,,northwest999999 ,,practical ,,forestry ,,in ,,the ,,pacific ,,northwest ,protecting ,existing ,forests and ,growing ,new ,ones1 from the ,standpoint of the ,public and ,that of the ,lumberman1 with an ,outline of ,technical ,methods4 by ,e4 ,t4 ,,allen ,forester for the ,western ,forestry ,conservation ,association 7,formerly ,u4 ,s4 ,district ,forester for ,oregon1 ,washington and ,alaska7 ,issued by ,the ,western ,forestry ,conservation ,association ,office of the ,forester #dba ,yeon ,building1 ,portland1 ,oregon4 #aiaa ,,preface ,,what ,,this ,,book ,,is ,,about ,,and ,,why ,the object of this booklet is to present the elementary principles of forest conservation as they apply on the ,pacific coast from ,montana to ,california4 ,there is a keen and growing interest in this subject4 ,citizens of the western states are beginning to realize that the forest is a community resource and that its wasteful destruction injures their welfare4 ,lumbermen are coming to regard timber land not as a mine to be worked out and abandoned1 but as a possible source of perpetual industry4 ,they find little available information1 however1 as to how these theories can be reduced to actual practice4 ,the ,western ,forestry and ,conservation ,association believes it can render no more practical service than by being the first to outline for public use definite workable methods of forest management applicable to western conditions4 ,a publication of this length can give little more than an outline1 but attempt has been made either to answer the most obvious questions which suggest themselves to timber owners interested in forest preservation or to guide the latter in finding their own answers4 ,only the most reliable conservative information has been drawn on1 much of it having been collected by the ,government4 ,while the booklet is intended to be of use chiefly to forest owners1 a chapter on the advantage to the community of a proper state forest policy is included1 also a chapter on tree growing by farmers4 ,the first presents the economic relation of forest preservation to public welfare1 with its problems of fire prevention1 taxation and reforestation2 for the use of writers1 legislators1 voters1 or others desiring to investigate this subject of growing public concern4 ,it is based upon the conclusions of the best unprejudiced authorities who have approached these problems from the public standpoint4 ,in the technical chapters on forest management and its possibilities1 the author accepts full responsibility for conclusions drawn except when otherwise noted4 ,to the ,forest ,service1 however1 is entitled the credit for collecting practically all the growth and yield figures upon which these conclusions are based4 ,especial acknowledgement is due to ,mr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,kmmel for information on tree planting4 ,in concluding this preface1 the author regrets that the booklet which it introduces was necessarily written hurriedly1 a page or two at a time1 at odd hours taken from the work of a busy office4 ,for this reason its style and management leaves much to be desired1 but it has been thought better to make the information it contains immediately available than to await a doubtful opportunity to rewrite it4 ,,contents ,,preface ,what ,this ,book ,is ,about1 and ,why4 ,,introduction ,what ,we ,have in the ,west4 ,what ,we ,are ,doing ,with ,it4 ,does ,it ,pay8 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,forestry ,,and ,,the ,,public ,importance of ,forests as a ,community ,resource4 ,wealth ,their ,manufacture ,brings to ,all ,industries4 ,value as ,source of ,tax ,revenue4 ,our ,interest as ,consumers4 ,real ,issue ,not ,property ,protection but ,conditions of ,life ,for ,all4 ,particularly ,favorable ,natural ,forest ,conditions on ,pacific ,coast4 ,present ,policy of ,waste4 ,fire ,loss4 ,idleness of ,deforested ,land4 ,action ,we ,must ,take4 ,fire ,prevention4 ,reforestation4 ,tax ,reform4 ,public ,responsibility4 ,essentials of ,needed ,state ,policy4 ,duty of the ,average ,citizen4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,forestry ,,and ,,the ,,lumberman ,economic ,principles ,governing ,forest ,production4 ,supply and ,demand4 ,lumberman ,must ,consider4 ,both ,profit of ,forestry and ,popular ,demand for ,its ,practice4 ,consumer ,must ,pay for ,growing ,timber4 ,attitude of ,state ,will ,become ,more ,encouraging4 ,how ,all ,this ,affects the ,lumberman4 ,should ,plan for ,meeting the ,situation4 ,circumstances that ,determine ,profit4 ,who ,can ,afford to ,reforest ,cut-over ,land8 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,forestry ,,and ,,the ,,forest ,technical and ,practical ,problems4 ,elementary ,principles of ,forest ,growth4 ,fundamental ,systems of ,management4 ,nature as a ,model4 ,logging to ,insure ,another ,crop4 ,natural and ,artificial ,reproduction4 ,details of ,management for ,each ,western ,species4 ,seeding and ,planting4 ,costs and ,carrying ,charges4 ,rate of ,growth4 ,probable ,financial ,returns4 ,hardwood ,experiments4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,forestry ,,and ,,the ,,fire ,,hazard ,the ,slashing ,menace4 ,brush ,piling4 ,slash ,burning4 ,fire ,lines4 ,spark ,arrestors4 ,patrol4 ,associate ,effort4 ,young ,growth as a ,fire ,guard4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,forestry ,,and ,,the ,,farmer ,cutting ,methods on the ,wooded ,farm4 ,best ,use of ,poor ,forest ,land4 ,the ,handling of ,fire in ,clearing4 ,planting on ,treeless ,farms4 ,species ,most ,promising for ,fuel and ,improvement ,material4 ,windbreaks to ,prevent ,evaporation of ,soil ,moisture4 ,methods and ,cost of ,tree ,growing4 ,,appendix ,tax ,reforms to ,permit ,reforestation4 ,opinions of ,expert ,authorities4 ,the ,western ,forestry and ,conservation ,association4 ,its ,organization and ,objects4 ,,introduction ,,where ,,we ,,stand ,,today ,,what ,,we ,,have ,the five states of ,montana1 ,idaho1 ,washington1 ,oregon and ,california contain half the merchantable timber in the ,united ,states today--a fact of startling economic significance4 ,it means first of all that here is an existing resource of incalculable local and national value4 ,it means also that here lies the most promising field of production for all time4 ,the wonderful density and extent of our ,western forests are not accidental1 but result because climatic and other conditions are the most favorable in the world for forest growth4 ,in just the degree that they excel forests elsewhere is it easier to make them continue to do so4 ,,what ,,we ,,are ,,doing ,,with ,,it ,on the other hand1 forest fires in ,montana1 ,idaho1 ,washington1 ,oregon and ,california destroy annually1 on an average1 timber which if used instead of destroyed would bring forty million dollars to their inhabitants1 ,idleness of burned and cut-over land represents a direct loss almost as great4 ,these are actual money losses to the community4 ,so is the failure of revenue through the destruction of a tax resource4 ,equally important1 and hardly less direct1 is the injury to agricultural and industrial productiveness which depends upon a sustained supply of wood and water4 ,,does ,,it ,,pay8 ,practically all this loss is unnecessary4 ,other countries have stopped the forest fire evil4 ,other countries have found a way to make forest land continue to grow forest4 ,consequently we can4 ,it is clearly only a question of whether it is worth while4 ,let us consider this question1 not only in its relation to posterity or to the lumberman1 but from the standpoint of the average citizen of the ,west today4 ,,chapter ,i ,,forestry ,,and ,,the ,,public ,,timber ,,means ,,pay ,,checks ,forest wealth is community wealth4 ,the public's interest in it is affected very little by the passage of timber lands into private ownership1 for all the owner can get out of them is the stumpage value4 ,the people get everything else4 ,our forests earn nothing except by being cut and shipped to the markets of the world4 ,of the price received for them usually much less than a fifth is received by the owner4 ,nearly all goes to pay for labor and supplies here at home4 ,even now1 when the western lumber industry is insignificant compared to what it will be soon1 it brings over #abe1jjj1jjj a year into these five states4 ,this immense revenue flows through every artery of labor1 commerce and agriculture2 in the open farming countries as well as in the timbered districts4 ,it is shared alike by laborer1 farmer1 merchant1 artisan and professional man4 ,it is their greatest source of income1 for lumber is the chief product which1 being sold elsewhere1 actually brings in outside money4 ,that it is essential to the prosperity of every citizen to have this contribution to his livelihood continue requires no argument4 ,from the manufacturing point of view alone1 our forest resources are as important to everyone of us as to the lumberman1 and in many ways more so1 for if they are exhausted he can move or change his business2 while the dependent industries cannot4 ,but our welfare is at stake in a dozen other ways also4 ,,our ,,interest ,,as ,,consumers ,every person who uses wood1 whether to build1 fence1 burn1 box his goods1 or timber his mine1 is directly interested in a cheap and plentiful supply of timber4 ,every acre burned1 every cut-over acre lying idle1 raises the price for him without furnishing any revenue with which to help pay it4 ,every acre saved from fire1 every acre of young growth1 lowers it for him and puts money in circulation besides4 ,similarly1 the cost to the consumer of most articles of every day necessity is directly affected by the connection of forest material with their production4 ,wood and water are almost as essential to mining as are1 hence influence the price of metals4 ,in the form of fuel1 buildings1 or boxes1 if not as an actual constituent of the product itself1 wood supply bears a like relation to almost every industry4 ,every reduction of the lumber traffic which helps support our railroads1 or of their supply of poles1 ties and car material1 tends to raise the cost of our groceries and other rail-transported commodities4 ,,school ,,lands ,most of our western states have immense areas of forested grant lands1 the sale of timber from which supports the public schools and other state institutions4 ,destruction of this asset is a direct blow to these institutions which can be only partially met by increased taxation4 ,,the ,,farmer ,,has ,,the ,,most ,,at ,,stake ,in the case of western agriculture1 the relation to the forest is fundamental and inseparable4 ,enough has been said to show that because of its importance as a sustaining industry lumber manufacture is a prodigious factor in creating a market for farm products1 also that the cost of all articles used by the farmer is cheapened by forest preservation4 ,but back of this lies the all-important dependence of western agriculture upon irrigation4 ,we must save the forests that store the waters4 ,of particular significance to the farmer1 too1 is the tremendous importance of forests as a source of tax revenue to help support state and county government4 ,the cost of government is growing as our population grows4 ,taxable property grows mainly in the cities4 ,elsewhere we confront the problem of diminishing timber to tax and consequent heavier and heavier burden on farm property4 ,it will be a bad situation for the farmer if the timber is all destroyed and he has to pay all the taxes1 as well as a higher price for his buildings1 fences and fruit boxes4 ,every acre of timber burned or wasted hastens this day4 ,the conservation thus suggested does not mean non-use of ripe timber1 but does mean protecting it from useless waste and destruction1 and replacing it by reforestation when it is used4 ,,conditions ,,of ,,life ,,the ,,real ,,issue ,,involved ,lack of space forbids recounting many other ways in which the forest question touches the average citizen4 ,it enters into our prospects of development1 our investment values and our insurance rates4 ,like the keystone of an arch1 or the link of a chain1 forests cannot be destroyed without the collapse of the entire fabric4 ,their preservation is not primarily a property question1 but a principle of public economy1 dealing with one of the elements of human existence and progress4 ,failure to treat it as such means harder conditions of life1 a handicap of industry2 not only for our children1 but for us as well4 ,it all sums up to this3 ,on every acre of western forest destroyed by fire1 or that fails to grow where it might grow1 we1 the citizens of the ,west who are not lumbermen1 bear fully eighty per cent of the direct loss and sustain serious further injury to our general safety and profit4 ,,how ,,we ,,throw ,,away ,,millions ,notwithstanding the above facts1 we allow #dj1jjj1jjj which we and our families should share to vanish every year1 leaving nothing more enduring than a pall of smoke from ,canada to the ,mexican line4 ,the great area thus denuded uselessly1 with that which produced public wealth through lumber manufacture1 together having been capable of affording a community resource of #afe1jjj1jjj1 are abandoned to lie idle and a menace to remaining timber4 ,it is exactly as though the owner of a #afe-;acre orchard should destroy forty acres wantonly and also abandon the rest1 unfenced1 uncultivated and uncared for4 ,the one waste is as unnecessary as the other4 ,our ,pacific coast forests owe their unparalleled productiveness to a peculiarly fortunate combination of climate and rapid growing species unknown elsewhere4 ,nowhere else is forest reproduction so swift and certain4 ,nowhere can it be secured with so little effort and expense4 ,a little forethought in cutting methods and protection of the cut-over area from recurring fires1 and an early second crop is assured4 ,saw timber can be grown in forty to seventy-five years2 ties1 mine timber and piles in less4 ,,how ,,we ,,might ,,make ,,immense ,,profit ,,instead4 ,it is reasonable to suppose that1 although the quality may be inferior to that of the old forest removed now1 timber scarcity will make a second cut in sixty years equally profitable per acre4 ,therefore1 if the area denuded annually at present were encouraged to reforest and protected1 it should at the end of that period again yield #afe1jjj1jjj to the community4 ,each year's growth at present would be worth a sixtieth of that sum1 or #b1gej1jjj4 ,if given any chance to do so1 the area deforested in only ten years would actually earn the people of our five western forest states #bg1ejj1jjj a year4 ,almost nothing is being done to make it do so4 ,as the result of the same popular neglect1 this annual loss of nearly twenty-eight millions of dollars is added to that of forty millions caused by destruction of merchantable timber by fire1 and the injury to tax revenue1 water supply and countless dependent industries still remain to be reckoned4 ,and to this sacrifice of wealth we add that of scores of human lives1 incredible suffering1 and the wiping out of homes and villages by forest fires4 ,,plain ,,words ,,for ,,our ,,present ,,policy ,let us draw a parallel3 ,if riot or invasion should sweep our ,pacific coast states1 killing unprotected settlers1 plundering banks and treasuries of #dj1jjj1jjj of the people's savings and business capital1 and by destroying the producing power of commercial enterprise reduce the community's income by twenty-eight millions more1 the catastrophe would startle the world4 ,if this stupendous disaster should threaten to recur the following year and every year thereafter indefinitely1 annually taking #fg1jjj1jjj from the earnings of the people1 diminishing their invested wealth and paralyzing their industries1 the situation would be unbearable4 ,it would dominate the minds of men1 women and children4 ,all else would be forgotten in their preparation for defense4 ,forest fire destruction is a danger in every way as real and immediate as riot or invasion1 equally measurable in losses to us today and more far reaching in effect upon future prosperity4 ,although less sensational1 it demands no less prompt action4 ,,the ,,action ,,we ,,must ,,take ,the foregoing facts prove that our present forest policy is unprofitable to the state and its citizens4 ,what1 then1 is the remedy8 ,at first thought it may seem that the responsibility for this lies with the man who controls the land1 the timber owner and lumberman4 ,he does have his part to play1 which is discussed elsewhere in this booklet4 ,but he will not1 indeed cannot1 do so until the rest of us play ours4 ,the community must not only coperate1 but in some directions must act first1 because from the beginning the lumberman is governed by many conditions which are fixed by the people4 ,it is for the people to make these conditions reasonably favorable so that he will have neither excuse nor incentive for failing to conform to them4 ,in this coperation the people should not be expected to grant privileges which are not for their own advantage also4 ,nor should they hesitate to coperate if it is to their advantage1 merely because it is also a help to the lumberman4 ,it is natural that the public should disincline to assume any further burden to enrich the timber owner4 ,were this the sale object of forest protection it would be fair to leave it to him4 ,but it is the height of bad economy to obstruct or refuse to help him in handling forest resources to our best advantage4 ,whether he gains or loses is merely incidental to us1 but whether we gain or lose is of very great importance4 ,,first ,,step ,,is ,,to ,,stop ,,forest ,,fires ,obviously reduction of the forest fire hazard is the most urgent problem4 ,not only is fire the greatest destroyer of existing forests1 but it also discourages investment in reforestation4 ,the public has a right to expect the lumberman to adopt every safeguard against it in his operations4 ,nevertheless1 the first step to encourage him in this is to reduce the appalling carelessness with fire in which the people of the ,west are the worst offenders in the world today4 ,forest fires are almost always unnecessary4 ,they usually result from a neglect of consideration for injury and distress to others which is not shown by the ,american people in any other connection4 ,the traveler or resident in forest regions simply fails to realize that his own welfare and that of countless others requires the same precaution not to let fire escape1 and the same activity in extinguishing fires he discovers1 that are accorded as a matter of course in cities and towns4 ,in reality they are more important4 ,a ,san ,francisco can burn down and it is soon replaced4 ,insurance and capital come to the rescue1 labor is employed1 and business is resumed4 ,but when the forest burns1 industry dies and labor is driven away empty handed4 ,it is a big price to pay for neglecting the slight effort required to prevent it4 ,fairly good fire laws are on our statute books4 ,presumably they were intended to prevent fires4 ,yet almost every forest community sees fire after fire set through ignorance1 carelessness or purpose1 and so far from punishing the offenders accords them every privilege of business and society4 ,in cities1 however insignificant the damage1 arson leads to the penitentiary4 ,a forest fire may destroy millions and the cause not even be investigated4 ,if1 aggravated by a particularly inexcusable case of malice or carelessness1 some property holder 7seldom the people7 secures an arrest1 acquittal is practically certain because the community considers the matter none of its business4 ,then the value of the fire law is at an end in that region4 ,certainly we cannot expect the timber owner to protect our forest interests until we ourselves respect and at least attempt to enforce our forest laws4 ,,patrol ,,service ,,absolutely ,,essential ,but necessary as is better public sentiment1 we must also have practical machinery for enforcing the laws and for stopping the fires that do start4 ,just as a city is safeguarded best by an organized fire department1 so the forest can be protected effectively only by trained men who know the work4 ,and the man who prevents the most fires is the man who is looking for them1 not the man who goes after the fire is under way4 ,theodore ,roosevelt says3 ,i hold as first among the tasks before the states and the nation in their respective shares in forest conservation the organization of efficient fire patrols and the enactment of good fire laws on the part of the states4 ,the ,national ,conservation ,commission reports3 ,each state within whose boundaries forest fires are working grave injury1 and that means every forest state1 must face the fact squarely that to keep down forest fires needs not merely a law upon the statute books1 but an effective force of men actually on the ground to patrol against fire4 ,we all know that few disastrous fires start under conditions which prevent their control4 ,usually they spring from some of the many small1 apparently innocent fires which burn unnoticed until wind and hot weather fan them into action4 ,it is far cheaper to put them out in the incipient stage than to fight them later1 perhaps unsuccessfully until after great damage has been done4 ,and if fighting is necessary1 it is of the highest importance to have it led by competent1 experienced men4 ,moments count1 and bad judgment is expensive4 ,most western states already have laws regulating the use of fire for clearing during the dry season4 ,to accomplish this with safety and without hardship requires fire wardens to issue permits and help with the burning if necessary4 ,public knowledge that there is someone to enforce the law tends to restrain the dangerous class4 ,still more useful is the service of fire wardens in agitating the fire question and keeping before forest residents the advantage of their coperation4 ,,co-,,operation ,,with ,,private ,,owners ,,desirable ,in fire patrol1 especially1 the state and the lumberman must work together4 ,it is reasonable that the timber owner should contribute to the protection of his property4 ,he also has peculiar facilities for getting the work done well and cheaply4 ,as a rule he is willing to do his part4 ,in #aiaj the ,washington ,forest ,fire ,association and other timber owners in that state paid out #cjj1jjj for patrol and other fire work4 ,the ,coeur d',alene1 ,clearwater1 ,potlatch and ,pend d',oreille ,timber ,protective associations spent over #bjj1jjj in ,idaho4 ,oregon timbermen spent approximately #acj1jjj4 ,figures are not available for ,montana and ,california1 but probably the same proportion holds4 ,thorough support by the state is necessary to make private work effective4 ,the men employed must have official authority to enforce the law4 ,the dangerous element does not respect a movement which nominally represents only the property owner4 ,the people in general do not aid it as much as they do one in which they also share4 ,therefore1 it is necessary to have state facilities for coperating in the organization1 authorization and supervision of all forest patrols4 ,,liberal ,,appropriation ,a ,,good ,,investment ,but to stop here is like attempting to protect a city from fire merely by giving its factory owners the right to maintain watchmen4 ,we want to provide for the greatest possible advantage to the people through the timber owner's desire to protect his own property1 but any forest policy which ends with this is hopelessly weak4 ,we cannot afford to leave any matter of public welfare wholly to the wisdom and philanthropy of private enterprise4 ,if we expect our paramount interest in forest and water resources to be looked out for properly1 we must pay for it just as we do for all other protection we get through organized government4 ,nor should we forget that the timber owner helps us again in this1 for he pays taxes as well as the cost of his private patrol4 ,there are also many regions where timber values do not warrant patrol1 but where the safety of other property1 and of life1 demand both patrol and fire fighting4 ,here the state owes its citizens protection4 ,moreover1 one of the weakest points in our present system everywhere is lack of police authority to apprehend violators of the fire laws4 ,the private warden cannot successfully arrest or prosecute offenders1 and everybody knows it4 ,most fires start through violation of law4 ,to prevent them the law must be respected1 and to accomplish this there must be state officers who can and will apprehend offenders without fear or favor4 ,any western state can well afford to spend #ajj1jjj a year for a forest fire service which will prevent a loss of fifty times that sum4 ,the cost is imperceptible by the citizen1 his benefit immediate4 ,forest protection is the cheapest form of prosperity insurance a timbered state can buy4 ,,reforestation ,although it does not pay to burn up our forests1 it does pay to use them4 ,the faster we can replace them with new ones1 the quicker this profit can be made with safety4 ,forest land is community capital4 ,to let it lie idle is as wasteful as destruction4 ,and we must also remember that the day is coming when our forested streams must do a hundred times their present duty1 and when the lumber consumer's question may not be ,what must ,i pay for a board8 but ,can ,i get a board at all8 ,we must have new forests coming as the old ones go4 ,the ,federal ,government is practicing forestry in the lands controlled by the ,forest ,service4 ,why should the states not do the same thing with their school and tax deed lands8 ,intelligent care of timbered school land1 selling the timber only under regulations which will insure reforestation1 would realize as much today and in the long run pay a thousand per cent in dividends for the education of our children and our children's children4 ,further than this1 there should be legislation to permit the state to solidify its forest lands by exchange1 when advisable1 and to authorize the purchase of cut-over lands4 ,the eventual profit in this is certain to be great1 and nothing will do more to interest the public and private owners in reforestation4 ,it is the history or all countries that forests are peculiarly profitable state property1 especially when1 as is the case with us1 it can be acquired cheaply4 ,it is a sound and well-proved policy that it is well for the state to own lands which are not adapted for permanent individual development4 ,forest lands constitute the ideal class1 not only because the state is in the best position to keep up their usefulness to the community1 but also because they will earn perpetual revenue far greater than they could bring through taxation4 ,they will pay back the cost and interest1 become increasingly valuable1 and still pay dividends4 ,it is even more important that reforestation be secured on private lands1 because their area is greater than that owned by state and government4 ,with the encouragement which could be given the owner without any undeserved concession1 conditions would warrant him in securing it4 ,we have reached that stage in our development4 ,the exhaustion of timber in the country at large1 the increase of consumption1 and our peculiar natural advantages1 have combined to promise adequate financial return4 ,and the lumberman does not want to go out of business unless he has to4 ,,obstacles ,,to ,,private ,,effort ,to insure a second crop the lumberman has to lose more or less money when he cuts the first4 ,his methods must be more expensive and he must forego present profits on trees he leaves4 ,if he plants1 the outlay is considerable4 ,but let us suppose he is willing to do all this1 not because he is a philanthropist but because he wants more trees to run his mill some day4 ,it is a comparatively simple matter to get his second crop started4 ,american forestry has solved this problem fairly well4 ,it is also easy to calculate in most cases1 beginning with the sale value of cut-over land1 using safe estimate of the next yield and the time required to mature it1 and setting a conservative future stumpage value1 that growing timber ought to be a profitable investment4 ,if that were all1 we could leave the lumberman alone and count on him to perpetuate our forests because it will pay him to do so4 ,but the whole calculation1 consequently the public's interest as well as his1 is upset by two factors--the danger that his investment will burn up and the practical certainty that taxes will eat up all profit before the harvest4 ,if he figures on fire protection at his own expense against the hazard as it now exists1 and the tax burden on cut-over land which is indicated at present1 his engagement in forest growing will be negligible from the point of view of public welfare4 ,in some cases he may hold the land awhile1 in few can he afford to protect it1 in still fewer is he justified in actually doing anything to insure reforestation4 ,if a man proposes to build a factory or railroad in a community the inhabitants usually encourage him4 ,they do not refuse him fire protection in the first place and then1 if his plant burns down1 threaten to burn it again and keep up full taxation on the vacant land4 ,they offer every fair inducement to get the industry and keep it flourishing4 ,they expect it to pay its just share of taxation1 but want it to continue to do so as long as possible4 ,,tax ,,new ,,crop ,,when ,,harvested ,it has been shown that the first obstacle to reforestation of private land can be removed only by supporting a fire patrol and creating public sentiment which will reduce the number of fires4 ,the second is even more wholly in the hands of the people1 for by the system of taxation they impose they decide whether it shall continue an earning power and a tax source forever or be abandoned to become a desert2 non-producing1 non-taxable1 and a menace to stream-flow4 ,whether its owner has made money on the original crop has no bearing on the result1 nor has his being rich or poor1 resident or alien4 ,cutover land presents a distinct problem to him4 ,he will and should pay a full tax on its earning power1 which will be demonstrated when he successfully brings another crop to maturity4 ,but he cannot carry an investment for fifty years or more without return1 with a risk of total loss by fire up to the last moment1 at a cost which would bring him better profit in some other business4 ,these facts are recognized by all students of forestry4 ,the following authorities hold no brief for the lumberman4 ,they approached the subject solely from the side of the people3 ,theodore ,roosevelt3 ,second only to good fire laws is the enactment of tax laws which will permit the perpetuation of existing forests by use4 ,national ,conservation ,commission3 ,present tax laws prevent reforestation of cut-over land and the perpetuation of existing forests by use4 ,an annual tax upon the land itself1 exclusive of the timber1 and a tax upon the timber when cut is well adapted to actual conditions of forest investment and is practicable and certain4 ,it would insure a permanent revenue from the forest in the aggregate far greater than is now collected1 and yet be less burdensome upon the state and upon the owner4 ,it is better from every side that forest land should yield a moderate tax permanently than that it should yield an excessive revenue temporarily1 and then cease to yield at all4 ,h4 ,s4 ,graves1 ,chief ,forester for the ,u4 ,s43 ,private owners do not practice forestry for one or more of three reasons3 #a4 ,the risk of fire4 #b4 ,burdensome taxation4 #c4 ,low prices of products4 ,professor ,fairchild1 tax expert1 ,yale ,university3 ,forestry must come some time1 and its early coming is a thing greatly to be desired4 ,we can hardly hope to see the general practice of forestry as long as the present methods of taxation continue4 ,with regard to its effect on revenue1 there is little to be feared from the tax on yield4 ,it is equitable and certain4 ,if