b4 
,dangers of the question-and-answer     
method4--,no matter how good a method   
may be1 there are always some dangers   
connected with its use1 some points at  
which a teacher needs to be on guard to 

see that the method is not misused or   
over-used4 ,the question-and-answer     
method is no exception to this rule4    
,one of the greatest dangers in the use 
of this method is that pupils will come 
to depend on the questions as a crutch  
to help them along mentally when they   
should be able to proceed by themselves4
 ,not infrequently do pupils say to the 
teacher when called upon for a topical  
discussion1 ,if you will ask me         
questions upon the topic ,i can answer  
them1 but ,i cannot recite upon the     
topic4 ,it is very much easier to answer
 a series of questions upon a subject   
than to discuss it independently4 ,this 
method is well adapted to younger       
children2 and this very reason makes it 
a danger when over-used with more       
advanced pupils4 ,we need to learn to   
think a subject through and talk about  
topics without the help of a teacher to 
stand by and ask questions2 we need to  
become independent in our thinking2 we  
need practice in organizing and         

expressing our thoughts for ourselves4  
,the second danger we note in the       
question-and-answer method is that it   
does not give as much opportunity for   
training in self-expression as the      
topical method4 ,in teaching by the     
question-and-answer method1 the teacher 
occupies nearly or quite as much time   
with the questions as the class do with 
the answers4 ,this does not give        
opportunity for practice enough in      
reciting on the part of the pupil1 if   
the question-and-answer method is       
employed exclusively4 ,the only way for 
a child to learn to recite well is by   
reciting2 the only way to learn to      
express one's self is by having         
opportunity for expression4   #e4 ,the  
topical method  ,the topical method is  
too familiar to require definition4 ,in 
this method the teacher suggests a topic
 of the lesson or asks a question which 
requires the pupil to go on in his own  
way and tell what he can about the point
 under discussion4 ,there is really no  

hard and fast line between the topical  
method and the question-and-answer      
method4 ,the fundamental difference     
between the two is this3 ,in the        
question-and-answer method1 the question
 is definitely upon some fact or point1 
and requires a specific answer bearing  
on the fact or point of the question2 in
 the topical method1 the question or    
topic suggested requires the pupil to   
decide upon what facts or points need   
discussion1 and then to plan his own    
discussion4  a4 ,where the topical      
method is most serviceable4--,as has    
already been explained1 the topical     
method requires more independence of    
thought than the question-and-answer    
method1 and will therefore find its     
greatest use in the higher grades4 ,we  
are not to think1 however1 that the     
topical method is not to be used until  
some certain grade has been reached1 and
 that then the child will suddenly find 
himself able to use it4 ,the ability to 
think independently and speak one's     

thoughts freely is a growth1 and is not 
attained suddenly at a given age4 ,even 
little children1 telling their language 
stories1 are using the topical method1  
and should be encouraged in its use4 ,as
 the grades advance1 however1 the use of
 this method should increase1 and the   
length and difficulty of the topics     
should grow1 so that recitation by      
topics can be efficiently carried on in 
the higher intermediate and grammar     
grades4  ,probably the easiest forms of 
the topical recitation are found in     
history or reading lessons1 where       
narration abounds4 ,narration deals with
 a succession of events1 and is always  
found one of the easiest forms of       
discourse4 ,in proof of this1 one has   
but to note the fluency and ease with   
which a child will narrate the events of
 a game1 a trip1 or an accident1 whereas
 if you call upon him for logical       
explanations or even for description1 as
 for example1 ,just what kind of looking
 team was it that ran away8 much more   

difficulty will be experienced in       
telling about it4  ,another great field 
for topical recitations is found in all 
lines where description is required4    
,this applies to all nature study and   
science1 to geography1 to certain phases
 of literature and history4 ,to describe
 even a commonplace object accurately   
and well is an art more rare than most  
of us would think4 ,suppose you ask the 
first person you meet to describe fully 
the house in which he lives or the      
sunset which he has just seen4 ,if he   
seriously tries to comply with your     
request1 you will probably be surprised 
both by the difficulty he has in his    
attempt1 and the little that he really  
can say upon these familiar subjects4   
,the interesting story teller is a      
rarity1 which is only another way of    
saying that the ability to narrate and  
describe needs cultivation4 ,there is no
 better opportunity possible than that  
of the topical recitation4  ,the topical
 method can manifestly be used to       

supplement the question-and-answer      
method in testing the pupils on the     
preparation of the lesson1 or in        
reviewing former lessons4 ,it can also  
be well used in teaching new            
subject-matter which does not           
particularly require the developmental1 
or ,socratic1 method4 ,illustrations of 
such material are to be found in much of
 the work in history and in literature2 
also in the descriptive parts of        
geography1 nature study1 and science4   
,when the topical method is being       
employed it will nearly always need to  
be supplemented by questions and        
answers4 ,very rarely will a pupil      
recite upon any important topic with    
such accuracy and completeness that     
nothing more needs to be said concerning
 it4 ,hence1 after the pupil has        
completed his topical discussion1 the   
teacher can round out the subject1      
impress the more important points1 or   
correct wrong impressions1 by a few     
questions to be answered either by the  

pupil who has had the discussion or by  
the remainder of the class4  ,the       
topical method gives the teacher the    
best opportunity to teach the pupils how
 to study4 ,it is safe to say that most 
pupils consider that they have their    
lesson when they understand it1 or think
 they can remember it4 ,but if the child
 is to be taught expression1 as well as 
given knowledge1 it is evident that this
 is not enough4 ,not only should a pupil
 be sure that he understands his lesson 
and can remember it1 but also he should 
think how best to express it in the     
recitation4 ,the teacher can help the   
class in this when assigning the topics 
by showing the pupils how to pick out   
the main points of the topics1 and      
arrange them in order for discussion4   
,this is1 of course1 really training in 
analysis--a power that all pupils need  
to cultivate4  b4 ,the question of      
standards in topical recitations4--,the 
success of the topical method will      
depend much on the teacher's standards  

of thoroughness applied to its use4     
,children1 particularly of the lower    
grades1 have not yet developed much     
grasp of mind1 and consequently are not 
able to judge when they have            
sufficiently covered a topic given them 
for recitation4 ,they are likely to     
think that if they stand up and say     
something about the topic1 this is      
sufficient4  ,it is at this point that  
the teacher needs to exercise great     
care4 ,the child must not be discouraged
 by harsh criticism1 but neither must an
 incomplete recitation be accepted as a 
complete one4 ,the teacher must judge   
carefully how full a discussion should  
be expected from a child of the given   
age1 taking into account the treatment  
of the topic in the pupil's textbook4   
,then by questions1 further discussion  
by other pupils1 kindly criticisms1 and 
helpful suggestions1 the standard should
 be placed as high as the class can     
attain4 ,nor is it to be forgotten that 
the standard is to be a constantly      

advancing one4   #f4 ,the lecture1 or   
supplemental method  ,the lecture method
 is rather too formal a name for the    
method in which the teacher talks to the
 class instead of asking them to recite4
 ,he may either take the entire period  
in a lecture1 or talk1 or he may only   
supplement now and then the answers or  
topical recitations of the pupils4 ,this
 method is almost exclusively used in   
many universities and colleges1 but is  
not suited for extensive use in more    
elementary schools4  a4 ,how the lecture
 method is to be used4--,while the      
lecture method should be employed       
sparingly in the elementary school1 yet 
it is most valuable to supplement other 
methods4 ,first1 in introducing a class 
to a new subject or section of work1 it 
is frequently desirable that the teacher
 should take a part or the whole of a   
recitation period to explain the nature 
of the work or to interest the pupils in
 it4 ,for example3 ,in taking up the    
discovery of ,america1 the teacher can  

create interest by telling the class of 
the wonderful events going on in ,europe
 during the fifteenth century1 of the   
life of ,columbus as a boy1 of the ships
 then in use1 comparing them with our   
present steamships1 etc4 ,similarly for 
almost every new section taken up in any
 study4  ,the lecture method is also    
useful in supplementing the recitations 
of the pupils4 ,the teacher's knowledge 
must be much broader than the textbook2 
and a little explanation added1 an      
incident told1 or an application of the 
lesson made will often do much to       
broaden the pupil's knowledge of the    
subject1 and will at the same time lend 
interest to the recitation1 besides     
increasing respect for the teacher's    
education4 ,there is nothing more       
deadening to the recitation than a      
mechanical plodding through the         
questions and answers of a textbook     
without any explanation or              
amplification1 and often without much   
comprehension on the part of the class4 

