99       99       99       99       99  
----------------------------------------
---------------------                   
,transcrib]'s ,note3                    
,,np ligature 9 ! table on page #hi is  
%[n 9 ?is              docum5t z ,,np4  
,bold words are surr\nd$ ) 's4          
----------------------------------------
---------------------         99        
99       99       99       99     ,,!   
,,religion ,,( ,,anci5t ,,rome  ,by     
,,cyril ,,bailey1 ,m4,a4 ,,fell[ ,,&    
,,tutor ,,( ,,balliol ,,college1 ,,ox=d 
,,london ,,ar*ibald ,,con/able  ,,co    
,,ltd  #aijg     ,i wi% to express my   
w>m ?anks to ,mr4 ,w4 ,w>de ,f[l] = 8   
k9dness 9 read+ my pro(s1 & = _m        
valuable h9ts & sugge/ions4    ,c4,b4   
,,balliol ,,college1   ,jan #be?1 #aijg4
     ,,cont5ts   ,,*ap4                 
,,page  ,i4 ,,introduction--,,s\rces ,,&
 ,,scope                              #a
  ,,ii4 ,,! ',,antec$5ts' ,,( ,,roman   
,,religion                         #d   
,,iii4 ,,ma9 ,,features ,,( ,,!         

,,religion ,,( ,,numa                   
#ab  ,,iv4 ,,e>ly ,,hi/ory ,,(          
,,rome--,,! ,,agricultural ,,community  
#ca  ,v4 ,,wor%ip ,,( ,,! ,,h\sehold    
#cf  ,,vi4 ,,wor%ip ,,( ,,! ,,fields    
#eh  ,,vii4 ,,wor%ip ,,( ,,! ,,/ate     
#ge  ,,viii4 ,,auguries ,,& ,,auspices  
#if  ,,ix4 ,,religion ,,&               
,,morality--,,conclusion                
#ajc     ,,! ,,religion ,,( ,,anci5t    
,,rome   ,,*apt] ,i                     
,,introduction--,,s\rces ,,& ,,scope    
,! conditions ( our k ( ! native        
religion ( e>ly ,rome may p]haps be be/ 
illu/rat$ by a p>allel f ,roman         
ar*aeology4 ,! visitor to ! ,roman ,=um 
at ! pres5t day1 if he wi%es to         
recon/ruct 9 imag9ation ! ,=um ( ! e>ly 
,republic1 mu/ n m]ely '?9k away' _m    
/rata ( lat] build+s1 b1 we are told1   
mu/ picture to himself a totally diff]5t
 ori5tation ( ! :ole3 ! upp] lay] (     
rema9s1 :i* he sees be=e him1 is = 8    
purpose 9 mo/ cases n m]ely useless1 b  
positively mislead+4 ,9 ! same way1 if  

we wi% to =m a picture ( ! g5u9e ,roman 
religion1 we _c f9d x imm$iately 9      
classical lit]ature2 we mu/ bani% f our 
m9ds all t is due to ! contact ) ! ,ea/ 
& ,egypt1 & ev5 ) ! o!r races ( ,italy1 
& we mu/ imag9e1 s to speak1 a totally  
diff]5t m5tal ori5tation be=e ! great   
influx ( ,greek lit]ature & ,greek      
?\ght1 :i* gave an entirely new turn to 
,roman ideas 9 g5]al1 & 9 p>ticul>      
revolutionis$ religion by ! introduction
 ( an?ropomorphic notions & s5su\s      
repres5tations4 ,b 9 ?is difficult se>* 
we are n left )\t indications to guide  
u4 ,9 ! writ+s ( ! savants ( ! late     
,republic & ( ! ,empire1 & 9 ! ,augu/an 
poets1 biass$ ?\gh !y are 9 _!          
int]pretations by ,greek t5d5cies1 !re  
is embodi$ a great weal? ( anci5t cu/om 
& ritual1 :i* becomes significant :5 we 
h once got ! clue to its mean+4 ,m      
direct evid5ce is af=d$ by a l>ge body (
 inscriptions & monum5ts1 & above all by
 ! surviv+ ,cal5d>s ( ! ,roman fe/ival  
ye>1 :i* give u ! true outl9e ( !       

c]emonial obs]vances ( ! e>ly religion4 
,x is n )9 ! scope ( ?is sket* to ent]1 
except by way ( occasional illu/ration1 
into ! process ( int]pretation by :i* ! 
pati5t "w ( s*ol>s has dis5tangl$ ! =m &
 _s ( ! native religion f ! mass ( =eign
 accretions4 ,i int5d r to assume !     
process1 & deal1 z f> z x is possible 9 
s controv]sial a subject1 ) results ^u  
:i* au?orities are g5]ally agre$4 ,nei!r
 w any attempt be made to foll[ !       
developm5t :i* ! e>ly religion und]w5t 9
 lat] p]iods1 :5 =eign elem5ts 7 add$ & 
=eign ideas alt]$ & rem\ld$ ! old       
tradition4 ,we mu/ conf9e ourselves to a
 s+le epo*1 9 :i* ! native ,roman _s    
work$ out unaid$ ! ideas inh]it$ f      
half-civilis$ ance/ors1 & =m$ t body (  
belief & ritual1 :i* 0 always1 at lea/  
(ficially1 ! k]nel ( ,roman religion1 & 
con/itut$ :at ! ,romans !mselves--/aun* 
believ]s 9 _! own traditional           
hi/ory--lov$ to describe z ! ',religion 
( ,numa4' ,we mu/ discov]1 z f> z we c1 
h[ f> its inh]it$ notions ran p>allel ) 

^? ( o!r primitive religions1 b m       
especially we mu/ try to note :at is    
*>act]i/ically ,roman alike 9 cu/om &   
ritual & 9 ! motives & _s :i* prompt$   
!m4     ,,*apt] ,,ii  ,,! ',,antec$5ts' 
,,( ,,roman ,,religion   ,9 e e>ly      
religion !re w ( c\rse be f\nd1 ap>t f  
ext]nal influ5ce1 traces ( its own      
int]nal developm5t1 ( /ages by :i* x mu/
 h advanc$ f a mass ( vague & primitive 
belief & cu/om to ! organis$ wor%ip ( a 
civilis$ community4 ,! religion ( ,rome 
is no exception to ?is rule2 we c detect
 9 its lat] practice evid5ces (         
primitive notions & habits :i* x _h 9   
common ) o!r semi-b>b>\s peoples1 & we  
%all see t ! lead+ idea 9 its !ology is 
b a *>act]i/ically ,roman developm5t ( a
 m>k$ feature 9 mo/ e>ly religions4  #a4
 ,magic4--,an?ropology has taught u t 9 
_m primitive societies religion--a s5se 
( man's dep5d5ce on a p[] high] ?an     
himself--is prec$$ by a /age ( magic--a 
belief 9 man's own p[] to influ5ce by   
occult means ! action ( ! _w ar\nd him4 

,t ! ance/ors ( ! ,roman community pass$
 ?r\gh ?is /age seems cle>1 & 9 surviv+ 
religi\s practice we may discov] evid5ce
 ( su* magic 9 v>i\s =ms4 ,!re is1 =    
in/ance1 :at an?ropology describes z    
'sympa!tic magic'--! attempt to influ5ce
 ! p[]s ( nature by an imitation ( !    
process :i* x is desir$ t !y %\ld p]=m4 
,( ?is we h a *>act]i/ic example 9 !    
c]emony ( ! aquaelicium1 design$ to     
produce ra9 aft] a long dr\ght4 ,9      
classical times ! c]emony consi/$ 9 a   
procession head$ by ! pontifices1 :i*   
bore ! sacr$ ra9-/one f its re/+-place  
by ! ,porta ,cap5a to ! ,capitol1 :]e   
(f]+s 7 made to ! sky-deity1 ,iuppit]1  
b#a f ! analogy ( o!r primitive cults & 
! sacr$ title ( ! /one 7lapis manalis71 
x is practically c]ta9 t ! orig9al      
ritual 0 ! purely imitative process (   
p\r+ wat] ov] ! /one4 ,a simil> ra9-*>m 
may possibly be se5 9 ! curi\s ritual ( 
! argeorum sacra1 :5 puppets ( /raw 7   
?r[n into ! ,tib]--a symbolic wett+ ( ! 
crops to :i* _m p>allels may be f\nd    

among o!r primitive peoples4 ,a         
sympa!tic *>m ( a r diff]5t "* seems to 
survive 9 ! c]emony ( ! augurium        
can>ium1 at :i* a r$ dog 0 sacrific$ = !
 prosp]ity ( ! crop--a symbolic kill+ ( 
! r$ mildew 7robigo72 & aga9 ! slaught] 
( pregnant c[s at ! ,=dicidia 9 ! middle
 ( ,april1 be=e ! spr\t+ ( ! corn1 has a
 cle>ly sympa!tic connection ) !        
f]tility ( ! e>?4 ,ano!r prom95t        
survival--equally *>act]i/ic ( primitive
 peoples--is ! sacr$ness :i* atta*es to 
! p]son ( ! prie/-k+1 s t 8 e act or ^w 
may h a magic significance or effect4   
,?is is reflect$ g5]ally 9 ! ,roman     
prie/hood1 b especially 9 ! c]emonial   
surr\nd+ ! flam5 ,dialis1 ! prie/ (     
,iuppit]4 ,he mu/ appe> always 9 fe/ival
 g>b1 fire may nev] be tak5 f 8 he>? b =
 sacr$ purposes1 no o!r p]son may ev]   
sleep 9 8 b$1 ! cutt+s ( 8 hair & nails 
mu/ be pres]v$ & buri$ b5ea? an arbor   
felix--no d\bt a magic *>m =            
f]tility--he mu/ n eat or ev5 m5tion a  
goat or a bean1 or o!r objects ( an     

unlucky "*4  #b4 ,wor%ip ( ,natural     
,objects4--,a v common feature 9 ! e>ly 
developm5t ( religi\s consci\sness is ! 
wor%ip ( natural objects--9 ! fir/ place
 ( ! objects !mselves & no m1 b lat] ( a
 _s indwell+ 9 !m4 ,! di/9ction is no   
d\bt 9 individual cases a difficult "o  
to make1 & we f9d t among ! ,romans !   
e>li] wor%ip ( ! object t5ds to give way
 to ! cult ( ! inhabit+ _s1 b examples  
may be f\nd :i* seem to belong to !     
e>li] /age4 ,we h1 = in/ance1 ! sacr$   
/one 7silex7 :i* 0 pres]v$ 9 ! temple ( 
,iuppit] on ! ,capitol1 & 0 br\ght out  
to play a prom95t "p 9 ! c]emony (      
treaty-mak+4 ,! fetial1 :o on t occasion
 repres5t$ ! ,roman p1 at ! solemn mom5t
 ( ! oa?-tak+1 /ruck ! sacrificial pig )
 ! silex1 say+ z he did s1 ',d ?\1      
,diespit]1 /rike ! ,roman p z ,i /rike  
?is pig "h to-day1 & /rike !m ! m1 z ?\ 
art great] & /rong]4' ,"h no d\bt !     
und]ly+ notion is n m]ely symbolical1 b 
9 orig9 ! /one is itself ! god1 an idea 
:i* lat] religion express$ 9 !          

cult-title specially us$ 9 ?is          
connection1 ,iuppit] ,lapis4 ,s aga91 9 
all probability1 ! t]m9i or b\nd>y-/ones
 betwe5 prop]ties are 9 orig9 !         
objects--?\gh lat] only ! site--( a     
ye>ly ritual at ! fe/ival ( ! ,t]m9alia 
on ,febru>y ! #bcrd1 & !y are1 z x 71   
summ$ up 9 '! god ,t]m9us1' ! great     
sacr$ b\nd>y-/one1 :i* _h its own %r9e  
)9 ! ,capitol9e temple1 because1 accord+
 to ! leg5d1 '! god' refus$ to budge ev5
 to make room = ,iuppit]4 ,! same notion
 is mo/ likely at ! root ( ! two great  
dome/ic cults ( ,ve/a1 '! he>?1' &      
,ianus1 '! door1' ?\gh a m spiritual    
idea 0 soon associat$ ) !m2 we may      
notice too 9 ?is connection ! wor%ip (  
spr+s1 summ$ up 9 ! subsequ5t deity     
,fons1 & ( riv]s1 su* z ,volturnus1 !   
cult-"n ( ! ,tib]4  #c4 ,wor%ip (       
,trees4--,b mo/ conspicu\s among ! cults
 ( natural objects1 z 9 s _m primitive  
religions1 is ! wor%ip ( trees4 ,"h1    
?\gh d\btless at fir/ ! tree 0 itself ! 
object ( v5]ation1 surviv+ in/ances seem

 r to belong to ! lat] p]iod :5 x 0     
reg>d$ z ! abode ( ! _s4 ,we may        
recognise a case ( ?is sort 9 ! ficus   
,rum9alis1 once ! recipi5t ( wor%ip1    
?\gh lat] leg5d1 :i* pref]r$ to f9d an  
hi/orical or my?ical explanation (      
cults1 look$ ^u x z sacr$ because x 0 ! 
sc5e ( ! suckl+ ( ,romulus & ,remus by !
 wolf4 ,ano!r fig-tree ) a simil> hi/ory
 is ! caprificus ( ! ,campus ,m>tius1   
subsequ5tly ! site ( ! wor%ip ( ,iuno   
,caprot9a4 ,a m significant case is !   
sacr$ oak ( ,iuppit] ,f]etrius on !     
,capitol1 on :i* ! spolia opima 7 hung  
aft] ! triumph--probably 9 e>ly times a 
d$ication ( ! booty to ! _s inhabit+ !  
tree4 ,outside ,rome1 %[+ ! same ideas  
at "w among neighb\r+ peoples1 0 !      
'gold5 b\gh' 9 ! grove ( ,diana at      
,aricia4 ,nor 0 x only special trees :i*
 7 ?us reg>d$ z ! home ( a deity2 ! tree
 9 g5]al is sacr$1 & any "o may *ance to
 be inhabit$ by a _s4 ,! feel+ ( !      
c\ntry population on ?is po9t comes out 
cle>ly 9 ! pray] :i* ,cato recomm5ds 8  

f>m] to use be=e mak+ a cle>+ 9 a wood3 
',be ?\ god or goddess1 to :om ?is grove
 is sacr$1 be x grant$ to u to make     
propitiatory sacrifice to !e ) a pig = !
 cle>+ ( ?is sacr$ spot'2 "h we h a cle>
 in/ance ( ! tree reg>d$ z ! dwell+ ( ! 
sacr$ p[]1 & x is int]e/+ to comp>e ! _m
 simil> examples :i*#b ,dr4 ,fraz] has  
collect$ f diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w4  #d4    
,wor%ip ( ,animals4--,( ! wor%ip (      
animals we h comp>atively little evid5ce
 9 ,roman religion1 ?\gh we may p]haps  
detect x 9 a portion ( ! my/]i\s ritual 
( ! ,lup]calia1 :]e ! ,lup]ci dress$    
!mselves 9 ! sk9s ( ! sacrific$ goats & 
sme>$ _! faces ) ! blood1 ?us           
symbolically try+ to br+ !mselves into  
communion ) ! sacr$ animal4 ,we may     
recognise x too 9 ! association (       
p>ticul> animals ) div9ities1 su* z !   
sacr$ wolf & woodpeck] ( ,m>s1 b on !   
:ole we may d\bt :e!r ! wor%ip ( animals
 ev] play$ s prom95t a "p 9 ,roman      
religion z ! cult ( o!r natural objects4
  #e4 ,animism4--,su* are "s ( !        

survivals ( v e>ly /ages ( religi\s     
cu/om :i* /ill kept _! place 9 !        
develop$ religion ( ,rome1 b by f> ! mo/
 important elem5t 9 x1 :i* might inde$  
be describ$ z its 'imm$iate antec$5t1'  
is ! /ate ( religi\s feel+ to :i*       
an?ropologi/s h giv5 ! "n ( ',animism4' 
,z f> z we c foll[ ! developm5t ( e>ly  
religions1 ?is attitude ( m9d seems to  
be ! direct outcome ( ! failure ( magic4
 ,primitive man beg9s to see t nei!r he 
nor 8 magicians really possess t occult 
control ov] ! =ces ( nature :i* 0 !     
suppos$ basis ( magic3 ! *>m fails1 !   
spell does n produce ! ra9 & :5 he looks
 = ! cause1 he c only argue t ^! ?+s mu/
 be 9 ! h&s ( "s p[] high] ?an 8 own4 ,!
 _w !n & its v>i\s famili> objects      
become = him peopl$ ) spirits1 l 9 "* to
 m51 b m p[]ful1 & 8 success 9 life &   
its v>i\s op]ations dep5ds on ! degree 9
 :i* he is able to propitiate ^! spirits
 & secure _! co-op]ation4 ,if he desires
 ra91 he mu/ w9 ! fav\r ( ! _s :o       
controls x1 if he w\ld fell a tree &    

suff] no h>m1 he mu/ by suitable (f]+s  
entice ! indwell+ _s to leave x4 ,8     
'!ology' 9 ?is /age is ! k ( ! v>i\s    
spirits & _! dwell+s1 8 ritual ! due    
p]=mance ( sacrifice = purposes (       
propitiation & expiation4 ,x 0 9 ?is    
/ate ( religi\s feel+ t ! ance/ors (    
,rome mu/ h liv$ be=e !y f\nd$ _!       
agricultural settlem5t on ! ,palat9e3 we
 mu/ try n[ to see h[ f> x _h reta9$ ?is
 "* & :at developm5ts x _h und]gone :5 x
 _h cry/allis$ into ! ',religion (      
,numa4'  ,,footnotes3  #a ,fraz]1 ,gold5
 ,b\gh1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ha ff4  #b ,gold5  
,b\gh1 vol4 i4 pp4 #aha-ahe4     ,,*apt]
 ,,iii  ,,ma9 ,,features ,,( ,,!        
,,religion ,,( ,,numa   #a4 ,!ology4--,!
 *>act]i/ic appellation ( a div9e _s 9 !
 olde/ /ratum ( ! ,roman religion is n  
deus1 a god1 b r num51 a p[]3 he becomes
 deus :5 he obta9s a "n1 & s is on ! way
 to acquir+ a def9ite p]sonality1 b 9   
orig9 he is simply ! '_s' ( ! 'animi/ic'
 p]iod1 & reta9s some?+ ( ! _s's        
*>act]i/ics4 ,?us among ! div9ities ( ! 

h\sehold we %all see lat] t ! ,g5ius &  
ev5 ! ,l> ,famili>is1 ?\gh !y atta9$    
great dignity ( conception1 & 7 ! c5tre 
( ! family life1 & to "s ext5t ( !      
family morality1 nev] q rose to !       
position ( full-gr[n gods2 :ile among ! 
spirits ( ! field ! wildness & impi%ness
 ( "* associat$ ) ,faunus & 8 companion 
,inuus--almo/ ! cobolds or hobgobl9s ( !
 flocks--reflects cle>ly ! old          
'animi/ic' belief 9 ! natural evilness (
 ! spirits & _! ho/ility to m54 ,!      
notion ( ! num5 is always vague &       
indef9ite3 ev5 its sex may be unc]ta94  
',be ?\ god or goddess' is ! =m (       
address 9 ! f>m]'s pray] already quot$ f
 ,cato3 'be x male or female' is !      
con/ant =mula 9 liturgies & ev5         
d$icatory inscriptions ( a mu* lat]     
p]iod4  ,^! spirits are1 z we h se51    
indwell]s 9 ! objects ( nature &        
controll]s ( ! ph5om5a ( nature3 b to ! 
,roman !y 7 m4 ,n m]ely did !y inhabit  
places & ?+s1 b !y presid$ ov] ea* phase
 ( natural developm5t1 ea* /ate or      

action 9 ! life ( man4 ,v>ro1 = in/ance1
 gives u a li/ ( ! deities conc]n$ 9 !  
e>ly life ( ! *ild1 :i*1 ?\gh x be>s !  
m>ks ( prie/ly elaboration1 may yet be  
tak5 z typical ( ! feel+ ( ! normal     
,roman family4 ,!re is ,vaticanus1 :o   
op5s ! *ild's m\? to cry1 ,cun9a1 :o    
gu>ds 8 cradle1 ,edulia & ,pot9a1 :o    
tea* him to eat & dr9k1 ,/atil9us1 :o   
helps him to /& up1 ,adeona & ,abeona1  
:o wat* ov] 8 fir/ foot/ep1 & _m o!rs   
ea* ) 8 special prov9ce ( protection or 
assi/ance4 ,! f>m] simil>ly is 9 ! h&s (
 a :ole ho/ ( div9ities :o assi/ him at 
ea* /age ( pl\gh+1 hoe+1 s[+1 reap+1 & s
 =?4 ,if ! num5 !n lacks p]sonal        
individuality1 he has a v di/9ct        
specialisation ( function1 & if man's   
appeal to ! div9ity is to be successful1
 he mu/ be v c>eful to make x 9 ! "r    
qu>t]3 x 0 a /ock joke 9 ,roman com$y to
 make a "* 'ask = wat] f ,lib]1 or w9e f
 ! nymphs4' ,h5ce we f9d 9 ! pray]      
=mulae 9 ,cato & else:]e ! mo/ c>eful   
precautions to prev5t ! accid5tal       