a tax at once equitable and dependable is guaranteed1 the business of forestry will not need to ask special favors4 ,,crying ,,need ,,for ,,definite ,,state ,,policy ,to accomplish these reforms will take law-making and law-enforcing4 ,however well we study existing conditions and legislate upon the premises they furnish1 success depends upon competent application of the laws and their improvement as conditions change4 ,it is a bitter reproof to us of the ,west that ,eastern states1 with forest and water resources insignificant compared to ours1 have gone so much farther in securing the services of trained men to study these questions and to guard both private and public interests4 ,the very first step should be to get competent trained state foresters who will devise wise measures1 protect us from unwise ones1 and educate lumbermen and public alike to the common need of action4 ,we pay cheerfully for every other kind of public service1 for geologists1 veterinarians1 insurance commissioners1 barber examiners1 and what not4 ,but the two things we must have--wood and water--we leave pretty much to take care of themselves1 and they aren't doing it and never will4 ,the essentials of a wise state forest policy1 based not on theory but on successful experience elsewhere1 are as cheap as they are simple4 ,where tried they have never been abandoned4 ,if they pay elsewhere1 can we afford not to try8 ,following is the framework of a code demanded by the situation in every ,western state4 ,some already approach it1 but none goes far enough3 ,,essentials ,,of ,,effective ,,state ,,forest ,,code #a4 ,a ,state ,board of ,forestry selected with the single view of insuring the most competent expert judgment on the matters with which it deals4 ,in other words1 the board should not be political1 but appointment by the ,governor should be restricted to responsible representatives nominated by the interests most familiar with forest management1 such as state forest schools1 lumbermen's associations1 forest fire associations1 conservation associations and the resident ,federal forest service4 #b4 ,a trained state forester1 wholly independent of politics4 ,executive ability and practical forest knowledge should be considered essential1 also scientific training4 ,he should have one or more assistants of his own appointing4 #c4 ,a liberally supported forest fire service1 in which the state forester has ample latitude in coperation1 financial and otherwise1 with all other agencies in the same work4 #d4 ,a systematic study of forest conditions to afford basis of both intelligent administration and desirable further legislation4 #e4 ,a system for active general popular education1 with specific advice to individuals in proper forest management4 #f4 ,application of forestry principles to the management of state-owned forest lands and the purchase of cut or burned over land better suited for state than for private forestry4 ,this is to furnish educative examples of conservative management as well as to maintain state revenue and proper forest conditions4 #g4 ,improvement and strict enforcement of laws against fire and trespass1 with penalty for neglect to enforce them by any officer who is paid to do so4 #h4 ,encouragement of reforestation by assessing deforested land annually on land value only1 deferring taxation of forest growth until its cutting furnishes income with which to meet the tax4 #i4 ,thorough study of the subject of taxing standing timber1 to the end of securing a system which1 by insuring a fair revenue without enforcing bad forest management1 will result in the greatest community good4 ,,do ,,it ,,now ,you1 the average citizen of the ,west1 are responsible for the present situation and for its remedy4 ,merely to agree that it is unfortunate1 and virtuously to condemn firebugs1 careless lumbermen and indifferent legislators1 does not relieve you of the responsibility4 ,neither will it protect you from the consequences4 ,on the other hand1 the firebug will not fire if he knows it will not be tolerated4 ,the lumberman will adopt protective methods if you encourage him4 ,the legislator is glad to help in any way his constituents suggest4 ,they are all only waiting for a word from you1 whose welfare is really at stake and from whom the word should come4 ,if any other principle of public safety--say suppression of fraud1 burglary or murder--was being so generally ignored1 what would you do8 ,would you not look up the laws of the state and find a way of letting everyone connected with their enforcement know that you expected them to be enforced8 ,if you found laws or appropriations inadequate1 would you not see to it that every representative in the legislature knew his constituents demanded improvement8 ,the legislator or public official is anxious to comply with the people's wishes1 but he must know what the people want4 ,it is essential to let him know that you want a progressive and liberally supported state policy that will save our immense forest wealth from needless destruction4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,forestry ,,and ,,the ,,lumberman ,,the ,,underlying ,,principles ,the lumber industry is undergoing a process of reorganization which reaches to its very foundations4 ,it is so deep-seated as to be almost imperceptible from outward evidence1 but is of profound significance to the owner of timber land and to the public4 ,hitherto lumbering in the ,united ,states has consisted chiefly of manufacturing and selling4 ,the raw material has occupied no consistent place in the equation4 ,the value it has had in fixing the price of the finished product has been merely in its relation to transportation4 ,intrinsically it has been accorded no value4 ,this situation continued just as long as there was practically free ,government timber to be had by opening it up4 ,it continues now only relatively1 however4 ,transportation must always remain a great factor2 the timber owner is still obliged temporarily to meet his obligations by means determined under the old basis4 ,nevertheless1 the moment it became impossible to get timber to manufacture without assuming the costs of producing1 such as fire protection1 taxation and interest1 began an era of inevitable natural regulation4 ,from that time on timber began to assume a value which1 although affected by transportation facilities1 must eventually be fixed chiefly by the cost of growing other timber to compete with it4 ,,timber ,,is ,,worth ,,the ,,cost ,,of ,,growing ,,it ,in other words1 the value of anything is what it costs to produce it1 whether it is a tree or a box of apples4 ,that we found our timber orchard growing when we came to this country does not change this law4 ,it was suspended temporarily while any individual could profit by the growth produced without cost1 but began to operate again when he could no longer do so4 ,we are now in a transition period of adjustment4 ,the important thing to remember is that this will not continue until the entire output has actually borne the full cost of production1 for before then investments in standing timber will have been regulated by the same influence4 ,it is true that at present the cost of lumber to the consumer is not fixed absolutely even by the cost of manufacturing and selling it1 and that on the contrary it fluctuates greatly with the willingness of the consumer to buy4 ,but this1 except within limits1 is not a sound working out of the law of supply and demand4 ,it is an incident to the unsound basis of production which still prevails4 ,so long as a very large portion of our standing timber has not cost the owner much in either price1 protection1 taxes and interest1 some of it will be put on the market at a low price in order to carry a milling business through a depressed period1 to realize money1 or for other exigency reasons4 ,so may a wheat grower lose money on one or two years' crops4 ,but if in the long run the world refuses to pay for wheat what it costs to grow it1 wheat will not be grown4 ,the real question is whether or not the world needs forests enough to pay for them4 ,,demand ,,will ,,continue ,it is evident1 from the history of older countries1 that it does4 ,while consumption per capita will undoubtedly decrease1 population is growing4 ,substitution will be necessary1 but will not supplant wood for a multitude of purposes4 ,much has been said about the use of steel1 concrete and like materials in building4 ,the building trades only use #fj per cent of our lumber today1 without considering fuel4 ,it is unlikely that the reduction of this percentage will very much more than offset the growth in volume of the reduced percentage due to increased population4 ,fifty years ago there was scarcely a lumber user west of the ,mississippi river4 ,we know the settlements1 mines1 railroads and cities that have developed since to use lumber4 ,it is a poor ,westerner who doubts that the next fifty years will see a far greater development4 ,and the ,panama ,canal is coming1 with the certain result of making our fast-producing forests able to compete successfully with ,eastern and ,european forest crops grown with less natural advantage4 ,moreover1 we now use three and a half times as much wood a year as our forests produce4 ,consequently the demand might even fall off three and a half times and still consume the product4 ,and the forest producing area diminishes constantly4 ,little as we now consider the possibilities of food famine1 history shows that nations rapidly increase to the limit of their agricultural production or beyond1 and we must reckon not only on our own increase but also upon immigration from1 and export to1 nations whose pressure upon their production exceeds ours4 ,it is certain that land now considered too remote1 rough and poor for agriculture will be put to that use4 ,we know that other countries do not to any considerable extent devote land to forest that will grow food crops at all well4 ,,adjustment ,,only ,,question ,,of ,,time ,consequently it is safe to assume that within reasonable limits the consumer will be glad to pay the cost of growing timber when he is obliged to do so4 ,it is also to be expected that the community will desire to maintain a resource which employs labor1 pays taxes1 and conserves stream flow4 ,therefore1 the price of lumber will be governed1 as the price of every staple commodity is governed1 by a cost of production including reasonable profit by those engaged in the several stages of the process4 ,that it will include the growing of new timber on a sound1 profitable basis is proved by the history of other countries which have undergone the same regulation4 ,this1 after all1 is the strongest argument with which to answer the skeptic who1 on premises and judgment of his own1 doubts the above conclusions4 ,we need not claim greater prophetic ability1 but have only to make the undeniable assertion that hindsight is better than foresight4 ,nothing demonstrates economic laws so irrefutably as experience4 ,less than #bi per cent of the land area of the ,united ,states is occupied by forests today1 including swamps1 burns and much land which will be devoted to agriculture4 ,germany1 where great economy of material is practiced1 where wooden buildings are far fewer1 where1 indeed1 the per capita consumption is only a seventh of ours1 keeps #bf per cent of her land area under the most expensive forest management and finds the profit constantly increasing4 ,she is increasing her production and importing heavily from countries where lumber is cheap1 like the ,united ,states1 yet the net returns per acre from the forests of ,baden rose from #b4ch in #ahhj to #e4jh in #aijb4 ,this was due hugely1 of course1 to improvement of management4 ,in ,france lands which only fifty years ago could not be sold for #d an acre now bring an annual revenue of #c4 ,in #aijc the town forest of ,winterthur1 ,switzerland1 brought net receipts of #aa4fi an acre4 ,these are fair examples in countries where the influence tending toward less use of wood have been working for a very long time4 ,they show such influences do not result in refusal to pay the cost of growing all the wood that can be grown4 ,wood consumption in ,european countries is increasing at a rate of from #a-a_/b to #b per cent a year4 ,in other words1 the consumers are actually willing to pay for more wood than they have found necessary1 and are warranting the growers in adopting still more expensive methods to increase the output4 ,nor has forest growing proved to be possible only by the ,state or ,government4 ,in ,germany #df4e per cent of the forest area is owned privately1 in ,austria #fa per cent1 in ,france #fe per cent1 in ,norway #gj per cent4 ,while it is true that the ,european private owner has better tax and fire conditions1 it must also be remembered that the value of the land on which he makes the growing crop yield a good dividend is about ten times as high as it now is in the ,united ,states4 ,the prospective grower of new timber in the ,american ,west can expect equal profit here at some time4 ,his chief concern is whether its foreshadowing influences are sufficiently strong at present4 ,to determine this he must consider the probable attitude of the public and of the lumbermen themselves4 ,,what ,,it ,,means ,,to ,,the ,,consumer ,to the consumer the principles previously outlined mean that the price of lumber will rise somewhat4 ,indeed1 he must expect that1 regardless of the production factor1 for the timber owner cannot pay taxes1 prevent fire1 and keep his money tied up1 all for a considerable period1 and still sell the material as cheap as he could before these expenses accrued4 ,it also means that if the consumer fails to recognize and concede these principles it will be at his own sacrifice4 ,too low prices now merely mean too high prices in the early future1 for they will not permit protection1 economy or reforestation4 ,he must eventually1 and not far hence1 pay the total cost of production4 ,it is urgently to his interest not to add to this by preventing production and thus permitting the owner of the timber already produced to speculate on the approaching shortage4 ,the danger of this can be illustrated by a comparison4 ,suppose three-quarters of the apple growers of the country1 either through ignorance of the principles of their industry or through shortage of money with which to pay their debts1 should be forced for a considerable period to accept a price for their crop so low that after paying current bills they were obliged to neglect their orchards absolutely1 without plowing1 fencing or spraying4 ,suppose further that the public should also destroy a large portion of the orchards1 as the forests are by fire1 and also overtax the land so as to complete the discouragement4 ,clearly apples would immediately go up4 ,a few growers would doubtless escape absolute destruction and these1 as long as their orchards lasted1 would demand a price overbalancing many times the saving the consumer made temporarily while he was destroying the industry4 ,everyone concerned would be worse off than if prices had remained just high enough to maintain an adequate supply4 ,it is improbable1 however1 that the consumer will ever voluntarily pay more than he has to1 even if it is to his ultimate advantage4 ,the most that can be hoped is that as the public at large comes to understand the situation1 it will not support him in the claim that injustice is being done by the rises he is forced to meet as conditions adjust themselves4 ,his reluctance will retard1 but not stop1 the progress of good forest management4 ,,states ,,will ,,take ,a ,,hand ,on the other hand1 it is reasonable to suppose that the people of the timber-producing states will gradually come to see that their interest1 as well as that of the lumberman1 is to be furthered by placing the industry on a sound basis4 ,selling more lumber than they consume1 they will not rejoice over low prices any more than a wheat state does over the fall of wheat because it uses some flour1 but they will be equally unable to exert much stiffening influence on the price4 ,consequently they will probably attempt to sustain the industry by increasing production4 ,but in this attempt they will consider immediate community advantage first1 future community advantage next1 and the lumberman's advantage only as it is incidental4 ,and such measures as they endorse they are likely to enforce by law4 ,we see1 then1 that two forces are making for the better handling of our forest resources2 the economic necessity of the public and the business advantage of the owner4 ,both demand the maximum production4 ,obviously1 since their aims are identical1 each has to gain from earnest coperation4 ,neither can succeed alone1 for the owner cannot go far against hostile laws or sentiment1 and the public cannot accomplish half as much by compulsion as by encouraging the owner4 ,but the great danger to each lies in mutual distrust1 which defers the establishment of effective coperation4 ,,lumberman ,,must ,,show ,,good ,,faith ,the primary and all-important moral which all this points out to the lumberman is that his position under coming conditions will be largely what he makes it by his own attitude4 ,with the rapidity with which he gets into a position where his voice is listened to as unselfish and authoritative on the conservation subject1 will his influence on the new conditions be measured4 ,therefore1 he must study the subject4 ,he must be able to support good laws and oppose bad laws with facts and arguments which will stand scrutiny4 ,above all1 he must show faith by practicing what he preaches so far as he is able4 ,he must show conclusively the injustice of the public suspicion from which he suffers4 ,conservative forest management has three essentials3 ,protection1 utilization and reproduction4 ,the last particularly depends on the first4 ,the timber owner cannot protect adequately alone4 ,before he can expect much public help1 however1 he must show his willingness to do his share1 for the state will not assume the whole burden4 ,the progressive members of the industry have shown it already1 and the result is evident in the commencement of the states to help4 ,their help will increase in the proportion that private effort spreads4 ,presumably it will be the same with reforestation4 ,with the fire hazard lessened there will remain the obstacle of overtaxation on property returning no income with which to meet it4 ,the public will doubtless soon see that this is bad for the community1 but will hesitate to forego present revenue in order to reap greater future revenue until convinced that the owner will actually reforest if given the chance4 ,even if no actual desire to take advantage is ascribed1 there may be fear that he will make no active effort to start and protect the second crop1 but will merely continue the course of least expense in the hope that a new forest will establish itself1 with little to lose if it fails4 ,before he will receive the encouragement he deserves1 he must prove his good faith4 ,the surest way to do this is to begin actual work now1 where he can without certainty of failure4 ,unfortunately1 this is often impossible1 but he can at least study and experiment so he can argue convincingly that mutual success will follow reasonable encouragement4 ,,circumstances ,,determine ,,profit ,let us assume1 then1 that it is best for the lumberman to start the practice of forestry for the purpose of strengthening his position and getting the most favorable conditions possible for its general adoption and continuance4 ,how much does he depend upon success in this8 ,obviously1 early public favor will hasten and add to the security of forest growing as a business1 but is it absolutely essential8 ,do existing conditions and inevitable future conditions1 regardless of public intelligence1 furnish premises upon which we can calculate certain profit in some degree8 ,this depends upon the circumstances of the individual investor4 ,without an expectation of more favorable fire and tax influences1 reforestation cannot be universally recommended as a business proposition4 ,many timber owners are not warranted in undertaking it4 ,not enough are warranted in doing so to insure the future timber supply upon which public welfare depends4 ,nevertheless1 there are conditions under which it is a good investment4 ,it is even probable that for those who are well situated1 the very obstacles which deter others will be advantageous through reducing competition4 ,this fact is of peculiar significance to the public1 for if the latter fails to stimulate reforestation generally it will play directly into the hands of the few who are independent of encouragement4 ,it is customary1 in speculating upon the profits of a second timber crop1 to attempt to reduce it to a financial calculation based upon estimated yield1 estimated future values and estimated carrying charges4 ,these considerations are important1 but their importance is largely in proportion to the financial weakness of the prospective timber grower4 ,we revert again to the practical certainty that unless reforestation is general1 the exhaustion of virgin timber will be followed by a shortage1 and that the man who has a second crop at that time can obtain a price which will reimburse his carrying charges be they high or low4 ,the cost of overcoming present obstacles will be shifted to the consumer4 ,the possibility of such an investment is determined largely by ability to maintain a protective system with economy and to bear the expense of this and of heavy taxation during the period of no return4 ,in short1 the weakness of the ordinary financial calculation upon existing conditions is that it attempts to estimate future stumpage values without knowledge of the true factor which will determine them4 ,this factor is not the probable rise of existing stumpage while it continues to exist1 but is the extent of the new-grown supply which will follow it provided existing conditions remain unchanged4 ,it is inconsistent to figure the cost upon almost prohibitive present conditions without also recognizing that such conditions1 if continued1 will completely change the influences which now determine the market4 ,,who ,,can ,,afford ,,to ,,reforest ,,now ,on the other hand1 timber owners have by no means equal opportunity to take advantage of this fact4 ,the productive capacity of their land varies1 their taxes vary1 the extent and location of their holdings affects the expense of protection against fire1 and they have not the same facilities for financing a long term investment4 ,it is the balance of these factors that determine their opportunity4 ,assuming rate of timber growth to be equal1 present fire and tax conditions classify them in relative advantage about as follows3 #a4 ,owners of large holdings of virgin timber who can meet carrying charges by occasional sales at a profit over their purchase price1 but will not sell much more than is necessary because all they can afford to hold is advancing in value4 ,such owners have more or less land deforested by fire or their own milling operations1 and will incline to sell only stumpage without land4 ,this land is not easily realized upon at present1 and for the speculative reason stated1 they will continue in business long enough to grow a new crop on it4 ,the larger their holdings1 the greater the certainty of this and the cheaper1 relatively1 the cost of protection4 ,moreover1 concerns dealing with large and long term investments can consider a lower interest rate4 #b4 ,owners with less facility for making an actual profit through growing timber1 but desiring to maintain a milling business4 ,even if the cost of growing approaches or equals the value of the crop1 they will be able to count on continued manufacturing profit4 7,both of the above classes face a possibility of so heavy a tax on their virgin timber in some instances that they will be obliged to cut it and go out of business4 ,this is unlikely to occur generally1 however1 for tax reform is almost inevitable1 and it would have a compensatory effect of enhancing the value of the second crop47 #c4 ,owners whose holdings are not large enough to keep them in business until a second crop matures but are advantageously located4 ,second growth need not be mature to have a value4 ,as the present supply diminishes1 available coming supply will gain a high expectation value which can be realized upon4 ,the profit it offers will be largely determined by its proximity to market and especially by its proximity to established mills which see their own supply running short and have failed1 through inability or lack of foresight1 to engage in reforestation themselves4 ,it will also be affected by tax and fire charges1 and the latter1 especially1 will be largely a matter of location4 #d4 ,the owner with no peculiar advantages1 who can only set the general certainty of a market for second growth against his ability to carry a costly and uncertain investment for an indeterminate time4 ,of course a first consideration in most cases is the comparative profits of other possible investments or1 in other words1 the exact interest demanded as satisfactory4 ,individuals are in by no means the same position in this respect by either inclination1 opportunity or talent4 ,where one might be safer with his money in timber1 another could make more by manufacturing4 ,generally speaking1 however1 conservative judgment leads to the conclusion that the present attitude of the public warrants the first of the above four classes of owners in undertaking inexpensive reforestation where the land has little sale value for other purposes and where the growth and fire factors are reasonably favorable4 ,the second class can also undertake it to advantage on much the same basis1 but having less capacity for meeting the carrying charge1 requires still more favorable conditions4 ,the third class must have the maximum advantage of every kind4 ,it must calculate closely on the factors of cost and profit indicated by present conditions4 ,in most cases the risk will be too great for prudence1 and in nearly all financial ability will be lacking4 ,the fourth class cannot even consider it until the public's attitude changes4 ,,better ,,day ,,for ,,all ,,is ,,near ,on the other hand1 it is reasonable to suppose that publicly-imposed obstacles will decrease4 ,it will become apparent that their persistence is bad economy4 ,fires will grow fewer and the state will aid in patrol4 ,reforestation in itself is a method of fire prevention when it places a green young growth on a fire-inviting tract of sun-dried litter and weeds4 ,taxation will be deferred4 ,as the country develops interest rates will fall2 making it easier to carry forest investments and harder to gain more through other investments4 ,the state itself will engage more and more in forestry1 with the result of making its principles understood and endorsed4 ,stumpage values will increase4 ,immature timber will have a sale value1 lessening the term of investment4 ,gradually the business will get on a sound production basis1 better for the consumer1 better for the state supported by a forest income1 and more profitable for the grower4 ,instead of capitalizing bad management and the sacrifice of the consumer1 which in effect it does now by forcing the prospective grower to calculate on covering unnecessary cost in the price received1 it will capitalize the earning power of forest land4 ,while final adjustment on this basis is still in the future1 it is by no means entirely dependent upon popular foresight4 ,the process is going on constantly1 whether we know it or not4 ,the sun is still behind the horizon1 but the day is sure4 ,many ,western timber owners are still in too dim a light to make their footsteps certain2 others have a high vantage ground where dawn already lights the path4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,forestry ,,and ,,the ,,forest ,,elementary ,,principles ,,of ,,forest ,,growth ,whether the lumberman's judgment of economic influences leads him to be optimistic or otherwise as to the profit of forestry in general1 he is most interested in the particular forest with which he has to deal4 ,he can neither accept nor dismiss the proposition intelligently1 much less put his ideas into actual practice1 without knowing something of the capability of his land to respond to his effort4 ,what methods are best1 what will they cost1 and what will be the result8 are questions which arise at the very outset4 ,they lead at once into the domain of technical forestry4 ,with us forestry has not been practiced long enough to furnish demonstrated examples with which to answer such questions4 ,we can1 however1 profit by experience gained elsewhere1 for the laws which govern tree life are as universal as those which govern the life of men and animals4 ,in dealing with new species and new environments we have no great difficulty in judging their future from their past1 which lies written plainly for those who care to study it4 ,while to some extent trees require elements obtainable only from the soil1 they are more independent in this respect than most other forms of vegetation4 ,soil influences forest trees mainly by its physical character1 especially as this determines the moisture contents4 ,very little nourishment is actually taken out of the soil for1 as someone has said1 wood is nothing but air solidified by sunshine4 ,a tree's immense and complicated foliage system is the laboratory with which it effects this transformation4 ,since air exists everywhere and the chemical quality of the soil is comparatively unimportant1 the requirements of different species for light1 heat and moisture are what mainly determine their distribution and habits of growth4 ,and since heat and moisture are largely climatic factors and fairly uniform in given localities1 it follows that the demand of a species upon light may practically fix its habits and possibilities in those localities4 ,the very great variance of species in light requirement accounts to a large extent for the composition of most primeval forests4 ,it is of peculiar importance in the management of forests by man because he cannot control it as he may be able to control some of the other agencies which affected the primeval forest1 such as fire or seed supply4 ,,selection ,,forests ,it would be unprofitable to discuss here all the many methods of forest management which have proved to be best1 technically1 for given species and combinations of species4 ,where market and transportation facilities are highly favorable1 as in ,europe1 the timber owner can adopt the method which will bring the best results1 but here he has no such choice4 ,he can but bear in mind certain fundamental principles1 uniformly applicable to large areas for considerable periods of time4 ,roughly1 however1 our ,western forests can be classified by their adaptability to the two directly opposite systems1 known as clean cutting and selection cutting1 of which almost all methods are modifications4 ,a selection forest is one in which all ages of trees exist1 from seedling to maturity4 ,it is the natural growth of species which are tolerant of shade4 ,in a natural state1 undisturbed by cutting1 it maintains much the same aspect continuously1 for as the oldest trees die1 their place is taken by younger ones4 ,obviously such a forest must be composed of species1 whether one or several1 which can grow beneath its own shade4 ,the understories of varying ages are as dense as their light requirements and the density of the overwood permit4 ,the common hardwood forests of the ,east illustrate one type of the natural selection forest4 ,on the ,pacific slope an example is afforded by hemlock1 either practically pure or mixed with white fir1 but probably the most typical is the ordinary ,western yellow pine under certain conditions4 ,at its best this tree composes a forest so dense that all young growth is shaded out1 but everyone