,the teacher who has nothing of his own 
to add is incapable of teaching in the  
true sense of the word4 ,at best he can 
only test as to the preparation from the
 textbook4  b4 ,dangers from the lecture
 method4--,while we justly condemn the  
teacher who has nothing of his own to   
add to the recitation1 we must not      
forget that there is a danger on the    
other side4 ,ask any assemblage of      
teachers how many think that1 in        
general1 their own teachers used to talk
 too much in the recitation1 thereby    
monopolizing the time1 and two thirds   
will blame their former teachers for    
over-using the lecture method4 ,most    
people1 when they are sure of an        
audience1 like to talk1 and probably    
teachers are no exception to the rule4  
,the teacher who is full of information 
and enthusiasm for the recitation is led
 by this very fact into temptation4     
,some point in the lesson suggests an   
interesting story or illustration1 or   
some additional bit of information1 and 

the teacher starts to tell it to the    
class4 ,he becomes himself so interested
 in it that the lesson is forgotten and 
the class period ended long before the  
story is completed4 ,this may do        
occasionally2 but1 once it becomes a    
habit1 it is fatal to good teaching4    
,the recitation as prepared by the class
 should be the chief interest of the    
class period4 ,the teacher must learn to
 supplement without monopolizing4   #g4 
,the written recitation  ,the written   
recitation can hardly be called a       
method1 since it can be itself applied  
to any or all of the methods of         
reciting4 ,like all other methods1 the  
written recitation has its strong points
 of excellence and also its dangers4  a4
 ,the use of the written                
recitation4--,the written recitation is 
especially useful in cases where all of 
the class should recite upon all of the 
lesson4 ,it is easy to see that by      
having each of a class of ten answer ten
 questions1 a far larger amount of      

answering is done in the aggregate than 
if only one could answer at a time1 as  
in oral recitation4  ,there are certain 
kinds of knowledge that are seldom used 
except in writing4 ,for example1 we are 
never called upon to spell or to use    
letter forms1 business forms1           
punctuation marks1 etc41 except in      
writing4 ,it is safe to say that matter 
of such kinds should usually be taught  
by having it written4  ,the written     
recitation also leads to accuracy and   
precision of thought and expression4 ,we
 all formulate more carefully what we   
write than what we speak4  ,the written 
recitation also gives an opportunity for
 training in verbal expression4 ,every  
person needs to be able to express      
himself easily and forcibly in writing4 
,but this requires much practice1 and   
there is no better practice than in     
formulating in writing the thoughts of  
the daily lessons4  b4 ,dangers in the  
use of the written method4--,valuable as
 the written method is1 there are       

certain cautions to be observed in its  
use4  ,this method does not ordinarily  
possess the interest and spontaneity of 
the oral recitation4 ,there is no       
opportunity for the teacher to          
supplement with points brought in4      
,misconceptions are not cleared up in   
the minds of the pupils1 at least during
 that recitation period1 unless the     
written papers are read at once4        
,usually time does not permit this4     
,many children do not like to write1 and
 hence find the lesson tiresome1        
especially if continued for a whole     
class period4  ,the amount of writing   
required of children may be too great4  
,few pupils can write long at a time    
without eye-strain1 muscle cramp1 and   
bad bodily positions4 ,where this is the
 case1 over-fatigue results if the      
amount of written work required is      
large4 ,it is not unusual to find       
schools in which children are required  
to spend almost half of their school    
hours in some form of written work4     

,this is a serious mistake both         
educationally and from the standpoint of
 health4  ,there is also still another  
side of the matter to consider4 ,one of 
the great advantages of written work is 
that the pupil may have his errors shown
 him1 so that he may reflect upon them  
and correct them4 ,but not infrequently1
 where the amount of written work is too
 large1 the errors are not carefully    
corrected by the teacher1 and not       
corrected at all by the pupil4 ,this is 
why many pupils will keep on making the 
same error time after time on their     
papers4 ,the correction has not         
sufficiently impressed them4  ,all      
written work1 with perhaps rare         
exceptions1 should be carefully gone    
over by the teacher1 and all serious or 
oft-repeated errors corrected by the    
pupils who make them4 ,not infrequently 
may children be seen to glance over a   
paper upon which the teacher has put    
precious time and some red ink in making
 corrections1 and then crumple the paper

 and throw it into the waste basket4    
,sometimes this is done in sheer        
carelessness1 and sometimes in petulance
 because of the many corrections4 ,this 
is all a loss of time and opportunity4  
,the teacher should have tact enough to 
show the pupils that corrections are    
made on their papers for their benefit1 
and not as a punishment4 ,and then the  
pupils should take the trouble to       
correct the errors1 that they may not   
occur again4 ,better a thousand times   
correct carefully an old paper than     
write a new one containing the same     
errors4     ,,iii  ,,the ,,art ,,of     
,,questioning   #a4 ,the importance of  
good questioning  ,skill in the art of  
questioning lies at the basis of all    
good teaching4 ,when we were children it
 looked so easy for the teacher to sit  
and ask the questions which we were     
expected to answer4 ,when we become     
teachers we find that it is much harder 
to ask the questions than to answer     
them4 ,for to question well1 one must   

not only know the subject thoroughly1   
but must also constantly interpret the  
mind of the pupil to discover what      
question next to ask1 and whether he is 
mastering what we are teaching him4     
,good questioning stimulates thought1   
leads to inquiry1 and results in        
understanding and mastery4 ,poor        
questioning leaves the mental powers    
unawakened1 cripples thought1 and       
results in inefficiency and lack of     
mastery4   #b4 ,need of fundamental     
principles  ,good questioning is        
dependent upon the teacher's having a   
firm command of a few essential         
principles which apply to all           
questioning used in teaching4 ,the      
teacher's constant self-criticism in the
 light of these will greatly improve his
 control of discussion in the class     
room4   #c4 ,the principle of freedom   
from textbooks  ,the questions of the   
recitation must of course deal with the 
matter of the textbook and be directly  
suggested by it4 ,yet there are two     

dangers to be avoided in this           
connection3 7#a7 ,questions should not  
follow the language of the text1 and    
7#b7 the teacher should not be dependent
 on the textbook to suggest the question
 itself or to determine the correctness 
of the answer4  ,the teacher who has not
 the lesson well prepared1 or who is    
mentally lazy1 has a constant temptation
 to ask questions in the words of the   
book4 ,this is much easier than to know 
the subject and the textbook both well  
enough to formulate original1           
appropriate questions4 ,an illustration 
of what is meant is found in the        
following account of a recitation       
conducted from ,montgomery's ,american  
,history1 the lesson being on the       
landing of the ,pilgrims 7pp4 #gg1      
#gh73--       ,q4 ,on a morning late in 
,november1 what did the ,pilgrims do8   
,a4 ,they sighted ,cape ,cod4       ,q4 
,two days later1 where did the          
,mayflower come to anchor8       ,a4 ,in
 ,provincetown ,harbor4       ,q4 ,while

 the ,mayflower remained at anchor1 what
 did ,captain      ,standish and a      
boatload of men do8       ,a4 ,they went
 out to explore4       ,q4 ,on the shore
 of ,plymouth harbor what is there      
lying8       ,a4 ,a granite bowlder4    
,it is seen that each of these questions
 follows the words of the text1 and that
 the answer but completes the sentence  
of which the question is a part4        
,questions of this kind only suggest to 
the memory the statement of the text1   
and do not cause the pupil to use his   
own thought in realizing the actual     
event4 ,hence they arouse little        
interest and leave little impression4   
,they train the verbal memory1 but leave
 imagination1 thought1 and understanding
 untouched4 ,how much better such       
questions as these3--       ,when did   
the ,pilgrims first sight land8         
,what land did they see8       ,what was
 its appearance8       ,have you ever   
seen a stretch of shore like this one8  
,why did not the ,pilgrims land at this 

point8       ,where did they finally    
anchor8       ,what measures did they   
take to see whether this was a          
suitable place to land8       ,why is   
the name ,plymouth ,rock so famous in   
,american      history8  ,these         
questions cover just the same ground as 
the ones above1 but they suggest living 
pictures and actual events rather than  
the language of the textbook4  ,the     
unprepared or lazy teacher is also in   
danger of relying on the textbook for   
his questions even when he does not     
formulate them in the language of the   
printed page4 ,not infrequently teachers
 conduct the whole of a recitation with 
the text open before them1 hardly taking
 their eyes from the book1 and seeming  
to have no inspiration or questions not 
immediately gleaned from the page before
 them4 ,in extreme cases of             
unpreparedness they may even have to    
test the correctness of the answers     
given by the class by reference to the  
text4 ,of course this is all the highest

 degree of inefficiency4 ,it should not 
be called teaching at all1 for no one   
can teach another that which he does not
 himself possess as a part of his own   
mental equipment4 ,nothing can be more  
deadening to a class than to see a      
teacher1 whom they look upon as their   
intellectual leader1 floundering in such
 a vain attempt to teach something that 
he does not himself know4  ,the eyes and
 the mind of the teacher must both be   
free in the recitation--the eyes to look
 interest and encouragement into the    
eyes of the class1 the mind to marshal  
the points of the lesson and watch the  
effects of their presentation on the    
minds of the pupils4 ,a recitation at   
its best consists of an animated and    
interesting conversation between teacher
 and class4 ,and no conversation can be 
live and interesting when one of its    
participants has mind and eyes riveted  
to a book2 for conversation involves an 
interchange of expression1 of spirit1   
and of personality as well as of words4 

,it is not meant that a teacher must    
never have a textbook open before him   
during a recitation4 ,often it is not   
only desirable1 but necessary that he   
should do so2 but only for suggestion   
and reference1 and never to supply      
questions and test answers4  ,it is     
certainly much better to have the       
textbook before one than to teach the   
lesson after a disconnected and         
haphazard fashion from lack of          
familiarity with its points4 ,an        
excellent substitute for the text1      
however1 is an outline1 or plan of the  
lesson embodying the main points1       
illustrations1 and applications to be   
made4 ,such an outline will save the    
teacher from wandering too far afield in
 the discussions1 will insure unity in  
the lesson1 and make certain that       
important points shall not be           
overlooked4  ,a desirable rule for the  
teacher to set for himself would be so  
to prepare for the recitation by mastery
 of the subject1 and by lesson plan or  

outline1 that he does not need to have  
the textbook open before him when the   
pupils do not also have their books     
open4 ,the teacher who will heroically  
meet this standard will soon find       
growing in himself a feeling of mastery 
of his subjects and of joy in his       
teaching4   #d4 ,the principle of unity 
or continuity in questions  ,questions  
should be so planned that they develop  
or bring out the unity of the lesson4   
,it is possible for questions to be so  
haphazard and disconnected that the     
pupil receives the impression of a      
series of unrelated facts1 rather than a
 unified and related subject4 ,in good  
questioning1 one question naturally     
grows out of another1 so that the series
 develops step by step the truth        
contained in the lesson1 and brings it  
to the mind of the child as a complete  
whole4  ,this means that the teacher    
must know the whole subject so          
thoroughly that the right questions come
 to him easily and naturally1 and in the