omission ( ! deity conc]n$3 usually !   
wor%ipp] w g ?r\gh ! :ole li/ ( ! gods  
:o may be ?\ght to h p[] 9 ! special    
circum/ances2 sometimes he w conclude 8 
pray] ) ! =mula ':osoev] ?\ art1' or '& 
any o!r "n by :i* ?\ maye/ desire to be 
call$4' ,! num5 is ?us vague 9 8        
conception b specialis$ 9 8 function1 & 
s lat] on1 :5 c]ta9 deities h acquir$   
def9ite names & become prom95t above !  
re/1 ! wor%ipp] 9 appeal+ to !m w add a 
cult-title1 to indicate ! special "* 9  
:i* he wi%es ! deity to he>3 ! woman 9  
*ildbir? w appeal to ,iuno ,luc9a1 !    
g5]al pray+ = victory to ,iuppit]       
,victor1 ! man :o is tak+ an oa? to     
,iuppit] z ! deus ,fidius4 ,z a /ill    
lat] developm5t ! cult-title w1 z x 71  
break (f & set up = itself1 usually 9 ! 
=m ( an ab/ract p]sonification3         
,iuppit]1 9 ! two special capacities j  
not$1 gives bir? to ,victoria & ,fides4 
,! conception ( ! num5 be+ s =mless &   
indef9ite1 x is n surpris+ t 9 ! g5u9e  
,roman religion !re %\ld h be5 no       

an?ropomorphic repres5tations ( !       
div9ity at all4 ',= #agj ye>s1' ,v>ro   
tells u1 tak+ 8 date f ! traditional    
f\ndation ( ! city 9 #ged ,b4,c41 '!    
,romans wor%ipp$ _! gods )\t images1' & 
he adds ! *>act]i/ic comm5t1 '^? :o     
introduc$ repres5tations among !        
nations1 took away fe> & br\ght 9       
falsehood4' ,symbols ( a few deities 7  
no d\bt recognis$3 we h notic$ already !
 silex ( ,iuppit] & ! b\nd>y-/one (     
,t]m9us1 :i* 7 probably at an e>li]     
p]iod !mselves objects ( wor%ip1 & to ^!
 we may add ! sacr$ spe>s ( ,m>s1 & !   
sigilla ( ! ,/ate-,p5ates4 ,b = ! mo/ "p
 ! num9a 7 )\t ev5 su* symbolic         
repres5tation1 nor till ab\t ! end ( !  
regal p]iod 0 any =m ( temple built = !m
 to dwell 94 ,! sacr$ fire ( ,ve/a ne> !
 ,=um 01 x is true1 f ! e>lie/ times    
enclos$ 9 a build+2 ?is1 h[ev]1 0 no    
temple1 b m]ely an erection ) !         
ess5tially practical purpose ( prev5t+ !
 ext9ction ( ! fire by ra94 ,! fir/     
temple 9 ! full s5se ( ! ^w 0 accord+ to

 tradition built by ,s]vius ,tullius to 
,diana on ! ,av5t9e3 ! tradition is     
significant1 = ,diana 0 n "o ( ! di     
indigetes1 ! old deities ( ! ',religion 
( ,numa1' b 0 introduc$ f ! neighb\r+   
t[n ( ,aricia1 & ! attribution to       
,s]vius ,tullius ne>ly always d5otes an 
,etruscan#c or at any rate a non-,roman 
orig94 ,!re 71 h[ev]1 alt>s 9 special   
places to p>ticul> deities1 built       
sometimes ( /one1 sometimes 9 a m homely
 mann] ( e>? or sods4 ,we he> = in/ance 
( ! alt> ( ,m>s 9 ! ,campus ,m>tius1 (  
,quir9us on ! ,quir9al1 ( ,saturnus at !
 foot ( ! ,capitol1 & notably ( ! curi\s
 und]gr\nd alt> ( ,consus on :at 0 lat] 
! site ( ! ,circus ,maximus4 ,b m       
*>act]i/ic ?an ! erection ( alt>s is !  
connection ( deities ) special          
localities4 ,naturally en\gh 9 ! wor%ip 
( ! h\sehold ,ve/a _h h] seat at ! he>?1
 ,ianus at ! door1 & ! 'gods ( !        
/oreh\se' 7,p5ates7 at ! cupbo>d by !   
he>?1 b ! same idea appe>s too 9 !      
/ate-cult4 ,hilltops1 groves1 &         

especially cle>+s 9 groves 7luci7 are ! 
mo/ usual sacr$ localities4 ,?us        
,quir9us has 8 own sacr$ hill1 ,iuppit] 
is wor%ipp$ on ! ,capitol1 ,ve/a & ,iuno
 ,luc9a h _! sacr$ groves )9 ! b\nd>ies 
( ! city1 & ,dea ,dia1 ,robigus1 &      
,furr9a simil> groves at ! limits (     
,roman t]ritory4 ,! record ( almo/ e    
,roman cult reveals ! importance (      
locality 9 connection ) ! di indigetes1 
& ! localities are usually su* z w\ld be
 naturally *os5 by a pa/oral &          
agricultural p4  ,su* 7 r\ghly ! ma9    
outl9es ( ! g5u9e ,roman '!ology4' ,x   
has no gods ( human =m ) human relations
 to "o ano!r1 int]e/$ 9 ! life ( m5 &   
capable ( ! deepe/ passions ( hatr$ &   
affection t[>ds !m1 su* z we meet1 =    
in/ance1 9 ! my?ology ( ,greece1 b only 
^! imp]sonal individualities1 if we may 
s call !m1 capable ( no relation to "o  
ano!r1 b able to br+ good or ill to m51 
localis$ usually 9 _! habitations1 b    
requir+ no artificial dwell+ or         
elaborate adornm5t ( _! abode2 becom+   

gradually m & m specialis$ 9 function1  
yet ga9+ !reby no m real protective c>e 
= _! wor%ipp]s--a cold & he>tless       
hi]>*y1 ready to exact _! due1 b        
incapable ( inspir+ devotion or         
en?usiasm4 ,let u ask next h[ ! ,romans 
conceiv$ ( _! own relations t[>ds !m4   
#b4 ,! ,relation ( ,gods & ,m54--,! "* (
 ! ,roman 0 ess5tially practical & 8    
natural m5tal attitude t ( ! lawy]4 ,& s
 9 8 relation t[>ds ! div9e be+s :om he 
wor%ipp$ !re 0 little ( s5tim5t or      
affection3 all mu/ be regulat$ by cle>ly
 und]/ood pr9ciples & c>ri$ out ) =mal  
exactness4 ,h5ce ! ius sacrum1 ! body ( 
rights & duties 9 ! matt] ( religion1 is
 reg>d$ z a dep>tm5t ( ! ius publicum1 !
 fundam5tal con/itution ( ! /ate1 & x is
 significant1 z ,m>qu>dt has obs]v$1 t x
 0 ,numa1 a k+ & lawgiv]1 & n a prophet 
or a poet1 :o 0 look$ ^u z ! f\nd] ( !  
,roman religion4 ,/>t+ f ! simple g5]al 
feel+ ( a dep5d5ce on a high] p[]       
7religio71 :i* is common to all         
religions1 ! ,roman gives x 8 own       

*>act]i/ic col\r :5 he conceives ( t    
dep5d5ce z analog\s to a civil contract 
betwe5 man & god4 ,bo? sides are "u     
obligation to fulfil _! "p3 if a god    
answ]s a man's pray]1 he mu/ be repaid  
by a ?ank-(f]+3 if ! man has fulfill$ '8
 b\nd5 duty & s]vice1' ! god mu/ make 8 
return3 if he does n1 ei!r ! cause lies 
9 an unconsci\s failure on ! human side 
to c>ry out ! exact lett] ( ! law1 or   
else1 if ! god has really brok5 8       
contract1 he has1 z x 71 put himself out
 ( c\rt & ! man may seek aid else:]e4 ,9
 ?is notion we h ! secret ( ,rome's     
read9ess "u /ress ( circum/ances1 :5 all
 appeals to ! old gods h fail$1 to adopt
 =eign deities & cults 9 ! hope ( a     
great] measure ( success4  ,!           
contract-notion may p]haps appe> m      
cle>ly if we consid] "o or two ( !      
normal religi\s acts ( ! ,roman         
individual or /ate4 ,take fir/ ( all !  
p]=mance ( ! regul> sacrifices or acts (
 wor%ip orda9$ by ! /ate-cal5d> or !    
celebration ( ! h\sehold sacra4 ,!      

pietas ( man consi/s 9 _! due fulfilm5t1
 b he may ?r\gh neglig5ce omit !m or    
make a mi/ake 9 ! ritual to be employ$4 
,9 t case ! gods1 z x 71 h ! upp] h& 9 !
 contract & are n oblig$ to fulfil _!   
%>e1 b ! man c set himself "r aga9 by ! 
(f]+ ( a piaculum1 :i* may take ! =m    
ei!r ( an additional sacrifice or a     
repetition ( ! orig9al rite4 ,s1 =      
in/ance1 :5 ,cato is giv+ 8 f>m]        
directions = ! lu/ration ( 8 fields1 he 
supplies him at ! end ) two significant 
=mulae3 'if1' he says1 'y h fail$ 9 any 
respect ) reg>d to all y\r (f]+s1 use   
?is =mula3 ,fa!r ,m>s1 if ?\ ha/ n f\nd 
satisfaction 9 my =m] (f]+ ( pig1 %eep1 
& ox 7! mo/ solemn comb9ation 9 ru/ic   
sacrifices71 !n let ?is (f]+ ( pig &    
%eep & ox appease !e3 b if y h made a   
mi/ake 9 "o or two only ( y\r (f]+s1 !n 
say1 ,fa!r ,m>s1 because ?\ ha/ n f\nd  
satisfaction 9 t pig 7or :atev] x may   
be71 let ?is pig appease !e4' ,on ! o!r 
h&1 = int5tional neglect1 !re 0 no      
rem$y3 ! man 0 impius & x re/$ ) ! gods 

to puni% him z !y lik$ 7deorum iniuriae 
dis curae74  ,b ap>t f ! regul>ly       
con/itut$ c]emonies ( religion1 !re     
might be special occasions on :i* new   
relations w\ld be ent]$ into betwe5 god 
& man4 ,sometimes ! initiative w\ld come
 f man3 desir+ to obta9 f ! gods "s     
bless+s on :i* he _h set 8 he>t1 he w\ld
 ent] into a votum1 a special contract  
by :i* he und]took to p]=m c]ta9 acts or
 make c]ta9 sacrifices1 9 case ( !      
fulfilm5t ( 8 desire4 ,! :ole proce$+ is
 /rictly legal3 f ! mom5t :5 he makes 8 
v[ ! man is voti reus1 9 ! same         
position1 t is1 z ! def5dant 9 a case ^:
 decision is /ill p5d+2 z soon z ! gods 
h accompli%$ _! side ( ! contract he is 
voti damnatus1 condemn$1 z x 71 to      
damages1 hav+ lo/ 8 suit2 nor does he   
recov] 8 indep5d5ce until he has paid   
:at he und]took3 votum r$didi lub5s     
m]ito 7',i h paid my v[ gladly z x 0    
due'7 is ! *>act]i/ic word+ ( votive    
inscriptions4 ,if ! gods did n accompli%
 ! wi%1 ! man 0 ( c\rse free1 &         

sometimes ! contract w\ld be c>ri$ s f> 
t a "t-limit = _! action w\ld be fix$ by
 ! mak] ( ! v[3 legal exactness c h>dly 
g fur!r4  ,or aga91 ! initiative might  
come f ! gods4 ,"s m>k$ mis=tune1 an    
e>?quake1 lightn+1 a great fam9e1 a     
port5t\s bir?1 or "s su* occurr5ce w\ld 
be recognis$ z a prodigium1 or sign ( ! 
god's displeasure4 ,someh[ or o!r !     
contract mu/ h be5 brok5 on ! human side
 & x 0 ! duty ( ! /ate to see to !      
re/oration ( ! pax deum1 ! equilibrium (
 ! normal relation ( god & man4 ,! "r   
proce$+ 9 su* a case 0 a lu/ratio1 a    
solemn cleans+ ( ! p--or ! portion ( ! p
 involv$ 9 ! god's displeasure--) !     
d\ble object ( remov+ ! orig9al reason (
 mis=tune & av]t+ future causes ( !     
div9e ang]4 ,! comm]cial notion is n    
p]haps q s di/9ct "h1 b ! und]ly+ legal 
relation%ip is suffici5tly m>k$4  ,if !n
 ! "q be ask$ :e!r ! relation betwe5 !  
,roman & 8 gods 0 fri5dly or unfri5dly1 
! correct answ] w\ld probably be t x 0  
nei!r4 ,x 0 r :at ,ari/otle 9 speak+ (  

human relations describes z 'a fri5d%ip 
= pr(it'3 x is ent]$ into because bo?   
sides hope = "s advantage--x is ma9ta9$ 
z long z bo? sides fulfil _!            
obligations4  #c4 ,c]emonial4--,x has   
be5 said sometimes t ! old ,roman       
religion 0 "o ( cult & ritual )\t dogma 
or belief4 ,z we h se5 ?is is n 9 orig9 
/rictly true1 & x w\ld be fair] to say t
 belief 0 lat5t r ?an non-exi/5t3 ?is we
 may see1 = in/ance1 f ,cic]o's         
dialogues on ! subject ( religion1 :]e 9
 discussion ! fundam5tal s5se ( !       
dep5d5ce ( man on ! help ( ! gods comes 
cle>ly into view3 9 ! dome/ic wor%ip ( !
 family too cult 0 always to "s ext5t   
't+$ ) emotion1' & sanctifi$ by a belief
 :i* made x a m liv+ & 9 ! end a m      
p]man5t reality ?an ! religion ( ! /ate4
 ,b x is no d\bt true t z ! community   
advanc$1 belief t5d$ to s9k into !      
backgr\nd3 developm5t took place 9 cult 
& n 9 !ology1 s t by ! end ( !          
,republic1 to take an example1 ?\gh !   
fe/ival ( ! ,furr9alia 0 duly obs]v$ e  

ye> on ! #be? ( ,july1 ! nature or      
function ( ! goddess ,furr9a 01 z we    
le>n f ,cic]o1 a pure matt] (           
conjecture1 & ,v>ro tells u t h] "n 0   
kn[n only to a few p]sons4 ,nor 0 x m]e 
lapse ( "t :i* t5d$ to obscure !ology & 
exalt c]emonial3 _! relative position 0 
! imm$iate & natural outcome ( ! und]ly+
 idea ( ! relation ( god & man4         
,devotion1 piety--9 our s5se ( ! t]m--& 
a feel+ ( ! div9e pres5ce c\ld n be     
enjo9$ or ev5 enc\rag$ by ! /rictly     
legal conception on :i* religion 0 bas$3
 ! 'contract-notion' requir$ n a '"r _s'
 b "r p]=mance4 ,& s x comes ab\t t 9   
all ! records we h left ( ! old religion
 ! sali5t feature :i* cat*es & reta9s   
our att5tion is exactness ( ritual4 ,all
 mu/ be p]=m$ n m]ely 'dec5tly & 9      
ord]1' b ) ! mo/ scrupul\s c>e alike = e
 detail ( ! c]emonial itself1 & = !     
surr\nd+ circum/ances4 ,! omission or   
misplacem5t ( a s+le ^w 9 ! =mulae1 !   
slighte/ sign ( resi/ance on ! "p ( !   
victim1 any disord] among ! by/&]s1 ev5 

! accid5tal squeak ( a m\se1 are        
suffici5t to vitiate ! :ole ritual &    
necessitate its repetition f ! v beg9n+4
 ,"o ( ! ma9 functions ( ! ,roman       
prie/hood 0 to pres]ve intact !         
tradition ( =mulae & ritual1 &1 :5 !    
magi/rate (f]$ sacrifice = ! /ate1 !    
pontifex /ood at 8 side & dictat$       
7praeire7 ! =mulae :i* he mu/ use4      
,almo/ ! olde/ specim5 ( ,lat9 :i* we n[
 possess is ! song ( ! ,salii1 ! prie/s 
( ,m>s1 h&$ on f g5]ation to g5]ation & 
repeat$ ) scrupul\s c>e1 ev5 ?\gh !     
prie/s !mselves1 z ,qu9tilian assures u1
 _h n ! lea/ notion :at x meant4 ,nor 0 
x m]ely ! words ( c]emonial :i* 7 (     
vital importance3 o!r details mu/ be    
att5d$ to ) equal exactness4 ,place1 z  
we h se51 0 an ess5tial feature ev5 9 ! 
conception ( deity1 & x mu/ h requir$   
all ! p]sonal influ5ce ( ,augu/us & 8   
ent\rage to reconcile ! p ( ,rome1 ) !  
anci5t home ( ! goddess /ill be=e _!    
eyes1 to ! second %r9e ( ,ve/a )9 !     
limits ( 8 palace on ! ,palat9e4 ,!     

*oice ( ! appropriate (f]+ aga9 0 a     
matt] ( ! greate/ mom5t & 0 dictat$ by a
 l>ge numb] ( consid]ations4 ,! sex ( ! 
victim mu/ correspond to ! sex ( ! deity
 to :om x is (f]$1 :ite bea/s mu/ be    
giv5 to ! gods ( ! upp] _w1 black       
victims to ! deities bel[4 ,m>s at 8    
,octob] fe/ival mu/ h 8 horse1 ,iuno    
,caprot9a h] goat1 & ,robigus 8 dog1    
:ile 9 ! m ru/ic fe/ivals su* z !       
,p>ilia1 ! (f]+ w\ld be ! simpl] gift ( 
millet-cakes & b[ls ( milk3 9 ! case ( !
 ,bona ,dea we h ! curi\s provision t if
 w9e 7 us$ 9 ! c]emonial1 x mu/1 z %e 0 
9 orig9 a pa/oral deity1 always be spok5
 ( z 'milk4' ,! p]sons :o might be      
pres5t 9 ! v>i\s fe/ivals 7 also rigidly
 det]m9$3 m5 7 exclud$ f ! ,matronalia  
on ,m>* #a1 f ! ,ve/alia on ! #i? (     
,june1 & f ! night fe/ival ( ! ,bona    
,dea3 ! notori\s escapade ( ,clodius 9  
#fb ,b4,c4 %[s ! sc&al rais$ by a brea* 
( ?is rule ev5 at ! p]iod :5 religi\s   
en?usiasm 0 at its l[e/ ebb4 ,slaves 7  
specifically admitt$ to a %>e 9 c]ta9   

fe/ivals su* z ! ,saturnalia & !        
,compitalia 7! fe/ival ( ! ,l>es71 :]eas
 at ! ,matralia 7! fe/ival ( ! matrons7 
a female slave 0 br\ght 9 ) ! express   
purpose ( be+ significantly driv5 away4 
,! g5]al notion ( ! exactness ( ritual w
 p]haps become cle>] :5 we come to      
exam9e "s ( ! fe/ivals 9 detail1 b x is 
( extreme importance = ! und]/&+ ( !    
,roman religi\s attitude1 to ?9k ( x f !
 fir/ z an ess5tial "p 9 ! expression ( 
! relation ( man to god4  #d4           
,directness ( ,relation--,functions (   
,prie/s4--,9 contra/ to all ?is         
precision ( ritual1 :i* t5ds almo/ to   
ali5ate humanity f deity1 we may turn to
 ano!r h>dly less prom95t feature ( !   
,roman religion--! imm$iat5ess (        
relation betwe5 ! god & 8 wor%ipp]s4 ,n 
only may ! individual at any "t approa* 
! alt> ( ! god ) 8 pray] or ?ank-(f]+1 b
 9 e community ( p]sons its religi\s    
repres5tative is its natural head4 ,9 ! 
family ! head ( ! h\sehold 7pat]        
familias7 is also ! prie/ & he is       

responsible = conduct+ ! religi\s wor%ip
 ( ! :ole h\se1 free & slave alike3 to 8
 wife & daught]s he leaves ! c]emonial  
connect$ ) ! he>? 7,ve/a7 & ! deities ( 
! /ore-cupbo>d 7,p5ates71 & to 8 bailiff
 ! sacrifice to ! p[]s :o protect 8     
fields 7,l>es71 b ! o!r acts ( wor%ip at
 home & 9 ! fields he conducts himself1 
& 8 sons act z 8 acolytes4 ,once a ye>  
he meets ) 8 neighb\rs at ! b\nd>ies (  
_! prop]ties & celebrates ! common      
wor%ip ov] ! b\nd>y-/ones4 ,s 9#d ! l>g]
 outgr[? ( ! family1 ! g5s1 :i* consi/$ 
( all p]sons ) ! same surname 7nom51 n  
cognom571 ! g5tile sacra are 9 ! h&s ( !
 m weal?y memb]s :o are reg>d$ z its    
heads2 we h ! curi\s in/ance ( ,clodius 
ev5 aft] 8 adoption into ano!r family1  
provid+ = ! wor%ip ( ! g5s ,clodia 9 8  
own h\se1 & we may rememb] ,virgil's    
picture ( ! f\nd]s ( ! g5tes ( !        
,potitii & ! ,p9>ii p]=m+ ! sacrifice to
 ,h]cules at ! ara maxima1 :i* 0 !      
traditional privilege ( _! h\ses4 ,:5   
societies 7sodalitates7 are =m$ =       

religi\s purposes !y elect _! own       
magi/ri to be _! religi\s               
repres5tatives1 z we see 9 ! case ( !   
,salii & ! ,lup]ci4 ,f9ally1 9 ! great  
community ( ! /ate ! k+ is prie/1 & ) t 
exactness ( p>allelism ( :i* ! ,roman 0 
s fond1 he--l ! pat] familias--leaves ! 
wor%ip ( ,ve/a 9 ! h&s ( 8 'daught]s1' !
 ,ve/al virg9s4 ,& s1 :5 ! ,republic is 
in/itut$1 a special (ficial1 ! rex      
sacrorum1 inh]its ! k+'s ritual duties1 
:ile ! sup]9t5d5ce ( ! ,ve/als passes to
 8 repres5tative 9 ! matt] ( religi\s   
law1 ! pontifex maximus1 ^: (ficial     
resid5ce is always ! regia1 ,numa's     
palace4 ,! /ate is b ! enl>g$ h\sehold &
 ! head ( ! /ate is its religi\s        
repres5tative4  ,if !n ! approa* to !   
gods is s direct1 :]e1 x may be ask$1 9 
! organisation ( ,roman religion is !re 
room = ! prie/8 ,two po9ts ab\t ! ,roman
 prie/hood are ( p>am\nt importance4 ,9 
! fir/ place1 !y are n a ca/e ap>t3 ?\gh
 !re 7 re/rictions z to ! hold+ ( secul>
 magi/racies 9 comb9ation ) !           