is familiar with the frequent opener stand containing all ages4 ,the younger trees are often called blackjack4 ,,even-,,aged ,,forests ,on the other hand1 trees extremely intolerant of shade occur only in what the forester calls even-aged forests4 ,being unable to start in the darkness of an existing stand of any considerable density1 they must seize opportunities to recover openings4 ,the ,douglas fir of the ,northwest1 more commonly called red or yellow fir1 is an excellent illustration4 ,in the interior states this species reproduces under cover to some extent1 because there is a stronger light average throughout the year and because the stand is not so dense4 ,in the typical ,douglas fir forests of ,oregon and ,washington1 discussed in this booklet1 it never does so4 ,while hemlock1 cedar and white fir undergrowth may be abundant1 ,douglas fir seedlings are seldom seen except in burns1 slashings1 roads1 or open spots in the woods4 ,and the fir trees composing the dominant stand are of nearly the same age4 ,how1 then1 did this even-aged fir forest begin8 ,close scrutiny will practically always find the answer in fragments of charred wood4 ,long ago another similar forest occupied the ground until lightning or an ,indian's fire started a new cycle4 ,possibly recurring burns swept the area many times before wind-blown seeds began to start advance groups of fir1 which1 when fifteen or twenty years old1 themselves fruited and filled the blanks between them4 ,perhaps destruction was not so complete and surviving trees made the process a swifter one4 ,except in the very oldest forests1 where remains of the original stand have entirely rotted away1 the history in either case may be read in ancient snags and fallen logs4 ,suppose1 however1 that fire had not come to aid the fir in perpetuating itself8 ,this1 too1 we can answer from the signs today4 ,every ,northwestern woodsman knows tracts of varying size 7usually small because fire has been almost universal7 covered with big old hemlock1 white fir and cedar1 with here and there a dying giant fir1 perhaps1 but mainly showing fir occupancy only by rotting stumps and logs4 ,no sign of fire is seen4 ,when this fir forest was approaching middle age1 the shade bearing species began to appear beneath it4 ,as the firs began to crowd themselves out1 the later comers shot up with the increased light and filled the open places4 ,at last the even-aged fir forest was completely transformed into a selection forest of other trees1 which will remain until some accident again gives fir a chance if any survives near enough to reach the spot with seed4 ,douglas fir is not the only ,western tree which usually grows in even-aged stands4 ,lodgepole pine has the same habit1 often supplanting yellow pine after fire or logging4 ,western white pine is perhaps more tolerant than ,douglas fir1 hence more likely to hold its own without artificial aid1 but is also more certain to compete successfully if it has such aid4 ,the same is true of tamarack4 ,,nature ,,as ,a ,,model ,we thus see that if economic reasons suggest it1 we may use the selection system as a basis for artificially managing the shade bearing species such as hemlock1 white fir1 cedar1 spruce1 and even ,western yellow pine4 ,we may cut the largest and oldest trees and still have a well started second crop4 ,if there is not much young growth to leave1 even a little is valuable4 ,it may be decidedly best to leave medium sized trees1 which otherwise we would cut1 because they are still growing rapidly4 ,on the other hand1 we see that this method would not be of any advantage at all in insuring a second crop of ,douglas fir1 for there is no young growth of this species to protect4 ,the small and medium sized trees1 instead of being immature1 are merely stunted specimens of the same age as their larger brothers and unlikely to gain in size if left4 ,selection cutting here would save for future use only such understory of shade-bearing species as may exist4 ,unless this is an object1 the best plan is to cut clean and get all we can4 ,if we leave any fir at all it is for the purpose of reseeding1 not to secure better utilization of the trees themselves1 and whether we do so depends1 theoretically at least1 upon whether it is better than artificial seeding or planting4 ,in short1 selection cutting harvests the ripest trees of a perpetual forest1 while clean cutting destroys the forest in order to start an entirely new and more rapid growing one4 ,clean cutting is therefore necessary as well as natural in dealing with intolerant trees4 ,but it does not follow that the selection system1 although natural to tolerant species1 is the only one adaptable to them4 ,while the one class demands light1 the other does not demand shade4 ,it is merely capable of enduring it4 ,indeed1 except for the greater susceptibility of some species to extreme heat and dryness when very young1 as a rule shade bearing trees grow much better if they do have ample light supply4 ,consequently clean cutting may be the best system for these also under certain economic conditions4 ,besides its influence upon the occurrence of species in the forest1 light practically governs the physical form of the individual tree4 ,if grown in an opening and not artificially pruned1 a tree will have a conical trunk and living branches almost down to the ground4 ,the denser and consequently darker the forest1 the more cylindrical the trunk1 the smaller the crown of branches and the greater the clear length4 ,the individual tree has no object in assuming a desirable commercial form and does so only when deprived of side light by numerous neighbors4 ,then it sacrifices diameter growth to height growth in reaching for the top light necessary for its life4 ,at the same time the lower branches are killed by shade and drop off1 the scars being healed and eventually buried4 ,the pin knots near the center of a big clear log are the remains of branches which when living were at the top of the young tree4 ,this is why1 if it is to produce good timber1 any forest must be dense enough to cover the ground throughout the early part of its life at least4 ,when we see an excellent clear stand of mature ,douglas fir1 for example1 we may know that it consists of the comparatively few survivors of a close sapling growth in which the weak were gradually killed out after serving their office of pruning and forcing the vigorous4 ,had only the trees we now see been on the ground they would be worthless except for firewood4 ,for the same reason artificial forest planting must be thick1 although the fillers or nurse trees may be of inferior species if not of so rapid growth as to gain the mastery4 ,nature teaches many lessons which we must recognize in artificial management or fail1 but she is no more the best grower of forest crops than she is of agricultural crops4 ,we have to study natural methods of forest perpetuation to see how they may be improved upon as much as to adopt them as models4 ,as a rule the virgin forest is exceedingly wasteful of ground4 ,the possibilities under intelligent care are not indicated by nature's average1 but by her accidental best1 and usually they far exceed even this4 ,a fair comparison is that of scientific farming with unsystematic gleaning from wild and untended fields4 ,the foregoing general principles of forest growth have been purposely outlined very briefly so as to serve as a mere introduction to their application or modification in concrete cases4 ,,management ,,of ,,specific ,,types ,,douglas ,,fir 7,pseudotsuga taxifolia7 ,compared with most important commercial trees1 the ,northwestern ,douglas fir is remarkably easy to reproduce4 ,it is an abundant seeder1 grows very rapidly1 and inhabits a region with every climatic advantage4 ,in the typical fir districts of ,oregon and ,washington deforested land which escapes recurring fire is usually restocked naturally and with astonishing rapidity4 ,the exceptions to this rule are where the destruction of seed trees has been wide and absolute1 where already established competing species are not removed with the original forest1 and where the surviving fir is too old to seed4 ,the two latter conditions are most prevalent near the coast1 where the wet climate not only tends to protect slashings from fire and thus preserve the undergrowth of shade bearing species which escapes logging1 but has also prevented the accidental destruction in the past of the original fir stand by fire4 ,in considering these natural results as they bear upon proposed methods1 we find actual destruction of seed supply the easiest to avoid4 ,if the original stand contains suitable seed trees we can protect a sufficient number of them4 ,if not1 or if it is less expensive1 we can secure seed elsewhere4 ,more frequent difficulty will lie in determining whether the reproduction of fir should be the sole effort1 or whether it should not be sacrificed1 if necessary1 in order to utilize an existing start toward a second crop of other species4 ,this is of peculiar and early importance1 for it usually also decides the question of protecting the slashing from fire4 ,if the present stand is nearly pure fir1 or if other species are represented almost wholly by merchantable trees1 there will be no young growth worth saving4 ,a new crop must be started from seed1 and since fir is the quickest and easiest to grow1 as well as probably the most valuable1 it should be given every encouragement4 ,slash ,burning and ,its ,exceptions4 ,in most cases this requires burning the ground after logging1 not only to reduce the future fire risk but also to provide a suitable seedbed4 ,fir much prefers mineral soil to start in1 as is easily seen from the far greater frequency of seedlings on road grades than on adjacent undisturbed ground covered with humus and rotten wood4 ,hemlock has no such fastidiousness1 even preferring rotten wood as a seedbed4 ,to protect the slashing from fire1 therefore1 both preserves the most unfavorable conditions for fir and subjects it to unnecessary competition by its rival4 ,hemlock seedlings already established1 seeds lying on the ground1 and surrounding or surviving trees which may scatter more seed1 are all encouraged to shade and stifle the struggling fir seedlings already handicapped by dislike for their situation4 ,on the other hand1 a large proportion of what we now consider typically fir forest has a vigorous ground cover of hemlock and cedar which may become merchantable many years before an entirely new fir crop can be grown4 ,the presumably greater value of the latter may be consumed by the heavier carrying charge before returns are available4 ,certainly if the promise of profit from other species and the difficulty of establishing fir both reach the extreme1 protection of the growth already started is the best forestry if it is practicable4 ,moreover1 there may be considerable young growth of other species under conditions which do not preclude satisfactory additional reseeding by fir4 ,when the owner is in position to plan far into the future1 like the ,government or ,state1 he may seek a temporary compromise1 although expecting eventually to secure pure fir4 ,in such a case it may often be best to utilize a first new crop of hemlock1 but on harvesting this a few decades hence to burn clean and start the next rotation with fir only4 ,conditions ,vary ,methods4 ,between conditions clearly suggesting one course or another1 all gradations will present themselves and no written rule can be given for determining the dividing line4 ,much depends upon future relative values of species1 upon which the owner will have his own opinion4 ,more depends upon the character of existing young growth and consequent adaptability to changed conditions after logging4 ,even a very thick stand of young hemlock is unlikely to produce much if the overwood has been very dense1 for much of it may be so old and stunted by shade that sudden advent of strong light will result merely in distorted worthless branch growth or in killing it outright4 ,occasional vigorous young trees just under present merchantable size are of doubtful value because they are likely to blow down4 ,the most promising class of undergrowth found in fir forests of the ,northwest is where there has been sufficient light to produce a fairly thick stand of young hemlock or cedar from five to fifty feet high4 ,if the undergrowth from which any second crop may develop is insufficient to be worth much consideration1 and reseeding must be depended upon entirely1 there may still be a question as to species4 ,if ample natural supply of fir seed can be expected1 slash burning is indicated4 ,but if not and the owner is not prepared to undertake the expense of artificial seeding1 while at the same time there is a promising natural hemlock supply1 burning has no object except the reduction of future fire risk4 ,it may even retard hemlock reproduction1 both by destroying part of the seed supply and by encouraging the growth of brakes on the area4 ,the question here is a really financial one4 ,the cost of planting fir under these conditions may be more than reimbursed by the resultant more valuable and rapid growing crop4 ,the owner must do his own conjecturing as to future comparative values of the species4 ,so far we have discussed slash burning only in its sylvicultural relation1 finding that it encourages ,douglas fir reproduction and is consequently advisable in ,northwestern ,douglas fir types unless there is an exceptionally promising second growth already started4 ,the balance will be further in its favor1 in doubtful cases1 because of the protective feature4 ,this is discussed more fully in another chapter1 but it is well to recall here that immunity from recurring fire is the first essential of profitable reforestation4 ,to secure second growth by treatment which threatens its destruction later is bad management unless the original saving is ample to cover subsequent greater cost of protection4 ,this is seldom the case4 ,how to ,reseed the ,area4 ,dismissing the exceptions noted1 and returning to our rule that another crop of ,douglas fir is usually the best secured by following nature--cutting practically clean1 burning the ground and starting a new even-aged stand--we have still to consider means of getting this stand started4 ,we may depend upon natural reseeding from trees preserved for the purpose or from the surrounding forest1 or we may resort to planting4 ,what are the comparative advantages of these two methods and the circumstances governing choice between them8 ,hitherto1 students of the subject have inclined to favor natural reproduction4 ,the very general second growth on deforested land where no aid has been given indicates that excellent results will follow slight assistance4 ,red fir fruits frequently and profusely1 and the seeds carry well in the wind4 ,burns have been known to restock fully from seed blown from forested hills a mile or more away4 ,moreover1 while planting always involves initial expense1 sometimes much may be done to insure natural seeding with little or no actual outlay4 ,there is danger1 however1 that in many instances this economy will be more apparent than real if it is effected by actually leaving much value in seed trees4 ,abroad and in the ,east there is comparatively little loss in leaving even a fourth or fifth of the original stand to furnish seed4 ,the individual trees left may be good seeders1 although small4 ,little capital is tied up in them and they may be utilized later to equal advantage4 ,a mature fir forest of the ,pacific coast may have no small fruiting trees at all1 and if left such are likely to be knocked down in logging4 ,to leave #bj per cent of the large trees standing would sometimes tie up #bj1jjj feet to the acre1 worth #dj or #ej4 ,age and windfall may cause loss equal to stumpage increase2 moreover1 they can never be utilized without the same expense for roads and machinery that is necessary in the original logging4 ,the second crop will not be allowed to reach a size requiring such equipment4 ,in considering possible windfall loss1 not the normal wind but the possible maximum storm within the entire life of the second crop must be reckoned with4 ,it is probably safe to say of mature ,pacific coast fir that leaving enough merchantable timber on a cutting area for adequate seeding costs more than to use it and restock4 ,restocking can be done for #b to #aj an acre1 which would leave a decided margin for profit on the seed trees4 ,and if we undertake to reduce this balance by leaving very few seed trees1 we decrease the certainty of successful reproduction and increase the danger of entire failure through windfall or accidental destruction when we burn the slashing4 ,it cannot be denied1 however1 that fire after planting would result in complete loss1 while seed trees might restock the area again and again after such accidents4 ,natural ,reproduction4 ,on the other hand1 natural reproduction does not always require the leaving of merchantable timber on the cutting area4 ,frequently there are enough crooked or conky trees to serve the purpose4 ,these defects are not directly transmissible through seed to the offspring1 although conk is infectious and the young crop should be protected by the removal of the diseased parents after it is well started4 ,again1 seeding from adjacent timber can often be relied upon4 ,this is a question of economy in logging operations1 lay of the ground1 prevailing wind direction1 fertility of the stand and other local considerations4 ,a valley with healthy fir woods on either side is likely to seed up promptly even if a half mile wide4 ,so is a flat at the leeward foot of a hill timbered on the summit where the wind strikes4 ,a cutting on a ridge is correspondingly unlikely to restock4 ,theoretically if a tract of timber were large enough1 it could be opened up by logging operations which1 instead of proceeding steadily from one edge1 might skip every other landing or so until the most remote portion was reached after a few years1 and then work back again1 cleaning up the neglected portions after they had seeded the first openings4 ,the same effect sometimes results from actual accidental practice4 ,it is apparent that rules cannot be laid down for general application4 ,generally speaking1 a logger interested in fir reforestation should study his ground to see if naturally1 or1 with inexpensive aid1 the cut-over area will not reseed from the sides and from the cull trees he will leave uncut4 ,if not1 he may leave a few merchantable seed bearing trees provided the soil is such as to make them deep-rooted and wind-firm4 ,groups are better than single trees because less likely to be blown down and easier to protect from the slashing fire4 ,more should be left toward the windward edge4 ,but before tieing up any considerable sum in merchantable trees he should consider the cost and safety of supplementing any shortage of natural supply by artificial seeding4 ,,western ,,hemlock 7,tsuga heterophylla7 ,since hemlock is so frequently associated with ,douglas fir1 the principles governing its reproduction and its relative promise as a second crop have necessarily been largely covered in the preceding discussion of fir4 ,the following remarks are merely additional4 ,we have seen that the perpetuation of hemlock is advisable only where fir reproduction is difficult to obtain or will be at too great a sacrifice of valuable existing hemlock4 ,the first of these conditions is confined chiefly to pure hemlock stands and to coast regions where the fir is often too old to seed well4 ,the second may exist on the coast or in certain moist interior regions where there is a heavy hemlock undergrowth4 ,in either case natural hemlock reproduction will be counted upon1 both because it is practically certain to occur and because if it were not certain and artificial aid were necessary1 we would abandon hemlock entirely and devote our efforts to fir4 ,in short1 discussion of hemlock as a second crop need not include systematic attempts to seed the ground but may be confined to protection of what we have to begin with4 ,in a straight hemlock proposition1 the protection question may differ considerably from that involved by deciding between fir and hemlock4 ,in the latter case1 because of the assistance of fire to fir1 the growth already on the ground must have considerable value to warrant foregoing the several advantages of slash burning4 ,in the former1 slash burning has no object except to reduce future risk4 ,the inference is that a much less promising stock of young growth is worth protecting4 ,while this is true1 there is danger of overestimating its value1 especially if care is not taken in logging4 ,it has been remarked that suppressed misshapen hemlock is not apt to make a healthy growth1 that windfall is a peril1 and that if the previous shade has been heavy1 sudden opening to sunlight may be fatal4 ,it should also be remembered that even slightly injured young hemlock is worthless1 for it is almost certain to be attacked by borers4 ,anything which deadens a small portion of the bark like axe blazes1 fire scorch1 or scars from strap leads1 is dangerous4 ,hemlock is more liable than fir to general defects like black streak1 borers1 fungous disease and mistletoe1 therefore investment in reforestation needs the maximum safeguard against them4 ,in many instances better results may be obtained from a new healthy seedling stand following a purifying fire1 even at some loss of time1 than from well started young growth which is unhealthy and likely not only to fail itself but also to infect any seedlings which may come in among it4 ,consequently if the slashing is not large1 and reproduction from the sides may be counted on1 the above considerations1 coupled with the reduction of future fire risk1 may suggest slash burning just as in the case of fir4 ,the remarks apply particularly if it is considered necessary to log as clean as possible4 ,with a good1 healthy start toward a new forest1 however1 it will usually be best to keep fire out1 for the material saved will warrant greater expense in protection during the growing period4 ,representative tracts1 both on the coast and in the ,cascades1 have been studied which showed that1 with care in lumbering1 enough good young hemlock too small for logs or skids could be saved after present-day logging of a heavy mixed fir and hemlock stand to produce in fifty years #aa1jjj or #ab1jjj feet of timber over #ad inches in diameter4 ,this would not be wholly additional to the second crop of seedlings which might be produced if these trees were not preserved1 for the ground and light they use would be denied to the seedlings1 but undoubtedly the yield would be greater than could be secured if they were destroyed4 ,this means that under similar conditions we may go still further and actually apply the selection system1 especially if the original stand is nearly pure hemlock4 ,so far we have discussed areas left by present-day logging methods4 ,suppose1 however1 the owner of a good tract of hemlock1 having decided that conditions do not warrant trying to get fir1 is willing to modify his methods for the sake of better hemlock returns at some future cutting4 ,he would probably do best to take out only the mature trees1 leaving everything which is still growing with fair rapidity4 ,greater light will stimulate these immensely as well as encourage further seeding of the ground4 ,the few merchantable trees he spares1 together with those now unmerchantable1 will1 in perhaps twenty years1 make another excellent crop4 ,by leaving a fairly dense stand he prevents the windfall danger which threatens the survivors of too vigorous cutting1 and also prevents them from assuming the branchy form of trees which receive too much side light4 ,the fire danger is much reduced by resultant shading of the ground and slightly by the lesser cover of debris4 ,in short1 he makes the most economical use of the ground1 and the capital represented by the trees he spares is well invested4 ,to sum up1 hemlock lends itself to almost every form of management4 ,determination as to which is most advisable is governed by its extremely variable manner of occurrence and by the local promise offered by associate species4 ,the foregoing discussion can only serve as suggestive when considering given conditions4 ,,western ,,cedar 7,thuya plicata7 ,except for small swamp and river bottom areas1 where the land is likely to be more valuable for agriculture than for forest culture1 pure cedar stands are not common4 ,therefore it is as a component of mixed stands that cedar is likely to become a problem in conservative management4 ,to some extent it presents a peculiar question by being taken out alone for special purposes1 such as poles and bolts1 independent of ordinary logging of sawtimber4 ,western cedar is a typically shade-bearing tree and also endures much ground moisture4 ,its occurrence as an under story and in swamps does not indicate that it always requires such conditions1 however1 but more often means merely that they protected it from competition or from destruction by fire4 ,charred remains of very large1 fine cedar are often found on comparatively dry slopes where fire has resulted in complete occupation by fir at present4 ,cedar's failure to reappear there after removal is probably because its thin bark and shallow roots allowed its destruction by a fire which was survived by some better protected fir seed trees4 ,nevertheless1 cedar must be classified as a moisture-loving species and occupies dry soils only in coast or mountain localities where there is a compensating heavy rainfall4 ,reproduction and management of western cedar have not been sufficiently studied to warrant very positive conclusions4 ,this neglect is probably due to a wide belief that in spite of its present commercial importance1 its place in the future forest will be small4 ,it most commonly occurs with other trees in heavy stands1 which make the preservation of any young cedar difficult because of the destructiveness of logging4 ,being of comparatively slow growth1 also persistent in retaining branches when grown in the light1 it is not as promising for artificial reproduction as ,douglas fir or white pine4 ,to let it become old enough for good shingle material will be too expensive to pay1 for roofing is one of the wood products easiest to substitute for4 ,while cedar is adapted for poles1 posts and other underground use1 less decay-resisting species can be made equally durable by chemical treatment4 ,in other words1 as a second crop it is probably below other species in ease of establishment1 rapidity and quantity1 and will not have sufficient peculiar value to compensate for consequent less economical use of the ground4 ,there may be exceptions to this rule4 ,good young cedar in forests which are to be handled under the selection system should be carefully protected4 ,it can always be utilized and may bring revenue before anything else can be cut4 ,for the same reason it has been suggested for planting with fir and white pine1 either simultaneously as a small proportion or later in blank spaces where the others fail4 ,under such conditions the main stand will not be modified and the cedar will afford a valuable adjunct4 ,,sitka ,,spruce 7,picea sitchensis7 ,although found in the moister mountain regions1 this exceedingly valuable tree seldom occurs to a commercially important extent except along the coast1 where it is common on swales and fertile benches and in river bottoms often forms pure stands of great density4 ,yields of #ajj1jjj feet an acre are not unusual and the trees are very large4 ,it is also common1 although of small size1 in swamps4 ,this spruce reproduces readily in openings1 whether made by fire or cutting4 ,unthrifty specimens may be found under shade1 but considerable light is necessary for successful development4 ,even then1 height growth in youth averages slower than that of fir or hemlock4 ,the leader shoot is likely to die1 so that hardly more than #be per cent of the young trees establish a regular form of growth before a height of #bj or #cj feet is reached4 ,after this stage spruce grows uniformly and rapidly1 still somewhat slower than fir in height but exceeding it in diameter4 ,the branches are slow to die1 however1 so that the tree remains bushy for most of its length until it reaches #fj or #hj feet in height1 and even afterward a dense stand is required to clear it4 ,in many pure spruce forests the larger trees have been able to withstand the pruning influences and remain limby1 while the smaller ones1 being pushed in height growth to reach sufficient light for survival1 have cleared themselves with remarkable rapidity4 ,the natural occurrence of ,sitka spruce1 except in ,alaska1 is probably limited chiefly to situations where it escapes competition1 in youth at least1 with the more hardy and rapid-growing species4 ,it has the greatest advantage over these on river bottoms and flats where there is a dense growth of deciduous brush and where the soil is very wet in spring4 ,in considering it as a possible second crop1 the same competition must be remembered4 ,whether seeding is natural or artificial1 the extent to which it will hold its own with any considerable quantity of other species is doubtful4 ,if such are present and the situation is adapted to them1 any expensive effort to get spruce merely by modifying methods of logging or handling the slash is certainly likely to be disappointing4 ,under the conditions mentioned as peculiarly favorable for spruce1 gradual natural restocking may be expected if some seed supply is preserved1 but since the growth is rather slow and a thin stand will remain limby1 it may pay to hasten returns by supplementary artificial planting4 ,some authorities question the financial practicability of this on the ground that since spruce is of slower growth it will pay better to use the ground for fir1 but the latter is unlikely to be true of bottom land4 ,after summing all its advantages1 the peculiar merits of spruce for certain purposes should be weighed1 for sufficiently higher stumpage value will compensate for delay in harvesting the crop4 ,moreover1 ,sitka spruce has not been as thoroughly studied by foresters as the more prominent ,western trees1 and while the foregoing notes represent general present opinion1 further figures on rate of height growth may be more encouraging4 ,there is no doubt that diameter increase is rapid from the start4 ,most of the disadvantages mentioned also decrease toward the southern limit of the spruce range1 the growth on the ,oregon ,coast being rapid4 ,,western ,,yellow ,,pine 7,pinus ponderosa7 ,in this species we have the important western conifer which most often permits the selection system of management4 ,with certain exceptions in which the entire stand is mature1 the object of conservative logging should be to remove trees past the age of rapid growth and foster those that remain for a later cut4 ,when comprising the entire stand1 or at least clearly dominating it1 with all ages fairly evenly represented1 successful in reproduction1 and not so dense as to present mechanical difficulties1 it is ideally adapted to this form of management4 ,the important underlying principle is that1 since for a period of its life the normal individual tree increases in wood production and then declines1 it is bad economy to cut it while it is still growing rapidly or to allow it1 after slowing down1 to occupy ground which might be used by a tree still in the vigor of production4 ,for example1 if at #ajj years old it contains #ejj board feet1 it has averaged an addition of #e feet1 a year throughout its life4 ,if at #abe years old it contains but #efj feet1 the average increment will be but #d-a_/b feet a year4 ,it will not give equal return for the soil1 moisture and light it monopolizes during these #be years4 ,at the same time1 probably there are young trees nearby which hitherto have