 right order to bring out the successive
 steps of the lesson in their logical   
relations4  ,the difference between a   
related series of questions and an      
unrelated is shown in two lists which   
follow4 ,both deal with the same        
subject-matter1 a physiology lesson on  
respiration4 ,the questions of the first
 list are not themselves faulty1 but    
there is no continuity among them2 one  
does not grow out of another so as to   
develop the subject in the minds of the 
class4       ,what change takes place in
 the air while in the lungs8       ,what
 change takes place in the blood while  
in the lungs8       ,how many cubic     
inches of air will the lungs contain8   
,how much of this cannot be expelled by 
breathing out8       ,how many times do 
we naturally breathe in a minute8       
,what are some of the effects of        
breathing impure air8       ,how is the 
oxygen carried by the blood8       ,what
 is animal heat8       ,what is the     
temperature of the body8  ,these        

questions were all answered fairly well 
by the class1 but the answers contained 
only so many bits of isolated           
information1 and the pupils did not     
understand the subject after they had   
recited upon it4 ,another teacher asked 
the following questions3       ,why must
 the body have air to breathe8       ,of
 what use is oxygen in the body8        
,where does this oxidization1 or burning
 up of worn-out      cells1 take place8 
,but how is the oxygen carried to every 
part of the body and      brought into  
contact with the tissues8       ,where  
do the corpuscles of the blood get their
 loads of      oxygen8       ,what gas  
do they give up in exchange for the     
oxygen8       ,where do they get the    
carbon dioxide8       ,how does air     
entering the lungs differ from air      
leaving      them8       ,what          
corresponding change takes place in the 
blood while it      is in the lungs8    
,explain how the change is effected in  
each case4       ,suppose we breathe air

 that contains too little oxygen1 what  
will be the effect on the corpuscles8   
,what will be the effect on oxidization 
in the tissues8       ,and what is the  
effect of poor oxidization on physical  
vitality8       ,on mental vitality8    
,the class that answered these questions
 not only had the information belonging 
to each separate question1 but also     
understood the lesson as a whole1       
because each question grew out of the   
ones that preceded it1 thus making the  
recitation a unified whole4   #e4 ,the  
principle of clearness  ,questions must 
be made clear1 so that their meaning may
 be understood4 ,this is not always an  
easy task1 and the teacher frequently   
misses being wholly clear4 ,this is     
evidenced by the fact that often when a 
pupil fails to answer a question asked  
in one way1 he can answer it easily when
 the wording is changed4 ,this means    
that the difficulty for the pupil       
existed in the question1 and not in the 
answer4  ,clearness in questioning      

involves three factors3 7#a7 ,freedom   
from ambiguity or obscurity of wording2 
7#b7 adaptation to the age and          
understanding of the pupil2 7#c7        
reasonable brevity4  a4 ,freedom from   
ambiguity or obscurity of               
wording4--,this is fundamentally a      
matter of the use of good ,english4 ,it 
requires such a choice and arrangement  
of words and clauses that there can be  
no doubt as to the meaning to be        
conveyed4 ,assuming a fair command of   
the language and care in its use1 the   
basis of clearness at this point is     
thorough mastery of the subject-matter  
of the questions1 so that the teacher   
himself understands clearly just what he
 means to ask4  ,the following          
illustrations show some questions that  
are faulty from the standpoint of       
obscurity of meaning3--  ,what caused   
,lincoln to issue the ,emancipation     
,proclamation in #ahfc8 7,not clear     
whether question means why did he issue 
the ,emancipation ,proclamation at all1 

or why did he issue it in #ahfc instead 
of at some other time47  ,what are the  
effects of attention to a moving object8
 7,not clear whether question means     
effects on the person attending or the  
effect which the moving of an object has
 in making itself seen47       ,who     
chased whom down what valley8       ,why
 has a cat fur and a duck feathers8  b4 
,adaptation to the age and understanding
 of the child4--,questions that are     
perfectly clear to an adult may be hazy 
or incomprehensible to a child because  
he does not understand the terms used in
 the question1 or because it deals with 
matters beyond his grasp4 ,the teacher  
must keep within the vocabulary of the  
child in formulating his questions4     
,where it is necessary or desirable to  
introduce new words into questions1 care
 must be taken that the child knows     
fully the meaning of the new terms4 ,a  
teacher asked a class in elementary     
physiology1 ,what measures would you    
take to resuscitate a person asphyxiated

 with carbon dioxide8 ,the class all    
looked blank4 ,no one seemed to know    
what to do4 ,it chanced that the        
superintendent was visiting the school1 
and he said to the teacher1 ,let me try4
 ,then he asked the class1 ,what would  
you do for a person who had been        
smothered by breathing coal gas8 ,the   
class brightened up1 and every hand was 
raised indicating readiness to answer   
the question4  ,another teacher         
bewildered his class by asking1 ,which  
phenomena of the fratricidal strife in  
the ,american ,republic were most       
determinative of the ultimate fate of   
the nation8 ,no one knew4 ,had he asked 
his question in plain terms1 no doubt   
the class could have answered it4  ,in  
an elementary history class1 a teacher  
propounded this question3 ,what         
,american institutions have been founded
 on the principle of social democracy8  
,not only the terms of the question1 but
 the thought also is beyond the         
comprehension of children4 ,such        

questions are not only useless as a     
means of testing1 teaching1 or drilling1
 but serve to confuse and discourage the
 child1 and cause him to lose interest  
in school4  c4 ,brevity4--,no matter how
 well a question is worded1 or how well 
it is adapted to the age and capacity of
 the pupil1 it may fail in clearness    
because it is too long and disjointed1  
or because it deals with too many       
points4 ,far better break a complicated 
question up into several simple ones1   
concerning whose meaning there can be no
 doubt4  ,a teacher who had not yet     
mastered the art of questioning asked   
his physiology class a question somewhat
 like this3 ,do you consider it         
advisable1 taking into account the fact 
that none of the vital processes go on  
as vigorously during sleep as during the
 waking hours 7you remember that the    
breathing and the pulse are less rapid  
and the temperature of the body also    
lower71 to eat just before retiring at  
night1 especially if one is very tired  

and exhausted--a condition which still  
further lowers the vitality and hence   
decreases the powers of digestion and   
assimilation1 and would your answer be  
different if it is understood that the  
food taken is to be light and easily    
digested8  ,it is needless to say that  
the class found themselves lost in the  
maze of conditions and parenthetical    
expressions and did not attempt an      
answer4 ,the question contains material 
for a dozen different questions1 and    
probably the class could have answered  
them all had they been properly asked4  
#f4 ,the principle of definiteness      
,questions should be definite1 so that  
they can have but one meaning4 ,it is   
possible to ask a question so that its  
general meaning is clear enough1 but so 
that its precise meaning is in doubt4   
,such questions leave the pupil puzzled1
 and usually lead to indirectness or    
guessing in the answer4 ,failure to make
 questions definite1 so that they can   
have but one meaning is responsible for 

much of the difference of opinion on    
disputed questions4  ,many a stock      
question upon which amateur debating    
societies have exercised their talents  
would admit of no debate at all1 if once
 the question were made definite4 ,for  
the ground for debate lies in the       
difference in interpretation of the     
question and not in the facts           
themselves4 ,for example3 ,if a cannon  
ball were to be fired off by some       
mechanical device a million miles from  
where there was any ear to hear1 would  
there be any sound8 ,the lack of        
definiteness here which permits         
difference of opinion lies in the word  
sound4 ,if we add after the word sound  
the phrase1 in the sense of a conscious 
auditory sensation1 the answer would    
obviously be1 ,no1 since there can be no
 auditory sensation without an ear to   
hear it4 ,if1 on the other hand1 instead
 of the above phrase we add1 in the     
sense of wave-vibrations in the air1 the
 answer will obviously be1 ,yes1 since  

the wave-vibrations in the air do not   
depend on the presence of an ear to be  
affected by them4  ,likewise1 in the    
question1 ,if a man starts to walk      
around a squirrel which is clinging to  
the limb of a tree1 and if1 as the man  
circles the tree1 the squirrel also     
circles the tree so that he constantly  
faces the man1 when the man has gone    
completely around the tree1 has he gone 
around the squirrel8 ,here the          
indefiniteness lies in the meaning of to
 go around4 ,with this indefiniteness   
remedied1 there is no longer any        
possibility of difference of opinion4   
,indefiniteness may come from the use of
 certain words that from their very     
nature are indefinite in meaning4 ,such 
are the verbs be1 do1 have1 become1     
happen1 and the prepositions of and     
about4 ,examples of indefiniteness      
growing out of such colorless words are 
found in the following questions1 which 
are types of many asked in our schools  
daily3--       ,what does water do when 

heated8 7,expands1 evaporates1          
boils47       ,what happens when it     
lightnings8 7,thunder1 discharge of     
electricity1 flash47       ,what must   
immigrants coming into this country     
have8      7,money1 freedom from        
disease1 character47       ,what did    
,arnold become8 7,a traitor1 a ,british 
general1 an      outcast1 a repentant   
man47       ,what is the cow8 7,a       
mammal1 a quadruped1 a producer of      
milk1 butter1 and beef2 an herbivorous  
animal47       ,what about the ,monroe  
,doctrine8 7,a dozen different          
things47       ,what of the animals in  
the temperate zone8  ,questions may be  
so general as to be indefinite4 ,the    
teacher asks1 ,where is ,chicago8 ,the  
class may answer1 ,in ,illinois on ,lake
 ,michigan2 in ,north ,america2 in ,cook
 ,county4 ,the teacher should know just 
what answer he desires1 and then ask1   
,in what ,state2 on what continent2 on  
what lake2 or in what county8  ,other   
illustrations of vagueness coming from  