prie/hood--always obs]v$ /rictly 9 !    
case ( ! rex sacrorum & ) few exceptions
 9 ! case ( ! great] flam9es--yet !     
pontifices might always take _! "p 9    
public life1 & no k9d ( b>ri] exi/$     
betwe5 !m & ! re/ ( ! community3 ,iulius
 ,caes> himself 0 pontifex maximus4 ,9 !
 second place !y are n reg>d$ z         
repres5tatives ( ! gods or z m$iators   
betwe5 god & man1 b simply z            
adm9i/rative (ficials appo9t$ = !       
p]=mance ( ! acts ( /ate-wor%ip1 j z !  
magi/rates 7 = its civil & milit>y      
gov]nm5t4 ,9 orig9 !y 7 *os5 to assi/ ! 
k+ 9 ! multif>i\s duties ( !            
/ate-cult--! flam9es 7 to act z special 
prie/s ( p>ticul> deities1 ! mo/ prom95t
 among !m be+ ! ?ree great prie/s (     
,iuppit] 7flam5 ,dialis71 ,m>s1 &       
,quir9us2 ! pontifices 7 sometimes      
delegates ( ! k+ on special occasions1 b
 m p>ticul>ly =m$ 8 religi\s consilium1 
a consult+ body1 to give him advice z to
 ritual & act z ! repositories (        
tradition4 ,9 lat] times ! flam9es /ill 

reta9 _! orig9al "*1 ! pontifices &     
especially ! pontifex maximus are       
responsible = ! :ole organisation ( !   
/ate-religion & are ! gu>dians &        
int]pret]s ( religi\s lore4 ,9 !        
/ate-cult !n ! prie/s play a v important
 "p1 b _! relation to ! wor%ip ( !      
individual 0 v small inde$4 ,!y _h a    
g5]al sup]9t5d5ce ov] private wor%ip &  
_! leave w\ld be requir$ = !            
introduction ( any new dome/ic cult2 9  
cases too :]e ! private p]son 0 9 d\bt z
 to ritual or ! legitimacy ( any        
religi\s practice1 he c\ld appeal to !  
pontifices = decision4 ,o!rwise ! prie/ 
c\ld nev] int]v5e 9 ! wor%ip ( ! family1
 except 9 ! case ( ! mo/ solemn =m (    
m>riage 7conf>reatio71 :i*1 z x conf]r$ 
on ! *ildr5 ! "r to hold c]ta9 ( !      
prie/hoods1 0 reg>d$ itself z a c]emony 
( ! /ate-religion4  ,9 8 private wor%ip 
!n ! individual _h imm$iate access to ! 
deity1 & x 0 no d\bt ?is abs5ce (       
prie/ly m$iation & ! consequ5t s5se (   
p]sonal responsibility1 no less ?an its 

emotional significance1 :i* caus$ !     
great] reality & p]man5ce ( ! dome/ic   
wor%ip z comp>$ ) ! organis$ & (ficial  
cults ( ! /ate4  ,,footnotes3  #c       
,etruscan build]s 7 accord+ to tradition
 employ$ on ! e>lie/ ,roman temples4  #d
 ,?is is all op5 to d\bt1 b see ,de     
,m>*i1 ,il ,culto ,privato1 vol4 ii4    
,,*apt] ,,iv  ,,e>ly ,,hi/ory ,,(       
,,rome--,,! ,,agricultural ,,community  
,aft] ?is sket* ( ! ma9 features :i* we 
mu/ expect to f9d 9 ,roman religion1 we 
may attempt to look a little m 9 detail 
at its v>i\s dep>tm5ts1 b be=e do+ s x  
is necess>y to =m "s notion ( !         
situation & "* ( ! ,roman community3    
religion is n a little det]m9$ by m5's  
natural surr\nd+s & occupations4 ,!     
subject is naturally "o ( consid]able   
controv]sy1 b c]ta9 facts ( great       
significance = our purpose may fairly be
 tak5 z e/abli%$4 ,! e>lie/ settlem5t   
:i* c be call$ ',rome' 0 ! community ( !
 ,palat9e hill1 :i* rises out ( !       
valleys m abruptly ?an any ( ! o!r hills

 & 0 ! natural place to be select$ =    
=tification3 ! outl9e ( ! walls & sacr$ 
enclosure runn+ outside !m 7pomo]ium7   
may /ill be trac$1 m>k+ ! limits (      
'squ>e ,rome' 7,roma quadrata71 z !     
hi/orians call$ x4 ,! ,palat9e community
 no d\bt pursu$ _! agricultural lab\rs  
ov] ! neighb\r+ valleys & hills1 &      
gradually began to ext5d _! settlem5t   
till x includ$ ! ,esquil9e & ,caelian & 
o!r less] heights :i* made up !         
,septimontium--! next /age ( ,rome's    
developm5t4 ,mean:ile a k9dr$ settlem5t 
_h be5 e/abli%$ on ! opposite hills ( ! 
,quir9al & ,vim9al1 & ultimately ! two  
communities unit$1 enclos+ )9 _!        
b\nd>ies ! ,capitol & _! meet+-place 9 !
 valley :i* sep>at$ !m--! ,=um4 ,9 ?is  
way 0 =m$ ! ,rome ( ! ,f\r ,regions1 :i*
 repres5ts ! utmo/ ext5t ( its          
developm5t dur+ ! p]iod :i* gave rise to
 ! g5u9e ,roman religion4 ,all ^! /ages 
h left _! m>k on ! cu/oms ( religion4   
,roma quadrata comes to ! =e 9 !        
,lup]calia3 n m]ely is ! site ( !       

c]emony a grotto on ! ,palat9e          
7,lup]cal71 b :5 ! ,lup]ci run _!       
purificatory c\rse ar\nd ! b\nd>ies1 x  
is ! circuit ( ! ,palat9e hill :i* m>ks 
its limits4 ,annually on ! #aa? (       
,decemb] ! fe/ival ( ! ,septimontium 0  
celebrat$1 n by ! :ole p1 b by !        
montani1 presumably ! inhabitants ( ^?  
p>ts ( ,rome :i* 7 includ$ 9 ! second   
settlem5t4 ,f9ally1 ! addition ( !      
,quir9al settlem5t is m>k$ by !         
inclusion among ! great /ate-gods (     
,quir9us1 :o mu/ h be5 previ\sly ! local
 deity ( ! ,quir9al community4  ,b m    
important = u ?an ! hi/ory ( ! e>ly     
settlem5t is its "*4 ,we h spok5 ( e>ly 
,rome z an agricultural community3 x    
w\ld be m exact & m helpful to describe 
x z a community ( agricultural          
h\seholds4 ,! in/itutions ( ,rome1 legal
 z well z religi\s1 all po9t to !       
h\sehold 7familia7 z ! orig9al unit (   
organisation3 ! individual1 z su*1 c\nt$
 = no?+1 ! community 0 b ! aggregate (  
families4 ,dome/ic wor%ip !n 0 n m]ely  

indep5d5t ( ! religion ( ! community3 x 
0 prior to x1 & is bo? its hi/orical &  
logical orig94 ,yet ! life ( ! e>ly     
,roman agriculturali/ c\ld n be conf9$  
to ! h\sehold3 9 ! till+ ( ! fields & ! 
c>e ( 8 cattle he meets 8 neighb\r1 &   
common int]e/s sugge/ common pray] &    
?anksgiv+4 ,?us !re sprung up ! great   
s]ies ( agricultural fe/ivals :i* =m !  
basis ( ! /ate-cal5d>1 b 7 9 orig9--z "s
 ( !m /ill cont9u$ to be--! indep5d5t   
acts ( wor%ip ( gr\ps ( agricultural    
h\seholds4 ,gradually1 z ! community    
grew on ! l9es we h j se51 !re grew ) x 
a s5se ( an organis$ /ate1 z some?+ m   
?an ! casual aggregation ( h\seholds or 
clans 7g5tes74 ,z ! feel+ ( union became
 /rong]1 s did ! necessity = common     
wor%ip ( ! gods1 & ! /ate-cult came into
 be+ prim>ily z ! repetition on behalf (
 ! community z a :ole ( ! wor%ip :i* its
 memb]s p]=m$ sep>ately 9 _! h\seholds  
or z jo9t-wor%ipp]s 9 ! fields4 ,b !    
conception ( a /ate mu/ c>ry ) x at lea/
 two ideas ov] & beyond ! common ne$s ( 

its memb]s3 !re mu/ be int]nal          
organisation to secure dome/ic          
tranquillity1 &--s9ce !re w be collision
 ) o!r /ates--ext]nal organisation =    
purposes ( (f5ce & def5ce4 ,religion    
foll[s ! new ideas1 & 9 two ( ! old]    
deities ( ! fields develops ! notions ( 
ju/ice & w>4 ,organisation ensues1 & !  
g5]al conceptions ( /ate-deities &      
/ate-ritual are made m def9ite &        
precise4  ,x w be at once natural &     
conv5i5t t we %\ld consid] ^! ?ree      
dep>tm5ts ( religion 9 ! ord] t has j   
be5 sugge/$--! wor%ip ( ! h\sehold1 !   
wor%ip ( ! fields1 ! wor%ip ( ! /ate4 ,b
 x mu/ n be =gott5 t bo? ! dep>tm5ts    
!mselves & ! evid5ce = !m frequ5tly     
ov]lap4 ,! dome/ic wor%ip is n :olly    
di/+ui%able f t ( ! fields1 ! /ate-cult 
is1 z we h se51 v l>gely a replica ( !  
o!r two4 ,! evid5ce = ! dome/ic &       
agricultural cults is 9 itself v scanty1
 & we %all frequ5tly h to draw inf]5ces 
f _! c\nt]p>ts 9 ! /ate4 ,above all1 x  
is n to be suppos$ t any h>d & fa/ l9e  

betwe5 ! ?ree exi/$ 9 ! ,roman's m9d2 b 
= ! purposes ( analysis ! di/9ction is  
valuable & repres5ts a hi/orical        
reality4     ,,*apt] ,v  ,,wor%ip ,,(   
,,! ,,h\sehold   #a4 ,! ,deities4--,!   
wor%ip ( ! h\sehold seems to h orig9at$1
 z has be5 sugge/$1 9 ! s5se ( !        
sacr$ness ( c]ta9 objects closely b\nd  
up ) ! family life--! door1 ! protection
 aga9/ ! ext]nal _w1 by :i* ! h\sehold  
w5t out to "w 9 ! morn+ & return$ at    
ev5+1 ! he>?1 ! giv] ( w>m? & n\ri%m5t1 
& ! /ore-cupbo>d1 :]e 0 pres]v$ ! food =
 future use4 ,at fir/1 9 all            
probability1 ! wor%ip 0 actually ( !    
objects !mselves1 b by ! "t t ,rome c be
 said to h exi/$ at all1 'animism' _h   
und\bt$ly trans=m$ x into a v5]ation ( !
 indwell+ spirits1 ,ianus1 ,ve/a1 & !   
,p5ates4  ,( ! dome/ic wor%ip ( ,ianus  
no in=mation has come d[n to u1 b we may
 well suppose t z ! def5ce ( ! door &   
its ma9 use lay ) ! m5 ( ! h\sehold1 s  
!y1 "u ! control ( ! pat] familias1 7   
responsible = ! cult ( its _s4 ,ve/a 01 

( c\rse1 wor%ipp$ at ! he>? by ! wom51  
:o mo/ (t5 us$ x 9 ! prep>ation ( !     
dome/ic meals4 ,9 ! orig9al r\nd hut1   
su* z ! primitive ,roman dwelt          
9--witness ! models :i* he buri$ ) 8    
dead & :i* rec5t excavations 9 ! ,=um h 
br\ght to light--! 'blaz+ he>?' 7su*    
seems to be ! mean+ ( ,ve/a7 w\ld be !  
mo/ conspicu\sly sacr$ ?+2 x is !re=e n 
surpris+ to f9d t h] simple cult 0 ! mo/
 p]si/5t ( all ?r\gh\t ! hi/ory ( ,rome1
 & did n v>y f its orig9al notion4 ,ev5 
,ovid c tell ! inquir] '?9k n ,ve/a to  
be ought else ?an liv+ flame1' & aga91  
',ve/a & fire require no                
effigy'--notions 9 :i* he has come      
curi\sly ne> to ! conceptions ( ! e>lie/
 religion4 ,! ,p5ates 9 ! same way 7 at 
fir/ '! spirits'--:oev] !y might be--:o 
pres]v$ & increas$ ! /ore 9 ! cupbo>d4  
,!n z ! conception ( individual deities 
became cle>]1 !y 7 id5tifi$ ) "s "o or  
o!r ( ! gods ( ! c\ntry or ! /ate1 among
 :om ! individual h\sehold] w\ld select 
^? :o %\ld be ! p>ticul> ,p5ates ( 8    

family3 ,c]es1 ,iuno1 ,iuppit]1 ,pales  
w\ld be "s ( ^? *os5 9 ! e>li] p]iod4   
,nor are we to suppose t selection 0    
m]ely arbitr>y3 ! tradition ( family &  
clan1 ev5 possibly ( locality1 w\ld     
det]m9e ! *oice1 mu* z ! patron-sa9ts ( 
a *ur* are n[ det]m9$ 9 a ,roman        
,ca?olic c\ntry4  ,two o!r deities are v
 prom95t 9 ! wor%ip ( ! e>ly h\sehold1 &
 ea* is a *>act]i/ic product ( ,roman   
religi\s feel+1 ! ,l> ,famili>is & !    
,g5ius4 ,! ,l>es#e seem to h be5 9 orig9
 ! spirits ( ! family fields3 !y 7      
wor%ipp$1 z ,cic]o tells u1 'on ! f>m 9 
sight ( ! h\se1' & !y _h _! annual      
fe/ival 9 ! ,compitalia1 celebrat$ at ! 
compita--places :]e two or m prop]ties  
m>*$4 ,b "o ( ^! spirits1 ! ,l>         
,famili>is1 _h special *>ge ( ! h\se &  
h\sehold1 & z su* 0 wor%ipp$ ) ! o!r    
dome/ic gods at ! he>?4 ,z 8 protection 
ext5d$ ov] all ! h\sehold1 includ+ !    
slaves1 8 cult is plac$ specially 9 !   
*>ge ( ! bailiff's wife 7vilica74 ,he is
 regul>ly wor%ipp$ at ! great divisions 

( ! mon? on ,cal5ds1 ,nones1 & ,ides1 b 
he has also an intimate & beautiful     
connection ) ! dome/ic hi/ory ( !       
family4 ,an (f]+ is made to ! ,l> on !  
occasion ( a bir?1 a w$d+1 a dep>ture1  
or a return1 & ev5--a *>act]i/ically    
,roman addition--on ! occasion ( ! fir/ 
utt]ance ( a ^w by a son ( ! h\se3      
f9ally1 a p>ticul>ly solemn sacrifice is
 made to him aft] a dea? 9 ! family4  ,!
 ,g5ius is p]haps ! mo/ difficult       
conception 9 ! ,roman religion = ! mod]n
 m9d to grasp4 ,x has be5 spok5 ( z !   
'patron-sa9t' or 'gu>dian-angel1' bo? ( 
!m conceptions ak9 to t ( ! ,g5ius1 b   
bo? f> too def9ite & an?ropomorphic3 we 
%all und]/& x be/ by keep+ ! 'num5'     
notion cle>ly 9 m9d & look+ to !        
root-mean+ ( ! ^w 7g5ius connect$ ) !   
root ( gign]e1 to beget74 ,x 0 aft] all 
only a natural developm5t ( ! notions ( 
'animism' to imag9e t man too1 l o!r    
objects1 _h 8 indwell+ _s--n 8 's\l'    
ei!r 9 our s5se ( moral & intellectual  
p[]s1 or 9 ! anci5t s5se ( ! vital      

pr9ciple--b r z ! d]ivation sugge/s1 9  
orig9 simply ! _s :i* gave him ! p[] (  
g5]ation4 ,h5ce 9 ! h\se1 ! sph]e ( !   
,g5ius is no long] ! he>? b ! m>riage-b$
 7lectus g5ialis74 ,?is notion gr[+     
some:at wid]1 ! ,g5ius comes to d5ote   
all ! full p[]s1 almo/ ! p]sonality1 (  
develop$ manhood1 & especially ^? p[]s  
:i* make = pleasure & happ9ess3 ?is is !
 orig9 ( su* common phrases z g5ium     
cur>e1 g5io indulg]e1 mean+ practically 
to 'look aft] oneself1' 'to indulge     
oneself4' ,e man1 !n1 has ?is '_s ( 8   
manhood' 9 8 ,g5ius1 & correspond+ly e  
woman h] ,iuno1 or _s ( womanhood1 :i*  
are wor%ipp$ on ! bir?days ( _! own]s4  
,no d\bt lat] ! ,g5ius 0 accr$it$ ) p[]s
 ov] ! =tune & mis=tune ( 8 possessor1 b
 he nev] really develop$ any?+ l !      
indep5d5ce ( a god1 & rema9$ always r a 
num54 ,! individual rev]$ 8 own ,g5ius1 
b ! h\sehold cult 0 conc]n$1 z "o w\ld  
expect1 ) ! ,g5ius ( ! ma/] ( ! h\se1 ! 
pre-em95t ,g5ius ( ! family4 ,its       
special locality 01 = ! reason j notic$1

 ! m>riage-b$ & its symbol1 !           
h\se-snake1 kept z a rev]$ inmate &     
*]i%$ 9 ! feel+ t evil happ5+ to x meant
 mis=tune to ! ma/]4 ,! fe/ival ( !     
,g5ius 0 naturally ! ma/]'s bir?day1 &  
on t day slaves & fre$m5 kept holiday ) 
! family & br\ght (f]+s to ! ,g5ius     
domus4 ,x is a significant fact1 & may  
s]ve to br+ out ! und]ly+ notion1 t 9   
lat] pa9t+s1 :5 an?ropomorphism & s5su\s
 repres5tation held sway ov] all ,roman 
religion1 ?\gh ! o!r gods ( ! h\sehold 7
 depict$ aft] ! mann] ( ,greek deities1 
! ,g5ius is ei!r repres5t$ by 8 symbolic
 snake or appe>s ) ! human features &   
*>act]i/ics ( ! head ( ! h\se1 8 own]4  
,! _s-gods !n ( ! door & ! he>?1 !      
specially *os5 deities ( ! /ore-cupbo>d1
 ! p>ticul> field-p[] presid+ ov] !     
h\sehold1 & ! _s ( ! ma/]'s p]sonality 7
 ! gods ( ! e>ly home1 & r\nd _! wor%ip 
c5tr$ ! dome/ic religion4 ,we mu/       
attempt to see :at 0 its relation to    
family life4  #b4 ,religion & ! ,family 
,life4--,we h already notic$ ! ma9      

occasions ( regul> sacrifice to !       
deities ( ! h\sehold1 ! (f]+s to ! ,l>  
on ,cal5ds1 ,nones1 & ,ides1 to ! ,g5ius
 on ! ma/]'s bir?day1 & s on1 & we are  
enabl$ to =m a fair picture ( ! rites f 
pa9t+s :i*1 al?\gh ( lat] date1         
und\bt$ly repres5t ! cont9u\s tradition 
( dome/ic cu/om4 ,9 a wall-pa9t+ at     
,h]culaneum1 = in/ance1 we h a picture (
 ! pat] familias1 repres5t$ ) veil$ head
 7accord+ to regul> ,roman cu/om7 & !   
cornucopia ( ! ,g5ius1 mak+ sacrifice at
 a r\nd alt> or he>?4 ,opposite him /&s 
! flute-play] 7tibic57 play+ to dr[n any
 unpropiti\s s\nd1 :ile on ei!r side are
 two small] figures1 presumably ! sons1 
act+ z att5dants 7camilli71 & bo? clad  
7succ9cti7 9 ! %ort sacrificial tunic   
7limus72 "o c>ries 9 8 left h& ! sacr$  
di% 7pat]a71 & 9 8 "r g>l&s or1 m       
probably1 ribbons = ! decoration ( !    
victim3 ! o!r is act+ z victim>ius &    
br++ ! pig = sacrifice1 b ! animal is   
hurry+ ) almo/ excessive eag]ness t[>ds 
! alt>1 no d\bt to %[ t !re is none ( ! 

reluctance :i* w\ld h be5 suffici5t to  
vitiate ! sacrifice4  ,b f our po9t (   
view su* =mal acts ( wor%ip are ( less  
importance ?an ! "p play$ by religion 9 
! daily life ( ! h\sehold4 ,!re is      
evid5ce bo? = e>li] & lat] p]iods t !   
really 'pi\s' w\ld beg9 _! day ) pray] &
 sacrifice to ! h\sehold gods1 & l      
,virgil's ,a5eas1 typically pius 9 all !
 mean+s ( ! ^w1 w\ld 'r\se ! slumb]+    
flame ^u ! alt> & gladly approa* aga9 ! 
,l> & little ,p5ates :om he wor%ipp$    
ye/]day4' ,b ?is 0 p]haps exceptional   
devotion1 & ! daily wor%ip 9 ! normal   
h\sehold c5tr$ r r\nd ! family meal4 ,9 
! old & simple h\se ! table w\ld be     
plac$ at ! side ( ! he>?1 &1 z !        
h\sehold sat r\nd x1 ma/] & man toge!r1 
a "p ( ! meal1 set aside on a special   
sacr$ di% 7patella71 w\ld be ?r[n into !
 flames z ! gods' portion4 ,sometimes   
inc5se might be add$1 & lat] a libation 
( w9e3 :5 images _h become common1 !    
little /atuettes ( ,l>es & ,p5ates w\ld 
be fet*$ f ! %r9e 7l>>ium7 & plac$ ^u ! 