averaged below the maximum1 but if released from its competition will forge ahead for a period at the end of which they will give a greater annual return than if cut at present4 ,it would be as bad economy to cut these today as to spare the over-mature tree4 ,in short1 the production of the forest is not only sustained1 but actually increased1 by removing the oldest trees at just the proper time2 and is decreased by taking out young trees either not yet at the natural age of greatest mean annual increment or capable of artificial stimulation by thinning4 ,by studying the relation of age to production in the particular locality1 the proportion of different age classes1 and also finding the approximate average diameter which corresponds to the age at which he desires to cut1 the professional forester can make a very accurate selection of the trees which can be removed to best advantage at present and also fix the time and yield of the next cutting4 ,fortunately1 however1 commercial and silvicultural considerations accidentally coincide so nearly under average yellow pine conditions as to make certain rough rules which can be laid down entirely consistent with logging methods now in practice4 ,diameter is far from exact indication of age1 for the location of the forest and the situation of the individual tree1 especially as it affects the relation between height and diameter growth1 are potent factors1 but as a rule merchantability for saw-material is not far from maturity4 ,in a great majority of cases the approximate minimum diameter for cutting which would be fixed by it forester would be somewhere between #af and #cj inches1 but say it were #ah inches1 for example1 it would not arbitrarily apply throughout the stand4 ,most trees with yellow1 smooth bark and small heavy-limbed tops1 perhaps partially dead1 are mature regardless of their size4 ,if small1 they have been crowded or stunted and may as well be cut4 ,trees with large1 healthy crowns composed of many comparatively small branches1 and with rough dark bark showing no flat scaling1 are sure to be growing rapidly1 even if quite large4 ,they are also less desired by the lumberman1 who often calls them black pine or black jack1 so may often be spared1 without much sacrifice1 for seed trees or in order to continue their rapid wood production4 ,the seed tree problem in such a pine forest and under such a system as has been described is comparatively simple1 for there are likely to be enough young trees of fruiting age left to fill up the blanks between existing seedlings4 ,the density of the latter determines to a large extent the number and location of seed trees necessary1 but there should always be two to four to the acre1 even if this requires leaving some that would otherwise be logged4 ,under this system recurring cuts may be made at periods of perhaps #cj or #dj years1 taking out each time the trees which have passed the minimum diameter since the last previous cut4 ,it is obvious1 however1 that if the process is to continue indefinitely1 protection must be absolute4 ,destruction of young growth will stop the rotation at the time the surviving older material is harvested4 ,at each cut the brush should be disposed of with this end in view4 ,if the stand is very thin it may not add much to the danger of fire and1 especially if reproduction is difficult and requires shelter1 may best be left spread on the ground at some distance from remaining trees4 ,otherwise1 and this is the rule1 it should be piled and usually burned4 ,in this process and in logging every effort should be made to protect existing young growth from injury4 ,ground fires should be prevented now and always hereafter4 ,so far1 however1 we have been considering how to make the most of a stand of many ages1 due to constant reproduction permitted by the light supply in a fairly open forest4 ,on the other hand1 yellow pine sometimes produces a mature stand so heavy that there is little young growth beneath it1 or even a thin old stand with either little reproduction or an invasion of lodge-pole pine4 ,such conditions are usually due to fire at some period4 ,in the first of these cases1 usually the dense stand has resulted from a fire which destroyed its predecessor not so completely as to remove the seed supply1 but sufficiently to afford light for a more uniformly dense crop of seedlings than would occur in the normal forest4 ,these have been thinned out as the stand grew old1 but never to a degree which allowed much reproduction beneath them4 ,the natural cycle will be begun again in time1 for toward the end of the life of this unusually heavy stand1 seedlings will begin to appear gradually as individual old trees die and admit more and more light4 ,the other exceptions described are due to more recent ground fires which have destroyed only the less hardy young growth and perhaps also encouraged the lodge pole which1 within its range1 is always quick to take burned ground4 ,the same result is almost sure to follow the ,indian method of forest protection sometimes advocated1 which consists of purposely running ground fires frequently in order to prevent accumulation of sufficient debris to make an accidental fire fatal to timber of commercial size4 ,while such immunity may be secured1 and perhaps without sacrifice in stands so heavy as to have no reproduction or when the latter has already been destroyed1 it is obviously at the expense of young growth if any exists4 ,the counter argument that a small proportion escaping will be sufficient for the second crop is fallacious1 because good timber will not be produced from these scattering seedlings subjected to strong light by later logging4 ,other means are necessary if the forest is to be reproduced4 ,this brings us to the possible management of yellow pine as an even-aged forest4 ,thoughtful foresters are beginning to suspect that while the ,indian system of fire protection will usually be fatal if ordinary logging practice is followed1 it may serve as an adjunct to a system which1 if carefully applied1 will be better than selection cutting for some of our pine areas4 ,this plan is suggested where there is little young growth worth protecting and consists of depending upon seed trees almost entirely for reproduction1 protecting carefully until the resultant even-aged second growth is large enough to stand ,blight fire1 and then burning periodically at such a season and with such safeguards as will prevent the fire from being injuriously severe4 ,not only are there many existing forests where absence of small trees will permit clean cutting without sacrifice1 but the same condition is likely to occur eventually in stands following selective logging if the second cut is long delayed4 ,although a good representation of all ages under the diameter limit remains1 the density of this may become too great to allow further reproduction1 and in time the dominant trees will shade out all smaller growth4 ,to allow this purposely1 choosing heavy cuts at intervals long enough to mature the crop from seed rather than frequent light cuts of a constantly replenishing stand1 thus reducing the necessity of fire prevention1 is the aim of those who favor clean cutting as the most practicable system4 ,they assume that additional investment in seed trees1 or planting to insure prompt starting of a new crop after cutting1 will be unnecessary or at least offset by the smaller fire charge and greater economy of logging4 ,theoretically1 such practice with a species adapted to the selective method is uneconomical1 for the ground is not fully utilized4 ,accidental open places in the stand are not occupied by young trees which would otherwise fill them4 ,time is lost by not starting the second crop until after logging1 for were there no fire previously there would be considerable seedling growth which1 although perhaps dormant because of shade1 would begin to amount to something much quicker than that supplied by seed trees afterward4 ,nor is the system feasible where there is much fir or other species less fire-resisting than pine4 ,it is dangerous in practice except where there is very little combustible matter on the ground and fire is generally easy of control1 and exceedingly dangerous to advocate because serves as a pretext and example for indiscriminate carelessness with fire under all conditions4 ,finally1 the alleged immunity of pine from injury by ground fires is exaggerated4 ,as a matter of fact1 while the whole stand is seldom perceptibly hurt1 the immediate or gradual death of a good tree here and there thins the stand very considerably in a few years and it is such a thinning process in the past which makes many pine tracts bear but #e1jjj feet to the acre where otherwise they would yield two or three times as much4 ,scorching also retards the growth of trees not actually injured otherwise4 ,the technical objections given above may sometimes be offset by practical advantages and the system is likely to receive expert approval for certain conditions provided it is not used as a cloak without taking sincere steps to replace the destroyed second growth by adequate seed trees or artificial seeding4 ,the latter danger may easily warrant public alarm manifested by restrictive laws4 ,universal ground burning of green timber will distinctly reduce the prospect of unassisted natural reforestation on the great area of potential timber land in which1 as a resource1 regardless of ownership1 the public is vitally interested4 ,under present conditions at least1 a large proportion of this is likely to be logged without any view to a future crop4 ,it is questionable whether any state should1 or will1 legally approve ground burning except under stipulation of proper management thereafter4 ,unfortunately1 it is necessary1 in concluding this discussion of yellow pine1 to admit that while an attempt has been made to outline the methods which will insure a second crop1 the promise of satisfactory financial return is more doubtful than that offered by some other species4 ,compared with the typical coast trees1 such as ,douglas fir1 spruce and hemlock1 the growth is slow and the yield small4 ,the chief circumstances in its favor are low land values1 lesser fire risk1 cheapness and certainty of reproduction and excellent market prospects4 ,less investment compensates somewhat for longer rotation and smaller yield4 ,low taxation1 however1 is an absolute essential4 ,,western ,,white ,,pine 7,p4 ,monlicola7 ,although as a distinct forest type this valuable tree is limited chiefly to ,idaho1 it occurs occasionally in mixture or small tracts over a wide range1 and no reason appears why its commercial importance should not be extended by planting on cut-over lands4 ,its high value1 rapid growth and heavy yield make it a particularly promising species for growing under forestry principles4 ,its chief requirements for success are fairly good moist land1 access by the seed to mineral soil and ample light for the young seedlings4 ,except that it is more fastidious as to soil1 white pine usually demands about the same treatment as that prescribed for ,douglas fir1 including clean cutting1 slash burning and establishing a new even-aged stand by seed trees or artificial restocking4 ,under favorable conditions the stand is nearly even-aged1 with little undergrowth except of undesirable species4 ,what small pine may exist is seldom thrifty enough to be worth saving1 so the best thing is to clean off the ground for the double purpose of removing weed trees and favoring valuable reproduction4 ,like that of fir1 the natural rotation of white pine forests seems to have been accomplished often by the aid of fire1 and where not given this aid it suffers from lack of suitable seed-bed and from the competition of other species already established4 ,individual seed trees left in logging are not successful because of shallow root system and almost certain windfall4 ,replacement must be by seeding or planting1 or by leaving small tracts of pine surrounded by cleared fire lines to protect them when the slashing is burned4 ,the size and distance apart of these must be determined by their situation and exposure to wind1 considering both the danger of windfall and the carrying of seed4 ,especially in younger growths1 the quantity of merchantable material tied up in this way is not so great as is sometimes necessary in the case of red fir1 where single seed trees may contain several thousand board feet4 ,on the other hand1 stumpage value may be high4 ,for this reason artificial replacement may often be more profitable1 especially where there is reasonable safety against recurring fire4 ,a thing to be borne in mind is that white pine seems to reach a healthier and better development when mixed with a small proportion of other species1 such as cedar1 tamarack1 spruce1 lodgepole pine and ,douglas fir1 so there is no object in trying to produce an absolutely pure stand4 ,some authorities think that #fj per cent of pine1 with the rest helping to prune it1 is an ideal mixture4 ,,lodgepole ,,pine 7,p4 ,murrayana7 ,present interest in private reproduction of this species hardly warrants treating it at length in this publication1 although unquestionably it will eventually occupy a higher place in the market than at present and its readiness to seize burned land in many regions will make it a factor whether desired or not4 ,where yellow pine will grow1 the problem is most likely to be to discourage lodgepole competition4 ,in strictly lodgepole territory1 however1 it may be the only promise of a new forest4 ,generally speaking1 an even-aged growth should be induced by clean cutting if the entire crop can be utilized4 ,slash burning in such cases is desirable4 ,the chief difficulty is in providing seed supply1 for either individual seed trees or small groups are almost certain to be blown down4 ,experiments so far indicate that heavy strips must be spared1 chosen to afford the least present loss and safeguarded by fire lines4 ,in some lodgepole stands1 especially where only certain sizes are marketable1 the cutting practically amounts to thinning4 ,here obviously the effort should be to prevent over-thinning and to remove debris with the least damage to the remaining stand4 ,piling and burning is essential4 ,,sugar ,,pine 7,p4 ,lambertiana7 ,this extremely valuable pine1 commercially limited to the ,oregon and ,california mountains1 is fastidious in its choice of conditions4 ,not a frequent or prolific seed bearer1 it still insists on a moist loose seed-bed and prefers the natural forest floor to burned-over land4 ,it cannot stand drought when young and except on cool northern slopes seedlings may be killed or stunted by exposure to full sunlight4 ,on the contrary it demands more and more light as it grows older and will be suppressed or killed if unable to secure it4 ,under natural conditions it perpetuates itself best by filling open places in the forest4 ,for the above reasons1 sugar pine is naturally a component of mixed forests and it is doubtful whether it will be successfully grown as a pure stand4 ,unfortunately1 also1 logging methods which are both the simplest and most favorable to the reproduction of its associates may be discouraging to sugar pine reproduction4 ,nevertheless1 its value warrants strong efforts to favor it and is an argument1 where considerable young sugar pine exists1 against either clean cutting or the use of fire4 ,the ,forest ,service1 for which authority much of the above discussion of this species was taken1 offers the following general outline for management in ,california3 ,since the forests in which sugar and yellow pine occur vary greatly in composition1 the method of treatment must also vary4 ,for this the forest types already distinguished may form a basis4 ,on the lower portion of the sugar pine-yellow pine type1 where sugar pine forms but a small proportion of the stand1 only the yellow pine should be considered for the future forest4 ,all merchantable sugar pine may therefore be removed4 ,it will be necessary to leave only a few seed trees of yellow pine to restock the ground1 although usually it will be a wiser policy to leave a fair stand1 since this can be removed as a second cutting when reproduction is established4 ,this procedure would also hold for areas on which yellow pine occurs in nearly pure stands4 ,in these localities dense stands of second-growth yellow pine occur4 ,it will often be profitable1 where there is a market at hand1 to thin these stands when they are about #cj years old1 removing the suppressed trees for mine props4 ,trees #f1 #h and #aj inches and up are used for this purpose1 and sell for from #e to #f cents a running foot4 ,on the upper portion of the sugar pine-yellow pine type1 where both species have about an equal representation in the stand1 seed trees of each should be left1 wherever practicable1 in the proportion of two sugar pines to one yellow pine4 ,in the fir belt1 where sugar pine and fir are the principal species1 the fir should be cut clean wherever possible and sugar pine should be relied upon for the future forest4 ,on all lands1 the ,douglas spruce1 white fir and incense cedar should be cut whenever possible1 and chutes1 skidways and bridges should be constructed from the two last named species4 ,the following specific instructions are issued for marking timber on ,national ,forest sales in the sugar pine-yellow pine type3 ,owing to the large size of the trees1 marking in this type of forest should be done with special care1 since a slight mistake involves a comparatively large amount of timber4 ,on nearly all of the lands included in this type the ground is now but partly and insufficiently stocked with young timber1 the areas of forest are constantly becoming more accessible to markets1 and there is every indication of a strong future demand at greatly increased prices4 ,on nearly every tract1 a second cut can be made within thirty years4 ,all marking under present sales should be done strictly with reference to two points3 #a4 ,stocking the cut-over land as fully as possible with sugar and yellow pine4 #b4 ,securing a second cut within thirty years4 ,all cutting should be done under the 'selection system1' which requires a careful choice of the individual trees to be removed4 ,fixed diameter limits and the leaving of any specified number of seed trees per acre can be very largely disregarded4 ,the condition of every sugar and yellow pine on the sale area should be studied closely to determine whether that tree will be merchantable thirty years hence1 by which time a second cut is probable4 ,as a rule the trees which will remain merchantable for another thirty years should be left4 ,suppressed and crowded trees which cannot develop should be removed4 ,under this system of marking1 ordinarily about one-half of the present stand of merchantable pine would be left uncut4 ,will it pay8 ,on areas where practically all of the pine is over-matured and would be cut under the rule given above1 a sufficient stand must be left to reseed thoroughly the cut-over land4 ,this requires not less than four full seed-bearing trees1 at least #be inches in diameter1 per acre4 ,the strongest and thriftiest trees available should be selected for this purpose1 but not less than the number specified must be left even if every tree will be a total loss before a second cut is possible4 ,extensive areas of pine timber which are not yet fully mature should be excluded from the sale4 ,on patches or small areas of immature pine1 which it is not practicable to exclude from the sale1 cutting should be very light1 limited to one-third or less of the largest trees1 or omitted altogether4 ,no attempt to discriminate sharply between sugar and yellow pine should be made1 as both trees are almost equally desirable4 ,where a choice is necessary1 sugar pine should be favored on moist situations1 as in canyons1 moist pockets1 or benches and on northerly exposures4 ,yellow pine should be favored on dry situations1 including exposed ridges and southern exposures4 ,fir and incense cedar should be marked1 as a rule1 to as low a diameter as these trees are merchantable in order to reduce the proportion of these species in coming reproduction4 ,it is essential1 however1 that no large openings be made in the present stand since the exposed ground is in danger of reverting to chaparral or of becoming so dry from evaporation that no reproduction will follow cutting4 ,where the stand of pine is insufficient to reseed thoroughly and protect the cut-over area1 enough sound1 thrifty fir and cedar should be left to form a fairly even cover with openings less than a quarter of an acre in size4' ,the under current of all opinion upon sugar pine up to date is that reproduction will not be very successful unless enough growth to shelter the seedlings remains after logging4 ,where the fire risk permits1 the same end may be furthered by leaving the tops scattered on the ground4 ,little experimenting has been done in planting sugar pine1 but there are many indications that except where conditions strongly favor natural reproduction it will be resorted to eventually if any particular attempt is made to get this species4 ,leaving large seed trees is not only expensive1 but rather uncertain1 because heavy seed years are several years apart and squirrels consume a large portion of an ordinary crop4 ,transplants which have received nursery shelter until past the greatest danger of drying out should prove most successful on heavily-cut south slopes4 ,,redwood 7,sequoia sempervirens7 ,although probably the most rapid-growing of all ,american commercial trees and also of high market standing1 redwood has been little studied by foresters4 ,the layman is still more confused by its many peculiarities4 ,growing to a size of #bj feet in diameter and #cej feet high1 reaching an age of well over #a1jjj years and seldom reproducing by means of seed1 it is not surprising that it was long regarded as ill-adapted to second crop management4 ,although observing that suckers sprout from the stumps with great rapidity1 the lumberman generally regarded these mushroom growths as abnormal and temporary1 and believed his virgin timber to be the finally-vanishing remnant of a prehistoric species unsuited to present-day conditions4 ,it was next discovered that the suckering habit is no new one1 indeed that the majority of the present stand1 however old1 began as sprouts from roots or stumps of its predecessors4 ,this is evident from the circular arrangement of several trees around the spot where their parent stood4 ,these old sprouts were of very slow growth1 for they were shaded by a forest of extreme density4 ,as seedlings they could have neither germinated nor grown1 but as suckers they were kept alive by the parent until light supply became available through their increasing height or through thinning of the forest4 ,under such conditions centuries were required to produce large trees4 ,the owner of today1 by cutting down the old stand1 gives the suckers conditions hitherto unknown to the redwood4 ,the vigor and susceptibility to the aid of light1 which originally was necessary in the sprout growth to perpetuate the species at all1 now respond to entire freedom and light in an astonishing manner4 ,even after severe slashing fires char the stumps1 the latter throw out clusters of sprouts which grow several feet a year4 ,logging works #cj or #dj years old have come up to trees nearly #ajj feet high4 ,naturally such timber has a heavy percentage of sapwood and is soft and brittle1 but it is already suitable for piling1 box lumber and like purposes and improves constantly4 ,since reproduction by seed does not enter into the problem1 financial possibilities depend almost wholly on the nature of the original stand4 ,there are many types of redwood forest1 pure and mixed1 flat and slope4 ,if the old trees are few to the acre1 the sprout clusters will be so far apart that excess of side light will produce clumps of swell-butted1 short limby trees1 of little use for lumber2 that is1 unless there is also a seedling growth of fir or other species to fill the blanks and bring up the density4 ,where such a nurse growth is to be counted on1 or where the redwood trees are small and close together1 ideal conditions for a certain1 rapid and well formed second crop exist4 ,the thinner the original redwood stand1 the greater the effort necessary at the time of logging to obtain the required density4 ,the leaving of seed trees of other species1 with as many as possible small trees of both redwood and other species and the maximum protection of all from fire1 should then be the means employed4 ,on some tracts the proportion of redwood will not warrant this effort2 on some it is not even required4 ,the question of whether it pays to hold redwood land is therefore almost wholly local1 but when conditions are favorable it can be answered affirmatively1 because of the extremely rapid growth1 with less doubt than of almost any other species4 ,there is some tendency to over-production of sprouts by redwood stumps4 ,removal of the excess with an ax1 saving those closest to the ground and not over-thinning to the extent of reducing the density conducive to height growth and shedding of low branches1 improves the chances of those remaining4 ,,seeding ,,and ,,planting ,,seed ,,supply ,it has been shown in a previous chapter that the owner of deforested land who desires to secure a second crop may find it necessary or cheaper to adopt artificial measures wholly or in part instead of depending upon natural reproduction4 ,these measures may be of two kinds--direct seeding1 in which the seed is sown where the trees are to stand permanently1 and the planting of trees grown in nurseries4 ,whether artificial reforestation is accomplished by means of sowing seed or planting trees1 the first requisite is a supply of tree seed of the desired species and of good quality4 ,unfortunately for the timber owner who wishes to enter upon extensive seeding operations1 the business of collecting and preparing forest tree seed for market has received but little attention from old-established seed firms1 and it is not always possible to purchase the species and quantity desired4 ,moreover1 the prices charged are often excessive4 ,in the ,pacific ,northwest1 however1 the demand for seed of ,douglas fir and ,sitka spruce has led to the establishment of a considerable trade in these species1 and at reasonable prices1 so that where these species are to be used1 or only small quantities of other species1 the timber owner will probably find it to his advantage to purchase the seed rather than to attempt collecting it himself4 ,douglas fir seed is quoted at #a4dj to #b4jj per pound and ,sitka spruce seed at #b4be to #c4jj4 ,in purchasing seed it is common practice to specify that it shall be of the new crop1 because tree seed kept in ordinary storage loses its vitality materially4 ,when properly stored in air-tight receptacles1 however1 as is now done by some seed dealers1 it will retain its germinative power for several years with only slight depreciation4 ,moreover1 fresh seed1 if improperly treated1 may be of very poor quality1 so that the age of the seed is of little value in the determination of its worth and the only sure method of ascertaining this is by means of germination or cutting tests4 ,the latter method is the quickest and most simple and consists of cutting open a number of the seeds and ascertaining the per cent whose kernel is sound1 plump and moist4 ,seed of good average quality should contain not more than #be-cj per cent of infertile seed4 ,when seed cannot be purchased1 it is necessary to collect4 ,since no species of coniferous trees bear abundant crops of seed each year and often several seasons will elapse between good crops1 it is necessary to gather sufficient seed when the supply is abundant to provide for succeeding years when the crop is apt to be a failure4 ,the seed ripens in the fall1 usually during ,august or ,september1 and the cones should be collected at that time4 ,pines require two years in which to mature the seed2 that is1 the cones are not fully formed and the seed ripe until the second fall after the fertilization of the flowers in the spring4 ,most of the other important conifers ripen their seed in the fall of the same season4 ,shortly after the seed is ripe1 the cones open and allow it to disseminate1 consequently they must be gathered before this occurs4 ,the cones are gathered either by climbing the trees and cutting them off from the branches1 by picking from the tops of felled trees1 or by robbing squirrels' hoards4 ,where squirrels are abundant in the forest1 the last method is the cheapest4 ,climbing trees is practiced only where the trees are small4 ,when this method is employed1 the workmen should be equipped with linemen's belts and climbers4 ,picking from felled trees is readily carried on except where dense underbrush interferes1 as is the case in the ordinary ,douglas fir forest4 ,trees growing in the open1 with large crowns extending down the greater part of the bole1 bear cones more abundantly than trees in dense forests1 and for this reason collecting from scattered open growths can be done more cheaply than on logging areas4 ,often large quantities of cones can be purchased from settlers who will collect and deliver them at central points at a stipulated price4 ,when this method is employed1 however1 frequent examination of the cones should be made to ascertain that they contain the full number of seed1 for often opened cones from which a part or all of the seed has been disseminated will be offered for sale4 ,insect larv also often destroy a large proportion of the seed1 particularly when the crop is light and care should be taken that the cones purchased are not infested4 ,the prices paid for cones vary from #be cents to #ej cents per sack for the larger cones1 like yellow and white pine1 and #ej cents to #a4jj for ,douglas fir and spruce1 depending upon the abundance of the crop4 ,after the cones are gathered the seed must be extracted and cleaned4 ,where climatic conditions in the fall of the year will permit air-drying1 the cones may be spread out on sheets or blankets where they will be exposed to the sun and wind4 ,under this treatment they will open in from #c to #f days1 depending upon the weather and the species4 ,where bad weather will interfere with air-drying1 the cones must be dried undercover by artificial heat4 ,this is the method usually employed by professional seed collectors1 and where large quantities of cones are to be treated each year special dry houses are constructed and fitted with elaborate drying apparatus4 ,the work can be done most cheaply with such an establishment1 but for the ordinary timber owner who expects to collect seed only occasionally1 a makeshift dry-house which will answer the purpose can be fitted up inexpensively in any unused building4 ,the essential features are shelves or trays #d feet wide arranged around the walls of the room1 one above the other and separated about #h inches apart1 and a heating stove placed in the center of the room4 ,the shelves may be made of burlap stretched tight1 or1 better still1 of wire screening of #a-a_/b inch or #c_/d-;inch mesh4 ,after being subjected to a temperature not exceeding #aaj ,fahr4 for from #bd to #dh hours1 the cones will open1 allowing the seed to fall out when shaken or pounded4 ,the seed when separated from the cones is then mixed with a coarse gravel in about the proportion of #d to #a and churned to remove the wings4 ,finally1 all foreign matter is removed by screening and hollow seed blown out by passing it through an ordinary fanning mill4 ,,seeding ,,versus ,,planting ,the selection of the method of reforestation to employ1 whether direct seeding or planting1 depends primarily upon the character of the area to be restocked4 ,direct seeding is usually considerably cheaper when the results are satisfactory1 but only on the more favorable sites where