the use of words of too general a       
meaning are found in such questions as1 
,what kind of man was ,george           
,washington8       ,when does a person  
need food8       ,how does tobacco grow8
       ,what do birds like8  ,all       
indefinite questions deserve and usually
 receive an indefinite answer1 and hence
 lead to and encourage guessing4 ,if the
 answers to such questions as the above 
are not indefinite1 they must be purely 
memoriter1 merely reproducing the words 
of the text without comprehension of any
 real meaning4  ,indefinite questioning 
usually comes from a lack of clear      
thinking on the part of the questioner4 
,the teacher himself does not know      
precisely what he means to ask1 and     
hence cannot be definite4 ,it is safe to
 say that the teacher's questions       
covering a subject will never be any    
more clear or definite than the subject 
itself is in his mind4 ,indeed it is    
hard for one to be wholly definite in   
questioning even when he is a perfect   

master of his subject4 ,certainly1 then1
 eternal vigilance will be the price of 
clearness and definiteness on the part  
of the young teacher who is as yet      
striving for mastery of what he is      
teaching4   #g4 ,secondary principles of
 good questioning  ,besides the         
foregoing fundamental principles        
underlying the art of questioning1 there
 are a few secondary principles1 some of
 which are of hardly less importance3-- 
#a4 ,questions should be asked          
naturally1 and in a conversational tone1
 and not explosively demanded of pupils4
  #b4 ,usually the question should be   
addressed to the entire class and1 after
 all have had a moment to think1 some   
one then designated to answer4 ,the     
reason for this is obvious4 ,if the one 
who is to answer is designated before   
the question is asked1 the incentive to 
the rest of the class to think the      
answer is greatly lessened4  #c4 ,no    
regular order should be followed in     
calling on pupils4 ,if such an order is 

established1 the lazy and uninterested  
ones have a tendency to remain inactive 
until called upon4 ,by the hit-and-miss 
method of calling no one knows at what  
moment he may be the next one1 hence    
there is a strong incentive to attend to
 the lesson4 ,it is also desirable to   
call on a pupil occasionally the second 
time very soon after he has previously  
been called upon4 ,this prevents him    
from thinking that as soon as he has    
recited once he can then safely relax   
his attention4  #d4 ,inattentive or     
mischievous pupils should be the mark   
for frequent questions4 ,if it comes to 
be known that any inattention is sure to
 bring questions to the pupil at fault1 
the battle for attention is half won4   
,there is a strong tendency on the part 
of the teacher to ask for the answer to 
a question from those whose eyes show   
that they are attentive and ready with  
an answer4 ,while this readiness and    
attention should be rewarded by giving  
an opportunity to answer1 it must not   

lead the teacher to neglect those who   
may need the question more than the more
 ready ones4 ,the questions should be   
impartially distributed among the bright
 and the dull pupils4  #e4 ,it is highly
 important that questions shall be asked
 so that they demand thought in         
answering1 and usually so that the      
answer must be given in a full          
statement4 ,seldom should a question be 
asked in such form that a simple ,yes or
 ,no will answer it4 ,this does not     
require sufficient thought on the part  
of the pupil1 it permits guess-work1 and
 fails to cultivate ability in          
expression4 ,answers that may be given  
in a word or two1 or by ,yes or ,no1 may
 be accepted in rapid drill or review   
work1 and also in the inductive         
questioning used in developing a new    
subject1 but should be used very        
sparingly in other places in the        
recitation4  #f4 ,the pumping question  
should not be used4 ,in this type of    
question1 the teacher formulates the    

answer and leaves only the key word for 
the pupil to supply4 ,the teacher       
sometimes goes so far as to suggest the 
necessary word by pronouncing the first 
syllable or two of it4 ,a dialogue like 
the following was heard in one school3--
       ,q4 ,columbus was an ----8       
,a4 ,explorer4       ,q4 ,no1 he was an 
,it----8       ,a4 ,oh1 an ,italian4    
,such an attempt at teaching would be   
amusing1 were it not so serious for the 
child4   #h4 ,the treatment of answers  
,the teacher's treatment of the answers 
given is of hardly less importance than 
the formulation of the questions        
themselves4 ,it is to be remembered that
 the recitation is an interchange of    
thought and expression between teacher  
and class4 ,to this end1 the response   
must be mutual4 ,not alone when the     
question is being asked is the teacher  
to be animated and interested1 but      
likewise while the answer is being      
given4 ,it is neither good pedagogy nor 
good manners for a teacher to sit       

unresponsive and inattentive when a     
pupil is reciting4 ,not that the teacher
 needs always to comment on an answer1  
or say that it is correct2 it is rather 
a matter of manner1 of attention and    
interest to the answer4 ,we find it     
embarrassing either in a recitation or  
out of it to talk to a person who seems 
not to be listening4  ,right at this    
point1 however1 there lurks an insidious
 danger4 ,it comes easily and naturally 
to one to give some sign of assent or   
disapproval as to the correctness of the
 answer while it is being spoken4 ,the  
slightest inclination of the head1 the  
dropping of the eyelids1 or a certain   
expression of the face1 comes to be read
 by the pupil as a signboard to guide   
him in his statements4 ,this is1 of     
course1 all wrong4 ,the teacher should  
give absolutely no sign while the answer
 is going on4 ,thus to help the child   
leads him to depend on the teacher      
instead of relying on his own knowledge4
 ,it leads to guessing1 and so skillful 

does this sometimes become that a bright
 but unprepared pupil is able to steer  
through a recitation guided by the      
unsuspecting teacher4  ,answers should  
not be repeated by the teacher4 ,this is
 a very common fault1 and a habit that  
is usually acquired before the teacher  
is aware of it4 ,the tendency to repeat 
answers probably arises at first from a 
mental unreadiness on the part of the   
teacher4 ,he has not his next question  
quite ready1 and so bridges over the    
interval by saying over the answer just 
given by the pupil4 ,it is a method of  
gaining time1 but really finally results
 in great loss of time in the           
recitation4 ,by actual count1 many      
teachers have been found to repeat as   
many as #ge of the answers given in the 
recitation4 ,besides the great waste of 
time1 the repetition of answers is a    
source of distraction and annoyance to  
pupils4 ,no one enjoys having his words 
said over after him constantly4 ,of     
course answers may sometimes need to be 

repeated to emphasize some important    
point4 ,but when repetition has become a
 habit1 no emphasis is gained by the    
repetition4  ,finally1 answers should be
 required in good ,english1 clear and   
definite1 like the questions4 ,pupils   
who say1 ,an improper fraction is       
'where' the numerator is greater than   
the denominator2 ,a compound sentence is
 'when' it has two or more independent  
clauses1 should be led to restate their 
answers in clear and correct language4  
,,iv  ,,conditions ,,necessary ,,to ,a  
,,good ,,recitation   ,we have now      
discussed the aim of the recitation1 its
 methods1 and the principles governing  
the art of questioning4 ,but no matter  
how well defined the aim for the        
recitation1 no matter how excellent its 
method1 no matter how skilled the       
teacher may be in the art of            
questioning1 these things alone cannot  
make a good recitation4 ,certain other  
fundamental conditions must obtain if   
the recitation is to be a success4 ,let 

us now discuss the more important of    
these conditions4   #a4 ,freedom from   
distractions  ,distractions of any      
nature result in a double waste4 ,first1
 a waste of power through preventing    
concentration and continuity of thought4
 ,try as hard as one may1 he cannot     
secure the best results from his mental 
effort1 if his stream of thought is     
being broken in upon4 ,the loss by this 
process is comparable to that involved  
in running a train of cars1 stopping it 
every ten rods instead of every ten or  
every one hundred miles4 ,but this form 
of waste is not all4 ,there is also a   
serious waste of interest and enthusiasm
 resulting from interrupted recitations4
 ,every teacher has at times felt the   
sudden drop in attention and interest on
 the part of the class after some       
interruption which took the minds of the
 class off the subject4 ,try as hard as 
the teacher may1 it is impossible to go 
back to the same level of efficiency    
after such a break4 ,the following show 

some of the chief sources of            
distractions3--  a4 ,distractions by the
 teacher4--,strange as it may seem1 many
 teachers are to be criticised on this  
point4 ,any striking feature or         
peculiarity of manner1 dress1 or        
carriage which attracts the attention of
 the class is a distraction4 ,a loud or 
ill-modulated voice1 tones too low or   
indistinct to be heard well1 the habit  
of walking up and down the aisles or    
back and forth before the class1        
assuming awkward positions standing or  
sitting before the class--these are all 
personal factors which the teacher needs
 to keep constantly under surveillance4 
,the teacher may also distract the class
 by answering questions asked by the    
pupils at their seats1 or by rebuking   
misdemeanors seen among those not in the
 recitation4 ,most of such interruptions
 are wholly unnecessary1 and could be   
avoided by a little foresight and       
management4 ,the lesson should be so    
clearly assigned that the pupils can    

have no excuse to ask later about the   
assignment1 and then there should be a  
penalty for forgetting it4 ,the drinks  
of water should be had and the errands  
attended to between classes4 ,the       
pencils should be supplied and sharpened
 before the session begins4 ,the        
mischievous culprits should be taught   
that it is a serious offense to         
interrupt a recitation4 ,the teacher who
 permits these distractions by the      
school has not yet learned the secret of
 good management1 and could hardly      
advertise his inefficiency in this      
regard any more effectively than by     
permitting such interruptions to        
continue4  ,it is also possible for the 
teacher to distract the person reciting 
by interrupting when there is a slight  
pause to think of the next point1 or a  
hesitation before pronouncing a word4   
,teachers sometimes even interrupt a    
pupil who is reciting and themselves    
offer explanations1 make remarks1 or    
continue the discussion1 leaving the    

child standing and not knowing whether  
he is excused or not4 ,of course this is
 bad manners on the part of the teacher1
 and it is even worse pedagogy4 ,it is  
not encouraging to the pupil to feel    
that he may be interrupted at any       
moment1 and few can think clearly or    
recite well when expecting such         
interruptions4 ,the pupil should not    
expect to be allowed to think out a     
lesson or a point when he is reciting1  
which he should have thought out before 
coming to class4 ,on the other hand1 the
 teacher must remember that the child's 
mind is working on what to him is new   
and difficult matter1 and hence cannot  
move as rapidly as the teacher's4  b4   
,distractions by the                    
class4--,inattention1 restlessness1 and 
mischief are great sources of           
distraction from the class themselves4  
,all these things have a tendency to be 
contagious1 and in any case always break
 in upon the train of thought of the    
recitation4 ,because of this the teacher