table 9 tok5 ( _! pres5ce at ! meal4    
,ev5 9 ! luxuri\s1 _m-room$ h\se ( !    
imp]ial epo*1 :5 ! d9+-table 0 f> f !   
kit*5-he>?1 a pause 0 made 9 ! meal & an
 (f]+ s5t out to ! h\sehold-gods1 nor   
w\ld ! banquet proce$ until ! slave _h  
return$ & ann\nc$ t ! gods 7 fav\rable  
7deos propitios73 s p]si/5t 0 ?is       
tradition ( dome/ic piety4 ,pray] might 
be made at ?is po9t on special occasions
 to special deities1 z1 = in/ance1 be=e 
! beg9n+ ( ! s[+ ( ! crops1 appeal 0    
made to ,iuppit]1 & a special portion ( 
! meal 7daps7 0 set aside = him4 ,!     
sanctification ( ! "o occasion :5 ! :ole
 h\sehold met 9 ! day _c fail to h _h   
its effect on ! dome/ic life1 &1 ev5 if 
x 0 no direct inc5tive to morality1 x   
yet b\nd ! family toge!r 9 a s5se (     
dep5d5ce on a high] p[] = ! supply ( _! 
daily ne$s4  ,we obs]v$ incid5tally h[ !
 small ev5ts ( dome/ic life 7 giv5 _!   
religi\s significance1 p>ticul>ly 9     
connection ) ! wor%ip ( ,l> & ,g5ius1 b 
to complete ! sket* ( dome/ic religion1 

we mu/ exam9e a little m closely its    
relation to ! process ( life1 &         
especially to ! two important occasions 
( bir? & m>riage4 ,9 no dep>tm5t ( life 
is ! specialisation ( function among !  
num9a m conspicu\s ?an 9 connection )   
bir? & *ildhood4 ,ap>t f ! g5]al        
protection ( ,iuno ,luc9a1 ! prom95t    
div9ity ( *ildbir?1 we c c\nt 9 !       
records t h come d[n to u "s tw5ty      
subord9ate spirits1 :o f ! mom5t (      
conception to ! mom5t ( bir? wat*$1 ea* 
9 its own p>ticul> sph]e1 ov] ! "m & !  
unborn *ild4 ,z soon z ! bir? _h tak5   
place began a s]ies ( c]emonies1 :i* are
 ( p>ticul> int]e/1 z !y seem to belong 
to a v e>ly /age ( religi\s ?\ght1 & h a
 m>k$ly ru/ic "*4 ,imm$iately a sacr$   
meal 0 (f]$ to ! two field-deities1     
,picumnus & ,pilumnus1 & !n ! ,roman    
turn$ 8 att5tion to ! practical dang] ( 
fev] = ! "m & *ild4 ,at night ?ree m5   
ga!r$ r\nd ! ?re%old1 "o arm$ ) an axe1 
ano!r ) a /ake1 & a ?ird ) a broom3 !   
two fir/ /ruck ! ?re%old ) _! implem5ts1

 ! ?ird swept out ! floor4 ,ov] ?is     
c]emony 7 said to preside ?ree num9a1   
,int]cidona 7connect$ ) ! axe71         
,pilumnus 7connect$ ) ! /ake1 pilum71 & 
,dev]ra 7connect$ ) ! act ( sweep+74    
,its object 01 z ,v>ro expla9s x1 to    
av]t ! entrance ( ! half-wild ,silvanus 
by giv+ ?ree unmi/akeable signs ( human 
civilisation2 we %all probably n be     
wrong 9 see+ 9 x r an actual hack+1     
beat+1 & sweep+ away ( evil spirits4 ,on
 ! n9? day aft] bir?1 9 ! case ( a boy1 
on ! eigh? 9 ! case ( a girl1 occurr$ ! 
fe/ival ( ! nam+ 7solemnitas nom9alium74
 ,! c]emony 0 "o ( purification 7dies   
lu/ricus is its alt]native title71 & a  
piacul> (f]+ 0 made to pres]ve ! *ild f 
evil influ5ces 9 ! future4 ,fri5ds      
br\ght pres5ts1 especially neck-b&s 9 ! 
=m ( a half-moon 7lunulae71 & ! gold5   
balls 7bullae7 :i* 7 worn z a *>m r\nd !
 neck until ! atta9m5t ( manhood4  ,( ! 
num]\s petty div9ities :i* wat*$ ov] !  
*ild's e>ly ye>s we h already giv5 "s   
acc\nt4 ,9 _! protection he rema9$ until

 he arriv$ at pub]ty1 ab\t ! age (      
sev5te51 :5 ) due religi\s c]emony he   
ent]$ on 8 manhood4 ,at home1 on ! morn+
 ( ! fe/ival1 he solemnly laid aside !  
bulla & ! purple-/rip$ g>b ( *ildhood   
7toga praetexta7 be=e ! %r9e ( !        
h\sehold gods1 & made !m a ?ank-(f]+ =  
_! protection 9 ! pa/4 ,aft]w>ds1       
accompani$ by 8 fa!r & fri5ds & clad n[ 
9 ! toga virilis1 he w5t solemnly to !  
,capitol1 &1 aft] plac+ a contribution 9
 ! c(f]s ( ,iuv5tas--or probably 9 e>li]
 times ( ,iuppit] ,iuv5tus--made an (f]+
 to ! supreme deity ,iuppit]            
,capitol9us4 ,! sacr$ "* ( ! e>ly ye>s (
 a "y ,roman's life c\ld h>dly be m     
closely m>k$4  ,?\gh conf>reatio 0 !    
only ess5tially religi\s =m ( m>riage1 &
 0 sanctifi$ by ! pres5ce ( ! pontifex  
maximus & ! flam5 ,dialis1 yet m>riage  
ev5 9 ! less religi\s c]emony ( coemptio
 0 always a sacrum4 ,x mu/ n take place 
on ! days ( /ate-fe/ivals 7f]iae71 nor  
on c]ta9 o!r dies religiosi1 su* z ^? ( 
! ,ve/alia or ! fea/ ( ! dead           

7,p>5talia74 ,bo? ! m>riage itself & !  
prelim9>y betro?al 7sponsalia7 _h to    
receive ! div9e sanction by means (     
auspices1 & 9 ! c]emonies ( bo? rites ! 
religi\s elem5t1 ?\gh b\nd up )         
sup]/ition & folk-cu/oms1 em]ges cle>ly 
en\gh4 ,! c5tral c]emony ( ! conf>reatio
 0 an act p>tly ( sacrifice1 p>tly1 "o  
might almo/ say1 ( communion4 ,! bride &
 bridegroom sat on two *airs unit$ to "o
 ano!r & cov]$ ) a lambsk91 !y (f]$ to  
,iuppit] bloodless (f]+s ( a ru/ic "*   
7fruges et molam salsam71 !y employ$ 9 !
 sacrifice ! fundam5tal h\sehold        
necess>ies1 wat]1 fire1 & salt1 &       
!mselves ate ( ! sacr$ spelt-cake 7libus
 f>reus71 f :i* ! c]emony d]iv$ its "n4 
,! crucial po9t 9 ! m civil c]emony (   
coemptio 0 ! purely human & legal act ( 
! jo9+ ( h&s 7dextr>um iunctio71 b x 0  
imm$iately foll[$ by ! sacrifice ( a    
victim1 :i* gave ! c]emony a m>k$ly     
religi\s significance4 ,! cu/oms        
connect$ ) ! br++ ( ! bride to !        
bridegroom's h\se--s beautifully depict$

 9 ,catullus' ,epi?alamium--h] =cible   
abduction f h] p>5ts1 ! ribaldry ( !    
bridegroom's companions1 ! ?r[+ ( nuts z
 a symbol ( fecundity1 ! c>ry+ ( ! bride
 ov] ! ?re%old1 a relic probably (      
primitive m>riage by capture1 ! unty+ ( 
! bridal knot on ! bridal c\*--are      
p]haps m ak9 to sup]/ition ?an religion1
 b we may notice two po9ts 9 ! proce$+s4
 ,fir/ly1 ! ?ree co9s 7asses7 :i* !     
bride br\ght ) h]1 "o to give to h]     
husb& z a tok5 ( d[ry1 "o to be (f]$ at 
! he>? to h] new ,l> ,famili>is1 "o to  
be (f]$ subsequ5tly at ! ne>e/ compitum 
7a cle> sign ( connection betwe5 !      
h\sehold ,l> & ^? ( ! fields72 &        
secondly1 an e*o ( ! feature s m>k$ all 
?r\gh dome/ic life1 ! cr[d ( little     
num9a1 :o took _! "p 9 assi/+ ! c]emony4
 ,!re 0 ,domiduca1 :o br\ght ! bride to 
! bridegroom's h\se1 ,it]duca1 :o look$ 
aft] h] on ! transit1 ,unxia1 :o ano9t$ 
h]1 ,c9xia1 :o b\nd & unb\nd h] girdle1 
& _m o!rs4  ,?is sket* ( ! h\sehold     
wor%ip ( ! ,romans w1 ,i hope1 h ju/ifi$

 my cont5tion t !re 0 9 x an elem5t m   
truly 'religi\s' ?an any?+ we %\ld ga!r 
f ! c]emonies ( ! /ate4 ,! ideas are    
simpl]1 ! num9a seem less cold & m      
protective1 ! wor%ipp]s m s5sible (     
div9e aid4 ,:5 we h look$ at ! companion
 picture ( ! f>m] 9 ! fields1 we %all g 
on to see h[ ! wor%ip ( ! agricultural  
h\sehold is ! prototype & basis ( !     
/ate-cult1 b fir/ we mu/ consid] briefly
 ! v difficult "q ( ! relation ( ! liv+ 
to ! dead4  #c4 ,relation ( ! ,liv+ & ! 
,dead4--,! wor%ip ( ! spirits ( dead    
ance/ors is s common a feature 9 mo/    
primitive religions t x may seem /range 
ev5 to d\bt :e!r x exi/$ among !        
,romans1 b1 al?\gh ! "q is "o ( extreme 
difficulty1 & ! evid5ce v insuffici5t1  
,i am incl9$ to believe t1 ?\gh ! liv+ 7
 always consci\s ( _! cont9u$ relation  
to ! dead1 & s5sitive ( ! influ5ce ( !  
p[]s ( ! und]world1 yet !re 0 n1 /rictly
 speak+1 any cult ( ! dead4 ,let u      
attempt briefly to collect ! sali5t     
features 9 ritual1 & see to :at         

conclusion !y po9t z to ! und]ly+       
belief4  ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable facts 9  
dome/ic wor%ip is t1 :]eas ! mom5t (    
bir? & ! o!r great occasions ( life are 
surr\nd$ ) religi\s c]emony & belief1 ! 
mom5t ( dea? passes )\t any trace (     
religi\s accompanim5t3 x is z ?\gh ! dy+
 man w5t out into ano!r _w :]e !        
c]emonials ( ?is life c no m avail him1 
nor its gods protect him4 ,z to 8 /ate  
aft] dea?1 op9ion v>i$ at diff]5t times 
"u diff]5t influ5ces1 b ! simple e>ly   
notion1 connect$ especially ) ! practice
 ( burial z oppos$ to cremation1#f 0 t 8
 _s j sank into ! e>?1 :]e x re/$ &     
return$ f "t to "t to ! upp] _w ?r\gh   
c]ta9 op5+s 9 ! gr\nd 7mundi71 ^: solemn
 uncov]+ 0 "o ( ! regul> obs]vances ( ! 
fe/al cal5d>3 lat]1 no d\bt1 a m        
spiritual notion prevail$1 ?\gh x nev]  
rea*$ def9it5ess or univ]sality4 ,"o    
idea1 h[ev]1 seems always to be prom95t1
 t ! happ9ess ( ! dead c\ld be mu*      
affect$ by ! due p]=mance ( ! fun]al    
rites2 h5ce x 0 ! mo/ solemn duty ( !   

heir to p]=m ! iu/a = ! dead1 & if he   
fail$ 9 any respect to c>ry !m out1 he  
c\ld only atone = 8 omission by ! annual
 sacrifice ( a s[ 7porca praecidanea7 to
 ,c]es & ,tellus--to ! div9ities ( !    
e>?1 be x notic$1 & n to ! dead         
!mselves4 ,! actual fun]al 0 n a        
religi\s c]emony2 a procession 0 =m$    
7orig9ally at night7 ( ! family &       
fri5ds1 9 :i* ! body ( ! dead 0         
c>ri$--accompani$ by ! bu/s 7imag9es7 ( 
8 ance/ors--to a tomb outside ! t[n1 & 0
 !re laid 9 ! grave4 ,! family on _!    
return proce$$ at once to rites (       
purification f ! contam9ation :i* _h    
ov]tak5 !m ow+ to ! pres5ce ( a dead    
body4 ,two c]emonies 7 p]=m$1 "o = !    
purification ( ! h\se by ! sacrifice ( a
 s[ 7porca praes5tanea7 to ,c]es        
accompani$ by a solemn sweep+ out (     
refuse 7exv]rae71 ! o!r ! lu/ration ( _!
 own p]sons by fire & wat]4 ,?is done1  
!y sat d[n ) _! fri5ds to a fun]al fea/ 
7silic]nium71 :i*1 ,cic]o tells u1 0    
reg>d$ z an hon\r r to ! surviv+ memb]s 

( ! family ?an to ! dead1 s t m\rn+ 0 n 
worn4 ,two o!r c]emonies )9 ! foll[+    
week1 ! f]iae d5icales & ! nov5diale    
sacrum1 br\ght ! religi\s m\rn+ to a    
close4 ,n t ! dead 7 =gott5 aft] !      
fun]al3 ye> by ye>1 on ! anniv]s>ies (  
dea? & burial1 & on c]ta9 fix$ occasions
 kn[n by su* sugge/ive titles z '! day (
 roses' & '! day ( violets1' ! family   
w\ld revisit ! tomb & make simple (f]+s 
( salt cake 7mola salsa71 ( bread soak$ 
9 w9e1 or g>l&s ( fl[]s3 !re is "s      
trace1 on su* occasions1 ( pray]1 b x   
w\ld seem to be r ! repetition ( g5]al  
religi\s =mulae ?an a petition to ! dead
 = def9ite bless+s4  ,su* are ! pr9cipal
 features ( ! family ritual 9 relation  
to _! dead2 b if we are to =m any j     
notion ( belief1 we mu/ supplem5t !m by 
ref]5ce to ! c]emonies ( ! /ate1 :i* "h1
 z else:]e1 are v cle>ly ! h\sehold-cult
 'writ l>ge4' ,9 ! ,cal5d>s we f9d two  
obvi\s celebrations 9 connection ) !    
dead1 tak+ place at diff]5t seasons ( ! 
ye>1 & consi/+ ( c]emonies m>k$ly       

diff]5t 9 "*4 ,9 ! gloomy mon? (        
,febru>y--associat$ ) solemn            
lu/rations--occurs ! fe/ival kn[n       
popul>ly 7?\gh n 9 ! ,cal5d>s7 z !      
,p>5talia or dies ,p>5tales1 t is1 !    
days ( sacrifice 9 connection ) ! dead  
memb]s ( ! family 7p>5tes1 p>5t>e74 ,x  
beg9s ) ! note on ,febru>y #ac1 ,virgo  
,ve/alis p>5tat1 & cont9ues till !      
climax1 ,f]alia1 on ,febru>y #ba4 ,dur+ 
^! days ! magi/rates laid aside !       
insignia ( _! (fices1 ! temples 7 %ut1  
m>riages 7 =bidd51 & e family c>ri$ out 
at ! tombs ( its relatives c]emonies    
resembl+ ^? ( ! sacra privata4 ,! :ole  
season clos$ on ,febru>y #bb ) ! fe/ival
 ( ! ,c>i/ia or c>a cognatio1 a family  
reunion ( ! survivors 9 a k9d (         
'love-fea/1' :i* c5tr$ 9 ! wor%ip ( !   
,l> ,famili>is4 ,"h we seem to h simply1
 z 9 ! family rites1 a peaceful & solemn
 ackn[l$gm5t by ! community z a :ole ( !
 /ill subsi/+ relation ( ! liv+ & !     
dead4 ,on ! #i?1 #aa?1 & #ac? ( ,may    
occurs ! ,lemuria1 a c]emony ( a /rik+ly

 diff]5t ord]4 ,once aga9 temples are   
%ut & m>riages =bidd51 b ! ritual is ( a
 v diff]5t nature4 ,! ,lemures or       
,l>vae--= !re seems to be little        
di/9ction betwe5 ! two names--are reg>d$
 no long] z memb]s ( ! family to be     
welcom$ back to _! place1 b z ho/ile    
spirits to be exorcis$4#g ,! head ( !   
h\se rises f b$ at midnight1 wa%es1 &   
walks b>efoot ?r\gh ! h\se1 mak+ signs =
 ! av]sion ( evil spirits4 ,9 8 m\? he  
c>ries black beans--always a *?onic     
symbol--:i* he spits out n9e times )\t  
look+ r\nd1 say+1 z he does s1 ',) ^! ,i
 r$eem me & m9e'3 he wa%es aga91 &      
clanks brass vessels toge!r2 n9e times  
he repeats ! =mula1 'dep>t1 ,manes ( our
 fa!rs' 7no d\bt us+ ! dignifi$ title   
,manes euphemi/ically71 & !n f9ally     
turns r\nd4 ,"h we h 9 a q unmi/akeable 
mann] ! feel+ ( ! ho/ility ( ! spirits (
 ! dead3 !y mu/ be giv5 _! appropriate  
food & got out ( ! place z quickly z    
possible4 ,"s s*ol>s h attempt$ to      
expla9 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ^! two fe/ivals

 on ! assumption t ! ,p>5talia repres5ts
 ! commemoration ( ! duly buri$ dead1 ! 
,lemuria ! apotropaic "r = ! av]sion ( !
 unburi$1 & !re=e ho/ile spirits2 b     
,ovid has giv5 a f> m significant h9t1  
:5 he tells u t ! ,lemuria 0 ! m anci5t 
fe/ival ( ! two4  ,s f> we h _h no      
indication ( any?+ approa*+ div9ity 9   
connection ) ! dead or ! und]world z    
di/9ct f ! e>?-goddesses1 b ! evid5ce = 
x1 ?\gh vague & %ad[y1 is n want+4      
,c]ta9 my/]i\s female deities1 ,t>peia1 
,acca ,l>5tia1 ,c>na1 & ,lav]na1 ( :om  
late aetiological my? _h its own        
explanation1 h1 9 all probability1 be5  
rightly int]pret$ by ,momms5 z div9ities
 ( ! l[] _w3 ! commemorative 'sacrifice 
at ! tomb1' :i* we he> ( 9 connection ) 
! fir/ two1 0 9 reality1 we may suppose1
 an (f]+ to a *?onic deity at a mundus4 
,a r m tangible p]sonality is ,v$iovis1 
:o ?ree times a ye> has 8 celebration   
7,agonia n f]iae7 9 ! ,cal5d>3 he1 z 8  
"n d5otes1 mu/ be ! 'opposite ( ,iove1' 
t is1 probably1 8 *?onic c\nt]p>t1 a    

notion suffici5tly borne out by 8       
subsequ5t id5tification ) ! ,greek      
,pluto4 ,f9ally1 ( c\rse1 !re is t vague
 body1 ! ,di ,manes1 '! good gods1' !   
pr9cipal deities ( ! _w ( ! dead2 to !m 
invocations are address$1 & !y h _!     
place 9 ! =mulae ( ! p>5talia & ! op5+ (
 ! mundi4#h ,9 connection ) !m1 act+ z a
 l9k ) ! female deities1 we h ! /range  
goddess ,g5ita ,mana1 ! '_s ( bir? &    
dea?4'  ,controv]sy is acute z to !     
int]pretation ( ^! facts1 especially 9  
reg>d to ! "q :e!r or no ! spirits ( !  
dead 7 actually wor%ipp$4 ,i w\ld haz>d 
! foll[+ recon/ruction ( hi/ory z       
consi/5t ) :at we o!rwise "k ( ,roman   
religion1 & ) ! evid5ce be=e u4 ,f !    
e>lie/ times ! ,roman look$ ^u 8 dead   
relations z 9 "s s5se liv+1 ly+ b5ea? ! 
e>?1 b capable alike ( return+ to ! _w  
above & ( influ5c+ 9 "s vague way !     
=tunes ( ! liv+1 especially 9 relation  
to ! crops :i* sprung f ! gr\nd 9 :i* !y
 lay4 ,at fir/1 :5 8 religion 0 "o (    
fe>1 he reg>d$ ! dead z normally ho/ile1