moisture and soil conditions are right is there any assurance of success4 ,even in such cases partial or total destruction of the seed often results from birds and rodents4 ,in exposed situations where the soil is shallow1 or where because of climatic conditions soil dries out several inches deep during the growing season1 the seed may not germinate at all1 or the young seedlings may be killed before they have time to send their roots down to the permanent moisture level4 ,in such situations1 planting is the only reliable method4 ,if the plant material is of the proper kind and the work well done1 satisfactory results are almost certain to follow4 ,direct seeding is a much more rapid method than planting1 and where extensive areas are to be restocked within a short period and seed is abundant1 the work can be completed quickly4 ,on the other hand1 this method is wasteful of seed because a large proportion fails to germinate and the young seedlings often succumb to adverse conditions1 so that where seed is scarce or its cost high1 planting is the more practical method4 ,because planting is the most reliable method it has been the one most largely employed in extensive operations1 both here and in most ,european counties1 but thorough tests are now being made of direct seeding and under proper conditions it promises to be fairly satisfactory4 ,the ,douglas fir region west of the ,cascade ,mountains offers the most favorable conditions for direct seeding and except on badly exposed south slopes1 or where the growth of brush is exceedingly dense1 it is believed this method will prove a satisfactory one for the timber owner to employ4 ,in the yellow pine regions conditions are not so satisfactory for direct seeding1 since this tree occurs largely in a region of deficient rainfall4 ,however1 natural reproduction is abundant throughout many portions of this type1 and it is probable that direct seeding will prove fairly successful if the proper methods are employed and if forest conditions have not been too greatly disturbed4 ,that some method of successfully employing direct seeding with yellow pine be found is greatly to be desired1 since yellow pine seedlings do not withstand transplanting well1 but there is need for careful experimentation before extensive seeding operations in this type by private timber owners would be justifiable4 ,western white pine1 it is believed1 will be easy to reproduce in most of its native situations by direct seeding1 though the greater scarcity of its seed and the fact that it will be more subject to destruction by birds and rodents because of its larger size may make planting the more practical method4 ,trees for planting can either be purchased from commercial nurserymen or grown in nurseries established for that purpose near the planting site4 ,when only a few thousand trees are needed it is cheaper to purchase them1 but when extensive operations are contemplated1 covering hundreds of acres in which millions of trees will be needed1 it is far preferable for the owner to grow the trees in his own nursery4 ,some initial outlay for the establishment of the nursery will be necessary and a practical nurseryman should be employed1 but the saving in the cost of the trees will fully compensate for these4 ,one1 two and three year old trees1 the latter once transplanted1 are usually employed in planting1 the older trees being used for the less favorable sites4 ,in planting they are placed in rows equidistant apart1 the spacing varying from #d to #ab feet1 with a general average of about #f feet4 ,the work may be done either in the fall after growth has ceased or in the spring before growth commences4 ,the cost of planting1 of course1 will vary greatly with the age of the trees1 the number planted per acre and the accessibility and character of the planting site4 ,with young trees and wide spacing1 the cost may be as low as #f4jj per acre1 while in more unfavorable situations where older plants are used and planting is more laborious it may be as high as #af4jj4 ,a fair average1 however1 for those areas which a timber owner would be most likely to plant up is about #h4jj to #aj4jj per acre4 ,in direct seeding1 several different methods may be employed1 such as broadcasting over the entire area with or without previous preparation of the soil1 sowing in strips1 or sowing in seed spots2 but observation and experiment have shown that it is necessary for seed such as ,douglas fir1 yellow pine and western white pine to come in close contact with the mineral soil in order that it may germinate and the seedlings live2 consequently only those methods should be used which will accomplish this4 ,where the area has been burned over previous to sowing and the mineral soil laid bare1 broadcast seeding may be employed4 ,where the ground will permit the use of a harrow good results are obtainable by scarifying the soil in strips about #aj feet apart and sowing the seed in these strips4 ,on unburned areas covered with a dense growth of fern1 salal1 moss1 grass1 or other plants1 this covering must be removed by the seed spot method4 ,this consists in removing the ground cover with a grub hoe or mattock in spots of varying diameter 7#f inches to #c feet7 and of various distances apart 7#f to #ae feet71 and sowing the seed in these spots4 ,the advantages of this method are that a minimum amount of seed is used2 the ground can be prepared and the seed covered to whatever extent is desirable1 and the soil pressed down4 ,this method is believed to be the one best suited to the greatest variety of sites4 ,the amount of seed used per acre will1 of course1 vary with the species and the method used1 and the quality of the seed4 ,the following table indicates the approximate quantity of seed of good average quality required per acre for three different methods1 the average cost when collected in fairly large quantities1 and the number of seed per pound3 ,no4 pounds required per acre4 ,no4 seed ,cost per ,broadcast1 ,seedspots ,species4 per lb4 pound4 entire area4 ,strips4 #f' apart4 ,douglas fir #db1jjj #a4ej #b - #c #a_/b - #a #a_/b - #c_/d ,yellow pine #h1jjj 4#ej #aj - #ab #b - #b-a_/b #a-a_/b - #b ,western white pine #ad1jjj 4#ge #f - #h #a-a_/b - #a-c_/d #a - #a-a_/b ,the total cost1 too1 will vary widely1 not only because of the different quantities of seed used but also because of the great extent to which the methods are varied to suit the conditions occurring upon the area4 ,simple broadcasting without any preparation or treatment of the soil will not exceed #bj cents to #be cents per acre for labor2 harrowing and sowing in strips1 #he cents to #a4aj per acre1 and sowing in seedspots1 #b4jj to #e4jj per acre4 ,upon this basis the total cost per acre will approximate the figures given in the table below3 ,broadcast over ,seedspots1 ,species4 entire area4 ,strips4 #f' apart4 ,douglas fir #c4bj-d4ge #a4jj-b4fj #b4ge-f4jj ,yellow pine #e4bj-f4be #a4he-b4ce #b4ge-f4jj ,western white pine #d4gj-f4be #b4jj-b4dj #b4ge-f4jj ,,rate ,,of ,,growth ,,and ,,probable ,,returns ,of all factors in calculating the financial possibilities of second forest crops1 the growth to be expected is the easiest to determine with fair accuracy4 ,future stumpage value1 tax burden and fire risk are all subject to uncertain influences1 but the approximate yield of a given species under given natural conditions will be the same in the future that it is now4 ,to predict it requires only study of existing stands without being misled by the influence of conditions which will not be repeated4 ,on the other hand1 an immense amount of misinformation is circulated because of superficial observation4 ,enthusiasts discovering individual trees which have made prodigious growth1 or even fairly extensive stands on fertile soil with heavy rainfall1 will compute sawlog yields at #dj or #ej years which are much too optimistic for general application4 ,others1 remembering some stand they have seen in unfavorable localities1 or noting shade-suppressed trees which will not be paralleled after the virgin forest is removed1 are unduly discouraged4 ,it is most essential that yield tables be made by trained observers who know how to reach the true average1 and that the figures either actually come from the region to which they are to be applied or are accompanied by a systematic analysis of climatic and other conditions which permits intelligent comparison4 ,in calculating another yield on cut-over land1 the system for an even-aged new growth1 such as will follow clean cutting of ,douglas fir1 for example1 is quite different from that necessary if the cutting amounts only to selection of the merchantable trees and leaves a fair stand of smaller ones4 ,in the latter case1 yield tables based on average acreage production are of little use because so much depends upon the character of the stand which remains on the tract in question4 ,here the basis must be the rate of growth of the average individual tree4 ,an estimate by the number in each present diameter class may be made of the trees which will escape logging1 showing1 let us say for example1 about five trees of each diameter from #f to #ab inches1 or thirty-five in all which are over #f inches4 ,if the growth study indicates that in #bj years there will have been added #f inches in diameter we can estimate a crop of five trees each of classes extending from #ab to #ah inches4 ,actually the process will not be so simple1 for the different aged trees will not grow with equal rapidity1 and several other factors must be reckoned with1 but the general principle is to apply rate of growth knowledge to the material on hand1 and study of this material is essential4 ,for predicting even-aged crops resulting from entire restocking1 the acquisition of necessary basic information is as difficult1 or more so1 but its application is far simpler4 ,that the ground will be fully stocked by natural or artificial means must be assumed1 but we can also assume that the result will be influenced only by normal locality conditions and not by accidental condition of the present forest4 ,therefore we use a yield table and not a growth table4 ,this can be made by actual measurement of existing second growth stands of different ages1 which proves not only the growth rate but also the number of trees which the natural shade-thinning process results in at different periods of the forest life4 ,the chief danger of inaccuracy in such information lies in basing it on insufficient measurements or in applying it where soil or moisture conditions are greatly different4 ,the latter error can be guarded against1 however1 by use of growth figures taken in conjunction with it4 ,for example1 if a yield table showing #be1jjj feet to the acre at #ej years from seed is accompanied by one showing that the average stand it represents is #abe high at #ej years and its average #ej-year-tree is #ad inches in diameter1 little investigation is necessary to determine whether in any given locality the growth falls far above or below that4 ,an attempt to reproduce here any considerable number of growth and yield tables would be of doubtful use without more space than is allowed to explain how they are made and used4 ,there are many technicalities1 both mathematical and silvicultural1 and unfortunately most of the available figures for the ,northwest1 obtained by the ,forest ,service1 have not been generalized enough for wide popular value4 ,this is particularly true of yield tables which necessarily require assuming standards of merchantability4 ,while the best western white pine table assumes that by the time a new crop is cut #g-;inch white pine will be salable1 the best fir table was worked upon a #ab-;inch diameter basis4 ,obviously this would show an unfairly greater yield of a pine forest containing trees between #g and #ab inches and be very misleading in calculating financial results at the same age and stumpage rates2 yet without the original data there is no way of reducing both tables to the same basis4 ,as an example1 however1 to indicate how the financial possibilities of second growth can be arrived at if a systematic study is made1 let us take the ,douglas fir figures referred to4 ,,douglas ,,fir ,these are exceedingly reliable4 ,measurements were taken by the ,forest ,service of practically pure fir on about #djj areas in thirty-five different age stands from #aj to #adj years old1 ranging along the western ,cascade foothills from the ,canadian line to central ,oregon4 ,since reforestation investment is likely to be confined mainly to the more promising opportunities1 only such growth was measured as gave an average representation of the better class of the two should all the general territory covered be graded in two quality classes of all around ability to produce forests4 ,on the other hand1 care was taken not to represent the maximum of the better class1 data being taken only from permanent forest land and not from rich potential agricultural land which might show unfairly rapid forest growth4 ,the average areas were actually measured and the number1 age1 form1 diameter growth1 height growth1 board foot contents1 etc41 of all the trees on them were accurately determined4 ,trees #ab inches in diameter #d-a_/b feet from the ground were considered merchantable1 and it was assumed they could be used to #h inches in the top4 ,from this data were prepared tables and diagrams showing the average development of trees and stands under fairly favorable conditions in the region west of the ,cascades4 ,this gave the following yield per acre3 ,age of ,stand4 ,feet1 ,b4 ,m4 ,age of ,stand4 ,feet1 ,b4 ,m4 #dj #ab1djj #ij #gj1bjj #ej #bh1jjj #ajj #gi1hjj #fj #da1jjj #aaj #ij1cjj #gj #ea1gjj #abj #aja1ejj #hj #fa1ajj #acj #aac1jjj ,let us see how these figures can be used in answering the primary question of the prospective timber-grower3 ,will it pay to hold my cut-over land for a second crop8 ,obviously no certain answer can be printed here1 not only because no uniform stumpage prices or carrying charges can be predicted but also because individuals may differ as to what profit is necessary to make the investment pay1 so it will be necessary to analyze the situation so each may select the premises which suit his own case and judgment4 ,the investment made by the holder of cut-over land is of two kinds2 that represented by the land which otherwise he might sell1 putting the proceeds at work in some other business1 and the annual carrying charges which otherwise he might also invest differently4 ,the sum obtainable by investing the money available by sale after logging1 adding to it yearly the sum required for fire prevention and taxes1 and compounding both at a satisfactory interest for the entire period1 is practically the cost of holding the tract for any given number of years4 ,by calculating this cost upon a basis of one acre1 and dividing it by the yield board measure which the same period will produce1 the cost per thousand feet of growing a second crop is arrived at4 ,against this may be set the gross return from the same expected yield at any given stumpage rate4 ,the yield at the end of a #ej-year investment will not be that of a #ej-year forest1 however1 for although the carrying cost begins at once1 the new forest requires a few years to become established4 ,no exact figure can be set for this1 for some seed will sprout the first year and some blank spaces may persist several years1 but in the tables to follow five years has been allowed for an average4 ,consequently1 instead of calculating on a #bh ,m yield as the return at the end of #ej years1 as indicated in the yield table on the preceding page1 the #de-year yield of #bj-a_/b ,m is used1 and similarly for the other periods of #fj1 #gj and #hj years4 ,these four rotations only will be considered here1 for in less than #ej years second growth will probably be too small to be cut at the highest profit1 while after #hj years the investment compounds so heavily as to make it improbable that increasing stumpage values will compensate4 ,three interest rates have been used in the first table to follow3 #d1 #e and #f per cent1 compound4 ,forest calculations at lower rates are often seen1 but it is not believed that less than #e per cent will be satisfactory to private owners and many will insist on #f per cent4 ,the fair standard is what the owner can make in other business today1 and since he can reinvest his income in the same business1 it is reasonable to figure at a compound rate4 ,a few examples are given to show how similar calculations may be made with any set of investment and stumpage factors which appeal to individual judgment4 ,the second table1 prepared from the first1 shows at a glance the price that must be received for ,douglas fir to make it pay either #e or #f per cent compound interest under a range of sixty different conditions of original investment and annual cost4 ,it should be borne in mind that1 although present land value is made a charge1 the value of the land at the time of harvest is not considered4 ,this value is certain to increase greatly in the long periods involved4 ,taxation charges will be against it as well as against the timber4 ,indeed much land is now held without any regard to possible second growth4 ,it should be assumed therefore that any profit in forest investment shown will be increased by the sum obtainable for the land at the end of the same period4 ,cost per ,m of growing ,cost per ,m of growing ,douglas fir resulting ,douglas fir resulting from every #a per acre from every #a cent per acre originally invested4 of annual carrying charge4 --------,at the end of--------- --------,at the end of--------- #ej #fj #gj #hj #ej #fj #gj #hj ,years4 ,years4 ,years4 ,years4 ,years4 ,years4 ,years4 ,years4 ,at #d 4#ce 4#cj 4#cc 4#da 4#jgd 4#jfh 4#jgh 4#jih ,at #e 4#ef 4#ec 4#fe 4#hh 4#ajb 4#aja 4#abf 4#agb ,at #f 4#ij 4#id #a4bg #a4hg 4#adb 4#aeb 4#bjh 4#cji ,example #a3 ,with land worth #b4ej an acre at present1 and an estimated carrying charge of #c cents a year for protection and #bj cents per taxes1 what stumpage price for a #ej-year crop will pay #e per cent compound interest8 #f per cent8 #e #f #b-a_/b ,x 4#ef #a4dj #b-a_/b ,x 4#ij #b4be #bc ,x 4#ajb #b4ce #bc ,x 4#adb #c4bg ----- ----- #c4ge #e4eb ,example #b3 ,with land worth #e an acre at present1 and stumpage estimated to reach #g4jj in #fj years1 what is the maximum annual carrying charge per acre which can be paid during this period and permit a #e per cent return8 ,a #f per cent return8 #e #f ,gross return #g4jj ,gross return #g4jj #e ,x 4#ec #b4fe #e ,x 4#id #d4gj ----- ----- #d4ce_/4aja #dc;c #b4cj_/4aeb #ae;c ,example #c3 ,assuming that stumpage will be worth #f4jj in #ej years1 and that public enlightenment will keep the annual fire and tax charge from exceeding #bj cents1 what price obtainable for cut-over land today1 made to earn #e per cent compound interest in some other business1 is as profitable as keeping the land for a second crop8 ,if other business would earn #f per cent8 #e #f ,gross return #f4jj ,gross return #f4jj #bj ,x 4#ajb #b4jd #bj ,x 4#adb #b4hd ----- ----- #c4jf_/4ef #g4jg #c4af_/4ij #c4ea ,,future ,,stumpage ,,prices ,,necessary ,,to ,,make ,,douglas ,,fir ,,second ,,crop ,,pay ,,either #e ,,or #f ,,compound ,,interest ,,on ,,investment4 ,maximum ,original ,investment #g4ej an ,acre4 ,maximum ,annual ,carrying ,charge #cj;c an ,acre4 ------------,cost per ,m ,feet----------- ,taxes and #ej year #fj year #gj year #hj year ,original protection rotation rotation rotation rotation investment paid yearly 7#bj4e ,m 7#ce ,m4 7#df4f ,m 7#ef4e ,m per acre4 per acre4 per ,a47 per ,a47 per ,a47 per ,a47 7cents7 - - #aj #b4dj #b4ce #b4ij #c4ij #ae #b4ie #b4he #c4ej #d4hj #b4ej #bj #c4de #c4ce #d4ae #e4fe #be #c4ie #c4he #d4ge #f4ej - #cj #d4de #d4ce #e4dj #g4ce - #aj #c4hj #c4fe #d4ej #f4aj #e #ae #d4ce #d4bj #e4ae #f4ie ,compound #e4jj #bj #d4he #d4gj #e4ge #g4hj ,interest #be #e4ce #e4bj #f4dj #h4gj - #cj #e4he #e4gj #g4je #i4ee - #aj #e4bj #e4jj #f4ae #h4cj #ae #e4ge #e4ej #f4ge #i4bj #g4ej #bj #f4be #f4jj #g4dj #aj4je #be #f4ge #f4ej #h4jj #aj4jj - - #cj #g4be #g4jj #h4fe #aa4ge - - #aj #c4fe #c4he #e4be #g4ge #ae #d4dj #d4fe #f4cj #i4cj #b4ej #bj #e4aj #e4dj #g4ce #aj4he #be #e4hj #f4ae #h4ce #ab4ce - #cj #f4ej #f4ij #i4dj #ac4ij - #aj #e4ij #f4bj #h4de #ab4de #f #ae #f4fe #g4hj #i4de #ad4jj ,compound #e4jj #bj #g4ce #g4ge #aj4ej #ae4ej ,interest #be #h4je #h4ej #aa4ee #ag4je - #cj #h4ge #i4be #ab4fj #ah4fj - #aj #h4ae #h4ee #aa4fj #ag4aj #ae #h4ij #i4ce #ab4fe #ah4fe #g4ej #bj #i4fj #aj4aj #ac4gj #bj4bj #be #aj4cj #aj4he #ad4gj #ba4ge - - #cj #aa4jj #aa4fj #ae4ge #bc4cj ,these tables bring out a number of very interesting primary facts3 #a4 ,the rate of interest demanded of the investment is one of the most important factors4 ,this is because such long terms are involved4 ,the charges compound with prodigious rapidity toward the last4 ,in any other business paying #f per cent1 compound1 the maximum investment per acre given in the preceding table1 that of a land value of #g4ej and a #cj-;cent annual charge for #hj years1 would earn #a1cag4 ,a #ge-year forest then harvestable should have #ef-a_/b ,m to the acre1 but this would have to bring over #be per ,m to pay as well4 ,on the other hand1 the same deposits earning #d per cent would only amount to #cch in the same period which would be equaled by timber at #f per ,m4 #b4 ,for similar reasons1 the length of time before cutting has much to do with profit or loss4 ,the compounding of carrying charges eventually outstrips the production of material to a degree which can be offset only by the most rapid rise of stumpage values4 #c4 ,the greater the investment1 the more marked the above effect and consequently the tendency to market an inferior product4 ,a #fj-year rotation is indicated by a majority of the conditions shown4 #d4 ,a comparatively slight increase in annual tax or fire charges may make the difference between profit and loss4 ,roughly1 stumpage must bring #a per ,m more to compensate for each #aj cents an acre for taxes at #e per cent or for #g cents at #f per cent4 #e4 ,if the land is salable for #e an acre or more it cannot be made to pay #f per cent compound interest under the most favorable conditions1 unless the stumpage received exceeds #f4 ,at #e stumpage and with reasonable taxation it will pay #e per cent if it escapes fire4 #f4 ,thirty cents an acre is apparently about the maximum annual carrying charge which will permit a #f per cent profit1 even with very high stumpage prices4 ,consequently1 while present taxes on cut-over land are seldom prohibitive1 there must be reasonable certainty that excessive increase will not occur4 ,the carrying charges shown in the second table cover both fire protection and taxes1 as by reading the #ae-;cent line to include a #aj-;cent tax and a #e-;cent fire patrol4 ,the investment charge may be used to represent sale value only1 or sale value plus any expense incurred at time of logging in order to secure reproduction1 such as leaving salable material in seed trees1 or planting4 ,if desired1 any owner may make a similar calculation on any other valuation better fitting his own situation4 ,the table is not intended for universal use but merely as an illustration of how forest calculations may be made4 ,,white ,,pine ,too much space would be required to give a similar table for all western species1 even were as good yield figures available4 ,roughly speaking1 however1 western white pine1 under conditions thoroughly favorable to it1 may be expected to make as good a yield as ,douglas fir1 and the above fir table will not be far off for it4 ,a probably higher stumpage value should offset any lesser production4 ,,hemlock ,western hemlock is of somewhat1 but not much1 slower growth when coming in on open land as an even-aged stand4 ,no yield table based on the same merchantable standards as the fir table quoted has been prepared1 but the following is fairly safe to include all trees #ad inches in diameter used to #ab inches in the top3 ,at #ej years1 #b ,m per acre2 at #fj years1 #bb ,m2 at #gj years1 #cc ,m2 at #hj years1 #dj ,m4 ,the absence of a #dj-year figure1 and the sudden jump between #ej and #fj years1 is because very few hemlock trees reach #ad inches at #ej years1 but a large number of #ab and #ac-;inch trees pass into that class during the ten years following4 ,any yield figures for an even-aged forest show a similar jump at the point where the stand as a whole reaches the determined minimum merchantable size4 ,for the same reason these hemlock figures are not very far less promising than those given for fir1 for at corresponding ages the latter include #ab and #ac-;inch trees and all trees are considered merchantable to a top diameter of #h inches4 ,,spruce ,since no systematic study of ,sitka spruce second growth has been made1 it can only be predicted from knowledge of its habits that while in favorable situation it will yield as heavily as ,douglas fir1 in other localities its growth in early life is slower and less regular1 making it less likely to produce a good crop before the carrying charges become burdensome4 ,if this proves true1 taxation rates and land values will be extremely important factors1 offset to some degree by a smaller fire hazard and the probability of high stumpage4 ,,redwood ,for redwood we also lack good figures for any considerable range of conditions and ages1 for redwood growth which followed burns does not exist and there are no very old cuttings4 ,government studies on the northern ,california coast prove conclusively1 however1 that this is our most rapid growing native commercial tree4 ,in thirty years1 in fair soil1 it will produce a tree of #af inches diameter1 #hj feet high1 and some existing #de-year stands run #bj to #cj inches on the stump and about #ajj feet high4 ,reckoning #ad-;inch trees as merchantable1 to be used to #aj inches in the tops1 a #be to #cj-year second growth after logging near ,crescent ,city was found to have #b-a_/b ,m feet to the acre and the future increase should be very rapid4 ,there is little question of the profit of growing redwood1 provided the difficulties described elsewhere of getting a dense crop started are overcome4 ,,profitable ,,thinnings ,in addition to the yield of saw timber to be expected when the second crop reaches manufacturing size1 there will be a market in many cases for material obtained by thinning4 ,it is perfectly fair to compound for the remainder of the rotation any net profit so obtained and to set it against the carrying charges4 ,in many cases it will go far to turn an apparently losing investment into a very profitable one4 ,moreover1 the proper thinning of growing stands not only utilizes material which would otherwise die and be lost before the main harvest1 but actually improves the quality of the first yield4 ,in obtaining the figures previously quoted the ,forest ,service found that the average ,douglas fir stand at #dj years contains #daj living trees1 most of them between #f and #ae inches in diameter4 ,at #fj years there are but #bfe trees1 #ade having died and decayed in the #bj-year interval which were suitable for ties or other small timber products4 ,the remaining trees would have been improved by thinning to prevent this loss1 for the greatest diameter growth is made when the stand is open1 and the ideal is to have just the density which will get the greatest wood production and still result in proper pruning and clearing of the trees4 ,commenting along this line ,mr4 ,t4 ,t4 ,munger1 who conducted the investigation1 says3 ,that thinnings are silviculturally practicable and financially profitable in the ,pacific ,northwest has been demonstrated4 ,in the vicinity of ,cottage ,grove1 ,oregon1 many fully stocked even-aged ,douglas fir stands now about #ej years old1 most of them forming a part of ranches4 ,many of these stands have been cut over in the last #aj years and all the material then large enough for piling or mine timber cut out4 ,this removed about #bj per cent of the stand4 ,at the present time many of these same stands now contain much material valuable for small piles1 ties and mine timber1 yet the crown canopy is as dense and the trees as close and fine quality as though no cutting had ever been done in the stand4 ,in fact1 some of the #ej-year old stands have already been cut over a second time1 and each time with decided profit to the owner and no damage to the forest4 ,from one #aj-;acre block of second growth now #ej years old1 situated #g miles from the railroad1 already #cb1jjj feet of mining timber and about #ajj #ej-;foot piles have been taken out1 yet the stand is now in good condition1 and in a few years more of the smaller trees can be removed without infringing on the yield of the final crop4 ,the material from these thinnings was worth at the railroad about #hj per acre4 ,,conclusions ,throughout the preceding pages on the financial promise of timber-growing in the ,west1 the attempt has been not to give conclusions but to state certain known facts regarding tree growth and indicate how these may be used in arriving at conclusions based largely upon the conditions and judgment of the individual owner4 ,in many cases they will do little more than suggest further investigation necessary4 ,the ,western ,forestry ,conservation ,association and1 doubtless1 the ,district ,foresters for the ,forest ,service1 will be glad to discuss such work and assist if possible4 ,there are1 however1 several conservative deductions to be made3 #a4 ,the ,pacific coast states contain large areas having species and climatic conditions peculiarly favorable for forest-growing as a business4 ,the rapidity and quantity of yield insure profit under conditions which would be prohibitive elsewhere4 #b4 ,in many cases1 perhaps in most1 a second crop can be started with little initial expense4 #c4 ,there is much land of no value for any other purpose4 #d4 ,even if the owner does not care to hold his land long enough for another crop1 or if he is prevented from doing so at some future time by excessive taxation or other prohibition1 its disposal value will be greater if it bears young forest growth than if it does not4 #e4 ,stumpage values are certain to advance greatly and their advance will be governed largely by these factors3 a4 ,speculative influence necessarily accompanying the lessening of the nation's and the world's timber supply4 b4 ,the carrying charges of fire prevention and taxation imposed by the community upon virgin timber1 which1 since they represent an investment which must be recouped1 will either be added in the long run to the price of stumpage exactly in the measure of their severity and so transferred to the consumer1 or result in rapid cutting and consequently raise the speculative value of that which escapes cutting4 7,this the consumer will pay also47 c4 ,the quantity of new timber grown4 #f4 ,it is probable that future demand for timber will reimburse the cost of growing it1 be this cost high or low within reasonable limits4 #g4 ,this does not mean1 however1 that the timberland owner will or can generally engage in the business when the cost is excessive4 ,while he could probably make a good profit eventually1 such an investment is too heavy and prolonged to be inviting2 besides there is the possibility of entire loss by fire4 ,he will naturally compare it with other investments having less disadvantages4 ,for example1 since conditions which discourage the growing of new competing forests tend for this very reason to enhance the value of existing forests1 he might invest further in the latter instead1 with equal ultimate profit and with easier access to his money at any time4 #h4 ,consequently the growing of timber is promising to the private owner only when the investment can be borne easily4 ,since it has three forms--land value1 fire protection1 and taxation--all must be moderate or1 if one or more is high1 the rest must be low4 #i4 ,with the fire hazard great at present1 and