 must win the inattentive and restless1 
and must check the restless1 if he would
 save his recitation4  ,not             
infrequently1 in the more elementary    
classes1 a certain kind of distraction  
is fostered and encouraged by the       
teacher with the aim of securing the    
attention of the whole class to the one 
who is reciting4 ,this form of          
distraction consists in having the whole
 class watch the one who is reciting1   
and1 if they observe an error in the    
recitation1 at once raise their hands1  
when the one reciting must stop4 ,this  
is a mistake from almost every          
standpoint1 and has very little to      
redeem it4 ,it may result in closer     
attention on the part of the class2 but 
the motive which prompts the attention  
is bad4 ,it leads to elation and        
rejoicing over the mistakes and failures
 of another1 and it centres attention on
 the mistakes rather than on the facts  
to be brought out4 ,attention should be 
trained so that it will not have to     

depend on this kind of motive1 and the  
memory should be trained to note and    
hold a correction until the one reciting
 has finished4 ,further1 it is a most   
serious distraction to the one who is   
reciting to be expecting that a forest  
of hands may at any moment be wildly    
waving about his ears1 gleefully        
announcing that he has made an error4   
,condemnation of this method of securing
 attention can hardly be too severe4  c4
 ,distractions by the school4--,in any  
busy school there is bound to be more or
 less of hum and confusion4 ,in many    
schools1 however1 there is much more    
than is warranted4 ,it is true that     
children get tired of sitting still for 
an entire session1 and that they find   
relief in going for a drink1 or going to
 the dictionary1 or on some other errand
 about the room4 ,in some schools1 one  
or more pupils may be found walking     
about the room at almost any time of the
 day1 and not infrequently several are  
on errands at the same time4 ,this1 as  

previously noted1 is usually a fault in 
management on the part of the teacher4  
,the larger part of these interruptions 
can just as well be saved by a little   
foresight and firmness4  ,some teachers 
even leave the class which they are     
hearing to answer questions or give help
 to pupils in the school who have not   
been trained to wait for their requests 
until the class is dismissed4 ,usually1 
only a very small percentage of these   
questions should have been asked at all1
 or would have been with the proper     
management of the school4 ,and all the  
necessary questions and requests should 
almost without exception be held for the
 interval between recitations4 ,the     
school should be taught that nothing    
short of the direst necessity will      
warrant asking a question or making a   
request during a recitation4  ,likewise 
in the case of misdemeanors4 ,the class 
which is reciting should not be         
interrupted for minor misdemeanors which
 occur during the recitation4 ,this does

 not mean that the misdemeanor is to go 
by unnoticed4 ,on the contrary1 the     
settlement for it may be all the more   
severe for having to wait until the     
class is dismissed4  d4 ,physical       
distractions4--,distractions from the   
physical environment may be of several  
kinds4  ,not infrequently1 especially in
 the older schoolhouses1 the seats are  
so placed with reference to windows that
 the light strikes the eyes of the      
pupils1 instead of the pages of the     
books2 or it may be that a stray sunbeam
 strikes athwart the class and dazzles  
the eyes4 ,it need hardly be suggested  
that no such distraction as this should 
go unremedied4  ,in the rural schools   
the recitation seats are often near the 
stove1 where the temperature becomes    
unbearably hot when the stove must be   
generously fired to heat the remainder  
of the room4 ,not infrequently the      
ventilation is bad1 and the room is     
filled with foul air1 from which the    
major part of the oxygen has been       

exhausted4 ,no matter how good the      
intentions of the class or how zealous  
the teacher1 such conditions will kill  
the recitation4  ,whatever may be the   
cause of physical discomfort or unrest  
should be remedied4 ,one's body should  
be so comfortable and healthy that it   
does not attract attention to itself1   
except when needing food or other care1 
and it is the duty of the school to do  
all possible to bring this condition    
about4   #b4 ,interest and enthusiasm   
,interest is the foundation of all      
mental activity4 ,its very nature is to 
lead to thought and action4 ,grown      
ardent1 interest becomes enthusiasm1    
without which1 says ,emerson1 nothing   
great was ever accomplished4 ,on the    
other hand1 the absence of interest     
leaves the pupil lifeless and inert     
mentally1 his work a bore and           
achievement impossible4 ,interest is1   
therefore1 a first consideration in the 
recitation4  ,interest is contagious4   
,no one ever saw an interested and      

enthusiastic teacher with a dull and    
lifeless class4 ,nor can interest and   
enthusiasm on the part of a class       
continue in the presence of a mechanical
 and lifeless teacher4 ,the teacher is  
the model1 and he sets the standard and 
pace for his class4 ,unconsciously the  
pupils come1 under the influence of the 
teacher's personality1 to reflect his   
type of mind and attitude toward the    
work of the school4 ,the teacher's      
interest and vivacity in the recitation 
depend on many factors1 some of which   
are largely under his own control4  a4  
,the teacher's command of the           
subject-matter of the recitation4--,a   
teacher whose grasp of the lesson is    
doubtful1 who does not feel sure that he
 is a master of all its points1 who     
fears that questions may be asked that  
he cannot answer or points raised that  
he cannot explain1 can hardly possess an
 attitude of true interest toward the   
recitation4 ,his mind is too full of    
worry and strain and embarrassment4 ,he 

lacks the sense of ease and freedom     
which comes from a feeling of mastery4  
,command of the subject-matter of the   
recitation depends1 first on the        
teacher's general mastery of the branch1
 and1 second1 on being freshly prepared 
upon it4 ,it behooves every young       
teacher1 therefore1 to strive for       
mastery as he teaches4  ,but no matter  
how good the preliminary preparation1   
this cannot take the place of the fresh 
daily review1 which gives the mind a new
 readiness and grasp on the subject4    
,let the teachers who feel that their   
recitations are slow and dull1 seek the 
cause first of all in their own lack of 
preparation in one of the two lines     
mentioned4  b4 ,the teacher's attitude  
toward his work4--,if the teacher looks 
upon teaching as a mechanical process2  
if he looks on the recitation as hearing
 the class recite2 if he realizes       
nothing of the opportunities and        
responsibilities connected with teaching
 children1 then he can command little   

interest and no enthusiasm4 ,if1 on the 
other hand1 teaching is to the teacher a
 joy2 if he loves to watch the minds of 
children unfold2 if he rejoices in his  
opportunities and responsibilities as a 
teacher1 then he is sure to develop an  
interest which will soon intensify with 
enthusiasm4  c4 ,the teacher's          
health4--,all have experienced the      
mental depression and lack of interest  
in things which comes from over-fatigue4
 ,the most interesting occupation palls 
on us when we are fagged1 or when our   
vitality is low from derangement of     
health4 ,a case of indigestion may sweep
 us out of our usual cheery mood into a 
mood of discouragement and pessimism4   
,frayed nerves and an ill-nourished or  
exhausted brain are fatal to enthusiasm4
  ,teaching is found to be a very trying
 occupation on the general health1 and  
particularly on the nervous system4     
,many girls break down or develop a     
chronic nervous trouble in a few years  
in the schoolroom4 ,the combined work   

and worry prove too much for their      
strength2 and not infrequently1 also1   
the teacher who boards and carries a    
cold luncheon to school fails to secure 
the right kind of food4 ,this is        
especially true in the rural schools4   
,farmers have enough to eat1 but often  
the food suitable for men engaged in    
heavy manual labor is wholly unsuited   
for one who works with the brain and    
does not have a large amount of out-door
 exercise4  ,nor do teachers always     
secure enough pure air4 ,the air of     
schoolrooms is usually vitiated to such 
a degree that one on coming in from the 
out-door air can detect a foul odor4    
,but the air of a room ceases to be fit 
to breathe long before an odor can be   
detected from its impurities4  ,these   
are some of the chief factors which are 
proving so fatal to the health of many  
of our teachers1 and to interest and    
enthusiasm on the part of the teacher in
 his work4 ,both for the sake of his    
health and his work1 every teacher      

should seek to control these three      
factors as far as possible4 ,strain and 
worry and wear of nerves can be greatly 
lessened by careful planning of work1 by
 good organization and careful          
management1 and by exercise of the will 
to prohibit worry over matters large or 
small when worry will not help solve    
them4 ,the teacher can in some degree   
determine what food he will eat1 even if
 it means a change of boarding-place4   
,and surely every teacher can control   
the supply of fresh air for the         
schoolroom and his bedroom1 and this is 
perhaps the most important of all4  d4  
,experience4--,the young teacher1       
without experience1 may from sheer      
embarrassment and lack of mastery fail  
to show the enthusiasm which he feels1  
for embarrassment of any kind and       
enthusiasm do not thrive well together4 
,but if the teacher is really           
fundamentally interested in his         
teaching1 the enthusiasm will soon come4
 ,and better a thousand times the young 

teacher who is earnestly fighting for   
freedom and mastery in the recitation1  
than the old teacher who has grown      
wearied of the routine and has made out 
of the recitation a machine process4    
#c4 ,well-mastered lessons  ,probably   
the worst of all drawbacks to good      
recitations is poorly prepared lessons4 
,one of the greatest criticisms to which
 our educational system is open is that 
teachers try to teach and pupils try to 
recite lessons which are badly or       
indifferently prepared by both4 ,there  
is nothing more stupefying to the mind1 
or more fatal to interest in school work
 than the halting1 stumbling1           
ineffective recitations heard in many   
schools4 ,teachers who try to teach     
lessons with which they are not         
thoroughly familiar are but blind       
leaders of the blind1 and both they and 
their pupils are sure to fall into the  
ditch4  a4 ,preparation by the          
teacher4--,the teacher is the key to the
 situation4 ,if he himself lacks in     