 & _! pres5ce z some?+ to be av]t$2 ?is 
is ! /age :i* gave bir? to ! ,lemuria4  
,z civilisation increas$1 & ! s5se ( !  
unity ( h\sehold & community develop$1  
fe>1 prov+ ungr\nd$1 gave place to a    
k9dli] feel+ ( ! cont9u$ exi/5ce ( !    
dead z memb]s ( h\sehold & /ate1 & ev5 9
 "s s5se z an additional bond betwe5 !  
liv+3 ?is is ! p]iod :i* produc$ ! sacra
 privata & ! ,p>5talia4 ,:5 ! num5-feel+
 began to pass into t ( deus1 9 ! fir/  
place a connection 0 felt betwe5 !      
spirits ( ! dead & ! deities ( ! e>?    
associat$ ) ! gr[? ( ! crops1 9 ! second
 ! notion t ! und]world mu/ h its gods z
 well z ! _w above1 produc$ ! %ad[y     
female deities & ,v$iovis4 ,la/ly1 !    
same k9d ( feel+ :i* add$ ,p>5talia to  
,lemuria develop$ ! vague g5]al notion (
 ! ,di ,manes1 n ! deifi$ spirits ( !   
dead1 b peaceful & on ! :ole k9dly      
div9ities hold+ sway 9 ! _w ( dead      
spirits1 yet accessible to ! pray]s ( ! 
liv+4 ,! dead1 !n1 7 n !mselves         
wor%ipp$1 b !y ne$$ commemoration &     

k9dly gifts1 & !y _h 9 _! l[] _w deities
 to :om pray] might be made & wor%ip    
giv54  ,,footnotes3  #e ,x is "r to /ate
 t !re is a totally diff]5t !ory1       
accord+ to :i* ! ,l>es 7 ! spirits ( !  
dead ance/ors & ! ,l> ,famili>is an     
embodim5t1 z x 71 ( all ! family dead4  
#f ,x is significant t ev5 :5 ! dead 7  
cremat$1 "o bone 0 c>efully pres]v$ 9   
ord] to be symbolically buri$4  #g ,we  
may note t1 ?\gh x is a /ate fe/ival1   
our in=mation is solely ( rites 9       
individual h\seholds4  #h ,_! m5tion 9  
sepul*ral inscriptions dates f ! "t ( ! 
,empire1 :5 a new conception ( _! nature
 _h sprung up4     ,,*apt] ,,vi         
,,wor%ip ,,( ,,! ,,fields   ,! life ( ! 
e>ly ,roman 9 ! fields1 8 activities1 8 
hopes & fe>s1 are reflect$ 9 ! long li/ 
( agricultural fe/ivals :i* con/itute ! 
great] "p ( ! celebrations 9 ! ,cal5d>1 
& foll[ closely ! seasons & occupations 
( ! agricultural ye>4 ,we are1 ( c\rse1 
9 ! ,cal5d> deal+1 to speak /rictly1 ) !
 wor%ip ( ! /ate1 & n ) ! semi-private  

fe/ivals ( gr\ps ( f>m]s1 b 9 _m        
in/ances1 su* z ! ,robigalia1 ! /ate    
seems only to h tak5 ov] ! cult ( !     
f>m]s1 pres]v+ c>efully ! site on :i* ! 
celebration took place2 9 o!rs1 su* z ! 
,t]m9alia & ! ,p>ilia1 x seems to h     
e/abli%$1 z x 71 a /ate-c\nt]p>t ( a    
rite p]=m$ indep5d5tly at _m ru/ic      
c5tres3 9 bo? cases we are ju/ifi$ 9    
inf]r+ ! practice ( ! e>ly ,roman       
agriculturali/4 ,we %all see t 9 mo/    
cases ^! fe/ivals are associat$--?\gh   
(t5 loosely en\gh--) ! wor%ip ( a       
p>ticul> div9ity4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1--z 
9 ! case ( ! ,lup]calia--x is v         
difficult to discov] :o ?is div9ity 02 9
 o!r fe/ivals1 su* z ! ,robigalia1 x    
looks z if ! eponym\s deity 0 a         
comp>atively late developm5t4 ,we may1  
!re=e1 suppose1 on ! analogy ( :at we h 
already se5 to be ! g5]al l9es (        
developm5t 9 ,roman religion1 t !       
fe/ivals 9 orig9 c5tr$ r\nd a purpose r 
?an a p]sonality1 & 7 address$ 'to all  
spirits :om x might conc]n'2 & t lat]1  

:5 ! deus notion 0 on ! increase1 !y    
ei!r atta*$ !mselves to "s god ^:       
p]sonality 0 already di/9ct1 z ! ,v9alia
 7 atta*$ to ,iuppit]1 or 'develop$' a  
deity ( _! own4 ,among ^! deities1      
/rictly functional z a rule & exi/+ only
 9 connection ) _! special fe/ival1 we  
%all notice ! frequ5t recurr5ce ( a     
div9ity pair1 n1 ( c\rse1 my?ologically 
relat$ z husb& & wife1 b repres5t+1     
p]haps1 ! male & female aspects ( ! same
 process ( developm5t4  ,! fe/ivals     
divide !mselves naturally into ?ree     
gr\ps3 ^? ( ,spr+1 expressive ( ! hopes 
& fe>s = ! gr[+ crops & h]ds2 ^? (      
,summ]1 ! fe/ivals ( fulfilm5t1 includ+ 
! celebration ( h>ve/2 & ^? ( ,w9t]1 !  
fe/ivals ( s[+1 ( social rejoic+1 & 9 ! 
lat] mon?s ( purificatory anticipation (
 ! com+ ye>4  #a4 ,fe/ivals ( ,spr+4--,!
 old ,roman ye>--z may be se5 cle>ly    
en\gh f ! names ( ! mon?s /ill kn[n by  
numb]s1 ,septemb]1 ,octob]1 etc4--began 
9 ,m>*3 accord+ to tradition ,romulus   
reckon$ a ye> ( t5 mon?s altoge!r1 &    

,numa add$ ,janu>y & ,febru>y4 ,! ,spr+ 
mon?s prop]ly speak+ may be reckon$ z   
,m>*1 ,april1 & ,may4 ,9 ,m>* !re 7 9 ! 
develop$ ,cal5d> no fe/ivals ( an       
imm$iately recognisable agricultural "*1
 b ! :ole mon? 0 practically consecrat$ 
to its eponym\s deity1 ,m>s4 ,n[1 to !  
,roman ( ! ,republic1 ,m>s 0 und\bt$ly !
 deity associat$ ) w>1 & 8 special      
fe/ivals 9 ?is mon? are ( a w>like "*3  
on ! #i? ! prie/s 7,salii7 began !      
anci5t cu/om ( c>ry+ 8 sacr$ %ields     
7ancilia7 r\nd ! t[n f "o orda9$        
re/+-place to ano!r3 on ! #ai?1         
,qu9quatrus1 ! %ields 7 solemnly        
purifi$1 & on ! #bcrd ! same c]emony 0  
p]=m$ ) ! w>-trumpets3 ! ,equirria      
7horse-races7 ( ,m>* #ad may h _h an    
agricultural orig9--we %all meet ) races
 lat] on z a feature ( ru/ic fe/ivals--b
 !y 7 c]ta9ly celebrat$ 9 a milit>y     
mann]4 ,yet !re is good reason = believ+
 t ,m>s 0 9 orig9 associat$ n ) w>1 b ) 
! gr[? ( vegetation3 he 01 z we %all    
see1 ! *ief deity address$ 9 ! solemn   

lu/ration ( ! fields 7,amb>valia71 & if 
our g5]al notion ( ! developm5t (       
religion ) ! gr[+ ne$s ( ! agricultural 
community cry/allis+ into a /ate be     
correct1 x may well be t a deity        
orig9ally conc]n$ ) ! int]e/s ( ! f>m]  
took on himself ! protection ( ! soldi]1
 :5 ! fully develop$ /ate came into     
collision ) its neighb\rs4 ,if s1 we may
 well h 9 ^! recurr+ fe/ivals ( ,m>s !  
s5se1 z ,mr4 ,w>de ,f[l] has put x1 (   
'"s great num5 at "w1 quick5+           
vegetation1 & call+ into life ! p[]s (  
reproduction 9 man & ! animals4'        
,possibly ano!r agricultural note is    
/ruck 9 ! ,lib]alia ( ! #ag?3 ?\gh !    
cult ( ,lib] 0 almo/ entirely ov]laid by
 8 subsequ5t id5tification ) ,dionysus1 
x seems "r to recognise 9 him & 8 female
 c\nt]p>t1 ,lib]a1 a g5]al _s (         
creativ5ess4  ,! "* ( ,april is mu* m   
cle>ly m>k$3 ! mon? is fill$ ) a s]ies (
 fe/ivals--all ( a cle>ly agricultural  
nature--pray]s = ! crops n[ 9 ! e>?1 & !
 purification ( ! m5 & animals on ! f>m4

 ,! s]ies op5s ) ! ,=dicidia on ! #ae?1 
:5 pregnant c[s 7 sacrific$3 _! unborn  
calves 7 torn f !m & burnt1 ! a%es be+  
kept by ! ,ve/al ,virg9 9 ,ve/a's       
/oreh\se 7p5us ,ve/ae7 = use at !       
,p>ilia4 ,! g5]al symbolism ( f]tility  
is v cle>2 ! goddess associat$ ) !      
fe/ival is ,tellus1 ! e>? h]self1 & !   
local orig9 ( ^! fe/ivals is %[n 9 !    
fact t n only 0 ! sacrifice made = !    
:ole p on ! ,capitol1 b sep>ately 9 ea* 
"o ( ! curiae4 ,! ,=dicidia is closely  
foll[$ by ! ,c]ealia on ! #ai?--!       
fe/ival ( ano!r e>?-goddess 7,c]es1     
cre>e7--m especially connect$ ) ! gr[? (
 corn4 ,a v curi\s feature ( ! ritual 0 
! fa/5+ ( fire-br&s to ! tails ( foxes1 
:i* 7 !n let loose 9 :at 0 aft]w>ds !   
,circus ,maximus3 a symbol possibly1 z  
,wiss[a ?9ks1 ( sunlight1 possibly ( !  
vegetation-_s4 ,b ! mo/ important ( !   
,april c]emonies is und\bt$ly ! ,p>ilia 
( ! #ba/1 ! fe/ival ( ! v anci5t ru/ic  
num51 ,pales4 ,ovid's#i description ( ! 
celebration is s int]e/+ & s full ( !   

*>act]i/ic col\r ( ! ,roman ru/ic       
fe/ivals t ,i may p]haps be p>don$ =    
reproduc+ x at great] l5g?4 ',%eph]d1'  
he says1 address+ ! ru/ic wor%ipp]1 'at 
! fir/ /reak ( dawn purify ?y well-f$   
flocks3 let wat] fir/ bespr9kle !m1 & a 
bran* sweep clean ! gr\nd4 ,let ! folds 
be adorn$ ) leaves & bran*es fa/5$ to   
!m1 :ile a trail+ wrea? cov]s !         
gay-deck$ gates4 ,let blue flames rise f
 ! liv+ sulphur & ! %eep bleat l\d z %e 
feels ! t\* ( ! smok+ sulphur4 ,burn !  
male olive-bran* & ! p9e twig & junip]1 
& let ! blaz+ laurel crackle amid !     
he>?4 ,a basket full ( millet mu/ g ) ! 
millet cakes3 ?is is ! food :]e9 !      
c\ntry goddess f9ds pleasure mo/ ( all4 
,give h] too h] own %>e ( ! fea/ & h]   
pail ( milk1 & :5 h] %>e has be5 set    
aside1 !n ) milk w>m f ! c[ make pray]  
to ,pales1 gu>dian ( ! woods4' ,! poet  
!n recites a long pray]1 9 :i* ! f>m]   
fir/ begs =giv5ess = any unwitt+ s9s he 
may h committ$ aga9/ ! ru/ic deities1   
su* z trespass+ on _! groves or %elt]+ 8

 flocks b5ea? _! alt>1 & !n prays = !   
av]sion ( disease & ! prosp]ity ( crops1
 flocks1 & h]ds4 ',?us mu/ ! goddess be 
won1 ?is pray] say f\r times turn+ to ! 
sunrise1 & wa% ?y h&s 9 ! runn+ /ream4  
,!n set ! ru/ic b[l ^u ! table 9 place (
 ! w9e-b[l1 & dr9k ! sn[y milk & d>k    
mu/1 & soon ?r\gh ! heaps ( crackl+ /raw
 leap 9 swift c\rse ) eag] limbs4' ,all 
! wor%ipp]s !n set to leap+ ?r\gh !     
blaz+ fires1 ev5 ! flocks & h]ds 7 driv5
 ?r\gh1 & g5]al hil>ity reign$4 ,_m     
po9ts ( detail might be notic$1 su* z t 
9 ! urban c\nt]p>t ( ! fe/ival1 :i*     
,ovid c>efully di/+ui%es f ! c\ntry     
celebrations1 ! fire 0 spr9kl$ ) ! a%es 
f ! calves ( ! ,=dicidia & ! blood (    
,m>s' ,octob] horse--ano!r l9k betwe5   
,m>s & agriculture4 ,b x is mo/ int]e/+ 
to note ! d\ble "* ( ! c]emony--z a     
purification ( man & bea/ on ! "o h&1 & 
on ! o!r a pray] = ! prosp]ity ( !      
season to come4 ,?ree special fe/ivals  
rema9 9 ,april4 ,at ! ,v9alia 7priora7 (
 ! #bcrd1 ! w9e-sk9s ( ! previ\s ye> 7  

op5$ & ! w9e ta/$1 &1 we may suppose1   
supplication 0 made = ! v9tage to come1 
! fe/ival be+ d$icat$ to ! sky-god1     
,iuppit]4 ,at ! ,robigalia ( ! #be? !   
(f]+ ( a dog 0 made = ! av]sion ( mildew
 7robigo71 to ,robigus 7:o looks l a    
develop$ eponym\s deity7 at ! fif?      
mile/one on ! ,via ,claudia--! anci5t   
b\nd>y ( ,roman t]ritory4 ,! ,floralia (
 ! #bh? does n occur 9 ! old ,cal5d>s1  
probably because x 0 a moveable fea/    
7f]iae conceptivae71 b x is an          
unmi/akeable petition to ! num5 ,flora =
 ! blossom+ ( ! season's fl[]s4  ,may 0 
a mon? ( m critical importance = !      
welf>e ( ! crops1 & !re=e its fe/ivals 7
 mo/ly ( a m sombre "*4 ,! #i?1 #aa?1 & 
#ac? 7 ! days set ap>t = ! ,lemuria1 !  
av]sion ( ! ho/ile spirits ( ! dead1 (  
:i* we h already spok51 & a simil>ly    
gloomy "* probably atta*$ to ! ,agonia (
 ,v$iovis on ! #ba/4 ,b ( f> ! greate/  
int]e/ is ! moveable fea/ ( !           
,amb>valia1 ! great lu/ration ( !       
fields1 :i* took place t[>ds ! end ( !  

mon?3 ! date ( its occurr5ce 0 no d\bt  
fix$ accord+ to ! /ate ( ! crops 9 any  
giv5 ye>4 ,z ! individual f>m] purifi$ 8
 own fields = ! av]sion ( evil1 s a     
solemn lu/ration ( ! b\nd>ies ( ! /ate 0
 p]=m$ by special prie/s1 kn[n z !      
,arval bre?r5 7fratres ,arvales74 ,)    
c]emonial danc+ 7tripudium7 !y mov$     
along ! b\nd>y-m>ks & made ! f>m]'s mo/ 
complete (f]+ ( ! pig1 %eep1 & ox       
7suovetaurilia73 ! fruits ( ! la/ ye> & 
! new h>ve/ 7aridae et virides7 play$ a 
l>ge "p 9 ! c]emonial1 & a solemn litany
 0 recit$ = ! av]sion ( e k9d ( pe/ f ! 
crops4 ,9 ,virgil's acc\nt ! pray] is   
made to ,c]es1 & we "k t 9 imp]ial      
times1 :5 ! ,amb>valia became v closely 
connect$ ) ! wor%ip ( ! imp]ial h\se1 ! 
c5tre ( ! cult 0 ! e>?-goddess1 ,dea    
,dia2 b 9 ! e>lie/ acc\nt ( ! ru/ic     
c]emony :i* we possess 9 ,cato1 ,m>s is 
address$ 9 ! unmi/akeable "* ( an       
agricultural deity4 ',fa!r ,m>s1 ,i pray
 & besee* !e t ?\ maye/ be graci\s &    
fav\rable to me1 to my home1 & my       

h\sehold1 = :i* cause ,i h orda9$ t !   
(f]+ ( pig1 %eep1 & ox be c>ri$ r\nd my 
fields1 my l&1 & my f>m3 t ?\ maye/     
av]t1 w>d (f1 & keep af> all disease1   
visible & invisible1 all b>r5ness1 wa/e1
 mis=tune1 & ill wea!r3 t ?\ maye/ suff]
 our crops1 our corn1 our v9es & bu%es  
to gr[ & come to prosp]ity3 t ?\ maye/  
pres]ve ! %eph]ds & ! flocks 9 safety1 &
 grant heal? & /r5g? to me1 to my home1 
& my h\sehold4' ,we h p]haps "h ano!r   
ru/ic c]emony address$ 9 orig9 to all   
num9a1 :om x might conc]n1 &1 z x 71    
specialis+ itself f "t to "t 9 an appeal
 to "o def9ite deity or ano!r1 b x is   
also cle> evid5ce ( an e>ly agricultural
 association ( ,m>s4 ,! ,amb>valia is "o
 ( ! mo/ picturesque ( ! field          
c]emonies1 & a peculi>ly beautiful &    
imag9ative description ( x may be f\nd 9
 ! fir/ *apt] ( ,pat]'s ,m>ius !        
,epicurean4  ,9 ,june & ,july ! f>m] 0  
wait+ = ! completion ( ! h>ve/1 & !     
great /ate-fe/ivals ( ! p]iod are n     
agricultural4  #b4 ,fe/ivals ( !        

,h>ve/4--,9 ,augu/ ! f>m]'s hopes are at
 la/ realis$1 & ! h>ve/ is br\ght 94 ,! 
season is m>k$ by two closely connect$  
fe/ivals on ! #ba/ & #be? 9 hon\r ( !   
old div9ity-pair1 ,consus 7cond]e71 !   
god ( ! /oreh\se & ,ops1 ! deity ( !    
weal? ( h>ve/4 ,at ! ,consualia1 an (f]+
 is made by ! flam5 ,quir9alis1 assi/$  
by ! ,ve/al virg9s1 at an und]gr\nd alt>
 9 ! ,circus ,maximus1 specially uncov]$
 = ! occasion3 "h we h probably n s mu* 
! notion ( a *?onic deity1 z a relic ( !
 simple practices ( an e>ly agricultural
 age1 :5 ! crops 7 /or$ und]gr\nd4 ,!   
bea/s :o _h tak5 "p 9 ! h>ve/ 7 releas$ 
f _! lab\rs dur+ ! day1 & 7 decorat$ )  
fl[]s3 ! fe/ival includ$ a race ( mules1
 ! regul> ,italian bea/s ( burd54 ,f\r  
days aft] ?is g5]al fe/ivity occurr$ !  
second h>ve/-c]emony ( ! ,opiconsivia1  
held 9 ! %r9e 7sacr>ium7 ( ! ,regia1 &  
att5d$ only by ! pontifex maximus & !   
,ve/al virg9s4 ,?is is cle>ly !         
/ate-h>ve/ ( ! regal p]iod1 ! symbolic  
/or+ ( ! /ate-crops 9 ! sacr$ /oreh\se (

 ! palace by ! k+ & 8 daught]s4 ,bo?    
fe/ivals are significant1 & we %all meet
 ) ,consus & ,ops aga9 9 close          
connection 9 ,decemb]4 ,! ,portunalia ( 
! #ag? may h be5 ano!r h>ve/-home1 if we
 c believe ! old au?orities1 :o tell u t
 ,portunus 0 a 'god ( doors' 7portae74  
,! ,v9alia ,ru/ica ( ,augu/ #ai we _c   
suffici5tly int]pret ?r\gh lack (       
in=mation3 x _c1 ( c\rse1 h be5 !       
fe/ival ( ! v9tage1 = x is too e>ly3 x  
may h be5 a propitiatory c]emony = !    
rip5+ grapes1 9 :i* case x 0 probably   
connect$ ) ! auspicatio v9demiae1 9 :i* 
! flam5 ,dialis 7note aga9 ! association
 ( ,iuppit] & ! v9e7 solemnly pluck$ !  
fir/ grapes2 or x may be a fe/ival (    
w9e1 n v9es1 9 :i* case its ma9 feature 
w\ld mo/ likely be ! op5+ ( ! la/ ye>'s 
v9tage4  ,septemb] conta9s no great     
fe/ival1 & ! h>ve/-season closes on     
,octob] #aa ) ! ,m$itr9alia--! ne>e/    
approa* to a ?anksgiv+ = ! v9tage4 ,on t
 day ! fir/ mu/ ( ! new v9tage & ! w9e (
 ! old 7 solemnly ta/$1 app>5tly z a    

spell aga9/ disease1 ! wor%ipp] us+ !   
/range =mula1 ',i dr9k ! new & ! old    
w9e1 ) new w9e & old ,i heal 7m$eor7    
disease4' ,?is c]emony gave its "n to ! 
fe/ival & 0 ! cause ( ! subsequ5t       
evolution ( an eponym\s deity1 ,m$itr9a1
 b !re is little d\bt t 9 orig9 "h1 z 9 
! o!r w9e-fe/ivals1 ! deity conc]n$ 0 at
 fir/ ,iuppit]4 ,among ! o!r ru/ic      
c]emonies ( ! mon? we may notice !      
fe/ival ( spr+s 7,font9alia7 on ,octob] 
#ac3 wells 7 decorat$ ) g>l&s & fl[]s   
flung into ! wat]s4  #c4 ,fe/ivals ( !  
,w9t]4--,! w9t]-fe/ivals _c be summ$ up 
"u "o g5]al notion s easily z ^? ( spr+ 
or summ]1 b !y fall fairly naturally    
into two gr\ps--! fe/ivals imm$iately   
connect$ ) agricultural life & ^?       
associat$ ) ! dead & ! und]world or )   
solemn purification4 ,! ma9 action ( !  
f>m]'s life dur+ ! w9t] is1 ( c\rse1 !  
s[+ ( ! next ye>'s crop1 :i* 0          
commemorat$ 9 ! anci5t fe/ival ( !      
,saturnalia on ,decemb] #ag4 ,?\gh !    
,saturnalia is p]haps ! mo/ famili> to u