taxation so uncertain as to require allowing for its being excessive1 the initial investment must be insignificant4 #aj4 ,this confines it to land of low sale value and precludes much expense to insure the second crop4 #aa4 ,to secure the perpetuation of forests on the scale essential to public welfare1 the public must provide the private owner better fire protection and an equitable taxation system4 ,or else it must purchase sufficient cut-over land and engage in forestry itself1 bearing the cost and taking the risk4 #ab4 ,nevertheless there are several practical exceptions to the somewhat unfavorable situation theoretically outlined above3 7a7 ,many owners are warranted in holding cut-over land for some time1 if not indefinitely1 because of the upward trend of land values generally4 ,unless clearly most useful for agriculture1 such land will be made more valuable by a growth of young timber4 ,however indefinite the profit of encouraging this growth and protecting it from fire may be if the present sale value and taxes are computed against such outlay1 the two latter charges are being carried anyway and are the most important ones4 ,merely that it cannot be proved that they can be more than offset is no reason for not trying to compensate as far as possible at slight further expense4 ,while this may not often permit any great effort to reforest1 it will usually warrant protection of the natural new growth that will follow if given a chance4 7b7 ,many owners would prefer to have their milling business continue indefinitely4 ,if such have or can purchase virgin timber to carry them #ej years or more they may do well to grow a log supply to come into use at that time1 even if they would not do so merely as a stumpage investment4 7c7 ,it is highly probable that history will repeat itself in the ,united ,states1 especially in the ,pacific coast states where every other condition is so favorable to making forestry a great benefit to the community1 and that fire and tax discouragements will be removed as soon as the public realizes the situation4 ,the owner who anticipates this and gets his crop started first will be the first to profit from it1 and since it is the compounding toward the latter end of the rotation which now appears serious1 the chances are that he will not have a heavy burden before relief of this kind arrives4 7d7 ,every owner of virgin timber which he expects to hold uncut for #aj years or more should consider reforestation of adjacent cut-over land in the light of fire protection also4 ,it is the inflammable1 sun-dried1 brake-covered openings1 yearly increasing in extent1 which constitute his greatest fire menace4 ,the conversion of these into green young growth1 too dense for fern and salal and destructible only by the hottest crown fires1 is the best protection he can give mature timber surrounded by them4 ,some additional expense for a few years to accomplish this will usually be cheaper and safer than the patrol otherwise required for an indefinite period4 7e7 ,advance in value of the land itself1 realizable when the second crop is cut1 will in many cases be great enough to make an otherwise unpromising reforestation investment profitable4 ,,hardwood ,,experiments ,in the foregoing pages consideration has been given to the growing of native coniferous species only4 ,there is a field1 however1 yet to be entered into by the timber grower in the ,pacific ,northwest1 which gives promise of good returns4 ,this is the growing of eastern hardwoods4 ,as is well known1 the supply of native hardwoods in this region is deficient and those occurring are of poor quality4 ,the demand for staple hardwoods is constant1 and at present can be filled only through importation from the ,east4 ,moreover1 the manufacturing industry in the ,pacific ,northwest is as yet only in its infancy1 and as this industry becomes of greater importance in the future1 the demand for hardwood lumber is bound to increase4 ,this increase in demand1 coupled with the rapidly diminishing supply in the ,east1 seems certain to create a condition under which it will be profitable to grow hardwoods commercially4 ,that eastern species will thrive under forest conditions in this region has not1 of course1 been demonstrated1 but the great variety of species planted successfully as shade trees in towns and cities1 and in many instances by settlers in the mountains and farming districts1 together with the marked success of various fruits introduced here1 would tend to indicate their adaptability to the climate4 ,in many respects the climate along the coast of ,oregon and ,washington is similar to that found throughout the great hardwood region of the ,southern ,appalachian mountains4 ,of the many species occurring in the ,east1 several appear preminently suited to experimentation because of their particular value in the trade and rapid growth4 ,hickory is one of the most valuable of eastern woods1 and the supply remaining is probably least of all the important species4 ,it is largely used in the vehicle industry1 and because of the fact that the trade can use trees of small size1 and even prefers second growth hickory to the more mature form1 a crop can be grown within a comparatively short time4 ,shagbark or pignut are probably the best species to plant4 ,red oak is another species for which there is a large demand1 and while it does not equal the white oak in value1 its more rapid growth makes it a more desirable species to grow4 ,the increasing scarcity of white oak has brought about the substitution of red oak for many purposes for which the more superior variety was formerly used exclusively4 ,black walnut is a wood highly prized in furniture manufacture1 and this1 coupled with its rapid growth1 places it among the first rank of hardwood trees4 ,chestnut1 white ash1 tulip1 poplar and black cherry are other species whose value for various purposes suggests the possible advisability of their introduction4 ,much that has been said in the chapter concerning the methods of establishing coniferous woods applies equally well to hardwoods4 ,those species1 however1 whose seeds are in the form of nuts1 such as hickories1 black walnut1 chestnuts1 and oaks1 are particularly adapted to propagation by direct seeding4 ,other species1 such as ash1 tulip1 poplar1 and black cherry1 whose seeds are small1 are better grown for one year in nurseries before transplanting into the field4 ,where plantations are started by planting the nuts directly in the field1 the cost will be moderate4 ,the nuts can be obtained in any quantity from eastern seed dealers1 and their cost1 together with the labor of planting them1 should not exceed #d per acre4 ,where the area planted is level and free from underbrush1 preliminary plowing and harrowing1 while adding #a4ej to #b to the cost per acre1 will add much to the success of the plantation4 ,cultivation during the early years of the life of the trees will also result in increased growth4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,forestry ,,and ,,the ,,fire ,,hazard ,,the ,,slashing ,,menace ,the function of fire as an aid to reproduction of the forest in some instances has been discussed in a preceding chapter4 ,the protection question is of even greater importance1 for whether we consider mature timber or reforestation1 no forest management is worth while if the investment is to burn up4 ,it can be divided broadly under two heads1 reduction of risk due to operative methods and general protection4 ,whichever we consider1 the interest of every lumberman is at stake4 ,the fire question affects him in many ways beside the danger of direct loss4 ,the sale value of timber in any region is increased by knowledge that progressive protective methods prevail among those operating there4 ,nothing more effectively removes public carelessness with fire1 or lack of helpful sympathy with the lumber industry in general1 than evidence that the lumberman himself is devoting every effort to safeguarding instead of wasting this great public resource4 ,of operative methods reducing fire risk1 one of the most important is disposal of logging debris4 ,the deliberate accumulation of immensely inflammable material1 almost always where extremely likely to be ignited1 is a form of actually inviting disaster practiced by no property holders except lumbermen4 ,nowhere is it carried to such an extreme as in the ,west1 where the refuse left on the ground is of so great volume as to preclude human control if it is once fired at a dry time1 and where accidental fire is often more of a certainty than a liability4 ,of late1 however1 the more progressive lumbermen of the fir region have adopted the practice of firing their slashings annually at a time when the surrounding woods will not burn1 and the pine men of ,idaho and ,montana have quite widely endorsed brush piling4 ,idaho has a piling law4 ,oregon already has a slash burning law which is partially observed4 ,the greatest objection to such a law is that neither reforestation nor economical protection indicates the same practice in different types of forest and it is extremely difficult to make the law both flexible and effective4 ,more will be accomplished by voluntary adoption of the method best suited to each condition4 ,,brush ,,piling ,in the more open pine stands of the interior1 where both logging debris and original combustible ground cover are small1 slashings threaten the adjacent timber less than in denser forests1 but are of peculiar danger to the valuable young growth usually left on the area itself4 ,as we have seen in a previous chapter on western yellow pine1 reproduction in dry localities may require scattering the brush over the ground and keeping fire out1 and there may be abnormally dense stands suggesting clean slash burning1 but as a rule brush piling is the best course4 ,in view of the importance of this subject the following extracts are taken from a circular issued by the ,forest ,service3 ,advantages of ,brush ,burning ,the greatest advantage of brush burning is the protection it gives against fire4 ,in many cases brush burning is the only practicable safeguard against fire4 ,after the average lumbering operation the ground is covered with slash1 scattered about or piled1 just as the swampers have left it4 ,this1 in the dry season1 is a veritable fire trap4 ,probably #ij per cent of all uncontrolled cuttings are burnt over1 which retards the second crop at least from fifty to one hundred years and perhaps permanently changes the composition of the forest4 ,fires may be set by loggers while still at work on the area or several years after by lightning1 campers1 or locomotives4 ,by piling the brush and burning it in wet weather1 or in snow1 when there is no danger of the fire spreading1 all inflammable material is removed1 and the second growth can come up without serious risk of being destroyed4 ,even where only part of the brush is burned and the rest is piled1 as when the piles in open places1 along ridges1 streams1 or laid off lines are burned1 very much is gained in case of fire1 since these cleared lanes form bases from which a fire may be fought4 ,besides lessening the danger from fire1 brush burning has certain minor advantages4 ,when the brush on the ground is removed it is much easier for rangers and others to ride or walk through the forest4 ,this may be very important in case of a fire or in rounding up cattle4 ,it is also much easier to cut and handle ties1 cordwood1 or other timber which may later be taken from the cut-over areas if the slash is out of the way4 ,by piling and burning the green brush as it is cut from the trees by the swampers1 as is now being done in ,minnesota and parts of ,montana1 the ground is cleared and skidding is made easier and cheaper4 ,again1 careful piling and burning of brush improves the appearance of the forest4 ,there is nothing much more unsightly than a recently cutover area where no attempt has been made to dispose of tops and lops4 ,near towns or resorts and along roads or streams frequented by tourists this point should be carefully considered1 but as a general rule the utility of the forest should not be sacrificed for beauty4 ,disadvantages of ,burning ,the disadvantages of burning brush are many and1 with the one exception of protection from fire1 far outweigh the advantages4 ,if protection can be had in some other way1 as with more efficient patrol service or more stringent laws1 the practice should in many cases be abandoned4 ,in many places1 especially in the yellow pine type1 the best1 and often the only1 reproduction comes up under a fallen treetop or other brush4 ,where there is little of the old stand left1 the straggling open top protects the seedlings from the direct heat of the sun4 ,yet brush not only protects the seedlings from the sun but1 what is more important1 the leaves and broken twigs form a cover which retards evaporation of moisture from the soil4 ,over the greater part of the ,west the soil dries out very rapidly during the dry season1 and this serious retards or even prevents the growth of seedlings4 ,even in the moister regions1 such as that of the ,engelmann spruce type1 it is very necessary to conserve the moisture in the soil after logging to prevent the remaining trees from being killed through lack of soil moisture4 ,a third reason why seedlings so often come up only under the down treetops is that they are protected from stock4 ,next to drought1 sheep are perhaps the most serious menace to reproduction1 and though it would be best to keep all stock off the area for several years after logging1 in many cases this is not practicable1 and on many areas the leaving of the tops on the ground is the only way to protect reproduction from injury4 ,in many places after the timber has been cut off gullies and washes start in the old wheel ruts1 log slides1 etc41 and these and other forms of erosion can best be prevented by leaving the brush on the ground1 either laid in the incipient washes or scattered over the soil that is likely to wash4 ,brush burning destroys the valuable soil cover1 and on the spots where the piles are burned the soil is loosened1 which renders it even more liable to erosion4 ,it is well known that where the forest is burned each year the soil becomes poorer and poorer1 because nitrogen1 the chief fertilizing ingredient of the soil1 is given off in the smoke1 and only the mineral elements go back to the soil in the ashes4 ,and1 what is more injurious1 the humus--i4 e41 the decomposed vegetable matter in the top soil--is destroyed4 ,in burning brush after logging all the fertilizing and humus-forming leaves and twigs are destroyed just when most needed1 for another good crop or leaves cannot be expected for many years4 ,the added cost1 both to the lumberman and to the ,government1 is another argument against brush burning4 ,the cost of piling brush has varied all the way from #ae cents to #a or more per thousand1 with an average or #dj or #ej cents1 while the cost or burning may be from #e cents to #be cents per thousand1 averaging about #ae cents4 ,by abandoning the practice of brush piling this #fj cents a thousand will not be entirely saved1 as is claimed by some1 for the brush will still have to be lopped and disposed of in some other way1 which will cost1 it is estimated1 at least half as much as piling and burning4 ,but even a saving of #be or #cj cents a thousand is a strong argument against the practice4 ,thus1 from a silvicultural viewpoint1 the disadvantages of brush burning far outweigh its advantages4 ,yet1 as a general policy1 it seems unwise1 until other methods have proved their efficiency1 to abandon brush piling and burning to any great extent at present4 ,the fire danger is a known quality1 and1 though it is being reduced each year1 it is still a menace4 ,therefore changes from the present practice should be made with caution4 ,brush piling and burning is certainly not advisable in all cases1 and extensive experiments should be made to determine what is the best method of brush disposal for the different types and conditions4 ,brush ,piling and ,burning ,the cost of piling varies with the cost of labor1 the methods of logging1 the type1 the topography1 the kind of trees cut1 and the time of the year it is done4 ,a few figures will illustrate this variation4 ,in the yellow pine type in ,montana an addition to the swampers' wages of #ae cents a thousand would1 it is said1 enable them to pile the brush1 as they have to handle it anyway4 ,usually1 however1 the piling is done by a separate crew4 ,much of the work is thus duplicated4 ,in yellow pine in the ,southwest1 brush piling costs from #de to #ej cents1 while in ,montana it can be done for #be cents4 ,one operator in lodgepole in ,montana says it is cheaper for him to pile than not to1 because he can get his skidding done so much cheaper1 yet on other operations it has cost from #ej cents to #a a thousand1 depending on how thoroughly it is cleaned up4 ,in the sugar pine type of ,california the cost of piling averages from #be to #ce cents1 while the cost in the ,douglas fir type1 in ,montana and ,idaho1 averages about #dj cents1 and in ,engelmann spruce type the cost is only about #be cents a thousand4 ,it is certain1 however1 that the cost of piling will everywhere be materially reduced when the operators begin to look on piling as part of the swampers' regular work and not as an entirely separate job4 ,dry brush should never be burned during the dry season1 unless absolutely necessary for the suppression of an insect invasion4 ,green brush in some places may be burned at any time1 but as a rule it is unsafe to burn it in dry weather4 ,the best time to burn brush is in the fall1 just after the first snowfall4 ,then the piles are dry1 and there is no danger that the fire will get beyond control4 ,brush may also be burned at the beginning of or during the rainy season1 when the ground is damp enough to prevent the fire from spreading1 and the brush dry enough to burn readily4 ,the cost of brush burning varies like the cost of piling4 ,it varies even more in the same localities1 with weather conditions and methods of piling4 ,brush that can be burned for #aj or #ae cents a thousand at a favorable time1 as just after the first snow1 will cost five or ten times as much to burn in dry weather1 or when the piles are very wet4 ,brush can be burned more easily the first fall after cutting than it can the second year1 when many of the leaves have fallen off4 ,brush burning has been done for #ac cents a thousand in lodgepole1 in the ,medicine ,bow ,national ,forest1 while it has cost #bb cents in similar timber in the ,yellowstone1 and estimates of #dj cents a thousand have been made for it in the ,rockies4 ,it is generally admitted that brush can be most economically burned by the same people who pile it4 ,recently several contracts have been made in which the purchaser of the timber is required to pile and burn the brush under the direction of forest officers1 as has been the practice in the ,minnesota forest for some time4 ,this will lighten the total cost1 and when the weather allows the brush to be burned1 as logging proceeds1 the cost of burning will be offset by the subsequent reduction in the cost of skidding4 ,piling ,without ,burning ,brush piled properly1 even though it is not burned1 is a great protection to the forest4 ,inflammable material is removed from among the living trees1 and should a fire occur it would be much easier to fight4 ,this is especially true where reproduction is dense4 ,where openings are scarce piles should be made in the most open places1 and may be larger than those made to be burned4 ,,slash ,,burning ,in many regions1 especially in western ,oregon and ,washington1 logging debris is too great to make piling practicable4 ,but except for the damper localities close to the ,pacific1 the danger from these immense accumulations is all the more excessive and1 as we have seen elsewhere1 their removal is often desirable in order to further reforestation by desirable species4 ,here the only course is to burn the slashing clean4 ,this is a dangerous process unless every safeguard is employed4 ,burning must be at a time in spring or fall when the slashing is dry enough but the surrounding woods are not4 ,spring burning is theoretically preferable1 for it leaves less inflammable material during the fire season4 ,the first fire is also easier to control then1 because repeated experiments may be made1 as the slashing dries1 until just the right conditions exist4 ,on the other hand1 it is dangerous if there are many old stumps and logs in which fire may smoulder to make trouble later4 ,the exponents or fall burning also argue that with care they can be ready to fire a very dry slashing safely at the beginning of a rainstorm4 ,spring burning seems to have the most advocates1 but it is doubtful whether any rule for all localities and conditions can be given with confidence4 ,frequently failure at one season leads to postponement until the next4 ,in either case the slashing can be given the advantage of the greatest dryness with safety if it is surrounded by a cleared fire line from which to work4 ,firing should be against the wind and if the wind changes suddenly the opposite edge should be back fired4 ,previous cutting of all dead trees and snags over #be feet high is urgently recommended4 ,the camp crew should be held in readiness1 well provided with tools1 as insurance against accidental escape4 ,its probable restriction of insect breeding is a point of slash burning likely to receive much future study4 ,it is well known that most forest-injuring insects prefer dying trees to vigorous ones2 also that the existence of an abnormal amount of such material tends to abnormal breeding and consequent serious attack of vigorous timber when the dead material becomes too dry to be inviting4 ,it is by no means impossible that the supposed immunity of ,douglas fir from insect injury may be largely due to the almost universal destruction by fire of logging debris which would otherwise afford ideal breeding places4 ,,fire ,,lines ,the division of mature forest into compartments separated by fire lines is seldom practicable in this country4 ,nevertheless slashings1 deadenings and similar fire traps can very often be profitably confined by the cleaning of strips which will not only stop or retard the progress of a moderate fire but also facilitate patrol1 fire fighting or back firing4 ,on favorable ground1 where some choice is offered1 much may be done by falling timber inward so as to leave few tops near the uncut timber and by the location of skidroads4 ,so far as practicable fire lines should be on the tops of ridges1 for1 being slower to go downhill than up1 fire is more easily discouraged just as it reaches a crest4 ,bottoms of gulches are next in strategic value1 and midslopes least4 ,,safeguarding ,,equipment ,the most fruitful source of fires is spark-emitting locomotives and logging engines4 ,much data has been collected showing that with oil at a reasonable price its use is economical from a labor-saving point of view as well as from that of safety4 ,it reduces expense for watchmen1 patrol1 fuel cutting1 firebox cleaning and firing4 ,and since it is an absolute prevention1 while all other measures merely seek to minimize the risk1 it is probable that even where the cost of the oil more than balances these savings it will save in the long run by averting a costly fire4 ,where the use of oil cannot be considered1 spark arresters are essential4 ,the argument that they prevent draft is not worth attention4 ,it is greatly exaggerated by engineers and firemen prejudiced against innovation or too inattentive to keep their fires up properly and consequently unnecessarily dependent on occasional forced draft4 ,the slight disadvantage involved by the modern improved arrester is not to be compared with the importance of the safety acquired4 ,in addition to spark arresters1 which may fail or be out of order1 logging engines using fuel other than oil should be provided with a constant tank or barrel supply of six to twelve barrels of water and #ajj feet of hose with proper pumping attachment4 ,with this a spark fire can be promptly soaked out beyond danger of invisible smouldering in rotten wood or duff4 ,when conditions are dangerous1 careful loggers send a man back to each donkey-setting between supper and bedtime to look for possible fires that were not seen when the crew left4 ,many keep a watchman on the rounds all night4 ,railroad rights of way can usually be kept cleaned and burned at a cost far less than that of otherwise frequent shutdowns of the entire camp to fight fire or rebuild bridges1 to say nothing of loss of timber4 ,,patrol ,the best way to prevent fire is to prevent it4 ,putting out fires already started is better than letting them burn1 but as the real foundation of a protective system it is about like lowering a lifeboat after the ship has struck4 ,only by patrol can the incipient spark or camp fire be extinguished before it becomes a forest fire that has to be fought1 taking hours or days instead of minutes4 ,one patrolman can stop #ajj incipient fires easier than #ajj men can stop one big fire4 ,fires in the forest may never be wholly averted1 but patrol will prevent them from becoming forest fires4 ,this is why the progressive lumberman no longer waits till forced to layoff his crew to fight1 spending in a day or two a patrolman's salary for a season1 shutting down his road and mill for lack of logs1 and perhaps in spite of all losing several thousand dollars' worth of timber and equipment4 ,it is also why the progressive non-operating owner no longer considers fire loss the act of ,god1 to be reckoned as an investment risk of several per cent4 ,the man who does not patrol his timber nowadays is like a millman who hires no watchman1 has no hose or sprinkler equipment1 and carries no insurance4 ,he may escape loss1 but by not making a reasonable effort to insure against it he takes a course practically unknown with other forms of property4 ,modern fire patrol is systematic4 ,trained and organized men have definite duties4 ,tools1 assistance and supplies are available at known points and without delay4 ,trails and look out stations1 often supplemented by telephone lines1 give the greatest efficiency with the least number of men4 ,above all1 the system is based on the fact that results are most truly measured not by the number of fires extinguished but by the absence of fire at all4 ,settlers1 campers and lumbermen are visited1 cautioned and converted4 ,in short1 the patrolman has a certain area in which to improve public sentiment4 ,his success in this is worth more than efficiency in fighting fires due to lack of such success4 ,a system devoted to mere fire fighting to be adequate must grow larger as time goes on4 ,one devoted to preventing fire may be reduced1 as time makes it successful4 ,the cost of efficient patrol varies so directly with the risk that it is almost constant as an insurance investment4 ,where prevalence of fire1 difficulty of handling it1 etc41 make the cost per acre comparatively high1 there is equivalent certainty of greater loss if this sum is not spent4 ,where the owner is warranted in believing his risk small it costs but a trifle to provide sufficient patrol to insure against it4 ,one to #c cents an acre is spent in the great majority of successful patrols in ordinary seasons4 ,,associate ,,effort ,one of the first lessons learned from the establishment of private patrol in the ,west was that both efficiency and economy are obtained by co-operation between owners4 ,obviously if one patrolman can cover the holdings of several1 it is foolish for each to hire a man4 ,if a fire threatens several tracts1 it is better to share the expense of labor hired to put it out4 ,the same is true of building trails1 buying tool supplies1 etc4 ,this has led to the forming of associations which at a minimum cost to each member accomplish the many tasks of finding suitable men1 having them authorized by the ,state1 supervising and supplying them1 paying emergency expense1 opening trails1 etc4 ,each member pays his share upon the acreage he represents4 ,these associations offer other important advantages besides the mere cheapening of work4 ,they are admirably adapted to modifying the cost to fit the season4 ,beginning in spring with an assessment to cover putting the whole territory under the essentials of supervision and patrol1 they can add men just as required by the progress of dry weather and reduce again in the fall4 ,men can be centralized at danger points better than through individual effort4 ,exceedingly important is the means they afford of bringing in the non-resident owner1 the small owner who is not warranted in employing anyone alone1 and the non-progressive owner who would otherwise do nothing but is ashamed to stay out of a general movement4 ,no tract can be safely considered as an independent unit4 ,no protection confined to it alone is as good insurance as the removal of risk from the district within which it lies4 ,fire is no respecter of section lines4 ,there is always danger of unusual weather in which it may travel a long distance4 ,it is far better to secure the maximum general safety in the locality than to have guarded tracts alternating with fire traps4 ,moreover attention to individual tracts does not improve surrounding conditions1 and the latter may easily become so bad as to make the cost of individual patrol1 as well as the risk1 far overbalance any financial disadvantage at present through co-operation4 ,again1 the public is far more likely to take kindly to the enforcement of fire laws by an association than to the action of an individual owner against whom some prejudice may exist4 ,associations greatly simplify co-operation with ,state and ,government in fire work and tend to bring about appropriations for the purpose4 ,they enable uniform and concentrated effort to improve sentiment and legislation4 ,this booklet and the other work done by the ,western ,forestry ,conservation ,association was made possible by the existence of the local organizations it represents4 ,their independent local and ,state effect has been marked4 ,the bad fire season of #aiaj was a supreme test of the associations of the ,pacific ,northwest4 ,they kept the bad fires in their immense territory down to a number which can be counted on the fingers and their losses were comparatively insignificant4 ,yet under the weather conditions which existed the thousands of fires they extinguished would certainly otherwise have swept the country and caused a disaster probably unparalleled in ,american history4 ,,reforestation ,,as ,a ,,fire ,,preventative ,however progressive the preventive policies adopted1 the race between them and the increasing sources of hazard resembles that between armor plate and ordnance in the construction of battleships4 ,while for a given population engaged in pursuits endangering the forests the risk lessens1 the total activity increases at a rate which makes the smaller proportionate risk as great in actual measure4 ,this is particularly true of the growth of slashing areas4 ,the virgin forest becomes more and more and checkered by burned and cut-over deadenings1 veritable fire-traps open to sun and wind1 and1 especially west of the ,cascades1 usually covered by inflammable debris1 brush or dead ferns4 ,each year brings nearer the time when1 unless something is done1 such will constitute the majority of once forested land and the uncut timber will remain like islands in expanses of extreme danger4 ,next to cultivation1 which but a small percentage will receive1 the safest insurance against recurring fires in these cut-over areas is a thrifty young second growth4 ,it shades the ground1 keeps out annual vegetation that furnishes fuel when dead1 and will itself carry none but such furious crown-fires as would be practically unknown were there no openings for them to gain headway