preparation1 he can neither lead nor    
compel his pupils to the preparation of 
their lessons4 ,he sets the standard4 ,a
 stream does not rise higher than its   
source4  ,the teacher's preparation has 
two different aspects3 7#a7 ,the general
 fundamental knowledge of the subject as
 a whole obtained by previous study2 and
 7#b7 the daily preparation by study1   
thought1 or reading for the recitation4 
,in general it is safe to say that      
teachers enter upon their vocation      
without sufficient education4 ,our      
certificate requirements are low1 and   
many enter upon teaching with little or 
no more schooling than that obtained in 
the schools where they begin teaching4  
,of course this is radically wrong1 but 
it is the fault of our school system and
 not of the teacher4 ,it behooves       
teachers entering upon their work with  
this scanty preparation to recognize    
their limitations1 however1 and to do   
their best to remedy them4 ,low grade of
 certificate1 low standings in any      

branches1 or the teacher's own          
consciousness of lack of mastery should 
be sufficient to send the sincere and   
earnest teacher to school again1 even if
 this must be to summer schools instead 
of longer sessions4 ,this sacrifice will
 not only pay abundantly in higher      
salary1 but also in greater teaching    
power and in the sense of greater       
mastery and personal growth4  ,but no   
amount of preparation in a branch will  
relieve a teacher of the necessity of   
daily preparation for the recitation4   
,dr4 ,arnold expressed this thought when
 he said3 ,i prefer that my pupils shall
 drink from a running stream1 rather    
than from a stagnant pool4 ,in order    
that one may develop a line of thought  
easily it must be fresh in his mind2 it 
is not enough that he has once known it 
well4 ,one of the master teachers of our
 country1 a university professor who is 
recognized as a great authority in his  
chosen subject1 ,latin1 recently said to
 a group of ,latin teachers3 ,i have    

taught ,cicero for twenty years1 until  
,i know it by heart4 ,but yet1 every    
day1 one hour before the time for my    
,cicero class1 ,i go to my study and    
spend an hour with ,cicero1 just to get 
into the spirit of it4 ,i would not dare
 to meet my class without this4  ,it is 
true that the teacher with twenty       
classes a day cannot spend an hour on   
the preparation of each lesson4 ,but    
most of the lessons will not require so 
much--sometimes the preparation will be 
the making of an outline or plan1       
sometimes reading the lesson over to    
freshen the mind upon it1 sometimes only
 thinking the lesson through1 for its   
plan and topics4 ,it may at times1      
however1 mean hard and serious study to 
master the difficult points and their   
presentation4 ,but whatever it means1   
the conscientious and growing teacher   
will go to the lesson prepared to teach 
it in such a way as to inspire to high  
standards and mastery on the part of the
 pupils4  b4 ,preparation by the        

class4--,but in addition to the         
well-prepared teacher1 there must also  
be a well-prepared class4 ,the teacher  
cannot make bricks without straw4 ,every
 failure to recite when called upon is a
 dead weight upon the progress of the   
recitation2 and each failure makes it   
easier for the next one to fail with    
impunity1 or at least without disgrace4 
,it therefore behooves the teacher who  
would have inspiring recitations to lead
 the pupils to a high standard of       
preparation4  ,the pupil's preparation  
of the lesson should include two        
distinct lines3 7#a7 ,mastery of the    
facts1 thought1 or meaning of the       
lesson2 and 7#b7 thought or plans how   
best to express the lesson in the       
recitation4 ,most pupils think they have
 their lesson when they have memorized  
it or come to understand it4 ,they must 
also be made to see that an important   
part of their preparation lies in the   
ability to tell well what they have     
learned4   #d4 ,high standards in the   

recitation  ,there is no more potent    
force than public opinion to compel to  
high achievement or restrain from       
unworthy acts4 ,a school in which the   
standards of preparation and recitation 
are low presents a difficult problem for
 the teacher in the recitation4 ,in some
 schools pupils who are diffident about 
reciting1 or who do not care to take the
 trouble1 shake their heads in refusal  
almost before they hear the question in 
full4 ,others sit in stolid silence when
 called upon1 and make no response of   
any kind4 ,in still other cases the     
class smile or giggle when several have 
been called upon and have failed to     
recite1 thus taking the failure as a    
joke4  ,of course such a lack of        
standards proclaims the previous        
teaching to have been weak and bungling4
 ,it shows the effects of a teacher     
without standards or skill4 ,but the    
immediate question is how to remedy such
 an evil situation when one finds it    
existing in a school4  ,it is probable  

that low standards come as often from   
work that is too difficult or too great 
in amount as from any other source4 ,if 
the child fails to understand the       
lesson1 or has not had time to master   
it1 he cannot recite1 however much he   
may desire to4 ,all that is left for him
 is to decline when called upon4 ,he may
 be chagrined at first over his failure2
 but if failure follows failure1 he soon
 ceases to care when unable to recite4  
,the remedy suggests itself at once2    
assign lessons that are within the      
child's ability1 and also within the    
time available for their preparation4   
,then insist that the work be done and  
the recitation be made4  ,if the failure
 comes from laziness1 lack of study1    
indulgence in mischief1 or any such     
cause1 the remedy will be a different   
one4 ,but a remedy must be devised and  
applied4 ,no school can run successfully
 without good standards well maintained 
for the recitation4 ,the teacher who    
feels that the standards of the school  

are too low in this particular should   
never be satisfied until the cause for  
such a condition is discovered1 and     
worthy standards instituted4 ,this will 
be one of the hardest tests upon the    
teacher's ingenuity and skill4  ,the    
public opinion of the school must be    
brought to take the recitation          
seriously4 ,it must not be a cause for  
levity when several pupils fail4        
,failure must come to be looked forward 
to with apprehension1 and looked back   
upon with humiliation4 ,and all this    
must be done without scolding and       
bickering4 ,it must be done with great  
patience and good nature1 but it must be
 done4 ,the teacher must himself have a 
high standard of excellence1 and must   
persistently impress this upon his      
class4 ,here again the ideals of the    
teacher are contagious4   #e4 ,a spirit 
of cooperation  ,much depends on the    
spirit with which class and teacher     
enter upon the recitation4 ,if the      
spirit of cooperation is lacking2 if the

 relations between teacher and pupils   
are strained or not cordial2 if the     
class look upon the recitation as a kind
 of game in which the teacher tries to  
corner and catch the class1 and the     
class try to avoid being cornered and   
caught1 then the recitation is certain  
to be a failure4  ,under skillful       
teaching the pupils should come to look 
forward to the recitation with pleasure 
and anticipation4 ,it should be a time  
when teacher and class work together in 
whole-hearted1 enthusiastic effort1 with
 the common aim of bringing the class to
 master more fully the matter of the    
lesson4 ,there should be no feeling that
 the teacher has one aim and the class  
another aim1 or that their interests are
 in any way antagonistic2 no feeling    
that the teacher's highest ambition is  
to catch pupils in errors1 and the      
pupil's highest achievement to avoid    
being caught4 ,there should be no       
attempt at bluffing1 or covering up     
errors or points not understood4        

,probably the greatest factor in        
establishing and maintaining a spirit of
 cooperation between teacher and class  
is a deep-seated and sympathetic desire 
on the part of the teacher to be        
helpful4 ,if his attitude is that of a  
friend and co-worker1 and his criticisms
 and corrections are all made in the    
spirit of helping to a better           
understanding rather than in the spirit 
of fault-finding1 this will go far      
toward establishing a spirit of         
cooperation in the class4  ,this does   
not mean that the teacher shall be weak1
 and let mistakes or failures go by     
unnoticed4 ,weak teachers are never     
liked or respected4 ,it only means that 
the teacher1 in making corrections or   
calling attention to failures1 shall    
manifest the spirit of a helper and not 
of a faultfinder4 ,it means that no     
matter how many times a teacher may have
 to correct or even punish a pupil1 his 
attitude toward the pupil will still be 
cordial and friendly4 ,there are many   

persons who cannot correct a fault      
without having some enmity arise toward 
the one corrected4 ,but what the teacher
 needs is to be able to correct1 rebuke 
or punish1 and at the same time keep the
 heart warm toward the wrongdoer4 ,this 
will not only secure better results from
 the corrections1 but will also foster  
the spirit of helpfulness and           
cooperation between teacher and school4 
,finally1 the class should be brought to
 see that the school is their school1   
and not the teacher's school or the     
board's school4 ,they should realize    
that failure or low achievement is their
 loss1 and not the teacher's loss4 ,they
 should feel that their interests and   
those of the teacher1 the board1 and the
 taxpayers who support the school are   
all common interests1 and that only as  
the pupils do their part will the       
interests of all be conserved4     ,v   
,,the ,,assignment ,,of ,,the ,,lesson  
#a4 ,the importance of proper assignment
  ,upon the proper assignment of the    

lesson depends much of the success of   
the recitation1 and also much of the    
pupils' progress in learning how to     
study4 ,the assignment of the lesson    
thus becomes one of the most important  
duties of the recitation period4 ,too   
many times this is left until the very  
close of the class hour1 when there is  
no time left for proper assignment1 and 
the teacher can only say1 ,take the next
 four pages1 or ,work out the next      
twenty problems4   #b4 ,good assignment 
and teaching the art of study  ,we      
forget that children do not understand  
how to go to work at the lesson as we   
know how4 ,the result is that they come 
back to the next recitation listless and
 uninterested1 with the lesson not      
prepared4 ,or1 it may happen that the   
less timid ones1 when they come to study
 the lesson1 call upon the teacher to   
show them how to go to work4 ,the       
teacher has then to take time needed for
 other things to show different         
individuals what should have been       