 ( all ! ,roman fe/ivals1 p>tly f !     
allusions 9 ! classics1 especially 9    
,horace1 p>tly because x is no d\bt !   
s\rce ( _m ( our own ,*ri/mas           
fe/ivities1 x is yet almo/ impossible n[
 to recov] any?+ ( its orig9al ,roman   
"*4 ,greek influ5ce set to "w on x v    
e>ly1 id5tify+ ,saturnus ) ,cronos &    
e/abli%+ him 9 a ,greek temple ) all !  
accompanim5ts ( ,greek ritual4 ,all !   
famili> features ( ! fe/ival--! fre$om &
 lic5se ( ! slaves1 ! giv+ ( pres5ts1   
ev5 ! wax-c&les1 :i* are ! prototype (  
^? on our own ,*ri/mas-tree--are almo/  
c]ta9ly due to ,greek orig94 ,we are    
left ) no?+ b ! "n ,saturnus 7connect$ )
 ! root ( sem51 s]]e7 & ! date to assure
 u t we h "h 9 reality a g5u9e ,roman   
fe/ival ( ! s[+ ( ! crops4 ,( a simil>  
nature--m>k+1 z ,ovid tells u1 !        
completion ( ! s[+--0 ! f]iae sem5tivae 
or ,paganalia1 associat$ ) !            
e>?-goddesses1 ,c]es & ,tellus4         
,meal-cakes & a pregnant s[ 7 ! (f]+s1 !
 bea/s :o _h help$ 9 ! pl\gh+ 7 g>l&$1 &

 pray] 0 made = ! se$ re/+ 9 ! gr\nd4 ,a
 curi\s feature ( ! w9t] wor%ip is !    
repetition ( fe/ivals to ! h>ve/        
deities1 ,consus & ,ops1 sep>at$ by !   
same int]val ( ?ree days1 on ,decemb]   
#ae & #ai3 x may be t we h "h an        
indication ( ! f9al completion ( !      
h>ve/1 or1 z ,mr4 ,w>de ,f[l] has       
sugge/$1 a c]emonial op5+ ( ! /oreh\ses1
 to see t ! h>ve/ is n rott+4 ,among !  
o!r c\ntry fe/ivals ( ! p]iod we may    
notice t ( ,c>m5ta1 on ! #aa? & #ae? (  
,janu>y3 %e seems to h be5 9 orig9 a    
wat]-num51 b 0 e>ly associat$ )         
*ildbir?3 h5ce ! rigid exclusion ( m5 f 
h] c]emonies & possibly ! taboo on      
lea!rn ?ongs1 on ! gr\nd t no?+ involv+ 
dea? mu/ be us$ 9 ! wor%ip ( a deity (  
bir?4 ,! repetition ( h] fe/ival may    
possibly po9t to sep>ate celebrations ( 
! communities ( ,palat9e & ,quir9al4 ,at
 ?is "t1 too1 occurr$ ! ru/ic c]emonies 
at ! b\nd>ies 7,t]m9alia7 & ! (f]+ to ! 
,l>es at ! 'm>*es' 7,compitalia71 ( :i* 
we h spok5 9 treat+ ( ! wor%ip ( ! h\se4

  ,! o!r gr\p ( w9t]-fe/ivals is ( a mu*
 m gloomy & less def9itely ru/ic type1  
?\gh !y cle>ly date f ! p]iod ( !       
agricultural community4 ,( ! ,f]alia (  
,febru>y #ba1 ! culm9ation ( ! fe/ival (
 ! k9dr$ dead 7,p>5talia71 we h already 
spok54 ,! ,l>5talia is a v my/]i\s      
occasion1 & 0 suppos$ by ! ,romans      
!mselves to be an (f]+ 'at ! tomb' ( a  
leg5d>y ,acca ,l>5tia1 mi/ress (        
,h]cules4 ,b we h se5 reason to ?9k t   
,l>5tia 0 9 reality a deity ( ! dead1 & 
! 'tomb' a mundus3 if s1 we h ano!r l9k 
betwe5 ! w9t] season & ! wor%ip ( !     
und]world4 ,!re rema9s ! weird fe/ival (
 ! ,lup]calia on ,febru>y #ae1 to :i* we
 h _h occasion to ref] sev]al times1 &  
:i* has become m famili> to mo/ ( u ?an 
o!r ,roman fe/ivals ow+ to its political
 use by ,m>k ,antony 9 #dd ,b4,c4 ,z we 
h argu$ already1 x seems to belong to ! 
v olde/ /ratum ( ! ,palat9e settlem5t1 &
 we may !re=e appropriately close ?is   
acc\nt ( ! e>ly fe/ivals ) a some:at    
full] description ( x4 ,! wor%ipp]s     

assembl$ at ! ,lup]cal1 a cave on !     
,palat9e hill3 !re goats & a dog 7      
sacrific$1 & two y\?s belong+ to ! two  
colleges ( ,fabian & ,qu9tian 7or       
,qu9tilian7 ,lup]ci _h _! =eheads sme>$ 
) ! knife us$ = ! sacrifice & wip$ )    
wool dipp$ 9 milk--at :i* po9t x 0      
orda9$ t !y %\ld laugh4 ,!n !y girt on !
 sk9s ( ! sla9 goats &1 aft] fea/+1 ran 
_! c\rse r\nd ! b\nd>ies ( ! ,palat9e   
hill1 foll[$ ea* by 8 own company (     
y\?s1 & /rik+ wom5 on _! way ) /rips1   
kn[n z februae or ,iunonis amicula1 cut 
f ! goats' hides4 ,"h we h a summ>y ( _m
 ( ! important po9ts :i* we h notic$ 9 !
 ru/ic fe/ivals3 f ! pre-,roman /ratum  
comes ! idea ( communion ) ! sacrific$  
animal 9 ! sme>+ ( ! blood & ! we>+ ( ! 
sk91 & also ! magic *>m involv$ 9 !     
/rik+ ( ! wom5 to procure f]tility3 x is
 typical ( ! true feel+ ( ,roman        
religion t we _c ) any c]ta9ty tell :at 
deity 0 associat$ ) ! rite1 ?\gh        
probably x 0 ,faunus3 ! ru/ic "* ( !    
c]emony is indicat$ by ! b[l ( milk 9   

:i* ! wool 0 dipp$ & ! sacrifice (      
goats3 ! idea ( lu/ration is cle>ly m>k$
 9 ! c\rse r\nd ! b\nd>ies3 ! orig9al   
,palat9e settlem5t /&s out 9 ! limits ( 
t c\rse & ! site ( ! ,lup]cal1 & ! lat] 
synoecismus is se5 9 !1 presumably      
subsequ5t1 addition ( ! second college (
 ,lup]ci4 ,a c>eful /udy ( ! ,lup]calia 
z an epitome ( ! "* & developm5t ( !    
,roman agricultural fe/ivals1 ?\gh x    
w\ld n %[ ! bright] aspect ( "s ( ! spr+
 & summ] celebrations1 w\ld yet give a  
true notion ( ! hi/ory & _s ( ! :ole4   
,,footnotes3  #i ,ov41 ,fa/41 iv4 #gce4 
,,*apt] ,,vii  ,,wor%ip ,,( ,,! ,,/ate  
,s9ce1 9 ! matt] ( religion1 ! ,roman   
/ate is 9 ! ma9 b ! agricultural        
h\sehold magnifi$1 we %all n1 9 consid]+
 its wor%ip1 be ent]+ on a new /ratum ( 
ideas1 b r look+ at ! developm5t (      
notions & s5tim5ts already famili>4 ,to 
deal1 h[ev]1 ) ! /ate-wor%ip 9 full w\ld
 n only f> exce$ ! limits ( ?is sket*1 b
 w\ld lead u away f religi\s ideas into 
! region ( :at we might n[ call         

'ecclesia/ical managem5t4' ,i propose   
!re=e to conf9e myself to two po9ts1    
fir/ly1 ! broad5+ ( ! old conceptions ( 
! h\sehold & ! fields & _! adaptation to
 ! life ( ! /ate1 & secondly--to be     
treat$ v %ortly & z an indication ( !   
,roman "*--! organisation ( religion4   
#a4 ,developm5t ( ! ,wor%ip ( ,h\se &   
,fields4--,"h we %all f9d two ma9       
*>act]i/ics4 ,! /ate 9 ! fir/ place1 z  
we h sev]al times h9t$ 9 anticipation1  
e/abli%es its own c\nt]p>t ( ! h\sehold 
& ru/ic cults & adapts to its own use ! 
ideas :i* !y involve3 9 ! second1 &     
p>ticul>ly 9 connection ) "s ( !        
field-deities1 x evolves new & v        
frequ5tly ab/ract notions1 =eign to !   
life ( ! indep5d5t c\ntry h\seholds1 b  
necess>y & vital to ! life ( an organis$
 community4 ,let u look fir/ at ! fate (
 ! h\sehold deities4  ,ianus4--,we left 
,ianus z ! num5 ( ! h\se-door3 he passes
 into ! /ate exactly 9 ! same capacity3 
! /ate too has its 'door1' ! gate at !  
nor?-ea/ corn] ( ! ,=um1 & ?is becomes !

 seat ( 8 /ate-cult--! door :i*1 accord+
 to ,augu/an leg5d1 is op5$ 9 ! "t ( w> 
& only %ut :5 ,rome is at peace ) all ! 
_w4 ,b reflection soon gets to "w on    
,ianus3 a door has two sides1 x c bo?   
op5 & %ut2 !re=e1 z e>ly z ! song ( !   
,salii1 he has develop$ ! cult-epi!ts   
',op5]1' ',%utt]' 7,patulci1 ,cloesi71 &
 z soon z he is ?\ght ( z any?+ approa*+
 a p]sonality he is 'two-head$'         
7bifrons71 z he appe>s 9 lat]           
repres5tations4 ,! door aga9 is ! fir/  
?+ y come to 9 ent]+ a h\se3 ! 'door-_s'
 !n1 ) t t5d5cy to ab/raction :i* we    
%all see %ortly 9 o!r cases1 becomes !  
god ( beg9n+s4 ,he wat*es ov] ! v fir/  
beg9n+ ( human life 9 8 "* ( ,consevius2
 to him is sacr$ ! fir/ h\r ( ! day     
7pat] matut9us71 ! ,cal5ds ( e mon?1 & !
 fir/ mon? ( ! ye> 7,ianu>ius72 to him  
too is (f]$ by ! rex sacrorum ! fir/    
sacrifice ( ! ye>1 ! ,agonium on ! #i? (
 ,janu>y4 ,9 ?is capacity1 moreov]1 8 "n
 comes fir/ 9 all ! =mulae ( pray]1 & he
 is look$ ^u--n inde$ z ! fa!r ( !      

gods--= t is a mu* too an?ropomorphic   
notion--b z :at we might n[ t]m _!      
'logical antec$5t'3 divum deus1 z ! song
 ( ! ,salii qua9tly puts x1 pr9cipium   
deorum1 z lat] int]pretation expla9$ x4 
,yet ?r\gh all he rema9s ! mo/ typical  
,roman deity3 he does n acquire a temple
 till #bag ,b4,c41 nor a bu/ until q    
late1 nor is he ev] id5tifi$ ) a ,greek 
c\nt]p>t4 ,9 8 capacity z pat] matut9us 
he has a native female c\nt]p>t 9       
,matuta1 a dawn-deity1 :o becomes a     
protectress 9 *ildbir?1 & z su* is !    
c5tre ( ! matrons' fe/ival1 ! ,matralia 
( ,june #aa4  ,ve/a4--,! hi/ory ( ,ve/a 
is p]haps less romantic1 b x af=ds a m  
exact p>allel betwe5 h\sehold & /ate4 ,9
 ! primitive community ! k+'s he>? is n 
m]ely ( symbolical importance1 b ( great
 practical utility1 9 t x is kept       
cont9ually burn+ z ! s\rce ( fire on :i*
 ! individual h\sehold] may draw3 h5ce x
 is ! duty ( ! k+'s daught]s to c>e = x 
& keep ! flame p]petually alight4 ,9    
,rome ! temple ( ,ve/a is ! k+'s he>?1  

situat$1 z "o w\ld expect1 9 close      
proximity to ! regia4 ,! fire is kept   
cont9ually blaz+ except on ! #a/ ( ,m>* 
( e ye>1 :5 x is all[$ to g out & is    
c]emonially r5ew$4 ,! ,ve/al virg9s1    
sworn to p]petual virg9ity & *>g$ ) !   
pres]vation ( ! sacr$ flame1 are '! k+'s
 daught]s1' liv+ 9 a k9d ( conv5t       
7atrium ,ve/ae7 & "u ! *>ge ( ! k+'s    
repres5tative1 ! pontifex maximus4 ,x is
 _! duty too1 z ! natural cooks ( !     
sacr$ royal h\sehold1 to make ! salt    
cake 7mola salsa7 to be us$ at ! ye>'s  
fe/ivals & to pres]ve x & o!r sacr$     
objects1 su* z ! a%es ( ! ,=dicidia1 9 !
 /oreh\se ( ,ve/a 7p5us ,ve/ae74 ,9 !   
mon? ( ,june f ! #g? to ! #ae?1 ) a     
climax on ! #i?1 ! day ( ! ,ve/alia1 !  
matrons :o all ! ye> r\nd h t5d$ _! own 
he>?s1 come 9 solemn procession         
b>e-foot$ to make _! homely (f]+s at !  
/ate-he>?1 & ! virg9s mean:ile (f] !    
cakes t !y h made4 ,= eight days !      
c]emony cont9ues1 dur+ :i* "t ! bak]s & 
mill]s keep holiday2 ! days are         

religiosi 7m>riages are unlucky & o!r   
taboos are obs]v$7 & also nefa/i 7no    
public bus9ess may be p]=m$72 until !   
c]emony closes on ! #ae?1 ) ! solemn    
cleans+ ( ! temple & ! ca/+ ( ! refuse  
into ! ,tib]1 & !n ! normal life ( !    
/ate may be r5ew$--,q4 ,/4 ,d4 ,f4      
7,qu&o ,/]cus ,delatum ,fas7 is ! unique
 entry 9 ! ,cal5d>s4 ,?is is all less   
imag9ative ?an ! developm5t ( ,ianus1 b 
! und]ly+ feel+ is int5sely ,roman & !re
 c\ld be no cle>] idea ( ! natural      
adaptation ( ! h\sehold-cult to !       
religion ( ! /ate4  ,p5ates1 ,l>es1 &   
,g5ius4--,! o!r h\sehold deities too h  
_! c\nt]p>t1 ?\gh n s prom95tly m>k$1 9 
! wor%ip ( ! /ate4 ,! magi/rates1 on    
ent]+ (fice1 took oa? by ,iuppit] & !   
,di ,p5ates populi ,romani ,quiritium1 &
 t ! conception 0 z wide 9 ! /ate z 9 ! 
h\sehold is %[n by ! fact t on less =mal
 occasions ! =mula appe>s z ,iuppit] et 
cet]i di omnes immortales4 ,! ,p5ates ( 
! /ate !n w\ld include all !            
/ate-deities2 b t _! orig9al "* is n lo/

 sight ( we c see f ! /atem5t ( ,v>ro t 
9 ! p5us ,ve/ae 7! '/ate /oreh\se'7 7   
pres]v$ _! sigilla--n app>5tly s5su\s   
repres5tations1 b symbolic objects1 su* 
z we h se5 be=e 9 cases l t ( ! silex ( 
,iuppit]4 ,! ,l>es aga9 f9d _! c\nt]p>t 
9 ! ,l>es ,prae/ites ( ! /ate1 & _!     
ru/ic fe/ival1 ! ,compitalia1 has its   
urban reproduction1 :i*1 z x involv$    
consid]able lic5se on ! "p ( populace & 
slaves1 0 (t5 9 ! lat] p]iod ( !        
,republic a cause ( s]i\s political     
di/urbance4 ,ev5 ! ,g5ius1 ?\gh r       
vaguely1 passes ov] to ! /ate & we he> (
 ! ,g5ius populi ,romani or ! ,g5ius    
urbis ,romae1 ) reg>d to :i* ,s]vius    
quotes f an inscription on a %ield !    
*>act]i/ic addition1 sive mas sive      
fem9a3 9 mu* lat] times we f9d ! exact  
c\nt]p>t ( ! dome/ic wor%ip ( ! ,g5ius (
 ! pat] familias 9 ! cult ( ! ,g5ius ( !
 ,emp]or--! f\ndation ( ! :ole ( !      
imp]ial wor%ip4  ,we h obs]v$ already h[
 ! cults ( ! fields 7 tak5 ov] by ! /ate
 & _! c\nt]p>ts e/abli%$ 9 ! great      

fe/ivals ( ! ,cal5d>4 ,naturally en\gh  
mo/ ( ! deities conc]n$1 exi/+ only = ! 
"p !y play$ 9 ^! fe/ivals1 reta9$ _!    
orig9al "* )\t fur!r developm5t4 ,b ) a 
few x 0 diff]5t3 x 0 _! fate to acquire 
new *>act]i/ics & new functions1 &1     
develop+ ) ! ne$s ( ! community1 to     
become ! great gods ( ! /ate3 ( ^! we   
mu/ give "s brief acc\nt4               
,iuppit]4--,we h kn[n ,iuppit] hi!rto   
ei!r 9 connection ) c]ta9 v primitive   
survivals1 or 9 ! g5u9e ,roman p]iod z a
 sky-num51 conc]n$ ) ! grape-h>ve/ 9 !  
two ,v9alia & ! ,m$itr9alia1 & !        
recipi5t at ! family meal ( a daps z a  
g5]al propitiation be=e ! beg9n+ ( !    
s[+4 ,z sky-god he passes to ! /ate3    
,lucetius 7lux7 is 8 title 9 ! song ( ! 
,salii & to him are sacr$ ! ,ides ( e   
mon?--! "t ( ! full moon1 :5 !re is mo/ 
light 9 ! heav5s by night z well z day4 
,9 8 agricultural connection he has 8   
w9e-fe/ivals 9 ! /ate z 9 ! c\ntry1 & ! 
h\sehold daps becomes ! m elaborate     
epulum ,iovis1 9 :i* ! :ole community1 z

 x 71 ent]ta9$ him at a banquet4 ,z a   
sky-deity1 too1 he is p>ticul>ly conc]n$
 ) ! ?und]bolt & ! lightn+-fla%         
7,iuppit] ,fulm51 ,fulgur71 & to him are
 sacr$ ! always om9\s spots :i* _h be5  
/ruck by lightn+ 7bid5talia73 ) ! m     
al>m+ occurr5ce ( lightn+ by night he   
has a special connection "u ! cult-title
 ,iuppit] ,summanus4 ,b z ! little      
community grew1 & especially p]haps aft]
 ! union ( ! two settlem5ts1 ! wor%ip ( 
,iuppit] ,f]etrius1 associat$ ) ! sacr$ 
oak ^u ! ,capitol--! hill betwe5        
,palat9e & ,quir9al--comes m & m into   
prom95ce z a bond ( union & ! c5tral    
po9t ( ! /ate's religi\s life3 x t5ds   
inde$ to take ! place ( priority1 :i* _h
 previ\sly be5 occupi$ by ,ianus4 ,!    
community goes to w> ) its neighb\rs1 & 
aft] a signal victory ! spolia opima mu/
 be d$icat$ on ! sacr$ oak3 inde$       
,iuppit] is 9 a special s5se ) !m 9 !   
battle & mu/ n[ be wor%ipp$ z ! '/ay] ( 
r\t' 7,/ator7 & ! 'giv] ( victory'      
7,victor74 ,w> is a new prov9ce ( !     

/ate's activity1 b1 *>act]i/ically      
en\gh1 x does n evolve its own num51 b  
enl>ges ! sph]e ( ! some:at ela/ic      
spirits already exi/+4 ,s too 9 !       
int]nal organisation ( ! /ate !re is    
felt ! ne$ ( a religi\s sanction =      
public morality1 & ,iuppit]--?\gh       
vaguely at fir/--takes on him ! "* ( a  
deity ( ju/ice4 ,9 ?is connection he is 
prim>ily ! god ( oa?s3 we h se5 h[ 8    
sacr$ silex 0 us$ 9 ! oa? ( treaty3 x is
 also ! mo/ solemn witness to ! oa? ( ! 
citiz54 ,iuppit] ,lapis becomes         
specially ! ,dius ,fidius1 a cult-title 
:i* subsequ5tly sets up = itself &      
produces a fur!r (f%oot 9 ! ab/ract     
,fides4 ,f9ally1 t[>ds ! end ( our p]iod
 ! ,iuppit] ( ! ,capitol em]ges         
triumphant1 z x 71 f 8 /ruggle ) 8      
rivals &1 ) ! new title ( ,iuppit]      
,optimus ,maximus1--! 'be/ & greate/1' t
 is1 ( all ! ,iuppit]s--takes 8 place z 
! supreme deity ( ! ,roman /ate & !     
p]sonification ( ! greatness & maje/y ( 
,rome itself4 ,to 8 temple h]eaft] !    