in4 ,this is less true of pine1 but the very best protection which can be given a tract of merchantable fir is a strip of #aj to #ej-year second growth surrounding it4 ,whether regarded from the owner's standpoint or that of the public1 reforestation should be considered as a protective measure of extreme importance4 ,actual expenditure to obtain it may easily be profitable for this reason alone1 for once established it will decrease the cost of patrol thereafter4 ,were all cut-over land in the ,northwest immediately restocked1 the fire hazard would be enormously reduced4 ,,chapter ,v ,,forestry ,,and ,,the ,,farmer ,,cutting ,,methods ,if there is anyone for whom the practice of forestry is practical and profitable1 it is the farmer who owns the timber he uses for fuel or other purposes4 ,his supply of the most suitable material is almost always limited and in any case his method of using it is practically certain to influence his permanent labor expenses4 ,nevertheless1 especially in well-timbered regions1 cutting is apt to be with but two considerations--the quickest clearing of land or the easiest immediate fulfillment of some need for tree products--and the passage of a few years brings realization that this early thoughtlessness must be paid for at a high price4 ,in the first place almost all timber of a commercial species has real and increasing value4 ,if it is young1 this value is increasing doubly because of growth4 ,varying greatly1 of course1 young timber in the ,pacific ,northwest very often adds from #ejj to #a1jjj board feet to the acre annually4 ,this annual gain is taking place even if the timber has not reached merchantable size1 being like coin deposited in a toy bank which does not open until full4 ,and this is true whether the ultimate use may be for fuel1 poles1 or salable material like tie or saw timber4 ,too much land is cleared of young growth1 merely because such clearing is easy1 which is of such low value for tilling or even pasture that its use for these purposes does not pay as well in the long run as would its use for growing timber1 especially when the investment of clearing is considered4 ,the resulting expanse of charred stumps and logs1 producing little but ferns1 is a small farm asset at best4 ,the timber it would grow may eventually be a large asset4 ,and the labor of clearing applied to a smaller tract of good land is sure to bring greater returns4 ,an illustration is furnished by two tracts near the end of a recently completed railroad in western ,washington4 ,twenty years ago a settler slashed a large area of presumably worthless sapling fir adjoining his tillable bottom land1 set fire to it1 piled and burned the remaining poles1 seeded down a pasture1 and enclosed it by an expensive cedar rail fence4 ,the pasture1 never useful except in early spring1 grew up to ferns1 and was finally abandoned4 ,even the fence was moved4 ,the settler on the next claim left his part of the same sapling growth to grow and this year sold the timber alone for #a1jjj to a tie mill which came into the neighborhood with the railroad4 ,the moral of this does not apply to cutting alone1 but argues equally for preventing fire in second growth4 ,it is also poor economy1 if mature timber exists1 to cut rapidly growing young timber for fuel because it is nearer the house or easier to cut4 ,the former has become stationary in production1 while the latter1 if left1 is earning money by growing in quantity and quality4 ,if young timber must be used1 and the land is not worth actually clearing for cultivation or pasture1 it is usually far better to thin out the poorest trees1 thus leaving the remainder stimulated to a more rapid growth1 which will soon replace those removed1 than to begin on the edge and take everything4 ,there is no reason why a certain poor-soiled timbered portion of the average claim should not be considered as a permanent wood lot1 to be treated with the same interest and pride in making it produce the greatest quantity of forest products for sale or use that the owner accords his fields4 ,with this point of view established and consequent study given the subject1 it will also be easier to decide how large this portion should be4 ,in many cases the result will be abandonment of the idea that all forest growth is an enemy1 to be destroyed on general principles without calculating what actual profit there is in destruction4 ,another point often overlooked in the ,pacific ,northwest1 because of our local tendency to consider the forest only as something to struggle against1 is the exactly opposite influence of properly placed tree growth upon sale values if the prospective buyer is from the ,east or from our own cities or tree-less regions4 ,such are attracted strongly by the grove-like effect of a few trees left around the house4 ,their desire for this is as strongly ingrained as the average local resident's desire for a completely free outlook to mark his victory over unfriendly nature4 ,the appeal a place makes to a buyer as a pleasant home has frequently as important an influence on his decision as its purely practical merits4 ,his judgment of the latter1 however1 is also affected by his earlier environment4 ,if he has lived where farming land is open1 evidences of the labor of clearing are discouraging4 ,the untouched forest1 being totally beyond his capacity to estimate the labor its removal entails1 repels him less than stumps1 logs1 desolate burnings and like detailed evidences of the work which lies before him4 ,this is another reason why the clearing of clearly fertile land may be better business than the half-clearing of land perhaps best suited for forest growth anyway4 ,again1 not fully realizing the plentifulness of forest products in the new locality1 he may actually overestimate the value of an attractive piece of forest land showing evidence of the thoughtful care suggested in a preceding paragraph4 ,,use ,,of ,,fire ,above all1 it pays the settler in wooded regions to be careful with fire4 ,properly directed and confined1 fire is necessary in clearing land4 ,but there is no profit in allowing uncontrolled fire to spread from the actual clearing to create a snarl of dead1 decaying and falling trees and underbrush4 ,it is usually harder to extend the clearing into such ground than into green timber4 ,this added work later is many times that necessary to safeguard the burning in the first place4 ,in every case that fire ever escaped from clearing operations1 the cause was either thoughtlessness or unwillingness to perform certain work4 ,because it is easier to burn a slashing than to pile and burn2 or when a ground burn is desirable1 because it is easier to take chances than to clear a fire line around the area and have a force of men present2 because burning at a dry1 dangerous time will be cleaner and thus save work after the fire2 inexperience1 coupled with unwillingness to take advice from the experienced--these and like reasons are responsible for the destruction of lives and property worth over and over again the sum that was saved by the attempted economy4 ,and1 although this does not save others1 the person responsible also usually loses instead of gaining4 ,without deprecating in the least the importance of agricultural development or of lightening the useful and not easy task of the settler1 it is still terribly true that the agricultural industry and the settler suffer an annual loss through the destruction of improvements1 crops and stock by fires from careless clearing that is far greater financially than the saving in clearing cost which was the cause4 ,in other words1 agricultural development is retarded instead of advanced by its present careless use of fire4 ,,planting ,,for ,,fuel ,,and ,,timber ,great as are the timber resources of the ,pacific ,northwest1 there are extensive regions in central and eastern ,oregon and ,washington where timber is a scarcity1 and wood for fuel and farm repair purposes for settlers and ranchers can be obtained only at heavy cost4 ,in such situations it will be a paying investment for the farmer to set out a small plantation simply to produce his own wood for fuel1 fence posts and other purposes4 ,it is true that some time must elapse before plantations begin to be productive1 but by choosing rapid-growing species and planting closely1 the thinnings which will be necessary in a few years1 even though the trees be small1 will do for the woodpile4 ,trees which grow rapidly and at the same time produce good wood are1 of course1 preferable4 ,if they also sprout from the stump1 a little care will maintain the supply indefinitely4 ,the choice of species for a woodlot must be governed to a great extent by the location4 ,many portions of the treeless areas in this region are situated at a high altitude where the climatic conditions are severe and frosts are common throughout every month of the year4 ,in such locations only the most hardy trees will succeed4 ,other areas are deficient in moisture1 and where this deficiency is so great as to prohibit the growing of agricultural crops by dry farming it is useless to attempt growing trees without irrigation4 ,probably the tree most commonly planted in treeless regions has been some species of cottonwood4 ,lombardy poplar and ,balm of ,gilead have been great favorites4 ,cottonwood grows rapidly and is hardy against frost1 but requires a never-failing supply of water within five to twenty feet of the surface4 ,because of its demands for moisture it will not grow on uplands1 but thrives along water courses or where there is plentiful supply of moisture below the surface4 ,its fuel value is not high1 though the quantity of its wood production compensates for its poor quality1 nor does it make good fence posts4 ,where quick growth is the main consideration1 however1 it is a good tree to plant4 ,the varieties known as ,norway and ,carolina poplar are the best4 ,green ash and hackberry are also hardy against both cold and moisture1 but of slow growth4 ,their wood is durable in contact with the soil1 making them suitable for fence posts4 ,where it succeeds black locust combines many of the desirable qualities to the highest degree4 ,it is a rapid grower1 makes excellent fence posts and has high fuel value4 ,it is not as hardy against frost as cottonwood and ash1 and while it has been planted successfully in sheltered locations on high plateaus1 its success where frosts occur during the summer months is problematical4 ,a closely related species1 honey locust1 is more frost-hardy but less desirable in other respects1 though an excellent tree nevertheless4 ,other fairly hardy and drought-resistant trees are osage orange and ,russian mulberry4 ,their value for fuel and fence posts is high1 but they will not succeed in the most severe situations4 ,box elder is hardy and has been widely planted1 but it is of low fuel value and short lived4 ,in favorable localities at low altitudes1 where moisture is abundant either through natural precipitation or from irrigation1 the number of species which are adapted to woodlot planting is largely increased4 ,black walnut1 black cherry and hardy catalpa are probably the most valuable of these4 ,the latter1 however1 is sensitive to early and late frosts4 ,,windbreaks ,the planting of windbreaks and shelter belts around dwellings and fields is of prime importance to the settler in an open country4 ,nothing adds more to the comfort of the dweller than a belt of timber about the home to protect it from the wind4 ,orchards need windbreaks to save them from injury in a wind-swept country1 and gardens are more successful when surrounded by trees4 ,one of the most important functions of the windbreak1 however1 is the saving of soil moisture within the protected area1 for it is a well established fact that evaporation takes place more rapidly when there is a movement of the atmosphere than when it is calm4 ,it is safe to say that a windbreak is effective in preventing evaporation for a distance equal to ten to fifteen times its height4 ,some species1 because of the form of their crowns and their rapid growth1 are more effective for windbreaks than others4 ,since more coniferous trees retain their foliage throughout the entire year1 they afford protection in winter as well as in summer4 ,such species as western yellow1 ,scotch and ,austrian pine grow rapidly1 are hardy1 and serve the purpose well4 ,in regions of abundant moisture ,douglas fir or ,norway and ,sitka spruce are unequaled4 ,european larch has also been very successful in many regions1 but1 unlike most conifers1 it sheds its leaves in winter4 ,where a windbreak is to consist of a single row only1 it should be of a densely growing type that branches close to the ground4 ,for low breaks of this character the ,russian mulberry and ,osage orange are excellent4 ,trees for woodlot or windbreak planting can be purchased from commercial nurserymen or grown by the farmer4 ,many growers of orchard trees1 particularly in the states in the middle ,west1 do a large business in forest tree seedlings4 ,since the transportation charges are often high1 and since most farmers can give the attention and labor necessary to raising the trees themselves without inconvenience or extra expense1 it is often desirable for them to do so4 ,the ,forest ,service of the ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture has issued several publications containing full directions for the establishment of nurseries1 and these can be obtained from the ,superintendent of ,public ,documents1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 free or at a nominal cost499 ,footnote 993 ,reprint from ,yearbook1 ,dept4 of ,agr41 #aije1 ,how to ,grow ,young ,trees for ,forest ,planting4 ,bulletin ,no4 #bi1 ,the ,forest ,nursery4 ,planting leaflets for almost all important forest trees4 ,planting may be done in the spring or fall1 the latter being often preferable in regions where a dry season occurs early in the summer4 ,for plantations of broadleaf species1 one-year-old seedlings are best suited1 while coniferous species should be two to three years old4 ,the chief points to remember in setting out the trees are not to allow the roots1 particularly of coniferous trees1 to dry out2 to dig the holes large enough to enable the roots to take a normal position without doubling up1 and to pack the soil firmly around them4 ,where planting is done on open ground1 it is highly advantageous to plow and harrow the soil before setting out the trees in order to preserve the moisture and kill weeds and sod4 ,willows1 cottonwoods and other poplars are very easily propagated from cuttings4 ,cuttings should be of strong1 healthy wood of the previous season's growth which ripened well and did not shrivel during the winter4 ,a good length is #h to #ab inches1 with the upper cut just above a bud4 ,they may be made when wanted and planted with a spade1 or if the ground is mellow they can be merely shoved into the soil until only one bud is above the surface and then tramped4 ,the spacing of the trees is a question largely of utility1 with some variation for different species4 ,in general1 however1 close planting is advisable in treeless regions1 since an artificial forest must stand in a dense mass if it is to succeed in the struggle against native vegetation1 wind1 sunshine1 frost and dry weather4 ,a single tree or row unprotected by associates has a poorer chance4 ,cultivation is the best method of conserving soil moisture4 ,to obtain the best results plantations should be cultivated1 if possible1 at least during the first few years4 ,the less care the trees are to have1 the thicker they should be set in order that they will be close enough to establish forest conditions of shade1 litter and underbrush4 ,thinnings can then be made as they grow and need more room4 ,the material thus obtained will provide an early supply of fuel1 stakes and posts4 ,a spacing of #dx#d feet is common1 but this does not allow for cultivation4 ,for this reason #bx#h feet is preferable4 ,shelter belts should be planted closely in order to give protection quickly4 ,,cost ,the cost of planting is not great4 ,broadleaf seedlings will cost from #a to #f per thousand at the nursery1 coniferous plants #b4ej to #aj4 ,if grown at home the cost will be greatly reduced4 ,the preparation of the soil by plowing and harrowing should not exceed #b per acre1 and planting from #b4ej to #e per thousand1 according to the species1 the method used and the condition of the soil4 ,,appendix ,,tax ,,reform ,,to ,,permit ,,reforestation ,,loss ,,in ,,idle ,,land ,it is of the very highest importance to have that part of our constantly increasing area of cut and burned over forest land which is not more valuable for agriculture put to its only useful purpose--the growing of another forest crop4 ,if this is done it will continue to be a source of tax revenue1 to employ labor and support industry1 to supply our forest needs1 to bring revenue into the state1 and to protect our streams4 ,otherwise it will become a desert1 non-taxable1 non-productive1 a fire menace1 and in every way worse than a dead loss to the state in which it exists and to the country at large4 ,in the one way it will be of use to every citizen1 whatever his occupation2 in the other it will be a burden upon every citizen4 ,the realness and directness of this problem in the ,pacific ,northwest is seldom realized4 ,our deforested areas are great and growing1 but of even more peculiar significance is our unparalleled opportunity for making them quickly profitable to the community4 ,forest growth is more rapid and certain than elsewhere4 ,a heavy crop may be had again in from #dj to #fj years4 ,it will hardly be of the quality of that now being cut1 but considering the shortage then to prevail should bring fully as much wealth into the state from its manufacture1 the majority to be circulated as payment for supplies and labor4 ,since1 therefore1 our denuded land should in #fj years or less bring in again as much as it has already1 its idleness costs us each year a sixtieth or more of that immense sum1 amounting to a great many millions of dollars annually4 ,to this loss is added the loss of tax revenue which the new crop would yield1 with countless indirect injuries4 ,,the ,,owner',s ,,compulsory ,,attitude ,for this situation our system of taxation is chiefly responsible4 ,the owner may or may not hold the land for a time under the present system1 in the hope of selling it or of tax reform1 but he will seldom if ever take any steps to insure reforesting1 because to do so is too likely to be at an actual loss4 ,whether he has made money on the original crop has no bearing2 nor has his being rich or poor1 resident or alien4 ,his cut-over land presents a distinct problem to him4 ,in the first place1 its sale value represents an investment4 ,he may sell and reinvest the money in any business which looks inviting--perhaps in standing timber4 ,presumably he can get ordinary business returns1 #f per cent or more1 and continue to reinvest these returns4 ,therefore if he leaves this money in forest land for #ej years without return1 for every dollar so tied up he must get #ah4db at the end of that period if he is to make #f per cent on the investment4 ,and this applies not only to the present value of the land1 but also to any added expense he incurs in modifying his cutting methods1 or in replanting1 in order to insure reforestation4 ,if both together amount to #e an acre1 he must net #ib4aj at the end of his #ej years in order to make #f per cent4 ,so far no complaint can be made4 ,but if the land is to produce a second crop it cannot be left to take care of itself1 as it might were it being held for speculative purposes only4 ,it must be protected from fire and trespass4 ,and since the interest and principal invested will amount to so much for so long a period and be totally lost in case of destruction1 the protection must be adequate1 practically amounting to insurance4 ,the annual cost will vary greatly according to locality1 class of timber1 and the enforcement of fire laws1 but will be from #a cent at the minimum to #ae cents at the maximum in bad seasons4 ,if all cost of protection and administration is placed at only #e cents annually1 for the sake of illustration1 this represents another investment constantly increasing and compounding1 which1 at the end of #ej years at #f per cent1 will amount to #ad4ea an acre4 ,consequently1 adding that to his original investment which will have become #ib4aj1 he must net #ajf4fa to make his #f per cent4 ,,how ,,taxes ,,enter ,,the ,,problem ,let us now consider the influence of taxation4 ,we have assumed the land to be valuable for forest growing only1 and in calling his investment #e an acre included some cost of insuring reforestation4 ,place this at #b and leave a land value of #c1 to be fully taxed at #cj mills for both state and county purposes1 which is perhaps a fair average4 ,this represents the third form of his investment1 or #i cents an acre invested annually and left unavailable for #ej years1 and will amount at the end of that time1 at #f per cent1 to #bf4ac4 ,he has now to clear #acb4gd an acre1 besides being always in danger of total or partial loss from fire1 and during all this time has to have the money1 made in some other way1 to meet all the annual payments4 ,but no injustice appears1 for he has been taxed on an equal basis with other producers4 ,if his acre yields #bj1jjj feet 7the maximum to expect71 worth #g a thousand1 he has made his #f per cent1 the community has gained a resource1 and everyone is satisfied4 ,his land has been taxed fairly and as he now has a crop to sell he can afford to pay a tax on it also4 ,if it is taxed at #c per cent1 or #d4bj an acre1 county and state will altogether have received from him the same tax revenue they collect from other forms of property and industry of like value and profit1 and received also the other benefits of forest production and of his expenditure of wages for protection4 ,but this is just what cannot legally be done under our present tax system4 ,by failure to recognize that the growth produced is a crop1 distinct from the land1 grown at the owner's effort and expense1 and returning no revenue until ripe1 the law now compels the repeated annual taxation of the owner's effort to an extent very likely to amount to confiscation4 ,it has been seen that even under the fair system outlined in the preceding paragraph1 forest growing is not more than ordinarily inviting and involves considerable risk and capital4 ,yet it assumed only a fair annual tax on the land4 ,under our present system1 logically carried out1 here is what would happen3 ,the first year the tax would be the same4 ,the second year a fiftieth of the total fifty-year crop1 which we have assumed worth about #adj1 or #b4hj1 would be added to the land2 therefore not #c1 but #e4hj1 will bear the #cj-mill levy1 and not #i cents1 but #ag cents1 actual tax will be paid4 ,the third year the tax will be #be cents an acre2 at the twenty-fifth year it will be over #b an acre4 ,we have seen that even a #i-;cent tax amounted to an investment of over #bf an acre in order to produce the crop4 ,the continual increase of this according to growth would make the investment run into many hundreds of dollars if the same interest is calculated1 and in any case would make reforestation financially impossible4 ,in actual practice1 the increased valuation would probably not be made by the assessor in the manner just described4 ,instead of determining the rate of growth scientifically and applying it annually1 he now makes an ocular reappraisement at considerable intervals4 ,in most cases there is no increased value1 for the land does not reforest but is continually reburned4 ,where it accidentally does reforest1 he makes a rough calculation of the value of the second growth1 based upon no particular system and seldom alike in different counties4 ,but the principle remains the same and the result differs only in degree4 ,with the most lenient valuation at #aj or #ae-year intervals1 the addition of material which makes growing forests so different from our stationary mature forests of today is bound1 under our present system1 to have confiscatory effect4 ,the land owner1 so far from being encouraged to establish and protect a new forest1 is actually penalized1 for he must assume that its expectation value will be taxed annually1 perhaps on an exorbitant basis1 as soon as it becomes apparent4 ,if only the value added each year1 #b4hj in our illustration1 were taxed annually1 there would be no injustice4 ,the tax would then1 in the case cited1 be #i cents the first year and #ag cents every year thereafter4 ,but this cannot be calculated with sufficient accuracy upon our present knowledge of forest growth and under conditions varying with every trace or acre4 ,our example1 with its several arbitrary factors of growth1 tax rate1 interest rate1 and future stumpage price1 was merely for the purpose of illustration4 ,furthermore1 such a solution would still be illegal under our present laws4 ,,requirements ,,reform ,,must ,,meet ,these facts are recognized by all students of forestry and taxation4 ,in all countries where forests are grown the general property tax has been abandoned4 ,disinterested authorities of every class1 approaching the subject only from the public's point of view and holding no brief for the timberland owner1 unite in saying emphatically that its application to growing forests will retard or prevent forestry in our country4 ,these authorities include statesmen like ,roosevelt and our most prominent governors and senators2 expert authorities on taxation generally1 like state1 national1 and international tax conferences and professors of economics in the leading universities2 forestry authorities like ,graves1 ,pinchot and ,state foresters2 and all the many associations and congresses devoted to such subjects4 ,these authorities all agree that the forest crop should not be taxed till harvested1 but differ somewhat as to the degree to which the public need of reforestation warrants deferring part or all of the land tax also4 ,this ,association1 after careful study of the subject1 including ,european methods1 the experiments made by several of our ,states1 and the plans proposed by many others1 believes the following objects should be sought3 #a4 ,greater permanent revenue to state and country than is possible under the present system of destroying the taxable source4 #b4 ,sustention of present revenue to the highest degree compatible with permanence4 #c4 ,assurance that the owner will do his fair part to make the land productive4 #d4 ,assurance to the owner in return that future action by the community will not confiscate all profit resulting from his effort4 #e4 ,division of risk1 so both owner and community will seek highest production and safety from fire4 #f4 ,demonstrable justice to all concerned1 rather than subsidy which1 while doubtless warrantable to secure the public good1 affords less precise basis of legislation at the present time4 #g4 ,simplicity in adoption and operation4 ,a ,,suggested ,,solution ,these requirements can be met by legislation1 following constitutional amendment where necessary1 providing that where the owner of cut or burned-over land will contract with the ,state to insure reforestation and protection for a specified term of years1 the ,state shall notify the county assessor that the land is separated for taxation purposes from any forest growth thereon4 ,the land may continue to pay a fair dependable tax1 but the crop shall not be taxed until harvested4 ,to the end that cutting of standing timber shall be conducted so as to place the land in the best condition for reforesting1 uncut forest land should be subject to examination and similar contract1 and the separate classification for taxation should take effect within a year after the timber is removed in compliance with the contract4 ,this would mean that when the owner of deforested land chiefly valuable to the community for forest production agrees to make it produce1 he shall be taxed not on his effort but upon the results of his effort1 and then exactly as other producers are taxed upon their results4 ,he may pay tax upon his land1 as other land owners do1 upon its actual value1 but without this value being enhanced for taxation purposes by reason of any crop thereon4 ,,comparison ,,with ,,present ,,system ,,in ,,results ,the community would get no less tax revenue1 but presumably more1 than it does under the present system4 ,in either case the owner will really pay annually only upon the land value1 not upon the growth2 the only difference being that under the proposed system he would not be asked to1 while under the present system either there will be no growth to tax1 or1 if there is1 he cannot afford to pay and the land will revert4 ,it must be borne in mind that while cut-over land is actually being held under the present system1 it has seldom grown anything yet4 ,no expense has been incurred to establish a crop1 accidental growth is almost always destroyed by fire because it does not pay to protect it1 and if it is not so destroyed it has not yet been accorded the expectation value which the assessor will be obliged to recognize in the early future if he really observes the present law4 ,the inevitable tendency of the present system is continuance to pay on the land with speculative value for purposes other than forestry but abandonment of land valuable only for forestry1 with destruction of the forest growth in either case1 by purpose or negligence1 because it means added cost of holding with no possibility of profit4 ,since the owner cannot be compelled to grow timber to be taxed at his net loss1 no timber tax at all will be received by the community and its annual land tax will be confined to land worth holding without timber for purposes other than timber growing4 ,under the proposed system1 the latter class would pay the same annual tax1 the annual tax revenue from strictly forest land would be greater1 and in addition to both would be the future yield tax upon the crop4 ,,an ,,objection ,,met ,a possible superficial criticism may be that1 leaving the land out of consideration1 the proposed yield tax at a personal property valuation of the crop means that but one year's tax is to be paid upon the timber4 ,the fallacy of this1 however1 will be seen when it is remembered that it is a crop1 having been produced from nothing by the owner1 since his acquisition of the land and while he was paying taxes upon his land upon its value for productive purposes throughout the entire period just as any other crop grower loes4 ,it is not unearned speculative increment4 ,to tax it annually is exactly equivalent to taxing an agricultural crop #ej times during its growing period4 ,the proposed plan does tax the annual production fully1 although not until the crop is produced1 for taxing its full value when grown is the same as taxing each year the increment added since the preceding year4 ,if it is worth #aej an acre1 after #ej years from seed1 a #c per cent yield tax would be #d4ej4 ,each year since the first must have produced a fiftieth of the ultimate value1 or #c1 and had this been taxed at #c per cent1 or #i cents1 the same aggregate revenue of #d4ej would have resulted4 ,to also tax annually the value of proceeding years' production1 like taxing a wheat crop twice a week1 is exactly the confiscatory prohibition of forest growing which we should seek to avoid4 ,when the essential difference of the two systems ,is grasped--that the crop is distinct from the land and the latter is still fully taxed--it will be seen that but one tax upon the crop1 at the rate other property pays1 is all that is just and all that can possibly be paid in a competitive commercial business4 ,the case is not analogous with our present system of taxing mature timber1 in which land and timber together are assumed to constitute inseparable realty1 stationary