presented to the entire class when the  
lesson was assigned4 ,such a method is  
comparable with giving a set of tools   
into the hands of novices who do not    
know how to use them1 and then1 without 
any instruction in the use of the tools1
 expecting them to turn out good work1  
without loss of time4  ,little children 
are unfamiliar with books1--with the    
paragraphs1 outlines1 divisions1 and    
subdivisions of a subject4 ,they hardly 
know how to gather thought from a       
printed page1 and yet we expect them to 
get their lesson without being shown how
 to go at it4 ,much time is lost in this
 way1 and many children are discouraged 
in their work and caused to dislike     
going to school4  ,the ,germans far     
excel us in this feature of their school
 work4 ,no class of ,german children are
 ever sent to their seats with the      
simple direction to take so many pages  
in advance4 ,teacher and class together 
go over the next lesson1 the teacher    
calling the attention of the class to   

the points of the lesson1 asking them to
 hunt out subdivisions1 etc41 and       
instructing them how to prepare the     
lesson4 ,and the class1 having this     
necessary help1 are able to prepare     
their lesson better and recite it better
 than the ,american children of the same
 age4   #c4 ,the teacher's preparation  
for assignment  ,there are three chief  
reasons why teachers do not give more   
attention to the assignment of the      
lesson3 7#a7 ,lack of time1 7#b7 failure
 themselves to prepare the lesson in    
advance so as to be able to assign it1  
and 7#c7 lack of understanding of proper
 methods of study4  ,lack of time is not
 an adequate excuse for failure properly
 to assign the lesson4 ,if there is but 
fifteen minutes for the recitation1 all 
the more reason why this time should be 
used to the best advantage for the      
pupils4 ,if one third of this time      
should be taken for the assignment of   
the next lesson 7and this is usually not
 too large a proportion in elementary   

classes71 then this much time should be 
taken4 ,and1 besides1 if the lesson is  
well assigned1 so that it is better     
understood and prepared by the class1   
more can be accomplished in ten minutes 
of actual reciting than in fifteen under
 the old method4  ,it may sometimes be  
advisable to assign the advance lesson  
at the beginning of the recitation1 but 
usually it is better to wait until the  
close2 for then the connection between  
the present lesson and the next can     
better be brought out4  ,failure to look
 ahead in the textbook and become       
familiar with the next lesson renders it
 impossible properly to make the        
assignment4 ,the teacher must know the  
scope of the lesson1 its chief points1  
and the main difficulties it will       
present to the class4 ,how often        
teachers are obliged to say to an       
unprepared class3 ,i did not realize how
 hard that lesson was1 or ,i would not  
have assigned so much2 or1 ,that lesson 
was longer than ,i intended4 ,all of    

which is a confession that the teacher  
was unprepared to make the assignment   
properly4 ,it is true that the teacher  
is very busy and has many lessons to    
prepare2 but1 on the other hand1 the    
teacher who keeps a day ahead of the    
class in his preparation will find that 
it abundantly pays in the greater       
mastery of his subject and the time     
saved in reviewing it preparatory to the
 recitation4 ,this is not time lost1 it 
is time saved4  ,the young teacher's    
lack of knowledge of the principles     
underlying the art of study is a more   
serious matter1 and a difficulty harder 
to overcome4 ,every teacher should make 
a special study of the psychology of    
attention and interest4 ,he should also 
come to know how the mind naturally     
approaches any new subject1 first       
securing a synthetic or bird's-eye view 
of it as a whole2 how next it analyzes  
it into its elements2 and how finally it
 thinks them together1 or synthesizes   
them1 into a new and better-understood  

whole4   #d4 ,how to assign a lesson    
,there may1 of course1 be some lessons  
that can properly be assigned in a      
moment by telling the class how much to 
take in advance4 ,this is true of       
lessons that are only a continuation of 
matter with which the class are already 
somewhat familiar1 which they know how  
to study1 and which contains no special 
difficulties4 ,for example1 spelling    
lessons presenting no new difficulties  
or especially hard words2 arithmetic    
lessons containing practice problems    
intended for drill1 but no new topics   
for study2 grammar lessons consisting of
 applications of principles or rules    
already mastered4 ,but all lessons that 
are built upon a logical outline1 or    
contain new or difficult principles1 or 
involve especial difficulties of any    
kind should be assigned carefully and   
with sufficient detail to make sure that
 the class know how to go to work in    
preparing the lesson without loss of    
time and interest4  ,it is necessary1   

however1 to observe a caution in this   
connection4 ,there is some danger of    
assigning lessons in such a way as to   
render too much help1 and thus relieve  
the pupil of the necessity of mastering 
it for himself4 ,it is difficult to say 
whether the mistake of helping too much 
in the assignment1 or not helping enough
 is the more serious4 ,the teacher must 
know his class and his textbook1 and    
then use the best judgment he has in    
making just such suggestions as will    
result in the best effort and mastery by
 the pupils without robbing them of the 
necessity for work4   #e4 ,principles   
governing the assignment  ,the following
 are the chief points to be observed in 
assigning the lesson3--  #a4 ,go over   
the lesson with the class in such a way 
as to give them a bird's-eye view of the
 whole1 a general idea of what the      
entire lesson is about1 or what it is   
meant to teach4 ,sometimes this can best
 be done with the books open in the     
hands of the pupils1 the teacher calling

 attention to the topics treated4       
,occasionally the teacher may himself   
state the aim or scope of the lesson    
without the use of the text4 ,getting   
this synthetic view of the lesson       
enables the pupil to begin study with   
better intelligence1 and also helps him 
better to understand the relation of the
 separate parts to the lesson as a      
whole4 ,in this bird's-eye view of the  
lesson its relation to the lesson just  
recited1 or other previous lessons1     
should be brought out so as to unite the
 separate lessons into a continuous view
 of the subject4  #b4 ,suggestions      
should be given as to the analysis of   
the lesson into its different topics4   
,if the text uses a system of numerals  
in designating the points1 the pupils   
should form the habit of using these in 
studying the lesson4 ,for example1      
finding ,i1 they should look for ,,ii1  
,,iii1 etc41 thus getting the main      
heads4 ,under these main topic numerals 
will often be found a series of         

paragraphs numbered #a1 #b1 #c1 etc41   
indicating the different topics under   
each head4 ,the system may even extend  
to sub-topics lettered a1 b1 c1 etc4    
,the pupil should early learn to look   
for and make use of these helps in the  
analysis of the lesson4 ,and even when  
the author does not introduce any such  
system of numbering he still follows    
some outline more or less logically     
arranged4 ,no better training in        
analysis1 and no better method of       
mastering a lesson can be found than for
 the pupil himself to make a written    
outline of the lesson1 using such a     
system of numbering the topics and      
sub-topics as that suggested above4  #c4
 ,children should be taught to make a   
final summary1 or synthesis1 of the     
lesson after they have analyzed it into 
its separate points4 ,of course a large 
proportion of the details learned and   
recited in any lesson will finally be   
forgotten4 ,but this does not mean that 
such details were unnecessary4 ,it      

rather means that their part was to help
 in bringing out the few main facts or  
points and making them clear4 ,for most 
lessons can be reduced to a few chief   
points4 ,these are the ones to be       
remembered and used in further learning4
 ,it is these important points which the
 pupil should summarize and fix in his  
memory and understanding as the final   
act in preparing the lesson4 ,not to do 
this is to fail to reap the best results
 from the work put upon the lesson1 for 
these more important points are lost    
almost as readily as the less important 
details unless they are emphasized in   
some such way as has been suggested4    
,it is of course not meant that this    
summary of points should be worked out  
by the teacher when the lesson is being 
assigned4 ,that is for the pupils to do 
as a result of their analysis of the    
lesson4 ,but the teacher should         
specifically call attention to the      
necessity for such a summary until the  
habit is so fixed that the pupils follow

 this method of study without further   
direction4 ,the pupil's summary of the  
lesson should be tested in the          
recitation just as much as his analysis 
of the facts of the lesson4 ,this is    
done by few teachers4  #d4 ,particularly
 difficult points1 or points of         
importance as a basis for later work1   
should be especially emphasized in the  
assignment of the lesson4 ,this will go 
far toward saving the fatal weakness on 
fundamental points which is shown in    
later work by so many pupils4 ,not      
having been over the ground before and  
therefore not realizing the importance  
or difficulty of the critical points in 
a subject1 the pupils must of necessity 
be largely dependent on the teacher for 
such suggestions4  #e4 ,pupils need to  
be taught to look up and come to        
understand the allusions and various    
references often used in history1       
reading1 or other lessons4 ,the younger 
pupils will often have to be shown how  
to do this4 ,therefore such points      

should be referred to in making the     
assignment1 and any necessary directions
 should be given4  #f4 ,not infrequently
 new or unusual words or phrases are    
encountered by pupils in preparing their
 lessons1 and they are hampered in their
 study by failing to understand the new 
terms4 ,the teacher1 knowing his pupils1
 should be able to anticipate any       
trouble of this kind1 and give such     
explanations or help as may be necessary
 when assigning the lesson4  #g4 ,in    
case written work is to constitute a    
part of the preparation1 the directions 
governing what is to be done should be  
so clear and explicit that there is no  
possibility of their not being          
understood1 and the teacher's being     
interrupted next day to explain to      
members of the class4 ,much time can be 
saved for both teacher and pupils1 and  
many distractions prevented from        
disturbing recitations if this simple   
direction is followed4  #h4 ,if the     
principles suggested above are followed 

in assigning lessons1 there will be     
little excuse for a pupil's forgetting  
the assignment4 ,it will therefore be a 
safe rule not to repeat assignments for 
the benefit of careless or inattentive  
pupils4 ,the teacher who will refuse to 
be interrupted during recitation hours  
to tell pupils what the lesson is1 but  
who will reassign the lesson for the    
pupil at recess-time1 or after school1  
will very soon find all such troubles   
vanish1 and will at the same time be    
giving his pupils valuable and necessary
 training in attention and memory4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,,outline   ,i4 ,,the ,,purposes ,,of   
,,the ,,recitation  #a4 ,the teacher and
 the recitation1                 #b  #b4
 ,the necessity of having a clear aim1  
#c  #c4 ,testing as an aim in the       
recitation1        #e   a4 ,the         
preparation of the lesson assigned1     
#f   b4 ,the pupil's knowledge and his  
methods of study1         #g   c4 ,the  
pupil's points of failure and the cause 

thereof1        #aj  #d4 ,teaching as an
 aim in the recitation1         #ab   a4
 ,give the child an opportunity for     
self-expression1          #ac   b4 ,give
 help on difficult points1        #ae   
c4 ,bring in new points supplementing   
the text1         #af   d4 ,inspire the 
pupils to better efforts and higher     
ideals1          #ag   e4 ,lead pupils  
into good habits of study1        #ag   
#e4 ,drill as an aim in the recitation1 
#ai   a4 ,drill should be employed      
wherever a high degree of skill is      
required1          #ba   b4 ,drill must 
be upon correct models1 and with alert  
interest and            attention1      
#ba   c4 ,drill must not stop short of a
 reasonable degree of efficiency1 or    
skill1         #bc   d4 ,drill must be  
governed by definite aims1           #bc
  #f4 ,a desirable balance among the    
three aims1         #be   ,,ii4 ,,the   
,,method ,,of ,,the ,,recitation  #a4   
,method varies with aim1           #bi  
#b4 ,fundamental principles of method1  