,roman y\? w come to make 8 (f]+ :5 he  
takes ! dress ( manhood2 "h ! magi/rates
 w d sacrifice be=e ent]+ on _! ye> (   
(fice3 "h ! victori\s g5]al w pass 9    
procession ) ! spoils ( 8 victory3 on ! 
walls %all be susp5d$ treaties ) =eign  
nations & (f]+s s5t by subject pr9ces & 
/ates f all qu>t]s ( ! _w3 all t ,rome  
is to be1 w be1 z x 71 embodi$ 9 !      
sky-_s ( ! sacr$ oak1 ! god ( ju/ice & (
 victory 9 w>4  ,iuno4--,iuppit] c>ries 
) him into ! /ate-wor%ip 8 female       
c\nt]p>t1 ,iuno1 ) 8 own *>act]i/ics1 9 
a c]ta9 degree1 & 8 own privileges4 ,%e 
is ,luc9a & ,fulgura z he is ,lucetius &
 ,fulgur3 :ite c[s are h] (f]+s z :ite  
/e]s are 83 z ! ,ides are sacr$ to      
,iuppit]1 s--?\gh !y are n a            
fe/ival--are ! ,cal5ds to ,iuno4 ,b f ! 
fir/ %e %[s a c]ta9 indep5d5ce &        
develops on l9es ( h] own4 ,9 ! curi\s  
c]emony ( ! fix+ ( ! ,nones 7! fir/     
qu>t] ( ! mon?71 held on ! ,cal5ds 9 !  
curia ,calabra1 %e seems to appe> z a   
moon-goddess3 ! rex sacrorum1 aft] a    

report f a pontifex z to ! appe>ance ( !
 new moon1 ann\nces ! result 9 ! =mula3 
',i summon !e = five 7or sev57 days1    
holl[ ,iuno' 7dies te qu9que septem     
kalo1 ,iuno ,covella3 h5ce ! "n         
,kal5dae74 ,b f> m prom95tly--ei!r z a  
female div9ity h]self1 or1 z "s ?9k1 ow+
 to ! suppos$ influ5ce ( ! moon on      
female life--does ,iuno figure z ! deity
 ( wom51 & especially 9 association )   
*ildbir? & m>riage4 ,z ,luc9a %e is1 z  
we h se51 ! presid+ deity ( *ildbir?1 & 
h] fe/ival on ! #a/ ( ,m>*1 ?\gh n 9 !  
,cal5d>s 7because conf9$ to wom5 & n    
!re=e a fe/ival ( ! :ole p71 atta9$     
imm5se popul>ity "u ! title ( !         
,matronalia4 ,%e has too a g5]al        
sup]9t5d5ce ( ! rites ( m>riage1 & !    
v>i\s little num9a1 :o play s prom95t a 
"p 9 ! c]emonies1 t5d to atta* !mselves 
to h] z cult-titles4 ,! fe/ival ( !     
s]vant-maids 9 hon\r ( ,iuno ,caprot9a  
on ! #g? ( ,july %[s ! same notion (    
,iuno z ! wom5's goddess1 :i* appe>s    
aga9 9 common p>lance :5 wom5 speak ( _!

 ,iuno1 j z m5 d ( _! ,g5ius4 ,lat] on  
,iuno acquires ! *>act]i/ics ( maje/y   
7,reg9a7 & protection 9 w> 7,curitis1   
,sospita71 p>tly no d\bt z ,iuppit]'s   
c\nt]p>t1 b m directly ?r\gh !          
introduction ( cults f neighb\r+        
,italian t[ns4  ,m>s4--,we h se5 reason 
to believe t 9 ! e>li] /ages ( ,roman   
religion ,m>s 0 a num5 ( vegetation1 b  
?\gh ! ,amb>valia 0 duly tak5 ov] into !
 /ate-cult & atta9$ a v high degree (   
importance1 yet !re c be no d\bt t 9 !  
/ate-religion ,m>s 0 pre-em95tly        
associat$ ) w>4 ,iuppit] might help at  
ne$ 9 av]t+ defeat & aw>d+ victory1 b x 
0 ) ,m>s t ! g5]al conduct ( w> re/$4 ,8
 sacr$ animal is ! w>like wolf1 8       
symbols ! spe>s & ! sacr$ %ields        
7ancilia71 :i* dur+ 8 own mon?          
7,m>tius7--! #a/ ( :i* is 8 special     
fe/ival--8 prie/s 7,salii7 we>+ ! full  
w>-dress 7trabea & tunica picta7 c>ry ) 
sacr$ dance & song r\nd ! city4 ,8 alt> 
is 9 ! ,campus ,m>tius1 outside !       
city-walls & !re=e )9 ! sph]e ( !       

imp]ium militiae1 & ! o!r fe/ivals      
associat$ ) him are ( a w>like "*3 !    
races ( ! w>-horse 7,equirria7 on ,m>*  
#ad & ,febru>y #bg1 & ! great race on ! 
,ides ( ,octob]1 :5 ! w9n] 0 solemnly   
sla93 ! lu/ration ( ! arms at !         
,qu9quatrus on ,m>* #ai & ! ,armilu/rium
 ( ,octob] #ai--;at ! beg9n+ & end ( !  
campaign+ season3 & ! lu/ration ( !     
w>-trumpets on ! #bcrd ( ,m>* & ! #bcrd 
( ,may4 ,b above all 9 hon\r ( ,m>s is  
held ! great qu9qu5nial lu/rum associat$
 ) ! c5sus1 :5 ! p are drawn up 9       
milit>y array ar\nd 8 alt> 9 ! ,campus  
,m>tius & ! solemn (f]+ ( !             
suovetaurilia 7is ?is a fa9t relic ( 8  
agricultural "*87 aft] be+ c>ri$ ?ree   
times r\nd ! ga!r$ ho/1 is (f]$ on 8    
alt> 9 pray] = ! milit>y future ( !     
/ate4 ,h>dly any god 9 ! /ate-cult has 8
 "* s cle>ly m>k$1 & we may reg>d ,m>s z
 a deity :o1 tak+ on new functions to   
suit ! ne$s ( ! times1 almo/ entirely   
lo/ ! traces ( 8 orig9al nature4        
,quir9us4--,iuppit] & ,m>s !n became !  

great /ate-deities ( ! develop$         
community & to !m is add$1 z !          
contribution ( ! ,coll9e settlem5t1 _!  
own p>ticul> deity1 ,quir9us4 ,he1 l !m1
 has 8 own flam52 l ,m>s he has 8       
,salii1 & 8 fe/ival f9ds its place 9 !  
,cal5d>s on ,febru>y ! #ag?4 ,b ( 8     
ritual & "* we "k practically no?+3 !   
ritual 0 obscur$ because 8 fe/ival      
co9cid$ ) ! mu* m popul> fe/ival ( !    
curiae1 ! /ultorum f]iae3 ( 8 "*1 we c  
only conjecture t he 0 to ! ,coll9e     
settlem5t :at ,m>s 0 to ! ,palat9e1     
:]eas lat] aft] ! complete amalgamation 
he seems to h be5 di/+ui%$ f ,m>s z     
repres5t+ 'arm$ peace' r ?an w>--an idea
 :i* is borne out by ! associations ( ! 
closely alli$ ^w ,quirites4 ,be t z x   
may1 we h 9 ,iuppit]1 ,m>s1 & ,quir9us !
 great /ate-triad ( ! synoecismus1 :o   
held _! own until at ! beg9n+ ( ! next  
epo* !y 7 supplant$ by ! new ,etruscan  
triad ( ! ,capitol1 ,iuppit]1 ,iuno &   
,m9]va4  #b4 ,organisation4--,x might   
p]haps be ?\ght t ! organisation (      

religion is a matt] remote f its _s1 &  
is n !re=e a suitable subject =         
discussion1 :]e ! object is r to br+ out
 und]ly+ motives & ideas3 b 9 deal+ ) ! 
,roman religion1 :]e c]emonial & legal  
precision 7 s prom95t1 x w\ld be ev5    
mislead+ to omit "s ref]5ce to ! v      
*>act]i/ic mann] 9 :i* ! /ate1 tak+ ov] 
! r *aotic elem5ts ( ! agricultural     
wor%ip1 organis$ !m into some?+ l a     
consi/5t :ole4 ,its mo/ complete        
a*ievem5t 9 ?is direction 0 )\t d\bt !  
regulation ( ! religi\s ye>4 ,we h spok5
 _m times ( ! ,cal5d>s 7,fa/i73 x is    
necess>y n[ to obta9 "s cle>] notion (  
:at !y 74 ,9 ,rome itself & v>i\s       
,italian t[ns h be5 f\nd "s ?irty       
inscriptions1 "o almo/ complete         
7,maffeiani71 ! o!rs m or less          
fragm5t>y1 giv+ ! tables ( ! mon?s &    
m>k+ precisely ! "* & occurr5ces ( e day
 9 ! ye>4 ,we may take z a specim5 !    
latt] half ( ! mon? ( ,augu/ f ! ,fa/i  
,maffeiani4  ,a4 ,,eid4 ,,np4           
,c4 ,,volc4 ,,np4 ,b4 ,f4               

,d4 ,c4 ,c4 ,c4                  ,e4    
,,opic4 ,,np4 ,d4 ,c4                   
,f4 ,c4 ,e4 ,,port4 ,,np4         ,g4   
,,volt4 ,,np4 ,f4 ,c4                   
,h4 ,,np4 ,g4 ,,v94 ,f4,p4           ,a4
 ,f4 ,h4 ,c4                  ,b4 ,f4   
,a4 ,,cons4 ,,np4         ,c4 ,c4 ,b4   
,,en4                ,9 ! fir/ column   
are giv5 ! nund9al lett]s ( ! days1 %[+ 
_! position 9 ! eight days' 'week' f "o 
m>ket day 7nund9ae7 to ! next4 ,9 !     
second column are not$ fir/ ! great     
divisions ( ! mon?1 ,cal5ds1 ,nones1 &  
,ides1 & !n ! religi\s "* ( ea*         
individual day is indicat$ by c]ta9     
signs1 ^: explanations ?r[ a good deal (
 light on ,roman religions notions4 ,x w
 be se5 t ! lett]s ( mo/ frequ5t        
occurr5ce are ,f1 ,c1 & ,n 7or 9 our    
extract ,,np73 ^! correspond to ! broad 
di/9ction betwe5 days pr(ane & sacr$4 ,f
 7fa/us7 d5otes a day on :i* ! bus9ess (
 ! /ate may be p]=m$1 on :i* ! praetor  
may say 7f>i7 ! ?ree words1 d1 dico1    
addico1 :i* summ$ up ! decisions ( !    

,roman law3 ,c 7comitialis7 m>ks a day  
on :i* ! legislative assemblies         
7comitia7 may be held3 x is by          
implication ,f z well4 ,n 7nefa/us71 on 
! o!r h&1 d5otes ! sacr$ day1 consecrat$
 to ! wor%ip ( ! gods1 on :i* !re=e     
/ate-bus9ess may n be transact$3        
simil>ly ! v my/]i\s & mu* disput$ sign 
,,np1 :e!r x diff]s 9 precise           
signification f ,n or n1 c]ta9ly m>ks a 
day ( sacr$ "*4 ,,en1 :i* occurs once 9 
?is extract 7f endot]cisus1 ! old ,lat9 
=m ( int]cisus7 signifies a 'split' day 
7dies fissus71 ! beg9n+ & end ( :i* 7   
sacr$1 :ile ! middle p]iod 0 free =     
bus9ess4 ,9 ! second column also 79 l>ge
 lett]s 9 "s ( ! o!r ,cal5d>s7 are nam$ 
! f]iae publicae1 ! great annual        
/ate-fe/ivals1 fix$ = "o p>ticul> day   
7f]iae /ativae73 su*1 9 ?is case1 are ! 
,portunalia1 ,v9alia1 & ,consualia4  ,^!
 fa/i 7 exhibit$ 9 ! ,=um & on ! walls (
 temples1 & ! consci5ti\s ,roman c\ld h 
no possible difficulty 9 f9d+ out :5 he 
might lawfully transact 8 bus9ess & :at 

fe/ivals ! /ate 0 obs]v+3 ( ! #cee days 
( ! old ,cal5d> #aa 7 fissi1 #bce 7 fa/i
 7#aib comitiales71 & #aji nefa/i4 ,we  
may rem>k z curi\s features 9 ! ,cal5d>1
 d5ot+ rigid adh]5ce to pr9ciple1 t ) "o
 exception1 ! ,poplifugia ( ,july #e1 no
 fe/ival ev] occurs be=e ! ,nones1 t )  
two exceptions1 ! ,regifugium ( ,febru>y
 #bd & ! ,equirria ( ! #ad? ( ,m>*1 no  
fe/ival falls on an ev5 day ( ! mon?1 & 
t !re is a m>k$ avoidance ( successive  
fea/-days3 ev5 ! ?ree days ( ! ,lemuria 
all[ an int]val ( a day betwe5 ea*4  ,9 
! matt] ( ritual & obs]vance1           
/ate-organisation--& its abs5ce--are    
alike significant4 ,( ! g5]al exactness 
( ritual & its specific v>iations on    
diff]5t occasions a fair notion has     
p]haps already be5 ga!r$2 x may help to 
fill out t notion if we c put toge!r a  
sket* ( ! normal process ( a sacrifice  
to ! gods4 ,be=e ! sacrifice began !    
animal to be (f]$ 0 select$ & te/$3 if x
 _h any blemi% or %[$ any reluctance1 x 
0 reject$4 ,if x 7 :ole & will+1 x 0    

b\nd ) fillets 7infulae7 ar\nd its      
=ehead1 & long ribbons 7vittae7 dep5d+ f
 !m4 ,x 0 !n br\ght to ! alt> 7ara7 by !
 side ( :i* /ood a portable brazi]      
7foculus74 ,! celebrant--magi/rate or   
prie/--next approa*$ dress$ 9 ! toga1   
girt ab\t him 9 a peculi> mann] 7c9ctus 
,gab9us71 & c>ri$ up at ! back s z to =m
 a hood 7velato capite73 ! h]ald        
proclaim$ sil5ce1 & ! flute-play] began 
to play 8 in/rum5t4 ,! fir/ "p ( ! (f]+ 
0 !n made by ! p\r+ ( w9e & scatt]+ (   
inc5se on ! brazi]3 x 0 foll[$ by !     
c]emonial slaught] 7immolatio7 ( !      
animal4 ,! celebrant spr9kl$ ! victim ) 
w9e & salt$ cake1 & made a symbolic     
ge/ure ) ! knife4 ,! victim 0 !n tak5   
aside by ! att5dants 7victim>ii71 &     
actually slaught]$ by !m3 f x !y        
extract$ ! sacr$ p>ts 7exta71 liv]1     
he>t1 gall1 lungs1 & midriff1 & aft]    
inspect+ !m to see t !y _h no           
abnormality--b n 9 ! e>li] p]iod =      
purposes ( augury--wrapp$ !m 9 pieces ( 
fle% 7augm5ta71 cook$ !m1 & br\ght !m   

back to ! celebrant1 :o laid !m z an    
(f]+ ^u ! alt>1 :]e !y 7 burnt4 ,! re/ (
 ! fle% 7visc]a7 0 divid$ z a sacr$ meal
 betwe5 ! celebrant & 8 fri5ds--or 9 a  
/ate-(f]+ among ! prie/s1 & probably !  
magi/rate4 ,we _c refra9 f rem>k+ "h !  
extreme precision ( ritual1 ! scrupul\s 
c>e ) :i* ! human side ( ! contract 0   
fulfill$ & !--almo/ legal--division ( ! 
victim betwe5 gods & m54 ,b ?\gh !      
ritual 0 s exact1 "o mu/ n be l$ away by
 mod]n analogies to suppose t !re 0 ev] 
any?+ l a rigid con/ra9t on ! private   
citiz5 = ! obs]vance ( fe/ivals4 ,!     
/ate-fe/ivals 7 9 ! /ricte/ s5se (f]+s  
made to ! gods by ! repres5tative       
magi/rates or prie/s1 & if !y 7 pres5t1 
all 0 done t 0 requir$3 ! :ole p _h be51
 by a legal fiction1 pres5t 9 _! p]sons4
 ,no d\bt ! private citiz5 w\ld (t5     
att5d 9 l>ge numb]s at ! celebrations1  
especially at ! m popul> fe/ivals1 b f  
"s1 su* z ! ,ve/alia1 he 0 actually     
exclud$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ?\gh x did n dem&
 pres5ce1 ! /ate did--at lea/           

!oretically--dem& ! obs]vance ( !       
fea/-day by private individuals4 ,!     
root-notion ( f]iae 0 a day set ap>t = !
 wor%ip ( ! gods1 & on x !re=e ! citiz5 
ought to d 'no mann] ( "w4' ,! /ate     
obs]v$ ?is condition fully 9 ! clos+ (  
law-c\rts & ! abs5ce ( legislative      
assemblies1 & 9 !ory too ! private      
citiz5 mu/ refra9 f any act :i* 0 n     
conc]n$ ) ! wor%ip ( ! gods1 or r5d]$   
absolutely necess>y1 z1 = in/ance1 if '8
 ox or 8 ass %\ld fall into a pit4' ,b x
 is *>act]i/ic ( ,rome t ! /ate did n   
seek = (f5ce1 b only puni%$ x if        
accid5tally se53 on a fea/-day ! rex    
sacrorum & ! flam9es might n see "w be+ 
done2 !y !re=e s5t on a h]ald 9 advance 
to ann\nce _! pres5ce1 & an actual      
conviction involv$ a money-f9e4 ,p]haps 
m scrupul\sly ?an ! f]iae 7 obs]v$ !    
dies religiosi1 days ( 'ab/95ce1' on :i*
 c]ta9 acts1 su* z m>riage1 ! beg9n+ (  
any new piece ( "w1 or ! (f]+ (         
sacrifice to ! gods1 7 =bidd53 su*1 9 ! 
olde/ p]iod1 7 ! days on :i* ! mundus 0 

op51 or ! temple ( ,ve/a receiv$ !      
matrons1 ! days :5 ! ,salii c>ri$ !     
ancilia 9 procession1 & ! p]iods ( ! two
 fe/ivals ( ! dead 9 ,febru>y & ,may2 b 
= elud+ _! obs]vance too devices 7 n    
unkn[n4  ,9 ! /ate-organisation (       
religion1 !n1 we seem to see j ! same   
features f :i* we />t$3 z a basis !     
legal conception ( ! relation ( god to  
man1 z a result ! extreme c>e &         
precision 9 times & c]emonials1 z a     
coroll>y 9 ! /ate ! idea ( legal        
repres5tation & ! consequ5t loos5ess (  
hold on ! action ( ! individual4        
,,*apt] ,,viii  ,,auguries ,,&          
,,auspices   ,s f> we h be5 consid]+ !  
regul> relations ( man & god1 se5 9     
recurr+ or special (f]+s1 9 v[s & 9 acts
 ( purification & lu/ration--all bas$ on
 ! contract-notion1 all endeav\rs on    
man's "p to fulfil 8 b\nd5 duty1 t !    
gods may be con/ra9$ 9 turn to !irs4 ,b 
s /rong 0 ! feel+ ( div9e pres5ce &     
influ5ce 9 ! ,roman's m9d1 t he 0 n     
cont5t ) do+ 8 be/ by ^! regul> means to

 secure ! fav\r ( ! gods1 b wi%$ be=e   
und]tak+ any bus9ess ( importance to be 
able to assure himself ( _! approval4 ,8
 practical common-s5se evolv$1 z x 71 a 
complete 'code'--9 ! flight & song (    
birds1 9 ! direction ( ! lightn+-fla%1 9
 ! conduct ( m5 & animals--by :i* he    
believ$ t ! gods communicat$ to him _!  
int5tions3 sometimes ^! indications     
7auspicia7 might be v\*saf$ by ! gods   
unask$ 7oblativa71 sometimes !y w\ld be 
giv5 9 answ] to reque/ 7impetrativa73 b 
z to _! mean+1 !re c\ld be no d\bt1     
provid$ !y 7 int]pret$ by "o skill$ 9 ! 
lore & tradition ( augury4 ,we may      
obs]ve "h1 ?\gh our evid5ce is mu*      
slight]1 ! same ?ree /ages :i* we h     
notic$ 9 ! sacrificial wor%ip1 ! homely 
dome/ic auspices1 ! auguries ( !        
agricultural life1 & ! organis$ sy/em 9 
! /ate4  ,9 ! h\sehold ! use ( auspices 
0 9 orig9 at any rate v g5]al inde$3    
',no?+1' ,cic]o tells u1 '( importance  
us$ to be und]tak5 unless ) ! sanction (
 ! auspices' 7auspicato74 ,! "r (       

int]rogat+ ! w ( ! gods1 re/$1 z "o     
might expect1 ) ! ma/] ( ! h\se1 assi/$ 
no d\bt by ! private augur z !          
repository ( lore & ! int]pret] ( :at ! 
ma/] saw4 ,b ( ! details ( dome/ic      
augury we "k b little4 ,cato 9 "o       
passage insi/s on ! extreme importance (
 sil5ce = ! purpose1 & ,fe/us sugge/s t 
?is 0 secur$ by ! ma/] ( ! h\se ris+ 9 !
 dep?s ( ! night to inspect ! heav5s4   
,we h se5 already t ! tak+ ( ! auspices 
play$ an important "p 9 ! c]emonies (   
betro?al & m>riage1 & t ! indications ( 
! div9e w might be v v>i$ we may ga!r f 
a /ory 9 ,cic]o4 ,an aunt wi%+ to take !
 auspices = h] niece's betro?al1        
conduct$ h] into an op5 consecrat$ space
 7sacellum7 & sat d[n on ! /ool ( augury
 7sella7 ) h] niece /&+ at h] side4     
,aft] a :ile ! girl tir$ & ask$ h] aunt 
to give h] a little ( ! /ool3 ! aunt    
repli$1 ',my *ild1 ,i give up my seat to
 y'3 no?+ fur!r happ5$ & ?is answ] turn$
 out 9 fact to be ! auspici\s sign3 !   
aunt di$1 ! niece m>ri$ ! wid[] & s     

became mi/ress ( ! h\se4  ,( augury 9   
agricultural life we h "s indication 9 !
 annual obs]vance ( ! 'spr+ augury'     
7augurium v]nis]um7 & ! midsumm] c]emony
 ( ! augurium can>ium1 :i* seems to h   
be5 a comb9ation ( ! (f]+ ( a r$ dog    
7possibly to av]t mildew7 & an augury = 
! success ( ! crops4 ,to ! ru/ic /ratum 
possibly belongs also ! augurium salutis
 populi1 ?\gh lat] x 0 a ye>ly act      
celebrat$ :5ev] ! ,roman army 0 n at w> 
& s became connect$ ) ! %utt+ ( ! temple
 ( ,ianus4  ,! /ate greatly develop$ &  
organis$ ! :ole sy/em ( auguries &      
auspices4 ,! college ( augurs rank$     
second only 9 importance to ! pontifical
 college1 & _! duties ) reg>d to bo?    
augury & auspice are suffici5tly cle>4  
,l ! pontifices 9 relation to cult1 !y  
are ! /oreh\se ( all tradition1 & to !m 
appeal may be made 9 all cases ( d\bt   
bo? public & private3 !y 7 jeal\s ( _!  
secrets & 9 lat] times _! mutual        
consci\sness ( deception became         
prov]bial4 ,! "r ( augury--9 orig9      

simply ! inspection ( ! heav5s--0 !irs  
alone1 & x 0 ex]cis$ p>ticul>ly on !    
annual occasions m5tion$ & at !         
in/allation ( prie/s1 ( :i* we get a    
typical in/ance 9 ,livy's acc\nt ( !    
consecration ( ,numa4  ,! auspices on ! 
o!r h&--9 orig9 'signs f birds' 7avis1  
spic]e7--7 ! prov9ce ( ! magi/rate ab\t 
to und]take "s def9ite action on behalf 
( ! /ate :e!r at home or on ! field (   
battle4 ,"h ! augur's functions 7 m]ely 
prep>atory & advisory4 ,x 0 8 duty to   
prep>e ! templum1 ! spot f :i* !        
auspices are to be tak5--always a squ>e 
space1 ) b\nd>ies unbrok5 except at !   
entrance1 n surr\nd$ by wall or         
necess>ily by l9e1 b cle>ly indicat$    
7effatus7 by ! augur1 & m>k$ (f         
7lib]atus7 f ! surr\nd+s3 9 ! comitia & 
o!r places 9 ,rome !re 7 p]man5t templa1
 b else:]e !y mu/ be specially made4 ,! 
magi/rate !n ent]s ! templum & obs]ves !
 signs 7spectio73 if !re is any d\bt z  
to int]pretation--& see+ ! imm5se       
complication ( ! traditions 7discipl9a71