in production and increasing only speculatively in value1 therefore the comparison with one year's taxation under our present system has no weight4 ,,from ,,the ,,owner',s ,,standpoint ,nor does the proposed system by any means either subsidize the forest grower or assure him a profit4 ,it merely puts on a basis similar to that of other enterprises a business more greatly handicapped by long-deferred returns1 risk of loss1 uncertainty of future prices1 and continued current expense without current revenue4 ,only escape from fire and high future stumpage prices will permit profit at best4 ,otherwise1 since the tax is definite and not upon income1 the forest grower will pay the community for the honor of providing it a resource at his own expense4 ,it is believed1 however1 that a more fortunate outcome is sufficiently promised in this region of rapid growth if we remove the single fatal handicap of uncertain confiscatory taxation4 ,,views ,,of ,,expert ,,authorities ,,theodore ,,roosevelt3 ,second only in importance to good fire laws well enforced is the enactment of tax laws which will permit the perpetuation of existing forests by use4 ,,gifford ,,pinchot3 ,land bearing forests should be taxed annually on the land value alone1 and the timber crop should be taxed when cut1 so private forestry may be encouraged4 ,,north ,,american ,,conservation ,,conference1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c43 ,believing that excessive taxation on standing timber privately owned is a potent cause of forest destruction by increasing the cost of maintaining growing forests1 we agree in the wisdom and justice of separating the taxation of timber land from the taxation of timber growing upon it1 and adjusting both in such manner as to encourage forest conservation and forest growing4 ,the private owners of land unsuited to agriculture1 once forested and now impoverished or denuded1 should be encouraged by practical instruction1 adjustment of taxation1 and in other proper ways1 to undertake the reforesting thereof4 ,,gifford ,,pinchot1 ,,robert ,,bacon1 ,,james ,r4 ,,garfield1 ,commissioners representing the ,united ,states4 ,,sydney ,,fisher1 ,,clifford ,,sifton1 ,,henri ,s4 ,,boland1 ,commissioners representing the ,dominion of ,canada4 ,,romulu ,,escobar1 ,,miguel ,a4 ,,de ,,quevedo1 ,,carlos ,,sellerier1 ,commissioners representing the ,republic of ,mexico4 ,e4 ,h4 ,,outerbridge1 ,commissioner representing the ,colony of ,newfoundland4 ,,fred4 ,r4 ,,fairchild1 ,professor of ,economics1 ,yale ,university1 member ,international ,tax ,conference3 ,probably nothing more effectually discourages investment than uncertainty as to future costs4 ,and whatever may be said of the present system of taxation1 there can be no question of its arbitrariness and uncertainty4 ,if to all the other risks of forestry we add uncertainty as to what the taxes are going to be1 we cannot blame investors for some hesitation in embarking on an enterprise which may have to pay taxes fifty years before the returns come in4 ,and more than this2 the investor cannot safely base his calculations on the continuance of the present lenient administration of the property tax4 ,as has been shown1 the tendency today is toward a stricter enforcement of the law and a heavier burden of taxation4 ,state constitutions stand today in the way of many plans for reform in ,state and local taxation4 ,the movement toward their amendment is growing as part of the general programme of tax reform4 ,the real problem of forest taxation is in connection with the future of our timber lands rather than with their past4 ,the preservation of the forests is a matter of the utmost importance4 ,so far our forests have been exploited with little or no regard for the future4 ,but the present methods cannot last much longer4 ,forestry must come some time1 and its early coming is a thing greatly to be desired4 ,and whenever we are ready to seriously undertake it we will find our present methods of taxation a severe handicap4 ,strictly enforced1 according to the letter of the law1 the annual tax on the full value of the land and standing timber is almost sure to result in excessive taxation1 and the timber owner cannot count on the continuance of the present lenient enforcement of the law4 ,even if the tax might not be excessive1 its uncertainty would be a serious obstacle to investment4 ,we can hardly hope to see the general practice of forestry as long as the present methods of taxation continue4 ,to be equitable1 taxation of timber lands like taxation of anything else should be based on income or earning power4 ,with regard to its effect on revenue1 there is little to be feared from the tax on yield4 ,eventually1 revenue will be increased by a method of taxation which does not prevent the development of forestry4 ,forests paying a moderate tax are better than waste lands abandoned and paying no tax at all4 ,the tax on yield has many decided advantages4 ,it avoids the evils of the general property tax4 ,it is equitable and certain4 ,it is in harmony with the peculiarities of the business of forestry1 and will be a distinct encouragement to the practice of forestry4 ,its adoption by the ,states would remove one obstacle to the perpetuation of the nation's forest resources4 ,,national ,,conservation ,,commission1 appointed by the ,president of the ,united ,states3 ,it is far better that forest land should pay a moderate tax permanently than that it should pay an excessive revenue temporarily and then cease to pay at all4 ,we tax our forests under the general property tax1 a method of taxation abandoned long ago by every other great nation4 ,in some regions of great importance for timber supply1 and in individual cases in all regions1 the taxation of forest lands has been excessive and has led to waste by forcing the destructive logging of mature forests1 as well as through the abandonment of cut-over lands for taxes4 ,that this has not been even more general is due to under-assessment1 to lax administration of the law1 but to no virtue in the law itself4 ,already taxes upon forest lands are being increased by the strict enforcement of the tax laws4 ,even where this has not yet been done1 the fear that it will be done is a bar to the practice of forestry4 ,we should so adjust taxation that cut-over lands can be held for a second crop4 ,we should recognize that it costs to grow timber as well as to log and saw it4 ,from now on the relation of taxation to the permanent usefulness of the forest will be vital4 ,present tax laws prevent reforestation on cut-over lands and the perpetuation of existing forests by use4 ,,united ,,states ,,forest ,,service3 ,it is evident that the old method of taxing forest property1 as well as other property1 at its supposedly full value will1 as the value of timber increases and is recognized1 put a premium on premature and reckless cutting1 and will hinder any effort to reforest cut-over lands4 ,no business man will engage in an undertaking where the returns are so long deferred and the risks are uninsurable unless he can estimate the probable expenses and a reasonably large profit4 ,that the forests themselves1 irrespective of their ability to stand taxation1 are of great value to the communities in which they are located1 for water protection1 lumber supply1 and scenery in resort regions is undoubted4 ,the fundamental difficulty is that the tax should be in proportion to yield or income and not in proportion to the market value of the land and standing timber4 ,economists are substantially agreed that this principle is applicable to the taxation of all kinds of property with certain exceptions4 ,where there is a reasonably certain annual yield or income the market value is theoretically dependent upon it4 ,a woodlot or forest1 however1 usually in this country has no annual yield4 ,it is unjust to require the owner to carry the full annual burden of taxes1 risk and protection in every year for the chance of a yield once in fifty years1 and it is impossible for the owner to do it1 for the taxes with compound interest would confiscate his entire capital4 ,,international ,,tax ,,conference1 held at ,toronto3 ,resolved1 ,that it is within the legitimate province of tax laws to encourage the growth of forests in order to protect watersheds and insure a future supply of timber2 and legislation1 or constitution amendment where necessary1 is recommended for these purposes4 ,,american ,,forest ,,congress1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c43 ,resolved1 ,that we earnestly commend to all state authorities444 reducing the burden of taxation on lands held for forest reproduction in order that persons and corporations may be induced to put in practice the principles of forest conservation4 ,,pennsylvania ,,department ,,of ,,forestry3 ,tax assessors have differing ideas of value and their assessments vary widely4 ,the only remedy for the forest owner is to appeal from the assessment to the county commissioners1 and1 if here unsuccessful1 to the county court1 a matter involving both time and expense and frequently more costly than the differences in taxes to be gained2 but at the same time the fact is well recognized that forested land is both unequally and unfairly taxed4 ,h4 ,s4 ,,graves1 ,chief ,forester for the ,united ,states3 ,the forest areas now owned chiefly by lumber companies will cease to be devastated as soon as fires are stopped4 ,they will not1 however1 be handled to any large extent with a view of future production until the taxes are placed on a fair basis4 ,,filibert ,,roth1 ,professor of ,forestry1 ,university of ,michigan1 ,state ,fire ,warden of ,michigan 7speaking of frequent local attitude toward non-resident owner73 ,though1 in truth1 these resident people often make their living from the tax money of the non-resident1 and though the latter contributes toward every rod of road and every schoolhouse built1 and other improvement1 yet he is treated as if he were a wrongdoer1 is taxed unmercifully1 and1 in addition1 a trespass on his land or forest is excused and it is almost impossible in many places to get conviction4 ,if the ,state and local people had treated the owners of timber honestly and had spent a reasonable part of the taxes in giving the protection which the owner had a right to expect under the ,constitution1 there would still be more than half of our pinery lands covered by forest4 ,forestry is no sugar trust baby1 as so many are trying to make it out4 ,forests can pay taxes as well as any other property4 ,forestry is like any other honest business1 it cannot stand confiscation4 ,suppose you have a twenty-acre lot of sugar beets and the assessor would hang around until the beets are ripe and then figure3 ,the land is good2 ,i assess it at #ge per acre1 and the crop is worth #ge more1 so that this property will stand at #aej4 ,what would you say8 ,but the assessor who assesses the timber as part of the real estate and assesses the same crop of timber year after year does precisely this thing4 ,he assesses land and crop for the owner of a woodlot and forest1 while for all other farmers he assesses only the land4 ,let the ,state pass a few simple laws2 provide for the protection of forest property as we provide for other property2 prevent confiscation under the guise of taxation2 stop forcing its poor tax lands on the market1 and go ahead with a good example on its own lands1 and instead of holding them in a waste land condition protect them and grow timber4 ,a4 ,t4 ,,hadley1 ,president ,yale ,university3 ,we have it in our power to make intelligent forestry by individuals more profitable4 ,the margin between business that succeeds and business that fails is a narrow one1 and by just covering that margin by differences in tax laws1 by differences in protective laws1 by laws for the prevention of fires1 we can make profitable an industry which the public needs1 but which today is unprofitable4 ,,james ,o4 ,,davidson1 ,governor of ,wisconsin3 ,it is to be hoped that laws will be passed encouraging owners to cut timber conservatively under forestry regulations1 rather than oblige them to cut as quickly as possible to escape the injustice of taxation4 ,,professor ,f4 ,g4 ,,miller1 ,university of ,washington3 ,next to fire the most serious handicap to the progress of forestry is our unjust method of forest taxation4 ,laying as we do a yearly tax on both the growing crop and the land1 the burden of taxation makes the holding of land for a second crop prohibitive as far as the private owner is concerned4 ,the farmer pays a yearly tax on his land1 and a tax on his crop each time he harvests one4 ,this is usually annually4 ,however1 if through drought1 insect invasion or other misfortune he loses his crop1 he is not called upon to pay a tax upon it4 ,,senator ,,reed ,,smoot1 of ,utah1 ,chairman ,section of ,forests1 ,national ,conservation ,commission3 ,one of the urgent tasks before the ,states is the immediate passage of tax laws which will enable the private owner to protect and keep productive under forest those lands suitable only for forest growth4 ,in our discussion in committee meeting there was a question raised by a member present as to this recommendation1 claiming that it would encourage great monopolies in securing larger holdings of timber1 if an annual tax was not required on the timber itself4 ,i have studied this question in foreign lands1 particularly in ,germany and ,switzerland1 and ,i find that the result has been exactly the opposite4 ,it is a short-sighted policy which invites1 through excessive taxation1 the destruction of the only crop which steep mountain lands will produce profitably4 ,taxes on forest land should be levied on the crop when cut1 not on the basis of a general property tax--that unsound method of taxation long abandoned by every other great nation4 ,,governor ,,newton ,c4 ,,blanchard1 of ,louisiana3 ,under the present tax laws of many of the ,states large assessments are put on timber lands1 and this is forcing timber holders--the owners of the sawmills--to cut off that timber too rapidly4 ,at least it is having much effect that way4 ,give them the encouragement to hold back and not force their product upon the markets1 and then exempt1 by a system of wise tax laws1 cut-over lands devoted to purposes of reforestation4 ,,maryland ,,state ,,board ,,of ,,forestry3 ,the present method is to assess woodlands under the general property tax1 making the assessment high where the timber is valuable and placing it low where the timber has been cut off4 ,there is in the operation of this system a tendency to cut off the timber before it reaches maturity to avoid the high rate of taxation4 ,a premium is placed on forest destruction and a penalty on forest conservation4 ,the growth of timber is slow and under present stumpage prices and rates of taxation there are comparatively few cases where the sale value of the crop equals the cost of growing it1 if a fair rental for the land is considered4 ,it is true that most of the forests are on lands that could not be used for anything else1 but it is not fair to expect the landowner to produce timber which is a public necessity1 the use of which is only less universal than food crops1 at a financial sacrifice4 ,increasing prices and better forest management are relieving the situation to some extent1 but the most effective1 as well as the most equitable way1 is through a change or modification of present tax laws4 ,,professor ,,edwin ,r4 ,a4 ,,seligman1 ,columbia ,university3 ,the general property tax as actually administered is beyond all doubt one of the worst taxes known in the civilized world4 ,because of its attempt to tax intangible as well as tangible things1 it sins against the cardinal rules of uniformity1 of equality1 and of universality of taxation4 ,,professor ,,alfred ,,akerman1 ,georgia ,university3 ,one reason why it 7the general property tax7 is so outrageous in practice is that it is wrong in theory4 ,the mere possession of property may or may not be an index to the ability of the owner to pay tax4 ,it all depends on whether the property brings income4 ,,allen ,,hollis1 ,secretary ,society for ,protection of ,new ,hampshire ,forests3 ,taxation today1 in my opinion1 is the greatest menace to forest preservation4 ,one principle is absolutely sound--we all know it1 and what we have to do is to make everybody else know it--and that is1 that the annual taxation on a crop which is constantly increasing in value each year means confiscation of that property4 ,it is submitted here that no single factor bears so definitely upon the future of our forests as this constitutional requirement of equality in taxation4 ,as a business proposition1 no one can afford to hold woodlands and pay annually #b per cent upon their actual value1 increased each year by growth and advancing prices1 during the fifty to one hundred years necessary for maturing the crop4 ,,charles ,,lathrop ,,pack1 ,director ,american ,forestry ,association3 ,while the nation and the ,state are working to devise ways and means of conserving our forest resources1 we are at the same time1 in a real sense1 taxing our timber to death4 ,our present tax laws prevent reforestation on cut-over lands and the perpetuation of existing forests by proper use and economic cutting4 ,,state ,,of ,,michigan ,,forestry ,,commission 7extracts from report to governor73 ,the system of taxation should be modified so as to stimulate timber production instead of repressing it4 ,there is no logical1 moral or political reason why a crop of growing trees should be included in the assessment1 in addition to the actual value of the land1 that does not apply with equal force and reason to farm lands which are continuously cropped with grains1 root crops or hay4 ,the uncertainty of realizing upon a tree crop is very much like the uncertainty of a given farm's producing its crop in full4 ,the only difference is that the forest crop is subjected to the vicissitudes and chances of a long series of years1 while the farm crops are subject only to the vicissitudes of about one year4 ,many of the crops are only subject to the accidents of five or six months4 ,in the present stage of forestry in this country1 what is most imperatively required is such a treatment of the subject of taxation of forested lands as will induce private owners to retain their forests until ripe to the harvest and to reforest denuded lands4 ,this would apply to those having lands suitable for such purpose1 or others who might purchase lands suitable therefor1 who1 under the present diverse1 and oftentimes inequitable1 practice of assessments1 cannot be induced to make investments of that character4 ,,report ,,of ,,society ,,for ,,protection ,,of ,,new ,,hampshire ,,forests1 ,,ex-,,governor ,,frank ,w4 ,,rollins1 ,president3 ,the law of ,new ,hampshire requires that all property shall be taxed equally1 according to its value1 a law constantly and necessarily violated by assessors of forest property throughout the ,state4 ,its strict application even for a short period would go far to rid the ,state of its standing timber4 ,the reason for this is that timber is a growing crop--the only crop taxed more than once1 and if taxed annually at its full value the cost to the owner of holding the property would be so excessive as to require its hasty disposal4 ,assessors everywhere feel instinctively the inherent injustice of taxing a growing crop at a high annual rate1 and violate the law and their oaths of office with impunity4 ,the result is there are as many systems of forest taxation in the ,state as there are assessors1 and glaring inequalities exist1 not only between neighboring towns1 but also in some instances between different parts of the same town4 ,the unequally high rate placed upon the timber of non-residents is wholly iniquitous4 ,,new ,,hampshire ,,state ,,grange1 ,committee on ,agriculture3 ,many of the towns in our ,state invite the misuse of forests by overtaxation4 ,this should be guarded against4 ,by reasonable thrift we can produce a constant wood and timber supply beyond our own need1 and with it conserve the usefulness of our streams for water supply1 navigation and power1 and at the same time increase the value of our farms4 ,e4 ,m4 ,,griffith1 ,state ,forester of ,wisconsin3 ,the present method of taxing timberlands is hostile to the forestry interests of the ,state1 as a single timber crop is taxed heavily and repeatedly1 and the owners are forced by our present laws to cut their mature timber in order to escape inequitable taxation1 to sacrifice their young growth1 and to disregard conservative methods of forest management4 ,taxes are unfortunately a very valid reason in many sections of the ,state for not practicing forestry4 ,many town assessors seem to feel that they must tax the timberland owner1 especially the non-resident owner1 as heavily as possible1 and naturally in self-defense the owner is forced to cut his timber and so reduce the taxes to a reasonable amount4 ,then1 when it is too late1 the towns find that they have killed the goose that laid the golden egg4 ,however1 the loss of the taxes on the timber is but a drop in the bucket compared to the irreparable damage to many communities from losing the industries which depended upon the forests for their raw material4 ,to appreciate this one only needs to visit towns in which the sawmills have shut down on account of lack of timber4 ,of late years the end of the timber has been largely hastened on account of the excessive taxes placed upon it4 ,the whole system of forest taxation in this country is wrong1 for it puts a premium on forest destruction4 ,,ralph ,c4 ,,hawley1 ,instructor in ,forestry1 ,yale ,university3 ,a system of taxation which discriminates against timber1 one of the chief natural resources of the commonwealth1 is to be condemned4 ,,kentucky ,,state ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture ,,report3 ,when a rise in the valuation of other than forest property becomes necessary because of the greater development of the resources of the region1 the valuation of forest property should be increased with great caution in order that the forest lands may be held to advantage for the production of future timber crops4 ,a timber crop is marketed only after the young growing timber has been held for a long term of years1 during which time the forest has been yielding only a very slight revenue1 if any1 to the owner4 ,if the valuation of the forest or its rates of taxation goes beyond a comparatively low limit1 the holding of forest land for a second crop of timber is impracticable or nearly prohibitive4 ,this condition has prevailed in many other ,states where now the problem of taxation is a difficult one to solve4 ,,alfred ,,gaskill1 ,state ,forester for ,new ,jersey3 ,the present practices favor and encourage the untimely or wasteful use of standing forests1 discourage the propagation of others1 and tend to hasten the time when the country shall be forced to face a wood famine4 ,it would be impossible to apply the ,european system here with anything like the exactness that attaches to it in the old countries1 because we have not the means of knowing the true worth of forest soil or of forest crops1 but the principle is applicable anywhere4 ,even in the hands of non-expert assessors it gives a fairer basis of valuation than our present method1 and in the long run will insure larger returns4 ,j4 ,e4 ,,frost1 ,tax ,commissioner of ,washington3 ,the ,state's system of taxation is obsolete1 and only #ac civilized communities in the world have such an out-of-date system4 ,the ,state is confined by the constitution to property tax1 well known as a primitive system1 utterly incapable of coping with modern business4 ,it can be remedied only by recognizing the different classes of taxable property4 ,,dr4 ,,francis ,l4 ,,mcvey1 ,university ,president and ,tax ,expert3 ,under the old plan of valuing annually the property it was difficult to secure an appraisement that was satisfactory to anybody and1 what was more1 as the years went by the local governments found their assessed values decreasing and the burden of government materially increasing with the decline in amount of standing timber4 ,the annual taxation of the land upon which the timber stands meets this difficulty1 while the taxation of the product at the time of harvesting provides a plan that is fair both to the local government and to the owner of timber4 ,,colorado ,,conservation ,,commission3 ,resolved1 ,that it is the sense of the ,colorado ,conservation ,commission that the governor and legislators should submit to the people at as early a date as possible an amendment to the constitution1 exempting from taxation lands devoted solely to the growth and culture of new timber1 and if such amendment is adopted1 the same to be followed by suitable legislation4 ,,oregon ,,state ,,conservation ,,commission3 ,constitutional amendment and legislation should be invoked to permit a low fixed tax on cut-over land during the period of no return to the owner1 the ,state to be compensated by a tax on the crop when cut4 ,obviously this inducement should be offered only to those holders of cut-over land who will reciprocate by furthering the object sought4 ,the result of such a system would be not only perpetuation of the forest and its attendant industries and payroll1 but also a far greater tax return than the present one of encouraging potential forest land to become worthless and non-taxable4 ,,legislature ,,of ,,minnesota3 ,sec4 #ag a4 ,laws may be enacted exempting lands from taxation for the purpose of encouraging and promoting the planting1 cultivation and protection of useful forest trees thereon4 ,this is the text of an act amending the ,minnesota constitution passed by the legislature4 ,,washington ,,conservation ,,association1 ,walla1 ,walla3 ,whereas1 ,the question of holding cut-over forest land for a second crop is of paramount importance to the ,state1 and ,whereas1 ,this is made impossible on the part of private owners by our present method of forest taxation1 whereby the owner is obliged to pay an annual tax on the land as well as an annually repeated tax on the same growing crop1 therefore be it ,resolved1 ,that this convention favors such remedial legislation as will encourage reforestation of privately owned lands1 and be it further ,resolved1 ,that it is the sense of this convention that as applied to reforestation such remedial legislation can be secured by a plan which will levy an annual tax on the land and an income tax on the forest crop only when the crop is harvested4 ,,first ,,national ,,conservation ,,congress1 ,seattle3 ,resolved1 ,that we urge the adoption of a system of taxation under which woodlands will pay a moderate annual land tax and the timber will be taxed only when cut4 ,,the ,,western ,,forestry ,,and ,,conservation ,,association ,the ,western ,forestry and ,conservation ,association has no individual membership1 but consists of and represents all organized agencies for forest protection in the ,states of ,montana1 ,idaho1 ,washington1 ,oregon and ,california4 ,following is ,article ,,iv of its constitution3 ,any association formed for the purpose of organized effort in the protection of forests from fire and for the reforestation and conservation of the forest resources of the ,states represented shall be eligible for membership4 ,any organization admitted to membership shall be entitled to two votes in the meetings of this ,association4 ,the chief forest officer of each of the five ,states embraced1 and of each district of the ,united ,states ,forest ,service embraced1 shall be honorary members4 ,the allied organizations are at present fifteen in number3 ,the ,oregon ,forest ,fire1 ,oregon ,conservation1 ,north ,willamette ,forest ,fire1 ,coos ,county ,fire ,patrol1 ,northwest ,oregon ,forest ,fire1 ,klamath ,lake ,counties ,forest ,fire1 ,polk-,yamhill ,forest ,fire1 ,lincoln-,benton ,forest ,fire1 ,north ,idaho ,forestry1 ,washington ,forest ,fire1 ,washington ,conservation1 ,inland ,forest ,fire1 ,potlatch ,timber ,protective1 ,clearwater ,timber ,protective1 ,pend d',oreille ,timber ,protective1 ,coeur d',alene ,timber ,protective and ,northern ,montana ,forestry ,association4 ,the purpose of the ,western ,forestry ,conservation ,association is to promote forest fire prevention1 conservative forest management1 reforesting of cut-over lands not more valuable for agriculture1 improvement in taxation systems1 preservation of stream flow1 and all other things comprehended by forest conservation4 ,its meetings enable representatives of the allied associations and of ,state and government to exchange ideas and devise ways and means for carrying on these movements in harmony along practical and effective lines4 ,it also affords means of collecting and distributing information from these several sources4 ,it believes in the use of every legitimate means of publicity and education to interest lumbermen1 legislators and public1 not only in paving the way for future advance1 but also in such actual1 workable1 conservation measures as can be put into practice immediately4 ,to this end1 believing action speaks louder than words1 it practices what it preaches4 ,while fully recognizing the great value and necessity of associations devoted entirely to propaganda1 it sees also a need of reducing theory to a sound business basis4 ,either as associations or through their members the forest protective associations it represents spent about #gjj1jjj in #aiaj for patrol and fire fighting to protect the forests of the ,west4 ,they safeguarded millions of acres of timber1 put out many thousand fires1 and saved forest resources worth billions of dollars to the community4 ,as a result of their effort the losses in ,idaho1 ,washington and ,oregon were kept down to about a quarter of #a per cent of the privately-owned timber in these ,states1 and this notwithstanding that it was one of the worst fire years in ,american history4 ,while they unite in the ,western ,forestry and ,conservation ,association1 and levy a special assessment to support its work1 the local organizations are wholly independent in their actual forest fire work4 ,their systems vary slightly1 but the majority follow the general plan outlined on pages #ajj-ajc of this booklet4 ,one of the primary objects and ambitions of the ,association is to extend this effort until all the timber owners in the five ,states do their part and every acre of private forest land is brought under a highly trained and organized service4 ,if the ,states themselves lend aid and backing this can be made the most efficient fire service in existence1 as the most magnificent body of standing timber in the world deserves4 ,the ,association also employs a trained forester to assist its members who control timber to install and maintain improved methods of protection1 cutting and reforestation4 ,in this way it not only helps those who will to really accomplish the end in view1 but by publishing such material as is contained in this booklet makes the experiments serve as object lessons to others4 ,perhaps the most unique function of the ,association is to furnish the only common meeting ground and clearing house for the many public and private agencies for forest protection4 ,at its meetings ,federal and ,state officials1 representatives of public conservation associations and timber owners join on equal footing1 without controversy over rights or authority1 in discussing practical details of how to accomplish the best results together under conditions as they exist4 ,every man present is there because he wants to do his part1 with his own hands or money1 to preserve the forests of the ,west4 ,he knows what he is talking about and the others are glad to hear him4 ,the result is a mutual understanding and coperation along practical lines which is of immense benefit to the public whose welfare depends largely upon these agencies that really control its forest resources4