#cj   a4 ,interest is the first         
requisite for attention and all mental  
activity1         #cj   b4 ,the natural 
mode of learning is to proceed from the 
known to the            related unknown1
         #ca  #c4 ,the use of special   
forms of method1         #cb  #d4 ,the  
question-and-answer method1        #cc  
a4 ,when and where to employ the        
question-and-answer method1        #cd  
b4 ,dangers of the question-and-answer  
method1         #ch  #e4 ,the topical   
method1        #dj   a4 ,where the      
topical method is most serviceable1     
#da   b4 ,the question of standards in  
topical recitations1         #dd  #f4   
,the lecture1 or supplemental1 method1  
#de   a4 ,how the lecture method is to  
be used1        #df   b4 ,dangers from  
the lecture method1         #dg  #g4    
,the written recitation1         #dh    
a4 ,the use of the written recitation1  
#dh   b4 ,dangers in the use of the     
written method1       #di   ,,iii4 ,,the
 ,,art ,,of ,,questioning  #a4 ,the     

importance of good questioning1         
#ee  #b4 ,need of fundamental           
principles1         #ef  #c4 ,the       
principle of freedom from textbooks1    
#ef  #d4 ,the principle of unity or     
continuity in questions1       #fa  #e4 
,the principle of clearness1        #fd 
a4 ,freedom from ambiguity or obscurity 
of wording1        #fe   b4 ,adaptation 
to the age and understanding of the     
child1        #ff   c4 ,brevity1        
#fg  #f4 ,the principle of definiteness1
        #fh  #g4 ,secondary principles  
of good questioning1        #gc  #h4    
,the treatment of answers1        #gf   
,,iv4 ,,conditions ,,necessary ,,to ,a  
,,good ,,recitation  #a4 ,freedom from  
distractions1        #ha   a4           
,distractions by the teacher1           
#hb   b4 ,distractions by the class1    
#hd   c4 ,distractions by the school1   
#hf   d4 ,physical distractions1        
#hg  #b4 ,interest and enthusiasm1      
#hi   a4 ,the teacher's command of the  
subject-matter of the recitation1   #ij 

b4 ,the teacher's attitude toward his   
work1        #ia   c4 ,the teacher's    
health1        #ia   d4 ,experience1    
#ic  #c4 ,well-mastered lessons1        
#id   a4 ,preparation by the teacher1   
#id   b4 ,preparation by the class1     
#ig  #d4 ,high standards in the         
recitation1        #ih  #e4 ,a spirit of
 cooperation1         #ajj   ,v4 ,,the  
,,assignment ,,of ,,the ,,lesson  #a4   
,the importance of proper assignment1   
#ajg  #b4 ,good assignment and teaching 
the art of study1         #ajg  #c4 ,the
 teacher's preparation for assignment1  
#aji  #d4 ,how to assign a lesson1      
#aaa  #e4 ,principles governing the     
assignment1         #aac         99     
99       99       99       99           
,,riverside ,,educational ,,monographs  
,edited by ,,henry ,,suzzallo           
,andress's ,the ,teaching of ,hygiene in
 the ,grades ,atwood's ,the ,theory and 
,practice of the ,kindergarten ,bailey's
 ,art ,education ,betts's ,new ,ideals  
,in ,rural ,schools ,betts's ,the       

,recitation ,bloomfield's ,vocational   
,guidance of ,youth ,cabot's ,volunteer 
,help to the ,schools ,cole's           
,industrial ,education in the           
,elementary ,school ,cooley's ,language 
,teaching in the ,grades ,cubberley's   
,changing ,conceptions of ,education    
,cubberley's ,the ,improvement of ,rural
 ,schools ,dewey's ,interest and ,effort
 in ,education ,dewey's ,moral          
,principles in ,education ,dooley's ,the
 ,education of the ,ne'er-,do-,well     
,earhart's ,teaching ,children to ,study
 ,eliot's ,education for ,efficiency    
,eliot's ,concrete and ,practical ,in   
,modern ,education ,emerson's ,education
 ,evans's ,the ,teaching of ,high       
,school ,mathematics ,fairchild's ,the  
,teaching of ,poetry in the ,high       
,school ,fiske's ,the ,meaning of       
,infancy ,freeman's ,the ,teaching of   
,handwriting ,haliburton and ,smith's   
,teaching ,poetry in the ,grades        
,hartwell's ,the ,teaching of ,history  
,haynes's ,economics in the ,secondary  

,school ,hill's ,the ,teaching of       
,civics ,horne's ,the ,teacher as       
,artist ,hyde's ,the ,teacher's         
,philosophy ,jenkins's ,reading in the  
,primary ,grades ,judd's ,the ,evolution
 of a ,democratic ,school ,system       
,kendall and ,stryker's ,history in the 
,elementary ,grades ,kilpatrick's ,the  
,montessori ,system ,examined ,leonard's
 ,english ,composition as a ,social     
,problem ,lewis's ,democracy's ,high    
,school ,maxwell's ,the ,observation of 
,teaching ,maxwell's ,the ,selection of 
,textbooks ,meredith's ,the ,educational
 ,bearings of ,modern ,psychology       
,palmer's ,ethical and ,moral           
,instruction in the ,schools ,palmer's  
,self-,cultivation in ,english ,palmer's
 ,the ,ideal ,teacher ,palmer's ,trades 
and ,professions ,perry's ,status of the
 ,teacher ,prosser's ,the ,teacher and  
,old ,age ,russell's ,economy in        
,secondary ,education ,smith's          
,establishing ,industrial ,schools      
,snedden's ,the ,problem of ,vocational 

,education ,stockton's ,project ,work in
 ,education ,stratton's ,developing     
,mental ,power ,suzzallo's ,the         
,teaching of ,primary ,arithmetic       
,suzzallo's ,the ,teaching of ,spelling 
,swift's ,speech ,defects in ,school    
,children ,terman's ,the ,teacher's     
,health ,thorndike's ,individuality     
,tuell's ,the ,study of ,nations        
,weeks's ,the ,people's ,school         
99       99       99       99       99  
,,riverside ,,textbooks ,,in ,,education
   ,general ,educational ,theory        
,,averill3 ,psychology for ,normal      
,schools ,,freeman3 ,experimental       
,education ,,freeman3 ,how ,children    
,learn ,,freeman3 ,the ,psychology of   
the ,common ,branches ,,perry3          
,discipline as a ,school ,problem       
,,smith3 ,an ,introduction to           
,educational ,sociology ,,thomas3       
,training for ,effective ,study         
,,waddle3 ,an ,introduction to ,child   
,psychology   ,history of ,education    
,,cubberley3 ,the ,history of ,education

 ,,cubberley3 ,a ,brief ,history of     
,education ,,cubberley3 ,readings in the
 ,history of ,education ,,cubberley3    
,public ,education in the ,united       
,states   ,administration and           
,supervision of ,schools  ,,ayres1      
,,williams1 ,,wood3 ,healthful ,schools 
,,cubberley3 ,public ,school            
,administration ,,cubberley3 ,rural     
,life and ,education ,,hoag ,,and       
,,terman3 ,health ,work in the ,schools 
,,monroe3 ,introduction to the ,theory  
of ,educational ,measurements ,,monroe3 
,measuring the ,results of ,teaching    
,,monroe1 ,,devoss1 ,,kelly3            
,educational ,tests and ,measurements   
,,nutt4 ,the ,supervision of            
,instruction ,,rugg3 ,statistical       
,methods ,applied to ,education ,,sears3
 ,classroom ,organization and ,control  
,,showalter3 ,a ,handbook for ,rural    
,school ,officers ,,terman3 ,the        
,hygiene of the ,school ,child ,,terman3
 ,the ,measurement of ,intelligence     
,,terman3 ,the ,intelligence of ,school 

,children   ,methods of ,teaching       
,,bolenius3 ,teaching ,literature in the
 ,grammar ,grades and ,high ,school     
,,kendall1 ,,mirick3 ,how to ,teach the 
,fundamental ,subjects ,,kendall1       
,,mirick3 ,how to ,teach the ,special   
,subjects ,,stone3 ,silent and ,oral    
,reading ,,trafton3 ,the ,teaching of   
,science in the ,elementary ,school     
,,woofter3 ,teaching in ,rural ,schools 
,secondary ,education  ,,briggs3 ,the   
,junior ,high ,school ,,inglis3         
,principles of ,secondary ,education    
,,snedden3 ,problems of ,secondary      
,education ,,thomas3 ,the ,teaching of  
,english in the ,secondary ,school      
,,houghton ,,mifflin ,,company