 ?is mu/ (t5 h be5 ! case--! augur is   
ref]r$ to z int]pret]4 ,! signs dem&$   
7impetrativa7 7 orig9ally always        
connect$ ) ! appe>ance1 song or flight (
 birds--high] or l[]1 f left to "r or "r
 to left1 etc4 ,lat] o!rs 7 includ$1 & )
 ! army 9 ! field x became ! regul>     
practice to take ! auspices f ! fe$+ ( !
 sacr$ *ick5s 7pulli73 ! be/ sign be+   
obta9$ if1 9 _! eag]ness to fe$1 !y let 
fall "s ( ! gra9 f _! beaks 7tripudium  
soli/imum7--a result n difficult to     
secure by previ\s treatm5t & a c>eful   
selection ( ! k9d ( gra9 suppli$ to !m4 
,b besides ?is delib]ate 'ask+ = signs1'
 public bus9ess might at any mom5t be   
int]rupt$ if ! gods volunt>ily s5t an   
indication ( disapproval 7oblativa73 !  
augurs !n _h always to be at h& to      
advise ! magi/rates :e!r notice %\ld be 
tak5 ( su* signs1 &1 if s1 :at 0 _!     
signification1 & !y ev5 seem to h _h    
c]ta9 rights ( report+ !mselves         
7nuntiatio7 ! occurr5ce ( adv]se ones4  
,! sign ( mo/ usual occurr5ce w\ld be   

lightn+--sometimes su* an unexpect$ ev5t
 z ! seizure ( a memb] ( ! assembly )   
epilepsy 7morbus comitialis7--& we "k to
 :at l5g?s political ob/ructioni/s w5t 9
 lat] times 9 ! obs]vation ( fictiti\s  
signs1 or ev5 ! prev5tion ( bus9ess by !
 m]e ann\ncem5t ( _! int5tion to see an 
unfav\rable om5 7s]v>e de caelo74 ,!    
complications & ramifications ( !       
augur's art are inf9ite1 b ! ma9 idea   
%\ld by n[ be pla91 & x mu/ be rememb]$ 
t ! k9dr$ art ( ! soo?say] 7h>uspex71   
oracles1 & ! int]pretation ( fate by !  
draw+ ( lots 7sortes7 are all lat] =eign
 introductions3 auspice & augury are !  
only g5u9e ,roman me?ods = int]pret+ ! w
 ( ! gods4  ,"h !n 9 h\sehold1 fields1 &
 /ate1 we h a second type ( relation to 
! gods1 runn+ p>allel to ! ord9>y       
practice ( sacrifice & pray]1 di/9ct yet
 n fundam5tally diff]5t4 ,z x is man's  
function to propitiate ! high] spirits &
 prev5t1 if possible1 ! wreck+ ( 8 plans
 by _! opposition1 s x is 8 bus9ess1 if 
he c1 to f9d out _! int5tions be=e he   

engages on any s]i\s und]tak+4 ,z 9 !   
ius sacrum 8 legal m9d leads him to     
assume t ! deities accept !             
responsibility ( ! contract1 :5 8 own "p
 is fulfill$1 s "h1 l a practical man ( 
bus9ess1 he assumes _! con/ruction ( a  
code ( communication1 :i* he has le>n$  
to int]pret4 ,9 its orig9 x is a notion 
common to _m primitive religions1 b 9   
its elaboration x is peculi>ly &        
di/9ctively ,italian1 &1 z we "k x1     
,roman4     ,,*apt] ,,ix  ,,religion ,,&
 ,,morality--,,conclusion   ,x might be 
said t a religion--! expression ( man's 
relation to ! unse5--has n necess>ily   
any connection ) morality--man's action 
9 himself & t[>ds 8 neighb\rs3 t an     
individual--or ev5 a nation--might      
p]fectly fulfil ! duties impos$ by !    
'p[]s above1' )\t be+ influ5c$ 9 conduct
 & "*4 ,su* a view might seem to f9d an 
apt illu/ration 9 ! religion ( ,rome3 ! 
c]emonial pietas t[>ds ! gods appe>s to 
h little to d ) ! mak+ ( man or nation4 
,b 9 ! hi/ory ( ! _w ! te/ ( religions  

mu/ be _! effect on ! "* ( ^? :o believ$
 9 !m3 religion is no d\bt itself an    
outcome ( "*1 b x reacts ^u x1 & mu/    
ei!r /r5g!n or weak54 ,we are n !re=e   
ju/ifi$ 9 dismiss+ ! ',religion ( ,numa'
 )\t inquiry z to its relation to       
morality1 = on our answ] to t "q mu/    
l>gely dep5d our judgm5t z to its value4
  ,we are ( c\rse 9 a peculi>ly         
difficult position to grapple ) ?is     
problem ?r\gh lack ( contempor>y        
evid5ce4 ,! ,rome we "k1 9 ! epo*s :5 we
 c fairly judge ( "* & morality1 0 n !  
,rome 9 :i* ! ',religion ( ,numa' _h    
gr[n up & rema9$ unque/ion$3 x _h be5   
ov]laid ) =eign cults & =eign ideas1 _h 
be5 us$ by prie/s & magi/rates z a      
political in/rum5t1 & disc\nt$ among !  
educat$ ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( philosophy4  
,b we may rememb] 9 ! fir/ place t ev5  
!n1 especially 9 ! h\sehold & 9 !       
c\ntry1 ! old religion _h probably a mu*
 firm] hold ?an "o might imag9e f lit]>y
 evid5ce1 9 ! second t national "* is n 
! gr[? ( a day1 s t we may safely ref]  

p]man5t *>act]i/ics to ! p]iod :5 ! old 
religion held its own4  ,x may be       
admitt$ at once t ! direct influ5ce on  
morality 0 v small inde$4 ,!re 0 no     
table ( comm&m5ts back$ by ! religi\s   
sanction3 ! s5se ( 's91' except ?r\gh   
brea* ( ritual1 0 practically unkn[n4 ,x
 is true t 9 ! v e>ly leges regiae "s   
notion ( ?is k9d is se5--a significant  
glimpse ( :at ! orig9al relation may h  
be53 x is !re orda9$ t ! patron :o      
betray$ 8 cli5t1 or ! cli5t :o deceiv$ 8
 patron1 %all be condemn$ to ,iuppit]2 !
 p>ricide to ! spirits ( 8 dead         
ance/ors1 ! husb& :o sells 8 wife to !  
gods ( ! und]world1 ! man :o removes 8  
neighb\r's l&m>k to ,t]m9us1 ! /eal] (  
corn to ,c]es4 ,all ^! p]sons %all be   
sacri3 !y h (f5d$ aga9/ ! gods & ! gods 
w see to _! puni%m5t4 ,b ^! are old-_w  
notions :i* soon pass$ into ! backgr\nd 
& ! /ate took ov] ! puni%m5t ( su*      
(f5d]s 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( law4 ,nor aga9
 9 ! pray]s ( m5 to gods is !re a trace 
( a petition = moral bless+s3 !         

magi/rate prays = ! success & prosp]ity 
( ! /ate1 ! f>m] = ! f]tility ( 8 crops 
& h]ds1 ev5 ! private individual1 :o    
susp5ds 8 votive-tablet 9 ! temple1 pays
 8 due = heal? or comm]cial success     
v\*saf$ to himself or 8 relations4 ',m5 
call ,iuppit] greate/ & be/1' says      
,cic]o1 'because he makes u n j or      
temp]ate or wise1 b s\nd & heal?y & ri* 
& weal?y4' ,/ill less1 until we come to 
! morali/s ( ! ,empire1 is !re any s5se 
( t imm$iate & p]sonal relation ( !     
individual to a high] be+1 :i* is really
 9 religion1 f> m ?an comm&m5ts &       
ord9ances1 ! ma9spr+ & safegu>d (       
morality3 ev5 ! conception ( ! ,g5ius1 !
 'ne>e/' p]haps ( all unse5 p[]s1 _h    
no?+ ( ?is feel+ 9 x1 & x may be        
significant t1 j because ( 8 ne>ness to 
man1 ! ,g5ius nev] q atta9$ to god-head4
 ,z f> z direct relation is conc]n$1    
religion & morality 7 to ! ,roman two   
indep5d5t sph]es ) a v small po9t (     
contact4  ,nor ev5 9 its indirect       
influ5ce does ! =mal obs]vance ( !      

,roman wor%ip seem likely at fir/ sight 
to h done mu* = p]sonal or national     
morality4 ,bas$ ^u fe>1 /]eotyp$ 9 ! =m 
( a legal relation%ip1 religio--'! b\nd5
 obligation'--made1 no d\bt1 = a k9d (  
consci5ti\sness 9 its adh]5ts1 b a cold 
consci5ti\sness1 devoid ( emotion &     
incapable ( exp&+ itself to include o!r 
sph]es or prompt to a simil>            
scrupul\sness 9 o!r relations4 ,! rigid 
& con/ant di/9ction ( sacr$ & pr(ane    
w\ld incl9e ! ,roman to fulfil ! r\t9e (
 8 religi\s duty & !n turn1 almo/ ) a   
sigh ( relief1 to ! occupations ( normal
 life1 c>ry+ ) him no?+ m ?an ! s5se ( a
 burd5 laid aside & a pl$ge ( ext]nal   
prosp]ity4 ,ev5 ! religi\s act itself   
might be )\t moral significance3 z we h 
se51 ! wor%ipp] might be :olly ignorant 
( ! "*1 ev5 ! "n ( ! deity he wor%ipp$1 
& 9 any case ! motive ( 8 action 0      
naught1 ! act itself ev]y?+4 ,nor aga9  
_h ! ,roman religion any trace ( t      
p[]ful inc5tive to morality1 a doctr9e (
 rew>ds & puni%m5ts 9 a future life3 !  

ideas z to ! fate ( ! dead 7 fluctuat+ &
 vague1 & ! ,roman 0 9 any case mu* m   
int]e/$ 9 _! influ5ce on himself ?an 9  
_! possible exp]i5ces aft] dea?4  ,!    
divorce !n betwe5 religion & morality   
seems almo/ complete & x is n /range t  
mo/ mod]n writ]s speak ( ! ,roman       
religion z a tiresome ritual =malism1   
almo/ :olly lack+ 9 e?ical value4 ,& yet
 x did n pres5t itself 9 ?is light to ! 
,romans !mselves4 ,cic]o1 sceptic z he  
01 c\ld speak ( x z ! cause ( ,rome's   
greatness2 ,augu/us1 ! practical        
politician1 c\ld believe t its revival 0
 an ess5tial condition = ! r5aissance ( 
! ,roman "*4 ,h we1 9 our brief         
exam9ation ( its *>act]i/ics1 se5 any   
features :i* may sugge/ ! solution ( ?is
 app>5t antagonism8 ,0 !re 9 ?is =malism
 a life :i* escapes u1 z we h&le ! dry  
bones ( antiqu>ianism8  ,9 ! fir/ place 
!re may be a dang] t we und]rate ! value
 ( =malism itself4 ,x spells r\t9e1 b   
r\t9e is n )\t value 9 ! /r5g!n+ ( "*4  
,! private citiz51 :o consci5ti\sly day 

by day _h c>ri$ out ! wor%ip ( 8        
h\sehold gods & mon? by mon? obs]v$ !   
sacr$ ab/95ce f "w on ! days ( fe/ival1 
0 c]ta9ly n less fitt$ to take 8 place z
 a memb] ( a /r5u\s & well-organis$     
community1 or to s]ve ob$i5tly & quietly
 9 ! army on campaign4 ,ev5 ! magi/rate 
9 ! execution ( 8 religi\s duties mu/ h 
acquir$ an exactness & me?od1 :i* w\ld n
 be valueless 9 ! conduct ( public      
bus9ess4 ,& :5 we pass to ! orig9 ( ?is 
=malism--! legal relation--! connection 
) ! ,roman "* becomes at once m obvi\s4 
,! 'lawgiv]s ( ! _w1' :o develop$       
con/itution & code to a sy/ematis$ :ole 
su* z antiquity _h n dream$ ( be=e1     
import$1 we may say if we l1 _! legal   
notions into ! sph]e ( religion3 b we   
mu/ n =get ! o!r side ( ! "q4 ,!        
p]man5ce & success ( ?is great] contract
 ) high] p[]s--! feel+ t ! gods did     
reg>d & rew>d exact fulfilm5t ( duty--_c
 h be5 )\t re-action on ! relations ( ! 
life ( ! community3 x 01 z x 71 a high] 
sanction to ! legal po9t ( view3 a pl$ge

 t ! relations ( citiz5 & /ate too 7    
rightly conceiv$4 ',!re is1' says       
,cic]o1 speak+ ( ! dea? ( ,clodius 9 !  
language ( a lat] age1 '!re is a div9e  
p[] :i* inspir$ t crim9al to 8 own ru93 
x 0 n by *ance t he expir$ be=e ! %r9e (
 ! ,bona ,dea1 ^: rites he _h violat$'3 
! div9e ju/ice is ! sanction ( ! human  
law4 ,ev5 9 ! fe>1 f :i* all ultimately 
sprang1 !re 0 a tra9+ 9 self-repression 
& self-subord9ation1 :i* 9 a m civilis$ 
age mu/ result 9 a valuable respect &   
ob$i5ce4 ,! desc5dants ( ^? :o _h made  
religion out ( an attempt to appease !  
ho/ile num9a1 feel+ !mselves n inde$ on 
m famili> t]ms ) _! 'unkn[n gods1' b    
only p]haps a little m confid5t ( _! own
 /r5g?1 7 n likely to be want+ 9 a      
discipl9$ s5se ( dep5d5ce & an          
appreciation ( ! value ( respect =      
au?ority1 :i* alone c give /ability to a
 con/itution4 ,if fe> ) ! ,romans 0 n ! 
beg9n+ ( !ological wisdom1 x 0 yet an   
important contribution to ! "* ( a      
discipl9$ /ate4  ,b1 z ,i h h9t$ 9 !    

c\rse ( ?is sket* m ?an once1 ! answ] to
 ?is problem1 z well z ! key to ! g5]al 
und]/&+ ( ! ,roman religion1 is to be   
f\nd 9 ! wor%ip ( ! h\sehold4 ,if we    
knew m ( x1 we %\ld see m cle>ly :]e    
religion & morality jo9$ h&s1 b we "k   
en\gh to give u a clue4 ,!re n only are 
! pr9cipal ev5ts ( life1 bir?1          
adolesc5ce1 m>riage1 att5d$ by _!       
religi\s sanction1 b 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( 
! daily r\nd ! div9e pres5ce & !        
dep5d5ce ( man are cont9ually emphasis$4
 ,! gods are giv5 _! portion ( ! family 
meal1 ! sanctifi$ dead are recall$ to   
take _! %>e ( ! family bless+s4 ,!      
result 0 n m]ely an                     
approa*--collectively1 n                
individually--to t s5se ( ! ne>ness ( ! 
unse51 :i* has s great an effect on !   
actions ( ! liv+1 b a v /rong bond (    
family union :i* lay at ! root ( ! life 
( ! /ate4 ,x w\ld be difficult to f9d a 
cle>] expression ( ! notion ?an 9 ! fact
 t ! same ^w pietas1 :i* expresses ! due
 fulfilm5t ( man's duty to god1 is also 

! ideal ( ! relations ( ! memb]s ( a    
h\sehold3 filial piety 01 9 fact1 b     
ano!r aspect ( t rightness ( relation1  
:i* reveals itself 9 ! wor%ip ( ! gods4 
,no d\bt t1 9 ! city-life ( lat] p]iods1
 ?is ideal broke d[n on bo? sides3      
h\sehold wor%ip 0 neglect$ & family life
 became less dutiful4 ,b x 0 /ill1      
especially 9 ! c\ntry1 ! true backbone (
 ,roman society1 & no "o c read ! op5+  
odes ( ,horace's ?ird book )\t feel+ !  
/r5g? ( ,augu/us' appeal to x4  ,& if we
 translate ?is1 z we h le>n$ to d1 into 
t]ms ( ! /ate1 we c get "s idea ( :at ! 
,romans meant by _! debt to _! religion4
 ,z ! h\sehold 0 b\nd toge!r by ! tie ( 
common wor%ip1 z 9 ! int]m$iate /age !  
clan1 sev]$ politically & socially1 yet 
felt itself reunit$ 9 ! g5tile rites1 s 
too ! /ate 0 weld$ into a :ole by !     
regul>ly recurr+ annual fe/ivals & !    
assurance ( ! div9e sanction on its     
und]tak+s4 ,x might be t 9 ! c\rse ( "t 
^! rites lo/ _! mean+ & ! community no  
long] by p]sonal pres5ce express$ its   

s]vice to ! gods1 b ! cult /ood !re     
/ill1 z ! type ( ,rome's union to !     
high] p[]s & a gu>antee ( _! assi/ance  
aga9/ all foes3 ! religion ( ,rome 01 z 
x has be5 said1 ! sanctification (      
patriotism--! ,roman citiz5's highe/    
moral ideal4 ,x has be5 rem>k$1 p]haps )
 p>tial tru?1 t ! religion ( !          
,a,eneid--9 _m ways a summ>y ( ,roman   
?\ght & feel+--is ! belief 9 ! fata     
,romae & _! fulfilm5t4 ,! v imp]sonality
 ( ?is conception makes x a good picture
 ( :at religion 0 9 ! ,roman /ate4 ,x 0 
n1 z ) ! ,jews1 a /rong conviction ( !  
rightness ( _! own belief & a c]ta9ty t 
_! div9e protectors mu/ triumph ov] ^? (
 o!r nations1 b a feel+ ( ! con/ant     
pres5ce ( "s spirits1 :o1 'if haply !y  
might f9d !m1' w\ld1 on ! paym5t ( _!   
due1 be> _! "p 9 ! great progress ( "r &
 ju/ice & empire on :i* ,rome mu/ m>* to
 h] victory4 ,x 0 ! duty ( ! citiz51 )  
?is conception ( 8 city be=e 8 eyes1 to 
see to x t ! /ate's "p 9 ! contract 0   
fulfill$4 ,f 8 ance/ors _h be5 inh]it$ !

 tradition1 :i* told him ! :51 :]e1 &   
h[1 & 9 ! pres]vation ( t tradition &   
its due p]=mance consi/$ at once ,rome's
 duty & h] glory4 ',if we wi%1' says    
,cic]o1 'to comp>e ourselves ) o!r      
nations1 we may be f\nd 9 o!r respects  
equal or ev5 inf]ior2 9 religion1 t is 9
 ! wor%ip ( ! gods1 we are f> sup]ior4' 
,! religion ( ,rome may n h advanc$ !   
!ology or ! e?ics ( ! _w1 b x made &    
held toge!r a nation4     ,,works ,,be>+
 ,,on ,,! ,,e>ly ,,religion ,,( ,,rome  
,! ,gold5 ,b\gh1 7#bnd ,ed474 ,j4,g4    
,,fraz]4  ,hi/ory ( ,rome1 ,,book ,i4   
,,*ap ,,xii4 ,,?4 ,,momms54  ,die       
,religion d] ,roem]4 ,e4 ,,au/4         
,religion und ,kultus d] ,roem]4 ,g4    
,,wiss[a4  ,il ,culto ,privato di ,roma 
,antica1 ,,"p ,i4 ,a4 ,,de-,,m>*i4  ,!  
,roman ,fe/ivals4 ,w4 ,,w>de ,,f[l]4  ,!
 ,religion ( ,numa4 ,j4,b4 ,,c>t]4      
,pr9t$ by ,t4 & ,a4 ,,con/able1 ,pr9t]s 
to ,8 ,maje/y   at ! ,ed9burgh          
,univ]sity ,press         99       99   
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